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Annual Report of the Board of Regents
of the
SMITHSONIAN
INSTITUTION
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PUBLICATION 4530
Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the
Institution for the Year Ended June 30
1963
U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1964
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office
Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price $4.25 (Cloth)
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION,
Washington, January 24, 1964.
To the Congress of the United States:
In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the
United States, I have the honor, on behalf of the Board of Regents,
to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi-
tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended
June 30, 1963.
Respectfully,
Lronarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary.
It
CONTENTS
SHES EOATOLOMRE PEN (Asse 2 Se Sy ee a dn ape ee ee
PSPTEMUIR TSR Ow IES HNO UOI Ri 3 pS ee Sf ee pe ye
SHEE OTcrait Gnlery=— Gos aao OOS ee ss 2 i ee
National Armed Forces Museum Advisory Board --.---_----------------
PAERCRTT COS tt = oe = es eS Set es oe ee oa ee 5 bee es
“USTED ap a an NS ee
Pereetienh OF SUNtNSON, PIAgUe=95 22,5 222s. ee ee nk
Reports of branches of the Institution:
Wnited: States: National Museum: 2. 20.252. .-.....-.--.-.-.-<<
Pricoruational Exchange services. oe) Se. es
men of mmercan Hghmalopy 2522 =a hed
mintionel: Zooloctcal) Parks S222 2 ene EL BE
mctrophysical: Observatory <---<ie222--2-2nceceeendicecee ck JS
Pational-Collection.of Fine-Arts=..2- =2=< 2. 22ebeeee-4- one babes
NrcereGaMeryGhAbts =H-<- Ske cde cesses esedeetek en ceceuce eS
meanongl Gallery otArgs =. si --eee et ce cee ete cet ececd ets ele
Ganal-Zone- biological Aréa=<=26-2 224 e-ceseeecde ee et ee ee Lee
PIALIONALWAT VMBOU IN fen. oe cee oe eee e enced emcee cnc ten oe
Peer OnvGhe HPPAry 2< eo i a ee) ae. Ie pleas
Repos on publicationss Hw. eres fs Oo. elegy ae) detes
Other activities:
Science: Information Bzchange 24a: = 822 2 2_8) Seve llth ce 2
pmithsonian Museum) Servies/-2 Ss.) 1552.20 2. ot eiee tee
Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents- ----- -- Ss
GENERAL APPENDIX
hie Solar System, by Sir Bernard Lovell=_-.. =... .= _...--s2----=-
Advances in Astronomical Technology, by Aden B. Meinel_________--_--
The Analysis of Starlight, by Bernard Pagel._.=........-.-..--.-.----
Astronomical Photography from the Stratosphere, by Martin Schwarz-
The Smithsonian’s Satellite-tracking Program: Its History and Organi-
Eien rire 2. py U. Weisel Hayes__ . 222222 2s ese 8
ane Neutrinos, by Melvin Schwartz. 22°... 2..2.-.....--_-2-..--._- =
The Antibiotics from a Botanical Viewpoint, by Kenneth L. Jones_-_--
Atomic and Other Wastes in the Sea, by I. Eugene Wallen__-__-_-----
IV ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Page
What is Cybernetics? by Donald M. MacKay-.---.-...-..-..-.---.-- 401
The Use of the Electron Microscope in the Study of Fossils, by William W.
TAG 522 Sire oe aa ee oe toca Sas Coleen See ae eae aes 409
Color Changes in. Animals; by D:B: Carlisle. 2. <2 2-2 2--2--- == 417
History of the Corbin Preserve, by Richard H. Manville-...---_-_---- 427
The Southern Ocean: A Potential for Coral Studies, by Donald F. Squires. 447
The Promise of Underwater Archeology, by George F. Bass____-_------ 461
Plants in the Arctic-Alpine Environment, by Stanwyn G. Shetler_______- 473
Concerning Whales and Museums, by A. E. Parr__------------------ 499
Tropical Subsistence Agriculture in Latin America: Some Neglected
Aspects and Implications, by Raymond E. Crist_....--.------------- 503
An Archeological Reconnaissance in Hadhramaut, South Arabia—A
Preliminary Report, by Gus W. Van Beek, Glen H. Cole, and Albert
JAMIMCS = a ee see eee a ee ee ee eee eee 521
The Corrosion Products of Metal Antiquities, by Rutherford J. Gettens_. 547
Religious Art East and West, by Benjamin Rowland___--.------------ 569
LIST OF PLATES
Secretary’s Report: he
Plated ccsceet Son casks pose eee ee ee ee ee ee 24
Plates$2, 3.5 --.-csscsiee ences see ce eee ee eee 84
a BEST cr JRC ea (ae ae nn Oa Se ee ee Be eS a eee eee 108
Plates*S8s ie a 2 ee 2 eo Se ee ee eh eee ee ee 196
Plates Za14s 2 eee oS SS Bae oe Se ee ee Roe Ear 212
Platesoe 2 oe Sasa 2 So hs ee Sag ee ee 236
Advances in Astronomical Technology (Meinel): Plates 1-4____.____---- 300
The Analysis of Starlight (Pagel): Plates 1-7... -.-----_sss52.-- 2-22 308
Astronomical Photography from the Stratosphere (Schwarzchild): Plates
1 9a ae oe ee Foal BE aes Pe a ee Oe eer ey ea ee 324
The Neutrinos (Schwartz) Plated. 22s 22 oes ee eee 366
Atomic and Other Wastes in the Sea (Wallen): Plates 1-2_____.___-_.--- 388
What is Cybernetics? (MacKay): Plates 1-322-253-2152. 232 33s = 404
The Use of the Electron Microscope in the Study of Fossils (Hay): Plates
1 =, NE re ARN ent Pe ee a ge Re Se ee op ey 412
Color Changes in Animals (Carlisle): Plates 1-2_.-_-._...-------------- 420
History of the Corbin Preserve (Manville): Plates 1-4_._-_.--.-------- 436
The Southern Ocean: A Potential for Coral Studies (Squires): Plates1-4-_ 452
Plants in the Arctic-Alpine Environment (Shetler): Plates 1-12___.__---- 484
Concerning Whales and Museums (Parr): Plates 1-8_____------------- 500
Tropical Subsistence Agriculture in Latin America: Some Neglected
Aspects and: Implications:: Plates 1-82. 2 se. 2s a ee ee ee 516
An Archeological Reconnaissance in Hadhramaut, South Arabia—A Pre-
liminiary Report (Van Beek, Cole, and Jamme): Plates 1-8_-_------- 532
The Corrosion Products of Metal Antiquities (Gettens): Plates 1-10__-__- 556
Religious Art East and West (Rowland): Plates 1-6-____-------------- 572
THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
June 30, 1963
Presiding Officer em officio—JoHN F. Kennepy, President of the United States.
Chancellor. EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States.
Members of the Institution:
JOHN F. KENNEpY, President of the United States.
LyNvbon B. JoHNSON, Vice President of the United States.
EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States.
DEAN RUSK, Secretary of State.
Dovueias DILLon, Secretary of the Treasury.
Rosert 8. McNamara, Secretary of Defense.
Rosekrt F’. KENNEpDy, Attorney General.
J. EDWARD Day, Postmaster General.
STewakRT L. UDALL, Secretary of the Interior.
ORVILLE L. FREEMAN, Secretary of Agriculture.
LuTHER H. Hopeces, Secretary of Commerce.
W. WILLARD Wirtz, Secretary of Labor.
ANTHONY J. CELEBREZZE, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Regents of the Institution:
EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor.
Lynpon B. JoHNsSoN, Vice President of the United States.
CLINTON P. ANDERSON, Member of the Senate.
J. WILLIAM FULBRIGHT, Member of the Senate.
LEVERETT SALTONSTALL, Member of the Senate.
FRANK T. Bow, Member of the House of Representatives.
CLARENCE CANNON, Member of the House of Representatives.
MicHAEL J. Kirwan, Member of the House of Representatives.
JOHN NICHOLAS Brown, citizen of Rhode Island.
Wii1u1AM A. M. Burben, citizen of New York.
Rosert V. FLEMING, citizen of Washington, D.C.
CRAWFORD H. GREENEWALLT, Citizen of Delaware.
CaryYL P. HASKINS, citizen of Washington, D.C.
JEROME C. HUNSAKER, citizen of Massachusetts.
Ezecutive Committee—ROBERT V. FLEMING, Chairman, CLARENCE CANNON,
CaryYL P. HASKINS.
Secretary. LEONARD CARMICHAEL.
Assistant Secretaries—JAMES C. BRADLEY, ALBERT C. SMITH.
Assistant to the Secretary.— THEODORE W. TAYLOR.
Administrative assistant to the Secretary.—Mkrs. Louise M. PEARSON.
Treasurer.—EpGAR L. Roy.
Chief, editorial and publications division —PAvuL H. OEHSER.
Librarian.—Rvti BH. BLANCHARD.
Curator, Smithsonian Museum Service.—G. CARROLL LINDSAY.
Buildings Manager.—ANDREW F. MICHEALS, JR.
Director of Personnel.—J. A. KENNEDY.
VI ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Chief, supply division —A. W. WILDING.
Chief, photographic service division.—O. H. GREESON.
UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
Direcior.—F. A. Taylor.
Registrar.—Helena M. Weiss.
Conservator.—C. H. Olin.
MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
Director.—T. D. Stewart.
Assistant Directors.—R. 8S. Cowan, I. H. Wallen.
Administrative officer—Mrs. Mabel A. Byrd.
DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY: W. R. Wedel, head curator; A. J. Andrews,
exhibits specialist.
Division of Archeology: Clifford Evans, Jr., curator; G. W. Van Beek,
associate curator.
Division of Ethnology: 8S. H. Riesenberg, curator; G. D. Gibson, E. I. Knez,
W. H. Crocker, associate curators.
Division of Physical Anthropology: J. lL. Angel, curator.
DEPARTMENT OF ZooLtoGcy : H. H. Hobbs, Jr., head curator; F. A. Chace, Jr., senior
scientist; W. M. Perrygo, in charge of taxidermy.
Division of Mammals: D. H. Johnson, curator; H. W. Setzer, C. O. Handley,
Jr., associate curators.
Division of Birds: P. S. Humphrey, curator, G. E. Watson, assistant curator.
Division of Reptiles and Amphibians: Doris M. Cochran, curator.
Division of Fishes: L. P. Schultz, curator; HE. A. Lachner, W. R. Taylor,
V. G. Springer, S. H. Weitzman, R. H. Gibbs, Jr., associate curators.
Division of Insects: J. F. G. Clarke, curator; O. L. Cartwright, R. H. Crabill,
Jr., W. D. Field, D. R. Davis, O. S. Flint, Jr.. D. W. Duckworth, P. J.
Spangler, associate curators.
Division of Marine Invertebrates: D. F. Squires, curator; T. E. Bowman,
C. E. Cutress, Jr., Marian H. Pettibone, R. R. Manning, associate curators.
Division of Mollusks: H. A. Rehder, curator; J. P. BE. Morrison, Joseph
Rosewater, associate curators.
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY (NATIONAL HERBARIUM): J. R. Swallen, head curator.
Division of Phanerogams: L. B. Smith, curator; Velva E. Rudd, J. J.
Wurdack, associate curators; 8. G. Shetler, assistant curator.
Division of Ferns: C. V. Morton, curator.
Division of Grasses: J. R. Swallen, acting curator; T. R. Soderstrom, asso-
ciate curator.
Division of Cryptogams: M. HE. Hale, Jy., curator; P. S. Conger, H. E.
Robinson, R. F. Norris, associate curators.
Division of Plant Anatomy: W. L. Stern, curator; R. H. Hyde, associate
eurator.
DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGY: G. A. Cooper, head curator.
Division of Mineralogy and Petrology: G. S. Switzer, curator; E. P. Hender-
son, P. E. Desautels, associate curators; R. S. Clarke, Jr., chemist.
Division of Invertebrate Paleontology and Paleobotany: R. S. Boardman,
curator; P. M. Kier, Richard Cifelli, E. G. Kauffman, F. M. Hueber,
M. A. Buzas, associate curators.
Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: C. L. Gazin, curator; D. H. Dunkle,
Nicholas Hotton III, associate curators; F. L. Pearce, exhibits specialist.
SECRETARY'S REPORT vit
OcEANOGRAPHY ProGRAM: I. EB. Wallen, assistant director; H. A. Fehlmann,
supervisory museum specialist, Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center.
MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY
Director.—F. A. Taylor.
Assistant Director.—J. C. Ewers.
Administrative officers —W. H. Boyle, Virginia Beets.
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: R. P. Multhauf, head curator.
Division of Physical Sciences: R. P. Multhauf, acting curator; W. F. Cannon,
associate curator.
Division of Mechanical and Civil Engineering: 8S. A. Bedini, curator; BW. A.
Battison, R. M. Vogel, associate curators.
Division of Transportation: H. I. Chapelle, curator; K. M. Perry, J. H. White,
Jr., associate curators.
Division of Electricity: B. S. Finn, associate curator in charge.
Division of Medical Sciences: S. K. Hamarneh, curator.
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES: P. W. Bishop, head curator.
Division of Textiles: Mrs. Grace R. Cooper, curator.
Division of Ceramics and Glass: P. V. Gardner, curator; J. J. Miller II,
assistant curator.
Division of Graphic Arts: Jacob Kainen, curator; F. O. Griffith, Eugene
Ostroff, associate curators.
Division of Manufactures and Heavy Industries: P. W. Bishop, acting
eurator.
Division of Agriculture and Forest Products: EB. C. Kendall, associate curator
in charge.
DEPARTMENT OF CiviL History: R. H. Howland, head curator; P. ©. Welsh,
curator; Mrs. Doris E. Borthwick, Ellen J. Finnegan, assistant curators.
Division of Political History: W. E. Washburn, curator; Mrs. Margaret
Brown Klapthor, associate curator; H. R. Collins, K. E. Melder, Mrs. Anne
W. Murray, assistant curators.
Division of Cultural History: C. M. Watkins, curator; Rodris C. Roth, asso-
ciate curator; A. W. Hathaway, Mrs. Cynthia A. Hoover, J. N. Pearce,
assistant curators.
Division of Philately and Postal History: F. J. McCall, associate curator in
charge; C. H. Scheele, assistant curator.
Division of Numismatics: Viadimir Clain-Stefanelli, curator; Mrs. Elvira
Clain-Stefanelli, associate curator; Barbara F. Bode, junior curator.
DEPARTMENT OF ARMED Forces History: M. L. Peterson, head curator.
Division of Military History: BE. M. Howell, curator; C. R. Goins, Jr., asso-
ciate curator.
Division of Naval History: P. K. Lundeberg, curator; M. H. Jackson,
associate curator.
OFFICE OF EXHIBITS
Chief—J. B. Anglim.
Museum of Natural History Laboratory: A. G. Wright, assistant chief; Julius
Tretick, production supervisor. :
Museum of History and Technology Laboratory: B. W. Lawless, chief; B. 8. Bory,
production supervisor.
INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE
Chief.—J. A. Collins.
vill ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK
Director.—T. H. Reed.
Associate Director.—J. L. Grimmer.
General Curator.—Waldfried T. Roth.
Zoologist—Marion McCrane.
Veterinarian.—Clinton W. Gray.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Director.—¥. H. H. Roberts, Jr.
Anthropologist.—H. B. Collins, Jr.
Ethnologists.—W. C. Sturtevant, Robert M. Laughlin.
River Basin Surveys.—l. H. H. Roberts, Jr., Director; R. L. Stephenson,
Chief, Missouri Basin Project.
ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY
Director.—¥. L. Whipple.
Assistant Directors.—C. W. Tillinghast, Charles Lundquist.
Astronomers.—G. Colombo, L. Goldberg, G. S. Hawkins, I. G. Izsak, Y. Kozai,
R. Martin, J. Slowey, L. Solomon, F. W. Wright.
Mathematicians.—R. W. Briggs, D. A. Lautman.
Physicists—H. Avrett, N. P. Carleton, A. F. Cook, R. J. Davis, J. DeFelice, C. H.
Dugan, G. G. Fazio, E. L. Fireman, F. Franklin, O. Gingerich, M. Grossi, P. V.
Hodge, W. M. Irvine, L. G. Jacchia, W. Kalkofen, R. B. McCrosky, H. Mitler,
R. W. Noyes, C. BE. Sagan, A. Skalafuris, R. B. Southworth, D. Tilles, C. A.
Whitney.
Geodesists.—W. Kohulein, J. Rolff, G. Veis.
Geologists.—O. B. Marvin, J. Wood.
DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS:
Chief —W. H. Klein.
Assistant Chief.—W. Shropshire.
Biochemists.—D. L. Correll, M. M. Margulies.
Geochemist.—J. J. Sigalove.
Plant physiologists —P. J. A. L. deLint, J. L. Edwards, V. B. Elstad,
L. Loercher, K. Mitrakos, L. Price.
Electronic engineers.—J. H. Harrison, H. J. Lehfeldt.
Instrument engineering technicians.—D. G. Talbert, W. N. Cogswell.
Physicist.—B. Goldberg.
NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS
Director.—T. M. Beggs.
Associate curator.—Rowland Lyon.
SMITHSONIAN TRAVELING ExHIBITION ServIcE.—Mrs. Annemarie H. Pope, Chief.
SMITHSONIAN ArT COMMISSION.—Paul Manship (chairman), Leonard Carmichael
(secretary), Gilmore D. Clarke (vice chairman), David HE. Finley, Lloyd
Goodrich, Walter Hancock, Bartlett H. Hayes, Jr., Wilmarth 8. Lewis, Henry
P. MelIlhenny, Paul Mellon, Douglas Orr, Ogden M. Pleissner, Edgar P.
Richardson, Charles H. Sawyer, Stow Wengenroth, Andrew Wyeth, Alexander
Wetmore (member emeritus).
FREER GALLERY OF ART
Director.—JoHN A. POPE.
Assistant Director—Harold P. Stern.
SECRETARY’S REPORT Ix
Hcad curator, Near Hastern Art.—Richard Ettinghausen.
Associate curator, Chinese Art.—James F, Cahill.
Head curator, Laboratory.—Rutherford J. Gettens.
NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART
Trustees:
EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chairman.
DEAN Rusk, Secretary of State.
DoveLas Ditton, Secretary of the Treasury.
LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
PavuL MELLON.
JOHN Hay WHITNEY.
JOHN N. IRwIn II.
President.—PAUL MELLON.
Vice President —JoHN HAY WHITNEY.
Secretary-Treasurer.—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS.
Director —JOHN WALKER.
Administrator.—HRNEST R. FEIDLER.
General Counsel—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS.
Chief Curator.—Prrry B. Cort.
NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM
Advisory Board:
Leonard Carmichael, Chairman.
Maj. Gen. Brooke HK. Allen, U.S. Air Force.
Vice Adm. William A. Schoech, U.S. Navy.
James H. Doolittle (Lt. Gen., U.S.A.F. Ret.)
Grover Loening.
Director.—P. 8. Hopkins
Head curator and historian.—P. E. Garber.
Curators.—L. S. Casey, K. H. Newland.
Curator.—R. B. Meyer.
CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA
Director—M. H. Moynihan.
NATIONAL CULTURAL CENTER
Trustees:
Howagp Ff. AHMANSON,
FLoyp D. AKERS.
Lucius D. Barrie, Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cul-
tural Affairs, ex officio.
RatpH Ei. BECKER.
K. LeEMoynE BILLINGS.
Epear M. BRONFMAN.
JoHN NICHOLAS Brown.
RavpH J. BUNCH. :
Leonarp CARMICHAEL, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ex officio.
ANTHONY J. CELEBREZZE, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare, ew
officio.
JOSEPH S. CLARK.
J. WILLIAM FULBRIGHT.
x ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Mrs. GreorGe A. GARRETT.
Francis Krrret, Commissioner, U.S. Office of Education, ex officio.
Mrgs. ALBERT D. LASKER.
GEORGE MEANY.
L. Quincy Mumrorp, Librarian of Congress, ex officio.
Mags. CHARLOTTE T. RED.
RICHARD S. REYNOLDS, JR.
LEVERETT SALTONSTALL,
Mags. JOUETT SHOUSE.
Rocer L. STEVENS.
L. CoRRIN STRONG.
FRANK THOMPSON.
Watrter N. Topriner, President, D.C. Board of Commissioners, eg officio.
WILLIAM WALTON.
WILLIAM H. WaAtTERrS, JR., Chairman, D.C. Recreation Board, ez officio.
Conrad L. WirtH, Director of the National Park Service, ez officio.
JIM WRIGHT.
Officers:
Chairman.—Rocer L, STEVENS.
Vice chairman.—L. CorRIN STRONG.
Treasurer.—DANIEL W. BELL.
Counsel.— RALPH B). BECKER.
Assistant secretary—Mrs. JAMES CANTRELL.
Assistant treasurers.—PAUL SELTZER, KENNETH BIRGFELD.
NATIONAL ARMED FORCES MUSEUM ADVISORY BOARD
Joun NicHoiAs Brown, Chairman.
LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ex officio.
Rourus HE. CLEMENT.
Davin L. KREEGER.
FRED Kort, Secretary of the Navy.
RosBert 8. MCNAMARA, Secretary of Defense, ex officio.
Cyrus R. VANcE, Secretary of the Army.
HARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States.
WILLIAM W. WHITEMAN, JR.
Henry B. WASHBURN, JR.
EuGENE M. Zuckert, Secretary of the Air Force.
NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY
National Portrait Gallery Commission:
CATHERINE DRINKER BOWEN.
JULIAN P. Boyp.
JOHN NICHOLAS BRowN.
LEONARD CARMICHAEL, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ew officio.
LEWIS DESCHLER.
Davip EH. FINLEY.
WILMARTH SHELDON LEWIS.
RicHARD H. SHRYOCK.
FREDERICK P. Topp.
JOHN WALKER, Director of the National Gallery of Art, ex officio.
EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, ew officio.
SECRETARY’S REPORT XI
Honorary Smithsonian Fellows, Collaborators, Associates, Custodians of
Collections, and Honorary Curators
OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY
John HB. Graf
Remington Kellogg
Unitep States NATIONAL MusEUM
MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY
Anthropology
M. Campbell, Archeology.
G. Holland, Archeology.
M. Judd, Anthropology.
ae
C.
N.
H. W. Krieger, Ethnology.
Betty J. Meggers, Archeology.
F, M. Setzler, Anthropology.
W. W. Taylor, Jr., Anthropology.
W. J. Tobin, Physical Anthropology.
Zoology
O. L. Austin, Birds
W. W. Becklund, Helminthology.
Mrs. Doris H. Blake, Insects.
J. Bruce Bredin, Biology.
W. L. Brown, Mammals.
M. A. Carriker, Jr., Insects.
Ailsa M. Clark, Marine Invertebrates.
H. G. Deignan, Birds.
C. J. Drake, Insects.
K. C, Emerson, Insects.
Herbert Friedmann, Birds.
F. M. Hull, Insects.
Laurence Irving, Birds.
W. L. Jellison, Insects.
Allen McIntosh, Mollusks.
J. P. Moore, Marine Invertebrates.
C. F. W. Muesebeck, Insects.
W.L. Schmitt, Marine Invertebrates.
Benjamin Schwartz, Helminthology.
T. E. Snyder, Isoptera.
H. K. Townes, Insects.
Robert Traub, Mammals.
Alexander Wetmore, Birds.
Mrs. Mildred S. Wilson, Copepod Crus-
tacea.
Botany
C. R. Benjamin, Fungi.
Mrs. Agnes Chase, Grasses.
E. P. Killip, Phanerogams.
EK. C. Leonard, Phanerogams.
F. A. McClure, Grasses.
Mrs. Kittie Ff. Parker, Phanerogams.
J. A. Stevenson, Fungi.
W.N. Watkins, Woods.
Geology
C. W. Cooke, Invertebrate Paleontology.
J. T. Dutro, Invertebrate Paleontology.
A. A, Olsson, Invertebrate Paleontology.
W. T. Schaller, Mineralogy.
W. P. Woodring, Invertebrate Paleon-
tology.
xi ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY
Science and Technology
D. J. Price
Civil History
Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood, Cultural | F. W. McKay, Numismatics.
History. Emery May Norweb, Numismatics
BH. C. Herber, History. R. Henry Norweb, Numismatics
I. N. Hume, Cultural History.
Armed Forces History
W. R. Furlong. Byron McCandless.
F. C. Lane.
Exhibits
W. L. Brown, Taxidermy
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Sister M. Inez Hilger. A. J. Waring, Jr.
M. W. Stirling.
ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY
C. G. Abbot
FREER GALLERY OF ART
Max Loehr.
Katherine N. Rhoades.
Oleg Grabar.
Grace Dunham Guest.
NATIONAL Ark MusEuM
Frederick C. Crawford. Alfred V. Verville.
John J. Ide.
NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK
E. P. Walker
CANAL ZONE BioLocicAL AREA
C. C. Soper
Report of the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution
LEONARD CARMICHAEL
For the Year Ended June 30, 1963
To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:
GuNnTLEMEN : I have the honor to submit a report showing the activi-
ties and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for
the fiscal year ended June 30, 1963.
GENERAL STATEMENT
James Smithson directed that the Institution founded by him should
be an establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowledge among
men. ‘The 117th year of the Smithsonian Institution, covered in the
present report, shows notable achievements in research; that is, in the
increase of knowledge. The publications, museum displays, and the
answering of letters requesting information have all served during
the year to further the diffusion of knowledge.
In the pages that follow, reports of the activities of each of the
bureaus of the Smithsonian present in some detail the story of the year.
Additions to the collections, publications, new exhibits, new research
findings, and explorations are all described.
The year’s most notable development has been the progress made
in the completion of the great new Museum of History and Tech-
nology Building. This marble structure will be one of the largest
and one of the most modern and effective museums in the world.
Its 50 public exhibition halls will almost certainly be viewed each
year by at least 5 million visitors. The building has been planned so
that access to exhibits and the movement of visitors through the halls
will be as convenient as possible and produce a minimum of what is
often all too accurately called “museum fatigue.” In planning each
new exhibit an effort has been made to make every display a complete
instructional unit. Space has also been set aside for the great study
collections of the Institution in the fields of history and technology,
containing objects that are not on public exhibition but that are of
importance to the thousands of research scholars, specialists, and
collectors who come to the Smithsonian every year to learn more
in detail about some particular field of inquiry.
1
Pd ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The new east-wing addition to the National History Building, virtu-
ally completed by the end of the year, has been occupied by staff
scientists. Many of the great biological and geological study and
research collections of the Institution have been moved into space
provided in this wing. The completion of these additional facilities,
when supplemented by the later completion of the west wing, will
again allow the opening of some large public halls of the Natural
History Building that have had to be closed for many years in order
to provide space for research activities. During the more than 50
years between the completion of this great Natural History Building
and the construction of these new wings, much exhibition space had
necessarily been encroached upon. Now these fine halls, originally
planned for natural-history exhibitions, can be returned to their
proper use.
As noted in the reports that follow, physical improvements have
also been carried on at the National Zoological Park. Planning has
also been completed for the renovation of the old Patent Office Build-
ing. This building, by an act of Congress, has been assigned to the
Smithsonian Institution as the new home of the National Collection
of Fine Arts and of the new National Portrait Gallery.
The Decade 1953-63
Each annual report of the Smithsonian Institution describes the
advances that have been made in a single period of 12 months. It
may not be inappropriate occasionally in an annual report to sum-
marize accomplishments and changes that have taken place in the
Institution over a longer period of time. The decade 1953-63 has
been one marked by much progress at the Institution. As the present
report is the last one that will be submitted to the Board of Regents
by the present Secretary, it has seemed fitting to review here briefly
some of the highpoints of this 10-year period. ‘These years cover the
major period of tenure of the present Secretary.
It must be emphasized that all the advances made at the Smithsonian
Institution during the period under review are a result of the actions
and support of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution
and of the Congress of the United States.
In the paragraphs that follow, brief summaries are presented of
some of the major activities in this notable decade of each of the bu-
reaus of the Smithsonian.
United States National Museum, 1953-63
Ten years ago, as at the present time, the United States National
Museum consisted of two major sections. The Natural History Mu-
seum, in terms of national and indeed international recognition, prob-
SECRETARY'S REPORT 3
ably the best known part of the Museum, has developed in the decade
under consideration in an outstanding way. The other section, now
called the Museum of History and Technology, has seen an equally
important development.
In 1953 there were more than 34 million cataloged objects in the Na-
tional Museum of the Smithsonian Institution. By 1963 this number
had grown to over 57 million such objects. Sometimes those who
do not know intimately the work of the Smithsonian ask why the
collections have been allowed to develop so rapidly. The answer,
of course, is that the scientific work of the Smithsonian depends
very largely upon the use of these study collections by literally
thousands of competent investigators. Much of the world-famous
scientific study of insects, of plants, of minerals, and of other areas
of the natural resources of our Nation that is carried out at the Smith-
sonian Institution, could not be performed if it were not for the pres-
ence of these great, and in many cases unique, assemblages of care-
fully documented and labeled scientific specimens. During the decade
under consideration the staff of the Natural History Museum has been
markedly strengthened so that it can more adequately perform nec-
essary investigations related to these collections. Much of this re-
search has specific applications to medicine, especially military medi-
cine, the effect of radiation on living cells, insect control, general
problems of conservation, the development of food resources, and the
scientific knowledge of the natural history of the earth.
Field investigations conducted by the Museum have more than dou-
bled in number during this decade, and nearly all of them have been
conducted, not with funds appropriated to the Smithsonian, but with
gifts or grants made by individuals, foundations, or government agen-
cies. Recently the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center was
established to receive, screen, sort, and distribute for scientific study
the animals, plants, and minerals collected in the expanding oceano-
graphic program of the United States. Publicand private funds have
also made it possible for the Smithsonian to participate in the develop-
ment of techniques for underwater scientific study.
Only 10 years ago most of the corridors of the great Natural History
Museum Building were lined from floor to ceiling with cases containing
the working scientific reference collections of the Institution. Scien-
tists were required to work on stepladders and in walled-off stairwells
or behind screens in exhibition halls. In 1958 Congress appropriated
funds for the design of desperately needed additions to the Natural
History Building that had been authorized many years before. The
east wing, now complete, has added 214,000 square feet of space to
allow the proper and effective housing of scientific collections of the
Smithsonian. Funds have also been appropriated to allow the erection
4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
of the symmetrically matching west wing. Work on the building of
this wing is expected to start in calendar year 1963.
In 1953 the 72-year-old Arts and Industries Building was rather
generally known in the American press as the “nation’s attic.” This
old building for years had led most of the rest of the museums of the
world in the popularity of its exhibits as measured by annual attend-
ance, but it was almost pathetically inadequate to accommodate its
great collections or to provide adequately for the tremendous crowds
that pushed into it day after day. In 1955 Congress authorized the
construction of a new building to be known as the Museum of History
and Technology of the Smithsonian Institution. This additional mag-
nificent building is now nearing completion and will soon be equipped
with exhibits and be open to the public. The old Arts and Industries
Building will not be abandoned but will be used for special exhibits
and for the display of important objects that are appropriate for its
large halls.
During the decade under review, historians of science and tech-
nology, some of them recent additions to the staff of the Institution,
have systematized the collections of the Smithsonian in both history
and technology. They have developed modern exhibits and have pre-
pared scholarly publications to present to the world the results of their
investigations of the collection of treasures housed at the Smithsonian.
Until the beginning of this decade most of the publications of the
Smithsonian Institution were in fields of study related to the sciences
of astronomy, anthropology, botany, zoology, and geology. Today
more than 250 monographs and books have been published to provide
a scholarly basis for the understanding of some of the great collections
of objects in the Museum of History and Technology.
These new Smithsonian publications and the new exhibits in the
fields of history and technology have brought to the attention of col-
lectors all over America, and indeed all over the world, the significance
of the Smithsonian’s work. New interest in the Institution’s collec-
tions in the field of the decorative arts, and in the collections of furni-
ture, silver, ceramics, textiles, and prints, has been especially notable.
Increasingly during these years Smithsonian experts have taken
important parts in the programs of seminars and museum conferences
dealing with the preservation and understanding of objects in these
fields. New methods of examination, interpretation, exhibition, and,
above all preservation have been developed during this time in the
workrooms and laboratories of the Smithsonian.
During this period the Institution has participated in excavations
at a number of colonial American sites. Nearly all this work has been
fully or partly supported by funds provided from private sources.
As a result of these studies new knowledge has come concerning the
SECRETARY'S REPORT 5
mode of life of Americans during the early years of the country, and
the pottery, weapons, insignia, tools, and trade objects of our young
nation are now much better understood than they were 10 years ago.
One of the prime reasons for the vast. increase in the number of visi-
tors at the Smithsonian museums has been the development that has
taken place in this decade in the presentation of exhibits. It is not
by chance that the number of visitors in the old Smithsonian buildings
on the Mall in 1952-53 totaled 3,429,000, whereas the number in 1963
reached the amazing figure of 10,309,000. Since 1953, 28 large exhi-
bition units have been transformed from halls full of poorly lighted
cases crammed with objects to well-labeled, modern, teaching ex-
hibits. It is not an exaggeration to say that the truly creative work
of the exhibit staff of the Smithsonian has become famous, not only in
every other great museum of America but also in all the large museums
in the rest of the world.
A few additional notes may be made concerning developments in
particular areas of interest :
The Institution has long had one of the great collections of musical
instruments of the country. Unfortunately, most of these were not
in condition to be played and were not easily viewed. Many of the
most important have been restored and can now be played. Some of
them have been used in concerts provided free for the public by volun-
teer musicians. A scientific analytical laboratory has been established
at the Smithsonian, and here physical and chemical techniques are now
employed in the important task of providing better methods for pro-
tecting and conserving the treasures of the Smithsonian. During this
decade the White House has been generally renovated. Under the
direction of the President of the United States and the staff of the
White House, the Smithsonian has played a role in the development
of exhibits of the history of the White House as now displayed in the
visitor’s entrance to this historic center of our Nation. An act of Con-
gress, passed in 1961, provided that objects not needed for use or dis-
play at any time at the White House are to be transferred to the Smith-
sonian Institution.
Annual reports of the Smithsonian list the splendid donations that
come to the Institution in each 12-month period. Among the espe-
cially notable gifts of the decade may be mentioned the following:
President John F. Kennedy presented a magnificent volume, the
“Atlas Nouveau” by Nicolas Sanson, 1692, beautifully bound for the
instruction of the Dauphin of France.
Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood gave many objects illustrating American
colonial living, including an entire two-story, four-bedroom house
built in Massachusetts in 1678.
720-018—64——2
6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The Honorable and Mrs. Wiley T. Buchanan, Jr., purchased for
the Museum 600 fine examples of early Rhenish and Dutch pottery;
Harry Winston gave the great blue Hope Diamond; and the estate
of Mrs. Maude Monell Vetlesen, through her son Edmund C. Monell,
donated 130 pieces of beautifully carved jade ranging in age from the
Ming through the Ching dynasties.
Dr. Hans Syz began presenting in annual installments one of the
outstanding privately owned collections of fine European porcelain
of the earliest period. Mrs. Herbert Arthur May made gifts of laces,
glass, Americana, Indian materials, and the magnificent necklace of
diamonds which Napoleon I gave to the Empress Marie-Louise on
the occasion of the birth of their son in 1811.
Lessing J. Rosenwald presented an outstanding English astrolabe
of 1325 and a 16th-century folding sundial compass engraved with
maps and travel routes of central Europe. The International Busi-
ness Machines Corp. presented 21 beautifully engraved astrolabes
from Persia, India, North Africa, and Europe of the 13th and later
centuries, and 24 rare pre-Spanish textiles.
Willis H. du Pont made two outstanding gifts: a collection of coins
and medals struck in the name of Peter the Great, with a copy of
the rare 11-volume monograph on Russian coins by the Grand Duke
Georgii Mikhailovitch; and 860 coins and medals issued in the reigns
of Czar Ivan ITI and Czarina Elizabeth, also from the Grand Duke’s
collection.
The family of the late Henry T. Peters presented nearly 2,000
lithographs by American printmakers other than Currier and Ives,
from the “America on Stone” collection.
Mrs. W. Murray Crane presented a fine collection of French and
English furniture of the 18th century, and the Misses Helen R.
and Elizabeth W. Newcombe gave the complete furnishings of a 19th-
century American parlor.
Senator Clinton P. Anderson, Regent of the Smithsonian, presented
a fine copy of the Kelmscott Chaucer printed by William Morris in
1896; and the late Mrs. Richard Saltonstall, mother of Senator
Leverett Saltonstall, Regent of the Smithsonian, gave a handsome
family carriage made by Thomas Goddard of Boston in 1851; included
with the gift was a grant for its restoration.
Mrs. Clara W. Berwick made several gifts, one of 176 pieces of
early American glass; Mrs. George Hewitt Myers gave 48 pieces of
rare Castleford porcelain of 1790-1820. Arthur E. Wullschleger
discovered a French hand-and-foot treadle loom of the 18th century
equipped with a Jacquard mechanism of the early 19th century, which
he restored and presented to the Smithsonian.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 7
Joseph J. Fénykévi donated an African elephant of record size.
Mrs. John Logan (the former Mrs. Rebecca Pollard Guggenheim)
presented a 423-carat sapphire. Ralph EK. Becker gave many out-
standing objects from his collection of political campaign materials,
including a painted banner celebrating the victory of Thomas
Jefferson in 1801.
Through the foresight of Dr. Robert V. Fleming, Regent of the
Smithsonian, the Southern Railway Co. preserved and presented a
fine example of a late steam locomotive which has been installed in
the new Museum of History and Technology.
The Revolutionary War gunboat Philadelphia, complete with its
cannons and 700 pieces of military equipment found in it, was ac-
quired from the estate of the late Col. Lorenzo F. Hagglund, who
expressed in his will the hope that it be preserved in the National
Museum. Also acquired was the unmatched W. Stokes Kirk collec-
tion of 3,000 items of military insignia and accouterments.
Dr. W. L. Libby presented the experimental equipment he used in
developing the carbon-14 method of dating archeological objects.
The Bell Telephone Laboratories gave 66 pieces of early telephone
equipment for the telephone exhibit gallery presented by the Bell
System and the independent telephone industry. Gifts of the Ameri-
can Telephone & Telegraph Co. include the duplicate Telstar com-
munications satellite. The original equipment of the Nobel prize
winners Drs. T. D. Lee and C. N. Yang employed in their nonparity
nuclear experiments was collected for preservation, as was the elec-
tronic digital computer “Maniac,” the gift of Princeton University.
During the period a number of administrative developments
strengthened the work of the United States National Museum. By
act of Congress a National Armed Forces Museum Advisory Board
has been established. The volunteer unpaid Junior League Docent
Service and the Smithsonian Museum Service have both been estab-
lished to provide better educational work for schoolchildren at the
Smithsonian. The installation of an Audio-Guide system in many
exhibition halls has given information about the collections that ap-
peals to the ear to supplement the labels intended for the eye.
International Exchange Service, 1953-63
The International Exchange Service is one of the oldest units of
the Smithsonian. Its work, originated and organized by the first and
great Secretary of the Smithsonian, Joseph Henry, more than a cen-
tury ago, is specifically authorized in 49 international treaties and
conventions.
During the decade under considerations, the International Ex-
change Service received for transmission more publications than in
8 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
any like period of its long history. There were 12,704,583 pub-
lications weighing 9,228,617 pounds received for forwarding through
the Service.
The increased workload was handled at little or no additional
increase in cost and with no additional employees. The use of card-
board cartons in place of wooden boxes for packing publications for
oversea shipments has resulted in a large saving.
Direct booking of ocean freight shipments with the steamship lines,
instead of through forwarding agents, has resulted not only in a large
saving of the fees that would have been charged by the forwarding
agents for their services but also in a more efficient operation. Three
weeks or more were necessary under the old system of booking be-
tween packing and the shipping of the publications to the steamship
piers. Publications are now packed, booked, and shipped in a period
of 1 day to 1 week. This method of transmission has reduced the
amount of space necessary for storage of cartons of publications
awaiting shipment to the steamship lines and has speeded up the
turnover of publications on hand for shipment.
A new method of processing publications for mailing has resulted
in a faster transmission to the intended addressees. The old method
of processing required a period of from 1 to 2 weeks before mailing.
The new method provides for mailing on the day of receipt or the
following day.
Bureau of American Ethnology, 1953-63
During the decade 1953-63 the activities of the Bureau of American
Ethnology were concerned principally with expeditions and researches
in the field and publication of anthropological monographs. This
unit of the Smithsonian, founded by the great Major John Wesley
Powell, is possibly the first center in the country, or even in the world,
for research in cultural anthropology. Its publications are famous
wherever anthropology is studied.
Of particular significance in the decade under review is the pro-
gram in archeology carried on in the extreme northern part of the
continent. In the earlier years of the period, archeological excava-
tions were conducted at Cornwallis Island in the Canadian Arctic,
the work being sponsored jointly by the Smithsonian Institution and
the National Museum of Canada. In the Hudson Bay area, investiga-
tions on Southampton and Coats Islands occupied several seasons,
a cooperative project of the Smithsonian Institution, the National
Museum of Canada, and the National Geographic Society. Sub-
sequently the American Philosophical Society joined in the financial
sponsorship of those activities and attention was turned to Walrus
Island. The extensive materials collected from the various islands
SECRETARY’S REPORT 9
greatly increased knowledge about the various peoples who have lived
there over a long period of time. Articles about the results and sig-
nificance of the studies were published by the Smithsonian and in
professional journals.
An extensive program of archeological research was carried on at
the important Olmec site of La Venta, Tabasco, Mexico. This was
a cooperative project in which the Smithsonian Institution, the Na-
tional Geographic Society, and the University of California partici-
pated. The results obtained at La Venta, published as a bulletin of
the Bureau, contribute significantly to a proper understanding of
the place the Olmecs occupied in the cultural development of early
America.
During this decade excavations at Russell Cave in Alabama were
sponsored by the Smithsonian Institution and financed by the Na-
tional Geographic Society. Russell Cave is important because of
the long sequence of cultural deposits it contains, and the materials
from it make possible the reconstruction of aboriginal developments
over a period extending back about 9,000 years. Evidences for many
cultural traits not previously recognized in the American South came
to light during the course of the digging. The National Geographic
Society subsequently purchased the cave and presented it to the Na-
tional Park Service to be established as a national historic site.
During the 10-year period the work of the River Basin Surveys
progressed in a rewarding manner. During that time 23 reservoir
areas were surveyed and archeological excavations were conducted in
324 sites. The funds for the program, transferred to the Smithsonian
from other government agencies and private donors, were greatly
increased during the last 3 years of the decade, making it possible
to expand and speed up the salvage operations. Thirty-two papers
reporting on the investigations and their significance were published
during the period. Others are currently in press. The information
thus far obtained has added tremendously to our knowledge of the
aboriginal Americans.
The archives of the Bureau, constituting a great national scientific
research tool, have increased notably in size and diversity of material
in this decade. Large collections of Indian photographs have been
made available, and either the original negatives or copies have been
added to the files. Included are 312 glass negatives of individual and
group portraits of Indian delegates to Washington during the period
1874-90. The papers of Alice Cunningham Fletcher and her adopted
son, Francis La Flesche, both of whom had been members of the Bu-
reau staff in earlier years, were donated to the archives by Mrs. G.
David Pearlman of Washington, D.C., in memory of her husband.
The collection, filling 36 manuscript boxes, includes correspondence
10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
and other personal papers of both Miss Fletcher and La Flesche and
also extensive ethnographic items relating to the Omaha, Osage, Paw-
nee, Dakota, and Nez Perce Tribes, with smaller amounts on the Win-
nebago, the Indians of Alaska, and a few other North American tribes.
Much of this material has not been published and is a fruitful source
of data for students investigating those groups. Another significant
addition to the archives consists of papers of Dr. Frans M. Olbrechts
relating to his studies of the Cherokee Indians of North Carolina in
1926-31, when he was a collaborator of the Bureau. Dr. Olbrechts
was associated with the Kominklijh Museum, Tervuren, Belgium, and
following his death, Mrs. Olbrechts sent all his field notes and other
pertinent data to the Bureau.
A noteworthy event in the latter part of the 10-year period was the
appointment of a librarian and the reopening of the Bureau library,
with its extensive collection of reference works and documentary
records concerning all aspects of the life of the American Indian.
The Bureau issued several important bulletins during the period.
One of the most noteworthy is “Isleta Paintings,” a book outstanding
both as a contribution to ethnology and as an excellent example of
the effective use of good color reproductions for scholarly reasons.
National Zoological Park, 1953-63
The National Zoological Park was founded as the result of the ef-
forts of the third Secretary of the Smithsonian, Dr. Samuel Pierpont
Langley, about 75 years ago. It was established by an act of Congress
and assigned to the Smithsonian Institution. Previously a number
of great American animals, such as bison, were kept in pens near the
original Smithsonian Building. During the years since its establish-
ment, the Park has grown to become one of the world’s great animal
collections, as well as one of the most visited zoological parks in the
world. In 1961 the Congress of the United States authorized the Fed-
eral Government to make appropriations to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion for capital improvements at the National Zoological Park. As
a result, funds have been provided for a master plan for the moderni-
zation of the Zoo. This project, planned to be completed in 1972,
will be carried out gradually so that there will be very little incon-
venience to visitors or disruption of normal activities. One example
of the additions made possible by this new program is the construct-
ing of an aviary, 70 feet high and 120 feet in diameter, now nearing
completion.
Gifts of animals have been numerous during this decade. Among
them were a pair of Barbary apes from Sir Gordon MacMillan of
MacMillan, Governor and Commander-in-Chief of Gibraltar; three
East Indian monitor lizards from Hon. Carlton Skinner, Governor of
SECRETARY'S REPORT 11
Guam; a tuatara from the Government of New Zealand; two Philip-
pine macaques, early pioneers in space from the U.S. Air Force; two
Korean bears from President Syngman Rhee of Korea; pronghorn
antelopes from both the Wyoming and the Montana State Fish and
Game Commissions; a pair of gorillas from Russell Arundel of War-
renton, Va.; emperor and Adelie penguins from Hon. Charles Thomas,
Secretary of the Navy; a young Bengal tiger from the Ambassador
of Pakistan, Syed Amjad Ali; a pair of okapis from the Government
of the Belgian Congo; an African forest elephant from the Commu-
nity of French Republics; two dorcas gazelles from President Habib
Bourguiba of Tunisia; a spotted leopard and a male pygmy hippopot-
amus from President William V. S. Tubman of Liberia; an Indian
rhinoceros from the Forestry Service of Assam; two Bengal tigers
from Ralph Scott of Washington and Miami Beach; the beautiful
white tigress “Mohini,” from the Metropolitan Broadcasting Corp.,
the first to be seen outside of Rewa, India; “Ambika,” an Indian ele-
phant, from the “Share Your Birthday Foundation” and the Maha-
rajah of Mysore; six North African cranes from President Ibrahim
Abboud of Tunisia; three tree kangaroos from Sir Edward Hallstrom
of Sydney, Australia; and a sea-lion from Attorney General Robert
Kennedy.
The Zoo continued to be fortunate in its breeding program. Among
the interesting births, the first in importance was that of “Tomoka,”
a male lowland gorilla, on September 9, 1961. Other noteworthy births
were those of giraffes, pygmy hippos, gaur, Nile hippopotamus, eland,
snow leopard, wisent, Cape hunting dogs, striped hyena, margay and
serval cats, ring-tailed lemur, and lesser pandas. The kookaburras
have laid eggs and successfully reared the young for the past 2 years,
and the Surinam toads laid eggs and hatched them in their peculiar
manner twice during the 10-year period.
Purchases of unusual interest were a pair of cheetahs; two flat-
tailed Brazilian otters (the first to be exhibited in the United States) ;
a pair of black rhinoceroses and a pair of the much rarer white rhinos
(these also were the first to come to the States) ; two giant armadillos;
two Pére David deer, the rare fossa from Madagascar; a pair of
wisent, or European bison; a trio of Saiga antelope; two Sumatran
orangutans; a pair of snow leopards; a trio of Masai giraffes; three
Cape buffalo; three brindled gnus; Dall sheep; Pallas’s cats; maned
wolves; two yaks; a Colombian red-eyed cowbird that had not been
seen for so many years it was supposed to be extinct; pygmy teal;
crocodile birds; and two king cobras. Scientific work, necessary to
the maintenance of the great animal collection at the National Zoolog-
ical Park and also important in adding knowledge concerning the con-
12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
servation of animals, has also been carried on with increasing success
during this 10-year period at the Zoo.
Astrophysical Observatory, 1953-63
During the decade ending in 1963 the Smithsonian Astrophysical
Observatory experienced greater change and generated more scientific
data than in any other comparable period since its establishment in
1890. In the decade the staff has increased to over 300 members.
Its publications include 130 special scientific reports, plus 7 volumes
of a new scientific series, Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics.
At the beginning of the decade the Observatory maintained two
high-altitude stations for solar observations: the resultant data were
used to determine the solar constant and to relate it to atmospheric
phenomena. This important groundbreaking study was discontinued
in 1962 because the method had reached the limit of usefulness.
When Loyal B. Aldrich retired as Director in 1955, Dr. Fred L.
Whipple was appointed his successor, and in fulfillment of an arrange-
ment with Harvard University the Observatory was moved to Cam-
bridge, Mass., where it has gained much from close association with
the large number of scientific research workers in that area.
The following year the Observatory received, through the Smith-
sonian Institution in Washington, the first of a series of grants from
the National Academy of Sciences and the National Science Founda-
tion for the optical tracking of artificial earth satellites to be launched
during the International Geophysical Year. At the end of the IGY
in 1959, the resultant tracking program of the Observatory continued
under a grant from the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion. The tracking camera was designed to achieve a position accu-
racy of 1 second of arc, and a time accuracy of 1 millisecond in photo-
graphing satellites. In addition, there were organized a Moonwatch
program of amateur astronomers to make preliminary observations
of satellites, a computations division to prepare orbital predictions
and ephemerides, and a communications network to tie together the
tracking headquarters in Cambridge with the camera stations, the
volunteer Moonwatch teams, and other Government agencies.
When Sputnik I was launched on October 4, 1957, the first camera
had been completed, the Moonwatch teams were ready to begin visual
observing immediately, and orbital calculations and predictions com-
menced. In the next 9 months 12 Baker-Nunn cameras were com-
pleted and shipped to stations established by the Smithsonian Ob-
servatory in Japan, Australia, South Africa, India, Iran, Spain,
Peru, Argentina, and the Netherlands West Indies, as well as in
Florida, New Mexico, and Hawaii.
By the end of the decade the Moonwatch teams had made more than
53,000 observations of 191 different satellites and the cameras 81,750
SECRETARY’S REPORT 1
observations of 73 satellites. The photoreduction division had deter-
mined more than 54,000 precise satellite positions reduced to atomic
time. Meanwhile, the Observatory had evolved a number of com-
puter programs to process observational data, prepare predictions
of satellite passages, and provide the means of analyzing atmospheric
densities and temperatures, solar radiation, the shape of the earth and
similar phenomena.
The research and analysis division of the Smithsonian unit has pro-
duced some of the major scientific results of the U.S. space program,
including determinations of the coefficients of spherical harmonics for
the earth’s gravitational potential, improved geodetic data, a theory
of the critical inclination of satellite motion, and, from extremely
accurate studies of atmospheric drag, determination of density and
temperature in the high atmosphere as a function of time of day, and
geographical position and solar activity.
The space science of the Observatory has extended beyond satellite
tracking. Project Celescope, as a part of NASA’s orbiting astronomi-
cal observatory, is now being developed to make an ultraviolet survey
of the entire celestial sphere. An experiment on board one of NASA’s
orbiting solar observatories to study solar phenomena is being readied.
A network of automatic camera stations will make simultaneous
observations of meteors over an area of a million square kilometers.
This advanced program will provide the basis for a scientific project
of collecting meteorites and give vital new data for detailed study of
hypervelocity entry, meteoritic physics, and the upper atmosphere.
At the Observatory the first measurements were made of the radio-
active isotopes, argon of atomic mass 37 and 39, produced by cosmic
rays on meteorities in space. These measurements contributed to the
determination of erosion rates of meteoritic materials of various kinds
in space. Radiochemical analyses of recovered satellite materials first
proved that solar flares introduce tritium into such material in space
as well as producing transmutations of elements. The Observatory
participated in a program showing that optical flare stars are also
variable in the radio region of the spectrum.
Other research at the Smithsonian Observatory in the decade
included analyses of sophisticated problems in celestial mechanics; pre-
cision linking of the several geodetic networks of the earth; experi-
ments involving the origins of life and the possibilities of the extra-
terrestrial organisms; studies of comets, meteors, and interplanetary
dust; new methods, theories, and conclusions relating to stellar at-
mospheres and stellar pulsation; and other astrophysical problems.
The Division of Radiation and Organisms is a special unit of the
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Research in this unit during
the past 10 years has been directed principally toward solving prob-
14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
lems in radiation biology, with specific emphasis on elaborating the
intracellular mechanisms involved in regulatory responses of biolog-
ical systems controlled by ionizing or nonionizing radiation.
Emphasis has been centered on the precise determination of the
initial processes involved in a number of diverse light-regulated re-
sponses. In this division were determined the most precise and de-
tailed action spectra that have been reported for photomorphogenic
responses, such as bean hypocotyl hook opening, photoreversal of this
response, seed germination, interaction of visible light with X-ray-
induced chromosome aberrations, and the phototropic response of
oat seedlings in the blue and near-ultraviolet spectral regions. From
such action spectra, a great deal of significant information has been
obtained about the primary photoreceptors responsible for the absorp-
tion and transfer of radiant energy in biological systems.
Kinetic studies have been carried out determining the time course
of sensitivity, temperature-dependence of secondary dark reactions,
the interaction of photomimetric substances, auxins and antiauxins,
with the light-sensitive mechanisms. Descriptions have been educed
for some of the physical factors in plant reactions, including optical
and mechanical properties of cells. The morphological development
of chloroplasts after irradiation has been examined and measured,
using cytochemical techniques.
Investigations have been focused on the intracellular biochemical
mechanisms regulated or altered by radiation. These efforts have
resulted in a number of published articles on chlorophyll synthesis, the
effects of ionizing radiation on chlorophyll synthesis, and the activity
and concentrations of various subcellular components isolated after
irradiation, such as high energy phosphate compounds, mitochondrial
activity, protein synthesis in the photosynthetic apparatus, pigment
synthesis, carbohydrate metabolism, and various other enzymatic
activities.
During the past several years, the division staff and facilities have
expanded in order to approach radiobiological problems with a wider
range of disciplines employing the most advanced techniques of bio-
chemistry, biophysics, cytology, and plant physiology. A tempera-
ture-regulated greenhouse with controlled environment rooms has
been constructed with funds provided by a nonpublic foundation, the
Research Corporation. The growth of plants under natural and
artificial light conditions has been measured with great accuracy.
Concurrently, the construction and acquisition of specialized auto-
matic equipment for measuring the spectral distribution of total sky
light at frequent intervals have been completed, and long-term correla-
tions of daily and seasonal fluctuations with observed plant responses
are being made.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 15
A carbon-dating laboratory has been operating in this unit of the
Smithsonian for about a year, dating samples of archeological interest
and initiating a research program aimed at developing new dating
technics for geological samples.
Two years ago a section was incorporated for research in marine
biology. This work in pure science has been financed by special gifts
from a non-Federal source, the Bredin Foundation. Marine orga-
nisms are well suited to fundamental investigation of radiation re-
sponses. Studies have been initiated to identify high molecular
weight phosphate compounds and determine the metabolic role of
these compounds in the conversion of radiant energy to chemical
energy.
Electronic and instrument shop facilities are maintained for the
design, construction, and service of the complex and highly specialized
instrumentation necessary to research program of the sort mentioned
above.
The division has published widely and it is safe to say has achieved
a favorable international reputation in radiation biology in the areas
of techniques for the generation, control, and measurements of radia-
tion; kinetics and biochemistry of photoresponses; action spectra;
and solar radiation measurements. Several foreign scientists have
come to the division to study its methods for 1- or 2-year periods,
and work has been done in collaboration with other laboratories
utilizing our specialized facilities.
National Collection of Fine Arts, 1953-63
The original act establishing the Smithsonian Institution directed
that it maintain a gallery of art. The National Collection of Fine
Arts, as a bureau of the Smithsonian, is the oldest gallery of art
directly related to the U.S. Government.
In the decade under consideration many notable paintings, largely
by distinquished American artists, have been added to the national
collections under the care of the National Collection of Fine Arts,
and restoration of anmy works of art in the collection of this bureau
has been carried on.
In the first year of the present decade the exhibits of the National
Collection of Fine Arts were reorganized and a main hall was opened
in the Natural History Building. During the years that have fol-
lowed, many temporary exhibits of importance have been shown in
the foyer gallery in the Natural History Building, and under the
direction of the Traveling Exhibition Service of the National Collec-
tion of Fine Arts, 375 shows, mainly in the field of the fine arts, have
16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
been organized and circulated in over 500 different museums through-
out America, as well as in museums in many foreign countries. <Al-
most 4,500 showings have been made possible in this period by this
service.
The greatest event in the decade 1953-63 was the act passed by
Congress in 1958 authorizing the transfer to the Smithsonian Institu-
tion of the historic and beautiful old Patent Office Building for con-
version to art galleries. Plans are well underway for the establish-
ment in this building of public galleries, study rooms, and restoration
laboratories that will allow the National Collection of Fine Arts to
display its great collections of American and other paintings in a
manner that could never have been achieved in its present borrowed
and incongruous space in the Natural History Building of the Smith-
sonian Institution.
Freer Gallery of Art, 1953-63
The period 1953-63 is the fourth decade in the history of the Freer
Gallery of Art. This unit of the Smithsonian Institution was es-
tablished by the late Charles Lang Freer as a gallery for the display
of great collections of art and as a center for the study especially of
the art of the Far East and the Middle East.
The annual attendance of the Gallery during the decade has grown
from approximately 70,000 to 183,000 per year. The collections have
also developed in notable ways. Additions to the collections, as pro-
vided in Mr. Freer’s will and purchased with the income from his be-
quest, have included over 450 major objects of art. The most signifi-
cant of these additions have been in the fields of Ming porcelains and in
Japanese painting. Mrs. Eugene Meyer, the one survivor of the three
persons permitted by Mr. Freer’s will to make gifts to the collection,
generously has given in this period three Chinese bronzes and one
Chinese painting. Members of the professional staff of the Freer
during the decade have published research on the collections in 16
books and over 100 articles.
The Freer Gallery has continued during this decade its world-
famous studies of the scientific composition of metallic, ceramic, and
other objects of art, and the development of new preservation tech-
niques. The Gallery during these years has been the base for the
publication, under the auspices of the International Institute for
Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, of the I.J.C. Abstracts
(commonly called the Freer Abstracts). The current number of this
journal shows that almost 4,000 abstracts of published works on
conservation have so far been made available to the whole museum
world through this medium.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 17
National Gallery of Art, 1953-63
The National Gallery of Art resulted from Andrew W. Mellon’s
munificent gift to the American people of his great collection of art
and a splendid building in which to house it.
Although a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution, the Gallery is
largely under the direction of a separate Board of Trustees of which
the Secretary of the Smithsonian is an ex officio member.
In the decade under consideration, 4,220 works of art were acquired
by the Gallery, including outstanding gifts from the Samuel H. Kress
Foundation, Horace Havemeyer, William Nelson Cromwell, Syma
Busiel, the Fuller Foundation, Inc., Mrs. Mellon Bruce, Mrs. P. H. B.
Frelinghuysen, and many others.
During the period 45 temporary loan exhibitions were held and
the annual series of lectures (A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts)
was delivered. These lectures are in the process of being published
in a notable series. Many articles and books by staff members have
also been published during this time.
The annual number of visitors to the National Gallery of Art has
more than doubled in the past 10 years, with an attendance of 1,793,500
in fiscal year 1963 compared with 887,218 in fiscal year 1954.
Funds appropriated by Congress for maintenance of the Gallery
have increased from $1,274,473 in fiscal year 1954 to $2,100,769 for
fiscal year 1964.
National Air Museum, 1953-63
This bureau of the Smithsonian Institution has made significant
progress during the decade 1953-63.
One measure of this progress is the increase in public interest in the
small exhibit (less than 5 percent of its collection) which the Air
Museum now has on display. For example, its old Aircraft Building,
now called the Air and Space Building (a small metal building erected
in 1917 as a test center for Liberty motors), had a visitor count of
237,446 in fiscal year 1953. In fiscal year 1963 the count was 2,673,618.
The greatest need of the National Air Museum has been for a suit-
able building in which to display its great collection of the history of
manmade flight. Progress has been made toward achieving this
objective. In 1958 the Congress authorized the preparation of plans
and specifications for a new National Air Museum Building and
designated a beautiful Mall site for it. In 1963 planning funds were
appropriated by the Congress and planning will now begin.
Very important progress has been made during the decade in the
techniques of storage, preservation, and restoration. In 1953 most
of the collection of historic aircraft, engines, and other aeronautical
materials were stored in an Air Force hangar at Park Ridge, III.
18 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Space requirements of the Air Force made it necessary to move the
collection. An area at Silver Hill, Md., close to Washington, was
acquired by transfer, and temporary storage buildings were erected.
The transfer of storage was completed in 1956.
One of the buildings at Silver Hill was constituted as a restoration
and preservation facility. With the congressional authorization of
the new National Air Museum Building in 1958, this work was
accelerated, and creditable shop facilities have been established, to-
gether with the completion of connecting roadways between storage
buildings and shop. By the end of the decade under consideration,
this facility was engaged in the restoration and preservation of
historic aircraft and engines in anticipation of the increased display
requirements of the new Air Museum Building.
The decade marked a very large increase in the collection of the
Museum. A total of 3,424 historic specimens were added, including
many full-size aircraft and, during the recent years, spacecraft.
Notable among these accessions were: a Douglas DC airplane, No. 164;
the “Excalibur” airplane which made the first nonstop solo flight over
the North Pole; a Boeing 247-D airplane; a 1929 Link Trainer; a
Pitcairn Autogyro of 1929; the “Ole Miss” Curtiss airplane; a “Van-
guard” launch vehicle; a Verville-Sperry “Messenger” airplane of
1920; a bronze statue of Brig. Gen. William Mitchell; the “First
Recovered Nose Cone” from space; a “Jupiter C” launch vehicle; a
collection of original records and memorabilia of Dr. Robert H.
Goddard, given by Mrs. Robert H. Goddard; an original holograph
manuscript of “Soaring Flight” by John J. Montgomery; a Ryan
X-13 “Vertijet” airplane; the Lockheed “Sirius” airplane flown by
Charles A. and Anne Morrow Lindbergh; an “Atlas” launch vehicle;
the “Able-Baker” spacecraft ; a McDonnell FH-1 “Phantom” carrier-
based aircraft; the first “space” camera; the “Que Sera Sera,” first
airplane to land at the South Pole; “Freedom 7,” America’s first
manned spacecraft; the “Sacred Cow,” a Douglas C—54, the first Presi-
dential airplane; an early Bellanca airplane; an original oil portrait
of Gen. Claire Chennault and a number of his medals; a “Polaris”
rocket; “Friendship 7,” America’s first manned orbital spacecraft;
gear worn and used by Astronaut John Glenn on his historic flight in
“Friendship 7”; and an original painting of Astronaut Alan B.
Shepard, Jr., by artist James Scalese from the Honorable James G.
Fulton.
One of the most important areas of progress during the past 10
years has been the increase in the study library and reference files.
This collection now numbers more than 12,000 books, more than 800 file
cabinets of reference material, and approximately 100,000 photographs.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 19
The research work of the Museum has increased along with the
increase in public interest in its exhibits. Most of the time of the
professional staff is taken up with historical, technical, and biograph-
ical research to provide a service to authors, publishers, historians,
engineers, teachers, and students seeking authentic information.
In addition, a considerable increase in historical and technical re-
search is required in connection with the accelerated restoration pro-
gram of aircraft and engines.
For the National Air Museum the decade has been a transition
period. It has changed from a collecting and storing agency to a
full museum operation that is commensurate with its world-renowned
collection and its responsibilities to the public. It has developed new
displays, research, studies, preservation and restoration techniques,
and publications in a field of great American patriotic and historical
interest—manmade flight.
National Portrait Gallery, 1961-63
In 1961 Congress provided for the establishment of the National
Portrait Gallery. This gallery will be housed, together with the
National Collection of Fine Arts, in the old Patent Office Building
which, as noted above, has been transferred to the Smithsonian
Institution.
The Congress in 1962 provided for the establishment of a National
Portrait Gallery Commission to advise the Smithsonian Institution in
organizing and developing this new and important unit.
National Cultural Center, 1958-63
The National Cultural Center was established by an act of Con-
gress in 1958, and the new unit was designated as a bureau of the
Smithsonian Institution. Like the National Gallery of Art, the Na-
tional Cultural Center is largely administered by its own special
Board of Trustees.
Since the establishment of the bureau the principal function has
been connected with raising the funds to erect a suitable building in
the Nation’s Capital to provide halls for the presentation of opera,
symphonic concerts, dramatic performances, ballet, and other fields
of the performing arts.
Financial Resources, 1953-63
During the decade many generous gifts of funds have come to the
Smithsonian from private individuals and from foundations. Most
of these gifts are for very specific purposes. The most notable of
these private benefactions is the receipt of a legacy which, when finally
settled, will be in excess of $114 million from the late Robert Lee
Forrest. Another important benefaction came from the estate of
20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Atherton Seidell. Laura D. Barney has also been most generous to
the Institution during this period, and she and her sister, Natalie C.
Barney, gave the Smithsonian the Barney Studio House in
Washington.
At the beginning of this period (June 30, 1952) the book value of
the unexpended funds and endowments of the Smithsonian was
$11,188,892. As indicated in the financial statement on a later page
of this report, this sum has now reached a total of $22,534,920. The
market value of the securities and assets of the endowment funds of
the Smithsonian at the end of the period is in excess of $25,000,000.
The income from the many funds that make up this total is expended
according to the directions of the donors of the funds.
During the decade Federal funds for building and for planning
buildings have been provided to the Smithsonian to a total of
$61,012,000. At the beginning of the period the annual appropriation
for the basic expenses of the operation of all the bureaus of the Smith-
sonian Institution (except the National Gallery of Art and the Na-
tional Zoological Park, which have separate budgets) was $2,553,200.
The appropriation for these same parts of the Institution for the fiscal
year 1964 is $13,124,000. At the start of the decade the annual op-
erating appropriation for the National Zoological Park was $620,800.
The appropriation for this part of the Institution for fiscal year 1963
was $1,470,200. Capital appropriations for the National Zoological
Park in this period, in addition to operating funds, have been $2,550,-
000. The budget of the National Gallery of Art, which is admin-
istered separately from the Smithsonian Institution as a whole, was
$1,240,000 at the start of the decade, and the appropriation for 1964
for this unit was $2,138,000. Gifts and grants for research projects
and other specific purposes, exclusive of appropriated funds and all
for the particular purposes specified by donors or grantors, have totaled
$32,489,471 in the decade under consideration.
It can be said with assurance, as the progress of the decade 1953-
63 is reviewed, that the Smithsonian’s donor, James Smithson, planned
well when he directed that his Institution should concern itself with
the great and related humanitarian functions of the increase and the
diffusion of knowledge among men.
THE ESTABLISHMENT
The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in
1846, in accordance with the terms of the will of James Smithson, of
England, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States
of America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smith-
sonian Institution, an establishment for the increase and diffusion of
knowledge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the
SECRETARY’S REPORT Ak
trust, Congress determined that the Federal Government was without
authority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore, constituted
an “establishment,” whose statutory members are “the President, the
Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive
departments.”
THE BOARD OF REGENTS
The appointment to the vacancy in the class of citizen regent was
effected by the approval on July 2, 1963, of a joint resolution of Con-
gress designating Dr. William A. M. Burden of New York to succeed
the late Dr. Arthur H. Compton as a Regent for the statutory term of
6 years.
The roll of Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows:
Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren, Chancellor; Vice
President Lyndon B. Johnson; members from the Senate: Clinton
P. Anderson, J. William Fulbright, Leverett Saltonstall; members
from the House of Representatives: Frank T. Bow, Clarence Cannon,
Michael J. Kirwan; citizen members: John Nicholas Brown, William
A. M. Burden, Robert V. Fleming, Crawford H. Greenewalt, Caryl
P. Haskins, and Jerome C. Hunsaker.
The customary informa] dinner meeting, preceding the annual meet-
ing, was held in the Great Hall of the Smithsonian Building on
January 23, 1963. Exhibits showing some of the recent work of the
Smithsonian bureaus were in place in the hall at the time of the dinner
to apprise the Regents of current Smithsonian research developments.
Dr. Richard S. Cowan spoke on “Research for a Tropical American
Rain-Forest Exhibit”; Dr. Robert P. Multhauf on “History of the
Measurement of Gravity in the 19th Century”; Dr. John A. Pope on
“The Freer Gallery of Art Research Project on Ancient Chinese
Ceremonial Bronzes”; and Dr. Fred L. Whipple on “Scientific Study
of Recovered Parts of Russian Sputnik IV.”
The annual meeting was held on January 24, 1963. The Secretary
presented his published annual report on the activities of the Institu-
tion. The Chairman of the Executive and Permanent Committees
of the Board, Dr. Robert V. Fleming, gave the financial report for the
fiscal year ended June 380, 1962.
The spring meeting of the Board of Regents was held at 5 o’clock
in the Regents Room. A financial report was presented by the chair-
man of the Executive Committee. The Regents then adjourned to
the hall of fossil mammals for an informal dinner.
RETIREMENT OF DR. KELLOGG
On October 31, 1962, Dr. A. Remington Kellogg, Assistant Secre-
tary of the Smithsonian Institution and Director of the United States
National Museum, retired and assumed the status of honorary re-
720-018—64—_3
De ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
search associate of the Smithsonian. During Dr. Kellogg’s service
as Director, beginning in 1948, the National Museum experienced a re-
markable growth. The collections grew from 25 million specimens
in 1948 to 56 million in 1962. A renovation of exhibits programs re-
vitalized more than 20 exhibition halls in the National Museum. A
wing was added to the Natural History Museum, and a new Museum
of History and Technology was built. Dr. Kellogg directed the
programs that resulted in these achievements and participated
strongly in their execution.
Prior to becoming Director of the National Museum, Dr. Kellogg
had served in the division of mammals, beginning in 1928 as assistant
curator and becoming curator of the division in 1941. His main sci-
entific interest has been, and continues to be, the biology of whales, in
which field he is one of the world’s foremost authorities. His re-
search on the paleontology of whales has been widely acclaimed. It is
altogether fitting, therefore, that he should now be conducting his
scientific investigations in a workroom on the vertebrate paleontology
floor of the museum wing which he helped to create. He is con-
tinuing to publish his excellent scientific reports.
On November 1, 1962, following Dr. Kellogg’s retirement, Dr.
Albert C. Smith, who had been Director of the Museum of Natural
History since 1958, became an Assistant Secretary of the Institution.
NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY
On April 27, 1962, Public Law 87-443 established the National Por-
trait Gallery as a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution to “function
as a free public museum for the exhibition and study of portraiture
and statuary depicting men and women who have made significant
contributions to the history, development, and culture of the people
of the United States and of the artists who created such portraiture
and statuary.”
This act of Congress also authorized the establishment of a National
Portrait Gallery Commission, to serve as an advisory body to the
Board of Regents in regard to programs, methods of operation, and
selections of appropriate displays for the new Gallery. ‘The members
of the Commission, as announced on June 21, 1963, by the Chancellor
of the Board of Regents, the Honorable Earl Warren, are as follows:
Catherine Drinker Bowen, author and historian, of Bryn Mawr, Pa.
Julian P. Boyd, author and historian, of Princeton, N.J.
John Nicholas Brown, Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, of Providence, R.I.
Lewis Deschler, Parliamentarian of the House of Representatives of the United
States Congress, of Bethesda, Md.
David E. Finley, former Director of the National Gallery of Art, of Washington,
D.C.
Wilmarth Sheldon Lewis, historian and biographer, of Farmington, Conn.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 23
Richard H. Shryock, author and historian, of Philadelphia, Pa.
Col. Frederick P. Todd, Director of the U.S. Military Academy Museum, of West
Point, N.Y.
Ex officio:
The Chief Justice of the United States.
The Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
The Director of the National Gallery of Art.
NATIONAL ARMED FORCES MUSEUM ADVISORY BOARD
Public Law 87-186 (August 30, 1961) established a National Armed
Forces Museum Advisory Board in the Smithsonian Institution to
provide advice and assistance to the Smithsonian Board of Regents
on matters concerning the portrayal of the contributions which the
Armed Forces of the United States have made to American society
and culture, the investigation and survey of lands and buildings in
and near the District of Columbia suitable for the display of military
collections, and the preparation of recommendations to the Congress
with respect to the acquisition of lands and buildings for such
purposes.
This law additionally provides that the Smithsonian Institution
shall (1) commemorate and display the contributions made by the
military forces of the Nation toward creating, developing, and main-
taining a free, peaceful, and independent society and culture in this
country; (2) portray the valor and sacrificial service of the men and
women of the Armed Forces as an inspiration to the present and future
generations of America; (3) demonstrate the demands placed upon
the full energies of our people, the hardships endured, and the sacrifice
demanded in our constant search for world peace; (4) graphically
describe the extensive peacetime contributions the Armed Forces have
made to the advance of human knowledge in science, nuclear energy,
polar and space exploration, electronics, engineering, aeronautics, and
medicine; (5) interpret through dramatic display significant current
problems affecting the Nation’s security ; and (6) provide a study cen-
ter for scholarly research into the meaning of war, its effects on
civilization, and the role of the Armed Forces in maintaining a just
and lasting peace by providing a powerful deterrent to war.
Members of the National Armed Forces Museum Advisory Board
will serve 6 years, except for the initial Board which was appointed by
the President in April 1962 to serve for terms of 2, 4, and 6 years:
John Nicholas Brown, Regent of the Smithsonian Institution
Rufus E. Clement, President of Atlanta University
Fred Korth, Secretary of the Navy
David L. Kreeger, Vice President of Government Employees Insurance Co.
Cyrus B. Vance, Secretary of the Army
Earl Warren, Chief Justice of the United States
24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Henry B. Washburn, Jr., Director of the Boston Museum of Science
William W. Whiteman, Jr., lawyer and financier, Oklahoma City
Eugene M. Zuckert, Secretary of the Air Force
The Advisory Board has held two meetings, during which it selected
a chairman, John Nicholas Brown, adopted bylaws for its operation,
considered the scope and extent of the Board’s functions, and proposed
areas of study. A number of potential Museum sites in the Greater
Washington area have been considered, and several have been examined
by the Advisory Board.
FINANCES
A statement on finances, dealing particularly with Smithsonian pri-
vate funds, will be found in the report of the executive committee of
the Board of Regents, page 261. Funds appropriated to the Institu-
tion for its regular operations for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1963,
totaled $11,060,550. Besides this direct appropriation, the Institu-
tion received funds by transfer from other Government agencies as
follows: From the District of Columbia for the National Zoological
Park, $1,504,997; from the National Park Service, Department of the
Interior, for the River Basin Surveys, $271,000.
VISITORS
Visitors to the Smithsonian buildings on the Mall again surpassed
all records with a total of 10,309,836, which was 1,386,705 more than
for the previous year. April 1963, with 1,720,716, was the month of
largest attendance; August 1962 second, with 1,616,360; July 1962
third, with 1,612,452. Table 1 gives a summary of the attendance
records for the five buildings; table 2, groups of schoolchildren. A
new method adopted for estimating the number of visitors at the Na-
tional Zoological Park showed a total of 3,200,000 for the year. When
this figure is added to the attendance in the Institution’s buildings on
the Mall, and to the 1,793,500 recorded at the National Gallery of Art,
the total Smithsonian attendance for 1962 may be set at 15,303,336.
REPLACEMENT OF SMITHSON PLAQUE
In 1896 the Smithsonian Board of Regents caused to be erected a
handsome marble memorial to James Smithson in the English Church
of the Holy Ghost in Genoa, Italy, where he died on June 26, 1829.
During World War II the church was gutted by fire following Allied
bombardments and stripped of all fittings by looters. Following the
war the church was restored, but all trace of the Smithson cenotaph
had disappeared.
It seemed appropriate and desirable that this memorial to the
founder of the Smithsonian Institution be replaced, and in 1960 the
Board of Regents so authorized. The new plaque, sculptured by Raf-
Secretary's Report, 1963 PLATE 1
JAMES SMITHS
FOVNDER OF THE SMITHSONIAN
INSTITVTION - WASHINGTON
ERECTED BY THE REGENTS |
OF THE INSTITVTION 1896
ee a oem ee eee.
Paton
& Seen avail : P
Smithson plaque as restored in English Church of the Holy Ghost, Genoa, Italy, 1963
SECRETARY’S REPORT 25
faello Romanelli, of Florence, is a facsimile of a replica of the original
which is erected adjacent to the Smithson tomb in the Smithsonian
Building in Washington. In May 1963 the Institution was notified
by the American Consul General at Genoa that installation of the new
memorial had been completed (pl. 1).
Thanks are due particularly to the following individuals for their
interest and cooperation in helping to initiate or complete this project:
John LePelley, of Paris, assistant vice president of the First National
City Bank of New York; David Balfour, former British Consul Gen-
eral at Genoa; S. A. H. Eley, Lord Bishop of Gibraltar; F. J. Bailey,
the Archbishop of Malta; Stephen P. Dorsey, American Consul Gen-
eral at Genoa; and to sculptor Romanelli for his faithful creation.
TABLE 1.—Visitors to certain Smithsonian buildings during the year ended June 30,
1963
Smithsonian} Arts and Natural Air and Freer
Year and month Building Industries History Space Building Total
Building Building Building
1962
ik 258,510) 555,775} 267,106) 502, 686) 28, 375} 1, 612, 452
PRU a aa = 264, 448] 595, 337| 282,016) 443, 142} 31, 417| 1, 616, 360
September- --__- 79, 136| 200, 639] 119, 261} 116,104] 14,267] 529, 407
@ctobers.-2. =... 64,169} 159, 731; 120,189) 101, 711) 11, 169 456, 969
November- -.---- 55, 1386] 159,100) 121, 763 92, 541] 10, 846 439, 386
December_-_-_---- 34, 400 73, 199 70, 306 45, 726] 5, 940 229, 571
1963
aay a ee 39, 430 96,555} 114, 159 64, 642) 6, 558 321, 344
Hebruary = === 51, 528} 114,532} 106, 570 75, 033) 7, 098 354, 761
Wisncheee eens se 2 76, 916} 165, 820) 154, 488) 120, 853) 10, 901 528, 978
LiL 298, 248} 692,693) 337,878} 370, 947) 20, 950) 1, 720, 716
Wie yen a 210, 378} 352,299} 283,510) 325,157) 15, 574| 1, 186, 918
Jimeno os 58 ss 197,981] 368,502) 311,151} 415, 076) 20, 264 1, 312, 974
26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Taste 2.—Groups of schoolchildren visiting the Smithsonian Institution during
the year ended June 80, 1963
Year and month Number of | Number of Year and month Number of | Number of
children groups children groups
1962 1963
ily ee see 12, 810 S48" uly. 2 te ee 23, 808 629
AUISUstses ees 6, 991 208 || August_..-—=---- 17, 124 493
September- ----- 4, 797 146 || September- ----- 41, 888 1, 046
Qetabers = 2. 2--- 25, 970 698 || October- _------ 77, 770 1, 726
November. -- --- 32, 495 818 || November- ----- 165, 384 3, 428
December. - - --- 12, 946 368 || December- ~~ -_-- 53, 065 1,174
Total__._| 475,048 | 11, 082
Report on the United States
National Museum
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condition
and operations of the U.S. National Museum for the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1963 :
COLLECTIONS
During the year 1,723,830 specimens were added to the national
collections and distributed among the 8 departments as follows: An-
thropology, 11,998; zoology, 1,361,586; botany, 69,642; geology, 80,-
414; science and technology, 2, 588; arts and manufactures, 2,910; civil
history, 191,753; and Armed Forces history, 2,944. The largest di-
visional acquisition was in the division of insects, which accessioned
a total of 1,209,339 specimens. Most of this year’s accessions were
acquired as gifts from individuals or as transfers from Government
departments and agencies. The complete report on the Museum, pub-
lished as a separate document, includes a detailed list of the year’s
acquisitions, of which the more important are summarized below.
Catalog entries in all departments now total 57,541,770.
Anthropology—tThe division of archeology received as its largest
accession a lot of 8,481 specimens from Alaska collected for the Mu-
seum by Dr. James A. Ford. His published monograph, “Eskimo
Prehistory in the Vicinity of Point Barrow,” made it possible to ac-
cession the specimens according to the published types and illustra-
tions. James P. Mandaville, Jr., donated a well-documented
collection of 185 specimens from northern Arabia, including potsherds,
terra-cotta figurine fragments, and an inscribed copper hoe blade.
Three important collections of Iranian artifacts were presented by
Mr. and Mrs. Anthony Cuomo, Mr. and Mrs. Daniel F. Magner, and
C. Edward Wells. Represented among the 160 specimens are pottery,
bronze weapons, inscribed mud bricks, and glazed architectural
fragments, ranging in dates from 2000 B.C. to the third century A.D.
A group of five Korean bronze weapons of the Han Dynasty was
donated by Gen. George H. Decker. A rare anthropomorphic pottery
figure from the Bahia culture of the Esmeraldas region was acquired
from Mrs. Erika Burt.
The division of ethnology received a collection of 25 items of tradi-
tional court costume from Indonesia, presented by His Highness Sri
27
28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Paku Alam VIII, through the American Embassy in Djakarta. The
Government of Vietnam, through its embassy in Washington, D.C.,
presented 67 specimens comprising a carved wooden chest, bronze
vessels, and textiles. For use in the preparation of new exhibits, 103
ornaments, household items, and weapons of the people of Burundi
were obtained from David W. Doyle, American Vice Consul at
Usumbura, Burundi. Also for exhibition, a Chinese collection of
365 specimens was acquired from Taiwan with the assistance of the
National Historical Museum and the Provincial Museum, under the
direction of the Ministry of Education and Academia Sinica.
The division of physical anthropology received, from the U.S. Army
Research Institute of Enviromental Medicine, a collection of 50,000
somatotype negatives. ‘These were made during the U.S. Army sur-
vey of male body build in 1945-46 under the direction of E. A. Hooton
and form the basis for the Harvard system of rating body build.
Largest of its kind, the collection will be available for study by quali-
fied professionals. Received for study and exhibit purposes is a new
set of casts of the original Neanderthal skeleton, gift of the Rheinisches
Landesmuseum, Bonn, Germany, and excellent casts of Oreopithecus
from central Italy, received from the Natural History Museum in
Basle, Switzerland. Other accessions include human skeletal ma-
terials from Mexico, Alaska, and various parts of the United States.
Zoology.—Staff members and cooperating agencies contributed ap-
proximately 9,200 specimens to the division of mammals, most of these
being collected by Dr. Charles O. Handley, Jr., and Francis M. Green-
well in Panama. Others were collected by Naval Medical Research
Unit No. 2, in Formosa; by Dr. Dale Osborn in Turkey; by Gary L.
Ranch in Libya and Iran; by the department of microbiology of the
University of Maryland, in West Pakistan and Mexico; and by Ken-
neth I. Lange and James H. Shaw in the Malagasy Republic. Dr.
Henry W. Setzer of the Museum staff participated in the last three
projects. Other valuable collections were made as follows: by Miss
Alena Elbl of the University of Maryland, in Ruanda Urundi; by
Dr. L. G. Clark of the University of Pennsylvania, in Nicaragua, and
by William J. Schaldach, Jr., in southern Mexico. Important speci-
mens obtained for the exhibition series include a large male walrus,
collected by Hugh H. Logan, and two paratypes of the bat Phzlippin-
opterus lanei, presented by Dr. Edward H. Taylor.
To the collections of the division of birds, 2,259 bird skins, 1,011
anatomical specimens, and 1 egg from Panama and 198 skeletons from
Kenya were received through Dr. Alexander Wetmore; 642 skins, 128
skeletons, and 9 alcoholic specimens from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service; 198 skins from Formosa transferred from the U.S. Depart-
ment of the Navy, U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2, through
SECRETARY’S REPORT 29
Dr. Robert Ic. Kuntz; and a collection of wooden game-bird calls,
together with tape recordings demonstrating their use, from Dr.
Augusto Ruschi, director, Museu de Biologia Prof. Mello Leitao,
Brazil.
In the division of reptiles and amphibians, several additions to the
collections are noteworthy: a gift of 325 Colombian frogs, including
types and paratypes, from Brother Hermano Nicéforo Maria, Bogota,
Colombia; a gift of 162 reptiles and amphibians collected in Mexico
and Central America from Elkan J. Morris, Fairbanks, Alaska; 71
reptiles and amphibians obtained for the Museum in South America
and Panama by Dr. Charles O. Handley, Jr., and Francis M. Green-
well; 70 amphibians acquired for the Museum from South America
and Panama by Mrs. Doris H. Blake and Dr. Doris M. Cochran; an
exchange of 27 Colombian frogs with the Chicago Natural History
Museum; and an exchange of 21 Brazilian frogs with Werner C. A.
Bokermann, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Exchanges of specimens netted the division of fishes the major por-
tion of the current year’s new accessions. Received on exchange was
the holotype of a new Dascylus from D. Woifgang Klausewitz, Frank-
furt, Germany. Horace Loftin and Dr. R. W. Yerger sent, on ex-
change, 10,000 fresh-water fishes from the Canal Zone, Panama, col-
lected by Mr. Loftin. Other contributors of holotypes include Drs.
Giles W. Mead and Henry B. Bigelow, Museum of Comparative
Zoology, Harvard University; Dr. George S. Myers, Stanford Uni-
versity; and Loren P. Woods, Chicago Natural History Museum.
Among the contributors of paratypes were Dr. C. Richard Robins,
University of Miami, Marine Laboratory; Dr. Norman J. Wilimovsky,
University of British Columbia; Dr. Jacques R. Géry, Laboratoire
Arage, France; and Dr. José Alvarez del Villar, Instituto Politécnico
Nacional, Mexico.
The division of mollusks added a total of 23,967 specimens to its
collections. Dr. Joseph Rosewater of the Museum staff collected 1,194
marine and land mollusks on Eniwetok Atoll. Mr. and Mrs. Delmas
H. Nucker donated 699 specimens of marine mollusks from the Caro-
line Islands, and Dr. Tadashige Habe added 120 specimens, of which
28 are paratypes, of recently described mollusks from Japan. Holo-
types of molluscan species and subspecies were received from Dr. Raul
Guitart, Dr. Harry W. Wells, Messrs. Leslie Hubricht, Thomas L.
McGinty, and William G. Pearcy, and from the U.S. Fish and Wildlife
Service Laboratory, Pascagoula, Miss., through Harvey R. Bullis, Jr.
A total of 1,257 helminthological specimens, among which were many
types of new species, were added to the collection housed in the Para-
sitological Laboratory of the Animal Disease and Parasite Research
Branch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Md.
30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The division of marine invertebrates acquired a number of impor-
tant collections. Leslie Hubricht of Meridian, Miss., presented his
personal collection of 382,327 fresh-water invertebrates, containing
what is probably the largest and most valuable series of American
fresh-water isopod crustaceans ever assembled. A total of 33,177
specimens were received from the Fourth Smithsonian-Bredin Carib-
bean Expedition, 1960. Through Dr. Harry S. Ladd, the Paleon-
tology and Stratigraphy Branch of the U.S. Geological Survey con-
tributed 1,079 corals from the Marshall Islands, including 217 type
and figured specimens described by Dr. J. W. Wells in his comprehen-
sive monograph on Indo-Pacific reef corals. Through Dr. Arthur G.
Humes, Boston University donated 852 copepod and isopod crusta-
ceans. Approximately 974 isopod and 322 amphipod crustaceans were
received from the Beaudette Foundation for Biological Research,
through Dr. J. Laurens Barnard. Included in this group are 198
paratypes of 4 species of isopods described by Dr. Robert J. Menzies.
The U.S. Department of Agriculture, through Dr. William H.
Anderson, transferred to the division of insects the largest single
accession ever received: a collection of Coccidae (scale insects) con-
servatively estimated to contain 1 million specimens. Additional im-
portant accessions include the Harold E. Box collection of 5,000 Neo-
tropical cane-boring moths of the genus Diatraea; a donation of 8,000
North American butterflies and moths by Dr. George W. Rawson; the
J. C. Hopfinger collection of butterflies and moths; 6,741 specimens,
mostly Coleoptera, from William W. Pinch; 805 Brazilian insects from
Dr. C. M. Biezanko; 6,543 British Columbian insects from C. Garrett;
6,612 specimens from N. L. H. Krauss, who has been a devoted con-
tributor for many years; and 2,000 specimens from Guatemala from
Dr. Thomas H. Farr.
Noteworthy contributions to the collections by staff members in-
clude 900 specimens, mostly European centipedes, from Dr. Raiph EK.
Crabill, Jr.; 41,110 specimens collected in Puerto Rico, Virgin Islands,
and North America from Dr. Paul J. Spangler; 400 specimens of but-
terflies from the eastern United States from William D. Field; 1,192
miscellaneous insects, chiefly caddisflies, from Dr. Oliver S. Flint, Jr.;
7,826 specimens, mostly Microlepidoptera, from the northwestern
United States from Dr. J. F. Gates Clarke; and 285 specimens, chiefly
Orthoptera, from Dr. Ashley B. Gurney, U.S. Department of Agri-
culture. Others making important donations were Drs. Nell B.
Causey, G. E. Ball, W. L. Brown, Richard L. Hoffman, and Bernard
Feinstein.
Botany—A fine lot of 4,143 herbarium specimens and 480 wood
samples from Brazil, presented by Boris A. Krukoff, Smithtown,
N.Y., adds appreciably to the national collections. Among them
SECRETARY’S REPORT 31
was a group of woods from laticiferous plants on which anatomical
research was planned by Mr. Krukoff. Dr. José Cuatrecasas gave
3,200 specimens which he collected in Colombia. Other gifts included
620 excellent specimens of Pennsylvania plants from Muhlenberg Col-
lege, Allentown, Pa.; 850 cryptogams, mostly mosses, from Dr. F. J.
Hermann, Adelphi, Md.; and 504 specimens from the University of
Alaska.
Several large collections were received in exchange. A group of
845 slides of pollen of African plants was received from Duke Uni-
versity through Mrs. Shirlee Cavaliere and 765 slides from the Pan
American Petroleum Corp. of Tulsa, Okla., through Dr. Donald W.
Engelhardt. Gray Herbarium of Harvard University sent 1,037
specimens collected by Dr. L. J. Brass on the Fourth Archbold Expe-
dition to New Guinea. Other exchanges included 845 specimens of
Asia and eastern Europe from the V. L. Komarov Institute of Botany
of the Academy of Sciences, Leningrad, U.S.S.R.; 888 specimens
collected in Mexico by Dr. Faustino Miranda from the Instituto de
Biologia, Universidad Nacional de México; and 392 plants of Aus-
tralia from the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research
Organization, Melbourne.
Dr. John J. Wurdack collected for the Museum 9,258 specimens in
Peru; Dr. R.S. Cowan and Dr. Thomas R. Soderstrom, 3,370 specimens
in British Guiana; and Dr. William L. Stern, 439 specimens in Oregon,
Wyoming, and Colorado.
