Full text of "Annual report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution"

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
BOARD OF REGENTS OF

THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION

SHOWING THE

OPERATIONS, EXPENDITURES, AND
CONDITION OF THE INSTITUTION
FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30

1940

(Publication 3606)

UNITED STATES

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE

WASHINGTON : 1941

For sale by the SuperiDtendent of Documents, Washington, D. C. ----- - Price ?1.50 (cloth cover)

FEB 1 1 iE57
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LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL

Smithsonian Institution,
Washington, December 5, 1940.
To the Congress of the United States:

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the
United States, I have the honor, in behalf of the Board of Regents,
to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi-
tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended
June 30, 1940. I have the honor to be,

Very respectfully, your obedient servant,

C. G. Abbot, Secretary.

Ill

CONTENTS

Pago

List of officials ix

Outstanding events 1

Summary of the year's activities of the branches of the Institution 2

The establishment 8

The Board of Regents 8

Finances 9

Matters of general interest 9

Smithsonian radio program 9

Anthropological publication in honor of John R. Swanton's fortieth

year with the Institution 11

Walter Rathbone Bacon traveling scholarship 12

Smithsonian main hall exhibits 13

Ninth Arthur lecture 13

Witherspoon bequest 14

Explorations and field work 15

Publications 16

Library 17

Appendix 1. Report on the United States National Museum 18

2. Report on the National Gallery of Art 31

3. Report on the National Collection of Fine Arts 38

4. Report on the Freer Gallery of Art 43

5. Report on the Bureau of American Ethnology 49

6. Report on the International Exchange Service 59

7. Report on the National Zoological Park 70

8. Report on the Astro physical Observatory 85

9. Report on the Division of Radiation and Organisms 90

10. Report on the library 95

11. Report on publications 102

Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents 109

GENERAL APPENDIX

Solar prominences in motion, by Robert R. McMath 121

The satellites of Jupiter, by Seth B. Nicholson 131

Cultural values of physics, by David Dietz 139

Nuclear fission, by Karl K. Darrow 155

The national standards of measurement, by Lyman J. Briggs 161

The rise of the organic chemical industry in the United States, by C. M. A.

Stine 177

The rubber industry, 1839-1939, by W. A. Gibbons 193

The future of man as an inhabitant of the earth, by Kirtley F. Mather 215

The search for oil, by G. M. Lees 231

Perspectives in evolution, by James Ritchie, M. A., D. Sc 249

Animal behavior, by Ernest P. Walker 271

The national wildlife refuge program of the Fish and Wildlife Service, by

Ira N. Gabrielson 313

VI CONTENTS

Page

A living fossil, by J. L. B. Smith 321

Insects and the spread of plant diseases, by Walter Carter 329

The Mexican bean beetle, by W. H. White 343

Plant-tissue cultures, by Robert L. Weintraub 357

The botany and history of Zizania aquatica L. ("wild rice"), by Charles

E. Chambliss 369

Prehistoric culture waves from Asia to America, by Diamond Jenness 383

Masked medicine societies of the Iroquois, by WiUiam N. Fenton. 397

The beginnings of civilization in eastern Asia, by Carl Whiting Bishop 431

Stonehenge: Today and yesterday, by Frank Stevens, O. B. E., F. S. A-_ 447
Sulfanilamide and related chemicals in the treatment of infectious diseases,

by Wesley W. Spink, M. D 479

The future of flying, by H. E. Wimperis, C. B., C. B. E., Hon. D. Eng.

(Melb.), Past President Royal Aeronautical Society 489

LIST OF PLATES

Secretary's Report: Page

Plates 1, 2 44

Plates 3, 4 70

Solar prominences in motion (McMath) :

Plates 1-6 130

Satellites of Jupiter (Nicholson) :

Plate 1 138

Rise of the organic chemical industry in the United States (Stine) :

Plates 1^ 192

Rubber industry, 1839-1939 (Gibbons) :

Plates 1-4 214

Search for oil (Lees) :

Plates 1^ 248

Animal behavior (Walker) :

Plates 1-lS 312

National wildlife refuge program of the Fish and Wildlife Service
(Gabrielson) :

Plates 1-8 320

A living fossil ( Smith ) :

Plates 1-3 328

Insects and the spread of plant diseases (Carter) :

Plates 1-6 342

Mexican bean beetle (White) :

Plate 1 343

Plates 2-6 356

Plant-tissue cultures (Weintraub) :

Plates 1-3 368

Botany and history of Zizania aquatica L. ("wild rice") (Chambliss) :

Plates 1-9 382

Masked medicine societies of the Iroquois (Fenton) :

Plates 1-25 430

Beginnings of civilization in eastern Asia (Bishop) :

Plates 1-10 446

Stonehenge: Today and yesterday (Stevens) :

Plate 1 478

THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
June 30, 1940

Presiding officer ex officio. — Fbanklin D. Roosevelt, President of the United

States.
Chancellor. — Chaeles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the United States.
Members of the Institution:

Frankun D. Roosevelt, President of the United States.

John N. Garner, Vice President of the United States.

Chables Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the United States.

CoRDELL Hull, Secretary of State.

Henby Moegenthau, Jr., Secretary of the Treasury.

Habby Hines Woodeing, Secretary of War.

RoBEBT H. Jackson, Attorney General.

James A. Farley, Postmaster General.

Charles Edison, Secretary of the Navy.

Harold L. Ickes, Secretary of the Interior.

Henby A. Wallace, Secretary of Agriculture.

Habby Lloyd Hopkins, Secretary of Commerce.

Feanoes Pebkins, Secretary of Labor.
Regents of the Institution:

Chaeles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor.

John N. Garner, Vice President of the United States.

Chaeles L. McNaby, Member of the Senate.

Alben W. Barkley, Member of the Senate.

Bennett Champ Clark, Member of the Senate.

Chaeles L. Gifford, Member of the House of Representatives.

Clarence Cannon, Member of the House of Representatives.

William P. Cole, Jr., Member of the House of Representatives.

Feedeeic a. Delano, citizen of Washington, D. C.

R. Walton Mooee, citizen of Virginia.

Roland S. Mobeis, citizen of Pennsylvania.

Harvey N. Davis, citizen of New Jersey.

Aethue H. Compton, citizen of Illinois.

Vanne:\^ae Bush, citizen of Washington, D. C.
Executive committee. — Fbedeeio A. Delano, R, Walton Moore.
Secretary. — Charles G. Abbot.
Assistant Secretary. — Alexander Wetmoee.
Administrative assistant to the Secretary. — Habey W. Dobsey.
Treasurer. — Nicholas W. Dobset.
Chief, Editorial Division. — Webstee P. Texte.
Librarian. — William L. Coebin.
Personnel officer. — Helen A. Olmsted.
Property clerk. — James H. Hill.

X ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Keeper ex officio. — Charles G. Abbot.

Assistant Sea-etary {in charge). — Alexandeb Wetmobe.

Associate director. — John E. Qbat.

scientific bta.ff

Depaetment of An thropologt :

Frank M. Setzler, head curator; A. J. Andrews, chief preparator.
Division of Ethnology: H. W. Krieger, curator; Arthur P. Rice, collab-
orator.

Section of Ceramics: Samuel W. Woodhouse, collaborator.
Division of Archeology: Neil M. Judd, curator; Waldo R. Wedel, assistant
curator ; R. G. Paine, senior scientific aid ; J. Townsend Russell, honorary
assistant curator of Old World archeology.
Division of Physical Anthropology: Ales Hrdlif5ka, curator; T. Dale
Stewart, associate curator.
Collaborators in anthropology: George Grant MacCurdy; D. I. Bush-
nell, Jr.
Depabtment of Biology:

Leonhard Stejneger, head curator; W. L. Brown, chief taxidermist;
Aime M. Awl, illustrator.
Division of Mammals: Gerrlt S. Miller, Jr., curator; Remington Kellogg,
assistant curator; H. Harold Shamel, senior scientific aid; A. Brazier
Howell, collaborator.
Division of Birds: Herbert Friedmann, curator ; J. H. Riley, associate cura-
tor; H. G. Deignan, assistant curator; Alexander Wetmore, custodian
of alcoholic and skeleton collections; Casey A. Wood, collaborator;
Arthur C. Bent, collaborator.
Division of Reptiles and Batrachians: Leonhard Stejneger, curator; Doris

M. Cochran, assistant curator.
Division of Fishes: Leonard P. Schxiltz, curator; E. D. Reid, senior scientific

aid.
Division of Insects: L. O. Howard, honorary curator; Edward A. Chapin,
curator ; William Schaus, honorary assistant curator.

Section of Hymenoptera : S. A. Rohwer, custodian ; W. M. Mann, assist-
ant custodian; Robert A. Cushman, assistant custodian.
Section of Myriapoda : O. F. Cook, custodian.
Section of Diptera : Charles T. Greene, assistant custodian.
Section of Coleoptera: L. L. Buchanan, specialist for Casey collection.
Section of Lepidoptera: J. T. Barnes, collaborator.
Section of Hemiptera : W. L. McAtee, acting custodian.
Section of Forest Tree Beetles: A. D. Hopkins, custodian.
Division of Marine Invertehrates: Waldo L. Schmitt, curator; C. R. Shoe-
maker, assistant curator; James O. Maloney, aid; Mrs. Harriet Rich-
ardson Searle, collaborator; Max M. Ellis, collaborator; J. Percy Moore,
collaborator; Joseph A. Cushman, collaborator in Foraminif era ; Charles
Branch Wilson, collaborator in Copepoda.
Division of Mollusks: Paul Bartsch, curator; Harald A. Rehder, assistant
curator; Joseph P. E. Morrison, senior scientific aid.

Section of Helminthological Collections: Benjamin Schwartz, collab-
orator.
Division of Echvnoderms: Austin H. Clark, curator.

REPORT OF THE SEC3CETART XI

Depabtment of Biology — Continued.

Division of Plants (National Herbarium) : W. R. Maxon, curator; Ells-
worth P. Killip, associate curator ; Emery C. Leonard, assistant curator ;
Conrad V. Morton, assistant curator ; Egbert H. Walker, aid ; John A.
Stevenson, custodian of C. G. Lloyd mycological collection.
Section of Grasses : Agnes Chase, custodian.

Section of Cryptogamic Collections: O. F. Cook, assistant curator.
Section of Higher Algae: W. T. Swingle, custodian.
Section of Lower Fungi : D. G. Fairchild, custodian.
Section of Diatoms : Paul S. Conger, custodian.
Associates in Zoology: C. Hart Merriam, Mary J. Rathbun, C. W. Stiles,

Theodore S. Palmer, William B. Marshall, A. G. Boving.
Associate Curator in Zoology : Hugh M. Smith.
Associate in Marine Sediments : T. Wayland Vaughan.
Collaborator in Zoology: Robert Sterling Clark.
Collaborators in Biology: A. K. Fisher, David C. Graham.
Dia'AKTMENT OF Geology :

R. S. Bassler, head curator; Jessie G. Beach, aid.
Division of Physical and Chemical Geology (systematic and applied) :
W. F. Foshag, curator ; Edward P. Henderson, assistant curator ; Bertel
O. Reberholt, senior scientific aid.
Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: W. F. Foshag, curator; Frank L.

Hess, custodian of rare metals and rare earths.
Division of Stratigraphic Paleontology: Charles E. Resser, curator; Gustav
A. Cooper, assistant curator ; Marion F. Willoughby, senior scientific aid ;
Margaret W. Moodey, aid for Springer collection.

Section of Invertebrate Paleontology: T. W. Stanton, custodian of
Mesozoic collection ; Paul Bartsch, curator of Cenozoic collection.
Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: Charles W. Gilmore, curator ; C. Lewis

Gazin, assistant curator; Norman H. Boss, chief preparator.
Associates in Mineralogy : W. T. Schaller, S. H. Perry.
Associate in Paleontology: E. O. Ulrich.
Associate in Petrology: Whitman Cross.
Department of Enginexeing and Industbies:
Carl W. Mitman, head curator.
Division of Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, curator.

Section of Transportation and Civil Engineering: Frank A. Taylor,

in charge.
Section of Aeronautics: Paul E. Garber, assistant curator.
Section of Mechanical Engineering: Frank A. Taylor, in charge.
Section of Electrical Engineering and Communications: Frank A.

Taylor, in charge.
Section of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering: Carl W. Mitman,

in charge.
Section of Physical Sciences and Measurement: Frank A. Taylor, in

charge.
Section of Tools: Frank A. Taylor, in charge.
Division of Crafts and Industries: Frederick L. Lewton, curator; Eliza-
beth W. Rosson, senior scientific aid.

Section of Textiles: Frederick L. Lewton, in charge.
Section of Woods and Wood Technology: William N. Watkins, assist-
ant curator.
Section of Chemical Industries: Wallace E. Duncan, assistant curator.
Section of Agricultural Industries: Frederick L. Lewton, in charge.

Xn AXIOJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Department of Engineering and Industries — Continued.

Divi»ion of Medicine and Public Health: Charles Whltebread, associate

curator.
Division of Graphic Arts: R. P. Tolman, curator.

Section of Photography : A. J. Olmsted, assistant curator.
Division of History: T. T. Belote, curator; Charles Carey, assistant curator;
Catherine L. Manning, philatelist

ADMTNISTRATI\nE STAFF

Chief of correspondence and documents. — H. S. Bryant.

Assistant chief of correspondence and documents. — L. E. Commerford.

Superintendent of buildings and labor. — B. H. Trembly.

Assistant superintendent of buildings and labor. — Charles C. Sinclair.

Editor. — Paul H. Oehser.

Engineer. — C. R. Denmark.

Accountant and auditor. — N. W. Dorsey.

Photographer. — A. J. Olmsted.

Property clerk. — Lawrence L. Oliver.

Assistant librarian. — Leila F. Clark.

NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART

Trustees:

The Chief Justice of the United States.

The Secretary of State.

The Secretary of the Treasury.

The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.

David K. E. Bruce.

Duncan Phillips.

FtoDINAND LAMMOT BELIN.

Samuel H. Kress.

Joseph E. Widener.
President. — ^David K. E. Bruce.
Vice President. — Ferdinand Lammot Belin.
Secretary and treasurer. — Donald D. Shepard.
Director. — David E. Finley.
Assistaiit director. — Macgill James.
Administrator. — H. A. McBride.
Chief Curator. — John Walker.

NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS

Acting director. — Ruel P. Tolman.

FREER GALLERY OP ART

Director. — John Ellerton Lodge.
Assistant director. — Grace Dunham Guest.
Associate in archeology. — Carl Whiting Bishop.
Associate in research. — Archibald G. Wenley.
Superintendent. — W. N. Rawley.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY Xni

BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Chief. — Matthew W. Stirling.

Senior ethnologists. — H. B. Colons, Jk., John P. Habeington, John R.

SWANTON.

Senior archeologist. — Fbank H. H. Roberts, Jb.
Senior anthropologist. — Julian H. Steward.
Associate anthropologist. — W. N. Fenton.
Editor. — M. Helen Palmeb.
Librarian. — Miriam B. Ketchum.
Illustrator. — Edwin G. Cassedy.

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGES

Secretary {in charge). — Charles G. Abbot.
Chief Clerk. — Coates W. Shoemaker.

NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK

Director. — William M. Mann.
Assistant director. — Ernest P. Walker.

ASTROPHTSICAL OBSERVATORY

Director. — Charles G. Abbot.
Assistant director. — Loyal B. Aldkich.
Senior astrophysicist. — William H. Hoover.

DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS

Director. — Charles G. Abbot.
Assistant director. — Earl S. Johnston.
Senior physicist. — Edward D. McAoster.
Senior mechanical engineer. — Leland B. Clark.
Associate plant physiologist. — Florence M. Chase.
Junior biochemist. — Robebt L. Weintraub.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

C. G. ABBOT

FOR THE YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1940

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution.

Gentlemen : I have the honor to submit herewith my report showing
the activities and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and the
Government bureaus under its administrative charge during the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1940. The first 17 pages contain a summary
account of the affairs of the Institution, and appendixes 1 to 11 give
more detailed reports of the operations of the National Museum, the
National Gallery of Art, the National Collection of Fine Arts, the
Freer Gallery of Art, the Bureau of American Ethnology, the Inter-
national Exchanges, the National Zoological Park, the Astrophysical
Observatory, the Division of Radiation and Organisms, the Smith-
sonian Library, and of the publications issued under the direction
of the Institution. On page 109 is the financial report of the
executive committee of the Board of Regents.

OUTSTANDING EVENTS

The number of visitors to the buildings of the Institution and the
National Museum during the year reached a new record total — 2,506,-
171. The construction of the new National Gallery of Art Building,
presented to the Nation by the late Andrew W. Mellon and designated
a bureau of the Institution, was brought nearly to completion, and it
is expected that the Gallery will be opened to the public early in 1941.
The renovation of the galleries of the National Collection of Fine Arts,
housed in the Natural History Building of the National Museum, was
completed in October 1939, and the galleries were reopened to the
public in that month. The Smithsonian radio program, "The World
Is Yours," completed its fourth year on the air, continuing with un-
diminished popularity. An official Nation-wide poll taken during tho
year rated the program at the top of all noncommercial programs on
all networks. In honor of Dr. John R. Swanton's fortieth year on the
scientific staff of the Institution, there was published a volume of
Essays in Historical Anthropology of North America prepared by
members of the Institution's anthropological staff and dedicated to

2 AN-NUAL, REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

Dr. Swanton. A bequest of approximately $130,000 came during the
year from the estate of Mrs. Eleanor E. Witherspoon, of Washington,
D. C. Two vacancies in the Board of Regents of the Institution were
filled by the appointment of Senator Bennett Champ Clark, of
Missouri, and Vannevar Bush, of Washington, D. C.

The enormous task of revising all solar-constant results from all
observing stations from 1923 to the present was nearly completed at
the close of the year, and it is expected to publish the final values
during the coming year. The Division of Radiation and Organisms
carried forward valuable experiments in the fundamental phenom-
enon of photosynthesis. Working plans have been prepared for the
proposed Handbook of South American Indians to be published by
the Institution under the editorship of Dr. Julian H. Steward.

Dr. W. M. Mann directed the Smithsonian-Firestone Expedition
to Liberia for the purpose of collecting live animals for the National
Zoological Park. Dr. Leonard P. Schultz accompanied the Navy
Surveying Expedition to the Phoenix and Samoan Islands, bringing
back 14,000 specimens of the fishes of that region. M. W. Stirling
made a second archeological expedition to southeastern Mexico in
cooperation with the National Geographic Society, uncovering many
additional stone monuments, including one with an initial series date
in the Maya calendar.

SUMMARY OF THE YEAR'S ACTIVITIES OF THE BRANCHES OF THE

INSTITUTION

National Museum. — Appropriations for the maintenance and oper-
ation of the Museum for the 5'ear totaled $810,725, an increase of
$32,345 over those for the previous year. Additions to the col-
lections numbered 1,960 accessions, totaling 212,474 individual spec-
imens, bringing the number of catalog entries in all departments
to more than 17,000,000. Some of the outstanding accessions were :
In anthropology, Eskimo and other artifacts from Siberia and
northern Alaska, Bondu and Yoruba masks from West Africa and
Nigeria, and a cast of a Neanderthal child skull from Uzbekistan;
in biology, several varieties of seals from the Antarctic, collections of
birds from Veracruz and Indochina, Mexican reptiles and amphib-
ians collected by Dr. Hobart M. Smith, 14,000 fishes taken by Dr.
Leonard P. Schultz in the Phoenix and Samoan Islands, the E. D.
Ball collection of 75,000 specimens of Hemiptera, and 600 marine
invertebrates from southeast Greenland collected by the Bartlett
Greenland Expedition of 1939; in geology, a flawless aquamarine
crystal weighing 347 grams, a 128-carat emerald crystal from Bahia,
Brazil, and 495 Mexican minerals, a large collection of Paleozoic
fossils made by Drs. G. A. Cooper and Josiah Bridge in 1939, and

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY O

25 original type specimens of fossil lizards received in exchange
from the Peabody Museum of Natural History; in engineering and
industries, a model of the Yankee Clipper and the first ticket issued
to a fare-paying passenger on the initial public trans-Atlantic flight,
a Gaulard and Gibbs transformer and an early Tesla motor, a
collection of early incandescent lamps, and a Parsons turbine-
electric generator; in history, the dress in the White House series
worn by Dolly Madison, and many mementos, medals, and portraits
of famous Americans, including Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, Gen. Philip
H. Sheridan, Col. Charles A. Lindbergh, Madame Ernestine
Schumann-Heink, and others. As usual, many expeditions were
sent out in the furtherance of the Museum's work in anthropology,
biology, and geology; these were largely financed by Smithsonian
private funds or through cooperation with other organizations or
individuals. Visitors to the various Museum buildings totaled
2,506,171, an all-time record for annual attendance. The year's
publications included an annual report, 1 Bulletin, 1 Contributions
from the United States National Herbarium, and 27 Proceedings
papers. Twelve special exhibits were held under the auspices of
various educational, scientific, and governmental agencies. Many
members of the Museum staff participated actively in the Eighth
American Scientific Congress held in Washington May 10 to 21,
1940.

National Gallery of Art.—A± the annual meeting of the Board
of Trustees held February 12, 1940, David K. E. Bruce was elected
President and Ferdinand Lammot Belin Vice President of the Board
for the ensuing year. New officials appointed during the year
were Macgill James, Assistant Director, Charles Seymour, Jr.,
Curator of Sculpture, George T. Heckert, Assistant to the Admin-
istrator, and Sterling P. Eagleton, Chief Engineer and Building
Superintendent. Satisfactory progress was made in organizing the
Gallery staff, and this nucleus has been engaged in preparatory
work, the compilation of catalogs, and the purchase of supplies and
furniture. The Board of Trustees accepted a gift from The A. W.
Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust of 11 celebrated paintings
by early American artists, a first step toward setting up in the
National Gallery a section devoted to the advancement and pres-
ervation of American art. The Board also accepted two fountain
groups by Pierre Legros and Jean Baptiste Tubi, done in 1672 on
orders of Louis XIV, one of which will be placed in each of the
garden courts of the Gallery. Such work of repair and restora-
tion of paintings as has been found necessary was done in New York
by Stephen Pichetto, Consultant Kestorer to the Gallery. A Pub-
lications Fund was established for the purpose of publishing cata-

280256 —41 2

4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITTJTION, 1940

logs, handbooks, color reproductions, post cards, and similar
material for the benefit of the public when the Gallery is opened.
It is hoped that construction of the Gallery building will be com-
pleted in November of 1940. Several months will be required for
decorating the exhibition rooms and installing the collections, so
that formal opening of the Gallery to the public is expected to take
place about March of 1941. It is estimated that the total cost of
the building and landscaping will exceed $15,000,000.

National Collection of Fine Arts. — ^The complete renovation of the
exhibition galleries, begim during the previous fiscal year, was fin-
ished in October 1939 and the galleries were reopened to the public
on the 4th of that month. New backgrounds of monk's cloth, repaint-
ing of all woodwork and reflectors to match the backgrounds, and
renovation and backing of all pictures combined to put the entire
National Collection in excellent condition. The nineteenth annual
meeting of the Smithsonian Art Commission was held on December
5, 1939. One painting. Young Girl with Dog, by Edward Percy
Moran, a bequest of Alfred Duane Pell, was accepted for the National
Collection. Three miniatures were acquired through the Catherine
Walden Myer Fund. Several art works were lent upon request to other
museums and organizations. The following seven special exhibitions
were held: The Fifth Annual Metropolitan State Art Contest, 1939,
comprising 272 exhibits of paintings, sculpture, and prints ; 29 pastel
and oil paintings by Esteban Valderrama; a miniature by Juan
de Dios Hoyos ; 83 pieces of wood turnings by James L. Prestini ; 24
portraits and 5 drawings by John Slavin; 153 paintings by 31 mem-
bers of the Landscape Club of Washington, D. C. ; and 103 miniatures
by 61 members of the Pennsjdvania Society of Miniature Painters.

Freer Gallery of Art. — Additions to the collections included Chi-
nese bamboo, bronze, jade, marble, painting, and pottery; East Indian
and Arabic manuscripts; Iranian (Persian) and Syro-Egyptian metal
work; and Indian and Persian painting. Curatorial work was
devoted to the study and recording of these new acquisitions and of
other material already in the collection. In addition, 1,093 objects
of similar character and 263 photographs of others were brought or
sent to the Director for information concerning them, and written or
oral reports upon them were made to the owners. Changes in exhi-
bition involved 40 individual objects. Visitors for the year numbered
108,770. Eight illustrated lectures were given in the auditorium by
members of the staff. Eleven groups were given instruction in the
study rooms, and seven groups were given docent service in the
exhibition galleries. John Bundy, Superintendent of the Gallery
for more than 21 years, died August 18, 1939; he was succeeded by
Weldon N. Rawley.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY O

Bureau of American Ethnology.— K. W. Stirling, Chief, continued
his archeological excavations in southeastern Mexico in cooperation
with the National Geographic Society. At Tres Zapotes the chron-
ology of the site was satisfactorily determined ; at Cerro de Mesa 20
carved stone monuments were located, including one with an initial
series date in the Maya calendar ; and at La Vent a 20 monuments were
unearthed, including 5 colossal heads, several beautifully carved
altars, and some stelae. Dr. J. R. Swanton devoted most of the year
to assembling material on the ethnology and early history of the
Caddo Indians of Louisiana, Arkansas, Texas, and Oklahoma. Dr.
John P. Harrington conducted linguistic and ethnological studies of
the Kiowa Apache at Anadarko and Apache, Okla., the Navaho at
Window Rock, Ariz., the Chipewyan of eastern Alberta, Canada, the
Sarcee of southern Alberta, the Carrier, Chilcotin, and Nicola on the
upper Fraser River, the Tlinkit of southeastern Alaska, and the
Atchat, or Eyak, of the Gulf of Alaska. Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts,
Jr., continued excavations at the Lindenmeier site in northern Colo-
rado, where much additional evidence of the presence of Folsom man
was obtained. Dr. Julian H. Steward, as editor of the proposed
Handbook of South American Indians, drew up a working outline
for this project. Toward the end of the year he went to British
Columbia to study the Carrier Indians. Henry B. Collins, Jr., con-
tinued working over the prehistoric Eskimo material that he ex-
cavated around Bering Strait in 1936. Dr. WiUiam N. Fenton
conducted ethnobotanical studies among the Iroquois Indians of New
York and Canada. Miss Frances Densmore, a collaborator of the
Bureau, completed for publication several manuscripts on Indian
music. The Bureau published an annual report and three bulletins.
The library received 364 accessions, and a large amount of material
was reclassified and reshelved.

International Exchange Service. — The Exchange Service serves as
the official agency for the United States for the exchange with foreign
countries of governmental and scientific publications. It handled
during the year 639,344 packages of such publications, weighing
527,545 pounds. These figures show a considerable decrease from
the previous year, owing to the enforced curtailment of shipments
to many foreign countries because of war conditions. At the close
of the year, the exchange of publications was suspended between the
United States and all European countries except Great Britain, Fin-
land, and the Soviet Republic. Sets of United States governmental
documents are now sent through the Exchange Service to 104 foreign
depositories, and 104 copies of the Congressional Record and the
Federal Register are sent to foreign countries in exchange for their
official journals.

6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

National Zoological Park. — A new restaurant building was begun
during the year under an allotment of $90,000 from the P. W. A. It
is expected to be completed during the fall of 1940. Other improve-
ments included the construction of 9 new paddocks for various ani-
mals; a series of waterfowl ponds; an enclosure for lizards, snakes,
crocodilians, and turtles ; construction of 9,000 feet of curbing and 2,050
square feet of walks; and extensive planting of trees and shrubs in
newly developed areas. Dr. Mann directed the Smithsonian-Firestone
Expedition to Liberia, bringing back nearly 200 animals for the col-
lections, including many rare forms. Malcolm Davis brought back
a number of animals from India, including an Indian rhinoceros,
the first to be shown at the Zoo. He also accompanied Admiral Byrd's
Antarctic Expedition, bringing back a number of penguins for ex-
hibition at the Zoo. Visitors for the year totaled 2,129,600, including
classes from 628 different schools from 21 States and the District
of Columbia. Of particular interest among the many gifts of the
year were a pair of black bears from the Pennsylvania Game Com-
mission, obtained through Carl La Barre, of Portland, Pa.; three
Finsches' tree kangaroos from Kichard Archbold, of the American
Museum of Natural History, New York ; a pair of yak from the De-
partment of Mines and Resources, Dominion of Canada, through
Hoyes Lloyd ; and a group of pheasants from Carlo Zeimet, of Wash-
ington, D. C. There were 55 mammals born, 28 birds hatched, and
22 reptiles born or hatched during the year. The total number of
animals in the collection was 2,550, representing 762 different species.
The Zoo's greatest need is for three new buildings to replace antiquated
structures now in use.

Astrophysical Ohservatory. — The work of the Observatory in study-
ing the radiation of the sun has been continued during the year at
Washington and at the three observing stations at Tyrone, N. Mex.,
Table Mountain, Calif., and Montezuma, Chile. Work has been con-
tinued throughout the year on the complete revision of all results
on the solar constant of radiation from all stations and from 1923
to the present time. Many small inconsistencies requiring extensive
study made progress slow in preparing final tables of mean values
of the solar constant. It is now hoped to publish these tables as
volume 6 of the Annals of the Observatory during the coming year.
Mathematical investigations at Harvard and at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology tend to confirm the reality of periodicities
in solar variation as found by Dr. Abbot. Six lectures on his studies
of solar radiation were given by Dr. Abbot at the Harvard College
Observatory, and the first four are in course of publication in the
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. Dr. H. Arctowski,
eminent meteorologist of Poland, who was in Washington when his

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 7

country was conquered and his property lost, was retained on the
staff of the Observatory for 1 year through funds provided by John
A, Roebling. Soon after beginning his work Dr. Arctowski became
convinced of the reality of solar variation and that it is the major
factor in weather, and he published two papers summarizing his
findings. Dr. Abbot endeavored to evaluate the separate influences
produced on weather by long-range solar periodicities. It soon ap-
peared that considerable weather changes were produced by the peri-
odicities, and changes in phase of the weather responses were found
to be due to seasonal influences. Five-year forecasts, using only
meteorological periodicities antedating 1935, showed a marked corre-
lation between the forecast and the event. In the forecast for pre-
cipitation at Peoria, 111., a correlation coeflBcient of 70 ±5 percent was
found between prediction and event. It is hoped that further study
may improve the 5-year synthetic forecasts.

Division of Radiation and Organisms. — In continuation of its
investigations on the relation of light to plant growth, the Division
carried forward a number of promising experiments, particularly in
the field of photosynthesis. A large number of simultaneous meas-
urements were made of the rate of carbon dioxide uptake and the
intensity of fluorescence during the induction period of photosyn-
thesis. These showed very interesting results, and further work
along this line is proposed, for it is felt that fluorescence is a useful
tool in the study of the mechanism of photosynthesis. Kespiration
and chlorophyll studies have been continued with the recording
spectrographic carbon dioxide apparatus. The perfecting of in-
struments and technique has progressed to a point where detailed
work on the problems relating to the genesis of chlorophyll and the
beginning of photosynthesis may be carried on. A standardized
technique has been worked out for the extraction of growth sub-
stances from the oat seedling which has proved to have a number
of advantages over other methods. A number of biochemical sub-
stances and plant extracts have been tested in the study of the growth
of excised oat shoots and leaves. The maximum light sensitivity of
the oat mesocotyl was shown to occur in the red region of the
spectrum. Algae exposed four times to stimulative amounts of cer-
tain wave lengths of ultraviolet light showed 4 to 4.8 times the
growth rate (expressed as number of cells) of the control cultures.
The stimulated cells were less sensitive to lethal amounts of ultra-
violet than the unstimulated cells. This and other results of experi-
ments on the effects of ultraviolet on algae will be published during
the coming year. Three papers by members of hte Division's staff
were published during the year.

8 AlfNTJAL EEPORT SMITHSONIAIfr INSTITUTION, 1940

THE ESTABLISHMENT

The Smithonian Institution was created by act of Congress in
1846, according to the terms of the will of James Smithson, of
England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States
of America "to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith-
sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men." In receiving the property and accepting
the trust. Congress determined tliat the Federal Government was
without authority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore,
constituted an "establislmient" whose statutory members are "the
President, the Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of
the executive departments."

THE BOARD OF REGENTS

Changes in the Board of Regents during the year included the
appointment on January 4, 1940, by the Vice President, as President
of the Senate, of Senator Bennett Champ Clark, of Missouri, to
succeed Senator M. M. Logan, of Kentucky, who died October 3,
1939, and the appointment by joint resolution of Congress approved
April 5, 1940, of Vannevar Bush, of Washington, D. C, as a citizen
regent to succeed John C. Merriam, who resigned December 14, 1939.

The roll of regents at the close of the year was as follows:
Charles Evans Hughes, Chief Justice of the United States, Chan-
cellor; John N. Garner, Vice President of the United States; mem-
bers fi'om the Senate — Charles L. McNary, Alben W. Barkley,
Bennett Champ Clark; members fi'om the House of Representa-
tives — Charles L. Gifford, Clarence Cannon, William P. Cole, Jr.;
citizen members — Frederic A. Delano, Washington, D. C. ; R. Walton
Moore, Virginia ; Roland S. Morris, Pennsylvania ; Harvey N. Davis,
New Jersey; Arthur H. Compton, Illinois; and Vannevar Bush,
Washington, D. C.

Proceedings. — The annual meeting of the Board of Regents was
held on January 11, 1940. The regents present were Chief Justice
Charles Evans Hughes, Chancellor; John N. Garner, Vice President
of the United States; Senator Charles L. McNary; Representatives
Charles L. Gifford, Clarence Cannon, and William P. Cole, Jr. ; citi-
zen regents Frederic A. Delano, R. Walton Moore, Harvey N. Davis,
and Arthur H, Compton ; and the Secretary, Dr. Charles G. Abbot.

The Board received and accepted the annual report of the Secre-
tary, covering activities during the year of the parent institution and
of the several Government branches ; the report by Mr. Delano of the
executive committee, covering financial statistics of the Institution,
and of the permanent committee, which handles matters connected
with the investment of the Institution's various funds; and the an-

EEPORT OF THE SECRETARY 9

nual report of the Smithsonian Art Commission. Mr. Delano also
presented the report of the Smithsonian Gallery of Art Commission,
established by the act of May 17, 1938, providing a site for the pro-
posed Smithsonian Gallery of Art and for other purposes including
the selection of designs, by competition or otherwise, for the building.
The Deficiency Act of June 25, 1938, appropriated $40,000 for the use
of the Commission. The Board received the report for consideration
and approved the selection of Eliel Saarinen as the architect of the
building.

The Board formally approved the acceptance of the Samuel H.
Kress gift of Italian art by the Smithsonian Institution for the Na-
tional Gallery of Art, and also a plan for old-age and incapacitation
pensions for the private employees in the Institution.

In his usual special report the Secretary mentioned briefly the more
important activities carried on by the Institution and its branches
during the year.

FINANCES

A statement on finances will be found in the report of the Execu-
tive Committee of the Board of Regents, page 109.

MATTERS OF GENERAL INTEREST
SMITHSONIAN RADIO PROGRAM

June 9, 1940, marked the completion of 4 years of the Smithsonian
radio program, "The World Is Yours." A pioneer in the field of
popularizing science, invention, history, and art by means of drama-
tized radio broadcasts, this series has been put on the air through the
cooperation of the Smithsonian Institution, the United States Office
of Education, the National Broadcasting Co., and the Works Projects
Administration. Beginning with only a few stations, "The World Is
Yours" has steadily increased in popularity in all parts of the country
until today it is carried every Sunday on some 80 stations of the
N. B. C. red network. Over half a million letters have been received
from listeners, the great majority of whom are enthusiastic in their
commendation of the program.

The greatest tribute ever paid the series came in the spring of
1940. A leading radio-audience research service, upon completing a
Nation-wide analysis of the size of the listening audiences of all pro-
grams on all networks, gave "The World Is Yours" the highest rating
among all sustaining programs on the air. This is a very gratifying
indication that science, history, and other cultural fields arouse
Nation-wide interest when presented in popular form.

In selecting the program subjects, the Smithsonian Institution en-
deavors to create a well-rounded series that in the course of a year

10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

will present to listeners topics relating to every major branch of
science. Exploration, history, industrial progress, and art are also
included, although less frequently, as coming within the scope of
Smithsonian activities or exhibits. The list of subjects for the past
fiscal year is as follows:

19S9

French Soldiers in the American Revolution July 2

Red Men of the Great Plains July 9

Birds in the Service of Man July 16

Story of Fossils July 23

Ryder, the Artist and Man July 30

Stars in the Sky Aug. 6

Early Air Mail Aug. 13

Life of the Honey Bee Aug. 20

Glaciers Aug. 27

Story of the Street Car Sept. 3

Lizards, Survivors of an Ancient Animal Kingdom Sept. 10

Early American Fashions Sept. 17

World's Most Valuable Trees Sept. 24

King Salmon Oct. 1

The Indians Who Met Columbus Oct. 8

The Marvels of Sound Oct. 15

Earthquakes Oct. 22

Story of Portland Cement Oct. 29

Germanna Ford — Crossroads of History Nov. 5

The Great Apes Nov. 12

Flying in Safety Nov. 19

Our Debt to the Indians Nov. 26

Exploring the Amazon for Plants Dec. 3

Historical Gems 1_ Dec. 10

Cortez, the Conquistador Dec. 17

Christmas at Mount Vernon Dec. 24

First New Year in the Colonies Dec. 31

19^0

The March of Science Jan. 7

Rise of the Railroad Jan. 14

Harnessing Electromagnetism Jan. 21

Volcanoes Jan. 28

The American Bison and the Indian Feb. 4

Story of Hard Money in Ancient Times Feb. 1 1

Evolution of the TypewTiter Feb. 18

Pompeii Lives Again Feb. 25

Radium Mar. 3

Conquest of Noise Mar. 10

Our Changing Wildlife Mar. 17

American Pharmacy — First-line Defense Against Disease Mar. 24

Opening of the Far West Mar. 31

American Inventors Apr. 7

Science in the Field Apr. 14

Dinosaurs — Giants of the Past Apr. 21

Story of Corn Apr. 28

100 Years of Postage Stamps _. May 5

Whistler: The Artist and the Man May 12

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 11

Wilkes: An American Who Discovered a Continent May 19

Story of Airships May 26

How Fossils Serve Mankind June 2

Bats — Animals that Fly June 9

Natives of Hawaii June 16

Bering in the Far North June 23

The Smithsonian Today June 30

From the beginning an attempt has been made to supply listeners
who request it with supplementary information on the subject cov-
ered by each broadcast. This supplementary material has been is-
sued in a number of forms — mimeographed, multigraphed, and
printed — but the difficulty has been to print sufficient copies with the
funds available. In October 1939 a new method was tried — that
of publishing the "listener-aids" in magazine form through the coop-
eration of Columbia University Press and selling them to listeners
at cost. This method proved to be very successful and was con-
tinued through June 30, when publication of the magazine was sus-
pended for the summer months. After February, the articles printed
in the magazine were written by Smithsonian experts and were
illustrated with reproductions of photographs. The average cir-
culation over the 9-month period was between 3,000 and 4,000 per
week.

The W. P. A. financial assistance given during the 4 years the
program has been on the air was withdrawn at the close of the past
year. The W. P. A. funds had been used to pay the salaries of
the production and music directors, a large proportion of the actors,
and all of the clerical force in Washington who handled "The World
is Yours" mail. Rather than let the program die for lack of funds,
N. B. C. generously agreed to finance all the production costs for
the coming year, so that hereafter "The World is Yours" will be pre-
sented as an N. B. C. public-service feature. The script writer will
be paid by the Smithsonian, as for the past 2 years.

Much experience has been gained during the 4 years of the Smith-
sonian radio program. The quality of the broadcasts has been stead-
ily improved, and their popularity has continued unabated. It is
the hope of the Institution that "The World is Yours" may stay on the
air indefinitely.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL. PUBLICATION IN HONOR OF JOHN R. SWANTON'S
FORTIETH YEAR WITH THE INSTTTUTION

In 1900 Dr. John R. S wanton joined the scientific staff of the
Bureau of American Ethnology, a branch of the Smithsonian In-
stitution. The year 1940, therefore, marks the fortieth year of his
association with the Institution, and to commemorate the occasion,

12 AinSTTJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

there was published a volume entitled "Essays in Historical Anthro-
pology of North America." This book, comprising 600 pages of
text, 16 halftone plates, and 36 text figures, contains 13 essays by
members of the Institution's staff, an analysis of Dr. Swanton's own
work by Dr. A. L. Kroeber, an introduction by Dr. Julian H. Stew-
ard, and a bibliography of Swanton's published contributions to an-
thropology. Each contributor, taking the field with which he has
been particularly concerned, presents a survey of the anthropology
of that area, stressing the historical phases of the study. As a whole,
the volume covers a large part of the North American Continent,
with, however, notable gaps such as the lower Mississippi region and
the Pacific coast.

Dr. Swanton, knowing nothing of the preparation of this volume
of essays in his honor, was invited on May 25, 1940, to attend a meet-
ing of the staffs of the Institution and the Bureau of American
Ethnology in the regents' room. At this meeting I presented him
with a specially bound copy of the volume and expressed to him on
behalf of his colleagues our admiration of his outstanding achieve-
ments in the field of historical anthropology. This w^as also ex-
pressed in the foreword to the published volume, prepared and signed
by me, which reads :

It Is a real satisfaction for the Smithsonian Institution to publish this col-
lection of papers in historical anthropology in honor of Dr. John R. Swanton,
on the occasion of his fortieth year with the Institution. Diligence, modesty,
and kindliness combine with great ability in his make-up, and lead all his col-
leagues and friends to love him, at the same time that they honor his scholarship
and his basic contributions to American anthropology.

While the attractive field of deductive speculation has in the past lured
many American anthropologists, Swanton has been content to gather informa-
tion and, sifting it, to lay a foundation where others may stx;urely build.
Treating particularly the history of cultures and of tribal movement in the
Southeast since the discovery of America, Swanton's publications in this field
will ever be the classic sources, basic to future advances.

WALTER RATHBONE BACON TRAVELING SCHOLARSHIP

The Walter Rathbone Bacon traveling scholarship of the Smith-
sonian Institution was held for a second year by Dr. Hobart M.
Smith. The purpose of Dr. Smith's work, as stated last year, is
the accumulation of specimens of reptiles and amphibians from
Mexico, on the basis of which a herpetology of Mexico may be com-
piled and the biotic provinces of the country more accurately defined.

Collecting was continued during the year, and included the vicinity
of Piedras Negi-as, Guatemala, and certain parts of the Mexican
states of Chiapas, Oaxaca, Veracruz, Guerrero, Michoacan, Mexico,
Puebla, and Hidalgo. By June 30, 1940, the collection numbered
approximately 17,000 specimens, and represented some 475 species.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 13

Eight new species of frogs, lizards, and snakes have been described
by Dr. Smith from the collection. In addition, Dr. E. H. Taylor
has described two other species of frogs from the collection.

SMITHSONIAN MAIN HALL EXHIBITS

In my last annual report it was stated that I had appointed a
committee, consisting of Messrs. Mitman, chairman, Foshag, Fried-
mann, Setzler, and True, all of the Institution's staff, to recommend
plans for exhibits in the Smithsonian main hall to illustrate all
the work of the Institution and to make clear to visitors the relation-
ship between the parent Institution and its various branches. The
committee met weekly, beginning in the summer of 1939, and its
first recommendation was for the complete redecoration of the hall,
using a plastic paint that would give the effect of old stone. The
exhibits and bookcases previously in the main hall were removed,
and new walls were constructed at the east and west ends of the
hall to conceal the steel bookstacks constructed many years ago for
the use of the Smithsonian Library. The redecoration was com-
pleted in the spring of 1940.

The committee's recommendation as to the exhibits themselves, sub-
mitted on March 30, 1940, was approved by me, and the committee
was instructed to carry out the plans, the entire exhibit to be ready
in time for the next annual meeting of the Board of Regents on
January 17, 1941.

The plan proposed by the committee comprised eight alcoves and
four quadrants to be constructed completely around the hall, leaving
the central aisle clear for the easy circulation of visitors. The eight
alcoves are to portray in popular form the work of the Institution
in astronomy, geology, biology, radiation and organisms, physical
anthropology, cultural anthropology, engineering and industries, and
art. The four quadrants, enclosing the central area of the hall, will
illustrate the scope of Smithsonian activities, the National Zoological
Park, history, and the organization and branches of the Institution.
The former children's room, adjoining the main hall on the south,
will be used to illustrate the Institution's work in the diffusion of
knowledge.

At the close of the year, construction of the backgrounds for the
exhibits was well under way, and the details of the exhibits themselves
were being worked out for prompt installation when the construction
work is completed.

NINTH ARTHUR LECTURE

The Arthur lecture, under the auspices of the Institution, was pro-
vided for in the will of the late James Arthur, of New York, who in
1931 left to the Smithsonian Institution a sum of money, part of the

14 A"M"NrTTAT. REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

income from which should be used for an annual lecture on some
aspect of the study of the sun.

The ninth Arthur lecture, "Solar Prominences in Motion," by Robert
R. McMath, Director of the McMath-Hulbert Observatory of the
University of Michigan, was given in the auditorium of the National
Museum on the evening of January 16, 1940. The lecture was illus-
trated with moving pictures of the sun. It will be published in full
with illustrations in the 1940 Smithsonian Report.

The eight previous lectures in the series given under the Arthur
fund were as follows :

1. The Composition of the Sun, by Henry Norris Russell, Professor of Astronomy

at Princeton University. January 27, 1933.

2. Gravitation in the Solar System, by Ernest William Brown, Professor of Math-

ematics at Yale University. January 25, 1933.

3. How the Sun "Warms the Earth, by Charles G. Abbot, Secretary of the Smith-

sonian Institution. February 26, 1934.

4. The Sun as a Typical Star, by Walter S. Adams, Director of the Mount Wilson

Observatory. December 18, 1934.

5. Sun Rays and Plant Life, by Earl S. Johnston, Assistant Director of the Divi-

sion of Radiation and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution. February 25,
1936.

6. Discoveries from Eclipse Expeditions, by Samuel Alfred Mitchell, Director of

the Leander McCormick Observatory, University of Virginia. February 9,
1937.

7. The Sun and the Atmosphere, by Harlan True Stetson, Research Associate,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology. February 24, 1938.

8. Sun Worship, by Herbert J. Spinden, Curator of American Indian Art and

Primitive Cultures, Brooklyn Museums. February 21, 1939.

WnHERSPOON BEQUEST

In May 1940 the Institution received approximately $130,000, the
residuary estate of the late Eleanor E. Witherspoon, of Washington,
D. C. The paragraph in Mrs. Witherspoon's will relating to this be-
quest reads as follows :

All the rest, residue and remainder of my estate, of every kind and description,
real and personal, wheresoever and howsoever situated, now possessed or that may
hereafter be acquired by me, including any lapsed or void legacy or devise, I give,
devise and bequeath absolutely and in fee simple, unto the Smithsonian Institution,
to be held by it as a fund to be known as the Thomas A. Witherspoon Memorial,
in memory of my late beloved husband, with full power in said Institution of
managing, controlling, investing and reinvesting the same, and sale of all or any
part of the corpus thereof, and of any investment or reinvestment thereof, and the
net income therefrom to be used for the advancement of human knowledge,
with the single exception that no part of the corpus of the trust fund created
in this Sixteenth Paragraph hereof or the income therefrom shall be used in
collecting birds and animals dead or alive or for purposes of vivisection.

This generous bequest is a most welcome addition to the Institution's
resources for research, exploration, and publication, and the wishes of
the testatrix in respect to it will be scrupulously observed.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 15

EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK

In the furtherance of its investigations in many branches of science,
the Smithsonian sent out or cooperated in 19 expeditions, which
worked not only in many States in the United States but also in a
number of foreign lands as well.

Dr. W. F. Foshag continued his survey of the mines and mineral
localities of Mexico and added valuable mineralogical specimens to the
Smithsonian's collection, now the greatest assemblage of Mexican ores
and minerals extant. Dr. C. Lewis Gazin directed an expedition to cen-
(ral Utah in search of remains of extinct vertebrate ainmals and par-
ticularly to investigate the Cretaceous and Paleocene formations ex-
posed along the east side of the Wasatch Plateau. Drs. Josiah Bridge
and G. Arthur Cooper visited localities in Utah, Nevada, Texas, and the
Midwest to collect Paleozoic fossils, needed to fill gaps in the National
Museum collection, and also to examine and collect from Lower Ordovi-
cian sections in the western States in order to obtain more exact infor-
mation for use in the interregional correlation of these rocks. Dr.
Cooper also spent a month studying the rocks and fossils of the Middle
Ordovician in the Southern Appalachians. James H. Benn quarried
out and brought to Washington for study a large slab of beautifully
preserved fossil sea urchins (echinoids) from the bluffs bordering
Chesapeake Bay at Port Republic, Md.

Dr. W. M. Mann conducted an expedition to the Argentine to col-
lect live animals for the National Zoological Park; the trip resulted
in the addition of 316 specimens to the collection, a number of which
had never before been exhibited at the Zoo. Dr. Alexander Wetmore
collected birds in southern Mexico, gaining information on the dis-
tribution of variable forms and on the movements of northern migrants.
W. M. Perrygo collected birds and mammals in North Carolina to
fill gaps in the National Museum's study collection, and H. G. Deignan
visited European museums to study type material and other relevant
specimens in connection with his work on the birds of Siam. Dr.
Leonard P. Schultz accompanied the Navy Surveying Expedition to
the Phoenix and Samoan Islands and obtained, in addition to 14,000
fishes, many hundreds of specimens of the fauna and flora of the region.
At the invitation of Capt. G. Allan Hancock, Dr. Waldo L. Sclmiitt
participated in the expedition to the north coast of South America,
where boat dredging and shore collecting resulted in the acquisition
of valuable specimens of marine life. Capt. Robert A. Bartlett, on his
annual summer trip to the Arctic, collected for the Institution a quan-
tity of material, including five specimens of a very rare 10-armed
starfish. Austin H. Clark continued his study of the butterflies of
Virginia, collecting many fine specimens including one species new to
the Virginia fauna.

16 ANNU.M. REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Ellsworth P. Killip collected plants in Colombia in continuation of
the Smithsonian's special study of the flora of that country. About
11,000 specimens were obtained, including 300 numbers of ferns and
more than 100 numbers each of orchids, aroids, grasses, and peppers.

Dr. Ales Hrdlicka spent several months studying anthropological
material in the museums of England, Russia, Siberia, and France.
The main object of the work in Russia, where most of his time was
spent, was to examine such skeletal and cultural materials from
Siberia as might have a bearing on the problem of Asiatic-American
connections.

Dr. T. Dale Stewart continued excavations at Patawomeke, the Vir-
ginia Indian village visited by Capt. John Smith in 1608, discoA'ering
a type of pottery unlike that prevailing on the surface, and an ossuary.
Dr. Waldo R. Wedel conducted an archeological survey in western
Kansas to determine the extent of Puebloan influence in that area
and to examine the prospects for injecting time perspective into the
earlier archeological history of the region. Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts,
Jr., continued excavations at the Lindenmeier site in northern Col-
orado, producing much further evidence of the presence of the ancient
Folsom man, but failing again to discover any skeletal remains of
Folsom man himself. Dr. William N. Fenton carried on ethnobotan-
ical studies among the Iroquois of New York State and Canada, giving
particular attention to Iroquois medicine.

PUBLICATIONS

The principal means of carrying out the "diffusion of knowledge,"
one of the Institution's primary functions, is its series of publications.
From its private funds, the Institution issues the Smithsonian Miscel-
laneous Collections, a series containing all the scientific papers pub-
lished by the Institution proper; from Government funds are issued
the Smithsonian Annual Report (with general appendix reviewing
progress in science), the Bulletins and Proceedings of the National
Museum, the Bulletins of the Bureau of American Ethnology, the
Annals of the Astrophysical Observatory, and Catalogs of the National
Collection of Fine Arts. The Freer Gallery of Art series. Oriental
Studies, is supported by Freer Gallery funds.

During the past year, the Institution and its branches issued a total
of 78 publications, of which 45 were issued by the Institution proper,
30 by the National Museum, and 3 by the Bureau of American Eth-
nology. Information as to titles, authors, and other details of these
publications will be found in the report of the Chief of the Editorial
Division, appendix 11. The total number of publications distributed
vr&s 146,156.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 17

LIBRARY

The accessions to the Smithsonian Library during the past year
were 7,709 volumes and pamphlets, bringing the total holdings to
907,816, exclusive of several thousand incomplete or unbound items.
The exchange work of the library was seriously handicapped by ab-
normal conditions abroad; many foreign publications have been
suspended or discontinued altogether. Among the larger gifts of the
year were 897 publications from the American Association for the
Advancement of Science, 653 from the Geophysical Laboratory of the
Carnegie Institution of Washington, 252 from the American Asso-
ciation of Museums, and 216 from James Townsend Russell, Jr. The
staff made 26,422 periodical entries, cataloged 6,105 publications, pre-
pared and filed 42,388 catalog and shelf-list cards, loaned 11,745 publi-
cations to members of the staff of the Institution and its branches, and
materially advanced the Union Catalog. Besides adding to the index
of all Smithsonian publications and that of exchange relations, they
began a third during the year; namely, a card index of all Smithsonian
explorations. The needs of the library are for more funds for binding,
more shelf room, and more personnel.

Respectfully submitted.

C. G. Abbot, Secretary.

APPENDIX 1
REPORT ON THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condi-
tion and operation of the United States National Museum for the fiscal
3'ear ended June 30, 1940.

Funds provided for the maintenance and operation of the National
Museum for the year totaled $810,725, or $32,345 more than for the
previous fiscal year. The amount was reduced $5,500 however, by
reason of a compulsory administrative reserve. In addition to the
normal expenditures of the Museum, a deficiency appropriation made
$270,000 available to cover expenses in changing the electric current
for the Smithsonian group of buildings from direct to alternating,
and for installing new elevators in the Smithsonian and Natural
History Buildings.

COLLECTIONS

Additions to the great collections of the National Museum were
received in 1,960 separate accessions, totaling 212,474 individual speci-
mens. These were distributed among the five departments as follows :
Anthropology, 5,233; biology, 168,673; geology, 33,921; engineering
and industries, 2,019; and history, 2,628. For the most part these
acquisitions were gifts from individuals or represented expeditions
sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution. All are listed in detail
in the full report on the Museum, published as a separate document,
but the more important are summarized below. The total number of
catolog entries in all departments now slightly exceeds 17,000,000.

