Skip to main content

Full text of "Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution"

See other formats 


aN) 
1G TD) 
Raw P A, 
sensumunset! 
VE AY ) 


As 


= 


pr SS oe 
Se 8 OS a Pnere: = Sen 


va’ 


ANNUAL REPORT 
BOARD OF REGENTS 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


THE OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND CONDITION 
OF THE INSTITUTION 


Jer ye tS OO: 


WASHINGTON: 
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 
PSO. 


FIFTY-FIRST CONGRESS, SECOND SESSION. 


Concurrent resolution adopted by the House of Representatives March 2, 1891, and by the 
Senate March 3, 1891. 


Resolved by the House of Representatives (the Senate concurring), That there be printed 
of the Reports of the Smithsonian Institution and of the National Museum for the 
year ending 30th June, 1890, in two octavo volumes, 19,000 extra copies; of which 
3,000 copies shall be for the use of the Senate, 6,000 copies for the use of the House of 
Representatives, 7,000 copies for the use of the Smithsonian Institution, and 3,000, 
copies for the use of the National Museum. 


II 


LO hah deles 


FROM THE 


SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, * 


ACCOMPANYING 


The annual report of the Board of Regents of the Institution to the end of 
June, 1890. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington, D. C., July 1, 1890. 


To the Congress of the United States: 

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the United 
States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents, to submit 
to Congress the annual report of the operations, expenditures, and con- 
dition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ending June 50, 1890. 

I have the honor to be, very respectfully, your obedient servant, 

S. P. LANGLEY, 
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. 
Hon. Levi P. MorTOoN, 
President of the Senate. 
Hon. THomAS B. REED, 
Speaker of the House of Representatives. 
Tir 


ANNUAL REPORT OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION TO THE 
END OF JUNE, 1890. 


SUBJECTS. 


1. Proceedings of the Board of Regents for the session of January, 
1890. 

2. Report of the Executive Committee, exhibiting the financial affairs 
of the Institution, including a statement of the Smithson fund, and re- 
ceipts and expenditures for the year 188990. 

3. Annual report of the Secretary, giving an account of the opera- 
tions and condition of the Institution for the year 1889-’90, with statis- 
tics of exchanges, etc. 

4, General appendix, comprising a selection of miscellaneous memoirs 
of interest to collaborators and correspondents of the Institution, 
teachers, and others engaged in the promotion of knowledge. 


IV 


CON EEN i Se 


Page 
Resolution of Congress to print extra copies of the Report...-... .......----. Il 
Letter from the Secretary, submitting the Annual Report of the Regents to 
WON CTESS errs cere er tee eto a PS feos Sine Sle eal eran cars oes acie nie eae meena ee III 
Generalisupjectsjomeme Anmual iReport sce = ese see eee ses cee ec naiier=el coe IV 
Wontentstorihe he pontie= ces )eeseniee ner von eke cele he cinele aoe oe cies Semin eeatons Vv 
histeotelllustrationsy meses se see mee ao atcme ea ee cee Scie acer eae CCe eee ee Vania 
Membersiveniojicoonuletstablishment: 25sec meecenessesce osee eonisaeio sae eee IX 
Recents thew mithsoniandnstitubion 22.22: 22 cece. sen ce ese cie erie seae Xs 
JOURNAL OF THE PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS -....--.-.--.---- XI 
Siavedemeetinion January. io. leo Oras ere aae Seneca ae ee eee XI 
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMI TEF for the year ending June 30, 1890... xvir 
Conditionrofthertond aiuly ly N890S sera 2 oe soe enone see eee ee See XVII 
Receipts MOrmunery Calmeceeicystc at fosters winis cpnee iow eeisieis rapsies see tins soaeieeee XVII 
pon ditunres LOmsbNOpyeare ssw ste = ake ee eittie Seelam seeere XVIII 
SalestandsrepayiMentspeeces teceat cee ec cee eee Se Sa ae XVIII 
Appropriations! forinternational exchanges .2.- -sss2-c2-+6-e-o- 25 eee eee SXGIEXS 
Detailsyofexpendituresofieamerceates: = ecu esos eee terre XIX 
Appropriations for North American Ethnology....-..........-.-..------- XxX 
Detailsiof expenditures of Sames--- .2.5-2-.---ce----< Sotto stent aoe xX 
Appropriations for the National Museum... .......---.. 222-2 225202 ---se- XXI 
MetalsiotexpenditjuresOlisamoss snes + sat oe ae cies 2 seco meee meee XXII 
Appropriation for the National Zodlogical Park --.........-....-....----- OO 
Metailsrotexpenditures Of sAMe. oss s2-c)--0 ce cee saeco ss ssa ne aes XXXI 
Genera MSuimin aRyeyecme e eertee eee ciate cn ioe oes Selsiie cabin a a ne epee ees eee LOO 
PACOMeISV Aa plOtOr CUSUIN OE VOCAT 252-6 cose. 2-22-25 sccle cesses sasese wee een XXXUI 


ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS relative to the Smithsonian Institution, 
Nations Museum votes torelSQ0 mi ss4n oc owes = cece cceine ae cin a ocice Soe eee I OXOV 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


HEM OMULHASONTANG INS DUTU TIONG foe Seen s <oaecsceee oeiste skies csscee ances 1 
Miomohstanlishmenth ae so sere eee Miele sc agen Lor Sale ee 1 
NGM OATOUONe VOY CMOS er cre ctees ete eon cmt tance tency sents lates Slcistons = elfen obistneastete eee 2 
DEFT eUT COR betes ec ee te a Ma eee PSone d Ns pease cts BE LEN 8 ts 2 
Lew HOS. oe ees ats Ba bOOe BE ASS eee Ona Eon aa en eae sta seam eee 4 
RGSCALC Ieee nea enna eer RUIN eee oh rg Ae ttie ch) Spee a EN 10 
PE LOLAL ION Seep ere eee ere eee ae Fetes eo ee ek pees en Se III Fes 13 
EZ URE TC ALO TAS ee eee pos ere fo iy acter) Rea eS ties 14 
Exchanges.-... - SB SRS tee ee ee es ee 16 
Mibraryeces ssc ceee eee ee ae Le oe Soo Se, ee ee ee ee ee Ec 19 


Wf 


VI CONTENTS. 


Page. 
THe SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION—Continued. 

Miscellaneous s-cteeaeserie cece cleiveeiaeiraer= Todas stelenice Be DEod dodeaSac 20 
Statue of Professor Baird: oo sass. 25 cece pecisieicmcltoseiersicieiinisiee eee 20 
Grants in aid of the physical sciences---.-.---------, --- Spee eoCso see 20 
Assionmentiof rooms! for scien tiie) wWOlkrrssseeie= seems e ese sae ae 21 
Toner lecture: fund 3. 2.4552 Sows eae Sea e eee see eecke eres 21 
Amenican HMistoricalvAgsoclationeas-=-es eset seseteeene ose eee sees 21 
iBureanof Mine Arts: . <2 14.032. 25 as Sarietos wee ee Oconee nee mee sean ese 22 
Capron collection of Japanese works of art ....:----...--------.----- 23 
The World’s| Fair Exposition, Chicaco, 1892522. 522. 2-2 ---)/sseee =.= 23 
Stereotype platesiss-452-5=-het wince to onc eeeees coe tee eee oe eee 24 
Correspondence: 22 sae eeieate sees see reo ot alse eet Soccer ae semen 24 
Representative relations. ---..... Bg an Nee ee ee Se ee eee 25 
UNELED STATS NATIONALS MUSEUM: ss -1-ne sm oeeeece sees eee eee eee 26 
Imerease ofthe Museumicollectionsise-e cesses eee eee eee eee eee 26 
CatalocuciofsMuseumientnics:- se cee seae see eee een eee econo eee eee 28 
CoGperation of Departments of Government ----. ------ ---- .2--5.---- ---- 28 
Distribution oL1duplicateispecimens ces =-saiae aetiee easeeeiee ee eae ee 29 
Museum publications sete c sean ere aes aes eee eee eei ane eee 29 
AgsIStancenboyStuGeniten a. ee ancese mesa eee ieree BP ern ante SESS oS 30) 
Special researches joke sa cc aise aio aietsinc coe ee sae e cine sae nome ae eer 30 
Museum mGib rary sos esis secre ate Serio nets suse ine ele rere oie mieielees Secs Cae epeierere einer ol 
Mrseummlab else ocaracccten = cc useicis Sara seo ie aie ne oe dot eater nesters a eetoe 3 
Meotingsiandelecturesse.ss-eoe ee eeecee see cone sees eae aioe ieee 31 
WA SIGOLS ewe te areca aa ora oie ee eiciorerae wale oO eiaie eis Dae Seine ee es aoe eieetee eee 3l 
Extension of hours for visiting Museum .-........ -.-- 0-222 -as0 eens enne== 31 
Musetimtpersonne) 222 sue soos saccade aloe aiaciaee onal etna einer 32 
Hxplorationsters sees cosee = scrsce es cece eee nese sd Sete ease eerie 32 
he department oblivingsanimals=eeesseee eee eeees eee eae eee eae eee 33 
NATION ATE, OOMOGIC Al Ey AR Kanye) ates resets ae ees ats arerteasa (see ee era 34 
BURVDAULOM I THNOLOG Ye. = oc sence eee eaieeeae ae eens eee ee aace clas 42 
INI CR OL OG Win aes cle ees haa = a ee aio ns etree oh see ae sictee) lol eie eater oho totale neeeretareets 43 
IPPENDICHG) cocatccls Seno ee eee nice eves ete ae ee See ieee eee eteneine no Sand 47 
Appendix I. Report of the Director of the Egean of Baaoloees noes 47 
Il. Report of the Curator of Exchanges .----- .-=------------- 55 

III. Report of the Acting Manager of the National Zodlogical 
1 Eth ee ee eR ON eS eet See Ree eer SES, Sood Sos 64 
Vic Report of themiuibraniane sesso ep eee ee eeere eee 75 
V. Report on Publications for the year ---..----. ---- ..-.---. 79 
VI. Report on Professor Morley’s Researches. ----- .----. ------ 83 
VII. Report on International Congress of Orientalists...-.-..-- 8d 

GENERAL APPENDIX. 

INdivertisOment.s sca cases eee eee sotto oa Bo eae 95 
The Squaring of the Circle, by Herman ScHnen ue elastase oe 97 
Progress of Astronomy for 1889-90, by William C, Wanlocke Di Ree eeceeeeee 121 
Mathematical Theories of the Earth, by Robert S. Woodward ...--..-.--.-.--- 183 
Physical Structure of the Earth, by Henry Hennessy ...--..----------.------ 201 
Glacial. Geology; by Jamest@eikie-: 4... 020 se eee see eae eee eee 221 
Mistory, of the: Niavara River, by, G: Ke Gilbertte--25---ee ose eee eee 231 
The Mediterranean, Physical aud Historical, by Sir R. L. Playfair .-....----- 259 
Stanley/and the! Map) ot Atricata: sta. .c eee elms = esses ieee ieee eee eter 207 


CONTENTS. 


AMUCATEHIC FE Kp) CEALLOI Diy Gr.y 8. OUHNUGt aro. ofs.0, o'a/2 a.sie'ia\niel'=:nle cl ec oielnin elereleieicreiat es 
History of Geodetic Operations in Russia, by B. Witskowski and J. Howard Gore. 
Quartz e ers eb ysO Maven OVS tats cisterrs stoiee ats cies Naleeielcletie cas, se cb/e 3 te ce meusceeis 
Keenig’s Researches on Musical Haone: by Sylvanus P. miemnson Ae aiciatesexs 
The Chemical Problems of To-day, by Victor Meyer...-.-. eee te eee ates 
The Photographic Image, by Raphael Meldola -.--....---.....-...---. s----. : 
AuhropicalsbotanicaliGarden by. Dreube-so-cs see se) sos cies see sein es ee 
Remperawuneandeoite syst OnLy: de) Vai SM Yarra ojos =iasie0== fa <li eel ine aaa 
Morphology of the Blood Corpuscles, by Charles Sedewiek MinOtie eee ase 
Weismann’s Theory of Heredity, by George J. Romanes..-.....---..----.---- 
herAscentioteMansby shrank Baker cs]. ee clement okie cis coe apse eee = 
AMAT MMB, Os! Why, Tye doin JEAN ss coco. osaods aa SaSe bono SeSeecansb oaaaenoooc. 
Timi biverdlomer of pherATryans,DYeA. Hal SAYCEl c= c)5 2s) ce -\alleevohsineaisle se seneaet 
ithe Pre-historic,kwacesior litaly,. by Isaac) Taylor... =. s.-s2ec- sess aae oo sees 
The Age of Bronze in Egypt, by Oscar Montelius ............-- Sener eas descr 
Progress of Anthropology in 1890, by Otis T. Mason .........--......-------- 
A eoamihye) Wreay IIE hy de IS Sal Peee eae seas cooceq cenese onc. odoos conde 
Manners and Customs of the Mohaves, by George A. Allen .-.-....---------.- 
CrimmaleAnbhropolocy, bys Dhomas Wilson ce. co-seee- sisoclseelen elses saree 
Color Vision and Color Blindness, by R. Brudenell Carter. -.............-....- 
MechnolosysandsCivilizations ve bE Reule atx. se ase ote means onion ee eel =r 
The Ramsden Dividing Engine, by J. KE. Watkins ........---....-:--.---.---- 
Memoimorek lias) oomis,) bys. AciNG WilOMccccciciasas secs wleisiaicels sereincle eens rele 
Memoir of William Kitchen Parker........-..... Base tes at eee recta ee cee 


INDEX to the volume..---.... BR aia ot ay slete arcuate Sa ae ais hd wise bos oe ee Peo 


Viil 


CONIENTS. 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 


Map showing location of the Na- 
tional Zodlogical Park.......... 
Map of the National Zodlogical Park 
Physical Structure of the Earth: 
ee ee ree cee a= ta es eae 
History of the Niagara River: 
Platemlipec aon oes cee rae 


Plate VI 
Plate VII 


eee ewe ee ee ee eee - 


Map 1 


Figs. 6, 7 
Fig. 8 
OR Oln 2 ese Sonar seme meen 

Physical Basis of Musical Harmony: 
Figs. 1,2 
Figs. 3, 4 


Page. 


i) 


64 
65 


212 


| Plates III, IV 


Physical Basis of Musical Har- 
mony—Continued. 
BUGS) wareke gestern tee 
Morphology of the Blood Corpus- 
cles: 


|The Age of Bronze in Egypt: 
Plate wy s25 nx. ae ape ae 
Plate II 


Plate V 
Blatey Wiles sae ees casentsa soe 
Progress of Anthropology in 1890: 
Platesyl Wl: 8 ee see 
igi ieee esa 
Figs. 3, 4 


ae ete ee ee ee te em wee 


Primitive Urn Burial: 

Platess) Weise. <2 ee eee 
Technology and Civilization : 
| Figs. 1,2 
| The Ramsden Dividing Engine: 
Hig. 1 


ewe we we wee ew ee ee ee ee 


Page. 


THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


MEMBERS EX OFFICIO OF THE “ ESTABLISH MENT.” 


(January, 1890.) 


BENJAMIN HARRISON, President of the United States. 
LEVI P. MORTON, Vice-President of the United States. 
MELVILLE W. FULLER, Chief-Justice of the United States. 
JAMES G. BLAINE, Secretary of State. 

WILLIAM WINDOM, Secretary of the Treasury. 

REDFIELD PROCTOR, Secretary of War. 

BENJAMIN F. TRACY, Secretary of the Navy. 

JOHN WANAMAKER, Postmaster-General, 

W. H. H. MILLER, Attorney-General. 

CHARLES E. MITCHELL, Commissioner of Patents. 


REGENTS OF THE INSTITUTION. 


(List given on the following page.) 


OFFICERS OF THE INSTITUTION. 


SAMUEL P. LANGLEY, Secretary. 
Director of the Institution and of the U. S. National Museum. 
G. BROWN GOODE, Assistant Secretary. 


WILLIAM J. RHEES, Chief Clerk. 
? 


=! 
ha 
vy 


a 


REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


By the organizing act approved August 10, 1846 (Revised Statutes, 
Title LXXIII, section 5580), ‘The business of the Institution shall be 
conducted at the city of Washington by a Board of Regents, named 
the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, to be composed of the Vice- 
President, the Chief-Justice of the United States [and the Governor of 
the District of Columbia], three members of the Senate, and three mem- 
bers of the House of Representatives, together with six other persons, 
other than members of Congress, two of whom shall be resident in the 
city of Washington, and the other four shall be inhabitants of some 
State, but no two of the same State.” 


REGENTS FOR THE YEAR 1890. 


The Vice-President of the United States: 
LEVI P. MORTON. 


The Chief-Justice of the United States: 

MELVILLE W. FULLER, elected Chancellor, and President of the Board Jan- 
uary 9, 189. 

United States Senators: Term expires. 
JUSTIN 8. MORRILL (appointed February 21, 1883)......-..----- Mar. 3, 1891. 
SHELBY M. CULLOM (appointed March 23, 1885, and Mar. 28, 1889). Mar. 3, 1895, 
RANDALL L. GIBSON (appointed Dec. 19, 1887, and Mar. 28, 1889)-.. Mar. 3, 1895, 

Members of the House of Representatives : 

JOSEPH WHEELER (appointed Jan. 5, 1888, and Jan. 6, 1890) .... Dec. 23, 1891. 


BENJAMIN BUTTERWORTH (appointed January 6, 1890).....-.Dec. 23, 1891. 
HENRY CABOT LODGE (appointed January 6, 1890)-..-.....---- Dec. 23, 1891. 


Citizens of a State: 
HENRY COPPEE, of Pennsylvania (first appointed Jan. 19, 1874). .Dec. 26, 1891. 
JAMES B. ANGELL, of Michigan (first appointed Jan. 19, 1887)-..Jan. 19, 1893. 
ANDREW D. WHITE, of New York (first appointed Feb. 15, 1888)-.. Feb. 15, 1894, 
[ Vacancy ] 

Citizens of Washington: 
JAMES C. WELLING (first appointed May 13, 1884)....-.....-.-- May 22, 1896. 
MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS (first appointed December 26, 1885) .... Dec. 26, 1891. 


Executive Committee of the Board of Regents. 


James C. WELLING, Chairman. HENRY Coppke. MONTGOMERY C. MEIGS. 
x 


JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS OF THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF 
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


WASHINGTON, January 8, 1890. 


The stated annual meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smith- 
sonian Institution was held this day at 10.30 o’clock A. M. 

Present: The Chancellor, Chief-J ustice MELVILLE W. FULLER; Hon. 
J.S. MoRRILL, Hon. 8. M. CuLLom, Hon. JOSEPH WHEELER, Hon. 
HENRY CABoT LODGE, Gen. M. C. MEres, Dr. ANDREW D. WHITE, 
Dr. J. B. ANGELL, Dr. HENRY CoPPEE, Dr. J. C. WELLING, and the 
Secretary, S. P. LANGLEY. 

An excuse for non-attendance was read from the Hon. BENJAMIN 
BUTTERWORTH, and the Secretary stated that he had been informed, 
unofficially, that Senator R. L. GIBSON was detained in New York by 
illness. 

The following letter was read to the Board: 


NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT, December 31, 1889. 

I regret that I find it advisable, from considerations of health and 
prudence, to resign the position which I have held for so many years 
as a member of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution. 
With the best wishes for the prosperity of the Institution and the as- 
surance of the highest personal regard for the nembers of the Board, 
Iam, 

Very truly yours, 
NoAu PORTER. 

To S. P. LANGLEY, 

Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


On motion of Dr. Coppée, it was 


Resolved, That the Board having received the resignation of Dr. Noah 
Porter as a Regent, accept it with an expression of their regret and 
with assurances of their high personal esteem. 

The Journal of the Proceedings of the Board at the meeting of Jan- 
uary 9, 1889, was read and approved. 

The secretary announced the appointment (January 6, 1890) by the 
honorable the Speaker of the House of Representatives of the following 
members of the House as Regents: 

Mr. BENJAMIN BUTTERWORTH, of Ohio. 

Mr. HENRY CABor LODGE, of Massachusetts. 


Mr. JOSEPH WHEELER, of Alabama. 
xI 


XII JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 


Dr. Welling, in presenting the report of the Executive Committee for 
the fiscal year ending June 30, 1889, called the attention of the Board 
to the statement on page 5, under the head of International Exchanges 
(which sets forth that an amount has been expended in this department 
beyond the annual appropriation made by Congress, entailing annual 
loss upon the fund of the Smithsonian Institution) and to the recom- 
mendation that Congress be requested to make appropriations to reim- 
burse the Smithsonian fund. 

On motion it was— 


Resolved, That the Regents instruct the Secretary to ask of Congress 
legislation for the repayment to the Institution of the amount advanced 
from the Smithsonian fund for governmental service in carrying on the 
exchanges. 

The report of the committee was then approved. 

On motion of Dr. Welling it was also— 


Resolved, That the income of the Institution for the fiscal year end- 
ing June 30, 1891, be appropriated for the service of the Institution, 
to be expended by the Secretary, with the advice of the Executive Com- 
mittee, upon the basis of the operations described in the last annual 
report of said committee, with full discretion on the part of the Secre- 
tary as toitems of expenditures properly falling under each of the heads 
embraced in the established conduct of the Institution. 


The Secretary, in presenting his report for the year ending June 30, 
1889, referred especially to the fact that the Smithsonian Institution is 
now, and has been for some time, paying out an increasingly large por- 
tion of its annual income in service that inures either directly or 
indirectly to the benefit of the Government, rather than to its legiti- 
mate application for the immediate “increase and diffusion of knowl- 
edge;” and in this connection quoted the opinion of Professor Henry, 
expressed as long since as 1872, that the Government should then have 
paid the Institution $300,000 for the use of the present building alone. 

He did not ask for any immediate action, but invited the attention 
of the Regents to this condition of the relation of the Institution’s 
affairs to those of the Government, a general condition of which the 
loss of the rent of the building might be taken as a single example. 

The late Secretary had intended to provide an astro-physical observ- 
atory on a modest scale, the building for which would probably cost 
not over ten or fifteen thousand dollars, and with the expectation that 
if this amount were contributed by private citizens and the building 
placed on Government land, Congress would make an appropriation 
for purchasing the apparatus, and also a small annual appropriation 
necessary for maintenance. This amount having been pledged by re- 
sponsible parties, the Secretary had ordered some of the principal pieces 
of apparatus which would take a long time t» construct. A number of 
valuable pieces had also been loaned to the Institution, and to supply 
provisional needs, a cover for all these in the form of a small temporary 


JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XII 


erection has been put up south of this building. This will enable the 
apparatus to be used, but it is not the “ observatory ” in question, which, 
if Congress makes the necessary appropriation, will probably be erected 
at some future time in some suburban site under the Regents’ control. 

In this connection he presented a copy of the will of the late Dr. 
Jerome H. Kidder, and letters from his executor, accompanied by a 
copy of an unsigned codicil. The Secretary stated that Dr. Kidder was 
a former officer of the U. S. Navy, who several years ago made a be- 
quest of $10,000 to the Smithsonian Institution to be employed for 
certain biological purposes. Dr. Kidder afterwards informed the Sec- 
retary that owing to changes in his domestic circumstances, he had 
reduced the amount to $5,000 and changed the purpose of the bequest, 
which he was desirous to see applied to the astro-physical observatory 
in question. It appears however that though this was well known 
to Dr. Kidder’s family and friends to be his deliberate purpose, he did 
not actually exeeute this provision to his will, but having ordered a 
codicil to that effect to be drawn, was stricken with so sudden an ill- 
ness that he was unable to sign it. (The Secretary read two letters 
from the executor stating, in substance, that the family would cheer- 
fully pay the $10,000, but that it earnestly desired to see this sum 
applied to the astro-physical observatory, in which Dr. Kidder’s whole 
interest was lately engaged. ) 

After the clauses of the will and the codicil had been read a diseus- 
sion followed, from which it appeared to be the opinion of the Board 
that if the Regents accepted, in accordance with the Wishes of the 
family and the executors, the deliberate purpose of the testator in re- 
gard to the object of the bequest, they should be guided by this pur- 
pose also in regard to the amount which they should receive. 

Mr. Morrill then offered the following preamble and resolution, which 
was adopted : 

Whereas the late Jerome H. Kidder having, in a will drawn up 
some years before his death, bequeathed the sum of $10,000 to the 
Smithsonian Institution for purposes connected with the advancement 
of science, did in a codicil to said will, drawn under his direction during 
his last hours, but which his sudden death prevented him from execu- 
ting, reduce the amount of his bequest to $5,000, which he desired 
should be applied toward the establishment of an astro-physical obser- 
vatory: It is: 

Resolved, That the Executive Committee of the Board of Regents 
be authorized to accept, as finally and decisively indicative of the wishes 
of the testator the provisions of the codicil bequeathing $5,000 for the 
purpose of an astro-physical observatory, and that they be authorized 
to decline to accept from his executors more than this sum; provided, 
however, that before doing so they can receive sufficient assurance that 
the Institution will be protected against any liability. 


The Secretary exhibited recently prepared sketch plans for a new 
Museum building, and called the attention of the Regents to their ree- 
ommendation to Congress, in January, 1883, of the need of enlarge- 
ment, 


X1V JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 


Sinee this resolution, the collections of the Museum have enormously 
increased, so that before anew building could now be completed the 
material pressing for display would more than cover the entire area of 
such a building as the present one. It seems absolutely necessary that 
the new building should contain, beside a basement, at least two stories, 
it being indispensable to have, apart from the purposes of display, 
upper rooms for the preparation of the exhibits below. 

The price of material has risen very greatly, so that, owing to these 
combined causes, the estimate of 1883 is not applicable to the wants of 
to-day. The Secretary did not conceive that any supplementary action 
on the part of the Regents was now needed, but submitted these plans 
and estimates that they might be advised of the probable very consider- 
able increase in the sum that if would now be necessary to ask of Con- 
gress. 

The Chief Justice, being obliged to leave here, resigned the chair to 
Senator Morrill. 

The Seeretary stated that in connection with this subject of the plans 
he would present a letter from Mr. Cluss, of the firm of Cluss & 
Schulze, arenitects, asking for “an equitable compensation” for pro- 
fessional services and expenses in former years,in connection with a 
proposed building for the Museum. 

On motion of General Meigs, it was 

Resolved, That Messrs. Cluss & Schulze be informed that the ques- 
tion of compensation to them for plans for a new Museum building 
will be considered when they shall present such a bill as can be sub- 
mitted for Congressional action. 

The Secretary recalled to the attention of the Regents a statement 
made at their last meeting, to the fact that bills had been brought be- 
fore Congress making an appropriation for the purpose of establishing 
a Zoological Park under a Board of Commissioners, of whom the Secre- 
tary of the Smithsonian Institution was one, and directing this Com- 
mission, after purchasing and laying out the land and erecting the 
necessary buildings, to turn it over to the Regents. The bill as since 
actually passed, however, only instructed the Commissioners to pur- 
chase the land; and, while declaring the Park to be for the advance- 
ment of science, gave no intimation of the intent of Congress about its 
ultimate disposal. This Commission has nearly completed the purchase, 
and the time has now arrived when the Park may advantageously be 
placed under scientific direction. He could not, of course, anticipate 
what the final action of Congress would be in the matter, but he was 
authorized to state that the Commission would feel satisfied if Congress 
should place the Park under the Regents’ control. There is an increas- 
ing collection of animals already in the Regents’ care, and an appropria- 
tion of $50,000 has been asked for, to provide for its establishment in 
the newly acquired Park, which, within its large area, would also pro- 
vide suitable retirement for the small physical observatory already 


JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. XV 


alluded to. He expressed the hope that a bill providing for both meas- 
ures would have the support of the Regents in the Senate and in the 
House. ' 

After listening to statements by the Secretary relative to the esti- 
mates for the ensuing year, and also to the subject of the desirability 
of obtaining legislation relative to a statue of Professor Baird, the Re- 
gents considered the subject of a more convenient time for their annual 
meeting in January; and on motion of Senator Cullom it was— 


Resolved, That hereafter the time of the annual meeting of the Board 
of Regents shall be on tne fourth Wednesday in January of each year. 


Mr. Wheeler called ae attention of the Board to the death of their 
late colleague, the Hon. 8.8. Cox, and on his motion it was— 


Resolved, That a committee be appointed, of which the Secretary 
shall be chairman, which shall be authorized to prepare resolutions on 
the services and character of the late S. S. Cox, and to make the same 
of record. 


The chairman announced as the committee, the Secretary, General 
Wheeler, Dr. Welling, Mr. Lodge. 

The committee submitted the following report and resolutions, which 
were unanimously adopted : 


To the Board of Regents: 

Your committee report that the Hon. 8. 8. Cox was first appointed a 
Regent of the Smithsonian Institution December 19, 1861, and that he 
filled that office, except for intervals caused by public duties, to the 
time of his death. 

While he was a regular attendant at all the meetings of the Board, 
he was ever ready to advance the interests of the Institution and of 
science, either as a Regent or aS amember of Congress; and although 
such men as Hamlin, Fessenden, Colfax, Chase, Garfield, Sherman, 
Gray, and Waite, in a list comprising Presidents, Vice-Presidents, 
Chief Justices, and Senators of the United States were his associates, 
there were none whose service was longer or more gratefully to be re- 
membered, nor perhaps any to whom the Institution owes more than to 
Mr. Cox. 

The regard in which his brother Regents held Mr. Cox’s accuracy of 
characterization, and his instinctive recognition of all that is worthiest 
of honor in other men, may be inferred from the eulogies which he was 
requested by them to deliver, among which may be particularly men- 
tioned the one at the commemoration in honor of Professor Henry in the 
House of Representatives; but though these only illustrate a very small 
part of his services as a Regent, your committee are led by their con- 
sideration to recall that his first act upon your Board was the prepara- 
tion and delivery of an address, at the request of the Regents, on their 
late colleague, Stephen A. Douglas, and that on this occasion he used 
words which your committee permit themselves to adopt, as being in 
their view singularly characteristic of Mr. Cox himself: 

“It was not merely as one of its Regents that he showed himself the 
true and enlightened friend of objects kindred to those of this estab- 
lishment. He ever advocated measures which served to advance 
knowledge and promote the progress of humanity. The encourage- 


XVI JOURNAL OF PROCEEDINGS. 


ment of the fine arts, the rewarding of discoverers and inventors, the 
organization of exploring expeditions, as well as the general diffusion 
of education were all objects of his special regard.” 

In view of these facts it is— 

Resolved, That in the death of Hon. Samuel Sullivan Cox the Smith- 
sonian Institution has suffered the irreparable loss of a long-tried friend, 
the Board of Regents of a most valued associate and active member 
during fifteen years of service, and the country of one of its most dis- 
tinguished citizens. 

Resolved, That the Board of Regents desire to express their deep 
sympathy with the bereaved family of the deceased, and direct that 
a copy of these resolutions be transmitted to the widow of their late 
associate. 


On motion of Senator Cullom, the Board adjourned sine die. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF THE BOARD OF 
REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


(For the year ending 30th of June, 1890.) 


To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution : 

Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report 
in relation to the funds of the Institution, the appropriations by Con- 
gress for the National Museum and other purposes, and the receipts 
and expenditures for the Institution, the Museum, etce., for the year 
ending 30th June, 1890: 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
Condition of the fund July 1, 1890. 


The amount of the bequest of James Smithson deposited in the Treas- 
ury of the United States, according to the act of Congress of August 10, 
1846, was $515,169. To this was added by authority of Congress (act of 
February 8, 1867) the residuary legacy of Smithson and savings from 
annual income and other sources, $134,831. To this $1,000 have been 
added by a bequest of James Hamilton, $500 by a bequest of Simeon 
Habel, and $51,500 as the proceeds of the sale of Virginia bonds owned 
by the Institution, making in all, as the permanent Smithson fund in 
the United States Treasury, $703,000. 


Statement of the receipts and expenditures from July 1, 1859, to June 30, 


1890. 
RECEIPTS. 

Cran cin MemMal imi il, Wee a eees aoe sec cose cada coseanosose. eal Wbyecy 
Interestionstundy July i SS0 hens essere ceeeciyecieae es) el O90500 
Imterest(on fund January 1, 1890-.-5.--..2...--2--. 21, 090. 00 

SS 49180500 

= $53 937. 47 

Cash from sales of publications..................- 416. 01 
Cash from repayments of freight, ete......--..... 3, 489. 50 


== SCTE Sil 


Cash from executors of Dr. Jerome H. Kidder, for astro- 


PHYSICA ereseanc esses ec eeicle st see secs cees'siece sce so 5, 000. OU 
Cash from Dr. Alex. Graham Bell, for astro-physical research. 5, 000. 00 
5 13905051 
Ore e Col p isan meee tere Aer eeere aerate) ees Sa = ieicle Wee wines wcio oxcteece 67, 842. 98 


H, Mis. 129 


Il XVII 


XVIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, 


: EXPENDITURES. 
Building : 
Repairs, care, and improvements ..--.....-..- $1,576, 97 


TP hhaminou ey enalsbiib-anihuesl somes sacens pocold cosas 92. 21 

——-—— $1,669.18 

General expenses : . 

NIGER NES esse tbaeoe DBDOUC HOA EAa Gone BoD Saoc 409. 40 
Postave and peleoraph2-- 22 .22sc~. == a= oe 222, 00 
SURUOMUEIN™ Babe co coco buaspeceaaco 4 so0sec0ssenc 269, 85 
General printing 22-22. -.-\-----1 sei 361, 60 
Incidentals: Chuiel cas eves) see enace so eera el noosa 
Library (books, periodicals, etc.) ..-.-----.--- 1, 029. 46 
SHIBRIGE 2 econo cceabao sobend ceec odessa cost oace 17, 688. 77 

- 21, 704. 85 

Publications and research : 

Smithsonian Contributions.....-..---.------. 3,482.89 
Miscellaneous’ Collections. ---.:.---. -222 2-5. 378. 26 
ING DOM lesiooo sends ccossydosac0 sascusecoteect 815. 16 
IREREEIROIVE 5545506 sosn5o coGachs odss55 so50 556505 100. 00 
IND EEISIIDS eaooco soso Soeasc esos codes suo Goocanc 6, 105. 60 
Deg MOON cos csaccs case bocce aces nscadonnce 1, 530. 00 

MITER aod osdoGee seg sseeecresooRs ceuanogeded 70. 30 : 

——_——_ 12, 482.21 

Literary and scientific exchanges...-......-........--... 1,794. 09 

Ato) Coq DEMME oo 25. n5086 psosso cbbe csonnb SoaRooS cone ccou cond Sess 37, 650. 33 
Balance unexpendedi une rs 0 rte Oe ae mee else etaseet one) erie 3, 0192. 65 


The cash received from sales of publications, repayments for freight, 
etc., is to be credited on items of expenditure, as follows: 


WIGBUIN oo s6 55 obes cesee Jansos sas588 S000 se0q5 s500 Esa500 $14. 60 
. Postage and telegraph..--..-----. .-..-. ---..----------- 1. 92 
GoneraypEimiiie teem ise eee saan tel paateaee eae ie ota) 
lbmenclenmebi ty) ssoh Sono esas coop ocaud cond Goosen 40Se8 costs 262. 03 
Walariesiiic socien nas oles ooclecs wiwiclo sube ose lepewicisisio.s costes eerie 971. 97 
$1, 265. 02 
Smithsonian Contributionse-- ees eeeeeee ee eee ne 115. 19 
Miscellaneous Collections) -=-- a. ocosnece-c ose sees so eese 273. 72 
IS PLUS) eearepeeeod sce Son ibaad Gacoad acondeno caeolsobesoee, 1) cue 1) 


—-— 413.01 


EGOS) 6an550 obGe Sooosoco can Saas S255 asda sone aaeasg Sde0 6s0c 7.50 
BX PlOFAGWONG 2c < seise.cs es Secs eens sae see ees o-oo ee em 
PIX CHANGES oa <5, cles Se sls crise osc aloe se mee ane ies ene ee eee ate 


——— $3, 905. 51 

The net expenditures of the Institution for the year ending June 30, 
1890, were, therefore, $33,744.82, or $3,905.51 less than the gross ex- 
penditure, $37,650.33, above given. 

All moneys received by the Smithsonian Institution from interest, 
sales, refunding of moneys temporarily advanced, or otherwise, are de- 
posited with the Treasurer of the United States to the credit of the Sec- 
retary of the Institution, and all payments are made by his checks on 
the Treasurer of the United States. 


*In addition to the above $17,683.77 paid for salaries under general expenses, 
$1,850.04 were paid for services, viz, $1,500 from the building account, and $350.04 


from the library account. 
> 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XIX 


Your committee also presents the following statements in regard to 
appropriations and expenditures for objects intrusted to the care of the 
Smithsonian Institution by Congress : 


INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘ for 
expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United 
States and foreign countries under the direction of the Smithsonian 
Institution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary em- 
ployés” (Sundry civil act, March 2, 1889. Public 154, p. 16)........... $15,000. 00 


Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. 


Salaries or compensation : 


1 curator, 12 months, at $208.33 -.....-.-.--... $2,499. 96 
[ecloricnl months cdl Ons s a see eae 1, 800. 00 
Lelerlic enone, ot Meo eco cocoaceaoecosue Inc Ol 
IFclerktQsmonbhsy-abige Ole ete ise ssn) ee are 960. 60 
Heclorkewl2 om Ont nS a lim GO) aria alessio ieee ois oi oles 900. 00 
iclerk, Wismonbhs abiplorc. ase oo yas see oe 825. 00 
clerk 2 monbhs abipaOeesese esc <is =: Shatets 840. 00 
i-copyist,.4 months,-atigo0= 2-5... . 22. - 555. 120. 00 
Mkcopyists months vabiGsoseecas= eee eee eee 280. 00 
1 copyist, 9 days, at $60........-.... seis eee 17. 42 
tkcopyisine  daysnat pa0. 9.2.5. css ss. 25. 27, 86 
i COpyIShy WeMONHH satgoOr cae o- sre ecc oece cass 30. 00 
1epackery E22 months yabigiosee ose alta ae asi 900. 00 
ipacker sl 2 months ating eee. opera's coca 600. 00- 
(laborer ys! 2amonthscabepd Ube eces seer ea 480. 00 
iGlaborerasdaysabigl 50! cc ce. - + saetaceiiec accie 12. 00 
(Maboreros days watiploUlacses cesacc ese ce ae 9,75 
iplaborer yl Gays watsgln ome scee nae eee net eerie: 6. 00 
TL, SPEC sh Ain til 0) See eee coSoee boos saee 5, 25 
Uslgborer sass ays; abil O0) so 2 2 a2. Seece eens By, Os 
1 agent (Germany), 12 months, at $83. 334. ..... 1, 000. 00 
1 agent (England), 12 months, at $41. 66%.....-- 500. 00 
Total salaries or compensation ..-.-, ---.------.------- $13, 138. 49 
General expenses: 
LOSI 1s Os = a er ene ee rm ee 998. 67 
IPR CIAE? [NeOpG\\oc bone 660500 SSbead Santos GaSuuo saecaueaanae 443. 41 
EP UTED Sepa ee ee Satna ee tates aetna eye elales ucisis cts 146. 00 
ROS UAT Clee senso ares lon a rclais ose sieey oc eisiee eieietelsic) <lebinsare/s 144. 52 
Stationerysand, supplies -- --2-55.652cm-ssec cose. soot 116. 92 
Total expenditure international exchanges ........--..---=--.---- 14, 988. 01 
Balance Juliyel si SO0 se eee arts secre ees c oatle sec acces) Sens se esies 99) 


NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘‘for 
the purpose of continuing ethnological researches among the American 
Indians under the direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employ és.” 
(sundiycivilach.Warch)25 1869. “Pub. Vo4- p16.) ~252.0.sss—6 sone ---- 40, 000. 00 
ALCO eel OO (eet sisld Sete cae| cis sicialsie wie sicice'e ea waclacsmenmeee 13, 491. 22 


53, 491. 22 


XX REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


The actual conduct of these investigations has been continued by the 
Seeretary in the hands of Major J. W. Powell, Director of the Geological 
Survey. 


Ethnology—Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. 
Classification of expenditures (A). 


(a) Salaries or compensation : 


2 ethnologists, at $3,000 per annum. .... .---------------+- $6, 000. 00 
1 ethnologist, per annum. ..----.----- ------------+----++-- 2, 400. 00 
1 archeologist, per annum... .-----.----------+-----+---- 2, 400. 00 
3 ethnologists, at $1,800 per annum --...-....----..--.---- 5, 400. 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,500 per annum, 1 month.---.--. 125. 00 
1 assistant archeologist, at $1,500 per annum, 3 months.. - 375. 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,500 per annum, 3 months-..- 375, 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, per annum..-.-..----.-----....... 1,400.00 
1 assistant archeologist, at $1,400 per annum, 3 mente 350. 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, per annum..---...-----..---.----- 1, 200. 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, at 1,200 per annum, 3 months 17 

GE Sccsc Gacg soe boooass sopese senane 6505 Gannesss codes 304, 84 
1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, 9 months ..-- 900. 00 


1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,200 per annum, 9 months ---. 900. 00 
1 assistant ethnologist, at $1,000 per annum, 9 months --.. 750, 00 


1 stenographer, per annum..----.------------------------ 1, 000. 00 
lassistant ethnologist, at $900 per annum, 5 months 25 
GEN Sls060 Sun o505 cone dS5s 0598 Soages SSS SSS0RSSA ass5= 437.50 
1 assistant ethnologist, at $720 per annum, 6 months 6 days- 376. 00 
1 ethnologie aid, at $900 per annum, 5 months 25 days. .--- 437, 50 
1 ethnologic aid, at $600 per annum, 7 months 5 days...--- 308. 05 
1 copyist, per annum...... .----- .----. ---+--+------------- 900, GO 
Tl enn lelere, FRE BWMNIMNUIN — odo5 cdo cobs e505 chob gases cbas oS Sa8e 720.00 
1 modeller, at $660 per annum, 6 months 6 days .--.------- 340, 65 
1 modeller, at $600 per annum, 9 months..-..-...-.-------- 450. 00 
1 modeller, at $660 per annum, 1 month..-..-..-.--..------ 5d. 00 
1 modeller, 2 months, at $60, $120; 1 month, at $55; 9 
MONO, Qt, AAS EGR coden ceaeos Gace obsccoeSsc8 osee 625. 00 
1 modeller, at $720 per annum, 2 months Pa bgt fe Severe 120. 00 
1 modeller, at $480 per annum, 3 months.......--.-------- 120. 00 
icopyistepersanMUM os ocr ser see ae eete = aaete aaa 720. 00 
1 copyist, at $600 per annum, 9 months....---...-----. ---- 450. 00 
2 clerks, at $600 per annum. ........ ---5.-222. «--2-------- 1, 200. 00 
1, Glew, Se abe Fs 5 conan Sse odoese caaS soso. aseced S04 720. 00 
1) TESECNCE IES JOR QUT so5 cosco ssco ces sase cusSSoaseses 600. 00 
1 messenger, at $480 per annum, 1 month 23 days -..------ 70. 66 
1 modeller, at $480 per annum, 3 months 24 days.....----- 150. 97 
1 interpreter, at $900 per annum, 3 months.....--. --- soos 225. 00 
Unclassified or special jobs or contracts. ........- See 875. 00 
Motalisalariesjor compensatlone= == eee eee eee tase eee $33, 831. 17 
(b) Miscellaneous: 
Mravelliimp expenses sales sees ee se ee ee eee eee ee eee 3, 958. 34 
bie arate Of PLrOopertys,->--5o es= sen eee eee eee 336. 43 
Fielavsupplies/--0. 5... o.shs de sce ce soe lee ose One ieee eee 752. 84 
Field supplies for distr fein tosIndians\s5-—-. esses eee 131. 36 


Instruments .....-. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


(b) Miscellaneous—Continued. 


Maboratonyuma perial mascots craisiesstersjsieieie sis gtaiciatne <lsicie’sjicrnee Fol. 28 
BooksMormbratyeecesectaca-- (35 tsee ce Sees osice seine se ~-n 756, 12 
Stationery andidrawino material 22-2 5-54-42. = 2-\----- == 330. 45 
Illustrations for report.--. . Be een eats ere ane wee ahaha, s 637. 08 
Oiticeurnibure vtec oay oc = Seclns cc ccses) sisle cine clos eerie 392. 38 
Ofticeisuppliesjandinepairsiss--- se. cane eee e ean 206.76 
Mele oramsfecc se seoias ss ssis's es ale coe ices sl sce tes seine sacion= se 
SPOECUNENStessemckocios chsijcios ces sacl woe te ese nerslnie Suan cr 18. 00 
Motalexpendibunesen cise cee see a se cine oes Aeiasieses cine sects cere 
Bonded railroad accounts settled by United States Treasury..---. .-. 
Total expenditure North American ethnology -.-.-...--.-.----. 


Balance, July 1, 1890, to meet outstanding liabilities.......--- 


Expenditures reclassified by subject-matters (B). 


Sign language and picture writing ....--.-......-- Sigbaa bDanS wosnicaee 
Exploration of mounds, eastern portion of United States... ........-- 
Researches in archeology, southwestern portion of United 
SUPNIGs bee ce Gc da cooe SEmcr Ree non Gre ke AOBSE SDs Cae apalnaormmcpeee 
Researches, language of North American Indians-.-..--...--.---..-.. 
Salaries tot cero tsdire cho bees ee treme ame nase eaten ee ane eee eee : 
MMstrahionstfor repoOnte ces ciassieceeiae esses a5 ose se eel- eee Mepnta te 
Contingentiexpensessnaccssiso=aiceas sae eal Se rains ictaie eros tenes ote 
Bonded railroad accounts settled by United States Treasury ...-..-..-.. 
Motaltexpendibumes eas. ates cele se meine a ie tisicee ls sme cine acksinsetsne 
SUMMARY. 
July 1, 1889: 
Balance ong anda eeser ccm nace fac anon ae ciel ceaa een p13, 491. 22 
Appropriation for North American ethnology, 1890........ 40,000. 00 
IX PONGIbOLes cnc ec ceiiseaisisncise cine Ss cleus siesie cee soe Semler Scat ctaclaene 
Balanceronghandeduhy sel SO Ue ceresee me seaaeeeae cece ciecine enemas 
Which balance is deposited as follows: 
LOMCred pb Of GISDULSINO ATONE <.. mi: Gieta dhaiale sawed welole ow Sees Saeed el CES se 
mathew miredyotaveselreasutyes atta. creo os ose See Sao Gat ees oa eeee 


NATIONAL MUSEUM. 
PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS JULY 1, 1889, ‘TO JUNE 30, 1890 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘‘ for 
the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the collections from the 
surveying and exploring expeditions of the Government, and from other 
sources, including salaries or compensation of all necessary employés ” 


XXI 


$7,576. 92 
41, 408. 09 

50. 05 
41, 458. 14 


12, 033. 08 


4, 440. 81 


6, 258. 33 


9, 028. 77 
13, 783. 37 
4, 209. 64 
673. 46 

3, 013.71 
41, 408. v9 
50. 05 


- 41, 458. 14 


— 


53, 491, 22 
41, 458. 14 


12, 033. 08 


2,581. 38 
9, 451. 70 


12, 033, 08 


(Sundry civil act, March 2, 1889. Public 154, p. 16).......-.-....... 140, 000, 00 


XXIL REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE, 


Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. 


Salaries or compensation. * 
Direction: 
1 Assistant Secretary Smithsonian Institution, in charge U.S. Na- 


tional Museum, 12 months, at $333.33 -......-..------..----------- $3, 999. 96 

Scientifie staff: 
ikeurator, 12 months, at $200 ees saa ae eee aa eet ee eens lei 2, 400. 00 
fl Gimmie, 1 meron nsy Gy SA) ooo cSaess dsocso poesen sh soes osbets sada 2,400. 00 
Reara lorie MOUS \abipoUU eaeereee aceon item set eee eee 2, 400. 00 
Themes, 12) Wavonod NS. ENG M565 SoSsoocedace cosaue oases soe seoedeeoe 2,100. 00 
Teurators Om onbhissautiaplid ee eerste eee latte eiatet ee taieeiae ees 2 1, 575. 00 
(hcurator oem Onuhs aa tispliviomecmes ac cease eee earl acter rele arene aera 525. 00 
1curator, 12-monthsrat St5022 <5. ce. se snot. ce emote oe eae ner 1, 800. 00 
t curator, 6 months 1 days, abielo0ss52 nce. ses ate oss wae se omer O53 803 
IL Gnesi nae, MOA Scevop AAS) Pun EI aS Cocca eacons 2oed babGocsd GoSscioeace 1,500. 00 
ucurator-llomonthssat pl00 acess eeete ee eee eeetaeeeaet 1, 100. 00 
Hjactine curator, 12 aHONONS, cig lo0 esa eee ote eee 1, 800. 00 
ieassishant CunavOLre 2 moOnuvhs abl docos ease eee eee sie Soa aa eae 1, 599. 96 
jeassistant curator 2 monbhs,at plosssossse ee eseseeeee-ieass eee == 1, 599. 96 
1 assistant curator, 9 months, at $50, $450; 3 months, at $125, $375 --- 825. 00 
deassistant curator 2 monvhsyatiolO0r asses ee sae ea eee see 1, 200. 00 
1 assistant curator, 5 months, 19 days, at $100 .......--..-..-..----.-- 561. 29 
1 agent, 12 months, at $100... ...--.------ ---- ---. +--+ 22 ee 1, 200. 00 
lecollector 2 months atipeleasseseste eres eeeeteen eee eae eee ares 960. 00 
Theiler ice it SDE SA oe So Beas Bacon cnsn nous om Ios peg gees esas S 960. 00 
iad Ganonthssle days, abime0esss eee seceees sss seieee eerie eee sees 526. 45 
fiaid) 12 months) at/915--22- hoes. oso notewcesanccee theese eee 900. 00 
Ward: 4: months 2o days; ab g10sss-4-- in vce seclso sa eeperen seen eee 355. 65 
Tl anal, Te sams O19 Oooo SSs6 ee akn aseoee sooose coDSeo bssceesesesecs 780. 00 
fetal, ul miners) IS CleN gs Bie OD 66 555 shoo estoos ossaisdo ses SSssos osc 690. 97 
1 aid, 8 months 10 days, at $55.......-.....-- FS eno ease c eee 457.74 
31, 470. 25 

Clerical staff: 

fchioteler, 12)mon ths; ably se scisssoee one cic le ecinin’s ae ec secia te cee 2, 100. 00 
1 corresponding clerk, 12 months, at $158.33. .......-...-...--------- 1, 899. 06 
i resistrar 1 2amonths ati loco dol= so. eons aeons lee eee eee 1, 899. 96 
i-disbursing clerk, 12 months, wtigl U0 co. ceo cc emma ee 1, 200. 00 
1 draftsman, 12 months, at $83.33 -...- NEN. 2 Sth 2 Do OOS eee ae ee ee 999, 96 
deassistant arartsmans |. 2 months: atid Oe ses eee eae eee ee ae 480. 00 
ieclorl= 4;months; 20 "days, at pl ede seee ee ees eee ete nar ee 580. 65 
Uelerk doi months ati Gil. sae a sce. Soo coer eee eee eee eee 1, 380. 00 
(clerk 12 months; ati gulowmecscemeciscccs cece ee sale aaa ere ee ener 1, 380. 00 
ieclork, 12:months; ati pl00 sconces once cleces ves nee eee =e eee eee 1, 200. 00 
ieclerk- if 2imonths ab pl0ORecoeeee oa eee scieeeseo eer Dose ei eee eee 1, 200. G0 
clerk wl 2omonths, ab el eece cee erect ieee eee ee ee eee 1, 080. 00 
A elerk.12i months, at $90: .-52o- ce eee aoc e es sees ee eseeee see ecw 1, 080. 00 
iclerk- ld monbhsi22 days, abi osarcor eee seeeee sees eee 969. 86 
ieleric 12; monthsriabiero coe secs se eecces Meee weer eee ee eee 900. 00 
elerk/ 2 months) at $70! cca. wc cose ce mcee cece soos cee ele eee ee 840. 00 


*NotE.—The payments of salaries for parts of months in January, March, July, 
August, October, and December are made on the basis of 31 days, and for the other 
months (except February) at 30 days. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Clerical staff—Continued. 

ficlork Olmonuhslel ara ayisy atin eset. -a\acelo sea) -1- sels svanc a oie ental 
1 clerk, 6 months, at $55, $330; 6 months, at $60, $360. ..........-.-. 
ivclenionl zamanthss abi gO0) sons cmscas see ec tsea ce Saceinccic ase < cies 
1 clerk, 3 months, at $45, $135; 3 months, 25 days, at $60, $228.39... 

teclerk ll monthal7G@ayssat POO .rcc case's cee ciseeisocelecic eae Jesiswe 
declerkaelonmonbhs eat poo eters aon aavel vie jee re eles a slaliotecnslelelo wins w cinta wisicle 
relerkseloMOmUnS abi gOU tas'cia ass o2/s/S. ote a asinee'e neiciuse «2 secieieile ase 
grclovlcn oc mmOut isn a tile sie secre no cm eytciss snccee\e eis a cieneie ashes 
Mclerk,sle MONLNS Ab, GOO isa says = se) Sawjels = n'a = ayn'a silanes soa inimacre isis 
Welorks1OmMOnbhs ai GOO se asc csscoe Selsnae saSslewmaceines esmises)aiees 


ielerk el 2imonths abi po0y cess. Sesion a ono a eterela ss omaaiaisjoeie alain 


lyclorkee9imonths,sati oO" eee cess. noe nin caele 3. Seine eto ace 
1 clerk, 2 months, at $75, $150; 8 months, at $60, “$480 j 2 months, at 

EAR TU) a 1 dg Aaa A erg cre Se 
1 stenographer, 3 months 18 days, at $100 :................2------0- 
Ae Gy PEMLIGOL ke MNOMLHS ehi wo Oss. cmoect so inlet = eet ome estes aise 
aecopyisnel months, Al poo mc cow aks cova Sane iee neo se Seoiecnnes Serene 
MCOPVISt pe MONS Abigo Ol accia.c os ale eclelselne aclaiaieinsoslsematceva sciciners 
GOs LP anon; Ean he) Sos Aaseies peo Sado abd Sebo ddears csoece-se 
MCOPYIst te MOMEMS Ati gOU can. -asess!atas sce sawe ccm eoeseacee ee ncicn 
iscopyist, [months Jat $o00 so 2c aes once ee es tebe a siewienpeee 
I @ayoyaeth, 2! mover aah Ah EON oes Sao e bd cudcc0 cadseuus dene pooseu codes 
1 copyist, 12 months, at $45 ............ REM res eke ercatlelse eee eres 
dicopyist, > months 6 days, atg40) 22. 2k 5-6 cceeweceiccweus coeces 
1 copyist, 5 months 19 days, at $40 -.......-... oeaie a sone tice cease 
iecopyisinl cimonblisn Ab G4Ors oo ene Sse eae aisle, setinsie 3s tees Fae 
Mecopyish: © months lG days, ate SA0l- coos creas as. cce since newee seis ae 
LEO yes UB are, pay De San Se Sonne do6asmou COCA EN Sogo UsoH cEcu 6oa> 
jecopyisnw months Gidaysatg4 Onss se seeee te ceiee ae eer ie eee eee 
1 copyist, 2 months 28 days, at $40, $117.33; 29 days, at $1.50, $48.50. 
TCO yaa, IO MMM, Phy EB) oSeene codead Ses abed bbe cep ease osc esonGe 
ieopyish, months 9 days, abso) sox. ecl- as aol wep cno sn een om Seb ee 
1 copyist, 11 months 10 days, at $35 ..-. 221 222 cecens 220s wow ee ecto 
1 copyist, 7 months 13 days, at $30...........--.-.- Eee ERD SAE Hans Gers 
AECoOpyIShel 2 MONS + Ab WOU la <151 jaciel oot cies lode congas <ja=se)neei=t a= 
1 copyist, 5 months 16 days, at $25. . 4-220. <0 cee won es owen cone wee 


Preparatcrs : 
HMEOLOTISH Ae MONLNS, Vig DLO sa. v<tolars setecinici came mscis a weia) <qneleeainin as 


1 photographer, 12 months, at $158.33....-. ..--..-2-.---e06 we -e---- 
ATARI OCMISh we mmmoOn ths abil Zola srciacelsie cisco screen elas elena alee 
1 taxidermist, 3 months, at $115, $345; 4 months, at $40, $160; 5 months, 

CI Cea che eR Aa ue aaa rd 
ditaxe@orinist tocmonuhs. ab GOUs oe sae sano, aslo cet c's oleae eines 
i assistant taxidermist, 8 months, at $60.........-...-..-.-----+---- 
1 assistant taxidermist, 12 months, at $60 ...........---.------------ 
1 assistant taxidermist, 10 months, at $60.........-.....-.--..------ 
1 assistant taxidermist, 12 months, at $60............-----.----- ae 
1 assistant taxidermist, 3 months 29 days, at $50 ...--.-------------- 
ipreparator12 months; at $1002 .222 5-52.26 foc 28-5 3 nen ee en =e 
iipreparator, 12 months, atigc0 --. 2.22.2 o-n- 220 seen --2--2 Reneue 


IG PPODALAPOUA To MONEIS, Aligto <5. 0ereen\aceeerte= soe omnes noe 


XENT 


$733. 
690. 
720. 
363. 3 
Ope 
660. 
660. 
110. € 
600. 
600. 
600. 
450. 


740. 
364, 2 
600. 
660. 
600, 
600. 
600. 
600. | 
186.6 
540. 
130. 
224. 
480. 
340. 
480. 
301. < 
160. 
420. 
220. 
396. 
223. 
360. 
137. 


34, 836. 


87 
00 


16 
29 
00 
00 
90 


83 


. 00 
. 96 
. 00 


. 00 
30. 00 
. 00 
. 00 
. 00 
720. 
196. 
. 00 
960, 
. 00 


00 
77 


00 


XXIV REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Preparators—Continued. 


1 preparator, 12 months, at G60 2 scse<9 co sedet eee ee eee eee 
1 preparator, 2 months, at $120, $240; 2 months, at $105, $210; 8 

MONS VA POs POS nee ose eee ieee eee ele iis a ore ene ae 
i preparator, 1794 days, at $4 per diem .........--...---.----------- 


Buildings and labor: 
1 superintendent of building 


Rep eixay Mosh CNN cml Bead ceanono tacos 


1 assistant superintendent of buildings, 12 months, at $90. ..--...--- 
1 watchman, 12 months, at $65. --.. Teo pala Ral ee Ee ee oat eo ranele eee 
TL Speeder, IO aera os), Pin EGO Go So66 cooece sdacee cobeco 56540 non ea5e 
ik Weil yay, 1H PaO RNN AG EXRO csocb coceca souseb ese o0nd doc oRU cco 
lewatchman erm ont ns ahi Ue sameeren renee ete terete 
iiwatchman, 12imonthsvatipo0 sees sacs ee eee eee eter 
1 watchman, 12 months, at $50.--..-.-- Beane Son et ee ae ae 
iL wennolorena 11) mavens ep A) Soe soso ones eSeeoo coobe0 Seb soR sabe Sacc 
TL ipa avon a, TY jentoy ony ee} OAH CO ees ce coan cocdad poowuD eoceice sosanece 
il Pian, LOMO, An Osccd coco cocoon acoso osooad soocus cescoe 
diwatohman2nmnonmths yaitipo0 ee =eee se eaieie ase) eater lal 
diwatchian, 1Omonthssatieo0en se ose soe e cee eee ames 
1 watchman, 8 months 116 days, at $50 - .-.-.......-.2 2. .----2 .-2 see 


1 watchman, 1 month, at $40 ; 


19 days, at $50, $30.65 .... 


lewatchmanwd OmonthsrlOe days vatino 0 seem aeetesene teeta eerie 
1 watchman, 9 months 19 days, at $50.-.....--..----. .------------- 
i yaniclmen, WA TO MANE, BEMIS Soscca coboos esaody csosoo oaseSs SoseE5 
1 watchman, 11 months 27 days, at $45. ........-..-..-------------- 
iewetehinans ie monte ab aor ce= ee eee ee eee ee er 


1 skilled laborer, 10 months, 
1 skilled laborer, 12 months, 


at GUOrs aod esa ale sas seie sae ane = oe eines 
hs Os Rae 8 See re reer ee eae 


1 skilled laborer, 4 months 25 days, at $50-----. 25.25. 2-2 22 oe 
skalledslaborers Gunonbhiss atin Olt ete = sealer na nee eretcnee 
1 skilled laborer, 3 months 25 days, at $40.... ..---..----..----.---- 


1 skilled laborer, 54 days, at 
1 skilled laborer, 77 days, at 


$2.50, $135: 154 days, at $2, $308 -...... 
Bie Obs Hees BOR ee fe, aie ase starone es eeenmcratale 


1 laborer, 6 months, at $45, $270; 169 Foe, Ra Gulla tebe) 0) Sno cocson 


1 laborer, 10 months, at $45 
1 laborer, 4 months, at $45.. 
1 laborer, 9 months, at $40... 
1 laborer, 12 months, at $40 


wee wee wee ee ee ee ee ee ete ee ee cet ees wees 


1 laborer, 9 months, at $40, $360; 2 days, at $1.50, $3...-...--.------ 


1 laborer, 12 months, at $40 
1 laborer, 64 days, at $1.50.- 


1 laborer, 11 months, at $40, $440; 19 days, at $47, $29.11; 35 days, at 


PLS O NGS 2100 semisetesee <e 
1 laborer, 312 days, at $1.50 
1 laborer, 10 months, at $40, 
1 laborer, 12 months, at $40, 
1 laborer, 1034 days, $1.50.- 
1 laborer, 12 months, at $40, 
1 laborer, 317 days, at $1.50 
1 laborer, 1264 days, at $1.50- 
1 laborer, 12 months, $40, at 
1 tage 100 days, at $1.50 


ee ee es 


$400; 36 days, at $1.50, $54. ....--..-.-- 
$480; 1 day, at $1.71, $1.71. ...-...----- 
$480; 3 days, at $1.50, $4.50..--- eee 


$480; 1 me Miele Sane psoas oteadosuoos 


1 month, at $45; 8 months, at $50, $400 ; 


$720. 


1, 090. 
713. 


14, 564. 


1, 650. 


00 


00 
00 


73 


00 


1, 080. 00 


780. 
720. 
720. 
600. 
600. 
600. 
600. 
600. 
600. 
600. 
500. 
593. 


515. 
530. 
481. 
540. 
539. 
540. 
700. 
600. 
244, 
300. 
153. 
443. 
115. 
523. 
450. 
180. 
360. 
480. 
363. 
480, 

96. 


521. 
468. 
454, 


481. 


00 
00 
00 


00 
00 
00 
00 
00 


61 
00 
00 
a 


155.25 


484. 


475. 


50 
50 


189. 75 


481. 
150. 


50 
00 


REPORT OF TilE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


Buildings and labor—Continued. 
Apa OTe Roe O Gays abil. OUr saa. aiclersisercescioneclas ese sels ae) itaresee 
ilaborer; 315 days,-at/ $150"... <55 2 oct scs cls eee eon ee eise a anes 
(Mahorerssilig dayswav ol OOrssaascecsne o8 ee eae: Salone: weclstns des cts 
telahoreraml OludaysmatiplenOn aoe sche. Neos Sees eRe oe Mase nase aoe Boas 
Islaboreracodd ays, abo 50%e-- Soc ence aloe ee bieenins see oebise sess t eens 
ILA DOLE OM AAV SA b LO latos 2 <%.52 onc Gar dete a seitla cereale tomes bocees 
1 laborer, 12 months, at $40, $480; 1 day, at $1.50. ..--.......-..-:-- 
1 attendant, 12 months less 1 day, at $40.--.--. HG pemiessssin ee ae etie ae 
1 attendant 11 months, at $40, $440; 1 month, at $35.......--...-... 
iteleaneral 2emonths tata csccass seceitatenc sees ceceeecen eee ee 
dteloanen loo Gays, calipers. coe sect ercs cee silos seen seeekeaeeee 
Mkcleaner 2 MOR aya; abides st cere eal nctere eeere sical sine a ciayse ioe tisrene esrelete 
i. Glomigr, 12 TAA CAGED) oeibote Ganogassonee osecisocs Boaacooun cose 
ivelean enh smMonths sbi ha0) <a asec see cee Scie cere cece emo aaeaae 
ipmesseneerel months rat Gdn msc: se ee cece coe ceee see nee oeee 
imessonverw 2 months yb) paoreeees ee sales aoa cel ane eae sae emeeeee 
MMERSON COE AS MONS, Algood 2 ac. co. -s. sleci-n eo cs cote lems eee 
PM eRSON FOL SsMONUNS, AL Peo <- toao sane cin sle nda = s pee SaaS eeeS 
ieMENSEN Cielo MONCHE, Abbey S-ocis ton ca oscl Ss «serseee bese ss aes 
deImESSenery MMOULAS,: Bhp 20 es eh sae Se ectae tices a ead soso es ease oe 
imessencer, Ui months 23 days pabipoone sence cr oss aneeee eee oe oe 
IPMeSSEnS or cimMONthS 2d) Gays) AvigeO sessile ce sereieisee 15a see neeesce 
imniressencver, Samonthstaydayss au po0sseaecse eases se ees cee Sa 
Bmessencer ele months watige0) cases cereocseecce se actee sseeceiecee ec 
IsmessencerslivdaysS leon o- cose ceccscsccscs cess BM eiee eieateeaiae 


30, 985. 76 


Temporary help. 
Scientific staff: 
1 specialist, 26 days, at $150 per month. ..........---.---. $125. 81 


lexpert, 2oldays, ab $4 peridiem) - 222.2 5.22.6 ace ne enc cr 100. 00 
1 aid, 1 month, 25 days, at $55 per month.-......-.-..... 99. 35 
Mead al 4 days» aiago0) permonth,: 2.22.2 soos weosee ce tece 23.33 


Clerical staff: 
ijelerk, | month,at $45 per month.:5.4.. s.ccesis2a--<---- 45.00 


1 typewriter, 17 days, at $60 per month..--............--- 34, 00 
1 typewriter, 30 days, at $35 per month...-........-. Saoo | oui! 
Mcopyishmemonth ath po0seaseeeiaeee eas eee erecseioecece 60. 00 
icopyistL month) 23 days; ab proececceacce cases cee cess 79. 50 
TOD yng TOO MNES BaMeH i) Senqacocecdns 6oceas onoubD o6ESac 40. 00 
EKCOpy ts be Oday Ss abiG4 Of esiaciersslatss i oleae Sete cle eewie wee 41.78 


Preparators : 


1 taxidermist, 2 months, at $50 per month................ 100. 00 
1 preparator, 24 days, at $40 per month ....-........----- 32. 08 
1 preparator, 8 days, at $3.20 per diem ....-..........---.-. 25. 60 


Buildings and labor: 


1 watchman, 1 month 15 days, at $50 per month.....----- 74,19 
1 skilled laborer, 2 months, at $45 per month. .--....-.---- 90. 00 
iMaborers 13) days; at $l-50 per diem...2-. s--- s-4- -<:5'---- 19, 50 


ilaborery.2lidays,atiol. oO perdiema---.s)4- 21-2 nc 31,50 


360. 00 
360. 00 
540. 00 
540. 00 
105. 00 
300. 00 
300. 00 
225. 00 


293. 55 


348. 49 


334. 42 


157. 68 


XxVI REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Temporary help—Continued. 
Buildings and labor—Continued. 
1 laborer, 6 days, at $1.50 per diem..........-..-------- $9.00 


1 laborer, 5 days, at $1.50 per diem. ...-.......--..----- 7. 50 
1 laborer, 25 days, at $1.50 per diem.......-....--..-:-- 37. 50 
1 laborer, 10 days, at $1 per diem .--.-..-.-.--.-.- ------ 10. 00 
1 cleaner, 38 days, at $1 per diem....:.0....5.-.2.--.-2- 38. 00 
—_——— $317.19 
1, 157.78 
Special or contract works 0.2. 22552- 2-2. seam sonnets Jah 1, 363. 68 
SUMMARY. 
Salaries, preservation of collections : 
DINECHOM cocs os uwion aces ewaies one ae Sa cies aclesine eee misses 3, 999. 96 
Sciembitic stalise aan sere seesaw ke Woe Sa eee as CO eee eo Aa Oreo 
@lerical stafh ci oss ese cc sicuyetincew aaee cee cne eee ane 34, 836. 83 
IRQey PRM IOS cece cenonh Gosces sobs cceced seoees asonSeeaécse 14, 564. 73 
Buildings and labor-- 25. 0-12-22. 42206. eneeen aoe se see OU, Sonate 
EeniporaryRelp= saan setae ase oa or aaa iafe iat 1, 157. 78 
Special or contract work .....-......----.----+ --+-+---:- 1, 363. 68 
Total salaries or- compensation. ---...-. --- <2... 2. -- 25 ---ne- an 118, 378. 99 
Miscellaneous : 
Shiv o OIGS Sse6 cade GoG6 pond oneacs oaacocHoNs Sood cosacoCas son 4,,952.167 
Stationery.-s2----- se Re eee Pee A BP ICO Gan OEIC oe aah 2,307. 60 
SCG NG ese an Be Re emorind seeo pane ee Gear ceee see Spe ssi cicisis 5, 141. 48 
Books and periodicals. ...2.. -..- .:-25- s21- eeoeee -- 25-250 1,307. 61 
VOU ee eee Seles ae DS RIS EE soles Saree neon Sees aoe ie 
Freight and cartage....--. -.-- ------ ---- ---- 22 2205 250 - e 2, 416. 92 
— 17,772.70 


Total expenditure to June 30, 1890, preservation of collections.... 136, 151. 69 


ow 


Balancewulyd 6902 22 ~ sao se a eeis sasele ase) qa aesias eiela  s)ieatan 3 848. 31 
Disallowance on a bill for travelling expenses.........-.-.---------+--- 45 


Balance July 1, 1890, to meet outstanding liabilities. ...........-. 3, 848. 76 


FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, JULY 1, 1889, TO JUNE 30, 1890. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘* for 
cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition 
and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including 
salaries or compensation of all necessary employés” (Sundry civil act, 
Mareh 2,,1889; Public 154; p.16) .--. ..- 22. s-as/cpemeleisn == eames on 30, 000, 00 


Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. 


Salaries or compensation : 


1 engineer of property, 12 months, at $150 ...-- BacadunancagdeDaEc Gesc 1, 800. 00 
dclork= 12 months, ates) tn. eseee cee se ene eee $900. 00 
ivelerk,o months, at/50 07 oe en- sees «eee eet ei 150. 00 
1 copyist, 12 months, at $55... . 22. 1.2.2. cece ee ween -- oe 660. 00 

1,710. 00 
1 carpenter, foreman, 12 months, at $91.-.---. UNO or cccte 1, 092. 00 
1 cabinet-maker, 313"Ways, at $3--.--2-------------- ----—— 939, 00 
1 carpenter, 124} days, at $3 -...--...2....-------.+------ 373, 50 
1-carpenter, 90'days; atige oc eo. neo eee ee eee eee ae 270. 00 
1 carpenter, 286 days, at $325-..2. 26.5. csc. Jeceee once ~~ 858. 00 


dcarpenter, 52/days, ab $o--se0> cons seen e-em ssees5 156. 00 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXVII 
Salaries or compensation—Continued. 

iveanpenter 02s days, ab Go.-)- se2e sche iceacc se -clcenceucee = 9577.00 
ikcarpembernnloOr day ssa bi poate taco es saieinle sisal aley.imsievsiniers 450. 00 
HeCaALpenLerrollad ays Ubipare sais sa seee sees e oleae wiecie ae 933. 00 
1ecarpenter.99 ti dayswabi poe nosese teclescpee cise esis nelalelsses 298. 50 
sar pOMver. 47 GAYS, Aliod-cssccas coaaacicesese als sos.ces ses 141.00 
[SCARPCRUCI el 3) Cay sy Al pana sic ses Sees e eee oe ae ee 39. 00 
IECATPERDEL TST 4 GAYS, Due ciccc-wiciens lotta oseiaacte jocie oss = 112.50 
IMCATPENTeL Vo CAVA RAD DS s acces = citelsaciomeristgaoo win cmisctesse 9. 00 

$6, 249. 00 
[epainterl2 months satmuomerceseeesas secon -ceeisaiecre 780. 00 
ibyeppbalaye, DHS) Glens} Qt sec hoes6 Sa50 53SouU S55 So50booS 496. 00 

1, 276. 00 
1skilled laborer, 54 days,at$1.50, $81; 208 days,at $1.75, $364. 445. 00 
Pskilled laborer) 12) months, ati $50) ject = s-0 2 cn ele ee ae 2 600. 00 
iskiledsanorers Gononths, ab gol) ssssec ease ese) 2e> ae 300. 00 

1 skilled laborer, 4 months and 30 days, at $50, $248.39; 3 

Gays aAbigleaOs Gos se ce cert oe ao aa sie ceisiaicc Saar se etaees 251.39 
i skilled laborer, 295 days, at $2.2--<. .---c- -2-< wocene cee 590. 00 
tskalledslaborerss09) Gays atin seteecer ase icceoeueee cee ee es 618. 00 
icsicilled laborer, 104 days; wb G2- 25-25-65 Acecee0seec sas 208. 00 
1 skilled laborer, 10 months, at $45 -.-.-.. .---..-......--- 450. 00 

eee SY, YD) 
1 laborer, 8 months, at $45, $360; 6 days, at $1.50, $9 ....- 369. 00 
iaborersemomnthes daisy au os 0) cieiscea)ajeiatst isin! -le'ier 90. 32 
1 laborer, 3 months, at $40, $120; 1 day, at $1.50, $1.50... 121.50 
islaborers2sOlday sabia Oh see aes acta erent sels 345. 00 
1 laborer, 6 months, at $40, $240; 2 days, at $1.50, $3. ...-- 243. 00 
ipiabororelemonthws tind Use sees erase eects eee 40. 00 
ielaborerso monthsyatie4 eens sesce ceiseee meee cele ee ees 120. 00 
Helaborerplemonuthyatios Ueseemen cas caer cciea aoe reece 30. 00 
1 cleaner, 3 months, at $30......... eisisiarereraisie anew oatemcte 90. 00 

————- 1,408.82 

15, 906. 21 

Contrachwepaimmorelevatotmesseneseee oases sesisiieeies sieeetae a aera 20. 00 

Total expenditures for salaries or compensation. ...-...----------- 1h, 926. 21 


Materials, ete. : 
Ex DIGLOMM CASES sts sms .aclJorappicies/=6 2, <)o oic)sreiais.sjeSicia[oie'e valeiere 
Desiensiandsdrawings| tor Casese.-- soe --2\-s oie ie <= -1= 
DTAWCLASbraYS, DOXES=.ascceosise cess Sam see sclsseei-scce 
Frames, stands, miscellaneous wood work .......-.------ 
Glass ae ace e rae crere sis a/ sec ncicem ate wines Sinarere oscaate eee cis aes 


@lophamcotlonnet@rwscsscmecer ses olen ese tos Seen ae acess 
Glassnarsvetcesten nessa seetea tee cate oe ae ioe k see oce sacs 
MUD Ona ee eles oe me ae Ae ee se kee ce slsisnaeuiceee 
AIMS OLS TUS eS ae ose ene ice inc eieiel sowieiscewice.cer 
WTC OBECTMILUNO seat nate sen Se ciao cos cincloe calc eae 
Chairs (lors alls) peacoat ee ee aoe se tee cities, <j cee Sea 
IMI WERYGl 53 Shoe peo cdo Dome e EGO UE OR HOS SEG Ee OIe ere 
Biche ap lasholbease sore aariae oe bce ale oo Deeresniete se ceicloseic 
TRUDI IGT? YOG0 0 ape spon Kone CODE er io Dae co COE OCC ECICOUC OO 
MrOnebTACK StS ace cee ee wee ceeecioce SO ROO SBE OO DEE COOC 


$4, 366. 77 
57.00 
931. 48 
158. 84 

1, 875. 38 
1, 291.07 


XXVIII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Materials, ete.—Continued. 


IM EAS) pepe SOO Iara OAHE Oa Has sblosecod ao Son onoseb ese $605. 50 
Ares yalll hnaver Go: eNOS oo 5 ob oSso baeo oS SSc0 Otcieco Saca S205 31.95 
——— $12, 821.38 
Total expenditure, July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890, furniture and 
fiXtULCS:. 22s eis ccs eee eer sa see ep eeoee seen aoea = eee eeesinnce 28, 807. 59 
Balance, July 1, 1890, to meet outstanding liabilities..---.-..-.-.-- ib 192.41 


HEATING, LIGHTING, ELECTRIC, AND TELEPHONIC SERVICE FROM JULY 1, 1889, TO 
JUNE 30, 1890. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, “ for 
expenses of heating, lighting, and electrical and telephonic service for 
the National Museum” (Sundry civil act, March 2, 1889. Public 154, 
Mol |) pane RGus BS be cotaos Soe gba ess ose song cern reo cerSersota rose an $12, 000. 00 


Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. 


Salaries or compensation: 


1 engineer, 8 months 23 days, at $120. ..--....--..-------. $1, 049. 63 
1 fireman, 10 months 58 days, at $50........-..-..--....-. 595, 06 
fireman, /monthsel 12 days at po0 esse ee eseeese see 536. 87 
1 fireman, 12 days, at $47.50 per month ...-........-..---- 18. 39 
it time, 1) sro, AMO GIH0) saccos Cosoocn aden abo000 caodee 600. 00 
TL injenain, 1D wien os) Mint seo Saccosesss cob oou 6556 HOSaNE 600. 00 
iefiremanellomonths2eiGavSy au) p50ls= ees ese een eee eee 596. 67 
ifireman. ta days, al po0spermonthysecer seems cecal 19. 35 
ehiremannc mMonthsvatind Osseo eee eee ee eee eee 80. 00 
1 telephone clerk, 3 months, at $35, $105; 54 days, at $1.75, 

(IO A ae ee aS BeHeed cape pede cee sn oobace decaccbaccse 199. 50 
1 telephone clerk, 12 months, at $60....-..--..-----.----. 720. 00 
1 inspector, job ......-.- FE Ses ASE o ae OCCA ABcCck= ace 100. 00 

Total expenditures for salaries...........-------:------- 5, 114. 47 


General expenses: 


Goaltand wood sansa ote ue ce ane $2. 058. 26 
GaBecae esocde tacobe sod0es pb05 bhosss ese siacrs\sierosis 1113. 82 
ANB AOMNA ccconsscesde ob42> 7 Sec ods5 bees odae GOL. 05 
TIBIA ROKS VON Se ooanod aeqeasscabad scoSes coccotes 154. 40 
Mlectricalistppliesye=tsskes see ere eer eee 110. 09 
Rentalloficall=boxeses- = semace o ese eae eee eee 100. 00 
Heahine wep tits mereseee resets aes He eee 269, 25 
Heatinewsup plies sa-eease sees eee eee eee aaa 147. 86 
Erste leet suc ate eee oe cre aero ns cieee eeraeem sie 3.20 
—— 4,557,98 
Total expenditures, July 1, 1888, to June 30, 1890, heating, light- 
Ing WObO, so conc oec oes ence see abe eh assem eee eee 9, 672. 85 
Balance, July 1, 1890, to meet outstanding liabilities..--......---- 2, 327.15 


POSTAGE, JULY 1, 1889, TO JUNE 30, 1890. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890, ‘ for 
postage stamps and foreign postal cards for the National Museum” 
(Sundry civil act, March 2, 1889. Public 154, p. 16)............------ 1, 000. 00 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXIX 


Expenditures from July 1, 188), to June 30, 1890. 


Honpostace stamps ana postal CALS ease corse seins Scio os e\ce oe $500. 00 
PB alamcereimliyal ml SO Ober seer eteetsd selele ew in mic cetslatistcle/ Nolale eae mise mists 500. 00 


PRINTING, JULY 1, 1889, TO JUNE 30, 1890. 


Appropriation by Congress for the fiscal year ending June 30, 

1890, ‘‘for printing labels and blanks for the use of the 

National Museum and for the Bulletins and annual volumes 

of the proceedings of the Museum” (Sundry civil act, March 

CaSO ame Dic str4D) emer cemice acter cis-ciemcce-- = PLOKOO0HO00 
Appropriation in deficiency act approved December 19, 1889 

(CGEM tt, 90s IL) aso Sodcnko boo Bodeau Soriaud CoCo ReOECOUEeaaas 745. 16 


10, 745 16 


Expenditure from July 1, 1889, to July 30, 1890. 


Bulle tinsyNoss45 3) sue Os dees sere cas sini o/s = cinie) sieisis siviwiclats| cielets =< $3, 235. 94 
PNOCECA MNES my Ol Sepe Ni peNaMle ONT tyes way a opeay eich neyes<bctateraloie oi sevice rai = 3, 137. 99 
ERAS romMeVNSeuMenOpOLiSies= escalate eerie eens oe ece 744. 43 
ine wl ans ees ea erceeiare Sala eoriainscie eerie racic ee see Qe ciciceel nese 44. 40 
Babelsmornepeclumensperwe ic sec ssa seiencs sets eee cence So Phuleyic(nl 
Letter heads, memorandum pads, and envelopes -....--..-.-. 318. 74 
Blanks, time books, order books, ete ...-..-.--- fue Speyyslti cece ets 832. 54 
(CRUMIOGING CAIGe- cSo5 see boGoedsy cen TODeKS seeuSeeE Jaeineerees 121.56 
COMe RESON INGOORGS: Sooo seco ocb6s0 soda dopovesoe douads tabs 48. 00 


Total expenditure July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890, printing, Museum 10, 680. 61 


Balan cerdulyglel SO Osc tieteces sea elecmesiee aisle 5.CRGO bubouSEDSsasc 64.55 


OTHER MUSEUM APPROPRIATIONS. 
PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS, 1887-’88. 
Balancer alysl pl Seo wasiper last Te portes. ss. o-oo = 2 lenl= cinta) = Ahn ee ee 42. 69 


Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. 


BOOKS eaters assets coe a Secisinnemisinsecis se aes see mete sees cateeleaeiece $3. 46 
BIT ANC nc eee chacseretsiopsiartaiang si si=is cic). sie ioieiere sions a1 Wiccan veveinieiey sicio/a cle haere 37. 65 
SORVACESmeeret tele etelonicteiersica cis olcioisi steleeloveieinia Gn cinicieuneiclceis ns sisicise clea aa | 
—- 41. 32 
Balam COr ceaisjate ore eahale =. cyataia, sesia sta seas sissies oy sees cima deisizig s eiejeleie sels hove Sox 
FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1887-’88. 
PAlancewulyoewl sso sasmpenr Last LEpOl bee =Has ecco sale sclera el aci-lo ce ites 21.96 
HEATING, LIGHTING, ETC., 1887-’88. 
Balance tubhyelwlSsco sasipoLslastwte WOLG seem cscissiicietsieielsiclelors-/=\iacietal ioral 3. 70 


The above balances, $1.27, $21.96, $3.70, were carried under the action 
of Revised Statutes, section 3090, by the Treasury Department, to the 
credit of the surplus fund June 30, 1590. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


XXX 
PRESERVATION, 1888-’89. 
Balance July 1, 1889) as per last report ce. cer eee mee ee 
Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890, 

Salariesioncompensablionie=-seas = -aoescesee eee eeeee ree reseeeas $154. 99 
SUMO OIE -$56905 00560 606555650050 955069 550085 s95545 SsoSS5 e0asaR5 1, 032, 82 
SUOMI, 5 Go Gems ados as666s ono cosa bbodSSdo.sne5 osdo ase bocce 58. 49 
S) DENTS) She BEE ope sO aooisoS Some ececbedamcod >: Soataele Sao m.c DAKO, TE) 
OOK aS Sa 50edibase odeGud Saud saonscassbanacco ecinnic de Riesri actos eis 489, 43 
“Dy Glsts Bos cea moce odo oenoe SEB naOeHEa Hoou bedocecceposacsosed 65. 64 
IWEGAN cocchs sooooeuboddoubod seuoosbase {DDC DU De Dn US0CCResaesn 364, 60 

Motalkexpendituremsce- sees sei TEC tea eatee se ecaes eoieees seem: 

IBN no cane concSocSenon cos gon boStee CHOCHE sash casos so0d Stes Sobade 

FURNITURE AND FIXTURES, 1888-89, 
Balance July, 1, 1889; as per lash report. 2. aa. eens cone we me ene ie 
Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. 

Bact onicaseaieee were: ones eae toes cas eee ances aaa ee $525.74 
IDA INGE = Sea pho eno boGEoo nesaco basHae 2555 uaboos oosoE SUB Dobaeace 65. 00 
IDE GIES WRRNIS WOES coGaba ceonda booca8 sesso becnbe SopSco sHnses 650. 20 
rames, stands, WO0d WOLc. osce ss te soe erie lene eam ae 36. 10 
leiyeohyaies) MN) TOOK) Sooke scacse cdoone Seauua dasgen UscosaScsoosec 569. 47 
GUOUN secu cone soda Boga. co00 e504 SH68 bc06 9506 Bd6555046 GaSb soososcSeS 69. 11 
CCUINSING (es tee Sn oce Seen ag Sooeer soso sese Se sSem acorns se 62. 50 
Lumber.-..-. SGo DRE ESO dC SO0 6dba Sasa nascon coe necodus Sabdiesescs 186. 84 
IPA Sooce5 enoetonsooco seas oa code scone cass one sho odaS seedcone 4,25 
(Ovites iBT cos son sas caceco sada nsSAp sooo noadGoDaas Hoodesoese 42. 98 
WEIR WS Gand aden eGes saounanooe Gnod Sepuou oopend vononG sebn Sec5 431. 68 
HN, WWEIC), UES Wel pGocno bocooe céscshenap Geos cowane case asaooces 148. 50 
{Merle cees sq5eso cesqdo canaes eHbuce baba coggue Ss doso odeecesoasos 5. 45 
OMA boncs55 Hoaobosdeqoc bbooddoSos dos cone DOugdS UsSG00 CHebCE 25, 00 

Balance deposited in the U. S. Treasury, May 31, 1890.......-...-.-- 


HEATING, LIGHTING, ETC., 1888-’89, 


Balancer uly ma gkesuesaecemaee yaseee et 


Expenditures from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. 


Gas ee oes cede ey ree BS ee ee ins ete tee ce em eee $77. 26 
ANNO SOE coeGe peed Ba ann] SachSa 6soosangDoosa sdoccuccdsesene 200, 00 
Meenas Worle oo bGocas See A Se rs ees aa sis ere pines one ern oee 578. 00 
Rentaltor call boxes): .2c5 sce ec Osc osison coon soe eciseeee Se eee eee 10, 00 
lS YRLIKORK) IEW} Geom sGea6.  Sopecoo Goda base sence Sodoidcon asoe cscs 220. 08 


Balance-te. seen. Wesaeidoeaaciems EE ee ee eee Sat 


$4, 198.34 


4,183.16 


2, 822. 82 


. 40 


1, 089. 33 


1, 085. 34 


3, 99 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXI 


NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. 


Appropriation by Congress ‘for the organization, improvement, and 
maintenance of the National Zodlogical Park.” 


Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America 
in Congress assembled, That the one-halfof the following sums named respectively is 
hereby appropriated ‘out of any money in the Treasury ‘hot otherwise appropriated, 
and the other half out of the revenues of the District of Columbia, for the organi- 
zation, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zodlogical Park, to be ex- 
pended under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and to be 
drawn on their requisition and disbursed by the disbursing officer of said Institution: 


Roxriteshelterotranimalseeaese te seine sea cere ce Seen cee eee $15, 000. 00 
For shelter barns, cages, fences, and inclosures, and other provisions 

FOTAPHercnstod yo Manlmal sees aes oes eetiew se ae cise see ceeveaceeeers 9, 000. 00 
For repairs to the Holt mansion to make the same suitable for occu- 

PaNney, anaetor oficefurmibure === sesso ee eee ences es eee ee 2, 000. 00 
For the creation of artificial ponds and other provisions for aquatic 

UII Bs era iol oe et erate reve Oe Sains ee ab ie leleete stmla cia erceeeaee Mee 2, 000. 00 
For water supply, sewerage, and drainage...-...----...-.-..--.--.- 7, 000. 00 
HOM ROAGS aWwalke wands OTid Ges ee eect tere cata Soeite mien ay etnec aiaeeieere 15, 000. 00 
For miscellaneous supplies, materials, and sundry incidental expenses 

NOUOLLELWAISCmprOVIdEd plORee 52 syacteme ae aioe, soci eiw sis oeis eee eters 5, 000. 00 


For current expenses, including the maintenance of collections, food 
supplies, salaries of all necessary employés, and the acquisition and 
EEAMSPOLLaAONHOl- SPECIMENS: “ccs vac cocci c cates see sco cies eaibeee 37, 000, 00 


Sec. 2. That the National Zoélogical Park is hereby Dlaredl under the 
direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, who are author- 
ized to transfer to it any living specimens, whether of animals or plants, 
now or hereafter in their charge; to accept gifts for the park, at their dis- 
cretion, in the name of the United States; to make exchanges of speci- 
mens, and to administer the said Zodlogical Park for the advancement of 
science aut the instruction and recreation of the people. 

Src. 3. That the heads of Executive Departments of the Government 
are feecy authorized and directed to cause to be rendered all necessary 
and practical aid to the said Regents in the acquisition of collections for 
the Zodlogical Park. 

Approved April 30, 1890. 


92, 000. 06 
Expenditures from April 30, 1890, to June 30, 1890, 
SHOlESIND ARNIS CAP CSO LGen epseins a oialeslenieicicine acteerciee Saeaesinccaen PI ahOo 
Miscellaneous suppliosleseccm ee sae atetise tislesemne co aan aaeieiee See bee 157 57 
CELE EXP CNSOS Pec wieilos series ee eieiets wre SOs elec wiele bias cscs yale 717 10 
Total expenditures National Zodlogical Park......--......-...--. 918. 50 
IB DlaAncoy Uys wl SOO: oan steer come erase Cees coe beeen cme cae 91, 081. 50 
RECAPITULATION. 


The total amount of the funds administered by the Institution dur- 
ing the year ending June 30, 1890, appears, from the foregoing state- 
ments and the account books, to have been as follows: 


BromepalanceotelastryearwdUly deLSS9pacss: 28ee Hecec neces secises seciece $11, 757.47 
From interest on Smithsonian fund POLIT my CAT sac oe ateavine oe tisssceieeicioeis 42, 120. 00 
ISLOMESALesOLpU DIT AHLONS te seiae So ete oo ocieine ee elveosoe case ee iueseeeesee 416. 01 
HTOMEePayMenvseOLMMneloNts:.6lGeeem ems ce ocee ce ciceciec cc bese sm aicericic 3, 489. 50 
From special gifts for astrophysical research ........-.-- Reet oteleiaversiere 10, 000. 00 


TAGE ee ec ackche Pdegeetoe SEERA a ee a .- 67,842. 98 


XXXII REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. 


Appropriations committed by Congress to the care of the Institution. 


International exchanges : 


From balance of last year, July 1, 1889.....- $21. 80 
Appropriation for 1889-90.......------------ 15, 000. 00 
TOUR oo sco uesS50 boone ebaosadsca coed sosecs ceseeobons $15, 021. 80 
North American ethnology: 
From balance of last year, July 1, 1889...... $13, 491. 22 
Appropriation for 1889-’90.....--.------.--- 40, 000. 00 
Total ..-.g------+-----+----0- Sisisie mish tiara stem te atest etelerelcie 53, 491. 22 
Preservation of collections: 
From balance of 1887—’&8, July 1, 1889...---. $42. 69 
From balance of 1888-’89, July 1, 1889....--. 4,198. 34 
From appropriation for 1889~90.........---. 140, 009. 60 
(MOA osbe5 coebks neG565 cS 5665050056 badc08 esb poe eoeses 144, 241, 03 
Furniture and fixtures: 
From balance of 1887-83, July 1, 189-...-.--- $18.71 
From balance of 188889, July 1, 1889...--.. 2, 823. 22 
From appropriation for 1889-90.....--.-.--- 30, 000. 00 
TM oncoap sebade oaQGeo COO CHD Ion oaIcOOUNS cone DadEed CouC 32, 841. 93 
Heating, lighting, ete.: 
From balance of 1837-788, July 1, 1889-..----. $3. 70 
From balance of 1888-389, July 1, 1839.-.--.. 1, 089. 33 
From appropriation for 18¢9-’90........----- 12, 000. 00 
TNO ooce coss5o esectio 660500 BB0OTIO SaDo sop SSC Bae uUGOONE 13, 093. 03 
Postage: 
From appropriation for 1889-90 -.----.-.----..-----.----- 1, 000. 00 
Printing: 
From appropriation for 1889-90 .........---------------- 10, 745. 16 
National Zodlogical Park: 
From appropriation of April 30, 1890 ...--..------------- 92, 000. 00 
——— -$362, 434.17 
(Gimnml Worle cosbooseuod 6404 secu baebse ndScbe snengu Doesancnee copess 454, 277. 15 


The committee has examined the vouchers for payments made from 
the Smithsonian income during the year ending June 30, 1890, all of 
which bear the approval of the Secretary of the Institution, or, in his 
absence, of the Assistant Secretary as acting Secretary, and a certificate 
that the materials and services charged were applied to the purposes 
of the Institution. 

The committee has also examined the accounts of the ‘ Interna- 
tional Exchanges,” and of the “ National Museum,” and of the “ National 
Zoological Park,” and finds that the balances above given correspond 
with the certificates of the disbursing clerk of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, whose appointment as such disbursing officer was accepted and 
his bonds approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. 

The quarterly accounts current, the vouchers, and journals have been 
examined and found correct. 

The abstracts of expenditures and balance sheets under the appropri- 
ation for “North American Ethnology” have been exhibited to us; the 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE. XXXIII 


vouchers for the expenditures, after approval by the Director of the 
Bureau of Ethnology, are paid by the disbursing clerk of said Bureau, 
and, after approval by the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, 
are transmitted to the accounting officers of the Treasury Department 
for settlement. The disbursing officer of the Bureau is accepted as 
such, and his bonds approved by the Secretary of the Treasury. The 
balance available to meet outstanding liabilities on July 1, 1890, as 
reported by the disburing clerk of the Bureau, is $12,033.08. 


Statement of regular income from the Smithsonian Fund to be available for use in the year 
ending June 30, 1890. 


BalancevOne han Gees UNetaU 1S dle cee. «\ quam cecins cate eo cice eieiatevnie clei eesis $30, 192. 65 
Interest due and receivable July 1, 1890 ...-.........---..--- $21, 090. 00 
Interest due and receivable: January 1, 1891 -.---.-.....-.-.. 21, 090. 00 

———— —- 42, 180. 00 

Motalavatlable forsyearending dune 30, 18912 Sos jase eee eaeece- 72, 372, 65 


Respectfully submitted 
JAMES C. WELLING, 
HENRY COPPER, 
M. C. MEIGs, 
Hxecutive Committee. 
WASHINGTON, D. C., November, 1890. 
H. Mis. 129-——111 


ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS RELATIVE TO THE 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, NATIONAL MUSEUM, ETC. 


(In continuation from previous reports. ) 


Fifty-first Congress, first session, 1889-’90, 
d oD 3 


CuaP. 156.—AN ACT to provide for celebrating the four hundredth anniversary of 
the discevery of America by Christopher Columbus by holding an international 
exhibition of arts, industries, manufactures, and the product of the soil, mine, 
and sea in the city of Chicago, in the State of Tlinois. 


Whereas, It is fit and appropriate that the four hundredth anni- 
versary of the discovery of America be commemorated by an exhibi- 
tion of the resources of the United States of America, their develop- 
ment, and of the progress of civilization of the New World; and 

Whereas, Such an exhibition should be of a national and interna- 
tional character, so that not only the people of our Union and this con- 
tinent, but those of all nations as well, can participate, and should 
therefore have the sanction of the Congress of the United States ; 
Therefore, 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That an exhibition of arts, 
industries, manufactures, and the products of the soil, mine, and sea 
shall be inaugurated in the year eighteen hundred and ninety-two, in 
the Sy of Chicago, in the State of Llinois, as hereinafter provided. 

Sec. 2. That a commission, to consist of two commissioners from 
each State and Territory of the United States and from the District of 
Columbia and eight commissioners at large, is hereby constituted to 
be designated as the World’s Columbian Commission. 

Src, 3. That said commissioners, two from each State and Territory, 
shall be appointed within thirty days from the passage of this act by 
the President of the United States, on the nomination of the governors 
of the States and Territories, respectively, and by the President eight 
commissioners at large and two from the District of Columbia; and in 
the same manner and within the same time there shall be appointed 
two alternate commissioners from each State and Territory of the 
United States and the District of Columbia and eight alternate com- 
missioners at large, who shall assume and perform the duties of such 
commissioner or commissioners aS may be unable to attend the meet- 
ings of the said commission; and in such nominations and appoint- 
ments each of the two leading political parties shall be equally repre- 
sented. Vacancies in the commission nominated by the governors s of 
the several States and Territories, respectively, and also vacancies in 
the commission at large and from the District of Columbia may be 
filled in the same manner and under the same conditions as prov ided 


herein for their original appointment. 
XX XV 


XXXVI ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. 


Src. 4. That the Secretary of State of the United States shall, im. 
mediately after the passage of this act, notify the governors of the 
several States and Territories, respectively, thereof and request such 
nominations to be made. The commissioners so appointed shall be 
called together by the Secretary of State of the United States in the 
city of Chicago, by notice to the commissioners, as soon as convenient 
after the appointment of said commissioners, and within thirty days 
thereafter. The said commissioners, at said first meeting, shall organ- 
ize by the election of such officers and the appointment of such com- 
mittees as they may deem expedient, and for this purpose the commis- 
sioners present at said meeting shall constitute a quorum. 

Src. 5. That said commission be empowered in its discretion to 
accept for the purposes of the World’s Columbian Exposition such site 
as may be selected and offered and such plans and specifications of 
buildings to be erected for such purpose at the expense of and tendered 
by the corporation organized under the laws of the State of Illinois, 
known as “The World’s Exposition of eighteen hundred and ninety- 
two:” Provided, That said site so tendered, and the buildings pro- 
posed to be erected thereon shall be deemed by said commission ade- 
quate to the purposes of said exposition: And provided, That said com- 
mission shall be satisfied that the said corporation has an actual bona 
fide and valid subscription to its capital stock which will secure the 
payment of at least five millions of dollars, of which not less than five 
hundred thousand dollars shall have been paid in, and that the further 
sum of five million dollars, making in all ten million dollars, will be 
provided by said corporation in ample time for its needful use during 
the prosecution of the work for the complete preparation for said 
exposition. 

Src. 6. That the said commission shall allot space for exhibitors, 
prepare a classification of exhibits, determine the plan and scope of 
the exposition, and shall appoint all judges and examiners for the ex- 
position, award all premiums, if any, and generally have charge of all 
intercourse with the exhibitors and the representatives of foreign 
nations. And said commission is authorized and required to appoint a 
board of lady managers of such number and to perform such duties as 
may be prescribed by said commission. Said board may appoint one 
or more members of all committees authorized to award prizes for 
exhibits, which may be produced in whole or in part by female labor. 

Src. 7. That after the plans for said exposition shall be prepared by 
said corporation and approved by said commission, the rules and regu- 
lations of said corporation governing rates for entrance and admission 
fees, or otherwise affecting the rights, privileges, or interests of the 
exhibitors or of the public, shall be fixed or established by said corpo: 
ration, subject, however, to such modification, if any, as may be im- 
pesed by a majority of said commissioners. 

Sec. 8. That the President is hereby empowered and directed to 
hold a naval review in New York Harbor, in April, eighteen hundred 
and ninety-three, and to extend to foreign nations an invitation to send 
ships of war to join the United States Navy in rendezvous at Hamp- 
ton Roads and proceed thence to said review. 

Suc. 9. That said commission shall provide for the dedication of the 
buildings of the World’s Columbian Exposition in said city of Chicago 
on the twelfth day of October, eighteen hundred and ninety-two, with 
appropriate ceremonies, and said exposition shall be open to visitors 
not later than the first day of May, eighteen hundred and ninety-three, 


ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XXXVII 


and shal{ be closed at such time as the commission may determine, but 
not later than the thirtieth day of October thereafter. 

Sec. 10. That whenever the President of the United States shall be 
notified by the commission that provision has been made for grounds 
and buildings for the uses herein provided for and there has also been 
filed with him by the said corporation, known as “The World’s Expo- 
sition of eighteen hundred and ninety-two,” satisfactory proof that a 
sum not less than ten million dollars to be used and expended for the 
purposes of the exposition herein authorized, has in fact been raised 
’ or provided for by subscription or other legally binding means, shall 
be authorized, through the Department of State, to make proclamation 
of the same, setting forth the time at which the exposition will open 
and close, and the place at which it will be held; and he shall com- 
municate to the diplomatic representatives of foreign nations copies of 
the same, together with such regulations as may be adopted by the 
commission, for publication in their respective countries, and he shall, 
in behalf of the Government and people, invite foreign nations to take 
part in the said exposition and appoint representatives thereto. 

Sec. 11. That all articles which shall be imported from foreign 
countries for the sole purpose of exhibition at said exposition, upon which 
there shall be a tariff or customs duty, shall be admitted free of payment 
of duty, customs fees, or charges under such regulations as the Secre- 
tary of the Treasury shall prescribes but it shall be lawful at any time 
during the exhibition to sell for delivery at the close of the exposition 
any goods or property imported for and actually on exhibition in the 
exposition buildings or on its grounds, subject to such regulations for 
the security of the revenue and for the collection of the import duties 
as the Secretary of the Treasury shall prescribe: Provided, That all 
such articles when sold or withdrawn for consumption in the United 
States shall be subject to the duty, if any, imposed upon such articles 
by the revenue laws in force at the date of importation, and all penal- 
ties prescribed by law shall be applied and enforced against such arti- 
cles, and against the persons who may be guilty of any illegal sale or 
withdrawal. 

Sec. 12. That the sum of twenty thousand dollars, or as much thereof 
as may be necessary, be, and the same is hereby, appropriated, out of 
any moneys in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, for "the re- 
mainder of the present fiscal year and for the fiscal year ending June 
thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, to be expended under the 
direction of the Secretary of the Treasury for purposes connected with 
the admission of foreign goods to said exhibition. 

Sxc. 13. That it shall be the duty of the commission to make report 
from time to time, to the President of the United States of the progress 
of the work, and, in a final report, present a full exhibit of the results 
of the exposition. 

Sec. 14. That the commission hereby authorized shall exist no longer 
than until the fitst day of January, eighteen hundred and ninety-eight. 

Sec. 15, That the United States shall not in any manner, nor under 
any circumstances, be liable for any of the acts, doings, proceed- 
ings or representations of the said corporation organized under the 
laws of the State of Illinois, its officers, agents, servants, or employes, 
or any of them, or for the service, salaries, labor, or wages of said officer 8, 
agents, servants, or employes, or any of them, or for any subscriptions 
“) the capital stock, or for any certificates of stock, bonds, mortgages, 
or obligations of any kind issued by said corporation or for any debts, 


XXXVIII ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. 


liabilities, or expenses of any kind whatever attending such corporation 
or accruing by reason of the same. 

SEc. 16. That there shall be exhibited at said exposition by the Gov- 
ernment of the United States, from its Executive Departments the 
Smithsonian Institution, the United States Fish Commission, and the 
National Museum, such articles and materials as illustrate the fune- 
tion and administrative faculty of the Government in time of peace 
and its resources as a war power, tending to demonstrate the nature of 
our institutions and their adaptation to the wants of the people; and to 
secure a complete and harmonious arrangement of such a Government 
exhibit, a board shall be created to be charged with the selection, prep- 
aration, arrangement, safe-keeping, and exhibition of such articles and 
materials as the heads of the several Departments and the directors of 
the Smithsonian Institution and the National Museum may respectively 
decide shall be embraced in said Government exhibit. The President 
may also designate additional articles for exhibition. Such board shall 
be composed of one person to be named by the head of each Executive 
Department, and one by the directors of the Smithsonian Institution 
and the National Museum, and one by the Fish Commission, such se- 
lections to be approved by the President of the United States. The 
President shall name the chairman of said board, and the board itseif 
shall select such other officers as it may deem necessary. 

That the Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized and directed 
to place on exhibition, upon such grounds as shall be allotted for the 
purpose, one of the life-saving stations authorized to be constructed on 
the coast of the United States by existing law, and to cause the same 
to be fully equipped with all apparatus, furniture, and appliances now 
in use in all life-saving stations in the United States, said building and 
apparatus to be removed at the close of the exhibition and re-erected 
at the place now authorized by law. 

SxEc. 17. That the Secretary of the Treasury shall cause a suitable 
building or buildings to be erected on the site selected for the World’s 
Columbian Exposition for the Government exhibits, as provided in this 
act, and he is hereby authorized and directed to contract therefor, in 
the same manner and under the same regulations as for other public 
buildings of the United States; but the contracts for said building or 
buildings shall not exceed the sum of four hundred thousand dollars, 
and for the remainder of the fiscal year and for the year ending June 
thirtieth, eighteen hundred and ninety-one, there is hereby appropri- 
ated for said building or buildings, out of any money in the Treasury 
not otherwise appropriated, the sum of one hundred thousand dollars. 
The Secretary of the Treasury shall cause the said building or build- 
ings to be constructed as far as possible, of iron, steel, and glass, or of 
such other material as may be taken out and sold ‘to the best advanta ge; 
and he is authorized and required to dispose of such building or build. 
ings, or the material composing the same, at the close of the exposition, 
giving preference to the city of Chicago, or to the said World’s Expo- 
sition of eighteen hundred and ninety-two to purchase the same at an 
appraised value to be ascertained in such nanner as he may determine. 

SEC. 18. That for the purpose of paying the expenses of transporta- 
tion, care, and custody of exhibits by the Government and the main- 
tenance of the building or buildings hereinbefore provided for and the 
safe return of articles belonging to the said Government exhibit, and 
for the expenses of the commission created by this act, and other con- 
tingent expenses, to be approved by the Secretary of the Treasury, upon 
itemized accounts and vouchers, there is hereby appropriated for the 


ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XXXIX 


remainder of this fiscal year and for the fiscal year ending June thirtieth, 
eighteen hundred and ninety-one, out of any money in the Treasury 
not otherwise appropriated, the sum of two hundred thousand dollars, 
or so much thereof as may be necessary: Provided, That the United 
States shall not be liable, on account of the erection of buildings, ex- 
penses of the commission or any of its officers or employees, or on account 
of any expenses incident to or growing out of said exposition for a sum 
exceeding in the aggregate one million five hundred thousand dollars. 

Src. 19. That the commissioners and alternate commissioners ap- 
pointed under this act shall not be entitled to any compensation for 
their services out of the Treasury of the United States, except their 
actual expenses for transportation and the sum of six dollars per day 
for subsistence for each day they are necessarily absent from their 
homes on the business of said commission. The officers of said com- 
mission shall receive such compensation as may be fixed by said com- 
mission, subject to the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury, which 
shall be paid out of the sums appropriated by Congress in aid of such 
exposition. 

Sec. 20. That nothing in this act shall be so construed as to create 
any liability of the United States, direct or indirect, for any debt or 
obligation incurred, nor for any claim for aid or pecuniary assistance 
from Congress or the Treasury of the United States in support or liqui- 
dation of any debts or obligations created by said commission in excess 
of appropriations made by Congress therefor. 

SEc. 21. That nothing in this act shall be so construed as to override 
or interfere with the laws of any State, and all contracts made in any 
State for the purposes of the exhibition shall be subject to the laws 
thereof. 

Sc. 22. That no member of said commission, whether an officer or 
otherwise, shall be personally liable for any debt or obligation which 
may be created or incurred by the said commission. 


Approved, April 25, 1890. 


CuHap. 173.—AN ACT for the organization, improvement, and maintenance of the 
National Zoological Park. 


Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That the one-half of the follow- 
ing sums named, respectively, is hereby appropriated, out of any money 
in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and the other half out of 
the revenues of the District of Columbia, for the organization, improve- 
ment, and maintenance of the National Zoological Park, to be expended 
under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and 
to be drawn on their requisition and disbursed by the disbursing officer 
for said Institution : 

For the shelter of animals, fifteen thousand dollars. 

For shelter-parns, cages, fences, and inclosures, and other provisions 
for the custody of animals, nine thousand dollars. 

For repairs to the Holt mansion, to make the same suitable for occu- 
pancy, and for office furniture, two thousand dollars. 

For the creation of artificial ponds and other provisions for aquatic 
animals, two thousand dollars. 

For water supply, sewerage, and drainage, seven thousand dollars. 

For roads, walks, and bridges, fifteen thousand dollars. 

For miscellaneous supplies, materials, and sundry incidental ex- 
penses not otherwise provided for, five thousand doilars. 


XL ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. 


Tor current expenses, including the maintenance of collections, food 
supplies, salaries of all necessary employees, and the acquisition and 
transportation of specimens, thirty-seven thousand dollars. 

SEc. 2. That the National Zoological Park is hereby placed under 
the directions of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, who are 
authorized to transfer to it any living specimens, whether of animals 
or plants, now or hereafter in their charge, to accept gifts for the park 
at their discretion, in the name of the United States, to make exchanges 
of specimens, and to administer the said Zoological Park for the ad- 
vancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the people. 

SEC. 3. That the heads of executive departments of the Government 
are hereby authorized and directed to cause to be rendered all neces- 
sary and practicable aid to the said regents in the acquisition of col- 
lections for the Zoological Park. 


Approved, April 30, 1890. 
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES: For expenses of the system of inter- 
national exchanges between the United States and foreign countries, 
under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries 
or compensation of all necessary employees, seventeen thousand dol- 
lars. 

NORTH AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY: For continuing ethnological re- 
searches among the American Indians, under the direction of the 
Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or compensation of all nee- 
essary employees, forty thousand dollars. 

REPAIRS, SMITHSONIAN BUILDING: For fire proofing the so-called 
chapel of the west wing of the Smithsonian Building, and for repairing 
the roof of the main building and the ceiling and plastering of the main 
Hall of the building, twenty-five thousand dollars, said work to be done 
under the supervision of the Architect of the Capitol, with the approval 
of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, and no portion of the 
appropriation to be used for sky-lights in the roof nor for well-hole in 
the floor of the main building. 


UNDER THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION AS DI- 
RECTOR OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. 


HEATING AND LIGHTING: For expense of heating, lighting, elec- 
trical, telegraphic, and telephonic service for the National Museum, 
twelve thousand dollars. 

PRESERVATION OF COLLECTIONS OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: 
For continuing the preservation, exhibition, and increase of the collec- 
tions from the surveying and exploring expeditions of the government, 
and from other sources, including salaries or compensation of all neces- 
sarp employees, one hundred and forty thousand dollars. 

FURNITURE AND FIXTURES OF THE NATIONAL MusEum: For 
cases, furniture, fixtures, and appliances required for the exhibition 
and safe-keeping of the collections of the National Museum, including 
salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, twenty-five thou- 
sand dollars. 

POSTAGE FOR THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: For postage stamps and 
foreign postal cards for the National Museum, five hundred dollars. 

PRINTING FOR THE NATIONAL MUSEUM: For the Smithsonian In- 
stitution, for printing labels and blanks for the use of the National 


ACTS AND RESOLUTIONS OF CONGRESS. XLI 


Museum and for the “ Bulletins” and annual volumes of the “‘ Proceed- 
ings” of the National Museum, ten thousand dollars. 

EXCHANGES OF THE GEOLOGICAL SURVEY: For the purchase of 
necessary books for the library, and the payment for the transmission 
of public documents through the Smithsonian exchange, five thousand 
dollars. 

(Sundry civil appropriation act, approved August 30, 1890.) 


MISCELLANEOUS: To re-imburse the Smithsonian Institution for ex- 
penses incurred in the exchange of the publications of the Fish Com- 
mission for those of foreign countries, being for the service of the fiscal] 
year, eighteen hundred and eighty-nine, two hundred and fifteen dollars 
and twenty cents. 

To enable the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution to purchase 
from Frederick S. Perkins, of Wisconsin, his collection of prehistoric 
copper implements, seven thousand dollars. 

Preservation of collections, National Museum: To supply a deficiency 
in the appropriation for preservation u1 collections, National Museum, 
for the fiscal year eighteen hundred and eighty-seven, eleven dollars 
and forty-five cents. 

Claims allowed.by the First Comptroller, Treasury Department: 

For international exchanges; Smithsonian Institution, one dollar and 
five cents. 

(Deficiency appropriation act, approved September 30, 1890.) 


APPOINTMENT OF REGENTS OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 


No, 23.—Joint resolution to fill vacancies in the Board of Regents of 
the Smithsonian Institution: 

Resolved by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States, 
etc.—That the vacancies in the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian 
Institution, of the class other than members of Congress, shall be filled 
by the appointment of Charles Devens, of Massachusetts, in the place 
of Noah Porter, of Connecticut, resigned; and by the reappointment 
of James C. Welling, of Washington City, whose term of office has ex- 
pired. 


Approved May 22, 1890. 


Le 
1 


NO ean ik de ae el 
eee ven a eae | et oy Z 


r'¢ 


Ee ane T ‘ Stet 
. , - 
7 ae | 
: ! . 
2 s 
‘ \ ‘ 
Na t . 
‘ 
a - i 
+4 F 
. 
rt - 
or 
a 5 © 
: —s 
ie 5 - 
- 
vr , 
mg Ar 7 5 ' 
ean e 
é = 
\ 7 zi f im 
7 ‘al 4 ov 
. 4 
: ae J 
wes . ies ae 
i“ sé 4, : : . 
F % ore A FI * . . 
Y a i ‘ t 
ra © . 
7 pir U 
3 ra i 
- 4 rs Py 
8: i. é ' : ; Fs 
ma if - - ' ‘ a 
Por” Phe tity aad x ‘3 ee SLAC ral Rotor oa 
Sah vial a ; : iw iy $er i. , 
ak viRke ie PO ‘ yj BAL : Tome , : a f . 


aS ey Lee we >} ¥ Ba alald ‘A Fr ets Gt ; os UJ Sin ' its 


lh Airc) oe Lae Boab ey ws’, ee ee | hha aed. . Oy Paige niet ale ; 
7 i a teak eae 76 be, Rae eae ar j ; ‘ Leek sor ‘i i ee 
Do he fe CUMRI o SS SES eT Sic iibthyt aa cats i A “ai 


ad 


he. aR | | | ee ass 
. , PNR er : a 


= 


: pagan 


A> 


REPORT OF 8S. P. LANGLEY, 


SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 30, 1890. 


To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution : 

GENTLEMEN: I have the honor to submit herewith the report for the 
year ending June 30, 1890, of the operations of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, and of the work placed by Congress under its charge in the Na- 
tional Museum, the Bureau of Ethnology, the International Exchanges, 
and the National Zoological Park. 

The National Zoological Park has been formally placed under the 
care of the Board of Regents during this year,* although its establish- 
ment has been under consideration for some time and the preliminary 
steps connected therewith have been referred to in previous reports. 


THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION. 
YHE ESTABLISHMENT. 


By the organizing act of Congress of August 10, 1846, sec. 1,+ it was 
provided that ‘The President, and Vice-President of the United States, 
the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of 
War, the Secretary of the Navy, the Postmaster-General, the Attorney- 
General, the Chief-Justice, and the Commissioner of the Patent Office 
of the United States, and the Mayor of the city of Washington, during 
the time for which they shall hold their respective offices, and such other 
persons as they may elect honorary members, be, and they are hereby 
constituted an ‘establishment’ by the name of the ‘Smithsonian Insti- 
tution,’” ete. In the Revised Statutes “the Governor of the District 
of Columbia” was substituted for the Mayor of the city of Washing- 
ton, the latter office having become extinct. 

Two members having been added to the cabinet of the President 
since the passage of the act, namely, the Secretary of the Interior, and 
more recently the Secretary of Agriculture, there appears no good rea- 
son why these should not be ineluded in the list of officers of the estab- 
lishment. This would obviously be consonant with the original inten- 
tion of the framers of the act, though excluded by the phraseology 
actually employed. It may be worthy of consideration of the Board of 
Regents whether it would not be for the interests of the Institution to 
ask of Congress a re-construction of the section referred to, whereby 


*Act of Congress approved April 30, 1890. 
t Title Ixxiii, sec. 5579, of the Revised Statutes. 1 


H. Mis. 129 1 


4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


the President, Vice-President, Secretaries of the several Executive 
Departments, and the Chief. Justice of the United States shall consti- 
tute the Establishment. 


THE BOARD OF REGENTS. 


The stated annual meeting of the Board was held on January 8, 1890, 
at which the resignation of Dr. Noah Porter, presented on account of 
failing health, was accepted in the following resolution : 


Resolved, That the Board having received the resignation of Dr. Noah 
Porter as a Regent accept it with an expression of their regret, and 
with assurances of their high personal esteem. 


At the same meeting, the appointment by the honorable the Speaker 
of the House of Representatives on January 6, 1890, of the following 
members of the House as Regents was announced: the Hon. Benjamin 
Butterworth, of Ohio, the Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge, of Massachusetts, 
the Hon. Joseph Wheeler, of Alabama. 

The death of the Hon. Samuel S. Cox, for many years a Regent of 
the Institution, and its earnest friend and supporter, was referred to in 
my last annual report. By a resolution of the Board of Regents a com- 
mittee was appointed, of which the Secretary was made chairman, to 
prepare suitable resolutions on his services and character, and these 
formal resolutions, with a brief biographical sketch, are given in full in 
the “ necrology ”’ appended. 

The institution is indebted to Mrs. Cox for a portrait of her husband, 
to be placed with the collection of portraits of past Regents. 

By joint resolution of Congress, approved by the President May 22, 
1890, Dr. James C. Welling, whose term as a Regent had expired, was 
re-elected; and by the same resolution Judge Charles Devens, of Mas- 
sachusetts, was appointed a member of the Board to succeed Dr. Porter. 

I regret to say that Judge Devens has written to me to state that 
there is a provision in the constitution of Massachusetts in reference to 
judges of its supreme court, which it has been suggested would prevent 
any one of them from holding such a position. No action had been taken 
in the matter at the time of this report. 


FINANCES. 


The permanent funds of the institution remain as at the time of my 
last report, namely : 


Bequest of Smithson, 1846....-...---.------ -e eee cee cee e cece cee e eee eee $515, 169. 00 
Residuary legacy of Smithson, 1867-.-----..-------------------+---------- 26, 210. 63 
Deposits from savings of income, ete., 1967 .-.. -------------+------------ 108, 620. 37 
Bequest of James Hamilton, 1874.....--. ---------------------+-++--+---- 1, 000. 00 
Bequest of Simeon Habel, 1880... .----.-------- -------- +--+ -----+----- 500. 00 
Deposit from proceeds of sale of “somal 1881. Tecan Suineeen sess coerce 51, 500.00 


Total permanent Smithsonian fund in the Treasury of the United 
States, bearing interest at 6 per cent. per annum.. --..----- see é Oa 000800 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 3 


It seems to me desirable in this connection to direct attention to the 
exceptional advantages offered in the organization of the Smithsonian 
Institution for the administration of funds intended for the advance- 
ment of science and the increase of knowledge throughout the world. 
The governing board of the Institution is composed of the highest offi- 
cers of the United States Government, associated with some of the most 
distinguished men of learning in the country. The United States Gov- 
ernment is itself pledged to the security of the funds of the Institution, 
guaranteeing an interest of six per cent. annually. 

It is safe to say that no institution of learning is better known 
throughout the world, and I am impressed with the belief that were it 
also more widely known that the United States, in accepting the gift of 
Smithson, has signified a willingness to become the custodian of further 
bequests for the increase and diffusion of knowledge, its permanent 
endowment would be constantly increased. 

The principal facts in relation to Smithson’s bequest have been stated 
in brief in my previous reports and elsewhere at considerable length, 
and need not be repeated here. 

At the beginning of the fiscal year the balance on hand of the in- 
come was $11,757.47. Interest on the invested fund, amounting to 
$42,180, has been received from the Treasurer of the United States, 
$5,000 have been received from the estate of the late Dr. Jerome H. 
Kidder, and a like amount from Dr. Alexander Graham Bell for the 
prosecution of special researches in physics, to which allusion is else- 
where made, and $3,905.51 have been received from miscellaneous 
sources, making the total receipts $67,842.98. 

The total expenditures have been $37,650.33, leaving an unexpended 
balance on June 30, 1890, of $30,192.65, or, deducting the donations for 
special researches noted above, amounting to $10,000, the balance 
available for general expenses on July 1, 1890, was $20,192.65. This 
sum, which is somewhat larger than usual, is in part held against cer- 
tain anticipated grants in aid of scientific investigation and the cost of 
their publication by the Institution. 

The Institution has been charged by Congress with the disbursement 
during the year of the following special appropriations: 


Horaunternationalkexchancess-26 25 scmece. soe coe ale conics Hoe nal lan Boerne oe $15, 000 
Homenhnolorical eresearches).. -. =<). a sie ecitoe tens ees se masoaea oe Sees aoe 40, 000 
For National Museum : 
IPresonvavlOonvOlecollectiOnss2 =e secs sec ces ate eee eet ee eenecconn. 140, 000 
HUnMNGirera nds fixtanesi=s ss -eeee eee eee sence cose ete omoieass 30, 000 
PFC ADIN CRATING MNP) hacia. Syne eee otisy Se Seenspd bea ec tia 2528 Seek 12, 000 
LU ETC Soto 35 Sole ee ae SEIS SAREE Ale eet ae Ee el ae ee es ee ea 1, 000 
EMT Oe e are ete ence as eee he Ne So iso oo cleiSc «cs clea 10, 000 
Ona Wone WAOOLOmICAlihanky soa. nena aecomes ase cacelieoce ss coccce soclces 92, 000 


The vouchers for the disbursement of these appropriations, with the 
exception of those for “ethnological researches,” have been examined 
by the Executive Committee, and the various items of expenditure, in- 


4 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


cluding those of the Bureau of Ethnology, are set forth in a letter ad- 
dressed to the Speaker of the House of Representatives in accordance 
with a provision of the sundry civil act of October 2, 1888, while the 
expenditures from the Smithsonian fund, having likewise been examined 
and approved by the executive committee, are given in their report. 

The estimates for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1891, forwarded to 
the Secretary of the Treasury under date of October 1, 1889, were as 
follows: 


JoMeMNe YH OME EOXKCMENNEX I). 5~ 555 a snacg5 pas sa5 on sgcanass poaSogdsoe se oscs8e 27, 500. 00 

North Americaniethnolowyi.-2 5-2 ss ssc ce ae sea so eae ey eioaie sistas isles 50, 000. 00 

National Museum : 
Preservation collections! +5655 o-e sooo ene eee 175, 000. 00 
Hearing tan dei nt in Oe siee aes ee ease eee ieee eee 15, 000. 00 
Furniture and fixtures s.i52& - 6:5 Socios ase 3 Sess te eee steer eee ee 30, 000. 00 
Living animals, in connection with zoological department. ---.....- 50, 000. 00 
J Palinynayes oval UNC Seka na6 So bees os desu eteses oqo nonodasos sesc 18, 500, 00 
ROStA RO oe ete ee = ie bts Sec Cee Siero =e at ainie laine inlajerscieks misc smicaia cites 500. 00 

BUILDINGS. 


I regret that Iam unable to report any immediate prospect of relief 
from the over-crowded condition of the Museum building. The Re- 
gents nearly eight years ago, (at their meeting of January 17, 1883,) 
recommended to Congress the erection of a new Museum building, and 
the previous steps taken in pursuance of their instruction have already 
been laid before the Board. Since 1883, the collections of the Museum 
have enormously increased, so that before a new building can now be 
completed, the material pressing for display or even for storage, will 
demand a considerable part of a building as large as the present one. 

Sketch-plans for a building that would meet the wants of the Museum 
for the immediate future were laid before the Board at their meeting in 
January, 1890. These plans contemplated a building of two stories and 
a basement, it being indispensable to have rooms for the preparation and 
study of material apart from the rooms used purely for the purposes of 
exhibition. 

A bill appropriating $500,000 for a building was reported by Sen- 
ator Morrill on February 19, 1890, from the Senate Committee on 
Public Buildings and Grounds, and passed the Senate on the 5th of 
Apri, 1890. It was referred in the House to its Committee on Public 
Buildings and Grounds, from which it has not as yet been reported. 
The following letter in relation to the subject transmitted to the Hon. 
Leland Stanford, chairman of the Senate Committee on Public Build- 
ings and Grounds, sets forth at some length the urgent need for fur- 
ther accommodation: 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 5 


[Senate Mis. Doc. No. 116, Fifty-first Congress, first session.] 


LETTER OF THE SECRETARY OF THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION IN RELATION TO A 
BUILDING FOR THE ACCOMMODATION OF THE NATIONAL MUSEUM. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM, 
Washington, January 21, 1890. 

Sir: I send you herewith a set of sketch-plans intended to show, in 
a general way, the extent and character of a building such as would 
seem to be necessary for the accommodation of the Museum collections 
in the present and immediate future, and respectfully request for them 
your attention, and a recommendation to Congress of the necessary 
means for such a building. 

These plans and sketches are provisional, but although not presented 
in detail, they represent the results ef studies, extending over many 
years, of the plans of the best modern museum buildings i in Europe and 
‘America, nearly all of which have been inspected by officers of the 
Smithsonian Institution. 

The proposed building covers the same area as that finished in 1881. 
It is intended to consist of two stories and a basement, except in the 
central portion, which consists of one lofty hall open from the main floor 
to the roof, the height of which will be 90 feet, galleries being placed 
on the level of the second floor in other parts of the building. Its inte- 
rior arrangements are,as you will see, different from those in the actual 
Museum, ail the changes having been planned in the light of the expe- 
rience of nine years’ occupation of the present building. It will afford 
between two and three times as much available space for exhibition 
and storage under the same area of roof. The fifteen exhibition halls 
are completely isolated from each other, and may readily besubdivided, 
when necessary, into smaller rooms. The lighting will be as good as 
in the old building, and the ventilation perhaps still better. The sani- 
tary arrangements have been carefully considered. 

The necessity for a basement is especially great. In this, place has 
been provided for many storage rooms and workshops. The existence 
of a basement will promote the comfort and health of visitors and em- 
ployés, and by increasing the dryness of the air in the exhibition halls, 
will secure the better preservation of the collections. These proposed 
changes in the internal arrangements will not interfere with conformity 
with the other points of the present Museum building in the essential 
features of exterior proportion. The total capacity of this present 
building in available floor space is about 100,000 square feet; that of 
the new building somewhat exceeds 200,000. The present Museum 
building contains about 80,000 feet of floor space available for exhibi- 
tion. That proposed will contain about 103,300 square feet for exhibi- 
tion. The space devoted to offices and laboratories would not be much 
more, but the area available for exhibition halls, storage rooms, and 
workshops far greater. The appropriation for the construction of the 
present building was $250,000. This sum was supplemented by several 
special appropriations: $25,000 for steam-heating apparatus ; $26,000 
for marble floors ; $12,500 for water and gas fixtures and electrical 
apparatus, and $1,900 for special sewer connections, so that the total 
cost was$315,400. The structure was probably completed for a smaller 
sum of money than any other similar one of equal capacity in the world, 
at an expense ralative to capacity which the present prices of material 
make it certain cau not be repeated. 

The estimates of cost on this building vary greatly with regard to 


6 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


details of construction on which J do not here enter, further than to 
say that the whole should be absolutely fire-proof throughout, and in 
view of the further great variation of the cost of building materials 
within the past two years, I am not prepared to state the sum which 
would be necessary for its completion. It is certain, however, that 
$500,000, if not sufficient to complete it, wouid be all that would be 
required to be expended during the present year, and I would respect- 
fully represent the desirability of an appropriation of this amount for the 
purpose in question. 

Your attention is directed to certain facts in regard to the character 
of the materials for the accommodation of which this building is desired. 
The collections of the Smithsonian Institution and of the Government 
are especially rich in collections of natural history, which may be 
grouped in three general classes: The zoological collections; the botan- 
ical collections, and the geological collections, including not only all 
the geological and mineralogical material, but the greater portion of 
that belonging to paleontology, the study of fossil animals and plants 
forming an essential part of modern geological work. 

Besides the natural history collections, there are equally important 
anthropological collections which illustrate the history of mankind at 
all periods and in every land, and which serve to explain the develop- 
ment of all human arts and industries. In everything that relates to 
the primitive inhabitants of North America, Eskimo as well as Indian, 
these collections are by far the richest in the world, and with the nec- 
essary amount of exhibition space, the material on hand will be arranged 
in a manner which will produce the most impressive and magnificent 
effect, the educational importance of which can not be over-estimated. 
Again, there are collections of considerable extent which illustrate the 
processes and products of the various arts and industries, as well as 
what are termed the historical collections, which are of especial interest 
to a very large number of the visitors of the Museum on account of the 
associations of the objects exhibited with the personal history of repre- 
sentative men, or with important events in the history of America. 

The collections illustrating the arts and the art industries are rela- 
tivelysmall, and although in themselves of great interest and value, not 
to be compared in importance with those in natural history and eth- 
nology. 

In a letter addressed on June 7, 1888, to the Hon. Justin 8. Morrill, 
and which will be found in a report of June 12 of the same year from 
the Senate Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, I madea state- 
ment of the rapidity of the recent growth of the Museum, mentioning 
that in the five years from 1882 to 1887 the number of specimens in the 
collection had multiplied no less than sixteen times, and endeavored to 
give an idea, though, perhaps, an inadequate one, of the extent to which 
the pressure for want of space was felt. The evil has grown rapidly 
worse, and as I have had occasion to mention, it has been felt in the last 
year in a partial arrest of the growth of the collections, which empha- 
sizes the demand for more room. The present Museum building is not 
lai ge enough even for the natural history collections alone, a number of 
which are without any exhibition space whatever. The proposed build- 
ing will afford accommodations for the ethnological and technological 
material already on hand, and for a large part of the natural history 
material also. 

The collections are still increasing, and the number of specimens, as 
estimated, is now not far from 3,000,000. The appended table (A) shows 
the annual increase since 1882. The increase during the last year was 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 7 


comparatively small. This may be accounted for by the fact that our 
exhibition halls and storage rooms being filled to their utmost capacity, 
it has seemed necessary to cease in a large degree the customary eftorts 
for the increase of the Museum. 

Unless more space is soon provided, the development of the Govern- 
ment collections will of necessity be almost completely arrested. 

So long as there was room for storage, collections not immediately re- 
quired could be received and packed away for future use. This can not 
longer be done. 

The Armory Building, since 1877 assigned to the Museum for storage 
and workshops, is now entirely occupied by the U.S. Fish Commission, 
with the exception of four rooms, and by some of the Museum tax- 
idermists, who are now working in very contracted space, and whom it 
is impossible to accommodate elsewhere. 

Increased space in the exhibition halls is needed, the educational 
value of the collections being seriously diminished by the present 
crowded system of installation. Still more necessary, however, is room 
for storage, for re-arranging the great reserve collections, for eliminating 
duplicate material for distribution to college and school museums, and 
for the use of the taxidermists and preparators engaged in preparing 
objects for exhibition. Space is also required for the proper handling 
of the costly outfit of the Museum cases and appliances for installation, 
of which there is always a considerable amount temporarily out of use 
or in process of construction. 

The appended table (B) shows the amount of floor space now assigned 
to the various collections and the amount required for the proper dis- 
play of material already in hand, making a reasonable allowance for 
the expansion during the three years which would probably pass before 
a new building could be completed and provided with necessary cases. 

The appended table (C) shows the number of feet of floor space (the 
average height being 10 feet) required for laboratories, workshops, 
and for the several departments. This is in addition to storage space 
under the cases in the exhibition halls, and a considerable portion may 
be in cellars and atties. 

In summarizing what has just been said, it may be stated in general 
terms that the amount of space already required for exhibition pur- 
poses alone, being (table B) 207,500 feet as against 100,675 now occupied, 
and this being exclusive of the (table C) 108,900 square feet needed for 
other objects, the accumulations have now reached such a point of con- 
gestion that the actual space needs to be doubled, even independently 
of future increase; and I beg to repeat that, unless more space is pro- 
vided, the development of the Government collection, which is already 
partly arrested, will be almost completely stopped. 

Your obedient servant. 
S. P. LANGLEY, 
Secretary. 
Hon. LELAND STANFORD, 
Chairman Committee on Public Buildings and Grounds, 
United States Senate. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


TABLE A.— Annual increase in the collections. 


Name of department. 1882. 1883. 1884. 1885-86. 1886-87. | 1887-'88. | 1488-89. 
NATURAL HISTORY. | 
Zoology: | 
Mammalseeses ee eeeee 4, 660 4,920 5,694 7,451 7, 811 8, 058 | 8, 275 
IbINdS eee eee asee sees 44, 354 47, 246 50, 350 55, 945 | 54, 987 56, 484 57, 974 
Bindsveresier ees sciss secu | eese eerie tere= eae 40, 072 44,163 | 148,178 50, 055 50, 173 
Reptiles and batrachians. |..-....--- see 23, 495 25, 344 | 27, 542 27, 664 28, 405 
MuShes eens eases seme 50, 000 65, 000 68, 000 75, 000 100.000 | 101, 350 | 107, 350 
MMoWUsksti a2 ce tease tee CB SATs eee ereae 400, 060 | 460,000 | 425,000 | 455,000, 468, 000 
Marine invertebrates | 
(other than mollusks)..| 211,781 | 214.825 4200, 000 | 4350, 000 | 4450,000 | 515,000 | 515, 300 
WMiSeCtsr essa -aaeaeee 1,000 |....-..--. 5151, 000 | 500,000 | 4585,000 | 595,000 | 603, 000 
Comparative anatomy --- 3, 605 3, 742 7, 214 10,210 | 411, 022 11, 558 | 11, 753 
hbo ee Es ooo Gee |baosoaciseallassecothen|idoc coos st||soseccbens scdese nace 220 | 491 
Botany: 
INGOT EME <ssedoossoAs| leas sascos||bansoceces|[escccquase 30,000 | 432, 000 38, 000 38, 459 
Paleontology : 
Invertebrate : 
IRIGIYANIO case cabacusosa||soochtécos 20, 000 73, 000 80, 482 84, 491 84, 649 91, 126 
MRA Op lt nc sosobeen:Soeonacadallagscenoes 100, 000 69, 742 70, 775 70, 925 71, 236 
Cenozoic (included with 
TO USIES) secsososso be |sooccastos|lsosecospee||soncsoscea||boogrsoos lloasesasscclloosstosea: Tikwocece 
IP Ants hesso ace sec eceees|cccse etc: 4, 624 67,291 67, 429 8, 462 10, 000 10, 178 
Geology: ; 
Mineral sereesniseeen cases me eenicie 14, 550 26, 610 18, 401 18, 601 21, 896 27, 690 
itholopys seers. sos. 79,075 12, 500 18, 000 20,647 | 821, 500 22, 500 27, 000 
Mietallamiy te sacceac see ee | eeaiatetelere-)= 30, 000 40, 009 48,000 | 849,000 51, 412 52, 076 
ANTHROPOLOGY. 
Prehistoric archeology ..-- 35, 512 40, 491 45, 252 65,314 | 101,659 | 108, 631 | 116, 472 
ID Heb Cy AY Ssenonsees656 one 604) |sudsconss5)|cesmao oc 206, 000 | 4500, 000 | 503,764 | 505, 464 506, 324 
American aboriginal pottery.|.......--.|.--.------ 12, 000 25,000 | 426, 022 27, 122 28, 222 
Orientalvantiquities see eases pe ayes | eee se eee rl ee eee ie ele tere ete i=taro [minal telnet leis oie acai 850 
ARTS AND INDUSTRIES. 
MMatentanniedicarmansee cereal |ncarsiaiie cee 4, 000 4, 442 4, 850 5, 516 5, 762 5, 942 
THOOU Sette sae ee tne aie sisieraterars||ele's wieierelaiee 91, 244 1, 580 8822 10877 W877 911 
Pinxtiles seco ee itn eae Heke esate: 2, 000 3,064 | 3,144] 3,144 3, 222 
ING NH sescose sopconsGu—cee| beeceeeen|lsccocoarce 5, 000 89,870 10, 078 | 1110, 078 1110, 078 
Anvimial @proguctsis-ssceeesees | eseen= sa pee eeet mar 1, 000 2) 792 2, 822 112, 822 2, 948 
Navalarchitectureye-sse- se sel noose = se eeaaeeel 600 "| nce cnc Sc el eeeeeoee a eeeeee eee 600 
HUSTORICaeTOliGs acer eae mie itaee semester | eee ei 1, 002 ) 
Coins, medals, paper money, > 138, 634 14, 640 1114, 640 
OI Cas Ose SoS Sages Baptod lepoecenpas Gece occsd lecarecacda. 1, 055 | 
Musical instruments --...... Sacre eulltnsnesc tan see mencer 400 | 417 427 6427 
Modern pottery, porcelain, 
aNOmbrOnZzOS esses eee se eree Re Ne Al Spas oa Sea | oo SS 2,278 2, 238 3, O11 113,011 
Paints and dyes .....-....--- roe Posey Beas cae ao basher 17 100 11100 109 
Oi ne Cra bre in bara 2s sees sed|bseacsos65| bboccsesac|lossacdsec 500 500 500 1500 
PhysicaluappaLavUs)==—seeeee|| sae aed oe aa | eee eines 250 | 251 11261 11251 
Oilstandyeums Sesser. eee ee liege Fen (ee es eer ee c ace 8197 | 198 11198 213 
Chemical products. .--...--..)---------- See cane eed sano 8659 661 11661 688 
GUE Ae "193,362 | 263,143 1,472, 600 2, 420, 944 |2, 666, 335 |2, 803, 459 | 2, 863, 894 


12,235 are nests. 
2 Catalogue entries. 


3 Including cenozoic fossils. 


4 Batimated. 


5 Professor Riley’s collection numbers 150,000 


specimens. 


6 Exclusive of Prof. Ward’s collection. 
N. B..—No estimate of increase of collections taken in 1885, 


7 In reserve series. 
8 Duplicates not included. 


a 
\ 
t 


° Including paints, pigments, and oils. 


10 Foods only. 


11 No entries of material received during the 


year have been made on catalogue. 


— 


REPORT OF THE 


SECRETARY. 


TABLE B.—Exvhibition space. 


Floor Floor | 
Department. aay aera! | Department. ibe now) ee 
NATURAL HISTORY COLLEC- NATURAL HISTORY COLLEC- 
TIONS. TIONS—continued. 

Zoology: Sq. feet. | Sq.feet. || Paleontology—continued. Sq. feet. | Sq. feet. 
Mammalstses-s.<ss\ccis <= 6, 500 12, 000 Viertebrater:cssa.-ceeeae 1, 500 10, 000 
ISHS se ocagssddocadhsoussy 6, 000 14, 000 Mineralogy and geology . 12, 000 17, 009 
Reptiies and batrachians. | 1, 000 3, 000 NT ROCOROGICATT GorEnc: 

Fishes and fisheries..-.-.-.. 7, 600 14, 000 TONG! | 
Mollmsksessteescase see cs 3, 500 5, 000 | 
Marinetinirerte hrnton Prehistoric archeology -.- - 10,000 | 10,000 

(other than mollusks)... 3, 000 5, 500 General ethnology ..--..----. 10, 400 | 40, 000 
THeccia ee eae 1, 600 4, 000 Arts and industries..-...-.. 22, 000 40, 000 
Comparative anatomy ...|° 4,500 | 10,000 || History--------------------.| 3, 000 5, 000 

Botany : | | Lecture hall .....----------- | 4, 575 es 
Systematic and economic | | Motalsiscesaeseseeence ae rl OUnG7vomlmeconso00 

(including forestry) .. -- 1, 000 4,000 | 

Paleontology ; | 
Invertebrate (including | 

Paleozoic, Mesozoic and 

CenoZz0le)paeea eee 2, 500 7, 500 

TABLE C.—Storage, workshops, offices, laboratories, ete. 
ae 
Department. cause Department. Square 
eet. feet. 
NATURAL HISTORY. NATURAL HISTORY—continued. | 

Zoology: | Geology: | 
Mam rials eaten cpa iete neers ieee an 3, 000 Mineralogy and geology (including 
BAG Se semi sete ai een ese oe oes 4, 000 WOLKSNODS))o see eee semana 4, 000 
Reptiles and batrachians ...........- 2,500 || Anthropology : 

IRISH ES) ee serio Daan seh oes eo cooKe 5, 000 Prehistoric archeology ..-----.-..--- 2, 000 
Mollnsks). 28s s-coa! see aeeiee see eee 4,000 || General ethnology ...-...----.------ 6, 000 
Marine invertebrates (other than | Arts and industries (Several divis- 
MoOWIsks) sesso senate wo nek Ouse eee 4,000 || ions) 2 22ssbe2-% a oe Re aaa ee | 15, 000 
INSOCtS Pree eer e ate ee soe ate 2,400 || Taxidermists, osteologists, modelers, 
Comparativeanatomy..... .-....---.| 3, 000 | DLCDAaALaborseree eats ease ee eae 10, 000 
Botany : l Mechamicse wer sss see cise esas enaes ae 5, 000 
Herbarium scat oseee ne sen coe ccc ce -ce 4,000 || General storage rooms, for cases not in 
Paleontology : | use, duplicates, unelaborated material, 
Invertebrate: CUCS eee eae resets sate ete emcees 15, 000 
TPIGOWO so =coonsorosbencnssaaace 4, 000 Paes he AGM ee UP Ra OF ARG 108, 900 
Miesoz0icestenprecnmecwacscce esas 4,000 | 
CenozolG ance tet arerree eee ee. 4, 000 

RAINES (LOSS ER ee ce ea. ates se eee 2,000 | 

WEnteDratoeeee eo eet ee) ee 6, 000 || 


In compliance with the requirements of the sundry civil bill approved 
March 2, 1889, an examination was made of the National Museum by 
the Architect of the Capitol for the purpose of estimating the cost of 
constructing a basement story under that building. The only portion 


10 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


of suck a basement suitable for workshops and storage would bea cel- 
lar running around the outer walls of the building and extending in- 
wards 30 feet, so that the rooms thus obtained might have light and 
air. Provision was also made to floor with tiles all the rooms under 
which these basements come. ‘The total expense it is thought would 
be $57,675, but by reason of the peculiar construction of the present 
building the Architect has expressed the opinion that the work esti- 
mated for would be one of unusual difficulty, and that a site for a store- 
house and workshops required might be purchased in the neighborhood 
of the Museum and a fire-proof building erected thereon for a less sum. 

The improvement of the Smithsonian building proper has been the 
subject of careful consideration, more especially the fire-proofing of the 
west wing, the urgent need of which has already been brought to the 
attention of the Regents. A bill was introduced in the Senate on Jan- 
uary 15, 1890, by Senator Morrill, providing for an appropriation of 
$45,000 for fire-proofing the roof of the main hall and that of the so- 
called chapel in the west wing of the Smithsonian building, putting in 
a Sky-light and well-hole for lighting the east wing, and making certain 
changes which would add greatly to the space available for office rooms 
in that part of the building, as well as adding to the facility with which 
the large amount of exchange publications could be handled. This 
work was to be done under the direction of the Architect of the Capitol 
with the approval of the Regents. The bill passed the Senate on Feb- 
ruary 10, 1890, and was favorably reported on in the House March 3, 
1890. The matter rested here at the close of the year. 

The temporary wooden building for the protection of instruments for 
astro-physical investigation, which was referred to as contemplated in 
my last report, was begun on November 30, 1889, and was completed 
about the Ist of March, 1890. This building is of the most inexpensive 
character, and is simply intended to protect the instruments tempora- 
rily, though it is also arranged so that certain preliminary work can be 
done here. Its position however immediately south of the main Smith- 
sonian building, is not well suited to refined physical investigations on 
account of its proximity to city streets and its lack of seclusion. The 
needs of this department are referred to more at length under the fol- 
lowing head of research. 


RESEARCH. 


I take pleasure in reporting that the Institution has been able to do 
rather more for the encouragement of original research than it has 
done for several years past. 

Referring to my two previous reports in regard to the project of 
Professor Baird for securing an astro-physical observatory and labora- 
tory, 1am able to say that this object has assumed definite shape in 
the construction of the temporary shed, which has just been mentioned. 
In this shed there have been built, as the most expensive part of the 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. il 


structure, a number of brick piers required for the firm support of the 
delicate apparatus employed. 

In connection with the construction of this building, I desire to ex- 
press my thanks to Col. O. H. Ernst, U.S. Army, in charge of public 
buildings and grounds, for the supervision rendered by his office of the 
work of excavating, etc., for the necessary sewer and water connections. 

The principal instrument consists of a siderostat constructed by Sir 
Howard Grubb, of Dublin, Ireland, for the Smithsonian Institution, to 
meet my special requirements. This arrived in March, 1890, and has been 
mounted and put approximately into position for use. Another impor- 
tant and novel instrument, a spectro-bolometer, was made under my 
directions to meet new and unusual demands, and has also been received 
and put in place. A third piece of apparatus, a special galvanometer, 
also designed for the particular class of work in view, has been received ; 
and the only considerable instrument now required to complete the out- 
fit is a resistance box, which has been ordered and is expected from 
London before the end of the calendar year. 

The siderostat is probably the largest and most powerful instrument 
of its kind ever constructed. The spectro-bolometer is the largest in- 
strument of its kind, and with this improved apparatus it is hoped that 
interesting investigations begun several years ago, will be continued. 

Supplementary to these principal instruments is the Thaw collec- 
tion of physical apparatus loaned by the executors of the late Will- 
iam Thaw, of Pittsburgh, and there are a few pieces of apparatus, the 
personal preperty of the Secretary, so that at the close of the year it 
might be said that the Institution was in possession of the nucleus of 
a modern astrophysical laboratory. With this apparatus temporarily 
mounted, researches have already begun, and one of a scientific and 
economic character upon “The Cheapest Form of Light” has been the 
subject of a communication to the National Academy of Sciences. This 
work is mentioned as indicating my intention to give greater place to 
one of the chief objects of the Institution, the direct addition to knowl- 
edge by original research,—which, at least as regards the physical 
sciences, has received comparatively little attention since the time of 
Professor Henry. 

The prospects of renewed contributions to physical science by the 
Institution in the field of original research are happily now better than 
for many years past. The late Dr. Jerome H. Kidder, formerly an offi- 
cer of the U. S. Navy, and later attached to the U.S. Fish Commission 
and to the Smithsonian Institution, had bequeathed to the Institution, 
in a will made several years ago, the sum of $10,000 to beemployed for 
biological researches. Dr. Kidder, having become especially interested 
in the proposed astro-physical observatory, had the intention of trans- 
ferring this bequest, or at least a portion of it, to such an end, ahd he 
even ordered that a codicil giving $5,000 to the Institution for an astro- 
physical observatory should be added to his will, but he was stricken 


12 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


with so sudden an illness that he was unable to sign it. In view of 
these circumstances and after careful deliberation upon the matter, the 
Regents decided to accept as finally and decisively indicative of the 
wishes of the testator the provisions of this codicil bequeathing $5,000 
for the purpose of an astro-physical observatory, and this sum was 
therefore paid by Dr. Kidder’s executor to the Institution. 

A further sum of $5,000 was likewise generously presented by Dr. 
Alexander Graham Bell to the writer individually for the prosecution 
of the researches in astro-physies, to which he has devoted much of his 
life, but it has seemed proper to him, under the circumstances, that this 
sum should be placed to the credit of the Smithsonian Institution upon 
the same footing as the Kidder bequest, and with the consent of the 
donor it has been so transferred. I am therefore desirous of here ex- 
pressing my own personal as well as my official obligation to Dr. Bell 
for this gift for the increase of knowledge. 

The initial step for the establishment of an astro-physical observa- 
tory under the National Government thus having been taken by private 
individuals, it is hoped that Congress will see fit to place it upon a firm 
footing and to make a small annual provision for its maintenance. And 
it seems proper to mention that the field of research to which such a 
department of the Institution would be devoted has been considered of 
sufficient importance by the legislators of leading foreign nations to 
justify the erection of costly special observatories and to provide for 
their maintenance with a staff of astronomers and physicists of wide 
reputation. 

The class of work here specially referred to does not ordinarily in- 
volve the use of the telescope, and is quite distinct from that carried 
on at any observatory in thiscountry. It would in no way conflict with 
the work of the present U. S. Naval Observatory, being in a field of 
work that the latter has never entered. 

Briefly stated, the work for which the older Government observa- 
tories at Greenwich, Paris, Berlin, and Washington were founded, and 
in which they are for the most part now engaged, is the determination 
of relative positions of heavenly bodies and of our own place with ref: 
erence to them. Within the past twenty years, all these Governments 
but our own have established astro-physical observatories, as they are 
called, that are engaged in the study of the constitution of the heav- 
enly bodies as distinguished from their positions; in determining, for 
example, not so much the position of the sun in the sky as the rela- 
tion that it bears to the earth and to our own daily wants; how it effects 
terrestrial climate; and how it may best be studied for the purposes 
of the meteorologist, and so on; and it is an observatory of the latter 
kind that the donors just mentioned appear to have bad prominently 
in View, and which it is proposed to conduct (though on an extremely 
modest seale) under the auspices of the Institution. 

In connection with this renewed revival in the line of physical re- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. is 


search, I may state that steps have been taken to give effect to certain 
resolutions expressed at a meeting of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science several years ago, in regard to the establish- 
ment of standard screw threads and standard diameters of tubing for 
astronomical and physical apparatus. The introduction of such stand- 
ards in mechanical work of all kinds has proved itself of such great 
value that its usefulness need not be dwelt upon. As a preliminary 
step looking to the establishment of this desired uniformity on the part 
of scientific men, a conference has been had with the Superintendent of 
the Coast Survey, and it is proposed to invite the co-operation of other 
Government bureaus, and to give effect to their conclusions by ordering 
and establishing, on behalf of the Institution, recognized standards for 
the use of scientific instrument makers in all parts of the world. 

I have here referred to researches in physical science alone, the work 
of the Institution and of individual members of its staff and others in 
natural history being given at some length under the head of the Mu- 


seum. 
EXPLORATIONS. 


The work of exploration by the Institution has been carried on through 
the Bureau of Ethnology and the National Museum, and to the Reports 
of these departments reference should be made for details. 

In my report for last year, mention was made of a trip to Africa by 
Mr. Talcott Williams, and of the interesting results that had been se- 
cured by him. A valuable collection of specimens that he obtained is 
still unpacked and a complete description of them can not be given 
until they have been thoroughly examined. 

He was fortunate enough to secure five sheets of an extremeiy rare Ber- 
ber manuscript, made probably in the thirteenth century ; a botanical 
collection of about three hundred plants, of which all except four or five 
are phenagamous fossils from a hitherto unexplored region; a valuable 
collection of ethnographic material from Morocco; villager costumes 
of men and women, representing both the Berber and mountain vil- 
lages, and a collection of pottery made with the special design of in- 
cluding all the wares in ordinary use between Tetuan and Fez. Arti- 
cles illustrating light, fire, and the industry of comb-making and num- 
erous household utensils were also secured. 

It may safely be asserted that this collection, taken as a whole, is one 
of the most interesting of the kind that the Museum has ever received, 
and the thanks of the Smithsonian Institution are due Mr. Williams for 
the manner in which he has accomplished his mission. 

Mr, W. W. Rockhill, whose explorations in Thibet were also referred 
to in my last report, has spent a large part of the year in Washington, 
engaged in preparing an account of his remarkable travels, and he has 
loaned to the Museum, in addition to his large and almost unique col- 
lection of Thibetan material, a most valuable lot of cloisonnés, bronzes, 
and carved lacquers collected during his residence in Pekin. 


14 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


I may also mention here collections of unusual interest and value, 
made by Dr. W. A. Abbott, in the region of Mount Kilémanjaro, 
and of those by Mr. William Harvey Brown, of the National Museum, 
while attached to the United States Eclipse Expedition to the west 
coast of Africa, under the auspices of the Navy Department. Grate- 
ful acknowledgments are due Dr. W. H. Rush, U. S. Navy; Mr. J. P. 
Iddings, U. S. Geological Survey; Mr. E. M. Aaron, of the American 
Entomological Society; Mr. C. R. Orcutt, of San Diego, Cal., from whom 
specimens secured in their travels have been received or are expected. 
Mr. Henry W. Elliott, who is now visiting the Seal Islands of Alaska on 
United States Government business, is expected to secure for the Mu- 
seum specimens of fur-seal, fishes, and other zoological material. 

In the Bureau of Ethnology I would refer to the mound explorations 
that have been conducted under the immediate superintendence of Prof. 
Cyrus Thomas, by Mr. H. L. Reynolds, Mr. J. D. Middleton, and Mr. 
James Mooney ; and to the general field work, chiefly among the Indian 
tribes, of Mr. W. H. Holmes, Dr. W.J. Hoffman, Mr. Victor Mindeleff, Mr. 
James Mooney, Mr. Jeremiah Curtin, Mr. J. W. B. Hewitt, and Mrs. 
T. E. Stevenson. 


PUBLICATIONS. 


With regard to the character of the works issued by the Institution 
during the past year, little is to be added to the general statements made 
in my last report. In each of the three classes of Smithsonian publica- 
tions, to wit, I, The Contributions to Knowledge; II, The Miscellaneous 
Collections ; and III, The Annual Reports, about the same amount of 
productiveness has been maintained. 

Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge.—An original memoir by Prof. 
Alpheus Hyatt on the “ Genesis of the Arietid,” illustrated with numer- 
ous plates, has been published during the year, and this has permitted 
the completion of the long-delayed twenty-sixth volume of the quarto 
series. Two other memoirs, relating to the solar corona, have been pub- 
lished in the same quarto form, but will not probably be included in the 
volumes of the “ Contributions.” 

Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections.—W hile the number of separate 
titles under this class has been considerable, many of them are the 
separate issues of articles contributed at the expense of the Institution 
to the Annual Reports. It is in contemplation to devote a larger space 
in the ‘‘ Collections” than of late to publications connected with the 
physical sciences; in which direction may be mentioned as one of the 
more important issues of the year, an ‘* Index to the Literature of Ther- 
modynamies,” by Mr. Alfred Tuckerman. The demand for copies of the 
exhausted fourth edition of Guyot’s Meteorological and Physical Tables, 
published in 1884, has been deemed sufficient to warrant the revision of 
the work and the issue of a new edition, which has been for several 
years under consideration. After obtaining the views of prominent me- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 15 


teorologists the work was placed in the hands of Prof. William Libbey, 
jr., of Princeton, New Jersey, with the expectation that the new edi- 
tion will be ready for the printer during the coming year. 

Among the publications of this series mention may be made of the 
tenth “ Toner Lecture,” by Dr. Harrison Allen, on “ A Clinical Study 
of the Skull.” 

A revised catalogue and index of all the Smithsonian publications to 
the middle of 1886, occupying 385 pages, prepared by Mr. Willian J. 
Rhees, the chief clerk, has also been published. 

No completed volume of the Miscellaneous Collections has been issued 
within the year. 

Smithsonian Annual Reports.—The annual report of the Regents to 
Congress for the year ending June 30, 1887, in two parts or volumes, 
has been received from the Public Printer and has been widely dis- 
tributed. The annual report for the succeeding year, 1888, although 
printed, has not yet been received ; but is daily expected. 

A detailed account of the several publications of the Smithsonian 
Institution for the year, under each class, will be given in the Appendix. 

Other publications.—The publications of the National Museum com- 
prise the ‘“‘ Proceedings of the National Museum” and the “ Bulletins 
of the National Museum,” and are maintained by an appropriation an- 
nually made by Congress. <As stated in my last report, ‘It has been 
decided to hereafter omit these publications from the series” of Miscel- 
laneous Collections issued by the Institution.* Of the publications of 
the Bureau of Ethnology the sixth annual report has been issued dur- 
ing the year. 

The edition of Swan’s paper on “The Indians of Cape Flattery” 
having become exhausted, a new edition of 250 copies has been printed. 

The Annual Report of the American Historical Association, which by 
the act of incorporation the Secretary of the Institution is directed to 
communicate to Congress, has been printed as Senate Miscellaneous 
Document No. 170. 

In October, 1859, final arrangements were made with Prof. Edward 
D. Cope, whereby it is expected that his important work upon * Rep- 
tilia,” undertaken several years ago at the request of the Secretary, 
will be ready for the printer by the end of December, 1890. 

Except in the case of the Annual Reports, the publications of the In- 
stitution are generally issued with satisfactory promptness. The An- 
nual Reports, which have been for some years so seriously behindhand 
as to materially affect the value of the reviews upon scientific progress, 
are, it is hoped, to be brought up to date during the coming year. 

To avoid any possible delay on account of lack of legislation, the at- 
tention of the chairman of the Committee on Printing of the United 
States Senate has been called to the desirability of having the bill pro- 


*A full account of these productions will be given in the second part of the Annual 
Report of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 1889-90. 


16 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


viding for the printing of the Annual Reports so worded as to allow for 
the printing of future reports without special legislation each year, at 
the some time increasing the number of copies to 19,000. An act of 
Congress in the following terms would probably accomplish all that 
is desired : 

That there be printed of the Reports of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion and of the National Museum, for the years ending June thirty, 
eighteen hundred and eighty-eight, and June thirty, eighteen hun- 
dred and eighty-nine, and annually thereafter, in two octavo volumes 
for each year, nineteen thousand extra copies, of which three thousand 
shall be for the use of the Senate, six thousand for the House of Rep- 
resentatives, and ten thousand for the Smithsonian. Institution. 


THE SMITHSONIAN INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE. 


At a meeting of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution 
on January 8, 1890, it was— 

Resolved, That the Regents instruct the Secretary to ask of Congress 
legislation for the repayment to the Institution of the amount advanced 
from the Smithsonian fund for Governmental service in carrying on 
the exchanges. 

In connection with this resolution the following outline of the history 
of the exchanges is important: 

Under the act of Congress accepting a donation from James Smith- 
son ‘for the increase and diffusion of knowedge among men,” and 
giving effect to this trust by the foundation of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, the Board of Regents in 1851 established a system of interna- . 
tional exchanges of the transactions of learned societies and like works ; 
but, in addition te such publications, it voluntarily transported between 
1851 and 1867 somewhat over 20,000 packages of publications of the 
bureaus of the National Government at an estimated cost to the pri- 
vate funds of the Institution of about $8,000. This, however, was 
understood to be a voluntary service, and no request for iis re imburse_ 
ment has been made or is contemplated. 

Congress, however, in 1867, by its act of March 2, imposed upon the 
Institution the duty of exchanging fifty copies of all documents printed 
by order of either House of Congress, or by the United States Govern- 
ment bureaus, for similar works published in foreign countries, and 
especially by foreign Governments. 

The Institution possessed special facilities and experience for such 
work, the propriety of its undertaking which, in the interests of the 
Government, is evident; but it was hardly to have been anticipated 
that the Government should direct this purely administrative service 
and make no appropriation for its support. Such, however, was the 
case, and with the exception of a small (presently to be noted) sum, 
returned by some bureaus, it was almost entirely maintained during 
the next thirteen years, or until the first appropriation to the Institu- 
tion for exchanges in 1881, at the expense of the private fund of James 
Smithson. 


I 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 17 


From January 1, 1868, to Juue 30, 1886, 292,483 packages contain- 
ing these official Government publications, having little to do with 
the object to which Congress devoted the Institution’s private funds 
were transported by the Exchange Bureau at a pro rata cost of 
$92,943.36 of which $29,706.85 accrued between 1881, when the first 
specific appropriation was made, and 1886. Of this $92,943.56 $19,302.35 
was returned from various Departments and bureaus, leaving a balance 
of $73,641.01 expended in carrying exclusively Governmental publica- 
tions. 

What has preceded refers to the transportation of official documents, 
and not to that of transactions of learnéd societies and other like works; 
but it is now necessary to mention that in 1878 the honorable the Sec- 
retary of State designated the Smithsonian Institution as the special 
agent for the United States Government for carrying out the provisions 
of an international convention at Paris, which made the respective 
Governments assume the cost, not only of the transportation of official 
documents, but of scientific and literary publications, between the 
states interested, and it would seem that Congress itself adopted this 
view of its responsibility, for from July 1, 1881, to June 30, 1886, while 
the Congressional and bureaucratic exchange represented a pro rata cost 
of $29,706.85 and the scientific publications $39,034.90, Congress ap- 
propriated directly $35,500, somewhat more than the cost of the Govern- 
ment exchange, but leaving a balance of $3,534.90 for scientific and 
literary exchanges unpaid. This latter sum, $3,534.90, added to the 
$73,641.01 mentioned above, makes a total of $77,175.91, for which, in 
equity, repayment might be requested. 

In 1886, on the 15th of March, plenipotentiaries of the United States 
and various other nationalities signed a convention more formal than 
that at Paris, by which the respective Governments definitely assumed 
the exchange of official documents and scientific and literary publica- 
tions between the states interested. 

Adopting, then, the year 18385, rather than the earlier date, 1881 
(though, as mentioned in the report, equity would seem to allow the 
Institution the entire sum expended in exchanges, at least since its 
official recognition by Congress in 1881 as the Government exchange 
agent), it appears upon deducting the amount appropriated by Con- 
gress, $35,500, from the balance shown ip the preceding paragraph, 
$73,641.01, that we have $38,141.01 as the amount due the private fund 
of James Smithson from 1868 to 1856. 

Considering separately the period from July 1, 1886, to June 30, 1889, 
we find that the amount expended in these years under the direction of 
the Smithsonian Institution on account of international exchanges was 
$47,126.56; of this sam $37,000 was paid by Congressional appropria- 
tions, $3,091.75 were paid by Government departments and others, and 
the balance, $7,034.81, by the Smithsonian Institution. 

To recapitulate briefly it appears, then, that the following sums have 

‘H. Mis, 129——2 


18 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


been expended from the Smithsonian funds for the support of the inter- 
national exchange system in the interests and by the authority of the 
National Government, namely, $38,141.01 in excess of appropriations 
advanced from January 1, 1868, to June 30, 1886, for the exchange of 
official Government documents, and $7,034.81 in excess of appropriations 
from July 1, 1886, to June 30, 1889, advanced for the purpose of carry- 
ing out a convention entered into by the United States, or an aggregate 
of $45,175.82. : 

A memorandum setting forth the above facts and requesting that 
steps be taken to procure the return to the Smithsonian fund by Con- 
gress of the sum last mentioned ($45,175.82) was transmitted on the 
20th of May, 1890, to the Hon. Benjamin Butterworth, ot the Board of 
Regents, to be laid by the latter before Congress in due form. 

The exchange work has shown the usual increase, no less than 82,572 
packages having been handled during the year, or 6,606 more than 
during the year immediately preceding. The number of societies and 
individuals for which exchange accounts are kept is now 16,002. 

The actual cost of the exchanges for the fiscal year, taking in ac- 
count bills rendered and moneys received up to September 21, 1890, 
for services rendered between July 1, 1889, and June 30, 1890, was 
$17,401.23. Of this sum $15,000 were appropriated directly by Con- 
gress, $1,986.14 were repaid by several Government bureaus to which 
appropriations had been made for the purpose, $28.40 was received 
from State institutions and other sources, leaving a deficiency of 
$386.69, which was paid from the Smithsonian fund. 

In my report for last year I had the honor to submit detailed esti- 
mates showing the necessity of larger appropriations by Congress if 
the Exchange Bureau is to be placed upon a Satisfactory footing. 

The chief increase in outlay would be to secure a more prompt service 
and to increase the number of exchanges that are received for the Li- 
brary of Congress, in return for the Government exchanges sent 
abroad. Itis probable that the number of the latter would be largely 
increased if special efforts were made to that end. 

An improvement in the promptness of transmission to Europe has 
taken place within the last few years, but packages are still unduly de- 
layed by reason of the fact that we are not able to pay for rapid trans- 
mission. The exchange boxes go by slow freight and we are in most 
instances dependent upon the courtesy of the steam-ship companies for 
free freight. The greater number of the publications now transmitted 
are for the benefit of the Government and it seems unjust to continue 
to make use of such privileges originally granted in the interests of 
of science. The entire sum asked for was $27,500. 

Our exchange relations with foreign Governments have undergone 
no material change on account of the treaty at Brussels proclaimed 
January 15, 1889, to which allusion has been made in previous reports. 

In order to carry out in good faith, as far as our own country is con- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 19 


cerned, the convention relating to the immediate exchange of parlia- 
mentary journals, a communication was directed to the honorable the 
Secretary of State under date of December 12, 1889, stating the neces- 
sity of procuring from Congress an appropriation of about $2,000 to meet 
the expenses of transmitting abroad copies of the Congressional Record 
and other published documents pertaining to the daily routine of Con- 
gress; and a joint resolution introduced at the instance of the honorable 
the Secretary of State was promptly passed by the Senate, appropriating 
the sum named, $2,000. I regret, however, that at the close of the fiscal 
year no action had been taken in the matter by the House of Repre- 
sentatives, and in consequence no attempt has been made to give effect 
to the treaty. 

Tables showing in detail the transactions of the year will be found in 
the report of the curator of exchanges appended hereto. 

The progress of work on the new exchange list is mentioned under the 
head of the library. 

LIBRARY. 


The accessions to the library have been recorded and cared for as dur- 
ing the last fiscal year. 

The following statement shows the number of books, maps, and charts 
received from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890: 


| Octavo | Quarto | 


| or or Total. 

| smaller. | larger. 
RVAG ITENTOS et alae rere ale ee eee naa isicicjols ono o oelo ore sine os ees roo aicineee a serine | 1, 236 527 1, 763 
Parts of volumes ...... Fe reeta satis ciaisiots clic es ait oe ictamy eis nie eieleletelelelers ie mresate | 5, 202 &, 256 | 138, 458 
IEP TTT (SUSE Sciacca es ee are eae ee eR Ce ae 3, 76 554| 4, 330 
MWIRSOS) -<ccostbtedacaosogs code DSccocesHdoN bade astonbognsSsesencncadessone |-----22-0- BAB BESsece 636 

fe eee ere 


To bal een EE La een pak es ih AE Ah St les pee ve At eRe Re rt albeee eee 20, 187 


Of these accessions, 8,695 (namely, 785 volumes, 6,900 parts of volumes, 
and 1,010 pamphlets) were retained for use at the National Museum 
library, and 1,059 medical dissertations were deposited in the library of 
the Surgeon-General, U.S. Army; the remainder were promptly sent 
to the Library of Congress on the Monday following their receipt. 

The reading room is now almost filled with periodicals. There are 
at present displayed the current volumes of 468 journals. The con- 
struction of shelves above the cases in the reading room has rendered 
it practicable to withdraw from the Smithsonian deposit in the Library 
of Congress the complete series of the large quarto Transactions or 
Memoirs of most of the great European academies; the Librarian of 
Congress kindly viving every facility for this transfer. iy 


*The publications now deposited in the reading. room are as follows: The ‘Hand- 
lingar” of the Royal Swedish Academy ; Transactions of the Royal Soe iety of Edin- 
burgh; Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy; “Skrifter” of the Royal Danish 
Society of Sciences; “ Denkschritten” of the Imperial Academy of Sciences, Vienna; 
Memoirs of the St. Petersburg Academy ; ‘‘ Atti” of the two Academies of the Lincei 
at Rome, the royal and the pontifical ; Nova Acta Academiw Cwsarex Leopoldino- 


20 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


In my last report, [ referred to the commencement of the work of 
increasing the library by exchanges. This work has now been carried 
on for a year with fairly promising results. 

The labor of assigning the different journals recommended as desira- 
ble to the four classes mentioned in my last report—namely, (1) journals 
which receive no Smithsonian publications, and which are not to be 
found in the library of the Institution; (2) journals which receive 
Smithsonian publications, but which make either no return or an inad- 
equate return for these; (3) journals which regularly exchange with 
the Institution, but of which the files in the library are for any reason 
defective; (4) journals which regularly exchange with the Institution, 
and of which the library possesses a complete file—occupied the time 
until January 18, 1890. The writing of letters asking for exchange or 
calling attention to deficiencies was then commenced systematically. 

Up to the close of the fiscal year, 1,601 such letters had been written. 
In response to these letters, 201 new exchanges were received and 360 
defective series were completed, either wholly or as far as the missing 
parts were still in print. 

A list of the new exchanges is presented in the Appendix (Report of 
the Librarian) where will also be found a list of the most important 
accessions outside of the regular serials. 

The work of re-organization of the library under the regulations which 
I had prepared upon my appointment as Assistant Secretary, and de- 
scribed at some length in my report for the years 1887-88, has been 
efficiently carried out by the librarian, Mr. Murdoch. I may also men- 
tion that a plan is under consideration for the further extension of the 
usefulness of the library, by establishing as a part of it a collection of 
books on general literature for the use of the employés of the Institu- 
tion and its dependencies, although in its present location its growth is 
impeded for lack of room, owing to the pressing demands of the Gov- 
ernment business in the Exchange Bureau. 


MISCELLANEOUS. 


Statue of Professor Baird.—I desire to call the attention of the Re- 
gents to the fact that the bill introduced in the Senate and passed by 
that body on February 10, 1888, making an appropriation for the eree- 
tion of a bronze statue in recognition of the distinguished services to 
the country of the late Professor Baird, has failed to reach final action 
by Congress. I earnestly hope that steps will be taken to secure for 
this measure the attention it merits, and I continue to give it my per- 
sonal care. 

Grants in aid of the physical sciences.—In accordance with an early 
established precedent, though one of late in disuse, some small grants, 


Caroline Germanice Nature Curiosorum; ‘“ Abhandlungen” of the Berlin Academy; 
“Nova Acta” of the Academy of Upsala. In addition to these the Philosophical 
Transactions of the Royal Society, and the ‘‘ Comptes-Rendus” of the French Aca» 
demy of Sciences have been deposited in the office of the editor, 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. PA 


from the Smithonian fund, commensurate rather with the abilities of 
the Institution than with its wishes, have been made this year to aid 
in physical science in addition to the aid so largely given to bioloigeal 
and ethnological science through the Museum, Bureau of Ethnology, 
and Zoological Park. 

The subscription of twenty copies of the Astronomical Journal, 
which are distributed abroad as exchanges of the Institution, has been 
continued. 

To the Lick Observatory, through its director, Professor Holden, a 
small grant has been made for the purchase of photographie plates 
and apparatus to be used in securing photographs of the moon, and es- 
pecially of certain regions on a large scaie, the results of the work be- 
ing available for publication by the Institution. 

Aid has also been promised Prof. Albert A. Michelson, of Clark 
University, Worcester, Mass., in his important investigations for the 
determination of a standard of length that shall depend upon the length 
of a wave of light. 

A small grant has been made to Mr. F. A. Seely, of the United States 
Patent Office, for the purchase of certain objects of archeological in- 
terest, during the course of a contemplated journey in Spain. 

Assignment of rooms for scientific work.—A. room in the basement, 
which is specially suited for delicate physical measurements, on account 
of its freedom from tremor, has been continued at the disposal of the 
U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey for pendulum experiments, and two 
office rooms have also been assigned to the temporary use of the 
Zoological Park Commission. The Regents’ room, in the south tower, 
was granted for a meeting of the American members of the committee 
on the * International Standards for Iron and Steel” on February 19, 
1890. 

Facilities for study in the Museum have been accorded to a number 
of students, as stated in describing the Museum work, and under special 
conditions instruction has been given in taxidermy and photography. 
The lecture hall in the Museum has been used by authority of the Exec- 
utive Committee for the meetings of the National Academy and other 
scientific organizations and for the Saturday lecture courses. 

Toner lecture fund.—This fund, which hasan estimated value of about 
$3,000, is in the care of a board of trustees, of which the secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution is ex officio chairman. No lecture has been 
delivered this year under the auspices of this fund. The lecture de- 
livered by Dr. Harrison Allen, on May 29, 1889, on the “Clinical Study 
of the Skull,” has been caw 

American Historical Association.—A_ bill to tore nnats the Ameri- 
can Historical Association, which provided that the Association should 
report annually to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and that 
the Secretary should communicate to Congress the whole of such re- 
ports, or such portion thereof as he might see fit, finally became a law 
on January 4, 1889. 


22 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


In December, 1889, the annual meeting of the Association took place 
in Washington, the morning session being held in the lecture hall of 
the National Museum and the evening session in the Columbian Univer- 
ity. The proceedings of this meeting are printed in the annual report 
of the association, which, in accordance with the provisions cited above, 
was submitted to me on January 14, 1890, and on June 18 was commu- 
nicated to Congress and ordered to be printed as Senate Miscellaneous 
Document No. 170. This report included, in addition to the proceed- 
ings of the annual meeting, a number of historical papers of a high 
order. 

The provision by which the Regents are authorized to Be the 
deposit of the collections, manuscripts, books, pamphlets, and other 
historical material of the Association, has been met as well as our pres- 
ent accommodations will admit, and in making an estimate for repairs 
to the Smithsonian buildings arrangements were made for a suitable 
and safe place in which such valuable records might be stored. 

Bureau of fine arts.—The desirability of having in connection with 
the Government a suitable depository of works of art has presented 
itself so forcibly to Members of Congress, and without suggestion on 
the part of the Regents, that a bill was introduced in the Senate by the 
Hon. Wilkinson Call, on December 4, 1889, providing for the establish- 
ment of a bureau of fine arts in the Smithsonian Institution. This was 
referred to the Committee on the Library, but has not been reported. 

The wording of the bill is as follows: 


Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That there be, and is hereby, 
created in the Smithsonian Institution a bureau called the Bureau 
of the Fine Arts, the management of which is entrusted to the See- 
retary of the Smithsonian Institution. 

Src. 2. That the purpose and duties of this bureau shall be to aid 
in the development of the fine arts in the several States and Territories 
of the United States, by the re-production, for the use of art schools and 
academies, of casts of statuary and other objects used in giving instrue- 
tion in art; by preparing and distributing plans for the construction of 
buildings and the adaptation of rooms suitable for use as art schools, 
with printed plans for the organization of various grades of art acad- 
emies and classes; by causing to be held annually in Washington, Dis- 
trict of Columbia, a public exhibition of works of art, open to all desir- 
ing to exhibit, in which the fairest possible opportunity for exposition 
shall be afforded all contributors; and by the publication of an annual 
register containing an account of new discoveries, inventions and meth- 
ods of instruction useful to students of art, together with a report of 
the progress of the fine arts in the United States. 

Sec. 3. That the re-productions and publications of the bureau shall 
be distributed amoung institutions of art, under such regulations as the 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution may establish. 

Sno. 4. That the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution shall pro- 
vide suitable quarters for the holding of the annual art exhibition. 

SEC. 5. That for the purpose of carrying on the operations of this 
bureau there be and is hereby appropriatedy for the fiscal year begin- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 23 


ning July 1st, eighteen hundred and eighty- , the sum of 

dollars, to be paid by the Secretary of the Treasury out of any moneys” 
in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and expended under the 
direction of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 

Capron collection of Japanese works of art.—A_ bill appropriating 
$14,675, introduced by the Hon. Daniel W. Voorhees on December 4, 
1889, was referred to the Committee on the Library, was reported favor- 
ably, and passed the Senate on March 29, 1890. It was also, on May 
19, 1890, reported favorably by the House Committee, but was not 
reached on the calendar at the close of the year. 

The World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1892.—The act of Con. 
gress approved April 25, 1890, which provides for celebrating the four 
hundredth anniversary of the discovery of America by Christopher 
Columbus, by holding an international exhibition of arts, industries, 
manufactures, and the product of the soil, mine, and sea in the city of 
Chicago, states in section 16: 

That there shall be exhibited at said exposition by the Government 
of the United States, from its Executive Departments, the Smithsonian 
Institution, the United States Fish Commission, and the National 
Museum, such articles and materials as illustrate the function and 
administrative faculty of the Government in time of peace and its 
resources as a war power, tending to demonstrate the nature of our insti- 
tutions and their adaptation to the wants of the people; and to secure 
a complete and harmonious arrangement of such a Government ex- 
hibit, a board shall be created to be charged with the selection, prep- 
aration, arrangement, safe-keeping, and exhibition of such articles 
and materials as the heads of the several Departments and the direc- 
tors of the Smithsonian Institution and National Museum may respect- 
ively decide shall be embraced in said Government exhibit. The Pres. 
ident may also designate additionai articles for exhibition. Such board 
shall be composed of one person to be named by the bead of each 
Executive Department, and one by the directors of the Smithsonian 
Institution and National Museum, and one by the Fish Commission, such 
selection to be approved by the President of the United States. The 
President shall name the chairman of said board, and the board itself 
shall select such other officers as it may deem necessary. 

Under the authority conveyed by this act I have designated as the 
representative upon this board of the Smithsonian Institution and Na- 
tional Museum, the assistant secretary of the Institution, Dr. G. Brown 
Goode, who has already devoted considerable time to the subject of the 
proposed exposition in addition to his other official duties. 

In connection with this requirement that an exhibit shall be made 
by the National Museum, I beg leave to recur to the fact that it has 
been the experience in connection with previous expositions on a smaller 
scale, that the routine work of the Institution is seriously interfered 
with by thus throwing upon its regular employés the great burden in- 
volved in the preparation, packing, and displaying of Museum mate- 
rial without adequate assistance by an increased appropriation during 
this time of unusual effort. The impairment of specimens by frequent 
transportation should also be borne in mind, and in justice to our per- 


24 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


manent exhibits provision should be made for repairing any damage 
incurred. 

Stereotype plates.—All the stereotype plates belonging to the Institu- 
tion are now stored in the basement of the building, and some progress 
has been made in examining, re-arranging, and where the boxes have 
become worn out, in re-packing plates. Owing to the limited amount 
of time that can be devoted to this work, however, it will be some months 
before they can be put in a thoroughly satisfactory condition for ready 
reference. 

A request from Messrs. Lee & Shepard, of Boston, for the use of 
plates from Professor Hyatt’s “Genesis of the Arietide” has been cheer- 
fully complied with. : 

Correspondence.—I have given much attention to the improvement of 
the methods of handling the correspondence of the Institution, which is 
constantly growing and has already assumed very considerable propor- 
tions. A simple but effective means of recording letters, showing ata 
glance, what letters remain unanswered each week, has been intro- 
duced, and as a result few letters remain long without reply. 

It should be borne in mind, however, that the character of the cor- 
respondence, except such as relates to business routine, is quite differ- 
ent from that of Government bureaus. Constant inquiries are made 
from all parts of the country for information on almost every conceiva- 
ble topic, and requests for statistics and for information on the most 
varying scientific subjects. It is intended that all of these inquiries 
should receive acknowledgment, and,wherever possible, that the infor- 
mation desired should be sent, thoughin many cases it requires an amount 
of time and labor on the part of curators and other officers of the Insti- 
tution wholly out of proportion to the merits of the case. 

As properly coming under the head of “ diffusion of knowledge,” it 
does not seem proper to neglect such inquiries, and it is intended to give 
encouragement and advice wherever possible to all interested in the ob- 
jects of the Institution. 

The course taken by an incoming letter is now as follows: The 
mail is opened each morning in the chief clerk’s office, and all letters 
addressed to the secretary or the Institution, with the exception of 
those on printed forms, purely routine matters, and applications for 
Museum publications, are placed on the secretary’s desk at 10 o’clock, 
together with letters for signature. Having been acted upon, the 
date stamp of the secretary’s office is affixed to each communication 
and the letter is then returned to the chief clerk’s office. Should 
the secretary have written in his own hand the name of any em- 
ployé or officer of the Institution upon a letter, such action means 
that tbe letter is to be referred to the person named, who is expected: 
to prepare a reply thereto for the secretary’s signature. 

The one exception to this rule is whenthe secretary refers a letter to 
the assistant secretary, who exercises his discretion as to whether the 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 25 


letter should be answered at all or not, and if so, whether he or the 
secretary should sign the reply. 

In case no comment has been made by the secretary, the disposition 
of the letters is left to the chief clerk, who assigns them to the officers 
or clerks having in charge the matter treated of. The letters are then 
sent to the registry clerk, who affixes the registry number and records 
the letter in a book suitably ruled with the following columns: 


1. Registry number of letter. 7. By whom referred. 

2. Name of writer. 8. When referred. 

3. Address. 9. Date of answer, or indication no an- 
4. When written. swer required. 

5. When received. - | 10. Synopsis of contents. 

6. To whom referred. | 


A special form is sent with letters referred to the Museum, by means 

of which an accurate record of the disposition of the letter may be kept, 
and a similar form is used for letters referred to employés of the Smith- 
sonian Institution proper. 
- The object of this system is, as above stated, to insure that each let- 
ter requiring an answer shall receive it with all attainable promptness, 
or that a record shall be made of the fact that no answer is required, 
and, as a rule, it is believed that letters are now being answered on the 
day after receipt, except in the case of the somewhat numerous class 
referred to, upon which the report of an expert is first necessary. In 
the latter case, a limit of six days has been fixed upon from the date 
of receipt in which to answer ordinary routine letters. A report is 
rendered each week of the letters that are then unanswered. This 
system, while entailing some additional labor, appears to be fully 
justified by the results. 

Representative relations.—In response to an invitation from Dr. Henry 
Schliemann, forwarded through the Department of State, to designate 
a representative of the Smithsonian Institution to participate in an 
International Conference, held on the ruins of ancient Troy during the 
latter part of March, 1890, Dr. Charles Waldstein, director of the 
American School of Classical Studies at Athens, was requested to act 
as representative of the Institution, and he has most kindly complied 
with this request, transmitting an interesting report of the proceed- 
ings of the Conference. 

Prof. H. Carrington Bolton courteously represented the Institution at 
the installation of Dr. Low as president of Columbia College, New York, 
on February 3, 1890. 

Prof. Otis T. Mason was appointed as the representative of the Insti- 
tution upon a joint board composed of delegates from different bureaus 
of the Government interested in the subject to consider and decide 
questions of geographical orthography and nomenclature. This board 
met for organization at the office of the Superintendent of the U.S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey on the 18th of March, and its work is one 


26 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


that has already proved to be of great value to the Government and to 
others interested in geographical matters. 

I take occasion to express to the Director of the Mint, the Hon. E. O. 
Leech, my acknowledgments for his kindness in having prepared an 
intaglio head of the late Professor Henry for certain official correspond- 
ence,—an excellent work of art. 


U. S. NATIONAL MUSEUM. 


The operations of the National Museum are fully described in the 
separate Report of the Assistant Secretary, in which are included (1) 
the report of the Assistant Secretary in charge of the Museum ; (2) 
the reports of the curators of the scientific departments of the Muse- 


um; (3) Special papers based upon and illustrative of collections in the - 


Museum; (4) bibliography of the publications of the Museum and of 
papers published by Museum officers and other collaborators; (5) a 
list of the accessions to the Museum during the year. 


Increase of the Museum collections.—A small number of specimens were 
purchased during the year. The necessity of expending a considerable 
sum of money in the purchase of new material becomes every year more 
apparent. The donations of friends of the Museum are to a large ex- 
tent miscellaneous in character, and they frequently duplicate, rather 
than enlarge and complete, the various series of objects already in the 
collections. The Museum has now reached a point where the complete 
presentation of subjects by means of full suites of specimens is of the 
highest importance, and this can be accomplished only by purchase. 

The increase in the number of accessions during the year has been 
less than in tke preceding year by nearly 200 numbers. This is not 
surprising, since no special efforts have been made to secure new 
inaterial, excepting in certain directions, in which the completion of 
special series of objects was desired, in view of the crowded condition 
of both the storage and exhibition space. This matter has repeatedly 
been referred to in the more recent reports of the Institution and of the 
Museum, and efforts have been made to obtain an appropriation from 
Congress for the construction of a new Museum building. The Senate 
has acted favorably in regard to the matter, but its action has not 
received the support of the House of Representatives. 

The contributions during the year, althougb less in number than in 
the previous year, are, taken as a whole, equal in importance. Espe- 
cially is this true in the case of material acquired from foreign countries, 
and of collections received through the assistance of the Departments 
and Bureaus of the Government. 

The extent and character of the accessions during the year and each 
year since 1881 is shown in the appended table. The total uaumber of 
specimens received during the year covered by this report is estimated 
at 81,992. : 


4 sanemenate ———r 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


27 


Name of department. | 1882. | 1883. | 1884. |11g85'86.| 1886-87. | 1887-"88. |1888-’s9. | 21889-"90. 
tl 5 poe H nace eo | ; 
Arts and industries: | 
Materia medica......-. jsceeece 4, 000 4,442 | 4, 850 5, 516 5, 762 | 5,942 35,915 
Mads 22 9s2ce 7 ee =. Ee Saauee | 1244 | 1,580 822 817 877 911 1,111 
DIGS AMC cp ecessncpescd lssarceas |------2- 2,000 | 3, 0638 3,144 | 3,144) 3,222 3, 288 
OST Ae Se Be OAS Na Bee ear 5,000 | 9,870 | 10,078 | 10,078 | 10,078 10, 080 
Animal products. .-.-.-- |------2-]-------- 1, 000 2, 792 2, 822 2, 822 2, 948 2, 949 
Graphicjartes---2----- == jporcesed Bscascad lecsessrsed| baecosead! eoousosnd |posensbce eee! | 4600 
Transportation and en- 

PRES Se So cae SESOSE]| PR ESACRE 2O00 Seog Jeane aaet Ecoosbobo SSOOs aa ad scene ocod Macesbese 4], 250 
Naval architecture -...|-------.]-------- C1) brcSocrma| bcooncchd bassaocs 600 5600 
Historical relics ~---...|-->-----]--------] 3 ce. 1,002 |) 

Coins, medals, paper 413,634 | 14,640) 14,990) 20,890 

money, Cte. .----.--..|--------|-----=--] 0... 1,005 J 
Musical instruments -..|----.--.]----.--.|_......... 400 | 417 427 427 447 
Modern pottery, por- | | 

celain, and bronzes. ..| -----.-.|--------|.......... 2,278 | 2,238 3, O11 3, O11 3, 132 
Paints and dyes ..--.-.]-------.|------0-| oso 17 | 100 100 109 197 
“The Catlin Gallery” -|' -------|--------| -._...... 500 500 500 | 500 (8) 
Physical apparatus -...|---.----]--------|....22.... 250 251 251 251 263 
Oils and gums -..-.---.}-------.|--------|...... ee 197 198 198 | 213 gs 
(GhemicaleproduGhseeeen | =e seca 659 | 661 661 688 va 
Domestic animals..-....|-------. | ASDECORS| Peta ee er erteenens| Reise aoe Sgoeeede, || eaascdo: | 66 

Hebbnolopy. tees ease. oe] osc ee lect cace 200,000 | 500,000 | 503,764 | 505,464 506,324 508, 830 
American aboriginal pot- | 
‘ein LE ee re Eee aaa a 12,000 | 25,000 | 26,022 | 27,122 | 28,222) 29, 269 
Oriental antiquities. -......|-------.|.--..-.-|.-.... = |eScccesaglleoseSsecdbsocsse 850 | 3, 485 
Prehistoric anthropology ..| 35,512 40,491 | 45,252 | 65,314 | 101,659 108, 631 | 116,472 |. 123,677 
Mammals (skins and alco- 
holies) erence sass | 4,660; 4,920 5,694 | 7,451 | 7,811] .8,058) 8,275 | 8, 836 
IBIRdS Sees nos ae ee Ssece ee 44, 354 | 47, 246 50,350 | 55,945 | 54,987 | 56,484 | 57, 974 60, 219 
Birdsweces andinests) sae) sae fae | aos secs 40,072 | 44,163 | 48,173 | 50,055 | 50,173 | 51, 241 
Reptiles and batrachians . ae ee ena Meee 23,495 | 25,344 | 27,542 | 27,664 | 28, 405 | 29, 050 
Mishes secs e so ae saa: = 50, 000 | 65, 000 68,000 | 75,000 | 100,000 | 101,350 | 107, 350 | 122; 575 
Wii Sans (ENE) ee cokknad| sncbdesd Lescouse| Hocondsese ecospcan ||-Saosaccd) cecnmotod||oosce5cac | 7512 
Mollusks¥= 2-5: 2as.0 25 -—- 33, 375 |........| 400,000 | 460, 000 | 425, 000 | 455, 000 | 468, 000 | 471, 500 
AMNSOCES ese Aa ainsi ntn aia TROO0A eee 151, 000 | 500,000 | 585, 000 | 595, 000 | 603, 000 618, 000 
Marine invertebrates ---.-- 11, 781 | 14,825 | 200,000 | 350,000 | 450,000 | 515,000 | 515,300 | 520, 000 
Comparative anatomy: { 
a 3, O39 Sata unas es 214 ; 10, 210 | 11,022 | 11,558 | 11,753 12, 326 
JSTEN INS Bona sane coneee 70 103 3, 000 
Palwozoic fossils.........-.|-------- 20,000} 73,000) 80,482 | 84,491 | 84,649 | 91, 126 92, 355 
Mesozoic fossis! 2.52 -2-5226|ec-=5---|2 o-s50 5 100,000 | 69,742 | 70,775 | 70,925 | 71, 236 71, 305 


1No census of collection taken. 


2 The actual increase in the collections during the year 1889-90 is much greater than appears from 


a comparison of the totals for 1889 and for 1890. 


This is explained by the apparent absence of any 


increase in the Departments of Lithology and Metallurgy, the total for 1890 in both of these depart 
ments combined showing a decrease of 46,314 specimens, ow!ng to the rejection of worthless material. 

3 Although about two hundred specimens have been received during the year, tbe total number of 
specimens in the collection is now less than that estimated for 1889, owing to the rejection of worth- 


less material. 


4 The collection now contains between 3,000 and 4,000 specimens. 
5 No estimate of increase made in 1890. 
6 Included in the historical collection. 

7 Only a small portion of the collection represented by this number was received during the year 


1889-"90. 


28 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Name of department. 1882. | 1883. | 1884. 1885-86. | 1886-87. | 1887-’88. | 1888-’89,| 1889-’90. 
Cenozoic fossils..........-. | (Included with mollusks.) 
HOssilsplantaper see eee ee lle eee 4, 624 7,291 | 7,429] 8,462] 10,000| 10,178 10, 507 
RECON gPlAMtS ae sane lhe ee oo | ones ceciewete ete 30,000 | 32,000 | 38,000 | 38, 459 39, 654 
Maineralsecetevec ao ctcc eset ae. ee 14, 550 16, 610 18, 401 18, 601 21,896 | 27, 690 37, 101 
Lithology and physical ge- 

OlODYeerncccorcce serene 9,075 | 12,500 | 18,000 20,647 | 21, 500 22,500 | 27,000 | ) 
Metallurgy and economic \ 232, 762 

PeOlO eye eet ae aA [ER 30,000 | 40,000 | 48,000 | 49,000} 51,412] 52,076 j 
ivingianimald sss. sec hace |e aecesealca set an ee serena | ae caer lnemisee cee 220 S491 IE Sa oncecee 
TLotallenc cscs Sesee es (193, 362 |263, 143 /1, 472, 600 |2,420, 944 2,666,335 2,803,459 |2,864,244 | 2, 895, 104 


) These numbers have reference ouly to specimens received through the Museum, and do not include 
specimens received for the National Herbarium through the Department of Agriculture. 

* Collections combined in October, 1889, under Department of Geology. The apparent decrease of 
more than 50 per cent. of the estimated total for 1889 is accounted for (1) by the rejection of several 
thousands of specimens from the collection, and (2) by the fact that no estimate of the specimens 
in the reserve and duplicate series is included. Of the total fur 1890, about 16,000 specimens consist 
chiefly of petrographical material stored away for study and comparison in the drawers of table cases. 

3 Transferred to the National Zoological Park. 


Catalogue entries.—The number of entries made in the catalogue of 
the several departments of the Museum during the year is 28,293. 

The number of boxes and packages recorded by the registrar as having 
been received during the year, and entered upon the transportation 
record of the Smithsonian Institution, is 52,079. Of this number 827 
contained specimens for the Museum. Although the total number of 
packages received is more than three times as great as that for last 
year, the number of packages containing specimens for the Museum is 
only a little more than one-third of the number received during 1889. 


Co-operation of the Departments of Government.—The friendly interest 
displayed in the work of the National Museum by officers of the De- 
partments of the Government has been continued. In no previous year 
has the Museum had occasion to acknowledge more gratefully the cour. 
teous assistance rendered by the Secretaries of the Departments and 
the chiefs of many of the Bureaus. 

Through the medium of the Department of State, several United 
States ministers and consuls have brought their influence to bear in 
obtaining for the Museum representations of the fauna and flora of the 
regions in which they are residing. 

The Secretary of the Treasury has extended the usual courtesies in 
connection with the free entry of specimens. Special facilities have 
been afforded in connection with the visit of Mr. Henry W. Elliott to 
the Seal Islands of Alaska, which, it is hoped, will result in the addition 
of several specimens of fur-seal, fishes, and other natural-history objects 
to the collections. The Coast and Geodetic Survey, the Revenue Ma- 
rine Division, the Life-Saving Service, and the Light-House Board have 
assisted collectors for the Museum in special ways. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 29 


Several officers of the U.S. Army have made valuable contributions. 
The Quartermaster’s Department has extended important assistance in 
connection with the transportation of bulky material for the Museum. 

From officers of the U.S. Navy many collections have been received 
from foreign countries, including the West Indies, Liberia, the Samoan 
Islands, and Mexico. 

Through the courtesy of the Secretary of the Interior, the Museum 
has received a very valuable collection of ethnological specimens from 
the Indians of the Tulalip Reservation, Washington. The material 
transmitted to the Museum by the U.S. Geological Survey is large in 
exteut and quite equal in importance to the collections received from 
that source in previous years. 

From the Divisions of Animal Industry, Entomology, Botany, For- 
estry, and Ornithology and Mammalogy, in the Department of Agricul- 
ture, numerous contributions have been received. 


Distribution of Duplicate Specimens.—Collections of ethnological, zoo- 
logical, botanical, and geological specimens, contained in two hundred 
and one packages, have been distributed during the year to about one 
hundred and twenty educational establishments at home and abroad. 
A large number of duplicate sets of minerals and marine invertebrates 
were included in these distributions. 

Numerous applications for duplicate specimens, chiefly minerals, still 
remain unfilled. It is hoped that during the next fiscal year it will be 
possible to send out bird-skins and rocks also. ; 


Museum Publications.—This departinent of the Museum work has 
been unusually active during the year. 

The Museum Reports for 1886 and 1887 have been published. EKach 
of these volumes contains several papers based upon collections in the 
Museum by Museum officers and other collaborators. 

Volume XI of the Proceedings of the National Museum, for 1888, has 
been issued. This contains xi+703 pages, 60 plates, and 122 text fig- 
ures. It includes eighty-five papers by forty-three authors, nineteen 
of whom are officers of the Museum. The papers composing Volume 
XII of Proceedings of the National Museum, for 1889, are twenty-nine 
in number (Nos. 761-789); and were all published as separates dur- 
ing the year, although the bound volume has not yet been issued. 
Commencing with this volume the system of issuing sixteen pages at 
a time—forming a signature—as soon as sufficient manuseript had 
accumulated, has been discontinued. Each paper is now printed separ- 
ately, in advance of the bound volume, and is immediately distributed 
to specialists. 

Five numbers of the Bulletin have been published (Nos. 34-38, inclu- 
sive). Bulletin 34 relates to “The Batrachia of North America,” by 
Prof. E. D. Cope. Bulletin 35 contains a “ Bibliographical Catalogue 
of the Described Transformations of North American Lepidoptera,” by 


30 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Mr. Henry Edwards. Bulletin 36 is entitled “Contributions to the 
Natural History of the Cetaceans, A Review of the Family Delphinide,” 
by Mr. Frederick W. True. Bulletin 38 has the title: ‘‘Contribution 
toward a Monograph of the Insects of the Lepidopterous family Noce- 
tuide of Temperate North America,” and is a revision of the species 
of the genus Agrotis. This Bulletin, by Mr. John B. Smith, of Rutgers 
College, New Jersey, was not actually published until after the close of 
the fiscal year, although it was put in type during the year covered by 
this report. The manuscript for other Bulletins relating to deep-sea 
fishes, by Drs. G. Brown Goode and Tarleton H. Bean, and to a descrip- 
tion of the metallurgical collection in the Museum, by Mr. Fred P. Dewey, 
has been transmitted to the Government Printing Office. 

A large number of papers upon scientific subjects have been pub- 
lished by officers of the Museum and other specialists. They are re- 
ferred to in the bibliography of Museum publications, constituting Sec- 
tion Iv of the separate report of the Assistant Secretary. 


Assistance to students.—The usual facilities have been granted to stu- 
dents in the various branches of natural history, and several collections 
have been lent to specialists for comparison and study. Dr. R. W. Shu- 
feldt, U. S. Army, requested permission to study bird-skeletons. Mr. 
Bashford Dean, of the College of the City of New York, received fishes 
for study; a collection of bats from the British Museum was furnished 
to Dr. Harrison Allen, of Philadelphia, for comparison and study; a part 
of the Museum collection of Coleoptera was sent for a similar purpose to 
Capt. T. L. Casey, of New York City. Several persons have received 
instruction in taxidermy and photography. 


Special researches.—Several of the curators in the Museum are pre- 
paring for publication in the Museum Report for 1890 papers which are 
the result of special investigation and research. Among these may be 
mentioned a hand-book of the geological collections, by Mr. George P. 
Merrill; a descriptive paper relating to the collection of humming-birds 
in the Museum, by Mr. Robert Ridgway; papers relating to Japanese 
religion and Japanese burials, by Mr. Romyn Hitchcock. Other gen. 
tlemen, not officially connected with the Museum, have also prepared 
papers for publication in the same volume. 

The Museum Report each year contains a number of descriptive 
papers of the kind alluded to, and the interest which they have excited 
among all classes of people has been very great. During this year sev- 
eral hundred copies of papers of this character, printed in the more re- 
cently published reports of the Museum, have been distributed free of 
cost. Among these may be especially noted the ‘* Hand-Book and Cata- 
logue of the Building and Ornamental Stones in the National Museum,” 
by Mr. George P. Merrill,* and the paper entitled ‘* The Extermination 
of the American Bison,” by Mr. William T. Hornaday.”t 


—~_ 


. Printed in the report for 1836 and also separately. : ae 
t Printed in the report for 1887 and also separately. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 31. 


Museum library.—The number of publications added to the Library 
during the year is 12,437, of which 1,479 are volumes of more than 100 
pages, 2,250 pamphlets, 8,672 parts of regular serials, and 36 charts. 
With the exception of the charts these numbers are more than double 
the receipts of last year. The most notable gift was a nearly complete 
set of Kiener’s ‘‘ lconographie des Coquilles Vivantes,” illustrated with 
very beautifully colored plates. This was presented by the Wagner 
Free Institute of Science, in Philadelphia. 


Museum labels.—During the year 3,920 forms of labels have been 
printed (twenty-four copies of each form) for use in connection with 
labeling the collections of ethnology, geology, mammals, comparative 
anatomy, porcelains, oriental antiquities, graphic arts, foods, textiles, 
and materia medica. 


Meetings and lectures.—The use of the Lecture Hall has been granted 
for lectures and meetings of scientific societies, as The Association of 
American Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations, November 
12-15, 1889, inclusive; the American Historical Association, December 
28-31; the American Institute of Mining Engineers, February 18, 1890; 
Memorial Meeting of the Academy of Sciences, March 27; the Geological 
Society of America, April 17; the National Academy of Sciences, April 
15-18, inclusive; Meeting of the Committee on Arrangements of the 
Geological Congress, April 18; The National Geographic Society, May 2. 

The course of Saturday lectures, ten in number, beginning February 
1, and ending April 3, was delivered under the direction of the joint 
committee of the scientific societies of Washington. A course of four 
lectures relating to the anthropological exhibits at the Paris Exposi- 
tion in 1889 was given in May by Mr. Thomas Wilson, curator of ar- 
cheology. A lecture, under the auspices of the National Geographic 
Society, was delivered on April 11 by Ensign J. B. Bernadou on the 
subject of ‘* Corea and the Coreans.” 


Visitors.—The number of visitors to the Museum building during the 
year ending June 30, 1890, was 274,324. The number of visitors to the 
Smithsonian building during the same period was 120,894. These fig- 
ures are considerably less than during 1889, when, on account of the 
inauguration of President Harrison, immense numbers of people visited 
the Museum. On March 5, it may be remembered, more than 56,000 
people visited the Museum and Smithsonian buildings. The total num- 
ber of visitors since 1381 to the Museum building is 2,111,949, and to the 
Smithsonian building, 970,012. 


EHetension of hours for visiting the Museum.—On December 20 a bill 
was introduced in the House of Representatives by the Hon. W. H. 
Crain, having for its object the opening of the Smithsonian and Museum 
buildings during extra hours. Mr, Crain also introduced a bill later in 


- 82 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


the session to provide an electric plant for lighting the buildings. 
Neither of these bills has been reported from the committees to which 
they were referred. 


Museum personnel.—Mr. George P. Merrill has been appointed Curator 
of the Department of Geology, which combines the functions of the 
previously existing departments of Lithology and Physical Geology, 
and of Metallurgy. This change in the administration of these depart- 
ments was made upon the resignation of Mr. Fred P. Dewey, who for 
several years had been in charge of the metallurgical collections. 

Mr. William C. Winlock, of the Smithsonian Institution, was appointed 
Honorary Curator of the Section of Physical Apparatus in the National 
Museum. 

Mr. William T. Hornaday, perhaps the first taxidermist in the coun- 
try, through his extensive knowledge of the habits and natural atti- 
tudes of animals, in a very wide range of travel as a field naturalist, 
has elevated the standard of his art by the fidelity of his groupings and 
his skill in the representation of life-like aspects in the plastic form. 
He had rendered valuable service to the National Museum as its chief 
taxidermist, and subsequently as Honorary Curator of the Department 
of Living Animals, which led to his appointment as Acting Superinten- 
dent of the National Zoological Park. From this position he resigned 
on the 15th of June last. 

Dr. Frank Baker was, in June, appointed Honorary Curator of the 
Department of Comparative Anatomy in the Museum, though as it 
has been found necessary to assign Dr. Baker to temporary duty as 
Acting Manager of the National Zoological Park, Mr. F. W. True con- 
tinues to fill the position of acting curator of that department. 

A detailed statement relating to the work of the administrative offi- 
cers of the Museum will be found in the volume containing the report 
of the Assistant Secretary. 


Explorations.—In connection with the expedition sent by the United 
States Government to the West Coast of Africa to take observations of 
the eclipse of the sun, the National Museum obtained the privilege of 
sending a naturalist for the purpose of making collections of ethnological 
and zoological objects. Mr. William Harvey Brown, of the National 
Museum, was detailed to accompany the expedition. Early in June, 
1890, the first collections were received as the result of his explorations. 
They included mammals, fishes, insects, plants, reptiles, birds, shells, 
rocks, and ethnological objects. Additicnal collections will doubtless 
soou be received; and will be referred to in the next report. As an 
outcome of Mr. Brown’s exploration work, collections have been re- 
ceived from Rev. G. H. R. Fisk, Mr. J. H. Brady, Mr. P.-MacOwan, 
director of the Botanical Garden at Cape Town, Mr. Frye, of Cape Town, 
and others, The thanks of the Smithsonian Institution are especially 


a a 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 33 


due to several of the officers and sailors of the U. 8S. 8S. Pensacola for 
assistance rendered Mr. Brown in his work. 

Dr. W. H. Rush, U.S. Navy, has kindly offered to collect marine in- 
vertebrates during his expedition to the Azores, Madeira, and the En- 
glish Channel. 

Mr. J. P. Iddings, of the U. S. Geological Survey, has expressed his 
willingness to bear in mind the requests of the Museum during his ex- 
pedition to the volcanic regions of Europe. 

Mr. E. M. Aaron, of the American Entomological Society, has kindly 
offered to be of service to the Museum in collecting entomological ma- 
terial during his visit to Jamaica. 

Mr. C. k, Orcutt, of San Diego, California, has announced his inten- 
tion to visit the Colorado desert and the Gulf of California, and to 
allow the Museuin to share the results of his expedition. 

Mr. Henry W. Elliott, formerly of the Alaska Commercial Company, 
is visiting the Seal Islands of Alaska on business connected with the 
United States Government, and hopes to be able to secure for the Mu- 
seum some fine specimens of walrus, fur-seal, fishes, and other zoolog- 
ical material. 


Department of living animals.—Upon the passage of the bill placing 
the National Zoological Park under the care of the Board of Regents, 
the department of living animals of the Museum was merged in the 
new park and the necessary transfers were made from the Museum 
rolls. For convenience, therefore, the report in regard to the principal 
accessions to this department have been included in the report of the 
acting manager of the Park. 

The animals are retained for the present in their sheds in the Smith- 
sonian Grounds for the reason that during the fitting up of the Park 
they can there be cared for at a much less expense; for instance, two 
watchmen are now required instead of twenty that would probably be 
needed at the Park, where each group of animals will be placed in a 
center from which to grow, a plan that involves the necessity at first 
of spreading the collection over a considerable area. 

The interest in this small collection has constantly inereased, and 
has been manifested by numerous offers of valuable gifts, most of which 
it has been impossible, through lack of space and immediate accommoda- 
tions, to accept. 


H. His. 129——3 


34 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK. 


In the early part of this century a naturalist traveling in Siberia 

stood by the mutilated body of a mammoth still undecayed, which the 
melting of the frozen gravel had revealed, and to the skeleton of which 
large portions of flesh, skin, and hair still clung. The remains were 
excavated and transported many hundred miles across the frozen 
waste, and at last reached the Imperial Museum at St. Petersburg, 
where, through all these years, the mounted skeleton has justly been 
regarded as the greatest treasure of that magnificent collection. 
' Scientific memoirs, popular books, theological works, poems—in 
short, a whole literature—has come into existence with this discoy- 
ery as its text. No other event in all the history of such subjects has 
excited a greater or more permanent interest outside of purely scien. 
tific circles; for the resurrection of this ‘relic of a geologic time ina 
condition analogous to that in which the bodies of contemporaneous 
animals are daily seen brings home to the mind of the least curious 
observer the reality of a long extinct race with a vividness which no 
fossils or petrifactions of the ordinary sort can possibly equal. 

Now, I am assured by most competent naturalists that few, if any, 
of those not particularly devoted to the study of American animals 
realize that changes have already occurred or are on the point of taking 
place in our own characteristic fauna compared with which the disap- 
pearance from it of the mammoth wasinsignificant. That animal was 
common to all northern lands in its day. The practical domestication 
of the elephant gives to every one the opportunity of observing a 
gigantic creature closely allied to the mammoth, and from which he may 
gain an approximately correct idea of it. But no such example is at 
handinthe case of the bison, the prong-horn antelope, the elk, the Rocky 
Mountain goat, and many more of our vanishing races. 

The student of even the most modern text-books learns that the 
characteristic larger animals of the United States are those just men- 
tioned, with the moose, the grizzly bear, the beaver, and if we include 
marine forms and aretic American animals we may add the northern 
fur-seal, the Pacific walrus, the Californian sea-elephant, the manatee, 
and still others. 

With one or two exceptions out of this long list, men now living can 
remember when each of these animals was reasonably abundant within 
its natural territory. It is within the bounds of moderation to affirm 
that unless Congress places some check on the present rate of destruc- 
tion there are men now living who will see the time when the animals 
enumerated will be practically extinct, or exterminated within the lim- 
its of the United States. Already the census of some of them can be 
expressed in three figures. 

The fate of the bison, or American buffalo, is typical of them all. 
‘¢ Whether we consider this noble animal,” says Audubon, “ as an ob- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 35 


ject of the chase or as an article of food for man, it is decidedly the 
most important of all our American contemporary quadrupeds.” 

At the middle of the last century this animal pastured in Pennsylva- 
nia and Virginia, and even at the close of the century ranged over the 
whole Mississippi Valley and further west wherever pasturage was to 
be found. At the present time a few hundred survivors represent the 
millions of the last century, and we should not have even these few 
hundred within our territory had it not been for the wise action of 
Congress in providing for them a safe home in the Yellowstone Park. 

Now, for several reasons it has been comparatively easy to trace the 
decline of the buffalo population. The size of the animal, its prefer- 
ence for open country, the sportsman’s interest in it, and its relations 
to the food-supply of the Western Indians, all led to the observation 
and record of changes; and accordingly I have made special mention 
of this animal in representing the advantages of a national zoological 
park where it might be preserved; but this is by no means the only 
characteristic creature now threatened with speedy extinction. 

The moose is known to be at the present time a rare animal in the 
United States, but is in less immediate danger than some others. The 
elk is vigorously hunted and is no longer easily obtained, even in its 
most favored haunts. The grizzly bear is believed to be rapidly ap- 
proaching extinction outside of the Yellowstone Park, where, owing 
to the assiduous care of those in charge, both it and the elk are still 
preserved. The mountain sheep and goat, which inhabit less accessi- 
ble regions, are becoming more and more rare, while the beaver has 
retreated from a vast former area to such secluded haunts that it may 
possibly survive longer than the other species which I have just enu- 
merated, and which are but a portion of those in imminent danger of 
extinction. 

Among the marine forms the manatee still exists, but, although not 
exterminated, it is in immediate danger of beeomimg so, like the Cali- 
fornian sea-elephant, a gigantic creature, often of greater bulk than the 
elephant, which has suffered the fate of complete extinction within a 
few past years; at least it is uncertain whether a single individual 
actually survives. The Pacific walrus, upon which a large native popu- 
lation has always in great part depended for food and hides, is rapidly 
following the sea-elephant, and so on with other species. 

This appalling destruction is not confined to mammals. Disregard 
ing the birds of song and plumage, to which the fashions of the milli. 
ner have brought disaster, nearly all the larger and more characteristic 
American birds have suffered in the same way as their four-footed con- 
temporaries. The fate of the great Auk i$ familiar to all naturalists ; 
but it isnot so well known that the great Californian valture and sev- 
eral of the beautiful sea-fow] of our coasts have met tlic same fate, and 
that the wild pigeon, whose astonishing flocks were dwelt upon by Au- 
dubon and others in such remarkable descriptions and which were long 


36 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


the wonder of American travelers, with the iess known, but magnificent 
ivory-billed woodpecker, and the pretty Carolina parrakeet, have all 
become, if not extinct, among the rarest of birds. 

Apart from the commercial value of its skins, the tax upon which 
has paid for the cost of our vast Alaskan territory, the singular habits 
and teeming millions of the northern fur-seal have excited general in- 
terest even among those who are not interested in natural history. In 
1849 these animals abounded from Lower California to the lonely 
Alaskan Isles, and it has been supposed that the precautions taken by 
the Government for their protection on the breeding-grounds of the 
Pribilov Islands would preserve permanently tke still considerable 
remnant which existed after the purchase of Alaska and the destruction 
of the southern rookeries. But it is becoming too evident that the 
greed of the hunters and the devastation caused by the general adop- 
tion of the method of pursuing them in the open sea, destroying indis- 
criminately mothers and offspring, is going to bring these hopes to 
naught. 

For most of these animals, therefore, it may be regarded as certain 
that, unless some small remnant be preserved in a semi-domesticated 
state, a few years will bring utter extinction. The American of the 
next generation, when questioned about the animals once characteristic 
of his country, will then be forced to confess that with the exception of 
a few insignificant creatures, ranking as vermin, this broad continent 
‘possesses none of those species which once covered it, since the present 
generation will have completed the destruction of them all. 

The Yellowstone Park is doing excellent work under the present 
management, and too much can not be said in praise of the action 
which has given it to the country. It is, however, also desirable and 
necessary that, if these vanishing forms are to be preserved, there 
should be some zoological preserve or garden nearer the Capital, where 
representatives of all these races, not only of the land, but of the water 
also, may be preserved under the care of those permanently interested 
in their protection, in the charge, that is, of men who not only have 
special professional knowledge of their habits and needs, but who may 
be considered as having an unselfish interest in looking to their preser- 
vation, and who may act as scientific advisers, whenever such advice 
is deemed desirable by Congress or by the heads of Departments. 

Is it realized that nearly all the principal animals indigenous to the 
' United States are either substantially extinct or in danger of becom- 
ing so and is it sufficiently realized that, once extinct, no expenditure 
of treasure can restore what can even to-day be preserved by prompt 
action of a very simple and definite kind ? 

It is such considerations as these that have induced me to ask the 
earnest attention of the Regents, of Congress, and of the country to the 
immediate necessity for action. The trust is unquestionably for the ad- 
vancement of science as well as for the instruction and recreation of 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 37 


the people, and thus becomes a fitting object for the care of the Smith- 
sonian Institution. 

In my Report for last year the preliminary steps for the establish- 
ment of a Zoological Park in the District of Columbia were detailed. 
The District of Columbia bill, which received the approval of the Presi- 
dent on March 2, 1889, contained an appropriation of $200,000 for the 
purchase of the land and established a Commission, composed of the 
Sceretary of the Interior, the President of the Board of Commissioners 
of the District of Columbia, and the Secretary of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution, for the purpose of selecting and acquiring a suitable site upon 
Rock Creek. 

The utmost care was exercised to keep within the limitsof this appro- 
priation, and the Commission is even able to turn into the Treasury a 
small balance upon the completion of its work. To accomplish this, 
however, it was necessary to leave out a strip of land of about 8 acres 
on the east side of the creek, which it seemed to the Commission very 
desirable to secure, and I venture to express the hope that Congress 
will see fit to make special provision for the purchase of the property at 
an early day. 

rom a commercial point of view the enterprise has already proved 
a most successful one, the land having risen in value since its condem- 
nation from 200 to 300 per cent. 

At the beginning of the fiscal year the ground had yet to be acquired. 
A careful consideration of the property in the neighborhood of Rock 
Creek, described in the act of March 2, 1889, had been made and an 
area of 166.48 acres selected.* The difficulty of establishing the bound- 
aries of certain tracts described in the older deedscaused a long delay, 


Land for the National Zoological Park. 


| | 
| Amount 


Owner. Acres. | paid. | How obtained. 

peentnne eae! 720" 77 aks en oe [Set ee 
Wiis Bod BNE be soncoebotseascdosnicn coasbeceocsoseneds 94. 050 | $94, 860.00 | By agreement. 
ED MWialbrid gence s-scssee cess. Heese Seoccsassncceteaose 14.450 | 14, 450. 00 Do. 
Wroodleyabarlo Syndicate eas. en oso =~ et eemeiseie seni iee 7.453 | 5, 875. 00 | Do. 
Peniys OaEo lu eece secs Serene wees oc atte ween is 13.360 | 40,000.00 “Do. 
MITE a aN Gh eer ce seinlel cos ele ercinieie.- ace neiteererin cle Sele baie 1. 440 | 3, 000. 00 | Do. 
METS oH sly DONIC LR) taten = ap inaciae eae si Setiee ccc em se cance sie . 392 | 170. 76 Do. 
PACA CUSKOLG san cinsee onan alacant tac e ee wena eee ee ccces eek 24.570 | 16, 836.48 sy condemnation. 
“TinlERALSGU TA We ae a eee ne ana A A ea nae | 6180} 9,270.00] Do. 
Union Benevolent Association......................2--20- | 1. 700 | 3, 000. 00 | Do. 
15.,15853 0 agi ee eee ec Se ek |  .670| 1,897.00} Do. 
MugPhoreons& Kinley oc 5-220 s See ee) hi #iga57f #1'372:'00' |" “Do. 
CAMeSMCOnVANG sas ys sae ale Se blecocue sata eeamace cdc outa 1.060 | 233. 10 | Do. 
United States (part Quarry road)...... Bs car ae rene eielpaee wnt. | . 846 |------ 22. Do. 

Rittell (eee LEE, Me Oe ee SS | 166. 486 | 190, 964. 34 


38 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


A map of the park, showing the location and quantity of each lot, 
was filed in the public records of the District of Columbia. On exam. 
ination of the list it will be seen that for 131.14 acres an agreement 
was effected with the owners as to the sum to be paid. For 34.49 
acres no such agreement could be made, and the Commission therefore 
took the course prescribed by the act of March 2, 1889, for this con- 
tingency, and petitioned the Supreme Court of the District to assess 
the value of the land. This was done by three appraisers appointed 
by the Court, and the finding of the appraisers was approved by the 
President of the United States. At the close of the year title deeds had 
already passed for the greater portion of the property. 

The site thus selected is, it is believed, admirably suited for the purpose 
for which it is designed. Situated at a convenient distance from the 
city in a region of remarkable natural beauty, it has a surface of great 
variety, offering unusual advantages of varied exposure for animals re- 
quiring different treatment. While some portions still retain the origi- 
nal forest, others are cleared or covered by a dense second growth of 
pine, excellent for cover and producing conditions similar to those of 
the natural haunts of many of the animals it is proposed to preserve. 
An abundant supply of water is furnished to the lower portions by Rock 
Creek, a small perennial stream that during freshets swells to consid- 
erable size, and at intervals of years, to rare but destructive floods. 
A number-of small runlets or “ branches ” fall into the creek giving an 
‘effective drainage to all parts of the park. The system of water ways 
has for the most part been cut by erosion, so that the hill-sides and 
valleys usually present smooth, rounded slopes, practicable for roads and 
walks; yet this isagreeably varied at several places by an outcropping 
of the underlying rock, giving a somewhat bolder character. 

In the Appendix will be found a map showing the situation of the 
Zoological Park with reference to the city of Washington, and follow- 
ing if'a second map giving, on a somewhat larger scale, the outline of 
the park and its principal topographical features. 

Having obtained the site it became necessary to procure means for 
the organization and maintenance of the. park. The Commission ac- 
cordingly, under date of January 16, 1890, addressed a letter to Con- 
gress, concluding with the following words: 

Before the expiration of, the present fiscal year the Zoological Park 
Commission will have completed the duties with which it was charged 
by the act of Congress which called it into existence, and the title to 
the lands it has purchased will be vested in the United States. Pend- 
ing the completion of the condemnation proceedings now in progress, 
and the submission of a final report, it is extremely desirable that Con- 
gress Should enact further legislation in regard to the park. The Com. 
mission has no authority to put up fences and lay out roads or grounds, 
or to erect buildings, nor is it even certain that it has the right to ac- 
cept donations. The park is declared by Congress to be “ for the ad- 
vancement of science and the instruction and recreation of the people.” 
In the construction of ponds and lakes, and the erection of inclosures 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 39 


and buildings for the purposes of zoological science, a stage will soon 
be reached where scientific direction seems obviously desirable; and it 
is respectfully represented to Congress that any means for laying out 
and improving the grounds can be most advantageously used in view 
of the purpose of Congress as to the ultimate disposition of the park 
now when the foundations of its future usefulness are being laid. If 
the very considerable collection of living animals now in the custody of 
the Smithsonian Institution is to form the nucleus of the zoological park 
collection its transter should be eftected by legislative enactment and 
suitable measures taken for its maintenance. The Commission is of the 
opinion that the collection referred to should, with the consent of the 
Regents of the Institution, be transferred to the Zoological Park as soon 
as possible after the Government takes full possession of the site. 
JOHN W. NOBLE, 
Secretary of the Interior, 
J. W. DOUGLASS, 
Prest. Board Com. Dis. Col., 
Sy oe ANG Ian 
Secretary Smithsonian Institution, 
Commissioners for the establishment of a Zoological 
Park in the District of Columbia. 


After thorough consideration the following act was passed placing 
the park under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, and transferring to it the collection formerly under the charge of 
the United States National Museum : 


AN ACT for the organization, improvement, and maintenance of the National Zoolog- 
ical Park. a 

Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the United 
States of America in Congress assembled, That the one-half of the fol- 
lowing sums named, respectively, is hereby appropriated out of any 
money in the Treasury not otherwise appropriated, and the other half 
out of the revenues of the District of Columbia, for the organization, 
improvement, and maintenance of the National Zoological Park, to be 
expended under the direction of the Regents of the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution, and to be drawn on their requisition and disbursed by the dis- 
bursing officer for said Institution: 

For the shelter of animals, fifteen theusand dollars. 

For shelter-barns, cages, fences, and inclosures, and other provisions 
for the custody of animals, nine thousand doilars. 

For repairs to the Holt mansion, to make the same suitable for oceu- 
pancy, and for office furniture, two thousand dollars. 

For the creation of artificial ponds and other provisions for aquatic’ 
animals, two thousand dollars. 

For water supply, sewerage, and drainage, seven thousand dollars. 

For roads, walks, and bridges, fifteen thousand dollars. 

For miscellaneous supplies, materiais, and sundry incidental expen- 
ses not otherwise provided for, five thousand dollars. 

For current expenses, including the maintenance of collections, food 
supplies, salaries of all necessary employees, and the acquisition and 
transportation of specimens, thirty-seven thousand dollars. 

Sec, 2. That the National Zoological Park is hereby placed under the 
directions of the Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, who are author- 
ized to transfer to it any living specimen, whether of animals or plants, 
now or hereafter in their charge, to accept gifts for the park at their 


40 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


discretion, in the name of the United States, to make exchanges ot 
specimens, and to administer the said Zoological Park for the advance- 
ment of science and the instruction and recreation of the people. 

Sec. 3. That the heads of Executive Departments of the Government 
are hereby authorized and directed to cause to be rendered all neces- 
sary and practicable aid to the said Regents in the acquisition of col- 
lections for the Zoological Park. 

Approved, April 30, 1890. 


As it seemed desirable to have at once expert advice on the subject 
of laying out and improving the park, Mr. Frederick Law Olmsted, a 
distinguished landscape gardener, was requested to make a preliminary 
inspection of the ground.and to express an opinion as to what, under 
the conditions imposed by the primary objects of the law, would be 
the best general disposition to make of it. It soon became evident that 
a further survey was necessary in order to fix the boundaries of the 
maximum rise to be expected from Rock Creek. This stream, ordina- 
rily small, drains a water-shed having an area of some 83 square miles, 
with a slope so considerable that after copious rains the water rapidly 
rises far beyond its usual limits and becomes destructive to any build- 
ings or other fixtures situated along its course. A remarkable inunda- 
tion of this character occurred in June, 1889, the extent of which was 
noted at several points along the creek. It would bé evidently im- 
practicable to place any buildings of importance within the area sub- 
ject to these heavy floods, and the suitable locations and plans for the 
bridges to be constructed could not be prepared until their height and 
Span were determined with reference to the inaximum rise of water. 
The survey of the creek was not completed at the close of the year, but 
it has since been finished as shown in the map previously referred to. 

Having once secured the picturesque features of the land from oblit- 
eration by the rapid encroachment of the city, it has been the policy to 
proceed slowly with improvements and to utilize the natural advantages 
of the location, interfering as little as possible with its original aspects. 
Even with these economical principles the cost of converting the tract 
to the uses of a park is far beyond what would ordinarily be imagined, 
for it should be remembered that the cost of improving Central Park, 
New York, has already been not less than $14,000 per acre, and that of 
Prospect Park, Brooklyn $9,000 per acre, while that of the large Frank- 
lin Park, Boston, is estimated at $2,900 per acre. 

In following this policy and keeping within the limits of the appro- 
priations, no immediate provision has been made for the considerable 
expense involved in opening at once to the public the entire area of 166 
acres. The complete establishment of the park in a manner befitting 
its national character will be a work of considerable time, and for the 
present it has been deemed advisable to set aside nearly 40 acres, se- 
lected on account of accessibility and moderate elevation, as well as on 
account of its being adapted to the purposes of the park without great 
expense, while a further tract of some 15 acres will be so arranged that 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Al 


it can‘ be opened to the public, though it may not have a strictly park- 
like cultivation. There will thus be free to the public, it is hoped by 
next year, between 50 and 60 acres, an area larger than that of the 
Zoological Gardens in the Regents Park of London, or the Jardin des 
Plantes of Paris. 

A distinct area of some 10 or 15 acres will be reserved in another 
portion of the park for administrative and other purposes requiring 
seclusion, and will contain a lodge for the resident superintendent, 
oftices, stable, infirmary for animals, and a proposed laboratory. 

It should be remembered that a most important feature of this under- 
taking is that it is not only a place for public resort and amusement, 
but it is also intended to furnish secluded places for the breeding and 
restoration of the various animals indigenous to this country. 

At London and Paris the zoological gardens are chiefly for the 
amusement of the people by the exhibition of curious and foreign ani- 
mals, and for the benefit of the naturalist; our paramount interest is to 
preserve the indigenous animals, and then to provide, in the words of 
the act, for the instruction and amusement of the people. 

Though anticipating the report for the coming year it does not seem 
out of place in the present connection to allude to the fact that the See- 
retary, in his private capacity, has been appointed by the Presidentone 
of the commissioners of the more extensive national park upon Rock 
Creek, contiguous to the Zoological Park, a charge which he has 
accepted with some reluctance on account of the pressure of present 
official duties, but with a feeling that by reason of the necessary inti- 
mate connection between the two national parks the public interests 
will be subserved by this action. 

I can not close the report in relation to this new undertaking of the 
Institution without reference to the loss we have sustained in the death 
of Senator Beck, who, though not upon the Board of Regents, took a 
lively interest in the Institution, and a special interest in establishing 
and placing under its care the preservation of the natural scenery in the 
neighborhood of the Capital. 

T regret, also, toreport that near the close of the year, the Institution 
was reluctantly obliged to accept the resignation of Mr. W. T, Hornaday, 
curator of living animals in the National Museum, who, having been as- 
signed to the duty of superintendent of the park under the Commission, 
it was hoped would be able to accept the position of superintendent of ” 
the park upon its transfer to the Board of Regents. His efforts assisted 
the Commission greatly in the selection of the land, and did much to 
insure the success of the measure before Congress. 

Dr. Frank Baker honorary curator of the Department of Comparative 
Anatomy in the Museum, was appointed on June 1, 1890, acting mana- 
ger of the Zoological Park. 


42 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. 


Ethnologic researches among the North American Indians were con- 
tinued by the Smithsonian Institution, in compliance with acts of Con- 
gress, during the year 1889-90, under the direction of Maj. J. W. Pow- 
ell, Director of the U. S. Geological Survey. 

The work of the Bureau of Ethnology during the year has proceeded 
along accustomed lines. Investigations in relation to the Sign Lan- 
guage and Pictography of the American Indian, preliminary reports of 
which subjects have appeared in annual reports of the Bureau, 
have been discontinued and the final results of this study will soon 
appear. Investigations of the Mounds of the eastern United States 
have also been practically brought to an end and the final discussion 
of the subject will speedily be published. 

The archeologie researches which have been inaugurated in the vicin- 
ity of Washington have already been fruitful of results of more than 
local interest. Excavations into the quarry sites and workshops of 
ihe district have shown that the class of archeologic objects from this 
vicinity, which have hitherto been assumed to be paleolithic and to 
represent the rude implements of primitive man, are in fact nothing 
but the “‘rejects” of much more recent times; and that however far 
back in point of time some of them may date, they are not separable 
from the rejects of the historic Indian. 

As usual, considerable attention has been paid to the collection of 
linguistic material, both because it is thought that languages form the 
only safe basis for classifying peoples, and because no material relating 
to our Indians is vanishing with such rapidity. The latter reason has 
also impelled the collection of Indian mythology. Myths are hardly 
more enduring than the languages in which they are preserved. Though 
they may persist to some extent after a language decays and falls into 
partial disuse, it is only in a degraded and emasculated form that de- 
prives them of their chief value, as embodying the religious ideas and 
the philosophy of primitive peoples. 

The medicine practices of the Indian have also received much atten- 
tion and a large number of the plants used in the Indian Materia 
Medica have been collected, preserved, and their Indian and botanical 
names obtained. In addition, the formulas and secret practices attend- 
ing their use have been carefully recorded. As was to be expected, it 
has been found that so intimately interwoven are the Indian systems 
of religign and medicine that it is practically impossible to say where 
the one ends and the other begins. It has also been demonstrated that 
contrary to popular belief, the chief and almost sole effacacy possessed 
by so-called Indian medicine lies, not in the inherent virtue of the 


} 
| 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 43 


plants used, but in the mystic properties imparted to them by the sor- 
cerers or professional *“* Medicine men.” 

During the year one of the Bureau assistants visited Casa Grande, 
in Arizona, with a view to determining the best method to give effect 
to the act passed by Congress for preserving the ancient ruin. The 
preservation from the hand of the vandal and the effects of time and 
exposure of the more important Indian mounds and ruins which are 
situated within the national domain, is one that may well receive at- 
tention. The land upon which many of them are situated is of little 
value for economic purposes, and the comparatively small outlay re- 
quired for their restoration, when such is necessary, and for their pres- 
ervation, is small when contrasted with their historical and archeologi- 
cal value and their popular interest. 

No phase of tribal life and society presents a more curious and inter- 
esting study than that exhibited by the Pueblo Indians, who, in many 
respects, were far in advance of less sedentary tribes. Study of one of 
them, Sia, was begun during the year, and other Pueblos will be visited 
and studied in succession. 

Further details respecting the work of the Bureau will be found in 
the report of its director, Major J. W. Powell, given in full in Appen- 
dix I. 


NECROLOGY. 


SAMUEL SULLIVAN COX. 


I am ealled upon to record here the death of one of the most public- 
spirited and versatile members of Congress that have served upon the 
Board of Regents, the Hon. Samuel Sullivan Cox, a member of the 
House of Representatives, who was born at Zanesville, Ohio, Septem- 
ber 30, 1824, and first elected a Regent on December 19,1861. He died 
at his home in New York on the 10th of September, 1859. 

At a meeting of the Board, held on the 8th of January, 1890, a com- 
mittee was appointed to prepare resolutions on the services and char- 
acter of Mr. Cox, consisting of the Secretary, Hon. Joseph Wheeler, 
Dr. Welling, and Hon. Mr. Lodge, and they subsequently reported as 
follows: 


To the Board of Regents: 


Your committee report that the Hon. S. 8. Cox was first appointed a 
Regent of the Smithsonian Institution December 19, 1861, and that he 
filled that office, except for intervals caused by public duties, to the 
time of his death. 

While he was not aregular attendant at all the meetings of the Board, 
he was ever ready to advance the interests of the Institution and of 
science, either as a Regent or as a member of Congress; and although 
such men as Hamlin, Fessenden, Colfax, Chase, Garfield, Sherman, 
Gray, and Waite, in a list comprising Presidents, Vice-Presidents, 
Chief-Justices, and Senators of the United States, were his associates, 


44 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


there were none whose service was longer or more gratefully to be re- 
membered, nor perhaps any to whom the Institution owes more than 
to Mr. Cox. 

The regard in which his brother Regents held Mr. Cox’s accuracy of 
characterization and his instinctive recognition of all that is worthiest 
of honor in other men may be inferred from the eulogies which he was 
requested by them to deliver among which may be particularly men- 
tioned the one at the commemoration in honor of Professor Henry in 
the House of Representatives. But though these only illustrate a very 
small part of his services as a Regent, your committee are led by their 
cousideration to recall that his first act upon your Board was the prep- 
aration and delivery of an address at the request of the Regents on their 
late colleague, Stephen A. Douglas, and that on this occasion he used 
words which your committee permit themselves to adopt, as being in 
their view singularly characteristic of Mr. Cox himself: 

‘It was not merely as one of its Regents that he showed himself the 
true and enlightened friend of objects kindred to those of this estab- 
lishment; he ever advocated measures which served to advance knowl- 
edge and promote the progress of humanity. The encouragement of 
the fine arts, the rewarding of discoverers and inventors, the organiza- 
tion of exploring expeditions, as well as the general diffusion of educa- 
tion, were all objects of his special regard.” 

In view of these facts it is— 

Resolved, That in the death of Hon. Samuel Sullivan Cox the Smith- 
sonian Institution has suffered the irreparable loss of a long-tried friend, 
the Board of Regents of a most valued associate and active member dur- 
ing fifteen years of service, and the country of one of its most distin- 
guished citizens. 

Resolved, That the Board of Regents desire to express their deep 
sympathy with the bereaved family of the deceased, and that a copy 
of these resolutions be transmitted to the widow of their late associate. 


Mr. Cox was descended from a long line of distinguished ancestors. 
His father, Hon. Ezekiel Taylor Cox, who moved from New Jersey 
to Zanesville early in the century, held the position of State senator 
and clerk of the supreme court of Ohio; his grandfather, General 
James Cox, was an officer in the Revolution, speaker of the New Jersey 
assembly, and member of Congress at the time of his death; his great- 
grandfather, Judge Joseph Cox, was a distinguished man of his time, 
as were his great-great-grandfather, James Cox, and his great great- 
great-grandfather, Thomas Cox, one of the original proprietors of the 
province of East New Jersey. 

‘Upon the completion of a classical course Mr. Cox studied law, and at 
theage of twenty-five, turning his attention to journalism, was the editor 
of the Columbia Statesman; at twenty-nine he was the chairman of 
the committee of the Democratic party of Ohio. When scarcely more 
than thirty he was offered an appointment as secretary of legation to 
Great Britain, but declined the honor, though he afterwards accepted 
a similar position and represented the United States at Peru. At 
thirty-two he was elected to Congress aad continued as a member of 
that, body, almost without interruption, for a period of over thirty years. 
He was elected Speaker pro tempore of the House of Representatives 


a 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 45 


in 1876, and was minister to Turkey during the first part of President 
Cleveland’s administration, receiving from the Sultan shortly after this 
mission the degree of the order of the Mejidieh. 

Of Mr. Cox’s political career it is unnecessary to speak. The unani- 
mity with which his fellow-Congressmen hastened to pay tribute to his 
memory, in terms most glowing and affectionate, attests his esteem in 
the House of Representatives. No one upon the floor of the House of 
Representatives in late years has appreciated more fully or bas cham- 
pioned to such an extent the cause of science. To him the scientific 
departments of the Government looked for assistance and appreciation ; 
as a member of the Board of Regents he was a firm supporter of the 
liberal policy laid down for the Institution by Professor Henry. 

Respectfully sabmitted. 
S. P. LANGLEY, 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDICES TO SECRETARY'S REPORT. 


APPENDIX I. 


REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. 


Sir: I have the honor to present the following report upon the work of the year, 
dividing it for convenience into two general heads, viz, field work and office work. 


FIELD WORK. 


The field work of the year is divided into (1) mound explorations and (2) general 
field studies, the latter having been directed during the year chiefly to archeology, 
language, religious practices, and pictography. 

Mound explorations.—The work of exploring the mounds of the eastern United 
States was, as in former years, under the superintendence of Prof. Cyrus ‘Thomas. 
During this year he discontinued explorations in person, being engaged almost the 
entire time upon the preparation of the second volume of his report and of an ad- 
ditional bulletin, with accompanying maps of the archzologic localities. 

Mr. Henry L. Reynolds, however, was employed during the summer in exploring 
the works in Manitoba and the two Dakotas with special reference to their types and 
distribution. The results of this investigation proved very satisfactory, as the types 
within this area are found to be unusually well defined, according to physical struct- 
ure and contents. While thus employed other archeological remains were noted and 
examined, such as the bowlder outlines of circles and animals and the ancient village 
sites on the Missouri River. A full report concerning these investigations will ap- 
pear in the forthcoming report of Professor Thomas. Mr. Reynolds also made a visit 
to certain earthworks in lowa and Indiana for the purpose of ascertaining their 
types. In the autumn he was employed in South Carolina and Georgia exploring 
the mounds of that section, about which little was known. Two mounds—a large 
one on the Wateree River, below Camden, South Carolina, and one on the Savannah 
River, Georgia—proved of special interest. The contents of the latter consisted of 
as fine specimens of every class of primitive art as have been found in mounds. 

Mr. James D. Middleton, who had acted as a regular assistant from the organiza- 
tion of the division, wasengaged during the month of July, 1889, in surveying and 
making plats of certain ancient works of Michigan and Ohio. At the end of the 
month he resigned his position in the Bureau. 

Mr. James Mooney, although engaged in another line of research, obtained impor- 
tant information for the Mound Division, in reference to the location, distribution, 
and character of the ancient works of the Cherokee in western North Carolina and 
adjoining sections. 

General Field Studies.—In the autumn of 1889 Mr. W. H. Holmes was directed to take 
charge of the archologie field-work of the Bureau. In September he began exca- 
vations in the ancient bowlder quarries upon Piney Branch of Rock Creek, near 
Washington. A trench was carried across the principal quarry, which had a width of 
more than 50 feet and a depth in places of 10 feet. The ancient methods of quarrying 
and working the bowlders were studied and several thousands of specimens were col- 


47 


48 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


lected. Work was resumed in the next spring and five additional trenches were 
opened across widely separated portions of the ancient quarries. Much additional 
information was collected, and many specimens were added to the collection. In 
June work was commenced on another group of ancient quarries, situated north of 
the new Observatory, on the west side of Rock Creek. Very extensive quarrying and 
implement-making had been carried on in this place. The conditions and phenomena 
were almost identical with those of the Piney Branch site. Subsequently an ancient 
soapstone quarry near ‘enallytown was examined. The ancient pitting corresponded 
quite closely with that of the bowlder quarries and the condition of the pits indi- 
cated equal age. 

Dr. W. J. Hoffinan proceeded early in July to White Earth Reservation, Minnesota, 
to continue the collection and study of mnemonic and other records relating to the 
Midé wiwin or ‘Grand Medicine Society ” of the Ojibwa Indians. He had already spent 
two seasons with this tribe, and having been satisfactorily prepared, was initiated 
into the mysteries of the four several degrees of the society, by which means he was 
enabled to record the ceremonials of initiation, which was desired by the Indians, so 
that a complete exposition of the traditions of the Ojibwa cosmogony and of the 
Midé’ Society could be preserved for the information of their descendants. Through 
intimate acqnaintance with, and recognition by, the Midé’ priests, Dr. Hoffmann 
secured all the important texts employed in the ceremony—much of which is in an 
archaic form of speech—as well as the musical notation of songs sung to him for that 
purpose; also the birch-bark records of the society, and the mnemonic songs on bireh- 
bark, employed by the Mide’ priests, as weli as those of the Jé’ssakki’d and the Wa- 
béno’, which represent two other grades of Shamans. 

The so-called cosmogony charts, four versions of which were secured, had not pre- 
viously been exhibited to a white man, nor to Indians until after the necessary fees 
had been paid for such service, preparatory to admission into the society. 

He also secured, as having connection with the general subject, a list of plants and 
other substances constituting the materia medica of the above-named locality, the 
method of their preparation, administration, and reputed action, the whole being 
connected with incantation and exorcism. 

Mr. Victor Mindeleff made ashort trip (from December 7 to January 20) to the ruin 
of Casa Grande, in Arizoua, visiting also the sites of Mr. F. H. Cushing’s work while 
in charge of the Hemenway expedition. Plans and photographs were secured on 
this trip, and fragments of typical pottery were collected from the principal ruin 
visited. Casa Grande was found to be almost identical in character with the many 
ruins scattered over the valleys of both the Gila and Salado. 

On July 3 Mr. James Mooney started on a third trip to the Cherokee reservation 
in North Carolina, returning November 17, During this time he devoted his atten- 
tion chiefly to the translation and study of the sacred formulas used by the Shamans, 
obtained by him during a previous visit. In this work he employed the service of the 
most prominent medicine men, among them being the writers of some of the original 
formulas, and obtained detailed explanations of the accompanying ceremonies and 
the theories upon which they were based, together with descriptions of the mode of 
preparing the medicine and the various articles used in the same connection. He was 
also permitted to witness a number of these ceremonies, notedly the solemn rite 
known as ‘‘ going to water.” About three hundred specimens of plants used in the 
medicine practice were also collected, with their Indian names and uses, in addition 
to about five hundred previously obtained, These plants were sent to the botanists 
of the Smithsonian Institution for identification under their scientific names. The 
study of these Cherokee plant names, in connection with the medical formulas, will 
throw much light upon Indian botanic classification and therapeutics. The study of 
the botany is a work of peculiar difficulty, owing to the absence of any uniform sys- 
tem among the various practitioners. Attention was also given to the ball play, and 
several photographs of different stages of the ball dance were secured. One of the 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 49 


oldest men of the tribe was also employed to prepare the feather wands used in the 
eagle dance, the pipe dance of the prairie tribes, and the calumet dance spoken of by 
the early Jesuit writers, which has now been discontinued among the Cherokees for 
about thirty years, These wands were deposited in the National Museum as a part 
of the Cherokee collection, obtained on various visits to the reservation. 

A considerable amount of miscellaneous information in regard to myths, dances, 
ete., was obtained, and a special study was made of their geographic nomenclature for 
the purpose of preparing an aboriginal map of the old Cherokee country. With this 
object a visit was made to the outlying Indian settlements, especially that on Cheowah 
River, in Graham County, North Carolina, and individuals originally from widely- 
separated districts were interviewed. ‘Lhe maps of the Geological Survey, on a scale 
of 2 miles to an inch, were used in the work, and the result is a collection of probably 
more than one thousand Cherokee names of localities within the former territory of 
the tribe, given in the correct form, with the meaning of the names and whatever 
local legends are connected. In North Carolina practically every local name now 
known to the Cherokees has been obtained, every prominent peak or rock, and every 
cove ind noted bend in a stream having a distinctive name. For Georgia and a por- 
tion of Tennessee the names must be obtained chiefly from old Indians now living in 
the Indian Territory. It may be noted here that as a rule the Cherokees and some 
other tribes have no names for rivers or settlements. The name belongs to the dis- 
trict and is applied alike to the stream, town, or mountain located in it. When the 
people of a settlement remove, the old name remains behind, and the town in its 
new location takes the name attached to the new district. Each district along a 
river has a distinet name, while the river as a whole has none, the whole tendency 
in Indian languages being to specialize. The last six weeks of this field season were 
spent by Mr. Mooney in visiting various points in North and South Carolina, Georgia, 
Tennessee, and Alabaina, within the former limits of the Cherokees, for the purpose of 
locating mounds, graves, and other antiquities for an archzologic map of their ter- 
ritory, and collecting from former traders and old residents materials for a historic 
sketch of the tribe. 

Mr. Jeremiah Curtin spent July, and until August 28, 1889, at various points on the 
Klamath River, from Orleans Bar to Martin’s Ferry, Humboldt County, California, 
in collecting myths and reviewing vocabularies of the Weitspekan and Ehnikan lan- 
guages. From August 30 to September 10 he was at Blue Lake and Arcata, Hum- 
boldt County, California, engaged in taking down a Wishoshkan vocabulary and 
collecting information concerning the Indians of the region thereabout. Arriving in 
Round Valley, Mendocino County, California, September 16, he remained there till 
October 16, and took vocabularies of the Yuki and Palaihnihan language. From 
Round Valley he went to Niles, Alameda County, California, where he obtained partial 
vocabularies of three languages formerly spoken in that region. Of these one was 
spoken at Suisun, another was kindred to the Mariposan, a third was Costanoan. 
On October 27 he arrived in Redding, Shasta County, California, where he obtained a 
considerable addition to his material previously collected in the form of myths and 
additions to the Palaihnihan vocabulary. During this work he visited also Round 
Mountain. On January 10, 1890, he returned to office work. 

From July 10 to November 9, 1889, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was engaged in field work. 
Until September 7 he was on the Onondaga reservation, near Syracuse, New York, 
where legends, tales, and myths were collected and recorded in the vernacular; also 
accounts of the religious ceremonies and funeral rites were obtained, the terms form- 
ing the Onondagan scheme of relationships of affinity and consanguinity were 
recorded, and valuable matter pertaining to the league and its wampum record was 
also collected. 

From the last mentioned date to the 9th of November he was engaged on the Grand 
River reservation in Canada, where he successfully made special etfort to obtain the 
chants and speeches used in the condolence council of the league. ‘The religious doc- 


H. Mis, 129: 4 


50 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


trines and beliefs of the pagan Iroquois were recorded; plant and animal names were 
collected ; many religious and gentile songs were secured, and accounts of the prin- 
cipal Iroquoian ‘“‘ medicines” in the vernacular were obtained. A Wyandot vocabu- 
lary was also recorded. : 

Mrs. T. E. Stevenson left Washington in March, 1890, to study the Sia, Jemez, and 
Zuni Indians. She made Sia her first point of investigation, and found so much of 
ethnologic interest in this Pueblo that she continued her work there to the end of the 
fiscal year engaged in making a vocabulary and studying the habits, eustoms, mythol- 
ogy, and medicine practices of these people. She has been admitted to the cere- 
monials of the secret societies and has made detailed accounts of them, the altars 
being photographed by Miss M. 8. Clark, who accompanied her. Her investigations 
so far have resulted in a clear exposition of the religion of the people. 


OFFICE WORK. 


The Director was engaged during the year, when his other duties would permit, in 
the preparation of a work on the characteristics of Indian languages. 

Col. Garrick Mallery, U.S. Army, was occupied in continued study of sign language 
and pictography with the collection and collation of additional material obtained by 
personal investigation, by correspondence, and by the examination of authorities, 
This work was performed with special reference to the preparation for early publica- 
tion of a monograph on each of those subjects, that on pictography to be first pre- 
sented. The re-arrangement and revision of material already published in the pre- 
liminary papers on the sign language and on the pictographs of the North American 
Indians which respectively appeared in the first and fourth annual reports of this 
Bureau, and the insertion of matter obtained later by exploration and research, have 
been conjoined with discussion and comparison. By this treatment it is hoped that 
the monographs on sign language and pictography, having as their text the attain- 
ments of the North American Indians in those directions, may contribute to the 
understanding of similar exhibitions of evanescent and durable thought-writing, 
whether still employed in other parts of the world or now only found in records of 
material remains. 

During the fiscal year Mr. H. W. Henshaw was engaged, in addition to his admin- 
istrative duties, in assisting the Director in the final preparation of the linguistic 
map of North America north of Mexico, and the accompanying report, which is now 
completed and in the hands of the printer. He also began the final revision for the 
printer of his dictionary of Indian tribal names. 

Rev. J. Owen Dorsey completed his editorial work in connection with the publica- 
tion of Riggs’ Dakota-English Dictionary. He wrote articles on the following sub- 
jects: Measures and valuing ; The Dha-du-ghe Society of the Ponka tribe; Omaha 
dwellings, furniture, and implements; Omaha clothing and personal ornaments; 
Ponka and Omaha songs; The places of gentes in Siouan camping circles; Winne- 
bago folklore notes; Teton folklore; Omaha folklore; The gentile system of the 
Siletz tribes; and a Dakota’s account of the sun-dance. He revised some of his 
Omaha and Ponka genealogical tables and began the arrangement of Kansa tables of 
a similar character. He continued the elaboration of his monograph on Indian per- 
sonal names, and completed the following lists in which the Indian names precede 
their English meanings: Winnebago, 383 names; Iowa, Oto, and Missouri, 520; 
Kwapa, 15; and Kansa, 604. 

Dr. Dorsey finished the preparation of his texts for Contributions to North Ameri- 
can Ethnology, Vol. 6, The Gegiha Language. Part 1. Additional myths, stories, 
and letters, and corrected proof for the volume as far as page 651. He prepared w 
manuscript of other Omaha and Ponka letters, to be published as a bulletin. He 
began an article entitled “ A study of Siouan cults,” for which over forty colored 
illustrations were prepared by Indians, under his direction; and of this article he 


¢ 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 51 


completed four chapters, treating of the cults of the Omaha, Ponka, Kansa, Osage, 
Iowa, Oto, Missouri, and Winnebago tribes, and half of a fifth chapter that describes 
the cults of the Dakota and Assiniboin. When not otherwise engaged, he was occu- 
pied in making entries on slips for the Gegiha-English Dictionary. From September 
to December, 1889, he obtained from George Miller, an Omaha, who came to Wash- 
ington to aid him, additional myths, legends, letters, folklore, and sociologic material, 
grammatical notes and corrections of dictionary entries, besides genealogical tables 
arranged according to the subgentes as weil as the gentes of the Omaha tribe. 

During the year Mr. Albert 8. Gatschet was wholly engaged in office work. He 
finished his last draught of the ‘‘ Klamath Grammar,” a language of southwestern Ore- 
gon, making numerous additions, also appendices, as follows: Idioms and dialectic 
differences in the language; colloquial form of the language; syntactic examples; 
complex synonymous terms; roots with their derivatives. The typographic work on 
the grammar was terminated, the proofs and revises having all been read by the au- 
thor. The last portion of the entire work, being the “ethnographic sketch of the 
Klamath people,” was then re-written from earlier notes while consulting the best 
topographic and historical materials obtainable. Mr. Gatschet also drew a map of 
“the headwaters of the Klamath River,” the home of the tribes, being on a scale 
of 15 miles to the inch, which will appear as the frontispiece in Part 1. The 
“ethnographic sketch” is now in the hands of the printer. 

Mr. Jeremiah Curtin was engaged from January 10 to June 30, 1890, in arranging 
the myth material collected by him in the field and in copying vocabularies. The 
Hupa, Ehnikan, and Wishoshkan vocabularies were finished and the Yana partly 
done on June 30, 1890. 

The office work of Dr. W. J. Hoffman consisted in arranging the material gathered 
by him during the preceding three field seasons and in preparing the manuscript for 
publication, which has been completed. During the first three months of the year 
1890 a delegation of Menomoni Indians were at Washington, District of Columbia, on 
business connected with their tribe, and during that period Dr. Hoffman obtained 
from thei a collection of facts relating to mythology, social organization and goy- 
ernment, the gentile system and division of gens into phratries, together with many 
facts relating to the Miti’/wit, or ‘‘Grand Medicine Society” as they term it. These 
are interesting and valuable, as some portions of the ritual explain doubtful parts of 
the Ojibwa phraseology, and vice versa, although the two societies differ greatly in 
the dramatized portion of the forms of initiation. 

On his return from the field in November Mr. James Mooney devoted his attention 
to the elaboration of the sacred formulas already obtained. Two hundred of these 
formulas, being about one-third of the whole number, have now been translated. In 
each case the translation from the original manuscript in Cherokee characters is 
given first, then a translation following the idiom and spirit of the original as closely 
as possible, and finally an explanation of the medicine and ceremonies used and the 
underlying theory. About one-half of the whole number relate to medicine. The 
others deal with love, war, self-protection, the ball play, agriculture, and life-con- 
juring. A preliminary paper with a number of specimen formulas will appear in the 
seventh annual report of the Bureau. The whole collection will constitute a unique 
and interesting contribution to the aboriginal literature of America. All the words 
occurring in the formulas thus far translated have been glossarized, with granimatic 
notes and references from the original texts, making a glossary of about two thousand 
words, a great part of which are in the archaic or sacred language. Several weeks 
were also given to the preparation of an archeologic map of the old Cherokee 
country from materials collected in the field and from other information in possession 
of the Bureau. 

During the year Mr. W. H. Holmes has been chiefly engaged in the preparation of 
papers on the Arts of the Mound Builders, to form a part of the monograph upon the 
Mound Builders, by Prof. Cyrus Thomas, Four papers are contemplated ; one upon 


52 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Pottery, a second upon Art in Shell and Bone, a third upon Textile Fabrics, and a 
fourth upon Pipes. Three of these papers are well advanced towards completion. 
In addition to this work he has prepared papers relating to his field explorations. 
These include a report upon excavations in the ancient quartzite bowlder workshops 
and the soapstone quarries of the District of Columbia, and a rock shelter in West 
Virginia. Portions of these papers have been published in the American Anthro- 
pologist. 

Mr. James C. Pilling has continued to devote such time as he could command for 
the purpose to the preparation of bibliographies of the languages of North America, 
At the close of the fiscal year 1888-’89 the proof-reading of the Bibliography of the 
Muskhogean Languages was completed, but the edition was not ready for delivery. 
It was delivered August 8, 1889. 

After the Muskhogean Bibliography had been finished, work was at once begun on 
the Algonquian, by far the largest of those yet undertaken. Much of the material 
for this was already in hand, the collection having been gradually pursued during 
several years preceding, and the greater part of the work remaining consisted in 
assembling, arranging, revising, and verifying that material. August 16-22 were 
profitably spent by Mr. Pilling in the Lenox, Astor, and New York Historical Society 
libraries, at New York City, and the Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston Athe- 
neum, and Boston Public libraries, at Boston, chiefly in verifying and revising the 
material in hand. The first portion of the manuscript was transmitted to the Public 
Printer November 15, 1889. At the close of the fiscal year final proof had progressed 
to the two hundred and fifty-eighth page, carrying the work approximately half way 
to completion. 

From the 1st to the 10th of July, 18-9, Mr. J. N. B. Hewitt was engaged in collat- 
ing and recording Iroquoian proper names, both of persons and places, as they occur 
in the narratives of the early explorers and historians of the pristine habitat of the 
Iroquoian peoples. Afterwards, to the 9th of November, he was employed in field 
work. 

Upon his return to the office and until the end of the fiscal year he was engaged in 
translating and annotating the myths, legends, tales, and all of the other matter 
which he had previously collected in the field ; and in translating and recording for 
easy reference, for the purpose of verification and exposition of the matter so col- 
lected, the mythologic, ethnographic, and other anthropologic data found in the early 
French narratives of the New World, and especially that which is found in the works 
of Champlain, Lafitau, Charlevoix, and in the Jesait Relations. Much linguistic 
material has been obtained from the translations of the matter which Mr. Hewitt per- 
sonally collected while engaging in field work. 

Prof. Cyrus Thomas was personally engaged during the entire year on the prepara- 
tion of his report on the field work and collections of the preceding seven years. A 
bulletin giving the archologic localities within the mound area, together with a 
series of accompanying maps, was completed for publication. It will form a closely 
printed octavo of about two hundred and fifty pages. His report, which requires 
much comparison and reference as well as study of the works explored and objects 
obtained, is progressing as rapidly as is consistent with proper care and due regard 
for details, and will be completed and presented for publication during the next 
fiscal year. 

Mr. Henry L. Reynolds, on his return from field duty, assisted Professor ‘Thomas 
in the preparation of that part of his report and bulletin relating to those archxo- 
logic districts the works of which he had visited. He then resumed the preparation 
of his paper on the aboriginal use of metal. In May he made an examination of the 
metal specimens in the private and public archeological collections of New York 
City, and in June visited Providence and Boston ip search of certain rare historic 
data relating to the early life and customs of the Indians, both in respect to the use 
of metal and to other matters. He was engaged in the office upon this work at the 
close of the fiscal year. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 53 


During the year Mr. Victor Mindeleff was engaged upon a report on the architect- 
ure of Tusayan and Cibola. This work was interrupted by a short field trip to the 
ruin of Casa Grande, as mentioned under the head of field work, and was resumed on 
his return from that trip. The report, together with the data for its illustrations, 
has been finished for publication. A report was also prepared on the repairs and 
protection of the ruin of Casa Grande, on the Gila River, in Arizona. This report 
was accompanied by diagram, plans, and aseries ef photographs. He also was occu- 
pied in an architectural discussion on this ruin, together with one on the ruins on 
the Rio Salado, excavated by the Hemenway expedition, which were visited by him. 

During the first four months of the fiscal year Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff was engaged 
in revising manuscript and otherwise assisting Mr. Victor Mindeleft in the prepara- 
tion of a report on Pueblo Architecture, his own portion of the report having been 
previously finished. The report was handed in for publication in December, 1889. 
He then commenced the preparation of a series of maps, upon which the location of 
all known ruins in the ancient Pueblo country will be plotted, in order to show their 
distribution. The maps were partly done and the plotting of the ruins was com- 
menced. When completed the maps will show the location of all ruins mentioned in 
literature or known to explorers and will be accompanied by a card catalogue con- 
taining a description of each ruin and reference to the literature relating to it, the 
whole forming a valuable record. It is intended that a résumé of this shall be pub- 
lished. 

During the year the work of the modelling room was continued under the direction of 
Mr. Cosmos Mindeleff, and was confined almost entirely to the enlargement of the 
“duplicate series,” referred to in previous reports. The large model of Peflasco Blanco, 
one of the Chaco ruins, reported last year as commenced, was completed, cut into sec- 
tions for convenience of shipment, and boxed. A duplicate of a model of the Pueblo 
of Tewa, the original of which was made in 1883, was finished and exchanged for the 
original in the National Museum. The original was condemned and destroyed and 
another duplicate was made for the duplicate series. A duplicate was also made of a 
model of Schumepovi, and the original was put in order and added to the series. A 
duplicate of a model of the Pueblo of Shipaulovi was also finished and added to the 
same series. The original model of Casa Blanca cliff ruin was withdrawn from the 
Museum, and a number of duplicate casts were made, one of which was finished and 
re-deposited in the Muscum. Duplicates were also made of models of Great Elephant 
Mound, Great Etowah Mound, and two others. In the latter half of the fiscal year 
work was commenced on the duplication of two very large models, one of Walpi and 
the First Mesa, the other of Mummy Cave cliff ruin. The original models had been 
very hurriedly made for the New Orleans Exposition, and, being cast in plaster of 
paris, had suffered considerably in transportation. An attempt was made to cast the 
models in paper, and in both cases the attempt was very successful. The first dupli- 
cate of the Walpi model was completed and deposited in the National Museum, to 
replace the original which was destroyed. The finished model weighed about 500 
pounds, instead of 2,500 pounds, the weight of the original. The model of the 
Mummy Cave was cast, but was nos finished at the close of the year. A second dupli- 
cate of Walpi, for the duplicate series, was cast, but not finished, at the close of the 
year. It will be divided into sections for convenience of shipment. Toward the 
close of the year work was commenced on two new models which will be used to 
illustrate a report of Mr. Holmes, upon his work of the Archeology of the District 
of Columbia. 

But one demand was made during the year upon the duplicate series. This was 
for a number of transparencies to be exhibited as a part of the display of the United 
States at the Paris Exposition. Sixty of these large photographs on glass were sent 
and two grand prizes were awarded them. Upon the conclusion of the exposition 
the transparencies were returned, and some damage suffered in transportation was 
made good by the United States Commission. 


54 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


During the year nine models, ranging in size from 2 feet square to 14 by 5 feet, were 
finished ; twelve models, including duplicate casts, were finished but not painted ; 
and four models were commenced and not finished. 

Mr. De Lancey W. Gill during the year succeeded Mr. Holmes in the charge of pre- 
paring and editing the illustrations for the publications for the Bureau. ‘he fol- 
lowing list shows the number of drawings that have been prepared under his super- 
vision for actual publication during the year: 


Architectural drawings, drawings of mounds, earthworks, ancient ruins, ete-... 102 
Maps, diagrams, and sections ......-.--...--.- doin ape (Stattajare le jara (ore Seas els,ctelaiosSieisies see ae 64 
Objectstomstone; wood shell hone eiciasss.-5- sence eee eset eee eee cee ee 377 

RO bal Paasee ates oot weasiee et cls ee E Se a eee ae ee ee a ee 543 


These drawings were prepared from field surveys and sketches, from photographs, 
and from the objects themselves. No field work has been done by Mr. Gill’s divis- 
ion during the year although many valuable drawings and photographs were pro- 
cured in Arizona by Mr. Victor Mindeleff and in the District of Columbia by Mr. W. 
H. Holmes. 

The photographie work remains under the able management of Mr. J. K. Hillers. 
The following statement shows the amount of work done in the laboratory : 


| Negatives. | Prints. 

Size. | Nuinber. | Size. Number. 
|} |—_ 

pe | 1. nes 36 

20 by 24 6 | 20 by 24 26 

14 by 17 2 Wye ge | 6 

11 by 14 20M eeenlileb yal 128 

8 by 8 90 8 by 10 529 

5 by 8 14 5bys | 66 


Photographs were obtained of Indians from sittings as follows: 


Tribe. | Number. 
Dakotayen =< ci<e= | 32 
Sac and Fox .-... | 5 
Oto: 325 esa shee% 4 
IM ORG eeaere vata 5 
Umatilla: - 2. . 5. 3 


During the year the Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Sec- 
retary of the Smithsonian Institution was issued. It contains the introductory re- 
port of the Director, J. W. Powell, 35 pages, with accompanying papers, as follows: 
Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui, Colombia, by William H. Holmes; a Study 
of the Textile Art in its relation to the Development of Form and Ornament, by Will- 
iam H. Holmes; Aids to the Study of The Maya Codices, by Prof. Cyrus Thomas ; 
Osage Traditions, by Rev. J. Owen Dorsey; the Central Eskimo, by Dr. Franz Boas. 
The work forms a royal octavo volume of lviii + 657 pages, including a general in- 
dex, and is illustrated by 546 figures in the text, 10 plates, and 2 maps in pocket. 


Very respectfully, Eee 
J. W. POWELL, 


Director. 
Prof. S. P. LANGLEY, 


Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


. aint hse 


APPENDIX II. 


REPORT OF THE CURATOR OF EXCHANGES FOR THE YEAR ENDING JUNE 
30, 1890. 


Srr: I have the honor to submit the following report of the operations of the Bu- 
reau of International Exchanges for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1890. 
This report has been prepared in a form somewhat similar to the reports of previ- 
ous years, being for the sake of convenience divided into the following headings : 
Tabular statement of the transactions of the office and comparison with the 
work of previous years. 
Expense. 
Number of correspondents. 
International exchange of official documents, ete. 
Efficiency of the service. 
List of transportation companies. 


TRANSACTIONS OF THE BUREAU OF INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE DURING THE FISCAL 
YEAR. 1889-90. 


| | | 
July, |Aug.,|Sept.,| Oct., | Nov., Dec.,| Jan., | Feb.,| Mar.,| Apr.,| May.,| June, 
1889. | 1889. | 1889. | 1889. | 1889. | 1889. | 1890. | 1890. | 1890. | 1890. | 1890. | 1890. 
| 


Number of packages re- 
Colvedene een ere ess 3,711) 4,565 8, 049 2, 029/10, 94u) 3, 395] 6, 692) 2, 299]13, 745] 5, 505, 4, 304/17, 338 
Weight of packages re- | | 
Omit ae eee 9, 655|13, 289|14, 331) 6, 365.29, 409, 8, 624/12, 458 10, 480/35, 521/13, 802 13, 909 34, 814 
Entries made: | 
Woreignesss-68 ee oe: 4, 893| 2, 887] 1,015] 2, 694| 5, 549] 4, 762 6, 742) 3,.730| 8, 325] 6, 689) 4, 612| 8, 220 
Domestic aseaeerassss 1, 208| 3,112} 724| 1,016) 1,214) 838] 2,126, 462) 1, 582 1,882) 1,138] 1,050 
Ledger accounts: 
INN RAO NE cadal) Che WS eacnlleacood) losanac|los5c00||ss6c0aq||succun|lbaanac WEecaosAllooecosllsasoac 5, 131 
Domestic societies. .-| 1, ahs et eer fp) SN ey elem ea ge Sy See eceor 1, 431 
INO vadabiieh REE OES eel eeecec Ibcse a aocose| |poeece ssbecs asneed) |sacescol boncsollarcooe 6, 340 
Womesticindividaalss 25610] soon sere Seal |e dacel|(Seceissl||-wemsie| cece ee) ematee|(ance ciel scatats 3, 100 
Domestic packages sent.| 1, 193 2,036) 573) 605) 1,084) 686) 1,760) 287) 1,946) 1,611) 635} 800 
Invoices written. ....-..-. 871| 528, 451 427| 1, 443) 1, 563 688) 2,921, 1, 962) 1, 513; 1, 006) 3, 655 
Cases shipped abroad.... 33 16 61 14, 115 46, 31} 107) 125 40 66) 219 
Acknowledgments re- | 
corded: 
MOTO a= ae -iane seein 810) 793) 428 760) 860 210} 222 686) 799} 477) 1, 453 900 
Domestics. -<<s->--- DEB eLNOBh. 423 UUMOOU) m 2540 pee eek cciselelee tate ocnsieielliamte sinc ieiolteles *6, 206 
Letters received.....-... 119 90 84) 108 87 91; 110) 125) 174 149) 195) 182 
Letters written.......... 96 41) 164 67| 171 82) 108) 192) 217) 102) 118) 267 


56 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 
Recapitulation. 
| —— 
Increase | Increase 
Yotal. over Total. over 
1888-’89. 1888-’89. 
Number of packages received | 82, 572 | 6, 606 || Domestic individuals -.---.-- 3, 100 490 
Weight of packages received | 202, 657 22,729 || Domestic packages sent.----. 13, 216 T4, 002 
Entries made: Involeesiwritten:o--24seee5s- 16, 948 | 2, 850 
AHOTOIQM sa nie ars cols siaet eels ec = 60, 118 13, 976 || Cases shipped abroad..-...... 873 | 180 
Domestionss 2c eee ssn cccne | 16, 352 tI, 924 |} Acknowledgments recorded: | 
Ledger accounts : | Forel gna. means 8, 398 956 
Foreign societies .......-- HL 665 Domesti¢.. Sete secceaecee 9, 026 2,144 
Domestic societies.....-.- 1,481 76 || Letters received........-.... 1, 509 205 
Foreign individuals. ...... 6, 340 1, 641 || Letters written.......-...... 1, 625 7425 


* From December to June inclusive. t Decrease. 


An idea of the growth of the service since 1886 is conveyed by the annexed sumn- 
mary: 


Comparative statement. 


Packages. | 1886-’87. | 1887-88. | 1888-89. | 1889-’90. 
P vie NS pS 0 al oe S| | | | 
SSeS Da ae Re ee eis Rr a Bde PRISE 52,218 | 75,107 | 75, 966 82, 572 
Shipped: | 
TOMS LUC eee eee eee RE 10,294 12,301 | 17, 218 13, 216 
obeione eae ae. ae ee PER Per Name ean 41,424 | 62,306 | 58, 035 69, 036 
| 
EXPENSE. 


The expenses of the Exchange Bureau are met in part by a direct appropriation 
made by Congress in the following terms: 


“For expenses of the system of international exchanges between the United States 
and foreign countries, under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including 
salaries or compensation of all necessary employees, fifteen thousand dollars.” 


This is supplemented by appropriations to several Government Bureaus by which 
they are enabled to pay a portion of the cost of the exchange of their documents at a 
rate of 5 cents per pound weight as established by the Board of Regents. Smaller 
sums have been received from State institutions desiring to make use of the service, 
and the deficiency is paid from the Smithsonian fund.* 

The receipts and disbursements by the accounting officer of the Smithsonian 
Institution on account of the international exchanges, as shown in his statement for 
the fiscal year, dated July 1, 1890, were as follows: 


Receipts. 
Direct appropriation by Congress ............ sous m eelanicsio elses em ares eee Oe eis nie eee $15, 000. 00 
Repayment to Smithsonian Institution : 
United States Government Departments ...--........----- e-- oe oasc-seee 1, 771. 53 
Societiesiand/ othersourcesy secs -ceticcorecte ce aces ase coe ceea cence ce nee 18,45 


a eS Y7 80.08 


*The actual cost of the exchanges from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890, compiled from 
the accounting officer's books and including the receipts and disbursements for the 
fiscal year, entered up to September 24, 1890, was $17,407.30. 

Fifteen thousand dollars of this sum ($17,407.30) were appropriated by Congress 
directly to the Smithsonian Institution, $2,009.34 were repaid to the Institution by 
Government Bureaus, $28.40 by State institutions and the deficiency, $369.56, was 
met by the Smithsonian fund. 


Ors saber 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. Br 


Disbursements. 


From Con- 
rressional |,, 

& oes Repayments. 

priations. 
Salaries andicompoensationiofemployGse----: ose + cece scinene ee sciee esses $11, 638. 49 $142. 00 
Balaniesoletoreiomiacentssecava-eecasee care selcaiclece sastieniseeecemaeaatece IGEN WO aleosecacsecetho 
UH OM Gee oes sels cies aioe de nivietsiea ce einke oe wilatisioote dls tis See nbelc eke Siatos nial eraitae Saye 993. 67 1, 113. 06 
PACKinOw OXES)-ecis sess ota eee ele eo uloe ae on aiden aie Suiseeenekbisececeecicasls 443.41 222. 50 
printing stabionery, postage; OtG---.- =< s9-/-ers- so nesses eos asescsseces 407. 44 316. 53 
14,988.01! 1,794.09 


Bills for the transportation of exchanges have been rendered to all Government 
Bureaus receiving or sending publications during the year, except in a few instances 
where the amount was trifling. The total received from such sources was $1,771.53, 
as mentioned above. 

It may not be superfluous to repeat the statement made in previous years, that this 
method of meeting the expenses of the Exchange Bureau is extremely unsatisfactory 
both to the Smithsonian Institution and to the Government Bureaus that have occa- 
sion to make use of the service, and I again recommend that a sufficient appropriation 
be procured to cover the entire cost of the exchanges, thereby enabling it to under- 
stand at a glance the exact amount appropriated for such purposes. At present the 
appropriation is distributed through all the principal appropriation bills of the 
Government. 

In order to effect the desired change, that is, to collect in a single item the entire 
appropriation for international exchanges and at the same time to make allowances for 
the payment of ocean freight, the sum of $27,500 was asked for, for the fiscal year 
1889-90 based upon the detailed statements submitted in my last report. The amount 
finally appropriated was $15,000, the same as that for the year preceding. 


CORRESPONDENTS. 


The number of correspondents now upon our books is 16,002, divided into societies 
and institutions, individuals, foreign and domestic, as follows: 


Foreign. | Domestic. 


SOcCIebIes ANG MINSLILU LIONS) sos cae c cose secs ccicitiewors oe uistaiecro a dalsieiemes smiaeceiesmenien | 5, 131 1, 431 
in Gti Gna hy sea585 s6s5gq sonccon SAaeeaaeaeEr cco nOUG UDB Son adibenooeeaaascaaserondc | 6, 340 3, 100 
WN Sa Ase A dacntb— SabHOC LO CDE GR EDOARAROOESOCOsORnon a coroe cease roseboncsE- 11, 471 4, 581 


A comparison with similar figures for last year shows a net increase of 2,572. 
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF OFFICIAL DOCUMENTS. 


The exchange of official documents between the Government of the United States 
and that of foreign countries has been carried on through the intermediary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, though this exchange has only been placed upon a defi- 
nite diplomatic footing since January 15, 1889, the date upon which the convention 
signed at Brussels on March 15, 1856, was proclaimed by the President of the United 
States. This convention, the text of which was given in fullin Dr. Kidder’s report on 
exchanges for the year 1887~38, provided that there should be established in each of 


58 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 


the contracting countries a bureau for the special transmission of the publications of 
its Government, the transactions of its learned societies, etc., to foreign governments 
and individuals, and for the receipt from the similar bureaus of other countries of 
the publications of their government and scientific and literary societies, This in- 
volves, as will be seen. but little or no modification of the present long-established 
Smithsonian Institution exchange system, and it is hoped that the official recognition 
of the value of such a service by so many governments will result in extending the 
scheme that has been in operation here for the past forty years, the expense of which 
has been borne largely by the funds of James Smithson. 

In accordance with a provision made in the Brussels Convention the Governments 
of the Argentine Republic and of Paraguay have signified their adhesion to the con- 
vention, the former on September 3, 1889, and the latter on December 10, 1889. 
The countries therefore included in the international agreement are:—The United 
States of America, the Argentine Republic, Belgium, Brazil, Italy, Paraguay, ONE 
gal, Servia, Spain, Switzerland, Uruguay. 

While neither England nor Germany appear in the above list, both of these countries 
have addressed inquiries to this institution through diplomatic channels with regard 
to exchanges with our Government, and it is most gratifying to report that the Brit- 
ish Government, through Her Majesty’s Stationery Oftice, has presented to the Govern- 
ment of the United States, for deposit in the Library of Congress, an important col- 
lection of the publications of the parliamentary and executive offices from the years 
1882 to 1889, constituting a most valuable series of documents and forming apartial 
return for the series of publications issued by our own Government since 1868 and 
sent regularly to the British Museum. Moreover we have the assurance that this 
valuable series will be continued in annual shipments. 

The Government of Germany has also expressed its appreciation of the international 
exchange service in such a way as to lead us to expect that it will in due time make 
fitting acknowledgment of the series of United States Government publications pre- 
sented to the Royal Public Library, and to the Library of the Imperial German Par- 
liament at Berlin. 

A second convention made at Brussels, and also proclaimed by the President on the 
15th of January, 1889, provided fortheimmediate exchange of Parliamentary journals 
and the like, but it had not at the close of the fiscal year been set in satisfactory 
operation. An effort was made by a letter addressed to the Department of State on 
December 12, 1859, to carry out the stipulations of this treaty as far as the United 
States Government was concerned, and upon the recommendation of the Secretary of 
State a joint resolution appropriating $2,000 for the purpose was passed by the Sen- 
ate on January 22, 1890, but it has not yet been acted upon by the House. 


EFFICIENCY OF THE SERVICE. 


An inspection of the tables presented at the beginning of this report bears suf- 
ficient evidence that the Bureau has not decreased in efficiency during the past year, 
especially when it is considered that the increased number (6,606) of packages was 
handled and accounted for with a decrease in the clerical force during eleven months. 
At the close of the year there were but 321 packages on hand and the record work 
was tolerably well up to date. 


REPORT OF 


THE 


SECRETARY. 59 


The distribution to foreign countries was made in 873 cases, representing 385 trans- 


missions, as follows: 


Cases. 
AT FONtINEOMREPUDLIG waecteciscescs cesis OL 
PANES HTH ate hoes che a cect eects iT Al 
acl enege meena soe etait aoe. 4 
BV ailame nts: cistre sects Aes seisbre oe 4 
Seca meee were a wee eee ness. i2 
1 bya) Gigwise 8 Nas eR A cee 1 
CO PINE CUR Gee ote arse Atos he eee a asc 
ID nies sees eee ek tate oerce nis Sees 3: 
Cea eS a ee 2 8 
COlOMDIS Seeasaeneee ooo ee ee eee 6 
Costaeicas: cess cS ee eee » 
Wi ieee ee tee ee IE 8 3 
Denim arian teers) -a a aoane Bene aoe eee 9 
OutehiGWilan aeeseso ese oes eee ee 1 
HCuadOreeeer eee aoe eee ees 2 
PSY Diber sao cee cieht aac ones Seen 2 
IRIAN C Orewa thes eee lee aerate ots ener ces 2a 
Germany ee sae= sac aee eee ee, wees Pas 
Greate oribsiescae chelsea tetera ee 30 
Greece sai sen ee coe teeta sae 6 
Guaatemal aeweae sess ee eee ese sso 2 
VAY iO Se eteynsietociety aw sere Sistas te eros 6 
PMG PABY. Seeee os. sees een See 4 
Nay aera css cca eeite oo ese 5 
He realy penetra Pee gc Es CEE 18 
AD Aer eee ete erate cies) Ae es 10 
WibGriageeeee see ens eee se 2 


© 


Nicaragua 
NOW aye cies crccoece es cae mee 
Paraguay .---- dsae Scaaee eeeueee ines 
Perutiee ons acae cee eas aoe 
IBOlYMGSi Wie aac cpeeee ts sae eee eee 
BOnbU Pale oes St ye se) eee eee ea 
Prussia* 
@neenslandes sa. teee oe ee aoe 
RUSSIAS eae Sate een rete ae 18 


m= WW HH © Ww OW 


ide) 


5 Shah es PE 1 
Saxony * 4 
SOUMPATIS UT allio nent yee hes 

8 
9 


ee ee eae. 


Spaieetees 
SWC OI ae ere ote n nee 


6 
Murken esate co ters ees asie aceite 6 
Ummenay ssscs sah 3: siecce see seta 2 
WeneZ uel apse n sre essere aeeeyoee a 
Victoria 8 
Wiestrlmdiesss-o-.cosecee eee oe eeaes (ft) 

Whittemibencsess> seseertese Sosnesdbd 4 


* Miscellaneous exchanges included in transmissions to Germany. 
tIn addition to a large amount sent by mail. 


t By mail. 


The entire number of publications sent abroad during the year under the pro- 
visions of the act of Congress of March 2, 1867, has been 27,300, and there have 
been received in return but 1,820 packages or volumes. The United States Govern- 
ment Departments have forwarded to their correspondents abroad through the Bureau 
16,496 packages or volumes, and have received in return 8,886. The total, then, of 
the exchanges for the enrichment of the Government libraries has been 10,706 pack- 
ages received and 43,796 packages sent abroad, a total of 54,502 packages, or 66 per 
cent. of the total number of packages handled. 


60 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Statement of Governmental exchanges distributed during the year 1889~90. 


Packages. Packages. 
eer sent coed Sent 
for. y- fie. by. 
American Ephemeris ..---.------ UD eer Library of Congress.....-....-. 12207 Reenaneee 
Army Medical Museum .....-.-.. y jal Paes icht-Mouse boardsssses-eeeeeee 2 9 
Botanical Gardens .-.----.--.---. 1 il Marine Hospital ...--.- teste total peikesveme 72 
Bureau of Education .....--.-..- Gholbseconas |, Nantical’Auimanae 22-22-21 -- 18 31 
Bureau of Engineers, U.S. Army. 43 272 National Academy..-.-..-...--. 276 1, 558 
Bureau of Ethnology .-.---.----. 9 2,669 || National Board of Health -...-.- 25 | secon 
Bureau of the Mint......./....-. aE eels National Museum -...-...-.-..--- 106 | 2,200 
Bureau of Statistics -......-----. 16 2 || Navy Department ...--......--. 7 | 2 
Census Bureau. ..---- ORO DRCSSCES Os Reps bo | Naval Observatory ....-....---- 113 | 811 
Coast Surveyacee cscs - ce sce z 72 18 || Office of Indian Affairs -.....-.. Shee sae 
Commissioners of the District of | Ordnance Bureau, U.S, Army... 5 7 
Columbiaw-s-s-.22-2-cesrocees== La lisetisre Paberntn© Mcepes--eese eee eeeee 212 | 497 
Comptroller of the Currency .-.. IW llSseacce Smithsonian Institution .....--. | 1,795 | 3,657 
Department of Agriculture.-.--- 95 896 || Smithsonian Institution (by | 
Department of the Interior..--.- 23 102 Mf) SSooSoossee Scoseasescaes: a5; (050)) Seeeeeee 
Department of Labor.......----- 6 99 | Smithsonian Institution (re- 
Department of State ...-...-.-- A lettssteste turned to Document Division) . 22 eee 
Entomological Commission .---- Chllbeseceee leSignaliO fice mena -rsensee seer 74 175 
MxchaneeBureaulsssseseceseacee So eect | Surgeon-General...........:...- 136 392 
HishiCommission esses ese ses ese: 91 414 | Treasury Department ...------- 11 4 
General Land Office...--..-..---. Ae erie as War Department -..2...---..--- 17 128 
Geological Survey .....-.-------- 413 | 2,685 "10, 695 16, 494 
House of Representatives . .----. UG Be eteerto Pubic cinta | 27, 300 
Hydrographic Office -......------ ASU Sees Se ee 
| 10,625 | 43, 794 


MNotaliGovernent exchanges. <2 .-<j--ijone siecle (ele wni= simian = = (21=)= 1 \-1=1~ RRO aE Adeencanssacneasacscadejc 54, 489 
Miscellaneousiexchanges).-- --- =a ss eenmec cam wewe[ele(ei===\-l-leimel= ale)s\~ elm === el= sieve mniniele= ain select = 28, 083 
SUM GSCNEMNEE Sao cacoccossene poneea coased HOsooo Do DH ps Sse ooSassnSsdesoacetae osshossassce 82, 572 


Of the 82,572 parcels received by the Exchange Bureau, 69,356 were for foreign 
and 13,216 for domestic distribution. 

While it is thus shown that more work has been done and with Jess force than in 
the preceding years, I strongly recommend that a slight increase in the office force 
be made in order that it may be possible to handle more rapidly the large and con- 
stantly increasing amount of exchange material. An additional assistant in the ship- 
ping room will, I am confident, prevent any reasonable complaints of delays in the 
office proper. Delays that occur by reason of slow ocean transportation will be ob- 
viated when sufficient appropriation is made to pay for freight; the delays that occur 
in the foreign exchange bureaus or agents, except those in the pay of the Smithsonian 
Institution, lie of course beyond the control of the Institution. 

The foreign agents of the Institution, Dr. Felix Fliigel, Leipzig, and Messrs. Wiil- 
iam Wesley & Son, London, bave given the same ¢areful attention to the interests of 
the Institution as in former years and are entitled, as well as the immediate employés 
of the Bureau, to my warmest thanks. Grateful acknowledgments are also due to 
the following transportation companies and firms for their continued liberality in 
granting free freight or otherwise assisting in the transmission of exchange parcels 
and boxes, while to others we are indebted for reduced rates in consideration of the 
disinterested services of the Institution in the diffusion of knowledge among men. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 61 


Allan Steamship Company (A. Schumacher & Co., agents), Baltimore. 

d@’Almeirim, Baron, Royal Portuguese consul-general, New York. 

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, Boston. 

American Colonization Society, Washington, District of Coiumbia. 

Anchor Steamship Line (Henderson & Bro., agents), New York. 

Atlas Steamship Company (Pim, Forwocd & Co.), New York. 

Bailey, H. B., & Co., New York. 

Barber & Co., New York. 

Bixby, Thomas E., & Co., Boston. 

Borland, B. R., New York. 

Bors, C., consul-general for Sweden and Norway, New York. 

Botassi, D. W., consul-general for Greece, New York. 

Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, New York. 

Calderon, Climaco, consul-general for Colombia, New York. 

Caldo, A. G., consul-general for Argentine Republic, New York. 

Cameron, R. W. & Co., New York. 

Baltazzi, X, consul-general for Turkey, New York. 