From the U.S. Geological Survey were transferred 801 specimens
collected on the Pacific islands by Dr. F. R. Fosberg; from the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service, 420 plants collected in Alaska by Frank
Beals; and from the Agricultural Research Service, Department of
Agriculture, 235 specimens collected in Iran and Mexico by Dr. How-
ard Scott Gentry. |
Geology.—A total of 3,885 specimens was received in the division
of mineralogy and petrology. Among the important gifts are a very
fine specimen of legrandite, Mapimi, Mexico, from Bernard T. Rocca,
Sr., and an exceptional specimen of fairfieldite, Kings Mountain, N.C.,
from Carter Hudgins. Outstanding among specimens received by
exchange was a collection of cerussite, azurite, and associated minerals
from Tsumeb, South West Africa; a crystal of vivianite, 31 inches
in length from the Cameroons; and a fine piece of malachite, from the
Congo. New species received in exchange were: calumetite, Michi-
gan; angelellite, Argentina; arsenate-belovite, fersmanite, gerasimov-
kite, kupletskite, lomonossovite, and vinogradovite, from the
U.S.S.R.; bafertisite, Inner Mongolia; bergenite, Kast Germany;
bonattite, Canada; carobbiite, Italy; cuprorivaite, Italy ; hydroames-
32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
ite, Hungary; reinerite, stranskite, and gallite, South West Africa ;
and schuetteite and wightmanite, California.
A total of 815 specimens was added to the Roebling collection by
purchase or by exchange. Among these are outstanding specimens of
wulfenite, calcite, and agate from Mexico. Gem specimens include
a 17-carat greenish-yellow brazilianite, from Brazil; a 30-carat cat’s-
eye cerussite, from South West Africa; and a 9.35-carat axinite from
Baja California, Mexico. Acquired by purchase through the Canfield
fund is a magnificent group of amethyst quartz crystals from Guer-
rero, Mexico. The largest crystal measures 4 by 18 inches, and each
is tipped by white quartz.
New acquisitions to the gem collection include a 2.86-carat deep-
pink diamond, Tanganyika, from S. Sydney De Young; a 235.5-carat
morganite, Brazil, from Mr. and Mrs. Frank Ix, Jr.; a 277.9-carat
citrine, Brazil, from Albert Cutter; and a 177-carat kunzite, Cali-
fornia, from the American Gem Society. Gem specimens acquired
by purchase through the Chamberlain fund for the Issac Lea collection
include a 17.5-carat pink tourmaline cat’s-eye and a 4,500-carat faceted
smoky quartz egg, both from California; and a 9-carat axinite, from
Baja California, Mexico.
During the year 20 meteorites were added to the collection, of which
11 were not previously represented. The Bogou meteorite was of
special interest. This 8.8-kilogram coarse octahedrite, which came
to the Museum through the generous cooperation of the Government
of Upper Volta and the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission, was ob-
served to fall in Upper Volta on August 14, 1962. It is being ex-
tensively studied in several laboratories because observed falls of iron
meteorites are extremely rare.
In the division of invertebrate paleontology and paleobotany, a
number of important collections of invertebrate fossils were acquired.
Among transfers of type specimens from the U.S. Geological Survey
were: 68 Permian pelecypods described by K. Ciriaks of Columbia
University; 869 specimens of Upper Cretaceous oysters from the
western interior; 40 Permian corals from Nevada with thin sections;
and 83 specimens and 87 thin sections of Middle Silurian corals from
Quebec, described by W. A. Oliver, Jr.
Funds from the Walcott bequest were used to purchase the Hughes
collection of Tertiary invertebrates from Florida, numbering more
than 50,000 specimens. The Walcott fund also provided means for
staff collections which included 4,000 Upper Cretaceous mollusks
from the western interior; 5,000 Tertiary invertebrates from Hamp-
ton, Va.; and 2,000 fossil echinoids from southwestern Florida. The
Springer fund made possible the purchase of 210 Triassic echinoids
and 72 Paleozoic echinoids from the western United States.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 33
Gifts from collectors outside the Smithsonian Institution include:
221 type specimens of planktonic Foraminifera from Recent bottom
sediments of the Pacific Ocean from Miss Frances Parker of the
Scripps Institution of Oceanography; 1,000 Upper Cretaceous mol-
lusks from Tennessee and Mississippi arranged by Margaret J. Hall
through Mid-South Earth Science Club; 6,000 Silurian brachiopods
from Czechoslovakia collected by Dr. A. J. Boucot of the California
Institute of Technology; 1384 type specimens of Foraminifera from
the Cretaceous Adelphia Marl of Arkansas from Dr. H. C. Skinner,
Tulane University; 500 specimens of Middle Devonian brachiopods
and corals from northern Ohio from Bernard Keith; 100 Early Devo-
nian invertebrates from Flute Cave, W. Va., from the Potomac Spele-
ological Club; 50 specimens of early Ordovician brachiopods from
Kielce, Poland, from Dr. R. B. Neuman; 23 rare and unusual Miocene
mollusks from Virginia from Mr. and Mrs. W. M. Rice; and 52 thin
sections of type Foraminifera from the Mississippian of southern
Illinois and Kentucky from Mrs. D. E. N. Zeller of the University
of Kansas.
Outstanding specimen exchanges brought 76 specimens of Pliocene
mollusks from the Scaldesian formation of Belgium, through Dr. S.
Amelinckx; 99 specimens of fossil invertebrates from Argentina
through Dr. A. J. Amos; 13 ammonites from the Cretaceous of Russia
through Dr. D. P. Naidin; and the Harris collection of type specimens
of fossil crinoids, from the University of Houston.
In the division of vertebrate paleontology, the major specimens of
fossil vertebrates accessioned this year consist of two skulls and a
skeleton of three different tetrapods from the Permian of Texas,
and two partial skeletons of Mississippian amphibians, probably new
to science, from West Virginia. The Texas material is of superior
quality and will be most useful in morphological work. These speci-
mens were collected by associate curator Nicholas Hotton IIT and
James Kitching of the University of the Witwatersrand, Johannes-
burg, South Africa.
A remarkably good collection comprising remains of a variety of
Eocene mammals found by W. L. Rohrer in the Big Horn Basin
of Wyoming was transferred from the U.S. Geological Survey. Note-
worthy are skull portions of the large pantodont Coryphodon, jaws
and maxillae of the early horse Hyracotheriwm and the lemuroid
primate Pelycodus, and the greater part of.a skull of a rare leptictid
insectivore.
Science and technology.—The division of physical sciences received
from the Bell Telephone Laboratories the apparatus used by Dr.
Clinton T. Davisson in his 1927 investigations of interference phe-
nomena in crystals irradiated by electrons, for which he received
34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
the Nobel prize in physics in 1936. Received also was a full-scale
reproduction of an observational armillary, one of the large astro-
nomical instruments used by Tycho Brache, from L. 8S. Eichner. A
sectioned model of a 1962 microscope showing its optical system was
given by the E. Leitz Co. A large collection representing the history
of the water meter was donated by A. A. Hirsch.
The division of mechanical and civil engineering received an im-
portant early (1905) example of steam turbine power, a Parsons
turbine with direct-connected direct-current generator. The machine
was presented by the Department of the Navy, San Francisco Naval
Shipyard, through Eduardo Magtoto, General Superintendent;
Varadero de Manila, Republic of the Philippines; and Rear Adm.
Charles A. Curtze. Of a number of bridge models received is one
of the famed bridge “Colossus.” The original was the longest timber
span for a century following its construction in 1812. The section of
tools received the Rogers Bond Comparator No. 2 from the Pratt &
Whitney Co. This was the first instrument in this country used to
transfer the length of a standard by microscopic measurement and to
subdivide it directly, converting line-standard to end-standard meas-
urement. The section of light machinery acquired, from the Amer-
ican Watchmakers Institute, the James Ward Packard collection of
complex watches.
Senator Leverett Saltonstall, Regent of the Smithsonian, presented
a piano-box buggy and a fine set of silver-mounted coach harnesses
to the section of land transportation. A beautifully restored and
fully documented farm wagon of 1860 was donated by Don H. Berke-
bile. The section of marine transportation acquired several fine ship
models, including a downeaster, the Hmily F. Whitney, and a Pitts-
burgh & Cincinnati steam packet, the Buckeye State.
The division of medical sciences lists as its most important acqui-
sition a 17th-century Lambeth Delft pill tile bearing the coats of arms
of the City of London and of the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries.
This was received through the generosity of Charles Pfizer & Co., Inc.
Other gifts include the first ionization X-ray condenser dosimeter,
developed and donated by Dr. Otto Glasser, and a Cambridge indi-
cator dye-dilution curve apparatus, from Dr. Alfred Henderson.
Through the generosity of Franklin Wingard, the division of elec-
tricity acquired a large collection of radio material which greatly
strengthens its holdings in this field.
Arts and manufactures—The division of textiles received an espe-
cially well-executed 19th-century appliqué and stuffed-work quilt from
Stewart Dickson. A very early silk throw, made for an ante-Civil
War bride, was presented by Commander and Mrs. James P.
Oliver, John P. Oliver, and their aunt, Mrs. Ruth P. Hall. A very fine
SECRETARY’S REPORT 35
Brussels needlepoint and bobbin appliqué lace collar and Gros Point
de Venice lace cape were presented by Mrs. Herbert May. An addi-
tional group of seven beautiful oriental rugs was presented by Mrs.
Clara W. Berwick. These included examples of wool and silk rugs,
which are in both the Sehna and Ghiodes knot techniques.
The division of ceramics and glass acquired, from Mrs. Ellouise
Baker Larsen, of Lima, Ohio, her entire collection of Staffordshire
ware. Consisting of about 900 pieces, this is the most important
assembly of these ceramics in America. Mrs. Larsen has spent more
than 30 years compiling data and gathering the representative pieces,
many of which are extremely rare. Hugh D. Auchincloss, McLean,
Va., donated five pieces of ancient glass illustrative of the high degree
of artistic skill of the glassmakers when Rome dominated the Mediter-
ranean. Dr. Hans Syz, Westport, Conn., presented another group
of 18th-century German porcelains including fine pieces from Meissen,
Hochet, Ludwigsburg, Nymphenburg, and Furstenberg.
An important accession of the division of graphic arts was the
color aquatint La Promenade Publique, by Philibert-Louis Debucourt,
generally considered to be the finest example of French color print-
ing of the last quarter of the 18th century. Other outstanding acces-
sions were a chiaroscuro woodcut, The Death of Ananias, after
Raphael, executed about 1530, by Ugo de Carpi, who is usually ac-
cepted as the first and most important Italian chiaroscuro woodcutter ;
and The Fountain of Trevi, one of the most desirable subjects from
Giovanni Battista Piranesi’s great series of etchings, Veduta di Roma,
published in 1765.
The eminent Hungarian artist Joseph Domjan, now an American
citizen, donated his highly original woodcuts Starlit Night, Peacock of
the Carnations, and Moon-Shine Peacock. Through its president,
Prentiss Taylor, the Society of Washington Printmakers presented
the color lithograph Black Fire, by Jack Perlmutter. Mr. Taylor, a
well-known Washington artist, also donated a print of his lithograph
La Presa-Marfil, together with the original preliminary drawing of
the subject, the transfer drawings, and the zinc plate used in printing.
The section of photography acquired some notable additions to its
historical collections as well as items representative of significant cur-
rent developments. The Eastman Kodak Co. presented a matchbox
camera developed during World War II for the Office of Strategic
Services, a 1922 cine-camera, Model-A, their first motion picture
camera, and several cutaway cameras illustrative of design changes.
Dr. Harold EK. Edgerton donated a pair of deep-sea stereo cameras
of his design. These were first used in 1954 by Capt. Jacques Yves
Cousteau and by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.
36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Noteworthy donations to the division of manufacturing and heavy
industries include a collection of more than 300 tinware items, cover-
ing the entire range of the 19th-century tinsmith’s art, from Kenneth
Jewett. President John F. Kennedy, through the U.S. Atomic Energy
Commission, transferred a cube of uranium fuel used by Enrico Fermi
in the world’s first controlled neutron chain reaction (December 2,
1942). Obtained from the Army Nuclear Power Program was a model
of the first land-based nuclear power plant (SM-1), the prototype of
small reactors being developed for the use of the U.S. Army in the
field, and the Oak Ridge National Laboratory provided a display show-
ing the method of fabrication of the fuel elements used therein. The
section of iron and steel was successful in locating the original Ajax-
Wyatt electric induction furnace which was transferred by the Ajax
Maenethermic Corp.
The division of agriculture and forest products received, from
Minneapolis-Moline, Inc., a 1918 Moline Universal Model D tractor
with a two-bottom plow attached. The tractor is notable for its use
of electrically operated accessories. Another historical item acquired
by the division is an 1869 portable steam engine, the first made by the
J. 1. Case Co. and donated by that firm.
Ciwil history—Among the important accessions received in the divi-
sion of political history is Mrs. John F. Kennedy’s gift of her inaugu-
ral-ball gown and cape, made of peau d’ange covered with several
layers of white silk chiffon. Mrs. Kennedy also presented her dress of
white ottoman silk worn at the inaugural gala on January 19, 1961.
Items of clothing worn by Presidents William Howard Taft, Theodore
Roosevelt, Calvin Coolidge, and Woodrow Wilson were presented by
harles R. Taft, Ralph E. Becker, John Coolidge, and the National
Trust for Historic Preservation, respectively. A handsomely bound
book presented to Theodore Roosevelt by the Faculty Club of the
University of California, Zhe Silva of California, was given by his
grandson, Cornelius Van S. Roosevelt. A number of items, including
a fan, a brown satin apron, and other articles of the clothing which
belonged to Dolley Madison, were donated by her great-great-great-
grandniece, Miss Barbara Donald. Mrs. Herbert A. May donated the
famous Napoleon diamond necklace presented by the Emperor to his
wife, the Empress Marie-Louise, on the occasion of the birth of their
son, the King of Rome.
To the collections of the division of cultural history were added
an important block-front tall clock from Rhode Island, a Philadelphia
“pie crust” table, and other significant items, donated by Mrs. Francis
P. Garvan. Mrs. Harry T. Peters and her children, Harry T. Peters,
Jr., and Mrs. Charles D. Webster, presented 11 large folio lithographs
by Currier and Ives and others, a valuable addition to the nearly 2,000
SECRETARY’S REPORT 37
prints given by this family. Mr. and Mrs. A. Philip Stockvis gave a
varied group which includes an American Chippendale armchair. For
the musical instruments collection, the Le Blane Corp. presented a
basset horn, contra-bass clarinet, bass clarinet, and two alto clarinets.
The division of philately and postal history added 178,626 specimens
to its collections. One of the most significant of the recent gifts came
from Bernard Peyton of Princeton, N.J., who presented a Confederate
States cover, to which is affixed a block of twelve 2-cent Jackson Con-
federate stamps. This is the largest known block of these stamps
on a cover. Funds donated by the Charles and Rosanna Batchelor
Memorial, Inc., made possible valuable additions to the Emma EF.
Batchelor Air Mail Collection.
The division of numismatics received significant contributions of
rare half dollars from R. E. Cox, Jr., of Fort Worth, Tex. Extensive
donations of the Messrs. Stack of New York City included original
drawings for U.S. patterns and medals, and Harvey Stack gave a
hitherto unknown variety of the extremely rare Indian Peace Medal
dated 1843, portraying President George Washington and distributed
by one of the fur-trading companies in the Missouri Territory. To
our holdings in modern coins the Honorable R. Henry Norweb of
Cleveland, Ohio, contributed a virtually complete collection of New-
foundland issues dating from 1865-1947. Willis H. du Pont of Wil-
mington, Del., added to his previous donations of Russian coins and
medals formerly owned by the Grand Duke Mikhailovitch a group of
778 coins struck during the reigns of Peter III and Catherine IT up
to 1774, and medals struck during the period from 1762-94. Mrs.
Wayte Raymond of New York City contributed 620 important modern
coins of the world, and Mrs. F. C. C. Boyd of New York City gave 572
Mexican coins comprising many issues of the Revolutionary Period.
Philip H. Chase of Wynnewood, Pa., donated a very rare album, The
Currency of the Confederate States of America, prepared by Raphael
P. Thian about 1880 and containing 286 notes and their descriptions.
Mr. and Mrs. Isadore Snyderman of New York City presented to the
Smithsonian a unique gold plaquette of 1906, made by Victor D. Bren-
ner in commemoration of the removal of the remains of John Paul
Jones from Paris to Annapolis in 1905.
Armed Forces history—The collections of the division of military
history were enriched by a unique Henry rifle once presented to
President Lincoln and given to the Museum by Robert Lincoln Beck-
with. The William De Laney Travis Civil War panorama “The Army
of the Cumberland” was received from C. C. Travis and Mrs. Hattie
Kidd. A fine group of decorations awarded to Capt. C. H. Hunting-
ton was presented by Mrs. Huntington. A rare Medal of Honor and
720-018—64—4
38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
associated Civil War medals awarded Lt. Edward B. Williston were
received from the Department of the Navy.
The division of naval history acquired, from Capt. P. V. H. Weems,
the Weems Memorial Library and its associated collection of naviga-
tional instruments illustrative of the progressive solution of problems
posed by aerial navigation from its earliest days. The collection in-
cludes a notably fine run of Bowditch’s The New American Practical
Navigator from the 1st to 15th editions. Also included are navigation
instruments used in the polar flights of Richard EK. Byrd and Lincoln
Ellsworth.
The division’s uniform collection has been greatly enhanced by the
gift of Mrs. Ernest J. King, widow of Fleet Adm. Ernest J. King,
which included a number of her late husband’s uniforms, orders, and
decorations.
Philip Wrigley presented rare and interesting naval uniforms
including the period of World War I, and an extensive collection of
contemporary naval uniforms was presented by the Department of
the Navy and Jacob Reed & Sons of Philadelphia.
The U.S. Coast Guard transferred a wide selection of objects per-
taining to the history of that service. These included items of
ordnance, two sets of gangway headboards, a first order catadioptric
lens, original drafts of a wide variety of lighthouse lenses, a lifeboat
and fully equipped beach cart, and, most important, eight extremely
handsome models of revenue cutters. Floyd D. Houston of New
Suffolk, N.Y., presented his finely executed model of the submarine
Holland, first submarine in the Navy.
Through the courtesy of M. E. Tucker and the government of
Bermuda, head curator Mendel L. Peterson and museum technician
Alan B. Albright collected a significant number of artifacts from
underwater sites in the Bermuda reefs. These included materials of
glass, ceramics, and metal from sites dating from 1595 through 1838.
EXPLORATION AND FIELDWORK
Dr. R. S. Cowan, assistant director of the Museum of Natural
History, conducted a 5-week expedition to Baja California, Mexico,
in February and March, primarily to collect data and materials for
constructing a desert-life group in the future hall of plant life. With
the assistance of modelmaker Paul Marchand and sculptor-artist
Vernon R. Rickman, fiber-glass models and plaster models were pre-
pared of several cacti and other plants characteristic of the desert.
Dr. Cowan also made a systematic collection of wood specimens, almost
half of which are new to the Smithsonian Institution wood collection.
During November and December, Dr. I. E. Wallen, assistant direc-
tor for oceanography, visited institutions specializing in marine
SECRETARY'S REPORT 39
sciences in England, Denmark, Sweden, Holland, France, Monaco,
and Italy. He obtained information which has been useful in the
planning of the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center. The
establishment and functioning of this Center constitute perhaps the
most important single accomplishment of the first year of the ocean-
ography program. At the close of the year Dr. Wallen was in Kast
Pakistan on a temporary assignment as visiting professor of zoology
for the Asia Foundation.
During September and October Dr. T. D. Stewart, then head
curator of anthropology (now director of the Museum of Natural
History), was in Baghdad, Iraq, reconstructing and studying the
remains of Neanderthal skeletons IV and VI recovered in Shanidar
Cave in 1960. The results of this year’s work, embodied in a manu-
script scheduled to be published in Sumer, the Journal of Archaeology
and History in Iraq, led Dr. Stewart to the conclusion that the
Shanidar Neanderthal population remained fairly homogeneous
throughout the estimated 15,000 years during which their skeletons
accumulated in the cave.
The investigation of the late Pleistocene bone bed near Littleton,
Colo., was underway again at the beginning of the year. Dr. Waldo
R. Wedel, then curator of archeology (now head curator of anthro-
pology), museum specialist George Metcalf, and exhibits specialist
Peter W. Bowman continued to work until late in August, by which
time some 2,400 square feet of deposits around an ancient spring had
been excavated to depths up to 11 feet and extensive additional collec-
tions made of mammoth, bison, and other mammal bones. Although
conclusive evidence of man’s association with the mammoth was not
obtained, a stratified section of the deposit and recovery of several key
artifact types in situ established man’s presence here at least as far
back as 7,000 years ago.
From January to March Dr. Saul H. Riesenberg, curator of eth-
nology; Dr. Clifford Evans, curator of archeology; and Dr. Betty
J. Meggers, honorary research associate, were on the island of Ponape
in the Caroline Islands of the Trust Territory in the Pacific studying
ancient megalithic structures and the traditions relating thereto.
Just off the eastern end of Ponape is a complex of artificial islets,
known as Nan Madol, on which are structures made of columnar basalt.
By using 25 workmen to clear the areas to be investigated, Drs. Evans
and Meggers were able to excavate and map eight distinct parts of the
complex. In the process they collected typical artifacts and a se-
quence of carbon samples which may yield reliable dates. The team
spent 6 weeks at the site, Dr. Riesenberg collecting the traditions
related to the structures and Drs. Evans and Meggers investigating
the archeological clues and interpretations provided by these traditions
40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
and, consequently, offering new leads for ethnological explorations.
As a result of this unusual approach, they concluded that orally trans-
mitted tradition has greater historical validity, at least in this area,
than is generally recognized by most anthropologists.
After finishing their work on Ponape, Drs. Evans and Meggers
went to Japan and Taiwan to consult with Japanese and Chinese
archeologists and to examine sites and collections of the Early-Middle
Jomon Culture of Japan in order to determine the relationship be-
tween that pottery complex and the pottery complexes relating to the
early Valdivia Culture of coastal Ecuador. The Valdivia Culture
has yielded the earliest dated pottery in the New World (5,000-4,050
years before the present, as determined by carbon-14 tests). Not only
is this pottery unexpectedly early for the New World, but also it indi-
cates no relationship with any known New World culture. Since
the Jomon pottery shows suprisingly similar features, and is of about
the same antiquity, the records obtained during this trip open up
many doors to research on the problem of transpacific movements of
early populations.
While in Japan, Drs. Evans and Meggers examined the collections
made by staff members of the University of Tokyo during two arche-
ological expeditions to the northern Andes of Peru. Here also the
pottery was found to bear directly upon some of the cultures of
Keuador. These rewarding contacts between American and Japanese
archeologists having mutual interests promise to open up a fruitful
era of cooperation.
Late in August Drs. Evans and Meggers, together with Dr. William
H. Crocker, associate curator of ethnology, attended the 35th Inter-
national Congress of Americanists in Mexico City, after which they
examined collections and sites in various parts of Mexico, giving par-
ticular attention to those in Yucatan.
Dr. Henry W. Setzer, associate curator of mammals, was engaged
during much of the year in organizing and supervising field parties
operating in Asia, Madagascar, and Mexico with the objective of mak-
ing collections of small mammals and their ectoparasites. Late in
August he went to London to study type and other specimens of
mammals in the British Museum (Natural History). After this he
spent brief periods with field parties in West Pakistan and along the
Afghanistan border in Iran, consulted with American officials in
Cairo, Egypt, and helped the Madagascar field party initiate work in
the vicinity of Ihosy. Another trip late in February and early in
March took him to Mexico, where he joined a field party on the
Mexican plateau.
Col. Robert Traub, who in January was appointed honorary re-
search associate, worked closely with Dr. Setzer in organizing and
SECRETARY’S REPORT 4]
participating in fieldwork in widely separated areas. During most
of September and October he collected small mammals and their
ectoparasites in West Pakistan, particularly in the Kagan Valley and
in the vicinity of Lahore and Sialkot. From there he went to north-
ern Thailand for 4 weeks. Then, late in February, he spent a month
in Mexico collecting in the States of Veracruz, Guerrero, México,
Nuevo Le6én, and Tamaulipas.
From January to April Dr. Charles O. Handley, Jr., associate
curator of mammals, with the assistance of Frank M. Greenwell of
the Smithsonian’s office of exhibits, continued his major project of
studying the mammals of Panama. The areas investigated this year
were the San Blas coast in extreme eastern Panama and the Bocas del
Toro Archipelago and adjacent mainland near the Costa Rican bound-
ary. The resulting mammal collection amounted to 1,914 specimens.
In order to study the relationship of birds to arthropod-borne
virus diseases, especially eastern equine encephalitis, Dr. Philip S.
Humphrey, curator of birds, collected extensively in the vicinity of
Belém and in Braganca, Brazil, from the end of January to the end
of April. In this work he had the cooperation of the Belém Virus
Laboratory, Fundacao Servico Especial de Satide Piblica, and the
Museu Paraense “Emilio Goeldi,” all of Belém. In addition to 986
skins and 1,035 anatomical specimens, he took over 1,100 liver and 788
blood samples. Since three or four different habitats are represented,
Dr. Humphrey hopes that the serological findings can be subjected to
ecological] analysis.
Field studies concerned with the birdlife of the Isthmus of Panama,
under Dr. Alexander Wetmore, honorary research associate and re-
tired Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, covered the period
from early in January to late in March. The first work of the season
centered on the white-winged dove colonies found last year in the ex-
tensive mangrove swamps along the lower Rio Pocri, below Aguadulce
in the Province of Colcé. These colonies were especially interesting,
since elsewhere the doves inhabit drier upland localities. Traveling
by dugout canoe along the river channels during these investigations,
Dr. Wetmore found also the rare rufous-crowned wood rail, Aramides
axillaris, known previously in Panama only from a few reports
around Almirante Bay on the Caribbean coast. In addition, he ob-
tained information on wintering dowitchers among the many sand-
pipers, and on gull-billed terns, all migrants from the north.
Late in January Dr. Wetmore was a guest on the small motor vessel
Pelican engaged in a study of the distribution of the spiny lobster, a
cooperative project between the Bureau of Commercial Fisheries of
the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and agencies concerned with as-
sistance to the Panamanian Government. Their route through the
42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Canal and along the Pacific coast to islands off western Chiriqui gave
opportunity for daily work ashore on Isla Parida and Isla Bolafios,
in continuation of the island survey of last year on the launch Barbara
Lf,
On his final fieldwork of the season Dr. Wetmore arranged a
charter flight on a small plane east to Puerto Obaldia on the San Blas
coast near the boundary with Colombia. After a few days’ work near
the town, he established a camp, in company with mammalogist Dr.
Charles O. Handley, Jr., in the high forest back of Armila, the east-
ernmost village of the Cuna Indians. Three pairs of the rare ant-
bird Xenornis setifrons, known previously from five specimens, were
special prizes here.
As last year, the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory of Panama provided
Dr. Wetmore with one of their technicians, Rudolfo Hinds, to serve
as field assistant.
Dr. Doris M. Cochran, curator of reptiles and amphibians, in com-
pany with entomologist Mrs. Doris H. Blake, honorary research
associate, was in South and Central America from the beginning of
December through February visiting museums and making collections.
The countries visited included Brazil (Brasilia, Rio de Janeiro, Sao
Paulo, Santos, and Curitiba) ; Argentina (Foz de Iguassu, Buenos
Aires, La Plata, Vila Bela); Peru (Lima, Pachacamac, Rio Blanco,
and Rio Rimac) ; Colombia (Cali, Palmyra, Bogota, and Medellin) ;
and the Canal Zone (Barro Colorado Island). As a result of the
information and specimens obtained, Dr. Cochran expects to complete
reports on the frogs of central Brazil and of Colombia, the latter in
collaboration with Dr. C. J. Goin of Gainesville, Fla.
Two associate curators of the division of fishes, Dr. Victor G.
Springer and Dr. William R. Taylor, participated in oceanographic
expeditions during the year. Dr. Springer was on the oceanographic
vessel Geronimo, operated by the Fish and Wildlife Service, when she
left Boston for West Africa on March 5. Unfortunately, 4 days later
the vessel malfunctioned and had to be towed into Bermuda for repairs,
but again departed for Africa on March 12. During the 3 days in
Bermuda Dr. Springer was able to make only night-light collections.
After leaving Bermuda the vessel again malfunctioned and had to be
towed back to port. Thereupon the cruise was canceled, and Dr.
Springer, after further attempts at shore collecting, left for Wash-
ington by air. In spite of limited collecting opportunities and un-
favorable weather conditions, he returned with about 300 specimens.
Dr. Taylor joined the Anton Bruun of the International Indian
Ocean Expedition when she left Bombay, India, early in March on
her first cruise designed to obtain physical data and biological material
from the Andaman Sea and Bay of Bengal. Malfunction of the
SECRETARY'S REPORT 43
electrical equipment, winches, etc., and difficulties in obtaining fresh
water caused changes in schedules and restricted the activities of the
biologists aboard. Asa result, Dr. Taylor late in April left the ship
at Vizagapatam. The collections obtained were limited to the An-
daman Sea and offshore areas west of Burma.
From early in March to late in May Dr. J. A. F. Garrick, research
associate in the division of fishes, visited several museums and other
institutions in Kurope and Africa primarily to examine type material
of the shark genus Carcharhinus for his revision of the group. He
also wished to obtain additional locality records and to ascertain if
any species had been overlooked or are not represented in the collections
of U.S. museums thus far seen. Dr. Garrick’s findings show that
much of the current nomenclature for the group is in error, particu-
larly in regard to species of the Indo-Pacific, based primarily on the
literature rather than on examination of types. As a result of this
fieldwork, locality records for many species were greatly extended, and
in several cases species thought to be restricted to one ocean were
found to occur in other oceans or to be worldwide in distribution. The
number of recorded species was increased by two. Because of the
value of vertebral counts in identifying shark species, Dr. Garrick
X-rayed critical specimens whenever possible. About 90 specimens
were soexamined. In this and all other respects he received the fullest
cooperation from the staffs of the institutions visited.
From the middle of July through August Dr. J. F. Gates Clarke,
curator of insects, conducted extensive field studies in Oregon and
Washington. While in Oregon he had the company of a colleague,
James Baker, of Burns, Oreg. From numerous stations set up for
collecting purposes at various altitudes, they obtained over 7,000
specimens, including many novelties, which eventually will contribute
much to our knowledge of the ecology and distribution of Microlepi-
doptera of the Pacific Northwest.
From the beginning of June until the end of September Dr. Ralph
EK. Crabill, Jr., associate curator of insects, conducted further studies
of myriapods, particularly in museums in Munich, Vienna, Hamburg,
Copenhagen, and London. He was able to locate and examine pre-
viously unknown material. He also spent a couple of weeks in the
Bavarian Alps collecting topotypical specimens of centipedes for the
national collections.
Since joining the staff as associate curator of the division of insects
this year, Dr. Paul J. Spangler, a specialist in aquatic beetles, has
made several collecting trips, the longest of which, December 15—Janu-
ary 26, took him to Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Although
the insect fauna from Puerto Rico is better known than that from other
Caribbean islands, he found numerous new records and new species
44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
and collected approximately 14,000 insects. Although this material
has as yet been examined only cursorily, 1 family (Isometopidae),
12 genera previously unknown from the island, and numerous new
species have been identified. The number of species of aquatic
beetles known from Puerto Rico has been increased from approxi-
mately 40 to 75, and larvae of about 35 of these have been established
by rearing or association. ‘The number of aquatic beetle species known
from the Virgin Islands has been tripled.
During 2 weeks in August Dr. Spangler collected also in South
Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana, concentrating in the numerous and
unusual habitats in Yellowstone National Park and vicinity. He col-
lected approximately 10,000 insects during this trip. Although this
material has not yet been thoroughly examined, several new species
of water beetles have been found. In several rare genera the number
of specimens present in the national collection has been doubled. In
addition, rare and undescribed larvae of several species have been
found and associated with their adults.
At the beginning and end of the year Dr. Spangler in company with
other members of the staff made day-long trips to collecting areas in
Maryland and West Virginia. A trip to the vicinity of Oakland in
Garrett County, Md., yielded several rare species for the first time
and one apparently new species.
Dr. Oliver S. Flint, Jr., associate curator of insects, continued his
research on caddisflies. This year his major collecting effort came
during the latter part of July when he went to Jamaica and again to
Puerto Rico. On the island of Jamaica he obtained well over 1,000
specimens of caddisflies belonging to about 20 species. Almost all
these species are new to science, and one represents a genus new to the
Antilles. The collection of nearly 5,000 specimens from Puerto Rico
included an undescribed caddisfly belonging to a genus unrecorded
from that island.
During the latter part of May, Dr. Flint, accompanied by William
D. Field, made a 12-day trip through the Jefferson and Monongahela
National Forests in Virginia and West Virginia to Bluestone State
Park in West Virginia. Little collecting of aquatic insects has been
done in this area.
A 12-day collecting trip for butterflies was made late in August by
William D. Field, associate curator of insects, along the Blue Ridge
Parkway in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee
to the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. The 392 specimens
obtained include species which contribute importantly to knowledge
of these insects. As mentioned above, Mr. Field also accompanied
Dr. Flint on a trip into the mountains of western Virginia and eastern
West Virginia in the vicinity of Lewisburg, W. Va. Here he found
SECRETARY'S REPORT 45
a specimen of Pieris virginiensis Edwards, one of the rarest of eastern
butterflies. Over 100 mature larvae of Huphydryas phaeton Drury
and a good series of Glaucopsyche lygdamus Dbldy., another early
spring rarity, also were collected.
During the latter part of August Dr. Donald R. Davis, associate
curator of insects, conducted studies on Microlepidoptera in the
Tenkiller Lake district of Oklahoma. As this is an area practically
unknown entomologically, these studies were particularly significant
in producing information on distribution, ecology, and new species.
Prior to this, in July, on a visit to the Dismal Swamp area of Virginia
in company with Dr. Flint, Dr. Davis collected 300 specimens of
Microlepidoptera, along with a sizable sample of leaf miners. Three
species of leaf miners were reared, and leaves mined by several addi-
tional species were collected.
Associate curator O. L. Cartwright, who in May accompanied Dr.
Spangler to the vicinity of Oakland in Garrett County, Md., collected
specimens of seven species of Scarabaeidae, including three rare
species, the basis for new Maryland State records, and one species
(nine specimens) apparently new to science.
During July Dr. Donald F. Squires, associate curator (now curator)
of marine invertebrates, was in New Zealand conferring with officers
of the New Zealand Oceanographic Institute regarding the identifica-
tion and study of deep-water coral banks, and with the New Zealand
Geological Survey staff regarding the occurrence of such banks as
fossils. At the Auckland Museum and Institute he studied recent
collections of corals, particularly those made by fisheries research
vessels. He also examined outcroppings of fossil deep-water coral
banks at two localities in Wairarapa.
In November, while participating in the annual meetings of the
Bahamas National Trust, Dr. Squires conducted preliminary explora-
tions, with other members of the Trust, of the reef tracts at Lyford
Cay, New Providence Island.
From late in March to early in May, Dr. Squires carried out field
work on R/V Chain of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, as
part of the international Equivalent I operation, in the area from
Recife, Brazil, to Trinidad and east to longitude 25° W. He collected
samples and made numerous bathymetric observations on the struc-
tures known as shelf-edge prominences off the Orinoco River Delta.
Also, he made collections of corals from 40 to 200 fathoms in the
vicinity of St. Paul’s Rock and in the approaches to Paramaribo,
Surinam.
Asa participant in the International Indian Ocean Expedition from
the middle of January to the middle of March, Charles E. Cutress, Jr.,
associate curator of marine invertebrates, visited the Indian Museum
46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
at Calcutta and studied sea anemones at Port Canning, the University
of Madras, the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute at Manda-
pam Camp, the Porto-Novo Marine Biological Station, and the Insti-
tute of Science of the University of Bombay. En route to India
Mr. Cutress examined anemone types at the British Museum (Natural
History) and, on the way home, studied and collected anemone mate-
rial at the Stazione Zoologica di Napoli. These studies will con-
tribute to the solution of major problems of long standing in the
classification of the sea anemones.
As biological consultant of the National Science Foundation, Dr.
Waldo L. Schmitt, honorary research associate, late in November
joined an expedition to the Palmer Peninsula, Antarctica, to survey
possible sites for a scientific station in that area. Delays in obtaining
transportation on an icebreaker afforded Dr. Schmitt the opportunity
to visit institutions and consult with biologists in New Zealand, par-
ticularly at Christchurch, and to visit the USARP McMurdo Station
on the shores of the Ross Sea ice shelf. He finally sailed on the U.S.S.
Staten Island on January 5. During the ensuing 21%4 months before
returning to the Museum, he examined 20 possible sites for a station
from the point of view of logistics, engineering problems, meteorolog-
ical conditions, and biological potential. At the same time he made
land, shore, and offshore collections by various means, including hook
and line, traps, tow nets, and dredges.
Continuing his work on the marine mollusks of the Indo-Pacific
region, Dr. Harald A. Rehder, curator of mollusks, collected on the
island of Tahiti from mid-January to mid-March. Here he con-
centrated efforts in the coastal area immediately to the east of Papeete
but also made several trips around the island, obtaining a good repre-
sentation of mollusks from numerous localities in almost all districts.
Dr. Rehder also gathered fresh-water mollusks at the mouths and
along the courses of the three principal streams that traverse the Dis-
tricts of Pirae, and examined the area for land snails. The results of
this trip will assist in planning for future fieldwork in the southern
Polynesian area.
In connection with his studies on the families Tridacnidae and
Littorinidae of the Indo-Pacific region, Dr. Joseph Rosewater, asso-
ciate curator of mollusks, spent 6 weeks during February and March
on Eniwetok Atoll in the Marshall Islands utilizing the excellent
facilities of the Eniwetok Marine Biological Laboratory of the Atomic
Energy Commission. Representatives of all four species of Tridac-
nidae living around the atoll were collected and maintained in the
laboratory. The brightly hued mantles of these specimens provided
valid distinguishing differences, and dissection of the animals yielded
additional valuable information regarding their anatomical distinc-
SECRETARY’S REPORT 47
tions. Although a spawning reaction was induced in two individuals
of one species by the introduction of the sex products of a third, no
development of possible fertilized eggs could be noted. It is theorized
that natural spawning in this group may occur during the warmer
summer months and that the event is initiated by the occurrence of a
particular water temperature. Similar studies were carried out on
specimens of Littorinidae.
In connection with her research on Leguminosae, Dr. Velva E.
Rudd, associate curator of phanerogams, joined a group of botanists
from the University of California and the University of Mexico dur-
ing December in a 10-day field trip in the region of San Blas, Mexico.
En route she spent 2 days in Mexico City at the Instituto de Biologia,
University of México, examining plant specimens. The collections
and field experience will be helpful in planning more intensive future
work in the area.
Dr. John J. Wurdack, associate curator of phanerogams, returned
in December from Peru where he had continued on the field trip
reported last year. Most of his collecting centered around Chacha-
poyas in the northern highlands, with the last few months spent along
the Rio Marafién from below Pongo de Rentema to Pongo de Man-
seriche in the tropical rainforest. Total specimens exceed 12,000.
Dr. Wurdack attributes much of the success of the trip to the help
received from the staff of the Museo de Historia Natural “Javier
Prado” in Lima, where one complete set of his specimens has bee
deposited.
Dr. Harold Robinson, associate curator of cryptogams, spent most
of May collecting bryophytes in Mexico. The work centered in the
Valle Nacional area of northern Oaxaca, with short visits to Chiapas
and Guerrero. Dr. Robinson estimates that about 300 specimens from
the collection will be retained.
Early in December, an algologist, Dr. Richard Norris, was added to
the staff as associate curator. He left Washington almost immediately
to join the first and some of the subsequent cruises of the Anton Bruun
of the International Indian Ocean Expedition.
While in Trinidad attending the Neotropical Botany Conference
early in July, Dr. William L. Stern, curator of plant anatomy, gath-
ered a small group of wood specimens from the northern part of the
island. In the latter part of August, while on his way to attend the
meetings of the American Institute of Biological Sciences in Corvallis,
Oreg., he collected wood specimens in the Rocky Mountains of Colo-
rado and in the Cascade and Coast Ranges of Oregon.
During February and March, Dr. Stern, accompanied by two other
members of his division, Dr. Richard H. Eyde, associate curator, and
Edward S. Ayensu, research assistant, conducted fieldwork in Pan-
48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
ama, collecting not only specimens of fossil woods but also conven-
tional herbarium specimens and associated wood samples in the fossil
localities for comparison with the fossil flora. An abundance of fossil
woods was found on the Azuero Peninsula, particularly in the environs
of the village of Oct. Two other localities for fossil woods, both
on the isthmus proper, were discovered, one near the town of La Mesa
and the other near Colorado, a tiny settlement southwest of Calobre.
Petrifactions from the two new areas superficially resemble those
from Oct.
Dr. G. A. Cooper, head curator of geology, in company with Drs.
Thomas G. Gibson and Druid Wilson of the U.S. Geological Survey,
in October visited a fossil site near Hampton, Va., known as Rice’s
Pit. Although this has become a very popular place for collecting,
Dr. Cooper and his party obtained some good material, especially of
the smaller fossils. Mr. and Mrs. William M. Rice, who own the pit,
and Mrs. George Webb, a neighbor, donated examples of the rarer
species.
For a month beginning late in April, Dr. Cooper was occupied
in a revisionary study of the stratigraphy of the Glass Mountains
in the vicinity of Marathon, Tex. He was assisted by Dr. Richard
Grant, of the U.S. Geological Survey, and John L. Carter, museum
technician. The trip took them to a number of places not heretofore
visited by geologists and accessible only with great difficulty. The
objective was to verify new views on Glass Mountains stratigraphy
which had been developed as a result of work done on the brachiopods
therefrom.
Dr. Cooper and his party spent a day at the end of May in the
Chinati Mountains south of Marfa, Tex., looking for certain types
of fossils reported to occur in that locality. From here they went
to Van Horn, Tex., which they used as a base for forays into the
Sierra Diablo, Guadalupe, and Apache Mountains.
Early in September, Edward P. Henderson, associate curator of
mineralogy and petrology, and Roy S. Clarke, Jr., analytical chemist,
attended an informal conference in the British Museum (Natural His-
tory) on methods of chemical analysis of meteorites. Before and after
the meeting they inspected the museum’s collections of meteorites and
tektites and conferred with staff members about problems of organiza-
tion, equipment, and scientific procedure.
In the Netherlands, Messrs. Henderson and Clarke visited the Uni-
versity of Utrecht and Prof. G. H. R. von Koenigswald, who has one
of the world’s finest tektite collections. Arrangements were made with
him for an exchange. In Mainz, Germany, they discussed mutual
problems with the staff of the Max Planck Institute. Dr. H. Wiinke
of the institute showed them a new shipment of tektites from which
SECRETARY’S REPORT 49
he generously proffered a selection of interesting and unusual speci-
mens. A visit also was made to the University of Heidelberg.
Mr. Clarke then returned home by way of England, stopping again
at the British Museum, while Mr. Henderson continued on to Copen-
hagen, where he studied the meteorite collection in the Danish National
Museum and arranged to exchange Philippine tektites for much-
needed moldavites. He also spent 2 days with Dr. Vagn Buchwald,
metallurgist with the Laboratory of Metals in Copenhagen, who is
working on some specimens that were described from Smithsonian
collections.
Back in England early in October, Mr. Henderson visited Dr. H. J.
Axon of the department of metallurgy, University of Manchester, who
also is working on specimens that have been studied in our laboratory.
Next, he called on the York firm of Cooke, Troughton & Simms which
made the metallograph used in our laboratory. Besides giving Mr.
Henderson expert advice on the care and use of the instrument, mem-
bers of the firm offered to make pictures of one of the meteorites he
had with him.
A collecting party from the division of invertebrate paleontology,
consisting of Dr. R. S. Boardman, curator; Dr. F. M. Hueber, asso-
ciate curator; Dr. J. Utgaard, research associate; and F. J. Collier,
museum specialist, went to western New York State for 3 weeks late
in May. Following a reconnaissance of the Hamilton strata in the
Cayuga Lake region, Drs. Boardman and Utgaard and Mr. Collier
went on to Lockport, leaving Dr. Hueber at Cornell University to
study paleobotanical collections housed there. In the Lockport area
they obtained large numbers of Silurian Bryozoa which will enable
reevaluation and statistical analysis of many species. Dr. Hueber
rejoined the group at Batavia, where detailed collecting of the Hamil-
ton strata was undertaken. As the party moved eastward to the Fin-
ger Lakes region, they made extensive collections of Bryozoa from
many localities at several stratigraphic intervals. A few fossil plant
specimens were obtained which are considered especially important in
taxonomic and morphologic interpretations. After Dr. Boardman re-
turned to Washington, the rest of the party continued the stratigraphic
reconnaissance and detailed collecting eastward to the Ithaca area.
The entire trip resulted in approximately half a ton of specimens,
most of which fall into groups previously poorly represented in the
collections.
Late in October, Dr. Richard Cifelli, associate curator of inverte-
brate paleontology, obtained material for his study of the distribution
of planktonic Foraminifera in the North Atlantic during the 2-week
cruise of the R/V Crawford from Woods Hole, Mass. He collected
50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
28 plankton samples on a track from Cape Cod to the vicinity of Puerto
Rico to Bermuda.
For another scientific cruise beginning late in March, Dr. Cifelli
joined the R/V Chain at Recife, Brazil, as a participant in the Inter-
national Tropical Atlantic Ocean Expedition. Of particular interest
to Dr. Cifelli were the nearly 100 plankton hauls collected which he
will examine for Foraminifera in connection with his long-range pro-
gram to study the relationship between the distribution of surficial
planktonic Foraminifera and oceanic circulation in the North At-
lantic. Also of importance for the study of Foraminifera were the
12 piston long-cores and numerous bottom sediment samples collected
from the abyssal plain, continental slope, Orinoco shelf, and the Gulf
of Paria.
In June and July Dr. Erle G. Kauffman, associate curator of inver-
tebrate paleontology, and F. J. Collier, museum specialist, spent 6
weeks completing a biostratigraphic study of the lower Colorado group
along the Front Range of the Colorado Rockies, tracing faunal zones,
refining the zonation by use of ammonites and pelecypods, and tracing
disconformities and facies change. They were able to tie in 60 detailed
stratigraphic sections along the Front Range and to correlate them
with others in northern New Mexico and southern Wyoming, as well
as with others in the intermontane parks of the middle Rockies. Ap-
proximately 4,000 specimens were collected, predominantly pelecypods
and ammonites.
While studying at the U.S. Geological Survey offices in Denver,
Colo., during October, Dr. Kauffman spent two weekends in the vicinity
of Colorado Springs collecting from previously measured Upper Cre-
taceous sediments. This resulted in the addition of approximately
300 well-preserved pelecypods and ammonites to the collections.
A number of short excursions to the Upper Cretaceous outcrops of
Maryland were undertaken by Dr. Kauffman and Dr. Norman Sohl,
of the U.S. Geological Survey, as part of a continuing restudy of this
rich but incompletely known fauna. Large collections from near
Brightseat, Md., include many species, particularly gastropods, never
before reported in the Middle Atlantic Coast Cretaceous.
Late in August Dr. Nicholas Hotton ITI, associate curator of ver-
tebrate paleontology, and James W. Kitching, research associate on
leave from the Bernice Price Institute in Johannesburg, South Africa,
journeyed to the Appalachian Mountains in search of field occurrences
of middle and late Paleozoic vertebrate-bearing deposits. In quarries
of the Greer Limestone Co., at Greer, W. Va., they collected
partial skeletons, including one skull, of at least two amphibians from
outcrops of the Greenbriar limestone (Mississippian). While in this
area they examined beds above and below the Greenbriar outcrop
SECRETARY'S REPORT 51
along the valley of Stranger Creek but found no fossils. A Greenbriar
quarry at Terra Alta, W. Va., also yielded no results, but one at Fair-
chance, Pa., yielded scraps of fossil fishes.
On September 6, Dr. Hotton, Mr. Kitching, and Gerald R. Paulson,
museum technician, went to Chalk Point, in nearby Maryland, to col-
lect the skeleton of a whale discovered during excavation for a facility
of the Potomac Electric Power Co. The deposits at Chalk Point are
assigned to the Calvert formation, of late Miocene age. The specimen
turned out to be a squalodont whale that was about 15 feet long during
life; the amount of wear shown by the teeth indicates that the indi-
vidual was very old when it died. As recovered, the specimen consists
of a large part of the lower jaw, a number of vertebrae, ribs, loose
teeth, a scapula, and a complete flipper in good articulation. The find
is significant as a locality record, and anatomically because of the
excellent preservation of the flipper. The degree of wear on the teeth
is interesting from the viewpoint of function.
Dr. Hotton and Mr. Kitching conducted October fieldwork in sev-
eral western States and in a variety of formations ranging in age from
Permian to Oligocene. These include the White River Oligocene and
Pierre Cretaceous of South Dakota and Wyoming; the Permian,
Triassic, and Paleocene of New Mexico; and the Permian and Trias-
sic of Texas. The most spectacular result of the trip was the dis-
covery of an untouched pocket of vertebrates in the lower Permian
along West Coffee Creek, Baylor County, Tex., which yielded four
complete skeletons and five additional skulls of various amphibians
and reptiles, plus a considerable amount of material of an as yet
undetermined nature. These specimens represent a good portion of
the fauna of the lower Permian of the United States. Most of them
have been forwarded to the Bernard Price Institute for Paleontolog-
ical Research, in Johannesburg, South Africa, in partial reciprocity
for the excellent Beaufort material from South Africa that Mr.
Kitching’s help and the good offices of the institute enabled Dr. Hot-
ton to collect.
Howard I. Chapelle, curator of transportation in the Museum of
History and Technology, made brief trips to Madrid and Barcelona,
Spain, during December and May to examine the construction of a full-
size replica of Columbus’s flagship Santa Maria and to check the prog-
ress of a scale model to be donated to the Smithsonian. The research
for this project of reconstruction has been carried on by Captain de
Corbita J. M. Marinez-Hidalgo, S.N., director of the Maritime Mu-
seum in Barcelona, who previously had done similar research on a
Spanish galley of the post-Lepanto period and for a caravel, specifical-
ly the Pinta. The Maritime Museum is located in an ancient galley
yard built before the battle of Lepanto (1571). The original stone
02 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
galley slips and sheds remain and are restored and utilized for mu-
seum halls. Interestingly, the launching ends of the slips are now
about a block from the water.
On his way to attend the 18th International Congress of the History
of Medicine, held in Warsaw and Krakow, Poland, during September,
Dr. Sami Hamarneh, acting curator of medical sciences, sought in-
formation in his fields of interest through visits to the British Mu-
seum, the Wellcome Medical Library and Museum, the British
Pharmaceutical Society, and a number of institutions in Poland.
In order to collect further data on the life of Frederick Carder, the
Englishman who came to America early in this century and estab-
lished the Steuben Glass Works, Paul V. Gardner, curator of ceramics
and glass, made several visits to Corning, N.Y., where Mr. Carder is
living, and to various institutions where examples of Carder’s work
are preserved.
From mid-August to mid-October Jacob Kainen, curator of graphic
arts, was in Europe gathering material for an exhibition on typog-
raphy and doing research for his study of the Dutch engraver
Hendrick Goltzius (1558-1617). He obtained typographical material
from Monotype House, Ltd., London, and consulted with technicians
and historians in London, Haarlem, and Brussels. Also he conducted
research in various museums in London, Amsterdam, Rotterdam,
Utrecht, Brussels, Paris, Venice, Florence, Rome, Milan, Parma, and
Madrid.
John N. Pearce, assistant curator of cultural history, with Richard
J. Muzzrole, archeological aide, in October, participated in a 10-day
archeological investigation of the site of John Frederick Amelung’s
“New Bremen Glass Manufactory.” This, the first major glassmaking
enterprise in the American Republic, was operated between 1785 and
1795 in Frederick County, Md. The excavations were sponsored by
the Corning Museum of Glass with the collaboration of the Smith-
sonian Institution. Ivor Noél Hume, honorary research curator, who
is chief archeologist of Colonial Williamsburg, Inc., was director of
excavations, and Paul N. Perrot, director of the Corning Museum, was
executive director of the project. With the evidence of structures and
artifacts thus far revealed, it 1s expected that the results will con-
tribute significantly to knowledge of 18th-century glassmaking in
America as well as yielding particular information about this influen-
tial primary source of American glassmaking skills.
In November and again in December Mr. Pearce worked with mem-
bers of the Maryland Archeological Society in excavations on the
Morgan pottery site in Baltimore, a site which dates from the late
colonial period. ‘They were fortunate to find in one pit a layer rich
with pottery sherds (possibly a working floor) between the undis-
SECRETARY'S REPORT 53
turbed subsoil and a sealing layer of relatively clean sand, presumably
fill. Very few pottery fragments other than those of local stoneware
were found in the test-hole portion of this layer, but all of those which
were found were datable as within the period of operation of the
pottery (1794-1837).
Mr. Pearce and Mr. Muzzrole also conducted archeological excava-
tions during May on the site of the early 18th-century City Tavern
building in Annapolis. In locating the major foundation they identi-
fied four (possibly five) periods of building and found builder’s
trenches of about 1780 containing cultural materials which after study
will make quite accurate dating possible.
At the beginning of the year, through the courtesy of E. B. Tucker
and the government of Bermuda, Mendel L. Peterson, head curator of
Armed Forces history, and Alan B. Albright, museum technician,
collected a number of significant artifacts from underwater sites in
the Bermuda reefs dating from 1595 through 1838. The earliest site
yielded a rare pewter porringer. The site of the San Antonio, a
Spanish ship which sank in 1621, yielded more ordnance materials and
traces of trade goods. The site of the Hagle, a Virginia Company
ship which went down in 1658, produced clay pipes, a soapstone bullet
mold, and a solid iron shot for the ship’s main battery. The site of
L’Herminie, a French frigate which sank in 1838, was extensively
explored, and from it were collected glass and unmarked porcelain
from the wardroom services and a collection of perfect bottles, in-
cluding those for brandy, wine, oil, and clarified olive oil, with the
seal of the merchant.
Frank A. Taylor, director, attended the Sixth General Conference
of the International Council of Museums at The Hague, July 2-11,
1963, where he was elected president of the International Committee
of ICOM for Museums of Science and Technology. He visited mu-
seums in Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Holland, and England.
EXHIBITIONS
Highlights in the exhibits program during the year were the re-
opening of three large halls of modernized exhibits in the Museum of
Natural History and the beginning of the installation of exhibits in
the new Museum of History and Technology. With the opening of
the second hall of North American archeology, the hall of life in the
sea, and the hall of dinosaurs and fossil reptiles, all but three of the
galleries on the first floor of the Museum of Natural History have now
been modernized. At the end of the year installation of exhibits in
four halls of the new Museum of History and Technology began
while the construction of exhibits continued. Exhibit units for 15 of
the halls in the new museum were prepared.
720-018—64—_5
54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The new hall of North American archeology includes 38 modernized
displays. An introductory section of several units explains the ob-
jectives and dating methods of systematic archeology; most of the
rest of the hall is devoted to displays of the cultures of Indian groups
in various regions of the United States. Curator Waldo R. Wedel
prepared the scripts and selected the specimens for this hall with the
expert assistance of Dr. C. G. Holland and Dr. W. A. Ritchie. The
hall was designed by Ray Hayes and Mrs. Barbara Craig.
Plans for the layout of the new hall of Old World archeology were
completed by associate curator Gus Van Beek and exhibits designer
R. O. Hower. This gallery will present a synopsis of Old World cul-
tural history from earliest times to the end of the Roman Era.
Contract renovation for the new hall of physical anthropology began
on March 30. Exhibits designer Joseph Shannon and director T. D.
Stewart, while still head curator of the department of anthropology,
completed the plan for the new hall layout and the arrangement of
cases. Dr. Stewart prepared detailed scripts for 14 of the exhibits and
Dr. Angel completed the specifications for a large map of the peoples
of the world.
The new hall entitled “Life in the Sea” was officially opened to the
public in February. The most impressive single exhibit here is the
life-size blue whale prepared under the direction of Dr. Remington
Kellogg, recently retired Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution. Other mammals depicted include the sea otter, several
kinds of porpoises, and five other species of whales. A group of six
jellyfishes and comb-jellies is shown by means of eight superimposed
reverse-carved sheets of Plexiglas; side lighting provides very life-
like qualities. A central alcove in the hall will eventually display
deep-sea views, but an exceptionally fine temporary exhibit now oc-
cupies this space. In each of the openings in the alcove, shells are
presented in a gemlike display which attracts much favorable atten-
tion. Among the other temporary installations is an exhibit of 137
species of mollusks found in Polynesia, the Eastern Pacific region,
and along our Atlantic coast. This and the other temporary exhibits
in the hall will be replaced as rapidly as the permanent exhibit ma-
terials can be installed. The hall has been developed under the direc-
tion of Dr. Fenner A. Chace, Jr., in cooperation with exhibits de-
signers Thomas Baker, Chris Karras, and Gorman Bond.
Construction in the halls of comparative osteology and cold-blooded
vertebrates was virtually completed at the end of the year. Most of
the bird and small-mammal skeletons to be exhibited in the hall of
osteology were cleaned and restored by Leonard Blush of the taxi-
dermy staff. Dr. Leonard P. Schultz is directing the development of
the hall of cold-blooded vertebrates, and scripts for more than half
SECRETARY'S REPORT 55
of the units have been prepared. Several casts of fishes were repaired,
and one cast of a record-size 12-foot white sturgeon was produced by
John Widener for the case on ancient fishes. This cast was prepared
from a specimen obtained through the cooperation of Dr. Murray A.
Newman, curator of the Vancouver Public Aquarium,
All curators in the department of zoology participated in the plan-
ning and development of a temporary exhibit entitled “Zoology in
the Smithsonian Institution” for viewing during the XVI Interna-
tional Congress of Zoology, meeting in Washington during August
1963.
A detailed statement of the purpose and scale for each unit in the
future hall of plant life was prepared as a basis for more precise
planning of the exhibits in this large gallery. Specifications for
models in the rainforest life group were prepared and some of the
models made. Early in 1963 a field party spent 5 weeks in the desert
of Baja California, Mexico, collecting data and materials for the
construction of a desert life group. Dr. R. S. Cowan, assistant di-
rector for the Museum of Natural History, led the party and served
as technical adviser and photographer; Paul Marchand and Vernon R.
Rickman worked together to prepare models, molds, sketches, and
other exhibit items. The work of the field party was greatly facili-
tated by the use of the Vermilion Sea Field Station maintained on
the east coast of the peninsula by the San Diego Natural History
Museum.
The large modernized hall of dinosaurs and other fossil reptiles was
opened to the public in June. The dominance of the dinosaurs in the
terrestrial fauna of the Age of Reptiles is illustrated by displays rep-
resenting all major groups of dinosaurs. Examples range in size
from one which had an arm bone 6 feet long to a tiny beast with a
thigh bone smaller than that of a chicken. Many of the specimens
were collected during the early U.S. Geological Survey explorations
associated with the opening of the West between 1870 and 1895. Also
displayed in this hall are reptiles from which mammals evolved.
These animals apparently were never abundant in the United States,
and the exhibited fossils were collected recently in South Africa.
The displays of fossil reptiles are related to exhibits of fossil inverte-
brates, fishes, and mammals in adjoining halls, so that the visitor can
follow the history of life from its earliest traces almost to the present.
Dr. Nicholas Hotton ITI, associate curator of vertebrate paleontology,
planned the exhibits for the hall with the assistance of exhibits de-
signers Ann Karras and Barbara Craig. Preparation has begun on
four dioramas for exhibit on the balcony in the hall of dinosaurs.
Using the scale of 1 inch to 1 foot, Jay N. Matternes and Norman
Deaton will prepare these dioramas to depict land vertebrates of the
56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Upper Triassic, the Upper Jurassic, and the Upper Cretaceous, and
the sea vertebrates of the Upper Cretaceous. Mr. Matternes com-
pleted the third mural painting, for the age of mammals hall, which
depicts terrestrial life during the Oligocene in North America. Speci-
fications were prepared for the fourth mural in the hall which will
represent animal assemblages in the Pliocene Epoch.
Eight new exhibits to be displayed in the halls of medicine, den-
tistry, and pharmacy in the new Museum of History and Technology
were temporarily installed in the gallery of medical sciences in the
Arts and Industries Building; these include units on the develop-
ment of the microscope, medical and dental equipment, and crude
drugs. Exhibits planned or prepared to portray various phases of the
history of medicine include a diorama showing the performance of
an operation in about the year 1805, the corner of a ward in the Mas-
sachusetts General Hospital as it appeared in 1875, and a dental office
in Illinois during the period 1912-20. Most of the units have now been
designed and produced for these halls under the direction of Dr, Sami
K. Hamarneh.
Exhibits for the hall of tools, planned by curator Silvio A. Bedini
in cooperation with exhibits designer Harry Hart, neared completion
in the exhibits laboratory. Displays of the handtools of the black-
smith, cooper, wheelwright, pump log maker, and woodworking trades
were in the designing stage. In mid-June artist R. McGill Mackall
of Baltimore installed the first unit in the new hall of tools—a large
background painting showing skilled workmen fabricating marine
propellers. An exhibit of a mid-19th-century machine shop was
moved to the new building and will be erected early in the summer.
The production of exhibits for the civil-engineering hall neared
completion with the construction of a series of wooden arches illustrat-
ing the American, Austrian, and English systems of tunnel timbering.
The Bethelhem Steel Co. fabricated especially for this hall a cast-
iron tunnel segment 10 feet in diameter, such as is used for lining
tunnels through soft soil. The technical direction of this hall is
the responsibility of associate curator Robert M. Vogel, with exhibits
designers John Brown and Harry Hart providing the design of in-
dividual exhibits.
Tn preparation for developing the exhibits in the future hall of elec-
tricity, associate curator Bernard Finn made a study of the electrical
exhibits in the museums of Europe. Substantial progress was made
in the design of exhibits in the first third of the hall, devoted to wired
communications and power.
At the end of the year, the Pioneer locomotive of 1851 joined the
historic engines, coaches, and streetcars now assembled in the railroad
hall in the new Museum of History and Technology. These large,
SECRETARY’S REPORT 57
full-scale exhibits will be complemented by a series of models and
specimens of equipment which will trace the history of railroads and
street railways in the United States. Associate curator John H. White
and exhibits designer Virginia Mahoney collaborated in the develop-
ment and design of this hall.
Curator Paul V. Gardner is revising his plans for the hall of ce-
ramics in order to include important specimens received during the
year. Recently acquired 18th-century German and English porce-
lains, from several donors, were placed on exhibition in the Museum
of Natural History.
The American Petroleum Institute continued to render valuable
assistance in the planning of exhibits for the new hall of petroleum.
A model of the first fluid catalytic cracking plant, which began opera-
tion at Baton Rouge, La., in May 1942 to produce high-octane gasoline
for the United States and its allies in World War II, was placed on
exhibit in the present petroleum hall.
The 50th anniversary of the establishment of the collection of dresses
of the First Ladies of the White House was marked by the instal-
lation of the Inaugural Ball gown and cape of Mrs. John F. Kennedy.
The project of making the mannequins of the First Ladies appear more
lifelike has continued. The application of natural flesh tints to the
features of more than half of the group has been completed.
Exhibits for the hall of historic Americans, planned by curator
Wilcomb E. Washburn in cooperation with exhibits designer Robert
Widder, were nearing completion at the end of the year. Assistant
curator Anne W. Murray continued to direct the fitting of historic
women’s dresses and men’s suits on the mannequins to be exhibited in
the hall of American costume. <A series of 4 introductory panels has
been designed and 15 exhibits completed for this hall.
The exhibits in the cultural history hall in the Museum of Natural
History were dismantled for transfer to the new Museum of History
and Technology. The woodwork and fireplaces of the period rooms
were carefully disassembled and moved to the new building. Twenty-
five exhibits have been produced for the new hall of everday life in
the American past, among them a series of units illustrating the
influences upon early American home furnishings of cultural ele-
ments imported by Spanish, French, British, Dutch, Flemish, Ger-
man, and Scandinavian settlers. Installation of this hall is under
the direction of curator C. Malcolm Watkins, and exhibits chief John
K. Anglim designed the exhibits with the assistance of Deborah
Bretzfelder.
A difficult operation was successfully accomplished with the re-
moval of Horatio Greenough’s statue of George Washington from the
chapel of the Smithsonian Building to the central corridor of the
58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
second floor of the Museum of History and Technology, where it
stands at the entrance to the series of halls which will interpret the
growth of the United States. Exhibits scripts for three of the five
halls illustrating this growth were prepared by associate curator Peter
Welsh in collaboration with Dr. Anthony N. B. Garvan, chairman of
the Department of American Civilization, University of Pennsylvania.
Exhibits designers Robert Widder and Nadya Kayaloff prepared de-
tailed designs for many of the units in the two halls of this series.
George Watson restored an 18-century Pennsylvania waterwheel and
gear-train which will illustrate the ingenuity and skill of the colonial
millwright and demonstrate the use and transmission of power in his
time.
The production of exhibits for the hall of philately was begun,
and 18 units have been completed. Associate curator Francis J.
McCall and assistant curator Carl H. Scheele prepared the scripts
for several series of exhibits in the hall devoted to the history of
postal services in this country and abroad, methods of postal trans-
portation, mail metering devices, and the design and production of
U.S. stamps. Exhibits designer John Clendening is preparing the
detailed layouts for these units.
The history of the Armed Forces of the United States in war and
peace is the subject of a series of exhibits in the new Museum of His-
tory and Technology; curator of military history Edgar M. Howell,
curator of naval history Philip K. Lundeberg, and associate curator
of naval history Melvin H. Jackson continued to write scripts and
provide technical supervision for the design and production of these
exhibits. A striking series of models of militarily historic ships
was produced during the year. Other exhibits produced depict the
role of the Army in the Mexican War, in frontier service during the
middle 19th century, and in the Civil War, and the service of the
Navy in the Mexican and Civil Wars. Exhibits designer Fred Craig
designed the units for these halls.
Design and production of exhibit units for the hall of ordnance
are largely completed. Associate curator Craddock H. Goins sup-
plied technical direction for the exhibits, the design of which was
contributed by exhibits designer John Brown. Among these is in-
cluded an interpretation of the interchangeable-parts system of man-
ufacturing, a significant development in the history of firearms.
Other units trace the development of naval artillery and naval guns
and relate the history of tanks and armored warfare. Dr. Lundeberg
prepared detailed specifications for those units concerned with the
original Continental gunboat Philadelphia, which include original
items of equipment recovered with the gunboat itself from the waters
of Lake Champlain and graphic materials which help to explain
SECRETARY'S REPORT 59
the battle of Valcour Island on October 11, 1776, in which this gun-
boat participated.
Mr. Howell continued supervision of the preparation of the Star-
Spangled Banner for exhibition in the central rotunda of the new
building. Skilled seamstresses have sewed tapes to the flag backing
to support this great national treasure in its new location.
Following his appointment to the directorship of the Museum of
Natural History, Dr. T. Dale Stewart assumed the chairmanship
of the committee coordinating and supervising the modernization of
exhibits in natural history; he also continued planning and develop-
ment of the new hall of physical anthropology. In addition to plan-
ning for the future hall of plant life, Dr. R. S. Cowan, assistant
director, coordinated the work of the curators and the exhibits staff
involved in preparing exhibits for the Museum of Natural History.
Exhibits chief John KE. Anglim continued in charge of the planning
and preparation of al] exhibits and directly supervised the operation
of the exhibit laboratory in the Natural History Building. In June,
A. Gilbert Wright joined the staff of that laboratory to assist in its
supervision. Julius Tretick supervised the production and installation
of natural history exhibits.
The installation of exhibits in four halls of the Museum of History
and Technology was initiated late in the year. Exhibit units were
prepared for 15 of the halls in the new museum during the past year,
and 2 other halls were in the design stage. Assistant director John
C. Ewers continued to coordinate the work of curators and exhibits
staffs for the new museum. Benjamin W. Lawless supervised the
design and production of exhibits for this museum, as well as the
preparation of additional displays for the Air and Space Building.
He was assisted by Bela 8. Bory in production, Robert Klinger in
the model shop, and Robert Widder in design. Carroll Lusk entered
on duty as exhibits lighting specialist in January. The editing of
the curators’ drafts of exhibits scripts was continued by George
Weiner, with the assistance of Constance Minkin and Edna Wright.
DOCENT SERVICE
For the ninth consecutive year the Junior League of Washington
continued its volunteer docent program, conducting school classes
from the greater Washington area through the Smithsonian museums.
The program was carried out through the cooperation of curator G.
Carrol Lindsay, Smithsonian Museum Service, with Mrs. Vernon
Knight, chairman of the League’s decent committee, and Mrs. Dickson
R. Loos, cochairman. Mrs. Loos will serve as chairman for the
forthcoming year, with Mrs. Arnold B. McKinnon as cochairman.
60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
During the 1962-68 school year 22,393 children were conducted
on 783 tours, representing an increase of 8 percent over the previous
year’s participation. Since the beginning of the tour program in
1955, more than 100,000 schoolchildren have been guided through
Smithsonian museum halls by the Junior League docents.
Tours were conducted in the halls of everyday life in America,
Indians of the Americas, the world of mammals, and textiles, for
grades 3 through 6; and in the halls of gems and minerals, and power
machinery, for grades 5 through junior high school. Tours in the
everyday life in early America hall stopped at the end of November so
that the exhibit could be moved to the new Museum of History and
Technology. The Junior League has guided approximately 22,500
schoolchildren through this hall since it opened in 1957. 'To replace
the early America tour, a new tour through the hall of the world of
mammals was offered beginning January 14, 1963. Four tours each
day, 5 days a week, were offered every half hour from 10 through 11 :30
a.m. in the halls of everyday life in early America, Indians of the
Americas, and the world of mammals. Tours in the halls of gems and
minerals, textiles, and power machinery were conducted on Monday
through Friday at 10 and 11 a.m.
Tours were conducted from October 1, 1962, through May 28, 1963,
with the exception of the month of April 1963, when, as usual, tours
were suspended because of the exceedingly heavy visitor traffic in all
museum halls during the Easter and cherryblossom seasons. The
great number of visitors to the Smithsonian museums during the early
spring so overcrowd the exhibition halls that the school tours cannot
be conducted satisfactorily.
In addition to Mrs. Knight and Mrs. Loos, the members of the
League’s docent committee were:
Mrs. A. Stuart Baldwin, Mrs. Thad H. Brown, Jr., Mrs. Challen E. Caskie, Mrs.
Thomas R. Cate, Mrs. Dean B. Cowie, Mrs, Henry M. deButts, Mrs. Lee M. Folger,
Mrs. Rockwood Foster, Mrs. Clark Gearhart, Mrs. George Gerber, Mrs. Gilbert
Grosvenor, Mrs. Robert H. Harwood, Mrs. Walter M. Johnson, Jr., Mrs. Charles
J. Kelly, Jr., Mrs. Lansing Lamont, Mrs. J. H. Lasley, Mrs. Peter Macdonald,
Mrs. John Manfuso, Jr., Mrs. Samuel D. Marsh, Mrs. Earnest May, Mrs. Alex-
ander McClure, Mrs. Robert McCormick, Mrs. Arnold B. McKinnon, Mrs. H.
Roemer McPhee, Jr., Mrs. William Minshall, Jr., Mrs. L. Edgar Prina, Mrs. Arthur
W. Robinson, Mrs. Donald M. Rogers, Mrs. Robert E. Rogers, Mrs. W. James
Sears, Mrs. Walter Slowinski, Mrs. Joseph Smith, Jr., Mrs. James H. Stallings,
Jr., Mrs. ®. Tilman Stirling, Mrs. William R. Stratton, Mrs. Richard Wallis, and
Mrs. Mark A. White.
The Institution deeply appreciates the able and devoted efforts of
these volunteers, whose services to the schools of the Washington area
encourage effective use of the Smithsonian museum exhibits by teach-
ers and students alike.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 61
BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT
During the year the new east wing of the Natural History Building
was completed, and the department of geology and the divisions of
birds and mollusks moved into their new quarters. For the first time
in many years these units have adequate workrooms and laboratories
as well as sufficient space in which to arrange the systematic reference
collections for the most effective service to the scientists who employ
these unduplicated materials in essential research. The contract for
the construction of the west wing and the remaining required renova-
tion of the existing building had not been awarded at the close of the
year.
In May 1963, the General Services Administration accepted a lim-
ited area of the new Museum of History and Technology Building
from the general contractor. Exhibits for a number of halls in this
area have been moved to the building, and at the end of the year
installations were proceeding in several halls concurrently. At the
close of the year the construction of the building was estimated to be
98 percent complete.
CHANGES IN ORGANIZATION AND STAFF
Upon the retirement of Dr. A. Remington Kellogg on October 31,
1962, as director of the United States National Museum and as As-
sistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Dr. Albert C. Smith,
then director of the Museum of Natural History, was appointed As-
sistant Secretary. Frank A. Taylor became the director of the United
States National Museum in addition to being director of the Museum
of History and Technology.
On March 26, 1963, Mr. Taylor received one of the 10 National Civil
Service League’s career service awards for 1963.
On November 1, 1962, Dr. T. Dale Stewart, head curator of an-
thropology, became director of the Museum of Natural History. On
December 9, 1962, Dr. Richard S. Cowan was appointed assistant di-
rector of the Museum of Natural History. Dr. I. E. Wallen, formerly
associated with the Atomic Energy Commission, was appointed assist-
ant director for oceanography on August 5, 1962.
During the fiscal year 1963, the following appointments were made
to the scientific staff of the Museum of Natural History: Dr. Paul J.
Spangler, associate curator of insects, on July 8; George E. Watson,
assistant curator of birds, on August 6; Dr. Donald Duckworth, asso-
ciate curator of insects, on August 19; Dr. Victor G. Springer, associ-
ate curator of fishes, on August 28; Dr. J. Lawrence Angel, curator of
physical anthropology, on September 4; Stanywn G. Shetler, assistant
curator of phanerogams, on September 4; Dr. Harold E. Robinson,
associate curator of cryptogams, on October 15; Dr. Richard H. Eyde,
62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
associate curator of plant anatomy, on October 18; Dr. Francis M.
Hueber, associate curator of invertebrate paleontology and paleo-
botany, on November 1; Dr. Richard EK. Norris, associate curator of
cryptogams, on December 4; Dr. Stanley H. Weitzman, associate cura-
tor of fishes, on January 2; Dr. Robert H. Gibbs, Jr., associate curator
of fishes, on January 30; Dr. Marian H. Pettibone, associate curator
of marine invertebrates, on March 4; Dr. Martin A. Buzas, associ-
ate curator of invertebrate paleontology and paleobotany, on June 5;
Dr. Herman A. Fehlmann, supervisor of the Smithsonian Oceano-
graphic Sorting Center, on June 17; Dr. Raymond B. Manning, as-
sociate curator of marine invertebrates, on June 24.
Dr. David H. Dunkle was reinstated ‘n his position of associate
curator of vertebrate paleontology on December 16, 1962, after an
absence of 2 years with the U.S. Geological Survey on assignment to
Pakistan.
Dr. Marshall T. Newman, associate curator of physical anthropology
since 1942, resigned on July 6, 1962, to accept a teaching position at
Portland State College in Oregon.
Dr. Robert E. Snodgrass, honorary collaborator since 1953 and one
of the world’s leading scholars in insect anatomy and morphology,
died September 4, 1962, at the age of 87. At the time of his death he
was preparing a handbook of insect morphology for students. His
major work, Principles of Insect Morphology, published in 1935,
stands as a basic text in the field. On the occasion of his 84th birthday
in 1959 a special volume of the Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections,
entitled Studies in Invertebrate Morphology, was published in his
honor. In 1961 he was awarded the Leidy Medal by the Academy of
Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Among the additions to the staff of the Museum of History and
Technology were the appointments of Dr. Bernard S. Finn as asso-
ciate curator in charge of the division of electricity on August 20,
1962, and J. Jefferson Miller IT as assistant curator in the division
of ceramics and glass on September 17, 1962. Miss Barbara F. Bode
was appointed junior curator in the division of numismatics on Sep-
tember 24, 1962. A. Gilbert Wright became assistant chief of the
Natural History Exhibits Laboratory on June 2, 1963, coming to the
Smithsonian Institution from the National Park Service.
George T. Turner, associate curator in the division of philately, left
the Museum of History and Technology on March 1, 1968, and Dr.
Charles O. Houston, Jr., associate curator in the division of manufac-
tures and heavy industries, on March 8. Dr. Lester C. Lewis, curator
of the division of physical sciences, resigned on April 12,1963. Joseph
FE. Rudmann of the office of head curator, department of science and
SECRETARY’S REPORT 63
technology, transferred to a position elsewhere, effective May 10,
1963.
Respectfully submitted.
Frank A. Taytor, Director.
Dr. Leonard CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on the
International Exchange Service
Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities
of the International Exchange Service for the fiscal year ended June
30, 1963:
The original plan of organization of the Smithsonian Institution,
presented to the Board of Regents by Joseph Henry in 1847, provided
for a system of exchange of current Smithsonian publications which
would afford the Smithsonian Institution the most ready means of en-
tering into friendly relations and correspondence with all the learned
societies in the world and of enriching the Smithsonian Library with
the current transactions and proceedings of foreign institutions.
When the first of the Smithsonian’s long series of scientific publica-
tions was published, copies were sent to scientific and learned institu-
tions in foreign countries. In return, the Smithsonian Institution
received many valuable publications from foreign institutions. To
continue this desirable international exchange of scientific informa-
tion, the Smithsonian Institution appointed agents in a number of
foreign countries to distribute the Smithsonian publications. In re-
turn, these agents received publications from foreign organizations
which were forwarded to the Smithsonian Institution.
In 1851 the privilege of transmitting publications through the
Smithsonian Institution to other countries, and to receive in return
publications from foreign institutions, was offered to governmental
agencies, learned societies, and individuals in the United States. This
opportunity for wide distribution of scientific publications was eagerly
grasped and the system grew rapidly. Thus began a Smithsonian
service that has increased steadily in usefulness, and the quantity of
material handled has increased from a few hundred packages of pub-
lications transmitted in 1849 to more than a million packages during
the last fiscal year.
In 1867 Congress provided that copies of all documents thereafter
printed by order of either House be placed at the disposal of the Joint
Committee on the Library to be exchanged through the agency of
the Smithsonian Institution. This was the first official recognition
of the Smithsonian exchange system. In 1875 there began a series of
international meetings which led to the adoption, in 1886, of the Brus-
sels Convention for the international exchange of literary and scientific
64
SECRETARY'S REPORT 65
publications, as well as for the exchange of governmental documents.
The State Department requested the Smithsonian Institution to assume
the responsibility of establishing in the United States a bureau of
exchange to carry out the purposes of the Brussels Convention. ‘The
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution agreed to accept this
responsibility, and the Smithsonian Institution has continued to carry
out these functions up to the present time.
The work of the International Exchange Service serves as a means
of developing and executing, in part, the broad and comprehensive
objective of the Smithsonian Institution, “the diffusion of knowledge.”
Over the years the operations of the Service have affected most bene-
ficially the libraries of all learned institutions in the United States
and have helped to promote the rapid growth of science through facili-
tating the international exchange of ideas. Libraries throughout the
world have been enriched by the publications received through the
Service from many institutions in the United States and, in turn, the
libraries of the United States have benefited from the publications
received from the institutions in foreign countries.
The Service operates in this manner: Libraries, scientific societies,
educational institutions, and individuals in the United States who wish
to transmit their publications through the Service to foreign countries,
on exchange or as gifts, advise the International Exchange Service
of the names and addresses of the foreign organizations to which
they wish to transmit their publications, and the general character and
approximate weight of the publications they wish to send. If the
publications are accepted for transmission, packing and shipping in-
structions are furnished the sender. The transportation charges to
the Smithsonian Institution must be prepaid, but there is no charge
to the sender for the cost of transportation from the Smithsonian In-
stitution to the intended addressees. Publications transmitted through
the Service must be packaged and addressed by the senders.
Shipments of addressed packages of publications are received by the
International Exchange Service from foreign exchange bureaus for
distribution in the United States. These packages are forwarded to
the domestic addressees whose names and addresses appear on the
packages. Addressed packages of publications weighing 111,609
pounds were received during the past year from foreign sources for
distribution in the United States.
Publications weighing 796,622 pounds were received by the Inter-
national Exchange Service during the year from approximately 250
domestic sources for transmission to intended recipients in over 100
foreign countries.
Packages of publications are mailed directly to the addressees in the
countries that do not have exchange bureaus. During the past fiscal
66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
year the International Exchange Service mailed directly to the in-
tended recipients in foreign countries addressed packages of publica-
tions weighing 225,689 pounds, or 28 percent of the total poundage
received, at a cost to the Smithsonian Institution of $51,604.18, or ap-
proximately 23 cents per pound.
The Service transmitted by ocean freight addressed packages of
publications weighing 562,301 pounds, or 71 percent of the total pound-
age received, to foreign exchange bureaus for distribution in their re-
spective countries. The cost to the Smithsonian Institution for
forwarding these publications was $33,848.44, or approximately 6 cents
per pound. Listed below are the names of the foreign exchange bu-
reaus to which the International Exchange Service forwards addressed
packages of publications for distribution.
LIST OF EXCHANGE SERVICES
Austria: Austrian National Library, Vienna.
Betcium: Service des changes Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale de Bel-
gique, Bruxelles.
Cuina: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bureau of International Exchanges, University Library,
Prague.
DENMARK: Institut Danois des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale,
Copenhagen.
Eeyrt: Government Press, Publications Office, Bulaq, Cairo.
FINLAND: Library of the Scientific Societies, Helsinki.
FRANCE: Service des Hchanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.
GERMANY (Eastern) : Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin.
GERMANY (Western): Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bad Godesberg.
Huncary: Service Hongrois des Echanges Internationaux, Orszigos Széchenyi
Konyvtar, Budapest.
Inpra: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Bombay.
InpongEsIA : Minister of Education, Djakarta.
IsrRaeL: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem.
IraLy: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione,
Rome.
JAPAN: Division for Interlibrary Services, National Diet Library, Tokyo-
Korea: Korean Library Association, Seoul.
NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li-
brary, The Hague.
New Soutu WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.
New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington.
Norway: Service Norvégien des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque de 1’Uni-
versité Royale, Oslo.
Puiirrines: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila.
PoLAND: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale,
Warsaw.
PortucaL: Servico Portugués de Trocas Internacionais, Biblioteca Nacional,
Lisbon.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 67
QUEENSLAND: Bureau of International Exchange of Publications, Chief Secre-
tary’s Office, Brisbane.
RuMANIA: International Exchange Service, Biblioteca Centrala de Stat, Bu-
charest.
South AusTRALIA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern-
ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide.
Spain: Junta de Intercambio y Adquisicién de Libros y Revistas para Bibliote-
cas Publicas, Ministerio de Educacién Nacional, Madrid.
SweEpEN : Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm.
SwirTzeERLAND: Service Suisse des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen-
trale Fédérale, Berne.
TASMANTA: Secretary of the Premier, Hobart.
TuRKEY : National Library, Ankara.
UNIon or SoutH Arrica: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape
Town.
UNIon oF Soviet SocraList RePustics: Bureau of Book Exchange, State Lenin
Library, Moscow.
Vicororta: State Library of Victoria, Melbourne.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: State Library, Perth.
Yueostavia : Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.
FOREIGN EXCHANGE OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS
Tn accordance with treaty stipulations, conventions, and other agree-
ments made between the United States and various foreign countries
for the mutual exchange of official publications, the Smithsonian Insti-
tution transmits to the foreign recipients the official U.S. Govern-
ment publications. The libraries that receive copies of all of the
official publications are the recipients of the full sets of Government
documents. The libraries that receive a selected list are the recipients
of the partial sets of Government documents. During the fiscal year
632,922 pieces weighing 220,700 pounds were received by the Smith-
sonian Institution for transmission to the recipients of the full sets,
and 74,951 pieces weighing 34,834 pounds were received for transmis-
sion to the recipients of the partial sets.
RECIPIENTS OF THE FULL SETS
ARGENTINA: Divisién Biblioteca, Ministerio de Relaciones Hxteriores y Culto,
Buenos Aires.
AUSTRALIA : Commonwealth National Library, Canberra.
New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney.
QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane.
SoutH AUSTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide.
TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart.
Victorta: State Library of Victoria, Melbourne.
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: State Library, Perth.
Austria: Administrative Library, Federal Chancellery, Vienna.
Betarum: Service Belge des changes Internationaux, Bruxelles.’
Brazi.: Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro.
BurMa: Government Book Depot, Rangoon.
See footnotes, p. 72.
68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
CanapDA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa.
Maniropa: Provincial Library, Winnipeg.
OnTARIO: Legislative Library, Toronto.
QUEBEC: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec.
SASKATCHEWAN : Legislative Library, Regina.’
CryLon: Department of Information, Government of Ceylon, Colombo.
CuILeE: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago.
Cuina: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan.
National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan.
CoLoMBIA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota.
CosTA RICA: Biblioteca Nacional, San José.
CusBa: Direccion de Organismos Internacionales, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex-
teriores, Habana.
CZECHOSLOVAKIA: University Library, Prague.
DENMARK: Institut Danois des Hchanges Internationaux, Copenhagen.
Heyer: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo.
FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsinki.
FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris.
GERMANY : Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin.
Free University of Berlin, Berlin-Dahlem.
Parliamentary Library, Bonn.
GREAT BRITAIN:
British Museum, London.
London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the
London County Council.)
InpIA: National Library, Calcutta.
Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi.
Parliament Library, New Delhi.
INDONESIA : Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Djakarta.
IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin.
IsRAEL: State Archives and Library, Hakirya, Jerusalem.
ITaLy: Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Rome.
JAPAN: National Diet Library, Tokyo.’
Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Departamento de Informacién
para el Extranjero, México, D.F.
NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague.
NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington.
Norway: Utenriksdepartmentets Bibliothek, Oslo.
Prru: Seccidn de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex-
teriores, Lima.
PHILIPPINES: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila.
PorTUGAL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon.
Spain: Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid.
Swepen: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm.
SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne.
TURKEY: National Library, Ankara.
UNION oF SoutH Arrica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal.
UNION or Soviet SocraList Repusiics: All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow.
UNITED Nations: Library of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland.
Uruauay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo.
VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas.
YUGOSLAVIA: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.”
See footnotes, p. 72.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 69
RECIPIENTS OF THE PARTIAL SETS
AFGHANISTAN: Library of the Afghan Academy, Kabul.
BELGIUM: Bibliotheque Royale, Bruxelles.
BoriviA: Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, La Paz.
Brazit: Minas GERAIS: Departmento Estadul de Hstatistica, Belo Horizonte.
BritIsH GuIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara.
CaMBopIA: Les Archives et Bibliotheque Nationale, Phnom-Penh.*
CANADA:
ALBERTA: Provincial Library, Edmonton.
British CoLUMBIA: Provincial Library, Victoria.
New Brunswick: Legislative Library, Fredericton.
NEWFOUNDLAND: Department of Provincial Affairs, St. John’s.
Nova Scorra: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax.
DoMINICAN REPUBLIC: Biblioteca de la Universidad de Santo Domingo, Santo
Domingo.
Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito.
EL SALVADOR:
Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador.
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador.
GREECE: National Library, Athens.
GUATEMALA: Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala.
Harti: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince.
HONDURAS:
Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa.
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Tegucigalpa.
IcELAND: National Library, Reykjavik.
INDIA:
BomBay: Sachivalaya Central Library, Bombay.*
BrHAR: Revenue Department, Patna.
KERALA: Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivandrum.
UTTAR PRADESH :
University of Allahabad, Allahabad.
Secretariat Library, Lucknow.
WEST BENGAL: Library, West Bengal Legislative Secretariat, Assembly
House, Calcutta.
IRAN: Imperial Ministry of Hducation, Tehran.
Iraq: Public Library, Baghdad.
JAMAICA:
Colonial Secretary, Kingston.
University College of the West Indies, St. Andrew.
LEBANON: American University of Beirut, Beirut.
LieertA: Department of State, Monrovia.
MatayaA: Federal Secretariat, Federation of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur.
Matra: Minister for the Treasury, Valletta.
NICARAGUA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua.
PAKISTAN: Central Secretariat Library, Karachi.
PANAMA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panama.
PARAGUAY: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Seccién Biblioteca, Asuncion.
PHILIPPINES: House of Representatives, Manila.
Scortanp: National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh.
See footnotes, p. 72.
720-018—64——_6
70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
SrinGapore: Chief Secretary, Government Offices, Singapore.
Supan: Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum.
THAILAND: National Library, Bangkok.
VIETNAM: Direction des Archives et Bibliothéques Nationales, Saigon.
INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNALS
There are being sent abroad through the International Exchange
Service 87 copies of the daily issues of the Federal Register and 105
copies of the daily issues of the Congressional Record. The names and
addresses of the recipients of the official journals are listed below:
RECIPIENTS OF THE CONGRESSIONAL RECORD AND FEDERAL REGISTER
ARGENTINA :
Biblioteca del Poder Judicial, Mendoza.®
Direccién General del Boletin Oficial e Imprentas, Buenos Aires.
Camara de Diputados Oficina de Informacién Parliamentaria, Buenos Aires.
AUSTRALIA :
Commonwealth National Library, Canberra.
New SoutH WaAtss: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney.
QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane.
Viotorta: State Library of Victoria, Melbourne.®
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth.
BASUTOLAND: Clerk to the Legislative Council, Maseru.’ ‘
BELGIUM, Bibliothéque du Parlement, Palais de la Nation, Brussels.‘
BRAZIL: :
Biblioteca da Camara dos Deputados, Brasilia, D.F.*
Secretaria da Presidencia, Rio de Janeiro.
BRITISH HonpurAs: Colonial Secretary, Belize.
CambBopr1a : Ministry of Information, Phnom Penh.
CAMEROON: Imprimerie Nationale, Yaoundé.'5
CANADA:
Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa.
Library of Parliament, Ottawa.
CryLon : Ceylon Ministry of Defense and External Affairs, Colombo.‘
CHILE: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago.’
CHINA:
Legislative Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan.*
Taiwan Provincial Government, Taipei, Taiwan.
CUBA:
Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana.
Biblioteca Piblica Panamericana, Habana.’
CZECHOSLOVAKIA : Ceskoslovenska Akademie Ved. Prague.*
Eeypt: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egyptian Government, Cairo.‘
FINLAND: Library of the Parliament, Helsinki.‘
FRANCE:
Bibliothéque Assemblée Nationale, Paris.
Bibliothéque Conseil de la République, Paris.
Library, Organization for Huropean Economie Cooperation, Paris.‘
Research Department, Council of Hurope, Strasbourg.‘
Service de la Documentation Etrangére Assemblée Nationale, Paris.
Ganson: Secretary General, Assemblée Nationale, Libreville.’ *
See footnotes, p. 72.
SECRETARY’S REPORT vi
GERMANY:
Amerika Institut der Universitit Miinchen, Miinchen.*
Archiy, Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn.
Bibliothek des Instituts ftir Weltwirtschaft an der Universitit Kiel,
Kiel-Wik.
Bibliothek Hessischer Landtag, Wiesbaden.‘
Deutsches Institut fiir Rechtswissenschaft, Potsdam-Babelsberg II.*
Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn.‘
Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn.‘
Hamburgisches Welt-Wirtschafts-Archiv, Hamburg.
Westdeutsche Bibliothek, Marburg, Hessen.‘ °
GHANA: Chief Secretary’s Office, Accra.*
GREAT BRITAIN:
Department of Printed Books, British Museum, London.
House of Commons Library, London.‘
N.P.P. Warehouse, H.M. Stationery Office, London.*°®
Printed Library of the Foreign Office, London.‘
Royal Institute of International Affairs, London.‘
GREECE: Bibliothéque Chambre des Députés, Hellénique, Athens,
GUATEMALA : Biblioteca de la Asamblea Legislativa, Guatemala.
Hartt: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince.
Honpuras: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa.
Huneary: Orszigos Széchenyi Konyvtar, Budapest.
INDIA:
Civil Secretariat Library, Lucknow, United Provinces.®
Indian Council of World Affairs, New Delhi.‘
Jammu and Kashmir Constituent Assembly, Srinagar.‘
Legislative Assembly, Government of Assam, Shillong.‘
Legislative Assembly Library, Lucknow, United Provinces.
Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivandrum.‘
Madras State Legislature, Madras.‘
Parliament Library, New Delhi.
Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona.‘
IRELAND: Dail Hireann, Dublin.
IsRAEL: Library of the Knesset, Jerusalem.
IPPATEY: ©
Biblioteca Camera dei Deputati, Rome.
Biblioteca del Senato della Republica, Rome.
International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, Rome.®
Periodicals Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
Rome.®
JAPAN:
Library of the National Diet, Tokyo.
Ministry of Finance, Tokyo.
JORDAN: Parliament of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Amman.‘
Korea: Library, National Assembly, Seoul.
LuxemMsBoure: Assemblée Commune de la C.0.C.A., Luxembourg.
Mexico:
Direccién. General Informacién, Secretaria de Governacién, Mexico, D.F.
Biblioteca Benjamin Franklin, México, D.F.
AGUASCALIENTES: Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes.
Baga CALiIroRNIA: Gobernador del Distrito Norte, Mexicali.
CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche, Campeche.
See footnotes, p. 72.
72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Mexico—Continued
CHIAPAS: Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez.
CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua.
CoAHUILA: Periéddico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno,
Saltillo.
CortiMa: Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima.
GUANAJUATO: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato.®
JALISCO: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara.
México: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca.
MicHoacANn: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoac4n,
Morelia.
Moretos: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca.
NAYARIT: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic.
Nuevo Lr6n: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey.
Oaxaca: Periddico Oficial, Palacio de Gobierno, Oaxaca®
PuEBLA: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla.
QUERETARO: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién de Archivo, Querétaro.
SInALOA: Gobernador del Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacaén.
Sonora: Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo.
TAMAULIPAS: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria.
VERACRUZ: Gobernador del Estado de Veracruz, Departamento de Gober-
naci6n y Justicia, Jalapa.
YucatAn: Gobernador del Estado de Yucatan, Mérida.
NETHERLANDS: Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.®
NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington.
NIGERIA : Office of the Clerk of the Legislature, Enugu." *
Norway: Library of the Norwegian Parliament, Oslo.
PAKISTAN : Secretary, Provincial Assembly West Pakistan, Lahore.* ‘
PANAMA: Biblioteca Nacional, Panama City.*
PHILIPPINES : House of Representatives, Manila.
POLAND: Kancelaria Rady Panstwa, Biblioteka Sejmowa, Warsaw.
PorTUGUESE Timor: Reparticio Central de Administracio Civil, Dili.®
RHODESIA AND NYASALAND: Federal Assembly, Salisbury.°
RuMANIA: Biblioteca Centrala de Stat RPR, Bucharest.
Spain : Boletin Oficial del Estado, Presidencia del Gobierno, Madrid®
SWEDEN : Universitetsbiblioteket, Uppsala.*
SWITZERLAND:
International Labour Office, Geneva.*”
Library, United Nations, Geneva.
TANGANYIKA: Library, University College, Dar es Salaam.? *
Toco: Ministére d’Eitat, de l’Interieur, de Information et de la Presse, Lome.
Union or SoutH AFRICA:
CapE OF Goop Hope: Library of Parliament, Cape Town.
TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria.
Union oF Soviet Socrarist Repustics : Fundamental’niia Biblioteka Obshchest-
vennykh Nauk, Moscow.
Urvuauay: Diario Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo.
YUGOSLAVIA : Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.”
1 Added during the year.
2 Receives two sets.
3 Change in name.
4 Congressional Record only.
5 Federal Register only.
6 Three copies.
"Two copies.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 73
The International Exchange Service accepts publications for trans-
mission to addressees in all countries except to the mainland of China,
North Korea, and Communist-controlled areas of Vietnam but will
not accept packages of publications from domestic sources intended
for addressees in the United States or in a territory subject to the
jurisdiction of the United States.
The number and weight of the packages received from sources in
the United States for transmission abroad, and the number and weight
of packages received from foreign sources intended for domestic
addressees, are classified in the accompanying table.
Received by the Smithsonian Institution for
transmission
Classification For transmission abroad For distribution in the
United States
Number of Weightin |Numberof| Weight in
packages pounds packages pounds
U.S. parliamentary documents re-
ceived for transmission abroad____- 715, 347 23%; O64 lee 22 ui eet
Publications received from foreign
sources for U.S. parliamentary ad-
SS Se eee ese a 2 dey OP 9 Bs (ne ees Oey | eRe Ree 12, 568 14, 124
U.S. departmental documents re-
ceived for transmission abroad_____ 235, 396 ZOo NS as cee ee
Publications received from foreign
sources for U.S. departmental ad-
GIRCSSCES eer eet Wet! Man mh SR 2 es Ee | 4, 553 12, 090
Miscellaneous scientific and literary
publications received for transmis-
BIONIADLORGE Sie ea ee ee 191, 187 WOON SD (lee |e ee ee
Miscellaneous scientific and literary
publications received from abroad
for distribution in the United
SCTE SS Re ee Deere Lee gel eee eee er el ee Reta Bere 47,069 | 85,395
Rahal toe set ke pee ee 1, 141, 930 | 796, 622 | 64,190 | 111, 609
Total packages received_-__-_-_- CS ZUG FEO) tats ce Pee, Sek ie TER
PE GUALMOUNUSFECCHVEG 2 = eet. ho Riise ke ee ee ES. 908, 231
Respectfully submitted.
’ J. A. Cotuins, Chief.
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on the Bureau of
American Ethnology
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the field
researches, office work, and other operations of the Bureau of American
Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1963, conducted in
accordance with the act of Congress of April 10, 1928, as amended
August 22, 1949, which directs the Bureau “to continue independently
or in cooperation anthropological researches among the American
Indians and the natives of lands under the jurisdiction or protection of
the United States and the excavation and preservation of archeologic
remains.”
SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES
Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., director of the Bureau, devoted most
of the fiscal year to office duties and to general supervision of the
activities of the Bureau and the River Basin Surveys.
Early in August, at the invitation of the Czechoslovak Academy of
Sciences, Dr. Henry B. Collins, anthropologist, attended a meeting of
the Permanent Council of the International Congress of Anthropo-
logical and Ethnological Sciences in Prague. Following the meetings
the delegates were taken on a week’s tour to visit ethnographic mu-
seums and inspect paleolithic and neolithic sites being excavated by
Czech archeologists in Bohemia, Moravia, and Slovakia.
On November 9-10 Dr. Collins participated in a symposium on Pre-
historic Man in the New World held at Rice University, Houston, Tex.,
in celebration of the 50th anniversary of the university. His paper,
discussing the present status and problems of archeological research in
the American Arctic and subarctic, together with those of the 16 other
participants in the symposium, will appear in a volume to be pub-
lished by the University of Chicago Press. Dr. Collins’s paper “Bering
Strait to Greenland,” evaluating the results of recent archeological
discoveries in the American Arctic and their bearing on the problem
of the origin and relationships of Eskimo culture, was published in
December 1962 in Technical Paper No. 11, Arctic Institute of North
America. Another paper, “Stefansson as an Anthropologist,” was
published in the Stefansson memorial issue of Polar Notes, No. 4.
In December Dr. Collins was reelected to a 3-year term on the board
of governors of the Arctic Institute of North America. He continued
74
SECRETARY’S REPORT 75
to serve as a member of the Institute’s publications committee and as
chairman of the directing committee which is responsible for prepara-
tion of the Arctic Bibliography, a reference work which summarizes
and indexes the contents of scientific publications in all fields, and in
all languages, pertaining to the Arctic and subarctic regions of the
world. The material for Volume 11 of the bibliography, edited by
Marie Tremaine, was delivered to the Government Printing Office in
October 1962. Approximately 1,500 pages in size, it will contain
abstracts in English of 6,607 publications, of which 2,990 are of books,
monographs, and papers published in Russian, 2,638 in English, and
$79 in Scandinavian, German, French, and other languages. Ameri-
can scientists and others interested in following the course of scientific
research and economic and social developments in the northern parts
of the Soviet Union find the bibliography a valuable source of informa-
tion, including as it does English abstracts of Soviet publications on
such widely varied subjects as acclimatization, acculturation, adminis-
tration and government, aerial mapping and reconnaissance, agri-
culture, archeology, botany and zoology, construction, economic condi-
tions, education, electric power, fishes and fisheries, forestry, geology
and geophysics, hydrology, ice navigation, maps and mapping,
meteorology, mineral resources, mines and mining, oceanography, pale-
ontology, public health and medicine, petroleum, petrology, railroads,
transportation, wildlife conservation and management, etc. Abstracts
of anthropological publications have formed a substantial part of the
Arctie Bibliography from the beginning of the project. An attempt
has been made, with considerable success, to summarize and index the
contents of every paper that has been written on the Eskimos of
Siberia, Alaska, Canada, and Greenland; the Tlingit, Haida, and
Tsimshian Indians of the Northwest Coast; the northern Athapaskans
and Algonkians; and the native peoples of northern Eurasia.
The Arctic Institute’s Russian translation project—Anthropology
of the North: Translations from Russian Sources—which Dr. Collins
organized in 1960, continued its operations under a renewed grant
from the National Science Foundation and the editorship of Dr. Henry
N. Michael. The third volume of the series, an English translation of
the late M. G. Levin’s definitive work on the anthropology of north-
eastern Asia (Z'thnie Origins of the Peoples of Northeastern Asia),
was published by the University of Toronto Press in May 1963. Addi-
tional translations of Russian publications on Arctic anthropology
are in the course of preparation.
Dr. William C. Sturtevant attended the 35th International Congress
of Americanists (Mexico City, August 19-25), the joint annual meet-
ings of the American Indian Ethnohistoric Conference and the Con-
ference on Iroquois Research (Albany, October 12-14), the 61st annual
76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
meeting of the American Anthropological Association (Chicago, No-
vember 15-18), and the annual meeting of the Central States
Anthropological Society (Detroit, May 16-18). At the last he
participated in a symposium on primitive art.
Dr. Sturtevant’s time in Washington was devoted to continuing
research on the Iroquois and Seminole, to preparation of a paper
titled “Studies in Ethnoscience” which he presented at the Social
Science Research Council’s Conference on Transcultural Studies of
Cognitive Systems (Mérida, Yucatan, April 17-20), and to his duties
as book-review editor of the American Anthropologist. Papers by
him were published in the /lorida Anthropologist and in L'thnohistory.
In July Dr. Sturtevant spent about 2 weeks continuing ethno-
graphic fieldwork among the Seneca-Cayuga of Oklahoma, which he
had begun the previous summer. This research, supported by a grant
from the American Philosophical Society, is providing data on the
most extreme variant of Iroquois culture, particularly on religion and
ceremonial aspects, which casts a new light on the relatively well-
known culture of the modern Iroquois communities in New York and
Ontario. In October Dr. Sturtevant spent a few days on the Six
Nations Reserve in Ontario, observing an important Iroquois religious
ceremony and making inquiries for comparison with his Oklahoma
data. In addition to this fieldwork, Dr. Sturtevant conducted archival
research on the Oklahoma Seneca-Cayuga in the Indian Archives
Division of the Oklahoma Historical Society in Oklahoma City
(July 23-24) and museum research on Florida Seminole and other
eastern Indian material in the Milwaukee Public Museum (Novem-
ber 19-21) and in the College Museum of Hampton Institute, Hamp-
ton, Va. (June 8-9).
In November Dr. Robert M. Laughlin, ethnologist, began fieldwork
in Chiapas, Mexico, where he collected and recorded ethnographic
and linguistic materials, particularly myths and dreams, as well as
numerous prayers, from the Tzotzil Indians of Zinacantan, Chiapas,
and surrounding areas. A vocabulary of 2,200 items of the dialect
of Zinacantan collected by Lore M. Colby in 1960 has been expanded
to 4,000 by Dr. Laughlin. He recorded a series of 26 dreams in Tzotil
from a Zinacantan informant. Because specific dream experiences
determine the selection of shamans from the community and also pro-
voke new religious feasts, it is expected that dreams will illuminate
many aspects of Zinacantan world view. This material is being pre-
pared for publication.
Dr. Laughlin utilized the results of a week of ethnographic re-
search in the Huastec area of the States of San Luis Potosi and
Veracruz, Mexico, in January 1963, to supplement library research
for the preparation of the chapter “Huastec” for the Handbook of
SECRETARY’S REPORT rire
Middle American Indians. Another chapter for the Handbook, en-
titled “Tzotzil,” is in preparation. Dr. Laughlin returned to Wash-
ington in mid-May to check on data he had obtained in the field and
to consult references in various libraries, and on June 14 left again
for Mexico to continue his field studies.
RIVER BASIN SURVEYS
The River Basin Surveys, the unit of the Bureau of American
Ethnology organized to cooperate with the National Park Service and
the Bureau of Reclamation of the Department of the Interior, the
Corps of Engineers of the Department of the Army, and State and
local institutions in the program for salvage archeology in areas to
be flooded or otherwise destroyed by the construction of large dams,
continued its activities. An increase in funds made possible an ex-
pansion of the program throughout the Missouri Basin. The investi-
gations during 1962-63 were supported by a transfer of $271,000 from
the National Park Service, a carryover of $64,498 Missouri Basin
money, a grant of $7,285 from the Appalachian Power Co., and a
carryover of $4,080 from an earlier contribution by the Idaho Power
Co. The National Park Service funds were to support the investiga-
tions in the Missouri Basin, and the grant from the Appalachian
Power Co. was to provide for archeological excavations along the
Roanoke River in southern Virginia where the Smith Mountain
Project is nearing completion. The balance from the Idaho Power
Co. came from a grant originally made to conduct researches in the
Hells Canyon Reservoir area along the Snake River, Idaho-Oregon,
and the work this year was a continuation of that project. This par-
ticular investigation was carried on as a cooperative project between
the River Basin Surveys and the Museum of Idaho State College at
Pocatello. The grand total of funds available for the River Basin
Surveys in 1962-63 was $346,863.
Activities in the field pertained, in large part, to surveys and ex-
cavations. Most of the work was concentrated in the digging or
testing of sites but surveys were made in six new reservoir basins.
Five of the new reservoirs were in Kansas; the sixth was in Nebraska.
At the beginning of the fiscal year, nine excavating parties were in
the field in the Missouri Basin and one survey party was operating
in Montana. In September, digging was started in the Smith Moun-
tain Reservoir area in southern Virginia, and in October a small group
collected pollen samples from areas in western Nebraska. During
February and early March one party excavated a site along the Chat-
tahoochee River in Georgia. In May, a small group worked for a
short period in South Dakota, while another made the reconnaissance
of the six reservoirs previously mentioned. Also during May a party
78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
returned to the Smith Mountain area. During June, 11 parties began
operations in the Missouri Basin and were fully occupied in the ex-
cavation program at the end of the fiscal year.
As of June 30, 1963, archeological surveys and excavations had been
made, since the start of the salvage program, in a total of 264 reser-
voir areas located in 29 different States. Furthermore, two lock proj-
ects, four canal areas, and two watershed areas had also been ex-
amined. Since 1946, when the program got underway, 5,009 sites have
been located and recorded; of that number, 1,175 were recommended
for excavation or limited testing. Because of the conditions under
which the salvage operations need to be conducted, complete excava-
tions, except in the case of a few small sites, are rarely possible. Conse-
quently, when the term “excavation” is used, it generally implies that
only about 10 percent of a site was dug.
By the end of the year, 484 sites in 54 reservoir basins and one
watershed area had either been tested or excavated to the degree where
good information about them had been obtained. It has been the
policy of the River Basin Surveys to dig in at least one example of
the various kinds of sites reported in the preliminary surveys. The
sites range in nature from those which were simple camping areas,
occupied by early hunting and gathering Indians of about 10,000 years
ago, to village remains left by historic Indians of the mid-19th cen-
tury. In addition, the remains of frontier trading posts of European
origin and of Army installations have also been examined. The re-
sults of the investigations have been incorporated in reports which
have been published in various scientific journals, in the Bureau of
American Ethnology Bulletins, and in the Miscellaneous Collections
of the Smithsonian Institution. River Basin Surveys Paper No. 25,
which constitutes Bureau Bulletin 182, pertaining to the work done in
the John H. Kerr Reservoir Basin on the Roanoke River, Virginia-
North Carolina, was published in October. River Basin Surveys
Papers Nos. 26-32, which report on investigations in North Dakota,
Montana, and Kansas, and comprise Bulletin 185, were released during
June. Reports on other investigations in the two Dakotas and
Kansas, consisting of River Basin Surveys Papers 33-38, constituting
Bulletin 189, were sent to the Printing Office early in the fiscal year
and will be ready for distribution shortly after the beginning of the
new year. Various members of the staff cooperated with representa-
tives of other Federal agencies in the preparation of short popular
pamphlets about some of the major reservoir projects. These pam-
phlets were published by the cooperating agency and are distributed at
the visitors’ center for the reservoir concerned.
As in previous years, the River Basin Surveys received helpful
cooperation from the National Park Service, the Bureau of Reclama-
SECRETARY’S REPORT 79
tion, the Corps of Engineers, the Geological Survey, and numerous
State and local institutions. The party leaders were assisted in many
ways by the field personnel of all the cooperating agencies, and the
relationship was excellent in all areas. The National Park Service
continued to serve as liaison between the various agencies, both in
Washington and in the field. The Park Service also prepared the
budget estimates and justifications for the funds needed to support the
salvage program.
General direction and supervision of the program were continued
by the main office in Washington. Work in the Missouri Basin was
directed by the field headquarters and laboratory at Lincoln, Nebr.
The projects in southern Virginia and Georgia were supervised by
the Washington office.
Washington Office—Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., continued the
direction of the main headquarters of the River Basin Surveys in
the Bureau of American Ethnology throughout the year. Harold A.
Huscher and Carl F. Miller, archeologists, were based at that office.
Mr. Huscher had just returned from the Walter F. George Dam and
Lock area on the Chattahoochee River below Columbus, Ga., at the
beginning of the fiscal year. He remained in the office during the
summer and fall months, working on the accumulating records and
collections from the 4 preceding years. In November he attended
the Southeastern Archeological Conference and the Conference on
Historic Site Archeology at Mound State Park, Moundville, Ala.,
reading a report on the “Archaic of the Walter F. George Reservoir
Area.” On November 10 and 11, he attended the Eastern States
Archeological Conference at Athens, Ga., reading a paper on “Generic
Western Names Identifiable in the Southeast.” On November 22-24,
he participated in the 20th Annual Plains Conference at Lincoln,
Nebr., where he discussed “Southern Athapaskan Names in Early
Spanish Records.” Early in February he returned to Georgia and
completed emergency excavations at a site just south of the City of
Columbus. In May he attended the joint meeting of the Society for
American Archeology and the American Association of Physical
Anthropologists at Boulder, Colo., reading a paper on “Intermontane
Athapaskan Continuities.” At the close of the fiscal year he was work-
ing on his materials from the Walter F. George Reservoir area.
At the beginning of the fiscal year Mr. Miller was in charge of an
excavating party at the Tuttle Creek Reservoir area in northern
Kansas. The results of his activities there are covered in the follow-
ing section on the Missouri Basin. On September 10 he left for
the Smith Mountain and Leesville Reservoir area in southern Vir-
ginia and carried on excavations there until November 18, when
weather conditions made it advisable to terminate digging until spring.
80 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
While in the Washington office he worked on materials he had pre-
viously collected in Georgia and also started detailed studies on the
ceramic material he had obtained while digging at Russell Cave in
Alabama. He also examined numerous archeological specimens sent
to the Washington office by private collectors. In January he as-
sisted in setting up a series of archeological exhibits at one of the
schools in Newport News, Va. He also completed two short papers
for publication, one describing certain polyhedral cores found in
Kansas, the other discussing Chenopodium weeds as a source of food
for Southeastern Indians. On May 15, Mr. Miller left Washington
for Rocky Mount, Va., to resume his investigations in the Smith Moun-
tain Reservoir Project area, and at the end of the year he and his
smal] field party were digging in one of the best sites found in
that locality.
Alabama-Georgia.—Harold A. Huscher spent the week of Novem-
ber 4-10 at the Walter F’. George Reservoir, checking and photograph-
ing sites as they were being progressively flooded by the rising waters
of the reservoir. At the upper end of the reservoir the historically
important Coweta Town House site, 1 RU 9, where Oglethorpe
held a peace conference with the Creek chiefs in 1739, was being
destroyed by grading for the new Phoenix City dock development.
The Walker Street site (Key School site), 9 ME 60, reported by
David W. Chase, Fort Benning Infantry Museum, was being destroyed
by an eroding drainage ditch and immediate salvage operations were
recommended. Huscher returned to Georgia on February 7, 1963,
and, working under an emergency grant, investigated this site, which
proved to be an Early Woodland occupation level buried in a natural
levee of the Chattahoochee River south of Columbus. With the as-
sistance of David W. Chase of the Infantry Museum, power equip-
ment was used in stripping the overburden from 1,600 square feet
of the site. The exposed camp layers were then excavated using
power-screening techniques. Post holes in linear and curvilinear
arrangements were recorded, but no complete house patterns were
worked out. Twenty occupational features, including pits and
hearths, were recorded. Over 3,000 sherds and stone artifacts were
recovered, of which 1,000 were sherds of the sand-tempered fine-
checked (Cartersville Check Stamped) types. There were 40 exam-
ples of the tetrapodal pot-base and 9 examples of the subrectangular
flat pot-base, characteristic of the late Deptford Period. Minority
pottery types were, in descending frequency, large check stamped,
complicated stamped, linear check stamped, and simple stamped. A
few sherds showed combinations of check stamped and complicated
stamped, possibly transitional Deptford-Swift Creek forms belonging
with Willey’s New River Complicated Stamped. The characteristic
SECRETARY’S REPORT 81
point is triangular, thick cross-section, slightly excurvate sides, with
baseline either straight, slightly concave, or slightly convex. The
assemblage, seemingly a manifestation late in the Deptford Period,
with some early traits of the Swift Creek complex appearing, most
closely parallels that found in the submound and primary mounds
at the Stark’s Clay Landing site, 9 CLA 1 (“Mandeville Mound,”
University of Georgia), and the Mound at the Upper Francis Land-
ing, 1 BR 15 (“Shorter Site,’ University of Alabama), and the
Early Woodland level at the Russell Cave.
Idaho-Oregon.—Under an agreement with the Smithsonian Insti-
tution, the Idaho State University Museum undertook archeological
reconnaissance and excavations in the Hells Canyon Reservoir on the
Snake River between Idaho and Oregon. Fieldwork began on March
25, 1963, and concluded June 20, 1963. The project was under the
general supervision of Dr. Earl H. Swanson, director of the museum.
Max G. Pavesic, a graduate student at the University of Colorado,
directed the fieldwork and was assisted by Roger Nance, Washing-
ton State University, and by David Wyatt, University of Wash-
ington.
Field headquarters were maintained at Oxbow Dam, where the
Idaho Power Co. generously made available a trailer for residence
and for laboratory work. Additional assistance during the excavation
was given by the Morrison-Knudsen Corp., which provided the field
party with a bulldozer. Grateful acknowledgment is also due to
Jess Smith, Mr. and Mrs. Amos Camp, Dan Cole, Ross Parker, Ralph
Page, and Rudy Lanning for the help they gave.
The field studies were conducted throughout by three men whose
work included intensive reconnaissance and excavation at an impor-
tant village site (No. 10-AM-1). Ten archeological sites were lo-
cated which were not reported in the original survey of Hells Canyon
(Columbia Basin Project, River Basin Surveys, Smithsonian Insti-
tution, 1951). These include three rockshelters, seven camp sites,
and numerous rock cairns. Five cairns were excavated. The first
was excavated entirely by hand because these appear to be a type
of archeological feature. Cairns of this nature are constructed of
large boulders, which sometimes weigh several tons and which are
covered by earth. Reports of burials beneath the cairns were given
to the crew, but no archeological materials or data were obtained
from them and they remain unexplained at this time.
An important village site was given careful attention by the field
party. Two adjacent housepits, as well as the area between, were in-
tensively examined by excavation. These lie on a north-south axis
parallel to the river. The largest structure is approximately 25 feet
in diameter, while the smaller measures approximately 12 feet across.
82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
It could not be determined whether there was any superimposition of
the structures. Stratigraphically, and by the artifact inventory, the
housepits appear to be contemporaneous. In both, the house fill is not
more than 314 feet in depth. Little soil change was found in the fill,
which was a dark loam near the top but became sandier with depth.
Above the sterile soil, yellow sand and gravel, an ash layer is found
throughout the limits of the housepits. Stratigraphically, there
appears to be only one cultural occupation.
Large quantities of tools, flakes, and bones were recovered, which
indicate both intensive occupation and use of the area for hunting
purposes. Preliminary examination of the artifacts suggests that
occupation was late in prehistoric time, possibly early historic, and
similarities can be seen with the Camas Prairie Phase reported at the
Weis Rockshelter on Camas Prairie (B. Robert Butler, Contributions
to the Prehistory of the Columbia Plateau, Occasional Papers No. 9
of the Idaho College Museum).
Missouri Basin —At the beginning of fiscal year 1947 the Missouri
Basin Project of the River Basin Surveys began its operations from
the field headquarters and laboratory in Lincoln, Nebr. The Project
has carried on its activities for 17 consecutive years from that location.
The office and laboratory were at first housed with the Laboratory of
Anthropology in the basement of the Social Sciences Building. They
were then moved to a basement hallway of the University of Nebraska
Library. Shortly thereafter much more space was made available in
the basement of the just-completed Burnett Hall on the University
campus, and the Laboratory of Anthropology and the project again
joined forces. By 1950, both the project and the Laboratory of An-
thropology had outgrown this space, and the Missouri Basin Project
rented a building at 1517 O Street. The project laboratory was
transferred to the new location, but offices were maintained in Burnett
Hall. In 1953 the offices were moved to O Street and the entire project
operated from that location for the following 10 years. During the
present fiscal year expansion of the project and deterioration of the
upper floors of the building at 1517 O Street made new quarters an
absolute necessity. On May 1, 1963, the Missouri Basin Project rented
a one-story building at 1835 P Street in Lincoln and moved to that
location. It is a relatively new, fireproof building of 14,000 square
feet, with all laboratory, storage, and office facilities on one floor.
Activities during the current fiscal year, as in past years, included
surveys, excavations, analyses of materials, and reporting of results
of the salvage of archeological remains being destroyed by dam and
reservoir construction within the Missouri Basin. Dr. Robert L.
Stephenson served as chief of the project, except for approximately
3 months when he was on leave and Dr. Warren W. Caldwell func-
SECRETARY’S REPORT 83
tioned as acting chief. During the summer months the work consisted
mainly of excavations. Analyses and preparation of reports received
the major attention throughout the remainder of the year. The special
chronology program, begun in January 1958, was continued through-
out fiscal 1963.
At the beginning of the year the permanent staff, in addition to the
chief, consisted of five archeologists, one administrative clerk, one
administrative assistant, one secretary, one clerk-typist, one scientific
illustrator, one photographer, and four museum aides. The tempo-
rary staff included 4 archeologists, 5 field assistants, 3 cooks, and 83
field crewmen.
During July and August seven field crewmen were added to the
temporary staff. By the end of the first week in August, the employ-
ment of all the field crewmen and cooks had been terminated. Other
terminations of temporary employees were made shortly thereafter.
Four of the temporary archeologists and field assistants were trans-
ferred to the permanent staff as archeologists.
At the end of the fiscal year the permanent staff consisted of 21
persons. ‘These were, in addition to the chief, nine archeologists, one
administrative assistant, one secretary, one administrative clerk, two
clerk-typists, one scientific illustrator, one photographer, and four
museum aides. ‘The temporary staff consisted of 71 persons: 3 arche-
ologists, 2 physical anthropologists, 4 cooks, and 62 field crewmen.
During the year there were 25 Smithsonian Institution River Basin
Surveys field parties at work in the Missouri Basin. During July
and August four parties were working in the Oahe Reservoir area
and four parties were working in the Big Bend Reservoir area of
South Dakota; two parties were working in the Yellowtail Reservoir
area of Montana and Wyoming; one crew was working in the Tuttle
Creek Reservoir area in Kansas; and one party was surveying the Mis-
sourl Breaks area between Fort Peck and Fort Benton in Montana. In
October a small crew was collecting pollen samples in western Ne-
braska. In May, a small crew worked in the Fort Randall Reservoir
area of South Dakota and a survey party conducted a reconnaissance of
six proposed reservoirs in Kansas and Nebraska. During June, a crew
was excavating in the Pony Creek area of Iowa; another crew had
begun work on the James Diversion Project in South Dakota; one
crew was at work in the Yellowtail Reservoir of Montana and Wyo-
ming; three parties were working in the Oahe Reservoir; and four
groups were excavating in the Big Bend Reservoir, South Dakota.
One special crew was not in the field but was at work during June in
the laboratory at Lawrence, Kans., studying the skeletal remains from
sites in the Oahe Reservoir.
84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Other fieldwork in the Missouri Basin during the year included
14 parties from State institutions operating under cooperative agree-
ments with the National Park Service and in cooperation with the
Smithsonian Institution in the Inter-Agency Archeological Salvage
Program.
At the beginning of the year Robert W. Neuman, assisted by John
J. Hoffman and a crew of 10, was at work on the excavation of an
early village of circular houses known as the Molstad site (89DW234) ,*
about 8 miles south of Mobridge, S. Dak., on the right bank of the
Missouri River in Dewey County. This site will be subject to wave
cutting at maximum pool level of the Oahe Reservoir. Artifacts
and architectural details recovered indicate that the site had been a
small, fortified village of the very early period of circular house occu-
pation often referred to as the La Roche. There were five houses
within an oval stockade and one larger house outside the stockade.
The stockade was surrounded by a dry moat 2.6 feet deep and had
a single large loop bastion on one side. The entire stockade line and
five of the houses were excavated, as well as the bastion and two cross
sections of the moat. The people who occupied this site during the
15th or 16th centuries were culturally very closely related to those
who occupied the Potts Village, some 2 miles upstream, which had
been excavated previously by crews from the Missouri Basin Project.
A second field party in the Oahe Reservoir, also directed by Robert
W. Neuman with the assistance of James J. Stanek and a crew of 10,
was at work at the beginning of the year excavating the Swift Bird
site (39DW233), half a mile downstream from the Molstad site.
This site comprised a group of two burial mounds of the Plains
Woodland Period and a circular house depression that appears to
belong to the La Roche Period. The burial mounds date from a
period of some 1,500 or so years ago, while the house dates from
about 500 years ago. Mound 1 was a dome-shaped tumulus 75 feet
in diameter and 4 feet high. Several articulated bison skeletons lay
on the mound floor as did numerous large, charred timbers. Below
these was a burial pit containing several secondary human interments.
Artifacts were few and largely found within the burial pit. In most
respects this mound resembled those excavated at the Boundary
Mounds site at the North Dakota-South Dakota State line. Mound 2
was slightly smaller and had articulated bison skeletons, secondary
1 Site designations used by the River Basin Surveys are trinomial in character, consisting
of symbols for State, county, and site. The State is indicated by the first number, accord-
ing to the numerical position of the State name in an alphabetical list of the United States;
thus, for example, 82 indicates North Dakota, 39 indicates South Dakota. Counties are
designated by a two-letter abbreviation; for example, ME for Mercer County, MN for
Mountrail County, ete. The final number refers to the specific site within the indicated
State and county.
Secretary's Report, 1963 PLATE 2
Walker Street site (Key School site), 9ME60, a buried Deptford camp on the Chattahoochee
River, Ga. Overburden has been removed and the underlying camp levels are being
excavated by units 10 feet square. River Basin Surveys
Probable house pattern showing at bottom of Deptford level. Shown here are indications
of a subrectangular structure with supporting wall posts set in trenches. River Basin
Surveys.
Secretary's Report, 1963 PLATE 3
Close-up view of the Sorenson site (24CB202) in the Big Horn Canyon within the Yellow-
tail Reservoir area during excavation. Evidence of more than 7,000 years of occupation
were uncovered in this small rock shelter. River Basin Surveys.
na aia de de® xX
View of the site (24CB203) at the confluence of Dry Head Creek with the Big Horn River
within the Yellowtail Reservoir area. Smithsonian Institution field camp can be seen
adjacent to the excavation area. River Basin Surveys.
Si, te - >
SECRETARY’S REPORT 85
human burials, and a very few artifacts on the mound floor, but no
burial pit. The circular house provided a minimal floor pattern with-
out center posts and a small quantity of artifacts. This party also
excavated Mound 8 of a series of five burial mounds at the Grover
Hand site (39DW240). That mound resembled Mound 1 at the Swift
Bird site, including the burial pit. Remains of 17 bison were re-
covered from the mound fill and floor. A new site, the Stelzer
(89DW 242), was tested. It is situated about a mile downstream from
39DW240. Occupational levels and artifacts indicate that this may
be a substantial camp site of Plains Woodland times. Neuman’s two
crews shared a single camp and completed their fieldwork on Sep-
tember 2 after 12 weeks in the field.
A third field crew in the Oahe Reservoir was directed by Dr. Wil-
liam M. Bass, assisted by Jon Muller and a crew of six. Based in
Pierre, this party utilized a caterpillar tractor and scraper to exca-
vate large sections of the burial areas at the Sully site (389SL4),
which is located approximately 20 miles northwest of Pierre, on the
left bank of the Missouri River. It comprises the largest prehistoric
village remains in the Missouri Basin and was excavated in previous
years by Smithsonian Institution field crews. The large burial areas
were not exhausted and, in order to get a sufliciently large sample of
the physical remains of the people who had lived there some 250-400
years ago, the current season’s work was directed toward exhausting
the burial areas. The heavy equipment was used to remove the over-
burden above the graves. Hach grave was then excavated by hand.
During the first three seasons of work, 264 burials were excavated.
This season an additional 293 were recovered, making a total of 557
burials from this one village. Brief investigations at other sites pro-
vided additional burials. At the Swan Creek site (89PO1), exca-
vated during a previous season by a cooperating institution, a single
burial was obtained. At the Bleached Bone site (89HU48), 20
burials were recovered and 8 were taken from the Second Hand site
(39P0207). In addition, a good quantity of burial artifacts was
recovered, correlating the burials directly with the village areas and
providing cultural meaning for the skeletal remains. This party
completed its fieldwork on August 30 after a season of 12 weeks.
The fourth Oahe Reservoir party was directed by Dr. Alfred W.
Bowers, assisted by William B. Colvin and a crew of 10. Based at
Mobridge, S. Dak., this crew excavated 14 circular earth lodges in the
Red Horse site (39CO34) just west of the bridge from Mobridge and
at the mouth of the Grand River. This was a moderately large,
fortified earth-lodge village of the late period and probably dates
in the 18th century. A large artifact yield as well as good architec-
tural details resulted from the excavations. Bowers’s crew also exca-
720-018—64—_7
86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
vated a portion of the Davis site (39CO14), some 200 yards west of
the Red Horse site. There, a complex defensive system and a series
of long rectangular houses were partly uncovered. Apparently there
were at least two, and perhaps three, occupation periods represented,
but time did not permit sufficient excavation to recover the whole
story. The earliest occupation of the Davis site was several centuries
earlier than that at the Red Horse site. Continuation of the work
was planned for the next season.
In the Big Bend Reservoir area, three field parties were at work
at the beginning of the year and a fourth party was added during
July. One of the parties was directed by Dr. Warren W. Caldwell,
assisted by Richard E. Jensen and a crew of 11. They excavated at
two sites. The Langdeau site (39L.M209) had been a village of long-
rectangular houses and 15 depressions were visible. Four of these
house remains were excavated, and three long trenches were dug in
an unsuccessful attempt to find a fortification system. ‘The houses
were 80-40 feet wide with no small structural posts at the ends. En-
trances were to the south or southwest and floors were compact and
stained with red ochre. Pottery found there is of the Anderson
and Foreman types, suggesting relationship to the early rectangular-
house period at the Dodd site near Pierre, but other artifacts were
extremely exotic, including copper, shell, bone, and stone tools and
ornaments. This crew’s second excavation was at the Jiggs Thompson
site (391L.M208), located 9 miles north of Lower Brule in the loop of
the Big Bend. This site had been a small village of 17 long-
rectangular houses situated on a high terrace finger that was separated
from the rest of the terrace by a moat 4.5 feet deep and 11 feet wide.
Two houses were excavated, the moat was sampled, and numerous
other test trenches were dug. ‘The houses had been about 30 by 20
feet with entrances to the south. They did not have end posts, but
there were massive central support posts. Architecture and artifacts
suggest a close relationship to the Langdeau site; both are in the
Anderson-Foreman and Swanson traditions of early rectangular-
house culture. This party completed its work on August 26 after
11 weeks in the field.
The second Big Bend party was also directed by Dr. Caldwell, with
the assistance of Richard E. Carter. It consisted of a crew of nine.
Excavations were carried out at a two-component site (89LM2)
overlooking Medicine Creek some 8 miles northwest of Lower Brule.
This had been a village of small, rectangular houses with ramp
entrances to the south, minimal end support posts, and many cache
pits. The remains of the first occupation were overlain by those of a
village of square (or subrectangular) houses, 35 feet in diameter,
which had four central support posts of the kind usually found in
SECRETARY'S REPORT 87
late circular houses in the area. One house of each component,
many cache pits, and several midden areas were excavated. Abundant
pottery and other artifacts suggest that the earlier component relates
to the Anderson and Over foci, while the later component was of the
period of the Shannon Focus and similar to component C at the
Talking Crow site. This party also sampled the Jandreau site
(39L.M221), 3 miles east of Medicine Creek in the same general area.
Portions of two long-rectangular houses were excavated as were
cross sections of the fortification moat. Ceramics recovered there
suggest that the village may have been transitional between the An-
derson Focus and the Thomas Riggs Focus and will date toward the
latter part of the long-rectangular house period. In addition, minor
tests were made at the Gilman site (39L.M226) and at site 391LL.M228
in the Medicine Creek Bottoms. The latter proved to have been a
rectangular-house village of Over Focus affiliation, while the former
was a circular-house village of the Shannon Focus. After 11 weeks
in the field this crew completed its assignment on August 26.
A third party in the Big Bend Reservoir area, sharing a joint
camp with Caldwell’s two crews, was directed by Vernon R. Helmen.
This crew of three was frequently assisted by members of Caldwell’s
parties during the 2 weeks of its work (July 16-27). Helmen and
his associates provided their services on a volunteer basis, and Mrs.
Helmen made a useful study of the microecology of the flora of one
earth lodge. The Helmen crew excavated one house in site 39LM223,
a small village of the Shannon Focus. The circular house and several
cache pits yielded Talking Crow and Iona pottery.
The remaining field party in the Big Bend Reservoir area was at
work at the beginning of the year excavating the remains of Fort
George (395T202), a historic fur-trading post built in 1842 and
operated briefly in opposition to the trading post of Fort Pierre
Chouteau. The crew of eight was directed by G. Hubert Smith,
assisted by Lee G. Madison, and was based in Pierre with the Bass
party. Fort George was located on the right bank of the Missouri
River some 15 miles downstream from Pierre. Remains of the log
stockade, two blockhouses, and the interior buildings of timber were
excavated and recorded. Artifacts were abundant and will, along
with the architecture, provide a substantial picture of life at this
early post, of which so little contemporary record remains.
Two Missouri Basin Project field parties were at work at the begin-
ning of the year in the Yellowtail Reservoir area in the Big Horn
Canyon in Montana and Wyoming. Lionel A. Brown, with a crew
of five, operated in the lower end of the reservoir from the Yellow-
tail Dam south to the mouth of Dry Head Creek, a distance of some
25 miles upstream from the dam. They excavated three large, dif-
88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
fuse, occupation sites and tested numerous rock shelters. Site
24BH215 at the mouth of Black Canyon, 6 miles above the dam, was
a stratified campsite with three levels of occupation. Artifacts were
moderately abundant and included a few nondescript potsherds,
corner-notched projectile points, and many scrapers, blades, and bone
tools, but no evidence of structures. It appears to have been a camp
intermittently occupied from a few hundred years ago to historic
times. Site 24BH212 was a complex of occupations at the mouth of
Bull Elk Canyon 18 miles above the dam. It contained six stone
circles, two circles of shallow postholes, midden deposits, fireplaces,
a profusion of scrapers and other small stone tools but very few pro-
jectile points and no evidence of pottery. Five of the stone circles
contained semicompacted floors, floor debris, and a central fireplace,
and one had a midden deposit just outside the stone circle all empha-
sizing the fact that they served the function of actual tipi rings.
The circular arrangements of shallow postholes with a suggestion of
floors indicate structures of temporary pole construction. Occupation
was shallow with only one level apparent except in one small section
of the site where three levels were apparent. Artifacts are not very
diagnostic but probably represent a period of three or four centuries
before White contact. The third major site excavated by Brown’s
crew was located on the opposite (left) bank of the Big Horn River
at the mouth of Dry Head Creek some 25 miles above the dam.
There, four levels of occupation produced large quantities of bison,
deer, and elk bone, numerous small stone artifacts, an elk bone flesher,
numerous fire pits, and basin-shaped pits but neither pottery nor
structures. Several rock shelters between Black Canyon and Dry
Head were investigated and tested but none proved to contain worth-
while occupational materials. This party returned to the Lincoln
headquarters August 31 after 11 weeks in the field.
Wilfred M. Husted was in charge of the second Yellowtail field
party excavating a series of sites in the upper reaches of the reser-
voir. Working from various campsites between the village of Kane
at the extreme southern end of the reservoir to Barry’s Landing, some
20 miles to the north, this crew used boat, Jeep, carryall, and foot
transportation to resurvey this portion of the Big Horn Canyon and
excavate five sites. A rock shelter (48BH206) was sampled but not
completed owing to difficulty of access. A large tipi ring site
(48BH10) with 20 stone circles, on the left bank of Crooked Creek,
was excavated. Five of the circles were dug and three of them
contained central fireplaces as well as exterior fireplaces. One open
campsite (48BH211) and several rock shelters were examined and
tested but provided no useful archeological data. On the Wyoming
side of the reservoir, a site at Barry’s Landing (24CB201) was exca-
SECRETARY’S REPORT 89
vated. It had superimposed hearths and roasting pits and numerous
projectile points and scrapers. The artifacts represent the latter
part of the Middle Prehistoric Period overlain by an occupation of
the Late Prehistoric Period. A nearby rock shelter (24CB223) was
excavated and furnished similar material. ‘The Sorenson site
(24CB202), half a mile below Barry’s Landing, was completely exca-
vated with excellent results. Five levels of occupation extending
from historic times back to the pre-Middle Prehistoric Period were
delineated. Lanceolate projectile points in the lowest level (dated
at 7,500-7,800 years ago) were overlain by materials of the Middle
and Late Prehistoric Period and capped by a historic occupation.
Materials included cordage, basketry, hide, bone tools, stone tools,
roasting pits, and hearths. In the resurvey of this section of the
canyon, 21 new sites were located, of which 18 will be flooded.
Husted’s party completed the season’s work August 30 after 11 weeks
in the field.
A survey party directed by Oscar L. Mallory, consisting of a crew
of three, made a detailed reconnaissance of the Missouri Breaks along
the Missouri River from Fort Benton to the upper reaches of the
Fort Peck Reservoir. Beginning at the Fort Benton end of the
Breaks, this party utilized boats, horses, vehicles, and foot transpor-
tation to locate 55 archeological sites within this 180-mile stretch of
extremely rugged river country. Of these sites, 20 were campsites,
21 were campsites with tipi rings, 2 were burials, 3 were bison-kill
sites, and 9 were historic sites. Surface collections were made from
most of these and two were tested. Artifact yield was minimal but
enough to suggest a fairly long period of occupation and significant
excavation potential in the area.
The final Missouri Basin Project field party at work at the begin-
ning of the year was directed by Carl F. Miller who, with a crew of
nine, was at work in the Tuttle Creek Reservoir of northeastern
Kansas. With headquarters in the town of Blue Rapids, Kans., this
party investigated seven sites in the upper reaches of the reservoir
and excavated one. This was the last chance to examine any of the
threatened sites in this reservoir, as the water was already rising, and
by the summer of 1963 any sites that were to be flooded would have
been submerged. The Pishney site (839MH2) received the attention
of Miller’s party most of the season and provided a single house
structure, a portion of a second house, several cache pits, and a sub-
stantial yield of artifacts. The houses at this site were square with
rounded corners and the artifacts suggest a cultural position within
the Central Plains Phase but with definite indications of influences
from the south. Miller’s party left the field on August 16 after
working for a period of 9 weeks.
90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Cooperating institutions active in the Missouri Basin at the begin-
ning of the fiscal year included six field parties representing five State
agencies in Nebraska, Kansas, Missouri, and Montana. Dr. Dee C.
Taylor with a crew from Montana State University conducted a survey
of portions of the shoreline of the Fort Peck Reservoir in east-central
Montana, locating archeological sites that have been exposed by bank
erosion along the shores of the reservoir. Marvin F. Kivett, assisted
by Dr. Roger T. Grange with a crew from the Nebraska State Histori-
cal Society, completed salvage excavations in the area of the Red Wil-
low Reservoir in southwestern Nebraska. Dr. Preston Holder, as-
sisted by Dr. Emily Blasingham and a crew of University of Nebraska
students, completed excavation and testing of sites to be flooded in the
Norton Reservoir area of northwestern Kansas. Dr. Carlyle S. Smith,
assisted by Walter Birkby and a crew of students from the University
of Kansas, excavated two sites, sampled several others, and completed
salvage work in the Melvern Reservoir area of east-central Kansas.
Dr. Carl Chapman and a crew from the University of Missouri con-
tinued the surveying and testing of sites in the Kaysinger Bluff Res-
ervoir area in west-central Missouri. A second crew tested a large
series of sites in the Stockton Reservoir area of central Missouri. All
these parties operated under agreements with the National Park Serv-
ice and in cooperation with the Smithsonian Institution in the Inter-
Agency Archeological Salvage Program.
The 1963 field season began with an archeological survey team under
Lionel A. Brown, assisted by Lee G. Madison and Stephen H.
Schwartz. This team began operations on May 6 and completed its
work on May 29. It investigated the proposed area of the Almena
Reservoir on Prairie Dog Creek, in northwestern Kansas, finding no
archeological sites but recording one paleontological locality. The
members of the party next went to the proposed area of the Herndon
Reservoir on Beaver Creek in Rawlins County, Kans., where they
recorded one archeological site. In Ellis County, Kans., on Big Creek,
the proposed Ellis Reservoir was surveyed and two sites were recorded.
The proposed area of the Fort Scott Reservoir in Bourbon County,
Kans., was next surveyed and six sites were located. The next survey,
made in Anderson County, Kans., found seven sites at the location of
the proposed Garnett Reservoir. The final reservoir of the six sur-
veyed was the Angus Reservoir in Nuckols County, Nebr., where two
archeological sites were recorded. A total of 18 archeological sites and
1 paleontological locality were recorded in 6 reservoir areas.
On May 18 and 14, G. Hubert Smith and Oscar L. Mallory con-
ducted a brief investigation of the site of the Fort Randall Military
Post, near the Fort Randall dam in southeastern South Dakota.
As an aid to the U.S. Corps of Engineers in developing this for public
SECRETARY’S REPORT 91
use, Smith and Mallory pinpointed the significant cultural features
and made recommendations for their development.
On June 7 the Pony Creek field party began work in that part of
Mills County, southwestern Iowa, where the Soil Conservation Serv-
ice is constructing several very small reservoirs and terracing most of
the adjacent valley area. Headquartered in the town of Glenwood,
this party of eight, directed by Lionel A. Brown, had by the end of the
year visited and tested six sites (three of which had not previously
been recorded) and begun excavations in sites 13ML4 and 13M1L18,
both of which appear to be villages of rectangular (or square) houses
of the Nebraska Aspect.
On June 6 Dr. Elden Johnson of the University of Minnesota joined
the staff of the Missouri Basin Project and spent 4 days in a brief
investigation of the area of the James Diversion Project for detailed
survey and excavation early in the next fiscal year.
The single field party in the Yellowtail Reservoir area of Montana
and Wyoming, directed by Wilfred M. Husted, consisted of a crew
of seven which left Lincoln on June11. This crew started in the upper
reaches of the reservoir where Husted’s party left off the previous
season. By the end of the year they had completed excavation of a
small rock shelter and were continuing investigations on downstream.
In the Oahe Reservoir area of central South Dakota, three field
parties were operating at the end of the year. Robert W. Neuman,
in charge of a crew of eight, began work on June 11 at the Grover
Hand site (89DW240), a group of Woodland burial mounds on the
right bank of the Missouri River some 9 miles below Mobridge. By the
end of the year, Mound 1 at this site had been excavated. This mound
contained a burial pit covered with timbers. Bison skeletons were
found on the mound floor.
The second Oahe party was directed by Oscar L. Mallory. Witha
crew of eight he began work on June 11 at site 39D W231, a presumed
village or camp occupation site of the Plains Woodland Period that
may be related to some of the burial mounds being dug by the Neuman
party. The site is situated some 11 miles below Mobridge on the right
bank of the Missouri River. Both the Neuman and Mallory crews
camped at the Molstad ranch about a mile above the Grover Hand
site, and both crews utilized 16-foot motorboats with 10-horsepower
motors as their main means of transportation. This was necessitated
by the high water of the Oahe Reservoir and the lack of roads in the
area south of the Molstad ranch.
The third Oahe party also began work on June 11 under the direc-
tion of Dr. Alfred W. Bowers, who again joined the Missouri Basin
Project staff for the summer, taking leave from his regular position
at the University of Idaho. Dr. Bowers’ crew of 10 camped at the east
92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
edge of Mobridge and started digging on the Davis site (89CO14) at
the west end of the Mobridge bridge. They had begun there the
previous season and by the end of the year were well along with the
excavations. They had also dug the last unexcavated lodge at the
adjacent Red Horse site (39CO34) that Bowers’s crew excavated in
the 1962 season.
One historic-sites party was in the field at the end of the year,
having begun work on June 14. This party, directed by G. Hubert
Smith, was searching for some of the more obscure historic sites in the
Big Bend Reservoir area, such as Loisel’s Trading Post, Fort
Defiance-Bouis, and the Red Cloud Agency. If they find any of these
sites they will begin a program of excavations. By the end of the
year Smith had devoted considerable time to searching records in
various historical files both in Pierre and at Fort Pierre.
Three crews excavating prehistoric sites in the Big Bend area also
began work on June 14. John J. Hoffman and a crew of 11 were at
work at the end of the year on the series of sites, in the southeast cor-
ner of Lyman County on the right bank of the Missouri some 20 miles
below Pierre, known as the “la Roche Sites.” There, each of several
sites has been called “a Roche” and much interpretation has been
based on a concept of “a Roche.” Hoffman’s party was to excavate
each of the sites and endeavor to identify some one element as La
Roche and correlate the others with it. By the end of the year ex-
cavations were well under way in 389ST9, the site which W. H. Over
many years ago designated as La Roche.
The second Big Bend field party was directed by William J. Folan,
who joined the Smithsonian Institution staff, for the summer season,
from Southern Illinois University. This crew of eight camped with
the Hoffman crew and was directing its attention to the same problem.
The two crews started together on the same site so that they would
begin with the same orientation. By the end of the year Folan’s crew
was ready to move its operations to one of the other related sites in
the area. All the sites appear to represent villages of late circular
houses, or at least have one component of this “La Roche” trait.
The third Big Bend field party was directed by Richard EK. Jensen.
Tt consisted of a crew of 11 and was camped on the left bank of the
Missouri in the “pocket” of the Big Bend, some 40 miles by road below
Pierre. It was to conduct excavations in a series of circular-house vil-
lages nearby. By the end of the year progress had been made in work
on the remains of an extensive, diffuse village, 39HU213. Widespread
test trenching and the excavation of cache pits, middens, and a multiple
burial had been completed.
Dr. William M. Bass of the University of Kansas, and an assistant,
Walter Birkby of the same institution, joined the Missouri Basin
SECRETARY’S REPORT 93
Project staff for the summer as temporary employees, in order to
conduct laboratory research. Dr. Bass and his assistant analyzed a
large quantity of skeletal material, excavated over the past several
years by Dr. Bass, from several Missouri Basin sites in the Oahe
Reservoir. Principal of these was the Sully site (89SL4) where 557
burials have been recovered. Bass and Birkby were working in the
new laboratory facilities at the University of Kansas in Lawrence.
Cooperating institutions in the Missouri Basin at the end of the year
included eight parties operating in five States. Dr. Dee C. Taylor
and a Montana State University crew were continuing the shoreline
survey of the Fort Peck Reservoir in east-central Montana, searching
for and testing sites that had been exposed by bank erosion. Robert
Gant and a University of South Dakota party were continuing a
shoreline survey of the Gavins Point Reservoir in southeastern South
Dakota, searching for and testing sites that had been exposed by bank
erosion. Particular emphasis was being placed on the search for
Plains Woodland and earlier sites. Both of these parties were con-
tinuing work begun the previous season. Dr. Preston Holder, assisted
by James Marshall and a crew of University of Nebraska students,
was excavating the Glen Elder site in the Glen Elder Reservoir in
Mitchell County, north-central Kansas, and was searching for and
testing additional sites within that reservoir. Dr. Carlyle S. Smith,
assisted by Jon Muller and a party of Kansas University students,
began the survey and testing of sites in the area to be flooded by the
Milford Reservoir in Clay County, north-central Kansas. Dr. Carl
Chapman had three University of Missouri parties at work at the
end of the year. One was a survey group locating and testing sites
in the area to be flooded by the Hackleman Corners Reservoir in south-
western Missouri. A second party was excavating sites in the Kay-
singer Bluff Reservoir in west-central Missouri. The third party
was digging sites in the Stockton Reservoir of west-central Missouri.
Both of the latter were continuing work begun the previous season.
Marvin F. Kivett, assisted by Dr. Roger T. Grange, Jr., and a Nebraska
State Historical Society crew, surveyed two small reservoirs, Calamus
and Davis Creek, in central Nebraska. Both surveys located only a
few sites of doubtful archeological potential and it was recommended
that no further work be done there unless material is uncovered during
earth-moving operations for the construction of the two dams.
The Missouri Basin Chronology Program had been in operation for
514 years by the end of the year. Cooperation of nearly all the
archeologists and archeological institutions in the Plains area con-
tinued as in previous years, and leadership and direction of the pro-
gram continued to be by the staff archeologists of the Missouri Basin
Project.
94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
In October a Missouri Basin Project team composed of J. J. Hoff-
man and Lee G. Madison joined Dr. Paul Sears of Yale University,
Dr. J. G. Ogden of Ohio Wesleyan University, and Dr. Harry A.
Tourtelot of the U.S. Geological Survey in a trip to collect fossil pollen
cores in the sandhills of northwestern Nebraska. The field trip was
a part of the chronology program and a part of a continuing program
of palynology designed to reconstruct prehistoric floral conditions
for a portion of the Missouri Basin. Cores were collected at several
of the fossil lakes in the area and will be analyzed by Dr. Ogden.
Other chronology studies included a continuation of the dendro-
chronology section under the direction of Dr. Warren W. Caldwell,
with the volunteer assistance of Harry EK. Weakly. The carbon-14
section continued to progress with the addition of 16 new dated
samples of vegetal material, tested by the laboratory of Isotopes, Inc.,
of Westwood, N.J. Robert W. Neuman continued to be in charge
of this section of the program and submitted several samples for
dating to the new carbon-14 laboratory at the Smithsonian Institution
in Washington, D.C. In addition, two samples were sent to the Uni-
versity of Texas for analysis in its carbon-14 laboratory.
The laboratory and office staff of the Missouri Basin Project devoted
most of its full effort during the year to processing specimen materials
for study, photographing and illustrating specimens, preparing speci-
men records, and typing, filing, and illustrating record and manuscript
materials. The accomplishments of the laboratory and office staff are
listed in tables 1 and 2.
Dr. Robert L. Stephenson, chief, devoted a large part of his time
during the year to management of the overall Missouri Basin Project,
including the office and laboratory in Lincoln, the several field activi-
ties, and the preparation of plans and budgets. His individual arche-
ological research and report writing was minimal during the year,
but some further progress was made on the monograph “The Whitney
Reservoir, Texas” and on analyses of specimens from his excavations
at the Sully site (89SL4) in the Oahe Reservoir. He made final
revisions on his manuscript “The Accokeek Creek Site: A Middle At-
lantic Seaboard Culture Sequence” and submitted it to the University
of Michigan for publication. He also revised a paper he read at the
1962 meeting of the Society for American Archeology, entitled “Ad-
ministrative Problems of the River Basin Surveys,” for publication in
American Antiquity. He continued to serve as chairman of the Mis-
sourl Basin Chronology Program; as assistant editor of “Current
Research” in the Plains Area for American Antiquity; and, until
December 1, as associate editor of the Plains Anthropologist. On
December 1 he became editor of that journal. He also participated in
SECRETARY’S REPORT 95
the Visiting Scientist Program of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences
and lectured to student groups at Sutton and Sidney, Nebr.
Dr. Stephenson attended the 1914 Plains Conference in Pierre,
S. Dak., in July and served as a panel member in a symposium on “The
Salvage Program So Far.” At the 20th Plains Conference in Lincoln
on Thanksgiving weekend he served as local arrangements chairman
and as chairman of a symposium on “Plains Chronology.” During
the period of December 12-21 he attended the “Management Develop-
ment Program for Field Managers” of the U.S. Department of Agri-
culture Graduate School, held on the Voorhis Campus of California
State Polytechnic College in San Dimas, Calif. He attended the 73d
annual meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences in Lincoln on
April 27 and the annual meeting of the Society for American Arche-
ology in Boulder, Colo.,on May 1-3. While at Boulder he participated
in the meeting of the Committee for the Recovery of Archeological
Remains and reported on the year’s activities of the Missouri Basin
Project and on the prospects for the coming year. He wrote several
book reviews for scientific journals, gave talks to various local civic
organizations on the work of the River Basin Surveys, and represented
the Smithsonian Institution at special occasions at the invitation of
local civic organizations. He served throughout the second half of
the year on the organizing committee for the INQUA meetings to be
held in Boulder, Colo., in September 1965, and was named as one of
the field conference organizers for a preconference field trip through
the Plains area.
Lionel A. Brown, archeologist, when not in charge of field parties,
devoted most of his time to analyzing specimen materials he had
recovered during the past year and to materials recovered by others
in the Missouri Basin in previous years. He completed a major
draft of a manuscript entitled “Archeology of the Lower Yellowtail
Reservoir, Montana,” which describes the work and material recovered
from the several sites that he excavated and tested in that area during
the summer of 1963. He completed a major draft of a preliminary
manuscript entitled “Archeological Investigations in the Pony Creek
Watershed, Iowa,” which describes the work and reports the analyses
of materials he recovered from that area of southwestern Iowa in
the spring of 1962. This manuscript will be combined with the report
of the work currently being done in that area to form an overall pub-
lication on the Pony Creek researches. In the early spring he studied
the specimens and field records from the Gillette site (39ST23) in
the Oahe Reservoir, excavated by Donald D. Hartle of the Missouri
Basin Project in 1957, and nearly completed the major draft of a
manuscript covering those investigations.
96 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
In July Mr. Brown addressed the Billings Archeological Society in
Billings, Mont., on the subject “The Amateur Archeologist in the
Salvage Program.” During Thanksgiving weekend he attended the
20th Plains Conference in Lincoln and presented two papers, “A
Survey of the Pony Creek Watershed” and “Archeology of the Lower
Yellowtail Reservoir.” Both were published in abstract in the Pro-
ceedings of the 73d Meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences.
He attended the meetings of the Society for American Archeology
in Boulder, Colo., on May 1-3. At the end of the year he was again
excavating archeological sites in the Pony Creek area of Iowa.
Dr. Warren W. Caldwell, archeologist, was in the field from the
beginning of the year until the end of August. He devoted the re-
mainder of his time to specimen and field-record studies concerning
sites that he had excavated in previous years, Primary attention was
devoted to the analyses (with Richard E. Jensen) of sites 891L.M208,
39LM209, and 39L.M232, excavated last year in the Big Bend Reser-
voir of South Dakota by Caldwell and Jensen. He completed the
analytical studies and began a manuscript reporting the results. He
also completed analyzing materials from, and prepared a major draft
of a monograph on, “Investigations at the McKensey Village (39AR-
201), South Dakota,” a site that he excavated in 1960. In collabora-
tion with G. Hubert Smith, he prepared and submitted for publication
a handbook for the U.S. Corps of Engineers’ Reservoir Series, entitled
“Oahe Reservoir: Archeology, History and Geology.” ‘This was the
fourth handbook in this series, prepared by the same authors. He also
prepared a popular article on “Fortified Villages of the Dakotas,”
published in Afissourit Basin Progress. He published two book re-
views in the Plains Anthropologist and prepared several administra-
tive and progress reports concerning the work of the Missouri Basin
Project.
Dr. Caldwell participated in the 1914 Plains Conference in Pierre
in July and discussed his current fieldwork. He participated in the
20th Plains Conference in Lincoln at the end of November, presenting
a paper on “Investigations in the Lower Big Bend Reservoir, South
Dakota” and also serving as a panel member on “Plains Chronology,”
presenting a discussion of “Dendrochronology in the Plains—Past
and Present.” He attended the 73d annual meeting of the Nebraska
Academy of Sciences and presented a paper, “Primus in Orbe Deos
Fecit Timor or Ceramics ad Nauseam,” that was published in abstract
in the Proceedings of the meeting. His paper “Fortified Villages of
the Northern Plains” was read in absentia at the annual meeting of
the Society for American Archeology in Boulder, Colo., on May 3.
Throughout the year he continued to serve as chairman of the dendro-
chronology section of the Missouri Basin Chronology Program, as con-
SECRETARY'S REPORT 97
tributing editor for book reviews for the Plains Anthropologist, and as
collaborator for the Plains area for “Abstracts of New World Archeol-
ogy.” He participated in the visiting scientist program of the Ne-
braska Academy of Sciences, lecturing to student groups at Gretna,
Nebr., on January 8. During the period from September to June, on
annual-leave time, he served as part-time assistant professor in the
Department of Anthropology at the University of Nebraska and
taught a course on “The American Indian.” At the end of the year
he was in the Lincoln laboratory analyzing specimens from past field-
work.
John J. Hoffman, archeologist, when not in the field conducting
excavations, devoted most of his time to laboratory analyses and prep-
aration of reports resulting from his work of the past season. He
completed the analyses of specimen materials and records of his 1962
excavations at the Molstad Village site (89D W234) in the Oahe Reser-
voir area and prepared a major draft of a manuscript on this work.
He completed a short article on the “Molstad Village and the La
Roche Sites” and submitted it to the Plains Anthropologist for publi-
cation. By the time he returned to the field in June he was well along
on a manuscript entitled “The Swift Bird Lodge (89DW233).” In
July, Hoffman attended the 1914 Plains Conference in Pierre and
reported on his fieldwork during the season. At Thanksgiving, he
presented a paper at the 73d annual meeting of the Nebraska Academy
of Sciences in Lincoln entitled “Temporal Ordering of the Chouteau
Aspect.” The end of the year found him again in the field engaged
in archeological excavations.
Wilfred M. Husted, archeologist, while not in the field conducting
archeological excavations, was at work in the laboratory analyzing
materials and preparing reports on his activities in the field during
the 1962 season and also on materials that others had collected in pre-
vious seasons. He wrote a “Preliminary Report of the 1962 Archeo-
logical Investigation in the Upper Yellowtail Reservoir,” which will
be combined with a study of his 1963 season’s work in the same area
so that there will be a comprehensive monograph on the archeology of
that region. He also completed the laboratory analyses of, and pre-
pared a major draft of a monograph on “The Brice (39L.M31) and
Clarkstown (39LM47) Sites, Fort Randall Reservoir.” These two
sites were excavated in 1954 by the late Paul L. Cooper. At the 20th
Plains Conference, November 22-24 in Lincoln, he presented a paper
entitled “Investigations in Upper Yellowtail Reservoir, Montana-
Wyoming.”
Richard E. Jensen, archeologist, spent July, August, and June
in the field conducting archeological excavations and the remainder
of the year in the laboratory in Lincoln analyzing materials and
9§ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
writing reports. He prepared descriptions of the artifacts and fea-
tures recovered from the Langdeau site (891L.M209), the Jiggs Thomp-
son site (39L.M202), and the Pretty Head site (891L.M232), which he
excavated in conjunction with Dr. Caldwell. 'They include various
statistical analyses relative to sequential alinements and relation-
ships to other sites. In July he gave a report of his current fieldwork
at the 1914 Plains Conference in Pierre. During Thanksgiving he at-
tended the 20th Plains Conference in Lincoln. On May 18, accom-
panied by J. J. Hoffman and Dr. Stephenson, he attended an informal
conference on Dakota pottery typology in Vermillion, S. Dak. He
and Hoffman proceeded from Vermillion to the Big Bend Reservoir
area to select campsites for the summer. At the end of the year he
was again in the field excavating archeological sites in the Big Bend
Reservoir area.
Oscar L. Mallory, archeologist, when not in the field was at work
in the laboratory examining materials previously collected. He stud-
ied the background data and analyzed the specimens obtained from
the “Missouri Breaks” area of Montana and prepared a report on
the work entitled “An Archeological Appraisal of the Missouri Breaks
Region, Montana.” He then began a detailed analysis of the unusual
collection of perishable goods from the Mouat Cliff Burial site
(24T'E401) excavated last year by the Billings Archeological Society,
in central Montana, near Hardin. He spent much of his evening and
weekend time working on “A Comparative Cultural Analysis of Tex-
tiles from McGregor Cave, Washington,” his thesis for a master of
arts degree at Washington State College. In April he served, with
Robert W. Neuman, as adviser to the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
in conference with the local community developers of Mobridge, S.
Dak., on a project to reconstruct an earth-lodge village in that area
He presented a paper, “Survey of the Missouri Breaks Area,” at the
20th Plains Conference in Lincoln on Thanksgiving weekend. At
the close of the year he was conducting archeological excavations in
the Oahe Reservoir area.
Robert W. Neuman, archeologist, when not in the field was mainly
at work in the laboratory doing research on materials excavated by
him in past years in the Oahe and Big Bend Reservoir areas. From
October 6 to 13 he was on loan to the University of South Dakota to
assist In salvage excavations at the Wolfe Creek Mound site (89HT-
201) in Hutchinson County, 8. Dak. In the laboratory, he corrected
galley proof on his monograph “The Good Soldier Site (391L.M238),
Lyman County, South Dakota,” being published by the Bureau of
American Ethnology as a River Basin Surveys Paper. He did re-
search on materials from his Big Bend excavations and brought to
near completion a manuscript on “Preceramic Occupations in the Big
Bend Reservoir Area, South Dakota.” He also served as chairman of
SECRETARY’S REPORT 99
the radiocarbon section of the Missouri Basin Chronology Program.
He reported on his current fieldwork at the 1914 Plains Conference in
Pierre in July. He attended the 20th Plains Conference in Lincoln,
November 22-24, where he served as a panel member in the sym-
posium on “Plains Chronology,” presenting a discussion of “Carbon-
14 on the Plains—Past, Present and Future.” In mid-April he and
Oscar L. Mallory served as advisers to the U.S. Army Corps of Engi-
neers in discussions with local community supporters of a project. to
reconstruct an earth-lodge village near Mobridge, S. Dak. On April
27 he served as chairman of the Anthropology Section of the 73d
annual meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences in Lincoln and
presented a paper entitled “A Brief Review of Anthropology in the
Nebraska Academy of Sciences,” that was published in abstract in the
Proceedings of the meeting. This was the best attended and had the
largest selection of outstanding papers of any of the meetings of this
section of the Academy since its inception. He also attended the
annual meetings of the Society for American Archeology in Boulder,
Colo., May 1-3, where he presented a paper entitled “Check Stamping
on the Northern Plains,” that has been accepted for publication in
American Antiquity. At the end of the year Neuman was conducting
excavations in the Oahe Reservoir area.
G. Hubert Smith, archeologist, spent July, August, and the last half
of June conducting archeological excavations, and during the re-
mainder of the year was in the Lincoln office analyzing and doing
research on materials from historic sites in the Missouri Basin that he
had excavated in previous years. He completed a report on the field-
work done at the site of Fort George (89ST202) in the summer of 1962,
and had a major draft of that manuscript ready for final typing at
the end of the year. He continued with the preparation of the com-
prehensive report on the site of “Like-a-Fishhook Village and Fort
Berthold I and IT (32ML2), North Dakota.” ‘With Dr. Caldwell he
prepared a popular booklet on “The Oahe Reservoir: Archeology,
History and Geology,” that was published by the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers in their Reservoir Series, of which this is the fifth. He
also prepared a book review published in American Antiquity in
April.
Smith attended the 1914 Plains Conference in Pierre in July and
reported on his current fieldwork. During the Thanksgiving weekend
he attended the Plains Conference in Lincoln, where he reported on
“Excavations at Fort George, South Dakota.” On January 10, he
was the featured speaker at the meeting of the Yankton County His-
torical Society in Yankton, S. Dak., where he gave an illustrated
talk on “Salvage Archeology.” On April 27 he attended the 73d
annual meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences in Lincoln and
presented a paper entitled “Ethnographic Contributions of Ferdinand
100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
V. Hayden.” He attended the 17th annual meeting of the Mississippi
Valley Historical Association and took part in the historic sites com-
mittee meeting of that group. He addressed the Kansas City Ar-
cheological Society on “Historical Archeology in the Missouri Basin”
on May 7, and on May 19 he gave an illustrated talk on “Historic
Buildings of Nebraska” at the Nebraska State Historical Society in
Lincoln. At the end of the year he was again in the field conducting
investigations of historic sites in the Big Bend Reservoir.
TasBie 1.—Specimens processed, July 1, 1962-—June 30,1963
Number Catalog | Number of
Reservoir of sites numbers | specimens
assigned | processed
a nf |
TEU) BZ OVD UB hs 0 le in a ea pee PRIN Sl che Dea 13 4, 354 24, 196
Missourimbreakgel) 2200 (000s 20) 0h i IE cee ge 24 178 390
Oaher eens: foe wee lee ree 2 eae 10 2,978 | 22, 400
Rony: Creeketn taj spe Bb cap oe fe eS es eon 13 408 1,775
Wiellowtaileece) = Maas ere. Bl) Pe oe Ae 22 1, 749 3, 038
Sitestovalss2s S255 eee ee ae oe eee 82 9, 667 51, 799
Collections not assigned site numbers___-_---_-_-_- 2 11 24
Owverallicollection totalss252-2—--— 84 9, 678 51, 823
As of June 30, 1963, the Missouri Basin Project had cataloged
1,891,219 specimens from 2,410 numbered sites and 60 collections not
assigned site numbers.
Specimens restored: Five pottery vessels and six vessel sections.
Specimens donated to the Missouri Basin Project for comparative use:
By the W. H. Over Museum, University of South Dakota, courtesy of Dr. Wesley
R. Hurt—75 pot rim sherds collected from 39GR1 (Scalp Creek site), 39WW7
(Swan Creek site), and 89WW8303. ‘These sherds respresent eight pottery wares,
namely: Akaska, Le Beau, Randall, Rygh, Scalp, Steamboat, Swan Creek, and
Talking Crow.
TABLE 2.—Record material processed, July 1, 1962—June 30, 1968
MISSOURI BASIN PROJECT
Reflex: Copies; iOL* TECORGS 2am. 2 ars Ee eae ene eee ee 8, 967
Ehotographic nevativesmad eh =222=) eae ee ee eee 3, 128
Photographic’ prints» madezl22 2s eee eee 13, 712
Photographie prints mounted an pti cca eee ee 7, 660
Transparenciesnounted ineelass2 === 2 ne eee eee 66
Kodachrome pictures tia kern aril oy lo ee ee ee 72
Cartorraphi cir Claes aid, Cr a willl eee ee eee ee ee ee 38
Ulustratlons' 2265s. eh ee ee ee ee ee 27
mettering.of plates == 2+... 3 248 ee ee eee eee eee 12
Profilesidrawnit 2 eee 66 2a 7 ea Ae ee ee eee 92
Platelayouts made torimanuscripts= a= ee ee ee 18
SECRETARY’S REPORT 101
Virginia.—During the period September 10-November 18, 1962,
Carl F. Miller conducted excavations in four sites in the Smith Moun-
tain and Leesville Reservoir areas. Data obtained indicate that the
cultural range represented extended from the terminal phase of Late
Archaic around 4000 B.C. to the Middle Woodland Period at about
A.D. 500. One of the characteristic artifacts normally associated
with such remains, namely, stone projectile points, was scarce, while
ceramics and bone tools were rather plentiful. There were numerous
portions and fragments from clay tobacco pipes. Asa matter of fact,
those particular objects were much more numerous than has been
indicated by evidence from that general area.
Mr. Miller returned to the Smith Mountain Project area on May
15, 1963, and from that date until the end of the fiscal year was
occupied in the excavation of the Hales Ford site (44FR15). In
the work there thirty-seven 10-foot squares were dug to a depth of
5 feet; 186 features and 1 partial burial were recovered. The burial,
representing an early Middle Woodland Phase, was that of a male
who was about 60 years of age at the time of death. Mortuary offer-
ings consisted of two turtle-shell dishes. The use of turtle shells
for dishes apparently was a well-established trait at that location.
At least two new pottery types were found at the Hales Ford site,
and they were apparently correlated to a similar textile-impressed
type found in the John H. Kerr Reservoir area farther south on the
Roanoke River. The latter, however, produced much less of this
type than the Smith Mountain Reservoir. The significance of this
will need to be determined by further studies in the laboratory. The
projectile points recovered are sufficient in number to illustrate a
developmental series. This also is true of clay pipes. The bone mate-
rial was particularly well preserved, and several new types of arti-
facts were recovered. Potsherds number into the thousands, and it
will be possible to restore a number of vessels from them. No Euro-
pean material was found at the site, which apparently was abandoned
well before the White man’s influence reached that part of
Virginia. No evidence was obtained relative to habitations and con-
sequently nothing is known of the type of dwelling used at that
locality.
The material from the combined work in the fall of 1962 and the
spring of 1963 will give an excellent source of information about a
fairly long period of occupation in the upper reaches of the Roanoke
River.
ARCHIVES
The Bureau archives continued under the custody of Mrs. Margaret
C. Blaker, archivist. She was assisted throughout the year by Miss
720-018—648
102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Regina M. Solzbacher, and on a part-time basis by Miss Margaret
V. Lee.
During the week of September 30-October 6, Mrs. Blaker attended
the annual meeting of the Society of American Archivists in Roches-
ter, N.Y., and searched for early photographs of American Indians in
the collections of George Eastman House, the Rochester Historical
Society, and the Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences. A con-
siderable number of fine stereoscopic views of the 1870’s and 1880's
were located at Eastman House, and copies of them are currently
being made for the Bureau collections. At the University of Roches-
ter Library Mrs. Blaker examined the notebooks of Louis Henry
Morgan that deal with his visits to the Seneca Indians, and the cir-
culars containing the original information collected and used by
Morgan in preparing his Systems of Consanguinity, published by
the Smithsonian in 1870. Microfilm duplicates of the circulars will
be made available to the Bureau through the library’s special col-
lections division.
On October 12-15 Mrs. Blaker attended the joint annual meeting
of the American Indian Ethnohistoric Conference and the Iroquois
Conference at Albany, N.Y., and examined photographic and other
pictorial resources on the American Indian in the New York State
Museum. On November 14-19 she attended the annual meeting of
the American Anthropological Association in Chicago and examined
pictorial resources in the Newberry Library and the Chicago Natural
History Museum. On May 20-21 she visited Carlisle, Pa., to see
photographs in the collections of the Army War College and the
Hamilton Library. Both of these institutions have albums of ex-
cellent photographs of the students who attended Carlisle Indian
school and of their parents, many of them distinguished chiefs, who
visited the school. Arrangements for borrowing the albums for copy-
ing are in progress.
Ethnographic notes of the late Lyda Averill Taylor, on the Alabama,
Choctaw, and Koasati, collected in Polk County, Tex., in 1936-40, and
a partial draft of a manuscript on comparative southeastern ethnol-
ogy, were received from John M. Goggin, to whom they had been
given in 1960 by Walter W. Taylor.
A ledger containing drawings of war scenes, apparently all drawn
by the same Indian artist, was acquired. The book is undated and
the artist unidentified, but he was probably a Cheyenne, since the short
written titles indicate that the winners of the contests depicted were
Cheyennes. Cheyenne warfare with a number of different tribes is
portrayed—Osage, Snake (Shoshoni), Pawnee, Ute, Crow, Shawnee,
Sac and Fox, Navaho, and Pueblo. There are also a number of
pictures of combat with the U.S. Army. Two pictures depict the
SECRETARY'S REPORT 103
Cheyenne Indian “Horse Road in fight with General Miles near
Red River,” and another, the historic fight of the Cheyenne with
Forsyth’s scouts at Beecher’s Island on September 17, 1868, in which
Chief Roman Nose was killed. Another drawing depicts a Cheyenne
battle with soldiers under Lieutenant Henley, 6th Cavalry, on Smoky
Hill River, and one shows Indians running off cavalry horses at Fort
Dodge, 1865.
A sketchbook containing crayon and pencil drawings of Indian
life on the Plains, made by a Cheyenne Indian named Buffalo Meat,
while he was a prisoner at Fort Marion, Fla., about 1875 was received
asa gift from Miss Julia Whiting of Middleburg, Va.
A photograph of an oil painting of the Comanche chief Yellow
Wolf, made in 1859 by Col. Arthur T. Lee, and a photograph of a draw-
ing made by Yellow Wolf were received through the courtesy of
Charles F. Hayes III, of the Rochester Museum of Arts and Sciences,
Rochester, N.Y., which owns the originals.
Negatives of four sketches of Missisauga Indians, three of Hurons
and two of Creek Indians, all drawn by Basil Hall in 1827-28, were
obtained from the Lilly Library, Indiana University, which owns
the original drawings.
An important collection of photographic negatives and prints, taken
by Jesse Hastings Bratley in the period 1893-ca. 1903, while he was
teaching at Indian schools in the West, was lent by Francis V. Crane,
director of the Southeast Museum, Marathon, Fla. A total of 280
copy negatives were made and added to the Bureau files. Most of the
negatives relate to the Dakota Indians of Rosebud Reservation, S.
Dak.; the Havasupai of Cataract Canyon, Ariz.; and the Hopi of
Polacca, Ariz. There are also a few photographs of Salish Indians
of Puget Sound, and of Cheyenne and Arapaho from Contonment,
Okla.
A series of 36 negatives taken at the mouth of Windy River, north-
western extremity of Neultin Lake, southwestern Keewatin, Canada,
in 1947 shows Caribou Eskimo and a few Cree Indians. The negatives
include portraits; camp scenes showing food and hide preparation;
and views of transport by canoe and on foot with pack and dog travois.
They were made and donated by Dr. Francis Harper, Chapel Hill,
N.C. Dr. Harper also donated five negatives showing Poosepatuck
men and native fishing equipment, taken by him at the Poosepatuck
Reservation, Mastic, Long Island, in 1909 and 1910.
A series of 11 photographs taken at the Poosepatuck Reservation,
Mastic, Long Island, showing members of the Poosepatuck tribe, and
views taken at the June meeting at Poosepatuck in 1912, were copied
from an album of snapshots owned by Walter B. Raynor, Patchogue,
N.Y. Two photographs of White men’s hunting camps having pal-
104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
metto-thatch structures built in the Seminole style were from the same
album.
Nineteen portraits of Jicarilla Apaches and views taken on the
Jicarilla Reservation near Dulce, N. Mex., ca. 1915-62, were copied
from photographs lent by Dr. D. Harper Sims, Arlington, Va.
Negatives of four views of the monument on the grave of the Choc-
taw chief Pushmataha, in the Congressional Cemetery, Washington,
D.C., were deposited by Dr. William C. Sturtevant.
A photograph of a Shoshoni chief, Jack Edmo, and his family,
taken about 1917, was donated by Mrs. Arthur White, Middleburg,
Va.
A collection of 90 Indian portraits from the studios of a number of
late 19th-century commercial photographers was obtained through
Car] Russell, Orinda, Calif. Over 50 of the portraits are of members
of various Dakota tribes; other tribes represented are Apache, Crow,
Dieguenio, Maricopa, Papago, and Yuma.
A collection of approximately 675 photographic negatives made in
the approximate period 1900-1920 has been acquired but is not yet
cataloged in detail. The collection consists of studio and outdoor
portraits, camp scenes, views of dances, and other subjects. Of the
more than 25 tribes represented, the principal ones are: Apache,
Arapaho, Assiniboin, and Gros Ventres; Blackfoot, Cheyenne, Crow,
Dakota, Eskimo, Hopi, Osage, Pawnee, Seminole, and Wichita.
LIBRARY
During the year 1962-63, work continued on the organization of
the collection and its records under the supervision of Mrs. Carol
Jopling in the Bureau of American Ethnology Library.
When the library’s maps were evaluated, several very old and rare
ones were discovered. Among them were a Nicholas Visscher map of
the Western Hemisphere, Novissima et Accuratissima Totius Amer-
tcae, and Nova Belgica et Anglia Nova by W. J. Blaeu (Amsterdam,
1635). Of particular interest to the Bureau, however, was the Census
of the State of California (1852) map and a quantity of other North
American maps with linguistic and archeological annotations.
Some fine books were given to the library, including a set by Sir
Richard Phillips, A Collection of Modern and Contemporary Voyages
and Travels (London, 1805—) presented by Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts,
Jr.
The librarian attended the Special Libraries Convention in Denver,
June 9-14, 1963, and visited a number of libraries and museums having
special collections on the North American Indian and Western history.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 105
The following statistics will serve to indicate some of the work
conducted in the library :
Reference questions answered_____-______________________ 1, 820
TOA TDR TWER LSS Y GS 1, 301
iRablications circulated sso see 2a eee 1, 071
Moans?tovother librariess22208 22) Sees ee Ne eee 151
Wolumes; sent, Lor pinging 222 ie 22 re ee ee ee eee 1, 103
EDITORIAL WORK AND PUBLICATIONS
The editorial work of the Bureau continued during the year under
the immediate direction of Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen. The following
publications were issued :
Seventy-ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1961-62.
ii+29 pp., 2 pls. 1963.
Bulletin 181. Isleta paintings, with introduction and commentary by Elsie
Clews Parsons. Edited by Esther S. Goldfrank. xvi+299 pp., 142 pls. 1962.
Bulletin 182. River Basin Surveys Papers, No. 25. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr.,
editor. xvi+447 pp., 110 pls., 65 figs., 20 maps. 1962.
Archeology of the John H. Kerr Reservoir Basin, Roanoke River, Virginia-
North Carolina, by Carl F. Miller. With appendix: Human skeletal re-
mains from the Tollifero (Ha6) and Clarksville (Mcl14) sites, John H.
Kerr Reservoir Basin, Virginia, by Lucile BH. Hoyme and William M. Bass.
Bulletin 184. The Pueblo of Sia, New Mexico, by Leslie A. White. xii+358 pp.,
12 pls., 55 figs. 1962.
Bulletin 185. River Basin Surveys Papers, Nos. 26-32, Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr.
editor. xii+344 pp., 57 pls., 43 figs., 5 maps. 1963.
No. 26. Small sites on and about Fort Berthold Reservation, Garrison
Reservoir, North Dakota, by George Metcalf.
No. 27. Star Village: A fortified historic Arikara site in Mercer County,
North Dakota, by George Metcalf.
No. 28. The dance hall of the Santee Bottoms on the Fort Berthold Reserva-
tion, Garrison Reservoir, North Dakota, by Donald D. Hartle.
No. 29. Crow-Flies-High (82MZ1), a historic Hidatsa village in the Garrison
Reservoir area, North Dakota, by Carling Malouf.
No. 30. The Stutsman Focus: An aboriginal culture complex in the James-
town Reservoir Area, North Dakota, by R. P. Wheeler.
No. 31. Archeological manifestations in the Toole County section of the
Tiber Reservoir Basin, Montana, by Carl F. Miller.
No. 32. Archeological salvage investigations in the Lovewell Reservoir
Area, Kansas, by Robert W. Neuman.
Bulletin 188. Shonto: A study of the role of the trader in a modern Navaho
Community, by William Y. Adams. xi-+329 pp., 10 pls., 3 figs., 3 maps, 12
charts. 1963.
Publications distributed totaled 17,722 as compared with 19,326 for
the fiscal year 1962.
ILLUSTRATIONS
The staff artist for the Bureau of American Ethnology, E. G. Schu-
macher, prepared the illustrations to accompany 16 manuscripts to be
106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
published by the Bureau, some as entire bulletins and others composing
bulletins in the Anthropological Papers and the River Basin Surveys
Papers series. The work included the drawing or redrawing of maps,
diagrams, charts, and other text figures, and effectively combining and
mounting photographs, all covering the fields of anthropology, arche-
ology, and ethnology. Approximately 500 illustrations were prepared.
MISCELLANEOUS
Dr. M. W. Stirling, Dr. A. J. Waring, and Sister Inez Hilger con-
tinued as research associates. Dr. Wallace L. Chafe, linguist on the
staff of the Bureau from April 4, 1959, resigned on August 20, 1962,
to accept an associate professorship in the department of linguistics at
the University of California in Berkeley.
In addition to the usual extensive correspondence answering specific
questions, many of which were of a technical nature, the Bureau pre-
pared several bibliographies to provide reference material for which
there has been recurring demand. Among those recently compiled,
the following were printed by the multilith process:
SIL-2, 3d rev., 6/63: Selected bibliography on arrowheads. 5 pp.
SIL-105, rev., 7/62: Selected bibliography on Cherokee customs and history.
6 pp.
eens rev., 6/63: Selected references on the Indians of Southeastern North
America. Compiled by William C. Sturtevant. 17 pp.
SIL-363, 4/63: Bibliography of wild food plants of Canadian Indians. Compiled
by F. R. Irvine. 13 pp.
Other bibliographies prepared are in typescript.
More than 100 specimens, both ethnological and archeological, were
received by mail or brought to the office for identification and such
information as could be provided by Bureau specialists.
Respectfully submitted.
Frank H. H. Roserts, Jr., Director.
Dr. Lronarp CarMIcHArL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on the National Zoological Park
Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condi-
tion and operations of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year
ended June 30, 1963:
GIFTS
A number of accessions to the animal collection were due to the
generosity of friends of the National Zoological Park. On January 6,
1963, a fine Bengal tiger arrived from the zoo in Ahmedabad, India,
as a gift from Ralph Scott of Washington and Miami Beach. AI-
though Samson is a normally colored tiger, he carries the white genes,
being both half-brother and uncle to Mohini, the Zoo’s white tigress.
Samson was bred under the direction of the Maharajah of Rewa. The
two animals are now living together, and it is hoped that they will
produce white cubs.
Edward D. Sweeney and Ralph E. Becker, both of Washington, pre-
sented a pair of husky young polar bears which they acquired on a
voyage to the Arctic last summer.
The U.S. Air Force retired Ham, the chimpanzee astronaut, which
on January 31, 1961, soared through space in a capsule boosted by an
83-foot Redstone rocket. Ham/’s 16-minute ride took him to a height
of 155 miles and a distance of 420 miles down the coast from Cape
Canaveral. He seems to have adjusted nicely to his comparatively
quiet routine in the Zoo’s ape quarters, which he entered on April 5,
1963.
The U.S. Forest Service captured a young adult female (cinnamon
phase) American black bear, which was flown to Washington from
New Mexico and installed in a cage adjoining that of the famous
Smokey Bear. The formal presentation was made on September 8
by New Mexico Forester Ray L. Bell on behalf of the Department
of Game and Fish and the New Mexico State Land Office, the Ghost
Ranch Museum, and the Governor and Senators of New Mexico.
“Goldie,” soon to be “Mrs. Smokey,” was accepted on behalf of the
Smithsonian Institution by Dr. Carmichael. -
The State of Hawaii sent a pair of nene, or Hawaiian geese. A
few years ago these birds were threatened with extinction by hunters
and predators. The State Fish and Game Division undertook a pro-
gram of propagating the birds in captivity and then releasing them
to join wild birds in sanctuary areas on Hawaiian volcanoes, and the
107
108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
numbers have now increased. The nene, the State bird of Hawaii, is
an attractive bird and an interesting addition to the national collec-
tion; it had not been exhibited here since 1986. The pair was pre-
sented by the Honorable Daniel K. Inouye, Senator from Hawaii, on
June 19, 1963, and formally accepted by the Secretary of the Smith-
sonian Institution. The Zoo is grateful to Paul Breese, Director of
the Honolulu Zoo, for his efforts in obtaining for it these rare speci-
mens.
Through Alton W. Hemba, American Consul General at Guayaquil,
Ecuador, a large Galapagos tortoise (from Albemarle Island) was
received asa gift from Dr. Jorge E. Proano P.
Volkmar Wentzel, of the National Geographic Society, presented to
the Zoo a young specimen of the giant forest rat which he obtained
during his travels in Africa. This animal is now more than 2 feet
long (including the tail) and is still growing.
Dr. Doris M. Cochran, curator of reptiles and amphibians at the
U.S. National Museum, presented a number of reptiles collected on a
trip to Central and South America.
A gift of two hummingbirds, Heliomaster squamosus and Colibri
delphinae greenewaltii, was received from Dr. Augusto Ruschi, Santa
Teresa, Brazil. Dr. Ruschi is an authority on the Colibridae and is
noted for his splendid collection of live birds. His visit to the Na-
tional Zoological Park last September established the standards and
methods of care for a large group of hummingbirds to be applied
when the renovation of the birdhouse is completed.
Kenneth Sather, Round Lake, Minn., sent four giant Canada geese
(Branta canadensis major), a form previously thought to be extinct:
a welcome addition to the waterfowl collection.
The National Zoological Park’s animal collection has also been gen-
erously enriched by the Kistophos Science Club of Washington, D.C.,
and Mrs. Joseph Campbell, also of Washington.
Space dees not permit listing all gifts received in the course of the
year, but the following are of special interest:
Bogley, Samuel W., III, Hyattsville, Md., woolly monkey.
Cochran, Dr. Doris, Washington, D.C., bronze vine snake, 2 Central American
toads, Brazilian striped frog, Raddi’s frog, Brazilian light-spotted frog, 14
diamondback terrapins, South American water turtle.
Dembin, Edward and Hugene, Washington, D.C., Western indigo snake, red-
tailed boa, boa constrictor, bull snake.
DePrato, Mario, Washington, D.C., river frog, Hermann’s tortoise.
Florida Nurserymen and Growers Association, Key Biscayne, Fla., through Jim
Griffin, 2 mandarin ducks, chestnut-breasted teal, 2 fulvous tree ducks.
Fulton, Mrs. Robert, Washington, D.C., keel-billed toucan.
George’s Pet Shop, Bladensburg, Md., speckled agouti, black agouti, 2 ja-
guarondis, anaconda, 2 matamata turtles, 2 boa constrictors.
Hadley, Mrs. Harry E., Annandale, Va., ocelot.
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An unusually long-lived many-banded krait (Bungarus multicinctus). This specimen
arrived at the National Zoological Park as an adult on April 3, 1958.
Malayan monitor (Varanus salvator), well camouflaged in grass in its outdoor summer cage
occasionally stalks and catches birds. National Zoological Park.
PLATE 6
Secretary's Report, 1963
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SECRETARY’S REPORT 109
Hecht Co., Washington, D.C., blue peacock.
Henderson, Paul, Silver Spring, Md., drill.
LaDu, Dr. Bert N., Bethesda, Md., habu snake.
Locke, Otto Martin, New Braunfels, Tex., 5 coachwhip snakes, 4 racers, 2
yellow bullsnakes, 2 indigo snakes.
Olafson, Joseph M., Falls Church, Va., jaguarondi.
Purkis, Mrs. Dorothy, Washington, D.C., woolly monkey.
Safeway Warehouse, Landover, Md., South American opossum.