Anthropology . — ^Archeological material came from many parts of
the world: Eskimo and other artifacts from Siberia and northern
Alaska, stone and shell artifacts from Guam and Mexico, objects from
various parts of Egypt, and potsherds and casts from Argentina. In
ethnology, many objects were received representing the cultures of the
Eskimos and of various Plains and western Indian tribes. Africa was
represented by Bondu and Yoruba masks from West Africa and
Nigeria, respectively. The section of ceramics received 146 speci-
mens; musical instruments, 12, including a violin designed and con-
structed in the anthropological laboratory by Nicola Reale, partly
along the lines of a late Stradivarius ; period art and textiles, 153,
including many fine pieces of lace, ivory, and silver. In the division
of physical anthropology the following accessions are noteworthy:

KEPORT OF THE SECRETARY 19

Cast of a Neanderthal child skull from Uzbekistan, a neolithic skull
from Siberia, 8 trephined skulls from Peru, and casts of upper paleo-
lithic crania from the Choukoutien caves near Peiping, China.

Biology. — A total of 168,673 biological specimens were accessioned
during the year, a number less than last year owing presumably to the
disturbed condition of the world. Important mammalian material
consisted of 8 Weddell and 2 crab-eating seals and 1 leopard-seal
skull from the Antarctic, several cetacean skulls and fetuses from
Alaska and the Antarctic, 101 bats from Mexico and Guatemala, 10
mammals from the Smithsonian-Firestone Expedition to Liberia, and
many small mammals collected from North Carolina, District of Co-
lumbia, Maryland, and Massachusetts. The George S. Huntington
collection of nonhuman skeletons was transferred from the Army
Medical Museum.

Avian accessions from Veracruz and Indochina were outstanding.
Over 1,000 bird specimens resulted from the field work conducted by
the Museum in North Carolina. Other lots were representative of
Italian, Chilean, Paraguayan, Antarctic, and Samoan forms.

Large collections of reptiles and amphibians were made in Mexico
by Dr. Hobart M. Smith under the Walter Rathbone Bacon traveling
scholarship of the Smithsonian Institution. Forty-one specimens
from Liberia were sent by Dr. W. M. Mann from the Smithsonian-
Firestone Expedition; 240 Maryland reptiles and amphibians were
donated; and an important lot of Jamaican and Cayman Island
material was purchased.

The most noteworthy ichthyological addition consisted of 14,000
fishes collected by Curator Leonard P. Schultz as a member of the
Navy Surveying Expedition to the Phoenix and Samoan Islands in
1939. Dr. W. M. Mann forwarded 462 fishes collected at Gibi Moun-
tain, Liberia. A large nmnber of paratypes of fishes was received in
exchange from the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, the
Bernice P. Bishop Museum at Honolulu, the Field Museiun of Natural
History at Chicago, and the British Museum of Natural History.

In insects several large collections were added : The E. D. Ball col-
lection of approximately 75,000 specimens of Hemiptera ; about 63,000
miscellaneous insects transferred from the Bureau of Entomology and
Plant Quarantine, and 20,000 more received directly by specialists or
additions resulting from collecting trips; about 30,000 specimens of
mites (on 3,000 slides) from the collections of the late A. P. Jacot,
transferred from the Forest Service; 6,000 Chinese insects from Dr.
D. C. Graham ; and an important collection of about 2,000 coccinellid
beetles of the genus Hi'p'podaniia from the distinguished coleopterist
Prof. Th. Dobzhansky.

280256—41 3

20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Nearly 600 marine invertebrates from southeast Greenland came as
a result of the Bartlett Greenland Expedition of 1939. In addition,
there were received important collections of isopods, amphipods,
sponges, pycnogonids, and worms, many representing new species or
species new to the Museum collections. Mollusks came chiefly from
Cuba, Hawaii, Jamaica, Samoa, Guam, Colombia, Ecuador, and the
United States. Accessions of helminths included type material of
much interest. Among the echinoderms was a fine series of starfishes,
sea urchins, brittlestars, and holothurians from Antarctica, as well as
noteworthy specunens from the Indo-Pacific.

About 23,600 plants, largely American, were received for inclusion
ill the National Herbarium, the largest lot being 5,200 specimens from
Virginia, West Virginia, and Maine presented by H. A. Allard, of
the United States Bureau of Plant Industry.

Geology. — Several additions to the mineralogical and petrological
series were made possible by the Canfield, Roebling, and Chamberlam
funds of the Smithsonian Institution. Among these were a flawless,
pale blue, aquamarine crystal weighing 347 grams ; a 128-carat emerald
crystal from Bahia, Brazil; and 495 Mexican minerals, including
rare arsenates and associated minerals and fine apatite crystals from
Durango. These latter were collected by Curator W. F. Foshag on
a trip to Mexico in 1939. About 3,000 mineral, ore, and rock specimens
were transferred from the United States Military Academy. Forty-
one individual specimens were contained in 21 accessions of meteorites
received, 30 of these representing falls new to the collections.

The largest accession in the field of stratigraphic paleontology com-
prised the Paleozoic fossils collected by Assistant Curator G. A.
Cooper and Dr. Josiah Bridge during their 1939 field work. Next in
point of size is the celebrated old English Calvert collection of fossils
procured by Martin L. Ehrmann. In addition, the biologic study col-
lections were materially augmented with many fossil echinoderms,
conodonts, Foraminifera, bryozoans, brachiopods, and mollusks
received from generous donors. The most important exhibition
specimen of the year was a 3- by 7-foot slab of Miocene standstone,
discovered by Dr. Foshag at Scientists Cliff, Md., on which a rare
species of echinoid covered the surface.

From a scientific standpoint, the most noteworthy accession in
the division of vertebrate paleontology was an exchange from the
Peabody Museum of Natural History of 25 original type specimens
of fossil lizards, making the National Museum collection of these
saurians the largest assemblage of its kind in this country. Field
expeditions yielded four articulated lizard skeletons, two partial
ceratopsian skulls from the North Horn fonnation, and a consid-
erable number of fragmentary jaws and teeth from the Paleocene

KEPORT OF THE SECRETARY 21

of central Utah. The type of Delphinus cdLvertensis originally be-
longing to the National Institute, but lent to Louis Agassiz prior
to 1852, was returned to the National collections by the Museum of
Comparative Zoology.

Engineering and industries. — In the section of aeronautics addi-
tions were made to the collection of aircraft propellers, including
one of the first controllable-pitch propellers issued for practical
service, A model of the Yankee Clipper from the Pan American Air-
ways System and the first ticket issued to a fare-paying passenger
on the initial public trans- Atlantic flight also were received, as well
as a number of aircraft models. To the section of electrical engi-
neering and communications came the following: A Gaulard and
Gibbs transformer and an early Tesla motor, both important contri-
butions to the practical use of alternating current; a collection of
early incandescent lamps; and a Parsons turbine-electric generator,
thought to be the oldest of the original form of the Parsons turbine
now in existence except for the first one at the Science Museum in
London. Many miscellaneous objects pertaining to transportation,
communication, metrology, mining, and metallurgy, tools and crafts,
medicine and public health, and chemistry continue to come in as
gifts and loans, always welcome additions to these sections. To the
division of graphic arts there was transferred from the Government
Printing Office an iron printing press invented by Peter Smith in
1822. Other interesting material received in this division pertained
to motion-picture photography and projection, color photography,
fine printing and boolrmaking, and photoengraving.

History. — Over 2,600 objects of historic and antiquarian interest
were accessioned, including mementos, medals, and portraits of such
outstanding figures as General Lafayette, Gen. Ulysses S. Grant, Gen.
Philip H. Sheridan, Maj. Gen. George H. Thomas, Col. Charles A.
Lindbergh, Madame Ernestine Schumann-Heink, and others. The
handsome dress in the White House series worn by Dolly Madison
was presented to the Museum by Mrs. Charles D. Walcott and the
Smithsonian Institution. A unique addition to ihoi historical col-
lection was the five flags flown by the Yankee Clipper on the first
official flight of that plane from Port Washington, N. Y., to South-
ampton, England, and return in May 1939, presented through the
Hon. K. Walton Moore. The numismatic collection was increased
by 408 coins and medals and the philatelic collection by 2,038 foreign
postage stamps, cards, and envelopes transferred from the Post
Office Department. Also there came the famous A. Eugene Michel
collection of postal stationery, which comprises 144 volmnes of ma-
terial containing about 40,000 specimens.

22 AiinnjAL eeport smitksonian h^stttutton, i940

EXPLORATIONS AND FIELD WORK

The work of the staff in the field was wide and varied in scope and
was carried on principally through funds made available through
the Smithsonian Institution. The field studies thus arranged are one
of the most important sources of new materials for the National
Museum and result in new facts and information of many kinds.

Anthropology.— On April 15, 1939, Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, curator of
physical anthropology, left New York on an anthropological trip to
Europe, with particular emphasis on studies in Kussia and Siberia.
The main objects of a visit to London were to see the remains of early
man from Palestine and whatever Siberian skeletal material there
might be in the museums of that city. In France the main purpose
was to see the newly established Museum of Man in Paris. In Russia
and Siberia the chief objective was to examine such skeletal and cul-
tural materials from Siberia as might have a bearing on the problem
of Asiatic-American connections. The main part of the trip was in
the Soviet Union, where the stay was divided between Leningrad,
Moscow, and Irkutsk. In the anthropological institutes and museums
of these cities, Dr. Hrdlicka found exceedingly rich and valuable
materials from Siberia, all of which he was allowed to utilize freely.

The examinations in Leningrad were carried on in the new Anthro-
pological Institute and Museum, which has a very large and valuable
collection of human crania and skeletons, including important series
of skulls of the Chukchi and other Siberian peoples. In the Anthro-
pological Institute of the Moscow University there is another huge
cranial and skeletal collection, including other important series of
Siberian materials. Finally, at the Irkutsk Museum there is a large
and very important collection of neolithic skeletal remains from the
Angara River and Baikal Lake regions.

The Siberian crania examined and measured included large and
particularly interesting series of the Chukchi, Ostiaks, Tungus, and
the neolithics of the Irkutsk region. Dr. Hrdlicka had the further
privilege, partly at Leningrad and partly at Moscow, of seeing the
skull, remains of bones, and associated cultural materials of a Nean-
derthal child from Uzbekistan, in central Asia. This is a find of
outstanding anthropological importance, and the skull, lower jaw,
and teeth are in excellent condition.

To determine, first, the extent of Puebloan influence in western
Kansas and, second, the prospects for injecting time perspective into
the earlier archeological history of the region, Dr. Waldo R. Wedel,
assistant curator of archeology, extended into the High Plains an
archeological survey begun in Kansas in 1937. A month was spent
in and near Scott County State Park. Traces of a seven-room pueblo
ruin opened by Williston and Martin in 1898 were relocated. Middens

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 23

yielded potsherds and artifacts of stone, bone, and horn, as well as
rare objects of copper, iron, and glass. Charred maize and squash
gourd rinds indicate horticulture, but quantities of animal bones
suggest that subsistence was primarily by hunting. Contrary to
expectations, Puebloan influences were almost negligible. Aside from
the stone-walled ruin and nearby prewhite irrigation ditches, there
was a bare handful of sherds, some painted, and a few incised clay
pipe fragments presumably attributable to late Southwestern stim-
ulus. Numerous bell-shaped roasting pits and large irregular trash
pits, as also the great bulk of artifacts recovered, show close relation-
ship to sites of the prehistoric Dismal River culture of southwestern
Nebraska. No houses of indigenous type were found. Wliatever the
relationship between these remains and the Pueblo structure, it is an
interesting historical fact that in early contact times the western plains
were inhabited by Apache and Comanche bands, some of whom appear
to have followed a semihorticultural mode of life.

Just outside the north entrance to the Park a small burial ground,
probably much older than the above, yielded two long-headed skele-
tons and several secondary interments. With the skeletons were
broken tortoise shells, tubular bone beads, and chipped flints, includ-
ing one heavy-stemmed arrowpoint of woodland type. Persistent
search failed to disclose any evidence of an associated village or
camp site.

About 20 miles east, on Salt Creek in Lane County, Kans., remains
of a different type were found. On and just below the surface of one
site were materials attributable to the Upper Republican culture of
southern Nebraska. Two small pit houses, each with four center
posts, were worked out. Along with shallow middens nearby, they
yielded typical pottery, arrowpoints, a bone fishhook, and other mate-
rials, but no direct proof of horticulture. Separated from this de-
posit by a barren stratum up to a foot thick was a second cultural
layer. From this came thick cord-roughened sherds and large-
stemmed arrowpoints markedly unlike the top-layer materials. This
second horizon, evidently linked with some Plains woodland mani-
festation, had been intruded by both pit houses. Lack of time pre-
cluded investigation of what may be a third cultural horizon underly-
ing both of the above.

These researches seem to show that in Lane and Scott Counties
there were at least two groups of prehistoric pottery-making peoples.
On stratigraphic grounds, those bearing a woodland culture preceded
others with Upper Republican af&liations; neither appears to have
been in contact with southwestern peoples. Still later, in proto-
historic times, a third complex, assignable to the Dismal River cul-
ture, occupied the area. This sequence parallels that in western

24 ANNUAL. REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Nebraska and adds materially to the geographic range of the cultures
involved.

Dr. T. Dale Stewart, associate curator of physical anthropology,
continued systematic excavations at the site of the Indian village
located in Stafford County, Va., visited by Capt. John Smith in the
summer of 1608 and described by him under the name of Patawomeke.
Indications were that it had been a stockaded village. Among the
details of the town plan that remained undiscovered at the close of
the 1938 season were the main entrances, the location of the dwellings,
and the manner of their construction. The cultural objects obtained
during this work, as well as those found previously by Judge Graham,
showed considerable uniformity, and thereby suggested a relatively
short occupancy of the site. Nothing thus far gave indication of the
presence here of cultural elements differing from those apparent on
the surface. Nevertheless, a further development of the town plan
in itself was deemed of sufficient importance for continuing the inves-
tigation in 1939. Constant presence at the site permitted the employ-
ment of a somewhat different technique from that used last year.
Trenches 10 feet broad were extended across undisturbed parts of
the site. This increased exposure, in contrast to the previous short
5-foot trenches, clarified the picture considerably. The initial
trenches were run in the field to the east that had been under culti-
vation last season. Here it was hoped to find an entrance to the
stockade, but none was found. As elsewhere about the site, the post
holes are so numerous, presumably as a result of replacements and
relocations, that the details are obscured. Some time was devoted
also to trenching the accumulated refuse along the bluff overlooking
the creek. In places these deposits reach 4 feet in depth, but give
evidence of having received accretions from the plow.

Attention was distracted from these features toward the close of
the season by two important finds of a different nature, a deep pit,
containing a type of pottery unlike that prevailing on the surface,
and an ossuary. The finding of the ossuary offered the opportunity
to expose the bones from above in order to show their arrangement.
Circumstances usually do not allow time for this procedure. In the
present case a good record was made of about one-third of the burial
pit before heavy and prolonged rains interrupted. A typical method
of contracting the body appears to have been that in which the lower
legs were flexed forward unnaturally at the knees so that the feet
came to touch the abdomen. Two other features of the ossuary are
of interest : At one place there was a mass of charred bones, the re-
mains perhaps of a deliberate cremation or sacrifice. In connection
with some of the skeletons there were great numbers of shell beads,
and in one of these cases the largest beads had been placed within
the skull, obviously at the time of burial.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 25

Biology. — Field work in the study of the distribution and collec-
tion of birds and mammals of North Carolina, begun in the spring
of 1939 and continued until July, was opened again in the fall for
a period of a little over 2 months with W. M. Perrygo in charge
of the party and Charles L. Wheeler as assistant. Dr. Wetmore
and Mr. Graf visited the party when the men were located near
Mattamuskeet in October, and spent several days with them. The
work was concluded toward the close of November, with important
collections as the result. In the spring of 1940 Mr. Perrygo was
dispatched for similar work in the field in South Carolina, Southgate
Hoyt serving as assistant throughout the period, with John Calhoun
also as a member of the party during the early part of the summer.
All this work was carried on under the W. L. Abbott fund.

In continuation of work in the vicinity of the archeological camp
at Tres Zapotes, Veracruz, begun last year by Dr. Wetmore, M. A.
Carriker, Jr., was engaged in making collections of birds in this
area fi*om January to May. The resulting collections, together with
those that were obtained by Dr. Wetmore, constitute the most valu-
able series of birds yet assembled from this interesting area. Mr.
Carriker during this season made collections in the region of the
Tuxtla Mountains, which have been proposed for a national park,
and also supplemented his series from Tres Zapotes with material
from Tlacotalpan and from the coastal region south of Alvarado.
The investigations were carried on under the W. L. Abbott fund.

Dr. Hobart M. Smith, traveling under the Walter Eathbone Bacon
traveling scholarship of the Smithsonian Institution, continued
throughout the year an exploration and study of the herpetological
fauna of Mexico, covering systematically that interesting region.
As a result of his work many beautifully prepared reptiles and
amphibians have been received at the Museum. Dr. Smith was still
in the field at the close of the fiscal year.

Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, detailed to accompany the U. S. S. Bush-
nell as naturalist on the Naval expedition to the Phoenix and Sa-
moan Islands during the summer of 1939, returned on August 18
with large collections consisting of about 14,000 fishes, besides mol-
lusks, coelenterates, echinoderms, worms, and other marine inverte-
brates, reptiles, birds, mammals, and plants aggregating 2,000 or
3,000 specimens.

As in past years, Capt. Robert A. Bartlett in his annual expedition
to Greenland waters brought to the Museum further valuable addi-
tions to the invertebrate collections besides a noteworthy collection
of Arctic plants.

Austin H. Clark continued his work on the survey of the butterfly
fauna of Virginia, visiting different localities during the summer of
1939 and the spring of 1940.

26 ANNUAL. REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Upon invitation of the Venezuelan Government, Mrs. Agnes Chase,
custodian of grasses, was detailed to Venezuela in February for the
purpose of studying the grasses of that country and recommending
plans for agrostological research. Field work was carried out suc-
cessfully in the western, northern, and eastern parts of the country
during a stay of 6 weeks. Notwithstanding an almost unprecedented
drouth, about 1,500 specimens were collected. Continuing his study
of the flora of Big Pine Key, Fla., E. P. Killip, associate curator of
the National Herbarium, accompanied by Robert F. Martin, of the
Department of Agriculture, spent a period of 2 weeks there in mid-
winter. To the 208 species of plants discovered on three earlier
visits, 32 were added, and many duplicates were collected for general
distribution.

Geology. — Dr. W. F. Foshag, curator of physical and chemical
geology, spent August 1939 collecting minerals in Mexico, confining
his studies largely to the states of Nuevo Leon and Durango.
Mapimi and Cerro Mercado, in the state of Durango, yielded excep-
tionally fine material, notably the rare arsenates of iron from upper
workings of the Ojuela mine recently reopened by Mexican miners,
and fine apatite crystals and associated minerals from Cerro Mercado.
Among other localities visited were Banderas, Cabrellas, Higueras,
Diente, Zimapan, Guanajuato, and Queretaro. After the Instituto
Geologico de Mexico had deducted its selection, eight cases were
shipped to Washington.

Late in September, Dr. G. A. Cooper, assistant curator of strati-
graphic paleontology, joined Dr. Josiah Bridge, of the United States
Geological Survey, in Salt Lake City, Utah, whence they journeyed
CO Logan, where Dr. J. S. Williams, of Utah State Agricultural
College, assisted them in the study of that region. The classic
area for Cambrian, Lower Ordovician, and Devonian fossils, near
Eureka, Nev., was visited, and 12 days were spent with Dr. T. S.
Nolan and party, of the United States Geological Survey. Next,
Las Vegas, Nev., furnished Lower Ordovician collections for future
studies of that little-known area. The Devonian rocks at Silver
City, N. Mex., were next examined and excellent fossils collected.
From here the party proceeded to El Paso and Van Horn, Tex.,
obtaining Lower Ordovician fossils from the El Paso limestone;
then to Marathon and the Glass Mountains, where 5 days were
devoted to collecting silicified Permian fossils. The Central Hill
country of Texas was visited for Cambrian fossils, and Mineral
Wells for deposits of Pennsylvanian age. Turning homeward by
way of the Arbuckle Mountains and Criner Hills, Okla., they de-
voted a week to collecting Middle Ordovician fossils. Dr. Cooper
continued to Lower Ordovician outcrops in south-central Missouri
and the Silurian of Little Saline Valley in east-central Missouri.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 27

The season's work was brought to a close with collecting in the
Wabash region of Indiana, where Silurian fossils were obtained
from reefy masses near Peru, and in southern Indiana from De-
vonian and Mississippian rocks. Although the purpose of this long
trip was to build up the weak parts of the study series of invertebrate
fossils, equally important was the information obtained for definite
placement stratigraphically of the Museum sets of fossils obtained
in the days when such correlation was not so accurate. The Lower
Ordovician fossils from Nevada and Texas, Permian of Texas, Penn-
sylvanian of central Texas, and Silurian from east-central Missouri
and north-central Indiana, resulting from this trip, were all new
to the collections.

Dr. E. O. TJlrich, associate in paleontology, in order to further
his stratigraphic studies of Appalachian Valley geology and to test
certain conclusions before publication, spent the month of September
in field work in the southern section of the area, and a shorter time
in June in Pennsylvania. Good collections were made, but most
important was the information obtained to place stratigraphically
the Museum's older sets of fossils.

In the division of vertebrate paleontology, C. W. Gilmore was
detailed early in the spring of 1940 to accompany Earl Trager, of the
National Park Service, on a reconnaissance trip to the site of a pro-
posed national park in the Big Bend region of Texas. Although no
collections were made, the area was determined as a field of much
promise for dinosaur remains. The main field operations of the
year for this division were conducted by Dr. C. Lewis Gazin, assist-
ant curator, who left Washington early in June 1939 to head an
expedition into the Upper Cretaceous and Paleocene regions of
Utah, a continuation in part of two previous seasons of field work.
In the upper Cretaceous along the westerly slope of North Horn
Mountain, several partially articulated lizard skeletons and two
incomplete ceratopsian skulls were among the specimens collected.
In the Paleocene numerous fragmentary mammal specimens, con-
sisting chiefly of jaw fragments and teeth, were obtained. As many
of the latter represented new forms of multituberculates, taeniodonts,
and other primitive forms, this collection contributes much informa-
tion to the fauna of the Dragon formation.

Early in June 1940 Dr. Gazin left to continue the work in the
Paleocene of Utah in the vicinity of North Horn Mountain and
then to the Eocene of the Bridger Basin of Wyoming.

MISCELLANEOUS

Visitors. — A total of 2,506,171 visitors at the various Museum
buildings was recorded for the year. Tliis is 271,826 more than
the number for the previous year and represents an all-time record

28 ANNUAL. REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

for annual attendance. This year the high months were July and
August 1939, when 360,599 and 400,719 visitors, respectively, were
recorded. The attendance in the four ISIuseum buildings was as
follows: Smithsonian Building (closed to visitors from January 2
to June 30, 1940), 200,113; Arts and Industries Building, 1,261,808;
Natural History Building, 809,661 ; Aircraft Building, 233,589.

Publications and planting. — The sum of $27,100 was available
during 1940 for the publication of the Museum Annual Report,
Bulletins, and Proceedings. Thirty publications were issued — the
Annual Report, 1 Bulletin, 1 Contributions from the United States
National Herbarium, and 27 separate Proceedings papers. Particu-
larly outstanding were the following: Variations and Relationships
in the Snakes of the Genus Piticophis, by Olive Griffith Stull (Bull.
175) ; The Hederelloidea, a Suborder of Paleozoic Cyclostomatous
Bryozoa, by Ray S. Bassler; Observations on the Birds of Northern
Venezuela and Notes on the Birds of Kentucky, by Alexander Wet-
more; Catalog of Human Crania in the United States National
Museum Collections: Indians of the Gulf States, by Ales Hrdlicka;
Trematodes from Fishes Mainly from the Woods Hole Region,
Massachusetts, by Edwin Linton; and A Prehistoric Roulette from
Wyandotte County, Kansas, by Waldo R. Wedel and Harry M.
Trowbridge.

Volumes and separates distributed during the year to libraries,
institutions, and individuals throughout the world aggregated 65,962
copies.

W. P. A. assistan^je. — As in previous years workers were assigned
from the Works Progress Administration of the District of Columbia
to assist the Museum stajff in miscellaneous activities. On July 1,
1939, 144 assistants were so engaged, and on April 15, 1940, when
the project was terminated owing to shortage of funds, these workers
numbered 126. The service performed totaled 169,848 man-hours for
the year. Conclusion of the project was felt in all departments of
the Museum. Aside from the care given by the W. P. A. help in
arranging and preserving the study collections, the cataloging and
numbering of specimens were of direct aid to research, for the mate-
rial thus handled became readily available for study by our own staff
and by other technical workers.

Special exhibits. — Twelve special exhibits were held during the
year under the auspices of various educational, scientific, and gov-
ernmental agencies. In addition the department of engineering and
industries arranged 23 special displays — 2 in engineering, 9 in graphic
arts, and 12 in photography.

Participation in scientific congress. — Members of the Museum staff
actively participated in the Eighth American Scientific Congress,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 29

which was held in Washington May 10 to 21, 1940, under the auspices
of the United States Government and which brought together dis-
tinguished scientists from all the Pan American Republics. Dr.
Alexander Wetmore served as the Secretary General to the Congress,
working with officials of the State Department. Dr. C. G. Abbot
and Dr. T. Wayland Vaughan were members of tlie organizing com-
mittee, and the latter was chairman of the geological section. All
Museum curators were designated official delegates, and two members
of the Museum staff — Frank M. Setzler and Paul H. Oehser — were
detailed as secretaries; Austin H. Clark served as science press-
relations officer. Dr. Ales Hrdlicka was a member of the section
committee on anthropology. At various technical sessions of the
Congress papers were presented by the following Museum scientists :
Dr. Ales Hrdlicka, Dr. T. Dale Stewart, Dr. Remington Kellogg,
Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, and Dr. Paul Bartsch.

CHANGES IN ORGANIZATTON AND STAFF

In the Department of Anthropology, Andreas J. Andrews was pro-
moted October 1, 1939, to chief preparator in anthropology, succeeding
W. H. Egberts, who retired.

In the Department of Biology, Herwil M. Bryant was appointed
as junior biologist on September 29, 1939, and assigned to duty with
the United States Antarctic Service. Through the retirement of
Mrs. M. S. Clapp, Miss Vendla M. Hendrickson was promoted June 1,
1940, to clerk-stenographer in the Head Curator's office. Other changes
in this Department included the promotion of Herbert G. Deignan to
assistant curator in the Division of Birds on June 16, 1940, of Mrs.
Aime M. Awl to principal scientific illustrator on June 1, 1940, and of
Charles S. East to scientific aid on March 1, 1940.

In the library, Miss Marie Ruth Wenger was promoted to library
assistant, on November 16, 1939.

Two honorary appointments on the Museum staff were made during
the year, as follows: Dr. Stuart H. Perry as associate in mineralogy,
and Dr. Adam G. Boving as associate in zoology.

Under the superintendent of buildings and labor Harry S. Jones
was raised to principal mechanic (foreman of electricians) on Sep-
tember 1, 1939, and Sherley F. Williams to senior mechanic (senior
electrician) on October 1, 1939. George W. Sharman was promoted
to senior mechanic (senior sheet-metal worker), on September 16, 1939.

Floyd B. Kestner of the photographic laboratory was made assistant
photographer on November 16, 1939.

Eleven employees left the service through the operation of the re-
tirement act, seven of these for age, as follows : Leonard C. Gimnell,
assistant librarian, on May 31, 1940, with 33 years 11 months of serv-

30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

ice; William H. Egberts, chief preparator, on September 30, 1939,
with 25 years 1 month of service; JVIrs. Mary S. Clapp, clerk-stenog-
rapher, on May 31, 1940, with 19 years 11 months of service; Frank J,
Cross, senior mechanic (tinner), on August 31, 1939, with 19 years 9
months of service ; James F. Cudmore, lieutenant of guard, on June 30,
1940, with 21 years 3 months of service; William J. Snellings, guard,
on December 31, 1939, with 18 years 5 months of service; and Willis
Lanier, laborer-messenger, on August 31, 1939, with 24 years 7 months
of service. Lewis E. Perry, shipper, on June 30, 1940, retired at his
own request with 25 years 3 months of service. Three persons were
retired for disability: Micajah W. Knight, guard, on November 30,
1939; William J. Myers, guard, on October 10, 1939; and Alberta
Jackson, attendant, on August 31, 1939.

Dr. Willard W. Hill, assistant curator, Division of Ethnology, re-
signed to enter other service on January 18, 1940.

The year was marked by the loss of Dr. Cyrus Adler, associate in
historic archeology, who died in Philadelphia, Pa., on April 7, 1940.
Dr. Adler had been associated with the Smithsonian Institution over
60 years. Dr. Maynard M. Metcalf , since March 12, 1925, a collaborator
in the Division of Marine Invertebrates, died on April 19, 1940.

Kespectfully submitted.

Alexander Wetmore, Assistant Secretary.

Dr. Charles G. Abbot,

Secretary^ Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 2
REPORT OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART

Sir : I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trus-
tees of the National Gallery of Art, the third annual report of the
Board covering its operations for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1940.
Such report is bemg made pursuant to the provisions of the act of
March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51), as amended by the public resolution
of April 13, 1939 (Pub. Res. No. 9, 76th Cong.).

Under the act of March 24, 1937, Congress created, in the Smith-
sonian Institution, a bureau to be directed by a board to be known
as the "Trustees of the National Gallery of Art," charged with the
maintenance and administration of the National Gallery of Art.

In addition. Congress appropriated to the Smithsonian Institution
the area bounded by Seventh Street, Constitution Avenue, Fourth
Street, and North Mall Drive (now Madison Drive) Northwest, in
the District of Columbia, as a site for a National Gallery of Art and
authorized the Smithsonian Institution to permit The A. W. Mellon
Educational and Charitable Trust, a public charitable trust, estab-
lished by the late Hon. Andrew W. Mellon, of Pittsburgh, Pa., to
construct thereon a building to be designated the "National Gallery
of Art." Further, the act authorizes the Board to accept, for the
Smithsonian Institution, and to hold and administer gifts, bequests
and devises of money, securities, or other property for the benefit
of the National Gallery of Art. To date two great collections of out-
standing works of art have been received by the Trustees of the
Gallery ; namely, the Mellon Collection and the Samuel H. Kress Col-
lection, which will be housed and exhibited in the Gallery building
now being constructed in Washington. Under the creating act, the
United States is pledged to provide such funds as may be necessary
for the upkeep of the National Gallery of Art and the administrative
expenses and costs of operation thereof, including the protection and
care of the works of art so that the Gallery shall at all times be prop-
erly maintained and the works of art exhibited regularly to the general
public.

ORGANIZATION AND STAFF

The statutory members of the Board are the Chief Justice of the
United States, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury,
and the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ex oflficio, and five

32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 40

general trustees. The general trustees, serving during the fiscal year
ended June 30, 1940, were David K. E. Bruce, Duncan Phillips,
Ferdinand Lammot Belin, Joseph E. Widener, and Samuel H. Kress.

At the annual meeting of the Board held February 12, 1940, David
K. E. Bruce was elected President and Ferdinand Lammot Belin was
elected Vice President of the Board to serve for the ensuing year.
Other executive officers continuing in office were Donald D. Shepard,
Secretary-Treasurer and General Counsel, David E. Finley, Director,
Harry A. McBride, Administrator, and John "Walker, Chief Curator.
At the same meeting the Board elected Macgill James of Baltimore,
Maryland, to be Assistant Director. Mr. James has been serving as
Director of tlie Municipal Museiun of the City of Baltimore and is
well qualified by experience and training to perform the duties of
Assistant Director of the National Gallery of Art. Mr. James will
begin his Gallery duties in the near future.

Other officers of the Gallery appointed during the year were Charles
Seymour, Jr., formerly Instructor of History of Art and History in
the Department of Fine Arts at Yale University, as Curator of
Sculpture ; George T. Heckert, as Assistant to the Administrator ; and
Sterling P. Eagleton, as Chief Engineer and Building Superintendent.

The three standing committees of the Board, provided for in
the bylaws, as constituted at the annual meeting of the Board
held February 12, 1940, are :

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

Chief Justice of the United States, Charles Evans Hughes.
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. C. G. Abbot.
David K. E. Bruce.
Ferdinand Lammot Belin.
Duncan Phillips.

FINANCE COMMITFEE

The Secretary of the Treasury, Henry Morgenthau, Jr.
The Secretary of State, Cordell Hull.
David K. E. Bruce.
Ferdinand Lammot Belin.
Samuel H. Kress.

ACQUISITIONS OOMMiriEE

David K. E. Bruce.
Duncan Phillips.
Joseph E. Widener.
Ferdinand Lammot Belin.
DaTid E. Finley.

During the year satisfactory progress has been made in the
work of organizing the Gallery staff. All the positions required
with few exceptions have now been classified by the Civil Service
Commission, and examinations for several positions in the artistic

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 33

and professional field have been held by the Commission. The nu-
clear staff has been slightly increased so that it will be in a position
to employ and train the staff which will be required when the build-
ing is completed and taken over by the Government. Twelve persons
were employed on the Government roll as of June 30, 1940. This
staff has been engaged in preparatory work and the compilation
of the catalogs for the Gallery, and in the purchase of supplies
and furniture to be placed in the Gallery building when completed,
and in other matters looking toward the opening of the Gallery
to the public. Until the Gallery is completed, the staff is being
housed in offices furnished by The A. W. Mellon Educational and
Charitable Trust.

A large part of the equipment, supplies, furniture, and furnish-
ings have been purchased for delivery as soon as the building is
completed. Favorable progress has been made upon the complete
cataloging of the works of art in the national collections which will
be housed in the Gallery building.

APPROPRIATIONS

For salaries and expenses, for the upkeep and operation of the
National Gallery of Art, the protection and care of the works of
art therein, and all administrative expenses incident thereto, as
authorized by the act of March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51), as amended
by the public resolution of April 13, 1939 (Pub. Ees. No. 9, 76th
Cong.), there was appropriated for the fiscal year 1941 the sum of
$300,000. Of the sum of $159,000 appropriated by Congress for
the period July 1, 1939, to June 30, 1940 (53 Stat. 984), $158,985.75
was expended or encumbered, in the following detailed amounts,
for personal services, printing and binding, and supplies and equip-
ment, leaving an unencumbered appropriation of $14.25.

Expenditures and encumbrances

Personal services $21, 284. 63

Printing and binding 1,901.47

Supplies and equipment 135, 799. 65

Total 158, 985. 75

ACQUISITIONS

On February 12, 1940, the Board of Trustees accepted, from The
A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust, a valuable gift of 11
celebrated paintings by early American artists which are considered
outstanding not only for their aesthetic but also their historical merit.
These paintings will be placed in specially designed rooms when the
building is completed. This gift marks the first step toward setting up

34 ANNUAL, REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

in the National Gallery a section devoted to the advancement and pres-
ervation of American art. The gift includes the noted painting of
the family of George Washington by Edward Savage. Other paint-
ings given are as follows :

Painting Artist

John Randolph Gilbert Stuart.

Mrs. Richard Yates Do.

Lawrence Yates Do.

George Washington Do.

Joseph Coolidge Do.

Alexander Hamilton John Trumbull.

William Vans Murray Mather Brown.

Richard Earl HoAve John Copley.

CJolonel Guy Johnson Benjamin West.

John Randolph Chester Harding.

A Young Man in a Large Hat Frans Hals.

A Turk Rembrandt.

Portrait of a Flemish Lady Van Dyck.

At the same meeting the Board also accepted from Mr. Mellon's
charitable trust two fountain groups by Pierre Legros and Jean
Baptiste Tubi. These groups were executed in 1672 on orders of
Louis XIV as a part of the decoration for the celebrated Theatre
d'Eau at Versailles and are exceedingly valuable not only for their
antiquity but for the quality of art they reflect. They are admirably
suited for the settings arranged for them. One will be placed in each
of the spacious garden courts which form an important architectural
feature of the main floor of the Gallery.

During the year other offers of gifts of works of art were received
but were not accepted because, in the opinion of the Board, they were
not considered desirable acquisitions for the permanent collection of
the Gallery as contemplated by section 5 (b) of the act of March 24,
1937.

EXCHANGE OF WORKS OF ART

On June 17, 1940, the duly authorized officers of the Gallery, as
directed by the Board, on recommendations of the acquisitions com-
mittee, exchanged a terra-cotta bust representing Giovanna Tornabuoni
and attributed to Verrocchio, in the Mellon collection, for the painting
by Aelbert Cuyp entitled "The Maas at Dordrecht" and two monu-
mental eighteenth century marble vases by Clodion (Claude Michel),
all to be included in the permanent collection as more desirable and
needed acquisitions for the Gallery. The two marble vases by Clodion
are signed and dated 1782 and are said to have been made for the
Palace of Versailles during the reign of Louis XVI. The painting
by Cuyp is said by experts to be one of the greatest masterpieces of the
work of that master of the Dutch school of the seventeenth century.
The exchange had the approval of the donor.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 35

RESTORATION AND REPAIRS TO WORKS OF ART

During the year, as authorized by the Board, Stephen Pichetto,
Consultant Restorer to the Gallery, has undertaken such work of repair
and restoration of paintings as has been found to be necessary, at his
studio in New York. Such paintings when completed have been
returned in excellent condition. Other necessary repairs and restora-
tion to works of art in the collections will be done by Mr. Pichetto
during the fiscal year ending June 30, 1941.

PAINTINGS LOANED AND RETURNED

During the year the following paintings from the Mellon collec-
tion were returned from the Masterpieces of Art Exhibition at the
New York World's Fair where they had been on loan for the period
April 30 to October 31, 1939, as reported by the Board of Trustees
last year:

Painting Artist

Self-Portrait Rembrandt.

An Old Woman Seated Hals.

A Gentleman Greeting a Lady Terborch.

Also, the following paintings from the Mellon collection were re-
turned from the Golden Gate International Exposition at San Fran-
cisco where they had been on loan for the period February 16 to
December 31, 1939, as reported by the Board of Trustees last year :

Painting Artist

A Young Man at Table Rembrandt.

Portrait of Balthasar Coymans Hals.

A Dutch Courtyard Pieter de Hooch.

CURATORIAL WORK

Curatorial work during the year consisted primarily of studying
and cataloging the large Mellon and Samuel H. Kress collections
and in making recommendations for the installation of these collec-
tions in the Gallery building when it is completed.

PUBIJOATION8 FUND

In its meeting of February 12, 1940, the Board adopted a resolu-
tion approving a plan for a publications fund. Carrying this plan
into effect, a sum was advanced by The A. W. Mellon Educational
and Charitable Trust to establish the Publications Fund, the pur-
pose of which is to ensure that catalogs, handbooks, color reproduc-
tions, postcards, and similar material, of the highest quality but at
moderate cost, shall be available to the public for educational and
study purposes when the Gallery is opened. Considerable progress
has already been made in the preparation of these publications.

280256—41 4

36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

GALLERY CONSTRUOTION

Work on the Gallery building and landscaping on the site was
started in the summer of 1937 and is rapidly nearing completion.
It is hoped that construction will be completed in November of this
year. Several months will be required for decorating the exhibition
rooms and installing the collection. Formal opening of the Gallery
to the public, therefore, may take place in March. As of June 30,
1940, $11,271,786.03 had been expended by The A. W. Mellon Edu-
cational and Charitable Trust for the construction of the building
and landscaping of the site. It is estimated that the total construc-
tion cost of the building and landscaping will exceed $15,000,000.
Upon advice of the accountants of the Gallery, recording of such
costs on the books of the National Gallery of Art will be deferred
until the building is turned over to the Smithsonian Institution and
the trustees of the Gallery.

AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY

Price, Waterhouse & Co., a nationally known firm of public ac-
countants, has made an examination of the accounting records main-
tained for the private funds of the National Gallery of Art and its
Publications Fund for the year ended June 30, 1940. The certificate
of Price, "Waterhouse & Co. follows:

In accordance with instructions, we have made an examination of the ac-
couuting records maintained for the private funds of the National Gallery of
Art and Its Publications Fund for the year ending June 30, 1940, and have ob-
tained information and explanations from its officers and employees. Records
relating to the disbursement of public funds appropriated by Congress for the
upkeep of the National Gallery of Art or the administrative expenses and cost
of operation were not within the scope of our examination.

The recorded assets of the National Gallery of Art at Jime 30, 1940, com-
prised works of art donated by The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable
Trust and by Mr. Samuel H. Kress and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation, or
works of art acquired in exchange for donated items. The works of art ac-
quii'ed from The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable Trust were valued
for accounting purposes at $31,892,502.31, including $589,340 for Items acquired
during the year under review. One piece of sculpture included in the first-
mentioned amount at $185,000 was exchanged during the year for two vases
and a painting appraised at values aggregating the same amount The value
for accounting purposes of the works of art donated June 29, 1939, by Mr.
Samuel H. Kress and the Samuel H. Kress Foundation has not yet been deter-
mined. This gift is subject to completion of construction of the Gallery build-
ing on or before June 29, 1941, as provided in the gift indenture. The cost of
construction of the building is being met by The A. W. Mellon Educational and
Charitable Trust and the recording of the expenditures on the books of the
National Gallery of Art is deferred until completion of the building.

The Publications Fund, National Gallery of Art was created by an indenture
dated February 28, 1940 between The A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable

BEPORT OF THE SECRETABY 37

Trust and three of the officers of the National Gallery of Art designated as
"Custodians." The Fund was established for the purpose of making avail-
able to the public, at reasonable cost, catalogues and other publications con-
cerning the works of art. The Trust advanced to the Custodians the sum of
$40,000, and the indenture provides for repayment after July 1, 1941, out of
profits, if any, from sale of publications and for transfer of any remaining
assets of the Fund to the National Gallery of Art after the advance has been
entirely paid. We obtained a confirmation from the National Metropolitan
Bank of the amount of $40,000 on deposit at June 30, 1940.

Our examination disclosed no other transactions to June 30, 1940, which
should be recorded in the books of account. We did not inspect the works
of art but we examined the deeds of trust which provide that the donors
shall be responsible for the custody and shall bear the cost of storage and
insurance until the delivery of the works of art after completion of the Gallery
building.

In our opinion, subject to the fact that the value of the works of art ac-
quired June 29, 1939, has not been determined and recorded, the books of
account fairly reflect the transactions pertaining to the private funds of the
Naticmal Gallery of Art and of the Publications Fimd, National Gallery of
Art, at June 30, 1940, in conformity with generally accepted accounting prin-
ciples applied on a basis consistent with that of the preceding year.

Respectfully submitted.

F. L. Belin, Vice President.
Db. C. G. Abbot,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 3
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS

Sib: I have the honor to submit the following report on the ac-
tivities of the National Collection of Fine Arts for the fiscal year
ended June 30, 1940:

The beginning of the year found the Gallery in the throes of
major repairs which continued for several months after the first of
July. The galleries were reopened to the public October 4, 1939.
A new background of rubber-backed monk's cloth was used, with all
trimmings, baseboards, railings, and reflectors painted to match.
This produces such a soft, quiet effect that all attention is centered
on the exhibits themselves. The pictures were all put in first-class
condition and backed.

Five special exliibits were held in the foyer, and two, of minia-
tures, in the Gallery proper. The Smithsonian Building, where
Graphic Arts exhibits have usually been held, was closed to the
public on account of alterations, so that the nine such exhibits held
during the year were transferred to the north lobby of the Natural
History Building and were displayed in National Collection of Fine
Arts cases.

Three miniatures w^ere purchased and two others were received as
loans. Loans of large objects or paintings cannot be accepted because
of crowded conditions in the galleries and in storage.

APPROPRIATIONS

For the administration of the National Collection of Fine Arts by
the Smithsonian Institution, including compensation of necessary
employees, purchase of books of reference and periodicals, traveling
expenses, uniforms for guards, and necessary incidental expenses,
$33,765 was appropriated, of which $11,999.89 was expended for the
care and maintenance of the Freer Gallery of Art, a unit of the
National Collection of Fine Arts. The balance of $21,765.11 was
spent for the care and upkeep of the National Collection of Fine Arts,
nearly all of tliis sum being required for the payment of salaries,
traveling expenses, books, periodicals, and necessary disbursements
for the care of the collection.
38

REPORT OF THE SECRETAR"? 39

THE SMITHSONIAN ART COMMISSION

The nineteenth annual meeting of the Smithsonian Art Commission
was held on December 5, 1939. The members met at 10 : 30 in the
Natural History Building, where, as the advisory committee on the
acceptance of works of art which had been submitted during the year,
they accepted the following :

Oil painting "Young Girl with Dog," by Edward Percy Moran, 1890 (1862-1925) .
Bequest of Alfred Duane Pell.

Mr. McClellan and Mr. Lodge were appointed to select objects from
the 207 ceramics, 106 ivory carvings, 30 fans, 5 pieces of silver, 3
tapestries, and 3 chairs, received from the bequest of Alfred Duane
Pell, which they considered suitable for the National Collection of
Fine Arts.

After a brief visit to the Freer Gallery of Art, the members pro-
ceeded to the regent's room in the Smithsonian Building for the
further proceedings, the meeting being called to order by the chairman,
Mr. Borie.

The members present were : Charles L. Borie, Jr., chairman ; Frank
Jewett Mather, Jr., vice chairman; Dr. Charles G. Abbot (ex officio),
secretary; and Louis Ayres, David E. Finley, John E. Lodge, Paul
Manship, George B. McClellan, Edward W. Redfield, and Mahonri M.
Young. Kuel P. Tolman, Curator of the Division of Graphic Arts
in the United States National Museum and Acting Director of the
National Collection of Fine Arts, was also present.

The Commission recommended to the Board of Regents the reelec-
tion of Louis Ayres, James E. Eraser, George H. Edgell, and Frank
Jewett Mather, Jr.

The following officers were reelected for the ensuing year : Charles L.
Borie, Jr., chairman; Frank Jewett Mather, Jr., vice chairman, and
Dr. Charles G. Abbot, secretary.

The following were reelected members of the executive committee
for the ensuing year: George B. McClellan (chairman), Herbert
Adams, and Gilmore D. Clarke. Charles L. Borie, Jr., as chairman of
the Commission, and Dr. Charles G. Abbot, as secretary of the Com-
mission, are ex-officio members of the executive committee.

Dr. Abbot reported in detail regarding various phases of the act
providing for the Smithsonian Gallery of Art; of the rules under
which the recent competition for a design for the Gallery had been
carried out ; of the results of the competition ; and of the suitability
of the prize- winning design. After a very full discussion by the
Commission, during which Dr. Abbot stated that he would be glad
to submit to the forthcoming meeting of the Board of Begents any

40 ANNUAL. REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

expression of opinion which the Commission might agree upon, Mr.
Mather submitted the following resolution which the members present,
on motion, adopted as their opinion in the matter :

The primary purpose of the Smithsonian Gallery of Art is worthily to house,
classify, and exhibit such art collections as the Smithsonian Institution now has
or shall have. The secondary purpose is to make an educational use of such art
collections through direct instruction at Washington or through loan exhibitions
in the United States or elsewhere.

THE CATHERINE WALDEN MYER FUND

Three miniatures were acquired from the fund established through
the bequest of the late Catherine Walden Myer, as follows :

19. "Portrait of I. G.," by an unknown artist ; from John Schwarz,
Baltimore, Md.

20. "Portrait of a Colonial Gentleman," signed Copley, 1773 ; from
Whitlock's Incorporated, New Haven, Conn.

21. "Portrait of a Man," by an unknown artist; from Michael J.
de Sherbinin, Mount Vernon, N. Y.

LOANS ACCEPTED

A miniature of Mrs. Kobert Means, by Edward Greene Malbone
(1777-1807) was lent by J. J. Pringle, Jr., Alexandria, Va.

A miniature of Ebenezer Martin (1791-1876) by an unknown artist,
was lent by Miss Alice L. Wood, Blowing Eock, N. C.

A portrait of Mr. Justice Brandeis, by Joseph Tepper, was lent by
the friends of Mr. Justice Brandeis, through Paul A. Freund, Harvard
University, Cambridge, Mass.

Three paintings — ^"Portrait of Woman in White," by Haggenaes,
"Linlithgan Bridge," by Macaulay Stevenson, and "Landscape —
Moonlight," by E. K. Menard — were lent by Miss A. M. Hegeman,
Washington, D. C.

LOANS TO OTHER MUSEUMS AND ORGANIZATIONS

An oil painting, "Brittany Sunday," by Eugene Vail, was lent to
the Corcoran Gallery of Art for a memorial exhibition from January
6 to 28, 1940. (Returned February 1, 1940.)

Two oil paintings, "Portrait of Stephen Decatur," by Gilbert Stuart,
and "Portrait of Admiral Sims," by Irving R. Wiles, were lent to the
United States Naval Academy for an exhibition of Masterpieces of
Painting and Graphic Arts relating to Naval Personages and Tradi-
tions from April 6 to May 15, 1940. (Returned May 20, 1940.)

The following four paintings were lent in April 1940 to The Public
Library of the District of Columbia :

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 41

"Portrait of Thomas McKean," by Charles Willson Peale, and "Portrait of
Mary Abigail Willing Coale," by Thomas Sully, to the Georgetown Branch.

"Madonna with Halo of Stars," by an unknown artist, to the Southeastern
Branch,

"Musa Regina," by Henry Oliver Walker, to the Northeastern Branch.

An oil painting, "Portrait of Mary Hopkinson (wife of Dr. John
Morgan)," by Benjamin West, was lent May 20, 1940, to the Master-
pieces of Art exhibition at the New York World's Fair, 1940.

Two oil paintings, "The Torrent" and "Fishing Boats at
Gloucester," by John Twachtman, were lent to the Mimson-Wiiliams-
Proctor Institute, Utica, N. Y., for an exhibition of the work of John
Twachtman from November 5 to 28, 1939. (Returned December 1,
1939.)

An oil painting, "Moonlight," by Albert P. Ryder, was lent to
M. Knoedler & Co., New York City, for an exhibition of paintings
by Albert P. Ryder and Robert L. Newman called "Two American
Romantics" from November 13 to December 2, 1939. (Returned De-
cember 6, 1939.)

Two oil paintings, "Caresse Enfantine," by Mary Cassatt, and
"Sunset, Navarro Ridge, California Coast," by Ralph A. Blakelock,
were lent to the Art Institute of Chicago for an exhibition, "Half a
Century of American Art (1888-1939)," from November 16, 1939, to
January 7, 1940. The Blakelock painting was forwarded to Chicago
at the close of the Golden Gate International Exposition, San Fran-
cisco, Calif. (Returned January 10, 1940.)

LOANS RETURNED

The painting "Friendly Neighbors," by Alfred C. Howland, lent
to Harvard University, William Hayes Fogg Art Museum, Cam-
bridge, Mass., for an exhibition of New England genre by New Eng-
land artists, was returned September 8, 1939.

THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS REFERENCE LIBRARY

A total of 471 publications, including 334 acquired by purchase and
2 by transfer, were accessioned during the year.

OTHER ACTIVITIES

The Acting Director visited and studied collections and methods
of installation in New England galleries from August 21 to Septem-
ber 1, 1939.

Four colored lantern slides were lent to Holbrook Muller for use
in connection with a lecture given at the Washington Heights Pres-
byterian Church, December 26, 1939.

42 jlksval, beport Smithsonian institution, 1940

SPECIAL EXHIBinONS

The following exliibitions were held:

November 9 to £9, 1939.— The, Fifth Annual Metropolitan State
Art Contest, 1939, under the auspices of the Department of Fine
Arts of the District of Columbia Federation of Women's Clubs.
There were 272 exhibits, paintings, sculpture, and prints, by 128
artists.

December 12, 1939, to January 1, 1940.— Special exhibition of 29
pastel and oil paintings by Esteban Valderrama, under the patronage
of His Excellency the Ambassador of Cuba, Senor Dr. Pedro Martinez
Fraga.

December 15, 1939, to Februain/ 8, iW.— Special exliibition of a
miniature by Juan de Dios Hoyos, under the patronage of His
Excellency the Ambassador of Mexico, Seiior Dr. Francisco Castillo
Najera.

January 9 to £5, 19Jfi. — Special exhibition of 83 pieces of wood
turnings by James L. Prestini of Lake Forest, 111.

January 9 to 31, 19^0. — Special exhibition of 24 portraits and 5
drawings by John Slavin, of Kichmond, Va.

Afril Jf to 28, i,94/9.— Special exhibition of 153 paintings by 31
members of the Landscape Club of Washington, D. C.

May 2S to June 10, 1940. — Special exhibition of 103 miniatures
by 61 members of the Pennsylvania Society of Miniature Painters.

PUBUOATIONS

TOLMAN, R. P. Report on the National Collection of Fine Arts for the year
ended June 30, 1939. Appendix 3, Report of the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution for the year ended June 30, 1939, pp. 47-51.

Lodge, J. E. Report on the Freer Gallery of Art for the year ended June 30,
1939. Appendix 4, Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution
for the year ended June 30, 1939, pp. 52-55.

Respectfully submitted.

R. P. ToLMAN, Acting Director.
Dr. C. G. Abbot,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 4

REPORT ON THE FREER GALLERY OF ART

Sir : I have the honor to submit the twentieth annual report on the
Freer Gallery of Art for the year ended June 30, 1940 :

THE CGLLECnONS

Additions to the collections by purchase are as follows :

BAMBOO

30.7&-

39.79. Chinese, seventeenth-eighteenth century. By Chang Shih-huang. Two
brush-holders with landscape designs, inscriptions and signatures
carved in delicate relief. Heights: 0.122 and 0.106 respectively.

BBONZE

39.38. Chinese, Eastern Han dynasty, dated in correspondence with A. D. 174.
A mirror. Smooth black patina ; decoration and inscription in counter-
sunk relief. Diameter: 0.182.

39.39-

39.40. Chinese, late Shang dynasty, fourteenth-twelfth century B. C. Two

ceremonial weapons of the type ki, each ornamented on both sides
with turquoise inlay. Rough green patina. Lengths : 0.393 and 0.391,
respectively.

39.41. Chinese, late Chou dynasty, fifth-third century B. C. A ceremonial

vessel of the type tou. Granular, bluish green patination ; design
inlaid with gold. 0.151x0.189 over all.

39.52. Chinese, "Western Chin dynasty, third century A. D. A mirror. White

bronze patinated in black, gray, and green with earthy encrustations.
On the back, concentric zones of mythological and legendary subjects
in high and countersunk relief. A dedicatory inscription of 43 char-
acters. Diameter: 0.175.