Compagnie, Générale Transatlantique (A. Forget, agent), New York. 

Cunard Royal MailSteam-ship Company (Vernon H. Brown & Co., agent), New 
York. 

Dennison, Thomas, New York. 

Espriella, Justo R. de la, consul-general for Chili, New York. 

Florio Rubattino Line—Navigazione Generale Italiano (Phelps Bros. & Co.), 
New York, 

Grace, W. R., & Co., New York. 

Hamburg American Packet Company (R. J. Cortis, manager), New York. 

Hensel, Bruckmann & Lorbacher, New York. 

Inman Steam-ship Company (Henderson & Bro., agents), New York. 

Mantez, José, consul-general for Uruguay, New York. 

Merchant, 8. L. Co., New York. 

Munoz y Espriella, New York. 

Murray, Ferris & Co., New ¥ork. 

Navarro, J. N., consul-general for Mexico, New York. 

Netherlands American Steam Navigation Company (W. H. Vanden Toorn, agent ) 
New York. 

New York and Brazil Mail Steam-ship Company, New York. 

New York and Mexico Steam-ship Company, New York. 

North German Lloyd (agents: Oelrichs & Co., New York; A. Schumacher & Co., 
Baltimore). 

Obarrio, Melchor, consul-general for Bolivia, New York. 

Pacific Mail Steam-ship Company (H. J. Bullay, superintendent), New York. 

Panama Railroad Company, New York. 

Pioneer Line (R. W. Cameron & Co. \, New York. 

Perry, Ed., & Co., New York. 

Pomares, Mariano, consul-general for Salvador, New York. 

Red Star Line (Peter Wright & Sons, agents, New York and Philadelphia). 

Royal Danish consul, New York. 

Royal Spanish consul, New York. 

Ruiz, Domingo L., consul-general for Ecuador, New York. 

Stewart, Alexander, consul-general for Paraguay, Washington, District of Colum- 
bia. 

Toriello, Enrique, consul-general for Guatemala, New York. 

Vatable, H. A., & Co., New York. 

White Cross Line of Antwerp (Funch, Edye & Co.), New York, 

Wilson & Asmus, New York, 


62 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 

Upon January 1, 1890, a new system of recording the correspondence was adopted, 
having been submitted to a preliminary trial of several months to test its applicability 
to the special wants of the office. Every letter or invoice received is assigned a cur- 
rent number, and is entered at once in a book for the purpose, a card index facili- 
tating reference to the letters filed chronologically. All out-going letters are entered 
in a similar book. 

The collection of scientific and other directories, Government year-books, and lists 
of members of learned societies, has received a number of valuable additions, and it 
is hoped that with increased funds at command and a diminution of more pressing 
needs this collection will be made-an important feature of the Exchange Bureau. 

Perhaps the most serviceable information to those having occasion to make use 
of the service is that contained in Exhibit A, appended, showing the number of 
shipments each month to the various countries With which we are in correspondence. 

Very respectfully yours, 


Mr. S. P. LANGLEY, 


WILLIAM C. WINLOCK, 
Curator of Exchanges. 


Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


EXHIBIT A. 


Transmission of cxchanges to foreign countries. 


Countries. 


Argentine Republic -.-..--.. 
Austria-Hungary .....-.----- 


Date of transmission, etc. 


September 13, 1889; January 2, February 15, June 23, 1890. 
Included in transmission to Germany. 


143) Fat Gc sca so S0agsoeeossne August 29, November 23, 25, 1889; February 19, March 6, May 7, June 
3, 16, 1890. 

TEOIINATER, scoganmscocs seccnsags¢ February 17, 1890. . 

British Colonies: ss.ss6s-e-= Included in transmission for England. 

@hinatets ess-seh esses one December 30, 1889; February 21, May 10, 1890, 

COM Meee Son ccccorenasonaocenes September 13, 1889; January 2, February 17, June 23, 1890. 

Colombiayeces som wcfeeiereeecieciess February 17, June 23, 1890. 

(COED LOE snoodogaceoneasnses February 14, June 23, 1890, 

(Cin athecosoncsesceuoegoobscose October 16, 1889; February 20, June 23, 1890. 

ID ENMAaTiy. smemarscrciasie cece September 14, November 25, 1889; February 20, April 21, June 16, 1890. 

WntchiGwianalsescimcnte = sec: February 17, 1890. 

MAS tN Oa cats cis oe syecsieeisicetorsics February 21, June 21, 1890. Also included in transmissions to England. 

JOTI ase scesosooudcconane: February 17, June 23, 1890. 

OV Dupe eee os ecsisseise sacri Februray 21, June 24, 1890. 


| July 6, August 12, September 7, October 22, November 14, 23, December 


7, 1889; January 5, 27, February 4, 11, 12, March 4, 21, 29, May 1, June6, 
19, 24, 1890. 


Germany ssaccse-e ees enee ese July 8, 20, 25, August 14, September 3, October 12, November 7, 11, 23, 
December 13, 1889; January 4, 27, February 3, 12, March 6, 23, 29, April 
25, May 16, 29, June 5, 18, 1890. 

Great Britain ete ses. . sce July 10, August 8, September 11, October 18, November 8, 16, 23, Decem- 
ber 7, 28, 1889; January 2, 28, February 7, 11, 13, 20, 21, March 8, 22, 
April 2, 30, May 5, 13, June 4, 14, 24, 30, 1890. 

Greecesieacsecccasees sceecieae February 20, June 16, 1890. 

Guatemala. ccs. bce c- 25. eee February 14, June 23, 1890. 

Haybitancestcerecetiscctsemcee February 20, June 23, 1890. 

tally? $2-ae cee Socsoonoboosees July 15, August 30, October 26, November 15, 23, December 27, 1889; 


January 27, February 14, 20, March 6, 31, April 5, June 6, 30, 1890. 


i 
q 
4 
| 
i 
4 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Transmission 


Countries. 


63 


v of exchanges to foreign countries—Continued. 


Date of transmission, ete. 


| 
| 
| 


New South Wales --..-...-- 
Netherlands and colonies. ...| 


New Zealand 


INDCarafU a) cen ee canna ccen nm 
INOW cagonee sane se sasa5a5¢ 
OlyNeSIa emameteesele sae eae 
Portugal 


Oneensland sss cse essere 


Roumania 
Russia 


Spain 


Sweden 


September 19, December 30, 1889; February 21, May 10, 23, June 21, 1890. 


| February 11, June 24, 1890. 


September 24, 1889; February 15, March 20, 1890. 
Mexican exchanges are sent by registered mail. 

September 27, December 23, 1889; February 21, May 13, June 21, 1890. 

September 12, November 15, 23, 1889; January 31, February 15, March 
6, June 3, 13, 1890. 

December 23, 1889; February 24, May 18, June 21, 1890, 

February 14, June 23%, 1890. 

October 25, November 25, 188y; April 24, June 16, 1890. 

February 17, 1890. 

February 17, June 23, 1890. 

February 24, June 21, 1890. 

December 31, 1889; February 24, June 14, 1890. 

November 16, December 23, 1889; January 18, May 13, June 21, 1890. 

Included in Germany. 

July 11, 2&, September 20, November 15, 23, December 30, 1889; Febru- 
ary 10,13, March 6, 31, April 7, May 14, June 6, 20, 1890. 

Included in Germany. 

February 17, 1890. 

December 26, 1889; February 24, May 13, June 21, 1890. 

December 31, 1889; February 24, May 24, June 16, 1890. 

September 12, 1889; January 3, April 3, May 31, June 20, 1890. 

July 12, 29, September 19, November 23, December 27, 1889; February 


The majority of 


Tasmania 


JME GM AES ssoneesesoe 


Wh eS ap oSn Roser reEcoeen 


Venezuela 
Victoria 


In addition to the abo 
were made on September 
ernments of the followin 


Argentine Republic. 
Austria. 

Baden. 

Bavaria. 

Belgium. 

Buenos Ayres. 
Brazil. 

Canada (Ottawa). 
Canada (Toronto). 
Chili. 

Colombia. 
Denmark. 

France. 

Germany, 


14, 24, March 6, May 14, June 6, 20, 1890. 

| February 21, June 21, 1890. 

| Febraary 24, June 16, 1890. 

| February 17, June 23, 1890. 

| September 13, 1889; February 17, June 23, 1890. 
September 27, 1889; February 21, May 13, June 21, 1890. 


ve, shipments of United States Congressional publications 
7, November 30, 1889; March 17, June 28, 1890, to the gov- 
g-named countries: 


England. Prussia. 
Greece. Queensland. 
Hayti. Russia. 
Hungary. Saxony. 
India. South Australia. 
Italy. Spain. 
Japan. Sweden. 
Mexico. Switzerland. 
Netherlands. Tasmania. 
New South Wales. Turkey. 

New Zealand. Venezuela. 
Norway. Victoria. 
Peru. Wurtemberg. 
Portugal. 


APPENDIX III. 


REPORT OF THE ACTING 


MANAGER OF THE 


PARK. 


NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL 


On June 15, 1890, the animals exhibited for some years past at the National Museum, 
and forming the nucleus of a collection for the National Zoological Park, were turned 
over to the acting manager of the park. 

They are shown in detail in the following list: 


Name. Spark Name. | Speets 
| aye ) Ps | 
MAMMALS. | BIRDS. | 
Opossum (Didelphys virginiana, Kerr)... 8 || Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysactus, L)--- ; 1 
Peccary (Dicotyles tajacu, L.} .----------- 1 | White-headed Eagle (Halicwetus leuco- | 
Mule Deer (Cariacus macrotis, Say) ----- Te CG AGIES Ne aoooeiemancsbosocseecoonc 2 
Columbian Blacktailed Deer (Cariacus || Cooper’s Hawk (Accipiter cooperi, Bonap.)| 1 
QUT TONGAROED, IRI) 16) \oasoccacooboceasscac 1 || Red-shouldered Hawk (Buteo lineatus, 
Virginia Deer (Cariacus virginianus, Wi Ke pueib)) Aes apAsas conan seabacsecjoode 3 
107 GL) casceobadgaarcadobcocmboEoasdoens 1 || Sparrow Hawk (Falco sgarverius, L.)-.- 2 
American Elk or Wapiti (Cervus cana- | Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus, 
QENGIS TERA) se cercaeisietate slalnis eens ei orate 4 || Gime) s) Seeeaae essen eee eee ee eee 4 
American Bison (Bison americanus, | Barn Owl (Strix pratincola, Bonap.) ---- 11 
(Grintels) A eee wal amenccatetes sls cen nace 6 | Barred Owl (Syrniumnebulosum, Forst.). 1 
Rocky Mountain Sheep (Ovis montana, | Red and blue Macaw (Ara chloroptera) . - il 
(GUN) obdsceobaduoessoaleuasaStnacodess 1 | ted and blue and yellow Macaw (Ara 
Angora Goat (Capra hircus angorensis) -. 6 WMOCED)) cae eae ee Rene asec emacs = cise 1 
Woodchuck (Arctomys monax, L.)....--- 5 || Yellow and blue Macaw(Araararaunea) 2 
Prairie Dog (Cynomys ludovicianus, Ord.) 3 || Sulphur-crested Cockatoo (Oacatua gal- 
Striped Gopher (Spermophilus tredecimli- CVU) eee tebistishe ese eckneclemieeeaeeee | 3 
meatus Vitel) Seema sais cae cleleteiatnle ap tere 11 || Clarke’s Nut-cracker (Picicorvus colum- 
Red Squirrel (Sciwrus hudsonius, Pallas) . 2 OUANALES WIS) eens toate eee acicicetetare 6 
Gray Squirrel (Sciwrus carolinensis caro- Long-crested Jay (Cyanocitta stelleri 
(Weick nme News sescgécbudessassstot 1 MaCrolopha, Baird)! esses. ates eee e 2 
Flying Squirrel (Sciwropterus volucella Carolina Paroquet (Conurus carolinensis, 
OO CG Is TERE saasodececooseasnas 2 Tis) ecs cis tee nic ation eee se aoe eae oe 1 
Canada Porcupine (Lrethizon dorsatus | Hondan Chickens (Gallus bankiva).-.--- 2 
Gorsatusy Vi.) ssec eee wees seine aes 3 || Frizzled Chickens (Gallus bankiva)..--. 2 
Guinea Pig (Cavia aperea)....----------- 4 || Bronze Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo, L.) 2 
Black Bear (Ursus americanus, Pallas) .. 3 || White Turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo, L.). 3 
“Cinnamon” Bear (Ursus americanus .... Canada Goose (Branta canadensis, L.) 2 
Silver-tip Grizzly Bear (Ursus horrililis, 1 || Night Heron (Nycticorax nycticorax 
Onda) ee aee cca seals serene est sersisiae « 1 NEVIUS DOUG: )\eacccoeceee eee eee eee 3 
Raccoon (Procyon lotor, L.).......-------- 5 || Turtle Dove (Zenaidura macroura, L.)-. 6 
Meret CLUtortuUsi7i0y Lia) srseie= setts seer 2 REPTILES: 
Gray Fox (Urocyon virginianus, Schreber) 4 | Black Snake (Bascanion constrictor, L.) - 1 
Swift Fox (Vulpes velox, Say) .--. .------ 2 || Hog-nosed Adder(Heterodonplatyrhinus. 
Red Fox (Vulpes fulvus fulvus, Desmarest) 9 | Latreille) - Pen en eRe me 4 
Panther (Felis concolor, L.)--...--------- 1 | Elephant Torte toise (Testudo elephantopus) 2 
White-throated Capuchin Monkey (Cebus | Galapagos Tortoise (Testudo nigrita).... 1 
hypoleucus, Humboldt)....-..-----.---- 1 Alligator (Alligator mississippiensis, 
Brown Capuchin Monkey (Cebus fatwellus) 1 DAndin) sae boos ee eee 17 
Grivet Monkey (Cercopithecus callitrichus) il Bull-frog (Rana catesbiana, Shaw)...... 1 
Macaque Monkey (Macacus cynomolgus) . 1 | Water Dubtles:-22:0<:20 20. -2- aera 
Rotali sescc sosseeeeoe so ssceaeeeee 186 


64 


ALL | | fea] be Le Je ae Cs Ee ee ey Le) Le) We ee ae 


sal enna lah jee gaol a oe Ee 
; Eee SIAL pease te 
rar | | aL aiae lcves oe 7 Oh ie 7S 


A 2\ A 
ae sng : robes 


Oe 


fl pease DEBE ISIEERA), ° 


‘* 


eos SLL oie FREED j 


a 


rT a : % 


Ay " 
& > Ss 
ie ut J 


Pee 


ae aio EI IED? es 


, = 


NATIONAL 
- ZO0LOGICAL 


MAP SHOWING THE LOCATION OF THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL Park. 


‘. ¢ 
90S. 


ANA JASCO 


7 


ba 
9 
s, 
Eg 
zr 
nm 
= 
aay 
= 
& 
= 
7 


, ; 
: | = i 


: ; : te ; : = an 
; Files - i 1 i : . ie — - as ‘ib i 
\iludiwie Teh Lipanelliv id 2 ive mliedlo Tom ayets ee aa tt 
Leh nee Wily Pee GovieinHEl) ond Many oe th pif en Rae re a 
Ringer festly VW tilaet need Rita tet, wr heirs o's febica panei er v x : 


were ree at tigre ini! here nay preci), Cae RN | {pinot Se ee ‘ ° 
' eu aaa re 
oie the wid Tweed Olt) Traetuiop 


oe) ort Lt 4a) i 7 
ae hig nord 8he Wich y ; 
> Monier Dill wily Waid Le ery: sale 


a (00 aie 1 A C2 OMT 


LS ni wiih ay 


agate PUL Kise TIP aloe bicycles hae cine trovbiwvns (rely he 
yy whi svey fy aera | rik } c ae | (ye y aay ¥ 
od 3 : “ 7 lp ¢ ry: 
ay 1) send, iin Aan = poe - ae me pried beh \ ia es 
aed . j 


i i ve { yu ps 1p 
A tgs! Vine A ony hei aya Til) & 410 OO Gam ee ph 


ed ATTY Pos a a , Levy rt *14ery ih LU i PAMB Ot F be 
ws 4 : 

. i+ , ¥ : 
” Bien | ’ ity ‘ mri is 2 Hei 4) 8 aye ae, 
Fs ney 3 ie ’ yl? arehliy Pode ie Gl te (ane 


Sr sisit, Tele ‘ 


ei) rim on + 


aeahiurt 
fi oi s' ’ : e ' oh cise Ppa hiaiiz - 
Ay fle : : Pes AS Lk WM” j ‘ ’ i : 
f wit ret Aas we peda |e atrh penny iA ; 
ps ota { i ‘aw ti iba » L uliidid 
yh ij AL fh 
_ ari nt i" 
a 
5 » 14 pe uw 
a 
Wi Vay 7 
“f : iy 
vas if. ea) 
* 
4 Me 


; 
| 
| 
‘ 
fy 


Rie Pierypent 
rat } f ? Aoiks 


fs] : 
oe Pht Piiaat Ttaive, 
Wi! ¥ ie i ere Allis a 
hirw pint my. Joly Gini ic “ 


i pxortiag oF 7 


iT Ty) Wiad ae 


nus en Ae ’* bis we 0) Cog FE geet 


: 7 ; - 
hw ook WAR tha : 


what fabii bi UAly 


Me ba peli ayy? et? ad 
‘ion saritian ip CTA ty he MALT OS 
yah win WR wintige fol ie a a A 
i ; 


a fs gh pees At 1 ite ae — rory win 19, que 
ie einvaotariwnn athe, Bie 1 1) Ge eo? ‘ys or Oe, 
—— , 
cue e tad Ppeerie, pone <= 
me ha le Wir mel hi al 


ry, ee, Mir ee ‘na vita ue 
Hp Gl Cees af Caenntel gerevegh 


j ' 
Or LiFe) J Re Oat 


4 P 
iy : 
ye 
4 


(iit 


fa 
*- 


yj treat pe aR OdE 5 We 
Ayrton or Manan vinckiea? ax 
a. Naat te Masi pies Tigom Onl. , 


peel git LAnntagy tive. trl Leal yy 


Planes wm 


rate 


a 
A 


J.P. Klingle. 
6.18Acres 


< 
«gy; 


Miss A.E.J.Evans. 


94.05 Acres 


S 

€ \ 

J 

fois) 

g 

S 
ah 
a) 

= Hy 

£ rn 

a MAP 
© i or THE 
oie ) 

a iT 
oy 


NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK 


AS SURVEYED AND PLATTED BY 


THE U. S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY, 
AND RECOBDED BY THE 
ZOOLOGICAL PARK COMMISSION, 


NOVEMBER 2i, 1689. 
Area: 166.48 acres. Scale: 1 inch = 500 feet, 


Redrawn and engraved to accompany the report of the Commission. 
+ 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 65 


It has hitherto been impossible to give suitable housing to these animals, most of 
which are gifts to the Government, and many of them are kept ina long, low shed, 
imperfectly lighted and heated, wherein animals accustomed to the most diverse cli- 
mates are of necessity indiscriminately placed, the common Virginia opossum receiy- 
ing the same heat and treatment that serves for the parrots and cockatoos. In an 
annex to this shed the monkeys are placed, and it has been possible to give them 
somewhat more suitable protection. The larger animals are confined either in sep- 
arate out-door cages or in shelter-barns and pens, but these constructions are un- 
suitable and insufficient even for the small number of such animals kept. Happily, 
this condition is not a permanent one, as Congress has provided for the care and 
maintenance of the collection in the National Zoological Park. 

No zoological collection has ever been placed in a site so satisfactory. It is ample 
in extent, being about four times larger than any zoological garden in this country 
and from ten to fifteen times the size of most of the gardens of Europe. It is within 
a short distance of the city, being but little over one-half mile from its limits (see 
map No. 1) easily accessible by excellent roads; yet it has all the quiet and seclusion 
of a remote country district. Within its bounds every variety of slope exposure is 
found, from the north sides of hills covered with dense growth, suitable for animals 
requiring coolness and shade, to the sunny southern aspects for tropical and sub- 
tropical species. The natural variety of surface is also great. Rocks form natural 
cliffs where wild sheep and goats can jump and climb ; densely wooded portions form 
an excellent cover for shy animals, and a large open field along the creek affords an 
opportunity for excellent grazing grounds. In the creek itself aquatic animals and 
birds may be suitably reared. 

That the picturesqueness of the region is notable isshown by the names given to 
different parts of it in the grants and early deeds of the eighteenth century, There 
it is found that a considerable part of the park was known as ‘‘ Pretty Prospect,” 
also as “The Rock of Dunbarton,” while other parts are from the tracts of ‘‘ Mount 
Pleasant” and ‘‘ Pleasant Plains.” The actual owners from whom the site was im- 
mediately derived are shown on the accompanying map No. 2. <A portion of it 
was once owned by John Quincy Adams, who built upon the creek the ‘Columbia 
Mill,” for nany years past known as ‘‘Adams’s Mill.” Fragmentary ruins of some 
of the mill buildings still remain. 

The only habitable building found within the limits defining the park was that 
known as the ‘‘ Holt House.” This mansion is one of the few remaining in the District 
dating back to near the beginning of the century, it having been built in 1805. 
Though in a very dilapidated condition, it is thought desirable to repair it, pre- 
serving as far as possible its characteristic features, and it will be used for the offices 
of the Park. 

The original forest covering this land was doubtless mainly oaks, hickories, and 
tulip trees. A portion of this was cleared away, and the land was probably cultivated 
for many years. Being then allowed to lie fallow, there sprang up upon it a thick 
second growth of scrub pinesand cedars. A large variety of trees of natural growth 
is found. A list of those already noted that may be classed as indigenous follows : 


Popular name. Scientific name. 
PRU DULLES ya sens cisicm sise cle eet able a eicieaee aetna stessioce Liriodendron Tulipifera, L. 
ALMOTICAN HOW ccccicececce cucu oe Bp Setse la. pets | Ilex opaca, Ait. 
Wihitelorsilyer maples s-sa-ncacssiaccocccieks ose - | Acer dasycarpum, Ebrh. 
IRGC OL SWAMI PNNADIO yale Jeises tem cls weds ac, o(clnmiare Acer rubrum, L. 
BO xGel GLa emo catecnienacniviavaeaiaccic ss'e's grcceee Negundo aceroides, Moench. 
Wommonlocusty = sssas-ceheeessicecseeies cmecoa.ae Robinia Pseudacacia, L. 
oneyglocustimcce tec cance ie inss tec aca cccnseninee Gleditschia triacanthos, L. 
REGU OL JUGAS tree! = ae cs2 a cceccncccccos oeoees Cercis Canadensis, L. 


H. Mis. 129-——5 


66 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 
Popular name. Scientific name. 

Wild black cherry .-..................-------.--- Prunus serotina, Ebrh.. 

Witch-hazel -- << 25... 5... oon on nnn Hamamelis Virginiana, L. 

Flowering dogwood.......-.---.---------++------ Cornus Florida, L. 

Black gum.........--------------- 0-0-2 2s-snecnes Nyssa sylvatica, Marsh. 

Persimmon ...--. cnnoodoessoncossessecesosadsccos Diospyros Virginiana, L. 

Red ash... -- 2.2.2 cose nec e new e cee ew ns cesennsseans Fraxinus pubescens, Lam. 

Sassafras ...--- 2-220. cee cee ene e ee eee e een ne eee Sassafras officinale, Nees. 

Slippery elm.-...-..----- ood oto qneséenodadse.s .--| Ulmus fuloa, Michx. 

PATMELICAM! OVW ITbO Ol estes late aime) elelayatetn i etal tt=l= = Ulmus Americana, L. 

Blackberry .--.----0---------eecee- eee e seen eee ee: Celtis occidentalis, L. 

Red mulberry..-...----------------+---2-+-------: Morus rubra, L. 

Buttonwood or plane tree........-.-------------- Platanus occidentalis, L. 

White heart hickory ........-..--------------<-. Carya tomentosa, Nutt, 

Pignut hickory ...-..----------------++------+--: Carya porcina, Nutt. 

Swamp hickory-.---..--------++----+ 222-22 e2--2- | Ca rya amara, Nutt. 

Black walnut .--.-.----.--------2-------eeee------ Juglans nigra, L. 

Brit bOnb Ulisse nee oce cote ee cleelecle cleieeiem mime mim ial=is] lo | Juglans cinerea, L. 

River or red birch ...-.--.------------------+---- Betula nigra, L. 

Hornbeam or water beech .....------------------ Carpinus Caroliniana, Walt. 

Hop hornbeam...----------- oeenon cosoaeosonsccs Ostrya Virginica, Willd. 

White oak.......--.------22-- eee nee enone ene Quercus alba, L. 

Post Oak.....------------- eee eee een ee cece eens Quercus stellata, Wang. 

Chestnut 0ak ......------ e200 e eee eee eee e ee eee eee Quercus prinus, L. 

RCA OM Ke sae ae wo saw elec wale weicisn sleelv om ='a wisleieintnlal> Quercus rubra, L. 

Scarlet oak ....--2-0--- 2.0 eee enn e nen noes ne -- Quercus coccinea, Wang. 

Yellow barked or black oak ...-..-.-.----------- Quercus coccinea, Wang, var. tinctoria, Gray. 

Pin or swamp Spanish oak.....-..---------2----- Quercus palustris, Du Roi. 

Spanish oak ........-------+-----2--- seer eeee eee: Quercus faleata, Michx. 

Black jack or barren oak ..-.--.--.--------+----- Quercus nigra, L. 

Willow oak.....-.. cee. eoe------- 2-0 -- 2-2 -----| Quereus Phellos, L. 

(CINSSITINY Sa cend aac sc50 sb Corsco Codon seca buSn sesicue Castanea sativa, Mill, var. Americana, Gray, 

American beech ..-..--+: ---+eeee-e- 22s eens enone Fagus ferruginea, Ait. 

Black willOw 2---<<. << 200 cccscve neces enn n a cles enie ; Salia nigra, Marsball. 

Rail Casale coos6 boc es cdaDode seobooSenaseenssesece Juniperus Virginiana, L. 

Pitch Pinelee ase= elses nl sla ae Selle l= mal Pinus rigida, Miller. 

Jersey or scrub pine........-.--..--------------- Pinus inops, Ait. 

Yellow pine .-.......------0--- e--- 222 eee ones ee Pinus mitis, Michx. 

White pine ......----.-.-0205 .--- 20 o-- en eee eee: Pinus strobus, L. 


ORNITHOLOGY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL PARK. 


This region has long been known to be, because of its seclusion and natural ad- 
vantages, one of the favorite nesting grounds for the birds that visit the District of 
Columbia. At my request Mr. H. W. Henshaw, a well-known authority in orni- 
thology, has made the special report which follows: 

‘‘For many reasons the situation of the site of the National Zoological Park is seem 
to be a wise one, and from no point of view do its advantages appear greater than as. 
a haunt of our native birds. A section which has long been known to be the chosen 
home of birds and animals in a state of nature would seem to be a peculiarly fitting 
abode for them in astate of captivity. It is certain that neither within the District 
nor in the region immediately about it is there a spot which is resorted to by such 
numbers of birds, nor one where the rarer migratory species can so certainly befound. 
The park region has long been familiar to every bird collector who has ever made 
Washington his headquarters, and probably no area of equal size has furnished so 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 67 


many specimens to the collection of the National Museum and of private collectors 
as this. 

‘“To appreciate its advantages asa haunt in which to’study the habits of our 
birds one must visit it in early morning about the middle of May. At this time 
thousands of birds are eagerly winging their way to their northern homes, and the 
little groves of pines and the outlying deciduous thickets are filled with hundreds of 
warblers, flycatchers, and sparrows. Among others one may be pretty sure to find, 
amid throngs of commoner species, numbers of Bay-breasted and Blackburnian 
Warblers. Should the visitor carefully scan the low thickets a Mourning or Con- 
necticut Warbler, rare birds indeed in this latitude, may, perchance, reward his 
search. 

“The Worm-eating and Kentucky Warblers are always present about that date, 
though insmall numbers. So, too, are the Yellow-bellied and Least Flycatchers ; while 
the Traills Flycatcher is an occasional visitant. There is a thicket on the west bank 
of the creek which Lincoln’s Finch, long unnoticed in the district, visits each spring, 
and I have seen seven or wight of a morning. The Scarlet Tanager, whose bright 
colors arrest the eye of even the most careless, finds here a favorite resort, and the 
Rose-breasted Grosbeak, always a prize to the collector, isa regular and common vis- 
itor to the tall oaks that cover the eastern slopes. The northeast corner of the park 
is the only spot known to me where the song of the Summer Tanager may be heard 
with anything like certainty, for it is one of our rarest summer visitors. Not so the 
Olive-backed Thrushes. Several of the five species are common elsewhere, but no- 
where do they all occur so abundantly as here, even the Gray-cheeked being numer- 
ous. The above are but a few of many species that throug the tree-tops and brush- 
piles at this time of year. 

“To explain just why this spot of all others in the District should be the favorite 
resort for our birds would be difficult, Rock Creek is elsewhere as well wooded as it 
is here. Elsewhere its banks furnish far more picturesque places, and if we can 
suppose that birds are influenced in their choice of a resort by the esthetic sense, 
why are not such places equally favored with their presence? 

‘“‘T am inclined to believe that the answer is to be found in the somewhat prosaic 
reason that the gentle slopes of the creek at this point invite the early sunshine, and 
that the succession of woods, thickets, and open spots favor the presence of insects 
and seed-producing plants. In other words, that here the birds find the exact kind 
of shelter they require and food in abundance. 

“A list of the birds that are known to have nested within the limits of the park, 
small though this area is, would include almost all the land birds credited to the 
District. A catalogue of the birds of the District was prepared by Doctors Coues 
and Prentiss several years since (1883), and published by the National Museum under 
the title of ‘ Avifauna-—Columbiana.’ 

“As, however, having a more intimate relation to the Park, I subjoin a list of the 
birds which are known to have nested within the Park area within recent years. 
Many of them, it is to be hoped, will refuse to recognize as valid the exclusive 
title of possession conferred by Congress, ana will continue to occupy their old 
homes as theirs by squatters’ rights. Others doubtless, let us hope a small minority, 
will prefer to yield their ancient titles and move to more secluded spots in the ad- 
joining territory. 

“ But ninety-one species of land birds are known to breed within the limits of the 
District, and the following list shows that of this number sixty-one species, or 
more than 76 per cent., breed regularly or occasionally within the Park. The 
superior advantages it offers to bird life will therefore be readily appreciated.” 


68 


REPORT OF 


THE SECRETARY. 


“ List of birds nesting within the National Zoological Park. 


Popular name. 


Scientific name. 


Popular name. 


Scientific name. 


Woodcock 2s. ss -.-cse=- 
Bob White 
nr tle ovOses. eet- = 
Broad-winged hawk ... 
Screech owl...---.-.-..- 
Yellow-billed cuckoo ..| 
Black-billed cuckoo. ... 


Kingfisher 
Downy woodpecker. --. 
Red-headed woodpecker 


ANNE Sssocegeoennces¢ 
Ruby-throated 
ming-bird. 


hum- 


Wood pewee..--..-..-. 
Acadian flycatcher .-.. 
American crow .....--. 
Fish crow 
Cow bird 
Orchard oriole -..-...--. 
Baltimore oriole ....... 


European house spar- 
row. 

American goldfinch.... 

Grasshopper sparrow. . 


Chipping sparrow 
Field sparrow 
Song sparrow.......... 
Row RGGpeercesecisenaes 


Philohela minor. 

Colinus virginianus. 

Zenaidura macroura. 

Buteo latissimus. 

Megascops asio. 

Coccyzus americanus. 

Coccyzus erythrophthat- 
mus. 

Ceryle aleyon. 

Dryobates pubescens. 

Melanerpes erythroceph- 
alus. 

Colaptes auratus. 

Trochilus colubris. 


Tyrannus tyrannus. 
Myiarchus crinitus. 
Sayornis phebe. 
Contopus virens. 
Empidonax acadicus. 
Corvus americanus. 
Corvus ossifragus. 
Molothrus ater. 
Icterus spurius. 
Icterus galbula. 
Passer domesticus. 


Spinus tristis. 


Ammodramus 8. passert- 


NUS. 

Spizella socialis. 

Spizella pusilla. 
Melospizu fasciata. 
Pipilo erythrophthalmus. 
Cardinalis cardinalis. 
Passerina cyanea. 


| Scarlet tanager -....-. 

Summer tanager...... 

Rough-winged swal- 
low. 

| Cedar waxwing.....--. 

| Red-eyed vireo 

Warbling vireo ....... | 


Yellow-tbroated vireo. 
White-eyed vireo ..... 
Black and white war- | 
bler. 
Worm-eating warbler. 
Yellow warbler...-..-. 
Prairie warbler -.-.---.-. 
Oven-bird/-seccee ees 
water- 


Louisiana 
thrush. 
| Kentucky warbler. --. 
Maryland yellow- 
| throat. 
Yellow-breasted chat . 
American redstart.-.. 
Mockingbird 
Catbirdmeess--aeseeee 


| Brown thrasher. ...--- 


Carolina wren 
House wren 
White-breasted nut- 
hatch. 
Tufted titmouse 
Carolina chickadee ... 
Blue-gray gnatcatcher | 
Wood thrush ......... 
American robin....... 
|| Bluebird 


weer www ee eee 


Piranga erythomelas. 

Piranga rubra. 

Stelgidopteryx serripen- 
nis. 

Ampelis cedrorum. 

Vireo olivaceous. 

Vireo gilvus. 

Vireo flavifrons. 

Vireo noveboracensis. 

Mniotilta varia. 


Helmitherus vermivorus. 
Dendroica cestiva. 
Dendroica discolor. 
Seiurus aurocapillus. 
Seiurus motacilla. 


Geothlypis formosa. 
Geothlypis trichas- 


Icteria virens. 

Setophaga ruticilla. 
Mimus polyglottus. 
Galeoscoptes carolinensis. 
Harporhynchus rufus. 


Thryothorus ludovicianus. 


Troglodytes aedon, 


Sitta carolinensis. 


Parus bicolor. 
Parus carolinensis. 
Polioptila cerulea. 
Turdus mustelinus. 
Merula migratoria. 
Sialia sialis. 


Many other creatures likewise find a natural home within these limits, and though 
no systematic collection has yet been made, there has been observed during the sea- 
son in the Park or its immediate vicinity the common woodchuck, the cotton-tail 
rabbit, the Virginia opossum, and the flying squirrel. 


BOTANY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL PARK, 


An examination of the flora has been made by Mr. W. Hunter, an employé of the 
Park and a competent botanist, who received advice and assistance from Prof. Lester 


F. Ward and Prof. W. H. Knowlton. 


The list of plants is necessarily incomplete, 


owing to the fact that the observations did not commence until late in the season. 
Excluding the trees a list of which has already been given, the following were noted: 


es 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Clematus Virginiana, L. 

Anemonella thalictroides, Spach. 

Anemone Virginiana, L. 

Hepatica triloba, Chaix. 

Ranunculus repens, L. 

Ranunculus repens, L., 
Torr. and Gray. 

Aconitum uncinatum, L. 

Cimicifuga racemosa, Nutt. 

Asimina triloba, Dunal. 

Menispermum Canadense, L. 

Podophyllum peltatum, L. 

Sanguinaria Canadensis, L. 

Nasturtium palustre, D. C. 

Nasturtium Armoracia, Fries. 

Barbarea vulgaris, R. Br. 

Arabis Canadensis, L. 

Dentaria laciniata, Muhl. 

Draba verna, L. 

Capsella Bursa-pastoris, Moench. 

Lepidium Virginicum, L. 

Lechea minor, Walt. 

Viola cucullata, Ait. 

Viola sagittata, Ait. 

Viola pedata, L. In bloom October 21, 
1290. 

Viola pedata, L., var. bicolor, Pursh. In 
bloom October 9, 1890. 

Polygala verticillata, L. 

Dianthus Armeria, L. 

Saponaria officinalis, L. 

Silene stellata, Ait. 

Cerastium viscosum, L. 

Stellaria media, Smith. 

Stellaria pubera, Michx. 

Anychia dichotoma, Michx. 

Portulaca oleracea, L. 

Claytonia Virginica, L. 

Ascyrum Crux-Andreex, L. 

Hypericum perforatum, L. 

Hypericum maculatum, Walt. 

Hypericum mutilum, L. 

Hypericum nudicaule, Walt. 

Malva rotundifolia, L. 

Sida spinosa, L. 

Abutilon Avicenne, Gaertn. 

Linum Virginianum, L. 

Geranium maculatum, L. 

Oxalis violacea, L. 

Oxalis corniculata, L., var. stricta, Sav. 

Impatiens pallida, Nutt. 

Impatiens fulva, Nutt. 

Euonymus Americanus, L. 

Celastrus scandens, L. 

Ceanothus Americanus, L. 

Vitis Labrusca, L. 


var. hispidus, 


69 


Vitis estivalis, Michx. 

Vitis cordifolia, Lam. 
Ampelopsis quinquefolia, Michx. 
Staphylea trifolia, L. 

Rhus typhina, L. 

Rhus glabra, L. 

Rhus copallina, L. 

Rhus Toxicodendron, L. 
Baptisia tinctoria, R. Br. 
Trifolium arvense, L. 
Trifolium pratense, L. 
Trifolium repens, L. 
Tephrosia Virginiana, Pers. 
Stylosanthes elatior, Swartz. 
Desmodium nudiflorum, D. C. 
Desmodium paniculatum, D. C. 
Lespedeza reticulata, Pers. 
Vicia Caroliniana, Walt. 
Phaseolus perennis, Walt. 
Strophostyles peduncularis, Ell. 
Cassia Chamecrista, L. 
Cassia nictitans, L. 

Spirea Aruncus, L. 

Rubus occidentalis, L. 

Rubus villosus, Ait. 

Rubus Canadensis, L. 

Geum album, Gmel. 

Fragaria Virginiana, Duchesne. 
Potentilla Norvegica, L. 
Potentilla Canadensis, L. 
Agrimonia Eupatoria, L. 
Agrimonia parviflora, Hook. 
Rosa lucida, Ehrh. 

Rosa Carolina, L. 

Saxifraga Virginiensis, Michx. 
Heuchera Americana, L. 
Hydrangea arborescens, L. 
Penthorum sedoides, L. 
Cuphea viscosissima, Jacq. 
Epilobium coloratum, Muhl, 
Ludwigia alternifolia, L. 
Ludwigia palustris, Ell. 
(Enothera biennis, L. 
(Enothera fruticosa, L. 

Gaura biennis, L. 

Circa Lutetiana, L. 
Passiflora lutea, L. 

Sanicula Canadensis, L. 
Cicuta maculata, L. 
Cryptotznia Canadensis, D. C. 
Thaspium barbinode, Nutt. 
Angelica hirsuta, Muhl. 
Daucus carota, L. 

Aralia nudicaulis, L. 


_ Cornus stolonifera, Michx. 
| Sambucus Canadensis, L. 


70 


Viburnum prunifolium, L. 

Viburnum dentatum, L. 

Lonicera sempervirens, Ait. 

Cephalanthus occidentalis, L. 

Houstonia purpurea, L. 

Honustonia cerulea, L. 

Mitchella repens, L. 

Diodia teres, Walt. 

Galium Aparine, L. 

Galium triflorum, Michx. 

Galium pilosum, Ait. 

Vernonia Noveboracensis, Willd. 

Elephantopus Carolinianus, Willd. 

Eupatorium purpureum. 

Eupatorium perfoliatum, I. 

Eupatorium ageratoides, L. 

Eupatorium celestinum, L. 

Chrysopsis Mariana, Nutt. 

Solidago bicolor, L. 

Solidago bicolor, L., var. concolor, Gray. 

Solidago cesia, L. 

Solidago ulmifolia, Muhl. 

Solidago nemoralis, Ait. 

Solidago lanceolata, L. 

Solidago Canadensis, L. 

Sericocarpus conyzoides, Nees. 

Aster corymbosus, Ait. 

Aster patens, Ait. 

Aster undulatus, L. 

Aster ericoides, L. 

Aster paniculatus, Lam. 

Aster puniceus, L. 

Aster linariifolius, L. 

Erigeron Canadensis, L. 

Erigeron bellidifolius, Muhl. 

Erigeron annuus, Pers. 

Erigeron strigosus, Muhl. 

Antennaria plantaginifolia, Hook. 

Gnaphalium polycephalum, Michx. 

Polymnia Canadensis, L. 

Silphium trifoliatum, L. 

Chrysogonum Virginianum, L. 

Ambrosia trifida, L. 

Ambrosia trifida, L., var. integrifolia, 
Gray. 

Ambrosia artemiszfolia, L. 

Xanthium strumarium, L. 

Eclipta procumbens, Michx. 

Rudbeckia fulgida, Ait. 

Rudbeckia laciniata, L. 

Helianthus divaricatus, L. 

Helianthus doronicoides, Lam. 

Actinomeris squarrosa, Nutt. 

Coreopsis verticillata, L. 

Bidens, frondosa, L. 

Bidens chrysanthemoides, Michx,. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Bidens bipinnata, L. 

Helenium autumnale, L. 

Achillea Millefolium, L. 

Anthemis arvensis, L. 

Chrysanthemum Leucanthemum, L. 

Arnica nudicaulis, L. 

Erecthites hieracifolia, Raf. 

Arctium lappa, L. 

Cnicus lanceolatus, Hoffm. 

Cnicus altissimus, Willd, var. discolor, 
Gray. 

Cnicus altissimus, Willd. 

Hieracium venosum, L, 

Taraxacum officinale, Weber. 
Oct. 9, 1890. 

Chondrilla juncea, L. Opposite upper 
quarry. 

Lactuca Canadensis, L. 

Lactuca Canadensis, L., var. integrifolia, 
Torr. & Gray. 

Lactuca leucopha, Gray. 

Prenanthes serpentaria, Pursh. 

Lobelia syphilitica, L. 

Lobelia spicata, Lam. 

Lobelia inflata, L. 

Specularia perfoliata, A. D.C. 

Gaylussacia resinosa, Torr & Gray. 

Vaccinium vacillans, Solander. 

Epigvea repens, L. 


In bloom 


| Gaultheria procumbens, L. 
| Leucothoé racemosa, Gray. 


Kalmia latifolia, L. 
Rhododendron nudiflorum, Torr. 
Chimaphila umbellata, Nutt. 
Chimaphila maculata, Pursh. 
Monotropa uniflora, L. 
Steironema ciliatum, Raf. 
Chionanthus Virginica, L. 
Apocynum canuabinum, L, 
Asclepias tuberosa, L. 
Sabbatia angularis, Pursh. 
Phlox maculata, L.— 
Polemonium reptans. L. 
Ellisia Nyctelea, L. 
Cynoglossum Virginicum, L. 
Echinospermum Virginicum, Lehm. 
Echium vulgare, L. 

Ipomeea hederacea, Jacq. 
Ipomeea purpurea, Lam. 
Ipomeea lacunosa, L. 
Convolvulus spithameus, L. 
Solanum nigrum, L. 
Solanum Carolinense, L. 
Physalis pubescens, L. 
Datura stramonium, L, 

| Datura tatula, L. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Verbascum Thapsus, L. 
Verbascum Blattaria, L. 
Linaria vulgaris, Mill. 
Scrophularia nodosa, L., var. Maryland- 
ica, Gray. 
Chelone glabra, L. 
Mimulus ringens, L. 
Tlysanthes riparia, Raf. 
Veronica officinalis, L. 
Gerardia pedicularia. L. 
Gerardia flava, L. 
Gerardiz tenuifolia, Vahl. 
Pedicularis Canadensis, L. 
Epiphegus Virginiana, Bart. 
Tecoma radicans, Juss. 
Ruellia ciliosa, Pursh. 
Dianthera Americana, L. 
Phryma Leptostachya, L. 
Verbena urticefolia, L. 
Trichostema dichotomum, L. 
Collinsonia Canadensis, L. 
Mentha Canadensis, L. 
Lycopus Virginicus, L. 
Lycopus sinuatus, Ell. 
Cunila Mariana, L. 
Pycnanthemum incanum, Michx. 
Calamintha Nepeta, Link. 
Calamintha Clinopodium, Benth. 
Hedeoma pulegioides, Pers. 
Salvia lyrata, L. 
Monarda fistulosa, L. 
Lophanthus nepetoides, Benth. 
Nepeta Glechoma, Benth. 
Scutellaria lateriflora, L. 
Scutellaria serrata, Andrews. 
Scutellaria pilosa, Michx. 
Brunella vulgaris, L. 
Lamium amplexicaule, L. 
Plantago major, L. 
Plantago Rugelii, Decsne. 
Plantago lanceolata, L. 
Amarantus paniculatus. 
Amarantus retroflexus, L. 
Amarantus spinosus, L. 
Chenopodium album, L. 
Chenopodium, ambrosicides, L. 
Phytolacea decandra, L. 
Polygonum orientale, L. 
Polygonum Pennsylvanicum, L. 
Polygonum Virginiannum, L. 
Polygonum aviculare, L. 
Polygonum erectum, L. 
Polygonum sagittatum, L. 
Polygonum dumetorum, L., var. scandens, 
Gray. 
Rumex crispus, L. 


71 


Rumex obtusifolious, L. 

Rumex Acetosella, L. 

Asarum Canadense, L. 

Aristolochia Serpentaria, L. 

Lindera Benzoin, Meisner. 

Euphorbia maculata, L. 

Euphorbia hypercifolia, L. 

Euphorbia corollata, L. 

Acalypha Virginica, L. 

Laportea Canadensis, Gaudichaud. 

Pilea pumila, Gray. 

Bohmeria cylindrica, Willd. 

Alnus serrulata, Ait. 

Corylus Americana, Walt. 

Salix humilis, Marshall. 
quarry. 

Arisema triphyllum, Torr. 

Symplocarpus foetidus, Salisb. 

Orchis spectabilis, L. 

Goodyera pubescens, R. Br. 

Corallorhiza odontorhiza, Nutt. 

Hypoxys erecta, L. 

Dioscorea villosa, L. 

Smilax rotundifolia, L. 

Smilax glauca, Walt. 

Polygonatum biflorum, Ell. 

Smilacina racemosa, Desf. 

Erythronium Americanum, Smith. 

Uvularia perfoliata, L. 

Medeola Virginica, L. 

Luzula campestris, DC. 

Juncus tenuis, Willd. 

Tradescantia Virginica, L. 

Cyperus strigosus, L. 

Cyperus ovularis, Tore. 

Rhynchospora glomerata, Vahl. 

Carex platyphylla, Carey. 

Leersia oryzoides, Swartz. 

Phleum pratense, L. 

Cynodon Dactylon, Ters. 

Brachyelytrum, aristatum, Beauy. 

Eleusine Indiea, Gertn. 

Muhlenbergia Mexicana, Trin. 

Muhlenbergia diffusa, Schreb. 

Dactylis glomerata, L. : 

Poa annua, L. 

Poa compressa, L. 


Above lower 


| Poa pratensis, L. 


Poa brevifolia, Mabl. 
cragrostis major, Host. 
Eragrostis pectinacea, Gray. 
Bromus secalinus, L. 
Kiymus Virginicus, L. 
Klymus striatus, Willd. 
Paspalum setacenm, Michx 
Panicum sanguinale, L, 


(G2 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Panicum latifolium, L. 
Panicum microcarpon, Muhl. 
Panicum dichotomum, L. 
Panicum Crus-galli, L. 
Setaria glauca, Beauv. 
Setaria viridis, Beauy. 


Erianthus saccharoides, Michx. 


Andropogon fuscatus. 
Andropogon Virginicus, L. 
Equisetum hyemale, L. 
Polypodium vulgare, L. 
Pteris aquilina, L. 
Adiantum pedatum, L. 
Asplenium Trichomanes L. 
Asplenium ebeneum, Ait. 


Asplenium thelypteroides, Michx 

Asplenium Filix-feemina, Bernh. 

Phegopteris hexagonoptera, Fee. 

Aspidium Novaboracense, Swartz. 

Aspidium Filix-mas, Swartz. 

Aspidium acrostichoides, Swartz. 

Cystopteris fragilis, Bernh. 

Onoclea sensibili. 

Dicksonia pilosiuscula, Walld. 

Botrychium ternatum, Swartz, var. obli- 
quum, Milde. 

Botrychium ternatum, Swartz, var. dis- 
sectum, Milde. 

Botrychium Virginianum, Swartz. 

Lycopodium complanatum, L. 


GEOLOGY OF THE ZOOLOGICAL PARK. 


A special report upon the geology of the Park has been kindly furnished by Mr. 
W.J. McGee, geologist to the Geological Survey. 

“There is transmitted herewith a geologically colored map of the National Zoolog- 
ical Park. 

“Except that the prevailing rock formation is complex in structure and of age not 
yet definitely determined, the geology of the Park is exceedingly simple. The for- 
mations are: 


RECOM bas oie cece ete ie erasers ele eee teers eee Alluvium. 
IPIGIStOCEN Gs oe aas ete nce coe clo maie setae sme Columbia loam and gravel. 
@rehaceousi())e semen sees cee acmce some eee eer Potomac gravel. 
Piedmont gneiss. 
Amche ann? iesertececrreermccce er caereccecrre } Vein quartz. 
Steatite. 


“In addition to these well characterized formations there is a limited variety of 
residua left on decomposition of rock in place, of torrential or overplacement depos- 
its formed by wash adown slopes, ete. 

“The recent alluvium is confined to the channel and flood plain of Rock Creek. It 
consists of loam, sand, and gravel partly derived from the older formations within 
the Park, but mainly brought in by Rock Creek from beyond the limits of that reser- 
vation. These materials are sometimes irregularly stratified, but again assorted into 
sheets, sand-banks, gravel-bars, and more extended stretches of loam. It should be 
observed that the alluvium area, together with the channel meandering through it, 
are coterminous with the flood plain of Rock Creek, and hence are subject to over- 
flow during great freshets. 

“The Columbia formation is a deposit of loam, gravel, bowlders, etc., formed dur- 
ing the first ice invasion of the glacial period. Its age is therefore early Pleistocene. 
About rivers the formation commonly consists of two members, the upper a homoge- 
neous loam commonly red or brown in color, and the lower a bed of sand, gravel, 
cobble-stones, and bowlders commonly stained brown by ferric oxide, sometimes 
stratified, and here and there displaying a peculiar black stain which is mainly fer- 
ruginous, but has been found to contain a trace of cobalt. Along the rivers of the 
Middle Atlantic slope the formation is sometimes fashioned into terraces; and some 
of its best developments in the District of Columbia (from which the name is taken) 
are terraciform. In the Park the deposit displays the usual division into a superior 
loam and an inferior bed of coarse materials; and the usual topographic form is as- 
sumed since the deposit is practically confined to the pine-clad terrace or bench north 
and west of Rock Creek, in the central part of the reservation. The formation is in- 
deed confined to these terraces, save that an ill-defined and perhaps scarcely continu- 


nt > tae Oae Ce 


=" 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. a 


ous spur extends into the little valley of the branch that forms the principal affluent 
of Rock Creek, and that another spur (from which the loam has been washed, lay- 
ing bare the coarse materials of the inferior member) extends southeastward beyond 
the terrace-scarp toward the upper angle ip the course of Rock Creek. The red loam 
of the upper member was derived mainly from the Piedmont gneiss of the upper 
reaches of Rock Creek ; while the lower member consists of sand and some loam from 
the same source, well-rounded pebbles and cobble-stones from the Potomac formation, 
angular or slightly water-worn fragments of quartz from the veins of that material 
cutting the gneiss both within the Park and beyond its limits, bowlders of gneiss, ete. 

“The Potomac formation is a series of sands, clays, ana gravels extending from the * 
Roanoke to the Delaware, but best developed along the Potomac River,in honor of 
which the formation was christened. The age, determined through paleo-botany by 
Professor Fontaine, is early Cretaceous; determined from vertebrate paleontology by 
Professor Marsh, is Jurassic; and as determined by physical geology the formation 
represents the beginning of the Cretaceous. Along its westernmost margin the 
formation is usually represented by outlying patches of gravel commonly crowning 
eminences; and this is the character displayed in the Park. Five small areas only 
occur in the reservation: There is a remnant retaining the original structure crown- 
ing the second greatest eminence in the northwestern part; there are two small rem- 
nants, one certainly displaying the original structure upon the eminence occupied by 
the Holt mansion in the southeastern corner of the reservation; there is a fourth 
remnant, which may be in place, but is probably a residuum lef down and disturbed by 
the decay of the subjacent gneiss, mid-length of the southwestern boundary; and 
there is another small area, which is certainly residual in the northeastern portion. 
These remnants and others of like character beyond the limits of the Park are of 
especial interest in that their cobble-stones were extersively used by aboriginal men 
for the manufacture of rude implements. Modern man also utilizes the cobble-stones 
extensively for road-making and other purposes. 

“The Piedmont gneiss is a vast complex of crystalline rocks extending from Ala- 
bamato New Jersey. Many rock varieties are recognized within the complex; but 
they have not yet been systematically differentiated throughout any considerable 
part of the terrane. Within the Park the prevailing rocks are schists varying in 
composition from place to place, and varying also in dip and strike. In general the 
dip is high, sometimes nearly vertical, and the prevailing strike is northerly and 
southerly. The gneissis the prevailing formation of the Park. It is overlain in part 
by alluvium and by the Columbia formation, as well as by the isolated remnants of 
the Potomac formation; and elsewhere it has been decomposed to a considerable 
depth so that it is concealed by a mantle of materials derived from its own destruction 
either in place or carried down slopes by gravity and the wash of storm waters. This 
mantle of decomposed rock may be 20, 50, or even more feet in thickness, and proba- 
bly averages no less than 15 or 20 feet over the entire reservation. So profound has 
been this decomposition of the crystalline rocks that exposures occur only in the 
steeper bluffs where Rock Creek has corroded rapidly during the later Neocene, Pleis- 
tocene, and recent times. The rocks of the Piedmont belt are seldom sufficiently 
firm, tough, and durable to yield valuable building stones, and within the Park they 
give little promise in this direction. At three points only is the promise even fair: 
In the extreme northwestern corner of the reservation, toward the northern end of 
the old quarry mid-length of the eastern side, and in the old quarry opposite Adams’s 
Mill. 

“‘ Within the Park, as beyond its limits, the Piedmont gneisses are frequently inter- 
sected by veins of quartz. These range from sheets but a fraction of an inch thick 
to great masses many yards across. Some of the more conspicuous examples have 
been mapped. No law governing the trend or inclination of these veins is indicated 
by these exposures, and no such law has thus far been formulated; but although the 
relation of the quartz veins to the gueisses is not apparent, there is an obvious rela- 


74. REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. ; 


tion between these obdurate rock masses and the topography. Many of them appear 
in eminences or in the extremities of salients jutting streamward from the general 
upland; and even where they have not been observed their existence may be sus- 
pected in all the more sharply-cut salients. 

‘The Piedmont gneiss varies from place to place in mineral composition as well as 

in structure, and now and then sheets or masses of steatite—the soapstone of the 
aborigines and early white settlers—may be found. This is true within the Park as 
well as beyond its limits, and at two points quarries have been opened for the extrac- 
tion of these materials for industrial purposes. 
* «The topographic configuration of the Park is well shown upon the map. The grace- 
fully curved hills and steep ravines characteristic of the country about the National 
Capital here represent the work of Rock Creek during ages of erosion, and from hills, 
valleys, and ravines the systematic geologist reads a record of erosion upon lines 
first determined by rock structure, afterward modified by the superposition of an ex- 
tensive formation—the Potomac—and finally developed under the influence of these 
conditions affected albeit by the structure of the rocks reached by the stream in the 
latter stages of its cutting. It is by reason of the varied conditions represented in 
this complicated history that, while the configuration is commonly adjusted to the 
hard quartz veins, there are cases in which quartz and topography are manifestly 
independent in their distribution. 

“The Parkis watered as well as drained by Rock Creek and a few spring-born 
streamlets. Within the reservation there are two walled springs, two others that 
have received some attention, and a number of minor seeps; but the yield of these 
springs is trifling, none now giving permanent streams and all threatening to diminish 
as the surface is further deforested or trampled. Wells of small vield may doubtless 
be found by excavating in nearly any part of the Park; but the Potomac and Colum- 
bia areas are too small to afford reservoirs; the dips of gneiss are too steep to give 
strong subterranean streams, and the structure of the prevailing formation is too 
complex to permit determination of such small subterranean water-ways as may 
exist; moreover, wells east of Rock Creek will inevitably be contaminated within a 
few years, if not at present, in consequence of the recent spread of population over 
the adjacent uplands; and there is prospective danger of like contamination west ot 
the water-way. Accordingly the Park must look either to Rock Creek or beyond its 
own limits for permanent water supply.” 

Unmistakable signs of Indian occupation have been found. Professor Holmes, 
the archeologist of the Geological Survey, made a careful examination of the bowlder- 
beds of the Potomac formation, and found many chipped implements, showing that 
here, as elsewhere in the Rock Creek region the quartzite pebbles are shaped into 
weapons. While most of those found were the imperfectly formed and rejected 
stones, some portions of finished blades were discovered. It is not improbable that 
an Indian village once existed within the Park limits, near the soapstone quarry on 
the eastern side of the creek. 

At the close of the fiscal year, the development and adaptation of this beautiful 
region to the purposes of a zoological park were already commenced ; competent 
professional advice was procured, and plans were under consideration for aecommo- 
dating the animals now in the collection and those that will shortly be Added. 

Respectfully submitted. 
FRANK BAKER, 
Acting Manager. 
Mr. S. P. LANGLEY, 
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX IV. 


REPORT OF THE LIBRARIAN, 


Sir: I have the honor respectfully to submit my report on the work of the library 
during the year from July 1, 1889, to June 30, 1890. 

The work of recording and caring for the accessions has been carried on as during 
the preceding vear, the entry numbers on the accession book running from 193,431 


to 207,175. 


The following condensed statement shows the character and number of these 


accessions: 


Publications received between July 1, 1889, and June 30, 1890: 


Octavo or Quarto or 
smaller. “larger. | Total 
= = = _| 
& 

BVO ]TLINGS Meee Rinte reece setae ciclcielsianicnininialeinis broieicccaimel ciaesastcccecmsecce 1, 236 | 527 1, 763 
IP ALUSTO tev OLUIN OS as see ere watetsisiesiclaiersrciare'eleiciciciaic sini. pia siclowia aeleta'iaieisistaeicis c- 5, 202 8, 256 13, 458 
Bamphilotstiecasaene wm sce vcic tonic sicieSaicn sacis ns swe a sielacic sie siaiclacieibiclcice sic 3, 776 554 4, 330 
METI 35 6gG6 00 BODE CO BDO COO DOCACO HOSS ROAR Sct anSnn abe SedadcnoUsodosod asl honocconen fenscacac 636 
ETO GAL Meee eee Ts Se eee ae ete ke strar  ey SRE Ra Screened | mor ere [be 20, 187 


Of these publications 8,695 (namely, 785 volumes, 6,900 parts of volumes, and 1,010 
pamphlets) were retained for use in the National Museum, and 1,059 medical disser- 


tations were deposited in the library of the Surgeon-General, U. 8. Army. 


The re 


mainder were promptly sent to the Library of Congress on the Monday following 


their receipt. 


Among the most important additions to the list of serials during the year may be 


inentioned the following publications : 


Advance. 

American Agriculturist. 
American Apiculturist. 
American Architect. 
American Artisan. 
American Art Printer. 
American Athlete. 


American Cabinetmaker and Upholsterer. 


American Carpet and Upholstery Trade. 
American Chemical Review. 

American Cultivator. 

American Dairyman. 

American Druggist. 

American Engineer. 

American Garden. 


American Journal of Railway Appliances. 


American Lithographer and Printer. 
American Machinist. 


American Miller. 

American Silk Journal. 

American Teacher. 

L’Ami de ’Enfance. 

Annales del’Académie d’Archéologie d’An- 
vers. 

Annales de ’Extreéme Orient et de l’Af- 
rique. 

Annual Report of the Metropolitan Mu- 
seum, New York. 

Annual Report of the New York State 
Forest Commission. 

\nnual Report of the Pennsylvania Acad- 
emy of Fine Arts. 

Annual Report of the Providence Public 
Library. 

Anthony’s Photographie Bulletin. 

L’ Anthropologie. 

75 


76 


Architecture and Building. 

Archives de Physiologie. 

Arizona Weekly Journal-Miner. 

Astronomische Arbeiten (K. K. Gradmes- 
sungsbureau, Wien). 

Beacon (Photographic). 

Bibliotheca Sacra. 

Boletin del Ministerio de Industria, Chile. 

Builder and Wood Worker. 

Building Budget. 

Bulletin de VAcadémie 
d’Anvers. 

Bulletin du Comité des Forges de France. 

Bulletin of the Geographical Society of 
Bucharest. 

Bulletin of the Public Library of Cincin- 
nati. 

Bulletin de la Société Belge d’Electriciens. 

Bulletin de la Société Bretonne de Géo- 
graphie. 

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de 
Marseille. 

Bulletin de la Société de Géographie de 
Toplouse. 

Brickmaker. 

California Architect. 

Carpet and Upholstery Trade. 

Carriage Monthly. 

Central School Journal, Keokuk, Iowa. 

Circulars of the Engineers’ Club of Kan- 
sas City. 

Chicago Journal of Commerce. 

Colorado School Journal. 

Common School Edueation. 

Connoisseur. 

Contributions of the Old Residents’ His- 
torical Association, Lowell, Mass. 

L’Economiste Frangais. 

Edinburgh Circulars. 

Education. 

Educational Current. 

Educational Journal, Toronto. 

Educational Monthly. 

Educational Record. 

Electrical Engineer. 

Electrical Review. 

Electrical World. 

Entomological News. 

Farmers’ Review. 

Freeman. 

Gleanings in Bee Culture. 

Granite Monthly. 

Hatter and Furrier. 

Husbandman. 

Homiletic Monthly. 

Illinois School Journal. 


VArchéologie 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Indiana School Journal. 

Industrial Review. ‘ 

Industrial World. 

Inland Architect, 

Inland Printer. 

Tron. 

Iron Industries Gazette. 

Journal du Ciel. 

Journal of Comparative Medicine. 

Journal of Education. 

Journal de l’Instruction Publique, Mon- 
treal. 

Journal de Mathématiques Elémentaires. 

Journal de Mathématiques Spéciales. 

Journal of the Tyneside Geographical So- 
ciety. 


_ Journal of the United States Cavalry As- 


sociation. 

Loon. 

Lutheran Church Review. 

Magazine of Art. 

Magazine of Christian Literature. 

Manuel Général de l’ Instruction Primaire. 

Manufacturers’ Gazette. 

Massachusetts Ploughman. 

Mathesis. 

Mechanical News. 

La Medicina Cientifica. 

Milling World. 

Mining and Scientific Press. 

Mining and Scientific Review. 

Missouri School Journal. 

Mittheilungen des Deutsch-Amerikanisch- 
en Techniker-Verbandes. 

Mittheilungen des Deutschen wissen- 
schaftlichen Vereines in Mexico. 

Moniteur du Praticien. 

Mouvement Géographique. 

Musical Herald. 

National Car and Locomotive Builder. 

National Educator. 

North American Fauna. 

Northwestern Miller. 

Northwestern Mechanic. 

Nouvelles Annales de la Construction. 

Observer. 

Ohio Educational Monthly. 

Orchard and Garden. 

Ornithologisches Jahrbuch. 

Palmarés de Vécole polytechnique et de 
Vacadémie Commerciale Catholique de 
Montreal. 

Paper and Press. 

Paper Trade Journal. 

Papers of the American Astronomical So- 
ciety. ; 


REPORT OF 

Pharmaceutical Era. 

Photographic Times. 

Popular Gardening. 

Popular Science News. 

Portage Lake Mining Gazette. 

Pottery and Glassware Reporter. 

Public School Journal, Bloomington. 

Public School Journal, Mount Washing- 
ton, Ohio. 

Prairie Farmer. 

Proceedings of the Car Builders’ Associa- 
tion. 

Proceedings of the Civil Engineers’ As- 
sociation of Nebraska. 

Proceedings of the Engineering Society 
of Western Pennsylvania. 

Proceedings of the Lorg Island Historical 
Society. 

Proceedings of the Western Society of En- 
gineers. 

Professional Papers of the United States 
Engineering School. 

Quarterly Journal of Economies. 

Railroad Engineering Journal. 

Railway Age. 

Railway News. 

Railway Review. 

Railway World. 

Records of the Australian Museum. 

Records of the Bible Society, New York. 


Records and Rapers of the New London | 


County Historical Society. 

Reports of the Boston Society of Civil 
Engineers. 

Reports of the Brooklyn Institute. 

Reports of the Denver Society of Civil 
Engineers. 

Reports of the Geological Survey of New- 
foundland. 

Reports of the Iowa Society of Civil En- 
gineers. 

Reports of the iron and Steel Association. 

Reports of the Michigan Association of 
Civil Engineers. 

Reports of the National Civil Service As- 
sociation, 


THE SECRETARY. 


7 


Reports of the Nebraska Weather Service. 

Reports of the Ohio Society of Civil En- 
gineers. 

Reports of the State Horticultural Society 
of New Jersey. 

| Revista de Ciencias Médicas. 

| Revista da Sociedade de Geographia do 
Rio de Janeiro. 

Roller Mill. 

| St. Louis and Canadian Photographer. 

St. Louis Miller. 

Samfundet. 

School Bulletin, 

School Education. 

Schoo. Journal. 

Selected Papers, Civil Engineers’ Club, 
Champaign, Illinois. 

Semi-Tropical Planter. 

| Sunday-School Times. 

Shoe and Leather Reporter. 


| Southwestern Journal of Education. 
Spirit of the Times. 


| Statistisk Tidskrift. 

Teacher. 

Techniker. 

Texas School Journal. 

Textile Colorist. 

Transactions of the Canadian Society of 
Civil Engineers. 

| Transactions of the Geographical Society 
of Quebec. 

Transactions of the Illinois State Horti- 
cultural Society. 

Trudy. Vjestnik literatury 1 nauki, 

Typographic Advertiser. 

Ulster Agriculturist. 

Vjestnik Estestvoznanija. 

Wallace’s Monthly. 

Western Architect and Builder. 

Western Schoo] Journal. 

Western Sportsman, 

| Wood Worker. 

World’s Progress. 

Le Yacht. 

Zeitschrift fiir Katholische Theologie. 

Zoe. 


The following universities have sent complete sets of all their academic publications, 
including the inaugural dissertations published by the students on graduation: 
Basel, Bern, Bonn, Dorpat, Erlangen, Freiburg-im-Breisgau, Giessen, Gottingen, 
Greifswald, Halle-an-der-Saale, Helsingfors, Jena, Kiel, Kéningsberg, Leipzig, Mar- 
burg, Strassburg, Tiibingen, Utrecht, Wiirzburg, and Ziirich. 

Among other important accessions may be mentioned the following: A complete 
set of the catalogues of the Bodleian Library; a complete set of the publications 
of the National Civil Service Reform Association; a set of thirty graduating disserta- 
tions delivered at the University of Upsala during the rectorship of Linnzus, pre- 


718 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


sented by the Hégre Allminna Liiroverk at Vester4s, Sweden ; a full set of the pub- 
lications of the Board of Trade, London; a full set of the publications of Cornell 
University, comprising 23 volumes and 35 pamphlets ; Lendenfeldt’s ‘‘ Monograph of 
Horny Sponges,” presented by the Royal Society ; two more volumes of the Chal- 
lenger Report, namely Vol. 32 of the Zoology and Vol. 2 of the Chemistry and Phys- 
ics, from the British Government; a large and important series of Indian govern- 
ment publications from the secretary of state for India, London; a large and 
valuable series of French Government publications, from the Bureau Frangais des 
Echanges Internationauux; A. Moksdry’s ‘* Monographia Chrysididarum orbis terra- 
rum universi,” from the Royal Hungarian Academy at Budapest in addition to the 
highly valuable series of publications usually sent by this academy; full sets of 
State reports, etc., from New Jersey and Vermont; complete sets of charts and other 
publications from the hydrographic offices of Great Britain and Russia; parliament- 
ary reports from Germany and Sweden; a remarkable collection of photographs from 
Mecca, taken in the Holy City itself, entitled ‘‘ Bilder aus Mecca,” presented by the 
author, C. 8. Hurgronje, Leiden, Netherlands; ‘‘ Briefwechsel des Gottfried Wilhelm 
Leibnitz,” from the Royal Public Library, Hanover; a collection of 21 physical 
papers, from Prof. G. Gore, of Birmingham, England; and the following books, 
from the respective authors: ‘‘Through and Through the Tropics;” ‘Norsk, Lapp, 
and Finn;” ‘‘ Land of the White Elephant;” ‘Around and About South America,” 
by Frank Vincent, jr.; ‘“‘Avifauna Italica,” by Professor Giglioli; “Flora of British 
India,” pt. 16, by Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker; ‘‘ Handbuch der Gewebelehre der 
Menschen,” by Prof. Albert Kélliker; ‘‘Von der Capstadt ins Land der Maschu- 
kulumbe,” by Dr. Emil Holub; and “Gypsies of Modern India,” and ‘‘Ancient and 
Modern Britons,” by David MacRitchie. 
Very respectfully submitted. 
JoHN Murpbocn, 
Librarian. 
Mr. 8S. P. LANGLEY, 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 


APPENDIX V. 


PUBLICATIONS OF THE YEAR. 
SMITHSONIAN CONTRIBUTIONS TO KNOWLEDGE. 


As mentioned in the last report, a memoir on the ‘Genesis of the Arietide,” by 
Prof. Alpheus Hyatt, had been accepted for publication in the series of “Contribu- 
tions to Knowledge,” and was in the hands of the printer. This work has been com- 
pleted, and issued during the year as No. 673, in the Smithsonian list of publications. 
It forms a quarto volume of 265 pages (including introduction, index, and explana- 
tions of plates), and is illustrated with 35 figures in the text, 6 folding charts or 
tables, and 14 plates, of which 10 are heliographs. 

No. 691. “The Solar Corona, discussed by Spherical Harmonics,” by Prof. Frank 
H. Bigelow. This memoir is published in quarto form in the same style as the Con- 
tributions to Knowledge, though not designed to be included in the volumes of that 
series. It comprises 22 pages, and is illustrated with 4 diagrams, and 1 phototype 
plate. 

No. 692. ‘‘Photographs of the Corona, taken during the Total Eclipse of the Sun, 
January 1, 1889. Structure of the Corona,” by David P. Todd. This, like the pre- 
ceding, although in quarto form, is not intended for the Contribution series. It con- 
sists of 9 pages of text, with 2 photographic plates, showing 9 different views of the 
Solar Corona during the total eclipse. 

No. 731. Vol. xxvi of the Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge. This vol- 
ume comprises: Article 1, ‘Researches upon the venoms of Poisonous Serpents,” by 
S. Weir Mitchell, M. D., and Edward T. Reichert, M. D., published in 1886; article 2, 
“Genesis of the Arietidz,” by Alpheus Hyatt, above described. This forms a quarto 
volume of xi + 461 pages, illustrated with 40 wood-cuts and 19 plates. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS. 


No. 694. ‘Report on Smithsonian Exchanges for the year ending June 30, 1887,” by 
George H. Boehmer. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo pamphlet of 
24 pages. 

No. 695, “The Advance of Science in the last Half-century,” by Thomas H. Huxley. 
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo pamphlet of 42 pages. 

No. 696. ‘‘An Account of the Progress in Astronomy in the year 1886,” by William 
C. Winlock. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo pamphlet of 89 pages. 

No. 697. ‘‘An Account of the Progress in North American Geology in the year 1886,” 
by Nelson H. Darton. (From the Smithsonian Report for 187.) Octavo pamphlet 
of 41 pages. 

No. 698. ‘‘ Bibliography of North American Paleontology in the year 1886,” by 
John Belknap Marcou. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1857.) Octayvo pamphlet 
of 57 pages. 

No. 699. ‘“‘An Account of the Progress in Vulcanology and Seismology in the year 
1886,” by C. G. Rockwood, jr. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo 
pamphlet of 24 pages. 

3 79 


80 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


No. 700. ‘‘An Account of the Progress in Geography and Exploration in the year 
1886,” by William Libbey, jr. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo 
pamphlet of 13 pages. 

No. 701. ‘“‘An Account of the Progress in Physics in the year 1886,” by George F. 
Barker. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo pamphlet of 60 pages. 

No. 702. ‘“‘An Account of the Progress in Chemistry in the year 1886,” by H. 
Carrington Bolton. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo pamphlet of 
51 pages, 

No. 703. “An Account of the Progress in Mineralogy in the year 1886,” by Edward 
S. Dana. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo pamphlet of 28 pages. 

No. 704, ‘‘An Account of the Progress in Zoology in the year 1886,” by Theodore 
Gill. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octayo pamphlet of 46 pages. 

No. 705. ‘‘An Account of the Progress in Anthropology in the year 1886,” by Otis 
T. Mason. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo pamphlet of 45 pages. 

No. 706. ‘‘Miscellaneous Papers relating to Anthropology.” (From the Smithson- 
ian Report for 1887.) This collection comprises: ‘‘An Indian Mummy,” by James 
Lisle; ‘‘ Mound in Jefferson County, Tennessee,” by J. C. McCormick; ‘ Ancient 
Mounds and Earthworks in Floyd and Cerro Gordo Counties, Iowa,” with 6 figures, 
by Clement L. Webster; ‘‘ Indian graves in Floyd ‘and Chickasaw Counties, Iowa,” 
with 1 figure, by Clement L. Webster; “Ancient Mounds in Johnson County, Iowa,” 
with 1 figure, by Clement L. Webster; ‘Ancient Mounds in Iowa and Wisconsin,” 
with 1 figure, by Clement L. Webster; ‘‘ Mounds of the Western Prairies,” by Clement 
L. Webster; ‘‘The Twana, Chemakum, and Klallain Indians of Washington Territory,” 
by Myron Eells; ‘‘Anchor Stones,” with 7 figures, by B. F. Snyder; ‘Antiquities in 
Mexico,” with 1 figure, by S. B. Evans; forming in all an octavo pamphlet of 123 
pages, illustrated with 17 figures. 

No. 707. ‘Biographical Memoir of Arnold Guyot,” by James D. Dana. (From the 
Smithsonian Report for 1887.) Octavo pamphlet of 30 pages. 

No. 708. ‘“‘A Clinical Study of the Skull,” by Harrison Allen, M. D. Octavo pam- 
philet of 83 pages, illustrated with 8 figures. This is the tenth of the series of ‘‘ Toner 
Lectures.” 

No. 709. ‘‘Report on the Section of Steam Transportation in the U. S. National 
Museum, for the year ending June 30, 1886,” by J. Elfreth Watkins, with 8 plates. 
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1886, Part 11.) Octavo pamphlet of 22 pages. 

No. 710. “The Meteorite Collection in the U. 8. National Museum, a Catalogue of 
Meteorites represented, November 1, 1886,” by F. W. Clarke. With one plate. 
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1886, Part 11.) Octavo pamphlet of 11 pages. 

No. 711. ‘The Gem Collection of the U. S. National Museum,” by George F. 
Kunz. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1886, Part 11.) Octayo pamphlet of 9 
pages. 

No. 712. ‘The Collection of Building and Ornamental Stones in the U. S. National 
Museum: a Hand-book and Catalogue.” With 14 figures and 9 plates. By George 
P. Merrill. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1886, Part u.) Octavo pamphlet of 
372 pages. 

No. 713. “How to Collect Mammal Skins for purposes of Study and for Mounting.” 
With 9 figures. By William T. Hornaday. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1886, 
Part 1.) Octavo pamphlet of 12 pages. 

No. 714. ‘‘List of Accessions to the U. S. National Museum during the year ending 
June 30, 1886; with descriptive notes.” (From the Smithsonian Report for 1886, 
Part 11.) Octavo pamphlet of 109 pages. 

No. 715. ‘‘Cradles of the American Aborigines.” With 46 figures. By Otis T. Ma- 
son. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887, Part 11.) Octavo pamphlet of 52 pages. 

No. 716. ‘‘ Notes on the Artificial Deformation of Children among Savage and Civ- 
lized Peoples; with a Bibliography.” By Dr. J. H. Porter, (From the Smithsonian 
Report for 1887, Part 11.) Octayo pamphlet of 23 pages. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 81 


No. 717. ‘‘The Human Beast of Burden.” With 54 figures. By Otis T. Mason. 
(From the Smithsonian Report for 1887, Part 1.) Octavo pamphlet of 59 pages. 

No. 718. ‘‘Ethno-Conchology: a Study of Primitive Money.” With 22 figures and 
nine plates. By Robert E.C. Stearns. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887. Part 
ll.) Octavo pamphlet of 38 pages. 

No. 719. ‘‘The Extermination of the American Bison.” With 21 plates and 1 fold- 
ingmap. By William T. Hornaday. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887, Part 11.) 
Octavo pamphlet of 184 pages. 

No. 720. The Preservation of Museum Specimens from Insects and the effects of 
Daimpness.” With 5 figures. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887, Part 11.) Oc- 
tavo pamphlet of 10 pages. 

No. 721. ‘“‘ List of Accessions to the U. 8. National Museum, during the year ending 
June 380, 1887, with descriptive notes.” (From the Smithsonian Report for 1887, Part 
11.) Octavo pamphlet of 129 pages. 

No. 724. ‘‘The George Catlin Indian Gallery in the U. 8. National Museum; with 
memoir and statistics.” Dlustrated with 138 plates and 6 folding maps. By Thomas 
Donaldson. From the Smithsonian Report for 1885, Part 11.) Octavo volume of 
Vii-++-939 pages. 

No. 732. ‘‘Throwing-sticks in the National Museum.” With 17 plates. By Otis 
T. Mason. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1884, Part 11.) Octavo pamphlet of 
11 pages. 

No. 733. ‘ Basket-work of the North American Aborigines.” With 64 plates. By 
Otis T. Mason. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1884, Part 11.) Octavo pamphlet 
of 16 pages. 

No. 734. “‘A Study of the Eskimo Bows in the U. 8. National Museum.” With 12 
plates. By John Murdoch. (From the Smithsonian Report for 1884, Part 11.) Oc- 
tavo pamphlet of 10 pages. 

No. 741. “Index to the Literature of Thermodynamics.” Comprising Part I, a 
subject index under 54 topics; and Part U1, an author index, with the titles of papers 
in full. By Alfred Tuckerman. Octavo volume of 244 pages. 

No. 745. ‘‘Check-list of Publications of the Smithsonian Institution, to July, 
1890,” Octavo pamphlet of 35 pages. 


SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS. 


No. 689. ‘Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, 
showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year 
ending June 30, 1887. Parti.” This part comprises the report of the Institution 
proper, and contains the Journal of Proceedings of the Board of Regents at the an- 
nual meeting held January 12, 1887; the Report of the Executive Committee of the 
Board, and the Report of Professor Baird, the Secretary of the Institution; followed 
by the “General Appendix,” in which are given the following papers: Advance of 
Science in the Last Half Century, by T. H. Huxley; Progress in Astronomy in 1886, 
by William C. Winlock; in North American Geology, by Nelson H. Darton; in North 
American Paieontology, by J. B. Marcon; in Vulcanology and Seismology, by C. G. 
Rockwood ; in Geography and Exploration, by William Libbey ; in Physics, by George 
F. Barker; in Chemistry, by H. Carrington Bolton; in Mineralogy, by Edward 8. 
Dana; in Zodlogy, by Theodore Gill; and in Anthropology, by Otis T. Mason. Also, 
papers en an Indian Mummy, by James Lisle; Mound in Jefferson County, Tennessee, 
by J.C. McCormick ; Ancient Mounds in Iowa, etc., by Clement L. Webster; Indians 
of Washington Territory,-by Myron Eells ; Anchor Stones, by B. F. Snyder; Antiqui- 
ties in Mexico, by 8S. B. Evans; concluding with a Biographical Memoir of Arnold 
Guyot, by James D. Dana. The Report forms an octavo volume of xx-+-735 pages, 
illustrated with 10 figures and 3 plates. 

No, 690. ‘Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institute for 


H. Mis. 129 6 


82 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


the year ending June 30, 1887. Part 11.” Being the report of the operations and 
condition of the U. S. National Museum. This part contains: 1. The report of the 
assistant secretary, G. Brown Goode, upon the condition and progress of the Museum. 
2. Reports of the curators of the different departments. 3. Papers illustrative of the 
collections in the U.S. National Museum. 4. Bibliography for the year, including (1) 
the publications of the National Museum, and (2) papers by officers of the National 
Museum and others relatiog to Museum material. 5. List of accessions for the year. 
This part forms an octavo volume of xviii-++ 771 pages, illustrated with 127 figures, 
31 plates, and 1 folding map. 

No. 722. ‘Report of S. P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, for 
the year ending June 30, 1889.” Octavo pamphlet of 84 pages. 


PUBLICATION OF THE BUREAU OF ETHNOLOGY. 


No. 693. ‘Sixth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology to the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, 1884—~’85.” By J. W. Powell, Director. This work contains 
the introductory report of the Director, 58 pages, with accompanying papers as fol- 
lows: ‘‘ Ancient Art of the Province of Chiriqui,” by William H. Holmes; ‘‘A Study 
of the Textile Art inits relation to the Development of Form and Ornament,” by 
William H. Holmes; ‘‘Aids to the Study of the Maya Codices,” by Cyrus Thomas; 
“Osage Traditions,” by Rey. J. Owen Dorsey; ‘‘The Central Eskimo,” by Dr. Franz 
Boas. The report forms a royal octavo volume of lviii+675 pages, illustrated with 
546 figures, 7 plates, and 3 maps. 


APPENDIX VI. 


REPORT ON PROFESSOR MORLEYS RESEARCHES. 


WASHINGTON, January 17, 1891. 
Prof. 8. P. LANGLEY, 


DEAR Sir: The accompanying letter from Prof. A. A. Michelson I can gladly in- 
dorse in every particular. [Iam familiar with Professor Morley’s work, having fol- 
lowed it from the start, and I know it to be the best work of its kind in the history 
of science. A part of it involves a re-determination of certain physical constants of 
oxygen and hydrogen; and on this side of the question the classical researches of 
Regnault are far excelled by the investigations so far made by Morley. Hitherto (for 
a period of 3 or 4 years), the experiments have been carried on by Professor Morley at 
his own personal expense, without aid from any institution. Such a burden no 
private individual should be compelled to bear; and I feel sure that aid given by the 
Smithsonian Institution will redound to its credit, and in the most direct manner tend 
to fulfill the intention of its founder, himself a chemist. 

The work upon which Professor Morley is engaged is, from a chemical stand-point, 
fundamental in its character, and it has both a theoretical and a practical hearing. 
All of the calculations upon which accurate chemical analyses depend rest upon our 
knowledge of the atomie weights; and the ratio between oxygen and hydrogen is the 
corner-stone of the entire system. It is both the most important and the most diffi- 
cult to measure of all the atomic weight ratios, and it directly affects nearly every 
other value in the whole series of constants. Furthermore, all the physical properties 
of the atoms are now believed to be functions of their mass, and thisidea is dominant 
in the periodic law of Mendelejeff. That law shows the elements to be not independ- 
ent of each othez, but closely related ; so that the exact measurement of their atomic 
weights bears directly upon the problem of the ultimate constitution of matter. If 
all matter is one entity, then the weights of the different so-called ‘‘elemextary ” 
atoms should be connected by some definite mathematical law; and such a law can 
only be developed upon the basis of the most refined experimental researches. In 
the measurement of atomic weights ‘‘ accidental errors,” which practically vanish 
from averages, do little harm; but the ‘ constant errors” are troublesome and all- 
pervasive. Furthermore, since one atomic weight serves as the starting point for the 
determination of others, the constant errors become cumulative, and their climina- 
tion is anything but easy. 

In Morley’s determinations of the atomic weight of oxygen, the errors are controlled 
by exact manipulation on the one hand, and by wide variations of method on the 
other. Ifsix or seven distinct methods of measurement, involving different possibili- 
ties of error, give at last the same value sought, then the presumption is that constant 
errors have been eliminated altogether. Up to the present date Professor Morley has 
investigated the preparation of oxygen and hydrogen in absolute purity, the influence 
of impurities in known amounts, the composition of water by volume, and the rela- 
tive densities of the two gases. The series of experiments upon the composition of 
water by volume have already been made public, and the results obtained are accurate 
for a single experiment, to within one part in 26,000. Such accuracy was never before 

83 


84 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


approached, even remotely, in investigations of this kind. He now has in view the 
synthesis of water by several distinct quantitative processes, and these involve large 
weighings. For example, hydrogen is so light that large bulks must be taken in 
order that the errors of weighing may not exercise an appreciable influence. In order 
to do this, glass globes holding 20 litres are used; and their weight is considerable. 
The ordinary analytical balances, ranging from 200 to 1.0000 grammes, are wholly 
unavailable for the purpose, and hence an exceptional balance, such as Riiprecht has 
made for the International Bureau of Weights and Measures at Paris, becomes neces- 
sary. In the office of our own Coast and Geodetic Survey there is a balance approach- 
ing these in character; so sensitive as to show the difference between two standard 
kilogrammes placed side by side or one on top of the other. This difference in posi- 
tion of two weights is a difference of distance from the center of the earth of a few 
centimetres only, and yet it corresponds to a difference in weight of about .000015 
gramme. This difference, according to Professor Mendenhall, is perfectly appreci- 
able with the balances now in use. I can not say whether or not Riiprecht keeps 
these finer balances in stock, but I suspect that one would have to be built to order, 
so that some months would elapse before it could be delivered. The cost should not 
exceed $500, and the balance, after serving Professor Morley’s purpose, might be 
returned to the Institution, where it would have permanent value. The present 
investigation could thus be assisted with little or no actual sinking of capital, and 
the aid to research would continue long after the single investigation of Professor 
Morley was finished. I sincerely hope that the assistance sought may be given. 
Very respectfully, 
F. W. CLARKE. 


APPENDIX VIL. 


REPORT ON INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF ORIENTALISTS. 


Prof. S. P. LANGLEY, 
Washington, D. C.: 


Str: In accordance with your instruction I attended the Eighth International 
Congress of Orientalists as delegate of the Smithsonian Institution. The meetings of 
the congress were held in Stockholm and Christiania, under the auspices of His 
Majesty the King of Sweden and Norway, from September 1 to September 12, 1889. 
The members assembled in Stockholm on September 1 and adjourned on September 
7 to meet in Christiania from September 8 to September 11. September 12 was spent 
in Gétheburg, where a farewell reception was given. 

Five general meetings were held and the various sections met daily for the trans- 
action of business. 

There were registered as subscribers to the congress 710 names (204 Scandinavians 
and 506 foreigners); more than one-half of the (286) foreign members were present. 
The foreign members came from twenty-eight different countries, as indicated in the 
tollowing table: 


Country. P see Present. Country. eres gs, | Present. 
1. Abyssinia...---. 1 Lia ehGceitalyeee ceases e 48 9 
2. AMerica.- <2. = 39 1G. Avo Japan’ 2: 2. 3 2 
3.) PAMIStIIAls == = 36 729: |\:b8. Persia <. 25-2 24 4 | 4 
Ae BeLouumM essa 4 1-19) Portugal =.=. 4 4 
Gy Intl Sena coor 1 1 || 20. Roumania .... 1G Reese sas 
6. Colombia ------ 1 Ufa, Meh ooeooon 26 | 18 
fa Denmarkye--= - 19 135) 225 Servial -22- == iL l 
Saebeyp tices see 7 AWN BAG ISMN 256 Soc oce 2 | 1 
9. England ....... 84 Bye) ieee: Sow ibleccs soos] 3 1 
10.) Binland| -----.- 13 11 || 25. Switzerland -- 8 4 
AB TaANCeRe- =<). - 41 LOE PO Gaelunke@yesse = 28 5 
12. Germany ...-.-- 80 60 || 27. Sweden...--.- 142 142 
3. (Greecenss =.) -- : 2 IT h28aeNOnway: sess. 62 6 
Ae Holland 22. 2-- 39 ey — = -— 
Hes An Giiale-% 2i=c12 2 11 5 Total= 2255.4 710 | *435 


*In the London Academy of November 1, 1890, it is stated that the congress was 
attended by 459 Europeans, 16 Americans, 13 Asiatic, and 5 African scholars. This 
calculation is evidently based on the supposition that the Swedish and Norwegian 
subscribers were all present. 

85 


86 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


If arranged according to the number of subscribers the list would be as follows: 


TeySwetlem ee esore scene oaeese eee 149s SSeS witzenlandss=seseeeee ese 8 
2). JO ARR osceg Scones caebodasos uly WG, IBA TN Goceoa GS55h6 HoacKs abodes 7 
Sa Germanyeeeseeressesese arse SOM al Rersiasessce sees cseece cee eas 4 
BSANOL WAY, Peet etiet on fe eeeeacemec G2u So sPortugalyy ve eens soe 4 
Emp Ttalivmee mona one wise ee Sai KS \| TWO) Ielkesio Goo sesso 555086 coSe 4 
Gian Ce ee caee BL ek ren AW) | 20M Japan see sees oeee ase eceeeeee 3 
PROLLollandecteoe tse oe eee aaa $9 {sie Spain’ ceca seen eee eee eee 3 
SLPAMOLICA semen cae eoe eet onenee BOW e22etSiam S25... oss. 2 Soe ese sees 2 
Os ANISETIA cose eee oe Stee eee Beaie235 ‘Greece! ise. 2. ee seesaw eee ee 2 
10); “NTRARENF cageas on60 Sno sooo sane ye) | et, AIDS, Gan6 Seas ncesoagccas iL 
Ml MRussiateest she Sess acess 961225, (Braziless st eee eee nee 1 
1M enmarkes -ecereceee oscil a 19 F426. Colombiare: neem seeoeeaeeeee ee 1 
ASesbinland seca cece asce ces ese 1 Sep Er vilacee sence e. seamen. 1 
ARSE dia weep eaeeecasee tee cee DS Go Roumantawsss eee eee eee 1 
If arranged according to the number of members present the order would be: 
MS wedeneacnccltee eases sees 1 ADE SOUR CLS ays es oe eee ee eee 5 
Ds (Gumi? sbaece casccos oosncese CORDIG Gy DG anee oar eae eae 4 
eubneang seat aw cew een eer = Soe m7 Poriucals se See eee ae eee 4 
ANP AUStUIAee ee ace sces ceo ee sece Peay | sts ishynuivaellyoel Soe 3s Soeseolaccosd 4 
IG IBC esacce Gade saoncuumesepore 19S ON Tapantst ssences. ae ee eee 2 
GuWenmanicseeaee aocee ee oe ea LS -QOMGreecern sets cercmeccce as ae cise 1 
Fp IRMERIE) csosceeesso0 5 cose b500ce LST Pie sBelomm=seneeece cece oeeceee 1 
SMEG llamas. 2st See cee ce ZN ROOMS Tae sates sap tee Sersal =a 1 
OmAMERI CAsse ease roe beaeiseecer 639) OBE IN ech ey sooesaos Shon coon GSac 1 
AQ Meiniandie es FOES Oss eee 1B Or ee Breall a ee ASR OSA Seedoode 1 
Ty, IRF? cauascoosenene dascosscos Deo. COLO MIN a == aes ee eee eee 1 
1) NGI ()ace5scssod5ese sesese GrHQ6S Servidiesas cae pe neerencleneis eee al 
118} Ww Podoe coodenosseoos nosSec 5 27. Roumaniaicassesssceesecsceees 0 
IW, IinebiP co Scoo6 so0c0s osc c065 code aja WOegris| imal Same Sos Soe SS Se Boas 0 


Comparing these figures with those of the preceding Oriental congresses it would 
seem that there is an increase of devotion to Oriental studies among European schol- 
ars. At the Seventh Congress, held at Vienna in 1886, there were 414 subscribers 
and 228 members present; at the Sixth Congress, held at Leyden in 1883, there were 
453 subscribers and 219 members present; at the Fifth Congress, held at Berlin in 
1881, there were 296 subscribers and 189 members present. 

The following table indicates the number of subscribers and members present at 
each of the eight international congresses of Orientalists : 


Subscri- | Pres- Subscri- | Pres- 
bers. | ent.* bers. ent. 
ieanisi@lsie)eeeeeaeeee 10635) Gh) | yy Inievalibn (Oust) ees co 1,296 | 189 
De sonadon) @874))ree eer iene 1,491 | (t+) || 6. Leyden (1883) -.....-.-. 1, 453 219 
3. St. Petersburg (1876) - -. 1,507 | (t) || 7. Vienna (1886) ...-.-.- 1,414 | 228 
4. Florence (1878) .-.------ 1,218 | 127 || 8. Stockholm (1889)... -- 1,710 | 493 
* Kighty-nine foreign members attended. +t Not recorded. 


The increased interest is even more marked on the part of Americans. To the 
Vienna congress there were eleven American subscribers of whom five (Briggs, Le- 
land, S. A. Smith, Thatcher, and Whitehouse) were present. To the Stockholm 
congress there were forty American subscribers, of whom sixteen were present. A 
list of the American subscribers is herewith subjoined : 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 87 


1. Dr. Cyrus Adler, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. 
2. Dr. W. M. Arnolt, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. 
3. Prof. Charles A. Briggs, Union Theological Seminary, 700 Park avenue, New 
York. 
4. Prof. Francis Brown, Union Theological Seminary, 700 Park avenue, New 
York. 
*5. Prof. Thomas Chase, 50 Barnes street, Providence, Rhode Island. 
6, Rev. Lysander Dickermann, Public Library, Boston, Massachusetts. 
*7. Prof. Richard T. Ely, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. 
*8. Prof. Richard H. Gottheil, Columbia College, New York. 
9. Rev. J. T. Gracey, 202 Eagle street, Butfalo, New York. 
*10. Prof. William R. Harper, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut. 
*11. Prof. James Taft Hatfield, Northwestern University, Naperville, [linois. 
*12. Prof. Paul Haupt, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. 
*13. Mrs. Paul Haupt, Baltimore, Maryland. 
*14, Prof. Henry Hyvernat, Catholic University, Brookland, District of Columbia. 
15. Prof. A. V. Williams Jackson, Columbia College, New York. 
16. Prof. Morris Jastrow, jr., University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsyl- 
vania. 
17. Dr. Christopher Johnston, jr., Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Mary- 
land. 
*18. Rev. S. H. Kellogg, D.D., 86 Charles street, Toronto, Canada. 
*19. Prof. Charles R. Lanman, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 
20. Charles G. Leland, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
*21. Mrs. Charles G. Leland, Philadelphia. 
*22. Joseph Moore, jr., 1821 Walnut street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
*23. Dr. Ed. Olsson, president University of Dakota, Vermillion, Dakota. 
24. E. D. Perry, New York. 
*25. Prof. Samuel B. Platner, Adelbert College, Cleveland, Ohio. 
26. Prof. Robert W. Rogers, Dickinson College. 
*27. Mrs. Karl Rydingsvird, Boston, Massachusetts. 
28. David Sulsberger, 1220 North Twelfth street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
29. Mayer Sulsberger, 1303 Girard avenue, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
30. S. M. Swenson, New York. 
31. Seymour D. Thomson, St. Louis, Missouri. 
32. Dr. William H. Ward, 251 Broadway, New York. 
33. Prof. R. F. Weidner, Augustana Theological Seminary, Rock Island, Illinois. 
34. Dr. Charles K. West, 138 Montague street, Brooklyn, New York. 
35. Captain Whitehouse, 15 Fifth avenue, New York. 
36. Prof. W. D. Whitney, Yale University, New Haven, Connectieut. 
* 37. Prof. Alonzo Williams, Brown University, Providence. Rhode Island. 
* 38. Prof. Robert D. Wilson, Western Theological School, Allegheny, Pennsylvania. 
vanla. 
39. Johns Hopkius University, Baltimore, Maryland. 
40. The Newberry Library, Chicago, Illinois. 


* Present. 


88 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


The following table indicates the number of American subscribers and members 
present at the Hight International Congresses of Orientalists: 


American |Americans 

subscribers.| present. 
PPB arisn (sys) to sae one sce on soa cema ne seat cies oere ee 138 52 
Pe PLONAONLETA) oe teee ocr cone sen eee oes Se ise aa Serato wis eee 2g) (®) 
Suse LebershburorGlS76)- sists eee. oe See eee ee eee 37 (°) 
Ae WlorenceGl S78 Visca ctmaceeun sae ees eee eee eee eee SOs 2 
sv) Banat (G) boten Lea ere ee Merete ees een Ses es eter 6 71 
GBlLey deniAdsea tekent sc cteteears oc sae res Boeeee tater 8 1 
Mev Lenina CUBBG\ tes os cee cas noe eae cones te ciee ane cee eee ee 1i 5 
SoS tockholmyiGissgi cake MOEA ey Sa ai ee ers eet Meters 40 17 


This marked increase was no doubt chiefly due to the circulation of a special 
American edition of the programme for the Stockholm Congress, published by the 
Smithsonian Institution at the request of the secretary-general of the congress, 
Count Landberg. This circular contained a revised English translation of the original 
programme including additions and corrections especially furnished for this purpose 
by the secretary-general of the congress. Copies of this circular were sent to all the 
members of the American Oriental Society as well as to a great many libraries and 
colleges in this country. 

But three American institutions were represented by delegates: Brown University, 
Providence, Rhode island, by Prof. Alonzo Williams, and the Smithsonian Institution 
and the Johns Hopkins University by Prof. Paul Haupt. 

It is to be regretted that the American Oriental Society did not sent a delegate to 
the congress. The sending of a representative and the presentation of a complete set 
of the journal ot the American Oriental Society to the honorary president of the con- 
gress would have been appreciated. There was no delegate of the United States 
Government, nor had England, Germany, or Prussia responded to the invitation to 
send governmental delegates. The following countries sent such delegates. 


Austria, Coburg-Gotha, Italy, Russia, 
Baden, Denmark, Japan, Roumania, 
Bavaria, Egypt, Netherlands, — Saxony, 
Bosnia, France, Persia, Siam, 
Brazil, India, Portugal, Turkey. 
The following universities were represented : 

Bombay, Giessen, Kasan, Petersburg, 
Brown, Greifswald, London, Prague, 
Cambridge, Halle, Rund, Rome, 
Copenhagen, Helsingfors. Munich, Upsala, 
Edinburgh, Johns Hopkins, Oxford, Vienna. 


'T may be allowed to mention especially Charles A. Briggs, D. C. Gilman, Profes- 
sor Henry, Professor Salisbury, A. Van Name, Andrew D. White, W. D. Whitney; 
the American Oriental Society, the Philosophical Sagiety, of Hartford, Connecticut ; 
the Smithsonian Institution. The late Dr. Schliemann, too, is registered as one of 
the American subscribers. 

2W. D. Whitney, Egbert C. Smyth, General J. M. Read, etc. 

3W. D. Whitney, E. E. Salisbury, and A. Van Name, of New Haven; G. Atwood 
and Rey. O. D. Miller, of Boston; S. S. Haldeman, of Philadelphia, and D. C. Gilman, 
of Baltimore. 

4W. D. Whitney, Prof. W. Benade, Dr. Berend. The latter two were present. 

5Gen. J. Meredith ReadU. S. consul-general to Paris, Mrs. Read, and the sinologist 
Charles Reedy. 

© Not recorded. 7 Peters. SF. Brown. 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 89 


Among the learned societies and institutions represented by delegates may be men- 
tioned the Royal Asiatic Society, the Society of Biblical Archzology, the Palestine 
Exploration Fund, the India Office of London, the Asiatie Society of Bengal, the 
Société Asiatique of Paris, the German Oriental Society, the Vatican Library, the 
Royal Academies of Rome, Turin, Munich, Pesth, ete. 

In accordance with the statement in the programme that the patron and honorary 
president of the congress would be pleased to accept such works as would be depos- 
ited for presentation to His Majesty, scholars and institutions all over the world 
offered more than 3,000 valuable works and serials covering the entire range of orien- 
tal studies. 

The following works were presented by American institutions and scholars: 

1. American Mission Press and American Bible Society, Beirut, Syria. About 50 
Arabic publications. (See Liste des auvrages offerts, p. 19.) 

2. Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland. 

a. The American Journal of Philology, volumes I-1x, Baltimore, 1878~89. 

b. Johns Hopkins University Circulars, volumes I-vi1r, Baltimore, 187289. 

ce. The Williams Manuscript. Reproduction in phototype of 17 pages of a Syriac 
MS. containing the Epistles known as ‘‘ Antilegomena,” Baltimore, 1826. 

d. Contributions to Assyriology and Comparative Semitic Philolegy, edited by 
Friedrich Delitzsch and Paul Haupt, with the codperation of the Johns Hopkins 
University, Baltimore, Maryland, volume 1, part 1, Leipsic, 1889, 

3. The Smithsonian Institution on behalf of the U. S. National Museum: 

Assyrian and Babylonian seals, facsimiles and flat impressions, illustrating the 
method after which the smaller Assyro-Babylonian objects preserved in private Amer- 
ican collections are reproduced for the study collection at the U.S. National Mu- 
seum. 

Owing to a mistake of the European Express Company the box containing these 
objects did not arrive in time to be presented to the king at the general meeting of 
the congress in Stockholm. At the request of the Smithsonian delegate the United 
States minister to Sweden and Norway, Gen. W. W. Thoinas, submitted the presents 
to King Oscar at a special audience. The expression of interest by the king on that 
occasion was conveyed in a letter of General Thomas herewith subjoined : 


UNITED StTaTES LEGATION, 


Stockholm, November 12, 1889. 
Prof. PAUL HAUrT: 


My Dear Str: Your note from on board the steamer was duly received, and some 
time after the box came to hand. 

I might at once have sent the box through the usual official channels to the king, 
but on opening it I found its contents of such value, and so neatly and orderly ar- 
ranged and classified that I desired to make sure that His Majesty should see this 
model gift of the Smithsonian. 

The opportunity desired has occurred. 

I to-day had an audience of the King. 

I took the box with me and had it carried into the audience chamber. In the ante 
room I unpacked and took out the inner box, and also unpacked some of the little 
boxes and the ancient seals contained therein. His Majesty himself took up the fine 
inner box or tray, containing all the small boxes, placed it on his writing desk, read 
the large general inscription in gold letters on black ground, and examined carefully 
several of the Assyrian seals and casts, and expressed his admiration at the beauty and 
clearness of the seals and the skill and method of the arrangement. 

The King said he should take time at his leisure to look over the seals more thor- 
oughly, and would then decide where to place the tray. His Majesty also desired me 
to express his thanks to the Smithsonian Institution for this beautiful and useful gift- 
as well as his appreciation of the method and skill displayed in the cases and general 
arrangement. 


90 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Congratulating the Smithsonian and yourself, not only upon this present and its 
gracious reception, but upon the general exhibit made by the United States at the 
Oriental Congress at Stockholm in seals and books, and last and best, in men, 


I remain, my dear sir, yours very sincerely, 
W. W. THOMAS, JR. 


The following works were presented by American Orientalists : 
1. Thomas Chase, of Providence, Rhode Island; Hellas, her Monuments and Scenery 
Cambridge, 1883. 
2. EK. van Dyck, Cairo: Real property, mortgage, and wakf, according to Ottoman 
law. 
3. J. T. Gracey, D D., of Buffalo, New York : 
a. India by J. T. Gracey, Rochester, New York, 1884: 
b. The Gulistan of Sa‘di, edited in Persian by A. Sprenger, Caleutta, 1851. 
4. Wm. Rk. Harper, of New Haven, Connecticut : 
a. Elements of Hebrew, tenth ed. 
b. Introductory Hebrew Method Manual, fifth ed. 
c. Hebrew Vocabularies, third ed. 
d. Elements of Hebrew Syntax. 
e. Hebraica, volumes I-v. 
5. Paul Haupt, of Baltimore, Maryland: 
a. The Babylonian Nimrod Epie, Leipsic, 1890, 
b. The Cuneiform Account of the Deluge, Leipsic, 1881. 
ce. A modern fragment of the old Babylonian Nimrod Epic, containing a legend 
of Noah and the demon Kater (inscribed day tabiet). 
d. Contributions to Assyriology and Comparative Semitic Philology, part 1, 
Leipsic, 1889. 
e. On the Semitic Sounds and their Transliteration, Leipsic, 1889. 
6. Henry Hyvernat, of Washington, District of Columbia: 
a. Les actes des martyrs de ’Egypte, volume 1, Rome, 1887. 
b. Album de paléographie copte. 
7. S. H. Kellogg, Western Theological Seminary, Alleghany, Pennsylvania: 
a. A Grammar of the Hindi Language. 
b. The Light of Asia and the Light of the World. 
8. Ch. R. Hanman, of Cambridge, Massachusetts, a Sanscrit Reader, Parts 1-111, 
Boston, 1888. 
9. Dr. John Wortabet, Beirnt: 
a Elements of Anatomy.* 
b Elements of Physiology.* 
ce Temples and Tombs of Thebes.* 
The Eighth International Congress of Orientalists presented some special features 
distinguishing it from all its predecessors compared with the previous meetings. 
The Government took an especial interest in the proceedings throughout. King 
Oscar acted as patron and honorary president opened the congress (in the great es- 
cutcheon hall of Riddarhuset, the palace of the Swedish nobility, in Stockholm) 
with a happily worded French address; closed it with an admirably expressed Latin 
oration; was in the chair at the general meeting of all the sections, and attended one 
of the meetings of the Semitic section Ib for cuneiform research.t At Christiania the 


* In Arabic. 
t The Congress was organized in five sections; the first of which was divided into 
two sub-sections. 
1. Semitic and Islam. 2. Aryan. 
a Languages and literatures of Islam. 3. African, including Egyptology. 
b Semitic languages, other than 4. Central Asia and the Far East. 
Arabic; cuneiform texts and in- 5. Malay and Polynesia. 
scriptions, etc. 


—- 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 91 


meeting was opened in the name of the King by the minister of public instruction. The 
King had offered two prizes (by special decree of January 6, 1886), one for a work on 
the History of the Semitic Languages, and the other on the Civilization of the Arab 
Muhammed. No works of European or American Orientalists were submitted to the 
special committee appointed for the purpose of reporting the recommendation for the 
award of the prizes. But six Arabic workson the second-named subject by Oriental 
authors had beer sent to the committee, and one of these Oriental scholars, Mahmud 
Shookree el-Aloasee of Baghdad, though not coming up fully to the requirements, 
was considered worthy of King Oscar’s gold medal for art and science, with the rib- 
bon of the order of Wasa. 

Quite a number of native scholars from the East were present and took an active 
part in the proceedings. 

Abdallah Fikri Pasha spoke on the Divan of Hasan Ibn Thabit. 

Sheikh Hamza Fathallah: On the right of women in the Islam. 

Mahmud Omar: On Arabic proverbs in Egypt. 

Emin Bey Fikri: Against those who prefer modern Arabic to the classical language. 

These three papers were in Arabic, the following native Oriental scholars spoke in 
English: 

Jivanji Jamshedji Modi: On the position of the Haoma in the Avesta of the Parsecs. 

In his opening address the secretary-general called attention to this special feature 
of the congress, and expressed the hope that this active participation on the part ®f 
native Oriental scholars would be the starting point of a new era for the civilization 
of the East. 

A great many of the most distinguished Orientalists from all parts of the globe were 
present, among them may be mentioned: Brugsch, Biihler, Chwolson, Dillmann, 
Euting, Giusburg, de Goeje, Donner, Gubernatis, Guidi, Halévy, Kern, Kremer, 
Mehren, Max Miiller, Oppert, Reinisch, de Rosny, Rost, Sayce, Schefer, Schlegel, 
J. Schmidt, Spiegel, Weber. 

Over a hundred papers of great value were read : 

Twenty-four in the Semitic section Ia (Arabie and Islam). 

Twenty-six in T section Ib (cuneiform research, etc). 

Twenty-two in section II (Aryan). 

Nineteen in section III (Egyptian, etc.), 

The following papers were read by American Orientalists: 

a. Prof. Paul Haupt, The Death of Sargon II. 

b. Prof. Henry Hyvernat, the paleographical introduction to his Acts of the 
Martyrs in Egypt. 

e Chas. G. Leland: The Pidjin (Chinese-English) dialect and its relation to 
other mixed dialects, followed by a communication on the dissidence of the Chi- 
nese philosophers concerning the question of human nature. 

The scientific character of the meeting, however, was somewhat impaired by the 
almost excessive hospitality of the Scandinavian hosts, and especially by the number 
of tourists who attracted by the programme attended. It looked occasionally as 
though the Congress were rather a succession of festivities than a serious gathering 
of scholars for scientific purposes. It was especially regretted that there was hardly 
any time for private intercourse between individual fellow-workers. Since the meet- 
ing of the Congress some feeling has developed against so great a display of hospi- 
tality in the future. 

Where the next International Congress of Orientalists is to meet has not yet been 
determined. 

At the general meeting of all the sections held at Stockholm on August 6, under 
the presidency of King Oscar, it was suggested by the delegate of the Smithsonian 
Institution (after a special meeting of all the American orientalists present, with the 


92 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY. 


Awerican minister in the chair) that the Tenth Congress should be held in America in 
1893. The idea seemed to meet with general approval, but it remains to be seen 
whether the American orientalists will be ready to extend a formal invitation. 

Professor Haupt addressed King Oscar at this occasion as follows: - 

‘‘T have the honor to present to your majesty the first part of a new publication 
which is intended to contribute, above all, to the solution of the problem set by your 
majesty, viz, the history of the Semitic languages. The series is entitled Contri- 
butions to Assyriology and Comparative Semitic Philology. I submié the first part 
on behalf of the Johns Hopkins University, of Baltimore, with whose co-operation the 
work is published. I beg leave to add some other publications issued under the au- 
spices of the Johns Hopkins University. 

“<1, The photo lithographic re- production of 17 pages of a Syriac MS. 

“2. A complete series of the Johns Hopkins University circulars, which report on 
the development of this new university since the year 1879 and which contain at 
the same time numerous contributions to Oriental research. 

‘©3, The 9 volumes of the American Journal of Philology (published at Baltimore 
under the auspices of the Johns Hopkins University) which contain several impor- 
tant articles of our venerable leader in Oriental philology, Professor Whitney, as well 
as papers by other American orientalists, both Indo-European and Semitic. 

‘1 am also instructed as delegate of the Smithsonian Institution to present to your 
majesty on behalfof the U. S. National Museum a number of Babylonian and As- 
syrian seals (facsimiles and flat impressions) illustrating the methods after which 
smaller Assyrian and Babylonian objects preserved in private American collections 
are reproduced for the study collection of the U. 8S. National Museum. 

“‘Your majesty will see what interest is had in America in Oriental studies, espe- 
cially in cuneiform research. There are more instractors in Assyriology now in the 
United States than at all the European universities combined. Also at this con- 
gress there are nearly forty American orientalists inscribed as members. 

‘‘7, Ican not suppress the hope that our European follow-workers in view of the pro- 
gress of Oriental studies in America will be willing before long to have, perhaps, the 
Tenth International Congress of Orientalists meet in the United States. The dis- 
tance will hardly deter many. It will, perhaps, be possible to place at the disposal of 
the members a steamer which would carry them to America and back again to 
Europe. Nor would the attendance at the Congress take much time. Even in case 
there should be 6 days in Washington (or wherever we should agree to meet), followed 
by an excursion to the West, Chicago, the Lake region, Niagara Falls, and thence, 
again, through Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore to Washington, it 
would be possible to do all that (including the passage across the Atlantic both ways) 
in a little more than one month. The gracious interest which your majesty has 
devoted to Oriental studies will always exercise an encouraging influence, and I 
trust that at the meeting of the Congress on American soil we shall not be too far 
behind the older Enropean centers of Oriental learning.” 

Respectfully submitted. 
PAUL HAUPT. 


GENERAL APPENDIX 


TO THE 


SMITHSONTAN REPORT FOR 1890. 


ADVERTISEMENT. 


The object of the GENERAL APPENDIX to the Annual Report of the 
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific discov- 
ery in particular directions; occasional reports of the investigations 
made by collaborators of the Institution; memoirs of a general charac- 
ter or on special topics, whether original and prepared expressly for the 
purpose, or selected from foreign journals and proceedings; and briefly 
to present (as fully as space will permit) such papers not published in 
the Smithsonian Contributions or in the Miscellaneous Collections as - 
may be supposed to be of interest or value to the numerous correspond- 
ents of the Institution. 

It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, from a very early date, to enrich the annual report 
required of them by law, with memoirs illustrating the more reinarka- 
ble and important developments in physical and biological discovery, 
as well as showing the general character of the operations of the Insti- 
tution; and this purpose has, during the greater part of its history, been 
carried out largely by the publication of such papers as would possess 
an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. 

In 1880 the Secretary, induced in part by the dis-continuance of an 
annual summary of progress which for thirty years previous had been 
issued by well-known private publishing firms, had prepared by com- 
petent collaborators a series of abstracts, showing concisely the promi- 
nent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, meteor- 
ology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zodlogy, and anthropol- 
ogy. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether satisfac- 
factorily, down to and including the year 1888. 

In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of 
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) 
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- 
sion. This method has been continued in the present report, for 1890. 


95 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


AN HISTORICAL SKETCH OF THE PROBLEM FROM THE EARLIEST TIMES 
TO THE PRESENT DAY.* 


By HERMANN SCHUBERT. 


I.—UNIVERSAL INTEREST IN THE PROBLEM. 


For two and a half thousand years both trained and untrained minds 
have striven in vain tosolve the problem known as the squaring of the 
circle. Now that geometers have at last succeeded in giving a rigid 
demonstration of the impossibility of solving the problem with ruler 
and compasses, it seems fitting and opportune to cast a glance into the 
nature and bistory of this very ancient problem. And this will be 
found all the more justifiable in view of the fact that the squaring of 
the circle, at least in name, is very widely known outside of the narrow 
limits of professional mathematicians. 

The resolution of the French Academy.—The Proceedings of the French 
Academy for the year 1775 contain, at page 61, the resolution of the 
Academy not to examine, from that time on, any so-called solutions of 
the quadrature of the circle that might be handed in. The Academy 
was driven to this determination by the overwhelming multitude of pro- 
fessed solutions of the famous problem, which were sent to it every 
month in the year—solutions which, of course, were an invariable attes- 
tation of the ignorance and self-consciousness of their authors, but 
which suffered collectively from a very important error in mathematics : 
they were wrong. Since that time all professed solutions of the problem 
received by the Academy find a sure haven in the waste-basket, and re- 
main unanswered for all time. The circle-squarer, however, sees in 
this high-hauded manner of rejection only the envy of the great towards 
his grand intellectual discovery. He is determined to meet with recog- 
nition, and appeals, therefore, to the public. The newspapers must 
obtain for him the appreciation that scientific societies have denied. 
And every year the old mathematical sea serpent more than once dis- 
ports itself in the columns of our papers, that a Mr. N. N., of P. P., has 
at last solved the problem of the quadrature of the circle. 


*From Holtzendorft and Virchow’s Sammlung gemeinverstindlicher wissenscha/tlicher 
Vortrdge, Heft 67. Hamburg: Verlagsanstalt, etc. Re-printed from The Monist, Jan- 
uary, 1891, vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 197-228. 

H. Mis, 129——7 97 


98 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


General ignorance of quadrators.—But what kind of people are these 
circle-squarers, When examined by the light? Almost always they will 
be found to be imperfectly educated persons, whose mathematical know- 
ledge does not exceed that of a modern college freshman. It is seldom 
that they know accurately what the requirements of the problem are 
and what its nature. They never know the two and a half thousand 
years’ history of the problem, and they have no idea whatever of the 
important investigations and results which have been made with ref- 
erence to the problem by great and real mathematicians in every cen- 
tury down to our time. 

A cyclometric type.—Yet great as is the quantum of ignorance that 
circle-squarers intermix with their intellectual products, the lavish sup- 
ply of conceit and self-consciousness with which they season their per- 
formances is still greater. I have not far to go to furnish a verification 
of this. A book printed in Hamburg in the year 1840 lies before me, in 
which the author thanks Almighty God at every second page that He 
has selected him and no one else to solve the “ problem phenomenal” 
of mathematics, ‘so long sought for, so fervently desired, and attempt- 
ed by millions.” After the modest author has proclaimed himself the 
unmasker of Archimedes’s deceit, he says: “It thus has pleased our 
mother nature to withhold this mathematical jewel from the eye of bu- 
man investigation until she thought it fitting to reveal truth to sim- 
plicity.” 

This will suffice to show the great self-consciousness of the author. 
But it does not suffice to prove his ignorance. He has no conception of 
mathematical demonstration; be takes it for granted that things are so 
because they seem so to him. Errors of logic, also, are abundantly 
found in his book. But apart from this general incorreetness, let us 
see wherein the real gist of his fallacy consists. It requires consider- 
able labor to find out what this is from the turgid language and bom- 
bastice style in which the arthor has buried his conclusions. But it is 
this: The author inscribes a square in a circle, cireumscribes another 
about it, then points out that the inside square is made up of four con- 
gruent triangles, whereas the circumscribed square is made up of eight 
such triangles; from which fact, seeing that the circle is larger than 
the one square and smaller than the other, he draws the bold conelusion 
that the circle is equal in area to six such triangles. It is hardly con- 
ceivable that a rational being could infer that something which is 
greater than 4 and less than 8 must necessarily be 6. But with a man 
that attempts the squaring of the circle this kind of ratiocination is 
possible. 

Similarly in the case of all other attempted solutions of the problem, 
either logical fallacies or violations of elementary arithmetical or geo- 
metrical truths may be pointed out.. Only they are not always of 
such a trivial nature as in the book just mentioned. 

Let us now inquire whence the inclination arises which leads people 
to take up the quadrature of the circle and to attempt to solve it. 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 99 


The allurements of the problem.—Attention must first be called to 
the antiquity of the problem. A quadrature was attempted in Egypt 
500 years before the exodus of the Israelites. Among the Greeks the 
problem never ceased to play a part that greatly influenced the pro- 
gress of mathematics. And in the middle agesalso the squaring of the 
circle sporadically appears as the philosopher’s stone of mathematics. 
The problem has thus never ceased to be dealt with and considered. 
But it is not by the antiquity of the problem that circle-squarers are 
enticed, but by the allurement which everything exerts that is calcu- 
lated to raise the individual out of the mass of ordinary humanity, and 
to bind about his temples the laurel crown of celebrity. It is ambition 
that spurred men on in ancient Greece and still spurs them on in mod- 
ern times to crack this primeval mathematical nut. Whether they are 
competent thereto is a secondary consideration. They look upon the 
squaring of the circle as the grand prize of a lottery that can just as 
well fall to their lot as to that of any other. They do not remember 
that— 


Toil before honor is placed by sagacious decrees of Immortals, 


and that it requires years of continued studies to gain possession of the 
mathematical weapons that are indispensably necessary to attack the 
problem, but which even in the hands of the most distinguished math- 
ematical strategists have not sufficed to take the stronghold. 

About the only problem known to the lay world.—But how is it, we 
must further ask, that it happens to be the squaring of the circle and 
not some other unsolved mathematical problem upon which the efforts 
of people are bestowed who have no knowledge of mathematics yet 
busy themselves with mathematical questions? The question is 
answered by the fact that the squaring of the circle is about the only 
mathematical problem that is known to the unprofessional world—at 
least by name. Even among the Greeks the problem was very widely 
known outside of mathematical circles. In the eyes of the Grecian 
layman, as at present among many of his modern brethren, occupation 
with this problem was regarded as the most important and essential 
business of mathematicians. In fact they had a special word to desig- 
nate this species of activity, namely, cetpaywxilev, which means to 
busy one’s self with the quadrature. In modern times, also, every ed- 
ucated person, though he be not a mathematician, knows the problem 
by name, and knows that it is insolvable, or at least, that despite the 
efforts of the most famous mathematicians it has not yet been solved. 
For this reason the phrase “to square the circle,” is now used in the 
sense of attempting the impossible. * 

Belief that rewards have been offered.—But in addition to the antiquity 
of the problem, and the fact also that it is known to the lay world, we 
have yet a third factor to point out that induces people to take up with 
it. This is the report that has been spread abroad for a hundred years 
now, that the Academies, the Queen of England, or some other influen- 


100 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


tial person, has offered a great prize to be given to the one that first 
solves the problem. Asa matter of fact we find the hope of obtaining 
this large prize of money the principal incitement to action with many 
circle-squarers. And the author of the book above referred to begs his 
readers to lend him their assistance in obtaining the prizes offered. 

The problem among mathematicians.—Although the opinion is widely 
current in the unprofessional world that professional mathematicians 
are still busied with the solution of the problem, this is by no means 
the case. On the contrary, for some two hundred years, the endeavors 
of many considerable mathematicians have been solely directed towards 
demonstrating with exactness that the problem is insolvable. It is, as 
a rule—and naturally—more difficult to prove that something is impos- 
sible than to prove that it is possible. And thus it has happened, that 
up to within a few years ago, despite the employment of the most varied 
and the most comprehensive methods of modern mathematics, no one 
succeeded in supplying the wished-for demonstration of the problem’s 
impossibility. At last, Professor Lindemann, of Koénigsberg, in June, 
1882, succeeded in furnishing a demonstration—and the first demonstra- 
tion—that it is impossible by the exclusive employment of ruler and 
compasses to construct a square that is mathematically exactly equal 
in area toa given circle. The demonstration, naturally, was not effected 
with the help of the old elementary methods; for if it were, it would 
surely have been accomplished centuries ago; but methods were requis- 
ite that were first furnished by the theory of definite integrals and de- 
partments of higher algebra developed in the last decades ; in other 
words, it required the direct and indirect preparatory labor of many 
centuries to make finally possible a demonstration of the insolvability 
of this historic problem. 

Of course, this demonstration will have no more effect than the reso- 
lution of the Paris Academy of 1775 in causing the fecund race of 
circle-squarers to vanish from the face of the earth. In the future as 
in the past, there will be people who know nothing and will not want 
to know anything of this demonstration, and who believe that they 
can not help but succeed in a matter in whieh others have failed, and 
that just they have been appointed by Providence to solve the famous 
puzzle. But unfortunately the ineradicable passion of wanting to 
solve the quadrature of the circle has also its serious side. Circle- 
squarers are not always so self-contented as the author of the book we 
have mentioned. They often see or at least divine the insuperable 
difficulties that tower up before them, and the conflict between their 
aspirations and their performances, the consciousness that they want 
to solve the problem but are unable to solve it, darkens their soul and, 
lost to the world, they become interesting subjects for the science of 
psychiatry. 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 101 
I.—NATURE OF THE PROBLEM. 


Numerical rectification.—Ilf we have a circle before us, it is easy for us 
to determine the length of its radius or of its diameter, which must be 
double that of the radius; and the question next arises to find the num- 
ber that represents how many times larger its circumference, that is the 
length of the circular line, is than its radius or its diameter. From the 
fact that all circles have the same shape it follows that this proportion 
will always be the same for both iarge and small circles. Now, since 
the time of Archimedes, all civilized nations that have cultivated math- 
ematics have called the number that denotes how many times larger 
than the diameter the circumference of a circle is, z—the Greek initial 
letter of the word periphery. To compute z, therefore, means to calcu- 
late how many times larger the circumference of a circle is than its 
diameter. This calculation is called ‘‘the numerical rectification of the 
circle.” 

The numerical quadrature.—Next to the calculation of the circumfer- 
ence, the calculation of the superficial contents of a circle by means of 
its radius or diameter is perbaps most important; that is, the computa- 
tion of how much area that part of a plane which les within a circle 
measures. This calculation is called the “numerical quadrature.” It 
depends, however, upon the problem of numerical rectification; that is, 
upon the calculation of the magnitude of z. For it is demonstrated in 
elementary geometry that the area of a circle is equal to the area of a 
triangle produced by drawing in the circle a radius, erecting at the ex- 
tremity of the same a tangent—that is, in this case a perpendicular— 
cutting off upon the latter the length of the circumference, measuring 
from the extremity, and joining the point thus obtained with the center 
of the circle. But it follows from this that the area of a circle is as 
many times larger than the square upon its radius as the number z 
amounts to. 

Constructive rectification and quadrature.—The numerical rectification 
and numerical quadrature of the circle based upon the computation of 
the number =z are to be clearly distinguished from problems that require 
a Straightline equal in length to;the circumference of a circle, or a square 
equal in area to a circle, to be constructively produced out of its radius 
or its diameter; problems which might properly be called “ constructive 
rectification” or ‘constructive quadrature.” Approximately, of course, 
by employing an approximate value for = these problems are easily 
solvable. But to solve a problem of construction, in geometry, means 
to solve it with mathematical exactitude. If the value z were exactly 
equal to the ratio of two whole numbers to one another, the constructive 
rectification would present no difficulties. For example, suppose the 
circumference of a circle were exactly 31 times greater than its diam- 
eter; then the diameter could be divided into seven equal parts, which 
could be easily done by the principles of planimetry with ruler and 


102 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


compasses, then we would produce to the amount of such a part a 
straight line exactly three times larger than the diameter, and should 
thus obtain a straight line exactly equal to the circumference of the 
circle. Butasa matter of fact, and as has actually been demonstrated, 
there do not exist two whole numbers, be they ever so great, that exactly 
represent by their proportion to one another the number z. Conse- 
quently, a rectification of the kind just described does not attain the 
object desired. 

It might be asked here, whether from the demonstrated fact that the 
number z is not equal to the ratio of two whole numbers however great, 
it does not immediately follow that it is impossible to construct a 
straight line exactly equal in length to the circumference of a circle ; 
thus demonstrating at once the impossibility of solving the problem. 
This question is to be answered in the negative. For there are in 
geometry many sets of two lines of which the one can be easily con- 
structed from the other, notwithstanding the fact that no two whole 
numbers can be found to represent the ratio of the twolines. Theside 
and the diagonal of a square, for instance, are so constituted. It is 
true the ratio of the latter two magnitudes is nearly that of 5 to 7. 
But this proportion is not exact, and there are in fact no two numbers 
that represent the ratio exactly. Nevertheless, either of these two 
lines can be easily constructed from the other by the sole employment of 
ruler and compasses. This might be the case, too, with the rectifica- 
tion of the circle; and consequently from the impossibility of represent- 
ing z by the ratio between two whole numbers the impossibility of the 
problem of rectification is not inferable. 

The quadrature of the circle stands and falls with the problem of 
rectification. This is based upon the truth above mentioned, thata cir- 
cle is equal in area to a right-angle triangle, in which one side is equal 
to the radius of the circle and the other to the circumference. Sup- 
posing, accordingly, that the circumference of the circle were rectified, 
then we could construct this triangle. But every triangle, as is taught 
in the elements of planimetry, can, with the help of ruler and com- 
passes, be converted into a square exactly equal to it in area. So that, 
therefore, Supposing the rectification of the circumference of a circle 
were successfully performed, a square could be constructed that would 
be exactly equal in area to the circle. 

The dependence upon one another of the three problems of the com- 
putation of the number =z, of the quadrature of the circle, and its reeti: 
fication, thus obliges us, in dealing with the history of the quadrature, 
to regard investigations with respect to the value of z.and attempts to 
rectify the circle as of equal importance, and to consider them accord- 
ingly. 

Conditions of the geometrical solution—We have used repeatedly in 
the course of the discussion the expression ‘‘ to construct with ruler and 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 103 


compasses.” It will be necessary (o explain what is meant by the speci- 
fication of these two instruments. When such a number of conditions 
is annexed to a requirement in geometry to construct a certain figure 
that the construction only of one figure or a limited number of figures 
is possible in accordance with the conditions given, such a complete 
requirement is called a problem of construction, or briefly a problem. 
When a probvlem of this kind is presented for solution it is necessary to 
reduce it to simpler problems, already recognized as solvable ; and since 
these latter depend in their turn upon other still simpler problems, we 
are finally brought back to certain fundamental problems, upon which 
the rest are based but which are not themselves reducible to problems 
less simple. These fundamental problems are, so to speak, the under- 
most stones of the edifice of geometrical construction. The question 
next arises as to what problems may be properly regarded as funda- 
mental; and it has been found that the solution of a great part of the 
problems that arise in elementary planimetry rests upon the solution 
of only five original problems. They are: 

(1) The construction of a straight line which shall pass through two 
given points. 

(2) The construction of a circle the center of which is a given point 
and the radius of which has a given length. 

(3) The determination of the point that lies coincidently on two given 
straight lines extended as far as is necessary—in case such a point 
(point of intersection) exists. 

(4) The determination of the two points that lie coincidently on a 
given straight line and a given cirecle—in case such common points 
(points of intersection) exist. 

(5) The determination of the two points that lie coincidently on two 
given circles—in case such common points (points of intersection) exist. 

For the solution of the three last of these five problems the eye alone 
is needed, while for the solution of the two first problems, besides pen- 
cil, ink, chalk, and the like, additional special instruments are required : 
for the solution of the first problem a ruler is most generally used, and 
for the solution of the second a pair of compasses. But it must be re- 
membered that it is no concern of geometry what mechanical instru- 
ments are employed in the solution of the five problems mentioned. 
Geometry simply limits itself to the pre-supposition that these problems 
are solvable and regards a complicated problem as solved if, upon a 
specification of the constructions of which the solution consists, no other 
requirements are demanded than the five above mentioned. Since, ac- 
cordingly, geometry does not itself furnish the solution of these five 
problems, but rather exacts them, they are termed postulates.* All 


* Usually geometers mention only two postulates (Nos.1 and 2). But since to ge- 
ometry proper it is indifferent whether only the eye, or additional special mechani- 
cal instruments are necessary, the author has regarded it more correct in point of 
method to assume five postulates. 


104 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


problems of planimetry are not reducible to these five problems alone, 
There are problems that can be solved only by assuming other prob- 
lems as solvable which are not included in the five given: for example, 
the construction of an ellipse, having given its center and its major 
and minor axes. Many problems, however, possess the property of be- 
ing solvable with the assistance solely of the five postulates above for- 
mulated, and where this is the case they are said to be ‘“ constructible 
with ruler and compasses,” or ‘‘elementarily” constructible. 

After these general remarks upon the solvability of problems of geo- 
metrical construction, which an understanding of the history of the 
squaring of the circle makes indispensably neeessary, the significance 
of the question whether the quadrature of the circle is or is not solva- 
ble, that is, elementarily solvable, will become intelligible. But the 
conception just discussed of elementary solvability only gradually took 
clear form, and we therefore find among the Greeks as well as among 
the Arabs, endeavors, successful in some respects, that aimed at solv- 
ing the quadrature of the circle with other expedients than the five 
postulates. We have also to take these endeavors into consideration, 
and especially so as they, no less than the unsuccessful efforts at ele- 
mentary solution, have upon the whole advanced the science of geome- 
try and contributed much to the clarification of geometrical ideas. 


III.—HISTORICAL ATTEMPTS. 


The Egyptian Quadrature.—In the oldest mathematical work that we 
possess we find a rule that tells us how to make a square which is equal 
in area to a given circle. This celebrated book, the Papyrus Rhind of 
the British Museum, translated and explained by Eisenlohr (Leipsie, 
1887), was written, asit is stated in the work, in the thirty-third year of 
the reign of King Ra-a-us, by a seribe of that monarch, named Ahmes. 
The composition of the work falls accordingly into the period of the two 
Hiksos dynasties, that is, in the period between 2000 and 1700 B. c. But 
there is another important cireumstance attached to this. Ahmes men- 
tions in his introduction that he composed his work after the model 
of old treatises, written in the time of King Raenmat; whence it appears 
that the originals of the mathematical expositions of Ahmes, are half 
a thousand years older yet than the Papyrus Rhind. 

The rule given in this papyrus for obtaining a square equal to a cir- 
cle, specifies that the diameter of the circle shall be shortened one- 
ninth of its length and upon the shortened line thus obtained a square 
crected. Of course, the area of a square of this construction is only ap- 
proximately equal to the area of the circle. An idea may be obtained 
of the degree of exactness of this original, primitive quadrature by our 
remarking that if the diameter of the circle in question is one metre 
in length, the square that is supposed to be equal to the circle is a lit- 
tle less than half a square decimetre larger; an approximation not so 
accurate as that computed by Archimedes, yet much more correct than 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 105 


many 12 one later employed. It is not known how Ahmes or his pre- 
decessors arrived at this approximate quadrature; but it is certain 
that it was handed down in Egypt from century to century, and in late 
Egyptian times it repeatedly appears. 

The Biblical and Babylonian quadratures.—Besides among the Egyp- 
tians we also findin pre-Grecian antiquity an attempt at circle-compu- 
tation among the Babylonians. This is not a quadrature; but aims at 
the rectification of the circumference. The Bablyonian mathematicians 
had discovered that if the radius of a cirele be successively inscribed 
as chord within its circumference, after the sixth inscription we arrive 
at the point of departure, and they concluded from this that the circum- 
ference of a circle must be a little larger than a line which is six times 
as long as the radius, that is, three times as long as the diameter. A 
trace of this Babylonian method of computation may even be found in 
the Bible; for in 1 Kings vii, 23, and 11 Chron. iv, 2, the great laver is 
described, which under the name of the ‘‘molten sea” constituted an 
ornament of the Temple of Solomon; and it is said of this vessel that it 
measured 10 cubits from brim to brim, and 30 eubits roundabout. The 
number 3 as the ratio between the circumference and the diameter is 
still more plainly given in the Talmud, where we read that “ that which 
measures three lengths in circumference is one length across.” 

Among the Greeks.—With regard to the earlier Greek mathemati- 
cians—as Thales and Pythagoras—we know that they acquired the 
foundations of their mathematical knowledge in Egypt. But nothing 
has been handed down to us which shows that they knew of the old 
Egyptian quadrature, or that they dealt with the problem at all. But 
tradition says that subsequently the teacher of Euripides and Pericles, 
the great philosopher and mathematician Anaxagoras, whom Plato 
so highly praised, ‘drew the quadrature of the circle” in prison, in the 
year 434. This is the account of Plutarch in the seventeenth chapter 
of his work “ De Exilio.” 

Anaxagoras.—The method is not told us in which Anaxagoras had 
supposably solved the problem, and it is not said whether knowingly 
or unknowingly he accomplished an approximate solution after the 
manner of Ahmes. But at any rate, to Anaxagoras belongs the merit 
of having called attention to a problem that bore great fruit, in having 

incited Grecian scholars to busy themselves with geometry, and thus 
more and more to advance that science. 

The quadratrix of Hippias of Elis —Again, it is reported that the 
mathematician Hippias of Elis invented a curved line that could be 
made to serve a double purpose; first, to trisect an angle, and, second, 
to square the circle. This curved line is the retpaywvifovca so often men- 
tioned by the later Greek mathematicians, and by the Romans, called 
“quadratrix.” Regarding the nature of this curve we have exact knowl- 
edge from Pappus. But it will be sufficient, here, to state that the 
quadratrix is not acircle nor a portion of a circle, so that its construc- 


106 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


tion is not possible by means of the postulates enumerated in the 
preceding section. And therefore the solution of the quadrature of the 
circle founded on the construction of the quadratrix is not an elementary 
solution in the sense discussed in the last section.. We can, it is true, 
conceive a mechanism that will draw this curve as well as compasses 
draw a cirele; and with the assistance of a mechanism of this descrip- 
tion the squaring of the circle is solvable with exactitude. But if it be 
allowed toemploy in a solution an apparatus especially adapted thereto, 
every problem may be said to be solvable. Strictly taken, the invention 
of the curve of Hippias substitutes for one insuperable difficulty another 
equally insuperable. Sometime afterwards, about the year 350, the 
mathematician Dinostratus showed that the qguadratrix could also be 
used to solve the problem of rectification, and from that time on this 
problem plays almost the same role in Grecian mathematics as the 
related problem of quadrature. 

The Sophists’ solution.—As these problems gradually became known to 
the non-mathematicians of Greece, attempts at solution at once sprang 
up that are worthy of a place by the side of the solutions of modern ama- 
teur circle-squarers. The Sophists, especially, believed themselves com- 
petent by seductive dialectic to take a stronghold that had defied the 
intellectual onslaughts of the greatest mathematicians. With verbal 
nicety, amounting to puerility, it was said that the squaring of the circle 
depended upon the finding of a number which represented in itself both 
a square and acircle; a square by being a square number, a circle in 
that it ended with the same number as the root number from which, by 
multiplication with itself, it was produced. The number 36, accord- 
ingly, was, as they thought, the one that embodied the solution of the 
famous problem. 

Contrasted with this twisting of words the speculations of Bryson and 
Antiphon, both contemporaries of Socrates, though inexact, appear ip 
high degree intelligent. 

Antiphon’s attempt.—Antiphon divided the circle into four equal ares, 
and by joining the points of division obtained a square; he then divided 
each are again into two equal parts and thus obtained an inscribed octa- 
gon; thence he constructed an inscribed dodecagon, and perceived that 
the figure so inscribed more and more approached the shape of a circle. 
In this way, he said, one should proceed, until there was inscribed in 
the circle a polygon whose sides by reason of their smallness should 
coincide with the circle. Now this polygon could, by methods already 
taught by the Pythagoreans, be converted into a square of equal area; 
and upon the basis of this fact Antiphon regarded the squaring of the 
circle as solved. 

Nothing can be said against this method except that, however far 
the bisection of the ares is carried, the result must still remain an ap- 
proximate one. 

Bryson of Heraklea.—The attempt of Bryson of Heraklea was better 
still; for this scholar did not rest content with finding a square that was 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 107 


very little smaller than the circle, but obtained by means of circumscribed 
polygons another square that was very little larger thaa the circle. Only 
Bryson committed the error of believing that the area of the circle was 
the arithmeticai mean between an inscribed and a circumscribed polygon 
of an equal number of sides. Notwithstanding this error, however, to 
Bryson belongs the merit, first, of having introduced into mathematics 
by his emphasis of the necessity of a square which was too large and 
one which was too small, the coneeption of maximum and minimum 
“limits” in approximations; and secondly, by his comparison with a 
cirele of the inscribed and circumscribed regular polygons, the merit of 
having indicated to Archimedes the way by which an approximate 
value for = was to be reached. 

Hippocrates of Chios.—Not long after Antiphon and Bryson, Hippo- 
erates of Chios treated the problem, which had now become more and 
more famous, from a new point of view. Hippocrates was not satisfied 
with approximate equalities, and searched for curvilinearly bounded 
plane figures which should be mathematically equal to a rectilinearly 
bounded figure, and therefore could be converted by ruler and compasses 
into a square equalin area. First, Hippocrates found that the crescent: 
shaped plane figure produced by drawing two perpendicular radii in a 
circle and describing upon the line joining their extremities a semicircle, 
is exactly equal in area to the triangle that is formed by this line of 
junction and the two radii; and upon the basis of this fact the endeavors 
of the untiring scholar were directed towards converting a circle into a 
crescent. Naturally he was unable to attain this object, but by his efforts 
to this end he discovered many a new geometrical truth; among others 
the generalized form of the theorem mentioned, which bears to the pres- 
ent day the name of Lunule Hippocratis, the lunes of Hippocrates. 
Thus it appears, in the case of Hippocrates, in the plainest light, how 
the very insolvable problems of science are qualified to advance science; 
in that they incite investigators to devote themselves with persistence 
to its study and thus to fathom its depths. 

Euclid’s avoidance of the problen.—Following Hippocrates in the his- 
torical line of the great Grecian geometricians comes the systematist 
Euclid, whose rigid formulation of geometrical principles has remained 
the standard presentation down to the present century. The Elements 
of Euclid, however, contain nothing relating to the quadrature of the 
circle or to circle-computation. Comparisons of surfaces which relate 
to the circle are indeed found in the book, but nowhere a computation 
of the circumference of a circle or of the area of the cirele. This pal- 
pable gap in Euclid’s system was filled by Arehimedes, the greatest 
mathematician of antiquity. 

Archimedes’s calculations.—Achimedes was born in Syracuse in the 
year 287 B. C., and devoted his life, there spent, to the mathematical and 
the physical sciences which he enriched with invaluable contributions. 
He lived in Syracuse till the taking of the town by Marcellus, in the year 


108 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


212 B. c. when he fell by the hand of a Roman soldier whom he had for- 
bidden to destroy the figures he had drawn in the sand. To the greatest 
performances of Archimedes the successful computation of the number z 
unquestionably belong. Like Bryson he started with regular inscribed 
and cireumseribed polygons. He showed how it was possible, begin- 
ning with the perimeter of an inscribed hexagon, which is equal to six 
radii, to obtain by way of calculation the perimeter of a regular dodec- 
agon, and then the perimeter of a figure having double the number of 
sides of the preceding one. Treating, then, the circumscribed polygons 
in a similar manner, and proceeding with both series of polygons up to 
a regular 96-sided polygon, he perceived on the one hand that the ratio 
of the perimeter of the inscribed 96-sided polygon to the diameter was 
greater than 6336: 20174, and on the other hand, that the correspond- 
ing ratio with respect to the circumscribed 96-sided polygon was 
smaller than 14688: 46734. He inferred from this, that the number z, 
the ratio of the circumference to the diameter, was greater than the 
fraction 6325 and smaller than 14955. Reducing the two limits thus 
found for the value of z, Archimedes then showed that the first frac- 
tion was greater than 31°, and that the second fraction was smaller 
than 31, whence it followed with certainty that the value sought for z 
lay Rerweds 31 and 31%. The larger of these two approximate values 
is the only one Semel learned and employed. That which fills us 
most with astonishment in the Archimedean computation of z, is, first, 
the great acumen and accuracy displayed in all the details of the com- 
putation, and then the unwearied perserverance that he must have 
exercised in calculating the limits of z without the advantages of the 
Arabian system of numerals and of the decimal notation. For it must 
be considered that at many stages of the computation what we call the 
extraction of roots was necessary, and that Archimedes could only by 
extremely tedious calculations obtain ratios that expressed approxi- 
mately the roots of given numbers and fractions. 

The later mathematicians of Greece.—With regard to the mathemati- 
cians of Greece that follow Archimedes, all refer to and employ the 
approximate value of 31 for z, without however contributing any- 
thing essentially new or additional to the problems of quadrature 
and of cyclometry. Thus Heron of Alexandria, the father of sur- 
veying, who flourished about the year 100 B. c., employs for pur- 
poses of practical measurement sometimes the value 31 for z and 
sometimes even the rougher approximation z=3. The astronomer 
Ptolemy, who lived in Alexandria about the year 150 A. D., and 
who was famous as being the author of the planetary system univer- 
sally recognized as correct down to the time of Copernicus, was the 
only one who furnished a more exact value; this he designated, in the 
sexigesimal system of hes notation which he employed, by 3, 8, 
30—that is 3 and -& and ;2%,, or as we now say 3 degrees 8 minutes 
(partes minute prime) and 30 seconds (partes minute secunde). AS 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 109 


a matter of fact, the expression 3 + @ + 73% = 3745 represents the 
number z more exactly than 3+; but on the other hand is, by reason of 
the feaeuitude of the numbers 17 and 120 as compared with the num- 
bers 1 and 7, more cumbersome. 

Among ne Romans.—In the mathematical sciences, more than in any 
other, the Romans stood upon the shoulders of the Greeks. Indeed, with 
respect to cyclometry, they not only did not add anything to the Grecian 
discoveries, but often evinced even that they either did not know of tne 
beautiful result obtained by Archimedes or at least did not know how to 
appreciate it. For instance, Vitruvius, who lived during the time of 
Augustus, computed that a wheel 4 feet in diameter must measure 124 
feet in circumference; in other words, he made z equal to 34. And, 
similarly, a treatise on surveying, preserved to us in the Gudian manu- 
script of the library at Wolfenbiittel, contains the following instructions 
to square the circle: Divide the circumference of a circle into four parts 
and make one part the side of a square; this square will be equal ia 
area to the circle. Aside from the fact that the rectification of the are 
of a circle is requisite to the construction of a square of this kind, the 
Roman quadrature, viewed as a calculation, is more inexact even than 
any other computation ; for its result is that z= 4. 

Among the Hindus.—The mathematical performances of the Hindus 
were not only greater than those of the Romans, but in certain directions 
even surpassed those of the Greeks. In the most ancient source for the 
inathematics of India that we know of, the Culvasitras, which date baek 
tu a little before our chronological era, we do not find, it is true, the 
squaring of the circle treated of, but the opposite problem is dealt with 
which might fittingly be termed the circling of the square. The half of 
the side of a given square is prolonged one-third of the excess in length 
of half the diagonai over half the side, and the line thus obtained is taken 
as the radius of the circle equal in area to the square. The simplest way 
to obtain an idea of the exactness of this construction is to compute how 
great z would have to be if the construction were exactly correct. We 
find out in this way that the value of z, upon which the Indian circling of 
the square is based, is about from five to six hundredths smaller than the 
true value, Nes the approximate z of Archimedes, 31, is only from 
one to two thousandths too large, and the old Egyptian alte exceeds 
the true value by from one to two hundredths. Cyclometry very prob- 
ably made great advances among the Hindus in the first four or five 
centuries of our era; for Aryabhatta, who lived abcut the year 500 after 
Christ, states that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter is 
62852 — 20000, an approximation that in exactness surpasses even that of 
Ptolemy. The Hindu result gives 35-1416 for z, while z really lies be- 
tween 3°141592 and 5:141593. How the Hindus obtained this excellent 
approximate value is told by Ganega, the commentator of Bhaskara, an 
author of the twelfth century. Ganega says that the method of Archi- 


110 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


medes was carried still farther by the Hindu mathematicians; that by 
coutinually doubling the number of sides they proceeded from the hex- 
agon to a polygon of 384 sides, and that by the comparison of the cir- 
cumferences of the inscribed and circumscribed 384-sided polygons they 
found that 7 was equal to 3927—1250. It will be seen that the value 
given by Bhaskara is identical with the value of Aryabhatta. It is 
further worthy of remark that the earlier of these two Hindu mathe- 
maticians does not mention either the value 31 of Archimedes or the 
value 3,7, of Ptolemy, but that the later knows of both values and 
especially recommends that of Archimedes as the most useful one for 
practical application. Strange to say, the good approximate value of 
Arybhatta does not occur in Bramagupta, the great Hindu mathema- 
tician who flourished in the beginning of the seventh century; but we 
find the curious information in this author that the area of a circle is 
exactly equal to the square root of 10 when the radius is unity. The 
value of z as derivable from this formula (a value from two to three 
hundredths too large) has unquestionably arisen upon Hindu soil, for 
it occurs in no Grecian mathematician; and Arabian authors, who were 
in a better position than we to know Greek and Hindu mathematical 
literature, declare that the approximation which makes z equal to the 
square root of 10 is of Hindu origin. It is possible that the Hindu 
people, who were addicted more than any other to numeral mysticism, 
sought to find in this approximation some connection with the fact that 
man has ten fingers; and ten accordingly is the basis of their numeral 
system. 

Reviewing the achievements of the Hindus generally with respect to 
’ the problem of the quadrature, we are brought to recognize that this 
people, whose talents lay more in the line of arithmetical computation 
than in the perception of spatial relations, accomplished as good as noth- 
ing on the pure geometrical side of the problem, but that the merit be- 
longs to them of having carried the Archimedean method of computing = 
several stages farther, and of having obtained in this way a much more 
exact value for it;—a circumstance that is explainable when we consider 
that the Hindus are the inventors of our present system of numeral 
notation, possessing which they easily outdid Archimedes, who em- 
ployed the awkward Greek system. 

Among the Chinese.—With regard to the Chinese, this people operated 
in ancient times with the Babylonian value for z, or 3, but possessed 
knowledge of the approximate value of Archimedes, at least since the 
end of the sixth century. Besides this, there appears in a number of 
Chinese mathematical treatises an approximate value peculiarly their 
own, in which <=3~,; a value, however, which, notwithstanding it is 
written in large figures, is no better than that of Archimedes. At- 
tempts at the constructive quadrature of the circle are not found among 
the Chinese. 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. ralal 


Among the Arabs.—Greater were the merits of the Arabians in the 
advancement and development of mathematics, and especially in virtue 
of the fact that they preserved from oblivion both Greek and Hindu 
mathematics, and handed them down to the Christian countries of the 
West. The Arabians expressly distinguished between the Archimedean 
approximate value and the two Hindu values, the square root of 10 and 
- the ratio 62832: 20000. This distinction occurs also in Muhammed Iba 
Musa Alchwarizmi, the same scholar who in the beginning of the ninth 
century brought the principles of our present system of numerical nota- 
tion from India and introduced the same into the Mohammedan world. 
The Arabians however studied not only the numerical quadrature of 
the circle, but also the coustructive; as, for instance, Ibn Alhaitam, 
who lived in Egypt about the year 1000, and whose treatise upon the 
squaring of the circle is preserved in a Vatican codex, which has un- 
fortunately not yet been edited. 

In Christian times.—Christian civilization, to which we are now about 
to pass, produced up to the second half of the fifteenth century extremely 
insignificant results in mathematics. Even with regard to our present 
problem we have but a single important work to mention—the work, 
namely, of Frankos Von Liittich upon the squaring of the circle, pub- 
lished in six books, but only preserved in fragments. The author, who 
lived in the first half of the eleventh century, was probably a pupil of 
Pope Sylvester 11, himself a not inconsiderable mathematician for his 
time, and who also wrote the most celebrated book on geometry of the 
period. 

Cardinal Nicolaus de Cusa.—Greater interest came to be bestowed 
upon mathematics in general, but especially on the problem of the 
quadrature of the circle, in the second half of the fifteenth century, 
when the sciences again began to revive. This interest was especially 
aroused by Cardinal Nicolaus De Cusa, a man highly esteemed on ac- 
count ot his astronomical and calendarial studies. He claimed to have 
discovered the quadrature of the circle by the employment solely of 
compasses and ruler, and thus attracted the attention of scholars to 
the now historic problem. People believed the famous cardinal and 
marvelled at his wisdom, until Regiomontanus, in letters which he wrote 
in 1464 and 1465, and which were published in 1533, rigidly demon- 
strated that the cardinal’s quadrature was incorrect. The construction 
of Cusa was as follows: The radius of a eircle is prolonged a distance 
equal to the side of the inscribed square; the line thus obtained is taken 
as the diameter of a second circle, and in the latter an equilateral trian- 
gle is described ; then the perimeter of the latter is equal to the cireum- 
ference of the original circle. If this construction, which its inventor 
regarded as exact, be considered as a construction of approximation, it 
will be found to be more inexact even than the construction resulting 
from the value z=31. For by Cusa’s method z would be from five to 
six thousandths smaller than it really is. 


112 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


Bovillius, and Orontius Fineus.—In the beginning of the sixteenth 
century a certain Bovillius appears, who announced anew the construe- 
tion of Cusa, meeting, however, with no notice. But about the middle 
of the sixteenth century a book was published which the scholars of 
the time at first received with interest. It bore the proud title *‘ De 
Rebus Mathematicis Hactenus Desideratis.” Its author, Orontius 
Fineus, represented that he had overcome all the difficulties that had 
ever stood in the way of geometrical investigators; and incidentally he 
also communicated to the world the “true amadeatine ” of the circle. 
His fame was short-lived. For afterwards, in a book entitled ‘De 
Erratis Orontii,.” the Portuguese Petrus Nonius demonstrated that 
Orontius’s quadrature, like most of his other professed discoveries, was 
incorrect. 

Simon Van Hyck.—In the period following this the number of circle- 
squarers so increased that we shall have to limit ourselves to those 
whom mathematicians recognize. And particularly is Simon Van Eyck 
to be mentioned, who towards the close of the sixteenth century pub- 
lished a quadrature which was so approximate that the value of z de- 
rived from it was more exact than that of Archimedes; and to disprove 
it the mathematician Peter Metius was obliged to seek a still more 
accurate value than 31. The erroneous quadrature of Van Eyck was 
thus the occasion of Metius’s discovery that the ratio 355: 118, or 354%, 
varied from the true value of z by less than one one-millionth, ae 
accordingly all values hitherto obtained. Moreover it is demonstrable 
by the theory of continued fractions that, admitting figures to four 
places only, no two numbers more exactly represent the value of z than 
355 and 113, 

Joseph Scaliger.—in the same way the quadrature of the great phi- 
lologist, Joseph Scaliger, led to refutations. Like most circle-squarers 
who believe in their discovery, Scaliger also was little versed in the 
elements of geometry. He solved, however—at least in his own opin- 
ion he did—the famous problem; and published in 1592 a book upon 
it, which bore the pretentious title “ Nova Cyclometria,” and in which 
ie name of Archimedes was derided. The worthlessness of his sup- 
posed discovery was demonstrated to him by the greatest mathematic- 
ians of his time, namely, Vieta, Adrianus Romanus, and Clavius. 

Longomontanus, John Porta, and Gregory of St. Vineent.—Of the erring 
circle-squarers that flourished before the middle of the seventeenth 


century three others deserve particular mention;-—Longomontanus of 


Copenhagen, who rendered such great services to astronomy, the Nea- 
politan John Porta, and Gregory of St. Vincent.. Longomontanus made 
m=3-14185 and was so convinced of the correctness of his result that 
he thanked God fervently, in the preface to his work “ Inventio Quad- 
rature Circuli,”” that He had granted him in bis high old age the 
strength to conquer the celebrated difficulty. John Porta followed the 
initiative of Hippocrates, and believed he had solved the problem by 


—". 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 113 


the comparison of lunes. Gregoryof St. Vincent published a quadrature 
the error of which was very hard to detect, but was finally discovered 
by Descartes. 

Peter Metius, and Vieta.—Of the famous mathematicians who dealt 
with our problem in the period between the close of the fifteenth cen- 
tury and the time of Newton, we first meet with Peter Metius, before 
mentioned, who succeeded in finding in the fraction 355:113 the best 
approximate value for z involving only small numbers. The problem 
received a different advancement at the hands of the famous mathema- 
tician Vieta. Vieta was the first to whom the idea occurred of repre- 
senting z with mathematical exactness by an infinite series of contin- 
uable operations. By comparison of inscribed and circumscribed 
polygons, Vieta found that we approach nearer and nearer to z if we 
allow the operations of the extraction of the square root of 4 and of 
addition and of multiplication to succeed each other in a certain man- 
ner, and that z must come out exactly if this series of operations could 
be indefinitely continued. Vieta thus found that to a diameter of 10,000 
million units a circumference belongs of 31,415 million, and from 
926,535 to 926,536 units of the same length. 

Adrianus Romanus, Ludolf Van Ceulen.—But Vieta was outdone by 
the Netherlander Adrianus Romanus, who added five additional decimal 
places to the tenof Vieta. To accomplish this he computed with un- 
speakable labor the circumference of a regular circumscribed polygon 
of 1,073,741,824 sides. This number is the thirtieth power of 2. Yet 
great as the labor of Adrianus Romanus was, that of Ludolf Van Ceu- 
len was still greater, for the latter calculator succeeded in carrying the 
Archimedean process of approximation for the value of z to 35 decimal 
places, that is, the deviation from the true value was smaller than one 
one thousand quintillionth, a degree of exactness that we can hardly 
have any conception of. Ludolf published the figures of the tremendous 
computation that led to this result. His calculation was carefully ex- 
amined by the mathematician Griemberger and declared to be correct. 
Ludolf was justly proud of his work, and, following the example of 
Archimedes, requested in his will that the result of his most important 
mathematical performance, the computation of z to 35 decimal places, 
be engraved upon his tombstone, a request which is said to have been 
carried out. In honor of Ludolf, z is called to-day in Germany the 
Ludolfian number. 

The new method of Snell. Huygens’s verification of it.—Although 
through the labor of Ludolf a degree of exactness for cyclometrical 
operations was now obtained that was more than sufficient for any 
practical purpose that could ever arise, neither the problem of construe- 
tive rectification nor that of constructive quadrature was thereby in 
any respect theoretically advanced. The investigations conducted by 
the famous mathematicians and physicists Huygens and Snell, about 
the middle of the seventeenth century,were more important from amathe- 

H, Mis, 129——8 


114 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


matical point of view than the work of Ludolf. Inhis book Cyclometri- 
cus Snell took the position that the method of comparison of polygons, 
which originated with Archimedes and was employed by Ludolf, need 
by no means be the best method of attaining the end sought; and he 
succeeded, by the employment of propositions which state that certain 
ares of a circle are greater or smaller than certain straight lines con- 
nected with the circle, in obtaining methods that make it possible to 
reach results like the Ludolfian with much less labor of calculation. 
The beautiful theorems of Snell were proved a second time, and better 
proved, by the celebrated Dutch promoter of the science of optics, 
Huygens (Opera Varia, pp. 365 et seq.; Theoremata De Cireuli et Hy- 
perbolae (uadratura, 1651), as well as perfected in many ways. Snell 
and Huygens were fully aware that they had advanced only the prob- 
lem of numerical quadrature, and not that of the constructive quadra- 
ture. This, in Huygens’s case, plainly appeared from the vehement 
dispute he conducted with the English mathematician, James Gregory. 
~ This controversy has some significance for the history of our problem, 
from the fact that Gregory made the first attempt to prove that the 
squaring of the circle with ruler and compasses must be impossible. 

The controversy between Huygens and Gregory.—The result of the con- 
troversy, to which we owe many valuable treatises, was that Huygens 
finally demonstrated in an incontrovertible manner the incorrectness of 
Gregory’s proof of impossibility, adding that he also was of opinion 
that the solution of the problem with ruler and compasses was impossi- 
ble, but nevertheless was not himself able to demonstrate this fact. 
And Newton, later, expressed himself to a similar effect. As a matter 
of fact it took till the most recent period, that is over 200 years, until 
higher mathematics was far enough advanced, to furnish a rigid dem- 
onstration of impossibility. 

Before we proceed to consider the promotive influence which the in- 
vention of the differential and the integral calculus had upon our prob- 
lem, we shall enumerate a few at least of that never-ending line of 
mistaken quadrators who have delighted the world by the fruits of their 
ingenuity from the time of Newton to the present period ; and out of a 
pious and sincere consideration for the contemporary world, we shall 
entirely omit in this to speak of the circle-squarers of our own time. 

Hobbes’s quadrature.—First to be mentioned is the celebrated English 
philosopher Hobbes. In his book, De Problematis Physicis, in which he 
chiefly proposes to explain the phenomena of gravity and of ocean 
tides, he also takes up the quadrature of the circle and gives a very 
trivial construction that in his opinion definitively solved the problem, 
making z<=31, In view of Hobbes’s importance as a philosopher, two 
mathematicians, Huygens and Wallis, thought it proper to refute 


Pal 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 115 


Hobbes at length. But Hobbes defended his position in a special 
treatise, in which, to sustain at least the appearance of being right, he 
disputed the fundamental principles of geometry and the theorem of 
Pythagoras ; so that mathematicians could pass on from him to the 
order of the day. 

French quadrators of the eighteenth century.—In the last century 
France especially was rich in circle-squarers. We will mention: 
Oliver de Serres, who by means of a pair of scales determined that 
a circle weighed as much as the square upon the side of the equi- 
lateral triangle inscribed in it, that therefore they must have the 
same area, an experiment in which <=3; Mathulon, who offered in 
legal form a reward of a thousand dollars to the person who would 
point out an error in his solution of the problem, and who was actually 
compelled by the courts to pay the money ; Basselin, who believed that 
his quadrature must be right because it agreed with the approximate 
value of Archimedes, and who anathematized his ungrateful contem- 
poraries, in the confidence that he would be recognized by posterity ; 
Liger, who proved that a part is greater than the whole, and to whom 
therefore the quadrature of the circle was child’s play ; Clerget, who 
based his solution upon the principle that a circle is a polygon of a 
definite number of sides, and who calculated, also, among other things, 
how large the point is at which two circles touch. 

Germany and Poland.—Germany and Poland also furnish their contin- 
gent to the army of circle-squarers. Lieutenant-Colonel Corsonich pro- 
duced a quadrature in which z equaled 3}, and promised 50 dueats to the 
person who could prove that it was incorrect. Hesse, of Berlin, wrote an 
arithmetic in 1776, in which a true quadrature was also “ made known,” 
z being exactly equal to 334. About the same time Professor Bischoff, 
of Stettin, defended a quadrature previously published by Captain 
Leistner, preacher Merkel, and schoolmaster Bohm, which made zx 
implicite equal to the square of 62 not even attaining the approximation 
of Archimedes. 

Constructive approximations—Euler, Kocahnsky.—From attempts of 
this character are to be clearly distinguished constructions of ap- 
proximation in which the inventor is aware that he has not found 
a mathematically exact construction, but only an approximate one. 
The value of such a construction will depend upon two things—first, 
upon the degree of exactness with which it is numerically expressed, 
and secondly on the fact whether the construction can be more or 
less easily made with ruler and compasses. Constructions of this kind, 
simple in form and yet sufficiently exact for practical purposes, have 
for centuries been furnished us in great numbers. The great math- 
ematician, Euler, who died in 1783, did not think it out of place to 
attempt an approximate construction of this kind. A very simple con- 
struction for the rectification of the circle, and one which has passed 


116 THE SQUARING OF THE ‘CIRCLE. 


into many geometrical text books, is that published by Kochansky in 
1685, in the Leipziger Berichte. It is as follows: 

Erect upon the diameter of a circle at its extremities perpendiculars ; with the center 
as vertex, mark off upon the diameter an angle of 30°; find the point of intersection 
with the perpendicular of the line last drawn, and join this point of intersection with 
that point upon the other perpendicular, which is at a distance of three radii from the 
base of the perpendicular. ‘The line of junction thus obtained is then very approxi- 
mately equal to one-half of the circumference of the given circle. 


Caleulation shows that the difference between the true length of the 
circumference and the line thus constructed is less than 75,499 of the 
diameter. 

Inutility of constructive approximations.—Althougk such construc- 
tions of approximation are very interesting in themselves, they never- 
theless play but a subordinate role in the history of the squaring of the 
circle; for on the one hand they can never furnish greater exactness 
for circle computation than the thirty-five decimal places which Ludolf 
found, and on the other hand they are not adapted to advance in any 
way the question whether the exact quadrature of the circle with ruler 
and compasses is possible. 

The researches of Newton, Leibnitz, Wallis, and Brouncker.—The 
numerical side of the problem, however, was considerably advanced 
by the new mathematical methods perfected by Newton and Leibnitz, 
commonly called the differential and the integral calculus. And 
about the middle of the seventeenth century, some time before New- 
ton and Leibnitz represented =z by series of powers, the English mathema- 
ticians Wallis and Lord Brouncker, Newton’s predecessors in a certain 
sense, succeeded in representing = by an infinite series of figures com- 
bined by the first four rules of arithmetic. A new method of computa- 
tion was thus opened. Wallis found that the fourth part of = is repre- 
sented more exactly by the regularly formed product 


2 4 6 6 8 8 
2x4xixEXEXG XG X, Cte, 


the farther the multiplication is continued, and that the result always 
comes out too small if we stop at a proper fraction, but too large if we 
stop at an improper fraction. Lord Brouncker, on the other hand, rep- 
resents the value in question by a continued fraction in which all the 
denominators are equal to 2 and the numerators are odd square num- 
bers. Wallis, to whom Brouncker had communicated his elegant result 
without proof, demonstrated the same in his “Arithmetic of Infinites.” 

The computation of z could hardly be farther advanced by these re- 
sults than Ludolf and others had carried it, though of course in amore 
laborious way. However, the series of powers derived by the assistance 
of the differential calculus of Newton and Leibnitz furnished a means 
of computing z to hundreds of decimal places. 

Other calculations.—Gregory, Newton, and Leibnitz next found that 
the fourth part of z was equal exactly to 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. P17 


1 1 1 1 1 1 
fester ear tis * cise 


if we conceive this series, which is called the Leibnitzian, indefinitely 
continued. This series is indeed wonderfully simple, but is not adapted 
to the computation of z, for the reason that entirely too many members 
have to be taken into account to obtain = accurately to a few decimal 
places only. The original formula, however, from which this series is 
derived, gives other formulas which are excellently adapted to the ac- 
tual computation. This formula is the general series: 


a=a—sar+lar—la+..., 


where «a is the length of the are that belongs to any central angle in a 
circle of radius 1, and where a is the tangent to this angle. From this 
we derive the following: 


c 


a= (@ atte 8 (a) bs tee! 4 i (G20? 40 ee) )—eietas 


He} Al 


where a, b,c... are the tangents of angles whose sum is 45°. Deter- 
mining, therefore, the values of a,b, ¢..., which are equal to small 
and easy fractions and fulfill the condition just mentioned, we obtain 
series of powers which are adapted to the computation of z. The first 
to add by the aid of series of this description additional decimal places 
to the old 35 in the number z was the English arithmetician Abraham 
Sharp, who, following Halley’s instructions, in 1700, worked out = to 
72 decimal places. A little later Machin, professor of astronomy in 
London, computed z to 100 decimal places; putting, in the series given 
above, a=b=c=d=1 and e=—5},, that is employing the following 
series: 


ee eh eee ain egies 1 a 
ae aitemee Waa isc a ne 339 3.2393 ' 5.0398 °° 


In the year 1819, Lagny, of Paris, outdid the computation of Machin, 
determining in two different ways the first 127 decimal places of z. 
Vega then obtained as many as 140 places, and the Hamburg arithme- 
tician, Zacharias Dase, went as far as 200 places. The latter did not use 
Machin’s series in his calculation, but the series produced by putting 
in the general series above given a=3, b=1,c=1. Finally, at a recent 
date, z has been computed to 500 places. 

The computation to so many decimal places may serve as an illustra- 
tion of the excellence of the modern method as contrasted with those 
anciently employed, but otherwise it has neither a theoretical nor a 
practical value. That the computation of = to say 15 decimal places 
more than sufficiently satisfies the subtlest requirements of practice may 
be gathered from a concrete example of the degree of exactness thus 
obtainable. 


118 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


Idea of exactness obtainable with the approximate values of <.—Im- 
agine a circle to be described with Berlin as center, and the circum- 
ference to pass through Hamburg; then let the circumference of the 
circle be computed by multiplying its diameter with the value of =z to 
15 decimal places, and then conceive it to be actually measured. The 
deviation from -the true length in so large a circle as this even could 
not be as great as the 18 millionth part of a millimetre. 

An idea can hardly be obtained of the degree of exactness produced 
by 100 decimal places. But the following example may possibly give 
us some conception of it. Conce:ve a sphere constructed with the earth 
as center, and imagine its surface to pass through Sirius, which is 13844 
million million kilometres distant from us. Then imagine this enormous 
Sphere to be so packed with microbes that in every cubic millimetre 
millions of millions of these diminutive animalcula are present. Now 
conceive these microbes to be all unpacked and so distributed singiy 
along a straight line that every two microbes are as far distant from 
each other as Sirus from us, that is, 1343 million million kilometres. 
Conceive the long line thus fixed by all the microbes as the diameter of 
a circle, and imagine the circumference of it to be calculated by multi- 
plying its diameter with z to 100 decimal places. Then, in the case of a 
circle of this enormous magnitude even, the circumference thus calcu- 
lated would not vary from the real circumference by a millionth of a 
millimetre. 

This example will suffice to show that the calculation of z to 100 or 
500 decimal places is wholly useless. 

Professor Wolff’s curious method.—Before we close this chapter upon 
the evaluation of z, we must mention the method, less fruitful than 
curious, which Professor Wolff, of Zurich, employed some decades ago 
to compute the value of z to 3 places. The floor of a room is divided 
up into equal squares, so as to resemble a huge chess-board, and a 
needle exactly equal in length to the side of each of these squares is 
cast haphazard upon the floor. If we calculate now the probabilities of 
the needle so falling as to le wholly within one of the squares, that is, 
so that it does not cross any of the parallel lines forming the squares, 
the result of the calculation for this probability will be found to be ex- 
actly equal to 7 —3. Consequently a sufficient number of casts of the 
needle according to the law of large numbers must give the value of z 
approximately. Asa matter of fact, Professor Wolff, after 10,000 trials, 
obtained the value of z correctly to 3 decimal places. 


IV.—PROOF THAT THE PROBLEM IS INSOLVABLE. 


Mathematicians :.ow seek to prove the insolvability of the problem. 
Fruitful as the calculus of Newton and Leibnitz was for the evalu- 
ation of z, the problem of converting a circle into a square having ex- 
actly the same area was in no wise advanced thereby. Wallis, Newton, 
Leibnitz, and their immediate followers distinctly recognized this. The 


THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 19 


quadrature of the circle could not be solved; but it also could not be 
proved that the problem was insolvable with ruler and compasses, 
although everybody was convinced of its insolvability.: In mathemat- 
ics, however, a conviction is only justified when supported by inecon- 
trovertible proof; and in the place of endeavors to solve the quadra- 
ture there accordingly now come endeavors to prove the impossibility 
of solving the celebrated problem. 

Lambert's contribution.—The first step in this direction, small as it 
was, was made by the French mathematician Lambert, who proved in 
the year 1761 that = was neither a rational number nor even the square 
root of a rational number; that is, that neither < nor the square of = 
can be exactly represented by a fraction the denominator and nume- 
rator of which are whole numbers, however great the numbers be taken. 
Lambert’s proof showed, indeed, that the rectification and the quadra- 
ture of the circle could not be possibly accomplished in the particular 
way in which its impossibility was demonstrated, but it still did not 
exclude the possibility of the problem being solvable in some other more 
complicated way, and without requiring further aids than ruler and 
compasses. 

The conditions of the demonstration.—Proceeding slowly but surely it 
was next sought to discover the essential distinguishing properties that 
separate problems solvable with ruler and compasses, from problems 
the construction of which is elementarily impossible, that is, by solely 
employing the postulates. Slight reflection showed that a problem ele- 
mentarily solvable, must always possess the property of having the 
unknown lines in the figure relating to it connected with the known 
lines of the figure by an equation for the solution of which equations of 
the first and second degree alone are requisite, and which may be so 
disposed that the common measures of the known lines will appear only 
as integers. The conclusion was to be drawn from this, that if the 
quadrature of the circle and consequently its rectification were ele- 
mentarily solvable, the number z=, which represents the ratio of the 
unknown circumference to the known diameter, must be the root of a 
certain equation, of a very high degree perhaps, but in which all the 
numbers that appear are whole numbers; that is, there would have to 
exist an equation, made up entirely of whole numbers, which would be 
correct if its unknown quantity were made equal to z. 

Final success of Professor Lindemann.—Since the beginning of this 
century, consequently, the efforts of a number of mathematicians have 
been bent upon proving that z generally is not algebraical, that is, 
that it can not be the root of any equation having whole numbers for 
coefficients. But mathematics had to make tremendous strides for- 
ward before the means were at hand to accomplish this demonstration. 
After the French academician, Professor Hermite, had furnished im- 
portant preparatory assistance in his treatise Sur la Fonction Hapo- 
nentielle, published in the seventy-seventh volume of the Comptes 


120 THE SQUARING OF THE CIRCLE. 


Rendus, Professor Lindemann, at that time of Freiburg, now of Konigs- 
berg, finally succeeded, in June, 1882, in rigorously demonstrating that 
the number z is not algebraical,* thus supplying the first proof that 
the problems of the rectification and the squaring of the circle, with 
the help only of algebraical instruments like ruler and compasses are 
insolvable.° Lindemann’s proot appeared successively in the Reports 
of the Berlin Academy (June, 1882), in the Comptes Rendus of the 
French Academy (vol. Cxv, pp. 72-74), ard in the Mathematischen An- 
nalen (vol. XxX, pp. 213-225). 

The verdict of mathematics.—“It is impossible with ruler and com- 
passes to construct a square equal in area to a given circle.” These are 
the words of the final determination of a controversy which is as old 
as the history of the human mind. But the race of circle-squarers, un- 
mindful of the verdict of mathematics, that most infallible of arbiters, 
will never die out so long as ignorance and the thirst for glory shall be 
united. 


* For the benefit of my mathematical readers I shall present here the most impor- 
tant steps of Lindemann’s demonstration, M. Hermite in order to prove the transcen- 
dental character of 


pie Ee pe eer) 
PFS tar hae momen DOW) an oo 


developed relations between certain definite integrals (Comptes Rendus of the Paris 
Academy, 1873, vol. Lxxvi1). Proceeding from the relations thus established, Pro- 
fessor Lindemann first demonstrates the following proposition: If the coefticients of 
an equation of nth degree are all real or complex whole numbers and the n roots of this 
equation 2, 22,..., 2, are different from zero and from each other it is impossible for 


2 45) 23 en 
Oise Cap ata Ol 0-2 1) tac 


to be equal to 4 where aandb are real or complex whole numbers. It is then shown 


that also between the functions 


e?*! EE CAE SS : sisters 


where r denotes an integer, no linear equation can exist with rational coefficients 
variant from zero. Finally the beautiful theorem results: If z is the root of an irre- 
ducible algebraic equation the coefficients of which are real or complex whole num- 


é 2 ; =I 
bers, then e? can not be equal to a rational number. Now, in reality e"V-lis equal 


to a rational number, namely, —1. Consequently, 77/—1, and therefore itself, can- 
not be the root of an equation of nth degree having whole numbers for coefficients, 
and therefore also not of such an equation having rational coefficients. If the squar- 
ing of the circle with ruler and compasses were possible, however, z would have the 
property last mentioned. 


PROGRESS OF ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 
By WILLIAM C. WINLOCK. 


The following record of astronomy for the years 1889 and 1890 is 
presented in essentially the same form as its predecessors. The com- 
piler has made free use of reviews, in the various branches of astronomy, 
contributed by specialists to the Atheneum, Nature, Journal of the As- 
tronomical Society of the Pacific, the Observatory, Bulletin Astronomique, 
the Astronomical Journal, and other periodicals. 


NEBULZ. 


Motions of the planetary nebula in the line of sight.—No. 11 of the Pub- 
lications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific contains a very 
important paper by Mr. James EH. Keeler on the ‘“ Motions of the pian- 
etary nebule in the line of sight.” The paper is an important one in a 
twofold aspect: first, in its bearing on a matter just now under dis- 
cussion by the highest authorities, as to the character and position of 
the brightest nebular line, and secondly, in the evidence it affords of 
nebular movements. 

As to the character of the nebular line, Mr. Keeler’s- testimony is 
most emphatic, and entirely confirms Dr. Huggins’s observations. ‘The 
nebular lines,” he reports, ‘appeared to be perfectly monochromatic 
images of the slit, widening when the slit was widened and narrowing 
to excessively fine sharp lines when it was closed up.” The chief neb- 
ular line “‘ showed no tendency to assume the aspect of a remnant of 
fluting under any circumstances of observation.” This observation, 
made not on one nebula, but on a number, and with a dispersion often 
equivalent to that of 24 prisms of 60°, for the fourth spectrum of a 
Rowland’s grating of 14,438 lines to the inch was often used, is by far 
the strongest evidence we have yet had on this question of the charac- 
ter of the chief nebular line, and it is dead against Mr. Lockyer’s 
theory. 

The position of the nebular line is also fixed with very considerable 
certainty ; and here, again, Dr. Huggins’s observations receive complete 
confirmation. It was not, in any one of the nebulz observed, coincident 


with the fluting of magnesium, but was always seen some distance to 
121 


122 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


the blue. The importance of this observation, especially when taken 
with the report as to the character of the line, is of the highest kind in 
its bearing on Mr. Lockyer’s great meteoritic theory. If the chief neb- 
ular line is not the remnant of the magnesium fluting the very keystone 
is knocked away from the arch and the edifice as such falls to pieces. 
No doubt there would be many isolated fragments of considerable value 
still left. The structure mighteven be put together again, hereafter, on 
a new plan, and with a more lasting result, but the theory as it now 
stands—the theory as a whole—would be irretrievably wrecked. On 
the other hand, if the identity which Mr. Lockyer asserts were estab- 
lished, it would be a victory for him of the first importance. 

It is indicative of the progress of practical spectroscopy that the 
whole question turns on an almost inappreciable difference of position, 
the mean value for the wave-length of the nebular line as found by Mr. 
Keeler from ten nebulz, being 5,005.68 tenth-meters, whilst that of the 
fluting of magnesium is 5,006.36. Inthe brightest nebula examined the 
wave-length obtained was 5,006.15 tenth-meters, only 0.23 distant from 
the magnesium fluting. As the observations stand they point strongly 
to the nebular line being slightly but distinetly more refrangible than 
the edge of the magnesium fluting, and therefore not due to it. But 
the amount of displacement is not so great as to make it altogether in- 
conceivable that it is due to the relative motion of the nebule and the 
solar system, for all the ten nebule observed are in that hemisphere 
toward which the sun is travelling, and seven of them are within 45° of 
the apex of the “‘Sun’s Way,” so that a correction must be applied 
which would tend to bring the nebular line nearer to the fluting; how 
much nearer we cannot, in our ignorance of the speed of the sun’s 
motion in space, at present say, but a rate of 86 miles per second would 
suffice to make the accord a perfect one. If Mr. Keeler could obtain a 
series of comparisons of the F line in these nebule with hydrogen, the 
problem would be solved. Or the determination of the place of the 
line in a number of nebulze in the hemisphere we are leaving would go 
far to settle the matter. In the mean time it is still possible that the 
eventual result may favor Mr. Lockyer’s theory. It may be added in 
reference to Mr. Lockyer’s paper, appearing in No. 293 of the Proceed- 
ings of the Royal Society, that if we accept Mr. Keeler’s measures it is 
clear that Mr. Lockyer did not employ sufficient dispersion to decide 
the point at issue. 

The second point brought out by Mr. Keeler’s measures is the fact 
that the nebulz have very distinct movements of theirown. As we do 
not yet know to what substance the chief nebular line is due, and as 
Mr. Keeler could not make any measures of the blue hydrogen line in 
the nebul at all comparable in accuracy to those he made of the chief 
line, we can not say that the difference in position of the chief line from 
any given comparison line is due to the motion of the nebula. All we 
can do at present is to observe a number of nebule, adopt the mean 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 123 


place they give as the true position of the nebular line, and record the 
differences from this mean as due to differences of motion from the 
mean motion. The extreme difference observed between any two 
nebula amounted to very nearly 70 miles per second. 

It is impossible to leave this paper without a word on the accuracy 
of the measures. The spectrum of » 6 was examined on nine nights. 
The greatest difference of any one night’s observation from the mean 
was only 0.11 tenth-metre, or in miles per second 4.2; the mean dif- 
ference but 0.04, or in miles per second 1.5. Such accuracy was only 
possible by using an enormous dispersion, and it implies very perfect 
instrumental and atmospheric conditions. But it also implies an ex- 
treme delicacy of eye and hand in the observer; the ‘‘man behind the 
telescope” is in evidence. For it should be remembered that the great 
size of the Lick telescope is no special advantage in work of this par- 
ticular class, its high proportion of focal length to aperture being a 
distinct disadvantage. A much smaller object-glass, with a focal length 
of 12 to 1, would give brighter images.—(E. W. MAUNDER. The Ob- 
servatory, No. 168.) 


Mr. Lockyer having published some results at variance with those 
obtained by Dr. and Mrs. Huggins with respect to the principal line 
in the spectrum of the great nebula in Orion, they have made careful 
re-determinations, decisively confirming their previgus results: (1) that 
the principal line is not coincident with, but falls within, the fermina- 
tion of the magnesium flame band; (2) that in the nebula in Orion this 
line presents no appearance of being a ‘fluting.” 

The faint star discovered in the trapezium of the Orion nebula by 
Alvan Clark, when the Lick telescope was first mounted, has been 
found by Barnard to be double, another star has also been detected in 
the trapezium by Barnard, and also one of about the same magni- 
tude (sixteenth) as the Clark star just preceding the trapezium. 

Within the ring of the well-known ring nebula of Lyra six stars have 
been found by Holden and Schaeberle with the 36-inch Lick telescope 
where but one was known before, and five new stars have been found 
in the nebulosity. 


ASTRONOMICAL CONSTANTS. 


Refraction.—M. Radau has published in volume 19 of the Paris Observ- 
atory Annales a very complete memoir on astronomical refraction, which 
deals with the theoretical as well as the practical side of the question, 
and contains complete tables in a convenient form suitable for actual 
computation. 

Diurnal nutation.—M. Folie’s work on diurnal nutation has not met 
with general acceptance. One of the latest discussions of the subject 
is that by Herr Lehman Filhés, published in No, 2975 of the Astronom- 
asche Nachrichten. 


124 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1800, 


Precession.—A useful table of the third term of the precession has 
been computed by Herr Kloock and published by the Kiei Observatory. 

Harkness’s astronomical, physical, and geodetic constants.—Prof, Win. 
Harkness, of the U. S. Naval Observatory, has been at work for some 
time upon a homogeneous system of inter-related constants, more 
trustworthy values of which are to be attained by the solution of equa- 
tions of condition, in which the best values resulting from observation 
are introduced and combined with the expression of their mutual re- 
lations. 

A preliminary communication of results was made to the Astronom- 
ical Journal, No. 194, but it seems preferable to quote here the final 
values published by Professor Harkness in Appendix III to the Wash- 
ington Observations for 1891, though the latter work was not issued 
till after the close of the year 1890. 

Professor Harkness has collected the various determinations of each 
of the constants in question, decided upon the values to be adopted in 
the computations, often using the method of least squares for this pur- 
pose; and has then employed this method in order to obtain a resultant 
homogeneous system. 

Among the results obtained are the following: 


Earth’s equatorial semi-diameter -......---.-------- 6,377 972 + 1 248 meters. 
Harth’s polar semi-diameter...--..----...---..----- 6,356 727 + 99.1 meters. 

Length of seconds-pendulum................-.--..- 0™,990 91 + 0™.005 29 sin?@, 
Length of sidereal ith een ee am ae oes Der se 86 164.099 65 mean solar seconds. 
Tene thot sidereali yeas acre acim ieee 3654 62 9™ 98,314. 

Solarsna tall axe: secre eso Seieeie ie ee ee ar 8/.809 05 -+ 0.005 67. 

Tunar parallax ...52 22: 222 tis Joc secs esee ese. <2sssoMee -Ose ab EU RI oig3: 
Constantiol aberrations ce. ecelae eae ta= lel 20.454 51 + 0.012 58. 


The mean distance of the earth from the sun, with the above value 
of the solar parallax is 92,796 950+59 715 miles, or 149,340 870+96 101 
kilometers. 

STAR CATALOGUES. 


The star catalogue of the Astronomische Gesellschaft.—The first parts 
of the great catalogue of the Astronomische Gesellschaft appeared in 
1890. They are the volumes containing the catalogues of zones ob- 
served by Krueger at Helsingfors and Gotha, by Boss, at Albany, and 
by Fearnley and Geelmuyden at Christiania. ‘The two first mentioned 
volumes contain respectively the positions of 14,680 and of 8,241 stars 
for the equinox of 1875. 

It may be worth while to recall here the origin of this great under- 
taking, now nearing completion. The zones of the Histoire céleste 
Srancaise, published by Lalande comprise about 50,000 stars from 
the first to the eighth magnitude, but they were not catalogued till 
nearly half a century after theircompletion. Those of Bessel, observed 
at Koenigsberg from 1821 to 1833, contain 62,600 stars from the first to 
the ninth magnitude between —15° and 4+ 45° declination; the two cata- 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 125 


logues of Weisse appeared in 1846 and 1863. From 1841 to 1852 Arge- 
lander continued his work at Bonn, and his northern zones (published in 
1846) contain 22,000 stars between +45° and +80° and the southern 
zones (published in 1852) 17,000 between —15° and —319°, catalogued 
by Oeltzen (1851 to 1857). The positions in these different catalogues 
depend upon meridian observations. 

In 1852, having finished his zones, Argelander conceived the plan of a 
work of much greaterextent. It was to fix approximately the positions 
of all stars to the ninth magnitude, and perhaps a little below (9.5), visi- 
ble in our Jatitudes. To accomplish this the plan was to employ simply a 
small telescope, the observer, with his eye always at the telescope, to call 
out to a recorder, who sat close by with a chronometer. The preliminary 
trials, by J. Schmidt, being successful, the work was begun, and, with 
the help of Krueger and Schoenfeld, on whom the greater part of the la- 
bor fell, the revision of the northern sky was finished in 1859; and this 
is the work that we know as the “ Bonn Durchmusterung.” 

The Durchmusterung,published between 1859 and 1862 in volumes 3, 4, 
and 5 of the Boun Observations, contains no less than 324,198 stars, lying 
between 2° south declination and the north pole, the zone between +81° 
and the pole being a revision of Carrington’s catalogue. Volume 6 of 
the “Bonn Beobachtungen,” contains futhermore 34,000 positions, deter- 
mined by Argelander with the meridian circle. The stars of the 
Durechmusterung are plotted on a series of charts published in 1863. 
Since Argelander’s death Schoenfeld has completed a similar piece of 
work for oursouthern sky, the “ Siidliche Durchmusterung” (1886), con- 
taining more than 133,000 stars, between —2° and—23°, and Gould at 
Cordoba has extended the zones to the neighborhood of the south pole. 

Upon the organization of the International Astronomische Gesell- 
schaft in 1865, the question at once came up of undertaking, by the co-op- 
eration of several observatories, the exact determination of the positions 
of all these stars provisionally catalogued in the Durchmusterung. A 
programme for the work, prepared by a special committee, was finally 
decided upon at the meeting in Vienna in 1869. The new revision was 
contined to the limits of —2° and +80° declination, the positions of 
the circumpolars seeming to be sufficiently well known from the work 
of Carrington and that of the astronomers at Hamburg and Kazan. The 
zones were at first assigned as follows: 


80° to 75° Kazan. 30° to 30° Leipzig. 

75 to 70 Dorpat. 30 to 25 Cambridge (England), 
70 to 65 Christiania. 25 to 15 Berlin. 

65 to55 Helsingfors. 15 to 10 Leipzig. 

55 to 50 ? 10 to 4 Mannheim. 

50 to 40 Bonn. 4 to 1 Neufchatel. 


40 to 35 Chicago. +1 to—2 Palermo. 
Pulkowa undertook the determination of 539 fundamental stars care- 
fully selected by Dr. Auwers, which should form points of reference. 
In the 20 years that have elapsed since the great catalogue was 


126 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


decided upon several changes have been made in the original pro- 
gramme, the work being eventually divided up among the following 
observatories : 


80° to.75° Kazan. 35° to 50° Leyden. 

75 to 70 Dorpat. 30 to 25 Cambridge (Eng.) 
70 to 65 Christiania. 25 to15 Berlin. 

65 to55 Helsingfors-Gotha. 15 to 5 Leipzig. 

55 to 50 Cambridge (U.S.). 5 to 1 Albany. 

50 to40 Bonn. +1 to—2 Nicolaief. 


40 to 35 Lund. 

The work of observation is now finished. Some of the zones have 
been published (Kazan, Christiania, Helsingfors, Lund), others are in 
press, and the catalogues have been begun. Three of the catalogues 
(Aibany, Helsingfors-Gotha, and Christiania,) have just appeared. 
Meanwhile the zones have been extended to the southern sky, the fol- 
lowing being to a greater or less extent under way: 

—2° to — 6° Strasburg. —14° to—18° Washington. 
—6 to—10 Vienna. —18 to—23 Algiers. 
—10 to— 14 Cambridge (U.S. ). 

The positions of the 303 fundamental southern stars are furnished 
‘by observations undertaken at the Cape of Good Hope, Madison, 
Annapolis, Carlsruhe, Leiden, and Strasburg. Gould’s southern zones 
extend from —23° to—80°, and it is to be hoped that before long we 
shall have a catalogue embracing the whole sky, the value of which 
will be in no wise diminished by the photographic chart which is about 
to be begun. 

The observations for the Helsingfors-Gotha catalogue were made al- 
most entirely by Dr. Krueger with a 0™.15 (5.9 inch) Reichenbach merid- 
ian circle. The star positions are for the epoch 1875, and besides the 
right ascension and declination, the precession and secular variation, 
and wherever possible the proper motion are given. The observations 
forthe Albany zone were made by Professor Boss with a 0™. 20 (7.9 inches) 
Pistor & Martin’s meridian cirele, the transits being recorded on the 
chronograph, while Dr. Krueger used the “eye-and-ear ” method. 

The probable errors come out: 


In right In decli- | 
ascension. nation. | 


Helsinciorsie- see eee = 05, LOM 07 Fok} 
COLT At eee eee an Fee . 125 | G4 
| Albany: 
2 observablons-ooees ee ese. . 025 | . 89 | 
SIODSCLVAtIONS s-2-ee eee ee . O21 noe 
AVODSELVAtLONSe=- eee . 015 .27 


| 


Experiments were made with wire-gauze screens by Professor Boss 
to determine the effect of difference of magnitude upon the observa- 
tions, his result being that a change of one magnitude produced a 
change of 0%,.014 in the personal equation in observing a transit, 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 127 


A third installment of the catalogue, that containing the stars from 
4+64° 50’ to +70° 10’, has also appeared. The observations were made 
by Professors Fearnley and Geelmuyden with the Ertel meridian 
circle of the Christiania Observatory, of 48 lines aperture. The prob- 
able error of a single observation is given as + 05.054 in right ascension 
(£05.02 in a great circle) and + 0.54 in declination. 

Yarnall’s catalogue—A third edition of the catalogue of southern 
stars observed with the transit instrument and mural circle at the 
U. S. Naval Observatory from 1845 to 1877 has been published, the 
work of revision having been conducted by Professor Frisby. Great 
pains have been taken to eliminate all errata detected in the previous 
editions, both by the careful examination of published lists of correc- 
tions and by comparisons with other catalogues. The whole number 
of stars in the new edition is 10,964. 

Munich catalogue.-—Band 1 of the ‘* Neue Annalen der k. Sternwarte 
in Bogenhausen bei Miinchen” contains a catalogue of 33,082 stars 
down to the tenth magnitude inclusive, between —52° and +424° decli- 
nation, reduced to the epoch 1880.0. The observations were made with 
a Reichenbach meridian circle of 109™™ (4.3 inches) aperture and 
circle of 0.95™ (37.4 inches) diameter. 

Second Melbourne catalogue.—This catalogue contains the results of 
observations made with the old transit circle of 5 inches aperture from 
the beginning of 1871 to the end of August, 1584; places of 1,211 stars 
are given for 1880. 

Brussels catalogue.—The Brussels catalogue contains 10,792 stars for 
the epoch 1865, observed with the Brussels transit instrument and 
mural circle in the years 1857—1878; the general catalogue is preceded 
by the positions of the fundamental stars used in the reductions. A 
supplement is to be published giving corrections to the catalogue due 
to a number of inaccuracies detected in the reductions. 

The Williams College catalogue of north polar stars.—Professor Sat- 
ford has published a catalogue of right ascensions of 261 stars, mostly 
within 10° of the north pole, and observed by him with the 43-inch 
Repsold meridian circle of the Field Memorial Observatory at Williams- 
town. The results have been reduced to the epoch 1885.0. Professor 
Safford characterizes his catalogue as an ‘‘attempt to strengthen the 
weak point of all our standard catalogues—the right ascensions of 
polar stars,” and he draws the following conclusions from his work. 

‘First. Thatit is highly conducive to accuracy, systematic as well as 
in detail, to base a catalogue of polar right ascensions upon standard 
places in all hours of right ascension, rather than upon double transits 
alone. 

“ Second. That the introduction of meridian marks according to Struve 
(long-focus object glasses, also suggested by Rittenhouse) is a great 
advantage to the primary catalogues, 


128 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


‘¢ Third. That the eye-and-ear method should be retained as the stand- 
ard within a narrow rather than a wide range of polar distance. 

‘“ Fourth. That modern meridian instruments are subject to irregular 
small changes of position, which are not direct functions of the tem- 
perature; so that in all differential work it is better to keep a close 
watch upon clock rate and instrumental adjustments rather than to 
trust the instrumental zero points for more than 2 hours without rede- 
termination of the most essential. 

“ Fifth. That the right ascensions here given are reasonably accurate- 

‘‘ Sixth. That a thorough comparison of the chronographic and eye- 
and-ear method within a wide range, both of magnitude and declina- 
tion, is desirable.” 

Greenwich 10-year catalogue, 1877 to 1886, published in the volume 
of Greenwich Observations for 1887, contains 4,059 stars for the epoch 
1880.0. 

The catalogue of 303 reference stars for the southern zones of the 
Astronomische Gesellschaft has been published by Dr. Auwers, and 
although the material accumulated since 1880, when the provisional list 
was issued, is not sufficient to give places of a thoroughly satisfactory 
degree of accuracy, the final corrections will probably be extremely 
small. 

A collection of all available meridian observations of stars that wil] 
be within 1° of the north pole in 1900 has been prepared, under the 
direction of Professor Pickering, by Miss Winloc: and published as the 
ninth memoir in volume 18 of the Harvard Observatory Annals. 


STELLAR PARALLAX. . 


Professor Pritcnard intends to examine for parallax, by the aid of 
photography, all stars of the second magnitude suitably situated for 
observation at Oxford, in the hope of contributing to our knowledge of 
what Herschel called the “ construction of the heavens.” With refer- 
ence to the differences in the results obtained by different observers, 
Professor Pritchard says: *‘ Guided by the suggestions of recent experi- 
ence, I now think that such differences of ‘ parallax’ might very reason- 
ably have been anticipated and may probably be accepted as matters 
of fact without in any degree impugning the accuracy of the observa- 
tions. For in process of this work on parallax, and also from the gen- 
eral history of similar inquiries, it has been made abundantly evident 
that no necessary connection exists between the brightaess of a star 
and its position in space, or distance from the sun. Nevertheless it 
is this very difference of brightness mainly which guides us in the 
selection of comparison stars. The ‘parallax’ is, in fact, and is becom- 
ing more and more generally recognized to be, a differential quantity, 
fainter stars being in very many instances much nearer to us than 
others possessing incomparably greater brightness. In passing I may 
here instance a Lyre as compared with 61 Cygui; Centauri as 


.—— 


/ Vi Vi | 
| 10 
9 2,33 uogr | 16 
Orme ek 00 (ani nerd 
) 0.38 .18 18 
10 0. 05 16 20) 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 129 


compared with « Indi. In fact, the position in space of the faint com- 
parison stars in relation to that of the star whose parallax is sought is, 
if not a matter of accident, at all events wholly unknown until the ob- ° 
servations and computations are complete.” 

Professor Pritchard’s results for stellar parallax, as published in the 
third volume of the Oxford Observations, are as follows: 


Magni- Proper 


Stop ey re aT 

Sua | tude. motion, | Parallax. | 

>. == a it aa i vi 
GIN C yeu eenee sass 4 4.98 5. 16 0,44 
GLUCysnie=ee oss 4.98 5. 16 0. 44 
je-Cassiopeie -.:. 2.-- 5. 40 3.75 0.04 
Polarisnessssssce neo: 2.05 0.05 0.08 
a @assiopeie: 5- s25-5- 2.41 0.05 0. 04 
PICASSIOPEle- eee see 2.32 0,55 0.16 
y Cassiopers -.-- 2... 2. 19 0. 02 0.01 
| aqvenheig ass. see Qed 0.16 0.06 
| 


The greater part of this volume is devoted to a discussion of the 
parallax of 61 Cygni and the results seem to justify his remark that 
‘the four comparison stars probably belong to a remote system not 
containing 61 Cygni.” ‘The probable errors deduced are small. 

At the annual visitation to the Oxford Observatory on June 12, 1890, 
Professor Pritchard announced the results of the determination of 
parallaxes of six more stars by the photographic method, as follows: 


Prob. 


| Parallax. E 
error. 
7) | “1 
EGCVOUPES oe sees. ee ei + 0.115 | + 0.034 
aC yor cress cece O40 . 029 
f Andromede .....-- == oWIERA - 023 
CAA MOUS Some nae +-  . O80 . 027 
@Rerselp-ceskeee se = + 0.74 | - 029 
fo Urse Miuoris --. .. | + . 922 | . 030 


The subjoined table forms a summary of a paper published in the 
Astronomische Nachrichten, Nos. 2915 and 2916, by Dr. Oudemans, in 
which he collects the seattered results for stellar parallax obtained in 
the past sixty years. Dr. Oudemans coneludes that “stars with proper 
motions greater than 0.05 have probably an annual parallax of 0./10 
to 0.50, 


; || Jistance 
No. of | Proper | Annual PA lierht 
stars. | motion. | parallax. =) 


years. 


| 

| 

| 

| | | 

| 9 |. 4.93 0. 32 
| 


H. Mis. 129——9 


130 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890, 


PROPER MOTIONS. 


_ Professor Boss has published in the Astronomical Journal the proper 
motions of 295 stars of the Albany zone (+ 0° 50/ to + 5° 10’). 
In the Bulletin Astronomique for March, 1890, is a.most useful cata- 
logue, compiled by Bossert, of all stars whose proper motion is known 
to exceed 0.50. They are thus distributed : 


: Proper motion 
No. OR SORES | seater than 
al 
5 5.0 
4 4.0 
6 3.0 
9 2.0 
bi 15} 
30 1.2 
15 1.0 
38 0.8 
V7 0.6 
Wes | 0.5 
| 


DOUBLE AND MULTIPLE STARS. 


Some very elegant and simple formule for determining the true orbit 
of a binary star, originally published in Russian, have been brought 
out by Professor Glasenapp. 

2 SeorpiiUerr Schorr has made a study of the motions in this 
triple system by methods sim:lar to those employed by Dr. Seeliger on 
‘ Caneri. The star is known as Y 1998, the magnitudes of its compo- 
nents Dens Ae— 3.9) P= Opa Ola 7 

7 Ophiuchi has been divided into two nearly equal components by 
Burnham with the 36inch Lick telescope, and he thinks that it will 
prove to be a binary of short period. He has also found companions 
for Aldebaran, 7 Cassiopeiw, and 6 Cygni, and las been able to sepa- 
rate and measure a companion to the principal star in the pair « Hydre, 
the existence of which was suspected by previous observers. 

Photographs of the spectrum of Spica have put beyond question the 
reality of its motion in the direction of the line of sight. Dr. Vogel 
has deduced from observations of 1889 and 1899 a period of revolution 
of about 4 days. 

PHOTOMETRY. 


The results of observations made with the meridian photometer of 
the Harvard observatory by Prof. E. C. Pickering and Mr. Wendell 
during the years 1882-1888, have appeared as volume 24 of the Harvard 
Annals. The principal work done with this instrument was ‘the de- 
termination of the magnitudes of a sufficient number of stars con- 
tained in the Durchmusterung, and distributed with approximate uni- 
formity, to serve for future estimates or measures of magnitude, and 
to enable previous estimates to be reduced tothe photometric scale.” 


—_-) 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 131 


The number of stars of which observations are recorded is 20,125; 
30 that when the stars enumerated in volume 28 of the Annals are reck- 
oned, the total number of stars observed reaches 20,982. Measures 
have also been made of 166 variable stars and of several planets and 
satellites. In the “ Harvard Photometry” the brightest stars were com- 
pared solely with Polaris. In the present observations 2 Urs Minoris 
was selected as the standard star, but the results are made to depend 
upon a series of 100 circumpolar stars, the magnitudes of which were 
frequently determined with the smaller instrument. 

Photographic photometry.—The readiest and most effective means of 
determining the magnitudes of stars from an examination of the disks * 
impressed on a sensitized film is a problem that has received much 
attention recently, and contributions to the literature of the subject 
have been made from the three observatories of Harvard, Stockholm, 
and Potsdam. 

Professor Pickering gives in volume 18 of the Harvard Annals three 
catalogues of magnitudes, embracing, on the whole, some 2,500 stars, 
the first catalogue giving the photographic magnitudes of all the stars 
brighter than the fifteenth magnitude within 1° of the pole; the second, 
the magnitudes of many of the stars in the Pleiades; and the third the 
magnitudes of 1,131 stars generally brighter than the eighth magnitude 
near the equator. 

The contribution from the Potsdam observatory is confined to the 
discussion of the magnitudes of stars in the Pleiades as impressed on 
plates taken with a chemically corrected object-glass by Dr. Scheiner, 
and with the veflecting telescope of the Herény observatory, supple- 
mented by some photographs of the artificial stars in a Zollner photom- 
eter. The principal results of the inquiry are twofold: first, that the 
increase of the diameter of the star disk varies as the square root of 
the time of exposure ; and secondly, that a simple linear reJation exists 
between the observed diameter and the magnitude. 

The third contribution to this subject is from Dr. Charlier, of Stocik- 
holm, who deduces a formula which expresses the connection between 
the photographie brilliancy of a star and its photographed image in such 
@ manner as to insure a coincidence as far as possible between the pho- 
tographic and photometric magnitudes. 


VARIABLE AND COLORED STARS. 


Chandler's catalogue of variable stars.—Chandler’s admirable cata- 
logue of variable stars has been adopted by Schoenfeld in the ephemer- 
ides published in the Vierteljahrsschrift, and it also furnishes the data 
for the ephemerides of the Annuaire du Bureau des Longitudes and the 
Observatory, and is thus formally recognized as the standard authority 
ou variables. Mr. Chandler publishes in the Astronomical Journal 
(No. 216) three tables supplementary to the catalogue, containing (1) a 
list of new variables arranged as in the original catalogue; (2) a list of 


132 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


additions and corrections to the elements of the catalogue; and (3) a 
list of stars probably variable, but whose variability needs further con- 
firmation before definitive letters can be assigned. The attention of 
observers is directed to this list. 

Taking his catalogue of 1888 as a basis, Mr. Chandler has made an 
investigation of the relation existing between the lengths of the periods 
and the number of the variables; their color, range of fluctuation, 
forms of light curves, irregularities of periods and of light variations. 
Periods under 20 days predominate, while for the long-period stars a 
well-marked maximum is indicated about a period of 320 days. With 
regard to color, the redder the tint the longer the period; and with 
regard to range of fluctuation, while it is probable that there is a de- 
pendence of range upon the duration of the period, the relation is not 
one of strict proportionality of range to period. It furthermore appears 
that the average ratio of increase to decrease for stars with periods less 
than 100 days is about 0.65; between 100 and 200 days it is slightly in 
excess of unity; it then declines as the periods lengthen ; at first, grad- 
ually, but in the neighborhood of a year, with extraordinary sudden- 
ness, recovering as quickly until it again exceeds unity in the group of 
extremely long periods. In the case of the numerical laws of the per- 
turbations of the periods, Mr. Chandler remarks that his researches 
are not yet complete, but that, broadly, in the case of long-period vari- 
ables, the irregularities are periodic in their nature, and in the case of 
those of short period, secular and exceptional. 

Algol.—Prof. H. C. Vogel, of Potsdam, has published the results of 
some interesting ebservations of the changes in the spectrum of Algol 
at the times of the diminution and recovery of its light. These, whilst 
fully confirming the view originally suggested by Goodricke, that the 
periodic variability of this star is caused by the revolution of a dark 
companion cutting off part of its light in the manner of an eclipse, and 
the caleulation of Professor Pickering that the diameter of the compan- 
ion amounts to about eight-tenths of that of the principal star, have 
enabled Professor Vogel to obtain approximate values of the mutual dis- 
tance and actual sizes and masses of the two stars, as well as of their 
orbital velocities round their common center of gravity. He finds, in 
fact, that their diameters are probably about 1,080,000 and 850,000 
English miles respectively ; that the distance of their centers from each 
other amounts to about 3,290,000 miles, and that the orbital velocity of 
Algol is about 27, whilst that ofits companion is about 56 miles. The 
mass of the former he determines to be about double that of the latter, 
the one being approximately four-ninths and the other two-ninths of the 
sun’smass. It is not necessary, he remarks, to suppose that the com- 
panion is absolutely opaque, but only that its light is very much feeb- 
ler than that of the principal star. 

It may be added tinat the Greenwich observations confirm Dr. Vogel’s 
conclusion of the motion of the star in a small orbit. 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Ho3 


A remarkable star of the Algol type, having the shortest period 
known, was discovered in 1888 by Prof. H. M. Paul, of the U.S. Naval 
Observatory. The star is 12 Antlie of Gould’s Uranometria Argentina, 
a=9 26™ 508, d= — 28° 4.7 (1875.0). Therange of magnitude is 6.7 to 
7.3, and according to Chandler it goes through its changes in 3® 20", 

From an examination of one of the photographie plates taken by the 
Harvard observatory party, at the Chosica station in Peru, Professor 
Pickering has announced the discovery of a long-period variable in 
Celum of the same class as O Ceti, 8 Hvdre, and R Leonis. The 
spectra show bright hydrogen lines. 

A number of other new variables have been detected in the exami- 
nation of the photographic plates taken at the observatory, and have 
been announced by Professor Pickering in the Astronomische Nach- 
richten. Some attention has also been paid to this subject by Dr. J. C. 
Kapteyn in measuring the plates taken at the Cape of Good Hope for 
the formation of Dr. Gill’s photographic southern Durchmusterung, and 
also by Mr. Roberts in the prosecution of bis work in astronomical pho- 
tography. 

A general index to observations of variable stars, prepared under 
the direction of Prof. KE. C. Pickering, forms No. 8 of Vol. 18 of the Har- 
vard Annals. A large number of unpublished observatious are referred 
to, particularly three extensive series of observations by Argelander, 
Heis, and Schmidt, to whose manuscripts access was given. 

A new edition or rather revision of Birmingham's Red Star Catalogue 
has been printed in No. v of the Cunningham Memoirs of the Royal 
Irish Academy. The work of revision was undertaken by Rev. T. E. 
Espin in 1886, with the 174-inch equatorial reflector, and in the course 
of the work a number of new red stars, new variables, and stars with 
bright lines in their spectra were discovered. There is also an addi- 
tional list of 629 ‘‘ ruddy stars.” 


STELLAR SPECTRA. 


Spectrum of € Urse Majoris—Protessor Pickering has reported a re- 
markably interesting peculiarity in the spectrum of this star. It was 
noticed that the K line was double in the photographs taken March 29, 
1887, May 17, 1889, and August 27 and 28, 1889, while on many other 
dates the line appeared hazy as if the components were slightly sepa- 
rated, and at other times the line was well defined and single. It was 
concluded that the line was double at intervals of 52 days beginning 
March 27, 1887, and it was predicted that the doubling would occur 
again on December 9, 1889, and this prediction was confirmed by each 
of three photographs on the latter date. Professor Pickering says: 

“The only satisfactory explanation of this phenomenon as yet pro- 
posed is that the brighter component of this star is itself a double star 
having components nearly equal in brightness and too close to have been 
separated as yet visually. Also that the time of revolution of the sys- 


134 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


tem is 104 days. When one component is approaching the earth all 
the lines in its spectrum will be moved toward the blue end, wanile all 
the lines in the spectrum of the other component will be moved by an 
equal amount in the opposite direction if their masses are equal. Each 
line will thus be separated into two. When the motion becomes per- 
pendicular to the line of sight, the spectral lines recover their true 
wave-length and become single.” 

From the amount of separation of the lines Professor Pickering con- 
cludes that the relative velocity of the two components must be about 
100 miles per second. If the orbit is circular and its plane passes 
through the sun, the distance traveled by one component, regarding 
the other as fixed, would be 900,000,000 miles, and the distance apart 
of the two components would be 143,000,000 miles, or about that of 
Mars and the sun. The combined mass would be about forty times 
that of the sun to give the required period. 

Several other stars have been found from the Harvard photographs 
with a similar doubling of the lines, among them / Aurigze and 0 Ophi- 
uchi. For # Aurige Professor Pickering deduced a period of 4 days, 
and his results have been fully confirmed by observations made with 
quite different apparatus by Dr. Vogel at Potsdam. 

A doubling of the K line in several photographs of the spectrum of 
Vega taken by Mr. A. Fowler, apparently indicating that Vega was a 
double star of the ¢ Ursz Majoris type, has not been confirmed by the 
photographs of Pickering, Vogel, and Henry. 

The Henry Draper ee __The third annual report of Proieens 
Pickering announces the practical completion of two branches of the 
work undertaken, the photographic survey of the spectra of ail stars 
north of — 25° declination having been effected on a twofold seale, the 
one survey including all stars brighter than the seventh magnitude, the 
other including stars two magnitudes fainter. The Bache 8-inch doub- 
let employed in this work has been transferred to a station near Chos- 
ica in Peru and similar surveys for the stars down to the south pole 
have been commenced. 

The fourth annual report of the Henry Draper Memorial contains as 
a frontis piece an engraving showing the periodical duplication of the 
K line in the spectrum of # Aurige, the study of which, with other 
similar cases has been the most important work of the 11-inch equa- 
torial at Harvard. The spectroscopic survey of the brighter stars 
in the northern hemisphere (to — 25° declination) is nearly printed 
and the work on fainter stars is heing satisfactorily pressed. Besides 
the spectra, charts of the entire sky are being formed with the same 
telescopes. A photographie map of the sky will thus be provided, ap- 
proximately on the scale of the Durchmusterung, but including fainter 
stars; so far as it has been completed it has proved very convenient 
for studying suspected variables and in detecting errors in star cata- 
logues. 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 135 


teference should also be made here to the lists of stars with peculiar 
spectra detected upon the Harvard Observatory photographie plates 
and published from time to time by Professor Pickering in the Astro- 
nomische Nachrichten. 

A spectroscopic survey of the southern heavens by direct observa- 
tion has been undertaken at the Melbourne Observatory. An S‘ineh 
refracter and the 4-foot reflector will be used in the work. 


MOTIONS OF STARS IN THE LINE OF SIGHT. 


The foilowing is a comparison of the results for motion in the line of 
sight obtained by Dr. Vogel at Potsdam with a photographic telescope, 
and those obtained by Maunder at.the Greenwich Observatory by eye 
observations. The motions are given in geographical miles, + repre- 
senting recession, and — approach : 


Vogel. | Maunder. | 


Capella sese-kees- pa tadesiel 22.5 
Aldebaran........ | +30.3 +31. 6 
Qi PRerseleasice et sc Stig | —22.5 
Procyomes o.05 202) | — 7.2 | 3.8 


Dr. Vogel’s interesting results with regard to Algol and other stars 
have been alluded to elsewhere. 

Bright lines in stellar spectra.—Mr. Espin has detected bright lines in 
the spectra of a number of variables when near their maxima, among 
them R Leonis, R Hydrie, 7 Cygni, R Andromede, and S Cassiopcie 
all of Seechi’s third type. Similar lines in the spectra of U and V 
Cygni, of the fourth type have been suspected by the Lick observers, 
and when these stars were far removed from their maxima. Mr. Keeler 
also finds that he is able to break up the apparently continuous spectra 
of stars of the type of the Wolf-Rayet stars in Cygnus into an extremely 
complicated range of absorption bands and faint bright lines. 

A remarkable form of spectrum has been discovered by Professor 
Pickering in that of the star Pleione, for the F line consists in this case 
of a narrow bright line superposed on a broader dark line, the other 
hydrogen lines showing some indications of a similar character. 


ASTRONOMICAL PHOTOGRAPHY. 


The photographic chart of the heavens.—The permanent committee 
appointed by the Astrophotographic Cougress at Paris, in 1887, as noted 
in the Review of Astronomy for the years 1887-88, held their first 
meeting at the Paris Observatory in September, 1890. The results of 
the seven séances are contained in a series of twenty-eight resolutions, 
some of the most important of which are mentioned below. 


136 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890, 


The zones were assigned to the several participating as follows: 


NORTH. 
Latitude. | Zone. 
el sineforseeeneae eee sere cee | +60 9); +90 to +70 
POtSUaIEeose ee oe ae eee BU | 70 58 
Oxdordry= Soe See ee Bal. Als 58 48 
Greenwiclis-s 52-52 eee eee | 51 28 48 40 
AUT Sayers babes SF feet: Veg eee 48 50 40 32 
Milem aoe eo an ee cpm | AS ols 32 QA | 
BOY entice wae s see ses | 44 50 24 18 | 
Monlouse 4 ees. e eee ce 43 37 18 12 | 
Cataniianes Serena) se a ae Aer ee 3 ak) 12 6 
IAN OCT nee ceeetn Ss aoe a5 5. 28 | Sa aig —@ 
Sameer and OMe seer 36 27 0 to — 6 
Chapuiltepecseesaeseeen eres 19 26] — 6 to—l? | 
TRCUDAV Asse Ceara eee | -+-19 24 | —12 to —18 
| 
SOUTH. 
RIOMer Icio Ss aaeeee eee oer | 99" 54 EI to ==96 | 
Santiago cys. stele ae serie |} —83 26 26 sd 
Sydineyissee Se seen cae —33 di | 42 
Cape of Good Hope..-.---..- | —33 56 42 525} 
a klataesss os oe ae eae | —34 55 | 52 70 
Melbourne) 2-422 ease ee ee | 0) ae 


No observatory in the United States appears on this list. A bill was 
introduced in Cengress making an appropriation to enable the United 
States Naval Observatory to undertake a share of the work, but the 
bill failed to become a law. 

Lhe committee decided that the field of the telescope available for 
measurement should be 2° square; that the photographie plates em- 
ployed (which are to be of plate glass) should be 160™™ (64 inches) 
square and the series of reference lines 130™™ (51 inches) square with 
the lines 5™™ apart. 

Twelve test objects were selected, all of which are situated near the 
equator, at intervals of about two hours of right ascension. In addition 
to these, the Pleiades, Priesepe, and a group in Cygnus were selected 
for the use of the more northern observatories. 

To fix the time of exposure so that the plates shall contain stars to 
the eleventh magnitude, it was decided to determine first the time nec- 
essary to photograph a star of the 9.0 magnitude of Argelander’s scale, 
and thereby multiplying by 6.25 the time of exposure for magnitude 
11.0 will be obtained. 

Three more numbers (3, 4, and 5) of the Bulletin du Comité Interna- 
tional permanent pour VExécution Photographique de la Carte du Ciel 
have been published. Among the many papers contributed to these 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. LB? 


bulletins which have a very important bearing upon astronomical pho- 
tography, may be mentioned one by Dr. Bakhuysen on the measure- 
ment of the plates by the method of rectangular cobrdinates, in which 
he obtains star places comparing favorably with those from meridian 
observations. Dr. Vogel contributes one or two papers on the ‘ rés- 
eaux ” and the measurement of the plates, and Professor Kapteyn sug- 
gests the expediency of taking the catalogue plates with three exposures 
at intervals of six months, for the purpose of determining the stars’ 
proper motions and parallaxes. Dr. Scheiner las an important paper 
on the application of photography to the determination of stellar mag- 
nitudes. 

In the fifth number of the Bulletin, Professor Holden has two papers 
on the photographic magnitedes of stars, and Mr. Schaeberle one on 
the same subject. There is also an abstract of Dr. Lindemann’s photo- 
metric determination of the star magnitudes of the Bonn Durchmus- 
terung, and a paper by M. Trépied on the necessity of coming to some 
understanding as to what is meant by stars of the 9th, 11th, and 14th 
magnitudes on the photographie plates. 

The question of the reproduction of the plates and of the publication 
of the map has been left open, but it is probable that one or more 
bureaus will be established for measuring the negatives obtained at 
observatories not provided with special apparatus for the purpose, and 
photographie copies of all plates will be preserved in selected places in 
case of accident to the original negatives. 

A meeting of those interested in the various branches of astronomical} 
photography other than the chart was called by Messrs. Janssen and 
Common in September, 1889. The chief matters for discussion being a 
complete photographic record of solar phenomena, including solar 
spectrum photography; a systematic description of the lunar surface 
by photography on a large scale; photographs of pianets and their 
satellites, of comets, meteors, and particularly of nebulie, clusters, and 
of stellar spectra. 


In discussing the theory of the photography of a star projected upon 
a bright background, Professor Holden cails attention to the faet that 
the most important factor is the ratio of the focal length to the aperture 
of the objective; generally speaking it would be an advantage to dia- 
phragm the objective during the day. This is also true with regard to 
ordinary observations during the day, a point of particular importance 
in connection with meridian observations. 

Authoritative testimony as to the value of photography for obtaining 
accurate measures of star clusters is given by Dr. Elkin, who has com- 
pared Dr. Gould’s reductions of Rutherfurd’s photographs of the Plei- 
ades taken over 20 years ago, with the heliometer measures made at 
Konigsberg and New Haven. The smallness of the probable error Dr. 
Elkin regards as proof that in photography we have a means of in- 
vestigation for micrometri¢ work at least on a par with any existing 


138 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


method, and doubtless far surpassing the present methods in ease of 
measurement and output of work. 

The Henry Brothers are reported to have made a decided advance 
in lunar photography in the plates taken with the equatorial of 0™.32 
(12.6 inches) aperture intended for the chart work. The improvement is 
attributed especially to the process of enlargement employed, which 
makes the diameter of the moon about 1™ (39 inches). This photographic 
work is to be continued with the great equatorial coudé, which is soon 
to be mounted and provided with a photographic objective. 

Mr. Roberts has devised a machine, which he calls a “ pantograver,” 
for measuring the magnitudes of the stars depicted upon the photo- 
graphic plates and transferring them to metallic plates for printing. 


COMETS. 


The origin of comets.—Dr. Bredichin, the present director ef the Pul- 
kowa Observatory, who has devoted much time to the study of comet- 
ary phenomena, has expressed the opinion that periodic comets owe their 
origin to the segmentation of ordinary parabolic comets, having been 
thrown off from the latter by an eruption such as it is generally sup- 
posed we have witnessed in the great comet of 1882, and earlier in 
Biela’s comet. Dr. Kreutz’s monograph on this great September comet 
of 1882 forms one of the most important of recent contributions to com- 
etary literature. The formidable obstacles to an accurate determination 
of its orbit presented by the disintegration of the nucleus into several 
points of condensation seem to have been most skillfully surmounted 
by the computer. His final value for the period of revolution is 772.2 
years. 

Dr. Holetschek claims that the systematic grouping of cometary peri- 
helia in certain directions (270° and 90° of heliocentric longitude) has 
no connection with the general motion of the solar system in space, 
but is due to the position of the earth at the time that such discoveries 
are most readily made. 

An important paper on the capture theory of comets will be found 
in the Bulletin Astronomique for June, 1889, and in the same journal for 
December, 1890, M. Tisserand has a further contribution to the same 
subject. 

The Observatory for August, 1889, has a useful table of the approxi- 
mate positions at the time of discovery of all comets seen since 1869, 
with brief notes on the physical appearance of each. Mr. Denning, who 
has compiled this table, proposes to supplement it by one with similar 
data for the comets from 1840 to 1868. 

Brorsen’s comet.—A careful seareh for Brorsen’s comet, which passed 
perihelion in 1890, was made by Brooks and Swift, but without effect. 
This comet was discovered in 1846, and was last seen in 1879; it could 
not be seen at the return in 1884. Tempel’s second comet, and Bar- 
nard’s comet 1884 II, were also expected to return to perihelion in 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 139 


1890, but were unfavorably situated for observation and escaped de- 
tection. 

Comets of 1889 and 1890.—W. R. Brooks reported the discovery, on 
the morning of January 15, 1889, of a faint comet in Sagittarius, and to 
it the designation Comet @ 1889 was given, as the first comet discovered 
during the year. A careful search for the object was made by a num. 
ber of observers, especially by Barnard and Swift, but without success. 
As the three observations necessary for determining the orbit were not 
secured, the comet is not catalogued with those of the year. A comet 
announced by Swift on July 15, 1889, is also omitted, as it proved to be 
identical with the comet discovered by Brooks on August 7, 1888. 
(1888 IIT). 

A phenomenon reported at Grahamstown, South Africa, on the 27th of 
October, 1890,should be mentioned in connection with the notes on comets. 
It was described as a bright band one-fourth of a degree wide and 30° 
longitude, afterwards increasing to 90°. At one end it looked like the 
head of a comet, while the other end faded out gradually. Its motion 
was extraordinary, as it swept over more than 100° in less than 1" 15™, 


The comets for the years 1889 and 1890, with their final designations, 
in the order of perihelion passage are as follows: 

Comet 1889 I: | ‘The first comet of 1889, in the order of perihelion 

= Comet e¢ 1888. passage, was that discovered by Barnard at the 
Lick Observatory with a 4-inch comet-seeker on September 2, 1888, or 
the morning of September 3. It was also independently discovered by 
Brooks, at Geneva, New York, on the following morning. At the end 
of November, and as late as January 4, 1889, it was visible to the naked 
eye. Perihelion was passed on January 31, 1889, and by that time, 
the comet disappeared in the sun’s rays. The first observations after 
conjunction were made about May 24, and it was followed till its light 
Was again overpowered by that of the sun, Jate in October, 1889, its 
appearance being about the same as before perihelion, small, round, 
quite bright, and with a short tail. The orbit seems to be hyperbolic. 

Barnard remarked on June 3 that there was an anomalous tail directly 
following the comet, about 1° in length and some 2’ or 3’ broad, a phe- 
nomenon which, according to Bredichin, was probably an effect of per- 
spective. 

The comet was observed again at the Lick Observatory by Barnard 
August 17, 1890, although its distances from the earth and sun were 
then, respectively, 6.0 and 6.5 in terms of the earth’s mean distance. 
The later observations confirm the hyperbolic character of the orbit. 
Comet 1889 Il: | On the evening of March 31, 1889, E. E. Barnard 

= Comet 61589. | discovered, with the 12-inch equatorial of the Lick 


Observatory, a very small and slender comet, with a tail 15’ long. By 
the end of April it was lost in the evening twilight, reappearing again, 
with extremely slow geocentric motion, about July 25, and remaining 
visible to November 21. The great perihelion distance of this comet is 


140 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1899. 


especially noteworthy, amounting to 24 times the distance of the eartb 
from the sun, a distance which seems to have been surpassed in the 
catalogue of comets only by comet 1885 IT, with a perihelion of 25, and 
the comet of 1729, with perihelion distance 4. 


Comet 1889 III: | Mr. Barnard discovered another comet at about 
= Comet ¢ 1589, 2 o'clock on the morning of June 24, in the cen- 


stellation Andromeda, At the time of discovery the comet was only 
three days past perihelion. It was then very faint and rapidly became 
still fainter, being last observed on August 6. The elements computed 
by Berberich show considerable ellipticity in the orbit, the period of 
revolution being 128 years. 
Comet 1889 IV: | <A tolerably bright comet was discoverei with the 
= Comete 18°39. | naked eye by Mr. J. Ewen Davidson at Brans- 
combe, Mackay, Queensland (latitude — 21° 9’ south), on July 19. It 
had a sharp, stellar nucleus, and a tail 30’ long; in a photograph 
taken by Barnard at the Lick Observatory on July 30, the tail could be 
followed still farther, to a distance of almost 1° from the head. A second 
tail was reported by Kammermann, of Geneva, on the 17th of August, 
and a segmentation of the nucleus by Ricco about a week earlier. 
Professor Holden finds that the brightest part of the tail was 73, 
of the SH EUNESS es ane vicee vere of the solar corona during t the 


“The done was followed in the northern cn ee to about the end 
of the year. 

The spectrum according to the Lick and Palermo observations in 

July and August showed no peculiarity; the carbon bands, and the 
continuous spectrum of the nucleus, alone being recorded. 
Comet 1889 V: | William R. Brooks, of Geneva, New York, while 
_ = Comet d 1889. _ | sweeping in the southwestern sky on the morning 
of July 6, 1889, detected a suspicious looking nebulous object, the com- 
etary character of which he was able to confirm on the following 
morning; it was then faint, of about 11th magnitude, a diameter of 1’, 
stellar nucleus, and tail 10’ long. The comet attracted no especial 
attention from astronomers till August 1, when Barnard discovered 
that it had two small and nebulous companions, and on the morning 
following it was evident that these two objects were moving with the 
parent comet through space. Mr. Barnard says: 

“On August 3 they were examined with the 36-inch equatorial, which 
showed the whole group very beautifully. Hach of the companions had 
a very small nucleus and condensation in avery small head and a short 
faint tail, presenting a perfect miniature of the larger one, which was 
pretty isnt and well developed, with small nucleus and slightly fan- 
shaped tail 4° long. There was tien absolutely no nebulous connection 
with the larger, nor has there been at any time since, either in the 12- 
inch or in the 36-inch telescope. Nothing whatever has been seen here 
of the nebulous envelope spoken of by the Vienna observers as appar- 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 141 


ently inclosing the whole group (A. N., 2914). I have from the first - 
carefully looked for a nebulous connection. Under unfavorable circum- 
stances the tails of B and C might be imagined to be a connecting neb- 
ulosity, but the tail of B falls short of A, and that of C does not nearly 
reach B. Each comet is in appearance absolutely independent of the 
other. The tails of all three have lain in the line of the nucleus of A, 
and therefore have not sensibly deviated, from the position-angle 241°.” 

“On August 4, two other companions were detected with the great 
telescope, one of which was measured, the other being too elusive to 
set the wire on. I have numbered these four companions B, C, D, HE, 
in theaorder of increasing right ascension, A being the larger comet, D 
and I being the two last discovered. D has been seen several times 
since the moon withdrew, but has always been too faint to observe. It 
has not sensibly changed its position. E has only been seen onee. Its 
position angle referred to C would be the same as that of D, and its 
distance twice as great. Four or five other nebulous bodies observed 
near the comet, August 2, have net since been seen, and were probably 
nebulous. 

‘The results of the observations of the two brighter companions are 
extremely interesting. Measures of Bb have been made on eighteen, and 
of C on seventeen nights. These two have almost exactly the same 
position-angles, which have been sensibly constant. Their distances 
from the main body have, however, been increasing. At the last ob- 
servations, B seems to be stationary, the distance from A remaining 
constant, while C continues to recede.” 

Mr. Chandler’s investigation of the orbit of this comet has devel- 
oped a strong probability that it is identical with a comet discovered 
by Messier in 1770, often called Lexell’s lost comet, because that 
astronomer calculated that it was moving in an elliptic orbit with a 
period of about 54 years, though it was not seen afterwards. Itis now 
well known that this was due to the fact that at the return in 1776 
its position was such as to render any observation impossible, and 
before another return could take place the comet made in 1779 so 
close an approach to the planet Jupiter as completely to change 
the nature of the orbit. Mr. Chandler finds that Brooks’s comet also 
made a near approach to Jupiter, so near, in fact, on May 20, 1886, that 
it was only about nine diameters of Jupiter distant, or only a little 
outside the orbit of his third satellite. Calculation of the elements of 
the comet orbit before this appulse leads to the conclusion that they 
present a great similarity to those of Lexell’s comet after its approach 
to the planet in 1779, rendering the probability great that the bodies 
are identical. Mr. Chandler shows that no similar serious disturbance 
willoceuragain until 1921, so that appearances may be looked for in 1896, 
1903, 1910, and 1917, at each of which return the condition of visibility 
will be favorable, giving opportunities for further investigations into 
the motions of this interesting comet, which, it appears, narrowly 


142 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


escaped being converted into a fifth satellite of Jupiter. Mr. Barnard 
succeeded in finding and observing the comet again, on the night of 
November 21, 1890, with the 36-inch Lick telescope, eight months after 
it had been given up as beyond reach ; and when its distance from the 
earth was 3.09, and from the sun 3.55. 


Comet 1889 VI: Swift, at Rochester, discovered a new comet on 
=Comet f 1839. | November 16, while searching for new nebule; it 


was a faint round nebulous mass, without tail, and it remained ex- 
ceedingly faint during its entire period of visibility ; being seen in 
only the most powerful telescopes about the middle of January. The 
orbit proved to be elliptical, and with .the remarkably short period of 
8.8 years, according to Searle’s computation. 
Comet 18901: A faint comet was discovered by Borelly at the 
=Comet g 1889. Marseilles Observatory on December 12, 1889, this 
being the first comet, after an interval of three years, discovered in 
Europe. On January 8, 1890, it appeared in the finder of the Munich 
refractor like a faint star of the seventh or eighth magnitude. 
Comet 1890 II: | Discovered by W. R. Brooks at the Smith Ob- 
= Comet a 1890. | servatory, Geneva, New York, March 19, 1890. A 
small comet with stellar nucleus and short tail. It was still observable 
about the middle of October. 


Comet 1890 IIL: | Discovered by Coggia at the Marseilles Observa- 
= Comet b 1890. | tory, July 18, 1890. It was quite bright, round, 


with central condensation comparable with a star of about tenth or 
eleventh magnitude. Its light rapidly diminished and it soon disap- 
peared below the northwest horizon. Parabolic elements represent the 
observations quite accurately, though they show some resemblance to 
those of the comet of 1580. 


Comet 1890 IV : This comet was discovered three months and a 
_ = Comet ¢ 1890. | half after perihelion passage by Zona at Palermo, 


November 15, 1890. It was at first quite bright, but grew fainter 
rapidly, though it was still observed after the close of the year. 


Comet 1890 V: | An ephemeris for d’Arrest’s periodic comet 
= Comet d 1890. had been prepared by Leveau, and the comet 
=dArrest’scomet. | was looked for without success for some time, 


and it was feared that it had gone by undetected, when it was picked 
up by Barnard at the Lick Observatory on October 6, as an entirely 
unexpected object. On the first few nights the comet was extremely 
faint and diffused, but it was seen later with a 34-inch finder. 


Comet 1890 VI: | Discovered by W. F. Denning at Bristol, Eng- 
=Comet ¢ 1890. | Jand, July 23, with a lu-inch reflector, a faint, 


round nebulosity, about 1/ diameter with faint central condensation, 
and quite near # and € Urs Minoris. It moved directly towards the 
equator, and was visible till November, having a sinall stellar nucleus 
of the thirteenth magnitude, and a faint diffused tail. 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 143 


Comet 1890 VII: | This comet, the most interesting perhaps of those 
= Comet f 1890. | found during the year, on account of its short 


period, was discovered by R. Spitaler at Vienna, November 16, 1890. 

Dr. Spitaler, in looking for the comet discovered by Zona, turned the 
27-inch telescope towards the place which it should occupy, according to 
the dispatch received by him, and immediately perceived a very faint 
comet, but concluding from the description that Zona’s was brighter, by 
turning the telescope a little he found the latter, physical connection 
between the two being excluded by the slower motion of his own. The 
period appears to be about 6.4 years. 


Approximate elements of the comets of 1889 and 1890. * 


|Perihelion=T | | 
Designation. | Greenwich KO 5 @ i ie «Mlpecee 
mean time. | | | 
1839. ee os oe 
list Missa Sone Hooda obaRee Jawoll el ooecon | ts4 00 29Rl lOO 22a deol osama 
1G Less ae eee re Wjuneme OSS eS ORADS RO SG aro ial bal lly OOH Naar 
101 ae aa ee cee ee Saee June 20578270558: |) 60) 18) 3113) e110 0, 957 
Varee serine ost ceria Amb; - Wee | Bsa Il oe) SB OR) LOAN | see Se 
With eon cate cmeteioce Sept. 30.01 | 17 58 | 343 28 Graulaels 950s == see 
Nid) (pee ee eee Nov. 29.82 | 330 25 FO Te AOS 1. 354 0. 683 
TS90REelMote nes ese eo aes Jan. 26,48 SrOO 199525 756. 4541) (OL 270Nlees eae 
1 eee eda bs ate DUM LAs ocOsek le OS0o4s\o120 854s! st 903) | tases 
1 Core ease Dees ae ane OMe SNCOn alte On a soroon imoonl aa imOs7 50) mee ee eee 
VVet eink ersten cise ate be | Aug GoWE) |) teby sy) sek a) fey ale} | PROVE eae oes 
Neer accereesa cet: | Sept. 16. TAGs HOON AI2058"| NS 43) 232 2). 2 9, 627 
WA ote st re es ie Sept 24485 LOO IGS Oe IBroGchs TOGO as sae 
Wille sas ene a Ps | Oct. 26.6] 45 6] 1251) 1251) 1.818 0. 472 
Designation. | Discoverer. fee ce| Synonym. | Remarks. 
{ 
| 1888,’9. 
SW he VERS S aaa aa DaSose | Barnard. ...- Sept. 2 1888 e 
i (Re ee eee eee Owe: Mar. 31 1889 b | 
1) eS aes aS Re yee Reese dome see: June 23 1889 c | Elliptic ? 
Vb Spree aah rae eae Davidson-.---| July 21 1889 e 
Vis Oe es Sothys oe cai:|| Brooksieee=ee July 6 1889 d | Lexell’s? 
AVil Sea ASS auc conore SiWwillity os | NOVNe La 1889 f 
MISO Oynlbta 2 Peo Say ee Borrelly=-=.-| Dee a2 1889 g 
; 1890. 
HSS acess oe eeeioet ce Brooks). ---- Mar. 19 1890 a 
LDN peeoso aso neopoEees Coggins -<--- July 18 1890} | 
UW erase eis sstee ccc HOWE oeao cece Nov. 15 1890 e 
Vea ee Barnard.) ss sOctwwG 1890d | d’Arrest’s. 
Wels test oes erate Moe Denning ....| July 23 1890 ¢ | 
Wil eee cose once asec | epltaler...e- Nov. 16 | 1290 f | Period 6.4 years. 


| | | 


*See Astronomical Journal, Nos. 212 and 238. 


METEORS. 


A valuable résumé of meteoric astronomy has been published by Prof. 
J, kh. Wastman in the Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washing. 
ton. (Vol. x1.) Abstracts of the various theories propounded in ex- 


144 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


planation of meteors are given, and extensive catalogues of observed 
meteors and meteorites. 

Mr. Denning pointed out several years ago that there were a number 
of meteor streams in which the meteors seemed to radiate from the same 
point in the sky for a period of three months or more. The only expla: 
nation of this phenomenon seemed to be that the meteors were moving 
with frightful velocity through space, but M. Tisserand, from a mathe- 
matical study of the problem, shows that these meteors do not all 
come from the same stream; they may perhaps belong to a family pre- 
senting certain common characteristics, but they are in reality different 
streams accidentally falling together, a not very improbable assumption 
considering the great number of meteor streams and the difliculty of 
determining the radiant with any degree of precision. 

Mr. Denning does not, however, admit that an accidental coincidence 
of radiant points of different streams is a sufficient explanation of the 
phenomena he has observed. 

THE ZODIACAL LiGH?T.—Prof. Arthur Searle, who has made a special 
study of the zodiacal light, finds that the permanence of the ordinary 
western light, subject only to slight variations in the degree of visi- 
bility, isconfirmed by the observations of the last 50 years at the Hanaud 
Observatory. The zodiacal bands, which are said to form a prolong- 
ation of the ordinary zodiacal light, were not seen, though stellar or 
nebulous bands, one extending from Aquila to the Pleiades, and the 
second from Prasepe to Coma Berenices have been noticed and perhaps 
offer an explanation of the zodiacal bands. The Gegenschein, it is sug- 
gested, may be due to a maximum of light reflected from the meteoric 
matter scattered in the solar system. 

The observations of Prof. ©. Michi Smith, carried on at intervals 
since 1875 indicate a periodic appearance of the line at wave-length 553 
in the zodiacal light speetrum ; a line differing but little in wave-length 
from the auroral line (wave-length 556.7). 


PLANETS. 


A very laborious work is being carried on in the office of the Ameri- 
can Kphemeris, under the superintendence of Professor Neweomb—the 
re-determination of the elements of all the larger planets. Professor 
Newcomb’s plan includes the re-reduction of the older planetary obser- 
vations and the discussion of the later ones, with a view of reducing 
them all to a uniform system. Another branch of this planetary work 
is a determination of the mass of Jupiter from the motions of Poly- 
hymnia, and a comparison of Hansen’s tables of the moon with observed 
occultations since 1750. 

The first volume of this series of memoirs upon the theories of the 
major planets has appeared in the ‘‘Astronomical Papers,” of the 
American ephemeris, being a new discussion of Jupiter and Saturn by 
Hill, He has determined the complete analytical expressions for the 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 145 


cobrdinates of these two planets, giving also a provisional comparison of 
his theory with observations. The method followed is in general that 
of Hansen. 

In commenting upon recent determinations of planetary masses from 
the motions of comets, Professor Hall says: 

“The objection to deducing values of planetary masses from the 
motions of comets consists, I think, in the fact that apparently other 
forces than that of gravitation act on these bodies. As a comet ap- 
proaches the sun it changes form, disintegrates, and matter is thrown 
off to form a tail. Until we know more of the theory of these changes 
the computation of masses from the motions of comets and inferences 
about the resisting medium in space must be uncertain.” 

Mrrcury.—the observations of Schroter early in the present cen- 
tury indicated that Mercury had a motion of rotation about its axis of 
about 24 hours. Subsequent observers failed, however, to confirm his 
observations, and the question of Mercury’s rotation has generally been 
regarded as one of the unsettled problems of astronomy. M. Schiapa- 
relli, taking advantage of the clear sky of Milan, has observed Mercury 
since 1881, obtaining about one hundred and fitty sketches, showing 
quite well-marked spots, from which he has deduced a rotation period 
of 85 days, the same, in fact, as the period of rotation of the planet 
around the sun. Schiaparelli also concludes that the axis of rotation 
must be nearly perpendicular to the orbit of the planet, the rotation 
being uniform. 

Dr. von Heerdtl has obtained the following values for the mass of 
Mercury : 

I. Mass of Mercury, 1: 5,012,842 from Winnecke’s comet. 

II. Mass of Mereury, 1: 5,514,700 Le Verrier’s equation modified. 
Ill. Mass of Mereury, 1: 5,648,600 Enecke’s comet, 1819-1868. 
IV. Mass of Mereury, 1: 5,669,700 Encke’s comet, 1¢71-1885. 

VENUS.—Schiaparelli has concluded, from an exhaustive rediscussion 
of all the older observations, combined with his own observations of 
1877 and 1878, that Veuus rotates upon its axis in 225 days, or the same 
time that it rotates about the sun, contrary to the generally received 
hypothesis that its rotation period is about 23 hours. Venus, then, as 
well as Mercury, would seem to turn always the same face to the sun, 
as the moon turns the same face to the earth. 

THE EARTH— Variation of latitude.-—The subject of the change of ter- 
restrial latitudes, to which allusion has been made in previous reports, 
continues to receive considerable attention from astronomers and 
geographers. The following results have been obtained by Dr. Kiist- 
her, in continuation of his former researches, {rom 7 pairs of stars at 
three different times of the year: 


Epoch. Latitude of Berlin. 
1884. 32 52° 30’ 16.73—0.82 J A 
1834. 70 16.964 0.83 4 A 
1885. 31 , 16/7.52—0.55 J A 
H. Mis, 129 10 


146 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890 


where 4 A represents the correction to the assumed constant of aber- 
ration. The direct inference from these figures is that in 7 months 
the latitude of Berlin decreased 0.44. Pulkowa showed about the 
same time a Similar change: 


Epoch. Latitude of Pulkowa 
1882. 51 -++59° 46/ 18/".52 
1883. 51 18/.54 
1834, 70 18’.63 
1825. 23 iiteheaail! 
1885. 31 18’’.30 


a decrease of 0.33 from 1884.70 to 1885.51. 

The general agreement of these resuits certainly calls for further 
investigation ; and to test the matter Mr. Preston has been sent out by 
the U.S. Coast Survey, and Dr. Marcuse by the International Geodetic 
Commission, to Honolulu, which is at the opposite end of the earth’s 
diameter from Berlin, and by simultaneous observations at these two 
stations it is hoped the question will be settled. 

It is quite possible that the origin of the apparent change at Beriin 
in 1884-1885 is meteorological, a view to which Dr. Foerster inclined in 
bringing the matter before the Association Géodésique in 1888. The 
whole question is, then, whether there are changes in the disposition of 
atmospheric strata sufficient to account for the facts observed, or the 
axis of rotation and the axis of inertia of the earth are not sensibly 
coincident. 

A complete résumé of the subject is given by M. Tisserand in the 
Bulletin Astronomique for September, 1890. 


Mr. Ricco has experimented with a somewhat novel demonstration of 
the rotundity of the earth. At the observatory of Palermo, which is 
situated at a distance of 14 miles from the Mediterranean and 236 feet 
above its level, a great number of photographs of the sun reflected from 
the surface of the water have been taken afew minutes after rising or 
before setting, and they show that the diameter in the plane of reflec- 
tion is less in the reflected image than in thedirect. This deformation 
is due to the fact that the surface of the water forms a cylindrical 
mirror, with axis horizontal and normal to the plane of reflection. The 
amount of the observed flattening accords well with that demanded by 
theory. 

Standard time.—The introduetion of the system of standard time, 
which has been found of such practical usefulness in the United States, 
has been quietly agitated in other countries for severai years past, and 
a well-written article upon the subject by Dr. Robert Schram will be 
fonnd in the Observatory for April, 1890. The adoption of a uniform 
time system, the time of the fifteenth meridian east of Greenwich, has 
been very favorably looked upon in Austria aud Germany for railroad 
purposes. 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 147 


Of the proposed change of the beginning of the astronomical day from 
midday to the preceding midnight nothing has been heard since the 
original agitation of the subject at the time of the Meridian Conference 
at Washington in 1384. 

The moows physical libration.—Dr. Julius Franz of the Kénigsberg 
observatory has done an excellent piece of work in bringing to hght 
and discussing (vol. 38, KOnigsberg Beobachtungen) the observations 
of the moon made by Schiiiter, an assistant cf Bessel’s, in 1841-1843, 
the work having been undertaken by Schliiter under the immediate 
supervision of his distinguished chief. The observations were continued 
by Wichmann after Schliiter’s death, but Wichmann was never able to 
do more than to reduce his own observations for preliminary results to 
be used in a discussion of all the material available. 

Dr. Franz recommends the substitution of observations of the spot 
Mosting A for those of the limbs, in determining the moon’s place, a 
method upon which a report was published by the late Dr. C. H. F. 
Peters in the U. 8S. Coast Survey volume for 1856. 

Temperature of the moon.—A memoir on the temperature of the moon 
by Mr. 8S. P. Langley forms a part of the fourth volume of the publica- 
tions of the National Academy of Sciences, and is re-published in a some- 
what abbreviated form in the American Journal of Science for Decem- 
ber, 1889. The paper may be regarded as the completion of a piece of 
work commenced in 1883, and represented by papers read in 1884 and 
1856, as well as the present one. The principal conclusion drawn is 
‘that the mean temperature of the sunlit lunar soil is much lower than 
has been supposed, and is most probably not greatly above zero centi- 
grade.” The principle by which this temperature is estimated is that 
the position of the maximum in a curve, representing invisible radiant 
heat of different wave-lengths, furnishes a criterion as to the tempera- 
ture of the radiating solid body. In the lunar speetrum two distinet 
heat maxima are found—one corresponding to radiation reflected from 
the soil, the other to that emitted by it (when warmed by sunshine). 
The determination of the second inaximum with accuracy would give 
an accurate value for the temperature of the sunlit soil; but, unfortu- 
nately, the absorption-bands produced by the earth’s atmosphere ob- 
scure this maximum, and render the conclusions somewhat uncertain ; 
so that Professor Langley is compelled to state his principal conelu- 
sion in a guarded manner, as above quoted. 

The Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences 
(vol, 24) contains an account of Some measures of lunar radiation made 
by Mr. C. C. Hutchins, by means of a new thermograph which he has 
devised. This instrument consists of a single thermal junction of nickel 
and iron placed in the focus of a small concave mirror, and is found to 
be much more sensitive than a thermopile of forty-eight couples. The 
measures of lunar radiation were made with an arrangement similar to 
that of a Herschel’s telescope with the thermograph in place of an eye 


148 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


piece, the conclusion reached being that the heat which the earth re- 
ceives from the moon is to that from the sun as L is to 184,560, From 
observations during the eclipse of January 28, 1888, Mr. Hutchins infers 
that all but a minute portion of the rays from the lunar soil and rock 
are cut off by our atmosphere, as it seems impossible that a surface 
like that of the moon, upon which the sun has been shining for many 
days, should suddenly cease to radiate when the sun’s light is with- 
drawn. 

MARS.—Durin gthe opposition of 1890 Mars again received special 
attention from the Lick observers. Experiments were tried with colored 
glasses, with diminished apertures, etc., all with small success. Many 
photographs were also secured, but none that were pronounced satis- 
factory. The mystery of the “canals” is still farther increased by the 
fact that while Professor Holden and Mr. Keeler always saw the canals 
as dark, broad, somewhat diffused bands, and Mr. Schaeberle saw them 
in the same way when the seeing was bai, but under good condi- 
tions described them as narrow lines a second of are or so in width. 
On April 12 Mr. Schaeberle saw two of the canals doubled, thereby 
verifying Professor Schiaparelli’s observations. The positions of most 
of the canals have also been verified by some of the Lick astronomers. 

JUPITER.— Mr. J. BE. Keeler pablishes in the monthly notices for No- 
vember a drawing of Jupiter made with the Lick 36-inch on the night of 
August 28,1890. The great red spot is described as being of about the 
same dimensions as in 1889, with a dark shading at its following end, 
but the middle whiter and the arrangement of belts somewhat different. 
‘It would seem, on the whole, that the surface features of Jupiter in- 
dieate less activity in the internal forces of the planet than was man- 
‘ifest a year ago.” 

Barnard and Burnham have reported a very curious doubling of the 
first satellite as seen with the 12-inch equatorial of the Lick observ- 
atory. Of this phenomenon there seems to be but two possible explana- 
tions: either there is a white belt on the satellite parallel to the belts of 
Jupiter or the satellite is actually double. 

M. Belopolsky has brought out from an examination of drawings of 
Jupiter a peculiar variation in the time of rotation (first noted by Cas- 
sini) with the latitude. A velocity of 9" 51™ was found in the zone 0° 
to 5° in both hemispheres, and a time of rotation of 9° 55.5™ for the re- 
mainder of the surface, both hemispheres, except between 5° and 10° 
of north and south latitude, where the two velocities appear to occur 
with equal frequency. 

SATURN.—A peculiar white spot on the rings of Saturn attracted con- 
siderable attention in the early part of 1889. This spot was first seen 
by Dr. Terby, of Louvain, on March 6, 1889, who reported it as adjacent 
to the shadow of the ball and similar to the white spots Sometimes seen 
upon Jupiter; on March 12 it was again seen with an 8 inch Clark tel- 
escope, but on the 15th, 20th, 22d, and 23d, and on April 2, if was 


a ee 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 149 


invisible. While several observers confirmed Dr. Terby’s discovery, 
nothing to correspond sufficiently with his description could be made 
out by others, though provided with much more powerful apparatus. 
Professor Hall has expressed the opinion that it was an optical effect 
of contrast. 

The very fine division of the outer ring detected with the 36-inch Liek 
refractor early in 1858 was again seen in 1889 at a distance of about 
one-sixth of the breadth of ring A from its outer edge. A dark shad- 
ing extended inwards from the new division almost to the inner edge of 
thering. Professor Holden has noted also an extremely narrow brighter 
polar cap about 5 seconds of are wide, in a direction parallel to the 
equator, and perpendicular to this about the width of the Cassini divi- 
sion at the anse. 

An interesting monograph on Saturn, the result of fourteen years 
work, is contributed by Prof. Asaph Hall as Appendix 11 to the Wash- 
ington Observations, 1885. The characteristic of this memoir is great 
caution, and the three drawings of the planet, where a few scanty 
markings represent all that Professor Hall can certainly see with a 
fine telescope, should re-assure those who have been dissatisfied with 
their modest instruments beeause they could not therewith recognize 
the elaborate detail described by more imaginative observers. To 
quote the author’s own words: “The appearance of Saturn in our 
26-ineh refractor undergoes great changes from night to night, and 
sometimes even from hour to hour during the same night. Probably 
these changes are due to variations in our own atmosphere and in the 
action of the objective, and they do not therefore indicate real changes 
in the planet. Whenever we have a steady and transparent atmos- 
phere, the outlines of the planet, the faint belts and markings on the 
ball, the shadow of the ball on the ring, the dusky ring, and the Cassini 
division are clear and distinet, and the abnormal phenomena sometimes 
seen are not visible. Without exception, my experience is that on 
good nights the planet always has this natural appearance. But on 
poor nights, when the image is blazing and unsteady, one can see and 
imagine many Strange things about this wonderful! object.” 

Professor Hall finds for the rotation period of the planet from obser- 
vations of the white spot (1876, December 7 to 1877, January 2) 10" 
14™ 238.8 + 28.3 mean time (see Astron. Nachr. No. 2146). Careful 
discussions are also given of the position and dimensions of the ring. 

The notch in the outline of the shadow was never seen at Washing- 
ton, either by Professor Hall or his assistant. ‘The curvature of the 
outline of the shadow presented an anomaly in 1876 when the convexity 
appeared to be turned towards the ball, contrary to what we should 
expect from geometrical considerations. The notes show that some- 
thing of this kind was seen after the re-appearance of the ring in 1878. 
After the ring was well opened, the curvature of the outline always 
appeared natural or turned away from the ball.” (Observatory.) 


1500.5 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


The last determination of the thickness of Saturn’s ring, as Professor 
Hall has pointed out, was made in 1848 by W. ©. Bond, who found 
that it was less than 0.”“01; Duséjour estimated its thickness at 0.//2, 
and Schroeter at 0.13. At the disappearance of the ring in Septem- 
ber and October, 1891, the conditions of observation are not very 
favorable, a better opportunity occurring in 1892. 

In connection with the approaching disappearance of the ring, an 
account of observations made by M. E. L. Trouvelot upon the passage 
of the sun and earth through the plane of the rings in 187778 is of 
especial interest. 

Saturn’s satellites—Dr. Hermann Struve has published the second 
installment of liis work on the theory of Saturn’s satellites. In this he 
discusses the orbits of Mimas and Enceladus, and their connection with 
the other satellites, and he has been able to account satisfactorily for 
the large corrections to the computed position of Mimas required 
dzring the past few years. In his previous paper Dr. Struve was led 
to assume @ Sensible mass for the ring-system of Saturn, but he now 
concludes that this hypothesis must be rejected, the mass of the ring 
being so small that the terms to which it would independently give 
rise in the disturbing function are as yet undetected by observation. 

A determination of the orbit of Titan and the mass of Saturn, the 
result of several years’ work with the Yale observatory heliometer, is 
published by Mr. Asaph H€all, jr., in the Transactions of the Yale 
Observatory, 1889. His value for Saturn’s mass is 1:3500.5 + 1.44, 
agreeing well with Bessel’s value 1: 3502, and that obtained by Struve 
1:3498. 

UrAnvus.—Dr. Huggins has found evidence of solar lines in the photo- 
graphic spectrum of Uranus, with an exposure of two hours (June 3, 
1889). All the principal solar lines were seen, but no others either 
bright or dark. Mr. Taylor, on the other hand, has reported bright 
flutings seen with a direct vision spectroscope attached to the five foot 
reflecter of Common’s observatory, Ealing, and if this observation is 
confirmed it will of course prove that the planet is at least in part self- 
luminous. 


THE MINOR PLANETS. 


The discovery of additional members of the zone of asteroids goes 
on without the least signs of abatement, and the number has now 
reached 301, no fewer than 6 having been found in 1889, and 14 in 1890. 
Twice during 1890 (April 25 and September 9) two were discovered on 
the same evening by the same observer; and the two discovered by 
Palisa on April 25 were independently discovered by Charlois on the 
following evening, April 26. 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 115) | 


List of minor pianets discovered in 1889 and 1890. 


Date of 


Numw- 2s 
ane Name. Discoverer. discovery. 
1989. 
Dev eee a OlOnin Gaps aeeeeer Cesena 8 Charlois\ati Nices.cec. 4-55 ihucneee ; Jan. 28. 
Sone a PIN MA ase eles saree inre sje siete ailicciss QO} Sse te sei bie sep eee eine | Feb. 8. 
peers AUN GT dee reisines sasysiemas ae a's wte.l's on MO eae ae ae ese ciency ane May 29. 
PB Oseye (WRC PIM aise cesone A aie siee 2s Palisasabevienntpsee seen ees | Aug. 3. 
EOS Sel hee Satece see ise ec ien Nic cleanst CharloisvateNicer- seep ener Do. 
DSTEoe eNephulivs:saocee sce seetece cc Peters at. Clintomee 22 s2-s- ene eeee Aug. 25. 
1890. 
Spear |e Glankeree sone sees oe cacas aa R. Luther, at Diisseldorf ........-. Feb. 20. 
Re Qua NOM blancs cacersce cee cece Sete CharloisvateNicessasres: eee neces Mar. 10. 
C0 Ra EDU Bis ses = ae eee eocee eas Palisayatpaviennar ese se. sees See Meare Os 
Oars WANG Cleaner stemterscmts esa ae cia ee BEE SRA, SARE AS aN Smee Oey Sete ee, Apr. 25. 
Oo caren md ONAGAIsaee yee aes ete econ, ores ee GOO! Bae patveet a taas Shai Secs eee Do. 
ODES rASIMAne ssc (ale ge. Soe eaelee se Charlois; ate Niceeacee aa sen seecee May 20. 
Odes PCL Claes acim ae nec aye sci Be Ohare Serene sheen etee erect ster July 15. 
Odea ie ROLeSI Als. cb Sse Soc s, eae leeubiSeh alg WaGmiey Sooness Seo ReoGode | Aug. 17, 
epee | eee eon See ae se oy te ee Charlois, at Nice. so8otoec ee eene | Aug. 19. 
Oean |Pae caries cee ees: tome ee sino. SoaoW) uapeenicedansooneeenaescsesee Sept. 9. 
OG iars laplaeinete Seo oe eon oe eee eee See LOM sere ie cisns lomre moseunwicree aa Do. 
OO REE lesen acts elo Seis oie sine Palisa Jat, Viennalse= sees 20 os ease Oct. 6. 
aU) (Dre | epee pena ava eye mh ul ave Ret arn Rate lover vay CharloisvatyNiceasn a seaeisecneee ce Oct: “3: 
eee | cernee eet <r Ae a ike Re alk et ealisa abe Ve lOMnaan: me eet ee er Nov. 16. 


An asteroid discovered by Charlois, November 14, 1890, and supposed 
by him to be 298 (discovered September 9), proved to be not identical 
with the latter. Consequently it takes the number 302. 


SOLAR SYSTEM. 


Prof. Lewis Boss has made a new determination of the amount and 
direction of the solar motion based upon a list of 253 stellar proper 
motions derived from the Albany zone observations. Professor Boss 
considers, as the most probable result from these data, that the apex of 
the sun’s way isin right ascension 18" 40™; declination +409, or not far 
from the star Vega. 

Herr Oscar Stumpe, of Borm, has made a new determination of the 
direction of the solar motion from the proper motions of 1,054 stars, 
which he divides into four groups, according to the magnitudes of their 
proper motions in a great circle. He thus obtains four different values 
of the apex of the sun’s way, all agreeing in locating that point in the 
constellation Lyra, or in the adjacent part of Cygnus. 

Prof. J. R. Eastman, in an address as president of the Philosphical 
Society of Washington, has given an analysis of the investigations to 
determine the apex of the sun’s motion and its velocity of translation. 
He shows that, contrary to the ordinarily accepted belief, faint stars are 
nearer us than bright stars; a result also shown by the list of stellar 
parailaxes recently published by Oudemaus. 


152 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 
SUN. 


Rotation of the sun.—Mr. Crew, whose observations of the rotation 
of the sun were noted in a previous summary, has made a new se- 
ries of observations for the correction or confirmation of his conclu- 
sion that the angular velocity of rotation increased with an increase 
of latitude. He still finds shorter rotation periods for the higher lati- 
tudes, the mean value for the period at latitude 45° being 18 hours 
shorter than at the equator, though owing to the smallness of this 
amount and the uncertainty of theobservations he is of the opinion that 
‘‘no certain variation of period with latitude has been detected with 
the spectroscope.” Attention is called however to the wide differences 
of the equatorial period as obtained by different methods, differences 
which may be due to the fact that we are really dealing with different 
strata of the sun, though here also much reliance must not be placed 
upon the observations. 

Spectroscopie observations made by Dunér for determining the rota- 
tion time of the sun, confirm the slowing down of the time of rotation 
with an increase of heliocentric latititude, quite contrary to the result 
recently obtained by Wilsing. A period of 25.46 days is deduced for 
the sidereal rotation at the equator, and 38.54 days for that at latitude 
74.89, 

Diameter of the sun.—Dr. Auwers discusses, in the third memoir on the 
diameter of the sun, communicated to the Berlin Academy, the observa- 
tions at Greenwich by Maskelyne and his assistants from 1765 to 1810. 
Curious differences of personal equation between different observers are 
brought out. Instead of Maskelyne’s observations giving progressively 
smaller values of the sun’s diameter during his whole observing life, as 
has hitherto been supposed, Dr. Auwers’s very exhaustive discussion 
indicates that after the first two years (which gave a very large value) 
the observed diameter remained nearly constant for the period 1767-— 
1772, then during the years 1772-1790 the diameter was continually 
decreasing, lastly from 1790-1816 the observations gave a diameter con- 
tinually increasing. The minimum value in 1790 was 31/ 58’.13—about 
1” smaller than the value obtained from modern heliometer measures. 

Spoerer’s researches on sun spots.— Professor Spoerer, who has devoted 
much attention not only to the cuirent state of the solar activity, but 
also to the early records of sun spots, published early in 1889 two im- 
portant papers on the results of his researches in the latter field. The 
two papers are entitled respectively, Ueber die Periodicitdt der Sonnen- 
flecken seit dem Jahre 1618, communicated to the Royal Leopold-Caro- 
line Academy, and Sur les différences que présentent Vhémisphére nord et 
UVhémisphére sud du Soleil, appearing in the number of Bulletin Astrono- 
mique for February, 1889. The conclusions arrived at in these two 
papers may be summarized under the three following heads: 

First: These earlier observations afford us many examples of the 
operation of the ‘law of zones;” that is to say, a little betore a mini- 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 153 


mum spots are only seen in low latitudes, at about the time of mini- 
mum spots near the equator cease to appear, while a fresh series of 
spots break out a great distance from it, and thenceforward to the 
next minimum the mean heliographiec latitude of the spots tends to 
decline continuously, until at length spots are again seen only in the 
vicinity of the equator. This law held good, Professor Spoerer shows, 
for the minima of 1619, 1755, 1775, 1784, 1833, and 1844, and. to some 
extent for that of 1645. 

Second: Though in general a predominance of spots for a time in 
one hemisphere is sooner or later balanced by a corresponding predom- 
inance in the other, this is not always the case, and Professor Spoerer 
calls attention to three periods in which the southern hemisphere was 
decidedly the more prolific. The first was from 1621 to 1625, there be- 
ing no northern spots in 1621 and 1622, and but few in the three fol- 
lowing years. Another is the present period, for from 1883 to the pres- 
ent time the southern spots have been nearly twice as numerous as the 
northern. But the third was the most remarkable, for from 1672 to 
1704 we have no record of any northern spots at all; and Cassini and 
Maraldi expressly declared, on the appearance of a northern spot in 
1705, that they did not recollect ever to have observed a spot in that 
hemisphere before. Northern spots continued to be infrequent until 
1714. 

Third: For a period of about seventy years, ending in 1716, there 
seems to bave been a very remarkable interruption of the ordinary 
course of the spot cycle. In several years no spots appear to have 
been seen at all, and in 1705 it was recorded as a most remarkable 
event that two spots were seen on the sun at the same time, for a sim- 
ilar circumstance had scarcely ever been seen during the sixty years 
previous. So far as the observations go, the “law of zones” also seems 
to have been in abeyance, for no regular drift was apparent, the mean 
latitude being low—about 8° or 9°—during the entire time. 

Professor Spoerer is still continuing his researches into ancient sun- 
spot records, and hopes to be able to examine the manuscripts of Plant- 
ade (1705-1726) and of Flaugergues (1794-1830). (i. W. M. Monthly 
Notices R. A. S., February, 1890). 

Attention should be directed to a paper in the Monthly Notices for 
December, 1890, by Rev. A. L. Cortie, S. J.. on the sun-spot observa- 
tions made at Stonyhurst in the years 1882-89. 

A comparison of sun-spot statisties for 1878 with the records of 1889 
gives a sun-spot period of exactly 11 years, and it seems probable that 
the real minimum occurred about the end of 1889. This probability is 
increased by the appearance on March 4, 1890, of a large spot in helio- 
graphic latitude +54°, which during its period of visibility in a semi- 
rotation of the sun passed within one-sixth of the sun’s diameter from 
its northern edge. During the whole of the year 1889 the southern 
hemisphere of the sun manifested greater activity than the northern; 


154 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


protuberances were seen, according to Tacchini, in both hemispheres at 
high latitudes where there were neither spots nor facule; there were 
also zones with spots and without. facule. 

Mr. Lockyer has presented a second report to the Solar Physics com- 
mittee on the observations of sun-spot spectra made at South Kensing- 
ton. He finds that the observations (to February, 1888) confirm the 
conclusion which he arrived at in 1886, that “as we pass from minimum 
to maximum the lines of the chemical elements gradually disappear 
from among those most widened, their places being taken by lines of 
which we have at present no terrestrial representatives. 


SOLAR SPECTRUM. 


Thollon’s chart of the solar spectrum.—In 1879 Thollon presented to 
the Académie des Sciences a map of the solar spectrum, extending from 
A to H, made with his great spectroscope. His work was renewed with — 
more perfect apparatus, but on account of the great labor of the under- 
taking he confined himself to the region from A to ); this was pre- 
sented to the Academy in 1885, and gained the Lalande prize. Thollon 
continued this work until his death, and it has now been published in 
33 maps with a total length of 10™.23 (33.6 feet), and contains about 3,200 
lines, between the limits ado pted, A and b, the positions of which were 
determined from 252 sharp lines adopted as ‘“ fundamentals.” 

Thollon made special efforts to distinguish the telluric ravs from those 
entirely due to the sun; and with this end in view he observed the sun 
at different altitudes, noting the hygrometric conditions of the air. Of 
these 3,200 lines mapped, 2,090 were of solar origin, 866 telluric, and 
246 mixed, that is to say resulting from the superposition of telluric and 
solar lines. The breadth and intensity of each line is given upon an 
arbitrary scale. 

M. Bigourdan, in a review of Thollon’s work, published in the May 
number of the Bulletin Astronomique, says that for the part of the spec- 
trum studied no work is comparable with that of Thollon except the 
magnificent photographs of Rowland, and he finds upon a critical cem- 
parison of different regions of considerable extent that Rowland’s pho- 
tographs contain no lines not upon Thollon’s chart, though the faintest 
lines given upon the chart are frequently lacking in the photographs. 
Between wave-lengths 5,262 and 5,337, for example, in Rowland’s pho- 
tograph, there are not half the number of lines that there are upon 
Thollon’s chart, though it is probable that the original negatives would 
not show so large a difference. 

Rowland’s determination of elements in the sun.—Professor Rowland’s 
examination by photography of the spectra of 58 elements and their com- 
parison with the spectrum of the sun shows the existence in the sun of 
35 different elements; the existence of 8 more in the sun is doubtful, 
while of 10 he finds no trace. The element represented by the greatest 
number of lines isiron, there being 2,000 or more lines in the spectrum 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 1S) 


of iron found also in the solarspeectrem. Iron is followed by nickel, titan- 
ium, manganese, chromium, cobalt, carbon, with decreasing frequency of 
coincidences, ending with lead and potassium, for which but one line is 
found in common with the sun. 

The full list of elements in the sun, arranged according to the inten- 
sity and the number of lines in the solar spectrum, is as follows: 


Elements in the sun, arranged according to the intensity and the number of lines in the 
solar spectrum. 


According to intensity. 


Calcium. 


According to number. 


Zirconium. Tron (2,000 +-). Magnesium (20+). 
Iron. Molybdenum. | Nickel. Sodium. 
Hydrogen. Lanthanum. | Titanium. Silicon. 
Sodium. Niobium. | Manganese. Strontium. 
Nickel. Palladium. | Chromium. Barium. 
Magnesium. Neodymium. | Cobalt. Aluminium (4), 
“Cobalt. Copper. | Carbon (200 +-). Cadmium 
Silicon. Zine. | Vanadium. Rhodium. 
Aluminium. Cadmium. | Zirconium. Erbium. 
Titanium. Cerium. | Cerium. Zine. 
Chromium. Glucinum. | Calcium (75 +). Copper (2). 
Manganese. Germanium. | Scandium, Silver (2). 
Strontium. Rhodium. | Neodymium. Glucinum (2). 
Vanadium. Silver. | Lanthanum. Germanium. 
Barium. Tin. Yttrium. Tin. 
Carbon. Lead. Niobium. Lead (1). 
Scandium. Erbinm. | Molybdenum. Potassium. 
Yttrium. Potassium. | Palladium. 
Doubtful elements. 
Iridium. Platinum. Tantalum. Tungsten. 
Osmium, Ruthenium. Thorium. Uranium. 
Not in solar spectrum. 

Antimony. Cesium. Rubidium. 

Arsenic. Gold. Selenium. 

Bismuth. Indium. Sulphur. 

Boron. Mercury. Thallium. 

Nitrogen (vacuum tube). Phosphorus. Prezeseodymium. 

Substances not yet tried. 

Bromine. Todine. Oxygen. Gallium. Thulium. 
Chlorine. Fluorine. Tellurium, Holmium. Terbium, ete. 


Professor Rowland says: ‘ With the bigh dispersion here used 
the ‘ basie lines’ of Lockyer are widely broken up and cease to exist. 
Indeed it would be difficult to prove anything except accidental coinei- 
dences among the lines of the different elements. Accurate investiga- 
tion generally reveals some slight difference of wave length or a com- 
mon impurity. furthermore, the strength of the lines in the solar 


156 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


spectrum is generally very nearly the same as that in the electric are, 
with only a few exceptions, as, for instance, calcium. The cases men- 
tioned by Lockyer are generally those where he mistakes groups of 
lines for single lines or even mistakes the character of the line entirely. 
Altogether there seems to be very little evidence of the breaking up 
of the elements in the sun, as far as my experiments go.” 

M. Janssen, in August, 1890, repeated the observations that he made 
in 1888, upon Mont Blane, this time ascending to the summit. He 
confirmed completely his former result that the lines of the spectrum 
due to the action of oxygen in our atmosphere diminish with the alti- 
tude, indicating that at the limit of the atmosphere these rays would 
disappear entirely and in consequence that oxygen is not actually present 
in the sun’s atmosphere. his conclusion had already received confir- 
mation from a series of observations of the spectrum of an electric 
light placed on the Hiffel Tower, as viewed from the observatory at 
Meudon. . 

ECLIPSES. 


Eclipses of 1889, and 1890.—During the year 1889, there were five 
eclipses, three of the sun and two of the moon; and during 1890, three 
eclipses, two of the sun and one of the moon. Two of the solar eclipses 
of 1889 were total, and one of 1890 was total over a portion of the 
central line. 

The Almanac records also a lunar appulse on June 2, 1890, the near- 
ness of the approach and the uncertaiuty as to the effect of the earth’s 
atmosphere rendering it doubtful whether the moon would actually 
enter the earth’s shadow. Of the eclipses of the moon nothing of 
especial interest has been reported. A brief summary of the observa- 
tions of the solar eclipses is given below: 

Total eclipse of the sun January 1, 1889.—The event of chief astro- 
nomical interest in the year 1889, was the eclipse of the sun on New 
Yea’s day, the last total solar eclipse visible in the United States in this 
century. The line of central eclipse crossed California, Nevada, Idaho, 
Wyoming, Montana, and Dakota, the width of the belt of totality being 
about 96 miles in California; the partial phases of the eclipse were 
visible over the greater part of North America, first contact being 
observed at Washington a few minutes before sunset. Ample prepa- 
rations were made for utilizing the less than two minutes of totality, 
and printed circulars suggesting to amateur observers the most efficient 
manner of employing the means at their command were widely cireu- 
lated. The most thoroughly equipped party in the field was that from 
the Harvard observatory under the charge of Prof. W. H. Pickering, 
at Willows, California. This party alone secured between 50 and 60 
photographs taken with 14 telescopes or cameras and 8 spectroscopes, 
one of the telescopes being of 13 inches aperture, the largest ever used 
in observing a total solar eclipse. A party from the Lick observatory 


* 


“ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. Loe 


under Mr. Keeler was at Bartlett Springs; one from Washington Uni- 
versity observatory, St. Louis, under Prof. H. S. Pritchett at Norman; 
one from Carleton College observatory under Professor Payne at Chico; 
and many other available points were occupied by individual astron- 
omers or photographers. At Cloverdale the Pacific Coast Amateur 
Photographic Association was represented by 30 cameras. 

Professor Holden has published a full report of the Lick observatory 
party and its codperators—the frontispiece being an admirable photo- 
graph of the corona by Barnard, taken with a telescope of 34 inches 
aperture stopped down to 1? inches. Professor’s Holden’s “conclusions” 
in which he summarizes the observations are as follows: 

J. That the characteristic coronal forms seem to vary periodically as 
the sun spots (and auroras) vary in frequency, and that the coronas of 
1867, 1878, and 1889 are of the same strongly marked type, which cor- 
responds, therefore, to an epoch of minimum solar activity. 

II. That so-called ‘“‘ polar” rays exist at all latitudes on the sun’s 
surface, and are better seen at the poles of the sun, simply because 
they are there projected against the dark background of the sky and 
not against the equatorial extensions of the outer corona. There ap- 
pears to be also a second kind of rays or beams that are connected with 
the ring-like extensions. These are parts of the “ groups of synelinal 
structure” of Mr. Ranyard. 

III. The outer corona of 1889 terminated in branching forms. These 
branching forms of the outer corona suggest the presence of streams of 
meteorites near the sun, which, by their reflected light and by their 
native brilliancy, due to the collisions of their individual members, 
may account for the phenomena of the outer corona. 

IV. The disposition of the extensions of the outer corona along and 
very near the plane of the ecliptic might seem to show that, if the 
Streams of meteorites above referred to really exist, they have long 
been integral parts of the solar system. 

V. The photographs of the corona which were taken just before con- 
tact II and just after contact III prove the corona to be a solar append- 
age, and are fatal to the theory that any large part of the coronal 
forms are produced by diffraction. - - - 

VI. The spectroscopic observations of Mr. Keeler show conclusively 
that the length of a coronal line is not always an indication of the 
depth of the gaseous coronal atmosphere of the sun at that point, and 
hence to indicate the important conclusion that the true atmosphere of 
the sun may be comparatively shallow. 

VII. Mr. Keeler draws the further conclusion in his report - - - 
that the “ polar” rays are due to beams of light from brighter areas of 
the sun illuminating the suspended particles of the sun’s gaseous envel- 


Notre,—The conclusions ITI and IV appear to be contradictory to that expressed in 
I. The electrical theory announced by Dr. Hygius in the Bakerian lecture for 1885 
seems to reconcile the conclusions I, ILI, and IY, 


158 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


opes. In order that the conclusion may stand it is necessary to show 
that all these *“‘ polar” beams are composed of rectilinear rays. - - - 
An important conclusion from [the photographic and photometric] 
measures seems to be that it is impracticable to photograph the corona 
in full sunshine with our present plates, and that a photographic search 
for Vulcan is hopeless. 

The Smithsonian Institution has published a series of photographs 
of the corona of this eclipse made by different observers and reduced 
for convenience to a uniform scale, and has also published a suggestive 
paper by Pref. I’. H. Bigelow tracing a close agreement between mag- 
netic lines of force computed for the sun and the curves of the polar 
filaments shown upon the Pickering photograph. 

Eclipse of the sun 1889, June 27.—An annular eclipse visible in the 
southern part of Africa. Dr. Auwers and Dr. Gill obtained a number 
_ of measures of the cusps with the Cape heliometer. 

Helipse of the sun 1889, December 21-22.—Three principal points were 
available as observing stations: the southwest corner of the island of 
Trinidad totality lasting 1™ 46%; Cayenne on the coast of French 
Guiana, totality 2 3°; and Cape Lado a point on the western coast of 
Africa just south of St. Paul de Loanda, totality 3™ 12%. Two expedi- 
tions went out to Africa, one sent by the United States Government 
under Prof. D. P. Todd, and provided with most elaborate apparatus, 
and the other from the Royal Astronomical Society of England under 
the direction of Mr, A. Taylor. Cloudy weather prevented both of these 
parties from securing observations. Another party from the Royal 
Astronomical Society under Father Perry, at the Salut Islands, was par- 
tially successful as far as observations go, but resulted most disastrously 
in the death of Father Perry from dysentery within a few days after 
the eclipse. M. dela Baume Pluvinel was also at the Salut Islands 
and secured a number of photographs. The Lick observatory party at 
Cayenne, Messrs. Burnham, Schaeberle and Rockwell, were successful; 
securing good photographs. 

Eclipse of the sun 1890, June 17.—The annular eclipse of June 17, 
1890, was central over portions of Northern Africa and Southern Asia, 
and was visible as a partial eclipse over the whole of Europe. In the 
southern part of Italy three-fourths of the sun’s disk was covered by 
the moon. Observations partially successful were obtained by Profes- 
sor Ricco at Palermo. At Canea, M. de la Baume Pluvinel secured 
several photographs of the partial and annular phases, and also of the 
spectrum of the annulus, the latter proving to be the same as the ordi- 
nary solar spectrum. 

Eclipse of the sun 1890, December 11.—A total eclipse of the sun 
occurred on December 11, 1890, the central line being confined to the 
ocean south of Australia. In consequence of the earth’s globular 
surface, the eclipse was annular at the beginning and end, and total 
between 13" 55™.3 and 16" 20™.5 Greenwich wean time, In portions of 


ne ee 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. £59 


Australia, and in Tasmania, and in New Zealand, it was visible as a par- 
tial eclipse. No observation of special interest was reported. 

Mr. J. M. Schaeberle has published in the Monthly Notices a theory 
of the solar corona, in which he concludes that the corona is due to 
the light emitted and reflected by the filaments of matter thrown out 
by the sun, the corresponding forces being variable and with a period 
about the same as the sun-spot period. The rays of double curvature 
are explained by the rotation of the sun, and the apparent changes in 
the general form of the corona by the position of the observer with 
reference to the plane of the sun’s equator. 

The Smithsonian Institution published in 1889 a series of re-produc: 
tions of a number of photographs of the eclipse of January 1, 1889, sent 
from various stations on the Pacific coast. The photographs are for 
convenience of comparison reduced to a uniform scale of about 1 inch 
diameter. [Explanatory notes and remarks suggested by a study of the 
photographs are added by Prof. David P. Todd. 

Mr. H. H. Turner in the Philosophical Transactions (vol. 180, p. 385- 
393) discusses the observations of the eclipse of August 29, 1886, made 
at the island of Grenada. 


SOLAR PARALLAX AND THE TRANSITS OF VENUS. 


Transits of Venus in 1761 and 1769.—A thorough, and probably the 
final, re-reduction of the observations of the transits of Venus in 
1761 and 1769 has been made by Professor Newcomb in volume 2, part 
5, of the astronomical papers of the American Hphemeris, a primary ob- 
ject being the determination of the positionof the node of Venus. The 
value obtained for the solar parallax is 8.79 with a probable error of 
+ 0/.034. 

Professor Harkness of the U. 8S. Naval Observatory has devoted sev- 
eral years of work to an elaborate discussion of the solar parallax and 
its related constants. His principal results are elsewhere referred to, 
the definitive value for the solar parallax being 8/’.80905 + 0/.00567. 

The French photographs of the transit of Venus give for the solar 
parallax the value 8/.80 + 0/06. 


OBSERVATORIES. 


Information in regard to the work going on at astronomical observa- 
tories has been derived from the reports contained in the Vierteljahrs- 
schrift, in the Monthly Notices, and in Loewy’s Observatoires astro- 
nomiques de Provence, and also trom the separate reports published 
by a few observatories. The compiler is indebted in some instances to 
directors of observatories who have communicated to him directly data 

in relation to the institutions under their charge. When it has seemed 
necessary to make a distinction, the year has been added to the note. 

ALLEGHENY: Langley.—Work upon radiant energy has been con- 
tinued, and the time service has been maintained as in previous years, 


160 ASTRONOMY FOR. 1889, 1890. 


ALGIERS: Trépied.—A meridian circle of 0.19 (7.5 inches) and an 
equatorial of 0™.12 (4.7 inches) have been added to the equipment. Ob- 
servations have been made upon a catalogue of 10,000 stars in the zone 
— 18° to — 23°. It is expected that the photographic equatorial will 
soon be installed. (1889.) 

ARMAGH: Dreyer.—Observations of nebulie and physical observations 
of Jupiter and Saturn; time service. 

BASEL: Riggenbach.—Devoted entirely to the instruction of students. 

BERLIN: W. Foerster.—Observations with the transit circle, obser- 
vations with the 9-inch equatorial of asteroids, comets, and double stars, 
and with the small transit of comparison stars and stars oceuited by 
the moon. 

BESANGON: Gruey.—Observations of comets; horology. The observ- 
atory possesses an equatorial coude. 

Brrr CAstLE: Lord Rosse.—Preparing for pubdlication a series of 
sketches of the milky way; measures of lunar heat during the eclipse of 
January 23, 1888, have been reduced. 

Bonn: Schénfeld.—Zone observations +40° to +50° with the transit 
circle. Reductions in a forward state. (1839.) 

BorprEAuN: Rayet.—Preparations are being made for observing the 
zone —20° to 25°. The photographic equatorial has been mounted. 
(1889. ) 

BRESLAU: Galle.—Chiefly magnetic and meteorological work. Small 
transit used for time service. 

CAMBRIDGE (England): Adams.—Mr. Newall has presented his 
25-inch refractor to the university observatory, and the university 
authorities have voted to spend about $11,000 on its installation near 
the present observatory, and to appoint an observer, at $1,200 per 
annum, to devote himself to research in stellar physics. It is under- 
stood that the work with this instrument will be under the charge of 
Mr. H. F. Newall. 

Volume 22 of the publications has been issued and deals with the 
observations from 1866 to 1869. 

CAMDEN.—The amateur astronomical society at Camden, New Jer- 
sey, has a small observatory, with 54-inch equatorial, transit instru- 
ment, chronograph, clock, ete. . 

CAPE OF Goop Hope: Gill.—With the meridian circle regular ob- 
servations have been made of the sun, Mercury, Venus, comparison 
stars, stars occulted by the moon, ete. The heliometer has been con- 
stantly in use and much attention has been given to astronomical pho- 
tography. Prof. J.C. Kapteyn las measured definitively 389 negatives 
of the plates of the southern photographic Durchmusterung, covering 
8.769 square degrees of the sky. This work represents 489,490 obser- 
vations of about 193.000 stars, or about 63 per cent, of the whole work. 


bear a 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 161 


Dr. Gill, the astronomer royal for the Cape, and Dr. Auwers, of Berlin, 
by taking aiternate watches of observation (June 10 to August 26, 
1889) secured an admirable series of observations of Victoria, which 
was in an exceptionally favorable position for determining the solar 
parallax. <A large part of Dr. Gill’s report for 1889 is devoted to the 
geodetic work which is under his direction. 

CARLETON COLLEGE: Payne.—The first volume of publications con- 
sists of a catalogue of 644 comparison stars observed with the Repsold 
meridian cirele, by Dr. Wilson. 

CATANIA: Ricco.—The observatory recently founded at Catania will 
be chiefly devoted to astrophysics, photography, meteorology, and seis- 
mology. It contains a Merz refractor of 0.35 (13.8 inches) aperture, 
one by Cooke of 0™.15 (5.9 inches), and a photographie telescope, by 
Steinheil, which will be used for photographing the zone +12° to +6°. 
(1890.) 

CHAMBERLIN: H. A. Howe.—The disks for the 20-inch refractor are 
being worked by Clark, and the mounting is well advanced at the shop of 
Fauth & Co., Washington. The initial publication of the new observa- 
tory is a report upon observations of the eclipse of January 1, 1889, 


DEARBORN: Hough.—An illustrated description of the new observa- 
tory at Evanston will be found in the Sidereal Messenger for October, 
1889. 

DENVER.—In addition to the working observatory founded by Mr. 
Chamberlin, an observatory for students is in course of erection. A 
6-inch equatorial and a 3-inch transit have been ordered. 

DENVER. (See, also, Chamberlin.) 

DRESDEN: von Engelhardt.—Observations of nebule star-clusters and 
comets. Baron von Engelhardt has recently published a second part 
of his ‘“‘ Observations Astronomiques,” containing principally measures 
of double stars, star charts, nebule, and comets. (1889). 


Dunsink: Ball.—A new reflecting telescope of 15 inches aperture 
has been presented to the observatory by Mr. Isaac Roberts for photo- 
graphic researches on stellar parallax. 

DUSSELDORF: Luther.—Observatious of small planets, and compu- 
tation of their ephemerides. Since 1847, 1,474 observations of 172 
asteroids have been made. (1889). 

EDINBURGH: Copeland.—The site for a new observatory building two 
minutes of are south of the present observatory was selected in 1889, 
The plans have been completed and it is hoped that the work of con- 
struction will soon be begun. It,is interesting to note that though the 
new site is within 500 yards of the suburban railway, the porphyrite 
rock of which the hill consists does not appear to transmit any percep- 
tible vibration from the railway even when the heaviest trains are 
passing. Dr. Becker has continued his determinations of the positions 
of nebule and work in stellar and solar spectroscopy. 

H. Mis. 129——11 


162 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


GEORGETOWN: Hagen.—Observations of variable stars have been 
made systematically, and experiments in photographic observations of 
star transits by Father Hagen and his assistant, Father Fargis. 

GENEVA: Gautier.—Chiefly engaged in testing chronometers and 
watches. Observations of the sun and of comets have been made with 
the equatorial. Dr. Raoul Gautier has been appointed professor of 
astronomy and director of the observatory, Col. I. Gautier retaining 
the title of honorary director. 

GLASGow (England): Grant. Transit-cirele observations. 

GOTTINGEN: Schur.—Heliometer used in measuring Priesepe, Ple- 
iades, and double stars. (1889.) 