Silva, James R., Washington, D.C., red-shouldered hawk.
Smith, Mrs. Hiram, Richmond, Va., ocelot.
Smith, Mrs. Leland F., Washington, D.C., cockatiel.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, Md., mink.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service: Mason, Mich., bald eagle; Seattle, Wash., 4 bald
eagles; Washington, N.C., bald eagle.
U.S. National Museum, through Dr. Philip Humphrey, 6 red-tailed tropicbirds.
BIRTHS AND HATCHINGS
Following the procedure of previous years, all births and hatchings
are listed below, whether or not the young were successfully reared.
In many instances the record of animals having bred in captivity is
of interest.
MAMMALS
Common name Number Common name Number
Squirrelmehiders= 22 en = of Neumann’ sizenet==—— = = 5
eireanenroo 24 fee os 1 Formosan spotted civet__________ 2
European hedgehog__----------- al Waters Civeh ee ae es Shee il
Range-taled lemur= 2.222 Ss cf Bobet: > ster Bit 2s ee eee 1
Sapercanonkey= 5 8 pail SH ET 7 pe ON oli ea Pope 1
Black spider monkey_---------~- 2 iBlacksleopardesss=. eee aa ee 2,
hesuspmonkey—2_ 2 eS ul PACEr Corie] OTe eee ewe eee ee 4
ReeEHIPY, AG os te 4 Poh 2 0 ee ae A ea eR a
SoobyeManzapey ans — = ea ee =i) Grants SyZODT aes 2 ae ee eee #1
DeBrazza's Zuenon___-=--=---==- *] Collaredtpeccary eee ee 3
Eiyorids ci DbOn ss 22 ee 2 Eippopotamuswees oo. = ane ul
Cmimpanzee) = 2-62 ss Peo alt Pygmy hippopotamus_______--___ 24
iewo-toedislothe=— 92222 — ee 2 Dlamay soso ee Sea ee 4
MOOG CHT Ck sens. SO PP ee 5 Wihitetallow, deer22=.=22222.222 2,
Eibie-COgte 222e ee eee 2 AIS Nd eerste ha. Sere ee ee Ns 2
Cay Glen oe a 1 Red deeria22 =: 22h ees 2
Crestediratesa= = Se 1 Sikaydeer2esse see eee a
Egyptian spiny mouse_____-____-_ 9 Wireinia «deer a— > . es ie eee 3
Parc OnaANCaAVY—.=—— = === 2 == 9 Reimndeers . =a5" 2s Bee 7
Speck Cd“ AZOUL = 25 os 523 | Caripous xe reing cera eas af!
LEG) RCT (5 aad pc lel eo a eh Oh 3 Bringleds one te. 2 ae eee 2
Mimber wok oi fe eo 5 Yak 22 OAS AL EE Wt Cy BS 1
<orennnbed res 9s et tyes St aes 2 Cape buftalosss2 Se uetne wy hese af!
European brown bear_____-----~ 3 Doreasgazellestees eS oP 2
“SAIN 0125: ) ee 2 African pyzmy,2o0at= 2
ElyOridenedies eee 2 en 5 Le 2, Barbary sheep==22—- 222922225 #2
EEACCOON Ge ee ee 2 ts ee 2
*Stillborn.
110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
BIRDS
Common name Number Common name Number
Crested. screamer..-——_--=--__.— 4 Mellard'duck2=22 22 Sea te 33
Whooper:swan22ss2= fs Peeves 1 Peafowl = 22222 2-2 Bae ae ee 4
Canada voosea sss cr ee eee ee 4 Iookaburra 2) 2s eee ee 8
Wioodiduck2=--22 2b shee Se 28 Formosan red-billed pie__--_____ 3
REPTILES
Box turtle: oes =e es ee 1 Crevice spiny lizard_____________ 31
Painted tuntlets.—— =o. is eee 10 Ribbonsnalkke== ee aire be ee ae 8
Red-lined\s turtles: 31 Queen'snakevs = Se Byes eee 6
Yellow-bellied turtle__________-- 13 Garter‘snake? 22. Se eee 8
Northern yellow-bellied turtle___ 10
DEPOSITS
During the process of the National Zoological Park’s capital im-
provement program, animals which are rare in the United States and
would be crowded or poorly housed during the construction period
are being sent to municipal zoos and other facilities. During the
past year rare or valuable specimens have been dispersed to locations
thought to have good breeding conditions as well as better living
accommodations. Other animals have been dispersed with the under-
standing that they or similar specimens will be returned when suitable
portions of the new exhibit areas are available here in the park. These
deposits are:
Brookfield Zoo, Brookfield, Il1., female Dall sheep.
Busch Gardens, Tampa, Fla., male concave-casqued hornbill, female Solomon
Islands cockatoo.
Defense General Supply Center Preserve, Richmond, Va., male American elk.
Round Lake Waterfowl Station, Round Lake, Minn., 31 cotton teals.
St. Louis Zoo, St. Louis, Mo., male guar, 4 king penguins, Adélie penguin,
female chimpanzee.
EXCHANGES
The National Zoological Park continues a program of exchanging
surplus animals with zoos of other countries. Notable exchange
arrangements were negotiated with several foreign zoos. The West
Berlin Zoo in Germany received 4 wood ducks, 2 turkey vultures,
2 whistling swans, 2 great horned owls, a red-tailed hawk, a red-
shouldered hawk, and 2 barred owls. El Pinar Zoo in Caracas, Vene-
zuela, received 2 American alligators, a pair of wood ducks, and a
female Nile hippopotamus. The Calgary Zoo, Alberta, Canada,
received 2 scarlet ibises, 2 roseate spoonbills, 2 cattle egrets, 2 eastern
glossy ibises, 2 little blue herons, a Louisiana heron, a red-shouldered
hawk, an osprey, 2 chimachimas, 2 crested curassows, an Ariel toucan,
2 barred owls, and 2 kookaburras. The Edinburgh Zoo in Scotland
SECRETARY'S REPORT BET
received 6 raccoons, 1 jaguarondi, 2 squirrel monkeys, 2 kinkajous,
4 opossums, and 3 king snakes.
The exchange of specimens with zoos and institutions in the United
States is also continuing. With the decrease in wild animal popu-
lations in various parts of the world, it becomes important to replace
animal losses from stock propagated in other zoos. An actual sur-
plus of any one kind of animal is best dissipated by distributing to
other American zoos so that new displays and further propagation
may be achieved.
Animals obtained through exchange were:
Baltimore Zoo, Baltimore, Md., Grant’s zebra.
Bronx Zoo, New York, N.Y., cusimanse, European dormouse, 2 otters.
Buffalo Zoo, Buffalo, N.Y., 5 timber rattlesnakes, 2 black garter snakes, 2
Blanding’s turtles.
Calgary Zoological Society, Alberta, Canada, 2 bald eagles.
Cheyenne Mountain Zoo, Colorado Springs, Colo., 8 golden-mantled ground
squirrels.
Cincinnati Zoo, Cincinnati, Ohio, clouded leopard.
Columbus Zoo, Columbus, Ohio, 2 golden eagles, king vulture.
Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, Mass., 2 giant salamanders, puma.
Hanson, Charles, Oak Harbor, Ohio, Arizona king snake, ground snake, 2 shovel-
nosed snakes, California mountain king snake, hooded merganser, 3 sidewinder
rattlesnakes, alligator lizard, Texas long-nosed snake, eastern massasauga.
Houston Zoological Gardens, Houston, Tex., 6 blotched water snakes, 2 yellow-
bellied water snakes, diamondback water snake, 2 coral snakes, 6 water
moccasins, 5 rat snakes, 7 western rattlesnakes, 2 speckled king snakes, 3
Lindheimer’s rat snakes.
Hoxie Bardex Circus, Sarasota, Fla., wild hog.
Kenefick, James H., Danielson, Conn., pygmy rattlesnake, 2 gopher tortoises.
Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, Ill., brown lemur, ruffed lemur.
Mortimer, Bill, Anaheim, Calif., rosy boa, chuckwalla.
Norfolk Zoo, Norfolk, Va., 4 cottonmouth water moccasins, 2 common king snakes,
brown water snake, rainbow snake, 2 canebrake rattlesnakes.
San Diego Zoo, San Diego, Calif., Allen’s swamp monkey (male).
Tote-Em-In Zoo, Wilmington, N.C., 2 star tortoises, leopard, African scorpion,
4 African red-tail squirrels, puff adder, unidentified tortoise, tree shrew, 2
moustached marmosets, African python, Indian python, titi monkey.
Zinner, Hermann, Vienna, Austria, 12 European vipers, 3 sand vipers, 3 Aescu-
lapian snakes, 3 European water snakes, 14 European lizards, 5 European
turtles, 2 sand boas.
The following animals were sent to other zoos and to private
collectors in exchange:
Air Force Institute of Pathology, Washington, D.C., water moccasin, Asiatic rat
snake, many-banded krait, green palm viper, lesser Indian rat snake.
Baltimore Zoo, Baltimore, Md., Nile hippopotamous, Grant’s zebra.
British Guiana Zoo, Georgetown, British Guiana, lion cub (female).
Buck, Warren, Marlton, N.J., 4 Gelada baboons.
Buffalo Zoo, Buffalo, N.Y., lesser panda, 2 Taiwan cobras.
Busch Gardens, Tampa, Fla., 2 whistling swans.
112 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Cincinnati Zoo, Cincinnati, Ohio, 4 mallards, 4 wood ducks, 4 lesser scaups,
4 canvasbacks, ringneck duck, redhead duck, emu, 2 glossy ibises, 2 scarlet
ibises, 3 snowy egrets, Bengal tiger, 2 European brown bear cubs.
Emperor Valley Zoo, Port of Spain, Trinidad, genet, cacomistle, 2 California
ground squirrels, kinkajou.
Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, Mass., 2 black swans, 2 whistling swans, cavy.
Fresno Zoo, Fresno, Calif., 3 cattle egrets.
Hanson, Charles, Oak Harbor, Ohio, lesser Indian rat snake, Aesculapian snake,
Taiwan habu, palm viper, krait, western cottonmouth moccasin.
Hoxie Bardex Circus, Sarasota, Fla., 2 squirrel monkeys.
Jimmy Morgan Zoo, Birmingham, Ala., 2 magpies.
John Ball Zoological Park, Grand Rapids, Mich., 2 scarlet ibises, 2 curassows,
2 roseate spoonbills.
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Md., 4 canvasback ducks.
Lincoln Park Zoo, Chicago, U1., lemur catta, pair Barbary apes.
Lincoln Park Zoo, Oklahoma City, Olka., 2 scarlet ibises.
Mortimer, Bill, Anaheim, Calif., 2 baby Cook’s tree boas, Aesculapian snake.
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md., 4 fat-tailed gerbils, alligator,
Neumann’s genet.
Palmer, Harold C., Douglasville, Ga., squirrel monkey, kookaburra.
Patuxent Wildlife Refuge, Laurel, Md., red-tailed hawk, 2 sparrow hawks, barn
owl, 3 great horned owls, 4 barred owls, 12 wood thrushes, 9 buntings, warblers.
San Diego Zoo, San Diego, Calif., Allen’s swamp monkey (female).
Southwick Game Farm, Blackstone, Mass., 2 axis deer.
Zinner, Hermann, Vienna, Austria, Lindheimer’s snake, 2 pilot black snakes,
3 bull snakes, timber rattler, 2 western diamondback rattlesnakes, 2 southern
copperheads, 3 water moccasins, 25 anoles, spiny-tailed iguana, common iguana,
speckled king snake, common king snake, 2 common water snakes, diamond-
backed water snake, 3 broad-banded water snakes, yellow-bellied water snake,
3 blotched water snakes, 3 indigo snakes.
PURCHASES
The National Zoological Park has been fortunate in purchasing a
wild Grevy zebra stallion from Africa. This animal is particularly
valuable in that wild blood has been assured in the continued breeding
program of the Grevy herd here in the zoo.
The same is true of a male Masai giraffe import. The reception of
this animal completes a trio of these unusual animals, and it is
hoped that they will produce fine offspring—important items in the
program of the interchange of animals among zoos of the United
States.
A monkey or baboon island is a great attraction to visitors to any
zoo. With the hope of a new island exhibit to be built, 16 Gelada
baboons from Ethiopia were purchased and are being acclimated as
eventual inhabitants of an island exhibit. Geladas are among the
most hardy of the primate family, and it is expected that these speci-
mens will condition to year-round outdoor environment with minimum
heat requirements for their well-being.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 113
Other purchases of interest were:
6 lungfishes 2 olive baboons
3 cantils 2 South American wood rails
2 Mexican beaded lizards 1 wattled guan
STATUS OF THE COLLECTION, JUNE 30, 1963
Class Orders Families Species or Individuals
subspecies
Ayer 2h] 3 eer a a SEAS ht 12 47 238 646
RIG ee eee oe ne BUPA 20 67 343 1, 068
Pee iiled ee eee oe oe 2 DE 4 25 192 699
PANPMPIANS a= 22s LLL So Ys 2 10 25 107
lO) oe se act, SE a 4 10 23 66
PMECHTOPOUS soso noose ELS ee: 3 4 4 ae
MouUuSksee 2 a-- cs eee 1 1 1 30
Oba] wees S&S See ie 46 164 826 2, 693
In the following list of mammals, sex is given where known; 1.0
indicates one male, 0.1 indicates one female, 1.1 indicates one male and
one female, etc. :
ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION ON JUNE 30, 1963
MAMMALS
MONOTREMATA
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Tachyglossidae:
Echidna, or spiny anteater_________ Tachyglossus aculeatus_________ 0.1
MARSUPIALIA
Didelphidae:
DOSS = = ss Didelphis marsupialis virginiana. 0.1
MNTING OPOSsUMee 2 === ee a Marmose SP sow fen aah Br ee ee 0.1
Central American opossum______-__ Didelphis marsupialis__________ 2.0
Dasyuridae:
Tasmanian. (evils 2222= = Soe Sarcophilus harrisii___.__._______ 0)
Phalangeridae:
Sire Cais et ae eee Petaurus breviceps_____________ ala
Squirreleelidert== 2825 2-22 - bee ee Petaurus norfolcensis___________ 2.4
Phascolomidae:
Hairy-nosed wombat_______________ Lasiorhinus latifrons___________ 2.0
Mainland wombates.=- 2-225 Wombatus hirsutus___._________ ORL
Macropodidae:
PPreeskonearoOs<2 22452202. Seldon ts Dendrolagus matschiei_________ 1.0
LP OTPLC Tt) ae. ne 2] eee POlOTOUs) Spo. 2 he ee G9
INSECTIVORA
Erinaceidae:
European hedgehog________________ Brinaceus europaeus____________ PAL
African desert hedgehog____________. Paraechinus sp_...._______-.___ 0.1
114 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
PRIMATES
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Lemuridae:
Ring-talled lemur] so ee Lemur TCA eee PAA
IBTOW?: LeMmUt: 2s ss ee eee see TON U0 S ae eee eee nea
Lorisidae:
Greatccalagote =. 288 1-3 oe ue os Galago crassicaudatus_______-__ agal
ipushbaby2-228 cess ee Galago senegalensis zanzibaricus. 2.0
Common {pottes-—2. a Shee ae ee Perodicticus potto______________ 0.1
Cebidae:
DOUrOUCOU sels. Oe i See Aotus trivirgatus_——- _—- == 2.0
Titiemonkeya=— 2 ee ees ee Callicebus cupreus____________-~ 1.0
Capuchinasee 2. oo ease Cebus capucinus________________ 3.5
Weeping capuchin_____---_-__-__-_-_ Cebus: griseus. 2s = eee 1.0
Wihite-faced?saki-o S208 2 oe oan Fees Pitheca pithecia= = 0.1
Squitrelsmon key" oes er eee SGtmiiisCiueul saan ee 2.3
Spidersnonkey = 22 ae 2 ee AtClLES GCC FOi==— = ees 1.5
Black spider monkey__________-----. Alt Clesiusciceps== = 1.5
Wioolly:monkey= 2S ae eee TAH AKON ORES) 0 ae ala al
Callithricidae :
Pyemysmatm OSCbaas = ae oe eee Cebuella pygmaea__________-__- 1.0
Cottontop marmoset__-------------- Saguinus oedipus_______________ 110
Red-handed marmoset______-_------ SQGIINUS N18 ee eee 0.1
Moustachedutamarin== 2 22> ssa eee. Saguinus mystar_______________ ual
Cercopithecidae:
Toque, or bonnet macaque_____------ Macaca sinicas==. 115,92
Philippine macaques. 2222 2——= = ==. Macaca philippinensis__________ 1.0
Crab-eating macaque______________-. Macaca’ truss. eee 0.1
Rhesus monkeys 22s Ree eee. Macaca mutatta.—_------——_____ Ba al
Javan smacaquessc-2 222 see Macaca irus mordagp.—22- == My, ah
Formosan macaque_________-_____-- Macaca cyclopis-——— === == a, al
Red-faced macaque___-------------- Macaca spectosa________________ 0.1
IBALDAT Ve Pe ee eee ee Le Macaca sylvanus____.___________ 5.1
MOOT e111 Ca CU ea ees MC COCHIN CALTAS ae 0.1
Gray-cheeked mangabey__---_------ Cercocebus albigena=- = 0.1
Agile mangabey assem ie ee Cercocebus agilis_______________ 1.0
Golden-bellied mangabey__-__--_---- Cercocebus chrysogaster________ 1.0
Red-crowned mangabey__--_-----_-~- Cercocebus torquatus___________ nal
Sooty, mangabey=- ee See Cercocebus fuliginosus_____-____ Sal!
Crested mangahey2—-2 == 22-3 eae Cercocebus aterrimus___________ 1.0
Black-crested mangabey__-__-__-__-. Cercocebus aterrimus___________ 2 By |
rite see $oee eo EUR A a eee Mandrillus leucophaeus_________ 1.0
Oliveibaboon ss 202 2S ees Bes ee Papio: @uiibisen. be se ee Sue
Gelada baboon. ateek Aes Theropithecus gelada_.__________ 7.6
Chaemaibaboont22. 222 Papio comatus____-— 1.0
Wervet cuenon Sirloin PAR ee: Cercopithecus aethiops__________ 1.0
Green guenon.. See. . Bee oe Cercopithecus aethiops__________ Ste,
Grivet guenon (color variant) _______ Cercopithecus aethiops__________ 0.1
Moustached monkey__—__-_-____-___ Cercopithecus cephus___________ il, 4
Diana wmonkey=.22-5 = — 3 Bee Cercopithecus diana____-_______ 1.0
Rol oweaya monkeys sae a= = ee ae Cercopithecus diana roloway__._ 0.1
DeBrazza:s suenons sas. ee eee Cercopithecus neglectus_________ 1.0
White-nosed guenon_____________-_-. Cercopithecus nictitans_____--__ 0.1
SECRETARY’S REPORT ES
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Cercopithecidae—Continued
Lesser white-nosed guenon________-_ Cercopithecus petaurista______-_ 1.0
Allen’s swamp monkey__----------- Allenopithecus nigroviridis_____- bal
Spectacled, or Phayre’s, langur__---- Presvyits phayrneta ee ee eee 1.0
Hanuman, or eniellus monkey-_-_-_---- IPresuytis sentellises eee ee thal
Wrestedvlangurs=2- Ss eee Presbytis cristatus—2 22 <= 2 ee 1.0
Pongidae:
White-handed gibbon_____--_---_--- Hylobates:.ar wees eee ial
Wiau-waur cibpons tetas Ss Hylotates. motocha222 0.1
Ey bride cipbonee 22st es SO eet Hylobates lar < H. spii--=—---= 0.5
Siamangs gibbons lo aeons See eee Symphalangus syndactylus_____- TO
Sumatran, orancutan= PONGO) DIGNCCUSS == ee ipa
iRBornean, orangutan’. =) So Ses eet Pongo pygnecis = 0.1
PANES oes 2 ee Pon satyruss 2 22e SS aee 3.2
lowland -coriilg 2 eons) ae Goritla;goritiaj=_ = Seat 2.1
EDENTATA
Myrmecophagidae:
Gaanieantenters a. ee ee ee Myrmecophaga tridactyla_____-- 0.1
Bradypodidae:
iwoO-toed. sloth.) 22. a So Choloepus didactyius______ 3.4
Dasypodidae:
Nine-banded armadillo____-_--_---_ Dasypus novemcinctus________-- 0.1
RODENTIA
Sciuridae:
European red squirrel_________--_-- Scturus vulgarisea. = eee Pe a
Gray squirrel, albino. 22-022) EE) Sciurus carolinensis__.__________ 2.0
Tassel-eared, or Abert’s squirrel____-_ Sciunus ae; 60)
Western fox -SQUIPTelio= = 22 a SCUTUS = 110 Cra eee 1.0
InGiane palm! squirrel=— === ——-=— se Funambulus palmarum_____---- 0.1
South African red squirrel_________-_ Parawverus patiiatus_—_—_ = 2,
ri-colored, squirrela=—_ === eee Catlosciurus’ prevostizg--=— == 0.1
Formosan tree squirrel____________- Callosciurus erythraeus____-_-_- Anat
Woodchuck, or groundhog___________ Marmot Monat === ee 4.2
IB Rit Ss 0) ae re ee Cynomys ludovicianus____-----~ 15
California ground squirrel__________ Citellus beecheyt__.____.__.______ oes
Washington ground squirrel_______-_ Citellus washinygtoni___________- niet
Golden-mantled ground squirrel____ Citellus lateralis._.___._________-- 2.4
Hastern= chipmunk! 2-2-2 Sy GMS StL See a ee ee ial
Eastern chipmunk, albino____-_____ TONias: Striatuse 1eO
Wellow, pine chipmunk. 222022 Hutamias amoenus______---___- 0.1
Townsend’s chipmunk______________ Eutamias townsendii________--- 1.0
Hastern flying squirrel___._________ Glaucomys volans_____________- ues
Heteromyidae:
Bete T OO ePata as eas a ee ve ae 2 Dinodomys spss eee 2. 0
Castoridae:
MEINE as erm pe eee eee ee Castor canadensis==—- 3
Pedetidae:
Cape jumping hare. = = Pedetes capensis = 2.1
Cricetidae:
iaite-footed “‘mouse_.-...-- Peromyscus sp_---------- Pech 1.3
East African maned rat.___________ Lophiomys ibeanus_____-------- 2.0
116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Cricetidae—Continued
IPine@nVole: = => <Sae Aaa ee As Microtus pinetorum__________- 1.0
Gerbils so ee eee Gerbillus pyramidum______----- 0.1
Mat-tailed) £erbil-— ee eae Pachyuromys duprasi___________ 3.3
Hevptian Serbia eee Gerbillusidasyunus=—— = 0.1
Hairy-tailed jirds=.- 2 eee Sekeetamys calurus__------_____ 0.1
Muridae:
Heyptianespiny, mousese==— == Acomys cairns 10. 14
Heypian Spiny, MOUSeSe= === Acomys dimidiatus_______--__~~ 6. 10
Giant forest rate. 2224 et Cricetomys gambianus ssp__----~ 1.0
Slender-tailed cloud rat____._._---_- Phloeomys cuwmingii_______--.—— 1.0
Gliridae:
Garden dormonse: eee HOMYS QUereinUs =e 0.1
Hystricidae:
Vail aye DONC Up LT Cees eee ees Acanthion brachyura______--____ 1.0
ATICANEPOLCUDINe sass ae I EUSPOD (GEISUOT a 2.4
Palawan. porcupine= 22.22 aaa ERECUTALS PD IINAS =e aeal
Caviidae:
Pataeconianh CAVy 22a eae eee Dolichotis patagonum___________ 3.6
Dasyproctidae :
Hairy-rumped agouti-.----- == Dasyprocta prymnolopha________ 24, dh
Acouti black phasel=222222 2222222 Dasyprocta prymnolopha________ kal
ASCO UI CI Yee rt ea aoe oe Myoprocta acouchy-—___________ 1.0
Chinchillidae :
Mountains viscachasas== === aaa LAgidiunsp =e ee 0.1
CARNIVORA
Canidae:
TO Sra) eee pp ain eg aN ee Canis familiaris dingo__________ 1E2
WOY OVC =e ae Sees ar eee ee CONSOLE ONS re ae ee 0.1
Common, jackaless ee ee Canisiauncy coe eee ile
TINTING Ts WO ie ak te ecm ce Canis lupus nubilus_____________ iL 3
Texas red woOlits 2222 ee Canis niger rufus_______________ 0.1
PAST: CE] C tes 0 Reco tee a een nee AlOpeD? LAG Opus. na oe 1.0
THQ INTC Cyan e eee are las Suh a Re Pee ane CNN CCUSES CEO =e = ann ile il
(Say aa) Kee see aes ae ee Urocyon cinereoargenteus_______ Th, @
ERC 0 Kee ee ee et VALLE ASG LLB SAA REISS Sa AS 1.0
IRA COCOONS OS at ee eee ee Nyctereutes procyonoides________ ial
Cape shunting dog 2e sea LY CAO PiCitse na ee 1.1
Ursidae:
Spectacled! bear-- =.= ee Tremarctos Ornatus=— = 1.0
imal ayant peas eee Selenarctos thibetanus__________ 0.1
wapanese black beaten 22222 = aes Selenarctos thibetanus japoni-
CUS oh Sh a ee ee 1.0
ROT CAT DCA Te sees a trae a eee Selenarctos thibetanus wssuri-
GUS sata eS le Ce es ial.
European brown bear________-_____ OLR IO UE ROTO eee ee ey ee 1.2
Iranianeorown, Deatsss== == eee Ursus arctos syriacus___________ feel
(CRAAA NAA yesh Coe ee ee eae OUSUS MOTT DUG eee Tal
1 BAG VCl teh] OS oer Am an a i retain eevee Huarctos americanus__-_-__-__-- iby ak
2 OLA RD ONT ete a ee Bee ee Thatarctos maritimus_—_——-_- = LD
Fy brid beat =22— soo eee eee Thalarctos maritimus xX Ursus
Mitdendorji---— ee Ds He
SECRETARY’S REPORT 117
Family and common name Scientifie name Number
Ursidae—Continued
Malayan sun) Dears sss. aan ae ee Heiarctos malayanus____-------~ 0. 2
Slothupea r= = 2 2. ee MElUPSUS) U;StNUS. oe eee ileal
Procyonidae:
WHCOMISHE = 2 re BQS8aQriscus GStutuse. 2 ene 2.2,
RACCOON) ee ee rar PROCYON LOL OTe aoe at eee ea 1.4
AeCcoon Al DiINO === ae ee eee PTOCY ONILOL OTs ee ee 0.1
accoon biack phases ===" - == sees PT OCYONMOL OT 2a = eae eae eee 1.0
MUS RTTNUITN Gly oe a ee ee iINQSUGEROSUG ene ee 18}
Redecomtimundi— eee Se ee INOS UO IG SU ee ae 1.0
Peruvian coatimundi_____________-_ NQSUANASUG dOTSAlige ea a lea
RSE nl OM eee whee POt08 fLQ0Us Es Sa Se ee eae Qe
CISTI? [2 Sl A ta ae ae Bassaricyon gabbi._____________- 1.0
Mustelidae:
TUT esr eee ee ee ee Martes americang 0.1
Mishe ree a Se ee sees MOaTrtes DCnnONt == (iat
British Guiana tayra- = Hira barbara poliocephala_______ iat
(GROWS OID. ahi Sellers” cen pe egeaen neni yh Galictis allamandt_._____________ 1.0
OT eee te WCTONUL SCROLLS oe 1.6
OV Ginb@ree ta a ae Nae GlOpGUlOMuUsCusaas =a eee 0.1
TREE. ace ee ae nena ec ip ea ree Mellivora capensis____-_________ 1.0
(American paacer. 1 eo Secure LGU CON AUUSs 1.0
Golden-bellied ferret-badger__.______ Melogale moschata subaurantiaca 1.2
Gounioniskunic. oe Mephitis mepiitis-——_ 250)
California spotted skunk___________- Spilogale putorius phenar_____—_ 1.0
RV CLIOEL OTe eee ean eee eee TUT CONDACNSISa 2 ae ee 2.0
Viverridae:
CXCTOUEYE, = 0 pe Dace a er ea ane eo Genctta genetta neumanni_______ D2 15)
Genetablack phase___ = = = ee GenettaigenettG=—— ee 1.0
Formosan spotted civet________--_-_ Vaverrnicula indical==-- =e eat
insane Ee ee PxiOn0Odon.insang == ee 0.1
AtrIcamipa ln Clyet= =. = ee Nandinia binotata___— = shea
Hormosan masked civet-222— 32-2 Paguma larvata taivana_________ 1.0
BS iain OTa oe nt ee ee APCLiCL® (OINLUTONG = =a ae 1.0
African gray mongoose_____________ Herpestes 1chneumon._ a 0.1
Atricanw water Clyet= 22222). setae ATH OD POLULGINGSUsas aaa 1.4
African striped mongoose___________ Crossarchus fasciatus______-____ ab al
Wusimanse 2— 3 Se tetle pte eh Ornossarchiusisp = 0.1
White-tailed mongoose_______________ fchneumia albicauda__—__-______ 1.0
Black-footed mongoose______________ Bdeogatle: sp. sees eas ae ee est
Hyaenidae:
iIPCOMNV OND! 22a a a HYEnG RY CONG == 8 to reat
Felidae:
1830) OO Raa peste leah eater hy aaa Ae Aplin, Sala TUDE th fy Se ee aljal
Canagiane lynx loo eee ee Lymn CONGUENSIS a a eee 1.0
(CENTRO ae eae SS poe eta Ak Aa Bb Mate Lyne caracal-caracal___________— 1.0
INNA Meese eee Ever e hw Se ne CUS CTU Sane ee ipa
AAS SS) CAta se wae eee ee Mae Sees HCUSRIN Gan ee a bya
“SEE ED rat ah a len Pp RCTIS SCT UG tenn ete nee 0. 2
EO DATO CH Lae ee eS ee ES Re MCUs SUCHUALENS Se ee 1.0
SOLA eTea teen ree ere Nee CUES UT CL ee ee ee rer 1.0
LUE Fe aeae aung lc PHATE DANTE RE TY A ee = 1.2
720—-018—64——_9
118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Felidae—Continued
Jaguarondi== 2-2" 2" 2n=S eeee eee Pelis yagoucroundiL 2-225 = ataa |
iPuMessze=2-22=<>) See eee Beis: CONCOLOT 225-2 ee ee AL
heopard.-2=- 252: 5* a So Poanthera pardus2— 2a 3.1
iBlackJeopard:s-. 2 eee Panthera pardis_— eee 1.2
DulONe settee ae ose Pee Poanthera leOsnaon = = a 4.4
iBengaltiger=====-.2<-4 53S Sees Panthera “tignis—-- == es ee Zu
White sBengal. tigers+=- 50) eaeetre Panthera jtigrig2 oe se os 0.1
AGU RT eae oe BEE. SS: Panthera oneg=2--—- = ee 1.0
Clouded sleopard==-==-44 232 ees Neofelis nebulosa.. os ee 2:0
puow leopard=+- == 2220 yee Unie Unclaenebe eee eee a1
Cheetah rat 2222 eke See eee Acinonyw jubata.______________ he a
PINNIPEDIA
Otariidae:
California’ sea-lione a2 Zalophus californianus________- Soe
Patagonian sea-lion=------- 5 Otaria flavescens.___-___________ 0.1
Phocidae:
LATO ea SO sa ee es ee Pho iin ee ie al
TUBULIDENTATA
Orycteropodidae:
Serva Kee a2 er Oryeteropus aie 1.0
PROBOSCIDEA
Elephantidae:
African elephant= 5222. ses Lozodonta africana____________ 0.1
Forest; elephanta=<-= —2-22s5——20s—-—— Loxodonta cyclotis_____________ 1.0
Indiankelephants2s2e a5 2-5. eae Elephas marimus____--__------ 0. 2
PERISSODACTYLA
Equidae:
Mongolian wild horse___-.--.---~-- Hquus przewalskii__________-___ 1.0
Grevy sizebraa ses a tere ea eee HQUUS. GLevyizo2c ee 1 2
Grant’s)zeprasvas ue 2555S eee Hqauwus burcheliio 2 Se 1.3
Burro; .or Gdonkey2s2s22022 5S EL UALS UST Gee 1.0
Tapiridae:
Brazilian tapirco = ee Rapirus, wernestrisa. ae ee a beat
Rhinocerotidae:
Indian one-horned rhinoceros__----- Rhinoceros unicornis_____--_____ 1.0
African black rhinoceros___~-----~- Dicerossbiconis== eee ilgal
White, or square-lipped, rhinoceros__ Ceratotherium simum_____----~_- ial
ARTIODACTYLA
Tayassuidae:
Collared, pectary.—2=2--- S a= TOYOSSU LQjACts == ee 4.3
Hippopotamidae:
I pPODOLAMUS (= =e eee Hippopotamus amphibius______- aby al
Pygmy hippopotamus____-.--.._---. Choeropsis liberiensis___________ 1.4
Camelidae:
Bactrianw. camel. 2-7 aa ee Camelus bactrianus__________--~ 0.1
18 ip ae eS, ee LEOMG 2 GlOMe eee eee 2.4
GUANACOs = 28 2 ee oe ee eae Lama glama guanicoe______---_~ a a |
PAA Cab css ee ee ee J5QNG) PAC08 2 2a ae Ee nl
SECRETARY’S REPORT
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Cervidae:
Winite tallow deer2——- 2-2 (DONG) CaMGs52 22 aa
PANS Spe CLC GT Se es ee eS es AGS! C216 2 EOE i ene 3.2
egmdeers= - seams Ae se ee Cervus claplhwesa 2s eee eee 4.3
CSI Ee (gL) eng a PE ere LO Cenvus) vippone. 2 ee Ball
Bere David's:.deer. 23. Hiaphurus davidianus__________ 1.0
White-tailed, or Virginia, deer______ Odocoileus virginianus__________ 2.6
JSTTEIAT GHG) eee ee Cervus canadensis______________ *1.0
Marest: Cari DOU] ti aat Fie out Hee NS Rangifer caribou..---=-—- yal
TENT DOCG (22) a et a Rangifer tarandus__.___________ 3.11
Giraffidae:
JC) OY EW eta EW, ee ao Girajffa camelopardalis__________ 0.1
Masai oiraite: 222 oe set oe dick ee Giraffa c. tippelskirchi___._______ ey
Bovidae:
PS NEESR EUR 2 SO a ae ii Tl en es ans Tragelaphus spekii__.___________ 1.0
LATTOYTY (> bel SP pe ee ee eee Se Anoa depressicornis____________ a |
Ver fe ae oO Cee eee eee es Poephagus grunniens___________ 13
COPD he es EE NL Sa Pe Bibos gauruselevus oe ei 2.0
Cape DUsba] Oe oe Mews te eee ure al BYNCOTUS COT ON secs ies ol 1.4
PSIMOTI CAT DI SON es oa vey ae Bi861s HSORE EA Se owe ee 1.0
1 Eig bax C75 ea 09 5 ee eT Connochaetes taurinus__________ 1.4
Morcant 2azelle = 2th b- - nsec ote Gazella dorcas___.-...-.-.-___ 3. 4
Nal sarantel Opes 2h as eS ye Saiga tatarica____.......-.--._- 0.1
Rocky, Mountain goat. 2 Oreamnos americanus__________ 0.1
Bimalavan talr 2 253 Hemitragus jemlahicus_________ 0.1
African pyzmy goat. Vee Capra hirttigss 22a oes 3. 2
10 OSS 0 EE ae ee ee ee Capraibers 2 eee 1.0
Aoudad, or Barbary sheep_________- Ammotragus lervia___.____.____ 5 aL
HM altsheep nso TSE ee Ss hs Ovte Galt 5 2s fy let hae *0.1
Biz-horn 'sheeps 22 ee A Ovis' canadensis. see a Wal
BIRDS
SPHENISCIFORMES
Spheniscidae:
ne DON SUN ee Aptenodytes patagonica_________ *4
ACN e PENS UIN sh ee ee Pygoscelis adeliae________._____ *]
STRUTHIONIFORMES
Struthionidae:
RO SETICN taht dn eT Pe yet Sinuthioncameliss eae
RHEIFORMES
Rheidae:
Inia OLS eee ee eee Rhea americena_ eee
CASUARIIFORMES
Casuariidae:
Double-wattled cassowary__________ Casuarius bicarunculatus_______
Dromiceidae:
Eanes nent ee Oe aS ey Dromiceius novaehollandiae___.-
*On deposit at another zoo or sanctuary
120 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
TINAMIFORMES
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Tinamidae:
Pilea tedentl ie 1 OU ee Orypturellus soui panamensis___— 1
PROCELLARIFORMES
Diomedeidae:
Black-footed albatross_____-___._-__ Diomedeanignpes._—__-- _ as 2
Phaethontidae:
Red-tailed: tropicbird=2=_ == ss Phaethon rubicauda_____-_--___ a
PELECANIFORMES
Pelecanidae;:
White pelicant2e eee sees Pelecanus erythrorhunchos_____- 3
IBLOw i peliCanMe sn =o a ee Pelecanus occidentalis___---_-—— 1
Dalmatian pelicans=2222- ss IRCleCOTUSICKispusaeeee n= aa 2
Sulidae:
Gannett ee ee SULCUS SANG eae eee 1
Phalacrocoracidae:
Double-crested cormorant________~-~- Phalacrocoraa auritus auritus___ 3
Phalacrocoragw auritus albocili-
Marallionseormorantee.. 22s. UTA oe 1
Huropeanieormorant=== see PHOLGCTOCOTALsCUTb C= =e 6
CICONIIFORMES
Ardeidae:
Reddish ecret——= 2 = =. Saat eewase Dichromanassa rufescens rufes-
CONS) 5. mt ae ee et See 8
Snowy egrets. 2 2 Ment Sees HorettG. (yileae aa ee 3
Basternioreen heron] 222) = ae Butorides virescens____________~ 2
Houisiana jheron] = =s see See Hydrandssa, tice, 2
Black-crowned night heron________~_ Naycticoran: nyjcthicorace—- =.= 12
AMmerieanepitkerne ===] soon. eee BOCGUTUWS LENUGINOSUWS= 2-2. a 1
Mie Cre pibtene sa ee eee ees Tigmsoma tineatuma =.= al
Balaenicipitidae :
Shelli ee ee eee Belaenicens 1602 1
Ciconiidae:
INMeTICAM A WOOd DIS] 22 Myeteria americand.2222 eee 2
Huropean white storks --)22=————— CiCOMi AAC CON d= eee 4
Wihite=helltedistorke seen Sphenorhynchos abdimia____-___ 2
@Open-billedistork=2 =e ee Anastomus oscitans_____- = 8 il
Threskiornithidae:
WNT SIDIG = 2 ee ae UGE CU Oe ee 2
Seale tlie ee GUGTORTUUCh i ee eee 2
IBIACkK-flcedsibisa- ee PWVCristiCus Mmelanonise = 1
PACK REA 1s se ee eee Threskiornis melanocephala____-_ 1
White-faced glossy ibis_________..—. Plegadis falcinellus mevicana____ i
MAStETM SLOSS yall see ne Piegadis falcinellus falcinellus__ il!
Phoenicopteridae:
Chileani i amine oes Saas ee eee Phoenicopterus chilensis_._______ 1
Cuban siamingoeese se aaa Phoenicopterus ruber_______---- ak
Old World flaminzos essa ae Phoenicopterus antiquorum____- al
SECRETARY’S REPORT 121
ANSERIFORMES
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Anhimidae:
Crested screamer n=). as ee Chaung torquate. == 6
Anatidae:
Woscorona swans aes ee eee COSCOnoUG. COSCO;0UU= 2 ae 4
IW Tne) Sie hee ee ee Cygnus: 0lorsse = ee ee 3
Biack-neckeduswale a2. 2 aoe Cygnus melanocoriphus_________ 2
MamnnrPE SWAN =o! 2.270 os eee! O1GR' CY GnUa se ek ee ee 4
NWRISTIN SS SWale 2 2 2S eee Olor columbianus.——— = 11
aren PeteLeS WAN === aa QUOTE WTEC TD a 2
PE cice SW Sue ee ee ee ed ee Chenopis atr0ta eee 7
HeVvotianO0SCa- =e ee Alopochen aegyptiacus__________ 4
White-fronted goose_________--_-_-- ANSEL OLDE; RON Sa ea eee ae 5
Indian bar-headed goose____-___---- ANser indicus. == 222 eee 5
HNIPCrOM 2 O00SO = oe a ee ee ANSCT CONQUICUS == Sen 2
IB THIS OOS Cena ae eee eee ANSEr COETULESCEN Se ae ee 6
WESSELISHOW. £O0SC. soe ee Anser caerulescens caerulescens__ 2
Greater snow goose______---__-____ Anser caerulescens atlanticus_._ 5
EVO SSiNIES OON Gee ees te sae Fe ne AN SCT TOSS ee ee ee 4
Nene, or Hawaiian goose________-_- Branta sandvicensis______._____ 2
Red-breasted goose___=—--_~-_==.-—— BRON MULCOUTSH =a ee 4
WANA a COOKE = | ae ee Brantaveconadensis==- 26
Messer Canada Loose. ==. a Brana conadensisa. =. === io
Giant, Canada goose] == --- ==. Branta canadensis major________ 4
Wreklineseo00SeL === === 2 Branta canadensis= 4
White-cheeked goose_______________ Branta canadensis__--_ 3
Canada goose X Lesser snow goose
(blae phase). hybrid]. == Branta canadensis X Anser
COCTULCSCONS = ee ee 1
iMulvous tree duck... Dendrocygna bicoltor____________ il
uddyashelduck- 2 = CASU;COenTUGinte == 2
NWVGOOCGMGNCKea—— == nat Br AAD ESN ONS Cee ee 104
Mandarin duck. 2-2.) 2 2a VETO CLC TAO ULL eee 12
indianveotton teals 2s. Nettapus coromadelianus_______ *8
STA Geta log CVU Kee ae eee eee ANG SOC TA Sawn nre rr re ee 4
Green=winged teal ANRQSHCTECCOME == ee es 1
Chestnut-breasted teal______________ ATU SECURE IVC en ns 1
EGKG HN esa cee es pnarpaens cle al Pets cake ool AVES SCVeD EN Ce ee 4
HMIrOpeaTy WidZeOne = eee PALTLCUS ID TUG LOM) Creer ee 2
SVMs easel Se OU Cie ee ee ee Anas platyrhynchos____________ 60
Mallard duck X American pintail
pucks hy Dri dese as ee ee Anas platyrhynchos * Anas
OCCULT aE e ee ret eee re al
a Cie Ol Ckte es ee ee ee ee AOS STALO TAD Caen et eee eee 8
Greateriscanp duck_2-- se CH Y Ce YLT ee ee 11
ESSerESCAID .GuUCK=—2 = 50 ee ee AnLhy@ ARVs == 55
PR RRR aceite ee Sk a le Aythya americana... = ile
ine -necked) duck. 55st eases FRAN OIOT 18
Ganvasback., duck... =. Aqythy@ walisineria =~ 40
osy-billeds pochard..--aatase see Metopiana peposaca___________. 1
*On deposit at another zoo or sanctuary.
122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Family and common name Scientific name
Anatidae—Continued
ied-crested pochards = sass. ase ae Netiarujing=2- ae
Builehead======- sees we eye J Bucephala albeola____________
American’ goldeneyes2= 22-22. Sees Bucephala clangula__________-
Baldpatessa ns See eee Mareca americana______-_----
Hooded:smerganser=— 2. = = ee Lophodytes cucullatus________
FALCONIFORMES
Cathartidae:
Andean! COnd OR 2 a ee ee Valine Ory psa eee
Kine viltures- = S2 bow ee Sarcoramphus papa—_________
Sagittariidae:
Secretary bird 2 2 eee Sagittarius serpentarius______
Accipitridae:
Hooded vultures a eee Necrosyrtes monachus_______~
Gritton vultures. ss = eee GUNS ALU See re
Ruppellss vultures = 222s Gyps ruppetlti____
African yellow-billed kite__-__-.--_- Malous Mgr anseaa == ee
Brahminy “kitew ssa eee FT QUCSTUT ANGUS ee ee
iBlack-taced@hawk=se==) === ee Leucopternis melanops__---—_~
Red-winged Nawke sos. eee Heterospizias meridionalis____
Red-tailed: hawks ae = ee Buteo jamaicensis____________
Swainson’s hawkes 22 Buteo swainsoni______________
Mauduyt’s hawk eagle______________ Spizaetus Ofrnavss-
Black-crested eagle.__________----- Lophaetus occipitalis____._____
Great black hawk________-_ ee Ictinaetus malayensis_________
Goldenvedgle=so2 2 eave ee eae Aquila chrysaetos___________-
imperial eagles 22-222 oe ae AQUA NCU ACU = aaa = ea
White-breasted sea eagle_________-_- Haliaee tus leucogaster_______
Pallas sieae lems Jee le ee Haliaeetus leucoryphus_______
Baldtedgle= 22s. ele ele Sete eae Haliaeetus leucocephalus______
Harpy eeael ese i tet eth aw Lae ae Harpia: Narpyjta—
Guianan crested eagle____-__________ Morphnus guianensis_________
Martialeaolestsson) Sik ss oe Polemaetus bellicosus_________
Batelent veal excsc. Bese oe ot ee Terathopius ecaudatus________
WaMIMECPSClOR aie sess ES De Gypaetus barbatus____________
Falconidae:
SDE OW: ol HW ikea ae ake ee Falco sparverius__.____---___-
WMncke haw ke sss ee eae ee ee Falco peregrinus anatum_____~
Keildenisralconctiss= 2) = =as eee Neohieraw cinereiceps________-
Hed-footed tal cone ss sa= ss eee Faico vespertinus_____________
Morestacal cons. eee Micrastur semitorquatus______
CM a 8 Oe re eee ee ee ee Milwago chimango_——____ =
AUGUDOn Ss Cara Caras ess tae Polyvorus cheriway_-_________
White-throated caracara____________ Phalcoboenus albogularis______
GALLIFORMES
Megapodiidae:
iBrusheturkey->=-.—- ee ae Alectina lathamiz_ == = Ss
Cracidae:
Wattled-curassow.2 = es Onanaglobulos¢= eS as
White-headed piping guan_________- Pipile cumanensis________--_-
Wrattled: cuano: = 225 eae ee Pipileisp =: 26.24 eaitees 1a arnt
co OM oy ee CC
HNP HHH ap
me bho
SECRETARY’S REPORT
123
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Phasianidae:
Gambeles quail: 2. == aerate eS Lophortyr gambeltz-—__ = eae 2
Mews QU SS =o eae 8 Lophortyxr californica vallicola__ 3
ATSUS sPNeNSAanNt =o a eS AT GOUSIGNUS OTUs =a. 8 eee ee il
olden. pheasant==2— =". 22 eS Chrysolophus pictus____________ 3
ednonelerowilos 22 22 ee Gallusigalusi 2 ee eee ee 3
Black-backed kaleege pheasant______ Gennaeus melanonotus__________ 2
RMVeTeNNeCASAN t= on Gennaeus nycthemerus__________ it
CREO W Mite oa Pe eee oe IP GUO CTISUOTIS == ee 6
Ring-necked pheasant. __.____.._____ Phasianuis colchicus=—_ u
Ring-necked pheasant, albino________ Phasianis colchicvs=— 2
Ring-necked pheasant K Green pheas- Phasianus colchicus X Phasianus 1
ant, hybrid. versicolor.
Bhutan, or grey peacock pheasant___ Polyplectron bicalcaratum_______ 1
Numididae:
Vulturine suineafow)=-=—. = Acryllium vulturinwm_______-___ 1
GRUIFORMES
Gruidae:
Siberian Crane: S258 wee & ele eds Grus leucogeranis2= a eee At
TrOpea nh Cranes secre r eh hee eS GQrusegruss [= Se es ete 2
Wemorselle crane: == sates bees Anthropoides virgo_______-_____ es
TSE LCS IYER 0s rs ee ee a a Gris antigone==. 2 ae eee 1
African crowned crane___-------~--- Balearica pavonina__2_—_—__ = 5
Psophiidae:
SIM CLCT ean eee ee Psophia crepitans_______-__-___- 1
Rallidae:
Guyenne wooG rail. =-_ 2 Aramides cajanea______________ 1
Witty oath) ae ea REUUSMiCOlG= se 1
Bauplercallinule—— = 2.2.2 Porphyrula martinica___________ 2
Turypygidae:
SET | DVL 9 6 a EUTADY OG ICUS ee a ee il
Cariamidae:
@Waciama, OF Seriama- 2 COTAGMONCriS(Q1G ae ee il
Otididae:
MOTION UISGA NG oe eee ee ee HUD OCOUS ICON ee 24
NEDCEMIEDUSEAT ass awe eee ee EKupodotis senegalensis________.__ ul
CHARADRIIFORMES
Jacanidae:
WOMMON' JACANA == Set nt ee oe tS J GCCONG*8DINO8EL =. So ee 2
Haematopodidae:
My stercatch ery seat efe pote ink Haematopus ostralegus_________ 1
Charadriidae:
Australian banded plover__________ Zontiier” trivolor 2 eee He
Huropean! Lapwing 2s se Vonellus vanellus________ aes 3
South American lapwing___________ Belonopterus cayennensis_______ 4
rOCOdTe binds aos -ne RS gis Pluivianis aegyptius__...._____ ih
Recurvirostridae:
iBlack-necked Stilt: <3. 22s Himantopus mevicanus________~ il
Laridae:
mine-billed. all lack sep eee Ls Larus delawarensis_____________ 3
Sey prt Eee ae es ee ee ee Larus dominicanus_.___________- 2
124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Laridae—Continued
haurhing ell. ==. Se ee LOTUS IGT CU O22 ae 3
Herring gullls Ss. eee Larus OT Genta Sane eae ae 1
Great black-backed gull____________ EOTUSsMNOTANUWS == =e eee 1
Silver fulljs2 222 Setar eee Larus novaehollandiae__________ 6
COLUMBIFORMES
Columbidae:
Band-tailed pigeon_________________ Columba fasciata_______..._____ 1
High-flying Budapest pigeon________ ColumiCchite eee 1
Black-pilled pizeone o---s- ae Columba nigrirostris___._._______ 1
Triangular spotted pigeon __________ OM MOGE POI TADSS Z
Crowned, (pigeon sa... ee ee GOUTGEUICLOTAC se ee 1
Blue ground dove. --- Claravis: pretiost = 4
Ruddy, cround dovess 222. Chaemepelia rufipennis_________ al
Indian emerald-winged tree dove___ Chalcophaps indica___.__________ 5
Diamond (doves__. Geopelia cuneata______________- 1
Plain-breasted ground dove____-___- Columbigallina minuta_________ 2
GrOUn CNC Oy Cm eee eran Columbigallina passerina______- 1
hing=necked™dovessee Streptopelia decaocto___________ 5
Blue-headed ring dove_____________ Streptopelia tranquebarica______ 2
White-winged dove_____-___._____- ZeEndidag. Gsiatica== ee al
MOUEnINI IG Gye s =e ee eee ee ZENCidurd MaAChOUure 2 ee 1
PSITTACIFORMES
Psittacidae:
3 (eS Teo OF 0 0) eer es ee ee ee INGStOT, "NOCHUIIS aa ee 2
IBANKSian COCKATOO mae Calyptorhynchus magnificus_____ 1
White cocks too sess] == sea aa ee TEGO IRORT OG). CAR 1
Solomon Islands cockatoo_______--- Iaicatoe Aucrop seen aaa ae iy!
Sulphur-crested cockatoo____-_-___- KGKaloenQQlejitG senses 2
Bare-eyed cockatoo___..._..-_----_- Kakatoe sanguinea___________-_ 3
Great red-crested cockatoo_____-_-__ Kakatoe moluccensis____.______ 1
Leadbeater’s cockatoo______________ Kakatoe lteadbdeateri____________ 6
COCK AEG leak re ee ee eee Nymphicus hollandicus_________ 5
Yellow-and-blue macaw____.__--~_- TAT; RUT CAUTOALILO = eee 4
Red-and-blue macaw___--__________ INT (AUD ROY NIG RO Be
Red-blue-and-yellow macaw_________ ATOMIC CEOs a se a ee ee 25
licercaemaca wee = eee TANT CATO COT see 2
Brown-throated conure_____________ Conurus deruginosus____________ 8
Petzis). parakeet—_..2 ee ee Aratinga canicularis__.__________ 2
Rusty-cheeked parrot_______________ Aratinga pertinag. oe ie,
Yellow-naped parrots.2_ == 22s Amazona auropalliata__________ 2
HiNSChiSwparrots ses eee oe AMAZONG fINSChiz_- eee 1
iBlue=fronted parrot=--=- 2 AMOZONG CEStivd eee 1
Red-fronted’ parrot ee ANUOZON GROOT a ee ao 1
Double yellow-headed parrot________ AN aZON Gm OFA g ee 4
ATTICANTETAyDArrOtse sos a. aan PSititacuis entnhaclss ae 4
Black-headed, or Nanday, parrot_.__. Nandayus nanday___._________-_ a
lineolated parakeet2222. . eases Bolborhynchus lineolatus_______ 5
White-winged parakeet_____________ Brotogeris versicolorus________-_ 1
Dovirparakeets2 scare Ae ea oa Brotogeris jugularis____________ 1
*On deposit at snother zoo or sanctuary.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 15
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Psittacidae—Continued
Greater ring-necked parakeet________ Psitiacula eupatria_________ == 2
Rose-breasted parakeet_____________ Psitiacula alezandri_.______-___- il
Moustached parakeet —o Psittacuia jascata=——— 1
Lesser ring-necked parakeet________ Puttacua kramer eee 2
Barrapand’s' parakeets 22-2 es. Polytelis swainsoni_————_ at
Guaker-parakeetst! 220) 251s) ee Myiopsitta monacha____________ vi
Grass pardkeetn sepve We eee Melopsitiacus undulatus________ 1
ined-faced lovebird_=—- ~~ Agapornis pullaria ssp_________-_ 2
Rosy-taced lovebird = Agapornis roseicollis___________ 1
Black-headed caique, or seven-color
TOPEVTET RD) i nl se a i er Pionites melanocephala_________ 2
Yellow-thighed caique______________ Pionites leucogaster____________ 1
CUCULIFORMES
Musophagidae:
White-bellied go-away bird_________ Crinifer leucogaster_-=--- = 1
mlantaimn-eater 2 22= ss. We SO RMNUCT AO /TiCONiLs ee ee 1
Cuculidae:
ies eee Seen ee . Hudynamys scolopacea__________ i
FOG RUnneTree tts on ee ee ee — Geococcyn californianus________ 2
Coucal, or crow-pheasant___________ Ceniropus sinensis=—- = il
STRIGIFORMES
Tytonidae:
IBA EREOW es 2 ee, eee DLYltOc Glog oe ee a. ee 1
Strigidae:
Nereech mOWIL! a2 cla! 521A ie aa Otustasios = 222) Saeed +
Spectacledsowl ==." sa_ Se Sie eee Pulsatrig perspicillata__________ il
Malay fishing owl === ==) Kehipariketupu 2-2 = ee ee 1
STACEY a OW se ets a INUCtCGsnYy CLCGs = == ee earns 4
Par OOn OW = a= ee a UGC Crt ne ee oe ee 1
ISUELOWINe 0 wiles) Ses So eae Speotyto cunicularia hypugaea__ 2
Nepal brown wood owl____--_______ Strix leptogrammica newarensis_ iL
CORACIIFORMES
Alcedinidae:
IKCO Mm Dy: eer a NDacelosgiges == as ae ee ee 16
Coraciidae:
Lilac-breasted roller___..___________ Coracias caudate2 2 24
Ini $20) (a a es ees Coraciaes benghalensis____._____. 2
Bucerotidae:
Concave-casqued hornbill___________ BUCCT OSE DICOT NTS aaa eee *1
lene) Win jl Pe eS Anthracoceros malabaricus______ 1
Abyssinian ground hornbill_________ Bucorvus abyssinicus___________ 2
Leadbeater’s ground hornbill________ Bucorvus leadbeaterit_________-- 1
Greyehorn bill. — 3.22 e ee Le Tockus birostris______._.___.____ 1
Great black-casqued hornbill________ Certaogymna atrata_._________-- 1
Crowned Hornbill ee Tockus alboterminatus_________- i!
Yellow-billed hornbill_..____.___.___ Tockus flavirostris_________-___ aL
*On deposit at another zoo or sanctuary.
126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
PICIFORMES
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Capitonidae:
Asiatic great barbet-_-__--_-------- Megalaima virensg__-__-_------- 1
‘Poucan barbet..25525-22)—e) sae Semnornis ramphastinus___----- aL
Ramphastidae:
iKeel-billed. toucan=_=22-23-=252-2=2 Ramphastos culminatus_____---- 2
Sulphur-and-white-breasted toucan-__ Ramphastos vitellinus__-------- 1
Razor-billed toucanet____.____------- Pteroglossus castanotis__._.--_- 2
PASSERIFORMES
Tyrannidae:
Kiskadee flycatcher_________.-----~ Pitangus sulphuratus_____---_-~ 4
astern kinebirds.-=-—— = = Tyrannus tyrannu3__—-_____-__-- 1
Alaudidae:
VOTNGG err ee se ed Eremophila alpestris________--_- 1
Corvidae:
Map pia ss Sia bee Se ee ee eee PACENDICE SD lee eee See 1
Yellow-billed magpie_____-______--- Pica nitiaii ee eee il
Asiatic tree’ piesss 25.2 Sasa te eee Orypsirina formosae_.___------- 1
Ma opie jays 2eass ste = as ee nk Calocitta formosa___..__------- 1
HUTOPCAN JAY 22 ssa oe Garrulus glandarius______-__---- 2
African white-necked crow___------- Corvus al0usi2 2a Le. eee 2
AMerican iCrOW =.=. esse ee shee Corvus brachyrhynchos___------ 1
Havens ss 2 sels ei es ee Corvus coraw principalis_______- 2
indianvcrow 2222252 ae ee Te Corvus splendens___________---- 1
Formosan red-billed pie______--_~-- Cissa caerulea____----=.- 2-2-2 9
Occipitalablue pies 2222-2 Oissa occipitalig____- _- = ee 1
Hunting (crow==2-—- ===. = eee Oissa chinensis == 1
TCA] By a a eh og | ae ee Xanthoura yneas_____2--_ 2s == 1
Paridae:
Greattits 2242 2 pee ee Parts) majonssns 2. 22a be es al
Timaliidae:
White-capped redstart______________ Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus__-_ 1
Red-eyed babbler_..._-----_----.-- Chrysomma sinense___.-_-..---- 1
Scimitarsbapblers= 22 sass 2s See eee Pomatorhinus schisticeps______-_ il
White-crested laughing thrush______ Garrulag) 0tCOlona es eee 4
Black-headed sibia__._.___..__..-.-~~ Heterophasia capistrata__.______ 2
Silver-eared .mesia=.2.<-225) 22-2222 Mesia argentauris__._-_______-_- 3
Pekin@erobines 820562 eee Leiothriaiuteus=—— eee 5
Pycnonotidae:
Red-eared bulbul___-_-_____---._-- Pycnonotus jocoswus_._________--- 1
Black-headed bulbul_________---~___ Pycnonotus atriceps___.______-- 2
Red-vented bulbule =e eee Pycnonotus cafer_...---------- 4
White-cheeked bulbul_____________-- Pycnonotus leucogenys_________~ 3
White-eared bulbul______-.______-_- Pycnonotus leucotig_______.___-_- 1
Turdidae:
Robin: -albino=.— 3 ee Sa Turdus migratoriug_o__ al
Huropean song thrush______...-_-__ Turdus ericetorum__________-___ 2
Blackbird... see oa ae ee Turdus merle. ae ee 1
Cliftichat.:.. 2... Sees See Thamnolaea cinnamomeiventris__ al
Bombycillidae:
Cedariwaxwine) 2522 eee Bombycilla cedrorum
SECRETARY'S REPORT 27
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Sturnidae:
Rose-colored pastor_--___---------- Pastor roseussca kU S NS 4 i
Porple starlings Lamprocolius purpureus_.______ 3
Burchell’s long-tailed starling__----- Lamprotornis caudatus__________ 1
Amethyst starlings 2223. jesse ees Oinnyricinclus leucogaster_______ 1!
Tri-colored starling=:= [2-2-3 oS = Spreorsuperbugsas eee iL
DUS Gem yNansae se ee eee Acridotheres tristig__._..uc.._____ i
Messer hill; mynahss oe Gracula religiosa indica________ 3
Greater Indian hill mynah__---_-____ Gracula religiosa intermedia____ 2
Nectariniidae:
Wariablersunbird222-— ee eee Oinnyris venustus raceis___..____ 1
Scarlet-tufted malachite sunbird__-__ Nectarinia johnstoni____________ 1
Beaudiul sunbird == esse ee Nectarinia pulchella____________ 1
BunplecsunDITd = =—s ana = eee Nectarinia asiatica_____________ 1
Zosteropidae:
Rte e yn nee ola UEDA NOLL Zosterops palpebrosa____________ 2
Chloropseidae :
Blue-winged fruit-sucker____-------- Chloropsis hardwickei_________.. 2
Coerebidae:
Black-headed sugarbird________--~-- Chlorophanes spiza_____________ 2
BananAguites. oso ee SPS EEE. Coereba flaveola_______..________ 1
Parulidae:
Kentucky warblerso= eens ee see Oporornis formosus_____---_____ 1
CO Star eee eo ee ee ae eee ene Setophaga ruticilla.__..___.___- A 1
Ovenbirdeete 22s Seer Ee ee eas Seiurus aurocapillus____________ 1
Ploceidae:
Red-naped widowbird____-----__----- Coliuspasser laticauda__________ 4
Giantew ly G aoe eee Diatropura procne__.____________ 1
BAV Ae Weavers a= aoe oe Ss oe see PIOCEUSMOCYG=S2—2 =e 2 Se ee 3
Vitelline masked weaver____.-------- Ploceus vitellinusa = 2 1
Red bishop weaver. —-=-—==-+ 2-222 AUD LECLES Ont aa ae ft
White-headed nun=—22>~==.-----.=-- Lonchura maja-.-—~-..---=._- = 2
Indianssiliverbilli eS UGS seen web Lonchura malavarica___________ al
Bengalese= finch eli 8 ee as ase Y Donchungispss so = eee 3
Cut-throat weaver finch____.__-_-_- Amadina fasciata__._____________ aft
Mavender finch; 12 Sees es eas eet EHstrilda coerulescens___________ 1
SarawDerny ey inches 2s ee oS oS Hstrilda amandava_______-_____ 1
Common -waxbills2s23 te setae Estrilda troglodytes____________ al
HAeprax hnchse sat wae a eee Poephiia castanotis_._____--__-—_ ts
Gonldiantinch=sssigisnh aie eae Poephila gouldiaez.2o—- 22-222. 1
Icteridae:
Yellow-headed blackbird___._.___._.__ Xanthocephalus wvanthocephalus_ 1
icererackiew sakes ee Psomocolan oryzivora___________ 2
Swainson’s grackle_______ rth eae Holoquiscalus lugubris._______ __ it
GLOSSY COW DING fe 28 Cee ee Molothrus bonariensis___________ 2
Brown-headed cowbird______________ MOVOtNTUS GNC ee 1
Bay COWDITG 2 aL eee aN ile Ba Motlothrus Gadius_ 2-222 1
Colombian red-eyed cowbird_________ Tangavius armenti__.__._________ al
Red-winged blackbird______________ Agelaius phoeniceus__.__________ 2.
Red-breasted marshbird______._______ Leistes milttarigo# 4
128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Thraupidae:
Palm. tanacer. 2.2552 bees eee Tanagra palmaruma--— = i
BES Wee teev yn a & CT ee TVROUD1S CONG Se = ee ee ee 1
White-edged tanager-_----..-----=- TRraUpts VeuCOpteT@ = = = = il!
Yellow-rumped tanager-_—------—_-- Ramphocelus icteronotus___---_-~ 1
Passer S tanvagver = sea Ramphocelus passerinii___---___- 1
Maroon, or silver-beaked, tanager-_-_ Ramphocelus jacapa_-_-------~-- 2
Fringillidae :
MPO PLCASCe Cwnn Clemens Ornyzoborus tonudus= === 2
mice prosveaks= oo a. se eee eae Oryzoborus crassirostris________- il
Kvening grosbeak______-----------_- Hesperiphona vespertina___---~- 1
Black-throated cardinal_______--_--- LEGIT ROO PED, WMG Ra ee ee 3
@ardinal: 222.2) > sft ee Richmondena cardinalis________- A
HuropeanwWinnet=—=——ssea eae Acanthis cannabvina———=2 =~ = int
European goldfinch___________------ Caorduelisscardiehs= al
Greeneiineh) 22 2 Pe CHUGTISMCHLOTAS =o eee afl
Messer yellow; finches == - == === SKQHIS UTUOQUT ee itt
Safiron finch. 222.224 =. =. ee Sicalisalaveco Gee eae 3
Wihitelinedshnch = s==22s eee Spermophila lineola________-__-— 4
Slate-colored| junco2222-=-2-—— JUNCOLNYCMULSE ae = eee 1
Buit-throsted saliators====2" 22.222 SOU@tOT ING Rinse 1
Tawny-bellied seedeater_____--_---_-- Sporophilamnuta 5
Songuspatlow- =) seat eee eee Metlospizasmelodiga=-=s=s— 1
IreKGisselipse 2 a eae ee ee SUZ ONC IN Chi COT ee 3
White-crowned sparrow _-—-_—------ Zonotrichia leucophrys._______-__ 2
Mellowhammen 222.2 == a ee Limberizascurninetia. 1
Huropean bunting. s=s =e Emberiza calandra_____—__ 1
Jacarinighin chee Ss eee eee Volatinia jacariniz=—- <== 22s 4
REPTILES
LORICATA
Alligatoridae:
(© ia a ag ew ed atest a et Coimanisclerop se 4
Blackweatm anes. so 2 ey ee Melanosuchus niger i222 7
Amenicanwallicator== sass owe Alligator mississipiensis______—_ LG
Chinesejallicatorsea ae eae Aligator sinensis 2
Crocodilidae:
Broad-nosed crocodile______________ Osteolaemus tetraspis__.________ 2
ACEI CANNCTOCOG1LG- == sees eS eS Rene Crocodyluis niloticus= 3
Narrow-nosed crocodile____________- Crocolylus cataphractus________ nf
Salt-water crocodile... .-___-._.-— Crocodylusep OTnOsisees 1
American crocodiles] 22 o2 see aes Crocodylus acuhiss =e 1
Gavialidae:
Indianggavialse Sa eal Gavialiisigangcticuss. if
CHELONIA
Chelydridae:
Snapping’ turtles. =—-— see eee Ghelwdra serpentine aa 13
Alligator snapping turtle__________- Macrochelys temiminckii________-_ 1
Kinosternidae:
MUSK “GUDtL Ora. 22 eee ee eee Sternotherus odoratus__________ 4
Mudmiturtless.csuo2 ee eo oe Kinosternon subrubrum___-_----~ 5
SECRETARY’S REPORT 129
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Emydidae:
BOxaCUrtle eee eee Terrapene carolina--2-—-———--—— 63
Twhree-toed: box turtles ==" = ee Terrapene carolina triunguis__-- 2
GrmarewoOxR LULLes. = eee ee ee Terrapene ornata ornata___---~- 1
Hlorida box turilexs-———--=— es Terrapene: VUri=e= ee 5
Mreavitira DOx turhles———> ees Cuore anbvomensis=—— 2
DMismondhback, turtle=2=s= 22 22S 522 = Mataclemys terrapinaa == 6
Map nbuTtle Sas ee See eee Graptemys geographica_____---- 1
MISSISsippilmap turtles ==—-— = Graptemys kohni___------------ 3
Barbour s map turtle. = Graptemys barbouri_______----- 4
aimted! turtles +2. ns ea ease Cirysenys Dich 10
Western painted turtle_-_______-__- Chrysenys picta belli_-___.-_--- 12
Southern painted turtle-__-__--_-_- Chrysemys dorsalis_______------ i
Cumberland “turtle:——= === = Pseudemys troostii_______------ 7
South American red-lined turtle____- Pseudemys scripta callirostris__- 2
Mellow-bellied: turtle 2-2-2. 2-—22 Pseudemys scripta scripta___-~- 18
Red-bellied: turtles = sheen See Pseudemus rebriventris_____---- 8
ned-earéd turtles. et Pseudemys scripta elegans__---~ 33
Southern water turtle._.._._....-.-_. Pseudemys floridana__-------~-- 7
Florida red-beilied turtle____-__----- Pseudemys nelsoni____---------- 2
Central American turtle.-_.-----.-= Pseudemys ornata___----------- 2
Subaniwater turtle+:-A. 22. 22.2.5: Pseudemys decussata___-__------ 1
ibeke ni Gur tle: 28 Deirochelys reticularia_____---- 2
mpotied: turtles 22. jie ee Clemmys guttata____----------- 2
Nocdi bir tlex® 8 8) 414222 at, Clemmys insculpta__-_-_-__------- 5
ibenan pond turtles 2 .-~< es Clemmys leprosa_.-.----------- 2
European water terrapin_.__________ Clemmys caspica rivulata____--- 13
Huropean’ pond turtle... -.=..223 Emys orbicularis________------- 3
Blanding’s, or semi-box, turtle______ Emys blandingii_.__-_-_-----~---- 3
Reeves s turtle 222.2222... 25252-5 Chinemys reevesii_____--------- 4
Testudinidae:
Duncan Tsland tortoise= === ——- == Testudo ephippium_—----------- 2
Galapacos tOrtoise=2=— === === Testudo Vind eee 2
Galspreos: tortoises 22s < =e ae Testudo elephantopus_____------ 1
Giant Aldabra tortoise__...____--_~-- Testudo elephantina____-------- 2
South American tortoise__---------- Tesiudo denticulata___-_------- 5
Stars tortoise: = o2.-2- Shea see ee Mestudor Clegdnse= eee 2
Mountain: torioises— 9 == = Ss TEStudo’ CMY sone eee ee 2
Hermann a) tortoises = 22 Testudo hermanni___-== == 1
Gopher tortoises 2A. 2a Se Gopherus polyphemus_—_---~---- 2
Rexas\ gopher tortoise] =24===—2=2= Gopherus berlandieri______----- 1
Pelomedusidae:
AVirican water turtles === ==.2=-2—= Pelusios sinicius=— = 2
African black mud turtle_____.----_ Pelusios subniger._______------- al
Amnazonspotted) turties========22—2= Podocnemis unifilis____--------= 4
Chelydidae: :
Southern American side-necked
URL ere Be hc ea Batrachemys nasuta______------ 2
Australian side-necked turtle________ Chelodina longicollis______------ 3
Matameacar turtles. 22222) ee Cheys jmoria 2
Small side-necked turtle_____------- Hydromedusa tectifera-____----- 2
Large side-necked turtle_____------- Phrynops hilarti....____--------- q
130 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Chelydidae—Continued
Brett's turtle. —---S oa Bovydure kreffiti______-_-_____-= 3
Murtay: turtle2<-<256e525 ease Envydura macquarrii___------~-- 3
South American gibba turtle___._____ Mesoclemmys gibba_--_-_-------~ 2
Wlat-headedturtle---==-- = Platemys platycephala_____-.-_- 2
Trionychidae:
Southern soft-shelled turtle-_.___-_- DP TAOWY OD POL OD os me re 4
Texas soft-shelled turtle____________ Trionye@, emoryt__..-_.._-—.--_-- 1
African soft-shelled turtle_________- Trionyn triunguis_____-_----~-- 2
SAURIA
Gekkonidae:
Lokay=¢ecko2 eee ean Ree eee Gekko geckos ==. ear eae 21
Day eckose =e eee ea Phelsuma cepedianum_——__-__--~- 2
Daysceckor sss st) et See ae Pheiswna™ spate eee 2
Iguanidae:
Common iguana. eee lgqunatouan See 2
Caroling “anole 2 thee) AVA eet > Anolis carolinensis-----.--_----- 75
Rexaswhorned lizards 225) seen Phrynosoma cornutum______---~ it
Crevice spiny-lizard22_ 2 Sceloporus poinsetti_____._____--~ 2
Spiny-tailed iguana_________________ Cienosaura acanthura________-- 2
Agamidae:
Agamid wizards.) en wn ae S Hopwrus-sacicola=_ 1
Scincidae:
Mourning skim kee eee Egernia lWctuosa_______-------- 2
Wihite's' skink=> 262 Mabie. Jaane Egernia whitei__________-.-_--- 3
Greater five-lined skink_____________ Eumeces fasciatus_____ AIT, 3! iL
Great? Plains skink= 2323) ae Eumeces obsoletus_.________----- 2
Stump-tailed skink______ SH EY Tiliqua rugosa == wees, ae i
Malayan skink--<227 Urs en Oit eins Mabuya multifasciata_____- BE oe 2
Gerrhosauridae:
African’ plated lizard 22.2 ee Zonoseuruse sp_-.-<4—2--2 Ses 2
Madagascar plated lizard___________ Zonosaurus madagascariensis____ 2
Platedtlizard=3-2.0) | } eee. Ae Gerrhosaurus major______--~--- u
Lacertidae:
Kuropean izard=]2" = een ene Lacerta strigata trilineata_____- i
European green lizard_____________ LOQcerta: Viridtsa2 222 ee 3
uropeanwligard= = en ike Lacerta erhardtit.__________-__- 1
European wall lizard______________ LQcenia muraisa2see oe es it
Teiidae:
Ameiva lizard{ 220) ike Sano Ameiva ameiva praesignis______ i
Vellow tests. oe a oy ee 3 Fee VAS cea Tupinambis teguivin__________-- 2
Wihip-tatled lizards. 2 tous 2st ues Cnemidophorus tigris________--- 1
Pelid’ lizard 2~ 2 Pe SA Onemidophorus sp--_----------- 1
Cordylidae:
South African spiny lizard__________ Cordylus vandami perkoensis___~ 2
Varanidae:
Dumérils monitor. 2-2 es Varanus dumerili_._________---- 2
Malayan emonitor ee aan ee Varanus salvator______.-------- 1
Philippine-monitor.. 2) Sane Varanus nuchalig________------- 2
Helodermatidae:
Mexican beaded lizard_____________ Heloderma horridum__--------- 3
Beaded lizard, black phase_________ Heloderma horridum alvernensis— 1
SECRETARY’S REPORT 131
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Anguidae:
Gass) lizard=-—-—-eeeseet St oese Ophisaurus ventralis______----- 3
Huropean glass lizard’ 322 ---2—-= Ophisaurus’ apodusio— 2-2 2
SERPENTES
Boidae:
PMACOR Ges = =e ee Re Hunectes) murinus_- 1
Wook«s) tree (boa. — = = = 2 ees Corallus enydris cooki______--__ 4
Rmnernig-treenboate. =. s.r Coratius: caninus=2 == 1
IBGnmCONSLTICLOR= 2-3 = eS Constrictor constrictor_________ 4
Himperon DORs aon | Sere 22 ae Constrictor imperator______-_____ 1
@ubanyeround) bor=—— == 2 ee Tropidophis melanura_______-__- 1
HEVAIIN DOW? aOR 2c See ee a eS Hpicrates cenchriao__—_____-__ 3
Cuban tree DOA! - = 8 Epicrates angulifer_____________ 3
SEG fe ee eee TY DaCONACT a Se ee ee 3
TES IUL TOR) ee ee PUEROR EGU S ea ee ZS
indians rock: python. - 2 2 (PYLNON. MOLUTUS aes eee 3
Reso pyinone 2 2o oe Python reticulatus.—________-__ 4
AhMGEAN DY tNON= 22-22 PYLON SCORER = ane it
Acrochordidae:
Kiephant trunk snakes. =.=. Acrochordus javanicus_________~ 1
Colubridae:
TES TO ke ee eee Lampropeltis getulus getulus____ 2
Speckled. King snake... ._-=.-.-=_.— Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki_- 2
California king snake! —_ = == Lampropeltis getulus californiae_ il
Mlorida jking) snake: 222 2282 Lampropeltis getulus floridana__ 2
ponoran king snakeo_—.- 2 Lampropeltis getulus splendida__ 1
Sesneteking snake. 2 = 22 Lampropeltis triangulum dotiata_ 1
IN THE: (SN (eS ee Lampropeltis triangulum_______ 1
ropien) King <nake_ oo 2s oe ee Lampropeltis polyzonus_________ 1
Canter SMaAKG 2. 2.26 ee Thamnophis sirtalis sirtalis_____ 2
Garter snake, melanistic phase____- Thamnophis sirialis____________ 4
ab POM uSna keke. <2 2 ee 2 oe Thamnophis sauritug__._________ 1
Eastern hognosed snake____________ Heterodon platyrhinos_________- 1
Common water snake_______________ INET AOE SUD COON See ee ee 2
Red-bellied water snake____________ Natriav erythrogaster____________ a
European grass snake______________ Natria natrio natrio____________ 5
Brazos water snake._.----. Natnia: harternt 22 23 22 1
WLeTCSN a Keres. fee eas Natriv harteri paucimaculata___ 2
Diamondback water snake_________ Natria rhombifera.. 4
TIP ENE STA K Oe ee as oe ie Natriv septemvittata___________ itt
Brown water snake. 22-5. = = Natrign tavispilota___ = 1
Broad-banded water snake__________ Natrig confiuensa 2. 6
Blotched water snake______________ Natrian transversa___ = 12
Yellow-bellied water snake_________ Natrig favigaster i 2 5
RTH O STUCCO = 2 ee -= Drymarchor.couperi__ = il
Western indigo snake__.___________. Drymarchon erebennus______ ~~ 1
Pilot black snake____.__._._...__._.__... Hlaphe obsoleta obsoleta_______- 2
Pilot black snake, albino_______- _._. Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta________ il
KUnT MSNA Kean ek 2 ee _ Hlaphe obsoleta guttata_________ 1
Corn snake, albino_________- ae Elaphe obsoleta guttata________- 1
LING )32" SPC eA Ae LODE ULI ee eee 1
132 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Colubridae—Continued
Formosan striped rat snake_________ Hlaphe taentung-o 22 5
Mindheimer’s. snakela2.ss2e.on22aes Hlaphe lindheimeri________-___- 2
Great Plains rat snakel2-22—22 =~ TLANIUG CMON Va ae a ee 1
Chicken” snake =) ee eee Elaphe quadrivittata____.______- al
Aesculapian snakes——-=-- S22] eee Elaphe longissimas.---- 2 4
Aesculapian =snakesss=) sees = Elaphe longissima subgrisea___ 1
VAIN DOWayST a KG ee ee ee nee ee eee ee Abastor erythrogrammus_______ ft
Formosan cat-eyed snake___________ Dinodon rufozonatum________-__ 4
Cat-evyedtsnakes=--- =o.) sae Leptodeira annulata____________ 1
IBlaChkera cerYet Ss. eee Coluber constrictor constrictor___ 1
Muro peaneracene ne one soe eee Coluber jugularis caspius_______ 2
Redan ds COT ers fies a Pe ee ee eee Masticophis flagellum frenatum__ 1
MasternscoacChw hips .-e ae ae Masticophis flagellum__-_______ 1
Western coachwhip________________ Masticophis flagellum testaceus_ 2
Ring-necked snake_____-_--__-___-_ Diadophis punctatus edwardsti__ 1
Eastern worm snake___-_____-___-- Carphophis amoenus_______---- i
GK ay iS) SNAKCL eee ee ee eee StOnenigadekayizee = eee 1
Greenwwhip snake" = Dr ODNISUD ROSIN S == ee 1
Bul snakewees es fe ee ae IPiUODNISh Sd yi eee eee 2
Mionida pine: snake ---s=— ee PAUULODRAS MUGS 1
Great Basin gopher snake__________ Pituophis catenifer deserticola__ il
Hilessnake! oso eae eee ee ee Simocephalus capensis__________ 1
WOlfsnikes=s=22 55. oma sso soe Lycodon flavomaculatus________ al
@Wat-evyedisnake. 22 oe nee ee TAGE ROIS SGD Gh Vee ee 1
Green-headed tree snake____________ Leptophis mexicanus___________ 1
Bronze vine snake@n. 2 = a eee Ouvyuelis aecneusee ee 1
Elapidae:
Coralgisna Keven oes sale eee MACAU SLCNET Ce = a ee 1
Indianw: copra se ee ees oa NGG OL NG ae ee see ee 1
TRaINVaNyCODL a= se a eee ee INO OENOG ORO. ee ee alal
Kino CON Tae ees soe oe ee Ophiophagus hannah___._-__--- Pe
Many=bandedokraitje = ee Bungarus multicincetus_________- 4
Crotalidae:
Southern copperhead__________-____ Ancistrodon contortriz contor-
Cia ee ee ea eee 5
Northern copperhesd=.—_- Ancistrodon contortrix mokeson_ 2
Broad-banded copperhead_____-_--_ Ancistrodon contortrix laticine-
CUS 222 ee ee ee afl
Cottonmouth water moccasin__---~- Ancistrodon piscivorus_______--- 3
Western water moccasin__---------- Ancistrodon leucostoma______--~ 9
Can til eee ae eee ee Ancistrodon bilineatus______---- 3
Hasternsmassasaura___------—_ = Sistrurus catenaius catenatus___ 1
Pyemy, Tattiesnake@s =.= = sess e Sistrurus miliaris. i
Green palmiyiperses -2-= =e a ee Trimeresurus gramineus_.__---- at
Greenwpalni viper ee ee Trimeresurus stejnegeri_________ al
MGS Bien toe ee ee ce aie ee Trimeresurwus elegans=2—= "= 22 === 1
DUES) OND Ocean ee cS A a ee eae ne Trimeresurus flavoviridis______- 2
Paiwarmhe bul] -- a eee Trimeresurus okinavensis____---~ 1
Western diamondback rattlesnake___ Crotalus atrog___-__-__--_------ 8
“Timbersratulesn akc ses a ee es Crovaiusiiornids= = 4
Viperidae:
Pufiadderi 22 2S ee eee Bitis (Ott ela seen == eee eee af
SECRETARY’S REPORT
133
AMPHIBIANS
CAUDATA
Femily and common name Scientific name Number
Cryptobranchidae:
Giant salaniin Gene 2222-2 22 ee Megalobatrachus japonicus_____- 2
Amphiumidae:
Wonzoree es. 262 ek ees AMphitma Means=2 == 2 ae 1
Ambystomatidae:
Spotted) salamander. 2-2 S22 = Ambystoma maculatum_____---- il
Salamandridae:
Japanese red-bellied newt__-__------ Diemictylus pyrrhogaster__-__-- 8
ited-spotted newt. s- 222 Diemictylus viridescens_____--_- 14
Broken-striped newt__...----------- Diemictylus viridescens dorsalis_ 7
SALIENTIA
Bufonidae:
American tod@e see seen Bufo terrestris americanus______ 1
Mp wiles toads wat eee ete ee Bufo woodhousei fowleri________ 3
lombersis tOad sesso ae eee TESTA OSUNID) LOA A aan ea 2
Gianistoades 2 ee eee BUfOPMAvNUs. ee 6
WobanetOnG ee eee ee eee Bufo peltocephalus______________ 6
GentralbAmerican toad2222-—=---- IBUfOVEUDRONUUS Se ee 2
Pelobatidae:
Huropean spadefoot toad__--_------- IPClOUGLESsUSCUus-— = = eee 3
Pipidae:
SUGINAM COA e 2 on ee ee Pind Pip@s tea we ee ee 12
Atrichn, clawed {lrOg. 2 s-- soe eee CNODUSTOCULS === aaa arenes 3
Leptodactylidae:
Colombian horned frog__ == == S Ceratophrys calcarata__________ 2
Hylidae:
ead Gis trOS see ae ne ee ne eee DEQ RUGS RICA OT ae a i
IBAGKINng tree flOP. 2 Se ee HOO RORGHOS Cee 1
Huropean’ tree frog. 2 = 2 eee ee EA LOAOT UOT Cee ee ee ee afl
Crayeereel trop 228 eee fot ee Se UG CCT StCOlO) aaa ae ee 2
Microhylidae:
Narrow-mouthed toad_____._.________ Microhyla carolinensis__________ 2
Ranidae:
EDLY @ Sept O Dee re re ee Rana heckscheri_________-_— eer il
rICANED MI frOge === wo HONG CAS pens as ae il
PMMeErICA NY DULG trOo eas ss weer ene TECNUACHLESUCIONG == aaa ae 1
(CHRESLAS el 0 fees eR ene Pe A ee ee TEL OCLETMALATS = ee af!
HSC O DATE LOL onset Se ol RONGe TIplens == i ee 25
FISHES
NEOCERATODONTOIDEI
Protopteridae:
rican, Jongfish os 2%<. $42 oye’ Protopterus annectens__________ 2
Snake-headed fish...-. = --2=.. Polypterus palmas_____-__-___- a
720-018—-64_10
134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
OSTARIOPHYSOIDEI
Family and common name Scientific name Number
Characidae:
Piranhas!2 2. See ee Serrasalmus niger__-__.________ 1
Mey INI S ss ek ae Re ee ee Metynnis maculatus____________ 1
Bla ckste trae ssa ae ee ee Gymnocorymbus ternetzi_______ 1
Cyprinidae:
EDTA GANIO tae a See ee ee Brachydanio: rerio..-.-==.-— 2 — 4
THC DAT Dsante a Oe eS ae Barbus partipentazona_________ 1
White cloud mountain fish__________ Tanichthys albonubes___________ al
lectrophoridae:
Mlectricreel 22-2 2s= ee eee Hlectrophorus etectricus________ 8
CYPRINODONTCIDEI
Poeciliidae:
Mlae-tailed|. SUppy=2—-- oe ees Lebistes reticulatus____________ 10
GUPD Yee ere ib feces pags ese pt Soins Lebistes reticulatus__..________ 15
Black = moles ee ee ee Mollienesia latipinna___________- 1
TENE Bey Care ea VO) OUR YS) ME ee eee Xiphophorus maculatus________- 5
PERCOMORPHOIDEI
Anabantidae:
Glimibing ‘perch--=. = 422254222 2= Anabas testudineus_____________ 3
Khessing szouramMin=s se se Helistoma temmincki__-_____-_- 1
Centrarchidae:
Commonebluerile ss see 2 ee Lepomis macrochirus__________- Hl
Cichlidae:
IPeacockscichlid== 22s ee ee Astronotus ocellaius____________ 1
Egyptian mouthbreeder___--------- Haplochromis mutticolor________ 1
African mouthbreeder________-_---~- Pelmatochromis belladorsalis___ il
PAM POT Sees ee ee ee ee ee Pterophylium eimekei______--_-- 1
Jacke Dempsey) fish=== ==22- =" Cichlasoma biocellatum_______ ~~ 3
Gobiidae:
Bumblebee: fish=. 2222222 22 aS Brachygobius doriae_____-______ 1
Locariidae:
South American catfish___.__.._.__._.__ Plecostomus plecostomus______- 2
ARTHROPODS
DECAPODA
Cenobitidae:
Mand: hermit craps. ees eae ees Coenobtia clypeatws—___________ 23
ARANEIDA
Theridiidae:
Black-widow spider2222 22-22 ee Latrodectus mactans_________-- 1
Aviculariidae:
Tarantula. 22 a ee ee ees VU DCURLG SD eae ee 3
ORTHOPTERA
Blattidae:
Tropical giant cockroach______- -_-- Blaberus giganteus_____________ 50
MOLLUSKS
PULMONATA
Planorbidae:
Rondesnailz es ee ee Helisoma trivolwis_____________- 30
SECRETARY'S REPORT 135
REPORT OF THE VETERINARIAN
The National Zoological Park was without a veterinarian from
July 1, 1962, until May 6, 1963, when Dr. Clinton Gray was appointed.
During the interim, the director and the general curator, assisted by
Thomas Schneider as medical technologist, shared the responsibility
for the health of the animals. They were fortunate in having the
cooperation and assistance of men in various fields of clinical
investigation and medicine. Among these were: Dr. Leonard Marcus
and staff, of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; Dr. Clarence
Hartman and staff, of George Washington University; Dr. M. B.
Chitwood, Dr. A. McIntosh, and Dr. W. W. Becklund of the Beltsville
Parasitological Laboratory, Department of Agriculture; Dr. A. G.
Karlson, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn.; Dr. F. R. Lucas, director
of the Livestock Sanitary Laboratory, Centreville, Md.; and Dr.
Anthony Morris of the National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md.
In October, Tomoka, the baby gorilla, became ill with an intestinal
infection. Local pediatricians were called into consultation, but
when the animal did not respond to treatment he was taken to Chil-
dren’s Hospital and put in an animal research laboratory under the
care of Dr. Everett Lovrein, resident physician, and Dr. Robert E.
Martin. Headkeeper Ralph Norris and senior keeper Bernard Gal-
Jagher stayed with the little ape 24 hours a day, and he made a speedy
recovery. Despite a serious prognosis—Shigellosis complicated by
dehydration and acidosis—Tomoka made a remarkable return to his
normal weight gain after this hospitalization.
Nikumba, the adult male gorilla, showed signs of having a cold
about the middle of June. Medication was given, and he appeared
to be recovering, when he was stricken with bilateral paralysis. As
of June 30, prognosis is impossible, but he is being treated by an
orthopedic surgeon, Dr. Henry Feffer, and a neurosurgeon, Dr. Hugo
V. Rizzoli, in consultation with Dr. Alf Nachemson, orthopedic sur-
geon of the University of Gothenburg, Sweden.
Specialists from George Washington University Medical School
tried to establish a suspected pregnancy in Ambika, one of the Indian
elephants, by means of electrocardiographic equipment. Electro-
cardiographs had been taken in the Portland (Oreg.) Zoo when their
elephants were pregnant. In the case of Ambika, however, no fetal
heartbeat could be detected, and she has now gone past the time for
giving birth since the last possible conception date.
The bharal or blue sheep (Pseudois nayaur) was inadvertently
omitted from the inventory printed in last year’s annual report. On
July 5, 1962, the last of the line, a female, died, and the post mortem
showed liver abscesses. The original pair of these beautiful animals
was brought to the Zoo in October 1937 by the National Geographic
136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Society-Smithsonian Institution Expedition to Netherlands East
Indies, having been secured from an animal dealer in Shanghai.
Seven young were born in the National Zoological Park between 1939
and 1945.
Following are the statistics for the mortality rates at the National
Zoological Park for the past fiscal year and a table of comparison
with the past 7 fiscal years:
Mortality, fiscal year 1963
Total mortality,
past 7 years
Cause Reptiles Birds | Mammals
iw)
Or
e
(>)
No autopsy for sundry reasons !______- 149 1957___.549
Attrition (within 7-14 days after ar-
LAVA) eee es SL LIE Tey. De SE Nh 8 all 5 | 1958____550
Imbennalvdiseases 2342222) She 2 feeb 67 317 29 | 1959____472
lmfeetioustdisessesij=s ee nee Se ee ry AD | OG ORs oa2
IPA ASTLCRE years on eas aU gee, cone PAu 2 TE Stow oe Sere
laylinies accidents sa seee = =a ee 5 96 21) N96222 22054
UGH ANAS ine ses sees SERB SA Penna! EN eee oe 2 Or) 2S See aes
Miscellaneous (stillborn, old age,
SHOCK) es 5 pet. Seep cee eye Sel aa 8 3 1, Nag 2 eee eee a
Windetermined Sessa = =) ea eee oe 21 46 293) ee
Otago teen. ee ep ey ere ee Ie PET 247 Mia 63es22056
1 Reasons include preserving intact specimen for museum and research, progressed decomposition, insuf-
ficient remains in case of predators, etc.
VISITORS
Advanced planning for a National Zoological Park attendance sur-
vey began in August 1961 under the direction of Albert Mindlin,
statistician of the Management Office, District of Columbia. The
actual collection of data commenced on July 1, 1962, and was tabu-
lated for the following 12 months.
The primary purposes of the survey are to obtain objective estimates
of the total number of visitors during the fiscal year, the average num-
ber of visitors in the Park at any specific period during the year, and
the average length of time a visitor’s automobile remains within the
Zoo.