39.53. Chinese, early Chou dynasty or earlier, twelfth century B. C. A cere-

monial vessel of the type kuang. White bronze with smooth light
gray-green patina. Decoration in linear relief. 0.169 x 0.196 over all.
(Illustrated.)
40.3. Chinese, late Shang dynasty, fourteenth-twelfth century B. C. A vase
of the type ku. White bronze with a green and black patina. Decora-
tion in linear relief. Inscription. 0.284x0.157 over all.

BBONZB AND JADE

40.10. Chinese, late Shang dynasty, fourteenth-twelfth century B. C. Probably
from An-yang. A ceremonial sickle in four parts : three of bronze
inlaid with turquoise; one (the blade) of jade decorated in linear
relief with notched back and ground edge. 0.345x0.175 over all (when
assembled with all parts in contact). (Illustrated.)

44 ANNUAL. REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

JADE

39.54. Chinese, middle CIiou dynasty, eighth-flftli century B. C. An oblong

ornament of reddish color shading to gray-green ; somewhat trans-
lucent; decoration in linear relief. 0.073x0.033 over all.

39.55. Chinese, early Chou dynasty, twelfth-eighth century B. C. A cere-

monial "toothed" blade of a yellow-brown color with cloudy mottlings
of darker brown. 0.411 x 0.065 over all.

MANUSCRIPT

(See also Painting, 39.49b and 39.50b)

39.43. East Indian, fifteenth century. Part of a Jaina siltra: nine leaves of
thin paper between brocade-covered boards. Two miniatures. (See
under Painting, 39.43.) 0.074x0.253 (average leaf).

39.56. Arabic (Persia), Seljuq period, eleventh-twelfth century. A leaf from

a Qur'dn. The text is written in slender Kufic script in black ink on
a ground filled with palmette scrolls drawn in brown ink ; vowel-signs
in red, blue, and brown. Gold verse-stops, borders, and marginal
ornaments. 0.323 x 0.214.

KABBLE

40.2. CJliinese, late Shang dynasty, fourteenth-twelfth century B. C. A terminal
ornament in the form of a bird ; surface details in linear relief on both
sides. 0.121 x 0.070 over all.

METAL WORK

89.44
a-b. Iranian (Persian) late eighteenth century. A dagger and sheath, prob-
ably made in Shir5z. Curved, double-edged blade of steel. Hilt and
scabbard of iron ornamented with gold inlay ; arabesques and Inscrip-
tions in relief. Length : 0.372.

39.45. Iranian (Persian) sixteenth century. A pierced steel i-octangular plaque,
a portion of a frieze, containing two medallions with naskhi inscrii)-
tions on a ground of tendril scrollwork. 0.077 x 0.269.

39.58. Syro-Egyptian, sixteenth century. A globular brass hand-warmer made
in two hemispheres, one fitted with a fire pot hung in gimbals. The
surface is pierced with small holes ; the decoration engraved and inlaid
with silver. Diameter : 0.125.

40.4-

40.9. Iranian (Persian) sixteenth-seventeenth century. Six small objects of
Iron and steel :

40.4-

40.5. Two sheet-iron comb-backs with sockets for teeth. The decoration is

engraved and inlaid with silver and gold. 0.062x0.077 and
0.061 X 0.109, respectively,

40.6. A steel hatchet (or chopper) head with screwpin and nut for shafting.

Decoration pierced and engraved. 0.159 x 0.078 over all.

40.7. A steel fiint-striker In the form of a bird ; the decoration Is engraved and

Inlaid with gold; jewels (one damaged) set in the eyes. 0.087x0.050
over all.

40.8. A rectangular steel ornament of interlacing vine-scrolls In delicate pierced

work. 0.038 x 0.071 over all.

40.9. A circular steel ornament : pierced work with the bismallah in gold on

a ground of tendrils ; gold border. Diameter : 0.046.

Secretary's Report, 1940. -Appendix 4

Plate i

40.10

A RECENT ADDITION TO THE COLLECTION OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART.

Secretary's Report, 1940. — Appendix 4

Plate 2

39.53

39.50a 39.48b

Some Recent Additions to the Collection of the Freer Gallery of art.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 45

PAINTING

39.37. Chinese, Suug dynasty or earlier. Style of Chou Fang. "Ladies playing
double-sixes." Color on silk. Title, one other inscription, and 3 seals
on the mount. Makimono : 0.307 x 0.480.

39.51. Chinese, Ming dynasty, dated in correspondence with A. D. 1536. By
Wen Pi (Cheng-ming, 1470-15G7). A landscape. Ink on paper. In-
scription and 16 seals on the picture ; 2 inscriptions and 2 seals on the
mount. Makimono : 0.314 x 2.903.

39.59. Chinese, Yiian dynasty, fourteenth century. By Wang Meng (died 1385).

A landscape. Ink and color on paper. One inscription and 10 seals on
the picture ; label, 4 inscriptions and 25 seals on the mount. Makimono :
0.245 X 0.972.

39.60. Chinese, Ming dynasty, fifteenth-sixteenth century. By T'ang Yin (1466-

1524). Landscape. Ink and color on paper. One inscription and 5
seals on the picture; label, 9 inscriptions and 28 seals on the mount.
Makimono : 0.283 x 1.030.

40.1. Chinese, Yiian dynasty, fourteenth century. Attribution to Chao Lin.
Tatar horsemen. Ink and gold on pai)er. Two inscriptions and 7
seals on the picture ; label on the mount. Makimono : 1.083 x 0.238.

39.43. Indian, fifteenth century. Two miniatures illustrating part of a Jaina
sutra (see also Manuscript, 39.43 ) . Color and metallic lustre on paper :
Leaf 1 : A deity enthroned ; two worshippers. Leaf 3 : A deity en-
throned ; six other figures. 0.074 x 0.058 and 0.073 x 0.058, respectively.

39.46a-

39.50b. Indian, Mughal, seventeenth century. Five leaves from a royal album
upon which are mounted eight paintings on paper and two pages of
Persian calligraphy iQifa') :

39.46a. School of Shah Jahan. By Govardhan. An equestrian portrait of
the Emperor Shah Jahan. Color and gold. Signature. 0.268x0.181.

39.46b. School of Jahangir. By Mau§ur. A bird. Color. Signature. 0.114 x
0.205.

39.47a. School of Jahangir. Dated in correspondence with A. D. 1620. Attri-
bution to Farrukh Beg. Shah Tahmasp in the mountains. Color
and gold. Inscription. 0.219 x 0.138.

39.47b. School of Jahangir. By Mulhaiumad. A bird. Color and gold. In-
scription. 0.142 X 0.100.

39.48a. School of Jahangir. Attribution to Mansiir. Two deer in a land-
scape. Color and gold. Inscription. 0.167x0.093.

39.48b. School of Jahangir. Dated in corresiKjndeuce with A. D. 1610. The
Emperor Humayun enthroned, a sword bearer in attendance. Color
and gold. Inscription. 0.181x0.119. (Illustrated.)

39.49a. School of Shah Jahan. Dated in correspondence with A. D. 1629. By
Hasji^im. The Emperor Shah Jahan standing upon a globe; above,
angels in clouds bearing insignia of sovereignty. Color and gold;
faint outline drawings on the globe. Signature and inscriptiong.
0.251x0.158.

39.49b. Persian, sixteenth century. By Mir 'All. An illuminated gita'.
Naspa'Uq script on blue paper. Signature. 0.171 x 0.092.

39.50a. School of Jahangir, co. A. D. 1625. By Hlishim. A portrait of the
Khan-Khanan ('Abd-'r-Rahim), Color and gold. Signature. 0.149 x
0.082. (Illustrated).

39.50b. Persian, sixteenth century. By Mir 'All. An Illuminated qifa'.
Nas{a'liq script on blue paper. Signature. 0.186 x 0.087.

46 ANNUAL BEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

POTTEBT

89.42. Chinese, late Shang dynasty, fourteenth-twelfth century B. C. From
Au-yang. A jar (mouth chipped and repaired) of soft, white, un-
glazed clay. The decoration is carved in countersunk relief in two
registers. Three pierced knobs of water-buffalo design. 0.332 x 0.305
over all.

39.61-

39.77. Chinese, Ming to Ch'ing dynasties, sixteenth-nineteenth (?) century.
I-hsing pottery. Seventeen objects of brown, red, or gray polished,
unglazed clay:

39.61. Tea-pot, sixteenth century (?) Attribution to Kung Ch'un.

39.62. Tea-pot, seventeenth century. By Shih Ta-pin.

39.63. Tea-pot, seventeenth century. By Shih Ta-piu.

39.64. Tea-ix)t, dated in correspondence with A. D. 1620. By Li Chung-fang.

39.65. Tea-pot, seventeenth century. By Hsti Yu-ch'iian.

39.66. Tea-pot, seventeenth century. By Ch'&n Ch'en (styled Kung-chih).

39.67. Tea-pot, dated in correspondence with A. D. 1642. By Sh^n TzQ-ch'g.

39.68. Tea-pot, sixteenth-seventeenth century. By Ch'en Ming-yiiau.

39.69. Tea-pot, sixteenth-seventeenth century. By Ch'en Ming-yiian.

39.70. Tea-pot, eighteenth century. By Ch'Sn Han-w^n.

39.71. Water-pot, sixteenth-seventeenth century. By Ch'en Ming-yiian.

39.72. Water-pot, sixteenth-seventeenth century. By Ch'^n Ming-yiian.

39.73. Incense-box, sixteenth-seventeenth century. By Ch'en Ming-yiian.

39.74. Brush-rest, sixteenth-seventeenth century. By Ch'^n Ming-yiian.

39.75. Oval cup, nineteenth century (?). By Ch'6ng-chai.

39.76. Octagonal cup, nineteenth century (?). By Ch'^ng-chal.

39.77. Fluted cup, nineteenth century (?). By Ch'6ng-chai.

Curatorial work has been devoted to the study and recording of the
new acquisitions listed above, and to other Chinese, Arabic, Persian,
East Indian, Aramaic, and Armenian manuscripts or art objects
either already in the permanent collection or submitted for purchase.
Other Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Persian, Egyptian, American, and
European objects were sent or brought to the Director by their
owners for information as to identity, provenance, quality, date, in-
scriptions, and so on. In all, 1,093 objects and 263 photographs of
objects were so submitted, and written or oral reports upon them
were made to the institutiong or private owners requesting this
service. Written translations of 21 inscriptions in Oriental lan-
guages also were made upon request.

Forty changes were made in exhibition as follows:

Chinese bronze 21

Chinese painting 7

East Indian painting 12

ATTENDANCE

The Gallery has been open to the public every day from 9 until
4 : 30 o'clock, with the exception of Mondays, Chiistmas Day, and New
Year's Day.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 47

The total attendance of visitors coming in at the main entrance
was 108,638. One hundred and thirty-two other visitors on Mondays
make the grand total 108,770. The total attendance for week days,
exclusive of Mondays, was 77,129^ Sundays, 31,509. The average
week-day attendance was 297; the average Sunday attendance, 606.
The highest monthly attendance was, as usual, in April, 18,736; the
lowest in January, 4,351.

There were 1,577 visitors to the main office during the year. The
purposes of their visits were as follows :
For general information 327

To see objects in storage 419

Far Eastern paintings 98

Near Eastern paintings and manuscripts 25

East Indian paintings and manuscripts 10

American paintings 36

Whistler prints 9

Oriental pottery, jade, lacquer, bronzes, and sculptures 165

Syrian, Arabic, and Egyptian glass 3

Byzantine objects 3

Washington Manuscripts 70

To read in the library 215

To make tracings and sketches from library books 4

To see the building and installation 15

To obtain permission to photograph or sketch 24

To submit objects for examination 176

To see members of the staff 151

To see the exhibition galleries on Mondays 42

To examine or purchase photographs 457

Of the 1,577 visitors to the offices, 132 came in on Mondays.

LECTURES, DOCENT SERVICE, AND AUDITORIUM

Eight illustrated lectures were given by members of the staff in
the auditorium: total attendance, 197. Upon request, 11 groups
ranging from 7 to 20 persons (total, 145) were given instruction
in the study rooms, and 7 groups ranging from 5 to 24 persons (total,
114) were given docent service in the exhibition galleries. The total
number of persons receiving instruction at their own request was
456.

The auditorium has been used by the following groups :

Bureau of Agricultural Economics of the U. S. Department of Agnrl-
culture: 4 meetings; total attendance, 1,200.

Federal Crop Insurance Corporation of the U. S. Department of Agri-
culture: 4 meetings; total attendance, 729.

Eighth American Scientific Congress: 1 meeting; attendance, 15.

48 ANIfUAL. REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

PERSONNEL

William K. B. Acker, Student Assistant, left for Holland on
July 3, 1939, to pursue his Chinese studies at the University of
Leiden.

On August 18, 1939, the Gallery suffered a great loss in the death
of its Superintendent, John Bundy, at his home in Ridgewood, N. J.
Mr. Bundy had been associated with the Freer building for more
than 21 years, coming here first as the representative of the archi-
tect, Charles A. Piatt, of New York. During 1921 he was trans-
ferred to the staff of the Freer Gallery as Superintendent, a post
he held until his death. To his work he brought not only the highest
degree of technical proficiency, the fruit of long experience, but
also the single-minded devotion of a strong and loyal character.

Weldon N. Rawley, who has been associated with the Gallery since
December 1, 1921, was appointed Superintendent on September 20,
1939.

On March 22, 1940, Eleanor Thompson Snedeker resigned as
assistant, a position she had held since November 15, 1929. On the
same day the appointment of Margaret B. Arnold to succeed Mrs.
Snedeker became effective.

March 28, 1940, Emil L. Zorn reported for duty as senior cabinet-
maker.

Grace T. Wliitney worked intermittently at the Gallery between
October 9, 1939, and June 24, 1940, upon translations of Persian
texts.

Respectfully submitted.

J. E. Lodge, Director

Dr. C. G. Abbot,

Secretary. SmifTisonian Institution.

APPENDIX 5

REPORT ON THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the field
researches, office work, and other operations of the Bureau of Ameri-
can Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1940, conducted
in accordance with the act of Congress of March 16, 1939, wliich
provides "* * * for continuing ethnological researches among the
American Indians and the natives of Hawaii and the excavation
and preservation of archeologic remains. * * *"

SYSTEaiATIO RE8EABCHES

M. W. Stirling, Chief of the Bureau, left Washington on Decem-
ber 26 to continue his archeological excavations in southeastern
Mexico. Work was continued at Tres Zapotes until April 20. Two
additional expeditions were made, one to Cerro de Mesa on the Rio
Blanco in the State of Veracruz, and the other to La Venta in
northern Tabasco. As last year, the work was undertaken in cooper-
ation with the National Geographic Society. Dr. Philip Drucker
accompanied Mr. Stirling as assistant archeologist.

As a result of the second season of work, the chronology of the
Tres Zapotes site has now been satisfactorily determined. Indica-
tions are that the site was occupied from a date before the begin-
ning of the Christian era but that it was abandoned sometime before
the beginning of the Spanish conquest.

At Cerro de Mesa, 20 carved stone monuments were located and
photographed, including one with an initial series date in the Maya
calendar. This date reads 9-1-12-14-10, or 1 Oc 3 Uyab. The
discovery of this monument raises to three the number of initial
series now known from the State of Veracruz. Although a very
early Baktun 9 date, it is later than Stela C from Tres Zapotes and
the Tuxtla statuette. Of the 20 monuments at Cerro de Mesa, 12 are
stelae.

Twenty monuments were also unearthed at La Venta, including
five colossal heads, several beautifully carved altars, and some stelae.

At the conclusion of the work the collections were brought to Mex-
ico City and a division of the material was made by the department
of archeology of the Mexican Government, whose splendid coopera-
tion did much to facilitate the work in the field.

50 ANNTTAl. REPORT SMXTHSONIA-N INSnTUTION, 194

Mr. Stirling attended three anthropological conferences as a dele-
gate of the United States Government, these being the Twenty-
seventh Session, International Congress of Americanists, held at Mex-
ico City, August 5-15, 1939; the First Inter-American Congress on
Indian Life, at Patzcuaro, ^Michoacan, April 14r-24, 1940; and the
Eighth American Scientific Congress, in "Washington, May 10-21,
1940.

Dr. J. R. Swanton, ethnologist, devoted the greater part of the
fiscal year to the assembling of material bearing on the ethnology
and early history of the Caddo Indians, former inhabitants of
northwestern Louisiana, southwestern Arkansas, northeastern Texas,
and southeastern Oklahoma. Tliis now covers about 700 typewritten
pages including copies of original Spanish and French texts. He
rendered assistance to various local organizations in preparing for
the placing of markers along the trail followed by Hernando de
Soto and celebrations connected with them. Investigations were
undertaken for the United States Board on Geographical Names,
of wliich Dr. Swanton is a member. A bulletin by him entitled
"Linguistic Material From the Tribes of Southern Texas and North-
eastern Mexico" is now in page proof.

Dr. Swanton was much gratified at the kind recognition tendered
by his anthropological associates this year on the completion of
40 years' service in the Bureau and the Institution in having dedi-
cated to him volume 100 of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions entitled "Essays in Historical Anthropology of North
America."

At the beginning of the fiscal year. Dr. John P. Harrington,
ethnologist, was engaged in field studies at Anadarko and Apache,
Okla., on the Kiowa Apache Tribe, in reality a variety of Lipan
and not Apache Indians according to language, and possibly iden-
tical with the "Palomas" of early Spanish archives of New Mexico.
These peoples, which can well be termed "Lipanan" from the Lipan,
one of the tribes, have become extinct or have been shoved far
from their former ranges, with the sole exception of the Kiowa
Apache, which, because of alliance with the powerful Kiowa Tribe,
succeeded in remaining in the region although assimilating the
Kjowa culture.

Returning to Washington, Dr. Harrington proceeded in the latter
part of July to "WindoAv Rock, Ariz., location of the administrative
headquarters of the Navaho Tribe. Just as the Kiowa Apache
show a subtype of western Plains culture submerged to that of
the Kiowa, so the Navaho show Great Basin culture w^ith a varnish
of many Pueblo features, and study proves that these Pueblo fea-
tures are in every case directly derived from some particular Pueblo

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 51

with which the Navaho have had centiiry-long contact. For in-
stance, the Navaho of Eamah derive their Pueblo features from
Zuiii. Tlie most interesting discovery of all was the prominence
of the buffalo in Navaho ceremony, in which the buffalo plays a
role as large as among the Pueblos.

In the case of both the Kiowa Apache and Navaho, language study
is the most practical means of proving that the language-bearing
ancestors of these tribes came from the north, where similar lan-
guages are still spoken, occupying the interior of Alaska and of
western Canada.

Proceeding October 25 to the Chipewyan of eastern Alberta, Can-
ada, Dr. Harrington found them to consist of a southern-projecting
tongue of the language of the great Athabaska Ltvke of northern
Alberta, which derives its name from Algonquian Cree Adhapas-
kaaw, meaning "much grass" and applied originally to the Peace
River Delta at the western end of the lake. Chipewj-an means
"pointed skins," referring to an old habit of dress. The Chipewyan
language proved to be surprisingly close to Navaho in vocabulary
and construction.

Proceeding to the Sarcee language of southern Alberta, Dr. Har-
rington encountered another closely related tongue, and one which is
most nearl}^ affiliated with the Beaver and the Sekeneh, two dialects
that lie north of the Sarcee. Dr. Harrington learned the tradition
that the Sarcee and Beaver vvcre originally one people but that in
migrating southward across a frozen lake, the water monster became
angered and broke the ice, those Indians on the northern side becoming
the Beaver and those having crossed to the southern side becoming the
Sarcee. The Sarcee were found to have adopted the culture of the
neighboring Blackfeet, and the meaning of the name of the Blackfeet,
Ayaatciyiiniw, was found to be "ugly enemy."

The Carrier, Chilcotin, and Nicola dialects were reached in Decem-
ber. These are located on the upper Fraser River, especially about
the great lakes at the head of this stream.

The Sekeneh were also reached in British Columbia and the name
was found to mean "Rocky Mountain Indian."

Returning to Washington, Dr. Harrington proceeded in March to
the study of the Tlinkit Indians of southeastern Alaska, finding these
to be related to the Navaho, in a close relationship which cannot mean
many centuries of separation.

Dr. Harrington then proceeded in May to the study of the Atchat,
or Eyak, Tribe, which was found to have occupied the entire eastern
half of the Gulf of Alaska, a stretch of coast 350 miles long, extending
from Prince William Sound in the west to Latuya Bay in the east.
This tribe has earlier been called Ugalenz and Eyak, but the real

280256—41 5

52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

name of the tribe has never been known, Atchat meaning "on this
side" or "opposite," referring to location on the Gulf of Alaska and
opposite the islands. This language also proved to be closely related
to the Navaho, and, as might be expected, more closely related to
the languages of British Columbia and the Navaho than is the island
language.

Dr. Harrington returned to Washington on June 29.

At the beginning of the fiscal year, July 1, Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts,
Jr., archeologist, was engaged in excavating at the Lindenmeier site
in northern Colorado. The investigations were continued through
July and August and were brought to a close for the season on
September 15. The area under examination was a portion of the Fol-
som camp site that has occupied a Bureau of American Ethnology-
Smithsonian Institution Expedition's attention for several seasons.
The 1939 excavations consisted of the removal of the overburden,
ranging from Si/o to 5I/2 feet in thickness, from some 1,540 square feet
of the old area of occupation, digging a series of 10 test trenches in
unsampled parts of the site, and prospecting in outcroppings of the
archeological layer in the banks of a deep ravine that traverses a
portion of the site. The excavations in the camp remains produced
more specimens than any previously made in areas of comparable size.
The collection of artifacts includes typically fluted Folsom points,
fluted knives, knives made from the flakes removed from the faces of
the points in producing the channels, other kinds of flake knives, a
variety of scrapers including several forms of the spokeshave type,
flakes with small points used for marking on bone and wood, hand-
hammer stones and large choppers, red and yellow ochers used for
pigments, bone punches and awls, pieces of decorated bone from ob-
jects of unknown form and function, and tubular bone beads. The
latter are the first to be found in the Folsom Complex. They were
made from shafts of long bones. Unfortunately, the criteria for
identification were removed in the process of manufacture, but they
seem to be rabbit and bird. One of these specimens was decorated
with a series of short parallel lines cut into its surface.

Dr. Roberts returned to the office in Washington on October 1.
During the fall and winter months he read galley and page proofs
on the report Archeological Remains in the Whitewater District,
Eastern Arizona. Part II. Artifacts and Burials, which appeared
as Bulletin 126 of the Bureau of American Ethnology. He also
served as technical advisor for "The World is Yours" programs,
"Cortez, the Conquistador" and "Pompeii Lives Again," and wrote the
article for "The World is Yours" pamphlet on Pompeii. He also
prepared a manuscript on the subject Developments in the Problem
of the North American Paleo-Indian. Galley and page proofs were

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 53

read and corrected for this paper, which appeared in the Essays in
Historical Anthropology of North America, volume 100, Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections. Special papers on archeological subjects
were prepared and presented before the Pennsylvania State Archeo-
logical Society, the American Anthropological Association, and the
Eighth American Scientific Congress.

Dr. Roberts left Washington, May 2G, for Colorado and resumed
investigations at the Lindenmeier site. While the preliminary exca-
vations were under way, a number of places in that vicinity were
visited for the purpose of checking purported finds of Folsom ma-
terial. Work at the Lindenmeier site was in full progress at the
close of the fiscal year.

As editor of the Handbook of South American Indians, Dr. Ju-
lian H. Steward, anthropologist, in consultation with leading au-
thorities on South American anthropology, drew up a working
outline for this project. A two- volume, 2,000-page work to be pub-
lished in 5 years, the Handbook will contain articles by specialists
on the various subjects. The volume of essays in honor of Dr.
Swanton, for which Dr. Steward served as technical editor, was
pushed through to a successful conclusion and published on May 25,
1940. Several studies of Shoshonean archeology and ethnology
were written and published.

May 26 to July 1 was spent by Dr. Steward among the Carrier
Indians of British Columbia. Records of land tenure, subsistence
activities, and sociopolitical changes during five generations were
procured from the Stuart Lake and neighboring Carrier. It was
found that within the framework of aboriginal land utilization, the
sociopolitical structure had shifted from a band organization to a
matrilineal clan and potlatch system derived from the coast. In
historic times, the latter had given way before a patrilineal family
system. Records of general ethnography, 100 specimens of native
artifacts, and over 50 specimens of plants used in aboriginal times
were also obtained.

In July 1939 a Latin-American bibliographic conference at Ann
Arbor, Mich., was attended. In December 1939 two papers were
read before the American Anthropological Association in Chicago.
In May 1940 Dr. Steward served as secretary of the Anthropologi-
cal Section of the Eighth American Scientific Congress, meeting in
Washington.

Henry B. Collins, Jr., ethnologist, continued working over the mate-
rial which he excavated in 1936 at prehistoric Eskimo village sites
around Bering Strait. The collection from one of the sites — Kurigi-
tavik, at Cape Prince of Wales — consists of several thousand artifacts
of ivory, bone, stone, clay, wood, and baleen and provides a detailed

54 ANI^UAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN IlsSTrrUTION, 1940

picture of prehistoric Eskimo culture of the intermediate Thule-Punuk
stage, the age of which may be estimated at around a thousand years.
The material from Kurigitavik, together with that from two earlier
sites, has provided needed information on the transition from the
Birnirk stage to the Thule, and collections from several later sites
reveal the changes leading up to the culture of modern times.

Manuscripts completed during the year included a general paper
summarizing the archeological evidence bearing on the origin of the
Eskimo and the cultural position of this group in relation to neighbor-
ing peoples in Asia and America; and shorter papers on Eskimo art,
on the voyages of Vitus Bering (for the Smithsonian radio series),
and on prehistoric Indian crania from the Southeast.

Early in July 1939 Dr. William N. Fenton, associate anthropolo-
gist, left for Salamanca, N. Y., to conduct ethnobotanical studies
among the Iroquois Indians of New York and Canada. He visited
the Senecas of Allegany and Cornplanter Reservations, in southwest-
ern New York and Pennsylvania, and the Mohawks of St. Regis
Reservation, N. Y., and Caughnawaga, Province of Quebec. He
called briefly on the Hurons of Lorette and the Mohawks of Oka,
Lake of the Two Mountains, near Montreal. At Ottawa he studied
the extensive catalog of Iroquois ethnological photographs in the
National Museum of Canada. The month of August was passed
among the Iroquois of Six Nations Reserve in Ontario, where he
worked with Simeon Gibson, interpreter to the late J. N. B. Hewitt.
About a hundred herbarium specimens were collected ; when identi-
fied at the National Hebarium, these proved to be largely duplicates
of medical plants gathered in previous years of field work among the
Senecas. Moreover, interesting similarities of plant use and termi-
nology were noted among Seneca, Mohawk, and Cayuga-Onondaga
rem.nants who now live on widely separated reservations. Such
resemblances suggest older basic Iroquois botanical concepts and
medical practices. Photographs illustrating various activities in
Iroquois herbalism comprise part of 100 negatives that were taken
in the field. The early notes of F. W. Waugh were reviewed with
Mohawk and Cayuga informants, and some paradigm.s in the several
Iroquois dialects were recorded for comparative purposes. Returning
to Allegany for the Green Corn Festival, Dr. Fenton reached
Washington in mid-September.

During the winter's office work, Dr. Fenton read in the historical
literature and located towns of the several Iroquois bands at successive
periods in their history, with a view to outlining the major cultural
problems arising from Iroquois tribal movements and conquests. This
study, now published, attempts to begin for the Northeast the type of
systematic approach that Dr. Swanton has accomplished for the
Southeast. Dr. Fenton also published A Further Quest for Iroquois

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 55

Medicines, in Explorations and Field-Work of the Smithsonian
Institution in 1939, and An Herbarium from the Allegany Senecas,
in The Historic Annals of Southwestern New York. Several lectures
on various aspects of Iroquois culture were delivered to Washington
audiences, and in June, Dr. Fenton addressed a regional meeting of
botanists at the Allegany School of Natural History on Iroquois
Ethnobotany.

On May 2, 1940, Dr. Fenton again left for Salamanca to resume
field work among the Seneca. Working primarily at Allegany Res-
ervation, he also visited Tonawanda, collecting early spring medic-
inal plants. This season, work with informants was combined with
a project to study Iroquois masks and ceremonial equipment in
museums located near the Iroquois. At the close of the fiscal year,
the extensive Converse collections in the New York State Museum
(Albany) and Montgomery County Historical Society (Fort John-
son), and the Boyle and Chief swood collections in the Royal Ontario
Museum of Archaeology (Toronto) were measured and photo-
graphed. The pictures have proved to be useful in eliciting new
material from informants and promise future usefulness in estab-
lishing local types of carving, A complete record of the mask-
making technique has been made together with photogTaphs of
crucial stages in the process, and the rituals of several shamanistic
societies have been taken with a flash cam.era for the first time. Dr.
Fenton was engaged in field work at the close of the fiscal year.

SPECIAL RESEARCHES

Miss Frances Densmore, a collaborator of the Bureau, continued
her study of Indian music chiefly by completing manuscripts for
publication. A trip was made to Wisconsin Dells, Wis., to confer
with Evergreen Tree, a Cochiti Indian, and to obtain further in-
formation concerning songs he recorded several years previously.
Additional information concerning the peyote cult was also received
from Wimiebago infonnants in Wisconsin and Mimiesota.

Nine manuscripts on pueblo music were recast and combined in
a manuscript entitled "Music of Acoma, Isleta, and Cochiti Pueblos,
New Mexico." Four manuscripts on "Choctaw Music," previously
submitted, were similarly combined. The manuscript on "Winne-
bago Music" was completed, and a portion of the section on the
peyote cult v/as restudied, extended, and retyped. These three
manuscripts are now ready for publication.

Eleven manuscripts on the music of the Seminole in Florida were
combined in a tentative manuscript of more than 300 pages. The
number of transcribed Seminole songs now in possession of the

56 ANNUAL EEPOBT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Bureau is 173 and these were arranged in a tentative order, corre-
sponding to the order in the manuscript. About 70 Seminole songs,
recorded in 1932 and 1933, have not yet been submitted to the Bureau.
Work was begun on this material and a few of the songs were
transcribed.

A peculiar custom observed in a few of the oldest Choctaw and
Seminole songs consists in an embellisliment of the melody in repe-
titions. It was found that the several renditions differed from one
another and that the Indians were able to sing the simple melody,
without the embellishments. These consisted in the addition of
short, unimportant tones, without changing the trend of the melody.
The custom resembles the improvisation which was noted in the
songs of the Tule Indians of Panama and is in contrast to the exact
repetitions of songs by northern tribes of Indians. A similar custom
exists among Negroes on the Island of Trinidad in the British West
Indies, and has been called Calypso.

According to Louis C. Elson (Curiosities of Music, p. 278, Oliver
Ditson & Co., Boston, 1880), "The power of improvisation which is
so well developed in the African Negro, is fully sustained by his
descendants * * *."

Miss Densmore presented to the Bureau the original manuscript
of an Onondaga Thanksgiving Song, written down for her in 1903
at Syracuse, N. Y., by Albert Cusick, a prominent Onondaga from
the reservation near that city. The native words with their trans-
lation were also obtained. The song is in two parts, the lower being
rhythmic and resembling a vocal accompaniment to the melod)\

EDITORIAL. WORK AND PUBLICATIONS

The editorial work of the Bureau has continued during the year
under the immediate direction of the editor, M. Helen Palmer. There
were issued three bulletins, as follows:

Bulletin 101. War ceremony and peace ceremony of the Osage Indians, by
Francis La Flesche. vii-f-280 pp., 13 pis., 1 fig.

Bulletin 124. Nootka and Quileute music, by Frances Densmore. xxvi+358 pp.,
24 pis., 7 figs.

Bulletin 125. Ethnography of the Fox Indians, by William Jones. Edited by
Margaret Welpley Fisher. 1x4-156 pp.

The following bulletins were in press at the close of the fiscal year :

Bulletin 126. Archeological remains In the Whitewater District, Eastern
Arizona. Part II. Artifacts and burials, by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr. With
appendix, Skeletal remains from the Whitewater District, Eastern Arizona, by
T. D. Stewart.

Bulletin 127. Linguistic material from the tribes of southern Texas and north-
eastern Mexico, by John R. Swanton.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 57

Bulletin 128. Anthropological papers, numbers 13^18.

No. 13. The mining of gems and ornamental stones by American Indians,

by Sydney H. Ball.
No. 14. Iroquois suicide: A study in the stability of a culture pattern,

by William N. Fenton.
No. 15. Tonawanda Longhouse ceremonies: Ninety years after Lewis

Henry Morgan, by William N. Fenton.
No. 16. The Quichua-speaking Indians of the Province of Imbabura (Ecua-
dor) and their anthropometric relations with the living popula-
tions of the Andean area, by John Gillin.
No. 17. Art processes in birchbark of the River Desert Algonquin, a cir-

cumboreal trait, by Frank G. Speck.
No. 18. Archeological reconnaissance of southern Utah, by Julian H.
Steward.
Bulletin 129. An archeological survey of Pickwick Basin in the adjacent por-
tions of the States of Alabama, Mississippi, and Tennessee, by William S. Webb
and David L. De Jarnette. With additions by Walter P. Jones, J. P. E. Morri-
son, Marshall T. Newman and Charles E. Snow, and William G. Haag.

Bulletin 130. Archeological investigations at Buena Vista Lake, Kern County,
California, by Waldo R. Wedel. With appendix, Skeletal remains from Buena
Vista sites, California, by T. Dale Stewart.

Bulletin 131. Peachtree Mound and village site, Cherokee County, North Caro-
lina, by Frank M. Setzler and Jesse D. Jennings. With appendix, Skeletal re-
mains from the Peachtree Site, North Carolina, by T. Dale Stewart.

Publications distributed totaled 13,984.

LIBRABT

There has been no change in the library staflf during the fiscal
year. Accessions during the fiscal year totaled 364.

The section of North American periodicals has been reclassified
and reshelved and a temporary shelf list made. Permanent catalog
and shelf-list cards have been made for part of this material.

The library staff has relabeled and reshelved 4,687 books. All these
are now in the Library of Congress classification. As of June 30,
1940, practically all North American material has been reclassified
and reshelved, almost all Central and South American material, and
about two-thirds of the sections on ethnology other than American.
Library of Congress cards have been ordered when available for all
books reclassified which did not already have them. Practically all
these cards have been prepared and filed in the catalog.

The Librarian attended the meetings of the Int«r-American Biblio-
graphical and Library Association at Washington, D. C, in February
and the meetings of the Eighth American Scientific Congress at Wash-
ington in May.

58 ANNU.^L BEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

ILLUSTRATIONS

Fol lowing is a summary of work accomplished during tlie fiscal
year by E. G. Cassedy. illustrator :

Line drawings 152 Photographs retouched 35

Stipple dravv'ings 4 Negatives retouched 25

Wash drawings 14 Charts 3

Lettering jobs 184 Mechanical drawings 5

Plates assemblf^d 54

Graphs 22 Total 515

Maps 17

MISCELLANEOUS

During the course of the year information was furnished by mem-
bers of the Bureau staff in reply to numerous inquiries concerning
the North American Indians, both past and present, and the Mexican
peoples of the prehistoric and early historic periods. Various speci-
mens sent to the Bureau were identified and data on them furnished
for their owners.

Personnel. — ^Miss M. H. Palmer was appointed on July 1, 1939,
as editor to fill the vacancy caused by the retirement of Stanley
Searles. Miss Etheiwyn E. Carter, junior stenograplier, resigned
on September 17, 1939, and Mrs. Catherine M. Phillips was appointed
on November 6, 1939, to fill this vacancy.

Respectfully submitted.

M. W. Stirling, Chief.

Dr. C. G. Abbot,

Secretary, JSmithsonicm Institution.

APPENDIX 6
REPORT ON THE INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE

Sir : I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities
of the International Exchange Service during the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1940 :

The congressional appropriation was $44,880, an increase of $280
over 1939, the extra amount having been allowed for step-ups in the
salaries of certain exchange employees. The collections from repay-
ments amounted to $4,112.24, making the total available resources
$48,992.24.

During the year 639,344 packages passed through the service, a
decrease of 75,533. The weight was 527,545 pounds, a decrease of
192,149 pounds. These large decreases in the number and weight
of packages were due to the interruption of shipments of exchanges
between the United States and a number of foreign countries caused
by the wars in Europe and in China.

The number and weight of packages sent and received through the
service is given in the following table :

Packages

Weight

Sent

Re-
ceived

Sent

ceived

United states parliamentary document' sent abroad .

342, 24fi

Pounds
137,948

Pounds

Publications recfiived in return for parliamentary documents

5,477

14, 247

United Ptates departmental documents sent abroad

120, 681

119, 332

Publications received in return for departmental documents

6,254

17,780

Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications sent abroad

132, 052

178,995

Miscellaneous scientific and literary publications received from
abroad for distribution in the United States

32, 634

59, 233

Total

594.079

44, 365

430, 275

91. 270

Grand total

639 344

527.54S

There were shipped abroad 1,894 boxes, a decrease of 1,129 boxes
from the preceding year. Of these boxes, 486 were for depositories
of full sets of United States governmental documents, and the re-
mainder were for miscellaneous institutions and individuals. The
very large decrease in the number of boxes shipped abroad was due,
as stated above, to the interruption of the normal activities of the
Exchange Service by the foreign wars.

60 ANNUAL. EEPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

In addition to the packages transmitted abroad in boxes, there were
forwarded by mail, postage paid, 95,317 packages, an increase of
4,962 over last year. Also, a large number of packages are sent
directly to their destinations by mail under Government frank, an
arrangement for the franking privilege having been made between
the postal authorities of the United States and those of certain for-
eign countries. A list of the countries with which this privilege is
in effect is as follows: Canada, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba,
Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Guatemala, Haiti, Honduras, Mexico,
Newfoundland (including Labrador), Nicaragua, Panama, Para-
guay, Peru, Salvador, Uruguay, and Venezuela.

The European war, which began September 3, 1939, has greatly
interrupted the activities of the International Exchange Service.
At the close of the fiscal year the interchange of publications was
suspended between the United States and all European countries
except Great Britain, Finland, and the Soviet Republic. Shipments
to Finland are being made via Petsamo, and shipments to the
U. S. S. R., by way of Vladivostok.

On account of the Japanese invasion of China, the Chinese Bureau
of International Exchanges was moved from Nanking to Chungking
and the Institution forwarded several large consignments to that
bureau via Haiphong, French Indochina. That channel of transmis-
sion, however, was closed during the middle of the year owing to
operations of the Japanese in that section. Shipments of exchanges
for the Library Association of China and the other organizations
mentioned in the preceding report that have set up temporary quar-
ters in Hong Kong are being continued.

At the outbreak of the European war the London School of Eco-
nomics and Political Science wrote the Institution that

it Is intended to maintain the work of this Library as usual despite the out-
breali of hostilities between Great Britain and Germany and that accordingly
It would be much appreciated if shipments of United States oflacial documents
would be sent to the Library as usual.

On account of difficulties in shipping conditions caused by the war
it was not possible immediately to transmit consignments to Great
Britain. When, in January 1940, transmissions to that country were
resumed, the Librarian of the London School wrote the Institution
in part as follows :

In this matter I have been in close touch with the Librarian of the Patent
Office, which regularly receives U. S. patent specifications through your agency.
I know he would wish to join with me in saying that we are very sensible of
our obligations to you in this matter, and, whilst deploring the additional
work and inconvenience which are inevitably caused to you at the present
time, warmly appreciate the invaluable assistance you are rendering to learned
work in this country.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 61

In June the French Bureau of International Exchanges informed
the Institution that 5 boxes forwarded to that bureau in April were
destroyed by fire at the Havre Railroad Station on the night of May
19. Another consignment, consisting of 5 boxes, forwarded in De-
cember 1939 to the Royal Danish Academy of Sciences in Copen-
hagen, according to a report made by the American Scantic Line,
was destroyed on the dock in Bergen, Norway, by fire caused by
airplane bombardment on April 14, 1940.

The above-mentioned consignments are the only shipments that
have been lost during the war, so far as have been reported to the
Institution. No doubt a few others have been lost in transit, but
definite information regarding the matter will not be received until
the end of the war.

In April 1940 a letter was received from Dr. A. Holmberg, Chief
Librarian, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, stating
that the work performed by that Academy in distributing exchange
packages to Swedish correspondents henceforth would be assumed
by the Royal Library.

The Smithsonian system of international exchanges between the
United States and foreign countries has been in operation for 90
years, during 72 of which the Academy of Sciences has acted as the
Swedish exchange distributing agency. Two other establishments,
which at the same time (1868) took over the distribution of packages
for correspondents in their countries, are still cariying on the ex-
change work — the Royal Norwegian University and the Royal Danish
Academy of Sciences.

Shipments of exchanges to Spain, which have been held up since
1936, were resumed in April 1940; but, on account of the disruption
to shipping conditions due to the spread of the European war, it
was not possible to continue transmissions to that country.

FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS

Sets of United States governmental documents are now forwarded
to 104 foreign depositories, a decrease of 4 sets from last year. Sixty
of these depositories receive full sets and 44, partial sets. The sets
that were discontinued were for the Province of Buenos Aires,
Danzig, Liibeck, and Vienna.

The depository in Brazil was changed from the Bibliotheca Na-
cional to Instituto Nacional do Livro, Rio de Janeiro. The deposi-
tory in, Mexico was changed from Departamento Autonomo de
Prensa y Publicidad to Direccion General de Informacion, Mexico,
D. F. The Nicaraguan depository was changed from the Superin-
tendente de Archivos Nacionales, Managua, to Ministerio de Relaciones
Exteriores, Managua.

62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

DEPOSITOBIES OF FULL SETS

Argentina: Direccion de Investigaciones, ArcMvo y Propaganda, Ministerio de

Relaciones Extei'iores y Culto, Buenos Aires.
Australia: Commonwealth Parliament and National Library. Canberra.

New South \Valf.s : Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.

QtTEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane.

South Australia: Parliamentary Library, Adelaide.

Tasmanlv : Parliamentary Library, Hobart.

ViOTOBiA : Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.

Western Australia: Public Library of Western Australia, Perth.
Belgium : Biblioth^que Royale, Bruxelles.
Brazil : Institute Nacional do Livro, Rio de Janeiro.
Canada: Library of Parliament, Ottawa.

Manitoba : Provincial Library, Winnipeg.

Ontario: Legislative Library, Toronto.

Quebec: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec.
Chile: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago.

China: Bureau of International Exchange, Ministry of Education, Chungking.
Colombia : Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota.
Costa Riga : Oficina de Deposito y Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, San

Jos6.
Cuba : Secretaria de Estado, Direccion de Relaciones Culturales, Habana.
Czechoslovakia: Biblioth^que de I'Assemblee Nationale, Prague.
Denmark : Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen.
Egypt: Bureau des Publications, Ministere des Finances, Cairo.
Estonia: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Tallinn.
FiKL\ND : Parliamentary Library, Helsingfors.
Fbance: Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris.

Germany: Reichstauschstelle im Reichsministerium fiir Wissenschaft, Erzie-
hung und Volksbildung, Berlin, N. W. 7.

Austrla : National-Bibliothek, Wien, I.

Baden: Universifats-Bibliothek, Freiburg. (Depository of the State of
Baden.)

Bavaria : Bayerische Staatsbibliothek, Miinchen.

Prussia: Preussische Staatsbibliothek, Berlin, N. W. 7.

Saxony: Siichsische Landesbibliothek, Dresden — N. 6.

Wurtembueg: Landesbibliothek, Stuttgart.
Great Britain:

England : British Museum, London.

London: London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository
of the London County Council.)
Hungary: Library, Hungarian House of Delegates, Budapest.
Indlv: Imperial Library, Calcutta.
Ireland: National Library of Ireland, Dublin.
Italy: Ministero dell'Educazione Nazionale, Rome.
Japan : Imperial Library of Japan, Tokyo.
Latvia : Bibliotheque d'Etat, Riga.

League of Nations : Library of the League of Nations, Geneva, Switzerland.
Mexico: DirecciSn General de Informaci6n, Mexico, D. F.
Netherlands : Royal Library, The Hague.
New Zealand; General Assembly Wbrary, Wellington,

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 63

Northern Ireland: H. M. Stationery Office, Belfast.

Nobwat: Uuiversitets-Bibliothek, Oslo. (Depository of the Government of

Norway. )
Peeu: Secci6n de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Jlinistorio de Kelaciones Ex-

teriores, Lima.
Poland: Bibliotbeque Natiouale, Warsaw.
Portugal: Bibliotbeca Nacional, Lisbon.
Rumania: Academia Romana, Bucbarest.
Spain : Carabio Iiiternacional de Publicaciones, Avenida de Calvo Sotelo 20,

Madrid.
Swedf:n : Knngliga Biblioteket, Stot'kbolm.
Switzerland : Bibliotbeque Centrale Federale, Berne.
Turkey: Department of Printing and Engraving, Ministry of Education,

Istanbul.
Union of South Africa: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal.
Union of Soviet Socialist Ricpublics : All-Uniou Lenin Library, Moscow 115.
Ukraine: All-Ukrainian Association for Cultural Relations with Eoreign
Countries, Kiev.
Ueuguat: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo.
Venezuh^ : Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.
^ugosla\x\: Ministere de I'Education, Belgrade.

depositories op parti.al sets

Afghanistan: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Publications Department, Kabul.
Bolivia: Biblioteca del H. Congreso Nacional, La Paz.
Brazil :

MiNAs Geraes : Directoria Geral de Estatlstica em Minas, Bello Horizonte.

Rio de Janeiro : Bibliotbeca da Assemblea Legislativa do Estado, Nictberoy.
British Guiana : Government Secretary's Office, Georgetown, Demerara.
Bulgaria: Ministere des Affaires Etrangeres, Sofia.
Canada :

Alberta : Provincial Library, Edmonton.

British Columbia : Provincial Library, Victoria.

New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton.

Nova Scotia : Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax.

Prince ED^vAaD Island: Legislative Library, Charlottetown.

Saskatchewan : Legislative Library, Regina.
Ceylon: Chief Secretary's Office (Record Department of the Library), Colombo.
China : National Library of Peiping, % Fung Ping Shan Chinese Library, Hong

Kong.
Dominican Republic : Biblioteca del Senado, Ciudad Trujillo.
Ecuadoe: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito.
Germany :

Bremen : Staatsbibliothek.

Hamburg : Staats-und Universitats-Bibliothek.

Hesse : Universitats-Bibliothek, Giessen.

Thubingia: Rothenberg-Bibliothek, Landesuniversitat, Jena.
Greece: Library of Parliament, Athens.
Guatemala : Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala.
Haiti : Secretaire d'liltat des Relations Exterieares, Port-au-Prince.
Honduras : Biblioteca y Archive Nacionales, Tegucigalpa.
Icei^\nd: National Library, Reykjavik.

64 ANNTTIL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

India :

Bengal : Secretary, Bengal Legislative Council Department, Council House,
Calcutta.

Bihar and Orissa : Revenue Department, Patua.

Bombay: Undersecretary to the Government of Bombay, General Depart-
ment, Bombay.

Burma: Secretary to the Government of Burma, Education Department,
Rangoon.

Madras: Chief Secretary to the Government of Madras, Public Depart-
ment, Madras.

Punjab: Chief Secretary to the Government of the Punjab, Lahore.

United Provinces of Agra and Oudh : University of Allahabad, Allahabad.
Jamaica : Colonial Secretary, Kingston.
LiBHaaA : Department of State, Monrovia.

Lithuania: Minist^re des Affaires I^^trang^res, Kaunas (Kovno).
Malta : Minister for the Treasury, Valletta.
Newfoundland : Department of Home Affairs, St. John's.
Nicaragua : Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua.
Panama : Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama.
Paraguay : Secretario de la Presidencia de la Repilblica, Asunci6n.
Salvador: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador.
Straits Settijiments : Colonial Secretary, Singapore.
THAIL.VND: Department of Foreign Affairs, Bangkok.
Vatican City: Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Italy.

INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNAL

There are sent to foreign depositories 104 copies of the Congres-
sional Record and the Federal Register. A list of the depositories
of those documents is given below :

depositories of congressional record

Albania: Mlnistrija Mbretnore e Punevete Jashtme, Tirana.
Argentina :

Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Buenos Aires.

Cfimara de Diputados, Oflcina de Informacion Parlamentaria, Buenos Aires.

Boletin Oflcial de la RepGblica Argentina, Ministerio de Justicia e Instruc-
ci6n Piiblica, Buenos Aires.
Australia :

Library of the Commonwealth Parliament, Canberra.

New South Wales: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney.

Queensland: Chief Secretary's Office, Brisbane.

Western Australia : Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth.
Belgium : BibliothSque de la Chambre des Repr^sentants, Bruxelles.
Brazil:

Bibliotheca do Congresso Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.

Amazonas: Archivo, Bibliotheca e Imprensa Publica, Mandos.

Bahia : Governador do Estado da Bahia, Sao Salvador.

EspiRiTo Santo: Presidencia do Estado do Espirito Santo, Victoria.

Rio Grande do Sul: "A Federacao," Porto Alegre.

Sergipe : Bibliotheca Publica do Estado de Sergipe, Aracajti.

Sao Paulo : Diario Official do Estado de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 65

British Honduras: Colonial Secretary, Belize.
Canada :

Library of Parliament, Ottawa.

Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa.
China : National Central Library, Nanking.
Cuba : Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana.

Czechoslovakia : Bibliotbeque de I'Assemblee Nationale, Prague.
Denmark : Rigsdagens Bureau, Copenhagen.
Egtpt :

Chambres des D6put6s, Cairo.

S^nat, Cairo.
France :

Chambre des D^put^s, Service de I'lnformation Parlementaire fitrangfere,
Paris.

Bibliotbeque du S(5nat, au Palais du Luxembourg, Paris.

Bureau de Documentation G^n^rale, Ministere des Finances, Paris I.

Bibliotbeque, Direction des Accords commerciaux, Ministere du Commerce,
Paris.
Germany :

Deutsche Reichstags-Bibliothek, Berlin, N. W. 7.

Reichsfinanzministerium, Berlin, W. 8.

Anhalt : Anhaltische Landesbiicherei, Dessau.

Austria: Bibliothek im Parlament, Wien I.

Braunschweig: Bibliothek des Braunschweigischen Staatministeriums,
Braimschweig.

Mecklenburg: Staatsministerium, Schwerin.

Oldenburg: Oldenburgisches Staatsministerium, Oldenburg i. O.

ScHAUMBUBo-LiPPE : Schaumburg-Lippische Landesregierung, Biicheburg.
Gibraltar: Gibraltar Garrison Library Committee, Gibraltar.
Great Britain : Library of the Foreign Office, London.
Greece: Library of Parliament, Athens.

GuATEMAiji : Biblioteca de la Asamblea Legislativa, Guatemala.
Honduras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa.
Hungary : A Magyar orsz^lggyiil^s konyvtard, Budapest.
India : Legislative Department, Simla.
Indochina : Gouverneur General de I'lndochine, Hanoi.
Iran : Library of the Iranian Parliament, Teheran.
Iraq : Chamber of Deputies, Baghdad.
Irish Free State: Dail Eireann, Dublin.
Italy:

Biblioteca della Camera dei Fasci e delle Corporazione, Rome.

Biblioteca del Senato del Regno, Rome.

Uflacio degli Studi Legislativi, Senato del Regno, Rome.
Latvxa : Valsts Biblioteka, Riga.

League of Nations : Library of the League of Nations, Geneva, Switzerland.
Lebanon : Ministere des Finances de la Republique Libanaise, Service du Ma-
teriel, Beirut.
Liberia : Department of State, Monrovia.
Mexico : Direcci6n General de Informacion, Mexico, D. F.

Aguascalientes : Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes.

Campeche : Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche.

Chiapas: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutierrez.

Chihuahua: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua.

66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITTISONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 40

Mbxico — Continued.

Coahuila: Peri6dico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno,
Saltillo.

CoLiMA : Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima.

DuRANGO: Gobernador Constitucional del Estado de Durango, Durango.

Guanajuato: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato.

Guerrero: Gobernador del Estado de Guerrero, Chilpancingo.

Jalisco: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara.

Lower California: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali.

Mexico : Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca.

Michoacan : Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoac5-n,
Morelia.

MoRELos : Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca.

Nayarit: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic.

NuE^'0 Leon : Biblioteca del Estado, Monterey,

Oaxaca : Periodico Oficial, Palacio de Gobierno, Oaxaca.

Puebla : Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla.

Queretaro: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccion de Archivo, Queretaro.

San Luis Potosi : Congreso del Estado, San Luis Potosi.

Sinaloa : Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacan.

Sonora: Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo.

Tabasco: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccion 3a, Ramo de Prensa,
Villahermosa.

Tamaulipas: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria.

Tlaxcat.a : Secretaria de Gobierno del Estado, Tlaxcala.

Vera Cruz: Gobernador del Estado de Vera Cruz, Departamento de Gober-
nacion y Justicia, Jalapa.

Yucatan : Gobernador del Estado de YucatSn, M^rida, Yucatan.
Netherlands : Bibliotheck van de Tweede Kamer der Staten-General, The

Hague.
Netherlands Indies : Volksraad von Nederlandsch-Indie, Batavia, Java.
New Zealand : General Assembly Library, Wellington.
Norway : Storthingets Bibliotbek, Oslo.
Peru: Camara de Diputados, Lima.
Poland : Bibljoteka Narodowa, Warsaw.
Portugal: Secretario da Assemblea Nacional, Lisboa.
Rumania :

Bibliofh^que de la Chambre des D^put^s, Bucharest.

Minist&re des Aifaires Etrang^res, Bucharest.
Spain :

Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Madrid.

Catalunya : Biblioteca del Parlament de Catalunya, Barcelona.
Switzerland: Biblioth^que de I'Assembl^e Fed^rale Suisse, Berne

Bern: Staatskanzlei des Kantons Bern.

St. GALI.EN : Staatskanzlei des Kantons St. Gallen.

Schaffhausen : Staatskanzlei des Kantons Schaffhausen.

ZiJRicH : Staatskanzlei des Kantons Ziirich.
Turkey: Turkish Grand National Assembly, Ankara.
Union of South Africa :

Library of Parliament, Cape Town, Cape of Good Hope.

State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal.
Uruguay : Diario Oflcial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo.
Venezuela : Biblioteca del Congreso, Caracas.
Vatican City : Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vatican City, Italy.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 67

FOREIGN EXCHANGE AGENCIES

A list of the foreign agencies through which the exchange of publi-
cations is effected is given below. Most of those agencies forward
consignments to the Institution for distribution in the United States.

LIST OF AGENCIES

Algeeia, via France.

Angola, via Portugal.