GREENWICH: Christie—In the report for 1889 it is noted that the 
observations with the transit cirele by reflexion have been much facili- 
tated and improved by using an amaigamated copper-bottom mercury 
trough for the artificial horizon. Two photographic objectives have 
been tried, one of 6 inches aperture to be used as a pilot for the 13-inch 
star-charting telescope stars, and the other of 4 inches in connection 
with the 28-inch refractor. 

The annual visitation in 1890 took place on June 7. The collection 
of historical instruments and the new photographic equatorial espe- 
cially attracted the attention of some 300 visitors ‘present. It is pro- 
posed to put up a large new building with four wings to reiieve the 
overcrowded condition of the older buildings. It is expected that the 
new 28-inch refractor will be installed at an early day. The 13-inch 
photographic equatorial was received from Grubb on March 17, 1890, 
and was mounted and made ready for use. The astronomer royal re- 
ported that the work of the observatory had proceeded without essen- 
tial modification. 

“The observations for the longitude of Paris made in 1888 have now 
been completely reduced and the definitive results found by the French 
and English observers are respectively, 9" 21%.04 and 9™ 20%.84, In 
view of this unsatisfactory discordance - - - it seems desirable 
that the determination should be repeated with interchange of instru- 
ments as well as of observers.” 

The 1887 volume of Greenwich observations contains among its ap- 
pendices the ten-year catalogue deduced from observations made from 
1877 to 1886. The total number of stars is 4,059, the positions being 
given for 1880. 0 

HARVARD COLLEGE: Pickering.—Miss C. W. Bruce, of New York, 
has made a gift of $50,000 to the Harvard observatory to be applied to 
- the construction and maintenance of a photographic telescope having 
an objective of about 24 inches aperture and a focal length of 11 feet. 
The figuring of the lens has been intrusted to Alvan Clark, who has 
experienced some difficulty in securing proper glass. The Bache 8-inch 
telescope of similar construction has been in constant use in Cambridge 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 163 


for four years, and is now in Peru photographing the southern sky ; 
with it stars too faint to be seen with the 15-inch refractor have been 
photographed, and a corresponding advantage is anticipated from the 
increase of the aperture to 24 inches. 

Volume 17 of the Annals is now completed and consists of the follow- 
ing papers, which have been separately printed and distributed during 
the last few years: I. Magnitudes of stars employed in various nautical 
almanacs; II. Discussion of the Uranometria Oxoniensis; ILI. Photo- 
metric observations of asteroids; [V. Total eclipse of the moon, 1888, 
January 25; V. Total eclipse of the sun, 1886, August 29; VI. Detection 
of new nebule by photography; VII. A photographic determination of 
the brightness of the stars; VIII. Index to observations of variable 
stars; IX. Meridian-circle observations of close north polar stars; X. 
Meridian-cirele observations of close south polar stars. 

Volume 21, part 1, contains the observations of: the New England 
Meteorological Society made during 1888. Volume 22 contains a long 
series of meteorological observations made on the summit of Pike’s 
Peak, Colorado, between January, 1874, and June, 1888, by U.S. Army 
Signal Service observers. 

KaLocsa: Fenyi.—Physical observations of the sun. (1889.) 

Kew: Whipple-—Meteorological, magnetic, and solar observations. 

KIEL: Krueger.—The catalogue of zone +55° to +65° has been pub- 
lished. Computation of the orbits of comets and asteroids. 

KONIGSBERG: C. F. W. Peters.—Observations of zone +83° to +90°; 
also heliometer observations of wide double stars. (1889 ) 

KREMSMUNSTER: Wagner.—Observations of comets and asteroids ; 
time service. 

Lerpzic: Bruns.—Observations of zone +5° to +10°; observations 
with the heliometer; time service. 

Lunp: Molier.—Spectroscopie observations to determine the sun’s 
rotation period. The printing of the Zone Catalogue is in progress. 
The second volume of Zone Observations, + 36° to +40°, has been 
published. 

LYNN (Massachusetts\.—Private observatory of Mr. C. W, Wilson. 
Latitude +42°.5, longitude 71° west. The principal instrument is one 
of Alvan Clark & Sons’ 6-inch refractors of unusual excellence. 

Lyons: André.—Meridian work; physical observations of the sun and 
of Jupiter. 

McCormick: Stone.—Chiefly engaged in observations of double stars 
and nebula. Volume 1, part 4, of the Publications contains double- 
star measures made in 1885 and 1886 by Leavenworth and Muller. 

MARSEILLES: Stephan.—Revision of Riimker’s Catalogue; observa- 
tions of comets, asteroids, nebulz and variable stars. (1889.) 


164 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


MELBOURNE: LHllery.—Transit-circle observations, observations of 
comets and astroids and of stellar spectra. The great reflector has 
been repolished, and its performance is reported as improved. The 
photographie telescope for the international chart work has been re- 
ceived and mounted. The Second Melbourne General Catalogue of 
Stars, containing 1,211 stars and embodying the results of observa- 
tions made with the old transit circle from the beginning of 1871, has 
been published. 


MILAN: Schiaparelli.icThe 18-inch equatorial was used for double- 
star measures; the observations of Mercury, 188i~88, were discussed, 
and the rotation period determined. (1889.) 


Municu: Seeliger.rmWork on a catalogue of 33,082 stars; observa- 
tions of comets and measures of the star cluster in Perseus. 


NAtTAL: Nevili.—Observations of the position of fhe moon. There 
has been formed a manuscript catalogue of about 4,000 observations of 
right ascensions of zodiacal stars used in determining the places of the 
moon during the years 1883-88. Time service. 


Nice: Perrotin.—Charlois has been remarkably successful in his 
search for new asteroids. The third volume of Annals contains a new 
chart of the solar spectrum by Thollon, the concluding part of the dis- 
cussion of the theory of Vesta by Perrotin, and the observations made 
in the years 1887~88. 


O’GYALLA: Konkoly.—Observations of sun spots and meteors; pho- 
tographic researches. 


OXFORD UNIVERSITY: Pritchard.—Experimental work on the new 
photographie objectives by Grubb has occupied much time; the par- 
allaxes of six more stars have been determined by photography. (1890.) 

Paris: Mouchez.—The large transit circle has been used for the sun, 
planets, and stars of Lalande’s catalogue; the Gambey transit for ob- 
servation of fundamental stars in groups of 24 to 48 hours; the 
Gambey circle for experiments on flexure and the determination of 
latitude; comets and nebule have been observed with the west equa- 
torial, and the equatorial coudé has been used in determining the con- 
stants of refraction and aberration. The work for which the Paris ob- 
servatory has been especially known of late years, astronomical pho- 
tography, has been actively pursued by the Henrys. The frontispiece 
of Admiral Mouchez’s report for 1889 is a representation of the great 
equatorial coudé of 18 metres focal length and 0.6 metre (23.62 inches) 
aperture. Attention has been given to photographing of stellar spectra 
by placing prisms of 22° or 45° in front of the objective of the tele- 
scope, and Admiral Mouchez has announced that spectroscopic obser- 
vations will form a reguiar part of the observatory work in future. 

PorspAmM: Vogel.—Astrophysical work, determination of the motion 
of stars in the line of sight by means of photography ; spectrum analysis 
in general; photometric measures of largesplanets and a photometric 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 165 


Durchmusterung of the northern sky ; observations of sun spots. The 
new refraetor for the photographie star chart is erected and some ex- 
perimental work has been done. (1889.) 

PRAG: Safarik.—Double-star measures; drawings of the moon; 
chiefly devoted to observations of variable stars. (1859.) 

PRAG (University observatory): Weinek.—Drawings of moon; occul- 
tations. Time service. (1889.) 

PULKOWA: Bbredichin.—Prof. Otto Struve retired from the direet- 
orship of the observatory, which he has held for over 25 years, and has 
been succeeded by Dr. Bredichin, formerly director of the observatory 
at Moscow. Three volumes were issued in 1889: Volume 8 containing 
the catalogue of Bradley’s stars, a volume containing an investigation 
by Lindemann of the photometric scale of the Bonn Durchmusterung, 
and the third volume, the ‘‘ Jubilee” volume, with an historical account 
of the observatory for 25 years, a monograph on the 30-inch refractor, and 
a description of the astrophysical observatory. The volume contains 
several fine engravings of the observatory and 30-inch. (1889-990.) 

RADCLIFFE: Stone.—Transit-circle observations of the zone 0°-15°, 
and of the sun and moon. 

Rome: Denza.—The new observatory of the Vatican has been built 
partly upon the site of the old observatory, founded in 1582, and partly 
upon a tower dating from the time of Leo IV. Special attention will 
be given to astronomical photography. 

RousDON (Lyme Regis): Peek.—Observations of variables. Time 
service. 

STOCKHOLM: Gyldén.—Largely engaged in mathematical researcheg 
upon orbits. Photographs have been taken of the Pleiades and of a 
region extending about 4° around the north pole. (1889.) 

STONYHURST: Sidgreaves.—Father Perry, whose sad death immedi- 
ately after observing the total eclipse of the sun on December 21, 22, 
1889, has been elsewhere referred to, has been succeeded in the direct- 
orship of the observatory by Father Walter Sidgreaves. (1889.) 

STRASSBURG: H. Becker.—Observations of comets and heliometer 
measures of the sun’s diameter; also transit-circle observations of the 
sun and major planets. 

SYDNEY: fussell.—Transit-circle observations, and with the 114-inch 
equatorial observations of comets and of double stars. The photo- 
graphic telescope for chart work has been mounted upon an elevated 
site 620 feet above the seaand 11 miles inland from the present observ- 
atory. Kach instrument has its own group of accumulators, conven- 
iently charged by the help of a gas engine. 

SMITHSONIAN ASTRO-PHYSICAL OBSERVATORY: Langley.—An astro- 
physical observatory has been established as a department of the 
Smithsonian Institution at Washington, occupying at present a tem- 


166 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


porary building in the Smithsonian grounds, erected in 1889~90. The 
principal instruments are a very large siderostat by Grubb, a large 
spectro-bolometer, special galvanometer, and resistance box. Ke- 
searches in telluric and astro-physies will be carried on. 

SWARTHMORE COLLEGE: Miss S. J. Cunningham.—The observatory 
building contains four rooms: A transit room, in which is a 3-inch 
Warner and Swasey transit and mean-time clock ; a pier room at pres- 
ent utilized as asidereal clock room; a work room containing the chro- 
nograph, chronometer, and a small reference library ; and the dome, in 
which is a 6-inch Warner and Swasey equatorial. Connected with the 
observatory is the signal service station of the state weather service, 
fully provided with the necessary meteorological and other apparatus. 
(1890.) 

TACUBAYA: Anguiano.—The construction of the new observatory 
has progressed favorably, the photographic department being entirely 
finished and the instruments mounted. The photographie equatorial is 
by Grubb, of the pattern adopted by the astrophotographie congress in 
1889 and furnished for most of the observatories taking part in the 
international chart. Among the minor apparatus added to the equip- 
ment of the observatory may be mentioned a complete portable photo- 
graphic outfit; a Merz polariscope for the 15-inch equatorial ; a Pritch- 
ard’s wedge photometer by Hilger; a mercury artificial horizon by 
Gauthier for the meridian circle; a complete meteorological outfit; a 
petroleum motor and. electric light installation. 

In August, 1889, two additions were made to the observatory staff, 
Messrs. Camilo A. Gonzalez and Guillermo Puga, who have been as- 
signed to duty on the meridian circle. They have been engaged in 
studying the instrumental constants and have undertaken the observa- 
tion of certain stars to the tenth magnitude, conveniently situated for 
reference stars for the zone of the photographic map assigned to the 
Tacubaya observatory. Sr. Felipe Valle has been engaged with the 
equatorial in observations of comets, asteroids, and nebule. 

A series of daily observations of sun spots and facule has been made. 
Photographs of the sun have been taken with the photoheliograph. 
Two parties were sent out to observe the total solar eclipse of October 
22, 1889, one to Yucatan and one to San Luis Potosi. (1890.) 

TANANARIVO: Colin.—An observatory has been established on a 
hill about 4,400 feet high a short distance to the east of Tananarivo on 
the island of Madagascar. It has an equatorial, meridian instrument, 
and photographic telescope for solar work. (1889.) 

Toxyo: Terao.—A large number of observations of comet e, 1888, 
made by Professor Teara and Mr. J. Midzuhara have been published as 
the second fasciculus of volume 1 of the Annals. (1889.) 

TouLousE: Baillaud.—The photographic telescope has been mounted. 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 167 


UNITED STATES NAVAL OBSERVATORY: McNair.—The reports of 
the superintendents of the Naval Observatory show no material change 
in the character of the work from the years immediately preceding. 
On June 28, 1890, Capt. F. V. MeNair sueceeded Capt. R. L. Phythian 
as Superintendent, Capt. MeNair’s report covering the fiscal year June 
30,1890. The walls of the main building for the new observatory were 
practically completed by the end of 1890 ; also the great equatorial and 
clock and observer’s rooms. The iron work for the three transit-circle 
rooms is ready. The buildings will scarcely be ready for occupancy 
before the summer of 1892. 


UpsaLa: Dunér.—From an extensive series of spectroscopic obser- 
vations to determine the rotation period of the sun, it appears that the 
period varies from 25.5 days to 38.6 days, increasing with the helio- 
graphic latitude. 

VIENNA (von Kuffner’s observatory) : Herz.—The latitude from obser- 
vations with the Repsold meridian circle, 1889-90, is + 48° 12’ 46.67. 

WASHINGTON (Catholic University of America): Searle-—A small 
observatory has been built at the Catholic University in the suburbs 
of Washington (D. C.), and is under the direction of Rev. G. M. Searle. 
The position is latitude + 38° 56/15”; longitude 55 8™ 08.0 west of 
Greenwich. The telescope, which will be mounted in 1891 is 9 inches 
aperture, 9 feet focus, glass and tube by Clacey, mounting by Saeg- 
muller (Fauth & Co.). The cells and center piece of tube are made of 
aluminum. <A small meridian circle, and photographic and spectro- 
scopic apparatus will also be provided. A 5-inch telescope is now in 
use. (1890.) 

WASHINGTON. (See, also, Georgetown; aisv, Smithsonian astro- 
physical observatory; also, U. 8S. Naval Observatory.) 


WASHBURN: Comstock.—The sixth volume of publications contains 
the meridian observations of 1887 and observations of double stars. 

YALE: Newton.—The heliometer triangulation of the region near the 
north pole has been completed, and some observations of Iris, Victoria 
and Sappho have been obtained in codperation with the observatories 
at the Cape of Good Hope and Leipsic, for the determination of the 
solar parallax. 

ZuRIcH: Wolf.—Physical observations of the sun. 


ASTRONOMICAL INSTRUMENTS. 


In the fourth part of the Bulletin of the Astro-photographic con- 
gress, Dr. H. C. Vogel describes the photographic refractor constructed 
tor the observatory at Potsdam by the Repsolds. This instrument has 
two objectives; eye-piece and plate-holder are in the same tube, con- 
forming to the resolutions of the congress in 1887, but the peculiarity 
is in the form of mounting, which is quite different from both the Eng- 


168 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


lish and the French forms. The pillar that supports the polar axis is 
not upright, but L-shaped, the lower part being inclined nearly in the 
plane of the equator, the upper almost at right angles to this, extend- 
ing toward the north pole and inclosing the polar axis. The support 
possesses very great stability, and its form permits an uninterrupted 
motion of the telescope in al! positions, 

In Engineering for December 19, 1890, will be found a description of 
the Melbourne photographic telescope made by Sir Howard Grubb. 

An instrument for comparing and measuring celestial photographs, 
somewhat similar to that designed by Mr. Roberts, has been devised by 
Mr. Common. 

An apparatus for eliminating personal equation in the observation of 
sudden phenomena, such as the disappearance of a star when occulted 
by the moon has been devised by Mr. 8. P. Langley, and is described 
in the Bulletin of the Philosophical Society of Washington, vol. Xt. 
The principle of the method consists in associating a motion, real or 
apparent, of the object, with intervals of time se that the apparent posi- 
tion of the object at the instant of the occurrence of any phenomenon 
being noted the time of the occurrence will be known. Experiments 
made with artificial stars show that it is quite possible for a compar- 
atively inexperienced person to observe an occultation with a probable 
error of only one-fortieth of a second. 

The great Lick refractor of 36 inches diameter is to be surpassed by 
one still larger, ordered for the University of Southern California, at 
Los Angeles. ‘This lens is to be 40 inches in diameter, and the crown 
glass disk for the achromatic combination is now in tbe hands of the 
Clarks, who pronounce it a remarkably fine piece of glass. 

It may perhaps be mentioned here that a bill was introduced in the 
United States Congress making an appropriation of $1,000,000 for a 
refractor of 5‘feet aperture for the U.S. Naval Observatory, but the 
plan never received support from the Government astronomers. 

Mr. Brashear has under way at his shop in Allegheny a 16-inch 
objective for Carleton College Observatory, one of 12 inches for Brown 
University, and a second of 12 inches for Mr. G. E. Hale, of Chicago. 
He is also making a large spectroscope and spectrograph for Professor 
Young, at Princeton, which is expected to be the finest in the United 
States; a very complete spectroscope with Jena glass objectives and 
prism is being made for Carleton College, and a new star spectroscope 
tor Lick Observatory. Kor the Willard photographic telescope of the 
Lick Observatory, he is making an equatorial mounting with controlled 
clock. 


MISCELLANEOUS, 
Personal equation.—The attention of astronomers interested in the 


subject of personal equation should be directed to a paper prepared 
by a physiologist, Dr. E. C. Sanford, of the Johns Hopkins University, 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 169 


and published in volume 2 of the American Journal of Psychology. An 
important contribution to the astronomical side of the subject is an 
investigation by Dr. Wislicenus, of the Strasburg Observatory, who has 
investigated the personal equation in transit observations, not only for 
a horizontal position of the telescope, but for all inclinations. By plac- 
ing a smal] convex lens bebind the ocular an artificial star is obtained 
which is easily moved in the plane of the reticule with a velocity corre- 
sponding to any declination. Dr. Wislicenus concludes from his experi- 
ments that the inclination of the telescope has a considerable effect 
upon the observer’s personal equation. 

One of the essays contributed to the celebration of the Pulkowa 
Jubilee was a discussion of absolute personal equation by H. G. van de 
Sande Bakhuyzen. The artificial star observed was the meridian mark 
of the transit circle, to which an apparent motion was given by inter- 
posing a prism fixed excentrically to a circular rotating plate. Very 
satisfactory results were obtained. The personality depending upon 
direction of apparent motion seemed to be generally small for seven 
observers who tried the apparatus. 


ASTRONOMICAL SOCIETIES. 


The Astronomical Society of the Pacific—Under the leadership of Pro- 
fessor Holden and the astronomers at the Lick Observatory the Astro- 
nomical Society of the Pacific was founded February 7, 1889, as a result 
of the cordial codperation of amateur and professional astronomers in 
successfully observing the total solar eclipse of the preceding New 
Year’s day. Any person interested in astronomy is invited to join its 
membership. Three meetings each year are held in San Francisco and 
three meetings at Mount Hamilton. An excellent series of publi- 
cations, in octavo form, issued at irregular intervals, has reached the 
second volume. These ‘‘ publications ” contain papers read before the 
society, and also notices from the Lick Observatory prepared by members 
of the observatory staff. A fund has been established known as the 
“Donohoe fund for the maintenance of the comet medal of the Astronom- 
ical Society of the Pacific,” the principal conditions of the gift, a medal of 
bronze, being the discovery of a new comet or the first precise deter- 
mination of position of a periodic comet at any one of its expected 
returns. The discoverer is to make his discovery known in the usual 
way, and also to communicate it immediately to the director of the Lick 
Observatory. No application for the bestowal of the medal is required. 

The British Astronomical Association.—A new astronomical society, 
to be called the British Astronomical Association, has been formed in 
England to meet the wishes and needs of those who find the subscrip- 
tion of the Royal Astronomical Society too high, or its papers too ad- 
vanced, or who are, as in the case of ladies, practically excluded from 
becoming fellows; it is also to afford a means of direction and or- 
ganization inthe work of observation to amateur astronomers. The 


170 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


new society is thus to be regarded as supplementary to the older one, 
and not its rival. The first general meeting was held on October 24, 
1890, in the hall of the Seciety of Arts, Adelphi, London, and the offi- 
cers nominated by a provisional committe» were elected, Capt. W. 
Noble being made president. The sections under which the work of ob- 
servation is organized are: Meteoric, solar, lunar, spectroscepic, and 
photographic, colored stars, variable stars, double stars, and Jupiter, 
each section being presided over by an amateur astronomer who has 
devoted special attention to the subject named. ‘The first number of 
the Journal appeared in October, 1890, under the able editorship of 
Mr. E. W. Maunder. 

Gesellschaft Urania.—The building forming the headquarters of the 
Gesellschaft Urania was completed in July, 1889, and is described at 
some length by Dr. M. W. Meyer in the February and March numbers 
of Himmel und Erde. The Gesellschaft is for the purpose of popular- 
izing science. The chief astronomical instrument is a 12-inch refractor 
by Bamberg, the glass for which was made by Schott & Co., of Jena. 
There are also a 6-inch and a 4-inch refractor, a 6-inch reflector, a 24- 
inch transit, and a 5-inch comet-seeker. These instruments are for the 
use of visitors, and for cloudy nights a collection of 700 lantern slides is 
provided. 

The thirteenth meeting of the Astronomische Gesellschaft was held at 
Brussels, Septembr 10 to 12, 1889. The next meeting is at Munich in 
1891. 

Astronomical prizes.—The Lalande prize of the French Academy of 
Sciences was awarded for 1889 to M. Gonnessiat of the Lyons observa- 
tory, the Valz prize to Charlois, and the Janssen prize to Lockyer. 

In 1890 the Lalande prize was awarded to Schiaparelli for his obser- 
vations determining the rotation of Mercury and Venus, the Valz prize 
to Glasenapp for his determination of the orbits of double stars, and 
the Janssen prize to Young. The Damoiseau prize, for which but one 
memoir was presented, was continued for another year with the same 
subject: To perfect the theory of the inequalities of long period caused 
by the planets in the motion of the moon. 

The Copley medal of the Royal Society was awarded on November 
20, 1890, to Professor Simon Newcomb for his contributions to gravita- 
tional astronomy. 

The first award of the Donohoe medal was made to Mr. W. R. BrookS 
for the discovery of a comet on March 19, 1890; the second to Mr. W. 
F. Denning for his comet of July 23, 1890, and the third to Monsieur 
Jéréme Coggia, astronomer of the observatory of Marseilles, for his 
discovery of a comet on Juiy 18, 1890, this being the eighth comet 
discovered by M. Coggia. 

A generous gift has been made in aid of astronomical research by Miss 
C. W. Bruce, of New York, who placed in the hands of Professor Picker- 
ing, director of the Harvard Observatory, $6,000. In answer toa circular 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 171 


issued by Professor Pickering, numerous requests were received fcr aid 
from this fund, and various sums were awarded by Professor Pickering 
so as to aid as wide a range of astronomical subjects as possible, and to 
aid investigators in all parts of the world. 

Among new works of general interest to astronomers may be men- 
tioned Miss Clerke’s “The System of the Stars;” a new edition of 
Chambers’ Astronomy in three volumes. ‘The first two volumes of an 
able ‘‘ Traité de mécanique céleste,” the first containing the general 
theory of perturbations, and the second on the figures of rotation of 
celestial bodies ; these are to be followed by a third volume on the lunar 
theory, theory of Jupiter’s satellites, Hansen’s method for the calcu- 
lation of perturbations, and other methods of recent date. Another 
work -which has been found useful as a text-book is Dziobek’s Die 
mathematischen Theorien der Planeton-Bewegungen. 

Dr. Scheiner has published a treatise on spectrum analysis which is 
intended to form the first volume of complete work on astrophysics. 

The first volume of the national edition of the works of Galileo has 
appeared under the patronage of the King of Italy. 

Dr. Dreyer has published a biography of Tycho Brahe upon which 
he has been at work for several years past. 

A very interesting paper on Bowditch, who translated Laplace’s 
““ Mécanique Céleste,” has been contributed by Prof. Joseph Lovering 
to the Proceedings of the American Academy of Sciences. 

An index to the literature of spectroscopy, compiled by Mr. Alfred 
Tuckerman, has been published in the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Col- 
lections. It contains a bibliography of the history of the subjects ; of 
books; of apparatus; of spectrum analysis in general; of qualitative 
analysis; of quantitative analysis; of absorption spectra; of alkalies 
and alkaloids; of astronomical spectroscopy; of carbon compounds, and 
of the spectra of metals; there is also alist of 799 authors. The num- 
ber of titles is 3,829. 

Another useful contribution to astronomical bibliography is the eata- 
Jogue of the Crawford Library at the Royal Observatory at Edinburgh, 
presented to the observatory by the Karl of Crawford, and formerly 
constituting the library of the Dun Echt Observatory. The catalogue 
was compiled by the present astronomer royal for Scotland, Mr. Cope- 
land, and contains a number of rare works. 

Reference should also be made to a new edition of M. Lancaster’s use- 
ful little Liste générale des observatoires, appearing in 1890 with many 
additions and corrections. 


ASTRONOMICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR 1889. 


A brief bibliography of astronomy for the year 1890 having been con- 
tributed to the Sidereal Messenger for 1891, it seems unnecessary to 
cover more than the year 1889 in the present review. The titles given 
below include the most important books and journal articles of 1889, that 


1 ere ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


have come under the compiler’s notice, some few titles having been taken 
from reviews or catalogues, where the publications themselves have not 
been accessible. 

In the reference to periodicals the volume and page are simply sep- 
arated by a colon; thus: Astron. Jour. 8:153 indicates volume 8, page 
153, of the Astronomical Journal. The following less obvious abbrevia- 
tions occur : 


Abstr. = Abstract. | n F.— neue Folge. 
Am. = American. n. Ss. = new series. 
Bd. = Band. Not. — Notices. 

d. = di, der, del, ete. Obsvy. = Observatory. 
ed. = edition. p: = page. 
Htt. = Heft. pl. = plates. 
hrsg. = herausgegeben. portr. = portrait. 
il. = illustrated. pt. = part. 
j., jour. = journal. r= reales 
k. k, = kaiserlich, kéniglich. Rev. = Review. 
Lfg. = Lieferung. 8. = series. 
M. = Marks. sc. = science, scientific. 
n. d. = no date. vol. = volumes. 


n. p. = no place of publication. 


NECROLOGY OF ASTRONOMERS FOR 1889-’90. 


Biographical sketches of most of the following astronomers are to be 
found in the columns of the Astronomische Nachrichten, in the Viertel- 
jahrschrift, der Astronomischen Gesellschaft, or in the Monthly Notices of 
the Royal Astronomical Society. 

ApoLpH (CARL). Born at Nordstemmen, Hanover, April 8, 1838; died January 3, 
1890. 

CACCIATORE (GAETANO). Born at Palermo March 17, 1814; died at Palermo June 16, 
1889, et. 75. 

Dr LARUE (WARREN). Born at Guernsey January 18, 1815; died April 19, 1889, 
at. 74. 

Erck (WENTWORTH). Born in Dublin, 1827; died at Sherrington, Wicklow, Jan- 
uary 15, 1890, et. 63. 

FEARNLEY, (CARL FREDERIK). Born at Frederiksbald December 19, 1818; died 
August 22, 1890, et 72. 

FIEVEZ (CHARLES). Died February 2, 1890, et 46. 

Montieny (C. M. Y.). Died at Schaerbeck, March 16, 1890, et 71. 

NEWALL (ROBERT STIRLING). Born in Dundee May 27, 1812; died April 21, 1889; 
et. 77. 

Oom (FREDERICO AUGUSTO). Born at Lisbon December 4, 1830; died at Lisbon July 
24, 1880, wt 60. 

PERRY (STEPHEN JOSEPH). Born in London August 26, 1833; died at sea near Dem- 
arara, December 25, 1889, wt. 56. 

PETERS (CHRISTIAN HEINRICH FRIEDRICH). Born at Coldenbiittel, Schleswig, Sep- 
tember 19, 1813; died at Clinton, New York, July 19, 1890, et. 77. 


RESPIGHI (LORENZO). Born at Cortemaggiore, Pracenza, October 7, 1824; died at 
Rome December 10, 1889, wt. 75. 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 173 


ROSENBERGER (OTTO AUGUST). Born at Tukkum, Russia, August 10, 1800; died at 
Halle January 23, 1890, et. 90. 


ScuHuLtz (HERMAN). Born at Nygvarn. Sédermanland, July 7, 1823; died at Stock- 
holm May 8, 1890, et. 67. 


TEMPEL (ERNST WILHELM LEBERECHT). Born at Nieder-Kunersdorf, Saxony, De- 
cember 4, 1821; died at Arcetri March 16, 1389,* at. 66. 


WELD (ALFRED). Born August 5, 1823; died at Grahamstown July 24, 1890, wt. 67. 


ASTRONOMICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY, 1889, 1890. 


Asteroid 80. 
BRYANT (R.) Orbit of the planet @0) Sappho. Astron. Nachr., 121: 321-32. 

Orbit of planet @0) Sappho, the secular perturbation of the minor planets 
upon elements of that orbit, and the mass of planet Jupiter. Astron. Jour., 
8: 185-9. 

KirkWOOD (D.) Inelination of the asteroids. Sid. Mess., 8: 3035-7. 

LEHMANN (P.) Zusammenstellung der Planeten-Entdeckungen im Jahre 1888. 
Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 4-9. 


Astronomers. 
Morton (E. J. C.) Heroesof science. Astronomers. 8+341p. 12mo. London 
and New York, [1889]. 
Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 
[By-Laws, ete. Society organized Feb.7, 1889.] Pub. astron.soc. Pacific 1: 1-7. 
MEETING of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. Sid. Mess., 8: 358. 


Astronomy. : 
BALL (R. 8.) Elements of astronomy. Newed. 4+459p. 12mo. London, 1889. 
HOLDEN (. 8.) List of the principal astronomical journals, transactions of 

societies and books of reference.] Pub. astron. soc. Pacific 1: 15. 1889. 

Work of an astronomical society. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific 1: 9-15. 1889. 

PARKER (W.H.) Familiar talks on astronomy, with chapters on geography and 
navigation. 13-+264p. 12°. Chicago, 1889. 

PorTER (J. G.) Our celestial home. An astronomer’s view of heaven. 116 p. 
16mo. New York, [1889]. 

LAska (W.) Lehrbuch der sphirischen und theoretischen Astronomie und der 
mathematischen Geographie. 12+280p., 1 pl. 8vo. Stuttgart, 1889. 

YouneG (C.A) A text-book of general astronomy, for colleges and scientific 
schools. 8vo. Boston, 1889. 

Astronomy (Bibliography of). 
Houzeau (J. C.) Bibliographie générale de V’astronomie. 


Astronomy (History of), 
BERTIN (G.) Babylonian astronomy. Nature 40; 237, 285. 
EppinG (J.) Astronomisches aus Babylon. 190p. il. 8vo. Fribourg-en-Brisgau, 
1889. 
Astronomy (Progress of). 
FLAMMARION (C.) Les progrés de ’astronomie pendant !’année, 1888. L’Astron, 
8: 162-74. 1889. 
WInLocK (W.C.) Account of the progress in astronomy in the year 1886. 
Smithsonian rept. 1886-87 : 991-87. Also, Reprint. 
Chronometers. 
HILFIKER (J.) L’influence de la pression de lair sur la marche des chronometres, 
22 p. 12mo. Neuchatel, 1889. 


Repr. from: Bull. Soe. d. se. nat. de Neuchatel, 17. 


* Erroneously given as 1888 in the Review of Astronomy for 1837-88, 


174 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


Comet Winnecke. 
VON HaArErRpDTL (E.) Bahn des periodischen Kometen Winnecke in den Jahren 
185886. IJ. Theil. 38p. 4to. Wien, 1889, 


Comet 1867 III. 
Brocu (P.) Bahnbestimmung des Cometen 1867 III. Sitzungsb. d. k. Akad. 
d. Wissensch. in Wien, 97. 2.Abth. Also, abstr.: Astron. Nachr., 121: 353-8. 
Comet 1880 V. 
BEEBE (W.) aud Puitiirps(A. W.) Orbit of Swift’s comet 1880 V, determined by 
Gibbs’s vectormethod. Astron. Jour., 9: 113-121. 
Comet 1887 I. 
OPPENHEIM (H.) Definitive Bestimmung der Bahn des grossen Siidcometen 1887 
I. Astron. Nachr., 121: 337-42. 
Comet 1889, Jan. 15. 
BARNARD (KE. E.) Search for the comet reported, 1889, Jan. 15, by Mr. Brooks. 
Astron. Jour., 8: 168. 
Comet 1889 V. 
BARNARD (KE. E.) Companions to comet d 1889 (Brooks). Astron. Jour., 9: 77-78. 
——. Companions to comet d 1889 (Brooks). Sid. Mess., 8: 360-63. 
——. A very remarkable comet. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific 1: 72. 
CHANDLER (S.C.) Action of Jupiter in 1836 upon comet d 1889, and the iden- 
tity of the latter with Lexell’s comet of 1770. Astron. Jour., 9: 100-3. 


Comets. 

BREDICHIN (T.) Quelques mots sur Vorigine des cométes périodiques. Astron. 
Nachr., 120: 331. 1889. Also; Bull. Soc. imp. d.nat.de Moscon, 1889, No. 2. 

CALLANDREU (O.) ‘Théorie des comeétes périodiques. 64 p. 4to. Paris, 1889. 

Repr. from: Ann. obs. d. Par. 20. 

CoMETARY discoveries during the years 1840-68. Obsry., 12: 435. 

DENNING (W.F.) Notes on comets and comet seeking. Obsry.,12: 256, 285, 311, 
349, 372, 403, 433. 

Kreutz (H.) Bericht iiberCometen. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 293-8. 
1889. 

MAUNDER (E.W.) Comet 1887 I and cometary tails. Obsry., 12: 70-4. 

SCHULHOF (L.) Notes sur quelques cométes & courte période. Bull. astron., 6: 


465-71. 
- ‘TISSERAND (I*.) Théorie de la capture des cométes périodiques. Bull. astron., 6: 
241, 289. 


Comets of 1888. 
KreEvUTZ (H.) Zusammenstellung der Cometen-Erscheinungen des Jahres 1888. 
Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 9-17. 
Computing Machines. 
BaBBAGE (H.P.) Babbage’s calculating engines . . . 8-+342+3 p. il. portr. 
pl. Lond., 1889. 
Corona (Solar). 
ABNEY (W. de W.) and THorPE (T.E.) Determination of the photometric in- 
tensity of the coronal light . . . eclipse 1886, Aug. 28-29. Phil. Trans., 363-34. 
1889. 
BIGELOW (F.H.) Solar corona discussed by spherical harmonics. 22 p., 1 pl. 
4to. Washington, 1889. 
Smithsonian publication No. 691. 
Cosmogony. 
CROLL (J.) Stellar evolution and its relations to geological time. 11-118 p. 
12mo. New York, 1889. = 
Rev. by Fowler (A.) Nature 40: 199. 
Hrrn (G. A.) Constitution de lespace céleste. 332 p.,1pl. 4to. Paris, 1889, 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 175 


Tearborn Observatory. 
Houau (G. W.) New Dearborn Observatory. il. Sid. Mess., 8: 341-48. 
De La Rue (Warren) [1815-’89]. 
HuGGINS (MARGARET L.) [Obituary notice...] Obsry., 12 : 244-50, 
Double Stars. 
CLERKE (A. M.) New double stars. Nature 41: 132. 
Earth. 
CALLANDREAU (O.) Remarques sur la théorie de la figure de la terre. Bull. 
astron., 6: 185-92. 
Hower (H. A.) Earth tremors. Sid. Mess., 8 : 448-49. 
Pormncaré (H.) Figure de la terre. Bull. astron., 6:5, 49. 
SCHIAPARELLI (G. V.) Rotation de la terre sous l’influence des actions géolo- 
giques. 32p. 8vo. St.-Pétersbourg, 1839. 
WoopwarbD (R. 8.) The mathematical theories of the earth. 23 p. 8vo. 
Salem, 1889. 
Address as vice-president of Sect. A, Amer. Ass. Adv. Sc., Toronto, 1889. 
Easter. 
DATES de la féte de paques . . . [1582-2200]. L’Astron. 8: 418. 1889, 
Eclipse of the Sun, 1886, August 28-29. 
PICKERING (W. H.) Total eclipse of the Sun, August 29, 1886. Ann. Harv.’ 
Coll. Obsry., 18: 85-111. (v.18,no.5.) 4pl. Also, Reprint. 
Eclipse of the Sun, 1889, January 1. 
HOLDEN (E. 8.) [Preliminary report] on the solar eclipse of January 1, 1889. 
il. Obsry., 12: 130-4. 
REPORTS on the observations of the total eclipse of the Sun of January 1, 1889, 
published by the Lick Observatory. 10+210 p. il. 8vo. Sacramento, 1589. 
PICKERING (W. H.) [Photograph of the corona taken during] the total solar 
eclipse of January, 1889. Sid. Mess., 8: 337-39. 
Topp (D. P.) Photographs of the corona . . . [with notes on the] structure of 
the corona. 10p.,2pl. 4to. Washington, 1889. 
Smithsonian publication No. 692. 
Eclipse of the Sun, 1889, December 21. 
HOLDEN (E. 8.) Lick Observatory expedition to observe the solar eclipse of | 
December 21, 1889. Sid. Mess., 8: 339-41. 
Encke (J. F.) Gesammelte mathematische und astronomische Abhandlungen. 
3. Band. Astronomische und optische Abhandlungen. 158 p. 8vo. Berlin, 
1889. 
Fedorenko (Iwan) [1827-88], 
LEwITzky (G.) Todes-Anzeige. Astron. Nachr., 120: 319. 
Geodesy. 
GorE (J.H.) Bibliography of geodesy. Rept. U.S. Coast and Geod, Sury. 1887: 
312-512 (Rept. 1887, App. 16). Also, Reprint. 
Harvard College Observatory. 
PICKERING (E. C.) The Bruce photographic telescope. 1p. 4to. Cambridge, 
1889. 
PICKERING (E. C.) [Circular showing the need for] a large photugraphic tele- 
scope. 4p. 4to. Cambridge, 1833. Also: Sid. Mess., 8: 304. 
Horizon (Artificial). 
MAILHAT (—.) Nouveau bain de mercure, perfectionné. L’Astron., 8: 107. 1889. 
Houzeau. 
LANCASTER (A.) Notes biographiques sur J. C. Houzeau. 120 p., portr. Bru- 
xelles, 1889. 


176 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


Huyghens (C.) 
CEUVRES completes... Tome2. 64639 p.,1 pl. La Hague, 1889. 


Jupiter (Satellites of). 

DowninG (A. M. W.) ([Glasenapp’s discussion of eclipses of Jupiter’s satellites. ] 

il, Obsry., 1231/73, 210. 
Jupiter. 

BARNARD (E. E.) Observations... with a 5-inch refractor during the years 
1879-1886. il. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific, 1: 89-111. 

FLAMMARION (C.) Le monde de Jupiter. il. L’astron., 8: 361-401.. 1889. 

HoupeEen (EK. 8.) Drawings... made with the 26-inch equatorial at Washing- 
ton during 1875. il. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific, 1: 111. 1889. 

[L’occULTATION de Jupiter. 1889. Aug.7.] il. L’Astron., 8: 322. 

TERBY (F.) [Structure de la bande nord équatoriale de Jupiter.} 4p. il. &vo. 
Bruxelles, 1889. Bull. Acad. roy. de Belg., 3. s., 18, nos. 9, 10. 

Same. 6p. il. 8vo. Bruxelles, 1890. Bull. Acad. roy. de Belg., 3. s., 
18, No. 12, 1889. 

WituiAMs (A. S.) Zenographical fragments: the motions and changes of the 

markings on Jupiter during 1886-87. 118 p.,9 pl. 8vo. London, 1889. 
Jupiter (Orbit of). 

Hitt (G. W.) Leverrier’s determination of the second-order terms in the secular 
motions of the eccentricities and perihelia of Jupiter and Saturn. Astron. 
Jour., 9: 89-91. 

Karlsruhe Observatory. 
VEROFFENTLICHUNGEN... Heft 3. 8+204p.,3pl. 4to. Karlsruhe, 1889. 


von Kuffner Observatory. 
PUBLICATIONEN der von Kuffner’schen Sternwarte in Wien. 1. Band. 217 p., 12 
pl. 4dto. Wien, 1889. 


Le Verrier (U. J. J.) [1811-77]. 
STaTUE ... 4 /)’observatoire de Paris. L’Astron., 8: 281. 1889. 


Lick Observatory. 
HoLpEN (E. 8.) L’observatoire Lick. il. L’Astron., 8: 241,305. 1889. 


Lunar théory. 
Franz (J.) Die Konstanten der physischen Libration des Mondes, abgelietet aus 
Schiiiter’s Beobachtungen. Konigsberg, 1889. 
Rev. by R{adau] (R.) Bull. astron., 6: 399-407. 
McCormick Observatory. 
PUBLICATIONS ... v. 1, pt. 4. Double stars. 1885-86. [51] p. 8vo. Univ. of 
Virginia, 1889. 
Mars. 
FLAMMARION (C.) Changements actuellement observés & la surface de la planéte 
Mars. il. L’Astron., 8: 208, 285. 1889. 
Observations de Mars faites & Vobservatoire Lick... il. L’Astron., 
8: 180-84. 1889. 
Grrigny (P.) Les marées sur Mars. L’astron., 8: 381-8. 1889. 
H[oLpEN](E. 8.) Variations of the surface of Mars. Pub. astron. soc. Pacific, 
is) 122: 
Mac Coit (H.) A journey to the planet Mars. Nature. London, 1889. 
Rev. by Gregory (R. A.) Nature, 40: 291. 
MeIsEL (F.) Versuch, die Verdoppelung der auf der Marsoberfliiche beobachte- 
ten Linien auf optischen Wege zu erkliren. Astron. Nachr., 121 :371. 
NOUVELLES découvertes sur Mars: canaux, lacs et mers dédoublés, il. L’as- 
tron., 9: 401-11. 1890. 
SCHRAPARELLI (G. V.) Sur la planéte Mars. il. L’Astron., 8: 19, 42, 89, 124. 
1889. 


ASTRONOMY FOR. 1889, 1890. VG 


Mechanics (Celestial). 
TISSERAND (F.) Traitéde mécanique céleste. Tomel. 474 p. 4to. Paris, 1889. 
TRAXTER (R. P.) Principles of mechanics as applied to the solar system. 70p. 
il. 8vo, San Francisco, 1889. 
Meteors. 
BREDICHIN (T.) Qnelques propriétés remarquables des courants météoriques. 
Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 273-9. 1889. 
DENNING (W.F.) Determination of attenuated meteor-streams. Obsry., 12: 182. 
KLEIBER (J.) Petite histoire des étoiles filantes. L’Astron., 8: 413. 1889. 
Lock YER (J. N.) Notes on meteorites. Nature, 39: 402; 40: 1536. 
Monck (W. H. 8.) Meteors and meteorites. Sid. Mess., 8: 395-402. 
Micrometers (Double image). 
BRENDEL (M.) Ueber ein neues von Herrn Dr. Wellmann construirtes Doppel- 
bild-Mikrometer. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 268-72, 1889. 


Moon. 
Boys (C. V.) Heat of the moon and stars. il. Proc. roy. soc., 47: 480-99. 
LANGLEY (S. P.) Temperature of the moon. Am. J. Sc., [38]: 421-40. 1889. 
Same. Mem. nat, acad. sc., 4: 103-212. 26 pl. 4°. 1889. Also, Re- 


print. 
Milky way. 
PLASSMANN (J.) Ueber Grosse, Gestalt und Sternfiille der Milchstrasse. 10 p.8vo. 
1.159 Wo Cle 


Mitchell (Ormsby Mcknight). 
PORTER (J. G.) Ormsby Mcknight Mitchell. Sid. Mess., 8: 442-47. 


Nebula in Lyra 
Hau (A.) Note on the ring-nebula in Lyra. Astron. Jour., 9: 64. 
PHOTOGRAPHIE de la nébuleuse de la Lyre. il. L’Astron., 9: 441-6. 1890. 


Nebula in Orion (Great). 
CLommon] (A. A.) [Note on a photograph by Roberts.] il. Obsry., 12: 105. 
Nebula. 
Youne (C. A.) Note on recent papers of Dr. Huggins. Sid. Mess.,8: 289-91. 
CueRK (A. M.) Spectra of the Orion nebula and of the aurora. Obsry,, 12: 
366-70. 
Nutation. 
Four ( ) Détermination de la nutation diurne. Bull. astron., 6: 100-3. 


Objectives. 

BATTERMANN (H.) Untersuchungen iiber die Gestalt der Bilder und die Theorie 
der Messungen ausserhalb der optischen Axe von astronomischen Instrumen- 
ten. Astron. Nachr., 120: 337-416. 

STEINHEIL (A.) Einfluss der Objectivconstruction auf die Lichtvertheilung in 
seitlich von der optischen Axe gelegenen Bildpunkten von Sternen bei zwei- 
linsigen Systemen. Sitzungsb. d. math.-phys. Cl. d. k. bayer. Akad. d. Wis- 
sensch., 19 (Hft. 3): 413-15. 1889. 

Vertheilung des Lichtes in seitlich von der Axe gelegenen Sternbildern 
und den Einfluss der Construction des Objectives hierauf. Vrtljschr. d. astron,. 
Gesellsch., 24: 254-9. 1889. 

Observatories. 

Ba@:uMeER (G. H.) Report on astronomical observations for 1886. Smithson. 
Rept., 1886: 367-488. Also, Reprint. 

BubGErt de Vastronomie et de la météorologie [en France 1891]. L’Astron., 9: 
436. 1890. 

JAHRESBERICHTE der Sternwarten fiir1888, Vrtljschr. d. astron. Gesellsch., 24: 

85-171. 
H. Mis. 129-——12 


178 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


Occultations. 
CALLANDREAU (QO.) Prédiction des occultations. Bull. astron., 6: 129-41. 


Orbits. 
GLAUSER (J.) Bahnbestimmung nach Lambert. Astron. Nachr., 121: 65-70. 
SEARLE (G. M.) Computation of the true anomaly, radius-vector and coordi- 
nates in ellipses of great eccentricity. Astron. Jour., 8: 153-6. 
ScHULHOF (L.) Formules différentielles pour les variations des éléments d’une 
orbite. Bull. astron., 6: 151-192. 
Oxford University Observatory. 
ASTRONOMICAL observations . . . under the direetion of C. Pritchard. No. 3. 
Researches in stellar parallax by the aid of photography. 8-+133 p. 8vo. Ox- 
tord, 1889. 
Parallax. 
VON REBEUR-PASCHWITZ (E.) Hiilfstafeln zur Berechnung der Parallaxe fiir 
Cometen-und Planetenbeobachtungen, Verdffentl. d. Grossheragl. Strnwrt. 
zu Karlsruhe, 3: 183-204. 1889. 
Parallax (Solar). 
HARKNESS (W.) On the masses of Mercury, Venus, and the Earth and on the so- 
lar parallax. Astron. Jour., 9: 9-1d, 31. 
On an error in computation of the solar parallax. Astron. Jour., 9: 


5-31. 


Parallax (Steller). 
BELOPOLSKY (A.) Beitrag zur Ermittelung von Sternparallaxen aus Durchgangs- 
beobachtungen. Astron. Nachr., 121: 113-22. 
FLAMMARION (C.) Distances des étoiles. [Tables.] L’astron., 8: 441-50. 1889, 
CLERKE (A. M.) Star distances. Nature, 41: 81. 
Paris Exposition (1889). 
L’/ASTRONOMIE a l’exposition. L’astron., 8: 450. 
Paris Observatory. 
RAPPORT annuel. . . pour l’année 1888 . . . par [E.] Mouchez. 26p. 4to, 
Paris, 1889. 
Personal equation. 
BakHUYZEN(H. G. vande Sande). Beschreibung eines Apparates zu der absoluten 
personliches Fehlers. .. 40p.,2pl. 4to. Haag, 1889. 
GONNESSIAT (F.) Recherches sur les erreurs personnelles daus les observations 
de passages. Bull. astron., 6: 471-80. 
LaNGLey (8. P.) Observation of sudden phenomena. Sid. Mess., 8: 291-99. 
Low (M.) Der persénliche Fehler bei Messung von Zenith-Distanzen und Azi- 
muten. Astron. Nachr., 121: 307-16. 


Personal scale. 
BoquetT (F.) Recherche sur la valeur des observations de passages. Bull, 
astron., 6: 337-43. 
Photographic Congress, Paris (1887). 
BULLETIN du comité international permanent pour Vexécution photographique 
de la carte du ciel. p. 147-286 (3° et 4° fascicule). 
[CrrcuLar of International Congress on celestial photography.] Obsry., 12: 
329-32. 
[Reports of meeting of permanent committee on charting, and of organization 
of committee on celestial photography and spectroscopy.] Obsry., 12: 363-6, 
Photography. 
MEETING of the permanent committee of the astro-photographie congress. Sid, 
Mess., 8: 412-14. 
PICKERING (E. C.) Photographic determination of the brightness of the stars, 
Ann. Hary. Coll. Obsry,, 18; 119-214 (v, 18, No, 7), Also, Reprint, 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 179 


Photography (Astronomical). 
FLAMMARION (C.) Les progrés de la photographie céleste. il. L’Astron., 8: 
121-4. 1890. 
HOLDEN (E.8.) Photographing and seeing stars in the day-time. Astron. Jour., 
9: 73-74. 
Photography (Stellar). 
ANOTHER photographie chart of the heavens. Obsry., 12: 308-11. 
CHARLIER (C. VY. L.) Anwendung der Sternphotographie zu Helligkertsmes- 
sungen der Sterne. 8+31lp. 4to. Leipzig, 1889. 
Pub. d. astron. Gesellsch., 19. 
GOouLD (B. A.) Reduction of photographic observations, with a determination 
of the position of the Pleiades from photographs by Mr. Rutherfurd. Mem. 
Nat’l Acad. Se., 4: 173-90 (v. 4, 3. mem.). Also, Reprint. 
KAPTEYN (J. C.) Bericht iiber die zur Herstellung einer Durchmusterung des 
stidiichen Himmels ausgefiihrten Arbeiten. Vrtljschr. d. astron. Geselisch., 
24: 213-20. 
La CARTE photographique du ciel. L’astron., 8: 388-91. 1889. 
PICKERING (E. C.) Photographic chart of the heavens. Obsry., 12: 375. 
REUNION du comité international permanent pour Vexécution de la carte photo- 
graphique du ciel, & Vobservatoire de Paris en septembre 1889. 112 p., 4to. 
Paris, 1889. 
Photometry. 
SCHAEBERLE (J. M.) Photographic brightness of the fixed stars. Pub. astron. 
soc. Pacific, 1: 53-64. 
SCHEINER (J.) Bestimmung der Sterngréssen aus photographischen Aufnah- 
men. Astron. Nachr., 121: 49-62. 
Planets. 
GREGORY (R. A.) Determination of masses in astronomy. Nature, 40: 80. 
HALL (A.) Deduction of planetary masses from the motions of comets. Astron. 
Aobes, ovvie 
Pleiades. 
ELKIN (W. L.) Comparison of Dr. Gould’s reductions of Mr. Rutherfurd’s 
Pleiades photographs with the heliometer results. Astron. Jour., 9: 33-35. 
GouLp (B. A.) Determination of the position of the Pleiades from photographs 
by Mr. Rutherfurd. Mem. nat’l acad. se., 4: 173-90. (v. 4, 3. mem.) Also 
Reprint. 
Presepe. 
GouLp (B.A.) Reduction of photographic observations of the Pesepe. Mem, 
Nat. Acad. Sc., 4: 193-9. (v.4,4. mem.) Also, Reprint. 
Proper motion. 
Boss (L.) Proper motions of stars in the Albany zones. (--0° 50’ to 50° 10! for 
1885.) Astron. Jour., 9: 57-64. 
Red stars. 
CLERKE (A. M.) Some southern red stars. Obsry., 12: 134. 
Refraction. 
LAska (W.) Ueber eine einfache Refractionsformel. Astron. Nachr., 121: 111. 
LEHMANN-FILHfs (R.) Eine geniiherte Refractionsformel. Astron. Nachr., 
121 OBS: 
Rapa (R.) Wssai sir les réfractions astronomiques. 80 p. 4to. Paris, 1839, 
Resisting medium. 
Hau (A.) Resisting medium in space, Sid, Mess., 8: 433-42, 


180 - ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


Saturn. 
AnpING (A.) Die Seeliger’sche Theorie des Saturnringes und der Beleuchtung 
der grossen Planeten iiberhaupt. Astron. Nachr., 121: 1-16. 
Hai (A.) White spot on the ring of Saturn. Astron. Jour., 9: 23. 
HopeEN (E. 8.) Reported changes in rings of Saturn. Astron. Jour., 8: 180-1. 
KEELER (J. E.) Outer ring of Saturn. Astron. Jour., 8: 22-175. 
LockyYErR (J. N.) Note on the spectrum of the rings of Saturn. Astron. Nachr., 
PAIS Ils. 
TrrBy (F.) La tache blanche de l’anneau de Saturne .. . Obsry., 12: 286. 
—. Sur Vaspect de la planéte Saturne et spécialement sur une tache blanche 
et brillante observée sur son anneau. il. Astron. Nachr., 121: 109, 173, 233, 
305, 336, 367. 
Saturn (Rings of). 
TISSERAND (F.) Théorie de Maxwell sur Vanneau de Saturne. Bull. astron., 
6: 383, 417. 
Solar system. 
Boss (L.) Systematic corrections of star positions near Equator, with a note on 
the constants of solar motion. Astron. Jour., 9:17, 25. 
Spectrum (Solar). 
JANSSEN (J.) Ascension scientifique au mont Blanc. L’Astron., 9: 446-9, 1890. 
Origine tellurique des raies de l’oxygene dans le spectre solaire. L’As- 
tron., 8: 206. 1889. 
LANGLEY (S.P.) The solar and the lunar spectrum. il, Mem.nat. acad.sc.,4: 
159-70, 5 pl. Also, Reprint. 
Spectra (Stellar). 
EspPINn (T. E.) Stars with remarkable spectra. Astron. Nachr., 121: 33-6. 
PICKERING (E. C.) Henry Draper memorial. Third annual report of the pho- 
tographic study of stellar spectra. 8p. 4to. Cambridge, 1889. 


Star-catalogues. 

Auwers (A.) Vorliiufiger Fundamental-Catalog fiir die siidlichen Zonen der 
Astronomischen Gesellschaft. Astron. Nachr., 121 : 145-72. 

BERICHTE iiber die Beobachtung der Sterne bis zur neunten Grésse am nérdlichen 
Himmel. Vrtljschr., 24: 280-93. 1889. 

CATALOGUES @’étoiles deduits des observations publiées dans les vols vi et vii. 
Observations de Poulcova. v. 8. 1889. 

OERTEL (K.) Beziehungen der in den Berliner astronomischen Jahrbiichern 
von 1860 bis 1883 gegebenen Fixsternérter zum Fundamental-Catalog der Astro- 
nomischen Gesellschaft. Astron. Nachr., 121: 225-382. 

Kreutz (H.) Berichtigungen zu der Bonner Durchmusterungen-Zone 55°—65°. 
Astron. Nachr., 121: 23-8. 

[Peters (C. H. F.) vs. Borst (C. A.) Action to recover manuscript. Supreme 
court, Oneida Co., N. Y. Opinion of Justice P. C. Williams in favor of Peters. ] 
19p. 8vo. Utica, 1889. 

PETER’S Star-catalogue. Sid. Mess., 8: 455-58. 

[ WrNLock (A.)] Meridian-cirele observations of close polar stars. Ann. Harv. 
Coll. Obsry., 18: 259-84. (v. 18, no. 9.) Also, Reprint. 

Star-charts. 
CorrTaM (A.) Charts of the constellations, London. 1889. 
Star-places. 

Boss (L.) Systematic corrections of star positions near the Equator, with a note 
on the constants of solar motion. Astron. Jour., 9: 17, 25. 

GouLp (B. A.) Comparisons of the photographic with the instrumental, deter- 
minations of star-places. Astron. Jour., 9: 36-37. 


ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 181 


Stars (Motion of) in the line of sight. 
VoaEL (H. C.) Ueber die auf dem Potsdamer Observatorium unternommenen 
Untersuchungen iiber die Bewegungen der Sterne im Visions-Radius vermit- 
telst der spectrographischen Methode. Astron. Nachr., 121: 241-58. 
Sun. 
Wo tr (R.) Bericht iiber die Thitigkeit auf der Sonne im Jahre 13588. Astron. 
Nachrs 2 i: L077: 
—. Statistique solaire de année 1888. L’Astron., 8: 61. 1389. 
Sun (Diameter of). 
AUWERS (A.) Neue Untersuchungen iiber den Durchmesser der Sonne, III. 
Sitzungsb. d. k. preuss. Akad. d. Wissensch., 1589: 111-170. 


Sun-spots. 
BRUGUIERE (H.) Maxima et minima solaires. L’Astron.,8: 417. 1889. 
SPOERER (G. F. W.) Von den Sonnenflecken des Jahres 1888 und von der Ver- 
schiedenheit der nérdlichen und siidlichen Halbkugel der Sonne seit 1883. As- 
tron. Nachr., 121: 105. 
—-. Sur les différences que présentent ’hémisphere nord et Vhémispheére sud 
du soleil. Bull. astron., 6: 60-3. 


Tables (Astronomical). 
ParRKHURST (H. M.) Astronomical tables. 456 p. 16mo. New York, 1889. 


Telescopes. 

BATTERMANN (H.) Untersuchungen iiber die Gestalt der Bilder und die Theorie 
der Messungen ausserhalb der optischen Axe von astronomischen Instrumenten. 
Astron. Nachr., 120: 337-416. 

Common (A. A.) Great telescopes. Obsry., 12: 138. 

TLENNANT] (J. F.) Distortion in telescopic images. Obsry., 1:2: 304-8. 


Tempel [Guglielmo Ernesto, 1821-’89. ] 
SCHIAPARELLI (G. V.) Anzeige des Todes .. . Astron. Nachr., 121: 95. 


Thermograph. 
Hurtcuins (C.C.) & OWEN (D.E.) Account of a new thermograph . . . measures 
of lunar radiations. Proc. Am. Acad. Arts Se., 24: 125-45. Also, Reprint, 1889. 


Three bodies (Problem of). 
BRENDEL (M.) Gylden’s theory. Obsry., 12: 399-403. 
F[LAMMARION] (C.) Le probleme des trois corps. L’Astron., 8: 265-8. 1889. 
LIAPOUNOF (A. M.) [Stability of motion in a special case of the problem of 
three bodies.] 94p. 8vo. Silberberg, 1889. [In Russian.] Rev. by R[ADAU] 
(R.) Bull. astron., 6: 481-8. 
Tides. 
FERREL (W.) Laplace’s solution of the tidal equations. Astron. Jour., 9: 41-44, 


Time services. 
OBSERVATORY local patronage threatened. Sid. Mess., 8: 452-54. 
Time (Universal). 
La TURQUIE et unification du temps. L’Astron.,8: 49. 1889. 
Transit instruments. 
Hamy (—). Variations de l’axe de rotation des instruments méridiens, Bull. 
astron., 6: 377-83. 
Transit observations (Reduction of). : 
CHANDLER (8. C.) Note on the equation of the meridian transit instrument. 
Astron. Jour., 8: 147. 
Uranus. 
GREGORY (R. A.) The planet Uranus. Nature, 40: 235. 
Huaains (W.) Spectrum of Uranus. Astron. Nachr., 121: 369. 
——. Photographic spectra of Uranus and Saturn. Sid. Mess., 8: 450-52. 
LockYER (J.N.) Note on the spectrum of Uranus. Astron. Nachr., 121: 369, 


182 ASTRONOMY FOR 1889, 1890. 


Variable stars. 
CHANDLER (S.C.) The period of U Coronx. Astron. Jour., 9: 97-9. 
——. The variable Y Cygni. Astron. Jour., 9: 92-3. 
——. Light-variations of U Cephei. Astron. Jour., 9: 49-53. 
——. General relations of variable star phenomena. Astron. Jour., 9: 1-5. 
—. Contributions to the knowledge of the inequalities in the periods of the 
variable stars. Astron. Jour., 8: 161-6, 172-5. 
[PickERING (E. C.)] Index to observations of variable stars. Ann. Harv. 
Coll. Obsry., 18: 215-57. (v.18,no0.8.) Also, Reprint. 
ScHONFELD (E.) Ephemeriden verinderlicher Sterne fiir 1890. Vrtljschr. d. 
astron. Gesellsch., 24: 220-34. 
YENDELL (P.S.) Corrigendum to the elements of X Cygni. Astron. Jour., 9: 8. 
Venus. 
SCHAPARELLI. Transl. by Tesby Lee. L’Astron., 9: 285, 325,411. Aug. and Sept. 
Yale Observatory. 
TRANSACTIONS ...v. 1, pt. 2. Researches with the heliometer. Determination 
of the orbit of Titan and the mass of Saturn, by A. Hall, jr. [37] p. 4to. 
New Haven, 1889. 


THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH.* 


The name of this section, which by your courtesy it is my duty to ad- 
dress to-day, implies a community of interest amongst astronomers and 
mathematicians. This community of interest is not difficult to explain. 
We can of course imagine a considerable body of astronomical facts 
quite independent of mathematics. We can also imagine a much larger 
body of mathematical facts quite independent of and isolated from 
astronomy. But we never think of astronomy in the large sense with- 
out recognizing its dependence on mathematics, and we never think of 
mathematics as a whole without considering its capital applications in 
astronomy. 

Of all the subjects and objects of common interest to us, the Earth will 
easily rank first. The earth furnishes us with a stable foundation for 
instrumental work and a fixed line of reference, whereby it is possible 
to make out the orderly arrangement and procession of our solar system 
and to gain some inkling of other systems which le within telescopic 
range. The earth furnishes us with a most attractive store of real prob- 
‘lems; its shape, its size, its mass, its precession and nutation, its internal 
heat, its earthquakes, and volcanoes, and its origin and destiny, are to 
be classed with the leading questions for astronomical and mathematical 
research. We must of course recognize the claims of our friends the 
geologists to that indefinable something called the earth’s crust, but con- 
sidered in its entirety and in its relations to similar bodies of the uni- 
verse, the Earth has long been the special province of astronomers and 
mathematicians. Since thetimes of Galileo and Kepler and Copernicus 
it has supplied a perennial stimulus to observation and investigation, 
and it promises to tax the resources of the ablest observers and anal- 
ysts for some centuries to come. The mere mention of the names of 
Newton, Bradley, d’Alembert, Laplace, Fourier, Gauss, and Bessel, calls 
to mind not only a long list of inventions and discoveries, but the most 


* Vice-presidential address before the section of Mathematics and Astronomy of 
the American Association for the Advancement of Science at the Toronto meeting, 
August, 1889. (From the Proceedings Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., vol. XXXVI.) 

183 


184 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 


important parts of mathematical literature. In its dynamical and phys- 
ical aspects the Earth was to them the principal object of research, and 
the thoroughness and completeness of their contributions toward an ex- 
planation of the “ system of the world ” are still a source of wonder and 
admiration to all who take the trouble to examine their works. 

A detailed discussion of the known properties of the earth, and og 
the hypotheses concerning the unknown properties, is no fit task for a 
summer afternoon; the intricacies and delicacies of the subject are suit- 
able only for another season and a special audience. But it has seemed 
that a somewhat popular review of the state of our mathematical knowl- 
edge of the Earth might not be without interest to those already famil- 
iar with the complex details, and might also help to increase that gen- 
eral interest in science, the promotion of which is one of the most 
important functions of this association. 

As we look back through the light of modern analysis, it seems 
strange that the successors of Newton, who took up the problem of the 
shape of the Earth, should have divided into hostile camps over the 
question whether our planet is elongated or flattened atthe poles. They 
agreed in the opinion that the Earth is a spheroid, but they debated, 
investigated, and observed for nearly half a century before deciding 
that the spheroid is oblate rather than oblong. This was a critical 
question, and its decision marks perhaps the most important epoch in 
the history of the figure of the Earth. The Newtonian view of the oblate 
form found its ablest supporters in Huygens, Maupertuis, and Clair- 
aut, while the erroneous view was maintained with great vigor by the 
justly distinguished Cassinian school of astronomers. Unfortunately 
for the Cassinians, defective measures of a meridional are in France 
gave color to the false theory and furnished one of the most con- 
spicuous instances of the deterring effect of an incorrect observa- 
tion. As you well know, the point was definitely settled by Mauper- 
tuis’s measurement of the Lapland are. For this achievement his name 
has become famous in literature as well as in science, for his friend 
Voltaire congratulated him on having “ flattened the poles and the 
Cassinis ;” and Carlyle has honored him with the title of ‘ Harth-flat- 
tener.” * 

Since the settlement of the question of the form—progress toward 
a knowledge of the size of the Earth has been consistent and steady, 
until now it may be said that there are few objects with which we have 
to deal whose dimensions are so well known as the dimensions of the 
Earth. But this is a popular statement, and like most such, needs to 
be explained in order not to be misunderstood. Both the size and 
shape of the Marth are defined by the lengths of its equatorial and polar 
axes; and, knowing the fact of the oblate spheroidal form, the lengths 
of the axes may be found within narrow limits from simple measure- 


*Todhunter, History of the Theories of Attraction and the Figure of the Earth. 
London, 1873, vol. 1, art. 195. 


THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 185 


ments conducted on the surface quite indevendently of any knowledge 
of the interior constitution of the earth. It is evident in fact, without 
recourse to mathematical details, that the length of any are, as a degree 
of latitude or longitude on the earth’s surface, must depend on the 
lengths of those axes. Conversely, it is plain that the measurement of 
such an are and the determination of its geographical position consti- 
tute an indirect measurement of the axes. Hence it has happened 
that scientific as distinguished from practical geodesy has been con- 
cerned chiefly with such linear and astronomical measurements, and 
the zeal with which the work has been pursued is attested by triangu- 
lations on every continent. Passing over the earlier determinations as 
of historical interest only, all of the really trustworthy approximations 
to the lengths of the axes have been made within the half century just 
passed. The first to appear of these approximations were the well- 
founded values of Airy,* published in 1530. These, however, were 
almost wholly overshadowed and supplanted eleven years later by the 
values of Bessel,t whose spheroid came to occupy a most conspicuous 
place in geodesy for more than a quarter of a century. Knowing as 
we now do that Bessel’s values were considerably in error, it seems not 
a little remarkable that they should have been so long accepted with- 
out serious question. One obvious reason is found in the fact that a 
considerable lapse of time was essential for the accumulation of new 
data, but two other possible reasons of a different character are 
worthy of notice because they are interesting and instructive, whether 
specially applicable to this particular case or not. It seems not im- 
probable that the close agreement of the values of Airy and Bessel, 
computed independently and by different methods—the greatest dis- 
“erepaney being about 150 feet—may have been incautiously inter- 
preted as a confirmation of Bessel’s dimensions, and hence led to their 
too ready adoption. It seems also not improbable that the weight of 
Bessel’s great name may have been too closely associated in the minds 
of his followers with the weights of his observations and results. The 
sanction of eminent authority, especially if there is added to it the 
stamp of an official seal, is sometimes a serious obstacle to real prog. 
ress. We can. not do less than accord to Bessel the first place amongst 
the astronomers and geodesists of his day, but this is no adequate jus- 
tification for the exaggerated estimate iong entertained of the precision 
of the elements of his spheroid. 

The next step in the approximation was the important one of Clarket 
in 1866. His new values showed an increase over Bessel’s of about 
half a mile in the equatorial semi-axis and about three-tenths of a mile 


“Encyclopedia Metropolitana. 

t Astronomische Nachrichten No. 438. 1841. 

t Comparison of Standards of Length, made at the ordnance office, Southampton, 
England, by Capt. A. R. Clarke, R.E. Published by order of the secretary of state 
for war, 1866. 


186 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 


jn the polar semi-axis. Since 1866, General Clarke has kept pace with 
the accumulating data and given us so many different elements for our 
spheroid that it is necessary to affix a date to any of his values we may 
use. The later values, however, differ but slightly from the earlier 
ones, so that the spheroid of 1866, which has come to be pretty gener- 
ally adopted, seems likely to enjoy a justly greater celebrity than that 
of its immediate predecessor. ‘The probable error of the axes of this 
spheroid is not much greater than the hundred thousandth part,* and 
it is not likely that new data will change their lengths by more than a 
few hundred feet. 

In the present state of science, therefore, it may be said that the first 
order of approximation to the form and dimensions of the Earth has 
been successfully attained. The question which follows naturally and 
immediately is, how much further can the approximation be carried ? 
The answer to this question is not yet written, and the indications are 
not favorable for its speedy announcement. The first approximation, 
as we have seen, requires no knowledge of the interior density and ar- 
rangement of the earth’s mass; it proceeds on the simple assumption 
that the sea surface is closely spheroidal. The second approximation, 
if it be more than a mere interpolation formula, requires a knowiedge 
of both the density and arrangement of the constituents of the earth’s 
mass, and especially of that part called the crust. ‘ All astronomy,” 
says Laplace, “rests on the stability of the earth’s axis of rotation.” t 
In a Similar sense we may say all geodesy rests on the direction of the 
plumb line. The simple hypothesis of a spheroidal form assumes 
that the plumb line is everywhere coincident with the normal to the 
spheroid, or that the surface of the spheroid coincides with the level 
of the sea, But this is not quite correct. The plumb line is not in 
general coincident with the normal, and the actual sea level or geoid 
must be imagined to be an irregular surface lying partly above and 
partly below the ideal spheroidal surface. The deviations, it is true, 
are relatively small, but they are in general much greater than the 
unavoidable errors of observation and they are the exact numerical 
expression of our ignorance in this branch of geodesy. It is well 
known, of course, that deflections of the plumb line can sometimes be 
accounted for by visible masses, but on the whole it must be admitted 
that we possess only the vaguest notions of their cause and a age in- 
adequate knowledge of their distribution and extent. 

What is true of plumb-line deflections is about equally true of the de- 
viations of the intensity of gravity from what may be called the sphe- 
roidial type. Given a closely spheroidal form of the sea level and it 
follows from the law of gravitation, as a first pppoe ten, without 


* Ton Col. A. R., Geodesy, Oxford, 1880, p. 319. 

t**Toute ?Astronomie repose sur Vinvariabilité de axe de rotation de la Terre ila 
surface du sphéroide terrestre et sur Vuniformité de cette rotation.” Mécanique Cé- 
leste (Paris, 1882), Tome v. p, 22. 


THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 187 


uny knowledge of the distribution of the earth’s mass, that the increase 
of gravity varies as the square of the sine of the latitude in passing 
from the equator to the poles. This is the remarkable theorem of 
Stokes,* and it enables us to determine the form or ellipticity of the 
Karth by means of pendulum observations alone. It must be admitted, 
however, that the values of the ellipticity recently obtained in this way 
by the highest authorities, Clarket and Helmert,t are far from satis- 
factory, whether we regard them in the light of their discrepancy or 
in the light of the different methods of computing them. In general 
terms we may say that the difficulty in the way of the use of pendulum 
observations still hinges on the treatment of local anomalies and on tie 
question of reduction to sea level. At present, the case is one concern- 
ing which the doctors agree neither in their diagnosis nor in their 
remedies. 

Turning attention now from the surface towards the interior, what 
can be said of the earth’s mass as a whole, of its laws of distribution, 
and of the pressures that exist at great depths? Two facts, namely, 
the mean density and the surface density, are roughly known; a third 
fact, namely, the precession constant, or the ratio of the difference of 
the two principal moments of inertia to the greater of them, is known 
with something like precision. These facts lie within the domain of 
observation and require only the law of gravitation for their verification. 
Certain inferences, also, from these facts and others, have long been and 
still are held to be hardly less cogent and trustworthy, but before stat- 
ing them it will be well to recall briefly the progress of opinion con- 
cerning this general subject during the past century and a half. 

The conception of the earth as having been primitively fluid was the 
prevailing one among mathematicians before Clairaut published his 
Théorie de la Figure de la Terre in 1743. By the aid of this conception 
Clairaut proved the celebrated theorem which bears his name, and 
probably no idea in the mechanies of the earth has been more suggest- 
ive and fruitful. It was the central idea in the elaborate investigations 
of Laplace and received at his hands a development which his succes- 
sors have found it about equally difficult to displace or to improve 
From the idea of Huidity spring naturally the hydrostatical notions of 
pressure and level surfaces, or the arrangement of fluid masses in strata 
of uniform density. Hence follows, also, the notion of continuity of in- 
crease in density from the surface toward the center of the Earth. All 
of the principal mechanical properties and effects of the earth’s mass, 
viz, the ellipticity, the surface density, the mean density, the preces- 
sion constant, and the lunar inequalities, were correlated by Laplace § 


*Stokes, G. G., Mathematical and Physical Papers, Cambridge University Press, 1880, 
vol. I. 

t Geodesy, Chap. xiv. 

t Helmert, Dr. F. R., Die Mathematischen und Physikalischen Theorieen der Hoheren 
Geodidsie, Leipzig, 1880, 1884, 1 Teil. 

) Mécanique Céleste, Tome v, Livre xi. 


188 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 


in a single hypothesis, involving only one assumption in addition to 
that of original fluidity and the law of gravitation. This assumption 
relates to the compressibility of matter and asserts that the ratio of the 
increment of pressure to the increment of density is proportional to the 
density. Many interesting and striking conclusions follow readily from 
this hypothesis, but the most interesting and important are those rela- 
tive to density and pressure, especially the latter, whose dominance as 
a factor in the mechanics of celestial masses seems destined to survive 
whether the hypothesis stands or falls. The hypothesis requires that, 
while the density increases slowly from something less than 3 at the 
surface to about 11 at the center of the Earth, the pressure within the 
mass increases rapidly below the surface, reaching a value surpassing 
the crushing strength of steel at the depth of a few miles and amount- 
ing at the center to no less than 3,000,000 atmospheres. The infer- 
ences, then, as distinguished from facts, are that the mass of the Earth 
is very nearly symmetrically disposed about its center of gravity, that 
pressure and density except near the surface are mutually dependent, 
and that the earth in reaching this stage has passed through the fluid 
or quasi-fluid state. 

Later writers have suggested other hypotheses for a continuous dis- 
tribution of the earth’s mass, but none of them can be said to rival the 
hypothesis of Laplace. Their defects lie either in not postulating a di- 
rect connection between density and pressure or in postulating a con- 
nection which implies extreme or impossible values for these and other 
mechanical properties of the mass. 

It is clear, from the positiveness of his language in frequent allusions 
to this conception of the earth, that Laplace was deeply impressed with 
its essential correctness. ‘ Observations,” he says, ‘‘ prove incontesta- 
bly that the densities of the strata (couches) of the terrestrial spheroid 
increase from the surface to the center,” * and “the regularity with 
which the observed variation in length of a second’s pendulum follows 
the law of squares of the sines of the latitudes proves that the strata 
are arranged symwmetrically about the center of gravity of the earth.” f 
The more recent investigations of Stokes, to which allusion has already 
been made, forbid our entertaining anything like so confident an opin- 
ion of the earth’s primitive fluidity or of a symmetrical and continuous 
arrangement of its strata. But, though it must be said that the suffi- 
ciency of Laplace’s arguments has been seriously impugned, we can 
hardly think the probability of the correctness of his conclusions has 
been proportionately diminished. 


*««Enfin il (Newton) regarde la terre comme homogéne, ce qui est contraire aux 
observations, qui prouvent incontestablement que les densités des couches du sphé- 
roide terrestre croissent de la surface au centre.” Mécanique Céleste, Tome V, p. 9. 

t‘‘La régularité avec laquelle la variation observée des longueurs du pendule 2: 
secondes suit la loi du carré du sinus de la latitude prouve que ces couches sont dis: 
posées réguliérement autour du centre de gravité de la terre et que leur forme est a 
peu pres elliptique et de révolution.” Jbid., p. 17. 


THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 189 


Suppose, however, that we reject the idea of original fluidity. 
Would not a rotating mass of the size of the earth assume finally the 
same aspects and properties presented by our planet? Would not 
pressure and centrifugal force suffice to bring about a central condensa- 
tion and a symmetrical arrangement of strata similar at least to that 
required by the Laplacian hypothesis? Categorical answers to these 
questions can not be given at present. But, whatever may have been 
the antecedent condition of the earth’s mass, the conclusion seems una. 
voidable that at no great depth the pressure is sufficient to break down 
the structural characteristics of all known substances, and hence to 
produce viscous flow whenever and wherever the stress difference ex- 
ceeds a certain limit, which can not be large in comparison with the 
pressure. Purely observational evidence, also, of a highly affirmative 
kind in support of this conciusion, is afforded by the remarkable results 
of Tresca’s experiments on the flow of solids and by the abundant proofs 
in geology of the plastic movements and viscous flow of rocks. With 
such views and facts in mind the fluid stage, considered indispensable 
by Laplace, does not appear necessary to the evolution of a planet, even 
ifit reach the extreme refinement of a close fulfillment of some such 
mathematical law as that of his hypothesis. If, as is here assumed, 
pressure be the dominant factor in such large masses, the attainment 
of a stable distribution would be simply a question of time. The fluid 
mass might take on its normal form in a few days or a few months, 
whereas the viscous mass might require a few thousand or a few million 
years. 

Some physicists and mathematicians, on the other hand, reject both 
the idea of existence of great pressures within the earth’s mass, and 
the notion of an approach to continuity in the distribution of density. 
As representing this side of the question the views of the late M. Roche, 
who wrote much on the constitution of the earth, are worthy of consid- 
eration. He tells us that the very magnitude of the central pressure 
computed on the hypothesis of fluidity is itself a peremptory objection 
to that hypothesis.* According to his conception, the strata of the 
earth from the center outwards are substantially self-supporting and 
unyielding. It does not appear, however, that he had submitted this 
conception to the test of numbers, for a simple calculation will show 
that no materials of which we have any knowledge would sustain the 
stress in such shells or domes. If the crust of the earth were self-sup- 
porting, its crushing strength would have to be about thirty times that 
of the best cast steel, or five hundred to one thousand times that of 
granite. The views of Roche on the distribution of the terrestrial 
densities ae cues extreme.t He eS *s to consider the mass as 


* Mémoire sur Pétat intérieur du Wrote Pein. par M. Edouard Roche ; Memoires de 
la section des sciences de l’Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier, 1880-1884 
Tome x. 

t Ibid. 


190 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 


made up of two distinct parts, an outer shell or crust whose thickness 
is about one-sixth of the earth’s radius, and a solid nucleus having little 
or no central condensation. The nucleus is conceived to be purely 
metallic, and to have about the same density as iron. To account for 
-geological phenomena, he postulates a zone of fusion separating the 
crust from the nucleus. The whole hypothesis is consistently worked 
out in conformity with the requirements of the ellipticity, the superficial 
density, the mean density, and precession; so that to one who cam 
divest his mind of the notion that pressure and continuity are impor- 
tant factors in the mechanics of such masses, the picture which Roche 
draws of the constitution of our planet will present nothing incongru- 
ous. 

In a field so little explored and so inaccessible, though hedged about 
as we have seen by certain sharply limiting conditions, there is room 
for a wide range of opinion and for great freedom in the play of hypoth- 
esis; and although the preponderance of evidence appears to be in favor 
of a terrestrial mass in which the reign of pressure is well-nigh absolute, 
we should not be surprised a few decades or centuries hence to find 
many of our notions on this subject radically defective. 

If the problem of the constitution and distribution of the earth’s mass 
is yet an obscure and difficult one after two centuries of observation 
and investigation, can we report any greater degree of success in the 
treatment of that still older problem of the earth’s internal heat; of its 
origin and effects? Concerning phenomena always so impressive and 
often so terribly destructive as those intimately connected with the 
terrestrial store of heat, it is natural that there should be a considera- 
ble variety of opinion. The consensus of such opinion, however, has 
long been in favor of the hypothesis that heat is the active cause of 
many and a potent factor in most of the grander phenomena which geol- 
ogists assign to the earth’s crust; and the prevailing interpretation 
of these phenomena is based on the assumption that our planet is a 
cooling sphere whose outer shell or crust is constantly cracked and 
crumpled in adjusting itself to the shrinking nucleus. 

The conception that the earth was originally an intensely heated and 
molten mass appears to have first taken something like definite form 
in the minds of Leibnitz and Descartes.* But neither of these philos- 
ophers was armed with the necessary mathematical equipment to sub- 
ject this conception to the test of numerical calculation. Indeed, it was, 
not fashionable in their day, any more than it is with some philosophers, 
in ours, to undertake the drudgery of applying the machinery of analy-. 
sis to the details of an hypothesis. Nearly a century elapsed before an. 
order of intellects capable of dealing with this class of questions ap- 
peared. It was reserved for Joseph Fourier to lay the foundation and 


*Protogée, ou de la formation et des révolutions du globe, par Leibnitz, ouvrage 
traduite - - - avee une introduction et des notes parle Dr, Bertrand de Saint- 
Germain, Paris, 1859, 


THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 191 


build a great part of the super-structure of our modern theory of heat 
diffusion, his avowed desire being to solve the great problem of terres- 
trial heat. ‘The question of terrestrial temperatures,” he says, ‘has 
always appeared to us one of the grandest objects of cosmological 
studies, and we have had it principally in view in establishing the 
mathematical theory of heat.”* This ambition however was only 
partly realized. Probably Fourier under-estimated the ditneulties of 
his problem, for his most ingenious and industrious successors in the 
same field have made little progress beyond the limits he attained. 
But the work he left is a perennial index to his genius. Though quite 
inadequately appreciated by his contemporaries, the Analytical Theory 
of Heat, which appeared in 1820, is now conceded to be one of the epoch- 
making books. Indeed, to one who has caught the spirit of the extraor- 
dinary analysis which Fourier developed and illustrated by numerous 
applications in this treatise, it is evident that he opened a field whose 
resources are Still far from being exhausted. A little later Poisson took 
up the same class of questions and published another great work on the 
mathematical theory of heat.{ Poisson narrowly missed being the fore- 
most mathematician of his day. In originality, in wealth of mathe- 
matical resources, and in breadth of grasp of physical principles he was 
the peer of the ablest of his contemporaries. In lucidity of exposition 
it would be enough to say that he was a Frenchman, but he seems to 
have excelled in this peculiarly national trait. His contributions to the 
theory of heat have been somewhat overshadowed in recent times by 
the earlier and perhaps more brilliant researches of Fourier, but no 
student can afford to take up that enticing, though difficult, theory with- 
out the aid of Poisson as well as Fourier. 

It is natural, therefore, that we should inquire what opinions these 
great masters in the mathematics of heat diffusion held concerning the 
earth’s store of heat. I say opinions, for, unhappily, this whole subject 
is still so largely a matter of opinion that, in discussing it, one may not 
inappropriately adopt the famous caution of Marcus Aurelius, “ Re- 
member that all is opinion.” It does not appear that Fourier reached 
any definite conclusion on this question, though he seems to have favored 
the view that the Earth in cooling from an earlier state of incandescence 
reached finally through convection a condition in which there was a 
uniform distribution of heat throughout its mass. This is the consisten- 
tior status of Leibnitz, and it begins with the formation of the earth’s 
crust, if not with the consolidation of the entire mass. It thus affords 
an initial distribution of heat and an epoch from which analysis may 


objets des études cosmologiques, et nous l’avions principalement en vue en établissant 
ja théorie mathématique de la chaleur.” Annales de Chimie et de Physique, 1824, tome 
XXVII, p. 159, 

t Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, Paris, 1835, 


192 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 


quent distribution of heat and the resulting mechanical effects. But no 
great amount of reflection is necessary to convince one that the analysis 
can not proceed without making a few more assumpticns. The assump- 
tions which involve the least difficulty, and which for this reason, partly, 
have met with most favor, are that the conductivity and thermal capacity 
of the entire mass remain constant, and that the heat conducted to the 
surface of the earth passes off by the combined process of radiation, 
convection, and conduction, without producing any sensible effect on 
surrounding space. These or similar assumptions must be made before 
the application of theory can begin. In addition, two data are essen- 
tial to numerical calculations, namely, the diffusivity, or ratio of the 
conductivity of the mass to its thermal capacity, and the initial uniform 
temperature. The first of these can be observed, approximately, at 
least; the second can only be estimated at present. With respect to 
these important points which must be considered after the adoption of 
the consistentior status, the writings of Fourier afford little light. He 
was content perhaps to invent and develop the exquisite analysis requi- 
site to the treatment of such problems. 

Poisson wrote much on the whole subject of terrestrial temperatures 
and carefully considered most of the troublesome details which lay be- 
tween his theory and its application. While he admitted the nebular 
hypothesis and an initial fluid state of the Earth, he rejected the notion 
that the observed increase of underground temperature is due to a prim- 
itive store of heat. If the Earth was originally fluid by reason of its 
heat, a supposition which Poisson regarded quite gratuitous, he con- 
ceived that it must cooi and consolidate from the center outwards ; * so 
that according to this view the crust of our planet arrived at a condi- 
tion of stability only after the supply of heat had been exhausted. But 
Poisson was not at a loss to account for the observed temperature gra- 
dient in the earth’s crust. Always fertile in hypotheses, he advanced 
the idea that there exists by reason of interstellar radiations, great 
variations in the temperature of space, some vast regions being com- 
paratively cool and others intensely hot, and that the present store of 
terrestrial heat was acquired by a journey of the solar system through 
one of the hotter regions. ‘Such is,” he says, ‘‘in my opinion, the true 
cause of the augmentation of temperature which cecurs as we descend 
below the surface of the globe.”t This hypotheisis was the result of © 
Poisson’s mature reflection, and as such is well worthy of attention. 
The notion that there exist hot foci in space was advanced also in an- 
other form in 1852 by Rankine, in his interesting speculation on the 
re-concentration of energy. But whatever we may think of the hypoth- 
esis aS a whole it dces not appear to be adequate to the case of the 


*Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, Supplément de, Paris, 1837. 
t Telle est, dans mon opinion, la cause véritable de augmentation de température 
qui a lieu sur chaque verticale & mesure que l’on s’abaisse au-dessous de la surface du 
globe.”—Théorie Mathématique de la Chaleur, Supplément de, p, 15: 


THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 193 


Earth unless we suppose the epoch of transit through the hot region 
exceedingly remote and the temperature of that region exceedingly 
high. The continuity of geological and paleontological phenomena is 
much better satisfied by the Leibnitzian view of an earth long subject 
to comparatively constant surface conditions but still active with the 
energy of its primitive heat. 

Notwithstanding the indefatigable and admirable labors of Fourier 
and Poisson in this field, it must be admitted that they accomplished 
little more than the preparation of the machinery with which their suc- 
cessors have sought and are still seeking to reap the harvest. The dif- 
ficulties which lay in their way were not mathematical but physical. 
Had they been able to make out the true conditions of the earth’s store 
of heat, they would undoubtedly have reached a high grade of perfec- 
tion in the treatment of the problem. The theory as they left it was 
much in advance of observation, and the labors of their successors have 
therefore necessarily been directed largely towards the determination 
of the thermal properties of the earth’s crust and mass. 

Of those who in the present generation have contributed to our 
knowledge and stimulated the investigation of this subject, it is hardly 
necessary to say that we owe most to Sir Wiliam Thomson. Hehas made 
the question of terrestrial temperatures highly attractive and instructive 
to astronomers and mathematicians, and not less warmly interesting to 
gceologists and paleontologists. Whether we are prepared to accept his 
conclusions or not, we must all acknowledge our indebtedness to the 
contributions of his master hand in this field as well as in most other 
fields of terrestrial physics. The contribution of special interest to us 
in this connection is his remarkable memoir on the secular cooling of 
the Earth.* In this memoir he adopts the simple hypothesis of a solid 
sphere whose thermal properties remain invariable while it cools by con- 
duction from an initial state of uniform temperature, and draws there- 
from certain striking limitations on geologic time. Many geologists 
were startled by these limitations, and geologic thought and opinion 
have since been widely influenced by them. It will be of interest there- 
fore to state a little more fully and clearly the grounds from which his 
arguments proceed. Conceive a sphere having a uniform temperature 
initially, to cool in a medium which instantly dissipates all heat brought 
by conduction to its surface, thus keeping the surface at a constant 
temperature. Suppose we have given the initial excess of the sphere’s 
temperature over that of the medium. Suppose also that the capacity 
of the mass of the sphere for the diffusion of heat is known, and known 
to remain invariable during the process of cooling. This capacity is 
called diffusivity, and is a constant which can be observed. Then from 
these data the distribution of temperature at any future time can be 
assigned, and hence also the rate of temperature increase, or the tem- 


* Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, 1862. Thomson and Tait’s Natural 
Philosophy, vol. 1, Part 2, Appendix D, 
H. Mis, 129——13 


194 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 


perature gradient, from the surface towards the center of the sphere 
can be computed. It is tolerably certain that the heat conducted from 
the interior to the surface of the Earth does not set up any re-action 
which in any sensible degree retards the process of cooling. It escapes 
so freely that, for practical purposes, we may say it is instantly dis- 
sipated. Hence, if we can assume that the Earth had a specified uni- 
form temperature at the initial epoch, and can assume its diffusivity to 
remain constant, the whole history of cooling is known so soon as we 
determine the diffusivity and the temperature gradient at any point. 
Now, Sir William Thomson determined a value for the diffusivity from 
measurements of the seasonal variations of under-ground temperatures, 
and numerous observations of the increase of temperature with depth 
below the earth’s surface gave an average value for the temperature 
gradient. From these elements, and from an assumed initial tempera- 
ture of 7000° Fahr., he infers that geologic time is limited to something 
between twenty million and four hundred million years. He says: 
‘¢We must allow very wide limits in such an estimate as I have attempted 
to make; but I think we may with much probability say that the con- 
solidation can not have taken place less than 20 million years ago, or 
we should have more underground heat than we actually have, nor more 
than 400 million years ago, or we should not have so much as the least 
observed underground increment of temperature. That is to say, I con- 
clude that Leibnitz’s epoch of emergence of the consistentior status was 
probably between those dates.” These conclusions were announced 
twenty-seven years ago and were re-published without modification in 
1883. Recently, also, Professor Tait, reasoning from the same basis, 
has insisted with equal confidence on cutting down the upper limit of 
geologic time to some such figures as ten million or fifteen million years.* 
As mathematicians and astronomers, we must all confess to a deep inter- 
est in these conclusions and the hypothesis from which they flow. They 
are very important if true. But what are the probabilities? Having 
been at some pains to look into this matter, I feel bound to state that, 
although the hypothesis appears to be the best which can be formulated 
at present, the odds are against its correctness. Its weak links are the 
unverified assumptions of an initial uniform temperature and a constant 
diffusivity. Very likely these are approximations, but of what order 
we can not decide. Futhermore, if we accept the hypothesis, the odds 
appear to be against the present attainment of trustworthy numerical 
results, since the data for calculation, obtained mostly from observa- 
tions on continental areas, are far too meagre to give satisfactory aver- 
age values for the entire mass of the earth. In short, this phase of the 
case seems to stand about where it did twenty years ago, when Huxley 
warned us that the perfection of our mathematical mill is no guaranty 
of the quality of the grist, adding that, ‘as the grandest mill will not 


*Recent Advances in Physical Science, London, 1876. 


THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 195 


extract wheat flour from peascods, so pages of formulz will not get a 
definite result out of loose data.”* 

When we pass from the restricted domain of quantitative results 
concerning geologic time to the freer domain of qualitative results of a 
general character, the contractional theory of the earth may be said 
still to lead all others, though it seems destined to require more or less 
modification if not to be relegated to a place of secondary importance. 
Old, however, as is the notion that the great surface irregularities of 
the earth are but the outward evidence of ‘a crumpling crust, it is only 
recently that this notion has been subjected to mathematical analysis 
on anything like a rational basis. About three years ago Mr. T. Mel- 
lard Readet announced the doctrive that the earth’s crust from the 
joint effect of its heat and gravitation should behave in a way somewhat 
analogous to a bent beam, and should possess at a certain depth a 
‘level of no strain” corresponding to the neutral surface in a beam. 
Above the level of no strain, according to this doctrine, the strata will 
be subjected to compression and will undergo erumpling, while below 
that level the tendency of the strata to crack and part is overcome by 
pressure which produces what Reade calls ‘compressive extension,” 
thus keeping the nucleus compact and continuous. A little later the 
same idea was worked out independently by Mr. Charles Davison,i and 
it has since received elaborate mathematical treatment at the hands of 
Darwin,§ Fisher,|| and others. The doctrine requires for its application 
a competent theory of cooling, and hence can not be depended on at 
present to give anything better than a general idea of the mechanics of 
crumpling and a rough estimate of the magnitudes of the resulting 
effects. Using Thomson’s hypothesis, it appears that the stratum of no 
strain moves downward from the surface of the earth at a nearly con- 
stant rate during the earlier stages of cooling, but more slowly during 
later stages; its depth is independent of the initial temperature of the 
earth; and if we adopt Thomson’s value of the diffusivity, it will be 
about two and a third miles below the surface in a hundeed million years 
from the beginning of cooling, and a little more than fourteen miles 
below the surface in seven hundred million years. The most important 
inference from this theory is that the geological effects of secular cooling 
will be confined for a very long time toa comparatively thin crust. Thus, 
if the earth is a hundred million years old, crumpling should not extend 
much deeper than two miles. <A test to which the theory has been sub- 


- * Geological Reform (The Anniversary Address to the Geological Society for 1869). 

t Reade, T. Mellard, Origin of Mountain Ranges, London, 1886. 

¢ On the Distribution of Strain in the Earth’s Crust resulting from Secular Cooling 
with special reference to the growth of continents and the formation of mountain 
chains. By Charles Davison, with a note by G. H. Darwin. Philosophical Transac- 
tions, vol. 178 (1887), A, pp. 231-249. 

§ Ibid. 

|| Fisher, Rey. Osmond, Physics of the Earth’s Crust, second edition, London, 1889, 
Chapter VIL. 


196 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 


jected, and one which some* consider crucial against it, is the volumetric 
amount of crumpling shown by the Earth at the present time. This is 
a difficult quantity to estimate, but it appears to be much greater than 
the theory can account for. 

The opponents of the contractional theory of the Earth, believing it 
quantitatively insufficient, have recently revived and elaborated an 
idea first suggested by Babbaget and Herschel in explanation of the 
greater folds and movements of the crust. This idea figures the crust 
as being in a state bordering on hydrostatic equilibrium, which can not 
be greatly disturbed without a re-adjustment and consequent movement 
of the masses involved. According to this view the transfer of any 
considerable load from one area to another is followed sooner or later 
by a depression over the loaded area and a corresponding elevation 
over the unloaded one, and in a general way it is inferred that the ele- 
vation of continental areas tends to keep pace with erosion. The proc- 
ess by which this balance is maintained has been called isostasy,i apd 
the crust is said to be in an isostatic state. The dynamics of the super- 
ficial strata with the attendant phenomena of folding and faulting are 
thus referred to gravitation alone, or to gravitation and whatever op- 
posing force the rigidity of the strata may offer. In a mathematical 
sense, however, the theory of isostasy is in a less satisfactory state than 
the theory of contraction. As yet we can see only that isostasy is an 
efficient cause if once set in action, but how it is started and to what ex- 
tent it is adequate remain to be determined. Moreover, isostasy does 
not seem to meet the requirements of geological continuity, for it tends 
rapidly towards stable equilibrium, and the crust ought therefore to_ 
reach a state of repose early in geologic time. But there is no evidence 
that such a state has been attained, and but little if any evidence of 
diminished activity in crustal movements during recent geologic time. 
Hence we infer that isostasy is competent only on the supposition that 
itis kept in action by some other cause tending constantly to disturb 
the equilibrium which would otherwise result. Such a cause is found 
in secular contraction, and it is not improbable that these two seem- 
ingly divergent theories are really supplementary. 

Closely related to the questions of secular contraction and the me- 
chanics of crust movements are those vexed questions of earthquakes, 
voleanism, the liquidity or solidity of the interior, and the rigidity of 
the earth’s mass as a whole ;—all questions of the greatest interest, but 
still lingering on the battle-fields of scientific opinion. Many of the 
“thrice slain” combatants in these contests would fain risk being slain 
again; and whether our foundation be liquid or solid, or, to speak more 


* Notably, Rev. Osmond Fisher. See his Physies of the Earth’s Crust, chapter viii. 

+t Appendix tothe Ninth Bridgewater Treatise (by C. Babbage), second edition, Lon- 
don, 1838. 

t Dutton, Capt. C.E. On some of the Greater Problems of Physical Geology, 
Bulletin Philosophical Society of Washington, vol. X1, pp. 51-64. 


THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 197 


precisely, whether the Earth may not be at once highly plastic under 
the action of long-continued forces and highly rigid under the action 
of periodic forces of short period, it is pretty certain that some years 
must elapse before the arguments will be convincing to all concerned. 
The difficulties appear to be due principally to our profound ignorance 
of the properties of matter subject to the joint action of great pressure 
and great heat. The conditions which exist a few miles beneath the 
surface of the earth are quite beyond the reach of laboratory tests as 
hitherto developed, but it is not clear how our knowledge is to be im- 
proved without resort to experiments of a scale in some degree com- 
parable with the facts to be explained. In the mean time, therefore, we 
may expect to go on theorizing, adding to the long list of dead theories 
which mark the progress of scientific thought with the hope of attain- 
ing the truth not so much by direct discovery as by the laborious process 
of eljizninating error. . 

When we take a more comprehensive view of the problems presented 
by the Earth, and look for light on their solution in theories of cosmog- 
ony, the difficulties which beset us are no less numerous and formidable 
than those encountered along special lines of attack. Much progress 
has recently been made, however, in the elaboration of such theories. 
Roche,* Darwin.t and others have done much to remove the nebulosity 
of Laplace’s nebular hypothesis. Poincaré ¢ and Darwin § have gone far 
towards bridging the gaps which have long rendered the theory of ro- 
tating fluid masses incomplete. Poincaré has, in fact, shown us how a 
homogeneous rotating mass might, through loss of heat and consequent 
contraction, pass from the spheroidal form to the Jacobian ellipsoidal 
form, and thence, by reason of its increasing speed of rotation, separate 
into two unequal masses. Darwin, starting with a swarm of meteorites 
and gravitation asa basis, has reached many interesting and instructive 
results in the endeavor to trace out the laws of evolution of a planetary 
system.|| But notwithstanding the splendid researches of these and 
other investigators in this field, it must be said that the real case of 
the solar system, or of the earth and moon, still defies analysis; and 
that the mechanics of the segregation of a planet from the sum, or of a 
satellite from a planet, if such an event has ever happened, or the 


* Essai sur la Constitution et Vorigine du systéme solaire, par M. Edouard Roche. 
Mémoires deV Académie des Sciences et Lettres de Montpellier, Tome vit, 1873. 

t On the Precession of a Viscous Spheroid and on the remote History of the Earth, 
Phil. Trans., Part u1, 1879. On the secular changes in the Elements of the Orbit of a 
Satellite revolving about a tidally distorted Planet, Phil. Trans., Part 11, 1880. On 
the Tidal Friction of a Planet attended by several Satellites, and on the Evolution of 
the Solar System, Phil. Trans., Part 11, 1881. 

{ Sur léquilibre dune masse fluide animée d’un mouvement de rotation. Acta 
Mathematica, vol. 7, 1885. 

§ On figures of Equilibrium of Rotating Masses of Fluid, Phil. Trans., vol. 178, 1887. 

|| On the Mechanical Conditions of a Swarm of Meteorites and on Theories of Cos- 
mogony, Phil. Trans., vol. 180, 1889. 


198 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 


mechanies of the evolutien of a solar system from a swarm of meteor- 
ites, are still far from being clearly nade out. 

Ti me does nof permit me to make anything but the briefest allusion 
to the comparatively new science of methematical meteorology with 
its already considerable list of well-defined theories pressing for accept- 
ance or rejection. Nor need I say more with reference to those older 
mathematical questions of the tides and terrestial magnetism than that 
they are still unsettled. These and many other questions, old and new, 
might serve equally well to illustrate the principal fact that this address 
has been designed to einphasize, namely, that the mathematical theories 
of the earth already advanced and elaborated are by no means com- 
plete, and that no mathematical Alexander need yet pine for other 
worlds to conquer. 

Speculations concerning the course and progress of science are 
usually untrustworthy if not altogether fallacicus. But, being dele- 
gated for the hour to speak toand for mathematicians and astronomers, 
it may be permissible to offer, in closing, a single suggestion, which will 
perhaps help us to orient ourselves aright in our various fields of re- 
search, If the curve of scientific progress in any domain of thought 
could be drawn, there is every reason to believe that it would exhibit 
considerable irregularities. There would be marked maxima aud min- 
ima in its general tendency towards the limit of perfect knowledge; and 
it seems not improbable that the curve would show throughout some 
portions of its length a more or less definitely periodic succession of 
maxima and minima. Races and communities as well as individuals, 
the armies in pursuit of truth as well as those in pursuit of plunder, 
have their periods of cuiminating activity and their periods of placid 
repose. It is a curious fact that the history of the mathematical theories 
of the earth presents some such periodicity. We have the marked max- 
imum of the epoch of Newton near the end of the seventeenth century, 
with the equally marked maximum of the epoch of Laplace near the end 
of the eighteenth century; and, judging from the recent revival of geo- 
desy and astronomy in Europe, and from the well-nigh general activity 
in mathematical and geological research, we may hope, if not expect, that 
the end of the present century will signalize a similar epoch of productive 
activity. The minima periods which followed the epochs of Newton and 
Laplace are less definitely marked bat not less noteworthy and instruct- 
ive. They were not periods of placid repose; to find such one must go 
back into the night of the middle ages; but they were periods of greatly 
diminished energy, periods during which those who kept alive the 
spirit of investigation were almost as conspicuous for their isolation as 
for their distinguished abilities. Many causes, of course, contributed to 
produce these minima periods, and it would be an interesting study in 
philosophic history to trace out the tendency and effect of each cause. 
It is desired here, however, to call attention to only one cause which 
contributed to the somewhat general apathy of the periods mentioned, 


THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 199 


and which always threatens to dampen the ardor of research imme- 
diately after the attainment of any marked success or advance. IT refer 
to the impression of contentment with and acquiescence in the results 
of science, which seems to find easy access to trained as well as un- 
trained minds before an investigation is half completed or even fairly 
begun. That some such tacit persuasion of the completeness of the 
knowledge of the earth has at times pervaded scientific thought, there 
can be no doubt. This was notably the case during the period which 
followed the remarkable epoch of Laplace. The profound impression 
of the sufficiency of the brilliant discoveries and advances of that epoch 
is aptly described by Carlyle in the half humorous, half sareastie lan- 
guage of Sartor Resartus. ‘Our theory of gravitation,” he says, ‘is 
as good as perfect: Lagrange, it is well known, has proved that the 
planetary system, on this scheme, will endure forever; Laplace, still 
more cunningly, even guesses that it could not have been made on any 
other scheme. Whereby, at least, our nautical logbooks can be better 
kept; and water transport of all kinds has grown more commodious, 
Of geology and geognosy we know enough; what with the labors of 
our Werners and Huttons, what with the ardent genius of their disci- 
ples, it has come about that now, to many a royal society, the creation 
of a world is little more mysterious than the cooking of a dumpling; 
concerning which last, indeed, there have been minds to whom the 
question— Hove the apples were got in—presented difficulties.” This was 
written nearly sixty years ago, about the time the sage of Eeclefechan 
abandoned his mathematics and astronomy for literature to become the 
seer of Chelsea; but the force of its irony is still applicable, for we 
have yet to learn, essentially, ‘* How the apples were got in” and what 
kind they are. 

As to the future, we can only guess, less or more vaguely, from our 
experience in the past and from our knowledge of present.needs. 
Though the dawn of that future is certainly not heralded by rosy tints 
of overconfidence amongst those acquainted with the difficulties to be 
overcome, the prospect, on the whole, has never been more promising. 
The converging lights of many lines of investigation are now brought 
to bear on the problems presented by our planet. There is ample 
reason to suppose that our day will witness a fair average of those 
happy accidents in science which lead to the discovery of new princi- 
ples and new methods. We have much to expect from the elaborate 
machinery and perfected methods of the older and more exact sciences 
of measuring and weighing—astronomy, geodesy, physics, and chem- 
istry. Wehave more to expect, perhaps, from geology and meteorology, 
with their vast accumulation of facts not. yet fully correlated. Much, 
also, may be anticipated from that new astronomy which looks for the 
secrets of the earth’s origin and history in nebulous masses or in swarms 
of meteorites. We have the encouraging stimulus of a very general 
and rapidly growing popular concern in the objects of our inquiries, 


200 THE MATHEMATICAL THEORIES OF THE EARTH. 


and the freest avenues for the dissemination of new information; so 
that we may easily gain the advantage of a concentration of energy 
without centralization of personal interests. To those, therefore, who 
can bring the pre-requisites of endless patience and unflagging industry, 
who can bear alike the remorseless discipline of repeated failure and 
the prosperity of partial success, the field is as wide and as inviting as 
it ever was to a Newton or a Laplace. 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH.* 


By HENRY HENNEssy, F. R. 8. 


The structure of the Earth, as a mechanical and physical question, is 
closely connected with the origin and formation of its satellite, and of 
the planets and satellites belonging to the saine solar system. The 
brilliant results obtained during the present and preceding century by 
the aid of mathematical analysis, whereby the motions of those bodies 
‘have been brought within the grasp of dynamical laws may have led 
to the notion that by similar methods many obscure problems relating 
to the planet we inhabit might be accurately solved. But although 
the general configuration of the Earth and planets has been treated 
mathematically, with results which leave little to be desired, when 
applications of analytical methods are attempted to questions of de- 
tail in terrestrial structure, the complication of the conditions is so 
great as to impose the necessity on some investigators of so altering 
these conditions as to make their results perfectly inapplicable to the 
real state of the Earth. Physical geology presents problems the solu- 
tion of which undoubtedly calls for mechanical and physical cousidera- 
tions; but these may in general, under the complex nature of the 
phenomena, be often better reasoned out without the employment of 
the symbolical methods of analysis. In most cases the conditions are 
totally unlike those above alluded to, which admit of precise numerical 
computations. The heterogeneous character of the rocks composing 
the Earth’s crust, and the probably varied nature of the matter compos. 
ing its interior, render mathematical applications rarely possible, and 
sometimes misleading Sueh views seem to be gradually gaining 
strength among geologists who pay attention to questions of a general 
nature, and no one has beeter expressed them in recent times than 
Prof. M. E. Wadsworth.t 

The principle upon which I have ventured to found all my researches 
on terrestrial physics is this: to reason on the matter composing the 
globe from our knowledge of the physical and mechanical properties 


*From the L. H. D. Philosophical Magazine, September and October, 1386, vol. 
XXII, pp. 233-251 and 328-331. 
t ‘ Lithological Studies.” Memoirs of Harvard College Museum, vol. 1, p. 3, and 
American Naturalist, June, 1884, p. 587. 
201 


202 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 


of its materials which come under our notice. Of these properties the 
most important are density, compressibility, and contraction or dilation 
from changes of temperature. Newton and other philosophers have 
already adopted the same principle to a limited extent, when assaming 
for the mass of fluid composing the Earth in its primitive condition 
those specifie properties which have been assigned to all kinds of fluids 
observed at the surface. It is impossible to frame any statement more 
erroneous and misleading than that I have endeavored to render the 
question more hypothetical than it was. On the contrary, I have dis- 
carded the invariable assumption of mathematicians who treated the 
question, namely, the hypothesis of the invariability of positions of the 
particles composing the solidifying earth. . The speculations of all 
rational inquirers upon the Earth’s internal structure must necessarily 
start from the same general principle as above. Some investigators 
have disregarded that principle and made the problem thereby a purely 
mathematical exercise. 

In order to reason upon the Earth’s figure, we must assume that the 
laws of fluid equilibrium apply to the inner portions of the fluid as well 
as the outer. There is nothing hypothetical in reasonings as to the 
formation of the solid shell and the law of increase of ellipticity of its 
inner surface as a result of the transition of the formerly fluid matter to 
the state of solidity. On the contrary, the assumptions of Mr. Hopkins 
and other mathematicians, that this transition created no change in the 
law of density of the matter composing the Earth and in the ellipticity 
of the strata of equal pressure, are not merely hypothetical; they are 
directly opposed to well-established physical and mechanical laws. 

On the other hand, those who have concluded that nothing can be 
known of the form of the fluid nucleus seem to deny that the recognized 
laws of matter apply to the internal condition of the Earth. The shape 
of the nucleus and the figures of its stiata of equal density follow from 
physical and mechanical laws, just as the ferms of the isothermal sur- 
faces within the spheroid follow from the known laws of conduction of 
heat. Some of the mechanical reasonings regarding the strata of the 
nucleus and the structure of the solid shell can be presented without 
employing mathematical symbols, and in what follows I have, as far as 
possible, avoided the use of such symbols. 

This course, moreover, possesses the advantage of making many 
parts of reasonings more clear to geologists and observers of the strati- 
graphical featurcs of the Earth, who are in reality the ultimate judges 
of the matter, and not mathematicians. The necessity under which 
the latter are constrained when dealing with problems, of throwing the 
preliminary propositions into simple, well-defined shapes, admitting of 
definite deductions, obliges them to overlook the most essential condi- 
tions of the very questions at issue, and they thus arrive at results 
which may be precise, but which are totally inconclusive with reference 
to the Earth’s structure. 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 203 


THE MECHANICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE MATTER 
COMPOSING THE EARTH, 


(1) The materials of the Earth must manifestly influence its general 
structure, and no inquiries with this structure can be usefully made if 
the physical properties of these materials are not kept in view. If the 
_ interior of the Earth is in a fluid state it is reasonable to believe that 
the fluid is not the ideal substance called by mathematicians a perfect 
liquid, namely, a substance not only endowed with perfect mobility 
among its particles, but also absolutely incompressible. It is more rea- 
sonable to believe that the fluid in question resembles the liquid out- 
pourings of volcanoes, or at least some real and tangible liquid whose 
properties have been experimentally studied. I have already shown 
that by overlooking this simple principle certain untenable conclusions, 
which assert the exelusively solid character of the Earth, have been 
deduced. Here I propose to develop some additional arguments rela- 
tive to one of the properties of liquids which has an essential bearing 
upon the internal structure of the Earth. 

(2) In a former paper, on the limits of hypotheses regarding the 
properties of matter composing the Earth’s interior,* I find that hav- 
ing referred to published statements where the facts were not clearly 
put forward, I underrated the compressibility of liquids as compared 
with solids. The influence of the imperfect experiments of the Aca- 
demia del Cimento has long injuriously operated in defining liquid and 
solid matter, and has produced a remarkable conflict of opinions. 

On taking the results of the best experimental investigations it 
appears that, although liquids are but slightly compressible as com- 
pared with gases, they are highly compressible as compared with 
solids. In many treatises on physics and mechanics which have a high 
reputation, matter is divided into solids, elastic fluids or gases, and 
incompressible fluids or liquids. Hence the erroneous inference seems 
to have arisen that liquids are incompressible, not only in comparison 
with gases, but also in comparison with solid bodies. I was surprised 
to find this remarkably misleading proposition formally stated, long 
after the decisive experiments of Oersted, Colladon, and Sturm, Reg- 
nault, Wertheim, and Grassi, in such a work as Pouillet’s Hléments de 
Physique, and also in the German translation by Miiller. The great 
compressibility of liquids as compared with solids is seldom affirmed as 
a distinct general proposition in books on physies. It occurs, however, 
in Deschanel’s treatise, both in the original and in the English edition. 
Daguin states, in vol. 1 of his Traité de Physique, 2d edition, p. 40, that 
the compressibility of liquids was long considered doubtful, but never- 
theless they are more compressible than solids. 

Lamé also pointed out the great compressibility of liquids as com- 


* Philosophical Magazine for October, 1878, p. 265. 


264 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 


pared with solids. I have before now referred to the statement of the 
same proposition in the comprehensive work of the late Prof. C. F. 
Naumann, the Lehrbuch der Geognosie, vol. 1, p. 269, 2d edition. * 

Although in many physical questions the compressibility of liquids 
may be neglected as well as the compressibility of solids, we are not 
entitled to assume at any time that the latter are relatively more com- 
pressible than the former. In questions where the pressure of columns 
of liquid of great magnitude comes under consideration we can no 
longer treat the liquid as incompressible. In the preblem of oceanic 
tides the incompressibility of the water has been assumed, but if a 
planet were covered with water to a depth of 100 miles it would be 
scarcely correct to make such an assumption. The compressibility is 
negligible in a small mass of water, but if can not be neglected in a 
large mass. Such an assumption is equally unwarrantable with regard 
to properties of matter which, though negligible in some problems, are 
not in others. Thus in the common hydraulic questions liquids are 
assumed to be incompressible ; it would be more correct to say the com- 
pressibility is neglected. In small problems connected with limited 
portions of the atmosphere the compressibility of air may be also neg- 
lected, but we could not neglect it for a high column of the atmesphere. 
If, as before remarked, the Earth were surrounded with an ocean 100 
miles deep, the compressibility of the water could not be well over- 
looked in tidal questions; then, @ fortiori, compressibility can not be 
neglected in such a problem as the tides of a liquid spheroid having a 
radius nearly equal to that of the earth. This is immediately made 
manifest by expressing the compressibilities of liquids, not in terms of 
the amount due to a single atmosphere of pressure, as is done in most 
tabulated groups of results, but by some very much greater standard, 
such as one or two thousand atmospheres. In the experiments of Per- 
kins t the highest pressure employed was 2,000 atmospheres, and with 
this he reduced a column of water by nearly one-twelfth of its volume. 
The results of experiments with great pressures such as this are highly 
illustrative of the foree by which a fluid may be compressed in the 
EKarth’s interior. The actual coefficients of cubical compressibility, on 
which calculations could be based, may be partly obtained from the 
more exact researches of Regnault, Grassi, and other recent experi- 
ments, or from special investigations ou fluid matter conducted with 
precautions such as these observers have employed. By then compar- 
ing the moduli of compressibilities calculated from pressures of 1,000 
or 10,000 atmospheres there could be no possibility of overlooking the 
consequences as to the relations of liquids and solid bodies in any case 
where they could be subjected to pressures of abnormal magnitude. 

(3) The propagation of sound in liquids and solids gives further proof 
of the greater compressibility of liquids. 


*“Pliissige Kérper sind aber mit einer weit starkeren Compressibilitat begabt, also 


starre Korper. ” 
t Phil. Trans. 1826, p. 541. 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 205 


The rate v of transmission of sound in solids and liquids is a fune- 
tion of their compressibilities. In solids, 


v=, 


where # is the modulus of elasticity and p the density. In liquids, 


[Ee 
an {pr 

where jis the coefficient of cubic compressibility, H the pressure of 
the atmosphere, and a the deusity of mercury. But as in solids the 
modulus of elasticity is inversely as the compressibility k, we have 


ae He pie 
vy} kpHa 

Both in solids and liquids the velocity of sound is inversely as the 
square roots of the densities and compressibilities. Although such 
solids as metals and rocks are denser than most liquids, the limits of 
their elastic compressibility are so much less that sound is propagated 
far more quickly through such solids than through liquids. In steel 
and metals generally this has been long since established. In rocks 
the velocity of sound has been computed from direct experiment by 
Mallet, and has been found to be greater in continuous homogeneous 
rock than the velocities observed in liquids.* 

(4) If we had not the results of direct experiment on the compressi- 
bilities of liquids and solids to assure us that these properties in liquids 
are in excess of those obtained for solids we might fairly infer this 
conclusion from the relative dilatability of such substances under dif- 
ferences of temperature.t The construction of our common thermome- 
ters is based on the greatly superior dilatability of the liquids inclosed 
in the thermometer-tube over the material of the tube itself. The 
dynamical theory of heat clearly establishes that the expansion of 
solids and liquids is a mechanical action as much as their compression 
under the action of force, and the substances which contract least by 


*See Philosophical Transactions for 1861 and 1862. 


t Expansions of metals and glass for 1° C., according to Dulong and Petit, at different 
aes i 


SOLIDS. LIQUID. 


—___- ae | or 
Platinum. | 1. | Iron. | T. | Copper. LT. | Glass. Mercury. 
i} | i} 

| 
o | ie} ie} ie) 
1 ] 1 1 
37,700 | 199 | 58500 | 1° | qo400 | 19° | 38700 | 29° | 5550 
a 213 J 
36,800 5,425 
1 1 1 1 fax 1 
38,300 ier 29,700 | 22 |. az70p | 328 | saeco | 23 | 5,800 
| i | 


206 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 


cooling are precisely those which contract least under pressure. Gases 
which contract most by pressure are also the most dilatable by heat. 
Liquids occupy an intermediate place between solids and gases in rela- 
tion both to the dynamical effect of pressure and the action of loss of 
heat. If, instead of the experiment of the Academia del Cimento with 
globes of porous metal, an experiment with equally strong but impervi- 
ous vessels had been made, the deformation of each globe would have 
been unaccompanied by the exudation of the liquid, and the totally 
false statement that solids are more compressible than liquids would 
not have so long injuriously influenced physical science. 


THE ROTATION OF THE EARTH CONSIDERED AS PARTLY FLUID AND 
PARTLY SOLID. 


(1) The problem of the precessional motion of the Earth considered 
as a solid shell filled with liquid devoid of viscidity and friction has 
been elaborately investigated by Mr. Hopkins, in his “ Researches ot 
Physical Geology,” in the Philosophical Transactions for 1839, 1840, and 
1842, and the result obtained by him has been often quoted as extremely 
remarkable. Before treating the same question, it may be necessary 
to state that on the continent of Europe the application made by Mr, 
Hopkins of his result to geology is not generally admitted, and views 
such as I have always firmly upheld seem to be more generally adopted; - 
but some confusion appears to exist as to Mr. Hopkins’s results and 
those to which I have been led. Thus inarecent treatise on systematic 
geology the author says, with reference to the thickness of the solid 
crust of the earth, there are plainly only four possibilities to be thought 
of: 

1. The Earth is through and through solid. 

2. The Earth is through and through fluid, with a solid crust. 

3. The Earth has a solid nucleus and a solid crust, with fluid stratum 
lying between. 

4. The Earth is solid, but furnished with cavities which are filled 
with fluid. , 

The first and last of these possibilities are not admissible, according 
to astronomical observations. According to the investigatiors of 
Hopkins the action exercised by the sun and moon on the positiv of 
the Earth’s axis in space, by which precession and nutation are pro- 
duced, would be different according to the structure we attribute to the 
earth. Thevalues established by observation compel us to regard the earth 
as for the most part in a fluid state, in order that the results may har- 
monize with calculation (Pfaff, Grundriss der Geologie). This is the 
reverse of what Hopkins has concluded, and is precisely what I have 
long since enunciated, which I have always continued to maintain, and 
which forms the cumulative result of the investigations in the text of 
this paper. In a report to the Royal Irish Academy on “ Experiments 
on the Influence of the Molecular Influence of Fluids on their Motion 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 207 


when in Rotation,” p. 57,* I referred toa proof obtained by me of the 
result alluded to, and I now may be allowed to submit this proof to 
those interested in the question. 

(2) Let us suppose the earth to consist of a solid spheroidal shell 
composed of nearly similar spheroidal strata of equal density, and 
having the ellipticities of the inner and outer surfaces small and 
nearly equal. The shell is supposed to be full of liquid and to rotate 
around its polar axis. Under these conditions the attraction of an 
exterior body would tend to produce pressure between the fluid 
nucleus and the inner surface of the shell. Whatever may be the 
direction of this pressure, it can be resolved into a force normal to the 
shell’s surface and into forces in its tangent plane. The normal force 
might be effective in causing a deformation of the shell, or, if the latter 
were rigid, it would be destroyed by the shell’s resistance. 

If friction existed between the materials of the shell and the fluid of 
the nucleus, the resolved forces in the tangent plane would tend to 
change the motion of the shell from the motion it would have if empty. 
But if no friction and no adhesion existed between the particles of the 
liquid and the shell’s nearly spherical surface, and if the particles of the 
liquid are free from viscidity and internal friction among themselves. 
this purely tangential component could exercise no influence on the 
motions of the shell. If the solid envelope containing fluid was bounded 
by planes such as a prismatic vessel or box, it is manifest that unequal 
normal pressures on the faces of such prism would tend to produce 
couples, and thus possible rotations. Such a case has been considered 
by Professor Stokes, and he has shown that a rectangular prism filled 
with fluid will have the same motion as if the fluid was replaced by a 
solid having the same mass, center of gravity, and principal axis, but 
with much smaller moments of inertia corresponding to these axes. 
But in a continuously curved and nearly spherical vessel the normal 
pressure arising from the disturbance of the liquid could not produce 
the same results. The tangential components of the forces acting at 
the surface of the liquid could, in this case, be alone effective, and if no 
friction or viscidity existed at this surface such tangential action would 
totally disappear. The conclusion of Mr. Hopkins’s first memoir is, 
that if the ellipticity of the inner and outer surfaces of the solid shell 
were the same, precession would be unaffected by the fluid, and any 
small inequality of nutation would be totally inappreciable to observa- 
tion (p. 423, Phil. Trans., 1839). This may be rendered more manifest 
by recalling the general equations for the surface of a fluid obtained 
by Poisson, Navier, Meyer, and other mathematicians when the internal 
friction of the fluid is taken into account. If a, /, vy, be the angles 
made by the normal to the curved surface of the fiuid, X, Y, Z the com- 
ponents parallel to the rectangular axes of x, y, and 2, it appears that 
we shall have at the fluid surface, when nearly spherical, 


* Proceedings of R. I, A., 2d series, vol. 111, Scienve. 


208 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 


9 du “du dv du CU Nee ae 
X=h| de cosa t (G+ a cosb t+ (in + Geos y |; 


du 


Y=hke [Gat +o) cos a+ 2 ty cos fs + (3 + iy cos y |: 


5 dw du die dv dw 
ivi —— = — 5 a Sy 
ZEhi ie ae a) COS ¢ Bn mT aE i) cos fi + 2 — cos | | 


Where u,v, w are components of velocity parallel to the codrdinate 
axes, and where k is a coefficient depending on friction aud viscidity. 
If no viscidity and no friction exists we must have k=0, and hence 
also 


K=0, V0 7-0; 


Now, as_X, Y, and Zare the effective components with which the nearly 
spherical mass of fluid acts at its surface when each of them is separ- 
ately equal to zero, it follows that the fluid can do no work at the sur- 
face, and the motions of the shell would take place quite independently 
of the contained mass of fluid when the latter is totally devoid of fric- 
tion and viscidity. 

(3) It has long since been clearly shown that the motion of the axis 
of the Earth, considered as a solid body, may be determined by the 
differential equations 


yp Rem aay 
at) NCn sins? a0 
A Deady 
dt” Cn sin 6 de. 


V is the potential of the rotating solid, Cits maximum moment of in- 
ertia, 6 and ¢# direction angles of the axis of rotation. In the case of 
the Earth, & has a particular value when it becomes the obliquity of 
the ecliptic, and 7 the longitude of the first point of Aries. It follows 
that the determination of 7 and @ at any time depends upon C and JV. 

By analytical transformations, which are fully given by Poisson in 
his memoir Sur la Rotation de la Terre autour de son centre de Gravité, 
and by other writers, it finally appears that the variations of 6 and ¢% 
depend on equations in which a factor enters of the form 


PO es 
Or hort 


where A, B, C, are the three principal moments of inertia of the Earth. 
3 ; 2(C — A) 
In a spheroid of revolution A = B, and the factor becomes oe. 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 209 


As precession depends essentially on the variation of the angle #/, it 


fullows that the complete expression of the factor 0 is of primary 


importance. 

(4) Mathematicians, during the past two centuries, have devoted 
much attention to the question of the figure of a rotating mass of fluid, 
with especial reference to the explanation of the spheroidal figures of 
the earth and her sister planets. Solutions of this problem have been 
presented, especially by Clairaut, Legendre, Laplace, Gauss, Ivory, 
Jacobi, and Airy; and it is nota little remarkable that in applying 
these solutions to the case of the Earth every one of these investi- 
gators has not only supposed the Harth to have been originally in a 
fluid state, but that the particles of the mass retained the same posi- 
tions after solidification had taken place. This tacit or openly expressed 
assumption of the unchangeable position of the particles of the origi- 
nal fluid mass on their passage to a complete or partial state of solidity 
lies at the root of the whole question of the Earth’s structure. For the 
first time in the treatment of the physico-mathematical problem, I dis- 
tinctly discarded this assumption and I affirmed that the position of 
‘the particles of matter, on passing from the state of fluidity to solid- 
ity, must assume positions in conformity with mechanical and physical 
laws. In this way the hypothesis of the Earth’s primitive fluidity be- 
came more siinple and much more rational ; for it was as manifestly 
absurd to assume that the particles of the fluid mass, on passing into 
a solid state of consistence, retained their original positions, as it would 
be to assume that if the whole Earth became liquefied the positions of 
its particles would be unchanged. The corrected and simplified 
hypothesis is also fruitful in important results; butit is singular that, 
as far as | am aware, no mathemetician seems to have understood or 
appreciated its bearing on the physical structure of the Earth, except 
M. Plana, by a remark in a memoir published by him towards the close 
ot his career. 

(5) Befure presenting my conclusions on the shape of the inner surface 
of the solidified shell and Plana’s remark relative to the same subject, 
it is necessary to recall some results established by Clairaut and fre- 
quently pat forward by mathematical investigators of the Earth’s figure. 
It seems to be universally admitted that if a mass of heterogeneous fluid 
composed of strata of equal density, each increasing in density from the 
surface of the mass to its center, is set in rotation, the several strata 
will be spheroidal, but their ellipticities will not be equal. The elliptici- 
ties will decrease from the outer surface toward the center. This law 
of decrease of ellipticity toward the center is not a hypothetical result, 
but a necessary deduction from the properties of fluids. As all known 
fluids are compressible, such an arrangement of strata of equal density 
as that referred to must follow from the supposition of the existence of 
any mass of fluid of such magnitude as the whole Earth. The increase 

H, Mis. 129——14 


210 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 


of the Earth’s density from its surface to its center is, moreover, a fact 
clearly revealed by the mean density of the Earth being double that of 
the materials composing the outside of its solid shell. 

If the inerease of density in going from the surface to the center of 
a large mass of fluid is dne to compression exercised by the outer upon 
the inner strata, it follows that the greater the total quantity of fluid 
the greater will be the difference between the density at its surface and 
its center, and the less the quantity of fluid the less will be this differ- 
ence. With a small spheroid of compressible fluid the variation of 
density might be neglected and the mass regarded as homogeneous. 
Suppose such a small mass of fluid to be set in rotation, its surface will 
become spheroidal, and it will have the well-known ellipticity } m, where 
m is the ratio of centrifugal force to gravity at the equator of the 
spheroid. If now this original spheroid be supposed to be overlaid 
with masses of the fluid, one after another, the inner portions will be 
sensibly compressed, and the whole mass will begin to vary in density 
in going from center to surface. The outer surface will now present an 
ellipticity less that =m. If fresh layers of fluid are continually applied 
to the outer surface, the variation of density will continue, and the differ- 
ence between the density at the center and surface will increase. The 
ellipticity of the outer stratum of fluid will at the same time diminish 
to a value corresponding to the law of density. Let us now reverse this 
operation and suppose a great mass of liquid in rotation; its outer 
stratum will be less dense than those beneath, and its greatest density 
must be at the center. Let the outer strata of equal density be suc- 
cessively removed, so as to leave a succession of free fluid surfaces, until 
a spheroid is reached in which the difference of density is insensible. It 
is manifest that with each successive removal of the upper stratum of 
liquid the compression in the remaining strata becomes reduced, and 
also the variation in density from surface to center, until this variation 
’ becomes altogether extinguished. With the same velocity of rotation, 
the ellipticities of the surfaces of liquid thus successively exposed would 
increase up to the limiting value, 4} m. 

If at any time of the Earth’s solidification we suppose a nucleus of 
fluid to be inclosed within the solid shell, the successive increasing of 
thickness of the shell, from the congelation of the fluid matter of the 
nucleus, must be accompanied by the removal of successive outer strata 
from the nucleus. From what has been seen already, the nucleus will 
tend to acquire an increase of ellipticity, and therefore to mould the 
semifluid pasty matter about to pass into a solid state into a shape dif- 
ferent from what it would have if no change whatever in the position of 
the particles had taken place. As the nucleus is supposed to be in a 
state of fusion from heat, the successive additions to the inner surface 
of the shell from the matter of the nucleus must proceed at a very slow 
rate. The congelation of the surface stratum of the nucleus must be a 
process of the same order of slowness as the flow of heat through the 
shell; and the mathematical theory ef conduction established by Fourier 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 211 


shows that this can not proceed otherwise than slowly. The changes 
in shape of the surface of the nuclens would be correspondingly slow 
and gradual. When once a comparatively rigid outer crust had been 
formed, the process of molding additional strata of solidified matter 
against the inner surface of the crust from the nucleus would proceed 
in a slow and gradual order, so that the resulting solid strata would 
couform to the shape impressed upon them by the molding forces. A 
remarkable illustration of the way in which fused matter ejected from 
the Earth’s interior may, while turning on its center and at the same 
time cooling, mold itself against a solid crust formed upon it has been 
adduced by Charles Darwin, and has already been quoted by me on a 
former occasion. From these considerations I have been led to conelude, 
that the ellipticity of the shells inner surface may exceed but can not be less 
than the ellipticity of its outer surface ;* and referring to the same ques- 
tion, Plana used the words, *‘ La loi des ellipticités a subi dans le passage 
de Vétat liquide a l’état solide une alteration sensible par laquelle toutes 
les couches se sont constitueés de maniére a avoir un méme applatisse- 
ment et plus grand que le précédent.” M. Plana has further stated his 
views in the same volume of the Astronomische Nachrichten for 1852, 
thus: ‘Il est permis de penser que ces couches (de la fluide imeeneneel 
en se consolidant, ont subi des modifications a la verité fort petites, mais 
assez grandes pour nous empécher de pouvoir dériver, avec tout ’exacti- 
tude que Von pourrait scuhaiter, ’état de la Terre solid de son état 
antérieure de fluidité.” 

This paragraph gives a distinct adhesion to the improved form of the 
hypothesis of the original fluidity of the Earth; and this concurrence 
on the part of M. Plana is the more important, as it is possible that he 
had formed his conclusions independently. He refers to a letter written 
by him on the subject to Humboldt; and it is remarkable that, in the 
fifth and last volume of ‘*Cosmos,” published not long before the author’s 
death, some adjacent notes allude to Plana’s views, and contain refer- 
ences to the investigations of Mr. Hopkins and to my early researches. 

At this period Humboldt could scarcely have had time to examine 
the mechanical and physical reasonings, and he merely quoted the 
papers in the Philosophical Transactions as if he had seen them for 
the first time. I am not aware of any evidence as to whether Plana bad 
known their contents; and it is possible that his conclusions as to the 
forms of the strata of the shell and nucleus had been formed independ- 
ently, though published a short time after my investigations. 

The annexed figure may assist in making clear the results of the pre- 
ceding paragraph. The outer ellipse represents the outline of the exte- 
rior surface of the Earth’s crust, which is shaded and bounded inwardly 
by a surface slightly more elliptical. The fluid nucleus ineluded within 
the shell is represented with strata decreasing in ellipticity towards the 


——————— ee 


* See a pained representation of a section of the shell and nucleus, 


212 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF 'THE EARTH. 


center. This arrangement is necessarily followed by a mass of fluid 
under such conditions as the nucleus, or under the conditions of the 
entirely fluid Karth. If the matter com- 
posing the Earth underwent no change 
in passing from the fluid to the solid 
state, instead of the arrangement here 
represented, the inner surface of the 
shell would have a smaller ellipticity 
than its outer surface, and the strata 
of the shell, as well as those of the nu- (i 
cleus, would be less oblate in going 0 |_— i “y 
from the outer surface. i UU l TS 

(6) It is important to distinetly bear a 
in mind that the constitution of the 
shell and nucleus indicated by the foregoing reasonings is not based 
on any hypothesis of a specific law of density of the interior strata 
of the Earth. It is a deduction from the established properties of 
fluids quite as vigorous as the conclusions regarding the spheroidal 
shape of a mass of rotating liquid. On the other hand, the supposition 
tacitly or openly made by Mr. Hopkins and his followers, that the ellip- 
ticity of the inner stratum of the solid shell is precisely the same as that 
which this stratum had when fluid, is not merely a hypothesis—it is an 
assumption which is directly contradicted by the recognized physical 
properties of all known liquids, and even contradicted by the funda- 
mental principles of hydrodynamics. Upon this assumption was based 
the calculation of the ratios of the inner and outer ellipticities of the 
shell which would correspond to the observed value of the precession 
of the Karth’s axis, and hence the limiting value of the thickness of the 
shell. But when the fundamental assumption on which this ratio is 
calculated is shown to be in contradiction to physical and mechanical 
laws, the whole of the conclusions drawn from such a calculation must 
fall to the ground. 

In the Mecanique Céleste, Laplace, following Clairaut, proved that if the 
density in a fluid spheroid decreases from the center to the surface, the 
ellipticity of the strata of equal density must decrease from the surface 
towards the center. This result forms the groundwork of some of 
the arguments employed in the present inquiry. Legendre and La- 
place also deduced a law of density from the properties of compres- 
sible fluids, and from this law the latter unfolded a law of ellipticity 
of the strata of equal density. The results arrived at in my pres- 
ent inquiry are manifestly totally independent of the law of density 


A sin qa 
p= coche sa ey deduced by Legendre and Laplace. In order to 
a 


apply this law to the strata of the solidified shell, the assumption 
must necessarily be made that the particles of the fluid underwent 
no change in position on passing to the solid state. This was assumed 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 213 


by Mr. Hopkins and Archdeacon Pratt; and, as we have seen, such an 
assumption is not only unwarranted, but is absolutely contradicted 
by the established laws of hydrodynamies. My conclusions are not 
only in harmony with those laws, but necessarily require them to be 
kept constantly in view throughout the whole investigation. 

(7) The result obtained in section (3) allows of an immediate and 
easy application to the inquiry before us, if we admit that the strata of 
equal density in the shell have all equal ellipticities—an admission 
which has been already shown to be a particular case of a rigorous and 
exact deduction from hydrodynamical principles. In this ease let us 
consider the ratio of the difference of the moments of inertia of any 
spheroidal stratum to its greatest moments of inertia. It will readily 
appear that the difference of the greatest and least moments of inertia, 
of all thestrata, divided by the sum of the greatest moments of inertia, 
will be the same as that for a homogeneous shell whose inner and outer 
elipticities are equal. 

If p be the density of any spheroidal stratum of equal density, then 
for that stratum 


OA if p (a’+y’) dx dy dz— fp (2°+y’) dx dy dz 
7 > 7s Sa ee. 
C Sp (@+y") da dy dz 


and as p may be placed outside the sign of integration, it disappears 
both from numerator and denominator. As we shall see presently, 


C\—A;_ 1 at) 
feat (2), 


where 0, and a, are the semi-axes of the stratum; and for all other 
strata of equal density we would have 


C.—A, 1/7 b,? 
(03 ie 3 ( ae ay ) 


Gow GW) Ged 1G, 


C; Ge, 


Now if these strata are all similar, and have equal ellipticities, 


and hence 


C1 Az A, Gee Oma a ( 1 <3 2) 
C; . C3 _ A; pares C,, 2 te a ? 


214 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 


where 0 and a are the outer semiaxes of the shell composed of all the 
strata of equal density. But 


i le 1? )\="— A Cit Oa wee eee (4 ues alveike Set) 
2 . ie a, C CEC; eve +C, 


This is the symbolical form of the proposition just stated. 
In a homogeneous solid of revolution the general expression for the 
moment of inertia is 


a f-yrda 


and from the ordinary treatises on mechanics it readily appears that 
from a spheroid, 
8 


7 4 
Ol 7 b, A=B=,~n0°'b (a?+0*), 


where b is the semi-polar and a the semi-equatorial axis. Hence we have 


C—A_ 2atb—ath—v Bb? atbh—a’b’ (a’—}?*) 2p Gis 
Cr — 2a5b = Oh = ah =e 3 l-a)s 


and 


2 oe): 


In a spheroidal shell for whose inner surface the semi-axes are }, and 
a, we have the moments of inertia with respect to the axes by taking 
the moments for the inner spheroid bounded by 0; and a, from those of 
the outer spheroid. 

Calling the former C; and A,, we have as before, 

4 
O1= rea LD pes i 15 ma” b,(a)?+ b,”). 

Calling C, and A, the moments of inertia of the shell, we have there- 

fore, 
8 
O1= 457 (atb—ai' bi), = Ee [a?b(a?+b?) —a?b\(a?+b,’)]; 


and hence 


< b, 
C,—A, a? b(a?—b?)—a? by (a? eo ae a oe aaa b(—qa)) 
aCe = Car) 2 (a* b—a,"b;) 
Ife and e, be the outer and inner ellipticities of the shell, 
b é. b b; 
e=1-); ro ae 


4b —a4h})( l— 
In this case a5 4 ——= 2 (ab — =a;b) ==) (Es a) 


One are Cie 


or G, Sar ee 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 215 


Consequently the precessional motion of such a shell would be the same 
as that of a homegeneous spheroid of the same ellipticity, Ife = 54,, 
it appears that the value of precession for such a spheroid would be 
57’, while its observed value is 50/-1.* Now, as it is impossible to 
admit such a difference where the result of observation is so well estab- 
lished, we must conclude that the solid shell of the Earth, composed of 
nearly equi-elliptic strata, can not extend to its center —in other words, 
that the Earth can not be altogether a solid from its surface to its center. 
On tie other hand, the fluid nucleus contained within the shell can not 
be devoid of friction and viscidity, but must possess these properties 
in common with all fluids that have ever been observed on the Earth’s 
surface. These properties of the liquid may, as I have long since an- 
nounced, cause the shell and liquid nucleus to rotate together as one 
solid mass. The same conclusion was afterward put forward by M. De- 
launey; and experiments made under his direction, and afterward, 
at the instance of the Royal Irish Academy, by me, show that in rota- 
ting glass vessels filled with water the amount of friction and viscidity 
is such as to render any difference of slow motion between the liquid 
and its containing vessel insensible. With liquids so viscid that water 
is in comparison limpid, such as piteh, honey, and especially voleanic 
lava in a fused state, the results would be absolutely decisive. To 
this class of liquids the fluid matter of the Earth’s interior, so far as 
it has come under observation, undoubtedly belongs; and hence the 
overwhelming certainty of our general conclusions as to the connection 
between the Karth’s structure and its rotation. 

(8) If the tendency of the solid crust is to become more elliptical at 
its inner surface as it increases in thickness, some interesting conse- 
quences appear to follow. If the shell were unaccompanied by the 
nucleus, or if no friction existed at their surfaces, the changes in the 
relations of the principal moments of inertia of the shell might be sup- 
posed to cause its rotation to become unstable, so as to bring about 
conditions which might result in a change of the axis of rotation. It 
is easy to show on the most favorable suppositions that this could not 
occur. The increasing ellipticity of the inner surface of the shell would 
be due to the increasing oblateness of the surface of the fluid nucleus, 
and this would be at its maximum if the neucleus approached a state 
of homogeneity; but the fluid can not approach this state unless the 
radius of the nucleus is so small that the variation in density due to 
pressure becomes insensible, whence all its strata would possess the 
same density. This condition with a certain thickness of the solid shell 


* A revision of the numerical data from recent astronomical results leads me to con- 
‘clude that the precession for the solid spheroid would be a little less, and about 55’ 
instead of 57’. This I propose to prove in a short paper, entitled ‘‘ Note on the an- 
nual precession calculated on the hypothesis of the earth’s solidity.” This note 
[appended to this article] leaves the general conclusions of the present paper un- 
altered. 


4 


216 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 


may bring about equality in the two principal moments of inertia of the 
shell. The most favorable case would be for a homogeneous shell. 
Hence we have only to solve the very simple problem: Given the thick- 
ness of a homogeneous spheroidal shell at its pole, required its thick- 
ness at the equator, so as to make its principal moments of inertia 
equal. We have from the expressions for CO, and A, in (7), 


a? b (a? b? 
wb (v@—b’) =a,’ b, (a’—b/), or a,$—a, b?= ee ) 
1 


which gives 


eee (ete otal a 
= 1 


This may be written 


Ona || ft? ie 
bo aN GN oy oe ee 


If we take e= 1, for the outer ellipticity of the shell, and e¢= 54,5 
a 
b 


a : : i 
and 53 from whence it appears that in order to have equal moments of 
L 


inertia the thickness of the shell should be .047 of its equatorial semi- 
axis, and the mean radius of the nucleus would thus be reduced from 
the original value when the whole mass was fluid by a fraction less 
than one-twentieth. Under these conditions the ellipticity of 53,5, cor- 
responding to homogeneity, could not exist; and hence it may be con- 
cluded that, whether the shell is thin or whether the Earth has become 
almost altogether solid, the moment of the inertia of the shell with 
respect to its polar axis must be always greater than the moment of 
inertia for its equatorial axis. 

The tendency of the fluid nucleus to increase in ellipticity might 
produce a result worthy of examination by volcanologists, namely, a 
possible increase in the development of voleanic phenomena in equa- 
torial as compared to polar regions with the progressive solidification 
of the Earth up to a certain point. Until the thickness of the shell 
has become very great, recent periods should exhibit a greater devel- 
opment of volcanic energy towards the equator than toward the poles 
as compared to remote epochs. 


for its maximum inner ellipticity, we can easily find the values of 


NOTE. 
On the annual precession calculated on the hypothesis of the Eartl’s solidity. 
In discussing the influence of the internal structure of the Earth 


upon precession it has been frequently assumed that with the ellipticity 
zs, the annual precession of a homogeneous solid shell or completely 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. Pn | 


solid spheroid would be 57’, ‘This was the result of Mr. Hopkins’s eal- 
culations; and the difference, amounting to between six and seven sec- 
onds between it and the observed value, formed the basis of all his 
conclusions relative to the Earth’s internal condition. Hitherto I have 
not seen any reason for doubting the above numerical result; but on 
looking more closely into the question it appears probable that we 
must reduce the precession for the hypothetical solid spheroid to about 
50, If the Earth were a spheroid perfectly rigid, the amount of pre- 
cession can be calculated from formule given in Airy’s Tracts, Pratt’s 
Mechanical Philosophy, Pontecoulant’s Théorie Analytique du Systeme du 
Monde, or Resal’s Traité de Mécanique Celeste. In the two latter works 
Poisson’s memoir on the rotation of the Karth about its center of grav- 
ity is very closely followed, and the formule are those which I have 
generally employed. From these writings we have 
__ 3m? (2C—A—B) 


Gare 1 Va 
ae 0 (l+y) cos I; 


where J is the inclination of the equator to the ecliptic, 7 the ratio of 
the Moon’s action on the Earth compared to that of the Sun, m the 
Earth’s mean motion around the Sun, m the ratio of this mean motion 
to the Earth’s rotation, and A, B, C ae three principal movements of 
the inertia of the Earth. When the Earth is supposed to be a spheroid 
of revolution, A=#, and the above becomes 


mie) (Le. 
(1) pom oe (l+y) eos J. 


2n 


Pratt gives the formula 


(2) pF (“4*) {1 que 1—2 sin? i} 1800: 
on on Ere 5 ee 


where 7 is the inclination of the Moon’s orbit to the ecliptic, y the ratio 
of the Earth’s mass to that of the Moon. 

In all these formule, or in any others by which the precession can 
be calculated, the Moon’s mass entérs directly or indirectly. When 
Mr. Hopkins made his caleulation more than forty years ago, he appears 
to have taken the value of the Moon’s mass and all his other numerical 
data from the early editions of Airy’s Tracts. He uses 366.26 for 
the Earth’s period, 27.32 for the Moon’s. He makes [=23° 28/, i=5° 
8’ 50’, and the Moon’s mass =; of the Earth’s mass. All of these values 
require revision, and it may be Sanh ed that Sir George Airy has 
more recently eed the opinion that 35 may be taken as the value 
of the Moon’s mass.* On this question Tf may be permitted to remark 


*Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, December, 1878, p. 140. 


218 ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 


that there are three different phenomena from which the Moon’s mass 
has been determined: (1) The perturbations of the Earth’s motion in 
its orbit around the Sun by the action of the moon; (2) the tides; and 
(3) the nutation of the Harth’s axis. The largest mass, or #5 nearly, has 
been obtained from the first, and the smallest from nutation. But 
the values obtained from nutation are not very accordant, and more- 
over the close connection between nutation and precession makes it a 
doubtfel matter to calculate the amount of one from a quantity depend- 
ing on the other. The moon’s mass obtained from the tides is that 
which has been employed by Laplace, Poisson, and other mathemati- 
cians as the most probable. It appears that a recent discussion of the 
tides in the United States, made by Mr. Ferrel, has given the same 
value as that found by Laplace. This circumstance, as well as the fact 
that the value so obtained lies between the values found by the other 
methods, gives us reason to place much confidence in the result. If we 
call P; the precession for a homogeneous spheroid whose ellipticity is 
EH, then from (1) 

pe om? 


=o (1+y) cos I. 

If we take the value of the Moon’s mass given by the tides, or rather 
the ratio of the Moon’s action to that of the Sun thus given, we shall 
use the value of y employed by Poisson, Pontécoulant, and Resal ; 
if we also employ for # the value which Colonel Clarke shows good 
ground for deeming the most probable,* that is 55:;; instead of 54, or 
even smaller fractions hitherto accepted, [ find that P, becomes 56’’-05. 
By Pratt’s formula and the numerical values he employs, except for 
FR, I find 

P,=54'"-879. 


If we take ,)5 for the Moon’s mass in Poisson’s formula, y becomes 
22062, and 
P\=53'-574. 


If we change y to 80 in Pratt’s formula with 
E= Fo aureS P,=52""-95. 


The value for the observed precession now generally admitted is 
50-37. It is therefore manifest that the difference between this and 
the precession of a homogeneous equi-elliptic spheroid can not be 
admitted to be as great as Mr. Hopkins has declared it to be. From 
the values of P,; which I have ecaleulated we should have 


P,—P=5'"-68 and 4-507, with the Moon’s mass=7;; 


* See Colonel Clarke’s paper in the Philosophical Magazine for August, 1878, where 
he maintains that recent geodetical results tend to increase the value of the Earth’s 
ellipticity and to make the measured value approach to that obtained from pen- 
dulum observations. 


ON THE PHYSICAL STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH. 219 


3-204 . 
P—P=3 8G 17) and 2” .58, if we take the Moon’s mass=,). 


On calculating P with the Moon’s mass=,), Sun’s mass 354936, y is 
2-25395. If we take for J its value in 1852, or 23° 27’ 32’, and make 


m=359°-9931, —— 002% 7303, H=s5bas, 


the following calculations can be made. 


log m 2-5562965, 
log (1+y) ~0-51: 24109, 
log cos I =9-9625322, 
m _ —344362104, 
108 n =——~" 4674500 
37323937 
log 5 {60x60} = roggi37 
24675459 


or P\=54" nearly, P,—P=3"-617. 


Consequently instead of admitting Mr. Hopkins’s result of 7” for the 
difference between the precession of a homogeneous spheroid with the 
Earth’s ellipticity and the precession actually observed, we may affirm 
that this difference is probably not more than 4” or 5’, 

With the best values for the numerical elements the difference is, 
however, too well ascertained to be overlooked, and it leads to the con- 
clusion that the Earth can not consist of an entirely solid mass composed 
of equi-elliptic strata, and that it is therefore partly composed of a solid 
shell bounded by surfaces such as I have elsewhere indicated, with an 
interior mass of viscid liquid, such as is seen flowing from the volcanic 
openings of the shell, arranged in strata conforming to the laws of 
hydrostatics, or in other words, with strata of equal density decreasing 
in ellipticity toward the Earth’s center. 


GLACIAL GEOLOGY.* 


By Prof. JAMES GEIKIE, F. R. S. 


The results obtained by geologists, who have been studying the pe- 
ripheral areas of the drift-covered regious of our continent, are such as 
to satisfy us that the drifts of those regions are not iceberg-droppings, 
as we used to suppose, but true morainic matter and fluvio-glacial de- 
tritus. Geologists have not jumped to this conclusion; they have only 
accepted it after laborious investigations of the evidence. Since Dr. 
()tto Torell, in 1875, first stated his belief that the * diluvium” of north 
Germany was or glacial origin a great literature on the subject has 
Sprung up, a perusal of which will show that with our German friends 
glacial geology has passed through much the same succession of phases 
as with us. At first icebergs are appealed to as explaining everything— 
next we meet with sundry ingenious attempts at a compromise between 
floating ice and a continuous ice-sheet. As observations multiply, how- 
ever, the element of floating ice is gradually eliminated, and all the 
phenomena are explained by means of land ice and ‘schmelz-wasser” 
alone. It is a remarkable fact that the iceberg hypothesis has always 
been most strenuously upheld by geologists whose labors have been 
largely confined to the peripheral areas of drift-covered countries. In 
the upland and mountainous tracts, on the other hand, that hypothesis 
has never been able to survive a moderate amount of accurate observa- 
HOD. =e = 

The notion of a general ice-sheet having covered a large part of 
Europe, which a few years ago was looked upon as a wild dream, has 
been amply justified by the labors of those who are so assiduously investi- 
gating the peripheral area of the “ great northerv drift.” And perhaps 
I may be allowed to express my own belief that the drifts of middle and 
southern England, which exhibit the same complexity as the “lower 
diluvium” of the continent, will eventually be generally acknowledged to 
have had a similar origin. 

I now pass on to review some of the general results obtained by con- 


* Presidential address before the Geological Section of the British Association Ady. 
Sci. at Newcastle, September, 1589. (Report of the British Association, 1839, vol. LUX, 
pp. 552-564. ) 

221 


Doe GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 


tinental geologists as to the extent of area occupied by inland ice dur- 
ing the last great extension of glacier ice in Europe. It is well known 
that this latest ice-sheet did not overflow nearly so wide a region as 
that underneath which the lowest bowlder clay was accumulated. 
Gerard de Geer has given a summary* of the general results obtained 
by himself and his fellow-workers in Sweden and Norway; and these 
have been supplemented by the labors of Berendt, Geinitz, Hunchecone, 
Klockmann, Keilhack, Schréder, Wahnschaffe, and others in Germany, 
and by Sederholm in Finland. From them we learn that the end- 
moraines of the ice-circle round the southern coasts of Norway, from 
whence they sweep southeast by east across the province of Gottland 
in Sweden, passing through the lower ends of Lakes Wener and Wet- 
ter, while similar moraines mark out for us the terminal front of the 
inland ice in Finland at least two parallel frontal moraines passing 
inland from Hango head on the Gulf of Finland through the southern 
part of that province to the north of Lake Ladoga. Further northeast 
than this they have not been traced; but, from some observations by 
Helmersen, Sederholm thinks it probable that the terminal ice front 
extended northeast by the north of Lake Onega to the eastern shores 
ot the White Sea. Between Sweden and Finland lies the basin of the 
Baltic, which at the period in question was filled with ice, forming a 
great Baltic glacier which overflowed the Aland Islands, Gottland and 
Oland, and which, fanning out as it passed toward the southwest, 
invaded, on the south side, the Baltic provinces of Germany, while, on 
the north, it crossed the southern part of Scania in Sweden and the 
Danisb islands to enter upon Jutland. - - - 

The general conclusion arrived at by those who are at present inves- 
tigating the glacial accumulations of northern Europe may be sum- 
marized as follows : 

(1) Before the invasion of northern Germany by the inland ice the 
low grounds bordering on the Baltic were overflowed by a sea which 
contained a boreal and arctic fauna. These marine conditions are in- 
dicated by the presence, under the lower bowlder clay of more or less 
well-bedded fossiliferous deposits. On the same horizon occur also beds 
of sand, containing fresh-water shells, and now and again mammalian 
remains, some of which imply cold and other temperate climatic condi- 
tions. Obviously all these deposits may pertain to one and the same 
period, or more properly to different stages of the same period—some 
dating back to a time when the climate was still temperate, while 
others clearly indicate the prevalence of cold conditions, and are there- 
fore probably somewhat younger. 

(2) The next geological horizon in ascending order is that which is 
marked by the “ Lower Diluvium”—the glacial and fluvioglacial de- 
tritus of the great ice-sheet which flowed south to the foot of the Harz 
Mountains. The bowlder clay on this horizon now and again contains 


* Zeitschrift d. deutsch. geolog. Ges. Bd. XXXVI, p. 177. 


GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 223 


marine, fresh-water, and terrestrial organic remains, derived undoubt- 
edly from the so-called preglacial beds already referred to. These latter, 
it would appear, were plowed up and largely incorporated with the old 
ground moraine. 

(3) The interglacial beds which next succeed contain remains of a 
well-marked temperate fauna and flora, which point to something more 
than a mere partial or local retreat of the inland ice. The geographi- 
cal distribution of the beds and the presence in these of such forms as 
Hlephas antiquus, Cervus elephas, C. megaceros, and a flora comparable 
to that now existing in northern Germany, justify geologists in con- 
cluding that the inter-glacial epoch was one of long duration, and 
characterized in Germany by climatic conditions apparently not less 
temperate than those that now obtain. One of the phases of that 
inter-glacial epoch, as we have seen, was the overflowing of the Baltic 
provinces by the waters of the North Sea. 

(4) To this well-marked inter-glacial epoch succeeded another epoch 
of arctic conditions, when the Scandinavian inland ice once more 
invaded Germany, plowing through the inter-glacial deposits, and 
working these up in its ground moraine. So far as I can learn, the 
prevalent belief among geologists in north Germany is that there was 
only one inter-glacial epoch; but, as already stated, doubt has been 
expressed whether all the facts can be thus accounted for. There must 
always be great difficulty in the correlation of widely separated inter- 
glacial deposits, and the time does not seem to me to have yet come 
when we can definitely assert that all these inter-glacial beds belong to 
the same geological horizon. 

Ihave dwelt upon the recent work of geologists in the peripheral 
areas of the drift-covered regions of northern Hurope, because I think 
the results obtained are of great interest to glacialists in this country. 
And for the same reason I wish next to eall attention to what has been 
done of late years in elucidating the glacial geology of the Alpine lands 
of central Europe, and more particularly of the low grounds that 
stretch out from the foot of the mountains. Any observations that 
tend to throw light upon the history of the complex drifts of our own 
peripheral areas can not but be of service. The only question concern- 
ing the ground moraines that has recently given rise to much discussion 
is the origin of the materials themselves. It is obvious that there are 
only three possible modes in which those materials could have been 
introduced to the ground moraine; either they consist of superficial 
morainic débris which has found its way down to the bottom of the old 
glaciers by crevasses; or they may be made up of the rock rubbish, 
shingle, gravel, ete., which doubtless strewed the valleys before these 
were occupied by ice; or, lastly, they may have been derived in chief 
measure from the underlying rocks themselves by the action of the ice 
that overflowed them. The investigations of Penck, Blaas, Bohm, and 
Briickner appear to me to have demonstrated that the ground moraines 


224 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 


are composed mostly of materials which bave been detached from the 
underlying rocks by the erosive action of: the glaciers themselves. 
Their observations show that the regions studied by them in great 
detail were almost completely buried under ice, so that the accumula- 
tion of superficial moraines was, for the most part, impossible; and 
they advance a number of facts which prove positively that the ground 
moraines were formed and accumulated under the ice. These geolo- 
gists do not deny that some of the material may occasionally have come 
from above, nor do they doubt that preéxisting masses of rock rudbish 
and alluvial accumulations may have been incorporated with the ground 
moraines; but the enormous extent of the latter and the direction of 
transport and distribution of the erratics which they contain can not 
be thus accounted for, while all the facts are readily explained by the 
action of the ice itself, which used its subglacial débris as tools with 
which to carry on the work of erosion. 

Professor Heim and others have frequently asserted that glaciers 
have little or no eroding power, since at the lower ends of existing 
glaciers we find no evidence of such erosion being in operation. But 
the chief work of a glacier cannot be carried on atits lower end, where 
motion is reduced to a minimum, and where the ice is perforated by 
sub-glacial tunnels and arches, underneath which no glacial erosion 
can possibly take place; and yet it is upon observations made in just 
such places that the principal arguments against the erosive action of 
glaciers have been based. - - - If we wish to learn what glacier-ice 
can accomplish, we must study in detail some wide region from which 
the ice has completely disappeared. Following this plan, Dr. Blaas has 
been led by his observations on the glacial formation of the Inn Valley 
to recant his former views, and to become a formidable advocate of the 
very theory which he formerly opposed. To his work and the memoirs 
by Peneck, Briickner, and Bohm, already cited, and especially to the 
admirable chapter on glacier erosion by the last-named author, I would 
refer those who may be anxious to know the last word on this much- 
debated question. 

The evidence of inter-glacial conditions within the Alpine lands con- 
tinues to increase. These are represented by alluvial deposits of silt, 
sand, gravel, conglomerate, breccia, and lignites. Penck, Bohm, and 
Briickner find evidence of two interglacial epochs, and maintain that 
there have been three distinct and separate epochs of glaciation in the 
Alps. No mere temporary retreat and re-advance of the glaciers, ac- 
cording to them, will account for the phenomena presented by the in. 
ter-glacial deposits and associated morainic accumulations. During 
interglacial times the glaciers disappeared from the lower valleys of the 
Alps; the climate was temperate and probably the snow-fields and 
glaciers approximated in extent to those of the present day. All the 
evidence conspires to show that an interglacial epoch was of prolonged 
duration. Dr. Briickner has observed that the moraines of the last 


GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 225 


glacial epoch rest here and there upon loess, and he confirms Penck’s 
observations in South Bavaria that this remarkable formation never 
overlies the morainic accumulations of the latest glacial epoch. Ac- 
cording to Peneck and Briickner therefore the loess is of interglacial age. 
There can be little doubt, however, that loess does not belong to any one 
particular horizon. Wahnschaffe* and others have shown that through- 
out wide areas in north Germany it is the equivalent in age of the 
“Upper Diluvium,” while Schumacher? points out that in the Rhine 
valley it occurs on two separate and distinet horizons. Professor 
Andre has likewise shown that there is an upper and lower léss in 
Alsace, each characterized by its own special fauna.t 

There is still considerable difference of opinion as to the mode of 
formation of this remarkable accumulation. By many it is considered 
to be an aqueous deposit; others, following Richthofen, are of opinion 
that it is a wind-blown accumulation, while some incline to the belief 
that it is partly the one and partly the other. Nor do the upholders 
of these various hypotheses agree amongst themselves as to the pre- 
cise manner in which water or wind has worked to produce the ob- 
served results. Thus, amongst the supporters of the aqueous origin of 
the loess, we find this attributed to the action of heavy rains washing 
over and re-arranging the material of the bowlder clays.§ Many, again, 
have held it probable that loess is simply the tinest loam distributed over 
the low grounds by the flood waters that escaped from the northern 
inland ice and the mers de glace of the Alpine lands of central Europe. 
Another suggestion is that much of the material of the loess may have 
been derived from the denudation of the bowlder clays by flood water 
during the closing stages of the last cold period. It is pointed out that 
in some regions at least the loess is underlaid by a layer of erratics, which 
are believed to be the residue of the denuded bowlder clay. Weare re- 
minded by Klockmann|| and Wahnschaffe] that the inland ice must have 
acted as a great dam, and that the wide areas in Germany, ete., would 
be flooded, partly by water derived from the melting inland ice and 
partly by waters flowing north from the hilly tracts of middle Germany. 
In the great basins thus formed there would be a commingling of fine 
silt material derived from north and south, which would necessarily 
come to form a deposit having much the same character throughout. 

From what I have myself seen of the loess in various parts of Ger- 
many, and from all that I have gathered from reading and in conver- 
sation with those who have worked over loess-covered regions I incline 


* Abhandl. z. geolog. Specialkarte v. Preussen, etc., Bd. vir, Hett 1: Zeitschr. d. deutsch. 
geolog. Gesellsch., 1885, p. 904; 1886, p. 367. 

+t Hygienische Topographic von Strassburg i. E., 1885. 

t Abhandl. z. geolog. Specialkarte v. Elsass-Lothringen, Bd. vu, Heft 2. 

§ Laspeyres: Lrliuterungen z. geolog. Specialkarte v. Preuessn, etc., Blatt Grobzig, 
Zorbig und Petersberg. 

|| Klockmann: Jahrb, d. k. preuss. geology. Landesanstalt fiir 1883, p. 262. 

{/ Wahnschatte: Op. cit. and Zeitschr. d, deutsch. geolog. Ges., 1886, p. 367. 


H. Mis, 129——15 


226 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 


to the opinion that loess is for the most part of aqueous origin. In 
many cases this can be demonstrated, as by the occurrence of bedding 
and the intercalation of layers of stones, sand, gravel, etc., in the de- 
posit; again, by the not infrequent appearance of fresh-water shells ; 
but perhaps chiefly by the remarkable uniformity of character which 
the loess displays. It seemed to me reasonable also to believe that the 
flood waters of glacial times must needs have been charged with finely 
divided sediment, and that such sediment would be spread over wide 
regions in the low grounds—in the slack waters of the great rivers and 
in the innumerable temporary lakes which occupied or partly occupied 
many of the valleys and depressions of the land. There are different 
kinds of loess or loess-like deposits, however, and all need not have been 
formed in the same way. Probably some may have been derived, as 
Wahuschaffe has suggested, from the denudation of bowlder clay. Pos- 
sibly, also, some loess may owe its origin to the action of rain upon the 
stony clays, producing what we in this country would call “ rain-wash.” 
There are other accumulations, however, which no aqueous theory will 
satisfactorily explain. Under this category comes much of the so- 
called Bergléss, with its abundant land shells and its generally unstrat- 
ified character. It seems likely that such loess is simply the result of 
sub-aerial action, and owes its origin to rain, frost, and wind acting 
upon the superficial formations and re-arranging their finer-grained con- 
stituents. And it is quite possible that the upper portion of much of 
the loess of the lower grounds may have been re-worked in the same way. 
But I confess I can not yet find in the facts adduced by German geo- 
logists any evidence of a dry-as-dust epoch having obtained in Europe 
during any stage of the Pleistocene period. It is obvious, however, 
that after the flood waters had disappeared from the low grounds of 
the continent sub-aérial action would come into play over the wide 
regions covered by glacial and fluvio-glacial deposits. Thus, in the 
course of time these deposits would become modified, just as similar 
accumulations in these islands have been top-dressed,as it were, and to 
some extent even re-arranged. 

I am strengthened in these views by the conclusion arrived at by M. 
Falsan, the eminent French glacialist. Covering the plateaux of the 
Dombs, and widely spread throughout the valleys of the Khone, the Ain, 
the Isére, ete., in France, there is a deposit of loess, he says, which has 
been derived from the washing of the ancient moraines. At the foot of 
the Alps, where black schists are largely developed, the loess is dark 
gray; but west of the secondary chain the same deposit is yellowish and 
composed almost entirely of silicious materials, with only a very little 
carbonate of lime. This limon, or loess, however, is very generally modi- 
fied towards the top by the chemical action of rain, the yellow loess 
acquiring a red color. Sometimes it is crowded with calcareous con- 
cretions; at other times it has been deprived of its calcareous element 
and converted into a kind of pulverulent silica or quartz. This, the true 


GLACIAL GEOLOGY. gar 


loess, is distinguished from another, lehm, which Falsan recognizes as 
the product of atmospheric action, formed, in fact, in place from the 
disintegration and decomposition of the subjacent rocks. Even this 
lehm has been modified by running water, dispersed or accumulated 
locally, as the case may be.* 

All that we know of the loess and its fossils compels us to include this 
accumulation as a product of the Pleistocene period. Itis not of post- 
glacial age, even much of what one may call the ‘“remodified loess” 
being of Late Glacial or Pleistocene age. I can not attempt to give 
here a summary of what has been learned within recent years as to the 
fauna of the loess. The researches of Nehring and Liebe have familiar- 
ized us with the fact that at some particular stage in the Pleistocene 
period a fauna like that of the alpine steppe lands of western Asia was 
indigenous to middle Europe, and the recent investigations of Woldrich 
have increased our knowledge of this fauna. At what horizon, then, 
does this steppe fauna make its appearance? At Thiede Dr. Nehring 
discovered in so-called loess three successive horizons, each characterized 
by a special fauna. The lowest of these faunas was decidedly arctic in 
type; above that came a steppe fauna, which last was succeeded by a 
fauna comprising such forms as mammoth, woolly rhinoceros, Bos, 
Cervus, horse, hyena, and lion. Now, if we compare this last fauna 
with thetorms which have been obtained from true postglacial deposits, 
those deposits, namely, which overlie the younger bowlder clays and 
flood accumulations of the latest glacial epoch, we find little in common. 
The lion, the mammoth, and the rhinoceros are conspicuous by their 
absence from the postglacial beds of Europe. In place of them we 
meet with a more or less arctic fauna, and a high alpine and arctic 
flora, which, as we all know, eventually gave place to the flora 
and fauna with which Neolithic man was contemporaneous. As this 
is the case throughout northwestern and central Europe, we feel justi- 
- fied in assigning the Thiede beds to the Pleistocene period, and to that 
interglacial stage which preceded and gradually merged into the last 
glacial epoch. - - - 

If the student of the Pleistocene fauna has certain advantages in the 
fact that he has to deal with forms many of which are still living, he 
labors at the same time under disadvantages which are unknown to 
his colleagues who are engaged in the study of the life of far older 
periods. The Pleistocene period was distinguished above all things 
by its great oscillations of climate, the successive changes being 
repeated and producing correlative migrations of floras and faunas. 
We know that arctic and temperate faunas and floras flourished 
during interglacial times, and a like succession of life forms followed 
the final disappearance of glacial conditions. A study of the organic 
remains met with in any particular deposit will not necessarily, there- 
fore, enable us to assign these to their proper horizon. The geograph- 


*Falsan: La Période glaciaire, p. 51, 


228 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 


ical position of the deposit and its relation to Pleistocene accumulations 
elsewhere must clearly be taken into account. Already, however, 
much has been done in this direction, and it is probable that ere long 
we shall be able to arrive at a fair knowledge of the various modifi- 
cations which the Pleistocene floras and faunas experienced during 
the protracted period of climatic changes of which I have been 
speaking. We shall even possibly learn how often the arctic, steppe, 
prairie, and forest faunas, as they have been defined by Woldrich, 
replaced each other. Even now some approximation to this better 
knowledge has been made. Dr. Pohlig,* for example, has compared the 
remains of the Pleistocene faunas obtained at many different places in 
Europe, and has presented us with a classification which, although 
confessedly incomplete, yet serves to show the direction in which we 
must look for further advances in this department of inquiry. 

During the last twenty years the evidence of interglacial conditions 
both in Europe and America has so increased that geologists generally 
no longer doubt that the Pleistocene period was characterized by great 
changes of climate. The occurrence at many different localities on the 
continent of beds of lignite and fresh-water alluvia, containing remains 
of Pleistocene mammalia, intercalated between separate and Cistinct 
bowlder clays, has left us no alternative. The interglacial beds of the 
Alpine lands of Central Europe are paralleled by similar deposits in 
Britain, Scandinavia, Germany, and France. But opinions differ as to 
the number of glacial and interglacial epochs, many holding that we 
have evidence of only two cold stages and one general interglacial 
stage. This, as I have said, is the view entertained by moss geologists 
who are at work on the glaciai accumulations of Scandinavia and North 
Germany. On the other hand, Dr. Penck and others, from a study of 
the drifts of the German alpine lands, believe that they have met with 
evidence of three distinet epochs of glaciation and two epochs of inter- 
glacial conditions. In France, while some observers are of opinion 
that there have been only two epochs of general glaciation, others, as 
for example, M. Tardy, find what they consider to be evidence of 
several such epochs. Others again, as M. Falsan, do not believe in the 
existence of any interglacial stages, although they readily admit that 
there were great advances and retreats of the ice during the glacial 
period. M. Falsan, in short, believes in oscillations, but he is of the 
opinion that these were not so extensive as others maintained. It is, 
therefore, simplya question of degree, and whether we speak of oscilla- 
tions or of epochs we must needs admit the fact that through all the 
glaciated tracts of Europe fossiliferous deposits occur intercalated 
among glacial accumulations. The successive advance and retreat of 


*Pohlig: Sitzwngsb. d. Niederrheinischen Gesellschaft zu Bonn, 1884: Zeitschr. d. deutsch. 
geolog. Ges., 1887, p. 798. For a very full account of the diluvial European and 
Northern Asiatic mammalian faunas by Woldrich, see Mém. de V Acad, des Sciences de 


~~ we 


St.-Petersbourg, 1887, 7° sér., tom, XXXY. 


GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 229 


the ice, therefore, was not a local phenomenon, but characterized all 
the glaciated areas. And the evidence shows that the oscillations 
referred to were on a gigantic scale. 

The relation borne to the glacial accumulations by the old river 
alluvia which contain relics of paleolithic man early attracted atten- 
tion. From the fact that these alluvia in some places overlie glacial 
deposits the general opinion (still held by some) was that paleolithic 
man must needs be of postglacial age. But since we have learned 
that all bowlder clay does not belong to one and the same geological 
horizon—that, in short, there have been at least two, and probably 
more, epochs of glaciation—it is obvious that the mere occurrence of 
glacial deposits underneath paleolithic gravel does not prove these 
latter to be postglacial. All that we are entitled in such a case to say 
is simply that the implement-bearing beds are younger than the glacial 
accumulations upon which they rest. Their horizon must be deter- 
mined by first ascertaining the relative position in the glacial series of 
the underlying deposits. Now, it is a remarkable fact that the bowl- 
der clays which underlie such old alluvia belong, without exception, to 
the earlier stages of the glacial period. This has been proved again 
and again, not only for this country but for Europe generally. I am 
sorry to reflect that some twenty years have now elapsed since I was 
led to suspect that the paleolithic gravels and cave deposits were not 
of post-glacial but of glacial and inter-glacial age. In 187172 I pub- 
lished a series of papers in the Geological Magazine, in which I set 
forth the views I had come to form upon this interesting question. In 
these papers it was maintained that the alluviaand cave deposits could 
not be of post-glacial age, but must be assigned to pre-glacial and inter- 
glacial times, and in chief measure to the latter. Evidence was adduced 
to show that the latest great development of glacier ice in Europe 
took place after the southern pachyderms and paleolithic man had 
vacated England; that during this last stage of the glacial period, man 
lived contemporaneously with a northern and alpine fauna in such 
regions as southern France; and, lastly, that paleolithic man and the 
southern mammalia never re-visited northwestern Europe after extreme 
glacial conditions had disappeared. These conclusions were arrived 
at after a somewhat detailed examination of all the evidence then 
available, the remarkable distribution of the paleolithic and ossiferous 
alluvia having, as I have said, particularly impressed me. I colored 
a map to show at once the areas covered by the glacial and fluvio- 
glacial deposits of the last glacial epoch, and the regions in which the 
implement-bearing and ossiferous alluvia had been met with, when it 
became apparent that the latter never occurred at the surface within 
the regions occupied by the former. If ossiferous alluvia did here and 
there appear within the recently glaciated areas, it was always either 
in caves or as infra- or inter-glacial deposits. Since the date of these 
researches our knowledge of the geographical distribution of Pleisto- 


230 GLACIAL GEOLOGY. 


cene deposits has greatly increased, and implements and other relics 
of paleolithic man have been recorded from many new localities 
throughout Europe. But none of this fresh evidence contradicts the 
conclusions I had previously arrived at; on the contrary, it has greatly 
strengthened my general argument. - - - 

Thus as years advance the picture of Pleistocene times becomes more 
and more clearly developed. The conditions under which our old 
paleolithic predecessors lived—the climatic and geographical changes 
of which they were the witnesses—are gradually being revealed with 
a precision that only a few years ago might well have seemed impossi- 
ble. This of itself is extremely interesting, but I feel sure that I 
speak the conviction of many workers in this field of labor when I say 
that the clearing up of the history of Pleistocene times is not the only 
end which they have in view. One can hardly doubt that when the 
conditions of that period and the causes which gave rise to these have 
been more fully and definitely ascertained we shall have advanced 
some way towards the better understanding of the climatic conditions 
of still earlier periods. - - - It would almost seem as if all one had 
to do to ascertain the climatie condition of any particular period was to 
prepare a map depicting with some approach to accuracy the former 
relative position of land and sea. With such a map could our meteor- 
ologists infer what the climatic cenditions must have been? Yes, pro- 
vided we could assure them that in other respects the physical condi- 
tions did not differ from the present. Now, there is no period in 
the past history of our globe the geological conditions of which are 
better known than the Pleistocene. And yet when we have indicated 
these upon a map we find that they do not give the results which we 
might have expected. The climatic conditions which they seem to 
imply are not such as we know did actually obtain. It is obvious, 
therefore, that some additional and perhaps exceptional factor was at 
work to produce the recognized results. What was this disturbing 
element, and have we any evidence of its interference with the opera. 
tion of the normal agents of climatic changes in earlier periods of the 
world’s history? We all know that various answers have been given 
to such questions. Whether amongst these the correct solution of the 
enigma is to be found time will show. Meanwhile, as all hypothesis 
and theory must starve without facts to feed ov, it behooves us as 
working geologists to do our best to add to the supply. The success 
with which other problems have been attacked by geologists forbids 
us to doubt that ere long we shall have done much to dispel some of 
the mystery which still envelopes the question of geological climates. 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER.* 


By G. K. GiLBERT. 


The Niagara River flows from Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. The 
shore of Erie is more than 300 feet’ higher than the shore of Ontario; 
but if you pass from the higher shore to the lower, you do not descend 
at a uniform rate. Starting from Lake Erie and going northward, you 
travel upon a plain—not level, but with only gentle undulations—until 
you approach the shore of Lake Ontario, and then suddenly you find 
yourself on the brink of a high bluff or cliff overlooking the lower lake, 
and separated from it only by a narrow strip of sloping plain. The 
bird’s-eye view in Plate Lis constructed to show the relations of these 
various features, the two lakes, the broad plateau lying a little higher 
than the shore of Lake Erie, the cliff, which geologists call the Niagara 
Escarpment, and the narrow plain at its foot. 

Where the Niagara River leaves Lake Erie at Buffalo and enters the 
plain, a low ridge of rock crosses its path, and in traversing this its 
water is troubled; but it soon becomes smooth, spreads out broadly, 
and indolently loiters on the plain. For three-fourths of the distance it 
can not be said to have a valley, it rests upon the surface of the plateau; 
but then its habit suddenly changes. By the short rapid at Goat 
Island and by the cataract itself the water of the river is dropped 200 
feet down into the plain, and thence to the cliff at Lewiston it races 
headlong through a deep and narrow gorge. From Lewiston to Lake 
Ontario there are no rapids. The river is again broad, and its channel 
is scored so deeply in the littoral plain that the current is relatively 
slow, and the level of its water surface varies but slightly from that of 
the lake. 

The narrow gorge that contains the river from the Falls to Lewiston 
is a most peculiar and noteworthy feature. Its width rarely equals the 
fourth of a mile, and its depth to the bottom of the river ranges from 
200 to 500 feet. Its walls are so steep that opportunities for climbing 
up and down them are rare, and in these walls one may see the 


*This essay contains the substance of a lecture read to the American Association 
for the Advancement of Science at its Toronto meeting, August, 1889. (From the 
Sixth Annual Report of the Commissioners of the State Reservation at Niagara, 
188889. Transmitted to the legislature January 22, 1890. pp. 61-84.) 


231 


252 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


PACE 
EO ML Uae 


PLATE I.—BIkD’s-EYE VIEW OF NIAGARA RIVER. 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 233 


geologic structure of the plateau. They are constituted of bedded 
rocks—limestone, shale, and sandstone—lying nearly horizontal, and 
a little examination shows that the same strata occur in the same order 
on both sides. So evenly are they matched, and so uniform is the 
general width of the gorge, that one might suspect, after a hasty exain- 
ination, the two sides had been cleft asunder by some Plutonic agency. 
But those who have made a study of the subject have reached a dif- 
ferent and better conclusion—the conclusion that the trench was exca- 
vated by running water, so that the strata of the two sides are alike 
because they are parts of continuous sheets, from each of which a 
narrow strip has here been cut. 

The contour of the cataract is subject to change. From time to 
time blocks of rock break away, falling into the pool below, and new 
shapes are then given to the brink over which the water leaps Many 
such falls of rock have taken place since the white man occupied the 
banks of the river, and the breaking away of a very large section is 
still a recent event. By such observation we are assured that the 
extent of the gorge is increasing at its end, that it is growing longer, 
and that the cataract is the cause of its extension. 

This determination is the first element in the history of the river. 
A change is in progress before our eyes. The river’s history, like 
human history, is being enacted, and from that which occurs we can 
draw inferences concerning what has occurred, and what will occur. 
We can look forward to the time when the gorge now traversing the 
fourth part of the width of the plateau will completely divide it, so 
that the Niagara will drain Lake Erie to the bottom. We can look 
back to the time when there was no gorge, but when the water flowed 
on the top of the plain to its edge, and the Falls of Niagara were at 
Lewiston. 

We may think of the river as laboring at a task—the task of sawing 
in two the plateau. The task is partly accomplished. When itis done 
the river will assume some other task. Before it was begun what did 
the river do? 

How can we answer this question? The surplus water discharge 
from Lake Erie can not have flowed by this course to Lake Ontario 
without sawing at the plateau. Before it began the cutting of the 
gorge it did not flow along this line. It may have flowed somewhere 
else, but if so it did not constitute the Niagara River. The commence- 
ment of the cutting of the Niagara gorge is the beginning of the his- 
tory of the Niagara River. We have accomplished somewhat of our 
purpose if we have discovered that our river had a beginning. 

We are so accustomed to think of streams, and especially large 
streams, as permanent, as flowing on forever, that the discovery of a 
definite beginning to the life of a great river like the Niagara is im- 
portant and impressive. But that discovery does not stand alone. 
Indeed, it is but one of a large class of similar facts familiar to students 


234 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


of geology. Let us consider for a moment the tendency of stream his- 
tories and the tendency of lake histories. Wherever streams fall over 
rocky ledges in rapids or in cataracts, t)ieir power of erosion is greatly 
increased by the rapid descent, and they deepen their channels. If 
this process continues long enough, the result must be that each stream 
will degrade its channel through the hard ledges until the descent is no 
more rapid there than in other parts of its course. It follows that a 
stream with cascades and water-falls and numerous rapids is laboring 
at an unfinished task. It is either a young stream, or else nature has 
recently put obstructions in its path. 

Again, consider what occurs where a lake interrupts the course of a 
stream. The lower part of the stream, the outflowing part, by deepen- 
ing its channel continually tends to drain the lake. The upper course, 
the inflowing stream, brings mud and sand with it and deposits them 
in the still water of the lake, thus tending to fill its basin. Thus, by a 
double process, the streams are laboring to extinguish the lakes that 
lie in their way, and given sufficient time, they will accomplish this. 

Now, if you will study a large map of North America, you will find 
that the region of the Great Lakes is likewise a region of small lakes. 
A multitude of lakes, lakelets, ponds, and swamps where ponds once 
were, characterize the surface from the Great Lakes northward to the 
Arctic Ocean, and for a distance southward into the United States. In 
the same region waterfalls abound, and many streams consist of mere 
alternations of rapids and pools. Further south, in the region beyond 
the Ohio River, lakes and cataracts are rare. The majority of the 
streams flow from source to mouth with regulated course, their waters 
descending at first somewhat steeply, and gradually becoming more 
nearly level as they proceed, At the south the whole drainage system 
is mature; at the north it is immature. At the south it is old; at the 
north, young. 

The explanation of this lies in a great geologic event of somewhat 
recent date—the event known as the age of ice. Previous to the ice 
age our streams may have been as tame and orderly as those of the 
Southern States, and we have no evidence that there were lakes in this 
region. During the ice age the region of the Great Lakes was some- 
what in the condition of Greenland. It was covered by an immense 
sheet of ice and the ice was in motion. In general it moved from north 
to south. It carried with it whatever lay loose upon the surface. It 
did more than this, for just as the soft water of a stream, by dragging 
sand and pebbles over the bottom, wears its channel deeper, so the 
plastic ice, holding grains of sand and even large stones in its under 
surface, dragged these across the underlying rock, and in this way not 
only scoured and scratched it, but even wore it away. 

In yet other ways the moving ice mass was analogous toa river. Its 
motion was perpetual, and its form changed little, but that which 
moved was continually renewed. As a river is supplied by rain, so the 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER 235 


glacier was supplied by snow falling upon regions far to the north. To 
a certain extent the glacier discharged to the ocean like a river, break- 
ing up into icebergs and floating away; but its chief discharge was 
upon the land, through melting. The climate at its southern margin 
was relatively warm, and into this warm climate the sheet of ice steadily 
pushed and was as steadily dissolved. 

Whatever stones and earth were picked up or torn up by the ice 
moved with it to its southern margin and fell to the ground as the ice 
melted. If the position of the ice margin had been pertectly uniform 
its continuously deposited load might have built a single high wall; 
but as the seasons were cold or warm, wet or dry, the ice margin 
advanced and retreated with endless variation, and this led to the 
deposition of irregular congeries of hills, constituting what is known 
as the “drift deposit.”.. Eventually the warm climate of the south pre- 
vailed over the invader born of a cold climate, compelling it to retreat. 
The motion of the ice current was not reversed, but the front of the 
glacier was melted more rapidly than it could be renewed, and thus its 
area was gradually restricted. During the whole period of retrer ch- 
ment the deposition of drift proceeded at the margin of the ice, so 
that the entire area that it formerly occupied is now diversified by 
irregular sheets and heapings of earth ana stone. 

The ancient configuration of the country was more or less modified 
by the erosive action of the ice, and it was further moditied by the 
deposits of drift. The destructive and constructive agencies together 
gave to the land an entirely new system of hills and valleys. When 
the ice was gone the rain that fell on the land could no longer follow 
the old lines of drainage. Some of the old valleys had perhaps been 
obliterated; others had been changed so that their descent was ina 
different direction, and all were obstructed here and there by the heaps 
of drifts. The waters were held upon the surface in innumerable lakes, 
each overflowing at the lowest side of its basin, and thus giving birth 
to a stream that descended to some other lake. Often the new lines 
of descent—the new water courses—crossed regions that before had had 
no streams, and then they were compelled to dig their own channels. 
Thus it was that the whole water system of a vast region was refash- 
ioned, and thus it has come to pass that the streams of this region are 
young. 

Like every other stream of the district of the Great Lakes, the 
Niagara was born during the melting of the ice, and so we may begin 
our chronicle with the very beginning of the river. 

If you will again call to mind the features of a general map of the 
United States and Canada, and consider the direction in which the 
streams flow, you will perceive that there is a continuous upland, a sort 
of main divide, separating the basin of the Great Lakes from the basin 
of the Mississippi.* It is not a mountain range. In great part it is a 


* A part of its course uppears as a broken line on the maps in Figs. 3 and 4. 


236 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


region of hills. In places it is only the highest part of the plain; but it 
is nevertheless a continuous upland, else the waters would not be parted 
along its course. When the ice had its greatest extent it passed over 
this upland, so that the waters produced by its melting fell into the 
Ohio and other tributaries of the Mississippi, as well as into streams 
that discharged to Delaware and Chesapeake Bays. Afterward, when 
the glacier gradually fell back, there came atime when the ice front lay 
in the main to the north of the great water parting, but had not yet re- 
ceded from the Adirondack Mountains, so that the water that flowed 
from the melting glacier could not escape by way of the St. Lawrence 
River, but gathered as a lake between the upland divide and theice 
front. In fact, it formed not one but many lakes, each discharging 
across the divide by some low pass, and as the great retreat progressed 
these lakes were varied innumber and extent, so that their full history 
is exceeding complex. 

The surfaces of these lakes were stirred by the winds, and waves beat 
upon their shores. In places they washed out the soft drift and carved 
clifts; elsewhere they fashioned spits and bars. These cliffs and spits 
and other monuments of wave work survive to the present time. and 
have made it possible to trace out and map certain of the ancient lakes. 
The work of surveying them is barely begun, but from what is known 
we may add a chapter to the history of our river. 

There was a time when one of these lakes occupied the western por- 
tion of the basin of Lake Erie, and discharged across the divide at the 
point where the city of Fort Wayne now stands, running into the 
Wabash River and thence into the Ohio. The channel of this discharge 
is so well preserved that its meaning can not be mistaken, and the 
associated shore lines have been traced for many miles eastward into 
Ohio and northward into Michigan. Afterward this lake found some 
other point of discharge, and a new shore line was made 25 feet_ 
lower. Twice again the point of discharge was shifted and other 
shore lines were formed. The last and lowest of the series has been 
traced eastward across the States of Ohio and Pennsylvania and into 
western New York, where it fades away in the vicinity of the town of 
Careyville. At each of the stages represented by these four shore lines 
the site of the Niagara was either buried beneath the ice or else sub- 
merged under the lake bordering the ice. There was no river. 

The next change in the history of the lakes was a great one. The 
ice, which had previously occupied nearly the whole of the Ontario 
basin, so far withdrew as to enable the accumulated water to flow out 
by way of the Mohawk Valley. The level of discharge was thus sud- 
denly lowered 550 feet, and a large district previously submerged be- 
came dry land. Then for the first time Lake Erie and Lake Ontario 
were separated, and then tor the first time the Niagara River carried 
the surplus water of Lake Erie to Lake Ontario. 

The waves of the new-born Lake Ontario at once began to carve 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 237 


about its margin a record of its existence. That record is wonderfully 
clear, and the special training of the geologist has not been necessary 
to the recognition of its import. The earliest books of travel in west- 
ern New York describe the Ridge road, and tell us that the ridge of 
sand and gravel which it follows was even then recognized by all resi- 
dents as an ancient beach of the lake.* In the Province of Ontario, 
the beach was examined and described by the great English geologist, 
Charles Lyell, during his celebrated journey in America,t and it after- 
ward received more careful study by Mr. Sandford Fleming,t and by 
the geologists of the Canadian Survey.§ - In western New York it was 
traced out by the great American geologist, James Hall, during hissurvey 
of the geology of the fourth district of the State.|| Within afew years more 
attention has been given to detail. Prof. J. W. Spencer has traced the 
line continuously from the head of the lake at Hamilton, past Toronto, 
Windsor, and Grafton, inthe vicinity of Belleville,] beyond which 
point it is hard to follow. South of the lake, I myself have traced it 
from Hamilton to Queenstown and Lewiston, thence to Rochester, and 
all about the eastern end of the basin to Watertown, beyond which 
point it is again difficult to trace. Southeast of the present margin of 
Lake Ontario there was a great bay, extending as far south as Cayuga 
Lake, and including the basin of Oneida Lake, and it was from this 
bay that the discharge took place, the precise point of overflow being 
the present site of the city of Rome. For this predecessor of Lake On- 
tario Professor Spencer has proposed the name of Iroquois. 

Putting together the results of his survey and of my own, I have 
been able to prepare a map (Pl. 11) exhibiting with a fair amount of 
detail the outline of the old lake. It will be observed that the north- 
eastern portion of the shore is not traced out. In fact it is not trace- 
able. The water was contained on that side by the margin of the 
glacier, and with the final melting of the ice all record of its shore 
vanished. 

The form and extent of Lake Iroquois, and the form and extent of 
each other lake that bordered the ice front, were determined partly by 
the position of the pass over which the discharge took place, and by the 
contour of the land; but they were also determined to a great extent 
by the peculiar attitude of the land. 


*C. Schultz, jr. Travels on an Inland Voyage - - - in the years 1807 and 
1808, New York, 1810, p. 85. 

De Wit Clinton. Discourse before the New York Historical Society, 1811, p. 58. 

Francis Hall. Travelsin Canada and the United States in 1816 and 1817, Boston, 
1818, p. 119. 

t Travels in North America in the years 1841-42. New York, 1845, vol. 2, pp. 86, 87. 

¢ Sandford Fleming. Notes on the Davenport gravel drift. Canadian Journal, new 
series, vol. 6, pp. 247-253. 

§ Geological Survey of Canada, report to 1863, pp. 914, 915. 

|| Natural History of New York. Geology, Part 1v, pp. 348-354. 

{] Communicated tothe Philosophical Society of Washington, to be published in 
yol. 11 of the Bulletin of the Society. 


JHE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


238 


ES ts 
Fy 
LTRS 


‘aUsorz 


"SLI HOVONOYIOV 


“paepeys-ssoO19 Joot[s vo] 


‘popeys wore oYV] JUVIOUY ‘soul, poyop ur AqdvasoapAy WAapop{ —"NOILVNV1dX qT 


‘sIOAvOUT AMWYT AO dVW—'[] ALVTG 


é 
aor 
fe 
ay gee 
if OPUINTS. 
anpal ae 
ee P07 p DLOODI NO 


" “UOPS2MI T,, 


7, 


Yy MG 
Ui Wi 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 239 


Perhaps a word of general explanation is necessary in speaking of 
the attitude of the land. Geologists are prone to talk of elevation and 
subsidence—of the uprising of the earth’s crust at one place or at one 
time, and of its down-sinking at another place or another time. Their 
language usually seems to imply the rise or fall of an area all together, 
without any relative displacement of its parts; but you will readily see 
that, unless a rising or sinking tract is torn asunder from its surround. 
ings, there must be ali about it a belt in which the surface assumes an 
inciined position, or, in other words, where the attitude of the land is 
changed. If the district whose attitude changes is a lake basin, the 
change of attitude will cause a change in the position of the line marked 
about the slopes of the basin by the water margin, and it may even 
cause the overflow of the basin to take a new direction. 

The Ontario basin has been subjected to a very notable change of 
attitude, and the effect of this change has been to throw the ancient 
shore line out of level. When the shore line was wrought by the waves, 
all parts of if must have lain in the same horizontal plane, and had 
there been no change in the attitude of the basin, every point of the 
shore line would now be found at the level of the old outlet at Rome. 
Instead of this, we find that the old gravel spit near Toronto—the 
Davenport ridge—is 40 feet higher than the contemporaneous gravel 
spit on which Lewiston is built; at Belleville, Ontario, the old shore is 
200 feet higher than at Rochester, New York; at Watertown 300 feet 
higher than at Syracuse; and the lowest point, in Hamilton, at the 
head of the lake, is 325 feet lower than the highest point near Water- 
town. From these and other measurements we learn that the Ontario 
basin with its new attitude inclines more to the south and west than 
with the oid attitude. 

The point of discharge remained at Rome as long as the ice was 
crowded high against the northern side of the Adirondack Mountains, 
but eventually there came a time when the water escaped eastward 
between the ice and the mountain slope. The line of the St. Lawrence 
was not at once opened, so that the subsidence was only partial. The 
water was held for short times at various intermediate levels, recorded 
at the east in aseries of faint shore lines. Owing to the attitude of the 
land, these shores are not traceable all about the basin, but pass be- 
neath the present water level at various points. 

Finally the ice blockade was raised in the St. Lawrence Valley, and 
the present outlet was established. During the period of final retreat 
the attitude of the land had slowly changed, so that it was not then so 
greatly depressed at the north as before; but it had not yet acquired 
its present position, and for a time Lake Ontario was smaller than now, 
its western margin lying lower down on the slope of the basin. 

An attempt has been made in Pl. 111 to exhibit diagramatically the 
relations of ice dams and basin attitudes to one another and to the river. 
The various elements are projected, with exaggeration of heights, on a 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


240 


‘SLATLAO OL GNV AUNVT 
DHL JO SUGALILIVY OL NISVY OINVINO AHL NI STAAUAT WALV AV AO SNOILVIGH DHL ALVULSATII OL WVNDVIQ—']I] AWLVIg 


QaOAIT DIS 
Wa 


SS ee en} 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 241 


vertical plane running a little west of south, or parallel to the direction 
of greatest inclination of old water-planes. At N is represented the 
Niagara escarpment and the associated slope of the lake basin; at A 
the Adirondack Mountains. R and T are the passes at Rome and at 
the Thousand Islands. Suecessive positions of the ice front are marked 
at I', ?, and . The straight line numbered 1 represents the level of 
lake water previous to the origin of the Niagara River; 2 gives the first 
position of the water level after the establishment of the home outlet ; 
and the level gradually shifted to 3; 4 is the first of the series of tem- 
porary water levels when the water escaped between the mountain 
slope and the ice front; 5 represents the first position of the water level 
after the occupation of the Thousand Island outlet; and 6, the present 
level of Lake Ontario. 

It should be added parenthetically that the shore of Lake Iroquois 
as mapped in Pl. 11 is not quite synchronous. Between 2 and 3 of PI. 
III there was a continuous series of water levels, but it was not easy to 
map any one except the highest. The northern part of the map delin- 
eates the margin of water level 2 and the southern part the margin of 
water level 3. 

It is easy to see that these various changes contribute to modify the 
history of the Niagara River. In the beginning, when the cataract 
was at Lewiston, the margin of Lake Ontario, instead of being 7 miles 
away, aS now, was only 1 or 2 miles distant, and the level of its water 
was about 75 feet higher than at present. The outlet of the lake was 
at Rome, and while it there continued there was a progressive change 
in the attitude of the land, causing the lake to rise at the mouth of the 
Niagara until it was 125 feet higher than now. It fairly washed the 
foot of the cliff at Queenston and Lewiston. ‘Then came a time when 
the lake fell suddenly through a vertical distance of 250 feet, and its 
shore retreated to a position now submerged. Numerous minor oscil- 
lations were caused by successive shiftings of the point of discharge, 
and by progressive changes in the attitude of the land, until finally the 
present outlet was acquired, at which time the Niagara River had its 
greatest length. It then encroached 5 miles on the modern domain of 
Lake Ontario, and began a delta where now the lead-line runs out 30 
fathoms. 

While the level of discharge was lower than now, the river had dif- 
ferent powers as an eroding agent. The rocks underlying the low 
plain along the margin of the lake are very soft, and where a river 
flows across yielding rocks the depth to which it erodes is limited 
chiefly by the level of its point of discharge. So when the point of 
discharge of the Niagara River—the surface of the lake to which it 
flowed—was from 100 to 200 feet lower than now, the river carved a 
channel far deeper than if could now carve. When afterward the rise 
of land in the vicinity of the outlet carried the water gradually up to its 
present position in the basin this channel was partly filled by sand and 

H. Mis. 129——16 


242 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER, 


other débris brought by the current; but it was not completely filled, 
and its remarkable present depth is one of the surviving witnesses of 
the shifting drama of the Ontario. Near Fort Niagara 12 fathoms of 
water are shown on the charts. 

Mr. Warren Upham has made a similar discovery in the basin of the 
Red River of the North. That basin held a large lake, draining south- 
ward to the Mississippi—a lake whose association with the great glacier 
Upham appropriately signalized by naming it after the apos'le of ‘ the 
glacial theory,” Louis Agassiz. The height of the old Agassiz shore 
has been carefully measured by Mr. Upham, through long distances, 
and it is found to rise continuously, though not quite uniformly, toward 
the north. Similar discoveries have been made in the basins of Erie, 
Huron, and Michigan, and the phenomena all belong approximately to 
the same epoch. So, while the details remain to be worked out, the 
general fact is already established that during the epoch of the ice 
retreat the great plain constituting the Laurentian basin was more 
inclined to the northward than at present. 

It was shown, first in the case of Lake Agassiz, and afterward, as 
already stated, in the case of Lake Ontario, that the change from the 
old attitude of the land to the present attitude was in progress during 
the epoch of the ice retreat. The land was gradually rising to the 
north or northeast. In each lake basin the water either retreated from 
its northern margin, so as to lay bare more land, or encroached on its 
southern margin, or else both these changes occurred together ; and in 
some cases we have reason to believe that the changes were so exten- 
sive that the outlets of lakes were shifted from northerly passes to more 
southerly passes. i 

To illustrate the effect of the earlier system of land slopes upon the 
distribution of water in the region of the Great Lakes I have con- 
structed the map in Pl. tv. It does not postulate the system of levels 
most divergent from the present system, but a system such as may 
have existed at the point of time when the last glacial ice was melted 
from the region. The modern system of drainage is drawn in broken 
lines; the hypothetie system in full lines, with shading for the lake 
areas; and a heavier broken line toward the bottom of the map marks 
the position of the present water-parting at the southern edge of the 
Laurentian basin. : 

In the ancient system of drainage, Georgian Bay, instead of being a 
dependency of Lake Huron, is itself the principal lake, and receives 
the overflow from Huron. It expands toward the northeast so as to 
include the basin of Lake Nipissing, and its discharge is across a some- 
what low pass at the east end of Lake Nipissing, and thence down the 
Ottawa River to the St. Lawrence. Lake Michigan, instead of vom- 
municating with Lake Huron by a strait, forms a tributary lake, dis- 
charging its surplus through a river. Lake Superior has the same 
relations as now, but its overtlow traverses a greater distance before 


243 


THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


THE HISTORY OF 


KF 


SEX 
Sees 
eee 


peas 5 


iJ ’ 
Qe 
"Y 


n 2 e 
‘ SiS -— - \. WARE 
DP)‘ y. S 
ROH, er 
eS Y 
‘ pect hee “a WY, 
‘ Sorte 
ory 
% = 
. 
Ty 


Nd HZ 
) ea P4 
cou 7 
sa VAG 
ae 
Pak 


: ps i Oe ee a ea od Ss of 
! ) enon! eS i ‘ ° 
oh ORS GY ‘ pane “= ‘ t 
home og. re un 
i Ve H a \ Zaz 52S i ean Nayegie Ma. ~-) 
' ‘ ! rg he i eas MSS ncn 
ee ene = Sop ae 
\ nee Niagara “Falls. r 


oor 


PLATE 1V.—HYPOTHETIC HYDROGRAPHY AT A DATE AFTER THE MELTING OF THE GREAT GLACIER FROM THE ST- 
LAWRENCE VALLEY. 


igi HORAN ATION aeereparning in heavy broken line. Modern hydrography in hght broken lines. Ancient rivers in full lines. Ancient 
<es shaded. 


244 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


reaching Lake Huron. Superior, Michigan, Huron, and Georgia con- 
stitute a lake system by themselves, independent of Erie and Ontario, 
and the channel of the Detroit River isdry. Lake Erie and Lake Ontario, 
both greatly reduced in size, constitute another chain, but their con- 
necting link, the Niagara River, is a comparatively small stream, for 
the diversion of the upper lakes robs the river of seven-eighths of its 
tributary area. 

Whether this hypothetice state of drainage ever existed, whether the 
ice retreated from the Nipissing pass while still the changimg attitude 
of the land was such as to turn the Georgian outlet in that direction, 
are questions not yet answered. But such data as I have at present 
incline me to the belief that for a time the upper lakes did discharge 
across the Nipissing pass. 

Professor Spencer has decribed a channel by which Georgian Bay 
once drained across a more southerly pass to the valley of the Trent 
River, and thence to Lake Ontario.* He states that there is an ancient 
shore line about Georgian Bay associated with this outlet, and that he 
has traced this line westward and southward until it comes down to 
the shore of Lake Huron, demonstrating that during the existence of 
that outlet also, the Detroit River ran dry. The Trent pass is much 
higher than the Nipissing pass, so that it appears necessary to assume 
that during the history of the Trent outlet for the upper lakes the 
great glacier still occupied the region of Lake Nipissing, prevengine 
the escape of the water in that direction. 

The map in PI. Vv represents the systeia of lakes and outlets at that 
time. It is largely theoretic, but at the same time I believe its general 
features consistent with our present knowledge of the facts. 

Unless I have misunderstood Professor Spencer, Lake Ontario was 
at high stage in the first part of the epoch of the Trent Valley outlet, 
and was afterwards at low stage. I have selected as the date of my 
map the epoch of the high stage, with the outlet of Ontario at Rome, 
and have indicated an ice sheet so extensive as to block the way not 
only at Lake Nipissing but at the pass of the Thousand Islands. The 
date of this map is earlier than the other; it belongs toa time when 
the northward depression of the land was greater. Lake Erie is repre. 
sented as less in extent, for its basin in that position would hold less 
water. Huron and Ontario would likewise be smaller were their 
waters free to escape over the lowest passes; but the ice blocks the 
way, and so their waters are raised to the level of higher passes. Of 
the contemporaneous relations of the upper lakes we know nothing at 
present. They are drawn as though communicating with Lake Huron, 
but it is equally possible that they fell into some other drainage 
system. Here again the Detroit channel was not in use, and the 
neere River was outlet only for the waters of the Erie basin. 


= P veeede gs Am. Rian LEA Sci., 37th Meeting (Cleveland), pp. 198-199. 


245 


THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


THE HISTORY OF 


XY 
i 


SRGsstekecessds 


7. 


PLATE V.—HYPOTHETIC HYDROGRAPHY AT A DATE BEFORE THE MELTING OF THE GREAT GLACIER FROM THE ST, 


_ EXPLANATION.—Water parting 11 heavy broken line. 
lakes shaded. Ice sheet cross-shaded. 


LAWRENCE VALLEY. 
Modern hydrography in light broken lines, Ancient rivers in full lines. Ancient 


s 


246 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER 


Graphie methods are ill adapted to the communication of qualified or 
indefinite statements. By the aid of a map one can indicate definitely 
the relation of Albany to other places and things, but he cannot say 
indefinitely that Albany is somewhere in eastern New York, nor can 
he say, with qualification, that it is probably on the Mohawk River. 
For this reason I have decided to publish these two maps only after 
hesitation, because I should greatly regret to produce the impression 
that the particular configuration of lakes and outlets here delineated 
has been actually demonstrated. The facts now at command are sug- 
gestive rather than conclusive, and when the subject shall have been 
fully investigated it is to be expected that the maps representing these 
epochs will exhibit material differences from those I have drawn. The 
sole point that I wish to develop at this time is the probability that dur- 
ing a portion of the history of the Niagara River its drainage district— 
that area from which its water was supplied—was far less than it is at 
the present time. There is reason to beligve that during an epoch 
which may have been short or long—we can only vaguely conjecture— 
the Niagara was a comparatively small river. 

The characters of the gorge are in general remarkably uniform from 
end toend. Its width does not vary greatly; its course is flexed but 
slightly ; its walls exhibit the same alternation of soft and hard rocks. 
But there is one exceptional point. Midway, its course is abruptly 
bent at right angles. On the outside of the angle there is an enlarge- 
ment of the gorge, and this enlargement contains a deep pool, called 
the Whirlpool. At this point, and on this side only, the material of 
the wall has an exceptional character. At every other point there is 
an alternation of shales, sandstones, and limestones, capped above by 
an unequal deposit of drift. At this point limestones, sandstones, and 
shales disappear, and the whole wall is made of drift. Here is a place 
where the strata that floor the plateau are discontinuous, and must 
have been discontinuous before the last occupation of the region of the 
glacier, for the gap is filled by glacial drift. 

Another physiographic feature was joined to this by Lyell and Hall. 
They observed that the cliff limiting the plateau has, in general, a very 
straight course, with few indentations. But at the town of St. David’s, 
a few miles west of Queenston. a wide flaring gap occurs. This gap 
is partly filled by drift, and although the glacial nature of the drift 
was not then understood, it was clearly perceived hy those geologists 
that the drift-filled break marked the position of a line of erosion 
established before the period of the drift. Putting together the two 
anomalies, they said that the drift-filled gap at the Whirlpool belonged 
to the same line of ancient erosion with the drift-filled gap at St. 
David’s.* Their conclusion has been generally accepted by subsequent 
investigators, but the interpretation of the phenomena was carried ° 


* Travels in North America. By Charles Lyell. New York, 1845. Vol. u, pp. 
77-80. Natural History of New York. Geology, Part1v. By James Hall, pp. 389-390. 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. QA47T 


little further until the subject was studied by Dr. Julius Pohlman.* 
He pointed out that the upper course of the ancient gorge could not 
have lain outside the modern gorge. If the course of one gorge lay 
athwart the course of the other, we should have two breaks in the con- 
tinuity of the strata, instead of the single one at the Whirlpool. The 
upper part of the ancient gorge necessarily coincides with a part of the 
modern gorge; and so when the cataract, in the progressive excava- 
tion of the canon, reached a point at the Whirlpool where it had no 
firm rock to erode, it had only to clear out the incoherent earth and 
bowlders of glacial drift. To whatever distance the gorge of the 
earlier stream extended, the modern river found its laborious task per- 
formed in advance. 

Let us put together what we have learned of the Niagara history. 
The river began its existence during the final retreat of the great ice 
sheet, or, in other words, during the series of events that closed the age 
of the ice in North America. If we consider as a geologie period the 
entire time that has elapsed since the beginning of the age of ice, then 
the history of the Niagara River covers only a portion of that period. 
In the judgment of most students of glacial geology, and, I may add, 
in my own judgment, it covers only a small portion of that period. 

During the course of its history the length of the river has suffered 
some variation by reason of the sucessive fall and rise of the level of 
Lake Ontario. It was at first a few miles shorter than now; then it 
became suddenly a few miles longer, and its present length was gradu- 
ally acquired. 

With the change in the position of its mouth there went a change in 
the height of its mouth; and the rate at which it eroded its channel 
was affected thereby. The influence on the rate of erosion was felt 
chiefly along the lower course of the river, between Lewiston and Fort 
Niagara. 

The volume of the river has likewise been inconstant. In early days, 
when the lakes levied a large tribute on the melting glacier, the 
Niagara may have been a larger river than now; but there was a time 
when the discharge from the upper lakes avoided the route by Lake 
Erie, and then the Niagara was a relatively small stream. . 

The great life work of the river has been the digging of the gorge 
through which it runs from the cataract to Lewiston. The beginning 
of its life was the beginning of that task. The length of the gorge isin 
some sense a measure of the river’s age. In the main the material dug 
has been hard limestone and sandstone, interbedded with a coherent 
though softer shale; but for a part of the distance the material was 
incoherent drift. 1 

The geologic age of the earth—the time during which its surface has 
been somewhat as now, divided into land and ocean, subject to endless 
waste on the land and to endless accumulation of sediment in the 


*Proceedings Am. Assoc. Adv. Sci., 35th meeting (Buffalo), pp. 221-222. 


2 


THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


HISTORY OF 


THE 


‘ADYON VAVOVIN AHL JO MAIA AAG-S,GYIG—'TA ALVIg 


rise sl \ 
a 


veatsleltal 


pe 
Ne 


\ 
\% 


ee 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 249 


ocean, green with verdure and nourishing the varied forms of animal 
life—this time is of immense duration. Even the units into which 
geologists divide it, the periods and epochs of their chronology are 
themselves of vast duration. Human history is relatively so short, 
and its units of centuries and years are so exceedingly brief, that the 
two orders of time are hardly commensurate. Over and over again 
the attempt has been made to link together the two chronologies, to 
obtain for the geologic units some satisfactory expression in the units 
of human history. It can not in fairness be said that all these attempts 
have failed, for some of them are novel and untested ; but, however 
successful or unsuccessful they may have been, the interest in the 
subject remains, and no discussion of the history of the Niagara River 
would be complete without some allusion to its value as a geologic 
chronometer. It is true we know but little of the ratio the river epoch 
bears to the extent of the glacial period, or to any longer geologic unit; 
but yet were we able to determine, even approximately, the time con- 
sumed by the river in cutting its gorge, we should render less hazy and 
vague our conception of the order of magnitude of the units of the 
earth’s geologic history. The problem has been attacked by numerous 
writers, and the resulting estimates have ranged from three or four 
thousand years to three or four million years. 

- The method of reaching a time estimate has been, first, to estimate 
the present rate of recession—the rate at which the cataract is increas- 
ing the length of the gorge; second, to compute, with the aid of this 
estimate and the known length of the gorge, the time necessary for the 
entire excavation; and, third, some writers have moditied their result 
by giving consideration to various conditions affecting the rate of 
erosion during earlier stages of the excavation. The enormous range 
of the resulting estimates of time has depended chiefly upon the im- 
perfection of data with reference to the present rate of recession of the 
falls. It is but a few years since measurement of the rate of recession 
was substituted for bald guessing. 

- This measurement consists in making surveys and maps of the falls 
at different times, so that the amount of change in the interval between 
surveys can be ascertained by comparison of the maps. In 1842 Pro- 
fessor Hall made a survey of the outlines of the falls, and he published, 
for the use of future investigators, not only the map resulting from the 
survey, but also the bearings taken with the surveying instrument in 
determining the principal points of the map.* He likewise left upon 
the ground a number of well-marked monuments to which future sur- 
veys could be referred. Thirty-three years later a second survey was 
made by the United States Army Engineers, and they added still 
further to the series of bench marks available for future reference. 
Three years ago my colleage, Mr. R. S. Woodward, executed a third 
survey.t 


* Natural History of New York, Geology, Part Iv, pp. 402, 403. 
t Science, vol. VIII, 1886, p. 205. 


250 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


Plate vit exhibits the outline of the crest of the falls, together with 

the brink of the cliff in the vicinity of the falls, as determined by Mr. 
Woodward in 1886, and also shows a part of the same outline as deter- 
mined by Professor Hall 44 years earlier.* If both were precise, the 
area included between the two lines would exactly represent the reces- 
sion of the Horseshoe and American falls in 44 years, and the retreat 
of the cliff face at Goat Island in the same time. I regret to say that 
there is internal evidence pointing to some defect in one or both sur- 
veys, for there are some points at which the Woodward outline projects 
farther towards the gorge than the Hall outline, and yet we can not 
believe that any additions have been made to the face of the cliff. 
- Nevertheless, a critical study, not merely of these bare lines on the 
chart, but also of the fuller data in the surveyors’ notes, leads to the 
belief that the rate of recession in the central part of the Horseshoe 
Fall is approximately determined, and that it is somewhere between 4 
and 6 feet per annum. The amount fallen away at the sides of the 
Horseshoe is not well determined, but this is of less importance, for 
such falling away affects the width of the gorge rather than its length, 
and it is the length with which we are concerned. 

The surveys likewise fail to afford any valuable estimate of the rate 
of retreat of the American Fall, merely telling us that its rate is far less 
than that ot the Horseshoe—a result that might be reached independ- 
ently by going back in imagination to the time when the two falls were 
together at the foot of Goat Island, and considering how much greater 
is the distance through which the Horseshoe Fall has since retreated. 
The rate of retreat of the central portion of the Horseshoe is the rate 
at which the gorge grows longer. 

Now if we were to divide the entire length of the gorge by the space 
through which the Horseshoe Fall retreats in a year, we might regard 
the resulting quotient as expressing the number of years that the falls 
have been occupied with their work. This is precisely the procedure 
by which the majority of time estimates have been deduced, but in my 
judgment it is not defensible. It implies that the rate of retrogression 
has been uniform, or, more precisely, that the present rate of retrogres- 
sion does not differ from the average rate, and this implication is open 
to serious question. I conceive that future progress in the discussion 
of the time problem will consist chiefly in determining in what ways 
the conditions or circumstances that affect the rate of retrogression 
have varied in past time. In order to discuss intelligently these condi- 
tions, it is necessary to understand just what is the process by which 
the river increases the length of its gorge. 

There can be no question that the cataract is the efficient engine, 
but what kind of an engine is it? What is the principle on which it 
works ? 


* The south side of this chart is placed uppermost (in violation of the conventional 
rule) so that it may accord with the bird’s-eye views. 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. Zo 


DouTr 
= 
crate 1886 Wf 
Cresr / 
fr Me y 
i Jee 
: snes 
HoRscsnoc Fait 
Goat \IsiaRo , 5 r 
c a 
avenear § 
5 A ocn *. 
’ & oO fo} 
i 
i s 
. iS 
Js 
Fe 
fsa 
< 
(o) 
a 
 AMERICANFACL 
3 
r e 00 1 oo" toe no 


Scace or Feer 


PLATE VII.—Cuarr or THE CLIFF LINE AT THE HEAD OF THE NIAGARA 
GORGE, COMPILED TO SHOW THE RECESSION FROM 1842 TO 1826. 


EXPLANATION.—Broken line, crest of falls and cliff as mapped by N. Y. State Geol. Survey in 
1842. Full line, crest of falls as mapped by the U.S. Geol’ Survey in 1886, with other fea- 
tures as mapped by the U.S. Lake Survey in 1875. 


PAS THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


It has already been stated that the rocks at the falls lie in level 
layers. The order of succession of the layers has much to do with the 
nature of the cataract’s work. Above all is a loose sheet of drift, but 
this yields so readily to the wash of the water that we need pay no 
attention to it at present. Under that is a bed of strong limestone. 
This is called the Niagara limestone, and in thickness is 80 feet. 
Beneath it is a shale, called the Niagara shale, with a thickness of 50 
feet; and then for 35 feet there is an alternation of limestone, shale, 
and sandstone, known collectively as the Clinton group. This reaches 
down very nearly to the water’s edge. Beneath it and extending down- 
ward for several hundred feet is a great bed of soft, sandy shale, inter- 
rupted, so far as we know, by a single hard layer, a sandstone ledge, 
varying in thickness from 10 to 20 feet. These are the Medina shales 
and the Medina sandstone. The profile in the figure indicates that the 
hard layers project as shelves or steps, and that the softer layers are 
eaten back. I have been led so to draw them by considerations of anal- 
ogy only, for underneath the center of the great cataract no observations 
have been made. We only know that the river leaps from the upper 
surface of the Niagara limestone and strikes upon the water of the pool. 
The indicated depth of the pool, too, isa mere surmise, for in that com- 
motion of waters direct observation is out of the question. But where 
the United States Engineers were able to lower their plummet, a halfa 
mile away, a depth was discovered of nearly 200 feet, and I have 
assumed that the cataract is scouring as deeply now as it scoured at 
the time when that part of the gorge was dug. 

It is a matter of direct observation that from time to time large 
blocks of the upper limestone fall away into the pool, and there seems 
no escape from the inference that this occurs because the erosion of the 
shale beneath deprives the limestone of its support. Just how the shale 
is eroded and what is the part played by the harder layers beneath 
are questions in regard to which we are much in doubt. In the Cave 
of the Winds, where one can pass beneath and behind one of the thin- 
ner segments of the divided fall, the air is filled with spray and heavier 
masses of water that perpetually dash against the shale, and though 
their force in that place does not seem to be violent, it is possible that 
their continual beating is the action that removes the shaly rock. The 
shale is of the variety known as calcareous, and as its calcareous ele- 
ment is soluble, it may be that solution plays its part in the work of 
undermining. What goes on beneath the water of the pool must be 
essentially different. The Niagara River carries no sediment, and there- 
fore can not scour its channel in the manner of most rivers, but the 
fragments of the limestone bed that fall into the pool must be moved 
by the plunging water, else they would accumulate and impede its 
work, and being moved, we can understand that they become power- 
ful agents of excavation. Water plunging into a pool acquires a gyra- 
tory motion, and, carrying detritus about with it, sometimes bores deep 


‘NOISOUD GO SSMOOUd AHL AO ANOANL V ONILVYLSATII 
GNV ‘VLVULS LAOS GNV JUVH JO LNAWADNVYUY AHL ONIMOHS ‘STIV VUYVOVIN JO NOILOGS—'TIIA BLVIg 


i 


THE HISTORY OF 


NOIIVWYO04 


i! 
LAND i mn 
1 | ity | hy 
it hy Ni | i I 

TARY ANAT {ui 
i i AA fi 
| | ni a Hy eh 
| Ny ty = t 

t Go aa 


VNIOAW 


i: ls 


! hl 
|! 


2 yh)! til i) | | 
ith Hitt NE 
| us uy a ih will 


NOLNIND 


‘NOILWIANYCS 


i 7 r ma a 


ni 


iy iu | 
Mi iy | 
= ee li ; 


THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


VYUVOVIN 


“SIVHS 


Af 
iii Hiatt 


il 
aN ih 


mae 3 
itt 
Wil 
ht 


z 
> 
a) 
> 
a 
> 
is 
z 
m 
nH 
4 
fe) 
Zz 
m 


253 


YSAIY 


254 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


holes, even in rocks that are hard. These holes are called technically 
‘not-holes,” and there is much to commend the suggestion that the 
excavation within the pool is essentially pot-hole work.* 

The process which I have described is that which takes place in the 
central part of the Horseshoe Fall, where the greatest body of water 
is precipitated. At the margin of the Horseshoe, and also at the 
American Fall, in which places the body of falling water is much iess, 
the process is different. There is there no pot-hole action and no pool. 
The fallen blocks of limestone form a low talus at the foot of the cliff, 
and upon them the force of the descending water is broken and spent. 
Such of you as have made the excursion through the Cave of the Winds 
will recall that though for a few steps you traveled upon an undisturbed 
rock stratum, one of the layers of the Clinton group, the greater part 
of the journey lay across large fallen blocks of limestone, irregularly 
heaped. Where, then, the volume of falling water is relatively small, 
the great bed of shale below the Clinton ledges plays no part, and the 
rate at which the limestone breaks away is determined purely by the 
rate of erosion of the shale bed lying just beneath it. 

The difference between the two processes is of great importance in 
the present connection, because the two rates of erosion are very 
different. 

I am fully aware that this sketch of the cataract’s work is not a satis- 
factory explanation of the mode of recession, but it yet serves a present 
purpose, for it renders it possible to point out that the rate of recession 
is affected by certain factors which may have varied during the early 
history of the river. We see that the process of recession is concerned 
with a heavy bed of hard rock above, with beds of softer rock beneath, 
with the force of falling water, and possibly, also, with the solvent 
power of the water. 

Concerning each of these factors a number of pertinent questions may 
be asked, questions that should certainly be considered, whether they 
are answered or not, before any solution of the time problem is regarded 
as satisfactory. To illustrate their pertinence, a few will be propounded. 

Question 1, Does the limestone vary in constitution in different parts 
of the gorge? If its texture or its system of cracks and joints varies, 
the process of recession may vary in consequence. 

Question 2. How does the limestone bed vary in thickness in differ- 
ent parts of the gorge? This question is easily answered, for at all 
points it is well exposed for measurement. 

Question 3. How is the thickness of the limestone related to the rate 
of recession? This is more difficult. The débris froma very thick bed 
of limestone would oppose great resistance to the cataract and check 
its work. The débris from a very thin bed would afford small and in- 
efficient pestles for pot-hole action, and might lead to a slow rate of 


*T am indebted for this suggestion to Mr, W J McGee, 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 255 


recession. If the thickness now seen at the cataract were slightly 
increased or slightly diminished, it is not at once apparent how the rate 
of recession would be affected, and yet there might be an important dif: 
erence. 

We have seen that the pre-glacial stream whose channel is betrayed 
at the Whirlpool removed the Niagara limestone through a portion of 
the gorge, and 

Question 4 asks: Through what portion of the gorge was the Niagara 
limestone absent when the Niagara River began its work ? 

Question 5. Does the rock section beneath the limestone—the shale 
series with its imbedded harder layers—does this vary in different parts 
of the gorge? 

Question 6. Through what distance were the several members of the 
underlying rock series removed by the action of the pre-glacial stream ? 

Coming now to consider the force of the falling water, a little con- 
sideration serves to show that the force depends on at least three things: 
The height through which the water falls, the degree of concentration 
of the stream, and the volume of the river. 

The height of the fall is the vertical distance from its crest to the sur- 
face of the pool below. 

Question 7 asks: How has the height of the crest of the fall varied 
during the history of recession? . 

Question 8. How has the height of the base of the fall varied? And 
this involves a subsidiary question—to what extent has the excavated 
gorge, as left by the retreating cataract, been re-filled, either by the 
falling in of fragments from the eliffs or by contributions of débris 
brought by the current ? 

Question 9. What has been the form of the channel at the crest of 
the fall from point to point during the recession? Wherever the chan- 
has been broad, and the water of uniform depth from side to side, the 
force of the falling water has been applied disadvantageously ; wher- 
ever the channel has been narrow, or has been much deeper in some 
parts than in others, the force of the water has been applied advanta- 
geously. 

There are many ways in which it is possible that the volume of the 
river was made to differ at early dates from its present volume. Dur- 
ing the presence of the ice there was a different climate, and there 
were different drainage systems. 

Question 10. During the early history of the river was the annual 
rainfall on which its water supply depended greater or less than now ? 

(Question 11. Was the evaporation from the basin at that time greater 
or less than now ? It is believed that at the present time the Niagara 
River receives less than half the water that falls upon its basin in rain 
and snow, the remainder being returned to the air by evaporation from 
the lakes, from the surface of the land, and from vegetation. 

Question 12, Was the water supply increased by ablation? There 


256 THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 


may have been times when the overlapping edge of the glacier dis- 
charged to the Laurentian Basin large bodies of water furnished by the 
melting of ice that had congealed from the clouds of regions far away. 

Question 13. Was the drainage area of the river at any time increased 
through the agency of ice barriers? Just as the Winnipeg basin was 
made to sendits water to the Mississippi, So we can imagine that regions 
north of the Great Lakes and now tributary to Hudson’s Bay had their 
discharge temporarily turned to Lake Superior and Lake Huron. 

On the other hand, we have seen that the discharge of the whole dis- 
trict of the upper lakes was for a time turned away from the Niagara 
River. Therefore we ask: 

Question 14. To what extent and for what periods was the volume 
of the river diminished through the diversion of the discharge of the 
upper lakes ? 

Assuming all these questions to be answered one by one, and the 
variations of different sorts determined, it is still necessary to learn the 
relations of those variations to each other, and so we ask: 

Question 15. How have the variations of rock section, the variations 
of cataract height, the variations of form of channel, and the variations 
of volume been related to one another in point of time? What have 
been their actual combinations ? 

Question 16. How have the various temporary combinations of factors 
affected the process of retreat and the rate of recession ? 

The tale of questions is not exhausted, but no more are needed if 
only it has been shown that the subject is not in reality simple, as 
many have assumed, but highly complex. Some of the questions are, 
indeed, easily answered. It may be possible to show that others are 
of small moment. It may even be that careful study of the local features 
will enable the investigator to infer the process of cataract work at 
each point from the existing condition of the gorge, and thus relieve 
him from the necessity of considering such remote questions as the 
nature of glacial climate and the history of glacial retreat. But after 
all paring and pruning, what remains of the problem will be no baga- 
telle. It is not to be solved by a few figures on a slate, nor yet by the 
writing of many essays. It is not to be solved by the cunning discussion 
of our scant, yet too puzzling, knowledge—smoothing away inconvenient 
doubts with convenient assumptions and cancelling out, as though 
compensatory, terms of unknown value that happen to stand on oppo- 
site sides of the equation. It is a problem of nature, and, like other 
natural problems, demands the patient gathering of many facts, of 
facts of many kinds, of categories of facts suggested by the tentative 
theories of to-day, and of new categories of facts to be suggested by 
new theories. 

I have said our problem is but the stepping stone to another problem, 
the discovery of common units for earth history and human history. 
The Niagara bridges the chasm in another way, or, more strictly, in 


THE HISTORY OF THE NIAGARA RIVER. 257 


another sense, for the term of its life belongs to both histories. The 
river sprang from a great geologic revolution, the banishment of the 
dynasty of cold, and so its lifetime is a geologic epoch; but from first 
to last man has been the witness of its toil, aud so its history is inter- 
woven with the history of man. The human comrade of the river’s 
youth was not, alas, a reporter with a notebook, else our present labor 
would be light. He has even told us little of himself. We only know 
that on a gravelly beach of Lake Iroquois, now the Ridge road, he 
rudely gathered stones to make a hearth, and built a fire; and the next 
storm breakers, forcing back the beach, buried and thus preserved, to 
gratify yet whet our curiosity, hearth, ashes, and charred sticks.* 

In these Darwinian days we can not deem primeval the man pos- 
sessed of the Promethean art of fire, and so his presence on the scene 
adds zest to the pursuit of the Niagara problem. Whatever the an- 
tiquity of the great cataract may be found to be, the antiquity of man 
is greater. 


* American Anthropologist, vol. 11, pp. 173, 174. 


H. Mis. 129 AEP 


THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL * 


By Sir R. LAMBERT PLAYFAIR. 


When the unexpected honor was proposed to me of presiding over 
your deliberations, I felt some embarrassment as to the subject of my 
address. Geography as a science, and the necessity of encouraging a 
more systematic study of it, had been treated in an exhaustive manner 
during previous meetings. - - - In my perplexity I applied for the 
advice of one of the most experienced geographers of our Society, 
whose reply brought comfort to my mind. He reminded me that it was 
generally the custom for presidents of sections to select subjects with 
which they were best acquainted, and added: “What more instructive 
and captivating subject could be wished than the Mediterranean, physi- 
eal and historical ?” 

For nearly a quarter of a century I have held an official position in 
Algeria, and it has been my constant delight to make myself acquainted 
with the islands and shores of the Mediterranean, in the hope of being 
able to facilitate the travels of my countrymen in that beautiful part 
of the world. 

Ican not pretend to throw much new light on the subject, and I have 
written so often about it already that what I have to say may strike 
you as a twice-told tale; nevertheless, if you will permit me to descend 
from the elevated platform occupied by more learned predecessors, I 
should like to speak to you in a familiar manner of this ‘¢ great sea,” as 
it is called in sacred Scripture, the Mare internum of the ancients, ‘our 
sea,” Mare nostrum of Pomponius Mela. 

Its shores include about 3,000,000 square miles of the richest country 
on the earth’s surface, enjoying a climate where the extremes of tem- 
perature are unknown, and with every variety of scenery, but chiefly 
consisting of mountains and elevated plateaux. It is a well-defined 
region of many parts, all intimately connected with each other by their 
geographical character, their geological formation, their flora, fauna, 
and the physiognomy of the people who inhabit them. ‘To this general 


* Vice-presidential address before the Geographical Section of the British Associa- 
tion Ady. Sci. meeting at Leeds, September, 1890, (From Nature, September 11, 
1890, vol. XLII, pp. 480-4*5.) 

259 


260 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 


statement there are two exceptions ;—namely, Palestine, which belongs 
rather to the tropical countries lying to the east of it, and so may be 
dismissed from our subject; and the Sahara, which stretches to the 
south of the Atlantic region—or region of the Atlas—but approaches 
the sea at the Syrtis, and again to the eastward of the Cyrenaica, and 
in which Egypt is merely a long oasis on either side of the Nile. 

The Mediterranean region is the emblem of fertility and the cradle 
of civilization, while the Sahara—Heypt, of course, excepted—is the 
traditional panther’s skin of sand, dotted here and there with oases, 
but always representing sterility and barbarism. The sea is in no 
sense, save a political one, the limit between them; it is a mere gulf, 
which, now bridged by steam, rather unites than separates the two 
shores. Civilization never could have existed if this inland sea had 
not formed the junction between the three surrounding continents, 
rendering the coasts of each easily accessible, whilst modifying the 
climate of its shores. 

The Atlas range is a mere continuation of the south of Europe. It 
is a long strip of mountain land, about 200 miles broad, covered with 
splendid forests, fertile valleys, and in some places arid steppes, stretch- 
ing eastward from the ocean to which it bas given its name. The 
highest point is Morocco, forming a pendant to the Sierra Nevada of 
Spain; thence it runs, gradually decreasing in height, through Algeria 
and Tunisia, it becomes interrupted in Tripoli, and it ends in the beauti- 
ful green hills of the Cyrenaica, which must not be confounded with 
the oases of the Sahara, but is an island detached from the eastern 
spurs of the Atlas, in the ocean of the desert. 

In the eastern part the flora and fauna do not essentially differ 
from those of Italy; in the west they resemble those of Spain; one of 
the noblest of the Atlantic conifers, the Abies pinsapo, is found also in 
the Iberian peninsula and nowhere else in the world, and the valuable 
alfa grass or esparto (Stipa tenacissima), from which a great part of our 
paper is made, forms one of the principal articles of export from Spain, 
Portugal, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli. On both sides of the 
sea the former plant is found on the highest and most inaccessible 
mountains, amongst snows which last during the greater part of the 
year, and the latter from the sea level to an altitude of 5,000 feet, but 
in places where the heat and drought would kill any other plant, and 
in undulating land where water can not lodge. 

Of the three thousand plants found in Algeria, by far the greater 
number are natives of southern Hurope, and less than one hundred are 
peculiar to the Sahara. The macchie or maquis of Algeria in no way 
differs from that of Corsica, Sardinia, and other places; it consists of 
lentisk, arbutus, myrtle, cistus, tree-heath, and other Mediterranean 
shrubs. If we take the commonest plant found on the southern shores 
of the Mediterranean, the dwarf palm (Chamerops humilis), we see at 
once how intimately connected is the whole Mediterranean region, with 


THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 261 


the exception of the localities I have before indicated This palm still 
grows spontaneously in the south of Spain, and in scme parts of Prov- 
ence, in Corsica, Sardinia, and the Tuscan Archipelago, in Calabria 
and the Ionian Islands, on the continent of Greece, and in several of 
the islands in the Levant, and it has only disappeared from other 
countries as the land has been brought under regular cultivation. On 
the other hand, it occurs neither in Palestine, Egypt, nor in the Sahara. 

The presence of European birds may not prove much, but there are 
mammalia, reptiles, fish, and insects common to both sides of the 
Mediterranean. Some of the larger animals, such as the lion, panther, 
jackal, ete., have disappeared before the march of civilization in the 
one continent, but have lingered, owing to Mohammedan barbarism, in 
the other. There is abundant evidence of the former existence of these 
and of the other large mammals which now characterize tropical Africa 
in France, Germany, and Greece. Itis probable that they only migrated 
to their present babitat after the upheaval of the great sea which, in 
Hocene times, stretched from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean, making 
southern Africa an island continent like Australia. The original fauna 
of Africa, of which the lemur is the distinctive type, is still preserved 
in Madagascar, which then formed part of it. 

The fish fauna is naturally the most conclusive evidence as to the 
true line of separation between Europe and Africa. We find the trout 
in the Atlantic region and in all the snow-fed rivers falling into the 
Mediterranean; in Spain, Italy, Dalmatia; it occurs in Mount Olym- 
pus, in rivers of Asia Minor, and even in the Lebanon, but nowhere in 
Palestine south of that range, in Egypt, or in the Sahara. This fresh- 
water salmonoid is not exactly the same in all these localities, but is 
subject to considerable variation, sometimes amounting to specific dis- 
tinction. Nevertheless it is a European type found in the Atlas, and 
it is not till we advance into the Sahara, at Tuggurt, that we come to 
a purely African form in the Chromide, which have a wide geographical 
distribution, being found everywhere between that place, the Nile, and 
Mozambique. 

The presence of newts, tailed batrachians, in every country around 
the Mediterranean, except again in Palestine, Egypt, and the Sahara, 
is another example of the continuity of the Mediterranean fauna, even 
though the species are not the same throughout. 


The Sahara is an immense zone of desert which commences on the 
Shores of the Atlantic Ocean, between the Canaries and Cape de 
Verde, and traverses the whole of north Africa, Arabia, and Persia, as 
far as Central Asia. The Mediterranean portion of it may be said 
roughly to extend between the fifteenth and thirtieth degrees of north 
latitude. 

This was popularly supposed to have been a vast inland sea in very 
recent times, but the theory was supported by geological facts wrongly 


262 § THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 


interpreted. It has been abundantly proved by the researches of travel- 
lers and geologists that such a sea was neither the cause nor the ori- 
gin of the Libyan Desert. 

‘  Rainless and sterile regions of this nature are not peculiar to north 
Africa, but occur in two belts which go round the world in either hem- 
isphere at about similar distances north and south of the equater. 
These correspond in locality to the great inland drainage areas from 
which no water can be discharged into the ocean, and which occupy 
about one-fifth of the total land surface of the globe. 

The African Sahara is by no means a uniform plain, but forms sev- 
eral distinct basins containing a considerable extent of what may 
almost be called mountain land. The Hoggar Mountains, in the center 
of the Sahara, are 7,000 feet high, and are covered during three months 
with snow. The general average may be taken at 1,500. The physi- 
cal character of the region is very varied; in some places, such as at 
Tiout, Moghrar, Touat, and other oases in or bordering on Morocco, 
there are well watered valleys, with fine scenery and almost European 
vegetation, where the fruits of the north flourish side by side with the 
palm tree. In others there are rivers like the Oued Guir, an affluent of 
the Niger, which the French soldiers, who saw it in 1870, compare to 
the Loire. Again, as in the bed of the Oued Rir, there is a subterra- 
hean river, which gives a sufficient supply of water to make a chain of 
rich and well-peopled oases equal in fertility to some of the finest por- 
tions of Algeria. ‘The greater part of the Sahara, however, is hard and 
undulating, cut up by dry water courses, such as the Igharghar, which 
descends to the Chott Melghigh, and almost entirely without animal or 
vegetable life. 

About one-sixth of its extent consists of dunes of moving sand, a 
vast accumulation of detritus washed down from more northern and 
southern regions—perhaps during the glacial epoch—but with no indi- 
cation of marine formation. ‘These are difficult and even dangerous to 
traverse; but they are not entirely destitute of vegetation. Water is 
found at rare but well-known intervals, and there is an abundance of 
salsolaceous plants which serve as food for the camel. This sand is 
largely produced by wind action on the underlying rocks, and is not 
sterile in itself; it is only the want of water which makes it so. 
Wherever water does exist or artesian wells are sunk oases of great 
fertility never fail to follow. 

Some parts of the Sahara are below the level of the sea, and here are 
formed what are called chotts or sebkhas, open depressions without out: 
lets, inundated by torrents from the southern slopes of the Atlas in 
winter, and covered with a saline efflorescence in summer. This salt by 
no means proves the former existence of an inland sea; it is produced 
by the concentration of the natural salts, which exist in every variety 
of soil, washed down by winter rains, with which the unevaporated res- 
idue of water becomes saturated. 


THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 263 


Sometimes the drainage, instead of flooding open spaces and forming 
chotts, finds its way through the permeable sand till it meets imper- 
meable strata below it, thus forming vast subterranean reservoirs where 
the artesian sound daily works as great miracles as did Moses’s rod of 
yore at Meribah. I have seen a column of water thrown up into the 
air equal to 1,300 cubie meters per diem, a quantity sufficient to redeem 
1,800 acres of land from sterility and to irrigate 60,000 palm trees. 
This seems to be the true solution of the problem of an inland sea, a 
sea of verdure and fertility caused by the multiplication of artesian 
wells, which never fail to bring riches and prosperity in their train. 

The climate of the Sahara is quite different from that of what I have 
called the Mediterranean region, where periodical rains divide the year 
into two seasons. Here, in many places, years elapse without a single 
shower; there is no refreshing dew at night, and the winds are robbed 
of their moisture by the immense continental extents over which they 
blow. There can be no doubt that it is to these meteorological and 
not to geological causes that the Sahara owes its existence. Reclus 
divides the Mediterranean into two basins, which, in memory of their 
history, he calls the Pheenician and the Carthaginian, or the Greek and 
Roman Seas, more generally known to us as the Eastern and Western 
Basins, separated by the island of Sicily. 

If we examine the submarine map of the Mediterranean we see that 
it must at one time have consisted of two inclosed or inland basins, 
like the Dead Sea. The western one is separated from the Atlantie by 
the Straits of Gibraltar, a shallow ridge, the deepest part of which is 
at its eastern extremity, averaging about 300 fathoms, while on the 
west, bounded by a line from Cape Spartel to Trafalgar, it varies from 
50 to 200 fathoms. Fifty miles to the west of the straits the bottom 
suddenly sinks down to the depths of the Atlantic, while to the east 
it descends to the general level of the Mediterranean, from 1,000 to 
2,000 fathoms. 

The Western is separated from the Eastern Basin by the isthmus 
which extends between Cape Bon, in Tunisia, and Sicily, known as the 
“Adventure Bank,” on which there is not more than from 30 to 250 
fathoms. The depth between Italy and Sicily is insignificant, and 
Malta is a continuation of the latter, being only separated from it by a 
shallow patch of from 50 to 100 fathoms, while to the east and west of 
this bank the depth of the sea is very great. These shallows cut off 
the two basins from all but superficial communication. 

The configuration of the bottom shows that the whole of this strait 
was at one time continuous land, affording free communication for land 
animals between Africa and Europe. The paleontological evidence of 
this is quite conclusive. In the caves and fissures of Malta, amongst 
river detritus, are found three species of fossil elephants, a hippopota- 
mus, a gigantic dormouse, and other animais which could never have 
lived in so small an island. In Sicily, remains of the existing elephant 


264 THE MEDITERRANEAN. PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 


have been found, as well as the Hlephas antiquus, and two species of 
hippopotamus, while nearly all these and many other animals of African 
type have been found in the Pliocene deposits and caverns of the 
Atlantic region. 

The rapidity with which such a transformation might have occurred 
can be judged by the well-known instance of Graham’s Shoal, between 
Sicily and the island of Pantellaria; this, owing to volcanic agency, 
actually rose above the water in 1832, and for a few weeks had an area 
of 3,240 feet in circumference and a heen of 107 feet. 

The submersion of this isthmus no doubt occurred when the waters 
of the Atlantic were introduced through the Straits of Gibraitar. The 
rainfall over the entire area of the Mediterranean is certainly not more 
than 30 inches, while the evaporation is at least twice as great; there- 
fore, were the straits to be once more closed and were there no other 
ageney for making good this deficiency, the level of the Mediterranean 
would sink again till its basin became restricted to an area no larger 
than might be necessary to equalize the amount of evaporation and 
precipitation. Thus not only would the strait between Sicily and Africa 
be again laid dry, but the Adriatic and gean Seas also, and a great 
part of the Eastern Basin. 

The entire area of the Mediterranean and Black Seas has been esti- 
mated at upwards of a million square miles, and the volume of the 
rivers which are discharged into them at 226 cubic miles. All this and 
much more is evaporated annually. There are two constant curreuts 
passing through the Straits of Gibraltar, super-imposed on each other; 
the upper and most copious one flows in from the Atlantic at a rate of 
nearly 3 miles an hour, or 140,000 cubic metres per second, and supplies 
the difference between the rainfall and evaporation, while the under 
current of warmer water, which has undergone concentration by evapora- 
tion, is continually flowing out at about half the above rate of move- 
ment, getting rid of the excess of salinity; even thus, however, leaving 
the Mediterranean salter than any other part of the ocean except the 
Red Sea. 

A similar phenomenon occurs at the eastern end, where the fresher 
water of the Black Sea flows as a surface current through the Darda- 
nelles, and the salter water of the Mediterranean pours in below it. 

The general temperature of the Mediterranean from a depth of 50 
fathoms down to the bottom is almost constantly 56° F., whatever may 
be its surface rise of temperature. This is a great contrast to that of 
the Atlantic, which at a similar depth is at least 3° colder, and which 
at 1,000 fathoms sinks to 40° F. 

This fact was of the greatest utility to Dr. Carpenter in connection 
with his investigations regarding currents through the straits, enabling 
him to distinguish with precision between Atlantic and Mediterranean 
water. 

For all practical purposes the Mediterranean may be accepted as being, 


THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 265 


what it is popularly supposed to be, a tideless sea; but it is not so in 
reality. In many places there is a distinct rise and fall, though this is 
more frequently due to winds and currents than to lunar attraction. At 
Venice there is a rise of from 1 to 2 feet in spring tides, according to the 
prevalence of winds up or down the Adriatic; but in that sea itself the 
tides are so weak that they can hardly be recognized, except during the 
prevalence of the Bora, our old friend Boreas, which generally raises a 
surcharge along the coast of Italy. In many straits and narrow aruis of 
the sea there is a periodical flux and reflux; but the only place where 
tidal influence, properly so called, is unmistakably observed is in the 
Lesser Syrtis, or Gulf of Gabes. There the tide runs at the rate of 2 
or 3 knots an hour, and the rise and fall varies from 3 to 8 feet. It is 
most marked and regular at Djerba, the Homeric island of the Lotophagi. 
One must be careful in landing there in a boat, so as not to be left high 
and dry a mile or two from the shore. Perhaps the companions of 
Ulysses were caught by the receding tide, and it was not only a banquet 
of dates, the “honey-sweet fruit of the Lotus,” or the potent wine which 
is made from it, which made them “forgetful of their homeward way.” 

The Gulf of Gabes naturally calls to mind the proposals which were 
made a few years ago for inundating the Sahara, and so restoring to the 
Atlantic region the insular condition which it is alleged to have had in 
pre-historic times. I will not allude to the English project for introdue- 
ing the waters of the Atlantic from the west coast of Africa. That does 
not belong to my subject. The French scheme advocated by Com- 
mandant Roudaire, and supported by M. de Lesseps, was quite as vis- 
ionary and impracticable. 

To the south of Algeria and Tunis there exists a great depression, 
stretching westward from the Gulf of Gabes to a distance of about 235 
miles, in which are several chotts or salt lakes, sometimes only marshes, 
and in many places covered with a saline crust strong enough to bear the 
passage of camels. Commandant Roudaire proposed to cut through the 
isthmuses which separated the various chotts, and so prepare their basins 
to receive the waters of the Mediterranean. This done, he intended to 
introduce the sea by a canal, which should have a depth of 1 metre 
below low-water level. 

This scheme was based on the assumption that the basin of the chotts 
has been an inland sea within historic times; that, little by little, owing 
to the difference between the quantity of water which entered and the 
amount of evaporation and absorption, this interior sea had disappeared, 
leaving the chotts as an evidence ot the former condition of things; that, 
in fact, this was none other than the celebrated Lake Triton, the posi- 
tion of which has always been a puzzle to geographers. 

This theory however is untenable. The isthmus of Gabes is not a 
mere sand bank. There is a band of rock between the sea and the basin 
of the chotts, through which the former never could have penetrated in 
modern times. It is much more probable that Lake Triton was the 


266 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 


large bight between the island of Djerba and the mainland, on the shores 
of which are the ruins of the ancient city of Meninx, which, to judge by 
the abundance of Greek marble found there, must have carried on an 
important commerce with the Levant. 

The scheme has now been entirely abandoned. Nothing but the mania 
for cutting through isthmuses all over the world which followed the 
brilliant success achieved at Suez can explain its having been started 
at all. Of course, no mere mechanical operation is impossible in these 
days; but the mind refuses to rea‘ize the possibility of vessels cireulat- 
ing in a region which produces nothing, or that so small a sheet of water 
in the immensity of the Sahara could have any appreciable effect in 
modifying the climate of its shores. 

The eastern basin is much more indented and cut up into separate 
seas than the westernone. It was therefore better adapted for the com- 
mencement of commerce and navigation. Its high mountains were land- 
marks for the unpracticed sailor, and its numerous islands and harbors 
afforded shelter for his frail bark, and so facilitated communication be- 
tween one point and another. 


The advance of civilization naturally took place along the axis of 
this sea, Phoenicia, Greece, and Italy being successively the great nur- 
series of human knowledge and progress. Phoenicia had the glory of 
opening out the path of ancient commerce, for its position in the Levant 
gave it a natural command of the Mediterranean, and its people sought 
the profits of trade from every nation which had a seaboard on the 
three continents washed by this sea. Phoenicia was already a nation 
before the Jews entered the Promised Land; and when they did so, they 
carried on inland traffic as middlemen to the Pheenicians. Many of 
the commercial centers on the shores of the Mediterranean were founded 
before Greece and Rome acquired importance in history. Homer refers 
to them as daring traders nearly a thousand years before the Christian 
era. 

For many centuries the commerce of the world was limited to the 
Mediterranean, and when it extended in the direction of the East it 
was the merchants of the Adriatic, of Genoa, and of Pisa who brought 
the merchandise of India, at an enormous cost, to the Mediterranean 
by land, and who monopolized the carrying trade by sea. It was thus 
that the elephant trade of India, the caravan traffie through Babylon 
and Palmyra, as well as the Arab kajilehs, became united with the 
Occidental commerce of the Mediterranean. 

As civilization and commerce extended westward, mariners began to 
overcome their dread of the vast solitudes of the ocean beyond the Pil- 
lars of Hercules, and the discovery of America by Columbus and the 
circum-navigation of Africa by the Portuguese changed entirely the cur- 
rent of trade as well as increased its magnitude, and so relegated the 


THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 267 


Mediterranean, which had hitherto been the central sea of human inter- 
course, to a position of secondary importance. 

Time will not permit me to enter into further details regarding the 
physical geography of this region, and its history is a subject so vast 
that a few episodes of it are all that I can possibly attempt. It is in- 
timately connected with that of every other country in the world, and 
here were successively evolved all the great dramas of the past and 
some of the most important events of less distant date. 

As I have already said, long before the rise of Greece and Rome its 
shores and islands were the seat of an advanced civilization. Phoenicia 
had sent out her pacific colonies to the remotest parts, and not iusig- 
nificant vestiges of their handicraft still exist to excite our wonder and 
admiration. We have the megalithic temples of Malta, sacred to the 
worship of Baal, the generative god, and Ashtoreth, the conceptive 
goddess, of the universe. The three thousand nurhagi of Sardinia, 
round towers of admirable masonry, intended probably for defense in 
case of sudden attack, and the so-called giant graves, were as great a 
mystery to classical authors as they are to us at the present day. 
Minorca has its talayots, tumuli somewhat analogous to but of ruder 
construction than the nurhagi, more than 200 groups of which exist in 
various parts of the island. With these are associated subordinate con- 
structions intended for worship, altars composed of two immense 
monoliths erected in the form of a T, sacred inclosures and megalithic 
habitations. One type of talayot is especially remarkable, of better 
masonry than the others, and exactly resembling inverted boats. One 
is tempted to believe that the Phenicians had in view the grass hab- 
itations or mapalia of the Numidians described by Sallust, and had 
endeavored to reproduce them in stone: Oblonga, incurvis lateribus 
tecta, quasi navium carine sunt. 

For a long time the Pheenicians had no rivals in navigation, but 
subsequently the Greeks—especially the Phocians—established colonies 
in the western Mediterranean, in Spain, Corsica, Sardinia, Malta, and 
the south of France, through the means of which they propagated not 
only their commerce but their arts, literature, and ideas. They iutro- 
duced many valuable plants, such as the olive, thereby modifying pro- 
foundly the agriculture of the countries in which they settled. They 
have even left traces of their blood, and it is no doubt to this that the 
women of Provence owe the classical beauty of their features. 

But they were eclipsed by their successors. The empire of Alexander 
opened out a road to India, in which, indeed, the Phoenicians had pre- 
ceded him, and introduced the produce of the Kast into the Mediter- 
ranean; while the Tyrian colony of Carthage became the capital of 
another vast empire, which, from its situation midway between the 
Levant and the Atlantic Ocean, enabled it to command the Mediter- 
ranean traffic. 

The Carthaginians at one time ruled over territory extending along 


268 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 


the coast from Cyrene to Numidia, besides having a considerable influ- 
ence over the interior of the continent, so that the name of Africa, 
given to their own dominions, was gradually applied to a whole quarter 
of the globe. The ruling passion with the Carthaginians was love of 
gain, not patriotism, and their wars were largely fought with mercena- 
ries. It was the excellence of her civil constitution which, according 
to Aristotle, kept in cohesion for centuries her straggling possessions. 
A country feebly patriotic, which intrusts her defense to foreigners, 
has the seeds of inevitable decay, which ripened in her struggle with 
Rome, despite the warlike genius of Hamilear and the devotion of the 
magnanimous Hannibal. The gloomy and cruel religion of Carthage, 
with its human sacrifices to Moloch and its worship of Baal under the 
name of Melkarth, led to a criminal code of Draconic severity and 
alienated it from surrounding nations. When the struggle with Rome 
began, Carthage had no friends. The first Punic war was a contest for 
the possession of Sicily, whose prosperity is even now attested by the 
splendor of its Hellenic monuments. When Sicily was lost by the 
Carthaginians, so also was the dominion of the sea, which hitherto 
had been uncontested. The second Punic war resulted in the utter 
prostration of Carthage and the loss of all her possessions out of 
Africa, and in 201 B. C., when this war was ended, 552 years after 
the foundation of the city, Rome was mistress of the world. 

The destruction of Carthage after the third Punic war was a heavy 
blow to Mediterranean commerce. It was easy for Cato to utter his 
stern Delenda est Carthago. Destruction is easy, but construction is 
vastly more difficult. Although Augustus in his might built a new 
Carthage near the site of the old city, he could never attract again the 
trade of the Mediterranean, which had been diverted into other chan- 
nels. oman supremacy was unfavorable to the growth of commerce, 
because, though she allowed unrestricted trade throughout her vast 
empire and greatly improved internal communications in the subju- 
gated countries, Rome itself absorbed the greater part of the weaith 
and did not produce any commodities in return for its immense con- 
sumption, therefore Mediterranean commerce did not thrive under the 
Roman rule. The conquest of Carthage, Greece, Egypt, and the Hast 
poured in riches to Rome, and dispensed for a time with the needs of 
productive industry, but formed no enduring basis of prosperity. 

It is only in relation to the Mediterranean that I can refer to Roman 
history; but I must allude to the interesting episode in the life of 
Diocletian, who, after an anxious reign of 21 years in the eastern 
division of the empire, abdicated at Nicomedia, and retired to his 
native province of Illyria. He spent the rest of his life in rural pleas- 
ures and horticulture at Salona, near which he built that splendid pal- 
ace within the walls of which subsequently arose the modern city of 
Spalato. Nothing more interesting exists on the shores of the Medi- 
terranean than this extraordinary edifice, perhaps the largest that 


THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 269 


ever arose at the bidding of a single man; not only vast and beautiful, 
but marking one of the most important epochs in the history of arehi- 
tecture. 

Though now obstructed with a mass of narrow, tortuous streets, its 
salient features are distinctly visible. The great temple, probably the 
mausoleum of the founder, has become the cathedral, and after the 
Pantheon at Rome there is no finer specimen of a heathen temple 
turned into a Christian church. Strange it is that the tomb of him 
whose reign was marked by such unrelenting persecution of the Chris- 
tiaus should have been accepted as the model of those baptisteries so 
commonly constructed in the following centuries. 

Of Diocletian’s Salona, one of the chief cities of the Roman world, 
but little now remains save traces of the long, irregular walls. Recent 
excavations have brought to light much that is interesting, but all of 
the Christian epoch, such as a large basilica which had been used as 
a necropolis, and a baptistery, one of those copied from the temple of 
Spalato, on the mosaic pavement of which can still be read the text, 
Sicut cervus desiderat fontem aquarum ita anima mea ad te Deus. 

The final partition of the Roman Empire took place in 365; 40 years 
later the barbarians of the North began to invade Italy and the south 
of Europe; and in 429, Genseric, at the head of his Vandal hordes, 
crossed over into Africa from Andalusia, a province which still bears 
their name, devastating the country as far as the Cyrenaica. He sub- 
sequently annexed the Balearic Islands, Corsica, and Sardinia; he 
ravaged the coasts of Italy and Sicily, and even of Greece and Illyria; 
but the most memorable of his exploits was the unresisted sack of 
Rome, whence he returned to Africa laden with treasure and bearing 
the Empress Kudoxia a captive in his train. 

The degenerate emperors of the West were powerless to avenge this 
insult; but Byzantium, though at this time sinking to decay, did 
make a futile attempt to attack the Vandal monarch in his African 
stronghold. It was not, however, till 533, in the reign of Justinian, 
when the successors of Genseric had fallen into luxurious habits and 
had lost the rough valor of their ancestors, that Belisarius was able to 
break their power and take their last king a prisoner to Constantinople. 
The Vandal domination in Africa was destroyed, but that of the 
Byzantines was never thoroughly consolidated; it rested not on its 
own strength, but on the weakness of its enemies; and it was quite 
unable to cope with the next great wave of invasion which swept over 
the land, perhaps the most extraordinary event in the world’s history, 
save only the introduction of Christianity. 

In 647, 27 years after the Hedjira of Mohammed, Abdulla ibn Saad 
started from Egypt for the conquest of Africa with an army of 40,000 
men. 

The expedition had two determining causes—the hope of plunder 
and the desire to promulgate the religion of El Islam. The sands and 


270 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL, 


scorching heat of the desert, which had nearly proved fatal to the 
army of Cato, were no bar to the bardy Arabians and their enduring 
camels. The march to Tripoli was a fatiguing one, but it was success- 
fully accomplished; the invaders did not exhaust their force in a vain 
effort to reduce its fortifications, but swept on over the Syrtic desert 
and north to the province of Africa, where, near the splendid city of 
Suffetula, a great battle was fought between them and the army of the 
Exarch Gregorius, in which the Christians were signally defeated, 
their leader killed, and his daughter allotted to Ibn-ez-Zobair, who had 
slain her father. 

Not only did the victorious Moslems overrun north Africa, but soon 
they had powerful fleets at sea, which dominated the entire Mediter- . 
ranean, and the emperors of the Kast had enough to do to protect their 
own capital. 

Egypt, Syria, Spain, Provence, and the islands of the Mediterranean 
successively fell to their arms, and until they were checked at the 
Pyrenees by Charles Martel it seemed at one time as if the whole of 
southern Europe would have been compelled to submit to the disciples 
of the new religion. Violent, implacable, and irresistible at the moment 
of conquest, the Arabs were not unjust or hard masters in countries 
which submitted to their conditions. Every endeavor was, of course, 
made to proselytize, but Christians were allowed to preserve their re- 
ligion on payment of a tax,and even Popes were in the habit of entering 
into friendly relations with the invaders. The Church of St. Cyprian 
and St. Augustine, with its 500 sees, was indeed expunged, but five cen- 
turies after the passage of the Mohammedan army from Egypt to the 
Atlantic a remnant of it still existed. It was not till the twelfth cen- 
tury that the religion and language of Rome became utterly extin- 
guished. 

The Arabs introduced a high state of civilization into the countries 
where they settled; their architecture is the wonder and admiration of 
the world at the present day; their irrigational works in Spain have 
never been improved upon; they fostered literature and the arts of 
peace, and introduced a system of agriculture far superior to what 
existed before their arrival. 

Commerce, discouraged by the Romans, was highly honored by the 
Arabs, and during their rule the Mediterranean recovered the trade 
which it possessed in the time of the Phoenicians and Carthaginians; 
it penetrated into the Indian Archipelago and China; it travelled west- 
ward to the Niger, and to the east as far as Madagascar, and the great 
trade route of the Mediterranean was once more developed. 

The powerand prosperity of the Arabs culminated in the ninth century, 
when Sicily fell to their arms; it was not, however, very long before 
their empire began to be undermined by dissensions ; the temporal and 
spiritual authority of the Ommiade Khalifs, which extended from Sind 
to Spain and from the Oxus to Yemen, was overthrown by the Abba- 


THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 271 


sides in the year 132 of the Hedjira, A. D. 750. Seven years later 
Spain detached itself from the Abbaside empire; a new caliphate was 
established at Cordova, and hereditary monarchies began to spring up 
in other Mohammedan countries. 

The Carlovingian empire gave an impulse to the maritime power of 
the south of Europe, and in the Adriatic the fleets of Venice and Ragusa 
monopolized the traffic of the Levant. The merchants of the latter 
noble little republic penetrated even to our own shores, and Shake- 
speare has made the Argosy or Ragusie a household word in our Jan- 
guage. 

During the eleventh century the Christian powers were no longer 
coutent to resist the Mohammedans; they began to turn their arms 
against them. If the latter ravaged some of the fairest parts of Europe, 
the Christians began to take brilliant revenge. 

The Mohammedans were driven out of Corsica, Sardinia, Sicily, and 
the Balearic Islands, but it was not till 1492 that they had finally to 
abandon HKurope, after the conquest of Granada by Ferdinand and 
Isabella. 

About the middle of the eleventh century an event took place which 
profoundly modified the condition of the Mohammedan world. The 
Caliph Mostansir let loose a horde of nomad Arabs, who, starting from 
Egypt, spread over the whole of north Africa, carrying destruction and 
blood wherever they passed, thus laying the foundation for the subse- 
quent state of anarchy which rendered possible the interference of the 
Turks. 

English commercial intercourse with the Mediterranean was not 
unknown even from the time of the Crusades, but it does not appear 
to have been carried on by means of our own vessels till the beginning 
of the sixteenth century. In 1522 it was so great that Henry VIII 
appointed a Cretan merchant, Censio de Balthazari, to be “‘ master, gov- 
ernor, protector, and consul of all and singlar the merchants and others, 
his lieges and subjects, within the port, island, and country of Crete 
or Candia.” This is the very first English consul known to history, 
but the first of English birth was my own predecessor in office, Master 
John Tipton, who, after having acted at Algiers during several years 
in an unofficial character, probably elected by the merchants them- 
selves to protect their interests, was duly appointed consul by Sir 
William Harebone, ambassador at Constantinople, in 1585, and received 
just such an exequatur from the Porte as has been issued to every 
consul since by the Government of the country in which he resides. 

Piracy has always been the scourge of the Mediterranean, but we are 
too apt to associate its horrors entirely with the Moors and Turks. 
The evil had existed from the earliest ages; even before the Roman 
conquest of Dalmatia the Lllyrians were the generai enemies of the 
Adriatic. Africa, under the Vandal reign, was a nest of the fiercest 
pirates. The Venetian chronicles are full of complaints of the ravages 


rad (Ps THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 


of the Corsairs of Ancona, and there is no other name but piracy for 
such acts of the Genoese as the unprovoked pillage of Tripoli by Andrea 
Doria in 1535. To forma just idea of the Corsairs of the past, it is 
well to remember that commerce and piracy were often synonymous 
terms, even among the English, up to the reign of Elizabeth. Listen 
to the description given by the pious Cavendish of his commercial cir- 
cumnavigation of the globe: ‘It has pleased Almighty God to suffer 
me to circumpass the whole globe of the world. - - - I navigated 
along the coast of Chile, Peru, and New Spain, where I made great 
spoils. All the villages and towns that ever I landed at, I burned and 
spoiled, and had I not been discovered upon the coast, I had taken a 
great quantity of treasure,” and so he concludes, ‘‘ The Lord be praised 
for all his mercies!” 

Sir William Monson, when called upon by James I to propose a 
scheme for an attack on Algiers, recommended that all the maritime 
powers of Europe should contribute towards the expense and partici- 
pate in the gains by the sale of Moors and Turks as slaves. 

After the discovery of America and the expulsion of the Moors from 
Spain, piracy developed to an extraordinary extent. The audacity of 
the Barbary Corsairs seems incredible at the present day; they landed 
on the shores and islands of the Mediterranean, and even extended 
their ravages to Great Britain, carrying off all the inhabitants whom 
they could seize into the most wretched slavery. The most formidable 
of these piratical states was Algiers, a military oligarchy, consisting 
of a body of janissaries, recruited by adventurers from the Levent, the 
outcasts of the Mohammedan world, criminals and renegades from 
every nation in Europe. They elected their own ruler or Dey, who 
exercised despotic sway, tempered by frequent assassination; they 
oppressed without mercy the natives of the country, accumulated vast 
riches, had immense numbers of Christian slaves, and kept all Europe 
in a state bordering on subjection by the terror which they inspired. 
Nothing is sadder or more inexplicable than the shameful manner in 
which this state of things was accepted by civilized nations. Many 
futile attempts were made during successive centuries to humble their 
arrogance, but it only increased by every manifestation of the power- 
lessness of Europe to restrain it. It was reserved for our own country- 
man, Lord Exmouth, by his brilliant victory in 1816, forever to put an 
end to piracy and Christian slavery in the Mediterranean. His work, 
however, was left incomplete, for though he destroyed the navy of the 
Algerines and so rendered them powerless for evil on the seas, they 
were far trom being humbled; they continued to slight their treaties 
and to subject even the agents of powerful nations to contumely and 
injustice. The French took the only means possible to destroy this 
nest of ruffians by the almost unresisted occupation of Algiers and 
the deportation of its Tarkish aristocracy. 

They found the whole country in the possession of a hostile people, 


THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. Pa (3 


some of whom had never been subdued since the fall of the Roman 
Empire, and the world owes France no small debt of gratitude for hav- 
ing transformed what was a savage and almost uncultivated country 
into one of the richest as well as the most beautiful in the basin of the 
Mediterranean. 

What has been accomplished in Algeria is being effected in Tunisia. 
The treaty of the Kasr-es-Saeed, which established a French protecto- 
rate there and military occupation of the regency, were about as 
high-handed and unjustifiable acts as are recorded in history; but 
there can be no possible doubt regarding the important work of civil- 
ization and improvement that has resulted from them. European 
courts of justice have been established all over the country, the 
exports and imports have increased from twenty-three to fifty-one 
millions of franes, the revenue from six to nineteen millions, without 
the imposition of a single new tax, and nearly half a million per annum 
is being spent on education. 

Sooner or later the same thing must happen in the rest of north 
Africa, though at present international jealousies retard this desirable 
consummation. It seems hard to condemn such fair countries to con- 
tinued barbarism in the interest of tyrants who mis-govern and oppress 
their people. The day can not be far off when the whole southern 
shores of the Mediterranean will enjoy the same prosperity and civil. 
ization as the northern coast, and when the deserts which are the 
result of mis-government and neglect will assume the fertility arising 
from security and industry, and will again blossom as the rose. 

It cannot be said that any part of the Mediterranean basin is still 
unknown, if we except the Empire of Morocco. But even that country 
has been traversed in almost every direction during the past 20 
years, and its geography and natural history have been illustrated by 
men of the greatest eminence, such as Gerhard Rohlfs, Monsieur Tissot, 
Sir Joseph Hooker, the Vicomte de Foucauld, Joseph Thomson, and 
numerous other travellers. The least known portion, at least on the 
Mediterranean coast, is the Riff country, the inhospitality of whose 
inhabitants has given the word “ruffian” to the English language. 
Even that has been penetrated by De Foucauld disguised as a Jew, 
and the record of his exploration is one of the most brilliant con- 
tributious to the geography of the country which has hitherto been 
made. 

Although, therefore, but littie remains to be done in the way of 
actual exploration, there are many by-ways of travel comparatively 
little known to that class of the community with which I have so much 
sympathy,—the ordinary British tourist. These flock every year in 
hundreds to Algeria and Tunis, but few of them visit the splendid 
Roman remains in the interior of those countries. The Cyrenaica is 
not so easily accessible, and I doubt whether any Englishmen have 
travelled in if since the exploration of Smith and Porcher in 1861. 

H. Mis. 129-18 


274 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 


Cyrene almost rivalled Carthage in commercial importance. The 
Hellenic ruins still existing bear witness to the splendor of its five great 
cities. It was the birth-place of many distinguished people, and amongst 
its hills and fountains were located some of the most interesting scenes 
in mythology,such as the Gardens of the Hesperides, and the ‘silent, 
dull, forgetful waters of Lethe.” 

This peninsula is only separated by a narrow strait from Greece, 
whence it was originally colonized. There, and indeed all over the 
eastern basin of the Mediterranean, are many little-trodden routes, but 
the subject is too extensive; I am reluctantly compelled to restrict my 
remarks to the western half. 

The south of Italy is more frequently traversed, and less travelled in, 
than any part of that country. Of the thousands who yearly embark 
or dis-embark at Brindisi few ever visit the land of Manfred. Otranto 
is only known to them from the fanciful descriptions in Horace Wal- 
pole’s romance. The general public in this country is quite ignorant of 
what is going on at Taranto, and of the great arsenal and dockyard 
which Italy is constructing in the Mare Piccolo, an inland sea contain- 
ing more than 1,000 acres of anchorage for the largest ironclads afloat, 
yet with an entrance so narrow that it is spanned by a revolving bridge. 
Even the Adriatic, though traversed daily by steamers of the Austrian 
Lloyd’s Company, is not a highway of travel, yet where is it possible to 
find so many places of interest within the short space of a week’s voy- 
age, between Corfu and Trieste, as along the Dalmatian and Istrian 
shores, and among the islands that fringe the former where it is diffi- 
cult to realize that one is at sea at all, and not on some great inland 
lake? 

There is the Bocche di Cattaro, a vast rent made by the Adriatic 
among the mountains, where the sea flows round their spurs in a series 
of canals, bays, and lakes of surpassing beauty. The city of Cattaro 
itself, the gateway of Montenegro, with its picturesque Venetian fort- 
ress, nestling at the foot of the black mountain, Ragusa, the Roman 
successor of the Hellenic Epidaurus, queen of the southern Adriatic, 
battling with the waves on her rock-bound peninsula, the one spot in 
all that sea which never submitted either to Venice or the Turk, and 
for centuries resisting the barbarians on every side, absolutely unique 
as a medieval fortified town, and worthy to have given her name to the 
argosies she sent forth; Spalato, the grandest of Roman monuments ; 
Lissa, colonized by Dionysius of Syracuse, and memorable to us as hav- 
ing been a British naval station from 1812 to 1814, while the French 
held Dalmatia; Zara, the capital, famous for its siege by the Crusaders, 
interesting from an ecclesiological point of view, and venerated as the 
last resting place of St. Simeon, the prophet of the Nwne dimittis ; 
Parenza, with its great basilica; Pola, with its noble harbor, whence 
Belisarius sailed forth, now the chief naval port of the Austrian Em- 
pire, with its Roman amphitheater and graceful triumphal arches, be- 


THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 215 


sides many other places of almost equal interest. Still farther west are 
Corsica, Sardinia, and the Balearic Islands, all easily accessible from 
the coasts of France, Italy, and Spain. Their ports are constantly vis- 
ited by mail steamers and private yachts, yet they are but little ex- 
plored in the interior. - - - 


I have endeavored to sketch, necessarily in a very imperfect manner, 
the physical character and history otf the Mediterranean, to show how 
the commerce of the world originated in a small maritime state at its 
eastern extremity; how it graduaily advanced westward till it burst 
through the Straits of Gibraltar and extended over seas and continents 
until then undreampt of, an event which deprived the Mediterranean ot 
that commercial prosperity and greatness which for centuries had been 
limited to its narrow basin. 

Once more this historic sea has become the highway of nations; the 
persistent energy and genius of two men have revolutionized naviga- 
tion, opened out new and boundless fields for commerce, and it is hardly 
too much to say that if the Mediterranean is to be restored to its old 
position of importance, if the struggle for Africa is to result in its re- 
generation, as happened in the New World, if the dark places still re- 
maining in the farther Kast are to be civilized, it will be in a great 
measure due to Wagborn and Ferdinand de Lesseps, who developed 
the overland route and created the Suez Canal. 

But the Mediterranean can only hope to retain its regenerated posi- 
tion in time of peace, Nothing is more certainly shown by past history 
than that war and conquest have changed the route of commerce in 
spite of favored geographical positions. Babylon was conquered by 
Assyrians, Persians, Macedonians, and Romans, and though fora time 
her position on the Huphrates caused her to rise like a Phoenix from 
her ashes, successive conquests combined with the luxury and effemi- 
nacy of her rulers, caused her to perish. Tyre, conquered by Nebuchad- 
nezzar and Alexander, fell as completely as Babylon had done, and her 
trade passed to Alexandria. Ruined sites of commercial cities rarely 
again become emporia of commerce; Alexandria is an exception de- 
pendent on very exceptional circumstances. 

The old route to the Hast was principally used by sailing vessels, and 
was abandoned for the shorter and more economical one by the Suez 
Canal, which now enables a round voyage to be made in 60 days, which 
formerly required from 6 to 8 months. This, however, can only remain 
open in time of peace. It is quite possible that in the event of war the 
old route by the Cape may be again used to the detriment of traffic by 
the Mediterranean. Modern invention has greatly economized the use 
of coal, and steamers, by the use of duplex and triplex engines, can run 
with a comparatively small consumption of fuel, thus leaving a larger 
space for cargo. England, the great carrying power of the world, may 
find it more advantageous to trust to her own strength and the secur- 


276 THE MEDITERRANEAN, PHYSICAL AND HISTORICAL. 


ity of the open seas than to run the gauntlet of the numerous strateg- 
ical positions of the Mediterranean, such as Port Mahon, Bizerta, and 
Taranto, each of which is capable of affording impregnable shelter to a 
hostile fleet, and though the ultimate key to the Indian Ocean is in our 
own hands, our passage to it may be beset by a thousand dangers. 
There is no act of my career on which I look back with so much satis- 
faction as on the share I had in the occupation of Perim, one of the 
most important links in that chain of coaling stations which extends 
through the Mediterranean to the farther East, and which is so neces- 
sary for the maintenance of our naval supremacy. Itis a mere islet, it 
is true, a barren rock, but one surrounding a noble harbor, and so em- 
inently in its right place that we can not contemplate with equanimity 
the possibility of its being in any other hands than our own. 

It is by no means certain whether exaggerated armaments are best 
suited for preserving peace or hastening a destructive war; the golden 
age of disarmament and international arbitration may not be near at 
hand, but it is even now talked of as a possibility. 

Should the poet’s prophecy or the patriot’s dream be realized and a 
universal peace indeed bless the world, then this sea of so many vic- 
tories may long remain the harvest field of a commerce nobler than 
conquest. 


STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA.* 


3y J. SCOTT KELTIE. 


It is 19 years since Stanley first crossed the threshold of central 
Africa. He entered if as a newspaper correspondent to find and 
succor Livingstong, and came out burning with the fever of African 
exploration. While with Livingstone at Ujiji, he tried his ’prentice 
hand at a little exploring work, and between them they did something 
to settle the geography of the north end of Lake Tanganyika. Some 
three years and a half later he was once more on his way to Zanzibar, 
this time with the deliberate intention of doing something to fill up the 
great blank that still occupied the center of the continent. A glance 
at the first of the maps which accompany this paper will afford some 
idea of what Central Africa was like when Stanley entered it a second 
time. The ultimate sources of the Nile had yet to be settled. The 
contour and extent of Victoria Nyanza were of the most uncertain 
character. Indeed, so little was known of it beyond what Speke told 
us, that there was some danger of its being swept off the map alto- 
gether, not a few geographers believing it to be not one lake, but 
several. There was much to do in the region lying to the west of the 
lake, even though it had been traversed by Speke and Grant. Between 
a line drawn from the north end of Lake Tanganyika to some distance 
beyond the Albert Nyanza on one side, and the west coast region on 
the other, the map was almost white, with here and there the conjec- 
tural course of a river or two. Livingstone’s latest work, it should be 
remembered, was then almost unknown, and Cameron had not yet 
returned. Beyond the Yellala Rapids there was no Congo, and Living- 
stone believed that the Lualaba swept northwards to the Nile. He 
had often gazed longingly at the broad river during his weary sojourn 
at Nyangwé, and yearned to follow it, but felt himself too old and 
exhausted for the task. Stanley was fired with the same ambition as 
his dead master, and was young and vigorous cnough to indulge it. 

What, then, did Stanley do to map out the features of this great 
blank during the 2 years and 9 months which he spent in crossing 
from Bagamoyo to Boma, at the movth of the Congo? He determined, 
with an accuracy which has since necessitated but slight modification, 


*From The Contemporary Review, January, 1890, vol. Lvil, pp. 126-140. 
277 


278 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 


London Stanfords Geog’ Estab* 


CENTRAL AFRICA, BEFORE STANLEY. 


a 
Oo 
bt 
= 4 
=) 
oO 
Ww 


° 

Ve) 

et 

I" n 

He 

Ro 
° 

[sz 

ie 

] Oo 

ti 

° 

ais 
Ww 
= 
< 
15) 
eS 


° 
° 
4 
\ 
\ 
fle \ 
5 
nit Hin ff 
UMM HTT IUHI THE 
Salli Met ‘ad 
aoK Hitt WANT 
rpc MAT 
WT i] Wiig | | 
A AAA 
Fv AHTAAAATVHUUTLAHAVUHEH 
° °o 


STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 279 


London, Stardords Geog’ Eat 


CENTRAL AFRICA, AFTER STANLEY. 


UGS 


SCALE OF ENGLISH MILES 


10° East of Grech 


100 


VOL. LYII. 


280 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 


the outline of the Victoria Nyanza; he found it to be one of the great 
lakes of the world, 21,500 square miles in extent, with an altitude of 
over 4,000 feet and border soundings of from 330 to 580 feet. Into the 
south shore of the lake a river flowed, which he traced for some 300 
miles, and which he set down as the most southerly feeder of the Nile. 
With his stay at the court of the clever and cunning Mtesa of Uganda 
we need not concern ourselves; it has had momentous results. West- 
wards he came upon what he coneeived to be a part of the Albert 
Nyanza, which he named Beatrice Gulf, but of which more anon. 
Coming southwards to Ujiji, Stanley filled in many features in the 
region he traversed, and saw at a distance a great mountain, which 
he named Gordon Bennett, of which also more anon. A little lake to 
the south he named the Alexandra Nyanza; thence he conjectured 
issued the southwest source of the Nile, but on this point, within 
the last few months, he has seen cause to change his mind. Lake 
Tanganyika he circumnuavigated, and gave greater accuracy to its out- 
line; while through the Lukuga he found it sent its waters by the 
Lualaba to the Atlantic. Crossing to Nyangwé, where with longing 
eyes Livingstone beheld the mile-wide Lualaba flowing ‘ north, north, 
north,” Stanley saw his opportunity, and embraced it. Tippu Tip 
failed him then, as he did later; but the mystery of that great river he 
had made up his mind to solve, and solve it he did. The epic of that 
first recorded journey of a white man down this majestic river, which 
for ages had been sweeping itS unknown way through the center of 
Africa, he and his dusky companions running the gauntlet through a 
thousand miles of hostile savages, is one of the most memorable things 
in the literature of travel. Leaving Nyangwé on November 5, 1876, in 
9 months he traced the many-islanded Congo to the Atlantic, and 
placed on the map of Africa one of its most striking features; for the 
Congo ranks among the greatest rivers of the world. From the remote 
Chambeze, that enters Lake Bangweolo to the sea, it is 3,000 miles. It 
has many tributaries, themselves affording hundreds of miles of navi- 
gable drains, waters a basin of a million square miles, and pours into 
the Atlantic a volume estimated at 1,800,000 cubic feet per second. 
Thus, then, were the first broad lines drawn towards filling up the 
great blank. But, as we know, Stanley two years later was once more 
on his way to the Congo, and shortly after, within the compass of its 
great basin, he helped to found the Congo Free State. During the 
years he was officially connected with the river, either directly or 
through those who served under him, he went on filling up the blank 
by the exploration of other rivers, north and south, which poured their 
voluminous tribute into the main stream; and the impulse he gave 
has continued. The blank has become a network of dark lines, the 
interspaces cevered with the names of tribes and rivers and lakes. 
Such, then, briefly, is what Stanley did for the map of Africa during 
his great and ever-memorable journey across the continent. Once more 


STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 281 


Mr. Stanley has crossed the continent, in the opposite direction, and 
taken just about the same time in which to do so. Discovery was not 
his main object this time, and therefore the results in this direction have 
not been so plentiful. Indeed, they could not be; he had left so com- 
paratively little to be done. But the additions that he has made to our 
knowledge of the great blank are considerable, and of high importance 
in their bearing on the hydrography, the physical geography, the 
climate, and the people of central Africa. 

Let us rapidly run over the incidents of this, in some respects, the 
most remarkable expedition that ever entered Africa. Its first purpose, 
as we know, was to relieve, and if necessary bring away, Emin Pasha, 
the governor of the abandoned equatorial province of the Egyptian 
Sudan, which spread on each side of the Bahr-el-Jebel, the branch of 
the Nile that issues from the Albert Nyanza. Here it was supposed 
that he and his Egyptian officers and troops, and their wives and 
children, were beleagured by the Madhist hordes, and that they were 
at the end of their supphes. HKmin Pasha, who as Eduard Schnitzer 
was born in Prussian Silesia, and educated at Breslau and Berlin as a 
physician, spent 12 years (1864-1876) in the Turkish service, during 
which he traveled over much of the Asiatic dominions of Turkey, 
indulging his strong tastes for natural history. In 1876 he entered the 
service of Egypt, and was sent up to the Sudan as surgeon on the staff 
of Gordon Pasha, who at that time governed the equatorial provinee. 
In 1878, two years after Gordon had been appointed governor-general 
of the whole Sudan, Emin Effendi (he had Moslemized himself) was 
appointed governor of the equatorial province, which he found com- 
pletely disorganized and demoralized, the happy hunting-ground of 
the slave-raider. Withina few months Emin had restored order, swept 
out the slavers, got rid of the Egyptian scum who pretended to be 
soldiers, improved the revenue, so that instead of a large deficit there 
was a considerable surplus, and established industry and legitimate 
trade. Meantime the Mahdi had appeared, and the movement of con- 
quest was gathering strength. It was not, however, till 1884 that Emin 
began to fear danger. It wasin January of that year that Gordon went 
out to hold Khartoum; just a year later both he and the city fell before 
the Madhist host. Emin withdrew with his officers and dependents, 
numbering about 1,500, to Wadelai, in the south of the province, within 
easy reach of Albert Nyanza. 

Rumors of the events in the Sudan after the fall of Khartoum reached 
this country, but no one outside of scientific circles seemed to take 
much interest in Emin till 1886. Rapidly, however, Kurepe became 
aware what a noble stand this simple savant, who had been foisted into 
the position of governor of a half-savage province, was making against 
the forces of the Mahdi, and how he refused to desert his post and his 
people. Towards the autumn of 1886 public feeling on the subject rose 
to such a height that the British Government, which was held to blame 


282 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 


for the position in the Sudan, was compelled to take action. Our 
representative at Zanzibar, as early as August of that year, instituted 
inquiries as to the possibility of a relief expedition, but in the end, in 
dread of international complications, it was decided that a government 
expedition was impracticable. In this dilemma, Sir (then Mr.) William 
Mackinnon, chairman of the British India Steam Navigation Company, 
whose connection with east Africa is of old standing, came forward 
and offered to undertake the responsibility of getting up an expe- 
dition. The Emin Pasha relief committee was formed in December, 
1886, and Government did all it could to aid, short of taking the 
actual responsibility. Mr. H. M. Stanley generously offered his services 
as leader, without fee or reward, giving up many lucrative engage- 
ments for the purpose. No time was lost. The sum of £20,000 had 
been subscribed, including £10,000 from the Egyptian Government. 
Mr. Stanley returned from America to England in the end of Decem- 
ber; by the end of January he had made all his preparations, selecting 
9 men as his staff, including 3 English officers and 2 surgeons, and 
was on his way to Zanzibar, which was reached on February 21. 
On the 25th the expedition was on board the Madura, bound for the 
mouth of the Congo, by way of the Cape; 9 European officers, 61 
Sudanese, 13 Somalis, 3 interpreters, 620 Zanzibaris, the famous Arab 
slaver and merchant, Tippu Tip, and 407 of his people. The mouth of 
the Congo was reached on March 18; there the expedition was trans- 
shipped into small vessels and landed at Matadi, the limit of naviga- 
tion on the lower river. From Matadi there was a march of 200 miles, 
past the cataracts, to Stanley Pool, where the navigation was resumed. 
The troubles of the expedition began on the Congo itself. The ques- 
tion of routes was much discussed at the time of organizing the 
expedition, the two that found most favor being that from the east coast 
through Masai land and round by the north of Uganda, and that by 
the Congo. Into the comparative merits of these two routes we shall 
not enter here. For reasons which were satisfactory to himself—and 
no one knows Africa better—Mr. Stanley selected the Congo route, 
though had he foreseen all that he and his men would have to undergo 
he might have hesitated. As it was, the expedition, which it was 
thought would be back in England by Christmas, 1887, only reached 
the coast in November, 1889. But the difficulties no one could have 
foreseen, the region traversed being completely unknown, and the 
obstacles encountered unprecedented even in Africa. Nor when the 
goal was reached was it expected that months would be wasted in per- 
suading Kymin and his people to quit their exile. Not the keenest-eyed 
of African explorers could have foreseen all this. 

Want of sufficient boat accommodation and a scarcity of food almost 
amounting to famine hampered the expedition terribly on its way up 
the Congo. The mouth of the Aruwimi, the real starting point of the 
expedition, some 1,500 miles from the mouth of the Congo, was not 


STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 283 


reached by Mr. Stanley and the first contingent, till the beginning of 
June, 1887. The distance from here in a straight line to the nearest 
point of the Albert Nyanza is about 450 miles; thence it was believed 
communication with Emin would be easy, for he had two steamers 
available. But it was possible that a detour would have to be made 
towards the north so as to reach Wadelia direct, for no one knew the 
conditions which prevailed in the country between the Aruwimi mouth 
and the Albert Nyanza. As it was Mr. Stanley took the course to the 
lake direct, but with many a circuit and many an obstruction and at a 
terrible sacrifice of life. An intrenched camp was established on a 
bluff at Yambuya, about 50 miles up the left bank of the Aruwimi. 
Major Barttelot was left in charge of this, and with him Dr. Bonny, 
Mr. Jameson, Mr. Rose Troup, Mr. Ward, and 257 men; the rear column 
was to follow as soon as Tippu Tip provided the contingent of 500 
natives which he had solemnly promised. Although the whole of the 
men had not come up, yet everything seemed in satisfactory order ; 
explicit instructions were issued to the officers of the rear column, and 
on June 28, 18387, Mr. Stanley, with a contingent consisting of 389 offi- 
cers and men, set out toreach Emin Pasha. The officers with him were 
Captain Nelson, Lieutenant Stairs, Dr. Parke, and Mr. Jephson. 