The procedure involved hand-punching IBM porto-punchcards by
specially trained and recruited employees on a statistically predeter-
mined basis at all entrances and exits of the Zoo. Sample interviews
of pedestrians and cars leaving at any gate were used as visitor deter-
mining factors.
The hand-punched-card data thus generated were mechanically con-
verted into computer-adapted punchcards and fed into an especially
SECRETARY'S REPORT t37
programmed IBM 1401 B computer of the Science Information Ex-
change of the Smithsonian Institution.
Although the entire project had not been completed at the end of
the year, projection of the data of the first 7 months forecasts a visitor
population in excess of 3,200,000 from July 1, 1962, to June 30, 1963.
Number of bus groups visiting the Zoo in fiscal year 1968
Locality Number of | Number in Locality Number of | Number in
groups groups groups groups
Mabamaso-—- 2. 41 126404) Missounias= == 3 1718}
Arkansas. i222. 5 onl Nebrasikaes= ss ee 2 3) 118
Eolorsdoss.- 3 90 New Hampshire_-- 7 257
Connecticut_______ 26 785 || New Jersey____--- 84 2, 851
Delaware =. 2 2s. 78 2,197 || New Mexico____-- 10 279
District of Colum- New Yorks2222222 318 9, 539
| oy eee os Sapa 409 15, 185 || North Carolina___-_ 223 10, 047
Inllonnte es Se 105 oF DOSE ily OWIO sae ee 26 847
Beorgit. 22 oo. Pt A025, || Oklahomass 5522 2— 2 55
WMIMOISE =o ee 15 501 |} Pennsylvania______ 552 19, 689
indiana ===. i 4 186 |} Rhode Island____~- 17/ 600
TOW ase Se se ao k 4 3 130 || South Carolina____ 60 2,195
ieansaste res oS 3 94 || South Dakota___-_- 1 38
Wentuekyae = 2 23 765 || Tennessee______-_- 148 4, 752
Wouisiamayss* 252.2 2 HOY || eeltexcigiens -skeuieare cone: 22 124
Massachusetts_____ 11 438) im Virpiniae 6 2535 1, 734 55, 429
raine= 90802 fo 8 334 || West Virginia___-- 153 4, 693
Maryland_____-___ 2, 260 64, 283 || Wisconsin______-_- 2, 115
DMiehigan =. <2: _. 2 8 424 SSS |
Minnesota________ 1 41 otaleaae= 6, 496 | 206, 444
Mississippi_______- 4 128
About 2 p.m. each day the cars then parked in the Zoo are counted
and listed according to the State or country from which they come.
This is, of course, not a census of the cars coming to the Zoo but is
valuable in showing the percentage of attendance by States of people
in private automobiles. Many District of Columbia, Maryland, and
Virginia cars come to the Zoo to bring guests from other States. The
tabulation for fiscal year 1963 is as follows:
Percentage Percentage
assylamidey: tee 78 oe 31.4 Massachusetts: 33 22 3s 0.8
EET ee eee 21.5 NOU H CaO) trian ee aiff
District of Columbia__________ 19.3 Tiing!s, oe a Gey Pea. 6
TANTS Vly UN Ae ee 4.4 Connecticut 22.2 = ae sane .6
POU ARYCOD Kita re Oe on ae Pata) Calitormnt ain 2 tse eee .6
iNorch Carolina 222s ib it 1.9 Mennesseeits : Seve eaeeee TRE 5
vin Queers Saris re Bos eu eed Tf 1.4 IMG Chie amie 32s ae vee eee UE 5
Mew aer ORS Gy, se ura 2 ae ap te 1.4 Geonsia: 220s See, ee 5
West Virginia 0) a let PORN GRSERS Corea aac ae mete hae 5
EOI C1 te ee EE 1.0 Tn GiaAnN ayes se ee ae ee .4
138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The remaining 8.2 percent came from other States, Canada, Canal
Zone, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Mexico, Newfoundland, Peru,
Puerto Rico, and Saipan.
On the days of even small attendance there are cars parked in the
Zoo from at least 15 States, the District of Columbia, and foreign
countries. On average days there are cars from approximately 22
States, the District of Columbia, and foreign countries; and during
the periods of greatest attendance the cars represent no less than 34
different States and countries.
PERSONNEL
Dr. Clinton W. Gray was appointed veterinarian on May 6, 1963.
Prior to his appointment at the Zoo, Dr. Gray was employed as vet-
erinarian by the Agency for International Development and spent
considerable time overseas.
Henry P. (Harry) Leech, who for more than 20 years had been
associated with his father, L. Gordon Leech, in the management of
the Zoo restaurant, died on June 26 at the age of 41. He was well
known to Zoo visitors, and particularly to the “Anteaters” who meet
in the fall to eat wild game at the restaurant. He will be greatly
missed by his many friends.
During the year eight employees retired. Pvt. Robert Ewell, ap-
pointed March 6, 1912, retired December 31, 1962. Most of his 50
years of service had been with the police force on night duty. Roy
Jennier, appointed October 18, 1929, was for many years in charge of
the reptile house. He was a member of the National Geographic-
Smithsonian Expedition to the East Indies in 1937. At the time of
his retirement, December 31, 1962, he was supervisory animal keeper
in the monkey house. James Derrow, who also retired on Decem-
ber 31, was maintenance general foreman and responsible for all
construction and repairs in the Zoo. He had been with the Park
more than 30 years since his appointment on July 6, 1931. Michael
Dubik, head supervisory gardener since July 31, 1956, retired May 24,
1963, because of ill health; Frank Mele, mason leader appointed July
94, 1947, retired August 18, 1962; Mirza Wilson, chief operating
engineer appointed June 19, 1950, retired April 27, 1963; Lizzie
McDaniel, custodial laborer since May 1, 1953, retired February 8,
1963; and Dave Rose, laborer, appointed March 2, 1949, retired April
30, 1963.
The director attended the annual meeting of the American Asso-
ciation of Zoological Parks and Aquariums in Kansas City, Mo., in
September and was voted president-elect for 1962-63. He also at-
tended the meeting of the International Union of Directors of Zo-
ological Gardens in San Diego, Calif., later that same month. On
SECRETARY'S REPORT 139
November 20 he attended the formal opening of the new zoo in
Phoenix, Ariz. On March 1, he traveled to Fort Worth, Tex., for the
board meeting of the American Association of Zoologica] Parks and
Aquariums. On March 31, accompanied by Richard Dimon, project
architect for the new construction at the National Zoological Park,
he left for a short study tour of European zoos.
J. Lear Grimmer, associate director, attended the meeting of the
American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums in Kansas
City, and Travis E. Fauntleroy, assistant to the director, attended the
midwinter conference of the same association at Fort Worth.
In 1963 there were 210 authorized positions, an increase of 5 posi-
tions over 1962: office of the director, 11; operations and maintenance
department, which includes the mechanical] division, police division,
grounds division, and services division, 122, an increase of 4 (1 me-
chanic, 1 hydraulic equipment operator, 1 tree maintenance worker,
and 1 laborer); animal department, 76, an increase of 1 (night
keeper) ; and the scientific research department, 1.
ANIMAL DEPARTMENT
In preparation for reconstruction work planned for the National
Zoological Park, several existing areas were made suitable to house
evacuated animals. The entire stock of the birdhouse was moved to
various outdoor enclosures and to the old antelope house, which had
been closed to the public for several years. Converting the antelope
house into a temporary birdhouse required the construction of one
large flight cage and the rewiring of some of the old antelope stalls.
A number of animals that were heretofore housed singly were care-
fully introduced to one another, and by keeping several together in one
cage, additional space was made available.
To utilize space further, the anima] department continued the pro-
gram begun last year of wintering tropical animals outdoors. A
“flight cage” which had originally been built for indoor use by gibbons
was rebuilt on the northeast side of the lion house. It was equipped
with cinderblock and concrete shelters with one heat lamp and soil-
cable floor heat in each shelter. A group of four young animals and
a fully adult breeding pair were moved into this outdoor enclosure in
August in order to give them sufficient time to become accustomed to
the gradual drop of temperatures in autumn. The female of the
adult pair gave birth to a baby in December, which she carefully
nursed, bringing it outdoors for at least 2 hours a day except during
bad weather.
Theoretically much less suited to withstand severe winter tem-
peratures outdoors was a pair of South American tapirs, transferred
to the so-called beaver pond late in summer. A shelter with tinfoil
140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
insulation between two layers of boards was constructed, but no arti-
ficial heat was installed. With the onset of cold weather, deep straw
bedding was provided. Both tapirs were put on a diet of approxi-
mately eight fish a day in addition to their normal ration of fresh
vegetables and A-1 ration. Despite the fact that the pond froze
over completely for the better part of 4 months, both animals sur-
vived without any damage to the skin or feet. Neither animal ap-
peared to object to the snow on the ground, and their customary
summertime motion pattern was clearly indicated by footprints in
the snow.
Patagonian cavies, another unusual species, were also successfully
wintered. Although these animals were provided with a noninsu-
lated but well-built shelter, they preferred to make their own excava-
tions in frozen ground and seek shelter below the house provided.
Six young have been born in this enclosure since February.
A number of tropical birds, primarily psittacines, wintered out-
doors, provided only with minimal heated-perch shelters with infra-
red lamps.
Two female lion cubs born at the Zoo in March 1962 spent most of
the winter in a large, exposed, open-air cage with no protection other
than a continuously open indoor shelter which was rarely, if ever,
used during the daytime.
The total number of accessions for the year was 986. This includes
gifts, purchases, exchanges, deposits, births, and hatchings.
POLICE DIVISION
The most important activity of the police division was the creation
of a law enforcement school. Appointed as training officer, Lt. D. B.
Bell formulated plans for a comprehensive training program. Its
value was readily recognized and received official approval for its
implementation from the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
The course encompassed ten 8-hour days of sessions, at the conclusion
of which an examination was given to participants. It was a highly
successful venture, and it is now a basic requirement of the National
Zoological Park police that all new officers must take and pass the
course.
Three members of the division, Lieutenant Wolfe, Sergeant Grubbs,
and Private Porter, were qualified as pistol instructors for the police
force by special agent William Little, of the Security Branch,
State Department, in September 1962. Fourteen visitors sent in
written commendations on the courtesy, kindness, and consideration
extended to the general public by the police. Through the efforts of
Lt. J. R. Wolfe, 24 certificates were awarded by the American Red
SECRETARY'S REPORT 141
Cross to employees of the National Zoological Park who have donated
a gallon or more of blood to the blood-donor program.
Six walkie-talkie sets were acquired to facilitate direct communica-
tion between headquarters and the officers on outside duty in the
Park. Two sets have been assigned to the animal department and
have proved very useful.
The police, under the supervision of Private Adams, assisted Albert
Mindlin of the Management Office of the District of Columbia in
making the visitors’ survey, as noted elsewhere in this report.
In January 1963 the Federal Bureau of Investigation requested
from the division a monthly report on the number of arrests and
complaints, to be used by the FBI in its compilation of data on the
total crimes committed in the United States.
A total of 92 truant children were picked up in the Park, and
appropriate action was taken by the division. The police found 311
lost children and returned them to their parents or chaperones. Eight-
een pairs of eyeglasses and sunglasses, found and unclaimed, were
sent to the Society for the Prevention of Blindness, and nine bags
of clothing and miscellaneous articles, found and unclaimed, were
turned over to Goodwill Industries. During the year 9,776 visitors
stopped at the police station requesting various types of information.
The first-aid station, at police headquarters, treated 69 severe cases
and 705 minor cases.
The American Red Cross Blood Bank received 67 pints of blood
from Zoo employees during the year. Total donations are now well
over 700 pints.
MAINTENANCE, CONSTRUCTION, AND GROUNDS
The mechanical division has the responsibility for the maintenance
and repair of the buildings and facilities of the National Zoological
Park. This responsibility is met by the heating and ventilating sec-
tion, and by the building section which, in addition to continuing
maintenance, constructed numerous new shelters, paddocks, and cages
for the animals exhibited.
The renovations of the puma house and the main bear line were
completed. The interior dens at the puma house are now completely
rebuilt. Five partition walls at the bear line were rebuilt, using the
gunnite or sprayed concrete which proved so satisfactory during the
previous year.
A new exhibit for gibbons was constructed in the area adjacent to the
lion house. The cage, 12 by 40 feet, provides two separate enclosures,
each large enough to allow space for the gymnastics of these animal
aerialists.
142 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Results of the maintenance program are most apparent in the reptile
building. The new paint in the visitor area and the rebuilding and
decorating of the cages, along with the contract work done as a safety
measure, have resulted in an orderly, well-kept building. Among the
improvements not readily apparent are the new electric panels which
provide uninterrupted service for the electric lighting as well as power
for the refrigeration and other commissary activities in the reptile-
house basement.
The sign program, now well underway, required the coordination of
the carpenter shop, paintshop, and metal shop to frame, paint, and
erect the attractive and informative signs on the various exhibits
throughout the Zoo.
The remodeling of the birdhouse and the construction of the new
east-west access road put an additional burden on the mechanical
division, as temporary shelters and enclosures had to be improvised for
the birds and animals dislocated by the new construction. A flight
cage was built in the old antelope house to provide a temporary home
for birds evacuated from the birdhouse. A shelter and enclosure
were provided for the dorcas gazelles, relocated because of the new
road. In addition, a new yard with heavy fencing was prepared for
the Cape buffalo.
The deep excavation required to maintain a suitable gradient for the
new perimeter road unearthed a myriad of sewers and waterlines
which had to be traced and relocated, thus adding to the already heavy
workload of the plumbing crew.
Many of the improvements made during the year were in the in-
terests of safety. In cooperation with the District of Columbia De-
partment of Buildings and Grounds, practically all the glass cage
fronts at the reptile house were replaced, as were also several large
panes of glass separating the visitors from the animals in the small-
mammal house.
The eagle cage, which is to remain in the remodeled birdhouse area,
was painted under a contract with a local rigging company.
The walkway from the fox line through the hollow up to the owl
and silver-gull cages was resurfaced, and road repairs were made.
The grounds department moved many plants from the birdhouse
area to the center of the Zoo, sodded several areas where there previ-
ously had been no grass, and enhanced the appearance of the Park by
the addition of flower beds around the buildings. A number of plants
and shrubs were purchased, and donations of flowers and plants were
received from the District of Columbia Waterworks, the Botanical
Garden, Navy Hospital, Naval Ordnance, and the management of the
annual flower show.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 143
The building occupied by the grounds department was renovated to
clear walkways and to store tools and equipment so as to eliminate
trip hazards. Steel helmets, new ropes, and climbing equipment were
placed in service, and an additional treeman was hired. Low limbs
over bridle paths were cut, and dead limbs removed from 140 trees
over walks and along the main road. Forty trees in bad condition
were cut and removed. Large holes in lawns were filled in.
INFORMATION AND EDUCATION
After the planning, equipping, and staffing of a sign laboratory in
the basement of the elephant house, which was completed October 12,
1962, the department’s activities for the year were mainly concerned
with the writing, designing, producing, and mounting of new modern
animal identification labels for the Zoo. Durable outdoor labels are
printed photographically on sensitized anodized aluminum. Other
techniques of exhibits production successfully employed are silk-
screen prints and film transparencies for indoor labeling.
To date, five units of the Zoo have been completely relabeled—the
puma house, main bear line, short bear line, ring cages, and the ele-
phant house. The reptile house is being labeled. A total of 397 animal
identification labels and other supporting Zoo signs (such as large
maps of the Zoo, explanation of the new construction, building and
safety signs) were produced and mounted in the period from Octo-
ber 12, 1962, to June 30, 1963.
Additional department activities during the year included artwork,
charts, graphs, mapwork, a number of special projects, dissemination
of animal information by telephone and correspondence, library main-
tenance, and 18 special guided tours for groups of handicapped
children, visiting schools, and foreign guests.
On July 10, 1962, a group of 2,300 foreign exchange students visited
the Zoo; on May 12, 1963, 9,248 School Safety Patrol children, trans-
ported in 266 buses, came to the Zoo following their annual parade on
Constitution Avenue. A group of the animal keepers, on their day off,
entertained the underprivileged children from D.C. Junior Village,
taking them on a tour of the Zoo and giving them lunch in the cafeteria.
On May 24, 250 “Friends of the National Zoo” were given a guided
night tour of the Park.
The director gave two radio talks and three talks to local organiza-
tions. He appeared on television, once in Sarasota, Fla., in connection
with the proposed establishment of a zoo, and once on WTOP (Wash-
ington) with Dr. W. T. Roth, general curator. The associate director,
J. Lear Grimmer, addressed the University Club, Wilmington, Del.,
in connection with the development of a zoo in that city.
144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The September 1962 issue of Parks and Recreation carried an article
by Charles Thomas, senior keeper, on wintering tropical birds and
animals outdoors. J. Lear Grimmer’s account of his work with the
hoatzin in British Guiana appeared in the September issue of National
Geographic Magazine.
SAFETY SUBCOMMITTEE
The National Zoological Park safety subcommittee, consisting of
Lt. John R. Wolfe, chairman; Capt. C. E. Brink, police division;
FF. M. Dellar, administration office; Bert J. Barker, animal depart-
ment; Reily Straw, maintenance and construction; D. E. Schwartz-
beck, grounds department; and Mrs. W. M. Holden, secretary, held
monthly meetings to suggest, discuss, and make recommendations to
the director on safety improvements.
A self-survival course, given by the American Medical Association
and sponsored by the American Red Cross, was attended by Sergeants
Canter and Grubbs. Sergeants Canter and Kadlubowski attended a
traflic workshop, sponsored by the National Safety Council. Shotguns
were installed in locked gun cabinets with glass fronts, located in prin-
cipal buildings, and seven keepers were given instructions in the proper
handling of these guns in case of emergency.
Steps of some buildings were painted with black and yellow stripes
as a caution to the public. All buildings have been checked for fire
hazards and have exit lights installed at main exits.
Members of the subcommittee periodically inspect all buildings,
grounds, and equipment in the Park and remove or correct all minor
hazards affecting visitor or employee safety.
COOPERATION
At all times special efforts are made to maintain friendly contacts
with other Federal and State agencies, private concerns and individ-
uals, and scientific workers for mutual assistance. As a result, the
Zoo receives much help and advice and many valuable animals, and in
turn it furnishes information and, whenever possible, animals it does
not need.
Through the cooperation of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, and
Charles A. Milton, chief game warden, Maryland Game and Inland
Fish Commission, a number of waterfowl were obtained for the Zoo.
Division headkeeper W. Widman and keepers Bruce Williams and
Robert Williams were permitted to trap a number of wild ducks and
geese on Chesapeake Bay.
Special acknowledgment is due William Taback and John Pulaski,
in the office of the Dispatch Agent in New York City, and Stephen E.
Lato, Dispatch Agent in San Francisco, who are frequently called
SECRETARY'S REPORT 145
upon to clear shipments of animals coming from abroad, often at
great personal inconvenience—late at night, or on a weekend.
When it is necessary to quarantine animals coming into this country,
they are taken to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s station m
Clifton, N.J. During the past year, Dr. H. A. Waters and Andy
Goodel, two of the officials stationed there, have been most cooperative
in keeping the National Zoological Park informed as to the well-
being of animals and birds being held there for quarantine.
Animals that die in the Zoo are offered to the U.S. National Mu-
seum. If the Museum does not need them, either as study specimens
or as exhibits, they are sent on request to research workers in other
institutions. Specialists at the Museum are always willing to be of
help in identifying rare specimens that are acquired by the Zoo.
The National Zoological Park cooperated with the National Capital
Parks and lent smal] animals to Park naturalists and to the Nature
Center in Rock Creek Park for demonstrations.
FINANCES
Funds for the operation of the National Zoological Park are appro-
priated annually under the District of Columbia Appropriation Act.
The operation and maintenance appropriation for the fiscal year 1963
totaled $1,470,200, which was $119,400 more than for the previous
year. The increase consisted of $48,300 to cover salary increases for
wage-board employees; $23,700 for within-grade salary advancements
for both general-schedule and wage-board employees; $18,000 to cover
costs of reallocations; $17,820 to establish five new positions for 75
percent of the year; $7,080 for the purchase of supphes and materials;
and $4,500 for the purchase of new equipment.
Of the total appropriation, 84.7 percent ($1,245,809) was used for
salaries and related personnel costs, and 15.3 percent ($224,391) for
the maintenance and operation of the Zoo. Included in the latter
figure were $74,000 for animal food; $19,000 for fuel for heating;
$26,680 for materials for building construction and repairs; $12,826
for electricity ; $13,725 for the purchase of animals; $6,255 for tele-
phone, postal, and telegraph services; and $7,460 for veterinarian
equipment and supplies. The balance of $64,445 in operational funds
was expended for other items, including freight, sundry supplies, uni-
forms, gasoline, road repairs, equipment replacement, and new equip-
ment. :
CAPITAL IMPROVEMENTS
Money appropriated this year for new construction totaled
$1,297,000.
During the first part of the fiscal year the preparation of detailed
plans for the first phase of the capital improvement program was con-
146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
tinued. These plans were submitted in final form in November. Two
separate bids were advertised and awarded.
The Edrow Engineering Co. was awarded the contract for the
renovation and modernization of the birdhouse and the construction
of a new walk-through flight cage. Work started on April 29, 1963.
As noted elsewhere, the birds had been evacuated prior to this date.
It is anticipated that the work will be completed in April 1964.
The Cherry Hill Sand & Gravel Co. was awarded the contract for
the relocation of the east-west access road. Work started on March
27,1963. The excavation and grading are now well underway, and it
is anticipated that the road will be ready for use in early fall.
National Capital Parks, Department of the Interior, is relocating
Beech Drive, as mentioned in last year’s report. ‘This is being done
for the National Park Service by the Bureau of Public Roads. After
tunneling through more than 780 feet of solid rock under “Adminis-
tration Hill,” the top half of the tunnel was completed May 24, 1963.
Plans for the second phase of the capital improvement program,
which will consist of enclosures for the hardy hoofed stock on the
present site of the buffalo and zebra pens a new entrance on Connecti-
cut Avenue, and deer paddocks on the hill behind the birdhouse, are
being drawn up by the architectural firm of Daniel, Mann, Johnson &
Mendenhall. Plans are also being made for the redevelopment of the
office area.
All redevelopment work is being done under the direction of the
District of Columbia Department of Buildings and Grounds. Special
acknowledgment is due the director of that department and his able
staff.
Respectfully submitted.
Turopore H. Reep, Director.
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on the Astrophysical Observatory
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the op-
erations of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for the fiscal
year ended June 380, 1963:
The Astrophysical Observatory includes two divisions: the division
of astrophysical research in Cambridge, Mass., for the study of solar
and other types of energy impinging on the earth; and the division
of radiation and organisms in Washington, for the investigation of
radiation as it relates directly or indirectly to biological problems.
Shops are maintained in Washington for work in metals, woods, and
optical electronics, and to prepare special equipment for both di-
visions; and a shop conducted in cooperation with the Harvard College
Observatory in Cambridge provides high-precision mechanical work.
Twelve satellite-tracking stations are in operation, in Florida, Hawaii,
and New Mexico in the United States and abroad in Argentina,
Australia, Curacao, India, Iran, Japan, Peru, South Africa, and
Spain.
DIVISION OF ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH
Research at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory continues
to yield new knowledge and increased understanding of a broad range
of astrophysical phenomena.*
Concerning members of the solar system—planets, satellites, mete-
oroids, comets, ete.—the scientific staff have pursued many investiga-
tions. The effects of solar phenomena on these other members of the
system received particular attention, befitting the rapidly increasing
scientific interest in these topics and the increasing national interest
in space.
The sun itself deserves ever more intensive observation and analysis.
Observatory scientists have applied their talents to these studies. In-
struments carried on Orbiting Solar Observatories have become a
major source of solar data.
Beyond the solar system, the stars, galaxies, nebulae, and inter-
stellar matter present numerous research problems, many of which
members of the Observatory staff have studied. Instrumentation now
* Uniess otherwise noted, research is supported from Federal funds appropriated to the
Smithsonian Institution. The Observatory, by support of the scientists, shares in the
support of all research. Support from outside sources is noted numerically where appro-
priate and detailed in footnotes 1-20 on p. 164.
147
148 | § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
being prepared for the Orbiting Astronomical Observatories is ex-
pected to yield new data not obtainable from ground observatories.
The use of electronic computers of great capacity and capability has
allowed consideration of detailed aspects of stellar theories.
A strong feature of the broad scope of the Observatory’s scientific
program is the ease with which a scientist investigating some particu-
lar topic may draw on information and techniques generated by others
pursuing different topics. Particularly gratifying were several cases
in which instrumentation developed for a specific project was adapted
to a quite different application. The many instances of cross-fertiliza-
tion of scientific disciplines occurring within the Observatory’s activ-
ities make subdivision of its program difficult. This, however, is a
small price to pay for the program’s increased scientific value.
Planetary sciences.—With the advent of intensive national and inter-
national space programs, interest in the planets has increased remark-
ably in both scientific and lay circles. Scientists, including those at
the Observatory, have been attracted by the research opportunities
offered by scientific spacecraft.
Studies of the earth were the first to benefit from artificial satellites
as a research tool. Scientists at SAO have been leaders in the utiliza-
tion of satellite data for many such investigations.
Three major areas of investigation are based on the precise satellite-
tracking data obtained by the network of Baker-Nunn cameras.1 The
first is the determination of the density of the earth’s atmosphere
as a function of position and time. These dependencies, in turn,
are used in detailed analyses of atmospheric phenomena and their
correlations with other geophysical and solar phenomena. The second
important area of investigation is directed initially toward the detailed
specification of the earth’s gravitational potential. This specifica-
tion of the geopotential is of basic importance in studies of the interior
of the earth. The third area is the determination of accurate geo-
metrical positions of the Baker-Nunn stations relative to one another.
Knowledge of these positions contributes strongly to an improved
geometrical figure of the earth.
Although these three areas of investigation have quite different
scientific objectives, they are nevertheless intimately related. Each
depends on identification and isolation of factors that influence the
accuracy with which a theoretical orbit may be made to fit the obser-
vational data. Basically, the analytical process consists of finding
the values of such parameters as atmospheric density, geopotential
coefficients, and station coordinates, which optimize the agreement
between theoretical and observed satellite positions. The effects of
these factors are interrelated in such a way that scientific progress
See footnotes on p. 164.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 149
in each of the three areas is best advanced by an iterative process
in which refinements of the parameters are accomplished simultane-
ously or cyclically for a number of satellites. This diverse program
is under the broad guidance of Dr. Fred L. Whipple, director of the
Observatory.
From 5 years of investigation since the first artificial satellite, we
now know much about the high atmosphere. The past year saw
Dr. Luigi G. Jacchia’s timely preparation of a survey, “Variations
in the Earth’s Upper Atmosphere as Revealed by Satellite Drag,” for
the Reviews of Modern Physics. 'The comprehensive content of this
review stands witness to the sensitivity and refinement of the tech-
niques developed and employed at SAO.
Analyses by Dr, Jacchia and Jack W. Slowey have established that—
(1) Both electromagnetic (extreme ultraviolet) and corpuscular radiation
from the sun contribute to the heating of the upper atmosphere.
(2) Most of the energy carried by these two forms of radiation is absorbed
at heights lower than 200 km; the atmosphere above this level is heated by
conduction from below.
(3) The greater heating in the sunlit hemisphere gives rise to a permanent
atmospheric “bulge,” at the center of which the temperature is 40 percent
higher than it is at the opposite point in the dark hemisphere. Because of
the earth’s rotation, this bulge travels around the globe at a latitude equal to
that of the subsolar point; its longitude is the one for which the local time
is 2 p.m.
(4) The temperature of the upper atmosphere can be correlated with the
decimetrie (radio) solar flux, which exhibits variations with characteristic
eycles of 27 days (caused by the rotation of the sun) and of 11 years (caused
by the sunspot cycle). The temperature can be computed and instantaneous
density profiles derived from atmospheric models when the decimetrie solar
flux is known.
(5) The atmosphere of the earth is heated and expanded during magnetic
storms by a factor directly related to the geomagnetic planetary index ap:
(6) The semiannual effect in upper atmospheric densities is real. This shows
that the solar wind contributes substantially to atmospheric heating, even during
quiet periods.
During the past year larger quantities of precisely reduced tracking
data, particularly for satellites of quite different inclinations, have
become available from the Baker-Nunn system. Imre Izsak, Dr. Yo-
shihide Kozai, and their associates have used these enlarged data in
new determinations of the coeflicients in an expansion of the gravi-
tational field of the earth in spherical harmonics."
Mr. Izsak has given particular attention to determination of ccef-
ficients of higher-order tesseral and sectorial harmonics. The per-
turbation theory of these effects being well developed, the problem
actually consists of the construction of extensive computer programs
that would analyze the large number of observations available. Sev-
See footnotes on p. 164.
720-018—64——11
150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
eral solutions have been obtained for the representation of the field
of gravity. These solutions are in reasonable agreement with results
obtained from the analysis of surface gravity data.
Other analyses of the geopotential are continuing. In Japan Dr.
Kozai is at present seeking to establish whether the coefficients in the
expansion of the earth’s potential have seasonal variations.
Using the representation of the geoid derived by Izsak, Kozai, and
their colleagues, Chi-Yuen Wang has found a strong correlation
between the distribution of heat flow and the undulations of the
geoid.t It is reasonable to say at this time that the ups and downs
of the geoid may indicate cold and hot regions under the crust.
Two approaches to the determination of more accurate station coor-
dinates are being pursued at the Observatory. One of these recog-
nizes that the deviations between values observed from a station
and values predicted from theoretical calculations depend on errors in
the presumed station coordinates. Those coordinates that produce
minimum deviations are adopted as improved coordinates. Mr. Izsak
and Dr. George Veis are now effecting this procedure simultaneously
with improvements in the geopotential coefficients.
The second approach is purely geometrical. If two stations simul-
taneously observe a satellite, it is possible to calculate the direction
cosines of the line joining the stations. During the past year a deter-
mined effort by the Baker-Nunn stations produced a number of simul-
taneous observations. Some of these were photographs of the light
flashes from the ANNA geodetic satellite. Although we do not yet
have so many simultaneous observations as we would desire, analy-
sis by Dr. Veis, Jan Rolff, and Antanas Girnius have given reasonable
values in satisfactory agreement with those of the other approach.
For computation of datum shifts of large (continental) geodetic
systems, Dr. Walter Kohnlein has developed special ellipsoidal trans-
formations. ‘These transformations are required to adjust the large
system so that their relative configurations are in accord with the
determined station locations.
For full exploitation of these geodetic capabilities, a more extensive
network than the 12 Baker-Nunn stations is desirable. An inexpen-
sive satellite-tracking camera able to photograph many of the brighter
satellites has been designed and fabricated under the direction of
Dr. Veis and Robert W. Martin. This prototype camera is in experi-
mental operation in Athens, Greece.
Not only the orbit of an artificial satellite but also its motion about
its center of mass is affected by its environment. A theory developed
by Dr. Giuseppe Colombo has been confirmed with the observation
See footnotes on p. 164.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 151
of the changing in orientation of the spin axis of several satellites.
The variation of the angular velocity of the satellites has been success-
fully correlated with the variation of the component of the magnetic
field normal to the spin axis.
Dr. Richard H. Giese used optical observations (Baker-Nunn and
Moonwatch) to develop methods of attitude determination for cylin-
drical satellites with specular reflection. For diffuse reflecting cylin-
ders the formula for intensity as a function of arbitrary angles of
illumination and observation was derived and applied to numerical
computations for a tumbling cylinder.
Phenomena in the earth’s high atmosphere are being investigated
with several tools. As we have seen above, the atmospheric drag on
satellites has provided a sensitive measurement of density variations
above about 180 km. This altitude might be lowered if satellites of
very high density were launched. Dr. Charles Lundquist is examin-
ing the value of launching an ensemble of spherical satellites, some
with high densities, as a noninterference experiment on a development
flight of a large rocket vehicle.
At altitudes between 80 and 100 km, the Doppler shifts in radar
returns from meteor trails may be used to measure the velocity and
direction of winds in the lower ionosphere. A project to make such
measurements and to study wind relationships? to other ionospheric
phenomena has been initiated by Dr. Mario Grossi in conjunction
with the Harvard-SAO Radio Meteor Project.®
Laboratory studies of atomic collision processes* are being com-
bined with a study of relevant problems in atmospheric physics in
the work of Dr. Nathaniel P. Carleton and his associates, Dr. Charles
H. Dugan, C. Papaliolios, and Miss Marion L. Shaw. The greatest
effort has been applied to investigation of excitation of metastable
states in O., N2, and O by electron impact, and of the subsequent
reactions of these metastable states with other gases, including exci-
tation transfer and actual chemical reaction. Dr. Carleton, in collabo-
ration with L. R. Megill of the National Bureau of Standards
Boulder Laboratories, has used recent data on electron collisions to
study the problem of electron heating by electric fields in the iono-
sphere. The group is investigating, in particular, which features of
the airglow and aurora may be caused by electron-impact excitation
by the heated electrons. They conclude that the red lines of atomic
oxygen, 6300-6364 A, are almost certainly excited by this means in
low-latitude auroral forms, but that no other emission in the airglow
or aurora is so excited.
The atmospheres and surfaces of other planets are being studied.
Dr. Carl Sagan has made theoretical studies of the expected limb-
See footnotes on p. 164.
152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
darkening in planetary atmospheres, both at infrared and at micro-
wave wavelengths, with particular reference to the atmosphere of
Venus. Preliminary results predict only a moderate microwave limb-
darkening from expected absorbers in the lower Cytherean atmos-
phere. The model of the Jovian red spot, which assumes it to be a
floating object, was examined and shown to be unlikely.
Dr. Sagan was a coexperimenter on the infrared radiometer of the
U.S. spacecraft Mariner IJ, The experimental results indicated dis-
tinct limb-darkening in the 10-micron region and no clear breaks in
the Cytherean cloud layer. Dr. Sagan is also an experimenter for an
infrared spectrometer designed for a forthcoming Mars fly-by mission.
Study of the rings of Saturn continues. Dr. Allan F. Cook and
Dr. Fred Franklin are undertaking a more accurate scattering theory
for the sunlight illuminating the rings and a more accurate solution
of the Boltzmann equation for the ring particles.5
A theoretical investigation of the formation of absorption bands in
a multiple scattering atmosphere was conducted by Dr. William M.
Irvine. His investigation of strongly asymmetric multiple scatter-
ing is continuing, with emphasis on the variation in limb-darkening
as a function of asymmetry factor and optical depth.
The existing theories of motion of the major planets are not satis-
factory from the modern point of view, especially not for the require-
ments of space travel. Their improvement, however, is hardly
conceivable without progress in computer technology. Mr. Izsak is
therefore considering the possibility of using digital computers for
the construction of analytical perturbation theories. As a first step,
a very efficient program has been developed for the computation of
Laplace coefficients and their derivatives. With cooperation from an
MIT team, a program has been written for the construction of symbolic
expressions, called the Newcomb operators. At present, a generaliza-
tion of these results is being investigated, together with their applica-
tion to the problem of close commensurabilities in celestial mechanics.
The orbits of the minor planets present problems which Dr. Don A.
Lautman is considering. An analysis of the distribution of the peri-
helia of the minor planets has been completed. Dr. Lautman and Dr.
Colombo have examined the small-amplitude librations of a particle
near the triangular point in the semirestricted three-body problem.
They are extending this research to an analysis of orbits of minor
planets whose periods are commensurate with that of Jupiter.
The origin of the solar system and the production of isotopes in
protoplanets are the areas Dr. Henri Mitler is studying. A com-
parison of theoretical results with observations may allow a choice
See footnotes on p. 164.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 153
among several possible alternative primitive compositions for a proto-
Earth.
Ezobiology.—Ultraviolet irradiations of possible simulated primi-
tive terrestrial environments, which Dr. Sagan performed in coopera-
tion with Dr. C. Ponnamperuma, exobiology division, Ames Research
Center, NASA, have produced nucleoside phosphates and other mole-
cules intimately involved in contemporary terrestrial biological proc-
esses. Such synthetic reactions had been predicted by Dr. Sagan in
1957.
Dr. Sagan made other studies on methods for detection of extrater-
restrial life and on the frequency of possible advanced extraterrestrial
life forms. Using Mie theory and a computer program, he is continu-
ing a critical study of the panspermia hypothesis.
In an experimental program performed by Dr. Sagan in coopera-
tion with Dr. Stanley Scher at the University of California Space
Sciences Laboratory,® simulated Martian environments have been
inoculated with a variety of terrestrial soil types and assayed for the
survival of the contained terrestrial microorganisms. ‘The preliminary
results indicate that all samples of terrestrial soil tested have a popula-
tion of microorganisms that can probably survive on Mars. This
conclusion emphasizes the necessity for rigorous sterilization of Mars-
impacting space vehicles.
Lunar science.—The moon is now the object of intense investigation
by many scientists from all parts of the world. This interest is
stimulated, of course, by past and forthcoming lunar probes, orbiters,
softly landed instrumentation packages, and eventual manned
exploration.
The Astrophysical Observatory is pursuing several lunar investi-
gations which are closely related to its other programs and for which,
therefore, the Observatory is peculiarly well prepared. One such
topic is the determination of the moon’s gravitational potential from
analyses of the motion of bodies orbiting it. Attempts by the United
States to launch lunar orbiters have been unsuccessful to date, but
will undoubtedly meet eventual success. Dr. Kozai has completed an
approximate analytical study of the motion of an orbiter. He is pro-
ceeding with a program for numerically integrating the equations of
motion.
Drs. Lautman and Colombo have shown that radiation pressure
significantly changes the orbit of a “balloon” spacecraft and could
effect a lunar capture of an initially geocentric orbit.
The impacts of meteorites on the moon produce craters of all sizes,
depending upon the size and velocity of the incident body. The size
distribution of lunar craters has been analyzed by Dr. Gerald S.
See footnotes on p. 164.
154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Hawkins. The results of this study can be correlated with meteorite
size and velocity distributions from other investigations.
Meteoritie science—The solar system contains much meteoric
matter. The Observatory applies a vast range of techniques and
instrumentation in its broad meteoritic research program. Investi-
gations include the nature of meteoritic matter in the solar system,
the theory of meteors in the earth’s atmosphere, observation of meteors
by optical and radar instruments, mineralogical analyses of meteor-
ites, metallurgical analyses of meteorites, and finally observations of
artificial bodies simulating meteorites.
During the past year Dr. Whipple has made new calculations of
the frequencies of small bodies near the earth and their penetrating
powers on thin surfaces in space. The measurements made in a NASA
satellite have confirmed the general order of magnitude of the new
calculations, which have reduced the meteoritic hazard by some three
orders of magnitude since early calculations. In these and other
overall studies of meteoric matter in the solar system, Dr. Whipple
draws on specific results from the diverse meteoritic investigations
in which he cooperates as director of the Observatory.
Dr. Richard B. Southworth has formulated a convenient quantita-
tive description for the steady-state space distribution of particles
under the Poynting-Robertson effect. Using this description and
results from analyses of Comet Arend-Roland, he is studying genera-
tion of the zodiacal cloud by cometary dust.
Robert E. Briggs is now extending previous work on the space
distribution of interplanetary particles to include a study of velocity
distributions.
Research into the concentration of micrometeorites in the vicinity
of the earth continues. The many-pronged effort of Drs. Colombo
and Lautman consists of: (a) Evaluation of the amount of dust
placed into orbit around the earth as a result of meteors colliding
with the moon and ejecting material; (b) gravitational focusing of
interplanetary particles by the earth, the direct capture of inter-
planetary particles moving under the influence of the gravitational
fields of the sun and earth, and the Poynting-Robertson effect; and
(c) capture of particles by the combined effects of gravity, atmos-
pheric drag, and radiation pressure.
When particles from space plunge into the earth’s atmosphere,
they generate a trail of luminosity and ionization. Several scientists
of the Observatory continue to work on the physical theory of meteors.
Theoretical studies are being made by Drs. Cook, Hawkins, Richard
E. McCrosky, and Franco Verniani. Most of these studies are closely
linked with analyses of observational data. © 7
See footnotes on p. 164.
SECRETARY’S REPORT £55
Dr. Carleton and his associates are conducting laboratory experi-
ments on ion-molecule and molecule-molecule collisions in the range
of 200-2,000 ev energy.* One application of this work is a calcula-
tion of the amount of excitation and ionization produced by micro-
meteorites too small to be observed individually on their entry into
the atmosphere. In that connection they have considered what limits
can be set on the rate of influx of such micrometeorites, concluding
that such effects are negligible.
Statistical analyses of precisely reduced photographic meteor data
from Super-Schmidt cameras are being made by Dr. Jacchia, Dr.
Verniani, and Mr. Briggs. Their aim is to publish the wealth of in-
formation, obtained through several years of meteor photography
and painstaking reductions, concerning the interaction between the
meteor body and the atmosphere. In particular, they can determine
the mass, luminous efficiency, and tensile strength of a meteor body
more accurately than has been possible before.
In study of the spectra of meteors,> Dr. Cook is working with Dr.
I. Halliday of the Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, and Dr. P. M.
Millman of the National Research Council of Canada. Currently a
quantitative spectral analysis of Perseid spectra is under way.
Work on daily motion of the radiant of the Quadrantid meteor
stream was begun. Dr. Frances Wright will continue this project
until all photographic film on hand has been measured, and the motion
of the radiant is determined. This study will yield further knowledge
of the nature of the Quadrantid meteor streams.
Dr. McCrosky has continued a cooperative research effort with
Harvard College Observatory, U.S. Air Force,’ MIT Lincoln Lab-
oratory,’ and NASA, in which various successful attempts have been
made to inject into the upper atmosphere, at meteoric velocities, bodies
of sufficient and known size to reproduce the meteor phenomena.
This research has led to improved values of the luminous efficiency
of ablating hypervelocity bodies entering the atmosphere and of the
masses and densities of meteoroids.
The Radio Meteor Project? is a joint enterprise of the Smithsonian
Astrophysical Observatory and Harvard University. The project has
operated a multistation radar system at Havana, Ill., at a peak trans-
mitter power of 4 megawatts. Meteors have been detectel down to a
limiting magnitude oF +12 on the visual scale. Dr. Hawkins is the
scientist in ples of this project.
To determine the atmospheric trajectory of the meteoroid and its
orbit in interplanetary space, Dr. Hawkins and Dr. Southworth have
analyzed the radar echoes. Drs. Hawkins and Bertil-Anders Lindblad
have found that there is a definite difference in the populations of large
See footnotes on p. 164.
156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
and small meteors.’ Between magnitudes +6 and +9 the average
velocity of meteors detected on the radar system has changed by 5
km sec. This is attributed to the smaller orbits shown by the fainter
meteors. The faint meteors show total fragmentation as they enter
the upper atmosphere of the earth. In general, each meteor disinte-
grates into several hundred fragments, which together act as a cloud
of independent particles.
The objective of the Photographic Meteorite Recovery Program,’
under the direction of Dr. McCrosky, is to photograph the trails of
extremely bright meteors so that the corresponding meteorite impacts
may be determined and a search instigated for the meteorites. In the
past year the project has completed the design of the station buildings,
the cameras, and the photoelectric and control systems; selected and
leased land at 16 sites in the Midwest; selected local station attendants
and their alternates at each site; completed 16 buildings to the point
where they are ready to receive cameras and begin operation; as-
sembled, in Lincoln, Nebr., a team of four field personnel to operate
the network and to recover freshly fallen meteorites; operated a proto-
type station at Havana, I1., for 3 months; and initiated production on
all major components of the stations.
The program for measuring radioactivities in material from outer
space has continued on an expanded scale. In addition to tritium and
argon radioactivities, Dr. Edward L. Fireman and his associates are
now measuring carbon-14 and gamma-ray radioactivities from such
isotopes as aluminum-26, manganese-54, sodium-22, and cobalt.
During the past year Dr. Fireman and James C. DeFelice have
measured tritium, argon-37, and argon-89 in several meteorites, includ-
ing the recently fallen Peace River. The resultant data provide
comparative information on the production, intensity, and constancy
of cosmic rays in space during a period of minimal solar activity.
The absence of argon-39 in the Potter and Estacado meteorites indi-
cates that they fell more than 1,500 yearsago. The Estacado meteorite
has been erroneously associated with an 1882 fireball. The argon-39
and tritium contents of Farmington are similar to those of other
chondrites, but the aluminum-26 content of Farmington is a factor
of more than 50 lower than in other chondrites. The content of these
radioactivities permits the determination of the exposure age from
radioactive isotopes alone. The cosmic-ray exposure age of the Farm-
ington meteorite is between 7,000 and 25,000 years.
Studies of tritium concentrations in the metal phases of stony
meteorites and in iron meteorites have continued during the past year.
Dr. Fireman, Dr. David Tilles, and Mr. DeFelice plan further meas-
urements to test the tentative hypothesis that tritium is lost from
See footnotes on p. 164.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 157
kamacite and retained in taenite. Measurements of tritium in the
Sputnik IV fragment and studies by Dr. Tilles of tritium retention in
a proton-irradiated target have provided additional data on the reten-
tion and loss of tritium in iron and steel.
Dr. Tilles has nearly completed assembling the parts of the high-
sensitivity mass spectrometer ® for studies of noble gases in meteorites.
Anticipated research studies with the spectrometer will include meas-
urements of noble gas abundance and isotopic composition in separated
phases of meteorites.
Problems in the mineralogy and petrology of meteorites, with spe-
cial reference to their temperature-pressure history and age, are being
considered. In the course of these studies,!? Mrs. Ursula B. Marvin
discovered zircon, heretofore unknown in meteorites, in the Vaca
Muerta mesosiderite. The zircon, which is radioactive, is of special
significance in age determinations of any meteorite where it occurs.
As part of a long-term project in collaboration with Dr. Fireman,
Mrs. Marvin has separated mineral concentrates of high purity from
Indarch, a stony meteorite abnormally rich in xenon and containing
the rare minerals CaS and MgS. She will study the mineralogy and
petrology of this meteorite in detail. The radioisotope group will
make age determinations on the separated fractions and a bulk sample.
Initiating a program of study of the chemical compositions of micro-
structures in chondrites, Dr. John A. Wood used the electron micro-
probe in the University of Chicago Division of Geological Sciences
as an analytical tool. At present, the focus of the study is the grains
and particles of nickel-iron metal present in chondrites. The composi-
tions and compositional gradients in these are determined by the
thermal history of the chondrite containing them. This study should
hence yield information about the nature and thermal history of the
planet from which the chondrites were derived.
Dr. Wood has also made a detailed theoretical study of the prop-
erties of the most common class of meteorite, the chondrites, in an
attempt to understand the processes that operated to produce them.??
He also studied the thermal history of nickel-iron phases and their
compositional gradients in iron meteorites. This involved the use
of a digital computer to solve the diffusion equation of nickel in nickel-
iron alloys for various postulated cooling rates and thermal histories.
He found a thermal history that yielded the same nickel diffusion
profiles observed in iron meteorites. Preliminary results indicate
that the medium octahedrite iron meteorites originated in a small
planet, about 200 km in radius; that this object originally accreted
at a rate of ~0.5 cm per year; and that it originally contained a
short-lived radionuclide (~100 ppm of Al ** or the equivalent), which
See footnotes on p. 164.
158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
in decaying provided the planet with a pulse of high temperature
followed by rapid cooling. Dr. Wood spent most of the past fiscal year
at the Enrico Fermi Institute for Nuclear Studies, University of
Chicago, working with Dr. Edward Anders on meteorite research.
Dr. F. Behn Riggs, Jr., completed his investigation * of the use of
an electron probe specially designed to use with very large meteorite
sections without enclosing the specimen in a vacuum chamber. Sev-
eral meteorites were studied with this instrument.
To facilitate interpretation of metallurgical features of meteorites
Dr. Matthias F. Comerford (in cooperation with Prof. H. H. Uhlig
of M.I.T.) and Joseph I. Goldstein (in cooperation with Prof. R. E.
Ogilvie of M.LT.) are pursuing separate investigations of diffusion
processes at the interface of two different specimens of nickel-iron
alloy. The dependence of the interdiffusion coefficients upon both
temperature and pressure is being measured. Pressures up to 50,000
atmospheres are being used in these experiments.
Dr. Wright and Dr. Paul W. Hodge are pursuing a project to
determine the amount and nature of extraterrestrial particles col-
lected by the earth. This investigation has been furthered through
collection, by diverse methods, of particles from a wide variety of
geographical locations. The collected particles were microscopically
examined and their chemical and physical properties determined. A
total of 761 particles of possible extraterrestrial origin have been
chemically analyzed with electron-probe techniques. The results are
proving useful in establishing the chemical criteria for cosmic origin.
Cometary science-——Comets have frequently been investigated by
Smithsonian Observatory scientists. A basic understanding of their
composition, structure, and resultant phenomena promises to clarify
important aspects of the origin of the solar system. The relationship
of comets to meteor showers and the response of comets to solar
activity are likewise important topics.
Currently, Dr. Whipple is directing his attention to the problem
of the cometary nucleus as evidenced in the brightness and deteriora-
tion of the periodic comets. Starting from a combination of meteor
and cometary studies he is performing calculations to ascertain more
exactly the lifetime of a major comet such as Encke’s, which has
contributed a great complex of Taurid meteors. He is seeking to
identify Comet Encke in ancient records in order to determine changes
in period and brightness levels in the ancient past—perhaps 2,500
years ago. This research employs studies of photographic meteor
orbits, theoretical calculations, and cooperation with historians.
Published photographs of Comet Arend-Roland, examined by Dr.
Richard B. Southworth, combined with computed particle trajectories,
See footnotes on p. 164.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 159
showed that the comet had seven tails. Each consisted of dust ejected
in accordance with Whipple’s theory describing this process. The
larger ejected particles collectively contain more mass than the small.
Using photographs made by the Baker-Nunn cameras, Daniel
Malaise * is obtaining measurements of cometary tail activity. This
inquiry bears on the interaction of the solar wind with the tails of
comets.
During the summer of 1962 Dr. Pol Swings reviewed the possibili-
ties for cometary research provided by the use of rocket vehicles and
spacecraft. Observations of infrared and ultraviolet frequencies from
orbiting observatories, measurements from a probe flight near a comet,
and release of appropriate chemicals from rockets all offer significant
opportunity for advancing cometary science.
Dr. Charles A. Whitney and Dr. Lundquist have initiated laboratory
studies of the properties of ices in vacuum to provide several basic
parameters for further theoretical descriptions of comets. Prelimi-
nary theoretical studies of the nature of comets have indicated the
need for several modifications of existing theories.
Solar observations.—A historic advance in solar observation is the
United States’ Orbiting Solar Observatory program. To further its
long-standing record of pioneering solar observations, SAO is playing
an active role in this program.
Dr. Giovanni Fazio was a coexperimenter on the first Orbiting Solar
Observatory, launched in March 1962. The experiment provided the
first view of a solar flare in the high-energy gamma ray (>100 Mev)
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum. Within the sensitivity of
the detector, there was no evidence for gamma radiation. Data re-
duction 7° is continuing, and theoretical calculations on the sun’s
production of gamma rays have been made.
Dr. Leo Goldberg is directing a Harvard University project 1” to
prepare instrumentation for the second Orbiting Solar Observatory,
scheduled to be launched during the fall of 1963. The instrument is
designed both to make scans of the solar spectrum and to obtain mono-
chromatic solar images in the wavelength range 500-1500 A. Both
the prototype and the flight models of the satellite instrument have
been delivered for integration into the spacecraft. A considerable
number of the routine environmental tests have been passed.
Design work has already begun on an improved model of the sean-
ning spectrometer-spectroheliograph, which has been allocated space
on board the fourth Orbiting Solar Observatory. Design work is
also proceeding on a spectrometer that will operate in the short wave-
lengths from 100-600 A.
See footnotes on p. 164.
160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Observations of magnetic fields and velocity fields in the solar
granulation were carried out by Dr. R. W. Noyes at the McMath Solar
Telescope at Kitt Peak National Observatory in Tucson during June
1963. The data are now being analyzed.
Dr. Fireman, Dr. Tilles, and Mr. DeFelice have continued measure-
ments of tritium concentrations in recovered satellites. Such measure-
ments made during the past year have pertained to a period of relative
solar quiescence. The apparent upper limit for trapped tritium
abundance was much lower in 1962 than it was following the No-
vember 1960 solar flares. The measurements to date suggest that these
large flares injected tritium into the trapped radiation belts with
apparent lifetimes of months. This first evidence of direct solar in-
jection of positive Van Allen particles is under continuing critical
examination.
It is clear that particles and electromagnetic radiation from the
sun produce many such diverse phenomena in the solar system. Their
interaction with the earth’s atmosphere results in large density varia-
tions which are manifest in variations of satellite orbits. These
radiations also influence cometary activity. The interpretation of
these far-reaching interrelated phenomena is particularly challenging
because of its very scope. The present period of minimum solar
activity has many advantages for research on these matters. The
Observatory is vigorously pursuing these topics, which will be in-
cluded in the U.S. program for the Year of the Quiet Sun.
Stellar observations.—The Observatory’s astrophysical interests ex-
tend beyond the investigations of the solar system. Using various
instruments, SAO acquires and analyzes observational data on stars,
galaxies, and interstellar matter in all forms.
Like solar observations, stellar observations stand to benefit greatly
from the advent of orbiting observatories. The Observatory is privi-
leged to have responsibility for Project Celescope,!® one of the two
prime experiments on the first Orbiting Astronomical Observatory.
Dr. Whipple is project director, and Dr. Robert J. Davis is project
scientist. Dr. Grossi has supervised electronic aspects of the project.
The primary goal of Project Celescope is to obtain ultraviolet star
catalogs in each of four colors between 1,000 and 3,000 A. The wave-
length range requires that this observing program be carried out above
the earth’s atmosphere. Four separate telescopes equipped with
ultraviolet-sensitive television photometers will be used. The present
phase of the program is concerned primarily with procurement of
the necessary equipment. The experiment has required the develop-
ment of the following pioneering instrumentation and techniques:
See footnotes on p. 164.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 161
ultraviolet-sensitive television camera tubes, Schwarzschild telescope
systems, calibration lamps, a digital television photometric system, and
automatic identification and cataloging of stars.
The ultraviolet-sensitive television camera tubes required much
research and development. The Project has been working for 4 years
with Westinghouse Research Laboratories to procure these devices.
Problems solved during the past year include Westinghouse’s develop-
ment of a new target material that has increased the tube’s sensitivity
and its suitability as a stellar photometer. Laboratory measurements
of the spectral response of this tube were made by Dr. Om P. Rustgi.
The telescope system to be used with Celescope requires the produc-
tion of strongly aspheric optical surfaces mounted so as to survive the
mechanical environment of satellite launching, and to be insensitive
to large variations in temperature.
For calibration of Celescope equipment in orbit, it was necessary to
obtain two types of ultraviolet point sources. One, utilizing a low-
pressure mercury-vapor arc, radiates intensely at 2,537 A. The other,
utilizing a low-pressure xenon arc, radiates intensely at 1,470 A. The
latter lamp required considerable developmental work in order to meet
requirements for small size and power consumption, long life, and
high efficiency. Dr. Rustgi and Clifford Miles have made laboratory
tests of these sources.
The requirement to use a television system as a stellar photometer
posed problems of accuracy, reliability, linearity, and dynamic range
not encountered in the usual type of television data transmission. The
system, as developed by Electro-Mechanical Research, Inc., has proved
able to meet the performance requirements.
Finally, George Szabo, Mrs. Gail Wald, and Stephen Strom have
prepared an ultraviolet identification catalog and are preparing tech-
niques for automatic compilation and publication of the Celescope
observational material.
The accurate measurement of the number and direction of high-
energy gamma rays from the universe is a difficult instrumentation
problem. The importance of the measurement, however, justifies
great effort toward its accomplishment. Dr. Fazio has completed a
theoretical study of the production of gamma rays by cosmic radiation
in our galaxy. Using the results of these calculations, he is planning
further gamma-ray astronomy instruments for future orbiting observ-
atories. A new type of detector for high-energy gamma rays, a mul-
tiplate spark chamber, is now being developed at the Observatory.
A program of spectroscopic observations of bright stars, which Dr.
Whitney initiated at the Agassiz Station of Harvard College Observ-
atory, will provide data for the theoretical work on the spectra of nor-
mal stars. Drs. Wright and Hodge have located Population II
162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Cepheids in the Large Magellanic Cloud, in red globular clusters. A
period-luminosity relation for these Cepheids has been established.
This research is helpful in determining the extragalactic distance
scale.
Six of the Baker-Nunn cameras have been used since 1960 to photo-
graph flare stars in conjunction with radio-frequency measurements of
their radio emissions. The cooperating radio observatories are Jod-
rell Bank Experimental Station in England and the Commonwealth
Scientific and Industrial Research Organization at Sydney, Australia.
Leonard Solomon devised the photographic procedures used. The
one major flare observed this year correlates in time with a major burst
detected in the radio spectrum at Sydney. If these combined obser-
vations are significantly correlated, as they appear to be, they consti-
tute the first observations of radio energy from “normal” stellar
objects. Many minor flares (from previous years) correlate with
small bursts observed at Jodrell Bank.
In collaboration with Prof. William Liller of Harvard, Dr. Gold-
berg has begun an observing program designed to search for evidence
of cyclic stellar activity similar to that connected with the solar sun-
spot cycle. They will conduct the search by monitoring the intensities
of the H and K emission lines of ionized calcium in the spectra of late-
type stars. They will look for both short-term changes, such as may
be produced by flares, and long-term cyclic variations.
A star catalog + of great value to many astronomical enterprises has
been completed under the direction of Dr. Vies, Mr. Solomon, and Mrs.
Katherine Haramundanis. Initiated in 1959 under the Satellite
Tracking Program, the SAO Star Catalog was conceived as the com-
pilation of a large number of fundamental and differential catalogs
to cover the sky in a standard coordinate system. The project used
about 40 catalogs, providing data on approximately a quarter of a
million stars. Preparation of the Star Catalog involved investigations
of the details of the coordinate system and derivation of proper mo-
tions of each catalog. Comparisons of several catalogs were also
made in sky areas where the catalogs used did not provide adequate
information, usually for proper motions. The complete catalog is
stored on magnetic tape, while the publication of a book form is prog-
ressing. A set of star charts is to be produced from the Catalog in
Lambert-conformal projection, probably at two different scales.
Stellar theory—Theoretical studies of stellar atmospheres *° con-
tinued in several directions under Dr. Whitney’s supervision. Ex-
tensive calculations were performed concerning the structure of stellar
convection zones and the nature of the perturbations they produce in
stellar atmospheres. Investigations of the structure of shock fronts in
See footnotes on p. 164.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 163
atomic hydrogen have been extended; these represent a considerable
refinement of the earlier work. Dr. Angelo J. Skalafuris and Dr. Wolf-
gang Kalkofen worked with Dr. Whitney on the latter studies. Dr.
Owen Gingerich has examined some computational aspects of nongray
stellar atmosphere models. In this connection, he has investigated
several new opacity sources. Current work includes the addition of
electron-scattering and absorption-line profiles to the computer
program.
Dr. Max Krook has developed a perturbation-iterative procedure
for solving the structure equations for nongray stellar atmospheres.
He and Dr. Eugene H. Avrett have applied this method to a number
of cases and have found it to converge very rapidly.
Dr. Noyes has made theoretical investigation of velocity fields in
thesolar atmosphere. The purpose of this work is to explain the recent
observations of pronounced oscillatory motions in the solar atmos-
phere. Particular goals are to reproduce the well-determined pe-
riod of 300 seconds for the oscillation. The relevant equations, includ-
ing the effects of radiative damping, have been put in a form suitable
for numerical analysis on an IBM-7090 computer. Preliminary re-
sults indicate that rapid change in radiative flux into the atmosphere
induced by convection in the granulation, does indeed cause oscillatory
motions of the solar atmosphere with the observed properties.
In collaboration with Dr. Y. Ohman of the Stockholm Observatory,
Dr. Goldberg is carrying out a theoretical investigation of the scat-
tering of the Lyman-« emission line by the high-speed electrons of the
solar corona. Profiles of the scattering emission line are being cal-
culated for various assumed models of the corona as a function of dis-
tance from the center of the solar disk.
The radiation pressure exerted on a nonstationary gaseous cloud by
a neighboring exciting star of high temperature has been considered
by Dr. Y. Hagihara.t He has employed quantum mechanical tech-
niques and the assumptions that the atmosphere and the ions in the
cloud are in systematic and random thermal] motions.
Summary.—During the past year we have once more witnessed the
ever-increasing recognition of astrophysical research as an essential
component of the scientific needs of the nation. A previously un-
heard-of situation now exists in which major national programs—
such as manned lunar exploration in this decade—depend on astro-
physical information for their successful execution.
The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory is proud that for 73
years it has been generating and disseminating such knowledge. We
also derive satisfaction from our realization that the research pro-
See footnotes on p. 164.
164 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
grams of the Observatory have grown and continue to grow as the
appropriate Smithsonian Institution response to these requirements.
OTHER ACTIVITIES
On June 11, in ceremonies at the White House, Dr. Whipple re-
ceived the President’s Award for Distinguished Federal Civil Service.
Dr. Whipple and Drs. Fireman, Wood, and Tilles attended the
Gordon Research Conference at Tilton, N.H., in July 1962.
In August Dr. Avrett participated in the Third Colloquium on
the Theory of Stellar Atmospheres, sponsored by Commission 86 of
the International Astronomical Union, at Hailsham, England.
Dr. Colombo presented a paper at the Symposium on Gyrody-
namics, sponsored by the IUTAM, at Celerina, Switzerland.
In September Dr. Lundquist presented a paper at the 13th Inter-
national Astronautical Conference at Varna, Bulgaria.
1Supported by grant NsG 87/60 from the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration.
2Supported by contract 19(628)—3248 with the U.S. Air Force.
8 Supported by grants G20135 and GP388 from the National Science Foundation to
Harvard University and by grant NASr—158 from the National Aeronautics and Space Ad-
ministration to Harvard University.
4 Supported by contract 19(628)—2949 with the U.S. Air Force.
5 Supported by contract AF19(604)5196 between the U.S. Air Force and Harvard
University.
6 Supported by grant number NsG 126/61 from the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration to the University of California.
7 Supported by contract AF19(604)7400 sub 234 between Harvard University and MIT
TAncoln Laboratory.
8 Supported by grant NsG@ 291-62 from the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration.
® Supported by grant NsF 16067 from the National Science Foundation.
10Supported in part by grant NsG 282-63 from the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration to Dr. Clifford Frondel of Harvard University.
11 Supported by grant G 14298 from the National Science Foundation to the University
of Chicago.
22 Supported by contract AT(11-1) 382 between the Atomic Energy Commission and the
Pnrico Fermi Institute for Nuclear Studies, University of Chicago.
18 Supported by contract AF18(600)—1596 with the U.S. Air Force.
14 Research supported by grant G2777 from the National Science Foundation to the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
16 Research sponsored by fellowships from NASA, Fonds National de la Recherche Scien-
tifique, Belgium, and European Preparatory Commission for Space Research.
16 Supported by grant NAS5-3255 from the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration.
11 Supported by contract NASw184 between the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration and Harvard University.
18 Supported by grant NsG—438 from the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion to Harvard University.
19 Supported by contract NAS5-1535 with the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis-
tration.
20 Research supported by grants G-16339 and GP940 from the National Science Founda-
tion.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 165
Dr. Carleton presented a paper at the annual Gaseous Electronics
Conference at Boulder, Colo., in October.
Dr. Fazio presented a paper at the 1962 International Symposium
on Space Phenomena and Measurements in Detroit.
In November Dr. Fireman presented a paper at the Radioactive
Dating Symposium in Athens, Greece. In December he attended
the American Association for the Advancement of Science meeting
in Philadelphia.
Dr. Tilles, Mrs. Marvin, and Mr. Slowey presented papers at the
American Geophysical Union meeting at Stanford University, Palo
Alto, Calif., in December.
In January Dr. Whipple delivered a lecture at the Ninth Annual
Astronautical Society Meeting in Los Angeles. He also attended
ceremonies at the Goddard Space Flight Center commemorating the
fifth anniversary of international tracking of space vehicles.
Drs. Carleton, Lundquist, and Mitler attended the meeting of the
American Physical Society in New York.
Drs. Lundquist, Fazio, and Jacchia attended the Goddard Scientific
Symposium on Satellites in Washington, D.C. Dr. Fazio presented
a paper at this meeting.
In April, Dr. Whipple took part in the Institute of Space Studies
Symposium on the Origin and Evolution of Atmospheres and Oceans,
held in New York City. He also presented a paper at the UGI meet-
ing in Washington.
Drs. Carleton, Fazio, Fireman, Jacchia, Tilles, and Whipple at-
tended the American Geophysical Union meeting in Washington.
Drs. Whipple, Jacchia, and Sagan presented papers at the COSPAR
meeting in Warsaw, Poland, in June. Dr. Sagan also attended the
12th International Astrophysical Colloquium in Liége, Belgium.
BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT
In October 1962 and June 1963 several divisions of the Observatory,
including those occupying space belonging to the IBM Corp. and to
the Harvard University Press, moved to a building on Alewife Brook
Parkway, about a mile from Observatory headquarters at the Har-
vard College Observatory. This move places all personnel in only
two locations, between which mail- and passenger-shuttle operates on
a regular schedule.
Also in October 1962 the IBM-7090 computer was taken over by,
and moved to, the Harvard Computing Laboratory, from which the
Observatory rents needed time.
720-018—64——12
166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
PUBLICATIONS
The following papers by staff members of the Astrophysical Obser-
vatory appeared in various journals.
AvreTT, E. H., Aanp Kroox, M. The temperature distribution in a stellar atmos-
phere. Astrophys. Journ., vol. 137, pp. 874-881, 1963.
A rapidly convergent iterative procedure for the calculation of the
temperature-pressure relation in a stellar atmosphere. Journ. Quant.
Spectrose. Radiat. Transfer, vol. 3, pp. 107-113, 1963.
AvrettT, . H., Anp Lorser, R. A simple and accurate method for the evaluation
of the Milne integrals. Journ. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, vol. 8, pp.
201-209, 1963.
Brxs, D. G.; Carterton, N. P.; AND OLDENBERG, O. The half-life of the meta-
stable level A* of the nitrogen molecule. Jn Advances in Molecular Spec-
troscopy, pp. 197-200, Pergamon Press, Oxford, 1962.
Brices, R. E. Steady-state space distribution of meteoric particles under the
operation of the Poynting-Robertson effect. Astron. Journ., vol. 67, No. 10,
1962.
CARLETON, N. P. The relation of the recent atmospheric dust measurements of
Volz and Goody to the problem of meteoric influx. Journ. Atmos. Sci., vol. 19,
pp. 424-426, 1962.
See also Bills, Carleton, and Oldenberg.
CARLETON, N. P., AND MEGILL, L. R. Electron energy distribution in slightly
ionized air under the influence of electric and magnetic fields. Phys. Rev.,
vol, 126, pp. 2089-2099, 1962.
CARLETON, N.P., AND OLDENBERG, O. Lifetime of the lowest excited level of N.
Journ. Chem. Phys., vol. 36, pp. 3460-8463, 1962.
CARLETON, N. P., AND PAPLIOLIOS, C. Measured variation on the electronic transi-
tion moment of the Vegard-Kaplan bands in Nz Journ. Quant. Spectrosc.
Radiat. Transfer, vol. 2, pp. 241-244, 1962.
Cotomso, G. The magnetic torque acting on artificial satellites. In Proceedings
of Conference on Gyrodynamics, I.U.T.A.M., Celerina, 1963.
See also Shapiro, Lautman, and Colombo.
CoLoMBo, G., AND LAUTMAN, D. A. On some singular orbits of an Earth-Moon
satellite with a high-area mass ratio (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 67, p.
5738, 1962.
Cotomsgo, G.; LautMAN, D. A.; AND Munrorp, C. On the libration orbits of
a particle near the triangular points on the semirestricted three-body
problem (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 68, pp. 159-162, 1963.
Coox, A. F. A proposed criterion for the mode of ablation of stone meteors.
Smithsonian Contr. Astrophys., vol. 4, pp. 131-136, 1963.
Cook, A. F.; Jaccuta, L. G,; AND McCrosky, R. E. Luminous efficiency of iron
and stone meteors. Smithsonian Contr. Astrophys., vol. 7, pp. 209-220,
1963.
DeEFeEuice, J. See Tilles, Fireman, and DeFelice; Fireman, Fazio, and De-
Felice; Fireman, DeFelice, and Tilles.
Doutuig, J. G.; Harner, E. M.; Kapron, M. F.; ann Fazio, G. G. Gamma rays
at high altitude. Phys. Rev. Letters, vol. 10, p. 364, 1963.
Douture, J. G.; Harner, H. M.; Kapton, M. F.; Fazio, G. G.; AnD SAVEDOFF, M. P.
Primary y-rays (abstract). Amer. Phys. Soce., series II, vol. 8, p. 7, 1963.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 167
Fazio, G. G.; Coox, C. J.; AND HAFNER, E. M. High energy gamma ray astron-
omy. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science, vol. NS—-10, pp. 10-14, 1963.
Search for high-energy gamma-rays from the sun (abstract). Trans.
Amer. Geophys. Union, vol. 44, p. 88, 1963.
Fazio, G. G. See also Fireman, Fazio, and DeFelice; Duthie, Hafner, Kaplon,
and Fazio; Duthie, Hafner, Kaplon, Fazio, and Savedoff; Melissinos, Yaman-
ouchi, Fazio, Lindenbaum, and Yuan.
FIREMAN, Hi. L. Density of the solar flare plasma. Journ. Geophys. Res. vol.
67, p. 4890, 1962.
Tritium in meteorites and in recovered satellite material, In Tritium
in the Physical and Biological Sciences, vol. 1, p. 69, IAHA, Vienna, 1962.
See also Tilles, Fireman, and DeFelice.
FireMAN, E. L.; Fazio, G. G.; AND DEFEticr, J. Argon 39, tritium, and alumi-
num 26 in the Farmington meteorite and its discordant exposure ages (ab-
Stract). Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, vol. 44, p. 83, 1963.
FireMAN, HE. L.; DEFELicr, J.; AND TrLLtEs, D. Tritium and radioactive argon
and xenon in meteorites and in recovered satellites, In Radioactive Dating,
vol. 1, p. 83, EAEA, Athens, 1963.
GiEsE, R. H. Light scattering by small particles and models of interplanetary
matter derived from the zodiacal light. Space Sci. Rev., vol. 1, pp. 589-611,
1962.
GINGERICH, O., AND STAHLMAN, W. Planetary longitudes for years —2500 to
+2000. Univ. Wisconsin Press, 1962.
GiIncERIcH, O. Krook’s iterative procedure for the temperature distribution
in model stellar atmospheres (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 67, p. 272, 1962.
A spiral galaxy of astronomers. Sky and Tel., vol. 25, p. 132, 1963.
GotpgerG, L. Stellar and interstellar observations. Jn Space Age Astronomy,
pp. 203-212, Academic Press, New York, 1962.
The sun. Jn Hugh Odishaw, ed., The Challenges of Space, pp. 129-142,
University of Chicago Press, 1962.
The physics of the sun, its nature, structure and emission properties.
In Donald P. Legalley, ed., Space Science, pp. 88-112, John Wiley & Sons,
Ine., 1963.
Means of observations. Jn Thornton Page, ed., Stars and Galaxies,
pp. 14-42, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1962.
The abundance of He® in the sun. Astrophys. Journ., vol. 136, No. 8,
1962.
GoLpsTEIN, J. I. Electron microanalysis of metallic meteorites. S.M. thesis,
MIT, Cambridge, Mass., 1962.
Hawkins, G. 8. Radar determination of meteor orbits. Astron. Journ., vol.
67, p. 241, 1962.
A study of tektites. NASA Research Report No. 14, 1962.
New theory of the universe. Science Digest, p. 40, 1962.
A study of tektites. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, p. 895, 1963.
Impacts on the Earth and Moon. Nature, vol. 197, p. 781, 1963.
. The initial diameter of meteor trails. Smithsonian Contr. Astrophys.,
VOle «ps2, 1 96e. .
The Harvard Radio Meteor Project. Smithsonian Contr. Astrophys.,
vol. 7, p. 53, 1963.
See also Southworth and Hawkins.
Hawkins, G. S., anp Lazarus, D. M. Meteor ionization and the mass of
meteoroids. Smithsonian Contr. Astrophys., vol. 7, p. 221, 1963.
HY
168 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
HEMBREE, R. V.; LuNpDQuIST, C. A.; AND THompson, A. W. Scientific results
from Juno-launched spacecraft. Jn H. Stuhlinger, F. I. Ordway III, J. C.
McCall, G. C. Bucher, ed., Astronautical Engineering and Science, p. 281,
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1963.
Hopce, P. W., AND WricHt, F. W. The space density of atmospheric dust in the
altitude range 50,000 to $0,000 feet. Smithsonian Contr. Astrophys., vol. 5,
p. 231, 1962.
Hopeéet, P. W. See also Wright and Hodge.
Izsak, I. G. The odd harmonic effect in the motion of the satellites 1960 Beta 2
and 1960 Iota 2. Proc. of the First International Symposium on the Use of
Artificial Satellites for Geodesy, p. 329, North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam,
1963.
On the critical inclination in satellite theory. Proc. of the First Inter-
national Symposium on the Use of Artificial Satellites for Geodesy, p. 117,
North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1963.
JAaccuia, L. G. Comment on paper by D. G. Parkyn. Satellite 1958 52 Data
Analysis. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, p. 2989, 1962.
The determination of atmospheric drag on artificial satellites. Dy-
namics of Satellites, IUTAM Symposium, Paris, pp. 186-142, Springer-Ver-
lag, Berlin, 1968.
Hlectromagnetic and corpuscular heating of the upper atmosphere.
Space Research [1I, North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1963.
Meteors, meteorites and comets; interrelations. In G. Kuiper and B.
Middlehurst, ed., The Solar System, vol. 4, p. 774, University of Chicago
Press, 1963.
Satellite studies of the upper atmosphere. Trans. Amer. Geophys.
Union, vol. 44, p. 436, 1963.
See also Cook, Jacchia, and McCrosky.
KALKOFEN, W. Relaxation of shock-heated hydrogen. Dissertation, Harvard
University, 1963.
Kozat, Y. Mean values of cosine function in an elliptic motion. Astron.
Journ., vol. 67, p. 311, 1962.
Second-order solution of artificial satellite theory without airdrag.
Astron. Journ., vol. 67, p. 446, 1962.
Secular perturbations of asteroids with high inclination and eccen-
tricity. Astron. Journ., vol. 67, pp. 591-598, 1962.
Numerical results on the gravitational potential of the earth. Proce.
of the First International Symposium on the Use of Artificial Satellites for
Geodesy, p. 305, North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1963.
Potential of the earth derived from satellites motion. In M. Roy,
ed., Dynamics of Satellites, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1963.
Kroox, M. A perturbation method for non-gray stellar atmospheres. Astro-
phys. Journ., vol. 137, p. 863, 1963.
See also Avrett and Krook.
LAuTMAN, D. A. On the distribution of the perihelia of the asteroids (abstract).
AAS, 1963.
See also Shapiro, Lautman, and Colombo; Colombo and Lautman;
Columbo, Lautman, and Munford.
Loreser, R. See Avrett and Loeser.
LOVELL, B.; WHIPPLE, F. L.; AND Sotomon, L. Radio emission from flare stars.
Nature, vol. 198, pp. 228-230, 1963.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 169
Lunpaquist, C. A.; NAUMANN, R. J.; AND WEBER, A. H. Directional flux densities
and mirror point distributions of trapped particles from satellite 1958
Epsilon measurements. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, p. 4125, 1962.
Lunveguist, C. A. See also Hembree, Lundquist, and Thompson.
Marvin, U. B. Cristobalite in the carbo iron meteorite. Nature, vol. 196, pp.
634-635, 1962.
McCrosxky, R. E., anD SoBERMAN, R. K. Research Note AFCRL-62-803, 1962.
Results from an artificial iron meteoroid at 10 km/sec. Smithsonian
Contr. Astrophys., vol. 7, p. 199, 1963.
McCrosxky, R. E. See also Cook, Jacchia, and MecCrosky.
MELIssiInos, A. C.; YAMANOUCHI, T.; Fazio, G. G.; Linpenspaum, S. J.; AND
Yuan, L. C. L. 2z-meson production in 2.9 Bey. p-p collisions. Phys. Rev.,
vol. 128, pp. 2873-2381, 1962.
MunForp, ©. See also Colombo, Lautman, and Munford.
NicaAM, R. C. Secular decrease in the inclination of artificial satellites. ATAA
Journ., p. 1455, June, 1963.
PAPLIOLIOS, C. See also Carleton and Papliolios.
PONNAMPERUMA, C.; MARINER, R.; AND SaGAn, C. Formation of adenosine by
ultraviolet irradiation of a solution of adeneine and ribose. Nature, vol. 198,
p. 1199, 1963.
PONNAMPERUMA, C.; SAGAN, C.; AND MARINER, R. Ultraviolet synthesis of ade-
nosine triphosphate under simulated primitive earth conditions. Nature,
vol. 199, pp. 222-226, 1963.
Rices, B. F., JR. Construction of a small valve for high vacuum. Rey. Sci.
Instr., vol. 33, p. 1114, 1962.
Simple aid to pulse-height selection with scanning X-ray spectrometers.
Rey. Sci. Instr., vol. 34, p. 312, 1963.
New design for a gas-flow proportional counter. Rev. Sci. Instr., vol.
34, pp. 392-395, 1963.
Preparation of bent-crystals for monochromatizing X-rays. Rev. Sci.
Instr., vol. 33, p. 875, 1962.
SAGAN, C. Liége collog. highlights planetary physics (meeting review). Astro-
nautics, October, p. 78, 1962.
Direct contact among galactie civilizations by relativistic interstellar
spaceflight. Planetary and Space Sci., vol. 11, p. 485, 1963.
On the nature of the Jovian red spot. In Proe. 11th International
Astrophysical Colloq., Liége, p. 506, 1963.
Life beyond the earth, Voice of America Forum Lectures. Space Sci.
Series, 1963.
Venus. Int. Sci. and Tech. No. 15, March, pp. 86-94, 1963.
Prospects for lunar organic matter. Jn Proc. Conf. on Lunar Explor-
ation, Virginia Polytechnic Inst., ch. 17, 1963.
SaGan, C., AND Kettocc, W. W. Atmospherii Marsa i Veneri. Russian trans-
lation by V. I. Moroz of NAS-NRC Publication No. 944, 1961. Published
1962.
See also Ponnamperuma, Mariner, and Sagan; Ponnamperuma, Sagan,
and Mariner. :
SKALAFURIS, A. J. Stability and structure of stellar shocks. Dissertation,
Brandeis University, Waltham, 1963.
Sapiro, I. I.; Laurman, D. A.; and Cotompo, G. Capture of cosmic dust
into circumierrestrial orbits. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, vol. 44, p. 71,
1963.
170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Sotomon, L. See Lovell, Whipple, and Solomon.
SourtHworrTH, R. B. Theoretical Fresnel patterns of radio meteors. Presented
at fall URSI meeting, Ottawa, 1962.
Deceleration of radio meteors (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 67,
p. 283, 1962.
Dust in Comet Arend-Roland. Astron. Journ., vol. 68, p. 293, 1963.
Dynamical evolution of the Perseids and Orionids. Smithsonian Contr.
Astrophys., vol. 7, p. 299, 1963.
On S. H. Dole’s paper, The gravitational concentration of particles
in space near the Earth. Planetary and Space Sci., vol. 11, p. 499, 1963.
SouTtHwortTH, R. B., AND HawxK1ns, G. S. Statistics of meteor streams. Smith-
sonian Contr. Astrophys., vol. 7, 261, 1963.
Strom, S. E. Variations in the law of interstellar reddening. Astron. Journ.,
vol. 68, p. 80, 1963.
TrtLEs, D. Room temperature diffusion constant for hydrogen in proton-irradi-
ated steel. Nature, vol. 194, p. 1278, 1962.
Silicon isotopes in pegmatites and igneous rocks (abstract). Journ.
Geophys. Res., vol. 67, p. 1659, 1962.
Sputnik IV Symposium (review). Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, vol.
44, p. 143, 1963.
See also Fireman, DeFelice, and Tilles.
Tries, D.; FireEMAN, EB. L.; AND DEFELIcE, J. Tritium in Discoverer satellites.
Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 67, p. 1660, 1962.
Radioactivities in the metallic phase of the Harleton meteorite. Journ.
Geophys. Res., vol. 67, p. 8604, 1962.
H® and A® in a fragment of Sputnik IV. Trans. Amer. Geophys.
Union, vol. 48, p. 457, 1962.
A search for the geomagnetically trapped tritium in satellite material
flown June to September 1962. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, vol. 44, p.
90, 1963.
WHIPPLE, F. L. Dust and meteorites. Astronautics, vol. 7, pp. 40-42, 1962.
Meteoritic erosion in space (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 67, pp. 285-
286, 1962.
Meteoritic erosion in space. Smithsonian Contr. Astrophys., vol. 7, pp.
239-248, 1963.
On the structure of the cometary nucleus. Jn G. P. Kuiper, ed., The
Solar System, vol. IV, ch. 15, pp. 639-662, University of Chicago Press,
1963.
See also Lovell, Whipple, and Solomon.
WHITNEY, C. A. Theoretical aspects of the W Virginis phenomena. Astron.
Journ., vol. 67, p. 286, 1962.
The duration of line-splitting in W Virginis. Astrophys. Journ., vol.
136, p. 674, 1962.
The filtering of spectrophotometric noise. Astrophys. Journ., vol. 137,
pp. 527-531, 1963.
Woop, J. A. Meteorites; physics and chemistry. /n G. P. Kuiper, and B. M.
Middlehurst, ed., The Solar System, vol. 4, ch. 12, University of Chicago
Press, 1963.
WericuHT, FE. W., AND Hopes, P. W. Space density of dust in the stratosphere.
Nature, vol. 195, p. 269, 1962.
See also Hodge and Wright.
SECRETARY’S REPORT Lz
The Special Reports of the Astrophysical Observatory distribute
catalogs of satellite observations, orbital data, and preliminary results
of data analysis prior to journal publication. Numbers 99 through 126,
issued during the year, contain the following material:
No. 99, July 16, 1962.
No.
Chemical analysis of 643 particles collected by high-altitude aircraft and
balloons, by F. B. Riggs, Jr., F. W. Wright, and P. W. Hodge.
- 100, July 30, 1962.
Accurate drag determinations for eight artificial satellites; atmospheric
densities and temperatures, by L. G. Jacchia and J. Slowey.
. 101, July 31, 1962.
Numerical results from orbits, by Y. Kozai.
. 102 (P-5), August 27, 1962.
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellite 1959 a1 for the entire
year 1960, prepared by J. MacDonald, K. Haramundanis, et al.
. 108, August 28, 1962.
Satellite orbital data: Satellite 1959 Eta (Vanguard III), Sept. 1, 1960-
Dee. 31, 1961, and Satellite 1960 «1 (Echo I), Jan. 1—Dee. 31, 1961, by B.
Miller, compiled by I. G. Izsak.
. 104 (P-6), September 10, 1962.
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellite 1961 61 from launch
Feb. 16—June 30, 1961, prepared by J. MacDonald et al.
. 105, September 28, 1962.
The trajectory of tektites, by G. S. Hawkins and S. K. Rosenthal.
. 106 (P-7), November 1, 1962.
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellite 1959 a1 from Jan. 1-
June 30, 1961; Satellite 1959 71 from Jan. 1-June 30, 1961, prepared by
P. Stern.
. 107, November 9, 1962.
On some singular orbits of an earth-moon satellite with a high area-mass
tatio, by G. Colombo and D. A. Lautman.
108, November 20, 1962.
On the libration orbits of a particle near the triangular point in the semi-
restricted three-body problem, by G. Colombo, D. A. Lautman, and
C. Munford.
. 109, December 21, 1962.
Re-entry and recovery of fragments of satellite 1960 «1, by C. A. Lundquist,
R. C. Vanderburgh, W. A. Munn, D. Tilles, E. L. Fireman, and J. DeFelice.
. 110, December 14, 1962.
Project Celescope, an astrophysical reconnaissance satellite, edited by R. J.
Davis.
. 111, December 15, 1962.
Possible contributions of space experiments to cometary physics, by P.
Swings.
. 112, January 21, 1963.
On the secular decrease in the inclination of artificial satellites, by R. C.
Nigam.
172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
113, January 23, 1963.
Satellite orbital data: Satellite 1958 Alpha, Apr. 1—-July 1, 1962, by B. Miller;
Satellite 1959 al, Mar. 31—June 30, 1962, by M. Gutierrez; Satellite 1959
Eta, Mar. 31-—June 30, 1962, by M. Hall; Satellite 1959 11, Mar. 31-June 30,
1962, by M. Gutierrez; Satellite 1960 £1, Apr. 1-July 1, 1962, by M. Hall;
Satellite 1961 61, Mar. 31-June 30, 1962, J. Weingarten, compiled by I. G.
Izsak.
114 (C-31), January 28, 1963.
Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1958 Alpha, 1959 a1, 1959 Eta,
and 1959 «1 for Jan. 1-June 30, 1962, prepared by B. Miller.
115 (C-32), January 29, 1963.
Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1960 :1, 1960 .2, and 1960 £1, for
Jan. 1—-June 30, 1962, prepared by B. Miller.
116 (C-33), January 30, 1963.
Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1961 61, 1961 01, and 1961 02,
for Jan. 1—June 380, 1962; Satellite 1961 ~1, Jan. 1-Sept. 19, 1962; Satellite
1962 ¢1, Mar. 7, 1962; Satellite 1962 1, Apr. 8-May 16, 1962; Satellite
1962 .2, Apr. 8-May 4, 1962; Satellite 1962 y2, May 4-17, 1962; Satellite
1962 ol, Apr. 28-May 20, 1962; Satellite 1962 02, Apr. 28-May 4, 1962;
Satellite 1962 aal, June 20-Aug. 8, 1962, prepared by B. Miller.
117, February 11, 1963.
Satellite orbital data: Satellite 1958 Alpha, Jan. 1—-Apr. 1, 1962, by B. Miller;
Satellite 1959 a1, Aug. 1, 1961—Mar. 31, 1962, by M. Gutierrez; Satellite
1959 Eta, Jan. 1—-Apr. 1, 1962, by M. Hall; Satellite 1959 11, Jan. 1-Apr. 1,
1962, by B. Miller; Satellite 1960 1, Jan. 1-Apr. 30, 1962; Satellite 1960
£1, Jan. 1—Apr. 1, 1962, by M. Hall; Satellite 1961 61, Jan. 1—-Mar. 31, 1962,
by J. Weingarten ; compiled by I. G. Izsak.
. 118 (P-8), February 14, 1963.
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellites 1959 «1, 1959 Eta and
1960 (2, July 1—Dec. 31, 1961, compiled by P. Stern.
. 119 (E-2), March 15, 1963.
Satellite orbital data: Satellite 1959 a1, Jan. 1, 1960—Dec. 31, 1961; Satellite
1959 «2, Apr. 6-Aug. 26, 1960; Satellite 1959 Eta, Jan. 1, 1960—Dec. 31,
1961 ; Satellite 1960 .2, Mar. 14—Dee. 31, 1961; Satellite 1961 51, Feb. 18—-Dec.
31, 1961, by P. Stern ; compiled by I. G. Izsak.
- 120, March 18, 1963.
Satellite orbital data: Satellite 1958 Alpha, July 1-Sept. 30, 1962, by B.
Miller; Satellites 1959 «1, 1959 Eta, and 1959 11, July 1-Sept. 30, 1962,
by M. Gutierrez; Satellites 1960 £1 and 1961 51, July 1—Sept. 30, 1962, by
J. Weingarten; Satellite 1960 11, May 1-Sept. 30, 1962; compiled by I. G.
Izsak.
. 121, April 1, 1968.
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory program writeup (SCROGE), by
J. R. Cherniack and E. M. Gaposchkin.
. 122, April 2, 1963.
Combinations of least-squares approximations in the case of correlated
variables, by P. L. Kadakia.
- 128, April 30, 1963.
Precise aspects of terrestrial and celestial reference frames, by G. Veis.
. 124, May 27, 1963.
Notes on the design and operation of satellite tracking stations for geodetic
purposes, by the staff of the Smithsonian Institution Astrophysical
Observatory.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 173
No. 125, May 28, 1963.
An analysis of the atmospheric drag of the Exployer IX satellite from
precisely reduced photographic observations, by L. G. Jacchia and J.
Slowey.
No. 126, June 24, 1963.
Satellite orbital data: Satellite 1958 a, Oct. 1-Dec. 31, 1962, by B. Miller;
Satellites 1959 a1, 1959 7 and 1959 11, Oct. 1—Dee. 31, 1962, by M. Gutierrez;
Satellite 1960 y2, Apr. 18-—May 30, 1960; Sept. 29-Oct. 28, 1962, by R. C.
Nigam; Satellites 1960 1, £1 and 1961 81, Oct. 1—Dec. 31, 1962, by J. Wein-
garten; Satellite 1962 acl, July 10-Dec. 31, 1962, by M. Gutierrez; Satel-
lites 1962 61, Oct. 27—-Dec. 20, 1962 and 1960 Bul, Oct. 31—Dec. 31, 1962,
by J. Weingarten ; compiled by I. G. Izsak.
STAFF CHANGES
On July 22, 1962, Dr. Charles A. Lundquist joined the Observatory
as assistant director for science. Other scientists who joined the staff
during the year are physicists Dr. Eugene Avrett, Dr. Nathaniel P.
Carleton, Dr. Charles Dugan, Dr. Giovanni G. Fazio, Dr. Owen
Gingerich, Dr. William M. Irvine, Dr. Robert W. Noyes, Dr. Carl E.
Sagan, Dr. Franco Verniani, and Chi-Yuen Wang; astronomer Dr.
Gerald S. Hawkins; metallurgists Dr. Matthias Comerford and Joseph
Goldstein; geodesist Dr. Walter K6hnlein; and Daniel Malaise,
NASA-COPERS fellow. Jack Coffey was appointed personnel di-
rector, and Marc Malec was named contract specialist.
Resignations during the year included those of Thomas Noonan,
Dr. F. Behn Riggs, and Dr. Om P. Rustgi, physicists; G. Nielson,
administrative officer, Satellite Tracking Program; Dr. Pedro
Zadunaisky and Rajendra C. Nigam, astronomers.
Consultants at the Observatory during the year were Dr. Gustav
Bakos, Dr. Richard Giese, Dr. Yusuke Hagihara, Dr. Yoshihide
Kozai, Dr. Otto Struve, Dr. Pol Swings, Dr. H. C. Van de Hulst, and
Dr. George Veis.
On June 30, 1963, the Observatory employed 335 persons.
DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS
Prepared by W. H. Kern, Chief of the Division
The research program of the Division is concerned with the effects
of solar and ionizing radiation on biological systems, with emphasis
on developing systematic concepts of the metabolic mechanisms and
responses of living organisms as influenced and regulated by radia-
tion. Areas of concentrated effort include problems relating to the
regulation of metabolism by radiation, the determination of structure
and function of macromolecules involved in energy storage, the meas-
urement of seasonal changes in spectral distribution of total sky radia-
tion and the correlation of these changes with plant responses.
174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Plastids of flowering plants grown in the dark are converted to
functional chloroplasts in the light. The antibiotic chloramphenicol
partially inhibits light-dependent synthesis of whole leaf and chloro-
plast protein, and chloroplasts from chloramphenicol-treated leaves
lack the ability to catalyze light-dependent formation of TPNH
(reduced triphosphopyridine nucleotide) and ATP (adenosine tri-
phosphate) which are needed for photosynthetic carbon dioxide fixa-
tion. Thus, nonfunctional plastids lack a number of structural pro-
teins necessary for the generation of TPNH and ATP. Methods of
isolating chloroplasts active in photoproduction of TPNH and ATP
were examined. An unidentified inactivator was found in leaf homo-
genates. The presence of this inhibitor accounts for the previous
difficulties encountered in obtaining chloroplasts active in photopro-
duction of TPNH and ATP.