Argentina: Comision Protectora de Bibliotecas Populares, Canje Internacional,

Calle Callao 1540, Buenos Aires.
Austria, via Germany.
Azores, via Portugal.
Belgium : Service Beige des Echanges Internatiouaux, Biblioth&que Royale de

Belglque, Bruxelles.
Bolivia : Sent by mail.
Brazil: Servigo de Permutagoes Internacionaes, Bibliothcca Nacional, Rio de

Janeiro.
British Guiana : Sent by mail.
British Honduras : Sent by mail.
Bulgaria: Sent by mail.
Canada : Sent by mail.
Canary Islands, via Spain.
Chile: Sent by mail.

China: Bureau of International Exchange, Ministry of Education, Chungking,
Colombia: Sent by mail.
Costa Rica: Sent by mail.
Cuba: Sent by mail.
Czechoslovakia : Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliotheque de I'As-

semblee Nationale, Prague 1-79.
Danzig: Sent by mail.
Denmark : Service Danois des ^changes Internationaux, Kongelige Danske

Videnskabernes Selskab, Copenhagen V.
Dominican Republic : Sent by mail.
Ecuador: Sent by mail.

Egypt: Government Press, Publications Office, Bulaq, Cairo.
Estonia: Riigiraamatukogu (State Library), Tallinn.
Finland: Delegation of the Scientific Societies of Finland, Kasarngatan 24,

Helsingfors.
France: Service Frangais des Echanges Internationaux, 110 Rue de Grenelle,

Paris.
French Glt:ana : Sent by mail.

Germany: Amerika-Institut, Universitatstrasse 8, Berlin, N. W. 7.
Great Britain and Ireland: Wheldon & Wesley, 721 North Circular Road.

Willesden, London, NW. 2.
Greece: Sent by mail.
Greenland, via Denmark.
Guatemala : Sent by mail.
Haiti : Sent by mail.
Honduras : Sent by mail.

Hungary: Hungarian Libraries Board, Ferenciektere 5, Budapest, IV.
Iceland, via Denmark.

India: Superintendent of Government Printing and Stationery, Bombay
280256 — 41 6

68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Italy: UfRcio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero dell'Educazione Nazionale,
Rome.

Jamaica: Sent by mail.

Japan : International Exchange Service, Imperial Library of Japan, Uyeno
Park, Tokyo.

Latakia: Sent by mail.

Latvia: Service des Iilcbanges Internationaux, Bibliothfeque d'Etat de Lettonie,
Riga.

Lebanon : Sent by mail.

Liberia: Sent by mail.

Lithuania: Sent by mail.

Luxembourg, via Belgium.

Madagascar, via France.

Madeira, via Portugal.

Mexico: Sent by mail.

Mozambique, via Portugal.

Netherlands : International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li-
brary, The Hague.

Netherlands Indies : Sent by mail.

Newfoundland and Labrador: Sent by mail.

New South Wales : Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.

New Zealand: General Assembly Library, Wellington.

Nicaragua : Sent by mail.

Nobway: Service Norv^gien des l^^changes Internationaux, Bibliotheque de
rUniversit^ Royale, Oslo.

Falbstinb: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem.

Panama : Sent by mail.

Paraguay: Sent by mail.

Pkbu : Sent by mail.

Poland : Service Polonais des iSchanges Internationaux, Bibliothfeque Nationale,
Warsaw.

Fobtugal: SeecSo de Trocas Internacionaes, Bibliotheca Nacional, Lisboa.

Queensland: Bureau of Exchanges of International Publications, Chief Secre-
tary's Office, Brisbane.

Rumania: Soussecr^tariat d'Etat de la Propagande, Direction de la Presse,
Service des l^changes Internationaux, Bucharest.

Salvadob: Sent by mail.

South Austbalia: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern-
ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide.

Spain: Cambio Internacional de Publicaci6nes, Avenida de Calvo Sotelo 20,
Madrid.

Surinam: Sent by mail.

Sweden: Kongliga Biblioteket, Stockholm.

Switzebland: Service Suisse des ^changes Internationaux, Bibliotheque Cen-
trale F^d^rale, Berne.

Sybia : Sent by mail.

Tasmania : Secretary to the Premier, Hobart.

Thailand: Sent by mail.

Trinidad : Sent by mail.

Turns, via France.

Turkey: Ministry of Education, Department of Printing and Engraving.
Istanbul.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 69

Union of South Atbica : Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape-
town, Cape of Good Hope.

Union of Soviet Socialist Republics!: Library of the Academy of Sciences of
the U. S, S. R., Exchange Service, Leningrad, V. O.

Ubuguay : Sent by mail.

Venezuela: Sent by mail.

Victoria: Public Library of Victoria, Melbourne.

Western Austbaua: Public Library of VTestern Australia, Perth.

Yugoslavia : Section des ^changes Interuationaux, Minist^re des Affaires
iStrang^res, Belgrade.

Mr. Frank E. Gass, who has been with the Institution for 54 years,
having been appointed August 1, 1886, as a messenger boy and who is
now correspondence clerk of the International Exchanges, reached the
statutory retirement age in February but was granted an extension
of 1 year.

Respectfully submitted.

C. W, Shoemaker, Chief Clerk.
Dr. C. G. Abbot,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 7
REPORT ON THE NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK

Sir : I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera-
tions of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ended June
30, 1940 :

The regular appropriation made bj^ Congress was $237,060, all of
which was expended.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ZOO

The National Zoological Park is far more than merely a recreation
place; an eminent scientific man once referred to it as "a museum of
living animals." Every day in the year thousands of people visit the
Zoo. Some come merely for enjoyment and recreation, but others
come with definite purposes in mind. Among them are many students
both primary and advanced. Artists, photographers, and research
workers all find material and inspiration for their studies and are
afforded all possible facilities. Research of any kind that can be
carried on without harm to the animals is encouraged.

Such organizations as the Audubon Society, Girl Scouts, Boy
Scouts, geological classes, and others regularly come to the Zoo to
study the native wildlife and interesting geological formations in the
Park. Requests for technical information regarding animals and
zoos are constantly received at the Zoo office by personal inquiry,
telephone calls, and letters from all over the world.

IMPROVEMENTS

Continuance of W. P. A. assistance resulted in the completion of
the following work during the year :

Four paddocks about 80 by 150 feet were constructed along the
road above the American bison. These are the barless-pit type with-
out obstruction to the view between the people and the animals.

Five paddocks were constructed across from the large-mammal
house. These average about 50 by 60 feet and are designed to accom-
modate the American representatives of the camel family, llama,
alpaca, vicuna, and guanaco. These paddocks are likewise of the
barless-pit type and can accommodate a considerable variety of
animals in addition to those listed above.

A series of four waterfowl ponds was constructed across the road
from the old waterfowl pond. The pools are cement-lined, but from a
70

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 71

few inches below the water level to above the water level they are faced
with stone to represent an ideal section of the geology of this region.
The placement of the stone was done under the supervision of Dr. Ray
S. Bnssler, Head Curator, Dej)artment of Geology, National Museum.
The entire area, which is much larger than the old waterfowl yard,
is enclosed by a low fence. This is one of the most attractive additions
to the Park in many years ; it will accommodate a far greater number
and variety of waterfowl than it has ever been possible before to
exhibit, and in addition it is so situated that it v/ill be seen by
practically all persons visiting the Zoo.

Cement curbing to the extent of 9,000 linear feet was constructed
along the roadsides. This is a preliminary to what is hoped will
eventually result in a general improvement of the roads within the
Zoo grounds. New walks laid totaled 2,050 square feet. This includes
a walk and steps u]) the lion-house hill. About 3,000 square yards of
roads and walks were repaired.

An enclosure was constructed between the bears and the road on a
site that was for many years unattractive although it was in a very
conspicuous location. This will be suitable for medium-sized animals.
It is also of the barless-moat type of construction on the front.

At the end of the fiscal yenv there is practically completed an en-
closure on the south side of the reptile house that will accommodate
such animals as lizards, snakes, crocodilians, and turtles. This is pro-
vided with a pool; a moat keeps the animals in their enclosure but
offers no obstruction to the view of the public.

Extensive plantings were made on areas that had been or were being
newly developed. Tliese plantings consisted mainly of trees that
either produce nuts or fruits suitable for the wildlife of the Park
or are ornamental or shade trees. Also many flowering or other
ornamental shrubs and evergreens were planted.

Work was begun in March 1940 on a new restaurant to be constructed
hj the P. W. A. under an allotment of $90,000. The restaurant build-
ing, of the Virginia tavern type of stone construction, is situated in a
grove of trees across the road from the lion house, commanding a
beautiful view of the new waterfowl ponds. The building will
probably be completed by the end of September 1940.

NEEDS OF THE ZOO

The chief need of the Zoo at the present time is for proper buildings
in which to exhibit :

1. Antelopes, tropical deer, wild Jiogs, hanga/roos. — The present
building is dilapidated and unsightly, a fire hazard, and a menace to
the health of animals.

ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

2. Monkeys. — The Zoo has an exceedingly fine collection of monkeys,
both in number and in kind, which are very poorly exhibited in the
antiquated building which at present houses them.

3. Carnivores. — Either the present building should be entirely
reconstructed, utilizing the one wing that is well built and replacing
the old frame wing — a firetrap and not suitable for the housing or
exhibition of these animals — or, much better, an entirely new and
modern building should be erected.

When the W. P. A. is again available, there are a number of projects
that should be carried out, including the replacing of old and dilapi-
dated paddocks and shelters with new and modern ones.

It has been planned also to build a monkey island and a large outdoor
cage for tigers.

The increase in utilization of the Park together with the increased
structures and increase in area to be cared for has far outgrown the
capacity of the existing personnel to care for it. It is, therefore,
important, if the grounds and buildings are to be kept in a present-
able condition, that the personnel be increased by at least 10 men.
The rigid enforcement of the prohibition against W. P. A. workers
doing any work of a maintenance character leaves no alternative
other than to increase the personnel or allow the Park to be unsightly.

VISITORS FOR THE YEAR

A record of the attendance shows a slight decrease compared with
last year.

July 258, 600

August 200, 200

September 264, 300

October 154,300

November 130, 700

December 140, 500

January 50,000 Total 2,129,600

The attendance of organizations, mainly classes of students, of which
there is definite record, was 33,602, from 628 different schools in 21
States and the District of Columbia as follows :

February ' __ 103,300

March 173, 800

April 170, 200

May 258, 600

June 216, 100

state

Alabama

Connecticut

Delaware

District of Columbia

Florida

Georgia

Indiana,-

Maine

Maryland

Massachusetts

Michigan _

New Hampshire

Number

persons

parties

146

222

6,706

123

431

172

5,580

672

152

State

New Jersey

New York

North Carolina

Ohio

Pennsylvania-
Rhode Island..
South Carolina

Tennessee

Virginia

West Virginia..

Total

Number
of

persons

2,161
1,228
1,010

ess

6,293

549

130

5,855

1,327

33.602

Number

of
parties

27
25
30
18

116
1

16
3

117
16

628

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 73

About 3 o'clock every afternoon, except Sundays and holidays, a
census is made of the cars parked on the Zoo grounds. During the
year, 27,840 were so listed, representing every State in the Union,
Alaska, Canada, Canal Zone, Cuba, Hawaii, Puerto Rico, and the
Philippine Islands.

Since the total number is merely a record of those actually parked
at one time, it is not of value as indicating a total attendance but is
of importance as showing the percentage of attendance by States, Terri-
tories, and countries. The record for the year on this basis shows
that the District of Columbia automobiles comprised slightly less
than 46 percent ; Maryland, 20 percent ; Virginia, 10 percent ; and the
remaining cars were from other States, Territories, and countries.
On a few occasions when it has been possible to make a census of the
cars that were parked in the Zoo grounds at a given hour on Satur-
day afternoons, Sundays, and holidays, it has been found that Dis-
trict cars comprise only about 30 percent and cars from the several
States and other parts of the world make the remaining 70 percent.
Owing to the large attendance on these days, the proportion for the
year of District and foreign cars would be very materially altered
from that obtained when Saturdays, Sundays, and holidays are
omitted from the count. It is, therefore, clearly evident that at least
60 percent of the cars that come to the Zoo throughout the year are
from outside the District.

An accurate count of the total traific through the Park would be
desirable, and with that in mind a request has been made to the D. C.
Works Progress Administration for such a project.

ACCESSIONS

riELD WORK

SMITHSONIAN-FIRESTONE EXPEDITION

Through funds donated to the Smithsonian Institution by the Fire-
stone Tire & Rubber Co., of Akron, Ohio, a party was sent to Liberia,
West Africa, for the purpose of collecting specimens for the National
Zoological Park. The party, consisting of the Director, Mrs. Mann,
Ralph Norris, and Roy J. Jennier, sailed on the American-West
African Line on February 17, 1940, for Monrovia. Here they were
received by Mr. George Seybold, manager of the Firestone Plantations
Co., and taken immediately to the plantation, w^here they established
headquarters.

Trips into the interior were made at four localities : Belleyella, near
the French Ivory Coast frontier ; the Gibi country ; the Polish Plan-
tation at Reputa; and Bendaja in the Gola country, inland from Cape
Mount and near the British Sierra Leone border. The party also
visited the American Episcopal Missions at Bromley and Cape Mount

74 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

and were given cordial hospitality by Bishop Leopold Kroll and Miss
^lary Wood McKenzie.

Much aid and hospitality were given by Mr. Seybold. Tie also spent
some time at Caj)e Palmas and brought back a number of interesting
specimens which he gave to the expedition. B. O. Vipond, Director
of Personnel, was of great assistance as were various other planta-
tion employees. P. C. Bodewes, with the aid of his native boys, made
several drives for animals ; Mr. Lewis Chancellor, well-known hunter,
personally collected several duikers and water chevrotains. Mr. and
Mrs. George Blowers, of the Bank of Monrovia, presented their house-
hold pets, a red duiker, a civet cat, and a linsang. To all of these the
expedition is under deep obligation.

The other specimens were collected almost entirely by natives in
various parts of the country, and many were brought back by the party
on its field trips.

In addition to the live animals a considerable collection of alcoholic
specimens was made, including fishes, reptiles, batrachians, and in-
sects. All preserved specimens collected on this expedition are being
turned over to the United States National Museum.

At the close of the fiscal year the expedition was still in the field,
although a preliminary shipment had been made from Liberia to
Boston in the care of Roy J. Jennier, who arrived at that port on
May 17, 1940. A summary of the specimens in this shipment follows :

Class Species Individuals

Mammals !^ 13

Birds 8 , 15

Reptiles , 11 53

Mollusks 1 14

Total 25 95

Some of these animals were placed on display in the exhibition
of the Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. at the New York World's Fair,
upon the close of which they will be forwarded to Washington. Tlie
remainder were brought direct to Washing-ton.

Tlie other members of the expedition sailed from Monrovia on July
15, 1940, and arrived at Norfolk, Va., August 6 with about 100 speci-
mens including 2 pigmy hippopotami, dwarf civets, crested monkey-
eating eagles, the rare Liberian ratel, and other little-known species.
A list of the live animals which arrived in Boston on May 17, follows :

BMITHSONIAN-FIRESTONE EXPEDITION

Scientific name Common name Number

Python sehae African rock python 2

Amyda triunguis West African soft-shelled turtle 1

Kinixys erosa West African hinged tortoise 25

Nnja sp Cobra 4

Varaniis niloticus African monitor 5

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 75

SMITH soNiAN-FiBESTONE EXPEDITION — Continued

Sctenlific name Common name Number

Bitis nasicornis Rhinoceros viper 8

Biiis gabonica Gaboon viper 3

Osteolaemus ietraspis Broad-nosed crocodile 1

Athens chlorechis West African tree viper 1

Pelusios derhianus Turtle 3

Atilax phito West African vi'ater civet 2

Perodidicus potto Potto 1

Cricetomys gambianus Gambia pouched rat 4

Pan satyrus Chimpanzee 2

Cercocebus fidiginosus Sooty mangabey 4

Stephanoaetus coronatus Crowned hawk eagle 1

Kaupifalco monogrammicus Northern lizard-buzzard 2

Astur tachiro macroscelides West African goshawk 1

Milvus migrans parasitus African yellow-billed kite 1

Tympnnistria tympanistria fraseri Tambourine dove 6

Columba guinea Triangular spotted pigeon 1

Streptopelia semitorquata African red-eyed dove 2

Ceratogyinna elata Yellow-casqued hornbill 1

Achatina achatina Giant land snail 14

SOUTHERN ASIATIC ETSPEDITION

On July 8, 1939, Malcolm Davis returned from Calcutta, India,
where he had gone to bring back the first Indian rhinoceros that
this institution had ever had. This was collected for the Park b}^
the Government of Assam, British India, through the interested
offices of the United States Consul General, Dr. J. C. White. It
arrived in Washington in perfect condition and may be considered
one of the "stars" of the collection. Mr. Davis took with him a few
North American animals which were turned over to zoos in the
East; in return he received a number of interesting specimens. In
Calcutta he was given friendly assistance by Sir David Ezra, the
noted bird fancier. A complete list of the specimens obtained on
this trip follows:

SOUTHERN ASIATIC EXPEDITION

Scientific name Common name Number

Rhinoceros unicornis Great Indian one-horned

rhinoceros 1

Macaca sinica Toque or bonnet monkey 3

Macaca mulatta Golden rhesus 2

Preshytis entellus palUpes Ceylon gray langur 4

Presbytis senex nestor Western purple-faced monkey. 2

Ratufa macroura dandolena Grizzled giant squirrel 2

Fells elxaus Jungle cat 1

Viverricula indica rasse Small civet 1

Alectoris gvaeca Chukar partridge 12

Gallus lafayetti Ceylonese jungle fowl 2

76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTTTUTION, 1940

SOUTHERN ASIATIC EXPEDITION — Continued

Scientific name Common name Number

Threskiornis tnelanocephala Black-headed ibis 4

StreptopeUa chinensis ceylonensis Ash dove 12

Munia maja White-headed munia 3

Mtinia punctulatus Rice bird or nutmeg finch 2

Munia molucca Black-throated munia 10

DiardigaUtis diaridi Siamese fireback pheasant 1

Anthropoides virgo Demoiselle crane 6

Oavialis gangeticus Indian gavial 3

Crocodilus palustris "Toad" crocodile 2

Varanus salvator Monitor lizard 1

Testudo elegans Star tortoise 6

Naja naia Common cobra 4

Trimeresurus trigonocephalus Green pit viper 2

Vipera russelli Russell's viper 2

Dendrophis bifrenalis Green tree snake 4

Dryophis mycterizans Asiatic whip snake 8

Ptyas mvcosus Indian rat snake 4

Kachuga tectum Spotted-bellied tortoise 7

Triouyx punctata punctata Asiatic soft-shelled turtle 3

Geoclemys hamiltoni Small spotted turtle 1

Moroiia ocellata Turtle 10

Python molurus Indian python 6

ANTARCTIC AND 80UTH AMERICAN EXPEDITION

At the invitation of the United States Antarctic Exploration Serv-
ice to send a representative from the Zoo, Malcolm Davis, Principal
Keeper of the National Zoological Park, sailed from Boston on the
M. S. North Star November 11, 1939, with Admiral Byrd and other
members of the exploration party that was going to the Antarctic to
establish bases on that continent. Mr. Davis assisted in the unloading
of the ship at the West Base and obtained some specimens including
an emperor penguin, which was shipped from Valparaiso, Chile, and
arrived in Washington March 5, 1940, having been brought through
the Tropics in the cold-storage room of a passenger vessel.

Other specimens were left at Valparaiso while Mr. Davis remained
aboard the North Star, which went back to establish the East Base.
Here additional specimens were obtained, and Mr. Davis finally sailed
from Valparaiso on the Grace Line vessel Santa Maria, which arrived
at New York April 25, 1940. He brought with him a crab-eating seal,
probably the first to be brought north of the Equator, and a group
of Adelie penguins. These penguins, together with the emperor
penguin, were kept in the glass-fronted cold room in .the bird house,
where they enjoyed a temperature of 56°. However, crushed ice was
also put into the cage, and it was interesting to note that the Adelie
penguins would stand for hours on the crushed ice in a temperature
of 56°.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 77

Additional specimens were obtained at Valparaiso and other points
along tlie west coast of South America. A complete list of those
brought to Washington follows :

ANTARCTIC AND SOTJTH AMERICAN EXPEDITION

Scientific name Common name Number

Aptenodytes forsteri Emperor penguin 1

Pygoscelis adeliae Adelie penguin 13

Caiman sp Caiman 1

Parabuteo unicinctus Hawk 1

Notiopsar curaeus Chilean blackbird 16

Phrygilus fruticeti Mourning finch 6

Phrygilus gayi Gay's gray-headed finch 8

Sicalis luieola Misto finch 8

Spinus uropygialis Chilean siskin 11

Diuca diuca Diuca finch 20

Zonotrichia capensis Chingolo 6

Trupialis miliaris Military starling 8

Galhis sp Araucanian fowl 4

Turdus mfiventris Argentine robin 2

Molothrus sp Cowbird 1

Zenaida auriculata South American mourning dove 15

Cerchneis sparverius cinnamomimis Chilean sparrow hawk 2

Milvago chimango Chimango 1

Belanopterus chilensis Chilean lapwing 2

Paroaria cucullaia Brazilian cardinal 9

Cyanocorax mystacalis Moustached jay 1

Potos flavus Kinkajou 3

Cebus capucinus White-throated capuchin 1

Felis glaucula Margay 1

Sula sp Booby 1

Lobodon carcinophaga Crab-eating seal 1

Marmosa elegans Murine opossum 1

Felis concolor puma Patagonian puma 1

Dusicyon sp South American fox 1

GUTS

The receipt of specimens as gifts continues to be a main source of
supply to the collection. Acknowledgment is made in a complete
list of donors and their gifts. Among interesting additions were
a pair of black bears from the Pennsylvania Game Commission, ob-
tained through Carl La Barre, of Portland, Pa. Richard Archbold,
American Museum of Natural History, New York, N. Y,, presented
three Finsches' tree kangaroos. A splendid pair of yak was re-
ceived from the Department of Mines and Resources, Dominion of
Canada, through Hoyes Lloyd. From Carlo Zeimet, Washington,
D. C, the Park received a group of pheasants including 1 chukar
partridge, 7 silver pheasants, 4 golden pheasants, and 12 golden and
Lady Amherst hybrids.

78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

DONOES AND THEIR GIFTS

Mi-s. R. Adams, Washington, D. C, opossum.

Ross Allen, Silver Springs, Fla., 7 Florida tree frogs, 37 southern green frogs.

Mrs. Maude Anderson, Washington, D. C, 2 mockingbirds.

Richard Archbold, New York, N. Y., 3 Finsches' tree kangaroos.

Kenneth L. Avone, Washington, D. C, 2 white rabbits.

Mrs. Geo. D. Babcock, Washington, D. C, red-tailed hawk.

Mrs. Louise Ballif, Washington, D. C, pckin duck.

Stanley Barrlger, Washington, D. C, 2 pekin ducks.

Chas. Baxter, Washington, D. C, nighthawk.

Carl Beale, Washington, D. C, 2 ring-necked pheasants, Formosan ring-necked
pheasant, silver pheasant, kangaroo rat, 4 flying squirrels, sparrow hawk.

Dr. Lloyd M. Bertholf, Westminster, Md., 2 Bahama fresh- water turtles.

Jean Biron, Washington, D. C, pekin duck.

Mrs. W. D. Blair, Washington, D. C, weeping capuchin.

Mrs. S. S. Brandenburg, Rockville, Md., white-throated capuchin.

Allen E. Campbell, Washington, D. C, gray fox.

Mrs. B. R. Campbell, Washington, D. C, sparrow hawk.

Canadian Government, Department of Mines and Resources, Wainwright, Al-
berta, 2 yaks.

Dorothy Carpenter, Washington, D. C, opossum, skunk.

O. H. Clarke, Washington, D. C, coot.

Mrs. C. E. Clift, Washington, D. C, pekin duck.

J. C. Coe. Arlington, Va., 25 prairie rattlesnakes.

Mr. Colfey, Washington, D. C, red-bellied terrapin.

H. James Cole, Bethesda, Md., 9 spotted salamanders, 2 snapping turtles, 5 box
turtles, musk turtle, frog, marbled salamander, common newt, painted turtle.

Louis Conradic, Washington, D. C, American ovenbird.

Albert Crampton, Sharpsburg, Md., red-shouldered hawk.

Mrs. L. Cummons, Washington, D. C, Cuban parrot.

Billie Currie, Washington, D. C, sparrow hawk.

Harry Day, Hyattsville, Md., box turtle.

Dessez's Service Station, Washington, D. C, alligator.

Antonio Di Guistino, Washington, D. C, woodchuck or ground hog.

Sergt. A. S. Douglas, No. 10 Police Precinct, Washington, D. O., alligator.

Chas. E. Eaton, Chevy Chase, Md., opossum.

Herbert N. Eaton, Chevy Chase, Md., white and black rat.

Barbara Eckhardt, Washington, D. C, 2 zebra finches.

S. C. Elmore, Alexandria, Va., pekin duck.

Mrs. Belle Evans, Washington, D. C, double yellow-head parrot, flying squirrel.

Sir David Ezra, Calcutta, India, 3 Indian gavials, 12 chukar partridges, 2
golden rhesus monkeys, 2 Ceylon gray langurs, 1 Siamese fireback pheasant,
6 demoiselle cranes, 7 spotted-bellied tortoises, 3 Asiatic soft-shelled turtles,
and 1 small .spotted turtle.

W. H. Floyd, Arlington, Va., 2 American crows.

P. P. Foster, Bennings, D. C, Cooper's hawk.

Jas. M. Fowler, Washington, D. C, red fox.

Jos. S. France, Washington, D. C, box turtle.

O. M. Freeman, Washington, D. C, water snake.

Mrs. H. L. Freet, Washington, D. C, yellow-naped parrot.

Mrs. Wm. R. Fuchs, Washington, D. C, alligator.

REPORT OF TKE SECRETAKl- 79

Mrs. Chas. Funk, Washington, D. C, alligator.

Harry E. Gates, Washington, D. C, 2 pekin ducks, diamond-backed terrapin.

Jos. Gaillard, Washington, D. C, sparrow hawk.

Ralph Garett, Henrietta, Tex., 3 horned lizards.

W. C. Giffen, Washington, D. C, white-throated capuchin.

David Gillis, Washington, D. C, red bat.

Richard B. Goetz, Waldorf, Md., 2 red-shouldered hawks.

Marshall Gooding, Kensington, Md., red fox.

Mrs. F. C. Goodwin, Washington, D. C., barred owl.

W. Bart Greenwood, Washington, D. C, jack rabbit. Great Basin pocket mouse,

2 black-eared mice.
Edgar H. Grimes, Washington D. C, 4 tropical fishes.
Curtis G. Guckert, Four Mile Run, Va., American barn owl.
Mrs. B. Hansch, Washington, D. C, raccoon.
R. A. Heindl, Washington, D. C, woodcock.
R. L. Higginbotham, Washington, D. C, 12 tropical fishes.
Chas. Hinton, Washington, D. C, raccoon, toulous goose.
Mr. and Mrs. Gerard Hubbard, Silver Spring, Md., 3 eastern porcupines.
Miss Raye Hudson, Arlington, Va., 4 guinea pigs.
John Bowler Hull, Washington, D. C, 2 screech owls.
Curtis Insley, Cambridge, Md., golden engle.

Mrs. E. J. Johnson, Washington, D. C, woodchuck or ground hog.
Eunice Johnson, Washington, D. C, grass paroquet.
Mrs. W. Jones, Washington, D. C, 3 cottontail rabbits.
June M. Kern, Washington D. C, screech owl.
Mrs. K. K. Kirkland, Washington, D. C, screech owl.
R. M. Kisner, Washington, D. C, opossum.
Harry Knapman, Silver Spring, ?*!«., red fox.
Vinton K. Lewis, Fairfax, Jild., horseshoe crab.
O. M. Locke, New Braunfels, Tex., nine-banded armadillo.
H. A. MacCord, Washington, D. C, large brown bat.
J. M. Marshall, Bluemont, Va., mocking bird.
Edith Martin, Washington, D. 0., banded rattlesnake.
Mrs. R. Mays, Washington, D. C, American crow.
Mr. McCulIen, Bradbury Heights, Md., alligator.
Mrs. J. C. Meikel, Washington, D. C, 4 grass paroquets.
G. F. Miller, Washington, D. C. yellow-billed cuckoo.
Mrs. W. Miller, Washington, D. C, alligator.
Mrs. Moore, Washington, D. C, 2 mallard ducks.
Mrs. Geo. Murnau, Washington, D. C, white rabbit.
Mrs. R. J. Murphy, Washirigton, D. C, grass paroquet.
Anthony Muto, Washington, D. C, troupial.
National Institute of Health, through Dr. A. Pachchanian, Washington, D. C.

2 long-tailed mice, 2 northern white-footed mice, 2 Gambel's white-footed

mice (albinos), 2 old field mice.
Frank Noell, Washington, D. C, white rabbit.
Mrs. R. Oberst, Washington, D. C, woodchuck or ground hog.
Wm. Orsingcr, Washington, D. C, hog-nosed snake.

Parks Department, Charleston, S. C, through A. H. Von Kolnitz, 2 wild turkeys.
T. Patson, Washington, D. C, opossum.
Pennsylvania Game Commission, 2 black bears.
A. R. Peters, Bethesda, Md., pekin duck.
T. A. Petras, Quantico, Va., brown capuchin.

80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

Alan V. Philips, Chattanooga, Tenn., fence lizard.

Chas. Pureus, Washington, D. C, pekin duck.

Capt. W. A. Riedal, U. S. N., Washington, D. C. 3 troupials.

Herman Riegal, Valparaiso, Chile, murine opossum, hawk.

Lowry Riggs, Rockville, Md., 2 jungle fowl.

H. Rinke, Arlington, Va., bald eagle.

S. S. Roberts, Washington, D. C, opossum.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt, The White House, 2 ring-necked doves.

Bernard Rosser, Washington, D. C, 2 alligators.

F. Sanders, Evansville, Ind., rhesus monkey.

Miss Virginia W. Sargent, Washington, D. C, turtledove.
Miss Viola S. Schantz, Washington, D. C, large brown bat.
Jesse P. Schell, EYederick, Md., red fox.

G. M. Schmidt, Frederick Md., red-tailed hawk, barred owl.

Ralph Scott, Washington, D. C, 4 banded rattlesnakes, opossum, 2 black

snakes, snapping turtle.
Mrs. W. L. Seibold, Washington, D. C, screech owl.
Mrs. E. B. Sheppard, Washington, D. C, 2 Alaskan frogs.
Shipping Room, W. Bldg., Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C, weasel.
C. L. Sibley, Wallingford, Conn., 2 melanistic mutant ring-necked pheasants, 2

green Japanese pheasants.
Elsie Simmons, Washington, D. C, alligator.
W. P. Smith, Annapolis, Md., red fox.
Mrs. Stacy, Washington, D. C, alligator.
J. N. Stebbins, Washington, D. C, mourning dove.
Orren Stein, Washington, D. C, 2 pekin ducks.
Mrs. Stovall, Westmoreland Hills, Md., American crow.
Paul Sulcer, Frederick, Md., 8 skunks.

Mrs. W. W. Swaggard, Washington, D. C, yellow-naped parrot.
J. Swanick, Arlington, Va., 2 mallard ducks.

Clifton Taylor, Bladensburg, Md., 2 garter snakes, snapping turtle..
Jack Terry, Washington, D. C, copperhead.
Benny Thomas, Bennings, D. C, Cooper's hawk.
Douglas Tittpoe, Washington, D. C, American crow.
Fred A. Tweed, Jr., Washington, D. C, 5 white rabbits.

U. S. Antarctic Service, emperor penguin, 13 Adelie penguins, crab-eating seal.
U. S. Biological Survey, through Don Spencer, Washington, D. C, 2 meadow

mice, 1 Jumping mouse, 4 red-backed mice, and 10 pine mice. Through F.

C Lincoln, Washington. D. C, red-shouldered hawk, hybrid duck. Through

W. H. Marshall, Boise, Idaho, western porcupine.
Virginia Upton, Lanham, Md., muscovy duck.
Miss Edith Ward, Washington, D. C, ring-necked pheasant, melanistic mutant

ring-necked pheasant.
J. W. Warner, Washington, D. C, American crow.
Mrs. C. F. Welch, Washington, D. C, cockatiel.
Dr. A. Wetmore, Washington, D. C, albino purple grackle.
H. G. Wilson, Washington, D. C, American barn owl.
Wilson Teachers College, Washington, D. C, opossum.
Marlene Withone, Washington, D. C, black rabbit.
Norman Yates, Compton, Md., albino opossum.
Carlo Zeimet, Washington, D. C, chukar partridge. 7 silver pheasants, 4 golden

pheasants, 12 golden and Lady Amherst hybrid pheasants.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 81
BIRTHS

There were 55 mammals born, 28 birds hatched, and 22 reptiles
born or hatched during the year.

MAMMALS
Scientific name Common name Number

Ammotragus lervia Aoudad 4

Axis axis Axis deer 1

Bibos gaurus Gaur 1

Bison bison American bison 5

Bos indicus Zebu 1

Camelus badrianus Bactrian camel 1

Canis lupus nubilus Plains wolf 3

Canis rufus Texas red wolf 4

Cervus elaphus European red deer 1

Choeropsis liberiensis Pigmy hippopotamus 1

Dama dama Fallow deer 3

Dolichotis magellanica Patagonian cavy 4

Felis onca Jaguar 2

Felis tigris Bengal tiger 2

Lama glama Llama 2

Macaca nemistrina Pig-tailed macaque 1

Magus maurus Moor monkey 1

Myocastor coypu Coypu 5

Nasua narica Coatimundi 5

Petaurus breviceps Lesser flying phalanger 6

Pseudois nahura Bharal or blue sheep 1

Taurotragus oryx Eland 1

Larus novaehollandiae Silver gull 14

Nycticorax nycticorax naevius Black-crowned night heron 10

Spheniscus demersus Jackass penguin 4

REPTILES

Constrictor constrictor Common boa 10

Cyclagras gigas Cobra de Paraguay 12

EXCHANGES

A most interesting lot of Asiatic mammals, birds, and reptiles were
received from the Zoological Gardens, Colombo, Ceylon. These were
brought to the Park by Malcolm Davis of the Zoo staff, along with
an Indian rhinoceros, the return of which was the specific reason
for his journey to India. The group of animals from Colombo
consisted of 7 monkeys of 3 different species, 33 birds of 5 species,
and 33 reptiles of 9 different species. An important exchange was
made with Louis Ruhe, Inc., New York, N. Y., in which the Park
received a splendid pair of bactrian camels. A young has since
been born to this pair. Several exchanges have been carried on

82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

with Ennio Arrigiitti, Buenos Aires, Argentina, in which the Zoo
received a number of desirable South American reptiles. This

exchange has been made possible through the cooperation of A.

Bienenwald, a member of the crew of the S. S. Brazil^ who cared for
the animals en route. A number of interesting specimens of reptiles

that occur in the western part of the United States have been re-
ceived from C. W. Kern, Tujunga, Calif. A list of the specimens
acquired by exchange follows :

EXCHANGES

Scientific name Common name NumbeT

Salatnandra snlamandra Fire salamander 25

Hydromantes genei Salamander 15

,, , , . f European newt 15

Molqe vulparis {^ , -_

•^ ^ iGraynewt 10

Corvus comix Kooded crow 4

Vulpes fulva Red fox 1

Acrochordus javanicus Elephant-trunk snake 1

Python hivittata Indian python 1

Gecko gecko Gecko 9

Camelus bactrianus Bactrian camel 2

Bombina bombina Fire-bellied toads 20

Ara macao Red, yellow, and blue macavf 1

Ceratophrys ornata Horned frog 4

Hydromedusa tectifera Snake-necked turtle 6

Liolaemus vjeigmanni Lizards 4

Acryllium vulturinum Vulturine guinea fowl 2

Liophis anomalus South American brown and j^ellov/

striped snake - 4

Liophis miliaris South American brown snake 2

Leimadophis poecilogyrus South American green snake 1

Phrynops hilarii Turtle 1

Pseudemys d'orbigni D'Orbigni's turtle 3

Phyllorhynchus decurtatus perkinsi Leaf-nosed snake 1

Pituophis caienifer annectens Western bull snake 2

Lampropeltis getulus boylii Boyle's king snake 1

Crotahis ruber Red rattlesnake 1

Crotalus viridis oreganus Pacific rattlesnake 1

Crotalus cerastes Sidewinder rattlesnake 2

Arizona elegans occidentalis Western glossy snake 1

Salvador a grahamiae virgultea Chaparral patch-nosed snake 1

Sceloporus orcuttii Orcutt's swift 2

Dipsosaurus dorsalis Desert iguana 1

Gerrhonotus imbricatus Plated lizard 2

Phrynosoma blainvillii California horned lizard 1

Heterodon contortrix Hog-nosed snake 3

Thamnophis sirtalis Garter snake 1

Masticophis flagellum Coachwhip snake 1

Matrix sp Water snake 1

Clemmys insculpta Wood tortoise 4

Neotoma floridana Round-tailed wood rat 5

Pavo cristatus White peafowl 1

Anserinas semipalmata Australian pied goose 2

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 83

PURCHASES

One of the most important purchases for some time was a Great
Indian one-horned rhinoceros obtained from the Forest Department,
Government of Assam, India. This was received through the co-
operation of United States Consul General J. C. White, Calcutta,
India. Other specimens acquired by purchase were four black swans,
two Flinders Island wombats, and a South American bush dog. An
important lot of South American animals were purchased by Malcolm
Davis on the west coast of South America. These were mainly
obtained through the kindness and cooperation of Dr. Edwyn P.
Reed, of Valparaiso, Chile. A list of the purchases follows :

PURCHASES
Scientifle name Common name Number

Pi-pa americana Surinam toad 6

Chenopis airata Black swan _.. . 4

Vombatula ursinus Flinders Island wombat 2

Pithecia monacha Saki monkey 2

Callicebus cuprea Beautiful cebus 1

Aotus trivirgatus Douroucouli or owl monkey 5

Puniius partipentazona Red-finned barb 10

Pantodon huchholzi Butterfly fish__. 4

Monocirrhus polyacantkus Leaf fish_ ____ 4

Tapirus terrestris South American tapir

Icticyon venaiicus Bush dog

Epimachus fastuosus. _._- -_ Sickle-billed bird of paradise

Parotia sefilata ._,„ Six-plumed bird of paradise

Acrocodia indica. .. ._ Asiatic tapir

Charina bottae „.„.. .__„.. Rubber boa

Calyptocephalus gayi., __„.. Gay's frog 8

Micrurus fulviua^..-^,^^ - Coral snake 1

REMOVALS

DEATHS

Major losses during the year included an emperor penguin, crab-eat-
ing seal, Siberian tiger, bush dog, Kodiak brown bear, Kidder's brown
bear, and a young chimpanzee. As in the past, all specimens of scientific
value that died during the year were sent to the National Museum.

ANIMALS IN COLLECTION THAT HAD NOT PREVIOUSLY BEEN

EXHIBITED

MAMMALS
Scientific name Common name

Atilax pluto West African water civet.

Callicebus cuprea Red titi monkey.

Dendrolagus inustus finschi Finsches' tree kangaroo.

Felis chaus Jungle cat.

Lobodon carcinophaga Crab-eating seal.

Rhinoceros unicornis Great Indian one-horned rhinoc-
eros.

Viverricvld indica rasse Small civet.

2802.56—41 7

ANNUAli REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

BIBDS

Aptenodytes forsteri Emperor penguin .

Epimachus fastuosus Sickle-billed bird of paradise.

Kaupifalco monogrammicus - Northern lizard-buzzard.

Parabuteo unicinctus South American hawk.

Pygoscelis adeliae Adelie penguin.

Tympanistria tympanistria fraseri Tambourine dove.

REPTILES

Charina bottae Rubber boa.

Gavialia gangeticus Indian gavial.

Kachuga tectum Spotted-bellied tortoise.

Kinixys erosa West African hinged tortoise.

Liophis anomelis South American ground snake.

Liophis miliaris Do.

Statement of Accessions

How acquired

Presented.
Born.

Received In exchange

Purchased

On deposit

Received from Smithsonian Institution;'
Firestone Expedition to Liberia T.

Received from Antarctic Expedition

Brought from South America by returning
Antarctic Expedition .-

Received from National Zoological Park
Expedition to India

Totals.

Mam-
mals

227

Birds

110
28

121
62

35»

Rep-
tiles

119

321

Am-
phib-
ians

162

Fishes

Mol-
lusks

Crus-
tace-
ans

Total

400
106
167
53
21

96
16

131

1,118

Summary

Animals on hand July 1, 1939 2,450

Accessions during the year 1, 118

Total animals in collection during year 3, 568

Removal from collection by death, exchange, and return of animals on

deposit 1, 018

In collection June 30, 1940 2,550

Status of Collection

Class

Mammals...

Birds

Reptiles

Amphibians

Fishes

Arachnids...

Species

Indivi-
duals

233

704

329

1,071

148

537

125

Class

Indivl-
duals

Insects

Mollusks...
Crustaceans

Total.

Respectfully submitted.

Dr. C. G. Abbot,

Secretary, Smithsonicm Institution.

W. M. Mann, Director.

APPENDIX 8
REPORT ON THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY

Sir : I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities
of the Astrophysical Observatory for the fiscal year ended June 30,
1940:

These operations are conducted on funds received in part from the
appropriation by Congress, amounting for the fiscal year 1940 to
$32,070, and in part from private sources. The latter included parts
of the income from the Hodgkins and the Arthur funds, and grants
for specified objects from John A. Roebling. These private sources
contributed altogether $19,000 during the fiscal year.

At Washington, the work is carried on in two old frame buildings
south of the Smithsonian Building. There are three mountain stations
located in New Mexico, California, and Chile. At these stations,
chosen for low winds, high altitude, and extreme cloudlessness, without
much regard for living conditions, the principal apparatus is housed
within a horizontal tunnel to secure fairly constant temperature condi-
tions. Small dwellings, computing rooms, and garages complete the
establishments, which are designed to accommodate only a field direc-
tor, one assistant, and their families. During the fiscal year a rein-
forced cement block dwelling has been under erection at the station
at Montezuma, Chile, but is not yet fully completed, so that the incom-
modious frame dwelling there is still occupied.

WORK AT WASHINGTON

Messrs. Aldrich and Hoover, with a force of regular and special
computers, some of whom were furnished by W. P. A., continued to
work on the complete revision of all results on the solar constant of
radiation from all stations and from 1923 to the present time. Many
small inconsistencies revealed themselves between results of a single
station in different years, and between the results of the different sta-
tions in the same year. Each of these inconsistencies was a problem
in itself, requiring extensive study, and in some cases extensive remeas-
urements of photographic records. Consequently, progress was slow
in preparing final tables of daily, decadal, and monthly mean values
of the solar constant, based on the evidence of all observations. It had
been hoped that these results would be ready to assemble and publish
early in the calendar year 1940. But at the end of June there still
remained several very troublesome questions to be resolved, so that
several months more of study seemed indicated.

86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

In the meantime Dr. Abbot has prepared text for vohime 6 of the
Annals of the Observatory as far as could be done until these revised
results were available for discussion. It is believed that when the
tables are ready the manuscript can be put in press within 2 months
thereafter. Funds for its publication have already been generously
furnished by John A. Roebling. The text will explain and illustrate
with painstaking fullness the details of the research, and the results
will be given with greater completeness than ever before. It may be
partially understood what this involves when it is said that the table
of daily values of the solar constant is estimated to occupy 144 quarto
pages, with three groups of 14 columns each, on every page.

Increasing interest among scientists in these solar-constant studies
is apparent. In last year's report attention was called to critical
studies of the work published in England. Dr. Abbot's reply, also
published there, led to mathematical investigations undertaken at
Harvard College Observatory and at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology. Two of these statistical studies have been published by
Dr. Theodore E. Sterne, of Harvard. They tend to confirm the
reality of periodicities in solar variation, and yield periods for the
most part agreeing in length, within the limits of error, with those
found by Dr. Abbot and published by him several years ago.'

The interest thus aroused led Dr. Shapley, Director of Harvard
College Observatory, to invite Dr. Abbot to give six lectures there
in ISIay 1940, on the following subjects :

1. Exact measurements of solar radiation.

2. Solar radiaticm and the atmosphere.

3. The variation of the snn.

4. Weather governed by solar variation.
6. Utilizing solar radiation.

6. Radiation and plant growth.

Serious and sympathetic attention was given to these lectures by the
staff of Harvard Observatory and by representatives from the Mas-
sachusetts Institute of Technology, the Blue Hill Meteorological
Observatory, and elsewhere. After the fourth lecture Dr. Abbot was
invited by Dr. Brooks, Director of the Blue Hill Observatory, to
publish a summary of the first four lectures relating to meteorology
in the Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society. This pub-
lication is going forward.

In September 1939 there was held in Washington a Congress of the
International Geophysical Union. Among the delegates was the
eminent meteorologist. Dr. H. Arctowski, of Poland. His country
was conquered and his property lost while the Congress was in ses-
sion. Later, John A. Roebling provided funds for retaining Dr.

» Abbot, C. G., Solar radiation and weather studies. Smithsonian Misc. CoU., vol. 94,
No. 10, 1036.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 87

Arctowski on the staff of the Observatory for 1 year, from Decem-
ber 1, 1939. Dr. Arctowski was asked to investigate the relations
between solar variation and the weather. At that time he doubted
the reality of solar variation as indicated by our observations. But
within 2 weeks after beginning his studies, Dr. Arctowski became
thoroughly convinced of the reality of solar variation, and that it
is the major factor in weather. He has announced these findings
in two papers.^ He is continuing his researches in this field with
consuming zeal. It is hoped to retain him another year after the
completion of his present engagement.

With the assistance of Miss N. M. McCandlish, special computer
under a grant from John A. Roebling, Dr. Abbot has endeavored
to evaluate the separate influences produced on weather by the long-
range solar periodicities which are referred to above. For this re-
search monthly departures from normal temperature and rainfall for
numerous stations in America and other regions were used. It soon
appeared that the solar periodicities produce considerable weather
changes. But for periodicities of less than 25 months' length, and
occasionally for longer ones, shifting of phases in the weather re-
sponses took place from time to time. It occurred to Dr. Abbot
that these shifts very probably are due to seasonal influences. That
is, ?K. solar cause operating in winter might reasonably produce a
different phase in its weather effects than the same cause operating in
summer. Inasmuch as the solar periodicities are not commensurable
with 12 months, their phases of course shift through the seasons.
On testing this hypothesis it was found to be sustained by data from
many meteorological stations.

It was then recognized that these phase effects might be eliminated
by taking into account least common multiples of the several periods
as compared individually to 12 months. For instance, an 8-month
periodicity returns each 24 months in the same season of the year.
Other periodicities recur in the same season at longer intervals. Act-
ing upon this basis we computed the average weather effects over a
century or more for 8 solar periodicities ranging in length from 8
months to 68 months in length. Among the stations used were Copen-
hagen, Vienna, and New Haven, all beginning with the year 1800.
It was very encouraging to find that, with the phase taken care of,
as explained above, all of these stations agreed in indicating pro-
nounced effects of solar variation, and that there is no indication that
a change of phase has occurred in the solar periodicities for over a
century. In such long series the solar influences were repeated many

' Solar faculae and solar constant variations. Proc. Nat. Acad. ScL, vol. 26, No. 6,
pp. 406-411, June 1940.

Researches on temperature changes from day to day and solar constant variations. Bull.
Amer. Meteorol. Soc, vol. 21, pp. 257-261, June 1940.

ANNTJAL KEPOET SMITHSONIAN INSTfrUTION, 1940

times in the same phase. It was, therefore, possible to obtain from the
meteorological records more accurate determinations of the solar
periodicities than could be obtained from our solar-constant work of
the past 20 years. The three stations mentioned agreed perfectly as
to these determinations. In this way we have established the follow-
ing corrected values for solar periodicities expressed in months :

8.12; 9.79; 11.29; 21.0; 25.3; 39.5; 451/4.

It now became of importance to see whether the average results in
departures from normal temperatures and precipitation, correspond-
ing to these corrected periods, could be used synthetically as a means of
long-range prediction for the future. In order to investigate this
interesting possibility, it was clear that if the courses of the meteor-
ological periodicities used should be determined from records all ante-

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dating 1935, for instance, then it would be honest to regard a synthetic
assembly of them, covering the years 1935 to 1940, as a true 5-year
prediction, which could be fairly compared with the event. This
procedure was undertaken for numerous stations, and for both tem-
perature and precipitation. The resulting forecasts were not all
equally successful. But in all cases there was a marked correlation
between the forecast and the event. The agreement turned out to be
quite as likely to be good in 1940 as in 1935. As an illustration of very
good correspondence, though in this instance failing somewhat in 1939,
the 5-year forecast and event for the precipitation at Peoria, 111., is
given here. In this case a correlation coefficient of 70^5 percent is
found between prediction and event for 58 months. It is hoped that
further study may improve the 5-year synthetic forecasts generally.
At present they average satisfactory in two-thirds of the months.

REPORT OF THE SECRETART 89

WORK IN THE FIELD

As far as weather permitted, daily observations of the solar con-
stant of radiation were continued at three stations : Tyrone, N. Mex.,
Table Mountain, Calif., and Montezuma, Chile. Criticism having
been made again from foreign sources regarding the temperature
coefficient of the silver-disk pyrheliometer, numerous redetermina-
tions of this quantity were made at Tyrone and Table Mountain.
Owing to a misapprehension of directions, no less than 120 redeter-
minations were made at Tyrone by Messrs. Moore and Froiland.
Their mean is identical with that found previously by Abbot and
Aldrich at Washington, and by Zodtner and Greeley at Table Moun-
tain, and is almost identical with that found this year by Butler
and Greeley at Table Mountain. Over 200 determinations have now
been made, giving as their mean the same temperature correction
which has been used for nearly 30 years with silver-disk pyrheli-
ometers. There can now be no further question of altering it.

PERSONNEL

No changes in pei^oniiel have taken place since my last report,
except that L. A. Fillmen, for 10 years instrument maker under
private compensation in the Division of Radiation and Organisms,
has been appointed instrument maker under the public funds at the
Astrophysical Observatory, succeeding A. Kramer, retired.
Respectfully submitted.

C. G. Abbot, Director.
The Secretary,

Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 9

REPORT ON THE DIVISION OF RADIATION AND
ORGANISMS

Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the
activities of the Division of Radiation and Organisms during the
year ended June 30, 1940 :

As in previous years the Division has been in part supported by
a grant from the Research Corporation of New York.

During the past year the Division has continued its active work
on problems of photosynthesis and factors affecting plant growth,
both from a nutritional and radiation point of view. Dr. McAlister,
with the assistance of Dr. Myers, has continued his induction-period
studies of photosynthesis with the very valuable addition of simul-
taneous records of fluorescent intensities. Drs. Johnston and Wein-
traub have further improved their apparatus and technique in carry-
ing out their investigation of respiration, photosynthesis, and chlor-
ophyll formation as affected by light.

Mrs. Chase has extended her work on the stimulative action of
ultraviolet on algae. Dr. Weintraub has completed the initial phases
of some of his growth studies and opened up others to be investi-
gated. Mr. Clark has undertaken the construction of an improved
and simplified apparatus of his own designing for the accurate and
rapid determination of minute amounts of carbon dioxide.

As an outgrowth of the induction-period studies, Dr. Myers is
further investigating the relation of the induction behavior of
Ghlorella to the previous condition of culture. In addition, he is
planning a comparative study of various methods for the measure-
ment of photosynthesis and of the photosynthetic behavior of vari-
ous kinds of plants. Mr. Clark and Mr. Fillmen have given valuable
assistance in the designing and construction of apparatus. The divi-
sion library has been improved greatly through the kindness of Mr.
Corbin, the Institution's librarian. One hundred and fifteen volumes
of periodicals have been bound, and other material has been made
more accessible.

PHOTOSYNTHESIS, RESPIKATION, AND CHLOROPHTIX. FORMATION

A great many simultaneous measurements of the rate of carbon
dioxide uptake and the intensity of fluorescence have been made
during the induction period of photosynthesis. Tlie rapid spectro-
90

REPORT OF THE SECRETAHY 91

graphic method of carbon dioxide measurements previously used has
been adapted to a constant-flow technique with a rapid time re-
sponse. The intensity of fluorescence was measured with a Alter-
photocell combination.

Experiments so far carried out under a wide range of conditions
may be described in terms of two processes. In one, an inverse rela-
tionship appears to exist between the rate of carbon dioxide uptake
and the intensity of fluorescence. In the other, there is a direct
relationship seems to be superimposed.

of wheat seedlings in low oxygen concentration when suddenly ex-
posed to high light intensity. In this case the fluorescence curve
shows an abrupt initial rise, a slower secondary rise, and a decay
toward the steady state. The simultaneously observed rate of carbon
dioxide uptake follows a course inversely related to fluorescence.
Thus, when the intensity of fluorescence or rate of carbon dioxide
uptake are plotted against time, the two curves are almost perfect
mirror images (as to time). For wheat in normal oxygen concen-
tration, the mirror-image relationship is less perfect, and a direct
relationship seems to be superimposed.

The dependence of the direct relationship on oxygen and the
observation of a greater rate of carbon dioxide uptake in low oxy-
gen suggests that this process involves a photooxidation. In the
alga Ghlorella 'pyrenoidosa the induction behavior is greatly influ-
enced by the previous conditions of culture. Cells grown in 4 per-
cent carbon dioxide show a response comparable to that of wheat.
When the cells are acclimated to air of 0.03 percent carbon dioxide
the photooxidation type of response predominates.

Further and more quantitative work is being undertaken along
this line, for it is felt that fluorescence in these experiments is a
useful tool in the study of the mechanism of photosj^nthesis.

Preparatory to other experiments on photosynthesis, respiration
and chlorophyll studies have been continued with the recording spec-
trographic carbon dioxide apparatus. Attention was especially di-
rected to detecting any difference in respiration of etiolated barley
seedlings that might occur in a change from darkness to light of low
intensities. As has been pointed out in other reports, this information
is essential in the measurement of photosynthesis as determined by
gaseous exchange. Repetition of these experiments indicated a slight
increase in the rate of respiration when the plants were illuminated.
However, the rates of respiration were different on successive periods
so that it was necessary to look for possible sources of error. It was
found that etiolated seedlings placed in the growth chamber connected
with the carbon dioxide measuring apparatus did not become green
in a normal manner. The amount of chlorophyll formed v.as 20 to 30
percent lower than in a control chamber not connected with the ap-

92 A3S1TUAL. REPORT SMITHSONTAN IJTSTITUTION, 1940

paratus. The difficulty was traced to a minute amount of mercury
vapor entering the growth chamber from the mercury seal of the
air-circulating pump.