Five miles after leaving camp the difficulties began. The expedition 
was face to face with a dense forest of immense extent, choked with 
bushy undergrowth and obstructed by a network of creepers through 
which a way had often to be cleaved with the axes. Hostile natives 
harassed them day after day; the paths were studded with concealed 
spikes of wood; the arrows were poisoned; the natives burned their 
villages rather than have dealings with the intruders. Happily the 
river when it was again struck afforded relief, and the steel boat 
proved of service, though the weakened men found the portages past 
the cataracts a great trial. It was fondly hoped that here at least the 
Arab slaver had not penetrated; but on September 16, 200 miles from 
Yambuaya, making 340 miles of actual travel, the slave camp of Uga- 
rowwa was reached, and here the treatment was even worse than when 
fighting the savages of the forest. The brutalities practiced on Stan- 
ley’s men cost many of them their lives. A month later the camp of 
another Arab slaver was reached, Kilinga Longa, and there the treat- 
ment was no better.. These so-called Arabs, whose caravans consist 
mainly of the merciless Manyuema, from the country between Tagan- 
yika and Nyangwé, had laid waste a great area of the region to be 
traversed by the expedition, so that between August 31 and November 
12 every man was famished; and when at last the land of devastation 
was left behind, and the native village of Ibwiri entered, officers and 
men were reduced to skeletons. Out of the 3889 who started only 174 
entered [bwiri, the rest dead, or missing, or left behind, unable to 
move, at Ugarowwa’s. So weak was everybody that 70 tons of goods 


284 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 


and the boat had to be left at Kilinga Longa’s with Captain Nelson 
and Surgeon Parke. 

A halt of 13 days at Ibwiri, with its plenty of fowls, bananas, corn, 
yams, beans, restored everybody; and 173 sleek and robust men set 
out for the Albert Nyanza on November 24. A week later the gloomy 
and dreaded forest suddenly ended; the open country was reached ; 
the light of day was unobstructed; it was an emergence from darkness 
to light. But the difficulties were not over; some little fighting with 
the natives on the populous plateau was necessary before the lake could 
be reached. On the 12th, the edge of the long slope from the Congo to 
Lake Albert was attained, and suddenly the eyes of all were gladdened 
by the sight of the lake lying some 5,000 feet almost sheer below. The 
expedition itself stood at an altitude of 5,200 feet above the sea. But 
the end was not yet. Down the expedition marched to the southwest 
corner of the lake, where the Kakongo natives were unfriendly. No 
Emin Pasha had been heard of; there was no sign even that he knew 
of Stanley’s coming or that the messenger from Zanzibar had reached 
him. The only boat of the expedition was at Kilinga Longa’s, 190 
miles away. Of the men 94 were behind sick at Ugarowwa’s and Ki- 
linga Longa’s; only 173 were with Stanley ; 74 of the original 341 were 
dead or missing; and, moreover, there was anxiety about the rear 
column. 

Stanley’s resolution was soon taken. Moving to the village of 
Kavalli, some distance up the steep slope from the lake, the party 
began a night march on December 15, and by January 7, they were 
back at Ibwiri. Here Fort Bodo, famous in the records of the expedi- 
tion, was built. The men were brought up from the rear, and on April 
7, Stanley, with Jephson and Parke, once more led the expedition to 
Lake Albert, this time with the boat and fresh stores. Meantime 
Stanley himself was on the sick list fora month. This time all the 
natives along the route were friendly and even generous, and on April 
22, the expedition reached the chief Kavalli, who delivered to Stanley a 
letter wrapped in American cloth. The note was from Emin and stated 
that he had heard rumors of Stanley’s presence in the district; it 
begged Stanley to wait until Emin could communicate with him. The 
boat was launched and Jephson set off to find Emin. On the 29th, 
the Khedive steamer came down the lake with Emin, the Italian Casati, 
and Jephson on board. The great object of the expedition seemed at 
last to be all but fulfilled. 

But the end was not yet. There was the party at Fort Bodo ; there 
were the sick further back, with whom Lieutenant Stairs had not re- 
turned when Stanley left the fort ; and, above all, there was the rear 
column left at Yambuya with Major Barttelot. It would take some 
time for Emin to bring down all his people from Wadelai and other 
stations. So after spending over 3 weeks with the vacillating Emin, 
Stanley, on May 25, was once more on the march back to Fort Bodo 


STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 285 


to bring up allhands. He left Jephson, 3 Sudanese, and 2 Zanzibaris 
with Emin, who gave him 102 natives as porters, and 3 irregulars to 
accompany him back. Fort Bodo was reached on June 8, and was 
found in a flourishing state, surrounded by acres of cultivated fields. 
But of the 56 men left at Ugarowwa’s only 16 were alive for Lieut- 
enant Stairs to bring to Fort Bodo. As there was no sign of the 
rear column nor of the 20 messengers sent off in March with letters for 
Major Barttelot, Stanley felt bound to retrace his steps through the 
terrible forest. This time he was better provisioned, and his people 
(212) escaped the horrors of the wilderness. 

Fort Bodo was left on June 16, Stanley letting all his white com- 
panions remain behind. Ugarowwa’s camp was deserted, and he him- 
self, with a flotilla of fifty-seven canoes, was overtaken far down the 
river on August 10, and with him, 17 of the carriers sent off to Major 
Barttelot in March; 3 of their number had been killed. On the 17th 
the rear column was met with at Bonalya, 80 miles above Yambuya, 
and then for the first time Stanley learned of the terrible disaster that 
had befallen it—Barttelot shot by the Manyuema; Jameson gone 
down the Congo (only to die); Wardaway: and Troupinvalided home, 
Noone but Dr. Bonny; of the 257 men only 72 remaining, and of these 
only 52 fit for service. No wonder Mr. Stanley felt too sick to write 
the details; and until we have the whole of the evidence it would be 
unfair to pronounce judgment. One thing we may say: we know, from 
Mr. Werner’s recently published “ River Life on the Congo,” that 
before Major Barttelot left Yambuya to follow Stanley it was known 
to Mr. Werner, to more than one Belgian officer, to several natives, 
and to the Manyuema people with Barttelot, that instructions had been 
given by Tippu Tip to these last to shoot Major Barttelot if he did not 
treat them well. Yet no one cared to warn the Major and he was 
allowed to depart to his almost certain fate. The thing is too sicken- 
ing to dwell upon. It was at this stage that Stanley sent home his 
first letters, which reached England on April 1, 1889, 20 months after 
hestarted from the Aruwimi, and over 2 years after heleft England. The 
relief was intense; all sorts of sinister rumors had been floated, and 
most people had given up the expedition for lost. 

Once more back through the weary forest, with the expedition re- 
organized. A new route was taken to the north of the river through a 
region devasted by the Arab slavers; and here the expedition came 
near to starvation, but once more Fort Bodo was reached, on Decem- 
ber 20. Here things were practically as Stanley had left them; there 
was no sign of Emin, though he had promised to come to the fort. 
The combined expedition marched onwards, and Mr. Stanley, pushing 
on with a contingent, reached the lake for the third time, on January 
18, only to learn that Emin and Jephson had been made prisoners by 
Emin’s own men; the Mahdists had attacked the station and created 
a panic, and all was disorganization and vacillation. At last, however, 


286 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 


the chief actors in this strange drama were together again; and Mr. 
Stanley’s account of Emin’s unstable purpose, the long arguments 
with the Pasha to persuade him to come to a decision; the ingratitude 
and treachery of the Egyptians, the gathering of the people and their 
burdensome goods and chattels preparatory to quitting the lake — these 
and many other details are fresh in our memories from Stanley’s own 
letters. But the main purpose of the expedition was accomplished, at 
however terrible a cost, and however disappointing it was to find that 
after all Emin was reluctant to be “rescued.” When the start was 
made from Kavalli’s on April 10 last, 1,500 people in all were mustered: 
An almost mortal illness laid Stanley low for a month shortly after the 
start, and it was May 8 before the huge caravan was fairly under way. 
Some fighting had to be done with raiders from Unyoro, but on the 
whole the homeward march was comparatively free from trouble, and 
full of interest; and on December 6 Mr. Stanley once more entered 
Zanzibar, which he had left 2 years and 10 months before. Such briefly 
are some of the incidents of the rescue expedition; let us now as briefly 
sum up the geographical results. 

When Stanley left for Africa, in January, 1887, there remained one 
of the great problems of African hydrography still unsolved—what is 
known as the problem of the Wellé. Schweinfurth and Junker had 
come upon a river at some points which seemed to rise in the neighbor- 
hood of the Albert Nyanza, and appeared to flow in a northwest direc- 
tion. The favorite theory at the time was that the river Wellé was 
really the upper course of the Shari, which runs into Lake Chad far 
away to the northwest. But as the Congo and its great feeders on the 
north, and the lie of the land in that direction, became known, it began 
to be conjectured that after all the Wellé might send its waters to swell 
the mighty volume of the great river. Stanley, I know, hoped that, 
among other geographical work, he might be able to throw some light 
on the course of this puzzling river. But, as we see now, the cares and 
troubles that fell upon him prevented him going much out of the way to 
do geographical work. While, however, Stanley was cleaving his way 
through the tangled forest, Lieutenant Van Géle, one of the Free State 
officers, proved conclusively that the Wellé was really the upper course 
of the Mobangi, one of the largest northern tributaries of the Congo. 
But another kindred problem Stanley was able to solve. Before his 
journey the mouth of the river Aruwimi was known; the great naval 
battle which he fought there on his first descent of the river is one of 
the most striking of the many striking pictures in the narrative of that 
famous journey. but beyond Yambuya its course was a blank. The 
river, under various names, ‘ Ituri” being the best known, led him 
almost to the brink of the Albert Nyanza. One of its upper contribu- 
tories is only 10 minutes’ walk from the brink of the escarpment that 
looks down upon the lake. With many rapids, it is for a great part of 
its course over 500 yards wide, with groups of islands here and there. 


STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 287 


For a considerable stretch it is navigable, and its entire length, taking 
all its windings into account, from its source to the Congo, is 800 miles. 
One of its tributaries turns out to be another river which Junker met 
further north, and whose destination was a puzzle.—The Nepoko. 

Thus this expedition has enabled us to form clearer notions of the 
hydrography of this remarkable region of rivers. We see that the 
sources of the Congo and the Nile lie almost within a few yards of each 
other. Indeed, so difficult is it to determine to which river the various 
waters in this region send their tribute that Mr. Stanley himself, in his 
first letter, was confident that the southern Lake Albert belonged to the 
Congo and not to the Nile system. It was only actual inspection that 
convinced him he was mistaken. How it is that the Ituri or the 
Aruwimi and other rivers in the same region are attracted to the Congo 
and not to the Nile is easily seen from Mr. Stanley’s graphic deserip- 
tion of the lay of the country between the Congo and the Albert Nyanza. 
It is, he says, hke the glacis of a fort, some 350 miles long, sloping 
gradually up from the margin of the Congo (itself at the Arawimi 
mouth 1,400 feet above the sea), until ten miles beyond one of the 
Ituri feeders it reaches a height of 5,200 feet to descend almost per- 
pendicularly 2,900 feet to the surface of the lake, which forms the great 
western reservoir of the Nile. 

But when the term ‘“ glacis” is used, it must not be inferred that the 
ascent from the Congo to Lake Albert is smooth and unobstructed. 
The fact is that Mr. Stanley found himself involved in the northern 
section of what is probably the most extensive and densest forest region 
in Africa, Livingstone spent many a weary day trudging its gloomy, 
recesses away south at Nyangwé on the Lualaba. It stretches for many 
miles north to the Monbuttu country. Stanley entered it at Yambuya, 
and tunnelled his way through it to within 50 miles of the Albert 
Nyanza, when it all of a sudden ceased and gave way to grassy plains 
and the unobstructed light of day. How far west it may extend be- 
yond the Aruwimi he can not say; but it was probably another section 
of this same forest region that Mr. Paul du Chaillu struck some 30 
years ago, when gorilla hunting in the Gaboon. Mr. Stanley estimates 
the area of this great forest region at about 300,000 square miles, which 
is more likely to be under than over the mark. The typical African 
forest, as Mr. Drummond shows in his charming book on “Tropical 
Africa,” is not of the kind found on the Aruwimi, which is much more 
South American than African. Not even in the “great sponge,” from 
which the Zambesi and the Congo draw their remote supplies, do we 
meet with such impenetrable density. Trees scattered about as in an 
English park in small open clumps form, as a rule, the type of “forest” 
common in Africa. The physical causes which led to the dense packing 
of trees over the immense area between the Congo and the Nile Lakes 
will form an interesting investigation. Mr. Stanley’s description of the 
great forest region, in his letter to Mr. Bruce, is well worth quoting: 


288 STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 


“Take a thick Scottish copse, dripping with rain. Imagine this copse 
to be a mere undergrowth, nourished under the impenetrable shade of 
ancient trees, ranging trom 100 to 180 feet high; briars and thorns 
abundant; lazy creeks, meandering through the depths of the jungle, 
and sometimes a deep affluent of a great river. imagine this forest 
and jungle in all stages of decay and growth—old trees falling, leaning 
perilously over, fallen prostrate; ants and insects of all kinds, sizes, 
and colors murmuring around; monkeys and chimpanzees above, queer 
noises of birds and animals, crashes in the jungle as troops of elephants 
rush away; dwarfs with poisoned arrows securely hidden behind some 
buttress or in some dark recess; strong brown-bodied aborigines with 
terribly sharp spears standing poised, still as dead stumps; rain pat- 
tering down on you every other day in the year; an impure atmosphere 
with its dread consequences, fever and dysentery; gloom throughout 
the day, and darkness almost palpable throughout the night, and then 
if you will imagine such a forest extending the entire distance from 
Plymouth to Peterhead, you will have a fair idea of some of the incon- 
venience endured by us from June 28 to December 5, 1887, and from 
June 1, 1888, to the present date, to continue again from the present 
date till about December 10, 1888, when I hope to say a last farewell 
to the Congo forest.” 

Mr. Stanley tries to account for this great forest region by the abund- 
ance of moisture carried over the continent from tlfe wide Atlantic by 
the winds which blow landward through a great part of the year; but 
it is to be feared the remarkable phenomenon is not to be accounted for 
in so easy away. Investigation may prove that the rain of the rainiest 
region in Africa comes not from the Atlantic, but the Indian Ocean, 
with its moisture laden monsoons; and so we should have here a case 
analogous to that which oceurs in South America, the forests of which 
resemble in many features those of the region through which Mr. Stanley 
has passed. 

But the forest itself is not more interesting than its human denizens. 
The banks of the river in many places are studded with large villages, 
some, at least, of the native tribes being cannibals. Weare here onthe 
northern border of the true negro peoples, so that when the subject is 
investigated the Aruwimi savages may be found to be much mixed. 
But unless Europe promptly intervenes, there will shortly be few people 
left in these forests to investigate. Mr. Stanley came upon two slave- 
hunting parties, both of them manned by the merciless people of Man- 
yuema. Already great tracts have been turned into a wilderness, and 
thousands of the natives driven from their homes. From the ethnolo- 
gist’s point of view the most interesting inhabitants of the Aruwimi for- 
ests are the hostile and cunning dwarfs, or rather pigmies, who caused 
the expidition so much trouble. No doubt they are the same as the 
Monbuttu pigmies found farther north, and essentialy similar to the 
pigmy population found scattered all over Africa, from the Zambesi to 


STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 289 


the Nile, and from the Gaboon to the east coast. Mr. Du Chaillu found 
them in the forests of the west30 years ago, and away south on the great 
Sankuru tributary of the Congo Major Wissman and his fellow explo- 
rers met them within the past few years. They seem to be the rem- 
nants of a primitive population rather than the stunted examples of the 
normal negro. Around the villages in the forest wherever clearings 
had been made the ground was of the richest character, growing crops 
of all kinds. Mr. Stanley has always maintained that in the high lands 
around the great lakes will be found the most favorable region for Eu- 
ropean enterprise ; and ifin time much of the forest is cleared away, 
the country between the Congo and Lake Albert might become the 
granary of Africa. 

To the geographer, however, the second half of the expedition’s work 
is fuller of interest than the first. Some curious problems had to be 
solved in the lake region, problems that had given rise to much diseus- 
sion. When in 1864 Sir Samuel Baker stood on the lofty escarpment 
that looks down on the east shore of the Albert Nyanza, at Vacovia, 
the lake seemed to him to stretch illimitably to the south, so that for 
long it appeared on our maps as extending beyond 1 degree south lat- 
itude. When Stanley, many years later, on his first great expedition, 
after crossing from Uganda, came upon a great bay of water, he 
was naturally inclined to think that it was a part of Baker’s lake, and 
called it Beatrice Gulf. But Gessi and Mason, members of Gordon 
Pasha’s staff, cireumnavigated the lake later on and found that it ended 
more than a degree north of the equator. So when Stanley published 
his narrative he made his “ Beatrice Gulf” a separate lake lying to the 
south of the Albert Nyanza. Mr. Stanley saw only a small portion of 
the southern lake, Muta Nzigé, but in time it expanded and expanded on 
our maps until there seemed some danger of its being joined on to Lake 
Tanganyika. Emin himself, during his 12 years’ stay in the Sudan, did 
something towards exploring the Albert Nyanza, and found that its 
southern shore was fast advancing northward, partly owing to sediment 
brought down by ariver, and partly due to the wearing away of the rocky 
bed of the Upper Nile, by which much water escaped and the level of 
the lake subsided. Thus, when Baker stood on the shore of the lake 
in 1864, it may well have extended many miles farther south than it 
does now. But where did the river come from that Mason and Emin 
Saw running into the lake from the south? As was pointed out above, 
Stanley at first thought it could not come from his own lake to the 
south, which he believed must seud its waters to the Congo. But all 
controversy has now been ended. During the famous exodus of the 
1,500 from Kavilli to the coast, the intensely interesting country lying 
between the northern lake, Albert, and the southern lake, now named 
Albert Edward, was traversed. Great white, grassy plains stretch away 
south from the shores of Lake Albert, which under the glitter of a trop- 
ical sun might well be mistaken for water; evidently they had been 

H. Mis. 129-19 


ZO) STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 


under water at quite a recent period. But soon the country begins to 
rise, and round the base of a great mountain boss the river Semliki 
winds its way through its valley, receiving through the picturesque 
glens many streams of water from the snows that clothe the moun- 
tain tops. Here we have a splendid country, unfortunately harassed 
by the raids of the Wanyoro, in dread of whom the simple natives of 
the mountain side often creep up to near the limit of snow. Up the 
mountain, which Lieutenant Stairs ascended for over 10,000 feet, 
blackberries, bilberries, violets, heaths, lichens, and trees that might 
have reminded him of England flourish abundantly. Here evidently we 
have a region that might well harbor a European population. The 
mountain itself, Ruwenzori, a great boss with numerous spurs, is quite 
evidently an extinet voleano, rising to something like 19,000 feet, and 
reminding one of Kilimanjaro, farther to the east. It is not yet clear 
whether it is the same mountain as the Gordon Bennett seen by Stan- 
ley in his former expedition, though the probability is that, if distinet, 
they belong to the same group or mass. Apart from the mountain the 
country gradually ascends as the Semliki is traced up to its origin in 
Lake Albert Edward. Mr. Stanley found that, after ail, the southern 
Nyanza belongs to the great Nile system, giving origin to the farthest 
southwest source of Egypt’s wonderful river, which we know receives a 
tribute from the snows of the equator. 

The southern lake itself is of comparatively small dimensions, prob- 
ably not more than 45 miles long, and is 900 feet above the northern 
Lake Albert. Mr. Stanley only skirted its west, north, and east shores, 
so that probably he has net been able to obtain complete data as to 
size and shape. But he has solved one of the few remaining great 
problems in African geography. The two lakes lie in a trough, the 
sides of which rise steeply in places 3,000 feet, to the great plateaus 
that extend away east and west. This trough, from the north end of 
Lake Albert to the south end of Lake Albert Edward, is some .260 
statute miles in length. About 100 miles of this is oceupied by the 
former lake, 45 by the latter, and the rest by the country between, 
where the trough, if we may indulge in an Irishism, becomes partly a 
plain, and partly a great mountain mass. But this trough, or fissure, 
a glance at a good map will show, is continued more or less south and 
southeast in Lakes Tanganyika and Nayassa, which are essentially of 
the same character as Lakes Albert and Albert Edward, and totally 
different from such lakes as Victoria Nyanza and Bangweolo. Here 
we have a feature of the greatest geographical interest, which still has 
to be worked out as to its origin. 

There is little more to say as to the geographical results of the Emin 
Pasha relief expedition. There are many minute details of great 
interest, which the reader may see for himself in Mr. Stanley’s letters, 
or in his forthcoming detailed narrative. In his own characteristic way 
he tells of the tribes and peoples around the lakes, and between the 


STANLEY AND THE MAP OF AFRICA. 291 


lakes and the coast; and it was left for him on his way home to dis- 
cover a great southwest extension of Victoria Nyanza, which brings 
that lake within 150 miles of Lake Tanganyika. The results which 
have been achieved have been achieved at a great sacrifice of life and 
of suffering to all concerned; but no one, I am sure, will wish that the 
work had been left undone. The few great geographical problems in 
Africa that Livingstone had to leave untouched, Stanley has solved. 
Little remains for himself and others in the future beyond the filling in 
of details; but these are all-important, and will keep the great army 
of explorers busy for many years, if not for generations. 


aad 


‘ ia wee 
“4 j 


eas elie pcx 
7 a . 


aetna? 


iv 


ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION.* 


By G. 8. GRIFFITHS. 


My experience during the four years which have elapsed since this 
vroject was first mooted in Melbourne is that any reference to the sub- 
ject is sure to be met with the query Cui bono? What good can it do? 
What benefit can come from it? What is the object to be served by 
such an expedition? 

In setting myself to the task of answering these questions let me 
observe that it would indeed be strange if an unexplored region 
S,000,000 square miles in area—twice the size of Europe—and grouped 
around the axis of rotation and the magnetic pole could fail to yield 
to investigators some novel and valuable information. But when we 
notice that the circle is engirdled without by peculiar physical condi- 
tions which must be correlated to special physical conditions within, 
speculation is exchanged for a confident belief that an adequate reward 
must await the skilled explorer. The expected additions to the geog- 
raphy of the region are, of all the knowledge that is to be sought for 
there, the least valuable. Where so many of the physical features of 
the country—the hills, the valleys, and the drainage lines—have been 
buried beneath the snow of ages, a naked outline, a bare skeleton of a 
map, is the utmost that can be delineated. Still, even such knowledge 
as this has a distinct value, and as it can be acquired by the explorers 
as they proceed about their more important researches, its relatively 
small value ought not to be admitted as a complete objection to any 
enterprise which has other objects of importance. Our present acquaint- 
ance with the geography of the region is excessively limited. Ross 
just viewed the coasts of Victoria Land between 163° KE. and 160° W. 
longitude; he trod its barren strand twice, but on each occasion for a 
few minutes only. From the adjacent gulf he measured the heights of 
its voleanoes, and from its offing he sketched the walls of its icy barrier. 
Wilkes traced on our map ashore line from 97° E. to 167° E. longitude, 
and he backed it up with a range of mountains, but he landed nowhere. 
Subsequently Ross sailed over the site assigned to part of this land, 


* An address on ‘The Objects of Antaretie Exploration,” delivered at the annual 
meeting of the Bankers’ Institute of Australia, af Melbourne, on Wednesday, August 
27. (From Nature, October 16, 1890, vol. xLi1, pp. 601-604. ) 

293 


294 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 


and hove his lead 600 fathoms deep where Wilkes had drawn a moun- 
tain. He tells us that the weather was so very clear that had high 
land been within 70 miles of that position he must have seen it (‘* Ross’s 
Voyage,” 1278). More recently Nares, in the Challenger, tested another 
part of Wilkes’s coast line, and with a like result; and these circum- 
stances throw doubts upon the value of his reported discoveries. 
D’Urville subsequently followed a bold shore for a distance of about 
300 miles from 136° H. to 142° E. longitude; whilst in 67° S. latitude, 
and between 45° E. and 60° E. longitude, are Enderby’s and Kemp’s 
lands. Again, there is land to the south of the Horn which trends 
from 45° to 75° S. latitude. These few discontinuous coast lines com- 
prise all our scanty knowledge of the Antarctic land. It will be seen 
from these facts that the principal geographical problem awaiting solu- 
tion in these regions is the interconnection of these scattered shores. 
The question is, do they constitute parts of a continent, or are they, 
hike the coasts of Greenland, portions of an archipelago, smothered under 
an overload of frozen snow, which conceals their insularity? Ross 
inclined to the latter view, and he believed that a wide channel leading 
towards the Pole existed between North Cape and the Balleny Islands 
(“Ross’s Voyage,” 1221). This view was also held by the late Sir 
Wyville Thomson. A series of careful observations upon the local cur- 
rents might throw some light upon these questions. Ross notes several 
such in his log. Off Possession {sland a current, running southward, 
took the ships to windward (ibid., 1195). Off Coulman Island another 
drifted them in the same direction at the rate of 18 miles a day (<bid., 
1204). A three-quarter knot northerly current was felt off the barrier, 
and may have issued from beneath some part of it. Such isolated 
observations are of littie value, but they were multiplied, and were the 
currents correlated with the winds experienced the information thus 
obtained might enable us to detect the existence of straits, even where 
the channels themselves are masked by ice barriers. 

Finally, it is calculated that the center of the polar ice-cap must be 3 
miles, and may be 12 miles deep, and that the material of this ice 
mountain being viscous, its base must spread out under the crushing 
pressure of the weight of its center. The extrusive movement thus 
set up is supposed to thrust the ice cliffs off the land at the rate of a 
quarter of a mile per annum. These are some of the geographical 
questions which await settlement. 

In the geology of this region we have another snbject replete with 
interest. The lofty voleanoes of Victoria Land must present peculiar 
features. Nowhere else do fire and frost divide the sway so com- 
pletely. Ross saw Erebus belching out lava and ashes over the snow 
and ice which coated its flanks. This circumstance leads us to specu- 
late on the strata that would result from the alternate fall of snow and 
ashes during long periods and under a low temperature. Volcanoes 
are built up, as contra-distinguished from other mountains, which result 


ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 295 


from elevation or erosion. They consist of débris piled round a vent. 
Lava and ashes surround the crater in alternate layers. But in this 
polar region the snow-fall must be taken into account as well as the 
ash deposit and the lava flow. It may be thought that any volcanic 
ejecta would speedily melt the snow upon which they fell, but this does 
not by any means necessarily follow. Volcanic ash, the most wide-spread 
and most abundant material ejected, falls comparatively cold, cakes, and 
then forms one of the most effective nonconductors known. When 
such a layer a few inches thick is spread over snow even molten lava 
may flow over it without melting the snow beneath. This may seem 
to be incredible, but it has been observed te occur. In 1828 Lyell saw 
on the flanks of Etna a glacier sealed up under a crust of lava. Now, 
the Antarctic is the region of thick-ribbed ice. All exposed surfaces 
are quickly covered with snow. Snow-falls, fish-falls, and lava-flows 
must have been heaping themselves up around the craters during 
unknown ages. What has been the result? Has the viscosity of the 
ice been modified by the intercalation of beds of rigid lava and of 
hard-set ash? Does the growing mass tend to pile up or to settle 
down and spread out? Is the ice wasted by evaporation, or does the 
ash layer preserve it against this mode of dissipation? These inter- 
esting questions can be studied round the South Pole, and perhaps 
nowhere else so well. 

Another question of interest, as bearing upon the location of the 
great Antarctic continent, which it is now certain existed in the Sec- 
ondary period of geologists, is the nature of the rocks upon which the 
lowest of these lava beds rest. If they can be discovered, and if they 
then be found to be sedimentary rocks—such as slates and sandstones, 
or plutonic rocks—such as granite, they will at once afford us some 
data to go upon, for the surface exposure of granite signifies that the 
locality has been part of a continental land sufficiently long for the 
weathering and removal of the many thousands of feet of sedimentary 
rocks which of necessity overlie crystalline rocks during their genesis ; 
whilst the presence of sedimentary rocks implies the sometime prox- 
imity of a continent from the surfaces of which alone these sediments, 
as rain-wash, could have been derived. 

As ancient slate rocks have already been discovered in the ice-clad 
South Georgias, and as the drag-nets of the Hrebus and the Challenger 
have brought up from the beds of these icy seas fragments of sand- 
stones, slates, and granite, as well as the typical blue mud which 
invariably fringes continental land, there is every reason to expect 
that such strata will be found. 

Wherever the state of the snow will permit, the polar mountains 
should be searched for basaltic dikes, in the hope that masses of spec- 
ular iron and nickel might be found, similar to those discovered by 
Nordenskiéld, at Ovifak, in north Greenland. ‘The interest taken in 
these metallic masses arises from the fact that they alone, of all the 


296 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 


rocks of the earth, resemble those masses of extra-terrestial origin 
which we know as meteorites. Such bodies of unoxidized metal are 
unknown elsewhere in the mass, and why they are peculiar to the 
Arctic it is hard to say. Should similar masses be found within the 
Antarctic, afresh stimulus would be given to speculation. Geologists 
would have to consider whether the oxidized strata of the earth’s crust 
thin out at the poles; whether in such a case the thinning is due to 
severe local erosion, or to the protection against oxygen afforded to the 
surface of the polar regions by their ice caps, or to what other cause. 
Such discoveries would add something to our knowledge of the 
materials of the interior of our globe and their relation to those of 
meteorites. 

Still looking tor fresh knowledge in the same direction, a series of 
pendulum observations should be taken at points as near as possible 
to the pole. Within the Arctic circle the pendulum makes about 240 
more vibrations per day than it does at the equator. The vibrations 
increase in number there because the force of gravity at the earth’s 
surface is more intense in that area, and this again is believed to be 
due to the oblateness of that part of the earth’s figure, but it might 
be caused by the bodily approach to the surface at the poles of the 
masses of dense ultra-basic rocks just referred to. Thus, pendulum 
experiments may reveal to us the earth’s figure, and a series of such 
observations, recorded from such a vast and untried area, must yield 
important data for the physicist to work up. We should probably 
learn from such investigations whether the earth’s figure is as much 
flattened at the Antarctic as it is known to be at the Arctic. 

We now know that in the past the North Polar regions have enjoyed 
a temperate climate more than once. Abundant seams of Paleozoic 
coal, large deposits of fossiliferous Jurassic rocks, and extensive Eocene 
beds, containing the remains of evergreen aud deciduous trees and 
flowering plants, occur far within the Arctie circle. This circumstance 
leads us to wonder whether the corresponding southern latitudes have 
ever experienced similar climatic vicissitudes. Conclusive evidence on 
this point it is difficult to get, but competent biologists who have ex- 
amined the floras and faunas of South Africa and Australia, of New 
Zealand, South America, and the isolated islets of the Southern Ocean, 
find features which absolutely involve the existence of an extensive 
Antarctic land—a land which must have been clothed with a varied 
vegetation, and have been alive with beasts, birds, and insects. As it 
also had had its fresh-water fishes, it must have had its rivers flowing 
and not frost-bound, and in those cireumstances we again see indica- 
tions of a modified Antarctic climate. Let us briefly consider some of 
the ovidence for the existence of this continent. We are told by Pro- 
fessor Hutton, of Christchurch, that 44 per cent. of the New Zealand 
flora is of Antaretic origin. The Auckland, Campbell, and Macquarie 
Islands all support Antarctic plants, some of which appear never to 


ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 297 


have reached New Zealand. New Zealand and South America have 
three flowering plants in common, also two fresh-water fishes, five sea- 
weeds, three marine crustaceans, one marine mollusk, and one marine 
fish. Similarly New Zealand and Africa have certain common forms, 
and the floras and faunas of the Kerguelen, the Crozets, and the Marion 
Islands are almost identical, although in each case the islands are very 
small, and very isolated from each other and from the rest of the world. 
Tristan d’Acunha has fifty-eight species of marine Mollusca, of which 
number thirteen are also found in South America, six or seven in New 
Zealand, and four in South Africa (Hutton’s Origin of New Zealand 
Flora and Fauna). Temperate South America has seventy-four genera 
of plants in common with New Zealand, and eleven of its species are 
identical (Wallace’s island Life). Penguins of the genus Eudyptes 
are common to South America and Australia (Wallace, Dist. of 
Animals, 1399). Three groups of fresh-water fishes are entirely con- 
fined to these two regions. Apbhritis, a fresh-water genus, has one 
species in Tasmania and two in Patagonia. Another small group of 
fishes known as the Haplochitonidie inhabit Tierra del Fuego, the 
Falklands, and South Australia, and are not found elsewhere, while 
the genus Galaxias is confined to South Temperate Ameriva, New Zea- 
land, and Australia. Yet the lands which have these plants and 
animals in common are so widely separated from each other that they 
could not now possibly interchange their inhabitants. Certainly 
towards the equator they approach each other rather more, but even 
this tact fails to account for the present distribution, for, as Wallace 
has pointed out, “the heat-loving Reptilia afford hardly any indica- 
tions of close affinity between the two regions” of South America and 
Australia, “ whilst the cold-enduring Amphibia and fresh-water fishes 
offer them in abundance” (Wallace, Dist. of Animals, 1400). Thus 
we see that to the north interchange is prohibited by tropical heat, 
while it is barred to the south by a nearly shoreless circumpolar sea. 
Yet there must have been some means of intercommunication in the 
past, and it appears certain that it took the shape of a common father- 
land for the various common forms from which they spread to the 
northern hemisphere. As this father-land must have been accessible 
from all these scattered southern lands, its size and its disposition must 
have been such as would serve the emigrants either as a bridge or as 
a series of stepping-stones. It must have been either a continent or 
an archipelago. 

But a further and a peculiar interest attaches to this lost continent. 
Those who have any acquaintance with geology know that the placental 
Mammalia—that is, animals which are classed with such higher forms 
of life as apes, cats, dogs, bears, horses, and oxen—appear very abruptly 
with the incoming of the Tertiary period. Now, judging by analogy, 
it is not likely that these creatures can have been developed out of 
Mesozoic forms with anything like the suddenness of their apparent 


298 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. - 


entrance upon the scene. For such changes they must have required 
a long time, and an extensive region of the earth, and it is probable 
that each of them had alengthy series of progenitors, which ultimately 
linked it back to lower forms. 

Why, then, it is constantly asked, if this was the sequence of crea- 
tion, do these missing links never turn up? In reply to this query, it 
was suggested by Huxley that they may have been developed in some 
lost continent, the boundaries of which were gradually shifted by the 
slow elevation of the sea margin on one side and its simultaneous slow 
depression upon the other, so that there has always been in existence 
a large dry area with its live stock. This dry spot, with its fauna and 
flora, like a great raft or Noah’s Ark, moved with great slowness in 
whatever direction the great earth-undulation travelled. But to-day 
this area, with its fossil evidences, is a sea-bottom; and Huxley sup- 
poses that the continent, which once occupied a part of the Pacifie 
Ocean, is now represented by Asia. 

This movement of land-surface translation eastwards eventually 
created a connection between this land and Africa and Europe, and if 
when this happened the mammalia spread rapidly over these countries, 
this circumstance would account for the abruptness of their appear- 
ance there. 

Now, Mr. Blanford, the president of the Geological Society of London, 
in his annual address, recently delivered, advances matters a stage 
further, for he tells us that a growing acquaintance with the biology of 
the world leads naturalists to a belief that the placental mammalia and 
other of the higher forms of terrestrial life originated during the Meso- 
zoic period still further to the southwards—tkat is to say, in the lost 
Antaretie continent, for the traces of which we desire to seek, 

But it almost necessarily follows that wherever the mammalia were 
developed there also man had his birth-place, and if these speculations 
should prove to have been well founded we may have to shift the loca- 
tion of the Garden of Eden from the northern to the southern hemis- 
phere. 

I need hardly suggest to you that possibilities such as these must 
add greatly to our interest in the recovery of any traces of this myste- 
rious region. This land appears to have sunk beneath the seas after 
the close of the Mesozoic. Now, the submergence of any mass of land 
will disturb the climatic equilibrium of that region, and the disappear- 
ance of an Antarctic continent would prove extremely potent in vary- 
ing the climate of this hemisphere. For to-day the sun’s rays fall on 
the South Polar regions to small purpose. The unstable sea absorbs 
the heat, and in wide and comparatively warm streams it carries off 
the caloric to the northern hemisphere to raise its temperature at the 
expense of ours. But when extensive land received those same heat 
rays, its rigid surfaces, so to speak, tethered their caloric in this hemi- 


ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 299 


sphere, and thus when there was no mobile current to steal northwards 
with it, warmth could accumulate and modify the climate. 

Under the influences of such changes the icy mantle would be slowly 
rolled back towards the South Pole, and thus many plants and animals 
were able to live and multiply in latitudes that to day are barren. 
What has undoubtedly occurred in the extreme north is equally possi- 
ble in the extreme south. Butif it did oceur—if South Polar lands, 
now ice bound, were then as prolific of life as Disco and Spitzbergen 
once were—then, like Spitzbergen and Disco, the unsubmerged rem- 
nants of this continent may still retain organic evidences of the fact in 
the shape of fossil-bearing beds, and the discovery of such deposits 
would confirm or confute such speculations as these. The key to the 
geological problem lies within the Antaretie Circle, and to find it would 
be to recover some of the past history of the southern hemisphere. 
There is no reason to despair of discovering such evidence, as Dr. 
McCormack, in his account of Ross’s voyage, records that portions of 
Victoria Land were free from snow, and therefore available for inves- 
tigation; besides which their surface may still sapport some living 
forms, for they can not be colder or bleaker than the peaks which rise 
out of the continental ice of North Greenland, and these, long held to 
be sterile, have recently disclosed the existence upon them of a rich 
though humble flora. 

We have now to consider some important meteorological questions. 
If we look at the distribution of the atmosphere around the globe we 
shall see that it is spread unequally. It forms a stratum which is 
deeper within the tropics than about the poles and over the northern 
than over the southern hemisphere, so that the barometer normals fall 
more as we approach the Antarctic than they do when we near the 
Arctic. Maury, taking the known isobars as his guide, has calculated 
that the mean pressure at the North Pole is 29.1, but that it is only 28 
at the South (Maury’s Meteorology, 259). In other words, the Ant- 
arctic Cirele is permanently much barer of atmosphere than any other 
part of the globe. Again, if we consuit a wind chart we shall see that 
both poles are marked as calm areas. Each is the dead center of a 
perpetual wind vortex, but the South, Polar indraught is the stronger. 
Polarward winds blow across the forty-fifth degree of north latitude for 
189 days in the vear, but across the forty-fifth degree of south latitude 
for 209 days. And while they are drawn in to the North Pole from 
over a disk-shaped area 5,500 miles in diameter, the South Polar in- 
draught is felt throughout an area of 7,000 miles across. Lastly, the 
winds which circulate about the South Pole are more heavily charged 
with moisture than are the winds of corresponding parts of the other 
hemisphere. Now, the extreme degree in which these three conditions, 
of a perpetual grand eyclone, a moist atmosphere, and a low barom- 
eter, co-operate without the Antarctic ought to produce within it an 
exceptional meteorological state, and the point to be determined is 


300 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 


what that condition may be. Maury maintained that the conjunction 
will make the climate of the South Polar area milder than that of the 
north. His theory is that the saturated winds being drawn up to great 
heights within the Antarctic must then be eased of their moisture, and 
that simultaneously they must disengage vast quantities of latent heat ; 
and it is because more heat must be liberated in this manner in the 
South Polar regions than in the north that he infers a less severe cli- 
mate for the Antarctic. He estimates that the resultant relative differ- 
ences between the two polar climates will be greater than that between 
a Canadian and an English winter (Maury’s Meteorology, p. 466). 
Ross reports that the South Polar summer is rather colder than that 
of the north, but still the southern winter may be less extreme, and so 
the mean temperature may be higher. If we examine the weather 
reports logged by Antarctic voyagers, instead of the temperature 
merely, the advantage still seems to rest with the south. In the first 
place, when the voyager enters the Antarctic he sails out of a tem- 
pestuous zone into one of calms. To demonstrate the truth of this 
statement I have made an abstract of Ross’s log for the two months 
of January and February, 1841, which he spent within the Antarctic 
Circle. To enable everyone to understand it, it may be well to explain 
that the wind force is registered in figures from 0, which stands for a 
dead calm, up to 12, which represents a hurricane. I find that during 
these 60 days it never once blew with the force 8—that is, a fresh gale; 
only twice did it blow force 7, and then only for half a day each time. 
Force 5 to 6—fresh to strong breezes—is logged on 21 days. Force 1 
to 3—that is, gentle breezes—prevailed on 34 days. The mean wind 
force registered under the entire 60 days was 3.43—that is, only a 4 to 
5 knot breeze. On 38 days blue sky was logged. They never hada 
single fog, and on 11 days only was it even misty. On the other hand, 
snow fell almost every second day. We find such entries as these: 
‘‘ Beautifully clear weather,” and ‘Atmosphere so extraordinarily clear 
that Mount Herschel, distant 90 miles, looked only 30 miles distant.” 
And again, ‘Land seen 120 miles distant; sky beautifully clear.” Nor 
was this season exceptional, so far as we can tell, for Dr. McCormack, 
of the Hrebus, in the third year of the voyage, and after they had left 
the Antarctic for the third and last time, enters in his diary the fol- 
lowing remark. He says: “It is a curious thing that we have always 
met with the finest weather within the Antarctic circle; clear, cloudless 
sky, bright sun, light wind, and a long swell” (McCormack’s Antarctic 
Voyage, vol. 1, p. 345). It would seem as if the stormy westerlies, so 
familiar to all Australian visitors, had given to the whole southern 
hemisphere a name for bad weather, which, as yet at least, has not been 
earned by the South Polar regions. It is probable, too, that the almost 
continuous gloom and fog of the Aretic (Scoresby’s Arctic Regions, 
pp. 97 and 137) July and August have prejudiced seamen against the 
Antaretie summer. The true character of the climate of this region is 


ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. ail 


one of the problems awaiting solution. Whatever its nature may be, 
the area is so large and so near to us that its meteorology must have a 
dominant influence on the climate of Australia, and on this fact the 
value of a knowledge of the weather of these parts must rest. 

To turn to another branch of science, there are several questions re- 
lating to the earth’s magnetism which require for their solution long- 
maintained and continuous observations within the Antarctic circle. 
The mean or permanent distribution of the world’s magnetism is be- 
lieved to depend upon causes acting in the interior of the earth, while 
the periodic variations of the needle probably arise from the superficial 
and subordinate currents produced by the daily and yearly variations in 
the temperature of the earth’s surface. Other variations occur at irregu- 
lar intervals, and these are supposed to be due to atmospheric electricity. 
All these different currents are excessively frequent and powerful about 
the poles, and asufficient series of observations might enable physicists 
to differentiate the various kinds of currents, and to trace them to their 
several sources, whether internal, superficial, or meteoric. To do this 
properly at least one land observatory should be established for a period, 
In it, the variation, dip, and intensity of the magnetic currents, as well 
as the momentary fluctuations, of these elements would all be recorded. 
Fixed term days would be agreed on with the observatories of Australia, 
of the Cape, America, and Europe, and during these terms a concerted 
continuous watch would be kept up all round the globe to determine 
which vibrations were local and which general. 

The present exact position of the principal south magnetic pole has 
also to be fixed, ané data to be obtained from which to calculate the 
rate of changes in the future, and the same may be said of the foci of 
magnetic intensity and their movements. In relation to this part of the 
subject, Captain Creak recently reported to the British Association his 
conclusions in the following terms. He says: ‘‘ Great advantage to the 
science of terrestrial magnetism would be derived from a new magnetic 
survey of the southern hemisphere extending from the parallel of 40° 
south, as far towards the geographical pole as possible.” 

Intimately connected with terrestrial magnetism are the phenomena 
of auroras. Their nature is very obscure, but quite recently a distinct 
advance has been made towards discovering some of the laws which 
regulate them. Thanks to the labors of Dr. Sophus Tromkolt, who 
has spent a year within the Arctic circle studying them, we now know 
that their movements are not as eccentric as they have hitherto ap- 
peared to be. He telis us that the Aurora Borealis, with its crown of 
many lights, encircles the pole obliquely, and that it has its lower edge 
suspended above the earth at a height of from 50 to 100 miles, the mean 
of 18 trigonometrical measurements, taken with a base line of 50 miles, 
being 75 miles. Theaurora forms a ring round the pole which changes 
its latitude four times a year. At the equinoxes it attains its greatest 
distance from the pole, and at midsummer and midwinter it approaches 


302 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 


it most closely, and it has a zone of maximum intensity which is placed 
obliquely between the parallels of 60° and 70° N. The length of its 
meridional exeursion varies from year to year, decreasing and increasing 
through tolerably regular periods, and reaching a maximum about every 
11 years, when, also, its appearance simultaneously attains to its great- 
est brilliancy. Again, it has its regular yearly and daily movements or 
periods. At the winter solstice it reaches its maximum annual intensity, 
and it has its daily maximum at from 8 P. M. and 2 A. M., according to the 
latitude. Thus at Prague, in latitude 50° N., the lights appear at about 
8.45 p.M.; at Upsala, latitude 60° N., at 9.30 P. M.; at Bossekop, 70° N., 
at 1.30 A. M. Now, while these data may be true for the northern 
hemisphere, it remains to be proved how far they apply to the southern. 
Indeed, seeing that the atmosphere of the latter region is moister and 
shallower than that of the former, it is probable that the phenomena 
would be modified. A systematic observation of the Aurora Australis 
at a number of stations in high latitudes is therefore desirable. 

Whether or not there is any connection between auroral exhibitions 
and the weather is a disputed point. Tromholt believes that such a re- 
lationship is probable (Under the Rays, 1283). He says that, ‘“how- 
ever clear the sky, it always became overcast immediately after a vivid 
exhibition, and it generally cleared again as quickly” (Under the Rays, 
1235). Payer declares that brilliant auroras were generally succeeded by 
bad weather (Voyage of Tegethoff, 1324), but that those which had a 
low altitude and little mobility appeared to precede calms. Ross re- 
marks of a particular display ‘‘that it was followed by a fall of snow, 
as usual” (Ross’s Voyage, 1312). Scoresby appears to have formed 
the opinion that there is a relationship indicated by his experience. It 
is, therefore, allowable to regard the ultimate establishment of some con- 
nection betwecn these two phenomena as a possible contingency. If, 
then, we look at the eleven-year cycle of auroral intensity from the 
meteorological point of view, it assumes a new interest, for these periods 
may coincide with the cycles of wet and dry seasons which some 
meteorologists have deduced from the records of our Australian climate, 
and the culmination of the one might be related to some equivalent 
change in the other. For if a solitary auroral display be followed by a 
lowered sky, surely a period of continuous auroras might give rise to a 
period of continuous cloudy weather, with rain and snow. Fritz -con- 
siders that he has established this eleven-year cycle upon the strength 
of auroral records extending from 1583 to 1874, and his deductions have 
been verified by others. 

In January, 1886, we had a wide-spread and heavy rain-fall, and also 
an auroral display seen only at Hobart, but which was sufficiently pow- 
erful to totally suspend communication over all the telegraph lines situ- 
ated between Tasmania and the China eoast. This sensitiveness upon 
the part of the electric currents to aureral excitation is not novel, for 


long experience on the telegraph wires of Scandinavia has shown that 
; . 


ANTARCTIC EXPLORATION. 303 


there is such a delicate sympathy between them that the electric wires 
there manifest the same daily and yearly periods of activity as those 
that mark the auroras. The current that reveals itself in fire in the 
higher regions of the atmosphere is precisely the same current that 
plagues the operator in his office. Therefore, in the records of these 
troublesome earth currents, now being accumulated at the observatory 
by Mr. Ellery, we are collecting valuable data, which may possibly 
enable the physicist to count the unseen auroras of the Antarctic, to 
calculate their periods of activity and lethargy, and, again, to check 
these with our seasons. But it need hardly be said that the observa- 
tions which may be made in the higher latitudes and directly under 
the rays of the Aurora Australis will have the greater value, because 
itis only near the zone of maximum auroral intensity that the phenomena 
are manifested in all their aspects. In this periodicity of the southern 
aurora I have named the last scientific problem to which I had to direct 
your attention, and I would point out that if its determination should 
give to us any clew to the changes in the Australian seasons which 
would enable us to forecast their mutations in any degree, it would give 
to us, in conducting those great interests of the country which depend 
for their success upon the annual rain-fall, an advantage which would 
be worth many times over all the cost of the expeditions necessary to 
establish it. 

Finally, there is a commercial object to be served by Antarctic ex- 
ploration, and it is to be found in the establishment of a whaling trade 
between this region and Australia. The price of whalebone has now 
risen to the large sum of £2,000 a ton, which adds greatly to the possi- 
bilities of securing to the whalers a profitable return. Sir James Ross aud 
his officers have left it on record that the whale cf commerce was seen 
by them in these seas, beyond the possibility of a mistake. They have 
stated that the animals were large, and very tame, and that they could 
have been caught in large numbers. Within tie last few years whales 
have been getting very scarce in the Arctic, and in consequence of this 
two of the most successful of the whaling masters of the present day, 
Capts. David and John Gray, of Peterhead, Scotland, have devoted 
some labor to collecting all the data relating to this question, and they 
have consulted such survivors of Ross’s expedition as are still available. 
They have published the results of their investigations in a pamphlet, 
in which they urge the establishment of the fishery strongly, and they 
state their conclusions in the following words. They say: **We think 
if is established beyond doubt that whales of a species similar to the 
right or Greenland whale, found in high northern latitudes, exist in 
great numbers in the Antarctic seas, and that the establishment of a 
whale fishery within that area would be attended with successful and 
profitable results.” It is not necessary for me to add anything to the 
opinion of such experts in the business. All I desire to say is that if 
such a fishery were created, with its headquarters in Melbourne, it 


1 


304 ANTARCTIC EXPLORATITION. 


would probably be a material addition to our prosperity, and it would 
soon increase our population by causing the families of the hardy seamen 
who would man the fleet to remove from their homes in Shetland and 
Orkney and the Scotch coasts and settle here. 

In conclusion, I venture to submit that I have been able to point to 
good and substantial objects, both scientific and commercial, to justify 
a renewal of Antarctic research, and | feel assured that nothing could 
bring to us greater distinction in the eyes of the whole civilized world 
than such an expedition, judiciously planned and skillfully carried out. 


HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 


By Col. B. Wirskowskt1, of the General Staff, 
and Prof. J. HOWARD GorE, B.S., Ph. D. 


From the time of the unification of the several Moscovite states there 
has been felt the need of descriptions of the separate parts. But it was 
not until the middle of the sixteenth century that the inexact and un- 
satisfactory “Great Plan” made any attempt towards filling this need. 
Systematic geodetic operations, however, did not receive any attention 
until the time of Peter the Great, who sent out foreigners, especially 
invited for this purpose, together with such Russians as had been under 
their instruction, to make surveys of different parts of the empire. 
These disconnected surveys were made without any definite correlation 
of the separate parts, and in a very crude manner—using cords for 
measuring lines, astrolabes for angle determinations, and large quad- 
rants for latitude observations. 

When Delisle arrived in St. Petersburg in 1726, in response to an 
invitation from the emperor, an impetus was given to the exact sciences. 
In connection with the Academy of Sciences, founded likewise in 1726, 
he organized special astronomic expeditions for determining, in addi- 
tion to other work, the geographical position of points to check the 
geography of the Great Plan, and to make such revisions as might be 
necessary. In these operations longitudes were determined by the 
eclipse of Jupiter’s satellites. The result of these expeditions was the 
Russian Atlas, edited by the Academy in 1745, consisting of one gen- 
eral and nineteen special maps, constructed on a seale of 34 versts* to 
the inch. Notwithstanding its imperfections, this atlas was far superior 
to any of its period, and ante-dated all general maps except those of 
France and Italy. 

Delisle awakened great interest in astronomy at Russia’s capital, and 
secured the necessary permission and aid to observe every important 
astronomic event that was visible from any part of her domain. This 
created a need for assistants, and called forth a number of astronomers 
whose names are known to us, as Krassilnikow, a member of Bering’s 
expedition; Krashennikow, who made the first description of Kam- 


* 1 verst equals 3,500 English feet. 


H. Mis. 129 20 305 


306 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 


chatka, and Roumovsky, explorer of northern European Russia. In 
1789 the last named published a table of the geographical positions of 
sixty-two stations in Russia. It may be remarked, in this connection, 
that at that time no country of western Europe possessed such a 
number of well-determined places. 

In the eighteenth century the measurement of an are of the meridian 
was even planned, but why it was not carried out is not known at the 
present time. Delisle thought it possible to measure in the meridian of 
St. Petersburg an are of 22° or 23°, and in the year 1737 a, base line 
was measured on the ice between St. Petersburg and Cronstadt and 
several stations were selected. 

In 1796, by order of the Emperor Paul, the Depot of Maps was insti- 
tuted, which laid a solid foundation for a separate department specially 
occupied with all the geodetic and cartographic work in the state. 
Soon after Schubert gave special instruction in astronomy and geodesy, 
looking to the better qualification of men for this work. But owing to 
the troublesome times at the beginning of the present century, a stop 
was put to the progress of all geodetic operations. However, carto- 
graphie work was making rapid progress, not only in the interior of the 
state, but in such neighboring states as the fortunes of war introduced 
Russian troops, as for instance in 1816~18, while thearmy wasin France, 
more than 10,000 square versts were mapped. Inthis survey mountains 
were for the first time drawn by cross hatchings, according to Lehman’s 
system. 

After the close of the war with Napoleon geodetic operations in 
Russia began to develop very rapidly, and lying at the foundation of 
accurate maps, the practical value was so apparent that no obstacle to 
their progress was encountered. The great extent of the country pre- 
cluded the plan which naturally suggested itself of covering the entire 
state with a network of triangulation before beginning the mapping. 
Consequently independent nets were started which later could be 
united and brought into a harmonious whole. Vilna was the first prov- 
ince which was covered bya triangulation. It was prosecuted in 1816- 
1821, under the direction of General Tenner, and is of interest to us be- 
cause its principal triangle entered into the great meridional are. 

This work rested on three bases measured with an apparatus con- 
structed on the Borda principle under the supervision of Professor 
Reisig. Tenner discovered that the behavior of the metal components 
under varying temperatures was wholly unreliable and at once proposed 
an apparatus consisting of only one metal, in the shape of a bar of iron 
14 feet long, with a slide projecting beyond the end of one of the bars 
to measure the interval between two bars when they are brought into 
approximate contact. This device has been employed in a variety of 
forms and is now known as the contact-siide. The temperature of the 
bars during the measuring was ascertained from two thermometers on 
each bar, the buibs of which were inserted into the body of the bar, 


HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 307 


The anglesin this net were measured with repeating circles, employing 
for each angle from twenty to fifty repetitions. For the probable error 
of angle determinations 0/.62 was found to be anaverage. Astronomic 
observations were made at only one point with the longitudes referred 
to the observatory of Vilna. 

Almost simultaneously with the above-named operations in Vilna, a 
young enthusiastic astronomer of the Dorpat University, W. Struve, 
acting in response to a request from the Livonian Economical Society, 
covered Livonia with a trigonometrical net. In this work the angles 
were measured with a sextant and the bases with wooden rods, so that 
but little confidence can be placed in the results, still it was while en- 
gaged upon this work that Struve formed a liking for geodesy and con- 
ceived the plan of making a great arc measurement for the purpose of 
determining the lengths of degrees in different latitudes. 

His great interest in the work attracted the attention of the univer- 
sity authorities, and in answer to his request they furnished him with 
the necessary means and instruments. The base apparatus was of his 
own invention, and still bears his name. The salient feature intro- 
duced in its construction was the contact lever, which indicated on a 
graduated are over which one end of the lever swept the exact measur- 
ing length each time the bar was put in place. Inclination was deter- 
mined by means of a special level. 

A large theodolite, provided with four verniers, served as the angle- 
reading instrument. In this work Struve was the first to abandon the 
seductive, unreliable method of repetition, using in its place the method 
of directions. It was so apparent to many that an angle measured say 
twenty times, with only one reading of the circle, would be affected by 
an error only one-twentieth as large as if the single reading corre- 
sponded to only one pointing. Struve clearly saw that this method 
introduced other errors more pernicious than those of reading, but so 
firmly was the borda repeating circle fixed in the confidence of its 
users that had not Gauss embraced the new plan in his monumental 
work it is likely that the method of repetition would have continued 
to impair geodetic determinations. However much we are indebted to 
Gauss for assisting in the change, we owe the inception to Struve. 

The results of this first degree measurement, which extended from the 
isle of Hohland, in the Finnish Gulf, to the town Jacobstadt, on the river 
Dvina, are given in Struve’s Breitengradmessung in den Ostseeprovinzen 
Russlands, Dorpat, 1831. 

On finishing this work, Struve, seeing no natural obstacles in the 
way, hoped to extend an are along the meridian of Dorpat. He was 
soon in a position to take up this undertaking, since as director of the 
observatory at Pulkova he was virtually at the head of all astronomic 
and geodetic operations in Russia. Fortunately he received the appro- 
bation of Emperor Nicholas, and under his patronage this branch of 
scientific work prospered. The great arc, which received well-nigh 
uninterrupted attention for more than 40 years, had as its central fea- 


308 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 


ture the Baltic are; to this was successively joined Feuner’s meridional 
chains in the provinces of Vilna, Lithonia, Volynia, and Podolsky. In 
the years 1830-1844, triangles were added until the chain reached from 
the isle of Hohland to Tornea, in the north, and in the following years 
Tenner carried the southern end through Bessarabia, terminating at 
Staraja-Nekrasovka, at the mouth of the Danube. For the continua- 
tion of the are northward from Tornea the co-operation of the Swedish 
Government was necessary, as the best disposition of the triangles 
threw the stations alternately in Russia and in Sweden, finally cross- 
ing the north of Norway. Struve went to Stockholm to lay the matter 
before King Oscar, who at once entered into the spirit of the under- 
taking, and not only gave his consent but contributed aid in carrying 
iton. In 1845, this part of the work was begun, and with the assist- 
ance of Selander, on the part of Sweden, and Hansteen, for Norway, 
the field work was completed in 1852. 

This entire are comprises 25° 20’, in which there are 258 principal 
triangles resting on ten base lines, and fixed in position on the earth’s 
surface by astronomic observations at thirteen stations. As a supple- 
ment to this work may be mentioned the chronometrical expedition 
between Pulkova and Dorpat, made in 1854. In this operation thirty- 
one chronometers were transported ten times. The details of this are 
measurement are given quite fully in “Are du Méridien,” which was 
published in French and Russian in 1860. This are has entered into 
all of the more recent determinations of the figure of the earth, and in 
the computations of General Bonsdorff it alone gives for the ellipticity 
setsa) Which agrees quite well with the best values. 

Ares of parallel have also received some attention. In 1826, the 
French Government announced that there was already in existence an 
are of parallel approximately in latitude 47° N. from Brest, on the west, 
to Tchernowizt, on the east, and that if the Russians would continue 
this are eastward valuable geodetic data would result. The plan was 
received with favor, but different obstacles intervened, so that it was 
not until 1548 that it could be carried out. By this time the triangu- 
lation had reached the so-called New Russia, and in the general pur- 
pose to cover this entire section with a network of triangles General 
Wrochenko, the chief, received instruetions to so perform his work 
that amongst his triangles there should be an uninterrupted chain 
along this parallel of such strength and accuracy that they could form 
an integral part of this are. 

The field operations continued without serious interruption up to 
their completion in 1856, extending over an are of about 20° ampli- 
tude from Bologan to Astrakhan, at the mouth of the Volga. For this 
work three bases have been measured in addition to the checks which 
came down from the northern work. As the determination of the am- 
plitude depends upon differences of longitudes this part of the work 
was delayed awaiting the construction of telegraph lines. At the 


HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 309 


present time jongitudes of five stations are known, and the final results 
will soon be published. 

In 1860, it was decided to carry an are along the fifty-second parallel, 
which, when completed, would have, between Haversfordwest, in Eng- 
land, and Orsk, on the river Ural, an amplitude of 63° 31’. To Russia’s 
share fell 29° 24’, while the other countries had their work finished. In 
addition to this, Russia at this time had only a few triangles suitably 
Situated that were sufficiently accurate to form a part of this arc; 
therefore it was necessary to revise some of the former work and to add 
to it much that was wholly new. In the prosecution of this work 
many obstacles were met with, especially while traversing the 
marshes of Minsk, where, on account of the heavy timber and the flat 
character of the ground, it was necessary to build high signals, in 
some cases as much as 150 feet in height. 

The field operations were completed in 1872. One can form an idea 
of the magnitude of this triangulation when it is said that in Russia 
there are 321 triangles, of which 199 are taken from Tenner’s nets in 
Poland and along the Volga, while 122 were measured by Generai 
Zilinsky especially for this are. They rest on seven base lines, two in 
Tenner’s chain and five in the eastern part. Fifteen astronomical 
stations have been occupied for longitude determinations, chiefly by 
Russian officers, although six points were in other countries; these 
were: Breslau, Leipzig, Bonn, Newport, Greenwich, and Haversford- 
west. Time observations were made with portable transit instruments, 
and latitudes were ascertained from observations made with the ver- 
tical circles of Re psold. For the transmission of time, telegraphic 
signals consisting of the turning aside of the needle of a galvanoscope 
were employed. Between two complete determinations of time four 
groups of twelve signals each were sent at irregular intervals of time, 
varying from 13 to 17 seconds. Six repetitions of such a set consti- 
tuted a longitude determination. 

At the present time the computations are in press, forming parts of 
volumes 46 and 47 of the Memoirs of the Topographic Section of the 
General Staff. We are fortunately able to give the final results, as 
follows: 


Stations. § eodeteas Sait ot | Diff. | becsut meal 
| = ongitude. | _lelin metres 
° Ul “ ° Ui ut ul 

Ghenstohow— nv alsawi =.) so-so ce Ses cies 1 53 57.77] 1 54 8.85] +11.08 131, 854. 1 
WATS a Ww GOLTOUNO ete ne teases sicttion ccicee cc 2 48 10.12) 9 48 3.45 — 6.67 192, 501.4 
(SLOUNO—BODIUISKss2s24-so 500 oot oss celnn sess oo Gy 28) SEMBE ID I, PB date CRETE SANS eo 1) 370, 468. 1 
Bobruisk—Oreliseses- o 5 scence eee scs eee. sk Cera0 sain Or oO L2os, 7 + 8.93 469, 605. 9 
Orel ——Tipeta kee insias ciate sicisies eave secede - 3 32 24.02/ 3 32 18.15 | — 5.87 243, 027. 2 
Met petzZk— Saratov. --see=nse~ one cnis conan cece se 6 26 12.99) 6 26 25.35 | +12.36 441, 906.5 
DULALOV— SAMAR on arnt nto caecss= asc ees fee acr.s 4 2 34.94) 4 2 21.60) —13.34 Zi polee 
Samana—Orenurg 2 cetscd see (5k we cee ce aces Denes e2r0arh) D) wel” So. eon! 1 8u8o 344, 917.6 
Orenbarp=—Orskiie 5.5 sda sseccse dest ss <irde forbs 3 27 23.22 3 26 47.70 —35. 52 237, 290. 8 
MhGustoOno m= OLS taoe a eess cess Soe asin aecce sic 39 26 3.23 | 39 25 51.15 —12. 08 2, 709, 132. 8 


310 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 


In 1816, was begun the general triangulation of Russia which was to 
serve as the basis of accurate maps. At first the operations in differ- 
ent sections were isolated, and when connections were made discrep- 
ancies were discovered. This suggested to General Schubert, at the 
time chief of triangulation in the province of St. Peterburgh, that a 
central department having charge of all astronomic, geodetic, topo- 
graphic, and cartographic work should be established. His proposal 
was favorably received by the authorities, and in 1822, the Military 
Topographic Corps was founded with Schubert at its head. At the 
same time was organized the Topographic School, where young men 
could prepare themselves for service in the corps. That the founder 
showed great wisdom in forming his plan of organization is apparent 
from the fact that but few changes have taken place up to the present 
time. 

This institution is charged with all operations looking towards the 
complete mapping of all Russian possessions. These in a great part lie 
in inhospitable climes, and many are the abode of deadly fevers or sav- . 
age hordes, so that the work is of surpassing difficulty. All this, how- 
ever, has delayed but not deterred the determined observers, so that at 
the present time nearly all Russia is provided with a secondary trian- 
gulation suitable for cartographic operations. In this work the only 
important feature introduced was in the measurement of base lines by 
means of wires. This method, known in Europe as the Jaderin appa- 
ratus, consists of a pair of tapes of different metals, usually one brass 
and one steel, each 25 metres long. In measuring both are used side 
by side and are stretched under the action of a constant tension. Two 
sliding scales attached to the top of a tripod are adjusted so that the 
zero mark on one coincides with the end of the brass wire and the zero 
of the other coincides with the end of the steel wire. Then the wires 
are carried forward and the rear end of the brass wire is brought into 
coincidence with the zero of the scale which had been adjusted to its 
front end, and the same adjustment is made for the steel wire. If the 
two wires should remain equal in length there would be no disagree- 
ment in the zero marks, but as the rates of expansion of these two 
metals are widely different the distance between the zeros at the first 
laying of the wires is due to their unequal expansion, and each time 
the wires are put in place this distance is augmented or diminished 
according as the temperature is continually increasing or decreasing. 
From this it can be seen that the entire base line can be regarded as 
measured by a single length of an apparatus constructed on the Borda 
principle and at a temperature equal to the mean temperature experi- 
enced in measuring. With these wires great speed can be attained, 
reaching as much as 8 kilometres a day, and judging from the Molos- 
kowizy base, where the discrepancy between two measures was only 
1 centimeter in a base 9,822 metres, sufficient accuracy is readily secured. 

Not only for the purpose of determining the amplitude of ares of par- 


HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. Se 


allel, but also for locating or correcting the location of points distant 
from fixed observatories, was it early necessary to ascertain differences 
of longitude. The first step in this direction was made in 1833, when 
fifty-six chronometers were transported in the steamer Hercules to 
points along the shores of the Baltic Sea. This was foliowed by several 
large or primary expeditions, fixing points from which smaller or sec- 
ondary expeditions radiated as from centers. The most important of 
these is the well-known expedition carried on under the direction of 
Struve, for determining the difference of longitude between Greenwich 
and Pulkova. The next was between Pulkova and Moscow, with forty 
chronometers. During these exchanges a great number of box chro- 
nometers were transported in carriages, and it was found that in a good 
spring vehicle, even over bad roads, the rate of the chronometers were 
as constant as when they were carried by water. In the frequent ex- 
peditions following these, when no less than eighty chronometers 
were employed, observations and comparisons were made not only at 
the terminal points, but also at several intermediate stations. The 
great number of chronometers in use made it necessary to find some 
weans of lessening the time necessary for their comparison. When, as 
was at first the case, siderial and mean-time chronometers were com- 
pared, 4 minutes were lost while waiting for a coincidence. As the out- 
come of this necessity Struve invented the thirteen striker, that is, a 
chronometer making thirteen beats or strokes in 6 seconds. This 
gives, whether comparing with a star or mean chronometer, a coinci- 
dence every 6 seconds withina range of 0.02, which is sufficiently aceu- 
rate. An uncompensated chronometer always formed a part of the 
equipment, serving as a means for finding the temperature coefficients 
of the compensated chronometers more satisfactorily than if tempera- 
tures were taken from accompanying thermometers. As one would 
expect, the Russians have made very elaborate investigations regarding 
the rates of chronometers and their disturbing causes. 

As soon as Russia was covered with a telegraphic net the new method 
of determining difference of longitudes was tried and at once adopted 
The first application of this scheme was in Finland, between the sta- 
tions Cronstadt and Uleaborg. This was in 1860, and since that time 
each year has witnessed at least one new determination. In 1868 ob- 
servations were made for finding the longitudes of Wiborg, Lovisa, Hel- 
singfors, and Albo with reference to Pulkova. In these operations 
there was used for the first time the method of finding time by a tran- 
sit instrument set in the vertical of Polaris. This method had been 
known for along time, but had not been used because of the complicated 
computations involved. But W. Diillen, of Pulkova, gave formule and 
tables which made it possible to compute the correction of the clock 
almost as quickly as if the observations were made in the meridian. 

The greatest undertaking in the way of telegraphic longitudes are 
the labors of Shamgorst and Kulberg, who, in 1873-76, gave a series of 


312 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 


points from Moscow to Vladivostak, covering Siberia and embracing 
ares having a total amplitude of more than 100°. This huge undertak- 
ing had two objects in view: to give the exact position of a number of 
stations which were to serve as the bases of numerous smaller opera- 
tions, especially chronometric expeditions, and to determine in the 
most accurate maner the longitude of stations where observations of 
the transit of Venus were to be made in 1874. The observations were 
made with portable transit instruments specially adapted for quick ani 
convenient shifting in azimuth, making it possible to readily place the 
instrument in the vertical of Polaris. For latitudes these same instru- 
ments were used, being placed in the prime vertical. The account of 
this expedition takes up nearly the whole of the thirty-eighth volume 
of the Memoirs of the Topographical Section of the General Staff. 
Upon examination it is found that the latitudes were affected with a 
probable error of 0.1, while the probable error of a longitude deter- 
mination is 0.043. From the successive transmission of time back- 
wards and forwards the velocity of the galvanic current was found to be 
93,548 kilometres per second. 

While the triangulation was in progress, zenith-distances were ob- 
served from which the heights of stations were completed, but these 
operations have not been consistently followed out, so that there are 
in many parts of Russia a lack of well-determined altitudes. General 
Tenner gave due attention to this special werk, and in his chain he 
united the Baltic and the Black Seas. His results showed that the 
former is 0.53 fathom higher, but as the probable error is 1.5 fathoms 
but little confidence was placed in the theory that there was any differ- 
ence in the level of these two seas. But with the Caspian Sea a dif- 
ferent state of affairs was supposed to exist. It had been suspected 
that this sea was lower than either of the two just named, so in 1836~37, 
a large expedition was organized, in which Fuss, Sawitch, and Sabler 
were participants. They began at Kagalnik near the Asov Sea, crossed 
the northern portion of the Caucasian deserts to the Tschornoi Rynok 
on the Caspian. For greater accuracy the zenith distances were meas- 
ured at very short distances, approximately 3.5 versts. These distances 
were ascertained by computation from short lines measured by placing’ 
bars end to end on a rope stretched tight. The results, published in 
1849, showed that the Caspian Sea is 85.45 feet lower than tne Black 
Sea. Subsequently almost the same value was obtained, but still later 
a value 4 feet greater was found, suggesting that the level of the Cas- 
pian is decreasing. This fact has had further demonstration. The 
academician Lenz made a mark on arock near the town of Baku ex- 
actly on a level with the sea; this mark in 1861 was 3.95 feet higher 
than the water, and more recent comparisons show that the difference 
is increasing. 

The other Russian interior sea, the Aral, is,on the contrary, higher 
than the level of the ocean. The special levelling party sent out for 


"> 


HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 313 


this purpose in 1874, came to the conclusion that the Aral Sea is higher 
than the Caspian by 243 feet. 

In 1871, systematic spirit leveling was begun, and in its prosecution 
many interesting facts have been brought to light. One of these is the 
different levels of the water in the Baltic Sea. Taking 0 for the level 
of water at Cronstadt, the height of the sea level proves to be: 


Metres. 
DES TRON Oleaees tec tea hate e ae Bel oe emia acc ects — 0.57 
Asi AM AMMO <> <:;, sea sears stato sor ee — 0.88 
PSEA Mere Gis ws oo ee en eee en 


Another is the discrepancy between spirit levelling and geodetic level- 
ling in obtaining the elevation of the threshold of the Dorpat Observa- 
tory. This amounts to nearly 4 metres, and is suggestive of a consid- 
erable local disturbance. 

The first local attraction observed in Russia was in the neighborhood 
of Moscow, where, owing to the absence of hills, one might least ex- 
pect a discrepancy between geodetic and astronomic results. Soon 
after the completion of the triangulation in the province of Moscow 
this deflection attracted public attention, and the astronomer Schweizer 
undertook a special investigation, The result showed that in this 
province, almost in the direction from east to west, there is a strip along 
whose northern boundary there is a considerable (5’’) northern deflec- 
tion, and on the southern border a southerly deflection of 10’. It is 
supposed that along this belt there must be a vast extent of matter of 
comparatively small density, or underlying it great cavities. 

The most elaborate investigation of local deflection of the plumb-line 
was made in the Caucasus by General Stebnizki and published in the 
Memoirs of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences for 1870. From 
the analysis of the astronomic and trigonometric operations executed 
on both sides of the principal Caucasian ridge it became evident that, 
in general, to the north of the mountains there exists a deflection to 
the south and on the south an opposite deflection. The greatest dis- 
crepancies in the astronomic and geodetic latitudes proved to be in 
Viadikaukasus, —35”.76; in Alexandrovskaja, —18/.14; in Petrovk, 
—18”.56; and in Dushet, +18/.29.  Availing himself of the surveys 
already executed furnishing a great number of very accurately deter- 
mined points, General Stebnizki computed the effect which the attrac- 
tion of the exterior mountainous mass would have upon the astronomic 
latitude of the different stations. In these computations no attracting 
mass was considered which was distant more than 240 versts, while the 
chief disturbing causes were frequently found to lie within a circle with 
a radius of 80 versts, the station occupying the central point. It was 
found that the greater part of the noted discrepancies were sufficiently 
accounted for by the law of attraction having regard to the exterior 
mass alone. In the cases just cited the computed differences reduced 
the station errors to 3”,—1/ .31, +2/.15 and —0”.86, But there are other 


* 


$14 HISTORY OF GEODETIC OPERATIONS IN RUSSIA. 


stations where the computed attraction is either insufficient for the ex- 
planation of the observed discrepancy or even contradicts it. Among 
such stations the following are remarkable: 


| Tiflis. Elisabetpol. | Shemaha. 


Dhetobservedsdeflection <2 -2.<- essa. ee cease ee eee | 97.56 — 32.75 93.91 
ehercompriutedy detection aerecesere cia seers see seit eeeeinciee +2. 41 — 20. 50 +16. 43 
Difference.ceas soe ho ae esse ole eee cee EE eR On ee ee eee —9.97 = ON25 —39. 64 


As all of these stations lie approximately on the same parallel, and 
each showed a strong deflection to tha south, there must lie to the south 
under the surface of the earth an extent of matter of great density, or 
to the north under the Caucasian ridge a mass of less density. The 
latter hypothesis has found a parallel in the deflections observed near 
the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. Besides the latitude deflections, 
General Stebnizki calculated the deflections of the vertical at longitude 
stations, but their number so far is insufficient to serve as a basis for 
generalization. 

For more than a century, the pendulum has been regarded in Russia 
as a geodetic instrument of great value, but no very accurate observa- 
tions were made prior to 1826~29, when Captain Lutke made a cruise 
around the world on the man-of-war Seniavin. He swung a Kater 
pendulum at ten stations. The results, published in 1833, gave for the 
ellipticity 1: 267.8, or 1: 269 if two somewhat doubtful stations are 
disregarded. Besides the desultory observations of Professor Parrot 
of Dorpat in 1829, nothing of consequence was attempted until 186568, 
when the Academy of Sciences of St. Petersburg sent out an expedition 
in charge of Sawitch, Smyslow, and Lenz. They selected twelve 
stations along the great Russian meridional are (Tornea, Nicolaistad, 
St. Petersburg, Reval, Dorpat, Jakobstadt, Vilna, Belin, Kremenetz, 
Kishener, Kamenetz and Ismail), and employed a reversible Repsold 
pendulum. The results 1 : 309 for the ellipticity of the earth. 

Since this time, many observations have been made in various portions 
of the Russian domain, and with the pendulum work, as with all other 
branches of geodetic operations, the best methods soon find a place, and 
results are obtained that are comparable with those of any country. 


QUARTZ FIBERS* 


By C. V. Boys, F. BR. 8. 


ie 


In almost all investigations which the physicist carries out in the lab- 
oratory, he has to deal with and to measure with accuracy those subtle 
and to our senses inappreciable forces to which the so-called laws of 
nature give rise. Whether he is observing by an electrometer the be- 
havior of electricity at rest, or by a galvanometer the action of elee- 
tricity in motion; whether in the tube of Crookes he is investigating the 
power of radiant matter, or with the famous experiment of Cavendish 
he is finding the mass of the earth—in these and in a host of other cases 
he is bound to measure with certainty and accuracy forces so small that 
in no ordinary way could their existence be detected; while disturbing 
causes which might seem to be of no particular consequence must be 
eliminated if his experiments are to have any value. It is not too 
much to say that the very existence of the physicist depends upon the 
power which he possesses of producing at will and by artificial means 
forces against which he balances those that he wishes to measure. 

I had better perhaps at once indicate in a general way the magnitude 
of the forces with which we have to deal. 

The weight of a single grain is not to our senses appreciable, while 
the weight of a ton is sufficient to crush the life out of anyone ina 
moment. <A ton is about 15,000,000 grains. It is quite possible to 
measure with unfailing accuracy forces which bear the same relation to 
the weight of a grain that a grain bears to a ton. 

To show how the torsion of wires or threads is made use of in meas- 
uring forces, I have arranged what I can hardly dignify by the name of 
an experiment. It is simply a straw hung horizontally by a piece of 
wire. Resting on the straw is a fragment of sheet-iron weighing 10 
grains. A magnet so weak that it can not lift the iron yet is able to 
pull the straw round through an angle so great that the existence of the 
feeble attraction is evident to everyone in the room. 

Now it is clear that if, instead of a straw moving over the table simply, 


*Lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, on Friday, Jnne 14, 1°89. (From Nature, 
July 11, 1889, and October 16, 1890, vols. xu, pp. 247-251, and XLiI, pp. 604-608. ) 


315 


316 QUARTZ FIBERS. 


we had here an arm in a glass case and a mirror to read the motion of 
the arm, it would be easy to observe a movement a hundred or a thou- 
sand times Jess than that just produced, and therefore to measure a 
force a hundred or a thousand times less than that exerted by this feeble 
magnet. 

Again, if instead of wire as thick as an ordinary pin I had used the 
finest wire that can be obtained, it would have opposed the movement 
of the straw with a far less force. It is possible to obtain wire ten times 
finer than this stubborn material, but wire ten times finer is much more 
than ten times more easily twisted. Itis ten thousand times more easily 
twisted. This is because the torsion varies as the fourth power of the 
diameter, so we say 10x10 = 100; 100x100 =10,000. Therefore with 
the finest wire, forces 10,000 times feebler still could be observed. 

It is therefore evident how great is the advantage of reducing the 
size of a torsion wire. Even if it is only halved the torsion is reduced 
sixteen-fold. To give a better idea of the actual sizes of such wires and 
fibers as are in use I shall show upon the screen a series of photographs 
taken by Mr. Chapman, on each of which a scale of thousandths of an 
inch has been printed. 


0 5 10 


Lee Se A en ee 


Seale of 1000ths of an inch for Figs. 1to7. Thescale of Figs. 8 and 9 is much finer. 


la 
ih 


The first photograph (Fig.1)is an ordinary hair—a sufficiently familiar 
object, and one that is generally spoken of as if it were rather fine. 
Much finer than this is the specimen of copper wire now on the screen 

o 


QUARTZ FIBERS. a bY 


(Fig. 2), which I recently obtained from Messrs. Nalder Brothers, It is 
only a little over one-thousandth of an inch in diameter. Ordinary 
spun glass,a most beautiful material, is about one-thousandth of an 
inch in diameter, and this would appear to be an ideal torsion thread 
(Fig. 3). Owing to its fineness its torsion would be extremely small, 
and the more so because glass is more easily deformed than metals. 
Owing to its very great strength, it can carry heavier loads than would 
be expected of it. I imagine many physicists must have turned to this 
material in their endeavor to find a really delicate torsion thread. I 
have so turned only to be diseppointed. It hasevery good quality but 
one, and that is its imperfect elasticity. For instance, a mirror hung 
by a piece of spun glass is casting an image of a spot of light on the 
scale. If I turn the mirror, by means of a fork, twice to the right, and 
then turn it back again, the light does not come back to its old point 
of rest, but oscillates about a point on one side, which however is 
slowly changing, so that it is impossible to say what the point of rest 
really is. Further, if the glass is twisted one way first, and then the 
other way, the point of rest moves in a manner which shows that it is 
not influenced by the last deflection alone; the glass remembers what 
was done to it previously. For this reason spun glass is quite unsuit- 
able as a torsion thread ; it is impossible to say what the twist is at 
any time, and therefore what is the force developed. 

So great has the difficulty been in finding a fine torsion thread that 
the attempt has been given up, and in all the most exact instruments 
silk has been used. The natural cocoon fibers, as shown on the screen 
(Fig. 4), consist of two irregular lines gummed together, 
each about one two-thousandth of an inch in diameter. 
These fibers must be separated from one another and 
washed. Then each component will, according to the ex- 
periment of Gray, carry nearly 60 grains before breaking, 
and can be safely loaded with 15 grains. Silk is there- 
fore very strong, carrying at the rate of from 10 to 20 tons 
to the square inch. It is further valuable in that its tor- 
sion is far less than that of a fiber of the same size of metal 
or even of glass, if such could be produced. The torsion 
of silk, though exceedingly small, is quite sufficient to 
upset the working of any delicate instrument, because it is 
never constant. At one time the fiber twists one way, and 
another time in another, and the evil effect can only be 
mitigated by using large apparatus in which strong forces 
are developed. Any attempt that may be made to increase 
the delicacy of apparatus by reducing their dimensions is 
at once prevented by the relatively great importance of the 
vagaries of the silk suspension. 

The result then is this. The smallness, the length of 
period, and therefore delicacy, of the instruments at the 


318 QUARTZ FIBERS. 


physicist’s disposal have until lately been simply limited by the behavior 
of silk. A more perfect suspension means still more perfect instruments, 
and therefore advance in knowledge. 

It was in this way that some improvements that I was making in an 
instrument for measuring radiant heat came to a dead-lock about 2 years 
ago. I would not use silk, and I could not find anything else that would 
do. Spun glass even, was far too coarse for my purpose; it was a 
thousand times too stiff. 

There is a material invented by Wollaston long ago, which however 
I did not try because it is so easily broken. It is platinum wire which 
has been drawn in silver, and finally separated by the action of nitric 
acid. A specimen about the size of a single line of silk is now on the 
screen, showing the silver coating at one end (Fig. 5). 

As nothing that I knew of could be obtained that would be of use to 
me, I was driven to the necessity of trying by experiment to find some 
new material. The result of these experiments was 
the development of a process of almost ridiculous 
simplicity which it may be of interest for me to show. 

The apparatus consists of a small cross-bow, and 
an arrow made of straw with a needle point. To 
the tail of the arrow is attached a fine rod of quartz 
which has been melted and drawn out in the oxy- 
hydrogen jet. I havea piece of the same material 
in my hand, and now after melting their ends and 
joining them together, an operation which produces 
a beautiful and dazzling light, all I have to do is to 
liberate the string of the bow by pulling the trigger 
with one foot, and then if ali is well a fiber will have 
been drawn by the arrow, the existence of which can 
be made evident by fastening to it a piece of stamp 
paper. 

In this way threads can be produced of great 
length, of almost any degree of fineness, of extraor- 
dinary uniformity, and of enormous strength. I do 
not believe, if any experimentalist had been prom- 
ised by a good fairy that he might have anything he 
desired, that he would have ventured to ask for any 
one thing with so many valuable properties as these 
fibers possess. I hope in the course of this evening 
to show that I am not exaggerating their merits. 

In the first place, let me say something about the 
degree of fineness to which they can be drawn. 
There is now projected upon the screen a quartz 
fiber one five-thousandth of an inch in diameter (Fig. 
6). This is one which I had in constant use in an instrument loaded 
with about 30 grains, Jt has a section only one-sixth of that of a single 


Fia. 5. 


QUARTZ FIBERS. 319 


line of silk, and it is just as strong. Not being or- 
ganic, it is in no way affected by changes of moisture 
and temperature, and so it is free from the vagaries 
of silk which give so much trouble. The piece used 
in the instrument was about 16 inches long. Had it 
been necessary to employ spun glass, which hitherto 
was the finest torsion material, then, instead of 16 
inches, I should have required a piece 1,000 feet long, 
and an instrument as high as the Hiffel tower to put 
it in. | 

There is no difficulty in obtaining pieces as fine as 
this, yards long if required, nor in spinning it very 
much finer. There is upon the sereen a single line 
made by the small garden spider, and the size of this is 
perfectly evident (Fig. 7). You now see a quartz fiber 
far finer than this, or, rather, you see a diffraction phe- 
nomenon, for no trueimage is formed at all; but even 
this is @ conspicuous object in comparison with the 
tapering ends, which it is absolutely impossible to 
trace in a microscope. The next two photographs, 
taken by Mr. Nelson, whose skill and resources are 
so famous, represent the extreme end of a tail of quartz, and though 
the scale is a great deal larger than that used in the other photographs, 
the end will be visible only to a few. Mr. Nelson has photographed 
here what it is absolutely impossible to see. What the size of these 
ends may be I have no means of telling. Dr. Royston Piggott has 
estimated some of them at less than one-millionth of an inch, but what- 
ever they are they supply for the first time objects of extreme smallness 
the form of which is certainly known, and therefore I can not help look- 
ing upon them as more satisfactory tests for the microscope than 
diatoms and other things of the real shape of which we know nothing 
whatever. 

Since figures as large as a million can not be realized properly, it may 
be worth while to give an illustration of what is meant by a fiber one- 
millionth of an inch in diameter. 

A piece of quartz an inch long and an inch in diameter would, if 
drawn out to this degree of fineness, be sufficient to go all the way 
round the world 658 times; or a grain of sand just visible—that is, one- 
hundredth of an inch long and one-hundredth of an inch in diameter— 
would make 1,000 miles of such thread. Further, the pressure inside 
such a thread due to a surface tension equal to that of water would be 
60 atmospheres. ; 

Going back to such threads as can be used in instruments, I have 
made use of fibers one ten-thousanth of an inch in diameter, and in 
these the torsion is 10,000 times less than that of spun glass. 

As these fibers are made finer their strength increases in proportion 


Fic. 6. Gait 


320 QUARTZ FIBERS. 


to their size, and surpasses that of ordinary bar steel, reaching, to use 
the language of engineers, as high a figure as 80 tons to the inch. Fibers 
of ordinary size have a strength of 50 tons to the inch. 

While it is evident that these fibers give us the means of producing 
an exceedingly small torsion, and one that is not affected by weather, 
it is not yet evident that they may not show the same fatigue that 
makes spun glass useless. I have therefore a duplicate apparatus with 
a quartz fiber, and you will see that the spot of light comes back to 
its true place on the screen after the mirror has been twisted round 
twice. 

IT shall now for amoment draw your attention to that peculiar property 
of melted quartz that makes threads such as [ have been describing a 
possibility. A liquid eylinder, as Plateau has so beautifully shown, is 
an unstable form. It can no more exist than can a pencil stand on its 
point. It immediately breaks up into a series of spheres. This is well 
illustrated in that very ancient experiment of shooting threads of resin 
electrically. When the resin is hot, the liquid cylinders which are pro- 
jected in all directions break up into spheres, as you see now upon the 
screen. As the resin cools they begin to develop tails; and when it 
is cool enough, ¢. ¢., sufficiently viscous, the tails thicken, and the beads 
become less, and at last uniform threads are the result. The series of 
photographs show this well. 

There is a far more perfect illustration which we have only 
to gointo the garden to find. There we may see in abundance 
what is now upon the screen—the webs of those beautiful geo- 
metrical spiders. The radial threads are smooth, like the one 
you saw afew minutes ago, but the threads that go round 
and round are beaded. The spider draws these webs slowly, 
and at the same time pours upon them a liquid, and still 
further to obtain the effect of launching a liquid cylinder in 
space he, or rather she, pulls it out like the string of a bow, 
and lets it go with a jerk. ‘The liquid cylinder can not exist, 
and the result is what you now see upon the screen (Fig. 8). 
A more perfect illustration of the regular breaking up of a 
liquid cylinder it would be impossible to find. he beads 
are, as Plateau showed they ought to be, alternately large 
and small, and their regularity is marvellous. Sometimes 
two still smaller beads are developed, as may be seen in the 
second photograph, thus completely agreeing with the results 
of Plateau’s investigations. 

I have heard it maintained that the spider goes round her 
web and pldces these beads there afterwards. But since a 
web with about 360,000 beads is completed in an hour—that 
is, at the rate of about 100 a second—this does not seem likely. That 
what I have said is true, is made more probable by the photograph of 


QUARTZ FIBERS. 321 


a beaded web that I have made myself by simply stroking 
a quartz fiber with a straw wetted with castor oil (Fig. 9). 
It is rather larger than a spider line; but I have made 
beaded threads, using a fine fiber, quite indistinguishable 
from a real spider web, and they have the further similarity 
that they are just as good for catching flies, 

Now, going back to the melted quartz, it is evident that 
if it ever became perfectly liquid it could not exist as a 
fiber for an instant. It is the extreme viscosity of quartz, 
at the heat even of an electric are, that makes these fibers 
possible. The only difference between quartz in the oxy- 
hydrogen jet, and quartz in the are, is that in the first you 
make threads and in the second are blown bubbles. I have 
inmy hand some microscopic bubbles of quartz showing all 
the perfection of form and color that we are familiar with in 
the soap bubble. 

An invaluable property of quartz is its power of insulating 
perfectly, even in an atmosphere saturated with water. The 
gold leaves now diverging were charged some time before 
the lecture, and hardly show any change, yet the insulator 
is arod of quartz only three-quarters of an inch long, and the air is 
kept moist by a dish of water. The quartz may even be dipped in tho 
water and replaced with the water upon it without any difference in 
the insulation being observed. 

Not only can fibers be made of extreme fineness, but they are won- 
derfully uniform in diameter. So uniform are they that they perfectly 
stand an optical test so severe that irregularities invisible in any mi- 
croscope would immediately be made apparent. Everyone must have 
noticed when the sun is shining upon a border of tlowers and shrubs 
how the lines which spiders use as railways to travel from place to 
place glisten with brilliant colors. These colors are only produced when 
the fibers are sufficiently fine. If you take one of these webs and exam- 
ine it in the sunlight, you will find that the colors are variegated, and 
the effect consequently is one of great beauty. 

A quartz fiber of about the same size shows colors in the same way, 
but the tint is perfectly uniform on the fiber. If the color of the fiber 
is examined with a prism, the spectrum is found to consist of alternate 
bright and dark bands. Upon the screen are photographs taken by 
Mr. Briscoe, a student in the laboratory of South Kensington, of the 
spectra of some of these fibers at different angles of incidence. It will 
be seen that coarse fibers have more bands than fine, and that the num- 
ber increases with the angles of incidence of the light. There are pecu- 
liarities in the march of the bands as the angle increases which I can 
not describe now. I may only say that they appear to move not uni- 
formly but in waves, presenting very much the appearance of a cater- 
pillar walking. 

H. Mis. 129——21 


Fic. 9. 


g2e QUARTZ FIBERS. 


So uniform are the quartz fibers that the spectrum from end to end 
consists of parallel bands. Occasionally a fiber is found which presents 
a slight irregularity here and there. A spider Jine is so irregular that 
these bands are hardly observable; but as the photograph on the 
screen shows, it is possible to trace them running up and down the 
spectrum when you know what to look for. 

To show that these longitudinal bands are due to the irregularities, 
I have drawn a taper piece of quartz by hand, in which the two edges 
make with one another an almost imperceptible angle, and the spec- 
trum of this shows the gradual change of diameter by the very steep 
angle at which the bands run up the spectrum. 

Into the theory of the development of these bands I am unable to 
enter; that is a subject upon which your professor of natural philos- 
ophy is best able to speak. Perhaps I may venture to express the 
hope, as the experimental investigation of this subject is now rendered 
possible, that he may be induced to carry out a research for which he 
is so eminently fitted. 

Though this is a subject which is altogether beyond me, I have been 
able to use the results in a practical way. When it is required to place 
into an instrument a fiber of any particular size, all that has to be done 
is to hold the frame of fibers toward a bright and distant light, and 
look at them through a low-angled prism. The banded spectra are 
then visible, and it is the work of a moment to pick out one with the 
number of bands that has been found to be given by a fiber of the de- 
sired size. A coarse fiber may have a dozen or more, while such fibers 
as I find most useful have only two dark bands. Much finer ones ex- 
ist, showing the colors of the first order with one dark band; and fibers 
so fine as to correspond to the white or even the gray of Newton’s 
scale are easily produced. 

Passing now from the most scientific test of the uniformity of these 
fibers, I shall next refer to one more homely. It is simply this: the 
common garden spider, except when very young, can not climb up one 
of the same size as the web on which she displays such activity. She 
is perfectly helpless, and slips down with a run. After vainly trying 
to make any headway, she finally puts her hands (or feet) into her 
mouth, and then tries again, with no better success. I may mention 
that a male of the same species is able to run up one of these with the 
greatest ease, a feat which may perhaps save the lives of a few of these 
unprotected creatures when quartz fibers are more common, 

It is possible to make any quantity of very fine quartz fiber without 
a bow and arrow at all, by simply drawing out a rod of quartz over 
and over again in a strong oxyhydrogen jet. Then, if a stand of any 
sort has been placed a few feet in front of the jet, it will be found cov- 
ered with a maze of thread, of which the photograph on the screen rep- 
resents a sample. This is hardly distinguishable from the web spun 


QUARTZ FIBERS. ot 


by this magnificent spider in corners of greenhouses and such places. 
By regulating the jet and the manipulation, anything from one of these 
stranded cables to a single ultra-microscope line may be developed. 

And now that I have explained that these fibers have such valuable 
properties, it will no doubt be expected that I should perform some 
feat with their aid which, up to the present time, has been considered 
impossible, and this I intend to do. 

Of all experiments the one which has most excited my admiration is 
the famous experiment of Cavendish, of which I have a full-size model 
before you. ‘The object of this experiment is to weigh the earth by 
comparing directly the force with which it attracts things with that 
due to large masses of lead. As is shown by the model, any attraction 
which these large balls exert on the small ones will tend to deflect this 
6-foot beam in one direction, and then if the balls are reversed in posi- 
tion the deflection will be in the other direction. Now, when it is con- 
sidered how enormously greater the earth is than these balls, it will be 
evident that the attraction due to them must be in comparison excess- 
ively small. To make this evident the enormous apparatus you see 
had to be constructed, and then, using a fine torsion wire, a perfectly 
certain but small effect was produced. The experiment however could 
only be successfully carried out in cellars and underground places, 
because changes of temperature produced effects greater than those 
due to gravity.* 

Now I have—in a hole in the wall—an instrument no bigger than a 
galvanometer, of which a model is on the table. The balls of the Cav- 
endish apparatus, weighing several hundredweight each, are replaced 
by balls weighing 1? pounds only. The smaller balls of 13 pounds are 
replaced by little weights of 15 grains each. The 6-foot beam is re- 
placed by one that will swing round freely in a tube three-quarters of 
an inch in diameter. The beam is, of course, suspended by a quartz 
fibre. With this microscopic apparatus, not only is the very feeble 
attraction observable, but I can actually obtain an effect eighteen times 
as great as that given by the apparatus of Cavendish, and, what is 
more important, the accuracy of observation is enormously increased. 

The light from a lamp passes through a telescope lens and falls on 
the mirror of the instrument. It is reflected back to the table, and 
thence by a fixed mirror to the scale on the wall, where it comes to a 
focus. Ifthe mirror on the table were plane, the whole movement of 
the light would be only about 8 inches, but the mirror is convex, and 
this magnifies the motion nearly eight times. At the present moment 
the attracting weights are in one extreme position, and the line of light 
is quiet. I will now move them to the other position, and you will see 
the result—the light slowly begins to move, and slowly increases in 


*Dr. Lodge has been able, by an elaborate arrangement of screens, to make this 
attraction just evident to an audience.—C, V. B, 


yA os QUARTZ FIBERS. 


movement. In 40 seconds it will have acquired its higbest velocity, 
and in 40 more it will have stopped at 5 feet 84 inches from the start- 
ing point, after which it will slowly move back again, oscillating about 
its new position of rest. 

It is not possible at this hour to enter into any calculations; I will 
only say that the motion you have seen is the effect of a force of less than 
one ten-millionth of the weight of a grain, and that with this apparatus 
I can detect a force two thousand times smaller still. There would be 
no difficulty even in showing the attraction between two No. 5 shot. 

And now in conclusion, I would only say that if there is anything 
that is good in the experiments to which I have this evening directed 
your attention, experiments conducted largely with sticks and string 
and straw and sealing-wax, I may perhaps be pardoned if I express my 
conviction that in these days we are too apt to depart from the simple 
ways of our fathers, and instead of following them, to fall down and 
worship the brazen image which the instrument-maker hath set up. 


Li 


Before I enter upon the subject upon which I have to address you, I 
wish to point out that, quite apart from any deficiency on my part which 
will be only too apparent in the course of the evening, it is my inten- 
tion to commit two faults which may well be considered unpardonable. 
In the first place, I shall speak entirely about my own experiments, even 
though I know that theiteration of the first personal pronoun for the 
space of one hour is apt to be as monotonous to an audience as it is 
wanting in taste on the part of a lecturer. In the second place, I am 
going almost to depend upon the motions of a spotof light to illustrate 
the actions which I shall have to describe, in spite of the fact that it is 
impossible for an audience to get up any enthusiasm when watching 
the wandering motion of a spot of light the result of the manipulation 
of a mystery box, of which it is impossible to see the inside. These 
however are faults which are the immediate consequence of the nature 
of my subject. 

Physicists deal very largely with the measurement of extremely mi- 
nute forces, which it is of the utmost importance that they should be able 
to measure accurately. Now, forces may be considered under two 
aspects. It may be that the force which is developed and which has 
to be measured is a twist, in which case the twisting force may be ap- 
plied to the end of a wire directly, when the amount through which 
that wire is twisted is a measure of the twisting force. Or the force 
may bea direct pull or a push, which may also be measured by the 
twist of a wire if it is applied to the end of a lever or arm carried by the 
wire. 


* Lecture delivered on September 8, 1890, at the Leeds meeting of the British Asso- 
ciation. 


QUARTZ FIBERS. 325 


Now supposing that the foree—whether of the nature of a twist or of 
a pull (it does not matter which)—is too small to produce an appreciable 
twist in the wire, it is obvious that a finer wire must be employed, but 
it is not obvious how much more easily a fine wire is twisted than a 
coarse one. If the fine wire is one-tenth of the diameter of the coarse 
one, we must multiply ten by itself four times over in order to find how 
much more easily twisted it is, and thus obtain the enormous number 
10,000; it is 10,000 times more easily twisted than the coarse one. 
Thus there is an enormous advantage in increasing the minuteness of 
the wire by means of which feeble twisting or pulling forces are meas- 
ured. Butif the delicacy of the research is such that even the finest 
wire which can be made is still too stiff, then, even though with such 
wire, which is somewhere about the thousandth of an inch in diameter, 
forces as small as the millionth part of the weight of a single grain can 
be detected with certainty, the wire is of nouse; and as wire can not be 
made finer, some other material must be used. Spun glass is fine and 
strong, and is still more easily twisted than the finest wire, but it 
possesses a property somewhat analogous to putty. When it has been 
twisted and then let go, it does not come back to its old place, so that 
though it is much more largely twisted than wire by the application of 
a force, it is not possible with accuracy to measure that force. There 
is, or rather I should say there was, no material that could be used as 
a torsion thread finer than spun glass; and therefore physicists use in- 
stead a fiber almost free from torsion. A single thread of silk as spun 
by the silkworm is taken and split down the middle, for it is really 
double, and one-half only is used. This is far finer than spun glass, 
and being softer in texture, it is much more easily twisted. Silk is ten 
thousand times more easily twisted than spun glass. So easily twisted 
is silk that in the majority of instruments the stiffness of the silk is 
either of no consequence at all, or at any rate it only produces but the 
slightest disturbing effect. Now, if it is necessary to push the investiga- 
tion further still by the continued increase in the delicacy of the appa- 
ratus, silk itself begins to prevent any progress. Silk has a certain 
stiffness, but if that were always the same it would not matter; but 
then it possesses that putty-like character of spun glass, but in a far 
higher degree; it is affected by every variation of temperature and 
moisture, and any really delicate measures are out of the question when 
silk is used as the suspending fiber. 

This, I believe, is a fairly accurate account of the state of the case, three 
years ago. At that time I was improving, or attempting to improve, a 
certain class of apparatus of which I shall have more to say presently, 
and I was met by the difficulty that a greater degree of delicacy was 
required than was possible with existing torsion threads. Silk would 
have entirely prevented me from reaching the degree of delicacy and 
certainly in this instrument that I hope to show this evening that I have 
attained. 


326 QUARTZ FIBERS. 


Being then in this difficulty I was by good fortune and necessity led 
to devise a process which | propose at onee to show you. I shall not 
describe the preliminary experiments, but simply describe the process 
as it stands. There is a small cross-bow held in a vice, and a little 
arrow made of straw with a needle point, and I have here a fragment 
of rock crystal which has been melted and drawn into arod. It re- 
quires a temperature greater than that developed in any furnace to 
melt this material so that it may be drawn out. If the arrow, which 
also carries a piece of the quartz rod, is placed in the bow, and if both 
pieces are heated up to the melting point and joined together, and then 
the arrow is shot, a fiber of quartz is drawn,—that is to say, it is drawn 
if there is not an accident. 

The arrow has flown, and there is now a fiber not very fine this time, 
which I shall hand to our president. At the same time I can pass him 
a piece of much finer fiber, made this afternoon, which shows (and this 
is a proof of its fineness) all the brilliant colors of the spider line when 
the sun shines upon it, but with a degree of magnificence and splendor 
which has never been seen on any natural object. 

The main features of these fibers are these. You can make them as 
fine as you please; you can make them of very considerable length; 
you can make pieces 40 or 50 feet long, without the slightest trouble, at 
almost every shot. Even though of that great length, they are very 
uniform in diameter from end to end, or at any rate the variation is 
small and perfectly regular. Thestrength of the fiber is, I think I may 
safely say, something astonishing. Fibers such as I have in use at the 
present time in an instrument behind me are stronger than ordinary 
bar steel; they carry from 60 to 80 tons to the square inch. That is 
one of their most important features, for this reason,—that on account 
of their enormous strength you can make use of very much finer fibers 
than would be possible if they were not so strong; and I have already 
explained the importance of the fineness of the fiber when delicacy is 
of the first importance. 

As to the diameter of these fibers, I have said they can be made as fine 
as you please. I shall not trouble you with a large number of figures, 
but one or two may probably be interesting to those who are in the 
habit of using philosophical apparatus. In the first place, a fiber a 
great deal finer that a single fiber of silk (that is, one five-thousandth 
of an inch in diameter), will carry an apparatus more than 30 grains 
in weight. I have in one of the pieces of apparatus which I shall use 
presently, a fiber the fifteen-thousandth of an inch in diameter. That 
is, so fine that if you were to take a hundred of them and twist them 
into a bundle you would produce a compound cable of the thickness of 
a single silkworm’s thread. Ido not mean the silk used for sewing that 
is wound on a reel, because that is composed of an enormous number 
of silk threads; but a single silkworm’s thread as it is wound from the 


_ QUARTZ FIBERS. 327 


cocoon, and that fiber is at the present time carrying a mirror the move- 
ments of which will presently be visible in all parts of this large room. 

But that is by no means the limit of the degree of fineness which can 
be reached. A fiber the fifteen-thousandth of an inch in thickness is 
quite a strong and conspicuous object. You may go on making them 
until you can not see them with the naked eye. You may go on follow- 
ing them with the microscope until you can not see them with the micro- 
scope—that is to say, you can not find their end,—they gradually go 
out. The ends are so fine that it is impossible ever to see them in any 
microscope that can be constructed, not because the microscopes are 
bad, but because of the nature of light. But that is a point upon which 
I shall not say more this evening. It has been estimated that probably 
the ends of some of these are as fine as the millionth part of an inch— 
I do not care whether they are or whether they are not, because they 
can never be seen and never be used—but certainly the hundred-thou- 
sandth of an inch is by no means beyond the limit which ean be obtained. 
As these large numbers of hundreds of thousands and millions are 
figures which it is impossible for anybody thoroughly to realize, I may 
for the purpose of illustration say that if we were to take a piece of 
quartz about as big as a walnut, and if we could draw the whole of that 
into a thread one hundred-thousandth of an inch in diameter—threads 
which can certainly be produeed—there would be enough to go round 
the world about six or seven times. 

These quartz fibers, on account of their fineness, are eminently capa- 
ble of measuring minute forces—-that is to say, they would be capable 
if they were free from that putty-like quality which I have described 
as making spun glass useless. Now, experiments made both in this 
country and in Australia show that to a most extraordinary degree 
they are perfectly free from that one fault of spun glass. 

The number of useful properties of quartz that has been melted is so 
great that I can merely take, in amore or less disjointed way, one or 
two; and I propose, in the first place, to say something which I[ think 
may be especially interesting to chemists and perhaps to our president. 
I should like to ask experimental chemists what they would think of 
a material which could be drawn into tubes, blown into bulbs, joined 
together in the same way that glass is joined, drawn out, attached to 
a Sprengel pump, sealed off with a Sprengel vacuum which would be 
transparent, which would be less acted upon than glass by corrosive 
chemicals, and which finally at the point at which platinum is as fluid 
as water would still retain its form. Here is such a tube with a bulb 
blown at the end. I have found that it is possible to make tubes 
(though it can not be done in the ordinary way as with glass) and to 
blow bulbs with quartz, and that they have this advantage which glass 
does not possess, namely, that it is almost impossible to crack them 
by the sudden application of heat. 

Then there is another property which quartz fibers and rods possess 


328 QUARTZ FIBERS. 


which I shall be able to show only imperfectly, namely, the power of 
insulating anything charged with electricity under conditions under 
which in general insulation is impossible. You now see upon the screen 
an electroscope, the leaves of which were charged at noon, and they 
are still divergent, but not to a very great extent, because they have 
suffered from unavoidable shaking during the day. The point to 
which I especially wish to refer is this. In electroscopes and all elec- 
trostatic apparatus one puts in a dish of sulphuric acid, (which is an 
abomination,) in order to keep the atmosphere dry. I have in tiis 
electroscope such a dish, but it is filled with water in order to keep the 
atmosphere moist. Experiments carefully made, using the same box—- 
everything the same, except that in one case the insulating stem was 
made of quartz and in the second case it was made of the best flint 
glass well washed, of the same shape and size—show that if the 
atmosphere is perfectly dry the electricity escapes from both at the 
same rate; but that if the atmosphere is perfectly moist the electricity 
escapes from the leaves insulated by the clean washed flint glass 
only too quickly; whereas, from the leaves insulated by the quartz the 
rate is identically the same as it was in cither case when the atmos- 
phere was perfectly dry. 

I have said that these fibers are uniform in diameter, and fine and 
smooth and strong, and that they glisten with ail the colors of the 
spider web, but that they are far more brilliant. It was naturally 
rather a curious point to note what a spider would do if by any chance 
she should find herself on such a web; and now that I am dealing with 
live and wild animals which ean not possibly be trained, tlie conditions 
are such as to render the success of an experiment entirely a matter of 
chance. However, I propose to make use of the spider as a test of the 
very great smoothness and slipperiness of one of these fibers. There 
are here three little spiders which have been good enough, since they 
came to Leeds, to spin upon these little wooden frames their perfect 
and beautiful geometrical webs. I have succeeded in placing one of 
these frames in the lantern without disturbing the spider, which you 
can now see waiting upon her web. I must now, without disturbing 
the peace of mind of the spider, carry her to a web of quartz; and 
therefore it is necessary that the spider should be fortunate enough to 
catch a fly. Now, instead of bringing a fly I will make an ordinary 
tuning-fork buzz against the web. She immediately pounces upon the 
imaginary fly, and thus I can without frightening her place her upon 
the quartz fiber. Unfortunately this spider has slipped and has got 
away, but with another I am more successful. I intended to show that 
the small and common garden spider could not climb the quartz fiber, 
but for some reason this spider is able to get up with difficulty. How- 
ever I shall not spend any more time upon this experiment. 

I shall now at once speak about the instrument which actually led 
me to the invention of the process for making quartz fibers. This, 


QUARTZ FIBERS. 329 


which I have called a radio-micrometer, is an instrument of very great 
delicacy for measuring radiant heat from such a thing as a candle, a fire, 
the sun, or anything else which radiates heat through space. 

The radio-micrometer which I wish to show this evening is resting 
upon a solid and steady beam, and as usual its index is a spot of light 
upon the scale. You see that that spot of light is almost perfectly 
steady. Now the heat that I propose to measure, or rather the influence 
of which I intend to show you, is the heat which is being radiated from 
a candle fixed in the front of the upper gallery some 70 or 80 feet from 
the instrument ; and in order that you may be sure that the indication 
of the instrument is due to the heat from the candle, and not to any 
manipulation of the apparatus on the beam, I shall perform the experi- 
ment as follows. None of the apparatus at this end of the room will 
be touched or moved in any way; but by a string I shall simply pull 
the candle along a slide up to a stop, at which position it will shine 
upon the sensitive part of the radio-micrometer. Instantly the spot of 
light darts along the scale for a distance of ten feet, and then after 
leaving the scale it comes to rest upon the face of the balcony five or 
six seconds after it began to move. Now if the candle is allowed to 
move back through about a foot, you will see that the instrument will 
cool down at once—it is at present suffering from the heat which falls 
upon it from the distant candle ; but it will cool down at once, and the 
index will go back to its old place. It is very nearly at its old place 
now. I will now let the candle shine uponit again. The index at once 
goes on to the balcony as before, and now that the candle is moved 
away again, the index has assumed its old place upon the scale. 

That really shows that we have here the means of measuring heat 
with a degree of delicacy, and also with a degree of certainty, ease, 
and quickness, which has never yet been equalled. It is probable that 
the measure which I have given of the degree of delicacy that I have 
reached in my astronomical apparatus—namely, that the heat of a can- 
dle more than two miles away can certainly be felt-—will not seem so 
absurd now that you have seen this less perfect apparatus at work, as 
it does to people whose experience is limited by the thermopile or their 
senses. 

You can now see the spot of light; itis perfectly quiet in its old 
place. I wish to show you that this instrument is unlike those which 
are ordinarily used for this purpose. All the heat, the very consider- 
able heat, due to this electric are lamp, is actually falling on the in- 
strument, but not upon its sensitive surface, and there is no indication. 
There are a large number of people in the room—it does not feel the 
heat from them. Stray heat which it is not meant to feel—which is not 
in the line along which it can see, or feel—has no influence upon it. 
When the candle was moved to the place to which it was looking, it 
felt the heat, and you saw the movement of the index. What is per- 
haps more important than all is that it is an instrument which does 


330 QUARTZ FIBERS. 


not even feel the influence of a magnet. I have here a magnet, and on 
waving the magnet about near the instrument there is no movement of 
the index at all; it does not dance up and down the seale, as it cer- 
tainly would do in the case of a galvanometer, because this magnet 
would affect a galvanometer at the other end of the room. We have 
then a degree of sensibility which is certainly not easily developed in any 
other way. I must except however the instrument which Professor 
Langley of America has recently brought to a great state of perfection. 
IT am unable to state, from want of information, whether his instrument 
is as Sensitive as the one I have just shown, but whether it is or is not 
as sensitive, it certainly can not compare with this in its freedom from 
the disturbing effects of stray heat falling upon it, or of the magnetic 
or thermo-electric disturbances which give so much trouble where the 
galvanometer is employed. 

Now this apparatus I was recently using in some astronomical ex- 
periments on the heat of the moon and the stars. As these experi- 
ments could only be made with an instrument such as this, possessing 
extreme sensibility and freedom from extraneous disturbances, and as 
this instrument is both the cause of the discovery and the first result 
of the application of the quartz fibers, I have thought it well to repeat 
a typical experiment upon the moon’s heat, but, dike Peter Quince, I 
am in this difficully. As he said, ‘There is two hard things, that is to 
bring the moonlight into a chamber.” In fact, at the present time the 
moon has not risen, and if it had we should not be much better off. 
Peter Quince proposed that they should in case of moonlight failing 
havea “lanthorn” anda buneh of thorns. That no doubt was sufficient 
for the conversation of Pyramus and Thisbe, but that would not do for 
the purpose of showing the variation of radiation from point to point 
upon the moon’s surface, and as that is the experiment which I now 
wish to show—an experiment which this instrument enables one to 
make with the greatest ease and certainty—it is necessary to have 
something better than a “lanthorn” and a bunch ofthorns. Therefore I 
have been obliged, as the moon is not available, to bring a moon. 
Now this moon is a real moop; it is not a representation; it is not a 
slide; it is a real moon, and it is made by taking an egg-shell and 
painting it white. That egg-shell is now placed upon a stand, and is 
illuminated by the sun—that is, an electric light; and in order that 
the moon may be visible, the room must be darkened. The moon is 
now shining in the sky. An image of the moon is cast by means of a 
concave mirror upon a translucent sereen. There is in addition an- 
other mirror which throws a small image of the same moon upon the 
radio-micrometer There is one more thing to explain. There is upon 
the screen a black spot which represents the sensitive surface of the 
radio-micrometer. That bears the same proportion to the moon which 
vou see on the screen as the sensitive surface of the radio-micrometer 
bears to the image of the moon that is cast upon it. Now the two mir- 


QUARTZ FIBERS. oom 


rors are arranged to move by clock-work, so as to make the two images 
travel at proportional rates. The moon is travelling with the dark edge 
foremost, and now that the terminator of the moon has come upon the 
sensitive surface, the heat is felt and the deflection of the instrument 
is the result. Now, as the moon is gradually travelling through the 
sky, the radiation is slowly and steadily increasing, because the radia- 
tion from the moon gets greater and greater, as the point at which 
the sun is shining vertically—that is, a point at right angles with the 
terminator—is approached; it is here a maximum, and then it falls 
back, and as soon as the moon has gone off the instrument, you will 
see the index fall back almost suddenly. But there is something more. 
This moon in one respect is better than the other moon. At the pres- 
ent time it represents the moon nineteen days old, a moon, that is to 
say, which is waning, and which goes through the sky with its dark 
edge foremost. The clock-work will now bring the moon back again, 
and convert the nineteen-day moon into a nine-day moon, one in which 
the bright edge goes forward. What I want you to notice (and it will 
be perfectly evident) is this, that the spot of light will now go up the 
scale suddenly, will then rise to amaximum position, and will then fall 
slowly until the terminator is reached, which proves that in the former 
case the slow rise and sudden fall, or the present sudden rise and slow 
fail was not a peculiarity of the instrument, but was due to the fact 
that the different points of the moon radiated in the manner which I 
have stated. There is one point which, as the moon has now left the 
instrument, I should like to show; that is, that it is a real moon and 
not a mere slide. That is shown by gradually moving the sun round. 
Now it is at right angles to the line of view, and we have got the half- 
moon. As if goes round, the moon continues waning, appearing more 
like a new moon, and at last we have an eclipse of the sun, which may be 
annular if the proportions of the apparatus are properly arranged. 

I wish now to make a few statements as to the delicacy of apparatus 
that can be made with the help of quartz fibers. I would wish you 
most distinctly to understand that it is not sufficient to go into a shop 
and buy apparatus as it is now made, replace the silk by quartz, and 
to suppose you can get a degree of delicacy such as I have shown you. 
That is not sufficient. If you take out the silk and put ina quartz fiber 
the apparatus will be much improved, and you can then increase its 
delicacy. You will then escape the troubles due to silk; but one after 
the other a new series of disturbances will appear, and anything like 
ultimate, extreme, and minute accuracy will still seem out of the ques- 
tion. Now, it has been my business to eliminate one by one these dis- 
turbing influences. I will not weary you with a description of them all, 
and the methods by which they may be certainly provided against. 
These disturbing causes, which at the present time with instruments 
carrying a silk fiber are not even known to exist, or if known to exist, 
are practically of no consequence whatever, come one by one into prom- 


Wy QUARTZ FIBERS. 


inence, when you attempt to push the delicacy of your apparatus to the 
extent that I have reached in the home-made apparatus which I have 
here this evening. I do not propose to give more than one illustration, 
and as this is one which I found out by accident, and which at the time 
very much annoyed me, [ imagine that it may be of interest to explain 
the circumstances under which this was observed. 

In the experiments I made on the heat of the moon and the stars it 
was necessary to determine to what degree of delicacy the apparatus 
could be brought,—that is to say, to determine what deflection would 
be produced by a known and familiar source of radiation. For this pur- 
pose the source of heat that I used was a common candle, placed suffi- 
ciently far off to produce a convenient deflection. I began by placing 
the candle about 100 yards away, but I was obliged to place the candle 
at a distance of 250 yards. At that distance I could not conveniently 
at night turn the shutter on and off with a string. Therefore I adopted 
the more simple and practical plan of asking my niece to stand at.the 
top of the hill and to pull the string when I gave the signal. The signal 
was nothing more nor less than my saying the word “ on” or “ off,” so 
that without moving I could observe the deflection due to the heat of 
the candle at that distance. Those were the circumstances, but when 
I shouted “on,” before the sound could have reached my niece at the 
top of the hill, the spot of light had been driven violently off the scale. 
This seemed as if, as I suspected at the time, one of my little eight- 
legged friends had got inside the apparatus, and feeling the trembling 
due to the sound, struck forward, as the diadema spider is known to do, 
and tried to catch the thing that was flying by. But further experiments 
showed that this was not the case. It happened that the sound of my 
voice was just that to which the telescope tube would respond. It echoed 
to that note, the instrument felt the vibration of the air, and that was 
the result. 

In order to show that an instrument will feel the motion in the air 
under the influence of sound, I have arranged an experiment of the sim- 
plest possible character. I should say that the first instrument of this 
kind was made many years ago by Lord Rayleigh; but I feel sure that 
even he would not be prepared for the delicacy to which apparatus on 
this principle can be brought. It simply depends upon this familiar 
and well-known fact. <A card or a leaf allowed to drop through the air 
does not fall the way of the least resistance—that is, edgeways—but it 
turns into the position of greatest resistance, and falls broadside on, or 
it overshoots the mark, and so gets up a spin. 

Supposing you take a little mirror suspended at an angle of 45 de- 
grees to the direction of the waves of sound, the instant sound-waves 
_ proceed to travel, that mirror turns so as to get into such a position as 
to obstruct them. The mirror that I have for this purpose weighs 
about the twentieth part of a grain, and the fiber on which it is sus- 
pended is about the fifteen-thousandth part of an inch in diameter. 


QUARTZ FIBERS. 330 


The mirror is so small and light that the moment of inertia is a two- 
hundredth part of that which people ordinarily call the minute and 
delicate needle of the Thomson mirror-galvanometer. With a fiber 
only a few inches long, there is no difficulty in getting a period of oscil- 
lation of 10 or 11 seconds. When the light from the lamp is reflected 
and falls upon the scale, as it will be in a minute, then a movement of 
the light from one of those great divisions to the next—that is, a move- 
ment of 3 inches—will correspond to a twisting force such as would 
be produced by pulling the end of a lever an inch long with a force of a 
thousand-millionth part of the weight of a grain. It would be easy to 
observe a movement ten or a hundred timesless. My difficulty now is 
that it is impossible to speak and at the same time to keep that spot 
at rest, because the instrument is arranged to respond to a certain 
note. This is not the predominating note of my voice, but since the 
voice, like all other noises as distinguished from pure musical sounds, 
consists of a great number of notes, every now and then the note to 
which the instrument is tuned is sure to be sounded, and then it will 
respond. Therefore, while I am speaking it is impossible to keep the 
spot of light' at rest. However, in order to show that the instrument 
does respond to certain notes, even if feeble, with a degree of energy 
and suddenness which I believe would never be expected, I shall with 
these small organ pipes sound three notes. But I must explain before- 
hand what I am going to do, as the sound of my voice will spoil the 
experiment. I shall, standing as far away as I can get from the instru- 
ment, first sound a note that is too high; I shall then sound a note 
that is too low; and then [ shall sound the note to which the instru- 
ment is tuned. I must ask everyone during this experiment to be as 
quiet as possible, as the faintest sound of the right sort will interfere 
with the success of the experiment. [The first two notes sounded 
loudly produced no result, while the moment the right note was heard 
the light went violently off the scale and travelled round the room. |} 
When this little organ pipe was blown at the farthest end of the room 
this afternoon, it drove the light off the scale almost as violently as it 
did just now. 

[The Cavendish experiment of observing the attraction due to grav- 
itation between masses of lead was then explained, and the actual 
experiment, performed with apparatus no larger than a galvanometer, 
in which the attracting masses were two pounds and fifteen grains, re- 
spectively, in which the beam was only about five-eighths of an inch long, 
and in which the total force was less than one ten-millionth of the weight 
of a grain, was then shown. The actual deflection on the scale was 
rather more than ten feet, and eighty seconds were required for the 
single oscillation. With this apparatus forces two thousand times as 
small could be observed, though tie fiber is, in comparison with others 
that were made use of, exceedingly coarse. Forces equivalent to one 


Sot QUARTZ FIBERS. 


million-millionth of the weight of a grain were stated to be within the 
reach of a manageable quartz fiber. | 

Now that I have shown all that my limited time has permitted me, I 
wish finally to answer a question which is frequently put to me, and which 
possibly some in the room may have asked theselves. The question may 
be put broadly in this form: ‘These fibers no doubt are very fine and 
very wonderful, but are they of any practical use?” This is a question 
which I find it difficult to answer, because I do not clearly know what 
is meant by ‘practical use.” If by ‘a thing of practical use” you mean 
something which is good to eat or to drink or if you mean something 
which we may employ to protect ourselves from the extremes of heat 
or cold or moisture, or if you mean—and this is a point which those 
who have studied biology will perhaps appreciate more than others— 
something which may be made use of for the purpose of personal adorn- 
ment, if that is what you mean by ‘practical use,” then, with the ex- 
ception of the possibility of being able to weave garments of an extraor- 
dinary degree of fineness, softness, and transparency, quartz fibers are 
of no “practical use.” But if you mean something which will enable 
a large and distinguished body of men to do that which is most impor- 
tant to them more perfectly than has been possible hitherto—I allude 
of course to the experimental philosopher and his experimental work, 
which after all has laid the foundations upon which so much that is 
called practical actually is built—if this is what you mean, then I hope 
that the few experimepts which I have been able to show this evening 
are sufficient to prove that quartz fibers are of some practical use; and 
they have served this additional purpose, with what success I am una- 
ble to say: they have provided a subject for an evening lecture of the 
British Association. 


THE RESEARCHES OF DR. R. KCSNIG 
ON THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY, AND TIMBRE.* 


By Prof. SYLVANUS P. THOMPSON. 


1 


Not often does it fall to the lot of a scientific man to become the 
mouthpiece of another whose researches have lasted over a quarter of 
a century; yet this is the enviable position in which I find myself on 
this occasion as the spokesman of Dr. Rudolph Koenig, who is known 
not only as the constructor of the finest acoustical instruments in the 
world, but as an investigator of great originality and distinctien, and 
author of numerous memoirs on acoustics. Dr. Koenig, who has of 
late made very important contributions to our knowledge of the phys- 
ical basis of music, using apparatus immeasurably superior to any 
hitherto employed in experimental investigations of this subject, has 
on various occasions, when I have visited him in Paris, shown me these 
instruments, and repeated to me the results of his researches. Impor- 
tant as these are, they are all too little known in this country, even by 
the professors of physics. It was, therefore, with no little satisfaction 
that the Council of the Physical Society learned that Dr. Koenig was 
willing to send over to London for exhibition on this occasion the in- 
struments and apparatus used in these researches. And their satisfae- 
tion to-day is heightened by the fact that Dr. Koenig has himself very 
kindly come over to demonstrate his own researches, and has given us 
the opportunity to welcome him personally amongst us. 

The splendid apparatus around me belongs to Dr. Kenig and forms 
but a very small part of the collection which adorns his atelier on the 
Quai d@’Anjou. He lives and works in seclusion, surrounded by his in- 
struments, even as our own Faraday lived and worked amongst his 
electric and magnetic apparatus. His great tonometer, now nearly 
completed, comprises a set of standard tuning forks, adjusted each one 
by his own hands, ranging from 20 vibrations per second up to nearly 
40,000, with perfect continuity, many of the forks being furnished with 
sliding adjustments, so as to give by actual marks upon them any de- 


*Read to the Physical Society of London, May 16, 1890. (From Nature, January 
1, 8, and 15, 1891, vol. xLil, pp. 199-203, 224-227, and 249-253.) 
335 


336 DR. KG@NIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


sired number of vibrations within their own limits. Beside this colos- 
sal master-piece, Dr. Kaenig’s collection includes several large wave- 
sirens and innumerable pieces of apparatus in which his ingenious 
manometric flames are adapted to acoustical investigation. There also 
stands his tonometric clock, a timepiece governed, not by a pendulum, 
but by a standard tuuing-fork, the rate of vibration of which it accu- 
rately records. 

It is not surprising that one who lives amongst the instruments of 
his own creation and who is familiar with their every detail should 
discover amongst their properties things which others whose acquaint- 
ance with them is less intimate have either overlooked or only im- 
perfectly discerned. If he has in his researches advanced propositions 
which contradict or seem to contradict the accepted doctrines of the 
professors of natural philosophy, it is not that he deems himself one 
whit more able than they to offer mathematical or philosophical expla- 
nations of them; it is because, with his unique opportunities of ascer- 
taining the facts by daily observation and usage, he is impelled to state 
what those facts are and to propound generalized statements of them, 
even though those facts and generalized statements differ from those at 
present commonly received and supposed to be true. 

At the very foundations of the physical theory of music stand three 
questions of vital importance: 

(1) Why is it that the ear is pleased by a succession of sounds be- 
longing to a certain particular set called a scale ? 

(2) Why is it that, when two (or more) musical sounds are simultane- 
ously sounded, the ear finds some combinations agreeable and others 
disagreeable ? 

(3) Why is it that a note sounded on a musical instrument of one sort 
is different from and is distinguishable from the same note sounded 
with equal loudness upon an instrument of another sort ? 

These three queries involve the origin of melody, the cause of harmony, 
and the reason of timbre. 

The theories which have been framed to account for each of these 
three features of music are based on a double foundation, partly 
physical, partly physiological. With the physiological aspect of this 
foundation we have to-night nothing to do, being concerned only with 
the physical aspect. What, then, are the physical foundations of 
melody, of harmony, and of timbre? Demonstrable by experiment 
they must be, in common with all other physical facts; otherwise they 
can not be accepted as proven. What are the facts and how can they 
be demonstrated ? 

We are not here, however, to fight over again the battle of the tem- 
peraments, nor do I purpose to enter upon a discussion of the origin 
of melody, which, indeed, I believe to be associative rather than phys- 
ical. I shall confine myself to two matters only, with which the recent 
researches of Dr. Koenig are concerned :—the causeof harmony, and the 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. Ayal 


nature of timbres. Keturning, then, to the ratios of the vibration num- 
bers of the major scale, we may note that two of these, namely, the 
ratios 9:8 and 15:8, which correspond to the intervals called the 
major whole tone and the seventh, are dissonant—or, at least, are usu- 
ally soregarded. It will also be noticed that these particular fractions 
are more complex than those that represent the consonant intervals. 
This naturally raises the question: Why is it that theconsonant intervals 
should be represented by ratios made up of the numbers 1 to 6 and by no 
others ? 

To this problem the only answer for long was the entirely evasive 
and metaphysical one that the mind instinctively delights in order and 
number. The true answer or rather the first approximation to a true 
answer was only given about 40 years ago, when von Helmholtz, as the 
result of his ever-memorable researches on the sensations of tone, 
returned the reply: Because only by fulfilling numerical relations which 
are at once exact and simple can the “ beats” be avoided which are the cause 
of dissonance. The phenomenon of beats is so well known that I may 
assume the term to be familiar. An excellent mode of making beats 
audible to a large audience is to place upon a wind-chest two organ-pipes 
tuned to wf,=128, and then flatten one of them slightly by holding a 
finger in front ofits mouth. Von Helmholtz’s theory of dissonance may 
be briefly summarized by saying that any two notes are discordant if 
their vibration numbers are such that they produce beats ;—maximum 
discordance occurring when the beats occur at about 33 per second,— 
beats if either fewer than these or more numerous being less disagree- 
able than beats at this frequency. Itis an immediate consequence 
that the degree of dissonance of any given interval will depend on its 
position on the scale. For example, the interval of the major whole 
tone, represented by the ratio 9:8, produces four beats per second at 
the bottom of the pianoforte keyboard, 52 beats per second at the mid- 
dle of the keyboard, and 256 beats per second at the top. Such an 
interval ought to be discordant therefore in the middle octaves of the 
seale only. 

To this view of von Helmholtz it was at first objected that, if that 
were all, all intervals should be equally harmonious provided one got 
far enough away from being in a bad unison; fifths, augmented fifths, 
and sixths, minor and major, ought to be equally harmonious. This no 
musician will allow. To account for this von Helmholtz makes the 
further supposition that the beats occur, not simply between the funda- 
mental or prime tones, but also between the upper partials which 
usually accompany prime tones. This leads me to say a word about 
upper partial tones and harinonics. I believe many musicians use these 
two terms as synonymous, but they ought to be carefully distinguished. 
The term harmonics ought to be rigidly reserved to denote higher 
tones which stand in definite harmonic relations to the fundamental 
tone. The great mathematican Fourier first showed that any truly 

H. Mis, 129 22 


338 DR. KC@NIG’S RESEARCHES on 


periodic function, however complex, could be analyzed out and ex- 
pressed as the sum of a certain series of periodic functions having 
frequencies related to that of the fundamental or first number of the 
series, aS the simple numbers 2, 3, 4, 5, ete. Thirty years later, G. S. 
Ohm suggested that the human ear actually performs such an analysis, 
by virture of its mechanical structures, upon every complex sound of a 
periodic character, resolving it into afundamental tone, the octave of that 
tone, the twelfth, the double octave, ete. Von Helmholtz, arming him- 
self with a series of tuned resonators, sought to pick up and recognize 
as members of a Fourier series the higher harmonics of the tones of 
various ipstruments. In his researches he goes over the ground pre- 
viously traversed by Rameau, Smith, and Young, who had all observed 
the co-existence, in the tones of musical instruments, of higher partial 
tones. These higher tones correspond to higher modes of vibration in 
which the vibratile organ—string, reel, or air column—subdivides into 
two, three, four, or more parts. Such parts naturally possess greater 
frequency of vibration, and their higher tones, when they co-exist along 
with the lower or fundamental tone, are denominated upper partial tones, 
thereby signifying that they are higher in the scale and that they cor- 
respond to vibrations in parts. It is to be regretted that Professor 
Tyndall, in his lectures on sound, rendered von Helmholtz’s Oberpar- 
tialtine by the term overtones, omitting the most significant half of the 
word. To avoid all confusion in the use of such a term I shall rather 
follow Dr. Koenig in speaking of these as sounds of subdivision. And 
I must protest emphatically against calling these sounds harmonies, 
for the simple reason that in many cases they are very inbarmonious. 
It is a matter to which I shall recur presently. 

Returning to the subject of beats, the question arises, What becomes 
of the beats when they occur so rapidly that they cease to produce a 
discontinuous sensation upon the ear? The view which I have to put 
before you in the name of Dr. Keenig is that they blend to make a tone 
of their own. Earlier acousticians have propounded, in accordance 
with this view, that the grave harmonic of Tartini (a sound which cor- 
responds to a frequency of vibration that is the difference between 
those of the two tones producing it) is due to thiscause. Von Helmholtz 
has taken a different view, denying that the beats can blend to form 
a sound, giving reasons presently to be examined. Von Helmholtz 
considered that he had discovered a new species of combinational 
tone, namely, one corresponding in frequency to the swm of the fre- 
quencies of the two tones, whereas that discovered by Tartini (and be- 
fore him by Sorge) corresponded to their difference. Accordingly, he 
includes under the term of combinational tones the differential tone of 
Tartini and the summational tone which he considered himself to have 
discovered. To the existence of such combinational tones he ascribed 
avery important part in determining the character, harmonious or 
otherwise, of cords; and to them also he attributes the ability of the 


THR PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 339 


ear to discriminate between the degrees of harmoniousness possessed 
by such intervals (fifths, sixths, etc.) as consist of two tones too widely 
apart on the scale to give beats of a discontinuous character. He also 
considers that such combinational tones are chiefly effective in pro- 
ducing beats, the summational tones of the primaries beating with 
their upper partial tones; and that this is the way in which they make 
an interval more or less harmonious. 

The whole fabric of the theory of harmony as laid down by von 
Helmholtz is thus seen to repose upon the presence or absence of 
beats; and the beats themselves are in turn made to depend, not upon 
the mere interval between two notes, but upon the timbres also of those 
notes, as to what upper partials they contain, and whether those par- 
tials can beat with the summational tone of the primaries. It becomes, 
then, of the utmost importance to ascertain the precise facts about the 
beats and about the supposed combinational tones. What the numbers 
of beats are in any given case, whether they do or do not correspond 
to the alleged differential and summational tones, these are vital to 
the theory of harmony. Equally vital is it to know what the timbres 
of sounds are, and whether they can be accurately or adequately repre- 
sented by the sum of a set of pure harmonics corresponding to the 
terms of a Fourier series. 

In investigating beats and combinational tones, Dr. Koenig deemed 
it of the highest importance to work with instruments producing the 
purest tones; not with harmonium reeds or with polyphonic sirens, 
the tones of which are avowedly complex in timbre, but with massive 
steel tuning forks, the pendular movements of which are of the sim- 
plest possible character. Massive tuning-forks properly excited by 
bowing with a violoncello bow, or, in the case of those of high pitch, 
by striking them with an ivory mallet, emit tones remarkably free from 
all sounds of subdivision, and of so truly pendular a character (unless 

_over-excited) that none of the harmonics corresponding to the members 
of a Fourier series can be detected. No living soul has had a tithe of 
the experience of Dr. Koenig in the handling of tuning forks. Tens of 
thousands of them have passed through his hands. He is accustomed 
to tune them himself, making use of the phenomenon of beats to test 
their accuracy. He has traced out the phenomenon of beats through 
every possible degree of pitch, even beyond the ordinary limits of audi- 
bility, with a thoroughness utterly impossible to surpass or to equal. 
Hence, when he states the results of his experience, it is idle to contest 
the facts gathered on such a unique basis. The results of Dr. Koenig’s 
observations on beats are easily stated. He has observed primary 
beats, as well as beats of secondary and higher orders, from the inter- 
ference of two simple tones simultaneously sounded. 

When two simple tones interfere, the primary beats always belong 
to one or other of two sets, called an inferior and a superior set, cor- 
responding respectively in number to the two remainders, positive and 


340 DR. KCENIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


negative, to be found by dividing the frequency of the higher tone by 
that of the lower. 

This mode of stating the facts is a little strange to those trained in 
English medes of expressing arithmetical calculations, but an example 
or two will make it plain. Let there be as the two primary sounds two 
low tones having the respective frequencies of 40 vibrations and 74 vi- 
brations. What are the two remainders, positive and negative, which 
result from dividing the higher number, 74, by the lower number 40? 
Our English way of stating it is to say that 40 goes into 74 once and 
leaves a (positive) remainder of 34over. Butit is equally correct to say 
that 40 goes into 74 twice all but 6, or that there is a negative remainder 
of 6. Well, Dr. Koenig finds that, when these two tuning forks are 
tried, the ear can distinguish two sets of beats, one rapid, at 34 per sec- 
ond, and one slow, at 6 per second. 

Again, if the forks chosen are of frequencies 100 and 512, we may 
calculate thus: 100 goes into 512 five times, plus 12; or 100 goes into 
512 six times, minus 88. In this actual case the 12 beats belonging to 
the inferior set would be well heard; the 88 beats belonging to the su- 
perior set would probably be almost indistinguishable. As a rule, the 
inferior beat is heard best when its numberis less than half the frequency 
of the lower primary, whilst, when its number is greater, the superior 
beat is then better heard. Dr. Konig has never been able to hear any 
primary beat which did not fall within this rule. 

Dr. Keenig will now illustrate to you-the beats, inferior and superior, 
as produced by these two massive tuning-forks,* each weighing about 
50 pounds and each provided with a large resonating cavity consisting 
of a metal cylinder about 4 feet long, fitted with an adjustable piston. 
One of them is tuned to the note wf;=64. The other also sounds wht ; 
but, by sliding down its prongs the adjustable weights of gun-metal and 
screwing in the piston of the resonator, its pitch can be raised a whole 
tone to re;=72. Dr. Koenig excites them with the ’cello bow, first sep- 
arately, that you may hear their individual tones, then together. At 
once you hear an intolerable beating, the beats coming 8 per second. 
This is the inferior beat, corresponding to the positive remainder ; the 
superior beat you cannot hear. Dr. Konig will raise the note of the 
second fork from re; to mi;=80, and the beats quicken to 16 per second. 
Raising it to fa,=854, and then to sol,=96, while the first fork is still 
kept at wt,, the beats increase in rapidity, but are fainter in distinet- 
ness. If Dr. Koenig now substitutes for the second fork one tuned to 
la, =1062, you may be able to hear two beats, the inferior one rapid and 
faint at 422 per second, and the superior one slower, but also faint, at 
214 per second. Still raising the pitch to the true seventh tone=112, 
the rapid inferior beat has died out, but now you hear the superior 


* These splendid forks, with their resonators, along with other important pieces of 
Dr. Koenig’s apparatus, have since been acquired by the Science and Art Depart- 
ment for the Science Collection at South Kensington, 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 341 


strongly at 16 per second. If it is raised once more to si,=120 (the 
seventh of the ordinary scale), the beats are still stronger and slower 
at 8 per second. Finally, when we bring the pitch up to the octave 
Uty=128, we find that all beats have disappeared: there is a perfectly 
smooth consonance. The facts so observed are tabulated for you as 
follows: 


TABLE I.—Primary beats. 


Primary tones. | Ratio. Inferior beats. | Superior beats. 
leaden - 
Sh UR a ine 4:5 16 
ee NE od ee 2:3 32 32 
rh ee ies 3:5 422 214 
ae i we 4:7 oa 16 
| es = 
ae oor = 0 


Suppose now, keeping the lower fork unaltered, we raise the pitch 
of the higher note (taking a new fork that starts at the octave) from 
ut, to sol, by gradual steps, we shall find that there begins a new set of 
primary beats, an inferior set, which are_at first slow, then get more 
rapid and become undistinguishable, but succeeded by another rapid 
and indistinct, which grow stronger and slower, until as the pitch rises 
to sol,, the frequency of which is exactly three times that of wt,, all 
beats again vanish. This range between the octave and the twelfth 
tone may be called the second “period,” to distinguish it from the 
period from unison to the first octave, which was our first period. 
Similarly, the range from the twelfth tone to the second octave is the 
third period, and from thence to the major third above is the fourth 
period, and so forth. In each period up to the sixth or seventh of such 
periods, a set of inferior and a set of superior beats may be observed, 
and in every case the frequency of the beats corresponds, as I have 
said, to one or other of the two remainders of the frequencies of the 
two tones. No beat has ever been observed corresponding to the sum 
of the frequencies, even when using the slowest forks. None has ever 
been observed corresponding to the difference of the frequencies, save 
in the first period, where of course the positive remainder is simply 
the difference of the two numbers. 

That you may hear for yourselves the beats belonging to one of the 
higher periods, Dr. Koenig will take a pair of forks which will give us 
some of the superior beats in the fourth period. One of the forks is 
the great wt;=64, as previously used, the other is mi,;=320, their 
ratio being 1:5. Sounded together they give a pure consonance, but if 
the smaller one is loaded with small pellets of wax to lower its pitch 


342 DR, KG@NIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


slightly, and then bow it, at onee you hear beats. Ut was in studying 
the beats of these higher periods that Dr. Koenig made the observation 
that, whereas the beats of an imperfect unison are heard as alternate 
silences and sounds, the beats of the (imperfect) higher periods—twelfth 
tone, double octave, etc.—consist mainly in variations in the loudness 
of the lower of the two primary tones, an observation which was inde- 
pendently made by Mr. Bosanquet, of Oxford. 

Passing from the beats themselves, I approach the question, What 
becomes of the beats when they occur too rapidly to produce on the 
ear a discontinuous sensation? On this matter there have been several 
conflicting opinions, some holding, with Lagrange and Young, that 
they blend into a separate tone; others, with von Helmholtz, main- 
taining that the combinational tones can not be so explained and arise 
from a different cause. Let it be observed that, even if beat-tones exist, 
it is quite possible for beats and beat-tones to be simultaneously heard. 
A similar co-existence of a continuous and a discontinuous sensation 
is afforded by the familiar experiment of producing a tone by pressing 
a card against the periphery of a rapidly rotating toothed wheel. There 
is a certain speed at which the individual impulses begin to blend into 
a continuous low tone, while yet there are distinguishable the discon- 
tinuous impulses, the degree of distinctness of the two co existing 
sounds being dependent on the manner in which the card is pressed 
against the wheel, that is to say, on the nature of the individual im- 
pulses themselves. The opponents of the view that beats blend into a 
tone state plainly enough that, in their opinion, a mere succession of 
alternate sounds and silences cannot blend into a tone different from 
that of the beating tone. Having said that the beats can not blend, 
they then add that they do not blend; for, say they, the combinational 
tones are a purely subjective phenomenon. Lastly, they say that even 
if the beats blend they will not so explain the existence of combinational 
tones, because the combinational tones have frequencies which do not 
correspond to the number of the beats. 

In the teeth of all these views and opinions, Dr. Kanig—without 
dogmatizing as to how or why it is—emphatically affirms that beats do 
produce beat tones; and he has pursued the matter down toa point that 
leaves no room for doubting the general truth of the fact. The alleged 
discrepancy between the frequency of the observed combinational tones 
and that of the beats disappears when closely scrutinized. Those who 
count the beats by merely taking the difference between the frequen- 
cies of the two primary tones, instead of calculating the two remain- 
ders, will assuredly find that their numbers do not agree in pitch with 
the actual sounds heard. But that is the fault of their miscalculation. 
Those who use harmonium reeds or polyphonic sirens instead of tuning 
forks to produce their primary tones must not expect from such impure 
sources to re-produce the effects to be obtained from pure tones. And 
those who say that the beats caleulated truly from the two remainders 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 343 


will not account for the summational tones have unfortunately some- 
thing to unlearn—namely, that, when pure tones are used, under no 
circumstances isa tone ever heard the frequency of which is the sum 
of the frequencies of the two primary tones. 

The apparatus which Dr. Koenig has brought over enables him to 
demonstrate in a manner audible, [ trust, to the whole assembly in this 
theatre the existence of the beat tones. His first illustrations relate 
to tones of primary beats, some belonging to the inferior, others to the 
superior set, in the first period. 

He takes here the fork wf; = 2048, five octaves higher than the great 
ut,. To excite it he may either bow it or strike it with an ivory mallet. 
With it he will take the fork one note higher, re, = 2304. When he took 
the same interval with wt, and re,, the number of beats was 8 The wt 
and re of the next octave higher would have given us 16 beats, that of 
the next 32, that of the next 64, of the fourth octave 128, and that of 
the fifth 256. But 256 per second is a rapidity far too great for the ear 
to hear as separate sounds. If there were 256 separate impulses, they 
would blend to give us the note wf; = 256. They are not impulses, but 
beats ; nevertheless, they blend. Dr. Koenig strikes the uf, then the 
res, both shrill sounds when you hear them separately; but when he 
strikes them in quick succession one after the other, at the moment 
when the mallet strikes the second fork you hear this clear ut; sound- 
ing out. I am not going to waste your time in a disputation as to 
whether the sound you hear is objective or subjective. Itis enough 
that you hear it, pure and unmistakable in pitch. It is the grave har- 
monic; and the number 256, which represents its frequency, corre- 
sponds to the positive remainder when you divide 2304 by 2048. 

Now let me give you a beat tone belonging to the superior set; it also 
will be a grave harmonic, if you so please to call it; but its frequency 
will correspond neither to the difference nor to the sum of the frequen- 
cies of the two primary tones. Dr. Koenig takes wt;=2048 as pre- 
viously, and with it si; = 3840. Jet us calculate what the superior beats 
ought to be: 2048 goes into 3840 twice, less 256. Then, 256 being the 
negative remainder, we ought to hear from these two forks the beat 
tone of 256 vibrations, which is aé;, the same note as in our last experi- 
ment. He strikes the forks, and you hear the result. The beat tone, 
which is neither a differential tone nor a Summational tone, corre- 
sponds to the calculated number of beats. 

If I take wt; = 2048 and sol; = 3072, the two remainders both come out 
at 1024, which is wt; Dr. Koenig will first sound wt; itself, separately, 
on an ut; fork, that you may know what sound to listen for. Its sound 
has died away ; and now he strikes wf; and so/,, when at once you hear 
ut; ringing out. That sound which you all heard corresponds to the 
calculated number of beats. That is enough for my present purpose. 

The next iilustration is a little more complex. I select a case in 
which the beat tones corresponding to the inferior and the superior 


344 DR. KC@NIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


beats will both be present. We shall have four tones altogether—two 
primary tones and two beat tones. The forks 1 select are ut; = 2048, 
as before, and a fork which is tuned to vibrate exactly 11 times as 
rapidly at wt;—it is the eleventh harmonie of that note, but does not cor- 
respond precisely to any note of the diatonic scale. It has 2816 vibra- 
tions, and is related to ut, as 11: 8. The two remainders, will now be 
768 and 1280, which are the respective frequencies of sol, and mi;. 
Dr. Koenig will first sound those notes on two other forks, that you 
may know beforehand what to listen for. Now, on striking the two 
shrill forks in rapid succession, the two beat tones are heard. 

If I select, instead of the eleventh harmonic, the thirteenth harmonic 
of ut;, vibrating 3328 times in the second, to be sounded along with 
ut;, the same two beat tones will be produced as in the preceding case; 
but mi; = 1280 is now the inferior one, corresponding to the positive re- 
mainder, whilst sol, = 7638 is the superior tone, corresponding to the 
negative remainder. It is certainly a striking corroboration of Dr. 
Keenig’s view that the beat tones actually heard in these last two ex- 
periments should come out precisely alike, though on the old view, 
that the combinational tones were simply the summational and differ- 
ential tones, one would have been led to expect the sounds in the two 
experiments to be quite different. 

One other example I will give you of a beat tone belonging to the 
second period. The two primary notes are given by the forks ut; = 
1024 and re; = 2504, The beat tone which you hear is wt; = 256, which 
corresponds to the positive remainder. 

It will be convenient to draw up in tabular form the results just 
obtained. These may be considered as abbreviations of the much more 
extended tables drawn up by Dr. Koenig, which hang upon the walls, 
and which are to be found in his book, ‘Quelques Expériences 
d’Acoustique.” 

TABLE IIl.—Sounds of primary beats. 


p : Inferior Superior 
- Parente . Desk 
| Primary atones. ea1Oe beat tone. | beat tone. 
| — — — ——__—__—__—__—___— = ~ =i] _ ———$_—____—_— 
Ute re, Uv 8:9 1$ ute Hl 
2048 2304. § 2 256 
Ute Sig i | § wt, 
2048 3840 } ee 8): 15 7 | 25 956 
ute sole t 2 Uts * § uts 
2018 3072 § Sioa 4$ 1024 | 421034 
ute (11th) ¢ 8:11 , § sol, Bite 
048 816 § ) 768 1280 
ute (13th) 2 § mis o § 80l, 
0483308 § ----| 8:13 593980 | 32 768 
Uls re 0 : § uty 
Wut = 230k § Facu0 1) 256 a 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 345 


108 


So far we have been dealing with primary beats and beat-tones; but 
there are also secondary beats and secondary beat-tones, which are pro- 
duced by the interference of primary beat-tones. An example of a sec- 
ondary beat is afforded by the following experiment. Recurring to the 
preceding table of experiments, it may be observed that when the two 
shrill notes, uv ts, sols, giving the interval of the fifth, are sounded to- 
gether, the inferior and superior beat-tones are both present and of the 
same pitch. If, now, one of the two forks is lightly loaded with pel- 
lets of wax to put it out of adjustment, we shall get beats, not between 
the primary tones, but between the beat-tones. Suppose we add enough 
wax to reduce the vibration of sol, from 5,072 to 3,070. Then the posi- 
tive remainder is 1,022 and the negative remainder is 1,026, the former 
being wt; flattened two vibrations, the latter the same note sharpened 
to an equal amount. As a result there will be heard four beats per 
second—secondary beats. Similarly, the intervals 2 : 5,2: 7, if slightly 
mistuned, will, like the fifth, yield secondary beats. Or, to put it in 
another way, there may be secondary beats from the (mistuned) beat- 
tones that are related (as in our experiment) in the ratio 1: 1 or in the 
ratios 3: 4, 3: 5, ete., and even by those of 1: 2, 4:5, 4: 7, ete. 

I have given you an example of secondary beats; now for an exam- 
ple of a secondary beat-tone. This is afforded by one of the previous 
experiments, in which were sounded wt, and the 11th harmonic of wuts. 
In this experiment, as in that which followed with the 13th harmonic, 
two (primary) beat-tones were produced, of 768 and 1,280 vibrations re- 
spectively. These are related to one another by the interval 3:5. If 
we treat these as tones that can themselves interfere, they wili give us 
for their positive remainder the number 256, which is the frequency of 
ut, Asamatter of fact, if you listen carefully you may, now that your 
attention has been drawn to it, hear that note, in addition to the two 
primary tones and the two beat-tones to which you listened previously. 

In von Helmholtz’s Tonempfindungen he expresses the opinion 
that the distinctness with which beats are heard depends upon the 
liarrowness of the interval between the primary tones, saying that 
they must be nearer together than a minor third. But, as we have 
seen, using bass sounds of a sufficient degree of intensity and purity, 
as is the case with those of the massive forks, beats can be heard with 
every interval from the mistuned unison up to the mistuned octave. 
Even the interval of the fifth, wt, to sol, gave strongly marked beats 
of 32 per second. When this number is attained or exceeded, the ear 
usually begins to receive also the effect of a very low continuous tone, 
the beats and the beat-tone being simultaneously perceptible up to 
about 60 or 70 beats, or as a roughness up to 128 per second. If, using 
forks of higher pitches, but of narrower interval, one produces the 
same number of beats, the beat-tone is usually more distinct. Doubt- 


346 DR. KC@NIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


less this arises from the greater true intensity of the sounds of higher 
pitch. With the object of pursuing this matter still more closely, Dr. 
Koenig constructed a series of 12 forks of extremely high pitch, all 
within the range of half a tone, the lowest giving sig and the highest 
ut; The frequencies and the beats and beat-tones given by seven of 
them are recorded in Table 111. 


TABLE III. 


Beats Resulting 


Frequencies of forks. Ratio. | (cale’d). Praia 
UL Tie cree a. | 16:15 | 256 | ~ akg 
4096 5 3840 5 | | 
4096 SO6B ete go7eg) oat doe eealeneeagces 
4096 4032-a.5o82 | 64: 63 | 64 ut, 
4096 ANS, ese 256: 253 | 48 sol- 
4096 4056 ..-..| 512: 507 | 40 | mi | 

| 4096 A064) = 2222) 9128)-)127,0| 32 eereay 
| 4096 AID. sbcee 158: 157 | 26 | = 


a ———— = == 


The first of these intervals is a diatonic semitone; the second of them 
is a quarter-tone; the third is an eighth of a tone; nevertheless, a sen- 
Sitive ear will readily detect a difference of pitch between the two sep- 
arate sounds. The last of the intervals is about half a comma. 

These forks are excited by striking them with a steel hammer. Some 
of the resulting beat-tones will be heard all over the theater; but, in 
the case of the very low tones of 40 and 32 vibrations, only those who 
are Close at hand will hear them. The case in which there are 26 beats 
is curious. Most hearers are doubtful whether they perceive a tone or 
not. There is a curious fluttering effect, as though a tone were there, 
but not continuously. 

We have seen, then, that the beat-tones correspond in pitch to the 
number of the beats; that they can themselves interfere and give sec- 
ondary beats; and that the same number of beats will always give 
the same beat-tone irrespectively of the interval between the two pri- 
mary tones. What better proofs could one desire to support the view 
that the beat-tones are caused, as Dr. Young supposed, by the same 
cause as tiie beats, and not, as von Helmholtz maintains, by some 
other cause? Yet there are some further points in evidence which are 
of significance and lend additional weight to the proofs already ad- 
duced. 

Beats behave like primary impulses in the following respect, that 
when they come with a frequency between 32 and 128 per second, they 
may be heard, according to circumstances, either discontinuously or 
blending into a continuous sensation. 

It has been objected that, whereas beats imply interference between 
two separate modes of vibration arising in two separate organs, combi- 
nation-tones, whether summational or differential or any other, must 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 347 


take their origin from some one organ or portion of vibratile matter 
vibrating in a single but more complex mode. ‘To this objection an ex- 
perimental answer has been returned by Dr. Koenig in the following 
way. Hetakes a prismatic bar of steel, about 9 inches in length, and 
files it toa rectangular section, so as to give, when it is struck at the 
middle of a face to ev oke transversal vibrations, a sound of some well- 
defined pitch. By carefully adjusting the sides of the rectangular sec- 
tionin proper proportions, the same steel bar can be made to give two 
different notes when struck in two directions respectively parallel to 
the long and short sides of the rectangle. A set of such tuned steel 
bars are here before you. Taking one tuned to the note ut;=2,048, with 
rés=2,394, Dr. Koenig will give you the notes separately by striking 
the bar with a small steel hammer when it is lying on two little bridges 
of wood, first on one face, then on the other face. If, now, he strikes it 
on the corner, so as to evoke both notes at once, you immediately hear 
the strong boom of uwt;=256, the inferior beat-tone. If Dr. Koenig takes 
a second bar tuned to ut; and si; =5,840, you hear also wuts, this time the 
superior beat-tone. If he takes a bar tuned to wfs and the 11th har- 
monic of ut; (in the ratio 8:11) you hear the two beat-tones sol, and mi; 
(in ratios of 3 and 5 respectively), precisely as you did when two sepa- 
rate forks were used instead of one tuned bar. 

Dr. Kenig goes beyond the mere statement that beats blend to a 
tone, and lays down the wider proposition that any series of maxima 
and minima of sounds of any pitch, if isochronous and similar, will al- 
ways produce a tone the pitch of which corresponds simply to the fre- 
quency of such maxima and minima. <A series of beats may be regarded 
as such maxima and minima of sound; but there are other ways of pro- 
ducing the effect than by beats. Dr. Keenig will now illustrate some 
of these to you. 

If a shrill note, produced by a small organ-pipe or reed, be conveyed 
along a tube, the end of which terminates behind a rotating disk pierced 
with large, equidistant apertures, the sound will be periodically stopped 
and transmitted, giving rise, if the intermittences are slow enough, to 
effects closely resembling beats, but which, if the rotation is suffi- 
ciently rapid, blend to a tone of definite pitch. Dr. Konig uses a large 
zine disk with 16 holes, each about 1 inch in diameter. In one set of 
experiments this disk was driven at 8 revolutions per second, giving 
risé to 128 intermittences. The forks used were of all different pitches 
from ut; = 256 to ut; = 4096. In all cases there was heard the low note 
ut, corresponding to 128 vibrations per second. In another series of 
experiments, using forks uf, and wt;, the number of intermittences was 
varied from 128 to 256 by increasing the speed, when the low note rose 
also from wf, to wt. 

From these experiments it is but a step to the next, in which the in- 
tensity of a tone is caused to vary in a periodic manner. For this pur- 


348 DR. KG@NIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


pose Dr.Koenig has constructed a siren-disk (Fig. 1), pierced with holes 
arranged at equal distances around seven concentric circles ; but the 
sizes of the holes are made to vary periodically from small to large. 
In each circle are 192 equidistant holes, and the number of maxima in 
the respective circles was 12, 16, 24, 32, 48, 64, and 96. On rotating 


Fig. 1° 


this disk, and blowing from behind through a small tube opposite the 
outermost circle, there are heard, if the rotation is slow, a note cor- 
responding to the number of holes passing per second and a beat cor- 
responding to the number of maxima per second. With more rapid 
rotation two notes are heard—a shrill one, and another 4 octaves lower 
in pitch, the latter being the beat-tone. On moving the pipe so that 
wind is blown successively through each ring of apertures, there is 
heard a shrill note, which is the same in each case, and a second note 
(corresponding to the successive beat-tones) which rises by intervals of 
fourths and fifths from circle to circle. 

These attempts to produce artificially the mechanism of beats were, 
however, open to criticism; for in them the phase of the individual 
vibrations during one maximum is the same as that of the individual 
vibrations in the next succeeding maximum; whereas in the actual 
beats produced by the interference of two tones the vhases of the indi- 


Fie. 2. 


vidual vibrations in two successive maxima differ by half a vibration, 
as may be seen by simple inspection of the curves corresponding to a 
series of beats. When this difference was pointed out to Dr. Kenig, 
he constructed a new siren disk (Fig. 2), haying a similar series of 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 349 


holes of varying size, but spaced out so as to correspond to a difference 
of half a wave between the sets. With this disk, beats are distinctly 
produced with slow rotation, and a beat-tone when the rotation is 
more rapid. 

Finding this result from the spacing out of apertures to correspond 
in position and magnitude to the individual wavelets of a complex train 
of waves, it occurred to Dr. Koenig that the phenomena of beats and 
of beat-tones might be still more fully re-produced if the ed ge of the disk 
were cut away into a wave-form corresponding precisely to the case of 
the resultant wave produced by the composition of two interfering 
waves. Accordingly he calculated the wave-forms for the cases of sev- 
eral intervals, and having set out these curves around the periphery 
of a brass plate, cut away the edge of the plate to the form of the de- 
sired wave. Two such wave-disks, looking rather like circular saws 
with irregular teeth, are depicted in Figs. 3and 4. These correspond to 


AV qTR AYA) 
nt 8.15 1, ees 23M 
< 2 oe es hy > egecee ° s 4 
x a 33% Roe qj Ss tee 58 fe % 
Se ae See ae 
ee) AUS hee ee 
<. one i aur SS ae te 
a nee ° on : AG ba % 2 ~ 
Os OwT age A Z 5% 2 
ao ze, nolan oon ea —eD G rem Soigs pote 
hy besMe ek iy Ne CNY is secs) BOS 
“npn 
Fic. 3. Fic. 4. 


the respective intervals 8: 15 and 8: 23. A number of such wave- 
disks corresponding to other intervals lie upon the table; these two 
will however suffice. In the first of these the curve is that which 
would be obtained by setting out around the periphery a series of 120 
simple sinusoidal waves, and a second set of 64 waves, and then com- 
pounding them into one resultant wave. In order to permit of a com- 
parison being made with the simple component sounds, two concentric 
rings of holes have been also pierced with 120 and 64 holes respectively. 
Regarding these two numbers as the frequency of two primary tones, 
there ought to result beats of frequency 8 (being the negative re- 
mainder corresponding to the superior beat). An interior set of 8 holes 
is also pierced, to enable a comparison to be made. To experiment 
with such wave disks they are mounted upon a smoothly running 
whirling-table, and wind from a suitable wind-chest is blown against 
the wave edge from behind through a narrow slit set radially. In 
this way the air-pressures in front of the wave-edge are varied by the 
rush of air between the teeth. It isa question not yet decided how 


350 DR. KC@NIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


far these pressures correspond to the values of the ordinates of the 
curves. This question, which involves the validity of the entire prin- 
ciple of the wave-siren, can not here be considered in detail. Suffice it 
to say that for present purposes the results are amply convincing. 

The wave-disk (Fig. 3) has been clamped upon the whirling-table, 
which an assistant sets into rotation at a moderate speed. Dr. Kenig 
biows first through a small pipe through one of the rows of holes, then 
through the other. The two low notes sound out separately, just a 
major tone apart. Then he blows through the pipe with a slotted mouth- 
piece against the waved edge; at once you hear the two low notes inter- 
fering, and making beats. On increasing the speed of rotation the two 
notes become shrill, and the beats blend into a beat-tone. Notice the 
pitch of that beat-tone: it is precisely the same as that which he now 
produces by blowing through the small pipe against the ring of 8 holes. 
With the other wave-disk, having 184 and 64 holes in the two primary 
circles, giving a wave form corresponding to the interval 8: 23, the 
effects are of the same kind, and when driven at the same speed gives 
the same beat-tone as the former wave-disk. It will be noted that in 
each of these two cases the frequency of the beat-tone is neither the 
difference nor the sum of the frequencies of the two primary tones. 

A final proof, if such were needed, is afforded by an experiment, which 
though of a striking character, will not necessarily be heard by all per- 
sons present, being only well heard by those who sit in certain posi- 
tions. If a shrill tuning-fork is excited by a blow of the steel mallet, 
and held opposite a flat wall, part of the waves which it emits strike on 
the surface, and are reflected. This reflected system of waves, as it 
passes out into the room, interferes with the direct system. Asa result, 
if the fork, held in the hand, be moved toward the wall or from it, a 
series of maxima and minima of sound will successively reach an ear 
situated in space at any point near the line of motion, and will be heard 
as a Series of beats; the rapidity with which they succeed one another 
being proportional to the velocity of the movement of the fork. The 
fork Dr. Koenig is using is ut,, which gives well marked beats, slow 
when he moves his arm slowly, quick when he moves it quickly. There 
are limits to the speed at which the human arm can be moved, and the 
quickest speed that he can give to his, fails to make the beats blend to 
atone. But if he will take sol, vibrating 14 times as fast, and strike 
it, and move it away from the wall with the fastest speed that his arm 
will permit, the beats blend into a short low growl, a non-uniform tone 
of low pitch, but still having true continuity. 

The first portion of my account of Dr. Koenig’s researches may then 
be summarized by saying that in all circumstances where beats, either 
natural or artificial, can be produced with sufficient rapidity, they blend 
to form a beat-tone of a pitch corresponding to their frequency. 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 351 


III. 


I now pass to the further part of the researches of Dr. Kenig which 
relates to the timbre of sounds. Prior to the researches of Dr. Kenig 
it had been supposed that in the reception by the ear of sounds of com- 
plex timbre the ear took no account of, and indeed was incapable of 
perceiving, any differences in phase in the constituent partial tones. 
For example, in the case of a note and its octave sounded together, it 
was supposed and believed that the sensation in the ear, when the 
difference in phase of the two components was equivalent to one- 
half of the more rapid wave, was the same as when that difference of 
phase was one-quarter, or three-quarters, or zero. I had myself, in 
the year 1876, when studying some of the phenomena of binaural audi- 
tion, shown reasons for holding that the ear does nevertheless take cog- 
nizance of such differences of phase. Moreover, the peculiar rolling or 
revolving effect to be noticed in slow beats is a proof that the ear per- 
ceives some difference due to difference of phase. Dr. Keenig is 
however the first to put this matter on a distinct basis of observations. 
That such differences of phase occur in the tones of musical instru- 
ments is certain; they arise inevitably in every case where the sounds 
of subdivision are such that they do not agree rigidly with the theo- 
retical harmonics. Fig. 5 depicts a graphic record taken by Dr. Koenig 
from a vibrating steel wire, in which a note and its octave had been 
simultaneously excited. The two sounds were scarcely perceptibly 
different from their true interval, but the higher note was just suffi- 
ciently sharper than the true harmonic octave to gain about one wave 
in 180. The graphic trace has in figure 5 been split up into five pieces 


y MWA 


Fig. 5. 


to facilitate insertion in the text. It will be seen that as the phase 
gradually changes the form of the waves undergoes a slow change 
from wave to wave. Now, it is usually assumed that in the vibrations 
of symmetrical systems, such as stretched cords and open columns of 
air, the sounds of subdivision agree with the theoretical harmonics. 
For example, it is assumed that when a stretched string breaks up into 
a nodal vibration of four parts, each of a quarter its length, the 


352 DR. KCNIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


vibration is precisely four times as rapid as the fundamental vibration 
of the string as a whole. This would be true if the string were abso- 
lutely uniform, homogeneous, and devoid of rigidity. Strings never 
are so; and even if uniform and homogeneous, seeing that the rigidity 
of a string has the effect of making a short piece stiffer in proportion 
than a long piece, can not emit true harmonies as the sounds of subdi- 
vision. In horns and open organ pipes the width of the column (which 
is usually neglected in simple calculations) affects the frequency of the 
nodal modes of vibration. Wertheim found the partial tones of pipes 
higher than the supposed harmonics. 

These things being so, it is manifestly insufficient to assume, as von 
Helmhboitz does in his great work, that all timbres possess a purely 
periodic character; with the necessary corollary that all timbres con- 
sist merely in the presence, with greater or less intensity, of one or more 
members of a series of higher tones corresponding to the terms of a 
Fourier series of harmonics. When, therefore, following ideas based 
on this assumption, von Helmholtz constructs a series of resonators, 
accurately tuned to correspond to the terms of a Fourier series (the 
first being tuned to some fundamental tone, the second to one of a fre- 
quency exactly twice as great, the third to a frequency exactly three 
times, and so forth), and applies such resonators to analyze the tim- 
bres of various musical and vocal sounds, he is trying to make his reson- 
ators pick up things which in many cases do not exist—upper partial 
tones which are exact harmonics. If they are not exact harmonics, 
even though they exist, his tuned resonator does not hear them, or only 
hears them imperfectly, and he is thereby lead into an erroneous appre- 
ciation of the sound under examination. 

Further, when in pursuance of this dominant idea he constructs a 
system of electro-magnetic tuning-forks, accurately tuned to give forth 
the true mathematical harmonics of a fixed series, thinking therewith 
to reproduce artificially the timbres not only of the various musical 
instruments but even of the vowel sounds, he fails to reproduce the 
supposed effects. The failure is inherent inthe instrument; forit can 
not reproduce those natural timbres which do not fall within the cir- 
cumscribed limits of its imposed mathematical principle. 

Nothing is more certain than that in the tones of instruments, partic- 
ularly in those of such instruments as the harp and the pianoforte, in 
which the impulse, once given, is not sustained, the relations between 
the component partial tones are continually changing, both in relative 
intensity and in phase. The wavelets, as they follow one another, are 
ever changing their forms; in other words, the motions are not truly 
periodic—their main forms may recur, but with modifications ever 
changing. 

To estimate the part played in such phenomena by mere differences 
of phase—to evaluate, in fact, the influence of phase of the constitu- 
ents upon the integral effect of a compound sound—Dr, Keenig had 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. Soo 


recourse to the wave-siren, an earlier invention of his own, and of which 
the wave-disks which have already been shown are examples. 

In the first place, Dr. Koenig proceeded synthetically to construct the 
wave-forms for tones consisting of the resultant of a set of pure har- 
mouies of gradually decreasing intensity. The curves of these, up to 
the tenth member of the series, were carefully compounded graphically : 
first with zero difference of phase, then with all the upper members 
shifted on one quarter. then with a difference of a half-wave, then with 
a difference of three-quarters. The results are shown in the top line of 
curves in Fig. 6, wherein it will be noticed that the curve for difference 


Fic. 6. 


of phase = 4 is like that for zero difference, but reversed, left for right ; 
and that the curve for difference of phase = } is like that for difference 
= 4, but inverted. Now, according to von Helmholtz, the sounds of 
all these four curves should be precisely alike, in spite of their differ- 
ences of form and position. To test the matter, these carefully plotted 
curves were set out upon the circumference of a cylindrical band of thin 
metal, the edge being then cut away, leaving the unshaded portion, 
the curve being repeated half a dozen times, and meeting itself after. 
passing round the circumference. For convenience, the four curves to 
be compared are set out upon the separate rims of two such metallic 
cylindrical hoops, which are mounted upon one axis, to which a rapid 
motion of rotation can be imparted, as shown in Fig. 7. Against the 
dentilated edges of these rims, wind can be blown through narrow 
slits connected to the wind chamber of an organ table. In the appara- 
tus (Fig. 7) the four curves in question are the four lowest of the set of 
six. It will be obvious that as these curves pass in front of the slits 
H. Mis. 129 23 


354 DR. KG2NIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


from which wind issues, the maximum displacement of air will result 
when the slit is least covered, or when the point of greatest depression 
of the curve crosses the front of the slit. The negative ordinates of the 
curve correspond therefore approximately to condensations. Air is 


now being supplied to the slits; and when I open one or other of 
the valves which control the air passages, you hear one or other of the 
sounds. It must be audible to everyone present that the sound is 
louder and more forcible with a difference of phase of + than in any 
other case, that produced with ? difference being gentle and soft in tone, 
whilst the curves of phase 0 and 4 yield tones of intermediate quality. 
Dr. Koenig found that if he merely combined together in various phases 
a note and its octave (which was indeed the instance examined by me 
binaurally in 1876), the loudest resultant sound is given when the phase 
difference of the combination is 4, and the mildest when it is 3. 

Returning to Fig. 6, in the second line are shown the curves which 
result from the superposition of the odd members only of a harmonic 
series of decreasing amplitude. On comparing together the curves of 
the four separate phases, it is seen that the form is identical for phases 
0 and 3, which show rounded waves, whilst for phases 4+ and 3 the forms 
are also identical, but with sharply angular outline. These two varie- 
ties of curve are set out on the two edges of the highest metallic cir- 
cumference in the apparatus depicted in Fig. 7. The angular waves are 
found to yield a louder and more strident tone than the rounded waves, 
though, according to yon Helmholtz, their tones should be alike. 

A much more elaborate form of compound wave siren was constructed 
by Dr. Koenig for the synthetic study of these phase relations. Upon 
a Single axis, one behind the other, is mounted a series of 16 brass disks, 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 35D 


cut at their edges into sinusoidal wave forms. These represent a har- 
monic series of 16 members of decreasing amplitnde, there being just 
16 times as many small sinuosities on the edge of the largest disk as 
there are of large sinuosities on that of the smallest disk. A photo- 
graph of the apparatus is now thrown upon the screen. It is described 
fully by Dr. Koenig in his volume on ‘‘Quelques Expériences,” and was 
figured and described in Nature, July 20, 1882, vol. xxvi, p. 277. 
Against the edge of eack of the 16 wave disks wind ean be separately 
blown through a slit. This instrument therefore furnishes a funda- 
mental sound with its first fifteen pure harmonics. It is clear that any 
desired combiuation can be obtained by opening the appropriate stops 
on the wind-chest; and there are ingenious arrangements to vary the 
phases of any of the separate tones by shifting the positions of the slits. 
The following are the chief results obtained with this instrument. If we 
first take simply the fundamental tone and its octave together, the total 
resultant sound has the greatest intensity when the difference of phase 
o=4 (t. e., When the maximum displacement of air occurs at the same 
instant for both waves); and at the same time the whole character of the 
sound becomes somewhat graver, as if the fundamental tone predomi- 
nated more than in other phases. The intensity is least when 0=%. If, 
however, attention is concentrated on the octave note while the phase is 
changed, its intensity seems about the same for 6=} as for 6=3, but 
weaker in all other positions. The compound tones formed only of odd 
members of the series have always more power and brilliancy of tone 
for phase differences of 4 and 3, than for 0 and 4; but the quality for 4 
1s always the same as for ?, and the quality for 0 is always the same as 
for $. ‘This corresponds to the peculiarity of the corresponding wave 
form, of which the fourth line of curves in Fig. 6 is au example. For 
compound tones corresponding to the whole series, odd and even, there 
is in every case minimum intensity, brilliancy, and stridence with 6=3, 
and maximum with d=}. Inspection of the first and third lines of 
curves in Fig. 6 shows that in these wave forms that phase which is 
the most forcible is that in which the maximum displacement and re- 
sulting condensation is sudden and brief. 

Observing that wave-forms in which the waves are asymmetrical— 
steeper on one side than on the other—are produced as the resultant of 
a whole series of compounded partial tones, it occurred to Dr. Koenig 
to produce from a perfect and symmetrical sinusoidal wave curve a com- 
plex sound by the very simple device of turning into an oblique position 
the slit through which the wind was blown against it. In Fig. 8 is 
drawn a simple symmetrical wave form, egluprtv. If a series of such 
wave forms is passed in front of a vertical slit, such as ab, a perfectly 
simple tone, devoid of upper partials, is heard. But by inclining the 
slit, as at ab’, the same effect is produced as if the wave form had been 
changed to the oblique outline é/g/l/n‘p/r't’v’, the slit all the while re. 
maining upright. But this oblique form is precisely like that obtained 


356 DR. KGNIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


as resultant of a decreasing series of partial tones (Eig. 6, a). If the 
slit be inclined in the same direction as the forward movement of the 
waves, the quality produced is the same as if all the partial tones coin- 
cided at their origin, or with 6 =0; while if inclined in the opposite 


- 


direction the quality is that corresponding to d= 4. It is easy to ex- 
amine whether the change of phase produces any effect on the sound. 
Before you is rotating a simple wave disk, and air is being blown across 
its edge through a slit. Dr. Koenig will now tilt the slit alternately 
backward and forward. On tilting the slit forward to give 6 = 0, you 
hear a purer and more perfect sound; and on tilting it back, giving 
6 = 4, a sound that is more nasal and forcible. 

All the preceding experiments agree then in showing that differences 
of phase do produce a distinct effect upon the quality of compound tones; 
what then must we say as to the effect on the timbre of the presence of 
upper partial tones or sounds of subdivision that do not agree with any 
of the true harmonies? A mis-tuned harmonic—if the term is permissi- 
ble—may be looked upon as a harmonic which is undergoing continual 
change of phase. The mistuned octave which yielded the graphic curve 
in Fig. 5, is a case in point. The wavelets are continually changing 
their form. It iscertain that in a very large number of musical sounds, 
instrumental and vocal, such is the case. 

It was whilst experimenting with his large compound wave siren that 
Dr. Keenig was struek by the circumstance that under no conditions, 
and by no combination of pure harmonies in any proportion of intensity 
or phase, could he reproduce any really strident timbres of sound, like 
those of harmonium reeds, trumpets, and the like; nor could he produce 
satisfactory vowel qualities of tone. Still less can these be produced 
satisfactorily by von Helmholtz’s apparatus with electro-magnetic 
tuning forks, in which there is no control over the phases of the com- 
ponents. The question was therefore ripe for investigation whether 
for the production of that which the ear can recognize as a timbre, a 
definite unitary quality of tone, it was necessary to suppose that all 
the successive wavelets should be of similarform. Or, if the forms of 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 357 


the successive wavelets are continually changing, is it possible for the 
ear still to grasp the result as a unitary sensation ? 

If the ear could always separate impure harmonic or absolutely in- 
harmonie partials from their fundamental tone, or if it always heard 
pure harmonics as an indistinguishable part of the unity of the timbre 
of a fundamental, then we might draw a hard and fast line between 
mere mixtures of sound and timbres, even as the chemist distinguishes 
between mere mixtures and true chemical compounds. But this is not 
SO; Sometimes the ear can not unravel from the integral sensation the 
inharmonious partial; on the other hand, it can often distinguish the 
presence of truly harmonious ones. Naturally, something will depend 
on the training of the ear; as is the case with the conductor of an or- 
chestra, who will pick out single tones froma mixture of sounds which 
to less perfectly trained ears may blend into a unitary sensation. 

Dr. Kenig accordingly determined to make at least an attempt to 
determine synthetically hov far the ear can so act, by building up spe- 
cific combinations of perturbed karmonics or inharmonic partials, giv- 
ing rise to waves that are multiform, as distinguished from the uniform 
waves of a true periodic motion. The wave siren presented a means of 
carrying this attempt to aresult. On the table before me lie a number 
of wave disks constructed with this aim. This will be successively 
placed upon the whirling table, and sounded; but [ must warn you 
that the proper effects will ouly be perceived by those who are near the 
apparatus, and in front of it. 

Upon the edge of the first of the series there has been cut a curve 
graphically compounded of 24 waves as a fundamental, together with 
a set of four perturbed harmonics of equal intensity. The first har- 
monic consists of 49 waves (2 x 24+ 1), the second of 75 waves 
(3x 2443), the third of 101 (4x24+45), the fourth of 127 (5x 2447). 
The resulting curve possesses 24 waves, no two of them alike in form, 
and some highly irregularin contour. The effect of blowing air through 
a slit against this disk is to produce a disagreeable sound, quite lacking 
in unitary character, and indeed suggesting intermittence. 

The second wave disk is constructed with the same perturbed har- 
monies, but with their amplitudes diminishing in order. This disk pro- 
duces similar effects, but with more approach to a unitary character. 

Inthe third disk there are also 24 fundamental waves, but there are no 
harmonies of the lower terms, the superposed ripples being perturbed 
harmonies of the fifth, sixth, and seventh orders. Their numbers 
are 6x 24+6, 7x 244-7, and 8x24+8, being, in fact, three harmonies 
of a fundamental 25. This disk gives a distinetly dual sort of sound, 
for the ear hears the fundamental quite separate from the higher tones, 
which seem in themselves to blend to a unitary effect. There is also 
an intermittence corresponding to each revolution of the disk, like a 
beat. 

The fourth disk resembles the preceding; but the gap between the 


358 DR. K@NIG’S RESEARCHES ON 


fundamental and the three perturbed harmonies has been filled by the 
addition of three true harmonics. This disk is the first in this research 
which gives a real timbre, though it is a peculiar one. It preserves, 
however, a unitary character, even when the slit is tilted in either 
direction. The 24 waves in this disk all rake forward like the teeth of 
a circular saw, but with multiform ripples upon them. The quality of 
tone becomes more crisp when the slit is tilted so as to slope across the 
teeth, and more smooth when in the reverse direction. 

The fifth disk, which is larger, has 40 waves at its edge. These are 
cut with curves of all sorts, taken hap-hazard from various combinations 
of pure harmonics in all sorts of proportions and varieties, no two being 
alike, there maxima and minima of the separate waves being neither 
isochronous nor of equal amplitude. This disk gives an entirely unmu- 
sical effect, amid which a fundamental tone is heard, accompanied by a 
sort of rattling sound made up of intermittent and barely recognizable 
tones. 

The sixth disk is derived from the preceding by selecting eight only 
of the waves, and repeating them five times around the periphery. In 
this case each set of eight acts as a single long curve, giving beats, 
with a slow rotation and a low tone (accompanied always by the rattling 
mixture of higher tones) when the speed is increased. 

The seventh disk was constructed by taking 24 waves of perfect sin- 
usoidal form, and superposing upon them a series of small ripples of 
miscellaneous shapes and irregular sizes, but without essentially depart- 
ing from the main outline. This disk gives a timbre in which nothing 
can be separated from the fundamental tone, either with vertical or 
tilted slit. 

The eighth and last disk consists of another set of 24 perfect waves, 
from the sides of which irregular ripples have been carved away by 
hand, with the file, leaving however the summits and the deepest 
parts of the hollows untouched, so that the maxima and minima are 
isochronous and of equal amplitude. This disk gives also a definite 
timbre of its own, a little raucous in quality, but still distinctly having 
a musical unity about it. 

We have every reason therefore to conclude that the ear will recog- 
nize aS possessing true musical quality, as a timbre, combinations in 
which the constituents of the sound vary in their relative intensity and 
phase from wave to wave. 

What, then, is a timbre? Dr. Koenig would be the first to recognize 
that these last experiments, though of deepest interest, do not afford a 
final answer to the question. We may not yet bein a position to frame 
a new definition as to what constitutes a timbre, but we may at least 
conclude that, whenever that definition can be framed, it will at least 
include several varieties, including the non-periodic kinds with multi- 
form waves, as well as those that are truly periodic with uniform waves. 
We must not on that account however, rush to the conclusion that the 


THE PHYSICAL BASIS OF MUSICAL HARMONY. 359 


theory of von Helmholtz as to the nature of timbre has been over. 
thrown. The corrections introduced into lunar theory by Hansen and 
Newcombe have not overturned the splendid generalizations of New- 
ton. What we can and must confess is that we now know that the 
acoustic theory of von Helmholtz is, like the lunar theory of Newton, 
correct only as a first approximation, It has been the distinctive merit 
of Dr. Koenig to indicate to us the magnitude of the correcting terms, 
and to supply us not only with a rich store of experimental faets but 
with the means of prosecuting the research synthetically, beyond the 
point to which he himself has attained. 

In thanking Dr. Koenig for the courtesy which he has shown to this 
society in bringing over his apparatus and in demonstrating its use to 
us, we must join in congratulating him on the patience, perspicacity, 
and skill with which he has carried out his researches. We know that 
his exceptional abilities as experimentalist and constructor have done 
more than those of any other investigator to make the science of experi- 
mental acoustics what it is to-day ; and we must unite in wishing him 
long life and prosperity to complete the great work on which elready 
he has advanced so far. 


THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO DAY.* 


By VictoR MEYER. 


Translated by L. H. FrimpBura.t 


When, a short time ago, I was called upon to speak before you, I 
gladly and zealously approached the work which such an occasion 
seemed to call forth. It seemed to me that it would be an effort worthy 
of this assemblage of scientific men to recall the permanent addi- 
tions that chemistry has made in our day to the treasure of human 
knowledge and to enumerate the problems which seem to lie nearest us 
in the future. 

A science which, as such, is hardly older than the great European 
revolution, the centennial of which we witnessed a few months ago, 
and which in this short time has caused changes in our spiritual and 
material life hardly less than those of the political revolution, such a 
science, [ have thought, may without temerity boast of its achieve 
ments. 

And yet the chemist approaches such a task with a certain hesita- 
tion from which the astronomer, the physicist, and the mathematician 
are free. Has it not been in our own day that the most prominent ora- 
tor amongst German naturalists, one who astonishes us by the compre- 
hensiveness of his knowledge, has adopted as his own Kant’s judgment 
on chemistry, namely, that ** chemistry is a science, but not a science 
in the highest sense of the word; that is, a knowledge of nature reduced 
to mathematical mechanics.” And this dictum is accepted, not as a 
blemish upon our science, but with the fullest and most perfect recog- 
nition of the immense achievements which modern chemistry has regis- 
tered as its own. 

But all of the marvellous successes of the atomic theory and of the 
doctrine of structure, the synthesis of the most complicated organic 
compounds, the blessings of an enlarged pharmacopcia, the potent 
revolution in technological processes, the new and systematic methods 


* An address delivered at Ileidelberg at the first general session of the sixty-sec- 
ond meeting of the Association of German Naturalists and Physicians, September 
18, 1889. . 

t From the Deutsche Rundschau, November, 1889. (Re-printed from the Journal 
of the American Chemical Society, September, 1889, vol. xr, pp. 101-120.) 

361 


362 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 


of production which have been characterized by an eminent technolo- 
gist as “the gaining of gold from rubbish ”—all this seems trifling to 
the mind that looks down from its standpoint of mathematical mechan- 
ics when compared with the work of a promised Newton of chemistry, 
who some day wili represent chemical reactions in the thought and in 
the language of mathematical physics. 

And if he who looks from a height is justified in the expression that 
to-day chemistry, in the recognition of ultimate causes, stands yet 
below astronomy of the time of Kepler and Copernicus, must not the 
chemist lose courage if he attempts, before an illustrious assemblage, 
to raise a song of praise to his science, to glorify what she has done 
and what in the future she seems chosen to do? If in spite of this 
the attempt be made, it must be with that resignation which rests upon 
the belief that ‘“‘ we should consider everything, but aim only at that 
which is possible.” 

Though we share, with full conviction, the expectations of a New- 
tonian period in chemistry, we hardly venture to hope that that period 
is near, and even the most enlightened representatives of the newer 
physical chemistry seem but precursors of that distant era. 

Perhaps the chemist, immersed in the daily work of his science, fails 
to take the comprehensive view of one who from a distant height looks 
down upon the same. But those who are surrounded by the whirl of 
hourly renewed work recognize all the more clearly the immense 
amount that remains still to be achieved before those distant aims can 
be realized. This epoch, so rich in path-finders in the department of 
physies, has rarely directed the highest order of research into the ter- 
ritory of our science, and especially have the more complicated chem- 
ical phenomena been avoided. 

If in a period that has witnessed the discoveries of Helmholtz, Robert 
Mayer, Joule, Clausius, and van’t Hoff, the revolutionizing progress of 
knowledge has been limited to physics, and if only modest applications 
of what was gained have been made in related studies, then the epoch 
seems not yet to be at hand in which chemical processes can be thought 
of as we think of the movements which we feel as sound, light, or heat. 

A humiliating statement! But, strange to say, the chemist of to-day 
has hardly time to complain of this resignation imposed upon him, and 
this for reasons easily understood. 

If without question it is the aim of all natural science to under- 
stand phenomena so fully that they may be described in a mathematical 
form, and, as far as they are unknown, may be predicted, a science 
which is so far distant from this aim as to look merely for the path that 
shall some day lead to it, must be considered as in its infancy. In 
the present stage our way of thinking and acting has this peculiarity. 
In every science imagination must stand as another power alongside of 
knowledge and reasoning. But the influence of imagination upon knowl- 
edge is all the greater the further this latter is distant from the men- 


THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 363 


tioned ideal. And thus it happens that in the chemistry of to-day im- 
agination and intuition have a larger scope than in other sciences, and 
that occupation with the same, besides the pure scientific satisfaction 
that it yields, brings an enjoyment which, in a certain sense, reminds 
one of the activity of an artist. He however who only knows chemistry 
as a tradition of perfectly clear facts, or who thinks to see the real soul 
of chemical study in measuring the physical phenomena which accom- 
pany chemical transformations, feels no breath of this enjoyment. 

The feeling is only disclosed to him who ventures into that ocean of 
the unknown that is spread out before us in the organic chemistry of the 
day; to him who is not appalled by a wilderness, populated with 
thousands of indivuals, of which every one shows a peculiar, fully 
unknown originality, and to him who attempts to become better 
acquainted with some of them, even if he is ata loss for a means of 
approaching them. To proceed with success in this direction is only 
granted to the genius; the method that leads onward can not be 
learned, and it has only been practiced with success by a small number 
of chosen ones. 

Indeed, in the experimental study of organic chemistry, the “ pre- 
sentiment” of happenings, the actuality of which is not indicated by 
any law to be expressed in words, has shown surprising results; here 
the thought is aided by a something, which we may meanwhile term 
‘“‘chemical feeling,” a name which will disappear as soon as the pro- 
gressive approach of chemistry to the mathematical physic. basis 
shall have disclosed its meaning and shall have tabulated it amongst 
the methods which lead to the recognition of the new. The effect of 
this peculiar chemical method of study is not here to be dwelt upon in 
detail. Let it suffice to say that without it, the most brilliant discov- 
eries in organic chemistry would not have been made: just as little 
as a Kekulé would without it, have been able—in contradiction of 
numerous data in chemical literature never before doubted—to affirm 
the non-existence of isomeric monochlorbenzol and of such bodies as 
were said to consist of a benzol ring and but one bi-valent atom. Those 
significant hypotheses by means of which the knowledge of aromatic 
substances has been revealed to us, could not have been made solely 
upon the ground of exact observation; they required at the same time 
a pronounced chemical instinct. There was no logical reason in declaring 
the existence of a phenylene oxide as an impossibility, since the ethylene 
oxide did exist; he who nevertheless ventured to do so, and at the 
same time ran directly in the face of experience, was surely led by a 
feeling which the present status of chemistry forbids us to replace by 
a process of thought. 

But to return from the field of organic to that of general chemistry. 
Before we can arrive at a mathematico-physical treatment of chemical 
phenomena in genera!, two fundamental problems must be solved; an 
hypothesis which allows a control by experiment (even within the same 


364 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 


limits which to this day are imposed upon physics in regard to the law 
of gravitation), must answer these questions: What is Chemical Affinity? 
and What is Valency? 

By means of laborious detail work, chemistry tries to approach the 
solution of these enigmas; but he who pursues chemical methods, who 
stands in the midst of chemical work—which aims only, as at a far 
distant task, at the discovery of a sure path—still sees such obstacles 
to be cleared away that he gives up the hope of living to see the new 
chemicalera. He finds satisfaction in the consciousness of having ex- 
erted his best abilities in the elucidation of some minor and precursory 
principles. 

If now we begin to consider—within the appointed limits—the most 
important achievements of chemistry, we can not, at this place and at 
this hour of our meeting, be in doubt as to what is to be mentioned in 
the first place. The hospitable city which shelters us boasts of an ad- 
vantage which is envied her by every other alma mater; here, chemis- 
try for more than a human lifetime has been represented by Robert 
Bunsen, of glorious name, and the very days which find us here as- 
sembled, follow immediately the moment in which this hero of science 
has retired from his academical occupation. Who does not think, at 
such an hour, of the great teacher around whom ardent pupils from all 
parts of the globe were accustomed to congregate? But who, being 
called upon to-day to speak of the results of chemistry within the 
walls of Heidelberg, would not before all direct an eye upon that one 
discovery which has lifted chemistry beyond terrestrial research, which 
has enabled her, like astronomy, to search the universe and to dissect 
the starry heavens, chemically, by the subtle appliances of analysis? 
If “old Heidelberg” has become a pearl amongst German cities by its 
history, by its numerous traditions, by the incomparable beauty of its 
situation,—if its university is the ideal of the German academical youth, 
we may well regard as an immortal leaf in its wreath of honor, along 
with these glorious titles, the union of those two great men who first 
met in this city in the most courageous enterprise of the penetrating 
mind; who have pursued with astonishing success the investigation 
which has made spectral analysis the most potent of scientific weapons, 
and has rendered their names a charm ealling forth the admiration of 
the older minds and kindling in the minds of mere school boys the flame 
of enthusiasm in the study and exploration of nature. The immeas- 
urable results of that discovery—the consequences of which extend 
every day over new territories—are known in the widest cireles, and to 
mention them to-day in detail would be but carrying owls to Athens. 
It behooves us in this place to mention reverently the names of Bunsen 
and Kirchhoff, to think of them with gratitude, and to hope that men, 
their equals, may uot be entirely wanting in the next generation! The 
vounger one of them—whose scientifie fertility was only equalled by 
his greatness of soul and the charming modesty of his heart—has 


THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 365 


been taken away from us before old age had uaturally limited him. 
Bunsen we still rejoice to call ours, who now, allowing the tools of his 
work to drop from his hand, looks forth to the evening of his life in 
quiet, happy leisure. May be be permitted for a long time to look back 
upon a life filled with greatest scientific achievements; may his calm, 
friendly eye rest for many years upon the incomparable picture of his 
beloved Heidelberg. 

We have mentioned spectral analysis, though it has been almost for 
an age the common property of science. Let us also cast a grateful 
retrospect upon a deeply furrowing revolution—of which chemistry 
also, for several decades, has boasted as a substantial possession—upon 
the development of the doctrine of structure, that solid theoretical foun- 
dation from which the proud edifice of modern organic chemistry rises. 
A generation has grown up around us which has received as a matter 
of fact this doctrine which still seems new to us older ones. But those 
far-seeing men, whose eyes recognized the immensely simple in the seem- 
ingly impenetrable compleation of the carbon compounds, are still ae- 
tively alive amongst us, and it is their happy lot to reap in their own 
activity what once they sowed in juvenile work. Here the eye is di- 
rected upon the master of chemical research—August Wilhelm von 
Hofmann; before all upon his researches upon the organic nitrogenous 
bases,—researches which do not find their equal in organic chemistry 
and which, even more perfectly than Dumas’ fundamental discovery of 
trichoracetic acid, allowed the fundamental conception of substitution 
toexpand into the living consciousness of chemists, at first, curiously, 
by supporting the theory of types in organic compounds and then by 
promoting the transition to the structural or constitutional view, which 
at present embraces, with unparalleled perfection, the whole territory of 
organic compounds. 

But the suggestion of this doctrine, which finds its crowning suecess 
in the recognition of the inner aggregation of the atoms, is associated 
for all time with the name of a man who, although a master of rare art 
in experimenting, knew how to surpass what he had achieved at the 
laboratory table, by the convincing power of his speculative work. We 
can not here dispute the part which other eminent chemists have taken 
in the development of the doctrine of structure—there are, Butlerow, 
Cooper, Erlenmeyer, Frankland, Kolbe, Odling, Williamson—but the 
glorious guide in this great and victorious movement forward, he, to 
whose eyes was disclosed not only the tetra-valence of carbon, but also 
the solution of the problem of the constitution of organic compounds, 
in the recognition of the property of carbon atoms to be linked to each 
other by their valencies; he is the philosopher of organic chemistry— 
August Kekulé. The name of this discoverer, who also started upon 
his high and soaring flight from Heidelberg, is justly mentioned alone 
when we want to recall in a word the putting forth and the development 
of the leading chemical theories. 


366 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 


The researches in this direction are so numerous and so toilsome, and 
yet the result is so surprisingly simple! The carbon atom is endowed 
with four, the oxygen atom with two, the hydrogen atom with one point 
of attack for the chemical affinity. The cause of the aggregation of the 
atoms within the molecule lies in the mutual saturation of these units 
of affinity or valencies. It is the number of valencies which decides 
the possibility of the existence of a compound. Amongst the legion of 
imaginable combinations of these three elements only those are capable 
of existence in which every valency is saturated by that of another 
atom. Through this knowledge a new method of inquiry was opened, 
in particular for organic chemistry, the immense territory of which for 
many years seemed totally to absorb the working power of chemists. 
But then dawned the first signs of a further development. Hardly a 
decade had elapsed since the general admission of the doctrine of va- 
lency when a fundamental deepening of the same was announced, which 
our science owes to two savants, working independently of each other— 
to Le Bel and van’t Hoff. These chemists, consid: ring those substances 
which turn the plane of polarization cf light, arrived at views which 
soon led to a result until then thought to be out of reach, a conception 
of the aggregation of the atoms within the molecules in space. Thus 
a field of study was created which van’t Hoff called “la chimie dans 
Vespace” and which we now ¢all Stereo-chemistry. 

It was recognized that the carbon atom stretched out its four valen- 
cies in definite directions, and this in a symmetrical manner. The 
combination of a carbon atom with four other atoms, for example, 
methane, CH,, is representable by the picture of a tetrahedron in the 
stereometric center of which the carbon atom is situated, while the 
hydrogen atoms occupy its four corners. 

Numerous cases of isomerism, until then not understood, could be 
explained in this manner and were regarded as stereo-chemical ones. 
The cause of optical activity was found to consist in the presence of an 
a-Ssymmetric carbon atom, that is, one which is combined with four dif- 
ferent groups. 

Also the stereometric forms of a few simple molecules were consid- 
ered; it was recognized, e. g., that a compound of three carbon atoms 
linked together by one bond respectively could not contain those atoms 
in @ straight line, but that they must lie in the angles of a triangle the 
sides of which form an angle equal to that in which the directions of 
valency of the carbon atom intersect each other. 

By the applications of these considerations to more complicated 
molecules, which contain a chain of atoms closed within itself, Adolph 
von Baeyer has enlarged our theory in a manner full of consequence. 

Kekulé in times past had recognized that carbon shows a particular 
disposition to form closed chains of six atoms. The discoveries of Bae- 
yer and his followers, as well as Fittig’s work on lactones, taught that 
such closed chains or rings formed of fewer atoms also exist. But 


THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 367 


while rings of six or five atoms easily form, it is more difficult to com- 
bine fewer atoms, four or three, to a closed chain. The cause of this 
fact Baeyer recognized as lying in the stereometric conditions. The 
angles which the sides of a regular hexagon and pentagon form with 
each other very nearly coincide with those in which the directions of 
the valencies of the carbon atom intersect each other, and thus in 
linking five or six atoms together the circle, so to speak, closes itself, 
while if more or less atoms are present this can only be arrived at by 
strong deviation of the directions of affinity. 

But still more surprising discoveries were hidden in van’t Hoft’s the- 
ory. The gifted Dutch thinker had penetrated to the idea that two 
atoms which are linked together by asingle valency rotate freely around 
an axis the direction of which coincides with that of the linking valency, 
but that this rotation is stopped as soon as double linking takes place. 
This latter is an immediate ¢ nsequence of the tetrahedric conception. 
IfI stretch out my two fore-fingers and let their points touch each other, 
then the hands can rotate around them as an axis; butif I stretch both 
thumbs and both fore-fingers and allow their corresponding points to 
touch each other, then a system results in which rotation is impossible. 

These two propositions of van’t Hoff, having remained almost un- 
noticed for a decade, have lately come into great prominence. Inaseries 
of important researches Johannes Wislicenus has proved that apply- 
ing these propositions and at the same time considering the specific 
affinities of the groups or elements present, the stereometric aggrega- 
tion of the atoms in certain molecules can be determined with prob- 
ability. In an ingenious manner he has utilized the addition phenomena 
shown by carbon atoms trebly linked together for an interpretation of 
a stereometric aggregation of the atoms in the compounds formed. 

Wislicenus, applying van’t Hoft’s ideas with courage and strictness, 
has advanced organic chemistry in an important manner and has opened 
a ‘field for experimental research, which heretofore had been avoided 
with a precaution suggestive of timidity. 

New discoveries came from other sides. An intimate research into 
the oxims of benzil lead to the surprising result that the validity of the 
second proposition of van’t Hoff is not without exception. Cases were 
noticed in which the free rotation of carbon atoms united by a simple 
bond, which van’t Hoff disclosed, did not obtain. Further inquiry into 
this subject led to a renewal of the question, ‘* What does chemical 
valency really mean?” A question to which the mind incessantly de- 
mands an answer. It had long since been suggested that vaiency had 
some relation to the electric behavior of the atoms. The chemistry of 
the day expresses Faraday’s fundamental electrolytic law thus: An 
electric current which flows through several fused electrolytes severs 
in each of them the same number of valencies, not of atoms. 

It was found by von Helmholtz that those quantities of electricity 
which, during the electrolytic process, move with the ions are dis- 


368 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 


tributed among the valencies. Riecke, in virtue of his pyro-electric re- 
searches, was led to the view that the atoms are surrounded by certain 
systems of positive and negative electric poles. 

Uniting these results with those of purely chemical experimentation, 
we arrive at the idea that the valencies do not appear as points of attack 
proper, but as having linear dimensions. The carbon atom represents 
itself as a sphere, surrounded by an envelope of ether which contains 
the valencies. The latter seem to be determined by the presence of two 
opposite electric poles which rest at the ends of a very short straight 
line. Such a system is calleda di-pole. The attachment of two valencies 
to each other consists in the attraction of their opposed poles. It is 
evident that ina radial position of the di-poles they form an axis around 
which the atoms are able to rotate, but that this rotation is upset in 
case of a tangential position. In what has been said so far and through 
further considerations in regard to the electrical charge of the atoms 
and of the di-poles a reason is found for the repulsion of the four 
valencies and consequently for the tetrahedric grouping of the same. 

The fact that the valencies can deviate from this position now becomes 
intelligible; we perceive why the valencies of one atom can not unite 
with one another, while those of different atoms can combine; it is 
clear that there can exist two kinds of simple linking, one of which 
admits of rotation, while the other does not; finally, that in cases of 
manifold linking the free rotation must be annulled. Hence this hypoth- 
esis opens to us an understanding of the most important properties of 
chemical valency. 

So much may be said of the problems relating to the theory of valency. 

But the doctrine of substitution has likewise experienced a peculiar 
enlargement. Dumas first showed that the properties of organic com- 
pounds are generally little changed when the hydrogen of the same is 
replaced by univalent elements or groups. Now it has been learned 
from later experiments that even much more radical changes in tie 
composition do not materially influence the properties of the substance, 
If for example we replace in the hydro-carbon benzol—two carbon and 
two hydrogen atoms by one atom of sulphur, the resulting product, 
thiophen, resembles benzol chemically and physically so closely as to 
be mistaken for it. We learn from this that the sulphur atom is able 
to take upon itself the functions of four atoms of entirely different 
nature. Similar facts have been found in regard to oxygen and to the 
imido group, which is equivalent to it. 

Turning away from these researches to cast a glance upon general 
chemical studies which lie some years behind us, we must above all 
consider one of the most far-reaching discoveries of our epoch, the rev- 
elation of the natural system of the chemical elements. We owe this to 
the far-seeing Demetrius Mendelejeff. By the side of the titanic figure 
of the Russian scholar we see the Englishman, Newlands, and our own 
countryman, Lothar Meyer, successfully co-operating in the foundation 


THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 369 


and the structure of this work. What these men created has since 
become generally known ; they showed that the properties of the elements 
are functions of their atomic weights. Mendelejeff taught us to predict 
the existence and the properties of chemical elements as yet unknown 
with a certainty that reminds us of Le Verrier’s prediction of the dis- 
covery of the planet Neptune. We can say with confidence that even 
to-day numerous elements, the qualities of which, as well as the place 
which they will occupy in the system, can be minutely foretold, wait 
merely to be discovered. 

The natural system has imposed upon us a problem of the greatest 
significance in the new determination of the atomic weights, the numer- 
ical values of which are pow of increased interest. But numerous other 
problems are presented by the new system of the elements. Above all 
we are at a loss to discern the cause of the inner nexus of the elements 
as the system offers it. Also by diligent work the less studied elements 
must be properly brought within the system. Fortunate circumstances 
may allow us to discover the numerous elements indicated by the peri- 
odic law. Here let us note a peculiar coincidence. We know to-day 
about seventy elements, but Mendelejeff’s table indicates so far—two 
small periods of seven elements each, and five large ones of seventeen 
elements, respectively. To these must be added hydrogen, forming a 
‘‘ croup ” in itself. 

By addition of these figures, (2 x 7) + (5 x 17) + 1, we obtain exactly 
the number 100. 

Itis true that no one can say whether the missing elements will 
really be discovered, or if further new periods might not be indicated 
by which this number 100 would be exceeded. But, as far as positive 
data are at hand, they indicate exactly the number mentioned and 
nothing points beyond it,—an odd coincidence which seems to ally 
the number of the existing elements with the number of our fingers. 

The discovery of the system of the elements leads us back to the 
question whether the chemical elements are separate worlds in them- 
selves or whether they represent different forms or conditions under 
which one ultimate substance exists, a question that has occupied the 
philosophical mind since very early times. The same question was 
raised anew by the discovery of spectral analysis. Whosvever regards 
the numerous lines of the spectrum of a metal will hardly be convinced 
that the metal from which they emanate should be an eternally un- 
decomposable element. Ina similar manner the compound nature of 
the elements is indicated by comparison of the regularities in numbers 
of the atomic weights with the homologous series of organic chemistry. 

In the pursuit of this question, which, since Prout’s hypothesis and 
the surprises offered by Stas’s determinations of atomic weights, has not 
been allowed to rest, positive results are not to be found. The decom- 
position of substances called elements into simpler ones has not been 
accomplished. 

H. Mis. 129——24 


370 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 


Nevertheless something has been achieved, since an increased interest 
has been drawn towards pyro-chemical research. 

To-day new methods of experiment permit of a comparatively easy 
determination of the vapor density and consequently of the molecular 
state of the substances at the highest temperatures. 

Numerous inorganic Compounds, above all the very elements, have 
been studied in regard to their vapor density at a white heat. 

While many of them, as oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, and mercury, re- 
main unchanged under such conditions, the molecules of chlorine, bro- 
mine, and iodine, respectively, were split into two atoms, in conformity 
with Avogadro’s surmise of the compound nature of elementary mole- 
cules. 

In the same manner, the vapor density, and hence the molecular 
condition of the less volatile substances, zinc, thallium, antimony, and 
bismuth, was sucessfully determined at a white heat. 

Careful research resulted in the exposure of the old fallacy of the 
existence of a sulphur molecule containing six atoms. 

But how many of the problems which crowd around us at this “itn 
are for the time being entirely beyond the reach of the experimenter ! 

To-day pyro-chemical work is limited to a temperature of 1700° C., 
because vessels of porcelain and platinum, to the use of which we are 
limited, fuse above that temperature. The possibility of performing 
quantitative experiments at these temperatures seemed to us some years 
ago to be an unexpected progress, but to-day we complain that the 
trivial cause of a want of proper vessels forbids us to increase the tem- 
perature up to 2000° or 3000° C. There is no doubt that we should 
arrive at new unthought-of facts, that the splitting of still other ele- 
mentary molecules would be possible, that a new chemistry would be 
revealed to us, if—being provided with vessels of infusible material, we 
could work at temperatures at which water vapor could not exist and 
at which detonating gas would be a non-inflammable mixture! 

Let us now enter other fields of physical chemistry. Golden fruit, 
daily increasing, has been harvested upon this field during these latter 
days. Again we see van’t Hoff take the lead. His keen eye has en- 
abled us to penetrate the nature of solution, which forms the beginning 
of anew epoch in molecular physics. The quintessence of his discover- 
ies may be thus expressed: 

‘Solutions of different substances in the same liquid, which contain 
in the same volume an equal number of molecules of the dissolved sub- 
stance, show the same osmotic pressure, the same vapor pressure, and the 
same freezing point.” 

This surprising generalization offers the possibility of determining 
the true molecular weight of substances by experimenting upon them in 
solution, while heretofore this has only been possible by transforming 
them into the gaseous state, hence only for volatile substances, since 


THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. oul 


dilute solutions behave in regard to the molecular state of the dissolved 
substance like gases. 

In this manner new methods are given for the determination of molec- 
ular weights, which we are now able to determine by means of meas- 
urements relating to the freezing point, the vapor pressure, or the osmotic 
pressure of a solution of the substance to be tested. 

These results are of the highest possible practical im portance for chem- 
istry, since they widen in an unexpected manner the possibility of the 
determination of molecular weights, and in a still higher degree we are 
surprised by the elucidation which they offer in regard to the nature of 
solution. Clausius had already admitted, within narrower limits, that 
in solutions of electrolytes some of the dissolved molecules were decom- 
posed into their ions, but now this has been proved in a larger measure, 
particularly by Arrhenius. What achange our conceptions will have 
to undergo if we have to accustom ourselves to regard a dilute solution 
of sodium chloride as one containing, not undecomposed molecules of 
this salt, but separated atoms of sodium and chlorine! 

We owe these revolutionizing innovations to the investigations of 
van’t Hoff, Arrhenius, Ostwald, Planck and de Vrie, but in regard to 
experimental research especially to the splendid work of Raoult, which 
during recent years has etfected this mighty theoretical progress. 

Thus we see physical chemistry moving on in weighty development. 
Special laboratories are opened for her, and a special journal also has 
been started which is open alike to the records of experiment and to 
theoretical discussion. Through the foundation of this organ physical 
chemistry has been furthered in a most active manner. All the 
questions of the time and all those in dispute belonging to this depart- 
ment of science receive in this paper a thorough discussion. Dynamical- 
chemical questions are successfully studied, a significant impetus is 
given to the study of structure and affinity (widened as our knowledge 
of the nature of solutions has made necessary), by means of the study 
of the relations between chemical nature and electric conduction. 

The inquiry into the intimate relations that exist between physical 
and chemical properties, which was inaugurated half a century ago by 
Hermann Kopp, is now being deepened and widened. 

It is true that the great hopes which sprang from the study of thermo- 
chemical questions have so far been only partly fulfilled, but consecutive 
measurements offer more clearness also in this case. 

There is no field of our science in which we may expect greater revo- 
lutions in the time near at hand than in that of physical chemistry ! 
The value of these for general chemistry will be greater in proportion 
as the representatives of the same will recognize their task in this: 
Above all to remain upon the chemical standpoint and to improve chem- 
istry by the application of physical modes of thought and experiment. 
Those who tried to further the progress of chemistry by the use of 
physical methods, but with insufficient consideration for chemical rela- 


372 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 


tions, have been led into serious errors. The respect due to work of 
the highest merit, continued for years, has thus been lessened. Ap- 
parently this has even been overdone, and it is much to be deplored if 
the interest of chemists for physical chemistry should be diminished 
because some of its representatives are inclined to over-rate the value 
of their results. He who swims in the midst of high waves is unable 
at times to see over the crests. 

Innumerable, also, are the problems which meet us in the domain of 
organic chemistry. 

After the astonishing harvest of synthetical results which has been 
reaped here, hardly any problem of synthesis seems unapproachable. 
Since the artificial preparation of alizarin by Graebe and Liebermann, 
of indigo by von Baeyer, of conine by Ladenburg, of uric acid by Hor- 
baczewski and particularly by Behrend, since Emil Fischer and Kili- 
ani have elucidated the chemistry of the sugar group and Wallach 
that of the terpenes, we may well look hopefully for a clearer knowledge 
of the bodies comprised under the name albumin, and to its synthesis. 

But even such success tends only to render us more modest, since 
it shows us at the same time how narrow are the limits within which 
chemical synthesis moves. Assuming even that the preparation of 
albumin had been achieved, how infinitely far we should still be from 
a conception of the nature of organized bodies! Perhaps science is 
separated by an impassable chasm from the artificial preparation of a 
simple cell. Such an achievement lies at least beyond the sphere of 
chemistry. 

But shall we really never succeed in sounding the process of assim- 
ilation, which, in spite of its simplicity, presents itself to us so enig- 
matically ? Will it be found impossible to prepare artificially in our 
laboratories, from carbon dioxide and water, sugar and starch, a proe- 
ess which nature performs unceasingly in the green parts of plants? 

The chemist however should not step prematurely upon the field of 
biology while so many great problems remain untouched in his own 
peculiar sphere of investigation. 

The method of research in organic chemistry, in spite of the brilliant 
successes already recorded, forces us even to-day to confess that only 
a very minute proportion of known substances is within its reach. In 
order to isolate an organic substance we are generally confined to the 
purely accidental properties of crystallization or volatilization. Have 
not those thousands of amorphous substances which cannot be char- 
acterized by any chemical property and which the chemist is forced to 
lay aside because he is unable either to purify them or to transform 
them into volatile or crystallizable bodies,—have they not the same 
claim upon our interest as their more beautiful and more manageable 
comrades ? 

The most significant progress of organic chemistry does not consist 
in single discoveries, nor in further expansion of synthetical success. 


THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. So 


What we want is: new methods for recognizing the individuality of 
substances. The black substances of earthy nature, the innumerable 
formless and resinous products in the bodies of plants and animals, 
the coloring matter which gives beauty to flowers, all of these to-day 
mock our efforts to know them; they will form a new and inexhaustible 
field for the prosecution of chemical research, when methods shall have 
been found with which to begin this research. 

And as in organic chemistry, so in mineral chemistry every step leads 
to questions which we have as yet no means of answering. The syn- 
thesis of minerals and of rocks has made important progress, it is true, 
and this as well as the application of the doctrine of structure to the 
study of mineral species gradually leads to the understanding of their 
constitution; but we are as yet unable to use, in the study of min- 
erals, the method of analytical decomposition which has been so success- 
fully used to study the constitution of organic substances, and above 
all we lack the least knowledge in regard to the true molecular weight 
of minerals. 

Quite recently we have been presented with no less than three new 
and fruitful methods for the @etermination of the molecular weight, but 
not one of them gives us an indication of the true moiecular weight of 
the most simple oxides, such as silicic anhydride or calcium oxide. 

We know to-day very well that silicic anhydride can not have the 
formula SiO., that this must be multiplied by a very large factor; but 
of the numerical value of this latter we have no indication. And thus 
also in mineral chemistry we must aim not exclusively at finding new 
facts, but new methods of research in the first place, if a period of new 
discoveries is to be attained in this branch of our science. 

But how can we conclude this brief review without mentioning also 
the applications of chemistry to the industrial arts, the progress of which 
has mainly contributed to spread the splendor of our science most 
widely? The infinite variety of the tar colors, surpassing the colors of 
flowers in number and brightness, is daily increased by new discoveries. 
The technology of these dyes and pigments forms the most brilliant 
triumph of purely scientific laboratory work applied to manufactures. 
This industry in the simplest manner and on the largest scale performs 
the synthesis of compounds the complex nature of which is indicated 
by the names they bear. The unscientific man is frightened when a 
beautiful and brilliant dye is referred to as Hevamethylmethoxytriamido- 
triphenylearbinol; for the initiated there lies in this unpleasant name 
a full account of the synthesis and the constitution of the dye. 

Industry has learned to derive not only colors, but healing medicines 
also from coal tar. Antipyrin, discovered by Knorr, upon the basis of 
Emil Fischer’s fundamental research upon the hydrazines, brings to 
thousands suffering from fever, relief at least—if notcure. Let us hope 
that the time is not far distant when real fever curatives, which like 
the natural alkaloids of the cinchona bark, not only temporarily sup- 


374 THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 


press the disease, but really cure it, may be prepared by synthesis. 
Until then be patient and do not chide chemistry if, for the time being, 
she offers only silver instead of gold. 

Events in this field of the great chemical industries are significant. 
We are the witnesses of a great combat taking place between the older 
process of Le Blane for the preparation of soda and the new one of 
Solvay called the ammonia-soda process. The intelligence and in- 
ventive genius of manufacturers have added under the pressure of this 
competition a large number of improvements to the manufacture of 
sulphurie acid and of soda, and new and valuable methods for the 
preparation of chlorine. Here, more than in any other branch of 
chemical industry, the struggle for existence is fierce. 

The manufacture of iron, that most important chemical industry, is 
transformed by innovations. The imposing changes wrought by the 
older process of Bessemer, by the new one of Thomas, are they not 
based purely upon chemical reactions? The grandest application of a 
a complicated chemical reaction to a great manufacture is, perhaps, 
the dephosphorizing of pig-iron by lining the Bessemer converter with 
basic material, an invention which we owe to Thomas and Gilchrist. 
From this again, agriculture derives an advantage in the use of the 
Thomas slag containing the phosphorus which heretofore rendered iron 
ore less valuable. This then is truly a transformation of stone into 
bread, similar to the older manufacture of soluble fertilizers from 
mineral phospbates. Nevertheless, the era of bliss which was prophe- 
sied three years ago at the Berlin meeting of naturalists by our illus- 
trious colleague, Ferdinand Cohn, has not yet dawned. He held that 
all struggles for existence amongst men, arising from want of food, (the 
bread question,) will be done away with, when chemistry shall have 
learned to prepare starch from carbon dioxide and water. But since 
time immemorial the farmer is occupied in this very chemical industry, 
and it would hardly be great progress if the farm were merely replaced 
by a chemical factory. But we may reasonably hope that chemistry 
will teach us to make the fiber of wood a source of human food. 

Indeed, if we consider how small is the quantity of starch which the 
grain farnishes us, and further that the wood fiber has exactly the same 
chemical composition as starch, we see the possibility of increasing the 
productien of food indefinitely by solving this problem: To transform 
cellulose into starch. 

Jf this problem were solved we should find an inexhaustible source 
of human food in the wood of our forests, in grass, and even in straw 
and chaff. The beautiful researches of Hellriegel have recently dis- 
closed the fact, which in former times was disputed, that certain piants 
transform atmospheric nitrogen into albumin and that this process can 
be improved by suitable treatment. 

The increase of albumin in plants, according to a plan, together with 
the production of starch out of cellulose—this would in reality signify 
the abolition of the bread question. 


THE CHEMICAL PROBLEMS OF TO-DAY. 315 


May it some day be granted to chemistry through such a discovery 
to inaugurate a golden age for humanity. 

I have tried to give a review of the most important problems which 
are set before chemical science. I have mentioned a goodly number, 
but the short time of one hour permits me to touch but slightly upon 
the greater ones. There are so many problems before us, which await 
an immediate solution as to justify what I said in the beginning; that 
to-day the chemist has no time to complain because the epoch of a 
mathematical treatment of his science has not vet arrived. 

Nevertheless, the brilliant suecesses which have been gained, the 
wonderful results which are immediately within our reach, have not 
the power to turn our eyes from this final problem. 

The Newton prophesied to Chemistry by Emil du Bois Reymond, 
may he appear at a later period; until he comes, may many a genera- 
tion honorably plow on in the sweat of its brow! We must remember 
that nature is not understood by us until we are able to reduce its phe- 
nomena to simple movements, mathematically traceable. 

The time will come, even for chemistry, when this highest kind of 
treatment will prevail. The epoch in which the foremost impulse of 
its research was a serenely creative imagination will then have passed; 
the joys, but also the pangs and struggles, peculiar to youth, will have 
been overcome. 

Re-united to Physics, her sister science, from whom her ways at 
present are separated, Chemistry will run her course with firm and 
unfaltering steps. 


THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE.* 


By Prof. RAPHAEL MELDOLA, F. R.S. 


The history of a discovery which has been developed to such a 
remarkable degree of perfection as photography has naturally been a 
fruitful source of discussion among those who interest themselves in 
tracing the progress of science. It is only my presence in this lecture 
theater, in which the first public discourse on photography was given 
by Thomas Wedgwood at the beginning of the century, that justifies 
my treading once again a path which has already been so thoroughly 
well beaten. If any further justification for trespassing upon the 
ground of the historian is needed, it will be found in the circumstance 
that in the autumn of last year there was held a celebration of what 
was generally regarded as the jubilee of the discovery. This celebra- 
tion was considered by many to have reference to the public disclosure 
of the Daguerreotype process, made through the mouth of Arago to the 
French Academy of Sciences on August 10, 1839. There is no doubt 
that the introduction of this process marked a distinct epoch in the 
‘history of the art, and gave a great impetus to its subsequent develop- 
ment. But while giving full recognition to the value of the discovery 
of Daguerre, we must not allow the work of his predecessors and con- 
temporaries in the same field to sink into oblivion. After the lapse of 
half a century we are in a better position to consider fairly the influ- 
ence of the work of different investigators upon modern photographic 
processes. 

I have not the least desire on the present occasion to raise the ghosts 
of dead controversies. In fact, the history of the discovery of pho- 
tography is one of those subjects which can be dealt with in various 
ways, according to the meaning assigned to the term. There is ample 
scope for the display of what Mr. Herbert Spencer calls the ‘bias of 
patriotism.” If the word ‘ photography” be interpreted literally as 
writing or inscribing by light, without any reference to the subsequent 
permanence of the inscription, then the person who first intentionally 
caused a design to be imprinted by light upon a photo-sensitive com- 
pound must be regarded as the first photographer. According to Dr. 
Eder, of Vienna, we must place this experiment to the credit of Johann 


* Friday evening lecture delivered at the Royal Institution, on May 16, 1890. 
(From Nature July 10, 1890, vol. xu, pp. 246-250. ) 
377 


378 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 


Heinrich Schulze, the son of a German tailor, who was born in the Duchy 
of Madgeburg, in Prussia, in 1687, and who died in 1744, after a life of 
extraordinary activity as a linguist, theologian, physician, and philoso- 
pher. In the year 1727, when experimenting on the subject of phos- 
phorescence, Schulze observed that by pouring nitrie acid, in which 
some silver had previously been dissolved, on to chalk, the undissolved 
earthy residue had acquired the property of darkening on exposure to 
light. This effect was shown to be due to light, and not to heat. By 
pasting words cut out in paper on the side of the bo!tle containing his 
precipitate, Schulze obtained copies of the letters on the silvered chalk. 
The German philosopher certainly produced what might be called a 
temporary photogram. Whatever value is attached to this observa- 
tion in the development of modern photography, it must be conceded 
that a considerable advance was made by spreading the sensitive com- 
pound over a surface instead of using it in mass. It is hardly necessary 
to remind you here that such an advance was made by Wedgwood and 
Davy in 1802.* The impressions produced by these last experimenters 
were unfortunately of no more permanence than those obtained by 
Schulze three quarters of a century before them. 

It will perhaps be safer for the historian of this art to restrict the 
term photograph to such impressions as are possessed of permanence. 
I do not of course mean absolute permanence, but ordinary durability 
in the common-sense acceptation of the term. From this point of view 
the first real photographs, 7. €., permanent impressions of the camera 
picture, were obtained on bitumen films by Joseph Nicéphore Niepce, 
of Chaélons-sur-Sione, who, after about 20 years’ work at the sub- 
ject, had perfected his discovery by 1826. Then came the days of silver 
salts again, when Daguerre, who commenced work in 1824, entered into 
a partnership with Niepce in 1829, which was brought to a termination 
by the death of the latter in 1833. The partnership was renewed be- 
tween Daguerre and Niepce de St. Victor, nephew of the elder Niepce. 
The method of fixing the camera picture on a film of silver iodide on a 
silvered copper plate—the process justly associated with the name of 
Daguerre—was ripe for disclosure by 1838, and was actually made 
known in 1839. 

The impartial historian of photography who examines critically into 
the evidence will find that quite independently of the French pioneers 
experiments on the use of silver salts had been going on in this coun- 
try, and photographs, in the true sense, had been produced almost 
simultaneonsly with the announcement of the Daguerreotype process by 
two Englishmen whose names are as household words in the ranks of 
science. I refer to William Henry Fox Talbot and Sir John Herschel. 
Fox Talbot commenced experimenting with silver salts on paper in 


* «An Account of a Method of Copying Paintings upon Glass, and of making Pro- 
files by the Agency of Light upon Nitrate of Silver. Invented by T. Wedgwood, 
Esq. With Observations by H. Davy.” Journ. Royal Institution, 1802, p. 170. 


THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 379 


1854, and the following year he sueceeded in imprinting the camera 
picture on paper coated with the chloride. In January, 1839, some of 
his ** photogenic drawings”—the first ‘silver prints” ever obtained— 
were exhibited in this Institution by Michael Faraday. In the same 
month he communicated his first paper on a photographie process to the 
Royal Society, and in the following month he read a second paper 
before the same society, giving the method of preparing the sensitive 
paper and of fixing the prints. The outcome of this work was the 
“*Calotype” or Talbotype process, which was sufficiently perfected for 
portraiture by 1840, and which was fully described in a paper commu- 
nicated to the Royal Society in 1841. The following year Fox Talbot 
received the Rumford medal for his *‘ discoveries and improvements in 
photography.”* 

Herschel’s process consisted in coating a glass plate with silver chlo- 
ride by subsidence.’ The details of the method, from Herschel’s own 
notes, have been published by his son, Prof. Alexander Herschel.t 
By this means, the old 40-foot reflecting telescope at Slough was pho- 
tographed in 1859. By the kindness of Professor Herschel, and with 
the sanction of the Science and Art Department, Herschel’s original 
photographs have been sent here for your inspection. The process of 
coating a plate by allowing a precipitate to settle on it in a uniform 
film is however impracticable, and was not further developed by its 
illustrious discoverer. We must credit him however as being the first 
to use glass as a sub-stratum. Herschel further discovered the im- 
portant fact that while the chloride was very insensitive alone, its sen- 
sitiveness was greatly increased by washing it with a solution of silver 
nitrate. It is to Herschel also that we are indebted for the use of 
sodium thiosulphate as a fixing agent, as well as for many other dis- 
coveries in connection with photography which are common matters of 
history. 

Admitting the impracticability of the method of sudsidence for pro- 
ducing a sensitive film, it is interesting to trace the subsequent devel- 
opment of the processes inaugurated about the year 1539. The first of 
photographie methods—the bitumen process of Niepce—survives at 
the present time, and is the basis of some of the most important of 
modern photo-mechanical printing processes. [Specimens illustrating 
photo-etching from Messrs. Waterlow & Sons exhibited.| The Daguer- 
reotype process is now obsolete. As it left the hands of its inventor 
it was unsuited for portraiture on account of the long exposure re- 
quired. It is evident moreover that a picture on an opaque metallic 
plate is incapable of re-production by printing through, so that in this 
respect the Talbotype possessed distinct advantages. This is one of 
the most important points in Fox Talbot’s contributions to photog i 


* For these me other ane aie Thee to Fox Talcoven Ww ae ne akoacile excluded 
for want of time, I am indebted to his son, Mr. C. H. Talbot, of Lacock Abbey. 
t Photog. Journ. and Trans. Photog. Soc. June 15, 1872., 


380 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 


phy. He was the first to produce a transparent paper negative from 
which any number of positives could be obtained by printing through. 
The silver print of modern times is the lineal descendant of the Tal- 
botype print. After 40 years’ use of glass as a substratum we are 
going back to Fox Talbot’s plan, and using thin flexible films—not ex- 
actly of paper, but of an allied substance—celluloid. [Specimens of 
Talbotypes, lent by Mr. Crookes, exhibited, with celluloid negatives by 
the Eastman Company. | 

If L interpret this fragment of history correctly, the founders of mod- 
ern photography are the three men whose labors have been briefly 
sketched. The jubilee of last autumn marked a culminating point in 
the work of Niepee and Daguerre and of Fox Talbot. The names of 
these three pioneers must go down to posterity as coequal in the annals 
of scientific discovery. [Portraits by Mr. H. M. Elder shown.| The 
lecture theater of the Royal Institution offers such tempting opportu- 
nities to the chronicler of the history of this wonderful art that I must 
close this treatment of the subject by reminding myself that in select- 
ing the present topic I had in view a statement of the case of modern 
photography from its scientific side only. There is hardly any inven- 
tion associated with the present century which has rendered more splen- 
did services in every department of science. The physicist and chemist, 
the astronomer and geographer, the physiologist, pathologist, and an- 
thropologist will all bear witness to the value of photography. ‘The 
very first scientific application of Wedgwood’s process was made here 
by the illustrious Thomas Young, when he impressed Newton’s rings on 
paper moistened with silver nitrate, as described in his Bakerian lecture 
to the Royal Society on November 24,1803. Professor Dewar has just 
placed in my hands the identical slide, with the Newton rings still visi- 
ble, which he believes Young to have used in this classic experiment. 
[Shown. | 

Our modern photographie processes depend upon chemical changes 
wrought by light on films of certain sensitive compounds. Bitumen 
under this influence becomes insoluble in hydro-carbon oils, as in the 
heliographic process of the elder Niepee. Gelatine mixed with potas- 
sium dichromate becomes insoluble in water on exposure to light, a 
property utilized in the photo-etching process introduced in 1852 by 
Fox Talbot, some of whose original etchings have been placed at my 
disposal by Mr. Crookes. [Shown.] Chromatized gelatine now plays 
a most important part in the autotype and many photo-mechanical proc- 
esses. The salts of iron in the ferric condition undergo reduction to the 
ferrous state under the influence of light in contact with oxidizable or- 
ganic compounds. The use of these iron salts is another of Sir John 
Herschel’s contributions to photography (1842), the modern ‘ blue 
print” and the beautiful platinotype being dependent on the photo- 
reducibility of these compounds. [Cyanotype print developed with 
ferricyanide. | 


THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 381 


Of all the substances known to chemistry at the present time, the 
salts of silver are by far the most important in photography on account 
of the extraordinary degree of sensitiveness to which they can be 
raised. The photographic image with which it is my privilege to deal 
ou this occasion is that invisible impression produced by the action of 
light on a film of a silver haloid. Many methods of producing such 
films have been in practical use since the foundation of the art in 1839, 
All these depend on the double decomposition between a soluable chlo- 
ride, bromide, or iodide, and silver nitrate, resulting in the formation 
of the silver haloid in a vehicle of some kind, such as albumen (Niepee 
de St. Victor, 1848), or collodion on glass, as made practicable by Scott 
Archer in 1851. For 20 years this collodion process was in universal 
use; 1ts history and details of manipulation, its development into a 
dry plate process by Colonel Russell in 1861, and into an emulsion 
process by Bolton and Sayce in 1864, are facts familiar to every one. 

The photographic film of the present time is a gelatino-haloid (gen- 
erally bromide) emulsion. If a solution of silver nitrate is added to a 
solution of potassium bromide and the mixture well shaken, the silver 
bromide coagulates and rapidly subsides to the bottom of the liquid as 
a dense curdy precipitate. [Shown.] If instead of water we use a 
viscid medium, such as gelatine solution, the bromide does not settle 
down, but forms an emulsion, which becomes quite homogeneous on 
agitation. [Shown.] ‘This operation, omitting all details of ripening, 
washing, etc., as well known to practical photographers, is the basis of 
all the recent photographic methods of obtaining negatives in the 
camera. The use of this invaluable vehicle, gelatine, was practically 
introduced by R. L. Maddox in 1871, previous experiments in the same 
direction having been made by Gandin (1853-61). Such a gelatino- 
bromide emulsion can be spread uniformly over any sub-stratum—glass, 
paper, gelatine, or celluloid—and when dry gives a highly sensitive 
film. 


The fundamental problem which 50 years’ experience with silver haloid 
films has left in the hands of chemists is that of the nature of the chemical 
change which occurs when a ray of light falls on such a silver salt. Long 
before the days of photography, far back in the sixteenth century, Fabri- 
cius, the alchemist, noticed that native horn silver became colored when 
brought from the mine and exposed. The fact presented itself to Robert 
Boyle in the seventeenth century, and to Beeccarius, of Turin, in the 
eighteenth century. The change of color undergone by the chloride 
was first shown to be associated with chemical decomposition in 1777 
by Scheele, who proved that chlorine was given off when this salt dark- 
ened under water. I can show you this in a form which admits of its 
being seen by all. |Potassium iodide and starch paper were placed in 
« glass cell with silver chloride, and the arrangement exposed to the 
electric light till the paper had become blue.| The gas which is given 


382 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 


off under these circumstances is either the free halogen or an oxide or 
acid of the halogen, according to the quantity of moisture present and 
the intensity of the light. I have found that the bromide affects the 
iodide and starch paper in the same way, but silver iodide does not give 
off any gas which colors the test paper. All the silver haloids become 
colored on exposure to light, the change being most marked in the 
chloride, less in the bromide, and least of all in the iodide. The latter 
must be associated with some halogen absorbent to render the change 
visible. [Strips of paper coated with the pure haloids, the lower halves 
brushed over with silver nitrate solution, were exposed.| The differ- 
ent degrees of coloration in the three cases must not be considered as a 
measure of the relative sensitiveness; it simply means that the prod- 
ucts of photo-chemical change in the three haloids are inherently pos- 
sessed of different depths of color. 

From the fact that halogen in some form is given off, it follows that 
we are concerned with photo-chemical decomposition, and not with a 
physical change only. All the evidence is in favor of this view. Halo- 
gen absorbents, such as silver nitrate on the lower halves of the papers 
in the last experiment, organic matter, such as the gelatine in an emul- 
sion, and reducing agents generally, all accelerate the change of color. 
Oxidizing and halogenizing agents, such as mercuric chloride, potas- 
sium dichromate, etc., all retard the color change. [Silver chloride 
paper, painted with stripes of solutions of sodium sulphite, mercuric 
chloride, and potassium dichromate, was exposed.] It is impossible to 
account for the action of these chemical agents, except on the view of 
chemical decomposition. The ray of light falling upon a silver haloid 
must be regarded as doing chemical work; the vibratory energy is 
partly spent in doing the work of chemical separation, and the light 
passes through a film of such haloid partly robbed of its power of doing 
similar work upon a second film. It is difficult to demonstrate this sat- 
isfactorily in the lecture room on account of the opacity of the silver 
haloids, but the work of Sir John Herschel, J. W. Draper, and others 
has put it beyond doubt that there is a relationship of this kind be- 
tween absorption and decomposition. It is well known also that the 
more refrangible rays are the most active in promoting the decomposi- 
tion in the case of the silver haloids. This was first proved for the 
chloride by Scheele, and is now known to be true for the other haloids. 
It would be presumption on my part in the presence of Captain Abney 
to enlarge upon the effects of the different spectral colors on these ha- 
loids, as this is a subject upon which he can speak with the authority 
of an investigator. Itonly remains to add that the old idea of a special 
“actinic” force at the more refrangible end of the spectrum has long 
been abandoned. It is only because the silver haloids absorb these par- 
ticular rays that the blue end of the spectrum is most active in pro- 
moting their decomposition. Many other instances of photo-chemical 
decomposition are known in which the less refrangible rays are the most 


THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 383 


active, and it is possible to modify the silver haloids themselves so as 
to make them sensitive for the red end of the spectrum. 

The chemical nature of the colored products of photo-chemical decom- 
position is still enshrouded in mystery. Beyond the fact that they con- 
tain less halogen than the normal salt, we are not much in advance of 
the knowledge bequeathed to us by Scheele in the last century. The 
problem has been attacked by chemists again and again, but its solu- 
tion presents extraordinary difficulties. These products are never 
formed—even under the most favorable conditions of division and with 
prolonged periods of exposure—in quantities beyond what the chemist 
would eall “a mere trace.” Their existence appears to be determined 
by the great excess of unaltered haloid with which they are combined. 
Were [ to give free rein to the imagination I might set up the hypothesis 
that the element silver is really a compound body invariably containing 
a minute percentage of some other element which resembles the com- 
pound which we now call silver in all its chemical reactions, but alone 
is sensitive to light. I offer this suggestioa for the consideration of the 
speculative chemist.* For the colored product as a whole, 7%. ¢., the 
product of photo-decomposition with its combined unchanged haloid, 
Carey Lea has proposed the convenient term ‘“ photo-salt.” It will avoid 
circumlocution if we adopt this name. The photo-salts have been 
thought at various times to contain metallic silver, allotropic silver, a 
sub-haloid, such as argentous chloride, ete., or an oxy-haloid. The free- 
metal theory is disposed of by the fact that silver chloride darkens 
under nitric acid of sufficient strength to dissolve the metal freely. The 
acid certainly retards the formation of the photo-salt, but does not pre- 
vent it altogether. When once formed the photo-chloride is but slowly 
attacked by boiling dilute nitric acid, and from the dry photo-salt 
mercury extracts no silver. The assumption of the existence of an 
allotropic form of silver insoluble in nitric acid can not be seriously 
maintained. The sub-haloid theory of the product may be true, but it 
has not yet been established with that precision which the chemist has 
aright todemand. We must have analyses giving not only the per- 
centage of halogen, but also the percentage of silver, in order that it 
may be ascertained whether the photo-salt contains anything besides 
metai and halogen. The same may be said of the oxy-haloid theory ; 
it may be true, but it has not been demonstrated. 

The oxy-haloid theory was first suggested by Robert Hunt} for the 

*T have gone so far as to test this idea experimentally in a preliminary way, the 
result being, as might have been anticipated, negative. Silver chloride, well dark- 
ened by long exposure, was extracted with a hot saturated solution of potassium 
chloride, and the dissolved portion, after precipitation by water, compared with the 
ordinary chloride by exposure to light. Not the slightest difference was observable 
either in the rate of coloratiou or in the colors of the products. Perhaps it may be 
thought worth while to repeat the experiment, using a method analogous to the 
“method of fractionation” of Crookes. 

t ‘* Researches on Light,” 2d ed,, 1854, p. 80. 


384 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 


chloride; it was taken up by Sahler, and has recently been revived by 
Dr. W. R. Hodgkinson. It has been thought that this theory is dis- 
posed of by the fact that the chloride darkens under liquids, such as 
hydro-carbons, which are free from oxygen. I have been repeating 
some of these experiments with various liquids, using every possible 
precaution to exclude oxygen and moisture; dry silver chloride heated 
to incipient fusion has been sealed up in tubes in dry benzene, petroleum, 
and carbon tetrachloride, and exposed since March. [Tubes shown.] 
In all cases the chloride has darkened. The salt darkens moreover in 
a Crookesian vacuum.* By these experiments the oxy-chloride theory 
may be scotched, but it is not yet killed; the question now presents 
itself, whether the composition of the photo-salt may not vary according 
to the medium in which it is generated. Analogy sanctions the sup- 
position that when the haloid darkens under water or other oxygen- 
containing liquid, or even in contact with moist or dry air, that an 
oxychloride may be formed and enter into the composition of the photo- 
salt. The analogy is supplied by the corresponding salt of copper, viz, 
cuprous chloride, which darkens rapidly eu exposure. [Design printed 
on flat cell filled with cuprous chloride by exposure to electric light. ] 
Wohler conjectured that the darkened product was an oxychloride, and 
this view receives a certain amount of indirect support from these 
tubes [shown], in which dry cuprous chloride has been sealed up in 
benzene and carbon tetrachloride since March; and although exposed 
in a southern window during the whole of that time the salt is as white 
as when first prepared. Some cuprous chloride sealed up in water and 
exposed for the same time is now almost black. [Shown.| 

When silver is precipitated by reduction in a finely divided state in 
the presence of the haloid, and the product treated with acids, the ex- 
cess of silver is removed and colored products are left which are some- 
what analogous to the photo-salts proper. These colored haloids are 
also termed by Carey Lea photo-salts because they present many anal- 
ogies with the colored products of photo-chemical change. Whether 
they are identical in composition it is not yet possible to decide, as we 
have no complete analyses. The first observations in this direction were 
published more than 30 years ago in a report by a British Association 
Committee,t in which the red and chocolate-colored chlorides are dis- 


* Some dry silver chloride which Mr. Crookes has been good enough to seal up for 
me in a high vacuum darkens on exposure quite as rapidly as the dry salt in air. It 
soon regains its original color when kept in the dark. It behaves, in fact, just as the 
chloride is known to behave when sealed up in chlorine, although its color is of 
course much more intense after exposure than is the case with the chloride in chlorine. 

tThese results were arrived at in three ways. In one case hydrogen was passed 
through silver citrate suspended in hot water, and the product extracted with citric 
acid. “The result of treating the residue with chloro-hrydic acid, and then dissolving 
the silver by dilute nitric acid, was a rose-tinted chloride of silver.” In another ex- 
periment the dry citrate was heated ina stream of hydrogen at 212° F., and the pro- 
duct, which was partly soluble in water, gave a brown residue, which furnished ‘‘a 


THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 385 


tinetly described. Carey Lea has since contributed largely to our 
knowledge of these colored haloids, and has made it appear at least 
highly probable that they are related to the products formed by the 
action of light. [Red photo-chloride and purple photo-bromide and 
iodide shown. | 

The photographic image is impressed on a modern film in an inap- 
preciable fraction of a second, whereas the photo-salt requires an ap- 
preciable time for its production. The image is invisible simply be- 
cause of the extremely minute quantity of haloid decomposed. In the 
present state of knowledge it can not be asserted that the material com- 
posing this image is identical in composition with the photo-salt, for we 
know the composition of neither the one nor the other. But they are 
analogous in so far as they are both the result of photo-chemical de- 
composition, and there is great probability that they are closely related, 
if notidentical, chemically. Itmay turnout that thereare various kinds 
of invisible images, according to the vehicle or halogen absorbent—in 
other words, according to the sensitizer with which the silver haloid is 
associated. The invisible image is revealed by the action of the de- 
veloper, into the function of which I do not propose to enter. It will 
suffice to say that the final result of the developing solntion is to mag- 
nify the deposit of photo salt by accumulating metallic silver thereon by 
accretion or reduction. Owing to the circumstance that the image is 
impressed with such remarkable rapidity, and that it is invisible when 
formed, it has been maintained, and is still held by many, that the first 
action of light on the film is molecular or physical, and not chemical. 
The arguments in favor of the chemical theory appear to me to be tol- 
erably conclusive, and [ will venture to submit a few of them. 

The action of reagents upon the photographie film is quite similar 
to the action of the same reagents upon the silver haloids when ex- 
posed to the point of visible coloration. Reducing agents and halogen 
absorbents increase the sensitiveness of the film: oxidizing and halo- 
genizing agents destroy its sensitiveness. It is difficult to see on the 
physical theory why it should not be possible to impress an image on 
a film, say of pure silver bromide, as readily as on a film of the same 
haloid imbedded in gelatine. Everyone knows that this can not be 
done. I have myself been surprised at the extreme insensitiveness of 
films of pure bromide prepared by exposing films of silver deposited 
on glass to the action of bromine vapor. On the chemical theory we 


very pale red body on being transformed by chlorhydic and nitricacids.” In another 
experiment silver arsenite was formed, this being treated with caustic soda, and the 
black precipitate then treated successively with chlorhydic and nitric acids: ‘ Silver 
is dissolved, and there is left a substance - - - [of] arich chocolate or maroon, 
etc.” Thison analysis was found to contain 24 per cent. of chlorine, the normal 
chloride requiring 24.74 and the subchloride 14.08 per cent. The committee which 
conducted these experiments consisted of Messrs. Maskelyne, Hadow, Hardwick, 
and Llewelyn. B.A. Rep., 1859, p. 103. 


H. Mis. 129-——25 


386 THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 


know that gelatine is a splendid sensitizer—?. e., bromine absorbent. 
There is another proof which has been in our hands for nearly 30 years 
but I do not think it has been viewed in this light before. It has been 
shown by Carey Lea, Eder, and especially by Abney, who has investi- 
gated the matter most thoroughly, that a shearing stress applied me- 
chanically to a sensitive film leaves an impression which can be devel- 
oped in just the same way as though it had been produced by the 
action of light. [Pressure marks on Hastman bromide paper developed 
by ferrous oxalate.| Now that result can not be produced ona surface 
of the pure haloid; some halogen absorbent, such as gelatine, must be 
associated with the haloid. Weare concerned here with a chemical 
change of that class so ably investigated by Professor Spring, of Liége, 
who bas shown that by mere mechanical pressure it is possible to bring 
about chemical reaction between mixtures of finely divided solids.* 
Then again, mild reducing agents, too feeble to reduce the silver hal- 
oids directly to the metallic state, such as alkaline hypophosphites, glu- 
cose or lactose and aikali, ete., form invisible images which can be de- 
veloped in precisely the same way as the photographic image. All 
this looks like chemical change, and not physical modification pure and 
simple. 

T have in this discourse stoically resisted the tempting opportunities 
for pictorial display which the subject affords. My aim has been to sun- 
marize the position in which we find ourselves with respect to the in- 
visible image after fifty years’ practice of the art. This image is, I 
venture to think, the property of the chemist, and by him must the 
scientific foundation of photography be laid. Wemay not be able to 
give the formula of the photo-salt, but if the solution of the problem has 
hitherto eluded our grasp itis because of the intrinsic difficulties of the 
investigation. The photographic image brings us face to face—not 
with an ordinary, but with an extraordinary class of chemical changes 
due entirely to the peculiar character of the silver salts. The material 
com posing the image is not of that definite nature with which modern 
chemical methods are in the habit of dealing. The stability of the 
photosalt is determined by some kind of combination between the sub- 
haloid or oxy-haloid, or whatever it may be, and the excess of unaltered 
haloid which enters into its composition. The formation of the colored 
product presents certain analogies with the formation of a saturated 
solution; the product of photo-chemical decomposition is formed under 
the influence of light up to a certain percentage of the whole photo-salt, 
beyond which it can not be increased,—in other words, the silver haloid 
is saturated by a very minute percentage of its own product of photo- 
decomposition. The photo-salt belongs to a domain of chemistry—a no- 


*The connection between the two phenomena was suggested during a course of 
lectures delivered by me two years ago (‘‘ Chemistry of Photography,” p. 191). I 
have sincelearnt that the same conclusion had been arrived at independently by Mr. 
C. H. Bottamley, of the Yorkshire College, Leeds. 


THE PHOTOGRAPHIC IMAGE. 387 


man’s land—peopled by so-called “ molecular compounds,” into which 
the pure chemist ventures but timidly. But these compounds are 
more and more urging their claims for consideration, and sooner or 
later they will have to be reckoned with, even if they lack that definite- 
ness which the modern chemist regards as the essential criterion of 
chemical individuality. The investigation may lead to the recognition 
of a new order of chemical attraction, or of the old chemical attraction 
in a different degree. The chemist who discourses here upon this sub- 
ject at the end of the half century of photography into which we have 
now entered will no doubt know more about this aspect of chemical 
affinity ; and if I may invoke the spirit of prophecy in concluding, I 
should say that a study of the photographic film with its invisibleimage 
will have contributed materially to its advancement. 


A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN.* 


BY M. TREUB. 


A short time ago botanic gardens were arraigned by the rector of 
one of the largest universities of Europe in a serious discourse. The 
orator, a celebrated phyto-physiologist, complained that these gardens 
no longer keep pace with the botanical science of the day. In the 
middle ages and until the middle of the sixteenth century botanic gar- 
deus were collections of officinal plants. Since that period they have 
become truly scientific institutions. Abandoning pure speculation, 
attention was given to living things themselves, particularly to plants. 
Patrons and scientists combined their efforts to bring from the most 
distant countries rare or unknown specimens. In the gardens, depos. 
itories of this wealth, the difficult task was attempted of presenting, 
ona reduced scale, the entire vegetable world, and of bringing together 
(as far as possible), all existing vascular plants. In spite of the con- 
stantly increasing number of plants introduced into Europe, this gen- 
eral plan was for a long time followed, and not until the beginning of 
the present century, was it felt that the method must be changed. In 
the first place it should have been recognized that it was impossible to 
collect in a single garden, however large and well managed, anything 
like the enormous number of vascular plants distributed on our globe. 
Besides, (and thisis a more serious argument,) the conditions offered to 
introduce plants in gardens are so far from natural, that exotic culti- 
vated plants can not be considered as furnishing a proper basis of com- 
parison in scientific researches, as these are at present understood. 
Too many plants in conditions too abnormal is briefly the criticism 
made by the orator. 

These institutions, attacked from so high a place, have not failed of 
defenders. While recognizing that part of the criticismis well founded, 
it is urged that if the object in view was varied somewhat by insisting 
—more than has heretofore been done—upon the adoption of a common 
plan, the botanic gardens of Europe would easily avoid the dangers 
with which they are menaced. It is not necessary that we take any 
part in this controversy, for the objections—whether well-founded or 
not—do not apply to botanic gardens of the tropics, as we will endeavor 
to show in the following pages. 


i Translated from the Revue des Deux Mondes. January 1, 1890, vol. XCVH, pp- 
162-183. 
389 


390 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


The number of botanic gardens situated in the tropical zone is much 
greater than might be supposed. According to a recent enumeration 
there are not less than fifteen in the British possessions, In the French 
colonies they are found at St. Denis in Reunion Island, at La Point-a- 
Pitre in Guadeloupe Island, at St. Pierre in Martinique, at Pondicherry, 
and at Saigon. Spain has one at Havana, and one at Manila; and Hol- 
land has a single one at Buitenzorg in theisland of Java. There are also 
tropical botanie gardens in South America, and these bring the total 
number to a considerable figure. Still it must be admitted that some 
are not botanic gardens properly so-called, but rather agricultural sta- 
tions and gardens of acclimation. There are others however, that 
while not abandoning tropical agriculture, merit the names of great 
scientific establishments. As the chief of this kind, those of Calcutta, 
of Buitenzorg in Java, and of Peradeniya in Ceylon (in chronological 
order) should be cited. 

The royal garden of Calcutta was founded in 1786 by Col. Robert 
Hyde, who was its first director. Among his successors are found the 
celebrated names of Wallich and Griffith, the greatest naturalist of 
our century in the extreme East. The garden of Calcutta has now 
been for several years under the wise and able direction of Dr. G. King, 
to whose care the herbarium of Calcutta owes its great reputation. 
The royal garden of Peradeniya in the Island of Ceylon was founded in. 
1821. Situated near Kandy, at an altitude of nearly 500 metres [1,600 
feet], having a moist and hot climate, occupying more than 60 hectares 
[150 acres], and connected as it is with the post of Colombo by a railway, 
the garden of Peradeniya possesses conditions most favorable in every 
respect. For many years it was under the direction of Dr. Thwaites, 
aman of real merit, but who thought a botanie garden in a tropical 
country should be in some manner a reduced copy of the virgin forest. 
This system, more original than meritorious, excludes any methodical 
arrangement of plants and necessarily restricts the number of speci- 
mens. Dr. H. Trimen, the successor of Dr. Thwaites, as soon as he 
arrived in Ceylon, 9 years ago, realized the disadvantages of the plan 
of his predecessor. To distribute over an area of 60 hectares, without 
any order, a great number of plants, for the most part not labelled, 
was to fatally embarrass the scientific use of the rich collections that 
had been brought together. So Dr. Trimen did not hesitate to adopt 
a new arrangement of plants according to the natural system and to 
Jabel them as far as it was possible todo so. With branch establish- 
ments upon the plain and upon the mountain, the garden of Peradeniya 
has before it a brilliant future. The third of the gardens mentioned, 
that of Buitenzorg in the island of Java, was founded in 1817. We 
will briefly relate its history and show by a study of its present organ- 
ization that a new era is commencing for large tropical gardens, and 
that their influence will constantly increase in the future evolution of 
the science of plants. 


A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 391 
ip. 


On the 29th of October, 1815, a squadron quitting the roadstead of 
Texel in the north of Holland set sail for the Hast Indies. The passen- 
gers (for they carried them upon these ships of war), must have rejoiced 
that they had left the storms and fogs of the North Sea for the sunny 
coasts of Malaysia. The squadron took to Java the commissioners: 
general to whom the sovereign of Holland had committed the task 
of assuming in his name the government of the Dutch East Indies. 
Being a man of broad views, the new king had attached to the com- 
mission a distinguished naturalist, Reinwardt, professor in the Athe- 
neum of Amsterdam, in order that the study of the marvellous natural 
products which constitute the wealth of the Dutch possessions in the 
south of Asia might be settled upon a solid basis. 

The squadron did not enter the straits of Sunda until the last of 
April in the following year. The high functionaries, sailing after a 
long voyage between charming’ islets, set like emeralds in thin silver 
fillets of breakers, breathing the faint odors from the neighboring 
coasts, must at last land and take up their task. The future indeed 
reserved for them many disappointments, and it was only after long and 
tedious diplomatic manceuvers that the English authorities, on the 19th 
of August, 1816, decided to turn over to the plenipotentiaries of the king 
of Holland the rule of the Dutch Indies. Baron Van der Capellen 
the commissioner who was to perform the functions of governor-general 
shortly installed himself at Buitenzorg, taking Reinwardt with him. 

Buitenzorg, the residence of the viceroy of the Dutch Indies, is 
situated 58 kilometres [36 miles] from Batavia, in 106° 53’ 5’ east 
longitude and 6° 35’ 8” south latitude, upon one of the long ridges 
that extend to the north of the great mountain of Salak. An enchant- 
ing site, possessing a beautiful and healthful climate, it is not surpris- 
ing that the governors-general established themselves there instead of 
at Batavia, however large and beautiful that “city of villas” might be. 
This preference, accorded to Buitenzorg by the representatives of the 
king, was the cause of the creation of a botanical establishment at that 
point. In fact, upon the request of Reinwardt, the commissioners- 
general decided —by a decree of April 15, 1817—to found a botanic garden 
at Buitenzorg upon an uncultivated territory belonging to the domain 
and ceded by Baron Van der Capellen. On this territory, contiguous 
to the park and to the palace garden, work was commenced on the 15th 
of May by some fifty native workmen, under the direction of two chief 
gardeners, one of whom, brought out by Reinwardt, had been employed 
in the same capacity in Holland, while the other was a pupil of the 
royal garden of Kew. It would have been difficult to find in the whole 
island of Java a place more appropriate for a garden of this kind, for 
owing to certain conditions, Buitenzorg unites to other advantages 
that of having no dry season, properly speaking. It is evident that 


392 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


only a small number of plants could endure a period of almost con- 
tinuous drought for 4 or 5 months, such as is habitual to the east 
of Java. Even the climate of Batavia, where 2 or 3 months without 
heavy rains are not rare, would be Jess suitable for a botanic garden 
than Buitenzorg, where they complain if in the middle of the dry sea- 
son, rain is absent for 3 consecutive weeks. These frequent and 
heavy rains are doubly advantageous for the garden; Buitenzorg owes 
to them its ever luxuriant vegetation (never ceasing, aS one may Say), 
and they cause a lowering of the mean temperature which makes it 
possible to cultivate many plants from the virgin forests of the moun- 
tains, although the altitude of Buitenzorg is only 280 metres [00 feet]. 
In order to give an idea of the mass of water which is ordinarily shed 
upon the “Sans Souci” of Java,* it will be sufficient to say that at 
Buitenzorg there falls a mean quantity of 4,600 millimetres | 180 inches] 
of rain per year, while in Holland, one of the most rainy countries of 
Kurope, there falls per year but 660 millimetres [26 inches]. No set- 
tled plan was at first adopted, and the archives contain no indication of 
any kind relative to the earliest management of the garden. We 
merely know that its founder, Reinwardt, took advantage of many 
voyages made by him to send plants to Buitenzorg. Yet the first eata- 
logue of the “ Botanic Garden of the State,” the name officially adopted, 
published some months after the departure of Reinwardt, enumerates 
only 912 species of plants. Reinwardt returned to Europe in June, 
1822, to occupy a chair in the University of Leyden. Upon his recom- 
mendation the Government placed at the head of the garden a botanist 
of exceptional merit, Dr. C. L. Blume, who thus became the first director 
of the ‘Hortus Bogoriensis,”t and whose scientific renown was cradled 
in the garden at Buitenzorg. Blume displayed a remarkable activity 
as director. He commenced in 1825 the publication of a work upon 
the flora of Dutch India; with a feverish activity he brought out dur- 
ing 1825 and the early part of 1826, seventeen parts, describing more 
than 1,200 new species, a great number of genera, and several families 
of plants entirely unknown up to that time. The garden profited 
directly from the work of Blume, because the collection of living plants 
was enriched by a numerous series of species discovered by him. On 
the other hand, Blume succeeded in attaching to the garden, besides a 
considerable force and the two chief gardeners, a third European gar- 
dener, and a draftsman. In short, the young institution came out 
brilliantly in every respect, and it seemed to promise a remarkable 
future. A cruel reverse however soon proved the uncertainty of these 
favorable prognostications. Blume, after having nearly broken down, 
had to return to Europe in 1826, to re-establish his health. Almost at 
the same time Baron Van der Capellen was re-placed by the Viscount 


*( The literal translation of the word Buitenzorg is without (beyond) care. } 
| Hortus Bogoriensis, the scientific name of the garden, is derived from Bogor, the 
native name of Buitenzorg. 


A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 393 


du Bus de Gisignies. The former had neglected nothing to stimulate 
the colony, but in doing this, grand seigneur that he was, he had no 
thought of cost. So Du Bus was sent out as commissioner-general, 
with an order to diminish the expenses, and to re-establish the balance 
of the colonial budget. He executed the orders received, and the ex- 
penses were immediately reduced, but how many useful institutions 
were nearly or quite suppressed! The botanic garden of Buitenzorg 
was the first victim of the new measures. It was nearly wiped out. 
In August, 1526, the posts of director and draftsman were abolished and 
but one European gardener was left. By a decree of the following year 
the special appropriation for the garden was discontinned, and it was 
decided that thereafter the “ Botanic Garden of the State” should be 
kept up by a part of the sum allowed to the governors-general for the 
maintenance of their Park of Buitenzorg. 

Happily there are providential interventions, thanks to which, strug- 
gling institutions resist the most murderous attacks. Such an inter- 
vention occurs when there arises a firm and persevering man who is able 
to demonstrate for yet another time, that will triumphs over the most 
vigorous decrees due to the necessities of the moment, and destined to 
disappear with the circumstances which brought them forth. Sueh a 
man arose and the intervention was effected. General Count van den 
Bosch, successor to the Viscount Bus de Gisignies, who landed at Ba- 
tavia in January, 1830, brought with him from Holland an assistant 
gardener, a young man who had occupied an inferior position in a coun- 
try house near The Hague. Toward the end of the year the only chief 
gardener remaining at the garden fell sick, set out for Europe, and died 
on the voyage. The assistant gardener of the governor general was 
selected to replace him. His name was J. EK. Teysmann. Half a cen- 
tury later this simple gardener, who was given no other instruction 
than that of the primary schools, received a testimonial as brilliant as 
it was rare of the esteem he had won in the scientific world. 

Besides diplomas of honor, medals struck with his effigy, felicitations 
from all parts of the world, there was given him an album, in which 
more than a hundred botanists, together with Darwin and De Candolle, 
offered him their greetings, and this album had inseribed upon it, on a 
plate of gold, the following: 

*¢ Celeberrimo indefessoque, J.-H. Teysmann cum dimidium per seculum 
Archipelagi indici thesaurum botanicum exploravit, mirantes college.” 

To have attained this eminence a man must have possessed extraor- 
dinary qualities, and Teysmann certainly had them. A man of strong 
character in every respect, he to the end of his life united with great 
energy and an active intelligence the ardent desire to seize any occa- 
sion for self-instruction, for extending his knowledge of his specialty, 
and particularly for enlarging his views. 

From 1830 to 1837, nothing is heare of either the Garden of Buiten- 
zorg or of the chief gardener. The botanic garden existed during that 


394 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


period only in name, and the chief officer considered that the first ten 
years he passed in Java was only a term of apprenticeship. Still it 
was during that period, in 1837, that the colonial government decided 
on a measure which was finally to bring about most fortunate conse- 
quences. 

The executive member of a so-called natural history commission, to 
whom was assigned the scientific direction of Buitenzorg, was then 
Diard, of French nationality, and it was he who warmly urged upon the 
governor the appointment of Mr. Hasskarl, who had recently landed at 
Batavia and who wished a position. Diard succeeded in obtaining a 
provisional appointment for Mr. Hasskarl, first as gardener, then as 
botanist, and in the latter capacity he was charged with the systematic 
arrangement of the plants of the garden. Tbis idea of Diard, carefully 
carried out, by Mr. Hasskarl, contributes much more to the scientific 
value of the garden than does the great number of species cultivated. 
Extensive arborescent groups, composed of the largest plants, were 
thus arranged in the natural order, and the botanist during the five 
years that he was attached to the garden was able to determine a large 
number of species and to compose the second catalogue of the garden, 
published in 1844, embracing over 3,000 plants, among which were 
many entirely new. 

Diard and Mr. Hasskarl went to Europe on leave, and Teysmann 
again remained alone and in very difficult circumstances, for after the 
departure of Diard the control of the botanic garden passed to a mili- 
tary man, the steward of the governor general’s palace. This extraor- 
dinary arrangement continued, and for about 30 years soldiers con- 
trolled the Hortus Bogoriensis. Under such conditions a new period of 
decline, if not of complete eclipse, of the garden would have been in- 
evitable had it not been for the presence of the energetic Teysmann. 
The more difficulties he encountered the more he displayed his rare 
qualities in the interests of the institution to which he felt himseif at- 
tached for life. Travelling much throughout the whole archipelago, he 
coutinually sent plants and seeds to the Buitenzorg. Upon his return 
he was constantly in the breach, fighting for the interests of his gar- 
den, not even recoiling from conflicts with his military chief, conflicts 
that it must be confessed were frequent. The result of this line of 
conduct was that in 1864, with the aid of Binnendijk, who came to Java 
in 1850, Teysmann issued the third catalogue of the garden, in which 
the number of species under permanent culture exceeded 8,000. 

Finally, in 1868, the long periods of vicissitudes came to a close. 
The garden again became a scientific institation of the state, with a 
special director and appropriation, and entirely independent of the 
stewards of the palace, with whom it was to have, hereafter, only 
neighborly relations. This return to the primitive organization was due 
to the influence of Teysmann, who himself maintained continuous rela- 
tions with the garden by numerous consignments of seeds and plants 


A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 395 


gathered during voyages to the remotest parts of the Dutch posses- 
sions. The government appointed as director Dr. Scheffer, of the Uni- 
versity of Utrecht, a pupil of Mignel, the author of the Flora of the 
Dutch East Indies. The new director began his scientific researches 
as soon as he was installed at Java. A few years later he obtained 
from the government a subsidy for the publication of a scientific collec- 
tion entitled Annals of the Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg. During the 
administration of Dr. Scheffer two changes of great importance took 
place. The collections belonging to the service of the Mines, contained 
in a large museum opposite the garden, were transferred to Batavia, 
and the government gave the building to the botanic garden for its 
herbarium, its collections, and its library. A second, not less impor- 
tant, was the founding, in 1876, of a garden and school of agriculture. 
The latter has since been abandoned. The considerable extension given 
to the garden ought to have implied an increase in the scientific staff. 
Unfortunately this was not understood, and Dr. Scheffer remained 
alone up to the time of his death, which took place in 1880, when he 
was 32 years old. The period since the death of Dr. Scheffer can not 
be said to belong to the domain of history, and we will therefore con- 
tent ourselves with casting a rapid glance over the present organiza- 
tion of the garden. — 

The interest attached to the history of any institution depends, above 
all, upon the importance and extent which that institution presents at 
the time when it is considered. The reader will judge if that is the 
case with the establishment of which we are writing. 

The State Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg comprises three different 
gardens. There is first, the botanic garden proper, in the center of 
the city, occupying an area of 36 hectares [89 acres], wedged in between 
the park of the governor-general, a little river, the Tjiliwong, and the 
postal road. Itis traversed throughout its width by a large and fine 
avenue called the Avenue of the Kanaries, after the native name of 
the trees that border it, beautiful trunks of Canarium Cammune, attain- 
ing a height of about 30 metres [100 feet]. Upon this avenue, which 
borders a great pond enlivened by a pretty island, carriages and foot- 
men freely pass. From it roads practicable for carriages, in part open 
to the public, pass in all directions and form the arteries to which are 
attached a perfect maze of foot-paths of different sorts. Plants of one 
family are, as we have said, found together. They form scattered 
groups, or rather they occupy one or more divisions bounded by the paths. 
Each division has at one of the angles a list of the genera it contains. 
Fach species is represented by two specimens, one of which carries a 
label bearing the scientific name, the native name if there is one, and 
usually stating the products of the plant. In consideration of the great 
number of climbing plants of tropical countries, Teysmann had the 
happy idea of putting them together in a special part of the garden, 
where they also are arranged according to their natural affinities. 


396 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


There is here offered a wide field for interesting observations. Includ- 
ing herbaceous plants, the total number of species is about 9,000. In 
the middle of the garden there is a range of nurseries where young 
plants are cultivated, partly under shelters that protect them from the 
heat of the sun or from the injurious effect of beating rains. Some 
plants require special care, notably a certain number of ferns, arums, 
and orchids. These are placed in two buildings that resemble the hot- 
houses of Europe, with the difference, however, that at Buitenzorg they 
serve to keep the plants cool and not.to give them a more elevated tem- 
perature. The garden has its own carpenters who construct buildings 
of this sort; asmall detail which will give an idea of the scale upon 
which everything is organized. The native force is composed of about 
100 individuals, among whom are 3 employés having special knowledge 
of botany, much more than we would expect to find among Malays. 
This force works under the orders of a chief gardener and a second 
gardener. ‘The garden is open night and day, an arrangement which is 
only possible in the East where they are not yet sufficiently advanced 
to consider that property is robbery. At the two principal entrances 
there are gate-keepers but no gates. 

The agricultural garden, the second division of the Hortus Bogori- 
ensis, is situated about a league from the center of Buitenzorg and cov- 
ers not less than 70 hectares [173 acres]. The arrangement of the place 
and the distribution of the plants at once shows that the aim is ex- 
clusively practical. Everything is regular, the roads and foot-paths 
intersecting at right angles, the divisions thus formed of almost uniform 
size, the plants in each division all of the same species and the same 
age. While in the scientific division each species is represented by but 
two specimens of each species, here there are a hundred, but only cul- 
tivated plants that are or may become useful to agriculture or colo- 
nial industries; the different species and varieties of coffee, of tea, of 
sugar-cane, of rubber and gutta-percha trees, the Hrythroxylon Coca 
which furnishes cocaine, trees which produce tannin and oils, forage 
plants, ete. A special part of the garden is reserved for officinal 
plants. There is a gardener-in-chief to direct the work, and a force of 
70 native workmen. 

The third garden is found at a considerable distance from Buitenzorg 
on one of the slopes of the neighboring voleano of Gede. With an area 
of 30 hectares [74 acres], at an altitude of 1,500 metres [5,000 feet], it 
possesses a climate marvelously adapted for the cultivation of plants 
of the indigenous mountain flora, as well as those of Australia and 
Japan. About 10 natives work there under the orders of a European 
gardener. The three gardens which together constitute the State 
Botanic Garden at Buitenzorg havea total area of nearly 140 hectares 
[346 acres]. 

The museum, situated opposite the botanic garden proper, is a build- 
ing 44 metres long [144 feet], specially constructed for the purpose to 


A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 39T 


which it is now applied, although it was originally used for mineralog- 
ical collections. It is composed of a hall occupying the body of the 
principal story, and of two wings. On the floor of the hall are upright 
closets along the wall, and glass cases in the center containing collec- 
tions both botanical and technical. Part of the exhibits are dried and 
part are preserved in spirits. The herbarium occupies the gallery 
which runs around the entire hall, 4 metres above the floor. The dried 
plants are not, as in Kurope, placed in portfolios, but in tin boxes in 
order that they may be better protected against insects and moisture, 
those great enemies of collections in tropical countries. As a matter of 
course, corrosive sublimate, naphthaline and carbon bisulphide are con- 
sidered at Buitenzorg as important allies in this constant fight against 
insects. The number of tin boxes containing the herbarium exceeds 
1,200. Hach box contains, on an average, 100 specimens. One of the 
wings of the building is set apart for the service of the museum, a divi- 
sion which has for its chief the adjunct director of the garden assisted 
by a naturalist. The other wing, a little more than 10 metres long and 
nearly 11 metres wide, is wholly devoted to the library, which contains 
more than 5,000 volumes. This is a considerable number when it is 
remembered that it is a special botanical library, although books of 
general natural history and transactions of academies of sciences such 
as those of Paris, Berlin and London, are not wanting. In the matter 
of descriptive botany an attempt is made to obtain, besides classical 
and indispensable works, whatever relates to the flora of the extreme 
Orient. The books on general botany are supplemented by the most 
recent treatises and publications on morphology, anatomy, physiology, 
and vegetable paleontology. But the special wealth of the library of 
the garden at Buitenzorg is the series, generally complete, of all the 
reports and botanical reviews of the first rank at present published in 
Dutch, French, English, and Italian. The special isolation of a botan- 
ical garden situated at equally remote distances from the scientific cen- 
tres of the Old and the New World makes it necessary to attend care- 
fully to the maintenance of the library, keeping it well up to the 
advances of science. 

There are three laboratories, and there will soon be a fourth, for in 
accordance with the proposition of the colonial government accepted 
by the mother country, the force in the garden of Buitenzorg is to be 
increased by two new functionaries, a botanist and a chemist, whose 
task it will be to furnish by patient and careful investigations scientific 
data as to the useful plants of tropical countries and their culture. The 
laboratory intended for the chemist is not yet opened. Behind the 
museum in a special building is the pharmacological laboratory where 
a pharmacal chemist temporarily attached to the garden carries on 
investigations upon alkaloids and other curious and useful substances 
which tropical plants contain. Considering the small amount of exact 
knowledge that we have concerning these substances this happy inno- 


398 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


vation can not but produce results of great practical utility as well as 
of great scientific interest. 

Two botanical laboratories are placed in the main botanic gardens, 
behind the range of nurseries. One of these, a large hall 6 metres wide 
and 20 long, is reserved for foreign scientists who come to pass some 
time at the Hortus Bogoriensis to make investigations and to study the 
tropical flora in its home. This laboratory is lighted by five windows 
at each of which there is a work table. Closets placed against the op- 
posite wall contain the necessary utensils, optical and other apparatus, 
flasks, vases, etc., and the so-called micro-ehemical reagents. Besides, 
there is a small collection of working books so that investigators need 
not have to depend upon the main library. It is also proposed to facil- 
itate the researches of visitors, by placing in the hall a herbarium con- 
sisting entirely of specimens of plants cultivated in the garden, so that 
in cases of doubt the rapid identification of any such plant may be made 
without having recourse to the herbarium of the museum. This special 
laboratory herbarium is at present only begun. The arrangement of 
the hall is simple, offering at once the advantages of good light and 
plenty of room. This last point is an essential thing in hot countries, 
where open space is necessary, especially in a laboratory for research. 
Even at Buitenzorg, where the evenings, nights, and mornings are 
fresh, the mean temperature in the middle of the day is from 28° to 29° 
C. [82° to 849 F.]. There are even days during the dry season when 
for 2 or 3 hours in the latter part of the day the mercury rises to 31° 
C. (88°F. ]. 

The second botanical laboratory, about 100 paces distant, backed up 
against the office of the garden and communicating with it, is reserved 
for the director and the new functionary, the botanist who is expected 
from Europe. 

The fourth laboratory, that of agricultural chemistry will shortly be 
established in the garden of agriculture. In the near vicinity of the 
botanical laboratory are the offices and a small photographic and litho- 
graphic workshop for the draftsman photographer. The offices, formerly 
badly arranged in two small rooms of the museum, have just been trans- 
ferred to a special building, given up for that use by the Government, 
a new proof of the solicitude the government of the Dutch East Indies 
and of the mother country always feels for the Garden of Buitenzorg. 


Il. 


What are the principles of the organization we have just described, 
and how does it work? What are the advantages peculiar to large 
botanical gardens in the tropics, and why is there reason to expect 
them to exercise a great influence over the future development of 
botany? Before answering these questions an understanding must be 
reached on an essential point; that is to say, the different way in which 


A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 399 


pure and applied science is studied in Hurope on the one hand and in 
a tropical country on the other. When among European peoples sci- 
ence took the marvellous flight which characterizes our century, a differ- 
entiation soon commenced. Purely scientific studies and investigations 
remained as formerly more or less directly attached to the universities 
and faculties, ina word, to superior instruction, properly so called. But 
at the same time the remarkable useful applications which accompanied 
the progress of science necessitated the creation of special institutions, 
polytechnic schools, technical laboratories, experimental gardens, agri- 
cultural stations, etc. Both of these sister branches, pure and applied 
science, equally demanded indefatigable workers, trained in method and 
gifted in intelligence. While having a totally different object, they 
remain in relation and continual coatact. Still the specialization exists 
and it may be easily foreseen that it will increase. It is the same or 
will be the same in colonies where the climatic conditions permit the 
European to fix his permanent habitation, but it is not the case for 
European colonies in tropical countries. There the colonists do not 
come with the intention of remaining permanently. On the contrary, 
from the time of their arrival in the distant country, however beautiful 
and fertile it may be, they are firmly resolved to return to their native 
land. The majority of them, having acquired social position or the 
wished-for fortune, hasten to return home, almost certain to find that 
the recollections of childhood and youth are deceptive, and that the 
climate and social organization in Europe are far from reaching the 
ideal which they had formed during their sojourn at the antipodes. 

Recently the question has been much discussed whether Europeans 
can found colonies (in the strict serse of the word) in tropical countries, 
reside there for several successive generations, and raise there a pure 
blooded race. The celebrated Professor Virchow is one of those who 
deny with great authority and energy the possibility of a true acclima- 
tion of a European race in a tropical country. If a naturalist who has 
dwelt in the beautiful island of Java for some years, and who is a fervent 
admirer of it, may be allowed to have an opinion on this mooted ques- 
tion, I must avow that everything goes to show that M. Virchow is right. 
But whatever opinion may be held concerning the theoretical possibility 
of this acclimation, the plain fact is this, that in the Dutch East Indies, 
and so far as I know in other tropical countries also that have been 
under European control for some centuries, the pure race has not suc- 
ceeded in becoming acclimated. 

This point once understood, it will be clearly seen why (with rare ex- 
ceptions) universities, faculties of sciences, and similar institutions have 
hitherto been wanting in tropical colonies. Families send their sons to 
Europe to study and take their degrees. The teaching body of the uni- 
versity, with its laboratories, its libraries, its cabinets, and its collections, 
does not there exist; and yet it is especially in a tropical colony that 
material interests, so important there, ought to cause great value to be 


400 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


placed upon applied science. This is a contradiction at once apparent, 
and which becomes still more obvious if we pass from the general case 
to the special one of botany, which is of the first importance, because 
of the great influence it has upon tropical agriculture. The time has 
passed, and we should be glad of it, when the high price of colonial prod- 
ucts, the want of co-operation, excessively cheap labor, and sometimes 
also oppression of the native population, made all special knowledge 
superfluous to anyone who chose to take the chance of making his for- 
tune in agriculture. We are already far from the period when the 
grossest empiricism was usually sufficient, permitting the acquirement 
of wealth by those destitute of education and often even of intelligence. 

To insure solid results, tropical agriculture—no lessthan that of tem- 
perate countries—demands judgment and special knowledge, and the 
need is felt of establishing it also on a firm scientific basis. It has it 
is true been said, adopting a practical view of the very narrowest kind, 
that the contradiction we have just pointed out, did not necessarily exist, 
since it was only necessary to take fora scientific basis the results of 
the researches of European scientists, only that the application will be 
somewnat different in the tropics. This is avery grave error, especially 
since it relates tothe phenomena of life. It is vain for us to compare as 
to their effects upon vegetation, the dry season with winter, and the 
rainy season with spring and summer. ‘The forms and functions in 
which vegetable life manifests itself in an equatorial country are quite 
different from those in the temperate zone. The essential laws which 
rule life are the same, but the manifestations of it are quite different. 
It is therefore for the immediate interest of tropical colonies to possess 
scientific establishments for the study of life in its forms and in its 
functions. As institutions of this kind depending upon universities or 
faculties do not exist, it is evident that botanic gardens established by 
the state are indispensable. These gardens serve a double purpose, 
scientific and practical, but it should not be forgotten that it is in science 
only that they must have their root. The scientific institution forms 
the trunk on which the branches are grafted. If the trunk is hampered 
ever so little in its growth and loses its vigor, the branches will cer- 
tainly suffer, and in the end may perish. Thus everything which lowers — 
the scientific tone of a tropical botanic garden is contrary not only to 
the advancement of science, but also to the direct interests of the colony. 

It is neccessary to insist upon this truth because there is always 
among agriculturists a tendency to confound a botanic garden with an 
agricultural station or with an experimental garden. ‘This error is ex- 
cusable in persons who not understanding the /festinu lente of science, 
are continually wishing immediate answers to questions of vegetable 
pathology and physiology which they ask in the interests of the special 
culture in which they are engaged. This want of patience and compre- 
hension of the modus operandi in scientific investigations is the princi- 
pal reason why agricultural stations founded by agriculturists them- 


A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN, AQ] 


selves are liable not to give the results expected and certainly merited 
by the laudable efforts of those who established them. <A state estab- 
lishment pursues its regular development protected against these im- 
patient demands. It gradually extends its sphere of action for the 
interests of all, but without allowing the variable and often exaggerated 
exigencies ofthe moment todisturbit. The first duty ofthe functionaries 
placed by the colonial government at the head of the botanic gardens 
is to combat the lack of stability and continuity, the scourge of every 
colony. Itis not only the right but the duty of governments to demand 
that the persons to whom they have entrusted these posts shall not 
have variable avd narrow views, excusable in others, but never in a 
naturalist. The latter has had the benefit of an enlightened scientific 
education, and there is expected of him a certain breadth of view which 
should be the result of his own researches. These general principles 
admitted, let us see how they are carried out in the particular case 
under consideration. The government of the Dutch East Indies author- 
izes the director of the garden at Buitenzorg to distribute gratuitously 
seeds and plants of usetul vegetables. In 1888 there was sent to all 
parts of the archipelago 1,400 packages of seeds, cuttings, and young 
seedlings of useful plants. It is by means of the garden of agriculture 
that it is possible to gratify so many demands. But this garden is part 
of a-scientific organization and would not work well if alone. The fol- 
lowing examples will show this: When the remarkable anestbetie 
qualities of cocaine were discovered, it was only necessary to go to the 
two specimens of Hrythroxylon coca of the group of Erythroxylacee in 
the botanic garden proper. Enough seed could be gathered to make a 
little plantation in the garden of agriculture. When, a year after, a 
scientist urged upon the colonial secretary at The Hague that the in- 
troduction of Hrythroxylon coca should be attempted at Java, the Bui- 
tenzorg authorities were able to answer that thousands of seed gathered 
in the garden of agriculture had just been distributed. The tree for a 
long time known as the producer of the best quality of gutta-percha, 
the Palaquium (Isonandra) gutta is believed to grow nowhere in a wild 
state; at all events it is almost impossible to obtain seeds. In the 
division of Sapotacee in the garden of Buitenzorg, are two specimens 
from 30 to 40 years old which produce every 2 years a great number 
of seeds. From them has come the young plantation in the garden of 
agriculture as well as a great number of specimens in a large separate 
plantation of gutta-percha trees commenced by the government some 
years ago under the auspices of the garden of Buitenzorg. The cam- 
phor tree of Sumatra, a plant of great value, is very difficult to obtain, 
first because its seed are very few, then because they lose very rapidly 
their germinating power, even during a short voyage. By taking 
special pains Teysmann succeeded in introducing the tree at Buiten- 
zorg. In 1885 the specimens at the botanic garden began to bear fruif, 
and now the garden of agriculture possesses a plantation of young 
H, Mis, 129——26 


402 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


Sumatra camphor trees, while there is besides a considerable number 
of plants to be distributed during the next rainy season. Why was it 
that a short time after their qualities became known, the garden of agri- 
culture possessed new cacao trees from Nicaragua, rubber trees, forage 
plants, and new varieties of coffee plants from Brazil, oleiferous plants, 
plants for cooking and useful trees from Gaboon, rubber climbers from 
Zanzibar, etc.2 It was only because, having the great botanic garden 
to depend upon, it could offer its correspondents in exchange many a 
plant interesting to botany or horticulture. The researches hitherto 
made at Buitenzorg upon the pathology and physiology of plants of 
general culture have been but few in number, and besides they have 
been more or less against the interests of the garden, an additional 
proof of what has just been stated. As soon as the two new function- 
aries, the botanist and the chemist, especially appointed for these 
researches shall arrive, the scientific force of the garden at Buitenzorg 
will be sufficiently numerous and varied to answer every need. On the 
one hand it will be impossible to lower the general scientific tone; on 
the other, patient and careful researches will give to agriculture a solid 
basis by which it will not fail to profit. The trunk will preserve the 
necessary sap for the food of the branches on which practical aims will 
have been grafted. That which will be accomplished in a little time for 
agriculture, took place a year ago for pharmacology and toxicology. 
Although the skillful pharmacal chemist who is the chief of this new 
division has only commenced his researches, the results obtained up to 
the present time furnish conclusive proofs both of the utility of the 
measure undertaken by the colonial government and of the necessity of 
attaching this laboratory to a great botanic garden. 

At the time of the founding of the Hortus Bogoriensis the great 
utility which it would finally be to the colony was perceived, but this 
was not the chief motive for its creation. When the government of 
Holland sent Reinwardt to the Dutch East Indies it was, as expressly 
stated by the sovereign, ‘‘for the purpose of obtaining as thorough a 
knowledge of our colonies as our neighbors possess of theirs.” It was 
the intention of the king to contribute, by encouraging scientific explo- 
ration in the colonies, toward ‘ rendering manifest the happy rehabili- 
tation of the Dutch name. The result of generous and elevated ideas, 
it is the duty of the garden of Buitenzorg never to forget its origin. 
To continue an emulation with the neighboring colonies, to aid in mak- 
ing known every possible aspect of the exuberant vegetation of the 
tropics, to contribute to the advancement of science independent of any 
direct utility, is really to render service to the colony, and in a way 
which, in the long run, is quite as efficacious as that which looks only 
towards direct practical interest. The more civilization advances the 
more it is demanded of nations which possess great kingdoms in far- 
away countries blessed by heaven that they should not forget that roy- 
alty has its responsibilities and that it can not be allowed to withdraw 


A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 403 


itself from the noble task of adding to our knowledge of nature, inde- 
pendent of any direct advantage, either present or future. 

A considerable part of this duty falls upon botanic gardens, especially 
when they possess special advantages like that of Buitenzorg. We 
said at the beginning that the adverse criticisms made against botanic 
gardens would not apply to those of the tropics because the latter are 
placed under quite special conditions. In fact, the short descriptions 
which we have just given will suffice to make it understood that judg- 
ing by Buitenzorg there is no attempt at making an immense collec- 
tion of plants in abnormal conditions. It is true that in many divisions 
of the garden growth has caused the trees to approach each other too 
closely, but the specimens that suffer in this way do not at all remind 
us of those slender, spindling specimens of hothouse growth attacked 
by the learned critic. As to the conditions offered to plants it is evident 
that there is a great difference between hothouses and a garden. Not 
that the Hortus Bogoriensis offers to all its plants a perfectly natural 
situation, but from that to abnormal conditions is a long way. It is 
sufficient to recall that aside from young plants and the very few species 
that are cultivated under shelter, all the plants grow in the open ground. 
In the second place it is evident that the great number of vegetables 
scattered over such a vast space implies the impossibility of giving a 
factitious life to any one specimen by over-care. In general it may be 
said that every plant introduced into Buitenzorg with which the climate 
does not agree ends by dying,—generally in a very short time. The 
plants that continue to grow in a tropical garden may develop more or 
less well, but it is very rare that we have to admit that they are abnor- 
mally developed, so the taxonomist and the morphologist can study the 
plants of the garden without fearing to fall every moment upon charac- 
ters that are unnatural or disfigured by culture. In the rare cases of 
doubt the herbarium is there to serve as a check and to allow a com- 
parison with neighboring species not cultivated in the garden. In view 
of the great number of tropical ligneous-plants, the study of living spec- 
imens has for the systematist some real advantages over the study of 
herbarium specimens. The latter are necessarily but small fragments, 
carrying, it is true, flowers and fruits, but very rarely showing poly- 
morphism, so frequent in vegetation. The physiologist and the anato- 
mist may make their researches on development, the play of functions, 
and the minute structure of the plants of the garden without the fear 
of being led into error by degenerations and reductions due to a life of 
starvation and ill-health consequent on unnatural conditions. For this 
sort of researches the absence of a dry season is of special advantage 
to the garden of Buitenzorg. The periodicity shown in the successive 
stages of the evolutionary cycle of a plant is there almost always due 
to internal causes and quite rarely to the direct influence of external 
causes. This is, for the phyto-physiologist, an advantage which he 
does not find in the temperate zone and rarely in the tropics. 