The proteins of functional chloroplasts from treated and untreated
leaves differ. Purified plastids from treated leaves contain a larger
fraction of protein that can be made water soluble. Immunological
analysis, however, shows that the soluble fraction from chloroplasts
of control leaves contains more protein components. Differences are
related to structural differences visualized with the electron micro-
scope.
Unlike flowering plants, many algae form chloroplast pigments in
the dark. However, differences in quantity and quality of light have
been reported to affect pigmentation and photosynthetic capacity.
A number of littoral diatom isolates were found to grow well in the
dark. Similar pelagic isolates are being sought. Methods of quanti-
tatively extracting chloroplast pigments are being developed to com-
pare differences in pigmentation between organisms grown in light
and dark.
Marine organisms are peculiarly suitable for fundamental investi-
gation of radiation responses, and a section was organized within the
division for marine biology research. The long-term aim of this
study is toward establishing an adequate understanding of the physi-
ology and biochemistry of the occurrence, behavior, and potential har-
vest of marine organisms.
In the sea, algae carry out the conversion of light energy to chemical
energy. Phosphorus compounds are involved and play an important
role in the determination of the bulk and growth rates of the algae.
A number of types of phosphorus compounds in algae have been
identified, quantitated, and used in structural studies. Metabolic
activities of these compounds have been determined by the rate of
incorporation of radioactive isotopes. Methylated ribose was demon-
strated as a component of nucleotides of RNA (ribose nucleic acid)
SECRETARY’S REPORT 175
fraction. A number of sugars and neuraminic acids were demon-
strated to be bound to the RNA.
The morphological development of plastids in the presence of a
carbohydrate substrate has been demonstrated to be controlled by the
phytochrome pigment system which is photosensitive to red and far-
red radiant energy. Microscopic examinations of leaf preparations
show a red light-induced disappearance of starch from within young
etiolated plastids. This observation has been substantiated by bio-
chemical analysis which also indicated that starch degradation was
preceded by a similar loss in total soluble sugars. In addition, these
changes, which are appreciable in 6 hours and maximal in 12 hours fol-
lowing a 38-minute exposure to light, correlate with the pronounced
photomorphogenic leaf expansion. Studies of the kinetics of these
changes, of temperature sensitivity and energy requirements for in-
duction and reversal, have been completed as a necessary preliminary
to an intensive study of the enzyme systems involved.
Attempts to correlate physiological responses in a number of tissues
to reported in vivo measurements of phytochrome concentrations have
led to the conclusion that a simple one-pigment system appears to be
inadequate in explaining the observed results. A far-red dose re-
sponse curve was determined immediately after, and 114 hours after
red induction. The data show a significant increase in sensitivity to
far-red after 114 hours in both lettuce seed germination and bean hy-
pocotyl hook opening. It was also observed that complete reversal of
the induced response can be obtained with sufficiently large amounts
of far-red energy from 214 hours to 4% hours after induction for both
lettuce and bean. Further, there is significant reversal of the red
induction for at least a 10-hour period in both.
Experiments using Avena mesocotyl inhibition in which non-
inhibitory pretreatments of red irradiation were given 24 hours prior
to inhibitory red treatments did not produce any change in sensitivity.
The published in vivo measurements indicate that such pretreatments
should have significantly reduced the level of phytochrome so that the
sensitivity should have changed. Also, experiments in which red
treatments were divided into two doses separated by 4-hour dark inter-
vals, or given as one continuous dose, showed marked differences in
the sensitivity to far-red reversal. These data do not fit reasonably
with a single pigment system.
Many biological responses, such as flowering, pigment synthesis,
seed germination, stem elongation, and leaf expansion are controlled
by photochemical! reactions initiated by various portions of the visible
spectrum. In a program of study never previously undertaken any-
where, measurements of specific spectral regions of sun and sky radia-
176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
tion are being recorded and correlated with plant growth responses of
living material produced in natural daylight and in controlled en-
vironment conditions. The greenhouse and controlled environment
rooms, with such special features as automatically controlled changing
light intensities and daylengths to reproduce natural conditions, have
been developed and installed. The system for measuring sun and sky
radiation has been developed and includes specially constructed
thermopiles with filters which automatically measure solar radiation.
A digital recording system has been adapted, with automatic data
processing equipment for handling a larger amount of information, to
register all data on punched tape. Measurements are being made at
3-minute intervals for six different wavebands simultaneously. Direct
measurements with photomultipliers using interference filters at two
specific wavelengths, 660 and 730 mp, indicate that there is an ap-
preciable shift of as much as two-fold in the ratio of red to far-red
near sunrise and sunset. These shifts may be of significant import in
determining the effective daylength for biological responses which
utilize the phytochrome system.
The biological phase has been initiated, and at periodic intervals the
plant material cultivated under precisely controlled conditions is
observed and measured, and the data are recorded for purposes of com-
parison and correlation. It is expected that the degree and/or fre-
quency of physiological responses initiated by photochemical stimuli
will demonstrate a direct correlation with measured daily and seasonal
fluctuations in the energy and quality of solar radiation as observed
over relatively long periods of time.
It has been shown previously by Dr. W. M. Dugger, Jr., and Dr.
O. C. Taylor at the Air Pollution Research Center, University of
California at Riverside, that PAN (peroxyacetyl nitrate) is an oxi-
dant, naturally present in smog, which produces necrotic lesions on
young leaves in the presence of light. These previous observations
also suggested that PAN might be affecting the photosynthetic system
of the plant. Thus, an attempt was made to determine if the intra-
cellular site of PAN action could be determined. The spectral sensi-
tivity of the light requirement in producing damage in bean seedlings
in the presence of the smog oxidant was determined cooperatively
with Drs. Dugger and Taylor, and this action spectrum indicates an
interaction with a carotenoid pigment having a strong absorption be-
tween 400 and 500 mz. There is a residual small amount of damage
for all wavelengths out to 700 mp.
A concentration of 4 ppm PAN for 100 seconds with an intensity of
200 pw/cm? produces appreciable leaf damage. No leaf damage is
observed if plants are kept in the dark immediately prior to or im-
mediately following the fumigation with PAN with simultaneous
SECRETARY'S REPORT £77
light exposure. Thus the damage is indicated to be mediated not by
chlorophyll directly, but through accessory carotenoid pigments in
the photosynthetic system.
In the study of the photoresponses of Phycomyces blakesleeanus,
detailed action spectra for the growth and tropic responses at high
intensities have been completed. Within the visible range, the spectra
are identical, indicating that no detectable bleaching of the photo-
receptor occurs. It is concluded that direct spectrophotometric
measurements for the detection of in vivo changes in the pigment
photoreceptor system would be unprofitable.
Chromatographic and biochemical assays have been made of various
compounds extracted from sporangiophores. These compounds in-
clude amino acids, reducing and nonreducing sugars, carotenoids,
flavins, and various phosphorylated compounds. Dark-grown or
light-adapted sporangiophores were exposed to saturating pulse-up
light stimuli and assays made at 1-minute time intervals after the
stimuli.
No detectable changes could be observed for carotenoids or amino
acids. Significant changes both in quantity and quality of compounds
present were observed between adapted and stimulated growing zones
for flavins in stage I and IV sporangiophores. Quantitative changes
were also observed for reducing sugars. The time course of these
changes can be correlated with the observed time course of the light
growth response.
One of the observed flavins, a blue fluorescing unknown, is present
in large amounts in light-sensitive stages of sporangiophore develop-
ment and is not found in the light-insensitive mycelia or during for-
mation of the yellow sporangium in stage III sporangiophores. The
total amount of this material is also a function of the adaptation level
of the sporangiophore with the highest concentration occurring in
dark-adapted sporangiophores.
The installation of a carbon-dating laboratory within the division
was completed in September 1962, and the dating of a number of
archeological samples has been completed. In addition to the service
function, the carbon-dating program includes basic research in the
techniques of dating by the use of the carbon-14 method and research
employing this method asa tool.
The innovation of the use of mercury as the principal shielding
material in the counting system has been most satisfactory and has
resulted in low background levels and high precision. The absolute
dates obtained with the mercury system are reliable when compared
to those obtained by other laboratories.
A research project to determine the residence time of water in vari-
ous systems was started in October 1962. Preliminary experiments
178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
indicate that the carbon-14 activity of ground or surface water can be
readily determined and that this method can be used to determine
several of the hydrologic characteristics of water-producing strata.
Instrumentation for this research has been completed and includes:
(1) apparatus for extracting the bicarbonate and dissolved carbon
dioxide from the water samples and (2) a system to convert the carbon
dioxide to pure methane gas.
PUBLICATIONS
Pricr, LEONARD, AND KuUEIN, WILLIAM H. Chlorophyll synthesis in X-irradiated
etiolated bean leaf tissue. Radiation Botany, vol. 1, pp. 269-275, 1962.
KLEIN, WILLIAM H. Some responses of the bean hypocotyl. American Biol.
Teacher, vol. 25, pp. 104-106, 1963.
SHROPSHIRE, W., Jr. Photoresponses of the fungus Phycomyces. Physiol.
Rey., vol. 48, pp. 38-67, 1963.
Srster, Epwarp C., AND KLEIN, WILLIAM H. The effect of age and various
chemicals on the lag phase of chlorophyll synthesis in dark grown bean
seedlings. Physiol. Plantarum, vol. 16, pp. 321-328, 1963.
Duacrer, W. M., Jr.; Taytor, O. C. KLEIN, W. H.; AND SHROPSHIRE, W., JR.
Action spectrum of peroxyacetyl nitrate damage to bean plants. Nature,
vol. 198, pp. 75-76, 1963.
OTHER ACTIVITIES
The division was represented during the year at a number of scien-
tific meetings. At the American Institute of Biological Sciences
meeting in August at Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oreg., were
W. Shropshire, L. Price, M. M. Margulies, R. L. Latterell, and W. H.
Klein. Papers presented at the meetings included “The Effect of
Light and Chloramphenicol on Development of Photosynthetic Ac-
tivities of Leaves,” by M. M. Margulies; “Responses of Phycomyces
to High Intensity Light,” by W. Shropshire; and “Some Responses
of the Bean Hypocotyl,” by W. H. Klein. Dr. Klein attended the
executive committee sessions of the American Society of Plant
Physiologists.
Dr. D. L. Correll traveled to Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu-
tion, Yale University, and the Haskins Laboratories to confer on as-
pects of marine biology research. In August Dr. Klein with a repre-
sentative of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission visited the Univer-
sity of Washington at Seattle. J. H. Harrison attended the Inter-
mediate Seminar for Scientific Glass Blowers held at the State Uni-
versity of New York in Alfred in September. In November, J. J.
Sigalove and Dr. W. H. Klein went to Delaware, Ohio, to consult with
Dr. J. G. Ogden of the carbon-dating laboratory at Ohio Wesleyan
University. In January Dr. D. L. Correll and L. Lott made a col-
lecting trip to the Florida Keys for specimens of marine algae.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 179
Leonard Price and Dr. K. Mitrakos in February presented a sym-
posium paper entitled “Photomorphogenesis and Carbohydrate
Changes in Etiolated Leaf Tissue,” at the 1963 meeting in Memphis,
Tenn., of the Association of Southern Agricultural Workers. Also
in February, Dr. W. Shropshire attended the 7th Annual Meeting of
the Biophysical Society in New York City.
In April, the division was represented at three scientific meetings.
Drs. P. J. A. L. deLint and D. L. Correll attended the annual meet-
ing of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.
J. H. Harrison attended the International Conference on Nonlinear
Magnetics in Washington, D.C. Dr. Shropshire was an invited par-
ticipant in the First American Meeting of the Royal Microscopical
Society held at the National Institutes of Health.
J.J. Sigalove conferred in May with Dr. W. Broecker and the staff
at Lamont Geological Observatory in Palisades, N.Y.
With the closing of the Table Mountain, Calif., Field Station, solar-
radiation standards and some equipment were transferred to the di-
vision. The standards are being used in the calibration of instru-
ments for measurement of solar radiation.
New members of the staff this year are Dr. David L. Correll, bio-
chemist, and Joel J. Sigalove, geochemist. At the end of the year
there were 29 members of the staff of the Division of Radiation and
Organisms.
Respectfully submitted.
Frep L. Wuterte, Director.
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution
Report on the National Collection ot
Fine Arts
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activ-
ities of the National Collection of Fine Arts for the fiscal year ended
June 30, 1963:
SMITHSONIAN ART COMMISSION
The 40th annual meeting of the Smithsonian Art Commission was
held in Washington on Tuesday, December 4, 1962. Members present
were Paul Manship, chairman; Leonard Carmichael, secretary; Gil-
more D. Clarke, David E. Finley, Lloyd Goodrich, Bartlett H. Hayes,
Jr., Ogden M. Pleissner, Charles H. Sawyer, and Stow Wengenroth.
James C. Bradley, Assistant Secretary; Theodore W. Taylor, Assist-
ant to the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; and Thomas M.
Beggs, Director, National Collection of Fine Arts, were also present.
Resolutions on the deaths of Robert Woods Bliss and Archibald G.
Wenley were submitted and adopted.
The Commission recommended appointment of Edgar P. Richardson
to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Mr. Wenley, and of Paul
Mellon, to fill that caused by the death of Mr. Bliss.
Recommendations were made for the reappointment of Gilmore
D. Clarke, Stow Wengenroth, and Andrew Wyeth for the usual 4-
year period.
The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: Paul
Manship, chairman; Gilmore D. Clarke, vice chairman; and Leonard
Carmichael, secretary.
The following were elected members of the executive committee for
the ensuing year: David E. Finley, chairman; Gilmore D. Clarke,
Ogden M. Pleissner, Edgar P. Richardson, with Paul Manship and
Leonard Carmichael, ex officio.
Dr. Carmichael reported to the Commission on the progress in
developing the old Patent Office Building to house the National
Portrait Gallery and the National Collection of Fine Arts. He stated
that plans had been submitted to the General Services Administration
and that it was expected funds would be available to begin remodel-
180
SECRETARY’S REPORT 181
ing in the winter of 1963-64, with possible completion of the galleries
in January 1966.
A resolution was unanimously passed that the Smithsonian Art
Commission “approves acceptance by the National Collection of Fine
Arts of those examples of the work of Paul Manship, sculptor, both
unique and of duplicate or multiple casting as he may leave to the
gallery by last will and testament. In acceptance of these works, it
will be understood that they shall not be subject to use as part of a
lending collection but shall be accorded treatment as permament ac-
cessions, subject to occasional loans for special exhibition, rotation on
display in the continuing exhibition, and other normal uses to which
regular acquisitions are put.”
The Commission recommended acceptance of the following for the
National Collection of Fine Arts:
Terracotta, Myron T. Herrick (1854-1929), by Paul Manship (1885- ).
Offered by the sculptor, New York City.
Marble, Somnambula, by Randolph Rogers (1825-92). Offered by Mr. and
Mrs. Fortunato Porroto, Washington, D.C.
Oil, Le Ravin de la Mort les Eparges, by Joseph Victor Communal. Bequest of
Frederick R. Wulsin through Lucien Wulsin, Jr., Co-executor of the estate.
Oil, Self Portrait, by Edmund C. Tarbell (1862-1938). Offered by Mrs. Jose-
phine Tarbell Ferrell and Mrs. Mary Tarbell Schaffer.
Oil, Mrs. Edmund C. Tarbell, by Edmund C. Tarbell (1862-1938). Bequest of
Mrs. Mercie Tarbell Clay.
An oil and 15 watercolors by William Henry Holmes (1846-1933), together
with a watercolor by Kenneth C. Holmes. Offered by Anna Bartsch Dunn,
Washington, D.C.: Chestnut Trees in Bloom (oil) ; Field of Vari-colored Grasses;
Flowery Meadow; Field of Wheat in Shock; Field of Jim Pie Weed; The
Babbling Brook; The Open Sea; A Maryland Dirt Road; Field of Blossoms;
In Holland; Royal Oak; Windmills; Michigan; Cherry Blossoms; Blossoms;
On Sunset Hill; and Vase with Flower by Kenneth C. Holmes.
A collection of 83 original sketches executed under the Work Projects Admin-
istration Program was accepted for its historical significance. The sketches
were offered as a transfer from General Services Administration through the
Internal Revenue Service and were represented by the following examples:
The Railroad Came to Town, by Saul Berman (1899- ); Preliminary Study
for Mural, Trinity, Texas, Post Office, by Jerry Bywaters (1906— ); Deer and
Buffalo Hunt, by Woodrow Crumbo; Tung Oil Industry, by Xavier Gonzalez
(1898— ); Arrival of Colonel John Donaldson, by F. Luis Mora (1874 );
Design for Mural for Post Office at Rockport, Massachusetts, by William Lester
Stevens, A.N.A. (1888— ); and Fruit Packing, by Undetermined Artist.
A collection of 71 watercolors by Cass Gilbert, N.A. (1859-1934), was offered
by Mrs. Walter A. Bastedo, New Canaan, Conn., through the U.S. National
Museum, and was represented by five examples as follows: Old House in Rouen;
On the Canal, Bruges; Aqueduct; Battle Abbey; The Zwinger and Towers,
Dresden.
720-018—_64——13
182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Three silhouettes by undetermined artists were acquired from Mrs. Helen
Moffat Langdon, Alexandria, Va.: Phoebe Cook DeWitt (1736-1824) ; Hannah
DeWitt Shaw (1758-1844) ; and Abigail Shaw Barkley (1792-1871).
The Commission recommended that the following be held for sub-
mission to the National Portrait Gallery Commission:
Ten oil portraits offered by the International Business Machines Corp., New
York City, through T. D. Jones, director: President James Abram Garfield
(1831-81), by Ole Peter Hansen Balling (1823-1906); Fleet Admiral Ernest
Joseph King (1878-1956), by Albert K. Murray (1906- ); Admiral Marc
Andrew Mitscher (1887-1947), by Albert K. Murray (1906- ); Fleet Admiral
Chester William Nimitz (1885- ), by Albert K. Murray (1906- ); Admiral
William Frederick Halsey (1882-1959), by Albert K. Murray (1906- ); Admiral
Thomas C. Kincaid (1888-— ), by Robert S. Sloan (1915-— ); Secretary of State
Cordell Hull (1871-1955), by Camir Gregory Stapko (1913- ) after Albert K.
Murray (1906—- ); Henry Clay (1777-1852), by Undetermined Artist ; General
Ulysses S. Grant (1822-1885), by Samuel B. Waugh (1814-1885) ; and General
of the Army George Catlett Marshall (1880-1959), by J. Anthony Wills.
Two oils, Cass Gilbert (1859-1934), by Ernest Ludwig Ipsen (1869-1951),
and Mrs. Cass Gilbert, by Sir Arthur Stockdale Cope (1875-1940), offered by
Mrs. Walter A. Bastedo, New Canaan, Conn., through the U.S. National Museum.
THE CATHERINE WALDEN MYER FUND
The following miniatures, watercolor on ivory, were acquired from
the fund established through the bequest of Catherine Walden Myer:
No. 140. Hbenezer Williams (1769- ), attributed to Rembrandt Peale (1778-
1860).
No. 141. Mrs. Ebenezer Williams, nee Martha Porter (1774-_ ), attributed
to Rembrandt Peale (1778-1860).
Nos. 140 and 141 acquired from Lt. Col. W. C. Williams, Arlington, Va.,
through Miss Vera Fisher.
No. 142. Gentleman, by Peregrine F. Cooper (ac. 1840-90).
No. 148. Gentleman, by Undetermined Artist.
Nos. 142 and 143 acquired from Dorsey Griffith, New Market, Md.
No. 144. Lady, by A. G. Rose.
No. 145. Gentleman, by A. G. Rose.
Nos. 144 and 145 acquired from James Anton, Washington, D.C.
No. 146. Gentleman, attributed to Edward Greene Malbone (1777-1807).
No. 147. J.G.H., by Rudolph Huber (1770-_ ).
No. 148. Gentleman in the manner of John Smart (1740/1-1811).
Nos. 146-148 acquired from Ethel K. Perdriau, Berkeley, Calif.
No. 149. A Pioneer Woman by George Catlin (1796-1872). Acquired from
Mr. David Silvette, Richmond, Va.
LOANS ACCEPTED
Two oils, Portrait of Ruel P. Tolman (1878-1954) by Bjorn Egeli
(1900— ) and Portrait of Louis XVI by Undetermined Artist, were
lent by Mrs. Edward Kemper, Arlington, Va., October 18, 1962.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 183
ART WORKS LENT AND RETURNED, PERMANENT COLLECTION
AmteMnalpRe VENUES ChVICC 26 jp o oe eee a a EN es oe
MTA NINO (2a he ks A Oe Be ee
Juste wmepariment:ofes: a eter ue t sa eawy hs Suppo e gre 224 oe
Loans
Institutions Loans returned
Prmerioai Menerawon. Or Ais ——- 10-2220 2 ee en 3 3
IBUneAUIOn LneebUuUgeln een a en ee ee ee ee 25 2
Mecareeeraremeny Glo. es ele Ce a Se OE eee 1 1
Munackemmrotvwers, New ork Citys ooo. - ooo. oe eee 2 2
Federal Communications Commission_._.__..._...._.._-_--____- ache 1
Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of________________-_ 2 2
EST VESSEL 5 (2 Scam Ra af Ai leas te Paee ay eeeee pe Ra 7 ter il 1
Immaculate Heart of Mary Retreat House_____________________- il 1
imbfenons Department of the24: Sit... kee ee 2 1
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IP OStROHICARD eC PANGMents... A= 2202 Soe oa ee ee eee ee che 4
President’s Advisory Committee on Narcotic and Drug Abuse__-_-_- 6 be
President’s Committee on Equal Employment_________________- 10 »
President’s Committee on Intergovernmental Relations__________ 12 ae
(20S TET Eas Sch 7: ne i a
ERE CRE DRE DHRCTIONOD orm cin ee er ie ee ae ee zs +
iressuny. i epartment oP sll fs Bl 2 ale ee es ee he i 1
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LE EEDA ot Ns er Se eee ne el ae ey ene eee 1 “=
MIVersiiivZOle AllOnDIR sas Ae ae ers ce aes ee Se ee es 4 4
U2S: District Court for the District of Columbia_—..____.__-_____ 3 2
PiemoupnemerGourts 7 oF itive tite, SL eee ee a Sd ef 7
SUE PMMEIT: SGIIPUISUPABION 2 026 2S a - 2
Washington County Museum of Fine Arts_.___.__--___________- 1 1
iam nite: House (Hood for*Peace)s 22 2 2 > 28s ee ee 3 Be
MY Gaclwnre a eouiarGp 2! SUE ls ek Es PO Ur See 8 8
90 44
SMITHSONIAN LENDING COLLECTION
The following were added to the lending collection December 4,
1962:
Oil, Coming Storm, by Ralph Tligan (1893-1960). Offered by Miss Agnes
Tligan, East Elmhurst, N.Y.
Two oils, Dordogne Valley and Dordogne Valley, by William Didier-Pouget
(1864- ). Offered by Mrs. Lawrence §S. Lesser, Chevy Chase, Md.
An oil, Bigradoo, by Owen J. Garde (1919— ). Offered by Allan Gerdau,
New York City.
Harold F. Cross restored the following paintings: Lawra in Black
ITat, by Juliet Thompson ( -1934) ; Natalie, by Juliet Thompson;
Reclining Model, by Carrier-Belleuse (1824-87) ; together with the
following by Alice Pike Barney (1860-1931): Alice Roosevelt;
Arcady ; Lady with Fan; A. P. Barney; and Laura Alice Barney.
Frames for the paintings Reclining Model by Carrier-Belleuse,
Laura in Black Hat by Juliet Thompson, and Lady with Fan by Alice
Pike Barney, were renovated by Istvan P. Pfeiffer.
184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
ART WORKS LENT AND RETURNED, LENDING COLLECTION
Loans
Institutions Loans returned
Barney; aamesse erring... -2 2 seas. = hCae Roo se ee ee ot 1
Barney Neighborhood House... - 2 2 eat cee fee ee 9 te
Toward) Wmiversibya = sac cp ee ee hn eee pee ee 20 live
JUStICe POGDArUMeN) Of. 02 nee eee nee tees ee ee ee =a 2
WehiehSUMIVersity ee. cio: Notre ne nee i Seen eee ee = 1
PostOiicecDepariment +. 5.2. ee sere ee eee es 1
| ays Bet) of 0 8 = hee pe a a A St anc Pe aoa Stes. Ria Lager ers Hr 2 ae
31 5
ALICE PIKE BARNEY MEMORIAL FUND
Additions to the principal during the year amounting to $2,301.50
increased the total invested sums in the Alice Pike Barney Memorial
Fund to $45,424.49.
THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND
According to a provision of the Henry Ward Ranger bequest, that
paintings purchased by the Council of the National Academy of Design
from the fund provided by the bequest and assigned to American art
institutions may be claimed during the 5-year period beginning 10
years after the death of the artist represented, the following paintings
were recalled for action of the Smithsonian Art Commission at its
meeting December 4, 1962:
No. 44. Their Son, by Oscar Edward Berninghaus, A.N.A. (1874-1952), was
returned to the Art Club of Erie, Erie, Pa., where it was originally assigned
in 1924.
No. 45. The Wood Cart, by Louis Paul Dessar, N.A. (1867-1952), was
returned to Yale University Art Gallery, New Haven, Conn., where it was origi-
nally assigned in 1925.
No. 123. Gravel, Fish, and Soya Beans, by Carl Frederick Gaertner, A.N.A.
(1898-1952), assigned in 1948 to the Swope Art Gallery, Terre Haute, Ind.,
was accepted to become a permanent accession.
The following paintings purchased previously but not assigned
have been allocated to the institutions indicated:
Title and artist Assignment
249. Reflections, by Adolf Konrad (1915- Newark Museum, Newark, N.J.
).
958. The Fascination of Toledo, by Carol Chattanooga Art Association, Chat
M. Grant (1930-— ). tanooga, Tenn.
261. Turn Around, by Ed Graves (1917— Reading Public Museum and Art Gal-
We lery, Reading, Pa.
263. Monday Morning, by Herb Olsen Springfield Art Association, Spring-
(1905-_). field, Ill.
SECRETARY’S REPORT
185
The following paintings, purchased by the Council of the National
Academy of Design since the last report, have been assigned as
follows:
Title and artist Assignment
265. Dust to Dust, by Robert Philipp Dayton Art Institute, Dayton, Ohio.
(1895-—_).
266. From Breda, by Xavier Gonzfilez Assignment pending.
(1898-_).
267. Young Guitarist, by Leon Kroll The Berkshire Museum, Pittsfield,
(1884-__). Mass.
268. Low Vide (watercolor), by William BE. Art Center in La Jolla, La Jolla,
Preston (1930- ).
. Oit Brenner’s Barn, by Robert Allan
Gough (1931- ).
. Conversation, by John Koch (1909-
).
Calif.
Nebraska Art Association, Lincoln,
Nebr.
Walker Art Museum, Bowdoin Col-
lege, Brunswick, Maine.
Grand Rapids Art Gallery, Grand
Rapids, Mich.
Assignment pending.
. Grindstone Ledge (watercolor), by
Roy M. Mason (1886-__ ).
2. Desolation (watercolor), by D. Wu
Ject-Key (1895- ).
. Dilworthtown (watercolor), by
Philip Jamison (1925- ).
. Sampans and Junks, Hong Kong
(watereolor), by Louis J. Kaep
(1903-_).
. Old Boat Yard (watercolor), by An-
tonio P. Martino (1902- ).
Off Season, St. Ives (watercolor),
by Tom Nicholas (1934 ).
Autumn’s Sentinels (watercolor), by
Robert H. Laessig (1913- ).
Assignment pending.
Assignment pending.
New Mexico State University, Uni-
versity Park, N. Mex.
Georgia Museum of Art, University
of Georgia, Athens, Ga.
Addison Gallery of American Art,
Phillips Academy, Andover, Mass.
276.
277.
SMITHSONIAN TRAVELING EXHIBITION SERVICE
In addition to 102 exhibits held over from previous years as indi-
cated below, 25 new shows were introduced. The total of 127 shows
was circulated to 333 museums in the United States. Two exhibitions
were delivered to the U.S. Information Service for circulation abroad.
EXHIBITS CONTINUED FROM PRIOR YEARS
1956-57: Japan II by Werner Bischof; and The World of Edward Weston.
1957-58: The American City in the 19th Century; Japanese Woodblock Prints;
Theatrical Posters of the Gay Nineties; Burmese Embroideries; Japanese
Dolls; Thai Painting; The Anatomy of Nature; and Drawings by European
Children.
1958-59: Advertising in 19th Century America; Religious Subjects in Modern
Graphic Arts; Our Town; Stone Rubbings from Angkor Wat; and Shaker
Craftsmanship.
186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
1959-60: Early Drawings of Toulouse-Lautrec; Watercolors and Drawings by
Thomas Rowlandson; Prints and Drawings by Jacques Villon; American
Prints Today; Brazilian Printmakers; Arts and Cultural Centers; Bernard
Ralph Maybeck; Bazaar Paintings from Calcutta; Sardinian Crafts; Arctic
Riviera; Photographs by Robert Capa I; Photographs by Robert Capa II;
Pagan; Portraits of Greatness; Contrasts; Paintings by Young Africans;
and Japan I.
1960-61: The Technique of Fresco Painting; Paintings by Ch’i Pai-Shih; Birds
of Greenland; The America of Currier and Ives; Drawings by Sculptors;
The Graphie Art of Edvard Munch; German Color Prints; Eskimo Graphic
Art; Civil War Drawings I; Civil War Drawings II; American Art Nouveau
Posters; American Industry in the 19th Century; America on Stone; De-
signed in Okinawa; Okinawa—Continuing Traditions; Prints by Munakata ;
Contemporary Japanese Drawings; Japan: by Werner Bischof; The Spirit
of the Japanese Print ; Americans—A View From the Hast; Swiss Industrial
Architecture; Contemporary Swedish Architecture; Mies van der Rohe;
Irish Architecture of the Georgian Period; One Hundred Years of Colorado
Architecture; Brasilia—a New Capital; Design in Germany Today; De-
signed for Silver; Batiks by Maud Rydin; American Textiles; The Seasons,
color photographs by Hliot Porter; The World of Werner Bischof; The
Image of Physics; Charles Darwin: The Evolution of an Evolutionist;
The Beginnings of Flight; The Magnificent Enterprise—Education Opens
the Door; The New Theatre in Germany; Tropical Africa I; Tropical
Africa II; Symphony in Color; Paintings and Pastels by Children of Tokyo;
Children’s Art from Italy; Hawaiian Children’s Art; and Designs by Chil-
dren of Ceylon.
1961-62: Tutankhamun’s Treasures; Fourteen Americans in France; George
Catlin, Paintings and Prints; Physics and Painting; UNESCO Watercolor
Reproductions; Belgian Drawings; The Lithographs of Childe Hassam;
Contemporary Italian Drawings; John Baptist Jackson; Contemporary
Swedish Prints; Japanese Posters; The Face of Viet Nam; Architectural
Photography (New Wditions) ; Le Corbusier—Chapel at Ronchamp; The
Family, The Neighborhood, The City; One Hundred Books from the Grab-
horn Press; Wisconsin Designer-Craftsmen; Caribbean Journey; The Swed-
ish Film; The Story of a Winery; This Is the American Earth; The Hidden
World of Crystals; Hummingbirds; Brazilian Children’s Art; Children
Look at UNESCO; and My Friends.
EXHIBITIONS INITIATED IN 1963
Paintings and Sculpture
the Daniellstinvindiae sees. sees ee India Library, London, Mrs. Mildred
Archer ; P & O Lines.
HskimolCarvyin gs sos see ee eee Eskimo Art, Ine., Ann Arbor, Mich.;
Canadian Embassy.
Holland: The New Generation________ Municipal Museum of Amsterdam, W.
J. H. B. Sandberg; The Embassy of
the Netherlands.
PONT S| Or a eee a Se ee Wilmington Society of the Fine Arts,
Bruce St. John, Director.
Contemporary Japanese Sumi Paint-
0D 0g Hg ea am cL NR RG a eV te Japan Society, New York; Kokusai
Bunka Shinkokai, Tokyo.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 187
Drawing and Prints
American Prints Today, 1962__-___--_- Print Council of America, New York
City.
Contemporary American Drawings-____ XXth American Drawing Annual, Nor-
folk; Addison Gallery of American
Art, Bartlett Hayes.
Workipy Hrnst Barlach 222 = ess German Barlach Society; Dr. Wolf
Stubbe, Hamburger Kunsthalle.
Old Master Drawings from Chatsworth. Trustees of the Chatsworth Settlement ;
Devonshire Collection; Duke and
Duchess of Devonshire; British Em-
bassy.
English Watercolors and Drawings____ Anonymous lender.
Eskimo Graphic Art, 12-2 Canadian Embassy; Eskimo Art, Inc.,
Ann Arbor, Mich., Eugene N. Power.
MMLODEAn@E OSLELS Sa = 2 eae a SEAS Graphis Magazine, Zurich, Switzerland,
Ken Baynes.
Oriental Art
Pakistan Stone Rubbings_—.————_-._—_ Mrs. Ethel Jane Bunting, Washington,
D.C.
Architecture
Contemporary Canadian Architecture. Royal Architectural Institute of Can-
ada; Embassy of Canada.
iwelvem Churches 5 ae8 ese 2 eee California Redwood Association, San
Francisco, Calif.
100 Sketches by Eric Mendelsohn_____ Mrs. Louis Mendelsohn, San Francisco,
Calif.
Preseispanie! Mexico Mase aie se ek Mexican Government Tourist Office ; Or-
ganization of American States, Wash-
ington, D.C.
Design and Crafts
Today’s American Wallcoverings______ American Institute of Interior Design-
ers; Resources Council, New York
City.
Crafismenyot dhe Citys <== 2222222222 Irving Sloane, International Business
Machines Corp.
The Tradition of French Fabrics_____~_ Brunschwig and Fils; French Embassy.
Children’s Art
A Child’s World of Nature____________ Junior School, School of the Art Insti-
tute of Chicago, III.
West German Students’ Art__________ United States Committee for Refugees;
Germany Indivisible; German Em-
bassy.
188 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
History
Enstorie Annapoliss= 2) = ee Historic Annapolis, Inc., Annapolis, Md.
Civil’ War Drawiles LL American libraries; Library of Con-
gress, Washington, D.C.
The Old Navy, 1776-1860____________-_ Franklin D. Roosevelt Library, Hyde
Park, N.Y.; National Archives, Wash-
ington, D.C.
STAFF ACTIVITIES
Special services were performed under contracts with Keyes Porter
and Delight Hall. Unfortunately, death prevented the completion of
a study begun by the late George C. Groce, author.
Contracts were let for the relining and restoring by Harold F. Cross
of the following:
Portrait of a Lady, by Abbott H. Thayer (1849-1921) ; Her Leisure Hour, by
Irving Wiles (1861-1948) ; John Tyler (1790-1862), by G. P. A. Healy (1808-
94); Sundown, by George Inness (1825-94); Large Landscape, by Thomas
Barker (1769-1847) ; Adoration of the Kings, by Bernard Van Orley (1485/93-
1542) ; Lady in White (No. 1), by Thomas W. Dewing (1851-1938) ; Lady in
White (No. 2), by Thomas W. Dewing (1851-1938) ; The Happy Mother, by Max
Bohm (1868-1923) ; Cardinal, by Titian (1477-1576) ; and Mrs. Houston, by
Thomas W. Dewing (1851-1938).
Henri G. Courtais contracted for renovation of the following
paintings:
Venetian Scene, by Francesco de Guardi (1712-93) ; Windstorm, by John
Constable (1776-1837) ; Portrait of Thomas Hopkinson (1709-51), by Robert
Feke (1705/24-1750/69) ; The Great Western, by William Marsh (ac. 1844-58) ;
Stephen Decatur (1779-1820), attributed to Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828) ; The
Smoker, by Eugene Delacroix (1798-1863) ; Mrs. Robert Wetmore, by Henry
Inman (1802-46) ; New Ycar’s Shooter, by George Luks (1867-1933) ; Head of a
Young Woman (Leonori), by James McNeill Whistler (1834-1903) ; Water
Carriers, Venice, by Frank Duveneck (1848-1919) ; John Gellatly (1853-1931),
by Irving R. Wiles (1861-1948) ; The Sermon, by Gari Melchers (1860-1932) ; and
The Holy Family, with St. Elizabeth, by Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640).
Nine original sketches executed under the Work Projects Adminis-
tration were restored and remounted by Istvan P. Pfeiffer. Mr. Pfeif-
fer gilded frames for the following paintings: Landscape with Fig-
ures, by Thomas W. Dewing (1851-1938) ; Lady in White (No. 1), by
Thomas W. Dewing (1851-1938); and Head of a Young Woman
(Leonori), by James A. McNeill Whistler (1834-1903).
A physical inventory of paintings, sculptures, and prints accessioned
by the National Collection of Fine Arts and a catalog listing of same
were begun by staff members.
In addition to the approximately 20,500 requests for information
received by mail and telephone, inquiries made in person at the office
numbered 1,680. In all, 302 works of art were examined by the staff
members.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 189
Special catalogs were published for the following traveling exhibi-
tions: Work by Ernst Barlach; Old Master Drawings from Chats-
worth; and The Daniells in India. Folders announcing the following
exhibits were also published: Pakistan Stone Rubbings; 100 Sketches
by Eric Mendelsohn; History Exhibitions; Children’s Art Exhibi-
tions; Natural History and Science Exhibitions; Prints and Drawings
Exhibitions; and Architectural Exhibitions.
Staff members served as jurors of a number of local art exhibitions
and gave illustrated lectures to clubs.
As plans develop for the National Collection of Fine Arts’ occu-
pancy of the Civil Service Commission Building (the Old Patent
Office), necessary additions are being made to staff. During the last
year the following were named to the positions indicated: Donald R.
McClelland, exhibits designer; Anne Castrodale, research assistant;
Linwood Lucas, museum aide; and Nancy Brooks, clerk-stenographer.
SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS
July 8-September 8, 1962. A Centennial Exhibition of Paintings by Edmund
C. Tarbell, N.A. (1862-1938), with the cooperation and assistance of Mrs.
Josephine Tarbell Ferrell, Mrs. Mary Tarbell Schaffer, Mrs. John Staley, the
Corcoran Gallery of Art, and the U.S. National Museum. The exhibition con-
sisted of 26 paintings, 12 medals, and memorabilia.
September 15—-October 11, 1962. Fifth Biennial Creative Crafts Exhibition,
sponsored by The Kiln Club of Washington, D.C.; Ceramic Guild of Bethesda;
Cherry Tree Textile Designers; Clay Pigeons Ceramic Workshop; Designers-
Weavers; and Potomac Craftsmen. The exhibit contained 215 items including
ceramics, textiles, weavings, enamels, sculpture, and jewelry. An illustrated
catalog was privately printed.
September 17—November 11, 1962. Pre-Hispanic Mexico, sponsored by the
Government of Mexico and the Pan American Union and circulated by the
Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service, was shown in the lobby
of the Natural History Building. A brochure was privately printed.
October 20-November 8, 1962. The 69th Annual Exhibition of the Society of
Washington Artists. The show consisted of 78 paintings and 23 sculptures. A
eatalog was privately printed.
November 17—December 9, 1962. The Art of Thailand, sponsored by the Am-
bassador of Thailand and the Washington-Bangkok Friendship Council, and
with the cooperation of the Division of Ethnology, U.S. National Museum. The
King’s birthday was celebrated on December 5, 1962.
November 17-December 9, 1962. Contemporary Japanese Sumi Painting,
organized by Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai, Tokyo, and circulated by the Smith-
sonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. The exhibition consisted of
30 paintings. An illustrated catalog was privately printed.
November 17—December 9, 1962. The Daniells in India [Thomas Daniell, R.A.
(1749-1840), and William Daniell (1769-1837) ], circulated by the Smithsonian
Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. The show consisted of 50 watercolor
paintings. An illustrated catalog was privately printed.
December 16, 1962-January 3, 1963. The 25th Metropolitan Art Exhibition
sponsored by the American Art League. The exhibit consisted of 101 paintings
and 12 sculptures. A catalog was privately printed.
190 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
January 12-February 8, 1963. BHuropean Posters, circulated by the Smith-
sonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. The show consisted of 39
posters by 19 artists. A catalog was privately printed.
January 12—February 3, 1963. 100 Books from the Grabhorn Press, circulated
by the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service.
February 9-March 8, 1963. Eskimo Graphic Arts, circulated by the Smith-
sonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. The exhibit included 50
stone-block and sealskin prints.
February 9-March 8, 1968. Eskimo Carvings, circulated by the Smithsonian
Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. The show consisted of 50 carvings in
stone, bone, and ivory.
March 10-28, 1963. Contemporary German Books, sponsored by the Ambas-
sador of Germany and the Boersenverein des Deutschen Buchhandels E.V. A
catalog was privately printed.
April 7-25, 1963. The 66th Annual National Exhibition of the Washington
Water Color Association. 'The exhibition consisted of 150 watercolors, prints,
and drawings. An illustrated catalog was privately printed.
April 22-28, 1963. National Coin Week exhibition, sponsored by the Nation’s
Capital Coin Club.
May 5-24, 1963. The 380th Annual National Exhibition of the Miniature
Painters, Sculptors, and Gravers Society of Washington, D.C. The exhibit con-
sisted of 157 items including painting, sculpture, bookbinding, and graphics, and
included a special showing of work of the founding members, Alyn Williams,
Hattie E. Burdette, Benson B. Moore, Marian U. M. Lane, and Elizabeth
Muhlhofer. An illustrated catalog was privately printed.
May 4-31, 1963. A Retrospective Exhibition of the work of John Sloan,
organized by the Wilmington Society of the Fine Arts and circulated by the
Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. The show included 37
paintings, 31 drawings, and 36 etchings. An illustrated catalog was privately
printed.
June 8-30, 1968. The 1st National Exhibition of Art Directors sponsored by
the Art Directors Club of Metropolitan Washington and the National Society
of Art Directors. An illustrated catalog was privately printed.
Respectfully submitted.
Tuomas M. Beaes, Director.
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on the Freer Gallery of Art
Sir: I have the honor to submit the 43d annual report on the Freer
Gallery of Art, for the year ended June 30, 1963.
THE COLLECTIONS
Fifteen objects were added to the collections by purchase as follows:
PAINTINGS
62.26. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty, by Wang Ytian-ch‘i (1642-1715), dated 1704.
Landscape in the manner of Ni Tsan. Ink and colors on paper. Two
inscriptions and five seals of the artist on the painting. Kakemono:
height: 0.955; width: 0.505.
62.29. Chinese, Ch‘ing dynasty, by Wang Shih-min (1592-1680), dated 1670.
Landscapes in old styles. Six paintings and one leaf of calligraphy,
originally from an album. Ink and color on paper. Six inscriptions
and 13 seals on paintings; 11 seals on leaf of calligraphy; colophon
with one seal. Outside label inscribed. Handscroll: height: 0.318;
length: 8.375. (Illustrated.)
62.27. Japanese, Edo period, Buddhist school. Scroll VII of the Hoke Kyo
(Lotus Sutra). Gold with touches of color, on blue paper. Height:
0.280; width: 3.920.
62.28. Japanese, Ashikaga period, early 16th century, Muromachi-Suiboku school,
by Shuko6. Hawk. Ink on paper. Height: 0.959; width: 0.447.
62.30—- Japanese, Momoyama period, Decorative school, by Nonomura Sdtatsu
62.31. (fl. ea. 1600-1630). Trees. A pair of six-fold screens. Ink and colors
on gold leaf. Height: 1.540; width: 3.578. (62.30 illustrated.)
62.32 Turkish, Ottoman school, early 17th century. A young prince and at-
tendant of which two hemistiches in nasta‘liq are given above painting.
Mounted as album leaf with marginal designs of gold cloud bands and
floral rinceaux on dark ground. Miniature: height: 0.085; width:
0.060. Album leaf: height: 0.210; width: 0.125.
POTTERY
62.33. Chinese, T‘ang dynasty, white ware. Wide shallow bowl with turned-
over rim and flat, unglazed base. Clay: light buff stoneware. Glaze:
opaque white with fine crackle. Decoration: none. Height: 0.092;
diameter: 0.315.
62.34. Chinese, Ming dynasty, about 1400, celadon ware. Wide bowl with
foliate rim; small foot; circular hole in base underneath. Clay:
fine-grained high-fired gray porcelain. Glaze: transparent, thick,
grayish-green celadon. Decoration: bowl sides fluted inside and out
to match foliation of rim; molded ornamental lotus plaque applied in
relief inside center covering hole in base. Height: 0.126; diameter:
0.326.
191
192 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
62.22. Japanese, Momoyama period (1574-1602), Shino ware (red). Shallow,
almost flat, circular dish with slightly recessed foot. Clay: coarse
light gray stoneware fired red on the surface. Glaze: milky, semi-
opaque, bubbly, uneven. Decoration: bamboo sprays painted in black.
Height: 0.022; diameter: 0.213.
62.23. Japanese, Edo period, Kakiemon ware. Dish with fluted rim; five spur
marks on base. Clay: white porcelain. Glaze: transparent, slightly
bluish. Decoration: Chinese scene of two figures in a garden by a
house, in slip relief under the glaze. Inscriptions, rim decoration, and
fuku mark on base in underglaze blue. Height: 0.054; diameter:
0.315.
62.24. Japanese, Momoyama period, Shino-Oribe ware. Dish with foliate rim,
scalloped cavetto, and low foot-rim. Clay: coarse gray stoneware.
Glaze: buff, semiopaque, bubbly, rough. Decoration: a very sketchy
flower in brown in center. Height: 0.032; diameter: 0.191.
62.25. Japanese, Momoyama period, Shino ware. Dish with flaring foliate rim ;
knobs on sides; three loop feet. Clay: coarse gray stoneware. Glaze:
grayish white; semiopaque; crackled; spur marks inside. Decoration:
grasses in the center and a fence around cavetto painted in brown.
Height: 0.053 ; diameter: 0.171.
63.1. Japanese, Edo period, Kutani ware, 17th century. Vase, pear-shaped ;
decorated with overglaze enamels, in red, yellow, and turquoise.
Height : 0.256; diameter: 0.146. (Illustrated. )
WOOD SCULPTURE
62.21. Japanese, Fujiwara period, late 12th century. Miroku Bosatsu.
Mandorla shows gilt design. Arms restored. With pedestal. Figure:
height: 0.980; width: 0.750; depth: 0.508. Overall: height: 2.060;
diameter: 1.140. (Illustrated.)
REPAIRS TO THE COLLECTION
Forty Chinese and Japanese paintings and one Persian manuscript
were restored, repaired, or remounted by T. Sugiura, Oriental picture
mounter. F. A. Haentschke, illustrator, remounted 47 Persian, In-
dian, and Arabic paintings. Repairs and regilding of three frames
for American paintings were done outside the Gallery. Dr. F. Zach
of Catholic University repaired and rebound one Indo-Persian
manuscript.
CHANGES IN EXHIBITIONS
Changes in exhibitions amounted to 237, which were as follows:
American art: Prints ~------- 35 Japanese art:
Chinese art: Painting? pe ayes 2 ee it
Bronze eree* 2a ee ee 5D IPottervey see 3
Ma cquersg]=2 = ea 2 Near HWastern art:
Painting eka 49 Glass; 22s ee eee 67
Pottetye=) bee pate ee 12 Metalwork 9222253 ee 1
GlaSS) qzesee eee dees 8 Painting) 1226 ee 27
Christian art: Pottery, 2. £352 eee 5
MeaniuSCripisia=soeee =e 14
lo
Stone sculpture —-____--~-
SECRETARY’S REPORT 193
LIBRARY
The library is principally a place for the acquisition and conserva-
tion of books. But it is also intrinsicaily a place for browsing or
study in fields of interest to the individual so that he may become a
contemporary of all ages. During the year 909 acquisitions (other
than slides) were added to the library; 263 of these were by purchase
and 646 by exchange and gift. Outstanding gifts were: Modern
Japanese Prints, by James Michener, the gift of Mr. and Mrs. Felix
Juda; Chinese Calligraphy and Paintings in the Collection of John M.
Crawford, the gift of James Cahill; 265 photographs for the study
collection, the gift of Bungaku Kenkyusho of Japan. An outstand-
ing purchase was Hasshu gafu (the book of painting of eight varie-
ties), a Japanese edition using the woodblocks dated 1672.
The year’s record of cataloging included a total of 1,507 entries,
of which 697 analytics were made and 365 new titles of books, pam-
phlets, and scrolls were cataloged. Additions to the continuations
of sets of books numbered 32, and 4,087 cards were added to the card
catalog. Only 7 percent of these were available as printed cards
from the Library of Congress; this indicates the amount of original
cataloging in the library.
The slide collection has continued to grow. A checklist for slides
of the Freer collection was instituted. Acquisition of 1,329 slides
was completed, and 3,120 slides were bound and labeled. This last
process included the classification for filing in the slide cabinets. A
total of 5,989 slides were lent, of which 4,764 were for the use of
staff members in their lectures.
There were 181 requests for bibliographic information by telephone
and letters. In all, 766 scholars and students who were not members
of the Freer staff used the library. Ten of these saw and studied the
Washington Manuscripts, and three came to see the library
installation.
The library’s holdings of the Dewing letters were laminated by the
Archival Restoration Associates, Inc., and it is hoped to have the
Whistler letters laminated soon.
Hale Lancaster Darby served as volunteer for the intern program
for the summer. This program is to interest young people in
museology. :
Two archival gifts of study material were transferred to the li-
brary during this past year. The Aga-Oglu archives have been
arranged in a file cabinet, and the Herzfeld archives remain to be
studied and put in order.
194 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
PUBLICATIONS
Five publications were issued by the Gallery as follows:
Ancient glass in the Freer Gallery of Art, by Richard Ettinghausen, 44 pp. with
99 illus., bibliography. (Smithsonian Institution Publication 4509.)
Freer Gallery of Art. Pamphlet containing a brief history of the Gallery and
collections, 16 pp., 8 illus., 3 plans. (Smithsonian Institution Publication
4504.)
Chinese Album Leaves, by James Cahill, 40 pp. with 32 illus. and descriptions,
frontispiece. (Smithsonian Institution Publication 4476.)
The Field of Stones, by Richard Edwards, xxi+131 pp., 50 pls., frontispiece.
Oriental Studies, No. 5. (Smithsonian Institution Publication 4433.)
The Whistler Peacock Room, reprint ed. 1962, 22 pp., 9 illus., bibliography.
(Smithsonian Institution Publication 4024, revised.)
Publications of staff members were as follows:
CAHILL, JAMES F. Archibald G. Wenley, 1898-1962. Artibus Asiae, vol. 25
(1962), pp. 197-198.
Collecting paintings in China. Arts Magazine, vol. 37 (1963), pp.
66-72, illus.
Concerning the I-p‘ in style of painting, by S. Shimada. Translated
by J. Cahill. Oriental Art, n.s., vol. 8, pp. 180-137, ilus.
The Crawford collection; Chinese painting and calligraphy. Oriental
Art, n.s., vol. 8 (1962), pp. 163-166, illus.
Some rocks in early Chinese painting. Archives of the Chinese Art
Society of America, vol. 16 (1962), pp. 77-87, illus.
ETTINGHAUSEN, RicHARD. A. G. Wenley (1898-1962). Cosmos Club Bulletin,
vol. 16, No. 2 (February 1962), p. 204, portrait.
Arabische Malerei. Geneva, Skira, 1962.
An early Ottoman textile. First International Congress of Turkish
Arts, Ankara, 1959. Communications presented to the Congress. Ankara,
1961, pp. 134-140, pls. 78-94.
Estetica. Enciclopedia Universale dell Arte, vol. 5 (1962), cols. 94-95.
The evergreen tradition of Moslem art. Art News, vol. 61 (1963), No.
9, pp. 26-29, 55-56, illus. (part col.).
Genere e Profane Figurazioni: Oriente. Enciclopedia Universale
dell’ Arte, vol. 5 (1962), cols. 670-671.
Iconismo e Aniconismo: Islamismo. Hnciclopedia Universale dell’ Arte,
vol. 7 (1962), cols. 156-158.
La Peinture Arabe. Geneva, Skira, 1962.
Turkey: ancient miniatures. Preface by R. Ettinghausen. Green-
wich, Conn., New York Graphic Society, 1961. 26 pp., illus., 32 col. pls.
Turkish elements on silver objects of the Seljuk period of Iran. First
International Congress of Turkish Arts, Ankara, 1959. Communications
presented to the Congress, Ankara, 1961, pp. 128-133, 32 figs. on pls. 77-87.
Review of “A bibliography of the Architecture, Arts and Crafts of
Islam to 1st Jan. 1960,’ by K. A. C. Creswell. Journal of the American
Oriental Society, vol. 82 (1963), pp. 395-396.
Review of ‘Persian gardens and garden pavilions,” by Donald N.
Wilber. The Middle East Journal, vol. 16 (1962), pp. 546-547.
Review of “The Seljuks in Asia Minor,’ by Tamara Talbot Rice. The
Middle East Journal, vol. 16 (1962), p. 390.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 195
GETTENS, R. J. Maya blue: an unsolved problem in ancient pigments. American
Antiquity, vol. 27 (1962), pp. 557-564, tables.
Minerals in art and archeology. Smithsonian Annual Report for
1961, 1962, pp. 551-568, 8 pls.
Tumacacori interior decorations. In collaboration with Charles R.
Steen. Arizoniana, the Journal of Arizona History, vol. 3 (1962), pp.
7-33, pls.
Porr, Joun A. A Chinese Buddhist pewter with a Ming date. Archives of the
Chinese Art Society of America, vol. 16 (1962), pp. 88-91, illus.
Review of “Archaeology in China; vol. I. Prehistoric China,” by Cheng
Te-k‘un. Journal of the American Oriental Society, vol. 80 (1960), pp.
82-85.
Review of “Chinese and Japanese Cloisonné Enamels,” by Sir Harry
Garner. Oriental Art, n.s., vol. 9 (1963), pp. 41-42.
Stern, Harotp P. The Perfumed Lady, by Moronobu. Art Association of In-
dianapolis, Herron Muscum of Art Bulletin, vol. 49 (1962), pp. 4-8, illus.
Ukiyoe paintings of Tokugawa Japan. Bulletin of the Japan Society,
London, vol. 3, No. 36 (1962), pp. 5-11.
Review of “The Folk Art of Japan,” by Hugo Munsterberg. Artibus
Asiae, vol. 25 (1962), pp. 213-214.
Review of “The Hokusai Sketchbook,” by James A. Michener. Artibus
Asiae, vol. 25 (1962), pp. 219-220.
TROUSDALE, W. B. Architectural landscapes attributed to Chao Po-chii. Ars
Orientalis, vol. 4 (1961), pp. 11-19, illus.
A Chinese handle-bearing mirror from Northern Afghanistan. Artibus
Asiae, vol. 24 (1961), pp. 11-19, illus.
WENLEY, ARCHIBALD G. A Chinese Sui dynasty mirror [with] “Note on the
composition, fabrication and condition of this Sui dynasty mirror,” by
Rutherford J. Gettens. Artibus Asiae, vol. 25 (1962), pp. 141-148, plates.
WEst, Exvisaseru H. Jade; its character and occurrence. University Museum,
University of Pennsylvania. Hspedition, vol. 5 (1963), pp. 2-11, illus.
A ring-mount for micro-cross-sections of paint and other materials.
Studies in Conservation, vol. 4 (1959), pp. 27-81, illus.
PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY AND SALES DESK
The photographic laboratory made 15,453 items during the year as
follows: 11,072 prints, 722 negatives, 3,415 color slides, 160 black-and-
white slides, and 84 color sheet films. At the sales desk 56,574 items
were sold, comprising 4,727 publications and 51,847 reproductions (in-
cluding postcards, slides, photographs, reproductions in the round,
etc.). These figures indicate a marked increase in the work of both
the photographic laboratory and sales desk over that of previous years.
BUILDING AND GROUNDS
The exterior of the building appears to be sound. The roof was
repaired but further repairs will be necessary. The sidewalk at the
north front of the building was replaced. The cleaning of the ex-
terior stonework is scheduled to commence in the new fiscal year.
In the interior, the structural steel in the attic is in need of paint-
ing. A fluorescent lighting system was installed over the galleries.
196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The attic heating system was altered by the installation of steam-
heated units in the air ducts. Work continued on the maintenance
of the bronze doors and fittings. The director’s office was partitioned,
and decoration, with the exception of the galleries, was carried out
wherever necessary. Floor-level sills were installed throughout the
ground level, and the vault was replastered and painted. Panel-case
storage was expanded, and additional fire precautions were instituted
with the extension of the spray booth and construction of a storage
area in the subbasement for flammable materials. The areas in need
of repair in the auditorium are being replastered.
The cabinet shop continued to make and repair furniture and
equipment as the need arose.
Seasonal plantings in the courtyard flourished, and the brick walks
which had deteriorated were replaced.
ATTENDANCE
The Gallery was open to the public from 9 to 4:30 every day except
Christmas Day. The total number of visitors to enter the main en-
trance was 183,359. The highest monthly attendance was in August:
31,417.
There were 3,062 visitors who came to the Gallery office for various
purposes—for general information, to submit objects for examina-
tion, to consult staff members, to take photographs or sketch in the
galleries, to use the library, to examine objects in storage, etc.
AUDITORIUM
The series of illustrated lectures was continued as follows:
1962
October 16. Dr. Michael Sullivan, University of London, Hngland, “Real-
ism in Chinese Art.” Attendance, 181.
November 13. Prof. Oleg Grabar, University of Michigan, “Medieval Jeru-
salem.” Attendance, 212.
19638
January 22. Prof. Donald Keene, Columbia University, “Japanese Books
and Their Illustrations.” Attendance, 205.
February 12. Prof. Pramod Chandra, University of Chicago, “Indian
Painting of the Bundi School (17th and 18th Centuries).”
Attendance, 64.
March 12. Dr. John A. Pope, Freer Gallery of Art, “Chinese Collec-
tors.” Attendance, 200.
April 16. Dr. James F. Cahill, Freer Gallery of Art, “Ytian Chiang
and the Fantastic Landscape in China.” Attendance, 2038.
The Smithsonian Institution used the auditorium as follows:
1962
July 17. Museum Service. Lecture by Dr. Werner of the British
Museum, “New Methods in Conservation.” Attendance,
63.
Secretary’s Report, 1963 PLATE 8
62.21. Japanese wood sculpture, Fujiwara period, late 12th century; Miroku Bosatsu
Freer Gallery of Art.
PLATE 9
Secretary's Report, 1963
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Secretary's Report, 1963 PLATE 10
reer Gallery of Art.
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62.30. Japanese painting, Momoyama period, Decorative school, by Nonomura Sotatsu (fl. ca. 1600-16
Secretary’s Report, 1963 PLATE 11
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63.1. Japanese pottery, Edo period, Kutani ware, 17th century; vase. Freer Gallery of Art.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 197
July 18. Museum Service. Lecture by Dr. Werner, “Scientific Ex-
amination in Conservation.” Attendance, 53.
July 20. Museum Service. Public lecture by Dr. Werner, “The Sci-
entific Examination of Paintings and Antiquities.” At-
tendance, 170.
August 16. Museum Service. Showing of the film, “The Salvage of
the Warship Vasa.” For the Division of Naval History.
Attendance, 151.
October 5. National Air Museum conference. Attendance, 85.
November 13. Committee on Oceanography conference. Attendance, 584.
(Two sessions. )
1963
April 24. Museum Service. Lecture by Hugh Wakefield of the Vic-
toria and Albert Museum, London, England, “English
Victorian Glass.” Attendance, 97.
Throughout the year, outside organizations used the auditorium as
follows:
Washington Film Society, 15 times. Total attendance, 3,206.
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 34 times. Total attendance, 4,846.
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 13 times. Total attend-
ance, 1,416.
The Peace Corps, once. Attendance, 151.
The Women’s Committee of the National Symphony Orchestra, once. Attend-
ance, 112.
The Washington Center for Metropolitan Studies and the Washington Art Coun-
cil, once. Attendance, 121.
The Archaeological Institute of America, twice. Total attendance, 335.
Fashion Group, Ine., 5 times. Total attendance, 821.
STAFF ACTIVITIES
The work of the staff members has been devoted to the study of new
accessions, of objects contemplated for purchase, and of objects sub-
mitted for examination, as well as to individual research projects in
the fields represented by the collection of Chinese, Japanese, Persian,
Arabic, and Indian materials. In all, 6,984 objects and 1,130 photo-
graphs were examined, and 451 Oriental language inscriptions were
translated for outside individuals and institutions. By request, 29
groups totaling 786 persons met in the exhibition galleries for docent
service by the staff members. Fourteen groups totaling 141 persons
were given docent service by staff members in the storage rooms.
Among the visitors were 118 distinguished foreign scholars or per-
sons holding oflicial positions in their own countries who came here
under the auspices of the Department of State to study museum ad-
ministration and practices in this country.
During the year the technical laboratory examined the following
objects by various methods, including microscopic and microchemical,
720-018-6414
198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
X-ray diffraction, ultraviolet light, spectrochemical analysis, and spe-
cific gravity determination:
Mreer- objects examinede 2 aa. sa ee eee 195
Ouitsidexobiectsvexam ined aes ee ee ee ee 53
These include 52 objects cleaned and/or repaired ; 19 inquiries were answered
by letter.
The following projects were undertaken by the laboratory during
the year:
1. For 6 weeks in October and December 1962, Miss E. West worked at the
Conservation Center of the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, where
she continued spectrechemical analyses of Chinese bronzes from the Freer
Collection.
2. Continued analyses by wet chemical methods of Chinese bronzes in the
Freer Collection.
3. Continued systematic collection of data on technology of ancient copper
and bronze in the Far Hast.
4. Continued studies on corrosion products of ancient metal objects.
5. Continued editorship of JIC Abstracts published by the International In-
stitute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works, London, England.
By invitation, the following lectures were given outside the Gallery
by staff members (illustrated unless otherwise noted) :
1962
July 18. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the International Glass Congress,
Washington, D.C., “Ancient Glass in the Freer Gallery
of Art.” Attendance, 45.
September 13. Mr. Gettens, at a symposium on archeological chemistry,
American Chemical Society, Atlantic City, N. J., ‘“Com-
position of Ancient Chinese Bronze Ceremonial Vessels.”
Attendance, 35.
October 11. Dr. Pope, at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, Canada,
“Chinese Export Porcelain.” Attendance, 400.
October 12. Dr. Pope, at the University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada,
“The Civilization of Angkor.” Attendance, 40.
October 22. Dr. Cahill, at Connecticut College, New London, Conn.,
“The Contemporary Relevance of Chinese Painting.”
Attendance, 130.
October 23. Dr. Cahill, at Yale University, New Haven, Conn., “Sub-
ject and Expression in Chinese Painting.” Attendance,
80.
October 23. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Lions Club, Vienna, Va., “Travels
in the Hast.” Attendance, 140.
October 24. Dr. Cahill, at the Pierpont Morgan Library, New York
City, “Subject and Expression in Chinese and Recent
Western Painting.” Attendance, 300.
October 26. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Baltimore Museum of Art, Bal-
timore, Md., “Treasures from the Near Hast in the Freer
Gallery of Art.” Attendance, 360.
October 30. Dr. Pope, at the Pierpont Morgan Library, “Chinese Col-
lectors.” Attendance, 190.
1962
November 12.
November 13.
November 14.
November 14.
November 15.
November 19.
December 4.
December 20.
1963
January 8.
January 10.
January 11.
January 16.
January 23.
February 12.
February 13.
March 138.
March 13.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 199
Dr. Cahill, at the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.,
“Confucian Humanism and Chinese Art.” Attendance,
75.
Dr. Cahill, at the University of Kansas, “The Contemporary
Relevance of Chinese Painting.” Attendance, 250.
Dr. Cahill, at the University of Kansas, “Subject and Ex-
pression in Chinese Painting.” Attendance, 60.
Mr. Gettens, at the American Chemical Society, Stam-
ford, Conn., “Minerals in Art and Archeology.” At-
tendance, 50.
Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Hermitage Foundation, Norfolk,
Va., ‘Persian Paintings.” Attendance (lecture given
twice), 65 and 75; total attendance, 140.
Dr. Stern, at the Pierpont Morgan Library, “The Chinese
Influences in Japanese Painting.” Attendance, 320.
Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York City, “Connoisseurship in Islamie Art.” Attend-
ance, 10.
Dr. Ettinghausen, at Asia House, New York City, ‘‘Formal-
ism and Realism in Persian Painting.” Attendance, 325.
Dr. Cahill, at the State University of Iowa, Iowa City,
“Yiian Dynasty Painting” and ‘The Contemporary Rele-
vance of Chinese Painting.” Attendance, respectively,
12 and 350.
Dr. Cahill, at the Coliege of St. Theresa, Winona, Minn.,
“Values in Chinese Painting.” Attendance (lecture
given twice), 400 and 350; total attendance, 750. Also,
“The Philosophical Background on Chinese Landscape
Paintings.” Attendance, 15.
Dr. Cahill, at the College of St. Theresa, ‘Forms and Ma-
terials of Oriental Painting” and ‘The Contemporary
Relevance of Chinese Painting.” Attendance, respec-
tively, 20 and 400.
Dr. Ettinghausen, at St. Margaret’s Episcopal Church,
Washington, D.C., “Islamic Art.” Attendance, 48.
Dr. Pope, at the annual dinner meeting of the Board of
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution, ‘Freer Gallery
Research Project on Ancient Chinese Ceremonial
Bronzes.”
Mr. Gettens, at the Marshall Laboratory of HE. I. du Pont
de Nemours & Co., Philadelphia, Pa., “The Blue Pigments
of Antiquity.” Attendance, 75.
Dr. Pope, at the Japan Society, New York City, “Japanese
Porcelain and the Dutch Trade.” Attendance, 150.
Dr. Cahill, at the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University,
Cambridge, Mass., “The Contemporary Relevance of
Chinese Painting.” Attendance, 150.
Dr. Pope, at the National Society of the Colonial Dames of
America, Washington, D.C., “Chinese Blue-and-white.”
Attendance, 60.
200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
1963
March 20.
April 4.
April 8.
April 18.
April 18.
April 18.
April 19.
April 19.
April 22.
April 25.
April 26.
May 3.
May 8.
May 10.
May 17.
May 20.
June 6.
June 9.
Dr. Stern, at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, Philadelphia,
Pa., “Popular Painting of Tokugawa Japan.” Attend-
ance (lecture given twice), 55 and 200; total attendance,
255.
Dr. Stern, at the Seattle Art Museum, Seattle, Wash., “Pop-
ular Painting of Tokugawa Japan.” Attendance, 100.
Dr. Stern, at the M. H. DeYoung Memorial Museum, San
Francisco, Calif., “Popular Painting of Tokugawa Japan.”
Attendance, 150.
Dr. Stern, at the Dickson Art Center, Los Angeles, Calif.,
“Hokusai.” Attendance (lecture given twice), 200 and
150 ; total attendance, 350.
Mr. Gettens, at the Conservation Center, New York Uni-
versity, New York City, ‘Corrosion of Ancient Copper and
Bronze Metal Objects.” Attendance, 12.
Dr. Ettinghausen, at Southern Illinois University, Carbon-
dale, Ill., “Old and New Testament Subjects in Islamic
Art.” Attendance, 95.
Dr. Stern, at the Japan Society of Southern California, Los
Angeles, “Popular Painting of Tokugawa Japan.” At-
tendance, 250.
Dr. Httinghausen, at Southern Illinois University, “Idealism
and Reality in Persian Miniatures.” Attendance, 55.
Dr. Ettinghausen, at the University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich., “Miniatures of the Safavid Period” and
“Unpublished Persian Miniatures of the Mongol Period.”
Attendance, respectively, 16 and 16.
Dr. Stern, at the Chicago Art Institute, Chicago, IIl., “Popu-
lar Painting of Tokugawa Japan.” Attendance, 75.
Dr. Stern, at the University of Chicago, “Hokusai.” At-
tendance, 100.
Dr. Cahill, at the National League of American Pen Women,
Washington, D.C., “Literary Artists of China.” At-
tendance, 30.
Mr. Trousdale, at the University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, Mich., “Central Asian Painting—Part I.” At-
tendance, 16.
Mr. Trousdale, at the University of Michigan, “Cen-
tral Asia Painting—Part II.” Attendance, 16.
Dr. Pope, at the National Museum, Stockholm, Sweden,
“History of the Early Trade in Chinese Porcelain.” At-
tendance, 200.
Dr. Stern, at the Cosmos Club, Washington, D.C., “Popular
Painting of Tokugawa Japan.” Attendance, 250.
Miss E. H. West, at the annual meeting of the International
Institute for Conservation—American Group, Institute of
Fine Arts, New York University, “The Alteration of
Early Chinese Jades.” Attendance, 75.
Dr. Stern, at the National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.,
“Innovations in Japanese Art.” Attendance, 250.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 201
Members of the staff traveled outside Washington on official
business as follows:
1962
July 13.
July 16.
July 20.
August 3-5.
August 8.
August 10-11.
August 13-14.
August 24.
September 7-9.
September 12-14.
September 25.
September 26.
October 2-5.
Dr. Stern, in New York City, met with representatives of
Shorewood Press to discuss reproductions of Freer Gal-
lery objects to be used in a forthcoming book on draw-
ings. Examined objects at various dealers.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in Corning, N.Y., attended meetings of
the Sixth International Congress on Glass at the Corning
Glass Center.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects at
several dealers.
Dr. Stern, in New York City, attended a meeting at the
Japan Society re: Restorer Training Program. Met with
a representative of Shorewood Press to discuss overruns,
prints, and quality control of reproductions of Freer
objects. Attended the exhibition of Rockefeller por-
celains at the Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Miss E. H. West, in Philadelphia, Pa., visited the University
Museum where she examined jades in the collection and
helped plan a jade exhibition to be shown during the
winter.
Dr. Stern, in New York City, attended a meeting at Asia
House re: Japanese Government Loan Exhibition (1965).
Met with Prof. Donald Keene of Columbia University
regarding his lecture to be given at the Freer Gallery in
January 1963.
Dr. Cahill, in Toronto, Canada, visited the Royal Ontario
Museum, where he examined objects in storage and in
a private collection.
Mr. Gettens, at the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore, Md.,
examined miscellaneous objects for the purpose of mak-
ing a selection for color photography.
Dr. Cahill, in New York City, attended the Rockefeller
exhibition of Chinese porcelains and the Fabergé collec-
tion at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Also examined
Far Eastern objects at several dealers.
Mr. Gettens and Miss E. H. West, at Atlantic City, N.J.,
attended a symposium on Archeological Chemistry spon-
sored by the American Chemical Society.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in Winchester, Va., examined objects in
a private collection.
Dr. Pope, at the Baltimore Museum of Art, examined
objects offered to the Museum.
Dr. Cahill, at the Pierpont Morgan Library in New York
City, attended the opening of the exhibition of John M.
Crawford, Jr.’s collection of Chinese paintings. Served
as chairman of a conference on Chinese painting held at
Asia House. Attended a lecture by Dr. Michael Sullivan
at the Institute of Fine Arts, New York University.
Examined objects which were to be auctioned at the
Parke-Bernet Galleries.
202 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
1962
October 11-14.
October 12-14.
October 17-18.
October 17-20.
October 26-
December 4.
November 8-9.
November 9-16.
November 13-15.
November 15-16.
November 17-20.
November 18-21.
November 29-30.
December 4.
Dr. Pope, in Toronto, Canada, examined Chinese porcelains
at the Royal Ontario Museum, and in several private
collections.
Mr. Gettens, in Toronto, Canada, visited the Royal Ontario
Museum, where he made a technical examination of a
number of objects and conferred with staff members.
Dr. Cahill, in New York City, attended a lecture by Prof.
Max Loehr of the Fogg Art Museum at the Pierpont
Morgan Library.
Dr. Stern, in New York City, saw the Crawford collection
at the Pierpont Morgan Library. Discussed publication
problems with representatives of Shorewood Press.
Discussed the Restorer Program with Mrs. John D.
Rockefeller III, Douglas Overton, and Kojiro Tomita.
Examined a newly damaged Chinese painting at Rocke-
feller Center. Examined numerous objects at several
dealers.
Miss E. H. West conducted research at the Conservation
Center, Institute of Fine Arts, New York University, New
York City.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined numerous
objects at the Metropolitan Museum of Art. Assisted in
giving a doctoral examination at Columbia University.
Dr. Cahill, at the University of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans.,
gave seven informal talks to classes, and an interview on
the university radio station. In Kansas City, Mo., ex-
amined the Nii Wa Chai collection of Chinese paintings at
the William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art and also ex-
amined a number of Far Eastern objects at the Uni-
versity of Kansas Art Museum.
Mr. Gettens, in New York City, visited the Kapp & Strobel
Ivory Works and the New York University Conservation
Center. In Stamford, Conn., attended a meeting of the
Western Connecticut Section of the American Chemical
Society. In Philadelphia, visited the University Museum
to study sculpture in connection with his study of ‘“Min-
erals in Art and Archeology.”
Dr. Ettinghausen, in Norfolk, Va., examined objects at the
Norfolk Museum, and visited the Hermitage Foundation.
Dr. Stern, in New York City, met with Prof. Donald Keene
of Columbia University concerning the latter’s forthcom-
ing lecture at the Freer Gallery. Examined numerous ob-
jects at several dealers.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in Cambridge, Mass., examined objects
at the Fogg Art Museum, and in several private collec-
tions. In Dublin, N.H., examined the Ray Winfield
Smith collection of Near Eastern glass.
Mr. Gettens, in Philadelphia, attended the opening of the
Chinese Jade Exhibition at the University Museum. Ex-
amined objects at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, where
he also took samples from several pewter objects.
Mr. Gettens and Mr. Schwartz, at the Walters Art Gallery,
examined and photographed numerous objects.
1962
December 2-5.
December 4-6.
December 12-13.
December 12-14.
December 26.
December 31.
1963
January 9.
January 12.
January 23-24.
January 24-25.
January 24-25.
February 1.
February 1-2.
February 1-2.
February 1-4.
Tebruary 4.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 203
Dr. Pope, with Dr. Osvald Sirén of Stockholm, Sweden,
went to Mount Kisco, N.Y., to examine objects in the col-
lection of Mrs. Eugene Meyer. In New York City, exam-
ined numerous objects at several dealers.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, assisted in giving a
doctoral examination at Columbia University and exam-
ined objects at several dealers. In Philadelphia, visited
with Prof. S. D. Goitein at the University of Pennsylvania.
William B. Trousdale, at the University Museum in Phila-
delphia, examined objects in the Chinese Jade Exhibition.
Dr. Cahill, in Philadelphia, visited the Chinese Jade Ex-
hibition at the University Museum. In New York City,
attended the opening of the exhibition of Persian Paint-
ing at Asia House and examined objects at several
dealers.
Dr. Eittinghausen, in Baltimore, attended a luncheon meet-
ing at the Walters Art Gallery.
Dr. Stern, in New York City, examined numerous objects
at several dealers.
Dr. Cahill, in Minneapolis, Minn., examined Chinese ob-
jects in the Minneapolis Institute of Art.
Dr. Cahill, in Chicago, saw the Chinese exhibitions at the
Field Museum of Natural History and examined various
Chinese and Japanese objects at the Art Institute of
Chicago.
Mr. Trousdale, at the University Museum in Phila-
delphia, arranged for the photographing of Chinese jades
selected from the current exhibition, for a review to ap-
pear in Oriental Art.
Dr. Pope, in Baltimore, attended a meeting of the board of
directors, and the annual meeting of the College Art
Association.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in Baltimore, attended the annual meet-
ing of the College Art Association.
Martin P. Amt returned to a dealer in New York City two
objects that had been under consideration at the Freer
Gallery of Art.
Mr. Gettens, in New York City, attended a symposium on
“Teaching Microscopy” under the auspices of the New
York Microscopical Society at the American Museum of
Natural History. Examined objects at the Metropolitan
Museum of Art, and at a dealer.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, attended the exhibi-
tion of Persian Painting at Asia House and examined ob-
jects at several dealers.
Dr. Pope, in New York City, served as chairman of
A.C.L.S.-S.S.R.C. Joint Committee for Grants on Asia
and examined objects at a dealer.
Mr. Trousdale, at the University Museum in Phila-
delphia, measured and oversaw the photographing of
Chinese jades for a review of the exhibition for Oriental
Art.
204 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
19638
February 4.
February 14-15.
February 15-16.
February 20-23.
February 26-27.
March 1.
March 14.
March 14-15.
March 16.
March 20.
March 26.
March 26.
March 29.
March 29—May 6.
Miss BE. H. West, at the University Museum in Philadelphia,
examined and took samples from objects in the Chinese
Jade Exhibition.
Dr. Pope, in New York City, examined objects at several
dealers. In New Haven, Conn., examined Chinese ob-
jects at the Yale University Art Gallery and, in Middle-
town, Conn., a large number of Japanese tsuba at the
Davidson Art Center, Wesleyan University.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined Near Eastern
objects at several dealers.
Dr. Stern, in New York City, attended the opening of the
Tea Taste in Japanese Art Exhibition at Asia House.
Examined numerous objects belonging to several dealers
and one private collector.
Dr. Pope, at the Cleveland Museum of Art, Cleveland, Ohio,
examined numerous objects and photographs.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects at
several dealers and one private collector.
Dr. Cahill, in New York City, examined objects at several
dealers, and attended the Tea Taste in Japanese Art Ex-
hibition at Asia House.
Dr. Pope, in New York City, attended the Tea Taste in
Japanese Art Exhibition at Asia House and examined
objects at several dealers.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects at
several dealers.
Dr. Stern, at the Philadelphia Museum of Art, examined
numerous Far Eastern objects.
Dr. Pope, in Philadelphia, attended the Founders’ luncheon
meeting of the Association for Asian Studies.
Dr. Stern, in New York City, discussed publishing problems.
with representatives of Shorewood Press.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects at
several dealers.
Dr. Stern, in Seattle, Wash., visited the Seattle Art Museum,
where he studied the Far Eastern collection. In San
Francisco, Calif., studied the collections at the M. H.
DeYoung Memorial Museum, and examined objects for
several individual collectors. In Los Angeles, Calif.,
studied the collections at the Los Angeles County
Museum, and examined objects for several individual col-
lectors. In Kansas City, Mo., examined Japanese objects
at the William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art, and for an
individual collector. In Chicago, Ill., visited the Art
Institute of Chicago to see the exhibitions and study
Japanese objects in storage. In Cleveland, Ohio, visited
the Cleveland Museum of Art to see the exhibitions and
study Japanese and Chinese objects in the collection, and
examined objects in a private collection. In New York
City, met with the publisher of Shorewood Press and
examined objects at a dealer.
1968
April 18.
April 23.
April 27.
April 29.
May 10-11.
May 22-24.
June 5-12.
June 6-7.
June 13-14.
June 17.
SECRETARY'S REPORT 205
Mr. Gettens, in New York City, examined objects at the
Metropolitan Museum of Art and at one dealer.
Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Cleveland Museum of Art, exam-
ined Sasanian silver and Indian miniatures.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined Persian and
Sasanian objects at several dealers.
Dr. Pope left to attend the opening of the Museum of Far
Eastern Antiquities in Stockholm, Sweden, and to study
collections elsewhere in Europe; to return in July.
Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, met with Mr. N.
Pevsner, publisher of the Pelican History of Art, and
examined objects at several dealers.
Mrs. L. O. West and Mrs. M. H. Quail attended the annual
meeting of the Museum Stores Association at the Minne-
apolis Institute of Arts and the Walker Art Center,
Minneapolis, Minn.
Mr. Gettens, in New York City, attended meetings of the
American Group of the International Institute for Con-
servation of Museum Objects at the Institute of Fine
Arts, New York University. He also attended a meeting
of the Board of Consulting Fellows of the New York
University Conservation Center. Visited the New York
Publie Library for reference material, and the American
Museum of Natural History in search of minerals in art.
Examined a number of photographs of ancient Chinese
bronzes belonging to the Royal Ontario Museum and
examined several objects at a dealer in order to acquire
pigment samples.
Miss E. H. West, in New York City, attended the annual
meetings of the American Group of the International
Institute for Conservation of Museum Objects at the Insti-
tute of Fine Arts, New York University.
Dr. Stern, in New York City, attended the Buddha Image
Exhibition at Asia House, met with a representative of
McGraw-Hill Book Co., Ine., concerning publication prob-
lems, and examined numerous objects at several dealers.
Mr. Trousdale left for the Far East and Europe to
give lectures and do research. He will return in October.
As in former years, members of the staff undertook a wide variety
of peripheral duties outside the Gallery, served on committees, held
honorary posts, and received recognitions.
Respectfully submitted.
JoHN A. Porr, Director.
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on the National Gallery of Art
Sir: I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of ‘Trustees,
the 26th annual report of the National Gallery of Art, for the fiscal
year ended June 30, 1963. This report is made pursuant to the pro-
visions of section 5(d) of Public Resolution No. 14, 75th Congress,
1st session, approved March 24, 1937 (50 Stat. 51).
ORGANIZATION
The statutory members of the Board of Trustees of the National
Gallery of Art are the Chief Justice of the United States, the Secre-
tary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of the
Smithsonian Institution, ex officio. The three general trustees con-
tinuing in office during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1963, were Paul
Mellon, John Hay Whitney, and John N. Irwin II. Chester Dale,
who had been a general trustee since 1943 and president since 1955,
died on December 16, 1962. Rush H. Kress, who had been a general
trustee since 1955, died on March 22, 1963. On January 25, 1963, Paul
Mellon was elected by the Board of Trustees to serve as president of
the Gallery and John Hay Whitney was elected vice president.
The executive officers of the Gallery as of June 30, 1963, were as
follows:
HKarl Warren, Chief Justice of the John Walker, Director.
United States, Chairman. Ernest R. Feidler, Administrator.
Paul Mellon, President. Huntington Cairns, General Counsel.
John Hay Whitney, Vice President. Perry B. Cott, Chief Curator.
Huntington Cairns, Secretary-Treasurer.
The three standing committees of the Board, as constituted at the
annual meeting on May 2, 1963, were as follows:
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
Chief Justice of the United States, John Hay Whitney.
Earl Warren, Chairman. John N. Irwin II.
Paul Mellon, Vice Chairman.
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Leonard Carmichael.
FINANCE COMMITTEE
Secretary of the Treasury, C. Doug- John Hay Whitney.
las Dillon, Chairman. John N. Irwin II.
Paul Mellon.
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion, Leonard Carmichael.
206
SECRETARY’S REPORT 207
ACQUISITIONS COMMITTEE
Paul Mellon, Chairman. John N. Irwin II.
John Hay Whitney. John Walker.
PERSONNEL
At the close of fiscal year 1963, full-time Government employees
on the staff of the National Gallery of Art numbered 301. The U.S.
Civil Service regulations govern the appointment of employees paid
from appropriated public funds.
Continued emphasis was given to the training of employees under
the Government Employees Training Act.
APPROPRIATIONS
For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1963, the Congress of the United
States in the regular annual appropriation and a supplemental ap-
propriation required for pay increases under Public Law 87-793,
approved October 11, 1962, provided $2,113,850 to be used for salaries
and expenses in the operation and upkeep of the National Gallery of
Art, the protection and care of works of art acquired by the Board of
Trustees, and all administrative expenses incident thereto, as au-
thorized by joint resolution of Congress approved March 24, 1937
(20 U.S.C. 71-75, 50 Stat. 51).
The following expenditures and encumbrances were incurred:
Bersonnelecompensationsangd DenehtS= a ses a ee ee $1, 760, 670. 00
Allmothereiteniss 2222 ese te ee ee ae ek eee ee 350, 099. 34
Wnobluicatedebalan ces. 22. == ee Ae ee se Ss ee 3, 080. 66
ANCOR a ee ee 2, 118, 850. 00
ATTENDANCE
There were 1,793,500 visitors to the Gallery during the fiscal year
1963, an increase of 460,994 over the total attendance of 1,332,506
reported for fiscal year 1962. The daily average number of visitors
was 4,941. This increase was in large measure due to the exhibition,
for a period of 27 days, of the Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci.
During that period 518,525 persons viewed the painting and total at-
tendance was 673,872.
ACCESSIONS
There were 1,206 accessions by the National Gallery of Art as gifts,
loans, or deposits during the fiscal year.
208
GIFTS
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
During the year the following gifts or bequests were accepted by
the Board of Trustees:
Donor
George Mathew Adams,
New York, N.Y.
Mrs. Mellon Bruce, New
York, N.Y:
Miss Alice Dodge, Wash-
ington, D.C.
Mrs. Peter H. B. Freling-
huysen, Convent Station,
N.J.
Mrs. Olga Roosevelt
Graves, Washington,
D.C.
National Gallery of Art
Purchase Fund, Andrew
W. Mellon Gift.
Frederick C. Oechsner,
Washington, D.C.
George Matthew Adams,
New York, N.Y.
The Ford Foundation,
New York, N.Y.
Mrs. James McBey,
London, England.
Frederick C. Oecechsner,
Washington, D.C.
Lessing J. Rosenwald,
Jenkintown, Pa.
William H. Schab, New
York, N.Y.
W. G. Wendell, Hartford,
Conn.
PAINTINGS
Artist
SCULPTURE
German School, 20th
Centuryeee22 Se
GRAPHIC ARTS
James McBey------
Kollwitzii 2a. 22
Altdorier: suse meee
van Meckenem_-_-_--
Swiss, 15th Century
Woodcut.
Stow Wengenroth__
OTHER GIFTS
Title
Hempstead Heath.
A Lady with a White Collar
and Cap.
The Lute Player.
Lake Albano, Sunset.
The Bookseller.
Duke of Wellington.
Miss Grace Woodhouse.
Joris W. Vezeler.
Margaretha Boghe, Wife of
Joris W. Vezeler.
Death Mask of Ernst Bar
lach.
Three drawings and 22 prints,
Picnic on the Beach.
Eleven etchings.
Riot.
The Beautiful Virgin of
Ratisbon.
The Nativity.
The Crucifixion with the
Virgin and St. John.
Jacob Wendell House, Ports-
mouth, N.H.
Warner House, Portsmouth,
N. Hi:
In the fiscal year 1963 gifts of money were made by the Old
Dominion Foundation, the A. W. Mellon Educational and Charitable
Trust, Avalon Foundation, Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, Andre
SECRETARY’S REPORT 209
Meyer, Mr. and Mrs. Howard Jensen, the Washington Post Co.,
and the Eugene and Agnes Meyer Foundation. An additional dis-
tribution was received from the estate of William Nelson Cromwell.
Mrs. Mellon Bruce gave money and securities to establish the Ailsa
Mellon Bruce Fund to be used by the Trustees for the purchase of
works of art for the National Gallery of Art and for educational
purposes related to works of art.
WORKS OF ART ON LOAN
The following works of art were received on loan by the Gallery:
From Artist Title
Chester Dale, New York, N.Y. Bellows__--------- Blue Morning.
DOs ut HAL are Moneteii=-2202Nse The Seine at Giverny.
Mra.) Charles Rt Henschel,® 222 sdols=22-=-522= Still Life: Game.
New York, N.Y.
Mr. and Mrs. David Lloyd Bonnard_--------- Le Jardin de Bosquet.
Kreeger, Washington,
B.C.
Wo SaaS es) eee Van Gogh -22ors8 Vase of Flowers.
DOMES PEL Ly PT ta Monets25-== 5-4 Varengeville.
1DYO po ot eee ee ee PicassOres2= 2202 <2e Café de la Rotonde.
Doses seu owe ee Redon s..53.<s0 w= Au Fond de la Mer.
Qasr ss). SIRI Ae Rengir-=45 5.228) 52 Bather.
Mrs. Eugene E. Meyer, Dufresne --_------- Still Life.
Washington, D.C.
Doz pate sae? Sil se Renoire 4222-222 2-2 Nude.
Dom 252. aPe i aoe owei dolla. - aiee Man Lying on a Sofa.
WORKS OF ART ON LOAN RETURNED
The following works of art on loan were returned during the fiscal
year:
To Artist Title
‘trustees for Harvard Wni-' “2--=---...2/L UU she 547 objects of Pre-Colum-
versity (Robert Woods bian art.
Bliss Collection), Wash-
ington, D.C.
Mrs. Charles R. Henschel, Monet__....-_---- Still Life: Game.
New York, N.Y.
Mr. and Mrs. David Lloyd Bonnard____._._-._.. Le Jardin de Bosquet.
Kreeger, Washington,
D.C.
DoS ee erat tet ert. Van'iGoohs = ses Vase of Flowers.
Dosen eee Seas Monetes tos. 22. Varengeville.
Wor Ste a2 eT DE Ge PIGEBSO mes 22 a2 NES Café de la Rotonde.
TT) SEBEL TLE hs Redon se. S13: ‘Au Fond de la Mer.
DO Le). a Renoires=. 23422 U8 Bather.
Mrs. Eugene E. Meyer, Dufresne__._------ Still Life.
Washington, D.C.
Dolly _ serra: Se. Renoirssu se... 230e3 Nude.
DO. 43 SUIee Er: Marae =, 522 (5 (oe a eee Man Lying on a Sofa,
210
WORKS OF ART LENT
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The American Federation of Arts, New York, N.Y., circulated
the following works of art during the fiscal year to the Municipal
Art Gallery, Los Angeles, Calif.; M. H. De Young Memorial Museum,
San Francisco, Calif.; Atlanta Art Association, Ga.; Virginia Museum
of Fine Arts, Richmond; Cincinnati Art Museum, Ohio; Carnegie
Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa., and the Dallas Museum of Fine Arts,
Texas:
To Artist
American Federation of Joseph Badger- -.--
Arts, New York, N.Y.
Dor Sc See eee John Bradley_.=-=-
Dorevyet. 2:22 eee Ae Bundy 2... oi sas
1 Doe eee eee SE arle. see. eee
DD) Qe ee a eee Lohmann eee
DORs ae ahh aa hintonsbark= ===
11) OM eee eee Susanne Walters_ --
DOL -. eae a eee Winlkenoyiad
DO=. Sot Seats ened Oe Jasin 5 ae
Doses es ub ee See Ons oe ae eee oe
DOs nei. et eee ee COE ee oe See
DORs. ace osse eee RAN6 {0 een Sy
DO] Seo eee See ee Je S0OL Sas eee
1D Ye) ae yes Se ee eas oe Jee sdowns see
Dose 22.4555 teu 2: Sh OF a eee
ID) a ee Ee eee! SS OSA oe Lee
[DD gee ooat See Ma LOU Bowes
DORs po Be | 0) yg, lage ae eer
Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Field_-.._..---.---
Folk Art Collection,
Williamsburg, Va.
Colby College, Waterville, Unknown-__-__------
Maine.
The Jewish Museum, New C. E. B__-_-------
York, N.Y.
North Carolina Museum of
Art, Raleigh, N.C.
ID ope eee rae aes Pealetac 2 eee
11D) @ errs Behe n ee eer cyt SWS So Sebo Se
1D oS ee a eee re MHeUssos Se Lee
Okiahoma .‘cArh,/iCenter’) Healy... J222: 222
Oklahoma City, Okla.
IDO: semana) Lee enritc22 2. eae
Doan Rh of tle Boe a Ryders.) =e
Woes. oo. oe Sargent... Se
Dog! Laster e ee Stuart eee eee
Doe Ee ose eae Sully eee
Dost all. abet Leith ® eee
Title
Mrs. Isaac Foster.
Little Girl in Lavender.
Vermont Lawyer.
Family Portrait.
Berks County Almshouse.
Flax Scutching Bee.
Memorial to Nicholas M. §8.
Catlin.
Jonathan Benham.