The problem then resolved itself into one of obtaining a properly
designed circulating pump for the carbon dioxide measuring appa-
ratus. In a closed system of this type it is necessary to circulate the
air in a system absolutely leakproof to carbon dioxide. Even the
slightest amount, a few cubic millimeters, would introduce an error
that would invalidate the measurements made by this method.

A metal bellows-type pump was constructed and installed. This
worked fairly well but carried with it certain disadvantages. A third
type of pump making use of a rotating magnetic field was next tried,
but was discarded because of its lack of power. A fourth pump was
constructed and, from the few preliminary experiments so far tried,
it is believed that it will meet the rigid requirements of this exacting
experimentation.

A series of experiments on etiolated barley seedlings clearly shows
that there is enough chlorophyll formed in 1% hours' exposure to light
of about 100 foot-candles to be easily measured.

The instrumental phases and the perfecting of experimental tech-
nique have now been completed to the point where work on the prob-
lems relating to the genesis of chlorophyll and the beginning of
photosynthesis may be carried on in greater detail.

PLANT GROWTH UfVESTIGATIONS
PLANT HORMONES AND CHEMICAL FACTORS

A standardized technique has been worked out for the extraction of
growth substances from the oat seedling and, in a comparative study
of the various methods employed by other investigators, has been found
to possess a number of advantages. It is becoming more generally
appreciated among the workers in this field that the problem of growth
substance assay is greatly complicated by the possible existence of
hormone precursors, of active and inactive forms of the growth sub-
stance itself, and of growth inhibitors. A complete understanding of
the behavior of the plant must take all these factors into account and
further work is now being done along these lines.

In the study of the growth of excised oat shoots and leaves a number
of biochemical substances, several of which have been made available
through the generosity of Merck & Co., as well as various plant ex-
tracts, have been tested. As yet it has not been possible to develop
an artificial environment which will enable the excised organs to
develop in an entirely normal manner, but some interesting inter-
relationships among the various parts of the plant have come to light.
These studies are being continued.

REPORT OF THE SECRETAET 93

BADIATION BFFECT8

The initial phase of the study of the spectral sensitivity of the oat
mesocotyl has now been completed. The general finding, which is
expected to be published shortly, is that this organ shoy>s its maxi-
mum light sensitivity in the red region of the spectrum and de-
creased response at shorter or longer wave lengths. This is espe-
cially interesting since it is very different from the spectral sensi-
tivity of the contiguous organ of the oat seedling, the coleoptile, as
demonstrated in growth and phototropism. The diversity of be-
havior raises several problems with respect to the mechanism of
the light effect which are now being investigated. One of these
concerns the nature of the photoreceptive pigment involved. It has
been possible to demonstrate the presence, in dark-grown oat seed-
lings, of a pigment which appears to have the requisite absorption
spectrum. Its spectral properties correspond with those recorded in
the literature for protochlorophyll. However, because of the incom-
plete and contradictory nature of the data in the literature, it seems
desirable to undertake an extensive investigation of the whole proto-
chlorophj'll problem.

A further result of the study is that the magnitude of the light
effect is proportional to the logarithm of the light intensity. This
fact suggests the possibility that more than one photochemical re-
action is involved. It is hoped to pursue this problem also.

Experiments on the stimulation effects of ultraviolet radiation
on the multiplication of cells of the green alga Stichococcus hacil-
lans Naeg. have been continued during the past year. Four sec-
cessive exposures of the algal cells were made to stimulative amounts
of each of the wave lengths 2352, 2483, and 2652 A. After each ex-
posure the growth rate (expressed as number of cells) increased un-
til at the conclusion of the fourth exposure it was 4 to 4.8 times that
of the control cultures. Cells irradiated with the optimum stimu-
lative exposure of 2967 A. increased at a rate of 1.5 to 1.6 times the
control in the first exposure; but after the second exposure the rate
of muliplication of cells was similar to that of the controls. The
stimulated cells diminished in length with each successive exposure.
They increased slightly in width after the first two exposures, then
decreased with the next two exposures so that after the fourth and
final exposure, the cells were less wide than those of the controls.
Numerous disintegrated cells were present in the cultures that had
been exposed three and four times when they were examined 2 to 3
months after the final exposure, whereas the cells exposed only twice
appeared to be a darker green and more healthy than the controls.
The sum of the three optimum dosages given to the algae was twice
that of the lethal quantity.

94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTTTUTION, 1940

Cultures of stimulated algae when exposed to lethal intensities of
the full ultraviolet spectrum proved to be less sensitive to the kthal
amounts than were the control cells. Even those cultures that had
been stimulated by four successive exposures and which contained
numerous disinte^jrated cells were less sensitive to the lethal amounts
than were the control cells.

A detailed account of this research will be published under the
title "Increased Stimulation of the Alga Stichococcti^ bacillaris by
Successive Exposures to Short Wave Lengths of the Ultraviolet."

PERSONNEL

Dr. Jack E. Myers was granted a National Research Fellowship
to carry on his research in photosynthesis in the Division's labora-
tory. This fellowship, which began September 19, 1939, has been
renewed for a second year.

L. A. Fillmen, by an executive order, was appointed to the civil
service on May 20, 1940, and transferred to the staff of the Astro-
physical Observatory as instrument maker.

PAPERS PRESENl-ED AT MEETINGS

Cultivation of excised oat leaves. Presented by Robert L. Weintranb before
the Americaa Society of Plant Physiologists, Colnmbns, Ohio, December 28, 1939.

Induction and related phenomena. Presented by B. D. McAlister at the
symposium on photosynthesis, Section O (Chemistry) of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Columbus, Ohio, December 28, 1939.

Plant tissue cultures. Presented by Robert L. Weintraub before the Botani-
cal Society of Washington, D. C, March 5, 1940.

Sensitivity of pinnts with special reference to light. Presented by Earl
S. Johnston before the Gamma Alpha Scientific Fraternity, The Johns Hop-
kins University, Baltimore, Md., April 5, 1940.

Time course of photosynthesis and fluorescence. Presented by E. D. Mc-
Alister before the Physiological Colloquium, Washington, D. C, June 10, 1&40.

PUBLICATIONS

Johnston, Earl S., and Weintkattb, Robert Ti. The determination of small

amounts of chlorophyll — apparatus and method. Smithsonian Misc. Coll.,

vol. 98, No. 19, pp. 1-5, 1939.
MinER. Florence E. Stimulative effect of short wave lengths of the ultraviolet

on the alga Stichococcus Ixwillaris. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol 98, No. 23,

pp. 1-19, 1939.
Johnston, Easl S. Sunlight and plant life. Scientific Monthly, vol. 50, June,

pp. 513-525, 1940.

Respectfully submitted.

Earl S. Johnston, Aasistant Director.
Dr. C. G. Abbot,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution,

APPENDIX 10
REPOET ON THE LIBRARY

Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the ac-
tivities of the Smithsonian Library for the fiscal year ended June
30, 1940 :

THE LIBRARY

The library — or, more correctly, the library system — has come into
being, unit by unit, as the interests and needs of the Smithsonian
have developed. The main unit, dating from 1846, the year of the
establishment of the Institution, was transferred in 1866 to the
Library of Congress, Avhere, as the Smithsonian Deposit, it has since
grown steadily by frequent sendings from the library of the Institu-
tion. It is notable for the completeness of its collections of scientific
and technological publications, especially those of learned institutions
and societies. Other important units of the system are the libraries
of the United States National Museum and the Bureau of American
Ethnology; still others are those of the Astrophysical Observatory,
Freer Gallery of Art, National Collection of Fine Arts, National
Zoological Park, Division of Radiation and Organisms, the Langley
Aeronautical Library, and the Smithsonian Office Library. The sys-
tem also includes the 35 sectional libraries of the National Museum,
which are the iimnediate working tools of the curators and their
assistants.

PERSONNEL

The staff remained, for the most part, unchanged. Miss Marie
Ruth Wenger, library assistant, was promoted to the grade of junior
librarian. The assistant messenger, Roland O. J. Caraccio, resigned
in June. Many of the W. P. A. employees of the year before, with
a few others more recently added, were assigned to the library
until the close of the Smithsonian project in April. Their service
was highly appreciated.

EXCHANGE OF PUBLICATIONS

The exchange work of the library was, of course, seriously inter-
fered with by the abnonnal economic and political conditions in
several parts of the world. As the year advanced, it became increas-
ingly difficult to carry on the customary exchange of publications
with societies and institutions abroad. In not a few cases, foreign

96 AITNXJAL. REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTnUTlON, 1940

publications were issued less frequently than usual, suspended for the
time being, or discontinued altogether. In most instances, those
that came at all -were very lat« in arriving. Some even were lost in
transit. This irregularity and uncertainty put the library to its
extreme effort to obtain, before it was too late, all the publications
it could of those needed in the work of the Institution. In this it
was only moderately successful. The packages it received through
the International Exchange Service, for example, numbered 1,329 —
fewer by 865 than those received the previous year. There was also
a falling off — of more than 2,000 — in the packages that came by mail.
This decrease is ominous, for while it may be possible, in various
ways, after the wars are over and conditions be<;ome more normal,
to fill many of the gaps in the foreign series, probably some will
remain unfilled.

Most of the large sendings were received early in the year, while
world conditions were still fairly stable. They were from the Ber-
liner Gesellschaft fiir Anthropologic, Ethnologic und Urgeschichte,
Berlin ; Yenching University, Peiping ; Reale Societa Geografica Ital-
iana, Rome; Biblioteca Nazionale Centrale di Firenze, Florence; In-
ternational Institute of Intellectual Cooperation, Paris; Academia
Romana, Bucharest; Royal Society of Queensland, Brisbane; Royal
Society of New South Wales, Sydney; Manx Museum, Douglas;
G. W. R. Swindon Engineering Society, Swindon; Pan-Pacific
Union, Honolulu; Pomona College, Claremont; and Florida Entomo-
logical Society, Gainesville. These sendings were for the Smith-
sonian Deposit and the libraries of the National Museum and Freer
Gallery of Art.

There was, as would be expected, even a worse falling off in the
dissertations received, especially from foreign institutions. There
were only 1,608 of these, as against 5,190 the year before. They came
from the universities of Basel, Berlin, Bern, California, Freiburg,
Giessen, Greifswald, Louvain, Lund, Lwow, Lyon, Neuchatel, Penn-
sylvania, Strasbourg, and Warsaw, and the technical schools of Braun-
schweig, Delft, Dresden, Karlsruhe, and Ziirich. Of the dissertations,
788 were assigned to the Smithsonian Deposit, and the others, on
account of their subject matter, to the library of the Surgeon General.

The staff wrote 2,502 letters, most of which had to do with the
library's exchange work — an increase of 212 over the previous year.
There was also an increase of 57 in the number of new exchanges
arranged for and of 157 in the number of want cards handled, in
connection with the special effort of the staff to satisfy the needs of
the Smithsonian libraries, either by exchanging publications or by
drawing liberally on the large collection of duplicates lately made
available at the Institution. The number of publications thus obtained

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 97

was 7,546, or 1,789 more than in 1939. It should be made clear, how-
ever, that a great many of these items were taken from the surplus
stock mentioned above and were used by the libraries, particularly
the Smithsonian Deposit and the library of the National Museum, in
building up second or reserve sets. Other libraries of the system,
especially those of the Astrophysical Observatory, National Collection
of Fine Arts, Radiation and Organisms, and National Zoological Park,
also benefited generously from this activity of the staff. It is expected
that the libraries will benefit even more richly in the year to come
from the thousands of publications that will be offered to them from
the same surplus collection.

In the interest of the exchange work, too, it may be noted that
during the past fiscal year many publications of the Institution and
its bureaus were returned to the library from various colleges, mu-
seums, and public libraries throughout the country, and from at least
one institution abroad; namely, the Bibliotheque Centrale du Museum
National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris. These publications, which were
no longer needed by the institutions that sent them back, were wel-
comed by the library as they added substantially to the supply of
material available for exchange. They also, in a number of instances,
brought to the sets in the libraries of the Institution items long out
of print and lacking. And, finally, they made it possible for the
library to respond favorably to dozens of requests on its waiting list
of needs in other libraries. In this clearinghouse activity, as well
as in the main exchange work of the year, the library had the coopera-
tion of the offices of publications, and — so far as it was free to func-
tion, under the restrictions imposed by the unsettled world conditions —
of the International Exchange Service. Among the libraries sharing
most generously in this noteworthy enterprise were those of the De-
partment of Agriculture, National Geographic Society, American
Bible Society, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Public
Museum of the Staten Island Institute of Arts and Sciences, South
Dakota State Historical Society, Departamento de Botanica do Estado,
Sao Paulo, Brazil, and the following colleges and universities : Brown,
Columbia, Duke, Harvard, Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Mount Holyoke, New York, North Carolina, Oberlin, Pennsylvania,
Princeton, Rochester, Vanderbilt, Virginia, William and Mary, and
Yale.

GIIT8

The gifts of the year were many. They included 897 publica-
tions from the American Association for the Advancement of Sci-
ence; 653 from the Geophysical Laboratory of the Carnegie
Institution of Washington; 252 from the American Association of
Museums; 216, chiefly on ethnology and archeology, from James

98 ANNUAL REPORT SMnHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Townsend Kussell, Jr.: 100, relating mainly to the natural history
of Brazil, from Ernest G. Holt; 23, on airplane engines of various
makes, from John E. Rae; and a large number, on miscellaneous
subjects, from the Honorable Usher L. Burdick, Member of Con-
gress from North Dakota. Other generous gifts came from members
and associates of the Smithsonian staff, notably Secretary Abbot,
Assistant Secretary Wetmore, and Mrs. Charles D, Walcott. Among
the publications presented by Mrs. Walcott was a highly prized set,
in 23 volumes, attractively bound and lettered, of the scientific and
other papers, both published and unpublished, of her husband, the
late fourth Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. This will
be given a place of honor in the library alongside of similar col-
lected works by Secretaries Henry, Baird, and Langley.

Of the other gifts, only a few, chosen from the large number, can
be mentioned here, such as 7 books by Vilhjalmur Stefansson — Hunt-
ers of the Great North, The Northward Course of Empire, My Life
with the Eskimo, Adventures in Error, My Life with the Eskimos,
Unsolved Mysteries of the Arctic, and Iceland the First American
Republic — from the author; 6 copies of The Museum in America, in 3
volumes, by Laurence Vail Coleman, from the author, as director of
the American Association of Museums; Chinese Jade Carvings of the
Sixteenth to the Nineteenth Century in the Collection of Mrs. Georg
Vetlesen, in 3 volumes, compiled by Stanley Charles Nott, from Mrs.
Georg Vetlesen; Portraits of Shipmasters and Merchants in the
Peabody Museum of Salem, and New England Blockaded in 1814
(the Journal of Henry Edward Napier, Lieutenant in H. M. S
Nymphe) — ^both edited by Walter Muir Wliitehill — from the Peabody
Museum; Voyages of the Valero II I ^ by De Witt Meredith, from
Captain G. Allan Hancock; O. C. Marsh, Pioneer in Paleontology, by
Charles Schuchcrt and Clara Mae Le Vene, from the authors; Les
Beaux Arts et les Arts Decoratifs, in 2 volumes, by M. Louis Gonse,
from Dr. William Schaus; The Macrolepidoptera of the World, by
Adalbert Seitz, from Mrs. Wirt Robinson, the widow of the late
Colonel Robinson, professor of chemistry at West Point, who, it will
be recalled, was a friend and benefactor of the National Museum;
Moss Flora of North America North of Mexico, volume I, part 4, by
A. J. Grout, from the author; Communications, volume 10, of the
Institut de Geophysique et de Meteorologie de L'Universite de Lwow,
by Dr. Henrj^k Arctowski, from the author; A Bibliography of Scien-
tific Papers on Climatic Variations, compiled by Dr. Henryk Arctow-
ski, from the Union Geographique Internationale — Commission of
Climatic Variations; Science and Social Ethics, by Sir Richard Arman
Gregory, from The Friedenwald Foundation; Mouth Infections and

REPORT OF THE SECR;ETARY

Their Relation to Systemic Diseases — A Review of the Literature, in
2 volumes, by Dr. Malcolm Graeme MacNevin and Dr. Harold Stearns
Vaughan, from the authors ; Australia, 1788-1938 — Historical Review,
from the Hon. B. S. B. Stevens, Premier of New South Wales; and
Voyage Zoologique d'Henri Gadeau de Kerville en Asie-Mineure
(Avril-Mai 1912), Tome Premier, Premiere Partie (12 copies), from
Henri Gadeau de Kerville.

STATISTICS

The accessions to the library system, then, were several thousand
fewer than usual. They were as follows:

Library

Vol-
umes

Pam-
phlets
and
charts

Total

Approxi-
mate
holdinRS
June 30,
1940

Astrophysica) Observatory

Bureau of American Ethnology

Freer Gallery of Art..

Langley Aeronautical

National Collection of Fine Arts

National Museum

National Zoological Park

Radiation and Organisms

Smithsonian Deposit, Library of Congress
Smithsonian offlre

Total

364

230

327

l,8fl7

1, 955

129

198

938

1,214

166

364

324

525

2.805

3.169

146

9.84«

1 52. 762

15, 761

3,498

7,292

216, 839

3.846

527

566. 664

30, 892

5,091

2.618

» 7. 709

' 907, 816

• This number Includes about 20,000 pamphlets.

' From both the accessions for the year and the total holdings are omitted many publications waiting to
be completed, bound, or cataloged.

The staff made 26,422 periodical entries; cataloged 6,105 volumes,
pamphlets, and charts ; prepared and filed 42,388 catalog and shelf -list
cards; and loaned 11,745 publications to members of the Institution
and its branches. They carried on an extensive interlibrary loan serv-
ice with more than 50 libraries in Washington and outside, including
several in Mexico and Cuba : an undertaking that involved the writing
of many letters and the handling — without a single loss, it may be
added — of 2,832 publications. They responded to an unusually large
number of inquiries for bibliographical and other information, some
of which required hours of research, often at the Library of Congress.
They also contributed 635 cards to the index of Smithsonian publica-
tions, bringing it practically up to date, and a few to the index of
exchange relations. Finally, they advanced the union catalog as
follows :

Volumes cataloged 3, 523

Pamphlets and charts cataloged 2, 203

New serial entries made 379

Typed cards added to catalog and shelf list 0,253

Library of Congress cards added to catalog and shelf list 16, 504

280256 — 41 8

100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

SOME OTHER ACTIVITIES

Mention has just been made of two indexes that are in preparation.
A third was undertaken late in the year — a card index of the explora-
tions with which the Smithsonian or one of its bureaus has at any time
been connected. Both the scientists and the library staff have fre-
quently felt the need of such a file — and to the future historian it will,
of course, be of great value. For it will make instantly available the
essential facts pertaining to each expedition — for example, dates,
places, personnel, scientific results, with exact references to published
accounts — taken part in by the Institution since 1846.

Another important piece of work was checking the records for
periodical holdings in various libraries of the system, in the interest
of the second edition of the Union List of Serials now being prepared.

Still another special task — one that required considerable time on the
part of two or three members of the staff, as well as of several W. P. A.
employees — was the transfer and rearrangement of the publications
that had for years been shelved along the sides of the main hall of the
Smithsonian Building, to cases set up in the alcoves at the ends of the
hall. In their new locations the most consulted of these collections
are more accessible than they were before.

Again, the staff sorted by subject about 3,000 reprints and separates
and assigned them to the sectional libraries of the National Museum;
added substantially to the card index of auction prices brought by
works of art — a project begun the previous year for the library of the
National Collection of Fine Arts; nearly completed the inventory of
the technological library, with revision of the records as necessary;
did further special cataloging for the botanical library; and made
notable progress in the library of the Bureau of American Ethnology
in eliminating material not pertinent to the work of the Bureau and
in reclassifying and rearranging the remaining collections.

And, last but not least, by the joint effort of the staff and the W. P. A.
workers the listing of the longer runs of duplicate serials in both the
east and west stacks was well advanced. As fast as these lists were
finished they were submitted to the libraries of the Institution that
they might check the publications they needed. A few of those not
wanted were sent to the library of the Department of Agriculture to
fill gaps. And many were used in special exchange for other publica-
tions required in the work of the Smithsonian.

BINDING

Owing to lack of funds, it was possible to send to the Government
bindery only a small proportion of the volumes waiting to be bound.
The library of the National Museum sent 714 ; that of the Astrophysical

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY lOl

Observatory, 50. In addition, however, 241 volumes from several of
the libraries, especially that of Radiation and Organisms, were bound
by one of the W. P. A. assistants.

NEEDS

Nevertheless, the binding as a whole, already seriously in arrears,
fell much farther behind during the year. This is most regrettable,
as the plight of the thousands of volumes in question lessens the safety
and usability of the serial files. Steps should be taken immediately
to remedy this unfortunate condition.

There is great need, too, of more shelf room for the collections,
particularly those in the natural history library of the National Mu-
seum. At least some temporary provision should be made without
further delay for relieving the congestion there, even if no permanent
means can be provided at present.

Finally, the staff should be considerably enlarged. Six trained
assistants should be added to the regular force at the earliest possible
moment. They are an assistant librarian, a junior librarian, a library
assistant, a library aid, a messenger, and a typist. These are urgently
needed, that the collections, both main and sectional, may be made
more fully available and that the libraries of the Institution and its
bureaus may, in general, serve more worthily the high purpose to
which they are called.

Respectfully submitted.

William L. Corbin, Librarian.

Dr. C. G. Abbot,

Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.

APPENDIX 11
REPORT ON PUBLICATIONS

Sik: I have the honor to submit the following report on the pub-
lications of the Smithsonian Institution and the Government
branches under its administrative charge during the year ended
June 30, 1940:

The Institution published during the year 16 papers in the series
of Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 1 annual report and pam-
phlet copies of 27 articles in the report appendix, and 1 special
publication.

The United States National Museum issued 1 annual report, 27
separate Proceedings papers, 1 Bulletin, and 1 Contributions from
the United States National Herbarium.

The Bureau of American Ethnology issued three bulletins.

Of the publications there were distributed 146,156 copies, which
included 56 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian Contributions
to Knowledge, 36,872 volumes and separates of the Smithsonian
Miscellaneous Collections, 25,266 volumes and separates of the Smith-
sonian Annual Reports, 3,150 Smithsonian special publications,
65,961 volumes and separates of the National Museum publications,
13,984 publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 11 pub-
lications of the National Collection of Fine Arts (formerly the
National Gallerj^ of Art), 3 publications of the Freer Gallery of
Art, 35 re})orts of the Harriman Alaska Expedition, 16 annals of
the Astrophysical Observatory, and 714 reports of the American
Historical Association.

SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS

There were issued 2 papers of volume 91, 8 papers and title
page and table of contents of volume 98, 5 papers of volume 99, and
volume 100 (whole volume), making 16 papers in all, as follows:

VOLUME 91

No. 30. A new cornucopina (Bryozoa) from the West Indies, by Raymond C.
Osburn. 3 pp., 2 pis. (Publ. 3584.) March 14, 1940.

No. 31. A new genusi and species of eel from the Puerto Ricau Deep, by
Earl D. Reid. 5 pp. (Publ. .3585.) March 11, 1940.
102

REPORT OF THE SEOEETABY 103

VOLUMX 98

No. 18. Notes on Hillers' photographs of the Paiute aud Ute Indians taken
on the Powell expedition of 1873, by Julian H. Steward. 23 pp., 31 pis.
(Publ. 3543.) July 21, 1939.

No. 19. The determination of small amounts of chlorophyll — apparatus and
methods, by Earl S. Johnston and Robert L. Weintraub. 5 pp., 2 pis. (Publ.
3545.) July 31, 1939.

No. 20. The Helt Township (Indiana) meteorite, by Stuart H. Perry. 7 pp.,
9 pis. (Publ. 3546.) August 28, 1939.

No. 21. The weekly period in Washington precipitation, by C. G. Abbot and
N. M. McCandlish. 4 pp. (Publ. 3547.) July 27, 1939.

No. 22. Birds from Clipperton Island collected on the Presidential Cruise
of 1938, by Alexander Wetmore. 6 pp. (Publ. 3548.) August 11, 1939.

No. 23. Stimulative effect of short wave lengths of the ultraviolet on the
alga Stichococcus hacillaris, by Florence E. Meier. 19 pp., 4 pis. (Publ. 3549.)
September 26, 1939.

No. 24. The Ptarmigania strata of the northern Wasatch Moimtains, by
Charles Elmer Resser. 72 pp., 14 pis. (Publ. 3550.) October 26, 1939.

No. 25. List of the fishes taken on the Presidential Cruise of 1938, by Waldo
L. Schmitt and Leonard P. Schultz. 10 pp. (Publ. 3551.) January 4, 1940.

VOLUME 99

No. 1. Sketches by Paul Kane in the Indian country, by David I. Bushnell,
Jr. 25 pp., frontispiece. (Publ. 3553.) January 9, 1940.

No. 2. Geologic antiquity of the Lindenmeier site in Colorado, by Kirk
Bryan and Louis L. Ray. 76 pp., 6 pis. (Publ. 3554.) February 5, 1940.

No. 3. Ritual ablation of front teeth in Siberia and America, by Ale§
HrdliCka. 32 pp., 5 pis. (Publ. 3583.) March 4, 1940.

No. 4. A check-list of the fossil birds of North America, by Alexander
Wetmore. 81 pp. (Publ. 3587.) June 18, 1940.

No. 5. The 11-year and 27-day solar periods in meteorology, by H. Helm
Clayton. 20 pp. (Publ. 3589.) June 14, 1940.

VOLUME 100

Whole volume. Essays in historical anthropology of North America, pub-
lished in honor of John R. Swanton in celebration of his fortieth year with
the Smithsonian Institution. 600 pp., 16 pis. (Publ. 3588.) May 25, 1940.
The work of John R. Swanton, by A. L. Kroeber. Pp. 1-9.
Introduction, by .Tulian H. Steward. Pp. 11-13.
Some historical implications of physical anthropology in North America,

by T. D. Stewart. Pp. 15-50.
Developments In the problem of the North American Paleo-Indian, by

Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr. Pp. 51-116.
The historic method as applied to southeastern archeology, by M. W.

Stirling. Pp. 117-123.
Virginia before Jamestown, by David I. Bushnell, Jr. Pp. 125-158, 2 pis.
Problems arising from the historic northeastern position of the Iroquois,

by William N. Fenton. Pp. 159-251.
Archeological perspectives in the northern Mississippi Valley, by Frank

M. Setzler. Pp. 253-290.

104 AN^NUAIi REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 40

Culture sequence In the central Great Plains, by Waldo R. Wedel.

Pp. 291-352, 2 pis.
From history to prehistory in the northern Great Plains, by Wm.

Duncan Strong. Pp. 353-394, 6 pis.
Some Navaho culture changes during two centuries (with a translation

of the early eighteenth century Rabal Manuscript), by W. W. Hill.

Pp. 395^15.
Progress in the Southwest, by Neil M. .Tudd. Pp. 417-444.
Native cultures of the Intermontane (Great Basin) area, by Julian H.

Steward. Pp. 445-502.
Southern peripheral Athapaskawan origins, divisions, and migrations,

by John P. Harrington. Pp. 503-532.
Outline of Eskimo prehistory, by Henry B. Collins, Jr. Pp. 533-592,

6 pis.
Bibliography of anthropological papers by John R. Swanton, compiled by

Frances S. Nichols. Pp. 593-600.

SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS

Report for 1938. — The complete volume of the Annual Report of
the Board of Regents for 1938 was received from the Public Printer
in December 1939.

Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
showing the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for
the year ending June 30, 1938. xiii-}-(X)S pp., 115 pis., 71 figs. (Publ. 3491.)

The appendix contained the following papers :

New conception of the imiverse and of matter, by Gabriel Louis-Jaray.

The nature of the nebulae, by Edwin Hubble.

The sun and the atmosphere, by Harlan T. Stetson.

Cosmic radiation, by P. M. S. Blackett.

A world of change, by Edward R. Weidlein.

Transmutation of matter, by Lord Rutherford.

Science and the unobservable, by H. Dingle.

Some aspects of nuclear physics of possible interest in biological work,

by L. A. DuBridge.
Electron theory, by R. G. Kloeffler.

Geology in national and everyday life, by George R. Mansfield.
The floor of the ocean, by P. G. H. Boswell.
Ice ages, by Sir George Simpson.
Soil erosion : The growth of the desert in Africa and elsewhere, by Sir

Daniel Hall.
The future of paleontology, by Joseph A. Cushman.
The meteorology of great floods in the eastern United States, by Charles

F. Brooks and Alfred H. Thiessen.
Byes that shine at night, by Ernest P. Walker.
The Chinese mitten crab, by A. Panning.

The biology of light-production in arthropods, by N. S. Rustum Maluf.
The black widow spider, by Fred E. D'Amour, Frances E. Becker, and

Walker van Riper.
The language of bees, by K. von Frisch.
Forest genetics, by Lloyd Austin.
The story of the maidenhair tree, by Sir Albert O. Seward.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 105

The water-culture method for growing plants without soil, by D. R.

Hoagland and D, I. Arnon.
"Root-pressure" — au unappreciated force in sap movement, by Philip

R. White.
The reproduction of virus proteins, by W. M. Stanley.
Modern medicine — the crossroads of the social and the physical sciences,

by Charles Austin Doan.
History and stratigraphy in the Valley of Mexico, by George C. Vatllant.
The Folsom problem in American archeology, by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr.
The Roman Orient and the Far East, by C. G. Seligman.
An ancient Chinese capital: Earthworks at Old Ch'ang-an, by Carl

Whiting Bishop.
The natural limits to human flight, by H. E. Wimperis.
The historic American merchant marine, by Frank A. Taylor.

Report for 1939. — The report of the Secretary, which included the
financial report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents,
and which will form part of the annual report of the Board of Regents
to Congress, was issued in January 1940.

Report of the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution and financial report
of the executive committee of the Board of Regents for the year ended June
30, 1939. ix-fl39 pp., 2 pis. (Publ. 3552.)

The report volume, containing the general appendix, v/as in press
at the close of the year.

SPECIAL PUBLIOATIONS

Explorations and field-work of the Smithsonian Institution In 1939. 96 pp.,
102 halftone figs, (Publ. 8586.)

PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

The editorial work of the National Museum has continued during
the year under the immediate direction of the editor, Paul H. Oehser.
There were issued 1 annual report, 27 separate Proceedings papers
from volmnes 85, 86, 87, 88, and 89, 1 Bulletin, and 1 Contributions
from the United States National Herbarium, as follows :

MUSEUM BEPOBT

Report on the progress and condition of the United States National Museum
for the year ended June 30, 1939. iii-f 128 pp. January 1940.

PEOCEEDINGS : VOLUME 85

Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-x, 509-530. April 5, 1940.

VOLUME 86

No. 3065. Neotropical flies of the family Stratiomyidae in the United States
National Museum, by Maurice T. James. Pp. 595-607, fig. 71. August 3, 1939.

106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

VOLUME 87

No. 3066. Ceratopsian dinosaurs from the Two Medicine formation, Upper
Cretaceous of Montana, by Charles W. Gilmore. Pp. 1-18, figs. 1-11. August
3, 1939.

No. 3067. Two new parasitic isopods from the eastern coast of North America,
by A. S. Pearse and Henry A. Wall^er. Pp. 19-23, figs. 12, 13. August 1, 1939.

No. 3068. The Hederelloidea, a sul)order of Paleozoic cyclostomatous Bryo-
zoa, by Ray S. Bassler. Pp. 25-91, pis. 1-16, fig. 14. September 12, 1939.

No. 3069. A generic revision of the staphylinid beetles of the tribe Paederini, by
Uichard E. Blackwelder. Pp. 93-125. September 15, 1939.

No. 3070. New turritid moUusks from Florida, by Paul Bartsch and Harald
A. Rehder. I'p. 127-13S, pi. 17. September 15, 1939.

No. 3071. A new trematode from the loon, Gavia immcr, and its relationship
to Eaematatrephus fodiens Linton, 1928, by W. Carl Gower. Pp. 139-143, fig.
15. September 1, 1939.

No. 3072. A study of LeConte's types of the beetles in the genus Monox-ia,
with descriptions of new species, by Doris Holmes Blake. Pp. 145-171, pis.
18, 19. October 5, 1939.

No. 3073. Observations on the birds of northern Venezuela, by Alexander
Wetmore. Pp. 173-260. November 3, 1939.

No. 3074. A revision of the soapfishes of the genus Rypticus, by Leonard P.
Schultz and Earl D. Reid. Pp. 261-270. October 24, 1939.

No. 3075. A taxonomic study of the neotropical beetles of the family Mordel-
lidae, with descriptions of new species, by Eugene Ray. Pp. 271-314, flgg.
16-10. December 15, 1939.

No. 3076. Catalog of human crania in the United States National Museum
coUections : Indians of the Gulf States, by Ale.? Hrdlidka. Pp. 315-464, fig. 20.
May 18, 1940.

VOLUME 88

No. 3078. Trematodes from fishes mainly from the Woods Hole region, Mas-
sachusetts, by Edwin Linton. Pp. 1-172, pis. 1-26. May 16, 1940.

No. 3079. Report on certain groups of neuropteroid insects from Szechwan,
China, by Nathan Banks. Pp. 173-220, pis. 27-30. April 13, 1940.

No. 3080. Cestocrimis, a new fossil inadunate crinoid genus, by Edwin Kirk.
Pp. 221-224, pi. 31. March 14, 1940.

No. 3081. Notes on some pedunculate barnacles from the North Pacific, by
Dora Priaulx Henry. Pp. 225-236, figs. 1-5. April 30, 1940.

No. 3082. Revision of the chalcid-flies of the tribe Chalcidini in America
north of Mexico, by B. D. Burks. Pp. 237-354, figs. 6-14. Jime 11, 1940.

No. 30S3. New genera and species of ichneumon-flies, with taxonomic notes,
by R. A. Cushman. Pp. 355-372, figs. 15, 16. March 13, 1940.

No. 3084. The scolytid beetles of the genus Renocis Casey, with descriptions
of nine new species, by M. W. Blackman. Pp. 373-401, figs. 17, 18. June 22,
1940.

No. 3085. Two new genera and three new species of cheilodipterid fishes, with
notes on the other genera of the family, by Leonard P. Schultz. Pp. 403-423,
figs. 19, 20. April 26, 1940.

No. 3086. A contribution to the knowledge of the Kucharidae ( Hymenoptera :
Chalcidoidea), by A. B. Gahan. Pp. 425-458. April 25, 1940.

REPORT OF THE SECRETAHY 107

No. 3087. A review of the parasitic Crustacea of the genus Argulus in the
collections of the United States National Museum, by O. Lloyd Meehean. Pp.
459-522, figs. 21-47. June 22, 1940.

No. 3088. The ichneumon-flies of the subfamily Neorhacodinae, with descrip-
tions of a new genus and three new species, by R. A. Cushman. Pp. 523-527,
fig. 48. April 13, 1940.

No. 3089. Notes on the birds of Kentucky, by Alexander Wetmore. Pp. 529-
574. April 23, 1940.

No. 3091. A prehistoric roulette from Wyandotte County, Kansas, by Waldo
R. Wedel and Harry M. Trowbridge. Pp. 581-586, figs. 49, 50, June 5, 1940.

VOLUME 89

No. 3092. A revision of the West Indian beetles of the scarabaeid subfamily
Aphodiinae, by Edward A. Chapin. Pp. 1-41. May 23, 1940.

BUU^ETINS

No. 175. Variations and relationships in the snakes of the genus PituopJiis, by
Olive Griffith Stull. vi+225 pp. June 26, 1940.

CONTKIBUTIONS FROM THE V. 8. NATIONAL HEBBABIUM : VOLUME 28

Part 3. Marine algae of the Smithsonian-Hartford Expedition to the West
Indies, 1937, by William Randolph Taylor. Pp. i-lii, 549-582, pi. 20. June 12,
1940.

PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY

The editorial work of the Bureau has continued under the imme-
diate direction of the editor, M. Helen Palmer. During the year
three bulletins were issued as follows :

Bulletin 101. War ceremony and peace ceremony of the Osage Indians, by
Francis La Flesche. vii + 280 pp., 13 pis., 1 fig.

Bulletin 124. Nootka and Quileute music, by Frances Densmore. xxvi -f-
358 pp., 24 pis., 7 figs.

Bulletin 125. Ethnography of the Fox Indians, by WiUiam Jones. Edited
by Margaret Welpley Fisher, ix -f 156 pp.

REPORT OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION

The annual reports of the American Historical Association are
transmitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution and are communicated by him to Congress, as provided
by the act of incorporation of the Association.

The report for 1935, volume 2 (Writings on American History) and
the report for 1938 (Proceedings) were issued during the year. The
report for 1936, volume 2 (Writings on American History, 1936)
and the report for 1937, volume 2 (Writings on American History,
1937-1938) were in press at the close of the year.

108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONTAN INSTITUTION, 1940

REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETT, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN

REVOLUTION

The manuscript of the Forty-second Annual Report of the National
Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was transmitted to
Congress, in accordance with law, December 11, 1939.

ALLOTMENTS FOR PRINTING

The congressional allotments for the printing of the Smithsonian
Annual Reports to Congress and the various publications of the Gov-
ernment bureaus under the administration of the Institution were
virtually used up at the close of the year. The appropriation for the
coming year ending June 30, 1941, totals $73,000, allotted as follows:

Smithsonian Institution - $15,000

National Museum 30,250

Bureau of American Ethnology 11, 150

National Collection of Fine Arts 400

International Exchanges 100

National Zoological Park 100

Astrophysical Observatory 400

American Historical Association 7, 100

Total 64,500

Reserve 8,500

Grand total 73, 000

Respectfully submitted,

W. P. True, Chiefs Editorial Division.
Dr. C. G. Abbot,

Secretary^ Smithsonian Institution.

REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE OF
THE BOARD OF REGENTS OF THE SMITH-
SONIAN INSTITUTION

FOE THE YEAE ENDED JUNE 30, 1940

To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:

Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report
in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with
a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government
bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution.

SMITHSONIAN ENDOWMENT FUND

The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s, 6d. —
$508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the
claim, freights, insurance, etc., together with payment into the
fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been withheld during the
lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the amount
of $550,000.
Since the original bequest the Institution has received gifts from
various sources chiefly in the years prior to 1893, the income
from which may be used for the general work of the Institution.
To these gifts has been added capital from savings on income,
gain from sale of securities, etc., and they now stand on the
books of the Institution as follows :

Avery, Robert S. and Lydia T., bequest fund $51, 794. 10

Endowment fund, from gifts, income, etc 255, 037. 25

Habel, Dr. S., bequest fund 50O. 00

Hachenberg, George P. and Caroline, bequest fund 4, 081. 70

Hamilton, James, bequest fund 2,909.72

Henry, Caroline, bequest fund 1,227.52

Hodgkins, Thomas G., fund 146,675.45

Parent fund 728, 879. 04

Rhees, William Jones, bequest fund 1, 070. 15

Sanford, George H., memorial fund 2, 003. 61

Witherspoon, Thomas A., memorial fund 130,982.00

Special fund 1, 400. 00

Total endowment for general work of the Institution 1, 326, 560. 44

The Institution holds also a number of endowment gifts and other
funds, the income of each being restricted to specific use. These are
invested and stand on the books of the Institution as follows :

Abbott, William L., fund, bequest to the Institution $104, 662. 96

Arthur, James, fund, income for investigations and study of sun

and lecture on the sun 40, 592. 03

109

110 ANNUAL REPORT SMIl'HSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Bacon, Virginia Purdy, fund, for a traveling scholarship to investi-
gate fauna of countries other than the United States $50, 850. 81

Baird, Lucy H., fund, for creating a memorial to Secretary Baird__ 16, 132. 25

Barstow, Frederic D., fund, for purchase of animals for the Zoo-
logical Park 772. 05

Canfield collection fund, for increase and care of the Canfield
collection of minerals 38, 819. 63

Casey, Thomas L., fund, for maintenance of the Casey collection

and promotion of researches relating to Coleoptera 9, 309. 42

Chamberlain, Francis Lea, fund, for increase and promotion of

Isaac Lea collection of gems and mollusks 28, 582. 05

Hillyer, Virgil, fund, for increase and care of Virgil Hillyer col-
lection of lighting objects 6, 670. 62

Hitchcock, Dr. Albert S., library fund, for care of Hitchcock
Agrostological Library .^ 1, 344. 95

Hodgkins fund, specific, for increase and diffusion of more exact
knowledge in regard to nature and properties of atmospheric
air 100, 000. 00

Hughes, Bruce, fund, to found Hughes alcove 17, 418. 53

Myer, Catherine Walden, fund, for purchase of first-class works
of art for the use of, and benefit of, the National Gallery of
Art 19, 239. 80

Pell, Cornelia Livingston, fund, for maintenance of Alfred Duane
Pell collection 2,449. 68

Poore, Lucy T. and George W., fund, for general use of the Institu-
tion when principal amounts to the sum of $250,000 78, 317. 79

Reid, Addison T., fund, for founding chair in biology in memory of
Asher Tunis 30, 270. 38

Roebling fund, for care, improvement, and increase of Roebling
collection of minerals 122, 488. 89

Rollins, Miriam and William, fund, for investigations in physics
and chemistry 100, 805. 06

Smithsonian employees retirement fund 777. 80

Springer, Frank, fund, for care, etc., of Springer collection and
library 18, 201. 29

Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, research fimd, for develop-
ment of geological and paleontological studies and publishing
results thereof 11, 525. 48

Younger, Helen Walcott, fund, held in trust 50, 112. 50

Zerbee, Francis Brincklg, fund, for endowment of aquaria 772. 45

Special research fund, gift, in form of real estate 20, 946. 00

Total endowment for specific purposes other than Freer
endowment 871, 062. 42

The above funds amount to a total of $2,197,622.86 and are carried
in the following investment accounts of the Institution :

U. S. Treasury deposit account, drawing 6 percent interest $1, 000. 000. 00

Miscellaneous special funds 116, 373. 61

Consolidated investment fund (income in table following) 1, 081, 249. 25

2, 197, 622. 86

REPORT OF THE SECEETAHY

CONSOLIDATED FUND

Statement of Principal and Income for the Last 10 Years

Fiscal year

Capital

Income

Percent-
age

1931-

$668,069.02
712, 166. 86
764,077.67
764, 870. 84
706,765.68
723, 796. 46
738,868.64
867, 628. 50
902, 801. 27
1, 081, 249. 26

$28,518.07
26, 142. 21
28, 185. 11
26, 650. 32
26, 80S. 86
26, 836. 61
33,819.43
34, 679. 64
30, 710. 53
38, 673. 29

4 27

1932

3 67

1933 -

3 68

1934

3 66

1935

3 79

1936

3 71

1937..

4 57

1938

4 00

1939

3 40

1940-...

3 47

FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND

Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L, Freer, of Detroit, gave to
the Institution his collection of Chinese and other oriental objects of
art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by Wliistler,
Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for the
construction of a building to house the collection, and finally in his
will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stock and securities to
the estimated value of $1,958,591.42 as an endowment fund for the
operation of the gallery. From the above date to the present time
these funds have been increased by stock dividends, savings of income,
etc., to a total of $6,112,953,46. In view of the importance and special
nature of the gift and the requirements of the testator in respect to
it, all Freer funds are kept separate from the other fmids of the Insti-
tution, and the accounting in respect to them is stated separately.

The invested funds of the Freer bequest are classified as follows :

Court and grounds fund $684, 798. 42

Court and grounds maintenance fund i 171, 963. 09

Curator fund 696, 897. 47

Residuary legacy 4, 559, 294. 48

Total > 6, 112, 953. 46

SrMMABT

Invested endowment for general purposes $1,326,560.44

Investment endowment for specific purposes other than Freer
endowment 871, 082. 42

Total invested endowment other than Freer endowment 2, 197, 622. 86

Freer invested endowment for specific purposes 6, 112, 953. 46

Total Invested endowment for all purposes—

8, 310, 576. 32

' The greater portion of gain In this capital over previous year is caused by placing
on the books of the Institution the approximate market value of a large holding of stock
Iieretofore held at a much lower figure.

112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS

Deposited in the U. S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as author-
ized in the United States Revised Statutes, sec. 5591 $1,000,000.00

Investments other than Freer endowment (cost or market vahie at
date acquired) :

Bonds (30 different groups) $539,844.99

Stocks (41 different groups) 577,792.36

Real estate and first-mortgage notes 71, 661. 11

Uninvested capital 8,324.40

1, 197, 622. 86

Total investments other than Freer endowment 2,197,622.86

Investments of Freer endowment (cost or market
value at date acquired) :

Bonds (48 different groups) $2,685,147.75

Stocks (57 different groups) 3,410,858.25

Real estate first-mortgage notes 9, 000. 00

Uninvested capital 7,947.46

6,112,953.46

Total investments 8,310,576.32

CASH BALANCES, RECEIPTS, AND DISBUKSEMENT8 DUEING THE FISCAL TEAR *

Cash balance on hand June 80, 1939 $313, 097. 74

Receipts :

Cash income from various sources for general

work of the Institution $90,255.92

Cash gift and contributions expendable for

special scientific objects (not to be invested)- 41, 058. 06

Cash gifts for special scientific work (to be

invested) 7. 50

Cash income from endowments for specific use

other than Freer endowment and from

miscellaneous sources (including refund of

temporary advances) 79,627.88

Cash received as royalties from Smithsonian

Scientific Series 35, 183. 75

Cash capital from sale, call of securities, etc.

(to be reinvested) 126,797.78

Total receipts other than Freer endowment 372, 930. 89

Cash income from Freer endowment 242, 573. 92

Cash capital from sale, call of securities, etc.

(to be reinvested) 1, 311, 672. 25

Total receipts from Freer endowment 1, 554, 246. 17

Total 2, 240, 274. 80

* This statement does not Include Qorernment appropriations nnder the administrative
charee of the Institution.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 113

Disbursements :

From funds for general work of the Institution :

Buildings — care, repairs, and alterations-- $3, 118. 37

Furniture and fixtures 114. 39

General administration ' 34, 261. 55

Library 2, 112. 90

Publications (comprising preparation,

printing, and distribution) 18,574.05

Researches and explorations 26, 477. 02

$84, 658. 28

From funds for specific use, other than Freer
endowment :

Investments made from gifts, from gain
from sale, etc., of securities and from
savings on income 49, 621. 10

Other expenditures, consisting largely of
research work, travel, increase and
care of special collections, etc., from in-
come of endowment funds and from
cash gifts for specific use (including
temporary advances) 85,677.70

Reinvestment of cash capital from sale,
call of securities, etc 100, 160. 14

Cost of handling securities, fee of invest-
ment counsel, and accrued interest on
bonds purchased 2, 619. 75

238, 078. 69

From Freer endowment :

Operating expenses of the gallery, sal-
aries, field exi)enses, etc 45, 755. 98

Purchase of art objects 155, 214. 33

Investments made from gain from sale,
etc., of securities 196, 273. 55

Reinvestment of cash capital from sale,
call of securities, etc 1, 104, 247. 02

Cost of handling securities, fee of invest-
ment counsel, and accrued interest on
bonds purchased including assessment
for employees' retirement system 24, 738. 29

1,526,229.17

Cash balance June 30, 1940 391, 308. 66

Total 2, 240, 274. 80

» This Includes salary of the Secretary and certain others.

il4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

EXPENDITURES FOR RESEARCHES IN PUKE SCIENCE, PUBLICATIONS, EXPLORA-
TIONS, CARE, INCREASE, AND STUDY OF COLLECTIONS, ETC.

Espenrliture.s from general funds of the Institution:

Publications $18, 574. 05

Researches and explorations 26,477.02

$45, 051. 07

Expenditures from funds devoted to specific purposes :

Researches and explorations 49, 692. 56

Care, increase, and study of special collections 13, 453. 86

Publications 3, 469. 12

66, 615. 53

Total 111,666.60

The practice of depositing on time in local trust companies and banks

such revenues as may be spared temporarily has been continued during

the past year, and interest on these deposits has amounted to $1,022.34.

The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts or bequests from the

following :

Friends of Dr. Albert S. Hitchcock, for establishment and care of the

Hitchcock Agrostological Library.
Firestone Tire & Rubber Co., for expedition to Liberia for the collection of

living wild animals.
Research Corporation, further contributions for research in radiation.
John A. Roebling, further contributions for research in radiation.
Mrs. Mary Vaux Walcott, for purchase of certain specimens.
Eleanor E. Witherspoon, for Thomas A. Witherspoon Memorial for the

advancement of human knowledge.

All payments are made by check, signed by the Secretary of the In-
stitution on the Treasurer of the United States, and all revenues are
deposited to the credit of the same account. In many instances de-
posits are placed in bank for convenience of collection and later are
withdrawn in round amounts and deposited in the Treasury.

The foregoing report relates only to the private funds of the Insti-
tution.

The following annual appropriations were made by Congress for
the Government bureaus under the administrative charge of the
Smithsonian Institution for the fiscal year 1940 :

General Expenses $356, 620. 00

(This combines under one heading the appropriations hereto-
fore made for Salaries and Expenses, International Ex-
changes, American Ethnology, Astrophysical Observatory,
and National Collection of Fine Ai'ts of the Smithsonian
Institution and for Maintenance and Operation of the
United States National Museum.)

Preservation of collections 628,800.00

Printing and binding 73, 000. 00

National Zoological Park 237,060.00

Total 1, 295, 480. 00

In addition to the above an appropriation of $270,000 was made in
the Third Deficiency Act, 1939, for the installation of an alternating-
current electric system in the Smithsonian Institution buildings.

REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 115

The report of the audit of the Smithsonian private funds is printed
below :

SEPTEilBEH 24, 1940.

Executive Committee, Boabd of Regents,

Smithsonian Itistitution, Washiugtan, D. C.

SiBS : Pursuant to agreement we have audited the accounts of the Smithsonian
Institution for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1940, and certify the balance of cash
on hand, including Petty Cash Fund, June 30, 1940 to be .$393,208.66.

We have verified the record of receipts and disbursements maintained hy the
Institution and the agreement of the book balances with the bank balances.

We have examined all the securities in the custody of the Institution and in
the custody of the banks and found them to agree with the book records.

We have compared the stated income of such securities with the receipts of
record and found them in agreement therewith.

We have examined all vouchers covering disbursements for account of the
Institution during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1940, together with the authority
therefor, and have compared them with the Institution's record of expenditures
and found them to agree.

We have examined and verified the accounts of the Institution with each trust
fund.

We found the books of account and records well and accurately kept and the
securities conveniently filed and securely cared for.

All information requested by your auditors was promptly and courteously
furnished.

We certify the Balance Sheet, in our opinion, correctly presents the financial
condition of the Institution as at June 30, 1940.

Respectfully submitted.

WtLLiAM L. Yaeger,
Certified Public Acoountant.

Respectfully submitted.

Frederic A. Delano,
R. Walton Moore,

Executive CommiUtee.

280256-41 y

GENERAL APPENDIX

TO THE

SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1940

117

The object of the General Appendix to the Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis-
covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by
collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a general character
or on special topics that are of interest or value to the numerous
correspondents of the Institution.

It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual
report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more
remarkable and important developments in physical and biological
discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations
of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this
purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers
as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progi-ess.

In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum-
mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by
well-known private publishing firms, the secretary had a series of
abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the
prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geolog}*^,
meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and
anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether
satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888.

In the report for 1889 a return was made to the earlier method of
presentmg a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them origmal)
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus-
sion. Tliis method has been continued in the present report for 1940.

119

SOLAR PROMINENCES IN MOTION^

By Robert R. McMath
Director of the McMath-Hulhert 01)servatory of the University of Michigan

[With 6 plates]

The study of the nearest star to our earth, the sun, is probably of
great antiquity. This study, begun by earliest man, has now evolved
from the simplest of visual studies and observations into a field of
science which demands more and more intricate and expensive ap-
paratus and the services of skilled scientists all over the world.
With this evolution has come a separation of the general study into
branches. For instance, Dr. C. G. Abbot, of the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, is the acknowledged authority on the solar constant, which
deals with the radiation received daily by the earth from the sun.
Of course, other men at other institutions also study this important
aspect of solar phenomena, but their particular branch of specializa-
tion may lie in another direction.

At the McMath-Hulbert Observatory, which is located at Lake
Angelus, Pontiac, Mich., we are interested most particularly in those
solar phenomena which are in some way connected with that part
of our sun which we call the chromosphere. This is, perhaps, a loose
definition, but we shall use it here for the sake of simplicity.

When one looks at the sun through a piece of heavily smoked
glass, he sees what the astronomer calls the photosphere. Surround-
ing the photosphere is a shell of gas, similar to an atmosphere, which
is called the chromosphere. This chromosphere is about 8,000 miles

^ The ninth Arthur I^ecture, given under the auspices of the Smithsonian Institution,
January 16, 1940, consisted principally of the unusual motion pictures taken at the
McMath-Hulbert Observatory. In all, about 4,000 feet of 35 mm. motion-picture film
were shown to the audience, accompanied by comments and explanations by Dr. McMath.
This tyr>e of lecture does not lend itself readily to reproduction on tlie printed page, so
we publish herewith his general remarks, accompanied by several plates made from the
films shown during the lecture. For more information in regard to the instrumentation
and the techniques employed, the reader Is referred to the Publications of the Observatory
of the University of Michigan, with particular reference to vol. 4, pp. 53-73, 1 932 ; vol. 5,
pp. 103-117, 1934 ; vol. 6, pp. 43-44, 1934 ; vol. 7, pp. 1-5G, 1937 ; and pp. 191-208, 1939.
With Dr. Edison Pettit, of the Mount Wilson Observatory, Dr. McMath has published
several papers dealing with the scientific a8i)ect9 of the motion pictures shown at the
lecture. These papers have appeared in the Astrophysical Journal, 1937 and 1939, and
occasional notes in the Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific.

121

122 ANmJAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

in depth and is invisible to the naked eye. Arising above the
chromosphere, but ordinarily connected to it, we find the solar promi-
nences, tlie subject of this lecture. The principal instrumentation of
the McMath-Hulbert. Observatory has been designed and built for the
purpose of studying these solar prominences and other related
chromospheric phenomena.