404 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


We seein what favorable circumstances the botanists attached to the 
Hortus Bogoriensis and residing at Buitenzorg study in every aspect 
the flora of the Dutch East Indies, and in general the manifestations 
of vegetable life in a tropical country, but they would have very badly 
understood their task and shown a regrettable narrowness of ideas if 
they had wished to preserve for themselves the discoveries and the in- 
vestigations in this vast and fertile field of study. Far from this, it is 
their duty to constantly urge their brethren beyond the sea to come and 
profit by the opportunity of studying a great number of questions it 
would be impossible to attack in Europe. A generous scientific hos- 
pitality offered to all, profitable to science and worthy of the colony 
that has the advantage of being able to offer it, is the only line of con- 
duct proper to follow. For the purpose of carrying outa plan like this 
the government of the Dutch East Indies founded at Buitenzorg four 
years ago the laboratory of research which is at the disposal of foreign 
naturalists. 

At length we have reached the important question, what reason is 
there to think that botanic gardens in the tropics have entered upon a 
new phase in which they will exercise great influence upon the study 
of botany? The answer is as simple as it is short: because they have 
become botanical stations similar to the zodlogical stations on the coasts 
of Europe. Any one interested in natural sciences must know that 
zoology owes a great part of its recent rapid advancement to these 
littoral stations. However unlikely it may appear we may predict that 
botanical gardens of the tropics will have in future a still greater im- 
portance in the advancement of botany. To effect this they must be 
large and favorably situated like that of Buitenzorg and of Paradeniya, 
where they have just followed the example of establishing a laboratory 
for visitors. 

In order that this prognostication may be realized two things are 
necessary. First, that botanists shall follow the example given by 
their colleagues, the zodlogists, in becoming less reclusive; then, that 
they should have more accurate ideas as to the “perils” to which one 
is exposed in a sea voyage, and especially as to the “dangers” which 
meet a visitor to a tropical climate. Rocks, hurricanes, and shipwrecks 
on one side, fatal diseases, wild beasts, serpents, and venomous crea- 
tures of all kinds on the other, are so many phantoms which haunt 
timid imaginations and prejudiced minds. Whoever is acquainted with 
the great steamers that make the voyage to the Indian Ocean knows 
that the perils and inconveniences which it was imagined must be en- 
dured on board these well-equipped and comfortably fitted vessels have 
very little basis of fact. Three or four weeks of dolce far niente passed 
on board a great mail steamer, during which one enjoys the excellent 
fresh sea air, are advantageous to the health. Itis true that if 1s some- 
times a little tiresome, that there is at times a little monotony in the 
diversions offered by the flying fish and porpoises. But on the other 


A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 405 


hand what excellent memories are preserved of the long days on 
board! The apprehension which has the least foundation in fact, that of 
the dangers which one incurs by passing a few months in a tropical 
country, is yet more difficult to dissipate. The false opinions on this 
subject, which are found in every country, have a singular tenacity of 
life. If one only goes to a healthy and civilized locality a sojourn of 
a few months in a tropical country presents no danger whatever. On 
the contrary, for many constitutions, autumn and winter in Europe are 
far from being as healthy as the climate of the tropics. Certainly itis 
possible that the latter may be injurious, but such an effect is only felt 
after a prolonged exposure. 

However unfounded such fears may be they can not be overcome if 
there remains any doubt but that a sojourn of some months in a botanic 
garden in the extreme Orient will be of great use to a naturalist. The 
remark has sometimes been made that a botanic garden of this kind, 
however great and rich it may be, can not give by itself any adequate 
idea of the vegetation of a virgin forest which has such an irresistible 
attraction for the observer of living nature. This is true, but it should 
not be forgotten that in Java, as in many other tropical countries, 
primitive nature and civilization jostle each other. At Buitenzorg, the 
vice-regal residence, an excursion of 1, 2, or 3 days transports the bot- 
anists to a perfectly virgin forest, so near is it. Besides, a branch 
establishment of the garden is situated upon the mountain called 
Tjibodas, which touches the very edge of the forest from which it was 
recovered. There naturalists visiting the botanical station of Buitenzorg 
go to pass some time for the purpose of making observations and gather- 
ing at their ease plants from their native wilds. In order that these 
wilds may be safe from any injury by the natives, and that their prim- 
itive character may be preserved, the government has taken care to put 
an area of some 250 hectares [nearly 1 square mile] under the immediate 
control of the botanic garden. 

There are certain obstacles to be met when one would make a voyage 
to the East Indies, such for example as preparing for an absence of 
considerable duration, a leave to be obtained or a public mission to be 
asked for, or objections of members of the family unaccustomed to travel- 
ling. Therefore it may be asked whether such a voyage secures to the 
investigator not only the certainty of establishing new facts which 
may be arranged on well-known lines, but also whether there is much 
chance of discovering new paths which when explored will lead science 
to new results. This question should receive a stronger affirmative 
answer than might be supposed by many naturalists who have never 
quitted Europe. In order to appreciate how fierce is the struggle for 
life in the tropics, and to comprehend how nature has exhausted herself 
in furnishing to the combatants a diversity of offensive and defensive 
arms elsewhere unknown, it is necessary to observe it upon the spot. 
One must see for one’s self—to cite but one example—trees of lofty 


406 A TROPICAL BOTANIC GARDEN. 


stature covered to the top with a bosky vegetation of parasites and 
epiphytes, to be able to conceive how, in their own special way these 
wrestlers have muititudes of special adaptations of which we as yet 
but dimly perceive the origin and the functions. Only after having 
experienced the surprise caused by the sight of the luxuriant végetation 
of the tropics, can the physiologist at last obtain a true idea of the 
wonders reserved for him in the study of vital phenomena manifesting 
themselves with such remarkable force. Finally, it should be borne in 
mind that the present climatological conditions of equatorial countries 
are very much like those which formerly extended over the entire sur- 
face of our globe. It is therefore indispensable that we should study 
tropical plants if we wish to solve the series of riddles relating to the 
origin and affiliation of the plant groups of our period. To the botan- 
ists who study this marvellous flora in its native situation is reserved 
the honor of filling out the great gaps in our present knowledge and 
of making discoveries whose importance and signification we can now 
but partially guess. 

What we have just said is neither premature nor out of place. First, 
the results already obtained sustain it. Besides, naturalists have 
recently given a proof of the interest they have in extending their 
researches to equatorial countries. During the 4 years that the 
laboratory for research has been established at Buitenzorg it has been 
visited by fourteen naturalists, and all but one came from beyond the 
sea and from different countries. It is to be regretted that we have 
to add that no French botanist has, up to the present time, come to 
occupy a work table in the laboratory of the Hortus Bogoriensis. 
Without doubt the number of visitors will go on increasing, and at 
length they will come from all nations. He who has the honor of now 
directing the scientific establishment described in this article is the 
first to desire it. Indeed, it is with the intention of encouraging and 
stimulating this movement that it has been written. 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE.* 


By HENRY DE VARIGNY. 


Everything that lives generates heat. Wherever there is life there 
is Simultaneously a production and liberation of heat. On the other 
hand, there exist for all organic life, animal or vegetable, limits of tem- 
perature, above or below which life can not be sustained and between 
which points only can full development be attained. Temperature is 
therefore an imporiant element in all life, and it is interesting to con- 
sider in detail the facts upon which this conclusion rests. We must 
weigh successively two questions: namely, the generation of heat by 
organic life, and the influence exerted upon that life by the theometric 
variations to which it may be subjected—variations which necessarily 
react upon internal temperature, with different degrees of intensity, 
however, as we shall see. 


if; 


Every animal is a source of heat. This is distinetly appreciable in 
man, birds, and superior organisms in general, and the characteristic 
temperature of the various members of the animal kingdom presents 
interesting, although inconsiderable, differences. Birds generate more 
heat than any other organism, in so far as their temperature is shown 
to reach a higher point. According to various observers, it varies 
from 39° to 44° C., while that of man and mammals ranges between 
37° and 39° C. (98° and 102° F.) 

Man,mammals, and birds are called creatures of equable temperature, 
homeothermic—that is warm-blooded—animals. By this is meant that 
their individual temperature is high, that it varies but slightly, and 
that it does not follow the changes in the surrounding atmosphere. 
Another class of organisms, representatives of which are never found 
among birds or mammals, are called heterothermic—cold-blooded— 
animals; creatures of variable temperature, since, in their normal 
physiological state, their individual temperature follows closely the 
changes in the atmosphere about then. The temperature of reptiles, 
batrachians, panes mollusks, crustacea, insects, ete., is almost identical 


“ Translated from ene Rane des Dee Ragnden May 1, 1889 ; vol. XCIII, pp, 176-201. 
407 


408 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 


to that of the water or air surrounding them. All animals except 
mammals and birds are cold-blooded animals. It is to be noted how- 
ever that certain mammals, usually rodents, are in turn warm- 
blooded and cold-blooded. These are hibernating animals, which after 
the fall of the external temperature below a certain point, become tor- 
pid and fall asleep, their own temperature being hardly higher than 
that of the air about them. Of these we shall speak again later. 

Without the aid of certain instruments heterothermic animals would 
appear to generate no heat whatever; for to our senses, their tempera- 
ture is the same as that of their surroundings. In the case of reptiles, 
however, the temperature exceeds that in which they are placed, (the 
difference being estimated when the external temperature was at a 
point between 5° and 15° C.) as much as 6, 7, and 8 degrees, though it 
more frequently varies from 1 to 4 degrees. In the case of batrachians 
it is less, scarcely exceeding 2 or 3 degrees under the same conditions. 
The difference is still less appreciable in fishes, and it reaches its low- 
est point in invertebrates, in which the temperature only occasionally 
shows an excess of one-fourth or one-half of a degree centigrade over 
the temperature of their surroundings. Insects, particularly those 
whieh live in communities, generate at times considerable heat. Thus 
Réaumur observed the temperature in a bee-hive raised to 12°.5 C. 
when the external air was at —3°.7 C. Inshort, heterothermic animals 
generate little heat, but its production is constant. 

What is the cause of this calorification? This is the question into 
which we are now to inquire. The strangest ideas have been enter- 
tained in regard to it. One investigator makes a mysterious principle 
of animal heat, the seat of which is the heart, where it develops so high 
a degree of temperature that touching this organ by chance results in 
a painful burn. . The author of this theory has evidently never prac- 
tised vivisection, for, as a matter of fact, the heart is one of the coldest 
of the organs, in mammals its temperature rarely exceeding 39° or 40° 
C. According to J. Hunter, the celebrated surgeon and anatomist, this 
mysterious principle of animal heat resides in the stomach. Barthez 
and his followers attribute it to an entirely different cause; more rea- 
sonable (in that it excludes the supernatural and mysterious), but no 
less erroneous. Their belief is that it is due to the commingling of the 
several liquid and solid portions of the organism. It was Lavoisier 
who laid the foundations of the true theory of calorification. Having 
made an exact calculation of the nature and properties constituting the 
atmosphere in its normal condition, he demonstrated in an irrefutable 
manner that air, expelled by a living creature, contains carbonie acid 
in larger quantities than the air which he inhales. A combination has 
therefore taken place between the oxygen in the air and the carbon 
contained in the organism. “ Pure air, in passing through the lungs, 
effects a combination analogous to that which takes place in the com- 
bustion of charcoal. Now, in the combustion of charcoal there is a 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 409 


liberation of matter from the fire, consequently there must be likewise a 
liberation of matter from the combustion in the lungs.” ‘That is to say, 
since the lungs evolve carbonic acid, a generation of heat must follow, for 
the reason that heat is under all circumstances an accompaniment of 
combustion. <A living organism produces heat because it burns. The 
study ot a century goes to show the accuracy of this conclusion. 

According to Lavoisier the lungs appear to be the seat of respiratory 
combustion and calorification. On this point however he is guarded 
in what he says, and this reserve is justifiable, as, in point of fact, their 
role is quite a different one from that which he supposes. Lagrange, 
a short time after Lavoisier, combatted this supposition, stating that 
if the lungs were actually the seat of these combustions, the heat gen- 
erated would be of such intensity that this organ would suffer injury 
sufficiently serious to be incompatible with life. This, however, is an 
exaggeration. The production of heat has been estimated, and, even 
supposing the lungs to be the exclusive seat of this function, the tem- 
perature of this organ would not be intense enough to be injurious. 
The most exact researches have shown what is the work assigned to 
the lungs in the process of ecalorification. This organ which, owing to 
its innumerable cells, representing a surface of 150 or 200 square 
metres (this, although astonishing, is indisputable), only serves to bring 
in contact the blood and the air. The net-work of capillaries, separated 
from the air by a fine layer of cells, represents a surface equal to about 
three-fourths of that of the entire lungs, and forms a sanguineous coat- 
ing of 100 or 150 square metres. This has little depth, it is true, only 
containing 2 litres of blood. This however signifies little, for in order 
to secure absorption, it is extent of surface rather than depth which is 
required; the latter being of slight consequence. Moreover if there 
are at a given moment 2 litres of blood in the lungs it is estimated by 
a simple calculation that the total quantity of blood passing through 
the lungs in the course of 24 hours is about 20,000 litres. In fact, the 
anatomy of the lungs is admirably arranged to give them this absorb- 
ing capacity, and experience shows that their role is exactly that for 
which their organization is best adapted. The blood which permeates 
the lungs absorbs the oxygen in the inhaled air, by reason of a chemical 
affinity between the hemoglobine of these red globules and that gas, 
and carries it throughout the body. It is in the recesses of the tissues 
over all parts of the organism that this oxygen, separating itself from 
the hemoglobine, unites with the carbon of the tissues, and ignites in 
order to give birth to heat and carbonic acid; necessary results of all 
combustion. Theacid which is taken up by the blood is finally expelled 
through the lungs. 

Calorification is thus the result of combustions which take place at 
all points of the animal economy. It is in complete dependence upon 
the relations of two other functions—respiration (that is to say, the sup- 
ply of oxygen for burning) and alimentation (the supply of carbon or of 


410 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE, 


combustibles). ‘We shall have occasion to refer to this point later on. 
Calorification is produced not only in the lungs, as Lavoisier believed 
up to acertain point, but in all the tissues of the organism, the proof 
of it being that the tissues respire in a condition of life. Exception is 
made, however, of cutaneous growths, such as hair and nails, these be- 
ing lifeless portions of theorganism. If the tissues respire it is because 
there is a combination of oxygen and carbon, hence combustion, hence 
heat. The demonstration of the respiration of the tissues is easily fur- 
nished by experiment. Let an animal be killed and fragments of mus- 
cle, liver, brain, bone, etc., detached. Let these be placed in a test 
tube containing oxygen, and inverted on mercury. At the end of a 
space of time, which varies in length, and in proportion differing ac- 
cording to the tissues, there will be found in the test tube carbonic 
-acid which has replaced a part of the oxygen, and which establishes in 
an indisputable manner the respiration which has taken place. 

In short, animal heat results from combustion of the carbon in the 
‘tissues with the oxygen of the air, this element being introduced into 
the blood by the action of the lungs, and carried by this liquid through- 
out every portion of the body. Combustion takes place in all the tis- 
sues (and in the blood itself, although but slightly) in varying degrees, 
being greater in extent in the muscles, brain, and glands, and less so 
in the bones and other anatomical portions of the structure. 

Is calorification, then, the result of combustion and oxydation only? 
It was for a long time so believed, but in reality other influences enter 
into this funetion. The organism is, in fact, the theater of chemical 
phenomena, infinite in variety. The materials derived from the food 
are assimilated by various chemical processes, and the action of elimi- 
nation is accomplished by phenomena of no less variety. All the com- 
binations, decompositions, reductions, etc., which the different materials 
undergo, give rise invariably to the generation or absorption of heat. 
In plain language, all chemical action produces heat or cold, according 
to circumstances, and this production is in conformity with chemical 
laws which are now fully understood. 

Among numerous chemical phenomena of this sort in the organism— 
phenomena which have been thoroughly studied by M. Berthelot—special 
reference may be made to hydrations, decompositions, combinations, 
and fermentations. All these phenomena take place in the bodies of 
living creatures, and all play their part in the process of calorification. 
Calorification is then the result of multiplied chemical actions which oc- 
cur at all points of the organism, actions of which some generate, while 
others absorb heat, but among which those of the former evidently pre- 
dominate. Among the heat-giving phenomena oxydations are the most 
important, but it is well to remember that this is not their only attri- 
bute, as Lavoisier believed. 

The simple fact that respiration is not carried on with the same 
activity in all the tissues indicates a priori that there must be an appre- 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. ALi 


ciable difference in their temperature. This is in spite of the fact that 
in living organisms the equal distribution of temperature is favored by 
the contact of heated portions with those which are less so, either directly 
or indirectly, by the circulation of the blood. In spite of this tendency 
to establish an equality of temperature, it is easy to distinguish those 
of the highest temperature. They are naturally those of most activity, 
from a chemical standpoint, and whose respirations are most frequent. 
The liver, brain, glands, heart, and muscles belong to this class. The 
heat generated by these organs is in proportion to the chemical activity 
and to the amount of work which they themselves perform. Every 
organ is, in fact, warmer when in a state of activity than when in a state 
of repose. 

Calorification is thus the result of chemical phenomena which take 
place in the recesses of the tissues. These phenomena, which are nu- 
merous and active in animals of the higher class (homeotherms), are 
much less so in cold-blooded animals; but this point is not important, 
the difference being in degree, not in kind. 

Here a question arises: Why does man have an equable temperature 
at the poles, where the temperature is 30 degrees below zero, and in 
Sahara, where there are 40 degrees of heat? Why are not man and 
warm-biooded animals influenced to a greater degree by the temperature 
in which they live, and how are they enabled to contend with these ex- 
tremes of temperature? In several ways, from a physiological stand- 
point, for at this time we are not to consider the means devised by man 
for his protection. To enable him to endure extreme heat, he is supplied 
with a sudatory apparatus which acts as soon as the internal tempera- 
ture begins to rise. The action of external heat brings the sudatory 
glands into activity, and evaporation of the perspiration produces re- 
frigeration to a marked degree. Note, by the way, that this evapora- 
tion is only possible in an atmosphere relatively dry, and is less in pro- 
portion to the humidity of the atmosphere surrounding the body. On 
this account one suffers more from heat when the air is full of moisture 
than when it is dry. Humidity impedes and retards evaporation, and 
in consequence also refrigeration. 

Certain animals are endowed with this sudatory apparatus for the 

_Same purpose as man, but many of them are entirely without it. Among 
the latter class are birds, dogs, rabbits, ete. In what way are these 
protected against heat? As far as we know, no researches have been 
made on this point in regard to birds; but concerning dogs, M. Ch. 
Richet has reached very interesting conclusions. In this animal refrig- 
eration is effected by means of the respiratory organs, for it is by this 
means only that they can bring about a copious evaporation. The dog 
perspires through his lungs, as is the case with all creatures which 
have this organ, even man himself, but with the dog this is the only 
means of effecting perspiration, and it is therefore employed to a far 
greater extent. When a dogis heated he thrusts out his tongue in 


412 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 


order to facilitate the passage of air through the mouth. He breathes 
quickly, sometimes with great rapidity, in order to induce a more 
abundant exhalation of moisture. It is much to be desired that astudy 
of refrigerating mechanisms be pursued in behalf of those beings 
which have no perspiring capabilities, as such a study would be fruitful 
in interesting results. 

When the internal temperature of man is at alow point, sufficient 
refrigeration is effected simply by the flow of blood, which is always 
towards the surface. Influenced by external heat the cutaneous tubes 
expand, by this means they are able to contain a larger quantity of 
blood, and radiation from the skin is thus inereased, resulting in a 
cooling tendency, which spreads through the entire system by reason 
of the circulation of the blood, which is also accelerated, and thus 
facilitates refrigeration. 

From a physiological point of view the organism is less fully equipped 
for protection against extreme cold. Cold however is less dangerous 
to organic life than heat, and for this reason nature has prepared it 
more perfectly to meet the latter. A sensation of cold stimulates 
animal life to activity, and by this very result produces warmth. More- 
over animals of cold climates have in the winter a heavier growth of 
fur, which serves as a protection. In addition to this resource, we shall 
point out the fact that cold contracts the tubes of the skin which dimin- 
ishes refrigeration; respiration is accelerated and with it organic com- 
bustion. The need of food is greater and it is eaten in larger quanti- 
ties, all of which introduces into the system a greater quantity of 
combustible material. Observe for a moment the immense importance 
of the nervous system in its effect upon bodily temperature. This fact 
has been clearly demonstrated by many experiments in physiology, as 
well as by clinical observations. 

To epitomize, the heat of animals is generated by chemical phenomena 
which takes place within the organism. With some species these phe- 
nomena are very active and the temperature proportionately high. In 
addition they are furnished with a regulating apparatus so arranged 
that within certain broad limits oscillations in the external temperature 
modify only to a slight degree, or insensibly, their internal tempera- 
ture. These are the homeothermic species. With the others (the 
heterotherms) in which chemical phenomena are feeble and inactive, 
there is a temperature correspondingly low. These, moreover, have no 
protection against the influence of the outside temperature, following 
closely its variations. Their own temperature is, in fact, the result of 
their environment, more than of the chemical phenomena within. This 
difference between warm and cold blooded animals is considerable, for 
in the case of the former, under average normal conditions, the exter- 
nal temperature has no, or little, action upon the temperature of the 
animal. 

Jalorification is a general phenomena among animals from protozoan 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 413 


toman. There are differences in degree, but the fact is universal. It 
remains for us to prove that this is not only the rule with animals, but 
is also true wherever there is vegetable life, constituting in fact an 
inherent function in all animate matter. 

Plants respire, consequently they generate heat. This is an ascer- 
tained fact of which proof has been given by numerous experiments. 
The cholorophyllic function, which effects a decomposition of carbonic 
acid in the oxygen which is exhaled, and in carbon which is incorporated 
in the tissues, has, for a considerable time, obscured the true manner 
of respiration, making it appear that vegetables respire in an entirely 
different way from animals. The process is the same in the two classes 
of organisms. To assure ourselves of the fact, however, it is necessary 
to eliminate the chlorophyllic function by having recourse to a particu- 
lar arrangement; experimenting upon plants without chlorophyll, or 
upon chlorophyllic plants kept in darkness—the chlorophyllic funetion 
acting only in light. In taking the above precautions, we establish 
the fact that respiration exists among all plants—with more activity, 
it is true, in young plants than in older ones, in plants which are in 
course of development, rather than those which have already attained 
their full growth. This respiration, as ip animals, consists of chemical 
phenomena. It is caused by an absorption of oxygen, and a combina- 
tion of that gas with the tissues of the plant, by which heat is produced. 
As observation has demonstrated to us, everything that has life gener- 
ates heat by reason of the chemical phenomena which accompany life. 
The germination of seeds, for example, does not occur without this 
evolution of heat. To assure ourselves of this, let a thermometer be 
placed in the midst of a quantity of seed in process of germination, 
taking care to insure the elimination of carbonic acid in proportion as 
it is produced—for it arrests respiration and calorification. The ther- 
mometer will be seen to rise 5°, 10°, 15°, and 20° C. The generation of 
heat in this case is therefore considerable. Various experiments made 
with seeds have substantiated the conclusion. Flowers also produce a 
remarkable amount of heat, the truth of which Lamarck was the first to 
establish. It is with flowers of certain aroides that experiments have 
been most successful, and which have furnished the most exact data. 
The temperature of the spathe of these plants when in full flower indi- 
cates a generation of considerable heat, presenting sometimes an excess 
of 5°, 10°, and 15° over the surrounding temperature. To show that 
this calorification is a result of respiration, let a flower be covered with 
oil in order to exclude the oxygen in the air, or let it be placed in an 
inert gas from which all oxygen has been exhausted (nitrogen for in- 
stance), and its temperature will be reduced to almost nothing; combus- 
tion is retarded if not entirely suppressed. Very delicate experiments 
have established beyond a doubt that a close correlation exists between 
the supply of oxygen and the amount of heat produced, the latter being 
proportionate in intensity to the quantity of oxygen absorbed. 


414 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE, 


One has a right therefore to assume that all flowers evolve a certain 
amount of heat, variable, it is true, for one flower differs from another, 
but always clearly appreciable. A similar evolution is observed in the 
active organs of plants when they are excited to movement. it has 
been established in the case of germs by the means of thermo-electric 
needles. It is much more sensible than in the case of adult plants, in 
which life is less active and intense. 

We see in the vegetable, as in the animal kingdom, that heat is gen- 
erated, and that it is due, for the most part, to oxidations within them- 
selves. It is possible to establish the existence of a complete likeness 
between these two classes of organisms. The demonstration which 
substantiates itself every day of the identity and unity of the funda- 
mental laws of life, in spite of variation in furm and appearance, is not 
one of the least benefits which have resulted from the investigations of 
modern science. 

At the point where calorification results from chemical phenomena 
accompanying nutrition and respiration a close dependence springs up 
between it and the process of alimentation. This dependence clearly 
exists. The phenomena of alimentation are in consequence of the in- 
troduction of food into the organism in such a manner that it can be 
assimilated, portions of it immediately, and that which remains after 
it has undergone chemical modifications. To the former category va- 
rious salts and water belong; to the la(ter, organic compounds, flesh, 
fruits, vegetables, milk, etc. Where there is a total lack or insuffi- 
ciency of alimentation the animal perishes, especially when there is no 
reserve supply of nutriment in the form of fat. At the same time its 
temperature falls. This fact has been established by Chossat, who has 
made an exhaustive study of inanition. Animals deprived of nutri- 
ment generate less heat. Their temperature diminishes each day, and 
finally, at the moment of death, sinks to 10°, 15°, or 20° below the nor- 
mal medium. The temperature of pigeons, for example, falls from 40° 
or 42° to 20° or 18°. The same phenomenon exists in the case of man 
or mammals. It is the same with them as with a boiler when the fur- 
nace is not fed; the fire is extinguished and heat disappears. In the 
vegetable kingdom there is in all probability a similar occurrence, al- 
though no visible proof is given of it as far as we know, Experiment 
in this case is very difficult, but an indirect proof is furnished by the 
fact, well known to agriculturists and botanists, that the suppression 
or diminution of such and such mineral salts necessary to vegetable 
life will result in the deterioration and relative unfruitfulness of the 
plant. That which diminishes their vitality and their proportions di- 
minishes also their nutrition, and as a natural consequence their pro- 
duction of heat. ; 

There is therefore between the processes of alimentation and calori- 
fication a fixed relation, and one can readily determine among the many 
different kinds of foods those which contribute most towards caiorifi- 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 4155 


cation. Chemistry shows us by exact analyses that different bodies, in | 
oxidation, evolve varying degrees of heat. Let us imagine a given 
quantity of oxygen introduced into the blood to assist the oxidations | 
which are the principal though not exclusive source of animal heat. . 
The amount of heat which will be produced by the combustion of this . 
volume of oxygen with the material existing in the tissues will vary ac- 
cording to the nature of the material. Combining with certain sub- 
stances the same quantity of oxygen will generate ten times more heat . 
than will result from certain other combinations. That which is true: 
of oxidations is also true of other chemical phenomena incident to ca-- 
lorification—that is to say, hydrations, de-hydrations, decompositions, , 
combinations, etc. The production of heat varies considerably accord- 
ing to the chemical nature of the substances which are influenced by 
these modifications. It is enough to say that certain foods are more 
productive of heat than others. Observation has long since shown the 
effects, in a cold climate, of a diet rich in fats and in sugar, and expe- 
rience establishes the fact that these substances develop a greater de- 
gree of heat than albuminoids. On the other hand, we all know that 
inhabitants of warm climates need less food and are more abstemious 
than those of a cold region. The need for being heated is less pro- 
nounced in their case on account of the temperature in which they live, 
and in which the external cooling is little or nothing in extent. 

The relations which exist between the processes of calorification and 
respiration are no less evident. Anything that obstructs respiration 
obstructs also the generation of heat. ‘This is more pronounced in the 
case of creatures with whom oxidation plays a very important part in 
the generation of heat. The deprivation or diminution of pure air very 
quickly results in serious disturbance, due to the irregularity ocea- 
sioned in the vital functions by an insufficient exchange between the 
blood and the atmosphere. Supposing that life were possible during 
a temporary but somewhat prolonged cessation of respiration, the 
temperature of the body would quickly diminish. The higher class 
of beings may not furnish proof of this fact, being so exceedingly sensi- 
tive to the deprivation of pure air, but by the lower organisms it is 
clearly proven. We have seen it in depriving of its share of oxygen 
-a flower of arum or of colocasia by dipping it either in oil or in azote, 
‘when the phenomenon of thermogenesis is considerably diminished. 

In fine, the:relations of calorification to the activity of the organism 
are quite.as. clear as those of which we have just spoken. These are 
manifest among vegetables as among animals. With the first the 
generation of heat is greatest.during movement, or in reference to the 
more active portions, from the point of view of witality and growth, 
and during the organization of the tissues; in germs, ‘in which the 
chemical changes are rapid, numerous, intense, and in flowers during 
the operation of fecundation. 

With animals all activity ts accompanied by an elevation of the tetr- 


416 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 


perature, local or general, according to the intensity and duration of 
the activity. It is thus that a muscle in the act of contracting evolves 
more heat than when in a state of repose, and this production is such 
that it easily increases the temperature of the body 2°, 3°, 5°. In 
the same manner, a mental or intellectual effort results in a produc- 
tion of considerable heat. The glands in an active state generate 
large quantities of heat, as is seen by the temperature of their secre- 
tions and of the venous blood, which has served in the formation of the 
latter. This is why the venous blood of the kidneys is warmer than 
the arterial blood, and according to Claude Bernard the temperature 
of the hepatie vein, which brings back the blood from the liver to the 
heart, is the highest in temperature, especially during the process of 
digestion, at which time the liver is very active, and the chemical proc- 
esses which take place are also numerous and intense. This is suffi- 
cient to show the dependence of the generation of heat upon the chem- 
ical activities of the body. 

By reason of natural and normal cessations of the phenomena which 
are instrumental in generating and liberating heat, it is impossible for 
the temperature of a being to be absolutely equable. Even with the 
most warm-blooded animals there are many normal variations. In a 
sound man, in normal condition, these variations take place within the 
space of about 24 hours. The temperature is highest from 10 o’clock, 
or midday, to 6 or 7 o’clock in the evening, reaching its lowest point 
between midnight and 6 o’clock in the morning. Violent exercise, of 
course, increases it several degrees, and the process of digestion is 
accompanied by a slight fever. Ina word, a multitude of circumstances 
occur each hour which render variable, within certain limits, it is true, 
the generation of heat. In addition, and this is quite natural, accord- 
ing to the explanations given above, the temperature is not the same 
in all portions of the organism. Certain portions are more thermogenic 
than others, and others are more exposed to a loss of heat. The calo- 
rifie topography of the organism is accurately known. We know that 
the hepatic vein is one of the warmest points of the body, its position 
being a protected one, and containing, as it does, blood heated by the 
intense chemical action which takes place in the liver. The brain has 
probably the same temperature as this vein. On the other hand, the 
skin always shows a much lower temperature (3°, 5°, or 6°) than that 
of the rest of the organism, suffering as it does considerable loss from 
radiation. 

Leaving the question of external heat, we find that internal tempera- 
ture is the direct result of two factors, thermic generation and waste. 
Heat generated is the result of chemical processes, infinite in variety, 
of which the body is the theatre, processes among which that of oxi- 
dation holds a predominant place. As soon as oxidation is retarded, 
there follows a Gifficulty in breathing, accompanied by a lowering of 
the temperature. The cause of this is the diminution itself and the 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 417 


reaction it probably exercises upon the other thermogenic chemical 
actions. As to waste, this is incurred in accordance with well-known 
physical laws, and with warm-blooded animals it is sometimes facilitated 
and sometimes diminished by the action of the regulating mechanism 
placed under the dependence of the nervous system, a mechanism 
which in its normal condition tends to preserve for the organism a tem- 
perature nearly constant, diminishing the losses when the production 
of heat is feeble or insufficient in respect to the temperature of the sur- 
rounding medium, and augmenting these losses, on the contrary, when 
the atmosphere is too high, or when the production is so great that it 
tends to inflame the bodily organism. 

The only difference, from the physiological standpoint, in the calori- 
fication which exists among warm-blooded and cold-blooded animals 
is, that with the latter the production of heat is slight and the regu- 
lating apparatus absent. These species engender little heat, and are 
unable to regulate their losses. They also follow the variations in the 
outside temperature almost to as great an extent as inanimate objects; 
whereas warm-blooded animals conform in a less degree to the outer 
atmosphere, and also with less impunity. 


Il. 


We are now to consider between what limits of temperature organic 
life can be maintained. Animals of the highest temperature, protected 
though they are against the extremes of heat and cold, can be placed 
under conditions which render these protective means inadequate, and 
this in a state of nature and apart from all experimentation. 

A word first on the thermic variations which occur in the inhabited 
zone of our planet; a zone limited in extent, comprising an average of 
8 to 10 kilometres in altitude, its elevations and depressions being 
about equal in distance from the level of the sea; a zone exceedingly 
small when compared with the diameter of the earth. Beyond the 
limits of this region life has never existed, or at least exists no longer. 
We are more especially interested in that portion of the earth which 
can support organic life. The extreme points of temperature observed 
in the atmosphere are - 70° and + 56°C. The former observation was 
made at Iakoutsk, the latter at Mourzouk., These are said to represent 
very exactly the extreme limits, forming a difference of 125° or 130°C, 
At these far distant points human life is possible, and also that of cer- 
tain animals. In the ocean the thermometrie digressions are not as 
great. According to Wyville Thompson, the temperature of the At- 
lantic Ocean reaches 0° at a depth of only 4,200 metres; at 6,000 metres 
it registers 5°; at 800 metres, 4°, and at 2,000 metres it is 3°, About 
the same can be said of the Pacific Ocean. Should the temperature 
upon the surface or at the bottom of the sea descend lower than —1° 
or —2° the water freezes. It is not necessary for us to consider this 

H. Mis, 129-———27 


418 j TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 


point however, since it is complicated by the introduction of a new 
factor—the suffocation of the inhabitants of the water as a resuit of 
this congelation. The Mediterranean Sea is less cold, the temperature 
at the bottom being about 12° or 13°. The Red Sea rises to 21°, and 
at the surface to 52°. The variations are less in the center, not exceed- 
ing 34°C. It is therefore on the earth and in the air that the extremes 
of temperature are found. The immense influence of the rays of the 
sun upon temperature should be taken into account. A thermometer 
which registers 27° in the shade will rise to 31° when placed in the 
sun, and when resting upon a bit of black cloth it will reach 80°. A 
thermometer placed on the helmet of a cuirassier and exposed to the 
sun will rise to 60° or 70°, and in a compartment of a furnace it rises to 
75°C. On the other hand we must not forget that life exists in regions 
where the temperature reaches 90° and 98° © (Hooker, Flourens, ete.). 
This conclusion, therefore, is reached, that there are some creatures 
which can live at +100° and others at —60° or —70°. These figures 
represent the extremes of temperature to which living beings are ex- 
posed under actual terrestrial conditions, but they do not represent 
those which certain of these classes can resist, for certain spores of 
bacteria resist more than +100° and —100° ©, according to recent ex- 
periments. Let us admit at the start, to simplify matters, that life can 
be sustained at —150° and at +150°. Are all these creatures able to 
sustain life with impunity, even for a short time, in such extremes of 
temperature ? Possibly so, but only for a limited space of time, and - 
surrounded by a nonconductor. This proves nothing; the only inter- 
esting phases of this question are the facts or experiments which relate 
to the results obtained by organisms remaining in such extremes for a 
prolonged length of time—interesting where they succumb, being suf- 
focated or frozen, as well as when they are able to survive by pre- 
serving their normal temperature, We will not dwell upon those cases, 
which are both numerous and interesting, where man and animal have 
endured for a few moments or seconds extremes of temperature, only 
considering the cases where their continuation is sufficiently prolonged 
for the temperature to affect them. 

There is for every species of animal and vegetable, indeed even for 
ach variety, a thermic optimum, that is to say, an average of tempera- 
ture which is most favorable to its growth and development. It should 
not be forgotten, however, that with all species of organic life a certain 
adaptation is possible, the limits of which are more or less restricted. 
In many instances it is possible to sustain life among animals in a 
medium which would have been fatal to them if they had been suddenly 
introduced into it, by carefully managing the conditions and transi- 
tions. This fact is especially recognized in chemical elements, of which 
many instances have been given. It is true as well of thermic condi- 
tions. At the same time, even when adaptations are made, new envi- 
ronment acts on the organism, influencing and modifying its structure 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 419 


or functions, and it may be said that for all life there is a degree of 
temperature which is more favorable than any other to its perfect 
development. The limits of temperature thus favorable to a given 
class are surprisingly narrow. This is especially true in the case of 
microbes.. The bacillus of butyric fermentation is most active at 40°, 
At 42° it multiplies more rapidly, but diminishes in activity. At 45° 
it no longer effects fermentation. For alcoholic fermentation the most 
favorable point is between 25° and 30°, although it ceases at zero—the 
freezing point, and at 100°--the boiling point. The microbe of car- 
buncular diseases thrives at 37° to 39°, At 41° it dies. Convincing 
evidence of this is given by Pasteur, who has shown that a fowl in 
normal condition, its temperature being from 41° to 42°, can not become 
inoculated with a disease of this kind. If you cool the fowl artificially 
by means of cold water, so that its temperature diminishes 2° or 3°, 
the microbe multiplies abundantly in the blood of the fowl and 
kills it, at least if the cooling process is continued. If that ceases, a 
return to the normal condition of the animal will dissipate the disease, 
A temperature of 35° is most favorable to lactic fermentation. The 
fermentation of putrid matter is less restricted. It is carried on any- 
where from 0° to 46°, although the most favorable points are between 
15° and 35°. Examples of this kind may be given in great numbers, 
What is more interesting, however, than this enumeration, is the study 
of the results which are induced by subjecting a given microbe to a 
degree of temperature higher than that which is best adapted to it, not 
sufficiently high, however, to be fatal to its existence. Very evident 
modifications are by this means produced in its physical condition. It 
becomes weakened, and there is a marked diminution in its vitality. 
This fact is the basis of the interesting processes of preventive vaccina- 
tions, of which Pasteur has given us so many striking and useful exam- 
ples. Only a slight increase of temperature is needed to transform a 
dangerous microbe into an invaluable auxiliary in the art of healing or 
preventing infectious diseases. On the contrary spores of bacteria can 
be subjected to considerable variations of temperature without being 
productive of any modifications. These spores withstand admirably 
extremes of temperature, for instance —100° and +100°, the bacteria 
which spring from these losing none of their virulence. Some species 
of bacteria may be frozen for many months and live. This is true of 
the bacteria of typhoid fever, according to Fraenkel and Prudden. 
Contrary to the general impression, congealing does not purify impure 
water. 

It is interesting to note that the sensibility of common leavens, as 
referred to their thermic variations, is repeated in soluble leavens— 
that is to say, with the products of the activity of certain cellules, which 
exhibit some of the qualities of the ordinary leavens. Thus pepsin is 
active anywhere between 37° and 40°. At 50° it acts ina less degree, — 
becoming almost inactive at 90°. The pancreatic juice exercises its 


420 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 


chemical action most thoroughly at 40°. At 20° it acts slightly, and at 
60° its action ceases entirely. In considering the tissues of complex 
organisms, we ascertain analogous phenomena. Protoplasms of dif- 
ferent organisms, although they are often supposed to be identical, 
present very unequal opposition to thermic variations. In one case it 
dies at 30° or 20°, in others it lives at 0°, at —5°, at —10° (Norden- 
skiold). We know that eggs of birds require for their development a 
temperature, narrow in limits, which can not be overstepped without 
destroying the embryo, or producing malformations. Eggs of inverte- 
brates are somewhat similar, but their exigencies are less restricted, 
and they accommodate themselves to greater differences of temperature. 

Every being, to live and move, requires environment of a certain 
temperature. Some are less exacting, and adapt themselves to varia- 
tions; others, on the contrary, can not endure even slight changes. 
Some seek the cold, others—heat; but all in a marked manner, as we 
know from the difficulties experienced in acclimating species to a new 
climate. A few examples will not be out of place. The polar region, 
with its prolonged and rigorous cold, and our high summits, always 
clothed with a mantle of ice, produce a fauna and flora which is peculiar 
to them. In these regions, where man is able to exist only at the cost 
of a considerable effort, there are mammals, insects, plants of all kinds, 
which can reach here only their full growth and perfect development. 
In a temperate or warm climate they lose their vitality and perish, 
never in reality becoming acclimated. Warm-blooded animals which 
live in these regions have the same temperature as their co-species in 
warm climates. They maintain themselves by appropriate food and 
a heavy growth of fur, discarded by them when the weather moderates, 
Captain Black has observed in Siberia when the external temperature 
was at —35°, that the temperature of a fox was 41°, making a difference 
of 76°. The reverse of these polar regions and glaciers are the hot 
springs. Here also we find a characteristic fauna and flora. Many 
observers have drawn up a list of sea weeds, infusorials, and fungi, 
living in the waters, the temperature of which varies from 50°, 609, and 
even 90° ©, and that thrive and multiply. 

Between the coldest regions, which some species delight in, and the 
hot springs, or the tropical regions, where others attain their highest 
development, we find grades of organisms whose resistance to extremes 
of temperature is less and which prefer more temperate surroundings, 
manifesting a partiality for such and such a point in the thermic scale. 
To be assured of these preferences one has only to consult the docu- 
ments showing the distribution of species and their acclimation. The 
most curious fact disclosed by the preceeding data is the great resist- 
auce of the protoplasm of certain creatures to temperatures, which, 
judging from other cases, one would suppose must be fatal. The pro- 
toplasm in certain cases can sustain a temperature of zero, or lower 
still, and others can live at 90° and even higher temperatures. ‘This is 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 421 


a remarkable fact which neither physiologists nor chemists are able to 
explain. 

In short, there exists among organisms a certain number of species, 
vegetable or animal, able to withstand extremes of temperature, and 
to live normally therein, while the majority can live only in more uni- 
form and moderate temperatures. We will now see by what means the 
different organisms withstand or succumb to temperatures, other than 
those to which they naturally accomodate themselves, and to what 
influences they are subjected. 

Let us consider first heterothermic organisms, or cold-blooded animals, 
which follow the oscillations of the surrounding atmosphere, and the 
temperature of which rises and falls proportionately on account of the 
absence of the regulating apparatus by which they could control their 
own production and loss of heat. These organisms possess a sensibility 
which is regardless of variations in their temperature. They can un- 
dergo with impunity oscillations in the atmosphere about them which 
would endanger the life of warm-blooded animals, possibly destroying 
it entirely. The latter, man included, can not live a moment if their in- 
ternal temperature exceeds about 45° (113° F.) The cold-blooded animals 
can vary their temperature within very considerable limits. The enu- 
meration of the latter would not be particularly interesting; it is suffi- 
cient to say that the temperature of cold-blooded animals of our coun- 
tries varies according to circumstances from 0° to 35° and 40°. That 
which arrests our attention is the summing up of the influence of differ- 
ent temperatures on the functions of these animals. As a matter of 
course, temperatures exist which are not deadly, which are consistent 
with the life of these creatures. We shall see later in what way the ex- 
tremes of temperature act. 

Itis a well-substantiated fact, by means of experiments which, though 
not numerous, are very exact, that there is for every living creature a 
degree of heat which is absolutely indispensable in order that its devel- 
opment be as complete as possible. On this point we have had for 
several years, thanks to the valuable labors of Boussingault, most inter- 
esting data. Being given a certain vegetable we can estimate that the 
time which elapses between the appearance of its vegetation and its 
complete maturity is short in proportion to the height of the tempera- 
ture at which it vegetates, and long in proportion to its degree of low- 
ness, exception being made, let it be understood, of thermic conditions 
which are dangerous or fatal. Otherwise stated: Being given a plant 
which lives between 15° and 30°, of which the thermic optimum is 25°, 
its development will be slower in a constant temperature of 15° than in 
one of 20° to 25°, and the retardation is proportionate to the thermic 
difference. It seems that in whatever latitude or climate it thrives, 
there exists there for the plant just the quantity of heat necessary for 
its development. It is easy to prove that this hypothesis is exact and 
conforms to the facts of the case. The following is an example: From 


s 


Ap? TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 


the day when a seed germinates to the moment when the plant reaches 
its maturity an average is taken of the temperature for each cycle of 24 
hours. Afterwards an average is made of these averages for all! the 
period which has passed between the two moments mentioned above and 
this average is to be multiplied by the number of days which have passed. 
Suppose this action of the plant has taken 90 days, and that the aver- 
age of averages is 17, then you obtain the figure 1530, which represents 
the degrees of heat furnished in 90 days,—a day being taken as a unit of 
time. <A very interesting fact is, that, if the same observations are made 
with the same species of plant under different thermic conditions, or in 
a different climate, the same figure is obtained, although the number 
of days necessary to the development may vary from simple to treble, 
according to the climate. The study of vegetable physiology is rich in 
interesting facts from the standpoint which is now occupied. In this 
way different seeds are very differently influenced by cold. One does 
not germinate below 15°, while others germinate at 4°, and still others 
at zero. One plant developes best at a temperature which is fatal to 
another. 

In the animal kingdom analogous facts have been observed in a very 
exact manner. A little fresh-water mollusk (lymnée) furnishes Carl 
Semper, the learned zodlogist of Wiirzburg, with very interesting 
facts in this connection. Below 12° this animal, although leading an 
active life and taking its food regularly, underwent no growth, though 
it was able to reproduce, its eggs developing perfectly. From 12° to 
25° (which is its most favorable temperature) its assimilation was per- 
fect, and the animal grew and developed. Semper remarks that these 
mollusks, subjected permanently to a temperature of 10° or 12°, remain 
small and cease to develop. They produce a dwarfed breed, which in 
their turn reproduce normally, remaining, however, smaller than the 
other lymnées. On the other hand, an unnaturally large species can be 
produced by maintaining the mollusks by artificial means at the highest 
point of temperature. There is still another fact which accords with that 
of which we have just spoken. A well-known naturalist, Moebius, has 
discovered that the same species of marine mollusks common to the 
Baltic and to the coast of Greenland differ greatly in size. At the 
Baltic they are small and have a thin shell, while on the coast of Green- 
land they are much larger in size and are provided with a thick shell. 
This is explained by the fact that in the Baltic the variations of tem. 
perature are more frequent and the cold is more intense than in Green- 
Jand, in consequence of which the development of the mollusk is more 
difficult and intermittent. 

Temperatures lower than this most favorable point have a marked 
effect upon animals and plants, which shows itself in the latter by a 
retardation of development which at the same time becomes less com- 
plete. On the contrary, temperatures not fatal, but relatively high in 
regard to their natural condition, favor their growth, which becomes 
proportionately rapid and complete. It is thus with the eggs of certain 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 423 


species of crustacea, as the apus and branchipus, which develop between 
0° and 450°, accomplishing their complete evolution in 24 hours at a 
temperature of 30°, while between 16° and 20° it takes weeks to obtain 
the same result. ‘Tadpoles hatch in 10 days at a temperature of 15.5°; 
at 10.5° it requires 15 days. Notice how various are the requirements. 
of different creatures in the matter of temperature. That of 36°, so 
favorable to branchipus, is fatal to many, excepting the entire animal 
life of Arctic seas, and also, as I have already shown, a number of spe- 
cies of the Mediterranean, especially those which inhabit the seashore 
and can not adapt themselves to temperatures in pools heated by the 
summer sun. 

There is therefore for every species a certain temperature at which de- 
velopment is most rapid and life most easy. The limits of this thermic 
condition vary considerably according to the species and even the va- 
riety. Subjected to the influence of a lower temperature than that 
which is most favorable, each animal’s development is retarded, in dif: 
ferent degrees, and often fails to attain perfection. If exposed to a 
higher temperature than that which is best adapted to them, disturb- 
ances are produced, alimentation becomes impaired, and the animal— 
or vegetable—begins to pine, as is also the case with man in excessively 
hot climates. 

This influence of temperature on life is not only manifested in de- 
gree and rapidity of development, it also appears in other phenom- 
ena; coloration, for instance. In this way Weissmann has shown that 
two butterflies, Vanessa levana and Vanessa prorsolevana, differing in 
coloration upon certain points, have been looked upon as belonging to 
two distinct species, whereas in reality they represent but one. The 
difference is simply a question of temperature. One comes from an 
egg laid during the winter, and one from one laid in the summer, but 
it is easy to obtain at will either variety from the same egg by heating 
or cooling artificially, according to the case. A more important ques- 
tion is the influence which the temperature exerts upon sexual devel- 
opment. Cold retards and sometimes arrests it; a certain degree of 
temperature favors and accelerates it; and it is well known that sexual 
development in man himself is hastened by the influence of a hot 
climate. In Cuba, and other warm climates, a girl attains maturity at 
12 years. But the temperature must not be too high either. Crusta- 
cea kept for several weeks at 19° do not acquire sexual activity, whereas 
at 9° or 10° it is acquired in 2 days. 

Temperature thus exercises considerable influence upon all organ- 
isms. An interesting proof of these effects on the intensity of life (if it 
may thus be called) is furnished by a study of the influence exercised 
by this factor on the action of poisons and medicines, Alexander von 
Humboldt, and after him many investigators, have noted that this ac- 
tion is more instantaneous and rapid in high temperatures (which are 
neither fatal nor dangerous in themselves) than at a lower degree. 


424 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 


Occasionally in the latter case, a poison becomes perfectly inactive and 
inoffensive, although it would prove deadly if the temperature rose a 
few degrees. This fact is now well understood, and account of it is 
taken in dealing with toxicology. This explains the frequent contra- 
dictions between the conclusions of different investigators, because 
they have not experimented under the same thermic conditiens, and 
most of them have failed to note the exact temperature. Another 
proof of temperature on the general functions of the organism is the 
proof furnished by a comparative study of the resistance of beings to 
asphyxia. When the temperature is low, asphyxia is slower and more 
difficult. A frog immersed in water, its head covered, and only cuta- 
neous respiration possible, will survive from 6 to8 hours with the water 
at 0°, At 15° or 16° it will only live a fourth of this time. To consider 
another phase of the same question: poisonous plants are more deadly 
under thermic conditions favorable to their growth than when strug- 
gling to live in an atmosphere colder or warmer than that adapted to 
their peculiarities. 

We have been considering so far the influence of thermic variations 
which are not of necessity deadly. We will now turn our attention 
to those which are fatal in their effects, first observing that the ef- 
fects vary according to the species, and also according to certain con- 
ditions, some intrinsic or inherent in the organisms, others extrinsic or 
relative to the conditions under which the thermic extremes occur. It 
is well known, for example, how unequal is the resistance of vegeta- 
bles and seeds to extremes of heatand cold. Some freeze easily, others 
with difficulty. It depends much upon their bulk and the proportion 
of water contained in their tissues. Somedo not die immediately after 
freezing, even when the thawing is rapid, others only survive when the 
thawing is slow and gradual. A very important factor is the condition 
of the vitality. We know that spores of bacteria and seeds of plants 
withstand degrees of temperature at which neither bacteria nor plants 
could live. This fact is so well known that it is only necessary to 
touch upon it. 

It may seem strange that torpid organisms have more resistance than 
the higher species to adverse circumstances; yet it is true that theless 
active the life the less vulnerable it is, and less can exterior forces dis- 
turb the functions which are already almost dormant and torpid. Cold 
kills a great number of the lower organisms by reason of the disorgan- 
ization of the tissues which takes place when congealed, and this dis- 
organization is complete in proportion to the amount of water which 
the tissues contain. There are, however, many organisms among the 
cold-blooded class which die before they reach the point of freezing. 
Invertebrates and plants belonging to warm climates, as well as many 
microbes, succumb when the thermometer has only reached 0°. In 
which case the method of death is different, it being produced by a 
slackening of all the functions. Extreme heat kills plants and animals 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 425 


of the cold-blooded class at different degrees of intensity, being much 
higher, however, than those at which warm-blooded species succumb. 
In the one ease they are, in plain language, dried up, the heat depriving 
the tissues and functions of the water necessary to their existence; in 
the other, the vital material coagulates and life is no longer possible, 
this cause being the more general one. This congealing, however, is 
not always facial, even in the case of animals of high organization. It 
has long been known that in the northern part of America and Russia 
travelers transport frozen fishes, rigid and brittle, which being placed 
in water of a temperature of 8° and 10° regain their activity, although 
they may have been frozen for 10 or 12 days. Science has refused to 
believe these statements, but careful experiments have authenticated 
them. In 1828 and 1829 Gaymard froze several toads thoroughly, and 
they returned to their normal condition and activity on being thawed. 
Care must be taken that both the freezing and thawing are gradual. 
This is the principal precaution to be taken in making experiments of 
this sort. The great English naturalist, Hunter, believed that the life 
of man could be prolonged by being frozen from time to time. He 
thought that if frozen and revived several times in the course of a few 
years the limits of life could be considerably extended. Unfortunately 
the experiment brought death instead of prolonging life. 

Let us now consider the warm-blooded organisms, the creatures whose 
temperature is more stable and does not follow the thermic variations 
in the atmosphere about them. A mammal or a bird withstands a con- 
siderable amount of cold. If indigenous toa cold region, protected by 
thick fur or warm plumage, and in a position to secure the nourishment” 
it needs, it can live in a temperature at 50° below zero, its own tem- 
perature remaining fixed and normal. It is true also of man, who by 
protecting himself by appropriate clothing, easily withstands quite as 
low points of temperature, particularly if there is an absence of wind. 
We all know by experience that a moderately cold temperature with 
wind blowing is much harder to bear than intense cold without wind. 
The explanation of this fact is very simple. The wind tends to con- 
stantly deprive the body of the layer of warm air, which forms between 
the body and the clothing, and to facilitate radiation and loss of heat 
by substituting for it cold air. 

But what happens under experimental or natural conditions when 
an animal or man is subjected to the action of intense cold? The organ- 
ism withstands it for a certain length of time, but this endurance has 
its limits, variable, it is true, according to species and conditions. A 
moment necessarily arises, if the cold be sufficiently severe or prolonged, 
when the organism is no longer in a state to generate sufficient heat to 
withstand the cold or, what is practically the same, when the loss is 
too considerable though the generation were sufficient. [rom that 
moment the temperature of the animal begins to decrease. This dimi- 
nution is compatible with life up toa certain point, which varies accord- 


426 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 


ing to the species. Some animals can live, their temperature being as 
low as 15° or 20°. The temperature of a rabbit, for example, can fall 
from 38° or 40° to 20°. That of man may fall to 26°, 25°, and even 24° 
without resulting in death, according to authentic observations made 
by Reinke and Nicolayssen upon drunkards. It does not seem, how- 
ever, according to Claude Bernard, Magendie, and other physiologists, 
that one can with impunity lower the temperature of warm-blooded 
animals below 20° ©. At 20° death is almost inevitable; below that. 
point it is certain. The nervous system is destroyed, involving the 
entire organism. The blood becomes weakened and unequal to per- 
form its work. 

Surgeons of large armies have left us valuable information concern- 
ing the effects of intense cold on human beings. In the case of men 
who are tired and jaded, intense cold is immediately fatal—especially 
where it is a sudden immersion in very cold water, for in this case the 
loss of bodily heat is great. Larrey states that in crossing the Beresina, 
men perished instantly upon entering the water, and Virey and Desgen- 
ettes testify to similar cases. With some death was caused by cerebral 
congestion, with others it was caused by anemia of the brain. When 
the action of the cold is less sudden, but more prolonged, the result is 
otherwise. A general benumbing of the body takes place,—of the senses, 
the brain, the intelligence, a gradual torpor, an invincible sleep from 
which none awake. ‘ Whoever seats himself, falls into a sleep, and 
whoever sleeps awakes no more,” said Solander. Death is produced by 
a Slow paralysis of the nervous system or by asphyxia. 

Warm-blooded animals are enabled to resist the cold by reason of 
their very active thermogenesis, which prevents them from becoming 
chilled. But once let their resistance be overcome and they succumb 
to much higher temperatures than those which overcome cold-blooded 
organisms. Many of the latter can endure 102, 5° and even 0° without 
perishing. The former die when once their internal temperature falls 
below 18° or 20°. A more forcible reason why the latter can not resist 
intense cold is because it destroys the portion congealed and therefore 
the entire organism. 

Life is also difficult at high temperatures. Man and some animals 
can, it is true, remain several minutes in a Sweating-room in which 
the temperature is very high—even 100°, 120°, and 130° (Tillet and 
Duhamel, Delaroche and Berger, etc.)—but under these conditions the 
stay is always very short; if prolonged beyond 10 or 15 minutes the 
experience would prove fatal. The perspiration is so excessive that it 
produces a loss of the heat which is necessary to counterbalance the 
temperature to which the atmosphere tends to subject the organism. 
There is another point to be noticed. Air is a bad conductor, and hot 
air heats the body incomparably less than water subjected to the influ- 
ence of heat. Water, on the contrary, is an excellent conductor. It is 
impossible to endure for any time the contact of water at 50° and 60°. 


TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 427 


Moist air is a better conductor than dry air, and it is still better if 
charged with steam. Thus man ean easily remain for 10 minutes in 
a sweating room of dry air at 90° or 100°, but could not endure the 
same length of time in moist air at even a lower temperature. He 
wonld soon be overcome in the latter case at 90° or 100°. That which 
is true of high temperature is naturally true also of low. Dry air is 
not so good a conductor as moist, and moist air is inferior to water as 
a conductor. One can live in air at degrees of cold which would surely 
be fatal if the environment were a liquid. We have already stated 
how weak is the resistance of warm-blooded organisms to high degrees 
of temperature. In fact, in spite of perspiration and exhalations of 
vapor by the lungs, it is often impossible for the equilibrium to be 
maintained, and the organism becomes overheated. Its temperature 
can be increased very little without being tatal. It endures a decrease 
of 15° or 20° in its internal temperature, while an increase of more 
than 5° or 6° would be dangerous. Ifthe temperature of man or mamn- 
mal reaches 44° or 46° death results. Birds can exist at a point some- 
what higher. First comes a period of great excitation and convulsions, 
from which it falls into a comatose state, followed by death. This 
result has not yet been elucidated as clearly as desirable. Death 
under all circumstances is sufficiently complex, but its complexity 
varies according to its conditions. There are dis-arrangements in the 
chemistry of the muscles, a portion of which undergoes a change. 
There are affections of the blood which may be lacking in oxygen 
though not presenting indications of any particular poison. Notwith- 
standing Claude Bernard, it is the thermic rigidity and the muscular « 
injury which are most serious. These are of themselves sufficient to 
cause death, for their effect is to arrest respiration and circulation. 

In conclusion we can say that there is, in the case of heterothermic 
organisms, great endurance of intense cold, and, to a certain extent, of 
heat, despite the very marked action of thermic variations upon their 
organizations. In the case of homeothermic organisms we find moder- 
ate endurance of low temperature, and very little resistance to an 
increase of internal temperature. For then alow temperature is accom- 
panied with much less danger than a high one. The former has to be 
pronounced to entail death, whereas a slight rise of temperature beyond 
a certain point will produce immediate and fatal results. 

Between these two classes of organisms there is another group called 
hibernating animals. These are, for the most part, rodents, which, at 
the approach of cold weather, make an underground habitation well 
covered with moss and other substances, where they remain motionless, 
rolled up like a ball, during the bad season, sleeping during the entire 
time, torpid, neither eating nor drinking. With these animals the 
internal temperature becomes very low, following somewhat the ther- 
mic variations. They scarcely breathe. Their respiratory combustions 
diminish, and their temperature descends to 209, 15°, and 10°, and even 


428 TEMPERATURE AND LIFE. 


lower. Horwath has stated that the temperature of a hibernating 
marmot reached 2°. As soon as warm weather returns they wake up, 
become active, and their temperature becomes normal. They are much 
leaner than before their winter’s sleep, having lived for several months 
on their own accumulation of fat. Here is an animal alternately warm 
blooded and cold blooded in summer and winter. The cause of this 
strange alternation has not yet been explained and is exceedingly com- 
plicated. With them the thermic production is relatively slight. It is 
cold that determines the hibernal sleep, for it is easy to produce this 
by subjecting the animal to prolonged cold by artificial means. No 
jnvestigations to my knowledge have been made of the resistance of 
this species of animals to heat. I mean to say, of the elevation of 
internal temperature above the normal level] of the summer, but it is 
not to be supposed that their endurance would be as great as in case 
of extremes of cold. 

This class of hibernating animals unite the heterothermic and home- 
othermic species, and serve to show once again that everything in 
nature is related. Sudden leaps are no longer held to exist in the phy- 
sidlogy of creatures which are similar in organic structure; science 
finds everywhere transitions. 

Finally, all living organisms generate heat, more or less it is true, 
according to their activity and their structure, but all produce it. In 
the same manner all organisms submit to the influence of the surround- 
ing atmosphere, although all do not follow the variations. For each 
there is a degree of heat which is best adapted to its perfect develop- 
ment. All die as soon as the external temperature reacts on the internal 
temperature to such an extent that the latter is carried above or below 
a certain point. The only difference is in the facility with which this 
action of the external temperature operates upon the internal tempera- 
ture of the organism. 


MORPHOLOGY OF THE BLOOD CORPUSCLES.* 


By CHARLES-SEDGWICK MINOT. 


If one goes through the very extensive literature dealing with blood 
corpuscles one finds the most divergent views defended, and can hardly 
reach clear ideas, for the conceptions do not agree among themselves, 
either as to their structure or as to the development of the corpuscles. 
According to some the red corpuscles arise from the white; according 
to others the white corpuscles arise from the red; and according to still 
others both kinds arise from indifferent cells. In regard to one point 
only is the majority of investigators united, namely, in the silent 
assumption that all blood corpuscles are of one and the same kind in 
spite of the absence of the nucleus in mammalian corpuscles. It is just 
this assumption that has caused endless confusion, and the morphology 
of the blood corpuscles can be cleared up only by starting with the 
recognition of the fundamental difference between nucleated and non- 
nucleated corpuscles. Further, it must be recognized that no corpus- 
cles, neither red nor white, arise from nuclei. 

The origin of red corpuscles from nuclei has been maintained several 
times. This notion is based upon defective observations. It is very 
easy in the chick, for example, to convince oneself that the first blood 
corpuscles are cells; in the area vasculosa, at the time of the blood 
formation, the red blood cells are readily seen, in part lying singly, in 
part in groups (blood islands), adherent to the vascular walls; the free 
celis are constituted chiefly by the nucleus, which is surrounded by a 
very thin layer of protoplasm, which is very easily overlooked, especially if 
the preparation is not suitably stained; thisexplains, I think, the state- 
ment made by Balfour (Works, vol. I) and others, that the blood corpus- 
cles consist only of nuclei. By following the development along further 
we find that the protoplasm enlarges for several days, and that during 
the same time there is a progressive diminution in size of the nucleus, 
which however is completed before the layer of protoplasm reaches 
its ultimate size. The nucleus is at first granular, and its nucleolus, 
or nucleoli, stands out clearly; as the nucleolus shrinks it becomes 


* From the American Naturalist, November, 1890, vol. XX1v, pp. 1020-1023. 
429 


430 MORPHOLOGY OF THE BLOOD CORPUSCLES, 


round, and is colored darkly and almost uniformly by the usual nuclear 
stains. This species of blood corpusclé oceurs in all vertebrates, and 
represents the genuine blood cells. According to the above description 
we can distinguish three principal stages: (1) young cells with very 
little protoplasm ; (2) old cells with much protoplasm and granular 
nucleus; (3) modified cells with shrunken nucleus, which colors darkly 
and more uniformly. I do not know whether the first form occurs in 
any living adult vertebrate, although the assumption seems justified 
that they are the primitive form. On the other hand, the second stage 
is obviously that characteristic of the Ichthyopsida in general, while 
the third form is typical for the Sauropsida. Therefore the development 
of the blood cells in amniota offers a new confirmation of Louis Agas- 
siz’s law (Haeckel’s Biogenetiches Grund gesetz). 

The blood-cells of mammals pass through the same metamorphoses 
as those of birds; for example, in rabbit embryos the cells have reached 
the Ichthyopsidan stage on the eighth day; two days later the nucleus 
is already smaller, and by the thirteenth day has shrunk to its final 
dimensions. 

The white blood corpuscles appear much later than the red cells, and 
their exact origin has still to be investigated, for it has not yet been 
determined where they first arise in the embryo; nevertheless we may 
venture to assert that they arise outside the vessels. The formations 
of leucocytes outside of the vessels is already known with certainty to 
occur in later stages as well as in the adult. The sharp distinction 
between the sites of formation of the red and white cells appears with 
special clearness in the medulla of bone in birds, as we know from the 
admirable investigations of J. Denys (La Cellule, tomeIv). The white 
blood corpuscles then are cells, which are formed relatively late, and 
wander into the blood from outside. 

The non-nucleated blood corpuscles of adult mammals are entirely 
new elements which are peculiar to the class, and arise neither from 
red nor yet from white blood cells. Their actual development was first 
discovered (so faras I know) by EH. A. Schafer, who has given a detailed 
account of the process in the ninth edition of Quain’s Anatomy, and 
has shown there a full appreciation of the significance of his discovery. 
Unfortunately Schifer’s important investigations have received little 
attention. Kuborn has recently confirmed Schiafer’s results in an arti- 
cle (Anatom. Anzeiger, 1890) on the formation of blood corpuscles in 
the liver. One can readily study the process in the mesentery and 
omentum of human and other embryos. The essential point of Schifer’s 
discovery is that the non-nucleate corpuscles have an intra-cellular 
origin, and arise by differentiation of the protoplasm of vaso-formative 
cells. Several corpuscles arise in each cell without participation of 
the nucleus; they are therefore specialized masses of protoplasm, and 
may perhaps best be compared to the plastids of botanists. I venture 
to propose the name of blood-plastids for these structures, since the 


PLATE I. 


Smitnsonian Report, 1890, Part |. 


[‘slayeweip Gps paipiudew aie sainziy ay} ||y] 


; “UvUL WO SAP Spal e WO 3) puB yp 
Syavys v UOdy yf tsAvp it SOAIGQUIA BY} JO SOSV Ol]Y SUIALS AEGQUINU ot ‘SIIGQea WLOA SepPpsud too queseader (“9 


“LONIIN AD SSTOSNdYOD GOO1g AHL JO ADOTOHdHO|A| 


a 


lata 5 
sar) Ee ( @) (e) x 
ae <A (@ 
(@) =< (® } 
8) @® 
(8) @) ; A @ 


e) hes = ex 
\\@) @) ~~ (@ 
@ \9 »). ) cS A fe ) C 
eo © ®@® 


‘ 


ad 


‘ 


FV) samsy taddn wmoy oy, 


"' 
a 


7 | ae mae : : vs aa ial bili ie: 3 
7 . = oe ever pe aecens 
| nti 
fe ml ae 


if eae 
7 - _ Aan a 
; ao mM . 
ye ae 
i 
sae > i. , “Ao 
at eee 
f 
2 : » } 
oie : 
saa te : 


a 
= a i 


ae er 


MORPHOLOGY OF THE BLOOD CORPUSCLES. 431 


term corpuscle (globule, Kérperchen) has no definite morphological 
meaning. S 

Sonsino (Arch. Ital. Biol. xt) affirms that the red blood cells trans- 
form themselves into plastids. I have, however, never been able to 
find the intermediate forms in my own numerous preparations. I deem 
it probable that he has seen merely the degenerating stages of the red 
cells. 

The present article is an abstract of a communication made in August 
last to the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 
Since then Howells’s memoir on the blood corpuscles has appeared 
(Journal of Morphology, tv, 57). The author describes the ejection of 
the nucleus from the red cells, and believes that this results in the for- 
mation of red plastids. The process is, 1 think, really degenerative, 
and the resemblance between the non-nucleated body of the cell and a 
true plastid, is not one cf identity. Certainly, until proof is offered that 
the observations of Schiifer, Kuborn, and myself, upon the intra-cellu- 
lar origin of the plastids are proved erroneous, the emigration of the 
nucleus of the red cells can not be held to result in producing plastids, 
but only to be degenerative. That the red cells degenerate and disap- 
pear has been known; Howells’s valuable observations indicate the 
method of their destruction. 

The above review shows that the vertebrate blood corpuscles are of 
three kinds: (1) red cells; (2) white cells; (3) plastids. The red and 
white cells occur in all (2?) vertebrates; the plastids are confined to the 
mammals. The red cells present three chief modifications; whether 
the primitive form occurs in any living adult vertebrate I do not know ; 
the second form is persistent in the Ichthyopsida, the third form in the 
Sauropsida. According to this we must distinguish : 

A.—One-celled blood, 7%. ¢., first stage in all vertebrates; the blood 
contains only red cells, with little protoplasm. 

B.—Two-celled blood, having red and white cells; the red cells 
have either a large, coarsely granular nucleus (Ichthyopsida), 
or a smaller, darkly staining nucleus (Sauropsida, mamma- 
lian embryos). 

C.—Plastid blood, without red ceils, but with white cells and red 
plastids; occurs only in adult mammals. 

Mammalian blood in its development passes through these stages, as 
well as through the two phases of stage B, all in their natural sequence ; 
the ontogenetic order follows the phylogenetic. 

I pass by the numerous authors whose views conflict with mine, 
partly because the present is not a suitable oceasion for a detailed dis- 
cussion, partly because those authors who have asserted the origin of 
one kind of blood corpusele by metamorphosis from another have failed 
to find just the intermediate forms; it seems to me therefore that most, 
at least, of the opposing views collapse of themselves. 


i aoe dL} b sue 
« cit be } Wil Ties 
* poi aan a 
eSmOOAN 
LAscycy se" r : 
ih ihr bh op 


WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY.* 


By GEORGE J. ROMANES. 


The recently published translation of Professor Weismann’s essays 
on heredity and allied topics has aroused the interest of the general 
public in the system of his biological ideas. But seeing that his 
system, besides being somewhat elaborate in itself, is presented in a 
series of disconnected essays, originally published at different times, it 
is a matter of no small difficulty to gather from the present collection 
of these essays a complete view of the system as a whole. Therefore I 
propose to give a brief sketch of his several theories, arranged in a 
manner calculated to show their logical connection one with another. 
And in order also to show the relation in which his resulting theory 
of heredity stands to what has hitherto been the more usual way of 
regarding the facts, I will begin by furnishing a similarly brief sketch 
of Mr. Darwin’s theory upon the subject. It will be observed that 
these two theories constitute the logical antipodes of explanatory 
thought; and therefore it may be said, in a general way, that all other 
modern theories of heredity—such as those of Spencer, Haeckel, Elsberg, 
Galton, Naegeli, Brooks, Hertwig, and Vries—occupy positions more 
or less intermediate between these two extremes. 

When closely analyzed, Mr. Darwin’s theory—or “ provisional hy- 
pothesis of pangenesis”—will be found to embody altogether seven 
assumptions, viz: 

(1) That all the component cells of a multi-cellular organism throw 
off inconceivably minute germs or “ gemmules,” which are then dis- 
persed throughout the whole system. 

(2) That these gemmules, when so dispersed and supplied with 
proper nutriment, multiply by self-division, and under suitable condi- 
tions, are capable of developing into physiological cells like those from 
which they were originally and severally derived. 

(3) That while still in this gemmular condition, these cell seeds have 
for one another a mutual affinity, which leads to their being collected 
from all parts of the system by the reproductive glands of the organism ; 
and that, when so collected, they go to constitute the essential material 
of the sexual elements, ova and spermatozoa being thus nothing more 


*From The Contemporary Review, May, 1390, vol. LV, pp. 686-699. 


H. Mis. 129 28 a 


434 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 


than aggregated packets of gemmules which have emanated from all 
the cells of all the tissues of the organism. 

(4) That the development of a new organism out of the fusion of two 
such packets of gemmules is due to a summation of all the develop- 
ments of some of the gemmules which these two packets contain. 

(5) That a large proportional number of the gemmules in each packet, 
however, fail to develop, and are then transmitted in a dormant state 
to future generations, in any of which they may be developed subse- 
quently, thus giving rise to the phenomena of reversion or atavism. 

(6) ‘That in all cases the development of gemmules into the form of 
their parent cell depends on their suitable union with other partially 
developed gemmules, which precede them in the regular course of 
growth. 

(7) That gemmules are thrown off by all physiological cells, not only 
during the adult state of the organism, but during all stages of its de- 
velopment. Or in other words, that the production of these cell seeds 
depends upon the adult condition of parent cells, not upon that of the 
multi-cellular organism as a whole. 

At first sight it may well appear that we have here a very formidable 
array of assumptions. But Mr. Darwin ably argues in favor of each of 
them by pointing to well-known aualogies, drawn from the vital proc- 
esses of living cells, both in the protozoa and metazoa. For exampie, 
it is already a well-recognized doctrine of physiology that each cell of a 
metazoon, or multicellular organism, though to a large extent depend- 
ent on others, is likewise to a certain extent independent or automatous, 
and has the power of multiplying by self-division. Therefore, as it is 
certain that the sexual elements (and also buds of all descriptions) in- 
clude formative matter of some kind, the first assumption—or that 
which supposes such formative matter to be particulate—is certainly 
not a gratuitous assumption. Again, the second assumption—namely, 
that this particulate and formative material is dispersed throughout all 
the tissues of the organism—is sustained by the fact that both in cer- 
tain plants and in certain invertebrate animals a severed portion of the 
organism will develop into an entire organism similar to that from which 
it was derived, as for example is the case with a leaf of begonia and 
with portions cut from certain worms, sea-anemones, jelly-fish, ete. This 
well-known fact in itself seems enough to prove that the formative ma- 
terial in question must certainly admit (at all events in many cases) of 
being distributed throughout all the tissues of living organisms. 

The third assumption—or that which supposes the formative mate- 
rial to be especially aggregated in the sexual elements—is not so much 
an assumption as a statement of obvious fact; while the fourth, fifth, 
sixth, and seventh assumptions all follow deductively from their pred- 
ecessors. In other words, if the first and second assumptions be 
granted and if the theory is to comprise all the facts of heredity, then 
the remaining five assumptions are bound to follow, 


WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 435 


To the probable objection that the supposed gemmules must be of 
impossibly minute size—seeing that thousands of millions of them 
would require to be packed into a single ovum or spermatozodn—Mr. 
Darwin opposes a calculation that a cube of glass or water having 
only one ten-thousandth of an inch to a side contains somewhere be- 
tween sixteen and a hundred and thirty-one billions of molecules. 
Again, as touching the supposed power of multiplication on the part 
of his gemmules, Mr. Darwin alludes to the fact that infectious mate- 
rial of all kinds exhibits a ratio of increase quite as great as any that 
his theory requires to attribute to gemmules. Furthermore, with 
respect to the elective affinity of gemmules, he remarks that ‘in all 
ordinary cases of sexual reproduction the male and female elements 
certainly have an elective affinity for each other ;” of the ten thousand 
species of Composit, for example, ‘‘ there can be no doubt that if the 
pollen of all these species could be simultaneously placed on the stigma 
of any one species, this one would elect, with unerring certainty, its 
own pollen.” 

Such then in brief outline, is Mr. Darwin’s theory of pangenesis. 

Professor Weismann’s theory of germ-plasm is fundamentally based 
upon the great distiaction that obtains in respect of their transmissi- 
bility between characters which are congenital and characters which 
are acquired. By acongenital character is meant any individual pecul- 
larity, whether structural or mental, with which the individual is 
born. By an acquired character is meant any peculiarity which the 
individual may subsequently develop in consequence of its own indi- 
vidual experience. For example, aman may be born with some mal- 
formation of one of his fingers or he may subsequently acquire such a 
malformation as the result of accident or disease. Now in the former 
case—i. ¢e., in that where the malformation is congenital—it is ex- 
tremely probable that the peculiarity will be transmitted to his chil- 
dren; while in the latter case—i. e., where the malformation is subse- 
quently acquired—it is virtually certain that it will not be transmitted 
to his children. And this great difference between the transmissibility 
of characters which are congenital and characters which are acquired 
extends universally as a general law throughout the vegetable as well 
as the animal kingdom, and in the province of mental as in that of 
bodily organization. Of course this general law has always been well 
known and more or less fully recognized by all modern physiologists 
and medical men. But before the subject was taken up by Professor 
Weismann it was generally assumed that the difference in question 
was one of degree, not one of kind. In other words, it was assumed 
that acquired characters, although not so fully—and therefore not so 
certainly—inherited as congenital characters, nevertheless were inher- 
ited in some lesser degree ; so that, if the same character continued to 
be developed successively in a number of sequent generations, what 
was at first only a slight tendency to be inherited would become by 


436 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 


summation a more and more pronounced tendency, till eventually the 
acquired character might be as strongly inherited as any other charac- 
ter which was ab initio congenital. Now it is the validity of this 
assumption that is challenged by Professor Weismann. He says there 
is no evidence at all of any acquired characters being in any degree in- 
herited, and therefore that in this important respect they may be 
held to differ from congenital characters in kind. On the supposition 
that they do thus differ in kind, he furnishes a very attractive theory 
of heredity, which serves at once to explain the difterence, and to rep- 
resent it as a matter of physiological impossibility that any acquired 
character can, under any circumstances whatsoever, be transmitted to 
progeny. 

In order fully to comprehend this theory, it is desirable first of all to 
explain Professor Weismann’s views upon certain other topics which 
are more or less closely allied to, and indeed logically bound up with 
the present one. 

Starting from the fact that uni-cellular organisms multiply by fission 
and gemmation, he argues that aboriginally and potentially, life is 
immortal; for, when a protozoén divides into two—more or less equal 
parts by fission, and each of the two halves thereupon grows into 
another protozo6n, it is evident that there has been no death on the 
part of any of the living material involved; and inasmuch as this 
process of fission goes on continuously from generation to generation, 
there is never any death on the part of such protoplasmic material, 
although there is a continuous addition to it as the numbers of individ- 
uals increase. Similarly, in the case of gemmation, when a protozoén 
parts with a small portion of its living material in the form of a bud, 
this portion does not die, but develops into a new individual; and 
therefore the process is exactly analogous to that of fission, save that 
only a small instead of a large part of the parent substance is involved. 
Now if life be thus immortal in the case of uni-cellular organisms, why 
should it have ceased to be so in the case of multi-cellular organisms ? 
Weismann’s answer is that all the multi-cellular organisms propagate 
themselves, not exclusively by fission or gemmation, but by sexual fer- 
tilization, where the condition to a new organism arising is—that minute 
and specialized portions of two parent organisms should fuse together. 
Now it is evident that with this change in the method of propagation, 
serious disadvantage would accrue to any species if its sexual individ- 
uals were to continue to be immortal; for in that case every species 
which multiplies by sexual methods would in time become composed of 
indivuals broken down and decrepit through the results of accident 
and disease—always operating and ever accumulating throughout the 
course of their immortal lives. Consequently as soon as sexual methods 
of propagation superseded the more primitive a-sexual methods, it 
became desirable in the interests of the sexually-propagating species 
that their constituent individuals should cease to be immortal, so that 


WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 437 


the species should always be recuperated by fresh, young, and well- 
formed representatives. Consequently also, natural selection would 
speedily see to it that all sexually-propagating species should become 
deprived of tie aboriginal endowment of immortality, with the result 
that death is now a universal destiny among all the individuals of such 
species, that is to say, among all the metazoa and metaphyta. Never- 
theless, it is to be remembered that this destiny extends only to the 
parts of the individual other than the contents of those specialized cells 
which constitute the reproductive elements, for although in each in- 
dividual metazoén or metaphyton an innumerable number of these 
specialized cells are destined to perish during the life and with the 
death of the organism to which they belong, this is only due to the 
accident, so to speak, of their contents not having met with their com. 
plements in the opposite sex; it does not belong to their essential 
nature that they should perish, seeing that those which do happen to 
meet with their complements in the opposite sex help to form a new 
living individual, and so on through successive generations ad infinitum. 
Therefore the reproductive elements of the metazoa and metaphyta are 
in this respect precisely analagous to the protozoa: potentially, or in 
their own nature, they are immortal; and, like the protozoa, if they die, 
their death is an accident due to unfavorable circumstances. But the 
case is quite different with all the other parts of a multicellular organ- 
ism. Here, no matter how favorable the circumstances may be, every 
cell contains within itself, or in its very nature, the eventual doom of 
death. Thus, of the metazoa and mtaphyta it is the specialized germ- 
plasms alone that retain their primitive endowment of everlasting life, 
passed on continuously through generation after generation of succes- 
sively perishing organisms. 

So far, it is contended, we are dealing with matters of fact. It must 
be taken as true that the protoplasm of the uni-cellular organisms and 
the germ-plasm of the multicellular organisms have been continuous 
through the time since life first appeared upon this earth ; and although 
large quantities of each are perpetually dying through being exposed to 
conditions unfavorable to life, this, as Weismann presents the matter, 
is quite a different case from that of all the other constituent parts of 
multi-cellular organisms, which contain within themselves the doom of 
death. Furthermore,-it appears extremely probable that this doom of 
death has been brought about by natural selection for the reasons 
assigned by Weismann, namely, because it is for the benefit of all 
species which perpetuate themselves by sexual methods that their con- 
stituent individuals should not live longer than is necessary for the 
sake of originating the next generation and fairly starting itin its own 
struggle for existence. For Weismann has shown, by a somewhat 
laborious though still largely imperfect research, that there is through- 
out all the metazoa a general correlation between the natural life-time 
of individuals composing any given species and the age at which they 


438 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 


reach maturity or first become capable of procreation. This general 
correlation however is somewhat modified by the time during which 
progeny are dependent upon their parents for support and protection. 
Nevertheless, it is evident that this modification tends rather to confirm 
the view that expectation of life on the part of individuals has in all 
cases been determined with strict reference to the requirements of prop- 
agation, if under propagation we include the rearing as well as the 
production of offspring. I may observe in passing that I do not think 
this general law can be found to apply to plants in nearly so close a 
manner as Weismann has shown it to apply to animals; but leaving 
this fact aside, to the best of my judgment it does appear that Weis- 
mann has made out a good case in favor of such a general law with 
regard to animals. 

We have come then to these results. Protoplasm was originally 
immortal (barring accidents), and it still continues to be immortal in 
the case of unicellular organisms which propagate a-sexually. Butin 
the case of all multicellular organisms, which propagate sexually, nat- 
ural selection has reduced the term of life within the smallest limits 
that in each given case are compatible with the performance of the 
sexual act and the subsequent rearing of progeny, reserving however 
the original endowment of immortality for the germinal elements, 
whereby a continuum of life has been secured from the earliest appear- 
ance of life until the present day. 

Now in view of these results, the question arises, Why should the 
sexual methods of propagation have become so general if their effect 
has been that of determining the necessary death of all individuals 
presenting them? Why, in the course of organic evolution, should 
these newer methods have been imposed on all the higher organisms, 
when the consequence is that all these higher organisms must pay for 
the innovation with their lives? Weismann’s answer to this question 
is as interesting and ingenious as all that has gone before. Seeing that 
sexual propagation is so general as to be practically universal among 
multi-cellular organisms, it is obvious that in some way or other it 
must have a most important part to play in the general scheme of 
organic evolution. What then is the part that it does play? What 
is its raison Wétre? Briefly, according to Weismann, its function is 
that of furnishing congenital variations to the ever-watchful agency of 
natural selection, in order that natural selection may always preserve 
the most favorable and pass them on to the next generation by hered- 
ity. That sexual propagation is well calculated to furnish congenital 
variations may easily be rendered apparent. We have only to remem- 
ber that at each union there is a mixture of two germinal elements ; 
that each of these was in turn the product of two other germinal ele- 
ments in the preceding generation, and so backwards ad infinitum in 
geometrical ratio. Remembering this, it follows that the germinal ele- 
ment of no one member of a species can ever be the same as that of any 


WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 439 


other member; on the contrary, while both are enormously complex 
products, each has had a different ancestral history, such that while 
one presents the congenital admixtures of thousands of individuals in 
one line of descent, the other presents similar admixtures of thousands 
of other individuals in a different line of descent. Consequently, when 
in any sexual union two of these enormously complex germinal elements 
fuse together and constitute a new individual out of their joint endow- 
ments, it is perfectly certain that that individual can not be exactly 
like any other individual of the same species or even of the same brood ; 
the chances must be infinity to one against any single mass of germ- 
plasm being exactly like any other mass of germ-plasm; while any 
amount of latitude as to difference is allowed, up to the point at which 
the difference becomes too pronounced to satisfy the conditions of fer- 
tilization, in which case, of course, no new individual is born. Hence, 
theoretically, we have here a sufficient cause for all individual varia- 
tions of a congenital kind that can possibly occur within the limits of 
fertility, and therefore that can ever become actual in living organ- 
isms. In point of fact, Weismann believes—or at any rate began by 
believing—that this is the sole and only cause of variations that are 
congenital, and therefore (according to his views) transmissible by hered- 
ity. Now whether or not he is right as regards these latter points, I 
think there can be no question that sexual propagation is, at all events, 
one of the main causes of congenital variation; and seeing of what 
enormous importance congenital variation must always have been in 
supplying material for the operation of natural selection, we appear to 
have found a most satisfactory answer to our question,—Why has sex- 
ual propagation become so universal among all the higher plants and 
animals? It has become so because it is thus shown to have been the 
condition to producing congenital variations, which in turn constitute 
the condition to the working of natural selection. 

Having got thus far, I should like to make two or three subsidiary 
remarks. In the first place it ought to be observed that this luminous 
theory touching the causes of congenital variations was not originally 
propounded by Professor Weismann, but occurs in the writings of sev- 
eral previous authors and is expressly alluded to by Darwin. Never- 
theless, it occupies so prominent a place in Weismann’s system of theo- 
ries and has by him been wrought up so much more elaborately than 
by any of his predecessors that we are entitled to regard it as par ex- 
cellence the Weismannian theory of variation. In the next place it 
ought to be observed that Weismann is careful to guard against the 
seductive fallacy of attributing the origin of sexual propagation to the 
agency of natural selection. Great as the benefit of this newer mode 
of propagation must have been to the species presenting it, the benefit 
can not have been conferred by natural selection, seeing that the bene- 
fit arose from the fact of the new method furnishing material to the 
operation of natural selection, and therefore insofar as it did this, 


440 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 


constituting the condition to the principle of natural selection having 
been called into play at all. Or in other words, we can not attribute 
to natural selection the origin of sexual reproduction without involving 
ourselves in the absurdity of supposing natural selection to have origi- 
nated the conditions of its own activity.* What the causes may have 
been which originally led to sexual reproduction is at present a matter 
that awaits suggestion by way of hypothesis; and therefore it now 
only remains to add that the general structure of Professor Weismann’s 
system of hypotheses leads to this curious result, namely, that the 
otherwise ubiquitous and (as he supposes) exclusive dominion of nat- 
ural selection stops short at the protozoa, over which it can not exercise 
any influence at all. For if natural selection depends for its activity 
on the occurrence of congenital variations, and if congenital variations 
depend for their occurrence on sexual modes of reproduction, it follows 
that no organisms which propagate themselves by any other modes can 
present congenital variations, or thus become subject to the influence 
of natural selection. And inasmuch as Weismann believes that such 
is the case with all the protozoa, as well as with all parthenogenetic 
organisms, he does not hesitate to accept the necessary conclusion that 
in these cases natural selection is without any jurisdiction. How, then, 
does he account for individual variations in the protozoa? And still 
more, how does he account for the origin of their innumerable species ? 


(February 6, 1890: vol. XLI, pp. 317-323) an elaborate answer to a criticism of 
his theory by Professor Vines (October 24, 1889: vol. xL, pp. 621-626). In the 
course of this answer Professor Weismann says that he does attribute the origin of 
sexual reproduction to natural selection. This directly contradicts what he says in 
his essays, and for the reasons given in the text, appears to me an illogical departure 
from his previously logical attitude. I herewith append quotations in order to reveal 
the contradiction : 

‘‘But when I maintain that the meaning of sexual reproduction is to render possi- 
ble the transformation of the higher organisms by means of natural selection, such a 
statement is not equivalent to the assertion that sexual reproduction originally came 
into existence in order to achieve this end. The effects which are now produced by 
sexual reproduction did not constitute the causes which led to its first appearance. 
Sexual reproduction came into existence before it could lead to hereditary individual 
variability (7. e., to the possibility of natural selection). Its first appearance must, 
therefore, have had some other cause [than natural selection]; but the nature of this 
cause can hardly be determined with any degree of certainty or precision from the 
facts with which we are at present acquainted.”—(‘‘ Essay on the Significance of Sex- 
ual Reproduction in the Theory of Natural Selection : English Translation,” pp. 281- 
282.) 

“Tam still of opinion that the origin of sexual reproduction depends on the adyan- 
tage which it affords to the operation of naturalselection. - - - Sexual reproduction 
has arisen by and for natural selection as the sole means by which individual varia- 
tions can be united and combined in every possible proportion.”—( Nature, Vol. XLt, 
p. 322.) 

How such opposite statements can be reconciled I do not myself perceive.—G. J. 
R., February 17, 1890. 


WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 441 


ditions of life. In other words, so far as the uni-cellular organisms are 
concerned, Weismann is rigidly and exelusively an advocate of the 
theory of Lamarck, just as much as in the case of all the multi-cellular 
organisms he is rigidly and exclusively an opponent of that theory. 
Nevertheless, there is here no inconsistency; on the contrary, it is con- 
sistency with the logical requirements of his theory that leads to this 
sharp partitioning of the uni-cellular from the multi-cellular organisms 
with respect to the causes of their evolution. For, as he points out, 
the conditions of propagation among the uni-cellular organisms are such 
that parent and offspring are one and the same thing; ‘“ the child is a 
part, and usually a half, of its parent.” Therefore, if the parent has 
been in any way modified by the action of external conditions, it is in- 
evitable that the child should, from the moment of its birth (7. e., fissi- 
parous separation), be similarly modified; and if the modifying influ- 
ences continue in the same lines for a sufficient length of time the re- 
sulting change of type may become sufficiently pronounced to consti- 
tute a new species, genus, etc. But in the case of the multi-cellular or 
sexual organisms the child is not thus merely a severed moiety of its 
parent; it is the result of the fusion of two highly specialized and ex- 
tremely minute particles of each of two parents. Therefore, whatever 
may be thought touching the validity of Weismann’s deduction that 
in no case can any modification induced by external conditions on these 
parents be transmitted to their progeny, at least we must recognize the 
validity of the distinction which he draws between the facility with 
which such transmission must take place in the uni-cellular organisms 
as compared with the difficulty—or, as he believes, the impossibility— 
of its doing so in the multi-cellular. 

We are now in a position to fully understand Professor Weismann’s 
theory of heredity in all its bearings. Briefly stated, this theory is as 
follows: The whole organization of any multi-cellular organism is com- 
posed of two entirely different kinds of cells, namely, the germ cells, 
or those which have to do with reproduction, and the somatic cells, or 
those which go to constitute all the other parts of the organism. Now 
the somatic cells in their aggregations as tissues and organs may be 
modified in numberless ways by the direct action of the environment 
as well as by special habits formed during the individual life-time of 
the organism. But although the modifications thus induced may be 
and generally are adaptive,—-such as the increased muscularity caused 
by the use of muscles, “‘ practice making perfect ” in the case of nervous 
adjustments, and so on,—in no case can these so-called acquired or 
‘“‘ somato-genetic” characters exercise any influence upon the germ-cells, 
such that they should re-appear in their products (progeny) as congen- 
ital or ‘‘ blasto-genetic” characters. For according to the theory, the 
germ-cells as to their germinal contents differ in kind from the somatic 
cells, and have no other connection or dependence upon them than 
that of deriving from them their food and lodging. So much then for 


442 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 


the somatic cells. Turning now more especially to the germ-cells, these 
are the receptacles of what Weissmann calls the germ-plasm ; and this it 
is that which he supposes to differ in kind from all the other constituent 
elements of the organism. T‘or the germ-plasm he believes to have had 
its origin in the uni cellular organisms, and to have been handed down 
from them in one continuous stream through all successive generations 
of multi-celluiar organisms. Thus, for example, suppose we take a cer- 
tain quantum of germ-plasm as this occurs in any individual organism 
of to-day. A minute portion of this germ-plasm, when mixed with a 
similarly minute portion from another individual, goes to form a new 
individual. But in doing so only a portion of this minute portion is 
consumed ; the residue is stored up in the germinal cells of this new 
individual in order to secure that continuity of the germ-plasm which 
Weismann assumes as the necessary basis of his whole theory. Fur- 
thermore, he assumes that this overplus portion of germ-plasm which is 
so handed over to the custody of the new individual is there capable 
of growth or multiplication at the expense of the nutrient materials 
which are supplied to it by the new soma in which it finds itself located ; 
while in thus growing or multiplying it faithfully retains its highly 
complex character, so that in no one minute particular does any part of 
a many thousand-fold increase differ as to its ancestral characters from 
that inconceivably small overplus which was first of all intrusted to 
the embryo by its parents. Therefore one might represent the germ- 
plasm by the metaphor of a yeast-plant, a single particle of which may 
be put into a vat of nutrient fluid ; there it lives and grows upon the 
nutriment supplied, so that a new particle may next be taken to impreg- 
nate another vat, and so on ad infinitum. Here the successive vats 
would represent successive generations of progeny ; but to make the 
metaphor complete one would require to suppose that in each case the 
yeast-cell was required to begin by making its own vat of nutrient 
material, and that it was only the residual portion of the cell which 
was afterwards able to grow and multiply. But although the meta- 
phor is necessarily a clumsy one, it may serve to emphasize the all-im- 
portant feature of Weismann’s theory, viz., the almost absolute inde- 
pendence of the germ-plasm. For just as the properties of the yeast- 
plant would be in no way affected by anything that might happen to 
the vat short of its being broken up or having its malt impaired, so 
according to Weismann the properties of the germ-plasm cannot be 
affected by anything that may happen to its containing soma short of 
the soma being destroyed or having its nutritive functions impaired. 

Such being the relations that are supposed to obtain between the 
soma and its germ-plasm, we have next to contemplate what is sup- 
posed to happen when, in the course of evolution, some modification of 
the ancestral form of the soma is required in order to adapt it to some 
change on the part of itsenvironment. In other words, we have to con- 
sider Weismann’s views on the modus operandi of adaptive develop- 
ment, with its results in the origination of new species. 


WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 443 


Seeing that according to the theory, it is only congenital variations 
which can be inherited, all variations subsequently acquired by the in- 
tercourse of individuals with their environment, however beneficial such 
variations may be to these individuals, are ruled out as regards the 
species. Not falling within the province of heredity, they are blocked 
off in the first generation, and therefore present no significance at all 
in the process of organic evolution. No matter how many generations 
of eagles, for instance, may use their wings for purposes of flight; and 
no matter how great an increase of muscularity, of endurance, and of 
skill, may thus be secured to each generation of eagles as the result of 
individual exercise; all these advantages are entirely lost to progeny, 
and young eagles have ever to begin their lives with no more benefit 
bequeathed by the activity of their ancestors than if those ancestors had 
all been barn-door fowls. Therefore the only material which is of any 
count as regards the species, or with reference to the process of evolu- 
tion, are fortuitous variations of the congenital kind. Among all the 
numberless congenital variations, within narrow limits, which are 
perpetually occurring in each generation of eagles, some will have 
reference to the wings; and although these will be fortuitous, or occur- 
ring indiscriminately in all directions, a few of them will now and then 
be in the direction of increased muscularity, others in the direction of 
increased endurance, others in the direction of increased skill, and so on. 
Now each of these fortuitous variations, which happens also to be a 
beneficial variation, will be favored by natural selection; and because 
it likewise happens to be a congenital variatior, will be perpetuated by 
heredity. In the course of time, other congenital variations will happen 
to arise in the same directions ; these will be added by natural selection 
to the advantage already gained, and so on, till after hundreds and 
thousands of generations the wings of eagles become evolved into the 
marvelous structures which they now present. 

Such being the theory of natural selection when stripped of all rem- 
nants of so-called Lamarckian principles, we have next to consider what 
the theory means in its relation to germ-plasm. For as before ex- 
plained, congenital variations are supposed by Weismann to be due to 
new combinations taking place in the germ-plasm as a result of the 
union of two complex hereditary histories in every act of fertilization. 
Well, if congenital variations are thus nothing more than variations of 
germ-plasm “ writ large ” in the organism which is developed out of the 
plasm, it follows that natural selection is really at work upon these 
variations of the germ-plasm. Tor although it is proximately at work 
on the congenital variations of organisms after birth, it is ultimately, 
and through them, at work upon the variations of germ-plasm out of 
which the organisms arise. In other words, natural selection in pick- 
ing out of each generation those individual organisms which are by 
their congenital character best suited to their surrounding conditions 
of life, is thereby picking out those peculiar combinations or variations 


444 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 


of germ-plasm, which, when expanded into a resulting organism, give 
that organism the best chance in its struggle for existence. And 
inasmuch as a certain overplus of this peculiar combination of germ- 
plasm is intrusted to that organism for bequeathing to the next gen- 
eration, this to the next, and so on, it follows that natural selection is 
all the while conserving that originally peculiar combination of germ- 
plasm, until it happens to meet with some other mass of germ-plasm 
by mixing with which it may still further improve upon its original 
peculiarity when, of course, natural selection will seize upon this im- 
provement to perpetuate as in the previous case. So that on the whole 
we may say that natural selection is ever waiting and watching forsuch 
combinations of germ-plasm as will give the resulting organisms the 
best possible chance in their struggle for existence; while at the same 
time it is remorselessly destroying all those combinations of germ-plasm 
which are handed over to the custody of organisms not so well fitted to 
their conditions of life. 

It only remains to add that, according to Weismann’s theory in its 
strictly logical form, combinations of germ-plasm when once effected 
are so stable that they would never alter except as a result of entering 
into new combinations. In other words, no external influences or in- 
ternal processes can ever change the hereditary nature of any particular 
mixture of germ-plasm, save and except its admixture with some other 
germ-plasm, which, being of a nature equally stable, goes to unite with 
the other in equal proportions as regards hereditary character. So that 
really it would be more correct to say that any given mass of germ-plasm 
does not change even when it is mixed with some other mass—any 
more, for instance, than a handful of sand can be said to change when 
it is mixed with a handful of clay. 

Consequently, we arrive at this curious result. No matter how many 
generations of organisms there may have been, and therefore no matter 
how many combinations of germ-plasm may have taken place to give 
rise to an existing population, each existing unit of germ-plasm must 
have remained of the same essential nature of constitution as when it 
was first started in its immortal career millions of years ago. Or re 
verting to our illustration of sand and clay, the particles of each must 
always remain the same,no matter how many admixtures they may 
undergo with particles of other materials, such as chalk, slate, ete. 
Now inasmuch as it is an essential—because a logically necessary— 
part of Weismann’s theory to assume such absolute stability or un- 
changeableness on the part of germ-plasm, the question arises, and has 
to be met,—What was the origin of those differences of character in the 
different germ-plasms of multi-cellular organisms which first gave rise, 
and still continue to give rise, to congenital variations by their mixture 
one with another? ‘This important question Weismann answers by 
supposing that these differences originally arose out of the differences 
in the uni-cellular crganisms, which were the ancestors of the primitive 


WEISMANN’S THEORY OF. HEREDITY. 445 


multi-cellular organisms. Nowas before stated, different forms of uni- 
cellular organisms are supposed to have originated as so many results 
of differences in the direct action of the environment. Consequently, 
according to the theory, all congenital variations which now occur in 
multi cellular organisms are really the distant results of variations that 
were aboriginally induced in their uni-cellular ancestors by the direct 
action of surrounding conditions of life. 

I think it will be well to conclude by briefly summarizing the main 
features of this elaborate theory. . 

Living material is essentially, or of its own nature, imperishable, 
and it still continues to be so in the case of unicellular organisms which 
propagate by fission or gemmation. But as soon as these primitive 
methods of propagation became, from whatever cause, superseded by 
sexual, it ceased to be for the benefit of species that their constituent 
individuals should be immortal, seeing that, if they continued to be 
so, all species of sexually-reproducing organisms would sooner or later 
come to be composed of broken down and decrepit individuals. Con- 
sequently, in all sexually-reproducing or miulti-cellular organisms, nat- 
ural selection set to work to reduce the term of individual life-times 
within the narrowest limits that in the case of each species are com- 
patible with the procreation and the rearing of progeny. Nevertheless, 
in all these sexually-reproducing organisms the primitive endowment 
of immortality has been retained with respect to their germ-plasm, 
which has thus been continuous, through numberless generations of 
perishing organisms, from the first origin of sexual reproduction till 
the present time. Now it is the union of germ-plasms which is required 
to reproduce new individuals of multi-cellular organisms that determines 
congenital variations on the part of such organisms, and thus furnishes 
natural selection with the material for its work in the way of organic 
evolution,—work therefore which is impossible in the case of uni-cel- 
lular organisms, where variation can never be congenital, but always 
determined by the direct action of surroanding conditions of life. 
Again, as the germ-plasm of multi-cellular organisms is continuous from 
generation to generation, and at each impregnation gives rise to a more 
or less novel set of congenital characters which are of most service to 
the organisms presenting them, is really or fundamentally at work 
upon those variations of the germ-plasm which in turn give origin to 
those variations of organisms that we recognize as congenital, there- 
fore, natural selection has always to wait and to watch for such varia- 
tions of germ-plasm as will eventually prove beneficial to the individuals 
developed therefrom, who will then transmit this peculiar quality of 
germ-plasm to their progeny, and soon. Therefore also—and this is 
most important to remember—natural selection as thus working be- 
comes the one and only cause of evolution and the origin of species in 
all the multi-cellular organisms, just as the direct action of the environ- 
ment is the one and only cause of evolution and the origin of species 


446 WEISMANN’S THEORY OF HEREDITY. 


in the case of all the uni-cellular organisms. But inasmuch as the mul- 
ti-cellular organisms were all in the first instance derived from the uni- 
cellular and inasmuch as their germ-plasm is of so stable a nature that 
it can never be altered by any agencies internal or external to the 
organisms presenting it, it follows that all congenital variations are 
the remote consequences of aboriginal differences on the part of uni- 
cellular ancestors. And lastly, it follows also that these congenital 
variations—although now so entirely independent of external conditions 
of life, and even of activities internal to organisms themselves—were 
originally and exclusively due to the direct action of such conditions 
on the lives of their unicellular ancestry; while even at the present 
day no one congenital variation can arise which is not ultimately due to 
differences impressed upon the protoplasmic substance of the germinal 
elements, when the parts of which these are now composed constituted 
integral parts of the protozoa, which were directly and differentially 
affected by their converse with their several environments. 

Such then is Weismann’s theory of heredity in its original and 
strictly logical form. But it is now necessary to add that in almost 
every one of its essential features, as just stated, the theory has had to 
undergo—or is demonstrably destined to undergo—some radical modi- 
fication. On the present occasion however, my object is merely to 
state the theory, not to criticise it. Therefore I have sought to present 
the whole theory in its completely connected shape. Ona future occa- 
sion—I hope within the present year—it will be my endeavor to dis- 
conuect the now untenable parts from the parts which still remain for 
investigation at the hands of biological science. 


THE ASCENT OF MAN.* 


By FRANK BAKER, M. D. 


The science of Anthropology, one of the younger daughters of human 
knowledge, is so vast in its scope that to master all of its different ram- 
ifications seems a hopeless task. Having for its object the comprehen- 
sive study of man, including his origin, his development, and his present 
condition, its aim is to focus and co-ordinate the general results derived 
from avast number of subordinate branches. The philologist contrib- 
utes information concerning the origin and growth of language and its 
effect upon civilization; the mythologist tells of the psychological side 
of the human mind and traces the rise and progress of religious ideas; 
the archeologist, in order to fix their places in the history of mankind, 
searches for the remains of peoples long since passed away. All these 
depend for their material upon external records, left by tradition, by 
writing, by sculpture, or by implements and weapons. With greatest 
care every ancient habitation of man is searched in order to learn from 
it the details of the life of its former inhabitants. 

Within comparatively recent times still another avenue of informa- 
tion has been found, for we have learned that it is not alone by these 
external records that man’s history can be traced, but that important 
facts may be obtained by studying the constitution of his body; that 
the changes and vicissitudes of his existence are recorded on his very 
bones, in characters long undeciphered, but to which the clew has at 
last been found. My labors have led me more particularly to this 
department of anthropology, and a concise summary of the main heads 
of this research may be of value and interest. 

The views propounded by Lamarck in the early part of this century, 
with reference to the modification of living organisms by use and adap- 
tation, have been remarkably confirmed in modern times. Hxhaustive 
researches into the constitution and properties of the cells composing 
living tissues show that they are subject to continual change, each im- 
pulse from without being registered by some small alteration in their 
physical condition. Impulses of a similar kind continuously acting 


* Address of the Vice-president before the section of Anthropology, of the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science, at the Indianapolis meeting, August 20, 


447 


448 THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


produce greater changes, and long-continued repetition notably alters 
even the hardest and most enduring of structures. Thus it is that 
bones are modified in form by muscular pull and the surfaces of teeth 
are shaped by incessant grinding. These alterations are more readily 
apparent to us because they affect very hard and easily preserved 
organs, but the effects are equally potent, though not so clearly recog- 
nizable, in the softer tissues of the body. Every act of our lives is cer- 
tainly but surely registered within the marvellous structure of our 
bodies. Not a muscle can contract without an absolute change sub- 
stance ; in its not a nerve-cell can discharge with out some self-destruc- 
tion. 

Most of these changes being very minute and evanescent are quite 
beyond our power to accurately estimate, and were the increments of 
change confined to a single life-time, were each individual to stand only 
for himself and compelled to earn his experience by the same tedious 
struggle, use and adaptation would have but little power to mold man- 
kind into races and varieties. But, by the action of a law as yet im- 
perfectly understood, the adaptations of each individual are transmitted 
to its offspring; or, tospeak more accurately, the offspring pass through 
the changes more easily and quickly than the parent did. While each 
has always to go back to the beginning and commence from the simple 
blastema of the primitive egg, the younger has the advantage of being 
able to adapt itself more quickly to its surroundings, provided these 
have not too greatly changed, and thus starts a little way ahead of its 
ancestor in the race for life. In consequence of this law, changes be- 
come cumulative, and a cause acting for a great length of time upon a 
series of successive generations finally produces a well-marked and 
easily observed effect in the structure of individuals; changing colors, 
modifying organs, shaping whole regions of the body. 

Again, if after such changes have been effected, these causes cease 
to operate and the organs they have shaped are no longer of use, the 
latter become reduced in size, atrophy, and recede, remaining however 
in a vestigial condition for many, many generations as records of the 
past history of the race, as dolmens and cromlechs certify to former 
customs and flint arrow-heads and stone hatchets give evidence of a 
previous state of civilization. 

The human body abounds in testimony of this sort,—-indications of 
the pathway by which humanity has climbed from darkness to light, 
from bestiality to civilization,—relics of countless ages of struggle, 
often fierce, bloody, and pitiless. 

These are found in every organ of the body, and each new investiga- 
tion adds to their number. To enumerate them all would be impossible 
within the limits assigned me by your patience. I will therefore touch 
only upon a few of the more striking ones, especially those connected 
with the modifications of the limbs, with the erect position, and with 
the segmentation of the vody, 


THE ASCENT OF MAN. 449 


The limbs, being organs of support and locomotion, show great varia- 
tions in the zodlogical series, and the hand of man has long been looked 
upon as especially significant of his high position in the animal king- 
dom, one of the chief distinctions between him and the nearest brutes. 
To a certain extent this is correct. No other creature possesses so highly 
complex and effective an organ for grasping and adjusting objects, and 
it is pre-eminently this that has made man a tool-using animal. On 
comparing a human hand with that of the anthropoid apes it may be 
seen that this efficiency is produced in two ways: first, by increasing 
the mobility and variety of action of the thumb and fingers; second, by 
reducing the muscles used mainly to assist prolonged grasp, they being 
no longer necessary to an organ that is intended for delicate work, 
and requires constant re-adjustment. Thus some elements are added 
and some taken away. Now according to the theory I have enunciated, 
the latest elements ought to show signs of their recent origin, to be 
somewhat imperfectly differentiated and liable to return to their primi- 
tive state, while those going out of active use ought to be vestigial, not 
equal in size or force to muscular organs generally, very liable to varia- 
tion or disappearance. This is what actually occurs. 

Among the new elements is a special flexor muscle for the thumb, 
arising high up on the forearm. A very slight examination shows 
that this muscle has been split off from the fibers of the deep flexor 
that bends the terminal joints of the fingers. In most apes the two 
form a single muscle, and in man the thumb flexor very often shows 
unmistakable evidence of such origin. In about 10 per cent. of 
persons, part of its fibers pass over to and become blended with the 
parent muscle. Not infrequently I have seen the two entirely united, 
returning absolutely to their primitive condition. The deep and super- 
ficial flexors of the fingers show signs of a similar relationship, as they 
frequently blend more or less, tending to revert to the type shown in 
most lower animals. Indeed, if we go back to embryonic life we find 
all the muscles of the anterior part of the fore-arm united in what is 
termed the pronato flecor mass, recalling the original condition of mus- 
culature in the earliest animals possessing limbs. 

In the category of disappearing muscles comes the palmarus longus 
a muscle of the fore-arm which in many animals is an important aid in 
climbing and grasping. It takes its origin from the upper arm and 
passes to the hand, where it expands into a large sheet of thick mem- 
brane called the palmar fascia, which splits into several slips passing to 
each finger. The pull of the muscle acts upon all the fingers together, 
keeping them bent without independence of action, Now in man the 
fingers have each two separate flexor tendons that can act to a certain 
extent independently. To insure their independence they are at the 
wrist enclosed in a remarkable tubular conduit or subway formed by 
soldering the palmar fascia to the wrist-bones. This at once destroys 
any effective action of the palmaris longus on the fingers and it becomes 

i Mis. 129 29 


450 THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


a flexor of the wrist. This soldering undoubtedly took place because 
the muscle was no longer required as a finger-holder. Like other organs 
that after playing a part of considerable functional importance have 
come from change of habit to be of but little value, it shows the most 
astonishing tendency to variation. Not a week passes in a large dis- 
secting room that some curious anomaly is not found in this muscle. 
Sometimes it is seen almost in its primitive condition, the palmar fascia 
being comparatively movable and the palmaris longus having some effect 
upon the flexion of the fingers ; oftener it unites wholly or partially with 
some portion of the pronato-flexor mass or disappears altogether. The 
disappearance is usually only ajparent, however. Regressive struc- 
tures rarely disappear totally, for on careful search astrip of fascia ean 
usually be found that represents the atrophied and aborted organ. 

Since these two examples differ in that the first represents the devel- 
opment of a new muscle while the second is the atrophy of an old one, 
we ought to find racial differences corresponding to these two condi- 
tions. Our studies of racial anatomy are as yet far from sufficient to 
give us complete information upon these points, and I would especially 
avoid generalizing upon too meager data. It has however appeared 
to me that in negroes the palmaris longus is more inclined to assume its 
primitive type—that is, is less likely to vary—while the long flexor of 
the thumb is on the contrary more inclined to be partially, if not wholly, 
united with the deep flexor of the fingers. 

Connected intimately with the hand are the other portions of the 
thoracic limb that carry it from place to place. Here again we may 
note many points indicating a progressive development of the member. 
When the arm is naturally and easily bent at the elbow it does not 
carry the hand to the shoulder, as might be expected, but towards the 
mouth. The reason for this is that the articular surfaces of the elbow- 
joint are not cut horizontally across the axis of the humerus, but inclined 
at an angle of about 20°. This obliquity does not occur in the foetus and 
is less in Bushmen, Australians, and the anthropoid apes. It is associ- 
ated with another peculiarity ; indeed, may be said to be caused by it. 
This is a twisting of the humerus on its long axis, which occurs markedly 
in the higher races. If we hold up endwise the humerus of a European 
we see that the longest diameters of the upper and lower ends very 
nearly coincide. In the negro we find the lower diameter turned more 
towards the body, still more in the anthropoid apes, and again more as 
we descend the scale. Embryology teaches that the humerus was for- 
merly set so that the hollow of the elbow looked towards the body 
rather than forward, and it seems therefore that as the functions of 
the limb became more various, the lower end of the bone gradually 
twisted outward around the long axis until its diameter described a 
considerable are. This turned the hand with the palm to the front, ex- 
tended its range, and adapted it for a wider usefulness. Greater twist 
is found in the right humerus than in the left and in the humeri of 


THE ASCENT OF MAN. 451 


modern times than in those of the stone age. As the torsion increased 
some provision became necessary for carrying the hand easily across 
the body to the mouth. This was effected by the inclination of the ar- 
ticular surfaces of the elbow-joint already mentioned. 

Many moveinents of the arm in man are produced by muscles acting 
upon the shoulder-blade or scapula. As the hand was turned outward 
and a wider range given, these increased in extent and im portance, and 
the scapula accordingly widened out at its vertebral border in order to 
give a more extensive attachinent for muscles. In order to accurately 
estimate this change the ratio of the breadth to the length of the 
scapula is taken. This ratio, called the scapular index, is highest 
among the white races, less in the infant, in negroes, and in Austra- 
lians, and still less in anthropoid apes. It is significant also that the 
vertebral border of the scapula is the last to form in the foetus. We 
have therefore three modifications—the torsion of the humerus, the 
inclination of its lower articular surface, and the scapular index—all 
depending upon each other, all varying together pari passu, and all 
showing a progressive development both in the individual and the race. 

Muscle is composed of one of the most highly organized and expen- 
sive tissues of the body. Unless fed constantly with a great supply of 
blood to keep up its active metabolic changes, it quickly wastes, func- 
tional activity being absolutely necessary to its proper maintenance, as 
any one knows who has seen how rapidly the muscles of an athlete 
diminish when he goes out of training. If from accident or change of 
habit its use altogether ceases, its protoplasm is gradually removed, its 
blood supply diminishes, ard it shrinks to a mere band or sheet of 
fibrous tissue. Changes of function may therefore affect the form of 
muscles, one portion becoming tendinous or fascia-like; may even cause 
them to shift their places, by inducing a development on one side and 
an atrophy on another, or to disappear altogether, being replaced by 
fascia orligament. A similar regression may take place in bone and car- 
tilage a high-grade, actively metabolic tissue, difficult to maintain, being 
replaced by a low-grade one comparatively slow to change. It is there- 
fore not unusual to find that muscles, bones, and cartilages performing 
important functions in some animals are represented by vestigial struc- 
tures in those higher in the scale. Our conclusions on this subject are 
confirmed by finding occasional instances where the hereditary ten- 
dency has been greater than usual and the parent form is re-produced 
more or less completely in the higher animal. The palmar fascia at the 
distal end of the palmaris longus, to which allusion has been made, 
represents a former muscular portion, relics of which probably remain 
as some of the small thumb muscles. 

Another interesting instance is the epitrochleo-anconeus, a small 
muscle at the elbow joint, used in apes to effect a lateral movement of 
the ulna upon the humerus. In man the ulna has become so shaped 
that the lateral movement is almost wholly lost, and the muscle has 


452 THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


accordingly degenerated, being represented by a strip of fascia. Very 
often however, a few muscular fibers are still found in this situation. 

Several minor peculiarities that remind us of primitive conditions 
occur in the region of the humerus. Occasionally a supracondyloid 
process is found, throwing a protecting arch over the brachial artery 
and median nerve; in this resembling the supracondyloid foramen of 
marsupials. Struthers found this to be hereditary, occurring in a father 
and four children. A perforation of the olecranon fossa, the pit at the 
lower end of the humerus into which the beak-like end of the ulna fits 
when the arm is fully extended, may probably be regarded as a rever- 
sion toward the condition of anthropoid apes. This frequently occurs 
in South African and other low tribes and in the men of the stone age. 
Recently Dr. D.S. Lamb has found it remarkably frequent in pre-historic 
Indian humeri from the Salado Valley, Arizona. 

While the region of the hand and fore-arm indicates increase of 
specialization, the upper part of the limb generally testifies to a regres- 
sion from a former more highly developed state. The anatomy of the 
flying apparatus of a bird shows a series of muscular, ligamentous, and 
bony structures connected with its upper arm far beyond anything 
ever seen in man. The coracoid bone, a very important element of the 
shoulder girdle in birds, has become reduced in man to a little vestigial 
ossicle that about the sixteenth year becomes soldered to the scapula 
as the coracoid process. The muscles arising from this,—pectoralis 
minor, coraco-brachialis, and biceps,—are structures represented in birds 
by strong, flying muscles. The subclavius, a little slip ending at 
the clavicle, appears to have formerly passed to the coracoid bone or 
to the humerus and been employed in arm movement. The pectoralis 
major appears to represent what was formerly a series of muscles. All 
these have a tendency to repeat their past history, and the number of 
variations found among them is legion. The biceps show traces of its 
former complexity by appearing with three, four, or even five heads, 
by a great variety of insertions, by sending a tendon outside the joint 
capsule instead of through it, as is the rule. The pectoralis major may 
break up into several different muscular integers, inserted from the 
shoulder capsule down to the elbow. The coraco-brachialis shows the 
same instability, and by its behavior clearly indicates its derivation 
from a much larger and more extensive muscular sheet. 

Not less significant are the ligaments about the shoulder. Many of 
these appear to be relics of organs found active in animals lower in the 
scale. Thus the coraco-acromial ligament spanning over the shoulder 
joint is probably a former extension of the acromion process; the rhom- 
boid, conoid, trapezoid, and gleno-humeral ligaments represent regres- 
Sive changes in the subclavius muscle, the coraco-humeral ligament, a 
former insertion of the pectoralis minor. Bands of the deep cervical 
fascia alone remain to testify to the former existence of the levator clav- 


THE ASCENT OF MAN. 453 


icule, a muscle present in most mammals and used to pull forward the 
shoulder girdle when walking in a quadrupedal position. In negroes I 
have frequently found it more or less complete. A fibrous strip unit- 
ing the latissimus dorsi to the triceps is all that remains of an impor- 
tant muscle, the dorso-epitrochlearis, passing from the back to the elbow 
or forearm, used by gibbons and other arboreal apes in swinging from 
branch to branch. Testut found this fully developed ina Bushman. I 
have myself seen various muscular slips that must represent some por- 
tions of it, and authors generally describe it as occurring in 5 or 6 per 
cent. of individuals. 

The hind limbs of apes are popularly thought to be remarkably 
specialized. The term quadrumana or four-handed is used to charae- 
terize the class ; yet it is quite true that this term involves a false con- 
ception. No animal has four exactly similar feet, still less four hands. 
The feet of the ape differ widely from hands; the great toe is not really 
opposable like the thumb, but merely separable from the others and 
differently set, so as to afford a grasp like that of a crampiron. The 
gibbon alone has a small muscle of the foot that may be compared with 
the opponens of the thumb. That these peculiarities are also shared 
by man to some extent is well known. It is quite possible to train 
the toes to do certain kind of prehensile work, even to write, cut paper, 
and sew. <A baby not yet able to walk can often pick up small objects 
with its toes. Compare the marks caused by muscular action on the 
sole of a baby’s foot with those on the hand, and it will be seen that 
there are distinct signs of this prehension. Even the opponens hallucis 
of the gibbon is not infrequently found in man. The foetal condition 
of the foot also approaches that of the apes, the heel being shorter and 
the joints so arranged that the sole can be easily turned inward. In 
the ape the first or great toe is turned inward and upward by shorten- 
ing its metatarsal bone and setting it obliquely upon the ankle. This 
shortening and obliquity also occurs in the foetus; the adult condition, 
in which the metatarsal bone is lengthened and set straight so as to 
give a longer and firmer internal border to the foot, being gradually 
acquired. Many savage tribes still use the foot for climbing and have 
a shorter metatarsal, a wider span between the first and second toes, 
and greater ease in inverting the sole. Connected with this ease of 
inversion should be mentioned a peculiar, ape-like form of the tibia that 
occurs in people of the stone age, in the mound builders, and in some 
American Indians. This is a flattened, saber-like condition of the bone 
known as platycnemy. It is apparently to give greater surface of 
attachment and resistance to the pull of the tibialis anticus, the prin- 
cipal muscle that turns the sole inward. It is interesting to note that 
this peculiarity is much more marked in some early human skeletons 
than in any of the anthropoid apes. 

The poet says that while other animals grovelling regard the earth, 


ABA THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


Jupiter gave to man an uplifted countenance, and ordered him to look 
heavenward and hold his face erect towards the stars. 


“ Pronaque cum spectent animalia cetera terram, 
Os homini sublime dedit, eelumaque tueri 
Jussit, et erectos ad sidera tollere vultus.””* 
Ovid, Metamorphoses: I, 84-86. 


The erect position is however gradually acquired. As inthe sphinx’s 
riddle, we literally go on all fours in the morning of life, and the diffi- 
culty that an infant experiences in learning to walk is strong evi- 
dence that this is an accomplishment acquired by the race late in its 
history. We ought (if this is the case) to find in the human body indi- 
cations of a previous semi-erect posture. There is a vast amount of evi- 
dence of this character, and I can only sketch the outlines of it. 

The erect position in standing is secured by the shape of the foot, by 
the attachment of strong muscles at points of severest strain, and by 
the configuration of the great joints which permits them to be held 
locked when a standing posture is assumed. All these features are 
liable to great variation; they are less marked in children and in the 
lower races. Let us examine them somewhat more carefully. 

The Caucasian type of foot is evidently that best adapted for the 
erect position. The great toe is larger, stronger, and longer than the 
others, making a firm support for the inner anterior pier of the arch 
furmed by the bones—an arch completed by a well-developed heel and 
maintained by a strong, dense band of fascia and ligament binding the 
piers together like the tie-rod of a bowstring truss—thus producing a 
light and elastic structure admirably adapted to support the weight of 
the body and diminish the effect of shocks. In the lower races of man 
all these characters are less marked. The great toe is shorter and 
smaller, the heel-bone less strongly made, the arch much flatter. This 
flattening of the arch produces the projection of the hee] found in some 
races. 

‘he muscles required for maintaining the erect position are those 
which from our predilection for human anatomy we are apt to call the 
great extensors, overlooking the fact that in other animals they are by 
no means as well developed as in man. Being required at the points of 
greatest strain, all are situated on the posterior aspect of the body— 
the calf, the buttock, and the back. 

A very slight examination of any lower animal will show how strik- 
ingly it differs in the muscular development of these regions. The 


* Compare Milton : 
‘““A creature who not prone 
And brute as other creatures, but endued 
With sanctity of reason, might erect 
His stature, and upright with front serene 
Govern the rest, self-knowing.”’ 
Paradise Lost: VIT, 506-510. 


THE ASCENT OF MAN 455 


great muscle of man’s ¢alf, the triceps extensor sur, is formed by the 
welding together of some four muscles separate in many lower forms. 
Varieties are found in man showing all grades of separation in these 
elements. One of the muscles, the plantaris, was formerly a great 
flexor of the toes, the plantar fascia representing its former distal ex- 
tent. Like the palmaris of the arm it lost its original function by the 
welding of the fascia to the bones to secure the plantar arch, and its 
functions being then assumed by other muscles it began to dwindle, 
and is now represented by a mere vestigial rudiment of no functional 
value. It is well known that the lower races of men have smaller 
calves than Europeans. Again, it should be noted that as the erect 
position is assumed the muscles required for the flexion and independ- 
ent action of the toes become reduced in character. .A comparison 
with other forms shows that some of the small muscles now confined to 
the region of the foot formerly took their origin higher up, from the 
bones of the leg. Losing in functional importance, they have dwindled 
in size and gradualiy moved downward. 

The great glutei muscles of the buttock find their highest develop- 
ment in man. They are subject to similar variations. Certain muscles 
of this region, normal in apes, are occasionally found in man: a sepa- 
rate head of the great gluteus, derived from the ischium, and the 
scansorius or climbing muscle that assists the great flexor of the 
thigh (the ilio-psoas), may be mentioned. 

The enormous size and complexity of the muscles of the back in man 
are well known. The erector of the spine fills up the vertebral grooves 
and sends up numerous tendons along the back like stays supporting 
the masts of a ship. The mass of this muscle is comparatively less 
in anthropoid apes. 

Notwithstanding all these powerful muscles, it would be impossible 
to retain the erect position for any great length of time were we to 
depend upon them alone, for it requires (as before stated) a great ex- 
penditure of force to keep a muscle in active use. It becomes rapidly 
fatigued and then loses its power, aS any one may prove by standing 
in any constrained position, even ‘in the position of a soldier,” for half 
an hour. To provide against this, a beautiful arrangement of joints 
and ligaments has been developed. 

When in the erect attitude the ankle-joint is so arranged that its 
bones are in a position of greatest stability and the center of gravity 
is so adjusted that it falls direetly upon it. This reduces to a minimum 
the amount of muscular force required to keep the body erect. At the 
knee the center of gravity falls a little in front of the axis of the limb, 
and the back and sides of the joint are provided with check ligaments 
or straps that hold the joints locked in a position of hyper-extension, 
so that no muscular force whatever is used to maintain it. These liga- 
ments are regressive structures, being vestiges of former insertions of 
muscles near the joint. At the hip a similar condition occurs, the 


A56 THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


center of gravity falling behind the joint and the whole weight of the 
trunk being hung upon the iho-femoral ligament, a heavily thickened 
portion of the joint capsule. This structure is much more marked in 
man than in other mammals, and is found to vary considerably in its 
size and strength. 

The spinal column has been remarkably modified to adapt it to the 
erect position. Before the fifth month of uterine life the whole spine 
deseribes a single, large, dorsally directed curve like that of the quad- 
ruped, arranged to accommodate the viscera. As this would be incom. 
patible with the erect posture, two additional curves in the opposite 
direction are formed: one in the region of the loins just where the center 
of gravity would begin to fall forward, another in the neck to counteract 
the heavy and unstable weight of the head. These curves are gradually 
acquired. While possessed by all races, and in a less degree by the 
higher apes, they arrive at their highest development in Europeans; 
while the lumbar curve of the lower races of men is much better 
adapted to running in a semi-erect position through the jungle or bush. 
Careful measurements show that the shapes of the vertebrie have been 
gradually modified. There is no abrupt transition from the spine of the 
lowest savages—Australian, Bushman, Andaman—to that of the gorilla, 
gibbon,and chimpanzee. : 

There is also evidence that the posterior limbs have moved forward 
upon the spinal column in order that the erect position may be assumed 
with less effort. In man there are between the skull and the sacrum 
twenty-four vertebrae. The other primates have usually twenty-six, 
although the gorilla, chimpanzee, and orang agree with man. Now in 
foetal life the attachment of the hip-bones to the sacruin commences 
from below upward. Union first occurs with the third sacral vertebra, 
leaving twenty-six pre-sacral, then advances forward, the first sacral 
uniting last of all. The bip-bones actually move up along the spine a 
distanee of two segments. Occasionally this shifting is carried still 
further, and but twenty-three pre-sacral vertebrie are left. Anomalies 
caused by an arrest of development at some stage of this process are 
not at all infrequent. The most common is the want of union between the 
hip-bones and the first sacral vertebra, thus producing apparently six 
lumbar vertebrae. A most beautiful specimen of this anomaly was found 
last winter in my laboratory. 

The spine is sustained erect by stringing from vertebra to vertebra 
numbers of short ligaments that reduce to a minimum the muscular 
exertion required to support it. These are particularly numerous be- 
tween the spines along the great dorsal curvature. Some of these lig- 
aments are replaced by small muscles, very inconstant and variable, 
the survivals of a whole system of musculature that had for its object 
the moving of the separate joints of the spine, one upon another. 

The head is also much modified by the erect position. In quadru- 
peds, its suspension requires an extensive apparatus, a large, strong, 


THE ASCENT OF MAN. 457 


elastic strap—the ligamentum nuche—passing from the tips of the 
thoracic vertebre to the occiput, sending processes to all the neck ver- 
tebrie involved in the strain. Though need for it has in great degree 
ceased since the head has become poised in such a way as to involve 
but little expenditure of muscular force, yet relics of this great suspen- 
sory apparatus remain in man’s neck in the form of thickened fascial 
bands. 

The arrangement of the great foramen of the skull that transmits 
the central axis of the nervous system, the spinal cord, is necessarily 
different in an animal carrying its head erect. The foramen would 
naturally tend to be set forward more under the center of gravity and 
its inclination would be more nearly horizontal. Here again we see 
that the ideally perfect form is more nearly approached in the civilized 
races. It is never quite realized, and indeed the whole skull and its 
contents evince markedly that they are still undergoing an evolution. 
Again the lower races show variations that unite them with the anthro- 
poid apes. While a negro may have a foramen magnum inclined 37 
degrees to the horizontal, the orang may fall to 36 degrees. 

But it is not only in this way that we get evidence that the erect 
position has been gradually acquired. Sinee gravity plays an impor- 
tant part in the functions of the visceral and circulatory systems, any 
marked change in the line of equilibrium must necessarily be accom- 
panied by disturbances. These disturbances to a certain extent con- 
flict with the acquirement of the position, as they weaken the animal. 
In the course of time the body may perhaps become adapted to the 
changed conditions, but before that perfect adaptation takes place tiere. 
is a period of struggle. There is abundant evidence that such a strug- 
gle has occurred and is yet going on, the adaptation being as yet far 
from complete. 

The most striking and important of these adaptations concerns the 
pelvis. When the erect posture is assumed the weight of the viscera 
being thrown upon this bony girdle, it becomes adapted for their sup- 
port by assuming a more fixed and dish-like shape. This is naturally 
more pronounced in the female, since with her the pelvis must bear 
the additional weight of the pregnant uterus. It is evident that a 
solid, unyielding, laterally expanded ring of small aperture would give 
the most effective support in the erect position, but it is equally clear 
that with any such structure parturition would be impossible. In the 
quadruped the act of parturition is comparatively easy, the pelvis offer- 
ing no serious hindrance. The shape of the female pelvis is therefore 
the result of a compromise between two forms, one for support, the 
other for ease in delivery. When we reflect that along with the 
acquirement of the erect position, the size of the head of the child has 
gradually increased, thus forming still another obstacle to delivery and 
to the adaptation which might otherwise have taken place, we can 
realize how serious the struggle has been, and no longer wonder that 


A58 THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


deaths in child-birth are much more common in the higher races and 
that woman in her entire organization shows signs of having suffered 
more than man in the upward struggle. 

In no other animal is there shown such a distinetion between the 
pelvis of the male and that of the female, a distinction that increases 
as we ascend the scale. While the amount of individual variation is 
great, we yet see, particularly in the pelvis of the Andaman Islanders 
and of the Polynesian races, distinctly simian characters. The scanty 
material at hand indicates that a similar transition occurred between 
the modern and pre-historic types. The approximation of the infantile 
and simian forms is well known. 

The pelvis alone does not suffice to support the viscera. In quad- 
rupeds the whole weight is slung from the horizontal spine by means 
of a strong elastic suspensory bandage of fascia, the tunica abdominalis. 
The part of this near the thorax has in man entirely disappeared, being 
uo longer of any use. In the groin it remains to strengthen the weak 
points where structures pass out from the abdominal cavity. That it 
often is insufficient to withstand the great pressure is testified by the 
great prevalence of hernia, another sign of imperfect adaptation. The 
frequency of uterine displacements, almost unknown in the quadruped, 
has also been noted. It is significant that one of the most effective 
postures for treating and restoring to place the disturbed organ is the 
so-called “ knee-elbow position,” decidedly quadrupedal in character. 

Many other indications are found in the viscera. The urinary bladder 
is So arranged in man, that any concretions that may occur, do not gather 
near the opening of the urethra, where they might be discharged, but fall 
back into the cul-de-sac at the base, where they enlarge and irritate the 
mucous lining.* The cecum, with its vermiform appendage, a vestigial 
organ finding its proper functional activity far below man, is so placed 
in quadrupeds that the action of gravity tends to free it from fecal aceu- 
mulations. In man this is not the case, and as a consequence inflam- 
mation of this organ or its surrounding tissues, very serious and often 
fatal, is by no means rare. It may be noted that the ascending colon 
is obliged to lift its contents against gravity, and that in a lowered state 
of the system this might very readily induce torpidity of function. 

The gal! bladder in quadrupeds also discharges at an advantageous 
angle. In man, although the difference is slight, it appears to be suffi- 


*Since the above was written, my attention has been called to the following re- 
markable passage in the works of Dr. ERASMUS DARWIN. It occurs in his ‘‘ Temple 
of Nature,” Canto 11, foot-note to line 122. 

“Tf has been supposed by some that mankind were formerly quadrupeds as well as 
hermaphrodites ; and that some parts of the body are not yet so convenient to an 
erect posture as to a horizontal one: as the fundus of the bladder in an erect posture 
is not exactly over the insertion of the urethea ; whence it is seldom completely 
evacuated, and thus renders mankind more subject to the stone than if he had pre- 
served his horizontality.” (The preface to this poem is dated January 1, 1802.) 


THE ASCENT OF MAN. 459 


cient to cause at times retention and consequent inspissation of the 
bile, leading to the formation of gall-stones. 

The quadruped’s liver hangs suspended from the spine, but as the 
erect attitude is assumed it depends more and more from the diaphragm. 
The diaphragm in its turn develops adhesions with the fibrous covering 
of the heart, which is continuous with the deep fascia of the neck, so 
that in effect the liver hangs suspended from the top of the thorax and 
base of the skull. This restricts in some degree the action of the dia- 
phragm and confines the lungs. This must have an effect upon the 
aération of the blood, and consequently upon the ability to sustain pro- 
longed and rapid muscular exertion. /.n extra lobe of the right lung 
that in animals intervenes, either constantly or during inspiration, be- 
tween the heart and the diaphragm, is occasionally found in a vestigial 
State in man. 

The vascular system abounds in evidences that it was primarily 
adapted to the quadrupedal position. By constant selection for enor- 
mous periods of time, the vessels have become located in the best pro- 
tected situations. It is scarcely possible to injure a vessel of any size 
in an animal without deeply penetrating the body or passing quite 
through a limb. In man, on the contrary, several great trunks are 
comparatively exposed, notably the great vessels of the thigh, those of 
the forearm, and of the ventral wall. 

The influence that gravity has upon the circulation is well known. 
The horizontal position of the great venous trunks favors the easy flow 
of blood to the heart without too greatly accelerating it. Man,in whom 
these trunks are vertical, suffers thereby from two mechanical defects,— 
the difficulty of raising blood through the ascending vena cava, whence 
come congestion of the liver, cardiac dropsy, and a number of other 
disorders, and the too rapid delivery through the descending cava, 
whence the tendency to syncope or fainting if for any cause the action 
of the heart is lessened. Clevenger’s admirable discovery that the 
valves of the veins are arranged for a quadrupedal position should also 
be mentioned here. Evidently intended to resist the action of gravity, 
they should, to be effective, be found in the large vertical trunks. But 
in the most important of these they are wanting. Hence are caused 
many disorders arising from hydrostatic pressure, such as varicose veins, 
varicocele, hemorrhoids, and the like. Yet the values occur in several 
horizontal trunks, where they are, as far as we know, of no use what- 
ever. Place man on all fours however, and it is seen that the entire 
system of valves is arranged with reference to the action of gravity in 
that position. The great vessels along the spine and the portal system 
being then approximately horizontal do not require valves, while all 
the vertical trunks of considerable size, even the intercostal and jugular 
veins, are provided with them. A confirmation of this view is found in 
the fact that the valves are variable in character and tend to disappear 
in the veins where they are no longer needed. 


460 THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


Every animal possessing a backbone may be said to be formed by the 
union of a series of disk-like segments arranged on a longitudinal axis. 
These segments are originally similar in character, but become specially 
modified in innumerable ways to meet the needs of the individual. 
Anatomists conclude, upon surveying the whole field, that this indicates 
a derivation of the vertebrates from some form of the annelid worms, 
among which a single unit produces by successive budding a compound 
longitudinal body. This view is fully confirmed by the behavior of the 
human embryo. 

The number of the segments varies considerably, rising sometimes to 
as many as three hundred in some fishes and reptiles, and being gen- 
erally greater in the animals below man, There are many indications, 
however, that in man, segments formerly possessed have disappeared. 
Leaving the skull for the present out of account, there are in the adult 
thirty-three or thirty-four vertebre that may be held to represent these 
segments; the additional vertebra, when it occurs, almost invariably 
belonging to the coccygeal or caudal series. In the human embryo 
thirty-eight segmentscan at one time be made out. Four or five of these 
generally disappear, but cases are by no means wanting in which they 
remain until after birth and constitute a well-marked free tail. In one 
case, carefully examined and described by Lissner, a girl of 12 years had 
an appendage of this character 12.5 centimetres (very nearly 5 inches) 
long. Other observers, probably less careful and exact, report much 
greater lengths. From some observations it would appear that abnor- 
nities of this kind may be transmitted from parent to offspring. 

Dr. Max Bartels recently collected from widely scattered literature 
reports of 116 actually observed and described cases of tailed men. In 
35 instances, authors reported such abnormities to be possessed by an 
entire people, they themselves having observed certain individuals. 
These cases are scattered throughout the whole of the known globe and 
extend back for a thousand years. When we consider that the authen- 
ticity of many cases is beyond question, and that the number that 
escaped accurate observation and report must be much greater, we can 
see that we are not dealing with a phenomenon that is so rare as has 
generally been supposed. 

Other regressive structures are abundant in this region. ‘The spinal 
cord in its earlier state extended the entire length of the vertebral canal. 
In the child at birth it occupies only 85 per cent. of that length; in the 
adult 75 per cent. This is due mainly to the more rapid growth of the 
spine. There stretches however from the lower end of the cord down 
to the very end of the spine a small thread-like structure, the jilum ter- 
minale, a degenerated vestige of the lower caudal part of the spinal 
cord. Wiedersheim suggests that the frequent occurrence of degenera- 
tive disorders in the lower end of the adult cord may be due to a patho- 
logical extension of the normal atrophy. Rauber found in this region 
traces of two additional pairs of spinal nerves. The vessel that runs 


THE ASCENT OF MAN. 461 


down in front of the sacrum and coccyx corresponding to the caudal 
artery of quadrupeds shows signs of a former more extensive distribu- 
tion, as it ends in a curiously convoluted structure known as the cocey- 
geal gland, containing vestiges of vascular and nervous tissues. Traces 
of caudal muscles still remain, notably the ischio-coccygeus, which in 
animals moves the tail sideways, and the anterior and posterior sacro- 
coccygeus, for flexing and extending it. Occasionally the agitator caude 
is found as a muscular slip passing from the femur to the coceyx. These 
muscles can not be of any value in man, as the coccyx is practically 
immovable. At the point where the end of the spine was primarily 
attached to the skin a dimple is formed by regressive growth, and here 
the. direction of the hairs also indicates that an organ has become 
aborted. 

Another interesting condition connected with segmentation is the vary- 
ing number of the ribs. Most mammals have more ribs than man, and 
as we descend in the scale they continue to increase. <A study of devel- 
opment indicates that a rib is probably to be considered as an integral 
portion of a vertebra. As the arch of a vertebra incloses the central 
nervous system, so the ribs inclose the visceral system. If this be cor- 
rect they ought to be found throughout as far as the body cavity extends. 
This is really the case. They existin the neck as the anterior bars of 
the transverse processes, in the loins as the transverse or costal pro- 
cesses themselves, in the sacrum welded together into what are known 
as the lateral masses. A great number of considerations derived from 
comparative anatomy, from embryology, and from variations found in 
the adult, combine to support these conclusions. 

Nothing would seewm less likely at first sight than that the capacious 
expanded brain-case or skull with its complicated structure should be 
composed of segmental pieces like the vertebrae; yet thereis no doubt 
that the poet Goethe was on the right track when he made that impor- 
tant generalization. ‘Thedetails of the segmentation are very far from 
being worked out, but a vast amount of evidence indicates that the 
general conclusion is correct. 

Since the predominant necessity in the construction of the skull is to 
afford a protection for the brain, we need not be surprised to find that 
it is very greatly modified in man. Enormous labor has been bestowed 
upon craniology in an attempt to separate definitely the races of men 
as well as to connect them with the lower forms. The success in estab- 
lishing races has not been such as was anticipated. A constant inter- 
grading of forms defies all attempts at a hard and fast classification. 
We also see types that intergrade between anthropoids and man, and 
find abundant evidence that the human skull was derived from a form 
similar to that of still lower mammals. 

At first man’s skull seems to be much simpler than the typical torm. 
The bones are fewer and less complicated. But follow back the course 
of development and we find the bones separating—the frontal into two 


462 THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


pieces, the occipital and temporal each into four, the sphenoid into 
eight, repeating what we find as we descend the vertebrate scale. 

Many of these peculiarities may remain throughout life. Such are 
the inter-parietal bone (found very frequently in ancient Peruvian and 
Arizonian skulls), the division of the frontal and temporal bones each 
into two, the persistence of the intermaxillary bones and of that divi- 
sion of the cheek or malar bone known as the os japonicum. Even cleft 
palate, a deformity and defect in man, merely re-produces a state nat- 
ural to some of the lower mammals. 

There are also present structures that are homologous with the so- 
called visceral arches represented in the thorax by ribs. Such are the 
lower jaw, the hyoid bone, and the thyroid cartilage. A study of the 
embryo shows us that these are portions of a series of bars primitively 
arranged on the plan of the branchial apparatus of the water-breath- 
ing vertebrates. Each bar has its appropriate skeleton and vascular 
supply and is separated from the contiguous ones by a cleft that at 
first passes entirely through the soft tissues and communicates with the 
primitive visceral cavity. These clefts may persist and cause serious 
deformities. The skeleton of the mandibular and hyoid bars is remark- 
_able as containing indications of elements present in the lower verte- 
brates. In fishes, the lower jaw articulates with a large bone appar- 
ently not found in mammals, but on tracing carefully the development 
of the mammalian skull it is found that this bone is represented by the 
incus, one of the minute ossicles of the ear. In the foetus the primi- 
tive lower jaw, in the shape of a bar of cartilage, actually extends into 
the ear cavity and the upper end of 1t remains as the malleus. Relics 
of the hyoid or second branchial arch are also found,—the styloid proc- 
ess of the temporal bone being one of them. 

The capacity of the cranium is usually held to distinguish man 
remarkably, yet the lowest microcephali approach the apes in this res- 
pect and the lower races have unquestionably smaller brains than the 
higher. As far as can be judged, there has also been an increase in 
average capacity during historic times. One fact pointed out by Gra- 
tiolet is very significant. Im monkeys amd in the inferior races the ossi- 
fication of the sutures commences at the anterior part of the head, while 
in Europeans these sutures are the last to close. This would indicate 
a greater and longer continued increase of the frontal lobes of the brain. 

The same remarks may be made concerning the facial angle and 
prognathism. While by none of the different angles proposed have we 
been able to definitely separate distinct races, yet we find that the 
angle of the lower races and of microcephali approaches that of the 
anthropoid apes, and that as the capacity of the skull has increased the 
jaw has been thrust back under it to support the weight. This shorten- 
ing of the jaw gives the characteristic expression of the civilized face. 
We at once recognize a brutal physiognomy by the projection and de- 
velopment of the great masticating apparatus, used in most animals 


THE ASCENT OF MAN. 463 


near man as a formidable weapon of defense. The shortening has 
produced some very remarkable changes. It has shoved the third 
molar or “wisdom tooth” so far back that it is crowded against the as- 
cending part of the jaw, thereby occasioning disturbance and trouble 
in its eruption. Being no longer practically useful, it tends to dis- 
appear, and many people never cut any wisdom teeth. Among the 
Australasians, on the contrary, a fourth molar is not infrequently found ; 
this rarely occurs in European skulls also. Evidences exist of a lost 
incisor in the upper jaw on each side. Dental follicles form for it and 
usually abort, but occ: sionally the tooth appears fully developed in the 
adult. The great canines or eye-teeth, used in apes and other animals 
for tearing and holding, are in them longer and larger than the other 
teeth, and room is made for them in the opposite jaw by leaving an 
interval, called the diastema, between the canine and the tooth next to 
it. These large projecting canines have disappeared in the normal 
human skull and the diastema has accordingly closed up. Yet it is by 
no means uncommon to see the whole arrangement re-appear, especially 
in low-type skulls. Projecting canines or “ snag teeth” are so common 
in low faces as to be universally remarked, and would be oftener seen 
did not dentists interfere and remove them. It may be noted also that 
the muscle that lifts the lip from over the canines and bares the weapon, 
often re-appears in man and is used to produce snarling and disdainful 
expressions. 

Many details of structure of the skull point in the same direction. 
Occasionally the occipital bone has a third condyle, as in some other 
mammals, or a large lateral projection like that of a vertebra, the para. 
mastoid process, or indications of a separate centrum (0s basioticum of 
Albrecht). It may have interiorly a hollow ( fossette vermienne) for the 
vermiform process of the cerebellum, and exteriorly a large transverse 
ridge (torus occipitalis) on which are inserted the muscles of the nape. 
All these peculiarities are more frequent as we descend the scale, 
whether we regard the lower races of man, microcephalic individuals, 
or lower animals. Like many of these atavistic features they are also 
more common among the criminal classes. 

I have omitted the discussion of many important structural features 
that mark various stadia in man’s ascent. From the muscular system 
alone there could be adduced a very great number of instances of the 
survival of primitive forms and of progressive variations, particularly 
in the development of the muscles of the face and breast. In the 
osseous system also there are many such, among which may be men- 
tioned the episternal bones, the central bones of the wrist and ankle, 
and the os acetabuli. The exact significance of these is still under 
discussion, as is also the question of supernumerary digits that some- 
times appear on the hands and feet. 

Additional instances might be drawn from the visceral system. The 
larynx contains small throat pouches like the great air sacs of the 


464 THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


anthropoid apes. The pharynx of the embryo is lined with cilia like that 
of the very lowest vertebrates. Traces of the primitive intestine are 
shown by the peculiar distribution of nerves and the folding of the 
peritoneum. The liver and spleen both occasionally indicate a previous 
simpler condition, and the intestine has sometimes diverticula of no 
functional use—indeed, likely to be disadvantageous—yet pointing to 
a previous state. These anomalies never occur at random, but can be 
explained consistently upon the theory of reversion. 

The genito-urinary system abounds in them. The uterus may have 
two cavities, aS in many quadrupeds, or approach that condition by 
being bicornuate, as in apes, and a great variety of other vestigial 
structures occur, all pointing back to an original neutral condition, 
before the sexes were differentiated. 

In the nervous system there is no lack of instances. Our studies of 
the brain are as yet far from complete—indeed, we seem to be only at 
the threshold of a reasonable knowledge of the nervous centers—and 
the crowd of names, the inextricable maze of synonymy that now ob- 
scures that region, is only a mark of our ignorance. It is a case of 
“omne ignotum pro mirifico;” ignorant of the true value of the parts 
we examine, we have named even the most insignificant details of strue- 
ture. Perhaps one of the most interesting results of modern research 
is the conclusion that the psychic life of our ancestors must have been 
different from our own, since they possessed organs of sensation differing 
in degree and probably in kind. The sense of smell as indicated by the 
size of the olfactory bulbs of the brain is decreasing in acuteness. The 
foetal brain possesses comparatively larger bulbs, as do also the brains 
of lower races, and of anthropoid apes. The sense, being no longer re- 
quired for the preservation of the species, is slowly becoming dulled. 
Jacobson’s organ, a curious structure found in many mammals, com- 
bining in some unknown manner the olfactory and gustatory senses, 
occurs in a vestigial state in man, and the duct connecting it with the 
mouth yet remains as the anterior palatine canal. The pineal and pitu- 
itary bodies of the brain probably represent obliterated sense organs, 
the former being au eye, the latter having some connection with the 
pharynx. Our other senses have also been modified. The eye has a 
rudimentary third eyelid, such as birds and lizards possess, covered 
with minute hairs. The external ear shows signs of derivation from the 
pointed ear of quadrupeds and abounds in vestigial muscles such as 
they use for controlling and directing it. 

From this rapid sketch it will be apparent to you that the evidence 
that man’s path upward has led along the same route travelled by other 
animals is now very powerful in its cumulative weight. By no other 
argument can we satisfactorily explain the bewildering maze of reseim- 
blances; yet when called upon to fix the exact line by which we have 
reached our present estate we at once meet with serious difficulties. 
It is a popular misconception that there has been a regular chain-like 


THE ASCENT OF MAN. 465 


series, with now and then a ‘“ missing link.” The various races of men 
and the higher simians are merely one branch of the great tree Yggdrasil, 
that overshadows the whole earth and reaches up into heaven. The 
individuals that we compare occupy the terminal twigs of that branch, 
being not related directly, but only as springing from a common stock. 
The fact that resemblances occur does not necessarily prove a lineal 
descent, but rather a common ancestry. The races of man arose far 
back in pre-historic night. Hach in its own way fought the struggle for 
existence. Favored more by climate, the Caucasian appears to have 
attained an intellectual superiority ; yet it should not be forgotten that 
the others also excel, each in its own special way. The white races en- 
dure with difficulty the climate of the tropics, and without help would 
starve in the Australian bush and the Arctic ice fields. 

Notwithstanding ali that [ have said concerning reversive characters, 
we yet have hardly sufficient structural grounds for separating the 
races of man. Different varieties of the Caucasian race show marked 
variations. Between the lowest and most brutalized laborers and the 
cultivated and intelligent classes there exist anatomical differences as 
great as those which separate the white and the negro. The rapid 
change in the African races, remarkably shown in America in the three 
generations now before us, is a more conclusive proof of inferiority, as 
it indicates that they have not had time to acquire fixed characters. 

Again, as to the anthropoid apes, it is evident that they have widely 
diverged from man and that none represent the primitive ancestor from 
which all were derived. The comparison of a human skull with that of 
an adult gorilla or chimpanzee is very striking. On the one hand we 
see all the structural features subordinated to the necessity of forming 
a capacious receptacle for the brain; on the other, a similar subordina- 
tion for producing an effective fighting apparatus—jaws, teeth, and 
ridges for the insertion of powerful muscles. In one, intelligence pre- 
dominates; in the other, force. The skulls of the young of all these 
species show however much greater resembiances than those of adults. 
This seems to indicate that there must have been a primitive common 
type from which all have diverged. Savages, when ili-fed and living in 
unfavorable conditions, may simulate the habits of anthropoid apes, and 
this has an effect upon their physical structure, yet not on that account 
should we too readily accept their close relationship. 

In this summary I have purposely refrained from any discussion of 
the physiological phenomena that necessarily accompany anatomical 
structure. Yet these are most important. Anatomy and physiology 
are inseparable, each being dependent upon the other. The results of 
the erect position, of increased size of brain, of greater specialization of 
limbs, are almost incalculably great, so great that they affect the whole 
life of the animal, control his habits, direct his actions in war and in the 
chase, and finally mold peoples, nations, and races. 

H. Mis. 129 30 


466 THE ASCENT OF MAN. 


As Ouvier was able to deduce an animal’s habits from the shape of 
his teeth, so we may speculate as to man’s past and future from an ex- 
amination of his anatomy. ‘Hx pede Herculem” has not ceased to be 
true. It would be impossible for me to adequately treat of all these 
results in one short hour; the subject must necessarily be deferred to 
another time and another place. If I have succeeded in showing you 
that structural features form no insignificant part of anthropology my 
object is attained. 


ANTIQUITY OF MAN.* 


By JoHN EvaAns, F. R. 8. 


In the year 1870, | had the honor of presiding over what was then 
the Department of Ethnology in the Biological Section of the British 
Association at its meeting in Liverpool. Since that time 20 years have 
elapsed, during the greater portion of which period the subjects in 
which we are principally interested have been discussed in a depart- 
ment of anthropology forming part of the organization of the Biolog- 
ical Section, although since 1883 there has been a new section of the 
association, that of anthropology, which has thus been placed upon 
the same level as the various other sciences represented in this great 
parliament of knowledge. This gradual advance in its position among 
other branches of science proves, at all events, that whatever may 
have been our actual increase in knowledge, anthropology has gained 
and not lost in public estimation; and the interest in all that relates to 
the history, physical characteristics, and progress of the human race 
is even more lively and more universal than it was 20 years ago. Dur- 
ing those years much study has been devoted to anthropological ques- 
tions by able investigators, both in England and abroad, and there is 
at the present time hardly any civilized country in the world in which 
there has not been founded, under some form or another, an anthropo- 
logical society, the publications of which are yearly adding a greater 
or less quota to our knowledge. The subjects embraced in these studies 
are too numerous and too vast for me to attempt even in a cursory man- 
ner to point out in what special departments the principal advances 
have been made, or to what extent views that were held as well estab- 
lished 20 years ago have had either to be modified in order to place 
them on a surer foundation, or have had to be absolutely abandoned. 
Nor could I undertake to enumerate all the new lines of investigation 
which the ingenuity of students has laid open, or the different ways in 
which investigations that at first sight might appear more curious than 
useful have eventually been found to have a direct bearing upon the 


Ady. Sci. meeting at Leeds, September, 1890. (From Nature, September 18, 1890, 
yol. XLII, pp. 507-510. ) 
467 


468 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 


application towards the promotion of the public welfare. I may how- 
ever in the short space of time to which an openiug address ought to 
be confined, call your attention to one or two subjects, both theoretical 
and practical, which are still under discussion by anthropologists, and 
on which as yet no general agreement has been arrived at by those who 
have most completely gone into the questions involved. 

One of these questions is: What is the antiquity of the human race, 
or rather, what is the antiquity of the earliest objects hitherto found 
which can with safety be assigned to the handiwork of man? This 
question is susceptible of being entirely separated from any speculations 
as to the genetic descent of mankind; and even were it satisfactorily 
answered to-day, new facts might to-morrow come to light that would 
again throw the question entirely open. On any view of probabilities 
it is in the highest degree unlikely that we shall ever discover the exact 
cradle of our race, or be able to point to any object as the first product 
of the industry and intelligence of man. We may however I think, 
hope that from time to time fresh discoveries may be made of objects of 
human art—under such circumstances and conditions that we may infer 
with certainty that at some given point in the world’s history mankind 
existed, and in sufficient numbers for the relics that attest this exist- 
ence to show a correspondence among themselves, even when discov- 
ered at remote distances from each other. 

Thirty-one years ago, at the meeting of this association at Aberdeen, 
when Sir Charles Lyell, in the Geological Section, called attention to 
the then recent discoveries of Paleolithic implements in the valley of 
the Somme, his conclusions as to their antiquity were received with dis- 
trust by not a few of the geologists present. Five years afterwards, in 
1864, when Sir Charles presided over the meeting of this association at 
Bath, it was not without reason that he quoted the saying of the Irish 
orator, that ‘‘ they who are born to affluence can not easily imagine how 
long a time it takes to get the chill of poverty out of one’s bones.” Nor 
was he wrong in saying that * we of the living generation, when called 
upon to make grants of thousands of years in order to explain the events 
of what is called the modern period, shrink naturally at first from mak- 
ing what seems so lavish an expenditure of past time. Throughout our 
early education we have been accustomed to such strict economy in all 
that relates to the chronology of the earth and its inhabitants in remote 
ages, So fettered have we been by old traditional beliefs, that even when 
our reason is convinced and we are persuaded that we ought to make 
more liberal grants of time to the geologist, we feel how hard it is to 
get the chill of poverty out of our bones.” 

And yet of late years how little have we heard of any scruples in ac- 
cepting as a recognized geological fact, that both on the continent of 
Europe and in these islands, which were then more closely connected 
with that continent, man existed during what is known as the Quater- 
nary period, and was a contemporary of the mammoth and hairy rhinoce- 


ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 469 


eros, and of other animals, several of which are either entirely or locally 
extinct. It is true that there are still some differences of opinion as to 
the exact relation in time of the beds of river gravel containing the relies 
of man and the Quaternary fauna to the period of great cold which is 
known as the Glacial period. Some authors have regarded the gravels 
as pre-Glacial, some as Glacial, and some as post-Glacial; but afterall, 
this is more a question of terms than of principle. All are agreed for 
instance, that in the eastern counties of England implements are found 
in beds posterior to the invasion of cold conditions in that particular 
region, though there may be doubts as to how much later these condi- 
tions may have prevailed in other parts of this country. All too are 
agreed that since the deposit of the gravels considerable changes have 
taken place in the configuration of the surface of the country, and that 
the time necessary for such changes must have been very great, though 
those in whose bones the chill of poverty still clings are inclined to eall 
in influences by which the time required for the erosion of the river 
valleys in which the gravels occur may be theoretically diminished. 

On the other hand, there have been not a few who, feeling that the 
evidence of the existence of the human race has now been satisfactorily 

established for Quaternary times, and that there is no proof that what 
has been found in the ordinary gravels belongs to anything like the first 
phases of the family of man, have sought to establish his existence in 
far earlier Tertiary times. In the view that earlier relics of man than 
those found in the river gravels may eventually be discovered, most of 
those who have devoted special attention to the subject will, I think, 
coneur. But such an extension of time can only be granted on conclu- 
sive evidence of its necessity, and before accepting the existence of 
Tertiary man the grounds on which his family tree is based require to 
be most carefully examined. 

Let me say a few words as to the principal instances on which the 
believer in Tertiary man relies. These may be classified under three 
heads:* (1) the presumed discovery of parts of the human skeleton ; 
(2) that of animal bones said to have been cut and worked by 
the hand of man; and (3) that of flints thought to be artificially fash- 
ioned. 

On most of these I have already commented elsewhere.t Under the 
first head I may mention the skull discovered by Prof. Cocchi at Olmo, 
near Arezzo, with which, however, distinctly Neolithic implements were 
associated ; the skeletons found at Castelnedolo, of which I need only 
say that M. Sergi, who described the discovery, regarded them as the 
remains of a family party who had suffered shipwreck in Pliocene 
times; and ee fossil man of Denise, in wee LES mentioned le 


Ces A. DRS in, OC LV Tae Toenatee Pan 20 rue ae la Grae 1889. 
t Trans. Herts. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. 1, p.145; ‘‘ Address to the Anthrop. Inst.,” 1883, 
Anthrop Journ., vol, XU, p. 565. 


A70 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 


Sir Charles Lyell, who may have been buried in more recent times un- 
der lava of Pliocene date. On these discoveries no superstructure can 
be built. The Calaveras skull seems to have better claims to a high 
antiquity. It is said to have been found at a depth of 153 feet in the 
auriferous gravels of California, containing remains of mastodon, and 
covered by five or six beds of lava or voleanic ashes. But here again 
doubts enter into the case, as well-fashioned mortars, stone hatchets, 
and even pottery are said to occur in the same deposits. In the same 
way the discoveries of M. Ameghino at the mouth of the Plata, in the 
Argentine Republic, require much further corroboration. 

The presumably worked bones which I have placed in the second 
category, such as those with incisions in them, from St. Prest, near 
Chartres, the cut bones of Cetacea in Tuscany, the fractured bones in 
our own crag deposits, and numerous other specimens of a similar 
character, have, by most geologists, been regarded as bearing marks 
entirely due to natural agencies. It seems more probable that in 
bones deposited at the bottom of Pliocene seas cuts and marks should 
have been produced by the teeth of carnivorous fish than by men who 
could only have lived on the shores of the seas, and who have left behind 
them no instruments by which such cuts as those on the bones could 
have been produced. 

As to the third category, the instruments of flint reported to have 
been found in Tertiary deposits, those best known are from St. Prest 
and Thenay, in the northwest of France, and Otta, in Portugal. 

These three localities I have visited ; and though at the two former, 
the beds in which the flints were said to have been found are certainly 
Pliocene, there is considerable doubt in some cases whether the flints 
have been fashioned at all, and in others where they appear to have 
been wrought, whether they belong to the beds in which they are re- 
ported to have been found, and have not come from the surface of the 
ground. Even the suggestion that the flints of Thenay were fashioned 
by the Dryopithecus, one of the precursors of man, has now been re- 
tracted. At Otta the flakes that have been found present, as a rule, 
only a single bulb of percussion, and having been found on the surface, 
their evidence is of small value. The exact geological age of the beds 
in which they have occurred is moreover somewhat doubtful. Onthe 
whole, therefore, it appears to me that the present verdict as to Ter- 
tiary man must be in the form ‘ Not proven.” 

When we consider the vast amount of timecomprised in the Tertiary 
period, with its three great principal subdivisions of the Eocene, Mio- 
cene, and Pliocene, and when we bear in mind that of the vertebrate 
land animals, of the Eocene, no one has survived to the present time, 
while of the Pliocene, but one—the hippopotamus—remains unmodified, 
the chances that man as at present constituted should also be a sur- 
vivor from that period seem remote; and against the species Homo 
sapiens having existed in Miocene times, almost inealeulable. The a 


ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 471 


priori improbability of finding man unchanged, while all the other ver- 
tebrate animals around him have, from natural causes, undergone 
more or less extensive modification, will induce all careful investigators 
to look closely at any evidence that would carry him back beyond 
Quaternary times ; and though it would be unsafe to deny the possibil- 
ity of such an early origin for the human race, it would be unwise to 
regard it as established except on the clearest evidence. 

Another question of more general interest than that of the existence 
of Tertiary man is that of the origin and home of the Aryan family. 
The views upon this subject have undergone important modification 
during the last 20 years. The opinions based upon comparative phi- 
lology alone have received a rude shock and the highlands of Central 
Asia are no longeraccepted without question as the cradle of the Aryan 
family, but it is suggested that their home is to be sought somewhere 
in northern Europe. Whiie the Germans contend that the primitive 
Aryans were the blue-eyed dolichocephalic race of which the Scandi- 
navians and North Germans are typical examples, the French are in 
favor of the view that the dark-haired brachycephalic race of Gauls, 
now well represented in the Auvergne, is that of the primitive Aryans. 
I am not going toenter deeply into this question, on which Canon Isaac 
Taylor has recently published a comprehensive treatise, and Mr. Frank 
Jevons a translation of Dr. Schrader’s much more extensive work, 
“The Pre-historie Antiquities of the Aryan Peoples.” Looking at the 
changes that all languages undergo, (even when they have the advan- 
tage of having been reduced into the written form,) and bearing in mind 
the rapidity with which these changes are effected; bearing in mind, 
also, our extreme ignorance of the actual forms of language in use 
among pre-historic races unacquainted with the art of writing, I, for 
one, can not wonder at a something like a revolt having arisen against 
the dogmatic assertions of those who have, in their efforts to re construct 
early history, confined themselves simply to the comparative study of 
languages and grammar. But notwithstanding any feeling of this 
kind, I think that all must admire the enormous industry and the 
varied critical faculties of those who have pursued these studies, and 
must acknowledge that the results to which they have attained can not 
lightly be set aside, and that so far as language alone is concerned, 
the different families, their provinces, and mutual relations, have in the 
mail become fairly established. The study of ‘ linguistic paleontol- 
ogy,” as it has been termed will help no doubt in determining still 
more accurately the affinities of the different forms of language, and in 
fixing the dates at which one separated from another, as well as the 
position that each should occupy on the family tree, if such a tree 
exists. But even here there is danger of relying too much on negative 
evidence ; and the absence—in the presumed original Aryan language— 
of special words for certain objects in general use, ought not to be re- 
garded as atfording absolute proof that such objects were unknown at 


472 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 


the time when the languages containing such words separated from the 
parent stock. Not only Prof. Huxley, but Broca and others have 
insisted that language as a test of race is as often as not, or even more 
often than not, entirely misleading. The manner in which one form of 
language flourishes at the expense of another; the various ways in 
which a language spreads even otherwise than by conquest ; the fact that 
different races with totally different physical characteristies are fre- 
quently found speaking the same language or but slightly different 
dialects of it ;-—-all conduce to show how imperfect a guide comparative 
philology may be so—far as anthropological results are concerned. 

Of late, pre-historic archeology has been invoked to the aid of lin- 
guistic researches ; but here again there is great danger of those who 
are most conversant with the one branch of knowledge being but 
imperfectly acquainted with the other. The different conditions pre- 
vailing in different countries, the degrees of intercourse with other 
more civilized nations, and local circumstances which influence the 
methods of life, all add difficulties to the laying down of any compre- 
hensive scheme of archeological arrangement which shall embrace the 
relics, whether sepulchral or domestic, of even so limited an area as 
that of Europe. We are all naturally inclined to assume that the 
record of the past is comparatively complete. But in archeology no 
more than geology does this appear to be the case. The interval 
between the period of the river-gravels and that of the caves, such as 
Kent’s Cavern, in England, and those of the reindeer period of the 
south of France, may have been but small, but our knowledge of the 
transition is next to none. The gap between the Paleolithic period 
and the Neolithic has, to my mind, still to be bridged over, and those 
who regard the occupation of the Belgian caves as continuous from 
the days of the reindeer down to late Neolithic times seem to me pos- 
sessed of great powers of faith. Even the relations in time between 
the kjokkenmoddings of Denmark and the remains of the Neolithic age of 
that country are not as yet absolutely clear; and who can fix the exact 
limits of that age? Nor has the origin and course of extension of the 
more recent Bronze civilization been as yet satisfactorily determined ; 
and until more is known both as to the geographical and chronological 
development of this stage of culture, we can hardly hope to establish 
any detailed succession in the history of the Neolithic civilization that 
went before it. In the meantime it will be for the benefit of our science 
that speculations as to the origin and home of the Aryan family should 
be rife ; butit will still more effectually conduce to our eventual knowl- 
edge of this most interesting question if it he consistently borne in 
mind that they are but speculations. 

Turning from theoretical to practical subjects, I may call attention 
to the vastly improved means of comparison and study that the eth- 
nologists of to-day possess as compared with those of 20 years ago. 
Not only have the books and periodicals that treat of ethnology multi- 


ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 473 


plied in all European languages, but the number of museums that have 
been formed with the express purpose of illustrating the manners and 
customs of the lower races of mankind has also largely increased. On 
the Continent, the museums of Berlin, Paris, Copenhagen, and other 
capitals have either been founded or greatly improved; while in Eng- 
land our ethnological collections infinitely surpass, both in the number 
of objects they contain and in the method of their arrangement, what 
was accessible in 1870. The Blackmore Museum at Salisbury was at 
that time already founded, but has since been considerbly augmented. 
In London, also, the Christy collection was already in existence, and 
calculated to form an admirable nucleus around which other objects 
and collections might cluster; and thanks in a great degree to the 
trustees of the Christy collection, and in a far greater degree to the 
assiduous attention and unbounded liberality of the keeper of the de- 
partment, Mr. Franks, the ethnological galleries at the British Museum 
will bear comparison with any of those in the other European capitals. 
The collections of pre-historic antiquities, enlarged by the addition of 
the fine series of urns and other relics from British barrows explored 
by Canon Greenwell, which he has generously presented to the nation, 
and by other accessions, especially from the French caverns of the 
Reindeer period, is now of the highest importance. Moreover, for pur- 
poses of comparison the collections of antiquities of the Stone and 
Bronze periods found in foreign countries is of enormous value. In 
the ethnological department the collections have been materially in- 
creased by the numerous travellers and missionaries which this country 
is continually sending forth to assist in the exploration of the habita- 
ble world; and the student of the development of human civilization 
has now the actual weapons, implements, utensils, dress, and other 
appliances of most of the known savage peoples ready at hand for ex- 
amination, and need no longer trust to the often imperfect representa. 
tions given in books of travel. But besides the collection at Bloomsbury 
there is another most important museum at Oxford, which that univer- 
sity owes to the liberality of General Pitt-Rivers. It is arranged in a 
somewhat different manner from that in London, the main purpose 
being the exhibition of the various modifications which ornaments, 
weapons, and instruments in common use have undergone during the 
process of development. The skillful application of the doctrine of 
evolution to the forms and characters of these products of human art 
gives to this collection a peculiar charm, and brings out the value of 
applying scientific methods to the study of all that is connected with 
human culture, even though at first sight the objects brought under 
consideration may appear to be of the most trivial character. - - - 

The subjects of an anthropological survey of the tribes and castes in 
our Indian possessions, and of the continued investigation of the 
habits, customs, and physicial characteristics of the northwestern 
tribes of the Dominion of Canada, were both recommended for consid- 


474 ANTIQUITY OF MAN. 


eration to the council of this association by the general committee at 
the meeting at Newcastle. We have heard from the report of the 
council what has been done in the matter. The rapidity with which 
the various native tribes in different parts of the world are either mod- 
ified, or in some cases exterminated, affords a strong argument for their 
characteristics, both physical and mental, being investigated without 
delay. 

There are indeed now but few parts of the world the inhabitants of 
which have not, through the enterprise of travellers, been brought 
more or less completely within our knowledge. Even the center of the 
dark African continent promises to become as well known as the interior 
of South America, and to the distinguished traveiler who has lately 
returned among us, anthropologists as well as geographers owe their 
warmest thanks. It is not a little remarkable to find so large a tract 
of country still inhabited by the same diminutive race of human beings 
that occupied it at the dawn of European history, and whose existence 
was dimly recognized by Homer and Herodotus. The story related by 
the latter about the young men of the Nasamones who made an expe- 
dition into the interior of Libya and were there taken captive by a race 
of dwarfs receives curious corroboration from modern travellers. Hero- 
dotus may indeed slightly err when he reports that the color of these 
pygmies was black, and when he regards the river on which their prin- 
cipal town was situated as the Nile. Stanley however who states that 
there are two varieties of these pygmies, utterly dissimilar in com- 
plexion, conformation of the head, and facial characteristics, was not 
the first to re-discover this ancient race. Atthe end of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, Andrew Battel, our countryman, who, having been taken captive 
by the Portuguese, spent many years in the Congo district, gave an 
account of the Matimbas, a pigmy nation of the height of boys of 
twelve years old; and in later times Dr. Wolff and others have recorded 
the existence of the same or similar races in Central Africa. Nor must 
we forget that for a detailed account of an Acca skeleton we are 
indebted to the out-going president of this association, Protessor Flower. 
It isnot however my business here to enter into any detailed account of 
African exploration or anthropology. I have made this incidental 
mention of these subjects rather from a feeling that in Africa, as well 
as in Asia and America, native races are in danger of losing their 
primitive characteristics, if not of partial or total extermination, and 
that there also the anthropologist and naturalist must take the earliest 
possible opportunities for their researches. 


THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS.* 


By Prof. A. H. SAYCE. 


In my address to the Anthropological Section of the British Asso- 
ciation in 1887, I stated that in common with many other anthopologists 
and comparative philologists, | had come to the conclusion that the 
primitive home of the Aryans was to be sought in northeastern Kurope. 
The announcement excited a flutter in the newspapers, many of whose 
readers had probably never heard of the Aryans before, while others 
of them had the vaguest possible idea of what was meant by the name. 

Unfortunately it is a name which, unless carefully defined, is likely 
to mislead or confuse. It was first introduced by Prof. Max Miiller 
and applied by him in a purely linguistic sense. The ‘ discovery” of 
Sanskrit and the researches of the pioneers of comparative philology 
had shown that a great family of speech existed, comprising Sanskrit 
and Persian, Greek and Latin, Teutonic and Slay, all of them sister- 
languages descended from a common parent, of which however no 
literary monuments survived. In place of the defective or cumber- 
some titles of Indo-German, Indo-European, and the like, which had 
been suggested for it, Prof. Max Miiller proposed to call it Aryan—a 
title derived from the Sanskrit Arya, interpreted * noble” in later Sans- 
krit, but used as a national name in the hymns of the Rig- Veda. 

It is much to be regretted that the name has not been generally 
adopted. Such is the case however, and it is to day like a soul seek- 
ing a body in which to find a habitation. But the name is an excellent 
one, though the philologists of Germany, who govern us in such mat- 
ters, have refused to accept it in the sense proposed by its author ; and 
we are therefore at liberty to discover for it a new abode and to give 
to it a new scientific meaning. 

In the enthusiasm kindled by the sight of the fresh world that was 
opening out before them the first disciples of the science of comparative 
philology believed that they had found the key to all the secrets of 
man’s origin and earlier history. The parent speech of the Indo-Euro- 
pean languages was entitled the Ursprache, or ‘“‘ Primeval Language,” 
and its analysis, it was imagined, would disclose the elements of articu- 


* From The Contemporary Review, July, 1889, vol. Lv1, pp. 106-119. 
475 


A716 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. 


late speech and the process whereby they had developed into the mani- 
fold languages of the present world. But this was not enough. The 
students of language went even further. They claimed not only the 
domain of philology as their own, but the domain of ethnology as well. 
Language was confounded with race, and the relationship of tribe with 
tribe, of nation with nation, was determined by the languages they spoke. 
If the origin of a people was required, the question was summarily de- 
cided by tracing the origin of its language. English is on the whole a 
Teutonic language, and therefore the whole English people must have 
a Teutonic ancestry. The dark-skinned Bengali speaks languages akin 
to our own; therefore the blood which runs in his veins must be derived 
from the same source as that which runs in ours. 

The dreams of universal conquest indulged in by a young science soon 
pass away as facts accumulate, and the limit of its powers is more and 
more strictly determined. The Ursprache has become a language of 
comparatively late date in the history of linguistic development, which 
differed from Sanskrit or Greek only in the fuller inflexional character. 
The light its analysis was believed to cast on the origin of speech has 
proved to be the light of a will-o’-the-wisp, leading astray and pervert- 
ing the energies of those who might have done more profitable work. 
The mechanism of primitive language often lies more clearly revealed 
in a modern Bushman’s dialect or the grammar of Esquimaux than in 
that much-vaunted Ursprache from which such great things were once 
expected by the philosophy of human speech. 

Ethnology has avenged the invasion of its territory by linguistic 
science, and has in turn claimed a province which is not its own. It is 
no longer the comparative philologist, but the ethnologist, who now and 
again uses philological terms in an ethnological sense, or settles racial 
affinities by an appeal to language. The philologist first talked about 
an ‘Indo-European race ;” such an expression could now be heard only 
from the lips of a youthful ethnologist. 

As soon as the discovery was made that the Indo-European languages 
were derived from a common mother, scholars began to ask where that 
common mother-tongue was spoken. Butit was agreed on all hands that 
this musthave beensomewherein Asia. Theology and history alike had 
taught that mankind came from the East and from the East accordingly 
the Ursprache musthavecometoo. Hitherto Hebrew had been generally 
regarded as the original language of humanity; now that the Indo-Ku- 
ropean Ursprache had deprived Hebrew of its place of honor, it was 
natural, if not inevitable, that like Hebrew, it should be accounted of 
Asiatic origin. Moreover it was the discovery of Sanskrit that had led 
to the discovery of the Ursprache. Had it not been for Sanskrit, with 
its copious grammar, its early literature, and the light which it threw 
on the forms of Greek and Latin speech, comparative philology might 
never have been born. Sanskrit was the magician’s wand which had 
called the new science into existence, and without the help of Sanskrit 


THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. A4T7 


the philologist would not have advanced beyond the speculations and 
guesses of classical scholars. What wonder then if the language which 
had thus been a key to the mysteries of Greek and Latin, and which 
seemed to embody older forms of speech than they, should have 
been assumed to stand nearer to the Ursprache than the cognate lan- 
guages of Europe? The assumption was aided by the extravagant age 
assigned to the monuments of Sanskrit literature. The poems of Ho- 
mer might be old, but the hymns of the Veda, it was alleged, mounted 
back to a primeval antiquity, while the Institutes of Manu represented 
the oldest code of laws existing in the world. 

There was yet another reason which contributed to the belief that 
Sanskrit was the first-born of the Indo-European family. The founders 
of comparative philology had been preceded in their analytic work by 
the ancient grammarians of India. It was from Panini and his prede- 
cessors that the followers of Bopp inherited their doctrine of roots and 
suffixes and their analysis of Indo-European words. The language of 
the Veda had been analyzed 2,000 years ago as no other single language 
had ever been analyzed before or since. Its very sounds had been care- 
tully probed and distinguished, and an alphabet of extraordinary com- 
pleteness had been devised to represent them. It appeared as if the 
elements out of which the Sanskrit vocabulary and grammar had grown 
had been laid bare in a way that was possible in no other language, and 
in studying Sanskrit accordingly the scholars of Europe seemed to feel 
themselves near to the very beginnings of speech. 

But it was soon perceived that if the primitive home of the Indo- 
European languages were Asia, they themselves ought to exhibit evi- 
dences of the fact. There are certain objects and certain phenomena 
which are peculiar to Asia, or at all events are not to be found in Europe, 
and words expressive of these ought to be met with in the scattered 
branches of the Indo-European family. Ifthe parent language had been 
spoken in India, the climate in which they were born must have left its 
mark upon the face of its offspring. 

But here a grave difficulty presented itself. Men have short memo- 
ries, and the name of an object which ceases to come before the senses 
is either forgotten or transferred to something else. The tiger may 
have been known to the speakers of the parent language, but the words 
that denoted it would have dropped out of the vocabulary of the derived 
languages which were spoken in Europe. The same word which signi- 
fies an oak in Greek signifies a beech in Latin. We can not expect to 
to find the European languages employing words with meanings which 
recall objects met with only in Asia. 

How then are we to force the closed lips of our Indo-European lan- 
guages, and compel them to reveal the secret of their birth-place? At- 
tempts have been made to answer this question in two different ways, 

On the one hand it has been assumed that the absence in a particular 
language, or group of languages, of a term which seems to have been 


478 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. 


possessed by the parent speech, is evidence that the object denoted by 
it was unknown to the speakers. But the assumption is contradicted 
by experience. Because the Latin equus has been replaced by caballus 
in the modern Romanie languages, we can not conclude that the horse 
was unknown in Western Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. 
The native Basque word for a “knife,” haistoa, has been found by Prince 
L.-L. Bonaparte in a single obscure village; elsewhere it has been re- 
placed by terms borrowed from French or Spanish. Yet we can not 
suppose that the Basques were unacquainted with instruments for cut- 
ting until they had been furnished with them by their French and 
Spanish neighbors. Greek and Latin have different words for “fire;” 
we can not argue from this that the knowledge of fire was ever lost 
among any of the speakers of the Indo-European tongues. In short, 
we can not infer from the absence of a word in any particular language 
that the word never existed in it; on the contrary, when a language is 
known to us only in its literary form it is safe to say that it must have 
employed many words besides those contained in its dictionary. 

A good illustration of the imposibility of arriving at.any certain re- 
sults as long as we confine our attention to words which appear in one 
but not in another of two cognate languages is afforded by the Indo- 
European words which denote a sheet of water. There is no word 
of which it can be positively said that it is found alike in the 
Asiatic and the European branches of the family. Lake, ocean, even 
river and stream, go by different names. A doubt hangs over the word 
for ‘‘sea;” it is possible, but only possible, that the Sanskrit pathas is 
the same word as the Greek zévros, the etymology of which is not yet 
settled. Nevertheless, we know that the speakers of the parent lan- 
guage must have been acquainted, if not with the sea, at all events 
with large rivers. Naus, ‘a ship,” is the common heritage of Sanskrit 
and Greek, and must thus go back to the days when the speakers of the 
dialects which atterwards developed into Sanskrit and Greek still lived 
side by side. It survives, like a fossil in the rocks, to assure us that 
they were a water-faring people, and that the want of a common Indo- 
European word for lake or river is no proof that such a word may not 
have once existed. 

The example I have just given illustrates the second way in which 
the attempt has been made to solve the riddle of the Indo-European 
birthplace. It is the only way in which the attempt can succeed. 
Where precisely the same word, with the same meaning, exists in both 
the Asiatic and the Kuropean members of the Indo-European family— 
always supposing, of course, that it has not been borrowed by either 
of them—we may conclude that it also existed in the parent speech. 
When we find the Sanskrit aswas and the Latin equus, the exact pho- 
netic equivalents of one another, both alike signifying “horse,” we are 
justified in believing that the horse was known in the country from 
which both languages derived their ancestry. Though the argument 


THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. A779 


from a negative proves little or nothing, the argument from agreement 
proves a great deal. 

The comparative philologist has by means of it succeeded in sketching 
in outline the state of culture possessed by the speakers of the parent 
language, and the objects which were known tothem. They inhabited 
a cold country. Their seasons were three in number, perhaps four, and 
not two, as would have been the case had they lived south of the tem- 
perate zone. They were nomad herdsmen, dwelling in hovels, similar, 
it may be, to the low round huts of sticks and straw built by the 
Kabyles on the mountain-slopes of Algeria. Such hovels could be 
erected in a few hours, and left again as the cattle moved into higher 
ground, with the approach of spring, or descended into the valleys 
when the winter advanced. The art of grinding corn seems to have 
been unknown, and crushed spelt was eaten instead of bread. A rude 
sort of agriculture was however already practiced; and the skins 
worn by the community, with which to protect themselves against the 
rigors of the climate, were sewn together by means of needles of 
bone. It is even possible that the art of spinning had already been 
invented, though the art of weaving does not appear to have advanced 
beyond that of plaiting reeds and withies. The community still lived 
in the stone age. Their tools and weapons were made of stone or 
bone, and if they made use of gold or meteoric iron, it was of the 
unwrought pieces picked up from the ground and employed as orna- 
ments; of the working of metals they were entirely ignorant. As 
among savage tribes generally, the various degrees of relationship 
were minutely distinguished and named, even the wife of a husband’s 
brother receiving a special title ; but they could count at least as faras a 
hundred. They believed in a multitude of ghosts and goblins, making 
offerings to the dead, and seeing in the bright sky a potent deity. The 
birch, the pine, and the withy were known to them; so also were the 
bear and wolf, the hare, the mouse, and the snake, as well as the goose 
and raven, the quail and the owl. Cattle, sheep, goats, and swine 
were all kept; the dog had been domesticated, and in all probability 
also the horse, Last, but not least, boats were navigated by means of 
oars, the boats themselves being possibly the hollowed trunks of trees, 

This account of the primitive community is necessarily imperfect. 
There must have been many words, like that for “river,” which were 
once possessed by the parent speech, but afterwards iost in either the 
Eastern or Western branches of the family. Such words the comparative 
philologist has now no means of discovering. He must accordingly pass 
them over along with the objects or ideas which they represent. The 
picture he can give us of the speakers of the primeval Indo-European 
Janguage can only be approximately complete. Moreover it is always 
open to correction. Some of the words we now believe to have been 
part of the original stock carried away by the derived dialects of Asia 
and Kurope may hereafter turn out to have been borrowed by one of 


480 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. 


these dialects from another, and not to have been a heritage common to 
both. Itis often very difficult to decide whether we are dealing with 
borrowed words or not. If a word has been borrowed by a language 
before the phonetic changes had set in which have given the language 
its peculiar complexion, or while they were in the course of progress, it 
will undergo the same alteration as native words containing the same 
sounds. The phonetic changes which have marked off the High German 
dialects from their sister tongues do not seem to go back beyond the 
fall of the Roman Empire, and words borrowed from Latin before that 
date will accordingly have submitted to the same phonetic changes as 
words of native origin. Indeed, when once a word is borrowed by one 
language from another and has passed into common use it soon becomes 
naturalized and is assimilated in form and pronunciation to the words 
among which it has come to dwell. A curious example of this is to be 
found in certain Latin words which made their way into the Gaelic 
dialects in the fourth or fifth century. We often find a Gaelic ¢ corre- 
sponding to a Welsh p, both being derived from a labialized guttural 
or qu, and the habit was accordingly formed of regarding a c as the 
natural and necessary representative of a foreign p. When therefore 
words likethe Latin pascha and purpura were introduced by Christianity 
into the Gaelic branch of the Keltic family they assumed the form of 
caisg and corcur. 

It is clear that such borrowings can only take place where the speakers 
of two different languages have been brought into contact with one 
another. Before the age of commercial intercourse between Europe and 
India we can not suppose that European words could have been bor- 
rowed by Sanskrit or Persian, or Sanskrit and Persian words by the 
European languages. But the case is quite otherwise if instead of 
comparing together the vocabularies of the Eastern and Western 
members of the Indo-European stock we wish to compare only Western 
with Western or Eastern with Eastern. There our difficulties begin, 
and we must look to history, or botany, or zodlogy for aid. From a 
purely philological point of view the English hemp,the old high German 
hanf, the old Norse hanpr, and the Latin cannabis might all be derived 
from acommon source, and point to the fact that hemp was known to 
the first speakers of the Indo-European languages in northwestern 
Europe. But the botanists tell us that this could not have been the 
case. Hemp is a product of the East which did not originally grow in 
Germany, and consequently both the plant itself and the name by which 
it was called must have come from abroad. So again, the lion bears a 
similar name in Greek and Latin, in German, in Slavonic, and in Keltic. 
But the onty part of Europe in which the lion existed at a time when the 
speakers of an Indo-European language could have become acquainted 
with it were the mountains of Thrace, and it must accordingly have 
been from Greek that its name spread to the other cognate languages 
of the West. 


THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. 481 


it has been needful to enter into these details before we can approach 
the question, What was the original home of the parent Indo-Euro- 
pean language? They have been too often ignored or forgotten by 
those who have set themselves to answer the question, and to this cause 
must be ascribed the larger part of the misunderstandings and false 
conclusions to which the inquiry has given birth. 

Until a few years ago, I shared the old belief that the parent speech 
had its home in Asia, probably on the slopes of the Hindu Kush. The 
fact that the languages of Europe and Asia alike possessed the same 
words for ‘ winter” and “ice” and ‘‘ snow,” and that the only two trees 
whose names were preserved by both—the “birch” and the “ pine”— 
were inhabitants of a cold region, proved that this home did not lie in 
the tropics. But the uplands of the Hindu Kush, or the barren steppes 
in the neighborhood of the Caspian Sea, or even the valleys of Siberia, 
would answer to the requirements presented by such words. Taken by 
themselves they were fully compatible with the view that the first 
speakers of the Indo-European tongues were an Asiatic people. 

But when I came to ask myself what were the grounds for holding 
this view, I could find none that seemed to me satisfactory. There is 
much justice in Dr. Latham’s remark that it is unreasonable to derive 
the majority of the Indo-Europear languages from a continent to which 
only two members of the group are known to belong, unless there is 
an imperative necessity for doing so. These languages have grown out 
of dialects once existing within the parent speech itself; and it cer- 
tainly appears more probable that two of such dialects or languages 
should have made their way into a new world, across the bleak plains 
of Tartary, than that seven or eight should have done so. The argu- 
ment, it is true, is not a strong one, but it raises at the outset a pre- 
sumption in favor of Kurope. Before the dialects had developed into 
languages their speakers could not have lived far apart; there is in 
fact evidence of this in the case of Sanskrit and Persian; and a more 
widely spread primitive community is implied by the numerous lan- 
guages of Kurope than by the two languages of Asia. A widley spread 
community however is less likely to wander far from its original seat 
than a community of less extent, more especially when it is a commun- 
ity of herdsnien and the tract to be traversed is long and barren. 

Apart from the general prejudice in favor of an Asiatic origin due to 
old theological teaching and the effect of the discovery of Sanskrit, I 
ean find only two arguments which have been supposed to be of suffi- 
cient weight to determine the choice of Asia rather than of Europe as 
the cradle of Indo-Kuropean speech. The first of these arguments is 
linguistic, the second is historical or rather quasi-historical. On the 
one hand it has been laid down by eminent philologists that the less one 
of the derived languages has deflected from the parent speech, the more 
likely it is to be geographically nearer to its earliest home. The faith- 
fulness of the record is a test of geographical proximity. As Sanskrit 

H. Mis. 129——31 


482 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. 


was held to be the most primitive of the Indo-European languages, to 
reflect most clearly the features of the parent speech, the conclusion was 
drawn that that parent speech had been spoken at no great distance 
from the country in which the hymns of the Rig-Veda were first com- 
posed. The conclusion was supported by the second argument drawn 
from the sacred books of Parsaism. Inthe Vendidad the migrations of 
the Iranians were traced back through the successive creations of 
Ormazd to Airyanem Vaéjo, “the Aryan Power,” which Lassen loeal- 
ized near the sources of the Oxus and Jaxartes. But Bréal and De 
Harlez have shown that the legends of the Vendidad, in their present 
form, are late and untrustworthy—later, in fact, than tie Christian era ;* 
and even if we could attach any historical value to them, they would 
tell us only from whence the Iranians believed their own ancestors to 
have come, and would throw no light on the cradle of the Indo-Euro- 
pean languages as a whole. The first argument is one which I think 
no student of language would any longer employ. As Professor Max 
Miiller has said, it would suffice to prove that the Scandinavians emi- 
grated from Iceland. But to those who would still urge it, I must re- 
peat what I have saidelsewhere. Although in many respects Sanskrit 
has preserved more faithfully than the European languages the forms 
of primitive Indo-European grammar, in many other respects the con- 
verse is the case. In the latest researches into the history of Indo- 
European grammar, Greek holds the place once occupied by Sanskrit. 
The belief that Sanskrit was the elder sister of the family led to the 
assumption that the three short vowels 4, 6, and 6 have all originated 
from an earlier a. I was, I believe, the first to protest against this 
assumption in 1874, and to give reasons for thinking that the single 
monotonous & of Sanskrit resulted from the coalescence of three dis- 
tinct vowels. The analogy of other languages goes to show that the 
tendency of time is to reduce the number of vocalic sounds possessed 
by a language, not the contrary. In place of the numerous vowels 
possessed by ancient Greek, modern Greek can now show only five, and 
cultivated English is rapidly merging its vowel sounds into the so- 
called neutral” 9. Since my protest the matter has been worked out 
by Italian, German, and French scholars, and we now know that it is 
the vocalic system of the European languages rather than of Sanskrit 
which most faithfully represents the oldest form of Indo-European 
speech. The result of the discovery, for discovery it must be called, 
has been a complete revolution in the study of Indo-European etymol- 
ogy, and still more of Indo-European grammar, and whereas ten years 
ago if was Sanskrit which was invoked to explain Greek, it is to Greek 
that the “‘new school” now turns to explain Sanskrit. The comparative 
philologist necessarily cannot do without the help of both; the greater 

* Bréal, “Mélanges de Mythologie et de Linguistique” (1878), pp. 187-215. De Harlez, 
““Introdnetion a U Etude de V Avesta” pp. excii, sgq. Compare Darmesteter’s Introduc- 
tion to the Zend- Avesta, pt. 1, in ‘‘‘The Sacred Books of the East.” 


THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. 483 


the number of languages he has to compare the sounder will be his 
inductions; but the primaey which was once supposed to reside in Asia 
has been taken from her. It is Greek, and not Sanskrit, which has 
taught us what was the primitive vowel of the reduplicated syllable of 
the perfect and the augment of the aorist, and has thus narrowed the 
discussion into the origin of both. 

Until quite recently however the advocates of the Asiatic home of 
the Indo-European languages found a support in the position of the 
Armenian language. Armenian stands midway, as it were, between 
Persia and Europe, and it was imagined to have very close relations 
with the old language of Persia. But we now know that its Persian 
affinities are illusory, and that it must really be grouped with the lan- 
guages of Kurope. What is more, the decipherment of the cuneiform 
inscriptions of Van has cast a strong light on the date of its introdue- 
tion into Armenia. These inscriptions are the records of kings whose 
capital was at Van, and who marched their armies in all directions dur- 
ing the ninth, eighth, and seventh centuries before our era. The latest 
date that can as yet be assigned to any of them is B. c. 640. At this 
time there were still no speakers of an Indo-European language in Ar- 
menia. The language of the inscriptions has no connection with those 
of the Indo-European family, and the personal and local names occur- 
ring in the countries immediately surrounding the dominions of the Van- 
nic kings, and so abundantly mentioned in their texts, are of the same 
linguistic character as the Vannic names themselves. 

The evidence of classical writers fully bears out the conclusions to be 
derived from the decipherment of the Vannic inscriptions. Herodotus 
(vit. 73) tells us that the Armenians were colonists from Phrygia, the 
Phrygians themselves having been a Thrakian tribe which had migrated 
into Asia. The same testimony was borne by Eudoxos,* who further 
averred that the Armenian and Phrygian languages resembled one 
another. The tradition must have been recent in the time of Herodotus, 
and we shall probably not go far wrong if we assign the occupation of 
Armenia by the Phrygian tribes to the age of upheavalin Western Asia 
which was ushered in by the fall of the Assyrian Empire. Professor 
Fick hasshown that the scanty fragments of the Phrygian language that 
have survived to us belong to the European branch of the Indo-European 
family, and thus find their place by the side of Armenian, 

Instead therefore of forming a bridge between Orient and Occident, 
Armenian represents the furthermost flow of Indo-European speech 
from West to East. And this flow belongs to a relatively late period. 
Apart from Armenian we can discover no traces of Indo European 
occupation between Media and the Halys until the days when Iranian 
Ossetes settled in the Caucasus and the mountaineers of Kurdistan 
adopted Iranian dialects. I must re-iterate here what I have said many 
years ago: if there is one fact which the Assyrian monuments make 


*According to Eustathios (in Dion, v. 694). 


484 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. 


clear and indubitable, if is that up to the closing days of the Assyrian 
monarchy no Indo-European languages were spoken in the vast tract of 
civilized country which lay between Kurdistanand Western Asia Minor. 
South of the Caucasus they were unknown until the irruption of the 
Phrygians into Armenia. Among the multitudinous names of persons 
and localities belonging to this region which are recorded in the Assy- 
rian inscriptions during a space of several centuries there is only one 
which bears upon it the Indo-European stamp. This is the name of the 
leader of the Kimmerians, a nomad tribe from the northeast which de- 
scended upon the frontiers of Assyria in the reign of Esor-haddon, 
and was driven by him into Asia Minor. The fact is made the more 
striking by the further fact that as soon as we clear the Kurdish ranges 
and enter Median territory, names of Indo-European origin meet us 
thick and fast. Wecan draw but one conclusion from these facts. 
Whether the Indo European languages of Europe migrated from Asia, 
or whether the converse were the case, the lineof march must have been 
northward of the Caspian, through the inhospitable steppes of Tartary 
and over the snow-covered heights of the Ural Mountains. 

An ingenious argument has lately been put forward, which at first 
sight seems to tell in favor of the Asiatic origia of Indo-European 
speech. Dr. Penka has drawn attention to the fact that several of the 
European languages agree in possessing the same word for * eel,” and 
that whereas the eel abounds in the rivers and lakes of Scandinavia, it 
is unknown in those cold regions of Western Asia where, as we have 
seen, it has been proposed to place the cradle of the Indo-European 
family. But it isa curious fact that in Greek and Latin, and apparently 
also in Lithuanian, the word for ‘ eel” is a diminutive derived from a 
word which denotes a snake or snake like creature. This, it has been 
urged, may be interpreted to mean that the primeval habitat of the Indo. 
European languages was one where the snake was known, but the eel 
was net. The argument however cannot be pressed. We all agree 
that the first speakers of the Indo European languages lived on the land, 
not on the water, and that they were herdsman rather than fishermen. 
Naturally therefore they would become acquainted with the snake be- 
fore they became acquainted with the eel, however much it might abound 
in the rivers near them, and its resemblance to the snake would lend to 
it its name. In Keltic the eel is called a “ water-snake,” and to this 
day a prejudice against eating it on the ground that is a snake exists in 
Keltic districts. All we can infer from the diminutives anguilla, 2yyehus 
is that the Italians and Greeks in the first instance gave the name to 
the fresh-water eel, and not to the huge conger. 

I can not now enter fully into the reasons which have led me grad- 
ually to give up my old beliefin the Asiatic origin of the Indo- Kuropean 
tongues, and to subscribe to the views of those who would refer them 
to a northern European birth-place. The argument is a complicated 
one, and is necessarily of a cumulative character. The individual links 


THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. 485 


in the chain may not be strong, but collectively they afford that amount 
of probability which is all that we can hope to attain in historical re- 
search. Those who wish to study them may do so in Dr. Penka’s work 
on the *“ Herkunft der Arier,” published in 1886. His hypothesis that 
southern Scandinavia was the primitive ‘‘ Aryan home” seems to me to 
have more in its favor than any other hypothesis on the subject which has 
as yet been put forward. It needs verification, it is true, but if it is 
sound the verification will not be longin coming. A more profound ex- 
amination of Teutonic and Keltic mythology, a more exact knowledge 
of the words in the several Indo-European languages which are not 
of Indo-European orgin, and the progress of archzeological discovery, 
will furnish the verification we need. 

Meanwhile it must be allowed that the hypothesis has the counte.- 
nance of history. Scandinavia, even before the sixth century, was char- 
acterized as the ‘‘ manufactory of nations; ”* and the voyages and set- 
tlements of the Norse Vikings offer a historical illustration of what the 
pre-historic migrations and settlements of the speakers of the Indo- 
European languages must have been. They differed from the latter 
only in being conducted by sea, whereas the pre-historic migrations 
followed the valleys of the great rivers. It was not until the age of the 
Roman Empire that the northern nations became acquainted with the 
sailing-boat; our English sail is the Latin sagulum, ‘the little cloak of 
the soldier,” borrowed by the Teutons along with its name, and used to 
propel their boats in imitation of the sails of the Roman vessels. The 
introduction of the sail allowed the inhabitants of the Seandinavian 
“hive” to push boldly out to sea, and ushered in the era of Saxon 
pirates and Danish invasion. 

Dr. Penka’s arguments are partly anthropological, partly arche- 
ological. He shows that the Kelts and Teutons of Roman antiquity 
were the tall, blue-eyed, fair-haired, dolicho-cephalic race which is now 
being fast absorbed in Keltic lands by the older inhabitants of them. 
The typical Frenchman of to-day has but little in common with the 
typical Gaul of the age of Cwesar. The typical Gaul was, in fact, as 
much a conqueror in Gallia as he was in Galatia, or as modern 
researches have shown, as the typical Kelt was in Ireland. It seems 
to have been the same in Greece. Here too the golden-haired hero of 
art and song was a representative of the ruling class, of that military 
aristocracy which overthrew the early culture of the leloponnese, and 
cf whom tradition averred that it had come from the bleak North. 
Little trace of it now remains: it is rarely that the traveler can dis- 
cover any longer the modern kinsfolk of the golden-haired Apollo or 
the blue-eyed Atheéné. 

If we would still find the ancient blonde race of Northern Europe in 


sive Gothorum origine, ed. Closs, ¢. 4. 


486 THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. 


population is sti!l that of the broad shouldered, long-headed blondes 
who served as models for the Dying Gladiator. And it is in southern 
Scandinavia alone that the pre-historic tumuli and burying-grounds 
yield hardly any other skeletons than those of the same tall dolicho- 
cephalic race which still inhabits the country. Elsewhere such skele- 
tons are either wanting or else mixed with the remains of other races. 
It is therefore reasonable to conclude that it was from southern Sean- 
dinavia that those bands of hardy warriors originally emerged, who 
made their way southward and westward and even eastward, the Kelts 
of Galatia penetrating like the Phrygians before them into the heart 
of Asia Minor. The Norse migrations in later times were even more 
extensive, and what the Norse Vikings were able to achieve could 
have been achieved by their ancestors centuries before. 

Now the Kelts and Teutons of the Roman age spoke Indo-European 
languages. It is more probable that the subject populations should 
have been compelled to learn the language of their conquerors than 
that the conquerors should have taken the trouble to learn the language 
of their serfs. We know at any rate that it was so in Ireland. Here 
the old “Ivernian” population adopted the language of the small band 
of Keltic invaders that settled in its midst. It is only where the con- 
quered possess a higher civilization than the conquerors, above all, 
where they have a literature and an organized form of religion, that 
Franks will adapt their tongues to Latin speech, or Manchus learn to 
speak Chinese. Moreover in southern Scandinavia where we have 
archeological evidence that the tall blonde race was scarcely at any 
time in close contact with other races, it is hardly possible for it to have 
borrowed its language from some other people. The Indo-European 
languages still spoken in the country must, it would seem, be descended 
from languages spoken there from the earliest period to which the evi- 
dence of human occupation reaches back. The conelusion is obvious: 
Southern Scandinavia and the adjacent districts must be the first home 
and starting-point of the Western branch of the Indo-European family. 

If we turn to the Eastern branch, we find that the farther east we go 
the fainter become the traces of the tall blonde race and the greater is 
the resemblance between the speakers of Indo-European languages and 
the native tribes. In the highlands of Persia, tall, long-headed blondes 
with blue eyes can still be met with, but as we approach the hot plains 
of India the type grows rarer and rarer until it ceases altogether. An 
Indo-European dialect must be spoken in India by a dark-skinned peo- 
ple before it can endure to the third and fourth generation. As we 
leave the frontiers of Europe behind us we lose sight of the race with 
which Dr. Penka’s arguments would tend to connect the parent speech 
of the Indo-European family. 

I can not now follow him in the interesting comparison he draws be- 
tween the social condition of the southern Scandinavians as disclosed 
by the contents of the prehistoric “kitchen maidens,” and the social 


THE PRIMITIVE HOME OF THE ARYANS. A87 


condition of the speakers of the Indo-European parent speech according 
to the sobered estimate of recent linguistic research. ‘The resemblance 
is certainly very striking, though, on the other hand, it can not be denied 
that archeological science is still in its infancy, and that Dr. Penka too 
often assumes that a word common to the European languages belonged 
to the parent speech, an assumption which will not, of course, be ad- 
mitted by his opponents. 

What more nearly concerns us here however is the name we should 
give to the race or people who spoke the parent language. We can not 
call them Indo-Europeans; that would lead to endless ambiguities, while 
the term itself has already been appropriated in a linguistic sense. Dr. 
Penka has called them Aryans, and I can see no better title with which 
to endow them. The name is short; it has already been used in an 
ethnological as well as in a linguistic sense, and since our German 
friends have rejected it in its linguistic application it is open to 
every one to confine it to a purely ethnological meaning. I know that 
the author has protested against such an application of the term; but 
it is not the first time that a father has been robbed of his offspring, 
and he can not object to the robbery when itis committed in the cause 
of science. For some time past the name of Aryan has been without a 
definition, while the first speakers of the Indo-European parent speech 
have been vainly demanding a name; and the priests of anthropology 
cannot do better than to lead them to the font of science and there 
baptize them with the name of Aryan. 


ce ant 


. 
a 


tox 


tei et ha) ere ek 


THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY.? 


By Canon ISAAC TAYLOR. 


Nowhere in the world is there such a mixture of races—such a collu- 
vies gentium—as in Italy. 

At the beginning of the historic period we find Siculi and Sieani in 
the south, Ktruscans in the north, and in the center Umbrians, Latins, 
Sabines, and Samnites, all speaking Aryan ianguages. Ata very early 
time the Carthaginians made good their footing in the west of Sicily, 
aud the Greeks established colonies in theeast. Southern Italy became 
Magna Grecia—so that the greater Greece lay beyond the Adriatic, 
just as the greater Britain now lies beyond the Atlantic. The Greeks 
pushed their trading posts as far as Cum in the Bay of Naples, and 
the Phoenicians established theirs at Ciere, 20 miles from Rome. 

In the fourth century B. c. the Gauls poured over the Alps into the 
plain of the Po, establishing a Gallia Cisalpina in the north answering 
to the Magna Grecia in the south. 

And then, when the Roman legions had conquered Italy and the 
Hastern World, Rome herself was overrun by the peoples she had sub- 
dued. Rome became an oriental city. The Orontes, as a Roman writer 
complained, had emptied itselfinto the Tiber. A flood of Syrians, Jews, 
Greeks, Egyptians, Africans, Spaniards, Gauls, and Dacians—slaves, 
freedmen, or adventurers—poured into the Eternal City, making it a 
cloacamaxima—the universal sewer of the world. ‘Then came the inroads 
of the northern hordes—Heruls, Goths, Vandals, Huns, and Lombards 
—who rushed in to appropriate the treasures which during four centu- 
ries had been plundered from Africaand Asia. Next came the inroads 
of Normans, Moors, Spaniards, French, and Germans, and lastly, the 
peaceable invasion of winter residents. 

These are the races which, in histovie times, have been added to the 
pre-historic peoples of the land. 

At the beginning of the historic period we find the Etruscans estab- 
lished north of the Tiber, the Latins and other tribes speaking Aryan 
languages further to the south, and an earlier aboriginal population in 
the Apennines and Calabria. 

In books written only 30 years ago the oldest civilization of Italy 
is attributed to a mysterious people, who are called the Heese We 


en The Sipe ween y enon August, 1890, ro LVIII, pp. 261- 270. 
489 


490 THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY. 


hear of these Pelasgi in Greece as well as in Italy. Those megalithic 
structures which still excite our wonder—the walls of Mycene and 
Tiryns, as well as those of Cortona and Russella—are called Pelasgie. 
Jere and Cortona are said to have been Pelasgie cities prior to the 
Etruscan conquest. We must therefore begin by asking who were 
these Pelasgi. The modern doctrine, it is hardly needful to say, is that 
the word has no ethnological significance, the name Pelasgic being 
merely equivalent to ‘‘ ancient” or “ aboriginal.” The term was a term 
of ignorance, like the word “natives” now applied to Polynesians, 
Patagonians, Red Indians, or Maoris. We may therefore leave the 
Pelasgians out of account; or rather, try and find out what races were 
grouped together by ancient writers under this convenient but delusive 
appellation. 

What we may call “ the ethnological horizon” has wonderfully widened 
of late years. For vast periods, for many millenniums, we are able to 
trace the history of man in Europe. He is now proved to have been 
the contemporary of the great extinct carnivora and pachyderms, and 
to have followed northward the retreating ice sheet of the last glacial 
epoch. The history of these primeval races has been traced by the 
tools and weapons which they have left, and by the shape and charac- 
ter of their skulls. 

Archologists have distinguished the successive ages of stone, bronze, 
and iron. The bronze age in Italy is believed to have commenced 
some 4,000 years ago. The stone age, which preceded it, is divided 
into two epochs, the Paleolithic age, or age of chipped flints, and the 
Neolithic age, when the flint implements were ground or polished. The 
Paleolithic people were utter savages, clad in skins, living in caves or 
rock shelters, making use of no fixed sepulchers, subsisting on shell 
fish or the products of the chase, ignorant of pottery, without bows 
and arrows, and armed merely with spears, tipped with flint, horn, or 
bone. 

Skulls which are believed to be of Paleolithic age have been found 
in various parts of Italy—at Olmo, at Isola del Liri, at Mentone, and 
in some Sicilian caves. hey are all dolichocephalic, or long skulls. 
Owing to the presence in their refuse heaps of human bones which 
seem to have been broken in order to extract the marrow, it is believed 
that these people occasionally practised cannibalism. But their chief 
food seems to have consisted of wild horses of a small breed, which 
then roamed over Europe in immense herds. Enormous refuse heaps, 
consisting mainly of the bones of horses, have been found outside the 
caves which were inhabited by this race. In the caves at the foot of 
Monte Pellegrino, near Palermo, the floor is formed by a magma of the 
bones of wild horses, which were either stalked with spears, driven by 
the hunters into pit-falls, or chased over the cliffs. Similar deposits 
have been found at the cave of Thiiyngen, in Switzerland, and.in front 
of the rock shelter at Solutré, near Macon, where there is a vast de- 


THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY. 491 


posit, the relics of the feasts of these savages, nearly 10 feet in thick- 
ness and more than 300 feet in length, composed entirely of the bones 
of horses, and comprising the remains of from 20,000 to 40,000 indi- 
viduals. 

The Paleolithic period must have lasted for unnumbered millenniums. 
Archeologists conjecture that it came to an end some 20,000 years ago, 
when it was succeeded by the Neolithic period, which may have lasted 
for some 16,000 years. At the beginning of the Neolithic age, when 
regular sepulchers were first used, we tind savages, who may probably 
be the descendants of the Paleolithic people, spread over western 
Kurope. They were clad in skins, stitched together with bone needles. 
They wore bracelets of shells, and painted or tattooed their bodies with 
red oxide of iron. bBroca considers that this early race is allied to the 
North African tribes, their language probably belonging to the Hamitie 
class, without inflexions and almost without grammar. 

To us the chief interest of these people lies in the fact that their 
descendants may probably be traced in the present inhabitants of 
Sardinia and of southern Italy, as well as in some parts of the British 
Islands and of Spain. They are usually called the Iberian race. In 
the early Neolithic period we find skulls of the Iberian type all over 
western Europe, in Caithness, Yorkshire, Wales, and Somerset, in the 
south of France, in Spain and Italy. This race was swarthy, with olive 
complexion and black curly hair; it was orthognathous, leptorhinie, 
and highly dolichocephalic, with a low orbital index, and short stature, 
averaging about 5 feet 4 inches. Their present descendants are found 
in Donegal, Galway, and Kerry, in some of the Hebrides, in Denbigh- 
shire, and in the counties bordering on Wales. They are also to be 
recognized among the Spanish Basques, the Berbers, the Kabyles, the 
Guanches of Teneriffe, the Corsicans, the Sardinians, the Sicilians, 
and the people of southern Italy. Pausanius informs us that the Sar- 
dinians were Libyans, or what we should now call Berbers. Seneca 
says that Corsica was peopled by Iberians and Ligurians. Thucydides 
and Ephoros also inform us that the oldest inhabitants of Sicily were 
Iberians. 

There are several pre-historic skulls of this race in the Kincherian 
Museum at Rome, and the Falerian skull in the Villa Papa Giulio 
belongs to the same type. These skulls are orthognathous and dolicho- 
cephalic, resembling the modern Sardinian skull and ancient Iberian 
skulls found in caves at Gibraltar and in Sicily. 

This ancient type is still predominant in southern Italy, Sicily, Sar- 
dinia, and Corsica. Professor Calori, of Modena, has measured more 
than 2,400 skulls in different provinces of Italy. In southern Italy only 
36 per cent. are round-headed, with a cephalic index* above 80; whereas 


* The cephalic index gives the proportion of the breadth of the head to the length, 
and is obtained by dividing the breadth by the length from front to back, and then 
multiplying by 100. 


492 THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY. 


in northern Italy the proportion is 87 per cent. In northern Italy 
less than 1 per cent. are of the extreme Sardinian type, with the index 
below 74; while in southern Italy 17 per cent. belong to this type. 
The difference of race, as shown by the difference in the shape of the 
skull, may account to some extent for the difference in the existing civi- 
lization in the north and south of the peninsula. 

Early in the Neolithic age, before the reindeer had withdrawn from 
Belgium, another race makes its appearance in Europe. They were a 
round-headed people of short stature, with a mean cephalic index of 
about 84. We first find their remains in the sepulchral caves of Belgium 
and central France, whence they extended to Savoy and to the Rhe- 
tian and Maritime Alps. They manufactured rude pottery; their wea- 
pons were axes of flint, carefully chipped and roughly polished, and 
spears tipped with bone or horn. The skullis of the same shape as that 
of the Lapps, whom they'resembled in their short stature. Their original 
speech is probably represented by the Basque, and a few of their words 
may be preserved in mountain names of the Alpine region, such as 
Cima, ‘a hill,” which is seen in the name of Cimiez near Nice, of the 
Cima de Jazi, and of the Cevennes. They are designated as the Auy- 
ergnat, Rheetian, or Ligurian race. 

In the early Neolithic period we find in Italy only these two races, 
the dolichocephalic, or long-headed, Iberian race, who are physically 
allied to the North African tribes, and the brachycephalic, or round- 
headed, Ligurian race, allied to the Lappsand Finns. These two races 
inhabited the same caves, together or in succession. Thus in a Neo- 
lithic cave at Monte Tignoso, near Livorno, two skulls were found, one 
of the Iberian type, with an index less than 71, and another of the Ligu- 
rian type, with an index of 92. In another Neolithic cave, called the 
Caverna della Matta, an Iberian skull was found with an index of 68, 
and a Ligurian skull with an index of 84. No anthropologist would 
admit that these skulls could have belonged to men of the same race. 

We now come to the third Italian race, which may be called the 
Umbrian or Latin race. They spoke an Aryan language, and must 
be regarded as the ancestors of the Romans. They made their 
appearance in Europe at a much later time, probably not more than 
6,000 or 7,000 years ago. They were taller and more powerful than 
either of the earlier races, and were orthocephalic, with an index of from 
79 to 81. When we first meet with them, they are no longer mere 
savages, living solely by the chase, but are a pastoral people, who had 
domesticated the dog, the ox, and the sheep, and who had invented the 
canoe, and even the ox-wagon, in which they followed their herds over 
central Hurope. They no longer, like the two earlier races, sheltered 
themselves in caves, but lived in huts made of boughs plastered with 
clay, and in winter in pit dwellings roofed with poles and twigs. 

We can trace this race all over Central Europe. We find their re- 
mains in the round barrows of Britain, but more especially in the pile 


THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY. 493 


dwellings which they erected in the lakes of Germany, Switzerland, 
and northern Italy. 

From southern Germany they spread to western Switzerland, where 
we find the remains of their settlements in the lakes of Constance, 
Neufchatel, Bienne, and Geneva. These Swiss settlements began in 
the stone age, but were in many cases continuously inhabited from the 
age of stone through the age of bronze, coming down, in a few cases, 
to the age of iron. We can trace these people advancing gradually in 
civilization, at first subsisting mainly on the chase of the stag and the 
wild boar, afterwards, as these beasts became scarce, depending more 
and more on their domesticated animals, the ox and the sheep. and 
gradually taming the goat, the pig, andthe horse. At first we find them 
without cereals, and evidently ignorant of the rudest agriculture, lay- 
ing up in earthen pipkins stores of acorns, hazel-nuts, and water-chest- 
nuts; and then, after a time, growing barley, wheat, and flax, learning 
to spin and weave, to tan leather, and even to make boots. They are 
identified with the Helvetii, a Celtic people. 

This race gradually extended itself to Italy, crossing the Alpine 
barrier either through Carniola or by one of the western passes, and 
occupying by degrees Venetia, Lombardy, and the Emilia, and finally, 
the whole valley of the Po. 

When they first appear in italy they were still in the stone age, and 
had domesticated the ox, but were ignorant of agriculture. Now the 
bronze age is believed to have begun in Italy not later than 1900 B. ¢., 
and therefore this Umbro Latin Aryan race must have entered Italy 
considerably more than two thousand years before the commencement 
of our era. 

On arriving in Italy they built pile dwellings in the North Italian 
lakes, similar to the pile dwellings of Switzerland and southern Ger- 
many, and disclosing much the same stage of civilization. We cannot 
doubt that they belonged to the same race, and this is confirmed by the 
close connection between Celtic and Italie speech. 

In Italy, as well as in Switzerland, the pile dwellings began in the 
age of stone and lasted down into the age of bronze. Many of the 
small lakes have been converted into peat-bogs, and in digging out the 
peat the remains of these settlements have been disclosed. 

One of the settlements has been discovered in a peat moor at Mer- 
curago, near Arona. This moor was formerly a shallow lake, in which 
a pile dwelling was built by some of the earliest settlers of the Umbro- 
Latin race. They had no knowledge of agriculture, but fed on hazel- 
nuts and wild cherries. They had rude pottery, and polished flint im- 
plements. A dug-out canoe, adisk of walnut wood, which had evidently 
formed the wheel of an ox-cart, and one bronze pin were found, showing 
that the settlement was not finally abandoned till the age of bronze had 
commenced. ‘ 

Farther north, in the Lake of Varese, there are seven villages built 


494 THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY. 


on piles, two of them large, with numerous huts, which might almost 
be called towns. One of these towns belongs entirely to the stone age, 
exhibiting no trace of metal, but with remains of the stag, ox, goat, and 
pig. The other was founded in the stone age, but survived into the 
age of bronze, a pin, a fish-hook, and two spear-heads, all of bronze, 
having been found. 

Another large pile dwelling in the Lago de Garda, opposite Peschiera, 
was founded in the stone age, and was in continuous occupation through 
the age of copper to the age of bronze. 

Perhaps the most instructive of these lake settlements is the pile 
dwelling in the Lake of Fimon, near Vicenza. It must have been 
founded very soon «after the Umbrians first reached Italy, and was 
destroyed before they had passed from the pastoral to the agricultural 
stage of civilization. There are two successive relic-beds, separated by 
an interval, which shows that the earlier town was burned, and then, 
after a time, re-built. In the oldest bed there is no trace of agriculture, 
even of the rudest kind. The inhabitants lived chiefly by the chase, 
but had domesticated the ox and the sheep. The bones of the stag and 
the wild boar are extremely numerous, and these animals evidently 
formed the chief food of the people, the bones of the ox and the sheep 
being rare. There is no grain, and no cereals of any kind, but great 
stores of hazel-nuts have been found, together with water-chestnuts 
(Trapa natans), wild cherries, and stores of acorns. The acorns were 
roasted for food, as is proved by fragments adhering to earthen pipkins. 
Flint tools and rude pottery are found, but no trace of metal. The 
settlement was burned, and after a time re-built. The newer relic-bed 
contains numerous flint chips, and one bronze ax, showing that the 
age of metal had commenced. But the notable fact is, that at the time 
of this new settlement the people had passed from the hunting to the 
pastoral stage. Wild animals had row become scarce, bones of the 
stag are absent, and those of the wild boar are rare, but those of the ox 
and the sheep have become common. The agricultural stage had not 
however been reached when this second settlement was destroyed, the 
only farinaceous food being hazel-nuts, cornel, cherries, and acorns. 
The dwellings were round huts, built of wattle, and plastered with clay. 
The remains of a canoe have been found. 

We learn therefore that when the Umbro-Latin people reached Italy 
they were ignorant of metals and of agriculture, living mainly by the 
chase, and on wild fruits, nuts, and acorns. 

After the lakes at the foot of the Alps had been occupied, the popu- 
lation increased, and gradually extended itself southward, building 
pile dwellings in the marshes in the neighborhood of Mantua. The 
race next crossed the Po, erecting on dry land in the plain of the Emilia 
similar villages of pile dwellings, the remains of which are very numer- 
ous, and go by the name of terre mare. These terre mare, or *‘ marl 
beds,” are small knolls or elevations, rising a few feet above the plain, 


THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY. 495 


and are most numerous in the provinces of Parma, Reggio, and Modena. 
They consist of beds of brownish or dark-colored earth, rich in phos- 
phates and nitrates, and which are now used by the peasants for 
manuring their fields. They are plainly the refuse heaps or middens 
of ancient villages, which were pile dwellings erected on dry land. 
They vary from an acre to 3 or 4 acres in extent, and usually rise some 
10 feet above the plain, resembling the Arab villages in Egypt, each 
standing on its fell, raised above the inundation. ‘These knolls are 
composed solely of the refuse of habitation, of the bones of animals, 
and of broken pottery thrown out from the huts, which were built on 
platforms resting on piles. The lower strata of rubbish belong to the 
age of stone, while in many cases the upper strata belong to the age of 
bronze. They must have been occupied for many centuries, to allow 
of such vast accumulations of refuse. They were protected by a square 
earthen mound or rampart, surmounted by palisades, like a New 
Zealand pah. 

These terre mare, of which nearly a hundred are known, disclose 
clearly the civilization of the first Aryan settlersin Italy, the ancestors 
of the Latin race. They made mats from the bark of the clematis; they 
knew how to prepare and to weave flax; they even obtained amber 
beads from the Baltic, but they possessed no swords, fibul, or rings. 
They had neither iron, gold, silver, nor glass. Bronze was cast, but 
not forged. We find strainers for preparing honey, and hand-mills or 
querns for grinding grain, but there is no sign of bread having been 
baked. The vine was cultivated, but the art of making wine had not 
been discovered. No idols of any kind have been found. Certain 
earthenware crescents, supposed at one time to have been symbols used 
for lunar worship, prove to be neck-rests, used tor sleeping on the 
ground, so as to avoid disturbing the elaborate coiffure. The dwellings 
were merely huts of wattle and dab, no stone or mortar having been 
used in their construction. The people hunted the stag, the roe, and 
the wild boar, and kept dogs, oxen, sheep, goats, and pigs. They had 
no fowls. The ass was unknown, and it is doubtful whether they had 
tamed the horse. They had dishes perforated with holes, which were 
probably used for making cheese, but no fish-bones or fish-hooks have 
been found. They grew wheat, beans, and flax, and gathered wild 
apples, sloes, and cherries. Acorns were carefully preserved in jars for 
winter use. 

These peaceful people must have inhabited the plain of the Po for at 
least a thousand years, probably for a much longer time, two or even 
three thousand years. They had advanced to the bronze age, and must 
be regarded as the ancestors of the Latins and the other Aryan tribes 
of Italy. 

At some period in the bronze age they were suddenly overwhelmed 
by the invasion of the Etruscans, a fierce and savage race which broke 
in on them from the north. All their settlements were destroyed—-not 


496 THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY. 


one survived to the iron age, which probably commenced in Italy in the 
ninth or tenth century B. c. On other grounds it is believed that the 
Etrusean invasion was not later than the eleventh century B. c. We 
learn from Varro that the Etruscan era began 291 years before the 
Roman. The Roman era began in 755 B. C., and therefore the Etruscan 
era dates from 1044 8.c. Butitis not likely that the Etruscan era began 
before the conquerors had settled down into an organized state—duo- 
decim populi Etrurie, or confederation of the twelve Etruscan tribes. 
We may therefore, with some probability, place the Etruscan invasion 
of Italy in the twelfth century B.c. It may not improbably be con- 
nected with the great movement of races about this period, which began 
with the conquest of Syria by the Hittites, and of Egypt by the Hyksos, 
and ended with the Thessalian and Dorian invasions of Greece, and 
that consequent emigration of the older Greek tribes to Asia Minor which 
lies at the base of the Homerie Epos. It is possible that the Etruscans 
may themselves have been an Asiatic people, akin to the Kheta and the 
Hyksos. This supposition derives support from the similarity in the 
appearance of the Hittites and the Etruscans as portrayed on their 
respective monuments, from the old tradition which connects the Etrus- 
cans with Asia Minor, and also from the recent discovery in Lemnos of 
inscriptions believed to be in a language of the Etruscan type. 

After overwhelming the Umbrian settlements in the valley of the Po, 
the Etruscans extended their dominion across the Apennines to the 
Arno and the Tiber. It seems probable that the foundation of Rome 
was due tothe Umbro-Latin fugitives, who placed the Tiber as a barrier 
between themselves and the invaders, establishing themselves on the 
Palatine, as their Etruscan foes did at Veii, 11 miles north of Rome. 
Just as the foundation of Venice is attributed to the fugitives from the 
invasion of Attila and the Huns,so the foundation of Rome may be due 
to fugitives from the invasion of the Etruscans. This is supported by 
the fact that the terra mare and the palafitte, which are believed to 
constitute the primitive settlements of the Umbro-Latin Aryan race, are 
not found south of the Apennines beyond the Emilia and the valley of 
the Po. The Etruscan dominion and civilization endured for some 709 
years. At length it fell before the invasion of the Gauls in 400 B. C., 
just as the Umbrian civilization had fallen before the inroad of the 
Ktruscan hordes. And thus Etruria Cireumpadana, the former Umbrian 
land, became cisalpine Gaul, its possession reverting to a people who 
in race and language were nearly akin to its former inhabitants, 

The settlements of the Gauls are recognized by the torques and the 
long iron swords which are found in their graves. At Bologna, in the 
semeteries of the Certosa and Marzabotto, we have the tombs of the 
three successive races, Umbrians, Etruscans, and Gauls, all different in 
character, and easily to ve distinguished. 

Thus it appears that the fertile plain of the Pe was oceupied by many 
successive races, whose descendants may, with greater or less certainty, 


THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY. 497 


be recognized in the present population of Italy. We have first the 
Paleolithic Iberian savages, mere hunters and probably cannibals, liv- 
ing in caves, ignorant of pottery, whose descendants may be traced in 
Sardinia and Southern Italy. They were followed, in the early Neo- 
lithic period, by the Ligurians, possessed of pottery, but without domes- 
tic animals. Their descendants now occupy the Rhetian and Maritime 
Alps. They were succeeded towards the close of the Neolithic age by 
the Umbro-Latin race, who lived in huts and pile dwellings instead of 
caves, who possessed oxen and sheep, canoes and wagons, and who 
gradually acquired a knowledge of bronze. In the bronze age, some- 
time before the middle of the eleventh century B. C., they were over- 
whelmed by the Etruscan inroad, their villages were destroyed, and 
they fled southward from the invaders. Then, at the close of the fifth 
century B. C., the Etruscan dominion was destroyed by the Boii and 
other Gaulisb tribes, who were in the iron stage of civilization. Finally 
came the conquest of the Romans, and afterwards those of the Heruls, 
Goths, Huns, and Lombards. 

The people who lived in the pile dwellings in the valley of the Po, 
and who are usually called Umbrians, were clearly of the same race as 
the ancient Romans. The skull is of the same shape, the type of civili- 
zation was the same, and Latin and Umbrian were merely dialects of 
the same language. 

Owing to the practice of cremation genuine Roman skulls are rare, 
and of skulls ostensibly Roman many turn out to be those of freedmen 
or provincials. But, judging from the few we possess, the shape of 
the head was almost identical with that of the Umbrians, of the Swiss 
lacustrine people, and of the Celtic round barrow race of Britain. The 
great breadth of the Roman skull is well seen in the portrait busts of 
Tiberius, Nero, Vespasian, Titus, and Marcus Aurelius. 

That the Romans were originally in the same pastoral stage of civil- 
ization as the Umbrians is shown by the fact that the words for money 
and property, pecunia and peculium, are derived from pecus, cattle ; 
while the ox, which appears on some early Roman coins, may indicate 
the fact that the ox was the standard of pecuniary value. The hut 
urns found in the ancient cemetery of Alba Longa show that the Latins 
at first lived in huts like those of the Umbrians. The @des Veste in 
the Forum, the most venerable relic of early Rome, was originally ¢ 
hut of wickerwork and straw, and so was the casa Romuli on the Pala- 
tine. 

The population of Italy has now become so mixed that in many prov- 
inces it is difficult to detect and separate the original elements. But the 
Sardinians and the peasants of Southern Italy still display the primi- 
tive Iberian type, and the Greek type survives on the sites of some of 
the old Greek colonies. For instance, at Naxos and Syracuse about 
24 per cent. of the people have blue eyes, while at Palermo, which was 
never a Greek city, the proportion is less than 1 per cent. In some 

H. Mis. 129 32 


498 THE PRE-HISTORIC RACES OF ITALY. 


parts of Lombardy Teutonic village names are numerous, and Teutonic 
names, of Gothic or Lombard origin, are common among the nobility. 
Filiberto, Humberto, and Garibaldi are genuine Teutonic names; so 
also is that of the Italian seaman, Amerigo Vespucci, who bore the 
Gothic and Lombardic name of Amaric, which he has given to the New 
World. 

It is curious that America, the continent which has become the pat- 
rimony shared nearly equally by the Teutonic and Latin races, should 
itself bear a Teutonic name, whose Latinized form bears indisputable 
witness to the Teutonic conquest of the oldest seat of the Latin race 
in Italy. 


THE AGH OF BRONZE IN EGYPT.* 
BY OSCAR MONTELIUS. 


It is generally admitted that bronze was known and made use of in 
Egypt from the earliest times of the ancient empire, about 6,000 years 
ago:t but authors do not agree so well in respect to iron. The major- 
ity affirm that this metal was also known in the valley of the Nile at 
an epoch not less remote. Very strong reasons however appear to 
me to demonstrate that it was in the second millenium before the 
Christian era, that the use of iron possessed in Hgypt an importance 
that authorizes us to speak of an age of iron in that country. The 
greater part of the time, then, that embraces Egyptian civilization 
should be considered as an age of bronze. 

Assuredly to the majority of persons this conclusion will appear un- 
expected, if not absurd. Egyptian civilization, in fact, during the period 
mentioned was eminent to a degree that can scarcely be believed pos- 
sible without an acquaintance with iron. But we must not forget that 
the Aztecs in Mexico, with their civilization largely developed, were 
still living in a pure age of bronze on the first arrival of Europeans. 
The most important and almost note-worthy reason that has been 
cited to establish the age of iron in Egypt several thousand years be- 
fore the Christian era is that at this remote epoch massive edifices 
were already erected there in wrought stone, and that this stone is so 
hard that it can be cut only with implements of iron, or rather of steel. 
The celebrated German Egyptologist, Mr. Lepsius, affirms: “Great 
masses of carved granite, certain specimens of which are met with from 
the fourth dynasty of Manéthon, do not permit us to question that iron 
was known at that era.”+ On the other hand it has been established by 


* Translated from L’ Anthropologie, January, 1890, vol. 1, p. 25. 

t Perrott and Chipiez: Histoire de V Art Vantiquilé, vol.1, Egypte, p.829. Arcelin: 
Influence Eqyptienne pendant Vage du bronze, in the Materiaux pour Vhistoire de Vhomme, 
1869, p.377. In making deep drills in Egypt ‘‘a copper knife” was discovered at a 
depth of 24 feet (Mook, Agyptens vormetallische zeit, p. 5). The British Museum 
possessed a few axes of bronze with descriptions from the time of the sixth dynasty, 
or about the middle of the third millenium before the Christian era A Guide to the 
Egyptian Rooms (in the British museum), p. 48. 

t Lepsius, Les Metaux dans les Inscriptions Egyptiennes, translated from the German 
by W. Berend, Paris, 1887, p. 57. 

499 


500 THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


special experiments that metal instruments are not required in order to 
carve a stone as hard as that of Egyptian edifices. Stone implements 
may be employed, although in this manner the work progresses very 
slowly, and requires a great deal of patience.* 

But the Egyptians had had cecasion to exercise patience, and every 
work can be accelerated by a multiplication of the forces put in opera- 
tion. The Egyptian kings in their enterprises of construction were not 
accustomed to spare their laborers. Moreover it must be noted that 
Kgyptian granite is so hard that our best steel instruments are soon 
ruined when one attempts to work with them. ‘The fine figures which 
are foundon Egyptian monuments, and especially the hieroglyphics, may 
rather be designated as engraved than carved. ‘It is in no wise im- 
probable,” says the English antiquarian, Mr. Wilkinson, who interested 
himself very much in the ancient Egyptains, “that they were famil- 
iar with the use of emory at the time when that substance, which is 
met with in the islands of Archipelago, was accessible to them; and 
if this be admitted we can explain the perfection and admirable deli- 
cacy of the hieroglyphics upon the monuments of granite and basalt. 
We then also comprehend why implements of bronze will be preferred 
to those of stecl, which are harder and denser; for it is evident that 
emery powder will be incrusted upon the former and that its action on 
stone becomes greater in proportion to the quantity fixed on the sharp 
edge of the chisel ; in our times, with the same view, we prefer soft iron 
tools to those of hard steel.” 

It is probable that sand—or emery, if they really possessed it—was 
used in the sawing of stone. Wecan thus more easily explain why 
verdigris has been sometimes observed in the quarries upon places 
where fragments of the rock have been detached by much sawing.t 

The proof that bronze implements were employed by Egyptians for 
stone work is given by a Grecian author, Agatharchides, who lived 
about a hundred years before the birth of Jesus Christ. He relates 
that in his time bronze tools had been found in the gold mines in Egypt 
which had formerly been used by the mining laborers. He explains 
the utilization of bronze very correctly in stating that iron was entirely 
unknown at the time when the first operations in mining were begun.t 

Upon the monuments in the time of the ancient empire we sometimes 
see representations of men who are carving stone by the instrumentality 
of chisels, whose yellow or reddish-brown color shows that they were 
of bronze.§ 

*Soldi, Les Arts méconnus, Paris, 1881, p. 492. Perrot Chipiez, ouv. cit. 1, p. 755. 

t Wilkinson: “ Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,” Ist edition, vol. 
III, pp. 250, 251. 

fEvans: ‘Ancient Stone Implements of Great Britain,” p. 6. 

§ Rosellini: Monumenti del? Egittoe della Nubia (Monumenti civili PL. XLVI.) One of 


these chisels is not bluish, as has been indicated (Rhind: Thebes, its Tombs and their 
Tenants, p. 222), but reddish brown. 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 501 


At Thebes, in the midst of the waste from the carving of stones, 
Wilkinson found a large bronze chisel which evidently had been for- 
gotten by the citizens thousands of years ago.* This chisel, 22 centi- 
meters in length, presents at the upper extremity very clear marks of 
blows from a hammer, but the edge is so intact that it appears new. 
It would soon have been destroyed if workmen little accustomed to 
such implements had endeavored to cut with it a stone similar to that 
which it shaped in other days. 

That the Egyptians, by means of their bronze implements, could 
have been able to produce what they have made, undoubtedly does not 
depend, as has been supposed, upon the fact that they were in pos- 
session of the secret talent, hid for so long a time, of tempering bronze, 
but only that they had the skill acquired by long practice of using 
their utensils, a skill that we no longer possess, being accustomed to 
other instruments. It can not be denied that the manner in which the 
stones of Egyptian monuments are cut, presents a great analogy with 
the fabrication of pre historic tools of stone and the sockets of their 
handles. Even lately it was supposed that these tools and their sockets 
could not have been fabricated without the aid of steel instruments. 
This view was sustained until experiments had placed beyond all dis- 
pute the fact that by using stone, bone, or wood solely, such tools 
could be made and perforated, provided that the necessary skill and 
time were bestowed on this work. 

Imposing edifices of hard stone, richly adorned with reliefs, may be 
constructed without iron. Proof of this is furnished by Mexico and 
Central America, which are rich in monuments of this kind anterior to 
Columbus and to the introduction of iron into those countries by Euro- 
peans. One cannot therefore rely upon the fact that the construetion 
and embellishment of the stately edifices of the ancient empire are 
impossible without steel, to maintain that the age of iron commenced 
in Egypt at that distant period. 

We must then fix the epoch of the introduction of the age of iron 
into Egypt by the same method which has so well sueceeded in other 
countries. This problem attracted too late the attention of the Egypt- 
ologists. The greater portion of the discoveries that are pertinent to 
this question were not therefore investigated as they should have been. 
It will be seen presently however that the documents are numerous 
and clear, and that the paintings especially instruct us with very great 
exactitude. 

It is necessary to examine the facets by grouping them under four 
heads: 

(1) What are the objects in iron discovered in Egypt which date from 
the most remote era, and of what character are they? 


*Wilkinson: ‘‘ Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, vol. 11,” pp. 249, 
252, and 253. 


502 THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT, 


(2) What are the most ancient inscriptions in which iron is mentioned ? 
Can we be fully enlightened through them in respect to the signification 
of the hieroglyphies which are supposed to designate iron? 

(3) “What are the most antique monuments representing arms and 
instruments of iron? 

(4) Up to what epoch did they continue in Egypt to employ arms and 
instruments of bronze? Can we perceive upon these objects marks left 
as a consequence of long usage, whether in the reparation of the sharp 
edges, or otherwise, proving that they were used, and that they were 
not fabricated solely for the tomb? 

To the first interrogatory it is easy to respond: Fragments of iron 
instruments have been found in a few pyramids; and if they date from 
the time of these mausoleums they fully establish the great antiquity 
of iron in Egypt. The best known of these fragments is the one dis- 
covered by an Englishman, Mr. Hill, in 1837, in the great pyramid at 
Gizeh, built about 3,000 years before Christ. It is supposed that it was 
a fragment of an instrument with which the surface of hewn stone was 
polished, but it is also believed that it is not of steel, but of iron. It 
may have been discovered near the orifice of one of the narrow atmos- 
pherie canals which traverse the body of the pyramid as far as the mor- 
tuary cavern, and in articulation of the stones, but not until after the 
two layers of exterior blocks forming the cap of the pyramid has been 
removed. No fissure was observed or aperture of any description, 
through which this iron after the construction of the pyramid might 
have been introduced at the point where it was found. For this reason 
several persons, having explored this locality immediately after the dis- 
covery, have publicly attested their conviction that the fragment of iron 
had been left between the stones during the construction of the pyra- 
mid, and that it could not have been inserted there after this period.* 

Similar discoveries have been made more recently. Thus M.Maspero, 
in 1882, collected several parts of iron hoes in the black pyramid at 
Aboukir, probably built during the sixth dynasty; that is to say, in the 
third millenium before the Christian era. He discovered, moreover, a 
few fragments of iron instruments in the mortar between two stones, 
in a pyramid in the vicinity of Esneh.t This pyramid is not anterior to 
the seventeenth dynasty, and its construction consequently immediately 
preceded the inauguration of the New Empire. Mr. Maspero, as I be- 
lieve, has given no information more precise in regard to the situation 
and the bearing of these fragments of iron. 

Reasons that we are about to assign authorize us to doubt the con- 
clusions which have been drawn from these discoveries. The presence 
of these iron fragments is certain; but are we equally assured that they 
date from the erection of the monuments that contained them? The 


~ 


*Vyse, ‘Pyramids of Giseh,’’ 1, pp. 275, 276. Transactions of the second session of 
the International Congress of Orientalists, held in London, 1874, pp. 396-399. 
t Maspero, Guide du Visiteur au Musée de Boulag (Paris, 1884), p. 29.5 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 503 


points at which they have been met with—have they not been accessi- 
ble to man from time to time during the thousands of years that have 
followed the construction ?* 

Can it be affirmed that the layers of stone under which they were 
lying were intact, and that the blocks had never been displaced and 
afterwards restored to their place? Jn our days these blocks have been 
removed without any harm being done to the solidity of the edifice. 
The circumstances of the bearings do not extinguish ail possibility of 
their introduction at an epoch more or less late, and it does not seem 
that we are justified in drawing from these discoveries the conelusion 
that iron was already known and employed by the Egyptians 3,000 
years B. c.t One has so much the less the right to an opposite con- 
clusion, as we are about to see, from all that is known elsewhere con- 
cerning the epoch when iron was used, not only in Egypt, but even in 
other countries. 

Lepsius, who supposes that iron was in use in Egypt from the fourth 
century,t is obliged to avow that in Egyptian tombs, until now, few 
objects in iron have been found, and that these objects are some of an 
uncertain era, others recent. This declaration of one of the most emi- 
nent scholars in Egyptian antiquity was made, it is true, 12 years ago, 
but, more recently, in the special circle of Egyptologists doubts have 
been manifested concerning the antiquity of iron in Egypt. § 

Incontestable proofs of the existence of iron before the epoch of the 
new empire, that is to say, before the middle of the second millenium, 
B. C., have not been produced. Having maintained as evident that 
the Egyptians were in possession of iron at an epoch far more remote, 
they have meanwhile tried to explain the absence of this metal in the 
most ancient Necropolises and Mausoleums by invoking a religious 
prejudice. 

Iron was regarded as the bone of Typhon, the enemy of Osiris, and 
for this reason considered impure; one could not make use of it even 
for the most ordinary requirements of life without polluting his soul 
in a way that would cause him harm both on earth and in the other 
world. Meanwhile, Mr. Maspero, one of the most eminent Egyptolo- 
gists, has demonstrated that this explanation is not satisfactory, for 


* Vyse says (‘‘ Pyramids of Gizeh,” 1, p. 4) that the mouth of the atmospheric canal 
in question is found partly enlarged before he began his labors there. 

+The seruples I have expressed in respect to the discovery of iron in the great 
pyramid are not now presented for the first time ; compare the work of Rhind, pub- 
lished in 1862, Thebes, its Tombs and their Tenants, p. 227. 

{ Lepsius, Les Metaua, p. 54. 

§ In the official guide, printed in 1879, for the use of the visitors to the British 
Museum (4 Guide to the Egyptian Rooms, p. 40) we read: ‘‘It is doubtful if the use 
of iron was known at a very remote period.” In the same way people expressed 
themselves later, in 1884. See Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great 
Britain and Ireland, session of March 25, 1884. Compare, also, Perrot and Chipiez, 
Histoire de V Art, etc., vol. I (printed 1882), pp. 753, 754, and 830. 


5OA THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


he says (p. 295), ‘The religious impurity of an object has never sufficed 
to prevent the use of such object. To cite but a single example, 
pork also was dedicated to Typhon and considered impure; they were 
bred however in droves, and the number of these animals was con- 
siderable enough, at least in certain cantons, to allow the good Herod- 
itus to relate that they were let loose in the fields after the harvests in 
order to press down the earth and bury the grain. Besides, in Egypt 
each individual object was not exclusively pure or impure, but some- 
times one, Sometimes another, according to circumstances. It is thus 
that the boar and the sow, despite their Typhonian character, were 
the animals of Isis, and consequently share the Osirien purity. Iron, 
which certain traditions call the bone of Typhon, is commonly called 
“ bonipit,” the substance of heaven; it is hence pure in certain aspects, 
and impure in certain others.” 

Religious scruples had not placed any obstacle to the employment of 
iron in Egypt at the epoch when this useful metal was really known, 
for divers iron instruments have been found in contemporaneous 
tombs. Many of these objects have been deposited in the museum of 
the Louvre; they are all probably posterior to the fifteenth century B. C. 
and very near to that date. The most ancient—if we do not consider 
the fragments already mentioned which come from the pyramids— 
that are known in Egypt, and the age of which can be established, is 
a curved blade resembling a reaping hook, which Belzoni one day put 
under one of the Sphinxes at Karnak, but the age of this blade does 
not go beyond the seventh century B. c.* Maspero, who supposes the 
use of iron in Egypt to be very ancient, has endeavored in twoinstances 
to find an explanation of the rarity of this metal. He thinks, in the 
first place, that iron-utensils which could not be employed have been re- 
melted. But this does not explain to us the reason why in Egyptian 
museums objects in iron are more rare than objects in bronze, The re- 
casting of bronzes out of use was at least practiced as much. 

In the second place, Mr. Maspero, and with him many others, have 
desired to explain the absence of iron by arguing its destruction by rust. 
But it is necessary to recall that Egyptian tombs are so dry that here, 
less than anywhere else, could iron have been corroded by oxidation. 
Besides, rust has not the consuming activity which is sometimes 
believed. A great deal of time is required to accomplish its work of 
destruction ; and in point of fact this rust could not entirely disappear. 


ical Institute,, March 25, 1883. The authenticity of this discovery is questioned by 
Rhind ( Thebes, p. 228). Aniron chisel wasfound under an obelisk at Karnak, which 
should date from the eighteenth dynasty (Arcelin, in the Materiaux, 1869, p. 377), 
but the determination of the age of the chisel is perhaps questionable. If it were 
even correct, the discovery nevertheless is posterior to the beginning of the New 
Empire. 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 505 


In the tombs the rusted object, or the trace of the rust upon neighbor- 
ing objects, would have been discovered.* 

Now never in my knowledge has a vestige of iron been found more 
or less rusted, never even has the stain of rust been found in the tombs 
prior to the fifteenth century B. c. 

This is all the more important as among the discoveries of the first 
millenium B. Cc. both in Egypt and elsewhere, numerous iron objects, 
among which are several well preserved, have been met with (Rhind, 
Thebes, p. 218). Now, if an object made of iron can be preserved almost 
intact during two or three thousand years, there is no reason why this 
object should have disappeared without leaving any trace if it had 
remained a little longer in the earth and under identical conditions. 

Inasmueh as to-day almost all the hieroglyphic inseriptions can be 
read without difficulty, it might be supposed that it was easy to respond 
to the second inquiry above made and specify the group of characters 
that constitute the name of iron. Now, erudite men differ in this par- 
ticular; with one it is such a term, with a second another. 

It does not appertain to me, who am notan Egyptologist, to examine 
if the various and contradictory opinions do not proceed from the fact 
that some have imagined they discovered the word “iron” in inserip- 
tions of an epoch when this metal was as yet unknown. 

I do not know, further, if the group of hieroglyphies which is reputed 
to signify the term iron on a recent occasion referred to has the same 
signification in the inseriptions of the New Empire. It does not suffice 
that the word exists; it is necessary to prove also that this term at a 
remote period did not signify anything else; and for example, that 
there was instead of the meaning iron the meaning bronze or some 
other metal in general. 

A striking example of such a change of signification is the following: 
In India in the early era of the Vedas ayas, designated bronze, and then, 
after the introduction of iren it was applied to the new metal. The 
Latin has preserved the primitive sense of the word ews. The problem 
is very essentially cleared up if recourse be had to another catagory of 
instruction: this is our third standpoint. 

Among the mural paintings, so numerous and so often admirably 
preserved, there are a great many arms and modelled instruments, the 
greater part red or yellow, the rest blue. Surely one will not deny 
that the red and the yellow represents copper and bronze and the blue 
iron or steel. 

In a tomb comparatively modern, that of Rameses III, some arms are 
red, others blue. Rhind (Thebes, p. 221) has erroneously drawn from 


*Lepsius: Les métaux,pp. 52 and following. He says (p. 63) that the iron has not 
yet been found represented under his name. Perrot and Chipiez: Histoire de Vart, 
vol. 1, p. 753; Chabas: Sur le nom de fer chez les anciens Eqyptiens in the Comptes ren- 
dus de VAcadémie des Inscriptions (January 23, 1874). Brugsch: Hieroglyphisch- 
Demotisches Worterbuch, vol. Vv, p. 4138, and following. 


506 THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


this the conclusion that colors are without signification. This fact 
demonstrates only that at that epoch some arms of bronze and others of 
iron were employed, although the latter metal had then been long 
known. 

When we examine attentively the paintings of ancient times we ob- 
serve that arms and tools are painted there red or yellow, never blue. 
Lepsius, who believes in the antiquity of iron in Kgypt, is nevertheless 
very much surprised at the fact (p. 57) that red or light brown is em- 
ployed in the re-production of axes, arrow barbs, pruning hooks, saws, 
chisels razors, and butcher knives. 

It is in the paintings of the new empire alone that metallic objects 
are painted blue. This can be naturally explained. Bronze, until 
towards the fifteenth century B. C., was employed only for the fabrica- 
tion of arms and instruments; iron was not as yet in use. Let us ex- 
amine, finally, the last aspect of the question. The absence of objects 
made of iron in the mortuary furniture of the ancient era could have 
no signification or importance if those of bronze were equally wanting. 
But it is not thus. Bronzes are met with abundantly in the tombs. 

We ean now, thanks to the latter, approach the fourth of our queries. 
Among the most remarkable discoveries of bronzes anterior to the 
new empire, or contemporaneous with the early centuries of that era, 
we may cite that of Drah-aboul-Neggah, to the north of Thebes. In 
1860, some Arabs exhumed from the sand a coffin, that of Queen A’hho- 
tep. This queen had been married to Kamos, a king of the seventeenth 
dynasty, and perhaps the mother of King Abinos I, or of his consort 
Nofirtari. King Ahinos was the first of the eighteenth dynasty. A’h- 
hotep, consequently was living more than 1,500 years B. c. Her coffin 
contained a large number of precious objects and arms, with which the 
museum of Boulais enriched and which we are about to describe.* 
There was gold, silver, bronze, but no trace of iron. 

Arms and bronze instruments were in use at a later period and con- 
currently with those of iron. This is proven by numerous bronzes in 
the Boulaq Museum and the European museums which bear the name 
of Thoutmos IIT. This king of the eighteenth dynasty lived during the 
first half of the seventeenth century B. c. If one has carefully read the 
group of hieroglyphies which it is assumed constitutes the term iron, 
they were acquainted with that metal at that epoch. There are also 
bronzes which bear the name of Queen Hatschopsitu, the sister and 
coregent of Thoutmos III. Theinseriptions that bear these names are 
engraved or written with ink on the bronze itself or on the wooden 
handles of the tools (Figs. 29 and 39). It is proper to note that on sev- 


*The discovery is described by Mariette in Notice des principaux monuments du 
musée Vantiquités égyptiennes &@ Boulag. (Second edition, Alexandria, 1868, pp. 257- 
267), and by Maspero in his Guide dw visiteur aw Musée de Boulag, Paris, 1884, pp. 
77-83 and 320. Compare Perrot and Chipiez, Histoire de V Art vol. 1, p. 297, and 
Erman, -Egyptien, p. 612. The discovery is represented in the Revue del Architecture, 
1860. 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 507 


eral of these objects the same inscription is seen, with insignificant 
changes “ The gracious God Ra-men-Kheper (prenomen of Thoutmos 
III), the beloved of Ammon, when the cord was stretched at Amen- 
saraku.” It is supposed that it relates to the foundation of a ‘ pylon” 
which Thoutmos caused to be built at Karnak.* 

The fact that upon so many objects we meet with the name of this 
king would indicate that this name is of frequent occurrence in Egyp- 
tian inscriptions. This however may be the effeet of accident which 
on a Single day exposed an exceptional number of these objects; thus 
in a tomb at Thebes were discovered several baskets filled with instru- 
ments of this character.t 

It has been supposed that the arms and tools exhumed from the 
tombs had been specially fabricated of bronze to be employed at cere- 
monies either solemn—for example, the foundation of a “ pylone,” as 
we have just seen—or funereal.i 

The bronze from the considerations of religious orders would have 
continued to be utilized long after industry might have manufactured 
arms of iron and tools for ordinary use. But this supposition is contra- 
dicted. Sinee a great number of these bronzes bear evident marks of 
long use, they were not fabricated, consequently in order simply to be 
deposited in the tombs.§ At the close of the second millenium B. Cc. 
arms of bronze were not yet entirely replaced by iron arms. The 
mural paintings in the tomb of King Ramses III at Thebes, which date 
from the twelfth century, prove this; here a great quantity of arms may 
be seen, the major part blue, the remainder red. Lance-barbs and 
swords with two edges are sometimes red, at others blue.|| 

The arms represented in this tomb were those which were used in war 
at the time of Ramses III. It cannot therefore be assumed that the 
red arms were of bronze, because they were especially fabricated for 
the tomb. They are painted red because bronze arms were then in 


* Sitzungsberichte der kinigl. Preussichen Academie der Wissenchaften zu Berlin, 188, 
vol. XXXIV, p. 770. 

t Bronzes with the name of Thoutmos III, or that of Hatschopsitu are deposited in 
the Boulaq museum (an ax, a chisel, two blades of a saw, etc.); Maspero, Guide, etc., 
pp. 297-299) ; the British Museum (three axes and a couple of saws); a Guide to the 
Egyptian rooms, p. 42; the museum at Leyden (two axes, one saw, etc., Leemans 
Mon. Egypt du Musée de Leide, pl. 80, fig. 3 and pl. 90, figs. 157, 159, Chabas, tudes 
sur Vantiquité historique, pp. 76-79; the collection of the Duke of Northumberland at 
Alnwick Castle (ax, two chisels, a drill, a saw-blade) Birch, Catalogue of the Collec- 
tion of Egyptian Antiquities at Alnwick Castle, p. 200, pl. B. 

tBireh, Catalogue, p. 200. The same inscriptions are duplicated also upon the 
bronzes that belong to the collection at Alnwick Castle. 

§ The celebrated Swedish Egyptologist, M. Piehl, whose attention 1 called to the 
importance of this question before one of his visits to Egypt, had the kindness to 
write me that a considerable number of arms and bronze instruments, preserved in- 
the Boulaq museum, had evidently been long in use, as is demonstrated by the fact 
that they were used and re-sharpened again and again. 

|| Champollion Monuments de 0 Egypt, pl. 263-264. Rosellini, Monumenti Civili, pl. 
121; Lepsius Les Meteux, p. 117, and pl. 11, fig. 2-7. 


508 THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


general use. It is very important to establish that bronze arms were 
common in the second century, and even that they were in a majority at 
this moment, which is already an iron age. Such would not have been 
the case if (as many authors suppose) iron had been known and 
employed in this country for thousands of years. This is an obser- 
vation of which the value will be apprehended. If iron had been in 
the service of industry from the early dynasties it would not be found 
so rare still towards the second century. Everywhere else it is agreed 
that when iron appears, bronze is not long in yielding place to it for 
the fabrication of swords, axes, knives, ete. The experience acquired 
everywhere on this subject does not permit us to doubt that it would 
not have been otherwise on Egyptian soil, or that bronze, in despite of 
the presence of iron, would have remained so long alone or almost ex- 
clusively utilized. 

It seems to result from the discoveries of Schliemann at Mycene and 
Tiryns, and which belong to the close of the second millenium B. ¢., 
that iron was not known in Egypt as early as has been asserted. 
Amongst so many objects of every variety which have been collected 
in the tombs of Mycene, there is no trace of iron, whilst hundreds of 
swords and other arms are of bronze. In the royal palace at Tiryns 
there is no iron or trace of iron.* 

Now, the antiquities of these two cities testify to a powerful influence 
from Egypt, undoubtedly exercised through the agency of the Pheeni- 
cians, and it would then be scarcely possible that iron should have been 
completely unknown in Greece, if for two thousand years it had already 
been known in Egypt. 

From what we have just said it follows with great probability that 
the Kgyptians, during the whole time of the ancient empire, and prob- 
ably until almost fifteen hundred years B. C., were not acquainted with 
the use of iron, and employed only bronze for their arms and instru- 
ments; that the age of bronze consequently continued in Egypt until 
the epoch mentioned, and that iron, as yet, towards the close of the 
second millenium B. 6., had not altogether replaced bronze for the con- 
struction of arms and edged instruments. 

The most remarkable discovery in Egypt of bronze arms is, as we 
have already said, that which was made in the coffin of Queen A’bhotep. 
Among the great quantity of precious things which this tomb contained 
we first mentioned were the following objects, which constitated a part 
of the toilet of that princess: Several gold bracelets, ornamented with 
precious stones and plates of glass, rings for the legs of gold, a golden 
chain, a diadem, a large collar and a decoration for the breast of gold 


*The lyrics of Homer speak sometimes of iron, but these songs were probably 
not composed until long after the epoch of the Trojan war, and certainly they were 
not written in the condition in which we now have them, They cannot then be 
in testimony of the knowledge of iron in Greece at the titte of Agamemnon or of 
Ulysses. 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 509 


and precious stones, the handle of a fan of wood laminated with gold, 
an ebony mirror of gold and gilded bronze, ete. But along with these 
were found in the tomb of the queen various arms and a small boat of 
massive gold mounted upon a wooden chariot with wheels of bronze 
and a similar boat of silver. In the golden boat twelve oarsmen are 
seen, also of gold, who are rowing under the orders of the helmsman and 
pilot in the prow. In the center of the boat a diminutive personage 
holds an ax and a baton of authority; a cartouche engraved behind 
the helmsman teaches us the death for which he was originally pre- 
destined. This boat is King Kamos. The vessel itself is a symbol of 
the craft on which the deceased must embark aceording to the creed of 
the Egyptians, and be borne to Abydos in order to enter the other 
world. 

Upon a few other objects found in this tomb may be read the names 
of the kings, Kamos, Ahmos, and the prenomen of the latter, Nibpehtiri. 

The arms found in the tomb are of great importance to our subject. 
They are three poniards with blades of bronze and gold; two axes, one 
of gilded bronze, the other of silver; nine small hatchets, three of gold 
and six of silver; and a baton of authority, made of black wood and 
gold. 

The figures that we are about to refer to are grouped upon the plates 
apart from the text here subjoined. One of the poniards was originally 
sheathed in a scabbard of gold.* The handle is of wood, and orna- 
mented with small triangles in cornelian, lapis-lazuli, feldspar and gold 
forming the reverse. For the pommel, four female heads in pricked 
gold; an inverted bull’s head conceals the soldering of the blade to the 
handle. The body of the blade is of dark bronze, inlaid with massive 
gold and damascened. Upon the upper face above the prenomen 
Nibpehtiri a lion is pursuing a bull, in advance of which two locusts 
are quietly proceeding. The lower facet bears the name of Ahmos I 
and fifteen flowers in full bloom which issue one from another and disap- 
pear toward the point of the blade. Another poniard (Fig. 18) has a 
gold handle, the blade being of bronze. The third poniard (Fig. 11) is 
formed with a very heavy blade, and a disk of silver serving as a handle. 
Figure 12 exhibits the poniard from a side point of view.t 

One of the large axes is represented in Fig. 26. The handle is of 
cedar wood, ornamented with a golden leaf. The name of the king, 
Ahmos, is here traced in incrustations of lapis-lazuli, cornelian, tur- 
quoise, and green feldspar. The bladeis provided with a simple handle 
ake ieee a Z , 

* The figures which here represent the objects preserved in the museum at Boulaq 
are executed after photographs which, through the kind instrumentality of M. Piehl 
and M. Brugsch Bey, were executed for me. The description of the sumptuous arms 
in the tomb of A’hhotep are taken from the Guide du Visiteur au Musée de Boulaq, by 
Maspero, pp. 79-83. Compare Erman, dgypten, p. 612. 

t Fig. 12 is designed from Fig. 564 in the first volume of Perrot and Chipiez, ouvr. 
cit., where it is exactly indicated as representing a pin. 


510 THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


of wood and maintained in its socket by a coil of gold thread. It is of 
black bronze and has been gilded. 

One of its facets bears lotuses on a ground of gold; the other 
represents Ahmos threatening with his axe a barbarian, half over- 
thrown, whom he is holding by the hairof his head. Above this scene 
is represented the god of war, Monton Thebain, under the form of a 
griffin with the head of an eagle.* 

The other axe is of the same form, the handle being of horn garnished 
with gold, the blade being of silver. Among the bronze axes found 
in Egypt with which [ am acquainted none is perforated in the same 
way as the axesusedinourdays. Allare of the same form as the wedges 
of bronze so common during the age of bronze in Europe, and are fast- 
ened to the handles by thongs or other bands. 

All the Egyptian axes that I have had an opportunity to see at the 
Louvre and in other collections have been flat wedges without any 
traces of elevation along the borders, “straight borders” + without 
shoulders near the middle portion, to prevent the blade from entering 
into the handle when one struck with it. 

The blades are either nearly of the same form as the axes of stone 
(Fig. 36) or else somewhat enlarged at the edge. The upper portion 
of several have a form characteristic of Egyptian axes (Fig. 28). It is 
rectilinear and prolonged into a point toward the two extremities. 

There were however other forms of bronze axes, besides. Among 
the re-productions which date from the early era of the ancient 
empire, axes with a half circular blade are to be seen, as in Fig. 31. 
This blade is massive; but later on, towards the close of the ancient 
empire, the blade has very often the form that is shown in Fig. 32, with 
two round holes near the handle.{ The arm represented by Fig. 35 
has a similar blade with two holes, only more elongated; the surface of 
the handle is of silver. § 

Sometimes the axe blades are pieced through and stuouen like that 


i omnia to E rman (. aypiom p. 612) HS eae of ‘eS, facet is ase with 
blue enamel of the very deepest shade. 

tIn Materiaur pour V Hist de V Homme, 1869, pl. 19, Fig. 3, an Egytian axe is repre- 
sented which, according to p. 378, should have straight borders, but the designs of 
the plate referred to are not sufficiently exact to draw any conclusions. I have writ- 
ten to the museum at Boulaq, where the figured axe should have been deposited, to 
inquire about it, but have received no reply. 

{Intermediate forms between figures 32 and 33 are reproduced from the monuments 
at Thebes, in the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Eqyptians, by Wilkinson (first 
edition), vol. 1, p. 325. Comp. Lepsius, Denkmaler aus Egypten und dthiopien. 
Vol. 11, Pl 132: 

§ Axe blades of precisely the same form as in Fig. 33 (without a handle), are de- 
posited one at the Louyre and the other in the collection of Mr. Greenwell at Dur- 
ham. In these two, as in the original of Fig. 33, the borders around the two semi- 
circular apertures are in slightrelief. Similar axes to those of Fig. 33 may be seen 
among the reproductions of the twelfth dynasty. Lepsius, les Métaux, vol. 1, Pl, 132 
and Wilkinson, Manners and Customs, vol. 1, p. 325, Figs. 5 and 6. 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. Bile 


of Fig. 34, and present divers images. Celts, with sockets similar to 
those which are so often found in Europe, are unknown in Egypt, but 
celts with pinions are met with there which approach in appearance 
those with sockets. The pinions, which are folded around the handle, 
are found only on one side; Fig. 40 represents such a celt. The latter 
is made of iron, but bronze celts of the same form are likewise dis- 
covered in Egypt.* 

In Egyptian tombs, poniards with double edges have been found of 
bronze. The hilt is frequently formed from a bronze plate, the two 
sides covered with wood, horn, bone, or ivory. 

The hilts of the poniards represented by Figs. 1 and 3-5, which are 
of this description, have around them a border in bronze. A like bor- 
der may also be seen in the larger part of the hilt of figure 2, but the 
pommel is entirely of bone, or rather of ivory fastened by a rivet, par- 
allel to the blade. 

Upon the handles last mentioned, the hilt properly speaking is, as is 
generally the case, much large Hatt the pommel. Such however is 
not always the case. A poniard of bronze discovered at Thebes, of the 
same type as in Fig. 9, has a pommel almost as large as the hilt.7 

In the poniard represented in Fig. 9, the pommel is a little larger than 
the hilts.t The latter has two semi-circular holes and is of ivory, 
while the restis of horn or hard wood, fastened with bronze rivets. In 
Fig. 10, the pommel is very much larger than the handle, in which are not 
to be included the long and narrow lobes of the handle, which comprise 
the upper extremity of the blade. § Still larger is the pommel of the 
poniard which is represented by Fig. 11, and which we have already 
described ; the two semi-circular holes which are seen in the pommel 
of Fig. 9 are likewise found in Fig. 11, as also in Fig. 10. Hach of these 
four pesiarde have pommmels almost circular. 


*A eae Gal in aia. na pinions of w fen ae not aston as far as those in 
Fig. 40, is deposited in the Leyden museum. Leeman’s Monuments Egyptiens du 
Musée de Leide, P\. 80, Fig. 5. Chabas, Mtude sur Vantiquite historique, p. 76. 

t The hilt is half horn, half ivory (Prisse d’Avennes Monuments Egypt, P1. 46, Chabas, 
Etudes sur Vantiquite historique, p. 92). The work quoted by Prisse d’Avennes as 
well as many other books of importance for this essay, is not at Stockholm, 

{ The original of Fig. 9 is deposited in the British Museum. The handle is pro- 
longed into a narrow tongue which crosses the hilt. (Kembler Hore ferales P1. 8, 
Fig. 3, p. 156.) There another poniard is mentioned deposited in the British Museum, 
‘a bronze or silver hilt which unites the pommel of ivory to the blade.” On the 
occasion of a session of the Institate of Archeological Correspondences at Rome, on 
the 28th of February, 1879, I saw a magnificent poniard of the same typeasFig. 9. It 
belonged to Mr. Alex. Castellani, who had received it from Marietta, The poniard, 
with the two usual holes, was of cedar wood, entirely covered with gold. The lower 
part of the hilt was of silver, ornamented with gold rivets, symmetrically placed. 
Along the middle of the blade was a simple line in relief, the greater part of which 
had sharp edges. 

§ The original of Fig. 10 constitutes a portion of the collection of Mr. Greenwell at 
Durham. I owe the design of the latter and of other Egyptian bronzes deposited 1n 
the same collection to my friend Mr. Sven Soderberg, of Lund. 


512 THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


Fig. 8 shows us a poniard of bronze deposited in the museum at 
Berlin, the pommel of which is very much larger than the hilt. The 
pommel, not round, but elongated, is of ivory; the rest of a dark sub- 
stance (horn or rhinocerous hide), fastened with large rivets incrusted 
with gold. 

Sometimes the whole hilt is of metal, as in the case of one of the 
poniards found in the tomb of Queen A’hhotep (Fig. 18), the blade being 
of bronze the hilt of gold. Yet more precious is the hilt of the other 
poniard discovered in the same tomb (Fig. 15). The mural paintings of 
the tomb of King Rameses IIL at Thebes represent a number of arms, 
among others long poniards with double blades, as in Fig. 20. The 
blades of some are painted red, others blue or green.* 

The hilts of these arms are yellow; probably they were made of gold 
or were gilded. An arm of similar form (Fig. 19), which must have been 
of bronze, since it is painted red, is seen in another mural picture. 

Besides these poniards with double edges, a kind of long knife or 
short sword with one edge was employed in Egypt. On the Theban 
bas-relief, King Rameses II wears an arm of this form, and the god 
Ammon is quite often represented with a like armin his hand. <A bas- 
relief in a temple at Ibsambul, in Nubia, shows us Ammon and King 
Rameses III, the latter raising his hand to strike a multitude of van- 
quished enemies. In the hand of the god the arm reproduced in Fig. 13 
is seen. It is painted red, and must consequently have been of bronze. 
Among the arms of mural paintings already mentioned in the tomb of 
Rameses III are several of this character, a few even carved (Fig. 6), 
but they are all blue, and consequently were cf iron. 

The museum of the Louvre possesses an arm in bronze of this type 
(Fig. 14). The blade and the hilt are fused in one piece ; the hilt, whick 
ends on the reverse side in a little eye, is ornamented with a dog very 
well modeled ; on the blade is seen a legend in hieroglyphies. 

Egyptian monuments very often represent poniards rather long (Fig. 
20), but veritable swords are not seen during the period we have under 
consideration. Neither, as Lam aware, has the discovery of a real 
sword in bronze been madein Egypt. Itis true that in the magnificent 
collection of Mr. John Evans, at Nash Mill, is deposited a bronze 
sword which was discovered at Kawtara during the construction of the 
Suez canal, and consequently near the frontier. It is very uncertain 
therefore, whether it can be called Egyptian, at least considering that — 
it is the sole one of its kind. The blade, 43 centimeters long, ends 
above in a tongue slight and curved forward in the form of a hook ; at 
the base of the blade are two rivet holes.t 

The Berlin museum likewise possesses a bronze sword which is 
reputed to have been discovered in Lower Egypt.{ But this indication 


* Rosellini, Monumenti Civili, Pl. 121. 

tEvans. The ancient bronze implements of Great Britain, p. 293. 

{ Bastian and Voss. Des Bronzeschwerter Ies K. Museums zu Berlin, Pl. xvi, Fig, 32. 
> 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 513 


is unreliable, and so much the less probable, inasmuch as the blade in 
nowise recalls Egyptian poniards, but, on the contrary, resembles many 
European swords of bronze. 

The Egyptians, like other nations, made use of lances. On Egyptian 
monuments these arms are sometimes seen provided with very short 
handles.* 

Bronze barbs are also found, but not in large numbers, in the collee- . 
tion of Egyptian antiquities. One of these is exhibited in Fig. 41; the 
long socket is fermed by a fold so that a lengthy fissure is seen.t 

Bronze lances, the sockets of which are formed in this primitive 
manner, have not only been discovered in Egypt, but also in Cypras 
and Greece. Some of the lance points of Egyptian bronze have a very 
narrow barb, others are of greater width.t 

As innumerable representations demonstrate, the bow played a 
prominent role among the Egyptians, both in war and in the chase. 
Consequently, a large quantity of arrow points of bronze have been 
found. A goodly number of them have a stalk, by means of which 
they are attached to the staff (Fig. 23). They are often also ornamented 
with two long projections from the barb (Fig. 24). Others are pro- 
vided with a socket (Fig. 22). Sometimes the sockets of the arrows (Fig. 
21) are formed by folding back the edges of the lower portion ; that is, 
in the same manner as in the cases of the sockets for the lance barbs. 

A large proportion of Egyptian arrow points are made with three 
sharp edges. Such barbs are frequent in western Asia and Greece, 
where they belong to epochs comparatively recent. 

Sometimes upon Egyptian monuments the arrow points have a 
transversal edge (Fig. 25), the red color of which makes us apprehend 
they were of bronze. 

Arrow points of silex with a transversal edge have been found in 
Egypt and in some European countries, such as France and southern 
Sweden. 

Amongst the bronze implements it is necessary to remark, besides 
the axes already mentioned, chisels (Fig. 39), knives (Fig. 42), saws (Fig. 
44), drills, awls (Fig. 46), small pincers, hooks (Fig. 45), ete. A large 
number of them have still retained their handles of wood or horn. Just 


*Perrot and Chipiez. Ouvr. cit., vol. 1, Fig. 173. Comp. Wilkinson, Manners and 
Customs, p. 291. The points are often painted red, and consequently were of bronze. 
(Lepsius, Les Métaux), Pl. 1, Figs. 4 and 12. 

t The original of Fig. 41 belongs to the museum at Boulaq. The rent is not only to 
be seen upon the socket part, which is below the commencement of the blade, but 
also above it. A similar lance point of Theban bronze forms a part of the collection 
of Mr. Greenwell at Durham. Compare, Mémoires de la Société royale des Antiquaires 
du Nord. 1873-74, p. 128, Fig. 3. 

{The Louvre possesses an Egyptian lance point of bronze, the blade of which is 
not so narrow as that in Fig. 41, nor of an equal width. Still wider is a lance puint 
which belongs to the Berlin Museum (Wilkinson, Manners and Customs, vol. 1, p. 
312, Fig. 34a). A lance point with a blade of unusual length, wide at bottom, but 
narrow at the top, is represented in the work last cited, vol. 1, p, 406, 


H, Mis. 129 33 


514 THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


as upon the axes and poniards, are often seen upon these iniplements— 
either on the handle or the bronze itself—a legend in hieroglyphies. 

The majority of the implements which we have just cited are aiso 
represented on Egyptian monuments, and are there usually painted 
red* (Figs. 38 and 44). Sickles and needles were also made of bronze; 
likewise mirrors, strings for musical instruments resembling harps, not 
to cite other examples.t The mirrors, which are round slabs or plates, 
with handles, resemble those with which we are acquainted from 
Kstruscan tombs. 

We possess as yet very few Egyptian bronzes of a well determined 
age, and these date almost all from ages immediately bordering on the 
epoch when they had begun to use iron. Now we can not respond as 
completely as we would wish to this important question, What forms 
are characteristic to each period of the Egyptian age of bronze? 

It is only very seldom—as, for instance, when hilts of poniards (Figs. 
9-11), or handles of axes (Figs. 30-33) are referred to—that we can follow 
the typologic development. Meanwhile that which we know already is 
very interesting. The discovery of the tomb of Queen A’hhotep proves 
that poniards of the type of Fig. 11 are a little anterior to the year 1500 
B. C. 

AS a consequence the types (Figs. 9 and 10) belong to a more remote 
era.t This is confirmed by the fact that the original of Fig. 9 was 
discovered in the same tomb as the ax represented by Fig. 33. 

This tomb ought to date from the year 2000 B. Cc. or thereabouts, since 
the axes similar to Fig. 15, as we have seen, are represented upon the 
monuments of the twelfth dynasty, reigning at that period. Too few 
Iieyptian bronzes of the epoch we are examining have been until now 
chemically investigated. We can, however, discover that the bronze 
then employed in Egypt, as that used in Europe during the age of 
bronze, was an alloy of copper and tin, probably without the intentiona- 
addition of lead, zine, or other metal. § 

An Egyptian poniard analyzed by Vanquelin, containing 85 parts to 
100 of copper, 14 parts to 100 of tin, and 1 part to 100 of iron, or of 
other metals. || 

Other arms of Egyptian bronze are composed of 94 parts to 100 of cop- 
per, 5.9 parts to 100 of tin, and 0.£ part to 100 of iron.4| 

According to Wilkinson ** the proportion of tin in almost all Egyptian 
bronzes analyzed up to the present time is about 12 parts to 100. 


*Lepsius. Les Méteauc, Pl. 11. Fig. 19, of the same plate proves that bronze knives 
were also used for shaving off the hair. 

t Lepsius. Les Méteaux, Pl. 11, Fig. 13 (sickle), Fig. 20 (inirror), and Fig. 22 (harp). 

{D’Athanasi. Account of researches, p. 183. 

§ In more recent Egyptian bronzes we often meet with lead, and perhaps zine. 
Bibra. Die Bronzen der alten und altesten Volker, , p. 94. 

|| Bibra. Die Bronzen, p. 94. 

{| Birtish Museum. 4 guide to the Egyptian rooms (Loudon 1879), p. 40. 

** Manners and Customs, vol. ut. The special analyses upon which this datum is 
based are not, however, quoted. . 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 55 1 


The Egyptians were forced to import the tin necessary for their in 
dustries, and this was certainly an enormous quantity. They probably 
had recourse to Asia, for this precious metal, even more indispensable 
in antiquity than in our own days.* Copper, on the other hand, was 
common, if not in their own country, at least in the immediate vicinity. 
The peninsula of Sinai possesses considerable mines, mining operations 
in which began at a period very remote. 


“Erman. <dgypten, p. 613, 


g. 6. 


DESCRIPTIONS OF THE PLATES. 
PAE mle 


Bronze poniard; hilt of wood and bronze (4). Museum of the Louvre. 
(Lindenschmit; <Altherthmeiimer unserer Heidenschen Vorzeit, 2, x1, Pl. 3, 
1asiee, Ils) 

Bronze poniard ; hilt of bronze, wood, and ivory (4). Museum of the Louvre. 

(Lindenschmit; <Alterthiimer 2, x1, Pl. 3, Fig. 2.) 

Bronze poniard; hilt of wood and bronze (4). Museum of the Louvre. 

(After a photograph. ) 


. Bronze poniard; hilt of ivory and bronze (4). British Museum. (Kemble, 


Hore ferales, Pl. 8, Fig. 2.) 

Bronze poniard ; hilt of bronze and wood (4). Turin Museum. (After a photo- 
graph. ) 

Saber, painted blue; mural painting on the tomb of Rameses ITI, at Thebes. 
Reseillni Moumenti civili, Pl. 121; Lepsius les Métaux dans les inscrip- 
tious égypliennes Pl. 2, Fig. 2.) 

Bronze knife. Collection of Mr. Greenwell at Durham, England. (After a 
design executed by Mr. Soderberg. ) 


issometimes very difficult to distinguish whether the handles are of wood or bone. 


516 


PLATE I. 


Smithsonian Report, 1890. 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


PuaTeE II. 


Fig. 8. Poniard (bronze); hilt of bronze, horn (or rhinoceros hide), and ivory (4). 
Berlin Museum. (Bastian and Voss. Die Bronzeschwerter des Noniglichen 
Museums zu Berlin, Pl. 16, Fig. 3la. Compare31b of the same; plate sheath 

of leather. ) 

Fig. 9. Bronze poniard ; hilt of bronze, ivory, and horn (4). British Museum. (Kem- 
ble, Hore ferales, Pi. 7, Fig. 3.) 

Fig 10. Bronze poniard ; hilt of bronze and bone (4). Collection of Mr. Greenwell at 
Durham. (After design executed by Soderberg. ) 

Fig. 11. Bronze poniard ; hilt of bronze and silver (+). Museum at Boulaq. (From 
a photograph. ) 

Fig. 12. The same poniard, side view. Perrott and Chipiez, Histoire de V Art dans 

U Antiquité vol. 1, p. 830, Fig. 564. 

Fig. 13. Arm painted red, handle yellow. Temple of Ibsambul in Nubia, in the 
time of Rameses III. Champollion, monuments egyptiens, vol. 1, Pl. 11. 
Lepsius, Les Métaux, Pl.2, Fig. 8. 

Fig. 14, Large knife of bronze (c. 4). Louvre Museum. (From a photograph.) 

518 


PLATE II. 


Smithsonian Report, 1890. 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


Fig. 


PuatTE Ii. 


. Bronze poniard, wood and precious stones (4), see the description, p. 39, 


found in the tomb of Queen A’*hhotep. Boulaq Musenm. (From a photo~ 
eraph.) 


3. Bronze poniard; (4). British Museum. (From photograph. ) 
. Bronze poniard; (4). Lower portion of the hilt of hollow bronze, upper 


portion wanting. Boulaq Museum. (From a photograph.) 


. Bronze poniard, hilt of gold (4), found in the coffin of Queen A’hhotep. 


Boulaq Museum. (From a photograph.) 


. Poniard painted red, the hilt yellow. Mural painting. Lepsius, Les Métaux, 


P1.2, Fig. 9. 


. Long poniard painted red, hilt yellow. Mural painting on the tomb of 


Rameses III at Thebes (Rosellini, Monumentii civili ), Pl. 121. Lepsius, 
Les Métaux Pl. 2, Fig. 1. 


. Arrow point of copper (pure) (4). British Museum. Kemble, Hore ferales, 


P1.6, Fig. 1. 


. Arrow barb of bronze (}). Boulaq Museum. (From a photograph.) 
3. Arrow barb of bronze (%). Bouniaq Museum. (From a photograph.) 
. Arrow barb of bronze (%). Boulaq Museum. (From a photograph.) 
5. Arrow; barb with a transversal sharp edge, painted red. Mural painting. 


Lepsius, Les Métaux Pl. 2, Fig. 12. 


520 


PLATE III. 


Smithsonian Report, 1890. 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


PLATE IV. 


. Ax of gilt bronze, hilt, wood and precious stones (+). Coffin of Queen 


A’hhotep, Boulaqg Museum. (From a photograph.) 


. Reverse of the same ax. (From a photograph.) 
28. Bronze ax (+). Boulaq Museum. (From a photograph). 
. Bronze ax bearing the name of Thoutmos III, the handle of wood (4). 


Boulaq Museum. (From a photograph.) 
522 


Smithsonian Report, 1890 PLATE IV. 


th] A DK 


ei 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


Si ee ips) "Ae R= 
prep Weta ae 


eae a Ae aoa 
2 rh a +4 - Mies My 


pon 


PuatTE V. 


Figs. 30 and 31. Axes. Mural paintings of the sixth dynasty. Lepsius, Denkmdler 


~ dad 
&, 32 


aus Agyyten und Athiopen, vol. 11., Pls. 121 and 108. 


. Ax, blade painted yellow (or red). Mural painting of the twelfth dynasty. 


(Lepsius, Denkmiiler vol.t1, Pl.151. Lepsius, Les Métaux P1.2, Fig. 2.) 


3. Bronze ax; the surface of the handle of silver (+). British Museum. (From 


a photograph.) 


g. 34. Bronze ax; pierced through, handle of wood (4). British Museum. (From 


a photograph.) 
Bronze ax; (4). British Museum. (From a photograph. ) 


‘i@. 36. Bronze ax; (c.4). Museum of the Lonvre. (from a photograph. 
y) 2 i=) 


Bronze ax; bearing the name of Thontmos IIL; handle of wood. Mémoires 
de la Socitélé royal des Antiquarries du Nord, 1873—74, p. 128, Figs, 5a and 5b; 
front view of the blade. 


. Ax; the handle painted red. Mural painting. Lepsius, Les Métaur; Pl., 


Fig. 15. 


524 


Smithsonian Report, 1890. PLATE V. 


4 NE 
(; 

: 
ii 


HIV 


i 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


_ Yar 2 ae ol 4 7 ie . sie ‘ aot 
i a iD 


ekoAe) Wt, 


. Bronze chisels (4), hilt bearing the naine of Thoutmos II], of wood. Boulaq 


Museum. (From a photograph. ) 


. Celt (c.4). Museum of the Louvre. (From a photograph.) The Leyden 


Museum possesses a celt of bronze of the same form. 


. Lance barb of bronze (4). Boulaq Museum. (I*rom a photograph. ) 
= 42; 
ig. 43. 
. Saw painted red. Mural painting. (Lepsius, Les Métaux, Pl. 2, Fig. 14.) 

. Bronze fishhook (4). Boulaq Museum. (From a photograph. ) 

. Bronze awl (4), wooden handle. British Museum. (From a photograph.) 


Bronze knife (c.4). Boulaq Museum. (From a photograph. ) 
Bronze saw (4), wooden handle. British Museum. (From a photograph.) 


526 


Smithsonian Report, 1890. PLaTe VI. 


el = 


43. 


THE AGE OF BRONZE IN EGYPT. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


By Prof. OT1s T. Mason. 


INTRODUCTION. 


In the present summary of anthropology it is designed to show the 
progress of the science in a somewhat elementary manner, in order to 
reach a larger number of readers. The phrase, “ natural history of 
man” is here taken to mean the employment of the apparatus, pro- 
cesses, aad principles of natural history to the study of mankind. This 
definition will be subject to constant changes. Just as soon as any set 
of phenomena or facts concerning our species may be arranged, classi- 
fied, and studied after the manner of the naturalist, only then should 
they be admitted into the laboratory of anthropology. 

Once admitted, their difficulties will not cease. In order to keep 
pace with other natural knowledge, these series of phenomena or facts 
must ever be subjected to new forms of scrutiny. Botanists and zod6l- 
ogists are constantly inventing better apparatus and refining their 
methods, and furthermore, each department of these sciences requires 
special machinery and appliances to perfect the delicacy of the senses 
and to enable the investigator to hold large masses of facts before his 
mind at once. 

Anthropology therefore is required to be a most vigorous science, 
keeping pace with every improvement in other sciences, both general 
and special, and refining its own apparatus and methods perpetually. 

The summary which at the close of each year faithfully chronicles 
the topics discussed, the organized means of research, the improvement 
in apparatus and the results attained, serves as a historical monument 
by means of which future students may trace their way backward in 
the development of the science. 

A complete syllabus of anthropology would include—first, what man 
is, and second, what man does. What man is may be denominated 
structural anthropology ; what man does, functional anthropology. 

Science always deals with phenomena, and the name of each science 
is derived from the things observed and studied. For instance, we 


527 


528 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


may arrange the various parts of the subject under consideration in 
the order of phenomena. 


PHENOMENA. SCIENCE. 
Allimankindsas matural OD{CCtsecse sees essere esa Anthropology. 


What man is—Structural anthropology. 


The embryo of mankind and life of the individual......---.. Ontogeny. 

The body of man (specific and comparative) --....---.----- Anatomy. 

(he! fonetiousiol the Wot teea--iee alos a 2-— eee Physiology. 
Form and color, weight and number .-.-..----..----..---- Anthropometry. 
The nervous system in relation to thought -.--....--...--- Psycho-physics. 
Naturalidivisionsvot mankindie ss eece eee. see eee eee Ethnology. 


What man does— Functional anthropology. 


Tolexpresss his thoug ts 9 22c cc (coe am scieerelee = e)iee .-- Glossology. 

To Supply WIS! Wats. oe ea = see eee wien = et Technology. 

To gratify his desires..---..----- «----+------+---------+---- Aesthetics. 

To account for phenomena .....------. .----- ------ -------- Science and philosophy. 
‘To co-operate in the activities and ends of life...-.- .- se See Sociology. 

In presence of a spirit world .---....----.----.-------+----- The science of religion, 


The past of human life and actions is studied—Science. 


(1) In things decayed or dug from the earth .-.--.----.---- Archieology. 
(2) In the decipherment of inscriptions...--...-.-.--------- Pal:eography. 
(3) In the acts and sayings of the unlettered ...-..-....-.- Folk-lore. 