The Start of the Hunt.
The End of the Hunt.
The Sargent Family.
Alice Slade.
Joseph Slade.
General Washington on
White Charger.
Blue Eyes.
The Hobby Horse.
Mahantango Valley Farm.
Civil War Battle Scene.
Ark of the Covenant.
Burning of Old South
Church, Bath, Maine.
Moses Rescued from the
Bulrushes.
Pocahontas.
General William Moultrie.
Mrs. Richard Yates.
Tsaac Motte.
Daniel Webster.
Catherine.
Mending the Harness.
Repose.
George Washington.
Andrew Jackson.
The Barnyard.
SECRETARY’S REPORT Did
To Artist Title
Storm King Art. Center, Homer_..-..---..~ Hound and Hunter.
Mountainville, N.Y.
Historical Society of Talbot Unknown___------_ At the Writing Table.
County, Md.
12 SE, eee eee 2 Oe see As ae Boy in Blue Coat.
Woes: ee Soke Be hc (cree neers Sea Burning of Old South
Church, Bath, Maine.
12 ie Reeser ae epee sa ae Ele « (0) A eas <P Civil War Battle Scene.
NO) ree ae oe RAC Ome a mak ere Columbia.
Dor! x: See eae seen sen ao ee Mount Vernon.
ye eee 2 ee eee at SOO Se ee ea The Trotter.
OO. | 33 eee ees BS 5 Co Ie ee Twenty-two Houses anda
Church.
023 ae re B26 (0) 5 se eee er Village by the River.
IDQUY Eee eee eee Peed Oso aes ee “We go for the Union.”
IDO) ee eae fo imanne ss View of Benjamin Reber’s
Farm.
TB) QRS APES or tel a) Crdiy ia 2 Johnstone === == The Westwood Children.
Virginia Museum of Fine Toole__.---------- Skating Scene.
Arts, Richmond, Va.
Washington County Mu- Healy___._-.-_---- Abraham Lincoln.
seum of Fine Arts,
Hagerstown, Md.
The White House, Wash- Lamb___-__-_--_-~-- “Hmancipation Proclama-
ington, D.C. tion.”
Woodlawn. Plantation, ° Polk... 2.222... Washington at the Battle of
Mount Vernon, Va. Princeton.
EXHIBITIONS
The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of
Art during the fiscal year 1963:
Exhibition of the Collection of Mr. and Mrs, Andre Meyer. Continued from
previous fiscal year through July 8, 1962.
Prints with Color. From the Rosenwald Collection. Continued from previous
fiscal year through August 23, 1962.
Lithographs by George Bellows. From the Mellon, Rosenwald, and Addie Burr
Clark Memorial collections. Continued from previous fiscal year through
October 16, 1962.
Water Colors by Winslow Homer from the Collection of Mrs. Charles R.
Henschel. July 6 through September 12, 1962.
Etchings and Lithographs by Edouard Manet. From the Rosenwald Collec-
tion. August 24 through December 18, 1962.
A General Selection of Material from the Index of American Design. Septem-
ber 21, 1962, to continue into the next fiscal year.
American Prints Today-1962. Sponsored by the Print Council of America.
September 23 through October 14, 1962.
Drawings from the National Gallery of Art collections. October 27, 1962, through
March 17, 1963.
Etchings by G. B. Tiepolo, G. D. Tiepolo, and Canaletto. From the Rosenwald
Collection. October 27, 1962, through June 11, 1963.
Old Master Drawings from Chatsworth. From the Devonshire Collection.
October 28 through November 25, 1962.
212 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
A Selection of Christmas Prints. From the National Gallery of Art collections.
December 14, 1962, through February 26, 1963.
John Gadsby Chapman, A Retrospective Exhibition. YWrom 21 public collections
and private lenders. December 16, 1962, through January 13, 1963.
Mona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci. Lent to the President of the United States
and the American people by the Government of the French Republic. Janu-
ary 8 through February 8, 1963.
Jacques Callot: A Selection of Prints from the Collections of Rudolf L, Baumfeld
and Lessing J. Rosenwald. February 3 through March 17, 1963.
Hercules and the Hydra and Hercules and Antaeus by Antonio del Pollaiuolo.
Lent by the Republic of Italy. February 4 through February 10, 1963.
Industry and Ingenuity. From the Index of American Design. February 27
through May 2, 1963.
Landscape Prints. From the Rosenwald Collection. May 2, 1963, to continue
into the next fiscal year.
Prints and Drawings by Mary Cassatt. From the Rosenwald Collection. June
13, 1963, to continue into the next fiscal year.
Exhibitions of recent accessions. “Oysters” by Manet, continued from previous
fiscal year through August 9, 1962; “Street in Venice” by Sargent, August 10
through September 13, 1962; “Duke of Wellington” by Goya, November 19
through December 27, 1962; “The Lute Player” by Gentileschi, April 5 through
May 13, 1963; “Joris W. Vezeler” and “Margaretha Boghe, Wife of Joris W.
Vezeler’ by Joos van Cleve, June 21, 1963, to continue into the next fiscal year.
TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS
Special exhibitions of graphic arts from the National Gallery of
Art collections were circulated during the fiscal year to 29 museums,
universities, schools, and art centers in the United States and abroad.
Index of American Design.—Forty-eight exhibitions (2,104 plates) of material
from the Index were circulated to 18 States, the District of Columbia, and to
Bath, Hngland.
CURATORIAL ACTIVITIES
Under the direction of Dr. Perry B. Cott, chief curator, the cura-
torial department accessioned 53 gifts to the Gallery during the fiscal
year 1963. Advice was given with respect to 1,716 works of art
brought to the Gallery for expert opinion and 25 visits to collections
were made by members of the staff in connection with offers of gifts.
About 4,350 inquiries, many of them requiring research, were answered
verbally and by letter.
Dr. Hereward Lester Cooke, curator of painting, acted as consultant
to National Aeronautics and Space Administration with duties of
organizing and supervising commissions to artists for paintings of
themes relating to the space program.
Dr. Katharine Shepard, assistant curator of graphic arts, gave a
graduate course in “Ancient Sculpture” the first semester and a grad-
uate course in “Ancient Painting” the second semester, at Catholic
University, during the past academic year.
Secretary’s Report, 1963
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SECRETARY’S REPORT VAS)
The Richter Archives received and cataloged over 133 photographs
on exchange from museums here and abroad; 987 photographs were
purchased and about 1,000 reproductions have been added to the
archives. The Iconographical Index was increased by 500 photo-
graphs.
RESTORATION
Francis Sullivan, resident restorer of the Gallery, made regular and
systematic inspection of all works of art in the Gallery and on loan to
Government buildings in Washington, and periodically removed dust
and bloom as required. He relined, cleaned, and restored 11 paintings
and gave special treatment to 29. Twenty-seven paintings were
X-rayed as an aid in research. Experiments were continued with
synthetic materials suggested by the National Gallery of Art Fellow-
ship at the Mellon Institute of Industrial Research, Pittsburgh, Pa.
Technical advice on the conservation of paintings was furnished to
the public upon request. Special treatment was given to works of
art belonging to Government agencies, including the U.S. Capitol,
Treasury, Supreme Court, Army Medical Museum, and General Serv-
ices Administration. In other instances advice was furnished the
various agencies concerning the care and conservation of paintings.
Mr. Sullivan made trips to various cities in connection with the loan
of paintings to the Gallery for special exhibitions. He also made a
trip to Los Angeles as a special representative of the Department of
Justice in connection with the recovery of two paintings belonging to
the Uffizi Gallery, Florence, Italy.
PUBLICATIONS
Dr. Cott wrote the foreword to the Wational Gallery of Art and its
Collections, a booklet reproducing 40 paintings in the Gallery’s col-
lections.
William P. Campbell, assistant chief curator, wrote the catalogs
for the Winslow Homer Water Color exhibition from the collection of
Mrs. Charles R. Henschel and the John Gadsby Chapman exhibition.
Dr. Cooke wrote an article for the Vational Geographic Magazine,
September 1962 issue, entitled “Early America as Seen by Her Native
Artists” based on the collection of Edgar W. and Bernice Chrysler
Garbisch. Healso wrote the text for 16 National Gallery leaflets.
Mrs. Mary Elizabeth C. Burnet, museum curator, assisted in the
preparation of the catalogs of the Winslow Homer Water Color ex-
hibition and the John Gadsby Chapman exhibition. She also worked
on the proposed Check List of American Paintings in the National
Gallery of Art.
720-018—64—15
214 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
PUBLICATIONS FUND
During the fiscal year 1963 the Publications Fund placed on sale
four new books: Zreasures from the National Gallery of Art, edited
by Huntington Cairns and John Walker, the third in a series of large
books containing 85 color reproductions of paintings in the National
Gallery of Art collection; Zhe Eternal Present: The Beginnings of
Art by Sigfried Giedion, the A. W. Mellon Lecturer in the Fine Arts
for 1957; Prints compiled by Carl Zigrosser, with an introduction by
Lessing J. Rosenwald; and One Hundred and One Masterpieces of
American Primitive Painting, with preface by John Walker. An
English translation of Dr. Perry B. Cott’s section on the National
Gallery of Art in Paintings of the World’s Great Galleries was made
available, together with five new catalogs of temporary exhibitions:
Water Colors by Winslow Homer from the Collection of Mrs. Charles
R. Henschel; American Prints Today, 1962; Old Master Drawings
from Chatsworth; John Gadsby Chapman—American Painter and
Illustrator; and Jacques Callot—A Selection of Prints from the Col-
lections of Rudolf L. Baumfeld and Lessing J. Rosenwald.
In addition to 6 new collotype reproductions of paintings by Inness,
Renoir, Bellotto, Viaminck, and Feti, the Publications Fund intro-
duced 40 color reproductions in a new format, 19 by 25 inches in size.
Thirty-seven new postcards and 44 new 11- by 14-inch subjects were
published, bringing the total subjects available in these formats to
152 and 201, respectively.
EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM
The program of the Educational Department was carried out under
the direction of Dr. Raymond S. Stites and his staff. The staff
lectured and conducted tours on works of art in the Gallery’s col-
lections.
Attendance for the general tours, tours of the week, and picture-of-
the-week talks amounted to 38,846. The attendance at the Sunday
afternoon lectures in the auditorium totaled 14,209.
Special tours, lectures, and conferences were arranged for a total
of 16,567 persons. These special appointments were made for Gov-
ernment agency groups, and at the request of congressional offices,
for educators, foreign students, club and study groups, religious orga-
nizations, conventions, and women’s organizations. These special serv-
ices were also given to school groups from many parts of the country.
The program of training volunteer docents continued and special
instruction was given to approximately 130 volunteers from the Junior
League of Washington and the American Association of University
Women. By special arrangement with the public and parochial
SECRETARY’S REPORT 215
schools of the District of Columbia and surrounding counties of Mary-
land and Virginia, these volunteers conducted tours for 66,528 children,
representing an increase over last year of 7,279. The volunteers also
guided 663 Safety Patrol girls on tours of the Gallery and special tours
were given for 25,445 children who came to see the Mona Lisa while
it was on exhibition at the Gallery. Altogether, 92,636 children bene-
fited from the services of the volunteer docents.
Fifty-two lectures were given in the auditorium on Sunday after-
noons. Of these, 22 were delivered by members of the staff of the
National Gallery and 24 by guest lecturers. John Pope-Hennessy
delivered the 12th Annual Series of the A. W. Mellon Lectures in the
Fine Arts on six consecutive Sundays on “The Artist and the Indi-
vidual : Some Aspects of the Portrait.”
The slide library of the Educational Department has a total of
45,682 slides in its permanent and lending collections. During the
year 1,408 slides were added to the collections. Altogether, 397 per-
sons borrowed 11,964 slides from the collections. It is estimated
that the slides were seen by 24,840 viewers. The Carnegie Slides, a
group of 2,500 on American art, which are in the Educational Depart-
ment slide library, were borrowed by 45 persons.
Members of the staff participated in outside activities delivering
lectures and papers, and conducting meetings. One staff member
taught a course at a local university. Staff members prepared ma-
terial for the school tour program and the slide lending program, and
prepared scripts for the Lectour recordings. Thirty-five radio talks
were prepared, recorded, and broadcast on station WGMS.
A printed calendar of events was prepared and distributed monthly
to a mailing list of more than 8,300 names, an increase of 1,000 names
over last year’s mailing list.
EXTENSION SERVICES
The Office of Extension Services, under the direction of the curator
of the Index of American Design, Dr. Grose Evans, circulates to the
public traveling exhibits, films, slide lectures, and filmstrip sets of
works of art in the National Gallery of Art’s collections. There are
27 traveling exhibits in circulation lent free of charge except for ship-
ping expenses. These were circulated in 262 bookings and were seen
by an estimated 131,000 viewers. The Extension Service circulated
33 framed collotype exhibits among the public schools of the District
of Columbia and the general public. Two additional exhibits were
prepared, and the Traveling Exhibition Service of the Smithsonian
Institution circulated one to 14 borrowers. The other was prepared at
the request of Senator Pell of Rhode Island and was shown in 18
216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Rhode Island cities and towns. Two films on the National Gallery
of Art were circulated in 152 bookings and were seen by approximately
45,600 viewers. A total of 1,065 slide-lecture sets were circulated
in 2,749 bookings and were seen by approximately 164,940 viewers.
The Extension Service reached approximately 384,560 persons during
the year; this is an increase of 143,710 over the number of persons
served last year.
LIBRARY
During the year the library, under the supervision of Miss Ruth
E. Carlson, accessioned 4,852 publications, of which 4,640 were ob-
tained through exchange, by gift, or purchased from private funds.
Government funds were used to purchase 19 books and 24 subscriptions
to periodicals, and for the binding of 169 volumes of periodicals. A
total of 1,610 photographs were added to the library’s stock and were
acquired by exchange or purchased from private funds.
During the year 2,475 publications were cataloged and classified,
8,568 cards were filed, and 2,609 periodicals were recorded. Library of
Congress cards were used for 657 titles; original cataloging was done
for 483 titles; and 18 cards were sent to the Union Catalog, Library
of Congress. There were 11,455 periodicals circulated, and 5,353
charged out to the staff. There were 6,082 books shelved in routine
work. The library borrowed 1,363 books and 1 microfilm on inter-
library loan.
The exchange program was continued during the year and 1,130
National Gallery publications were distributed in accordance with this
arrangement. The Gallery received 2,251 publications of various types
under the program.
The library is the depository for black-and-white photographs of
works of art in the Gallery’s collections. These are maintained for
use in research by the staff, for exchange with other institutions, for
reproduction in approved publications, and for sale to the public.
Approximately 6,129 photographs were stocked in the library during
the year and 1,310 orders for 7,607 photographs were filled. There
were 386 permits for reproduction of 919 subjects processed in the
library.
INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN
The Index of American Design, under the supervision of Dr. Grose
Evans, circulated 116 sets of color slides (5,698) throughout the
country; and 232 photographs of Index materials were used for ex-
hibits, study, and publication. The photographic file has been in-
creased by 82 negatives and 83 prints. Twenty-five permits to re-
produce 117 subjects from the Index were used. Special exhibits of
Index material were prepared at the request of various groups, in-
SECRETARY’S REPORT Palari
cluding the U.S. Department of Labor. Ten exhibits were refur-
bished and three sets of slide notes were rewritten.
The material of the Index was studied during the year by 502
visitors conducting research, collecting material for publication and
design, and gathering illustrations for publications.
The curator of the Index held conferences with important scholars,
attended meetings, lectured on American folk art to USIA personnel
and three other groups, and conducted tours for several foreign visi-
tors interested in Index material.
MAINTENANCE OF THE BUILDING AND GROUNDS
The Gallery building, mechanical equipment, and grounds have
been maintained throughout the year at the established standards.
Replacement of the sidewalk on the Mall side of the building, be-
tween Fourth Street and Seventh Street, was accomplished under a
contract let by the National Park Service, Department of the Interior.
The Gallery entered into contracts for the conversion of a pas-
senger elevator from manual to automatic operation and for the com-
plete renovation of the skylight on the west wing of the building.
Work under these contracts will be completed during the next fiscal
year. The passenger elevator conversion will complete the program
of converting all such elevators to automatic control.
Storm windows were installed at the windows in the Print Storage
Room to eliminate the condensation which formed on the inside of
the windows during cold weather. This treatment is planned for all
other windows in the building as funds become available.
The Gallery greenhouse continued to produce flowering and foliage
plants in quantities sufficient for all decorative needs of special open-
ings and day-to-day requirements of the Garden Courts.
LECTOUR
During the fiscal year 1963 Lectour, the Gallery’s electronic guide
system, was used by 66,321 visitors. This reduction in the use of
the system as compared with fiscal year 1962 is largely due to the fact
that it was not feasible to operate the system during the 27 days of
the Mona Lisa exhibition.
Lobby D, the room in which recent acquisitions are exhibited, was
wired for Lectour by the Gallery staff; Lectour talks can now be pro-
vided for all new acquisitions.
OTHER ACTIVITIES
Forty Sunday evening Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation concerts
were given during the year in the East Garden Court. The National
Gallery of Art Orchestra, conducted by Richard Bales, played eight
218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
of these concerts. ‘Two concerts were made possible in part by a grant
from the Music Performance Trust Fund of the American Federation
of Musicians. The National Gallery Strings, conducted by Mr.
Bales, furnished music during the openings of two Gallery exhibitions
during the year. The concert on Sunday evening, October 21, 1962,
was dedicated to United Nations Day. Six Sunday evenings, from
April 28 to June 2, were devoted to the Gallery’s 20th American Music
Festival. All concerts were broadcast in their entirety by radio sta-
tion WGMS-AM and FM. Washington music critics continued their
coverage of these concerts. During the intermissions of the con-
certs, talks were delivered by members of the staff of the Educational
Department on art topics, and by Mr. Bales on the musical programs
of the evening. The Gallery orchestra, conducted by Mr. Bales,
played two concerts at Hammond High School in Alexandria, Va.
Four 1-hour long concerts were taped by the National Gallery or-
chestra, Mr. Bales conducting, and were televised on W'TOP-TV.
Paintings from the Gallery’s collections were featured. Mr. Bales
spoke to three groups on music, and was commissioned by the Grego-
rian Institute of America to write six piano pieces entitled “Holiday
at the White House.” The National Gallery orchestra and Mr. Bales
received a citation from the American Association of University
Women for the cultural and educational contribution made to the
community by their television programs.
In response to requests, 54,489 copies of “An Invitation to the Na-
tional Gallery of Art” and 1,602 information booklets were distributed
to Congressmen and various organizations holding conventions in
Washington.
Henry B. Beville, head of the photographic laboratory, and his
assistants, processed 20,347 items including negatives, prints, slides,
color transparencies, and color separations.
A total of 200 permits were issued to persons to copy works of art,
and 169 permits to photograph were issued.
AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY
An audit of the private funds of the Gallery will be made for the
fiscal year ended June 30, 1963, by Price Waterhouse and Co., public
accountants. A report of the audit will be forwarded to the Gallery.
Respectfully submitted.
Huntineron Carrns, Secretary.
Dr. LronarD CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on the Canal Zone Biological Area
Sir: It gives me pleasure to present herewith the annual report on
the Canal Zone Biological Area for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1963.
SCIENTISTS, STUDENTS, AND OBSERVERS
Following is the list of 87 scientists, students, and observers who
made use of the Canal Zone Biological Area facilities on the mainland,
and/or visited Barro Colorado Island last year and stayed for several
days in order to conduct scientific research or observe the wildlife of
the area. In addition, scientists of other research and technical organi-
zations in the Canal Zone and the Republic of Panama made use of
station facilities.
Name
Akre, Mr. and Mrs. Roger D.,
Kansas State University.
Anderson, William,
Gridley, Calif.
Andrews, H. T.,
Washington University.
Ayensu, Edward §.,
Smithsonian Institution.
Barghoorn, Dr. and Mrs. Eso §.,
Harvard University.
Barth, Dr. Robert,
Harvard University.
Bennett, Dr. and Mrs. Charles, Jr.,
University of California.
Bishop, Alison,
Cornell University.
Blake, Doris H.
Smithsonian Institution.
Blest, Dr. Andrew David,
University College, London.
Brown, Floyd,
Washington University.
Brown, Dr. William L.,
Cornell University.
Chapin, Dr. and Mrs. James P.,
American Museum of Natural
History.
Cochran, Dr. Doris,
Smithsonian Institution.
Principal interest
Myrmecophiles associated
with army ants.
Ornithology.
Botany.
Botany.
Limnology.
Behavior and physiology of
cockroaches.
EKeology and microclimatology.
Behavior of primates.
Entomology.
Behavior of Lepidoptera.
Behavior and ecology of
amphibians and reptiles.
Behavior and ecology of ants.
Ornithology.
Herpetology.
219
220
Name
Collier, Dr. George,
San Diego State College.
Covich, Alan,
Washington University.
Dressler, Dr. Robert L.,
Washington University.
Duellman, Dr. William E.,
University of Kansas.
Wisenmann, Dr. Eugene,
New York, N.Y.
HWisendrath, Mrs. Erna,
Washington University.
Elofson, Dr. Olaf,
Sundsvall, Sweden.
Hyde, Dr. Richard H.,
Smithsonian Institution.
Fisher, Dr. and Mrs. Kenneth B.,
West Covina, Calif.
Flinn, Michael,
Inst. of Laryngology and Otology,
London.
Greenwell, Frank,
Smithsonian Institution.
Handley, Dr. Charles,
Smithsonian Institution.
Harty, Dr. Stephen T.,
Mount Holly, N.J.
Heatwole, Dr. Harold,
University of Puerto Rico.
Hecht, Dr. Max K.,
Queens College, New York.
Hilger, Julie,
Duke University.
Holgerson, Dr. Holger,
Stavanger, Norway.
Hughes, Dr. and Mrs. B.,
Bogota, Colombia.
Hunt, George,
Harvard University.
Kamstedt, Brit,
Stavanger, Norway.
Kremer, Dr. Peter,
Washington University.
Leen, Nina,
Life Magazine, New York, N.Y.
Lewis, Harold,
Life Magazine, New York, N.Y.
Livermore, Mr. and Mrs. J. W.,
West Redding, Conn.
Livingston, Luzern G.,
Narberth, Pa.
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Principal interest
Behavior and ecology of
jacanas.
Botany.
Botany.
Herpetology.
Ornithology.
Botany.
Observation of wildlife.
Botany.
Observation of wildlife.
Study of bats and acoustic
organs of various neotropical
animals.
Assistant to Dr. Handley.
Mammals.
Ornithology.
Behavior and ecology of amphibians,
reptiles, and arachnids.
Behavior and ecology of
amphibia.
Ornithology.
Littoral marine entomology.
Observation of wildlife.
Behavior and ecology of
flycatchers.
Assistant to Dr. Holgerson.
Algae.
Photography of primates.
Assistant to Miss Leen.
Observation of wildlife.
Ornithology.
SECRETARY’S REPORT
Name
Loftin, Horace,
Florida State University.
MaeArthur, John C.,
Marlboro College.
MacArthur, John W.,
Marlboro College.
Matthews, Henry,
Lansdowne, Pa.
MeKitterick, Dr. Andy,
Cornell University.
Meseth, Earl,
Washington University.
Myers, Charles W.,
University of Kansas.
Nelson, Kurt,
Chicago, Ill.
Nickerson, Dr. Norton,
Washington University.
Norcross, Mrs. Emily,
Washington University.
Ortleb, Edward,
Washington University.
Outten, Dr. L. M.,
Mars Hill College.
Pavelko, Charlotte,
Pasadena, Calif.
Prescott, Dr. and Mrs. G. W.,
University of Montana.
Pye, Dr. and Mrs. David,
Inst. of Laryngology and
Otology, London.
Rassmussen, Mr. and Mis.,
Washington University.
Raven, Mrs. Yvonne,
American Museum of
History.
Rettenmeyer, Dr. and Mrs. Carl,
Kansas State University.
Reynard, Dr. George B.,
Riverton, N.J.
Risebrough, Dr. R. W.,
Howard University.
Ross, Dr. and Mrs. R. D.,
Ambler, Pa.
Natural
Ruckes, Dr. and Mrs. Herbert,
American Museum of Natural
History.
Sartori, Alexandra,
Harvard University.
Sexton, Dr. Owen J.,
Washington University.
221
Principal interest
Ecology of fresh-water fish.
Ecology of birds.
Keology of birds.
Ornithology.
Behavior of cockroaches.
Assistant to Dr. Sexton.
Herpetology.
Observation of wildlife.
Botany.
Ornithology.
Behavior and ecology of amphibians
and reptiles.
Ichthyology.
Observation of wildlife.
Phytoplankton.
Study of bats and acoustic organs of
various neotropical animals.
Ecology of amphibians and reptiles.
Observation of wldlife.
Behavior and ecology of army ants.
Sound recordings of bird songs and
ealls.
Observation of wildlife.
Ornithology.
Hemiptera.
Observation of wildlife.
Behavior and ecology of amphibians
and reptiles.
222
Name
Stern, Dr. William L.,
Smithsonian Institution.
Strandtmann, Dr. and Mrs. R. W.,
Texas Technological College.
Swinebroad, Dr. Jeff,
Rutgers State University.
Taylor, Dr. Edward,
Lawrence, Kans.
Tyson, Edwin L.,
Florida State University.
Wetmore, Dr. Alexander,
Smithsonian Institution.
Willis, Edwin O.,
University of California.
Wilson, Mrs. Mae,
Los Angeles, Calif.
Zweifel, Dr. and Mrs. Richard G.,
American Museum
History.
of
Natural
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Principal interest
Botany.
Entomology.
Ornithology.
Herpetology.
Bat populations.
Ornithology.
Heology and behavior of birds and
army ants.
Observation of wildlife.
Keology of amphibians.
VISITORS
Approximately 155 visitors were permitted to visit the island for a
TABLE 1.—Annual rainfall, Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone
day.
Year Total
inches
BOD 5 apne ee ee eee 104. 37
LO2 GEE ys eee 118. 22
OD ie ee ee ree 116. 36
1928252 252 = eee 101. 52
OZ Oe ever syn ae cee 87. 84
OS 0S Sees 76. 57
19S TR Se Se 123. 30
NOS 2 way ee ee 1S. 52
LOSS See er ay LOLs
OR; Aa2 oie Meee 122. 42
OS Dee eee eee 143. 42
LOS GR See sas oe 93. 88
jemi Mi Ag Date 124. 13
OS Seer eres aie 117. 09
OR OM ea ee ce 115. 47
O40 SSE ree ee 86. 51
TIC YS) | All Bag Me Ee eal Deere 91. 82
19422 eee 111. 10
OAS eee eae 120. 29
Station
average
—————<q—| | ec) |i ee | — |
Year Total
inches
1944 ek eee 111. 96
19452 22 120. 42
E946" 22 22 ee 87. 38
1S Fy eee a av 77. 92
OAS Ee cee. ee 83. 16
1OAG ool lon Der nese 114. 86
19502 Sees eee 114. 51
LOGIE 112. 72
WO52E LER 2 eee 97. 68
1121s jag so EN 104. 97
[ORAS Oe 105. 68
1955 s22 2 We Sa ae 114. 42
1956222442255 5 114. 05
1:95 (ene ee eae 97. 97
195Se- eae ae 100. 20
UNOS Oe 2h 2 es 94. 88
OGOMIS ee eee 140. 07
LOGE oh Stic: Spe Be 100. 21
LOG25 eas an. ee 100. 52
Station
average
SECRETARY'S REPORT 223
TABLE 2.—Comparison of 1961 and 1962 rainfall, Barro Colorado Island (inches)
Total Accumulated
Month Station Years of | 1962 excess or excess or
average record deficiency deficiency
1961 1962
Jantiary 25 2222 1. 23 1. 86 2.14 37 —0. 28 —0. 92
Rebruary. = st): . 24 . 67 1.31 sii —. 64 —0. 92
Wii nee aaa eee 7 . 08 EAI Bi/ —1.13 —2.05
FeN 0 els ae = 5. 45 1. 84 3. 45 38 —1. 61 —3. 66
Mave eae Se aoe 7. 86 12. 84 10. 95 38 +1. 89 —1.77
ETDs a se CE 10. 70 10. 13 10. 82 38 —. 69 —2. 46
ean] yet a 6. 94 13. 26 11. 55 38 +1. 71 —.75
Ge os Uh 78 13. 21 12. 44 38 +.77 +. 02
September____-__-_ 13533 By ay/ 10. 34 38 +3. 23 +3. 25
Ortobers= si) vane 8. 43 13. 99 38 — 5. 56 —2. 31
November- -_-_---_-_ 10. 84 13. 82 17. 85 38 — 4. 03 — 6. 34
December___---_- 5. 96 10. 81 11. 02 38 —.21 — 6. 55
BC re NOOR ZA] MOOLS2) pl Oe- Olin See see Ea — 6. 55
Dry season. ___—_ - 63 4, 45 Stk ose ee eS ee oe —3. 66
Wet season_______ 92. 58 J6NOt We OS. 0G. en lee ee ees —2. 89
BUILDINGS, EQUIPMENT, AND IMPROVEMENTS
The only major construction on Barro Colorado last year was a new
boathouse. This will provide additional space for protection of the
launches, speedboats, and canoes.
Maintenance activities on the island continued as usual. All houses
were painted and their roofs repaired; new rain gutters were installed ;
the motor of the launch Snook and the three generators were com-
pletely overhauled; all the trails were cleared; and extensive repairs to
the animal cages and pens were completed.
The expansion of the library also continued. New equipment was
provided for both the library and the office.
Two guards were hired to maintain a constant patrol of the island.
This has greatly alleviated the problem of poaching.
OTHER ACTIVITIES
The director continued research on the behavior of passerine birds
and primates. Edwin L. Tyson completed his study of bat popula-
tions on the island, and Robert M. King finished work on the cyto-
taxonomy of Panamanian Compositae. A new scientific aide,
Thomas Crebbs of Rutgers University, has begun a study of the
ecology, population structure, and behavior of several species of
Fringillidae in the Canal Zone and adjacent parts of the Republic
of Panama.
224 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
FINANCES
Trust funds for the maintenance of the island and its living facili-
ties are obtained by collections from visitors and scientists, table
subscriptions, and donations.
The following institutions continued their support of the laboratory
through the payment of table subscriptions: Eastman Kodak Co.,
New York Zoological Society, and Smithsonian Institution. A new
table subscription was received this year from Kansas State Univer-
sity. Donations are also gratefully acknowledged from Dr. Eugene
Wisenmann and C. M. Goethe.
PLANS AND REQUIREMENTS
The research program of the bureau will expand considerably in
the coming year.
Two new scientists will be added to the permanent staff: Dr. Robert
L. Dressler and Dr. Neal G. Smith. Dr. Dressler is a botanist and
Dr. Smith will work on ecology and animal behavior.
The National Science Foundation has approved a grant to install
an electric cable from the mainland to the island. This will provide
a reliable and abundant supply of electric power for the laboratory,
replacing the costly and deficient generators which have always been
a serious problem. The Panama Canal Company, which will install
the cable, has already started preliminary work. It is hoped that the
whole project will be completed before the end of the year.
As a result of these additions, it will be possible to install new
equipment in the laboratory, keep more extensive records of scientific
data, and build up collections of specimens. In particular, it is
planned to reorganize and enlarge the herbarium and the botanical
section of the library as rapidly as possible.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The Canal Zone Biological Area can operate only with the excellent
cooperation of the Canal Zone Government and the Panama Canal
Company. Thanks are due especially to the former Lieutenant Gov-
ernor, Col. Walter P. Leber; the Executive Secretary, Paul M. Run-
nestrand, and his staff; the Customs and Immigration officials; and
the Police Division. Also deeply appreciated are the technical advice
and assistance provided by P. Alton White, former chief of the
Dredging Division, and members of his staff, and C. C. Soper of the
Eastman Kodak Co.
Respectfully submitted.
Martin H. Moyrninan, Director.
Dr. Leonard CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on the National Air Museum
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities
of the National Air Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1963:
Staff studies and planning for the new National Air Museum Build-
ing and exhibit continued. The fiscal 1964 budget presented to the
Congress included planning funds for the new building.
Public interest in the historical air and space flight exhibit of the
Museum continued to increase. The visitor count in the Air and
Space Building for fiscal year 1963 was 2,673,618. For fiscal year
1962 it was 1,986,319. The largest single day’s count was 38,355
(July 15, 1962).
Many historically significant accessions were received by the Mu-
seum during the year. Among them were: memorabilia of Col.
Harold B. Willis, member of the Lafayette Escadrille, from Harold
B. Willis, Jr.; original thermometer and barometer used by Dr. John
Jeffries, first American to fly in a balloon ascension in England, No-
vember 30, 1784, from Dr. James Howard Means; multiple-stage
rocket engine cluster for the space probe launch vehicle Juno IJ, from
the Jet Propulsion Laboratory; bronze bust of Wilbur Wright, from
Elmo N. Pickerill; the original Friendship 7, first U.S. orbital manned
spacecraft, and flight clothing and gear from the Friendship 7 orbital
space flight, from NASA; American flag carried by astronaut Glenn
on the Friendship 7 flight, from John H. Glenn, Jr.; four engines used
on the X-15 aircraft, from the Department of the Air Force; bronze
sculpture of pioneer Charles S. (Casey) Jones, from the Academy of
Aeronautics; medals and other memorabilia of Gen. Claire L. Chen-
nault, from Mrs. Chennault; original oil portraits of astronauts Alan
B. Shepard, Jr., and John H. Glenn, Jr., by artist Bruce Stevenson,
from Mrs. Stevenson and son; and the original Sperry airplane Gyro
Stabilizer and Sperry Gyro Horizon instruments, from the Sperry
Gyroscope Co.
Information service continues as an active function of the Museum.
Historical, technical, and biographical information on air and space
flight is furnished to authors, researchers, historians, schools, Govern-
ment agencies, students, and the public.
ADVISORY BOARD
No meetings of the Advisory Board were held during the year.
Member Vice Admiral P. D. Stroop, USN, assigned to duties away
225
226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
from Washington, D.C., was replaced by Vice Adm. William A.
Schoech. Capt. E. P. Aurand, USN, was appointed alternate for
Admiral Schoech.
SPECIAL EVENTS
Many distinguished visitors came to the Museum to see the exhibit
or to participate in special presentation and commerative ceremonies
during the year. Among these were President John F. Kennedy;
Attorney General and Mrs. Robert Kennedy; Astronaut and Mrs.
John H. Glenn, Jr.; U.S. Senator Clinton P. Anderson; James E.
Webb, Administrator of NASA; Edmund Converse, president of
Bonanza Airlines; His Excellency, Antonio Garrigues, Ambassador
of Spain, His Excellency, Dr. Roberto T. Alemann, Ambassador of
the Argentine Republic; and Lafayette Escadrille pilot, Col. Charles
H. (Carl) Dolan.
The director attended several annual meetings of aviation, aero-
space, and educational organizations and societies. He also visited
a number of Air Force and Navy bases, the FAA Academy, NASA
space centers, and contractors of these agencies in the aerospace flight
program. He lectured frequently on these visits. Much new histori-
cal material for the museum has resulted.
Paul E. Garber, head curator and historian, and curators Louis S.
Casey and Kenneth E. Newland represented the Museum at a number
of aviation and aerospace meetings during the year and spoke on the
work of the Museum. Mr. Garber delivered 40 lectures.
IMPROVEMENTS IN EXHIBITS
Continuing experiments with display techniques in the Air and
Space Building provide valuable experience in planning the exhibits
for the new building.
REPAIR, PRESERVATION, AND RESTORATION
Storage, restoration, preservation, and the preparation of specimens
for display in the new building continue at the Silver Hill, Md.
facility.
ASSISTANCE TO GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS
A variety of services were extended during the year to the Federal
Aviation Agency, NASA, the Library of Congress, the Department
of Justice, the U.S. Navy, and the U.S. Air Force.
REFERENCE MATERIAL AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The library, reference files, and photographic files of the Museum
have increased in valuable research materials during the year. As
space permits, these are being integrated into the files for the use of
the Museum staff and other researchers.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 227
The cooperation of the following persons and organizations in pro-
viding this material is sincerely appreciated and acknowledged:
Azer Force, DEPARTMENT OF THE, ATR NATIONAL GUARD BUREAU, Washington, D.C.:
Photostats, clippings, and typed pages, describing activities of the Air National
Guard in Arkansas.
Arg Force, DEPARTMENT OF THE; CHARLES V. Eppley, Edwards AFB, Calif.:
Photos of Air Force parachutes, aircraft, and engines.
ALLEN, Mas. Gen. BrooKe H., Washington, D.C.: 1 booklet, The Bolling Story.
AMERICAN AVIATION PUBLICATIONS, INc., Washington, D.C.: Bock, Aviation Age,
June 1953, “Key to Survival—Research and Development.”
Army MISSILE COMMAND, Redstone Arsenal, Ala.: Jupiter C drawings.
Baker, Miss Mary C., San Diego, Calif.: Four pages of photostats of a letter
to Miss Baker from her brother regarding the construction of the floats for the
entire Curtiss hydroplane.
BALDWIN, LEON O©., Fulton, N.Y.: Photostatie copy of a letter to the donor from
Miss Ruth Curtiss, pertaining to the Baldwin airship, Signal Corps No. 1,
which was designed and built by Thomas Scott Baldwin and powered by an
engine developed by Glenn Curtiss.
BALzerR, VERNON W., Palos Verdes Estates, Calif.: Approximately 250 papers,
being mostly correspondence, between Stephen M. Balzer (the donor’s father)
and Samuel P. Langley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, his assistants
including Charles M. Manly, and his successors including Dr. Charles G.
Abbot, for the period November 5, 1898, to January 25, 1932.
BELLANCA, Mrs. DorotHy, Galena, Md.: Periodicals, ‘‘L’Aeroteconica” Italian
technical reports; “Air Ministry Aeronautical Research Committee Report
and Memoranda”; “Commissariala Dell Aeronautica” ; ‘“Monografie Scientifiche
Di Aeronautica”; “The Journal of the Royal Aeronautical Society”; “Ameri-
can Helicopter”; 1 book, The Fighting Tanks Since 1916, by R. E. Jones, G. H.
Rarey, and R. J. Icks; photos and lists of Bellanca Aircraft; brochure, ete.
BOEDECKER, KENNETH S., East Orange, N.J.: Boedy’s Album, mounted photos of
aviation personalities including negatives and index to mounted collection.
BRAZALTON, Davin, Bartonville, Ill.: 3 plate tracings of the Naval Aircraft
Factory’s N3N-3 convertible seaplane and Curtiss SOC-1 Seagull.
BritisH HmMBassy, Washington, D.C.: 3 photos, A-49,499 Vickers Vimy; A-49,-
499-A Vickers Vimy; A-49-499-B Alcock and Brown; photostat of The New
York Herald, Monday, June 16, 1919, front page.
Burton, Sqp. Lor. JoHN, BRITISH EMBaAssy, Washington, D.C.: Manuals on the
Mosquito MK 35 (De Havilland).
CapPRONI DITALIeEDO, COUNTESS GIANNI, Italy: 3 books, Timina Caproni Guasti
and Achille Bartarelli, L’Aeronautica Italiana Nell’ Imagine 1487-1875 (Milan,
Museo Caproni, 1938) ; Timina Caproni Guasti and Achille Bertarelli, Fran-
cesco Zambeccari Aeronauta, Bologna (1752-1812) (Milan, Museo Caproni,
1932) ; Gli Acroplani Caproni.
CarRcoRAN, DONALD, Burns, Oreg.: Scrapbook containing 11 photos, 6 newspaper
clippings of Henry Toneray and his helicopter.
CASSOGNERES, EvERETT F., East Haven, Conn.: Photocopies of articles describ-
ing the Ryan Aeronautical Co., their ST trainer airplane, and the Menasco D-4
engine used to power this airplane; 1 photo of the Ryan STA airplane built
in 1936, now owned and flown by the donor.
CLARK, BARRETT, New York, N.Y.: 4 records, RLP 3401 “Wonderland of Science,”
a child’s introduction to the automobile and the airplane; Riverside 5508
“World War I Fighter Planes in Action”; Riverside RLP 5505 “Air Force’;
Riverside RLP 5510 ‘““World War II Combat Planes in Action.”
228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
CLARK, Epwin R., Fitchburg, Mass.: Two newspapers, Springfield Republican,
Monday, June 18, 1928; Boston Traveler, Tuesday, June 19, 1928.
CLEVENGER, CLoyD P., D.F., Mexico: A multiautographed book, Modern Flight, by
Cloyd P. Clevenger, illustrated by Clayton Knight.
Corryn, KinGsLanp A., Philadelphia, Pa.: 1 photo album; 1 scrapbook contain-
ing newspaper articles and photographs.
Cross, JOHN W., Washington, D.C.: 28 issues of the Official Airline Guide.
CROWTHER, G. Ropney, III, Chevy Chase, Md.: 2 photographie prints 8 by 10
inches taken of Hcho I satellite at 1,000 miles altitude, September 3, 1960.
Day, Curtiss, Hikhart, Ind.: Holterman scrapbook.
Day, Mrs. Guapys, Pacific Palisades, Calif.: Charles H. Day memorabilia;
1 scrapbook from Charles Healy and Gladys Day.
DousBLepAY & Co., Inc., Garden City, N.Y.: 4 flat-disk phonograph records, 3314
rpm longplaying records, “Sounds of the U.S. Air Force, 1916-1960, Blast
Off”; “America’s First Man in Orbit,” astronaut John Glenn in Friendship 7;
Aurora-7, astronaut Scott Carpenter; Sigma-7 astronaut Wally Schirra.
Fiske, Mrs. GARNDER, Boston, Mass.: Scrapbook of G. H. Fiske; front page of
May 22, 1927, issue of “La Presse” showing purported photo of Lindbergh;
framed print containing two pictures, one showing ascent of Englishman,
Cocking, in parachute basket; second shows tragic collapse of parachute
during descent; framed print showing an exact representation of the first
aerial ship Hagle.
FRANTz, Harry W., UNITED Press INTERNATIONAL, Washington, D.C.: Articles
on early press flights, “Atlantic Clipper Pioneers Air Route Through Pillars
of Hercules,” June 22, 1939; “Trans-Atlantic Press Flight, Atlantic Clipper,”
June 17-25, 1939 ; “Across the Andes,” dated November 4, 1943.
GAIner, J. E., AMERICAN AIRLINES, Washington, D.C.: A group of Glenn L. Mar-
tin aircraft specifications in the form of press releases ; a report on the German
commercial airline the Deutsche Luft—Hansa by O. E. Kirchner.
GENERAL PRECISION, INc., LINK Drvision, Binghamton, N.Y.: Data on Link
Corporation.
Hat, Mrs. Rocer T., Cabin John, Md.: Framed color print of Montgolfier free
flight balloon; framed color print of Charles balloon landing after first free
flight.
Hiwpes-HemM, Erik, Fairfield, Conn.: A 32-page illustrated leaflet titled, ‘“Aero-
nautics in New York State” by Preston R. Bassett, reprinted from “New York
History” journal; papers and photos pertaining to Dr. William W. Christmas.
J.A.S. Srupent Activiries, DAvIn KAUFMAN, New York, N.Y.: 37 films.
IpLAND, J. C., St. Petersburg, Fla.: 2 photos, J. D. Hill’s airplane at Hadley
Airport: Mr. Hill and Col. John Brown.
JARRETT, Cov. G. B., Aberdeen Proving Ground, Md.: Copies of drawings of
British, German, and French World War I aerial bombs; copy of drawing
of Flechettes.
JUPTNER, JOSEPH P., Orange, Calif.: Book, U.S. Civil Aircraft, ATO Number-
1 to 100, Vol. I by donor.
KERLEY, Rosert V., Detroit, Mich.: Air Service Engineering Division Report,
September 16, 1924, Engine Performance Curves and Sectional Views ; Develop-
ment of Aircraft Engines by R. Schlaifer and Development of Aviation Fuels
by S. D. Heron, bound in one volume; Aviation Fuels and their Effects on
Engine Performance, NAVAER—02-1-511; Aviation Fuels and their Effects
on Engine Performance and Research on Aviation Spark Plug Problems by the
Ethyl Corp.
KERNAN, STAFForD, Washington, D.C.: 2 books, World Aviation Annual, 1948;
American Heroes of the War in the Air.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 229
Key, WILLIAM G., Washington, D.C.: 2 books, Gli Aeroplani Caproni; also other
material on Caproni.
Lairp, E. M., Boca Raton, Fla.: Laird Airplane Co., brochure.
Lams, Dr. W. Kaye, Dominion ArcHIvisT, Pupiic ARCHIVES OF CANADA, Ottawa,
Canada: 2 drawings of general arrangements FC—2W2 landplane, general
arrangements FC-2W2 seaplane (modified FC-2W).
LEwWIs, FREDERIC, New York, N.Y.: Fifteen 5- by 7-inch glass negatives of Wright
1911 glider at Kitty Hawk, N.C.
MANNING, WING Cmopr. R. V., Royan CanapIaAn AiR Force, Ottawa, Canada:
2 volumes containing excerpts from RFC and RAF communiques of World
War I.
McCatt, Mrs. EH. F., Oxford, Miss.: 31 pieces of correspondence from Chanute,
W. Wright, Dr. Abbot, and Bellanca; 140 pages of assorted papers on “The
Soaring Flight of Birds” and “The Construction of a Small Aeroplane.”
McCautey, Ernest G., Fort Lauderdale, Fla.: 2-page report by Mr. McCauley
titled “Commemorating the Flight of the Spirit of St. Louis”; “Thrust for
the Air Age” by Ted Durosko, a reprint from “Flying,” November 1958, Ziff-
Davis Publishing Co.
McComs, Rosert P., Moultrie, Ga., and MILLER, Howarp M., Fort Wayne, Ind.:
71 copies of outdated magazines, “Popular Aviation”; “Aerial Age Weekly” ;
“Western Flying’; “Sperryscope”; “Flight”; “Model Airplane News”; “U.S.
Air Services.”
MerYER, Rosert B., Bethesda, Md.: Book, An Airplane in Every Garage, by
Daniel R. Zuck.
MoorEHOUSE, HaArotp E., Williamsport, Pa.: 48 5- by 4inch photos from the
flying pioneers biographies used in A.A.H.S.
MurpHy, SHERWIN, St. Joseph, Mich.: Copy of unfinished biography on Augustus
Herring.
NATHANSON, Harry D., Brooklyn, N.Y.: 2 manuals, Details of Aerial Bombs
by Air Ministry, February 1918; Silhouettes of Aeroplanes by Unknown.
Navy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, Washington, D.C.: 441 photographs from Adm. J. L.
Callan’s photograph album.
NEWLAND, KENNETH E., Alexandria, Va.: Book, Spitjire, by John W. R. Taylor
and Maurice F. Allward, 1946.
NorMAN, WALLACE, Warren, Mich.: Three-view drawing of Curtiss Robin Air-
plane.
OAKES, Ropert S., NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Society, Washington, D.C.: Handbook
titled Instructions for the Care and Operation of Model A-1—E Hispano-Suiza
Aeronautical Engines. It was published during July 1918 by the Wright-
Martin Aircraft Corp. of New Brunswick, N.J.
PARRISH, WAYNE W., AMERICAN AVIATION PUBLICATIONS, Washington, D.C.:
Assorted aviation material.
PAWLEY, WILLIAM D., Miami, Fla.: Booklet, Americans Valiant and Glorious,
a brief history of The Flying Tigers by William D. Pawley.
PRINCE, FREDERICK H., Jr., Old Westbury, N.Y.: 3 bound volumes of ‘La Guerre
Aerienne” for the period of November 1916 to May 1918.
ReaD, REAR ADM. ALBERT C., Miami, Fla.: 1 book, The Flight Across the Atlantic,
by Curtiss Aeroplane & Motor Corp.; a biographical sketch and service record
of Rear Admiral Read; numerous cablegrams and naval signal dispatches;
N-C-4 flight reports; pilots report, N-C-4; Radio Report-Trans Atlantic
flight ; newspaper clippings ; magazine articles; U.S. Department of Agriculture
Weather Bureau maps.
REYNOLDS, Bruce C., Santa Barbara, Calif.: Barnstorming with Barnhart as
told to Bruce Reynolds by George E. Barnhart.
720-018—64—_16
230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
SPANGLER, CHARLES B., Mountain View, Calif.: A book, America’s First Spaceman,
by Jewel Spangler Smaus and Charles B. Spangler. An autographed copy.
Sparco, Joun, Old Bennington, Vt.: Postcards from the Caproni Aeroplant in
Italy collected in 1918.
Sprincer, TuHomas Eric, Los Angeles, Calif.: 60 photos; 1 souvenir issue of
Douglas Aircraft 50th Anniversary of Naval Aviation; various newspaper clip-
pings on Mr. Springer ; biographical sketch.
SraptMan, ANTHONY, San Francisco, Calif.: Photos, drawing, biographical
sketch, and newspaper clippings.
Targort, Mrs. H. E., New York, N.Y.: Album of photos of the Dayton Wright Co.
TRAINOR, GEORGE E., Forp Moror Co., Washington, D.C.: Films, “This is Aero-
nautronic” and “Blue Scout.”
Truitt, James M., THe WASHINGTON Post, Washington, D.C.: Memorabilia of
James R. McConnell.
VERNON, Victor, St. Petersburg, Fla.: Scrapbook of Victor Vernon.
VINCENT, SypNry A., St. Petersburg, Fla.: 4- by 5-inch photos of Park A. Van
Tassell’s balloon; Ivy Baldwin’s balloon; 8. A. Vincent gliders; Ivy Baldwin’s
biplane.
WALKER Company, L. L., Houston, Tex.: 15 books and pamphlets on airport,
aircraft, and engines, ete.
Winter, Henry, San Clemente, Calif.: 1 canceled check of the Aeronautical
School of Engineers (June 1911).
Youne, Epwarp H., St. Louis, Mo.: Booklet, Instone Air Line Time Table, dis-
tributed in the fall of 1921.
ZoNTA INTERNATIONAL, Chicago, Ill.: Photo of Amelia Harhart; portrait, head
and shoulders.
ACCESSIONS
Additions to the National Aeronautical and Space Collections
received and recorded during the fiscal year 1963 totaled 443 specimens
in 81 separate accessions, as listed below. Those from Government
departments are entered as transfers unless otherwise indicated;
others were received as gifts or loans.
ACADEMY OF AERONAUTICS, La Guardia Airport, New York, N.Y.: Life-size bronze
bust of Charles S. (Casey) Jones, pioneer aviator, educator, and founder of
the Academy of Aeronautics (N.A.M. 1881).
Arr Force, DEPARTMENT OF THE, MCCLELLAN Arr Force BAss, Calif.: Collection
of 213 models, 1: 72 size, modeled by Roy S. Stone (N.A.M. 1860). ANDREWS
Are Force Base, Md.: Gun camera from F-86A aircraft (N.A.M. 1364).
Systems CoMMAND, Washington, D.C.: XN-1, first U.S. all-inertial autonavi-
gator to be successfully flight tested on a system; XN-2, first U.S. stellar-
inertial autonavigator to successfully track stars in daylight flight (N.A.M.
1382). Systems ComMMAND, WRIGHT-PATTERSON AIR Force BASE, Ohio: Thiokol
XLR-11 Rocketjets with serial Nos. 5, 6, 13, and 14. These engines powered
the X-15 aircraft (N.A.M. 1379).
AMERICAN AIRLINES, Washington, D.C.: Diorama-type model of an American
Airlines Boeing 707, showing interior layout of aircraft (N.A.M. 1344).
Avco RESEARCH AND ADVANCED DEVELOPMENT, Wilmington, Mass.: Original nose
cap of the RV X1-5 nose cone test vehicle (N.A.M. 1401).
BoNANnzA AIRLINES, Las Vegas, Nev.: Model of the Fairchild F-27 as flown by
Bonanza Airlines (N.A.M. 1357).
SECRETARY'S REPORT 231
Brown, Mag. KimproueyH §., Bedford, Mass.: Contemporary French tapestry
commemorating Lindbergh’s flight to Paris (N.A.M. 1345).
BRYANT, GLENN D., MISSISSIPPI STATE COLLEGE, State College, Miss.: Roll of
gas cell material from airship Shenandoah (N.A.M. 1347).
CHAMPLIN, WILLIAM H., JRr., Rochester, N.H.: Verville Sports Trainer aircraft,
Single engine, two-place biplane (N.A.M. 1392).
CHENNAULT, Mrs. Ciarre L., Washington, D.C.: Memorabilia of General Claire L.
Chennault including 20 medals and awards plus a Chinese scroll recounting
the history of the Flying Tigers (N.A.M. 1387).
CHRYSLER Motors Corp., Detroit, Mich.: Scale model of Mercury Redstone launch
vehicle used in flight by Astronaut Alan Shepard, May 5, 1961 (N.A.M.
1406).
CooHRAN, Miss JACQUELINE, New York, N.Y.: 1961 General Electric Trophy for
outstanding achievement in aviation, Distinguished Service Medal, and Medal
of the French Legion of Honor, all awarded to the donor (N.A.M. 1348).
Davigs, Cot. JOHN M., Falls Church, Va.: Crash helmet worn by donor in Italy,
World War I (N.A.M. 1874).
DeSre00r, Mrs. Rosinson, Washington, D.C.: Bronze medal commemorating the
first North Pole flight of Richard EH. Byrd, May 9, 1926 (N.A.M. 1353).
DI TALIEDO, Dr. GIOVANNI CApRONI, Milano, Italy: Caproni Commemorative
Gold Medal (N.A.M. 1352).
DoouitTLr, GEN. JAMES H., Redondo Beach, Calif.: Five personal watches either
used by or awarded to the donor (N.A.M. 1898).
DorRNIER-WERKE, Germany: Model of Dornier DO-28 aircraft (N.A.M. 1855).
Dovuetas Atrcrart Co., Washington, D.C.: Model of a Douglas DC—2 aircraft
(N.A.M. 1369).
Drucker, Lest, Chicago, Ill.: Copy of gold Glenn Flight Commemorative Medal-
lion which was presented to Mrs. Glenn (N.A.M. 1410).
FourtreentH Am Force Assocration, Allentown, Pa.: Original American Flag
used by “Flying Tigers” at General Chennault’s headquarters in China, and
original design of 14th Air Force shoulder patch (N.A.M. 1380).
FRANKLIN INSTITUTE, Philadelphia, Pa.: Aircraft engine combustion starter
(N.A.M. 1862).
GALBRAITH, Frep E., Sr., Rutherford, N.J.: Parts and fragments from the
America used on Admiral Byrd’s transatlantic flight (N.A.M. 1367).
GALL, Capt. Donarp F., Newark, Del.: Piece of outer skin fabric from airship
Shenandoah (N.A.M. 1884).
GENERAL Morors Corp., ALLISON Division, Garden City, N.J.: Model of Lockheed
Hlectra II, 1:79 size (N.A.M. 1335).
GLENN, JoHN H., Jr., Manned Spaceflight Center, Houston, Tex.: Flag carried
by Glenn on flight of Friendship 7 (N.A.M. 1414).
GRUMMAN ArRcraFrt Corp., Bethpage, Long Island, N.Y.: Three models of Grum-
man Aircraft: A2F-1 Intruder; AO-1 Mohawk; and X¥F5¥F-1 Skyrocket
(N.A.M. 1336). Model of a Grumman W2F~-1 aircraft (N.A.M. 1366). Model
of a Grumman XF10F—1 Jaguar aircraft (N.A.M. 1870).
Hatz, Mrs. Rozert T., Cabin John, Md.: Purchase of two contemporary prints
of first Montgolfier flight and the first Charles flight (N.A.M. 1396).
Hartwick, Hersert D., Cayucos, Calif.: Model of Junkers-Larson JL-6, single
engine monoplane (purchase) (N.A.M. 1342).
HorrMANn, Mrs. Cora BENNETT, Estate of; New York, N.Y.: Memorabilia of J.
Floyd Bennett (N.A.M. 1871).
Ivey, Rosert C., Parma, Ohio: Model, 1:24 size of Fokker F7/3m Southern
Cross (N.A.M. 13895).
232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
JET PROPULSION LABORATORY, Pasadena, Calif.: Second, third, and fourth stage
rocket cluster for the space-probe launch vehicle Juno II (N.A.M. 13846).
KAYLAs, ALEXANDER J.. New Haven, Conn.: Memorabilia connected with donor’s
activities as a member of the 14th Air Force in World War II (N.A.M. 1400).
Ketty, KENNETH, Bethesda, Md.: Two World War I aircraft machineguns:
one, a German Spandau with ammunition belt and case; the other, a British
Vickers aircraft machinegun (N.A.M. 13387).
KLEeAN, Lester E., Bensenville, I1l.: Model of Wright brothers’ 1903 Flyer (pur-
chase) (N.A.M. 1399).
Kuiectz, R. P., Hampton Falls, N.H.: Bowlus Baby Albatross sailplane single-
place pod fuselage with tubular boom support for empenage (N.A.M. 1888).
McKnew, Dr. THOMAS, NATIONAL GEOGRAPHIC Society, Washington, D.C.: Seven
framed color portraits and pictures of astronauts (N.A.M. 13388).
MaArtTIN CoMPANY, Baltimore, Md.: Martin Matador Missile (N.A.M. 1372).
Massin, ALEx, Toronto, Canada: Four USAF uniform insignia, World War II
(N.A.M. 1891).
Means, Dr. JAMES Howarp, Boston, Mass.: An original holograph manuscript
by Francis Herbert Wenham of England, “On Some Conditions of Aerial
Flight,” delivered by Octave Chanute before the Boston Aeronautical Society,
March 1, 1897 (N.A.M. 1340). Thermometer and barometer used by Dr. John
Jefferies in a balloon ascension in England, November 30, 1784, and Jan-
uary 7, 1785, for first flight across the English Channel. First American to
fly (N.A.M. 1841).
MemeBers oF WAF Anp USAF Norsss, New York, N.Y.: Wood inlay picture by
Paul Spindler of a McDonnell F-101 Voodoo airplane fiying over a French
village (N.A.M. 13868).
NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION, LANGLEY RESEARCH CENTER,
Hampton, Va.: Model of Bell X—1 wind tunnel (N.A.M. 1398). Lrwis Rr-
SEARCH CENTER, Cleveland, Ohio: General Electric TG—180 turbojet engine
(N.A.M. 1413). General Hlectric I-40 turbojet engine (N.A.M. 1412). Wash-
ington, D.C.: Friendship 7 spacecraft with manikin and display-rig ; also astro-
naut’s personal equipment (N.A.M.1368). John Glenn’s flight clothing (N.A.M.
1375).
Navy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, Washington, D.C.: Propeller and drive assembly
for a fuel pump used on the NC-3 during 1919 flight across Atlantic (N.A.M.
1349). Bureau or NAVAL WEAPONS, Washington, D.C.: Aichi M6A1 Sieron
Aircraft (Japanese), a J-35 aircraft engine and a Liberty engine propelier
(N.A.M. 1865). Aichi B7A-1 Grace Aircraft, a Japanese Navy carrier bomber
(N.A.M. 1377). Curtiss N-9 Navy training aircraft, World War II, missing
components (N.A.M. 1405). Navan Acaprmy, Annapolis, Md.: General Elec:
trie electrically operated TG—100 turboprop cutaway (N.A.M. 13856). Navan
OBSERVATORY, Washington, D.C.: A select group of navigation instruments
illustrative of developmental steps in historical technical progress (N.A.M.
1351). Navy Am MATERIAL CENTER, Philadelphia, Pa.: Group of five models
of U.S. Navy types to random scales—N-1, NC-7, HS-3, H-16, and ZR-1
Shenandoah (N.A.M. 1354).
NrEwcoms, CHARLES J., Trappe, Md.: Wright brothers Model K, 1:16 size model
of 1915 aircraft (purchase) (N.A.M. 1404).
NEWLAND, KENNETH HW., Alexandria, Va.: Scale model of Thor-Able launch
booster with model of RVX1-—5 nose cone on top (N.A.M. 1402). Scale model
of Jupiter Rocket Launch vehicle used in Able-Baker project (N.A.M. 1407).
NortHrop ArrcraArt Corp., Hawthorne, Calif.: 1:30 model of Northrop T-38
aircraft in which Jacqueline Cochran established speed records August—Oc-
tober 1961 (N.A.M. 1376).
SECRETARY’S REPORT 2oe
Pan AMERICAN AIRWAYS SYSTEM, New York, N.Y.: Six flags and two poles from
the Yankee Clipper used on transatlantic flights (N.A.M. 1350).
PICKERILL, H. N., Mineola, N.Y.: Life-size bronze bust of donor (N.A.M. 1359).
Bronze bust of Wilbur Wright (N.A.M. 1358).
RamMsEy, Mrs. DewiTr, Washington, D.C.: Bas-relief portrait in Wedgwood of
Sir John Alcock and a collection of seven prints of watercolors illustrating
famous flights (N.A.M. 1878).
RocHESTER City ScHoot District, Rochester, N.Y.: Continental Motors Corp.
Engine, model A65-8, 4-cylinder, air cooled; equipped with starter, Stromberg
carburetor and Sensenich propeller (N.A.M. 1878). Link Aviation Devices,
Binghamton, N.Y., Trainer No. S-W C-387142 Jitter Bug, Jr. (N.A.M. 1409).
ROoKWELL, Cot. PAut, Asheville, N.C.: French Voluntaire World War I medal
awarded to Kiffen Rockwell, a member of the Lafayette Escadrille (N.A.M.
1408).
SHOWERS, Mrs. Esiz F.: Aircraft float light, World War II (N.A.M. 1348).
SoarRine Soorery or America, Los Angeles, Calif.: The “Gold C” and “Diamond
C” plaques awarded by the Soaring Society of America (N.A.M. 1361).
SPANISH AIR Force, Washington, D.C.: Model of Dornier Wal Plus Ultra, first
aircraft to complete crossing of South Atlantic from Spain to Argentina,
January 21-31, 1926 (N.A.M. 1885).
SPERRY GYROSCOPE Co., Great Neck, N.Y.: Gyro stabilizer for airplanes. Used in
tests aboard a Curtiss “S” Flying Boat at Hammondsport, N.Y., by Lawrence
Sperry in 1918. Immediate predecessor of the 1914 model which won the
50,000-fr. safety prize in Paris (N.A.M. 1390).
STEVENSON, Mrs. BrucE AND Son, New York, N.Y.: Life-size portrait in oils; one
of John H. Glenn, Jr., and the other of Alan B. Shepard, Jr. (N.A.M. 1889).
TALBOT, Mrs. Haroutp H., New York, N.Y.: Propeller with clock in hub (N.A.M.
1411).
THaw, A. BLatr, Washington, D.C.: Marlin Rockwell machine gun said to have
been used by Col. William Thaw on his Spad aircraft in World War I (N.A.M.
1886).
Tracy, DANIEL, Cleveland, Ohio: Model of Deperdussin aircraft (purchase)
(N.A.M. 1394).
VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIO INSTITUTE, Blacksburg, Va.: Lycoming air-cooled radial
aviation engine (9 cyl.) Model R-680—-BA, serial No. 2,751.240 h.p. (N.A.M.
1397).
WILLARD, KENNETH A., Los Altos, Calif.: Radio-controlled, gasoline-powered
model airplane (N.A.M. 1403).
WILLIS, HAROLD B., Jr., Boston, Mass.: Memorabilia of Col. Harold B. Willis as
a member of the Lafayette Hscadrille (N.A.M. 1339).
Wisk, Mrs. Dorotuy, Washington, D.C.: Memorabilia of “Flying Tigers” Opera-
tions in China, World War II, including silk map of Western and Eastern China
used by Capt. John Birch (N.A.M. 1383).
WRIGLEY, Puiu K., Chicago Ill.: Curtiss 1911 flight control, Westmore pro-
peller manufactured in Chicago, Curtiss propeller (World War I), Paragon
propeller (N.A.M. 1415).
Respectfully submitted.
Pur 8. Horns, Director.
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on the National Cultural Center
Sir: I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trustees,
a status and financial report on the National Cultural Center for the
period April 1959 through June 30, 1963.
ORGANIZATION
Public Law 85-874, September 2, 1958, established the National
Cultural Center as a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution, to be
directed by a Board of Trustees to be composed as follows: The Sec-
retary of Health, Education, and Welfare; the Librarian of Congress;
the Assistant Secretary of State for Public Affairs; the Chairman
of the Commission of Fine Arts; the President of the Board of
Commissioners of the District of Columbia; the Chairman of the
District of Columbia Recreation Board; the Director of the National
Park Service; the Commissioner of U.S. Office of Education; the
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution; 3 Members of the Senate
appointed by the President of the Senate and 3 Members of the House
of Representatives appointed by the Speaker of the House of Repre-
sentatives ex officio; and 15 general trustees who must be citizens of
the United States.
Mrs. John F. Kennedy and Mrs. Dwight D. Eisenhower serve as
honorary cochairmen.
In addition, the act provided for the establishment of an Advisory
Committee on the Arts, composed of such members as the President
may designate to serve at the pleasure of the President. The mem-
bers of this committee are individuals who are recognized for their
knowledge of, or experience or interest in, one or more of the per-
forming arts.
At the present time, the Board of Trustees and elected officers of
the Center are as follows:
Trustees:
Howard F. Ahmanson. Leonard Carmichael.
Floyd D. Akers. Anthony J. Celebrezze.
Lucius D. Battle. Joseph S. Clark.
Ralph B. Becker. J. William Fulbright.
K. LeMoyne Billings. Mrs. George A. Garrett.
Edgar M. Bronfman. Francis Keppel.
John Nicholas Brown. Mrs. Albert D. Lasker.
Ralph J. Bunche. George Meany.
234
SECRETARY'S REPORT 235
Trustees—Continued
L. Quincy Mumford. Frank Thompson.
Mrs. Charlotte T. Reid. Walter N. Tobriner.
Richard S. Reynolds, Jr. William Walton.
Frank H. Ricketson, Jr. William H. Waters, Jr.
Leverett Saltonstall. Conrad L. Wirth.
Mrs. Jouett Shouse. Jim Wright.
L. Corrin Strong.
Chairman.—Roger L. Stevens.
Vice Chairman.—L. Corrin Strong.
Treasurer.—Daniel W. Bell.
Counsel.—Ralph E. Becker.
Assistant Secretary.—Mrs. James Cantrell.
Assistant Treasurers.—Paul Seltzer, Kenneth Birgfeld.
As directed in the act, the Board shall (1) present classical and
contemporary music, opera, drama, dance, and poetry from this and
other countries; (2) present lectures and other programs; (3) develop
programs for children and youth and the elderly in such arts designed
specifically for their participation, education, and recreation; and
(4) provide facilities for other civic activities at the Cultural Center.
While congressional action provided the site upon which the Center
will be built, it was specified that construction funds should be
raised by the voluntary contributions of the American people. Con-
gress therefore authorized a nationwide fund-raising campaign, the
first such national campaign committed to a cultural enterprise.
PROGRESS DURING 1962-63
Since the beginning of 1962, the Center has been vigorously engaged
in a number of varied fund-raising programs:
(1) President's business committee—Under the chairmanship of
Ernest R. Breech, formerly chairman, Ford Motor Co., and now di-
rector and chairman of Trans World Airlines, Inc., a committee has
been formed to seek contributions to the Center from American indus-
try and business. The goal set is $6 million, or one-fifth of the total
cost of the Center. Some of the most prominent businessmen in
the United States have agreed to serve upon this committee and to
solicit industrial contributions within those areas with which they
are identified.
(2) Seat endowment campaign—The President has appointed
Edgar M. Bronfman, president of Joseph E. Seagram & Sons, Inc.,
as chairman of the Seat Endowment Committee. By means of this
program, individuals and organizations are able to endow a per-
manent seat in one of the Center’s three halls. A tax-deductible
donation of $1,000 will entitle the donor to lasting recognition as a
virtual founder of the Center and his gift will be acknowledged by
a bronze plaque affixed to the back of the seat.
236 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
(3) Service band recordings—For the first time, the music of the
four U.S. military bands has been recorded for sale to the public, and
all profits from the sale of the albums are being given to the Cultural
Center. The records were released by RCA Victor in May 1963 and
to date have sold nearly 150,000 copies. The Center receives 95 cents
per album after the initial overhead of approximately $20,000 has been
deducted.
(4) Washington area campaign.—The Greater Washington area,
under the chairmanship of Mrs. Hugh D. Auchincloss, has been
charged with the responsibility of raising $7.5 million, or one-fourth
of the total cost of the Center. The committees have now been formed
and all fund-raising projects in this area put into vigorous action.
Involving some 5,000 workers, the programs include a Special Gifts
Campaign to solicit donations of $1,000 and over, and a General Cam-
paign enlisting support from the area’s schools and universities, busi-
nesses, labor unions, the professions, fraternal orders, etc., for con-
tributions of up to $1,000.
ARCHITECTURAL PLANNING
With the advent of 1962 the Trustees, feeling that the original $75
million concept of the Center was unnecessarily costly, asked the archi-
tect, Edward Durell Stone, to furnish an alternative design. In the
summer of that year, Mr. Stone provided a series of plans for group-
ing the three halls (1,200-seat theater ; 2,750-seat symphony hall; and
2,500-seat hall for opera, ballet, and musical theater) under a single
roof—at less than one-half the original cost. In addition, a garden-
like roof area, with retractable roof insuring use in all weather, was
designed to accommodate band concerts, art exhibits, festivals, chil-
dren’s theater, theater-in-the-round, and two restaurants.
In September 1962 the new model was presented to the Center’s two
honorary cochairmen, Mrs. Kennedy and Mrs. Eisenhower, as well
as to the Board of Trustees and the Commission of Fine Arts. It was
received with unanimous enthusiasm and approval.
The site designated by Congress for the Center is the area in the
District of Columbia bounded by the Inner Loop Freeway on the east,
the Theodore Roosevelt Bridge approaches on the south, Rock Creek
Parkway on the west, and New Hampshire Avenue and F Street on
the north.
FUTURE PROSPECTS
By June 1968, all the aforementioned fund-raising programs were
well launched, and prospects of attaining individual program quotas
were promising. In March 1963 a conditional grant of $5 million
was secured from the Ford Foundation, payable when the Center’s
fund-raising total reaches $15 million.
PLATE 15
Secretary's Report, 1963
*19] UOT) [eangpyny [PUOTLENT jo [PPOTN
“4 4s t ats
- ys
’ 3
4
iJ ml
‘
SECRETARY'S REPORT Zon
In addition to this welcome boost to the campaign, the Center was
fortunate in receiving a most generous gift of marble from the Gov-
ernment of Italy.
Approaching the expiration of the 5-year term for fund-raising
specified in the original act, a 3-year extension, to September 1966,
was pending in Congress at the end of the fiscal year. Under the terms
of the extension, the number of general trustees will be increased from
15 to 30.
While the outset of a national fund-raising campaign of this magni-
tude must inevitably be slow, the time has now arrived—when we
have one-third of the total funds required—when we can anticipate
with confidence the rapid realization of our ultimate goal to create
in the Nation’s Capital a national center for the performing arts.
Respectfully submitted.
Roger L. Stevens, Chairman.
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
The National Cultural Center Financial Report for the period
July 1, 1963, through November 30, 1963, follows:
238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
AUDIT
December 4, 1963
Washington, D.C.
To THE BOARD OF TRUSTEES OF
THE NATIONAL CULTURAL CENTER
Washington, D.C.
Gentlemen:
We have examined the books and records of THE NATIONAL CULTURAL
CENTER for the period July 1, 1963, through November 30, 1963, and submit our
report herewith as follows:
Exhibit A—Balance Sheet as of November 30, 1963.
Exhibit B—Statement of Income, Expenses, and Fund Balance for the
Month of November 1963 and the Five Months Ended November 30, 1963.
Exhibit C—Statement of Income, Expenses, and Fund Balance for the
Period from Inception April 1, 1959 through November 30, 1963.
Exhibit D—Analysis of Cash in Banks for the Period from Inception April 1,
1959 through November 30, 1963.
Schedule 1—Schedule of Time Deposits.
Schedule 2—Public Relations and Fund Raising Fees for the Period from
Inception April 1, 1959 through November 30, 1963.
Our examination was made in accordance with generally accepted auditing
standards and accordingly included such tests of the accounting records and
such other auditing procedures as we considered necessary in the circumstances.
In our opinion the accompanying report presents fairly the financial position of
THE NATIONAL CULTURAL CENTER at November 30, 1963 and the results
of its operation for the period then ended in conformity with generally accepted
accounting principles.
Respectfully submitted,
(S) Joun J. AppABBo
Certified Public Accountant
SECRETARY’S REPORT
EXHIBIT A
BALANCE SHEET
November 30, 1963
ASSETS
Cash in banks:
General accounts:
National Cultural Center—general
239
AC COU ae asi eet oer Se SS Se ee tt $1, 006, 548. 96
Time deposits—Schedule 1__-_-------- 1, 690, 8321. 47 $2, 696, 870. 43
Reserve accounts:
National Cultural Center—reserve
ACCOMM fee tee ae eB ys ee 46, 156. 37
Time deposits—Schedule 1_----------- 201, 678. 53 247, 834. 90
ESCH A7g OS) SSI eehal ePC ne e Ey )- Oe r 619. 37
1D 2) 2 SY ras 7h OM Ss eee a Ryn eye 8 aN ape 850. 00
Pledges receivable:
ational General Account. /--...2-.-....- 5, 439, 167. 00
National tangible property__-...---------- 1, 168, 000. 00
National Seat Reserve Account____.------- 7, 500. 00
President’s Business Committee_______---- 579, 800. 01
VERN StiOn dite eee ods occa los 9, 210. 00
Washington Area Building Fund—general
BTC COUT Gee ay esa ee ee ee 325, 333. 46
Washington Area Building Fund—reserve
BCCOUNG= 4G ase Sao tee ee ee 369, 683. 77
Washington Area Seat Reserve Account---- 30, 236. 24
Washington Area Federal Employee Drive-- 4, 335. 50
Washington Area Federal Employee Drive—
Seat en dowmentess 222 eee see ae 2, 075. 00
Washington area tangible property -------- 35, 000. 00
School Children’s Reserve Fund____------- 300.00 7, 970, 640. 98
Fixed assets:
(Castloiland ae ere he see Bee oo ee 146, 000. 00
Construction costs. 2-2 2 tee 348, 870. 57
Furniture and equipment_-_-_--_-- $6, 466. 67
Less: Reserve for deprecia-
hones. eee ee 70133 Bee Gl 4, 334. 96 499, 205. 53
Other assets:
Videotape—Closed Circuit Telecast assigned
VANS, See Te epee a: ee ee eee 150, 000. 00
Deferred charges—Creative America___---- 107, 000. 00 257, 000. 00
11, 673, 021. 21
240 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
EXHIBIT A—Continued
BALANCE SHEET—Continued
LIABILITIES AND NET WORTH
Payrollitaxes accrued nese = oie eee ee ee cee $551. 89
New worth:
iRledgessreceivables3-4-22 aaeee see eee eee $7, 970, 640. 98
undibalances= 252-225 s 4 Sos see eee 3, 701, 828. 34
Lotalnetiworthss-3 +422 heer es Se hee ae eee 11, 672, 469. 32
Total liabilities and net worth_______.-.--------- 11, 673, 021. 21
EXHIBIT B
STATEMENT OF INCOME, EXPENSES, AND FUND BALANCE
For the Month of November 1963 and Five Months Ended November 30, 1963
Income November Five Months
Contributions and pledges paid in:
General accounts:
National General Account____....------- $507, 897. 66 1$1, 531, 492. 95
President’s Business Committee__..-___-- 300, 233. 99 689, 149. 99
BineyArisuGiftse@ommitteess=s2=5= a= soe = 5 paca ane eee 5, 000. 00
Closed Circuit Telecast—net proceeds----- 470. 00 908. 90
Washington Area Building Fund—general
account+S. 6255 22 aah ee 2, 268. 90 40, 896. 07
Washington Area Federal Employee Drive- 2, 159. 92 113, 444. 03
Austrian Embassy Benefit—net proceeds-- (110. 88) iil, PAG, wi
Retersbany Bene tithes ane eee 3, 375. 00 3, 875. 00
Total general accounts____-_------ 816, 294. 59 | 2, 396, 014. 05
Reserve accounts:
National Seat Reserve Account________--- 1, 200. 00 7, 000. 00
Washington Area Building Fund—reserve
UC COUN GE ope ee eS ae iS 2, 051. 69 65, 176. 92
Washington Area Seat Reserve Account--- 1, 400. 00 7, 905. 95
Washington Area Federal Employee
Drive—seat endowment_________------ 1, 000. 00 12, 200. 00
School Children’s Reserve Fund_________- 457. 67 18, 840. 18
John F. Kennedy Memorial Fund_.-.- ----- 1, 145. 00 1, 145. 00
Total reserve accounts________---- 7, 254. 36 112, 268. 05
otaliincome {5 Se eee 823, 548. 95 | 2, 508, 282. 10
SECRETARY'S REPORT
EXHIBIT B—Continued
STATEMENT OF INCOME, EXPENSES, AND FUND BALANCE—Continued
For the Month of November 1963 and Five Months Ended November 30, 1963
241
Income November
Expenses:
Salaries major | = See 6 se. occ ct ee eck $3, 889. 57
eS IO eres ere Oe SO OE oe ee 1, 736. 18
[Pea Ln) | 2 a eee ee ay Se 79. 26
Depreciation—furniture and equipment___ 52. 06
Equipment—rental and repairs___________ a, CAs
DICeU Rice eee ee cee Boece a ase eee ees
Office supplies and postage______.________ 61. 90
D.C. area expenses—general____________- 418. 52
College Drama: Festival. -= 2. -~..=--==-=- 1, 000. 00
Pyare PECONGIY Pies See ee tk ee ees | ee ee
pousa Memorial. Fund ....2.-..-=-.+...=- 58. 00
HesmenadowmMent.. 222 5.0 ec coe eso kee chee eee
printing and publicitys--- 2252-22222 224- 578. 93
ROMO tones ee eee ee ee Benen ere) 1, 943. 92
Rumhcations + jes 758 0 2 fo 159. 60
Telephone and telegraph_____.___.___---- 1, 273. 88
Travel and maintenance-2--—- 5222 4-_-_=— 1, 300. 80
Taxes—payroll and Civil Service_________ 46. 82
Wnclassified = =2-e tect ste a eee eee 150. 00
ne COU EY AT SE ee ee
IDR ee ae Se ee eee we een |e eee ee
Pederali Employee, Drive. 2242552. 252k 22a. ee acest
publicrelationsifeeste= 22 25> = 2 eee 3, 000.
‘hotalkexpensess 25 -75- = ee Se 15, 805.
Excess of receipts over expenses_-._-__--_---- 807, 743.
Fund balance—beginning of period_______-_-- 2, 894, 084.
Fund balance November 30, 1963____________- 3, 701, 828.
34
Five Months
$24, 403.
13, 836.
805.
260.
125. 690.
2, 382, 591.
1, 319, 236.
3, 701, 828.
34
242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
EXHIBIT C
STATEMENT OF INCOME, EXPENSES, AND FUND BALANCE
For the Period From Inception April 1, 1959, Through November 30, 1963
Income:
Contributions and pledges paid in:
General accounts:
National General Account______-_--
President’s Business Committee ___-_-
Fine Arts Gifts Committee_______--
Closed Circuit Telecast—net pro-
Washington Area Building Fund—
CenersaccOuUNve n= ase eee ee
Washington Area Federal Employee
$1, 778, 157.
1, 193, 074.
12, 500.
362, 205.
1, 147, 526.
128, 223.
28
Lotalfgenecraluaccounts==-—-—-- = =e eee eee
Reserve accounts:
National Reserve Account_______---
National Seat Reserve Account_-_---
Washington Area Building Fund—
TESeRveracCOUNY! =e eee ee eee eee
Washington Area Seat Reserve Ac-
Washington Area Endowment Fund-
Washington Area Federal Employee
Drive—Seat Endowment-_-_-__-----
School Children’s Reserve Fund_----
John F. Kennedy Memorial Fund---
170, 202.
26, 375.
894.
TOtalTESeL Ve VCCOUE Gsm ee ee ee ee eee ae ae
SPOLRUINCOMeC= 22 = bye 2 ele at as epee
Expenses:
palaries-—Mayor 2 esas ss ane Soe eee
FSHEy (arg (3 aal BN pM hi Slt ol ec A ee
Salaries—Vine Arts .-...:..----+-----
i xtravhelp 2 ae ae = oe eee
Depreciation—furniture and equipment - -
Equipment—rental and repairs___-------
Meetings ase ee ee ae ae oe er eee
Office supplies and postage_-_-----------
D.C. area expenses—general______------
Fine Arts Gifts Committee-_-___---------
College Drama Festival. _....--.-------
iBatid recordim ga 2s ee
Sousa Memorial Pund_2-.= 5-222. 22252-
Seatiendowiment.2.-5--2225- 25525282 =
Printing and publicity.-------..s-225-5
4, 884, 644. 75
$4, 636, 809. 85
247, 834. 90
SECRETARY’S REPORT
EXHIBIT C—Continued
243
STATEMENT OF INCOME, EXPENSES, AND FUND BALANCE—Continued
For the Period From Inception April 1, 1959, Through November 30, 1963
Expenses—Continued
PrenkOnN. A=a2 Kho ase hans sees en ae ene $51, 958. 05
UbUCAUONS 2222258 he2 amet daw sa bo as 8, 365. 26
Telephone and telegraph----.-.-------- 36, 191. 94
Travel and maintenance____-.__._.____- 83, 255. 38
Taxes—payroll and Civil Service_______- 14, 728. 45
Unclassified =-=. Sees oe Pee ee 1, 973. 37
INCCOMMLI See ee eae ee eee ee 11, 900. 00
LbavS{Mtth oY e's acpi” ee ee a CE eee a 4, 347. 48
1Uayr es 31>) ena Pe ies 2 Re Uae ee 5, 088. 89
President’s Business Committee________- 87, 818. 95
Federal Employee Drive_____._-._.------ 2, 012. 50
Public relations fees—Schedule 1_______- 320, 009. 99
Wiseellaneous feeseiwie..--L 2c be Lee 3, 250. 00
Mopulexperises 252). 5 550 ob SER Ee oe ee ae
Excess of receipts over expenses—fund balance___.....----_--
EXHIBIT D
ANALYSIS OF CASH IN BANKS
$1, 182, 816. 41
3, 701, 828. 34
For the Period From Inception April 1, 1959, Through November 30, 1963
Cash in banks—general account:
Contributions and pledges paid into general account—Ex-
pais, (ile SNe a eee es Bete aie Or Sennen ee een Mee eee
Deduct:
Operating expenses—Exhibit C___._.__...- $1, 182, 816. 41
Expenditures to acquire assets:
Petty cash—Exhibit A___.._....._...-- 619. 37
Deposit with airline—Exhibit A_______-- 850. 00
Fixed assets—Exhibit A__._._._.._...-_-- 499, 205. 53
Other assets—Exhibit A__......______.- 257, 000. 00
Cashin banks—general account__ 20.21
Cash in banks—reserve accounts:
Contributions and pledges paid into reserve accounts—
DLE SC 8 EE a I NO ME eC
$4, 636, 809. 85
551. 89
4, 637, 361. 74
1, 940, 491. 31
2, 696, 870. 43
247, 834. 90
247, 834. 90
244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
SCHEDULE 1
SCHEDULE OF TIME DEPOSITS
November 30, 1963
Time Deposits per Exhibit A—Balance Sheet:
Genbral:accounts.454> 288. 7 ee oe ee $1, 690, 321
ReservesaccOUntse = sa see ee ae eae ie ee ve ee ee
Total time deposits per balance sheet__._____________~-
Schedule of time deposits
Percent
Depositary Date Maturity interest
deposited date rate per
annum
American Security & Trust Co__-_| 2/21/63 2/21/64 | 3%
Washington, D.C. 3/1/63 3/1/64 | 3%
6/20/63 | 12/20/63 | 3%
8/16/63 2/17/64 | 3%
8/16/63 2/17/64 | 3%
11/18/63 2/17/64 | 3%
Perpetual Building Association._-_| 11/15/63 | 12/15/64 | 4
Washington, D.C.
Manufacturers Hanover Trust Co_| 11/18/63 | 11/18/64 | 3%
New York, N.Y.
Envang Pest Cos .2---5-----2-24 11/18/63 5/17/64 | 3%
New York, N.Y.
National Bank of Detroit_.._____- 11/18/63 | 11/18/64 | 4
Detroit, Mich.
Morgan Guaranty Trust Co___-__- 11/18/63 | 11/18/64 | 3%
New York, N.Y.
Manufacturers Nat’l Bank of De-
Detroie = aoe eee eee eee 11/18/63 | 11/18/64 | 3%
Detroit, Mich.
Home Savings and Loan Associa-
COMME SE oc Sate e ae ane te 11/18/63 | 11/18/64 | 4 85
Beverly Hills, Calif.
Lotal time'deposits=2 === 22 2|2o 52-2 | See alee
201, 67
1, 892, 000.
Amount
deposited
$40, 000.
100, 000.
9, 000.
18, 000.
125, 000.
100, 000.
200, 000.
200, 000.
200, 000.
200, 000.
200, 000.
200, 000.
300, 000.
1, 892, 000.
47
. 53
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
00
SECRETARY’S REPORT 245
SCHEDULE 2
PUBLIC RELATIONS AND FUND RAISING FEES
For the Period From Inception April 1, 1959, Through November 30, 1963
Tamblyn and Brown—April 1959 to January 1960________________ $58, 250.
George A. Brakeley and Co.—April 1960 to June 1961___________- 106, 000.
Randolph G. Bishop—April 1959 to June 1961___________________ 25, 749.
Carleton Sprague Smith—August 1960 to February 1961__________ 7, 860.
Lobsenz and Co.—December 1961 to August 1962__._____________ 68, 000.
Ruder and Finn—August 1962 to January 1963_________________- 27, 150.
Thomas Deegan and Co.—February 1963 to November 1963______- 27, 000.
MUOUEL SLES Ree AA EAS 2 RL Sk PRE NORE BAS sd Sea) 320, 009
720-018—64——_17
Report on the Library
Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activities
of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1963:
ACQUISITIONS
The acquisitions section received 118,101 publications during the
year. Included in this total were 3,065 purchased items and 1,057
journal subscriptions. The rest were received as gifts and exchanges.
Arrangements were established with 142 scientific and learned or-
ganizations for the exchange of additional publications, and 1,540
items required special search to obtain.
Interested donors presented the library with valuable and difficult
to locate publications. Some of the outstanding are:
“Colonial Records, 1660-1790,” and ‘‘Pennsylvania Archives, 1661-1790,” from
Mrs. William A. McGuire, Johnstown, Pa.
“Susquehanna Company Papers,” edited by Julian P. Boyd, from the Cornell
University Press.
Cortesao, Armando, and Avelino Teixeira da Mota. Portugaliae Monumenta
Cartographica. Lisbon, 1960. 5 vols. and index, from the Commissao Hxecutiva
do V Centena’rro da Morte do Infante D. Henrique, Lisbon, Portugal.
34 volumes from the estate of Mrs. Helen Augusta Mosher, Marblehead, Mass.
28 volumes on art from the library of the late Henry Salem Hubbell, Miami,
Fla.
647 volumes from the estate of Mrs. Dora W. Boettcher, Washington, D.C.
972 periodicals on electronics from Mrs. J. B. Brady, Somerset, Md.
Ross, Marvin C. ‘Catalogue of the Byzantine and Harly Mediaeval Antiquities
in the Dumbarton Oaks Collection,” vol. 1, Metalwork, Ceramics, Glass, Paint-
ings, from the author, Washington, D.C.
45 issues of the Baltimore Sun Almanac, 1876-1925, from Miss Ruby Smith,
Washington, D.C.
American Topical Society. Flowers and botanical subjects on stamps, from
Dr. Willard F. Stanley, Fredonia, N.Y.
Bruce, A. W. “The Steam Locomotive in America,” from Thomas T. Taber,
Madison, N.J.
Antrim, Earl. “Civil War Prisons and Their Covers,” from the author.
Nampa, Idaho.
Dredge, James. “A Record of the Transportation Exhibits at the World’s
Columbian Hxposition of 1893,” from Mrs. B. B. Bierer, Jr., Washington, D.C.
Greenwell, G. C. “A Practical Treatise on Mine Engineering, 1855,” from
Cornelius U. S. Roosevelt, Washington, D.C.
Perlman, Bernard B. “The Immortal Hight, American Painting from Eakins
to the Armory Show (1870-1913).”’ 1962.
Brooks, Van Wyck. “John Sloan, a Painter’s Life.” 1955. From Mrs. John
Sloan, Wilmington, Del.
246
SECRETARY’S REPORT 247
Duplicate and extraneous materials sent to other libraries amounted
to 58,818. Of this, 51,512 pieces went to the Library of Congress,
3,018 to the National Library of Medicine, and 1,375 went to other
agencies. The section handled a total of 176,919 pieces of material
during the year.
CATALOGING AND BINDING
The catalog section cataloged 7,146 volumes, recataloged 234 items,
transferred 203 publications, discarded 583 volumes, recorded 32,981
serials in the Serial Record, and filed 31,270 cards into the card cata-
log. In addition, 563 trade catalogs and 1,945 titles of short-form
cataloging were added to the collection. Cataloging of newly ac-
quired publications on a current basis was emphasized.
The binding unit prepared 6,600 volumes of books and journals for
binding by a commercial binder. The hand-binding staff preserved
2,957 volumes and pamphlets which were either too fragile or valuable
to be sent outside the Institution for repair.
REFERENCE AND CIRCULATION
The reference librarians answered 31,769 requests for specific types
of information, replied to 2,511 pieces of correspondence, circulated
35,781 books and journals, and cleared the loan records on 28,874
volumes. No record is kept of the circulation of books and journals
assigned to the division collections where they circulate freely within
the division. Publications borrowed from other libraries, chiefly the
Library of Congress, totaled 6,423, and 992 volumes were lent. The
reading and reference facilities of the central and branch libraries
were used by 27,267 persons.
BRANCH LIBRARIES
The branch library for the Museum of History and Technology
answered 13,057 reference questions, circulated 13,509 books and
journals, and added 568 trade catalogs to the collection. Visitors
using the library facilities totaled 6,212.
The Bureau of American Ethnology branch library answered 1,964
reference questions, circulated 1,100 books and journals, and provided
assistance of 1,300 visitors. With improved physical rearrangement
of the collection, addition of new equipment, and a revised system
of book selection, the use and importance of this library are developing.
Procedures for ordering and binding of books and journals were re-
vised for the branch library of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observ-
atory, Cambridge, Mass. The number of visitors using this library
was 7,083, reference questions answered numbered 2,521, and 1,998
books and journals were circulated.
A plan to organize and control the collection in the entomology
branch library was put into operation. A. J. Spohn, formerly with
248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
the National War College, was appointed librarian to succeed Miss
Emily Bennett.
PROGRAMS AND FACILITIES
With the addition of the east wing to the Natural History Building,
the central library acquired new space adjacent to its present location.
Renovation of this entire area was completed in April.
Features that contribute to the usefulness of the library consist of
new equipment, adequate workspace for the staff, reading and brows-
ing areas, new bookstacks with sliding reference shelves, study carrels,
electric book lifts, bibliographical and packing areas, a rare book
room, air conditioning, and good natural and artificial lighting.
The library for the National Collection of Fine Arts was moved to
the second floor of the Natural History Building. Floor plans for
this library, and for the library of the National Portrait Gallery in
the Patent Office Building, were reviewed, and an estimate for furni-
ture and equipment was submitted.
STAFF CHANGES AND ACTIVITIES
Mrs. Mary A. Huffer was appointed chief of the reference and cir-
culation section and Jack Marquardt assumed the duties of reference
librarian in charge of the central reference section. Salvador
Waller, formerly with the Office of Technical Services, joined the
catalog section, and Miss Mildred Raitt, formerly with the Chamber
of Commerce, was appointed order librarian.