At this point it would be well to trace briefly the development of
our knowledge of chromospheric phenomena, as each step forward
usually rests on the achievements of earlier workers in the field.
Because of the fact that the prominences are rarely high enough to
subtend an angle as much as 2 minutes of arc, it is not surprising
that they apparently were not seen by the early observers of eclipses.
In fact, the discovery of the prominences had to await the invention
of the telescope. That event occurred early in the seventeenth cen-
tury, and nearly 100 years later Tannyan, at Berne, Switzerland,
reported the chromosphere, which he for.nd by observing an eclipse.
Discovery of solar prominences followed shortly thereafter, as
Vassenius observed them at an eclipse during the year 1733. These
are the most important prephotographic discoveries relating to our
subject. It is, of course, impossible to overestimate the importance
of the photographic process to science, and to astronomy in par-
ticular. Hence we are not surprised that at the ex;lipse of July 18,
1860, photographs taken 6 minutes apart by Secchi and De la Rue
showed that the prominences were moving. Also, by this time the
spectroscope had become a new tool in the hands of the scientist,
and on August 18, 1868, Janssen observed the bright spectral lines
of the prominences at an eclipse. It is of interest to note that at
first the bright yellow line of helium was mistaken for sodium. The
next day, August 19, 1868, Janssen observed the prominences without
an eclipse, by means of a widely opened spectroscope slit. This was
indeed an important addition to the available methods of observing
the sun. But we should note that it was October 20 of the same year
that both Janssen and Lockyer announced this new method.

The next step, and it is a very important step, was the invention
of the instrument called the spectroheliograph by an American,
George Ellery Hale, in 1892. This instrument appears to have been
evolved independently and concurrently b)^ Evershed and Deslan-
dres; perhaps Deslandres may have been about a year later than
Hale. Two more years were needed to perfect the spectroheliograph,
and for many years it was the principal instrument used for the
study of chromospheric phenomena. A few more dates, and our
chronology will be sufficiently complete for our purpose here.

In 1931 McMath, at Lake Angelus, started to adapt his technique
of practically continuous photography to Hale's spectrohelioscope,

SOLAR PROMINENCES IN MOTION — McMATH 123

and had obtained successful motion pictures of solar prominences
late in 1932. Lyot, a Frenchman, invented and built his corono-
graph in 1930. His first application of his new instrument to
motion-picture photography of solar prominences was in September
1935. And now, a brief description of the solar research at the
McMath-Hulbert Observatory may be of interest.

The rotation of the sun as shown by sunspots, the drift of sun-
spots and their changes, the more active type of solar prominences,
showing changes of form, were included in the original work pro-
gram of the observatory, and a specially designed spectroheliokine-
matograph for use in motion-picture photography of prominences
was constructed in 1931. This spectroheliokinematogi'aph had to be
light enough and compact enough to fit on the eyepiece end of a
101/2-inch equatorial Cassegrain reflecting telescope, but in spite of
these severe restrictions and the relative rarity of active prominences
during the sunspot minimum, prominence motions of sufficient in-
terest and complexity to warrant installation of more powerful and
versatile equipment for their study were photographed. A tower
telescope with pit spectrograph best suited the specifications that we
evolved from a study of the prominence motions from the spectro-
graph films and the then existing instrumentation of the leading
solar-research observatories. Accordingly, a tower telescope, em-
bodying our experience in astronomical motion-picture photography
and the adaptable features of other tower telescopes, together with
innovations leading to ease of control and manipulation, was erected
during 1935 and produced its first prominence pictures on July 1,
1936.

With the completion of the new tower, the difficulties encountered
with the spectroheliokinematograph have been completely eliminated.
The observer may take pictures as rapidly as required, limited only
by a minimum effective exposure time of one-fiftieth of a second.
The effective wave length of the light producing the picture is under
complete control of the observer and may be varied throughout a
spectral range of 7,000 angstroms, and any setting may be dupli-
cated to a small fraction of an angstrom. The scale of the picture
may be changed in a short time, and the start and end of each ex-
posure are recorded automatically. With the usual type of spectro-
heliograph, perhaps 150 photographs could be obtained in an 8-hour
day; with the McMath-Hulbert tower, 15,000 photographs can be
obtained in the same observing time. Although the mechanical fea-
tures of observing are readily controllable and in a largo part auto-
matic, the observer still needs to exercise considerable skill in
avoiding too many pictures of a slowly moving object and too few
of objects in rapid motion. For the most part, prominence motions

124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

are fairly well represented by taking two pictures per minute. Upon
projection, a series of pictures taken at 2 per minute will show mo-
tions on the screen which are 720 times faster than in nature. The
McMath-Hulbert routine procedure for average objects is to speed
up their motions only 360 times. In the pictures shown on the
screen the compression factor, or rate of speed-up of the motions,
varies from 64 to 360.

It is only because of the great distance to the sun that we need to
increase the apparent motions of prominences on the screen by means
of time-lapse photography. In terms of terrestrial experience the
actual speeds of solar prominence features are enormous. The
slowest observable motions are of the order of 1 km. per second,
about the same speed as a bullet from a high-powered rifle. The
highest observed speed of a prominence feature is about 750 km. per
second. Speeds of 10 or 15 km. per second are very common and
may be taken as average values.

The accompanying photographs, selected from motion pictures,
show, as well as is possible in still pictures, some of the behavior of
prominence material. The most outstanding feature of prominence
motion, the overwhelming preponderance of motion toward the sur-
face of the sun, obviously cannot be shown; nor can the melee of
motions about a sunspot be made clear in any way except by pro-
jected motion pictures. These sample photographs have been chosen,
in most cases, to emphasize changes in form rather than details of
structure, as well as to indicate the importance of obtaining a large
nimiber of observations in a short space of time in the investigations
of many prominence motions.

A very familiar type of solar photograph is reproduced in plate
1, A, which gives the appearance of the surface of the sun on August
18, 1939, showing a number of sunspots of medium size. This is an
image of the intensely brilliant photosphere — the surface studied
by the earliest visual observers and, except at times of solar eclipses,
the only surface available until the advent of the spectroscope. The
advantage in the ability to use a selected wave length for observation
is seen in plate 1, B, a spectroheliogram of the chi'omosphere taken
in the light of the hydrogen line Ha a few moments after the direct
photograph A was exposed. In this case bright and dark markings
in the chromosphere are clearly delineated and serve to indicate
features of tliis higher layer of gases which are transparent to in-
tegrated light and, consequently, do not register on a direct photo-
graph. Many of these dark markings or "flocculi" drift across the
disk with the rotation of the sun, showing only slight changes over
a long period of time. But often, especially in disturbed areas as-
sociated with sunspots, a dark flocculus will suddenly burst into

SOLAR FKOMIWKNCBS IN MOTION — McAIATB 125

violent activity and break into whiplike filaments, which apparently
stream downward into the sun. Spectroheliograms such as plate 1,
G^ which are taken in the light of the broad K line of calcium, em-
phasize the bright markings and show a mottling of the entire disk
which, when projected, has the appearance of a troubled sea. The
difference in emphasis of hydrogen and calcium spectroheliograms
does not necessarily indicate a separation of the two gases in the
chromosphere, for it is possible to record the same features in both
spectral lines by proper spectrograph adjustment. This difference
does, however, afford a means of selecting certain details for examina-
tion by accentuatmg their appearance above that of surrounding
activity. Dark flocculi are more readily photographed in Ha, and,
consequently, this line is usually used to record their behavior.

Plate 1, E^ which is an Ha spectroheliogram of the sunspot group
shown in Z? as a direct photograph, was selected from a record of
violent chromospheric activity which involved both the bright and
dark flocculi. The S-shaped bright flocculus below the large spot
very suddenly became more intense and began to expand. At the
apparent maximum brilliancy, a dark marking developed along the
center line, as shown in the frame reproduced from this point in
the record. Eventually, the entire flocculus darkened, disintegrated,
and disappeared.

Actually, all details photographed on the disk show a high rate
of radiation and appear light or dark depending upon the relation-
ship of their radiation to that of their surroundings. When seen
against the disk, the high-level gas clouds, such as surround the spot
shown in plate 1, F^ are dark; but when we follow them to the edge
of the sun, as in {?, they show, in exposures timed to record disk
detail, as dimly lighted against the dark background of the sky. In
G we also can see in profile the general disturbance of the chromo-
sphere in the region of a sunspot. In this position, at the edge of
the sun, the high-level formations can be seen and photographed in
greater detail, and are called prominences.

Kecurrent typical forms and behaviors of motion have been in-
cluded in Pettit's classification of prominences. More recently, some
new types have been revealed by the motion-picture records, and are
illustrated by the reproductions in plate 2. The first new type to
be discovered was the "coronal," so-called because its apparent origin
is somewhere high above the chromosphere in the region of the
corona. A shows such a streamer at about 150,000 km. above the
chromosphere, moving downward toward the sun. This streamer
was first barely visible at a higher level, and subsequent spectro-
heliograms show it moving along a trajectory that terminated in the
bright limb at a point above the sunspot. In this picture as well as

126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

in B, a neutral density glass flat of 10 percent transmission -was intro-
duced to cover the image of the disk, and it enabled us to record
some of the surface details while exposing for the faint prominences.
The area of intense activity visible in B is covered at the limb by a
bright mound. This mound form frequently occurs over such regions
and has been named a "cap" prominence.

Two subtypes, usually of very short duration, are illustrated in
plate 2, C and D which, in this case, occurred simultaneously over
the same sunspot area. These two spectroheliograms are separated
in time by only 6.42 minutes between midpoints of exposures. In
this short interval the small detached cloud, which is about 31,000
km. above the limb in 6', has been ejected to a point 79,000 km.
above the limb in Z>, and the bright triangular-shaped surge, directly
under the ejection in the first scene, has decreased in height from
23,600 to 15,800 km. A typical surge rises from an active area on
the chromosphere to its maximum extension and then, apparently
with a complete reversal of motion, returns to the surface along the
same trajectory. Rarely, at its highest point, a small cloud will be
ejected on outward while the main body of the surge subsides.
This latter phenomenon is classified as a secondary ejection.

E and F^ plate 2, represent two stages in the development of a
quasi-eruptive prominence. The similarity of this prominence to
one strictly classified as active is evident in its general form and the
development and motion of its streamers. The eruptive characteris-
tics are illustrated in the later scene, F^ where the main body of the
prominence has been detached from the chromosphere. The motion-
picture record reveals that at this stage the velocities of the motions
increased, and that the whole prominence began to move along the
streamer trajectories. Ultimately, the prominence completely dis-
integrated, some material moving along streamers to the left, and
the major portion entering the chromosphere along the bright
streamers at the right. In this case the motion followed paths which
had slight curvatures and were, over considerable lengths, nearly
parallel to the limb. Of the complete record, the eruptive stage
occupies only a small portion and, because of its rapid changes,
requires many spectroheliograms to form a continuous story of the
behavior.

Many records have depicted the last stages in the history of promi-
nences, but of the early stages very little is known. As yet, we
have no means of predicting when, or at what position on the sun, a
prominence is about to develop. Therefore, such records as we may
have of the beginnings of any type of prominence are the result of
particularly good fortune, in that the phenomenon took place in a
region under examination.

SOLAR PROMINENCES IN MOTION — McMATH 127

On September 23, 1938, a detached cloud which existed over a
very active area was photographed. During the time that the tele-
scope was directed at this limited portion of the sun's limb, a promi-
nence loop formed and disappeared at the point under examination.
Selected spectroheliograms from this record are reproduced in
plate 3. The plate covers a period of 2 hours and 20 minutes, and
in that short space of time a bright loop rose to a height of 60,500
km., broke at the crest, and fell back into the chromosphere. The
brilliance of the loop was remarkable. Up to the time when it began
to disintegrate, its intensity was even somewhat greater than that
of the adjacent chromosphere. In this case, apparently, the ma-
terial was caiTied upward and then returned completely to the active
area on the surface from which it had arisen. Except for the dis-
placement of the detached cloud, there remained scarcely a trace of
the phenomenon after its rapid subsidence.

Another example of loop formation is found in the record of the
sunspot-type prominence of September 7, 1939. Although at certain
stages there was a similarity of form and intensity to that of Sep-
tember 23, 1938, the two evidence very different general characteris-
tics. Plate 4 illustrates several stages of the development of the loop
of September 7, 1939, from the time A, when there was the first
faint indication of a small stationary condensation at the right of
the main group of streamers, to the time F, when the loop had broken
up into an intricate pattern of loops and streamers. The phenome-
non began as a faint condensation about 42,000 km. above the limb,
which suddenly brightened and then extended branches in opposite
directions. The branches continued to grow rapidly, and both
curved downward, ultimately forming a complete arch. The time
occupied by the formation of the arch, as shown in E, was 8.27
minutes. The subsequent history of this loop is very different from
that of September 23, 1938, which disappeared into the chromo-
sphere. In contrast to this rapid dissolution, the loop of September
7, 1939, continued to develop into more and more small loops and in-
complete arches. At all times, prominence material was moving
downward from the crests of the loops along both branches to the
chromosphere. The appearance of the multiple arches 1 hour and 7
minutes after the loop had completely developed is shown in F.
This does not, however, represent the final stage, for the phonomenon
continued to become more intricate as it gradually lost its extreme
intensity. In plate 5 F, 2 hours and 2 minutes later than the last
stage shown in plate 4, the arches are shown as delicate, beaded
filaments.

The prominence in which this arch development occurred is a
typical example of the sunspot-type classification which, together

128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN mSTITUTION, 1940

with the sunspot-type prominence of September 21, 1939, is illus-
trated in plate 5. In both prominences shown, all detectable mo-
tions were downward along the streamers, and downward from the
crests of the loops along both branches and into the chromosphere.
The relative intensities, or relative densities, of material in different
parts of the loops were continually changing while the paths of
motion persisted. These prominences exhibited a characteristic
gradual increase in height during the time of observation. Because
of the great predominance of downward motions, this general growth
of the entire phenomenon would seem to be an extension of activity,
rather than any sort of material expansion. Plate 5, A^ B, and 6',
are reproductions from the record of September 21, 1939, showing
the behavior of a loop formation which measured about 142,000 km.
in height and 170,000 km. in width at the beginning of the record,
and increased in over-all dimensions about 25 percent during the
scene. The changes in relative intensity of different parts of the
loop in the 24 minutes wliich intervened between A and B are quite
evident, and paths of motion 2 hours later are indicated in C by the
broken streamers.

The prominence of September 7, 1939 (pi. 5, Z>, E^ and F), pro-
vided a remarkable motion-picture scene of continuous and varied
activity. At the beginning of the record bright knots and delicate
streamers cascaded downward 200,000 km. into the sun. As the
scene progressed, the general pattern became more intricate, includ-
ing a background of faint gigantic loops and many small isolated
condensations moving at high velocities toward the seething chromo-
sphere. The loop formation previously described occurred during
this scene and is illustrated in its later stages in plate 5, E and F.
The scene closed with the longest streamers extending outside the
field of the film, reaching somewhere beyond 240,000 km. above the
limb.

Another very interesting, and perhaps the most impressive,
motion-picture scene of prominence activity that we have obtained
so far is illustrated in plate 6. This is a record of the quasi-eruptive
prominence of August 24 and 25, 1939, photographed in the light
of ionized calcium. Throughout the scene the delicate details of
the internal prominence structure revealed a surprising activity in
the behavior of the motions and the distribution of light intensities.
A and B are reproductions of frames photographed on August 24,
1939, and illustrate the form and dimensions of the prominence in
its "active" stage. At this stage the prominence was about 170,000
km. in height and extended even a greater distance along the limb.
Not noticeable in the reproduction, but clearly defined from the very
beginning of the record, is a narrow "pillar of light" that extends

SOLAR PKOMINENCES IN MOTION — McMATH 129

vertically through the center of the picture, as shown in A. This
bright area expanded, and another, beginnhig apparently somewhat
nearer the chromosphere, developed to give the light distribution
illustrated in B.

The start of observations on August 25 found the prominence in
the eruptive stage, with the light pattern much more pronounced.
In plate 6, C and Z?, the localized illumination has the appearance
of a searchlight beam, and this impression is enhanced by the promi-
nence materia] brightening as it moves into the "spotlight" and then
leaving its brilliancy behind as it moves on out again. Tliis effect
continued until, near the end of the scene, the prominence material
had all moved along the streamer trajectories to disappear into the
chromosphere. In order to include all the extended activity within
the area of the film, the scale of the image was diminished to 50
percent, and later to 15 percent, of the size of the original image.
The maximum extension of the prominence was nearly 400,000 km.,
and it reached a level about 240,000 km. above the sun. This scene
illustrates many characteristic motions of quasi-eruptive promi-
nences, and discloses a new phenomenon of light distribution which
may prove to be additional evidence in our search for the now
hidden reasons for prominence behavior; or, on the other hand, it
may prove to be another problem added to the number already in-
volved in the study of solar physics.

These records of solar prominences in motion have been treated
here in a purely descriptive manner, but we should emphasize their
value as records of solar phenomena which can, at will, be reenacted
for study. Their greatest value, however, lies in the fact that each
scene forms an uninterrupted, accurately timed series of observations.
This mass of scientific data is contributing to our knowledge of the
true characteristics of motions in the outer surface of the sun.

In conclusion, I wish to acknowledge my indebtedness to H. E.
Sawyer and Dr. O. C. Mohler, of our staff. They have taken many
of the pictures shown in connection with this lecture, and in addition
have collaborated in the preparation of this paper. The plates
accompanying this paper were prepared by Sawyer and J. T. Brodie,
of our staff. I most especially wish to thank Dr. Abbot, Secretary
of the Smithsonian Institution, for the honor and privilege of giving
the James Arthur lecture here in Washington this month of January
1940.

Smithsonian Report, 1940.— McMath

PLATE 1

Photographs of the Solar Disk.
A, B, and C, disk of August 18, 1939. A, direct; B, Ha spectroheliogram; C, Ca+ spectroheliogram.
D and E, sunspot group of September 1, 1939. D, direct; E, Ha spectroheliogram.
F and G, Ha spectroheliograms of a sunspot group approaching the limb of the sun. F, September 14, 1939

G, September 16, 1939.

Smithsonian Report. 1940. - McMath

PLATE 2

New Prominences Added to pettit's Classification.

,1, coronal, August 2, 1937, Ca+ spectrohelioginm.

B, cap, August 3, 1937, Ca+ spectroheliogiam.

Cand D, surge and ejection of October 25, 1939, Ha si)ectroheIiograms. C, 21i'lS.9'": D. 21''2.5.32'" O. C. T.

E, ((uasi-eruptive in "active" stage, July 21, 1939, Ca+ spectroheliogram.

F, QUisi-eruptive in "eruptive" stagp. .Jul.v 22, 1939, Ca-\- spectroheliogram.

Smithsonian Report. 1940. McMath

Plate 3

Formation of Prominence. September 23. 1938. Ha Spectroheliograms.

A, lSh3.03"'; B, 19^ 1 2.-,. ]<•'■. C. l<Ji'12.3i:'"; D, 19l'47.77": E. 19h53.99"'; F, 2l|h!l.(i2N.; (:, 2(|i'7 32" • // 20i>10 69"

a.c.T.

Smithsonian Report. 1940. — McMath

Plate 4

Formation of Prominence Loop, September 7. 1939, Ha Spectroheliograms,
A, lGi'20.1fi"'; B, lCh23.28'»; C IGhaO.Oe""; D, 16h32.87'"; E, 16i'38.43ffl; F, 17145.52", G. C. T.

Smithsonian Report. 1940— McMath

PLATE 5

Sunspot-Type Prominences of September 7. 1939. and September 21, 1939,

Ha SPECTROHELIOGRAMS.

A, September 21, UW.SQni; B, September 21, 1.5h5.09ra; C, September 21, 16h58.48'»; D, September?, 16hf).25"°
E, September 7, 18h40.98'"; F, September 7. 20h36.81", O. C. T.

Smithsonian Report. 1940. — McMath

Plate 6

QUASI-ERUPTIVE PROMINENCE OF AUGUST 24 AND 25. 1939. CA+ SPECTROH ELIO-

GRAMS.

.1, .\ugust 24, 15h;n.38"'; B, August 24, 2»>':i7AO"': C. .\ususl 2.i. lHh41.46"': D, .Vugust 25, 17i'18.66'": E, August
25, I8''49.42"> F, August 25, 2|i'7.02"', (5. C. T.

THE SATELLITES OF JUPITEK^

By Seth B. Nicholson
Mount Wilson Ohservatory, Carnegie Institution of Washington

[With 1 plate]

The four large moons of Jupiter were, as you all know, discovered
by Galileo in 1610 with a telescope which he himself had made. This
telescope, with an aperture of about 2 inches,* magnified some 30
times and was probably the largest and most powerful telescope in
existence at that time. The story of how this famous discovery
was made is best told in Galileo's own words which are quoted from
his account in The Sidereal Messenger as translated by E, S. Carlos.'

Discovery of Jupiter's Satellites. — I have now finished my brief account of
the observations which I have thus far made with regard to the Moon, the
Fixed Stars, and the Galaxy. Tliere remains the matter, which seems to me
to deserve to be considered the most important in this worlc, namely, that I
should disclose and publish to the world the occasion of discovering and observ-
ing four Planets, never seen from the very beginning of the world up to our
own times, their positions, and the observations made during the last two
months about their movements and their changes of magnitude ; and I summon
all astronomers to apply themselves to examine and determine their peiiodic
times, which it has not been permitted me to achieve up to this day, owing to
the restriction of my time. I give them warning, however, again, so that they
may not approach such an Inquiry to no purpose, that they will want a very
accurate telescope, and such as I have described in the beginning of this account.

On the 7th day of January in the present year, 1610, in the first hour of the
following night, when I was viewing the constellations of the heavens through a
telescope, the planet Jupiter presented itself to my view, and as I had prepared
for myself a very excellent instrument, I noticed a circumstance Miiich I had
never been able to notice before, owing to want of power in my other telescope,
namely, that three little stars, small but very bright, were near the planet ; and
although I believed them to belong to the number of the fixed stars, yet they
made me somewhat wonder, because they seemed to be arranged exactly in a

* Public lecture delivered under the auspices of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific
in San Francisco on the evening of Monday, January 9, 1939. Reprinted by permission,
with slight revision, from Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific, vol. Bl,
No. 300, April 1939.

* It was Galileo's custom to malte a much larger lens than the apertni-e to be used and
then to cover with a diaphragm the outer portion of the lens where the figure was poor.
The actual aperture used in the discovery of Jupiter's satellites was probably between 1
and ly^ Inches.

* Shapley and Howarth, A source book In astronomy, p. 49, 1929.

131

280256—41 10

132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

Straight line, parallel to the ecliptic, and to be brighter than the rest of the
stars, equal to them in magnitude. The position of them with reference to one
another and to Jupiter was as follows :

E * * O * W

On the east side there were two stars, and a single one towards the west. The
star which was furthest towards the east, and the western star, appeared
rather larger than the third.

I scarcely troubled at all about the distance between them and Jupiter, for,
as I have already said, at first I believed them to be fixed stars ; but when on
January 8th, led by some fatality, I turned again to look at the same part of
the heavens, I found a very different state of things, for there were three little
stars all west of Jupiter, and nearer together than on the previous night, and
they were separated from one another by equal intervals, as the accompanying
figure shows,

E Q * * * y^

At this point, although I had not turned my thoughts at all upon the approxi-
mation of the stars to one another, yet my surprise began to be excited, how
Jupiter could one day be found to the east of all the aforesaid fixed stars when
the day before it had been west of two of them ; and forthwith I became
afraid lest the planet might have moved differently from the calculation of
astronomers, and so had passed those stars by its own proper motion. I, there-
fore, waited for the next night with the most intense longing, but I was dis-
appointed of my hope, for the sky was covered with clouds in every direction.

But on January 10th the stars appeared in the following position with
regard to .Jupiter, the third, as I thought, being hidden by the planet. They
were situated just as before, exactly in the same straight line with Jupiter, and
along the Zodiac ....

E * * O "^

When I had seen these phenomena, as I knew that corresponding changes
of position could not by any means belong to Jupiter, and as, moreover, I

FiGUEE 1. — Part of a page from Galileo's notebook recording the discovery of satellitea

revolving around Jupiter.

SATELLITES OF JUPITER — NICHOLSON 138

perceived that the stars which I saw had always been the same, for there
were no others either in front or behind, within a great distance, along the
Zodiac — at length, changing from doubt into surprise, I discovered that the
interchange of position which I saw belonged not to Jupiter, but to the stars
to which my attention had been drawn, and I thought therefore that they
ought to be observed henceforward with more attention and precision.
Accordingly, on January 11th I saw an arrangement of the following kind :

B * * O ^

namely, only two stars to the east of Jupiter, the nearer of which was distant
from Jupiter three times as far as from the star further to the east; and the
star furthest to the east was nearly twice as large as the other one ; whereas
on the previous night they had appeared nearly of equal magnitude. I, there-
fore, concluded, and decided unhesitatingly, that there are three stars in the
heavens moving about Jupiter, as Venus and Mercury round the Sun; which
at length was established as clear as daylight by numerous other subsequent
observations. These observations also established that there are not only
three, but four, erratic sidereal bodies performing their revolutions roimd

Jupiter

Besides, we have a notable and splendid argument to remove the scruples
of those who can tolerate the revolution of the planets round the Sun in the
Copernican system, yet are so disturbed by the motion of one Moon about the
Earth, while both accomplish an orbit of a year's length about the Sun, that
they consider that this theory of the universe must be upset as impossible : for
now we have not one planet only revolving about another, while both traverse
a vast orbit about the Sun, but our sense of sight presents to us four satellites
circling about Jupiter, like the Moon about the Earth, while the whole system
travels over a mighty orbit about the Sun in the space of twelve years.

In addition to demonstrating so clearly the nature of the solar
system, Jupiter's satellites were responsible for the discovery of
another very important fact of nature, namely, that time is required
for light to travel from one place to another. In 1675, the Danish
astronomer Roemer noticed that when Jupiter was far from the earth
the eclipses of its satellites occurred relatively later than when it was
near the earth. This delay could be explained if it took time for
light to come from Jupiter to the earth, 35 minutes at mean oppo-
sition. Since then the speed of light has been measured many times
by more exact methods but the result is essentially the same as that
obtained from Jupiter's satellites.

After Galileo's time no more satellites of Jupiter were discovered
imtil September 9, 1892, when Professor Barnard, who had been
searching with the 36-inch telescope at the Lick Observatory one
night each week for 2 months, detected a faint satellite very close to
the planet's surface.* This fifth moon of Jupiter has the distinction
of being the last satellite in the solar system to be discovered visually ;
since then all such discoveries have been made by photography.

*Astrophya. .Tourn.. vol. 12, p. 81, 1892.

134

ANNUAL REPORT SiVHTHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

In December 1904 a photographic search for faint satellites of
Jupiter was begun by Perrine with the Crossley reflector at the Lick
Observatory, and on the very first photographs of that search a new

TO V

ORBITS OF JUPITER'S SATELLITES

FiGUKK 2. — Orbits of Jupiter's satellites. Each orbit is shown as in its own plane. The
line o£ nodes on the ecliptic la indicated for each orbit ; the arrows which show the
direction of motion are on the part of the orbit north of the ecliptic. The position of
perijove is marked by the arc of a small circle, concave toward Jupiter. The positions
of the satellites are those at the opposition of 1938.

satellite was discovered, and a month later, in January 1905, still
another.^ Both were much farther from the planet than the other
five. Satellite V revolves around Jupiter in 11 hours and 53 minutes,

» Publ. Astrou. Soc. Pacific, vol. 17, p. 22, 1905 ; ibid., p. 68.

SATELLITES OF JUPITER — NICHOLSON 135

the large satellites, I, II, III, and IV, discovered by Galileo, in
periods ranging from 1 day and 18 hours to 16 days and 16 hours,
but VI and VII, discovered by Perrine, are so far away from Jupiter
that 260 days are required for them to encircle the planet.

In 1908 Melotte at Greenwich, England, while photographing the
sixth and seventh satellites, discovered an eighth.® It was still far-
ther from Jupiter and required 750 days to complete its journey
around the planet. Still more peculiar was the fact that it moved
in a retrograde direction, opposite to that of all the other satellites
of Jupiter. In 1914, while a graduate student at the Lick Observa-
tory, I was assigned the task of photographing the distant satellites
of Jupiter to see how closely they were following their calculated
paths. A ninth satellite was found '' on photographs of the eighth,
just as some years before, the eighth had been found by Melotte near
the sixth and seventh. The period of the ninth satellite is almost
the same as that of the eighth and it also revolves in a retrograde
direction.

Satellites VIII and IX are so far from Jupiter that their motions
are greatly disturbed by the gravitational attraction of the Sun, and
their paths around Jupiter do not even approximate closed curves.
The computation of their positions is therefore a difficult task and
it has been necessary to observe them frequently to prevent their
being lost. In the past 20 years, whenever Jupiter has been near the
earth, they have, therefore, been photographed many times, and such
photographs have always been examined for additional satellites,
but none has been found.

Since no systematic search for undiscovered satellites had ever been
made with a telescope larger than 36 inches in diameter, it seemed
worth while to make such a search with the 100-inch reflector, and
accordingly that project was made a part of the observing program
at the Mount Wilson Observatory in the summer of 1938. The
plan was to photograph the region around Jupiter at the Newtonian
focus of the 100-inch reflector on 8- by 10-inch plates with exposures
of 1 hour each. The survey covered about 10 square degrees ex-
tending 3 degrees east and wesBt and a degree and a quarter to the
north and south of Jupiter. The photographs, which partially over-
lapped, covered 54' by 68' each and reached magnitude 20 over
most of that area. The survey was completed from July 27 to
August 1 except for two fields, which were photographed on August
25. Six additional fields, three on each side of Jupiter had been
photographed on July 5 and 6 to record any satellites that would be
hidden in the glare near Jupiter at the time of the principal survey
3 weeks later.

" Mon. Not, Tol. 68, p. 373, 1908.

' Publ. AstroD. Soc. Pacific, vol. 26, p. 198. 1914.

136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Very faint satellites would not show on photographs made even
with a large telescope guided in the ordinary way because, during
the necessarily long exposures, they would move, and therefore fail
to register. By moving the telescope to follow Jupiter during the
exposure, images of the very faint satellites which move very little
relative to Jupiter in 1 hour, can be made to fall nearly at the same
spot on the photographic plate during the whole exposure, thus leav-
ing a visible image. On such a plate the brighter stars make elonga-
ted images easily distinguished from the round image left by a
satellite.

One or more of the thousands of asteroids which revolve around
the Sun between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter registered on
almost every photograph taken in the search. The motions of these
tiny planets are, however, generally faster than that of Jupiter, and
their images are somewhat elongated, although not so much as the
images of stars. About 40 moving objects were found in the course
of the search. Among these were the known satellites VI, VII,
VIII, and IX, and 5 other objects which were moving along with
Jupiter.

Satellites VI and VII were identified by their positions given in
the American Ephemeris and Nautical Almanac, and VIII by an
ephemeris computed by Hertz of Yale. No ephemeris of J IX was
computed until after the survey was finished so that the rediscovery
of that satellite served as a check on the completeness of the survey.

The five unidentified objects were followed until their motions iden-
tified two of them as new satellites of Jupiter^ and the other three
as asteroids which happened to be nearly in line with Jupiter for a
few days.

The new moons are very faint and anyone who wishes to observe
them should remember the advice Galileo gave to those who might
try to see the satellites he had just discovered. "I give them warn-
ing, however, again so that they may not approach such an inquiry
to no purpose, that they will need a very accurate telescope." The
new satellites can be photographed with a telescope smaller than
the 100-inch reflector if a sufficiently long exposure is given but it
would be difficult to photograph them with an aperture much smaller
than 36 inches. No effort has been made to see them that I know
of, and at the present time there is only one telescope with which
they could be seen, the 100-inch telescope of the Mount Wilson Ob-
servatory. All the previously discovered satellites of Jupiter have
been seen with that telescope, even IX, which ls just as faint as
XI and almost as faint as X.® An idea of the extreme f aintness of

» Publ. Astron. Soc. Pacific, vol. 50, p. 292, 1938.
»PubL Astron. Soc. Pacific, vol. 50, p. 350. 1938.

SATELLITES OJ JUPITER — ^NICHOLSON 137

these objects may be obtained by comparing their brightness with that
of a candle. If the light of a candle were not absorbed by the earth's
atmosphere it would have to be viewed from a distance of 3,000
miles in order to appear as faint as they are. They are so small
and so far from the planet that an observer on Jupiter itself would
require a 6-inch telescope to see them. Photographs of an hour's
exposure with the 100-inch telescope are capable of showing much
fainter objects than those that were found, and the fact that fainter
satellites were not found indicates that, if Jupiter has more undis-
covered satellites, they are probably much fainter than those now
known.

The size of the new satellites, although not directly measurable,
can be inferred from the measured brightness and an assumed value
of the surface brightness.^" Satellite X is fainter than XI and there-
fore probably smaller. Unless their surfaces are extremely dark,
their diameters must be less than 15 and 19 miles, respectively. The
diameters of the other faint satellites of Jupiter, likewise inferred
from their brightness, are: V and VI, 90 miles; VII and VIII, 25
miles; IX, 19 miles. The satellites discovered by Galileo are huge
in comparison. The smallest is 2,000 miles in diameter, almost the
same size as our Moon; the largest, 3,000 miles in diameter, is as
big as the planet Mercury.

Satellite X, like VI and VII, revolves around Jupiter in a period of
about 260 days, and in the same direction in which they move. The
orbit of satellite XI is still not accurately known but the preliminary
calculations show that it revolves in the same direction as VIII and
IX, in a period of about TOO days.

The five inner satellites form a family group at an average distance
of a little less than 1 million miles from the planet, all revolving
nearly in the plane of Jupiter's equator. Satellites VI, VII, and X
form another family at a distance of 7 million miles, while VIII,
IX, and XI form still a third, 15 million miles from the planet.
The characteristics of each group are so closely accordant that they
cannot be the result of chance. Whether the small outer satellites
have been captured by Jupiter is a debated question, but the fact
that they exist in families seems to point toward a common origin
for each group unless it can be shown that satellites of Jupiter have
much more stable orbits at distances of 7 and 15 milHon miles than
at other distances.

Many have asked what the new satellites are to be named. They
will be known only by the numbers X and XI, written in roman

"The diameter of a satellite of Jupiter may be computpd by the formula
log d = 4.4G — 0.2 m — log ^p
where d is the diameter in miles, m is the photographic magnitude at mean opposition,
and p is a factor, closely related to the albedo, which for the darker satellites and asteroids
has a value of about 0.1.

138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

numerals, and usually prefixed by the letter J to identify them with
Jupiter. The four satellites discovered by Galileo were once named
but they are more commonly referred to as satellites I, II, III, and
IV than by their names, lo, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. The
satellites of Mars, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune all have names,
although the name of Neptune's satellite, Triton, is not generally
used. When Barnard discovered the fifth satellite of Jupiter many
names were proposed for it but none was adopted. Barnard thought
that, since the names of the four bright satellites were so little used,
the new satellite should simply be called the Fifth Satellite. His
suggestion was followed and a similar custom has prevailed for all
those discovered since. This custom is very convenient and makes
it possible to foretell the name of the next satellite, should another
be discovered. It will be J XII.

Smithsonian Report. 1940.— Nicholson

Plate 1

SATELLITES X AND XI OF JUPITER.

J X. 1938, August 25. Exposure 31 min. Length of star trails 10". Image centered on plate.
J XI. Discovery plates, 1938, July 30. Exposure 60 min. Length of star trails 15". The image of the
satellite was 26' from the center of the plate on the upper reproduction and 29' on the lower.

CUI.TURAL VALUES OF PHYSICS^

By David Dietz
Science Editor of the Scripps-Hotcard Netrspapers

There was a time when the classics formed the cuUural bond that
united educated men throughout the world. Every high-school boy
read his Caesar, Cicero, and Virgil in Latin, his Xenophon and
Homer in Greek. He continued in college with Horace and the
other Latin poets and made the acquaintance of the Greek drama-
tists and philosophers. Thus all educated men were bound together
by a common educational experience and their thinking was rooted
in a common source of inspiration, the classical learning of ancient
Rome and Greece.

With the rise of the twentieth century, the classics lost their hold.
I do not suppose that there is a college in America which lists a
knowledge of Greek among its entrance requirements. Many col-
leges, including, of course, the scientific schools, do not require Latin.

The dethronement of the classics is so nearly complete today that
it is doubtful if the young student, stepping upon a college campus
for the first time, realizes the change which has taken place in the
structure of education. I carry a sharp picture of the changing
process since it was my interesting fortune to live through it.

The decline of the classics has, unquestionably, been a byproduct
of the rise of science. Many educators, however, have lamented the
fact that there is no longer a common cultural tie among learned
men. For with the rise of science has come the rise of specialties
and with the rise of specialties has come a division of tongues.
Each specialist speaks a language of his own and this fact has
sometimes been a handicap to understanding and a stumbling block
to progress.

It is inevitable that each specialist must pursue his own line of
attack farther and farther into the frontier of the unknown. It is,
therefore, equally inevitable that these pioneers must draw away

1 Address given at the annual meeting of the Pennsylvania Conference of CoUege Physics
Teachers, Pennsylvania State College, October 14, 1938. Reprinted by permission from
Journal of Applied Pliysics, vol. 10, February 1939.

189

140 ANlSrUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

farther and farther from each other. But this makes it all the
more essential that there be some common bond of understanding
both for them and for all educated men in general.

Since this is preeminently an age of science, an age chiefly dis-
tinguished Jor its advances in scientific understanding and engineer-
ing achievement, it is obvious that such a common basis must be
found in the realm of science. I am firmly convinced that there is
only one subject that can furnish this necessary foundation for mod-
ern education. It is the subject of physics. I wish to urge, there-
fore, that educators everywhere give thought to ways of shaping
educational policies to bring about this united emphasis upon the
teaching of physics.

Physics derives its first great cultural value from the fact that
the present age cannot be understood without an understanding of
physics. Physics is the foundation stone of the age in which we
live. It was ushered in b}^ discoveries in the realm of physics.

It was the announcement of the X-ray by Roentgen in 1895, fol-
lowed in quick succession by Becquerel's disclosure of radioactivity,
the isolation of radium by the Curies, and the researches into the
nature of the atom and the electronic theory of matter by Thomson,
Lorentz, Eutherford, Soddy, and others which ushered in the mag-
nificent edifice of twentieth-century science. These discoveries not
only set the pace but furnished the foundation for the century's
growth. In 1900 the electron was a theory. In the next decade,
Dr. Millikan was to perform his famous experiments to measure
the electric charge upon the electron, experiments destined to win
the Nobel prize in physics. Today, the world has put the electron to
work. In the vacuum tubes of our radio sets, in the photoelectric
cell, in other electronic tubes and in the X-ray tube, we are making
daily use of the electron (1).^

It will be seen, therefore, that only through a knowledge of phy-
sics can the student gain the historical perspective needed for an
understanding of the temper and the tempo of the age in which
we live.

But we need an understanding of physics just as much for the
comprehension of the individual details which make up the picture
of our modern age. Without it, the radio set is a complete riddle,
the gasoline engine becomes a baffling puzzle, the electric light, a
mystery without explanation. We can only understand these things
and the countless other mechanical and electrical marvels around us

* Numbers In parentheseB refer to bibliography at end of article.

CULTURAL VALUES OF PHTrSICS — DIETZ 141

with the aid of the principles of physics. And this fact brings me
to another great cultural value of physics.

Physics derives its second great cultural value from the fact that
it is the foundation of all the sciences. This has not always been
realized for many reasons.

In the first place, a trick of language alienated physics from its
offspring and obscured the connection. Applied physics became
known as engineering and the applications of physics were dissemi-
nated under the names of mechanical engineering, civil engineering
metallurgy, electrical engineering, and so on. But let us not forget
that it was the physicist who launched each of these specialties. It
was Galileo who laid down the fundamental laws of the machine.
Newton's mathematical expression of Galileo's dictum, force equals
mass times acceleration, is the foundation of every machine in the
world. Similarly, electrical engineering grew from the experiments
of Oersted, Ampere, Faraday, and Ohm. The first principles of
every engineering science are the laws of physics and no real under-
standing of engineering advances is possible without a knowledge
of physics.

The fundamental position of physics as the foundation stone of all
science was missed, in the second place, because in certain branches
of science this relationship was not at first clear. It took time
to bring the development of atomic theory to the point where it
was plain that chemical phenomena represented the operation of
physical laws. Today we see the relationship of chemistry to phys-
ics clearly expressed by the use of the term "physical chemistry"
which, perhaps, might just as well be written "chemical physics."
The chemist invokes the laws of physics to explain the behavior of
atoms and often we find both chemists and physicists working upon
identical problems.

Biology, long regarded as a thing apart, has been brought into
the fold of the physical sciences. This recognition of relationship
was first celebrated with the creation of "biochemistry," a field of
research which has been unusually fruitful. More recently this
has been extended into "biophysics." Not long ago I was talking
to the director of an important medical laboratory in the Middle
West. "You will be surprised to know the latest addition to my
staff," he said. "It is a full-time physicist."

This new demand for well-trained mathematical and experimental
physicists in many laboratories outside the realm of physics, is one
of the most interesting and important trends of our times. Not only
are chemical, biological, and medical laboratories seeking the aid
and services of physicists, but many industrial laboratories are dis-
covering that chemists and engineers are not sufficient to deal with
the intricate problems met today in mining, metallurgy, electrical

142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

design and construction, and many other fields. This trend was dis-
cussed at some length at the Conference on Industrial Physics ar-
ranged by the physics department of the University of Pittsburgh on
November 15, 1935 (2). I had the honor of appearing on that
program (3) and I remember well the discussions there, particularly
the paper by Dr. A. W. Hull of the General Electric Co. entitled
"Putting Physics to Work" (4).

The physicist is doing his share to usher in the new world of taller
buildings, longer bridges, swifter trains, safer aircraft, and finer
homes, a new world of greater beauty, deeper comfort, and smoother
efficiency. He is helping to build this new world out of stronger
steels, tougher alloys, better aluminum products, more useful plastics,
harder abrasives, more powerful machine tools, and more ingenious
automatic controls.

A third great cultural value of ph5'sics is derived from the im-
portance of physics for the future. I like to talk about the future
for I believe that we should face tlie future with courage and confi-
dence. I believe that the world will move within the next century
into a period far more remarkable than the present, and I believe
that the leadership for this great progress will come from America.

I have spoken of the taller buildings, the longer bridges, and the
faster trains and airplanes that are now evolving. But no bigger
mistake could be made than to think of the future as nothing more
than an exaggerated picture of the present.

This is the mistake, as the British satirist and caricaturist, Max
Beerbohm, has pointed out, that every century has made. The six-
teenth century thought that the seventeenth century would be only
a magnified picture of itself. The seventeenth thought the same of
the eighteenth, and the eighteenth thought likewise of the nineteenth.
Yet each century had a personality and a development all its own.

How smug the nineteenth century was in this regard can best be
described by borrowing a story from Dr. Millikan. He tells how, as
a student in Europe, he attended the annual session of the British
Association for the Advancement of Science in 1893. An eminent
British physicist rose to address that august assembly and spent his
time giving thanks that he had lived at the close of the nineteenth
century. For, he said, the nineteenth century had seen the completion
of the great edifice of physics. All the laws of nature had been discov-
ered and cataloged. Nothing remained for the physicists of the future
but to repeat the experiments of the past. Perhaps some twentieth-
century physicist might carry to four decimal places a determination
which the nineteenth-century physicist had left at thi'ee.

And how quickly that smug view of nature was overturned ! Just
2 years later, in 1895, Roentgen showed the German Physical Society

CULTURAL VALUES OF PHYSICS — DIETZ 143

the world's first X-ray pictures. Those pictures — so commonplace
today, so startling then, the picture of coins and keys showing through
the leather walls of a purse, of bones showing through the skin and
flesh of a human hand — those pictures were proof that far from com-
pleting the cataloging of nature's laws, the nineteenth-century phys-
icist had only made a beginning.

In thinking of the twenty -first century, I would ask you not to look
at those things which represent the most complete accomplishments of
our present day but to look at those things which we are just now
beginning to comprehend. I would ask you to visit the laboratories
and study the researches under way rather than to visit the factory
or the market place to study the finished achievements.

Sometimes these laboratoiy experiments look confused and useless,
but let us not fool ourselves. I am reminded of the story of the
visit which the Prime Minister of England paid to Faraday's lab-
oratory at the Royal Institution in London. Faraday was then en-
gaged in those experiments upon the laws of electricity, experiments
in physics, if you please, from which have come every electric
generator, transformer, and motor in the world.

"What's the use of all this?" the Prime Minister asked Faraday.

"Don't worry, milord," Faraday is said to have replied, "you'll tax
it yet."

When we recall all the taxes paid today by the electrical industry,
and all the taxes we help pay when we pay our electric-light bills,
we are inclined to agree with Faraday.

And I am reminded of another story, this one about our own great
statesman, patriot, and physicist, Benjamin Franklin. That worthy
did many things his neighbors did not altogether understand, like
flying kites, for example. One day, a neighbor woman asked Ben
the very same question that the Prime Minister had asked Fara-
day. "Ben," she said, "what's the use of all this?" And Franklin
being a good Yankee, replied in Yankee fashion with another ques-
tion. "What's the use of a baby ? " he asked.

We all know the answer to that question. A baby can grow up
to be a very useful man or woman, and when we see the veritable
giant into which the baby electricity has grown, we realize the wis-
dom of Franklin.

Now when you attempt to picture the future I want you to give
thought to some of the babies of the physical laboratory. They
will grow up to make the twenty-first century a personality in its
own right, different from the century we know.

I think first of the "babies" in the field of the production of
power. The age in which we live rests upon a foundation of phys-
ical power. Imagine, for a moment, what would happen to our great
cities if electric power and the power of the gasoline engine were

144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

suddenly removed. Every electric light would go out. Every
electric motor would stop. Every automobile would become useless.

Physical power is the basis of economic and national power. Pro-
fessor Leith, of the University of Wisconsin, has pointed out that it is
often said that the World War transferred world power from Great
Britain to America. But he believes that the World War onl}' made
evident what had already happened. In the nineteenth century,
Great Britain produced half of the world's physical power. Today,
the output of energy in the United States from coal, oil, natural gas,
and water power amounts to half of the world's total. It is this
fact, rather than the last war. Professor Leith believes, that explains
the dominant position of America in the world of today (5) .

Any new source of energy, therefore, will be of supreme importance
to the future and a cheap and abundant source of energy will change
the shape of the future in ways which we can only attempt to guess.
As is well known to you, attempts are being made to find such sources
of power.

It is being sought, first of all, in attempts to put the sun to work.
It would not be fair to say that the sun's energy goes to waste, since
its light and heat makes life upon this earth possible. But it is
perfectly true that we waste the greater part of the energy which the
sun sends us. It has been calculated that the amount of energy fall-
ing upon every square yard of earth's surface per second is the equiv-
alent of 11/^ horsepower.

Physicists have long dreamed of putting this solar energy to
work. One of the first suggestions made was to concentrate the
sun's heat by means of mirrors upon a steam boiler. Dr. C. G.
Abbot, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, has been a pio-
neer in this field, and his solar engine (6), which has been ex-
hibited at meetings of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science, at the Great Lakes Exhibition in Cleveland, and
elsewhere, is well known to many of you. Dr. Abbot incorporated
many ingenious features in his device. A parabolic mirror con-
centrates sunlight upon the boiler which is actually two concentric
glass tubes with a vacumn between them. Thus while there is only
a slight barrier to the entrance of the sun's radiant energy, there
is a considerable barrier against the loss of heat by atmospheric
conduction. Steam is generated in the inner tube upon the flash-
boiler principle.

Another method for the utilization of solar energy which seems
highly promising to many scientists is the conversion of sunlight
into electricity by photoelectric methods.

About a year ago, on a visit to the research laboratories of the
Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co. at East Pittsburgh,
I was shown four photoelectric cells like those used in light meters

CULTURAL VALUES 0¥ PHYSICS — DIETZ 145

which had been connected to a toy electric motor, the sort you might
buy for a small boy at Christmas. When sunlight fell upon the
cells, enough electricity was generated to run the motor. The re-
search men referred to the motor laughingly as "a 1 fly-power
motor." But, again, it must be remembered that we were looking
at a scientific baby.

Perhaps the day will come when our houses will be roofed with
photoelectric cells, instead of shingles, and we will make electricity,
instead of hay, while the sun shines.

It is of the utmost significance that during the present year both
Harvard University and Massachusetts Institute of Teclmology
were given funds totaling about $1,000,000 by Dr. Godfrey L.
Cabot to investigate the problem of solar energy. M. I. T. is to
concentrate upon the direct utilization of solar energy by such
means as I have been describing, while Harvard is to investigate
photosynthesis, the method by which plants utilize solar energy.

Another direction in which many scientists are looking for a new
source of energy is the interior of the atom. That the conversion
of matter into energy would release tremendous stores of power was
shown as early as 1905 when Albert Einstein wrote his equations
for the inertia of energy. Experiments in artificial radioactivity
during the last 5 years have confirmed these equations of Einstein.

As you know, it has been calculated that the atomic energy in a
glass of water would be enough to drive an ocean liner from New
York to Cherbourg and back again. It is easy to see how different
a world this would be if, instead of filling your automobile tank
with gasoline every other day, you merely filled it with water once
a year.

Second in importance to power in this world of ours, is the pos-
session of raw materials. Here again we are fortunate to be citizens
of America since this Nation is the largest owner, producer, and con-
sumer of minerals, leading in the production of iron, copper, lead,
zinc, aluminum, phosphates, gypsum, and sulphur (5).

But the world's gi-eatest reservoir of minerals is the ocean. A
new world would dawn if we once learned to mine the ocean suc-
cessfully. This is not as wild an idea as it sounds, for, as many of
you know, a successful beginning has already been made.

If you use ethyl gasoline in your automobile, the chances are
that it was made with bromine that was mined from the ocean. At
Kure Beach, near Wilmington, N. C, is the plant of the Ethyl-
Dow Chemical Co. Sea water is pumped through the plant and
bromine extracted from it by a relatively simple chemical process.

During the course of a year, the two giant, electrically driven cen-
trifugal pumps lift about a square mile of ocean, 80 feet deep, into
the towers of the Ethyl-Dow plant at Kure Beach. Chemists of the

146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

plant calculate that while they got the bromine out of that volume
of sea water they missed about $96,379,460 worth of mineral wealth.
Included in it was $29,300 worth of silver and $42,000 worth of gold.

While gold and silver appeal to our imaginations, a far greater
amount of wealth was in that sea water in the form of sodium
chloride, epsom salts, calcium chloride, potassium chloride, alumi-
num, magnesium, strontium carbonate, iron, copper, and iodine.

From the physical laboratory may come techniques in the future
which will extend the ability of man to mine the ocean. And it
Lukes little imagination to perceive how profoundly this will change
the trend of civilization.

I have alluded to the new studies at Harvard upon photosynthesis.
Perhaps some day, as Dr. Slosson once suggested, we may know as
much chemistry as a tree. Perhaps we should say as much physics
as a tree. When that day comes, artificial photosynthesis will be
possible, and perhaps we will solve the farm problem by abolishing
the farm and the cycle of the soil and by manufacturing our food in
factories run by sunlight.

We may^ also expect great changes in the future from the appli-
cation of physics to biology and medicine. Recentlj', as some of you
know, I undertook to survey the field of medicine in my book.
Medical Magic. I devoted the last chapter of the book to a glance
at the future and in it I wrote : "Of one thing we can be certain : that
every advance in chemistry and physics, every new step in the
understanding of the behavior of the molecule, the atom, and the
electron, will have its influence upon medical progress. Already the
medical laboratories of the world are making use of all the knowledge
that physics and chemistry has to offer" (7).

An example of the application of the technique of physics to
biology is the development of the so-called brain-wave machine in
which vacuum-tube amplifiers are used to amplify the electrical
currents generated in the brain. A new concept of brain activity
and a new understanding of the nerve cell, its functions, and its
behavior, are coming from these studies.

In the study of the potent drugs of life, the hormones, the vita-
mins, the enzymes, and the other important chemical factors, the
constant attempt is to isolate them in pure crystalline form so that
they may be studied with all the resources of the modern chemical
and physical laboratory.

Biologists have always associated activity with life, and for many
decades now they have known that a vast amount of action goes on
within the living organism. They have been aware of the beating

CULTURAL VALUES OF PHYSICS — DIETZ 147

of the heart that keeps the blood in circulation, the rhythmic motion
of the lungs that supplies oxygen to the blood stream, the complex
chemical activities of the digestive apparatus and other organs.
More recently they have learned something about the living drug
factories, the ductless glands, and about the electrochemical messages
that flow along the nerve fibers.

But new experiments, applying the latest discoveries of atomic
physics to the problems of physiology, have disclosed a veritable
cyclone of activity within the human body such as was never before
suspected. The recent discovery of artificial radioactivity has made
possible these new findings.

At the Harvard Tercentenary Conference, Prof. August Krogh (8),
the distinguished biologist of the University of Copenhagen, reported
experiments in which radioactive phosphorus was fed to rats. He
reported that within a short time this radioactive phosphorus had
left the blood, exchanging places with the ordinary phosphorus of
the tissues. This exchange involved the muscles and other organs.
Even more astounding, he said, was the fact that this radioactive
phosphorus found its ways into the bones and teeth. He believes,
therefore, that we must change our views of the structure of living
organisms, accepting a constant movement of atoms within it such
as was never previously pictured.

It is interesting to speculate what life may be like when our
knowledge of the chemistry and physics of the human body has
become so great as to give us such control over it as is undreamed
of today.

Perhaps the tme is coming when it will be possible to make a
hormone survey of the growing child. A few drops of his blood,
carefully extracted from a pinprick in a finger, placed in a test tube
and sent to the laboratory for analysis, may reveal far more about
the child than any present-day method. Perhaps by that day, the
physician will also possess sufficient knowledge to act upon what the
analysis will show.

Who can say how successful these methods may prove eventually ?
Perhaps the muscles of the strongest child are the rightful heritage
of every child, the keenest brain the bii-thright of every infant.

The whole world is thrilled when a youthful Yehudi Menuhin
strides out upon the concert stage, playing the works of Beethoven
and Brahms with the brilliant understanding of a mature genius.
The whole world stares in amazement when an 8-year-old boy turns
out to be a "marvel" at chess, playing 50 simultaneous matches against
masters of tlie game and winning them all.

Perhaps the genius tliat makes a Yehudi Menuhin or a chess
marvel lurks within every child.

280256 — Jl 11

148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

If you drive an automobile you have no doubt experienced a time
when the car developed engine trouble. The motor sputtered and
backfired; it ran haltingly and noisily. You took the car to a
garage where a trained mechanic rolled up his sleeves and got out
an assortment of tools and wrenches. He regulated the carburetor
and made other minor adjustments. Soon the engine began to run
smoothly and quietly, quickly gaining its full efficiency.