(4) In written records .......-.------------+ -+--++-------- History. 


Sciences helpful to anthropology. 


To determine the material of art-products...--.-.----.----- Mineralogy. 
ING) 1ib:e VINO CES) OLN Soo sco peeseb soSSds egocds S5cue6 beeuC Geology. 
In studying the mutual effects of man and the eartb on 
eachwothe@nescaesse > anaes ene ieee ia Geography. 
To determine man’s place in nature and his acquaintance 
PTO MONON dapooc Sosa on deco UateaoT Aa ade coGoes 6a55ee.s0e .-- Botany and zoélogy. 


[t will readily be seen that one man may not be profoundly versed 
in anthropology, but everyone who reads the foregoing syllabus care- 
fully will at a glance discover that there is some particular branch of 
the subject for which he is fitted by his daily occupations. 

The resources already in existence for the student, both general and 
special, will be noted in the proper order. They may be classified as 
follows : 

(1) Those relating to the subject as a whole. 

(2) The resources of biological studies. 

(3) Psycho-physical investigations, that is, the study of psychology 
experimentally. 

(4) The races of men. 


Philosophy, folk-lore, and mythology. 


) 
(6) 
(7) Sociology. 
(8) 
(9) The relation of nature to man. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. eee ay :5) 


I.—GENERAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


{ft must be remembered in this connection that we have not now to 
lay the foundation for a new science, but to bring together the results 
of an exceedingly vigorous one. The resources at our command are: 

(1) General treatises, like Tylor’s “Anthropology,” courses of lec- 
tures, encyclopedias, and classifications. 

(2) Societies with their published proceedings and transactions and 
periodicals devoted entirely to the study of man. 

(3) Assemblies and congresses, national and international, with their: 
Comptes-rendus. 

(4) Museums and collections, public and private, with catalogues and 
books of instructions. Expositions. 

(5) Special libraries containing both literature and albums. 

(6) Laboratories, as in other sciences, for investigation both in struct- 
ural and functional anthropology. 

The most noteworthy event in our science for Americans, was the 
Congres International des Américanistes, at Paris. At this meeting 
the compte-rendu of the seventh session held in Berlin (1888) was pre- 
sented. The list of papers there printed is as follows: 

On the name America, Guido Cora. Basques, Bretons, and Normans 
on the coast of North America in the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, M. Gaffarel. Publication of writings and documents relative to 
Columbus and his times, on the oceasion of the celebration of the fourth 
centenary of the discovery of America, Guido Cora. Ensayo hist6rico de 
lalegislacion primitiva de los estados espanoles de América, M. Fabié. 
Bemerkungen zur modernen Litteratur fiber die Entdeckung Amerikas, 
M.Geleich. Onthe Nahuatl version of Sahagun’s Historia de la Nueva 
Espana, Daniel G. Brinton. Archeology of Mexico and South America, 
Dr. Heger. Colliers de pierre de Porto Rico, Jimenez dela Espada. An- 
tiquities of the State of Vera Cruz, Hermann Strebel. Archeological 
result of a voyage to Mexico, Edward Seler. Origin, working bypoth- 
esis, and primary researches of the Hemenway Southwestern Archo- 
logical Exposition, F. H. Cushing. Antiquities of Nicaragua, Charles 
Boralius. Antiquités céramiques de Vile de Marajo; sur la néphrite 
et la jadeite, Ladislau Netto. Sur la provenance de la néphrite et la 
jadeite, R. Virchow. Die Verbreitung der Eskimo Stiimmer, H. Rink. 
The Aztecs and their probable relations to the Pueblo Indians of New 
Mexico, 8. B. Evans. De Vemploi de la coca dans les pays septentrio- 
naux de VAmérique du Sud, A. Ernst. Die Bekleidung eines reichen 
Guajiro Indianers, C. M. Pleyte. Sur la craniologie américaine, kh. 
Virchow. An anatomical characteristic of the hyoid bone of the pre- 
Columbian Pueblo Indians, Arizona, Drs. Wortman and Ten Kate. Die 
Frage nach der Kinheit oder Vielheit der amerikanischen Hin geborenen- 
rasse gepriift an der Untersuchung ihres Haarwachses, Gustav Fritsch, 
Die Chronologie des diluvialen Menschen in Nordamerika, Emil 

H, Mis. 129—34 . 


530 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Schmidt. Vestiges laissés par les populations pré-Colombiennes de 
Nicaragua, Désiré Pector. Uber alt-peruanische Hausthiere, Dr. Neh- 
ring. Die Nutzpflauzen der alteu Peruaner, L. Wittmack. Diritto e 
morale nel Messico antico, Vincenzo Grossi. La cremazione in Ame- 
rica prima e dopo Cristoforo Colombo, Grossi. Anthropologie des peu- 
ples d@Anahuac au temps de Cortez, R. Hartmann. Was America peo. 
pled from Polynesia? Horatio Hale. Etude sur la langue Mam, le Comte 
de Charencey. Textes, analyses et vocabulaire de la langue Timucua, 
Raoul dela Grasserie. De la famille linguistique Pano, id. The histor- 
‘ical archives of the Hemenway Southwestern Archeological Expedition, 
Adolf Bandelier. Sur le débris de cuisine (Sambaquis) du Brésil, H. 
Miiller. Das Verhiltniss zwischen dem Ketschua und Aimaraid. Sur 
une ancienne carte de VAmérique, M. Gaffarel. Verwandtschaften und 
Wanderungen des Tschebtscha, Max Uhle. Trois familles linguistiques 
des bassins de Amazone et de VOrenoque, Lucien Adam. Bibliographie 
des récentes conquétes de la linguistique sud-américaine, Lucien Adam. 
Das Tonalamatl der Aubin’schen Sammlung und die Verwandten 
Kalenderbiicher, Edward Seler. Die Entzifferuang der Maya Hand- 
schriften, E. Férstemann. Classification chronologique des monuments 
architectoniques de Pancien Pérou, Ferdinand Borsari. Contribution & 
Vaméricanisme du Cauca (Colombie), Léon Douay. Linguistique des 
peuples qui habitent le centre de PAmérique du Sud, von den Steinem. 
Figures péruviennes en argent, Liiders. 

The Section of Anthropology in the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science had for its presiding officer Dr. Frank Baker, 
the director of the National Zodlogical Park. His address will be no- 
ticed in the chapter on Biology. The following are the titles of impor- 
tant papers read: Indian origin of maple sugar, H. W. Henshaw; 
Fort Ancient, W. K. Moorehead ; Aboriginal stone implements of the 
Potomac Valley, W. H. Holmes; Earthwork near Fosters, Little Miami 
Valley, Ohio, F. W. Putnam; Brains and medisected head of man and 
chimpanzee, Burt G. Wilder; Gold beads of Indian manufacture from 
Florida and New Jersey, C. C. Abott; A study in mental statistics, J. 
Jastrow ; Arts of modern savages for interpreting archeology, O. T. 
Mason; Relation of mind to its physical basis, KE. D. Cope; Ancient 
hearth in the Little Miami Valley, F. W. Putnam; Evolution of a 
sect, Anita N. McGee. 

The sixtieth meeting of the British Association for the Advancement 
of Science was held in Leeds, September 3-13. The vice presidential 
address of Mr. John Evans was devoted mainly to this question: What 
is the antiquity of the human race, or, rather, what is the antiquity of 
the earliest objects hitherto found which can with safety be assigned 
to the handiwork of man? As regards Tertiary man there are three 
classes of evidence, to wit: (1) the presumed discovery of parts of the 
human skeleton ; (2) that of animal bones said to have been cut and 
worked by the hand of man; and (3) that of Hints thought to be arti- 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 531 


ficially fashioned (J. Anthrop. Inst., x11, 565; Tr. Hertsford Nat. Hist. 
Soc., 1, 545). In summing up the evidence, Dr. Evans says that the 
present verdict as to Tertiary man must be in the form of “ not proven.” 
The latter part of the address is devoted to the question of the Aryan 
language and the Aryan race and to the improved resources of anthro- 
pological study. Papers were read upon the following topics: Hered- 
itism, F. O. Morris; Religion of the Australian aborigines, J. W. Faw- 
cett; The present aspect of the jade question, F. W. Rudler; Is there 
a break in mental evolution? Lady Welby; Unidentified peoples in 
Britain in pre-Roman times, Dr. Phéné; Yourouks of Asia Minor, T. 
Bent; Aryan cradle land, J. Stuart Glennie; Reversions, Nina Layard; 
Physical development, G. W. Hambleton; Archeological remains 
bearing on the origin of the Anglo-Saxons in England, Dr. Munro; 
Dugegleby ‘ Howe,” E. Maure Cole; Romano-British graveyard in Wet- 
wang-with-Fimber, J. &. Mortimer; Minute neolithic implements, H. 
C. March; Retrogression in prehistoric civilization in Thames Valley, 
H. Stopes; Boring of stone hammers, W. Horne; Stethographic trac- 
ings of male and female respiratory movements, Wilberforce Simith; 
Human remains at Woodyates, Wittshire, J. G. Garson; Old and 
modern excavations of the Wandsdyke at Woodyates, Gen. Pitt 
Rivers. 

The British Association committees form an active part of the 
general meetings. Upon anthropological subjects were the Report 
upon the new edition of the little haudbook for collectors entitled 
Notes and Queries; Report of the committee on anthropometric 
laboratory; On prehistoric inhabitants of Britain; On nomad tribes 
of Asia Minor; On northwestern tribes of Canada; On India. The 
British Association for the Advancement of Science, codperating with 
the Anthropological Institute of London, organized a lecture course on 
anthropology, differing from the Paris course not only in being less 
technical, but also in the repetition of the lectures before institutions 
and before the public in various cities throughout the United Kingdom. 
The series was as follows: 

(1) Physical anthropology. By Dr. Garson. 

(2) The geological history of man. By F. W. Rudler. 

(3) Prehistoric dwellings, tombs, and monuments. By A. L. 
Lewis. 

(4) Development of the arts of life. By Henry Balfour. 

(5) Social institutions. By E. W. Brabrook. 

(6) Anthropometry. By G. W. Bloxam. 

During the current year the beneficent results of the Paris Exposition 
began to appear, especially in the form of reports on the various con- 
gresses. Of the tenth session of Congrés international @’ Anthropologie 
et @Archéologie préhistoriques, M. Hamy, Membre de l’Iustitut, and 
general secretary of the congress, prepared the Compte Rendu, a 
pamphlet of 43 pages, The French Association for the Advancement 


532 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


of Science met during the current year at Limoges, August 7-15. In 
this association is a section devoted exclusively to anthropological 
subjects. 

The twenty-first meeting of the German Anthropological Association 
was held at Munster, Westphalia, August 11-15. At each one of these 
annual meetings it is customary to explore thoroughly the anthro- 
pological resources of the region. Professor Hosius this year read a 
paper on the geognostic structure of Westphalia, the prehistoric sta- 
tions and the remains of quaternary animals found there, and Professor 
Nordhoft followed up this communication with one upon the urns and 
the weapons found in this state. 

The German Association of Naturalists and physicians (Versammlung 
deutscher Naturforscher und Aertzte) must not be confounded with 
the General Anthropological Society of the empire and Austria. The 
first named lield its sixty-third meeting in Bremen, 15-20th September. 

The Russian Association of Naturalists and physicians held its 
eighth meeting in St. Petersburg, January 8-19. In the 70 sessions 
2,200 took part and over 400 communications were made. One of the 
ten sections was devoted to geography, ethnography, and anthropology. 
The subjects discussed were, migrations, history of primitive culture, 
anthropometry, local archeology, and the ethnography of Russia. 
Upon this last point the opportunities of study are unparalleled and 
the Russian ethnographers have not failed to make use of them. 

There is no better illustration of the rapidity with which the science 
of anthropology has asserted itself than the museo de la Plata, asketeh 
of which is here given (Plate I). The capital of the province of Buenos 
Ayres, the city of La Plata, was founded in 1882, to replace as a seat of 
provincial authority the city of Buenos Ayres declared in 1880 to be the 
capital of the republic. In the brief space of time intervening, under the 
energetic management of Signor Francisco P. Moreno, a fully equipped 
museum is completed. The anthropological portion owes its existence 
almost entirely to the director. It is especially rich in material illus- 
trating the aboriginal life of the republic. (Plate Il.—Ground-plan of 
Museum.) 

In the summary of last year a brief account was given of the manner 
in which the science of man is covered in the institutions of Paris. 
Dr. Sophus Miiller contributes the following list for Copenhagen: 

(1) Royal Museum of Northern Antiquities. Devoted to early Den- 
mark, including the stone, the bronze, the iron, and the historic period, 
until 1660. 

(2) The Folk Museum, general historic museum, from 1660 to 1800, 
Will be united with the Museum of Northern Antiquities under one 
direction in a new building. 

(3) Rosenburg Castle, the collections to illustrate the life and history 
of the present dynasty. 

(4) The Fredericksburg Castle Collection, general Danish history 
from 1000-1800. . 


PLATE I. 


890, Part I. 


1 


port 


Re 


Smithsonian 


Radek ee 


3h 


BS a es i 


‘VIVId V1 34d OASnIN 


Smithsonian Report, 1890, Part |. PLATE Il. 


SOMMYNMALYND |))) Iuarvnd $OL319NOS3 SOLA} 
VINIHINY A SOV WAY: | | 


OIMMOSIAOYd JHINVSNG 


aN 


wI4vN SOWIDINYVD SONV3dGWVd-1S0d A SONVW3IdWYd 


A 
A‘LD3SNI'S3N00304) 


Sa71ISO3 SO3DV139 


4) 


faMBARAR A 


Fal 


PLAN OF THE MUSEUM OF LA PLATA—PRINCIPAL FLOOR. 


j 

: 
i t 
val 


7 
Pas 


Ps 


ee 


| 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 533 


(5) A new museum for medieval and modern times in other coun- 
tries of Hurope. 

(6) Ethnographic Museum, arranged to show the civilizations of the 
world by tribes. This was probably the first collection in Kurope to 
be laid out upon a strictly ethnographic basis. 

(7) Royal Museum of classic antiquities in Prinzens Palais. 

(8) Royal collection of coins in Prinzens Palais. 

No mention is made here of the royal galleries of art nor of the col- 
lection of crania and skeletons in the Zodlogical Museum. ‘The visitor 
to Copenhagen never fails to spend a day in the Thorwalsden Museum, 
into which the affectionate esteem of his fellow citizens has gathered 
the works of the great sculptor and his personal effects and displayed 
them most attractively. 

A work of primary importance, which the director of every other 
authropological museum should imitate with great promptness and care, 
is Dr. Hamy’s volume entitled Origines du Musée @’Ethnographie du 
Trocadero, Paris. The first exotic presents known to have come to 
France were the gifts of Haroun al Raschid to Charlemagne, 801 and 
807, A.D. From that moment to the present all sorts of treasures, 
gotten in many ways, have been in the charge of public keepers. ‘The 
modern museum is shown by this volume to have been the growth of 
ages, the beginning or germ being the curiosity of the king or some of 
the nobility. It would be well if every important museum could have 
a volume of history like Dr. Hamy’s ‘ Origines.” 

In addition to a thorough history of each public museum, prepared 
by its own authorities, the exigencies of intercommunication have led 
to the founding of a journal for museum workers, entitled, [nterna- 
tionales Archiv fiir Ethnographie (Leyden), and in February, appeared 
the first number of the Bulletin des Musées, Paris. It is edited by Mr. 
Edward Garnier and Léonce Benedite, aud resembles the Berlin ** Year 
Book of the Royal Prussian Art Collections,” under the heading of 
‘‘Mouvement des Musées it gives notes on other national galleries and 
collections, and a bibliography. 

The standard list of journals remains the same. No anthropologist 
can afford to neglect the following list : 

The American Anthropologist, Washington; Archiv fiir Anthropologie, 
Braunschweig ;'Archivio per  Antropologia, Firenze; Bulletins de la So- 
ciété @ Anthropologie de Paris; Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie, 
Leyden; Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and 
Ireland, London; L’ Anthropologie, Paris; Mittheilungen der Anthropolo- 
gischen Gesellschaft in Wien ; Verhandlungen der Berliner Gesellschaft 
fiir Anthropologie, etc., Berlin; Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie, by the same 
society. 

Journals of a popular character which can not be neglected are: 
Academy, London; The American Naturalist, New York ; Atheneum, 
London; Ausland, Stuttgard; Nature, London; Popular Science Monthly, 
New York; Rérue Scientifique, Paris ; Science, New York. 


534 PROGRESS OF ANTIIROPOLOGY IN 1890. 
Il.—-BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


This enormous subject, covering practically the whole of the structural 
part of anthropology, is amply represented in a few publications. Tor 
titles alone the Index Medicus and the Index Catalogue of the Surgeon- 
General’s library are the best guides accessible to Americans. 

In England this part of the subject is most elaborately worked out 
in the biological and zoélogical journals. The Paris Bulletins, the 
German Archiv and Zeitschrift, the Italian Archivio, and the Austrian 
Mittheilungen, though covering the entire science, are specially rich 
and full in biological matters. With the original papers, accounts of 
meetings, reviews of publications and bibliography there is little more 
to be desired either for the beginner or for the advanced student. 

Dr. Frank Baker devoted his vice-presidential address before Section H 
of the American Association to the organs of the human body that point 
to a past condition much lower than the present ;—indications of the 
pathway by which humanity has climbed from darkness to light, from 
bestiality to civilization. These organs are of two kinds, those that 
added or improved and those that are taken away or atrophied. Those 
specially mentioned are connected with the modifications of the limbs, 
with the erect posture, and with the segmentation of the body. 

In the hand the special flexor muscle of the thumb is a new element, 
while the palmaris longus is in the category of disappearing muscles. 
The torsion of the humerus and the incurvation of its trochlear surface 
and the scapular index all show a progressive development both in the 
individual and in the race. 

The palmar fascia, the epitrochles-anconeus, a process resembling the 
supra-condyloid foramen of marsupials, the perforation of the olecranon 
fossa remind of primitive conditions. While the region of the hand and 
fore arm indicates increase of specialization, the upper part of the limb 
generally testifies to a regression. This principle is illustrated by ex- 
amples. The hind limbs of apes as compared with the human legs and 
the acquisition of the erect posture are closely examined. Upon the 
latter point Dr. Baker summarizes the evidences that the adaptation of 
man to the erect posture is yet far from complete. 

These resemblances with anthropoid apes are held to indicate not 
lineal descent, but common ancestry, and the differences in the races of 
mankind do not justify our separating them on structural grounds. 

In his work on races and peoples Dr. Daniel G. Brinton summarizes 
the physical characteristics used in classification of mankind: 


SCHEME OF PRINCIPAL PHYSICAL ELEMENTS. 


, Dolichocephalic-. ..long skulls. 


Skull ....< Mesocephalic -..... medium skulls, 
Brachycephalie .... broad skulls. 
Leptorhine -------- narrow noses. 

Noses. < Mesorhiine)s 2 o-)- =. medium noses. 


Platyrnines == 22. flat or broad noses. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 535 


Mecaseme 2-22 5-- =- round eyes. 
yes) ass-= Mesoseme....-..--- medium eyes. 
Microseme@sa-. eee narrow eyes. 
Orthognathie ..-... straight or vertical jaws. 
Jaws Sane Mesognathie Bene. medium jaws. 
Proenathic One SRN projecting jaws. 
Chameprosopic .... low or broad face. 
Face. ..-. Mesoprosopic ..-.-.. medium face. 
Letoprosopic..-.-.- narrow or high face. 
Biatypellic sss. 2: broad pelvis. 
iRelviseseei<e MesopellicGm esses 5. medium pelvis. 
( Leptopellic Se steneies narrow pelvis. 


On the 15th of March Mr. J. Venn gives in Nature the results of a 
series of measurements made upon the students of Cambridge Univer- 
sity,in England. The following queries are put, according to Dr. Gal- 
ton’s system: (1) The distance of the clearest vision, (2) traction upon 
the dynamometer, (3) force of pressure by the hand, (4) volume of the 
head, (5) capacity of pulmonary inspiration, (6) stature, (7) weight of 
the body. The most interesting result relates to the head, which is 
found to be larger in volume in the better students, and in all classes 
to increase up to the age of 25. Into comparison with this study may 
be brought that of Pauiine Tarnowsky upon 150 prostitutes, 100 female 
thieves, 100 peasants, and 50 women of culture: 


. | _ . | | 
Prostitutes. Thieves. Peasants. | Cultured. 


Antero-posterior diameter and transverse maximum | 


ividedmb Vite s-cccecte sea oee ses ciate seeescqone | 160.3 161.6 163.2 | 164. 2 
Horizontal cireumference.....-...--..-- Nerseieaiers aes 531.6 535.5 537.0 538. 0 
Hrontal Gram Over mass ei<i\enerena = Malalsiafaysreleteiointaiclersieeicte 137. 5 | 138.6 139. 2 145.9 
Copbalicnmier pens ses eeetece tase ase: eee 80. 0 | 80.2 79.9 791 
Stabureiace- sos cleltet eo ose elec Se ec reicle soc nes ocisieeiaceime ek 153.5 155. 6 156.4 154. 1 


The vexed qnestion at this moment in the science called criminology 
is whether there is an ensemble of characteristics which consign their 
possessor to a life of crime, or which may be used to distinguish differ- 
ent sorts of criminals. In some form the Italian school are committed 
to this doctrine, and are more or less opposed by the French school. 

In 1889 Dr. N. Anoutchine, of Moscow, published an elaborate work 
on stature of men in Russia compared with that of other nations. An 
excellent summary of this monograph is given in L’Anthropologie 
(1, 62-74), with chart and map. Every work of importance on human 
biology is noted in the Index-Medicus, published by Dr. J. S. Billings 
and Dr. Robert Fletcher, of the Surgeon-General’s Office, in Washing- 
ton. The permanent record of this literature is to be found in the 
Index.Catalogue of the Surgeon-General’s Office. Further important 
works are the following: Anthropometric Identification of Criminals, 
Bertillon; Anthropometry, Galton, Hurd; Ascent of Man, Baker; 
Cerebral Convolutions, Turner; Chest Development in Young Persons, 
Berry ; Color of Skin in Oriental Races, Beddoe ; Corsets, Robin; Cross- 


536 PROGRESS CF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Infertility, Gulick; Evolution and Disease, Sutton; Evolution of Sex, 
Geddes, Ryder; Giants, Laloy; Heredity, Hutchinson, La Pouge, 
Turner, Weismann, Thompson, Stoller; Human Selection, Wallace; 
Hypertrichosis, Jaws and Teeth, Talbot; Longevity and Climate, Re- 
mondino, Humphrey; Olecranon Perforation, Lamb; One-sided Occu- 
pation, Miiller; Orbitomaxillary Suture, Thoms; Paternal Impressions, 
Bullard ; Physical Proportions, Greenleaf, Bellary ; Physiological Selec- 
tion, Romanes; Physique of Women, Bowditch ; Pigment in the Negro, 
Morison; Right handedness, Baldwin; Rumination, Einhorn; Sex, Wal- 
lian; Skull of Charlotte Corday, Topinard, Benedikt; Tailed Men, 
Schaeffer ; Teeth of Prehistoric Skeletons, Ward ; Weight of the Human 
Body, Ranke. 
111. —PSYCHOLOGY. 


In the science of anthropology, psychology is the application of meas- 
ures to the activities of the mind through its matvrial agency, the brain 
and the nervous system. The two sets of phenomena, those of the nor- 
mal mind and healthy brain and those of the abnormal mind, are in- 
eluded. The former find their able organ in the American Journal of 
Psychology, Worcester, Massachusetts, and the latter phenomena are 
treated in the journals of neurology. 

Abroad the greatest activity prevails in this department of research. 
Wundt’s Studien, Dubois-Reymond’s Archiv, Pfliiger’s Archiv, most of 
the physiological journals, Mind, Brain, and even the periodicals de- 
voted to criminology, must be consulted. 

The American Journal of Psychology furnishes (111, 275-286) a report 
on the amount of psychophysical instruction in the following American 
institutions of higher learning: University of Wisconsin, University of 
Nebraska, New York College for the Training of Teachers, Columbia 
College, Harvard University, Yale University, Army Medical Museum, 
University of Pennsylvania, Indiana University, Clark University, and 
University of Toronto. In each case the instructors’ names are given 
and a syllabus of the instruction. It would be well to repeat here, did 
space permit, these curricula, to mark the present position of this branch 
of anthropology. It will suffice to append Dr. J. McK. Cattell’s account 
of work done in the psychological laboratory of the University of Penn- 
sylvania. 

‘¢ Special courses in psychology were given at the University of Penn- 
syivania by Professor Fullerton and Prof. James McKeen Cattell. Pro- 
fessor Fullerton delivered two courses—one for undergraduates, the 
other for graduate students. In these courses special stress is laid on 
psychological analysis and those regions of psychology which border on 
the theory of knowledge. Professor Cattell gave three courses extend- 
ing through the year—an introductory course in experimental psychol- 
ogy, a course beginning with the special study of some psychological 
problem and taking up in the second half year comparative, social, and 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN. 1890. How 


abnormal psychology, and an advanced course in physiological and 
experimental psychology. ‘These courses include either practical work 
or research on the part of the student. A lecturer on philosophy and 
an assistant in psychology are about to be appointed, and additional 
courses will be given next year. 

‘In addition to these special courses, physiological, abnormal, and 
comparative psychology may be studied in the medical and_ biological 
departments of the university. These are probably without rival in 
America, and offer complete courses of leetures, practical work, and 
clinics. Psychology borrows from and lends to all the sciences. Every 
one of the large number of advanced courses offered by the university 
bears some relation to psychology, and may prove useful to the stu 
dent. The asylums and hospitals will be found of special advantage to 
the studeut of psychology. 

The new library building of the university is nearly completed. There 
is a special endowment for the purchase of philosophical and psycho. 
logical books, and any books needed by students for special work will 
be obtained. The university press is about to begin the issue of aseries 
of monographs representing work done in the fields of philosophy and 
psychology. The first number, no w in press, is a psychological study 
on **Sameness and Identity,” by Professor Fullerton. Following this 
number will be aseries of researches from the laboratory of psychology 
and an edition of Descartes’ *‘ Meditations,” with Latin and English 
texts and philosophical commentary.” 

Professor Cattell makes the following report of work done in the 
psychological laboratory. ‘The chief work before experimental psy- 
chology is the measurement of mental processes. As experimental 
physics is devoted to the measurement of time, space, and mass in the 
material world, so experimental psychology may measure time, com- 
plexity, and intensity in consciousness. In so far as cases are investi- 
gated in which one mental magnitude is the function of another, a 
mental mechanics is developed. 

“The laboratory possesses apparatus, which measures mental times 
conveniently and accurately. This apparatus has been described in 
Mind (No. 42), but since then it has been improved. The chronosecope 
has been altered and a new regulator made, so that the mean variation 
of the apparatus is now under one-thousandth of a second. New 
pieces have been built for the production ot sound, light, and electric 
stimuli. Apparatus for measuring the rate of movement and for other 
purposes have been added. The observer is placed in a compartment 
separated from the experimenter and measuring apparatus. With this 
apparatus researches are being carried out in several directions. Pro- 
fessor Dolley is measuring the rate at which the nervous impulse trav- 
els, using two different methods. In one series ef experiments an 
electrical stimulus is applied to different parts of the body, and a reac- 
tion is made either with the hand or foot. The rate of transmission in 


538 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


the motor and sensory tracts of the spinal cord has thus been deter- 
mined. Ina second series of experiments two stimuli are given at dif- 
ferent parts of the body, and the interval between them adjusted until 
the observer seems to perceive them simultaneously. It is thought 
that these experiments will throw more light on human physiology 
than cases in which the nerve (motor only) of a partly dead frog is 
artificially stimulated. The times are also of interest to psychology, 
as they are needed in order to determine purely mental times. Mr. 
Witmer is measuring the personal difference in reaction-times, and the 
work will be extended to different mental processes. These times seem 
to vary with age, sex, nationality, education and occupation, and their 
study may have practical value as well as theoretic interest. Length 
of life should be measured by rate of thought. Experiments are also 
being made on the variation in the reaction-time from hour to hour and 
day to day. With the co-operation of Dr. Weir Mitchell and other 
eminent neurologists the alteration in the time of physiological proc- 
esses in diseases of the nervous system is being studied. It is believed 
that such tests may be of use in diagnosis. The nervous impulse may 
be sent through the system in different directions until a relative delay 
discovers the diseased part. Recovery and progression may be studied 
by noting the alteration in time. 

‘Owing to the introduction of cerebral surgery and the advances 
recently made in the treatment of diseases of the nervous system, any 
method which may make diagnosis more exact deserves careful study. 
In addition to the time of physiological processes in disease, other tests 
of loss of sensation, power and intelligence, are made in the labora- 
tory. The following ten tests are recommended; the methods, ete., 
are described in an article now in press for Mind: (1) Dynamometer 
pressure; (2) rate of movement; (3) sensation-areas; (4) pressure caus- 
ing pain; (5) least noticeable difference in weight; (6) reaction-time for 
sound; (7) time for naming colors ; (8) bisection of 50 centimeters line; 
(9) judgment of 10 seconds time; (10) number of letters remembered 
on hearing once. These determinations are made not only on those 
who are suffering from disease, but also on every one who wishes to 
be tested. Itis hoped that the same tests will be made elsewhere, so 
that the results of a large number of observations may be compared 
and combined. The undergraduate students in experimental psycol- 
ogy undertakes a course of laboratory work in which about two bhun- 
dred tests and measurements are made. It is hoped that when a sufli- 
cient mass cf data has been secured, it will have some scientific value. 
In the cases of two of the tests given above, the rate of movement 
and the pressure causing pain, researches are being carried out in the 
laboratory. By altering the distance and nature of the movement, and 
the point of the body to which the pressure causing pain is applied, 
new quantitative results are obtained.” 

Professor Fullerton is carrying on a research to determine the rate 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 539 


at which a simple sensation fades from memory. A stimulus is allowed 
to work on the sense-organ for one second, and after an interval of one 
second a stimulus slightly different in intensity is given for one second, 
and the least noticeable difference in intensity is determined by the 
method of right and wrong cases. The interval between the stimuli is 
then altered, and it is determined how much greater the difference be- 
tween the stimuli must be in order that it may be noticeable. ‘The rate 
of forgetting is thus measured in terms of the stimulus. Intervals vary- 
ing from one second to three minutes have been used. For these ex- 
periments new apparatus was constructed, and it was discovered that 
when sensations of light are excessive and last for one second, the least 
noticeable difference in intensity is not about one one-hundredth, as is 
supposed, but much the same as for the other senses under like condi- 
tions. Other observations, such as the importance of keeping the time 
of stimulation constant, the stronger stimulus coming before or after 
the weaker, the degree of confidence, the personal and daily variation, 
etc., have made a new investigation of the leas5 noticeable difference 
in sensation necessary. ‘This is at present in progress, while further 
work on memory must wait for its completion. Mr. De Bow is in the 
meanwhile making experiments determining the time of stimulation 
giving the greatest accuracy of discrimination. 

The rate, extent, and force of movement is the subject of a somewhat 
extended investigation, which will not be completed for some time. 
The maximum rate of movement has been noticed above. Experiments 
on the maximum pressure have been published, as also on extent of 
right and left handed movements. But the.least noticeable difference 
in the rate, extent, and force of movement has never been studied in 
the same way as the least noticeable difference in passive sensation. 
Yet it would seem to need such study even more, owing to the impor- 
tance and obscurity of the “ sense of effort.” 

The laboratory possesses apparatus for studying the time, intensity, 
and area of stimulation needed to produce the just noticeable sensation 
and a given amount of sensation. These mental magnitudes are cor- 
related so that one may be treated as the function of the other. The 
results of studying the relation of time to intensity have been published 
in Brain (pt. 31), it being found that the time colored light must work 
on the retina in order that it may be seen, increases in arithmetical 
progression as the intensity of the light decreases in geometrical pro- 
gression. The relation of area to intensity and time is now being 
studied. Other experiments on the relation of intensity, time, and area 
of stimulation, as determined by the length of the reaction-time and 
accuracy of discrimination, have been begun. 

The laboratory has a valuable collection of Koenig’s apparatus for 
the study of hearing and the elements of music, and a spectrophotome- 
ter, a perimeter, and other pieces for the study of vision. Work on 
hearing and vision has been begun in several directions, but is at pres- 


5AO PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


ent delayed for lack of workers. Some progress is, however, being 
made in studying the fusion of sensations of light, the laboratory pos- 
sessing special apparatus by which colored surfaces of given areas nay 
in any succession work on the retina for given times. Mr. Newbold, who 
has been helping with the experiments on memory, is about to begin a 
research on attention, and it is hoped that next year there will be 
others ready to undertake original work. Among the subjects for which 
apparatus has been secured and preliminary study has been made are: 
The building of complex perceptions, exertion, and fatigue, the meas- 
urement of contrast, the association of ideas, and subconscious mental 
processes. 

Dr. Joseph Jastrow has prepared for the series of Fact and Theory 
Papers a small volume on thetime-relations of mertal phenomena. ‘The 
study of the time-relations of mental phenomena is important from 
several points of view. It serves as an index of mental complexity, 
giving the sanction of objective demonstration to the results of subjec- 
tive observation ; it indicates a mode of analysis of the simpler mental 
acts, as well as the relation of these laboratory products to the pro- 
cesses of daily life; it demonstrates the close inter-relation of psycho- 
logical with physiological facts, an analysis of the former being indis- 
pensable to the right comprehension of the latter; it suggests means 
of lightening and shortening mental operations, and thus offers a mode of 
improving educational methods ; and it promises in various directions to 
deepen and widen our knowledge of those processes by the complication 
and elaboration of which our mental life isso wonderfully built up. An 
excellent bibliography of well selected authorities relating to general psy- 
cho-physies, time-reactions, adaptive reactions, and association times 
will be found at the end of the volume. The American Journal of 
Psychology, edited by President Stanley Hall, and published at Clark 
University, Worcester, Massachusetts, is the standard authority on the 
physical side of psychology. 

Metaphysical psychology, represented in the English publication 
Mind, may be said to have fairly entered the arena of anthropology 
since the revelations of consciousness are now subjected to experi- 
mental examination. The following topics show the range of study on 
both sides: Animal Intelligence, Alix, Foveau; Double Conscious- 
ness, Binet; Effect of Fatigue on Muscular Contraction, Lombard; 
Effect of Music on Animals, Stearns, Weissman; Experimental Psy- 
chology, Jastrow ; History of Reflex Action, Hodge’s Hypnotism, Felkin, 
Innes, Lays, Moll, St. Clair, Bonjean, and many others; Inhibition in the 
Phenomena of Conscience, Beriet; Intelligence of Animals, Corsetti; 
Mental Evolution, Varigny; Mental Tests, Cattell; Origin of Mind, 
Carus; Origin of Human Faculty, Romanes ; Perception of Length and 
Number Among Little Children, Binet; Physiognomy and Expression, 
Mantegazza; Principles of Psychology, James; Psychic Life of Micro- 
Organisms, Beriet; Psychic Time Measures, Fricke; Psychology of 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 5Al 


Attention, Ribot ; Relation of Mind to Its Physical Basis, Cope, Salter ; 
Sense of Directionin Animals, Lubbock ; Space Consciousness, Spencer. 


IV.—ETHNOLOGY., 


Since the dividing lines between races have come to be drawn upon 
color rather than upon osteology, much ingenuity bas been expended in 
devising a scheme of colors. Broca’s standards, published in the first 
edition of the British Association “Anthropological Notes and Queries,” 
are well known. They appear also in the French “ Queries.” Dr. Bed- 
doe, president of the London Anthropological Institute, has further 
studied these Broeca standards and makes the following subdivisions: 

(1) Red (including pink) passing through reddish brown towards 
black. 

(2) Orange, or reddish yellow, passing through brown towards black. 

(3) Yellow, passing through yellow brown and olive brown toward 
black. 

(4) Gray or cendre, darkening to black. 

Dr. Beddoe presents an ingenious table, in which the proportions of 
these colors are given for people that he has specially examined. 


Elements of color—Decads. 


Gray. | Yellow. | Orange. | Red. 
Whinesoeeeece- ceeds = ese ceissese coe eecmisececiseae betesaacasentae 5Y | 3.9 | 0.2 | 3.0 
isi, (CHEN) Sce cod cbaecocucenc esoace cacapasecadoducaooudcaapnOre 0.3 | 0.5 | 2.5 | 6.7 
Thy TECTIA UES Sen Cas eno Se HH EECODD SCD TO COnOCO eR CBCOnSoroded Ses Bconacs Coesnc sree | 4.0 | 6.0 
MIRON EAC ID Ge meemeemeeeccicemecierstacisiacise ine ricer ereicteie ree aisietetersieisi| siotaialeieiaistete|| 0.7 | 5.0 | 4.2 
Maorisy Chil dnenesa series sees see estes te siclem cleo ects eine re sieiate) (ee eieieieieist=ie lecoopdure 4.1 | . 8 
INTIMA oa odsoqagsodbocb4n chon spe sd ouossedopeacsnocooscame |)cisie selena |poeconesss 5. 4 | 4.4 
MiG] aN ORGANISE ER See me sh ee eee ae ce ieaoe aeicicioe sclesioeicetseee cine eeoeeer eerste aes | 4.1 5.8 
Ginpalesomemer eects Co ct oe et eee cen ee ae eae cen emacee veces eels sa [eeweceeaee 6.2 3.17 
(Cnet fh | ASI CESeetctaliaoobocsecs HE || 3.8 
ce \ After 2S UCSC a eae ; ge on ata reed ts 1.0 5.0 4.0 


This is followed by a more extended table, in which the proportions 
of Broca’s numbers entering into each skin color are given. The nota- 
ble differences of form existing between the parts of the skeleton and 
the other profound portions of the body in different groups of mankind 
seem to have been produced antecedent to these migrations aud sep- 
arations which have brought about race distinctions at present, such 
as color of skin and eyes and texture of the hair. 

Dr. Daniel G. Brinton has published a volume on Races and Peoples, 
in which he combines the results of a course of lectures before the 
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. This volume supplies a 
vacancy previously existing, since there was no good summary of eth- 
nology published in English giving the results of modern research. 
The peculiar doctrine of the author is the location of man’s origin in 
southwestern Europe and the parts of Africa opposite, both on zodlog- 
ical and archivological grounds. His classifications of mankind, though 
agreeing esscntially with those of other recent systematists, possess 


542 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


sufficient intorest to be repvated, since they grow somewhat out of Dr. 
Brinton’s theory concerning man’s cradle land. They are reproduced 
here in order to enable the reader to compare them with those of 
Welcker, Topinard, Heckel, Miiller, Flower, Quatrefages, and others 
in preceding summaries of the Smithsonian Report: 


General ethnographic scheme. 


Race. 


Branches. 


{ 
| 
Eurafrican. .. | 
| 
{ 


Austafrican - 


> 
w 
z. 
2 
i=] 
: 

; 
aw 


—— 


American... 


—— 


a 


Insular and 


| 

littoral peo-¢ 
ples. | 
t 


—— 


yo ———————— 


— 


| Color, white, 


| Hair, wavy 


and 


Nose, narrow. 


Color, black or 
dark, 
Hair, frizzly 
and 
Nose, broad. 
Color, yellow or 
olive; hair, 


straight and 


Nose, medium, 


| Color, coppery, 


Hair, straight or 
wavy, and 


Nose, medium, 


Color, dark 


Hair, 


frizaly, and 


wavy or | 


Il. 


II. 


Il. 


106 


IW) 


Nose, medium or | IIT. 


harrow. 


Tanean. 


North Medi- 


terrane 


. Negrillo . 


Sibiric 


. Northern 


Central. . 


. Southern 


. Nigritic - 


Malayic 


an. 


Australie ._.. 


. South Mediter- 


— 


1. 


me WO Dw 


1 


SG ats Oo Cor emia C9 TINS eh Cha INO es. 


ewe © we bp 


. Nilotie 
. Soudanese. 


. Chinese 
. Thibetan 
. Indo-Chinese. .... 
. Tungusic 
. Mongolic 


. Mexican 
. Isthmian 
ACEI ATTIC). = eta seteist= 


. Pacific 

. Negrito 
. Papuan 
. Melanesian 
. Malayan 


. Australian 
. Dravidian 


Stocks. 


Hamitic 


. Central African -. 
. South African. -.. 


. Senegambian. 
. Guinean. 


AM PartaviGrcswennn ct 


. Polynesian ....... 


seer ewee 


Brinton, D, G., Races and Peoples, New York, 1390, Ps YD; 


Groups or peoples. 
. Libyan. 

. Egyptian. 

. East African. 

. Arabian. 

. Abyssinian. 

. Chaldean. 
Euskarian. 


wonde wn 


Indo-Germanic or 
Celtindie peoples. 
Peoples of the Cau- 

casus. 
Dwarfs of the Congo. 
Bushmen, Hotten- 
tots. 
Nubian. 


Caffre and Congo 
tribes. 
Chinege. 
Natives of Thibet. 
Burmese, Siamese. 
Manchus, Tungus. 
Mongols, Kalmucks. 
Turks, Cossacks. 
Finns, Magyars. 
Chukchis, Ainos. 
Japanese, Koreans. 


Eskimos. 

Tinueh, Algonkins, 
Troquois. 

Chinooks, Kolosh, 
etc. 


Nabuas, Tarascos. 
Mayas, Chapanecs. 
Caribs, 
Tupis. 
Chibchas, Quichuas. 
Mincopies, Aetas. 


Arawaks, 


New Guineans. 
Feejeeans, etc. 
Malays, Tagalas. 
Pacifie Islanders. 
Australians. 
Dravidas, Mundas. 


atthe 


ae 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 543 


Scheme of the Hurafrican race—North Mediterranean branch. 


{Tribes in italics are extinct. | 


I. Euscariec stock.... 1. Euscaric group ....-.Euscaidonac, Basques, Sards, Siculi, Aquitanians, 
Picts, (?) Ligurians, (?) Cantabrians. 
(41. Celtic group... ...-.. Gauls, Highland Scotch, Irish, Welsh, Manx, Bretons, 
Celtiberians, Cymri. 
2eltalic LLOUP-. cesses Latins, Umbrians, Oscans, Sabines, Italians, Freuch, 
Spanish, Portuguese, Roumanians, Wailachians. 
3. Lilyric group.......-- Illyrians, Albanians, Thracians, Japyges (2). 
4. Hellenic group..-..-- Pelasgi, Phrygians, Lydians, Macedonians, Greeks. 
II, Aryac stock....... HS laebbiC: OLOUP =] seein aes Letts, Lithuanians, Old Prussians. 
| 6. Teutonic group ....-- Goths. Vandals, Franks, Angles, Saxons, Suevi, Scan- 
dinavians,Germans, Danes, Dutch, English, Anglo- 
| Americans. 
| 7. Slavonic LOUD ease Russians, Peles, Czechs, Servians,Croatians, Wends, 
| Bulgarians, Montenegrins. 
| 8. Indo.Eranic group..-.Armenians, Persians, Bactrians, Hindoos, Kafirs, 
{ Dards, Beluchis, Hunzas, Gypsies. 
1. Lesghie group ....... Avars, Laks, Udes, Kurins. 
Ibi ancasiostocla ee 2. Circassic group .----- Circassians, Abkhasians. 
| 3. Kistic group.--...--- Tush, Karaboulaks. 
4. Georgie group .--...- Georgians, Mingrelians, Lazs. 


—Brinton, Races and Peoples, New York, 1890, p. 140. 
Scheme of Aryac migration. 


[Extinct peoples in italics. | 
EUROPEAN. ASIAN. 
( Letto-Lithuanians. 


| Teutons. 
) Phrygians. 


Northern Peoples (Blondes). ¢ 
Slavonians. Cappadocians. 
ee Thracians. Armenians. 
Primitive Aryans (West- | Gee ae \ : 
ern Europe). ( Dacians. Medes. 
| Hellenes. Iranians. 
: J Indians. 
S ay 3 J 
Southern Peoples (Brunettes) - } Illyrians. 
Italians. 
(Celts. 


—Brinton, D. G., Races and Peoples, New York, 1890, p. 153. 


Scheme of the European race—South Mediterranean Branch. 
| Extinet peoples in italics. | 


Iebibyan Proup....<...-- Numidians, Getulians, Libyans, Mauritanians, Guan- 
. £ ’ ’ ’ 

ches, Berbers, Rifians, Zouaves, Kabyles, Tuareks, 

Tibbus, Ghadumes, Mzabites, Ghanatas, Htruscans, 


I. Hamitie stock. Amorites, Assyrians, Hittites (?). 


4 
2. Egyptian group...-.... Copts, Fellaheen. 
3. East African group.---Gallas, Somalis, Danakils, Bedjas, Bilins, Afars, 
Khamirs. 
{ 1. Arabian group.....-.. Himayarites, Sabeans, Nabotheans, Arabs, Bedawin, 
| Ehkilis. 
IL. Semitic stock. 2 2. Abyssinian group...- Ambarnis, Tigris, ‘Tigrians, Gheez, Ethiopians, Har- 


raras. 


3. Chaldean group.....-..Israclites, Arameans, Samaritans, 


Brinton, D, G,, Races and Peoples, New York, 1890, p. 104, 


544 


I. Negrillo branch... 


II, Negro branch... 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Scheme of the Austafrican Race. 


| 1. Equatorial group...-.. Akkas, Tikkitikkis, Obongas, Dokos, Vonatoans, 
Kimos of Madagascar. 
2. South African group..-Bushmen, Hottentots, Namaquas, Quaquas. 
(22 Noloticroroupysseec ee Shilluks, Dinkas, Bongos, Kiks, Baris, Nuers. 
| 2. Sudanese group ..---- Haussas, Battas, Bornus, Kanoris, Ngurus, Akras. 
3. Senegambian group-...Serreres, Banyums, Wolofs, Foys. 
4. Guinean group..-..-... Ashantis, Dahomis, Fantis, Yorubas, Mandingoes, 
Veis, Krus. 
(1. Nubian group.......-- Nubas, Barabras, Dongolowis, Pouls, Tumalis, Nyam 
Nyams, Monbuttus. 
2B anuW enol preereertae Caftres, Zulus, Bechuanas, Sakalavas, Damas, derrcros, 


ILI. Negroid branch. { 


| 


Suahelis, Ovambos, Bassutos, Barolongs, Bengas, 
Duallas, Wagandas. 


—Brinton, D. G., Races and Peoples. New York, 1890, p. 174. 


I. Sinitic Branchb.. - 


ls, 
1 
Il. Sibiric Branch.. | 4. 


Scheme of the Asian Race. : 
(1. Chinese Group..--...--. Chinese. 
| 
[P2eeeninibetameons seecieacesas Thibetans, Ladakis, Nepalese, Bhotanese. 


| 


3. 


Indo-Chinese Group..-..Birmese, Siamese, Annamese, Cambodians, Cochin- 
Chinese, Tonkinese. 


(1. Tungusice Group..-....- Tuugus, Manchus. 
2. Mongolic Group ...---- Mongols, Kalmucks. 


MartariciGrowpieeceseses Turcomans, Yakouts, Vurks (Osmanli), Usbeck, 
Kirghis, Cosacks, Huns. 


Binnie Groupee eeeee Finns, Lapps, Esthonians, Ugrians, Magyars, 
Mordvins, Samoyeds, Ostyaks, Voguls, Livonians, 
Karelians. 


De PARCHICH GMOUPLsaceeetlese Chukches, Koraks, Kamschatkans, Namollos, Ghil- 
| iaks, Ainos. 
(6. Japanese Group ....... Japanese, Koreaus. 


—Brinton, D, G., Races and Peoples. New York, 1890, p. 194. 


| 
I. Negritic stock .- J 
{ 


Il. Malayic stuck--: 


Il. 


Australic¢ stock. 


Brinton, D. G. 


Scheme of Insular and Litoral Peoples. 


1. Nigrito Groupie. -=----- Mincopies, Aetas, Schobaengs, Mantras, Semangs, 
Sakaies. 

2. Papuan Group -s------- Papuas, New Guineans. 

3. Melanesian Group ...-. Natives of Feejee Islands. New Caledonia, Loyalty 
Islands, New Hebrides, ete. 

1. Malayan Group. ..---- Malays, Sumatrese, Javanese, Battaks, Dayaks, 
Macassars, Tagalas, Hovas (of Madagascar). 

2. Polynesian Group...--. Polynesians, Micronesians, Maoris. 

1. Australian Group....-.- Tasmanians, Australians. 

2. Dravidian Group. .--.... Dravidas, Tamuls, Telugus, Canarese, Malayalas, 
Todas, Khonds, Mundas, Santals, Kohls, Bhillas. 


Races and Peoples, New York, 1890, p. 220. 


It is not necessary to more than mention the essay at classification 


made by Dr. Lombard the preceding year and published in the Bulle- 
tins de la Société @Anthropologie, Paris (xi, 129; 185). The author 
starts out with the hypothesis that the human species first appeared 


2 eet: 


Se eS 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890 5AD5 


in the circumpolar region during the Miocene epoch and that it ex- 
panded slowly and progressively over all the continents. As soon as 
the parts of this original group separated, races were formed which set 
up a movement from north to south, the more recent and better per- 
fected driving before them the older and more degraded. Three pri- 
mary races are demanded by this theory, and their modern representa- 
tives are to be seen in Tierra del Fuego, Cape Colony, and Tasmania 
or Australia. 

The best journals on ethnography and ethnology are the organs of 
the great societies in England, France, and Germany. The geographic 
magazines and publications of all the societies devoted to geography 
can not be overlooked. While their ruling motive is the conquest of 
the world for civilization they do no fail to mention and deseribe the 
aborigines. The Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie, Leyden, 
edited by J. D. E. Schmeltz, is designed exclusively for museum directors 
who have in charge ethnographic material. 

The difficulty still remains of confounding language with blood, in 
this area of anthropology, to such an extent that lists of tribes contain 
tongues, and vice versa. Trained ethnologists, however, make the proper 
distinction, and gradually the error will eliminate itself. 

General works on Ethnology.—The beech tree in Ethnology, Taylor; 
Ethnography, Races and Peoples, Brinton; Ethnology in relation to 
races and peoples, Achelis; Geographic names, Hirrle, also Bulletin 1, 
United States Board of Geographic names; Numeration in the light of 
ethnography, Giinther, Reinach; Pygmies, Werner; Race and disease, 
Hoffmeister, Stokris; Race susceptibilities, Grieve: Teeth of different 
races, Belty. 

America.—Age of puberty among Indians, Holder; Americanists, 
Brinton; Beothuks, Gatschet; Cherokees, Moony; Cherokees and 
Mound-buildets, Thomas ; Eskimo, Murdoch, Rink; Ilustrated Ameri- 
cana, Hunnewell; Indians of Puget Sound, Hells; The Mexicans, 
Gooch, Seler; Northwest Coast tribes, Jacobsen; Omaha and Pones 
Indians, Dorsey ; Peopling of America, Quatrefages ; South American 
Culture, Stiibel ; Tribes of Canada, Boas; Ethnography of Venezuela, 
Marcano; Western Denes, Morice. 

Europe.—Aryan cradle-land, Glennie, Huxley, Taylor; Basques, 
Stoll; Ethnography of Europe, Lombard; Ethnography of Turkey, 
Garnett; Ethnology of British Isles, Rhys; Htruscans, Brinton, Bugge; 
Finland, Reuter; Germans and Slavs, Virchow; Lapps, Amich, Den- 
iker, Khabouzine, Rabot; Origin of the English, Freeman; Prehis- 
toric races of Italy, Taylor; Russia, Stuart; The Slavs, Hellwald; Stat- 
ure in Russia, Anoutchine; Tartars in the Crimea, Deniker. 

Asia.—Annametes, Deniker; Anthropology in India, Ibbetson; Ar- 
menia, Lanin; Asia Minor, Bent; Cambodia, Combette; Caucasus, 
De Morgan; China, Gordon, Tcheng; Cochin China, Combette, Faure; 
Ethnography of Western Asia, Lombard; History of Israel, Renan; 

BH. Mis. 129 35 


546 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


India, Tavernier; Indo-China, Rosset; Japanese studies, Remy; Kirghiz, 
Khabouzine, Kurds and Yesides, Kovalewsky ; Thibet, Delbard, Rock- 
hill, Sandberg. . 

Africa.— Angolese, Topinard; Bantu stock, Haarhoff; Congo tribes, 
Stanley (the Stanley literature in geographic journals and scientific 
periodicals), Ward; Dahomy, Delbard; Gaboon, Delbard; Madigas- 
ear, Oliver; South African Ethnology, Macdonald. 

Oceanica.—Australia, Porter, Howitt, Reclus; Borneo, Woodford ; 
Indian Archipelago, Baron Hoevell; Flores and Celebes, Weber; New 
Caledonia, Combette; New Hebrides, Imhaus; Polynesian race, For- 
nander; Solomon Islanders, Woodford; Tasmania, Roth; Torres Strait, 
Haddon. 

Prof. A. H. Keane, of London, prepared for Chambers’ Encyclopedia, 
new edition, articles on ethnographic titles. 


V.—GLOSSOLOGY. 


The resources of linguistic studies in the United States are, on the 
classical side, represented by the American Journal of Philology, and 
on the ethnic side by the studies and publications of the American 
Oriental Society, by Dr. Daniel Brinton’s American series, and by the 
collections of the Bureau of Ethnology in Washington. 

Abroad, the list of philological journals is too long to reproduce; 
furthermore, in most of them language is studied quite apart from man 
who uses it. Triibners catalogues, not forgetting the Journal of the 
Royal Asiatic Society ; Revue de Linguistique; Zeitschrift der Morgen- 
landischen Gesellschaft, Lazarus and Steinthal’s Zeitschrift and Fried- 
lander’s Catalogues must be consulted for works in special lines. The 
following papers may be consulted: Asiatic affinities of Malay 
languages, Wake; Blackfeet language, Tims; Category of Moods, 
Grasserie; Chinook jargon, Hale; Comparative Grammar, Grasserie ; 
Hskimo Vocabularies, Wells; Ethnographic basis of Language, Leit- 
ner; Evolution of Language, Murphy; Gothic languages, Balg; indo- 
European linguistics, Regnaud; Language of the Missisaguas, Cham- 
berlain; Manual of Comparative Philology, Schrader; New Linguistic 
Family, Henshaw; Phonograph in the Study of Songs, Fewkes; Poule 
language, Tautain; Science of Langaage, Sayce; Semitic languages, 
Wright; Textes Manchu, Bang; Timucuatext, Gatschet; Tupi language, 
Dom Pedro; Zulu Dictionary, Manner. 


VI.— TECHNOLOGY. 


Klemm’s plan of tracing out the lineage and migrations of human 
inventions, perfected later by General Pitt-Rivers, is really the most 
productive of scientific results among ethnologic methods. The study 
of an art in its historic elaboration may be called technography and the 
tracing of an art through the tribes that practice it ethnotechnics, At 
any rate, every year some one among thehost of anthropologists gathers 
the specimens and the evidence to show how one of our well known 


sat pata alien: erate a ee 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 5AT 


implements, processes, or art products has come to be what itis. The 
following is a good example of this: A symposium was held by the 
Anthropological Society of Washington to study the arrow-maker’s 
art. Six members made communications and their results are published 
in the Anthropologist. Hach reader was an expert in his field, so 
that, practically, there is little more to be said on that subject. Ilus- 
trations of some of the methods are to be found in the Reports 
of the Smithsonian Institution, but the perfecting of the point is 
shown only in the American Anthropologist and is reproduced here to 
give the subject a wider circulation. The steps are as follows: (1) 


Fic. 1.—Free hand or direct percussion. 


Free hand or direct percussion; (2) direct percussion, manner of 


Fic. 2,—Direct percussion. 


548 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


striking when the edge is sharp; (3) indirect percussion, practiced by 


Fic. 3.—Indirect percussion. 


the Wintuns and described by B. B. Redding; (4) indirect percussion, 


Fic. 4.—Indirect perenssion. Two persons engaged. 


two persons being concerned ; practiced by the Apaches, according to 


ee 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 5A9 


Catlin; (5) flaking by pressure, a bone implement being used, a, bone 


Fic. 5.—Flaking by pressure ; a bone implement being used. 


tool, b, the stone, ¢, the flake; (6) flaking by pressure; manner of 


Fic. 6.—Flakipvg by pressure. 


holding as observed among many tribes by J. W. Powell and others; 


ric. 7.—Flaking by pressure. 


(7) flaking by pressure, a bone point being used, the implement to be 


550 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


used resting on a support; (8) flaking by pressure, bone pincers being 
used. 


Fic. 8.—Flaking by pressure; bone pincers being used. 


An excellent example of the study of art genealogically is Henry Bal- 
four’s description of the old British pibcorn or horn pipe and its affini- 
ties. (J. Anthrop. Inst., London, xx, 142-154,2 pl.) The family tree 
would stand thus: 

Prototype. 


(Cornstalk or slender reed with vibrating tongue.) 


\ 
Single reed pipe with movable reed (e. g. Arab pipe). 


Double pipes. Double pipes. Single pipe with 
(Arghool. ) (Zummarah.) reed-cover and 
horn bell-mouth. 
Cth se (Pibcorn.) 
| | 
Persian bagpipes. Double bagpipes 
(nei ambanab.) form,with two 


horn bell-mouths. 
(Arab zouggarah. ) 


| 
(Hindoo Magoodi, Double pipes with 


&c., types with single bell-mouth. 
horn bell-moutb. ) (Greek hornpipe. ) 


Greek bagpipes. 


In the accompanying plates the relationships are better presented to 
the eye. They are marked II and Iv. 


EXPLANATION OF HENRY BALFOUR’S PLATE III. 


Fig. 1. Double hornpipe, from the village—dio Maria, Tenos, Grecian Archipelago. 
Fig. 2. Side view of same. 


1 
2 
Fig. 3. Upper portion of same, with gourd mouth-piece removed, showing reeds. 
Fig. 4. One of the sounding reeds removed. 

Fig. 5. Bagpipes from the Grecian Archipelago. 

Fig. 6. One of the sounding reeds removed. 

Fig. 7. Pibcorn from the island of Anglesea. 

Fig. 8. Back view of the pipe, with end pieces removed, showing reed in situ. 
Fig. 9. Sounding reed of same. : 


Smithsonian Report, 1890, Part PLATE Ill. 


HORNPIPE AND BaGPIPES, GRECIAN ARCHIPELAGO ; AND PIBCORN FROM ANGLESEA. 


‘e AA ku 
io) ey : 


: * a ‘ai e 


Lites 


PLATE IV. 


Smithsonian Report, 


ARAB REED PIPES, DECKHAN PIPES, AND HINDOO HoRnpPIPE. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 5om 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV. 


Fig. 10. Double reed pipes, Zummarah, Arab, from Egypt. 

Fig. 11. Single reed pipe from Egypt. 

Fig. 12. Double pipes, Toomeri, Deckan, India. 

Fig. 13. Same, with gourd removed, showing sounding reeds in situ, 

Fig. 14. Hindoo ‘‘ horn-pipe” with double pipes and large gourd reservoir. 

Fig. 15. same, with gourd and horn bell mouth removed, front view, showing sound- 
ing reeds in situ. 

Mr. Walter Hough, of the U.S. National Museum, in a very elabo- 
rate manner, worked out the primitive methods of fire-making, so that 
he is much better acquainted with the art than any savage ever was. 
The geographie distribution of each form is interesting in the light of 
ethnography, and the gradual elaboration of this primitive art up to 
the last century an instructive chapter in the growth of invention. 

Barr Ferree, of the Leonard Scott Publishing Company, wrote a series 
of articles on the influence of climate and nature in giving shape and 
character to primitive architecture. The subject is one of great inter- 
est. 

J. E. Watkins, of the U. S. National Museum, follows the historic 
method in tracing the p rogress of the carrying industry and the elabo- 
ration of modern engineering. 

W.H. Holmes publishes in the annual report of the Bureau of Ethnol- 
ogy apaper on the evolution of ornament, based on the close study of a 
large series of aboriginal pottery, basketry, and other fabrics. It is 
shown that many of the patterns which have had the greatest popularity 
in the world originated among primitive peoples. <A list of important 
papers follows: Aboriginal Fire-making, Hough; Artistic Anatomy- 
Richer ; Boomerangs, Baker ; British Pibcorn, Balfour; Cats from Bubas, 
tis, Virchow; Climate and Architecture, Ferree; Culture Plants, Rich- 
ter; Currency and Measures in China, Morse; Dawn of Metallurgy, 
Mello; Evolution of the Gondola, Pierson; Evolution of Ornament, 
Holmes; Fortification, Clarke; Garden Vegetables, Sturtevant; Indus- 
trial Arts in India, Birdwood ; Japanese Pottery, Bowes; Maple Sugar, 
Henshaw; Mechanic Art in the Stone Age, Hayes; Music in New 
Hebrides, Hagen ; Musical Notation in the Middles Ages, sub voce ; The 
Nephrite-jadeite question, Berwerth; Origin of Bronze, Wilson; 
Origins of Technology, Espinas ; Primitive Surgery, sub voce ; Proas, 
Sturtevant; Quarry Workshop in the District of Columbia, Holmes; 
Sources of Jade, Pierce; Swords, sub voce ; Throwing Spear, Nuttall; 
Trade route from Peking to Kashgaria, Bell; Venezuela Pottery, Ernst ; 
Wild Horse of Sungaria, Trouessart; Writing Materials and Books 
among the Ancient Romans. 


VII.— ARCH OLOGY. 


The two archeologies, classic and pre-historic, have for their official 
organ the American Journal of Archeology and of the History of Fine 
Arts. (Boston, Ginn & Co.) It speaks authoritatively for the Arech- 


552 ' PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


weological Institute of America and the American School of Classical 
Studies atAthens, whose headquarters are at Cambridge, Massachu- 
setts. All branches of archelogy and art, oriental, classical, early 
Christian Medieval, and American, find a medium of utterance in the 
Journal. The Institute welcomes to its membership all men and women 
who desire to aid and share in the advance of knowledge concerning 
the past of the human race. 

American archelogy has its organs in the American Antiquarian, the 
American Anthropologist, the reports of the Peabody Museum, the pub- 
lications of the U. 8S. Smithsonian Institution, and the U.S. National 
Museum, the series of publications issued by Dr. D. G. Brinton, and 
the transactions of local societies. 

The Museum of American Archeology in connection with the Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania perfected its organization by publishing its first 
Annual Report, Vol. 1, number 1, containing list of additions to the 
library, catalogue of accessions, and the first report of the curator, Dr. 
C. C. Abbott. 

The subject of archeology has taken on a vigorous growth during 
the current year. Professor Putnam, of Harvard University and 
Peabody Museum, has carefully studied the prehistoric remains in the 
Ohio valley. In two papers in the Century Magazine, especially he has 
given in a brief space and in a popular manner the result of his 
minute examinations. Professor Putnam also prepared for the World’s 
Fair Committee a comprehensive plan for an archeological and ethno- 
graphie exhibit. Over this department Professor Putnam will preside. 
The researches of the Peabody Museum explorations lead Putnam to 
the conclusion that the mound-builder was 2 short-headed South- 
erner; that his civilization was broken up by a long-headed Northerner, 
and that the Indian is the result of a mixture of these two. 

The Hemenway southwest archeological expedition bore its first 
fruit in vol. v, of the Papers of Archzological Institute of America, 
American series. Mr. A. F. Bandelier contributes in this volume four 
papers upon the history of the Southwest, to wit: (1) A sketch of the 
knowledge which the Spaniards in Mexico possessed of the countries 
north of the province of New Galicia, previous to the return of Cabeza 
de Vaca, in the year 1536; (2) Alvar Nuiiez Cabeza de Vaca, and the 
importance of his wanderings from the Mexican Gulf to the slope of the 
Pacific for Spanish explorations towards New Mexico and Arizona; (3) 
Spanish efforts to penetrate to the north of Sinaloa, between the 
years 1536 and 1539; (4) Fray Marcos of Nizza, and (5) the expedition 
of Pedro de Villazur from Santa Fé, New Mexico, to the banks of 
the Platte River, in search of the French and the Pawnees, in the 
year 1720. 

William H. Holmes, of the Bureau of Ethnology, publishes the result 
of an extended exploration in a bowlder quarry near Washington City, 
at Piney Branch. ‘This site turns out to be a veritable workshop, and 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 553 


a careful study of the débris leads the investigator to the conclusion 
that the forms occurring here are not implements at all, but failures, 
which the savage artisan has thrown away. Mr. Holmes has been 
enabled to demonstrate this by learning the stone-chipper’s art and 
actually repeating the steps in his processes. The value of this careful 
exploration lies in the assistance which it will lend to other archxologists 
who visit to review their own work with new light. 

Archeologists will be pleased to learn that the Hon. Henry Shirley 
found in Pedro Bluff Cave, Jamaica, a cranium belonging to one of 
the aborigines who inhabited the island before the European conquest. 
It had been artificially deforined during infancy by the depression of 
the frontal region, or fronto-occipital compression with eorresponding 
lateral expansion. The island of Jamaica has yielded a remarkably 
small number of evidences of aboriginal occupation. 

Dr. Brinton prepared for his ‘‘ Races and Peoples” a scheme of 
geologic time during the age of man in the eastern hemisphere, which 
is here re-produced. 


Scheme of geologic time during the age of man in the eastern hemisphere. 


(iiaropelcommcetsi smith wtrion: ( Man LOE ROELE: Indus- 
try paleolithic, with sim- 
ple implements. Migra- 


tions extensive. Lan- 


| Temperature mild. 


a=. 


weereclacialis--eee- 
as ) African elephant in England. 


—s 
_ 


| Tropical animals abundant. : 
{| guage rudimentary. 


Ma ividi i ‘ac 
Quaternary n dividing into races. 


milnetal ( Europe severed from Africa. 


| Temperature lew. 


Industry paleolithic with 


compound implements. 


or Pleis- ey 

GQ OOMO ACO Toor \Peareee in France. Cave dwellings. Migra- 
Arctic animals abundant. i imited: races i 

Epoch. ctic ani tions limited; races in 


| 
{ 


fixed areas. 


Zaces completely estab- 


( Continents assume present forms. lished. Industry neo- 


: 
{ 

| 3. Post-glacial ......- j Temperature rising. lithic. Beginning of sed- 
| Temperate zones established. entary life. Languages 
developed in classes. 


¢ Geographic conditions undisturbed. Industry of stone and 


| 
l 
( Races dev 2lop into contact. 
5 
? Wild animals not diminished. { 


copper. 


Present or Great migrations begin. 
Alluvial, 2. Proto- historic .... Wild animals slain or tamed. 


Epoch. | {| iron. 


Conditions altered by agriculture. { 
{ Industry of bronze and 
| 


Geographic conditions greatly mod- (Extensive mingling of 
| 


————— 


» races. Development of 


SMeHIStOLiCe: os - 1 = } ified by man. 
All lower animals subjugated. { nations. 


—Brinton, D. G., Races and peoples. New York, 1890, p. 96. 


The eighth Russian Archeological Congress was held in Moscow, 
January 8 to 24. It was the twenty-fifth anniversary of founding the 
Royal Archeological Society in Moscow, February 7, 1864. The 


554A PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


occasion was one of great importance both socially and scientifically, 
as the following list of topics will show: 

(1) Pre-historic antiquities. 

(2) Historico-geographic and ethnographic antiquities. 

(3) Monuments of fine arts. 

(4) Customs and usages in Russia. 

(5) Religious monuments. 

(6) Russo-Slavic linguistic and paleographic monuments. 
(7) Classic, Slavo-Byzantine and western antiquities. 
) 


— 


Oriental and heathen antiquities. 

(9) Archeographic monuments. 

There is an excellent report of this meeting in the Mittheilungen, 
Wien (xx, 148-164). 

An event in archeology worthy of record in 1889~90 was the 
removal of the National Egyptian Museum from Bilaq on the east 
side of the Nile to the spacious Khedivai palace at Gizeh on the west- 
ern bank. 

The death of Schliemann removed one of the most romantic charac- 
ters in the scientific world. The conception of exploring the site of 
ancient Troy was formed in his boyhood. His assiduity in amassing a 
fortune to this end, and his untiring effort to spend his fortune to 
secure that end have held him up to the admiration of two geverations. 
That his interpretation of his discoveries may not be in every case 
correct, will not detract greatly from his just meed of praise. 

Archeological publications of general interest will be found under 
the following titles: Aboriginal Monuments in North Dakota, Mont- 
gomery; American Antiquities, Peet (under several titles); Antiquity 
of Man, White (series of papers on the Warfare of Science in Pop. Se. 
Monthly); Antiquities of Tennessee, Thruston ; Archeology, Powell; 
Archeology of India, Fiihrer; Archeology of Ohio, Putnam; Bronze 
Age, Montelius; Cliff Dwellings, Chapin, Mearns; Discoveries in 
Egypt, Edwards, Brugsch, Naville; Fort Ancient, Ohio, Moorehead ; 
French Archeology, Mortillet; Gashed Bones and the Antiquity of 
Man, Hughes; Oriental Archeology, Sayce; Prehistoric Anthropology, 
Wilson; Prehistoric Cave dwellings, Bickford; Stone Age in Africa, 
Andree; Winnipeg Mound Region, Bryce. 


VIII.—SOCIOLOGY. 


In December of 1889, the American Academy of Political and Social 
Science was organized in Philadelphia under the most favorable aus- 
pices. The list of subscribing members reached the number of 800 in 
the first six months of the Academy. The most distinguished univer- 
sity presidents and professors are among the governing body. This co- 
bperative action marks an eraina branch of anthropology hitherto diffi- 
cult to summarize. The resources of sociolegical study are unlimited. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN _ 1890. 5d5 


Census reports, tables of vital statistics, blue books, literature of the 
Bureau of Labor, of interstate commerce, of education, Johns Hopkins 
tracts on historical and political science; the great reviews, all of 
them; the daily press are only a few of the great organs of sociology. 
The existence of a national society with an official organ will enable 
the specialists to cull from this great mass the publications in his line 
of study. 

Anthropology comes to the aid of justice in the success of the Bertil- 
lon method of measuring and identifying criminals. This has found 
favor not only in all France, but in the United States. and even in the 
Argentine Republic. To the ordinary police questions of sex, height, 
age, and color of the eye are added the cephalic diameters, the length 
of the foot, length of the middle finger, length of the ear, length of the 
forearm, and personal scars or individual peculiarities. The many 
beneficial effects of the certain identification of a criminal, in spite of 
all aliases and disguises that have already beén published, the ability 
to separate the first offense from the professional villainy, are not the 
least among the obligations society owes to anthropology. 

The discussion still continues upon the subject whether there are 
certain morphological indications of criminal proclivities so marked 
that society may use them to protect itself by confining the subject be- 
fore the crime may be committed. 

The wide range of inquiry in the province of sociology is indicated 
in the following titles: Anthropology of Prostitutes, Tamousky; Ar- 
tificial Deformation of the Head, Delisle, Nicolucci ; Child Marriage in 
India, Brahmin; Chronology of China, Gordon; Communism, Lavy- 
eleye ; Comparative Criminality, Tarde; Courtesy, Mallery ; Crime and 
Suicide, Corre; Criminal Anthropology, Garnier, Galton, Garofalo, 
Germa, Lombroso, Paravant, Ellis, Proal; Disposal of the Dead, Tay- 
lor; Duk-Duk Ceremonies, Churchill; The Ear as a Sign of Defective 
Development, Warner; Ethical Problem, Carus; Evolution and Inher- 
itance, Eimer ; Gentile System of the Navajos, Matthews ; Government, 
Huxley; Infancy of Criminals, Taverni; Infant Marriages in India, 
Fawcett; Japanese Women, Loti; Judicial Dictionary, Stroud; Judicial 
Torture, Gundry; Justice and Political Ethics, Spencer; La Couvade, 
Meyners; Masks, Boas, Meyer; Marriage and Heredity, Nisbet; Mar- 
riage Relation, Wake; Mutual Aid Among Animals, Krapotkin; North 
American Indian Children, Pajeken; Origins of Common Law, Pollock ; 
Police Anthropometry, Spearman; Political Evolution, Letourneau; Pol- 
yandria, Raynaud; Primitive Fashions, Basu; Primitive Games, Thurn; 
Province of Sociology, Giddings; Racing in 1890, Stutfield ; Society 
Among Animals, Girod; Student Life in Paris in the Twelfth Century, 
Francke; Survival of Ancient Custom, Gomme; Tattooing in Tunis, 
Bazin (also sub voce); Thief Talk, Wilde; Trephined Crania, Verneau ; 
Young Parisian Criminals, Jolly, Roux. 


556 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 
IX.—RELIGION AND FOLK-LORE. 


One of the remarkable results of cooperation in the study of folk-lore 
is seen in the possibility of such a work as Professor Frazer’s Golden 
Bough. The priest of Diana, near Aricia, took office after killing his 
predecessor. Before doing this the candidate was obliged to break a 
bough from a sacred tree in the grove, identified with the Golden Bough 
plucked at the Sibyl’s bidding by Auneas before entering upon his 
journey to the world below. The two questions, why was the priest 
obliged to kill his predecessor? and why, before killing him, was he 
obliged to pluck the Golden Bough? drive the author to consult the 
whole body of knowledge recently accumulated in comparative religion. 
The lower forms of animisom are quite familiar to Professor Frazer, 
who explored them in the preparation of his well-known work entitled 
Totemism. 

Sir Monier Williams has placed within the reach of English-speaking 
people a study in comparative religion in his work on Buddhism in its 
connection with Brahmanism and Hinduism and in its contrast with 
Christianity. Tbere is no better example of the amenability of such 
matters to scientific treatment than is furnished by Buddhism. At first 
it was not @ religion at all. It recognized no spirit world; it had no 
ecclesiastical organization, no places of worship, no cult whatever. 
Out of itself partly and in its association with surrounding religions it 
became, in the north especially, the most complicated and exacting of 
cults founded upon spirit worlds of countless number, of every variety 
of inhabitants intimately associated in every conceivable way with the 
people of the earth. The study of Buddhism is a chapter in the natural 
history of religion. 

The American Folk-lore Society held its annual meeting in Columbia 
College, New York, under the presidency of Dr. Daniel G. Brinton. 
The report of the council gaye the most flattering account of the pros- 
perity of the organization. A movement was made toward enlarging 
the scope of the society’s publications. 

The folklorist needs no better guide than the Journal of American 
Folk Lore, edited in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by W. W. Newell. 
Original papers of great merit fill the body of the numbers, but reviews 
of current literature and a list of all publications upon the subject put 
the student at once into communication with his colleagues. 

In the same manner the Révue de Vv Histoire des Religions, published 
under the auspices of the Musée Guimet, in Paris, takes notice of all 
current literature on the natural history of religions. It is a guide 
book to this branch of science. During the current year this periodical 
enters its twenty-first volume. The Annales du Musée Guimet are 
devoted to memoirs too long and technical for the Révue. 

Mr. Francis C. Macauley, of Philadelphia, has conceived the idea of 
a folklore museum. In pursuance of his suggestions Mr. Culin pub- 
lished a paper in the Journal of American Falk-Lore, and organized a 


* 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1899. 55d 


department devoted to this subject in the Museum of Archeology of 
the University of Pennsylvania. 

Attention is called to the following titles: Aryan Cosmogony, Veck- 
enstedt; Buddhism, Griffin, Williams; Comparative Religion, Frazer ; 
Diabology, Jewett; Evolution of a Sect, MeGee; Folklore, Newell; 
Humanities, Powell; Mythology of the Menomoni, Hoffman; Natural 
Religion, Miiller; Polytheism in China, Lyall; Prayer Among the Hin- 
dus, Roussel; Primitive Religion, Schurtz; Religion of the Semites, 
Lloyd; Taoist Religion, Benton. 


X.—MAN AND NATURE. 


Prof. N. S. Shaler published a series of papers on America in its re- 
lation to civilization, including aboriginal life as well as that of the 
white race. One of the most interesting chapters in this study is that 
which relates to the change from agricultural to hunting life wrought 
in the aborigines by the invasion of the buffalo; or, rather, it might 
be called the reciprocal action of buffalo and Indian. The burning of 
forests encouraged the growth of grass; this invited the buffalos; they 
enticed the farmer from his stone hoe and laborious husbandry to take 
up the spear and the bow. Meat was easier to procure than corn; 
furthermore, the bufialo destroyed the corn and left the farmer nothing 
else to do but to pursue the occupation of Nimrod. 

M. Marcelin Boule brought together in L’? Anthropologie (1, 89-103) a 
series of reviews on quaternary geology in its relation to the antiquity 
of man. This list includes Forsyth Major, on the Mammalian fauna of 
the Val @Arno (Quart. J. Geol. Soc., Lond., XLI, p. 1); A. J. Jukes- 
Browne, on the Bowlder clays of Lincolnshire (éd., 114); Aubrey Stra- 
hem, on the Glaciation of South Lancashire, Cheshire, and the Welsh 
Border (¢d., XL, 369); R. M. Dilley, on the Pleistocene succession in 
the Trent Basin (id., xLil, 437); J. Prestwich, on the Date, duration, 
and conditions of the glacial period, with reference to the antiquity of 
man (?d., XLII, 393); T. Mellard Reade, on An estimate of post-glacial 
times (id., XLIV, 291); Rev. O. Fisher, on the Occurrence of elephas 
meridionalis at Dewlest, Dorset (id., xLIv, 818); J. R. Kilroe, on Diree- 
tion of ice-flow in the north of Ireland (id., xLiv, 827); James Croll, 
on Prevailing misconceptions regarding the evidence which we ought 
to expect from former glacial periods (id., XLV, 220); J. Prestwich, on 
the Occurrence of palzolithic implements in the neighborhood of Ight- 
ham, Kent (id., xLv, 270); Henry Hicks, on the Cac Gwyne Cave, 
North Wales (id., xLiv, 561). 


558 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN_ 1890. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY OF ANTHROPOLOGY, 1890. 


_ Aarboger for Nordisk Oldkyndighed og Historie, udgivene af det Kongelige Nordiske 
Oldskrift-Selskab. Kjobenhavn, vol. v in 1890. 

Appott, C. C. Exhibition of a bone image from Livingston County, N. Y. Am. Ass. 
Adv. Se. 

Exhibition of gold beads of Indian manufacture from Florida and New Jersey. 
Am. Ass. Adv. Sc. First annual report of the curator of the Museum of American 
Archeology in connection with the University of Pennsylvania. Phila. By order 
of the council. Vol. 1, No. 1, 54 pp. - 

ABBorT, Epwitn A. Tlusion in religion. Contemp. Rev., Nov.. 721-742. 

ABERCROMBY, JOHN. The first mention of gypsies in Finland. J. Gypsy Lore Soc., 
Edinb., 11, 73-74. 

Magic songs of the Finns. Folk-Lore, London, 1, 17—46. 

ACHELIS, A. Die Geschlechtsgenossenschaft und die Entwickelung der Ehe. Ztschr. 
Gesellsch. f. Erdkunde. Berlin, 202-316. 

ACHELIS, TH. Ethnologie und Geschichte. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx111, 548-552, 
566-570. 

Ethnologie und Philosophie. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx1m, 744-751, 811-814, 

830-834, 1607-1010, 1026-1030. 

The science of ethnology: its history, development, and method. Open Court, 
Chicago, IV, 2312-2516. 

Actesdu Congrés international des ceuvres et institutions feminines. Paris. 539pp. 8vo. 

AcwortH, H. A. Onthe Tulsi plant. Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, 11, 109-112. 

ADALET. A voice from aharem. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvii, Aug. 

Life in the harem. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvim, Dec. 

ApDAM, Lucien. Arte dela lingua de los Indios Antiso Campas. Paris: Maisonneuve. 
118 pp. 8vo. (No. 13 of American Linguistic Library. ) 

ADAMS, CHARLES KENDALL. Recent historical work in colleges and Winivercities of 
Europe and America. An. Rep. Am. Hist. Assoc., Wash., 19-42. 

ApAMy, R. Zwei hugelgraber des vogelsberges. Erganz.z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 

I, « 

ADLER, Cyrus. Oriental customs of courtesy. Am. Anthrop., Wash., III, 387, 388, 

Aaassis, M. L’ilede Java. Bull. Soc. de Géog. de Lyon, 1x, 129-216. 

Africa. West African tribesat Paris Exposition, 1889. (See L’ Anthropologie, 1, 257.) 

A1ipr, HAMILTON. Manners and customs of Sicily in 1890. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., 
XXvILI, Oct. 

Was I hypnotized? Ibid., April. 

ALLEN, G. Sacred stones. Fortnightly Rev., Lond., n.s., XLvII, 97-116. (See also 
Andrew Lang, 10 March. ) 

Aurx, E. L’esprit de nos bétes. Paris. 656 pp. 8vo. 

ALLEN, Harrison. A clinical study of the skull, delivered May 29, 1889. Smith- 
sonian miscellaneous collections, 708. The Toner lecture, x, Washington. 81 pp. 
B8vo. 

ALLEN, WILLIAM F. A short history of the Roman people. Boston, Ginn & Co. 

ALSBERG, Morirz. Das recht im volkerleben. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, LXIII, 965- 
967, 986-989. 

p’ALVIELLA, Count G.S. The migration of symbols. Pop. Science Month., N. Y., 
XXXVII, 778-787. 

Am Ur-QUELL. Monatsschrift fiir Volkskunde, Wien. Vol. 1, 1890. Ed. Friedrich 
S. Krauss. 

American Anthropologist. Organ of the Anthropological Society of Washington. Vol. 
111, 1890. By the Society. Quarterly. 


55-59. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1590. SI) 


American Antiquarian and Oriental Journal. Mendon, 1890, xii. Edited by Stephen 
D. Peet. 

American Antiquarian Society. Worcester, Mass. (See Proceedings. ) 

American Association for the Advancement of Science. (See Proceedings. ) 

American Journal of Archeology and History of the Fine Arts. Boston, Ginn & Co. 
Vol. vi, 1890. (Organ of the Archeological Institute of America and of the 
American School of Classical Studies at Athens.) Quarterly. 

American Journal of Philology. Baltimore, 1890, x1. Edited by Basil L. Gildersleeve. 
Quarterly. 

American Journal of Psychology. Vol. 111. Clark University, Worcester, Mass. 
Quarterly. 

American Naturalist. Philadelphia, 1890, xxiv. Monthly. 

American School of Classical Studies in Athens. Papers, Vols. 1-rv. Archeological 
Institute of America. 

Anales del Museo Michoacano, Editor Dr. Nicholas Leon, Morelia, Mexico, 1890, Escuela 
de Artes, vol. 1-3. 

Anales del Museo nacional de México, Mexico: Escalante, Vol. v, 1890. 

Anales de la sociedad cientifica Argentina, Buenos Aires, Coni. XXIx, 1890. 

ANDREE, RICHARD. Das geldste Mound builder Problem. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, 
LXIII, 441-443. 

Die Steinzeit Afrika’s. Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 81-84. 

ANDREW, C. M. The beginnings of the Connecticut towns. Ann. Amer. Acad. Polit. 
& Soc. Se., Phila., 1, 165-191. 

Annales du Musée Guimet. Paris: E. Leroux, vol.—, 1890. (See aiso Revue de 
V’histoire des religions. ) 

Annales de l’extréme orient et del’ Afrique, Paris. Augustin Challamel, 2. s., X111 and 
XIV. 

ANNENKOF, Lieutenant-General. Des resources que |’Asie centrale pourrait offrira 
la colonisation russe, avee cartes dans le texte. Bull. Soc. d’ géog., Par., 7.s., XI, 
237-254, 

Annual Report of the American Historical Association for the year 1889. Edited by, 
Herbert B. Adams, secretary. Wash., 1890, Gov’t Print. Office, 427 pp. 

Annual Report of the Peabody Museum. Cambridge, Mass.: F. W. Putnam, Director. 

Annual Report of the curator of the Museum of American Archeology in connection 
with the University of Pennsylvania. Presented to the president and council of 
the University Archeological Association, Phila. By the council, I, No. 1, 54 pp. 

Antiqaa. Zurich: Lohbauer. Vol. vii, 1890. Monthly. 

Antiqua special Zeitschrift fiir prahistorische Archaologie und einschligige Gehete. 
Strassburg, 1890, VIII. 

ANOUTCHINE, D.-N. La répartition géographique de la taille dans la population mas- 
culine de la Russie. (O geographitcgeskom rasprediélénii rosta moujskavo nase- 
lenia Rossii sravnitelno rasprediéléniem rosta drougikh stranakh,) Saint-Péter- 
bourg, 1889. [Rev. par Léon Laloy.] Anthropologie, Par., 1, 62-74. 

Anthropologie, L’., judiciaire 4 Paris en 1889. Arch. de l’anthrop. crim., Par., 1890, 
v, 473-498. 

Anthropologie (L’). paraissant tous les deux mois sous la direction de MM. Cartailhac, 
Hamy, Topinard. (Matériaux pour histoire de ’ homme, Revue d’anthropologie, 
Revue d’ethnographie, réunis.) T. 1, No. 1 (Jan-fév., 1890). Paris, 1890, Cham- 
erot, 156 pp., 6 pl. 8vo. x 

Antiquary (The). A magazine devoted to the study of the past. London: ElliotStock. 
Vol. XXII in 1890. 

Arabes et Fellahs, étude des moeurs egyptiennes, Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2.s. 
XIII, 140-143. 


560 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


ARCELIN, A. et Ducrost. Les nouvelles fouilies de Solutré (prés Macon, Saone-et- 
Loire). Anthropologie, Par., 1, 295-313. 
Archeological Institute of America. Tenth annual report: 1888-89, with appendices 
on the recent progress of archeology by Alfred Emerson, Henry W. Haynes, and 

Ad. F. Bandelier. Cambridge, 1889, Wilson. 108 pp. 8vo. 

Archeological and ethnological papers of the Peabody Museum. Harvard University, 
Cambridge: By the museum. 

Archives de l’anthropologie criminelle, Paris. 

Arehiv fiir Anthropologie. Organ der deutschen Gesellschaft fur Anthropologie, ete. 
Braunschweig: Vieweg. Vol. x1x, 1890. Also Correspondenz-Blatt, xx; and 
Catalogue of anthropological literature. 

Archivio per l’anthropologia e la etnologia organ della societa italiana di anthropologia, 
etnologia e priscologia comparata. Edited by Paolo Mantegazza. Firenze, 1890, 
XX. 

Archivio per lo studio delle tradizioni popolari, Palermo. Vol. 1x, 1890. 

ARNO, C. Principali anomalie riscontrate su 151 minorenni detenuti alla Generala 
(Torino). Arch. di psichiat., ete., Torino, XI, 97. 

ARNOLD, Sir Epwin. Japonica. I. Japan, the country. Scribner’s Mag., N. Y., vIIl, 
663-682. 18 ills. 

ARNOLD, H. Alamanische Griiber an der obern Donau. Erginz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., 
Berl., 1, 54, 55. 

ASHWIN, ©. GODFREY. Modern science and nataral religion. J. of Tr. Victoria Inst., 
XXIII, 123-136. 

Asiatic (The) Quarterly Review, London, 1890, Swan Sonnenschein & Co., x. 

ASPELIN, J. R. Centralasiatische Inschriften. Ausland, Stuttgart, 326-329. 

Association Francaise pour l’avancement des sciences, Paris, 1890. 

AuRIcH, H. v., Die Lappen und ihre Sagen. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx, 508-511, 
536-539, 552-554. 

Etbnologische Klassifikation der kaukasischen Stimme. Das Ausland, Stutt- 
gart, LX1I, 704-710. 

Das Ausland Wochenschrift fiir Erd-und Volkerkunde herausgegeben von Karl von den 
Steinen, Stuttgart, LXIII. 

von. Das Verschwinden der asiatischen Eskimos. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, 
1890, LxXI1I, 519-520. 

Avesta. The sacred books of the Parsis, edited by K. F. Geldner. Stuttgart, 1889, 
Kohlhammer, pp. 161-277. 4to. 

BACCHAR, Bu. Gypsy acrobats in ancient Africa. J.Gypsy Lore Soc., Edinb., 1, 
193-203. 

BACHFELD, G. Die Mongolen in Polen, Schlesien, Bohmen, und Mahren. Innsbruck, 
1889, Wagner. 89 pp. 8vo. 

Ba&rtTs. Organisation politique, civile et pénale de la tribu des Moussoronghes. Bull. 
Soe. Roy. Belge. Géog., Brux., X1v, 137-153. 

BAKER, FRANK. The ascent of man. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 287-319. Also Re- 
print. 

BAKER, H. The black fellow and his boomerang. Scribner’s Mag., N. York, vil, 374- 
377. 

BALDWIN, J. M. Righthandedness and effort. Science, N. Y., XVI, 302. 

BALFouR, H. The old British ‘“‘pibcorn”’ or “‘hornpipe’’ and its affinities. J. An- 
throp. Inst., Lond., xx, 142-154, 2 pl. 

BALG, G. H. A comparative glossary of the Gothic language, with especial reference 
to English and German. With a preface by Prof. Francis A. March. Mayville, 
Wisconsin, 1887-1889. [ev.in: Am. J. Philol., Balto., x1, 99-101, by Maurice 
Bloomfield. ] 


Ns 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 561 


BALL, W.P. Are the eftects of use and disuse inherited? An examination of the 
view held by Spencer and Darwin. New York: Macmillan & Co. 12+-156 pp. 
12mo. 

BANCROFT, Huperr H. History of Utab, 1540-1887. San Francisco, History Com- 
pany. 855 pp. 8vo. 

BANG, W. ‘Textes mandchous. J.e muséon, Louvain, 1x, 475-477. 

BARON van HOEVELL, G. W. W. C. Bijdrage tot de ethnographie van den indischen 
archipel. Internat. Archiv f. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 186-188. 1 pl. 

BARTELS, Max. Die bildenden Ktinste beiden Dayaks auf Borneo, von Alois Raimund 
Heine. Ein Beitrag zur allgemeinen Kunstgeschichte. 10 Tafeln, 90 ills. 1 Karte, 
228 Seiten. qr. &vo. Wien, Alfred Holder. [Mev. in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol. Berl., 
XXII, 168. ] ; 

R. Cullerre. Die grenzen des Irreseins. Ins Deutsche tibertragen von Dr. Otto 

Dornbliith. Hamburg, 270 Seiten. [Rev. in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., x x11, 103.] 

Krauss, FriederichS. Mehmed’s Brautfahrt (Smailagié Meho). Ein Volksepos 

der siidslavischen Mohammedaner. Deutschr. von Carl Gréber-Wein, Alfred Hélder, 

12. 130Seiten. (Rev. in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., x x11, 103-104.) 

Krauss, Friederich 8. Volksglaube und religidser Brauch der Sudslaven. 
Voreviegend nach eigenen Ermittelungen. XViand 176Seiten. 8. Minster, 1, W. 
1890, Aschendorff’sche Buchhandlung. [ev. in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., xxu, 
104, 105. ] 

BARTET. Duculte en honneur a angcor—Vat. Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2. 8., 
xr, 193-200. 

Langue et littérature annamite, annales l’extr. Orient, Par., XIV, 238-251. 

BARTHELEMY, L. Cent proverbes arabes, Rev. d. Ling., Par., XX11I, 349-368, 

Basset, RENE. Logman berbére. Avec quatre glossaires et une étude sur la légende 
de Logman. Leroux, In-12. 

Basu, KEDARNATH. Some relics of primitive fashions. Journ. Anthrop. Doc., Bom- 
bay, I1, 92-95. 

BATAILLARD, P. Les débuts de immigration des Tsiganes dans 1’ Europe occidentale 
au quinziéme siécle; résumé suivid’explication chronologiques. Bull. Soc. d’an- 
throp. de Par., 4. s., 1, 290-318. 

The immigration of the Gypsies into western Europe in the fifteenth century. 
J. Gypsy Lore Soc., Edinb., 11, 27--53. 

Bawa, AHAMADU. The marriage customs of the Moors of Ceylon. Journ. Ceylon 
Br. Roy. As. Soe., 1888. Colombo, x, 219-262. 

BAY®, J. DE. L’Art des barbares 4 la chute de l’empire romain. L’Anthrop., Par., 
1890, 1, 385-400. 8 figs. 

Bazin. Etude sur le tatouage dans la régence de Tunis. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 566- 
579. 16 figs. 

BEARDMORE, E. The natives of Mowat, Daudai, New Guinea [with notes by A. C. 
Haddon]. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 459-468. 

BEAUCHAMP, W. M. Comparison of relics in Ontarioand New York. Amer. Antiquar., 
Mendon, x1I, 167-173. 2 figs. 

BEAUNIS, H. L’Evolution du systéme nerveux. Paris. 315 pp. 8vo. 

BEAUREGARD, OLLIVIER. Huitiéme congrés international des Orientalistes 4 Stock- 
holm-Christiania (rapport sommaire). Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., XII, 3. s., 
578-581. 

BeEAvuvois, E. Les voyages transatlantiques des Zeno. Leur relation estelle véridique 
et leur carte authentique? Le Muséon, Louvain, Ix, 352-371. 

BEDDOER, JOHN. Observations on the natural colour of the skin in certain oriental races. 
J. Anthrop. Inst., London, XIx, 257-262. 

Beitrage zur Anthropologie und Urgeschichte Bayerns. Organ der Minchener geselle 
schaft fiir anthropologie, ethnologie und urgeschichte. Edited by Johannes Rank- 
und Nicolaus Riidinger, Mtinchen, 1890, Bassermann, XIX. 


H. Mis. 129 36 


562 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


 Beitriige zur Kunde der indogermanischen Sprachen. Edited by Adalbert Bezzenberger. 
Gottingen, 1890, xvi. 

BELD, E. H. The use of the tall hat. Cosmopolitan, N. Y., 1x, 82-87. 

BELL, MARKS. The great central Asian trade route from Peking to Kashgaria. Proce. 
Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., x11, 57-93. 

BELLAMY, EDWARD. What nationalism means. Contemp. Rev., July, 1-18. 

BELLAY, CH. P. Proportions du corps humain. Paris: Belgrave, 79 pp. 8vo. 

BELMAR, FRANCISCO. Cartilla del Idioma Zapo-teco Serrano. Oajaca, 1890. 30 pp. 
12mo. 


BENDIXEN, B.E. Aus dermittelalterlichen Sammlung des Museums in Bergen. Ber- 


gens. Museums Aarsberetning, Bergen, 3--48, 3 pl. Ein Hanap, 49-51, 

BENEDIKT, MAuRICcE. Etude mé¢trique du crane de Charlotte Corday. Paris, G. Stein- 
heil. 21 pp., 1 tab. 8vo. Bibliotheque d’anthropologie criminelle et des science- 
péenaies. From Arch. del’Anthrop. Crim., Vv, 293-313, 1 diag. 

BENT, J. THsopORE. The Bahrein Islands, in the Persian Gulf. Proc. Roy. Geog. 
Soc., Lond., x11, 1-19, 3 ills., 1 map. ; 

Explorations in Cilicia Tracheia. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., x11, 445-460, 3 

ills. 

Report of the committee appointed to investigate the habits and customs and 
physical characteristics of the nomad tribes of Asia Minor and to excavate on sites of 
ancient occupation. Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sce., 1889, Lond., L1x, 176-186. 

BENTON, W.G. The Taouist religion. Pop.Se. Month., N. Y.,xxxvi, 329-334. 

BERARD, A. Premiers résultats de la loi du 27 mai 1885 sur la relégation des récidi- 
vistes. Arch. de l’anthrop. crim., Par., Vv. 35-50. 

BERENS, E.M. The myths and legends of Ancient Greece and Rome. London: Blackie. 
342 pp. 12mo. 

BERGEN, Mrs. FANNY D. Animal and plant lore. Pop. Se. M., N. Y., xxxvu, 240- 
252. 

Some saliva charms. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Boston and N. Y., 1, 51-59. 

BERGEN, J. Y.,jr., and FANNY D. BERGEN. A primerof Darwinism and organic evolu- 
tion. Boston, Lee & Shepard, 6-261 pp. ; 

Beri, CATERINA PIGORINI. Le superstizioni e i pregiudizii delle marche appennine. 
Archivio per l’anthrop. e la ethnol.. Firenze, xx, 17-59. 

Berry, J. J. Chest development in young persons. N. Eng. M. Month., Danbury, 
Conn., 1X, 451-459. 

BERTHOLON. Note sur deux crines phéniciens trouvés en Tunisie. Anthropology, 
Par., 1, 314-319. 

BERTILLON, J. Anthropometric identification of criminals. [From The Times, Apr. 
23, 1890.] J. Roy. Statist. Soc., Lond., L111, 323-326. 

La loi dite ‘‘des sept enfants.’’ Rev. scient.. Par., 1890, xLvI, 77-82. 

BERWEeERTH, F, Die Nephrit Jadeit-Frage. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, 
n.F.,x. [Sitzungsb., 54-58, ] 

Berrany, G.I. The red, brown, and black men of America and Australia, and their 
white supplanters. New York: Ward, Locke & Co. 289 pp. 12mo. 

Betty, E.G. A critical examination of the teeth of several races, including one hundred 
and fifty mound builders, selected from the collection of the Army Medical Museum 
at Washington,D. C. Dental Rev., Chicago, Iv, 225-283. Also: Reprint. 

BICKForD, F. T. Prehistoric cave-dwellings. Century Mag., N. Y., xi, 896-911, 
13 ills. 

Bibliothéque d’ Anthropologie crimineile et des Sciences pénales. Paris; Steinhil. 

Bijdragen tot de Taal-land-en Volkenkunde. Hague, 1890, Nijhaft, 5. s., v. 

Binet, A. L’inhibition dans les phénoménes de conscience. Rev. philosoph., Aug. 

On double consciousness; experimental psychological studies, with an intro- 

ductory essay on experimental psychology in France. Chicago, Open Court, 2-93, 


= 


tte ll lh aii nl 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 563 


BINET, A. Perception des longueurs et des nombres chez quelques petits enfants. Rev. 
Philos. Paris, July. 

The psychic life of micro-organisms. A study of experimental psychology. 
Longmans, Green & Co. 

BIRDWOOD, GEORGE. The industrial arts of India. J. Soc. Arts, Lond., xxxvui, 
790-792; 802-803. [See Journal, XxxXvilII, p. 511, April, 18.] 

BLACK, CLEMENTINA On marriage. Fortnightly Rev., April. 

BLACK, G. F. Notice of a collection of arrows and spear heads, etc., from Alabama, 
United States, recently presented to the Museum. Proc. Soc. Antiquar., Scot- 
land, 396-410. 

BLANC, EpouARD. Les routes de l’Afrique septentrionale au Soudan. Bull. Soe. 
d’ géog., Par., XI, 7. s., 169-216. 

BLEICHER, G. Les vosges. Le sol et les habitants. Paris, Bibl. scient. contemp., J. 
B. Bailliére. [fev. in: Anthropologie, Par., 1, 720-721, by R. Collignon. ] 

BLoxaM, G. W. Fifth report of the committee appointed for the purpose of investi- 
gating and publishing reports on the physical character, languages, and industrial 
and social condition of the northwestern tribes of the Dominion of Canada. Rep- 
Brit. Ass. Adv. Se., 1889, Lond., L1Ix, 797-893, 6 pl. 

BLUMENTRITT, F. Die Seelenzah! der einzelnen eingebornen Stamme der Philippinen. 
Bijdr. Taal-land-en Volkenk. Hague, 5. s., v, 121-123. 

Boas, FRANZ. Cranium from Progreso, Yucatan. Proc. Am. Antiquar. Soc., Worcester, 
VI, 350-357, 2 pl. 

The first general report on the Indians of British Columbia, Brit. Ass. Adv. Se., 

Lond., 1890, 5-97, 6 pl. 

Schadelformen von Vancouver Island. Verhandl. d. Beri. Gesellsch. f. An- 

throp., Berl., 29-31. 

The use of masks and head-ornaments on the northwest coast of America. In. 
ternat. Arch. f. ethnog., Leiden, 111, 7-15, 2 pl. 

BoDINGTON, ALICE, The importance of race and its bearing on the ‘‘ negro question.”’ 
Westminster Rev., Lond., cxxxIv, 415-427. 

- Mind in man and animals. TJbid., Sept. 

Bollettino di paletnologia italiana. 

Botton, H. CARRINGTON. Four weeks in the wilderness of Sinai and notes on Egypt. 
Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., N. Y., X XIII, 575-598. 

Gombay. a festal rite of Bermudian negroes. J. Amer. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. 

YG, Tit, 222=226. 

Seegi; an Egyptian game. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Boston, 11, 132-134. (Details 

of a game played with 24 men of two colors on a board of 25 squares. ) 

Some Hawaiian pastimes, read at New York meeting of Am. Folk-Lore Society, 
Nov. 28. 

BoNJEAN, A. L’hypnotisme et la suggestion mentale. Paris. 316 pp. 8vo. 

BONNAFOUX, J. F. Légendes et croyances superstitieuses conservées dans le départ- 
ment de Ja Creuse. Guéret: Ve Betoulle. 40 pp. 8vo. 

BONNEMERE, LIONEL. Un champ de bataille 4 Louerre (Maine-et-Loire). Bull. Soe. 
d’anthrop., d. Par., x11, 3. s., 623-624. - 

——— Les sépultures sous-ardoises. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 4. s., 1, 71-75. 

Booru, General. In darkest England and the way out. International headquarters of 
the Salvation Army. [ev. in: The Athenzeum, Lond., 3288, Nov. 1, 578, 579. | 

BOsCHETTI, FEDERICO. Darwin-Settegast (trasformisti). Linneo-Sanson (non tras- 
formisti) e le leggi dell’ereditarieta (studiate nelle lors fonti teorico-pratiche) con 
nuove ipotesi fisio-embriologiche (localizzazione cerebrale ed ovulo spermatica) 
sulla determinazione paterna e materna del sesso, temperamento e costituzione 
individuali neli’uomo e negli animali. Torino: Festa e Tarizzo. 179 pp. 8vo, 


564 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


BOsSHARD, G. Die prahistorische Station von Eucuteni. Antiqua, Strassburg, vit, 
25-27. 

BOUCHEREAU, A. Modifications survenues pendant la premiére année de service dans 
la taille, le poids, le périmétre thoracique des jeunes soldats incorporés au 3° régi- 
ment de hussards. Arch. de méd. et pharm. mil., Par., xv, 16-21. 

Boue, M. Bleicher et Fliche. Recherches relatives 4 quelques tufs quaternaires du 
Nord-Est de la France. Bull. Soc. géol., xvi1, 566. [Rev. in: L’ Anthrop., Par., 
I, 426, 427. ] 

Constitution géologique des environs du Puy (Haute-Loire). Bull. Soc. géol., 

XVII, 270. [Rev. in: L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 425. ] 

FredericSacco. L’origine du loess en Piémont. Bull. Soc. géolog. de France, 3. 

8., XVI, 229. [Rev. in: L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 423, 424.] 

Lundesque. Recherches sur le Quaternaire ancien des bassins de la Dordogne 
et dela Garonne. Bull. Soc. géol. de France, xXviI, 301. [Rev. in: L’Anthrop., 
Par., I, 425, 426. ] 

—w— Michel-Lévy et Munier-Chalmas. Etude sur les environs d’Issoire Bul. Soc. 

' géolog. de France, Xvi, p. 267. [Rev. in: L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 424, 425.] 

BoULLAND. Des plis pavillon de l’oreille au point de vue de V’identité. Gaz méd. de 
1205 “7h hy MAUR, Cain, 

BouRKE, JOHN G. Notes on Apache mythology. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y. 
Ii, 209-212. 

——— Notes upon the Gentile organizations of the Apaches of Arizona. J. Am. Folk- 
Lore, Boston, 111, 111-126. 

Vesper hours of the stone age. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 55-63. 

BOURAZAN, F., A sacred dictionary: An explanation of Scripture names and terms 
London. 462 pp. 8vo. 

BownpitcuH, H. P. The physique of women in Massachusetts. Rep. Bd. Health, Mass., 
1889, Bost., XXI, 287-304. 

Bowes, JAMES L. Japanese pottery. Edward Howell: Liverpool. 600 pp. 8vo. 

BRACE, C. L. The unknown god; or inspiration among pre-christian races. Hodder. 
340 pp. 8vo. 

Brahmin official, A. Child marriage and enforced widowhood in India. Asiat. Quart. 
Rev., Lond., x, 421-433. 

BRAMWELL, Lord. Property. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvii. March and April. 

BRINTON, DANIEL G. The African racein America. Edinburgh edition. Chambers’ 
Cyclopedia. 

The cradle of the Semites. Read before the Oriental Club of Philadelphia. pp. 


26. 


On Etruscan and Libyan names. A comparative study. Proc. Am. Philos. 
Soc., Phila., XXVIII, 39-52, 

Essays of an Americanist. I. Ethnologic and Archzologic. II. Mythology 
and Folk-Lore. III. Graphic Systems and Literature. IV. Linguistic. Phila.: 
Porter & Co. XII, 489 pp. 8vo. 

Folk-Lore of the bones. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., 1, 17-22. 

Races and Peoples: Lectures on the science of ethnography. New York:N. D.C. 
Hodges. 313 pp., 8 figs., 9schemes, 6 charts. 12mo. [Rev. in: Amer. Anthrop., 
Wash., 1891, Iv, 86-88, by Otis T. Mason. ] 

Note on the Puquina language of Peru. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc., XXVIII. 
Also Reprint. 

On the Chontallis and Popolucas. Read before the Congres internat. des Amer- 
icanistes, Oct. 1890, and published in its Compte-rendu. 

On a petroclyph from the island of St, Vincent. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sciences. 
Phila, 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY 1N 1890. 565 


BRISEXO, R. Repertorio de antiquedades chilenas, 0 sea los primeros pasos por Chile. 
Santiago de Chile. 580 pp. fol. 

British Association for the Advancement of Science. (See Report. ) 

BROUARDEL. Le criminel. Gaz. d. hdp., Par., LUX1I, 313, 341, 368, 469, 493, 529, 
577, 669, 698. 

BROWN, MARIE A. The Icelandic discoverers of America. New York, J. B. Alden. 

BROWN, Mrs. W. WALLACE. Wa-ba-ba-nal, or Northern lights. J. Amer. Folk-L., 
Bost. and N. Y., II, 213-214. 

Bruce, G. W. H. K. Notes on a journey through Mashonaland in 1889. Proc. Roy. 
Geog. Soc., Lond., x11, 346-352. 

BRuUGERE, E. Fouille de tumulus dans la commune de Saint-Ybard. 5 pp.  8vo. 
Bull. Soe. se. hist. et arch. de la Corréze. [ Rev. in: Anthropologie, Par., 1, 753, by E. 
Cartailhae. ] 

Bruascu, H. Die Hgyptologie, Abriss der Entzifferungen und Forschungen auf dem, 
Gebiete dei igyptischen Schrift, Sprache und Alterthumskunde. 1. Leipzig: Fried- 
rich. pp. 241-535. 8°. 

Religion u. Mythologie der alten Aigypter. Namen-Register. Leipzig, Hein- 
richs’ Verl. 759-772. qr. 8vo. 

Bruni, G. Ein Ausflug nach Pachacamac. LIliust. Ztschr. f. Land.-u. V6lkerk., 
Brnschwg., LVII, 289-294. Map. 

Precolumbian syphilis in the western hemisphere. Article 2. Cincin. Lancet- 

Clinic, n. s., XXIv, 275-280. 

The ruins of Iximche. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, XII, 345-348. 

BRYAN, JOHN O. Lookouts among the effigy mounds. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon 
XII, 288, 289. 

Brycer, G. The Winnipeg mound region; being the most northerly district where 
mounds have been examined on the American continent. [Abstr.] Proc. A.n. 
Ass. Adv. Sc., 1889, Salem, xX xXvVIII, 344. . 

BucHHOLz. Vorgeschichtliche Begrabnisse und Wohnstitten. Verhandl. d. Berl. An- 
throp. Gesellsch., Berl., 367-377. 

BUCHNER, O. Alte Griber bei Giessen. Ergiinz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1. 

Buck, CARL D. The accusative plural of I-, U-, and R-stems in Sanskrit and Avestan. 
Am. Philol. Balto., x1, 291-301. 

Buaas, 8. Etruskisch und Armenisch. Sprachveregleichende forschungen, I, Chris- 
tiania. 171 pp. 8vo. 

BULLARD, F.D. Paternalimpressions. South.Calif. Pract., Los Angeles, v, 324-327, 

Bulletin de la Société archéologique de Touraine. Tours: Deslis fréres. 8vo. 

Bulletin de la Société archéologique, scientifique et littéraire du Venddmois Vendome: 
Lemercier. 8vo. 

Bulletin de la Société d’anthropologie de Bruxelies, Bruxelles (1890), Tome v. 8vo. 

Bulletin de la Société d’anthropologie de Lyon (1890), Tome VII. 

Bulletin de la Société de géographie. Paris: Soc. de géog., 7. 8., Vol. XI in 1890. Quar- 
terly. 

Bulletin de la Société d’ethnographie. 1890. Alliance scientifique universelle, Insti- 
tution ethnographique, Société d’ethnographique, Société d’ethnographie, Société 
orientale, Société sinico-japonaise, Société africaine, Société américaine de France, 
Société oceanienne. Paris: Soc. d’ethnographie, 2. s., in 1890. 

Bulletin des Musées. Edited by Edouard Garnier and Léonce Benedite. First num- 
ber appeared February, 1890. . 

Bulletin et mémoires de la Société archéologique du département d’ Ile-et-Vilaine. Paris, 
1890. 8vo. 

Bulletin et mémoires de la Société nationale des antiquaires de France. T. 49. Paris: 
Nogent-le Rotrou. 8vo. 


566 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Bulletin of the American Geographical Society. Published quarterly. New York, xxi, 
1890. 

Bulletin of the California Academy of Seiences, San Francisco, 1890. 

Bulletin of the Essex Institute, Salem, Mass., Vol. 11. : ? 

Bulletins de la Société d’anthropologie de Paris. Paris. [Organ of Paris Anthropo- 
logical Society. ] Vol. 3. s., XII in 1890, 

Bulletin société royale belge de géographie. Bruxelles, 1890, xiv. 

Bullettino della Commissione archeologica Comunale di Roma. Roma, 1890, Acad. dei 
Lincei. Anno XVIII 

Bulletino di Paletnologia Italiana. y 

Burck, W. Einige Bedenkingen tegen de Theorie van Weismann aangaande de Betee- 
kenis der sexueele Voortplanting in Verband met de wet van Knight-Darwin. 
Natuurk. ‘Tijdschr. v. Nederl. indié, Batav., 8. s., x, 501-544, 1 pl. 

BURMEISTER, H. Annales del Museo Nacional de Buenos Aires para dar a conocer los 
objectos de historia natural nuevos 6 poco conocidos conservados en este estab- 
lecimiento. Buenos Aires. [ Rev. ] Nature, vol. 42, 293, 294. 

BuRNET?, S. M._ Racial influence in the etiology of trachoma. Med. News, Phila., 
LVII, 542. 

Reciprocal Responsibilities. _Wash., 15 pp. 

BuscHAN, G. Germanen und Slaven, eine archaologisch-anthropologische Studie. 
Minster, Aschendorff. 49 pp. 8 vo. 

CaMPBELL, J. A. <A battle described from the ranks. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., 
XXVIII, June. 

CANFIELD, WILLIAM H. Garden-beds and stone idols. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, 
XII, 287, 288. 

Capitan. Annes de jet a tranchant transversal, concave ou convexe. Bull. Soc. d’an- 
throp. de Par., XII, 3.s., 609-614, 14 figs. 

Capus, G. Kafirs siahpouches. Réponses au questionnaire de sociologie et d’ethno- 
graphie de la société. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par.,°4. s., 1, 250-273. 

Le toit du monde. Paris. 289 pp. 16mo., 

Carlisle, Bishop of. Wallace on Darwinism. Pop.Se. Month., N. Y., XXxXvII, 75-90. 
[Rev. in: Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvit, 408-423. ] 

CARTAILHAC, Emin. La question des dolmens et des coffres de pierre devant la So- 
ciété polymathique, 44 pp., in 8vo. Vannes (Ext. du Bull. Soc. Polymat. du 
Morbihan). Par.: G.deClosmadeuc. [ev. in: Anthropologie, Par., 1, 606, 607.] 

Les bronzes préhistoriques du Cambodge et les recherches de M. Ludovic 

Jammes. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 641-650, 15 figs. 

Maxime Hélene. Le Bronze. Paris: Hachette, i890. 288 pp. S8vo. 80 figs. 

[ Rev. in: L’ Anthrop; Par., 1, 434. ] 

Roche-de- Vic et autres enceintes préhistoriques de la Corréze Brive, 51 pp. in 
8vo. (Bull. Soc. sc. hist. et arch. de Ja Corréze), par Ph. Lalande. [ Rev. in: An- 
thropologie, Par., 1, 608, 609. ] 

Carton. Note sur la disposition du bicher funéraire employé par les habitants em- 
ployé par les habitants de Bulla Regia. Paris. 4 pp. 8vo. 

Carus, PAUL. Fundamental problems. The method of philosophy as a systematic 
arrangement of knowledge, Chicago, 1889, Open Court Pub. Co. 

The ethical problem. Chicago, Open Court Pub. Co. 90 pp. 

- The origin of the mind. The Monist, Chicago, 1, 69-86. 

CASARTELLI, L. Salitar: La Pierre-de-touche du cheval. Le Muséon, Louvain, 1x, 
96-104, 185-191. 

DE CASTILLO, R. Gran diccionario geografico, estadistico é histérico de Espana y sus 
provincias de Cuba, Puerto-Rico, Filipinas y posesiones de Africa. I. Barcelona. 
720 pp. fol. 


Catalogue of medizval literature. Pt. 111. London, 1890. 8vo. 
. 


Ee a Sree aes 


ey ew 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 567 


Catalogue of the Persian, Furkish, Hindustani, and Pushtu manuscripts in the Bod- 
leian library. Begun by Ed. Sachau. Continued, completed, and edited by Her- 
mann Ethé. Parti. The Persian manuscripts. Oxford, Clarenden, Press. [ Rev. 
in: The Athenzum, Lond., 1890, Oct. 18, 508, 509. ] 

Catalogue of zoological and palzontological works offered for sale by Dulau & Co. Part 
x1, Mammalia. Part x11, Homo (anthropology andethnography). London, 1890. 
107 pp. 16mo. 

CATTELL, J. McK. Mental tests and measurements. Mind, Lond. & Edinb., xv, 373- 
380. 

CHADWICK, J. W. Evolution and social reform. 1. The theological method, Boston, 
J. H. West, pp. 255-274. (Modern science essayist, sociological ser., No. 12.) 
CHAILLE-LONG., C. From Corea to Quelpaert: In the footprints of Kublai Khan. 

Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., N. Y., XXII, 219-266. 

CHAMBERLAIN, A. F. Language of the Mississaguas of Scugog. Proc. Canad. Inst., 
Toronto, VII, 3. s., 213-215. (Abstract. ) 

Negro creation legend. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 111, 302. 

Origin and development of grammatical gender. Proc. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 
OSes Vol Ge lire 

—— Tales of the Mississaguas. 11. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 11, 149-154. 

Notes on Indian child-language. Am. Anthrop., Wash., U1, 237-241. 

The thunderbird amongst the Algonkins. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 51-54. 

The two brothers; a Mississagualegend. [Abstr.] Proc.Am. Ass. Adv. Sc., 1889, 
Salem, XX XVIII, 353. 

CHANNING, EDWARD. The navigation laws. Proc. Am. Antiquar. Soc., Worcester, 
VI, n.s., 160-179. 

CHAPIN, F. H. Cliff-dwellings of the Mancos Canons. Am, Antiquarian, Mendon, 
XII, 193-210, 3 pl. 

DE CHARENCEY, COMTEH. Analyse et synthése, par Barbié du Bocage. Rev. d. Ling., 
Par.. XXIII, 369-376. 

Phonétique souletine. Rev. d. Ling., Par., xXIII, 293-311. 

Priéres en Jangue Mam. Le Muséon, Louvain, 1x, 297-300. 

CHATELAIN, HELI. Die Grundztige des Kimbundu oder der Angola-sprache. (Reprint 
from Zeitsehr. fiir African, Sprachen v. Bittner, vols,2and3. Berlin, 1890. 100 pp. 
Svo. 

CHATELLIER, PAUL DU. Oppidum de ecastel-meur en cleden. L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 
401-412, 20 figs 

CHAUMAT, H. Conférence sur le darwinisme, faite le 15 mars 1890, 4 1’ Association gén- 
érale des étudiants de Grenoble. Grenoble: Breynat et Cié. 43 pp. 8vo. 

CHERRY, Rk. R. Lectures on the growth of criminal law in ancient communities. Lon- 
don: Macmillan & Co. 8vo. 

CHERVIN, A. Rapport sur le prix Bertillon. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., x11, 3. s.,° 
672-679. 

CHERVIN, M. Un lapin 4 une seule oreille. Bull. Soc., d’anthrop. d. Par., x11 3. s., 
528-530, 1 ill. 

CHEVALIER, J. De l’inversion sexuelle aux points de vue clinique, anthropologique et 
medico-légal. Arch. de l’anthrop. crim. Par., v, 314-336. 

CuHIARI, H. Ueber Hypertrichosis de Menschen. Prag. med. Wehnschr., xv, 495, 512. 

VON CHLINGENSPERG-BERG, MAX. Das-Graberfeld von Reichenhall in Oberbayern. 
Reichenhall, H. Buhler’sche Buchhandlung, 1890. 4.164s. mit 1 Kart und 40 
Fundtafeln in Lichtkupferdruck. [lRev.] Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., x x11, 105, 106. 

CHRISTALLER, J. G., und H. BouNeR. Ubungenin der Akra-oder Ga-Sprache. Basel. 
103 pp. Missions-Buchhandlg. 8vo. 

CHUDZINSKI, Th. Sur un cerveau momifié extrait d’un crane ancien du Venezuela. 
Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., X11, 3. s., 520, 521. 


568 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


CHUDZINSKI, TH. Sur un crane de France trouvé 4 Eu. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 
4.8., I, 289. 

CHURCHILL, W. The Duk-duk ceremonies. Pop. Sc., Month., N. Y., xxxvii, 236- 
243. 

CIAMPOLI, D. Letterature slave 11. Milano, 141 pp. 16mo. 

CLARK, L. J. City sanitation and sewage disposal. Proc. Canad. Inst., vil, 3. s., 
232-244, 2 pl. 

CLARKE, C. PuRDON. Applied art section: Modern Indian Art. J.Soc. Arts, Lond., 
XXXVITI, 511-527. 

CLARKE, G. S. Fortification: its past achievements, recent development, and future 
progress. Lond. 306 pp. 8vo. 

CLARKE, Hyper. Asia on the Pacific and Behring Sea. Asiat. Quart. Rev., Lond., 
X, 273-299. 

CLARKE, H.J. The meaning and history of the logos of philosophy. J. Trans. Vic- 
toria Inst., XXIII, 249-276. 

CLARKE, MARY OLMSTED. Song-games of negro children in Virginia. J. Amer. 
Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 111, 288-290. 

CLEVENGER, S. V. An infant prodigy. Alienist and Neurol., St. Louis, x1, 359-365. 

DE CLOSMADEUC. Une tentative avortée d’ explication du monument de Carnac. 
Bull. Soc. d’anthrop., Par., I, s., 4, 339-346. 

CLouston, W. A. Some Asiatic jestsdomiciled in Europe. Asiat. Quart. Rev., Lond., 
X, 372-387. 

Cops, N. A. On two new instruments for biologists. Abst. Proc. Linnean Soc., N. 
South Wales, March 26. : 

Coleccién de documentos inéditos para la Historia de Espaia por Fuensanta del Valle 
José Sancho Rayén y M. de Zabalburu, xcvi, Madrid. 521 pp. 4to. 

Coleccién de documentos inéditos relativos al descubrimiento, conquisto y orgapizacién 
de las antiquas posesiones espafioles de Ultramar. V. Madrid. 359pp. 4to. 

COLAJANNI, NAPOLENE. Iree spropositi di Cesare Lombroso. Catania: F. Tropea. 
117 pp. 12mo. 

CoLBurN, R. T. Suggestion for a Pan-American as Precursor to an Universal Lan- 
guage. Am. Ass. Adv. Se., 1890. 

CoLINET, PH. La nature du monde supérieur dans le Rig-Veda. Le Muséon, Louvain, 
rx, 71-86. 

Les principes de l’exégése védique d’aprés MM. R. Pischel et K. Geldner. Le 
Muséon, IX, 250-267, 372-387. 

CoLLIGNon, R. L’indice céphalique des popuiations francaises. Anthropologie, Par., 
TI, 201-224. 

CoLuin, E. Momies boliviennes. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop de Par., 4. s., I, 52-58, 153-160. 

CoMBETTE, CH. Cambodge. Annal L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2. s., XIII, 36-43. 

La cochinchine. Annal. L’Extr. Orient, Paris, XIII, 2.s., 5-20. 

Nouvelle-Calédonie et dépendances. Annal. L’Extr. Orient, Par.. 2. s., XIII, 
44-50, 73-80. 

Congrés international d’anthropologie et d’archéologie préhistoriques 10th session tenue 
4 Parisdu 19au27 Aotit1889. Compte RenduparE.-T. Harny. Paris, 1890. 48 pp. 

Congrés international d’anthropologie et d’archéologie préhistoriques. Session de Paris, 
1889. L’anthropologie 1, 133-144, 248-254. 

Congres International des Américanistes. Compte-rendu de la septiéme session, Ber- 
lin, 1888. Berlin, 1890, Kuhl. 808 pp. 8vo. 

Bulletins de la Société d’anthropologie de Paris. Paris, 1890, 3. s., XII. 

Congress of Russian naturalists and physicians, session vi1I, 8-19 January, 1890, St. 
Petersburg. 

Corr, E. D. On the material relations of sex in human society. The Monist, Chicago, 
I, 38-47. 

The evolution of man. Am. Naturalist, Phila., xxTv, 899-913, 1000-1015. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 569 


Cork, E. D. The evolution of mind. Am. Naturalist, Phila., xxiv, 899-913. 

The relation of mind to its physical basis. Am. Ass. Adv. Se. 

Copper objects from America before Columbus. Sefior V. Marcano, ‘T. Authrop. Inst., 
XX, 220, 221. 

Cora, GuIDO. Die zigeuner. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, LXIII, 621-625. 652-657, 710- 
714. 

CorpIER H. Les juifsen Chine. L’Anthropologie, Par., 1, 547-551. 

CoRNILL, C. H. Old testament history; or the rise of the people of Israel. Open Court 
Pub. Co., Chicago. 

Corre A. Crime et suicide. Paris. 654 pp. 8vo. 

Correspondenzblatt der deutschen Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnologie und Urge- 
schichte. Munchen: Johannes Ranke. Vol. Xx in 1890. Monthly. 4to. 

Corsertl, A. La intelligenza degli animali bruti. Roma. 598 pp. 16mo. 

Cosmos, Guido Cora’s. Torino: Guido Cora, Vol. XI. 

Cosmos. Revue dessciences et de leursapplications. Paris: By the journal. Founded 
in 1850. Weekly. 8vo. 

Cox, J. CHAs. On early licensing laws and customs. Fortnightly Rev., June, 835- 
840. 

CRANE, THOMAS F. The Exempla or Illustrata. Stories from the Sermones Vulgares 
of Jacques de Vitry. London, Folk-Lore Society. 304 pp. 8vo. 

CRAWFORD, J. Finds in Nicaragua. Amer. Antiquar.. Mendon, x11, 108-112. 

Crorron, H.T. Crimean gypsies. Translated from W.Koppen’s Excursions in the 
Crimea. J. Gypsy Lore Soc., Edinb., 11, 74-79. 

CuLIN, S. Chinese secret societies in the United States. J.Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and 
N. Y., m1, 39-43. ° 

Customs of the Chinese in America. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 11, 

191-200. 

The f Hing or ‘Patriotic Rising.’’ A secret society among the Chinese in 
America. Rep. Proc. Numismat. and Antiq.Soc., Phila., 1887-’89, and separate. 

CULLERRE, R. Die Grenzen des Irreseins. Ins Deutsche tibertragen von Dr. Otto 
Dornbliith. Hamburg, 1890. 270Seiten. [Rev.] Zeitsch. f. Ethnol., Berl., xx, 
103. 

Cultus Arborum: A descriptive account of phaliic tree-worship, with illustrative leg- 
ends, superstitions, usages, ete., exhibiting its origin and development amongst 
the Eastern and Western nations of the world, from the earliest to modern times, 
with a bibliography of works upon and referring to the phallic cultus. London, 
Reader. 8vo. 

CunHA, J.GERSONDA. Noteson the Fanam of Southern India. Journ. Anthrop. Soc., 
Bombay, 11, 155-160. 

CuNow, HEINRICH. Die altperuanischen Dorfund Markgenassenschaften. Das Aus- 
land, Stuttgart, LX11I, 853-856, 872-878. 

CuRRIER, J. McN. Contributions to the folk-lore of New England. J. Am. Folk-Lore; 
Bost. & N. Y., 11, 291-294. 

CuRTIN, JEREMIAH. Myths and Folk-tales of the Russians, Western Slavs, and Mag- 
yars. Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1890, VI-555 pp. 8vo. [ Rev. in: Amer. An- 
throp., Wash., 1891, 1v, 88-90, by W. W. Newell. ] 

Cyrnos, J.M. DelVextinction de la race latine. J. d’hyg., Par., xv, 289-293. 

Dahomey, Le. Annales l’extr. Orient, Par., xIv, 251-254. 

DARMESTETER, JAMES. Chants popu'aires des Afghans, recueillis, publiés et traduits. 
Leroux. Impr. nationale. Gr. in.—8. 

DARWIN, CU. ‘The expression of the emotions in men andanimals. London. 396 pp. 
Bvo. 

Darwin on the Fuegians and Patagonians. Pop.Se. Month., N. Y., XXXVI, 744-750. 


570 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


DAVAINIS-SILVESTRAITIS, Mecrus. The Lithuanian gypsies. J.Gypsy Lore Soc., 
Edinb., 11, 107-109. 

Davires, T. WyrtTon. Bible leprosy: O. and N. Test. Stud., Hartford, x1, 142-152. 

DAvies, W.W. Themythologicaielementin Job. O.and N. Test. Stud., Hartford, x1, 
207-212. 

Davis, J. W. Report of the committee * * * appointed for the purpose of ascer- 
taining and recording the localities in the British Island in which evidences exist 
of the existence of prehistoric inhabitants of the country are found. Rep. Brit. 
Ass. Adv. Se., 1889, Lond., L1x, 318-322. 


Dr ALBERTIS, O. Cervelli di suicidi e ditatuati. Arch. di psichiat., ete..Torino, XI, 


205-207. 
DEANS, J. The story of the bear and his Indian wife. A legend of the Haidas of 
Queen Charlotte’s Island, B. C. J. Amer. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., 1, 255-260. 
Dr BELLA, A. Maschie femine. Anomalo, Napoli. 11, 100-108. 


DEBERSAQUES, C. Note sur Panthropométrie criminelle. Ann. Soc. de méd Gand, — 


LXIX, 64-72. 

DEBIERRE, ©. La fécondation et ’hérédité, telles qu’on doit les comprendre d’aprés 
les derniers travaux. Gaz. hebd. de méd., Par., 2. s., X XVII, 532-535. 

DE CLERCQ, I’. S. A. Aanteckeningen naar Aanleiding van Dr. Finsch’s Onderzolkin- 
gen in Nieuw Guinea. Internat. Arch. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 66-69. 

Decline (The) and fall of the little toe. Boston M. andS. J., cxxm, 356. 

DELBARD E. Au Dahomey. Annales ]’extr. Orient, Par., xtv, 281-283. 

Gabon et Congo fran¢ais. Annales l’extr. Orient, Par., XIv, 317-318. 

Au Thibet. Annales l’extr. Orient Par., 2. s., XIII, 289-292. 

DELGADO, JOAQUIM FILIPPE Nery. Rtlatorio 4cerea da decinia Sessao do Congresso 
internacional da anthropologia e archeologia prehistoricas. Lisboa, impr. nacional. 

48 pp. & vo. 

DELISLE, FERNAND. Sur les déformations artificielles du crAne dans les Deux-Sévres 
et la Haute-Garonne. Bull Soc. L’anthrop. d. Par., X11, 3. s., 649-659, 6 figs. 

Br Moore, Fut. Le temple reconstruit par Zorobabel-Le Muséon Rey. Internat., Lou- 
vain, IX, 5-15. : 

DE MorGAN, J. Mission scientific an Caucase. études arch¢éologiques et historiques. 
I. Les Premiers ages des métaux dans l’Arménie Russe. 231 pp., vii pl., 215 figs. 
II. Recherches sur les origines des penples du caucase. 305 pp., xvi pl., 46 figs. 
Paris, 1889, Leroux. S8vo. 

DENIKER, J. E. Veniaminova: Rapport sur un voyage dans la province de Terek et 
dans la Transcaucasie. [/ev. in: L’Antrop., Par., 1, 467. ] 

Journal du VIII congrés des naturalistes et des médicins russes. Saint Péters- 
bourg, 1890, in-4to. [fev. in: L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 494-499.] 

—— — Journal du LXII congrés des naturalistes et des médicins allemands 4 Heidel- 
berg. Tageblatt der Lx1r versammlung deutscher Naturforscherund Aerzte, ete. 
Heidelberg in-4 to. [Rev. in: L’? Anthrop., Par., 1, 491-494. ] 

Kavraiski. Notes sur les crines des sépultures de l’époque scytho-sarmate. 

Journal de la section anthropol. de la Soe. des amis des sc. nat. de Moscou. [ Rev. 

tm: L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 467-468. ] 

Les Lapons russes (Rousskié Lopari), par Kharouzine. [ Rev. in: L’ Anthropolo- 

gie, Par., 1, 615-619. ] 

Notes on Siberia, L’anthropologie, 1. 124-131. 

Note sur les Tatars dela cdte de la Crimée (Zamietka o Tatarakh ioujnago berega 

Kryma) par Kharouzine. [ev. in: L’ Anthropologie, Par.,1, 619. ] 

Zagraf, Distribution des grandes tailles en rapportavee d’autres caractéres an- 

thropologiques dans la population des provinces de Vladimir, de Kostroma et de 

Yaroslavl. Journal de Ja sect. anthropol. de la Société des amis sc. nat., Moscou; 

1890. [ev in: L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 468, 469. ] 


i i ed ON 


a 
3 
4 
J 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 571 


DENIKER, J. E., et L. LALoy. Jes Annamites. L’Anthropologie, Par., 1, 513-524. 

Les races exotiques a |’ Exposition uuiverselle de 1889. L’ Anthropologie, Par., 
I, 257-294, 513-546, 8 figs. 

Desgopins, L’ Abbe. Notes sur le Thibet. Bull. Soc. d. géog., Par., 7.s., XI, 259-279. 

DESGRAND, Louis. Deux mois en Exypte. Bull. Soc. d. Géog. d. Lyon, 1x, 259=284. 

Progrés de la civilization en Afrique. Bull. Soc. d. géog. d. Lyon, Viit, 609- 
652. 

DEVEZE, G. Les aventures du Gouru Paramiartta. Contestamouls. Le Muséon, Louvain, 
Tx, 16-36. 

DEVILLE, GABRIEL. Notes sur le développement du langage. Rev. d. Ling., Par., 
XXIII, 330-343. 

DIAMANDI, M. Station préhistorique de Coucouteni (Roumanie). Bull. Soc. d’an- 
throp. d. Par., XII, 3. s., 582-599. 

DIcKL, C. Excursions archéologiqgues en Gréce, Mycénes, Dolos, Athénes, Olympie, 
Eleusis, Epilaure, Dodone, Tyrinthe, Tanagra. Paris: Colin et Cie. x-388pp.,8 
plans. 18vo. 

VAN Disses, JOHANS. A. Opornerkingen naar aanleiding van de ‘‘Atjineesche spraak- 
kunst’’ van K. F. H.. van Lanzen. Bijdr. Taal-Land-en Volkenk., Hague, 55., v, 


504-516. 
DitTMAR, G. Geschichte des deutschen Volkes. Heidelberg, 1891. C.Winter. 240 pp. 
8vo. 


Dom PEDRO, KAtIsER. Die Tupi-Sprache. (Uebersetzt von Hugo Blind.) Cor.-Bl. d. 
‘deutsch. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Muuchen, XXI, 1-5. 

DORING, A. Die iisthetischen Gefiihle. Ztschr. f. Psychol. u. Physiol. d. Sinnesorg., 
Hamb, u Leipz., I. 161-186. 

Dorlhac de Borne. Quelques notes sur le Gabon. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 4.s., I, 
58-70. 

DORPFELD, WILHELM. Ueber die Ableitung der griechischré6mischen Maasse von der 
babylonischen Elle. Zeitsch. f. Ethnol., Berl., x x1I, 99-102. 

Dorsey, J.O. Indian personal names. Am. Anthrop., Wash., III, 263-268. 

——— Omaha clothing and personal ornaments. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 71-78. 

——— Ponka and Omaha songs. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y.,. 1, 271-276. 

The Gentile system of the Siletz tribes. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 
Ill, 227-237. 

DoRVILLE, MAz. La statue qui dévorce. Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2. s., XIII, 
177-181. : 

Doua.ass, A. E. Description of a gold ornament from Florida. Amer. Antiquar., 
Mendon, XII, 14-25, 2 ills. 

Mounds in Florida. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, x11, 106-107. 

DREHER, EvG. Drei psycho-physiologische studien. I. Der Darwinismus und die Archi- 
gonie. IJ. Die Innervation mit Bezug auf den Hypnotismus. III. Farbenwahrneh- 
mung und Farbenblindheit. Leipzig, 1891, Verlag des Reichs- Medicinal- Anzeigers. 
108 pp. 8vo. 

DREXLER, W. Mythologische Beitrige. 1 Heft. Der Cultus der agyptischen Gottheiten 
in den Donaulandern. Leipzig: Teubner. 152 pp. 8vo. 

Drit, DEMerrius. [Psycho-physical types in correlation to criminals and their varia- 
bility, particularly psychology of criminality.] Moskva: A. P. Mamontova. 199 
pp. 8vo. 

Driver, W. H. P. Description of a new and little known tribe called Pohiras, found 
in an out-of-the-way corner of the Lohardugga district. Proc. AsiaticSoc. Bengal, 
Calcutta, 233, 248. 

Drouin, E. Notice historique et géographique surlaCharacéne. Le Muséon, Louvain, 
1X, 129-150. Du Bois-Reymond’s archiy. 


572 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Dumont, A. Essai sur la natalité aux iles de Ré et d’Oléron. Bull Soc. d’anthrop., 
de Par., 4. s., I, 75-131. 

DUMOUTIER, G. La dispute du Tigre et du Dragon. Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 
2. 8., XIII, 200-207. 

Notes ethnologiques et historiques sur les Giao-Chi. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 
651-655, 4 figs. 

DuRFEE, W. F. The development of American industries since Columbus. I. Early 
steps in iron-making. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., XXxXvill, 145-172. _ 

DUVAL, MATHIAS. Rapport sur le prix Godard. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., XII, 
3. S., 670-672. 

DwiGur, T. The closure of the cranial sutures as a sign of age. Boston, M. &S. 
J., CXXII, 389-392. 

The sternum as an index of sex, height, andage. J. Anat. and Physiol., Lond., 
XXIV, 527-535. 

Dymock, W. The flowers of the Hindoo poets. Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, 1, 
80-91. 

On the Salamander or Biskhopra. Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, 11, 95-97. 

D. L’Homme criminel. Gaz. Méd. del’ Algérie, Alger, Xxxv, 59-62. 

Eccies, A. S. Tenth International Medical Congress. Fortnightly Review, Oct., 1890. 

ECKERT, VON. Kopfmessungen kaukasischer Volker, Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., 
XIX, 211-249. 

EpmuNDS, E.S. Ancient stone forts in Indiana. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, x11, 349- 
351. 

EDWARDS, AMELIA B. Recent discoveries in Egypt. Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., N. Y., 
XXII, 555-565. (See also Century Magazine for January.) 

EELLS, M. Myths of the Puget Sound Indians. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, x11, 160- 
165. 

The religion of the Indians of Puget Sound. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, x11, 
69-84. 

Egypt. Races or ethnographic types. J. Anthrop. Inst., June, 1889, L’ Anthropo- 
logie. Paris, I, 333-337. 

Egypt L’. Les habitants. Population du Sud. Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2. s., 
XIII, 225-235. 

EHRENREICH, PAUL. Mittheilungen uber die zweite Xingu-Expedition in Brasilien. 
Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., xx11, 81-98, 10 figs. 

Ermer, G. H.T. Organic evolution as the result of the inheritance of acquired charac- 
ters. Transl. by J.T. Cunningham [Rev.]. Edinb. Rev. cLX xu, 316-349. 

EINHORN, M. Die Rumination beim Menschen. Med. Monatschr., N. Y., 11, 228-239. 

Einzelbeitrage zur allgemeinen und vergleichenden Sprachwissenschaft. Leipzig: Fried- 
rich. 8vo. 

ELFERT, P. Die Bevolkerung in Mitteleuropa mit Einschluss der Karpatenlainder. 
Petermann’s Mitteil., Gotha, Justus Perthes, XXXvI, 137-144. 

ELLIs, A. B. The Ewe-speaking peoples of the slave coast of West-Africa. London. 
322 pp. 8vo. 

The indwelling spirits of men. Pop.Se. Month., N. Y., xx xvi, 794-801. 

Exiis, HAVELOCK. The criminal. London. 12mo. 336 pp. 1 vol. [Rev in: An- 
thropologie, Par., 1, 737,738. By P. Topinard. | 

The ear in criminals. Lancet, Lond., t, 189. 

ELLis, RoBprnson. The Dire of Valerius Cato. Am. J. Philol., Balto., x1, 1-15. 

ELy, TALFouRD. Manual of archeology. New York: G. P. Putnam’s Sons. 8vo. 

ELYSSEEFE, A. Kounavine’s materials for the study of the gypsies. J. Gypsy Lore 
Soc., Edinb., 11, 93-106, 161-172, 1 map. 

EmMIN Brey. Zur ethnologie des Albert-Sees. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, LXIII, 263; 
Negerfabeln, Iv, 681. 


Teeey 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN. 1890. 573 


Ephemeris epigraphica, edita iussu instituti archxologici Romani cura Th. Mommseni, 
I. B. Rossii, O. Hirschfeldi, Vol. vi1, Fase. 3, 273-428. Berlin: G. Reimer. 8vo. 

ERCKERT, VON. Kopfmessungen Kaukasischer Volker. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschweg., 
1888-89, XVIII, 263, 297; XIX, 55, 211. 

ERHARD, Orro. Hiigelgrab bei Dechsendorf. Beitr. z. Anthrop. Bayerns. Munchen, 
IX, 74-76, 3 pl. 

Ernst, A. Venezuelanische Thongefisse und Thonfiguren aus alter und neuer Zeit. In- 
ternat. Archiv. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 169-175, 1 pl. 

Esprnas, A. Les origines de latechnologie. Rev. Phil., Par., xxx, 115, 295. 

EspINozA, ENRIQUE. Geografica descriptiva de la republicade Chile. Santiago, 1890. 
264 pp. 12mo. 

ETHRIDGE, R. Has man a geological history in Australia? Abst. Proc. Linnean Soe., 
N. South Wales, Apr. 30. 

ETHERIDGE, R. Notes on aboriginal stone weapons: I. The knife used by the Mulli- 
gan River (North Central Queensland) aborigines in the ‘‘ Mika’’ operation. Abst. 
Proe. Linnean Soe., N. South Wales, 1890, Apr. 30. II. Additional remarks on 
Mika knives. III. An aboriginal form of tomahawk from Port Stephens. IV. A 
well-finished tomahawk of ordinary form from Brisbane Water. Ibid. May 28. 

D’ETTINGHAUSEN ET KRASAN. L’atavisme des plantes. Rev. scient., Par., XLV, 188. 

Eury, J. Le capitaine Binger au Soudain. Annal. L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2.s,, XIII, 
81-87. 

EVANS, JOHN. Anthropology. Nature, N. Y., xii, 507-510. 

FABIAN, AL. Hypnotyzm u nauce a praktyce. Odcezyty publiczne. Warszawa. 
50 pp. 4to. 

FALLOT EY ALEZAIS, Drs. Notes sur ]’autopsie d’un indien d’amérique et d’un négre 
de la Martinique. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 656-678, 2 figs. 

FAURE, ALEXIS. De l’origine récente de homme a l'état de société sur la terre. J. 
de méd. et pharm. de Il’ Algérie, Alger, Xv, 26, 50, 75. 

Les Francais en Cochinchine au XxviiI* siécle. Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 
2.8., XIII, 321-334, 353-367; xiv, 5-21, 43-58, 107-125, 143-158, 175-185, 225- 
237, 268-280, 299-314, 321-337, 353-371. 

FAUVELLE. Durée moyenne de la vie des employés romains 4 Carthage au deuxiéme 
siécle de notreére. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 4. s., 1, 359-371. 

Qu’est-ce que la philosophie? Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 4. s., I, 323-339, 

FAWCETT, F. Notes on the Mouth-lock vow. Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, 1, 
97-102, 1 ill. 

FAWCETT, MILLICENTG. Infant marriage in India. Contemp. Rev., N. York, 712-720. 

FEATHERMAN, A. Social history of the races of mankind. London. 520 pp. 8vo. 

Turanian stock: being a new division of ‘‘social history of the races of man- 
kind.’? London: Kegan Paul & Co. 8vo. 

FELKIN, R. W. Hypnotism, or psycho-therapeutics. London. 84 pp. 8vo. 

Frere, Cu. La distribution de la force musculaire dans la main et dans le pied, étudiée 
au moyen d’un nouveau dynamoniétre analytique. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., 
Kil, 3. s., 572-575, 1 ill. 

La queue des satyres et la queue des faunes. N. iconog. de la Salpétriére, Par., 
T1I, 45-48, 1 pl. 

FERGUSON, DONALD. Captain Jao Ribeiro: his work on Ceylon, and the French trans- 
lation thereof by the Abbé le Grand. Journ. Ceylon Br. Roy. As. Soc., 1888, Co- 
lombo, x, 263-309. 

FERREE, BARR. Climatic influences in primitive architecture. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 
111, 147-158. 

Notes on museum arrangements abroad, ‘‘Architecture and Building.’’ New 

York, Dec, 20, 27; Jan. 3, 10, 1891. 


574 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


FERON, J/me. A. L’ Homme; origines, luttes, distinées. Paris: Deslis fréres. 112 pp. 
8vo. 

FEWKEs, J. WALTER. A contribution to Passamaquoddy folk-lore. J. Amer. Folk-L., 
Bost. and N. Y., 111, 257-280. 

Additional studies of Zufli songs and rituals with the phonograph. Am. Natu- 

ralist, Phila., xx1v, 687-691, 1094-1098. 

On the use of the phonograph in the study of the languages of American Indians. 
Science, N. Y., XV, 267-269. 

FIELDE, ADELE M. The Chinese theory of evolution. Pop.Sc. Month., N. Y., XXxXv1I, 
397-400. 

First annual meeting of the American Folk-Lore Society. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and 
N. Y., 1890; 1x, 1-16. 

FiscHer, L. H. Indischer Volksschmuck und die Art inn zu tragen. Wien: Holder. 
pp. 287-316. 8vo. 

FirzNeErR, R. Tunesische Volksagen. Das Ausland, LXIII, 651. 

FLErcHER, ALICE C. A phonetic alphabet used by the Winnebago tribe of Indians. 
J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 111, 299-301; Proc. Am. Assoc. Adv. Se., Salem, 
XXXVIII, 354-357. 

DE FLEURY, L. Découverte d’une borne milliaire romaine dans l’ancien cimetiére 
d’Ambernac, arrondisement de Confolens, départment de la Charente., 2° éd. 
Angouléme, Chasseignac. 7 pp. 8°. 

FLower, W.H. Exhibition of two skulls from a cave in Jamaica. J. Anthrop. Inst., 
Lond., xx, 110-112. 

The evolution of the horse. [From J. Roy. Agric. Soc.] Veterinarian, Lond., 
LXII, 438-457. 

For, H. Sur la ressemblance entre époux. Compt. rend. Acad. d. Se., Par., cx, 
1285. 

Folk-Lore Journal. London: Elliott Stock, published for the society. [ Merged, 
with the Archeol. Review, into ‘‘ Folk-Lore.’’ ] 

Folk-tales (The) of the Magyars. Collected by Kriza, Erdélyi, Bap, and others. Trans- 
lated and edited, with comparative notes, by W.H. Jones and Lewis L. Kropf. 
[ Rev. in: Athenzeum, Sept. 6, 317. } 

FoumMer, A. De Groninger en Friesche terpschedels in de laatste drie Jaren verzameld. 
Nederi. Tijdschr. v. Geneesk., Amst., 2. R., XxXviI, 597-610. 

FORNANDER, A. An account of the Polynesian race; its origin and migrations. 2d 
ed. (English and Foreign Philosophical Library.) London: Paul. 250 pp. 8vo. 

ForRRER, R. Die Urform des Bilddrucks. Antiqua. Strassburg, VIII, 53-56. 

Ein figurlicher Messergriffder Tonezeit. Antiqua, Strassburg, VIII, 27, 28. 
Ein Schaalenstein bei Oppenan. Antiqua, Strassburg, VIII, 33-35, 

Ein Téne—Schwert—Curiosum. Antiqua, Strassburg, 11, 12. 

Neue Bernstein—Schmuckstucke von Schwarzort. Antiqua, Strassburg, vImit, 

3. 

Pfeilspitzen als Amulete. Antiqua, Strassburg, VIII, 3, 4. 
Rémische Bronze, Nachbildungen priihistorischer Steinbeile. Antiqua, Strass- 
burg, VIII, 35-37, 1 pl. 

Schmuckgegenstiinde aus dem Graberfelde von Akmin. Antiqua, Strassburg, 

VIII, 43-46, 2 pl. 

Ueber primitive menschliche Statuetten. Antiqua, Strassburg. vi, 62-69, 

5 pl. 

Zum Capitel der Pfahlbauten im Orinoko und anderer amerikanischer Baum- 
wohnungen. Antiqua, Strassburg, vil, 17-21. 

FoRSSTRAND, CARL, Bermudas-darna. Berittelse, afgifven téll Svenska Sallskapet 
for Anthropologi och Geografi, 6fver en, med anslag af dess Vegastipendium, ut- 
ford resa, Ymer, 60-74. 


Al 


ee 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 7S) 


FourLtLer, A. L’evolutionnisme des idées-forces. Rev. phil., Par., xxX1x, 113, 267, 
Soils 

FOVEAU DE COURMELLES. Les facultés mentales des animaux. Paris. 352 pp. 18 mo. 
31 figs. 

FRANCKE, Kuno. A description of student life at Paris in the twelfth century. Am. 
J. Philol., Balto., x1, 80-86. 

FRASER. Hine-Moa, la fille de Rotorua. Annal. L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2. 3., XIII, 
65-72. 

FRAZER, J. G. Some popular superstitions of the ancients. Folk-Lore, Lond., 1, 145- 
ial: 

The golden bough: a study in comparative religion. London: Macmillan & Co, 
2 vols. [Rev. in: Nature, Lond., xiii, 513-516; Edinb. Rev., CLX x11, 316, 538; 
Atheneum, Aug. 2, 155-158. ] 

FREEMAN, E. A. ‘The latest theories on the origin of the English. Contemp. Rev., 
Lond., LVII, 36-51. 

FREON, F. Obstetrics among the Sioux Indian women. Cincin. Lancet-Clinic, n. s., 
XXIV, 12-14. 

FRESHFIELD, DouGLAS W. Search and travel in the Caucasus. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., 
Lond., XII, 257-286, 4 pl. 

FRESSL, J. Ueber haus und hof des baiwarischen landmarnes. Beitr. z. Anthrop. 
Bayerns. Mtinchen, 1x, 33-60. 

FRICKE, K. Ueber psychische Zeitmessung. 1. Die einfache Reaktionszeit. II. Zu- 
sammengesetzte Reaktionszeiten. Biol. Centralbl., Erlang, 1x, 234, 437, 467. 
FROHNMEYER, L.J. A progressive grammar of the Malayalam language for Euro- 
peans. Mangalore, 1889, xvi, 307 pp. 8vo. Basel, Missionsbuchhandlg, geb. m. 

6. 40. 

FouReEr, A. Archeological survey of India. The Sharqi architecture of Jaunpur; 
with notes on Zafarabad, Sahet-Mahet, and other places in the northwestern prov- 
inzes and Oudh. Cualeutta, Thacker; London, Triibner. [Rev. in: Athenzeum, Aug. 
16, 231.] 

FULBERT-DUMONTEIL. Le serpent cracheur. Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2. s., 
XIII, 144-147. 

F., J. Chimpanzees and dwarf in Central Africa. Nature, Lond., xLit, 296. 

GALTON, F. A new instrument for measuring the rate of movement of the various 
limbs. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xx, 200-204. 

Criminal anthropology. Thecriminai, by Havelock Ellis. Illustrated. (Lon- 

don: W. Scott, 1890.) [Rev. in: Nature, Lond., xLu, 75. ] 

On the advisability of assigning marks for bodily efficiency in the examination 

of candidates for the public services. Proc. Brit. Ass. Adv.Se., 1889, Lond., Lrx, 

471-473. 

Mental tests and measurements. Mind, Lond. & Edinb., xv., 380. 

GARNETT, Lucy M.J. The women of Turkey and their folk-lore, with an ethnograph- 
ical map and introductory chapters on the ethnography of Turkey, and folk con- 
ceptions of nature, by John 8.8. Glennie. London: Nutt. 444 pp. 8vo. 

GARNIER, P. Le criminel instinctif et les droits de la défense sociale. Am. d’hyg., 
Par., 3.s., XXIII, 414-435. 

GAROFALO, R. La criminologie. Etude sur la nature du crime et la théorie de la 
pénalité. Versailles: Cerf et fils, x1x. 453 pp. 8vo. A 

GARRISON, H. D. The form of the external ear. Am. Ass. Adv. Se. 

GARSON, J.G. Remarks on skulls dredged from the Thames in the neighborhood of 
Kew. Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xx, 20-25. 

GARSON. Reportofthe committee ~ * * appointed for the purpose of calculating 
the anthropological measurements taken at Bath, Rep. Brit. Ass, Adv, Se,, 1889, 
Lond., LIx, 423-435. ; 


576 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890 


GATSCHET, A.S. Die windhose: ein mythus der Modoc-Indianer. Am. Ur-Quell. 

The Beothuk Indians. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Phila., xxviit, 1-16. 

Sinti, der erste Mensch. Eine Schépfungssage der Kayowe-Indiane, aus ihrer 
Sprache tibertragen von. Das Ausiand, Stuttgart, LXx11, 901-904. 

GATSCHET, A., et R. DE LA GRASSERIE. Textestimucua. Rev. d. Ling., Par., XXIII, 
344-348. [The author’s linguistic and ethnographic notes in the American Anti- 
quarian must not be overlooked. | 

GaupRY, A. Le dryopithéque. J.d’hyg., Par., xv., 293-295. (Also Nature, Par., 
XVIII, pt. 2, 65. 

Les enchainements du monde animal dans les temps géologiques; fossiles sec- 
ondaires. Paris: E.Savy. 322 pp. 8vo. 

GAUTHIER, JULES. Répertoire archéologique du canton de Rougemont (Doubs). 
Doubs, Besancon. 16 pp. 8vo. 

GAYLEY, CHARLES MILLS, and FreD. NEwron Scotr. A guide to the literature of 
zsthetics. Berkeley. 116 pp. 8vo. 

GEDDES, PATRICH, and J. ARTHUR THOMSON. The evolution of sex. New York: 
Humboldt Pub. Co. 2 pts., 104-146; 147-295 pp. 8vo. 

GENIN, AUG., Poemes azteques. Paris. 255 pp. 8vo. 

GERARDIN, Leon. L’homme; éléments de physiologie, d’hygicéne, de préhistoire et 
d’ethnographie. Paris: G. Masson. 360 pp. 12mo. 

GERMA, PAUL. Le criminel et l’anthropologie criminelle; rapport présenté a la Société 
de jurisprudence. Toulouse: Tardieu. 16 pp. 8vo. 

GHOSAL, PUDMANAY. Ancient barbaric customs among the Hindus. Proc. Asiatic 
Soe. Bengal, Calcutta, 138. 

GIACOMINI, C. Sur le cerveau d’un chimpanzé. [7Zransl. from: Atti d.r. Acead. d. se. 
di Torino, 1888-’9, xxtv.] Arch. ital. de biol., Turin, x11, 25. 

GippinGs, F. H. The province of sociology. Ann. Am. Acad. Polit. and Soc. Se, 
Phila., 1, 66-77. 

GIGLIOLI, HeNRy H. Gli uitimi giorni dell’eta della pietra. Archivio per l’antrop. e 
la etnol., Firenze, XX, 65-72. 

Notes on a remarkable and very beautiful ceremonial stone adze from Kapsu, 
New Ireland. Internat. Archiy. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 181-186, 1 pl. 

GILLMAN, HENRY. The discovery of the pool of Bethesda, Jerusalem. Am. Natur- 
alist, Phila., x XIV, 96-97. 

Girop, P. Les sociétés chez les animaux. Paris, 53 figs. 18mo. 

GIRop, P., et E. MASSENAT. Les stations del’4gedurenne dans les vallées de la Vézére 
et de la Corréze. Paris, J. B. Bailliere et fils [fase.]. 4to. 

GirTtEE, A. Kinderspelen. Het spel van Kanonike Volkskunde, Gent, 3°, Jaarg, 39. 

GIVELET, Cu., H. JADARTet L. DenrAIson. Répertoire archéologique de l’arrondisse- 
ment de Reims (département de la Marne) 2° fase. Ville de Reims: Monuments 
religieux. Reims, Monce, 262 pp., 8vo. 

GLADDEN, WASHINGTON. Socialism and the Bible. Mag. Christian Lit., N. York, 1, 
1891, 241-248. 

GLASER, EDWARD. Skizze der Geschichte und Geographie Arabiens. 11. (Feldzug des 
Gallus, Lihjanfrage, Inschrift von Adulis, Abfassungszeit und verfasser des periplus 
mariserythriei.) Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lxi11, 990-994. 

GLENNIE, J.S. Stuart. The Aryan cradle land. Nature, N. Y., XLi, 544,545; Am. 
Naturalist, Phila., xxrv, 1098-1160. 

Guosus. Illustrirte Zeitschrift fir Lander- und Volkerkunde, Brannschweig. Vol. 
LVII in 1890. 

Gase, M.J. pe. The Heidens of the Netherlands. J. Gypsey Lore Soc., Edinb., 
1, 129-137. 

GOLDSMID, FREDERIC. Lieutenant H. B. Vaughn’s recent journey in Eastern Persia. 
Proc. Roy, Geog. Soc., Lond., XII, 577-595, 


—— 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. Wires 


GoMME, G.L. The conditions for the survival of archaic custom. Archol. Rev., 
Lond., Iv, 422-438. 

A highland folk-tale. Folk-Lore, Lond., 1, 197-206. 

The village community; with special reference to the origin and form of its sur- 
vivals in Britain, New York: Scribner & Welford. 8vo. 

GoocH, FANNY CHAMBERS. Face to face with the Mexicans: the domestic life, educa- 
tional, social, and business ways, statesmanship and literature, legendary and general 
history of the Mexican people, as seen and studied by an American woman during 
seven years of intercourse with them. Sampson Low, Marston & Co., London, 
200 ill., 8vo. 

GOODALE, ELAINE. Somelessons from barbarism. Pop. Sec. Month., N. Y., XX XVIII, 
82-86. 

GoopE, G. BRown. ‘The literary labors of Benjamin Franklin. Proc. Am. Philos. 
Soec., XXVIII, Phila., 1-21. Also: Reprint. 

The origin of the National Scientific and Educational Institutions of the United 
States. [Reprint from the papers of the Am, Hist. Ass.] New York. 112 pp. 8vo. 

Gorpon, C. A. Notes on the ethnology and ancient chronology of China. J. of Tr. of 
Victoria Inst., XXIII, 169-208. 

GRAAFLAND, A. E. P. De verbreiding van het Matriarchaat in het landschap. Indra- 
giri. Bijdr. Taal-Land-en Volkenk. Hague, 5.s., v, 40-47. 

GRADENIGO, G. ‘La conformazione del padiglione dell’orecchio nei normali, negli 
alienati, e nei delinquenti. Gior.d. r. Accad. di med. di Torino, 3. s., xxxvitt, 
495-501. 

La conformation du pavillon de l’oreille chez les normaux, chez les aliénés et 
chez les criminels. [Résumé original del’auteur.] Rev. de laryngol., ete., Par., x, 
489-492. 

GRAHAM, J. B. Serofula among the Sioux Indians; its origin and nature. Am. Pract. 
and News, Louisville, n. s., 1x, 1-5. 

GRASSERIE, R. DE LA. De la catégorie des modes. Le Muséon, Louvain, rx, 37-54, 
230-241. 

GREENLEAF, Dr. New table of physical proportions. Balt. Underwriter, xirit, 303. 

GREENLEY, T. B, Birth and death rate of advanced civilized peoples compared with 
those in semibarbarous state. Am. Pract. and News, Louisville, n.s., 1x, 393-400. 

GRIEVE, R. An address on endemic disease in British Guiana and on certain racial 
susceptibilities. Brit. M. J., Lond., 1, 468-470. 

GRIFFIN, Sir LEPEL. The Burman and his creed. Fortnightly Rev., Nov. 657-676. 

Griec, W. C. Heredity as to triplets. Brit. M. J., Lond., 1, 541. 

GROFFIER, VALERIEN. Explorations et travaux scientifiques des missionaires en 1887 
et en 1888. Bull. Soc. d. Géog.d. Lyon, rx, 217-258. 

GRONEMAN, J. Debesnijdenis van den Kroonprins van Jogjakarta. Bijdr. Taal-Land- 
en Volkenk., Hague, 5. s., Vv. 427-468. 

Een avond bij den rijksbestuurder van Jogjakarta. Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., 
Leiden, 111, 175-180, 1 pl. 

GROOME, F.H. Persian and Syrian gypsies. J. Gypsey Lore Soe., Edinb., 11, 21-27. 

GRUNWEDEL. fiograndenser Alterthiimer. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., 
Berl., 31-37. 

GuDER. fin Beitrag zur Lehre von der Fortpflanzungsfihigkeit bei Hypospadie und 
von der Vererbung dieser Missbildung. Ztschr. f. Med.-Beamte, Berl., 111, 247— 
250. 

GuILLor, E. Le Pélerinage de la Mecque. Annal. L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2.s., XIII, 
97-101. 

GuLIcK, J.T. The inconsistencies of utilitarianism as the exclusive theory of organig 
evolution. Am. J.Se., N. Haven, 3.s,, XL, 1-14. 


H. Mis, 129 37 


578 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


GuuLick, J. T. The preservation and accumulation of cross infertility. Am. J. Se., 
N. Haven, 3. s., XL, 437-442. 
GuNpDRY. R. 8. Judicial torture in China. Fortnight. Rev., Mar., 404-420. 
GUNTHER, SIGISMUND. Systems of numeration in the light of ethnography. Beitrage 
z Anthrop. u. Urgesch. Bayerns. Munich, Bassermann, IX, 1. 
Guppy, H.B. Coral islandsand savage myths. J.of Tr. Victoria Inst., London, xx1m, 
46-78. 
GUSTAFSON, G. Evebo-Fundet og nogleandre nye Gravfund fra Gloppen. Bergens Mu- 
seums Aarsberetning, Bergen, 1-36, 3 pl. 
Guyot, ARNOLD. Earth and man. Lectures on comparative physical geography in its 
relation to the history of mankind. New York: Seribner’s Sons. 12mo. 
Guyot-DauBEs. Physiologie et Hygicne du cerveau. Paris. 8vo. [Rev. in: Anthro- 
pologie, Par., 1, 714-715, by P. Topinard. ] 
HaAARHOF?, B. J. Die Bantu-stimme Stid-Afrikas. Leipzig: Fock. 126 pp. 8vo. 
HABERLANDT, M. Der Bannkreis. Cor.-Bl. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., 
Miinchen, XxI, 9-12. 
Happon, ALFRED C. Mauners and customs of the Torres Straits Islanders. Nature, 
N. Y., XLII, 637-042, 
The ethnography of the western tribes of Torres Straits. J. Anthrop. Inst., 
Lond., xX1x, 297-440, 3 pl., 1 map. 
Legends from Torres Straits. Folk-Lore, Lond., 1, 47-81, 172-197. 
HAGEN, A. et A. PINEAU. Les instruments de musique aux Nouvelles-Hébrides. 
[ Abstr. from: Rev. d. ethnog.] Nature, Par., XVIII, pt. 2, 52. 
HAGEN B. Anthropologische Studien aus Insulinde. [Report.] . Vers]. d.k. Akad. 
v. Wetensch. Afd. Natuurk., Amst., 3. R., vir, 5-12. 
HALE, Horatio. A manual of the Oregon trade language or ‘‘Chinook Jargon.’’ 
WHITTAKER& Co. [Rev. in: The Athenzeum, Lond., 3288, 583-584. ] 
“‘Above’’ and ‘‘below.’’ J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 111, 177-190. 
Huron folk-lore. II. The story of Tijaiha, thesorcerer. J. Am. Folk-Lore, 
Bost. and N. Y., 11, 249-204. 
—W— Was America peopled from Polynesia? Berlin,1890. 8vo. From Proceed.Congr. 
Americanists of 1888. 
HALL, G. R. Northumberland in prehistoric times. Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Se., 1889, 
Lond., 788. 
HALLER, J. F. Modern physical deterioration and some remedial suggestions. Boston 
M. &S. J., cx xi, 394-396. 
HAMILTON, J.C. The African inCanada. [Abstr.] Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Sc., 1889, 
Salem, XXXVIII, 364-370. 
—w— Maroons of Jamaica and Nova Scotia. Proc. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 3. s., VII, 
260-. 
HAmILton, J. H. F. The antiquities of Medamahanuwara. J. Ceylon. Br. Roy. As. 
Soe., 1888. Colombo, x, 310-325. 
HAMLIN, Cyrus. Robert College, Constantinople. Proc. Am. Antiquar. Soc., Wor- 
cester, VI, n.s., 196-212. 
HAMMERAN, A. Higelgriber bei Frankfurt a. M. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., 
XIX, 85-99, 3 pl. 
HaAmy, E. T. Alexander Brunias; peintre ethnographe de la fin du, Xvuir’, siécle 
Courte notice sur son ceuvre. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 49-56. 
Les origines du Musée d’Ethnographie, Histoire et documents. Paris, E. Le- 
roux. 321 pp. 8vo. Rev. d’Ethnog., Par., vi, 305-608. 
~ Sur une michoire de phoque du Groenland, trouvée par M. Michael Handy 
dans la grotte de Raymonden (Comptes rendus de 1’ Acad. des Sciences, 25 aout 
1890) par Albert Gaudry. [Rev in: Anthropologie, Par., 1, 599-601. ] 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN_ 1890. 579 


Hand-book of games, The, Vol. 1, Table games. London: Bell & Sons, 1890. [Rev in: 
Nature, Nov., 1890, pp. 28. ] 

HANNIGAN, D. F. Legitimacy of children. Westminst. Rev., June, 1890. 

HARLEZ, C. DE. La perception des couleurs chez les peuples de l’extréme Orient et 
l’histoire du sens visuel. Le Muséon, Par., 1x, 242-249. 

Hart, H. L. Women’s suffrage and national danger; a plea for the ascendancy of 
man. London. Remington. 196 pp. 8vo. 

HARTLAND, E. 8S. Fairy births and human midwives. Archol. Rey., Lond., Iv, 
328-343. 

Peeping Tom and Lady Godiva. Folk-Lore, Lond., 1, 207-226. 

HARTMANN, R. Peruanische Kartoffelpraparate Chutu. Verhandl. d. Berl. Anthrop. 
Gesellsch., Berl., 300-304. 

HARIWICH. Weitere Ausgrabungen auf dem Urnenfeldder La Teéne-Periode bei Tan- 
germunde. Verhandi. d. Berl. Anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 308-212. 

HAUFFE, Gst. Eauard Benecke’s Psychologie als Naturwissenschaft, bearbeitet von G. 
H. Borna. Jahnke. 117 pp. 8vo. 

HAYDEN, A. voN. Eine Schwertscheide von Hallstatt. Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. 
Gesellsch., Berl., 50-52. 

HAYES, GEORGE W. Mechanic art in the stone age. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, XII, 
230-234. 

HAYNES, HENRY W. Cotton Mather and his slaves. Proc. Am. Antiquar. Soc., 
Worcester, VI, n. s., 191-195. 

The Roman wall in Britain. Bull. Am. Geog. Soc., N. Y., XX, 157-210, 1 pl. 

HEIERLE, J. Die Verbreitung der Pfahlbauten ausserhalb Europas. Antiqua. Strass- 
burg, Vil, 5-10, 3 pl.; 58-62. 

HEIN, OTro. Altpreussische Wirthschaftsgesckichte bis zur Ordenszeit. Ztshr. f 
Ethnol., Berl., x x11, 146-167, 173-216. j 

HEIN, W. Ornamentale Parailelen. Mitth. d. anthrop Gesellsch. in Wein, n. F., x, 
50-58, 13 figs. 

HELLWALD, FR. von. Die welt der Slaven. Berlin, Allgemeiner verein fiir deutsche 
litteratur. 441 pp. 8vo. 

HENNIG, CARL. Ueber menschliche Polymastie und tiber Uterus bicomis. Arch. f. 
Anthrop., Broschwg., X1x, 185-204. 

HENSHAW, H. W. A new linguistic family in California. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 
45-50. 

Indian origin of maple sugar. Am, Anthrop., Wash., 111, 341-351, 1 ill. 

HERRLE, GUSTAVE. Rules for the orthography of geographic names. [ Reprint from: 
National Geographic Magazine, 11, No. 4, 7 pp. | 

HERMANN, E. Ueber Lieder und Brauche bei Hochzeiten in Kirnten. Archiv. f. An- 
throp., Brnschwg., X1x, 157-172. 

HERVE, GEORGES. Sixiéme conférence Broca sur les Prétendus Quadrumanes. Bull. 
Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., X11, 3. s., 680-717, 10 figs. 

HEWELL, W.W. Game of the Child-stealing witch. J. Am. Folk-Lore Bost., 111 
139-148. 

Hewirt, J. N.B. Iroquois superstitions. Am. Anthrop.,Wash., 111, 388, 389. 

HEWLETT, E.G. W. On the articular infinitive in Polybius. Am. Jour. Philology, 
Balto., XI, 267-290. 

Hirty, F. Alte Kaiser-Graber in Centralasien. Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., 
Berl., 52-55. 

Die Geschichte der Hauskatze in China. Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., 
Berl., 140-153. 

Honea, C. Ff. A sketch of the history of reflex action. Am. J. Psychol., Worcester, U1, 
149-167, 


’ 


580 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


HopcGE, F. W. <A Zuni foot race. Am. anthrop., Wash., 111, 227-231. 

Hames, R. Dryopithecus Fontani Lartet und seine Beziehungen zum Menchen und 
zu den anthropomorphen Affen Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch.in Wien, n. F., x [68- 
aa 

HorrMan, W. J. Mythology of the Menomoni Indians. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 
243-258. 

Remarks on Ojibway ball play. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 133-135. 

Shamanistic practices. Univ. M. Mag., Phila., 111, 73-79. 

HOFFMEISTER, G. B. The influence of race on the course and treatment of disease. 
Practitioner, Lond., xLv, 192-199. 

Houper, A. B. The age of puberty of Indian girls. Am. J. Obst., N. Y., x x11, 1074. 

Hotes, W. H. Aboriginal stone implements of the Potomac valley. Am. Ass, Adv. 
Se., 1890. 

— A quarry workshop of the flaked-stone implement makers in the District of Co- 

lumbia. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 1-26, 1ill., 4pl. 

A West Virginia rock-shelter. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 217-225. 

Collections of the Missouri iiistorical Society. Am. Anthrop., Wash., II, 334. 

Excavations in an ancient soap-stone quarry in the District of Columbia. Am. 

Anthrop., Wash., 111, 321-330, 7 figs. 

On the evolution of ornament—an American lesson. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 
137-146. 

Hopg, Kk. C. Holy wells, their legends and superstitions. Antiquary, London, Elliot 
Stock, XXII. 

HoRSFORD, EBEN N. The discovery of the ancient city of Norumbega. Boston. 42 pp. 
Ato. 

Hostg, ALEXANDER. Three years in western China: A narrative of three journeys in 
Ssti-ch’van, Kuei-chow, and Yunnan. Philip & Son. [ev. in: Athenzeum, Aug. 
16, 217-218. ] . 

HosTMANN, CH. Studien zur vorgeschichtlichen Archaologie. BLrannschweig: Vieweg 
& Sohn. 221 pp. 8vo. 

HouGu, WALTER. Aboriginal fire-making. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 359-371, 6 figs. 

Fire-making apparatus in the United States National Museum. Rept. National 
Museum, 1887, 1888, 531-587, 60 figs. 

HoutsmMA, M. TH. Biiderauseinem persischen Fabelbuch. Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., 
Leid., 111, 149, 150, 1 pl. 

Houze E. Normauxet dégénérés; erreursde Lombroso. Clinique, Brux., Iv, 385-389. 

Howitt, A. W. The Dieri and other kindred tribes of Central Australia. J. Anthrop. 
Inst., Lond., xx, 30-104, 1 pl. 

Hupner, A. W. Das Afrikanische Hauptling und Kénigtum. Das Ausland, LXIH, 
1890, 166-181. 

Hupson, W. H. The naturalist on Pampas. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvii, Feb. 

HuGues, C. H. Note on the conundrum why we are right-handed. West M. Re- 
porter, Chicago, 1890, x11, 147. 

HuGues, T. MCKENNy. On cuts on bone as evidence of man’s existence in remote 
ages. J. of Tr. Victoria Inst., xx11T, 209-224. 

Humpury, G. M. Old age; the results of information received respecting neatly 900 
persons who had attained the age of 80 years; including 74 centenarians. New 
York: Macmillan & Co. 124218 pp. 12mo. 

HUNNEWELLI, JAMESI*. Illustrated Americana. (Since 1600.) Continued from Part 
I (1493-1624), Proce. Am. Antiquar. Soc., Wercester, v1, 66-77; 283-302. 

HUNTINGTON, F. D.. Social problems and the church. Forum, N. Y., x, 125-141. 

HUNZIKER, J. Das rhatoromanische Haus. Verhandl. d. Berl. Anthrop. Gesellsch., 
Berl., 320-327. 

Hurb, KatEC, Onanthropometry. Times & Reg., N, Y. and Phila., vil, 506-511, 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 581 


HuTcHINSON, J. Notes on heredity. Arch Surg., Lond., 1, 242-244. 

Huxtey, T.H. Government: Anarchy or regimentation. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., 
XXVII, 843-866. 

Natural rights and political rights. Jbid., Feb. 


On the natural inequality of man. Jbid. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y.,X xxvii, 761- 
784. 


The Aryan question and prehistoric man. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., XXVIII, 

750-777. Also: Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., XXxXvIII, 341-355. 

The lights of the church and the lights of science. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., 
XXVIn, July. 

IBBETSON, DENZIL. Address on the study of anthropology in India. Jour. Anthrop. 
Soc., Bombay, 11, 117-146. 

JHERING, H. vy. Ueber die Verbreitung des Cocagenusses in Stidamerika. Das Aus- 
land Stuttgart, LxXti1, 908-910. 


I HinG. American Branch of the Heaven and Earth League. Philada., Ledger, Aug. 
PAL 


ImMuHAus, E. N. Les Nouvelles-Hébrides. Paris. Berger-LevraultetCie. 165 pp. 8vo. 

Imperial Archeological Society of Moscow. Congress in honorot its 25th anniversary, 
Jan. 20th in Moscow. 

Index catalogue of the Library of the Surgeon-General’s Office. Washington: Govern- 
ment Printing Office. Vol. XT. 

Index Medicus. A monthly classified record of the current medical literature of the 
world. Boston: G.S. Davis. Vol. x. Monthly. 

Indian affairs. Report of Commissioner. Washington: Government Printing Office. 

Indian Annals and Magazine of Natural Science. Ed. by J. Murray. Bombay. In 
1890. 8vo. Monthly. 

Indice general de Jas materias contenidas en los anales de la sociedad cientifica Argentina. 
Volumes 1 4 XXIxX, 1876-1889. Buenos’ Aires, 1890. 

INNES, A. TAYLOR. Hypnotism in relation to crime and the medical faculty. Con- 
temp. Rev., Oct., 553-566. 

Internationaler Amerikanistenkongress. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lxr11, 864-868, 881- 
888. - 

Internationales Archiv fiir Ethnographie. Edited by J.D. E.Schmelz. Leyden: Trap. 
[ Vol. v in 1890. Especially devoted to museums. ] 

Internationale Zeitschrift fiir allgemeine Sprachwissenschaft. Heilbronn: Henninger. 
8vo. 

ISRAEL, O. Angeborne Spalten des Ohrlappchens, ein Beitrag zur Vererbungslehre. 
Arch. f. path. Anat., etc., Berl., cx1x, 241-253. 

Division congénitale du lobule de Voreille. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., 11,55. [Rev. in: 

Anthropologie, Par., 1, 746,747, by Léon Laloy. | 

Ueber angeborene Spalten der Ohrlappchen. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. An- 
throp., Berl., 55-61. 

JACOBSEN, J. ADRIAN. Bella-Coola-Sagen. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, LXIII, 352-354, 

Geheimbiunde der Kustenbewohner Nordamerikas. Ausiand, Stuttgart, 267, 

290, 352-354. 

Nordwestamerikanische Sagen. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx1ir, 421-425, 981— 
985. 

Jahrbuch des kaiserlichen deutschen archiiologischen Instituts. Vol. v. Also Mirr- 
HEILUNGEN der, etc. Vol. Xv. 

Jahrbicher fiir Philologie und Paedagogik. Jahrgang, 1889. [ Rep. in: Am. J. Philol., 
Balto., 1890, x1, 112-118, by W. E. Waters. ] 

JAMES, W. Principles of psychology, 2 vols. 

Jastrow, J. Aspects of modern psychology in Epitomes ef Three Sciences. Open 
Court Pub. Co. 


582 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


JASTROW, J. A study of mental statistics. Am. Aso. Adv. Se., 1890. 

Experimental psychology. Open Court Pub. Co., Chicago. 

—— Time relations of mental phenomena. N. D. Hodges, N. Y. 

——— Studies from the laboratory of experimental psychology of the University of 
Wisconsin. Am. J. Psychol, Jan., 1890. 

JENTSCH, N. Vorslavische und slavische Funde aus dem Gubener Kreise. Verhandl. 
d. Berl. Anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 353-360. 

Rundwall bei Grossbreesen, Kreis Guben. Ergiinz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 

Telos 

Wohnungsreste aus der Zeit der Niederlausitzer Griiberfelder im gubener Stadt- 
gebiete. Erginz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1, 49-51, 3 figs. 

Jersey, Countess of. Ourselves and our foremothers. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., 
XXVIII, Jan. 

Jessopp. The land and itsownersin past times. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvii, Feb. 

JEUNE, Mary. The homes of the poor. Fortnightly Rev., Jan., 67-80. 

JEWETT, E. H. Diabology. The person and kingdom of Satan. Lond. 8vo. 

Jorst, W. [et al.]. Mehrere Mittheilungen, betreffend Augenschminke. Verhandl. 
d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 47. 

Jounston, H. H. British Central Africa. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., 1890, x11, 
713-743. 

Joty, H. Jeunes criminels parisiens. Arch. de l’anthrop., crim., Par., v, 147-174, 
393-406. 

JORDAN, D.S. Evolution and the distribution of animals. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., 
XXXVI, 313-322. 

Journal Asiatique. Paris, 1890, vol. —. 

Journal (The) of American Folk-Lore. Bost. and N. Y.: Issued by the American 
Folk-Lore Society, Vol. 111, in 1890. [Vaiuable bibliography in each number, | 
Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. Vol. xx, in 

1890. Lond.: Tribner. 

Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Caleutta: G. R. House. 

Journal of the Anthropological Society of Bombay. Bombay: Eaucational Society’s 
Press, 1890, IT. 

Journal of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1888. Colombo, 1890, Vol. x. 

Journal of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. Shanghai, 1890, bi-monthly. 

Journal of the Gipsy-Lore Society. Edinburgh: Constable, Vol. 111, in 1890. 

Journal of the Military Service Institution. New York: By the Institution. Vol. x1, 
in 1890, bi-monthly. 

Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. London: Tribner. 
Quarterly, Vol. XxXIr in 1890. 

Journal of the Royal Statistical Society. London: Stanford. Quarterly. 

Journal of Society for Psychical Research. Vol. tv, July, 1890. Adelphi, W. C. 

Journal of the Society of Arts. London, 1890, XXXVIII. 

Journal of the Society of the Friends of Science, Moscow, LXVIII, in 1890. Section of 
Anthropology. 

Journal of the Transactions of the Victoria Institute or Philosophical Society of Great 
Britain. London, 1890, by the institute, Vol. XXIII. 

JOUSSEAUME. Observations anthropologiques faites parle comte Teleki sur quelques 
peuplades du centre est de l’Afrique. Sull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 1890, 4. s., 
I, 35-49. 

JUNKER, WILLIAM. Travelsin Africa during the years 1875-’8.. Translated from the 
German by A. H. Keane. Map and illustrations. Chapman & Hall. [Rev. in: 
Atheneum, Oct. 25, 1890, 543-544. ] 

KERN, H. Jalogra. Bijdr. Taal-Land-en Volkenk., Hague, 5. s.,v, 126. 


SS. era 


~ PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 583 


Kern, H. Pali-handschriften van’s Rijks Ethnographisch Museum te Leiden. Bijdr. 
Taal-Land-en Voikenk. Hague, 5. s., v, 124-125. 

——— Rottineesch-Maleische woordenlijst. Bijdr. Taal-Land-en Volkenk. Hague, 5. 
8., V, 1-26. 

KERR, JOHN. History of curling. Edinburgh, Douglas. [Rev. in: Atheneum, July 
19, 89, 90. ] 

KHABOUZINE, N. Les Lapons Russe (Rousskié Lopari) Izvestia (Bull.) Soc. Amis d. 
Se. nat., d’Anthrop., ete., LXv1, Moscow, L’ Anthropologie, 1, 615-619; also, Tatars 
south of Crimea, id., 59. 

KHAROUZINE, NIcoLaAs. Les Votjacks; apercu historique et ethnographique, par J.-N. 
Smirnoff. [ Rev. in: L’ Anthropologie, Par., 1, 619-624. | 

KIELSTRA, E. B. Sumatra’s westkust van 1836-1840. Bijdr. Taal-Land-en Volkenk., 
Hague, 5. s., V, 127-221, 248-263. 

KINGSCOTE, Mrs. H., and N.SAstri. Tales of theSun; or, Folk-Lorein Southern India. 
London: W. H. Allen. 320pp. 8vo. 

KIRCHHOFF, A. Forschungen zur deutschen Landes-und Volkskunde. Stuttgart, En- 
gelhorn, v, pt. 2. 8vo. 

KIRKPATRICK, E. A. Observations of college seniors and electives in psychological sub- 
jects. Am.J. Psychol. Worcester, 111, 168-173. 

KITTREDGE, GEORGE L., and SYLVANNUS HAYWARD. English folk-tales in America, 
J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 11, 291-295. 

Kitts, E. I. On a few common terms of native abuse. Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, 
Tip oy Ae 

KLUGE. Prahistorische Forschungen in der Umgegend von Arneburg. Altmark. Er 
ganz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1, 9-16, 27 figs. 

Knapp, P. C. The insanity of doubt. Am. J. Psychol., Worcester, 111, 1-23. 

Knoop, O. Sagenaus Hinterpommern. Zeitschr. f. Volkerk., Leipz., 11, 145-185. 

Knorr J. Normal ovariotomy, circumcision, clitoridectomy, and infibulation; a study 
in comparative ethnology. Med. Press and Cire., Lond., n. s., L, 33-36. 

KNOWLEs, W. J. Report on the prehistoric remains from tke sand-hills of the coast of 
Ireland. Proc. Roy. Irish Acad., Dubl., 3. s., 1, 173-187. 

KoFrLer, Fr. Higelgraber in der Nahe von Darmstadt. Ergiinz. z. Ztschr. f. Eth- 
nol., Berl., 1, 46, 47. 

KORNEL, VLADISLAV. Gypsy anecdotes from Hungary. J. Gypsy Lore Soec., Edinb., 
I, 65-713. 

KOVALEWSKY, E.DE. Les Kourdes etles Iésides. Bull. Soc. Roy. Belge Géog., Brux., 
XIV, 157-186. 

‘ Krapr, A. Das Volk der Xosa-Kaffern im Ostlichen Siidafrika, nach seiner Geschichte, 
Eigenart, Verfassung und Religion. Berlin: Matthies. 209 pp. 8vo. 

KRAUSS, FRIEDRICH 8. Burjatische Volkstiberlieferungen. Das Ausland, Stuttgart. 
LXIII, 721-727. 

Die Qualgeister bei den Stidslaven. Ausland, Stuttgart, 329-333. 

Mehmed’s Brautfahrt (Smailagi¢é Meho).- Ein Volksepos der siidslavischen Mo- 

hammedaner. Deutsch von Carl Grober. Wien(Alfred Holder). 12mo. 130 pp. 

[Rev.]. Zeitsch. f. !thnol., Berl., xxi, 103, 104. 

Slavonian fairies. [7rans/. from: Das Ausland.] Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., 
XXXVI, 684-690. 

— Volksglaube und religidser Brauch der Stidslaven. Vorwiegend nach eigenen 
Ermittelungen. Munster, 1890 (Aschendorff sche Buchhandlung). Xvi and 176 
pp. 8vo. [Rev.] Zeitschr. f. Ethnol., Eerl., xx11, 104, 105. 

KROPOTKIN, Prince. Brain work and manual work. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., x XVIII, 
March. 

Mutual aid among animals. Nineteenth Cent., No. cLxv, N. Y., 699-719. 


584 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Krauss, Gust. Ein bei Fiirstenfeldbuck, Oberbayern, aufgefundenes samisches Gefass 
Erganz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1, 52, 53. 

KUHNERT, Fr. Zur Kenntnis der alteren Lautwerthe des Chinesischen. Wien, Temp- 
sky. 40 pp. 8vo. 

LA FLESCHE, FRANCIS. The Omaha buffalo medicine-men. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. 
and N. Y., 11, 215-221. 

LAGNEAU, GUSTAVE. Remarques anthropologiques et démographiques sur l’instruc- 
tion scolaire et l’instruction militaire. Orléans: Girardot. 58 pp. 8vo. 

LAKowIrz. Hiigelgraber bei Klutschau, Kreis Neustadt, Westpreussen. frgiinz. z. 
Ztsechr. f. ethnol., Berl., 1, 61. 

LALoy, LEON. Cranes préhistoriques de Hongrie, par Virchow. |Rev. in: Anthro- 
pologie, Par., I, 624-626. ] 

E. Schmidt. Un cas de gigantisme. Archiv fiir Anthropologie, xviii. [ Rev. 

in: L’ Anthrop., Par., 1, 460-461.] 

Malformation héréditaire du pavillon de loreille. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 
580-590, 2 figs. : 

— Ornstein Quelques cas de transmission des caractéres acquis par l’individu. 
Archiv fir Anthropologie, xvii. [ ev. in: L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 461, 462. ] 

——— Travaux purement anthropologiques. L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 482-487. 

LAMB, D.S. The olecranon perforation. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 159-174. 

LANE-POOLE, STANLEY. Story of the nations. —The Barbary Corsairs. Fisher Umvin. 
[ Rev. in: Athenzum, July 26, 122, 123.] 

LANG, A. Was Jehovah a fetish stone? Contemp. Rev., Lond., LVit, 353-365. 

LANGE, JULIUS. Bemirkningerom Roskilde Domkirkes AlderogStil. Aarb. f. Nord. 
Oldk. og Hist., Kjdbush., v, 105-184. 

LANGLEY, 8. P. Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution for the year 
ending June 30, 1890. Wash.: Gov’t Print. 82 pp. 8vo. 

LANIN, KE. B. Armenia and the Armenian people. Fortnightly Rev., Aug., 258-273. 

— The Jews in Russia. Fortnightly, Nov., 481--509. 

La Nuova Filosofia. Naples, Dr. Andrea Torre, established in 1890. 

L’ Anthropologié, founded in Paris in 1890, by the fusion of Matériaux pour I’ Histoire 
de l’ Homme, Revue d’ Anthropologie and Revue d’Ethnographie. Under the di- 
rection of MM. Cartailhac, Harny, and Toponard. Bimonthly, G. Masson. 

LAPOUGE, G. DE,et R. BARON. Les lois de  hérédité. J. de méd. vét. et zootech, Lyon, 
Shikhs zeta U7 BEB atte 

LAWRENCE, C. F. Remarks on the geological position of the skulls dredged from the 
Thames. Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xx, 26, 27. 

LAURENT, EMILE. Les habitués des prisons de Paris; étude d’anthropologie et de 
psychologie criminelles. Préface de M. le Dr. A. Lacassagne. Lyon: A. Stork. 
617 pp., 6 pl., 3 diag. 8vo. 

LAVELEYE, E. pe. Communism. Contempt. Rev., March, 1890. 

LAYARD, F. Oriental myths and Christian parallels. Scottish Review, July, 1890. 

Lea, H. C. The endemoniades of Ineretaro. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., II, 
33-38. 

LEFEVRE, ANDRE. Les mythes et les dieux dela pluie. Paris: Vannes. 18 pp. 8vo. 

L’evolution religieuse. Bull. Soe. d’anthrop. de Par., 4. s., 1, 371-395. 

LEGRAIN, GEORGES. Le livre des transformations. Paris, 56 pp., 4vo. 

LEHMANN, C.F. Ueber das Verhiiltniss des iigyptischen, metrischen Systems zum baby- 
lonischen. Verhandl. d. Berl. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Berl., 1889, 630-648; 1890, 86-93. 

LEIDy, Joseph. Notice of some fossil human bones. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. of 
Science, 11, 9-12. 2 pl. Also: Reprint. 

LEITNER,G. W. On the ethnographical basis of language, with special reference to the 
customs and language of Hunza. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xx, 204-210; Tr. Vie- 
toria Inst., xX XIII, 109-122. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 585 


LEJARS, Dr. Circulation veineuse des moignons. Bull.Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., XI, 
Be 855 0205 O20. 

LENGYEL. Prehistoric Station. L’ Anthropologié, 1, 145-149. 

LroN, NIcoLas. Anomalies y Mutilaciones Etnicas del Séstema deutavio eutre los 
Tarascos pre-Colombianos. 8 Sess. d. Cong. Internat. Americaniste. Au. d. Mus. 
Michoacano. Morelia, Mex., 111, 168-173. 

Bibliogratia Mexicana del Sig lo, xv1i1, Au. del Mus. Michoacano, Morelia, 111, 

1890, 5-167. A—ch., continued in Vol. Iv. 

Un Impreso Mexicano del Sig lo, xvi, Au. d. Mus. Michoacano. Morelia, 111, 
174-180. 

LETOURNEAU, CHARLES. L’Evolution politique dans les diverses races humaines. 
Paris: Lecrosnier & Babé. 584 pp. 8vo. 

Ler VILLENOIsy, F. D’une erreur archéologique relative aux broazes anciens. Revue 
Archaeol., Par., 3.s., XV, 248-253. 

LEWIN, L. Ueber das Betelkauen. Internat. Arch. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 61-65. 

Lewis, HUBERT. The ancient laws of Wales. Edited by J. E. Lloyd. [Rev. in: The 
Athenzeum, Lond., 3288, Nov. 1, 581, 582. ] 

Lewis, T.H. Stone monuments in northwestern Iowa and southwestern Minnesota. 
Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 269-274. 

LINDENSCHMIT, L. Romische Ueberreste und ein frankisches Graberfeld vor Mainz. 
Erginz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1890, 1, 47, 43. 

LINDNER,S. Studien tber Malthusianismus. Wien, W: Braumiuller. 44 pp. 1 tab. 
8vo. 

Lioyp, W. The religion of the Semites. Westminst. Rev., Lond., CX XXIII, 375-383. 

LOMBARD. Description ethnographiques sommaire de |’ Asie occidentale; question 
chamite. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 1890, 4. s., 1, 219-224. 

Description ethnographique sommaire de l’Europe. Question aryenne. Bull. 
Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., d. Par., 1890, x11, 3. s., 472-483. 

LoMBARD, W. P. The effect of fatigue on voluntary muscular contractions. Am. J. 
Psychol., Worcester, I11, 24-42. 

Lomproso, C. Homo delinquens. [Trans]. from the Italian.] Wien med. BI., 1890, 
Xa oay LOSs lO! 

L’ Anthropologie criminelle et ses récents progrés. Paris: F. Alcan. 180 pp. 

12mo. 


—_— Les progrés récents de l’anthropologie criminelle. Centralbl. f. Nervenh. u. 
Psychiat., Coblenz & Leipz., n. F., 1, 102-108. 

Der Verbrecher in anthropologischer, ‘irztlicher und juristischer Beziehung. In 

deutscher Bearbeitung von M. O. Fraenkel, mit Vorvort von Kirechenheim. Hamb.: 

J. F. Richter. 416 pp. 8vo. 

L’anthropologie criminelle et ses recents progrés. Paris, 1890: Felix Alean. 177 

pp., 10 figs. 12mo. (in Bibl. philos. contemp., reviewed in l|’anthropologie, I, 

475-481.) 

Palimsesti del carcere. Arch. di psichiat., etc., Torino, x1, 1, 117. 

Lomsroso, C., et R. Lascur. Il delitto politico e le revoluzioni in rapporto all’an- 
thropologia ed al diritto criminale, Napoli, 11, 97-100. 

Ii delitto politico ele revoluzioni in rapporto al diritto, all’antropologia criminale 

ed all scienza di governo. Torino, frat. Brocea. 565 pp., 5 pl., 2diag., 1 tab. 8vo. 

La pena nel delitto politico. Arch. di psichiat., etc., Torino, x1, 139-180. 

Rei politici per occasione e per passione. Arch. di psichiat., etc., Torino, XI, 
34-55, L pl. 

Loti, PIERRE. Japanese women. MHarper’s Month., N. Y., UXXxII, 119-131, 8 ills. 

LoucHringr, R. M., and Davip M. HopGe. English and Muskokee Dictionary. 
Collected from various sources and revised. St. Louis: J. T. Smith. 236 pp. 


586 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Luspock, JoHN. Le prétendu sens de direction chez lesanimaux. Rev. Scient., XLVI, 
590-593, 

The origin of civilization and the primitive condition of man; mental and social 
condition of savages. 5thed. London: Longmans. 556 pp. 8vo. 

——— Prehistoric times, as illustrated by ancient remains and the manners and cus- 
toms of modern savages. Sthed. London: Williams & Northgate. 662 pp. 8vo. 

Luce, L. H. and W. H. Three cases of hypospadias in which the sex was undetermin- 
able until puberty. Am. Naturalist, Phila., xxrv, 1016-1019. 

VON LuscHAN. Die Tachtadschy und andere ueberreste der alten Beyélkerung Lykiens. 
Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., XIX, 31-53. 

Luys, J. The latest discoveries inhypnotism. Fortnightly Rev., June, 896-921; Aug., 
168-183. 

LYALL, Sir ALFRED. Official polytheism in China. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxviti. 
July. 

Lypston, G. F. Materialism versus sentiment in the study of the causes and correc- 
tion of crime. J. Am. M. Ass., Chicago, xv, 455-460. 

Materialistic study of crime. Times and Reg., N. Y.and Phila., x x1, 329-332. 
MacDonaLp, J. Manners, customs, superstitions, and religions of South African tribes, 
J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 264-296; xx, 1135; Rev. Scient. xiv, 641, 678. 
Macepo, F. FERRAZ DE. Note sur l’absence de la commissure grise du troisieme ven- 
tricule et les particularités psychiquesconcomitantes. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., 

XI, 3.s., 513-516. 

Note sur l’absence de la commissure grise du troisieme ventricule et les particu- 

larités psychiques concomitantes. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., XII, 3. s., 513- 

516. 

Sur l’absence de la commissure grise du cerveau (Addition a la communication 
faite precedentment et réponse aux objections a cette communication). Bull. Soe. 
d’anthrop. d. Par., XII, 3.s., 541-548. 

MaAcLEAn, H. The ancient peoples of Ireland and Scotland considered. J. Anthrop. 
Inst., Lond., xx, 154-179. 

MacQurnArRy, HowArp. The evolution of man and Christianity. New York: D. Ap- 
pleton. 410 pp. 

MacRitrcHik, DAyip. Callot’s ‘‘Bohemians.’’ J.Gypsy Lore Soc., Edinb., 11, 7-17, 
3 ills. 

Scottish gypsies under the Stewarts. J. Gypsy Lore Soc., Edinb., m1, 173-181, 

229-237. 

Earth houses and their inhabitants. Archzol. Rev., Lond., Iv, 393-421. 

Magazine of American History. New York. Ed. Mary J. Lamb. Vol. xxii in 1890, 

Makowsky, A. Ueber die Anwesenheit des Menschen wiihrend der Lossperiode in der 
Umgebund von Brinn. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., x [Sitzungsb., 
60-65 |. 

MALLERY, GARRICK. Customs of courtesy. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 201-216. 

The fight with the giant witch. Am. Anthrop., Wash., I11, 65-70. 

Israelite and Indian. A parallel in planes of culture. Proc. Am. Ass. Adv. Se., 
1889, Salem, XXXVIII, 287-331. 

MANNER, A. English-Tulu dictionary. Mangzlore, 1888. 655 pp. 8vo. 
MANOUVRIER, L. Note sur !es effets d’une deformation artificielle du ecrine chez un 
nouveau né Bolivien. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., XII, 3. S., 567-572, 1 ill. 
MANTEGAZZA, P. Physiognomy and expression. New York: Scribner and Welford. 

8vo. London: W. Scott, XI. 327 pp. 12mo. 

MARCANO, G. Ethnographie precolombienne du Venezuéla; vallées d’Aragua et de 
Caracas, 1889. Paris: Ed. Baltenweck. 91 pp. 8vo. 

MaArcANO, V. Precolombian metallurgy in Venezuela, S. A. J. Anthrop. Inst., 
Lond., Xx, 220. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 587 


MARCHAND, FEL. Beschreibung dreier Mikrocephalen-Gehirne, nebst Vorstudien zur 
Anatomie der Mikrocephaliet, 11, Abth. Halle. 112 pp. 4to. 

Marrer, E. A. Les Cévennes et la région des causses (Lozére, Aveyron, Hérault, 
Gard, Ardéche). 2 éd. Villefranche-de-Rouergue, Bardoux, vir. 407 pp. 8vo. 

MARTIN, P. Le texte, parisien de la vulgate latine, 1v, Le Mus¢éon. Louvain, 1x, 
55-70, 301-316. 

MARTINEZ VARGAS, A. Pedimentria y pedibarometria, crecimiento en la infancia. 
Gac. Méd., Mexico, xxv, 301-325, 3 pl. 

Mason, O. T. An account of the progress in anthropology for the years 1887, 1888. 
Smithsonian Report, 1888, Govt. Print. Office, Wash., 1890, 496-582. 

Anthropology in Paris during the exposition of 1889. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 

Ill, 27-36. 

The American Association for the Advancement of Science. Am. Anthrop., 
Wash., 385-386. 

—-— Arts of modern savages for interpreting archeology. Am. Ass. Ady. Se., 1890. 

Basket-work of the North American Aborigines. [ from: Rep. Smithsonian Inst. ] 

Washington, 1880, Govt. Print. Office. pp. 291-306, 64 pl. 8vo. 

Essai d’une classification des races humaines, basée uniquement sur les carac- 
téres physiques. Par. M. J. Deniker. [Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. de Par., x11, 1889, 
320-336.] [Rev. ins Am. Anthrop., Wash., U1, 381-384.] 

——-— Throwing-sticks in the National Museum. [From: Rep. Smithsonian Inst. ] 
Washington, 1890, Govt. Print. Office. pp. 279-289, 17 pl. 8vo. 

MASSAROLI, C. Grande inscription de Nabuchodonosor. Le Muséon, Louvain, Ix, 
192-208, 269-277. 

MASSON, PAUL. Objets en bronze trouvés dans le lit de la Marne, 4 Trilport. Bull. 
Soe. @’anthrop. d. Par., XII, 3. s., 620-623. 

MATTHEWS, W. The Gentile system of the NavajoIndians. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost., 
111, 89-110. 

MAXE-WERLY, L. Vases a inscriptions bachiques. Paris: Daupeley-Gouverneur. 
44 pp. 8vo. 

MAXWELL, Sir H. Customs. Blackwood’s Mag., Edinb., CXLVIII, 702-712. 

VoN MAyrk, GrorG. Ueber Unterschiede im Altersaufbau der Bevolkerung. Beitr z. 
Anthrop. Bayerns. Munchen, Ix, 61-73. 

McCrRACKAN, W. D. The legend of William Tell. Atlantic Month., Bost., LXxv1, 
598-606. 

McGeE, ANITA NEWCOMBE. ‘The evolution of a sect. Am. Ass. Ady. Se, 1890. 

McGer, W. J. The evolution of serials published by scientific societies. Philos. Soe. 
Wash., Bull. x1, 221-246. 1 pl. Also: Reprint: 

Some principles of evidence relating to the antiquity of man. [Abstr.] Proce. 
Am. Ass. Adv., Se., 1889, Salem, XXXVIII, 333. 

McLEAN, JOHN. Blackfoot Indian legends. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 11, 
296-298. 

MEARNS, E. A. Ancient dwellings of the Rio Verde Valley. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., 
XXXVII, 745-763. 

Menuuis, C. Arm und Reich zur Merovinger Zeit. Arch f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., XTX, 
23-29. . 

MEIJER, J. J. Bijdrage tot de Kennis van het Bantéusch Diaiect der Scendaneesche 
Taal. Bijdr. Taal-Land-en Volkenk., Hague, 5. s., v, 222-261. 

MELLO, J. M. The dawn of metallurgy. J. Trans. Victoria Inst., XXIII, 277-304. 

Mélusine, Recueil de Mythologie, Littérature populaire, traditions, et usages, 1877-1890, 
Vol. v, 1890-1891. Paris: H. Gaidoz, editor; E. Rollam, publisher. 

MENARD DE SAINT-MAURICE, E. Contribution 4 l’étude de V’dge de la pierre dans 
l’isthme de Panama. Paris, Chatillon-sur-Seine. 29 pp. 4to. 


588 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


MENDENHALL, T. C. The relations of men of science to the general public. Am. 
Ass. Adv. Se., 1890, Indianapolis. 15 pp. 

MENDINI, G. L’indice cefalico dei Valdesi. Archivio per l’antrop. e la Etnol., Firenze, 
XX, 61-64. 

Mesmerism and hypnotism. Quarterly Review. July. 

MESSIKOMMER, H. Ein Massenfund gallischer Potinmunzen in Ziirich. Antiqua, 
Strassburg, vist, 42-43. 

MESSIKOMMER, JACOB. Neue Pfahlbauten am Greifensee. Antiqua, Strassburg, VIII, 
21-23. 

Mew, JAMES. The Hebrew hell. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxviit. August. 

Mexico: Archiologische Beitrage zur Cultur-Geschichte seiner Bewohner. Ham- 
burg & Leipzig, 1889, Voso. Rev. in Ztschr. f. Ethnol., xx11, 40-42; also Seler., 
pp- 42. 

Meyer, A. B. Masken yon Neu Guinea und dem Bismarck Archipel. Konigliches 
Ethnographisches Museum zu Dresden. Band, VII, folio, 15 pp., pls. 15. (Dresden: 
Stengel & Markert, 1889.) [Rev.] Nature, vol. 42, 268, 269. 

MeYeER, J. J. L’administration de la justice parmi les indigenes dans les iles de Java 
et de Madoura. Annales l’extr. Orient, Par., xtv, 129-142. 

Les fixations légales relatives a la religion musulmane aux Indes Néerlandaises. 

Annales l’extr. Orient, Par., XIv, 257-267, 289-298. 

Proeve van Zuid-Bantéuschepoézie-Bijdr. Taal-Land-en Volkenk., Hague, 5. s., 
v, 469-503. 

MEYNERS D’EsTREY, H. La Couvade. Rev. Scient., xLv1, 1890, 625-629. [With 
many references. | 

MIpDDENDORPF, E.W. Dieeinheimischen Sprachen Perus. Leipzig: Brockhaus. 393 pp. 
8vo. 

Mies, J. Ueber die Unterschiede zwischen Linge, Breite, und Langen—Breiten—Index 
des Kopfes und Schadels. Mitth. d. Anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., xX, 37-49. 

MILER, O. D. Zodiacal chronology. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, XIT. 313-328. 

Minp. London, 1890, Williams & Norgate, Vol. xv, in 1890. 

Minor, C. S. The concrescence theory of the vertebrate embryo. Am. Naturalist, 
Phila., XxiIv, 501, 617, 702. 

MITCHELL, W. The logic of the ethics of evolution. Mind., Lond. and Edinb., xv., 
342-356. 

Mittheilungen der anthropologischen Gesellschaft in Wien. Wien: A. Holder, 4to; 
Band xx, neue folge, Bd. X in 1890, with index to Bd. XI-xx. 

Mittheilungen aus den orientalischen Sammlungen der konigl. Museen zu Berlin. Ber- 
lin, 1890, Spemann, fol. taf. 93-166. 

Mop, JIVANJI JAMSHEDJI. Superstitions common to Europe and India. Journ. An- 
throp. Soc., Bombay, 11, 161-171. 

MODIGLIANI, E. Unviaggioa Nias. Milan: Treves. 726 pp., 195 figs., 26 plates, 4 
charts. 8vo. [Rev. in: L’ Anthropologie, 1, 314-359. ] 

MOLL, ALBERT. Hypnotism. ‘‘Contemporary Science Series,’’ edited by Havelock 
Ellis. London: Walter Seott. [Rev.in: Nature, XL, 565-567, by A. T. Meyer, 
INS] 

MOLLENDORFF, P.G. VON. Essay on Manchu literature. J. China Br. Roy. Asia. Soc., 
Shanghai, XXIV, n.s., 1-45. 

MOLLER, JOHANNES. Ein interessanter Befund am Chiasma nervorum opticorum des 
Schimpanse. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnsechwg., XTX, 205-209, i tab. 

MoLoNey, ALFRED. Notes on Yoruba and the Colony and Protectorate of Lagos, West 
Africa. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., x11, 596-614. 

MONIER-WILLIAMS, MONIER. Mystical Buddhism in connection with the Yoga philos- 
ophy of the Hindus. J. of Tr. of the Victoria Inst, Vol. x x11, 12-45. 


— 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 589 


Monist, The. A quarterly magazine. Chicago: Open Court Company, Vol. 1, No. 2, 
January, 1891. 

Mowror, K. A forgotten remnant. Scribner’s Mag., N. Y., vil, 303-317. 

M[onT] (P. D[E]). Onze Vlaamsche ‘‘Componisten’’ ofte Liedjeszangers. Volkskunde, 
Gent., 3° Jaarg. 25-39. 

MontTaGuk, A. P. Writing material and books among the ancient Romans. Am. An- 
throp., Wash., 111, 331-340 

Monraaug, F. C. Arnold Toynbee. Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud in Hist. Polit. sc., 
7. s, I, Baltimore, 70 pp., 8vo, 1889. 

MonteE.tus, O. L’age du bronze en Ezy pte. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 27-48, 6 pl. 

Verbindungen zwischen Skandinavien und dem westlichen Europa vor Christi 
Geburt. [Transl.] Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg., X1x, 1-21. 

Montet, EpovarpD. On the conception of a future life among the Semitic races. Asiat. 
Quart, Rev., Lond., x, 319-339. 

MonreGoMerRY, H. Aboriginal monuments of North Dakota. [Abstr.] Proc. Am. 
Ass. Adv. Sc., 1889, Salem, xX XVIII, 342-344. 

Money, W. Lot, meads, and commonable lands. Archeol. Rev., Lond., tv, 344-365. 

Mooney, J. The Cherokee ball play. Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111. 105-132. 

Cherokee theory and practice of medicine. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Boston and N. Y., 

1890, 111, 44-50. 

Mehmed’s Brautfahrt (Smailagic Meho): Ein Volksepos der siidslavischen Mo- 

hammedaner. Aufgezeichnet von Dr. Friedrich S. Krauss, Deutsch von Carl Griéber. 

Wien, Alfred Holder, 16 mo., i380. [fev. in: Am. Anthrop., Wash., 111, 380-381. ] 

notes on the Cosumnes tribes of California. Am, Anthrop., Wash., 111, 259-262. 

MooREHEAD, WARREN K. Fort Ancient, the great prehistoric earthwork of Warren 
County, Ohio, compiled from a careful survey, with an account of its mounds and 
graves, with surveying notes. Cincinnati: Robert Clark & Co. 10-++129 pp. 

MorGAN, J. X. The race question in the United States. Arena, Boston, 11, 385-398. 

Morice, A. G. The Western Dénés; their manners and customs. Proc. Canad. Inst., 
Toronto, 3. s., VII, 109-174. 

Morison. Notes sur la formation du pigment chez le négre. Cong. internat. de der- 
mat.etdesyph. C. r., 1889, Par., 130-134. 

Morison, Mrs.O. Tsimshian proverbs. J. Am. Folk-Lore. Bost. and N. Y., 10 Prstiy 

Morris, C. From brute to man, Am. Naturalist, Phila., xx1rv, 341-350, 

Morse, H. B. Currency and measures in China. J. China Br. Roy. Asia. Soc., Shang- 


hal, n. s., 46-135. 
MorsELLI, E. Anomalie dell’ osso occipitale in 200 cranii di alienati. [Abstr.] Arch. 
di psichiat., etc., Torino, x1, 94. 
MorvtiLuet, G.de. Faux objets francais et italiens. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., 
XII, 3. s., 500-511. 
Gisement préhistorique découvert par M. Berthier, 4 Saint-Aubin. Bull. Soc. 
d’anthrop. de Par., 4. s., 1, 147-152. 
Les silex de Brénio, Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., Par., 3. s., X11, 468-472. 
Mesure des mains. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 4. s., 1, 207-211. 
Origines de Ja chasse, de la péche et de Vagriculture. 1. Chasse, péche, domes- 
tication. Paris: Lecrosnier et Babe, X11I-516 pp. 8vo. (Bibhothéque anthropo- 
logique, XII.) 
Presentation d’un sexdigite. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., Par., X11, 3. s., 531, 
932. 
Squelettes de Castenedolo pretendus tertiaires. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., 
XII, 3. s., 548-551. 
Sur Jes négres de l’ Algérie et de la Tunisie, Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 4.s., 
I, 353-359, 


590 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Movat, F. J. Notes on M. Bertillon’s discourse on the anthropometric measurement 
of criminals. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xx, 182--198. 

Muir; J. Original Sanskrit texts on the origin and history of the people of India. 
Triibner’s Oriental Series. Trubner: Lond., vol.1, 3d ed. 544 pp. 8vo. 

MULusER, F.M. Discoveries of the Veda by the Chinese, Persians, Christian mission- 
aries and scholars. Open Court, Chicago, Iv, 2307-2310. 

Natural religion. ‘‘Gifford lectures.’’ Lengmans & Co. [Rev.in: The Athe- 

neunm, Lond., 3293, 770-772. | 

Three introductory lectures on the science of thought. Longmans, Green & Co., 

Lona. 

Three lectures on the science of language. Open Court Pub. Co., Chicago. 

MULLER, J. Dialectic studies in the Swedish Province of Dalecarlia. Am. Ass. Adv. 
Se., 1890. 

Peculiar effects of one-sided occupations on the anatomy and physiology of 
man. Am. Ass. Adv. Se., 1890. 

Mutier, 8. Nogle Halsringe fra Slutningen af Bronze-Alderen og fra den Aeldste 
Jernalder. Nordskrift., Copenhagen, 19-31, 2 pl. [Résumé in French by E. Beau- 
vais, 32-34. ] 

Munro, R. The Lake dwellings of Europe. London. 612 pp. 8vo. 

Mur (Le), d’enceinte du vieil hanoi. Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2. s., XIII, 207-208. 

Murpocn, JOHN. Astudy of the Eskimo bows inthe U.S. National Museum. [ From: 
Rep. Smithsonian Inst.] Washington: Govt. Print. Office. pp. 307-316,12 pl. 8vo. 

Dress and physique of the Point Barrow Eskimos. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., 

XXXVIIT, 222-229. : 

The history of the ‘‘throwing stick’’ which drifted from Alaska to Greenland 

Am. Anthrop., Wash., III, 233-236. 

Notes on counting and measuring among the Eskimo of Point Barrow. Am. 
Anthrop., Wash., III, 37-43. 

MurpHuy, J.J. The factors of evolution in language. J. trans. Victoria Inst., XXIII, 
237-248. 

Museo Michoacano. History in Anaies del Museo Michoacano. Morelio, 1890, Escuela 
de Artes. Ano, ITI, 1-5. 

Muséon, Le. Revue internationale. Etudes de linguistique, d’histoire et de philoso- 
phie. Publicées par des professeurs de différentes universités. [Société des sciences, 
Société orientale, Vol. 1X in 1890. Quarterly. ] 

Museum fiir deutsche Volkstrachten. Berlin. Opened officially Oct. 27, 1889. Cor- 
resp. BI. f. deutsch. Geselisch. f. Anthrop., X x1, 1890, 5. 

Museums’ (The) Association. Athenzeum, June 23, 1890, 836. 

Musical (The) notation of the middle ages. Masters & Co. [Rev. in: Athenxwum, 
Lond., Dee. 20, pp. 862. ] 

Mythology and monuments of ancient Athens. Being a translation of a portion of the 
‘Attica’? of Pausanias by Margaret de G. Verrall. With introductory essay and 
archeological commentary by Jane E. Harrison. Jlustr. Macmillan & Co. [Rev. 
in: Athenzeum, Aug. 2, 166, 167. 

NADAILLAC, M. Lastation préhistorique de Lengyel (Hongrie). Anthropologie, Par., 
1, 145-149; Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop., X11, 3. s., 638-646. 

Le péril pational. Paris: De Soye et fils. 46 pp. 

NANSEN, FRiIprsor. The first crossing of Greenland. Translated from the Norwegian 
by H. M. Gepp. 2 vols. Longmans & Co. [Rev. in: Athenzeum, Lond., 3295, 
845-846. ] 

NAVILLE, EDOUARD. ‘The historical results of the excavations at Bubastis. J. of Tr. 
of Victoria Inst., XXIII, 137-167. 

Nazarotf. Anthropology of the Bachkirs. J. d.1. Soe. des Amis d, Se. de Moscou, 
LXVII, 27-59, L’Anthropologie, 1, 626-628, : 


x 


PROGRESS UF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 591 


NEOPHYTOS, ARISTOTE G. Le district de Kérassunde au point de vue anthropologique 
et ethnographique. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 679-711. 

NEWELL, W. W. Additional collection essential to correct theory in folk-lore and 
mythology. J. Am. Folk-Lore, Bost. and N. Y., 111, 23-32. 

Game of the child-stealing witch. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 111, 139- 

142. 

The study of folk-lore. Trans. N. Y. Acad. Sci., Ix, 134-136. 

The symbolism of backgammon. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 111, 208, 

New England Historical and Genealogical Register, Boston, Vol. XLIV in 1890. 

NIcAISE, AUGUSTE. L’archéologie 4 exposition universelle de 1889. Chalons-sur- 
Marne: Martin Fréres. 18 pp. 8vo. 

NtccoLuccl, G. Anomalie e deformazioni artificiali del cranio. Anomalo, Napoli, 11, 
65-72. 

L’origine dell’uomo. Anomalo, Napoli, 11, 161-170. 

NIEDERLE, LuBor. Neue Fundeaus Parsberg. Beitr. z. Anthrop. Bayerns, Miinchen, 
TX, 18-32, 4 pl. 

NIEMANN, G. Hissarlik-Ilion. Mitth. d. Anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., x. 
[Sitzungsb. 1-5. ] 

NISBET, J. F. Marriage and heredity: a view of psychological evolution. Ward & 
Downey. [ fev. in: Atheneum, July 26, 131. ] 

NIVELET, F. Gall etsa doctrine. Justification des principes fondamentaux de l’or- 
ganologie cérébrale; suivie d’une étude sur l’amnésie, ’aphémie et l’aphasie et 
autres propositions relatives au déboulement fonctionnel du ceryeau et A l’auto- 
psychologie. Paris: F. Alean. 276 p. 8vo. 

DE NORDLING, W. L’unification des heures avee deux clichés dans le texte. Bull Soe. 
d. géog., Par., 7. s., x1, 111-137. 

Notes d’art et d’archeologie, publication mensuelle la Reunion artistique. Paris: 
Mersch. 8vo. 

NUTTALL, ZELIA. On the Atlatl or spear-thrower of ancient Mexico. Am. Ass. Adv. 
Se., 1890. 

OBOLONSKI, N. A. [The skulls of criminals. ] Vestnik obsh. hig. sudeb. i prakt. med., 
St. Petersb., vir, pt. 3, 1-10, 1 tab. 

OsstT, Dr. Karl Hermanns und Otto Pachsteins in Kleinasien und Nordsyrian. Das 
Ausland, Stuttgart, LX1I1, 657-660. 

OpsT, HERMANN. Zur Demographie des europiiischen Russlands. Das Ausland, Stutt- 
gart, LXIII, 848-853. 

OLDENBERG, H. Comparative philology: Thestudy of Sanskrit. Open Court Pub. Co., 
Chicago. 

OLIVER, P. Madagascar; or, Robert Drury’s Journal. Londen: Fisher Unwin, 1890. 
[ Rev. in: Nature, N. Y., XLi1, 637. ] 

Open Court, The. A weekly magazine of science and philosophy. Chicago. Open 
Court Pub. Co. 

ORDINAIRE, OLIVIER. De Lima a Iquitos par Je Paleozu, la Cordillire de Huachon, les 
cerres du Yanachaga, le rio Pachitea, le Pajonal, avee carte dansle texte. Bull. soc. 
diveéoo Rar (aS <I,) 217-236; 

ORDISH, T. F. Morris dance at Revesby. Folk-Lore J., Lond., vil, 331-356. 

OsBORN, H. F. The paleontological evidence for the transmission of acquired charac- 
ters. Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sc.; 1889, Lond., L1x, 621-623. 

OSTERMAIR, XAVER. Bronzefunde bei Ingolstadt, Bayern. Ergiinz. z. Ztschr. f. 
Ethnol., Berl., 1890, 1, 53. 

OTTOLENGHI, 8S. Borsaiuelo iipo. Arch. di psichiat., ete., Torino, x1, 202-204. 

Caratteri antropologici di 100 rei per rivolta. Arch, di psichiat., etc., Torino, 

XI, 204. 


592 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 
| 


OTTOLENGHI, S. L’olfatto ed il gusto nei criminali in rapporto ai normali. Anomalo, 
Napoli, 11, 138-142. 

OWEN, MARy A. Ole Rabbit an’ de Dawg he Stole. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. 
Y., II, 135-138. 

PACKARD, A. S. Symbolism among the dolmens and standing stones of France. 
Amer, Antiquar., Mendon, XII, 273-282. 

—— The effect of cave life on animals and its bearing on the evolution theory. Pop. 
Se. Month., N. Y., Xx xvi, 389-397. 

PAINTER, A. W. The Hill Aryans. Journ. Anthrop. Soe. Bombay, 1, 146-155. 

PAJEKEN, F. J. Die kinder der Indianer Nordamerikas, Das Ausland, LXIII, 157; 
Wie die Indianer Fleisch ratichern. id., 439: Religion, id., 1011. 

Papers of the Archeological Institute of America.. American series, 111. Final report 
of investigations among the Indians of the Southwestern United States, carried on 
mainly in the years from 1880 to 1885. Part 1, by A. F. Bandelier. Cambridge, 
John Wilson & Son. 

PARANT, V. L’anthropologie criminelle, l'état mental des régicides. Echo méd., Tou- 
louse, 2. s., 493, 505. 

PAULHAN, F. Historic and prehistoric relics. Am. Antiquarian, Mendon, IIJ., x1, 

52-60. 

— The monuments of the stone age. Am. Antiquarian, Mendon, IJ]., x11, 26-41. 

PAvuLI, Gustav. Durch den sitiden Mexikos und dureh Central-Amerika. Das Aus- 
land, Stuttgart, Ux, 101-105, 121-125, 141-145, 161-166. 

PAYNE, F. F. A few notes upon the Eskimo of Cape Prince of Wales, Hudson’s Strait. 
Proce. Am. Ass. Adv. Se., 1889, Salem, XX XVIII, 358-360. 

Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology, in connection with Har- 
vard University, xxIv. An. report in 1890, Vol. x. 

Pecror, D. Essai de localisation des habitants précolumbiens de l’ Amérique Centrale. 
Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 31-33. 

PEET,S.D. Did the boomerang precede the bow and arrow? Amer. Antiquar., Men- 
don, XII, 179-183, 3 figs. ; 

—-— Historic and prehistoric relies. Jbid., 52-61, 6 figs. 

Museums and societies. IJbid., 363-364. 

Phallic worship and fire worship. Jbid., 352-358, 3 figs. 

—— Quivira, the phantom city. Jbid., 293-294. 

——— The cliff-dwellers and their works. Ibid., 85-104, 15 figs., 5 pl. 

The difference between Indian and mound-builders’ relies. Jbid., 251-272, 35 

figs. 

The great serpent and other effigies. /bid., 211-228, 4 figs., 2 pl., 9 maps. 

The island of Mackinaw and native myths. Jbid., 112-114. 

—— The monuments of the stone age. Jbid., 26-41. 

—— The mound-builders and ancient Mexicans. Jbid., 359-362. 

The ‘‘sacred enclosures’’ of Ohio. Jbid., 131-154, 8 figs., 2 maps. 

——— The Snake Clan among the Dakotas. Jbid., 237-242, 8 figs. 

——— The stone grave people. Jbid., 329-344, 12 figs. 

— Were the Druids in America? Jbid, 294-302. 

PENA Y FERNANDEZ, M. DE LA. Manual de arqueologia prehistorica. Sevilla. 963 
pp. Ato. 

PENDLETON, Louis. Notes on negro folk-lore and witchcraft in the South. J. Amer. 
Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 111, 201-207. 

PENKA, KARL. Die arische Urzeit im Lichte der neuesten Anschauungen. Das Aus- 
land, Stuttgart, Lx, 741-744, 764-771. 

Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography. Phila. Hist. Soc., Vol. x111, in1890. 

Periostitis and atrophy of ancient Egyptian bones. Lancet, Lond., 1, 404, 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 593 

PeRRoup, C. La Tunisieancienne. Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2. s., XIII, 236-243, 
257-269. 

Peru, ete. A. Stubel, W. Reiss, B. Koppel. Kultur und Industrie stidamerikanischer 
Volker. Berlin, 1889, Asher. [ ev. in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., xxi, 45-44, 

Petermann’s Mitteilungen, Gotha, Justus Perthes, XXXVI. 

PETERSEN, H. Gravpladsen fra den aeldre Jernalder paa Nordrup Mark ved Ringsted. 
Nordiske Fortids. det Kgl. Nord. Oldskrift., Copenhagen, 1-14, 3 pl. [Résumé 
in French by E. Beauvais, 15-18. | 

Hypothesen om religiose Offer-og Votivfund fra Danmarks forhistoriske Tid. 
Aarb. f. Nurd. Oldk. og Hist., Kjobenhavn, v, 209-252. 

Petri. E.J. Anthropologija. Tome I. Osnovy Anthropologie. [ * * * T.I. 
Principles of.] St. Petersburg: A.Ilna. 584 pp., 8 pl., 4 ch. 8vo. 

PFEIFER, E, Aberglaube aus dem Altenburgischea. Ztschr. f. Volkerk., Leipz., 1, 
160-200. Pfliiger’s Archiv. 

PHILIPPSON, A. Zur Ethnographie des Peloponnes. Petermann’s Mittheil., Gotha, 
Justies Perthes, XxX XvI, 1-10, 33-41. 

PHILLIPS, Jr., HENRY. Primitive man in modern beliefs. J. Amer. Folk-L., Boston 
and N. Y., 111, 60-63. 

PiperitT, T. Thephysiognomy of the mouth. [ Transl. from: Rev. scient., Par.] Pop. 
Se. Month, N. Y., XXXVI, 678-687. 

PIERCE, GRANVILLE T. The source of the jade. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, x1, 174, 
175 

PIERSON, H. The evolution of the gondola. Cosmopolitan, N. York, VIII, 529-535, 

PINCHES, THEODORE G. Biblical research. Mag. Christian Lit., N. York, 1891, 111, 
294, 295. ; 

PLATZ, B. Die Volker der Erde. Wurzburg, Woerl. pts. 17-22. 8vo. 

PLAYFAIR, Sir R. LAMBERT. The Mediterranean, Physical and Historical. Nature, 
N. Y., XLil, 480-485. 

PLICQUE, A.-F. Note sur Vhérédité du bec-deliévre. Progrés méd., Par., 2.s., XI, 
294. 

PLISCHKE, KARL. Kurzer Mittheilung ueber zwei malayische Spiele. Internat. archiv 
f. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 189-194. 

Political Science Quarterly. Edited by the University Faculty of Political Science of 
Columbia College. New York, Ginn & Co., Vol. v in 1890. 

POLLocK, Sir F. Origins of the common law. Contempt. Rev., Dec., i890. 

PoNCHON, M. Les mégalithesde laSomme. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. par., X11, 3. s., 

~ 556-567, 2 ills. 

Poporr, L. L’origine delapeinture. [Transl. fromthe Russian.| lev. scient., Par., 
XLVI, 399-403. 

Popovsky, J. Les muscles de la face chez un negre Achanti. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 
413-422. 

PorAk. Le crane de Nicolas Terry, si conau sous le nom de Bébé, nain du roi de Po- 
logne. Bull. & Mém. Soc. abst. et gynéc. de Par., 77. 

PORTER, EDwArp G. The aborigines of Australia. Proc. Am. Antiquar. Soc. Wor- 
cester, VI, 303-322, 3 pl. 

PorHIER, E. Sépultures préromaines trouvées dans les environs de Nimes. Nimes: 
Chastanier. 12 pp. 8vo. 

POULTON, EDWARD B. Mimicry. [Abst.] Nature, N. Y., XLt1, 557, 558. 

On the supposed transmission of acquired characters. Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sc., 
1889, Lond., 1890, L1x, 620. 

POWELL, F. Y. Recent research on Teutoniemythology. I'olk-Lore, Lond., 1, 118-126. 

PoWELL, J. W. Problemsof archeology. Forum, N. York, viiI, 638-652. 

Prehistoric man in America. Forum, N. York, vill, 489-503. 

The humanities. Forum, N. York, x, 410-422. 


H. Mis. 129 358 


594 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Pozzi, S. Pseudo-hermaphrodite male. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., x11, 3.s., 602- 
606. ; 

PREXL, R. Besprechungsformeln der Rumiinen inSiebenbirgen. Ztschr. f. V6lkerk., 
Leipz., 156, 195, 

PREYER, W. Der Hypnotismus. Nebst Anmerkungen und einer nachgelassenen Ab- 
handlung von Braid aus dem Jahre 1845. Wien: Urban & Schwarzenberg. 217 
pp. 8vo. 

Primitive (A) surgical instrument. [For the ‘‘mika’’ operation.] Brit. M. J.,Lond., 
I, 1500. 

PRITCHETT, R.T. Ye ‘‘Smokiana.’’ London: Bernard (uaritch. 102 pp. 

PROAL, L. La responsabilité morale des criminels, Rev. Phil., Par., XXIx, 384-398, 

Les statistiques criminelles et le libre arbitre. Ann. d’hyg., Par., 3.s., XXIV, 
235-242, 

Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Phila.: By the 
Acad... 3. Ss, Vol. xox, 1890! 

Pro ceedings of the American Antiquarian Society. Worcester, Charles Hamilton, v1. 

Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Fortieth 
meeting in Indianapolis, 1890. 

Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Philadelphia, 1890, MacCalla & 
Com sxexevalilile 

Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Calcutta: Thomas, monthly, 1865- 
1890. ~ ; 

Proceedings of the Canadian Institute, Toronto. 1890. Copp, Clark Company, 3.s., 
VII. 

Proceedi ngs of the Royal Geographical Society. London, Edward Stanford, 1890, x1. 

Proceedings of the twentieth annual session of the American Philological Association. 

Proceedings of the Royal Institution of Great Britain. London: By the Society, 1890. 

Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy. Published by the Academy. Vol. 11 in 1890. 

PROCHNO, F. Wendische Funde aus der Altmark. Verhandl. d. Berl. Anthrop. Ge- 
sellsch., Berl., 312-316. 

Progress of the Russian expedition to Central Asia under Colonel Pievtsoff. Proce. Roy. 
Geog. Soc., Lond., x11, 19-36. 

PROTHERO, ROWLAND E. French boycotting and its cure. Nineteenth Cent., N. Y. 
No. CLXV, 778-785. 

ProupFiT, 8. V. A collection of stone implements from the District of Columbia. 
[From Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.] Washington, Govt. Print. Office, p. 187-194, 5 pl. 
8vo. 

Purification (La) selon 1’ Avesta et le Gomez. ie Muséon, Louvain, 1890, rx, 105-112. 

Purnam, F.W. <A singular ancient work at Foster’s, Warren County, Ohio. Proce. 
Amer. Antiquar. Soc., VI. 

——— Notice of a singular earth-work near Foster’s, Little Miami Valley, Ohio. Am. 
Ass. Adv. Se., 1890. 

On an ancient hearth in the Little Miami Valley. Am. Ass. Ady. Se., 1890. 

——— The Peabody Museum of American Archeology and Ethnology in Cambridge. 
Proc. Am, Antiquar. Soc., Worcester, VI, n. s., 180-190. 

——~— Prehistoric remains in the Ohio Valley. Century, N. Y., Xxx1x, 698-703. 

Remarks upon the NampalImage. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist., xx1v, 1890, 449. 

——— Suggestions relating to an ethnographical exhibition. -An appendix to the re- 
port of the committee on permanent organization, submitted to the meeting of the 
Commissioners of the World’s Columbian Exposition September 15, 1890. Chicago. 

-——— Theserpent mound of Ohio. Century Mag., N. Y,, April, 871-888. Ils. 

QUATREFAGES, A. DE. Cantonnement et migrations; peuplement de 1’ Amérique. 
Rev. scient., Par., XLVI, 481-486. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 595 


QUATREFAGES, A. DE. Les théories transformistes d’Owen et de Mivart. Rev. 
scient. Par., XLVI, 33-39. 

Origine de Vhomme; théorie de A, Russel Wallace. Rev. scient., Par., XLVI, 

225-233. 


<a0- 


QUEDENFELD?, M. Die Bevolkerungs elemente der Stidte Tunis und Tripoli, Ausland, 
Stuttgart, LXr, 1890, 314, 321, 354, 363, 495, 515, 532, 560. 

Brauche der Marokkaner bei hatislichen Festen und Trauerfillen, ibid., 716, 

730. 

Das Turkische Schattenspiel im Magrib (Tunis), 904, 921. 

Rapor, C. De Valimentation chez les Lapons, Anthropologie, Par., 1, 187-200. 

Explorations dans Ja Laponie Russe. Bul. d. 1. Soc. d. Géog., Paris, 7. s., X1, 371-- 

416. 

Une exploration au Groénland. Rev. scient., Par., XLV, 168-173. 

RADLOFF, W. Sur les anciens dialectes turcs. Bull. d. l’Acad. Imp. d. Sc, de St. 
Petersb., XX XIII, 291-351. 

RaAimon, AuGusTe. Dieu et Vhomme; étude philosophique. Paris, 1891: J. B. 
Baillicre & fils. 192 pp. 8 vo. 

RAMANATHAN, P. The ethnology of the ‘* Moors’ 
Colombo, X, 234-262. 

RAND, Siras T. Glooscap, Cuhkwand Coolpurjot. Amer. Antiquar., "Mendon, XII, 
283-286. 

The coming of the white man revealed. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, x11, 155- 

156. 

The legends of the Micmacs. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, x11, 2-14. 

RANKE, JOHANNES. Les variations extrémes du poids humain. Beitr. z. Anthrop. u. 
Urgsch. Bayerns, T. IX, pp. 23. [fev.in: L’ Anthropologie, Par., 1, 747, 748, by 
Léon Laloy. | 

RANKING, G, The Nutts and their language. J. Gypsy Lore Soc., Edinb., 11, 17-21. 

RATZEL, FRIEDR. Versuch einer Zusammenfassung der wissenschaftlichen Ergebnisse 
der Stanleyschen Durchquerung. Petermann’s Mitteil., Gotha, Justus Perthes, 
XXXVI, 281-296. 

Rau, L.v. Mahewerkzeuge. Verhandl.d. Berl. anthrop. Geseilsch., Berl., 153-160, 
318-320. 

Ravux, M. L’enfancecoupable. [Extrait.] Arch. de lanthrop. crim., Par., v, 221-258. 

— Nos jeunes détenus; étude sur l’enfance coupable avant, pendant et aprés son 

séjour au quartier correctionnel. Paris: G. Masson. 270 pp. 8vo. [Bibliothéque 


) 


of Ceylon. J. R. S.S., Ceylon, 


’ de criminologie, fv. ] 

RAYNAUD, GEORGES. La Polyandrie; les origines communistes; Adelphogamie; Ma- 
triarcat. Clermont: Daix fréres. 16 pp. 8vo. 

READ, CHARLES H. Naga ornaments. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., x1x, 441. 

Recius, E. Sone natives of Australasia. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., Xxxvil, 607-617. 

Records of the Past. New series, 11. Edited by A. H. Sayce Bagster & Sons. [ Rev. 
in: Atheneum, July 26, 125. ] 

REECE, B. Public schoolsas affecting crime and vice. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., XX XVI, 
319-328. 

Rees, J.D. Meddling with Hindu marriages. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., Xxvutt, Oct. 

Reais, E. Les régicides dans histoire et dans le présent; étude medico-psychologique. 
Arch. de l’anthrop. crim., Par., v, 5-34. Also, Reprint. 

REGNAUD, PAUL. Origine et philosophie du langage. Paris. 443 pp. 18mo. 

Principes généraux de linguistique indo-européenne. Hachette. 12mo. 

RicHAkpD, P. Gebirden und Meinenspiel des Negers. Das Ausland, LXI11, 1890, 381, 
406, 425. 

REICHARDT, Mrs, Life among the Druses, Part 1. Asiat. Quart. Rev., Lond., x, 
358-371, 


596 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890, 


REINACH, SALOMON. Friedrich von Duhn Remarques sur la question étrusque. Ber- 
lin, Spemann, 1890, 21-37. [Rev. in: L’ Anthrop., Par., 1, 435, 436. ] 

—-— Les découvertes de Vaphio et la civilisation mycénienne d’aprés des publications 
recentes. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 552-565. 

—— Les systémes de numération 4 la lumiére de lVethnographie, par Siegmund 
Gunther. | Rev. in: Anthropologie, Par., 1, 614, 615. ] 

Préhistorique, ethnographie, ete. L’Anthrop., Par., 1, 487-491. 

Tombeau de Vaphio (Morée). Anthropologie, Par., 1, 57-61. 

ReEINIscH, LEO. Die Kunama-Sprache in Nordost-Afrika. Wien: Tempsky. 96 pp. 
Bvo. 

Die Saho-Sprache. 11. Worterbuch-Wien: Holder. 492 pp. 8vo. 

REMONDINO, P. C. Longevity and climate. Relations of climatic conditions to lon- 
gevity, history, and religion; relations of climate to national and personal habits; 
the climate of California and its effects in relation to longevity. Tr. M. Soc. Calif., 
San Francis., 269-298. 

Remy, CH. Etudes japonaises. Annales L’extr. Orient Par., 2. s., III, 161-177. 
RENAN, ERNEST. Histoire du peuple d’Israél. Paris, Calmann Lévy. [ Rev. in: The 
Athenzeum, Lond., 3294, 807, 808. ] . 
RENNIE, G. E. Notes on a case of sporadic cretinism. Australasian. M. Gaz., 

Sidney, 1X, 326. 
Report of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, in 1890, at Leeds, 
REUSENS, Le C. Eléments d’archéologie chrétienne. 2d ed. Paris: Ernest Thorin. 


2 vols. 8vo. 

Reuter, O. M. Finlands Natur, Folk och Kultur. Stockholm. 173 pp. 8 vo. 

Revue de l’histoire de religions. M. Jean Neville, director. Paris, E. Leroux, Vol. 
Iv, 1890. Annales du Musée Guimet. [Excellent bibliographers of religion and 
kindred subjects. ] 

Revue des traditions populaires. Paris, Vol. v, 1890. Monthly. Organ of Société des 
traditions populaires au Musée d’ethnographe du Trocadero, Paris, Maisonneuve. 

Revue de linguistique et de philologie comparée. Paris, Maisonneuve, Vol. X XXIII, in 
1890. 

Revue Philosophique. Paris, 1890, F. Alcan. 

Revue scientifique; founded in 1863. Paris, Lagrange, vol. 45, 11th year, 1890, 

Revista del Museo de la Plata. Argentine Republic. Tome I, 1890. Province of 
Buenos Aires. Also ‘‘ Annales’’ del Museo. 

Réyue Archéologique. 

Revue d’ethnographie de la Société Imperiale des amis des sciences naturelles. 1 annee, 
1889, Moscou, 3 vols. A list of the papers given in L’ Anthropologie, I, 474. 

Revue de ’hypnotisme. Paris. 

Revue des traditions populaires. Paris. 

Revue Scientifiaue. Paris. 

REYNIER, J. B. Causes de V’expression spirituelle et mordante de certains bossus. 
Gaz. méd.-chir. de Toulouse, xxt1, 155-157. 

Resor, TH. The psychology of attention: 1. Spontaneous or natural attention; 2. Vol- 
untary or artificial attention, and, 3. Morbid states of attention. Chicago, Open 
Court Pub. Co. 

kuys. Early ethnology of the British Isles. Scottish Review, April, 1890. 

Mythological treatment of Celtic ethnology. Scottish Review. Oct. 1890, 

Riccarpt, P. Prequidizi e superstitioni del popolo modenese. Archivio l’anthrop. e 
la etnol., Firenze, Xx, 73-110. 

RicHeER, PAuL. Anatomie artistique. Description des formes extérieures du corps 
humain au repos et dans les principaux mouvements. Paris: Edit. Plon. 269 pp. 
4to. 108 pl. [Rev. in: Anthropologie, Par., 1, 712-714, by P. Topinard. } 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN_ 1890. 597 


RICHER, PAuL. Du role de la graisse dans la conformation extérieure du corps 
humain. N. iconog. de la Salpétricre, Par., 111, 20-26. 

RIcHTER, J. PauL. The Guilds of the Early Italian painters. Nineteenth Cent., N. 
Y., CLXv, 786-800. 

RIcHTER, UL. Culturpflanzen und ihre Bedeutung fiir das wirthschaftliche Leben der 
Volker. Geschichtlich-geographische Bilder. Wien: Hartleben. 225 pp. 8vo. 

Rig Van Americanus: Sacred songs of the ancient Mexican. Edited by Daniel G. 
Brinton. London: Paul. 8vo. 

Rink, H. Gm Eskimoemes Herkomst. Aarb. f. Nord. Oldk. og Hist., Kjobent.,v, 185. 

On a safe conclusion concerning the origin of the Eskimo, which can be drawn 
from the designation of certain objects in theirlanguage. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., 
XIX, 452-458. 

Ristey, H.H. The race basis of Indian political movements. Contemp. Rev., Lond., 
LVII, 742-759. 

Rircuir£, D.G. Natural selection and the spiritual world. Westminst. Rev., Lond., 
CXXXIII, 459-469. 

Riviere, E. Quatriéme promenade 4 la section d’anthropologie. Les hommes fossiles 
des grottes de Menton; procédés d’exploration des grottes, des cavernes, des dol- 
mens; relation d’explorations récentes. Bull. Soc. de méd. prat. de Par., 1890, 
814-852. 

Rosin, PAvuL. Observations sur l’usage du cerset. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., XII, 
3. S., 551. 

RoBertson, W.S. A curious and important discovery in Indiana. The chief of the 
Miamis. Mag. Am. Hist., N. Y.,XxXIv, 46-51. 

Rock inscriptions, Archaic. An account of the cup and ring marking on the sculptural 
stones of the old and new worlds. London, 1890. 8vo. 

ROcKHILL, W. WoOpVILLE. An Americanin Thibet. Century Mag., N. Y., XLi, 3-17, 
8 ills. 

The border-land of China. Century Mag., N. Y., XLI, 250-263, 14 ills. 

RoOpicER, F. Die Losung der Chenopodium-Frage. Antiqua, Strassburg, VIII, 56-58. 

RowaAut, CH. A. Du transformisme et de la génération spontanée. Etude scientifique 
et philosophique. Ouvrage précédé d’une préface du Dr. Michel Peter. Paris: J. 
B. Bailliére et fils. 168 pp. 12mo. 

ROMANES, G. J. Darwin’s latest critics. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvi1, 823-832. 

Origin of human faculty. Brain, Lond., x11, 289-307. 

Primitive natural history. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvii, August. 

~ W. A. R. Wallace on physiological selection. Monist, Chicago, 1, 1-20. 

Weismann’s theory of heredity. Contemp. Rev., Lond., LVIi, 686-699. 

ROSENBRUGH, A. M. Prison reform. [Abst.] Proc, Canad. Inst., Toronto, vir, 206- 
212. 

Rosset, C. W. Indochina. Cambodja, Laos, Siam, Annam und Cochinehina. Das Aus- 
land, Stuttgart, Lx11, 481-485, 505-508. 

Indochinesische stimme. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lxiim, 647-651. 

Rossi, G. E. 8. OTTOLENGHI. ‘Tipi di criminali nati. Arch. di psichiat., etc., Torino, 
XI, 91-93. 

Rota, H. Linc. The aborigines of Tasmania. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner 
& Co. [Rev.in: Nature, N. Y., xu, by F. Max Miiller, 489-491. } 

RotnH, E. Ueber den gegenwirtigen Stand der Frage der Vererbung erworbener Eigen- 
schaften und Krankheiten. Wien, Klinik, xvi, 181-194. 

Rousset, A. De la priére chez les Hindous. Le muséon, Louvain, 1890, rx, 113-122, 
209-229, 438-458. , 

Royer, CLEMENCE. De l’utilité des sépultures de famille pour les études anatomiques. 
Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. d. Par., X11, 3. s., 555-556. 


598 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


ROYER, CLEMENCE. Sur la phylogénie; 4 propos d’un lézard bipéde. Bull. Soc. 
d’anthrop. de Par., 4. s., 1, 156-206. 

RounpD, J.H. Communal house demolition. Archeol. Rev., Lond., Iv, 366-374. 

RUBBENS, C. Fil de soie contre les pertes de sang. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop., Par., 1, 4. s., 
287. 

RUCHENBACH, J. C. Etude sur le royaume d’Assinie. Bul. d. 1.Soc. de Géog., Paris, 
7. 8., XI, 310-349. 

Rust, H. N. Theadze. Am. Ass. Adv. Sc., 1890. 

On obsidian implements of California. Am. Ass. Adv. Sce., 1890. 

RypeEr, J. A. The origin of sex through cumulative integration, and the relation of 
sexuality to the genesis of species. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Phila., xxvii1, 109- 
159. 

Sacred books of the East, xxxit1. The minor law books. Translated by Jul. Jolly, 
pt. 1, xxxtv. The Vedinta Sitras. Translated by Thibaut, pt. 1. London, 
1890. 55S pp. 8vo. 

Sacred books of the East. Edited by Max Miilier, xxxv. London, 1890. 358 pp. 8vo. 

Sr. CLAIR-THOMPSON. Dangers of hypnotism. Westminster Rev., Dec., 1890. 

SALIN, BERNHARD. Studier i ornamentik. Antiq. Tidsk. f. Sverige. Stockholm, 
XI, 1-141. : 

SALMONE, H. A. The main cause of the rise and fall of the Arab dominion. Asiat. 
Quart. Rev., Lond., x, 434-447. 

SALTER, W. M. Hoffding on the relation of the mind to the body. The Monist., 
Chicago, 1, 118-123. 

SANDBURG, GRAHAM. A journey to the capital of Tibet. Contemp. Rev., July, 1890, 
64-82. 

Philosophical Buddhism in Tibet. Contemp. Rev., Feb., 256-271. 

Santos Rocua, A. Uma obra da arte primitiva. Rev. de Sci. Nat. e Sac. da Socie- 
dade Carlos Ribeiro, Porto, 1, 145-151, 1 pl. 

SAPPER-CoBAN, KARL. Die Quekechi-Indianer. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx11, 841- 
844, 892-895. 

SAYCE, A.H. Excavations in Judea. Contemp. Rev., Sept., 427-434, 

Introduction to the science of language. 3d ed. 2 vols., 880pp. Kegan Paul, 

Truibner & Co. 8vo. 

The latest results of oriental archeology. Contemp. Rev., Lond., Lv, 907- 
912 Also: Mag. Christian Lit., N. York, 111, 296-299. 

SCHAEFER, O. UeberSchwanzbildungen beim Menschen. Demonstrationen von Miss- 
bildungen aus der Kgl. Franenklinik, ausserdem tber einen Fall von Hernia dia- 
phragmatica congenita. Miinchen. med. Wehnschr., XX XVII, 534-537, 

SCHAUDEL, L. Découvertes archeologiques sur les territoires de Villette et Charency- 
Vezin (Meurthe-et-Moselle). Naney: Crepin-Leblond. 6 pp. 8vo. 

SCHEUFFGEN, J. Mammut und Mensch in Europa. Jahrb. d. Naturw., Freib. i. Br., 
451-454. 

Die Schadel der europiiischen Menschenrassen. Jahrb. d. Naturw., Freib. i. 
Br., 440-446. 

Scuis, G. H. Origine ethnique des populations africaines. Le Muséon, Louvain, 1x, 
87-95. 

SCHLIEMANN, H. Arbeiten auf Hissarlik. Verhandl. d. Berl. Anthrop. Gesellsch., 
Berl., 349-353. 

ScHLoss, Davip F. The sweating system. Fortnightly Rev., April, 532-551. 

ScCHLOssAR, A. Volkslieder aus Steirmark. Ztschr. f. Vélkerk., Leipz., 11, 148-187 

SCHMELTZ, J.D. E. Indonesische Prunkwaffen; ein Beitrag zur Kunde des Kunstge- 
werbes in Indonesien und der ethnologischen Bedeutung des Kris. Internat. Arch. 
f. Kthnog., Leiden, 111, 85-118, 2 pl. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 599 


ScHMELTZ, J. D. E. Ueber einen heiligen Krug von Borneo. Internat. Arch. f. 
Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 29-31. 

SCHOULER, JAMES. The spirit of historical research. Ann. Rep. Am. Hist. Assoc., 
Wash., 43-51. 

SCHRADER, O. Prehistoric antiquities of the Aryan peoples: a manual of comparative 
philology and the earliest culture (being the ‘‘Sprachvergleichung und Urges- 
chichte’’). Translated by Frank Byron Jevons from the second revised and en- 
larged German edition with the sanction and codperation of the author. London: 
Griffin. 496 pp. &vo. 

SCHREIBER, J. Etude sur le subjonctif francais. Le Muséon, Louvain, 1x, 278-296. 

ScHUMANN., Slavische Skeletgriber von Bagemiihl ander Randow. Verhandl. d. Berl. 
Anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 361. 

Scnurtz, H. Beitrige zur Trachtenkunde Apikas. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx11, 861- 
864, 888-892, 910-913. 

Eine Religion der Urzeit. Das Ausland, ‘stuttgart, LX111, 688-692. 

ScHwakrrz, W. Mythologisch-Volksthtimliches aus Friedrichsroda und Thiringen. 
Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop.Gesellsch., Berl., 131-137. 

ScHwWaTKA, F. The sun-dance of the Sioux. Century, N. Y., XXX1xX, 753-759, 

Science. Weekby. New York. Vol. xiv, in 1890. 

Scottish Review. Quarterly, 1890. 

SEipiitz, N.v. Kirgisische Volks-Diehter und Sanger. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, LXIf, 
645-647. 

SELER, Ep. Altmexikanische Studien. 1. Ein kapitel aus dem geschichtswerk des P. 
Sahagun. 2. Diesogenannten Sacralem Gefisse der Zapoteken. Berlin: Spemann. 
pp. 117-188. fol. 

Altmexikanische Wurfbretter. Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., Leid., 11, 137-148, 
32 ills., 1 pl. 

—— Religion und Kultus der alten Mexikaner. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lxir, 781— 
786, 814-817. 

SrEpp, Dr. Die Urbewobner Altbayerns. Grundlinie einer neuen Alterthumsgeschichte 
unseres Vaterlandes. Beitr. z. Anthrop. Bayerns. Munchen, 1X, 1-7. 

SERGI, G. Sopra un cranio deformato scoperto nel Bolognese. Bull. d. r. Acad. med. 
di Roma, x1, 115. 

SEVERO, R. Primeros vestigios do periodo neolithico na Provineia de Anzola.. Rev. de 
sei. nat. e soc. da Sociedade Carlos Ribeiro, Porto, 1, 162-161, 1 pl. 


SEWALL, C.A. A new extemporaneous litter, copied after the Mojave Indian method 
of carrying the wounded. Med. Rec., N. Y., xxxvuit, 461. 

SHALER, N.S. Nature and man in America. Scribner’s Mag., N. Y., vit. I. 360- 
376; II. 473-484; III. 645-655. 

SHAND, ALEXANDER F. The antinomy of thought. Mind, July, 1890. 

SHAstri, PANDIT HARAPRASAD. Notes on the superstitious beliefs in the Sunder- 
buns (title). Proce. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, Caleutta, 248. 

—— The account ofa Bengali Brahmana who obtained a high position in the Singhalese 
Buddhist Hierarchy in the Eleventh century A.D. Proc. Asiatic Soe. Bengal, Cal- 
eutta, 125. 

SHAW, ALBERT. How London is governed. Century Mag., N. Y., XI, 132-147. 

SHEPHERD, H. A. The antiquities of the State of Ohio; full and accurate descriptions 
of the works of the mound-builders; defensive and sacred inclosures, mounds, ceme- 
tries, and tombs, and their contents—implements, ornaments, sculptures, ete. Cin- 
cinnati: Robert Clarke & Co. 6-+-139 pp. 8vo. 

SHoreE, T. W. Characteristic survivals of the Celts in Hampshire. J. Anthrop. Inst., 
Lond., xx, 3-20. 

Siberia. Note di Viaggio, Stephen Sommier, Arch. per l’anthrop., XVIII, fase 3, XIX, 
fase. 1. [Rev. in: L’anthropologie, 1, 124-131. 


600 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


SIBLEY, W. K. Left-leggedness. Nineteenth Cent., Lond, xxvii, 773-778; Rep. 
Brit. Assoc. Adv. Se., London, LIX, 776. 

SINCLAIR, F.W. Flint remainsin the Kolaba district. Journ. Anthrop. Soc., Bombay, 
i, 7o—79: 

Sirrie, Orro. Ueber unfreiwillige Wanderungen im grossen Ozean-Gotha. 12 pp. 
Ato. 

Sixty folk-tales, from exclusively Slavonic sources; translation, with brief introductions 
and notes, by A. H. Wratislaw. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Co. 8vo. 

SKATKOWSKT, B. von. Ueber das Verhiltniss gewisser Durchmesser des kindlichen 
und des mttterlichen Schadels. Arch. f. Gynaek., Berl., xxxvit1, 501-510. 

SKERTCHLY, 8. B.J. On fire-making in North Borneo. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., XIx, 
445-452, 1 pl. 5 

On some Borneo traps. J. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xx, 211-219. 

Surrer, C. P. Over het al of niet waarschijnlijke van het Overerven van Verkegen 
Eigenschappen, en het Belang dezer Vraag voor de Biologie. Batav., 8. s., X, 75-96. 

Sma, A. W. The beginnings of American nationality. Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud. 
in Hist. and Polit. Se., Balto., 77. 

SMIRNOFF, J. N. Les Votjaks; apercu historique et ethnographique. Kazan. 308+ 
39-+4 pp. 8vo. 

SmiTH, DELE. Additional notes on Onondaga witchcraft and Ho®-do’-i. J. Am. Folk- 
Lore, Bost. and N. Y., 11, 278-281. 

SmirH, W. RoBERTSON. The religion of the Semites. New York: D. Appleton & Co. 
488 pp. 8vo. 

SmirH, WILLIAM W. Who first made maple sugar? Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, XII, 
Gs ide : 

SNYDER, MONROE B. Survivals of astrology. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 
m1, 127-131. 

Société d’ Eludes philosophiques et sociales. Paris. 

SOMERVILLE, A. A. Experiments at Eton College on the degree of concordance be- 
tween different examiners in assigning marks for physical qualifications. Rep. 
Brit. Ass. Adv. Se., 1889, Lond., L1x, 477. 

SorEL, G. Contributions psycho-physiques a étude esthetique. Rev. philosph., 
July. 

Sowa, RuDOLPH von. Noteson the gypsies of Northwestern Bohemia. J. Gypsy Lore 
Soc., Edinb., 11, 138-142. 

Notes on the Grypsies of Southeastern Moravia. J. Gypsy Lore Soe., Edinb., 11, 

226-228. 

Slovak-Gypsy vocabulary. J. Gypsy Lore Soc., Edinb., 11, 110-114, 181-186, 
240-245. 

SPEARMAN, EpMuND R. French Police Photography. Nature, N. Y., xLir, 642-644, 
5 ills. 

Mistaken identity and police anthropometry. Fortnightly Rev., Lond., n.s., 
XLVII, 361-376. 

SPENCER, HERBERT. Absolute political ethics. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., XXVIII, 
Jan. 

Our space-consciousness; a reply. Mind, Lond. and Edinb., xv, 305-324. 

On justice. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvii1, March. 

The origin of music. Mind, Lond. and Edinb.. xv, 449-468. Also, Pop. Se. 
Month., N. Y., Xxxvi11, 1-18. 

SPENCER, J. W. Remarks upon the mounds of Sullivan County, Indiana. Am. Ass. 
Ady. Se., 1890. : 

SPENCER, D. E. Local government in Wisconsin. Johns Hopkins Univ. Stud.in 
Hist. and Polit. Se., Balto., 5-15. 


| 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 601 


Spotrnt, IGNAZ. Resultate der Ausgrabungen fiir die anthropologische Gesellschaft 
in Niederosterreich und in Mahrenin Jahre, 1889. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in 
Wien, xx, 59-100, 40 ills. 

STANLEY, H.M. Geographical results of the Emin Pasha relief expedition. Proc. 
Roy. Geog. Soc. Lond., XII, 313-330. 

In Darkest Africa. Sampson Lowe, Marston & Co. 3d ed., 2 vols., 150 ills., 

3 maps. 8vo. 

Les pygmées de 1’Afrique centrale. [Extrait.] Nature, Par., xvmil, pt. 2, 
67-69. 

STANLEY, W.F. NoteonanewSpirometer. Journ. Anthrop. Inst., Lond., xx, 28-30. 

STARR, FREDERICK. Perforated skulls from Michigan. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, 
X11, 165-166. 

STEARNS, ROBERT E. C, Instances of the effects of musical sounds on animals. Am. 
Naturalist, Phila., 1890, xx1v, 22-29, 123-130, 236-242. 

On the Nishinam game of *‘Ha’’ and the Boston game of ‘‘ props.’”? Am. An- 
throp., Wash., IIT, 353-358, 2 ills. 

STEENSTRUP, J. Die Mammuthjager-Station bei Predmost im osterreichischen. Kron- 
lande Mahren. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. ., x, 1-31, 3 ills. 

Stempr, V. Glossar zu Dechepare’s Poesien. Rev.d. Ling., Par., xx11I, 312-329. 

STEARIN, P. von. Die Wotjaken. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx1i1, 576-580, 590-593. 

Ein Beitrag zur Ethnologie des Amurlandes. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx111, 
757-760, 771-775. 

STERNDALE, R. A. Asiatic architecture in Polynesia. Asiat. Quart. Rev., Lond., x, 
340-357. 

StEveNnsOoN, W. H. The long hundred and itsuse in England. Archveo]. Rev., Lond., 
IV, 313-327. 

STEWART, GEORGE W. Mounds in California. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, xt, 42-43. 

Srokvis, B. J. Ueber vergleichende Racenpathologie und die Widerstandsfihigkeit 
des Europiers in den Tropen. Wien. Med. BI., x11, 563, 580, 598. 

STOLL,'Orro. Zur Kenntnis der heutigen Basken. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx1m, 695. 
699, 701-704, 734-737, 751-754, 775-779, 796-798. 

STOLLER, J. H. Human heredity. Pop.Sc. Month., N. Y., Xxxvu, 359-365. 

STOLPE, HJALMAR. Om Kristiania Universitets etnografiska Samling. Ymer, Stock- 
holm, x, 53-64. 

STOLTEN, H.O. Der Arzt als Bahnbrecher christlicher Kultur die Mission des Arztes in 
China. Jena, G. Neuenhahn, 1890, 8. 55S. [Rev.] Zeitschi. f. Ethnol., Berl., xx11, 
107-108. 

Sroops, H.M. Preliminary steps to an archeological map of Franklin County, Indiana, 
Am. Ass. Adv. Se., 1890. 

STorNoO, Jr., FRANZ. Der Bernsteinfund von Oedenburg. Antiqua, 24, 25, 3 pl. 
Strassburg, VIIL. 

STREBEL, H. Studien tiber Steinjoche aus Mexico and Mittel-Amerika. Internat. 
Arch. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 16, 49, 4 pl. 

StronG, AuGusrus H. Modern exaggerationsof the Divineimmanence. Mag. Chris- 
tian Lit., New York, 1891, 111, 276-283. 

Stroup, F. The judicial dictionary of words and phrases judicially interpreted. Lon- 
don. 8yo. 

STuart-Merritr CH. La Russie dans le passé, le présent, ]’avenir. Bull. Soc. d. 
Géog. d. Lyon, Vill, 569-599. 

STUBEL, A., W. Retss, und B. KAprpeEL. Kultur und Industrie siidamerikanischer 
Volker, nach den im Besitze des Museums fiir Volkerkunde zu Leipzig befindlichen 
Sammlungen, Vol.1. London. Asher & Co. [Rev.in: Athenzum, Dec. 9, 199, 
200. ] 


602 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


STUCKELBERG, E. A. Zum capitei der Schalensteine. Antiqua, Strassburg, viii, 11, 
2: - 

Studien, Berliner, fur classische Philologie und Archiologie, XI, pt. 2. Berlin: Cal- 
vary & Co. 40 pp.  8vo. 

STUPART, Capt. Flying proas of the Ladrone Islands. Proc. Canad. Inst., Toronto, 
Vil, 3.8., 204, 1 pl. 

Suastika, Zur Geschichte der. By Michael v. Zmingrodzki. 4 figs., 4 tables. Archiv 
f. Anthrop, XIX, 173-181. [A learned paper, immense number of illuscr. ] 

STURTEVANT, E, L. The history of garden vegetables. Am. Naturalist, Phila.,xxrv, 
30-48, 143-157, 313-332, 646-648, 719-744. 

STUTFIELDS, G. HERBERT. Racing in1890. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvii1, June. 

SuTTon, J. BLAND. Evolution and disease. New York: Scribner & Welford. 8vo. 
Also London: W.Scott. 298 pp., 1 pl. 12mo. 

SvoBpopA. Die Bewohner des Nicobaren-Archipels. Mitth.d.anthrop. Geselisch. in 
Wien, n. F., x [21-31]. 

Swords. The oldest sword-forms. I. Undset, Ztschr. f. Ethnol., xx11, 1-29, 57 figs. ; 
also, A-L. L. orange Den yngre Jernalders Sveerd, rev. at length, id., 30-40. 

Symonps, T. J. On some Indo-French and Indo-Dutch coins. Journ. Anthrop. Soce., 
Bombay, 11, 102-108, 1 pl. 

SZOMBATHY, JOSEF. Die Tumuli von Gemeinlebarn. Wien mitthief. d. priihist com- 
mission d. Kaiserl. Akad. d. Wiss. 2 tables, 76 figs. 

TALgor, E.S. The jaws and teeth of a party of cave and cliff dwellers. Dental Cos- 
mos, Phila., XX xII, 357-364. 

——— Statistics of constitutional and developmental irregularities of the jaws and 
teeth of normal, idiotic, deaf and dumb, blind, and insane persons. J. Am. M. 
Ass., Chicago, XIV, 563-568. 

Tales and legends from the land of the Tzar; a collection of Russian stories, from the 
Russian, by Edith M. 8. Hodgetts. New York [1891]: C. E. Merrill & Co. 6- 
324 pp. 

TARDE, G. La criminalité comparée. 2° éd. Paris. 215 pp. 18vo. 

—— La philosophie pénale. Paris: G. Masson. 566 pp.  8vo. 

TARNOWSKY, PAULINE. Etude anthropométrique sur les prostituées et les voleuses. 
Paris: lecrosnier & Babé. 8vo. 

Tatars on the south side of the Crimea. Section of Anthrop. Society of the Friends 
of the Sciences. Moscow, 2 fase. pp. 59. 

TAUTAIN. Contribution 4 l’étude de la langue. Foule (Poular). Rev. de linguis- 
tique, Paris, x x11, 118-147. ’ 

TAVERNI, R. et MAGNAN. L’infanzia dei criminali nei suoi rapporti con la predispo- 
sizione naturale al crimine. [Transl.] Anomalo, Napoli, 1889, 1, 361-368; 1890, 
II, 3-12. 

TAVERNIER, JEAN BAPTISTE. Travelsin India. Transl. from the French edition of 
1676, by V. Ball. 2 vols. Macmillan & Co., London. [ Rev. in: Athenzeum, March 
22, 368-370. | 

TAYLOR, B. The disposal of the dead. Scottish Rev., Oct. 

TAYLoR, ISAAC. The ethnological significance of the beech. Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Se., 
1889, Lond., 782. 

Further researches as to the origin of the Aryans. Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Se.,1889, 

Lond., 780-782. 

The origin of the Aryans; an account of the prehistoric ethnology and civiliza- 
tion of Europe. New York, Humboldt Pub. Co., 2 pts. 6+96, 97+198 pp. 8vo. 

——— The prehistoric races of Italy. Contemp. Rev., Aug., 261-270. 

Tatowiren, Narbenzeichnen und Korperbemalen, ein Beitrag zur vergleichenden Eth- 
nologie. By William Joest, Berlin, Asher, xX +112pp., 11 chromoliths, 1 plate, 30 
etchings. fol. : 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 603 


TCHENG-KI-TONG. China: A sketch of its social organization and state economy. 
Asiat. Quart. Rev., Lond., x, 258-272. 

TEAGUE, J. J. A seventeenth century prelate. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., XXvItl, 
March. 

TEGNER, ELor. Tvenne italienska Resande i Sverige pa Karl den elftes Tid. Ymer. 
1-52, 6 ills. 

TESKE, C. Das wappenderer v. Rassewitz. Neustrelitz. 7 pp. 4to. 

Testut, L. Note sur un cas d’apophyse paramastoide observé chez l’homme. Province 
méd., Lyon, Iv, 64. 

THomAs, C. The circular, square, and octagonal earthworks of Ohio. Washington, 
Bureau of Ethnology. Govt. Print. Also, The Problems of the Ohio Mound, id. 

The Cherokees in Pre-Columbian times. Fact and theory papers. New York, 
N. D.C. Hodges. [Rev. in: Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, XII, 367, 362. ] 

THompson, A.H. The expressional services performed by the face. Dental] Cosmos., 
Phila: xxx 85,169!) 633) 683° 757. 

THOMPSON, EDWARD H. Copies of Maya pottery and implements. Proc. Am. Anti- 
quar. Soc., Worcester, VI, 358, 359, 1 pl. 

Tuompson, J. A. The history and theory of heredity. Proc. Roy. Soc., Edinb. 
(1888-’89), xvi, 91-116. 

THomson, A. Additional note on the influence of posture on the form of the articular 
surfaces of the tibia and astragalus in the different races of man and higher apes. 
J. Anat. and Physiol., Lond., xxiv, 210-217. 

The orbitomaxillary frontal suture in man and the apes, with notes on the vari- 
eties of the human lachrymal bone. J. Anat. and Physiol., Lond., xxIv, 349-357. 

THomson, J. The results of European intercourse with Africa. Contemp. Rev., 
Lond., LVII, 339-352. 

THOMSON, JOSEPH. The world’s great explorers.—Mungo Park and the Niger. Philip 
& Son. [Rev.in: Atheneum, June 28, 827, 828. ] 

THOULET, J. La campagne scientifique du schooner des Etats-Unis Grampus en 1889. 
Bull. Soe. d. géog., Par., 7. s., XI, 138-144. 

THRUSTON, GATES P. The antiquities of Tennessee and the adjacent States, and the 
state of aboriginal society in the scale of civilization represented by them. A series 
of historical and ethnological studies. Cincinnati: Robert Clarke & Co., ¢l., Xv. 
369 pp., 18pl., and 246fig. 8vo. [Rev. in: Amer. Anthrop., Wash., 1891, Iv, 83-86, 
by Robert Fletchez. } 

IM., THURN, EVERARD F. Primitive games. Reprint: from ‘‘Timehri,’’? the Jour- 
nal of the Royal Agricultural and Commercial Society, 270-307. 

Tims, JOHN W. Grammar and dictionary of the Blackfeet language. Canada: Lon- 
don. 191 pp. 12mo. 

TIS CHLER, O. Ueber Sporen und nachromisches Email (Zweiter Nachtrag.) Cor.-Bl. f. 
deutsch. Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Miinchen, xx1, 17-20. 

ToorRN, J. L.VAN DER. Het animisme bij den Minangkabauer der Padangsche LBoven- 
landen. Bijdr. Taal-land-en Volkenk. Hague, 5, s., v, 48-104. 

ToPINARD, P. Les Angolais. Bull. Soc. de méd. prat. de Par., 114-120. 

Essais de craniom¢trie 4 propos du crane de Charlotte Corday. Anthropologie, 

Par., 1, 1-26. 

Notes and reviews on many subjects in L’Anthropologie. First volume. 

Torok, A. VON. Ueber eine neue Methode den Sattelwinkel zu messen. Zur Reform 
der wissenschaftlichen Kraniologie. Internat. Monatschr. f. Anata. and Physiol., 
Leipz., VII, 97, 148, 203, 224, 3pl. 

ToTren, C. A. L. Our race: Its origin and destiny; a series of studies on the Saxon 
riddle, with an introduction by C. Piazzi Smith. New Haven: ‘‘ Our Race’’ Pub- 
lishing Co. 20+-268 pp. 


604 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


T’oUNG PAO. Archives pour servir a l'étude de l’histoire, des langues, de la géographie 
et de l’ethnographie de l’ Asie Orientale. Leide. 8vo. 

TREICHEL, A. Sagen aus Westpreussen. Zeitschr. f. Volkerk, Leipz.,1r. 143. 

TRIVIER, Capitaine. La traversée de l’ Afrique. Bull. Soc. d. géog. d. Lyon, 1x, 5-32. 

Tromp, 8. W. De Kleeding eener dajaksche Vrouw. Internat. Arch. f. Ethnog., Lei- 
den, 111, 1-7, 1pl. 

Een dajaksch Feest beschreven en Toegelicht. Bijdr. Taal-Land-en Volkenk. 
Hague, 5. s., v, 27-39. 

TROUESSART, E. Le cheval sauvage de la Dzoungarie. Nature, Paris, XVIII, 369-371. 

TURNER, 8. S. Indian medicine men; the hypnotic countenance. Times and Reg., 
N. Y. and Phila. x x1, 423-425; Med. News, LVI, 323. 

TURNER, WM. Les circonvolutions cérébrales, étude d’anatomie comparée. Journ. 
Anat. and Physiol., Edinbourg, xxv. [ Rev. in: Anthropologie, Par., 1, 728-731, by 
P. Topinard ]. 

TURNER, Sir W. On heredity. Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Sce., 1889, Lond., Lrx, 756-771. 

—-— Human neck with the odontoid process distinct from the body of the axis verte- 
bra. J. Anat. and Physiol., Lond., xxiv, 358. 

On implements of stag’s horn associated with whales’ skeletons found in the 
Carse of Stirling. Rep. Brit. Ass. Adv. Se., 1889, Lond., 1890, L1x, 789-791. 
TYRRELL, Col. TheBarbarycorsairs. Part I. Asiat. Quart. kev., Lond., x, 388-411. 
UHLE,M. Das Fohringer-Haus. Verhand)]. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 62-75. 

UnpbsET, I. Antike Wagen-Gebilde. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., x x11, 49-75. 

Archaologische Aufsiitze tiber sideuropiische r'undsticke. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., 
Berl., xx, 49-75, 20 figs; 109-145, 50 figs. 

University Archeological Association, Philadelphia. See ‘‘Annual Report.’’ 

VAMBERY, ARMIN. The future of Russia in Asia. Nineteenth Cent., Lond., xxvIiIl, 
Feb. 

VAN Hoonacker, A. Néhémie et Esdras.-Une nouvelle hypothése sur la chronologie 
de l’époque de la restauration. Le Mus¢éon, Louvain, 1x, 151-184, 317-351. 

VARIGNY, H., pe. L’évolution mentale chez ’ homme, d’aprés M.G.-J. Romanes. 
Rev. scient., Par., XLVI, 403-407. 

VARIoT. Pigmentation cicatricielle des négres. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop d. Par., Par., 
3. 8., XII, 465-467. 

VAUVILLE, O. Quelques ateliers et stations préhistoriques du départment de Seine- 
et-Oise. Bull. Soc. d’Anthrop. d. Par., Par., XII, 3.s., 532-539. 

Tranchets et fléches préhistoriques du départment de l’Aisne. Bull. Soe. d’an- 
throp. d. Par., XII, 3.s., 628-633, 2 figs. 

VECKENSTEDT, E. Die Kosmogonien der Arier. Ztschr. f. Volkerk., Leipz., 11, 129, 
169. ; 

VeEDEL, E. Bornholmske Underspogelser med siirligt Hensyn til den senere Jernalder. 
Aarb. f. Nord. Oldk. og. Hist., Kjob., v, 1-104. 

VERNEAU, R. Carl Lumholtz au pays des Cannibales. Voyage d’ exploration chez 
les indigénes de |’Australie orientale, 1880-1884. Paris, Hachette et Cie, 1890, 
1 vol. [Rev in: L’Anthrop., Par.. 1, 453-456]. 

Cranes trépanés. Anthropologie, Par., 1, 182. 

Guillaume Capus. Le Toit du Monde (Pamir). Paris, Hachette et Cie, 1, 

in-16, 31 gravures et 1 carte. [ev. in: L’Anthrop.. Par., 1, 449-450. ] 

L’ Allée couverte des Mureaux (Seine-et-Oise). Anthropologie, Par., 1, 157-186. 

Victor Giraud. Les lacs de l’Afrique équatoriale. Voyage d’exploration exé- 
cuté de 1883 4 1885. Paris, Hachette et Cie, 1 vol. [ ev. in: L’Anthrop., Par., 
1, 450-453. ] 

VERRIER, E. La région montagneuse de l’est Africain; étude sociale sur les indigénes' 
de ce pays. Bull. Soc. d’anthrop. de Par., 4. s., 1, 231-244. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 605 


Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher und Aertze. (XLII) 1889, Heidelberg, 18 to 23 
September, Section of Anthropologie and Ethnologie. [Publish annual Tageblatt. 
Reviewed in L’ Anthropologie, 1, 491. ] 

VIAL, PauL. De la langue et de l’écriture indigénes au Yainnan. Paris, Ernest Le- 
roux. [ ev. in: Amer. Anthrop., Wash., 1891, 1v, 90-92, by W. W. Rockhill. ] 

Viking Age (The). Quart. Rev., April. 

VINSON, JULIEN. La Bretagne armoricaine, par N. Quellien. Rev. d. Ling., Par., 
XXII, 377. 

VircHow, Rup. Aus der Provinz Posen. Ergiinz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1, 7-9. 

Brehm’s Tierleben. Dritte, ginzlich neu bearbeitete Auflage von Prof. Dr. 

Pechuel-Loesche. Siugetiere. Leipzigund Wien, Bibliographisches Institut. [ Rev. 

in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., x x11, 170-171. ] 

Die alten Berg Stargard in Pommern. Ergiinz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1, 

30-31, 

Die alten Heer-und Handelswege der Germanen, RoOmer und Franken im 

deutschen Reiche, by J. Schneider. Neuntes Heft. Disseldorf gr. 8vo. 35 pp. | Rev. 

in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., xx11, 170. ] 

Ein Burgwall bei Heidevorwerk, Kr. Wohlau (Schlesien). Ergiinz. z. Ztschr. f. 

Ethnol., Berl., 1, 29-30. 

Eine Excursion nach Lengyel (Stid-Ungarn). Verhandl. d. Berl. anthrop. Ges- 

ellsch., Berl., 97-118, 2 pl. 

Germanen und Slaven, eine archaologisch-anthropologische Studie, by Georg 

Buschan. Minster, 8, 49s., 1 Karte, 4 Jafeln. [Rev. in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 

XX, 171-172.] 

Makedonisches Messer von archaischem Typus. Verhandl. d. Berl. Anthrop. 

Gesellsch., Berl., 344-346. 

Max von Chlingensperg-Berg. Das Griberfeld von Reichenhall in Oberbayern. 

Reichenhall, H. Biihler’sche. Buchhandlung, 1890. 4, 164s. mit 1 Karte und 40 

Fundtafeln in Lichtkupferdruck. [Rev. in: Ztschr. f. Ethnol. Berl., x x11, 105, 106. ] 

Ostpreussiche Alterthiimer. Ergiinz. z. Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1, 31-32. 

Reise nach der Troas. Verhandl. d. Berl. Anthrop. Gesellsch., Berl., 331-344. 

Ueberreste von Katzen aus Bubastis. Verhandl. d. Beri. Anthrop. Gesellsch., 

Berl., 118-126. 

Vom wandernden Zigeunervolke, by Heinrich von Wislocki. Biider aus dem 

Leben der Siebenbiirger Zigeuner. Geschichtliches, Ethnologisches, Sprache und 

Poesie. Hamburg, Verlagsanstalt, vormals J. F. Richter, Kl. 8. 3908S. [Rev. in: 

Ztschr. f. Ethnoi., Berl., x x11, 169. ] 

Vorkommen un Form des sichsischen Hauses in Ost- und West-Holstein. Ver- 
handl. d. Berl. anthrop. Gesellsch., Beri., 75-82. 

Visite des campements indigénes # 1’Esplanade des Invalides. Asie; Afrique; Oce- 
anie. Bull. Soc. des Méd. prat. de Par., 370-416. 

Voacss, TH. Zwei vorgeschichtliche Graber bei Steindorf in Braunschweig. Ergiinz. 
z Ztschr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1890, 1, 60. 

Volkskunde. Tijdschrift voor neerlandsche Folk-Lore. Gent: Ad Hoste. Edited by 
Pol de Mont, Antwerp, and Aug. Gittce. Charleroi. 3d Jaargang in 1890. 

VoNDRAK, W. Altslovenische studien. Wein, Tempsky. 30 pp. 8vo. 

Vos, H. Die Verbreitung der Anthropophagie auf dem asiatischen Festlande. In- 
ternat. Arch. f. Ethnog., Leiden, 111, 69-73. 

VorsAKs, J.-N. SMiRNorr, VorJAKy. Istorico-etnografischesky otscherk. Kazan, 
308 pp. 8vo. L’Anthropologie 11, 619-624. 

WAKE, C.S. The Asiatic affinities of the Malay language. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., 
Phila., XXVIII, 81-87. 

The growth of the marriage relation. Boston, J. H. West, 67-87. [The modern 

science essayist, No, 21. ] 


606 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


WALLACE, A. R. Human selection. [From Fortnightly Rev.] Pop. Sc. Month., N. 
Wy werexiddy CSN s. 

WALLACE, R. A. Prehistoric Indian evidences in Louisiana. Amer. Antiquar., Men- 
don, XII, 46-48. 

WALLIAN, 8,8. The physiological, pathological, and psychological bearings of sex. 
Tr. M. Soc., N. Y. [ Phila. ], 247-259: 

WALLIS, HENRY. The destruction of Egyptian monuments. Nineteenth Cent., N. 
Y.. No. CLXv, 720-732. 

WANKEL. Die Mamuthlagerstatte bei Predmost in Mahren. Cor. Bl. d. deutsch. 
Gesellsch. f. Anthrop., Miinchen, xXx1I, 33-36. 

WARD, HERBERT. Five years with the Congo cannibals. Chatto & Windus. 83 ill. 
London, 8vo. 

WARD, J. State of teeth in prehistoric skeletons. Pharm. J. & Tr., Lond., 3. s., xx, 
952. 

WARNER, A. G. Concerning corporation law. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., XXXVI, 323- 
333. 

WARNER. F. Form of ear as a sign of defective development. Lancet, Lond., 1, 344. 

WautTers, A. J. L’Eléphant en Afrique. La question des transports; quelques par- 
ticularités sur l’eléphant. Annales L’Extr. Orient, Par., 2.s., XIII, 270-275, 292- 
310, 335-339, 367-376. 

WAUWERMANS, Lt.-Gen. Henri le Navigateur et 1’Académie portugaise de Sagres. 
Bull. Soe. Roy. de Geog. d’anvers, Anvers, Xv, 1-173. 

WEBER, FRANZ. Bericht tiber neue vorgeschichtliche Funde in Bayern. Beitr. z. An- 
throp. Bayerns. Munchen, 1x, 77-85. 

Vorgeschichtliches, aus dem Alpengebéete zwischen Inn und Salzach. Beitr. z. 
Anthrop. Bayerns. Munchen, 1x, 8-17. 

WEBER, MAX. Ethnographische Notizen uber Floresund Celebes. Internat. Archiv f. 
Ethnog., Leid., sup., 111, 1-49, 8 pl. 

WEBBER, 8S. G. Natural and acquired limitations from a medical point of view. Bos- 
ton M. &S. J., cx xi, 193-195. 

WEIGEL, M. Ausgrabungen und Untersuchungen von Fundstellen durch das konig]. 
Museum ftir Volkerkunde, Erganz. z. Ztschr. {. Ethnol., Berl., 1890, 1, 2-7, 10 
figs.; 17-29, 15 figs.; 33-42, 15 figs. 

Das Graberfeld von Wandlitz, Kreis Niederbarnim, Provinz Brandenburg. Er- 
ginz. z Ztsehr. f. Ethnol., Berl., 1, 61-64, 5 figs. 

WEIPERT, H. Japanisches Familien-und Erbrecht, Mitth. d. deutsch. Gesellsch. f. 
Nat.-u. Volkerk, Ostasiens, Yokahama, v, 83-140. 

WEISBACH, A. Der Maori-Schadei. Mitth. d. anthrop. Gesellsch. in Wien, n. F., X., 
32-37, 1 tab. 

WEISMANN, A. The musical sense in animals and men. Pop.Sc. Month., N. Y., 
XXXVII, 352-358. 

Theory of heredity. Nature, Lond., xii, 317-323. 

WELLS, ROGER Jr., and J. W. KELLEY. English-Eskimo and Eskimo-English vocab- 
ularies; preceded by ethnographical memoranda concerning the Arctic Eskimos in 
Alaska and Siberia, by J. W. Kelley. Wash., D. C.: Gov’t Printing Office. 4-72 
pp- 

WERNER, A. The African pigmies. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., XXXvII, 658-671. 

WESTERN CHINA. Its products and trade. Quart. Rev., July. 

WESTHOFF, F. Ueberdie Vererbung von Verletzungen bei Mensch und Tieren. Jahrb. 
d. Naturw., Freib. 1, Br., 309-311. 

WHITE, ARNOLD. Recent experiments in colonization. Contemp. Revy., N. Y., 655- 
672. 

WuHitk, A. D. The antiquity of man and Egyptology. Pop. Sc. Month., N. Y., 
XXXVII, 145-156, 289-302. 


PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 607 


Waits, A. D. The fall of man and anthropology. Pop. Se. Month., N. Y., xX xvu, 
577, 721. 

New chapters in the warfare of science, VII. Comparative mythology. Pop. 
Se. Month., N. Y., XXXvI, 577-600. 

WHITTAKER, THOMAS. Volkmann’s psychology (vel. 1). Mind. July. 

WILDE, Lady. Ancient cures, charms, and usages of Ireland. Contributions to Irish 
lore. London: Ward & Downey. 267 pp. 12mo. (Athenzum, March 29, 398.) 

WILDE, W. C. Notes on thief talk. J. Amer. Folk-L., Bost. and N. Y., 111, 303-310. 

WILDER, b. G. Does the poma (occipital operculum) occur in the human brain? 
Med. Rece:, N. Y., X XVII, 255. 

Exhibition of diagrams of the brains and medisected heads of man and a 
chimpanzee. Atm. Ass. Adv. Se., 1890. 

WILKEN, G. A. Albinos in den Indischen Archipel. Bijdr. Taal-Land-en Volkenk., 
Hague, 5. s., Vv, 105-120. 

Struma en cretinisme in den Indischen Archipel. Bijdr., Taal-Land-en Vol- 
kenk, Hague, 5. s., V, 349-425. 

WILKIE, J. Heditary maliormation of the thumbs. J. Anat. and Physiol., xxtv, 
Jan., Edinburg. [ev. in: L’anthropologie, 1, 343. ] 

WILSER, LuDWiGc. Anthropologie und Geschichte. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, Lx, 
913-918, 928-934. 

Der Ursprung der Bronze. Das Ausland, Stuttgart, LX1II, 386-392. 

WiLson, J. Hypothesis of a European origin of early Egyptian art. Rep. Brit. Ass. 
Ado. Se., 1889, Lond., LIx, 778. 

WiLson, THOMAS. A study of prehistoric anthropology. Hand book for beginners. 
Pamphlet, from Rep. Nat. Mus., 1887—’88, Wash., Gov’t Print., 597-671, 20 pls. 

Congresses, national and international, held in Paris during, and a part of, the 
French Exposition of 1889. Am. Naturalist, Phila., x1v, 197-199. 

WLISLOCKI, H. v. Kinderspieleder siebenburgischen und stidungarischen Zeltzigeuner. 
Ztschr. f. Volkerk., Leipz., 11, 151, 192. 

- Vom wandernden Zigeunervolke. Geschichtliches, Ethnologisches, Sprache und 
Poesie. Hamburg. 390 pp. Verlagsanstalt & Druckerei. 8vo. 

Woop, J. ‘T. Modern discoveries on the site of ancient Ephesus. London. 8vo. 

WoopDFoRD, C. M. A naturalist among the Head-hunters: being an account of three 
visits to the Solomon Islands in the years 1886, 1887, and 1888. London: Philip. 
262 pp. S8vo. [Rev. in: Atheneum, March 29, 406-407. ] 

Further explorations in the Solomon Islands.. Proc. Roy. Geog. Soc., Lond., XSITE 
393-418, 1 map. 

WREDE, Fp. Quellen und Forschungen zur Sprach- und Culturgeschichte der german- 
ischen Volker. Strassburg, 1891: ‘[riibner. 208 pp. 8vo. 

Wricut, W. Lectures on the comparative grammar of the Semitic languages. Lon- 
don. 299 pp. 8vo. Cambridge University Press. [ Rev. in: Atheneum, London, 
Oct. 11, 475, 476. ] 

Ymer, Tidskrift utgifven af svenska Sillskapet for Antropologi och Geografi. Stock- 
holm, 1890, x, Samson & Wallin. 

Youna, A. H. Locations of mounds in Wisconsin. Amer. Antiquar., Mendon, XII, 
alfa, atrKs); 

YEE, FuNG. A Chinese view of railways in China. Nineteenth Cent. Lond., xxvitl, 
Feb. 

Zeitschrift fiir Ethnologie. Organ der Berliner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologie, Ethnol- 
ogie und Urgeschichte. Berlin, A. Asher & Co., Vol. x xII, in 1890. 

Zeitschrift fiir Psychologie und Physiologie der Sinnesorgane, Vol. 1, in 1890. Ham- 
berg and Leipsic. L. Voss. 

Zeitschrift fiir Volkskunde, Leipzig. Founded at the end of 1888, 


608 PROGRESS OF ANTHROPOLOGY IN 1890. 


Zeitschrift fiir Volkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft. By Lazarus & Steinthal. 
Berlin, Band, XxX in 1890. 

ZIELINSKI, VLADISLAV KORNEL DE. Notes on the gypsies of Poland and Lithuania. J. 
Gypsy Lore Soc., Edinb., 1890, 11, 237-240. 

ZINCK, L. Nordisk Archaeologi. Stenalderstudier. Kjbenhavn, 116 pp. 8vo. 