It may be that every human being is like the automobile engine
that is not quite correctly adjusted. It may be that tiny adjustments,
if we knew how to make them, would open up the potentiality of
genius for every child. Perhaps that hope is extravagant, but
there seems every reason to believe that the time is coming when
far more will be accomplished to insure stronger bodies, healthier
nerves, stabler dispositions, and keener minds for every child than
at the present time.

Physics derives its fourth great cultural value from the fact that
it is the foundation stone of all attempts to understand the universe.
We have just been considering the basic relationship which physics
bears to chemistry and biology. That relationship applies equally
to astronomy and cosmogony. I attempted to trace this essential
unity of the universe in my first book. The Story of Science (9).

The universe is one. The same fundamental laws that govern
the electrons in the atom control the stars in the Milky Way.
Modern science has achieved its greatest triumph in tracing the
organization of the universe from the tiny electron to the great clouds
of galaxies. This has been done with the aid of physics. Perhaps
it was in tliis field that the importance of physics was first most
clearly realized. Galileo was an astronomer as well as a physicist
and the laws which he and later Newton developed were seen at
once to apply to the heavens as well as the earth. Appropriately
enough the study of planetary motions was christened "celestial
mechanics."

Newton in his law of universal gravitation stated a rule that
applies as truly to the double star 500 light-years away as it does
to the apple falling from the branch of a tree.

The kinship of physics and astronomy became clearer with the
investigations of the nature of light and the invention of the spectro-
scope, and this kinship was duly celebrated with the christening
of this branch of study as "astrophysics."

In his attempts to solve the problem of the evolution of the galaxy,
the genesis of the sun's heat, the origin of the solar system, and
many other fascinating problems of the heavens, the astronomer
turns to the knowledge which the physicist has accumulated about

CULTURAL VALUES OF PHTSICS — DIETZ 149

the behavior of subatomic particles and energy photons. He employs
the experimental apparatus of the physics laboratory and the equa-
tions of the mathematical physicist.

"Matter and force are the two names of the one Artist who fashions
the living as well as the lifeless," wrote the great Huxley. But the
modern view puts the gi-eater emphasis upon energy.

"All the life of the universe," says Sir James Jeans, "may be
regarded as manifestations of energy masquerading in various forms,
and all the changes in the universe as energy running about from one
of these forms to the other, but always without altering its total
amount" (10).

In our attempts to construct a universe, therefore, we may regard
all the various subatomic particles as concentrated energy, "bottled
energy" if you please, since the recent experiments with artificial
radioactivity have verified Einstein's equation of 1905 for the conver-
sion of matter into energy and vice versa.

It is interesting to ask what ingredients we need for the construc-
tion of a universe in addition to energy. A generation ago we should
have required space and time, but now we need only the space-time
continuum of Einstein.

We need certain forces within this space-time continuum— the force
of gravity, electromagnetic forces, the nuclear binding forces which
Tuve and his associates have disclosed, and perhaps the cosmic force
of repulsion to account for the expanding universe of Lemaitre. For
the study of all these we must turn to physics. And then, perhaps,
we shall eventually in the fashion set forth in Einstein's field theory
come to regard all of them as manifestations of the space-time field.
But whatever decision we may reach eventually, it is apparent that
the man without training in physics cannot work successfully in this
field and the man without a knowledge of physics cannot hope to have
an intelligent understanding of what is being done.

Needless to state, this is a field in which every person, however
slight his formal education has been, shows a keen interest. Speaking
2 years ago before the American Association for the Advancement of
Science upon the subject of Science and the American Press (11), I
sought to trace the factors which accounted for the present-day wide-
spread interest in science. I pointed out that the interest in Einstein's
theory of relativity was one of the chief factors in the rapid growth
of interest in science immediately following the World War.

I have tried to show so far that a knowledge of physics is necessary
for an understanding of the age in which we live, for an understand-
ing of all science, for an understanding of the future, and for an
understanding of the universe in which we live. Before concluding

150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 40

I wish briefly to list certain virtues to be gained from the study of
physics. These constitute the remaining cultural values of physics
which I want to discuss.

Physics derives its fifth great cultural value from the fact that it
teaches the meaning and the value of natural law. This discovery
of the existence of the laws of nature has been one of man's greatest
triumphs. It has changed his whole intellectual outlook.

To ancient man the universe was a chaos, governed by caprice. In
order to explain its phenomena, he found it necessary to people the
heavens with a host of minor gods and goddesses, and the mountains
and streams with a varied throng of giants, nymphs, and spirits. The
occurrence of an eclipse, the appearance of a comet, the gathering
of the thunderstorm, and the flash of the lightning were interpreted
as the activities of these mythological personages.

Gradually science revealed the order of the cosmos. It taught that
the universe was orderly, functioning in response to well-established
laws. A corollary of the existence of these laws is the important fact
that their willful neglect leads automatically to its own inexorable
penalty.

A sixth great cultural value of physics arises from the fact that
it teaches precision. Experiments must be planned with precision.
Observations and measurements must be precise. Thinking must be
definite and logical. This is a lesson well worth learning. The stu-
dent who carries habits of precision from the physical laboratory to
the outside world is the richer thereby.

A seventh great cultural value of physics is that it inculcates a love
for the truth and a desire to attain it. I have dwelled at some length
upon the present and future applications of physics.

To the scientist, the practical applications have always been sec-
ondary. He has sought primarily to understand nature and the
universe. Galileo, meditating upon the laws of motion, was trying to
understand the workings of nature. He was not thinking of engines
and machines. Maxwell, seeking to explain the nature of light, had
no thought of the radio. This does not mean that science is con-
temptuous of its practical uses. The opposite is true. But it does
mean that the true scientist is motivated by a higher aim than to make
life easier. He wishes also to ennoble and to enrich life. The spirit
of science then is, first of all, the wish to know, the urge to seek, the
desire to com.prehend the universe.

I have sometimes noticed that people who have had no training
in science, and therefore have no adequate understanding of its spirit,
are confused by this point. I have had them come to me, for ex-
ample, and ask, "What is the practical use of the Einstein theory?"
They undei-stand that scientists regard Einstein as the greatest scien-

CULTURAL VALUES OF PHYSICS — DIETZ 151

tific mind since Newton, perhaps as the greatest scientific mind of
all time. But they cannot understand that the scientist venerates the
great excursions which Einstein has made into the realm of
understanding.

The pursuit of physics, therefore, is valuable in that it will incul-
cate this point of view in the student and give him a richer outlook
upon life.

The eighth great cultural value of physics is its ability to instill
the spirit of courage in its students. In this respect physics is one
with the other sciences, for the scientist has never been bound by
ancient tradition. Copernicus dared to cast aside the Ptolemaic
theory though it had dominated man's thoughts for centuries. Vesa-
lius challenged the authority of Galen's anatomy even though it had
ruled since the time of the Romans. Scientists did not fear Newton's
"Principia" because it was new. They did not flee from Maxwell's
electromagnetic theory of light because it was revolutionary.

Twentieth-century scientists have not rejected Planck and Ruther-
ford and Schrodinger and Einstein because their ideas were new.
On the contrary, they have rejoiced in each new discovery. This is
the courage which the world needs constantly, the spirit to forge
ahead, to discover new truths, and to face them when they have been
discovered.

The ninth great cultural value of physics is that it instills the
spirit of tolerance. The physicist knows that there is no monopoly
upon truth. He sees the advance of science as a great cooperative
venture of all nations and peoples down through the years. The roll
of every science is an international one. Copernicus was a Pole;
Tycho, a Dane; Kepler, a German; Galileo, an Italian; Newton, an
Englishman. The story is the same today. The theory of Einstein
receives its chief verifications at the hands of English and American
scientist^!.

The scientist is tolerant of other men's points of view. Realizing
how frequently he must change his own views in the face of new evi-
dence, he is never scornful of the other man's point of view. He
realizes how little mankind knows and how much is yet to be learned
and the realization makes him tolerant.

The twentieth-century physicist is peculiarly aware of the danger
of jumping to dogmatic and sweeping conclusions on insufficient evi-
dence. He is cognizant of the mistake which the nineteenth-century
physicist made in concluding that the structure of physics had been
completed and that he was justified from that structure in believing
in a purely mechanistic universe.

Today, the physicist is aware of the change in our thinking which
has been introduced by the Einstein theory of relativity and the
Heisenberg uncertainty principle.

152 ANNUAL RBPOKT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Proud as he is of the precision of his experiments and his thinking
he realizes that there is, seemingly, today a place where precision
breaks down. He knows, from the Heisenberg principle of uncer-
tainty, that he can never measure both the position and the velocity
of an electron with exactness. What he achieves in exactness in
measuring position, he loses in exactness in velocity, and vice versa.

He is careful not to jump to conclusions too quickly from this fact,
although physicists everywhere are studying it. Thus Bohr, for
example, has extended this principle to other pairs of measurements
and calls these paired quantities "conjugate quantities," and the rela-
tionship between the two "complementary."

What may come of this we do not yet know. It is a strange fact
indeed that Planck's constant enters the picture at this point. The
product of the uncertainty in the case of two conjugate quantities is
never less than Planck's constant. It appears to set a natural limit
on the exactness of measurement in the atomic world.

The physicist is impressed by many other problems awaiting solu-
tions and for these reasons, therefore, his spirit is the spirit of
tolerance.

And finally we come to the tenth great cultural value of physics.
This value arises from the fact that the spirit of physics is the spirit
of humanity.

Einstein taught us that the observer is always part of the- experi-
ment. There is no such thing as setting up an experiment which is a
closed system independent of the observer. Wliile the physicist may
have thought that possible in the past, nevertheless there never was
a time when the physicist forgot human values.

The physicist has always been concerned for the future of man-
kind. The picture of the scientist as a man who shuts himself away
like a hermit in a cave is an unfair picture. There are, of course,
such individuals but they are not representative of science.

Let Einstein, whose theories represent man's greatest flight today
into the world of the abstract, speak for the scientist's interest in
the concrete facts of life. In February 1931, while visiting in Pasa-
dena, he addressed the students of the California Institute of
Technology.

"Why does this magnificent applied science which saves work, and
makes life easier, bring us so little happiness?" he said. "The simple
answer is: Because we have not yet learned to make sensible use of
it."

"It is not enough that you should understand about applied
science, in order that your work may increase man's blessings," Ein-
stein told the students. "Concern for the man himself and his fate
must always form the chief interest of all technical endeavors. Nev-
er forget this in the midst of your diagrams and equations,"

CULTURAL VALUES OF PBTS1C8 — DIETX 153

How much the world needs this spirit today is evident if we turn
our attention to recent events in Europe. One cannot resist com-
paring these words of Einstein's with the words of the man who
drove him out of Germany. No doubt you heard his speech of hate,
filled with the rattle of the saber and the threat of war, that was
broadcast to the world during the Czechoslovak crisis.

A decade ago, H. G. Wells pictured the world in a race between
education and destruction. That afternoon, as those words of hate
boomed forth from radios everywhere, it seemed as though destruc-
tion was about to win.

The dictators of Europe have made no secret of their contempt for
democracy and for the freedom of thought and expression which is
not only the life of democracy but the life of all science as well.

But will destruction win in the end ? I am one who does not think
so. I am certain that it will not so long as America remains faithful
to its belief in democracy.^ Therein lies the importance of our edu-
cational system for what we teach the young men and women in the
schools today will determine the conviction of the citizens of
tomorrow.

VII

I have urged in this address that we shape our educational system
so that physics be given the position once occupied by the classics as
the common cultural bond that united all educated men. In conclusion
let me list the 10 cultural values which I have discussed and which, in
my opinion, justify this place of honor for the science of physics:
(1) Physics is the foundation of the present age and a knowledge of
physics is necessary for its complete understanding. (2) Physics
seems to be the foundation of every science and all of them can be bet-
ter understood with an understanding of the principles of physics.
(3) The greatest advances of the future will probably be based upon
the new discoveries of physics. (4) Our understanding of the cosmos
and the picture of the universe given by modern cosmology is founded
upon the science of physics. (5) Physics teaches the importance of
natural law. (6) Physics teaches precision in observation, experi-
mentation, and deduction. (7) The spirit of physics is the search for
the truth. (8) The spirit of physics is the spirit of courage. (9) The
spirit of physics is the spirit of tolerance. And finally, (10) the spirit
of physics is the spirit of humanity.

I call upon you to have courage and to labor with faith for the future
of civilization, for the dawn of that day when the spirit of physics,
the spirit of all science, will triumph over the forces of blind hatred,
of cruel violence, of bigotry and intolerance. God grant that the dawn
may be soon.

iMany events have occurred la Europe Bince the presentation of thin paper In October
1038. Brat I see no reason to change my view on this point

154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) CoMPToN, Karl T.

1937. The electron: its intellectual and social significance. Science,
vol. 85, pp. 27-37.

(2) Hutchinson, E.

1935. Conference on industrial physics. Rev. Sci. Instr., vol. 6, p. 381.

(3) DiETz, David.

1936. Science, Uncle Sam and the future. Rev. Sci. Instr., vol. 7, pp. 1-5.

(4) Hxnx, A. W.

1935. Putting physics to work. Rpv. Sci. Instr., vol. 6, p. 377.

(5) Leith, C. K.

1931. World minerals and world politics. Pp. 48-49. Whittlesey House.

(6) Arbot, C. G.

1936. Energy from the sun. Sci. Amer., vol. 15^1, p. 197.

(7) Dicrz, David.

1937. Medical magic. P. 344. Dodd, Mead.

(8) Krooh, August.

1937. Use of isotopes as indicators in biological research. Science, vol.
85, pp. 187-191.

(9) DiETZ, DAVID.

1936. The story of science. 4th ed., pp. 342-353. Dodd, Mead.

(10) Jeans, Sik James.

1934. The universe around us. 3d ed., pp. 114-115. Macmillan.

(11) DiETz, David.

1937. Science and the American press. Science, vol. 85, pp. 107-112.

NUCLEAR FISSION

By Karl K. Daekow
Bell Telephone Laboratories

Some time this summer the art of transmutation will come to its
majority; that is to say, 21 years Avill liave passed since the day it was
born in Rutherford's laboratory. Infancy and adolescence for this
art have been marked by more stages than we generally count for
human children; I propose to distinguish six. Here follows a table
of six great events in the story of transmutation, beginning with birth
and ending with fission, which, by the way, bears a name that in
biology means a certain sort of birth. Each of them lifted the art to
a higher level with a broader scope. It is only the sixth and latest
which is my topic, but all the others lead up to it, as I will show
immediately with the table for my text.

Table of great events in history of transmutation

1919. First success with helium nuclei (energy of activation derived from
radium, etc.).

1932. First success with hydrogen nuclei (energy of activation derived from
voltage).

1932. Recognition of the liberated neutron.

1934. Recognition of radioactive bodies resulting from transmutation.

1934. Slow neutrons used to produce transmutation, this resulting in radioactive
bodies.

1939. Recognition of fission.

Be it said that, in general, transmutation takes place when two
nuclei meet and enter into a reaction with each other. They are made
to meet by projecting one against the other, and accordingly we
speak of one as the projectile and of the other as the target. Trans-
mutation does not occur whenever a projectile comes into the neigh-
borhood of a target nucleus, but only on rare occasions which I will
call "lucky hits." There are four principal kinds of projectiles in
use for transmutation : Helium nuclei — hydrogen nuclei of two sorts,
the light and the hea\^ — and neutrons. Three stages of my chro-
nology have been marked with their names. The phenomena of fission

» DeHvered before the National Academy of Sciences at Its Washington meeting, April 28,
1940. Reprinted by permission from Science, n. s., vol. 91, May 31, 1940.

155

156 AJ^raTrAL report Smithsonian institution, 194o

are produced with neutrons as the projectiles and uranium ^ as the
target, and they therefore belong in the fifth stage of the chronology.
But they also depend on the first and the second stages, for neutrons
are always obtained by bombarding various targets with projectiles of
the first three kinds ; and of course they depend on the third, because
if the neutron had not been recognized it would hardly now be in
use as a tool. Moreover, they depend upon the fourth; the phenom-
ena of fission were first detected because the new-born elements re-
sulting from it are radioactive, and to this day they are often, though
not always, observed through this radioactivity. Next it will be
noticed that instead of putting fission into the fifth stage, I gave
it a line and a stage to itself, and said "recognition of fission" instead
of "discovery of fission." This was not in order to compose a three-
word poem, but because the phenomena were detected about 4 years
before they were properly analyzed ; a strange and interesting story,
for which, however, there is not space.

Now I make final use of the table in speaking about energy. Every-
one has heard so much about the gigantic energies and the huge
voltages required for transmutation, that anyone may be pardoned
for thinking that transmutation is a process which swallows up
enormous quantities of energy — which is strongly endothermic, to
use the chemical word. Well, there are many transmutations that
swallow energy up without restoring it, but many of them give back
much more than they receive. I mean by this simply that whenever
a projectile makes a "lucky" hit on a target the total energy of motion
of the new-bom nuclei is greater than that of the projectile. On
balance the experimenter does spend much more energy than is re-
leased, because of the amount wliich he is obliged to squander on
projectiles which never make lucky hits; but if one considers only
those which do transmute, then their energy may well be smaller and
even very much smaller than that which appears on the new-born
nuclei. This is what I mean to suggest by using the name "energy of
activation" for the energy which hydrogen or helium nuclei must have
in order to make them efficient projectiles. It is, however, the release
of energy which is one of the spectacular features of fission.

This release of energy is indeed amazing. Wlien the process occurs
in any single nucleus there is released — in the form of kinetic
energy of the new-born particles — the appalling amount of 175,000,000
electron-volts. To get a notion of what this figure means, remember
that in the synthesis of hydrogen and oxygen into water — perhaps
the most terrific explosion of all of chemistry — there is released

* The lecture was confined to the fission of uranium by slow neutrons. "Fast" neutrons
(of energies amounting to a million or millions of electron-volts) produce fission of a differ-
ent Isotope of uranium, and also of thorium and of protactinium.

NTTCLEAR FISSION — DARKOW 157

between two and three electron-volts for each pair of reacting mole-
cules; and in the notorious explosives of industry and war, such as
TNT and nitroglycerine, not even so much as that.

Now I have said that fission occurs when a slow neutron impinges
on a uranium nucleus, and that an enormous amount of energy is
released, and that the resulting new-born elements are radioactive;
but I have not yet said what these new-bom elements are. This is
the second of the astonishing features of fission. All other transmu-
tations have resulted in changing the target element to some other
not more than two steps away from it in the periodic table of the
elements. In this periodic table, uranium stands at the ninety-second
and last place; but the no fewer than 16 different elements thus far
identified among the "fission-products" (as they are called) stand
in places ranging from the thirty-fifth to the fifty-seventh I What
happens in fission is therefore something never before observed — the
division of a massive nucleus into two nearly equal fragments. In
ordinary transmutations of heavy nuclei, a particle small in both
charge and mass pops into a nucleus, and another particle small in
charge and mass pops out. In this kind of transmutation a particle
of small mass and no charge at all wanders into a uranium nucleus,
and the nucleus promptly bursts apart into two pieces not exactly
alike indeed but not very different from one another. Fission in
biology is the division of a cell into two which are very much alike
in size, and this is the source of the name.

As for the fact that fission results in so many different types of
nucleus instead of just two, that probably has a double meaning.
Many of the radioactive bodies which are observed during and
after fission are clearly not the original fragments of the explosions,
for after the neutron influx is suspended they increase for a while
in amount instead of diminishing. It is clear that these are descend-
ants of the original fission fragments, and the question as to which
are really the original ones is at present a very live one. Theory
suggests that the initial fragment-pair need not always be the same.
One nucleus, on being entered by a neutron, may burst into barium,
and krypton, another into xenon and strontium, another perhaps into
caesium and rubidium. (Note that the members of these element-
pairs are so chosen that their atomic numbers add up to 92, which
is a way of saying that the entire positive charge of the uranium
nucleus must be found upon the two initial fragments immediately
after the explosion.) Wliatever the initial fragment-pair may be,
one at least of its members must be the parent of a long chain of
radioactive bodies, and probably both are. This sufficiently accounts
for the fact that the fission process produces radioactive elements
in a profusion and variety beyond any other which is known.

158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

I have saved the most sensational item for the last. Not only is
fission caused by slow neutrons, but it produces fresh neutrons among
its many products. Could these fresh neutrons produce fission in
their turn? Presumably they could; we know of nothing to differ-
entiate them from other neutrons. Could they produce new fissions
and these in turn new fissions and so onward in geometrical progres-
sion, so that a whole massive piece of uranium might blow up in a
sudden explosion of unparalleled fury touched off by so seemingly in-
nocent an event as the entry of a single neutron ?

This is perhaps the most important of the unsolved questions of
physics. Let us begin by asking after a certain necessary though not
sufficient condition. The fissions cannot proceed in geometrical pro-
gression, the explosion of the whole mass cannot occur, unless each
fission results (on the average) in more than one free neutron to
replace the one neutron which is consumed in producing it. Is it so ?
Well, the few people whose opinions are worth taking agree that it.
is. They do not agree well as to how many fresh neutrons there are
over and above one, but they do agree that there is an excess.

With this as a basis, let us turn the question around. Why has not
the great explosion happened as yet, since there are neutrons enough
to achieve it?

One reason apparently is, that the fresh neutrons are moving with
the wrong speeds when they are released. Fission is performed
mainly by very slow neutrons, while the new-born ones are very rapid.
But if the piece of uranium were very large, even the fresh neutrons
would be slowed down by their repeated collisions with nuclei; and
therefore those who are trying to make the explosion, or trying to
approach it without quite making it, are heaping up great masses of
uranium. If, however, the uranium is mixed with other elements — as
in nature it always has been — the neutrons are liable to be captured
and rendered harmless by the nuclei of these others. Therefore, the
next step is to purify the uranium. This would be easy enough were
it not that "purity" in this connection means something more stringent
than even chemical purity. Within the last few weeks it has been
proved that only one isotope of uranium is sensitive to slow neutrons,
and this is a rare one — fortunately, I feel like saying. One must
perform a process of isotope-separation in which the two isotopes
differ in mass by less than 2 percent, and one is more than a hundred
times as abundant as the other. Probably this will take a long time
in the doing. If and when it is done, shall we find that human artifice
has succeeded in removing or relaxing the last brake provided by
nature to impede the slide toward catastrophe? Perhaps not even
then, for the rare isotope of uranium may have ways of its own for
capturing neutrons and rendering them harmless before the most of

NUCLEAR FISSION — D ARROW 159

them achieve fissions. Perhaps on the other hand the brakes are easier
to relax than the foregoing words imply. Possibly they can be relaxed
just a little without letting go altogether, and then there may be avail-
able a potent source of power. But at this point I depart from the
traditional detachment of the scientist, and express the fervent hope
that the mastery of this process, if ever to be achieved at all, will not
be achieved until the world is ready to use it wisely.

THE NATIONAL STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT^

By Lyman J. Bkiggs
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. O.

A brief historical background may prove helpful in presenting the
present status of our national standards of measurement, particularly
those concerned with our customary system of weights and measures.
The difficulties under which commerce had been carried out among
the Thirteen Colonies, owing to the lack of uniform standards, were
probably responsible in part for the provision of the Constitution
which delegates to Congress the power "to fix the standard of weights
and measures." In the early days of the new Republic, Washington
in his presidential message to Congress repeatedly urged the im-
portance of carrying out this constitutional provision; but for 80
years no formal action was taken by Congress to "fix" the standards,
save for the adoption in 1828 of a standard Troy pound for coinage
purposes.

Not that the subject was ignored. Repeatedly the matter came up
for discussion, without definite action. A standard of length which
could if necessary be independently reproduced from physical obser-
vations repeatedly intrigued the interest of Congress. Jefferson, as
Secretary of State, submitted a proposal for a standard of length based
upon the length of a uniform cylindrical pendulum beating seconds at
sea level at 45° N. latitude. In 1795 President Washington presented
to Congress a communication from the Minister of the French Repub-
lic suggesting the adoption by the United States of the metric system
of weights and measures. This proposal, however, met with little
favor. A standard based on the length of one ten-millionth of the
earth's quadrant apparently had less appeal from the standpoint of
reproducibility than one based on the length of a pendulum beating
seconds.

Meanwhile, various State legislatures were imploring Congress to
take some action to bring about uniformity; and in 1821, John Quincy
Adams, as Secretary of State, urged Congress "to fix the standard

1 Retiring address of the president of the American Physical Society, presented at the
Washington meeting, December 28, 3 9SS. Reprinted by permission from Review of Modern
Physics, vol. 11, April 1939.

161

162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

witli the partial uniformity of which it is susceptible at present,
excluding all innovations. To consult with foreign nations for the
future and ultimate establishment of universal and permanent uni-
formity." Prophetic words 1 Not yet has the goal been reached.

In 1830 the Treasury Department, which was charged with tlie
collection of customs, was instructed through a resolution of the
Senate to investigate the weights and measures in use in the various
customs houses of the country, with a view to bringing about uni-
formity in the collection of customs. The Secretary of the Treasury
gave a broad interpretation to this authority to "investigate," and
the outcome was that the various customs offices were supplied, with-
out further action by Congress, with uniform sets of weights and
measures. These included an avoirdupois pound of 7,000 grains,
and a yard of 36 inches, based upon standards which Hassler, the
first Superintendent of the Coast and Geodetic Survey, had obtained
in England.

So well pleased was Congress with this solution of its difficulties
that the Secretary of the Treasury in 1836 was directed through a
joint resolution to deliver to the Governor of each State a complete
set of all the weights and measures used by the Treasury Depart-
ment in the collection of customs. Although no congressional action
was taken to legalize these standards, a number of the States adopted
them independently, and a groundwork for uniform weights and
measures was at last provided.

It was not until after the Civil War that Congress took the first
formal step to legalize a system of weights and measures, and this
oddly enough did not relate to the weights and measures in common
use, but to the metric system, rejected in 1795. The act of 1866
reads as follows:

It shall be lawful throughout the United States of America to employ the
weights and measures of the metric system ; and no contract or dealing or
pleading in any court shall be deemed invalid, or liable to objection, because
the weights or measures expressed or referred to therein are weights or
measures of the metric system.

We have thus the anomalous situation in this country of a legalized
system of metric weights and measures which is used for scientific
purposes, and a customary system of weights and measures which
is in common use but has never been formally legalized. Wlien Con-
gress passed the Metric Act in 1866, it realized that the country had
no metric standards and accordingly included the approximate equiva-
lents of the metric system in English measure. The length of the
meter was defined in inches, even though the length of the inch
had never been "fixed." That Congress had in mind only an approxi-
mation to the true ratio of the units in the two systems is evident

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT — BRIGGS 163

from the fact that the meter is given as equivalent to 39.37 inches,
while the millimeter is rounded off to 0.0394 inch.

The platinum-iridium meter and kilogram, supplied to our Gov-
ernment as a result of its participation in the Metric Convention,
provided this country with far better material standards than it had
ever had before. Both the meter bar and the kilogram had been
carefully compared with the international prototypes, and the co-
efficient of expansion of the meter bar had been measured. More-
over, they constituted, together with the Troy pound, the only legal
material standards possessed by the Government. Accordingly, in
the absence of further congressional action. Superintendent Menden-
hall of the Coast and Geodetic Survey in 1893 issued the following
order :

The Office of Weights and Measures with the approval of the Secretary of the
Treasury, will in the future regard the international prototype meter and kilo-
gram as fundamental sfeindards, and the customary units, the yard and the
pound, will be derived therefrom in accordance with the act of July 28, 1866.

It will be recalled that the act of 1866 defines the meter in terms
of the inch, and when this is transposed by the Mendenhall order
it leads to the incommensurate relation

1 inch=0.02540005 + meter.

It is obvious that it is not practicable to lay off this incommensurable
decimal fraction on a meter bar, so that this relation defines a theo-
retical inch rather than one that can be derived with exactness from
the meter bar. The inch thus defined is also about four-millionths
longer than the British inch, which is determined directly from the
Imperial yard.

As a matter of fact, the inch now used for engineering purposes
both in the United States and Great Britain, and in 13 other coun-
tries as well, is based upon the simpler relation, 1 inch equals 25.4
millimeters exactly. From this simplified relation it is practicable
to derive the inch from the meter bar. Furthermore, it is possible
to shift from English to metric units on a screw-cutting lathe by the
introduction of a gear having 127 teeth. Finally the ratio 25.4 falls
midway between the present accepted values of the British and the
United States inch. Both countries could adopt this value without
disturbing industry in the slightest, because a change of two parts
in a million would not be detected in any industrial operation.

To summarize the situation, the United States for 150 years has
been using a customary system of weights and measures without
"fixing" the standards on which the S3^stem is based. A bill was
presented to the last Congress with the simple objective of putting
tlie Govenmient's house in order in this respect. The bill provided

280256—41 12

164 ANIS^AL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

that the inch and the pound should be fixed in terms of the meter
and the kilogram, respectively, by means of specified ratios. The
ratio proposed for the inch was

1 inch =0.0254 meter.

The bill also carried a supplementary definition of the inch in
terms of light waves. This was based upon the value adopted by
the International Committee on Weights and Measures for the num-
ber of wave lengths of the red radiation of cadmium in a meter, a
value which, as I shall show later, is well supported by several inde-
pendent determinations.

This bill did not come to a vote. Hearings were held by the
Committee on Coinage, Weights, and Measures, and the provisions
of the bill were found to meet with the general approval of industry.
In fact some men directly concerned with precise industrial measure-
ments were inclined to urge that the inch be defined directly in terms
of the wave length of the red radiation of cadmium. It se^ms de-
sirable, however, to have the inch, like the centimeter, based upon
an actual material standard. And it is important that this standard
should be common to the two systems of units in order that the ratio
of the two units of length may be unequivocally fixed.

Opposition to the bill came from an unexpected quarter. The
system of plane coordinates which forms the basis for Federal and
State surveys is in terms of English units. Now the primary tri-
angulation sur\^eys of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey
are all carried out in the metric system, and in converting these
measurements to plane coordinates in feet, the ratio 1 meter =
3937/1200 feet has been used. Those engaged in these mapping
operations naturally do not wish to see this procedure changed, and
with this viewpoint the National Bureau of Standards is in complete
sympathy. An amendment to the original bill has therefore been
proposed, authorizing the continued use of the adopted ratio in the
conversion of metric geodetic measurements to English miits in con-
nection with plane coordinates, elevations, and other map data.
This amendment provides full authority to maintain the present
procedure in geodetic conversions without sacrificing all the other
desirable provisions of the bill. It should be emphasized that the
point involved relates only to a computation, namely the conversion
into feet of measurements originally carried out in meters in making
primary surveys. A change of two parts in a million in the basic
value of the inch would not have any eflFect whatsoever upon any
surveys made directly in feet because such surveys camiot approach
this order of accuracy. As a matter of fact the hundred-foot tapes
calibrated by the National Bureau of Standards are certified to only
1 part in 100,000.

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT — BRIGGS 165

Table 1 — Wave length of the red line of cadmium in angstroms '

Data

1895
1005-6

1927

1933
1934-35

Authors

Michelson and Benoit —
Benoit, Fabry, and Perot.
Watanabe and Imaizumi..

Sears and Barrell

Kosters and Lampe

Kosters and Lampo

Mean.

As originally
given

6438. 4722
6438. 4690
6438. 4685
64S8.4711
6438. 4709
6-438. 4672
6-138. 4685

After (a) cor-
rection and
(6) adjust-
ment to uni-
form con-
ditions^

6438. 4691
6438. 4703
6438. 48S2

6438. 4708

6438. 4709
6438. 4672
6438. 4685

6438. 4693

Difference
from mean

-.0002
-f. 0010
-.0011
-H.0015
-I-.OOIG
-.0021
-.0008

±.0012

"Sears. J. E., Sci. Prog., vol. 31, p. 209, 1936. ^ , k

3 The values originally quoted by the authors are corrected in the fourth column to take account ot sud-
sequent conclusions (a) "regarding the values to be attributed to the standards of length employed, and ad-
justed (6), so far as the information available permits, to uniform conditions of "normal" air— i. e., dry air
at 16° C. and 760-mm. pressure, containing 0.03 percent of COj.

THE PRIMAEY STANDARD OF LENGTH

The national primary standard of length is represented by the
platinum-iridium meter bar No. 27. Its use is limited to compari-
sons with the working standards. A companion bar, No. 21, of
identical form and composition, has borne the brunt of extensive
comparisons for more than 40 years, particularly in connection with
the certification of geodetic tapes for the Coast and Geodetic Survey.
The Bureau also owns two other platinum-iridium meter bars of
an earlier alloy, one of which is graduated in millimeters.

The stability of these bars in service reflects the wise judgment of
those who were responsible for the selection of the alloy from which
the prototypes were made. Meter No. 21, which has been used so
much and subjected to the thermal shock of innumerable ice baths,
has increased in length about 1 micron during its 50 years of serv-
ice. Meter No. 27, the national prototype, has been certified by the
International Bureau of Weights and Measures as follows :

In 1888-89 :

No. 27=1 meter -1.50 microns at 0° C.
In 1921-23 :

No. 27=1 meter- 1.48 microns at 0° C.

These equations indicate that within the limits of measurement
the length of meter bar No. 27 has remained invariable in relation
to the international prototype for the period covered. This fact
alone does not of course preclude the possibility that both bars are
drifting. The conclusion that they are not is supported by other
intercomparisons and can be examined in another way. During a
period of 40 years, various determinations have been made of the
length of the meter in terms of wave lengths of the red radiation

16G ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 40

of cadmium. The meter bars used in these measurements were
compared Avith the international prototype at the time they were
used. Any change in the length of the international prototype
would thus tend to be reflected in the derived value of the wave
length, in microns, of the red line of cadmium. Table 1 shows no
evidence of any systematic drift.

It will be noted that the mean value of the determinations agrees
closely with the original value of Benoit, Fabry, and Perot
(6438.4696 angstroms), which since 1907 has been used by the Inter-
national Astronomical Union as the standard to which all spectro-
scopic wave-length measurements are referred. In view of this
fact, the National Bureau of Standards proposed, in the legislative
bill referred to above, that the meter and the inch should be given
supplemental definitions in terms of wave lengths of the red radia-
tion of cadmium, consistent with the relation adopted by the Inter-
national Astronomical Union. These supplemental definitions, if
adopted, will legalize the direct use of interference methods in the
jDrecise determination of the length of gage blocks and similar work-
ing standards. The practical value of this procedure cannot be too
strongly emphasized.

END STANDARDS

In the past few years the close tolerances placed on the mass pro-
duction of interchangeable parts has led to the extensive use of pre-
cision end gages. These are blocks, usually of metal, with two op-
posite faces accurately plane, parallel and a specified distance apart,
and are used to check various measuring instruments. The extent
to which these gages are used can be judged by the fact that more
than 50,000 have been tested at the National Bureau of Standards.
Using interference methods the surfaces of such gages can be tested
and the length determined with greater accuracy than by referring
to line standards.

In order to provide the Bureau with end standards of the highest
precision, C. G. Peters and W. B. Emerson undertook the construc-
tion in 1934 of a series of end standards by direct interference meth-
ods, based upon the standard wave length of the red line of
cadmium. Fused quaitz was chosen for the blanks, because its low
expansivity (about one-thirtieth that of steel) removes the necessity
of accurate temperature control, and it can be given a high optical
polish free from imperfection.

Fifteen blanks 2 cm. square in cross section and 10 cm. long were
cut from blocks of optically clear fused quartz. These were an-
nealed by heating to 1,150° C. and then ground and polished to size.
Extended measurements of these gages were carried out during a
period of 2 years, including measurements made by the International

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT — BRIGGS 167

Bureau, the National Physical Laboratory, and the Physikalisch-
Technische Reichsanstalt. From all of these determinations, no
measurable change in dimension with time has been detected in any
of the quartz gages. The end surfaces were plane and parallel within
less than 0.02 micron and the maximum difference in various deter-
minations of the length of any one gage did not exceed 0.02 micron,
or 2 parts in 10 million.

In making these standards the decimeter length was chosen
because this is about the maximum length for which clear interfer-
ence rings can be obtained with the sharpest spectral lines. With
these lines the number of waves in the path ranges from 300,000 to
400,000. The fractional order can be measured to about 0.01 of a
wave length, so it is possible to attain a precision of 1 part in 30
to 40 million in the comparison of two wave lengths and about 1 part
in 10 million in the direct determination of a material length
standard.

STANDARD WAVE LENGTHS

The internatianal primary standard of wave length is the red
radiation of cadmium. The wave length of this radiation as officially
adopted by the International Committee of Weights and Measures
is 6438.4696 angstroms under specified standard conditions.

Tribute should be paid to the painstaking studies of Michelson
40 years ago that led him to select the red radiation of cadmium as
the standard wave length to be evaluated in terms of the meter. All
of the spectroscopic work which has been done since that time,
including the study of the spectra of helium, krypton, neon, and
other gases then unavailable to Michelson has failed to disclose
another strong line of superior quality. Two krypton lines are the
closest rivals for this honor.

Using the cadmium line as a primary standard, the International
Astronomical Union has adopted a series of secondary wave-length
standards, including 20 neon lines, 20 krypton lines, and about 300
lines in the iron arc. The measurements of Meggers, Kiess, and
Humphreys at the National Bureau of Standards have contributed
substantially to the establishment of all of these secondary standards.
Most of the neon and krypton standards are known relative to
cadmium with a precision of 2 or 3 parts in 100 million, while the pre-
cision of the iron standards is about one order less. These standards
provide the framework of all spectroscopic measurements.

THE STANDARD PLANE SURFACE

In order to obtain a surface which is optically plane to a high
degi'ee of precision, it is necessary to prepare three surfaces, which
when tested in pairs in any of the three possible combinations and

168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

in any orientation one to the other show uniformly straight interfer-
ence fringes. The plane surfaces are actually developed by working
these three surfaces one against another in rotation, up to the final
stages of polishing.

The standard plane surface of the Bureau is maintained by means
of three fused-quartz disks, each 28 cm. in diameter and about 4 cm.
thick. One surface of each is a true plane within one-hundredth
of a fringe. In other words, these surfaces depart less from true
planes than they would if they conformed strictly to the curvature
of the earth.

In testing these planes, care must be used to support the disks in
such a way as to prevent them from bending under their own weight.
The stability of the fused-quartz disks has been most gratif^ang;
no measurable deviation from planeness has taken place in the last
10 years.

ANGULAR MEASURE

Angular quantities must be measured with great precision in cari*y-
ing out primary geodetic surveys. In determining the errors of a
completely graduated circle, the Bureau uses a special comparator
which is provided with four fixed micrometer miscoscopes spaced
90° apart around the central rotating table carrying the circle. No
standard circle is needed in this case because we are dealing with a
closed system. Errors as small as 0.2 second in a 9-inch graduated
circle can be measured if the graduation lines are of the highest
quality.

The Bureau's circular dividing engine is used mainly for gradu-
ating precision theodolite circles for the United States Coast and
Geodetic Survey. B, L. Page has gi*aduated solid silver circles
9 inches in diameter to 5 minutes of arc with no error throughout
the circle as great as 2 seconds of arc ; that is, with no line displaced
from its correct position by more than 1 micron.

THE STANDARD OF MASS

The national standard of mass is represented by the cylinder
known as the prototype kilogram No. 20. It is made of the same
plantinum-iridium alloy as that used in the prototype meter-bars.
This national standard was recently taken to Paris for a new com-
parison with the international prototype. Its certified mass was
0.99999998 kilogram, a change in mass of only 2 parts in
100 million in 50 years. This difference is within the uncertainty
of measurement.

Two other standard kilograms, one of platinum-iridium and one
f)i pure platinum, are used as working standards,

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT BRIGGS 169

STANDARD OF CAPACITY

The standard of capacity, the liter, is established by weighing. It
is deJSned as the volume occupied by a kilogram of water at its
maximum density. This volume is unfortunately not exactly 1,000
cubic centimeters as the founders of the metric system had intended.
One milliliter= 1.000027 cc. The discrepancy is within the error
of measurement of most volumetric determinations, but in precise
density measurements the unit of volimie (cubic centimeter or milli-
liter) must be specified.

THE STANDARD OF FREQUENCY

The national standard of frequency is maintained by means of
seven quartz oscillators, with natural frequencies of 100 or 200
kc./sec. They are carefully protected from external vibration and
the temperature and pressure are closely controlled. These oscillators
are intercompared constantly and they are also compared daily
with time signals from the Naval Observatory. For this purpose,
one of the oscillators, with the aid of a submuitiple generator, drives
a synchronous motor clock which indicates mean solar time.

This group of oscillators serves to control the precision of the
standard frequencies of 5,000 kc./sec, 10,000 kc./sec, and 15,000
kc./sec. which are broadcast several days each week from the
Bureau's station WWV at Beltsville, Md. These frequencies do
not deviate more than 1 part in 5 million from the assigned value.

By means of this service, broadcasting stations throughout the
United States are enabled to adhere closely to their assigned fre-
quencies. In addition, the emissions are modulated to give certain
standard frequencies in the audible range, which have been found
very useful by physicists and engineers. These modulations include
a frequency of 1,000 c/sec. as well as sharp 1-second pulses, accurate
to 0.00001 second. The broacasting of the standard of musical pitch,
440 c/sec, representing A above middle C, has also met with wide
favor by musicians and laboratory workers alike.

ELECTRICAL STANDARDS
THE STANDARD OF RESISTANCE

Since 1908 the national standard of electrical resistance has been
represented by a group of 10 1-ohm manganin coils, the average
value of which has been assumed to remain constant. The value
originally assigned to each coil was based upon standards certified
by the Physikalisch-Technische Keichsanstalt in 1908. When any
member of the basic group of 10 coils showed a pronounced tendency
to drift in relation to the group, it was replaced by a coil from the
reserve group. The NBS "international miit" of resistance is de-

170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

rived from the mean of the values of the resistances of this primary
group.

The present evidence is that the mean value of this group has
drifted at the rate of about 1 part per million per year since the
group was established in 1908. With the hope of eliminating this
drift in resistance standards, J. L. Thomas undertook the develop-
ment of a new precision 1-ohm coil at the National Bureau of
Standards in 1928 (1).- The manganin resistance after winding
was annealed in vacuum at a red heat (550° C.) to remove all
locked-up stresses, and special precautions were taken to avoid strain-
ing the coil afterward while assembling it in its double- walled annu-
lar container. These coils have shown remarkable stability, at least
relative to one another. The relative changes within the group have
been of the order of 1 part in a million in the past 5 years, compared
with similar changes of the order of 10 parts per million in the coils
of the older group. In 1932 the 10 coils of the standard gTOup
were replaced by coils of the new type.

THE STANDARD OF ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE

The national standard of electromotive force was maintained up
to 1937 by a group of 20 saturated Weston cells, with many other.s
in reserve. At that time 9 acid cells which had shown gratifying
stability were added, and 3 cells were discarded. The present pri-
mai-y group of 26 cells contains 17 cells that have remained honored
members of the group since it was established in 1906. These cells
are kept at a constant temperature. The NBS "international unit"
of electromotive force is derived from the mean value of the 26
cells of the primary group.

DECISION TO DEFINE THE ELECTRICAL STANDARDS IN ABSOLUTE UNITS

At the conclusion of the work of the Washington conference of
1910 the standards of resistance and electromotive force of the United
States, England, France, Germany, Japan, and Russia had been
brought into good agreement. But subsequent comparisons showed
(hat the standards were slowly drifting apart, and by 1930 differences
as large as 1 part in 10,000 were found in the standards of electro-
motive force of the different nations, while similar but smaller changes
had taken place in the standards of electrical resistance.

A discrepancy also exists between the "international" electrical
units now in force and the mechanical units. For example, if the
same amount of power were measured first in terms of the electrical
units now in use and then in terms of the mechanical units, the differ-

* Numbers iu iiaientlieses refer to bibliography at end of article.

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT — BRIGGS 17 J

ence would amount to approximately 1 part in 5,000 owing to the
discrepancy of the units.

For these reasons the International Committee of Weights and
Measures decided to replace the present international electrical units
with absolute electrical units, the new system to go into effect January
1, 1940.

In order to carry out the wishes of the International Committee it
has been necessary for the National Bureau of Standards and the
national laboratories of other countries to determine in absolute meas-
ure the value of their electrical standards of resistance and electro-
motive force with the highest attainable precision. A brief descrip-
tion of the Bureau's contribution to this program, which has extended
over a number of years, will now be given.

Inductance and current are the most suitable quantities for evalu-
ation in absolute measure because they can be determined to a high
degree of precision without involving the measurement of any addi-
tional electrical quantity. But the final objective in absolute meas-
urements is the value of the standard of resistance and the standard
of electromotive force. The procedure is as follows: (1) The induc-
tance of a coil is computed from its geometrical dimensions and the
permeability of the material on which it is wound; (2) this known
inductance, when measured experimentally in terms of time and a
standard resistor, serves to fix the value of the resistor in absolute
measure; (3) current is determined in absolute value from the geomet-
rical dimensions and positions of the coils of a current balance,
supplemented by the absolute measurement of the force exerted be-
tween the coils; (4) the potential drop across the standard resistor
when connetced in series with the current balance serves to fix the
value of a standard cell in absolute measure.

THE ABSOLUTE MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE

Two independent groups at the National Bureau of Standards have
been working on the absolute measurement of electrical resistance.
Curtis, Moon, and Sparks have used an improved self -inductor with
an intermediary capacitance in determining the absolute value of the
ohm, while Wenner, Thomas, Cooter, and Kotter have determined
resistance in absolute measure by a method using commutative direct
current in a mutual inductor.

SELF-INDUCTOR METHOD WITH INTERMEDIATE CAPACITANCE (2)

In this method the self-inductance of an inductor is measured in
terms of time and a laboratory standard of resistance. The ratio of
the computed to the observed inductance provides the correction fac-
tor which is to be applied to the resistance standard to give the re-

172 AJSTNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

sistance in absolute measure. Tlie four inductors used in this inves-
tigation were of different dimensions and vrere wound on nonmagnetic
forms of different materials, namely, porcelain, Pyrex glass, and
fused quartz. The most recent form consists of a heavy-walled glass
cylinder 120 cm. long and 35 cm. in diameter, on the surface of which
a very accurate screw-thread was ground and lapped to insure uni-
formity in the pitch of the helix. The electrical measurements re-
quired the use of an intermediary capacitance, so that a resistance
was first measured in terms of inductance and capacitance by an alter-
nating-current bridge ; then the capacitance was measured in terms of
resistance and time by the charge-and-discharge method with a
Maxwell bridge. Assuming the capacitance to remain the same under
these conditions, it is eliminated between the two bridge equations.
Time signals from the United States Naval Observatory were used
to calibrate a piezoelectric oscillator which controlled the lOO-c./sec.
generator.

The most recent work by Curtis, Moon, and Sparks gives the
value

1 NBS international ohm =1.000483 absolute ohms,

which the authors believe to differ from the true value by less than
20 parts in a million.

MUTUAL-INDUCTOR METHOD USING COMMUTATED CURRENT

This method was devised by Dr. Frank Wenner. A direct current
is passed through the resistor and through the primary winding of
the mutual inductor. The current through the primary of the mutual
inductor is reversed at regular intervals without changing the current
through the resistor. Another commutator reverses the connections
to the secondary of the mutual inductor in such a way that the pulses
of induced electromotive force are always in the same direction. This
rectified electromotive force is balanced against the constant potential
drop through the resistor. A direct-current galvanometer is used to
indicate the balance.

The commutators which control the connections in the primary and
secondary circuits are mounted on the same rotating shaft along with
an inductor generator and a current-reversing generator. Conse-
quently these units all opei'ate strictly in synchronism.

Without attempting to discuss the circuits in detail, it may be said
that if the current in the secondary of the mutual inductor is zero at
the time the connections are reversed, and if the average value of the
current through the galvanometer is zero, then the resistance in abso-
lute measure is four times the product of the speed and the mutual
inductance. The precision of the method is limited theoretically only

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT — BRIGGS 173

by the precision with wliich the speed of rotation of the shaft and the
geometrical dimensions of the mutual inductor can be measured.

The shaft is driven by a direct-current motor, automatically syn-
chronized by a current of 1,000 cycles per second ; this latter frequency
is controlled by the primary quartz frequency-standards in the Bu-
reau's radio laboratory. Over periods of an hour or more the fre-
quency of the control current is constant and known to 1 part in
10,000,000, while the speed of rotation, averaged in the way in which
it affects a deflection of the galvanometer, is uniform within a few
parts in 1,000,000.

The absolute determination of the ohm by Wenner, Thomas, Cooter,
and Kotter gives the relation

1 NBS International ohm =1.000485 absolute ohms.

THE ABSOLXTTE DETERMINATION OF THE AMPERE

H. L. Curtis and K. W. Curtis (3) have made a new determmation
of the ampere in absolute measure, employing with some modifica-
tions the current balance originally used by Rosa, Dorsey, and Miller
for this purpose in 1911. The most important modification was the
use of coils in which the current distribution closely approached that
assumed in the theoretical derivation of the force. The value in
absolute amperes of the current in the coils of the balance was com-
puted from the dimensions and positions of the coils, the permea-
bility of the material and the electromagnetic force between the
coils, the latter being measured in local gravitational units.

In such measurements, we must know the absolute value of the
local acceleration of gravity, and Heyl and Cook (4) have recently
completed this determination at the National Bureau of Standards
using pendulums of fused silica. They found, at the Bureau station :

$r=980.08 cm. sec.-%

which indicates that the absolute value of gravity at Potsdam, here-
tofore generally accepted, is about 2 parts in 100,000 too large.

The current through the balance coils was measured simultane-
ously (1) in absolute value by means of the balance and (2) in
"international" amperes as determined by the potential drop across
a standard resistor in series with the balance coils.

The result of the most recent measurements with balance coils of
improved design is :

1 NBS International ampere =0.999852 ampere (absolute).

THE INTERNATIONAIj TEMPERATDEE SCALE

The thei-modynamic scale of temperature introduced by Lord
Kelvin has long been accepted by physicists as the ideal temperature

174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

scale. However, the experimental difficulties incident to the practical
realization of the thermodynamic scale by means of the gas ther-
mometer and the consequent discrepancies that arose in the tem-
perature scales used by different nations led the national laboratories
of Germany, Great Britain, and the United States in 1911 to under-
take the unification of their temperature scales. This culminated a
quarter of a century later in the adoption by the International
Committee of Weights and Measures of the International Tempera-
ture Scale (5).

This scale conformed with the thermodynamic scale as closely as
knowledge permitted at the time, and was designed to be definite,
conveniently and accurately reproducible, and to provide means for
uniquely determining any temperature within the range of the
scale. It is based upon six fixed and reproducible equilibrium tem-
peratures to which numerical values are assigned; namely, the oxy-
gen point (-183° C), the ice point (0° C), the steam point (100°),
the sulfur point (444°), the silver point (960.5°), and the gold
point (1063°). Intermediate temperatures are determined by means
of interpolation instruments calibrated according to a specified pro-
cedure at the fixed temperatures.

From the oxygen point to 660° C. the temperature t is deduced
from the resistance of standard platinum resistance-thermometers;
from 660° C. to the gold point, by means of a standard platinum
versus platinum-rhodium thermocouple; and above the gold point,
from Wien's law by means of the intensity of blackbody radiation,
measured by an optical pyrometer.

The International Temperature Scale was adopted with the under-
standing that it was susceptible to revision and amendment. The
first meeting for the consideration of possible revisions will be called
in Paris in June 1939.

There is great need for the official extension of the scale from the
oxygen point down to the triple point of normal hydrogen
(—260° C). At present the National Bureau of Standards main-
tains the scale in this region by means of a group of well-seasoned
resistance thermometers. Hoge and Brickwedde (6) have shown the
feasibility of establishing a number of fixed points m this part of
the scale, represented by the equilibrium states of coexisting phases
of pure substances. With these points once established, resistance-
thermometers need be used only for interpolation.

Another matter that requires consideration is the value of C2 in
the radiation equation. The value now specified in defining the
International Scale is 6?2= 1.432 cm. degrees. More recent determi-
nations indicate that this value should be increased to 1.436 cm.
degrees. This would decrease the present value of the platinum
point by about 3° C.

STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENT — BRTGGS 175

RADIATION STANDARDS
THE INTERNATIONAL ROENTGEN

The international roentgen is the quantity of X-rays that will
liberate one electrostatic unit of charge from 1 cm.' of air by
ionization under specified standard conditions. It is realized at the
National Bureau of Standards by means of a standard ionization
chamber developed by Taylor and Singer (7), which has now been
adopted as the ionization standard of six other countries besides
our own. The calibration of X-ray dosage meters in roentgens is
carried out by means of this standard chamber.

RADIUM STANDARDS

Radium is certified by the National Bureau of Standards in terms
of the weight of radium element, but the measurement which is
actually made is the determination of the ratio of the gamma-ray
intensity of the specimen to that of a radium standard. The Bureau
has three primary radium standards carrying certificates from the
International Radium Commission. The first of these (Interna-
tional value 15.44 mg.) was prepared by Madame Curie (1913) and
the other two (International values 38.10 mg. and 20.36) by Honig-
sclmiid (1936) from radium chloride of high purity. The Curie
standard when corrected for decay is in accord within 0.1 percent
with the values assigned by Honigschmid to the standards he pre-
pared. Radium standards must be systematically corrected for de-
cay. The initial rate of decay is about 0.043 percent per year.

STANDARDS OF RADIANT ELUX

The National Bureau of Standards maintains standards of radiant
flux, based upon absolute measurements by Coblentz (8). Lamps are
now supplied by the Bureau with certificates giving the total radi-
ation in microwatts per square centimeter at a specified distance
from the source.

THE STANDARD OF BRIGHTNESS

International agreement has now been reached regarding the adop-
tion of a primary standard of brightness, defined as the intensity
of the radiation from the interior of a blackbody at the temperature
of pure platinum at its freezing point. This standard was originally
proposed by Waidner and Burgess in 1910 but was first actually
realized at the National Bureau of Standards in 1931 by Wensel,
Roeser, Barbrow, and Caldwell (9), following the development of
the thoria crucible at the Bureau.

176 .\]SnsTUAL REPORT BMITHSONIAINT INSTITUTION, 1940

Using the same device operated at the freezing points of rhodium
and iridium in addition to platinum, Wensel, Judd, and Koeser (10)
established an accurately reproducible scale of color temperature.
This scale is made available to the public through the distribution
of color-temperature standards in the form of tungsten-filament
lamps.

Comparison of the blackbody standard with the present inter-
national candle as maintained by groups of carbon-filament lamps
showed that the brightness of the new standard was about 58.9 inter-
national candles per square centimeter. However, a uniform pro-
cedure has not been followed internationally in the step-up from the
yellower sources to the modern tungsten lamps, and E. C. Crittenden
found that a better agreement with present practice would be reached
by defining the brightness of the standard blackbody radiator as equal
to 60 candles per square centimeter. Other national laboratories have
agreed to the Bureau's suggestion to adopt this value, and this recom-
mendation has been approved by the International Committe of
Weights and Measures. In stepping up from the blackbody standard
to tungsten lamps, it is proposed to use the luminosity factors recom-
mended by Gibson and Tyndall (11) of the Bureau staff in 1923, and
later adopted by both the International Commission on Illumination
and the International Committee of Weights and Measures. At last
we have an international primary standard of brightness.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

(1) Thomas, J. L.

1930. Nat. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res., vol. 5, p. 295.

(2) CUKTis, MooJT, and Sparks.

1936. Nat. Biir. Stand. Journ. Res., vol. 16, p. 1.

(3) CxjETis, H. L., and Cubtis, R. W.

1934. Nat. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res., vol. 12, p. 665.

(4) Heyl, p. R., and Cook, G. S.

1936. Nat. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res., vol. 17, p. 805.

(5) Burgess, G. K.

1928. Nat. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res., vol. 1, p. 635.

(6) HoGE, H. J., and Beickwe35De, F. G.

1939. Nat. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res., vol. 22, p. 351.

(7) Taylor, L. S., and Singer, G.

1930. Nat. Bur. Stand. .Tourn. Res., vol. 5, p. 507.

(8) CoBLENTz, W. W., and Stair, R.

1933. Nat. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res., vol. 11, p. 79.

(9) Wensel, Roeseb, Babbbow, and Caxdweill.

1931. Nat. Bur. Stand. Journ. Res., vol. 6, p. 1103.

(10) Wensel, Jtjdd, and Roeser.

1934. Nat. Bur. Stand. Journ. Red., vol. 12, p. 527.

(11) Gibson, K. S., and Tyndall, E. P. T.

1923. Sci. Pap. Nat. Bur. Stand., vol. 19, p. 131.

THE RISE OF THE ORGANIC CHEIVHCAL INDUSTRY IN
THE UNITED STATES ^

By C. M. A. Stiitb
Vice president, E. I. du Pmit de Nemours d Co., Wilmington, Del.

[With 4 plates]

The results of the rapid development of the organic chemical
industry in the United States have been so far reaching and are so
obvious as to require no proof that there is in existence today a
great industry showing a phenomenal growth in the last two decades.
It is young and extremely vigorous; its fruits are of such beauty
and utility that I am satisfied as to its continued cultivation and
development.

Let me mention two of the most important and tangible results
of the development of the organic chemical industry of the United
States; first, the fostering of a tremendous expansion in the train-
ing of research workers in our universities, and the promotion of
a great and widespread interest in organic research. This has had
significant repercussions in practically all fields of research, leading
to expansion and intensification of effort and to results of enhanced
value.

The second has been the tremendous contribution to national self-
sufficiency in this country which the rise of our organic chemical
industry has made. There is good ground for believing that self-
sufficiency very definitely makes for peace. Through research and
synthesis we have obtained methods of preparing certain materials
of organic origin which are not available in this comitry because
of limitations of soil or of climate, or for some other reason inherent
in our national economy. For instance, we are not able to grow rub-
ber in the United States, and even though climatic conditions were
favorable we should still be unable to harvest it at the low costs
which now prevail in the rubber-producing countries. Research
and the reduction to practice of the results of this research have not

^ An address delivered on the occasion of the presentation to Dr. Stine of the Perkin
Medal of the Society of Chemical Industry, at the Chemists' Club, 52 East 41st St., New-
York City, on the evening of January 12, 1940. Reprinted by permission from Industrial
and Engineering Chemistry, vol. 32, No. 2. February 1940.

177

178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 40

only contributed to our eventual independence in respect to certain
natural fibers and in respect to rubber, but also have placed at our
disposal methods for the manufacture of almost unlimited quantities
of liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons from the vast natural resources
of coal with which nature has endowed us. Economic factors, of
course, have a large bearing upon fixing the date of a complete in-
dependence of natural sources of supply of oil, rubber, or some types
of natural fibers.

So it is not so much my task to demonstrate that a great pro-
ductive organic chemical industry has developed in the United States
over the last two decades, but rather it is my task to trace a few
of the more important lines which the industry has followed in its
development and, perhaps, to reinforce the observations with a few
figures, if I may do so without becoming tiresomely statistical.

Contrary to popular belief, America had a substantial chemical
industry prior to the World War. As early as 1865, American chem-
ical production had a valuation of some $60,000,000.^ In 1910 tlie
United States produced three times as much sulfuric acid as Ger-
many, and our production of alkalies was double that of England.*
The value of our chemical and allied products in 1914 was in excess
of 2 billion dollars."

Although America experienced a more or less steady growth of
chemical manufactuie from early colonial days down to the World
War, this 300-year i:)eriod was characterized for the most part by
developments in inorganic chemistry. I should emphasize the differ-
entiation between inorganic and organic chemistry. The fateful
World War period served to disclose our woeful lack of manufactur-
ing facilities for many essential materials of an organic chemical
nature. This intolerable situation gave impetus to the research which
has characterized the quarter of a century since 1914 — research which
has culminated in the greatest organic chemical industry in the world.

This new industry is a substantially 100 percent American develop-
ment. It was neither bori-owed nor transplanted from Europe. It
was conceived by American men and financed by American money.

The brains which directed the lesearch wei-e American brains, and
the methods employed in building up the industry were American
methods. This does not mean that we have not profited from foreign
developments and foreign experience. We have, and we gratefully
acknowledge such assistance.

Without an unwavering faith in research, the organic chemical
industry would not exist today. A clear vision of the possibilities
of such an industry was also essential, and likewise "patient money,"

* Haynes, Williams, Men, money and molecules, pp. 71 and 57, 1936.
» Abstract of the U. S. Census of Manufactures, 1914, p. 168.

ORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRY — STINE 179

as the late John E. Teeple so aptly expressed it. I cannot speak
for the entire industry, but I do know that during the early years
in which the du Pont Company conducted intensive work with dye-
stuffs and other organic chemicals, an outlay of more than $40,000,-
000 was made — without 1 cent of profit being realized. This outlay
represented plant investments, operating losses, and research expen-
ditures. I am quite sui-e our experience was not unique.

During the past 25 years research has come to be recognized as
the most valuable tool available to the chemical industry. It is the
only tool with the power to create. While reliable data for the
entire industry are not available. Fortune Magazine reports that
American Cyanamid, Dow, du Pont, Eastman, and Monsanto spent
$12,600,000 on research in 1937, corresponding to about $2.80 of each
$100 of their aggregate net sales.^ Fortune's figure is, I believe,
conservative, since in recent years the research bill of the du Pont
Company has been an appreciably greater ratio of sales.

The industry as a whole is reported to have spent $20,000,000 for
research in 1937, corresponding to an estimated $2.25 out of each
$100 of sales of inorganic chemicals, and $4.30 out of each $100 of
sales of organic chemicals.^ Only the steel and petroleum industries,
spending an estimated 50 and 40 cents, respectively, per $100 of sales,*
are reported as having research expenditures at all commensurate
with those of the chemical industry. But let us not be puffed up
with pride over our national state of mind — research expenditures
by American industry as a whole, if estimated correctly at $250,000-
000 a year, are lower than the nation's annual bill for cosmetics by
about $150,000,000.«

The rise of our organic chemicals manufacture might be portrayed
either by cold statistics, or by showing the important role of Ameri-
can organic chemicals today in our whole industrial and everyday
life. For the most part I propose to follow the latter method, but
for the benefit of the statistically minded a few production figures
might be given. It might also be interesting to show how prices have
been reduced as production increased.

In 1914 this country produced only about 10 percent of the dyes
consumed, and even that small proportion was based almost wholly
on imported intermediates. In 1938, by contrast, we produced about
96 percent of the dyes consumed in this country, and had an export
balance of some 5 million pounds. Our production of other organic
chemicals in 1914 was insignificant, so for data on which to base
further comparisons, let us consider 1919, when the manufacture of

* Fortune, March 1939, p. 58.

= Chem. and Metallurg. Eng., September 1937, pt. 2, p. 545.

a Readers Digest for March 1939, p. 18, gives the approximate figure of ?400,000,000 for
our 1938 cosmetics bill.

280256 — 41 13

180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

organic chemicals was really getting under way. During the 19-year
period ending with 1937, we find such approximate average annual
increases in production as the following: Coal-tar medicinals, 6
percent; total coal-tar finished products, 18 percent; photographic
chemicals, 22 percent; flavors and perfume materials, 29 percent/
Bear in mind that these percentages are for average annual increases,
not for the increase over the entire 19-year period. It should also
be borne in mind that during the same period the average annual
increase in population was only about 1.25 percent.

Organic chemicals of non-coal-tar origin were somewhat slower
getting under way, but during the 17-year period 1921-37, production
of non-coal-tar organics, including synthetic methanol and other al-
cohols, acetic acid, acetone, and various amines, showed an average
annual increase of 685 percent. '^

The astounding rate of growth indicated by these figures is the more
impressive by comparison with corresponding figures for certain other
manufactured products, including representative staple inorganic
chemicals. The average annual increase in sulfuric acid production,
for example, was only about 2.3 percent for the same period; soda
ash, 5.3 percent; woven cotton goods, 2.6 percent; pig iron, less than
1 percent; steel and cement, each about 2.4 percent; while lumber
and newsprint paper each declined about 1.3 percent annually. Auto-
mobile production showed an average annual increase of 9.6 percent,
and concurrent with this increase in automobile production crude
petroleum showed an average annual increase of 12.5 percent. It
is significant that while automobile production showed an increase of
9.6 percent, automobile casings and tubes showed an increase of only
3.2 percent.^ This apparent discrepancy means, of course, that the
tires made around 1937 were much superior to those made around
1919, a superiority due in part to improved rubber chemicals, includ-
ing organic accelerators and antioxidants, which added greatly to
the life of tires and tubes.

Price reductions during this 1919-37 period were equally as phe-
nomenal as production increases. The average value of total coal-
tar finished products, for example, declined from $1.02 a pound
to 41 cents; photographic chemicals from $3.16 to $1.05; flavors and
perfume chemicals from $2.27 to $1.02 ; and coal-tar dyes from $1.07
to 55 cents a pound.^ Certain inorganic chemicals which find wide
application in the manufacture of various organic products likewise

^ Figures based on data from Census of Dyes and Coal-Tar Chemicals (U. S. Tarifif Com-
mission) for years indicated. Average annual increase arrived at by dividing total increase
by number of years in period.

« Figures based on data from Abstract of Fourteenth U. S. Census (1920) and Census
of Manufactures (1937), except pig iron and steel figures which are based on data from
Mineral Resources of the United States, 1919, pt. 1, and Minerals Yearbook for 1939.

» Census of Dyes and Other Synthetic Organic Chemicals.

ORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRY — STINE 181

showed important price reductions during this period. Sulfuric
acid, for example, declined about 31 percent, and caustic soda nearly
45 percent.^"

Even during the period 1927-37, after much of the necessary
pioneering research had been done, we still find marked reductions
in the price of organic chemicals. During this decade acetic acid
dropped from $3.38 to $2.43 per hundred pounds; methanol, from
67.5 to 33 cents a gallon ; and formaldehyde from 10.33 to 5.75 cents
a pound." Coal-tar chemicals likewise underwent substantial price
reductions during this more recent period. Phenol, for example,
widely used in the manufacture of plastics, dropped from 17.5 to
13.25 cents a pound," and coal-tar medicinals from $1.92 to 96 cents
a pound,^2 ^ decline of exactly 50 percent. Synthetic organic chem-
icals of non-coal-tar origin dropped from 18 cents a pound to 10
cents." Likewise during this period we find marked price reductions
in certain inorganic chemicals widely used in the organic chemical
industry. Anhydrous ammonia, for example, declined from 7.5 to
4.5 cents a pound, and clilorine from $4 to $2.15 per hundred pounds."
By way of contrast, the average price of all chemicals during the
1927-37 period declined only about 10 percent."

To the statistically minded, the above figures bear eloquent wit-
ness to the rise of our domestic organic chemical industry, but cold
statistics cannot portray the vital national significance of this in-
dustry. Wlien all is said and done, it is the broad, general sig-
nificance of a development that is of primary interest both to the
chemist and to the layman. Let us accordingly consider the rela-
tion of the organic chemical industry to other industries, and attempt
to visualize what this development means in terms of our everyday
existence. The complete story cannot, of course, be told here, but
a high-spot survey should be sufficient to show the degree of our
present dependence upon organic chemicals. It is not exaggerating,
I believe, to say they have fundamentally affected our national econ-
omy. They have promoted the development of other industries,
which in turn have provided new jobs for our increasing popula-
tion; greatly stimulated many of our older industries; provided the
farmer with improved weapons with which to combat insects and
plant disease; promoted comfort and health; brought to the masses
of the American people many of the good things of life which for-
merly were to be had only by the relatively well-to-do ; and promoted
national self-sufficiency and security.

*<• U. S. Census of Manufactures.

" Ind. and Eng. Chem., June 1938, p. 601.

^ Census of Dyes and Other Synthetic Organic Chemicals.

1" Survey of Current Business, 1938 Supplement (U. S. Department of Commerce), p. 13.

182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

NEW INDUSTRIES AND NEW JOBS

This new industry for organic chemicals manufacture has not only
provided jobs directly for thousands of workers, but also has indi-
rectly opened up countless additional thousands of new jobs by pro-
viding the chemicals which have contributed to the development of
new industries. As we have seen, these chemical raw materials, as
it were, have been supplied at steadily reduced prices. The dyestuiFs,
pharmaceuticals, and plastics industries might be cited by way of
illustration. To be sure we have made some products in these classi-
fications for many years, but in a larger sense they represent new
industries.

Plastics of the nitrocellulose type were, of course, made by Hyatt
in 1869, but how could our modern plastics industry operate with-
out a plentiful supply of such organic chemicals as the acetic acid
used in the manufacture of cellulose acetate plastics; synthetic
camphor, used in the manufacture of nitrocellulose plastics and mo-
tion picture film; and the phenol, formaldehyde, and urea used in
a variety of well-known and widely used plastics?

The importance of camphor is indicated by the fact that more than
a half -million pounds is used each year in motion picture film alone.
As you doubtless know, camphor was the instrument of a foreign
monopoly 25 years ago, but in recent years American chemists have
shown that camphor chemically identical with that from the cam-
phor trees of Formosa can be economically made from pinene, de-
rived from southern turpentine. Today, the du Pont Company is
making more than half of the total domestic consumption of this
important product, and in an emergency additional plant equipment
could be installed to provide our entire needs. As recently as 1920,
refined imported natural camphor reached $3.55 a pound. In con-
trast, refined synthetic camphor is selling for around 48 cents a pound,
while the technical grade used in plastics and photographic Qlra
sells for only about 35 cents a pound.

Likewise imported urea cost in 1920 about 57 cents a pound, cor-
responding to over $1,100 a ton.^* Today urea of equal or better
quality, made at Belle, W. Va., from carbon dioxide and ammonia,
sells for $95 a ton. Practically all of the urea now consumed in
this country comes from this domestic source of supply.

In addition, the organic chemical industry has brought out ma-
terials not hitherto commercially available, which have found appli-
cation in wholly new types of plastics. I shall cite only one
illustration — namely, methacrylic acid, on which are based such
products as the new sparkling "Lucite" method methacrylate plastic

"Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter, Febmary 26, 1931, p. 50.

ORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRY — STINE 183

which, because of its toughness, beauty, and optical properties, is
finding application for a variety of purposes.

Verily our modern plastics industry is a child of the organic
chemical industry, and the same holds equally true in other fields
of manufacture — medicinals and dyestuffs in particular.

Still other organic chemicals, synthesized to meet definite specifi-
cations, as it were, have likewise promoted the development of new
industries. The "Freon" fluorinated hydrocarbons are an excellent
illustration of such "built-to-specification" products. Because
"Freon" is not only an excellent refrigerant, but also nonpoisonous,
nonexplosive, and nonflammable, it has given great impetus to the
air-conditioning industry, and is widely used today in the air-con-
ditioning units of theaters, hotels, office buildings, trains, and a
rapidly increasing number of homes.

STIMULATION OF OLD INDUSTRIES

Products of the organic chemical industry have not only aided
in the development of new industries, but also contributed greatly to
many of our older industries, such as the manufacture of rubber
goods, textiles, paper, automobiles, refrigerators, petroleum prod-
ucts, perfumes and flavors, and explosives.

Of interest in a number of different manufacturing operations are
the synthetic alcohols, organic acids, esters, ethers, halogenated
hydrocarbons, ketones, urea and substituted ureas, and many other
types of aliphatic compounds which in recent years have become com-
mercially available. These materials find wide industrial applica-
tion, serving as solvents, plasticizers, blending agents, waxes,
antifreezes, raw materials for the manufacture of commercial dyna-
mites, degreasing solvents, dewaxing agents, extraction media, and
solvents for purification by recrystallization. The listing of only a
few developments of this type must serve to suggest the whole fas-
cinating picture of organic chemical synthesis in aliphatic chemis-
try— a field which is still in the very earliest stages of its development.
Of outstanding importance in the manufacture of rubber goods are
the new and improved organic accelerators, antioxidants, sun-check-
ing inhibitors, and agents which nullify the destructive influence of
slight traces of copper. The fact that today's automobile tires give
some 25,000 miles of service in comparison with 5,000 miles only a
few years ago is due in no small degree to the use of such organic
rubber chemicals.

Synthetic rubberlike materials developed within the past few years
have likewise been accorded a hearty welcome by fabricators of rub-
ber goods. Although these "chemical rubbers" are different in com-
position from natural rubber, the physical properties of certain of

184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONL\N INSTITUTION, 19 40

these synthetic materials are very similar to those of rubber, and at
least one of these new materials — neoprene — has qualities not found
in the natural product, including resistance to oils, greases, chemicals,
sunlight, and oxygen. These chemical rubbers are accordingly filling
hundreds of needs that natural rubber cannot fill.

And the fact must not be overlooked that this chemical rubber,
which can be used for practiaclly every purpose to which natural
rubber is put, is based on domestic raw materials of which we have
an abundance — coal, limestone, and salt.

The important role played by synthetic dyestufFs in the textile
industry is so well recognized as to warrant no discussion.

Of the numerous other synthetic organic chemicals which find ap-
plication in the manufacture and finishing of textiles, particular
mention should be made of the fatty alcohol sulfates used as de-
tergents. Certain of these materials are very similar to ordinary
soap in detergent properties, except that they function as well in
hard water as in soft water. Such compomids are accordingly a
boon to textile finishers, particularly in hard-water regions. Other
fatty alcohol sulfates, and also certain alkyl sulfonates, find applica-
tion as wetting agents to facilitate dyeing and other textile opera-
tions. Still other related materials are used as textile softeners, to
impart a pleasing "feel" to fabrics.

Mention should also be made of improved moth repellents, mildew
inhibitors of the type of salicyl anilide, and water-repellent finishes.
Of particular interest is the recently developed "Zelan" durable
water-repellent finish. The base of this new finish — a quarternary
ammonium salt — ^becomes so firmly bound to textile fibers, either
chemically or physically, that it is not removed by repeated launder-
ing or dry cleaning.

No discussion of the role of organic products in the textile industry
would, of course, be complete without reference to rayon, of which
this country produced some 288,000,000 pounds in 1938, and the more
recently developed products such as "Vinyon" and the synthetic poly-
amides known as nylon. Nylon had its origin in the work on poly-
merization and giant molecules, subjects investigated as part of the
fundamental research which I initiated some 12 years ago, and which
I am happy to say is still being viogrously prosecuted. Most of you,
I feel sure, have heard of nylon, and know that dibasic organic acids
and diamines are among the intermediates to be used in making this
new family of materials. Note that I say "family" of materials,
since many different nylons are possible.

Many of you have probably heard that one of the more promising
outlets for nylon will be in the manufacture of yam which, because
of its high strength-elasticity factor, will be used in fine hosiery.

ORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRY — STINE 185

The production of nylon yarn on a limited scale was started early
this month, and small commercial shipments will be made in Febru-
ary 1940. It is anticipated that within the next few months full-
fashioned nylon hosiery will be on general sale.

Nylon is now on the market in the form of bristles for tooth-
brushes and other toilet brushes, and also for certain types of indus-
trial brushes. It is also on the market in the form of sewing thread,
fishing lines and leaders, and surgical sutures. It is said to offer nu-
merous advantages over natural gut sutures. Perhaps other lines of
manufacture wholly new are still cradled in this chemical nursery.

I am sure that all of you are more or less familiar with the role
of organic chemicals in the automobile industry. The story has been
told many times, and I shall accordingly not dwell on it at great
length. Nitrocellulose lacquers, developed around 1921, probably
represent one of the greatest chemical contributions to the automobile
industry. By cutting down the finishing time from 4 to 9 days to as
many hours, mass production was greatly facilitated. In an attempt
to reduce finishing time with the old orthodox enamels, durability
had been sacrificed, but the nitrocellulose lacquers are both quick-
drying and durable.

The development of synthetic rubberlike materials was previously
mentioned. Automobile motors are frequently mounted on blocks of
neoprene or other "chemical rubber," to minimize chassis vibration.
Natural rubber used for this purpose deteriorates rapidly under the
influence of grease and oils with which it may come in contact. Be-
cause of its resistance to grease and oils, neoprene does not undergo
this deterioration, and is accordingly well suited for the mounting
of motors and some 50 other special uses about the car.

The recent development of polyvinyl acetal plastics has a very
direct bearing on the automobile industry. For many years safety
glass for the windows and windshields was made with an interliner
of nitrocellulose or cellulose acetate plastic, but last year it was found
that an interliner of a certain type of polyvinyl acetal plastic has
definite advantages over the cellulosic plastics. This new plastic is
not only extremely tough and elastic at ordinary temperatures, but
retains its toughness and elasticity at very low temperatures. It is
for this reason that the polyvinyl acetals — products of the organic
chemical industry — make possible the safest safety glass ever made.

Organic plastics find other applications in the automobile industry.
Plastics are used in the distributor head, on the instrument board, and
constitute various articles of internal decoration and utility such as the
knob of the gear-shift lever and the steering wheel. It is of interest
that these plastics are not only organic products themselves, but fre-
quently demand other organic chemicals to modify their inherent

186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

physical characteristics — phisticizers, for example, to facilitate mold-
ing operations. Still other organic chemicals are used in the lubri-
cants and in motor fuel, but these will be covered in connection with
petroleum products.

Mention was made of "Freon" in connection with air-conditioning.
Because these new fluorinated hydrocarbons are absolutely safe, they
are now widely used not only in air-conditioning, but also in domestic
refrigerators as well. Another important class of organic materials
used by manufacturers of mechanical refrigerators are the oil-modified
alkyd resin baking enamels. This new type of finish has to a consid-
erable degree displaced porcelain finishes. This shift from porcelain
to alkyd resin finishes has resulted in a marked decrease in cost of pro-
duction, which in turn is reflected in reduced prices to the ultimate
consumer. Alkyd resin finishes of the type used on refrigerators are
characterized by a high degree of toughness, resistance to grease and
stains, and by excellent color retention. Kelated alkyd resin finishes
are widely used for interior woodwork and for certain specialty out-
door applications — metal-protective paints in particular. Alkyd
resin finishes are also being used on several types of automobiles —
both passenger cars and motortrucks — on ships and railway cars.

One of the principal intermediates used in making the alkyd resin
finishes is phthalic anhydride, made by the oxidation of naphthalene.
Whereas phthalic anhydride was more or less a laboratory curiosity
in 1917, selling for about $6 a pound,^^ some 43,000,000 pounds were
made in 1937, and the estimated production for 1939 was of the order
of 60,000,000 i^ounds. Currently the price of this important coal-tar
intermediate, the principal outlets for which are in the manufacture
of alkyd resins and certain types of dyes, is around 15 cents a pound.
Within recent years a new and greatly improved method has been
developed for the preparation of phthalic anhydride, involving oxida-
tion of naphthalene in the vapor phase, and it is largely due to this
improved method that alkyd resin finishes are available today at prices
which enable them to compete with the so-called orthodox finishes.

I have taken a very personal interest in this new type of finish, since
much of the pioneering work on alkyd resin finishes was done under
my direction. Some 15 years ago when my attention was first called
by Dr. Whitney to resins made by the General Electric Co. through
the interaction of polyhydric alcohols such as glycerol, and polybasic
acids such as phthalic anhydride, it occurred to me that resins of this
type might find application in nitrocellulose lacquers to replace im-
ported natural resins such as damar. It likewise occurred to us about
the same time that resins of the same general type, suitable for use in
paints and varnishes, might be made through the simultaneous reac-

« Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter, 1918 Year Book, p. 127.

ORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRY — STINE 187

tion of a polyhydric alcohol, a polybasic acid, and a monobasic fatty
acid derived from drying oils such as linseed or Chinawood oil. A
program for research was accordingly mapped out, and about 1925 or
1926 work was started. First and last, we spent more than half a
million dollars on research directed to the development of variously
modified alkyd resins, but I am happy to say that the fruits of this
work have been such that we have had no occasion to regret spending
this rather large sum.

Synthetic organic chemicals find numerous important applications
in the manufacture and use of petroleum products. As you know,
cracking processes had the effect of doubling our oil reserves as far as
gasoline is concerned. On the other hand, however, cracked gasoline
on storage has a tendency to develop gums which would lead to
clogging of the motor and fuel lines. Through the use of certain
organic chemicals, however, this tendency to gimi formation is sub-
stantially eliminated. The amount of an antioxidant such as isobutyl-
para-aminophenol necessary to stablize cracked gasoline so that it may
be stored for several months, or even a year, costs only 2 or 3 cents to
the barrel of gasoline. This is of interest not only to the motorist, but
also to the refiner, since before the advent of gum inhibitors it was not
unusual for cracked gasoline which had been stored for some time to
require redistillation before it was sold.

Likewise of interest to manufacturers of petroleum products are
the organic chemicals used in lubricants. Small amounts of a chemical
such as the esters and nitriles of long-chain fatty acids increase the
"oiliness" of a lubricating oil — ^that is, the coefiicient of friction is
lowered. In addition it is claimed that these "oiliness" promoters
reduce the wear on moving parts, thereby minimizing shut-downs and
repair bills.

We have also what are known as extreme pressure lubricant bases
which cause a film of lubricating oil to be "tough." Several types
of organic materials are used for this purpose, including halogenated
and phosphated oil compositions, lead soaps, and sulfurized oils.
When present in oils and greases in amounts as low as 1 percent, these
extreme-pressure lubricant bases make it possible for a bearing or gear
to withstand tremendous pressures without the bearing surfaces ac-
tually touching one another, and possibly "seizing." For the lubri-
cation of the hypoid gear, for example, which is used in the differential
of most of the cars now being made, it is absolutely necessary that an
extreme-pressure lubricant base be used in conjunction with the lubri-
cating oil, since the peculiar frictional forces that obtain in this im-
proved gear would squeeze out or rupture the film of any untreated
oil, leaving the metal surfaces in direct contact. The presence of a
suitable extreme-pressure lubricant base insures that a film of oil
will always separate and protect the bearing surfaces.

188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 40

Many other illustrations might be cited to show how our older indus-
tries have been aided through products or techniques having their origin
in the organic chemical industry, but I shall mention only a few more.

In the manufacture of perfumes, materials known as fixatives are
used, one function of which is to make the odor more lasting. Until
a few years ago, all fixatives were of animal origin, such as the musk
from a species of deer found in Tibet. The characteristic ingredient
of natural musk, if it could be had in a perfectly pure state, would
probably be worth its weight in gold several times over, but within
recent years synthetic musks have been developed, and at least one
of these new organic compounds is substantially identical with the
characteristic ingredient of natural musk. All sell at only a fraction
of the cost of the natural product. Moreover, the chemist has syn-
thesized certain floral odors which cannot well be recovered from
flowers. Perfumes having the true scent of lilac or lily-of-the-valley,
for example, were not to be had until the chemist synthesized these
elusive and delicate odors. Wholly new odors have also been syn-
thesized, but it should be understood that, for the most part, synthetic
perfume chemicals supplement rather than displace natural floral odors.
High quality perfumes are usually a skillful blend of the natural and
synthetic.

The close relationship between organic chemicals and the explosives
industry is well illustrated by some of my own early experiences. One
of my first assignments after becoming affiliated with the du Pont
Company in 1907 related to the manufacture of ammonium nitrate,
used in certain types of dynamite. In particular we sought to find
the cause of repeated fires which occurred on evaporating the neutral-
ized ammonia liquors. Since this was before the days of synthetic
ammonia, the ammonia liquors came from byproduct coke ovens, and
were originally bought on the basis of their ammonia content. While
they were analyzed for various inorganic constituents, no attention
whatever was paid to the possibility of organic matter being present.
To make a long story short, I carefully investigated the ammonia
liquors and found relatively large amounts of volatile tars. When
the liquors were neutralized with nitric acid, some of these tars were
partially nitrated. When the neutralized liquors were concentrated
by evaporation, the deposit of unstable nitrated tarry matter along
the margin of the hot ammonium nitrate liquors often ignited spon-
taneously, and it was this that had caused some disastrous fires. I
thereupon worked out a quantitative method for the quick determina-
tion of the total tarry content of ammonia liquors, so that a specifica-
tion as to tarry content could be incorporated in connection with the
purchase of ammonia liquor.

Another early assignment was a study of the nitration of toluene
in the production of a mixture of nitrated toluols used to lower the

ORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRY — STINE 189

freezing point of dynamite. This work led me to a study of various
nitro derivatives of xylene and other hydrocarbons. Work on the
nitration of hydrocarbons and other organic compounds in turn led
to the preliminary work on the production of dye intermediates. In
connection with my w^ork on low-freezing dynamites, for example, a
method was worked out and equipment designed for separating the
isomeric di-nitro toluenes, and this method was later employed in
making 2:4 dinitrotoluene as an intermediate in the manufacture
of dyes.

Still another early assignment was an investigation of permissible
explosives for use in mines, and in the early days I did all of the
work myself connected with the examination of the safety properties
of such permissible explosives as were then available, attending per-
sonally to the testing of these explosives by the Bureau of Mines at
the Pittsburgh Testing Station, which, incidentally, had just been
opened. The study of the properties of these permissible explosives
from the point of view of their tendency to ignite coal dust mixed
with air, or to explode mixtures of gas and air, led to the development
of a wholly new series of permissible explosives, very much safer for
use in gaseous mines than the earlier so-called permissible explosives.

Many interesting incidents, a few of them amusing, come to mind
as I think of other phases of this early work on explosives, including
the manufacture of TNT, tetryl (trinitrophenylmethyl nitramine)
and picric acid, but in each and every case the story would be the
same — namely, a dependence upon the products and the techniques
of organic chemistry.

To the ancient industry of agriculture, the organic chemical in-
dustry has made many notable contributions. In connection with
plastics, mention was made of urea, which today sells for less than
one-tenth of its price in 1920. This synthetic nitrogenous chemical
not only finds wide application in plastics, but also as a fertilizer
ingredient. Mention should also be made of the organic mercurials
which are being used so successfully for the control of various plant
diseases caused by fungi, and the long-chain alkyl rliodanates for
combating the ravages of sucking insects on certain agricultural
crops.

In this connection mention should also be made of recent work
at the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research with organic
compounds which modify the growth of plants. Among the more
interesting of these materials are compounds such as indole butyric
acid, which promote root growth even on the stems and leaves of
plants to which they are applied. These so-called plant hormones,
which are used in concentrations as low as 1 part in 40,000, bid
fair to find wide practical application in agriculture, horticulture,
and floriculture for starting cuttings of plants difficult to root.

190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

Materials made available, either directly or indirectly, through
the organic chemical industry have enriched our lives by bringing
to the masses of the American people many of the good things of
life which formerly were to be had only by the relatively well-to-do.
Thanks to the development of synthetic textile fibers, millions of
girls who work in offices and mills dress better than did the queens
of a hundred years ago. In 1924 a standard type of viscose rayon
sold for about $2 a pound. Today, greatly improved rayon yams
sell for approximately 50 cents a pound, and such price reductions
mean large savings in clothing cost to the ultimate consumer. More-
over, the synthetic dyes used today, superior in many respects to
the natural dyes used by our grandparents, are produced at a cost
which adds at most only a few cents a yard to the finished fabric.

Synthetic plastics, previously referred to, have also enriched our
lives by making available a wide variety of beautiful articles, in-
cluding toiletware and costume jewelry, formerly made from rela-
tively expensive materials such as ivory, jade, tortoise shell, and
amber.

For our comfort, safety, and health, the organic chemical industry
has provided a wide variety of products. Reference was previously
made to the nonpoisonous, nonexplosive, and nonflammable fluori-
nated hydrocarbons widely used in domestic refrigerators and air-
conditioning units. I spoke also of the new polyvinyl acetal plastics
used as interliners in the safest safety glass ever made. There can
be no question that many serious injuries have been averted, and
many lives saved, because of safety glass.

But nowhere have organic chemicals played so vital a role as
in the prevention and cure of disease. An outstanding illustration
is "Salvarsan," synthesized by Ehrlich for the cure of syphilis.
"Salvarsan" is now made in this country, of course, and research is
credited with bringing about a 94 percent reduction in the price of
this synthetic medicinal.^®

Not since the development of "Salvarsan" has a synthetic medi-
cinal met with such a welcome reception as sulfanilamide, or shown
greater promise. Although introduced into the field of medicine
only a few years ago, this coal-tar derivative has already saved the
lives of thousands suffering from "blood poisoning," peritonitis,
streptococcic sore throat, puerperal or childbirth fever, meningitis,
and other dangerous maladies due to streptococcic infection. Al-
though the du Pont Company does not make this product, I am
proud to say that the company did prepare the sulfanilamide with
which the pioneering work in this country was carried out by Dr.

" Chem. and Metallurg. Eng., September 1937, pt. 2, p. 546.

ORGANIC CHEMICAL INDUSTRY — STINE 191

Perrin H. Long and his associates at the Jolins Hopkins Medical
School.

During the past year a related compound, sulfapyridine, has
shown great promise in the treatment of pnemnonia, which claims
an annual toll of some 100,000 lives in the United States.

As a result of the isolation and synthesis of certain of the vita-
mins, various diseases due to dietary deficiencies can now be pre-
vented or cured. Among the more important of these essential
organic materials are vitamin A, a deficiency of which leads to night
blindness and increased susceptibility to infection; the antiscorbutic
vitamin C, now available as synthetic ascorbic acid; vitamin P-P
(nicotinic acid), an insufficiency of which causes the dread pellagra;
the antirachitic vitamin D, now available as irradiated 7-dehydro-
cholesterol; and the antiberberi vitamin Bi (thiamin), previously
referred to in comiection with the effect of organic chemicals on
plant growth.^^

Similarly, the research chemist has established the constitution
of, and synthesized, certain of the hormones, those little-understood
secretions of the ductless glands which in some degree affect the
functioning of the mind as well as regulate the chemical reactions
of the body. Developments in this field offer definite promise for
the cure of certain mental ills which have baffled medical science
for ages.

The tremendous increases in organic chemical manufacture have
made such wide and important demands for research laboratories
and increased personnel to man these laboratories as to result in a
great country-wide stimulation of research. From fundamental re-
search in such sciences as chemistry, physics, biology, and pharma-
cology will certainly come the great developments of tomorrow, espe-
cially in the amelioration of man's health. Chemotherapy, itself as
fundamentally important as the first work which flowed from Pasteur's
laboratory, is nurtured by the organic chemical industry. A long
list of new organic compounds awaits the attention of the research
workers in pharmacology and experimental medicine. Pharmaco-
logical development will continue to be supported to an increasing
degree because of the development and growth of a flourishing or-
ganic chemical manufacturing industry in the United States.

In closing I should like to leave this thought with you. Those who
would attribute to our scientific development the blame for our
present national and international ills take an entirely superficial
view of the picture. They overlook the horrible wars that have
been waged all down the years when there was no science as we know

" Science in progress, p. 147 et seq., Yale University Press, 1939.

192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 19 40

it today. They overlook or wilfully ignore the well-recognized fact
that the lust for power by one man, or a small group of men, leads
all too frequently to that great social and economic disaster called
war. Until indoctrinated race antipathies and hatreds, envy, and
greed for power are eliminated from human nature through spirit-
ual regeneration, we shall have no solution of this fatal disease
which afflicts humanity. Science, though it is able to confer the
richest blessings upon mankind, is not able to change the heart of
man and insure that the great increases in scientific knowledge will
be beneficently applied. But while this is unquestionably true, I
nevertheless hold that the great contribution which the development
of the organic chemical industry has made to the self-sufficiency of
this country is a definite contribution toward the maintenance of
peace.

Smithsonian Report. 1940. — Stine

Plate 1

Converters and Heat Transferrers in the Contact Sulphuric Acid Plant
OF the Grasselli Works of E. l. du Pont de Nemours & Co. in Phila-
delphia, PA.

The operator is changing the valve that controls temperatures.

Smithsonian Report, 1940 -Stine

PLATE 2

1. From This Material, "Pyralin" Cellulose Nitrate Plastic Sheets and

Rods Are Made.

The i)lastic is put throiijrh heavy steel rollers at the Arlinston, X. J., i)lant of E. I. du Pont de Xemours

A: Co.

2. Batch of Crude Methyl Methacrylate Polymer, the Base for ■ Lucite"
Plastic Manufactured by E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co. at the Com-
pany's Belle, W. Va., Plant.

Smithsonian Report, 1940. — Stine

1. Pyroxylin-Coated Cloth Undergoing Final Inspection at the New-
burgh. N. Y., Plant of E. I. du Pont de Nemours & Co.

2. Conveyor Showing Crystal Urea, a Product of the Belle. W. Va., Plant
OF E. I . du Pont de Nemours & Co.. on Its Way to the Dryers.

THE EUBBER INDUSTRY, 1839-1939 ^

By W. A. Gibbons
United States Rubber Co., Passaic, N. J.

[With 4 plates]

The importance of Goodyear's invention is strikingly revealed by a
consideration of the changes which it brought about. Before the dis-
covery of vulcanization there was a small and struggling rubber
industry. Rubber had been used by the Indians as a waterproofing
material, and some rubber manufacturing was started in Europe and
the United States early in the nineteenth century. Wliile natives
worked principally with latex, European and American manufac-
turers endeavored to use the dry rubber prepared by the natives from
latex. Some experimental work had been done on methods of
handling rubber. For example, it was known that rubber could be
softened by heat or mechanical action and that it could be dissolved
in certain solvents and spread on fabrics. It was observed that rubber
so treated had reduced strength, increased tackiness, and shorter life.
On this account these processes were suitable only for the manufacture
of those articles which did not require a rubber of high strength or
elasticity.

For products requiring a greater strength or stretch, other methods
were used. The Brazilian rubber prepared by smoking latex on poles,
and known as Para rubber, was relatively tough, hard, and elastic.
Hancock used this rubber in the manufacture of rubber thread, bands,
and rings. The process consisted of cutting the desired shape from
the crude mass or biscuit. Only certain portions of the biscuits were
of suitable shape for this cutting operation ; the remainder was used
for other purposes. To minimize this disadvantage, Hancock sent
sticks of a certain size to Brazil and ordered biscuits of elongated
shape, which could be cut more economically. The process of manu-
facture was started in Brazil and completed in Europe. Obviously a
method which depended so much on obtaining the raw material in

^ Paper read at the general meeting of the American Chemical Society in Boston Septem-
ber 13, 1939, in commemoration of the one hundredth anniversary of the discovery of the
vulcanization of rubber. Reprinted by permission from Industrial and Engineering Chem-
istry, vol. 31, p. 1199, October 1939.

193

194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

proper geometrical form left much to be desired. The buying of crude
rubber for such applications must have attained the dignity of a
fine art.

Another product which required strength and lasting qualities was
the rubber overshoe. In order to obtain an article of the proper shape
with sufficient toughness to give any service, it was necessary to make
the shoe by applying latex to a rough last and then drying. This was
done by the natives in South America, and shoes of this type were
shipped in considerable quantities.

To sum up the situation: Rubber was used principally because it
was flexible and waterproof; it could be plasticized and shaped, but
only by impairing other important properties; if articles requiring
strength and stretch were made, they were cut from selected pieces of
the crude material ; the products were in general of short life and low
durability ; they were of limited utility because they were extremely
sensitive to heat and cold.

The discovery of vulcanization made it possible to use the plastic
properties of rubber to bring it to the desired shape, and to convert
it to a harder, tougher, and more permanent material. Rubber was
the first thermosetting plastic.

Rubber, like other raw materials such as steel, glass, concrete, and
paint, had dual properties important to its industrial use. In its
initial stages it is soft and plastic, which permits it to be brought to
the desired shape. It can then be converted to a permanent form.

Gone forever were the days of selecting pieces of crude rubber of the
desired shape from which to cut out parts for the fabrication of articles
of inadequate elasticity, strength, and performance. By this inven-
tion the manufacturer was liberated from a troublesome restriction
as to raw material and process, and was enabled to make a product
much better suited to the purpose in hand. To mankind there was
made available a material so abounding in useful properties that after
100 years of constant development, its new applications are still
increasing.

It is interesting to note that Goodj^ear's objective, although definite,
was modest in comparison with the event. He had been confronted
with the deterioration in properties which resulted from plasticizing
and shaping rubber. His avowed purpose was to restore the original
properties of the rubber :

As early as the year 1800, wherever the properties of India rubber became
known and appreciated it became a subject of much inquiry and experiment
to ascertain if there was any way by which it could be dissolved, and after-
ward restored to its original state. This was the ultimatum sought after by
great numbers who occupied themselves in experiments with it, especially
those of the medical profession, as well as by the writer in all his early experi-
ments. It was not thought of or expected (certainly not by the writer) mate-
rially to improve upon the original good qualities of the gum.

THE RUBBER INDUSTRY — GIBBONS 195

Let us consider briefly the technical aspects of Goodyear's inven-
tion. What he did was to make a mixture of 25 parts of rubber, 5
parts of sulfur, and 7 parts of white lead, and subject this mixture
to heat. He found that when a piece of this mixture was heated on
a stove it was changed. The result was the first piece of vulcanized
rubber. Geer (3) ^ has given a vivid description of this event. He
pointed out that the only "accident" was that the stove happened to
be about the right temperature to produce the phenomenon of vul-
canization; had it been much hotter the rubber would have been
destroyed, and had it been much cooler no effect would have been
noticed. Geer also pointed out that by this apparently simple opera-
tion Goodyear made four discoveries: (a) Sulfur is required; (5)
another material, such as white lead, is important in accelerating the
reaction; (c) the mixture must be heated; and {d) it must be heated
for a definite length of time.

Sulfur, or at least gunpowder, had been used by the Indians as a
dusting material to remove surface tack. Hayward had previously
obtained a patent on exposing mixtures of rubber and sulfur to sun-
light, with the object of drying the surface. White lead was a com-
mon pigment. Hancock and others had found that heat could be
used to amalgamate pieces of scrap rubber to make a homogeneous
mass. Before Goodyear's discovery, however, no one had combined
these four operations.

The story of rubber from the discovery of vulcanization to the
present time cannot be told as a simple sequence of orderly, related
developments. For the first half of this period we have two lines
of independent progress. One of these is the development and ex-
pansion of the rubber industry; the other is the scientific study of
rubber. Probably for the most part the workers in one field did not
know what those in the other were doing. This same situation un-
doubtedly existed in many industries as a result of the slowness of
manufacturers to interest themselves in the application of scientific
methods to their work.

COMMERCIAL DEVELOPMENT TO 1S90

Shortly after the discovery of vulcanization Goodyear granted
a number of licenses. The first, dated April 3, 1841, was to Nathaniel
Hayward and related to "boots and shoes of felt or woolen cloth and
India rubber." Hayward later transferred this license to Leverett
Candee of New Haven, who together with Henry Hotchkiss and
Lucius Hotchkiss had formed a partnership for the manufacture
of rubber shoes, etc. This was the origin of L. Candee & Co., which

' Numbers In parentheses refer to list of references at end of article.
280256—41 14

196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 194

later became a part of the United States Kubber Co. In 1843 the
firm of Samuel J. Lewis & Co. was organized in Nangatuck, Conn.
In the same year this firm received a license from Charles Goodyear
to manufacture footwear. This partnership was succeeded by the
Goodyear Metallic Kubber Shoe Co., which was incorporated in
Connecticut on January 9, 1845. This company likewise became a
part of the United States Rubber Co. and has made rubber footwear
continuously from the time of the establishment of the plant in 1843
to the present. Three of the four original subscribers were related
by marriage to Charles Goodyear. It was in the Naugatuck office
of one of these, William deForest, that the first vulcanized shoe
was lasted.

The name "Goodyear Metallic Rubber Shoe Company" was pos-
sibly suggested by Goodyear himself, for he states (5) : "Soon after
the discovery of the heating or vulcanizing process, the inventor
applied the term metallic gum-elastic to the improved article." In
other parts of his book, Goodyear uses the term "metallic" as
synonymous with vulcanization.

This early application of Goodyear's invention to overshoes is of
great interest in relation to the history of the rubber industry in this
country. For many years this was the most important branch of the
industry. Although later other countries started the manufacture
of vulcanized rubber overshoes, the American product was, and still
is, regarded as the standard of quality.

As a result of Goodyear's discovery, a dying industry revived.
The footwear business grew with considerable rapidity. Goodyear
relates that before 1840 the total annual production of uncured rubber
overshoes, made for the most part by the natives of rubber-producing
countries, was around 500,000 pairs. About 1851, when he wrote his
book (5), 15,000 pairs per day or approximately 5,000,000 pairs per
year were manufactured in the United States under Goodyear's
patent.

In 1851 Nelson Goodyear, a brother of Charles, discovered that
sulfur used in large amounts would produce hard rubber.

For the next 40 years the industry itself did not make much
progress in the application of chemistry to rubber. Manufacturers
and inventors devoted their attention to devising and exploiting new
shapes and applications of rubber, many of which were suggested by
Goodyear and Hancock. Business during this period was chiefly in
waterproof footwear, clothing, druggists' sundries, and certain type:!
of mechanical goods such as hose, gaskets, washers, etc. Chemistry,
as we understand the teim today, was not in general use in the rubber
industry. Those operations which come under the heading of rubber
compounding — that is, the designing of mixtures of rubber and other
ingredients to produce a satisfactory article — were on a rule-of-

THE RUBBER INDUSTRY — GIBBONS 197

thumb basis. The work was conducted by men who had grown up
with the business and was carried out with the utmost secrecy.

As would be expected under such conditions, a number of fallacies
developed, which flourished to a remarkable degree. For example,
as late as 1892 there were definite statements in rubber handbooks
that vulcanization occurs only between the melting point of sulfur
and a temperature of 160° C. These statements were repeated in
later editions published after the turn of the century. While these
temperatures, at that time at least, may have defined the limits
actually used by manufacturers, the statement itself is entirely
erroneous and resulted from a failure to comprehend one of the four
essentials mentioned by Geer— that is, the importance of time.
Although the quantitative relation between reaction rates and tem-
perature was known as early as 1889, these findings were not applied
generally in the rubber industry until many years later.

One of the most important tasks of the rubber manufacturer during
this period and even later was the choice of the proper types of crude
rubber. Handbooks on rubber devoted much space to a discussion
of various botanical species which produce rubber and to the types
of rubber obtained from them. Crude rubber produced in those
days was prepared by the natives of South and Central America,
Africa, and the East Indies. Primitive methods were used. The
best rubber, known as fine Para, was obtained from Brazil. This
was produced by dipping a stick in latex and coagulating the latex
by holding the stick over a fire of urucuri nuts. The smoke of this
fire contained certain acidic materials, such as acetic acid and phenols,
which coagulated the latex. The operation of dipping and drying
was repeated until a substantial mass, called a "biscuit," was obtained.
For many years this product was a standard of quality. It owed
its excellence both to the particular tree, Hevea, hrasiliensis, from
which the latex was obtained, and also to the method of preparation ;
although crude from the standpoint of operating eflBciency, this
method was more satisfactory than those used elsewhere. In other
localities, for example, latex was allowed to dry on the surface of
the tree, and the film of rubber, together with much adhering
foreign matter, was peeled off. In still other cases natives smeared
the rubber on their bodies and allowed it to dry.

The rubbers prepared by these diverse methods differed greatly in
properties from one type to another. Also, there was great varia-
tion in shipments of supposedly the same grade of raw material.
The prices of these different grades varied both on absolute and
relative bases, and a vast amount of experience and skill was required
in order to make the best use, from the standpoint of both cost and
quality, of available raw materials.

198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

TLANTATION RUBBER

In 1876 an event occurred which was destined to create a profound
change in the production of rubber. An Englishman, Henry Wick-
ham, succeeded in transporting a supply of seeds of the Hevea tree
from Brazil to England. Wickham had previously devoted several
years to the study of these trees in their native jungles, and had se-
lected and carefully picked seeds from the best type of tree. The seeds
were planted in Kew Gardens, and the seedlings from them were
transplanted in Cejdon.

In spite of what appeared to be a good start, plantation rubber
developed slowly. In 1909, 3,600 tons of plantation rubber and
66,000 tons of wild rubber were produced. By 1913-14 the produc-
tion of plantation rubber equaled that of wild rubber. At present
practically all the world's supply of rubber comes from the planta-
tions, and the total potential world production has grown to around
1,500,000 tons per year.

Great improvements have been made in the art of growing rubber.
The early books on the plantation industry record yields of around
300 pounds per acre. A great deal of work was carried out in the
East on the application of genetics to rubber planting; as a result
the yield has been greatly increased. At present the average annual
yield per acre on the European and American owned plantations is
450 pounds per year. High yielding areas have produced as much as
2,000 pounds per year.

Although the trees planted in the East are of Brazilian origin,
the type of crude rubber produced on the eastern estates is quite
different from the Para rubber of Brazil. The plantation rubber
in practically all cases is made by coagulating latex by the addition
of an acid, such as acetic or formic, and then forming the coagulum
into a sheet which is washed and dried. In many cases the sheets
are hung in a smokehouse, and the product is known as smoked
sheet.

INVENTION OF THE PNEUMATIC TIRE

Another event of far-reaching importance was the invention of
the pneumatic tire, patented by Dunlop in 1888. Dunlop's first tire
was a rubber tube, with means for inflation, held to the rims of a
tricycle by tape. The introduction of the bicycle gave an impetus
to the development of tires, which was still further stimulated by
the invention of the automobile.

SCIENTIFIC WORK TO 1890

Let us now consider the scientific work which was done between
1839 and 1890. Goodyear's discovery was made at a time when
chemistry was in its infancy. Although a few of the basic chemical

THE RUBBER INDUSTRY — GIBBONS 199

laws, such as those of Avogadro and Gay-Lussac, and the laws of
definite and multiple proportions were known, present-day organic
chemistry did not exist. At that time substances derived from
natural living sources were generally assumed to be fundamentally
different from those of inanimate origin.

Previous workers in chemistry had confined their attention chiefly
to those forms of matter which possessed definite critical criteria —
in other words, solids, liquids, or gases. The interrelationship of
pressure, volume, temperature, and change in weight as a result of
chemical reaction, were about the only criteria for studying chemical
reactions.

Faraday (2) was the first to publish the ultimate analysis of rub-
ber, and the carbon-hydrogen ratio which he determined is used
today. At the time Faraday made his analysis, there was consider-
able activity in studying various organic materials, all of natural
origin. Dry distillation of organic substances or mixtures had come
into use as an experimental method for obtaining information re-
garding the constitution of complex substances, and rubber was one
of the natural substances which was studied in this way.

Himley (7) in 1838 obtained two hydrocarbons from rubber; one
of them he called "Faradayn," and it may have been isoprene.

Williams (22) in 1860 definitely identified isoprene as one of the
constituents resulting from the dry distillation of rubber and showed
that it had the same hydrogen-carbon ratio as rubber.

The present accepted structural formula for isoprene was estab-
lished by Tilden (18) in 1884.

Bouchardat (1) in 1875 and Tilden (19) in 1892 showed that
isoprene or its hydrochloride could be polymerized under certain
conditions to give a rubberlike substance; furthermore, he showed
that this rubberlike substance on dry distillation gave the same
volatile hydrocarbon as rubber.

Aside from their historical interest these researches are impor-
tant because they form the basis of our present knowledge of the
manner in which rubber, or at least rubberlike substances, can be
obtained from synthetic materials — that is, by the polymerization of
compounds containing conjugated double bonds.

Another scientific foundation stone of great importance to the
later development of theories of vulcanization was the work of
Gladstone and Hibbert (4) who in 1888 measured the refractive
index of rubber and concluded that it was unsaturated. This was
confirmed by their observation that rubber under the proper condi-
tions forms an addition compound with bromine.

The scientific studies of rubber were for the most part independ-
ent of the industrial development during this period. Although

200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1940

we have no record of the first employment of chemists in the rubber
industry or why they were employed, the conventional guess would
be that it was in connection with the application of analytical methods
either to raw materials or to the finished products, including com-
petitors' products. An interesting side light is furnished in a
note by Weber (20) in 1903 entitled "The Importance of Chemistry
in the Kubber Industry." Weber says:

Slowly but surely are silenced those once so numerous voices which assured
us positively a few years ago that the efforts of the chemists to solve the
chemical side of rubber manufacturing are commendable, but fail of accomplish-
ment, and in any case would be superfluous. The possibility of a secondary
usefulness of chemistry in carrying out analyses of raw materials and occasion-
ally of a sample of rubber, however, was admitted, with the emphatic statement
that herewith the importance of chemical methods had reached an end as far
as rubber was concerned. The only "catch" in these statements, well meant
without doubt, was that they were made by nonchemists. I recall quite
similar lamentations (Jeremiade) which greeted the arrival of chemistry in
the leather and paper manufacture, and also that even in the iron and steel
industry the chemist had been looked upon for a long time as a kind of
idealistically inclined spendthrift, and that it took the chemists a long time
to attain their present importance.

In 1892 Henriques (6) published articles on the analysis of rubber.

In 1890 C. O. Weber started his career in the rubber industry.
Weber had studied under Bunsen at Heidelberg and later at the
universities of Zurich and Freiburg. He had previously been inter-
ested in coal tar and dyestuffs. When Weber entered the industry,
little or nothing was known of the chemistry of rubber manufacture.
The phenomenon of vulcanization, of which the industry had made
such enormous use for over 50 years, had received practically no
attention even from the empirical point of view. Rubber manufac-
turers were still arguing as to what was meant by "perfect cure."
Little or nothing was known regarding the relation of time and
temperature to the degree of vulcanization. Although it was recog-
nized that sulfur did something important to the rubber, until
Weber's time there was no recognition of any quantitative relation.

Weber investigated the relation between the time and temperature
at which rubber was vulcanized, and the amount o