ZINTGRAFF E. Ueber Gesten und Meinenspiel der Neger, Das Ausland, LXIII, 1890, 461. 

ZMIGRODZKI, MICHAELY. Zur Geschichte der Suastika. Arch. f. Anthrop., Brnschwg, 
XIx, 173-181, 7 tab. 

ZOLLER, Huco. Untersuchungen tber 24 Sprachen aus dem Schutzgebiete der Neu- 
guinea-Compagnie. Peterman’s Mitteil., Gotha, Justus Perthes, xxxvy1I, 122- 
128, 145-152. : 

ZWEMER, 8S. M. The Jesus Christ of the Koran. Mag. Christian Lit., N. York, 1891, 111, 
291-293. 


; 
j 
7 
| 
| 


ai be 


A PRIMITIVE URN BURIAL. 


By Dr. J. F. SNYDER, Virginia, Cass County, Illinois. 


On the broad alluvial plain in the southeastern part of the State of 
Georgia, through which the Altamaha river takes its course to the sea, 
at a point a mileand a half north of that stream and nearly a mile from 
the Savannah, Florida and Western Railway, there is a small natural 
elevation of the ground rising a few feet above the general level of the 
river valley. On the top of this higher ground is one of the numerous 
Indian burial mounds of that region, measuring some 25 or 30 feet in 
diameter at the base and 8 or 10 feet high at its center. In February 
last (1890) in making an excavation in the western edge of this mound— 
not for archeological investigation, nor by archzeologists,—a few inches 
below the surface the spade broke into a hollow, spherical-looking 
object that, on inspection, proved to be the round bottom of a large 
earthen pot which had been buried there bottom up. The solid, hard- 
packed earth in which it was imbedded was then carefully removed and 
the vessel was lifted out of its long resting place. Much to the surprise 
of the explorers another quaint earthen vessel was discovered within 
the larger one. This smaller one was standing upright on the natural 
surface of the ground, securely covered and inclosed by the large pot 
that had been placed inverted over it, affording it perfect protection 
from moisture as well as from the pressure of the earth forming the 
mound heaped over it (Fig. 1.) On examining the smaller vase it was 
found to be nearly half full of fine white ashes interspersed with caleined 
fragments of human bones, comprising the charred teeth and cremated 
skeleton of an adult individual. Lying. on the surface of these remains 
were a quantity of small perforated bone beads (wampum), among which 
I discovered, uniform in size with the beads, several small pearls that 
had been pierced through the center for the purpose of stringing, with 
the beads, in the form of a necklace or other ornament. Whether the 
mound presented any peculiar features inits construction I have been 
unable to learn ; and no further exploration of it has, to this time, been 
made. 

The large pot, which I have succeeded in completely restoring (Fig. 
2) is bell-shaped, quite symmetrical in proportions, and measures 153 
inches in height and exactly the same in width across the mouth. 1t 

H. Mis. 129 39 609 


610 A PRIMITIVE URN BURIAL. 


is made of compact clay, unglazed, hard burned, and of the uniform 
thickness of a fraction more than the fourth of an inch. About the 
bottom, both inside and out, it presents by discoloration unmistakable 
evidence of having been subjected repeatedly to the action of fire, prob- 
ably for cooking food. Its internal surface is very even and regular 
and has the appearance of having been smoothed by the hand, as finger 
marks are faintly discerned, particularly about the upper portion. The- 
outside is roughened by being ornamented all over with a continuous 
repetition of the peculiar design shown in detail in Fig. 3, which doubt- 
less was impressed upon the soft clay, before it dried, with a stamp cut 
in intaglio, thus leaving the figure on the vessel in relief, or ‘‘ raised.” 

The smaller vase, in which the ashes of the dead had been deposited, 
is plain, smooth inside and out, glossy black in color, though not glazed; 
is thinner and more ¢)mpact in texture than the large one, looking, at 
first glance, as if molded of papier maché. It is free from ornamenta- 
tion of any sort, and was burned hard after drying. In Fig. 4 it is rep- 
resented, as is also the covering vase (Fig. 2), one-eighth actual size. 
Obtusely pointed at the bottom, of conoidal form, it rapidly enlarges to 
near the top, and contracts again for an inch and three-fourths to the 
mouth; graceful in contour, and almost mathematically true and reg- 
ular in every proportion; it is 13 inches broad at the widest part, 113 
inches high, and 114 inches across the opening. The fact that in each 
of these earthen vessels their height and diameter across the mouth are 
exactly equal in measurement may be only an accidental coincidence, 
but would seem to indicate that certain definite principles or rules in 
the plastic art guided the ancient potters in shaping their vessels. 

We are reasonably sure that the wheel and lathe were unknown, as 
appliances in the manufacture of pottery, to the primitive American 
Indians. But they must have employed adequate substitutes for them ; 
for without mechanical aids of some description the wonderful pro- 
ficiency attained by some of the tribes in the ceramic art is difficult to 
explain. In the early settlement of the country, about the saline 
springs in Southern Illinois, Western Virginia, and other localities, 
numerous fragments of very large earthen vessels were found scattered 
about over extensive areas adjoining, many of them, when entire, 3 
or 4 feet in length or in diameter and a foot or more in depth. They 
doubtless were made and used by the Indiars as evaporating pans 
for ebtaining salt from the salt-impregnated water of the springs. 
These rude earthen kettles were plain on the inside, but invariably 
bore on the outside the distinct impression of some kind of woven fab- 
ric. They excited the curiosity and astonishment of the backwoods- 
men; and, at a later time, taxed the ingenuity of the scientist to dis- 
cover the method by which the ancient artisan shaped and manipulated 
such unwieldy masses of soft clay and supported them in place while 
drying. This problem was solved satisfactorily a few years ago by Mr. 
George E. Sellers. In his valuable paper on “ Aboriginal Pottery of 


Smithsonian Report, 1899, Part !. 


PLATE 


Fic. 1 (#6). 


Fic. 2 ($)- 


SNYDER: PRIMITIVE URN 


BURIAL. 


Smithsonian Report, 1890, Part I. PLATE 2. 


Fic. 3. ACTUAL SIZE. 


. Fie. 4 (4). 


SNYDER: PRIMITIVE URN BURIAL. 


A PRIMITIVE URN BURIAL. 611 


the Salt Springs in Illinois,”* he quoted the opinions of the late dis- 
tinguished antiquarians, J. W. Foster, LL. D., and Dr. Chas. Rau, 
that ‘the earthenware has evidently been molded in baskets,” an 
impracticable method because of the impossibility, as Mr. Sellers points 
out, of “ keeping in form and lining with heavy clay fragile baskets of 
the large size of these old salt kettles.” He then states, ‘‘ I discovered 
(at the salt springs near the Saline River, in southern Illinois), what 
at first I took to be an entire kettie bottom up; but on removing the 
earth that covered it, it appeared to be a solid mass of sun-dried clay. 
From its position among heaps of clay and shells, its hard, compact, 
discolored—I may say almost polished—surface, [ became satisfied it 
was a mold on which the clay kettles had been formed, precisely as 
in loam-molding at the present day.” The soft clay was retained in 
proper position on the mold with bandages of coarse textile fabric that 
left their impression on the pottery, similar to the imprint that baskets 
of the same texture would make if the plastic clay had been pressed 
against their inner surface. This very simple method of casting the 
large salt kettles—on the outside of the pattern—was probably the 
same adopted in making the larger of the two pieces of pottery from 
the Georgia burial mound (Fig. 2.). In its construction the clay when 
soft must have had firm support on the inner side to resist the pressure 
necessary to imprint its exterior surface with the carved type. When 
dried sufficiently to retain its form the vessel may then have been 
lifted from its mold and smoothed on the inside with water and the 
open hand. In shaping the smaller vase the thin sheet of tough clay 
was no doubt taken off the molding block while yet pliable and its 
upper margin drawn in gradually by careful manipulation. A slightly 
wrinkled appearance of the indrawn margin of the opening bears evi- 
dence of this process. 

There is no good reason for believing that these two pieces of earth- 
enware were made purposely for the inhumation of the incinerated 
remains they finally inclosed, though they are in every respect so 
remarkably well adapted for that use. By placing the conical vase 
upright on a support a little more than an inch in thickness, and invert- 
ing the large pot over it, the receding rim of the vase exactly fits in 
the curving side of the pot, as is shown in Fig. 1; the one covering 
the other so accurately as to well nigh exclude the passage of air be- 
tween the parts in contact. And this, [ have been informed, was their 
relative position when recovered from the mound. This vase, though 
“new” and exhibiting no indications of previous use, is of a type— 
Amphora-like—quite common among the earthenware of the pottery- 
making pre-Columbian Indians. The large pot, or kettle, as before 
stated, bears evident marks of long-continued use in domestic or cul- 
inary service. 


* Popular Science Monthly, 1877, vol. 11, p. 573, et seq. 


612 A PRIMITIVE URN BURIAL. 


The exterior ornamentation of this large kettle is shown in detail, 
drawn of actual size, by Fig. 3. The dark lines are in relief, standing 
out level with the original surface of the clay when molded; the white 
Spaces show the face of the carving that sunk its impression, the six- 
teenth of an inch in depth, in the yielding mass. It will be observed 
in this unique design that a well-defined cross appears in each circle 
surrounded by the intricate scroll lines. The figure of the cross is by 
no means uncommon in the works of art of the ancient races inhabit- 
ing America before the historic period. It has been found fashioned 
in stone and copper, engraved on shell and bone, and in colors on pot- 
tery vases and bottles—not to mention the famous carving at Palenque. 
Its presence among the relics of the mounds has occasioned much spec- 
ulation and discussion, in the main with no other basis than ludicrous 
flights of the imagination. At this late day the fanciful theory of a 
pre-Columbian propagation of Christianity in America by the Apostle 
Saint Thomas, supported at one time by such distinguished scholars as 
Professor Tiedemann, is scarcely worth a passing notice. ‘ It has been 
shown by the preceding examples,” remarked Dr. Chas. Rau,* which 
could be multiplied, if it were deemed necessary, that the cross was 
recognized as a symbol among the more advanced nations of America.” 
Gomara says the knowledge of the cross as a religious emblem had 
penetrated all Spanish America before its discovery and conquest; and 
adds, This veneration of the cross made them (the Indians) more 
ready to adopt the Christian symbol.” This rubbish has vanished 
before the march of archecological science, together with the grandeur 
and splendor of the “cultured, semi-civilized mound builders.” The 
‘sign of the cross,” carved and sketched by the early mound-building 
Indians, is now properly considered a meaningless figure of ornamenta- 
tion adopted by crude savages because of its simplicity of execution. 
This advanced opinion is well expressed by Prof. F. W. Putnam, in 
mentioning a copper ornament of cross shape found in an old Indian 
grave in Tennessee. He says: “I think it must be placed in the same 
category with the ‘Tablet of the Cross’ at Palenque, and be regarded 
as an ornament made in its present form simply because it was an easy 
design to execute, and one of natural conception.” 

Known instances of the preservation of cremated human remains in 
earthen ware vases, by our prehistoric Indians, are very rare. It was 
the custom of some tribes to burn their dead collectively. ‘The practice 
of reserving the skeletons,” says Col. C. C. Jones, LL. D.,+ “until they 
had multiplied sufficiently to warrant a general cremation or inhumation 
seems to have been adopted.” They were then burned all together and 
the seething pyre was covered with earth, heaped up into a mound, to 
be never again disturbed. ‘ Burial vases,” he adds, ‘‘inclosing human 
bones (not burned) have occasionally been found in the grave mounds of 


* The Palenque tablet, p. 42. t Antiquities of Southern Indians, p. 190. 


A PRIMITIVE URN BURIAL. 613 


Tennessee, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi and South Carolina.” And 
he relates, on pages 455,456 of his valuable work, a very interesting 
account of the recovery from a small shell mound on Colonel’s Island, 
in Liberty County, Georgia, of a burial urn, inclosed in two others, con- 
taining the bones of a young child. 

The urn-burial from the Altamaha mound—tbe subject of this paper— 
is original indesign and remarkable for its ingenious simplicity. The 
pottery-ware is practically imperishable; and sealed almost hermetically, 
as were the ashes of the dead they contained, in that region where frost 
is scarcely known, they must have endured forever but for some con- 
vulsion of nature—or the implements of civilization. The presence, in 
the funeral vase, of small pearls with the wampum beads, and the 
chalk-like condition of both, attest the antiquity of this singular sepul- 
chral deposit. Pearls were worn as personal ornaments in great pro- 
fusion by the Indians of eastern Georgia when De Soto came among 
them, in 1540. The Gentleman of Elvas says that 14 bushels of them 
were found by the Spaniards in one charnel-house at Cofachiqui. 
Pickett remarks, in his History of Alabama, ‘‘ There can be no doubt 
about the quantity of pearls found in this State of Georgia, in 1540, but 
they were of a coarser and less valuable kind than the Spaniards 
supposed. The Indians used to perforate them with a heated copper 
spindle, and string them round their necks and arms like beads.” 

Centuries have pass d, with their ceaseless changes, since the hands. 
of affection placed those venerated ashes of the dead and bead ornaments 
in that mound-covered crypt of clay pottery; and they who mourned 
on that occasion have, ages ago, been resolved into dust; but in these 
simple relics, they left—as legible as though graven in letters on polished 
marble—a record of their crude religious feelings, of their child like 
faith and reverence, and of their very human yearnings for life ever- 
lasting. 

Novre.—Since this paper was written the mound in which the pottery 
vessels and incinerated human remains were found has been thoroughly 
explored; and nothing further was discovered but a bed of ashes and 
charcoal on the ground surface in the center of the tumulus. 


ei bea 


CACORE Cae 


BP raslak. ri escetht iv ad Pirin watt aii thas aut - EE BOE 


a eat» Goetnt hiaolook ariel (AP ure hao digas) - 
; wbtGa YHAE ¥ ‘ ht pare Tae Oe mi 
i (aad Ftc rrriete Seat te HAG feet ahi ee 7 

ah OF LCM ENG Bie: - 

Puree ae vite i 


Gog rp Peyton ce hath teeheyeaDe QL Bas Sate te at Tee Sky Orga ie 


; i 


MALO) y CLCeRUS “ROL Fe Say LesTitee are Pee ear qFayl Alo aE 
uid, CEN OE P 
ah ae fito yatta Sah Te, AGG Te ELD e Salt Miley a 
Sara te ee Tee TEER LCG de Oy ALOR ric on firey ahi fetal - 
Piso ute ator itt copy LPR WS ASR eh iti at id urea are 
pine ta ; SA) <oN 
Sromodhi te niogaiel bE bat. terehal Ts satiate toh are Late “(tee iet Ji ee 
ie ais Vbiitryx3| ny “Hi apc lou tj tf birisitgiie, Ob Wal Tons AIH - a 
A dutty Pe re acl idee ue? iia toe Sak) ae | refi iat ay ey Lead 
chytel Abort 43 raat phtcde: sitar seh bits =f ' Th (Tyas ; 1) SiH i. 
Ppa lirixie PAULL AL eeibery : 1 Tui! io Vee, Pugve Ls NEE ters 


Ty trraletahoe tbl il OF in'fia tC VAlel , bisa CEL es iL | acq re, 
2 

« : Seti iim fi ! t tier bit iyearta Wilvtis Lista , Mate 
Dual ld sik samc ke oy Ete Ut ‘Ui went ovda) MOP 


Ure a ee by ite ti nbiprariay QAOILY Leratel | ndiias tht te 
Pracncli é OU ML hy yt hi HE. ate cle get DY rane hit bait: ire: 


ae io te Ei Sel ti ? Tie BIO IPL Beeel uhh bog ani 4 foley halit it, 2 rs 
r B)syu UIT el od L0 (eb VT Legs fii) Sh bik read an a Saha ae ‘tegittta * 
Sth A iilt 4 a anniual auoiolios wba tis th Tiere “ihr ht 
tL we arit TOL ca th ve i vs Leite { 4) ct Lt 3 Perey vay its dl ES x 
: es F Wad: bt 


. s +. Par: ; 


ee #44270 rT 40 Sle ee Ob TONE aE Hotinuw is ht TAK bitky aight niall Setint <i sige 
birdy (rived) tepubesne bb tat) G8 = icv tract oo fir re Tie hat Dinte alone 
Pas pe ituar “ 5 lo bad) stat bortenonals pace. sent yuidion hag, hve ie 
re MODEL th) fou Mu meu! O2. O96 Nite, fi niiyiy ot lip inant 


int ® a oS rae 


MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE MOHAVES. 


By GEORGE A. ALLEN, Colorado River Agency, Colorado. 


Although the Mohaves are giving up many of their superstitions, 
some of them still cling to the teachings of their ancestors. They cre- 
mate their dead, the funeral pyre being made ready for the corpse as 
soon as life is extinct, and the body is placed on the pile of wood pre- 
pared, while all the friends and relations of the deceased gather around 
and set up a pitiful moan. Formerly they burned all the property of 
the deceased, and often the mourners would contribute everything 
they possessed to the flames, thereby showing the affection and grief 
they felt for the dead; but this custom is not much practiced at the 
present time. The women usually contributed a portion of their hair 
to the flames—that is, those who belonged to the immediate family of 
the deceased—and would even sometimes throw themselves on the fire, 
such was their grief. 

While they have but little reverence, they believe there is a God, 
whom they call Mat-o-we-lia, and that He is the maker of all things; 
that He has a son, whom they call Mas-zam-ho, who is king of de- 
parted spirits. Mat-o-we-lia conducts the movements of the sun, moon, 
and stars; sends the rain, sunshine, etc. Mas-zam-ho has full charge 
of affairs in heaven, or ‘*‘White Mountain,” as they call it. 

They believe the spirits of the dead go up to the ‘White Mountain” 
in smoke, and that all the property destroyed in the flames with the 
deceased will go with him to the ‘* White Mountain,” where pots are 
constantly boiling with something to eat. : 

They had formerly an annual burning of property, and all would con- 
tribute something to the flames in expectation of its going up to their 
departed friends. This practice is entirely discontinued on the reser- 
vation, but is still kept up by the Yumas at Fort Yuma, and by the 
Mohaves at Needles and Fort Mohave, off the reservation. 

They also have a belief that all the Mohaves who die and are not 
cremated turn into owls, and when they hear an owl hooting at night 
they think it is the spirit of some dead Mohave returned. They are 
also superstitious about eating any kind of food that they are not ac- 
customed to. They will not eat the meat of the beaver, claiming that 
if they did their necks would swell. This belief was brought about by 

615 


616 MANNERS AND CUSTOMS OF THE MOHAVES. 


the circumstance of some one having poisoned beaver for their hides, 
and the Indians who ate of the flesh were poisoned and died; hence, 
they think all beavers are bad. 

After one dies the friends do not eat salt nor wash themselves for 
four days. But these superstitions are fast disappearing, and in afew 
years most of them will have died out altogether. The medicine men are 
most instrumental in keeping them alive. 

They formerly practiced polygamy, but this is now discontinued. 
Their marriage ceremony is a very simple one; they merely agree to 
live together as man and wife, seldom separating after such an agree- 
ment is formed. 

They regard the hieroglyphics found on rocks as being the relies of 
some distinct race, of which they have no tradition whatever. Their 
animal nature, like that of all aborigines, predominates, and they are 
most happy and contented when they have plenty to eat. The children 
are rather bright and inclined to learn when their minds are not diverted 
by play. When allowed to recreate they play some kind of game from 
early morn until bed-time. 

Some of the women do very artistic work in beads and pottery; they 
also weave matting from cottonwood bark. The mesquite bean is their 
principal food in winter; this they gather and put up in large willow 
baskets, which they place upon platforms for storage. Thescrew beans 
they put into a kind of kiln, and thus it goes through a sweating 
process before they are used. They have the metate for grinding wheat, 
corn, beans, ete. 

Chief Hook-o-row is the head of the Mohave tribe, and he is a good, 
peaceable Indian, but not very progressive, being inclined to take life 
rather easy. 

Like all Indians they have plenty of dogs, and will divide their last 
meal with them. The children are all called ‘‘ Peet,” until they arrive 
at about four or five years of age, when they are provided with a name. 

They live in sweat-houses in winter and under open sheds in summer. 
Those who go to the railroad towns and mining camps soon become 
demoralized with whisky and contaminated by tramps. 

With proper means of irrigation and instruction as to farming they 
would soon become a thriving community. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY.* 


By THOMAS WILSON, LL.D. 


The First International Congress of Criminal Anthropology was held 
at Rome in 1885, It opened a new epoch in the history of crime. It was 
proposed to investigate crime scientifically, biologically, fundamentally ; 
to investigate it in its origin, its causes; to determine, if possible, what 
share or proportion of responsibility therefor belonged to the criminal, 
and what to the public. As the causes were to be investigated, so also 
were the cures. What effect did punishment have for the prevention 
of crime? What good could be done by education ? 

I formulate some of the propositions with regard to the commission 
and prevention of crime and show the relations of different methods 
to the end sought to be attained. 


I.—The commission of crime—how induced : 
1. By heredity. 
2. By education: 
a. Environment, 
b. Sociologic influences, chiefly in youth. 
c. Economic influences; as poverty, famine, &c. 
IIl.—The prevention of crime: 
1. By fear of punishment: 
a. Execution. 
6. Imprisonment. 
c. Fine. 
2. By restraint: 
a. Imprisonment in reformatory institutions. 
b. Education. 
III.—For the prevention of crime which had its cause in heredity : 
1. Restraint of liberty (of the born criminal) before commission of any crime; 
this for the individual and for effect in the present. 
2. Restraint of marriage or the prevention of the birth of children who are cer- 
tain to become criminals. 
1V.—Reformation of criminals: 
1. By punishment after the commission of crime. 
2. Restraint before the commission of crime. ° 
3. Education : 
a., Religion and morals. 
b. At home. 
ce. At church. 


“A report on the Second International Congress of Criminal Anthropology, held at 
Paris, August, 1339. By THoMAs WILSON, LL. D., curator of prehistoric anthropol- 
ogy of the U. S. National Museum, appointed as delegate from the Smithsonian Insti- 


tution to the said Congress. 
617 


618 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


d. In parochial schools. 
e. Public schools: 
Technical. 
Manual. 
Night schools. 


The Congress of Rome of 1885 adjourned to meet in Paris upon the 
occasion of the French Exposition in 1889, from August 10 to 17 inclu- 
sive. The opening session was held at the Palace Trocadero under the 
presidency of the minister of Justice and Worship, and Keeper of the 
seal. 

The following officers were chosen : 


Honorary presidents: MM. Thevenet, Keeper of the Seal, Minister of Justice and of 
Worship, France; Benedikt, Professor of the University of Vienna, Austria; Brouar- 
del, Dean, Professor of Medical Jurisprudence at the Faculty of Medicine, Paris, 
France; Demange, Avocat in the Court of Appeals of Paris, Member of the Council 
of Order, France; Ferri (E.) Professor of the University of Rome, Deputy of the 
Italian Parliament, Italy ; Garofalo (Baron), Vice-President of the Civil Tribunal 
of Naples, Italy; Hakim (John), President of the National Italian Committee of 
the Universal Exposition of Paris, Official Delegate of the Committee of the Italian 
Congress, Italy ; Hamel (van), Professor of the University of Amsterdam, Holland; 
Ladame (Doctor), Professor of the University of Geneva, Switzerland ; Lombroso 
(Cesare), Professor of Medical Jurisprudence, Turin, Italy; Moleschott, Professor of 
the University of Rome, Senator of the Kingdom, Italy ; Romiti (Doctor), Professor 
at the University of Pisa, Italy ; Semal, Director of the Asylum for the Insane, Mons, 
Belgium; Taladriz (Alvarez), Dean of the Bar at Valladlolid, Spain; Tarde, Judge of 
Instruction, Sarlat (Dordogne), France; Dr. Lorenzo Tenchini, Professor at the 
University of Parma, Italy; Wilson (Thomas), Attorney of the Supreme Court, 
Curator of the Department of Prehistoric Anthropology, U. S. National Museum, 
Washington, D. C. 

President: M. Roussel (Doctor Theophile), Senator, Member of the Academy of 
Medicine. 

Vice-presidents: MM. Lacassagne (Doctor), Professor of Medical Jurisprudence of 
the Faculty of Lyon (Rhone); Motet (Doctor), Medical Expert of the Tribunals of 
Paris. 

General secretary: M. Magitot (Doctor), Member of the Academy of Medicine, An- 
cient President of the Society of Anthropology of Paris. 

Recording secretaries: MM. Bertillon (Alphonse), Chief in the Service of Identifi- 
cation of the Prefecture of the Police in Paris; Bournet (Doctor), Secretary and 
Editor of the Archives of Criminal Anthropology of Lyons; Coutagne (Doctor Henri), 
Medical Expert at the Tribunal of Lyons; Manouyvtier (Doctor), Professor in the 
School of Anthropology at Paris. 


The official delegates were as follows: 


Austria-Hungary: M. Benedikt, Professor of Neuropathology at the University of 
Vienna. ° 

Belgium : Dr. Semal, Director of the State Insane Asylum at Mons; Dr. de Smeth, 
Professor in the University at Brussels. 

Brazil: Councillor Ladislas Natto, Director of the Museum at Rio Janeiro. 

Denmark: Hansen (Soren), Copenhagen. 

United States: Dr. Thomas Wilson, Curator of Prehistoric Anthropology, U. S. 
National Museum, Delegate of the Smithsonian Institution ; Clark Bell, Esq., Dele- 
gate of the Society of Medical Jurisprudence of New York. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 619 


France: MM. Dr. Lacassagne, Delegate of the Society of Anthropology at Lyons. 
Dr. Letourneau, Delegate of the Society of Anthroplogy of Paris. 

Hawaii: M. H. de Varigny. 

Folland: M. Hamel (van), Professor of the Law Faculty of Amsterdam. 

Italy: Hakim, (John), President of the Italian Committee at the Exposition of 
Paris. 

Mexico: M. E. Raphael de Zayas Enriquez. 

Paraguay: M. Dr. Hassler. 

Peru: MM. Dr. Muniz, Surgeon of the Army in Peru. 

Roumania: M. Dr. Iscovesco; Dr. Soutzo, Professor of Legal Medicine at the Fac- 
ulty of Medicine at Bucharest. 

Russia: M. Dr. W. de Dekterew, Delegate of the Society of Public Hygiene, of 
Moscow. 

Servia: Milenko Vesnitch, Doctor of Law. 

Sweden: M. Dr. G. Retzius, Delegate of the Society of Anthropology of Stockholm. 


There were twenty-two countries, represented by 192 delegates. At 
the opening session addresses were made. First, a welcome by the 
Minister of Justice, by Dr. Brouardel, and Dr. Th. Roussel, which were 
responded to on behalf of the foreign delegates by M. Moleschott, presi- 
dentof the Congress at Rome. The meetings, after the opening session, 
were held in the amphitheater of the Faculty of Medicine, the same 
place as had been held the Congress of Hygiene and Demography. 

The questions proposed by the committee of organization to be dis- 
cussed by the Congress were as follows, the preparation of papers 
thereon having been assigned to the persons whose names respectively 
follow them: 

The first series : 

SECTION I.—CRIMINAL BIOLOGY. 


I. The Latest Discoveries in Criminal Anthropology. Prof. Ces. Lombroso, 
University of Turin, and Prof. L. Tenchini, University of Parma. 

II. Do Criminals Present any Peculiar Anatomic Characters? If so, how can 
we discover them? Dr, Manouvrier, professor of the School of Anthro- 
pology of Paris. 

III. Establishment of General Rules for Investigating the Occupants of our 
Prisons and Insane Asylums by means of Anthropometry or Psychology. 
Prof. Sciamanna, of Rome, and Lawyer Virgilio Rossi. 

IV. The Determining Conditions of Crime and their Relative Values. Prof. E. 
Ferri, deputy Italian Parliament and professor of Criminal Law. 

V. The Infancy of Criminals Considered in its Relation to Predisposition to 
Crime. MM. Prof. Romeo Taverni, Catania, and Dr. Magnan, Director 
of the Asylum, St. Anne. 

VI. Organs and Functions among Criminals. MM. Dr. Frigerio, of Alexandria, 
and Dr, Ottolenghi, of Turin. 


SECTION II.—CRIME IN ITS RELATION TO SOCIOLOGY. 


VII. The Determination by Means of Criminal Anthropology of the Various 
Classes of Delinquents. Baron Garofalo, president of the Civil Tribunal, 
Naples. 
VIII. Conditional Liberation. Dr. Semal, director of the State Insane Asylum, 
Mons, Belgium, 
IX. Crime in its Relation to Ethnography. Dr. Alvarez Taladriz, Madrid. 


620 


X. 


DOE 


XII. 


XIII. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Moral Responsibility ; What are its Foundations? M. Tarde, judge of in- 
struction, Sarlat (Dordogne). 

Criminal Process from a Sociologic Point of View. M.G. A. Pugliese, Law- 
yer, T'riani, Italy. 

The Relation of Criminal Anthropology to Legislation and Questions of 
Civil Rights. M. Avocat Fioretti, of Naples. 

The System of Solitary Confinement in its Relation to Biology and.Sociol- 
ogy. Prof. van Hamel, of Amsterdam. 


Questions proposed by volunteers : 


XIV. 


IXSVis 


XVI. 


XVII. 


xOVele 


XIX. 


XXII. 
XXIII. 


XXIV. 


XXYV. 


XXVI. 
XXVII. 


NEXOVALTE 
XXIX. 


XXXIII. 
XXXIV. 


XXXV. 
XXXVI. 


XXXVII. 


Atavism Among Criminals. Dr. Brouardel, profsssor of the School of An- 
thropology of Paris. 

Criminal Authropology considered as a branch of General Anthropology. 
Dr. Manouvrier, professor of the School of Anthropology. 

The Teaching of Anthropologie Sciences in the Law Schools and Colleges. 
Professor Lacassagne, of Lyons. 

Anthropometry as Applied to Young Persons from 15 to 20 Years of Age. 
M. Alphonse Bertillon. 

The Employment of the Methods of Criminal Anthropology in the Aid of 
the Police and Arrests of Criminals. Avocat Anfosso and Professor 
Romiti. 

The Correctional Education and Reform of Criminals in Accordance with 
Biology and Sociology. Dr. Motet, Paris. 


. Perversion of Affections and Moral Qualities in Infants. Dr. Magnan, In- 


sane Asylum of St. Anne, Paris. 


. Mental Degeneration and Simulation of Insanity; Reciprocity between 


them. Dr. Paul Garnier. 

Influence of the Professions on Criminality. Dr. Henri Coutagne, Lyon. 

The Degenerative Characters and Biologic Anomalies. Among Criminal 
Women. Drs. Belmondo and A. Marro, Italy. 

Vegetative Functions Among Criminals and Insane. Drs. Ottolenghi and 
Rivono, Italy. 

Causes and Remedies for the Repetition of Crime by the Same Persons. 
Avocats Barzilai and Y. Rossi. 

Political Crime from the Standpoint of Anthropology. Avocat Laschi. 

Criminal Sociology in its Application to Jurisprudence. M. Pierre Sar- 
raute, judge of the Tribunal, Perigueux (Dordogne). 

Criminal Anthropology in its Relation to Sociology. Avocat A. de Bella. 

Criminal Anthropology in Egyptian Society in Antiquity. M. Ollivier 
Beauregard, of Paris. 


X. Moral and Criminal Responsibility of Deaf Mutes. M. Giampietro, of 


Naples. 


. The Relations of Criminal Anthropology with Medical Jurisprudence. Dr. 


Zucearelli, of Naples. 


. The Effect and Modes of Application of the Penal Law According to the 


Standard or View Point of Criminal Anthropology. M. Vittorio Olivieri, 
of Verona. 

Criminal Sociology. Dr. Colajanni, of Catania, Sicily. 

The Contagion of the Crime of Murder. Dr. Aubry, of Saint Brieuc, 
France. 

Political Assassins—a Medico-Physiologic Study. Dr. Regis. 

The Role of Woman in the Reduction of Crime. Dr. (of law) Joseph 
d@Aguanno, of Palermo. 

Medio-Physiologic Observations on the Criminals of Russia, M. J. Or- 
chanski, professor of the University of Charkow. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 621 


The discussions of the congress were opened at its second session, 
Monday morning, August 12, by Signor Lombroso, upon the first ques- 
tion, ** The Latest Discoveries of Criminal Authropology.” His discus- 
sion soon developed the fact that there were two great parties in this 
congress. One, which was led by Lombroso, and might be called the 
Italian school, for it comprised a great proportion, though not all, of 
the Italian delegates; and the other, lead by Dr. Manouvrier, to whom 
adhered the majority of the French delegates. 

Question I.—Signor Lombroso said a Greek philosopher in moving, 
proved the fact of movement, and it is so to day with the discoveries of 
criminal anthropology. These discoveries prove the existence of the 
science better than the most rhetorical amplifications. The most impor- 
tant problem of the last congress, then only half resolved, has been com- 
pleted by the studies of Verga, Brunati, Marro, Batl, Gonzale, Tonnia, 
Pinero, and by himself. The number of cases of epilepsy with intervals 
of consciousness has been extended by genealogic studies of epileptic 
families, by their derivation from criminals, from consumptives, from 
aged parents, accompanied with the predominance of awkwardness and 
clumsiness, by frequent vertigos, occasional delirium, ete. The ocea- 
sional cases of epilepsy without absence of moral sense, but with ereth- 
ism or exaggerated sensibilities, explains how some persons, criminals 
because of their passion, have many times an unconsciousness of their 
own criminal acts. The role of epilepsy extended itself into the cate- 
gory of the criminal insane, principally among the victims of alcohol- 
ism, the hysterics, and other monomaniacs. One has only to take the 
chart of Esquirol on the homicidal monomaniaces to find the manifesta- 
tion and extent of psychie epilepsy. 

The “criminals of occasion,” studied anthropologically, have shown 
in themselves (as one can say in the language of bacteriology) attenu- 
ated, but nevertheless, distinctly visible, characters of the born crimi- 
nal. His sensibility is less obtuse, his reflexes less irregular, the anom- 
aly less frequent, especially in the skull, but they have always the 
characters of the criminal born in some degree, such as the blackest 
hair in the servant who is a thief, awkwardness more frequent among 
the swindlers, and that they are all more governed by impulse. 

In my study of the photographs taken by Mr. Francis Galton, said 
he, I have found in eighteen skulls of condemned persons, two types 
which resemble marvelously and with an exaggeration which is evident, 
the characters of the criminal and approaching those of the savage. 
Frontal sinuses well marked, cheek and jaw bones very large, orbits 
large and distant, an unsymmetrical face, the nasal overture of a phe- 
leiform type, and lemurian attachment of the under jaw. The other 
skulls of the swindlers, thieves, and robbers gave to me a type lesspre- 
cise, but the want of symmetry, the great size of the orbits and the 
prominence of the cheek bones were well marked, though less than in 
the former cases. The anomalies were less marked than in the eighteen 


622 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


skulls above mentioned. This discovery appears to me to have an— 
importance not at first seen, for it serves to increase the signification 
and importance of the statistics of anthropometry. In order to obtain 
reliable indications we should investigate only homogeneous groups. 

Mr. Lemoine has published in the Archives d’Anthropologie Crimi- 
nelle of Lyon an anomaly which is perhaps unique: The union of the 
frontal lobes found in an ex-member of the commune who died at his 
house in Lille. 

M. Severi has shown that compared with the normal type the crimi- 
nals have a great capacity or size and extent of the fossettes of the cere- 
bellum. 

Marino has demonstrated the diffusion of the occipital fossette: 22 
per cent. among the Papuans and 25 per cent. among the New Zealand- 
ers, While he has confirmed the same proportion that I have found — 
among the Europeans and among the criminals. 

Joly has confirmed the strange phenomenon that the physiognomy of 
criminals loses the stamp or type of their nationality. 

Ottolenghi has studied and developed the curious characteristics of 
criminals in regard to baldness or gray hair. He has found in them 
an enormous retardation, comparable only to the epileptics and idiots. 
He also found the wrinkles to be more numerous among criminals, and 
above all the one naso labial, which he remarked as a characteristic. 

The female criminals differ among each other as much as the men, 
and these characters are almost entirely absent. 

The criminals have a peculiar gesticulation. They have a jargon or 
dialect among themselves, as well as a calligraphy, which latter has been 
confirmed by hypnotism. 

The peculiarities of criminals extend even to their art. They excel 
in mechanics and in their precision of detail, but they lack in ideality. 
The study of molecular changes has given some curious results. The 
average temperature is much above the normal in criminals. It pre- 
sents but slight variation in pyretic maladies. An analysis of the urine 
of criminals born gives a greater proportion of phosphoric acid and less 
of azote. 

Lombroso did not continue his presentation at great length nor with 
great detail. He referred his audience to his last book, which was pub- 
lished with the maps, scales, and tables therein set forth, and he declared 
his unwillingness to take away from his colleagues the pleasure which 
they might have in presenting some of their own discoveries. 

Dr. Manouvrier followed him and disputed his proposition, and 
plunged into the discussion of the great question whether criminals 
were born or made. He pronounced the theory of his opponents to be 
but a recitation of the exploded science of phrenology, which, whatever 
good it may have proved, was compelled to fall before the poverty of 
its experimental statistics and our certain knowledge. He admitted 
the physiologic and anatomic differences mentioned by Lombroso, but 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 623 


he declared them to be differences of anatomy and physiology; that 
they belonged as much to honest men as to criminals, and that the line 
of difference mentioned by Lombroso bore no relation between an hon- 
est man and a criminal. These were structural and other differences of 
physiology and anatomy, while crime was a matter of sociology. 

Baron Garofalo, MM. Drill, Lacassagne, and Benedikt declared their 
opposition in whole or in part to the theory of Lombroso. M. Drill) 
recalled that the organization of man was far from being simple, 
that he was an extremely complex being, made up of many component 
parts and that his life depended upon his surroundings, his education, 
his training, his companions, and that whatever there might be in the 
physical or anatomical characteristics of a man which would point 
towards his crime or the possibility of its commission, that each of these 
elements entered into and became a factor, and were each and all of 
them to be considered in deciding this question. 

According to M. Dekterew the surrounding circumstances, the social 
condition, of man played the greatest role and had the greatest influence. 

M. Pugliese declared crime to be a social anomaly and the consequence 
of a failure of the criminal to adapt himsélf to his social surroundings. 

M. Benedikt, of Vienna, was of the opinion that criminals were sick 
men either in body or spirit; and if one examines the exterior morpho- 
logic signs to explain and account for the existence of crime in the con- 
duct of a given man, it was equally necessary to investigate the mole- 
cular trouble in his cerebral structure. He declared that the physiologic 
characteristics were a greater factor than the anatomic, and this it was, 
with the favorable social surroundings, that made the assassin or the 
robber. The criminal, said he, has no particular stigma or mark by 
which he can be known from other men. Sometimes there may be signs 
of a defective organization, but these are marks or signsof the epileptic 
or of the insane. This was also the view of Tarde. There might be 
certain predispositions which were organic or possibly physiologic, 
which were more or less easily developed according to the social sur- 
roundings of the individual and which might, under favorable cirecum- 
stances induce crime. 

M. Lacassagne agreed with Tarde that in considering the problem of 
criminality it was necessary to take largely into account the social influ- 
ences. Because these influences and surroundings might modify the 
organic characteristics and thus create these anatomic anomalies which 
were relied upon by the Italian school. In order to study the eriminal 
it is first necessary to consider his surrounding. It is not atavism, but 
the social surroundings, the social condition, which make the criminal. 
If the condition of the humble and the poor and the young and the 
ignorant is ameliorated you will diminish immediately the army of crim- 
inals. It is society which makes the criminals. Society has only the 
criminals it merits. Criminality was above all a social question. M. 
Lacassagne said afactor of crime too much neglected was misery, pov- 


624 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


erty, and he declared it to extend backwards, not only throughout this 
life, but might have been derived from the parents especially the mother. 
Garofalo disputed the assertion of Lacassagne. He said the statisties 
would show that crime was committed in equal proportions by the 
person who was born and raised, he would not say in affluence, but in 
such circumstances as to avoid the charge of poverty or misery, and he 
demanded before these assertions should be made or conclusions ac- 
cepted that accurate statistics should be furnished. Madame Clemence- 
Royer invoked a new factor in the genesis of erime which, in her opinion, 
had a greater responsibility than had before ever been attrisuted to it, 
to wit, hybridity—the mixture of races, the mixtures of the blood of 
different races, one of which was usually if not always an inferior. 

M. Moleschott, senator from Italy, thanked M. Tarde and Dr. Bene- 
dikt for having spoken of the molecular movements, for, said he, there 
is the question. The minute researches into the anatomic conditions 
made by Lombroso should not make us to forget the different stages of 
life which are presented in each individual according to the different 
conditions of his life and that the first false step has been approached 
on an infinite scale. A moré or less degree, however small, of irrita- 
bility on the part of an individual may result in a duel or other crime, 
because, according to the words of our Lord Jesus Christ, ‘‘ We are all 
sinners.” 

Dr. Brouardel said that in order to resolve the problem it was neces- 
sary to apply clinical methods. We do not say that a sick man has the 
typhoid fever because he has the headache, or the diarrhea, or cough, 
or fever but we say he has typhoid fever because we have grouped his 
symptoms and according to their existence and method and the time 
or period of their apparition we determine that he is afflicted with this 
malady. Therefore to the anatomic stigmas of an individual it is neces- 
sary to add the corresponding psychologic characters. The delirium 
of combativeness which is due to a poison produced by belladonna is 
not a cerebral localization. It is due to a modification brought by the 
presence of the agent in the blood, of the nutrition of the entire cere- 
bral mass. 

M. Ferri declared crime to be a phenomenon extremely complex. 
It was a sort of polyhedron of which each person saw but a special] 
side. The different views sustained to-day are equally true and yet 
equally incomplete. M. Lombroso, said he, brings to light the bio- 
logic side of crime; Drill and Manouvrier showed the social; Pugliese 
the legal view; Tarde presented the physiological side, and Moleschott 
and Dr. Brouardel declared crime to be a phenomenon at once biologic 
and social. M. Lacassagne said in the first Congress at Rome that the 
criminal was a microbe which propagates only in a certain condition. 
Without doubt the conditions and the surroundings make the criminal, 
but like the bouillon without microbes within it, the surroundings with- 
out crimes are powerless to bring forth the criminal. 


& 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 625 


As the bouillon is complementary to and as necessary as the microbe, 
so the biologic defects and the favorable social surroundings are the 
fundamental aspects of criminality. 

Question II.—Do criminals present any peculiar anatomic characters? 
If so, how can we discover them ?. Dr. Manouvrier said that, in order 
to study the anatomy of criminals, it is necessary to consider their 
physiological elements, and to divide and subdivide those elements in 
the attempt to attach one or more to each specific crime or series of 
crime. It is necessary first to discover a method by which it can be 
determined whether criminals differ anatomically from honest men, 
and at the same time whether criminals differ from each other, and 
wherein. AS soon as one can recognize certain special anatomic char- 
acters as more frequent or more pronounced among criminals or among 
such and such category of criminals, one will thea be in the right path 
to make an analysis of the subject. This is called to-day, in a vague 
and indefinite manner, the tendency to crime, or the tendency to par- 
ticular crimes. These tendencies ought to be resolved into their true 
physiologic elements, corresponding to certain elementary anatomic 
characters. But the problem is complicated by the intervention of 
sociologic elements, so that one becomes lost in a labyrinth of specu- 
lation. If one supports the theory that criminals are born, it is but 
a return to that ancient but now exploded science of phrenology, 
which from an examination of the head, and so of the brain, the expert 
could determine from the relative size and value of what he called 
organs, the virtuous or the vicious character of the individual, which in 
particular cases was called the tendency to crime. Dr. Manouvrier 
insisted that this theory was completely exploded, that these charac- 
teristics were not confined to criminals nor to criminal classes, for all 
the anatomic distinctions and psychologic characteristics quoted by 
Signor Lombroso were to be found among honest men as well as among 
criminals. And he argued that it was not sufficient that you should 
find a greater proportion of them among criminals than among honest 
men. If Lambroso’s theory, that the man was born a criminal, was to 
be taken as the rule, then it must be universal, and that men thus 
born inevitably committed crime. If it be the rule then it must oner- 
ate in all cases. That it did not so operate proved that it was not the 
rule, and therefore he concluded the proposition of anatomic character- 
istics peculiar to criminals did not exist. 

Manouvrier asked had any one seen an anatomic character which 
would serve to characterize exclusively the criminals of any certain 
category, such as robbers, thieves, assassins, burglars, etc. No an- 
thropologist believes in the existence of such a character. There are 
many epileptics, drunkards, imbeciles, degenerates, and inferiors of all 
sorts who have never committed a crime; their action has been such 
as that they stand fair to the community, and they have a right to be 
classed with honest men; no one has a right to class them with crimi- 

EH. Mis.,129 40 


626 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


nals. If some of them have been criminals, who ean say that they 
would not have been honest if subjected in early life to favorable edu- 
cation and sociologic influences? But, on the contrary, who can say 
what may not become of the man who has a sound mind in a sound 
body if he be subjected to the continued pressure of adverse sociologic 
surroundings. Take as a single illustration the feeble cranium capac- 
ity which is not without certain relation to feebleness of mind. The 
feebleness of mind may make its owner commit crime under cer- 
tain deplorable circumstances, but at the same time this may render 
him more inoffensive under other circumstances. His unfortunate ana- 
tomic character may itself conspire to make him more peaceable, hon- 
est, and virtuous. In any event it would be hard to affirm that there 
was a greater proportion of feeble-minded men among honest men than 
among dishonest. And as with feeble-mindedness, so with the other 
anatomic criminal characteristics. 

Some one has used the phrase “all other things being equal,” a man 
with such and such anatomic characteristics would be more likely to 
become a criminal than a man with other characteristics. Manouvrier 
assailed this position, saying that it was founded in error. It was 
because “all other things” were not equal that the man became crimi- 
inal. He asked what were these things, and suggested the infantile life, 
familiarity with vice and crime, the surroundings, the want of moral train- 
ing, sociologic conditions; and these, he said, were the conditions which 
produce the criminals rather than the anatomic characters. He asserted 
that the man with characteristics the opposite of Lombroso’s criminal, if 
subjected to the conditions, influences, and temptations which lead to- 
wards crime, was as likely to become a criminal as was he who possessed 
the characteristics described by Lombroso. He assailed also the idea of 
a criminal type who stood for the criminal classes. He declared that, in 
his opinion, there was no such type. The criminal, the thief, might 
have a head shaped one way in one case, and another way in another 
case, with crania or facial anomalies, with deep occipital fassettes, and 
so forth. But these did not form atype; they were different charac- 
teristics which had no relation to each other, and which he did not 
believe had any relation to crime or criminal tendencies. It was as 
though a man with a long head commits a crime; according to this 
theory, that forms a criminal type. A man with a broad head commits 
acrime; that forms a criminal type. And, using different peculiarities 
as illustrations, where a man with long arms or long legs, or one with 
short arms or short legs, commits a crime, then each of these become 
in their turn criminal types. Thus you have as criminal types the 
long and the short, the round and the square head, the long and the 
short arm, and the long and the short leg. Therefore he declared his 
opinion that, properly speaking, there was no such thing as a criminal 
type. The criminal type was the man who, having submitted to the 
sociologie influence of crime, having been born and raised therein 


eS eS Oe 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY, 627 


and always submitted to them, finds himself in an atmosphere of crime 
to which he adapts himself, and so commits it in the same kind of way 
as he breathes the air of the ill-ventilated teuement house or cellar in 
which he lives. In order to create a type there must be a continuation 
of characteristics, a recurrence in given directions, which is repeated 
again and again until it becomes fixed, and the required characteristics 
are manifested in every normal individual of each generation. This 
forms a type: without this continued re-appearance of characteristics, 
no type is formed. 

Manouvrier declared that no account had been taken of the different 
kinds of crimes, crimes which were different in their motives, requir. 

‘ing different kinds of individuals to commit them, and that a type for 
one would not stand as a type for the other. He divided these thus: 

First: Strange crimes, those inexplicable to the normal man, such 
as were committed by the insane, by the epileptic, idiots, and the de- 
lirious. This ground belongs to pathology and to teratology. 

Second: Crimes committed under the influence of passing troubles 
or delirium, such as anger, drunkenness, jealousy, fear, etc. It is nee- 
essary to distinguish in these criminais thus deranged whe:hor they 
be habitual or accidental; that is to say, the irascible, iss habitual 
drunkard, the insanely jealous, ete. 

Third: The crimes accomplished in cold blood, af: > ~ertain fash- 
ion—deliberate, intentional, with malice aforethougiut; and he asserted 
that it was to the latter class and to that alone the investigations of this 
congress should be confined. To the tw* others it went without say- 
ing that they might have had predisp«. ‘ ons to crime as they had pre- 
dispositions to the various maladies which influenced them to crime, 
some of which they could possibly avoid, others of which they possibly 
could uot. In these cases it was the malady that caused the crimes, 
for which it was responsible, and that the crime in these categories 
was not the deliberate act or intent of the criminal. 

The distinction between the normal and the pathological State, based 
on a physiological analysis, is indispensable in the study of this sub- 
ject. But to do this satisfactorily, how great the difficulty? If this 
be difficult, how impossible to classify properly the doubtful and inter- 
mediate cases? Without these doubtful and intermediate cases being 
fully classified we will have naught but physiological disorder. It is 
necessary also to distinguish physiologically and anatomically between 
the normal and the abnormal state (this of the same persons?). Physi- 
ologically it is abnormal to murder or to rob without motive, or at 
least without other motive than the mere pleasure, whether it be the 
gratification to the criminal or the pleasure he may receive to see an- 
other suffer. But one must be an optimist to believe that it is abnor- 
mal to covet the property of another, and so coveting to seek to 
appropriate it. It is idle not to recognize, in addition to the imperfee- 
tions of human nature, the pernicious influence that is exercised by 


628 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


the evil education, the evil examples, the natural or factitious needs, 
the seductive occasions, the improper liasons, the repugnance to labor, 
the pleasures of idleness, the apparently natural willingness to cat the 
bread and enjoy the fruits of another’s labor, or the satisfaction of a 
former escapade which brought profit, and went unpunished; and, in 
a word, it is useless to refuse to recognize the thousand different socio- 
logic conditions which may serve to form a million of combinations, 
any of which may lead towards crime. With what care is one not 
obliged to guard the child and the young person from the hardening 
effect of evil influences or from the corruption of his childish innocence 
and innate honesty and virtue by the persuasions and example of evil 
associates. 

Without doubt theft appears execrable, while murder is horrible, to 
those young persons who, thanks to a careful education or the precepts 
of a good mother, or the influences of a Christian family and surround- 
ings, have acquired the habits and situation of honest people; and, 
nevertheless, one can easily imagine a combination of circumstances, 
an acquaintance with vice and crime, by which such an individual has 
or may become a criminal. 


Vice is a monster of such hideous mien, 
That to be hated needs but to be seen ; 
Yet seen too oft, familiar with her face, 
We first endure, then pity, then embrace. 


And there are all sorts . -rimes, and that which might be no tempta- 
tion in one case might be ove 2owering in another. With all these 
difficulties is it not impossible any system of classification to draw 
the line between a normal and au abnormal physiologic state, which 
will separate the criminal classes from the honest men ? 

We have still to consider that there are many physiologic pecul- 
iarities which become good or bad qualities according to the circum- 
stances, and these circumstances are simply the surroundings, the envi- 
ronment. An amorous temperament might be highly appreciated and 
complimented in one case, and yet become extremely dangerous in 
another. The audacity and courage which might be a source of pride 
in the soldier, would become execrable on the part of a robber. An 
excellent salesman, the successful drummer, the best newspaper re- 
porter, might, with a change of circumstances, a change in his sur- 
roundings, his environment, become a most dangerous swindler, or the 
best mechanic may become a most dangerous bank burglar or counter- 
feiter; and his eminence in crime is attained because of his apparently 
natural excellencies, which might have made him, and which went so 
far towards making him, an honest and successful man. 

Crime is, therefore, not necessarily bound to physiologic peculiarities, 
nor is it produced by abnormal or disadvantageous anatomic characters. 

It must be remembered that the man, healthy and normal though he 
be, is not a man without faults or without tendency to vice. To seek 


inten ne 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 629 


for this is to seek for the impossible. All men, however honest or vir- 
tuous, will be found to have some defect or some vice, otherwise they 
would be perfection, which is not to be expected of human nature. 

A defect or a vice, whether anatomic or physiologic, does not become 
an anomaly simply because one finds it in a criminal. Anatomically 
the same remark is to be made; we do not consider as abnormal or in- 
ferior every man who is not perfect. 

Dr. Manouvrier proceeded to examine the results of anatomic re- 
searches made, up to the present time, upon criminals. 

No one has yet accomplished or discovered an anatomic character by 
which the criminal can be classified into categories, like robbers, swin- 
dlers, burglars, etc. The most one can doininvestigating the tendency 
to crime by the examination of the criminal himself is to seek for the 
specific characteristics, but even these, if found, do not prove that they 
are specifically criminal or special to criminals. 

Aljl that can be done in this direction, and it is quite another question 
from the former, is to discover if the criminals examined present cer- 
tain abnormal anatomic characters more frequent and in a higher de- 
gree than honest men. To answer either affirmatively or negatively 
as to the whole aggregate, or even to the average, would be a hardy 
and even dangerous undertaking. There are honest men who are af- 
fected in ail the unfortunate and much to be regretted ways suggested 
by Signor Lombroso—epileptics, imbeciles, degenerates, and even the 
vicious and inferiors of all sorts; while those who have been classed as 
honest men are capable of becoming criminals ot the darkest dye, and 
have no more morality or virtue than the most incorrigible robber and 
thief. 

Dr. Manouvrier referred again to the saying, ‘All other things being 
equal,” the abnormal, the inferior, etc., were more likely to become 
_criminals, etc., “ but” he demanded, ‘‘ is it certain that all things are 
equal for the criminal?” It is in vain that we have remarked the small 
number of individuals becoming criminals out of each hundred persons 
snbjected to these defective sociologic circumstances. The conditions 
and circumstances which are so difficult to weigh, and above all the 
infinitely variable combinations, whether taken by themselves or by 
their complex tendencies, have a different effect upon each individual. 
Among a hundred individuals thus environed, is it not possible to be- 
lieve that the ten or twenty who become criminals are those which have 
been subjected to the combinations, sociologic and physio-sociologic, 
the most evil, the most powerful, and the most effective in leading them 
in the wrong path? It is therefore wiser to permit the facts to decide 
each case for itself. 

The documents published are numerous, but they are not yet suffi- 
cient to convince an incredulous anthropologist who finds himself op- 
posed to either view, and who proposes to examine them critically. 
Occasionally monstrous criminals have been exhibited, but that does 


630 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


not prove that criminals are anatomic monsters, and no more does the 
fact that some criminals are epileptics prove that all criminals are 
epileptics, nor that epileptics become criminals. The statistics ob- 
tained and the averages sought to be established have been based 
upon insufficient data. The series have not been sufficiently extended, 
the figures have been obtained by defective processes, the observa- 
tions have been uncertain and different, and the observers or investi- 
gators have been novices in many eases, and in others have proceeded 
upon different lines, if not by different processes, each one of them 
more uncertain and defective than the other. They have cited insig- 
nificant differences which they say exist between honest men and 
criminals, but which differences may be found in equal proportion 
among honest men, if they were so examined, and might also be found 
between criminals. They have compared the series of criminals with 
series of soldiers; that is to say, with men who are chosen for their 
exemption from infirmities or deformities, and have: calculated the 
relative frequency of these deformities in the two series, or in the 
series of the two classes without regard to the difference in their con- 
dition. They have cited cranial peculiarities observed by different 
persons operating in different methods and by different rules, with 
different standards. And from all these discordant and inharmonious 
elements they have sought to establish averages in the respective 
classes whether of criminals or of honest men. 

In spite of all this incoherence and erroneous and defective process, 
whether of gathering facts and obtaining evidence, or of ratiocination, 
they have obtained statistics, which, aided slightly by preconceived 
opinion, have almost persuaded some of our wisest and best men that 
the criminal classes present in their average a proportion. of abnormal 
or inferior characters greater than those belonging to the classes of 
honest men. The number of these abnormal or inferior characters . 
are multiplying themselves day by day in the estimation of these wise 
men, and this is being pushed to such extremes as that soon the man 
who is believed to be honest will find himself possessing a half dozen 
of these criminal characteristics. Thus the system is in danger of 
breaking down of its own weight. 

We might with propriety ask, what constitutes a criminal type? If, 
in making this examination of criminals, one unites the characters 
abnormal, pathologic or inferior, taken in an examination of say a 
thousand criminals, without considering and arranging upon the other 
side the characters found therein which are incompatible with each 
other, it will be apparent that the investigation will be without value 
and the conclusion based thereon erroneous. One criminal is plagio- 
cephalic, another has long arms, another a vermien fossette, etc. But 
it is not any one of these that forms a type whether criminal or other- 
wise. 

In order to form a type one should unite the common characters, eli- 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 631 


minating the anomalous and pathologic manifestations. In order to 
obtain an abnormal type, it is necessary to choose for each species of 
anomalies or alteration an individual in which this anomaly or altera- 
tion is well characterized, and then there will be as many types as 
there are sorts of anomalies or alterations. We therefore can not have 
a type criminal any more than we ean have atype of human monsters. 

In order to characterize criminals in general, it is necessary to ob- 
tain the averages, which can be compared with the averages of other 
individuals of the same race, the same sex, the same social class, ete. 
These latter individuals must themselves be the average of their respec- 
tive race, sex, or class, and their averages thus taken should become 
the type or standard. 

Honest or virtuous men (a category not less vague than that of 
criminals) will then be without doubt the metatypic. But these have 
not yet been studied nor their type settled. Nevertheless it is these 
metatypes that we should compare anatomically with the criminals 
if we would make comparison between the anatomic characters of the 
two classes. Who form this class of honest and virtuous men that 
furnish the standard by which the criminal classes are to be judged? 
They may be idle, vicious, evil disposed, imbecile, passionate, brutal, 
and all that, if they have but escaped being declared by the law to be 
criminals. In this condition of affairs is it possible that any one can 
determine anatomically, or physiologically, or psycho-sociologically 
what physical characteristics form a criminal type of man? 

What are the results? This is a question to be resolved by anatomic 
anthropology, of which the comparative anatomy of criminals is no 
more than one chapter. The anatomic study of criminals in order to 
become of value has need to be extended to a greater area and in 
greater detail even than has been here indicated. 

There was, of course, a large discussion among the members of the 
congress over this question. Nearly every one had a different idea 
concerning it. 

Professor Lombroso responded to Dr. Manouvrier. He demanded 
how he would distinguish the criminals. The criminals of occasion has 
presented abnormal characters. It was not the occasion that made the 
criminal, but it was the occasion which was presented to an individual 
predisposed to commit the crime. It has been objected that the woman 
criminal had no anatomic characteristics, but they who made that 
objection forgot that prostitution was the form of the feminine crimi- 
nality. He believed somewhat in the idea emitted by Madame 
Clemence-Royer on the relation between crime and hybridity, or mix- 
ture of races, one being inferior. If the crime is not an anomaly, what 
is it? Is ita virtue? He agreed with Dr. Manouvrier that the cra- 
nial capacity is not a characteristic of criminality. Bearing upon the 
question of atavism he stated that he had found among criminals a 
great number or proportion of hernia. This was a regressive char- 


632 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


acter. The role of ptomaines in criminal manifestations appeared to 
him certain. 

M. Tarde responded to Lombreso apropos of the criminal woman. 
He maintained that an honest woman presented the characteristics 
ascribed to the criminal woman as described by the Italian school, and 
nevertheless, woman is less criminal, or takes to crime less than man. 
Prostitution is the occasion and not the offense. He declared there 
were no anatomic characters proper or peculiar to the criminal, and, 
nevertheless, there were organic and physiologic predispositions to 
crime. The function made the organ, and the nerve would model the 
bone; as the river determines the valley, so the crime makes the crimi- 
nal. If in criminal anthropology one can come to show the localization 
of criminal characteristics, as has done Broca for the articulate language, 
the base of the scientific edifice might be considered established. 

M. Moleschott and Dr. Brouardel complimented these gentlemen 
upon the profoundness of their studies. The latter considered the 
search for the criminal anomaly in physical or anatomical character- 
istics as illusory. He could admit the malformations of the pavillion 
of the ear reported by Morel, the occipital fossette and the characters 
of the same kind, but these were no cause of criminality in themselves, 
but only simple indexes of an abnormal development of which the con- 
sequences could be many. The epileptics, the insane, show the presence 
of ptomaines in their urine. He recalled the observations of an epilep- 
tic woman in bis service. Her urine contained a convulsive ptomaine, 
which injected into a frog produced the same physiologic effects as 
strychnine. The ptomanie products or the leucomanic toxique found 
in the veins of the insane and the melancholy result from troubles in 
general nutrition. Are they cause or are they effect? The question 
demands to be studied. 

Dr. Brouardel responded to M. Tarde that if the function made the 
organ, it could only do so in the presence of muscular fiber. A woman 
without any calf to her leg could never become a dancer. 

’M. Bajenoff, director of the Asylum of Riazanne, Russia, could not 
accept everything he had found in the works of Lombroso and his col- 
leagues, but his and their methods seemed to be scientific. His own 
studies cephalometric had shown to him that honest men had a larger 
frontal development, while the criminals were better developed in the 
parietal and occipital portions of their brain or skull. 

Baron Garofalo said that crime might be considered always the 
result of an organic anomaly. In speaking of crimes we should con- 
sider only those which were declared so by the public conscience and 
not always those declared so by the law. Those, for instance, of great 
cruelty or extraordinary improbity. But one could perceive that 
criminals always manifested moral anomalies and physical anomalies 
that were found less frequently in honest men. 

Lombroso insisted upon his fundamental distinction between the 


_ 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 633 


criminal born and the criminal of occasion. But he conceded that the 
existence of criminal anatomic characteristics might be limited or even 
absent in the latter class. He declares woman to be a criminal of 
occasion, except with prostitution, wherein she represented the born 
criminal. But in the criminal born he insisted upon the existence of 
physical signs which he declared to be undeniable, and that while their 
number and importance vary from one individual to another, yet when 
considered together, had a value and signification ‘‘ absolument incon- 
testable.” While he would not deny the influences sociologic, mesologic, 
geographic, and orographic, yet the effect of these influences was only 
to intensify the criminal characteristics which existed anatomically 
and fundamentally. Thus it will be seen that in the discussion between 
these two representatives of the different schools, in spite of the appar- 
ent diversity of their opinion they came nearly together by an exchange 
of partial and reciprocal concession. Yet this harmony was more ap- 
parent than real, for in the subsequent discussions of the Congress, 
whenever anything was said favoring the existence of a criminal type, 
it immediately precipitated a return to the former discussion. 

In the discussion of the seventh question the whole argument was 
gone over again. The skull of Charlotte Corday, which belonged, with 
all guaranty of authenticity, to the collection of Prince Roland Bona- 
parte, was presented as an illustration of a born criminal because of 
the depth of the occipital fossettes. This immediately brought out 
Lombroso, who returned to the attack with all his ardor and power, 
and after him Benedikt, of Vienna, Garofalo, Ferri, Brouardel, and 
at last, M. Herbette. The latter, with Dr. Brouardel, seemed to be the 
most conservative. They presented, each of them, in calm and consid- 
erate but elegant language, the necessity for carefui study and profound 
investigation. Festina lenta was their motto. While they recom- 
mended the investigation and study to be made with ardor, and pushed 
to the extreme, they counseled that the conclusions should not be made 
hastily, changes should not be made brusquely, opinions not be an- 
nounced dogmatically, or by going too rapidly, this science might com- 
promise its force, its authority, or its prestige. 

The importance of this question or the value of its discussions in this 
congress can not be overestimated, for while the substance may have 
been argued pro and con in years past, yet here for almost the first 
time the scientific men of the world were assembled in an international 
congress for its discussion, with full opportunity for preparation, and 
with the knowledge that they were here to be brought face to face with 
their opponents or those who held different opinions from themselves, 
and here they were to appear with what arguments, reasons, statistics 
they might have in defense of the position which they claimed to be 
right. Accordingly as this question shall be decided, so should there 
be a change in the fabric of our criminal jurisprudence. If men are 
born criminals then they are not to be punished as they would be if 


634 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


otherwise. If, on the other hand, they are educated to be criminals, 
then ought our system of education to be seriously and radically 
changed. J repeat my impression of the profound importance of this 
science, 


Question ITI.—Establishment of. regular rules for investigating the 
occupants of our prisons and insane asylums by means of anthropom- 
etry, or of psychology, by Dr. Sciammana of Rome, reporter. 

The study of the criminal had its origin in the purest love for science 
and the greatest desire to obtain the truth. Perhaps those who com- 
mence to gather the history of celebrated criminals, to trace their organ- 
isms, to study their special physical conditions, the environments in 
which they have lived, or to search for the idea or theory that possessed 
them at the moment of their crime, or the cause which pushed them to 
it, did it for naught but scientific curiosity. But in the study of erim- 
inal anthropology in these latter days these things have changed, and 
now, thanks to the civilization of our epoch, its truth is sought for its 
own sake as well as for the practical benefits which may follow. Every 
one has recognized the practical importance of the study of criminal an- 
thropology. There are, nevertheless, scientists who deny the fecundity 
of the researches and who believe that crimes are nothing but the re- 
sult of the free will of the criminal, and that the influence which pushes 
him to commit the crime had its origin in the same free but evil and 
wicked will. But we are not obliged to occupy ourselves with these 
scientists, however wise they may be, because they have confined their 
investigations only to the field of theory and have never come down to 
test of investigation by means of experiments. 

Our scientific academies, our medical congress, the administration of 
the prisons, are all now occupying themselves over the questions, what 
are the individual characteristics of criminals, whether anatomic, psy- 
chologic, physiologic or sociologic? And in studying these questions 
they are moved by the highest order of both charity and pride. They 
are moved to discover the most rational and satisfactory method for the 
prevention of crime and the reformation of criminals. Various scientific 
societies and bodies have taken steps in this direction. 

The Society of Anthropology of Brussels organized a commission 
charged to study the characters of professional criminals, and in the 
bulletins of that society the members published their investigations on 
the criminals confined at the prisons at Louvain. 

In 1885 the Medical Congress at Antwerp following a communication 
made by Dr. Semal on the relations of criminality and insanity, voted 
unanimously to continue these studies, to extend the commission to in- 
clude the magistrates who tried the criminals, the administrators of the 
penitentiary and the medical profession. 

The International Medical Congress of Barcelona recognized the im- 
portance of criminal anthropology and declared that the scientific 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 635 


inquests were now sufliciently advanced to demand their practical ap- 
plication. 

The scientist who desires seriously to study the psychology of a crim- 
inal is fairly well received by the prison authorities in all civilized coun- 
tries, and a good opportunity is given him for study, whether it shall 
be during the life of the criminals or upon their bodies after death. 

In these conditions it is our duty, as we find ourselves representing 
one of the principal sciences in the world, to report, each one, to this 
Congress of Criminal Anthropology, what he has done, what he can do 
in his own country, and thus to gather and unite the largest possible 
number of discovered and verified facts. This congress, representing 
all countries, may thus agree upon certain facts as the result of a once 
separate but now united series, and a law be thus established. That law 
it is our duty to formulate and proclaim. 

In 1884, in Italy, when the general direction of prisons was con- 
fided to M. Beltrani-Scalia, one of our most illustrious savants, the 
Government ordained the autopsy of all criminals who die in the prison 
of the kingdom. It was thus intended to gather from the cadavers of 
criminals, a series of anatomic and physiologic facts, by which their 
history relative to crime, aided by the documents of the prison, could 
be made known. 

Dr. Sciammana said he had been charged to formulate a series of 
questions, to which all the doctors of the prisons of the kingdoms would 
respond, relative to the exterior examination of the cadavers, but not 
including anthropometric researches. To respond conscientiously to 
the questions by doctors who were entirely unused to them and whose 
time was already engaged, required much labor and the consumption 
of much time, and it was concluded by them that the work was too 
heavy. Therefore, the scheme has not succeeded as well as was ex- 
pected, and we have to renounce hope for the present of obtaining this 
scientific material for studies in criminology. ‘To obviate the difficulty, a 
new formula of questions has been prepared, which while it has reduced 
somewhat our scientific information, has also so far reduced the labor of 
answering them, as that the result is even more satisfactory than before. 

But there is something to which, in relation to the statistics of 
crime, the attention of the congress is particularly called. It is not 
difficult to report all the information concerning the crimes found in 
the records made by the magistrates or courts who tried the prisoners 
and the attorney-general who prosecuted them. Also such notes as 
have been made while the criminals were in prison. But these things 
are of small utility if there is not also gathered the more precious ma- 
terial concerning the personality of the criminal, the material psycho- 
logic, anthropologic, teratologic and anatomo-pathologic, which should 
be studied by competent medical arthorities. To accomplish this it is 
necessary to follow a single method of study and investigation by which 
the facts gathered can be compared as though they were done by the 


636 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


same person. Following this system, those who study the materials of 
criminology will be able to note the most valuable observations and 
pursue researches which they believe to be the most profitable. It is 
one of the important works of this congress, or of its successors, to form- 
ulate a code of observation and to establish the common means of record- 
ing the results. 

These researches, made for the purpose of establishing a system of 
comparative international statistics, ought to be made both upon the 
criminal while living and upon his cadaver when dead. The first should 
be an investigation as to the intellectual capacity of the individual, the 
modes and manifestations of his affections and moral sense, and the de- 
gree of his vital energy and will power. This psychologic investiga- 
tion ought to be preceded by an anamnestic interrogation of the individ- 
ual or by an examination of the criminal process against him. Every 
investigation should include the study of his heredity and neuro-pathol- 
ogy. These anthropologic and clinical researches should be made be- 
fore the criminal has suffered a prolonged imprisonment; if not, his 
peculiarities or characteristics may be effected thereby. 

The second of the researches should be upon the cadaver, as to its 
conditions anthropologic and pathologic, so that it can be determined 
whether the alterations are due to the pre-eminence of morbid tenden- 
cies or whether they are the result of an abnormal development due 
to some other cause. These researches should be made both upon the 
criminal and the insane, and one can thus see the links which form the 
psycho-pathologic chain of human life, at one end of which we may find 
insanity and at the other criminality. Many insane asylums are confided 
to the care of zealous savants who make these studies and note the 
results. Attention is called to the exceptional importance of these 
researches that can be made in the houses of correction, not alone in 
the interest of science, but that they can serve as a complement to the 
observations which one may make later upon the same individual if 
found in the prison. They also may serve as a guide for the treatment 
and reformation of those who are in the house of correction. 

But it is necessary to have a special accord among the savants and 
the medical authorities of the prisons, insane asylums, and houses of 
correction so that one can obtain the same researches and results 
throughout this, whether among the living or upon the cadavers. It 
is therefore proposed that a commission should be charged to formulate 
the questions and to establish what might be called a national code of 
researches, to which it is hoped all nations will accord their favor and 
adopt. 


Question IV.—The conditions determinative of crime and their rela- 
tive value. 

M. Ferri, professor of penal law in the university at Rome and deputy 
of the Italian Parliament, was the reporter. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 637 


The natural genesis of crime obeys a fundamental law by which all 
crime is only the result of the simultaneous or indivisible concurrence 
of the conditions of the individual, whether they be biologic or of the 
surroundings where the individual was born, lived, and acted. 

Every crime, no matter who its author, no matter under what cir- 
cumstances committed, can be explained in one of two ways—either as 
the act or fiat of the individual’s free will or as the natural effect of 
natural causes. The first of these explanations being without scientific 
value, it is impossible to explain scientifically a crime (like every other 
action, human or animal) if it is not considered as the product of an or- 
ganic constitution or psychic personality which is called upon to act 
under certain conditions, either of physical or social surroundings. 

It is therefore inexact to affirm that the school of criminal positivists 
can reduce crime to a phenomenon purely and exclusively anthropologic, 
for, on the contrary, that school has always maintained from its be- 
ginning that crime is the effect of multifarious conditions, anthro- 
pological, physical, and social, and that these operate together and may 
determine the crime by an action simultaneous and inseparable; and 
if the researches into the biologic conditions are more abundant or 
more apparent because of their novelty, that does not contradict the 
influence of the sociologic condition upon crime. 

We are to consider on this occasion the relative value of these three 
orders of condition in the natural determination to the commission of © 
crime. A response can not be given absolutely or categorically. Be- 
sides, the question is frequently misunderstood and misstated. Those 
who think that crime is nothing but a phenomenon, purely and exelu- 
sively social, without the concurrence in its determination by the 
criminal of his organic and psychic anomalies, misunderstand the uni- 
versal union of natural forces and forget that one can not limit in an 
absolute fashion the infinity of causes, which far or near, direct or 
indirect, may combine or conspire to produce every phenomenon. 
This position is as erroneous as to say that the life of a mammal is 
the effect of the action of a single organ, whether lungs, heart, or 
stomach, or to say that it is maintained alone by food or drink or the 
oxygen of the atmosphere, and that each of these produces the entire 
effect without the aid of the other. If crime be the exclusive product 
of the social surrounding, how is one to explain the fact known 
to us every day of our lives, that in the same social status and under 
equal circumstances of misery, poverty, and ignorance, out of each 
one hundred individvals sixty are not criminal, commit no crime, and 
out of the remaining forty, five prefer suicide to crime, five become 
insane, five become beggars or vagabonds, and only twenty-five out of 
the hundred become criminals; and among the latter the crimes com- 
mitted differ in variety,—from those the most bloodthirsty, frightful, 
and inexcusable, to those which are the mildest misdemeanor, and for 
which the prisoner may be discharged with only a reprimand. The 


638 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


secondary differences in social conditions which may be found even 
among the members of the same family are evidently not sufficient in 
themselves to explain the enormous differences of these resulting 
actions. 

Itis necessary, therefore, to consider this question in a relative sense 
and to discover which of the three orders of natural causes of crime has 
the greatest influence in the determination to the commission thereof. 

A general or categorie answer can not be given, for the relative influ- 
ence of the anthropological, physical, and social conditions, vary with 
each criminal action according to the psychologic and social characters 
of the individual. 

When we consider, for example, the three classes of crimes, those 
against persons, those against property, those against morality and 
virtue, if is evident that each order of the determining conditions, and, 
above all, the biologic conditions and the social conditions, have an in- 
fluence altogether different in the determination to the crimes of mur- 
der, robbery, or violation. And this can be repeated for all categories 
of crime. 

The undeniable influence of social condition, and above all—economie 
condition in the determination to rob or steal, has much less effect 
in the determination to murder or violation. And in each category 
of crimes the influence of the determining conditions is much accord- 
ing to the special forms of criminality. Certain classes of murders 
(those of occasion) are evidently the effect of social conditions, as, 
for instance, alcoholism, gambling, public opinion, ete., while cer- 
tain other murders are the effect of the ferocity or the moral insensi- 
bility of the criminal, or else arising from the psycho-pathologic con- 
dition which corresponds to organic abnormal conditions. And it is 
the same with certain offenses against good morals which are in a great 
part the effect of a social condition which condemns some communities 
to live together in habitations more as herds of wild beasts than as 
human beings, with a brutal promiscuity of sexes and ages, parents, 
chiidren, strangers, boys, girls, ete., which will have the effect to pre- 
vent every normal sentiment of virtue or modesty and to efface any 
such sentiment already formed. 

Other crimes of the same nature, but more brutal, are derived from 
the biologic conditions of the criminal, whether they be the result of 
a sexual psychopathy or a biologic anomaly. While simple theft or 
larceny may be somewhat the effect of social or economic conditions, 
yet these influences have but slight effect in comparison with the im- 
pulsion given by the individual constitution, whether organic or 
psychic, in higher crimes, as robbery with violence, or in murder with 
intent to rob or steal, or other crimes committed in cold blood. 

The same observation can be applied to the conditions of the phys- 
ical surroundings, for example, the augmentation in the number of 
crimes against property committed during the cold or winter months, 


> 
* 


ee. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 639 


while on the other hand the augmentation of cimes against the person, 
whether those of blood or against morality, during the warm or summer 
months. The reason for these things is that we find the individuals 
affected, to be in that biologic condition wherein they have the least 
resistance against these evil influences. 

The limits of this paper do not permit the proofs, whether anthro- 
pologic, psychologic, or statistic, of these conclusions, but these are 
only the synthesis of numerous studies and positive investigation made 
upon the tendency or inducement to crime, by observing the crimi- 
nals and the causes which affect them. It has been said that for 
certain crimes and criminals the largest influence ought to be recog- 
nized or accorded to the physio-psychie conditions of the individual, 
which may go from the anthropologic anomaly, scarcely recognizable, 
to the pathologic state, the most accentuated, yet this does not exclude 
the possible fact that crime may be a consequence of social con- 
dition; that the physio-psychic anomalies of the individual are nothing 
but the effect of a deleterious social environment which condemns those 
which it surrounds to an organic and psychic degeneration. This ob- 
jection might be good when taken in a relative sense, but is without 
foundation if one seeks to give it an absolute value. 

First, it is necessary toremember that cause and effect are them- 
selves only relative, for each effect isin its turn a cause and vice versa ; 
so that if misery, poverty, degradation, etc., whether material or moral, 
is a cause of degeneration, the degeneration becomes in its turn a cause 
of the misery, poverty, and degradation. And so the discussion be- 
comes metaphysical. Investigators into the relations of crime in difter- 
ent countries (criminal geographers) have claimed a great value for 
their statistics when they have given the quality of the crime and the 
number of the criminals in various countries or provinces, and sought 
to compare one with the other. Instead of these being the differences 
in biologic condition, as of race; or of physical conditions, as of climate, 
etc.; they may be governed largely by social or economic conditions ; 
that is, those arising from the differences in agriculture, industry, labor, 
wages, homes, schools, service in the army, ete. 

In the absence of any positive verification, the student of this ques- 
tion may with propriety ask if the social conditions of a given province 
or country have any real effect upon or relation to its criminality, and 
whether the social conditions may not be themselves only the effect of 
the ethnic characters of intelligence, energy, etc., of its inhabitants and 
the conditions of its climate, soil, ete. 

But with more precision one can also aver, even outside the conditions 
profoundly pathologic, that there are a great number of cases in which 
the bio-psychic anomalies of the criminals may be the effect of an envi- 
ronment which is physically and morally mephitie. 

In each family of several children, in spite of the same surroundings 
and like favorable conditions, with the same methods of instruction and 


640 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


education, there will be individuals of different intellectuality, to be 
remarked from the cradle, as well in the quantity or in the quality of 
their talent as in their moral and physiologic constitutions. And 
this phenomenon, although it be evident only in a small number of 
cases of the most accentuated characteristics, whether normal or ab- 
normal, does not cease to be true also in the more numerous class of 
cases of mediocre characteristics. The physical and social conditions 
may have an influence less patent according as the physio-psychic eon- 
stitution of the individual is stronger and healthier. 

The practical conclusion of these general observations upon the nat- 
ural genesis of crime is this: That each crime is the result of indi- 
vidual physical and social conditions; and because these conditions 
have an influence preponderating more or less in different crimes or 
in different forms of criminality, the most sure and certain means that 
society has or should employ in its defense against or for the preven- 
tion of crime, is twofold ; and both ought to be employed and developed 
simultaneously. On the one hand, the amelioration of social condi- 
tions, which will serve as a natural prevention of crime; on the other 
hand, the elimination of those biologic conditions which determine 
crime; these measures of elimination should be perpetual or temporary, 
according as their influence on the biologic conditions are permanent 
and radical, or as they are temporary and changeable. 

There are, said Ferri, five kinds of criminals, which should be dis- 
tinguished each from the other and treated accordingly; the born crimi- 
nal, the insane criminal, the criminal of occasion, of passion, of habitude. 
To prevent crime the government or society should, on the one hand, 
ameliorate the social conditions, and, on the other, eliminate from society 
either partially or entirely those with defective characters, according 
to the degree of danger and the possibility of cure. 

M. Alimena declared the essential causes of crime to be the social 
condition and hereditary transmission. According to him the crim- 
inal was produced by the same processes as were employed by stock- 
raisers to rear new races as an improvement of the present races, and 
adopting the words of Dr. Lacassagne at Rome, “soclety has no erimi- 
nals except such as it merits.” 

Dr. Manouvrier took up the battle. He said they had reduced the 
importance of the surroundings. If their theory be true that the occa- 
sion makes the criminal, then society will make a criminal of the man 
who is the most inoffensive, and an inoffensive man of him who is most 
disposed to crime: and he argued his side of the question at length, 
and with vigor and eloquence. 

M. Tarde said we have the agricultural type of man, the military type, 
the sailor type, and why should we not have the criminal type? Lom- 
broso took it up by saying that it was undoubted that we had among 
the criminals the type of the assassin, the type of the robber and bur- 
glar, and the type of the thief and swindler, lM. Moleschott, senator 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 641 


of Italy, mentioned an influence towards crime that had not been no- 
ticed, to wit, the heredity social influence; that is, the tradition which 
is instilled into the mind of every child, before he knows the difference 
between right and wrong, that by which he obtains the rudiments of 
his knowledge of right and wrong. Whether it be correct or not, it is 
the child’s standard. He gets it not from any knowledge or theory of 
justice, but from the tradition of his own neighborhood, as it is taught 
by his parents and associates, by the people, and as it is believed by 
them. 

Dr. Manouvrier responded: The argument of M. Ferri on the pre-dis- 
posing importance of the anatomic characters proves nothing, because 
he has taken account of only the general sociologie influences, and not 
enough of the daily events of infinite details which happen to every 
man continually from his birth, and while each one of them was of the 
minimum in itself, yet aggregated made a sociologic surrounding in the 
life of the man to such extent as to change its form, and make him be- 
come what he is. The study of criminality among animals proves that 
education can change him to be contrary to all his hereditary in- 
stincts, even contrary to his essential anatomic organization. M. Ra- 
bourdin succeeded in rendering bis wolf an honest and respectable 
animal, so that it would not attack or devour sheep, but would content 
himself with his regular meals duly served. The regular meal to the 
wolf played the same role that the daily income does to man, by the 
grace of which many persons who might easily become criminais pass 
their days with high heads in society and enjoy the confidence of their 
neighborhoods with a reputation all their lives of being honest men. 
He elaborated the necessity of consideration in this matter, not only of 
the number of the conditions and circumstances which had an influence 
upon us, but still further the arrangement and position relative to these 
conditions. The possible combinations became infinite and not to be 
measured, and the realization of two cases apparently alike, theoretic- 
ally alike, night be practically unlike, and what became in one indi- 
vidual entirely possible became in the other entirely impossible. As to 
his illustration of the wolf, he said that this was introduced to show 
how difficult it was to educate any animal to disobey his instinets, but 
still the illustration proved that it could be done. 


Question V.—The infancy of children in its relation to a predisposi- 
tion to crime. Dr. Romeo Taverni, professor of the University of 
Catania, Italy, and Dr. Magnan, director of the insane asylum at 
Sainte Anne, Paris, reporters. 

First part by Dr. Romeo Taverni. The science of anatomy can not 
alone tell us the genesis of crime in an individual man, and it never 
will, because the moral lite of humanity, the most simple phenomenon, 
will carry us to many causes for its explanation, and must be searched 
for among many sciences, and will never be found in a single cause 
nor by a single method. The problem is to search the brain of the 

H. Mis, 129 41 


642 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


criminal, and find if there be any anomalies which would authorize 
the idea of a degradation or physical degeneration predominating 
among that class of men. This problem remains yet an object of 
study. The results which have come to us up to the present are not 
ecnelusive. Among those who make these studies, some have observed 
too small a number of cases, and others have occupied themselves 
solely upon the cranial anomalies without interesting themselves with 
the anomalies of the brain, or vice versa, and the researches have not 
always been exempt from influence or conception a priort. They have 
supposed their task to be to establish imaginary relations between pat- 
ticular dispositions, altogether accidental, of the cerebral convolutions 
of criminals, and certain normal dispositions of the same convolu- 
tions among other persons. The observers have been rare who have 
sought among criminals for the peculiarities which the surface of the 
cerebral hemispheres present, and their relation with the type of skull 
corresponding, avd whether these things are or not the same which the 
anatomist has already found to exist among individuals not criminals. 
Nevertheless, the observation of several scientific anatomists appear to 
affirm that there does not exist any special type of skull or of brain in 
criminals, and this invites us to consider whether there exists any nor- 
mal type of skull or brain of non-criminals, honest men. 

In the skull and brain of criminals the degenerate characters appear 
with greater frequency than in those not criminals. But the precise 
value of this comparative frequency is yet insufficiently determined as 
well as the manner in which these degenerative characters are proven, 
so that their full power to cause crime or to create a pre-disposition to 
crime, does not appear as yet established by any law that can be called 
invariable. No order of somatic anomaly encountered among crimi- 
nals possesses by itself any signification of a material cause of the delin- 
quency nor a physical pre-disposition to delinquency. Taken together 
they indicate only the existence of, (1) a degeneration, (2) an organism 
by which their development has been arrested, or (3) the return of a 
regressive atavism. 

But the physical degradation which is recognized by every fact can 
not, according to our experience, be found separated from a moral deg- 
radation. Observation has taught us that the brain sous-micro-cephalic 
is perhaps not apt in its function to conceive principles of which the 
presence in the understanding is a force necessary to the existence of 
moral life. So that we have learned that a human skull which recalls 
by its strueture the animal form which it resembles, approaches more 
to the ancestral form than another in which the archaic forms have 
been effaced. 

The moral degradation which physical degradation teaches, belongs 
exclusively to the general operation of the moral life. We do not pos- 
sess sufficient experimental knowledge of the anatomic structure of 
any individual to enable us to say, from this, that he had any determin- 
ing tendency towards crime, nor thatit had inany way a bearing upon 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 643 


his moral sense. There is no scientific method by which the relation- 
ship between his physical structure and his moral sense can be deter- 
mined, whether the study be made during his life or by autopsy. 

(2) The first principle.ot the science of criminal anthropology, as 
taught in modern times, is to study the criminal rather than the crime. 
We have lived among criminals in the prisons of several of the cities 
as much of the time as was possible. During several years we have 
kept anamnestic observations and have recorded everything which had 
relation to the past life of the criminal; but we are not occupied solely 
in determining, according to the physiogrnomy of their crime, whether 
there is any such thing as criminals by instinct. We have never omit- 
ted an occasion to interrogate the criminal concerning his parents, 
his tutors, his friends, his master, his nurses, doctor, all that could give 
testimony concerning the infancy and youth of our criminals. One 
hundred and twenty-three of these numerous anamnestic tables have 
been recorded and give an abundance, an exactitude, a minutia of 
historic information of such nature as to cause us truly to believe that 
future researches upon this point can do no more. The tables are of 
persons condemned for those grave crimes which have been effected by 
destruetive means, whether against the person or of property, or one or 
both. The sex, age, origin, etat civil, profession, the economic condition, 
religion, intellectual culture of criminals have all been investigated 
and recorded. There is much variation according to our observation, 
but we have considered all descriptions and classes of these criminals 
and have formulated this interesting scientific conclusion: That there 
is an inaptitude for education in infancy that is evidence of a natural 
pre-disposition to crime. We have met with cases and occasions where 
we could base a veritable scientific prognosis which has confirmed the 
truth of this experimental doctrine. 

A methodical investigation has shown to us seventeen children hay- 
ing this inaptitude for education, that we have foreseen with assur- 
ance they would become criminals. And they became criminals con- 
trary to the expectation and belief of a number of savants who were 
obstinate in their opinion that these infants were only backward in 
their education, and who prophesied that they would succeed if their 
pedagogy was appropriate. In order to resolve the grand question 
as to the natural predisposition to crime, the science of criminology 
ought to demand critical experience of the pedagogic biology. We 
deeply regret that the general bureau of criminal statistics can not 
give official information in answer to the two questions: How many 
children and young people already gathered in the houses of correction 
become criminal adults? Andits complement: How many condemned 
adults had in their youth been placed in houses of correction ? 

(3) Our modern civilization has so improved, that it exceeds the nat- 
ural capacity of many individuals who live in our midst. Modern civ- 
ilization represents the last and final effort of the individuals who are 


644 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


the best equipped. Many persons who now might be regarded as more 
or less criminal would have been esteemed honest if they had been 
destined to live in the primitive condition of man at the origin of civil- 
ization, or, at least, in the civilization of ancient times when our ances- 
tors formed the barbaric races of Europe. Each political government 
is a vast organism for the social education of all its citizens. Never- 
theless there are persons who, by virtue of an instinctive and invin- 
cible opposition, reject the possibility of modification by the adapting 
efficacy of political government. Out of this opposition grows instinet 
ive criminality. Because of it, criminals perform their actions without 
being conscious of evil. Giving free course to their instinets, they 
have only the consciousness of the good of their own individuality. 
Their selfishness seeks only their own good, and if they are not to be 
charged with the evil which their acts cause, no more are they entitled 
to credit for the good. The family is a small copy of society. The 
historic evolution of the family is that of society in general. There 
is a law which gives the highest importance to the good order of gen- 
eral society. There is also another law, only second to this, the good 
order of the family. The law of general society is the same in a 
greater sense as is the law of the family. The law of good. order 
in the family is intended for the adaptation of the individual to the 
social law. It is easy to recognize by observation and experiment that 
there are some individuals, however small the number, who present 
an insensible, instinctive, and obstinate resistance to the law of the 
family. This repugnance to family government is sometimes revealed 
during their infancy. These are the individuals who rebel against edu- 
cation and good order, whether of the family or of the State. The ini- 
tial adaptation of these individuals to the social law, on which are to be 
found all ulterior adaptations to law and order, are in a great part 
achieved by these individuals during their infancy. We ask, in what 
consists this opposition of the individual, the student, the infant, to 
the good order, whether of the family or society? How is it explained ? 
It appears to consist in the physical impossibility of the individual to 
bring into subjection certain of his nervous centers, and his inability 
to require them to accommodate themselves in their structure so that 
they can execute with facility all those molecular movements on which 
depend the acts of obedience to the domestic law, whether of the family 
or of society. These should be repeated and executed with so little 
friction as to become habitual, and they can be taught by-the ordi- 
nary pedagogic process. This want of power in the nervous center 
brings about in the young person a default in the impressions neces- 
sary, by which the moral life of the individual is made to correspond to 
that of society. As a consequence of this default all idealization which 
leads to this end, is absent in the student without possible substitu- 
tion, nor can he effect it by any spontaneous appreciation of his intel- 
ligence. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 645 


The sentiments of these individuals not only are closed against every 
civilizing action which educative objects commonly exercise, but the 
presence of these civilizing influences in the world, and in society or in 
the family, excites their opposition. They repulse with great efforts their 
educators and teachers when they would direct them toward their moral 
teaching, the object of the educators being to prevent this development 
of antagonism to the laws of society. The efforts even of the educators 
and teachers to prevent this opposition itself begets an opposition and 
increases the antagonism of the scholar. The inaptitude for education 
on the part of the individual arises because of a natural and irremediable 
defect or a physiologic inaptitude to the social laws of the family that 
one observes among some children, sometimes without regard to their 
life or surroundings, education, or example. This constitutes their pre- 
disposition to crime, and thus has grown up the saying used by many 
people without knowing that it is true science, sometimes expressed 
concerning an incorrigible infant, “Ce fils est né pour la guillotine,” * He 
was born to be hung.” 

Dr. Magnan, the head of the insane asylum at Sainte-Anne, Paris, 
was a joint reporter with Monsieur Taverni upon the foregoing ques- 
tion. Dr. Magnan differed largely from Taverni. He said the question 
as thus presented seems to admit as an accepted fact an infantile pre- 
disposition to crime. That, he said, is an assertion maintained by many 
criminalists, but one to which he refused his adhesion. He said that 
the opinion that attributes to the most of the criminals an ancestral 
origin, which considers the criminal born and raised as a savage sur- 
viving our present actual civilization, which contends that the infant 
criminality is only a prolonged example of savagery ;—this opinion, he 
says, has always broughtforth contradictions, and he cites certain recent 
publications : 

Tarde, “La criminalité comparée,” Paris, 1886. Topinard, “ L’an- 
thropologie criminelle—Revue d’anthropologie, No. 6,” November, 1887. 
Ch. Féré, ‘‘ Dégenérescence et criminalite,” Paris, 1888. H. Joly, ‘Le 
crime, Etude sociale,” Paris, 1888. 

Continuing his discussion concerning this supposed pre-disposition to 
crime, he asked, ‘‘Can any one dare to say that there are primordial 
forms of crime and that they, with the germs of crime, are natural attri- 
butes; in other terms, that the infant is naturally disposed to crime 
and that the criminal is a man deprived of moral sense?” We think 
this to be an erroneous determination of observed phenomena. 

At the moment of birth and for some days after, the infant has noth- 
ing more than a vegetative life. It cama into the world where it has to 
live finding itself surrounded by elements which conflict with its organ- 
ism and provoke re-action. These are only the instinctive expressions 
ofits emotions. All acts of the respiratory, circulatory, digestive, and 
other organs are a reflex order and do not demand the intervention of 
either mind or brain; mere life is sufficient for their accomplishment 


646 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


But soon the acquisitions of the new being begin, and the functions of 
the brain increase. The door opens to an exterior world; the sight, the 
hearing, the taste, the smell, the sensations within the periphery of the 
body permits relations more intimate and complete with the outside 
world. These new operations bring into play that region in which 
experimental physiology and pathological anatomy have demonstrated 
reside the brain centers perceptive and sensitive. This is the organic 
substratum of our remembrances. In these differences are deposited 
the lingering images of all our sensorial impressions and itis thence that 
the centers of ideality draw the necessary material for intellectual 
elaboration in the formation of ideas. The images passing first to the 
frontal region, become the representative signs of thought and furnish 
the elements of our determinations. 

The excellent work of Meynert on the structure of the brain has 
taught us the system of the fibers of association and of projection which 
are the evidence of this functional evolution. If nothing abnormal in- 
tervenes, if none of the wheels of the cerebral mechanism are broken 
and nothing interferes with the activity of the sensori-motrice of infancy 
then the intervention of the center moderators substitute the active 
ideo-motrice which, under the influence of the attention, based on ex- 
perience, gives place to, or is followed by, the volitional act of reason. 
At avery early day in its life the infant begins to obtain or assume 
control of itself, say of its hands first, which produce the phenomenon 
of attention and of those conflicting motives, agreeable, or the reverse, 
which preside over the acts of volition. A chart given in the psychiatry 
of Meynert shows the succession of phenomona in one of these simple 
mental operations; the image of the flame of the candle thrown by the 
apparatus of vision on the center cortical posterior, transmits its repre- 
sentation into the frontal region and provokes immediately an involun- 
tary movement of the arms and hands towards the brilliant object. A 
painful impression, such as a burnt finger however, following an analo- 
gous act, acts in an inverse sense upon the psycho-motrice region, and 
a movement of shrinking is apparent. The two sensations, the one 
pleasurable, the other painful, are compared, the attention is attracted, 
the education of the moderate center is affected, recognition and memory 
are called into play, and in what before was only an act of impulse be- 
comes in fact, or at least has the aspect of, deliberation. From the 
simple vegetative life of the first few days of the infant (simple reflex) it 
soon passes to the instinctive life (activité sensori-motrice) thence to the 
intellectual life (activité ideo-motrice). These three different estates are 
but three stages of the evolution of one and the same function. The dif- 
ferent modes of cerebral activity, the sentiments, will, attention, memory, 
judgment, reason, ete., that constitute the psychologic faculty develop 
themselves and become perfected successively by the harmonious action 
of all parts of the brain. There is a progressive evolution of the mental 
faculties, until they arrive at that state of conscience which enables us to 


a er ie, Oe ae 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 647 


discern the true from the false, and the good from the evil; that secret 
testimony of the soul which gives approbation for good actions, 
which makes reproaches for evil actions, and is a characteristic of moral 
Sense. The normal individual is not naturally disposed to crime. If 
he becomes a criminal (criminal of occasion as well as a criminal of 
habit), he does so under the influence of passion, or of vicious education. 
The influence of education is well marked in the infant and it takes an 
exceptional importance in the categories of these unhappy little ones 
of whom Monsieur Theophile Roussel has taught us so much in his re- 
markable report made to the Senate on the subjects of abandoned or 
mal-treated infants, and his project of a law for their protection. 

Many of these unfortunate criminals fall under the influence of de- 
plorable surroundings and examples because they are the subjects ofa 
heredity, which may be only nervous or may be the result of alcoholism 
of their ancestors. This is not a natural pre-disposition for crime, but 
is a pathologic tare, adegeneration that troubles the cerebral function. 
Sometimes the center moderators of the brain are not sufficiently strong 
to repress the unhealthy appetite and curb the improper instinet. Some- 
times the center moderators are too feeble to repress the appetites and 
refuse the unholy demands of these other centers which are in a state 
of erethism; sometimes, on the contrary, the center moderators are out 
of equilibrium with themselves and have not that ponderation which, in 
their normal state will regulate these instinctive phenomona. But this 
is a pathologic state, and this study of the degenerates of these sick 
people belongs exclusively to the medical profession and should be sub- 
mitted to a clinical investigation. 

With this-preliminary discussion the question is separated from theory 
and gains in precision and in certainty. Itis now reduced toa question 
of diagnosis. The examination still belongs to the dector. That these 
individuals will commit offenses and crimes is of small consequence. 
The investigation of the doctor goes beyond the commission of the act 
which is charged as a crime and the inquest should embrace the life of 
the subject, his atavisms, his physical troubles, as well as the intellec- 
tual, moral, and affective modification which they have produced. This 
detailed analysis and attentive research into the past life of the sub- 
ject will serve to clear the question and will furnish the best of elements 
of appreciation upon which the doctor can have his judgment. 

We now pass to the discussion proper of the question. The degen- 
erate hereditaries are born with the mark of their origin. Their phys- 
ical stamps are well known and we do not stop to investigate them. 
They are here questions of but secondary importance. We pursue at 
present the study of the anomalies of cerebral development. According 
to the seat and generalization of the lesions, according to the locality 
of the functional troubles, the elinical types will be variable, but in 
spite of their diversity the insensible transitions conduct from one 


648 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


extremity of the scale to the other, from the degraded idiot to the 
degenerated superior, intelligent though out of equilibrium. 

We have but little here to say of the idiot who lives after a fashion 
purely vegetative, occasionally even only by instinct. The peripheric 
or surrounding excitation provoke the cerebral or medullary reflexes ; 
but they are naught but simple reflexes and the center moderators do 
notintervene. Irom the time the frontal regions become free the sub- 
ject commences to penetrate the dominion of realization and of control. 
He ceases then to be an idigt and is elevated to the dignity of an im- 
becile. The localization of the lesions in such and such a perceptive 
center, or of more or less extent in the anterior region, explains to us 
that such and sach faculties have survived the general destruction and 
thus there exists the partial genius, the learued idiot. The study of 
the dis-equilibriums, which as a class furnish the delinquents, belongs 
to mental pathology; and there is in them no great anatomic lesions, 
but rather the functional troubles on which depend the modification of 
the activity of the cerebro-spinal axis. The predominating trouble in 
this class is the want of harmony, the failure of equilibrium, not solely 
between the mental and intellectual faculties upon one part, and the 
sentiments and desires upon the other part, but there is a want of har- 
mony of the intellectual faculties between themselves. The want of 
equilibrium extends to the moral character. A degenerate hereditaire 
may possibly become a savant, a distinguished magistrate, an eminent 
mathematician, a sagacious politician, an efficient administrator, and yet 
he may present from the moral point of view those profound defects, 
those strange and unaccountable actions; and as on our moral side our 
sentiments and desires are the basis of our determination, it, follows that 
the brilliant faculties of this individual may be put at the service of an 
evil cause, that is, at the service of instinct, appetite, unhealthy senti- 
ments, etc., which, owing to the feebleness of the will, pusk him to acts 
the most extravagant and sometimes the most dangerous. 

The abnormal action of the cerebral and spinal centers gives rise to 
curious functional troubles which are of the psychic kind. The syn- 
dromic episodes, the extreme manifestations of dis-equilibrium, bring 
to light by their exaggeration, the false psychic mechanism which is 
found, though in less degree, among these degenerates. [or example: 
The illustrations of the effect of the dis-equilibrium are many, and in 
their manifestations are different, yet they are all referable and trace- 
able to the one cause—disturbance of mental and moral equilibrium. An 
individual affected with some malady or just recovered from a spell of 
sickness, who becomes haunted, tormented till he shall have recalled 
the desired word, or fixed in its proper place the face of a passing 
stranger he has somewhere seen before, is conscious that it is only a 
phantom, yet is unable to throw off the spell, to banish the image which 
possesses his cortical center; or another case a person is driven as by 
power, uncontrollable as it is unexplainable, to make an attack upon an 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 649 


inoffensive and possibly unknown person whom he may find within 
reach of his fist or weapon; or one torn with a desire for drink; all these 
are phenomona of the same features and are illustrations of disturbed 
equilibriums. 

In these cases a conflict is engendered between the posterior brain (of 
which this particular center is in a state of erethism), and the moderat- 
ing centers. The facts which show these unhealthy impulsions of syn- 
dromatic degenerates are analogous to those of other degenerates 
whose acts are criminal, while in the preceding similar cases the center 
moderators, in spite of their decreased energy, can, for a time at least, 
interpose and hold a check or counterbalance on this impulsion. Upon 
the contrary, among degenerace criminals these centers are scarcely 
represented. They have small energy, are content to remain idle, will 
not carry on the contest, and their feeble compulsion leaves the indi- 
vidual without any protest from the anterior region. He is then ruled 
by his instinct alone, and this without any counterbalance or govern- 
ment. 

Conclusion: The infinite changes under which are presented the 
mental differences of those who are hereditarily degenerate, though 
they may appear much varied, can be definitely classed as follows: 

A. Predominance of intellectual faculty, but moral state defective,— 
degenerate criminals. 

B. Moral state preponderate, but intellectual faculties and aptitudes 
inactive or wanting. 

C. Apparent equilibrium of the faculties, but prominent defect in 
bringing them into usage, as in application, effort, emotion, ete. 

Having gotten this conception of the degenerates, it is not astonish- 
ing that cerebral anomalies should manifest themselves in their infancy. 
These are the original tares which manifest themselves in the psychic 
life. From the age of 4 or 5 years, even before avicious education has 
had time to influence or modify them, these young subjects will present 
characters of impulsiveness, phenomena of mental arrest, intellectual 
and moral anomalies, their strange decisions and uncertain actions as 
though possessed of an evil spirit and by which they can be segregated 
from their fellows and established into a separate class. These are ex- 
amples of perverse instinct, cruel impulses, cruelty to animals. Usually 
these strange anomalies belong only to a special part of the brain which 
may have been gravely affected by cerebral lesions, or thrown com- 
pletely out of equilibrium by functional troubles which may provoke in 
certain centers a great excitement and in others a diminution of their 
activity. In these children one sometimes encounters a hereditary 
_pathology which may explain the troubles of their cerebral develop- 
ment. The individual cases which serve as illustrations of these propo- 
Sitions are to be found in great number. They are set forth in medical 
journals and are given by the standard medical authors. In each of 
these cases and in all others known, it is remarkable that in spite of 


650 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


these moral monstrosities one does not find any physical modification, 
or, if so, they are almost imperceptible. Neither is there to be found 
any physical brand of hereditary or ancestral degeneracy. But a 
serutiny of their pathologic life will reveal that from their infancy they 
have been marked by the breaking out of anomalies of character, of in- 
stinetive perversion, by affective sentiments which show themselves in 
numberless ways. From the very beginning of their psychic life they 
have been subject to cerebral anomalies. The history of the infancy of 
a degenerate adult will show the evident defective side of a mental 
organization from its earliest years and in the case of degenerate infants 
we know well what signification to attach to the precocious manifesta- 
tions of a morbid heredity. 

Dr. Mangan presented several cases and showed the photographs of 
many, many more which he said were the hereditary degenerates. 
Curious enough the most of them were girls, mainly infants from 7 or 
9 years old, to 12 and 14. Their conduct as depicted by him was most 
vileand abominable. It was unnecessarily and unprofitably wicked. 
Only a few can be given as samples of the best, the worst can not be 
presented : 

Marguerite V., of 12 years, of good physique, and without any apparent 
mark of physical degeneration, rather good looking, intelligent, but 
full of vanity, of turbulent and variable humor, subject to violent fits of 
anger when she broke anything, beat her mother, stole what she could 
lay her hands upon, and excited her brother to steal. She would bite ~ 
her little brother without motive and without cause, would take a pin 
within ber mouth and then invite him to kiss her that she might wound 
him. Her memory was fairly good, but it was sexual troubles which 
dominated her. - - - 

Emile M. would laugh and ery easily and without reason. She had 
frequent and violent bursts of temper, stole upon every occasion, stole 
the money from the pockets of her father, took whatever lay about of 
personal property, would hide in the ashes and cinders the bread, sugar, 
etc., destroyed the tools and merchandise in her father’s shop, declaring 
she would like to ruin him; she tried to poison him, and on her starting 
for school in a gay and laughing manner, left a cup of coffee for her 
father in which she had deposited phosphorus. She tried to kill her 
twin brother, declaring she would like to kill herseif. Then followed 
the sexual troubles. - - - 

Louise C., 9 years old, was the daughter of an insane father. She 
lived in a state of continual excitement. Her intelligence was debili- 
tated, the evil instincts were highly developed, but nevertheless there 
was no evidence of malformation, no physical stigma. She was inca- 
pable of attention, turbulent, was discharged from several schools. The 
tendency to steal manifested itself at the age of 3 years, and she in- 
dulged it upon every occasion and against the property of every per- 
son. At 5 years she was arrested after a most violent resistance. She 


aren 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. ; 651 


was a vagabond, would cry without reason, her memory was feeble, she 
could read and write, but did not understand arithmetic. She seemed 
to have no moral sense, was without modesty and knew not virtue. Her 
actions and conduct was such as not to be described. 

Augustine L. was 14 years old. She entered St. Anne at 10 years. 
Her family back to her grandparents had been seriously affected with 
epilepsy, alcoholism, delirium, ete. Her physiognomy was agreeable 
and there were no signs of physical degeneration. She had an excita- 
ble disposition, her humors were unequal, sometimes she worked with 
facility, other times she was incapable of attention. She had alterna- 
tions of excitement and depression, was unstable, passionate, idle, liar 
to an extreme degree, was tormented by sexual pre-occupation, was 
without any moral sense, without modesty, pity, or affection. Never- 
theless was not un-intelligent, although her memory had been neglected. 
Upon occasions she was a good worker, but usually she engaged in all 
sorts of vagabond, idle, evil life and conduct. - - - 

Gorgette J. was 12 years of age. Her physiognomy was agreea- 
ble, without any physical stain or stigma that would give the idea that 
she was a degenerate. The contrast between her physical appearance 
and her moral state presented a series of deformities unbelievable. She 
was undisciplined and so could scarcely read or write. Evil practices 
commenced at 5 years of age and were frightful. Their relations are 
shocking and impossible to relate. 

And so there were others: Jeanne D., Lizzie X., and others again 
and again quoted by Dr. Magnan, many of whose photographs he ex- 
hibited tome. He said those were cited simply as illustrations. The 
numbers which had come within his observation were many, but even 
this frequency does not cause us only to accord a secondary impor- 
tance to these physical signs which are inconstant, and even with the 
aid of all they seem very difficult to form or constitute a type. 

It is not the general contestable characters as yet undetermined, that 
can be used to clear the conscience of the magistrate. Medical juris- 
prudence demands from the medical faculty greater certainty. The 
medical expert can not attain to that necessary degree of precision 
without complete clinical examination in each particular case. Each 
case, he said, requires a positive diagnosis in order to respond to the 
enigmas of the case or the demands of medico-legal inquest. 

Dr. Motet presented some statistics and with them general consider- 
ations in order to complete the communication of Dr. Magnan. Of the 
cbildren brought to the house of correction during the 10 years from 
1874 to 1884, there were 2,524 children admitted; 680 were illiterate ; 
1,119 had been abandoned. He was in favor of a strong organization 
which would give to these unfortunates an education which was at 
once physical, intellectual, and moral. The agricultural penitentiary 
colonies were not his ideal when it concerned a child of the large cities. 
He declared that the State alone ought to have charge and direction 


652 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


of the education of these unfortunates, and to organize a school of in- 
dustry where they would be taught proper trades, which trades, he 
said, could easily be arranged for what is known in commerce as the 
“ articles de Paris,” and the needed knowledge taught to the abandoned 
and illiterate child. He gave as his opinion that this was the duty of 
the State to provide and care for these children and to so rear them as 
they should become honest, respectable, and industrious men and 
women instead of the ignorant, illiterate, degenerate criminals, to be- 
come which they were now on the high road. 

This report gave rise to a great discussion. MM. Motet, Dalifol, Rous- 
sel, and Herbette deplored the condition of the law that placed in the 
houses of correction—children at an age from 10 to 15 years. If not 
already criminals, they soon become perverted and ready to become 
criminals. A more humanitarian law would have sent them to school 
and to church. 

Lombroso said that the perverse instinct of human nature appears 
even in the first years of the life of the infant. The infant in his first 
months is likely to be vain, proud, selfish, cruel, without moral sense, 
without honesty or truth, without knowledge or care for the rights of 
others, and without affection; and this, said he, is a criminal embry- 
onnaire. He thanked Dr. Magnan for having explained many ob- 
secure things found in Meynert. Lombroso explained the origin of 
his studies upon the criminality of infants, and said he had done 
nothing else than to copy the observers Perez, Spencer, and Tain. In 
the cases submitted by Dr. Magnan which he had described and many 
more of which he had exhibited the photographs, Lombroso declared 
that he could recognize in them the physical characteristics of true 
criminals. Those which Dr. Magnan declared to be the evidences of a 
general paralysis, were to his (Lombroso’s) mind naught but those of 
the criminal born. He could see in the degenerates the criminal epi- 
leptic, the imbecile, with their stigmas each peculiar to itself. Of the 
seventy-eight photographs in Dr. Bronardel’s album he had found but 
two who had not the criminal traits. 

MM. Moleschott and Van Hamel came to the defense of the infant 
and invoked its inability of discernment. They declared there were no 
such things as innate ideas, nor yet was there either criminality or 
virtue innate. The infant was born unconscious of either. In its early 
infancy it is not chaste because it is unconscious of shame. It has no 
respect for the truth, because it does not know the difference between 
the truth and a lie. The instinct of destruction is very strong, and it 
destroys with pleasure aud satisfaction. M. Moleschott called to mind 
a trick of Goethe, recounted by himself, in which he described his de- 
light in a scene ia his infancy when in the absence of his mother he 
committed an absolute carnage among the glass and pottery ware. But 
the sentiment of honesty and virtue and truth developed with age. 
It is the law of evolution, but it is necessary that we do not confound 
this phase of evolution with physiologic malady or with criminality. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 6535 


This view was emphasized by M. Roulet, who said he depended largely 
upon the physiognomy of the child, to which was added the reports of 
its conduct. But he declared that during the early infancy there was 
almost always an absence of discernment. He pleaded for precise 
detail, close and accurate investigation, and report among the doctors 
in order to determine the exact nature and degree of capability; and 
this, he said, was the mission of the anthropologist, who was destined 
to establish the differential diagnosis of the infant and determine 
whether it was a natural-born criminal or not, so as to apply the proper 
measures, whether it be the house of correction, or a simple education. 

M. Roulet was a lawyer before the court of appeals of Paris, was 
secretary of the French union for the defense and the tutelage cf infants 
in moral danger. He said that he had defended during the month of 
October more than four hundred infants before the tribunal of Seine; 
infants who were arrested in Paris for insignificant offenses, as vaga- 
bondage, begging, and little thefts. He had always pleaded that they 
were without discernment; that they should be acquitted of the crime, 
but that the state should have charge of their education. If the infant 
was acquitted, he demanded that it should be confided to the French 
Union for the Saving of Infants. Under the operation of this society, 
the infant was placed in the country and watched over by charitable 
ladies. If the infant was still evilly disposed, he demanded of the 
tribunal that he should be sent to the house of correction until he was 
20 years of age, where he became the veritable ward of the state- 
The society of the French Union for the Saving of Infants had been 
organized in 1887. It was in close relation with the police and with the 
magistrates and courts: it had sought and obtained their confidence, 
and there were now remitted into its care a great many children who 
otherwise must be sent to prison, there to be swallowed up for all time 
in the everlasting whirlpool of crime. He asked the aid of some 
anthropologist, who was at the same time an anthropometrician, to visit 
the Palais de Justice each morning, and go with him through the crowd 
of arrested children and make the necessary scientific examination 
that could be perpetuated in the form of statistics ; and to this response 
Dr. Manouvrier promised his assistance by making that appointment 
for each morning. Their rendezvous would be at the anthropometric 
laboratory of M. Bertillon. 

M. Eschaneur, a Protestant pastor, declared the problem of saving 
and regeneration of the infant could be brought about only by love. 

Dr. Brouardel gave an interesting description of the physical and 
mental state of the gamins of Paris, so bright and intelligent during 
their infancy, but which, as has been observed by Lorraine and Tarde, 
early present the phenomena of a singular degradation. Near their 
fifteenth year their development was arrested, and a sort of physical 
decay was produced which led to sexual debasement and perversion, 
although it did not exclude certain intellectual aptitudes. Some 


654 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


became musicians, poets, and painters. These indicated troubles of 
development, which in certain cases produced subjects degraded and 
debauched, and who, under favoring circumstances, were disposed to 
the genesis of crime. 

M. Theophile Roussel, senator, declared that to properly discuss this 
question it was necessary to occupy an entire conference. The legis- 
lation, however incomplete it might be, had already done much for the 
protection of infants. The state, which was the head of the grand 
family, assumes more and more of guardianship over the abandoned or 
neglected. And he quoted a proposed law which corresponded exactly 
to the present preoccupation of this congress. 

M. Herbette pursued the same course. How should the infant be 
treated by the state? If it is deprived of the care and protection of its 
family, the state should become its guardian, its protector, its educator, 
its father. The state is now largely the protector of infants, whether 
they be deprived of family or not. It protects the infants in the family 
against the stupidity, immorality, or crime of the parents; it protects 
the unfortunate, whether criminal or not, in the house of correction ; it 
protects him before the tribunal and it protects him against himself, 
because it refuses to give up its guardianship until he shall have 
arrived at majority. The state endeavors to preserve the infant from 
ignorance, vice, or crime. While man lives physically, no one has a 
right to say that he is morally dead. M. Herbette exhibited a chart of the 
penitentiaries of the country. He insisted that the role of education 
was prevention of the evil in its course, and, without rejecting the inter- 
vention of the societies of charity and protection, he demanded above 
all the surveillance and control of the state. 


Question VI.—The organs and functions of sense among criminals. 
Dr. Frigerio and Dr. Ottelinghi, of Turin, were the reporters. 
First part by Dr. Frigerio. 


I.—The eye of criminals.—(1) The color of the iris: I have examined 
the color of the iris of 700 persons normal and 1,500 criminals. I have 
encountered a predominance of the chestnut-colored iris among the 
criminals, a considerable proportion of blue among the violators, 
offenders against public morals. 

(2) The chromatic sense: This has been examined in 460 criminals 
with the method of Holingren. I have encountered but 0.86 per cent. 
of daltonism, a proportion which is feeble compared with the obser- 

rations made upon Italians, which has usually given from 1 to 3 per 
cent. of dischromatopsy. 

(3) Visual acuteness: Observations were made upon 100 criminals 
with the method of Smellen. For refraction we have met with an ap- 
parent predominant emmetropie. This visual acuteness is much more 
developed than among other Italians in the corresponding conditions 
of life though not criminal. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 655 


IT.—The skeletons and the form of the nose among criminals.—My ob- 
servations upon the skeletons have been based upon 609 skulls, among 
which 397 belong to the normal man, 129 to criminals (75 women and 54 
men), 50 were insane, 13 epilepties, and 20 idiots. 

The nose of the living person has been studied in 830 persons normal 
and 392 criminals, of which latter 193 were thieves, 37 swindlers, 28 
robbers, 40 murderers, 22 violators. We also examined 60 insane, 40 
epileptics, and 10 idiots. 

For the observations made upon the skeleton I have encountered the 
anomaly of the nasai echancrure, that furnishes a new abnormal char- 
acter of the criminal man, and which I believe to be atavic. To this 
must be added frequent irregularity of the nasal overture, osynchie, 
and deviation of the nasal bone. 

Among the living the larger number of criminals show a nose square 
or wavy, of average length, but rather large and often twisted. The 
robber has often the broken nose; not large, short, wide, mashed, and 
twisted: the assassin straight, long, excessively large, wide, nearly 
always protuberant and twisted. 

ITI.—The sense of smell among criminals.—I have examined 80 crim- 
inals (50 men and 30 women) and 50 normal persons, 30 men, the most 
part the guards at the prisons, and 20 women of average culture. I com- 
pesed for that purpose an osmometre made by twelve aqueous solutions 
of the essence of giroflée in order of increasing concentration from = 35> 
to ,4,, of which 50 cubic centimetres were each placed in a glass bottle 
with ground stopper. The following were my conclusions: 

(1) An inferior sense of smell among criminals as compared with nor- 
mal persons. 

(2) The sense of smell more feeble among women than among men. 

(3) The sense of smell more feeble among criminal women than among 
normal women. 


IV.—The sense of taste among criminals.—I examined 60 habitual erim- 
inals, born criminals, 20 criminals of occasion, those which yielded to 
passion, sudden impulse, ete., 20 normal men of the inferior classes, 50 
professors and students, 20 women of average intellectual culture, 20 
criminal women. All were between 20 and 50 years of age. 

Observations were made of the taste bitter, taste sweet, and the taste 
salty. It was accomplished by a delicate solution of strychnine goto503 
of sugar ;oo500, and salt, =+,. The tables are omitted but the conelu- 
sions are given as follows: 

(1) The taste is less developed among criminals than among normal 


persons of the same class. 
(2) The taste is less developed among those who are criminals born 


than among the criminals of occasion. 
(3) The sense of taste is slightly less among women than among men. 


656 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


(4) The sense of taste among criminal women is inferior to that of 
normal women, but is more delicate than among criminal men. 
(5) Several cases of partial failure of taste among criminal men. 


V.—The sense of hearing among criminals.—Second part by Dr. Otte- 
linghi, of Turin. 

No organ of sense comes to such perfection in criminals as that of 
hearing. We have come to this conclusion both from our direct exam- 
ination and from the information received from the prison guards. It 
is without doubt true that the disuse of one sense wil] serve to sharpen 
another. As is the sense of touch among the blind, so is the sense of 
hearing among those prisoners who are condemned to silence. In our 
prisons where silence is required the prisoners have succeeded in es- 
tablishing means of communication which might rival the telegraphic 
apparatus. The cells are divided by a corridor along which constantly 
passes one of the guards, so that the prisoners have no opportunity of 
communication with each other. It has come to be known definitely 
and certainly that they communicate with each other by means of a 
tapping or striking upon the wall or other substance. This sort of tel- 
egraphic communication may be likened unto the old Morse alphabet ; 
one stroke for a, two for b, aud other changes and variations for the 
other letters. They did not use the letter h: no reason was given for 
the omission. Thus it happens that a prisoner will continue his work 
even in the presence of the guard who is watching him, yet by the 
strokes which he may make in his work he can communicate with the 
other prisoners who may be within earshot, and it does not seem to 
make much difference to them whether the surroundings are in silence 
or amidst a deafening noise. In case of the latter they seem to be able 
by their fineness of hearing to pick out the taps or strokes which form 
the letters, as one would read a book or paper silently, while around 
him was such a noise as that if he spoke aloud he could scarcely hear 
his own voice. 

Although the guardians wore slippers shod with cloth or felt, in- 
tended to enable them to walk noiselessly, yet every criminal detects 
the difference in the step of the various guards so as to tell which one 
was approaching. 

These examinations were made upon 280 criminals in the prisons, 
For the most part the sense of hearing was in excellent condition. 
With their eyes bandaged, standing at a distance of 1 or 2 metres, they 
could hear the ticktack of a watch. We attempted an experience with 
the transmission of sound by the aid of the os craniens, but without 
any conclusion. Our examination of insane criminals was also without 
conclusion. In the number of autopsies which we made upon insane 
criminals we have always found the convolution temporo-sphenoidal in 
a proportionate normal state, and have never found that among the 
criminals condemned to silence, there seemed to be any difference in 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 657 


the convolution of that portion of the brain, which would tend to show 
any other than a normal condition or normal activity. If the sharp- 
ness of hearing among criminals is engendered by the inertia or disuse 
of the other senses we were unable to find any physiological or anatom- 
ical evidence of it in the brains of those whose autopsies we made. 


Question VII.—Vhe determination by means of criminal anthropol- 
ogy of the class of delinquents to which a given criminal may belong. 
Baron Garofalo, vice-president of the civil tribunal of Naples, reporter. 

For the determination of this question a psychological study of the 
criminal is indispensable, and this is possibly the principal branch of 
criminal anthropology. The anatomic characters can ouly furnish in- 
dication, and itis necessary to complete the moral figure of the criminal 
by the investigation of his psychic anomaly. 

(1) In order to recognize this psychic anomaly the kind of offense will 
suffice sometimes. But it is necessary that the phrase “ kind of offense” 
should be employed distinct from the language of the penal code or the 
judicial theory. Thus, for example, in the case of murder the word pre- 
meditation may be insufficient to authorize us to class the offender 
along with murderers, for one can kill,even with premeditation, the 
murderer of his father or the seducer of his sister without being thereby 
classed among the criminals born. All the vengeances of blood, the 
vendettas, are of the same kind, because there is not a seeking for that 
egotistic satisfaction which compels the man to murder or makes him 
criminal born. These offenses are oftener the effect of an altruism, 
such as amour propre or case of honor. On the other hand a man may 
have the most monstrous criminal nature and yet be a simple murderer 
without being an assassin; nor is if any better to determine the assas- 
sination from the motive, for either murder or assassination may take 
place without any of the motives which influence the average man. 
Men in all the enjoyment of their psychic faculties will kill sometimes 
as though they were savages; sometimes from vanity, sometimes to 
show their force, their address; sometimes to acquire notoriety. And 
again, the murder with an apparently sufficient motive, may be nothing 
more after all than the work of a maniac, epileptic, hysteric, ete. Even 
in the case of brigandage one can not be sure of the nature of the crim- 
inal without having examined him physically and morally. Where 
brigandage is endemic a son follows his father or his older brother on 
an expedition which has no other end than to rob the passing travellers 
and to kill them if they should resist, still he is not to be classed by 
anthropologists among the born criminals. It may happen that the brig- 
and who, if investigated anthropologically, ethnologically, or morally, 
would pass the whole examination with high credit marks, would yet in 
the cases cited follow his father or older brother in his trade or profes- 
sion and be a brigand. 

H, Mis, 129-——-42 


658 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


A classification of the penal code might make no differences between 
these offenses, while anthropologic and psychologic investigations would 
have to také account of them. 

In order to place a criminal in the degenerate classes of monstrous 
criminals it is necessary that he should exhibit an innate or instinctive 
cruelty, such as is found in certain savage peoples. In that case the 
murder is committed with a purely egotistic aim, that is to say, that 
the criminal has been moved by a desire of some individual satisfac- 
tion; when there has been on the part of the victim an absence of what 
would constitute provocation on the part of a normal man; when the 
murder has been accompanied by brutality made with intent to prolong 
the agony, that it may give pleasure to the fiendish character of the 
eriminal. It is in these terrible crimes, by which the monstroas nature 
of the criminal is to be recognized. After this be once established there 
is still to distinguish between the born assassin and the insane or 
epileptic individual, who is either impelled by an imaginary superior 
force or else from want of perception of the nature of crime is held to 
be not responsible. : 

(2) The cases cited are confessed to be of extreme anomaly. Some- 
times the circumstances themselves in which the crime has been com- 
mitted are sufficient to show the nature of the criminal. In cases 
where this is in doubt and it is desired to determine to which class he 
belongs, there should be the examination psychologic and anthropo- 
logic. The anthropologic characters are of an importance and often- 
times decisive when taken from the diagnosis of infants or young crim- 
inals. There are those who are recognized as having this taint of born 
criminality by their light offenses, their fighting, lying, cruelty, wan- 
tonness, truancy, theft, ete., and those bad boys, incorrigible young- 
sters, always doing things not simply mischievous, but things which 
they know to be wrong, though they may not be high crimes. But 
these individuals, being examined by anthropology, may present at the 
same time the characters of moral insanity and of innate criminality. 
The sanguinary instinct manifests itself frequently from the first in- 
fancy by a series of acts just described as slight offenses, but which are 
unjustifiable, frequently repeated, yet of which the parent or teacher 
in authority takes no notice, because of the youth or feebleness of the 
child. Arrived at manhoed, when he has finished his evil career by 
assassination, murder, and the higher crimes, then is remembered these 
minor offenses in his infaney which were the fore-runners of graver and 
more hideous crimes. In these and similar cases one can find the typ- 
ical physiognomy of the assassin, the cold regard, the fixed eye, the 
marked cranial deformation, an excessive length of the lower part of the 
face, the forehead narrow and retreating, and other regressive signs ; 
or, perhaps, such atypic anomalies as plagiocephaly and scaphocephaly 

‘and among those who commit rape the thickness and grossness of the 


— 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 659 


lips. And as for the moral sentiment, there may be shown a complete 
indifference for the victim. Apathy and egotism may be shown by the 
preoccupation of the criminal as to the possible duration of his punish- 
ment and the pleasures of which it will deprive him. If the anthropo- 
logic student will charge up against the delinquent the kind and the 
frequency of these small offenses in his extreme infancy, will note his 
psychologic and anthropologic characters, and take into account the 
heredity of vice, of insanity, or of crime, he can prophesy that the infant 
or young person with these mental and moral characteristics will, if the 
provocation or opportunity arise, become an assassin. It is not rare 
for the psychopathie form to manifest itself in subsequent time, and 
then one may fairly conclude it to be a case of either insanity, epilepsy, 
or a born criminal. 

(3) The physical observation of the delinquent should be continued, 
to the end that one may distinguish the impulsive characters; that is 
to say, those characters which impede or prevent moral resistance to 
the passions which excite to crime, principally anger, vengeance, alco- 
holism, insanity, epilepsy, and certain other characteristics which de- 
scend by heredity. This class of delinquents are midway between the 
malefactors by instinct and those of occasion. Although this tendency 
to crime is a germ in their individual organisms, which becomes semi- 
pathologie, yet the germ will rest latent and unproductive, if there is 
not added to it an impulsion from the exterior world. This impulsion 
is required in order to cause them to commit crime which leads us to 
class them as criminals of occasion. As soon as this exterior impulsion 
is found to be not necessary, or, if the crime is immoderate as compared 
with the impulsion, thea the delinquent is to be classed as a criminal 
born. 

The regressive anomalies of the skull and of the physiognomic type 
of inferior races that has been so frequently remarked in the criminal 
born are nearly always absent from the impulsive criminal. But on the 
other hand these latter are characterized by nervous anomalies, and by 
other striking maladies. It follows as a result of this theory that in 
murders or assaults arising from a quarrel or riot, one can easily under- 
stand how there can be two classes of criminals—the criminal impul- 
sive, and the criminal by chance. The first, which are partially crim- 
inals born, are much more dangerous to society than the latter. They 
mnmay commit crime from disease as much as from instinct and ought to 
be made objects of particular treatment, as much by the medical man 
in the hospital as the policeman in the prison. 

(4) The terms used in jurisprudence for the description of a great 
number of crimes signifies nearly nothing for the anthropologist. In 
the science of criminal anthropology the author of a given crime may 
be ranged under different classes of criminals. He may be a criminal 
born; he may be a criminal impulsive, or only a criminal of occasion. 


660 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


According to the penal law there are but two terms: the criminal and 
the punishment, while criminal anthropology, the new science, has three 
terms: (1) the crime, (2) the criminal, and (3) the punishment or the 
adapted repressive measures. These repressive measures are to be 
again divided according as they are applied to the different classes of 
criminals. | 

(5) In classing as criminals those who commit offenses against prop- 
erty, such as robbers, thieves, swindlers, forgers, etc., psychology 
plays a réle even more important than anthropology. The sentiment 
of probity is less instinctive than that of charity or pity and is not de- 
pendent upon the organism because it is more recent and less trans- 
missible by heredity. It happens that exterior causes, such as the 
surroundings, conditions, examples, education, and economie conditions 
may have a greater effect upon this species of criminality. In the case 
of the robber or thief, along with the morbid form, kleptomania, there 
is an instinct to steal caused by heredity or atavism, which is often 
manifested by anthropologic signs and above all by special physiognomy. 
The most striking characters are those mentioned by Lombroso of the 
extreme mobility of the face and hands, small and bright eye, heavy 
and continuous eyebrows, the camus nose, small and retreating fore- 
head, ete. 

When these characteristics are found upon the recidivist, that is, 
the incorrigible criminal, one can be sure that he has to do with acrim- 
inal born. It is frequent that among vagabonds, robbers, thieves, 
and other criminals against property there is a physical and moral 
neurastheny, a term coined by Benedikt, of Vienna; that is to say, an 
aversion to labor and to every moral combat for the right, derived from 
a hervous constitution, and which is combined with, or perhaps has 
produced a desire to enjoy the pleasures of life and to indulge in its 
luxuries quite beyond his means. When the circumstances of life are 
hard upon such an individual, and he is subjected to an economic or 
social crisis, he is more likely to become a criminal, because crime may 
aid him in the satisfaction of his desires. To this neurasthenic class 
belong the vagabonds, thieves, and swindlers, whose improbity may 
have commenced by unfortunate circumstances, such as being out of 
work, loss of place, evil company, bad example, and improper moral 
education, and which ends in his becoming an instinctive criminal. 
The neurasthenic and the habitual or instinctive criminai ought there- 
fore to be grouped together, because they are equally incorrigible, 
until at least the social and economie situation of the former shall be- 
come so changed as to offer them the enjoyment of all pleasures and 
luxuries which they desire without the need to work. It is necessary, 
however, to make exceptions for young persons who are driven into 
vagabondage and are thieves by bad examples, and evil surroundings 
and associations. Although they may have become habitual criminals, 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 661 


yet they may not be incorrigible, certainly not until they shall have 
arrived at the age when the character is fixed. 

(6) It follows as a necessary conclusion that as each of these classes 
of delinquents may be determined with anything approaching pre. 
cision an enlightened legislature should adopt a special treatment. It 
is not astonishing that the legislators and magistrates who make and 
’ deal with the criminal laws should repulse the services and the aid of 
psychology and anthropology, and should persist in their @ priori per- 
ceptions and in uniform precepts, without giving consideration to the 
infinite variety in criminals produced by so many different causes and 
infiuenced so differently by surroundings, all of which goin such supreme 
degree to form the guilty and reprehensible intent with which the crime 
was committed, or which on the other hand may take away that in- 
tent and form either a justification or excuse. 

M. Puglia gave his unqualified assent and support to the propositions 
advanced by Baron Garofalo. 

M. Alimena, on the contrary, assailed the entire classification. Ac- 
cording to him the examination, whether anthropological, physical, or 
psychological, was insufficient to more than raise presumptions and 
invent theories, while certainty was required in dealing with judicial 
questions and eases. If exterior and physical anomalies are appreci- 
ated, why not apply the same rule to internal anomalies? What, he 
demanded, did it signify as to the depth or size, more or less, of the 
occipital fossette in the skull of Charlotte Corday which we now saw 
in the collection of Prince Roland Bonaparte? If it indicates, as is 
claimed, that she was a born criminal, then instead of being a heroine 
who rid the world of a monster, she was naught but a common, vulgar, 
impulsive murderess. 

The difference should be recognized between a purely scientific treat- 
ment of criminals and the practical treatment which they must receive 
under the law. If science advances so does the law. But they go at 
different rates. Science flies on wings of the mind, while the law 
marches along in stately and dignified tread with leaden sandals. 
Scientific errors are easily corrected. They do no harm. They come 
down upon us and envelop us as does the fog the earth, but like the 
mists of the morning which fade away before the sunlight of heaven, 
so do they under the light of investigation ; while the jurisprudence of 
the country, solid and enduring, and, more like the earth which has been 
hidden, remains after the fog has been dissolved into a few drops of 
dew. 

He expressed his opinion that of al) these sciences, psychology 
would be most productive in results, and he much regretted that the 
schools of law and of medicine did not teach this science. 

Lombroso responded that his works or his opinions were not opposed 
to nor contradicted by any psychologic diagnosis. He returned to the 
skull of Charlotte Corday, which he said demonstrated anatomic char- 


662 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


acters of the criminal born, such as platycephalic, the occipital fossette, 
and other characters of the viril skull. 

Dr. Topinard responded to him by affirming that the skull of Char- 
lotte Corday was normal, and that it presents all the proper characters 
of the skull of a woman. The platycephalic was a normal character 
and the vermicular fossette was not an anomaly, and there was nothing 
irregular in the skull unless it should be its platycephalic, and he said 
it was rare or never that a skull was the same in all its parts and on 
beth its sides. Nearly all skulls showed a difference or distinction on 
the one side or the other. 

M. Benedikt opposed this theory of the craniometrie methods and 
also the psychologic characteristics enumerated by Baron Garofalo, 
which, he said, would belong equally to the dyspepties and the neural- 
itics. It was easy to make hypotheses, and according to his belief one 
had as much right to say that the occipital fossette was an indication 
of a pre-disposition to hemorrhoids as much as it was to crime. 

Ferri and Lombroso replied vigorously to Dr. Benedikt, while Sen- 
ator Moleschott came to his aid. 

Dr. Brouardel recalled the speakers to the discussion of the report of 
Baron Garofalo. The problem proposed by him was a classification of 
criminals. ‘The crime itself is insufficient to class the criminal. The 
decision must be upon all the evidence. One insane act is not suffi- 
cient to characterize an insane person. It must be established by the 
antecedents of the subject, his former life, his peculiarities, and his 
physical signs. This was the only true system to be pursued, and any 
purely physical or purely psychologic examination wouid be insuffi- 
cient and was to be repulsed entirely. Suppose the theories of Baron 
Garofalo to prevail, then a criminal born, according to his views, should 
be arrested at once and confined in some special establishment. 

M. Herbette took up the discussion and enumerated the results ob- 
tained by the administration of the penitentiaries. We have, said he, 
at one time the prisoners and the sick people. The prison is not a hos- 
pital. The hospital is an association for the good of the sick and where 
they may furnish a subject of study and experience. In the most of 
them the entry is free, and in all the departure equally free. In the 
prison the situation is entirely different. The prisoner is imprisoned as 
a result of the penal right of society to protect itself. 

M. Lacassagne protested that for the sake of science, for the sake of 
society, for the sake of investigation into crime and its causes, the law 
should give to the prison authorities the right to investigate the biology 
of the criminal and the sole control of the cadaver of the criminal, 
whether his death was inflicted by the law or came from other causes. 

But M. Herbette declared he would not go so far, and he counseled 
patience, study, careful investigation, great conservatism, regard for 
the feelings of the public, so to the end there should be no revulsion on 
their part, for the reforms which were forced might bring great risks to 
science and compromise its success. : 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 663 


Question VITT.—The conditional liberation of criminals. Dr. Semal, 
director of the insane asylum of the state at Mons, Belgium, reporter. 

(1) In studying the right of society to punish a criminal, one is 
struck with the insistance of the law upon the characters and circum- 
stances of the offense, without the slightest examination into the per- 
sonalities or conditions of the delinquent. Dr. Semal advocated a 
psycho-nmoral examination of the delinquent in order to determine his 
condition, whether he was a confirmed criminal or only a criminal on 
oceasion; and whether he might not in the one case be given a condi- 
tional liberation, and in the other be continued indefinitely in confine- 
ment. One of the theories of the penal code which forms a foundation 
for the right to punish, is the possible reformation of the delinquent; 
but the idea of a fixed term of imprisonment as a punishment for one 
class, and another term for another class of offenders, is opposed to 
the theory of possible reformation. To give this idea of reformation 
full effect, there should be a conditional liberation which should take 
effect sooner in one proper case, and later, or not at all, in an improper 
case. He declared a scheme of conditional liberation could be provided 
which would be more rational, more humane, and more successful in 
the reformation of criminals. 

The jurist, in writing on this subject, contents himself to remain 
within the limits of the written law, and declares himself satisfied by 
the uniform and inflexible application of formulas which have been erys- 
tallized in the codes. The decay of these doctrines will appear where 
to the safety of the public or society is added the desire to reform the 
criminal. But their destruction will not be complete until crime is re- 
garded as a natural phenomenon which ean be prevented by a study of 
the social and individual causes which lead up to it. From this there 
are to be made two deductions: (1) If the punishment is the principal 
object of the repressive system, why should it be prolonged when it has 
contributed all it can to the reformation of the condemned? This is the 
foundation of conditional liberation. (2) If the penal condemnation is 
sufficient to awaken in the heart of the delinquent his heretofore smoth- 
ered sentiments of right and justice, and if the moral effect of his offense 
is complete by the fact of his condemnation, why should he be com- 
pelled to serve, or even enter upon, a term of imprisonment? And 
from this has sprung the theory of conditional sentence. These two 
propositions contain the germs of the radical reform of the repressive 
system. They tend to give to the convicted criminal the opportunity to 
determine by his conduct if he will have his sentence postponed indefi- 
nitely, and his liberation made at once, even though it be on probation 
and under surveillance, he to be returned to prison on his first move- 
ment towards a return to his former criminal life. 

(2) The proposed law of conditional liberation would operate upon 
the sentimeuts of the condemned person, of which we can suppose the 


664 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


existence; and in order to establish with certainty this proposition, it 
is proposed to give him a scientific psychologic examination. 

Man ean be judged only by his acts. There may be a sort of latent 
criminality always ready to explode under the shock of propitious eir- 
cumstances, as an expression of a diathesic stage dominated by hered- 
ity, and of which biologie science can enumerate the signs. A psycho- 
logic analysis is indispensable in order to determine these questions. The 
necessity of a psychologic examination of the delinquent is imposed 
because it is the only method by which one can determine the existence 
of such sentiments as will authorize the conditional liberation or ought 
to postpone the punishment. 

(3) As to the practicability of this we have to remark that the pres- 
ent theory and past experience has only resulted in a multiplication of 
punishment without having reduced the extent of criminality; and 
this, whether in the number of the crimes, their frequency, or their 
grades. Bythe old system neither the genesis or evolution of crime 
has been studied; neither the legislator nor the jurist seem to have 
ever considered why an evil-minded minority should persevere in the 
commission of crime while the majority of people are honest, well dis- 
posed, and of good repute. It is therefore towards the modern school 
of positivists that we must turn for a solution of this matter, because 
it alone seems to have studied crime as a natural phenomenon arising 
from multiple causes. 

(4) The principle of the reformation of the criminal by the opera- 
tion of the penal system is in contradiction with the fixation in ad- 
vance of the duration of the cure to which the delinquent has to sub- 
mit. The new theory of jurisprudence will permit whoever or what- 
ever criminal shall show himself to be repentant and inoffensive to be 
conditionally liberated, and this offer should be made or the opportu- 
nity given even to those who refuse or those who find themselves in 
the impossibility to reform. The reformation of the delinquent, or at 
least his resignation to and respect for social laws, is the essence ot 
this theory of conditional liberation. But, as one can count to a cer- 
tain extent upon the vitality of the criminal instinct, and with the per- 
sistence of the social conditions which nourished it, it is necessary to 
prepare for the eventuality of a prolonged incarceration which may be 
regarded as the result of incurability on the part of the criminal. The 
idea is to proportion the length of the imprisonment according to the 
nature of the delinquent, to the degree of his perversity, and the dan- 
ger of his return to society before his evil tendencies shall have become 
enfeebled or neutralized, It is evident that this is more rational than 
to fix a time certain for his imprisonment according to the condition 
of his offense, which may furnish only an isolated system of the moral 
malady with which he has been attacked and which was the cause of 
the commission of his crime. The proposed law of conditional libera- 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 665 


tion can correct any erroneous verdict or judgment or work any redue- 
tion of the term of imprisonment. 

(5) The proposed law of conditional condemnation is upon the same 
principle as that of conditional liberation. It corresponds somewhat 
to the practice prevailing in some States of the United States of sus-. 
pension of sentence during the indefinite period of good behavior. 
It is a measure generous and wise, is addressed to delinquents of 
tender years,—those who have been arrested for the first time, who may 
be the victims of circumstances, who are without criminal intent, and 
who, if the sentence be suspended, would probably never be guilty of 
the offense again, while, if their sentence should now be carried into 
execution, it would almost certainly result in the loss to society of one 
who might become an honest and respected member thereof, and gain 
in his place he who might easily become a hardened criminal. But the 
application of this principle is or will be surrounded by researches ex- 
tremely delicate, which ought to be highly scientific and so length- 
ened as to include the antecedents of the delinquent, his life, his 
raising, his surroundings, and to get if possible into the interior of his 
soul. The word “delicate” has been used, and truly this is necessary, 
for the responsibility is great, for as the judge may by refusal to sus- 
pend sentence lose a member of good society, so also he may by a sus- 
pension of sentence grant indulgence to unworthy subjects and be 
deceived by hypocritical pretenses and promises, crocodile tears manu- 
factured for the occasion and practiced upon him by a hardened and 
instinctive criminal. 

(6) The instinctive delinquency of the young criminal is not abso- 
lutely in relation with the enormity of the crime. This imposes upon 
the jurist the necessity of @ proper selection from among the arrested 
as well as among those imprisoned as to whom, in justice, to apply the 
different systems of treatment. The operation of these two systems, 
the one of which operates upon those subjects which can possibly be 
reformed, the other with the prolonged and continued punishment and 
incarceration, even in solitary confinement, of incorrigible subjects, who, 
if allowed their liberty in the least degree, will use it only for the con- 
tamination of their fellow-prisoners and the preparation and arrange- 
ment for themselves to enter into a wider sphere of crime upon their 
release. These are the foundations of the two systems. 

(7) Individualization is necessary in order to recognize and class the 
delinquents, and to determine whether the medicine to be administered 
to him for his cure should be of inearceration or liberation. SSometimes 
it might be better to adopt the plan of solitary confinement in order to 
conduct properly this individualization. An antbropologic examina- 
tion or a psychologic analysis may not be sufficient to determine to 
which class he should belong, and therefore he should be tried under 
different conditions, always bringing out his real and heartfelt senti- 
ment, thus enabling one to determine to which class he belongs and 


666 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


whether he should be conditionaliy liberated or continued in solitary 
confinement. To this end an opportunity must be given both by re- 
straining his liberty until he shall bein solitary confinement or extend- 
ing it until he shall be conditionally liberated. His actions and the 
psychologie effect which this has upon him must determine the future 
course to be pursued with him. In doubtful cases the conditional liber- 
ation is the most rational, as it is the most humane. It gives the 
delinquent an opportunity to reclaim himself, and gives him a guaranty 
that his attempts at reformation will be well seconded. 

(8) After having returned to society those of whom we have nothing 
more to fear in the way of criminal offenses, after having taken all 
necessary precautions for those who are to remain under surveillance 
and possible return, it is necessary to take steps for those individuals 
who are by nature rebels and refractory, who reject all ordinary means 
of reformation, who are delinquents by habitude, and: are instinctive 
criminals. For these individuals their detention, even to solitary con- 
finement, with severe and hard labor, should be kept up until they give 
proof of their repentance. If this is refused then we in France and on 
the continent can only relegate them to a penal colony in a distant 
ocean or else to solitary confinement in one of our home penitentiaries. 
The relegation of a recidivist or an incorrigible to a penal colony, soli- 
tary confinement, or some other form of severe punishment, or else 
treating him as sick or insane and sending of him to a prison asylum; 
these are the logical corollaries of the propositions for conditional lib- 
eration. 

The criminal, conditionally liberated, should be required to report 
for examination whenever needed, and thus the prisoners who are under 
condemnation of the law would become physical subjects for the study 
of crime in its psychologic as well as anthropologic phases, and the 
prison become as well an asylum and a hospital, affording a elinie for 
the lawyer, for the doctor, the judge, and the lawmaker. 

M. Alimena called the attention of the congress to the fact that this 
question had been discussed for a long time and in many places by 
legislators and jurists, and he referred to the first congress of the Inter- 
national Union of Criminal Law, held at Brussels, in 1889, where the 
discussion took place upon the thesis presented by Senator Michaud 
on the lawof pardon. He said three methods had been proposed—the 
conditional sentence, which was enforced in Belgium; the suspension of 
judgment, which was practiced in England, America, and Australia; 
and finally that of blame, set forth in the German code, the Russian, 
Spanish, Portugese, and in some of the cantons of Switzerland and 
provinees of Italy. 

M. Drill remarked that the system of conditional liberation required 
the exercise of two functions—that of the judgment of the court passing 
upon the guilt of the criminal, and the ulterior or subsequent treatment of 
the criminal, and that these were functions entirely different and ought 


_—. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 667 


to be separated. The first belonged to the judge and the court, and the 
second belonged to the administration of the penitentiary. He thought 
these ought to be kept separate, and it was clearly his opinion that the 
judge or the courf alone should decide upon the culpability of the in- 
dividual and the application of the penal law. The administration of 
the penitentiary should be composed of, or should eall to its aid, the 
most competent scientific gentlemen, who would be able to pass upon 
any question concerning the physical, physiological, or psychological 
characteristics of the individual, and this, taking in consideration his 
antecedents, his social condition and surroundings, his education, com- 
panions, ete., together with his conduct while in prison, would enable 
them to decide upon the application of the conditional liberation.* 

M. Bertillon, while giving all credit to the scientific investigations 
mentioned, begged the congress not to forget that the final end was 
primarily for the safety and well-being of society, and the reformation 
or well-being of the criminal only secondary. 


Question 1X.—Crime in its relation with ethnography. Dr. Alvarez 
Taladriz, of Valladalid, reporter. 

M. Ferri had already described the ethnic influence upon crime, so 
Dr. Taladriz sought to establish a tendency towards crime on the part 
of a whole people; the criminality of a nation or of races. He sought 
to show how the crimes in the Northern, Middle, and Southern Spain, 
were different, and also the difference in criminals. He declared this 
difference to be due to the advent of Charles I and Philip I, as Kings, 
and that it was but an exposition of the ferocious instinet of the primi- 
tive inhabitants of the forests of Germany. 

The mesologic influences are confirmed by history in such manner as 
that it ought to recall to the student of sociologie influence the statis- 
tics of offenses committed in the cold and warm countries, those be- 
tween the region of the North and the region of the South. These ques- 
tions have not been studied from a geographic or ethnice point of view. 
It is proper that they should be. There probably is no place in which 
this ethnic influence upon crime could be studied with greater success 
and accuracy than in Spain, where there are such ethnic differences 
between the people of the different parts of that country, and where 
one will find a corresponding difference in the crimes committed. In 
the north of Spain offenses are of a character distinet from those of 
the center and south, Crimes against person and property are rare. 
Those which exist are the result of inherited, primitive usages and cus- 
toms like in the vast mountainous Basque provinces of Catalonia, the 
kingdoms of Galicia, the Asturias, and Leon, where assassination and 
homicide show the terrible characters of the sediment of population 


*The legislatures of Massachusetts and New Jersey have lately adopted a system 
of conditional liberation. : 


668 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


deposited by the preceding races of Germany during the grand period 
of invasion of the tribes of the north who occupied these regions more 
than any ether part of the peninsula. 

The miners of the center of Spain do not present those characters of 
ferocity, because their elements are a concourse of varied and multiplied 
antecedents of the successive dominations which have come to pass in 
the peninsula. 

In the kingdoms of Valencia and the Andulasian provinces, the crimi- 
nal customs of the Arab race were handed down as a souvenir of the 
Kabyles, where the inhabitants organized themselves into a band of 
malefactors. The crimes of homicide, assassination, in the majority of 
cases were only the result of the passion of jealousy coupled with a 
hate truly African and which considerably augments the number of 
offenses against persons and property. Nevertheless, we recall certain 
acts of nobility, the Arab hospitality, ete. True, there may be excep- 
tions found, as there will always be, to general rules, but the conclu- 
sions are: 

(1) The physiologic characters of the criminal type manifest them- 
selves in a constant and uniform manner in all epochs and in all races, 
and without other variations than those imposed by accidental and 
external circumstances from these epochs and races. 

(2) The conditions of race, climate, geography have their influences 
upon the senses and passions of mankind and upon the development of 
crime, as well as upon sociology, religion, economics, or politics. 

(3) The grand offenses committed by races and nations ought to be 
an object of an international penal code by which they could be pun- 
ished with a certainty and uniformity that would bring them to an end ; 
while in the same code could be declared the sacred right of nations 
and of individuals, which should be recognized by all the world. 

Question (37).—Medico-psychologic observations upon Russian crimi- 
nals. M. J. Orchanski, of Charkow, Russia, reporter. ; 

M. Orchanski is professor of the university at Charkow. He was 
not present to read his paper, and it was presented by Dr. Brouardel 
in connection with Question IX. Only the conclusions were read and 
they were in opposition to the Italian school. The paper consisted of 
arguments and deductions, and did not deal in testimony or statistics. 

Dr. Topinard took the opportunity to present his opposition to the 
title “Criminal Anthropology” and thought it should be replaced by 
that of ‘‘Criminology,” as being shorter, easier, better understood, 
having a clearer meaning, and with everything to recommend the 
change. 

Dr. Manouvrier preferred the the term “Anthropologie Juridique.” 


Question X.—The ancient and new theories of moral responsibility. 
M. Tarde, juge @instruction at Sarlet, Dordogne, reporter. 
This was a long and learned disquisition upon moral responsibility. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 669 


The opening paragraph declared that moral responsibility depended 
upon free will, which, at least, in its relation to crime, was a hypothesis 
without foundation in truth or justification in law. The discussion 
became more philosophical and metaphysical than practical. The most 
careful report would fail to do it justice or render satisfaction to its 
author, and it is therefore deemed wise to omit it. 


Question XI.—The criminal process considered from a point of view 
of sociology. M. A. Pugliese, of Trani, reporter. 

The moment appears opportune to make the criminal process an ob- 
ject of the study of penal sociology. 

(1) The criminal process is an institution of State established in the 
social interest, having for its end the search for and repression of crime. 
The general rules of its formation provide for the discovery and appre- 
ciation of crime, the punishment of the author, and the conciliation of 
the social and individual interest. To do this properly requires a 
magistrate who has technical as well as general knowledge. It is not 
sufficient in these times of the discovery and investigations of anthro- 
pology that he should be simply a judge or even a jurist. it is necessary 
that he should be acquainted with the studies of anthropology and 
sociology ; that he should understand the social surroundings in which 
the crime is committed as well as the men who commit it. Whether 
the State should found the necessary institutions of learning for the 
training of these magistrates was a question for discussion, but it is 
indisputable that they should have a special training. Prosecutors are 
charged with the trial of criminal offenses. In western Europe these 
things are not satisfactory ; a juge d’instruction, or prosecuting officer, 
scarcely possesses any special training or had any special qualification to 
fit him for his position. Perhaps he has never written a criminal process, 
never seen a cadaver, or attended an autopsy. He knows nothing of 
anthropology nor of penal sociology, and yet he is called upon to exer- 
cise tunctions the most delicate, most difficult, on which depends the 
safety of the citizens and their social surety. He obtains his experience 
in corpore vivo; he learns at the expense of society. In doing black- 
smith’s work he becomes a blacksmith, and when he shall have become 
habituated to his position, and qualified in even a mediocre manner, he 
will be changed to another place with another duty, and another person 
will replace him to begin again this new life of study and _ practice. 
This is not a system but is only education. The faults, and the scandal 
are enormous. Sixty per cent. of criminal processes fail. The real 
culpables have a good chance of escape, while the innocent run the 
danger of losing their honor, their liberty, and, possibly, their life. 

It is evident that the criminal process should not, as at present, be 
limited to the gathering of the proofs pell mell. On the contrary, the 
prosecutor ought to study the evil and secret causes of the criminal 
actions, and from them deduce the true reason of punishment. They 


670 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


ought to seek also for the precedents somatic, psychic, and social, and 
discover the conditions, surroundings, environments, not only of this 
particular criminal but of all that have gone to produce such criminal 
phenomena. It is now time to search for such indications as can be 
furnished by anthropology and by criminal statistics, not only for iden- 
tity, as given by the works of Bertillon, Voisin, and Herbette, but also 
the biology of crime as has been investigated by Ferri, Garofalo, and 
Righini. 

(2) The investigation and trial should be confided to those who 
have been technically educated, experts of special training, one for 
the prosecution and another chosen by the defense. The defense ought 
to be admitted to take measures, to ask questions of medical juris- 
prudence, such as he may need in the interest of his client, and upon 
these questions the debate should take piace and the judgment 
rendered. This would not be a mere opinion, but would be a true de- 
cision of a technical commission, which would settle at once and for- 
ever all debate upon that question. It would be a trial before a tech- 
nical jury as to the questions of medicine or medical jurisprudence or 
psychiatyy. It would also raise the professional dignity of the medical 
jury, and would assure the world that, cost what it might, the research 
would be in the interest of truth. The right of the judge to demand 
the decision of science, and along with it the right and the power to 
trample the decision under his feet is a manifest contradiction. We 
who have always maintained that itis not reasonable to submit to a 
common jury questions of medical jurisprudence, think it time to over- 
turn the ancient maxim that the judge is the expert of experts. The 
maxim may flatter the vanity of the judge, but itis not true. Each one 
to his place is the truth, When a question of medical jurisprudence 
arises the medical jurist ought to be the judge. 

This question was brought up at the session of the congress at 
Rome. Drs. Tamassia and Laccasagne presented it. There was an 
important debate thereon, and the principle here laid down was ap- 
proved with a single exception We propose that questions of medical 
jurisprudence, of psychiatry, should be tried before a technical jury, 
and that they should be authorized not simply to make a suggestion 
and give an opinion, but to render that which is a real decision and a 
final judgment. We believe the proposition laid down in the Holy 
Seriptures to be the true one, to give to Christ that which belongs to 
Christ and to Cesar that which belongs to Cesar. 

(3) There should be established a system of preventive detention, 
that is to say, there should be a detention for the purpose of preventing 
crime by means of imprisonment of the individual before he has com- 
mitted it, rather than to imprison him after as a punishment for having 
committed it. The penal process or code in the Latin countries consists 
of the two steps, one of instruction and the other accusation. In the 
first the presumption of innocence prevails, and there the preventive 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 671 


detention should be the exception, but in the second it ought to be the 
rule. But these things are to be determined by the psychic condition 
of the delinquent and the nature of the causes which impelled him to 
erime. If the psychic conditions have been verified there should be no 
further hesitation, but the imprisonment or detention should be en- 
forced with rigor. 

(4) The judge gives his jadgment in three forms: Condemnation,— 
acquittal for inexistence of the crime or of his innocence ;—acquittal 
for insufficiency of proof. This corresponds to the ancient formula: 
Condemno, absolvo, non liquet. The jury, on the contrary, except in 
Scotland, have only two formulas: Yes, no; guilty or not guilty. If 
they are in doubt as to his guilt, they respond not guilty. This does 
not appear just. The jury should have a formula of non liquet—not 
proven; the laws would then be equal for all. 

(5) There should be an appeal in criminal cases as well in acquittals 
as in convictions. This question was treated by Garofalo, Ferri, Maino, 
and by Pugliese in the Revue de Jurisprudence in 1885. It has been 
argued in the affirmative by Mittermaier in his Die Gesetzgebung und 
Rechisbildung. 

In this principle it has received its first legislative recognition in 
paragraph 3838 of the Austrian code and paragraph 399 of the Ger- 
manic code. But in these cases it is confined only to corruption or 
false testimony. It is time, however, that the principle of appeal in 
the social interest should be recognized without restriction and ap- 
peals be taken as easily by the prosecution as by the defense. The law 
ought to be equal for all. The interest for the one and of the other are 
the same. No reason in justice can be given why one should have an 
appeal and the other not. It would serve to correct many erroneous, 
not to say corrupt, judgments and prevent many scandals upon the 
law. 

Dr. Brouardel accepted much said by M. Pugliese, but he combatted 
some positions. He denied the propriety of making an expert to be a 
judge or making judges only of experts. The responsibility was too 
great and the result would be unsatisfactory. 

M. Benedikt agreed with Dr. Brouardel and said that while the edu- 
cation of the magistrature should include certain prescribed medical 
studies, they should be always auxiliary to jurisprudence and never 
above or beyond it. This was in accordance with the opinion of M. 
Lacassagne. 


Question X VI.—Instruction in medical jurisprudence in the Jaw 
schools. Professor Lacassagne, of Lyous, reporter. 

In the presentation of this paper M. Lacassagne repeated largely the 
ideas which he had put before the congress at Rome upon the necessity 
of instruction in medical jurisprudence in the law school. There was ¢ 
large discussion over this question, but it was confined to the details, 


672 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOI.OGY. 


all the speakers, Brouardel, Moleschott, Van Hainel, Ploix, Féré, Tarde, 
Soutzo, Ferri, and Madame Clemence-Royer, were in accord with the 
proposition. It was finally agreed to recommend the examples of the 
universities of Holland and Belgium, to which might have been added 
Trinity College, Dublin, all of which have a special course of medicine 
in their law schools. It was reeemmended that even in these courses 
should be extended to include a large proportion of anthropology, for 
Madame Clemence-Royer recalled that according to Socrates the first 
study of man should be man himself. 

M. Soutzo insisted that to teach criminal anthropology was to teach 
medical jurisprudence, and he cited examples among the insane. A 
paralytic by virtue of his delirium becomes a robber or a thief. In his 
perverted senses he falls into dipsomania. Another, which, attacked 
by the mania of persecution, becomes a murderer or a suicide. Another 
category of individuals who are on the frontiers of insanity may be 
found in the degenerates, the morally perverted, the drunkards, and 
all that train of individuals capable of committing crime according to 
their conditions and surroundings, and among which are to be found 
the stigmas, physical, moral, and intellectual, that have been taught to 
us by the professors of criminal anthropology before us. These indi- 
viduals are not, like the first, absolutely irresponsible, but they are 
partially or conditionally so. Therefore, said he, the great necessity 
for the teaching of criminal anthropology, not by the side of, but in- 
cluding medical jurisprudence, and that this should be earried on in all 
the schools of law, and taught to all those who would become lawyers 
or judges, or who would have dealings with criminals or insane before 
the courts or under the law. 


ANTHROPOMETRY. 


There were two papers before the congress on this subject: No. XVI, 
‘Anthropometry as applied to persons from 15 to 20 years of age,” 
Alphonse Bertillon, reporter; and No. xviit, “The employment of the 
methods of criminal anthropology in aid of the police and for the arrest 
of criminals,” MM. Avocat Anfosso, of Turin, and Professor Romiti, 
reporters. 

Anthropometry is a branch of the science of anthropology by which 
the physical characteristics of man are studied, the investigation being 
made by measurement. 

The application of anthropometry is twofold. One, the more exten- 
sive and more scientific, was largely the result of the investigations of 
Broca, though there were others who practised the science independent 
of and even before him. Quetelet of Belgium, Vircbow of Germany, 
Roberts, Francis, Galton, and Dr. John Beddoe of England, and our 
own doctors Morton and Baxter have all practised anthropometry in- 
dependently of Broca. In Franee Drs. Topinard and Manouvrier have 
taken up the science where Broca left it at his death. The former has 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 673 


been pursuing his investigations into the races of men found in France 
as determined by color, and he investigates and studies that of the 
eyes and hair as well as that of the skin. The latter succeeded Broca 
in the Labratoire d’Anthropologie, and is professor and lecturer upon 
this subject before the School of Anthropology. 

The second use of anthropometry has been more practical, for, while 
it is conducted scientifically, it is employed in Europe, principally in 
France, as a means of identification of individuals, whether required 
in the army, by the law, by the police, or for private and scientific uses. 
It was with regard to the second application of anthropometry that the 
congress of criminal anthropology occupied itself in the two papers set 
forth at the head of this chapter. 

The discovery of the use of anthropometry for identification is due 
to Dr. Adolph Bertillon, himself a professor in the school of anthropol- 
ogy, who died in 1883 at the age of 62 years, leaving his two sons to 
follow in his footsteps, with prospects of becoming equally as eminent. 
as their father. It was the son, Alphonse, who presented question 
XVII, in which he was assisted by MM. Anfosso and Romiti, the report- 
ers of question XVIII, both of whom were aided in the discussion by M. 
Cantilo, advocat from the Argentine Republic. 

M. Herbette, chief of the penitentiary system of France, early per- 
ceived the benefits of this system and adopted it. It is now in use 
throughout France, thanks to his initiation. He was its ardent advo- 
cate at the congress in Rome, and there made it the subject of an 
address, which was translated by Mr. Edward R. Spearman, a portion 
of which was adapted and published in the Fortnightly Review of 
March, 1890. 

M. Alphonse Bertillon is attached to the department of justice and 
assigned to duty with M. Herbette at police headquarters in Paris, 
there to use his talent and knowledge in the identification of such per- 
sons as may be brought before him. ‘his, of course, means the identi- 
fication of criminals, or persons arrested. 

The morning of Friday, August 16, was devoted to a visit by the 
congress to tlie establishment in charge of M. Bertillon to witness the 
operations of his methods and to hear his explanations. We, how- 
ever, were favored with a private view on the day before, by the means 
of which we were better enabled to understand the operations. 

The establishment to which we were introduced would correspond to 
and probably be known in most cities of the United States as the 
rogue’s gallery. In our country a criminal once arrested, whom they 
may desire to recognize at some future time, is marched down toa 
photographic establishment and has his photograph taken by a single 
negative, carte de visite size, of more or less front view, from which a 
print is made, which in due time is delivered to the detective corps at 
police headquarters, where it is placed in a rack for public inspection. 
It is by comparison with this photograph, and the recognition of wit- 

H, Mis, 129 43 


674 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


nesses, that the individual criminal will be identified in future, if he 
should be again arrested. It goes without saying that these methods 
are extremely unreliable—unreliable at best, but in Paris impracticable 
and valueless, for there they have no less than 100,000 photographs of 
criminals who have passed through the police headquarters within the 
past 10 years. It will be recognized as practically impossible to search 
through a pile of 100,000 photographs to find one which shall bear a 
likeness to the individual under investigation. It would be impracti- 
cable, if the photograph, when found, should prove te be the picture of 
the identical criminal whose case was being investigated, but when we 
consider the differences of appearance of the same individual, and the 
similarity of different individuals, as shown by the photograph, the im- 
possibility of successful identification becomes indisputable. To be of 
any value as means of identification, there should be two photographs 
taken of each person, one full face, the other a profile. If this 
be done with the small size, 2? by 35 inches, it would require 10,600 
square feet surface measure for 100,000 photographs. These dis- 
played on a wall in a strip 5 feet in height would require a space 
2,120 feet in length. A search through such a dreary extent of pho- 
tographs in order to find the particular one to compare with the crim- 
inal, whom the officer leads around, and thus be able to identify him, 
would be like a search among the sands upon the seashore, or the leaves 
in the forest, and its impossibility, or, at least, impracticability is dem- 
onstrated. 

M. Bertillon has so arranged his system of anthropometry, and classi- 
fied it—together with the photographs—as that his usual search does 
not extend beyond twenty, and rarely above ten, and can easily be re- 
duced as occasion demands, and be accomplished in a few minutes. 
Upon the occasion of my visit he gave to Professor Mason and myself 
a descriptive card of a given criminal, who was brought and measured 
in our presence—upon the visit of the congress M. Moleschott, senateur 
from Italy, was given a like chart; and we were instructed to make the 
search for ourselves and so understand the classification and find and 
identify the criminal. The system proved so perfect that we three, 
strangers, making our first visit to the establishment, hearing the de- 
scription for the first time, were enabled to understand the classifica- 
tion and find the box in which his description belonged, with no more 
than ten cards in it, and so identify the man in question, and this we 
did within two minutes time. I will describe the method of procedure 
and the system of classification : 

The instruments.—These are few and simple. Their cost is about $25. 
A series of them were displayed by their maker, M. Colas, at the Expo- 
sition in the department of anthropology, and I have described them 
in the chapter on Anthropology at the Exposition. 

A wooden right-angle for taking the measure of the height. Calipers 
for measuring length and breadth of head; two sliding measures of 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY.  . 675 


different lengths for other parts of the body, and the necessary stands, 
stools, etc. These will all be understood as the operation proceeds. 

The batch of “arrests” have been brought in for measurement and 
identification ; under the necessary guard they are conducted toa room 
divided around its walls into open lockers after the fashion of public 
bath houses. The individual is stripped to his shirt and pantaloons 
and these lockers are provided with hooks on which to hang the cloth- 
ing, and a bench with a drawer. Thence he is marched into the meas- 
uring room. The services of two men are required; one to take the 
measurements, the other to write them on the’ appropriate card. The 
subject may have already been examined, or he may be exainined here 
as to his name, residence, place of birth, and former convictions, if any. 
If he be a hardened criminal, an incorrigible, called in French, @ recidi- 
vist, he will probably give a false name and declare this is his first arrest. 

The report of the bureau at Paris shows the following list of persons 
who did this and were recognized by this system and their descriptive 
eards found in the boxes as hereafter explained : 


Persons, 
elsB Mee So ShSson Acad BUEC CODE HOO nH oCOO POG OUO CoOnOOCsSoer 49 
ABSA See elec eseeec ess fais storie sete oincioe aiainicin eretaiolaeiccmietste 241 
Bee eae es ato tas laiavats Sal naan hivta she Ba wicisuice eee 450 
NSBG AS pee oes slela Ja sasle Sere Es ptoile wise Se seb aiceieee 352 
NSBR eee aries mace iein'aiele tere le wiass Saintes Disisisiwiee elelslejsuic eeiereleee 615 


The report for 1886 in full was as follows: 


French. | Foreigners. Total. 


Subjects measured for first time..-....-....-.--. eisisminlslelalem ale siciatel= 9, 517 1, 140 10, 657 
Same returned! under same mames. <6. sc once cccccscaencicee sa < 4, 521 | 173 | 4, 694 
Same returned under false name and identified. .-....-..........- 303 49 352 

otalMeaAsHredyacecce|jeseree re ciastesc nce cssccccecoctsctesecs [eters seece locos teens 15, 703 


All measures of anthropometry should be taken by the metric system 
and reported in millimetres. By common consent among the principal 
nations the metric system has been adopted for anthropometry. Com- 
parisons are made much easier and more correctly from a single and 
universal standard, and therefore it becomes the duty of the United 
States to fall into line with her sister nations. 

To measure the height of the individuwal.—By a simple mechanical con- 
trivance the operation can be done rapidly, accurately, and without risk 
of deception. The subject is barefoot and placed with his back against 
the wall; a strip of wood has been fastened upon the wall so as to fur- 
nish a perpendicular edge ; a door or window jamb may serve the pur- 
pose equally well. The wooden right angle spoken of can be placed 
against this edge and moved up and down, the broad bottom of which 
can rest lightly upon the head of the individual. Lines painted upon 
the wall, or stripes with the necessary measures of height marked upon 
them, will show with accuracy the height of the individual, 


676 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


Maximum length of the head (skull),—The subject being seated, for 
convenience, one point of the calipers is placed in the hollow above the 
bridge of the nose, together while the other point is used to find the 
greatest length at the back of the head. This should be done with 
accuracy, and so that the length will be given exactly. If done with 
care the true length can be obtained within 1 millimetre, which is about 
one twenty-fifth part of aninch. It is admitted that the skull of man 
developes but little, if any, after his maturity, 21 years of age. No 
one possesses any power to alter or in any way change the size or con- 
formation of his skull. The same thing is true with regard to the length 
of bones in the human body, and this had afforded the key to the sys- 
tem of anthropometry adopted by M. Bertillon, as he has chosen for 
his identification those portions of the body over which the individual 
has no control, and in which it is impossible for him to make any 


change in their size or length. The length of the head thus taken isa | 


measurement at once accurate, unchangeable, and beyond the control 
of the individual or the possibility of deception. 

Maximum breadth of head.—This is measured from one parietal bone 
to the other in the same manner as the length of the head is measured. 

Maximum length of arms, extended.—This is a measurement which is 
popularly supposed to be always equal to the height, but in reality it 
may vary from 5 to 20 centimetres. It assists therefore in classifying 
even after the height. 

Length of middle finger of left hand.—This is the best of our indications, 
for it can be measured to a millimetre, provided care is taken that the 
finger is bent at an exact right angle with the back of the hand; there 
can be no cheating with this and it undergoes no alteration from adult 
to old age. Notice must, however, be taken of any unusual length of 
nail in the person being measured. 

Maximum length of left foot.—In taking this measurement the subject 
must, of course, be barefoot, and in order to avoid any chance of cheat- 
jug the subject should stand on the left foot only, with the left knee 
bent. This is not quite so good a measurement for our purposes as that 
of the middle finger, and can only be measured to within 2 millimetres. 

Color of the eyes.—A special table has been framed for the color of tle 
eyes, which gives seven categories. These are based on the intensity 
of the pigmentation of the iris. Firstly, we note the exact shade of 


ee ee ee ee ee 


—— ~~ Oe ee eee eee 


the pigment when it exists, and secondly, the approximate shade of « 


the deep stratum of the periphery of the iris. 


Hence the seven divisions: 

(1) Iris azure blue and slaty blue with aureole concentric pupillary 
aureole more or less pale but destitute of yellowish pigment. 

(2) Iris inclining more or less to blue or slate color, but with a light 
yellowish aureole. 

(3) Same shade but with a further aureole, approaching orange. 


. 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 677 


(4) Iris reflection more or less greenish and with a chestnut aureole. 

(5) Same shade with brown aureole. 

(6) In this class the chestnut is no longer clustered in an aureole 
around the pupil, but spread on the whole surface of the iris and only | 
shows some greenish yellow irisations. 

(7) Eye entirely brown. 

This grouping enables us to pass by almost imperceptible transitions 
from the light blue eye to the pure brown eye. To examine the eyes 
the operator should place himself in the angle of a window, his back to 
the light,—avoid using tbe word gray. For further details read the 
Revue Scientifique of July 18, 1885; also, Annales de Démographie, 
1881—82, *“* La couleur de V Iris en lanthropologie,” by Alphonse Bertillon. 

This procedure gives six measures of each individual, but upon neces- 
sity they can be increased indefinitely. The effect is twofold. One is 
to procure areliable means of identification of the individual by means 
of an accurate measurement of certain portions, the bony structure of 
his body, which in the case of the adults does not change. Fatness or 
leanness, well or ill condition, has no effect upon these measurements. 
They are and always will be (except the height) the same, and neither 
by will or trick can any one make them different. The other effect is 
to provide an arrangement by which the cards may be segregated and 
classified so that the individual can easily be found. 

The cards on which these measurements are recorded are of a regular 
size and pattern, with printed forms, so as to always give the same indi- 
cation. The size used by M. Bertillon is 53 inches square. Both sides 
are utilized for description, and on the one are placed the two photo- 
graphs—front and profile view-—the full face on the right, profile on the 
left. } 

These cards are then arranged in boxes or drawers after the manner 
of cali cards in the U.S. National Museum; that is, on edge, the face 
to the front, the depth of the box being not more than half the height 
of the card so that it can easily be seen and read during examination 
without being taken out. 

The classification of these cards and photographs in their boxes is 
such that the descriptive card of any individual will fall into a subdi- 
vision of not more than ten or twenty other cards, and can be found, as 
was done by Signor Moleschott, Professor Mason, and myself within a 
space of 2 minutes. 

M. Bertillon has at Paris 100,000 photographs of criminals and 
arrested persons, and these are increasing at a wonderfully rapid rate. 
The proportion of 40.000 may be excluded from our present consider- 
ation, being those of women and children. Sixty thousand are of men 
of mature age, and as we have already seen the measurements were 
made of those portions of the body of the bony structures, the size of 
which or length of which can not be changed. 


678 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


The principle of the classification of M. Bertillon is to divide each one 
of these measurements into three classes: the large, the small, and the 
medium. This classification, beginning with the length of the head, 
then toits width, extends through all the measurements indicated, and 
ends in a division containing about ten cards, but which must not ex- 
ceed twenty. The lines of demarcation between these divisions are 
made arbitrarily and with the sole intent to make each division ap- 
proximately equal in point of numbers. So he has found the numbers 
for line of division for the length of skull to be at 184 and 189 millime- 
tres. All heads the length of which fell between these two numbers 
inclusive, constituted the middle division; all of 183 and less formed 
the division of short heads, while all of 190 and more constituted the 
division of long heads. 

For the breadth of the skull the two dividing figures were 153 to 156, 
and these formed the middle division. Those 152 and less formed the 
shortest, and those 159 and over formed the broadest division; and this 
system was continued throughout all other measurements. 

It was found in practice that this slight difference of 5 millimetres, 
being only about one-fifth part of an inch, taken, as it were, out of the 
middle of head measurements, would contain about an equal number 
with those in the other two divisions. 

The divisions made by the measurement of the middle finger of the 
left hand established for the medium class from 110 to 115; all middle 
fingers from 109 and under are classed with the short; from 110 to 115 
with the medium, and 116 and over with the long fingers. So also with 
the length of the foot, the spread of the arms, and, as I have said, by 
the color of the eyes. 

In practice the 60,000 photographs would be first divided according 
to the length of the head, large, medium, and small; and this would 
separate them into three divisions of 20,000 each, in the case of 
drawers. The width of the head would again divide each one of these 
20,000 into large, small, and medium, which would give practically 
6,000. The three divisions arising from the spread of the arms and the 
length of the middle finger will reduce it to 600. The length of the 
foot will again reduce it to 63, and the further reduction by the color of 
the eyes of seven classes to 9 photographs in each division. The prin- 
cipal divisions are made in the cases of drawers, while the smaller are 
made within the drawers themselves. 

The anthropometric establishment under M. Bertillon does not abolish 
the use of photography. The photographs are taken in double, a full 
face and a profile, and this should always be done. The change of face 
arising either from accident or intention on the part of the subject is 
much less easily controlled by him in profile view than of the full face. 
He can at best only change the lower part of his face, and in making 
comparisons by photographs, where such a change is suspected, it is 
well to cover the lower part of the face on the photograph by a spot of 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 679 


paper and make comparisons of the contour of the head, the shape of 
the face, the position of the ear and its appearance, and thus one is 
enabled to make much better and more satisfactory investigation. If 
one would rely upon the photograph there should also be added the other 
position of a full-length standing portrait. 

At Paris the studio for taking the photograpls of criminals is at- 
tached to the establishment of M. Bertillon and is over his office of 
measuring. Another suggestion which he makes concerning photo- 
graphs and their benefit and advantage concerning identification is 
the necessity of having them the same proportion, the same relative 
size, and so he insists that the instruments and the subjects shall always 
be at the same distance. Therefore he has the chair in which the sub- 
ject sits, and also the stand for the camera fastened firmly to the floor 
so that they give the same proportionate size of the subject. 

M. Bertillon also remarked the importance of including in the pho- 
tograph a view of the bust. Ifthe head only be shown it gives it an 
enlarged appearance and so is deceiving, and besides the setting of the 
head upon the shoulders is as much a means of identification as is the 
head itself. He said also to throw back the hair off the ears of the 
subject when taking the profile view, for it is an organ unchangeable 
upon its owner and with its characteristics may serve aS a means for 
identification. But with all this M. Bertillon uses the photograph more 
as an auxiliary, and depends principally upon the measurements. 

How to make a search.—Our man, whose photograph and measure- 
ment is given on the card, is supposed to have just arrived, the meas- 
urement made, and his photograph taken. We desire to know if he 
has ever before passed through the depot and whether his card of 
measurement is here to be found. The length of his head is 191, there- 
fore we find it in the highest division; that is, with the longest heads, 
and we know it will be in this row of drawers. The width of his head 
is 157. That falls within the medium class, and we therefore know it 
will fall within this row of drawers. We have now, by exclusion, 
reduced the number of cards to be examined from 60,000 to 6,000. The 
length of his middle finger is 127, which throws it into the highest of 
that division, and that has reduced it to 2,000. The like investigations 
with regard to his foot, which is 278, and the spread of his arms, which 
are 151, reduces it, as we have said, to an average division of 63 cards. 
These are divided among the seven distinctive colors of the eyes, and so 
the package of cards within which his description will be found, if at 
all, is reduced to an average of 9, and in practice is never to exceed 20. 
And this by depending solely upon the measurement and without con- 
sulting the photograph. 

As a precaution additional to the normal sizes of the various portions 
of the body which were selected for measurement, there would be natur- 
ally employed any abnormal marks which might be found. If these were 
agreed in the two descriptions we would declare the identification com- 


680 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


plete. Every person has on his body some particular marks, such as 
moles, scars from cuts, boils, etc. Three or four of these corresponding 
would be quite enough to identify a man out of a million provided 
always that the nature, etc., of the marks has been accurately recorded. 

It is very seldom that one finds on an individual identically the same 
mark and in the same place that has been previously noticed on another, 
but that two persons should be found bearing three or four sears pre- 
cisely similar would be a co incidence which appears impossible, and we 
have certainly never met with such a case. 

These marks and cicatrice are set forth under the appropriate head 
on the back on the card of Feillier. 

I will not attempt to translate that description. It is too intricate 
and with too many abbreviations and private marks for me to do so 
with certainty. But as an illustration | may quote those which were 
presented by M. Bertillon to the congress at Rome, and which had 
been translated by Mr. Spearman : 

(1) Oblique outward scar between second and third joint middle of 
first finger left hand. 

(2) Sear oblique inward of 5 centimetres, left palm, 3 centimetres 
above third finger. 

(3) Mole 8 centimetres below left nipple, and at 10 centimetres from 
center of body. 

(4) Mole 4 centimetres left of spinal column, 20 below prominent 
vertebra of neck. 

If this series of private marks be found to correspond on the two 
eards, one would say they were both made from the same individual 
and that the identification was perfect. 

It is not to be expected that an inexperienced person will be able to 
do this work of anthropometry without error. In the beginnings of 
the system there were fewer identifications of former criminals and 
more failures, but as time has progressed and a certain expertness with 
regard to measuring and accuracy in making and keeping the records, 
these errors and failures have been so far eliminated as that Monsieur 
Bertillon claims it to be practically perfect. 

The anthropometric service in the penitentiary and police system 
of France was established in 1882. The annual examinations were as 
follows: In 1882, 225; 1883, 7,336; 1884, 10,398; 1885, 14,965; 1886, 
15,703 ; 1887, 19,150. Up to this time the service was considered more 
or less experimental, and only certain classes were subject to measure- 
ment. 

In the year 1888 the application of the system was extended to in- 
clude all persons arrested for any except the lower grades of offenses, 
and the number in this year who passed through the depot at Paris was 
increased to 51,849. This gives an average of about 100 measurements 
per day. M. Bertillon told me that in practice it took the two men, one 
to measure the other to record, about 7 minutes to each prisoner, or 8 


se 


se 


——- 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 681i 


prisoners per hour. As it is important that prisoners should be exam- 
ined in court without delay the entire day is not at their disposal, and 
so they have four squads of operators, who endeavor to conclude their 
measurements each day before breakfast, as they call it; that is, before 
12 m., the afternoon being devoted to the routine business at the office. 

Of tne 31,849 offenders or suspects measured in 1888 615 were recog- 
nized as having been measured before, but who sought to conceal their 
identity by giving false names and reporting falsely the number of their 
arrests. There were only four failures of identification. Four failures 
out of 31,849 measurements was considered by M. Bertillon to be prac- 
tically perfection. 

This system of M. Bertillon for identification of individuals by means 
of anthropometry is having much success. The most superficial exam- 
ination seems to convince every one of its efficacy and superiority. 
M. Cantilo, Procureur General at Buenos Ayres, the delegate from the 
Argentine Republic, bore his testimony before the congress of the mar- 
velous results obtained in the determination of individual identity. He 
said that the method had been adopted by several of the States of the 
United States of North America, and also by his own country, the Ar- 
gentine Republic, the capital, Buenos Ayres, already possessing an in- 
stallation of the anthropometric system of Bertillon. He spoke of the 
necessity for its adoption by all civilized countries, and he proposed to 
the congress a resolution inviting all governments to adopt it whenever 
they might have need for the identification of any considerable number 
of their citizens, which resolution was unanimously adopted. 

M. Bertillon stated that after France the Argentine Republic was the 
first government to adopt the anthropometric system by law or official 
decree. He complimented the admirable application made in the State 
of Illinois, principally at the penitentiary of Joliet, by the private 
efforts of MM. Mac-Claughry, Gallas, Muller, Porteous, of Chicago, ete. 

Monsieur Herbette, in his presentation of this matter at the congress 
of Rome, following the communication of M. Bertillon,* pointed out 
how this verifying of the physical personality and the indisputable 
identity of people of adult age should in modern society fulfill real 
requirements and under the most varied services. If-it were a ques- 
tion, for instance, of identifying the soldiers of an army, or travellers 
going to distant lands, they could have personal cards having recog- 
nizable signs enabling them always to prove who they are; if it were 
a question of completing the records of the etat civil by sure indica- 
tions to prevent error or substitution of persons; if it were a question 
of recording the distinctive marks of an individual in documents, titles, 
contracts so that his identity could be established either for his own 
interest, for the interest of third parties, or for that of the state, the 
fuli benefit of the anthropometric system would be realized. If there 
should arise a question of identity in a life certificate, a life insurance 


= = - ae = —_—— 


* Translation by Mr. Spearman. 


682 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


contract or proof of death, or to certify the identity of a dead person, 
or one badly wounded or disfigured, the body having been partially 
destroyed or had become difficult to recognize in case of a sudden or 
violent death, the result of a crime, an accident, a shipwreck, a battle, 
how great would be the advantage of being able to trace these charac- 
ters, unchangeable in each individual, infinitely variably as between 
one individual and another, indelible, in great part, even in death. 

There is still more cause to occupy oneself with it if it is a question 
of identifying distant persons or after the lapse of a considerable time 
when the general appearance, the look, the features, and the physical 
habits have changed naturally or artificially, and that without moving 
or expense, by the simple exchange of a few notes or figures sent from 
one country to another, from one continent to another, to be able to 
know in America what sort of a man it is who has just arrived from 
France, and to show clearly whether a certain traveler one finds in 
Rome is the same person that one measured in Stockholm 10 years 
before. 

In one word to fix the human personality, give to each human being 
an identity, an individuality lasting, unchangeable, always recogniz- 
able, easily proved, this appears to be the extended aim of the new 
method. 

It may consequently be said that the extent of the problem, as well 
as the importance of its solution, far exceeds the limits of penitentiary 
work, and the interest, not inconsiderable, which final action has exer- 
cised amongst various nations. These are the motives for giving to the | 
labors of M. Bertillon and their practical utilization, the publicity they 
merit. 


Question XI X.—Correctional education—-reforms in accordance with 
our knowledge of biology and of sociology and their relations to crime. 
Dr. Motet, reporter. 

Dr. Motet, in accordance with M. Dalifol, presented the necessity for 
a considerable development in moral education as well as professional. 
Especially should this be so in the agricultural schools, and M. Van 
Hamel came to their aid in showing the success which had attended 
the moral education in his country of Holland. 


Question X XI.—The relation between mental degeneration and sim- 
ulation of insanity. Dr. Paul Garnier, reporter. 

The boundary between crime and insanity is very narrow and one 
which gives to the medical jurist sometimes the greatest difficulty. It 
is here that the real criminal will simulate insanity before the courts 
in order to escape the responsibility of his acts, and here is to be found 
the greatest number of the simulators. The degenerate individual, he 
who has come to be of a lower scale, whether mentally or psychologic- 
ally, is closely related to and liable to become either epileptic or hys- 
teric. If he shall simulate either one of these or the insanity growing 


Ae ns 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 683 


out of them, he may be his own dupe, and finish by becoming the insane 
person that he at first only pretended to be. The simulation, even when 
successful, dves not necessarily give evidence of intellectual ability. 
It does not in these cases require a high order of intellectual ability to 
deceive; deceit is not intelligence. It is many times difficult to detect 
insanity in a given individual, but it is much more difficult to detect 
the simulation of insanity. To do this with certainty requires the most 
skillful and best trained scientist. A moment’s consideration of the 
proposition will serve to confirm the opinions so many times expressed 
by members of this Congress as to the necessity for an anthropological 
education and training on the part of the judges and law officers deal- 
ing with criminals. : 


Question X XII.—The influence of professional life upon criminality. 
Dr. Henri Coutagne, of Lyon, reporter. 

The object of this memoir was to present the importance of those 
studies which had for their object a research into what the reporter 
called “professional psychology,” or the psychology of professional life. 
He said the psychic functions of the individual were greatly influenced 
by the profession he chose to exercise among his fellows. That the vo- 
cation or profession showed the tendency of races or of individuals. He 
spoke of the special aptitude of the Hebrew race for financial affairs, 
His memoir was as much graphic as written, and showed nine classes 
of professions, and the criminals which had belonged to each. This 
had been continued and kept up by him and his predecessor since the 
year 1829, and was devoted largely to statistics as well as enforcing their 
value and importance. These statistics showed that much the larger 
proportion of criminals is to be found among the agricultural and indus- 
trial population. He enlarged upon the necessity for statistics, and 
invoked the various societies, as the bar associations, the medical soci- 
eties, and those representing other trades and professions, to gather 
with thoroughness and detail the number of criminals, the habit of 
life of the various individuals, and especially this with regard to their 
course in crime. The congress drifted into a discussion as to the im- 
portance of statistics, those to be gathered as well by the state as by 
the different societies and organizations mentioned. 

M. Herbette enlarged upon the necessity for complete and accurate 
statistics gathered by the penitentiaries and prisons, and spoke of the 
necessity of what he called ‘a bulletin official individual,” which should 
show every act in crime and in life and in the surroundings of the indi- 
vidual, his temptations, opportunities, his first tendencies to crime, and 
his criminal life both in and out of prison, so far as possible, and to this 
should be added the anthropologic and pschologic investigations. 

Dr. Wilson, from the United States of America, after noticing the 
necessity for a general plan of gathering statistics with accuracy and 
detail, and making a collation and classification of reports for purposes 
of comparison, and the fact that thus defined there were scarcely any 


684 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


statistics in the United States in relation to crime and criminals, went 
on to say that only in some of the States were records kept so that 
statistics could be obtained. 

New York and Massachusetts are the most prominent. But their 
records are kept, each on its own plan and without relation to the plan 
of the other, and therefore they lose the benefit of comparison with 
each other. in most of the States of the Union there has been only a 
slight attempt to keep vital statistics. Marriages, births, deaths, con- 
viction for crime, are intended to be made a matter of record, but the 
penalty provided by law for the neglect is so slight and so rarely en- 
forced as to be ineffectual. Ours is a new country; our people have 
never been accustomed to strictness in making or keeping such rece- 
ords. The population in many localities is sparse, the people change 
their residence often, they go and come at will, there is no military 
service demanded of them, and it is exceedingly rare for a pauper to be 
returned to the place of his original domicil that he.may be supported 
at public expense. So the needs which exist in Europe for such records 
fail in the United States. The only necessity for such statistics is be- 
lieved by our people to be for historic or sociologie purposes. This 
has not yet been sufficiently appreciated by them to overcome the diffi- 
culties. There are also more difficulties than exist in European coun- 
tries. Our country is large; compared with European countriesit has 
a vast extent. It was also as compared with these countries, dis- 
covered only a few yearsago. It has had only about 100 years of life. 
One hundred years ago it had but 3,000,000 souls ; it extends from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific; a distance of nigh 5,000 miles, and its center of 
- population remained, until within 50 years, practically on the Atlantic 
coast, and even now has not gone beyond 600 miles to the westward. 
Our country had to be rescued from the possession of the barbarian, 
and a people thus engaged have but little time and less inclination to 
keep records and statistics which in their opinion have only a senti 
mental utility. So it has as yet been scarcely attempted. We may 
accomplish it after a time; not at present. The difficulties are in- 
creased by our form of government. We have that anomaly of two 
sovereignties within one country, two governments over one people; 
and I explained the difference between our State and national govern- 
ments, each of which has its ewn jurisdiction over crime, and yet each 
is independent of the other. So I said the United States Census is de- 
pendent largely for its statistics of crime upon information obtained 
from the State authorities. If, on the other hand, it be a State census, 
each will be separate and distinct, and may be different from any other. 
So it was that in the State of Pennsylvania the statistics of crime 
showed the number of convictions to be 2,930, while the State of New 
York, with but a slightly increased population returned 58,670 convic- 
tions; twenty times more than that of Pennsylvania. The explana- 
tion given was, that in the former State convictions only in the courts of 


CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 685 


record were reported, while in the latter the convictions were of every 
kind, whether for small or great offenses. 

The meager statistics of crime in the United States, taken from the 
census of 1880, and reported by Mr. A. Rk. Spofford in his American 
Almanac, are given in the following table: 


Sears, ame NSS arya [it ose rome js core acta To 
Je Adabamaltecesees:: | Unknown.| 1, 262, 344 || 20. Missouri .....--.-.--. | 1,294 | 2, 169, 091 
De PATKANSAS Hs acisnlacicn.cle | Unknown. | 802, 562 | A NIGIUP REE ese codsoasalseecococeecc 452, 432 
3. California............ 615 864,686 || 22. Nevada :-:.....-.:... | i44 62, 265 
4. Connecticut...-..-..-.. 251 | 622, 683 | 23. New Hampshire... -- 180 | 347, 784 
Dee Molawareeetesctecess| (ose. sea cee 146, 654 || 24. New Jersey.......... 823 | 1, 180, 892 
GiPlorida-k.soks cso. ee Tl 266; 566) |) (25. New: York -..22.-.--. 3, 576 5, 083, 173 
(sa GRCOTENG ec stelae fail aie 590N) 1o88498an|) 26. North Carolinasses.ss|-ce. eae = — 1, 400, 000 
Soplllingisse oases ae ce ee 1,900: |)’ 35078,.636:)|| 27. Ohio; <-26 Secbana. 12 1,362 | 3,197,794 
Qrelndiana’s-20252.2..502 1, 231 | 1,798, 358 || 28. Oregon........-...--- 104 174, 767 
WONT OWaeecee meee ale tate 353 | 1,624,463 | 29. Pennsylvania ........ 1,861 | 4, 282,738 
PUSS Kansas: ieseccces -cte os 406 | 995, 33h Sled hode, Lslandisecee oe sencse seer 276, 528 
Al? wen tnhekyiemasact-escee 983 | 1, 648,599 || 31. South Carolina. ...... 625: | 995, 706 
TS GOUISIANG see = cscs se 625 940; 263: || 32. Tennessee ...-....... | 1,153 | 1,542,463 
(aeoM anon eet eee 221 648, 945i1'935 Loxas-o-s-5..cesese- 02 | see Chasen | 1,598, 509 
Tone Marvlandeessce cose 170 QBoNT SOR oe NVOLIMONG = vise cietei eer 175 | 332, 286 
16. Massachusetts ....... 757 | 1,783,086 || 35. Virginia ......--..--. 1,105 1,312,203 
eo Michiganis seen se 809 | 1,634,096 | 36. West Virginia ....... 218 618, 193 
18. Minnesota ........... 235 780, 807 | Sie WW ISCODSIN = mcr riers 309 | 1, 315, 386 
19. Mississippi ....-..--. 997 | 1,131, 899 | | 

| 


Question X X VI.— Political offenses from the point of view of anthro- 
pology. 

This study, written by M. Laschi, an avocat from Verona, was made 
with the assistance of M, Lombroso. It dealt with race, genius, and the 
density of the population in the older and better settled countries. The 
author distinguished revolution from revolt. The first he called psy cho- 
logic manifestations, and the latter pathologic. Hespoke of the influ- 
ences of climate and orography, not to mention those social and polit- 
ical, upon the race which might belong to or inhabit a country. He gave 
as his opinion, derived from his investigation and the statisties, that the 
short-headed races, brachycephalics, were conservative, while the long- 
headed, dolicocephalics, were revolutionists ; that the mixture of these 
races could modify their character and so change them as a nation, but 
that occasionally, by reason of atavism, or something similar, peculiar 
circumstances, changes in social conditions as well as in political, the 
dolicocephalie individual of modern times and in modern countries might 
break out in revolution, which was naught else on his part than the 
return, through heredity, to the original revolutionary characters of 
some remote ancestor. He said the most revolutionary cities of Ku- 
rope, like Paris, Florence, Geneva, were those which manifested the 
greatest genius and the most vivacity of thought. 

Drs. Brouardel and Motet believed, on the contrary, that the influ- 
ence of political crimes was to show the inferiority of intelligence, the 


686 CRIMINAL ANTHROPOLOGY. 


fanatism, the impressionability, and the exaltation of the individual 
These, said they, were particular factors in political crimes. 

Professor Lombroso cited M. Taine, and said that these political 
crimes were what the anthropological historian might well call political 


epilepsy. 


Question XX VII.—Jurisprudence applied to criminal sociology. M. 
Pierre Sarraute, judge of the tribunal at Perigueux, Dordogne, reporter. 

The punishment for crime ought to be against the individual. The 
particular individual criminal should be made to feel that he received 
the punishment for his offense. To accomplish this with satisfaction 
the juge @instruction should be able to investigate the anthropologic 
and social factors which have entered into or operated upon the mind 
of the criminal in causing him to commit the offense. The juge d’in- 
struction must himself be educated, and it must be remitted into his 
hands entirely to judge of the utility, and extent of the examination, 
and to control the results. To do this successfully it will be necessary 
to open a course of lectures upon criminal anthropology and medical 
jurisprudence in the various schools of law, and to educate the students 
in these sciences. The reporter proposed as a remedy for some of the 
lapses in the law, and the miscarriages of justice, an indeterminate 
sentence by the judge; he proposed profound modifications in the jury 
system, requiring of them in particular cases, special aptitude, special 
preparations or educations, enabling them to deal properly with the 
subject in hand. He would reduce the number of the jurors and would 
require them to give their answers to the questions submitted to them 
by the court, which answers should establish the facts in the case with 
which they as jurors alone had to deal, leaving the questions of law to 
the judge of the court; leaving the anthropologic questions, those of 
psychology and physiology, to the trained scientist, who should be a 
criminal anthropologist. With a training of the lawyers and judges in 
these various sciences, and then a division of their various duties and 
responsibilities, with higher courts which shouid combine in them these 
various branches of scientific knowledge, the right of the criminal would 
be guarded, while crime would be lessened and society protected. 


Question XX X.—The moral and criminal responsibility of deaf-mutes 
in their relations to legislation. M. Giampietro, of Naples, reporter. 

He argued the defective physical organization of deaf mutes, and 
seemed to say that there was a corresponding want of responsibility 
which should be recognized by the law and the court. The important 
part of his paper, which can not be here followed, was the scientific 
portion, the physiologic investigations into the conditions of deaf-mutes 
and the formation of articulate language. He described certain brain 
centers which were possessed of such functions in this regard. He 
called them the centers auditif, phonique, volitif, mnemonique, ideosym- 
bolique, and moteur. 


COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS,.* 


By R. BRUDENELL CARTER. 


It is a matter of familiar knowledge that the sense of vision is called 
into activity by the formation, on the retina or internal nervous expan- 
sion of the eye, of an inverted optical image of external objects—an 
image precisely analogous to that of the photographic camera. The 
retina jines the interior of the eyeball over somewhat more than its 
posterior hemisphere. It is a very delicate transparent membrane, 
about one-fifth of a millimetre in thickness at its thickest part, near the 
entrance of the optic nerve, and it gradually diminishes to less than 
half that thickness at its periphery. It isresolvable by the microscope 
into ten layers, which are united together by a web of connective tissue, 
which also carries blood vessels to minister to the maintenance of the 
structure. I need only refer to two of these layers: the anterior or 
fiber-layer, mainly composed of the fibers of the optic nerve, which 
spread out radially from their point of entrance in every direction, 
except where they curve around the central portion of the membrane; 
and the perceptive layer, which—as viewed from the interior of the eye- 
ball, may be likened to an extremely fine mosaic, each individual piece 
of which is in communication with a nerve fiber, by which the impres- 
sions made upon it are conducted to the brain. The terminals of the 
perceptive layer are of two kinds, called respectively rods and cones; 
the former, as the name implies, being cylindrical in shape, and the 
latter conical. The bases of the cones are directed towards the interior 
of the eye, so as to receive the light; and itis probable that each cone 
may be regarded as a collecting a} paratus, calculated to gather together 
the light which it receives, and to concentrate this light upon its deeper 
and more slender portion, or posterior limb, which is believed to be the 
portion of the whole structure which is really sensitive to luminous 
impressions. The distribution of the two elements differs greatly in 
different animals; and the differences point to corresponding differ- 
ences in function. The cones are more sensitive than the rods, and 
minister toa higher acuteness of vision. In the human eye there is a 
small central region in which the perceptive layer consists of cones 


*Lecture delivered at the Loyal Institution on Friday, May 9, 1890. (From Nature, 
May 15, 1590, vol, XLU, pp. 55-61.) 
687 


688 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNEES. 


only, a region which the fibers avoid by curving round it, and in which 
the other layers of the retina are much thinner than elsewhere, so as 
to leave a depression, and are stained of a lemon-yellow color. In a 
zoue immediately around this yellow spot each cone is surrounded by 
a single circle of rods; and as we proceed outwards towards the 
periphery of the retina, the circle of rods around each cone becomes 
successively double, triple, quadruple, or even more numerous. The 
yellow spot receives the image of the object to which the eye is actually 
directed, while the images of surrounding objects fall upon zones which 
surround the yellow spot; and the result of this arrangement is that 
generally speaking, the distinctness of vision diminishes in proportion 
to the distance of the image of the object from the retinal center. The 
consequent effect has been well described by saying that what we see 
resembles a picture, the central part of which is exquisitely finished, 
while the parts around the center are only roughly sketched in. We 
are conscious that these outer parts are there; but if we desire to see 
them accurateiy, they must be made the objects of direct vision in their 


turn, 
The indistinctness with which we see lateral objects is so completely 


neutralized by the quick mobility of the eyes, and by the manner in 
which they range almost unconsciously over the whole field of vision, 
that it seldom or never forces itself upon the attention. It may be 
conveniently displayed by means of an instrument called a perimeter, 
which enables the observer to look steadily at a central spot, while a 
second spot, or other object, is moved along an arc, in any meridian, 
from the circumference of the field of view towards the center, or vice 
versa. Slight differences will be found between individuals; but, speak- 
ing generally, a capital letter one-third of an inch high, which is legi- 
ble by direct vision at a distance of 16 feet, and is recognizable as a 
dark object at 40° or 50° from the fixing point, will net become legible 
at a distance of 1 foot, until it arrives within about 109. 

The image formed upon the retina is rendered visible by two differeut 
conditions,—that is to say, by differences in the amount of light which 
enters into the formation of its different parts, and by differences in the 
quality of this light, that is, in its color. The former conditions are 
fulfilled by an engraving, the latter by apainting. Itis with the latter 
conditions only, and with the power of perceiving them, that we are 
concerned this evening. 

Before such an audience as that which I have the henor to address, 
it is unnecessary to say more about color than that it depends upon the 
power possessed by the objects which we describe as colored, to absorb 
and retain certain portions of white or other mixed light, and to reflect 
or transmit other portions. The resulting effect of color is the impres- 
sion produced upon the eye or upon the brain by the waves of light 
which are left, after the process of selective absorption has been accom- 
plished, Some substances absorb two of the three fundamental colors 


COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 689 


of the solar spectrum, others absorb one only, others absorb portions of 
one or more. Whatever remains is transmitted through the media of 
the eye, and in the great majority of tbe human race, suffices to excite 
the retina to a characteristic kind of activity. Few things are more 
curious than the multitude of different color sensations which may be 
produced by the varying combinations of the three simple elements, 
red, green, and violet; but this is a part of the subject into which it 
would be impossible for me now to enter, and with which most of those 
who hear me must already be perfectly familiar. 

Apart from the effect of color as one of the chief sources of beauty 
in the world, it is manifest that the power of distinguishing it adds 
greatly to the acuteness of vision. Objects which differ from their sur- 
roundings by differences of color are far more conspicuous than those 
which differ only by differences of light and shade. Flowers are 
much indebted to their brilliant coloring for the visits of the insects by 
which they are fertilized ; and creatures which are the prey of others 
find their best protection in a resemblance to the colors of their envi- 
roument. It is probably a universal truth that the organs of color 
perception are more highly specialized and that the sense of color is 
more developed in all animals in precise proportion to the general 
acuteness of vision of each. 

From a variety of considerations, into which time will not allow me 
to enter, it has been concluded that the sense of color is an endowment 
of the retinal cones, and that the rods are sensitive only to differences 
in the quantity of the incident light, without regard to its quality. 
Nocturnal mammals, such as mice, bats, and hedgehogs, have no cones ; 
and cones are less developed in nocturnal birds than in diurnal ones. 
Certain limitations of the human color sense may almost be inferred 
from the anatomy of the retina. It is found, as that anatomy would 
lead us to suppose, that complete color sense exists only in the retinal 
center, or in and immediately around the yellow spot region, and that 
it diminishes as we pass away from this center towards the periphery. 
The precise facts are more difficult to ascertain than might be supposed ; 
for although it is easy to bring colored objects from the circumference 
to the center of the field of vision on the perimeter, it is by no means 
easy to be quite sure of the point at which the true color of the ad- 
vancing object can first be said to be distinctly seen. Much depends, 
moreover, on the size of this advancing object, because the larger it 
is the sooner will its image fall upon some of the more sparsely distrib- 
uted cones of the peripheral portion of the retina. Testing the mat- 
ter upon myself with colored cards of the size of a man’s visiting card 
I find that [ am conscious of red or blue at about 40° from the fixing 
point, but not of green until it comes within about 30°; while, if I take 
three spots, respectively of bright red, bright green, and bright blue, 
each half a centimetre in diameter and separated from its neighbor on 
either side by an interval of half a centimetre, spots which would be 

H. Mis, 129 44 


690 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 


visible as distinct and separate objects at 8 metres, I can not fairly and 
distinctly see all three colors until they come within 10° of the center. 
Beyond 40°, albeit with slight differences between individuals and on 
different meridians for the same individual, colors are only seen by the 
degree of their luminosity ; that is, they appear as light spots if upon 
a dark ground and as dark spots if upon a light ground. Speaking 
generally therefore, it may be said that human vision is only tri-chro- 
matic, or complete fer the three fundamental colors of the solar spec- 
trum, over a small central area, which certainly does not cover more 
than 30° of the field; that it is bi-chromatiec, or limited to red and vio- 
let, over an annulus outside this central area; and that it is limited to 
light and shade from thence to the outermost limits of the field. 

The nature and imitations of the color sense in man long ago sug- 
gested to Thomas Young that the retina might contain three sets of 
fibers, each set capable of responding to only one of the fundamental 
colors; or in other words, that there are special nerve fibers for red, 
special nerve fibers for green, and special nerve fibers for violet. It has 
also been assumed that the differences between these fibers might essen- 
tially consist in the ability of each set to respond only to light vibra- 
tions of a certain wave length, much as a tuned string will only respond 
to a note with which it is in unison. In the human subject, so far as 
has yet been ascertained, no optical differences between the cones are 
discoverable ; but the analogy of the ear and the facts which have been 
supplied by comparative anatomy combine to render Young’s hypothesis 
exceedingly probable, and it is generally accepted, at least provision- 
ally, as the only one which furnishes an explanation of the facts. It 
implies that elements of all three varieties are present in the central 
portion of the retina; that elements sensitive to green are absent from 
an annulus around the center; and that the peripheral portions are 
destitute of any elements by which color sense can be called into ac. 
tivity. 

According to the observation already made, that the highest degree 
of acuteness of vision is necessarily attended by a corresponding acute- 
ness of color sense, we should naturally expect to find such a highly 
devcloped color sense in birds, many of which appear, as regards visual 
power, to surpass all other creatures. I need not dwell upon the often- 
described acuteness of vision of vultures or upon the vision of fishing 
birds, but may pass on to remark that the acuteness of their vision ap- 
pears not only to be unquestionable, but also to be much more widely 
diffused over the retina than is the case with man. If we watch domes- 
tic poultry or pigeons feeding we shall frequently see a bird, when 
busily picking up food immediately in front of its beak, suddenly make 
a lateral dart to some grain lying sidewise to its line of sight, which 
would have been practically invisible to a human eye looking in the 
same direction as that of the fowl. When we examine the retina the 
explanation both of the acuteness of vision and of its distribution be- 


ae 


COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 691 


comes at once apparent. In birds, in some reptiles, and in fishes not 
only are cones distributed over the retina much more abundantly and 
more evenly than in man, but the cones are provided with colored 
globules, droplets of colored oil, at their apices, through which the light 
entering them must pass before it can excite sensation and which are 
practically impervious to any color but their own. Each globule is so 
placed as to intervene between what is regarded as the collecting por- 
tion of the cone and what is regarded as its perceptive portion in such 
a way that the latter can only receive color which is capable of passing 
through the globule. The retin of many birds, especially of the fineh, 
the pigeon, and the domestic fowl, have been carefully examined by 
Dr. Waelchli, who finds that near the center, green is the predominant 
color of the cones, while among the green cones, red and orange ones 
are somewhat sparingly interspersed and are nearly always arranged 
alternately, a red cone between two orange ones, and vice versa. In a 
surrounding portion, called by Dr. Waelchli the red zone, the red and 
orange cones are arranged in chains and are larger and more numerous 
than near the yellow spot. The green ones are of smaller size and fill 
up the inter-spaces. Near the periphery the cones are scattered, the 
three colors about equally numerous and of equal size, while a few 
colorless cones are also seen. Dr. Waelchli examined the optical prop- 
erties of the colored cones by means of the micro-spectroscope and found, 
as the colors would lead us to suppose, that they transmitted only the 
corresponding portions of the spectrum, and it would almost seem, ex- 
cepting for the few colorless cones at the peripheral part of the retina, 
that the birds examined must have: been unable to see blue, the whole 
of which would be absorbed by their color globuies. It would be neces- 
sary to be thoroughly acquainted with their food in order to understand 
any advantage which the birds in question may derivo from the pre- 
dominance of green, red, and orange globules over others, but it is im- 
possible to consider the structure thus described without coming to the 
conclusion that the birds in which it exists must have a very acute sense 
of the colors corresponding to the globules with which they are so 
abundantly provided and that this color sense, instead of being localized 
in the center, as in the human eye, must be diffused over a very largo 
portion of the retina. Dr. Waelchli points out that the coloration of 
the yellow spot in man must, to a certain extent, exclude blue from the 
central and most sensitive portion of his retina. 

It is hardly necessary to mention how completely the high differen- 
tiation of the cones in the creatures referred to-—tends to support the 
hypothesis of Young, that a similar differentiation, although not equally 
manifest, exists also in man. If this be so, we must conclude that the 
region of the yellow spot contains cones, some of which are capable of 
being called into activity by red, others by green, and others by violet ; 
that a surrounding annulus contains no cones sensitive to green, but 
such as are sensitive to red or to violet only ; and that, beyond and around 


692 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 


this latter region, such cones as may exist are not sensitive to any color, 
but, like the rods, only to differences in the amount of light. When 
cones of only one kind are called into activity the sensation produced 
is named red, green, or violet, and when all three varieties are stimu- 
lated in about an equal degree the sensation produced is called white. 
In the same way the innumerable intermediate color sensations, of 
which the normal eye is susceptible, must be ascribed to stimulation of 
the three varieties of cones in unequal degrees. 

The conditions of color-sense which in the human race (or at least in 
civilized man) exist normally in outer zones of the retina, are found in 
a few individuals, to exist alsoin the center. There are persons in whom 
the region of the yellow spot is absolutely insensitive to color, and 
recognizes only differences in the amount or quantity of light. To such 
persons the term ‘color-bdlind” ought perhaps in strictness to be limited; 
but the individuals in question are so rare that they are hardly entitled 
to a monopoly of an appellation which is conveniently applied also to 
others. The totally color-blind would see a colored picture as if it were 
an engraving, or a drawing in black and white, and would perceive dif- 
ferences between its parts only in the degree in which they differed in 
brightness. 

A more common condition is the existence, in the center of the retina, 
of a kind of vision like that which normally exists in the zone next sur- 
rounding it; that is, a blindness to green. Persons who are blind to 
green appear to see violet and yellow much as these are seen by the 
normal-sighted, and they can see red, but they can not distinguish it 
from green. Others, and this form is more common than the preceding, 
are blind to red, and a very small number of persons are blind to violet. 
Such blindness to one of the fundamental colors may be either coin- 
plete or incomplete ; that is to say, the power of the color in question 
to excite its proper sensation may be either absent or feeble. In some 
cases the defect is so moderate in degree as to be adequately described 
by the phrase ‘“ defective color-sense.” 

The experiments of Helmholtz upon color led him tosuppiement the 
original hypothesis of Young by the supposition that the special nerve 
elements excited by any one color are also excited in some degree by 
each of the other two, but that they respond by the sensation appropri- 
ate to themselves, and not by that appropriate to the color by which 
they are thus feebly excited. This, which is often called the Young- 
Helmholtz hypothesis, assumes that the pure red of the spectrum, 
while it mainly stimulates the fibers sensitive to red, stimulates in a 
less degree those which are sensitive to green, and in a still less degree 
those which are sensitive to violet, the resulting sensation being red. 
Pure green stimulates strongly the green-perceptive fibers, and stimu- 
lates slightly both the red-perceptive and the violet-perceptive—result- 
ing sensation, green. Pure violet stimulates strongly the violet-percep- 
tive fibers, less strongly the green-perceptive, least strongly the red- 


COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 693 


perceptive—resulting sensation, violet. When all three sets of fibers 
are stimulated at once the resulting sensation is white, and when a 
normal eye is directed to the spectrum the region of greatest luminos- 
ity is in the middle of the yellow; because, while here both the green- 
perceptive and the red-perceptive fibers are stimulated in a high degree, 
the violet-perceptive are also stimulated in some degree. 

According to this view of the case the person who is red-blind, or in 
whom the red-preceptive fibers are wanting or paralyzed, has only two 
fundamental colors in the spectrum instead of three. Spectral red 
nevertheless is not invisible to him, because it feebly excites his green- 
preceptive fibers, and hence appears as a saturated green of feeble 
luminosity ; saturated, because it scarcely at all excites the violet- 
preceptive fibers. The brightest part of the spectrum instead of being 
in the yellow is in the blue-green, because here both sets of sensitive 
fibers are stimulated. In the case of the green-blind, in whom the 
fibers preceptive of green are supposed to be wanting or paralyzed, the 
only stimulation produced by spectral green is that of the red-precep- 
tive and of the violet-perceptive fibers; and where these are equally stim- 
ulated we obtain the white of the green-blind, which, to ordinary eyes, 
is a sort of rose color, a mixture of red and violet. In like manner the 
white of the red-blind is a mixture of green and violet, and if we con- 
sider the facts we shali see that spectral red, which somewhat feebly 
stimulates the green-perceptive fibers of the normal eye, and spectral 
green, which somewhat feebly stimulates the red-perceptive fibers of 
the normal and also of the green-blind eye, must appear to the green- 
blind to be one and the same color, differing only in luminosity, and 
that in an opposite sense to the preception of the red-blind. In other 
words, red and green are undistinguishable from each other as colors 
alike to the red-blind and to the green-blind ; but to the former the red 
and to the latter the green appears, as compared with the other, to be 
of feeble luminosity. In either case the two are only lighter and darker 
shades of the same color. The conditions of violet-blindness are analo- 
gous, but the defect itself is very rare; and as it is of small industrial 
importance it has attracted but a small degree of attention. 

Very extensive investigations, conducted during the last few years 
both in Europe and in America, have shown that those which may be 
called the common forms of color-blindness, the blindness to red and to 
green, exist in about 4 per cent. of the male population and in perhaps 
1 per thousand of females. Among the rest there are slight differences 
of color-sense, partly due to differences of habit and training, but of 
little or no practical importance. One such difference, to which Lord 
Rayleigh was the first to direct attention, has reference to yellow. The 
pure yellow of the spectrum may, as is generally known, be precisely 
matched by a mixture of spectral red with spectral green; but the pro- 
portions in which the mixture should be made differ within certain 
limits for different people. The difference must, I think, depend upon 


694 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 


differences in the pigmentation of the yellow spot rather than upon 
any defectin the nervous apparatus of the color-sense. There is a very 
ingenious instrument, invented by Mr. Lovibond and called by him the 
‘‘tintometer,” which allows the color of any object to be accurately 
matched by combinations of colored glass, and to be expressed in terms 
of the combination. In using this instrument we not only find slight 
differences in the combinations required by different people, but also 
in the combinations required by the two eyes of the same person. Here 
again, I think the differences must be due either to differences in the 
pigmentation of the yellow spot, or possibly also to differences in the 
color of the internal lenses of the several eyes, the lens, as it is well 
known, being usually somewhat yellow after middle age. The differ- 
ences are plainly manifest in comparing persons all of whom possess 
tri-chromatic vision, and are not sufficient in degree to be of any prac- 
tical importance. 

Taking the ordinary case of a red-blind or of a green-blind person, 
it is interesting to speculate upon the appearance which the world 
must present to him. Being insensible to one of the fundamental 
colors of the spectrum, he must lose (roughly speaking) one-third of 
the luminosity of nature; unless, as is possible, the deficiency is made 
good to him by increased acuteness of perception to the colors which 
he sees. Whether he sees white as we see it, or aS we see the mix- 
tures of red and violet, or of green and violet, which they make to 
match with it, we can only conjecture, on account of the inadequacy of 
language to convey an accurate idea of sensation. We have all heard 
of the blind man who concluded, from the attempts made to describe 
scarlet to him, that it was like the sound of a trumpet. If we take a 
heap of colored wools, and look at them first through a glass of pea- 
cock blue, by which the red rays are filtered out, and next through a 
purple glass, by which a large proportion of the green will be filtered 
out, we may presume that, under the first condition, the wools will ap- 


pear much as they would do to the red blind; and under the second, 


much as they would do to the green blind. It will be observed that the 
appearances differ in the two conditions, but that in both, red and 
green are practically undistinguishable from each other, and appear as 
the same color, but of different luminosity. 

Prior to reflection, and still more, prior to experience, we should be 
apt to conjecture that the existence of color-blindness in any individual 
could not remain concealed, either from himself or from those around 
him; but such a conjecture would be directly at variance with the 
truth. Just as it was reserved for Mariotte, in the reign of Charles I, 
to discover that there is, in the field of vision of every eye, a lacuna or 
blind spot, corresponding with the entrance of the optic nerve, so it 
was reserved for a still later generation to discover the existence of so 
common a defect as color-blindness. The first recorded case was de- 
scribed to Dr. Priestley by Mr. Huddart, in 1777, and was that of a man 


COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 695 


named Harris, a shoemaker at Maryport, Cumberland, who had also a 
color-blind brother, a mariner. Soon afterwards, the case of Dalton, 
the chemist, was fully deseribed, and led to the discovery of other ex- 
amples of a similar kind. The condition was still however looked upon 
asavery exceptional one; insomuch that the name of “ Daltonism” 
was proposed for it, and is still generally used tn France as a synonym 
for color-blindness. Such use is objectionable, not only because it is 
undesirable thus to perpetuate the memory of the physical infirmity of 
an eminent philosopher, but also because Dalton was red-blind, so 
that the name could only be correctly applied to his particular form of 
detect. 

Color-blindness often escapes detection on account of the use of color 
names by the color-blind in the same manner as that in which they hear 
them used by other people. Children learn from the talk of those 
around them, that it is proper to describe grass as green, and bricks or 
cherries as red; and they follow this usage, although the difference 
may appear to them so slight that their interpretation of either color- 
name may be simply as a lighter or darker shade of the other. When 
they make mistakes, they are laughed at, and thought careless, or to be 
merely using color names incorrectly ; and a common result is that they 
rather avoid such names, and shrink from committing themselves to 
statements about color. Dr. Joy Jefferies gives an interesting descrip- 
tion of the almost unconscious devices practiced by the color-blind in 
this way. He says: 

‘The color-blind, who are quick-witted enough to discover early that 
something is wrong with their vision by the smiles of their listeners 
when they mention this or that object by color, are equally quick-witted 
in avoiding so doing. They have found that there are names of certain 
attributes they can not comprehend, and hence must let alone. They 
learn also what we forget, that so many objects of every-day life 
always have the same color, as red tiles or bricks, and the color names 
of these they use with freedom ; whilst they often, even unconsciously, 
are cautious not to name the color of a new object till they have heard 
it applied, after which it is a mere matter of memory stimulated by a 
consciousness of defect. I have often recalled to the color-blind their 
own acts and words, and surprised them by an exposure of the mental 
jugglery they employed to escape detection, and of which they were 
almost unaware, so much had it become matter of habit. Another im- 
portant point is, that as violet blindness is very rare, the vast majority 
of defective eyes are red or green blind. These persons see violet and 
yellow as the normal-eyed, and they naturally apply these color names 
correctly. When therefore they fail in red or green, a casual observer 
attributes it to simple carelessness,—hence a very ready avoidance of 
detection. It does not seem possible that any one who sees so much 
correctly, and whose ideas of color so correspond with our own, can 
not be equally correct throughout, if they will but take the pains to 
notice and learn.” 


696 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS, 


When the color-blind are placed in positions which compel them to 
select colors for themselves and others, or when as sometimes happens, 
they are not sensitive with regard to their defect, but rather find 
amusement in the astonishment which it produces among the color- 
seeing, the results which occasionally follow are apt to be curious. 
They have often been rendered still more curious, by having been the 
unconscious work of members of the Society of Friends. Color-blind- 
nessisa structural peculiarity, constituting what may be called a variety 
of the human race; and like other varieties, it is liable to be handed 
down to posterity. Hence, if the variety occurs in a person belonging 
to a community which is small by comparison with the nation, and 
among whose members there is frequent inter-marriage, it has an in- 
creased probability of being reproduced; and thus, while many of the 
best known of the early examples of color bindness, including that of 
Dalton himself, were furnished by the Society of Friends, the examina- 
tions of large pumbers of scholars and others, conducted during the last 
few years have shown that in this country, color blindness is more com- 
mon among Jews than among the genera! population. The Jews 
have no peculiarities of costume; but the spectacle, which has more 
than once been witnessed, of a venerable Quaker who had clothed him- 
selfin bright green or vivid scarlet, could scarcely fail to excite the de- 
rision of the unreflecting. Time does not allow me to relate the many 
errors of the color-blind which have been recorded ; but there is an in- 
stance of a clerk in a Government office, whose duty it was to cbeck cer- 
tain entries, in relation to their subject-matter, with ink of one or of an- 
other color, and whose accuracy was dependent upon the order in which 
his ink bottles were ranged in front of him. This order having been 
accidentally disturbed, great confusion was produced by his mistakes, 
and it was a long time before these were satisfactorily accounted for. 
An official of the Prussian post-office, again, who was accustomed to 
sell stamps of different values and colors, was frequently wrong in his 
cash, his errors being as often against himself as in his favor, so as to 
exvlude any suspicion of dishonesty. His seeming carelessness was at 
last explained by the discovery of his color-blindness, and he was re- 
lieved of a duty which it was impossible for him to discharge without 
falling into error. 

The color mistakes of former years were however of little moment 
when compared with those now liable to be committed by engine driv- 
ers and mariners. The avoidance of collisions at sea and on railways 
depends largely on the power promptly to recognize the colors of sig- 
hails; and the colors most available for signaling purposes are red and 
green, or precisely those between which the sufferers from the two 
most common forms of color-blindness are unable with any certainty 
to discriminate. About 13 years ago there was a serious railway acei- 
dent in Sweden, and in the investigation subsequent to this accident, 
there were some remarkable discrepancies in the evidence given with 


—— ss ee ee eee ee 


COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 697 


regard to the color of the signals which had been displayed. Professor 
Holmgren, of the University of Upsala, had his attention called to 
this discrepancy, and he found, on further examination, that the wit- 
ness whose assertions about the signals differed from those of other 
people was actually color-blind. From this ineident arose Professor 
Holmgren’s great interest in the subject, and he did not rest until he 
had obtained the enactment of a law under which no one ean be taken 
into the employment of a Swedish railway until his color-vision has 
been tested, and has been found to be sufficient for the duties he 
will be called upon to perform. The example thus set by Sweden has 
been followed, more or less, by other countries, and especially, thanks 
to the untiring labors of Dr. Joy Jeffries, of Boston, by several of the 
United States; while at the same time much evidence has been col- 
lected to show the connection between railway and marine accidents 
and the defect. 

It has been found, by very extensive and carefully conducted exam- 
inations of large bodies of men, soldiers, policemen, the workers in great 
industrial establishments, and so forth, as well as of children in many 
schools, that color-blindness exists in a noticeable degree, as I have 
already said, in about 4 per cent. of the male industrial population in 
civilized countries, and in about one per thousand of females. Among 
the males of the more highly educated classes, taking Eton boys as an 
example, the color-blind are only between 2 and 3 per cent., and per- 
haps nearer to2 than to3. Whether asimilar difference exists between 
females of different classes, we have no statistics to establish. The 
condition of color-blindness is absolutely incurable, absolutely incapa- 
ble of modification by training or exercise, in the case of the individual; 
although the comparative immunity of the female sex justifies the sug- 
gestion that it may possibly be due to training throughout successive 
generations, on account of the more habitual occupation of the female 
eyes about color in relation to costume. However this may be, in the 
individual, as I have said, the defect is unalterable; and if the difference 
between red and green is uncertain at 8 years of age, it will be equally 
uncertain at 80. Hence the existence of color-blindness among those 
who have to control the movements of ships or of railway trains con- 
stitutes the real danger to the public; and it is highly important that 
the color-blind, in their own interests as well as in those of others, 
should be excluded from employments the duties of which they are 
unfit to discharge. : 

The attempts hitherto made in this country to exclude the color- 
blind from railway and marine employment have not been by any means 
successful. As far as the merchant navy is concerned, so-called exami- 
nations have been conducted by the board of trade, with results which 
can only be described as ludicrous. Candidates have been “ plucked ” 
in color at one examination, aud permitted to pass at a subsequent one; 
as if correct color-vision were something which could be acquired. 


698 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 


Such candidates were either improperly rejected on the first occasion, 
or improperly accepted on the second. On English railways there has 
been no uniformity in the methods of testing ; except (in so far as I am 
acquainted with them) that they have been almost uniformly misleading, 
caleulated to give rise to the imputation of color-blindness where it did 
not exist, and to leave it undiscovered where it did. In these circum- 
stances it is not surprising that great discontent should have arisen 
among railway men in relation to the subject; and this discontent has 
led, indirectly, to the appointment of a committee by the Royal Society, 
with the sanction of the board of trade, for the purpose of investigating 
the whole question as completely as may be possible. 

It is perhaps worth while, before proceeding to describe the manner in 
which the color sense of large bodies of men should be tested for indus- 
trial purposes, to say something as to the amount of danger which 
color-blindness produces. A locomotive, as we all know, is under the 
charge of two men, the driver and the fireman. In a staff of 1,000 of 
each, allotted to 1,000 locomotives, we should expect, in the absence of 
any efficient method of examination, to find 40 color-blind drivers and 
40 color-blind firemen. The chances would be 1 in 25 that either the 
driver or the fireman on any particular engine would be color blind ; 
they would be 1 in 625 that both would be color-blind. These figures 
appear to show a greater risk of accident than we find realized in actual 
working, and it is manifest that there are compensations to be taken 
into account. In the first place, the term “ color-blind ” is itself in some 
degree misleading ; for it must be remembered that the signals to which 
the color-blind person is said to be “ blind” are not invisible to him. 
To the red-blind, the red light is a lessluminous green; to the green- 
blind, the green light is a less luminous red. ‘The danger arises because 
the apparent differences are not sufficiently characteristic to lead to cer- 
tain and prompt identification in all states of illumination and of atmos- 
phere. It must be admitted therefore that a color-blind driver may be 
at work for a long time without mistakes; and it is probable, knowing, 
as he must, that the differences between different sigual lights appear 
to him to be only trivial, that he will exercise extreme caution. Then 
it must be remembered that lights never appear to an engine driver in 
unexpected places. Before being intrusted with a train he is taken over 
the line, and is shown the precise position of every light. If a light 
did not appear where it was due, he would naturally ask his fireman to 
aid in the lookout. It must be also remembered that to over-run a 
danger signal does not of necessity imply a collision. A driver may 
over-run the signal, and after doing so may see a train or other obstruc- 
tion on the line, and may stop in time to avoid an accident. In sucha 
case he would probably be reported and fined for over-running the sig- 
nal; and if the same thing occurred again, he would be dismissed for 
his assumed carelessness, probably with no suspicion of his defect. 
Color-blind firemen are unquestionably thus driven out of the service 


— ee 


- +4 ‘ 
SI hares 


—_—- 


COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 699 


by the complaints of their drivers; and none but railway officials know 
how many cases of over-running signals, followed by disputes as to 
what the signals actually were, occur in the course of a year’s work. I 
have never heard of an instance in this country, in which, after a rail- 
way accident, the color vision of the driver concerned or of his fireman 
has been tested by an expert on the part either of the board of trade or 
of the company, but a fireman in the United States has recently recov- 
ered heavy damages from the company for the loss of one of his legs 
in a collision which was proved to have been occasioned by the color- 
blindness of the driver. Looking at the whole question, I feel that the 
danger on railways is a real one, but that it is minimized by the several 
considerations to which I have referred, and that it is much smaller 
than the frequency of the defect migbt lead us to think likely. 

At sea, the danger is much more formidable. The lights appear at 
all sorts of times and places, and there may be only one responsible 
person on the lookout. Mr. Bickerton, of Liverpool, has lately pub- 
lished accounts of three cases in which the color-blindness of officers of 
the mercantile marine, all of whom had passed the board of trade ex- 
amination, was accidentally discovered by the captain being on deck 
when the officers in question gave wrong orders consequent upon mis- 
taking the light shown by an approaching vessel. The loss of the Ville 
du Havre was almost certainly due to color-blindness; and a very fatal 
collision in American waters, some years ago, between the Jsaac Bell 
and the Lumberman, was traced, long after the event, to the color- 
blindness of a pilot, who had been unjustly accused of being drunk at 
the time of the occurrence. In how many instances color-blindness 
has been the unsuspected cause of wrecks and other calamities at sea, 
it is impossible to do more than conjecture. 

It is necessary then, alike in the public interest and in the interest 
of the color-blind, wio have doubtiess often suffered in the misfortunes 
which their defects have produced, to detect them in time to prevent 
them from entering into the marine and railway services; and the next 
question is, how this detection should be accomplished. We have to 
distinguish the color-blind from the color-sighted ; but we must be care- 
ful not to confound color-blindness with the much more common con- 
dition of color-ignorance. 

It would surprise many people, more especially many ladies, to dis- 
cover the extent to which sheer ignorance of color prevails among boys 
and men of the laboring classes. Many who can see colors perfectly, 
and who would never be in the least danger of mistaking a railway 
signal, are quite unable to naine colors or to describe them, and they are 
sometimes unable to perceive for want of education of a faculty which 
they notwithstanding possess, anything like fine shades of difference. 
Mr. Gladstone once published a paper on the scanty and uncertain 
color-nomenclature of the Homeric poems, and he might have found 
very similar examples among his own contemporaries and in his own 


WOO COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 


country. I have lately seen a pattern card of colored silks issued by a 
Lyons manufacturer, which contains samples of two thousand different 
colors, each with its more or less appropriate name. There is here a 
larger color vocabulary than the entire vocabulary for the expression 
of all his knowledge and of all his ideas, which is possessed by an aver- 
age engine driver or fireman, and just as most of us would be igno- 
rant of the names of the immense majority of the colors displayed on 
that card, so hundreds of men and boys among the laboring classes, 
especially in large towns where the opportunities of education by the 
colors of flowers and insects are very limited, are ignorant of the names 
of colors which persons of ordinary cultivation mention constantly in 
their daily talk and expect their children to pick up and to understand 
unconsciously. It is among people thus ignorant that the officials of 
the board of trade and of railways have been most successful in find- 
ing their supposed color-blind persons, and these persons who would 
never have been pronounced color-blind by an expert have been able, 
as soon as they have paid a little attention to the observation and 
naming of color, to pass an official examination triumphantly. The 
sense of color presents many analogies to that of hearing. Some peo- 
ple can hear a higher or a lower note than others, the difference de- 
pending upon structure, and being incapable of alteration. No one 
who cannot hear a note of a certain pitch can ever be trained to do so; 
but within the original auditory limits of each individual the sense of 
hearing may be greatly improved by cultivation. In like manner a 
person who is blind to red or green must remain so, but one whose 
color sense is merely undeveloped by want of cultivation may have its 
acuteness for fine differences very considerably increased. — 

In order to test color-vision for railway and marine purposes, the first 
suggestion which would occur to many people would be to employ as 
objects the fags and signal lanterns which are used in actual working. 
I have heard apparently sensible people use, with reference to such a 
procedure, the phrase upon which Faraday was wont to pour ridicule, 
and to say that the fitness of the suggested method * stands to reason.” 
To be effectual, such a test must be applied in different states of atmos- 
phere, with colored glasses of various tints, with various degrees of 
illumination, and with the objects at various distances; so that much 
time would be required in order to exhaust all the conditions under 
which railway signals may present themselves. his being done, the 
examinee must be either right or wrong each time. He has always an 
even chance of being right; and it would be an insoluble problem to 
discover how many correct answers were due to accident, or how many 
incorrect ones might be attributed to nervousness or to confusion of 
names. 

We must remember that what is required is to detect a color-blind 
person against his will; and to ascertain, not whether he describes a 
given signal rightly or wrongly on a particular occasion, but whether 


COLOR- VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 701 


he can safely be trusted to distinguish correctly between signals on all 
oceasions. We want, in short, to ascertain the state of bis color-vision 
generally; and hence to infer his fitness or unfitness to discharge the 
duties of a particular occupation. 

For the accomplishment of this object, we do not in the least want 
to know what the examinee calls colors, but only how he sees them, 
what colors appear to him to be alike and what appear to be unlike; 
and the only way of attaining this knowledge with certainty is to cause 
him to make matches between colored objects, to put those together 
which appear to him to be essentially the same, and to separate those 
which appear to him to be essentially different. This principle of test- 
ing was first laid down by Seebeck, who required from examinees a 
complete arrangement of a large number of colored objects; but it has 
been greatly simplified and improved by Professor Holmgren, who 
pointed out that such a complete arrangement was superfluous, and 
that the only thing required was to cause the examinee to make matches 
to certain test colors, and, for this purpose, to select from a heap which 
contained not only such matches but also the colors which the color- 
biind were liable to confuse with them. 

After many trials, Holmgren finally selected skeins of Berlin wool as 
the material best suited for this purpose; and his set of wools com- 
prises about 150 skeins. The advantages of his method over every 
other are that the wool is very cheap, very portable, and always to be 
obtained in every conceivable color and shade. The skeins are not 
lustrous, so that light reflected from the surfaces does not interfere 
with the accuracy of the observation, and they are very easily picked 
up and manipulated, much more easily than colored paper or colored 
glass. The person to be tested is placed before a table in good day- 
light, the table is covered by a white coth, and the skeins are thrown 
upon it in a loosely arranged heap. The examiner then selects a skein 
of pale green, much diluted with white, and throws it down by itself 
to the left of the heap. The examinee is directed to look at this pat- 
tern skein and at the heap, and to pick out from the latter and to place 
beside the pattern as many skeins as he can find which are of the same 
color. He is not to be particular about lighter or darker shades, and 
is not to compare narrowly, or to rummage much amongst the heap, 
but to select by his eyes, and to use his hands chiefly to change the po- 
sition of the selected material. 

In such circumstances a person with normal color sight will select 
the greens rapidly and without hesitation, will select nothing else, and 
will select with a certain readiness and confidence easily recognized by 
an experienced examiner, and which may even be carried to the extent 
of neglecting the minute accuracy which a person who distrusts his 
own color sight will frequently endeavor to display. Some normal 
sighted people will complete their seletions by taking greens which 
incline to yellow, and greens which incline to blue, while others will 


702 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 


reject both; but this is a difference depending sometimes upon imper- 
tect color education, sometimes upon the interpretation placed upon 
the directions of the examiner, but the person who so selects sees the 
green element in the yellow greens and in the blue greens, and is not 
color-blind. The completely color-blind, whether to red or to green, 
will proceed with almost as much speed and confidence as the color 
sighted; and will rapidly pick out a number of drabs, fawns, stone 
colors, pinks, or yellows. Between the foregoing classes we meet with 
a few people who declare the imperfection of their color sense by the 
extreme care with which they select, by their slowness, by their hesi- 
tation, and by their desire to compare this or that skein with the pat- 
tern more narrowly than the conditions of the trial permit. They may 
or may not ultimately add one or two more of the confusion colors to 
the green, but they have a manifest tendency to do so, and a general 
uncertainty in their choice. One of the great advantages of Holmgren’s 
method over every other is the way in which the examiner is able to 
judge, not only by the final choice of matches, but also by the manner 
in which the choice is made, by the action of the hands, and by the ges- 
tures and general deportment of the examinee. 

When confusion colors have been selected, or when an unnatural 
slowness and hesitation have been shown in selecting, the examinee 
must be regarded as either completely or incompletely color-blind. In 
order to determine which, and also to which color he is defective, he is 
subjected to the second test. For this, the wool is mixed again, and the 
pattern this time is a skein of light purple—that is, of a mixture of red 
and violet, much diluted with white. To match this, the color-blind 
always selects deeper colors, If he puts only deeper purples, he is in- 
completely color-blind. If he takes blue or violet, either with or with- 
out purple, he is completely red blind. If he takes green or gray, or 
one alone, with or without purple, he is completely green blind. If 
he takes red or orange, with or without purple, be is violet blind. If 
there be any doubt, the examinee may be subjected to a third test, which 
is not necessary for the satisfaction of an expert, but which sometimes 
strengthens the proof in the eyes of a bystander. ‘The pattern for this 
third test is a skein of bright red, to be used in the same way as the 
green and the purple. The red blind selects for this dark greens and 
browns, which are much darker than the pattern; while the green blind 
selects greens and browns which are lighter than the pattern. 

The method of examination thus described is, I believe, absolutely 
trust-worthy. Itrequires no apparatns beyond the bundle of skeins of 
wool, no arrangements beyond a room with a good window, and a table 
with a white cloth. In examining large numbers of men, they may be ad- 
mitted into the room fifty or so ata time, may all receive theirinstructions 
together, and may then make their selections one by one, all not yet 
examined watching the actions of those who come up in their turn, and 
thus learning how to proceed. The time required for large numbers 


COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 703 


averages about a minute a person. I[ have heard and read of instances 
of color-blind people who had passed the wool test satisfactorily, and 
had afterwards been detected by other methods, but I confess that I do 
not believe in them. I do not believe that in such cases the wool test 
was applied properly, or in accordance with Holmgren’s very precise in- 
structions; and I know that it is often applied in a way which can lead 
to nothing but erroneous results. Railway foremen, for example, re- 
ceive out of a store a small collectiou of colored wools selected on no 
principle, and they use it by pulling outa single thread, and by asking 
the examinee, ‘‘ What color do you call that?” Men of greater scien- 
tific pretensions than railway foremen have not always selected their 
pattern colors accurately, and have allowed those whom they examined 
and passed to make narrow comparisons between the skeins in all sorts 
of lights in a way which should of itself have afforded sufficient evi- 
dence of defect. 

Although however the expert may be fully satisfied by the wool test 
that the examinee is not capable of distinguishing with certainty 
between red and green flags or lights in all the circumstances in which 
they can be displayed, it may still remain for him to satisfy the employer 
who is not an expert, the railway manager, or the shipowner, and to 
convince him that the color-blind person is unfit for certain kinds of 
employment. It may be equally necessary to convince other workmen 
that the examinee has been fairly and rightly dealt with. Both these 
objects may be easily attained by the use of slight modifications of the 
lights which are employed. Lanterns for this special purpose were 
contrived sume years ago by Holmgren himself and by the late Pro- 
fessor Donders, of Utrecht, and what are substantially their contriv- 
ances have been brought forward within the last few months as novel- 
ties by gentlemen in this country who have re-invented them. The prin- 
ciple of all is the same, namely, that light of varying intensity may be 
displayed through apertures of varying magnitude and through colored 
glass of varying tints, so as to imitate the appearances of signal lamps 
at different distances and under different conditions of illumination, of 
weather, and of atmosphere. To the color-blind the difference between 
a red light and a green one is not a difference of color, but of luminos- 
ity, the color to which he is blind appearing the less luminous of the 
two. He may therefore be correct in his guess as to which of the two 
is exhibited on any given occasion, and he is by no means certain to 
mistake one for the other when they are exhibited in immediate suc- 
cession. His liability to error is chiefly conspicuous when he sees one 
light only and when the conditions which govern its luminosity depart 
in any degree from those to which he is most accustomed. With the 
lanterns of which I have spoken it is always possible to deceive a color- 
blind person by altering the luminosity of a light without altering its 
color. This may be done by diminishing the light behind the glass, by 
ncreasing the thickness of the red or green glass, or by placing a piece 


704 COLOR-VISION AND COLOR-BLINDNESS. 


of neutral tint, more or less dark, in front of either. The most incred- 
ulous employer may be convinced by expedients of this kind that the 
color-blind are not to be relied upon for the safe control of ships or of 
locomotives. With regard to the whole questionthere are many points 
of great interest, both physical and physiological, which are still more 
or less uncertain, but the practical elements have, I think, been well- 
nigh exhausted, and the means of securing safety are fully in the hands 
of those who choose to master and to employ them. The lanterns in 
their various forms are useful for the purpose of thoroughly exposing 
the color-blind and for bringing home the character of their incapacity 
to unskilled spectators ; but they are both cumbrous and superfluous 
for the detection of the defect, which may be accomplished with far 
greater ease and with equal certainty by the wool test alone. 

I have already mentioned that the examinations which have been 
conducted in the United States, thanks to the indefatigable labors of 
Dr. Joy Jeffries, have led to the discovery of an enormous and pre- 
viously quite unsuspected amount of color ignorance, the condition 
which is frequently mistaken for eolor-blindness by the methods of 
examination which are in favor with railway companies and with the 
board of trade; and this color ignorance has been justly regarded as a 
blot on the American system of national education. It has therefore, 
in some of the States, led to the adoption of systematic color-teaching 
in the schools; and for this purpose Dr. Joy Jeffries bas introduced a 
wall chart and colored cards. The children are taught, in the first 
instance, to match the colors in the chart with those of the cards dis- 
tributed to them, and when they are tolerably expert at matching they 
are further taught the names of the colors. It must nevertheless 
always be remembered that a knowledge of names does not necessarily 
imply a knowledge of the things designated, and that color vision 
stands in no definite relation to color nomenclature. Even this system 
of teaching may leave a color-blind pupil undetected. 


‘ 


a ee 


—— 


TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION.* 


By F. REULEAUX. 


From the present status of the world’s culture, one can not fail to 
discern thesignificant influence of our scientific technology in qualifying 
us for greater achievements than the past centuries have yet witnessed, 
whether in connection with rapid transit by land or sea, tunneling 
mountains, piercing the air, making the lightning our message-bearer 
from pole to pole or sending our voices across the land; or whether, 
indeéd, from another point of view we bring into our service the mighty 
mechanical powers, or adapt and make use of those intangible contriv- 
ances usually unnoticed by the world at large. 

Everywhere in modern life, about us, in us, with us, beside us, is felt 
the influence of scientific art acting as an agent and as companion, 
whose ceaseless service we never realize until for a moment it fails us. 

Commonplace though this be, still it seems to me that in the cultured 
world and perhaps in the narrower circles of scientific men, this truth 
is too slightly valued. The value of scientific technology in its true 
character as producer and promoter of civilization, is too little recog- 
nized. 

This may result from a confusion of the so-called technical with the 
unscientific; or on the other hand, from concealment of its results under 
a preponderating mass of idealism, its development being cramped by 
ambition for gain and trammeled by social evils, which go hand in hand 
with industrial labor. But I will not here consider this side of the 
question. I would attempt a nearer approach to the inner sanctuary 
of technology to certain weighty questions, which appear especially 
deserving of present notice, as: 

What place, particularly in associate working, the technology of our 
day takes in civilization? A place not so well defined, it appears to me, 
as is chat we assign to less important social, political, and scientific 
events. 

Again, @ question oceurs as to the chief features of the method fol- 
lowed by technology to attain its ends, and concerning the plan which 


H, Mis. 129——45 705 


706 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 


must more or less underlie device and invention; a question which 
(especially for patent legislation) has long employed and must long 
continue to employ the scientist as well as the administrative practi- 
tioner. 

If we will compare our civilization with that of other nations we must 
understandingly glance at the people and their pursuits, which we find 
upon the lowest stratum; for example, those who, lacking a knowl- 
edge of writing, that wondrous thought transmitter, have, of course, 
no care for science. In this comparison one will soon encounter peoples 
whom a high culture has for centuries, yes, thousands of centuries, 
been a part. These are the peoples of eastern and southern Asia, the 
Chinese, Japanese, people of India, the Persians, and Arabians. Noting 
without prejudice their culture, we must concede them to be in a state 
of high development, indeed to have been highly developed, when mid- 
dle Europe still remained deep in barbarism. Even then science and 
art flourished among them, and is still advancing. 

For 3,000 years the Indian Vedas have devoutly proclaimed the 
Deity ; 2,000 years ago the Indian poets produced their odyssey the 
‘“ Mahabharata”—the great Bharata, the forerunner of many dramas, 
among them the tender “Sakuntala,” the charm ef which is still potent 
since its sentiments found their origin in the heart of man. Philosophy 
flourished likewise, and the science of language in so great degree that 
the Indian grammarians of to-day can look back upon an unbroken line 
of predecessors, the vista terminating in Panini, whom they reverence 
like a god. Mathematics, too, were fostered, and to-day we write our 
numbers in Indian characters. In parts of India and in eastern Asia 
the commercial arts progressed then as now. Persia, too, was laurel- 
crowned among the world’s poets. Following the great Firdousi came 
the ‘*‘ Horaz” of Schiras, and in his footsteps Hafis sung his immortal 
songs, all of which have become a part of our literary treasure through 
the sesame of translation. And the Arabian literature, to which we 
have not yet had access in its entirety, how has it laid under tribute 
the Grecian inheritance, and so perfected astronomy that at the pres- 
ent time we name half the heavens after them. How, under the patient 
and studious princes of the time of Charles, did they foster the growth 
of arithmetical and still deeper science! How too have they surpassed 
our knowledge of chemistry in various substances and essences! 

What is then the spiritual difference which sunders their path from 
ours? Are we in certain arts still behind them? They are brave sol- 
diers, gentle and industrious citizens, wise statesmen and scholars ; 
honor and justice hold high rank among them. Where then, considered 
as men, lie the points of difference ? 

Or, on the other hand, do we question whether the spiritual bounda- 
ries lead to the good, and would we fain know whence springs our 
superiority over them ? 

How is it possible, for example, that England with a few thousand of 


TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 407 


her own troops, rules the two hundred millions of India; how was it 
possible for her to remain victor in opposition to their terrific and fanat- 
ical revolt in 1857? How does it happen that we, Europeans or (not 
particularly to mention the European-settled America,) that the At- 
lantic nations alone compass the earth with railroads, surround it with 
telegraph lines, traverse its water girdle with mighty ships, and that 
to all this the other five-sixths of the earth’s inhabitants have not added 
a span—the same five-sixths which still, for the greater part, are 
grandly organized and highly cultivated ? 

There are different ways of explaining this astonishing fact, or rather, 
of at least attempting to determine it comprehensively. Klemm, the 
industrious Leipsie collector, who was a pre-historian long before the 
discovery of pile habitations, has propounded the distinction between 
“active” and “ passive” peoples; and many to-day follow him therein. 
To him the Atlantic nations are the active; all others, down tothe utterly 
uncultivated, the passive. According to this theory we make history, 
they suffer it. Although this discrimination appears to have so much 
in its favor it does not hold. Nations can (as history teaches) be a 
long time active, then passive, and later again active. Activity and 
passivity are not to nations indwelling characteristics, but cireum- 
stances into which and out of which they can fall without changing 
their spiritual, essential position. One proof of reality the Klemm 
theory does not stand. Europe could, to-morrow, unyoked from Asia, 
be made passive without losing the character which- makes railroads, 
steamships and telegraphs belong to her as her spiritual possession. 
The Arabian, on the contrary, could destroy the products of scientific 
technology as the pretended Omar the books, but would not be able to 
re-produce them, aS has many times been done in case of the books. 

Others have supposed, and still believe, that it is Christianity that 
establishes the distinction. 

This however does not stand the test. Of course a considerable part 
ot the thinking which resulted in metamorphosed inventions and 
discoveries was done in the Christian empire, but by no means all. 
What an innovation was made by the art of printing, and yet we 
know that 1,000 years earlier the Chinese had found a way to this art. 
Gunpowder, too, that marks so decisive a step in the progress of our 
civilization, was used by the Arabians long before the time of the 
Freiburg monks. Then in mechanics we find those important power 
machines, the water wheels, are very old and of Asiatic origin. 

But passing from these examples to a genuine offspring of Europe, 
the steam-engine, watching its gradual development up to its actual 
use—the time of the Renaissance—in Italy, Germany, France, and 
England, but never outside of Christendom, even this, we find, does 
not encounter progress, but on the contrary, its adherents often oppose’ 
it up to the last. 

We look further and do we not find to-day Christians living in the 


708 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 


East, for example, in Armenia and in Abyssinia, entirely outside the 
contemplation of our victorious modern technology? In the past they 
have added naught thereto and to-day they are not its contributors. 

It cannot be the things themselves, the inventions, but the engen- 
dering thought which must have produced the change, the innovation. 
In fact we can but ascribe this to a peculiar progress in thought 
precedence, a difficult, dangerous ascent to a higher, freer comprehen- 
sion of nature. 

The spell which bound us was broken by our understanding when we 
found the forces of nature following in their operations no capricious 
will—a Godly will—but working according to steadfast, unchangeable 
laws—the laws of nature; never otherwise. 

According to laws mighty, fixed, eternal, 
Must we complete our being’s circle 
breathe Goethe’s words from out the terrors of nature’s inexorable 
power. But according to “laws mighty, fixed, eternal” roll the worlds, 
the stars pursue their course, a tile falls from the roof or a drop from 
its cloud height. 
Suns wander up and down, 


Worlds go and come again, 
And this no wish can alter. 


In this grand poetical form is seized the same uplifting knowledge 
that not the bodily but the spiritual force incloses within itself the pre- 
sentiment of God, that even the world’s creation consists in the immu- 
tability of itslaws. That it might win the knowledge, thought broke 
through the oid barriers, but immediately drew from real life con- 
clusions such as these, if we may utter them quite free from secondary 
considerations. 

If we bring lifeless bodies into such circumstances that their working 
of natural laws answers our purposes, we may permit them instead of 
this labor to work for living beings. 

This began to be carried out with intelligence, and thereby was created 
our present technology. Scientific technology I must name it. When 
the spirit entertained the idea which sought to make natural laws a con- 
scious power, scarcely anything was known of these laws and they must — 
first be wooed. Through hard battle indeed must they be won, for — 
the learned world believed itself to have them in its possession. The — 
reformer had therefore not simply to make the discovery, but to — 
accomplish the zigantic task of overcoming antagonistic convictions — 
and at the same time to support a spiritual campaign up to the heights 
of freer knowledge, for this march found weighty opposition in the 
decrees of the church, which had demanded its sacrifice. The victory 
was won, and therewith our present technology gained the command. — 
The opposing current of the time had spent itself, comprehending, per- — 
haps, its injustice, for do not its first representatives travel as gaily — 
upon the railroad, telephone, and telegraph as do ethers? Only small 


TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. TO9 


skirmishers exist aS a reserve, and this more from stubbornness than 
conviction. At all events they do not in the least retard the chief move- 
ment. 

What had happened had the reaction of that time prevailed—for it 
was a reaction begun in Germany more than 100 years before, Coper- 
nicus having lain more than 90 years in the grave when Galileo was 
unwillingly compelled to witness against him—what had happened in 
such an event is difficult to conceive; and yet not so, for we may see it 
exemplified in the great Arabian nation. Among this people the reac- 
tion had, in truth, conquered. Their Galileos, their Averrhoés, and 
numberless others, were defeated, together with their free convictions ; 
with them their entire sect, and therewith the Arabian culture, which 
already had lifted the hand to grasp the palm of victory of free knowl- 
edge, was paralyzed by the fanatical victors, and paralyzed they still lie 
low, already half a thousand years. Allah aalam! ‘“‘God alone knows,” 
therefore shalt thou not desire to know! So sounds it since then for 
the pure Mohammedan ; all investigation is cut off from him, forbidden 
and declared sinful. A noble and refined disciple of the Prophet has 
given expression tothe hope that the Moslem may yet be called to take 
up the lost leadership. Who may believe him? However, it appears 
certain that the overthrow of free thought in the Arabian language 
has become decisive for the remaining Asiatic culture. Like adam lies 
the spiritual-slain mass between them and us, and so has it come that 
we alone have entered into the development to which the pictured 
progress of thought led the way. The powers of nature which she has 
taught us to make useful are the mechanical, physical, and chemical ; 
to permit them to work for us requires a great outfit of mathematical 
and natural science. From this entire equipment we exercise a portion 
as a privilege. 

It seems necessary, in order to briefly distinguish the two directions 
of development, to call them by particular names. The Greeks named 
an artistic mechanism, an arrangement through which the unusual could 
be conducted, a manganon, which word goes back, according to some, to 
the name of the eminent race of magicians. Al! kinds of definite tangi- 
ble things which were considered skillfully and wisely thought out were 
so titled ; among others, a catapult for projectiles for purposes of war, 
With this the word comes into the Middle Ages. Then, early in the sev- 
enteenth century, a great machine was invented for rolling and smooth- 
ing the washing, and since this contrivance bore a remarkable outward 
resemblance to the catapult, it was also given its name, whereupon the 
word wandered further into the remaining European tongues, as every 
house-wife knows, or perhaps does not know, if she send her washing 
to a “mangle.” 

Again, for our purpose, I would generalize that old word and name, 
on the one hand, that something by means of which the forces of na- 
ture are known in her laws, manganism, and on the other, that which 


710 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 


seems to stand as nature’s defender, mysteriously guarding her ways, 
naturism. 

Employing for the present these terms, we shall see the peoples of 
the earth divided into manganistical and naturistical, and shall notice 
that, on account of their full understanding of their material equipment, 
the former have a powerful advantage over the latter. Indeed, we dare 
go much further and hesitate not to assert that to the manganistical 
nations belongs the domination of the earth, although now, as ever, it 
must be battled for. Still the observer may confidently predict the vic- 
tory of the manganists and that resistance can but mean either gradual 
overthrow or destruction. 

That unyielding determination makes possible the unprecedented 
step from naturism to manganism is shown in our time, a time so rich 
in culture, by the example of Japan. 

The chief men of this nation, having recognized the necessity, have’ 
also gained the political power for the purpose, and so transpires before 
our eyes the intelligent effort, towards which all their strength is 
directed, of systematically changing their scheme of instruction. Diffi- 
cult as is the attempt its beginning promises success, consisting as it 
does in nothing else than learning, learning, learning. 

Very gently in India the English have commenced to work towards 
manganistical education, and although all is yet in the beginning, 
ereat results are possible. 

It is unnecessary however to stray into distant lands to find natur- 
ism; in Europe itis at hand, and indeed in every human being lurks a 
portion of naturism. The first touch with manganism must be through 
education, the surrender of the uncultured mass of intellect to kind na- 
ture, but subject to a firm control which shall so hold her in check as 
to prevent the ruin which would otherwise threaten in the full contact 
with fate. 

In Spain manganism has developed but slightly. The Iberian Penin- 
sula has not contributed to the great metamorphosing inventions ; 
naturally the repression of thought advancement would occur more 
readily there, as at that period the new-discovered world held attention. 
The loss to Spain is, however, incalculable. 

Greece, once leading the world in arts and sciences, was at the time 
of the blossoming of scientific technology, so entangled in the result of 
her fall that the movement did not seize her. Now as a nation she 
seeks to raise herself out of naturism in order to resume the transmis- 
sion of the old spiritual activity, and we may watch with interest the 
experiment made upon the classical soil of this beautiful land. With- 
out manganism the effort must fail. 

Italy furnishes us with a striking illustration. For a long time de- 
voted thoroughly to naturism, and also desiring her share in the great 
scientific discoveries of the Renaissance, this highly-gifted people more 
or less neglected manganism, but preserved her flowers of art, and has 


TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 711 


therein sought and found her glory; this neglect her new form of gov- 
ernment has caused her to recognize, as well as the necessity for its 
avoidance; consequently we see the Italians exerting themselves with 
astonishing energy to spread among themselves manganistical indus- 
tries and qualities. That their rapid and significant progress in useful 
industries weakens their achievements in art industry can not be 
doubted. 

Like a shadow this fact flits over us, until it seems as if between the 
two directions must exist an opposition to which one will fall a sacrifice. 
But not so; art and scientific technology are not at variance; it only 
requires great effort for both to be developed; great firmness and 
spiritual insight into esthetical laws to counterbalance the disturbing 
grasp of the machine. 

That both may develop side by side is shown by the present move- 
ment in Austria and Germany. 

Turning now to the consideration of the inner method of manganism, 
J pass over an entire line of preparatory grades, but desire to note that 
which is common to different actions, but which seems to the outside 
world contradictory. Such generalizing shortens, but is necessary in 
order to make clearer the influx of new appearances in the technical 
kingdom. For the purpose of making these certain, efficient and intel- 
ligent, it may be permitted to employ a few simple examples: 


Fig. 1. 


The cog-wheel a, Fig. 1, catching in the usual manner in the cogs of 
the bar at 2, is rotated at 1 in the stationary frame c, in which also at 
3, the cog-bar b slides, this bar, a very long one, being pulled down by 
a weight B. 

Imagining the wheel a so turned as to raise the weight B, or in such 
manner as to lower it, we have before us an efficient machine of a defi- 
nite kind, viz, one of continuous direction of motion whether forward 
or backward. We will call it, because of this continuous motion, a 
running work (Laufwerke). As is well known, there are many running 
works; among them friction wheels, cog-wheels, beltings, turbines, 


wae TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 


ete., in many different combinations. Opposed to this mechanism is 
another of a different motion; of this Fig. 2 furnishes an example. 
The wheel a turns 1, in a fixed frame and has saw or similar shaped 
teeth in which, at 2,a ratchet catches. This ratchet hinders the wheel 
from following the pulling of the weight A at the margin of the wheel 
a. But if the wheel be turned as we wind a cord, 4, on which hangs the 
weight, the ratchet permits the wheel to go forward but retards it again 
as soon as the compelling force subsides. 

This arrangement is known as “ obstruction” (Gesperre.) 

In the use just described we would call it obstructing work (Sperrwerk); 
its backward and forward motion varying, thus requiring it to be com- 
pletely discriminated from running work (Laufwerke). 

From the given groups of mechanisms, five others are possible. 

If we next imagine the ratchet to be raised, through pressure upon 
the button at 5, the obstruction being released, the weight A falls down, 
taking or drawing with it the wheel a. The resulting motion can be 
utilized in many ways: quickly, as through a push with a ram, slowly, 
gradually, as by a clock; also m the running work of the telegraph, 
changing always according to supply. 

Through winding on spokes, the mechanical labor can always be use- 
fully changed. Instead of lifting a weight A, one can also place an 
elastic body, @. ¢., a spring in a condition of tension. We will there- 
fore name the produced mechanism tension work (Spannwerk). The 
crossbow was a spring tension work; there are.millions of spring 
tension works in practical use in flint-locks. 

We procure a third mechanism through a slight change of the man- 
agement, namely, by allowing the ratchet that was previously released 
to be again caught. This then catches up the wheel @ and with it the 
fallen weight A. <A sufficiently strong structure pre-supposed, one can 
also make the mechanism serve for catching up heavy masses, and we 
name it accordingly catch work (Fangwerke). The mechanisms used in 
mines and also in elevators for the catching of the propellers in case of 
rope-break, are such catch work. If one considers that the wheel teeth 
can be made so fine as to be invisible, whereby the circumference of the 
wheel a will be smooth and the obstructing ratchet simply a friction 
body, the obstruction changes into a friction obstruction, as one per- 
ceives in the brake of the railroad train. he applications of catch work 
are also very useful and numerous. 

A fourth mechanism one would secure out of the groups in question, 
if one attached, but on a moving arm, perhaps a second similar ratchet 
to the nearer one, fastened to it, the last having a swinging motion. 
Through this motion one can then, intermittingly, move the wheel with 
the intention of lifting the weight, since the first ratchet always catches 
the wheel when it begins to let the weight sink. The thus formed and 
driven mechanism is called leap work (Schaltwerk). Applications of 
the same are known and many. A fifth manner of conversion of the 


TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 713 


groups results, if one uses perhaps a narrow, corner-shaped segment of 
a wheel and forms with it an obstruction for the passage between the 
points 1 and 2, in the fashion, I will say, of a door. Then through clos- 
ing the obstruetion at 2, the passage can be retarded or stopped ; 
through loosening, it will be opened. We will name the mechanism in 
this form, closing work (Schliesswerk). It exists in closing doors, win- 
dows, closets, chests, in the form of locks, and so on in known and 
numerous changes. We see here the wide domains of the lock, which 
offers millions, yes millionfold variations of closing work. 

The sixth, and perhaps from the standpoint of the mechanic the most 
remarkable change of the obstruction, is the checking or check work 
(Hemmwerk), as we will say. It exists if we set free the obstruction 
by light touches upon the button at 5 and immediately closing it again. 
If this occur regularly the progress of the wheel @ may serve, among 
other purposes, for measuring time. In clocks this check work is largely 
used. The regular release of the obstruction takes place by means of 
an even-timed body, the pendulum. Variations of check work exist 
in many other machines. 

Thus we see there are many examples of obstruction works (Gesperr- 
werken), aS we may call them collectively, 7. e., works in which the ob- 
structing ratchet plays a part. But let us look still farther. It often 
occurs that obstruction works are combined and the action of one trans- 
mitted to the other. A fine example is furnished by the set-trigger of 
target rifles. This trigger is nothing else than a little tension work, 
very easily loosened, in consequence of which the firmer held tension 
work of the cock is loosened, one thus working upon the other. Such 
a combination we may call a tension work of a higher order, or, in case 
of a similar combining of obstruction works we speak of an obstrue- 
tion work of a higher order. An illustration is furnished by the mo- 
tive work of a clock, where the weight and spring tension work 
(Gewichts-und Fedderspannwerk) drives the obstruction work (das 
Hemmverk), thus working in the second order. Clearly, we have here 
a principle, for the transmission of motion can occur between obstrue- 
tion work and wheel work, and so on. For example, there is attached 
to the check work of the clock a cog-wheel work which moves the 
hands. Naming motive works in general, several examples of which 
we have noticed drive works (Treibwerken), the wheel work of a clock 
must be a drive work of the third order, consisting of tension work, 
check work, and wheel-running work arranged the one over the other. 

Having taken so broad a view in this field of observation, we turn to 
another quite different in aspect. 

If we notice our machines in practical use we find among them a 
number in which fluidity serves as force and motion transmitter, as the 
hydraulic press, the pump, spouting machines, water wheels, the tur- 
bines, ete. But not only liquid but gaseous fluids we similarly convert 
into gas motors, air machines, and especially into steam-engines. Close 


714 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 


observation shows that we have subjected all these cases, in consequence 
of the suitable inclosing of the liquids in channels, pipes, and vessels, 
to such a forced way of motion—I at one time proposed to name it 
‘‘ forced-running ”—that they are able to work in mechanisms as do firm 
bodies, but have this advancage of conforming themselves always to 
their surroundings. 

If we introdnee something of this kind in our running work (Fig. 1), 
replacing the cog bar by a stream of water, then our running work 
becomes a water wheel, mediocre indeed, if the water is taken as the 
driving force. It becomes a dipping wheel or spray wheel when the 
wheel a is propelling and the water b is the propelled body. 

The practice in machines leads to the same thought concerning ob- 
struction work. The obstructing ratchets are named valves when either 
the wheel a@ or its substitute—a section of the wheel, cog bar, ete.— 
have been converted to liquids. The valves are in reality in every 
way, try them or examine them as we will, the obstructing ratchets of 
the liquid. One observes immediately what a new, great, yes, even 
grand, enlargement has been gained by the putting into use of these 
drive works, Examples surround us, I should say crowd around us. 
Our common water-pump, with the butt of the valves and the sucking 
valve, is a water leap work prepared exactly in accordance with the 
scheme mentioned before, viz, of that leap work found in Fig. 2. Also 
in check work we find fluids, liquids, and gates taking the place of an 
ascending wheel or its substitute, as in water throwing machines and 
not less in steam-engines. 

In fact, regarding these machines as drive works, they correspond to 
clocks which I have taken as illustrations of obstraction works, the 
difference being solely that in clocks a harmful resistance, in the other 
machines a useful resistance, is overcome. Had I more time I would 
prove their similarity in all points. 

The valves, for instance, often single, but sometimes a combination 
of two or more in one machine, correspond to the so-called anchor of 
the clock check work, to the eccentric (muschelschieber) of the steam 
engine, the pendulum of the clock being represented by the vibrating 
butt, ete. 

Thus the great and powerful steam-engine legitimately and with 
perfect ease falls in the line, taking there its rightful place. And so 
must it be with scientific perception which will have to do with true, 
logical connection only (not with sensational), performing wonders. 
But in dealing with this principle we must gain one more ascent in 
order to attain the full theoretical horizon. Let us not regret the 
trifling exertion which must bring abundant reward. 

Noting, from the common standpoint, the source of power in our 
steam-engine, we find within the collected mass of stored-up steam an 
active, communicating atom force, which is an expansive power or ten- 
sion work. The boiler, too, with its valves and contrivance for letting 


TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. T15 


off steam, is but a tension work, differing from that previously noticed 
in that it lodges in a physical manuer the called forth tension, making 
it, in truth,a physical tension work. This observation carries us further, 
draws us on, as it were, to the casual connection by which heat is com- 
municated to the boiler water. This connecting link is the fire, the 
glowing, flaming coal which gave up chemically, in combustion, the 
energy stored therein. Thus fire is a chemical tension work made 
active through kindling, but holding latent, if we consider it in the 
form of coal, a heat energy stored within by nature’s slow process dur- 
ing millions of years and now eagerly yielded to our simple expedient. 

Thus we have our steam-engine complete; in the boiler fire a liberated 
chemical tension work; in the boiler itself a physical tension work 
made active by the fire; in the engine proper, consisting of stop-cocks,- 
cylinder, and piston-work, a mechanical check work, with motive power 
previously supplied; consequently, as a whole, a general drive work of 
the third order whereby we slight all secondary mechanisms of per- 
mitted masses. 

But if instead of the simple steam engine with its alternate motion 
we consider a crank-engine, we have attached to the check work, in the 
form of the crank-motor, a running work, which we can and do use, in 
thousands of forms; but the machine thus becomes in this, its most- 
used variety, a general drive-work of the fourth order. 

Permit me to call attention to still another example taken from steam 
industry upon the railroad. 

In the locomotive just developed we have before us a drive work of 
the fourth order. Next come the drive wheels of the engine as run- 
ning work, friction-wheel work (Reibriider werk), and joining this loco- 
motive the train gliding over the rails, a self-moving second running 
work, making, as a whole, a drive work of the sixth order. 

But let our train be of modern form and it will have a Westinghouse 
brake. The reason of the great favor in which this brake is held and 
of its great importance our theory explains as follows: 

The brake itself is a catch work formed from a friction obstruction 
work which we formerly set in motion with the hand. 

Now we manage otherwise. Wehave with Westinghouse in the form 
of the air battery on the train, indeed on every car, a strong, readily- 
placed tension work which we can at all times easily release through a 
stop cock in the form of an obstructing ratchet, which the brake con- 
tracts. Beginning from above, if we follow the brake apparatus, we 
have before us: The little steam-engiue, a check work ; the air pressure 
pump, a leap work; the mentioned crank mechanism, a check work ; 
and the side brake itself, a catch work; together a drive work and in- 
deed a mechanism of the fifth order; and if we add thereto, as we 
must, steam-boiler and fire, the whole results as a general drive work 
of the seventh order. Higher numbers of orders certainly do not be- 
long to usual contrivances. 


716 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 


We may now turn, without anxiety lest we sacrifice clearness, to the 
side of the most modern of all technical novelties, the electro-mechan- 
ical. Here we recognize in the Galvanic battery, or chain, a chemical 
running work, which expression can well be conceded, as it depends upon 
motion excitement, although it be atomical; the induced physical-elec- 
trical stream, the valves of which are the obstruction ratchet, the con- 
tact, polishing springs, ete., is used in various arts; in telegraphy it 
works in leap work of the second order, provides by relay for release 
and making fast again, and a mechanical running arrangement of writ- 
ing work; it results, according to circumstances, from the third to the 
fourth order. 

The usual sound-contrivances of the railroad work in the fifth order, 
chemically in current producers, physically leaping in the anchor pull- 
ing through which a mechanical tension work, that is one bent by the 
hand, is released ; the same drives a check work which again the little 
hammer tension work (Hammerspannwerke) springs, makes taut, and 
then releases. 

Among chemical drive work, we notice that the tension works take 
a prominent place. Those placed here will be of the number so artis- 
tically prepared by chemists that they give up their tension, or expan- 
sive force, slowly or rapidly. Gunpowder is the most powerful tension 
work, which the naturistical groping Middle Age set in the place of the 
mechanical tension work stretched by the hand of man out of netting, 
bows, and sinews in large and small throwing machines. The purpose 
remaining exactly the same, the kind of tension work was changed. 
The fuse releasing the new tension work was in itself a slow running, 
chemical tension work, entirely separated from the larger. Later we 
got so far as to take the two together in a single contrivance, at first 
in flint-locks, then in percussion locks. There one entered the third 
order. The percussion cap, a chemical tension work rather easily liber- 
ated, is set free by a mechanical tension work attached to the guncock. 
The ball is thrown by a tension work of the third order, as occurs in 
the set-trigger in the fourth order. 

Allow me to say a word concerning a petty example, the match. Not 
two generations have we possessed it, and previous to this brief period 
we manganists, in point of fire kindling, were very nearly on a par with 
the lowest naturists. 

In a natural state, as we know, people, through laboriously acquired 
skill, kindle a fire by rubbing together two pieces of wood; in other 
words, they set free that tension work, heat. The old Greeks used for 
the purpose the pyreion, the under piece of which, called the eschara, 
contained a bore, in which the rubbing piece, the trypanon or borer, 
was inserted and then turned by twisting the hands. 

Ought not in some hidden corner of the Grecian mountains the pyr- 
eion stillto be found? It would be very serviceable to bring it to light. 

The little fire-chests containing flint, steel, tinder, and threads dipped 


+. 


—o 


TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. Ula 


in sulphur, which in my earliest childhood I saw used in my home, are 
examples which have kept their places in spite of the all-conquering 
match ; it would be well to have specimens of these preserved in ethno- 
graphical museums, 

Later came steel and flint, a physical tension work used for itself. 
With their help one kindled—and many still do it to-day—the tinder, 
an easily freed tension work, especially prepared for the purpose and 
consisting at that time of burnt linen. 

On the tinder as soon as it glimmered, was set free a chemical ten- 
sion work rather difficult to release, the thread dipped in sulphur, and 
finally with this, a thin piece of wood, but not for a time a coal. For 
the kindling of the wood alone one used, in succession, four distinet 
tension works, one physical, stone and steel, and three chemical, tinder, 
sulphur, and wood. 

We now see the match fully in the domain of the former developed 
principle. The little important fire tool was made by combining three, 
but soon after four tension works, and is a chemical tension work of the 
fourth order, formed from the tension works phosphorous, chloracid 
kali, sulphur, and wood. For the sulphur, as is known, was later sub- 
stituted in many ways wax or paraffine. But the principle is very 
plainly recognized; each one of tze tension works following one upon 
another, is more difficult to set free than its predecessor, but was freed 
definitely, and then through a very easy mechanical action upon the 
little tension work most highly sensitive, the hair-trigger, brought about 
the deliverance, as it were, of each of the four obstructions which had 
caused such trouble, demanding the entire force of one and frequently 
of two men. That the combination of the four tension works was so 
recently attained proves that the fundamental principle of the train of 
thought must have been quite difficult. 

We have now, at last, the manganistical principle fully before us, in a 
common form as well as in the greatest, the examples embracing the 
most powerful forces, down to the finest and smallest, and we can de- 
clare that the method consists: In the cultivation depending upon a sci- 
entific knowledge of the laws of nature, and the resulting higher orders, 
and those standing side by side, of mechanical, physical, and chemical drive 
work, 

If the foregoing is developed essentially with a consideration of me- 
chanical technical aims, it permits itself to turn without any compul- 
sion upon the precedency of chemical technology and may, therefore, 
be found to embrace in itself the entire problem. One has only, for ex- 
ample, to think of a chemical manufactory, ete., and how sulphuric acid 
enters as a physical and mechanical medium in the colors. As in the 
above both of the others are side by side with the mechanical. 

From the standpoint now gained, if we again consider scientific tech- 
nology, we shall see how its results are closely bound with our life 
habits, indeed, with our entire eulture. We may overlook the fact that 


718 TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION, 


we are directly surrounded in our dwellings by thousands of obstrue- 
tion works which have made our rooms safe, comfortable, and conven- 
ient for light, air, and warmth. We may overlook this because natur- 
istical labor is able to produce similar, although less perfect, results. 
But let us notice other things whereby our dwellings have received their 
character. There is the gas-light in the house, on the street, in the 
public building. We may thank for it a chemical tension work of the 
fourth order—fire, retort, gasometer, conduction by stop-cocks, passing 
by all intermediate works—all of them important, all ramifying through 
the city pipes. The water for house and street necessity, when taken 
from a river-water conduit, furnishes a drive work of at least the sixth 
order. Upon the railroad we move by drive work of a higher order, 
regulate the powerful service with another, by means of drive works 
permit freight to be carried on the rails from place to place, from land 
to land, from one part of the earth to another, a thousand-fold more than 
a person could carry. Throughout the earth by means of physical drive 
work we have the messenger service, both written and spoken. 

How fare we in war? In millions of chemical tension works, large 
and small, generally of higher order, we carry the driving force to the 
distant battlefield and there set it free by means of a high order of drive 
works. 

Upon the ocean we are carried hundreds of miles from land, for weeks 
and months, by means of tension-work activity. 

Rich productions, such as coal, we have gained from nature. The 
naturistical man early found upon the high mountain range the water 
course, that running work subordinated to tension work, and very 
likely the future will bring to light other products, such as petroleum, 
which we may say was discovered three decades ago. This productis a 
highly elastic chemical tension work fitted to play its part under a clear 
flame. In reality it is a combination of two or more chemical tension 
works, each under such slight restraint as to free itself invisibly. 

We had, therefore, to submit this product of nature to a process of 
separation, according to the manganistical principle, into groups of 
small parts easily liberated and on which the tension work was first 
transmissible and generally applicable. Police directions required 
that if the product were made an article of trade the obstruction (sper- 
rung) should be a safe one; but how favorable has been the result. 
This fluid tension work discovered, as it were, ‘‘ ready made” in nature 
for purposes of illumination, has displaced those products which, by 
the aid of noticeable manganistical implements had previously been 
obtained from the seeds of plants. Let us turn to another phase of 
tension work. The conflagration is but an invisible liberating of a chem. 
ical tension work, as is well proved. The obstruction ratchet is raised in 
opposition to our will with ever-increasing rapidity and the powerful, 
liberated tension work often overleaps our control, but we bring to bear 
upon it for the. purpose of its capture, another drive work, formerly 
operated by main strength only, but now usually by chemical tension- 


— 


TECHNOLOGY AND CIVILIZATION. 719 


work under the application of drive works of a still higher order. We 
also turn a chemical tension work, the gas or chemical engine, as the 
Americans eallit, which acts instantaneously upon the water being used. 
In the last case the drive work connected with the water is of a very 
low order; this furnishes an example of the manner in which drive 
works contest for the same intended motion and seek each to gain for 
itself the palm in lessening the number of drive works, that is, the 
height of the order number. Everywhere it is the manganistical 
thought, the manganistical principle whereby we in part preserve, in 
part make easier, in part defend our life, and whereby we also advance 
annihilatingly against others. 

Onur industries, finally, which produce as well the necessities as the 
manganistical mechanisms, what have they not brought about for cul- 
ture advancement by means of this same manganistical principle? Here 
let us venture a little nearer by attempting to apply a measure. 

Coalserves us as an essential assistantin manganistical labor. Thisis 
now obtained in an abundance of over 400,000,000 tons, the greater part 
annually converted toindustrial purposes. Thesurplus above 400,000,000 
tons suffices to cover heating necessities. So we have for each of the 
300 working days of the year one and one-third million tons of coal, 
which are used for chemical, mechanical, and physical-teclnical pur- 
poses. If we sum up the entire labor arrived at therewith for the sake 
of the survey of dynamical execution, the results under this acceptation 
of uses of coal show 14 kilograms for horse-power in a working day of 
12 hours, 7. e., 44 tons per hour during the year, together with the horse. 
A horse-power, in round numbers, of 90,000,000, statistical numbers and 
taxes, in fact, would in dynamics yield 20,000,000. For every horse- 
power must be reckoned the working force of six strong men, which 
results in 540,000,000 active man-power during a day of 12 hours. It 
is this powerful executive force which the 250,000,000 of Atlantic na- 
tions entirely alone (since the other 1,250,000,000 of naturists have 
added nothing to it) have accomplished by man through the mangan- 
istical principle! When we consider that every tenth one of the 
1,250,000,000 men exerts daily such labor as before contemplated, prob- 
ably a much too high estimate, there results an execution of 125,000,000 
man-power. We Atlantic peoples, a sixth of the earth’s inhabitants, 
perform by our manganistic labor more than four times as much as 
those can execute. The superiority of the manganist over the naturist 
is attained and reimbursed through useful labor, and thereby also 
reaches, taken only humanly, its right. This so much the more as our 
labor execution is transmitted to each of them. I speak of the great, 
entire development, and not perhaps of its still existing deficiencies, to 
the extension and under the extension of culture and civilization. 

So, then, has scientific technology become the bearer of culture, the 
powerful, tireless laborer in the service of civilization and cultivation 
of the races of men, and promises for a long future to add a line of 
greater results than is at present attained, 


: - at Butt — 4a py o Ve ae eee aia 4 
manera 2." iid te oils ON IEE UES FR I Thi ie 
i ae eee . Sarl ita eee A ee oe vale Mabe E eerste aes any aoe 


Se “nk elie me) el Va oe SRF (NOS My Re Re ‘Pie aie ane 

aes : hier hes, Sw. FONG ES Pee ae pate takes eat 
= } aE aie dar ee ait ett) ne Hit pa dens ae erate 
es Sot he eae ee lee Gh ae 


1 - ~ Hf ; A ny i hid tee tat ‘ at % as Re isis i ae 


pe ea Pa ted i | COTTA, Ciba aoracs Oe abet aes ety te 
Pare pater BRT dtl mle rae Vint vi is fie: Leen 
bese pee 3 vi: me Hh hiner vi Ceti ikes ine na. nies aa . 
; - nN Ta Na Poaeis a ex ty ry nai ee mie pa Piva eee a 
: Tt: z if ve) Hae ¥ % 


a oT Be ete yee ez eae 
a 2 BSN NASH YA aS AN r hc UST eee ae 4 


ee ee err et ey ae hee hit Rew HES dit ah aa 2 ie deat 
«iam, Os [ie Fs ae Bee ees) ee! 


Parcs T SSE RERUN Ml he le is 44 oa £42 er 4 
: Lara tt dvak vidya eee ae heb ee Rete 
Coe Hate mee be ee Ue y Geek a Piave ae ee Bi i> 
Bei gre lever id nas arena ug. Sergi iieh, Where ttt aa a 
Ore eee eee iC PEW ee eT hieteraeaek a re Site: at; 


7 ge Se ei kina 


POSSE a vanes EE ane 
: eee taker Co asep, hit re Rien BC ia.clet nis *btne’s it yen ait = 


: A le aa easy lai EL ane A iitrt by it; ae £ aes aate -* peer at ves ae a | rca 
5 : Pao T eae ter yes 6 oT a an ica gu Sieh) ae Saye e & Wiis tet? } ne? pay , s e Se: i 
a ; ? eehae in Petros |S pry Ca is hig 1 si ae 


. eee eee) 1S a aa Coed aoa ies oe 


7 $e x. ap gataans Edt ae Sie a als; 


. PEL Etes igs Wich Peet's 


oie 7 
ee ere 
phe MPT her ned Ht tio Le staf EEE? eral i. 
are te rt amis II sith ia Sindte Bares atte Tite Bebe é 
Ringers: «losin i a eee Wigiaaee 
SS eer ene en er an 
es OA Mae een A aa 
eek! ‘Tage Aa 3. 134: ¢ tees 


ay; 2 At §)) Pro Pata 4 bhi: 5 Ati he tran . ‘s : 
Soe aR ats Lee RAS fo 18 estate ad ech 
tt ety Fie 42 athe 7 SRM by ; 


=*} Werrerstis i sek (ete 
We sint s 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE.* 


By J. ELFRETH WATKINS, Curator, Section of Transportation and 
Engineering, U.S. National Museum. 


The circle is a figure that has always been found in nature. 

Although this simple geometrical figure has been used in inscrip- 
tions and for decoration from time immemorial, I have been able to dis- 
cover only one very early reference to a pair of compasses, or dividers. 

In referring to the graven images, the worship of which was forbid- 
den by the Jewish law, the Prophet Isaiah, in chapter 44, verses 12, 13, 
old version, describes the manner in which these idols were constructed, 
as follows: 

‘The smith with the tongs both worketh in the coals and fashioneth 
it with hammers - - -.” ‘The carpenter stretcheth out his rule; 
he marketh it out withaline; he fitteth it with planes and he marketh 
it out with a compass and maketh it after the figure of man.” 

In the revised version the phrase is translated 

‘“The carpenter stretcheth out a line; he marketh it out with a pen- 
cil; he shapeth it with planes and he marketh it out with the com- 
passes and shapeth it after the figure of a man.” 

The Hebrew word which is here translated ‘‘ compass” or “com- 
passess,” is mehugah, from hug, a circle—mehug something to make a 
circle. 

There can, therefore, be little doubt that an instrument for drawing 
circles and probably similar to what is now known as the *‘ compasses ” 
was used by the Hebrew mechanics. Even if we accept the theory of a 
deutero Isaiah, this instrument can certainly claim the respectable an- 
tiquity of the sixth century B. ¢. 

The circle was associated with the measurement of time and the ob- 
servation of the positions of the heavenly bodies many centuries before 
the Christian era. 


THE SUN-DIAL AND GNOMON. 


The sun-dial of Ahaz, is thus alluded to in Isaiah, chapter 38, verse 8, 
old version, ‘ Behold, I will bring again the shadow of the degrees, 
which is gone down in the sun-dial of Ahaz, ten degrees backward. So 
the sun returned ten degrees by which degrees it was gone down.” 


* Deposited in the U. S. National Museum by Dr. Henry Morton, president, Stevens 
Institute of Technology, Hoboken, New Jersey. 


A, Mis. 129 46 721 


Woe THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


By recent Biblical critics* this dial is supposed to have been an obelisk, 
whose shadow fell upon the steps of the palace of Ahaz, each step being 
called a degree. 

It is by no means improbable however that these degrees were 
marked on a plane of stone or metal. 

The simple records made by the Chaldean shepherds and herdsmen 
of the observations by which they determined the seasons and by which 
they were governed in the different operations of husbandry, led the 
early cultivators of science to devise instruments (doubtless crude in the 
beginning) by which they could obtain data for more accurately ascer- 
taining the lengths of the solar and lunar periods. 

Astrology and astronomy bore the closest relationship to each other 
at that remote period. 

“Tn the valley of the Euphrates there were in those days observa- 
toriest in most of the large cities, and professional astronomers regu- 
larly took observations of the heavens, copies of which were sent to 
the king, as each movement or appearance in the heaven was supposed 
to portend some evil or good to the kingdom.” 

Among the first instruments of which there is record is the gnomon,t 
with which the Babylonians were familiar,and from whom Herodotus 
states (11, 109) ‘the Greeks learned the use of it, together with the 
pole.” The comparison of the perpendicular height of the gnomon, with 
the length of its meridian shadow projected on a horizontal plane on 
the days of the summer and winter solstices, afforded the early astron- 
omer an opportunity to calculate the difference of the sun’s meridian 
altitudes on those days. 


ANCIENT ASTROLABES. 


Ptolemy, in his “ Almagest,” written 145 A. D., describes an astrolabe 
or circular instrument for making celestial observations (which he calls 
astpokattroy opyavov) Which consisted of a heavy circle of metal arranged 
so that when it was suspended the divisions which we now call 0° and 
180° would come to rest in the same horizontal plane. 

A diametrical bar suspended in the center of the circle and turning 
on a pin was furnished with disks containing slits through which any 
heavenly body could be seen and its altitude determined in degrees or 
parts thereof. 

Other astrolabes were constructed in early times, consisting of two 
graduated circles set exactly at right angles. 


*Compare Isaiah 38: 8, revised version: ‘‘I will cause the shadow on the steps, 
which is gone down on the dial of Ahaz with the sun, to return backward ten steps, 
so the sun returned ten steps on the dial whereon it was gone down.” 

t George Smith, ‘‘Assyrian Discoveries,” p. 408. 

t Vitruvius, who wrote in the first century B. C., gives in Book 1, chap. 6, direc- 
tions for using the gnomon to ascertain the north and south line in laying out the 
streets of a city, thus indicating that the Romans were not familiar with the magnetic 
needle. 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 723 
BABYLONIAN SYSTEM OF DIVIDING THE CIRCLE. 


In a paper upon “Babylonian Astronomy,” by Sayce and Bosanquet 
(Monthly Notices Royal Astronomical Society, 1880, vol. xu, No. 3, ), relat- 
ing to the tablets of the millennial period, from 2,000 B. c. to 1,000 B. G., 
I find this statement: ‘The divisions which we find employed are 8, 
12, 120, 240, 480 parts. It has been assumed that the division of the 
circle into 360 parts was made by this ancient people. There is how- 
ever no authority in the inscriptions for this assumption. It seems to 
have been derived originally from Achilles Tatius, and the pre-con- 
ceived idea thus incroduced appears to have caused even those most 
conversant with the inscriptions to see the divisions of the circle into 
360 in matters which do not involve it. 


THE MODERN DIVISION AN OUTGROWTH OF THE SEXAGESIMAL 
SYSTEM. 


“Tt is hardly doubtful that the division of the circle as practiced by 
Ptolemy and in modern times was an outgrowth of the sexagesimal 
system, but the latter does not contain the former. The numeration of 
the inscriptions is by two methods, the sexagesimal and the decimal. 

‘The decimal method is in all respects comparable with our own and 
was used by preference in the Assyrian period. 

‘In it words and signs were used which were precisely equivalent to 
our “ hundreds” and * thousands.” 

‘In the sexagesimal method the reckoning was the same as in the 
decimal up to 60; 60 was 1soss. The counting went on by multiples of 
60 + number over, up to lner = 600. Then by ners + sosses + numn- 
ber over, up to 1 saru = 3,000. 

‘“The numbers used are always taken in this way. There is no in- 
stance of counting by 60, 360, 3,600. The foundation of the number 
360 was not, therefore, a natural stepin the sexagesimal arithmetic of 
the inscriptions. 


TABLET FROM THE PALACE OF SENNACHERIB. 


‘The division of the circle into 480 parts is illustrated by a tablet 
from the palace of Sennacherib (668-626 B. c.) in the British Museum, 
written in Accadian, which treats of the moon’s position during a 
month. The numbers of them or many of them are unintelligible or cor- 
rupt. This is partly due to the fact that the tablet is a copy of an ancient 
one, probably the date before 2,000 B. c.; but there is amply sufficient 
left to show that there was a real division of 480 parts, the moon’s 
mean daily motion being 16°, as it should be roughly, throughout the 
intelligible portions.” 


724 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


The numbers of the tablet are as follows: 


(The word *‘ degrees ” is used to represent the units of the division of 480.] 


Moon advances. Moon advances. 
Day of the moon. SSS Day of the moon. aaa SS SS = 
Degrees. | Degrees. Degrees. Degrees. 
eae eee eee eae oawinicinisiaiate Dy al Woesinsereetorill| ll Oneosterese Smo ccopooeeS ee 16 
Qe reer tele teinioe sicisie sioner Uy  Seesod ose M7 Stateicecnicniaonm stoee eciciee sae 208 | 32 
it es ee area Cea 260 esheets 16ar cre beets eet 192. | 48 
Aiea wes os apis sikeiciees ee eicies ADS I Soctopocque 19) cSsjeccscaee sehpee cnc cats 176 64 
By ecetere ere aye ome inte Meine ine sis ioiers SOME aceenece- 20 eeasinian toiseeoce ee ceenes 160 80 
Gate ed nn JURA) Ted eee ae DUEL, so TEEN ARG 144 | 96 
Waar ea ae oa cia aitaaa lee caes TT OUR | hee tee, wth DONS SEM sot SS Miso eeter 128 | 112 
Serna aes sad cca ce eee cee aie 1 oleaccecsaoc 23s beeen Aeintee se ee tess 112 144 
QEe PSPS aaa Uses ciate eis © DE Oo eeoeIo eT IDA nisisicrscieleltwinieisieleinicis siceieie ate 96 30 
He Sas Sse Se SS See OS AEE LGO meee sees | Biscsacksece sopsccosseccsse 80 56 
Ile SAL Bhacoodouesooebaopeos IAT Beco eae 2G rose cmceewec cs Ja stieccesess 32 12 
IP Base astecoLQuenceoD cacade 192 (ios asnatiae vilecnoeeocoU sancemscoesepscc 23 26 
13 ie PiU: ames Wop ua eter iv seme seh et, Sa nee 15 43 
Tae oeet ard citiceviocsee aces rd i Ee soe | 29... s2222e seer eeeeee oe. Sal seaeees cee 
Wy feesecn oie cies eelcin = Se etree <i 2409 esses ae BOM fae Sectcel- = foes seeles | Peas eeeare | Se dooce 


* The sixteenth day, for 224° of advance, it becomes obscure and retrogrades. 
t The thirtieth day the moon is the god Anu. 


S:,16.2.. 
OBVERSE 


Fig. 1.—BABYLONIAN PLANISPHERE. 


FRAGMENT OF PLANISPHERE IN THE BRITISH MUSEUM. 


Figure 1 represents a small fragment of a planisphere in the British 
Museum (5. 162). It contains two compartments, each of which is char- 
> 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 725 


acterized by the name of a month. The month Marchesvan is the 
eighth and Cislev the ninth. The ares have at their left-hand corners 
the numbers shown. (This is a “sky aspect.” <A “globe aspect” would 
be the reverse.) 

“This remarkable fragment is sufficient to determine the following 
table, in which the year is supposed to be divided into 12 mean months: 


No.of | Outer | Inner 
month. circle. | circle. 
| Tami larity. 
| | 40 | 20 | 
| 1 
| 20 10 | 
| 2 | 
| 240 | 120 
a 290 | 110 
4 | | 
| £00 | 100 
st 
| 180 90 
G 
| 160 80 
7 | 
| 140 70 
| 8 | 
120 | 60 
9 
100 0 
10) 
| 80 | 40 
| 
| 60 30 | 
1275) 


“To compare the longitudes of the planisphere with our own we have 
the following table, taking the numbers of the inner circle, 7. e., the 
division of 120: 


Degrees. 
a NGTOE Longitude from 
Name of month. rivets | Degrees.) same zero with 
y 360°, reckoned pos- 
itively. 
20 | 800 
INABA os rece eiejaa die pias inm se tmsietna aa eiwe stare naemia qeidbisemee deco eins 1 
10 | 330 
My aPieee mea ss bo detg-o cose. oe craemacs Senses hens ccan- uae eamacek< | 2 | | 
| 120 | 360 
CIA a Se Se POCO A Cee nee ea es oP a ne ee 3 
110 30 
AMATI c 5b 555 CAC CONCOOE OSS OC OB APSA CDOS HH HOa OSE Teo oCSeaaee | 4 
100 60 
BATS ee ee ae See em ek UE Be 2s ee Os ce ede os 2 Sal 
| 90 | 90 
Te oe sees ae EEE ee oo cisco bok ob eros eee aaa Rete Ree | 6 | 
80 120 
MIG DIsae asec cece eee a tee a cis once be bineeecdece Ree sbicstee session 7 
70 | 150 
IMarehesvan perce seed» esac nics came cutee eee cece eatisiclaece tases 8 
60 | 180 
WISIGVE Settee Stee = erences wad DSL sawee Gachaeeeaude beeen 9 
50 210 
GDS Geese ee aici ie oils nase Saaale wise eal eta bicinine earners ton 10 
40 | 240 
SOURUR ee set noe ee mectitatc eae cnt sim os, eee ee eet. 11 
30 | 270 
PA INS an aces aeiale on see eat eine osicim ciara cio ete ore aielatoe mbes sels 'ore| 12 


20 | 300 


726 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


The late George Smith proposed to read 150 for 140, and 75 for 70.* 
Sayce and Bosanquet assert that “There is no foundation for this, ex- 
cept the pre-conceived idea that the circle ought to be divided into 360°. 
The numbers are imprinted on the clay with great clearness according 
to the sexagesimal notation.” (Monthly Notices, R. A. S., 1880.) 


REASONS FOR DIVIDING THE CIRCLE INTO 360 DEGREES. 


On the other hand, we have the generally accepted statement that 
the Egyptians divided the cirele into 360° from the sun’s annual course 
or according to the number of days, dividing the year into 12 months, 
and each month into 30 days and allotting 1° to each day with an inter- 
calary month every 6 years. 

The Greeks divided each month into three periods of ten days each. 

It will be remembered that the Jewish year contained only 354 days. 

It is not definitely known how theastrolabes of Hipparchus (second 
century B. C.) and Ptolemy (second century A. D.) were divided; prob- 
ably these graduated circles contained 360°. It is stated that the par- 
allactical instrument used by Copernicus (1473-1543), and by which he 
measured altitudes, had its limb divided by equal divisions that were 
the subtenses of 3/ 49/.137 each. If an error of only 4/’.l was made in 
measuring this instrument, and if 3/.45’ was the correct reading it 
would indicate that each quarter of the circle was divided into 1,440, 
or each sixth of the circle into 960 equal parts. 

Many writers believe that the number 360 was selected from the fact 
that it admits of a great many aliquot parts, such as 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 
and 9. 

It has occurred to me as not an unreasonable conjecture that the 
origin of the sexagesimal system may have resulted in some way from 
the fact that the circumference of the circle is divided into six equal parts 
by chords exactly equal to the radius in length. I do not remember to 
have seen this theory advanced by any previous writer. 

The earliest records indicate that each day was divided into six parts. 

In a recent paper on ‘‘ Chaldean Astronomy,” by Dr. Christopher 
Johnson, of Johns Hopkins University (p. 141), he asserts that ‘‘in the 
earliest tablets the day is divided (at least for astronomical purposes) 
into six watches—three day watches and three night watches.” ‘In 
the later tablets, however, we find a division of the day into 12 kaspu 
or double hours, each kaspu being divided into 60 degrees or minutes.” 

There is mention of an inscription on a tablet in ‘“ Western Asiatic 
Inscriptions” (published by the British Museum, 11 51, 1), a translation 
of which reads: ‘‘The sixth day of Nisan, day and the night were 
balanced there were 6 kaspu of day and 6 kaspu of night.” 


* “T am of opinion that the numbers under the month of Marchesvan, 140° and 70° 
are errors in the Assyrian copy and should be 150° and 75°.” (George Smith’s ‘“Assy- 
rian Discoveries,” p. 407.) 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 727 


DECIMAL DIVISION OF THE CIRCLE ADVOCATED IN THE SIXTEENTH 
CENTURY. 


Whatever may have been the origin of the division of the circle 
into 360° the system has been condemned from time to time by many 
eminent mathematicians, among them Stevinus (1548-1620), who, in 
his “ Cosmography” (lib. 1, def. 6), states that “the decimal division 
of the circle (which he contends for) prevailed in Saculo sapienti.”* 

Henry Briggs (1556-1630), Oughtred (1574-1660), and Sir Isaac 
Newton (1642-1727) constructed large tables of sines, the plan being to 
divide each degree into 100 minutes of 100 seconds each. 

Dr. Charles Hutton, in the early part of this century, published 
extensive tables giving real lengths of ares of various decimal degrees 
in terms of the radius. Some of the French mathematicians divided 
the quadrant into 100 degrees and then into decimals of degrees. Wil- 
liam Crabtree, Gascoigne,t and Jeremiah Horrocks ¢ (1619-1641) pro- 
jected tables with complete decimal divisions, the whole are of the 
circle being divided into 1,000,000 parts. (Philosophical Transactions, 
vol. XXVII, p. 230.) 


DECIMAL SYSTEM FREQUENTLY USED BY THE HEBREWS. 


I have taken some pains to find, if possible, some trace of the employ- 
ment of a sexagesimal numerical system by the Hebrews in the meas- 
urement of straight lines. 

In the description of the city and temple seen by Ezekiel in his vision 
and described in the fortieth and forty-second chapters, the measuring 
reed (qana) § of 6 great cubits, corresponding somewhat with our 10-foot 
rod, is mentioned in ten places. 

The decimal system however was more frequently used than the sexa- 
gesimal in noting the dimensions of the walls and courts described in 
these chapters. Thus the number 500 is- found three times, 100 eleven 
times, 90 one time, 70 one time, 60 one time, 50 nine times, 30 two times, 
25 five times, 20 six times, 10 three times, 5 seven times. It would seem 
reasonable to assume that in describing an imaginary structure the 


* The decimal method is in all respects comparable with our own and was used by 
preference in the Assyrian period. In it words and signs were used which were pre- 
cisely equivalent to our ‘‘ hundreds” and ‘‘thousands.” (Sayee and Bosanquet, vol. 
40, Monthly Notices, Royal Astronomical Society.) 

t Gascoigne is said to have invented a micrometer about 1640. 

t Horrocks observed the first transit of Venus that was carefully noticed November 
24, 0. Ss. 1639, that predicted by Kepler in 1631 being invisible in Europe. 

§ Ezekiel 40: 3, revised version: ‘‘And he brought me thither, and behold there 
was a man, whose appearance was like the appearance of brass, with a line of flax in 
his hand, and a measuring reed.”’ Same chapter, verse 5: “And behold, a wall on the 
outside of the house round about, and in the man’s hand a measuring reed of 6 cubits 
long of acubit and an handbreadth each; so he measured the thickness of the building 
one reed; and the height one reed.” 


728 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


dimensions given would be according to the method of enumeration in 
general use. 

In noting measurements of length in other portions of the Serip- 
tures three-score is used three times: 

1 Kings, 6:2: “And the house which King Solomon built for the 
Lord, the length thereof was three-score cubits, and the breadth thereof 
twenty cubits, and the height thereof thirty cubits.” 

Hzra, 6:3: ‘ Let the house be builded, the place where they offer sac- 
rifices, and let the foundations thereof be strongly laid; the height 
thereof three-score cubits, and the breadth thereof three-score cubits.” 

Daniel, 3:1: ‘Nebuchadnezzar the king made an image of gold, 
whose height was three-score cubits, and the breadth thereof six cubits.” 

The numbers 6 and 12 are used elsewhere as follows: 

Ezekiel, 41:1, revised version: “And he brought me to the temple, 
and measured the posts, six cubits broad on the one side and six cubits 
broad on the other side, which was the breadth of the tabernacle.” 

Ezekiel, 43.16, revised version: “And the altar hearth shall be 
twelve cubits long by twelve broad, square in the four sides thereof.” 


METHODS OF DIVIDING THE CIRLE BY HAND. 


The most ancient figure with graduated divisions of a circle dis- 
covered in England, was a quadrant, marked with Roman characters, 
which was found on a chimney piece at Helmdon, in Northampton- 
shire, with the date M°133 (meaning A. D. 1133) marked upon it. 

Different methods of dividing a metallic or wooden circle into degrees 
and their subdivisons were successfully practiced by the early astrono- 
mers, notably by Tycho Brahe* (1546-1601), of Sweden; Johann 
Heveliust (1611-1687), of Dantzic, in Poland; Dr. Robert Hooke (1635- 
1703), while curator of experiments of the Royal Society; Ole Roemer 
(1644-1710), the Danish astronomer, of whom it is said that he may be 
considered “the inventor of nearly all our modern instruments of pre- 
cision,” and many of whose ideas were adopted by astronomers a cen- 
tury later. 

In attempting to engrave and divide correctly the circles used for 
mathematical purposes, all of these early laborers in the field of science 
were compelled to depend entirely upon manual skill. 

The first notable example of the division of cireular ares of which ~ 
I have found record is the mural are, of 8 feet radius, which George 
Graham graduated for the English National Observatory in 1725, The 


* An electro replica of Tycho Brahe’s quadrant, from the original in the British 
Museum, is deposited in the Smithsonian Institution. Triangular diagonals are not 
found in this instrument. Tycho Brahe’s instruments had the advantage of long 
radii, which rendered any inequalities that might occur in his divisions of less value 
than instruments of short radii; the smallest subdivisions into which he professed to 
mark his spaces were 10’ each. 

t The errors of Hevelius’ large sextant for 6’ radius used about 1650, amounted to 
15” or 20”. 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 729 


manner in which it was accomplished is described substantially as 
follows (see p. 332, Smith’s Opties, 1738) : 

“Two concentric ares of radii 96.85’ and 95.8” respectively were 
first described by the beam compass. On the inner of these arcs 90° was 
to be divided into degrees and twelfth parts of a degree, while the same 
on the outer was to be divided into 96 equal parts, and these again into 
sixteenth parts. The reason for adopting the latter was that 96 and 16 
both being powers of 2, the divisions will be got at by continual bisec- 
tion alone, which, in Graham’s opinion, who first employed it, is the 
only accurate method, and would thus serve as a check upon the accu. 
racy of the divisions of the outer arc. With the same distance on the 
beam compass as was used to describe the inner are, laid off from 0°, 
the point 60° was at once determined. 

“With the points 0° and 60° as centers successively, and a distance 
on the beam compass very nearly bisecting the are of 60°, two slight 
marks were made on the are; the distance between these marks was 
carefully divided by the hand, aided by a lens, and this gives the point 
30°. The chord of 60° laid off from the point 30° gave the point 90°, 
and the quadrant was now divided into three equal parts. Hach of 
these parts was similarly bisected, and the resulting divisions again 
triseeted, giving 18 parts of 5° each. Each of the quinquesected gave 
degrees, the twelfth parts of which were were arrived at by bisecting 
and trisecting as before. The outer are was divided by continual 
bisection alone, and.a table was constructed by which the readings of 
the one are could be converted into those of the other. After the dots 
indicating the required divisions were obtained, either straight strokes, 
all directed towards the center, were drawn through them by the divid- 
ing knife, or sometimes: small ares were drawn through them by the 
beam compass having its fixed point somewhere on the line which was 
a tangent to the quadrantal are at the point where a division was to 
be marked.” 

In 1767 John Bird, an English mathematical-instrument maker, 
graduated a quadrant of 8 feet radius. His method was that of con- 
tinual bisection, and is described in a pamphlet published by order of 
the commissioners of longitude, 1767, entitled “‘The Method of Divid- 
ing Astronomical Instruments,” by John Bird, mathematical-instrument 
maker in the Strand. 

The exact radius which he used was 95,235, inches. The radius laid 
off from the point 0° gave the point 60°. This are of 60° was care- 
fully bisected, giving the point 30°, from which the radius, that had 
remained undisturbed on the original beam compasses, was laid off, 
giving the point 90°. 

The chords of 30°, 15°, 10° 20/ 4° 40’, and 42° 40’ were computed and 
carefully laid off, each on a separate pair of beam compasses. Bird 
used an exact scale of equal parts, which by the aid of a magnifying 
glass he was able to read to one one-thousandth of an inch. 


730 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


Having marked the four points 0°, 30°, 60°, and 90°, the mode of pro- 
cedure was as follows: The chord of 15° laid off backward from 90° 
gave 75°. From 75° the chord of 10° 20’ was laid off forward, giving 
85° 20’, and from 90° the chord of 4° 40/ laid off backward gave the 
same point. 

85° 20/= 5,120’ or 1,024 chords of 5’ each, and 1,024=2” (2 carried to 
the tenth power), so that by continual bisections the ares of 5’ were ac- 
curately marked. 

In order to divide the circle beyond the 85° 20’ into ares of 5/ each, 
an are of 40/ (or eight 5’ divisions) was laid off backwards to 84° 40’, 
thus leaving an are of 320’ or 64 ares of 5’ each between these two 
points. These 5’ ares were laid off by continual bisections. Thus Bird 
was able to check accurately the original ares of 15°, 30°, 60°, 75°, 
and 90°. 


ORIGIN OF THE DIVIDING ENGINE—CUTTING ENGINES FOR CLOCK 
WHEELS. 


To the clock-maker, more than any other mechanic, we are indebted 
for the origin of the dividing engine. 

“ While the art of clock-making was in its rude state the dividing of 
a wheel into a number of parts and cutting away notches of spaces was 
done by manual operation with a file. This was not only a tedious but 
a very imperfect way of obtaining a desired result, since the unequal 
lines in the size and shape of the tools prevented it from transmitting 
applied force in an equable manner. 

‘To facilitate the manual operation of cutting wheels by a file the 
sample platform was invented (described by Father Alexander in his 
book on clock-making), which was a circular plate of brass from 10 inches 
to a foot or more in diameter, with as many concentric circles thereon 
as the usual number of teeth in the wheels and pinions of clockwork 
required to be divided into corresponding parts of acircle. In the center 
of this platform was fixed a stem or fast arbor, around which an alidade, 
ruler, or index, with a straight edge pointing to the center, turned freely 
into any given point of a required circle, by means of which the divisions 
of any given circle were transferred to a wheel placed on the side stem 
under the side index by a marking point. At length a little frame was 
mounted on the index, which was contrived to direct and confine the 
file in such a way as to cut the notches of a wheel placed over the in- 
dex with less deviation from the truth than could be managed by mere 
manual dexterity. This addition, no doubt, led to the adoption of a 
cireular file, or cutter, and of such other appendages as completed the 
construction of the simple cutting machine.” * 

It is asserted in “ Htrennes Chronometriques” par M. Julian le Roy, 
“that Dr. Hooke was the first person who contrived, about 1675, such 
an arrangement as could merit the name of a cutting engine (machine 4 


*See Rees’ Encyclopedia, vol. 1: ‘“‘ @utting engines.” 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 731 


fendre). The doctor’s invention, which, like many of his inventions, has 
proved to be of permanent and great utility in mechanics, consists of 
an entire transmutation of the old stationary platform, with its mova- 
ble appendages, into a movable platform inserted into a strong metallic 
frame, with stationary and additional appendages; the machine thus 
converted into an engine or self-acting piece of mechanism consisted of 
a strong frame; the sliding supporting bars of the platform or plate 
with a horizontal screw of adjustment for distance from the circular 
file; the dividing plate with a revolving arbor to receive the wheel to 
be cut; and the alidade fixed to the great frame in the position of a 
tangent line to any of the dividing circles and applying its bent and 
rounded point to the punched marks of division on the circle sueces- 
sively as the plate revolving in the act of cutting the successive teeth 
of a wheel.” 

In the year 1716, Henry Sully brought to England from France a 
cutting engine, made by M. de la Faudriere, which has been mentioned 
by Julien le Roy and described by Thiout in his ‘ Traite @ Horlogerie.” 

In 1730, M. Taillemard made further improvements in the cutting 
engine, particularly by introducing a tubed arbor instead of an arbor 
with a square hole, which had been used before. 

After Taillemard, his apprentice Hulot continued to construct engines 
in a superior way in France, and was succeeded by his son, whose exe- 
cution was deemed equal to that of his father’s. 


EARLY DIVIDING ENGINES. 


Smeaton, in a paper entitled “The graduation of astronomical in- 
struments,” read before the Royal Society at London, November 17, 
1785, mentions an engine made in 1741, by Henry Hindley, of York, 
England, which indented the edge of any circle in such a way that 
a screw with fifteen threads acting at once would, by means of a 
micrometer, read off any given number of divisions, so as to answer 
the purpose of subdividing the circle. 

It would appear that this engine was better adapted for cutting 
toothed wheels for clock-work than for graduating circles with exact- 
ness. 

The Due de Chaulnes, in a memoir to the Royal Academy of Science, 
at Paris, published 1765, referred to the difficulties in obtaining perfec- 
tion of the screw and notches of the rack “‘so that they be rendered 
perfectly equal, notwithstanding the unequal density and hardness of 
different portions of the metal so racked.” He ealls his method “the 
explication of the new way of dividing.” 

It is said that he constructed an engine which he claimed to be his 
original invention, but unfortunately the want of “ a perfect screw with 
intervals exactly proportioned to the effective radius of his quadrant, 
was a source of error that posterior contrivances were required to 
remedy.” 


Ta2 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


Ramsden’s machine for cutting the screws of his dividing engine ac- 
curately (which will be referred to below), reduced these errors to a 
minimum. 

JESSE RAMSDEN’S DIVIDING ENGINES. 


Jesse Ramsden was the son of an innkeeper, and was born near Hali- 
fax, in Yorkshire, in 1735. While at school in his native county his 
fondness for mathematics was observed. Although he served as an 
apprentice to a cloth maker in Halifax for some time, yet at the age of 
twenty-four he had become skillful in making mathematical and philo- 
sophical instruments, and his success was so great that he was soon 
able to open an extensive establishment in London. 

It is stated that Ramsden first had his attention called to the subject 
of dividing engines in 1760, by the reward which was offered by the 
English board of longitude to John Bird for his method of dividing. 

Ramsden was doubtless acquainted with what Hooke, the Due de 
Chaulnes, Hindley, and others had previously done, and before the 
spring of 1768 he completed his first engine, having in 1760 constructed 
a very superior sextant. 

This first engine had an indented plate 30 inches in diameter, and 
was used to divide theodolites and other common instruments, and did 
so with sufficient accuracy, but it was not satisfactory to Mr. Ramsden, 
who, in 177475, constructed the engine, with a plate 45 inches in diame- 
ter, which is now in the U.S. National Museum. (See Plate I, from a 
recent photograph.) 

This dividing engine, together with the cutting gear with which the 
screws of this machine was made, were sold by the heirs of Ramsden 
to Messrs. Knox and Shain, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, from whom 
Prof. Henry Morton, president of the Stevens Institute of Technology, 
Hoboken, New Jersey, purchased them about 10 years ago. Dr. Mor- 
ton has recently deposited these machines in the U. S. National 
Museum. 


The test of this, Ramsden’s second engine, which divided a sextant. 


for Mr. Bird’s examination accurately, was so satisfactory ‘that the 
board of longitude, ever ready to remunerate any successful endeavor, 
and to promote the lunar method of determining longitude at sea,” con- 
ferred a handsome reward on the inventor on condition that the engine 
should be at the service of instrument makers, and that Mr. Ramsden 
would publish an explanation of his method of making and using it. 
This he did in a quarto pamphlet in 1777, the preface to which was pre- 
pared by Nevil Maskeline, astronomer royal, dated Greenwich, Novem- 
ber 28, 1776. In the following extract from it the reasons for publish- 
ing the pamphlet are given: 

‘Mr. Ramsden, mathematical instrument maker in Piccadilly, was 
paid the sum of £615, by certificate from the commissioners of longitude, 
upon delivering to them, upon oath, a full and complete written explana- 


| 


Smithsonian 


De} 


, Report, 1890, Part 


RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


sosited in the National Museum by Dr. Henry Morten. 


; 
3 
; 
| 
: 
H 
* 


(From photograph.) 


ee a ee ed 


PLATE ll. 


aA G "= wO— 
ca TD aes = 

a i : es || ——( 
IMT 


publicat ) 


RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE 
raph in } isden’s 


ul lit} 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. Tee 


tion and description of his engine for dividing mathematical instruments 
(accompanied with proper drawings) and of the manner of using the 
same, and also of the engine by which the endless screw, being a prin- 
cipal part of the said dividing engine, was made, and upon agreeing 
and entering into articles with them for assigning over the right and 
property of the said engine to them for the use of the public, and 
engaging himself to give to the said commissioners and such other per- 
sons, being mathematical instrument makers, not exceeding ten, as 
shall be appointed by them during the space of 2 years, from the 28th of 
October, 1775, to the 28th of October, 1777, such instruction and informa- 
tion with regard to the making and using of the said engine, as may be 
fully sufficient to enable any intelligent workman to construct and use 
other engines of the same kind, and also binding himself to divide all 
octants and sextants by the said engine which shall be brought to him 
by any mathematical instrument makers for that purpose at the rate of 
3 shillings for each octant and at the rate of 6 shillings for each brass 
sextant, with nonius divisions to half minutes, for so long a timeas the 
said commissioners shall think proper to permit the said engine to re- 
main in his possession. Of which sum of £615 paid to the said Mr. 
Ramsden, £300 was given him as a reward for the improvement made 
by him in the art of dividing instruments by means of the said dividing 
engine and for discovering the same, and the remaing £315 in considera- 
tion of his making over the property in the said engine to the commis- 
sioners of longitude, for the use of the public, and for the other consid- 
erations before mentioned. 

- “Tn order to render this instrument more extensively useful, the com- 
missioners of longitude ordered the written explanations, with drawings, 
of the dividing engine to be prepared for publication, and it is now pub- 
lished accordingly.” 

Plate ILis from a lithograph in Ramsden’s publication, and illustrates 
the machine as originally constructed. 

Mr. Ramsden states in his pamphlet that “ the teeth on the cireum- 
ference of the wheel were cut by the following method: 

‘*Having considered what number of teeth on the circumference 
would be the most convenient, which in this engine is 2,160, or 360 multi- 
plied by 6, I made two screws of the same dimensions of tempered steel, 
in the manner hereafter described, the interval between the threads being 
such as I knew by ealeulation would come within the limits of what 
might be turned off the circumference of the wheel. One of these screws, 
which was intended for ratching or cutting the teeth, was notched 
across the threads, so that the screw, when pressed against the edge of 
the wheel and turned round, cut in the manner of asaw. Then, having 
a segment of a circle a little greater than 60 degrees, of about the same 
radius with the wheel, and the circumference made true, from a very 
fine center, I described an arch near the edge, and set off the chord of 
60 degrees on this arch, This segment was put in the place of the 


Tad THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


wheel, the edge of it was ratched, and the number of revolutions and 
parts of the screw contained between the interval of the 60 degrees were 
counted. The radius was corrected in the proportion of 360 revolu- 
tions, which ought to have been in 60 degrees, to the number actually 
found, and the radius, so corrected, was taken in a pair of beam com- 
passes while the wheel was on the lath, one foot of the compasses was 
put in the center and with the other a circle was described on the ring ; 
then half the depth of the threads of the screw being taken in dividers 
was set from this circle outwards and another circle was described, cut- 
ting this point; a hollow was then turned on the edge of the wheel of 
the same curvature as that of the screw at the bottom of the threads ; 
the bottom of this hollow was turned to the same radius or distance 
from the center of the wheel as the outward of the two circles before 
mentioned. 

“The wheel was now taken off the lathe, the bell-metal piece (D) was 
screwed on as before directed, which after this ought not to be removed. 

‘From a very exact centera circle was described on the ring C, about 
four-tenths of an inch within where the bottom of the teeth would 
come. This circle was divided with the greatest exactness I was capa- 
ble of, first into 5 parts and each of these into 3. These parts were 
then bisected 4 times, that is to say, supposing the whole circumfer- 
ence of the wheel to contain 2,160 teeth, this being divided into 3 parts, 
each of them would contain 144, and this space bisected 4 times would 
give 72, 36, 18, and 9; therefore each of the last divisions would con- 
tain 9 teeth. But, as I was apprehensive some error might arise from 
quinquesection and trisection, in order to examine the accuracy of the 
divisions I described another circle on the ring C, one-tenth inch within 
the former, and divided it by continual bisections, as 2,160, 1,080, 540, 
270, 135, 674, and 333; and, as the fixed wire (to be described presently) 
crossed both the circles, | could examine their agreement at every 135 
revolutions (after ratching could examine it at every 333); but not 
finding any sensible difference between the two sets of divisions, I, for 
ratching, made choice of the former; and, as the coincidence of the 
fixed wire with an intersection could be more exactly determined than 
with a dot or division, I therefore made use of intersections in both 
circles before described. 

‘The arms of the frame were connected by a thin piece of brass of 
three-fourths of an inch broad, having a hole in the middle of four-tenths 
of an inch in diameter; across this hole a silver wire was fixed exactly 
in a line to the center of the wheel; the coincidence of this wire with 
the intersections was examined by a lens seven-tenths inch focus, fixed 
in a tube which was attached to one of the arms. 

‘* Now a handle or winch being fixed on the end of the serew, the 
division marked 10 on the circle was set to its index, and, by means 
of a clamp and adjusting screw for that purpose, the intersection 
was set exactly to coincide with the fixed wire; the screw was then 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 735 


carefully pressed against the circumference of the wheel by turning 
the finger-screw; then, removing the clamp, I turned the screw by its 
handle 9 revolutions, till the intersection marked 240 came nearly to 
the wire ; then, unturning the finger-screw, I released the screw from the 
wheel and turned the wheel back till the intersection marked 2 exactly 
coincided with the wire, and by means of the clamp before mentioned, 
the division 10 on the circle being set to its index, the screw was pressed 
against the edge of the wheel by the finger-screw; the clamps were re- 
moved, and the screw turned 9 revolutions till the intersection marked 1 
nearly coincided with the fixed wire; the screw was pressed, as before, the 
wheel was turned back till the intersection 3 coincided with the fixed wire; 
the division 10 on the circle being set to its index, the screw was pressed 
against the wheel as before, and the screw turaed 9 revolutions till the 
intersection 2 nearly coincided with the fixed wire, and the screw was 
released; and I proceeded in this manner till the teeth were marked 
round the whole circumference of the wheel. This was repeated three 
times round, to make the impression of the screw deeper. I then 
ratched the wheel round continually in the same direction without 
ever disengaging the screw, and in ratching the wheel about 300 times 
round the teeth were finished. 

‘Now it is evident, if the circumference of the wheel was even one 
tooth or ten minutes greater than the screw would require, this error 
would in the first instance be reduced to one-two-hundred-and-fortieth 
part of a revolution or two seconds and a half; and these errors or in- 
equalities of the teeth were equally distributed round the wheel at the 
distance of 9 teeth from each other. Now, as the screw in ratching had 
continually hold of several teeth at the same time, and these con- 
stantly changing, the above-mentioned inequalities soon corrected 
themselves and the teeth were reduced to a perfect equality. 

“The piece of brass which carries the wire was now taken away and 
the cutting screw was also removed and a plain one (hereafter described) 
putin its place. On one end of the screw is a small brass circle, having 
itsedge divided into 60 equal parts and numbered at every sixth division, 
as before mentioned. On the other end of the screw is a ratchet-wheel 
having 60 teeth, covered by the hollowed circle, which carries two 
clicks that catch upon the opposite sides of the ratchet when the screw 
is to be moved forward. 

“The cylinder turns on a strong steel arbor, which passes through 
and is firmly screwed to the piece Y. This piece, for greater firmness, 
is attached to the secrew-frame by braces ; a spiral groove or thread is 
cut on the outside of thecylinder, which serves both for holding the 
string and also giving motion to the lever on its center by means of a 
steel tooth that works between the threads of the spiral. To the lever 
is attached a strong steel pin on which a brass socket turns. This 
socket passes through a slit in the piece, and may be tightened in any 
part of the slit by the finger-nut. This piece serves to regulate the 
number of revolutions of the screw for each tread of the treadle. 


736 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


‘Several different arbors of tempered steel are truly ground into the 
socket in the center of the wheel. The upper parts of the arbors that 
stand above the plane are turned of various sizes, to suit the centers of 
different pieces of work to be divided. 

‘¢ When any instrument is to be divided, the center of it is very exactly 
fitted on one of these arbors, and the instrument is fixed down to the 
plane of the dividing wheel by means of screws, which ‘fit into holes 
made in the radii of the wheel for that purpose. 

‘‘The instruments being thus fitted on the plane of the wheel, the 
frame which carries the dividing point is connected at one end by finger 
screws with the frame which carries the endless screw; while the other 
end embraces that part of the steel arbor which stands above the instru- 
ment to be divided by an angular notch in a piece of hardened steel ; 
by this means both ends of the frame are kept perfectly steady and 
free from any shake. 

‘The frame carrying the dividing point or traceris made to slide on 
the frame which carries the endless screw to any distance from the cen- 
ter of the wheel as the radius of the instrument to be divided may re- 
quire, and may be there fastened by tightening two clamps, and the 
dividing point or tracer being connected with the clamps by the double- 
jointed frame admits a free and easy motion towards or from the center 
for cutting the divisions without any lateral shake.” 


ENGINE BY WHICH THE ENDLESS SCREW OF THE DIVIDING ENGINE 
WAS CUT. 


The machine constructed by Ramsden for cutting the screw, and 
used to cut the 2,160 teeth in the circumference of the circle of his 
dividing engine, is of the greatest interest, for it is one of the earliest 
applications of the principle of changing the lateral speed of the tool 
in cutting a screw by differential wheels;—the method now used in the 
slide rest of a lathe. 

Plate IIL is from a photograph of this machine deposited in the U.S. 
National Museum by Dr. Morton. 

It has not been found practicable to letter the various parts of this 
machine to correspond with those referred to in Ramsden’s description. 

it is believed however that the reader will find more interest in 
following the original description in the words of the celebrated 
mechanician than in reading an explanation of the construction of the 
machine couched in modern terms, 

Ramsden describes his machine thus: 

A represents a triangular bar of .steel, to which the triangular holes 
in the piece B and C are accurately fitted, and may be fixed on any 
part of the bar by the screws D. 

FE is a piece of steel whereon the screw is intended to be cut, 
which, after being hardened and tempered, has its pivots turned in 
the form of two frustrums of cones, as represented in the drawings of 
the dividing engine (foot-note Fig. 5). These pivots were very exactly 


IT. 


Cydvasoyoyd worn) ‘uo Wop, AtuoH{ “AC AG Whos [BUOYLN '§ ey) UW pogtsoded 


OVI 


"INO 3Y3M ANIDNZA ONIGIAIG NSGSWVY SHL SO 3LW1d 3HL NO HLS3S] SHL GNV M3YOS SSATIGNA SHL HOIHM Ad ANIH 


= 


PLAT 


FS OES segs Ek eb Te ane aa 


ee 


5 4 
| ; 
: 
I 
a 
‘ 
| 
3 
| 
: 
: 
| 4 
| ‘ 
i yi 
' 
a Fp 6 a i ARMS 7 ED ee SE i A i Pa a i NO i 9 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. T37 


fitted to the half holes # and 7, which were kept together by the 
screws Z. 

H represents a screw of untempered steel, having a pivot, 7, which 
runs in the hole A. At the other end of the screw is a hollow center, 
which receives the hardened conieal point of the steel pin M. When 
this point is sufficiently pressed against the screw to prevent its shak- 
ing the steel pin may be fixed by tightening the screws Y. 

Nisa cylindrie nut. movable on the screw H, which, to prevent any 
shake, may be tightened by the screws 0. This nut is connected with 
the saddle piece P by means of the intermediate universal joint W, 
through which the arbor of the screw H passes. A front view of this 
piece, with a section across the screw arbor is represented at XY. This 
joint is connected with the nut by means of two steel siips, S, which 
turn on pins between the cheeks 7 on the nut VN. ‘The other ends of 
these slips, S, turn in like manner on pins (a). One axis of this joint 
turns in a hole in the cock (b), which is fixed to the saddle piece, and 
the other turns in a hole, (d), made for that purpose in the same piece 
on which the cock (db) is fixed. By this means, when the screw is 
turned round, the saddle piece will slide uniformly along the triangu- 
lar bar A. 

Having measured the circumference of the dividing wheel, I found 
it would require a screw about one thread in a hundred coarser than 
the guide screw H. The wheels on the guide-screw arbor H, and that 
on the steel #, on which the screw was to be ent, were proportioned to 
each other to produce that effect by giving the wheel (Z) 198 teeth and 
the wheel (@) 200. These wheels communicated with each other by 
means of the intermediate cogwheel &, which also served to give the 
threads on the two screws the same direction. 

K is a small triangular bar of well-tempered steel, which slides in a 
groove of the same form on the saddle piece P. Tie point of this bar 
or cutter is formed to the shape of the thread intended to be cut on the 
endless screw. When the cutter is set to take proper hold of the 
intended screw it may be fixed by tightening ‘the screws (e), which 
press the two pieces of brass, G, upon it. 

The saddle piece P is confined on the bar A by means of the pieces 
(g), and may be made to slide with a proper degree of rightness by the 
SCTEWS (2). 


RAMSDEN GRADUATES THE GREAT THEODOLITE NOW AT GREENWICH. 


In 1785 Mr. Ramsden was requested ‘‘to make an instrument for meas- 
uring horizontal angles with more precision than the ordinary theodo- 
lite.” It was with this dividing engine that Ramsden graduated this 
instrument known as *‘ the great. theodolite,” still preserved at Green- 
wich, for the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain, described in Vol. 
80, Philosophical Transactions. 

One of the first projects of the trigonometrical survey of Great Britain 

H. Mis. 129——47 


738 THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 


was to measure the exact linear distance between the observatory at 
Greenwich and the observatory at Paris, which was satisfactorily 
accomplished under the direction of General Roy. 

Ip January, L788, Jesse Ramsden, who had twice before undertaken 
the task of constructing an astronomical circle, began the one which 
he completed August, 1789. 

His death occurred in 1800, at which time he was a member of the 
Royal Society, Fellow of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg, and 
wore a Copley medal. 


THE DIVIDING ENGINES OF TROUGHTON, SIMS AND OTHERS. 


Kighteen years after the completion of Ramsden’s engine (1793), Ed- 
ward Troughton completed a circular dividing engine, somewhat similar 
in detail, with a plate smaller than Ramsden’s. And in 1843, William 
Sims, Troughton’s successor, completed his engine, which has for nearly 
50 years been in constant use at Charlton, near London. 

Sims claimed that the merit of this engine consisted in making the axis 
of the plate a hollow tube into which the axis of the circle to be divided 
could be slipped, not making it necessary to detach the plate while it 
was being graduated, and obviating the necessity of re-setting the cir- 
cle on the axle, which is always liable to create error. 

Reichenbach, in Germany, and Gambey, in Paris, and Adie, in Edin- 
burgh, also constructed dividing engines of merit. Reichenbach’s was 
for a long time unsurpassed in accuracy. Gambey’s is now at Hotel 
Cluny, Paris. 

The German method which admits of great accuracy under skillful 
management, is performed by copying from a large circle, originally 
divided with extreme precision; over this circle the copy to be made is 
fixed concentrically ; the degrees and minutes are cut into the copy by 
the aid of the micrometer microscope fixed independently over the 
divided circle. 

In 1818, Repsold erected a circle at Géttengen and in 1819 Reichen- 
bach erected one at Koénigsberg. Pistor and Martins of Berlin, con- 
structed cireles for Copenhagen, Albany, Leyden, Leipsic, Berlin, Wash- 
ington Naval Observatory, and Dublin. Since the death of Martins, 
Repsold constructed circles for Strasburg, Bonn, Williamstown, Mas- 
sachusetts, and Madison, Wisconsin; Troughton and Sims doing the 
work for Greenwich, Harvard, and Cambridge. 

The Altazimuth, 8 feet in diameter, now (1890) at Palermo Observa- 
tory, was divided by hand by Ramsden 

In 1806, Troughton constructed the first modern circle for the observa 
tory at Blackheath. 

In the Philosophical Transactions, for 1809, in a paper by Trough- 
ton on dividing instruments, p. 140, he states: 

‘‘T now subjoin a re-statement of the greatest errors of each of the 


THE RAMSDEN DIVIDING ENGINE. 739 


instruments that are brought into comparison by Sir George Shuck- 
burg, after having reduced them all by one rule, viz: 

‘ Allowing each of the two points which bound the most erroneous 
extent to divide the apparent error equally between thein. 

‘¢ They are expressed in parts of an inch and follow each other in the 
order of their accuracy. 


sir George Shuckbure’s 3-feet standard...........0055.22. 25% 000165 
General Roy's scale of 42-inch standard ...2..5...-2. 0.6.20. 68 5- 000240 
Sir George’s equatorial, 24-inch standard............ ....--. 00278 
The Greenwich quadrant, 8-feet standard........-...-.---.-. 000465 
Mr. Aubert’s standard, 5-feet standard... .. Ben ee ye er re eee 000700 
The Royal Society’s standard,* 92-inch standard.............. 00795 


“ For the justness of theabove statement Iconsidermy name pledged.” 

I am informed by recent travellers in China and Japan that the eircles 
for astronomical and other instruments are still divided by hand, un- 
aided by machinery. 

The dividing engine at the Coast Survey, Washington, made by 
Troughton, was made automatic by Joseph Saxton abouf 1855; it was 
re-constructed about 10 years ago by Fauth & Co., of Washington, 
who have at their establishment a dividing engine for which they claim 
great accuracy. 

Thus have the mechanicians for a century kept pace with the Cce- 
mands for accurate instruments. 


* This is the same which Mr. Bird used in dividing his 8-feet mural quadrant and 
was presented to the Royal Society by Mr. Bird’s executors. 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS.* 


By H. A. NEWTON. 


The President and Fellows of Yale College have requested that in 
this public place and manner, I should give an account of the life, 
scientific activity, and public services of our late colleague, Prof. 
Elias Loomis. It is a pleasure to perform the duty thus laid upon me. 
The hours of intercourse I have had with him, and his generous conti- 
dences, are precious treasures of my life. And I hope you will find it 
worth your while to have turned away from other thoughts for a single 
hour, to listen to the account of what, during near three score years of 
mature life, our colleague was doing for science, and through science 
for man. 

Elias Loomis was born in the little hamlet of Willington, Connecti- 
eut, August 7, 1811. His father, the Rev. Hubbell Loomis, was pastor 
in that country parish from 1804 to 1828. He was a man possessed of 
considerable scholarship, of positive convictions, and of a willingness 
to follow at all hazards wherever truth and duty, as he conceived them, 
might lead. He had studied at Union College, in the class of 1799, 
though apparently he did not finish the college course with his class. 
He is enrolled with that class in Union College, and he also received, 
in 1812, the honorary degree of Master of Arts from Yale College. At 
a later date he went to Illinois, and there was instrumental in founding 
the institution which afterwards became Shurtleff College. 

Although the boy inherited from his father a mathematical taste, yet 
his love for the languages also was shown at a very early age. At an 
age at which many bright boys are still struggling with the reading of 
English, he is reported to have been reading with ease the New Testa- 
ment in the original Greek. He prepared for college almost entirely 
under the instruction of his father. He was, for a single winter only, 
at the Academy at Monson, Massachusetts. Owing in part to feeble 
health he was more disposed, in those early years, to keep to his books 
than to roam with other boys over the Willington hills. In later life 


* A memorial address, delivered in Osborn Hall (Yale College, New Haven, Con- 
necticut), April 11, 1590. (From the American Journal of Science, June, 1890, vol. 
XXXIX, pp. 427-455. ) 

741 


C42 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS, 


he frequently said that in his early days he never had a thought of 
asking what subjects he was most fond of, but studied what he was told 
to study. 

At the age of 14 he was examined and was admitted to Yale College, 
but owing to feeble health he waited another year before actually en- 
tering a class. In college he appears to have been about equaliy pro- 
ficient in all of the studies, taking a good rank as a scholar, and main- 
taining it through his college course. President Porter remembers well 
the retiring demeanor of the young student, and his concise and often 
monosyllabic expressions, peculiarities which he retained through life. 
During his junior and senior years he roomed with Alfred I. Perkins, 
whose bequest was the first large endowment of the college library. 
He graduated in 1830. 

A few weeks before graduation he left New Haven and entered a 
school, Mount Hope Institute, near Baltimore, to teach mathematics, 
and he remained there fora yearandaterm. Oneof his classmates, the 
late Mr. Cone of Hartford, said that Mr. Lcomis had intended to spend 
his lifein teaching, and that it surprised him when he heard that his 
purpose was abandoned, and that Mr. Loomis had gone, in the autumn 
of 1831, to the Andover theological seminary with the distinct expecta- 
tion of becoming a preacher. This new purpose was however again 
changed, when a year later, he was appointed tutor in Yale College. A 
vacancy in the tutorship in the May following (1833), and while not yet 
22 years of age he returned to New Haven and entered upon the duties 
of the office. Here he remained for 3 years and ove term. In the 
spring of 1836 he received the appointment to the chair of mathematics 
and natural philosophy in Western Reserve College, at Hudson, Ohio. 
He was allowed to spend the first year in Europe. He was therefore 
during the larger part of the year 1836~37 in Paris attending the lec- 
tures of Biot, Poisson, Arago, Dulong, Pouillet, and others. He did 
not visit Germany because of want of money. A long series of letters 
written by him at this time appeared in the Ohio Observer, and the con- 
trast between England and France as he saw them, and the same 
places as seen by the tourist to-day is decidedly interesting. 

He-purchased in London and Paris apparatus for his professorship 
and the outfit for a small observatory, and in the autumn of 1837 began 
his labors at Hudson. Here he remained for 7 years, maintaining with 
unflagging perseverance both his work in teaching and his scientific 
labors. In judging of this work at Hudson we must remember that he 
was not with perfect surroundings. He was without an assistant and 
without the counseland encouragement of associates in his own branches 
of science. The financial troubles which culminated in this country in 
1837 were peculiarly severe upon the young and struggling college. 
Money was almost unknown in business circles in Ohio, trade being 
almost entirely in barter. In this way principally was paid so much of 
the promised salary of $600 per annum as was not in arrears. In one 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 743 


of his letters he congratulates himself that all of his bills that were 
more than 2 years old had been paid. In another he says that there 
was not enozgh money in the college treasury to take him out of the 
state. When heleft Hudson thecollege cftered to pay at once the arrears 
of his salary by deeding to him some of its unimproved lands. 

In 1844 he was offered, and he accepted, the office of professor of 
mathematics and natural philosophy in the university of New York. 
In this new position he undertook the preparation of a series of text 
books in the mathematics, and for some years a large part of the time 
which he could spare from his regular college work was given to the 
preparation of these books. 

When Professor Henry resigned his professorship at Princeton in 
order to accept the office of Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 
Professor Loomis was offered the vacant chair. He went to Princeton 
and remained there during 1 year, at the end of which he was induced 
to return again to his old place in the university of New York. Here 
he, continued until 1860, when he was elected to the professorship in 
Yale College made vacant by the death of Professor Olmsted. For the 
last 29 years of his life he here Jabored for the college and for science, 
passing away on the 15th of August, 1889. 

Let us look now in succession at the different lines of his activity dur- 
ing these 56 years,—4 here in the tutorship and in Europe, 7 at Hud- 
son, Olio, 16 in New York City and Piineceton, and 29 in New Haven. 

Yor the first year on returning from Andover to New Haven he was 
tutorin Latin, although it seems that he might, had he chosen it, have 
been tutor of mathematics. I believe that at the beginning his mind 
was not yet definitely turned toward the exact sciences. In his child- 
hood he had taken specially to Greek. In college he was equally pro- 
ficient in all of hisstudies. Heis represented to have led his ciass at 
Andover in Hebrew, and now on entering the tutorship he chose to 
teach the Latin language and literature. During the second year he 
taught mathematics and the third year natural philosophy. His later 
success in scientific work was, I believe, in no small measure due to his 
earlier broad and thorough study of language. 

I have made some inquiry in order to learn what it was that turned 
his attention and tastes toward science. One of his colleagues in the 
tutorship, the Rev. Dr. Davenport, says that he reeollects very dis- 
tinctly the first indication to his own mind that Tutor Loomis was turn- 
ing his thoughts in this direction. The great meteoric shower of 1833 
came early in the period of his tutorship, and the views of Professor 
Twining and Professor Olmsted about the astronomical character and: 
origin of these interesting and mysterious bodies were a common topic 
of conversation among scientific men in the college, especially when- 
ever Professor Olmsted was present. The tutors were accustomed to 
meet as a club from time to time in the tutors’ rooms in turn,and Dr. 
Davenport well recollects the occasion when Tutor Loomis brought in 


GA4 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


a globe and discussed before the club the new theories about these 
bodies. Up to this time Tutor Loomis had seemed to him to have given 
his thoughts and study to language rather than to science. 

In January, 1834, there were constituted in the Connecticut Academy 
of Arts and Sciences twelve committees representing the several de- 
partments of knowledge, and Tutor Loomis was put on the committee 
on mathematics and natural philosophy. These are the only signs of 
scientific taste or activity which I have detected earlier than the 
autumn of 1834, after he had been a year and a term in the tutorship. 
From this time on to the end of his life he gave his time and energies 
to several subjects that are enough distinct one from the other to make 
it convenient to disregard a strictly chronological account of his labors 
and consider his work in each subject by itself. 

A subject of which he early undertcok the investigation was terres- 
trial magnetism. We often use the rhetorical phrase “True as the 
needle to the pole,” but looked at carefully, the magnetic needle is any- 
thing but constant in direction. Like the weather vane on the steeple 
it is ever in motion, swinging back and forth, in motions minute and 
slow it is true, but still always swinging. it has fitfully irregular mo- 
tions; it has motions with a daily period; motions with an annual 
period ; and motions whose oscillations require centuries for comple- 
tion. 

The daily motions of the magnetic needle were those which Tutor 
Loomis first studied. At the beginning of the second year of his tutor- 
ship he set up by the north window of his room in North College a 
heavy wooden block, and on it the variation compass that belongs to 
the college. Here for over thirteen months he observed the position 
of the needle at hourly intervals in the daytime, his observations 
usually being for seventeen successive hours of each day. 

The results of these observations, together with a special discussion 
of the extraordinary cases of disturbance, were published in the Amer- 
ican Journal of Science in 1836. No similar observations of the kind 
made in this country had at that time been published. So far as Lam 
aware, none made before 1834 have since been published, except ten 
days’ observations made by Professor Bache in 1832. In fact I know 
of only one or two like series of hourly observations made in Kurope 
earlier than these by Tutor Loomis. He also at this time formed the 
purpose of collecting all the observations of magnetic declination that 
had been hitherto made in the United States and of constructing from 
them a magnetic chart of the country. He appealed successfully to the 
Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences for its sympathy and aid. 
The work of collecting facts was so far advanced before leaving New 
Haven that when he had been a few months professor at Hudson he 
forwarded to the American Journal of Science a discussion of the ob- 
servations thus far obtained, and with them a map of the United States, 
with the lines of equal deviation of the needle drawn upon it. Two 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 745 


years later he published additional observations and a revised edition 
of this map. 

These were the first published magnetic charts of the United States. 
and though the materials for their construction were not numerous, and 
in many cases those obtainable were not entirely trustworthy, yet 16 
years later, when @ map was made by the United States Coast Survey 
from later and more numerous data, Professor Bache declared that be- 
tween his own new map and that of Professor Looniis, when proper 
allowance had been made for the secular changes, the “ agreement was 
remarkable.” 

The northern end of a perfectly balanced magnetic needle turns down- 
ward, and the angle it makes with the horizon is called the magnetic 
dip. This angle is an important one, and is observed with accuracy 
only by using an expensive instrument, and taking unusual pains in 
observing. Hence only a few observations of this element were found 
by Professor Loomis. From these however he ventured to put on his 
first magnetic map a few lines that exhibited the amount of the dip. 

While he was in Europe he purchased a first-class dipping needle for 
Western Reserve College, and at Hudson and the neighborhocd in term 
time, and at other places in vacation, he made observations with this 
needle. Some of these observations were made before his second mag- 
netic chart was published, and upon this map were now given tolerably 
good positions of the lines of equal magnetie dip. But he continued 
his observations for several years, determining the dip at over seventy 
stations, spread over thirteen States, each determination being the mean 
of from 160 to over 4,000 readings. ‘These observations were published 
in several successive papers in the transactions of the American Phil- 
osophical Society at Philadelphia. 

Various papers on terrestrial magnetism, in continuation of his earlier 
investigations, appeared in 1842, in 1844, in 1847, and in 1859, but 
movements in Germany, England, and Russia had meanwhile been 
inaugurated, which led to the establishment by governments of a score 
of well-equipped magnetic observatories, and this subject passed largely 
out of private hands. 

Closely connected with terrestrial magnetism, and to be considered 
with it, is the aurora borealis. In the week that covered the end of 
August and the beginning of September, 1859, there occurred an exceed- 
ingly brilliant display of the northern lights. Believing that an exhaust- 
ive discussion of a single aurora promised to do more for the promo- 
tion of science than an imperfect study of an indefinite number of them, 
Professor Loomis undertook at once to collect and to collate accounts 
of this display. A large number of such accounts were secured from 
North America, from Europe, from Asia, and from places in the South- 
ern Hemisphere ; especially all the reports from the Smithsonian observ- 
ers and correspondents were placed in his hands by the secretary, 
Professor Henry. 


746 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


These observations and the discussions of them were given to the 
public during the following 2 years in a series of nine papers in the 
American Journal of Science. 

Few (if any) displays on record were so remarkable as was this one 
for brilliancy and for geographical extent. Certainly about no aurora 
have there been collected so many facts. The display continued for a 
week. The luminous region entirely encircled the north pole of the 
earth. It extended on this continent on the 2d of September as far 
south as Cuba and to an unknown distance to the north. In altitude 
the bases of the columns of light were about 50 miles above the earth’s 
surface, and the streamers shot up at times to a height of 500 miles. 
Thus over a broad belt on both continents this large region above the 
lower atmosphere was filled with masses of Juminous material. <A dis- 
play similar to this, and possibly of equal brilliancy, was at the same 
time witnessed in the Southern Hemisphere. 

The nine papers were mainly devoted to the statements of observers. 
Professor Loomis however went on to collect facts about other. 
auroras, and to make inductions from the whole of the material thus 
brought together. He showed that there was good reason for believing 
that not only was this display represented by a corresponding one in 
the Southern Hemisphere, but that all remarkable displays in either 
hemisphere are accompanied by corresponding ones in the other. 

He showed also that all the principal phenomena of electricity were 
developed during the auroral display of 1859; that light was developed 
in passing from one conductor to another, that heat in poor conductors, 
that the peculiar electric shock to the animal system, the excitement of 
magnetism in irons, the deflection of the magnetic needle, the decom- 
position of chemical solutions, each and all were produced during the 
auroral storm, and evidently by its agency. There were also in Amer- 
ica effects upon the telegraph that were entirely consistent with the 
assumption previously made by Walker for England, that currents of 
electricity moved from northeast to southwest across the country, 
From the observations of the motion of auroral beams, he showed that 
they also moved from north northeast to sonth-southeast, there being 
thus a general correspondence in motion between the electrical currents 
and the motion of the beams. 

When there is a special magnetic disturbance at any place, there is 
usually a similar one at all other neighboring places. But these dis- 
turbances do not occur at the several places at the same instant of time. 
Professor Loomis showed that in the United States they take place in 
succession as we go from northeast to southeast, the velocity of the 
wave of disturbance being over 100 miles per minute. The waves of 
magnetic irregularities were thus connected with the electrical current 
and with the drifting motions of the streamers in the auroral display. 

As incident to this discussion, he collected all available observations 
of auroras, and he deduced from them the annual number of auroras 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. TA7 


visible at each place of observation. These numbers, when written 
upon a chart of the Northern Hemisphere, showed that auroras were 
by no means equally distributed over the earth’s surface. It was found 
that the region in which they occurred most frequently was a belt or 
zone of moderate breadth and of oval form, inclosing the North Pole of 
the earth, and also the North Magnetic Pole. It was therefore much 
farther south in the Western Hemisphere than in the Eastern. Along 
the central line of this belt there are more than eighty auroras annually, 
but on going either north or south from the central line of that belt 
the number diminishes. 

In 1870, Professor Loomis published a paper of importance relating to 
terrestrial magnetism, in which he showed its connection and that of 
the aurora with spots on the sun. That the spots on the sun had peri- 
ods of maximum and minimum development had long been known. 
Lamont had noticed a periodicity in the magnetic diurnal variations. 
Sabine and Wolf and Gauthier had noticed that the two periodicities 
were allied. The connection of the period of solar spots with conjune- 
tion and opposition of certain planets had been shown by De La Rue 
and Stewart. Professor Loomis undertook an exhaustive examination 
of the facts that tended to confirm or refute the propositions that had 
been advanced. He confirmed and added to the conclusions of Messrs. 
De La Rue and Stewart. He also brought together such facts as were 
relevant to the question, and he showed that the regular diurnal vari- 
ation of the magnetic needle was entirely independent of the solar 
spots, but that those disturbances that were excessive in amount were 
alinost exactly proportional to the spotted surface of the sun. He also 
showed that great disturbances of the earth’s magnetism are accom- 
panied by unusual disturbances on the sun’s surface on the very day of 
the storm. 

Various forms of periodicity in the aurora have frequently been sug: 
gested. Professor Loomis, from all available accounts of the aurora, 
was able to show that while in the center of the zone of greatest auro- 
ral frequency auroras might be visible nearly every night, and hence 
that periodicity could not easily be shown by means of numbers of 
auroras recorded in such places, yet that such periodicity was distinetly 
traceable at places where the average number seen was about twenty 
or twenty-five a year. The times of maxima and minima of the solar 
spots were seen to correspond in a remarkable manner with the max- 
ima and minima in the frequency of auroral displays in these middle 
latitudes. Also from the daily observations made by Messrs. Herrick 
and Bradley at New Haven during 17 years, he concluded that auroral 
displays in the middle latitudes of America are generally accompanied 
by an unusual disturbance of the sun’s surface on the very day of the 
aurora. The magnetism of the earth, the aurora borealis, and the 
spots on the sun, have thus all three a casual connection, and appar- 
ently that connection is closely related to the conjunctions and opposi- 
tions of certain planets. 


748 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


Shortly after the publication of this memoir, Professor Lovering pub- 
lished his extensive catalogue of auroras. A further discussion of the 
periodicity of the auroras was undertaken by Professor Loomis and 
published in 1873. In this he made use of all the auroras recorded in. 
Professor Lovering’s catalogue. They confirmed his previous conclu- 
sions, only slight modifications being required by the new facts pre- 
sented, and by their more systematic collation. 

In these papers, as in most of his papers upon other subjects, Profes- 
sor Loomis was ever intent upon answering the questions: What are 
the laws of nature? What do the phenomena teach us? To establish 
laws which had been already formulated by others, but which still 
needed confirmation, was to him equally important with the formulation 
and proof of laws entirely new. 

Let us pow turn to another important line of Professor Loomis’s 
work—astronomy. As I have said, he was early interested in the 
shooting stars. In October, 1831, he read a paper before the Connect- 
icut Academy of Arts and Sciences upon this subject, probably in sub- 
stance that which was shortly afterward published in the American 
Journal of Science. The published paper is principally a re-statement 
of the observations made in Germany in 1823, by Brandes in concert 
with his pupils for determining the paths of the stars through the atmos- 
phere, together with methods of computation. From the results of 
Brandes’s observations, however, he deduces an argument for the cos- 
mie character of the shooting stars. One month after reading this 
paper to the Connecticut Academy he engaged in similar concerted 
observations with Professor Twining, who was then residing near West 
Point, New York. These were only moderately successful, but they 
were the first observations of the kind undertaken in America. 

During the senior year of his college course there arrived at New 
Haven the 5.inch telescope, given to the college by Mr. Sheldon Clark, 
constructed by Dolland. This instrument was much larger than any 
telescope then in the country. It was temporarily placed in the Athe- 
neum tower, where it was mounted on castors and wheeled to the win- 
dows for use. This temporary abode it occupied however for over 30 
years. In spite of its miserable location it was, in the decade follow- 
ing its installment, a power in the development of the study of astron- 
omy in the college. The lives and works of Barnard, and Loomis, and 
Mason, and Herrick, and Lyman, and Chauvenet, and Hubbard, and of 
other graduates of the college prove this. What rich returns for Mr. 
Sheldon Clark’s $1,200 investment ! 

In 1835, the return of Halley’s comet had been predicted, and its ap- 
pearance was eagerly expected by astronomers and the public; Pro- 
fessor Olmsted and Tutor Loomis first in this country caught sight of 
the stranger, and throughout its course they noted its physical appear- 
ances. With such means as he had at command, Mr. Loomis observed 
the body’s place, and computed from his observations the orbit. 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 749 


The latitude and longitude of an observatory are constants to be early 
determined. These were measured by President Day for Yale College 
in18l1. In the summer of 1835, Tutor Loomis, with such instruments 
as the college possessed, a sextant and a small portable transit, made 
numerous observations of Polaris for latitude, and several moon culmi- 
nations for longitude. From these he computed the latitude and longi- 
tude of the Atheneum tower. The longitude from Greenwich, though 
obtained from a small number of observations, differs less than 2 
seconds of time from our best determinations to-day. 

While in Europe in 183637, Professor Loomis, as I have said, bought 
for Western Reserve College the instruments for an observatory. These 
were a 4-inch equatorial, a transit instrument, and an astronomical 
clock. On his return he erected, in 1837, asmall observatory at Hudson, 
and in September, 1838, began to use the instruments. He had no 
assistant, and by day had a full allotment of college work. Two hun- 
dred and sixty moon culminations and sixteen occultations observed 
for longitude, sixty-nine culminations of Polaris for latitude, along with 
observations on five comets sufficiently extended for a computation of 
their orbits; these attested his activity outside of his required duties. 
Some years later, when the corresponding European observations were 
made public, he prepared an elaborate discussion of these longitude ob- 
servations, and published in it Gould’s Astronomical Journal. A sixth 
comet was observed by him at Hudson in 1850. 

It may not seem a very large output of work in six years’ time to have 
determined the location of the observatory, and to have observed five 
comets. But we must recollect that the telegraph had not then been in- 
vented, that the exact determination of the longitude of a single point 
in the western country had a higher value then than it can have now, 
and that it could be obtained only by slow and tedious methods. These 
were moreover days of small things in astronomy in this country. At 
Yale College we had a telescope but not an observatory. At Williams. 
town an observatory had been constructed, but it was used for instrue- 
tion, not for original work. At Washington Lieutenant Gilliss, and at 
Dorchester Mr. Bond, were commissioned by the Government in 1838 to 
observe moon culminations in correspondence with the observers 1n the 
Wilkes exploring expedition for determining their longitude. These 
two prospective sets of observations, both of them under Government 
auspices and pay, were the only signs of systematic astronomical 
activity in the United States outside of Hudson, when in 1838 Professor 
Loomis began his observing there. In his inaugural address he asks: 
‘* Where now is our American observatory? Where throughout this 
rich and powerful nation do you find @ single spot where astronomical 
observations are regularly and systematically made? There is no such 
spot.” When he left Hudson in 1844, the situation was not largely 
changed. Mr. Bond had removed his instruments and work to Cam- 
bridge. The High School Observatory at Philadelphia had been erected 


750 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


and Messrs. Walker and Kendall were using its instruments. Profes- 
sor Bartlett had built the observatory at West Point, and had begun 
to observe there. Lieutenant Gilliss after years of excellent work in 
the little establishment on Capitol Hill had just finished the present 
Naval Observatory building at Washington, Professor Mitchell had 
begun to build the Cincinnati Observatory, and the Georgetown obser- 
vatory building had been erected. Professor Loomis’s work at Hudson 
should be measured by what others were doing at the time, rather than 
by the larger performance of to-day. 

In the summer of 1844, the year in which Professor Loomis came to 
New York, a new method in astronomy had its first beginnings. The 
telegraph line had just been built between Baltimore and Washington, 
and Captain Wilkes at Baltimore compared his chronometer by tele- 
graph with one at Washington, and so determined the difference of 
longitude of the two places. 

Professor Bach was now Superintendent of the Coast Survey, and he 
determined at once to use the new method for the purposes of the sur- 
vey. To Mr. Sears C. Walker was committed the direction of the work, 
but scarcely less important were the services of Professor Loomis, who 
for three campaigns had charge of the end of the lines in Jersey City 
and New York. Their first partially successful efforts were made in 
1846, but the practical difficulties were overcome and entire success 
was obtained by them in 1847 and 1848. In these years the differ- 
ences of longitude of Washington, Philadelphia, New York, and 
Cambridge were thus determined with an accuracy far greater than 
any previous similar determination whatsoever. 

The next summer, that of 1849, Professor Loomis assisted in a like 
work to connect Hudson, Ohio, with the eastern stations. His obser- 
vations of moon culminations at Hudson were thus available equally 
with those made at Philadelphia, Washington, Dorchester, and Cam- 
bridge for determining the absolute longitudes of Atlantic stations 
from Greenwich. It was not until 1852, that Europeon astronomers 
began to use these telegraphic methods in measuring longitudes. 

In 1850, Professor Loomis published a volume on the ‘*‘ Recent prog- 
ress of astronomy, especially in the United States.” <A first and a 
second edition was soon exhausted, and in 1856, the volume was entirely 
re-written and very much enlarged. Some of the topics in these volumes 
were the subjects of articles communicated from time to time to the 
public in the American Journal of Science, Harper's Magazine and other 
periodicals. Another important contribution to astronomy appeared 
in 1865, that is, his “ Introduction to practical astronomy.” Eminent 
astronomers in England and America have expressed in the highest 
terms their praise of this book. Though it is now 35 years since its 
first appearance, and many treatises on the same subject, some elab- 
orate and some elementary, have since been published, yet for an in- 
troduction to practical work I believe that a student will find this vol- 
ume better than any other for his uses at the beginning of his course. 


~* 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 751 


The inerease of our knowledge in astronomy was, from first to last, 
an object of special interest to Professor Loomis. Before he left New 
York, the income from his text books enabled him to make to Yale Col- 
lege the generous offer of coming to New Haven and working in an 
observatory at his own charges, provided a suitable observatory should 
be constructed and equipped for him. Unfortunately, the college was 
not able, although it was greatly desirous of doing it, to avail itself of 
his generous offer. Near the same time he joined with public spirited 
citizens of New York in an effort to establish an astronomical observa- 
tory in or near that city, and for that purpose an act of incorporation 
was obtained from the New York State legislature. After coming to 
New Haven, he always took the warmest interest in the plans of Mr. 
Winchester for the establishment of an observatory in connection with 


‘Yale University. His counsel and assistance have been instrumental, 


more than the public could know, in producing and preserving what- 
ever of value has been developed in that observatory. 

The science of meteorology has however been that in which Professor 
Loomis has made the most important contributions to human knowl- 
edge. 

Shortly after his graduation in 1830, and before he entered upon the 
tutorship, there appeared the first of a long series of papers by Mr. 
Redfield, of New York City, upon the theory of storms. In the last 
year of his tutorship there appeared also the first of a like remarkable 
series of papers on the same subject by Professor Espy, of Philadel- 
phia. Two rival theories were advocated by these two men, and these 
theories became the subject of no little discussion in scientific meetings, 
and in scientific journals, for along period of years. Professor Loomis 
had, from their very inception, taken a warm interest in these discus- 
sions, and the subject of meteorology, and in particular its central 
problem the theory of storms, held in his thought and work the first 
place from that time to the day of his death. 

In his visit to Hurope (the year before he went to Hudson), he pur- 
chased a set of meteorological instruments, and for several years in 
Hudson he steadily performed the naturally irksome task of making 
twice each day a complete set of meteorological observations. A few 
weeks after he entered upon his professorship in Hudson a tornado 
passed 5 miles from that place, and he went out immediately to exam- 
ine the track and learn what facts he could that should bear upon the 
theory of the tornado. The results were valuable, but he was not alto- 
gether satisfied with them. ‘They led him however to undertake the 
discussiou of one of the large storms that covered the whole United 
States. 

For this purpose he selected the storm which had occurred near the 
20th of December, 1836. Sir John Herschel had recommended that 
hourly observations be taken by all meteorological observers on four 
term days in the year, that is, observations for thirty-six successive 


752 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


hours at each equinox and each solstice. This storm fell partly upon 
one of these term days. Professor Loomis set to work to collect all the 
meteorological observations made during the week of the storm that he 
could obtain from all parts of the United States, and from some stations 
in Canada. The discussion resulting therefrom was read in March, 
1840, before the American Philosophical Society at Philadelphia. 

Let us for a little while consider the amount of knowledge of the facts 
about storms in our possession in 1840, the date when this memoir was 
read and an abstract of it published in Philadelphia. Franklin had 
noted the motion of storms from southwest to northeast. He said :* 
‘¢Our northeast storms in North America begin first in point of time in 
the southwest parts, that is to say, the air in Georgia, the farthest of 
our colonies to the southwest, begins to move southwesterly before the 
air of Carolina, which is the next colony northeastward; the air of 
Carolina has the same motion before the air of Virginia, which lies still 
more northeastward; and so on northeasterly through Pennsylvania, 
New York, New England, ete., quite to Newfoundland.” Redfield had 
traced several storms along the West India Islands northwesterly un- 
til about in the latitude of 30° their course was turned quite abruptly 
and they swept off northeasterly along the Atlantic coast toward and 
even past Newfoundland. Espy found some storms moving easterly or 
south of east from the Mississippi to the Atlantic. 

Brandes had announced as a law that the wind in storms blows 
inward toward a center, but his Jaw was an induction from a small 
number of observations. Dove had contended for a whirling motion. 
Redfield advanced facts to show that the winds blew in circles anti- 
clockwise around a center that advanced in the direction of the preva- 
lent winds, and with him agreed Reid, Piddington, and others. Espy, 
agreeing with Brandes, claimed that the observations in the various 
storms showed a centripetal motion of the winds toward a ce iter if the 
region covered by the storm was round, and toward a central line if 
the storm region was longer in one direction than in another. Espy’s 
conclusions were intimately conneeted with his theory that in the center 
of the storm there was an upward motion of the air, and that the con- 
densation of vapor into rain furnished the energy needed for the con- 
tinuation of the storm. The rival theories of Redfield and Espy were in 
sharp contest on several points, but the main contention was around 
this central question: Do the winds blow in circular whirls or do they 
blow in toward a center? New York State was collecting observations 
from the academies. The American Philosophical Society and the 
Franklin Institute, aided by an appropriation from the State of Penn- 
sylvania, had united in an effort to learn the facts and the true theory 
of storms. 

Under such circumstances the thorough discussion of a single violent 
storm was likely to add materially to our knowledge. The treatment 


*Letter to Alexander Small, May 12, 1760. 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. tae 


of this storm by Professor Loomis was probably more complete than 
that of any previous one, and the methods which he employed were 
better fitted to elicit the truth than any earlier methods. But the storm 
was a very large one, extending from the Gulf of Mexico to an unknown 
distance north, and having its center apparently to the north of all the 
observers. The results which he was able to secure did not sustain 
either of the two rival theories, but rather tended to prove some fea- 
tures in each of them. Professor Loomis was not himself satisfied 
with them, and he therefore waited for another storm that should be 
better fitted for examination. 

In the month of February, 1°42, a second tornado passed over north- 
eastern Ohio, and Professor Loomis with one of his colleagues again 
started out for the examination of the track. The tornado passed over 
a piece of woods, and hence the positions of the prostrate trees showed 
clearly the motion of the wiud in the passing tornado and threw much 
light upon the character of this kind of storm. But the tornado was a 
single feature of a large storm that covered the whole country, and a 
second storm of great intensity was also experienced in the same 
month. 

The discussion of these two storms was now undertaken by him, The 
paper giving the results of that discussion was sent to Professor Bache 
and read by him at the centennial meeting of the American Philosoph- 
ical Society in May, 1843, and created, as Professor Bache wrote, a great 
sensation. It was at the time important for the light which it threw 
upon the rival contending theories of Espy and of Redfield, but it was 
more important by far by reason of the new method of investigation 
then for the first time employed. 

In the paper upon the storm of 1836, Professor Loomis had made some 
advance upon previous methods of representing the facts about storms. 
But even the method he then used was entirely unfitted to give an- 
swers to the questions which meteorologists were asking. Some of 
those questions were stated in circulars issued by the joint committee 
of the American Philosophical Society and the Franklin Institute: 
What are the phases of the great storms of rain and snow that traverse 
our continent; what their shape and size; in what direction and with 
what velocity do their centers move along the surface of the earth; are 
they round or oblong or irregular in shape; do they move in different 
directions in different seasons of the year ? 

The graphic representation by Professor Loomis on the map of the 
United States of the storm of 1836, had been a series of lines drawn 
joining the places where at a given hour the barometer was at its low- 
est point. That line would, so far as the barometer was concerned, 
mark for that hour the central line of the storm. ‘The progress of the 
line from hour to hour on the map showed, quite imperfectly, how the 
storm had traveled. Some arrows added showed to the eye also cer- 
tain facts about the movements of the air. 

H. Mis. 129-——48 


754 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


Professor Espy adopted—and thereafter adhered to—a modification of 
this method of representing storm phenomena, and I think meteorolo- 
gists will agree with me in my opinion that Professor Espy’s four reports 
from 1842 to 1854, though they contained an immense accumulation of 
facts, were because of this radical defect of presentation almost useless 
to meteorological science. 

In the discussion of the storms of 1842, instead of the line of minimum 
depression of the barometer, Professor Loomis drew on the map a series 
of lines of equal barometric pressure, or rather of equal deviations 
from the normal average pressure for each place. A series of maps rep- 
resenting the storm at successive intervals of twelve hours were thus 
constructed, upon each of which was drawn a line through all places 
where the barometer stood at its normal or average height. A second 
line was drawn through all places where the barometer stood 0.2 of 
an inch below the normal, and other lines through points where the 
barometer was 0.4 below, 0.6 below, 0.8 below, etc.; also lines were 
drawn through those points where the barometer stood 0.2, 0.4, 0.6, etc., 
above its normal height. The deviations of the barometric pressure 
from the normal were thus made prominent, and all other phenomena of 
the storm were regarded as related to those barometric lines. A series 
of colors represented respectively the places where the sky was clear, 
where the sky was overcast, and where rain or snow was falling. A 
series of lines represented the places at which the temperature was at 
the normal, or was 10 or 20 or 30 degrees above the normal, or below 
the normal. Arrows of proper direction and length represented the 
direction and the intensity of the winds at the different stations. These 
successive maps for the three or four days of the storm furnisbed to the 
eye all its phenomena in a simple and most effective manner. 

You have no doubt, most of you, already recognized in this deserip- 
tion the charts, which to-day are so common, issued by the United States 
Signal Service, and by weather-service bureaus in other countries. 
The method seems so natural, that it should occur to any person who 
has the subject of a storm under consideration. But the greatest in- 
ventions are oft-times the simplest, and I am inclined to believe that the 
introduction of this single method of representing and discussing the 
phenomena of a storm was the greatest of the services which our col- 
league rendered to science. ‘This method is at the foundation of what 
jS sometimes called *‘the new meteorology,” and the paper which con- 
tains its first presentation stands forth, I am convinced, as the most 
important paper in the history of that science. I regret that I can not 
aid my memory by quoting the exact words, but I remember distinctly 
what seemed to me an almost despairing expression made many years 
ago by one who had high responsibility in the matter of meteorological 
work, as he looked out upon the confused mass of observations already 
made, and felt unable to say in what direction progress was to be ex- 
pected. With this I contrast the buoyant expressions of another officer 

: 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 755 


charged with like responsibility, as he showed me, one or two decades 
later (in 1869), charts constructed like those of Professor Loomis, and 
said, “* I care not for the mass of observations made in the usual form. 
What I want is the power and the material for making such charts as 
these.” These two expressions of Sir George Airy and of LeVerrier 
mark the progress and the direction of progress in meteorology devel- 
oped by Professor Loomis’s memoir. 

What was his own judgment of the method at the time of its publi- 
cation and its value in meteorology can be seen from his words at the 
close of the memoir, which I beg permission to quote : 

‘“‘Tt appears to me that if the course of investigations adopted with 
respect to the two storms of February, 1842, was systematically pursued 
we should soon have some settled principles in meteorology. If we could 
be furnished with two meteorological charts of the United States daily 
for one year, charts showing the state of the barometer, thermometer, 
winds, sky, ete., for every part of the country it would settle forever the 
laws of storms. No false theory could stand against such an array of 
testimony. Such aset of maps would be worth more than all which has 
been hitherto done in meteorology. Moreover the subject would be 
well-nigh exhausted. But one year’s observation would be needed. 
The storms of one year are probably but a repetition of those of the 
preceding. Instead then of the guerrilla warfare, which has been main- 
tained for centuries with indifferent success, although at the expense 
of great self-devotion on the part of individual chiefs, is it not time to 
embark in a general meteorological crusade? A well-arranged system of 
observations spread over the country weuld accomplish more in one 
year than observations at a few isolated posts, however accurate and 
complete, continued to the end of time. The United States are favor- 
ably situated for such an enterprise. Observations spread over a smaller 
territory would be inadequate, as they would not show the extent of 
any large storm. If we take asurvey of the entire globe we shall search 
in vain for-more than one equal area which could be occupied by the 
same number of trusty observers. In Europe there is opportunity for 
a like organization, but with this incumbrance, that it must needs em- 
brace several nations of different languages and governments. The 
United States then afford decidedly the most hopeful field fc. such an 
enterprise. Shall we hesitate to embark in it; or shall we | cope tim- 
idly along as in former years? There are but few questions vf science 
which can be prosecuted in this country to the same advantage as in 
Europe. Here is ove where the advantage is in our favor. Would it 
not be wise to devote our main strength to the reduction of this for: 
tress? We need observers spread over the entire country at distances 
from each other not more than 50 miles. This would require five or six 
hundred observers for the United States. About half this number of 
registers are now kept in one shape or another, and the number by suit- 
able efforts might probably be doubled. Supervision is needed to in- 


756 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


troduce uniformity throughout and to render some of the registers more 
complete. Is not such an enterprise worthy of the American Philo- 
sophical Society? The General Government has for more than 20 years 
done something and has lately manifested a disposition to do more for 
this object. If private zeal could be more generally enlisted the war 
might soon be ended and men would cease to ridicule the idea of our 
being able to predict an approaching storm.” 

This plan of a systematic meteorological campaign was cordially 
seconded by Professors Bache and Peirce. At a somewhat later date 
the American Academy of Sciences, of Boston, appointed a committee, 
of which Professor Loomis was chairman, to urge upon the proper au- 
thorities the execution of the plan. The American Philosophical So- 
ciety, of Philadelphia, united its voice with that of the Academy. About 
this time Professor Henry was made Secretary of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution. He determined to make American meteorology one of the 
leading subjects of investigation to be aided by the Institution. At 
Professor Henry’s request, Professor Loomis prepared a report upon 
the meteorology of the United States, in which he showed what ad- 
vantages society might expect from the study of the phenomena of 
storms; what had been done in this country toward making the neces- 
sary observations and toward deducing from them general laws; and 
finally, what encouragement there was to a further prosecution of the 
same researches. He then presented in detail a practicable plan for 
securing the hoped-for advantages in their fullest extent. 

This plan looked to a unifying of all the work done by existing ob- 
servers, a systematic supervision, a supplementing of it by new ob- 
servers at needed points, a securing of the codperation of the British 
Government and the Hudson’s Bay Company in the regions to the north 
of us, and finally a thorough discussion of the observations collected. 
A siege of 3 years was contemplated. In the history of the several 
steps that finally led to the establishment of the United States Signal 
Service this report has an important place. 

The scheme laid down by Professor Loomis was in part followed out 
by the Institution, but the fragmentary character of the observations, 
the want of systematic distribution of the piaces of the observers, and 
the imperfections of the barometers made the material collected difficult 
of discussion. Professor Loomis waited in hopes of some better system. 

In 1854, Professor Loomis undertook a re-discussion of the storm of 
1836, using the new methods introduced for treating the storms of 1842. 
A visit to Europe shortly after enabled him to collect a large number 
of observations upon a storm or series of storms that occurred in Eu- 
rope about a week later than that American storm. He had long been 
anxious to connect, if possible, these two storms, as he said, ‘stepping 
across the Atlantic.” The European and the American storms how- 
ever not only proved to be distinct one from the other, but the discus- 
sion showed clearly that many of the laws of American storms were 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 157 


radically different from those of the European storms. The results of 
the whole discussion were published in 1859, by the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution. 

Upon coming to New Haven, in 1860, he commenced the collection of 
all the meteorological observations that had been made in New Haven 
and the immediate vicinity, and succeeded in finding sets which, when 
brought together, made upa nearly continuous record through 86 years. 
The results of these observations formed the subject of a memoir pub- 
lished by the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1866. 

It became part of his duties in.college to deliver a course of lectures 
upon the subject of meteorology. In preparation for these he caused 
to be printed in very limited numbers the outlines of a treatise upon 
meteorology, to be used as the basis of his series of lectures. In 1868 
he developed this outline into a treatise suited to use in college classes 
andin private study. This treatise, notwithstanding the rapid advances 
of the science during more than 20 years, is still indispensable to the 
student of meteorology. 

The better system of observing for which Professor Loomis had been 
long waiting came when the United States Signal Service was estab- 
lished in 1871. The daily maps of the weather published by the Bureau 
were constructed essentially after the plan which Professor Loomis had, 
30 years before, invented for the treatment of the storms of 1842. As 
soon as these maps had been published for the two years 1872 and 1873, 
Professor Loomis commenced in earnest to deduce from them the lessons 
which they taught us respecting the nature and the phenomena of 
United States storms. To this investigation he gave nearly all his en- 
ergies during the remaining 15 years of his life. 

lor several years he employed and paid for the services of assistants 
whose time was given to the preparation of material for use in his 
studies. The aggregate cost of this assistance was of itself a very 
large contribution to science. Beginning in April, 1874, he presented 
regularly at eighteen successive meetings of the National Academy of 
Sciences in April and in October of each year, a paper entitled “Con- 
tributions to Meteorology.” These were at first based upon the publi- 
cations of the Signal Service alone, but as years went by, like publications 
appeared in Europe that were useful for his work. These papers were 
published in July and January following the Academy meeting, and 
they regularly formed the first and leading article in eighteen successive 
volumes of the American Journal of Science. Gradually one after 
another of his college duties were committed to others that he might 
give his whole strength to these investigations. 

An attack of malaria interrupted the regularity of the series. His 
advancing years and diminishing strength warned him that the end of 
his investigations could not be far distant. The number of hours in 
which he could work each day was slowly diminishing. Five more 
papers followed at somewhat less regular intervals. 


758 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


In 1884, he began a revision of the whole series of papers. They had 
been. presented without much regard to systematic order in the subjects 
investigated, and new material had accumulated from time to time, so 
that a thorough, systematic revison seemed absolutely unecessary. 

In 1885, he presented to the Academy of Sciences the first chapter of 
this revision, in which he discussed the areas of low pressure—their 
form, their size, their motions, and the phenomena attending them. 
Two years later, in 1887, the second chapter of the revision appeared, 
in which he discussed the areas of high pressure, their form, magnitude, 
direction, and velocity of movement, and their relation to areas of low 
pressure. Gradually his physical strength was failing, though his 
mind was as bright and clear as ever. ‘To this work, the only work 
which he was now doing, he was able to give 2 or 3 hours a day. Anx- 
iously he husbanded his strength, slowly and painfully preparing the 
diagrams and the table for the third chapter upon rain areas, the phe- 
nomena of rain-fall in its connection with areas of low pressure, and the 
varied phenomena of unusual rain-fall. ‘‘ I see,” he said to a friend, 
‘not the end of this subject, but where I must stop. 1 hope I shall 
have strength to finish this work, and then I shall be ready to die.” 

This third and finishing chapter was finally passed through the print- 
er’s hands, and some advance copies distributed to correspondents 
abroad in the summer months of 1889. His work upon the theory of 
storms he felt was finished. As he paid the bill of the printer, he said 
to him: ‘* When I return at the close of the vacation I expect to put 
into your hands for printing a new edition of the Loomis Genealogy.” 
Before the close of the vacation he died. 

These three chapters of his revised edition of ‘* Contributions to Met- 
eorology,” constitute the full and ripe fruitage of his work in his favorite 
science. They will for a long time to come be the basis of facts by 
which writers in theoretical meteorology must test their formulas. 
They cover all the important points taken up in the twenty-three ear- 
lier memoirs with one important exception,—the relation of mountain 
observations to those made on the plains below. The laws connecting 
these two are not yet clearly indicated; much remains to be learned 
about them, and they are of the utmost importance in theoretical mete- 
orology. He felt most deeply the backward steps taken by the United 
States Signal Service when mountain observations and the publication 
of the International Bulletin were discontinued. ‘The National Acad- 
emy of Sciences,” he said, ‘ought at once to take up the subject and 
use all its influence to secure the restoration of these two services. 

Professor Loomis at various times studied certain other questions 
in physics and astronomy that were more or less allied with the sub- 
jects to which he gave the principal part of his time, and he pub- 
lished the results of his studies. He made a series of experiments 
on currents of electricity generated by a plate of zine buried in the 
earth. He examined the electrical phenomena in certain houses in 


a 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. (SS) 


New York; the curious phenomena of optical moving figures; the 
vibrations sent out from waterfalls as the water flows over certain 
dams; the orbits of the satellites of Uranus; the temperature of the 
planets; the variations of light of the stars 7 Argus and Algol; and 
the comet of 1861. 

The subject of family genealogy has a peculiar fascination to many 
minds. It would be an interesting study to determine practically by 
a collection of facts what are the elemeuts in a man’s character 
which lead him to engage in this peculiar study. Certain it is that 
men of most diverse disposition are led into it. I should not have 
thought it likely that Professor Loomis would have taken up the 
subject very seriously. Others have expressed to me the same thought, 
and he himself says that he did not think it strange that others 
should be surprised at his devoting so much time to this subject, 
for he was surprised at it himself. He became interested in the sub- 
ject early in life, and that interest remained unbroken to his last 
days. For nearly forty years before his first publication he collected 
from time time to materials for a list of the descendants of his ancestor, 
Joseph Loomis, who came from Braintree, England, in the year 1638, 
and settled in Windsor, Connecticut, in 1639. In each of his four 
visits to Europe he extended his inquiries to his ancestor’s earlier 
history in England. The materials thus collected were put in type 
in 1870. He published a list containing 4,340 descendants of Joseph 
Loomis bearing the Loomis name. He regarded it as entirely pro- 
visional, printed to help himself in making further researches, and 
to excite interest in others of the name, who would thus be led to 
give additional information, or correction of errors. 

Finding that to alimited extent only could he hope by correspondence 
to gain the information desired, he now undertook in his’ vacations to 
canvass the country by personal visits. He collected lists of names 
from every available source, from catalogues of every description, from 
city directories, county directories, county maps, and county tax lists, 
and he compiled from these sources lists of all the Loomis names he 
could find. Arranging these names by counties, he undertook to visit 
each family personally. In this way he made a pretty thorough canvass 
of every part of New England and New York State, of nearly every 
part of New Jersey and Pennsylvania, of the northern part of Ohio, 
and of some of the western cities. 

After five years of these researches he published the second edition of 
the ‘Loomis Genealogy,” in which were given 8,686 names of persons 
that bore the Loomis name, descendants of Joseph Loomis in the male 
branches. 

Five year later, in 1850, Professor Loomis printed in two additional 
volumes a provisional list of 19,000 descendants of Joseph Loomis in 
the female branches. Large as was this list, he did not regard it as 
more than a first outline of a census of the descendants of the original 


760 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


emigrant, and he hoped in the near future to publish an additional vol- 
ume. For this he has left in manuscript many corrections and large 
additions that will be of use to the future Loomis genealogist. 

Am I tarrying too long upon the vacation work of Professor Loomis ? 
If so, I plead on this occasien that among these direct descendants of 
Joseph Loomis there were enrolled more than two hundred graduates 
of Yale College, and nearly one hundred more of our graduates have 
married members of this numerous family. 

Professor Loomis was doubtless more widely known as the author of 
mathematical text-books than as a worker in new fields in science. 
Shortly after coming to New York, he prepared a text-book in algebra. 
The market was ready for a good book of this kind, and the work pre- 
pared for it was a good one. It was followed the next year by a Geom- 
etry. This was an attempt, and if judged by its reception and sale it 
was a successful attempt, to combine in a school book the rigid demon- 
strations of Eucld with the courses of thought in Legendre and in 
modern science. ‘The task is one of peculiar difficulty, as the existence 
and activities of the English Society for the Improvement of Geometric 
Teaching now for neartwenty yearsillustrates. Other books tollowed the 
Geometry from year to year, the whole forming a connected series from 
arithmetic upward, so that the list of his works finally numbered near 
twenty volumes, His experience in teaching, his rare skill in language, 
his clear conception of what was important, and his unwearied pains- 
taking, combined to produce text-books which met the wants of teach- 
ers. About 600,000 volumes have been sold, benefiting the schools and 
colleges, and bringing to the author a liberal and well-merited pecuniary 
return. 

We ought not to omit—on this academic occasion—to speak of the 
teacher. College graduates who have been under his instruction will 
probably retain @ more positive impression of the personal traits and 
the character of Professor Loomis than of most of their other teachers.. 
His crisp sentences, lucid thought, exactness of language, and steadi- 
ness of requirement, more than made up for any apparent coldness and 
real reserve. These characteristics of his riper years were peculiar to 
him from the beginning of his life as a teacher. During his tutorship 
he was thought to be strict as a disciplinarian, and this may have un- 
favorably affected his influence with some members of the class of 
1837, of which he was tutor. It was not so with all of them. Some of 
you will recall what was said by a member of that class as he came to 
commencement a few years since, occupying at the time the highest 
office which a lawyer in the line of his profession can in this country 
secure: “If I have been successful in life,” said Chief-Justice Waite, 
‘1 owe that success to the influence of Tutor Loomis more than to any 
other cause whatever.” 

There was in Professor Loomis so much of reserve, that to many per- 
sons -he seemed cold and without interest in the lives of others. But 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 761 


this was mainly due to appearances only. The tear would at times 
come unbidden to his eye. His correspondence with his class-mates in 
the years immediately following graduation shows warm interest in all 
that concerned them. [From Hudson he wrote often to Mr. Herrick, 
and complained much of isolation, but more especially of isolation from 
scientific companions and books. 

In 1840, he married Miss Julia E. Upson, of Talmadge, Ohio, a lady 
about whom those who knew her have spoken to me only in terms of 
praise, and for whose memory Professor Loomis cherished a tender rev- 
erence. She died in 1854, leaving two sons. From this time Professor 
Loomis lived in apartments, surrounded by his books and devoted to 
his studies. His sons, after passing ibeir school and college days, went 
to their own fields of work. During many years of his New Haven life 
he was unable to receive visitors in the evening. He made very few 
new friends, and one after another of his old ones passed away. To 
his work he was able to give undivided his time and his strength. His 
mind did not seem to require the excitementof social intercourse for its 
full and healthful activity. Isolated though he was there was in him 
no trace whatever of selfish or morbid feeling. In council his advice 
was always marked by his clear judgment of what was important, and 
at the same time what was practicable. Whatever he himself had the 
right to decide was promptly decided by a yes or no, and few persons 
cared to question the finality of his decision. But when his colleagues, 
or others, had the right to decide he accepted their decision without 
questioning or subsequent murmur. Upon being told that his letters to 
Mr. Herrick had come to the college library, and that he could, if he 
chose, examine them and see whether there were among them any which 
he would prefer not to leave in this quasi public place, he promptly re- 
plied: ‘‘ No, I never wrote a letter which I should be ashamed to see 
published.” 

After coming to New York he had a generous income from his books, 
besides his salary as professor. ‘The amount he saved from his income 
was carefully and prudently invested, and before his death the savings 
with their accumulations were a large estate; how large only he and 
his banker knew. 

One of his college class-mates told me that Mr. Loomis left college 
with the definitely expressed purpose that the world should be better 
for his living in it. The central proposition in his inaugural address 
at Hudson in 1858 was: “That it is essential to the best interests of 
society that there should be a certain class of men devoted exclusively 
to the cultivation of abstract science without any regard toits practical 
applications; and consequently that such men instead of being thought 
a dead weight upon society, are to be ranked among the greatest bene- 
factors of their race.” He chose this for his principal work for man, 
and he steadily kept to the chosen work. To establish an astronomi- 
cal observatory had been through life a cherished object. He entered 


762 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


into and aided heartily the plans of Mr. Winchester, both before and 
after Mr. Winchester asked his trustees to transfer his magnificent en- 
dowment tothe university. Professor Loomis looked forward to a large 
institution in the future on the observatory site. To endow this public 
service, after making liberal provision for his two sons, he bequeathed 
his estate. The income from more than $300,000 will eventually be 
available to continue the work of his life. With clear judgment of 
what was most important he limited the use of that income to the pay- 
ment of salaries of persons whose time should be exclusively devoted 
to the making of observations for the promotion of the science of as- 
tronomy, or to the reduction of astronomical observations, and to de- 
fraying the expenses of publication. He knew that if he provided ob- 
servers, other benefactors would furnish buildings and instruments, 
and the costs of supervision and maintenance. 

A university has an organic life, with its past and its future. The 
wealth of a university consists mainly in its men; not so much in those 
men who are its active members now, as in those who have lived them- 
selves into its life in the past, and have made it a home of scholarship, 
of truth, and of devotion to duty; a place fit for the development of 
the nobler elements of character. The life and work of Elias Loomis 
form no mean portion of the wealth of Yale University. 


PUBLICATIONS OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


1. On shooting stars. Am. Jour, April, 1835. (1), vol. xxvuI, pp. 95-104. 

2. Halley’s comet (Olmsted and Loomis). New Haven Daily Herald, September 1, 
September 4, September 28, and December 31, 1835. 

3. Halley’s comet (Olmsted and Loomis). Am, Jour. October, 1835, (1), vol. XxIx, 
pp. 155, 156. 

4. Observations on the comet of Halley, made at Yale College. Am. Jour. July, 1836. 
(1), vol. Xxx, pp. 209-221. 

5. Observations on the variation of the magnetic needle, made at Yale College in 
1834 and 1835. Am.Jour. July, 1836. (1), vol. xxx, pp. 221-233. (Sturgeon’s 
Ann. Electr., vol. 2, pp. 270-282. ) 

6. Letters from Europe. (Thirty-six letters.) Ohio Observer (1837). 

7. Meteoric shower of November 13. Cleveland Observer, November, 1837. 

8. Hourly meteorological observations for the December solstice of 1837, made at 

Western Reserve College. Cleveland Observer, December 28, 1837. 
. Hourly meteorological observations for the vernal equinox of 1838, made at West- 
ern Reserve College. Cleveland Observer, March, 1838. 

10. Observations on a hurricane which passed over Stow, in Ohio, October 20, 1837. 
Am. Jour. January, 1838. (1), vol. XX XIII, pp. 368-376. 

11. Splendid meteor (May 18, 1838). Cleveland Observer, May 22, 1838. 

12. Hourly meteorological observations for the summer solstice of 1838, made at 
Western Reserve College. Cleveland Observer, June, 1338. 

13. On the variation and dip of the magnetic needle in different parts of the United 
States. Am.Jour. July, 1832. (1), vol. xxxrv, pp. 290-309. (With a map.) 

14. On the latitude and longitude of Yale College observatory. Am. Jour. July, 
1838. (1), vol. XXXIV, pp. 309-313. 

15. Meteors of August 9. Cleveland Observer, August 11, 1833. 

16. An inaugural address, delivered August 21, 1833. 8vo.,p.38. New York, 1838. 


Je) 


2h. 


~ 
oO 


27. 


28. 


29. 


33. 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 763 


. Hourly meteorological observations for the autumnal equinox of 1838, made at 


Western Reserve Coilege. Cleveland Observer, September, 1838. (Professor 
Loomis also observed on the term days in December, 1838, and in March and 
June, 1839.) 


. On the meteor of May 18, 1838, and on shooting stars in general. Am. Jour., 


January, 1839. (1), vol. 111, pp. 223-232. 


. Meteorological table and register. Am. Jour., April, 1839: (1), vol. XXXVI, pp. 


163-165. 


. Observations to determine the magnetic dip at various places in Ohio and Michi- 


gan. In a letter to Sears C. Walker, esq. Read June, 1839. Am. Phil. Soe, 
Trans., vol. 7, pp. 1-6. (Am. Phil Soc. Proc., vol. 1, p. 116; Am. Jour. (1), vol. 
XXXVIII, p. 397.) 

Astronomical observations made at Hudson Observatory, latitude 41° 14' 42/.6 
north, longitude 5" 25™ 445.15 west, with some account of the building and 
instruments. (Latitude of observatory ; moon ecnulminations; oceultations. ) 
Read October, 1839. Am. Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. vil, pp. 43-51. (Am. Phil. 
Soc. Proc., vol. 1, pp. 129, 130.) 


. Additional observation of the magnetic dip in the United States. Read October, 


1839. Am. Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. vu, pp. 101-111. (Am. Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 
I, pp. 144-145.) 


. On the storm which was experienced throughout the United States nbout the 


20th of December, 1836. Read March, 1840. Am. Phil. Soe. Trans., vol. vu, 
pp. 125-163. (With three plates.) (Am. Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 1, pp. 195-192; 
Am. Jour. (1), vol. XL, pp. 34-37.) 


. Meteorological sketches. (Eight papers.) Ohio Observer, 1840. 
. On the variation and dip of the magnetic needle iu the United States. Am. Jour., 


July, 1840: (1), vol. XXxIx, pp. 41-50. (With a map.) 


. Observations to determine the magnetic intensity at various places in the United 


States, with some additional observations of the magnetic dip. Read Novem- 
ber, 1340. Am. Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. v1, pp. 61-72. (Am. Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 
I, pp. 308-310.) 

On the magnetic dip in the United States. Am. Jour., January, 1841: (1), vol. xx. 
pp. 85-92. (Sturgeon’s Ann. Klectr., vol. vil, pp. 156-162.) 

Meteorological observations made at Hudson, Ohio, latitude 41° 14’ 42/'.6 north, 
longitude 5 25™ 44s. 15 west, during the years 1858, 1839, and 1840. (Barometer; 
thermometer and hygrometer ; winds; rain.) Am, Jour., October, 1841: (1), vol. 
XLI, pp. 310-330. 

Astronomical observations made at Hudson Observatory, latitude 41° 14’ 42/'.6 
north, longitude 5" 25™ 445.15 west. (Latitude of observatory; moon culmi- 
nations; occultations; comet, 1840, If; orbit of comet.) Read April, 1841. 
Am. Phil. Soe. Trans., vo]. vi1l, pp. 141-154. 


. On the dip and variation of the magnetic needle in the United States. Am. Jour. 


April, 1842: (1), vol. XLII, pp. 93-116. 


. Encke’s comet. Ohio Observer, April, 1842. 
. On a tornado which passed over Mayfield, Ohio, February 4, 1542, with some 


notices of other tornadoes. Am. Jour., April, 1842: (1), vol. xLiu, pp. 278-300. 
(With a map.) 

Supplementary observations on the storm which was experienced throughout the 
United States about the 20th of December, 1836. Read May, 1842. Am. Phil. 
Soe. Trans., vol. vil, pp. 305, 306. 


. Observations on the magnetic dip in the United States. Read May, 1842. Am. 


Phil. Soe. Trans., vol. vill, pp. 285-304. (Am. Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 11, pp. 176- 
178.) 


. Icebergs in the Atlantic. Ohio Observer, July 1842. 
. The comet. (Five papers, with orbit.) Ohio Observer, March, 1843. 


7164 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


BY 


43. 


49. 


61. 


On two storms which were experienced throughout the United States in the month 
of February, 1842. Read May, 1843. Am. Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. rx, pp. 161-184. 
(With13 maps.) (Am. Phil. Soc. Proc., vol. 111, pp. 50-56.) 


3. On vibrating dams, Am. Jour., October, 1843: (1), vol. XLV, pp. 363-377. (Cuya- 


hoga Falls; East Windsor; Springfield; Northampton; Gardiner; Hartford.) 


. Meteorological journal kept at Western Reserve College. (Forty-seven papers.) 


March, 1840, to January, 1844. Ohio Observer. 


. Modern astronomy. New Englander, January, 1844, vol. 11, pp. 3-18. 
. Comparison of Gauss’s theory of terrestrial magnetism with observation. Am. 


Jour., October, 1844: (1), vol. XLVI, pp. 278-281. 


. Astronomical observations made at Hudson Observatory, latitude 41° 14’ 42/.6 


north, and longitude 5% 25™ 445.15 west. Third series. Read November, 1844. 
Am. Phil. Soc. Trans., vol. x, pp.1-15. (Astron. Nachr., No. 517, October, 1844, 
vol. Xx, pp. 203-210. Roy. Astr. Soc., Month Notices, December, 1844.) 
Latitude of observatory ; moon culminations; occultations; longitude of ob- 
servatory; Encke’s comet; comet of 1843; Mauvais’s comet; Faye’s comet. 

Meteorological observations made at Hudson, Ohio, latitude 41° 14’ 42’.6 north, 
longitude 5" 25™ 445.15 west, during the years 1841, 1842, 1843, and 1844, with a 
summary for 7 years. (Barometer; thermometer and hygrometer; winds; 
clouds; rain.) Am. Jour., October, 1845: (1), vol. XLIX, pp. 266-283. (Astr. 
Nachr., vol. Xx, pp. 203-210.) 


. Physical constitution of the moon. Sidereal Messenger, vol. I, pp. 20-22. Sep- 


tember, 1546. (Am. Jour. (2), vol. 11, pp. 432, 433.) 


5. A treatise on algebra. 12mo, pp. 346. New York, 1846. 


On Biela’s comet. Am. Jour., November, 1846: (2), vol. 11, pp. 4385-438. 


. The planet Neptune. Am. Review, August, 1847: vol. vi, pp. 145-155. 
. On the determination of differences of longitude made in the United States by 


means of the electric telegraph, and on projected observations for investigat- 
ing the laws of the great North American storms. (Letter to Lieutenant- 
Colonel Sabine.) Phil. Mag., August, 1847, 3d series, vol. XXXI, pp. 338-340. 

Notice of some recent additions to our knowledge of the magnetism of the 
United States and its vicinity. Am. Jour., September, 1847: (2), vol. Iv, pp. 
192-198. 


. Elements of geometry and conic sections. 8vo, pp. 222. New York, 1847. 
. Notice of a water-spout. Aim. Jour., November, 1347: (2), vol. Iv, pp. 362-364, 
. Report on the meteorology of the United States, submitted to the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Sen. Doc. No, 23, 30th Congress, first session, pp. 
193-207. Ordered printed January, 1848. 


. Historical notice of the discovery of the planet Neptune. Am. Jour., March, 1848: 


(2), vol. v, pp. 187-205. 


1, Note respectiny Halley’s comet, Am. Jour., May, 1848: (2), vol. v, pp. 370-372. 
5. The relations of Neptune to Uranus. Am. Jour., May, 1848: (2), vol. Vv, pp. 435-437. 
j}. Elements of plane and spherical trigonometry, with their applications to men- 


suration, surveying, and navigation. 8vo., pp. vi, 148. New York, 1848. 


. Tables of logarithms of numbers and of lines and tangents for every 10 seconds 


of the quadrant, with other useful tables. 8vo., pp. xvi, 150. New York, 1848 


. On the determination of the difference of longitude by means of the magnetic 


Lr AR! 


telegraph. Roy. Soc. Proc., vol. v, pp. 787-799. 1849. 


. Experiments on the electricity of a plate of zine buried in the earth. Am. Jour., 


January, 1850: (2), vol. rx, pp. 1-11. (Am. Assoc. Proc., 1849, pp. 196-200.) 
(Bibl. Univ., Archives, vol. x11, pp. 265-231.) 


. On the longitude of Hudson (Ohio) Observatory. Astron. Jour., Nos, 8 and 9. 


May, 1850. 
On the proper height of lightning rods. Am. Jour. (2), vol. X, pp. 320-321. (Read 
August, 1850.) (Am. Assoc, Proc., 1850, pp. 38-43.) 


62. 


89. 


90, 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 7165 


On the electrical phenomena of certain houses. Am. Jour. (2), vol. x, pp. 321-323. 
(Read August, 1850.) (Am. Assoc. Proc., 1850, pp. 12-15. Edin. New Phil. 
Jour., vol. 50, pp. 225-227.) 


. On optical moving figures. Am. Assoc. Proc., 1850, pp. 292-295. 
. The recent progress of astronomy, especially in the United States. 8vo., p. 257. 


New York, 1850. 


5. Elements of analytical geometry and of the differential and integral calculus. 


8vo., pp. 278. New York, 1851. 


. On Kirkwood’s law of the rotation of the primary Ele nats: Am. Jour., March, 


1851: (2), vol. x1, pp. 217-223. 


. Observations on the first comet of 1850, made at Hudson, Ohio. Gould’s Astr. 


Jour., March, 1851, vol. 1, pp. 179, 180. 


. On the apparent motion of figures of certain colors. Am, Assoc. Proc., 1851, pp. 


78-81. 


. On the distribution of rain for the month of September. Am. Assoc. Proe., 1859, 


pp. 145-149. (Annual Sci. Disc., pp. 389-391, 1852.) 


. The elements of algebra, designed for beginners. 12mo., pp. 260. New York, 151. 
. On the satellitesof Uranus. Am. Jour., November, 1852: (2), vol. x1v, pp. 405-4:0. 
. Notice of the hailstorm which passed over New York City on the Ist of July, 1653. 


Am. Assoc. Proc., 1853, pp. 59-79. (Am. Jour. (2), vol. XVU, pp. 35-55. Annals of 
Science, vol. 1, pp. 209-215. ) 


. Does the moon exert a sensible influence upon the clouds? Am Assoe. Proe., 1853, 


pp. 80-83. 


. On the measurement of heights by the barometer. Am, Assoe. Proc., 1853, pp. 


169-171. 


. Comparison of the British Association Catalogue of Stars with the Greenwich 


Twelve-year Catalogue. Gould’s Astron. Jour., May, 1854, vol. 111, pp. 177-122. 
\ s i PI 


. On the resistance experienced by bodies falling through the atmosphere. Am. 


Jour., July, 1854: (2), vol. 17, pp. 67-70. 


. On the satellites of Uranus. Am. Assoc. Proc., 1854, pp. 52-55. 
. The zone of small planets between Mars and Jupiter. (Lecture.) Smithsonian 


Report, 1854, pp. 137-146. (Harper’s New Month. Mag., February, 1855, vol. x, 
pp. 343-353. ) 


. An introduction to practical astronomy, with a collection of astronomical tables. 


8vo, p. 497. New York, 1855. 


. On the temperature of the planets and on sume of the conclusions resulting from 


this temperature. Am. Assoc. Proc., 1855, pp. 74-80. 


. On the storm which was experieuced throughout the United States about the 20th 


of December, 1836. Arm. Assoc, Proc.,1855, pp. 176-183. 


. Astronomical observations in the United States. Harper’s New Month. Mag., 


June, 1856, vol. X11, pp. 25 52. 


. A treatise on ania i theoretical and practical. 12mo, p. 352. New York, 1856. 
. The recent progress ir astronomy, especially in the United States. Third edition; 


mostly re-written and much enlarged. 8vo, p.396. New York, 1856. 


. On the relative accuracy of the different methods of determining geographical 


longitude. Brit. Assoc. Rep., August, 1857: (2), pp. 25, 26. 


. On certain electrical phenomenain the United States. Brit. Assoc. Rep., August, 


1857, pp. 32-35. (Pogg. Annalen, 1857, vol. c, pp. 599-606.) 


. Elements of natural philosophy, designed for academies and high schools, with 


three hundred and sixty illustrations. 1l2mo, pp. 344. New York, 1858. 


. On the electrical phenomena observed in certain houses in New York. Am. Assoc. 


Proc., 1853, pp. 33-38. (Am. Jour. (2), vol. XXvI, pp. 58-62.) 
On the varieties of the magnetic needle at Hudson, Ohio, Am. Jour., March, 1859, 
(2), vol. XXVIII, pp. 167-169. 
Observations of the magnetic dip in the United States. Read August, 1859. Am. 
* Phil. Soe. Trans. ., vol. XI, pp. 181-186. 


766 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


Shik 


92. 


93. 


SB) 


100 


101. 


102. 


103. 


113. 


114. 


On certain storms in Europe and America, December, 1836. Smith Cont. (ac- 
cepted for publication August, 1859), vol. x1, pp. 26, and 13 colored charts. 
The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September, 1859. Am. Jour. No- 

vember, 1859: (2), vol. XXVIII, pp. 385-408. 
On the European storm of December 25, 1836. Am. Assoc. Proc., 1859, pp. 281- 
233. 


. Notices of the meteor of November 15, 1859. Am. Jour., January, March, and May, 


1860: (2), vol. Xx1x, pp. 137, 138, 298-300, and 447. 


. The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—second article. 


Am. Jour., January, 1860: (2), vol. Xx1x, pp. 92-97. 


. The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—third article. 


Am. Jour., February, 1860: (2), vol. xx1x, pp. 249-266. 


. The great auroral exhibition of August 23 to September 4, 1859—fourth article. 


Am. Jour., May, 1860: (2), vol. xx1x, pp. 386-399. 


. The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and the geograph- 


ical distribution of auroras and thunderstorms—fifth article. Am. Jour., July, 
1860: (2), vol. xxx, pp. 79-100. 

The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—sixth article. (Se- 
lected from the Smithsonian papers). Am. Jour., November, 1860: (2), vol. 
XXx, pp. 339-361. 


. The great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859—seventh article. 


Am. Jour., May, 1861: (2), vol. XxxII, pp. 71-84. 

The great comet of 1861. Am. Jour., September, 1561: (2), vol. XXXII, pp. 252- 
256. 

On the great auroral exhibition of August 28 to September 4, 1859, and auroras 
generally—eighth article. Am. Jour., September, 1861: (2), vol. xxx1I, pp. 318- 
335. 

On electrical currents circulating near the earth’s surface and their connection 
with the phenomena of the aurora-polaris. Ninth article. Am. Jour., July, 
1862: (2), vol. XXXIV, pp. 34-45. (On the action of electrical currents and the 
motion of auroral beams. ) 


. Remarks upon the article of Prof. J. D. Everett. (On reducing observations of 


temperature.) Am. Jour., January, 1863: (2), vol. xxxv, pp. 31-34. 


. The elements of arithmetic, designed for children. 16mo, pp. 166. New York, 


1863. 


}. On vibrating waterfalls. Am. Jour., November, 1863: (2), vol. XXXVI, pp. 352- 


365. (South Natick; Holyoke; Lawrence.) 


. A treatise on astronomy. 8vo, pp. 338. New York, 1865. 
. The aurora borealis or polar light, its phenomena and laws. Smithson Rep., 1365, 


pp. 208-248. (Archives Sci. Phys. Nat., vol. XXXI, pp. 273-285, 1868.) Re- 
written and published with illustrations in Harper’s New Month, Mag., June, 
1869, vol. XxXIx, pp. 1-21. 


. On the physieal condition of the sun’s surface and the motion of the solar spots. 


Am. Assoc. Proc., 1866, pp. 1-5. 


. On the period of Algol. Am. Assoc. Proc., 1866, pp. 5-7. 
. Notices of auroras extracted from the meteorological journal of Rev. Ezra 


Stiles, S. T. D., formerly president of Yale College, to which are added notices 
of a few other auroras recorded by other observers at New Haven, Conn. 
Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. 1, pp. 155-172. 


. On the mean temperature and on the fluctuations of temperature at New Haven, 


Conn., latitude 41° 18’ north, longitude 72° 55’ west of Greenwich (E. Loomis 
and H, A. Newton). Trans. Conn. Acad., vol. 1, pp. 194-246. (Three plates.) 
A treatise on meteorology, with a collection of meteorological tables. 8vo, pp. 

305. New York, 1268. 
Shooting stars, detonating meteors and aerolites. Harper's New Month. Mag., 


June, 1868, vol. XXXVI, pp. 34-50. 
o 


115. 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 167 


A treatise on algebra, revised edition. &vo, pp. 381. New York, 1868. 


116. Influence of the moon upon the weather. Am. Assoc. Proc., 1868, pp. 118-122. 


117. 


On the period of 77 Argus. Roy. Ast. Soc., Month. Not., April, 1869, vol. xxx, 
pp. 298, 299. 


115, Remarkable meteor of May 20, 1869, Am. Jour., July, 1869: (2), vol. xLvin, pp. 


It). 


120. 


121° 


124. 


130. 


131. 


132. 


145, 146. 

Meteorology and astronomy, for academies and high schools. 1l2mo. New York; 
1869. 

Elements of astronomy, designed for academies and high schools, 12mo, pp. 
254. New York, 1869. 

The descendents of Joseph Loomis, who came from Braintree, England, in the 
year 1658, and settled in Windsor, Conn., in 1639. 8vo, pp. 292. New Haven, 
1570. 


. Recent auroral display in the United States. Am. Jour., July, 1870: (2), vol. 1, 


pp. 146, 147. 


. Comparison of the mean daily range of the magnetic declination, with the num- 


ber of auroras observed each year, and the extent of the black spots on the 
surface of the sun, Am. Jour., September, 1070: (2), vol. L, pp. 153-171. 
(Archives Sci. Phys. Nat., vol. 40, pp. 853-353. ) 

Recent auroral displays in the United States. Am. Jour., April, 1871: (3), vol. 
1G Ny BU 


5. Recent auroral displays in the United States. Am. Jour., May, 1872: (3), vol. 


III, p. 389. 
The elements or analytical geometry, revised edition. 8vo, pp. 261. New York, 
1872. 


. Instances of remarkably low temperature observed at New Haven, Conn. Am. 


Jour., April, 1873: (3), vol. v, pp. 232-239. 


. Comparison of the mean daily range of the magnetic declination and the num- 


ber of auroras observed each year, with the extent of the black spots on the 
surface of the sun. Am. Jour., April, 1573: (3), vol. v, pp. 243-260. (Palermo, 
Mem. Spettr. Ital., vol. 2, pp. 123, 124.) 


. Results derived from an examination of the United States weather maps for 


1872 ana 1373. Readin N. A.S., April, 1874. Am, Jour. (3), vol. vill, pp. 1-15. 
(With two plates.) (Influence of rainfall upon the course of storms; influ- 
ence of the wind’s velocity upon the progress of storms; relation between the 
velocity of the wind and the velocity of a storm’s progress; to determine 
whether a storm is increasing or diminishing in intensity ; form of the isobaric 
curves ; classification of storms; where do the storms which seem to come from 
the far West originate ?) 

Elements of the differential and integral calculus, revised edition. 8vo, pp. 309. 
New York, 1874. 

Results derived from an examination of the United States weather maps for 
1872 and 1873, Read in N. A. S., November, 1874. Am. Jour. (3), vol. 1x, pp. 
1-14, (With plate.) (Direction and velocity of the wind within areas of maxi- 
mum pressure; consequences of the outwaid flow of air from an area of high 
barometer; monthly minimum of temperature ; long continued periods of cold 
weather ; storms of January 6-3, 1874; connection between the velocity of the 
wind and the distance between the isobars in the neighborhood of a storm 
center.) 

Results derived from an examination of the United States weather maps for 1872, 
1873, and 1874—third paper. Read in N. A.S8., April, 1875. Amer. Jour. (3), 
vol. xX, pp. 1-14. (With plate.) (Directions of storm paths; diurnal inequality 
in the progress of storms; influence of rainfall upon the course of storms; in- 
influence of a neighboring area of high barometer upon the progress of a storm; 
form of the isobaric curves; great and sudden changes of temperature; storm 
of January 15, 1875, at Denver, Colo.) 


168 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


133. The descendants of Joseph Loomis, who came from Braintree, England, in the 
year 1638, and settled in Windsor, Conn., in 1639, second edition, revised and 
enlarged. 8vo, pp. 611. New Haven, 1875. 

134. Key to treatise on algebra. 12mo, pp. 219. New York, 1875. 

135. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 
United States weather maps and from other sources—fourth paper. Read 
in N. A. S. November, 1875. . (With plate.) Am. Jour. (3) vol. x1, pp. 1-17. 
(Movement of areas of high barometer; monthly minima of temperature ; in- 
fluence of winds on the temperature, moisture, and pressure of the atmosphere ; 
diurnal inequality in the rainfall; comparison of storm paths in America and 
Europe; oscillations of the barometer in different latitudes; storms traced 
across the Atlantic Ocean ; velocity of oceau storms; storms of January 29 to 
February 8, 1870, on the Atlantic Ocean ; application of Ferrell’s formula; 
stationary storms. ) 

136. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 
observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—fifth 
paper. Read in N. A. S. April, 1876. Am. Jour. (3), vol. xu, pp. 1-16. (With 
two plates.) (Low temperature of December, 1872; form of areas of maximum 
and minimum pressure ; relation of rain-fall to variations of barometrie press- 
ure; stationary storms near the coast of Newfoundland; course and velocity 
of storms in tropical regions. ) 

137. Elements of geometry, conic sections, and plane trigonometry. Revised edition, 
with appendix. 8vo, pp. 443. New York, 1876. 

138. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 
observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—sixth 
paper. Readin N. A.S. October, 1876. Am. Jour. (3), vol. x1, pp. 1-19. (With 
three plates.) (Period of unusual heat in June, 1873; rain areas, their form, 
movements, distribution, etc. ; rainfall of 2 inches at stations south of latitude 
36° ; rain-fall of 2 inches at stations north of latitude 36°. 

139. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of 
the observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources— 
seventh paper. Read in N. A. S. April, 1877. Am. Jour. (3), vol. Xtv, pp. i-21. 
(With three plates.) (Rain areas, their form, dimensions, movements, dis- 
tribution, ete.; areas of low pressure without rain.) 

140. Key to elements of algebra. New York, 1877. 

141. Contribution to meteorology, being results derived from au examination of the 
observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—eighth 
paper. Read inN.A.S. October, 1877. Am. Jour. (3), vol. Xv, pp. 1-21. (With 
two plates.) (The origin and development of storms; violent winds ; baro- 
metric gradient. ) 

142. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 
observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—ninth 
paper. Read in N. A.S. April, 1878. Am. Jour. (3), vol. xvi, pp.1-21. (With 
three plates.) (Low barometer at Portland, Oregon; low barometer at San Fran- 
cisco; areas of high barometer; temperature of Iceland and Vienna compared. ) 

(The above nine papers were translated by M. H. Brocard into French, and were 
published as No. 50 (2) of Moigno’s Actualités Scientifique, Paris, 1880, with the 
title Memoires de Météorologie Dynamique. ) 

143. A collection of algebraic problems and examples for the use of colleges and high 
schools in examinations and class instruction. 8vo, pp. 258. New York, 1878. 

144. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 
observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—tenth 
paper. Read in N. A. S. November, 1878. Am. Jour. (3), vol. xvir, pp. 1-29. 
(With two plates.) (Storms of the Atlantic Ocean ; fluctuations of the barome- 
ter on Mount Washington and Pike’s Peak ; high winds on Mount Washington ; 
high winds on Pike’s Peak.) 


146. 


147. 
148. 


149. 


150. 


151. 


155. 


A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 769 


. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 


observations of the United States Signal Service and other sources—eleventh 
paper. Read in N.A.S. April, 1879. Am. Jour. (3), vol. xvi, pp. 1-16. (With 
two plates.) (Tue winds on Mount Washington compared with the winds near 
the level of the sea; abnormal storm paths.) 

Anthony D. Stanley, professor of mathematics. In Yale College, a sketch of its 
history, etc., vol. 1, pp. 254-256. 1879. 

Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences. Ibid., pp. 329-337. 

Contributions to meteorology, being the results derived from an examination of 
the observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources— 
twelfth paper. Read in N. A. S. October, 1879. Am. Jour. (3), vol. x1x, pp. 89- 
109. (With three plates.) (Mean pressure of the atmosphere over the United 
States at different seasons of the year; comparison of barometric minima 
in Europe and America; barometric minima advancing with unusual veloc- 
ity. 

Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 
observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—thir- 
teenth paper. Read in N. A.S. April, 1880. Am. Jour. (3), vol. xx, pp. 1-21. 
(With two plates.) (Great and sudden changes of temperature; barometric 
minima across the Rocky Mountains; mean monthly range of the barometer. ) 

The descendants (by the female branches) of Joseph Loomis, who came from 
Braintree, England, in the year 1638 and settled in Windsor, Conn., in 1639. 
2 vols., 8vo, pp. 1132. New Haven, 1880. 

Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 
observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—four- 
teenth paper. Read in N. A. S. November, 1880. Am. Jour. (3), vol. XxI, pp. 1- 
20. (With three plates.) (Course and velocity of storm centers in tropical 
regions; American storms advancing in a southeasterly direction ; American 
storms advancing northerly and easterly; course of hurricanes criginating 
near the Bay of Bengal, China Sea, ete. ; rain-fallin tropical cyclones; storms 
in the middle latitudes advancing in a westerly direction; storms advancing 
westerly over Europe and the Atlantic Ocean.) 


. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 


observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—fif- 
teenth paper. Read in N. A. §. April, 1481. Am. Jour, (3), vol. xxi, pp. 1-18. 
(With one plate.) (Reduction to sea-level of barometric observations made at 
elevated stations; height of the Signal Service stations. ) 


3. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 


observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—six- 
teenth paper. Read in N.A.S. November, 1881. Am. Jour. (3), vol. Xx1u, pp. 1- 
25. (Withamap.) (Mean annual rain-fall for different countries of the globe ; 
cases of excessive rain-fall; cases of deficient rain-fall.) 


. Contributions to meteorology, being results derived from an examination of the 


observations of the United States Signal Service and from other sources—sev- 
enteenth paper. Read in N. A. S. April, 1882. Am. Jour. (3), vol. XxIv, pp. 
1-22. (With three plates.) (Relation of rain areas to areas of low pressure. ) 
Contributions to meteorology—eighteenth. Read in N. A. S. November, 1882. 
Am. Jour. (3), vol. xxv, pp. 1-18. (With amap.) (Mean annual rain-fall for 
different countries of the globe ; relation of rain areas to areas of low pressure. ) 


3}. Contribution to meteorology—nineteenth paper. Read in N. A. 8. April, 1883. 


Am. Jour. (3), vol. XxvI, pp. 442-461. (With three plates.) (The barometric 
gradient in great storms. ) 


. Contributions to meteorology—twentieth paper. Read in N, A. S. April, 1884, 


Am. Jour. (3), vol. Xxvill, pp. 1-17 and 81-93, (With two plates. ) (Reduction 
barometric observations to sea-level.) 


H, Mis. 129——49 


7170 A MEMOIR OF ELIAS LOOMIS. 


158. 


160. 


161. 


162. 


163. 


Letter addressed to the Chief of the Bureau of Statistics in regard to the prin- 
cipal sources of the rainfall of different sections of the United States. Report 
on the internal commerce of the United States. Submitted May, 1885. Appen- 
dix No. 6, p. 208. Washington, February, 1885. 


. Contributions to meteorology—twenty-first paper. Read in N. A.S. April, 1835. 


Am. Jour. (3), vol. Xxx, pp. 1-16. (With a plate.) (Direction and velocity 
of movement of areas of low pressure.) 

Contributions to meteorology. Nat. Acad. Sci. Mem., vol. 111, part 2, pp. 1-66. 
(Areas of low pressure, their form, magnitude, direction, and velocity of move- 
ment; also published as Contrihutions to meteorology, revised edition. 4to, 
pp. 1-67, plates 1-66. New Haven, 1885.) 

Contributions to meteorology—twenty-second paper. Am. Jour., April, 1887: 
(3), vol. XXXII, pp. 247-262. (With a plate.) (Areas of high pressure, their 
magnitude, and direction of movement; relation of areas of high pressure to 
areas of low pressure. ) 

Contributions to meteorology. Nat. Acad. Sci. Mem., vol. Iv, part 2 pp, 1-77 
(with 16 plates). (Areas of of high pressure, their form, magnitude, direction, 
and velocity of movement; relation of areas of high pressure to arreas of low 
pressure ;) also published as Contributions to meteorology, chapter ii, revised 
edition. 4to, pp. 67-142, plates 17-32. New Haven, 1887. 

Contributions to meteoroloey—twenty-third paper. Read in N. A. 8. November, 
1888. Am. Jour. (3), vol. XX¥XVII,pp. 243-256. (Relation of rain areas to areas 
of high and low pressure. ) 


. Contributions to meteorology. Nat. Acad. Sci. Mem., vol. v, part 1. (Mean 


annual rain-fall for different countries of the globe; conditions favorable to 
rain-fall; conditions unfavorable to rainfall; examination of individual cases 
of rain-fall in the United States, in Europe, over the Atlantic Ocean; areas of 
low pressure without rain ;) also published as Contributions to meteorology, 
chapter 111, revised edition. 4to, pp, 143-232, plates 33-51. New Haven, 1889. 


A MEMOIR OF WILLIAM KITCHEN PARKER, F. R. S.* 


William Kitchen Parker was born at Dogsthorpe, near Peterbor- 
ough, June 23, 1823, and died suddenly, of syncope of the heart, July 3, 
1890. He was visiting his second son, Prof. W. N. Parker, of Cardiff, 
and whilst cheerfully talking of late discoveries and future work in his 
favorite biological pursuits, he ceased to breath. Accustomed to outdoor 
life, he was a true lover of nature from the first; the forms, habits, and 
songs of birds, especially, he knew at an early age. Village schooling 
at Dogsthorpe and Werrington, and a short period at Peterborough 
Grammar School prepared him for an apprenticeship at 15 years of age 
to Mr. Woodrofte, chemist and druggist at Stamford ; and 3 years after- 
wards he was apprenticed to Mr. Costal, medical practitioner, at Market- 
Overton. At Stamford he studied botany earnestly, and used to per- 
suade a fellow apprentice to leave his bed in early mornings to go afield 
in search of plants. Both when living at his father’s farm and in his 
holidays afterwards he kept many pet animals and dissected whatever 
he could get, including a donkey and many birds. Of the latter he pre- 
pared skeletons, and of these he made many large drawings at Market- 
Overton, which of late years he had some thought of publishing as an 
atlas of the osteology of birds. In 1844~’46 he studied at King’s Col- 
lege, London, and became student-demonstrator to Dr. Todd and Mr. 
(now Sir William) Bowman there. He also attended at Charing Cross 
Hospital in 1846 and 1847, and, having qualified as L.s. A., he com- 
menced practice in 1849 at Tachbrook street, Pimlico, and soon after- 
wards married Miss Elizabeth Jetfery. His wife’s patient calmness 
under all difficulties and trials was a true blessing to a man of Mr. 
Parker’s excitable temperament, and her unselfish life and wide- 
spread influence for good are well known in and beyond the family 
circle. Unfortunately he was left a widower about four months ago. 
His family consists of three daughters and four sons. Of the latter, one 
is professor of zoology and comparative anatomy in the University of 
Otago, New Zealand ; the second is professor of biology in the Univer- 
sity College at Cardiff, South Wales; the third is an able draftsman 
and lithographer, and the fourth has lately taken his diplomas of L. R. 
Cc. P. and M. RB. C. 8. 

Mr. Parker had a good father, courteous and gentle by nature, con- 
scientious, and earnest in business, who had worked hard to be able to 


*From Nature, July 24, 1890, vol, XLu, pp. 297-299, 
771 


772. A MEMOIR OF WILLIAM KITCHEN PARKER, F. R. 8. 


give even his youngest son, Mr. W. K. Parker, ‘‘a start in life.” From 
his placid and thoughtful mother he probably inherited much of his 
love of reading and his talent for learning. 

Always energetic, in spite of constant ill health, Mr. Parker enthu- 
siastically carried on his medical work and his natural history studies, 
especially in the microscopic structure of animal and vegetable tissues. 
Polyzoa and Foraminifera, collected on a visit to Bognor, and from 
among sponge sand and Indian sea-shells, especially attracted his at- 
tention. Having sorted, mounted, and drawn numbers of these micro- 
z0a, he was induced, about 1856, by his friends W. Crawford Williamson 
and T. Rupert Jones, to work at the Foraminifera systematically. His 
paper on the Miliolitida of the Indian Seas (Trans. Micros. Soce., 1858), 
and a joint paper (with T. R. Jones) on the Foraminifera of the Norwe- 
giar coast (Annals N. H., 1857) resulted; and the latter formed the 
basis of a memoir on the Arctic and North Atlantic Foraminifera (Phil. 
Trans., 1865). With T. Rupert Jones, and afterwards with W. Bb. Car- 
penter and H. B. Brady, Mr. Parker, down to 1873, described and illus- 
trated many groups and species of Foraminifera, recent and fossil (see 
©. D. Sherborn’s ‘ Biography of Foraminifera” for these papers and 
memoirs), thereby establishing more accurately a natural classification 
of these microzoa, determining their bathymetrical conditions, and 
therefore their value in geology. That he did not neglect anatomical 
research is shown by memoirs in the Proceedings and Transactions of 
the Zodlogical Society on the osteology (chiefiy cranial) and systematic 
position of Balzniceps (1860), Pterocles (1862), Palamedea (1863), Galli- 
naceous Birds and Tinamous (1862 and 1866), Kagu (1864 and 1869), 
Ostriches (1864), Microglossa (1865), Common Fowl (1869), Eel (Nature, 
1871), skull of Frog (1871), of Crow (1872), Salmon, Tit, Sparrow Hawk, 
Thrushes, Sturgeon, and Pig (1873). In the mean time the Ray Society 
had brought out his valuable ** Monograph on the structure and devel- 
opment of the Shoulder Girdle and Sternum in the Vertebrata” (1868) ; 
and his Presidential addresses to the Royal Microscopical Society (1872, 
1873), and notes on the Archeopteryx (1864), and the fossil Bird bones 
from the Zebbug Cave, Malta (1865 and 1869), had been published. 
Subsequently the Royal Society’s Transactions contained his abun- 
dantly illustrated memoirs on the skull of the Batrachia (1878 and 
1880), of the Urodelous Amphibia (1877), the Common Snake (1878), 
Sturgeon (1882), Lepidosteus (1882), Edentata (1886), Insectivora (1886), 
and his elaborate memoir on the development of the wing of the Com- 
mon Fowl (1888). In the ‘‘ Reports of the Challenger” is his memoir on 
the Green Turtle (1880); and those on Tarsipes (Dundee, 1889), and the 
Duck and the Auk (Dublin, 1890), are his last works. 

In former times a skull was taken as little more than a dry, symmet- 
rical, bony structure; or if it were the cartilaginous brain case of a 
shark, it was to most a mere dried museum specimen. When however 
the gradations of the elements of the skull, from embryonic beginnings, 
were traced until their mutual relations and their homologues in other 


7 


A MEMOIR OF WILLIAM KITCHEN PARKER, F. R. 8S. aia 


vertebrates were established, light was thrown on the wonderful com- 
pleteness of organic uniformity and singleness of design. How such 
studies can be carried on both by minute dissection and the modern art 
of parallel slicing, and not by one method alone, is to be gathered from 
his teaching. 

Mr. Parker was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1865, and in 
the year following he received a royal medal for his comprehensive, 
exact, and useful researches in the developmental osteology, or embry- 
onal morphology, of vertebrates. Some few years afterwards the Royal 
Society gave him an annual grant to aid in the prosecution of his stud- 
ies; and, when that was discontinued, a pension from the Crown was 
graciously and appropriately awarded to him. A generous friend, be- 
longing to a well-known Wesleyan family, more than once presented 
£100 towards the cest of some of the numerous plates illustrating his 
grand memoirs in the philosophical transactions. 

In 1873, he received the diploma as member of the Royal College of 
Surgeons, and was appointed Hunterian professor, Professor Flower 
being invalided for a time ; and afterwards both held the professorship 
conjointly. His earnestn+ss and wide views were well appreciated, 
opening up the modern aspect of comparative anatomy, and showing 
that both in man and the lower vertebrates the wonderful structural 
development of their bony framework should be studied in a strictly 
morphological rather than a teleological method, and that its stages and 
resultant forins could be regarded only in the Darwinian aspect. 

These lectures, given in abstract in the medical journals, became the 
basis of his ‘‘ Morphology of the Skull,” in writing which, from his dic- 
tation and notes, Mr.G. T. Bettany kindly assisted him; and again, in 
a semi-popular book, “Cn Mammalian Descent,” another friend (Miss 
Arabella Buckley, now Mrs. Fisher) similarly helped him. In the lat- 
ter work his own usual style frequently predominates, full of metaphor 
and quaint allusions, originating in his imaginative and indeed poetic 
mind, fully impregnated with ideas and expressions frequent in his 
favorite and much-read books—Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, some of 
the old divines, and above all the old English Bible. 

Separating himself from the trammels of foregone conelusions and 
from the formulated but imperfect misleading conceptions of some of 
his predecessors in biology, whom he left for the teaching of Rathke, 
Gegenbaur, and Huxley, Prof. W. K. Parker earnestly inculeated the 
necessity of siugle-sighted research, and the following up of any un. 
biased elucidations, to whatever natural conclusion they may lead. 
Simple and firm in Christian faith, resolute in scientific research, he 
felt free from dread of any real collision between science and religion. 
He insisted that ‘* our proper work is not that of straining our too fee- 
ble faculties at system building, but humble and patient attention to 
what nature herself teaches, comparing actual things with actual” 
(Proc. Zo6l. Soc., 1864); and in his ** Shoulder girdle, ete.,” page 2, he 
writes: “ Then, in the times to come, when we have ‘ prepared our 


474. A MEMOIR OF WILLIAM KITCHEN PARKER, F. 8. S. 


work without, and made it fit for ourselves in the field,’ we shall be able 
to build a ‘system of anatomy’ which shall truly represent nature and 
not be a mere reflection of the mind of one of her talented observers.” 

Again, at page 225, in illustration of some results of his work, he 
says: ‘The first instance I have given of the shoulder girdle (in the 
skate) may be compared to a clay model in its first stage or to the 
heavy oaken furniture of our forefathers, that ‘stood pond’rous and 
fixed by its own massy weight.’ As we ascend the vertebrate scale the 
mass becomes more elegant, more subdivided, and more metamorphosed 
until, in the bird class and among the mammals, these parts form the 
framework of limbs than which nothing can be imagined more agile or 
more apt. So, also, as it regards the sternum ; at first a mere outcrop- 
ping of the feebly developed costal arches in the amphibia, it becomes 
the keystone of perfect arches in the true reptile; then the fulcrum of 
the exquisitely constructed organs of flight in the bird; and, lastly, 
forms the mobile front wall of the heaving chest of the highest verte- 
brate. 

Prof. W. K. Parker was a fellow of the Royal, Linnean, Zodlogical, 
and Royal Microscopical Societies ; honorary member of King’s College, 
London, the Philosophical Society of Cambridge, and the Medical Chi- 
rurgical Society. He was also a member of the Imperial Society of 
Naturalists of Moscow, and corresponding member of the Imperial 
Geological Institute of Vienna, and the Academy of Natural Sciences 
of Philadelphia. In 1885 he received from the Royal College of Physi- 
cians the Bayly medal, “ Ob physiologiam feliciter excultam.” 

In conversations shortly before his death he often spoke of Jooking 
forward throughout his life-time (alas! how quickly shortened !) to con- 
tinued application of all the energy he could devote to his useful work— 
at once a consolation to him and a duty. 

He has well expressed his own view of biological pursuits at page 
363 of the “ Morphology of the skull:” ‘The study of animal morphol- 
ogy leads to Continually grander and more reverent views of creation 
and of a Creator. Each fresh advance shows us further fields for con- 
quest, and at the same time deepens the conviction that while results 
and secondary operations may be discovered by human intelligence, 
‘no man can find out the work that God maketh from the beginning to 
theend.” We liveas in a twilight of knowledge, charged with revela- 
tions of order and beauty ; we steadfastly look for a perfect light, which 
shall reveal perfect order and beauty.” 

An unwordly seeker after truth, and loved by all who knew him for 
his uprightness, modesty, unselfishness, and generosity to fellow-work- 
ers, always helping young inquirers with specimens and information, he 
was suddenly lost to sight as a friend and father, but remains in the 
minds of fellow-workers, of those whom he so freely taught, and of his 
stricken relatives, as a great and good man, whose beneficent influence 
will ever be felt ina wide-spreading and advancing science and among 
thoughtful and appreciative men in all time, 


EN DX: 


ING 
4 Page 
Aaron, E. M., acknowledgments due for specimens_---------------------- 14 
offer by, to make collections for Museum -_-_ 2 -----..-_--_-- 33 
pour” Wir. ;COWECHONS MaAdG DY 2a == 22 ha aa- =o scene ae eee ee 14 
Aboriginal map of old Cherokee country, preparation of __-_------------- 49 
DOtlLeny StabisticS OF €CCCSSIONS=--- 0 aa se eee ae ae 27 
Academy of Sciences met in lecture hall of Museum_--------------------- 31 
Nceessionus, important, co the:library: 22252: 22-2" 2 t e Scenes 75-17 
SiapisticsiOle sae e == =e— I Spee gc eR pa ge dey hak ed ee a 27, 28, 80, 81 
to the library, statement of ----.------- spa yl sate Ss A sea a ee | nd 19 

PAccipicr, coupert in, ZOOlO gies bane, ota oe seco se aaae aa hanes eos woe 64 

Accounts examined by executive committee) -22------—- = 22-2 eee eee xvii 

Account of progress. (See Progress reports.) 

Acknowledgments due to employés of exchange bureau ---_--------------- 60 
foreign agents of exchange bureau _-.----_.---- 60 
officers and sailors of United States steamer Pen- 

SCO Mea eee en ee See ee ne eee - 33 
recorded: by exchange burcauw — 22522525222 hae ae ses 50, 06 

ANetime manarer of Zoological Park report Of 2 5252-2 oasee ae 64 

Acts of Congress. (See Congress, acts of.) 

ING dersineAOOlOSI1Cal teat kee sean eae eee eee See ern eee Seana S 64 

Additions to the libraty 222-es sos SS a Se Se e eee 75 

Advance of science in the last half century. By Thomas H. Huxley ----- 79-81 

Africa, collections made in, by William Harvey Brown ---.--------------- 14 

Explorawons in, Dye Palcope Walliams==- = 2-22- 2. os So sean 13 

ASS Ombronzein Hoypt. iby Oscar Montelius— — = 22225 - 222 est so ese 499 

Agents of exchange bureau, acknowledgment due ____--_--_-------- sae 60 

Agricultural Department, contributions received from --------.----------- 29 

exchanees 0 fi soe se ae oe os Ser 60 

AGiachinysuciis im: Zoological Park =. 222 ssa ogo eee eee 64 

Alabama, explorations in, by Bureau of Ethnology ----_---.-----.------- 49 

Allan Steamship Company, acknowledgments due -..----..-------------- 61 

Allen, George A., manners and customs of the Mohawks------_.-.------- 615 

Allon Or es iarrison- cOMleclon Of bats fOr Suu yao sn a ae 30 

lecture on clinical study of the brain --_-..--------- 21 
paper on clinical study of the skull -_._------------- 15, 80 
Aligaior-mississumensis in Zodlogical, Park ..2-222-- 52. 2.-.-- 2-2-2 Ss nsce 64 
American aboriginal pottery, statistics 0: accessions -------.------------- 27 
ISIS OMe Re UST LT GT OTN Of ee ey 34, 35 
paper on, by William T. Hornaday----- 30,81 
INeZOOlO LICH la Oi es a eee oe ee ee he ee Se ee 64 

775 


Tar ES : INDEX. 


Page. 

American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, acknowledy- 
MENtS CWS 2 ss Bee ee kn ee ee ee ae 61 
Colonization Society, acknowledgments due ___----_----- eae 61 
elkun-Zodlorical Park =. 2- 22. 2 esse7 see ge See eee Bere 64 
Ephemeris, exchanges Ol-2 3.0 2s = 3a he ae eee = eae eee i 60 
Historical Association, annual report of the _-------------- foe 15 
collectionstois=s===see= == ==— === eee 22, 
established by laws 2 5) 248 22S ee 21 
meetines Of: Dl 4s Sets, See see 22 
publicationsiot S2s tea eee eee 22 
Institute of Mining Engineers, met in lecture hall of Museum. Bil 
FAN ALOMY;,,SLAIStLCS' Of ACCESSIONS: 2 282 Saas ee ee eee 27 
Anchor Steamship Line, acknéwledgments due __-----_-----.-------- Ms 61 
AMI CHO StOMES He Tes Ve IS. By SUNY Cie hate ere ees ee eee eee rere at 80, 81 
Ancient art of Chiriqui, Colombia. Paper by W. H. Holmes------------ 54, 82 
bowlder quarries) excayablOnS iM On sss se eee 47 
mounds in Jowa and Wisconsin. By Clement L. Webster __----- 80, 81 


Johnson County, lowa. By Clement L. Webster ---- 80,81 
and earthworks in Floyd and Cerro Counties, lowa. By 


Clement he Websters. 8222. fae sae. ee see ee eee 80, 81 
works in Michigan and Ohio, exploration of -._--_.-.------------ 7 
ofthe Cherokeesexamln€ dee === eee ee +7, 48, 49 
Angell, Hon. James... rement=. 2 328. Je ee ee eee Sepxal 
Angora goat in Zoédlogical Park _-__--- SS 5s Ce Se ee een 64 
Animale POGUES AStAvISELCSLOm ACCESS OS ieee ea eee 27 
Aron eHls} tiny INE Kowne | VAovolloyenvorniletwelke 22 5 es oe ee 64 
Annual inerease in the Museum collections, tables of___.._.__--____--___- 8,9 
MeehiNno TOL BoOaLdcOk GMM bs ae] ee ee 2 
report of American Historical Association --.-....--------------- 15 
Board of Regents 2 sae e2 7 be see ees ea eee i, iv, 81, 82 
Bureau'of Wihnolowy ¢ 2252622 22268 a. os ase Se eee 
National Museums 22220. see one ate ee eee 29, 82 
Secretary, forsl3 90s ae ees aye Se ee ee ees ae 1 
Smithsonian Institution for 1887 and 1888 _-_.-._------- 15, 79 
for W890 contents Olase==— eae Vv 

extra copies ordered to be 
printed ®=2 3: 2ess- 22-222 eee ii 
submitted to Congress _______- ili 
Antarctic explorations: by G.SoGritith =) 258-8 eee eee Sees 293 
AuLnropology,, miscellaneous Papers ONS] 42. 2255 ee = eee 80, 81 
Bre-historic, StaviSulesOMmacCess lO lS = y= =e seen en ese 27 
iProsressim for S905 SB Oise Mass ons ee ee eee re 80, 81 
Archeology: 2. sled Sie Se eee ee ee ee eee eee eee 501 
Biblvosrap hy OL an thico pol oo yee see ae eae 508 
Biological os <2. bu lle SR Ee Fo a 534 
thn olocy 45.2 3-2c3- — <2 Sec ae See ee en ee ee eee 541 
General anthropology ------------- ay ee eeMhene 3 On ae ee SN Seis 529 
Glossolo oy ee Se hee eae 28 eee eee ee Pe ee Se aes Se ee 546 
Manan dinate © kone 2 oe eee ene rer pas sy) ea Ee = 557 
Psychology fio s2 eset 2c Bo a eS ee ee ee 536 
Religion and folk lore _-------- 2a 2 Dadi Ree eS _ eA eee 556 
Sociology 2:4 so tS sh Sse Bee. 2 ds oe ee ee 504 
Pechnologyy cc. sols ccsastens 2 teste oo Soest ee ee ee ee ee eee 546 


INDEX. ; rire 


Page 

Amiuquinrcsior Mexico... By Bivens) Sse ees 2 a er id 80, 81 

Antiquity OVI TAHT GR TSA Ohava le N\iey ols) aoe at a ee Rae ee ee ee 467 

Apparatus, astronomical and physical, standard screw threads for_---_---- 13 

ingastro-physicall observatory =. < 2-2 2st se bee eS JUL 

EMpeN ix tO) SOCretary Ss: Teports == 2. 252 os a5 soe Ses ae eee Pe 7 

RE DPOLb LOLS GO a, Se Sear SF vara Ss ee Efe a Ba Pee Ce 93 

MpprAusementiOf land for Zoological Parle. 2 4 921-5222 ee ee 38 

Appropriation of annual income, resolution of Board of Regents ________- xii 

Appropriations. (See also Congress, appropriations by.) 

Marnie ineZOOlOoI Cal Parkas. 0 8. ius eos) to omens sce Litany eo eae 64 
CUOLOpIELOnl;AOOlOgiCal Park. a cee sees Bes Aled eee Se 64 
OOKO THO) shay’ /Aoyo Koyeaer Me VEY ist an eee eS TI Sun See eh ele 64 

Archeological objects, purchase of, money grant for_.__....___.-.._-..-_2- 2] 

researches in vicinity of Washingtone__- 2220 20). 0i2 2s 42 

Architect of Capital, examination of Museum building -________________- 10 

supervision of fire-proofing of Smithsonian building - 10 

Architecture of Tusayan and Abola, report on __-.__.__...-_...222-_-- LF 53 

AG CLONUYS MONIL AN ZOOLOGICAL Parke 32) “aie tsiolosts Bac ily cere ey Eee ee aed 6 

Argentine Republic, a party to Brussels Convention____._______________- 58 

consul-general for, acknowledgment due _-_-______- 61 
transmissions of exchanges to_____- Ea Sense FOO 

Arietidz, genesis of, paper on, by Alpheus Hyatt ___________- Eee ike we 

LEM Medi calNiMUseuMm exchanges! OL seas =< 5 mee = ae ee eee ee 60 

Of Cers,CO:O Pera lions Of = 255 24s 22 eae hw 2 eel eee ee 29 
Artificial deformation of children, by Dr. J. H. Boren pees. Lee Soak 80 
Arts and industries, statisties of accessions 5-.--2_--. 1124.4. -20 2 2 27 

of the mound builders, papers on, by W. H. Holmes ___--__________- 51 

Aryans, the primitive home of the, by A. H. Sayce _-_-_...-..__-=....- 475 

PVSCe t OLMan. DY TE Talk Dakceiys <= a2, Res 7 ete een ay bee pee ened 447 

ASS o MMe’ OL LOOMS; TOrsClentiic WOrk. ---> ==) s8 . ie eee eee yas 21 

Assistant Secretary, report of, bilbiography of Museum publications in___ 30 

BASSES feUllCOtbONS DUCE Miser ee ee as Sek oe ee ee Slap aa Bah Ree 30 

ssociation of American Agricultural Colleges and Experiments Stations 

metin lecture halliokMuseume == 55s ao ee es ee ee 31 

AStRONOMeETS; ane Cr olO Lie Olas ae ee bs pen se fe Se eee Vegi 

Astronomical appartus, standard of screw threads er ne oe 13 

bibliography, by W.C. Winlock _.--_________- era liTilew laces 

instruments, report on ------_---~- see Sa erp Ss Ze GI 

Journal, subseription to ------.----- Be eS See $22 21 

SOCISbIES PE POP tONss = eae eae eer Cee eee 169 

Astronomy, progress in, in 1886, by Gyralleam C: Winlock Seta Pan emak canes, 79, 81 
progress of, for 1889, 1890, by William C. Winloeck__________- 12 

astronomers, necrology of -------___- Si eS ae 172 

astronomical constants -- ---- ST as case et ee, ee 123 
bibliographive ss. eater ene 2 are es Tezeleeter 

instruments. ------- he =f Soe eee. ALOT 

SOCICHIOS*S= ter eis eee Re aie tee Med 169 

photograpliyates. eee oan : a views Me oe 135 

COMCUSE Sasa se sae oa. 2S eee eee oS ns ee ea 138 

CCMPSES sass. ses ee eee eA AS Sw ah Se eS 156 

MCUCORS See SS ae i oF Pee a pears as 143 

motion of the stars _-----.---- Se ee n> Ne 135 


ME DU ce tene ee eres ee eee on actep er Ws) osha A pe 12. 


778 INDEX. 


Page 
Asinanomy, progress iof, observatories!=_ 922-22 =. se eee eee 159 
photography, astronomical, “===. 7p 2e- =e eee eee 135 
photometry 2534s. 23 S552. Fee ee eee 130 
planetss sae % Bes ee fe ee ee 144, 150 
solar parallax..o2.3 4: 0293. See ee ee ee 159 
solar specthumt: 2). esas. eee ee eee eee ee 154 
Solar. system, 225.2255 Sake a Cee ee ee ee eee 151 
staricatalocues j352- Ske sae eee ee Ss aie P22 (2 aan Eas ae 124 
stellar parallames\ ysis Ose 52558 ee ee ea. et eoee 128 
stellar specttas 233 5- Sh5e 2s 4 ee ee eee eee 133 
transit.of Venuse 5252525255522. 3 ee eee 159 
Vatiableandscoloredistarss: = eee ee eee ee 131 
Astro-physical investigations, building for apparatus ----------_--------- 10 
observatory, establishment Of 22202 23°22 =a sess xii, 10 
scope Of work explained=-2222¢__21-24_5 2-2 == 12 
Atlas Steamship Company, acknowledgments due ------------------------ 61 
Austria, exchange transmissions to---.----.---------------------------59, 62, 68 
‘‘ A vifauna Italica,” presented by author ------.-- Ra Seat aie ae See ene 78 
B. 

Baden, exchange transmissions to --------------------------------------- 59. 63 
Bailey, H. B., & Co., acknowledgments ducé2—--o. 4222. = eee ee 61 
Baird, Pr wees statuevOhs2 2. s22asecme. oe oe ee ee ee eee 20 

Baker, Dr. Frank, appointed acting manager of National Zodlogical 
Parks ]-% 2. ah ee a eee sea ary ee se eagle ed 32, 41, 74 

appointed honorary curator, Department of Compara- 
hive -Anatomaye. i 2 Ss on ee ee 32 
The Ascent of Manz. 022° o- 2 hss ese ety 
Baltazzi, X., Consul-General, acknowledgments due-_-------------------- 61 
Barber & Co., acknowledgementsidue —.--~----2-=22==----- Wet eros 61 
Barker, George F., report on progress in physics for 1886 --_----- ree SS 80, 81 
iBarnowieinyZoolosical Parke ao 2-2 So ee ee 64 
Bascanion constrictor in Zodlogical Park --.-.---------2-=---=--- ated eee 64 
Basel, University of, sends complete sets of publications --------.-------- Gina 
Basement under National Museum, cost Of 22-5222 — 22) See oe 9 
Basket work of North American aborigines, by Otis T. Mason -_-_-------- 81 
Batrachia of North America, paper on, by Prof. E. D. Cope-------------- 29 
iBatrachians, Stabisbics:Of accessions==— > 2-2-5. ee eee 27 
Bats studied by Dr. Harrison Allen__-_--------_------ =22-=2==2---—--_-_-- 30 
Bavaria, exchange transmissions to---------------------+---------------- 59, 63 
Bean, Dr. Tarleton H., Dr. G. Brown Goode and, paper by--------------- 30 
Bearsin)Zoolopical Park: 2: 222-225 Soe = ee ee 64 
Beck, Senator, death of, a loss to the Institution------------------------- 41 
Belgium, a party to Brussels Convention -------------------------------- 58 
exchange transmissions-to .222-0.2-- 22. 22 gee ee ey Gee 
Bell, Dr. Alexander Graham, donation to astro-physical observatory -_--- 3, 12 
Bequest of James Hamilton, amount of----------------------------------- 2 
Dr. Jerome He Kidder... 2.22 220 eee oe ee ee ee 
resolutions by Board of Regents---- ---- xiii 
Simeon Habel amount Of -.252-s2- 4 eee ae ee eee 2 
Smithson, amount.Of-_. 25.5. 2c2 02 Se. eo eae eae eee 2 


INDEX. 779 


Page. 
Berber manuscript obtained by Talcott Williams --_-_-.------.---------- 13 
Bern, University of, sends complete set of publications __-__.-_-----__---- 77 
Bernadou, Ensign J. B., lecture in Museum lecture hall_____.___--_____-- 31 
Bibliographical catalogue of the described transformations of North 

America’s Lepidoptera, by Henry Edwards --.---.--2.-2---s-+--1-+: Res 20s 30 
Bibliography of Anthropology, by Otis T. Mason -_---........._--.--_..- 558 
Museum publications in, report of assistant secretary —-_- 30 
Musichogean’ lancuages <= —* . = ae Sere ee 52 
the National Museum, its officers, and others ___._______- 82 
Biographical memoir of Arnold Guyot, by James D. Dana ___---________- 80 
Dirdumnr7OOlOciCca Park: 32-2 oe Se eb eh on Hed 64 
Statistics Of ACCESSIONS: 6 aac = eS Dee ya alesis aU gees 27 
eges and nests, statistics of accessions_--_-____-- Erne Ties paki ST 27 
skeletonsistudied joy, Dr. = W... Shuteldt= = <2) s3-eeee ese 30 
Bison Americanus: in ZOodlogical. Park: wasn 5 32 seine 355 iret 20 64 
LIMOTICAN, @Xvermuima tion. Obi) 252 so pa eh er eye eh epee 34, 35 
paper on, by William T. Hornaday ---- 30, 81 
Bixby, Thomas E., & Co., acknowledgments due -__-_----.-_-_---___- a S34 61 
Blacktatledkdeer-nyZoolopicaltizar: kee Sats aee sees a 2 ne es ee eee 64 
Blaine, Hon. James G., member ex officio of the establishment ____________ ix 
Blood corpuscles, morphology of the, by Charles Sedgwick Minot —------- 429 
Board of Regents, action of, relation to death of Hon. Samuel S. Cox__-__- 2 
annualimectinovoly =e = aes aera ei nena ey) eae 2 
report fortes pean, hrssek Se tS Skee ea alee 81 
Rani iis Sr eese se. en) ee a 2 
ANNUAL TSOpPOr LAO SH ese ape ese ae es ee ee i,iv 
Journalot se roceed insolent eee See ae xi 

recommended additional Museum building ----________ } 
resoluitionssby == 328 Re eR AETV, XV OX VA on) 1G. lS ae 

(See, also, Executive Committee and Regents.) 
vacancies in, filled by Congressional resolution ___-___- xli 
Board on geographical names, Smithsonian represented at__-..___--____- 25 
Boas, Franz, paper on the Central Eskimo-_----_---_---- de Bee ae mes ee 54, 82 
ipesleian Library; books senbrby:s-a22- 32) te: tetas wea 4 eee Jue ea Te 
Boehmer, George H. Report on exchanges for 1887__.-.._..._.--_______- 79 
Bolivia, consul-general for, acknowledgments due __........_--_.-_-..-.-- 61 
exchanve- transmissions 105202. 2/2522 see pape Aa we ee eee 59, 62 
Bolometer in astro-physical observatory --------- soy AAS geo AES hh 11 
Bolton, H. Carrington, report on progress in chemistry for 1886_________- 80, 81 
represented Institution at installation of Dr. Low, 

of Columbia College see") seas sete eee 25 
Bonds, proceeds of sale, deposited in United States Treasury___-._______- 2 
Bonn, University of, sends complete set of publications ___._..___._______- 77 
borland) pve wackMOw Led omenits Cie je == see sees el eee 61 
Bors, C., Consul-General, acknowledgments due___-_______.__-__-__._____- 61 
Botanical collections made by Telcott Williams __.-..........__.________.- 13 
Garden7exchantesyOis2 <= =: aaa 5 See AS Yee 60 
tropical Win: NES Drentes = arene et beet! Re 389 
Botany of- National Zodlogical Park). 252 S202 9 ee See lee 68 
Botassi, D. W., Consul-General, acknowledgments due__________._-______- 61 
Boulton, Bliss & Dallett, acknowledgments due _....._-....-------_------ 61 
Boxes of specimens received by Museum.-.-_-----___. _.- = ee 28 


ays. One fen US DAE DOLR eer mse on 55 sae Aw hace o so wd eee ae 315 


780 INDEX. 


Page. 
Brady, J. H., collections received from) =< ==" ee oe ee eee 32 
Brain clinical study/of the, lechureion! = = eee Bpeeyete eye Sb) 21 
BrantarcanadensisnneZ,00lo mac ails ys kaa eee ees peer re eelneeeee een er eee 64 
Brazil vanparhy tons russelsiConvemtlOmes sss sae eae ene eee 58 
exchange transmissions to_------------------ Bes. ees see aetyeye 21) 63 
British Government, publications presented iy 25 = === sae =e 78 
IBVAOMVAS) Bee) mal IBA RoNH) Joe Oltere Milovannelhnbisy = ka nee sas Sas soe 499 
SLONZES AStabISblGSO le ACCESSU OMS Sse ear ee tee 27 
Brown, Vernon H., & Co., acknowledgments dus ------------_-=--- cau Sethe 61 
Brown, William Harvey, collections received from: 2_.-.-+-.-22-----222. 14, 32 
Brusselsiexchanee treaty 222 2228s Ss sas a soe ee ee ee eee 18, 57 
IBulbo! var oimanusamyZ00] oo; Callie re kee es eee eee eee Bae 64 
BuenosPAyresvexchange transmissions | tOss see ae ers 63 
Buttalosextermination) Olj= 352-2 sol et as ee ee eee eee 34, 35 
Building, additional required for Museum: 222232 2b ae as 2s ee 4, 26 
Sketch plans: presented) »:225224 2 ssp AoC a ee eee 4 
Senateactiona- 22-2) eye he Sele aed Aa a ee ee eee 4 
Letter of Secretary to chairman Senate Committee on Public Buildings - 5 
Building-stone, hand-book on, by George P. Merrill______----_----------- 30. 80 
IB EH, ISLS diay eel oavoyn ikerolenaavevanrs) Che) | Bk ee kes 61 
BulletimsofsNa biome] @Viwse urieee ene eee ee eee ogg ey ee 15, 29 
Bullfrog stineZoolopuGale Parse see Sees SNe ee eee ees ee eee ee eee 64 
Bureau Om duca lon excl aoe SiO kee see eee ee er 60 
Hugineers,, WU. S..ArmMy,jexchangesvol ewer. een as. sae 60 
Ethnology, accounts examined by executive committee —__----_- Lx 

Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smith- 
sonian Institutionts {ses 2s ee eee xli, 3 
estimates for, 22.5 Wier iy ete Se ee ee 4 
exchan@esiofiey 222.225 22 = 5) Se ee OL) 
explorationsimade Dye s= =) =e =a sas eee 14 
reportiol director 2. els) se eee ee 43, 47, 82 
Secretanyon = ot. c seo ee 42 
sixthiannual reportiofse- 22. J22=- 1a Soke eee 15, 54, 82 
Fine Arts, Congressional bill for the establishment of---------- 22 

International Exchanges. (See International Exchanges.) 

the Minthexchanpesio fiir asso ae ees ae eee a ee 60 
Statishies, exchanges 0 fee secs ey ae ee 60 
Bureowlineatus any Zo0Lo pac alle air Key ee ee ee See 64 
Butterworth, Hon; Benjamin, a resent 22252 s522 sess ee ee 2G etl 

letter to, relative to money advanced on ac- 
Count olexchancesseee eee eae ee eee 18 

Cc. 

Cabinet officers forming the “‘establishment”_.---.-_----..--.----- 8. -.- 1 
members ex officio of the establishment --_--------------- ix 
Cacatua galerita:in-Zoological Park: 2-22-52 S222 53-225 -22 32 eer eee 64 
Calderon, Consul-General C., acknowledgments due ------ Se Se eee ee 61 
Caldo, Consul-General A. G., acknowledgments due-.--...--.-.---------- 61 
California, Indian vocapularies collected nme ==- es =ase een =a 49 
linguistic: workin.” 223-2: 22422 ee eee 49 

Call, Hon. Wilkinson, introduced bill For the establishment of a Bureau 
of«Fine-Arts 2.2.25 22 ep asi e ee SoS AE ee ee ee er 22 


INDEX. | 781i 


Page 
Cameron; R: W. & Co., acknowledgments! due: )22222:2.2c22.s2 222422528 61 
Wanada, exchange transmissions tO:20 2-2. osee Sacer set ee oe Bee nb2. 6S 
Cape Flattery, Indians of, paper on, by J. G. Swan ___.-----_--------.---- 15 
Capra hircus angorensis in Zoélogical Park ._.......--..-------.- SEALS Sp. 2 64 
Capron collection of Japanese works of art, proposed purchase of —______- 23 
Capuchin monkeys in:Zoological Park 90 ok Soeess os ease eae see eee 64 
Caruicusicolumbiianus i-ZoolosicaliPark 29-25-22 en eee ee 64 
TLACTOUSHZOOLODIGAIS Par kisi es eg ae ee ee Le Seer. 64 
DiLoRnaanusvin AOOLOCICal, Parkg ssa so semen en es aes Ee Eee 64 
Carter, R. Burdenell, color vision and color blindness__-.=2_-._.__.-__-- ae OR 
Casalanco modellor, made: byaC.;Muindeleti 3 562 te- =) wee 53 
Grande, Arizona, report on;,by, V. Mindeleti 222° bel sie Ee 53 
Ari Zonas VASIbC Ct eecce tay aie es seen mete eer eee ey ee oH aR 43,48 
Casexishipped by M:xchange surcatls 92-2 ae tee ae ee Oe Be 55, 56 
Casey, Capt. b:. studied'\ Coleoptera 2--- i220 ete ub ee ee) See 30 
Cataloguerentries:of National Museums: 222: < 2522 2e=e_ sae 2 ee ee ee 28, 80, 8 
Catlin Indian Gallery, by Thomas Donaldson -.--------- ae oe Sle et 81 
BLavIStiCs OlMaACCesS ONS ete eae ee ee 27 
Cavvonapercaim Zoolorical Parkes == 225: = Pe eee ae oir 8. Seppe) Se 64 
CCDUSH MIUELLUS 1m ZOO lOCICalMe ark aes es oe Se Sp SS ee ple I oy pa oes 64 
REPO CHS IME ZOOlOSI Cal Wal hes: ann saa ee ete Se Se Tes See 64 
(fegiha, English dictionary prepared by Dr. Dorsey ___--- _.------------- 50, 51 
Cenozoic fossils, statistics of accessions --_--=-25- £222 2-42-88 aero ea aS 28 
@ensuswisuce ate xchan'g.eSi@ fees epee yee ea a ip erg) eee ees 60 
Ceniraliiskimo, paper: by lM ranz) 08s 2-2 9s— Sens oe eee Boon soph UE 54, 82, 82 
Cercopithecus callibrichus in, Zoblogical Park: 52-522) soe 82) ee ee 64 
Cervus canadensis in Zoblogical Park ------ ER PASS Sa pers) 40) Ta ee emer 64 
Cetaceans, Natural History of, contributions to, by F. W. True ------__-- 30 
Chaco ruins, model of, made by C. Mindeleff -_----_- Sa ECS Vero ee ints S32 53 
Challenger Reports presented to Institution _22--2-_ 2222-225 7 
BebherG@heapest Horm of lilo Mt se sn oe ere eee en Oe ee ee 11 
Checkdishoe Smubhnsonvany pw liCa TOT sis ee see ee ee 81 
Chemical Problems of To-day, by Victor Meyer .9252 2.225.225.4208. 361 
Chemistry, Progress report for 1886, by H. Carrington Bolton _____-_ ___- 80, 81 
Cherokee country, aboriginal map of the, preparation of -__-------__----- 49 
WOLKS Gxaminediccc. 2 a8 2. fess seas ate ee a eee ee 47, 48, 49 
Chickens in Zoélogical Park------ soe 2 hee Eis SSeS eee 64 
Chilevexchance oransmiSS1OnS) bossa ee eee a ee ee ee 59, 62, 63 
China yexchance transmission sito mse ese ee oe ee ee 59, 62 
Chiriqui, Colombia, ancient art of. Paper by W. H. Holmes_---._------ 54, 82 
Cibola, architecture of, report on, by V. Mindeleff_..-.-...---.--.-=..--- 53 
Clark; MisseMiens-.pilives tea tions mad CM yee a een ee ee 50 
Clarke, F. W., report on Prof. Morley’s researches___-.-.-_--.-.-.------ 83 
the meteorite collection in National Museum__----. __---- 80 
Clarke simuit-crackeriiny ZOOL 9 Callie kay: kage ere ea 64 
Clinical study of the brain, lecture on_----- PA eine = 2: See ee 2h 
skull, paper) on, by Drs Harrison Allen 222522--2-2— 15, 80 
Cluss & Schulze, claims of, for plans for new Museum building __---___--- xiv 
@oashiand GeodeticiSurvey, cooperation Of masse san ee eee D 
exchanloestOheen ae sss aes oe oe ee 60 
pendulum experiments by....+2.---.-.---.=- 21 
WON WStaAlIShiCSs 1Of ACCESSIONS # ass = seo ee eee eh eS 2) ee 27 


Coleppters studied: by Capt: (D.1u. Casey << 22.655 sccc- wn gsees on seca e 30 


aye INDEX. 


Page. 
Collections of American Historical Association to be deposited in Smith- 
sonian’ building’? 342-2422. 552208 Se eee ee eerie 22 
Museum, increase cf! 221221) ee ee ee eee eee 26 
Color-blindness, color-vision and. By R. Burdenell Carter-------------- 687 
Color-vision and color-blindness. By R. Burdenell Carter --------------- 687 
Colombia, consul-general for, acknowle. » nents due---------------------- 61 
exchange! travisiaisslONS) GOn ee ees eee eee eee 59, 62, 63 
Commissioners for establishment of “odlogical Park, report of------------ 38, 39 
Committee on the International Standards for Iron and Steel, rooms 
Gectpled (by oo. 22 62) es eee eee eee ees eee ee 21 
resolutions relative to services of Hon. S. S. Cox._-..-__------ 43, 44 
Compagnie Générale Transatlantique, acknowledgments due------------- 61 
Comparative anatomy, statistics of accessions --------------------------- 27 
Comptroller of the Currency, exchanges of-.------------------------<--- 60 
Condition of the Smithsonian fund: = --- 22222222 == 92s ee 2, 3, XVii 
Congress, action of, desired for printing annual reports ------------------ 16 
relative to new Museum building ---_----.------.... 4 
Congress, acts by— 
Organization of Zodlogical Park-----.------------------------------- 39 
Purchase of Capromicoll CGtiOM se see. seater =e ee ee ee 23 
World’s Columbian Exposition 222 -._- 2522. See cece se aeeeeee eee 23 
(See also, Congress, appropriations by.) 
Congress, appropriations by, for— 
Claims allowed by First Comptroller of Treasury -..------:---------- xli 
Deficiency claims. -----2------- -2- = soe Se ee ee xli 
Exchanges for Geological Survey 2226s se= =o ae xli 
Furniture and fixtures, National Museum. 222225225222" == 22 eee xl 
Pisbursemenh Oboe oe eee ee eee ee lee 3 
Fireproofing Smithsonian building ---.------------------------------ 10 
Heating and lighting Museum building -------------- EXVill, KXix) Seed xl 
international exChanees =o -ceeer oer ee ee XIN, Re, ole oe 
National Museums. 22 === asses sos" oe eren ee LOADS O Gly SOQ nblly .Odd<, SSO-0 il, ol 
National Zoological Park 222555" S226. 2222. neers eee XSW], KL eS, 
North American ethnolosy2:_---- 5222-22 Soe eee XIX; KECK, xl 
Postage for National Museum -==2-- "2222-5 ee = cee XXviii, xxxii, xl 
Preservation of collections -------------- Se ec ee KA, RK ye KR eed 
Printing for Museum 2222-22255 ee oe ee a 
Purchase of collection of prehistoric copper implements ---_---------- xli 
Reimbursement to Institution on account of Fish Commission_------- xli 
Smithsonian building, repairs! to2s2-* 2 ==> 23s See eee ee xl 
Congress asked to refund money advanced for exchanges. ----------~----- 16, 18 
bills for establishment of bureau of fine arts --_----------------- 22 
for extending hours for visiting Museum-.------.----------- ries 32 
to provide electric plant for buildings------.--.----------#----- 32 
resolutions: by, appointing regents-2- 222 2oee: Se eee xli, 2 
to print extra copies of report-__----- Mee aE Se eS eee ae ij 
of Orientalists; P. Haupt’sireéportion 2282" 2222 = 222s ee 85 
Consuls of foreign powers, acknowledgments due------------------------- 61 
Contents of annual repert:-for 1800 _°. S22 seers Se eee ee eee ELL aBES v 
Contributions to: Knowledge: == =2. 20 22a Ne Sees eee ee eee ee 14,79 
Museum;collections #2510 ee ee 26 
INortheAmerican -Hithnology 2: sess ae eee 50, 51 


the natural history of the Cetacean, a review of the 


family Delphinide, by Frederick W, True..--.--- oe 


INDEX. 783 


Page. 
Contribution toward a monograph on Noctuids, by John B. Smith------- 30 
Co-operation of departments of Government------------------------------ 28 
Cope; Prof. HE: D., the Batrachia of "NorthiAmerieae:e2° 22-22 5 22st 22 29 
Cope, Erol. Paward D-, paperon Reptilia s-< 328 sek. seu See 15 
GoppeesDritenrya regent. 22. 22 fe See a a ee se eRe oi she NE xxi 
member of the executive committee ___________---- 3:6 5:0.0.0 0b 
resolution of, relative to resignation of Dr. Noah Por- 
tere see SSS ee ee ed ae Sere Stee lah xi 
Corea slectureronsiny Ninseuime le ei) hells ee ee ee ee eae ak 
SorgelU miversity.,.books' sent by.-- 5: 2 yates s a eater a see se Soot 78 
CORO E), HEC NTE Oi lave, lone ID Eyal 1245 ANVIL os ee ee cee 79 
Correspondence, how: Conducted) = ss 22 s2 2 ==) eee eee eee 25 
oLexchancerburcaurecOrdin ca @ ite ames =e eee = ae 62 
Correspondentsror exclian oer urea ue = are epee ae ae ere ere 57 
Cortisuks J: sacknowledomemtsidiess ssn em sees ee ee eee ree eee 61 
Cost of exchanges to Smithsonian Institution ____---_.--------=--=------- 17,18 
IMprovwine.eround stor Zoological Parka=s2e— 2 se= o> see ee oe aes 40 
HMpPLroOvemenitisioh Mouse wma UM dim; 2 ses ae ae eee ee ee meres 10 
Costanoan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin_-._-.--_-----_--+_-.---_-_- 49 
Costasica exchansetransmissionS-10)-=-=42-4- == - ease] 2 ee ee 59, 62 
Conurusicarolumensishnt’ZoolocicallPRarks= = = ae eee eee 64 
Cox, Hon, Samuel S., death of, action of Board of Regents respecting ---- xv, 2 
Gesce mtrO hese s ois ie Sue Sete ee Eee fe a eee 44 
Obibuarymovice Ok aleE ee te eee ee es ee 43 
Cox, Mrs:, presented. portrait of her husband _ 22522223522) 2 uae 2 
Cradles of the American aborigines, by Otis T. Mason _---_225-22_-_--=2- 80 
Crain, Hon. W. H., introduced bill for extending hours for visiting the 
Muse tna Se a Dee eee Sa toh eee 32 
to provide electric plant for Museum 
and Smithsonian buildings --------- 32 
Criminal-anthropology.,; by Thomas Wilson! 2. 252222252 222 5 ee Se See 617 
Cuba,exchaneeyiransmissiOnsstO= sss asses ee oe ee oe ree ee ee 59, 62 
Cullom)sElonss Sle liove Memes: © Oe Tat yeeee eran rr pene ell 
motion of, proposing change in time of meeting 
OmBo0ardromhegentses=2=— === == aaa Bee ee XV 
Cunard Steamship Line, acknowledgments due -.____-.--_--------------- 61 
Curatorotexchanges ere pontiOle =.= er =o ae a ee eee 50, 62 
Couratorsiot Nationals Museum) reports Olas en te ees es ee eee 82 
Papers: ye 25 sae ee eae ee ee SPE a 2 ke ee 30 
Curtin; Jeremiah, explorations by -2.---=-.----=-=== Bh ene 3 ee ee 49 
fieldikstudiesol eas se es eae ees ie fo See ete a 14 
Cyanocitta Stelleri macrolopha in Zoélogical Park -_:-.----.------------- 64 
Cynomys ludovicianussim. Zobvlogical Park: . 222-22. 25- 2202 jaan se 2228s 64 
iD: 
Dakota, account of sun-dance, paper by J. Owen Dorsey _----- ee ERs 50 
mound, explorations im =-2 22 4-5: =<52- Re ee ods eee eee 47 
deAimeirin: Baron acknowledoments demas. e oss) 228 aes 61 
Dana, Edward S., report on progress in mineralogy for 1886...---._..-.-- 80,81 
Dana, James D., bibliographical memoir of Arnold Guyot ---------------- 80 
Darton, Nelson H., progress in North American geology in 1886____.__--- 79, 81 
De Varigny, Henry, temperature and life ----_- ot Se) ye a pe Se 407 


Dean, Bashford, received fishes for study -.......-------------------e--e 30 


784 INDEX. 


Page. 
Deer in. Zodlopical Park. so05 we =e Se an Mele eee Re eee eee ee 64 
Delphinidz, review of the family, a paper by F. W. True_---------------- 30 
Denmark, consul-general for, acknowledgments due________.--_-_-------- 61 
exchange transmissions toms =-aso= = aa er ee eee eee 59, 62, 63 
Dennison, ‘Thomas, acknowledgments)duc--2_—-=25242 so. aspen ae 61 
Department.of Agriculture, exchanges of__--_-_.-----___- Aig pete een G8 Fe 60 
Labor exchanges! Of 22262) oS ae ee ee eee 60 
living animals merged with Zoélogical Park _____- Rs 33 
State, exchammesiol Ss sees es Me eee ea ee ee eee 60 
thesimteniorvexchan ees Ole. == aae == see 60 
Departmentsol Government, co-operation Ofe—ss = e= sae — a ae eee , 2 
Deposits fromysayvine's -amountyo les: = sa se ee eee ae ee ree 2 
Deseriptive papers published ibyeMuseum ==2-2 2! 3! sas see eee 30, 81 
Determination of standard of length, investigations for__---_--.---------- al 
Devens, Judzei@harles, appointed recent, -see ese aces ease n ee eee 2, xli 
prevented from accepting appointment as regent 2 
Dewey. Ered: P; paper by.i === 2625 5 tesee es eee ae ene eae eee 30 
+ mesignation‘of)...\2 22228 = hs ae Ree eee eee ee 32 
Dha-du-ghe Society of the Ponca Tribe, by J. Owen Dorsey -------------- 50 
Diameter, standards tebe adopted -.-- -- 20. sastve lee ee ee 13 
Picoliyle tajaciin Zoolomical Park 2. 222 Ses. ee ee eee ee 64 
Dictionary/of indian “tribal ;names,2 24 b= 5a Se ee 8 a ee ee 50 
imdelphys virgiuandaan Zovlomeal Park=--- Ue = queso a 2 eee 64 
Diplomatic officers of the United States co-operation of -__----_----------- 28 
Disbursement of Congressional appropriations ___-----_----------------- 3 
Disbursements byexchanee bure aviesee eee ae eee eye ee eee eee 57 
Distinct characters of work of astro-physical obser antes Vee 2 SEN Oe Sees ae 12 
DIS Urb UMOnTOLsdUplicate!s pe Clie 11S mees seats as aa eee eg oe ee ea 29 
exchancessi3 Sos hese ae ee ee ee eee 59 
District; Commissioners, ;exchanges\Ofseseese- 22-5. See oo ee 60 
Domestic entries made by exchange bureau -.:.-.----=--2222-2--22225525 5), 56 
individuals corresponding with exchange bureau —------------- 5), 56 
packaces sentubyexchanoejbureaulses =e sees ae 55, 56 
socities corresponding with exchange bureau ---- S22 ae ee DD, 56 
Donaldson, Thomas. the George Catlin Indian Gallery -----. ---.------------ 81 
Dorpat, University of, sends the complete set of publications —__------------- 7 
Dersey, Rev. J,,Owen, articles"written’ by,..--- Ss Peee= =: {ee ee 50 
the Cevihalanguage. #-. eu =12 2 ee ee See 50, 51 
ethnological researches (Ol 65. 4 = 5— see »0 
paperion Osage: traditions = sss === ee d4, 82 
Douglas, Hon. J. W., Commissioner forestablishment of Pooler: ic cal Parke 
NEVOLrwOl.s2.2552as202 84s 5 ee soe NS eee ae ee 39 
Dove-in: Zoblogical Park «..02. 22. Saas ee ee eee 64 
Duplicate specimens, distribution of. --_______- Paya I RS 9 Pie eves are iri oe : 29 
Dutch Guiana, transmissions of exchanges to_-__ __----__--- Sacco 09 Oe 
EK. 
Baciésin Zoblosicalebark .<. 22.1222 j2n5 So ee ee ee 64 
arth, mathematical theories of the, by Robert S. Woodward ------------ 183 
physical structure of the, by Henry Hennessy .-+--.-- --.----- 2. Seek 
Earthworks in Iowa, by Clement L. Webster ---------------------- 2. 7=2}80781 
Economie scolosy.statisticsoimaccesslons | sess === a= es = eee om 2 
Ecuador, consul-general for, acknowledgments due .----- -----.----.s---- 61 


INDEX. 785 


Page 
Beuador, exchange transmissions: tO’. 22.2--5--2-=---+--2- 52220225 ree TOGO, 
Edwards, Henry, bibliographical catalogue on the transformations of the 

North American Lepidoptera ----- See ee abe eae ASE cee ke 29, 30 
Eells, Myron, the Twana, Chemakun, and Klallam Indians of Washing- 

(UCT BST hea nye ae A 80, 81 
Min CleNeyOMeX CHAN MC SCLVICO maa. =. a eee acne es Lec e Soe 58 
MACS IS tAIS TI CSIOMACCCSSIONS aaa em an eis Seen eee Ss te ee ve 27 
Egypt, exchange transmissions to _--_- SSE OS oe SSeS sae ee oe Eso, Soh ar 

the age of bronze in, by Oscar Montelias -__..--.-......_._.____-_- 499 
wamikan) vocabularies: collected by J. Curtin. -2-- 62... co ee ee 49 
Electric plant for Smithsonian and Museum buildings. ___-----__________. 32 
Elephant mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleff --.-..-.--........_.___- 53 
BSE ZOO pCa al komen sense laee a ch eee ee SOE OE TN Bare ea 64 
mihott, Henry W., collections undertaken by 2.222. --22- 2:22.52. 2) je25-5 14 

Facilities aiOrd ed metic ss aise ae 28 eee ae ee eae 28 
offered to make collections for Museum______________- 33 
Endowments to Smithsonian Institution -_--.._---_-.._-......_-.-..--- 3 
Boies burean. U.S. Army vexchanges Of 25.225) 02 5-2) ee 60 
PNPIneering, Statistics Of accessions 222.0522 2522-262 28 eek 27 
Entries made by exchange bureau ------ Fla ie en See eee REE See 55, 56 
iBireinvzon aorsavus in Zoolotical Park, 22 *= 202. ee ee aire 64 
MGs Col Ob. WU. so. AtimMye thanks) TUVEM tO = 256 9 = feo oe ee 11 
Eskimo bows, a study, by John Murdoch---------__-- RS ears ee ee 81 
the central, paper by Franz Boes -_--- eS eee 235 DLR 
Espriella, Consul-General Justo R. de la, acknowledgments due_________- 61 
Establishment of the Smithsonian Institution explained _________________ 
siimaie 1OTmex Chang esr ae ss =e lon. ous AF 4 oe Ale ese) een ae Se UN) eee 18 
ISCAS SPlOre LS Ol) Mat Olea ae eee ee ge ae oe Sa SS, Se ens See yes ue 4 
Ethno-Conchology, by Robert H.C. Stearns.. se siete ee 2 oe eee 81 
Ethnographic collections made by Talcott Williams_-_._-_-..___________- 13 


Ethnologic researches among the North American Indians_____________._ 42,47 
Ethnological research, Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by 


Smighsonian INstiiwtion:—. - = ea = ee ee 3 

estimates: for aaa: sea pe eee ee 4 

Ethnological specimens from Tulalip Reservation_-_.--___________- Sots 29 

Pulnolopy)(see,bures of Mthnology) - 2-222 22222. ees ek Shy es 15 

Etowah mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleff____________. if. tite 53 

HVvahsns ee AN bi tiples ObeVexiCO.2..325./ af... 2.22 eee Tee Ae ed 80, 81 

BiganS din ang uit yeOremian sats bh! 2 SAUER ul. bwlvee ss see lees eee 467 

Examination of accounts by Executive Sommmnne bial 2S eRe Roe dene. = Sqiat 

Hxcavanons anche olocical oss s=) saan o ns aoe eee Te ee Sag tY NS Bags eed DAT 

Exchange accounts examined by Exec:tive Committee ___-...-_..-_.---._- xix 

bureaux ham coc Ofs stesso eit. oo cia eee ee oe 60 

Hishiaiy torarvea work Onmedses: o5 kei e lf. oe ote i eR : : 20 

progress of work.--_.-__--- Fees oes lee ee ree Oe 19 

OLOMeIame nee nt Sens] aren Seco ove vn eee 16 

TV OAT VEO RAS EU SHO LS ese mete ae ee Pere re ety Ay 5 57 
Exchanges, Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smithsonian In- 

FS) WIN OEGYCTT oh Ne Sea oe) 2, a es oe ne ee 8 eee 3 

Congressional appropriation for _____- Se peter SP De Epes eae xix 

COstoOf tolsiminhsonianelnstititlonee seas soe so. 22) sel eee 17,18 

CYST HITTEEY PeUTitO YS he Siena pean OER neo ads sec ee oe 4,18 


H, Mis, 129-50 


786 INDEX. 


Page. 
Exchanges, moneys advanced for, by Institution ------------------------ 16, 17, 18 
paid for, by Congressional appropriations _----------- 17 
of the Geological Survey, Congressional appropriation for __-_ xi 
Outline: history Ofc. = at eae ae ee 16 
FEpayMents Oy WUTC AUS sea ae ee eee 17 
report on, for 1887, by George H- Boehmer! —— 22 22-e-- > -=—- 79 
Secretary’ re pOrtiOMe 22.2 ea ae ee ee re 16 

(See also International Exchanges.) 
HWxecutive Committee of Oard Ol Eve °C MGS ga ee Xe 
Examined ACCOUNTSs =o. ~ 28 ae a= Bees ae oem ore eer ae 
Examine VOUCHELS oases oe ee ee ee ne eee ee 3,4 
TED OTE OL Se Sis 2m ee te eee ear xvii 
Exhibition space in National Museum, table of _---_-----___----.-----<--- 9 
Expenditures of Smithsonian ImStituhiONe. eo = sae ee ee xXvili 
Expenditures for international exchanges-_-_------------------ Sep fief omee Sb 
North American: Bthnol ogy = 552 oe eee on eK eRe 
National Museum 22-22) -- 222-5 == X X10, Ke, XLV, KV mE 
furniture-and fixtureso 22. 6s oee a ae hee Vill Rena eg eneONs 
heating, lighting, etc ------.-_---.--.----XXVIil, XxXIx, xxx 
POR LAGC ate ee NS oe meee oe ee ee ee Xxix 
preservation OfCoOllectiOnS]--2e= n= = ee = aoe xxix 
MOV Ub a ge oe SS ac ee ee Xxix 
National ZoologicaliPark-: 2= Sones as-is e e eee pO.o.4l 
Gri Shamiie ateyovanke yall barsjmiogmOyay, 1teio\0)) = ee ee 3} 
Expenses of exchange bureau ---_-.---_--------------------------------.-- 56 
HR OLOT AGIOS eas ee Se eee ie en ee 13 
promoted by National Museum --.--------------------------- 32 
of mounds by Bureau of Ethnology --.--_----=22-~=--="=-=-= 42, 47 
IDpqraruoauuakeyacoparOye wakes Jgooerakernol |S Os = Boo ee eS aee sae Set See seosia= a5 34, 35 
paper on, by William T. Hornaday - 30, 81 
dixtension of library contemplated: esa ase eee * eh epee 20 
hours for visitine’ the WMISeUni soca ses a= ee ae eee 31 

F. 

Facilities for study in the Museum ---..-.------------.+---5----------==-- 21 
Falco sparvorius in Zoélogical Park-------------------------------------- 64 
Herret an Zoological Park _- ies 252 S22. Sees ree ae ee ee eee 64 
Fez, pottery collections made by Talcott Williams----------------------- 13 
Helis concolor in Zoological Park 4.82 S22 282 ie Se ee ee ee ee 64 
Rield work of Bureau of Ethnology 2222222 +2 - 222- ee eee 47 
BinancesvoL the lnstipublonysee eee ee ee eee ee eee ee 2 
Fine arts, Bureau of, proposed establishment of —------------------- Bd 22 
Fire-proofing of Smithsonian building continued ------------------------- 10 
First Mesa, model of, made by C Mindeleff ----.-------------------=---- 53 
ish Commission, exchanges Of-2252555—5= 5] ee = see ee eee ee 60 
Misheries, statisties!OL ACCESSIONS =) eae eee ea eee ae eee 27 
Fishes, statistics of accessions ---_-_-------------------------------------- 27 
studied by Mr. Bashford Dean--_-_------- r= ate SEES Rae See eee 30 
Fisk, Rev. G. H. R., collections received from ----------=----+----------- 32 
“‘Plora of British India,” presented to the Institution -------------------- 78 
Florio-Rubattino Line, acknowledgments due-.--------------------------- 61 
Fliigel, D. Felix, acknowledgments due-_-.-----.------------------------- 60 


INDEX. 787 


Page 
hv -pquInrels.1n) ZOOLOP iCal atkK= 2224 ee secs soe ose eens eee ce 64 
MOOUe TS LAtIStIGS Of GCCESIONS 2! se oe eee eae ks aes ee el 27 
Horcisnrentries made by exchange bureaus: -=22 22". Sele 2 2 Lees 55, 56 
individuals corersponding with exchange bureau_--__-_--------- 50, 56 
societies corresponding with exchange bureau _._-______.._..--- 55, 56 
Roresubreesin National’ Zoological Parks 2252 90 Sunaina | eee 65 
BOrCoreA vacknowledoments due: S25" Peete Te ee ee ee 61 
Formulas; medical, of Indians; collected*!:22u5 22 (a2 te 2 =. Fe eee 42 48,51 
Fossil plants, statistics of accessions --___.___--_-_--- 0 20 kee eee 2 
MOssilsystatistics-OMaccesslons=— == se > ee ee ee ER ot eee a1, 28 
RoOxeshmeAQOlOS iCall Rar lcs so = Soe = Foe ae ee ae ee ee ee ee 64 
Brance re xChane CuuLansmlSSlONSitO ma ae eras eaten meee eee eye Cee ee Rese 59, 62, 63 
Bree entries granted*by Treasury Department! 222: > 7 222__-__=-_. 22 ps 28 
freight granted-Smithsonian’ Institution! _-------_1_.-___...__--.-4- 60 
Freiburg, University of, sends complete set of publications. _____________- 77 
Hreigbitpaidebysexchangerburcalla= == 555 es ans Acesh ew nee = ee ee wees 57 
repayments for, receipts from =: -.s) 2222 2.2 sass 2 eS ie BS XViil 
French Government, publications presented by --__.-._.:-.--7__-2._.!_L- 78 
Kaye, Nir collections reccivedurom/]s_ tenant i! PL Seee A St te: lee 32 
Fuller, Melville W., chancellor of the Board of Regents ____-___________- xp Beil 
member ex officio of the establishment______________- ix 
Puneh, Hdyerc Co-.,, acknowledaments duces. 22.75 se oe se 6 
Funds of Smithsonian Institution, condition of _.-..._-._._.____..._..--_- 2,3 
Furniture and fixtures, U.S. National Museum: 
Congressional-appropriation for 222 Set eee xxvii KXLx, XKKI ERY 
Pspenditures ts seen: ee 2 Se ie ee et nee ano ee 2-64 Ip O1D.6h.9.0.9.85 5.4 
Ge 
Golusvonewovin: ZOOS ical: Parkes 22035 a 50s | aaa eien eel chy few nee ie cere 64 
Galvanometer in astro-physical observatory ----_----_------__.__--_-_-_-- 11 
Gatschet,-Arpert Ss. Klamath orammars 3150-20 82a ee ees 50, 51 
CE CESenInE OO OPC aim ey at Ka ees = see ees eee eee Re were ne SUee ee SS EAE ee 64 
Geilkiend amesen: Glactal Geology 222555 2-2 ee a. een fe Seen 221 
Gem collection of National Museum. By George F. Kunz_______________- 80 
General Appendix-to heport tor sg) cs 2 ee be eee eee 93 
Held studiesion Burcaw ome phnolomys = 40s) ot 2 ee ee 47 
Genesis of the Arietida, paper on, by Prof. Alpheus Hyatt _____________- 14,79 
Gentes in Siouan camping circles. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey__-_----___- 50 
Gentile system of Siletz tribes. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey_---_----_----- 50 
Geodetic operations in Russia, history of. By Col. B. Witkowski and Prof. 
Doo WArOGGOrene2 2 ors 252 o ee een aa oe wee Beg = are Se Reem ~ 305 
Geographical names, board of, Smithsonian represented at.____________.- 25 
Geography, Progress report for 1886. By William Libbey, jr_--..-__---- 80, 81 
Geological Congress committee met in lecture hall of Museum_______---- 31 
Survey, collections! made bys252--- 2-2-5 SE eee 29 
CxXCHAN SCS OLs+ seers aes errs ect ee a Pe See. 60 
Congressional appropriation for___________- xli 
Geology, North American, Progress reportfor 1886. By Nelson H. Darton_ 79, 81 
ofp National Zoolosical (eankaessea = 2 acs Jt eee 72 
statistics of accessions___________- PE eS n= ES bo ao 28 
Georgia, explorations in, by Bureau of Ethnology.__.__________-._______- 49 
mounds in, explored.__<--2--2-_..-.- Ee a te ee : 47 


Germany, excCuanee transmisslous tO. 22-8. pa oe eee ba = bene Seek 59, 62, 63 


788 INDEX. 


Page 
Germany, parliamentary publications of, presented to Institution __-_-___- 78 
steps towards joining Brussels Convention --_----.-------------- 58 
Gibson, Hon. Randalline a regente=--e--ssees= ace eee se ae Sa Ae PS eas | 
Giessen, University of, sends complete set of publications-----__._-_____- aid 
Giltioo- Museum library --sossssso= see eee bie SEE Me tench ie aN ete 31 
Giclioli; Prof.,-books presented) by=—= = sees sae e= aoe ee ee 78 
Gilbert, G.K. History of the Niagara River---...--~-+-<--.-------- 2 Sain 23 
Gill,.deiLancey W., in charge of illustrations:.e: ~~ #3982 1. Hs. lpatee see 54 
Gill, Theodore. Reporton progress in Zoédlogy for 1886_-_---_--_-------- 80, 81 
Glacial Geology. By Prof. James Geikie----...--..--.-- ibys See eee 221 
Golden eagle in Zoédlogical Park ---------- Ee ey Se eee ee ee ee, 64 
Goode, Dr. G. Brown. Annual report of National Museum for 1881 _----- 82 
appointed member of government board for World’s 
Columbian wh xposiilones2ee= ae eee ee 23 
assistant secretary of the Institution..--.--------- ix, 82 
and Dr: Tarleton H. Bean, paper. by. -=-=222<-=-s-=- 30 
Gopheriin’ Zoological Park 225. . 108s aga ee ee ae eee 64 
Gore, Prof. G., collection of books presented: by 222-4220 262 ee Se 78 
Gore, Prof. J. Howard, Col. B. Witkowski and. History of Geodetic Opera- 
tionss ini GRUSSia saat e= | =o ee Na ee ee ee ee A eee eee 305 
Gottingen, University of, sends complete set of publications. __-------_--- vu 
Government board for World’s Columbian Expositions: ¢cee sas ee 23 
Departments, ‘co-operation Of 222-24 ess es 2a ee 28 
repayment t0!2 i 22 eis net eee et eae eee eee 57 
should pay for Smithsonian building? =: 35 2222-2 eases eee xii 
Governmental exchanges, statement of ------------ GB Lt 2 Bs HE are ag oh AES 60 
publications: exchanve Of -2 322-5 sae = 22" See se ee eee 16 
Grace, W. R.,.& Co., acknowledgments dues 2-4-- = 22552522 eee a eee 61 
Grants:in- aid of physical science. 2952222. > eat Sate Sean eee tee 20 
Graphiciarts) statistics of accessions: <2 4522222 oe. toe nae an ee 27 
Graves in Iowa. By Clement L. Webster -.--22.-.¢222--22-- 2-222 Ws eke. oe 80. 81 
Great Britain, exchange of official documents -___--_+-.-.------------=--+ 58 
transmissiOnStO:-e= 2c a= - ete eee se eee 59, 62, 68 
hydrographic reports presented, by 322 2-==*2-5-=-----=--= 7 
Great Elephant mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleff -__..------------- 53 
Great Etowah mound, model of, made by C. Mindeleff-_------------------- 53 
Greece, consul-general for, acknowledgments due --_--------- Fy Sa ae See 61 
exchanve transmissions to. 25. sasee--- 32 eae eee ee ee 59, 62, 63 
Greifswald, University of, sends complete set of publications __-__-_------ 77 
Grint henG. Se PAM tare hie cexolOE a il OUMS Sesser see ee eee 293 
Grubb siderostat in astro-physical observatory --------------------------- ll 
Guatemala, consul-general for, acknowledgements due _------------------ 61 
exchange transmissions0..o-- soe 5. ae ee eae ee 59, 62 
Guinea pig in zodlogical Parl: .<. 5 - So ssa A ee ee 64 
Guyot, Arnold, Biographical Memoir of. By James D. Dana -------- ee 80 
Guyot’s Meteorological and Physical Tables, new edition of -------------- 14 
Hi: 
Higbel“bequiest,“amount-0f 222-226 oe soe) se ee ee ee 2 
Haiti. exchange transmissions'to-—- "ec 2a ee eee ee 59, 62, 63 


Halicectus leucocephalus in Zoblogical Park -----------------s----z:--s:-=-- 64 


INDEX. 789 


Page. 

Halle, University of, send complete set of publications ___.--...-...------ 2 

Hamburg-American Packet Company, acknowledgments due.--.--------- 61 

Eval tonsheqmest samo unib, Of pes ae eee ee re ee es eee ee 2 

Hand-book of building and ornamental stones, by George P. Merrill------ 30, 80 

geological collections, by George P. Merrill ---------. Sass altel) 

Hannover Royal Library, presentation to Institution ---..------- ee ey 78 

Harrison, Benjamin, member ev officio of the establishment_-_._---------- ix 

Haupt, P., report on International Congress of Orientalists --.._..------- 85, 92 

EawilcspineZOGlO ST Calls are kes = heme Ais eh eg eed a 64 
Heating, lighting, etc., National Museum Congressional appropriation 

LOTS aoe 6 EX Vill KONE KEG exe 

expenditures -_... XXvili, xxix, xxx 

Helsingfors, University of, sends complete set of publications -_--._------ 77 

Henderson & Brother, acknowledgments due -.-.--...-.----------=------- 61 

Hennessy, Henry, on the physical structure of the earth --.._------------ 201 

Hensel, Bruckmann & Lorbacher, acknowledgments due----------------- 61 

Elenshaw a Els Wie, OllcCe- Works Ola ae yee ae ee oe ee ips eee fay 50 

Heredity, Weismann’s theory of, by George J. Romanes ----.------------- 433 

iexonsiiZOGlOmiCal har kes 22 6 See ace os ee at esos ke as Se 64 

Hdelerodon, platyrhinus ini Zoological Park: 2.2.22 s2h oh ge Se oe 64 

Hewitt, J. N. B., engaged in collating Iroquoian proper names__---------- 52 

Neldestidwesso fesse sss Sse sae eens oct Sees a oy yea 14, 49 

Lino mastie work Ofee. cee a ie aes ay a oe alk 52 

Hillers, J. K., in charge of photographie work of Bureau of Ethnology --- 54 

Eistoricalarelics statishicsiofsaccesslom seems ae = ae sey ee 27 
History of geodetic operations in Russia, by Col. B. Witkowski and Prof. 

iy LO WATS GO a sys pe petal re as a 305 

(Hovey INlevermeyIgahiere, lane (Ely IC Eallloeien = Sanka e 5. se- tone ee ae 231 

Hitchcock, Romyn, paper on Japanese religion and burials_-_-_----_---- ee 30 

LOM MAI ce De VWs is AOLGcStM GULCH: OL naan i2 = ran eee ee ey 14, 48 

OMI Cesworks Of oe ses seek ope Ree ae ei pene ee 51 

Hégre Allminna Liroverk, Vesteras, books sent by --.------------------ 78 

ETOlMES AW Heel Gist udiess 0 fees eens = een see ee ee cero pe a 14, 47 

paperon ancientartomehiriguia.: A=. 9-2 hy ses ee 54, 82 

papers on arts of the mound builders .---_.----.---_- me 51 

WAP SLTOTUS HULC yao fe be Ket lle) ea rei eae ee ear 54, 82 

Eohub; wDrckmal: “books presented Dy a9 225222 se oe, 2 Be ee Ae 78 

LOOKER ZOLT J. De OOO KSiPROSON LOG presi boas rh a8 eo 78 
Hornaday, William T., appointed honorary curator, department of living 

animal ste ee ie. Sees ee eae ee 32 

how; toxcollectimammialliskins= 9222525 922 ee = 80 

LESION AGIOM Olea ha ae em Be ees Be i 32, 41 

the extermination of the American bison __--- Bae il)teill 

ihrornedow luinyZob logical Parkygs 32 se Si epee aye Se he 64 

Horny sponges, Lendenfeldt’s monograph on, presented to Institution _- -- 78 

Ts loyersterhay Clove) iecvavs} what YAayo kaysn vor! IEW ee ee ee eee eee eo ee ese 64 
House of Representatives, action of, with regard to fireproofing of part of 

Smithsonian building, ——.=2-2-=2.22)_s2e242- 10 

Cx changestolee nee ese a2 os So See ee ee 60 

How to collect mammal skins, by William T. Hornaday--------.--------- 80 

Human beast of burden, by Otis TaMason.---5-..-2.- =... 2.2222 25-5. 81 

Humming birds; paper’on, by Robert Ridgway--.:...---s22+--2222-ss42. 30 


Hungarian/Academy, books presented by..-.-..-i---2--<--+-ecessecevocs 78 


790 INDEX. 


Page 
Hungary, exchange transmissions tO» sae 2255 ia at ine, eee ees Reena ee 59, 63 
Hurgonje, C. S., presented photographs from Makka _.._-____..__.__=-_- ts 
Huxley, Thomas H., advance of science in the last half century __-_______ 79, 81 
Hyatt, Alpheus, paper on the genesis of the Arietidee _____._.___________- 14, 79 
Hydrographic Office, exchangeswmliae2 2 4-22 eee PERS te ee 60 
publications presented to Institution. ----- ___.-_----___--- 78 
aK 
**Teonographie des Coquilles Vivantes,” presented to Museum library ___- 31 
Iddings, J. P., acknowledgments due for specimens _____-__:_-_-_________- 14 
offered to make collections for Museum ~___--_- Ee et eee 33 
Liustrations imannual report tor W890, list of. S222 23.) oa. = a viii 
Immediate exchange, Congressional aid requested _______________________- 58 
of parliamentary documents, money required for___ 19 
IMcomevOrs Smithsonian insti Guhl Ors 0 aes ate eye ened enna 3 
imereaseior the: library Sesion eee Ee aa pak epee © Seep ne ar el oe 75 
inbrany,, plan iors 22 G2 sek=8 saue Sian eee ele A areoane shee eae ees 20 
Museum coliecrions «428 eo tte  CLhgN eeS Ee eee aaah Tee eee 26 
Index to the literature of thermodynamics, by Alfred Tuckerman_______-_ 14, 81 
india, exchange transmissions to seas 22 ssl eee ee ee ne eee 59, 62, 63 
indian. Bureau, ,exehanoes-otes 222s Nico tA a2 eee A A eae eee 60 
gallery, the George Catlin, by Thomas Donaldson---_---_________- 81 
government, publications presented by_-_-.__..___.._---.--.--_--- 78 
graves in Floyd and Chickasaw Counties, Iowa, by Clement L. 
Webster, $s aceite ss San a» SEERA tees eee ene ee 80, 81 
materia medica, collection of plants used in--___-____---_-______- 42, 48, 51 
Medicine pPracticerstudied asa ses waa ae ee ee ee 42, 47, 48, 50, 51 
mummy, by James Lisle --_-_-_-_-- eR AE SE pecroe PS setae PM go 80, 81 
mythology. COlleCtIOn Of 2 are = Mens ee. ee Oe eee em 42, 48, 50, 51 
personal names, monograph on, by J. Owen Dorsey ------ ma eae area 50 
tribalimames, dictionary Ol se 42 = 22s) Ae ee eee Sea eee 50 
vocabularies collected byad> Cumbine 2 = eae eee eee 49 
Indians of Cape Flattery, by J. G. Swan, new edition of_________________- 15 
Washington Territory, by Niyron Hells: 2) eee. eee 80, 81 
Individuals corresponding with exchange bureau ___~_-_________________- 55, 56 
Inman Steamship Company, acknowledgments due_-_-_---_------_----____ 61 
Instruments invastrophysicalobsegwatory 22) 8252 2-5 i2 eee eee 11 
instructions in/taxidermy and photocraphy 252") 20 8 on) SS aes 21, 30 
Ihanenckore IDreycreyenoovsvan Coole haverersy Ove MN ae yt 60 
International conference at ancient Troy, Smithsonian representative ap- 
POLD EM LO aa ce ae cree EN 25 
Congress of Orientalists, P. Haupt’s report on____ -----_-_- 85 
exchanges, bureau of, report on, by Curator_-_-----.---__-- 55 
Exchange accounts examined by executive committee ____- Fepeiesp ili 
Congressional appropriation for _________- Xx, NOK) x 
exchanges, Congressional appropriation for, disbursed by 
Tnstitution soo sae ene ae ee ee een 33 
COLTESPONG MUS are see eee rae a ee 57 
MISOTUOULION (22 2 eee eee ee ees ee 59 
SMicncy ol service = see ee eee pencil i 58 
estinratos forts is Set See ee oe ee ne nee oa 
oPoficral documents: 2. a ae Eee eee eee 57 
Cxpend itunes fOr fo: oe aoe. eee eee eee eee xix 


INDEX. 191 


; Page. 
internationalexchanges, expense 9:2 -+2222.-2229.-/2206icl ee: 56 
TECOUDES es es ae eee en ra) kA Amante aenge Mytas aL a) 56 
disbursements) 2---=25.2s55- BETAS SA 0g AR eee ae es 57 
governmental see ee ee Se ns ot Pe lee 60 
of official’documents —_=--2-.--_ 2 57 
report of Secretary on__---._____- 16 
CRATISACTLON SO lee eee ee eee 55, 56 
CLAN SMOUISSTONS ye eee ee ee 62, 65 
transportation companies________- 61 
Winlock, William C., curator __-_- 62 
(SeeyEi xchanies) ess a= == ans 16 
standards for iron and steel, committee on, met 
in Smith= sonian: buildimge 422-522 +. es ee 21 
imvertebrates, marine, statistics of accessions -.22-- 225220222... 22-222 2- 27 
Investigations begun by the Seeretary.... =. 2. 2--- =... 052. Lesa ee Hg 
ofmounds results Of 2. S23 oe ee Wee ae ote ea 42,47 
Invoreesawritten by.exchanse.pureait: 32s o 4. oss oe nk eee 5d, 06 
Iron, standard for committee on, used in Smithsonian building --________- 21 
firoquoian proper: mames collected and)recorded —_=--..2 22 -=22--4_ 2 =e 52 
PPOGuUGIS we lNoTOUSTOOCHRIMeSTOL ere corde Gigs yaa eee 49,50 
ihialyraypanoytOnBrussels Convention: -2222 22.0 es sees ne tee = ee 58 
exchange transmissions tos. > 2-22-22 2 te Seo tebe name ey Oy OBS 
the primitive races of, by Cannon Isaac Taylor -_.....-........--_- 489 
J. 
Japan, exchange transmissions 022s! Ghow se Bala e ee eas) eee 59, 62, 63 
Japanese religion and burials, paper by Romyn Hitchcock ______________- 30 
works of art, Capron collection of, proposed purchase of ________ 23 
SRY AUT ZOOL ORV CAE Tene he Ors a Soe tae hs cl ee ad AS 4 HET oat eee Sys 64 
ASN EA (He XS) FTES KELL LODE SHER ENNS OV: 2 eee eee eee 54 
Jena, University of, sends'complete set of publications _______.-____--___- 77 
Joint resolutions of Congress appointing regents _--_--_-----___---______- 2 
Journal of Proceedings of Board ol Recents a4 sas 24: eek ee Bee a oe xi 
1G 
Kansa genealogical tables prepared by J. Owen Dorsey ------_---___-___- 50 
Keltie, J. Scott, Stanley and the map of Atriea._ == 2202" "oe ee 27 
aislokere, IDR Aeros: Jaleo eS Ole s6 seed faa se ee Cee eee ed bees Soa 3 
to astro-physical observatory ------------ 11,12 
of, resolutions by board of regents______- xiii 
Kiel, University of, sends complete set of publications _____.____________- 7 
Kiener’s ‘** lconographie des Coquilles Vivantes” presented to Museum 
USAC ¢ 2k ep cw os Ar ts a gS 2 AY LY A PREEER LS OEe ) 31 
Klamath grammar, prepared by A.S. Gatschet _..._. _.__________..-___- 51 
Kolliker, Prof. Albert, books presented by ----.-.-...221-.. 2122-22222. 78 
Koenig’s Researches on Musical Harmony, by Sylvanus P Thompsons 335 
K6énigsberg, University of, sends complete set of publications _-_________- 77 
Kunz, George F. The gem collection of National Muscum_____________-- 80 | 
L. 
Labels for Museum collection _--_----2--.2_-----..- Be pn ceo 31 


Laboratories space in National Museum, fable Ofer. s+ BB OE aR Pa ¢ 


192 INDEX. 


Page 
and ‘Office, exchanges 0f2. 5522 = 22.24" eae eee ae eae Saat a ae eeeren 60 
selected for Zoological a re kee ee ee ee eee BY 
Bancley, Ss. Py, report tor S89 = eee Loe AEE Ee eee oe Re ph pe 82 
annual-report tor S902. SBae: ae eee eee Ue Seer ees 1 
appointed one of the commissioners of Rock Creek Park _- 41 

commissioner for establishment of Zodlogical Park, report 
(0 again ee te ee ee el nS Se ees, SN ere cre 39 
letter to Congress submitting annual report._--_______.. e iii 

Hon. Leland Stanford, relative to new Museum 
utente Re oe soo Se BR ese ee AT ae eee Ys oe 5,7 
a member of committee on resolutions relative to S.S.Cox- 43 
Secretary Of the aMstioubiOn. 2aee- 2e skeen ee eee eee ix 
Lectures in lecture hall of National Museum _----- See Woe ee een Peete eee 31 
Saturdaylecturess 2 -— ays o n-ne ee eee eee eee Oa ee er ees eee: 31 
Anthropological lectures, by: ‘Thomas Wilson): _22°222 22-2 ee 31 
INwtional Geographic: SOClety S2 ase... Sane eee area See eas eee 31 
Lecture on clinical study of the brain, by Dr. Harrison Allen_____________ 21 
hall of Musuem used for meetings of scientific bodies ____________ 21 
Ledger accounts kept by exchange bureau _--_----_-- Oe ee ee a 55, 56 
Lee & Shepard requested use of stereotype plates-__--..-.----------:_-__- 24 
imeech, Hon BO. 7ac knowl ede emits) Cie aaa ae ee eee ee 26 
Legations of foreign powers, acknowledgments due ____--________________ 61 
Legislation required for Smithsonian Institution _____-___..._______-___.- Weexay: 
Leipzig, University of, sends complete set of publications _-.____________- 77 
Lendenfeldt’s monograph of horny sponges presented to library _-_______- 78 
Length, standard of, investigations for determining __-_..:...______.._._- 21 

Lepidoptera, North American, bibliographical catalogue of the transfor- 
mations of, by Henry Hdwards:220- hice eee Bie 2 eee eee ee 29, 30 
Letter of Secretary transmitting annual report for 1890 _-_.------__-____- il 
from Secretary submitting annual report-.--------------------__--- iii 

of Secretary to Hon. Leland Stanford relative to new Museum build- 
ANB Se Sa ces base 2 Ss ble Se ee ee eee 2 eee Eee 5 
Hetvers,creeeived by exchange bureaus. 24. leas! Ue ae ee eo 55, 56 
written by, oxchanwe (urea: 2.2 sea e eee ae ee eee ee ee 55, 56 
Libbey, Prof. William, prepares new edition of Guyot’s tables .________- 15 
progress in: eeography. for 1886" 2a se eee 80, 81 
ieiberia, exchange transmissioms tO. 6-22 2s. ee fee Nee eee 59, 62 
mabrary.of-Congress, exchanges (Ol: => 2) ec. ne te ee ee Sees 60 
transfer of books from __-_--- ioe ote a se a eee ees 19 
National Museum 427 2. a 0 Se ee 2 ene eee ees 31 
Library of Smithsonian Institution .---....___- RRR E SSS Ame ee a ARS SS 2 75 
Acecessions to, statement of -----2__-__-__- En een 2 a eta ee ee 19 
Wontemplated extension: Of 22222 245 24 eee se ee ere 20 
Bxchanee vist iOf. WOK OMe ee eee See ae fees ee ae 20 
imporbanbiadditlons = <> ak= A eee eae ee eae PY ee hes 15, U1 
Te reaserOhmee ss = oe «eee ee ee eee ee a rn a eee 75 
plan fOr a :228) 5 ad - oe tee Se ge BS a eS ee ee ee 20 
Reorcanizatlonvolscarrie dion see se ee see ee ee ee eee 20 
Reportioidiibranianiee.: =e. 2c = — = ee eee ee bcp et ete, 75, 78 
Secretary's report OMes-= = = 228 5 = ee ee we eee oe ee 19 
Serials added .- 4.3 ee hoe eae Dass ot Sk SO ee ee eg ee eee 75 
Universities sending complete sets of their publications__-._.-.------ 77 
Lick observatory, grant to, for photographic apparatus ___--_------------ 21 


photographs of the moon to be made by --------------- 21 


INDEX. 193 


Page. 
Life-Saving Service, co-operation of _---_.------------------ PS Eek 28 
Light-House Board, co-operation of_-_-_-2—-=.222--3- 27 32.4. -24.522225-- 28 
EXCMAN OCS Of ee coe ae are arta eee ere Net 60 
ine Mishic map oleNorth Americas. sos et mee ne an sere ce ae hearers meee 50 
studies by Bureau of Ethnology -------------------- 42, 47, 50, 51, 52, 53 
work of director of Bureau of Ethnology--------------------- 50 
MErformedybVidiscNa bb. sELOWLUL 2) 8 Uae ee nase eee 52 
isles James paper ON slic lan mm Um Mya a eee ae nese ee 80, 81 
istior accessions te the National Museum 2:25 62" 25 one 2s Sl eee 80 
illustrations in annual report for 1890 __..-------- beeps. BP Se Segoe viii 
Smithsonian publications, by William J. Rhees _--.-------------- 15 
Literature of thermodynamics, index to, by Alfred Tuckerman ____-_-_-- 14, 81 
TEU OLO oi yAES ta lISiTCSTOMACCESSTONS ee eee aes ame eee are eee ee 28 
ivan ov animals ss tabistics Of aCCeSSlONS so a= 2.20 Sasser eee 28 
transferred to Zodlogical Par k Ee See eee eee aeran 33 
Lodge, Hon. Henry Cabot, appointed a regent _--...__--.-_-_-.--_----__.-X, xi, 2 
member of committee ¢ on resolutions relative to 
services Of the Honeys. COR =) ose ss oe] =e 43 
ondonvBoardvofyirade, book sent) Dyess te > 2 eeeaeeeae 78 
oom S Has wNeMOMlSs OlnDVeblr Ne WLONS a= S26 = een ae an eee 741 
Low. Dr., installation of. Smithsonian represented at ---------- Seas 2e 
M. 
MeCormick, J.C., paper on mounds in Jefferson County. Tennessee -__--. 80, 81 
MaclOwen... collections recelvedehrom—= = s— saa ees ase ee eee 32 
Mac Ritchie; -David,, books: presented: by- =t22<2 22 2k. = 29s. 2 eee eee 78 
Miucacus.cyunomolius-in Zoological Parks 22/2322 #2 oe eee 64 
Mia ans iine AOOLOg:1 Calls ay Kar eee ee eee esa Sete ee a 64 
Mallery, Garrick, study-of sion language 2.222. 22' ices Uo 8) ee eee 50 
Mammal skins, how to collect, by Wm. T. Hor naday Rep Ais wii § ito. sith a Ope 80 
Wiemann 21 Stine 20010 al Call gk us ke eee eee ee ere eet ese ee ee Ad 64 
Mammals statisticsiof@accessions esata ae se ae ae oa eee eae eee eee ae 20 
Man, ascent of, by Dr. Frank Baker <.-22---2220_-=2_-- aa Sate O21 Se ese 447 
aN GUILVAOl bye OhnVE Vans] ee eee ees ae aes SOL Pare eae 467 
Manitoba smoundiexplorationsmine sarees see oe ee eee ee re Be 47 
Manners and customs of the Mohawks, by George A. Allen_.------.--__-- 615 
Mantez, Consul-General José, acknowledgments due__-__--------_------_- 61 
Map, aboriginal, of old Cherokee country, preparation of ._..-.----..----- 49 
Lima wistic.oF North America mssss sas ae aes ae eae eee 50 
of Zoblocical Parks. - 2. s-o ss. Sees See eee ee 38 
Marburg, University of, sends complete set of publications ___--___------- 77 
Marcou, Jules Belknap, report on Paleontology for 1886_-....--..---.---- 79, 81 
Marine Hospital, exchanges of----------------- Ree eI Tea Wes Ce Cg es 60 
Marine invertebrates, statistics of accessions_-----..----.---------------- 27 
Mariposan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin_-_...---------------------- 49 
Mason, Otis T., Basket-work of North American aborigines _-----.-___-- 81 
Bibliooraphy of Anthropology. 2252 hss... 920. = eee ack 558 
Cradles of the American aborigines -.-. -.----------- eee 80 
Progress. of Anthropologyimilso0 2: 2 sso eee eee 527 
Report on progress in anthropology for 1886 ____._..___.- 80,81 
represents Institution at Board on Geographical Names_- 25 


The humantbeast ofburdenis +9122 pee eee as 2 eee 81 


194 INDEX. 


Page. 
Materia medica, Indian, plants used in, collection of ---.--------------- 42, 48, 51 
statistics Of accesSlOns= = seas sas sae ee eae Se eae 27 
Mathematical theories of the earth, by Robert 5. Woodard-_-------_------ 183 
Maya codices, aid to study of, paper by Prof. Cyrus Thomas --_-___-__-_- 54, 82 
Measures;and valuing, by J..Owen Dorsey =.202 222 2--- ee ee 50 
Medals: statistics of aecessions=. = 5a0 == bee tee eS eee eee 27 
Medical formulasiof indians, collected =ets= saan eae = ae eee 42, 48, 51 
Medicine man, practiceOl eee eae ae aes eee ree ee ee ee oe 42, 43, 48, 51 
practice’ of Indian studies 2.22.5 52 44 -. eae 42, 47, 48, 50, 51 
Zumisistudie dibs Mist Stevenson pss =n ae 50 
Mediterranean, the, physical and historical, by Sir R. Lambert Playfair. 259 
Meeting, annual of oardiole gents) see ae eae eee eee xi, 2 
changenn time Of 3 s2 ees Ss ae a es a at a renee XV 
Meetings held in lecture hall of National Museum --.-.------------------- 31 
iN cademiyzOl iSGlenGes Sas se Ns se ae ye ee 31 
American:Historical Association == 222-2. s2- 5. saee eee ee 22 
American Institute of Mining) ne ineers! == ==5=25 "2 ass 22s 31 
Association of AmericaneAcriculitural Colle mess esse e== === ane 31 
Geological: Coneress ‘Committee: 2-2 3622 2 sean ee ee 31 
NationaliGeorvrahic:Societys: = 225 -  e  eeee 31 
Meigs, Gen. Montgomery C.,aresenmt, -- 2-2 222) ee re ee ee BXapXel 
member of the executive committee -_----- Sap ROXGRGIIUT 

resolution relative to compensation for plans 
for new Museum building -----.---------- xiv 
Mecca, photographs from, presented to Institution --_-.----------------- 78 
Meldola, Prof. Raphael. The photographic image ---.--.--------------- 3717 
Weleugwsgallopave-in Zovlogicall Park 22222222. 2e2e ee see eee eee 64 
Members ex officio of the establishment =e. 2225242725 34 ee eee ix 
Memoir of Arnold Guyot,-by James D: Dana =-2222- 50525: 22epee 80 
Elias Loomis, by H. A. Newton--------- es fe ee ee Ee © 741 
William: Kitchen?Parker —--\@ (1.34 aa ee et eee 771 
Memoirs relating to the solar'corona 22622222. 22 2.24 Je422 =e ae eee 14, 79 
withdrawn from Library of Congress). 2-2-2262) 4s25- ae 19 
Memorial meeting of National Academy of Sciences in Museum ---------- 31 
Menomoni delegation, assistance given by 2252255 522 ae ee ee 51 
Merchant S. lL. Company, acknowledgments due -2-2 22222. 22-222222- 2255 61 
Merrill, George P., appointed curator, Department of Geology----------- 32 

hand-book on building and ornamental stones in National Mu- 
Set “22s oe ce a ae ed ae OD ee eee 30, 80 
hand-book of ceologicalicollectionss2a6as= == ee ee 30, 80 
Mesozoic fossils, statistics ofaccessions .-._.-_ _-. -_ See: See ee ee 27 
Metallurgy, statisties:ofiaceessions_ is. sf sle22o5_ 2 ee =) se ee 28 
Meteorite collection in National Museum, by F. W. Clarke_-------------- 80 
Meteorological and ieee. Tables, Guyot’s, new edition of-__-.---..---- 14 
Mexico, antiquities of, by S: B. Evams-2s2 = 22 2-2 -fehee 2 ee 80, 81 
consul-general for, acknowledgments due__----. ---------------- 61 
exchan@el transmissions si@) aaa. 4. se) ee nee ee ee a 59, 62, 63 
Meyer, Victor. The chemical problems of to-day_---.-...--------------- 361 
Michelson, Prof. Albert A., aid to, in investigations --...-....----------- 21 
Michigan, ancient worms in, examinedsi 221226 5 J. 22SL R084 = == 47 
Middleton, James D., explored ancient works----------.-----1----------- 47 
explorationsimade iby 2o2si28 | eeeeeupe? 22 ot 14 


Midé’wiwin, the Grand Medicine Society of the Ojibwas --.--.----------- 48 


INDEX. 795 


Page 

Miller, George, an Omaha, assistance given by... ------------.--.-.-2---- 51 
Miller, Hon. W. H. H., member ex officio of the establishment___________- fix: 
Mindeleti. Cosmos) modelinic of ruins 2-2 ss ee ae ee athe elie 53 
Naindelett aVctor ameld: studies Of 0 225 ease ene ee ey A gh 14 
report on architecture of Tusayan and Cibola_-----_-_- 53 

VSM OM OR SEY CagneraKe Wola ee to ce Ee ee 48 

Minerology, progress report for 1886, by Edward S. Dana ___-..--_.___--. 80, 81 
Minerals statisulcs Of ACCCSSIONS .3 442% ate aS. Ae atti > 28 
Minot, Charles Sedgwick. Morphology of the blood corpuscles_____-___- 429 
NEL UEOAN PORCH AN OOS Of. 22.26. t sas) te ewe eos ar te onl Ne ea 60 
Mrccelaneous;COUGciiONS:.< 5-05. - jeep A See ol ei eae 14 
papers on anthropology 2 =. 2. ssa. oon ease ae sr es 80, 81 

Missouri River, examination of ancient remains-_-____-.._-_--_-_----____-- 47 
Mitchell, Hon. Charles G., member ex officio of the establishment_________ ibe 

Mitchell, S. Weir, and T. Reichert, researches upon the venoms of poison- 

OUSISCIS PC TUGS 2 eer ae, CaM piph epee dare Ae YU ee eps aes ee arp ah ea ww 
Modelling of ruins,:by Bureau of Ethnology -__.-.-.-.-....-------------- 53,54 
Modern pottery, statistics of BCCESSION Seen eee he ee a ees ee eo 21 
Mohawks, manners and customs of the, by George A. Allen ____________- 615 
Moksary’s monographic chrysididarum presented to Institution _________- 78 
Molitiskes statistics ofaccessions,- 22%.) fe n58) pie ei gt seek fete 27 
Money paid by Congressional appropriations for exchanges _____________- 17 
FOMMANGS Of ZOOlOPICaIT Ean ko oe oe chee cae | ee ese rt ee 37 

INTONIKG VESIIE ZOOlO SICAL babies on: Se ene Nos oo ars Ser eae phe Sh aaee eee 64 
Monograph on Indian personal names, by i Owe Dorseyes-ceesfee-e=s2 50 
of noctuidz, contributions to, by John B. Smith _____________- 30 

Montelias, Oscar. ‘The age of bronze in Moypt 2.2.2. -- 2. ee 499 
Moon, photographs of, to be made by Lick Observatory -_--_____..__- =< poem 21 
Mooney, James, explorations made by --_---- eet Be See 14, 47, 48, 49 
investigations of Cherokee tribes... .....__...-.-2.--.-u.- 51 

Morlews dxesearches, i": W.- Clarke’s report. one 7-4: h- eee ee 83 
Morocco, ethnographic collections made in, by Talcott Willems sine 13 
Morphology of the blood corpuscles, by Charles Sedgwick Minot________- 429 
Morr oma Justin S-yame gm enib es =o ete nee 2 See es ge 3G sal 

introduced bill for fireproofing of portions of 

Smi¢hsonian buildin gy: ) 2.22 ona Ne ee 10 

resolution relative to bequest of Dr. Kidder ____- xiii 

MigietOn eELOn.cle Vili. wa LECOM bse Se Soe. a hee ee x 
member ex officio of the establishment 225 =-ssssse= ix 

Mound explorations of Bureau of Ethnology - 2... .- 2.225222 24222522 4222 42, 47 
investigations, results: Of 22 2-22-25 = 2. = - ee eee ee ee ae 42, 47 
Moundsinlowaby, Clement i. Webster: 922 9=-- = 2 eee 80, 81 
Jefferson County, Tennessee, by J. C. McCormick _-_-_---- semae lh (ill 
Waiseonsin, by, Clement Tu. Websters-—--- =) sesso 58 AS ae BO! SI 

of the Western Praries, by Clement L. Webster ._-...___-.-....- 80, 81 

MOUS Olnmao py, ©, VIMO lei sap ae 2 ee aero 53 

Mount Kilemanjaro, collections made in region of_---___-_- ER 4 oa 14 
MiulerdecrkinvZGlogicaloarlc s.= ase ae eeepc ee ee aie oy jt ee en 64 
Mummy cave,-model of, made by C. Mindeleff _-___.-.___- ie, he ee 53 
Muniozy Espriella, acknowledgments due --_-__-_-_-___-__- sf kta ne 61 
IN GRA OCinc I OHH y IDEATION ee the 2 ere ee a So afujs seme 20 
study on Eskimo bows -.------------------- fe Se ee eee 81 


Murray, Ferris & Co., acknowledgments due........-.-.---.------------- 61 


196 INDEX. 


Page. 
Museum building, compensation for, resolution by Board of Regents----- xiv 
plans for exhibited to Board of Regents_-_------------ xiii 
(See National Museum.) 
Musical harmony, Koenig's researches on, by Sylvanus P. Thompson_-.--- 335 
Instruments; Statistics Of ACCESSIONS sss. ase as ee a a a 27 
Ninskhosean lavcuages, Diblosraplyi Oli a2 aaa a ese ae 52 
Niythology. indian, collection.Oft 2 Si. io. 2s) eee e ee ee nee 42, 48, 50, 51 
of Zuiis:studied: by Mrs: Stevenson.) 2222282022. ae eee 50 
Myths of the Onondagas collected by S. N. B. Hewitt ----.--.----------_- 49 
N. 
National Academy,.exchanges of 22. 2. 2524) 302 See: Ce eee 60 
met in lecture: hall of Museum 2. ..2222222.2. 2522-2222 21 
Civil Service Reform Association, books presented by ._--------- ard 
Geographic Society, lectures in Museum lecture hall ______- ee 31 
met in lecture hall of Museum ------------- 31 
National Museum: 

accounts examined by executive committee ------_--- ee Ee A ne DXEXINBRERGI 
additionalsbuildingrequinedtioree= = 95 sees ee Fee ee 4, 26 
annual anereasevin the collections... =.= -=2 = 4-2-2890. 3. ee 8,9 
assistance tovstudents:os24 22 he Se ee eee eee eee 30 
easement required =. 2225. 52t. cost ees See Se Ot Be eee 9 
catalogue entries: 222 ls. act Se oe ee te ee ee eee 28 
Congressional appropriations for_--.-------- XXi, KXVi, XX VE, Xxix, Kooi 

Songressional appropriation for, disbursed by Smithsonian Institu- 

GLOW. oe See Se I AS ee EE Sree eee 3 
cooperation of Government Departments-—=-=*=_-"---2_ == 2 ee 28 
department,.of living: animals =~ 3522.2. 60 >) ane eee eee eee 33 
display at World’s Columbian Exposition, difficulties attending —-_--- 23 
distribution of duplicate specimens -__-___- mrt A Wake RZ Sao ky ee 29 
estimatesfon: S22 322 ie Bore ee ER TEER ES NED AES MALS EBB ee 5 4 
exchanoes) oft. 2 ses ee st he in|. Seu she ee Ue ek ee ee 60 
expenditures: = 222-25. -t 2.2.2 RXD, RH, MRIV, KV RV, Vy Roe ee 
explorations 99525 =o eS 2 Aiea Sake Lebo 3 eee 32 
SXfENSl ONO MO UES MOT VASO CS eee ee ee ee ee ere ae aan 31 
increase of collections! 42 2- =) ss 2.2 ee PRR ER Sk RAP il Ne el 03 26, 27, 28 
labels (23s oo tee 2 sed es bese asot iad scene one eee ee 31 
iba yeses= ee OF ene Ee Gata Saye ae Shar 5 eee ea tees AL 31 
meetings and everson wie: 3 LSE eT NE Ss ei Re SE eee ae 31 
personnel .s225) 55s eee eee Seeds coe wd ene ern een ee meee mere 32 
publications: .4425-- 226 fe 5: = oa SLE ee ete eee Jee e ee 15, 29 
FE POR TOL 8S (eae (it ROE IE Senn Seco Ree Ree 82 
LepOLtOn Secretanye= = ==see= Salata S/N ike REET Uae oe SU So ae 26 
specialiresearches 2-023. 2. ee oS BEATA SLC Td Meee 30 
VISIbOPS Ca rence Sos. a ae ale morn io EARS CE oes oe BA Or ee et 31 

National Zoélogical Park, accounts examined by executive committee._.. xxxi 
animals ine 22 eases Sa) 2 See ieee eee eee ere 64 
Congressional act relative to organization, 
Cte 2252 Se a en eee eee Xxxix, 39 
Dr. Frank Baker, acting manager ------------- 41,74 


INDEX. 197 


Page. 

National Zoélogical Park, Congressional appropriation _________. XXX XX MbK. oe 

disbursed by Smithsonian Institution--_.___- 3 

expenditures =<. - s+ ese: ee ee eee eee ee 0: 6.0.4! 

forest trees tna | ee ee ele Fe 65 

geology of SPE lSe lt Rae a seg et ee 72 

laying: outofigrounds--4ee4) ie hee eyes 40 

map Of parkiiest2 os. Mn Seles eee ear biter See 38 

MONEYS) paldeiorslan Gees see eee ee S37 

ornithology: of 22024 sane eee 3S aes 66 

report.of acting: manager ---=- 222 222 9. 22 ee . 64, 74 

coOMmmissionersms $4.02 -ae eso Sh abehs 38, 39 

Mecretary OMe se ble She ee 34 

resignation of Mr. W. T. Hornaday -_-_--____.- 41 

selection of land 2& ie A a al tee 37 

transfer to Regents of Institution. __-___________ 39 

Natural history of the Cetaceans, contributions to, by F. W. True_______- 30 

Nautical Almanac, exchanges, Of s...- 2°. 2822 2 see ed wos Be S 60 

Naval architecture, statistics of accessions-_--_.--.__-...--..-.---__.1...-- 27 

Observatory, exchangesrof-2sss5. =e sue se ae en 60 

ofticers; collechionsimadesbDy2: 25-54 28222 See ts Fee sees 29 

Navarro, Consul-General J. N., acknowledgments due____-______________- 61 

Navigazione Generale Italiano, acknowledgments due____.-_-.._________- 61 

Navy Department, exchanges Ofeis 722 elas. So ee eee oti dm ber pty 60 

INGELOLO SV HONG S35. COX) .22 5 soso Ses SEs ert eect, Dae Sa ee 43 

Of astronomers) £2252 2s 225 58 oe ans aS es hee cee 172 

Nests Statistics OlAaccesslonsy ss 242 sess see le eee aie wee ee eee 27 

Netherlands, exchange transmissions'to-2. 25222 -= 2-22-2228 ee 59563 

Netherlands-American Steam Navigation Company, acknowledgments due 61 

New Jersey State reports presented to Institution--_----.......-.-_-._____- 78 

New South Wales, exchange transmissions to___.-.___.-___..____-.-_____. 59,63 

Newton we PACE Memon Of Milas IZOomis==s2- ae. Sanna ee Bolen aay Teena 741 

New York and Brazil Mail Steamship Company, acknowledgments due _- 61 

Mexico Steamship Company, acknowledgments due _____. 61 

New Zealand, exchange transmissions to___-..-...-__._..--..--.--...-.__ { 59, 63 

Niagara River, history of. By G. K. Gilbert --_-___- Sa eee: Sus Ralet 231 

Nicaragua, exchange transmissions to .2..---1<--225)2221.:25552 2s 1535 59168 

Wishtiheron.in Zo0lopical Park 0-2-2250 os ae oe See oe Dig 64 
Noble, Hon. John W., commissioner for establishment of Zoblogical Park, 

ROPOMUO Re =o 55 aie Deis yh es Siete ee a I a se ales See 39 

Noctuidz, contributions to monograph on, by John B. Smith _________- ¥ 30 

North america, linguistic map Of 222. 4 ass tee oe ae ee 50 

North American ethnology accounts examined by executive committee... xix 

Congressional appropriation for _____- MIX, KK xd 

expendibires’ 282-5322 tsa te teh eo sa ER 

estimates for 25 sos 055 Ses Ses ee 4 


geology, progress report for 1886. By Nelson H. Darton. 79, 81 
lepidoptera, bibliographical catalogue of the transforma- 


tions’ of; by, Henry Mdwards === os) 22 55 lsceeece see 29, 30 

paleontology, progress report for 1886. By J.B.Marcou_ 79, 81 

North Carolina, ancient works in, examined __-_._.___..---_--__---.--- 47, 48, 49 
North German Lloyd, acknowledgments due.-------_..------------------ 61 
Norway, consul-general for, acknowledgments due_____--___-_-_---__.__- 61 


exchange transmissions to. . sa. o- sae ee acy edie nese eeics+;-s-- 09,68 


798 INDEX. 


Page. 
Number of packages received by bureau of international exchanges______ 55, 56- 
iINut-crackerin’ Zoological Parks eo to. em seer a) eee 64 
Nychocoras nenius in Zoological Parkes.) 2) semen oan) ee eae 64 
O. 
Obarrio, Consul-General Melchor, acknowledgments due ________________ 61 
Observatory, astro-physical, establishment of____-__.-_______.______.____- oan 
Qglrichs: &'Co.; acknowledgmentsiduce 242) :s)aiaiaes ee ee 61 
@tfiee of Indian Affairs, exchangessoft le) ie 2 Seaeee ee 60 
work. of Bureau of Mihnolosyeaiavens. 227.) a eee 50 
@ificers forming. the.establishiven a4 tna nek <r ee ee 1 
of, the-Insttutiomits Jfo FF. Ie Ny ese er igety oS 2S se eae ix 
Offices, space in National Musuem, table of! 2-.__.-.-2..___-.._.-..--_____- 9 
Official documents, international exchange of ___._._._...____-._________ 3 57 
@hio, ancient works inj exantined#e2iii:teis. seeps ee tee 47 
@jibwas,; grand medicine society of the._..--__-4i, weseees See lot ee 48 
Olmstead, Frederick Law, inspection of grounds for Zo3logical Park ___- 40 
Omaha clothing, paper on, by J. Owen Dorsey _-------__---__----=------- 50 
dwellings, by. J. Owen (Dorsey, =2 == = sel ere eis oi ee ee 50 
folklore, paper- by JHOweniwDorseyi ds. 28 oleate fe ety 50 
genealogical tables, revised by J. Owen Dorsey -__----------__--- 50 
Onondaga myths collected by J. N. B. Hewitt_.-...------2--- 42-22-22: 49 
systenr-of relationships:studied=_--- 9. -—- = 9" 5.2 oe eee 49 
@possum:in Zoological, Park 2. — 2 222235552. 9 eee eee ee oe 64 
Orcutt, C. R., acknowledgments due for specimens ____--.-__-----____-- 14 
offered to make collections for Museum _-_--_---__----____-- 33 
Ordnance ‘Bureau; US: Army, exchanges of! 28%. 2esie_ fae eee 60 
Oriental antiquities, statistics of accessions ___---_._-_-__-.--_----+__---- 27 
Orientalists, International Congress of, P. Haupt’s report on ___--______- 85 
Ornamental stones, handbook on, by George P. Merrill _-_---__________-- 30, 80 
Ornithology of National Zodlogical Park 2-2 s5i:s-..22J2--seee-- tae oe 66 
Osage. traditions, paper on, by Rev. J. Owen Dorsey __-_--------..-_-_--- 54, 82 
@steolory; statistics of accessions _22--- 43 aco ens. Gee a ool ee eee 2 
@atline history. of the:exchanges. 22 4to2 2 As ee ee ee oe 16 
Owns montand im Zoological Park. 2.2... -6) sees ee ee eee aes 64 
@wis:in Zoblogical Park 2.2... 22225 32.2. Se 64 
d ea 
Pacific Mail Steamship Company, acknowledgments due _________-_______- 61 
Packages of specimens received by Museum. -----.2.2-2-2--2-2.-2225242. 28 
Packing cases ‘for éxchange bureau “0223 eee a se ee eee ee 57 
Paints and dyes, statistics of accessions ___--.__----------------- fs i 21 
Palaihuihan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin---..-.__...__.--___-__--- 49 
Paleontolegy, North American, progress report for 1886, by J.B. Marcou_ 79, 81 
Paleozoic'fossils, statistics of accessions 2220". yest 22 Sole ee 27 
Panama Railroad Company, acknowledgments due___---____-----_______- 61 
Panther in-Zodlogical Park - 2-227)! Nike Vaeeis Ae ie eee ee eee 64 
Paper money, statisties of accessions ®+ 1 > 22o2 ney 47 aa i a ae ee ee 27 
Papers written by curators’of Museum! .2Ui20_23) S855) Sa eases 30 
Paraguay, consul-general for, acknowledgments due _____-___-_--_--___-- 61 
exchange transmission to----- Js TEE PAO aa ba ee ee eae 59, 63 


a party to. Brussels ‘convention. =: 222 220s. sae See oe 58 


INDEX. TW9 


Page 
Parkor avvaithiameitene, Memoir Of pe ree ee eee es Ti1 
Parliamentary documents, immediate exchange of ____------------------- 19 
publications presented to institution --_------------------- 78 
Paroguetan Zoolopical Parkees< 2224 > sie. 22222 i22ss-2 eae sees 5 BP eis Aad Se 64 
Patents, Commissioner of, member ew officio of the S aieanicens COE ie ix 
Patent @nice, exchanres/ Of fe 0 ke St ee ae See 60 
iPeccsinyeim) A00lopdCal ear kis Ya oe aes ees Sh Se eee eee ee ee ee 64 
Pefiasco Blanco, ruin of, modelled by Cosmos Mindeleff__--_---_---------- 53 
Pendulum experiments carried on by Coast Survey---_-----------+--------- 21 
Perkins, Frederick S., collection of, Congressional act for purchase of--__ xi 
Permanent funds of the Institution in the U.S. Treasury ----------------- 2 
Perry, Hd..,.& Co., acknowledgments due_--22=-- 22. 2=---- he ee By ee Oe 61 
Eersonnelot-Museunrs- se. eV ee Sih ieee SI Ss Se ee es Rae ee a ara 32 
iPeruvexchanee, transmissions tools 02 Beater 2S) tse rs SU eee 59, 63 
Phelps Brothers & Co., acknowledgments duce = 22222 E vise eee 61 
Physical apparatus in astro-physical observatory ----_---------------- nia Bt 
standardsttor 22 oe Sees see es eee eee 13 
StavisticsiOh acCeSsiOns se se sees ee es See See 27 
seology.statistics'of accessions= "45 222 22. Pie eS ee 28 
BEscarchebecwml bytSeCre vals ya= seme ee eee ape eee ee ee See i 
SCienCe wera isermital CO fe says a ees a eee eee 20 
structure of the earth, by Henry Hennessy 22222-2522 225---2-- === 201 
Physics, progress report for 1886, by George F. Barker -_----------------- 80, 81 
Photographic image, by Prof. Raphael Meldola---_----.--.----2-=--+--2= 377 
Photographs from Mekka presented to Institution _____-_--------------- 78 
made by Bureaw ob Mthnologys- 2-222) eee ee 538, 54 
of the moon to be made by Lick Observatory --------------- 21 
Photography, conditional instruction im ---~----_---------- a5 ae ET 21, 30 
r2ecorvus covumbianus in Zodlogical Park 22s eus as ee See 64 
Pictography, investigations in -_----_- DP CAE PE RS ARLE Lo PE EEE TES 2 42. 47, 50 
Pilling, James C., bibliographical work of _..---------- GEN wie EE see 52 
Pim, Forwood & Co., acknowledgments due ------- EA NA ROL TEL ae 61 
Piney Branch of Rock Creek, archeological examination of _------------- 47 
Pioneer Line of steamers, acknowledgments due-_-__---__---.-------=----- 61 
ian ior inercasine: themlibraryts--- see eas see tee eee ae eee eee neae 20 
iPlans-for new Museum buildimg presented - =. 2") -W sesh see ee ee ee 4 
Plants, statistics of accessions ==. 22.228. -422=2--2- ADS BL Pee CAVES cer See 28 
used in Indian materia medica, collection of --.-...---- -.------ 42, 48, 51 
Playfair, Sir R. Lambert, the Mediterranean, physical and historical ____ 259 
Poisonous serpents, venoms of, researches upon, by Sir Weir Mitchell and 
eeReichertwem see ea Se ee ee eee eo ae ee eee et ea 8 79 
Polynesia, exehance transmissions: to. Settee oe ee ee = 22850, 8 
Pomares, Consul-General Mariano, acknowledgments due___-----------_- 61 
Ponka ‘and: Omahajsonss;:by J; Owen Dorsey 2S) 722s ee ae eee 50 
genealogical tables revised by J. Owen Dorsey ------ SESS eee 50 
Porcelain statistics of aCCGsSlONSta= = = oes as eee eee eee 27 
Eorcupinemn’Z00lopicalikark:s= 2 = 5-225 ==) Sa ae ae Ses sa Se eee 64 
Porter, Dr. J. HL... artificial deformation of children) 22-222 5-2hs25 22 estou" 80 
Porter, Dr. Noah, resignation of, as regent ___------------- Seri xi 
resolution of Board of Rege ee respe erm 2 
Portuguese consul-general, New York, acknowledgments due_-_------__- 61 
Portugal, a party to Brussels convention --------------------+--- ea et 58 


exchance:transmissions-tO. 259 235! 255.3 - sss. 8 eee SSE 59.63, 


800 INDEX. 


Page. 
Postage for exchange bUreall- - 2-2. ae = se ee eee 5T 
for National Museum: 
Congressional appropriation for ---.--.------------- Ee tnd See XXVI1i, XXXil, x] 
Mxpendituresis. =.=. 328 5.7 uncws Ue = oo eee ie ee es Se 0.0.4 D.< 
Pottery collections made in Africa by Talcott Williams -----------.------ 13 
statisties of accessions: =<. 82.2250 - oe ee es 27 
Powell, J. W., director, Bureau of Ethnology --------- ents, oF uct ae eee 42 
report of Bureau of Ethnology -.-....-.-------.+---- 43, 47, 54, 82 
Prairie dog: in: Zodélogical ‘Parks -222222452 5-6 10 eee Lee Sepak e 2 64 
Prehistoric anthropology, statistics of accessions -_____..---_------------ 27 
copper implements, Congressional appropriation for purchase 
OES EM oes eA Palate Fe Be Re Se Eee Ee ae cee Oe Be xli 
races of Italy, by Canon Isaac Taylor -------- sen ia See otk Be 489 
Preservation of collections, U. S. National Museum: 
Congressional appropriations for --.._--.----------------XXi, xxix, xxxii, xl 
Expendituresifor. 2.22222 isc 54s siete lec ke XXil, Xxili, XXIV. KV, & RVI, oe 
Preservation of Museum specimens from insects, ete__----------- Sa ee 81 
President of the United States, member ex officio of the petablishme: nt _ bce 
Primitive home of the Aryans, by A. H. Sayce ---.------+-----=--------- 475 
urn burial, by Dr. J. F. Snyder------ PL oe ieee pier et es ae ee 609 
Rrintinesorexchanvel bureaus. se ares see ea = see ae ee eee 57 
Printing for National Museum: 
Congressional appropriation -_-_------------------- Pe aaee Snes Re Ree 
Inxpendituresse. = i= 558 a ae ee ee ee eee xxix 
Printing of annual reports, Congressional action desired ___--~------------ 16 
extra copies of report ordered by Congress ------------------ ii 
Proceedings of American Historical Association printed __---_----------- 22 
Boardof Resents,; journalioles = ees sae eee Xj 
the: National (Museum = 3528 45.382 oe ee ee eee 15, 29 
Proctor. Hon. Redfield, member ex officio of the establishment___-_-__--_- ix 
Rrocyon lotor ine Zodlogical Park <2-52 5-2 o2 =e tee ee Se eee 64 
Progress of Anthropology in 1890, by Otis T. Mason --------------------- O27 
ini 1886, by Otis. Mason =: o* oe se) ee 81 
Progress of Astronomy for 1889, 1890, by William C. Winlock ------------ 121 
for 1886, by William ©: Winlock. 22-25. .2-- 925 79, 81 
Chemistry in 1886, by H. Carrington Bolton-.----------------- 80, 8L 
Geography in 1886, by William Libbey, jr ------------- aUae 80, 81 
North American geology in 1886, by Nelson H. Darton__----- 79, 81 
Mineralogy in 1886, by Edward S. Dana__--------------------- 80, 81 
North American paleontology in 1886, by J. B. Marcou------- 79, 81 
Physics im 1886, by George . barker™ 22.2 ses e eee 80, 81 
Vuleanology and Seismology in 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr-_ 79, 81 
Zoblogy in.1886sby Theodore; Gillvces--** -.- eee Se 80, 81 
Protection.ofianimals by Government._—22- 4 2e--£ 9 =- 2. ee te ee 35, 36 
Prussia, exchange ‘transmissions t0.@822.2---- 2225 5-2) ee: ae ee 59 
Bublicierinterexchang es Of sass ne se ae eee ene sip ae eee 60 
Bublicationsiss == 2.822 s.2o2 - Sos ee a ee ee ee ee eee 14 
American, Eustoricaly Association esse. ssa aes =e ee eee 15 
Bureauiot Ethnology .s=2. 226 e< > sea eee ee eee 15 
Cope; Reptilia 2:2 ea 2 <2 se bats pee ee ee eee 15 
Publicationstinireadin go:0O mi sae ne a eee 19 
Publications, sales of, receipts from 2222222 5222- == Bi bec ee eee xviii 
National Museumnzc¢ 222s 2285.05) = eee eee Pie OAs Soe 15, 29, 82 


INDEX. 801 


Page 
Publications of Smithsonian Institution, list of_..-..--...-------.-_------ 81 
SHithsonianannual reports.) 2s-s-.= = geno ayaa oe ee 15 
Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge-_-_--=<-.--------------------- 14,79 
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections_._.-....-.--..-.-.------------ 14 
Publications, Smithsonian, list of, by William J. Rhees__---------------- 15 
uch O archi pecnire,.PeportsON 2 s= 2255. so. ah eee es 53 
indians Stud yoOl. 20 Ses ee oe ere ae Done ce ete ee pas 43, 48, 50 
Pueblos, models of, made by C. Mindeleff_-_--------- ESS fie es eee aes 2 53, 54 
Purchase of archaeological objects, grant for ___._---__2._--222-_-_- 2222. 21 
Orsi urO. in Zo0logical Park 655525.) eet ce ay ee a ee 64 
Q. 
Quarry sites, excavations into- ------ (Re te Metatarsal e e 42,48 
Quartermaster Department, assistance rendered by ---------------------- 29 
Quai pers. Ys C.. Vs BOYS) oe -hok ssa ai Ba a ee 315 
Queensland, exchangextransmissionSs tO = === ssee sae eee eee 59, 63 
R. 
Raccoonsin’Zoolocicalearke 2 seas ee eee Se ee 64 
Ramsden dividing engine, by J. Elfreth Watkins -__-_-___-.---.__-_----- 721 
MEN CHICS OCA OOlOPICAISE AL Ky Sea 2 il poe pee eee oe eas Soe se ee ae 64 
Reading room Of library: periodicalsmin 22-2520 38. shee. eee tes 19 
eecEpesOio xchange DURGA, < A528) 22. Se ee ee oe) a ee 56 
Simi nse ya A baste qRUn ONY 28 = 250 soe ee ease noe eae se xvii 
Recent plants, statistics of accessions -...--------_---.-.-----.- eae 28 
Recording exchange correspondence, new system of____---....----------- 62 
Red Star Line, acknowledgments due---..--.........-.---- ee ees ae 61 
RegenueOrthe inst itwblo Nee =n Ssh hoes eet cae ee ee 1X ex 
appointed by Speaker of House of Representatives ___..-..------ xiee 
GHANCCS NE = ea a he eens ces eS ae el ee Sy pt ee x 
journal of proceedings of -the board .-----= = 2255-3. Sane nase Kal 
THOS LINO OL | setae s er oe os eat fa Ran ahs ogy Fo eS xi 
TREVSCOIMENCOS) JOII=ee! Jon over nae! Soko eS pals brcilth, Senha, allay, 3:47 
(See, also, Board of Regents.) 

Reichert, T., S. Weir Mitchell and, researches upon the venoms of poison- 
BIMBO POMS <8 25 te setae Sa Sneha eae eee 79 
Religious practices of North American Indians studied _--.--.----------- 47, 50 
Recor CaniZ ations OL UW praryeCarricd) Ole. == =e ee ae ee ee 20 
Repayments from bureaus on account of exchanges_._.....-.-.----------- 7 
OYE HRSA MH THeOeMy OMS a eR ee xvili 
tnexchange: DuLcates cen a ee Pe ee 57 
Report, Annual of the American Historical Association _....-.-.-----_--- 15 
BoardiotRegents for 1890 aes. aoe ee oe ae Hyak 
pie Bureaw.of Mihnologys =e e- 2 eee eee 15, 54, 82 
CXIRAICODIOSION 5220 Saas aes 2 ae nen ee ety sir le td BR i 
of acting manager of National Zoélogical Park _____._.__---___--- 64 
assistant secretary in charge of National Museum. ____--_----- 29, 82 
assistant secretary, bibliography of Museum, publications in__- 30 
commissioners on Zodlogicall Parke = 2-88 oo oe gee eee 38, 39 
CULATOLIOMER CHAN OCS ie eee ee eae co ae Se eae 55, 62 
Curators Of wanional WMuseWiM-s- eos.) «Sek ae 82 
executive committee of Board of Regents -.....-..----:-----.- xvii 
ADT Ae ee Se pe a ee ee £e cue ten cla 75 


H. Mis. 129 51 


802 ; INDEX. 


Page. 
Report of Maj. J. W. Powell on Bureau of Ethnology -.-.-.. ---------- 43, 47, 82 
Secretary for 1889 22 See ee eS A eee ee eee 82 
1890 too0ard of Reventstt 22625220 * Ra eee 1 
appendix“fo ease Poy lee eee 47 
Bureau-of Wthnologyss22 224 42 
International exchanges_-___.-_-__-- 16 
fuibrary)--2 s2cesi0 soos 5 Daa 19 
Wational .Museum’ = i= 22 22 aes ae 26 
National Zoélogical Park__-..----.- 34 
on International Congress of Orientalists_____.._-_____-__.2_1_22- 85 
progress in anthropology for 1886, by Otis T. Mason __-_------- 80, 81 
of anthropology for 1890, by O. T. Mason-_-_----...---_ 
astronomy for 1886, by William C. Winlock __-_-__- 79, 81 
1889, 1890, by William C. Winlock.-. 121 
chemistry for 1886, by H. Carrington Bolton _---_. 80, 81 
geology for 1886, by Nelson H. Darton_------------ 79, 81 
geography for 1886, by William Libbey, jr -----_--- 80, 81 
mineralogy for 1886, by Edward S. Dana-_-_-_-------- 80, 81 
physics for 1886, by George F. Barker------------- 80, 81 
seismology for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr -------- 79, 81 
paleontology for 1886, by Jules Belknap Marcou___- 79, 81 
vuleanology for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr------- 79, 81 
zoology for 1886, by Theodore Gill 222 ---- 222-2222 80, 81 
Professor: Morley’s'researches== 16" 222s ae a eae 83 
Smithsonian exchanges for 1887, by George H. Boehmer ------ 79 
steam transportation, by J. Elfreth Watkins -_----_--------.-- 80 
Representative relations of Institution__----- 225-522 22 22 2 2 eee 25 
Representatives of foreign governments, acknowledgments due -_-------- 61 
Reptilia, paper on, by Prof. Mdward Ds Cope 22-2222. asa a ee eae eee 15 
Reptiles. in Zoological Park... 2 2222252555225 Se ee eee 64 
Statisties of accessions)-2. 20-2242 2s 2b ee eee! ees 27 
Researches 22 a ete sus See ees ae eed a ee aaa a eee ee 10 
by curators of NMiisewm sss soa one ee oe ee ee 30 
ethnologic, among the North American Indians__----_------- 42,47 
upon the venoms of poisonous serpents, by S. Weir Mitchell 
and T="Reichert:42 2-2 2e2- = $3) - see ee eee 79 
Residuary lesacy Ol omithsony amount On sae s= a) ease ee 2 
Resionation of Dr. ‘Noah Porter 22522922225 2. eee A ntee oA Cone ee eA CE xi 
Resistance box ordered for astro-physical observatory -------------------- 11 
Resolutions by Congress. (See Congress, resolutions by.) 
Resolutions by Board of Regents: 
AP PEOpLiatine ania lem COM Cm se ae ee ee ee xii 
Bequest of Dr Jerome ve ake Gl cle ree aa ee ee xiii 
Compensation stoi @lussié; Schultze mee eee ne Xiv 
DeathiofMEon.| Samuel! SrCoxemeene see snes eee ae eee ee ee Xv, Xvi, 2, 44 
Meoetine siofBoard > 22. 28s hae eee ee ee ee ee XV 
Repayment of money advanced for exchanges -_-_-----------------xii, 16,18 
Resivnation‘of prNoah Porter! sa0 se eee ee ee es ba 
Reuleaux, lh. techuolopy and civilization -<-s2s25 sesso sees eee 705 
Review of the Family Delphinide, by F. W. True---.--------------------- 30 
Revenue Marine + COOMETA OM Olas === 5 nae ee ee ee 28 
Reynolds, Henry L., assisted in work on mound explorations ------ ------ 52 
explorations: made ‘by: *.2¢-24- 23s eee 14 
mound explorations by ------ ee cL See oe 47 


—— 


INDEX. 803 


Page 
Ethees, William J., chief clerk of the Institution -_.-2.222..222-<5 =--.- ie 
list of Smithsonian publications _.-......-..-.--.._=_- 15 
Ridgway, Robert, paper on humming birds -____...----2__-_.-_-.-.2-_2 2 ean!) 
Rio Salado, ruins on, report on, by Victor Mindeleff ____.._._____.________ 53 
iock Creek ,archcolopical examination Of. 223522. -e2e 85-222 a eos 47 
selectedsior:Zoo0logicalibarkess == 26 see a eee ene enn. 37 
Reco. OxplOorations in. Mhibet, +322. s222 sss 5 452 see a ee ee 13 
Rockwood, C. G., jr., report on progress in vuleanology and seismology in 
RSS OBNE rm sei ee A ta sae es ek an eens Sask ett Se ate ae ce ea eRe 7%, 81 
Romanes, George J., Weismann’s theory of heredity --__.. _._-_--____.____ 433 
Rocky, Mountain sheep-in Zoological Park -~..-- 2.22522 2 42.2 Stee 64 
fooms for scientific work, assignment of ---2--2222 2-2 ---222 2-0 ee eee 21 
Royal Academy of Budapest presented publications_---_..______.________ 78 
SOCIOby. Of London, books: presented: by --" 25-22-92. = 22 ee 78 
BRuimsymoedelled by Cosmos Mind elefi 22222222225. 225 2 255" 2.. 5 teas 53, 54 
EGVOGUON apy VAClOm NiNdeleinnns= ses seeneot os ate on Ree 53 
Ruiz, Consul-General D. L., acknowledgments due~-__--. _-_______.____-- 61 
Rush, Dr. W. H., U.S. Navy, acknowledgments due for specimens ______ 14 
offered to make collections _-__.-_.....___- 33 
USsid ~exchange transmissions. tO. 2022-62 kee oo eee nee 59, 63 
history of geodetic operations in, by Col. B. Witkowski and Prof. 
\etOward:GOLO SY = 2262-52 en peo oe ee ae ea Ye ee 305 
hydrographic publications presented by Government of __________ 78 
Sal gmiesipald.by exchange DUrCAl tos s72.s2sce es. a sean ee coe epee 57 
Sales On DUpLcatons, receipts {rom <2 5 = eo eee eee xviii 
San Salvador, consul-general for, acknowledgments due_______-__________ 61 
CxChanee transMmiSSiOns) bles: sseeee a= oa eee a eee Ie 59 
Sacurday, Jectures.in Museum lecture hall=*- = 2.2 us So ees oe ee 31 
Savannah River, Georgia, mound on the, explored_-----_------_.--___-__- 47 
SALONVA-OxXChange (rAnSMISSLONS UO. ---2 26-22 5=— nese ate says hee eee 59 
sayce, Prof. A. H., the primitive home of the Aryans_-.-----__.___.______ 475 
Schliemann, Dr. Henry, requested representation at international con- 
HERO COsa Ure GtON GLO Yrs sees aa (te sare oe ene aera | i 25 
Bochumacher pA... cy CO, acknowledgments Gueus=.—. 22ers ee. ee 61 
clenthe Work, assignment Of rOOMs fOr == -f-a2 2 eae eos ees oe eee 21 
BaUunus carolnenss 1m Zoological Parks. 2222) 22 22 sas set ee ee 64 
[HSOMmuUs in ZGGLOPICAL Park caps G2 oe. ent eee ae oe ee ee 64 
Sciuropterus volucelia in Zodlogical Park ..----.-.----.--.-.---1---2+---2-8 64 
scrow-unreads, Standards to be adopted <--- 22-2 S2-- 252-2 a oe eee 13 
Secretary communicated to National Academy investigations upon the 
cheapest foumuyon Light 222. oo ae ee eee en aae See ee 11 
Secretary’s letter submitting annual report _--_--._---------------.-.-__.- iii 
Secretary of Smithsonian Institution a member of committee on resolutions 
EOLMULVO: CO PHM AUC Su SCO sae ae nee eee ener eee ae 43 
VOPOLU MOM SOO a5 Seales. Ss aes ane a a ee ee Se eer 82 
SECrOLAary, 5 FEPONt, AppOnGIX Os ooo san ee eee ea ee 47 
On Bureau On MthnOlogy sess eeee earn nc ee ee 42 
international éxchangesic--2----.-=---------cl.n228 16 
WUD UAT os os serene eaten ae cee ee 19 
IN ADLON a WOU C UUM cet eee oe ct te eae ee 26 
National ZHOlLOCICa ear Ke sone 2-8 soe cele see 34 
SECrolaly OllnLeriOPUCOUnLeRy Oleh a. a. cene" ooo ahah ome aae ee eee ee 29 


Seely, F. A., grant for purchase of archeological objects-.-..-.---------- 21 


804 INDEX. 


Page 
Seismology, progress report for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr ------------- 79, 81 
Senate, action of, with regard to appropriation for fireproofing of part of 
Smithsonians buildin yess ce sae a ee ee 10° 
bilfrelative to new, Museum buildings: 2222225225223 4 
Serials/added to the library :.2- 2-4. =.2-- 6-8 6 eee eee eae 15 
Serpents, poisonous, venoms of, researches upon, by S. Weir Mitchell and 
4 MOR ei Kel se) ie Meee ee ne aera as Bue ees Coma ee pee SSEedeeEs = esos 79 
Serva, exchanre) tranSMissiOns tO\s--2ses= == a= ee ee eee 63 
a, party. tOMSrusselS COMVeMbION a2 se ae are eee eae 58 
Shipaulovi pueblo, model of, made by C. Mindeleff_--..-..--.------------ 53 
Shufeldt. Drak. Ws Shudied bird skeletons: 2-2-2 = 2-5-5 seen es. eee 30 
Sia tribeiof Pueblo Indians, study (of 22. 20-222 aoe eee eee 43, 54 
Siderostat in astro-physical observatory --.--.---------2---------=----22.- 11 
Sisnlanguage, investigations Inls-2- 25-62 S25 2 enone ene ae 
Sicnal Office, exchanges Of =2-iss-25- Ssete see denoe ee See ee eee eee 60 
Siletz tribes, gentile system of. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey--------------- 50 
Sixth annual report of the Bureau of Ethnology -----------------------15, 54, 82 
Sketch of plans for new Museum building presented -.-.-_--------------- 4 
Skull, clinical study of the, paper on, by Dr. Harrison Allen__-.--------- 15, 80 
Smith, John B., contribution toward a monograph of the insects of the 
lepidopterous family Noctuidee of temperate North America -----~----- 30 
Simithsonsbequest,amountioh == oes sc= aaa see ae ee eee eee 2 
Smihhsonlanstunds COM dit Om Obese. ae ee ee ee ee xvii 
accounts examined by executive committee _-___.___-_____-_- xvii 
annual reports for 188i-and 1888 == eee ee eee 15, 79 
building, continuation of fireproofing -----.---.------------- 10 
should be paid for by Government. --~--.2.2--s.2-- xii 
Contributions to Knowledge:2- == - ee bene eae eee eee 14,79 
VORURRVE 2 oleae Mee ge eee ones 79 
exchanges, reports on, for 1887, by George H. Boehmer ----- 79 
Institution, exchanves Of -.2— se nes—ae oe ee 60 
Secretary’s report for s890e 2222 - en ae i 
Miscellaneous’ Collections = -- =. = ose 22225 2 ee ee eee 14 
publications, checklist of, 22- =e sess = = se eee ree 81 
list of, by: William), J). Ethees == 220 ses see oo seeee 15 
Snakes'in.Zodlopical:Park<: 2-2 5. oot Soe ee aero eee ee 64 
Sian bhetas 1By Tbs rorabe oleh vopetsisS) 12) \u-s ye le a ee Sere eee SSS Ss Se 80, 81 
Snyder eDroJ, f., a primitive wnn DUG 20-8 2 esse ee eee 609 
Societies corresponding with exchange bureau_--_-..--------------------- 55, 56 
SolaricoronamemoirsirelatingstOs sss === ee ee eee 14,79 
South Australia, exchange. transmissions to_-.-.-------------------------- 59, 63 
South Carolina, explorationsim= 222296. — 22 == == —se eee ee Be eee 47 
Spain, consul-general for, acknowledgments due-_--.---------------------- 61 
exchange transmissions tOs2=225-- sen ene = eee eee 59, 63 
a party toBrussels. convenbiowt. = 2-22-22. e eee ee eee eee 58 
Sparrow hawicaniZoological Park<2: 2222222 286 eee ee eee ere 64 
Special researches, by.curators of Museum 2-.222=-2-_ <-.- 22-2 emcee 30 
Specimens, packages of received. by Museum=-2-=“22- =" = See ae eee 28 
preservationyol, from insects) CtC=a— sae e eae ea ae 81 
Spectro-bolometer in astro-physical observatory ------------------------- 11 
Spermophilus tredecimlineatus in Zodlogical Park ------------------------- 64 
Sponges, horny, Lendenfeldt’s monograph on, presented to Institution ---- 78 
Squirrels in Zoological Park. 22. -sc--cessss-2---mm neces sae aoe sigeroese 64 


a 


INDEX. 805 


Page. 
Standard diameters of tubing to be adopted_--------252.-2-2e hse 1B 
of leno th, investications! for determining 2_ 222222552222 e le 21 
BELOW. LAreads CO, De AC OPUCC esata =e ae ae oo nee ee Sanremo 13 
to be, ordered for Smithsonian’ Institution_222-2--222_ a2 13 

(See Committee on the international standards for iron and steel). 
Stanford, Hon. Leland, letter to, relative to new Museum building_______- 4,5 
Stanley and the map of Africa. By J. Scott Keltie__..-..--_--_.__.____. 17 
States Department, co-operatiom.Of =. 02222 h eee e es. eee eee 28 
CxChAanges/Obs=o— so seca ee seen oe ee Wale ae ee 60 
statement of governmental exchanges. -__.-.-..2_-------------<t 2 22s 60 
SOMery TOM CXChangG DULCAUS = 25-55 ono. se ae eet eee an See ae 57 
Srcwen spuUrod exCHAN SCS OL! 2. aces an meer hase ee ee en ee ee 60 
Sess OL ACCESSIONS = -- = 5 o = ae ote ea eee eee ae eee OCICS 
ScvCLOLe TOL salvar 25 22 cose Cae mene eRe eee a Sate ee 20 
Steam transportation, report on, by J. Elfreth Watkins --_---____________ 80 
Siearis-noberh lH. C., ethno-conchology. 9 sa.) 2. aus. soe ee ee 81 
Steel, standards for, committee on, met in Smithsonian building _________ 21 
Stereotype plates stored in Smithsonian building ------____.-___________- 24 
SHaMmeusonee Mrs: lah eld ShudTeS Of -s2sceo sess nse ate ee ee 14, 50 
Stewart, Consul-General Alex. I., acknowledgments due _____.___________ 61 
Storage space in National Museum, table of_..----_.----_-_--_-.---____.- 9 
Strassburg, University of, sends complete set of publications _____________ lid 
SEMEL GLRCOL. IN LOOLOZ ICAL Parkes! laa ait See I tale ee ener Se a 64 
SISUeMIFG: Ofbae, COrOnas! oy, David >. Loads. 220s. ee Taye ee eee 79 
Supseripiion to,Astronomical Journal: 2 22225 s2.- 22s oe 21 
SUIsuD vocabularies collected: by. J. Curtin'= 58) 9. - = te 49 
Sun-dance, Dakota account of. Paper by J. Owen Dorsey __--.._-________- 50 
SuLPoon-General, CXCHANngOS OF =i= = oo- = Sona See al oe ee ee eee 60 
SHEVeyOuland for Zoological bankas: —- esse toe aoe ee eee eee 40 
Swan, J. G., paper on the Indians of Cape Flattery, new edition __________ 15 
Sweden, consul-general for, acknowledgments due ___-_______-___________ 61 
Gxchange transmissiqne (Olss—o.Jes- steno ks ee ees 59, 63 
parliamentary publications of, presented to Institution__________ 78 
Swiezerlund, exchange transmissions) t0s-o2- 2 8-52. a- sh eee eee 59, 63 
a party, to Brussels ConVventiOn=. —- 33-9. ese e ss re eee 58 
Synmnun nevurosuman ZO0lOfical Park .cosecesscscecosern eo ece seen 64 

Ake 

Tables, Guyot’s meteorological and physical, new edition of ___.---.______ 14 
showing annual increase in Museum collections _--_---___________- 8.9 
Tasmania, exchange transmissions to -....-.-.----------.---------------. 59, 63 
Paxidermy icondsional, INStrucwon in = 2 s202 =o ee Sees kos see 21, 30 
Taylor, Canon Isaac. The primitive races in Italy -.--.-..-.....__.___.- 489 
Technology and civilization. By F. Reuleaux_-_-_-._...:....-_._..-._.-_- 705 
Temperature and life.. By Henry de. Varigny -222--.--.-- 22.8 407 
Tennessee, explorations in, by Bureau of Ethnology_-.-.--._._-_.._-_____- 49 
Lestudo elephantopus-in Zodlogical Park: -.....=-<2-- ~~. --20-22s225-sceeen 64 
sigma in, Zoolosical Parks) 28 28 teens son ase Se a oe 64 
weton. folklore; (‘Paper by J. Owen Dorseyesa_oaas 2 Jd ase ee 50 
Tetuan, pottery collections made in, by Talcott Williams ___.-___.______- 13 
Tewa, pueblo of, model of, made by C. Mindeleff_......_..-.......-.._-_- 53 
Dextile,artsstudy of.) (Paper by. W.. EL. Holmes <5 2.252 22+) 2. 2s osan sous. 54, 82 


Pextilesatatisties of accessions....--...2.--s~-s62ceco--5.05% Ee er 27 


806 INDEX. 


Page 
Thaw collection of physical apparatus in astro-physical observatory ------ 11 
Thermodynamics, index to literature of, by Alfred Tuckerman. -______-__ 14, 81 
Thibet, explorations in,by ‘W:. W..Evockdhilly- 222s. ee eee eee 13 
Thomas, Cyrus, explorations by -------- aioe cen Ree be ee Mire oi Bee haere 14 
paper on aid to study of Maya Codices -_-----.----------- 54, 82 
superintendence of mound explorations -________--------- 47 
work on mound explorations=— 22225222 =see- es. ee ee 52 
Thompson, Sylvanus P. Koenig’s researches on musical harmony ------- 335 
Throwing-sticks in National Museum. By Otis T. Mason_------_-------- 81 
Roddy Davidsls = Ont thestruchire ofthelcoronal === === === =e ae 79 
“Poner lecture,’ by Dr. Harrison Allen - -2 2-26 oe ee eee 15, 80 
fund; lecture printed by = {2c - fs per eee ae ee 21 
Toriello, Consul-General Enrique, acknowledgments due -__-------------- 61 
fortoise in Zodlopical Park. -2—-- Jo2. = ee ee She ee eee ee eee ae 64 
Tracy, Hon. Benjamin F., member ex officio of the establishment-----___- ix 
Transactions of bureau of international exchanges-_-----_--------_------- 55, 56 
withdrawn from Library of Congress.-_.-----..--.----------- 19 
Transfer of transactions from Library of Congress-_-___- it eS ae See eee 19 
Transformations of North American Lepidoptera, bibliographical cata- 
logue Of, jby -cuenry Wd wardses 23) 02222 6s _ sre sain ee eee 29, 30 
Transparencies made by Bureau of Ethnology -----.---.----------=--._-_- 53, 54 
Transportation bills exchian@e DUnea 222-2 ea ee ee ee 57 
companies, acknowledgments due------------------------ 60 
statisties:Of SCCesSIONS 2 145-25 <5 — eee eee 27 
ieeasury Department, exchanees Of —.- 2-25.) a ae oe eee 60 
freejentriesicranted! by soe esse ese" eee 28 
Treaty Of sbrussels) 22222-05262 2 tee ee eee am ee eens ie ae eee ee 57 
reubs Min AS tropical botanical @ardense ssa == ss see ee eee ee 389 
®ropical botanical carden. By M. Treubs2 2222252. 60s ee eee 389 
True, F. W., continues as acting curator, department of comparative 
BNBLOM Ye ot fo eee =e Soe Pee en See ee eee ne ae 32 
contribution to the natural history of the Cetaceans, a review of the family 
Welphinides 2222622222 22 Se ens ee. ee ee eee 30 
Tiibingen, University of, sends complete set of publications--..-..-.----- U 
Tubing for apparatus, standard diameters for _--_-_---------------------- 13 
Tuckerman, Alfred, index to literature of thermodynamics -------------- 14, 81 
Tulalip Reservation, Washington, ethnological specimens from --------- 29 
Turkey, consul-general for, acknowledgments due------------------------ 61 
exchange transmissions. vO): = 22-eooe sao ee ee ee 59, 63 
Durkeysin' Zodlopical’ (Park: oe oo ase elas olson ee ee 64 
turtle dove in Zoolopical Mark 2-2 22: 22 es2 = eee = ee ee ee ee 64 
Tusayan, architecture of, report on, by V. Mindeleff -_.-----.-.-..----.- 53 
Twana, Chemakum, and Klallam Indians of Washington. By Myron 
We Soeur e ec ce sere se ncecehere neces cass as seneee esc a cee oem etaaee 80, 81 
Lufs 
United States of America a party to Brussels convention -_-------- ------ 58 
consuls co-operation’ of2222 23240 ee ee eee | 28 
ministers; co-operation’ ols ose sone eo ee a oe ee 28 
U.S. S. Pensacola, officers and sailors of, acknowledgments due ---------- 33 
Universities sending complete sets to library -------_-------------------- 77 


Wpsala, University of,‘ bookssent by=.2esesc-e- eee tees se eee ener eee iid 


INDEX. | 807 


Page. 
Menspurial, primitive, Dy Ors J. lb. SUV OCR= anata ase ae ee 609 
Urocyon virguuanus in Zodlogical Park—_ 2-2 --- _—-- = 52-252 senna 64 
OP SUS INET CONUSHING ZOO lO STC all ole aT Kee ee 64 
ROVTtOtS, 11 AO OLO PTCA gram te ety ee ere eee ee renner el a oe 64 
Uruguay, consul-general for, acknowledgments due -.--------.----------- 61 
Gxchanee traAnsSMIsslOus. tOs.- < soe see se ee ee = Be ei ee 59, 63 
a party to, Brussels convention: 22.5. 20-6 =) 52 = asa ceeee eae eee 58 
Utrecht, University of, sends complete set of publications - - -- , Sees 77 
Ve 

Vacancies in Board of Regents, Congressional resolutions respecting -- -- - xt 
Wandennhoorn, VWi..El., acknowledpimentssdWes ==-= = a= == oe— = eee 61 
Vateple, fi. A\., & Co., acknowledgments due 22 -_ 2222222) sen -- ener eae 61 
Wene7lela.exchance transmissions (Oe. 22s 5- 9= sa ee ee = ee ee 59, 63 

Venoms of poisonous serpents, researchesupon. By S. Weir Mitchell and 
UME OWE Uses ae ae ni a ase es ee eae re rege eat ee 79 
Vermont State reports presented to Institution -------------------------- 78 
Vertebrate fossils, statistics of accessions ----=--------=2e2-- 25 seen ease ee 21 
Vesteras Hogre Allmiinna Liroverk, book sent by ----------------------- 78 
Victorias exchance transmissions to: 2..=.=)-------2-=5--52--cess =a esee eee 59, 63 
Vice-President of the United States member ez officio of the establisment- ix 
Vincent, Frank, jr., collection of books presented by ---------- ---------- 78 
Wircintadéerin ZOOlOoICal Parke a. a2 een sna saceea eae ae a eee 64 
WASILOUSELOMNatOnal Museum: =) 5-2-2525 -5 = =) =e ene ee = eee 31 
Mocapularics,collected by J; Cuntin= = 222-2. ---acccseasee ease eee 49 
Mis Stevensone 222 men seen ee ee eee 50 
Voorhees, Hon. Daniel W., proposed bill for purchase of Capron collection - 23 
Vouchers examined by Executive Committee ---.-.....-_-_-.-+.---=-=---- 3, 4 
Vulecanology, progress report for 1886, by C. G. Rockwood, jr ------------ 79, 81 
Tanipesdulus Zo0logical Parke: 22a. =. soa te aos ee ae eee eee 64 
VelODin ZOO lOpICAl VaR Ke asa ee ete «See eee eee eee oe eee 64 

Ww. 

Wagner Free Institute of Science presented Kiener’s ‘‘Iconographie des 
WoquilleseVivan tesi) 2 222. S22 sok noe nag sae eee ene el ea 31 

Waldstein, Dr. Charles, represented Institution at International Confer- 
ence latranClent WLOy, 2222 = 22 san et ae eee See ee 25 
Nalpie modell, made by C: Mindeleit?<- 2222-255. cen eee eae 53 
Wanamaker, Hon. John, member ez officio of the establishment --_---_---- ix 
Wide Deparment, OXChanves Of 2. ssa .kn anne ene eee eee aeeee 60 
Washington, Territory, ethnological specimens from --_----....---------- 29 
Indiansiof; iby-Myronciells) S222 52 22as2 soe 80, 81 
Wateree River, South Carolina, mounds on the, explored ---------------- 47 
Watkins, J. Elfreth, report on steam transportation --.------------------ 80 
the Ramsden dividine engine 2-2-2 2------5-2eee= 721 
Webster, Clement L., Mounds of the Western Prairies --_.-------------- 80, 81 
on ancient mounds/inslowa-22-2- 2__- 2222S 2s 2-2 80, 81 
Johnson County, Iowa------- 80, 81 

Indian graves in Floyd and Chickasaw counties, 
TOW en ses a et ee ee nO ee eee 80, 81 
West Indies, exchanrce transmissions to =2c--2_-_ 2 222 2 eee ee eee 59 
Weight of packages received by bureau of exchanges_----- en eee 5d, 56 
Weismann’s theory of heredity, by George J. Romanes ------------------ 433 


Weitspekan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin_....-..------------------ 49 


808 INDEX. 


Page. 
Welling, Dr. James C., member of committee on resolutions relative to 
Serviees tof they Hons Sis. COX eee ee ee 43 
SB TOSCNY eos a sae ee ee ne ee ne K, xy Ks 
member of the executive committee___________- X, XK 
resolution on appropriation of annual income ---- xii 
resolution on money advanced for exchanges- ---- xii 
Wesley, William, & Son, acknowledgements due _------------------------ 60 
Wikeeler, Hon. Joseph, appointed regent. = eee eee xi, 2 
a@-TOQeNb. - acs asst tee oe eee eee eee eee X, Xj 
member of committee on resolutions relative to 
the Hon. So. COX. ss ae ee eee 43 
motion relative death of Hon. S.S. Cox __----_--- XV, Xvi 
MVnGe. ELON. Andrew D...a regent: 22.2. se nse eee a ee eee ep.ak 
Wihite(Cross Mine, acknowledoment diel= 225-22.) eee eee 61 
White-headed.eacle in, Zodlogical Park==-2=- 22-22 eae ee eee 64 
Walliams aleott.explorablOn sem AIC ase es ere eee le 13 
Wall Sonuac pA Sian US 7a kar © wal OG oar © ra bse eee ae 61 
Walson, Lomas, criminal anthropology 2-3-5 2-2 =a anne eee ee 617 
lectures in Museum lecture svelte a ae ee 31 
Windom, Hon. William, member ez officio of the establishment__________- ix 
Winlock, William C., appointed honorary curator of section of physical 
apparatus {225 22s o eet ee eee eee eee 32 
progress in:astronomy in 188622 2-3 see ee 79, 81 
report on progress of astronomy for 1889, 1890_-_-__- 121 
report on international exchanges__.-....-_------- 55, 62 
Winnebago folk-lore notes, paper by J. Owen Dorsey----..--------------- 50 
Wisconsin, ancient mounds in, by Clement L. Webster-_-_..-------------- 80, 81 
Wishoshkan vocabularies collected by J. Curtin -_---------- Te Do Be tee ee 49 
Withowski, Col. B., and Prof. J. Howard Gore, history of geodetic opera- 

Hons 1D. RUSSIA: - 2225-5 so oles cees ise ae stan e oe ae ee ee 305 
Moogchuckan Zoolomicall Parkin 222222 20 ees eee 64 
Woodward, Robert S., mathematical theories of the earth __---._----.--- 143 
Work of astro-physical observatory explained _._------------------------ 12 

periormed-in ‘the library 3. -2-Uo2 2.23 co .3 oe eee eee 75 
Wiork-shops; excavations Into. 522 [5.22 22822 oo es ee eee eee 42, 48 
Work-shop space in National Museum, table of-.__.....------------------- 9 
World’s Columbian Exposition, Congressional act relative to_------_----- 23 

Hair,Coneressional actirespecting, = ens. s-3 a ee eee KRY 

Wright, Peter, & Sons, acknowledgments due ___.._-_----.----=--__=___- 61 

Wairtembere, exchange transmissions) t0 2222 2-2 os eee ee 59, 63 

Wirzburg, University of, sends complete set of publications ---------.--- 17 
BY A 

Vear-books, collection of, inexcharnge buréau_2 222-5" == (22a ee eee 62 

Yuki vocabularies collected by J. Curtin ------------ SE re Te a eee 49 
Z. 

Zecnmoura macroura, invZo0logical Park: = 222 eee ee ee 64 

Zodlogical Park, condition of, explained by Secretary to Regents -------- xiv 

(See National Zoédlogical Park.) 

Commlpsion, rooms occupied by_..-..-..22 === === 2-22 21 

Zoblogy, progress report for 1886, by Theodore Gill -_---- ------ --------- 80, 81 

Zuni Indians studied by Mrs. Stevenson=..-..- = 2-2 Sn. eee eee 50 

Zurich, University of, sends complete set of publications ----.--.--------- 77 


‘ ° . 


: a 
, i cs 
at . a 


a 
ibe 78 46 
a an ef s : 
- oe 7 


See 2 


ct eae 

Seo een et, err aes ss 2 

Gee SAD EA RADDA AT 
nrg oT 


eas 
Paes