Staff members attended the Special Libraries Association and
American Library Association annual conferences. Special courses
and seminars provided the staff with an opportunity for growth and
development.
SUMMARIZED STATISTICS
ACCESSIONS
Volumes Total recorded
volumes, 1963
Smithsonian central library including the Museum of
Natural History: 2c set te Ma bot Sea 2, 520 353. 774
Museum of History and Technology_____-_-_----- 5, 322 :
Astrophysical Observatory (SI)__...--..-...-.---- 3 13, 407
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cam-
bridge): Masse. 54. Fe ec ets cee. Sah Bail eke 642 2, 342
KRadiationand Organisms 2 2 eee ee 128 2, 167
Bureau of American Ethnology_____...-_--------- 714 39, 894
National Air Miseumisr: ete She mee yaiee ot 3 192 1, 143
National Collection of Fine Arts____.....-_--..--- 128 14, 519
National: Zoological Park: 2422. 2+: 522526 0-22 =e 5 4, 302
‘Potalis2sthy ee ee Se ee ee ee eee 9, 654 431, 548
SECRETARY’S REPORT 249
Unbound volumes of periodicals and reprints and separates from serial pub-
lications, of which there are many thousands, have not been included in the
above totals.
Exchanges:
Newrexchangvesiarranved= 228 2 ates 828 a ee 142
Specially requested publications received______________/____________ 1, 540
Cataloging:
Molumes Catalogeds<.«- 4<— 22008 2s Ar en ee EE 9, 888
Cataloz.cards led 222s 2. eae ee 31, 270
werigise Number of serials recorded=——-—--~—— = 32, 981
Circulation: Loans of books and periodicals__________________________ 35, 781
Binding and repair:
Wolumes sentitorthe bindery so2 = * oes 9 ey se ee eee AE ie 6, 705
Wolumes Tepairedsini the library.2+ —.22 222225248 fe 2, 957
Respectfully submitted.
Rours E. Buancuarn, Librarian.
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
Report on Publications
Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publica-
tions of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for the year
ended June 30, 1968:
The publications of the Smithsonian Institution are issued partly
from federally appropriated funds (Smithsonian Reports and publica-
tions of the National Museum, the Bureau of American Ethnology,
and the Astrophysical Observatory) and partly from private endow-
ment funds (Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, publications of
the Freer Gallery of Art,and some special publications). The Institu-
tion also edits and publishes under the auspices of the Freer Gallery
of Art the series Ars Orientalis, which appears under the joint imprint
of the University of Michigan and the Smithsonian Institution. In
addition, the Smithsonian publishes for sale to visitors a guidebook,
a picture pamphlet, postcards and a postcard folder, color slides, a
filmstrip on Smithsonian exhibits, a coloring book for children, and
popular publications on scientific and historical subjects related to its
important exhibits and collections. Through its publication program
the Smithsonian endeavors to carry out its founder’s expressed desire
for the diffusion of knowledge.
The chief of the division continued to represent the Smithsonian
Institution on the board of trustees of the Greater Washington Educa-
tional Television Association, Inc., of which the Institution is a mem-
ber, and served on its executive committee. He and the assistant chief
of the division represented the Institution at the annual meeting of
the Association of American University Presses held in June at Cam-
bridge, Mass.
Miss Ruth B. MacManus, assistant editor, who had been associated
with the editorial operations of the Smithsonian Institution since 1928,
died on November 17, 1962.
Ernest E. Biebighauser, a member of the editorial staff since 1953,
left the Institution on January 7, 1963, to accept a position with the
Coast and Geodetic Survey of the Department of Commerce.
SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS
In this series there were issued 3 papers as follows:
Volume 145
No. 3. The problem of the Viduinae in the light of recent publications, by Her-
bert Friedmann. 10 pp. (Publ. 4506.) July 20, 1962. (50 cents.)
250
SECRETARY’S REPORT 251
No. 4. Uniformity among growth layers in three ponderosa pine, by Waldo S.
Glock, Paul J. Germann, and Sharlene R. Agerter. xiv-+375 pp., 71 figs., 13 pls.
(Publ. 4508.) February 21,1963. ($6.)
Volume 146
No.1. Aboriginal cultural development in Latin America: An interpretative re-
view, edited by Betty J. Meggers and Clifford Evans. vi-+148 pp., 20 figs.
(Publ. 4517.) June17,1963. ($5.)
SMITHSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS
REPORT FOR 1961
The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents
for 1961 was received from the printer on November 15, 1962.
Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution showing
the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year
ended June 30, 1961. x-++579 pp., illus. (Publ. 4478.)
The general appendix contained the following papers (Publ. 4479-
4499) :
Some astronomical aspects of life in the universe, by Su-Ssu Huang.
X-rays from the sun, by Herbert Friedman.
The challenge of space exploration, by Robert C. Seamans, Jr.
The Smithsonian’s satellite-tracking program, by E. Nelson Hayes.
The main iines of mathematics, by J. L. B. Cooper.
Early experiments in instrument flying, by James H. Doolittle.
Three famous early aero engines, by Robert B. Meyer, Jr.
Organic chemistry : a view and a prospect, by Sir Alexander Todd.
The new age of the sea, by Philip B. Yeager.
Drilling beneath the deep sea, by William ©. Benson.
A natural history of trilobites, by H. B. Whittington.
Chromosomes and the theory of heredity, by C. D. Darlington.
Tropical climates and biology, by G. S. Carter.
Outdoor aerobiology, by P. H. Gregory.
The detection and evasion of bats by moths, by Kenneth D. Roeder and Asher
BH. Treat.
The honey bee, by James I. Hambleton.
Evolution, genetics, and anthropology, by A. BH. Mourant.
Australopithicines and the origin of man, by J. T. Robinson.
The skull of Shanidar II, by T. D. Stewart.
Heyerdahl’s Kon-Tiki theory and its relation to ethnobotany, by F. P. Jonker.
Minerals in art and archeology, by Rutherford J. Gettens.
REPORT FOR 1962
The report of the Secretary, which will form part of the 1962 Annual
Report of the Board of Regents, was issued January 24, 1963.
Report of the Secretary and financial report of the Executive Committee of the
Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 1962. x+241 pp.,16 pls. (Publ.
4514.)
252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS
Brief guide to the Smithsonian Institution, new ed. 80 pp., illus. (Publ. 4507.)
October 9, 1962. (25 cents.)
Preliminary field guide to the birds of the Indian Ocean, by George E. Watson,
Richard L. Zusi, and Robert E. Storer. x+214 pp., 19 pls., 17 maps. (Publ.
4541.) February 28, 1963.
Correspondence between Spencer Fullerton Baird and Louis Agassiz—Two
pioneer American naturalists, collected and edited by Elmer Charles Herber.
237 pp., 16 pls. (Publ. 4515.) June 21,1963. ($5.)
Author-subject index to articles in Smithsonian Annual Reports, compiled by
Ruth M. Stemple and the Editorial and Publications Division. vi-+200 pp.
(Publ. 4503.) January 30, 1963.
REPRINTS
A biographical sketch of James Smithson. 20 pp., illus. (Publ. 2276.) April 23,
1968. (50 cents.)
Anthropology as a career, by William C. Sturtevant. 20 pp. (Publ. 4343.)
April 12, 1963. (20 cents.)
The story of transportation, by E. John Long. 36 pp., illus. (Publ. 4312.)
May 25, 1963. (50 cents.)
PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM
The editorial work of the Nationa] Museum continued during the
year under the immediate direction of John S. Lea, assistant chief of
the division. The following publications were issued:
REPORT
The United States National Museum annual report for the year ended June 30,
1962. viii+195 pp., illus. January 24, 1963.
BULLETINS
100, volume 14, parts 1-4. Title page, table of contents, and index. vii+-443-
461 pp., May 16, 1963.
228. Contributions from the Museum of History and Technology: Papers 19-30,
by members of the staff and others.
Paper 29. The development of electrical technology in the 19th century:
2. The telegraph and the telephone, by W. James King. Pp. 273-332,
80 figs. Sept. 17, 1962.
Paper 30. The development of electrical technology in the 19th century:
3. The early are light and generator, by W. James King. Pp. 333-407,
92 figs. Sept. 17, 1962.
233. Host relations of the parasitic cowbirds, by Herbert Friedmann. ix+276
pp. June 18, 1963.
235. American military insignia, 1800-1851, by J. Duncan Campbell and Edgar M.
Howell. xv+124 pp., 277 figs. June 27, 1963.
SECRETARY'S REPORT P4553)
PROCEEDINGS
Volume 1138
Title page, table of contents, and index. Pp. i-v-+6387-660. Jan. 9, 1963.
No. 3459. Plectrotaxy as a systematic criterion in lithobiomorphic centipedes
(Chilopoda: Lithobiomorpha), by Ralph B. Crabill, Jr. Pp. 399-412, 1 fig.
July 12, 1962.
No. 3461. Synopsis of the Neotropical cockroach genus Afacrophyllodromia
(Orthoptera: Blattoidea, Epilampridae), by Isolda Rocha e Silva Albuquerque.
Pp. 421-428, 14 figs. Aug. 29, 1962.
No. 3465. ‘The heleomyzid flies of America north of Mexico (Diptera: Heleo-
myzidae), by Gordon D. Gill. Pp. 495-608, 96 figs. Aug. 30, 1962.
No. 3466. The non-brachyuran decapod crustaceans of Clipperton Island, by
Fenner A. Chace, Jr. Pp. 605-635, 7 figs. Aug. 29, 1962.
Volume 114
No. 3467. Searab beetles of the genus Onthophagus Latreille north of Mexico
(Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae), by Hendy F. Howden and Oscar L. Cartwright.
Pp. 1-135, 11 figs., 9 pls. Jan. 9, 1963.
No. 3468. New species of spider wasps, genus Auplopus, from the Americas south
of the United States (Hymenoptera: Psammocharidae), by R. R. Dreisbach.
Pp. 187-211, 13 pls. Mar. 19, 1963.
No. 3469. Some North American moths of the genus Acleris (Lepidoptera: Tortri-
cidae), by Nicholas S. Obraztsovy. Pp. 213-270, 7 figs., 18 pls. May 7, 1968.
No. 3470. A revision of the North American annelid worms of the genus Cam-
barincola (Oligochaeta: Branchiobdellidae), by Richard L. Hoffman. Pp.
271-871, 79 figs. Mar. 6, 1963.
No. 3471. Geographic variation in the thrush Hylocichla ustulata, by Gorman
M. Bond. Pp. 373-387,1 fig. Mar. 6, 19683.
No. 3472. Review of the hawkfishes (family Cirrhitidae), by John E. Randall.
Pp. 389-451, 16 pls. May 28, 1963.
No. 3473. Studies of Neotropical caddisflies, I: Rhyacophilidae and Glossoso-
matidae (Trichoptera), by Oliver S. Flint, Jr. Pp. 458-478, 8 figs. Apr. 16,
1963.
No. 3474. Weevils of the genus Maemactes, by David G. Kissinger. Pp. 479-486,
1 fig. Mar. 19, 1963.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
The editorial work of the Bureau continued under the immediate
direction of Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen. The following publications were
issued during the year:
Seventy-ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1961-62.
1i+29 pp.,2 pls. 1963.
Bulletin 181. Isleta paintings, with introduction and commentary by Elsie Clews
Parsons. Edited by Esther S. Goldfrank. xvi+299 pp., 142 pls. (incl. 12 pls.
in color). 1962.
Bulletin 182. River Basin Surveys Papers, No. 25. Archeology of the John H.
Kerr Reservoir Basin, Roanoke River, Virginia-North Carolina, by Carl F.
Miller. With appendix: Human skeletal remains from the Tollifero (He6)
254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
and Clarksville (Mci4) sites, John H. Kerr Reservoir Basin, Virginia, by
Lucile DH. Hoyme and William M. Bass. xvi-+447 pp., 110 pls., 65 figs., 20
maps. 1962.
Bulletin 184. The Pueblo of Sia, New Mexico, by Leslie A. White. xii+358 pp.,
12 pls., 55 figs. 1962.
Bulletin 185. River Basin Surveys Papers, Nos. 26-32. xii+-344 pp., 57 pls., 43
figs.,5 maps. 1968.
No. 26. Small sites on and about Fort Berthold Reservation, Garrison Reser-
voir, North Dakota, by George Metcalf.
No. 27. Star Village: A fortified historic Arikara site in Mercer County,
North Dakota, by George Metcalf.
No. 28. The dance hall of the Santee Bottoms on the Fort Berthold Reserva-
tion, Garrison Reservoir, North Dakota, by Donald D. Hartle.
No. 29, Crow-Flies-High (32MZ1), a historic Hidatsa village in the Gar-
rison Reservoir area, North Dakota, by Carling Malouf.
No. 30. The Stutsman Focus: An aboriginal culture complex in the James-
town Reservoir area, North Dakota, by R. P. Wheeler.
No. 81. Archeological manifestations in the Toole County section of the
Tiber Reservoir Basin, Montana, by Carl F. Miller.
No. 32. Archeological salvage investigations in the Lovewell Reservoir area,
Kansas, by Robert W. Neuman.
Bulletin 188. Shonto: A study of the role of the trader in a modern Navaho com-
munity, by William Y. Adams. xi+329 pp., 10 pls., 3 figs., 3 maps, 12 charts.
1963.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY
The editorial work of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
continued under the immediate direction of Ernest E. Biebighauser,
until his transfer to the Department of Commerce. The year’s publi-
cations in the series Smithsonian Contributions to Astrophysics are
as follows:
Volume 5
No. 12. North-south asymmetry in solar spottedness and in great-storm sources.
Pp. iii+187-208, 18 figs. 1962.
A long-term north-south asymmetry in the location of solar sources of great
geomagnetic storms, by Barbara Bell.
On the unequal spottedness of the two solar hemispheres, by John G. Wolbach.
On short-period relations between north-south asymmetry in spottedness and
in great-storm sources, by Barbara Bell and John G. Wolbach.
No. 13. Neutral hydrogen between galactic longitudes 200° and 265°, by R. J.
Davis. Pp. 209-230, 6 figs. 1962.
No. 14. The space density of atmospheric dust in the altitude range 50,000 to
90,000 feet, by Paul W. Hodge and Frances W. Wright. Pp. 231-238, 2 figs.,
1pl. 1962.
No. 15. Solar radio bursts of spectral types II and IV: Their relations to optical
phenomena and to geomagnetic activity, by Barbara Bell. Pp. 2389-257, 2 figs.
1963.
Volume 7
Proceedings of the symposium on the astronomy and physics of meteors, held at
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge, Mass., August 28-Sep-
tember 1, 1961. Whole volume. iv-+314 pp., 117 figs., 22 pls. 1963.
SECRETARY’S REPORT 255
PUBLICATIONS OF THE NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS
The following catalogs were issued by the Smithsonian Traveling
Exhibition Service during the year:
The Daniells in India, 1786-1793. [44] pp., illus. (Publ. 4513.) 1962.
Old Master drawings from Chatsworth. 46 pp., 144 illus. 1962.
PUBLICATIONS OF THE FREER GALLERY OF ART
The field of stones: A study of the art of Shen Chou (1427-1509), by Richard
Edwards. Freer Gallery of Art Oriental Studies, No. 5, xxi+131 pp., 51 pls.
(Publ. 4483.) Nov. 7,1962. ($11.)
Ancient glass in the Freer Gallery of Art, by Richard Ettinghausen. 44 pp.,
with 99 illus. (incl. 3 pls. in color). (Publ. 4509.) July 16, 1962. ($1.65.)
Chinese album leaves in the Freer Gallery of Art, by James Cahill. 48 pp.,
with 35 illus. (incl. 2 pls. in color). (Publ. 4476.) Nov. 30, 1962. ($1.)
The Whistler Peacock Room (rev. ed.). vii+22 pp., 7 pls. (Publ. 4024.) Dee. 11,
1962. (35 cents.)
The Freer Gallery of Art of the Smithsonian Institution (reprint). 16 pp., illus.
(Publ. 4504.) Aug. 8,1962. (15 cents.)
REPORTS OF THE AMERICAN HISTORICAL ASSOCIATION
’ The annual reports of the American Historical Association are
transmitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian
Institution and are by him communicated to Congress, as provided in
the act of incorporation of the Association. The following report was
issued during the year:
Annual Report of the American Historical Association for 1961. Vol. 1, Pro-
ceedings. 1962.
REPORT OF THE NATIONAL SOCIETY, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN
REVOLUTION
In accordance with law, the manuscript of the 65th annual report of
the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was
transmitted to Congress on May 16, 1963.7
DISTRIBUTION
Requests for publications and information continued to increase
during the year. The publications distribution section, under the im-
mediate supervision of Mrs. Eileen M. McCarthy, received 38,397
requests for publications from foreign and domestic libraries, uni-
versities, research institutions, educational establishments, and in-
dividuals throughout the world. Visitors to the office and replies to
inquiries numbered 30,053.
A total of 899,788 copies of publications and miscellaneous items
were distributed : 67 Contributions to Knowledge; 13,207 Smithsonian
1D.A.R. reports are published as Senate documents and are not available from the
Smithsonian Institution.
256 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Miscellaneous Collections; 8,576 Annual Report volumes and 31,025
pamphlet copies of Report separates; 50,136 special publications; 164
reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition; 48,257 publications of
the National Museum; 17,722 publications of the Bureau of American
Ethnology ; 112,343 catalogs and leaflets of the National Collection of
Fine Arts; 546 publications of the Freer Gallery of Art;? 18 Annals
of the Astrophysical Observatory; 9,646 Smithsonian Contributions
to Astrophysics; 679 War Background Studies; 1,763 reports of
the American Historical Association; and 11,928 publications not
issued by the Smithsonian Institution. Miscellaneous items: 15
sets of North American Wild Flowers and 127 North American Wild
Flower prints; 8 Pitcher Plant volumes; 75,365 Guide Books; 17,529
picture pamphlets; 359,232 postcards; 25,626 postcard folders; 19,998
color slides; 96,230 information leaflets; 228 statuettes; 4,355 View-
master reels.
The following titles were issued and distributed to libraries as a
result of the Institution’s participation in the National Science Foun-
dation translation program: Mammals of Hastern Europe and North-
ern Asia (Insectivora and Chiroptera), vol. 1, by S. I. Ognev;
Mammals of astern Europe and Northern Asia (Carnivora Fissi-
pedia), vol. 2, by S. I. Ognev; Mammals of U.S.S.R. and Adjacent
Countries (Carnivora Fissipedia and Pinnipedia), vol. 3, by S. I.
Ognev; Mammals of US.S.R. and Adjacent Countries (Rodents),
vol. 5, by S. I. Ognev; Forty Years of Soviet Anthropology, by G. F.
Debets; Short-Ears and Long-Ears on Easter Island, by N. A. Buti-
nov; Problems in the History of Primitive Society, by N. A. Butinov;
Terrestrial Mollusks of the Fauna of the U.S.S.R., by I. M. Likharev
and E. S. Rammel’meier; Fauna of Russia and Adjacent Countries
(Amphibians), by A. M. Nikol’skii; Fawna of U.S.S.R. (Crustacea,
Anomura), vol. 10, No. 3, by V. V. Makarov; The Chalcid Fauna of
the USSR. (Chaleidoidea), by M. N. Nikol’skaya; Flora of the
USS.F., vol. 2, V. L. Komarov, editor; Special Ichthyology, by G. V.
Nikol’skii; Freshwater Fishes of the U.S.S.R. and Adjacent Countries,
vol. 1, by Leo S. Berg; Fauna of USS.R—Fishes (Gadiformes),
vol. 9, No. 4, by A. N. Svetovidov; Pundamentals of Paleontology,
Yu. A. Orlov, editor.
Respectfully submitted.
Pau H. Ofnser,
Chief, Editorial and Publications Division.
Dr. Leonarp CARMICHAEL,
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution.
2In addition to those distributed by the Gallery itself.
Other Activities
LECTURES
C. Fayette Taylor, emeritus professor of automotive engineering,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, delivered the fourth Lester D.
Gardner lecture, on “Aircraft Propulsion: A Review of the Evolution
of Aircraft Powerplants,” in the auditorium of the Freer Gallery of
Art on the evening of October 5, 1962. This lecture was published in
full in the genera] appendix of the Annual Report of the Board of
Regents of the Smithsonian Institution for 1962 (pp. 245-298).
Dr. John Howard Young, W. H. C. Vickers associate professor of
archeology, Johns Hopkins University, lectured on “The Royal Sculp-
tures of Commagene” in the auditorium of the Freer Gallery of Art
on the evening of February 8, 1963. This lecture was sponsored
jointly by the Smithsonian Institution and the Archaeological Institute
of America.
Hugh Wakefield, keeper of circulation, Victoria and Albert Mu-
seum, London, England, lectured on “English Victorian Glass” in the
auditorium of the Freer Gallery of Art on the evening of April 24,
1963.
Several lectures were sponsored by the Freer Gallery of Art and the
National Gallery of Art. These are listed in the reports of these
bureaus.
SCIENCE INFORMATION EXCHANGE
The Science Information Exchange receives, organizes, and dissemi-
nates information on scientific research in progress. Its mission is to
facilitate planning and management of scientific research activities
supported by Government and non-Government agencies and institu-
tions by promoting the exchange of information that concerns subject
matter, distribution, level of effort, and other data pertaining to cur-
rent research in the prepublication stage. It helps program directors
and administrators to avoid unwanted duplication and to determine
the most advantageous distribution of research funds. It serves the
entire scientific community by informing individual investigators
about who is currently working on problems in their special fields.
The reorganization and expansion of the Exchange to provide cur-
rent research information in the physical sciences, in addition to the
life sciences, have constituted the major task during the past year
and have progressed quite satisfactorily. ‘The new physical sciences
257
258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
division now has 15 members. The total staff has grown to about
115, and the plant capability and capacity have been almost doubled.
The acquisition of current research projects and proposals increased
sharply from an annual rate of about 56,000 in 1962 to almost 75,000
in 1968. The total number of active projects on file has risen from
33,000 to almost 58,000.
Many new research programs have been added, and many new agen-
cies, such as the Departments of Agriculture, Commerce, and Inte-
rior, have begun to register their current research activities. All Fed-
eral agencies with substantial research programs in basic and applied
research are now participating. As the coverage of Federal programs
approaches comprehensive proportions, increasing attention is being
directed to securing the cooperation of universities, private founda-
tions, State and city government research organizations, and indus-
trial laboratories.
The January 10, 1963, report of the President’s Scientific Advisory
Committee, entitled “Science, Government, and Information,” noted
the work of the Exchange and recommended its continued activity on
a stronger and broader base. The expanded scope in physical sciences
and the increasing participation by Federal and non-Government
agencies, as noted above, are well underway.
The Federal Council for Science and Technology has agreed that on
July 1, 1963, the National Science Foundation will undertake the re-
sponsibility for the support of the Exchange through contractual
arrangements for its continued operation by the Smithsonian Institu-
tion. Government-wide interests will be served by an advisory board
of representatives from each of the participating Federal agencies.
SMITHSONIAN MUSEUM SERVICE
The Smithsonian Museum Service, through appropriate educational
media, interprets to museum visitors and to the general public the
objects, specimens, and exhibits in the several Smithsonian museums
and develops interpretative and educational material relating to the
work of the Institution in the fields of science, natural history, art,
and history. The Museum Service also cooperates with the volun-
teers of the Junior League of Washington, D.C., who conduct the
Junior League Guided Tour Program at the Smithsonian. A more
complete report of this activity, directed by G. Carroll Lindsay, cu-
rator, is carried in the Report on the U.S. National Museum
(pp. 59-60).
The Museum Service provided assistance to professional groups
and individuals visiting the museums of the Institution or planning to
do so. Assistance in the form of lectures, answers to inquiries, and
special tours of certain museum areas was rendered to college and uni-
SECRETARY'S REPORT 259
versity groups visiting the Institution and to other groups and indi-
viduals from the United States and abroad, visiting or planning to
visit the Smithsonian in a professional capacity. Mr. Lindsay served
as consultant on museum organization and practices to representatives
from other museums on several occasions.
The Audioguide or radio lecture system in the Museum of Natural
History was expanded to include two additional exhibit halls: Life
in the Sea, and Dinosaurs and Other Fossil Reptiles. A total of 37
Audioguide lectures are now available in the Museum of Natural
History.
During the year Mrs, Linda 8. Gordon joined the Museum Service
staff as museum technician in zoology and Mrs. Marjorie M. Halpin
as museum technician in anthropology. Mrs. Gordon and Mrs. Halpin
serve as docents and carry on related work to improve the Museum
Service program of interpreting the museum exhibits to the visitor.
The assistant curator, Mrs. Sophy Burnham, wrote, produced, and
directed a 16-mm. color motion picture which depicts the construction
of the life-size model of the great blue whale exhibited in the new Hall
of Life in the Sea. Mrs. Burnham, in cooperation with the various
subject specialists involved, also continued her work in the preparation
of the Audioguide lectures.
Special “touch” tours for several groups of blind students were ar-
ranged during the year. Specimens and objects from the reference
collections as well as selected portions of the public exhibits are in-
cluded in the programs arranged for blind persons.
One-page guide maps which provide floor plans and brief summaries
of the exhibits shown in the Museum of Natural History and in the
Arts and Industries Building were prepared. These proved most
useful in visitor orientation and in answering written inquiries re-
garding the exhibits in these buildings.
The Museum Service continued to assist radio and television pro-
ducers wishing to feature Smithsonian exhibits and scientific work.
In addition to several local radio and television productions based on
various aspects of Smithsonian activity, two half-hour programs
featuring the transportation collections were broadcast on a national
television network.
The Museum Service again conducted, in cooperation with the
University of Maryland, a 5-day workshop on the educational re-
sources of the Institution. This workshop is designed to acquaint
graduate students in education with the broad scientific and cultural
resources of the Smithsonian of value in school curricula.
The program carried out in cooperation with the Urban Service
Corps under the direction of Mrs. Arthur Goldberg proved success-
ful. Local junior high school students were provided with lectures
260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
and tours of museum exhibits designed to increase their knowledge
of the exhibits and work of the Institution.
More than 400 35-mm. slides of objects, specimens, and exhibits in
the various museums were accessioned, cataloged, and added to the
slide library. Slides from this library were used extensively by the
Smithsonian staff and by borrowers from the United States, Canada,
and Europe.
The Museum Service made arrangements for various Smithsonian
public functions and events, including films, lectures, and the opening
of new halls and exhibits. Mailing lists for announcements of these
events were maintained and kept current.
The Smithsonian Calendar of Events, a listing of special events
of the Institution, was prepared and distributed monthly.
The curator attended the following conferences and gatherings:
The Southeastern Museums Conference in Richmond, Va.; the Con-
ference of the Society of Architectural Historians in Baltimore, Md.;
Annual Winterthur Seminar on Museum Operation and Connoisseur-
ship at Winterthur, Del.; the Museum Store Association Annual
Meeting, Minneapolis, Minn.; and the opening of the Mellon Collection
of British Paintings, Virginia State Museum of Fine Arts. He also
attended and gave a slide lecture to the National Trust Conference
for Historic Museum Associates, held at Woodlawn Plantation, Va.,
and participated in a panel discussion at the convention in Denver,
Colo., of the Department of Audiovisual Education, National Educa-
tion Association.
The curator and the assistant curator traveled to Cambridge, Mass.,
to speak to the staff of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
on the work and history of the Smithsonian Institution and to view
operations there. They also visited museums in the Boston area.
The assistant curator traveled to Baltimore, Md., to view facilities
of five museums.
Report of the Executive Committee
of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution
For the Year Ended June 30, 1963
To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution:
Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report
in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with
a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government
bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution.
SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION
PARENT FUND
The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s 6d—
$508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim,
freight, insurance, and other incidental expenses, together with pay-
ment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been withheld dur-
ing the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the
amount of $550,000.
The gift of James Smithson was “lent to the United States Treasury,
at 6 per centum per annum interest” (20 USC 54), and by the Act of
March 12, 1894 (20 USC 55), the Secretary of the Treasury was
“authorized to receive into the Treasury, on the same terms as the
original bequest of James Smithson, such sums as the Regents may
from time to time see fit to deposit, not exceeding, with the original
bequest, the sum of $1,000,000.”
The maximum of $1,000,000 which the Smithsonian Institution was
authorized to deposit in the Treasury of the United States was reached
on January 11,1917, by the deposit of $2,000.
Under the above authority the amounts shown below are deposited in
the United States Treasury and draw 6 percent interest :
Unrestricted funds Income 1263
AMER SUIS Me tee tee $727, 640 $438, 658. 40
EASELS? Sa ape ree a ae eeee Seeeh 14, 000 840. 00
TB ETH Gy SY | ae tet ac a mi aa a 500 30. 00
TB US eEUUY ODI eee ee ee 2, 500 150. 00
Hodrkins. (General) --—-— 116, 000 6, 860. 00
TECPCDY ES) epee Rare ep pet ets Se A ei ae 26, 670 1, 600. 20
Ae eee ee en ee ee ee 590 35. 40
SETUT UT Y ge |e a pa I ae 1,100 66. 00
ERO GG tee ee ee ee ee $889,000 53, 340. 00
720-018 —64——18 261
262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Restricted funds Income 1963
Hodgkins (Specific) -2- 25-2 = 100, 000 6, 000. 00
Reid 2222. 2sce cose lk ees ee 11, 000 660. 00
Totals <3 oe ee a eh ee 111, 000 6, 660. 00
Grand ::totalee 4-232 8S gee Bone ee eee 1,000,000 60,000. 00
In addition to the $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United
States there has been accumulated from income and bequests the sum
of $4,489,870.56 which has been invested. Of this sum, $4,254,290.71 is
carried on the books of the Institution as the Consolidated Fund, a
policy approved by the Regents at their meeting on December 14, 1916.
The balance is made up of several small funds.
CONSOLIDATED FUND
(Income for the unrestricted use of the Institution)
Fund Investment 1963 Income 1963
AD Botte Wil, special sue 201 ai Lisa <cee eet. bee $23, 595. 27 | $1, 195. 47
Avery, Robért Ss and, Lydiats. bf 22.642. 4e22-825 62,556.92 | 3, 169. 51
Gifts, royalties, gain on sale of securities.._.____-_--- 437, 288.17 | 22, 155. 81
Hachenberg, George P. and Caroline_____-__----- 6, 369. 45 Soeade
HAMILOH IeMMesnC ees ee ees eee ee ene 639. 29 32. 38
Hart; Gustavusti? (0 U0Se be oe). Bele 771. 40 39. 07
Henry: :@arcling 2a! 312 Li te el She ee ee 1, 915. 42 97. 03
Henry, Josepn:. and Marrieti-A $3 . 4245-92-20 8s 77, 636. 17 | 3, 933. 55
Higbee, Harry, Memorial, Fund—.... =... ..=-... 18, 918. 26 713. 50
Hodgkins, ‘Thomas ‘G: (General) *.- 2222-02-22 = 47, 975. 50 2, 430. 75
INIGILOM IWIGnG Ween a bees ae eee eee eee oe 122, 469.22 | 6, 205. 05
Olmsted?) Helen Atece ice - Oe SUS eeere ss - SLE ee 1, 269. 73 64. 33
Poore, Lucy T. and George W.*_______----------- 257, 760. 56 | 13, 059. 81
Porter; aenry Wirke 66 eo ee a ed 453, 575. 46 | 22, 980. 99
hess, “Wilham Jones *. 2. 03 ee a SL ee 749, 28 37. 95
Sanford. George Nf 222 2 be oe ee eee 1, 409. 80 71. 45
DBUCHSOn wames® es eles es be SR StS 1, 933. 47 97. 99
accart: Ganson) 2227 220 9 2t) 5 800 Serpe 7 Ae 566. 45 28. 72
Witherspoon, Thomas A... .- 60) 09 b« 424-228. 22 204, 383. 08 | 10, 355. 33
15 7 Up aie ib atid en neo Ane 1, 721, 782. 90 | 86, 991. 42
*In addition to funds deposited in the United States Treasury.
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 263
CONSOLIDATED FUND
(Income restricted to specific use)
Fund Investment 1963 Income 1963
Abbott, William L., for investigations in biology__._| $165, 109. 55 | $8, 365. 46
Armstrong, Edwin James, for use of Department of
Invertebrate Paleontology when principal amounts
SD SUSU ee) 2 ee Oe ee eee eee 2, 089. 87 100. 80
Arthur, James, for investigations and study of the
sun and annual lecture on same_____-___-_-_--- 63, 339. 47 3, 209. 16
Bacon, Virginia Purdy, for traveling scholarship to
investigate fauna of countries other than the
Wrsted States. 2..:.222. 1 Mie Bete Sede 79, 347.09 | 4, 020. 23
Baird, Lucy H., for creating a memorial to Secretary
Wan Re ne ek HE 20 Be 58, 066.07 | 2, 930. 34
Barney, Alice Pike, for collection of paintings and
pastels and for encouragement of American
AEVIStICIENGES VOI Ee = 2 at et te ee 45, 424. 49 2, 301. 50
Barstow, Frederick D., for purchase of animals for
MOO OmICR AY: 2090 e oe BUS IO Dh Be 1, 583. 31 80. 21
Brown, Roland W., endowment fund for study, care,
and improvement of the Smithsonian paJeobotan-
fealycollections..2~-—.--220 2223.20 UI). 0 51, 587. 95 1, 769. 32
Canfield collection, for increase and care of the
Canfield collection of minerals__._._....-..------ 60, 573. 77 | 3, 069. 03
Casey, Thomas L., for maintenance of the Casey
collection and promotion of researches relating to
emeopberaa] = 22 2520. lees eee 19, 851. 46 | 1, 005. 81
Chamberlain, Francis Lea, for increase and promo-
tion of Isaac Lea collection of gems and mollusks_ 44, 599. 17 2, 259. 67
Dykes, Charles, for support in financial research__-- 68, 185.96 | 3, 454. 71
EKickemeayer, Florence Brevoort, for preservation and
exhibition of the photographic collection of
Rudolph Eickemeayer, Jr_._....-.------------- 17, 214. 51 872. 21
Hanson, Martin Gustav and Caroline Runice, for
some scientific work of the Institution, preferably
iwehemistry Or medicine... “Leese a) aS eS 14, 079. 36 713. 34
Higbee, Harry, income for general use of the
Smithsonian Institution after June 11, 1967__--_-- 75. 40 2. 60
Hillyer, Virgil, for increase and care of Virgil Hillyer
collection of lighting objects____.._.....-------- 10, 408. 64 527. 35
Hitchcock, Albert §., for care of the Hitchcock
MereOsimlOniCdl TDEAr ys neo oe Se 2, 499. 05 126. 60
Hrdli¢ka, Ale’ and Marie, to further researches in
physical anthropology and publication in con-
mection. therewith. == 2 ose eee eee 83, 754. 55 4, 038. 91
Hughes, Bruce, to found Hughes alecove__--_------ 30, 315.09 | 1, 535. 92
Johnson, E. R. Fenimore, research in underwater
DELO GO BELT Ly pose see ee te eee 11, 608. 94 559. 84
Loeb, Morris, for furtherance of knowledge in the
EXACUISCICN COS eee amee es ces ete eee 138, 028. 26 6, 993. 40
264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
CONSOLIDATED FUND—Continued
Fund
Long, Annette and Edith C., for upkeep and pres-
ervation of Long collection of embroideries,
laceswandHextiless.-...o2 Pao eee eet Be hes
Maxwell, Mary E., for care and exhibition of
Maxwell collection e— =. 22. ee
Myer, Catherine Walden, for purchase of first-class
works of art for use and benefit of the National
Collectionsof Fine Arts: | 5.2 taste sees ee
Nelson, Edward W., for support of biological studies_
Noyes, Frank B., for use in connection with the
collection of dolls placed in the U.S. National
Museum through the interest of Mr. and Mrs.
Pell, Cornelia Livingston, for maintenance of Alfred
Diwanestell collection: -— = 2 e
Petrocelli, Joseph, for the care of the Petrocelli
collection of photographic prints and for the
enlargement and development of the section of
photography of the U.S. National Museum- ---_--
Rathbun, Richard, for use of division of U.S.
National Museum containing Crustacea_________
Reid, Addison T., for founding chair in biology, in
memory or Asher Tunis? , $226.9). t tos sess
Roebling Collection, for care, improvement, and
increase of Roebling collection of minerals___----
Roebling Solar Research’. 252) 3 nape Jone ee
Rollins, Miriam and William, for investigations in
physicarand chemistry =. 6 —o. te ae
Smithsonian employees’ retirement_--_--_.__------
Springer, Frank, for care and increase of the Springer
collection andrlibrary) 220. tees Be oe
Strong, Julia D., for benefit of the National Collec-
tionvof Pine Arts .c s =o. oe hee ee Ae
Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, for develop-
ment of geological and paleontological studies and
publishing results of same s—---< Seer ee ee ee
Walcott, Mary Vaux, for publications in botany----
Younger, Helen Walcott, held in trust-___.____--_-
Zerbee, Francis Brinckle, for endowment of aquaria_
*In addition to funds deposited in the United States Treasury.
Investment 1963
$859.
31, 063.
31, 990.
35, 220.
1, 521.
11, 739.
11, 740.
93
94
18
43
54
42
81
16, 844. 71
28, 170.
191, 139.
39, 714.
231, 028.
36, 863.
28, 401.
15, 835.
759, 454.
91, 675.
117, 024.
1, 502.
2, 649, 532.
38
84
73
56
17
10
07
03
71
81
30
62
Income 1963
$43. 58
1, 573. 88
1, 620. 85
1, 784. 50
77. 07
594. 76
594. 87
853. 47
1, 427. 32
9, 684. 34
2, 012. 21
11, 416. 13
1, 869. 30
1, 439. 00
802. 31
38, 440. 22
4, 644. 87
6, 201. 46
76. 12
133, 092. 67
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 265
FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND
Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave
to the Institution his collection of Chinese and other Oriental objects
of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by Whis-
tler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for
construction of a building to house the collection, and finally in his
will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stocks and securities to
the estimated value of $1,958,591.42, as an endowment fund for the
operation of the Gallery. The fund now amounts to $10,596,154.61.
SUMMARY OF ENDOWMENTS
Invested endowment for general purposes____-__---_---_-------- $2, 610, 782. 90
Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer
OOO = See es ee 2, 879, 087. 56
Total invested endowment other than Freer________---_- 5, 489, 870. 46
Freer invested endowment for specific purposes_________-____- 10, 596, 154. 61
Total invested endowment for all purposes__________-_-- 16, 086, 025. 07
CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS
Deposited in the U.S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as au-
thorized in the U.S. Revised Statutes, sec. 5591_--____________ $1, 000, 000. 00
Investments other than Freer endowment (cost
or market value at date acquired :
[BORO Se ee ae ee ee $1, 640, 161. 47
SOCKS es Se Se ee eee 2, 721, 044. 83
Real estate andsmortgazes=— == == === 115, 006. 00
Wninvested capitals == =o ee 13, 658.66 4,489, 870. 46
Total investments other than Freer endowment__-_------- 5, 489, 870. 46
Investments of Freer endowment (cost or mar-
ket value at date acquired) :
ES OTIS eee ee $5, 480, 542. 86
SEO ge 85s ei ee) Ee ee ee eee 5, 114, 287. 57
ninvestedcapitalizs= = eee ee 1,324.68 10, 596, 154. 61
Motaleinvestments 2 === =o 282 oo kn oe eo 16, 086, 025. 07
266 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
EXHIBIT A
BALANCE SHEET OF PRIVATE FUNDS
June 30, 1963
ASSETS
Current funds:
General:
Cash:
United States Treasury current account.____.__-_____-
im banks and ons hand 2-22 2. bee aoe et See eye
Travelsand: other ad vanes sauce ea ee
Motal- general ninds= et he saree Re ge es a ey
Restricted:
Cash—United States Treasury current
AC COUT Gee a hh he a eee $3, 340, 087. 03
Investments—stocks and bonds (quoted
market value $1, 622, 254. 85)__.--____ 1, 634, 613. 56
Lotal-restricted fundsssses san sae eee Pee
Total currentahunds-4s-—- ose enon soe ee eee.
Endowment funds and funds functioning as endowment:
Investments:
Freer Gallery of Art:
Cash eens e ek Pele 2b es aden $1, 324. 68
Stocks and bonds (quoted market value
S15; 6872715256). 228 2 eee eee 10, 594, 829. 93
10, 596, 154. 61
Consolidated:
Cais A OBE os oi $13, 322. 98
Stocks and bonds (quoted
market value
$5, 619, 651. 94)_______ 4, 240, 967. 73
4, 254, 290. 71
Loan to United States
areasury .G22ee oes 1, 000, 000. 00
Other stocks and _ bonds
(quoted market value
SIGS) 188, S6)iea2 4. seceee 120, 238. 07
(SST Raia bee Men ee Oe 335. 68
Real estate at book value__- 115, 006.00 5, 489, 870. 46
Total endowment funds and funds functioning as endow-
$920, 365. 77
531, 701. 82
1, 452, 067. 59
22, 126. 88
1, 474, 194. 47
4, 974, 700. 59
6, 448, 895. 06
16, 086, 025. 07
22, 534, 920. 13
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 267
EXHIBIT A—Continued
FUND BALANCES
Current funds:
General:
Unexpended funds—unrestricted_-__-_.----...-..-.._.. $1, 474, 194. 47
pbotal.weneral funds oo. otewo~ceetee eee ete 1, 474, 194. 47
Restricted (Exhibit C):
Unexpended income from endowment- ---- $1, 384, 769. 95
Funds for special purposes (gifts, grants,
PEs alae Seg tie Bs loee sla & 3, 589, 930. 64
oraliresunbed tuntign-— 5-2 ne 4, 974, 700. 59
Sora CUrrentiWHGN. 22. ee Sk ae ee 6, 448, 895. 06
Endowment funds and funds functioning as
endowment (Exhibit D):
PEperIGdnery Of ATG. 22. 2222 Pee See $10, 596, 154. 61
Other:
Resiricted 1. -.--L... $2, 879, 087. 56
Generale stb Spee an ee 2, 610, 782. 90 5, 489, 870. 46
Total endowment funds and funds functioning as endow-
51S) 2 Fee, 3 Senet a A tpl jaa eon Dyer? lie ie 3 sl fee) By 16, 086, 025. 07
SORA oe oro SE a oe eh tne ane ener 22, 534, 920. 13
EXHIBIT B
PRIVATE FUNDS
STATEMENT OF CURRENT GENERAL FUND RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS
AND CHANGES IN CURRENT GENERAL FUND BALANCES
Year ended June 30, 1963
Operations Publications Gifts and grants
Current receipts:
Endowment income:
Freer Gallery of Art_-__-------- S440 saziGer |e. 2 ofites| -falue Metamora hl _
Other restricted funds_-_-_-_-__--~- OMA ll ie ne eal | eee ect
Unrestricted.2==s 22222 2222252 NS OMG AA Oil eect athe es ee nk ee pe
Investment income_L- 2.22. 22 GO Z09 soos ease a eee: Eade eet
Gifts and grants, including admin-
istrative overhead_..........-. 1:28, ;S124S3 eee ee eae $6, 854, 937. 05
Publications and photographs:__-.|.._....-.---|$9], 292. 43 |_....----.-.-.
Nascellaneolse- +=... eee Soo. QS T2HAD Mate eed Ble ele ee oe
Total current receipts__...--- 844, 844. 37 | 91, 292. 43 6, 854, 937. 05
268 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
EXHIBIT B—Continued
PRIVATE FUNDS—Continued
STATEMENT OF CURRENT GENERAL FUND RECEIPTS AND DISBURSEMENTS
AND CHANGES IN CURRENT GENERAL FUND BALANCES—Continued
Year ended June 30, 1963
Operations Publications Gifts and grants
Current expenditures:
Salaries:
AdmMIniIstrativersssa-. 2. s ses see SUT S 2 OR Solas sees os eee eee
UCSC ARCH on Se: Seem etre ee es O29 MiG) payee $3, 081, 622. 19
Oiner ee aie ee eee 220s OOO GS ice ee eel: Saleen ee re
Motahealaried= a2 - 5-52 5o-" 3005/3820) (58. [pase s5 ae ace= 3, 081, 622. 19
Purchase for collection.....-.---- DT lle, MO oy es oe ene 2 eee
Researches and exploration and
related administrative ex-
penses:
TUG) ee ee oe ee ee | Wes Fas 0 0 yu aaa cera (est npr Se
Equipment and supply__------- SAS Te 20M es ee eee ne
COEF AYE) ce ode a 5-400) 405 | ack ies 3, 773, 314. 86
Publication and photographs_ - - -- 38, 020.:00) |"490 231. S07 lseeane sesso aee
Buildings, equipment and grounds:
Buildings and installations - - - — - i ra oy pA ot A rem Iae | aRey oe AAA ik Oe
Court and grounds maintenance- SY Lo My (7 | ee Ad oe rena SB ce we ee es Se
Technical laboratory_._..-_---- 1FOSS8O0 Wooo ees. ate eee eee
Contractual services—custodian
andwegal tees: = cases cosrene paplaede’ 4 OF Sages 0 i lane ie ateet weeps | Pee PEL oor ee
Supplies and expenses:
Meetings, special exhibits = 222) 16,846.36 |2= 52245 2ec|acce 5 --- Se
WGCCUUITER es ae he ee 2 OS Alias os eee elle ee eee
Photographs and reproductions_ ‘sgn 2 i Al eget ee ee ee ee a eS
Tan ye ae ee ee ee CIES [57a TR) 17 (| (eee | RS Se
DAlestGes knee een ee ee OAS OE ae oe ee ee ees eee
Stationery and office supplies_-- 969022 eet ies 2S e eee ee
Postage, telephone, and _tele-
STAPH asso e oi eee ee 89: 35]. = 2 Senet eee
Employees’ withholding payments,
BOL ee eee ee eae ee (1 1582.,99))|_ . Seesset Seen aay Meee
Total current expenditures__-| 626, 113.69 | 49, 231. 30 6, 854, 937. 05
Excess of current receipts over
current expenditures____-.-- $218, 730. 68 | 42, 061. 13 $260, 791. 81
Balance at beginning of year-4| = ..J5..-2.-3|--<- sce 1, 213, 402. 66
Balance atvendsof years SS: S2a|-ee So |S elee ee 1, 474, 194. 47
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
EXHIBIT C
PRIVATE FUNDS
269
STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN CURRENT RESTRICTED FUND BALANCE
Year ended June 30, 1963
Unexpended
income
Balance at beginning of year____/$1, 210, 899.
Add:
Income from restricted endow-
ment:
Freer Gallery of Art__.__--
Other restricted funds_ _-_~_-
Less custodial costs.______-_
Net income from restricted
endowment==- 2=-=--.—
Sale of publications____.____-_
Giftskandsoranie ai. 2s se fe le ek ee
(CFL AEN 2 a a ee
Deduct:
Transfer to current income,
net of custodial cost:
Freer Gallery of Art______-
Other restricted funds_-_-_-_-
Wmnrestricted@= =. 22 22sec]
ART D HAUGH RES Pet ile peer I ee pen inh Se |e Eire eA on didn bn gr
Income added to principal,
496, 274.
281, 941.
778, 215.
34, 766.
30, 028.
2, 002, 003.
407, 462.
55, 246.
139, 974.
602, 683.
617, 233.
1, 384, 769.
50 |$2, 993, 960. 51
33
95
Funds for special
purposes (gifts,
grants etc.)
109%:
7, 062, 356.
450, 644.
10, 508, 052.
66, 185.
(3, 000.
6, 918, 122.
3, 589, 930.
20
64
Total
$4, 204, 860.
496, 274.
281, 941.
778, 215.
34, 766.
743, 449.
ot, £19:
7, 062, 356.
468, 270.
12, 510, 056.
407, 462.
6, 910, 183.
139, 974.
7, 457, 620.
66, 185.
11, 549.
7, 535, 355.
4, 974, 700.
01
57
270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
EXHIBIT D
PRIVATE FUNDS
STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN PRINCIPAL OF ENDOWMENT FUNDS AND FUNDS
FUNCTIONING AS ENDOWMENT
Year ended June 30, 1963
Balanceat: beginning ‘of yeart.-+--. 2 ssteeeone Joccecessesees $15, 236, 651. 39
Add:
Giftstand! bequestsssoe ene oes eee $126, 799. 50
Income added to principal as prescribed
by:donors 225s. 2SseSc suc. Ss cenestes= 11, 549. 67
Proceeds from sale of Table Mountain
INStAUBWONSses= 2 one = Beene See ee ee 12, 000. 00
Net gain on investments..__........=--.-- 699, 024. 51 849, 373. 68
16, 086, 025. 07
Balance at year end consisting of:
Wnrestricted., 3226 soa s a tee ee eee 2, 610, 782. 90
Restricted for:
reer-Gallery-of Art=22 225522 Seves 10, 596, 154. 61
Other collections and research___-_----- 2, 879, 087. 56
16, 086, 025. 07
The practice of maintaining savings accounts in several of the
Washington banks and trust companies has been continued during the
past year, and interest on these deposits amounted to $12,764.30.
Deposits are made in banks for convenience in collection of checks,
and later such funds are withdrawn and deposited in the United States
Treasury. Disbursement of funds is made by check signed by the
Secretary of the Institution and drawn on the United States Treasury.
The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts and grants from
the following:
Academic Press, a gift to the Rathbun Fund.
American Chicle Co., a contribution for the improvement of the United States
National Herbarium collection.
American Philosophical Society :
Grant for the support of research entitled “Life History and Taxonomic
Studies of the Water Beetles of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands.”
Grant for the entomological collecting and research in British West Indies.
Grant for the entomological collecting and research in Mexico.
Anniston Public Library, a gift to prepare a scientific evaluation of a collection
of birds.
Appalachian Power Co., additional grant for archeological surveys in the Smith
Mountain Reservoir on the Roanoke River.
Atomic Energy Commission, additional grant for support of research entitled “A
Study of the Biochemical Effects of Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiation of
Plant Metabolism during Development.”
Lucy H. Baird, in settlement of bequest.
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE Zit
Bredin Foundation:
Grant for research entitled “Ocean Food Chain Cycle.”
Grant for research entitled ‘Biological Survey of Dominica Project.”
Roland W. Brown, a bequest for the care and improvement of the paleobotanical
collection.
James Campbell, a contribution to the Zoo Animal Fund.
De Beer Consolidated Mines, Ltd., a gift to defray expenses in exhibiting the
Hope Diamond in France.
Department of Air Force:
Additional grant for research directed toward the study of stellar scintilla-
tion.
Additional grant for upper atmosphere image study.
Additional grant for research directed toward the studies of rate of accre-
tion of interplanetary matter by the earth.
Additional grant for the study of atmospheric entry and impact of high
velocity meteorites.
Department of the Army:
Grant for the support of research entitled “Mammals and Their Ectopara-
sites from Iran.”
Grant for support of research entitled “Potential Vectors and Reservoirs of
Disease in Strategic Overseas Area.”
Grant for support of research on the analysis of bird migration in the
Pacific area and the study of ecology of birds and mammals on one
or more Pacific islands.
Department of Interior, a grant for service on the taxonomy of Peruvian fishes.
Histophas Science Club, a contribution to the Zoo Animal Fund.
Fashion Group of Washington, a gift to the Historic Dress Fund.
Ford Foundation :
Grant for the support of the preparation of an up-to-date history of the
United States Flag over a 3-year period.
A gift to the Freer Gallery of Art for the publication and distribution of an
illustrated scholarly catalogue of the collection of Armenian manuscripts.
General Atomic Division, a donation to the Meteorite Fund.
General Motors Corp., a gift for the construction of two dieselectric locomotive
models.
Esther Goddard, a gift to help struggling scientists.
Graham Foundation, a gift to the Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition Service for
the Alvar Aalto Exhibition.
Ethel R. Holmes:
Gift to the Milton A. Holmes Memorial Numismatics Fund.
Gift to the Milton A. Holmes Memorial Philately Fund.
Institute of International Education, a contribution for matters pertaining to
International Exchange program.
Edwin A. Link, a gift to the Marine Archeology Fund.
Link Foundation:
Grant for the 1963 Edwin A. Link Lecture.
Grant for the publication of “Famous Firsts of Space Flight.”
For support to the James Means Memorial Fund:
Cabot Foundation
Ward M. Canady Educational and Charitable Trust Co.
Ward M. and Marian C. Canady Trust Co.
Ellen Loomis
Edward Mallinckrodt, Jr.
272 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Paul Mellon and Kaufmann Charitable Foundation, a gift to the Smithsonian
Traveling Exhibition Service.
Miami University, a grant for the preserving of the collection of herbaceous
stems in Panama.
Museum of France, a contribution toward exhibition of the Hope Diamond.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration :
Additional grant for support of research entitled “The Motion of Artificial
Satellites.”
Additional grant for the scientific and engineering study for instrumenting
an orbiting telescope.
Additional grant for research entitled “Optical Satellite Tracking Program.”
Grant for the systematic recovery of meteorites and the photography of
meteorites in flight.
Grant for consultant services to be provided to the California Museum of
Science and Industry.
National Institutes of Health:
Additional grant for support of research entitled “Studies of Asian Biting
Flies.”
Grant for support of research entitled “Anthropology of Chronic Disease in
Relation to Social Efficiency.”
Grant for support of research entitled “Chronic Diseases in Relation to
Social Efficiency.”
National Science Foundation:
Grant for the support of research entitled “Tertiary Forests of the Tonasi-
Santiago Basin of Panama.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Systematic Significance of
Schinoid Spines.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Phanerogams of Colombia.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Systematic and Distribution of
North American Calanoid and Harpacticoid Copepoda.”
Grant for the support of research entitled ‘“EKeology and Behavior of Suncus
murinus.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Photoresponses and Optical
Properties of Phycomyces Sporangiophores.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Taxonomy of Bamboos.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Lower Cretaceous Ostracoda of
Israel.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Marine Mollusks of Polynesia.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Tertiary Echinoids of the Eastern
United States and the Caribbean.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Monographie Revision of Car-
charinid Sharks of the Tropical Indo-Pacific Oceans.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Zoogeography of Southern Ocean
Scleractinian Coral Faunas.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Magalithic Structures of Nan
Mandol, Ponape.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Frogs of Western Brazil and of
Colombia.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Prehistory cf Southwest Vir-
ginia.”
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 273
National Science Foundation—Continued
Grant for the support of research entitled “Indo-Australian Vespidae sens.
lat. and Sphecidae.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Publication of an English Trans-
lation of Flora of Japan, by Jisaburo Ohwi.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “An Archeological Investigation
of the Key School Site, Georgia.”
Grant for the support of research entitled ‘Collection of Meteorites and
Tektites in Australia.”
Grant for the support of research entitled ‘Revision of the Genera of Pale-
ozoic Bryozoa.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Oldest Fossil Bryozoa of the
United States.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “The Flora of Fiji.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Mammals of Southeastern United
States.”
Grant for the support of research entitled ‘“Permo-Triassic Reptiles of South
America.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “South Asian Microlepidoptera,
particularly the Philippine Series.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “The Mammals of Panama.”
Grant for the support of research entitled ‘Scientific Community in England
1820-1860.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Shanidar IV-VI Neanderthals.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Huropean Tertiary Dicotyledon
Floras.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “Revision of the Beetles of the
Genus Neobrotica Jacoby.”
Grant for the support of research entitled “The American Commensal Crabs
of the Family Pinnotheridae.”
Northwest Federation of Mineralogical Societies, a gift for lectures given by
Dr. Paul E. Desautel in Portland and Spokane.
Office of Naval Research :
Additional grant to provide advisory and consultant services.
Additional grant to perform psychological research studies.
Additional grant for research of information of shark distribution and distri-
bution of shark attack all over the world.
Additional grant for studies concerning the development of a proposal for
an institute for laboratory of human performance standards.
Additional grant for support of research entitled “Microlepidoptera of the
Island of Rapa.”
Additional grant for support of research entitled “A Study of Anatomy and
Taxonomy of Hawaiian Woods.”
Additional grant to perform aeronautical research studies.
Additional grant for the purpose of conducting systematic zoological re-
search on the marine fauna of Tropical Pacific Area.
Additional grant for research and development task order.
B. T. Rocca, Sr., donation for the purchase of crystal tourmaline from Brazil.
Rockefeller Foundation, grant for the support of research entitled “Cooperative
Field Studies of Relationship of Birds to Arthropod-transmitted Virus Disease
in the Region of Braganca, Brazil.”
Frank R. Schwengel, a gift toward the study of mollusks of Polynesia.
274. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
For support of Science Information Exchange:
Atomic Energy Commission
Department of Defense
Federal Aviation Agency
National Aeronautics and Space Administration
National Institutes of Health
National Science Foundation
Veterans Administration
Social Science Research Council, a gift for the conference on Transcultural
Studies of Cognitive System in Mérida, Mexico.
Theodore Szybowicz, a contribution toward the Moonwatch Study.
Tucson Gem and Mineral Society, grant for the inspection of an exhibit of
gems and minerals.
The United Educators, Inc., a gift for the use by the National Air Museum for
reference materials.
UNESCO, a gift to defray costs on UNESCO Visiting Committee for Tropical
Herbaria.
University of Hawaii, a gift for research on mollusks at Eniwetok, Marshall
Islands.
University of Michigan, a gift to defray costs on publication of Ars Orientalis.
Ellen Bayard Weeden Foundation, a gift for the Freer Gallery of Arts Library
Fund.
Wilmington Society of Fine Arts, a contribution to the Smithsonian Traveling
Exhibition Service.
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution :
Additional grant for the study of plankton collections.
Grant for the Indian Ocean Expedition training program in Bermuda.
Gift to provide funds to permit the participation in the International Indian
Ocean Expedition.
Charles M. Wormeser, a gift to provide acquisitions for the division of numis-
matics.
The following appropriations were made by Congress for the Gov-
ernment bureaus under the administrative charge of the Smithsonian
Institution for the fiscal year 1963:
Salaries and Cx pens@S=. =. 2 =o en ee ee ee oo $11, 060, 550. 00
National Zoological) Park= 225. 2 Ook Soe eee ee eee 1, 504, 997. 00
The appropriation made to the National Gallery of Art (which is
a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution) was_--------------- 2, 113, 850. 00
In addition, funds were transferred from other Government agen-
cies for expenditure under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution
as follows:
Working funds, transferred from the National Park Service In-
terior Department, for archeological investigations in river
basins throughout the United States___._______-_-___-_------- $271, 000. 00
The Institution also administers a trust fund for partial support of
the Canal Zone Biological Area, located on Barro Colorado Island
in the Canal Zone.
REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 275
AUDIT
The report of the audit of the Smithsonian Private Funds follows:
THE BOARD OF REGENTS,
Smithsonian Institution
Washington, D.C., 20560
We have examined the balance sheet of private funds of Smithsonian Institu-
tion as of June 30, 1963, and the related statement of current general private
funds receipts and disbursements and the several statements of changes in funds
for the year then ended. Our examination was made in accordance with gen-
erally accepted auditing standards, and accordingly included such tests of the
accounting records and such other auditing procedures as we considered necessary
in the circumstances.
Land, building, furniture, equipment, works of art, living and other specimens
and certain sundry property are not included in the accounts of the Institution ;
likewise, the accompanying statements do not include the National Gallery of
Art, the National Cultural Center and other departments, bureaus and operations
administered by the Institution under Federal appropriations. The accounts
of the Institution are maintained on the basis of cash receipts and disbursements,
with the result that the accompanying statements do not reflect income earned
but not collected or expenses incurred but not paid.
In our opinion, subject to the matters referred to in the preceding paragraph,
the accompanying statement of private funds presents fairly the assets and funds
principal of Smithsonian Institution at June 30, 1963; further, the accompanying
statement of current general private funds receipts and disbursements and several
statements of changes in funds, which have been prepared on a basis consistent
with that of the preceding year, present fairly the cash transactions of the
private funds for the year then ended.
Prat, MARWICK, MITCHELL & Co.
WASHINGTON, D.C., August 29, 1968.
Respectfully submitted.
(S) Rosert V. Fiemre,
(S) Caryn P. Haskins,
(S) Cxarence Cannon,
Executive Committee.
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GENERAL APPENDIX
to the
SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1963
720-018—64——_19
ADVERTISEMENT
The object of the Grnrrat Appenprx to the Annual Report of the
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis-
covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by staff
members and collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a gen-
eral character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the
numerous correspondents of the Institution.
It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the
Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual
report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more
remarkable and important developments in physical and biological
discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations
of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this
purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers
as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress.
In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum-
mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by
well-known private publishing firms, the Secretary had a series of
abstracts prepared by competent collaborators, showing concisely the
prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology,
meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and
anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether
satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888.
In the report of 1889, a return was made to the earlier method of
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original)
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus-
sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1963.
An “Author-Subject Index to Articles in Smithsonian Annual
Reports, 1849-1961” (Smithsonian Publication 4503) was issued in
1963.
Reprints of the various papers in the General Appendix may be
obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the
Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Wash-
ington, D.C., 20560.
278
The Solar System’
By Sir BERNARD LOVELL
Professor of Radioastronomy, University of Manchester, England
Durine THE last few years there has been a renewal of interest in
the problems of the solar system. This interest has been stimulated
by the discoveries made by using space probes and by the results
of research programs of the radio telescopes, which have revealed many
new facts about our immediate environment in space, the explanations
for which are not yet understood.
The basic astronomical data about the solar system are well known.
The earth, moving in a nearly circular orbit 93 million miles from the
sun, is a member of the sun’s family of planets. Mercury, at a mean
distance of 36 million miles from the sun, and Venus, at a mean dis-
tance of 67 million miles, are in orbits closer to the sun. The orbit
of Mars lies outside that of the earth at a mean distance of 141 million
miles. Then comes the outer planetary system of giants: Jupiter,
483 million miles from the sun, Saturn (886 million miles), Uranus
(1,788 million miles), Neptune (2,793 million miles), and Pluto
(3,666 million miles).
The inferior planets—Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars—are dis-
tinguishable from the giants by the fact that they have approximately
the same size and density. Compared with the earth as unity, the
densities range from 0.69 for Mars to 1.1 for Mercury, and the diam-
eters from 0.37 for Mercury to 0.97 for Venus. The giant planets
are in a different category, with densities much smaller than the earth
(from 0.13 for Saturn to 0.25 for Jupiter), but they are of enormous
size, ranging from Uranus which is 4 times the diameter of the earth,
to Jupiter, over 11 times the earth’s diameter. The outermost planet
Pluto is exceptional: although its dimensions are not accurately
known, it must be small, with the highest known density in the solar
system. Between the inferior and giant planets, that is, between the
orbits of Mars and Jupiter, there is a swarm of minor planets, or
asteroids, the largest of which is Ceres with a diameter of 400-500
miles, but many are probably only a few miles in diameter. The
1 This article appeared as Chapter II of ‘““The Exploration of Outer Space,” a collection of
five lectures by Sir Bernard Lovell, published in 1962 by Harper and Row, 49 East 33d
Street, New York, N.Y.
279
280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
MARS {2:6
@
Pe eS
SUN © EARTH 8-3
eee Me Ny, 2
THE FOUR INNER PLANETS
eae Ee
SATURN = MaRS ) Ma)
79:4
CGE C= *JUPITER 43°1
SCALE 20 TIMES THAT
© NEPTUNE
firs 327 USED IN TOP DIAGRAM
a ae THE FIVE OUTER PLANETS
Ficure 1.—The solar system. Numbers give the distance of the planet from the sun in
light minutes.
number of asteroids is not known but there are probably between
50,000 and 100,000.
The dimensions of the solar system are determined by the extreme
orbit of Pluto which is slightly elliptical. Although at its closest
approach to the sun the orbit of Pluto lies inside that of Neptune, the
most distant point of its orbit takes it 4,566 million miles away. At
this point the light from the sun to Pluto takes about 614 hours on
its journey. And so the size of the earth’s abode in space is epitomized
by the 93 million miles or 8 light minutes which separate us from the
sun and the 61% light hours of the farthest point of Pluto’s orbit from
the sun. Although these distances are enormous by terrestrial stand-
ards it has to be remembered that once we move out from this system
we have to travel for 414 years at the speed of light before we get to the
nearest star and then for 100,000 years to the extreme reaches of the
galaxy.
The parent of the solar system—the sun—has a diameter of 865,000
miles (that is excluding the solar atmosphere) and is 332,000 times
the mass of the earth. The weight of the sun is about 10?’ tons; that
is, a thousand billion billion? tons. The energy output of the sun
2 The use of “bilion’” in this article refers to the English billion ; that is, one million mil-
lion (as distinct from the American billion, which is one thousand million).
THE SOLAR SYSTEM—LOVELL 281
is about 4X 10% or nearly a billion billion kilowatts. This energy
is produced by thermonuclear processes which convert 4 million tons
of the solar matter into energy every second. The conversion takes
place in the center of the sun where the temperature is about 20
million degrees centigrade and the pressures amount to several thou-
sand million atmospheres. Under these conditions the atoms may be
stripped of electrons, in which case matter is said to be degenerate.
These transmutations in the interior of the sun involve the conversion
of 564 million tons of hydrogen to 560 million tons of helium every
second. Although the solar material is being used at this rate the
processes have already been operative for at least 4,000 million years.
The sun’s mass is so tremendous that this rate of use of its material
represents only about one-tenth percent of its mass every 10,000 million
years.
THE INTERPLANETARY SPACE
Until quite recently we have tended to think of the space between
the sun and the earth and the planets as being empty—a near vacuum,
not possessing many factors of interest to geophysics or astronomy.
We were aware that the earth was surrounded by the ionosphere—a
region of electrons of varying density extending to a few hundred
kilometers above the earth’s surface—and that the density of electrons
in these regions appeared to be related to the condition of the solar
surface and to be generally under solar control. Apart from this, the
various bodies seemed to be rather disconnected except for the gravi-
tational forces which controlled their motions. One of the most
remarkable changes of opinion during the last few years is in respect
of this situation in interplanetary space, because it now appears that
this space is not empty. On the contrary, the interplanetary space
must now be visualized as a medium where the conflict of a complex
of radiation, ionized particles, and magnetic forces is determining
the geophysical environment of the earth and the planets.
THE SOLAR ATMOSPHERE
The discovery of the ionized particles trapped in the Van Allen
belts around the earth has led to a searching inquiry regarding their
origin. The inner belt seems to be composed chiefly of protons which
are believed to be the decay products of neutrons moving out from
the atmosphere of the earth, where they have been produced by cosmic
ray bombardment. The outer zone of electrons is unstable and the
present theory of the origin of the electrons is that they are part of
the stream of material which is being blown away from the sun. It
is possible that in the region of about 10 earth radii we have the
interfacial boundary, where the earth’s own environment is coming
to terms with these solar forces. The sun has an intensely hot central
282 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
region where the thermonuclear energy-producing processes are taking
place. However, its surface temperature as observed from earth
through ordinary optical instruments is about 6,000°. Systematic
observation of this solar surface reveals a number of variable features.
The most striking is the apparition of sunspots, whose appearance on
the disk varies in an 11-year cycle. Although sunspots were observed
by Galileo—who was involved in a bitter dispute with Father Scheiner
over the priority of discovery—their origin and nature are still not
fully understood. Occasionally, when there is a rapidly changing
group of sunspots, a solar flare occurs, accompanied by a violent
ejection of hydrogenous material. The study of sunspots and solar
flares with spectrohelioscopes and other optical instruments has in
recent years been supplemented by radio astronomical studies. One
of the earliest discoveries made during the rapid development of radio
astronomy after the war was that sunspots, and particularly on the
occasions when they associated to such an extent that a big flare
occurred, generated powerful radio waves. Many types of intense
and sporadic radio wave emissions from the sun are now recognized,
in association with disturbances on the solar surface. The corona
or atmosphere of the sun also generates radio waves which, although
much weaker than the irregular outbursts, are present all the time.
When the sun is eclipsed the vast gaseous layer of the corona can be
seen streaming out to a few solar radii. This coronal gas is in a state
of turbulent motion and the conditions are such that at half a solar
radius above the visible disk there are about 30 million atoms per c.c.
and the effective temperature is a few million degrees absolute. These
conditions create a most interesting situation and recent calculations
indicate that there is a resultant outward pressure which causes the
material of the solar corona to expand outward continually with a
speed of between 500 and 1,500 km./sec. This streaming material is
known as the solar wind. The experimental evidence for the existence
of this solar wind has, until recently, been rather scarce, but in the
spring of 1961 the Americans launched a space probe equipped with
instruments specifically designed to detect the existence and measure
the constitution of this material streaming from the sun. Although
the probe stayed up for only about 48 hours it succeeded in its task of
recording and measuring the existence of the solar wind in the inter-
planetary space. The situation which occurs when sunspots and flares
are seen on the solar disk is a violent modulation of this steady stream-
ing away from the sun, because on these occasions the material of the
corona and chromosphere is ejected at velocities several times that of
the normal streaming velocity of the coronal material.
Another intriguing new concept concerns the behavior of magnetic
fields. Hitherto we have tended to visualize magnetic fields as entities
THE SOLAR SYSTEM—LOVELL 283
belonging to a magnet whose magnetic field moved with it. Astronom-
ically it was believed that magnetic fields were localized in bodies like
the earth, the sun, and some of the stars. Now itis realized that if there
ig a gas in a highly ionized condition, like the material of the solar wind,
moving in interplanetary space where the free path is thousands of
kilometers, then this material carries its own magnetic field. This
concept of the trapped magnetic field—contained in a stream of gas,
coming from the solar corona or from the shell of a star, moving
away into space so that the ionized particles and the magnetic field
move together, actually being transported through space to another
part of the solar system or another part of the cosmos—has become
of great importance in theoretical astrophysics. The possibility of
magnetic fields moving in this way with the gas appears to be one
of the controlling influences which may govern the organization of the
interplanetary material and indeed of the interstellar gas in the cos-
mos asa whole. The fact that this gas streaming from the sun carries
with it a magnetic field is a matter of great importance as far as the
earth is concerned, because when this solar wind reaches the neighbor-
hood of the earth then the earth’s magnetic field is disturbed. The
electrons which are streaming away from the sun can then be injected
into the earth’s own magnetic field; they become trapped in it and in
this way the outer layer of the Van Allen belts is probably formed.
These ideas provide a good explanation of the situation whereby this
outer belt of electrons is so subject to solar control, why it disappears
in a magnetic storm, and the processes by which it is repopulated after
a matter of some days. In principle the earth’s field should present
a fairly solid barrier against the injection of particles of comparatively
low energy from outside, but it is this distortion of the magnetic field
by the traveling fields coming away from the sun which facilitates
the injection.
The whole phenomenon of the earth’s magnetic storms and the au-
rora borealis, or the northern lights, must be tied up with these par-
ticles which are trapped in the Van Allen belts. The aurorae were
known to be associated with solar flares and it was believed that the
phenomena were caused by the particles streaming out from the region
of the flare on the sun and reaching the neighborhood of the earth after
a period of 24 to 30 hours, when they entered the atmosphere and
gave rise to ionization at a height of 100 kilometers or so. This
explanation is now obviously incorrect because it is known that the
particles from the sun are trapped in the outer Van Allen belt. The
formation of the aurora seems to be associated with the draining of
the particles from the outer belt during a magnetic storm. Appar-
ently the primary aurora particles do orginate in this outer belt and
the function of the magnetic storm in the aurora phenomenon is to
284 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
produce the magnetically disturbed condition which allows the par-
ticles to escape from the belt and enter the atmosphere down the
earth’s own lines of force.
The phenomenon of the traveling solar magnetic field is of great
interest in many other aspects of physics, particularly in cosmic ray
physics. The primary cosmic ray particles are believed to be gener-
ated in the galaxy and it has been known for a long time that their in-
tensity, incident on the earth’s atmosphere, decreased when there was
a severe magnetic disturbance. This effect was so closely linked with
the modulation of the earth’s field that it had been assumed to be
a local terrestrial effect, in that the variation of the cosmic ray inten-
sity was governed by the changes in the earth’s field. During 1960
and 1961 Simpson of Chicago discovered, by cosmic ray-counting
experiments in the American space probes Explorer VI and Pioneer
V, that this decrease observed on earth was accompanied by a simul-
taneous decrease in the counting rate of the apparatus in the probes
when they were many millions of kilometers away in interplanetary
space. Clearly, it is the variation in the magnetic field in interplane-
tary space itself which is controlling this intensity variation and not
the local field of the earth, and the variable interplanetary fields of
this nature must arise through the magnetic field trapped in the
material streaming away from the sun.
In addition to the material which streams away from the solar
corona, and the high energy protons which are ejected at the time of
solar flares, the sun frequently ejects large quantities of low energy
protons. All these radiations present a serious hazard to the astro-
naut intending to travel in interplanetary space and considerable
thought is already being given to possibilities of predicting the nature
and timing of these solar outbursts.
Whereas the space probes have become avenues through which we
are learning about the influence of the sun in interplanetary space,
the observations of the solar radio emissions have revolutionized
our picture of the sun itself. The powerful emissions of radio waves
during sunspots and solar flares are the most obvious radio phenomena
associated with the sun. But the observation of the less intense radio
emissions from the solar corona has revealed an interesting situation.
If we imagine ourselves looking at the sun with radio eyes instead of
with ordinary eyes, then we would observe quite a different object in
the sky. At a wavelength of 21 cm., instead of the uniform disk
which we usually see, its appearance would be that of a disk that was
brighter toward the edges and was flattened instead of circular. It
would extend much farther into space than it does when visually
observed. If our eyes were tuned to look at a rather longer wave-
length in the meter waveband then we should begin to think that the
sun was monopolizing the whole sky. On wavelengths of several
THE SOLAR SYSTEM—LOVELL 285
meters the corona of the sun, or the radio sun, has been traced out to
something like 20 or 30 solar radii. All this is compatible with the
picture we have already formed of the influence of the solar atmos-
phere extending throughout great distances of interplanetary space.
METEORS OR SHOOTING STARS
In addition to the complex of radiation and ionized particles in
space, there is a vast debris of small particles mainly composed of
stone or iron. The most common manifestation of these is the ap-
pearance in the sky of a meteor or shooting star. Occasionally the
particles are so big that they penetrate the atmosphere and fall to the
earth as meteorites. ‘The common shooting stars occur when the earth
encounters this debris in its journey through space; the particles are
heated by friction as they enter the outer layers of the atmosphere, and
have generally evaporated completely at about 100 kilometers above
the surface of the earth, leaving behind a transient trail of light.
The occurrence of these meteors has been known for centuries and they
may be seen in any clear dark sky with the naked eye at a rate of
about 10 per hour. These are the sporadic meteors which appear to
be distributed with a fair degree of uniformity in interplanetary
space. On the other hand at particular times of the year, say in
August or in December, the rate rises to 50 to 100 per hour for a few
nights. These are the shower meteors which appear to radiate from
a particular point in the sky and generally occur with considerable
regularity from year to year.
The question of the origin of these meteors in the solar system
is another problem of great contemporary interest. ‘The earth moves
in its orbit around the sun at a speed of about 29 km./sec.; as well as
this motion of the earth around the sun, the sun itself and the entire
solar system are moving through space with a velocity of about 20
km./sec., in the direction of the star Vega. To an observer outside
the solar system the motion of the earth would appear to be like that
of a giant corkscrew. In this journey the earth occasionally runs
into the streams of debris which are concentrated in orbits around the
sun. These enter the atmosphere of the earth and give rise to the
showers of meteors.
These concentrations of debris are, in many cases, closely associated
with comets. Although the origin of the comets is uncertain, we
know that they are contained within the solar system moving under
the gravitational control of the sun and are not visitors from inter-
stellar space. The nucleus of the comet is an icy conglomerate of
various carbon compounds, and most of the comets have a long tail
which may stream behind the head for millions of kilometers. In
this tail or in the orbit of the comet we have these very large numbers
of small specks of dust which may have been evaporated from the
286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
nucleus as the comet approaches the sun. One comet which has
been of considerable contemporary interest in the study of meteors
during the last decade is the Giacobini-Zinner Comet. In October
1946 the earth crossed the orbit of the comet only a few days from
the position of the nucleus. For a few hours between midnight and
6 a.m. on October 10 thousands of meteors could be seen in the sky,
but before this and afterward the meteor rate was of the usual
sporadic value of a few per hour. This was a clear and spectacular
demonstration of the close relationship between meteors and comets.
The systematic study of meteors has been severely handicapped by
the difficulty of making observations, as the sky is so frequently
either obscured by cloud or made light by moonlght. Radio astron-
omy has given us new methods of investigating these meteors which
overcome the difliculty of cloud, moonlight, or daylight. When the
meteoric particle evaporates in the high atmosphere it leaves behind
a trail of ionized particles as well as the luminous trail by which we
see it. The electrons in this ionized trail are efficient scatterers of
radio waves. A beam of radio waves transmitted from a radio tele-
scope is scattered by the trail and the returned signal can be detected
by the receiving part of the telescope equipment as a transient echo.
If the recording equipment consists of a cathode ray tube with a
suitable time base, it is possible to observe the diffraction pattern
which is formed as the ionized trail crosses the perpendicular from
the receiver to the trail. This is the radio analog of the diffraction
of light at a straight edge—the rhythmic variations in brightness as
the shadow merges into the light. In the radio case, since the range
can be measured and the wavelength is known, the precise velocity
of the meteor can be determined. If these observations are made from
three spaced receiving stations using one transmitter, the exact orbit in
space of a single meteoric particle can be obtained.
The relative infrequency of the meteors seen by a single observer
gives a false impression of the vast numbers which the earth encounters
in its journey through space. The number entering the earth’s atmos-
phere which are big enough to produce a trail sufficiently bright to be
seen in a small telescope is about 8,000 million every day. These are
small grains of dust weighing only about a ten-thousandth of a gram.
Using radio techniques one can detect particles of even smaller size,
and the numbers increase by about 21% times for every fainter magni-
tude. The particles detected by the most sensitive radio-meteor
equipment available today are probably being swept up by the earth
at the rate of about a million million per day. The numbers seem
to increase endlessly as the size goes down, but when the radius of the
particles is less than about a millimeter then these particles are too
small to burn up. For these the ratio of the surface area to the mass
is so large that the energy of interaction when the particles begin to
THE SOLAR SYSTEM—LOVELL 287
enter the atmosphere is radiated away and the flight of the dust grain
is stopped before evaporation occurs. These are the micrometeorites
which eventually fall to earth as dust. From a study of the deposits
on the ocean bed it has been estimated that the earth collects some-
thing like a million tons per annum in this way.
The micrometeorites are now the subject of investigations using
satellites and space probes, and many space vehicles launched by the
Americans and Russians have been equipped with some form of
micrometeorite detector. In principle, the detection of these micro-
meteorites in space should be simple—by allowing them to collide with
a diaphragm which is equipped with a microphone: when a dust grain
hits the diaphragm it will make a sound in the microphone and be
telemetered back to earth. In practice these impact methods have
proved to be difficult because the microphones record noises other than
the impact of the dust grains; the calibration, too, is uncertain. The
techniques have now been refined and we have some idea of the amount
of dust of this extraordinarily small size which exists in space. For
particles which weigh a hundred-millionth of a gram the rate of im-
pact is found to be equivalent to one particle per 1,000 second over
a surface of area 1 square inch. For particles which weigh a thou-
sand-millionth of a gram the rate is found to be 1 every 100 second.
The quantity of this dust is 1,000 to 10,000 times greater than the
particles which are big enough to burn up in the atmosphere.
From some of the recent analyses of the micrometeorite recordings
in the American satellites, Whipple of the Smithsonian Astrophysical
Observatory has concluded that a large quantity of this small dust ap-
pears to be traveling in an orbit around the earth. It appears that in
some circumstances which are not yet understood some of this fine dust
gets trapped in gravitational orbits around the earth. So we seem to
have two new situations arising. We have the trapped radiation, the
protons and electrons in the Van Allen belts (that is a magnetic trap-
ping), and also a gravitational trapping of fine dust in the vicinity of
the earth.
At the other end of the scale of size, as the particles become bigger
their numbers decrease. Objects which we see in the sky as bright
fireballs probably weigh about a gram, and there may be a million
of these entering the earth’s atmosphere every day. If the meteor
is much larger than this it will not be completely evaporated in its
journey through the atmosphere and some part of it will fall to earth
as a solid body. Something like 500 kilograms of this material per
year fall to earth in this way as meteorites. Occasionally these
meteorites are extremely big and there are classic examples such as
the meteor crater in Arizona and the Siberian meteorite which fell
in 1908 and devastated 100 square miles of countryside. If ever a
meteorite of this size fell on a populated area then there would
288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
indeed be a calamity, but oddly enough there seems to be no well
attested case of anyone being killed by a meteorite fall. Some years
ago a person in America was injured by a meteorite but even this
was from the first bounce of a small fragment. There has been some
discussion about the dangers of these meteors and meteorites to space
travelers, but the chances of being hit by anything which could do
serious damage to a space ship is so small that none of the experts
really worry about it. Of course the astronauts who land on the
moon will need protection, because there is no atmosphere to act as
a shield even from the micrometeorites.
The refinement of the measurements made in space probes and
satellites, coupled with further development in the ground-based
photographic and radio-echo meteor work, will certainly lead to a
much better understanding of the role of these particles in the
formation and evolution of the solar system. At present it is believed
that the large meteorites which fall to earth have a different origin
from the meteors. Are the meteorites an extension of the size range
of meteors, or are they a separate class? Does all this debris represent
samples of the primeval material left over from the formation
of the solar system or is it the consequence of some subsequent
planetary catastrophe? It is clear that an extraordinarily complex
situation exists in the solar system in the space between the earth
and planets and the sun, not only of electromagnetic radiation but
of corpuscular radiation, and of solid material particles in the form
of dust and pieces of stone and iron.
THE MOON AND THE PLANETS
The techniques of radio astronomy and the space probe seem to be
on the verge of increasing markedly our knowledge of the moon and
the planets. For example, in the case of the moon, the radio astro-
nomical work has already given some extremely interesting results.
Ten years ago it was a difficult technological problem to transmit
radio waves from earth and pick them up again 214 seconds later
after they had been reflected from the surface of the moon nearly
a quarter of a million miles distant. Now, with the large radio
telescopes, this 1s an easy technical task but, as so often happens with
new scientific experiments, completely unexpected effects were en-
countered. ‘The moon appears to be fairly uniformly bright to the
eye, and it was assumed that if radio waves of uniform strength were
transmitted to the moon, then they would be scattered uniformly
from the lunar surface so that the signals collected by the radio
telescope and recorded as echoes on a cathode ray tube would always
be of the same strength. It was surprising to find that this was not
the situation. The transmissions from the telescope were made in the
form of short pulses which were expected to be recorded as pulses
THE SOLAR SYSTEM—LOVELL 289
of uniform strength after scattermg from the lunar surface. In fact,
very marked irregularities in the strength of the returned echoes were
found. The individual pulses, separated in time by a second or so,
varied in strength and there was also a long-period variation in the
average strength of the returned signals with periods of 15 or 30
minutes. It appears that these short-period and long-period effects
are quite different phenomena. The long-period variation is the re-
sult of an influence on the radio waves of the earth’s magnetic
field as they traverse the space between the earth and the moon.
Most of this influence occurs in the ionized regions of the earth at a
height of about 200 to 400 kilometers, and the variation is caused by
the rotation of the plane of polarization of the radio waves—the
Faraday effect occurring in the earth’s ionosphere. The exploitation
of this effect in a systematic manner has provided a method of
measuring the total number of electrons between the earth and the
moon.
The short-period fading which takes place in periods of seconds
has a different origin. This fading is an effect of the libration of the
moon. Because of the irregularities of the slight ellipticity of the
motion of the moon around the earth, it never presents exactly the
same face but gives the effect of a slight oscillation known as libration.
It seems that the nature of the lunar surface is such that even for
radio wavelengths it does not reflect as a smooth body but has a num-
ber of plateaus which reflect the radio waves back to earth. The re-
flecting qualities of adjacent parts of the lunar surface differ so much
that we get these very large variations in amplitude. An investiga-
tion of the statistics of this phenomenon leads to a surprising con-
clusion. In the case of the reflection of light, the moon behaves
like a ball of chalk which appears almost uniformly bright in a beam
of light. On the other hand, when radio waves are directed toward
it the moon scatters similarly to a polished ball-bearing in a beam of
light—the central region of the ball appearing much brighter than
the remainder of the surface. When radio waves are reflected from
the moon it seems that they are not returned uniformly from the whole
forward hemisphere of the moon but predominantly from a small part
of the forward hemisphere—a hemispherical cap only about a fifth of
the radius of the lunar surface. This is a striking illustration of the
overall smoothness of the moon as far as wavelengths of the order of
a meter or so are concerned.
This discovery had an interesting practical result. The suitability
of the moon had often been considered in relation to the problem
of bouncing radio messages from one side of the earth to the other,
using radio wavelengths so short that the earth’s ionosphere was
penetrated and, therefore, there could be no interference from sun-
spots. It had been decided that this was impossible because the moon,
290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
reflecting over such a large area, would introduce so much distortion
that the signals would be unintelligible. However, the conclusion
reached from the study of the short-period fluctuations, that only
the central part of the lunar hemisphere was effective, entirely al-
tered this situation, and it seemed at least possible that if one modu-
lated the radio waves going out from the radio telescope with speech
instead of with the pulses, then one might at least be able to get back
intelligible speech reflected from the moon. 'This proved to be the case,
and it is now possible to converse intelligibly between any two points
of the world, from which it is mutually visible, by using the moon as
a reflecting surface.
Radio telescopes have been used to measure the radio emissions from
several of the planets in the region of centimeter wavelengths. This
is the thermal emission appropriate to the temperature of the body,
and useful comparisons with the temperatures derived by optical
studies are being made. More surprising is the detection of large
sporadic outbursts on long wavelengths from Jupiter. The energies
involved in the generation of these radio waves must be enormous.
There is some evidence that the events occur on the surface of the
planet rather than in its atmosphere. Should this be the case, the
forces at work must be equivalent to the energies involved in several
hydrogen bombs, or in giant volcanic eruptions like the explosion of
Krakatoa.
The extension of the lunar radar experiments to the nearer planets
presented a major challenge. The moon is 240,000 miles distant and
the return journey of the radio waves from earth takes 214 seconds.
At close approach Venus is nearly 30 million miles away and the radar
signal would take over 5 minutes on the journey there and back to
earth. In terms of sensitivity of apparatus it is 10 million times more
difficult to achieve success here than with the lunar echo. However,
a beginning has been made. An American team with a transmitter
of very great power on an 80-foot radio telescope, and a team at Jod-
rell Bank using a smaller transmitter on the 250-foot radio telescope,
have both achieved initial success in these Venus experiments. Hven
with these preliminary results a direct measurement of the distance of
the planet has been made and the range of uncertainty about the value
of the solar parallax has been significantly reduced. It is hoped that
in the near future further extension of this work will enable the rate
of rotation of the planet to be measured. It is likely, too, that the
experiments will give some guidance on the nature of the surface of
the planet.
At the moment no one can be sure whether the first determination
of the rotation period of Venus will come from these radio-astronom-
ical studies or from instruments carried in a space probe, which either
orbits or make a close approach to the planet. There are, however,
THE SOLAR SYSTEM—LOVELL 291
many aspects of these lunar and planetary studies which can be
achieved only by the physical presence of instruments carried in space
probes. Lunik II crashed its instruments onto the lunar surface.
Soon we may expect control to be exercised in the final stages of flight.
Then either a soft landing can be made and the instruments main-
tained in working order on the lunar surface, or the probe can be
placed in close orbit around the moon. Then we shall have the poten-
tial for studying the lunar atmosphere and magnetic field (if any
exists) ; and for making detailed measurements on the lunar surface,
which may well have a decisive influence on many outstanding con-
flicts of opinion. The history of many eons of time is contained on
the lunar surface, which must be almost untouched by erosion. Is
there, for example, an identity of material between the meteorites
which crash to earth and the surface of the moon? The analysis of
certain meteorites made by Urey seems to indicate that at some stage
in their history they must have gone through processes of heating
which could occur only in the interior of a body of lunar size; and that
these meteorites which we handle today are the result of a shattering
of these moons in collision. If this is correct there must, at some
stage in the evolution of the solar system, have been at least 10 objects
the size of the present moon which eventually disintegrated in mutual
collisions. It seems that these lunar investigations may well hold
the key toa major problem in the evolution of the solar system.
THE ORIGIN OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM
Various forms of evidence indicate that the earth is about 4,500
million years old. In the first half of this century we believed that the
earth and the planets were torn out of the sun in the form of great
tongues of solar gas by the gravitational attraction of a passing star.
The wandering star passed on its journey and eventually after eons of
time the molten gas cooled down and formed the planets and the earth.
One significant feature of this theory was that the close encounter of
two stars in this way must be an extremely rare accident and in spite
of the trillions of stars in the universe the solar system was probably
unique. Today we are aware of reasons why the earth and the planets
could not have been torn from the sun in this way. For example,
98 percent of the mass of the entire solar system is in the sun, but
98 percent of the angular momentum of the system resides in the
planets. Since the division of angular momenta must have occurred
at the time of formation of the solar system, this represents an im-
possible situation. Gaseous material torn out from the sun with that
distribution of momenta would dissipate quickly and could not possibly
have aggregated into planets.
Today we believe that the solar system was formed in quite a differ-
ent way. Originally, the sun, which is an average star, was probably
292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
surrounded by a nebula of dust and gas. These particles of dust suf-
ered collisions with one another and a certain degree of accretion
or coagulation occurred. This process continued through a thousand
million years or so, the coagulations all the time getting bigger and
bigger, with fragmentation occurring as the larger particles collided.
Eventually these became powerful accretors of material, and it is
possible dynamically to explain with some degree of precision how the
planets of various sizes and mass were formed in this manner.
One uncertainty in the argument concerns the process by which
the sun collected the original nebula of gas and dust. There seem
to be two possibilities. Interstellar space is full of clouds of dust,
and it may be that the sun as it journeyed through space ran into
one of these very dense clouds and carried with it this large nebula
which must at that time have spread over billions of miles representing
the extent of planetary orbits. Or it is possible that the event which
gives rise to the birth of a star like the sun involves the simultaneous
creation of thousands of stars from the primeval cloud of hydrogenous
material, and that so much dust and gaseous material remains that
the stars themselves are left with a nebula of gas and dust as part
of this formation process.
There are important consequences of these new ideas. On the for-
mer ideas that the planets were torn out of the sun, the origin of the
solar system was a rare accident; it must have been unique in the
entire universe in spite of the vast numbers of stars which existed.
In this theory the earth must originally have been extremely hot,
and therefore all the biological processes which have since occurred
must have been events which took place subsequent to the cooling down
of the earth. On the accretion theory the situation is quite different.
The formation of planetary systems from the nebulae around stars
may be a frequent occurrence in the universe, and our own solar sys-
tem can no longer be regarded as unique. Another important corol-
lary is that this accretion of planetary systems occurs in a cold state
and any prebiotic material which exists on the interstellar dust of the
nebulae will be carried over to the planets.
Advances in Astronomical Technology’
By Aven B. MEINEL
Director, Steward Observatory, University of Arizona
[With 4 plates]
Astronomy is a branch of science that has contributed much to the
rapid expansion of the frontiers of modern technology. The unique
technical problem faced by the astronomer is the faintness of the stars
and other objects with which he must work. Telescope mirrors meas-
ured in meters across are needed to gather enough flux of this faint
light to permit its study. Celestial objects are also so far away that
their apparent size is so small that the astronomer’s telescope must, in
addition, focus the faint light it gathers to a sharp focus.
Most celestial objects are in reality very hot and luminous but ap-
pear faint because of their great distances from us. The brightest
star, Sirius, with an intrinsic luminosity 28 times that of our sun is
approximately 10,000 million (1 followed by ten zeros) times appar-
ently fainter than the sun, and it is one of the closest of the visible
stars. The faintest galaxy of stars that can be detected with the
200-inch Palomar telescope is so remote that its light has taken over
1 billion years traveling at the velocity of light (300,000 km/sec) to
reach us from the depths of space. These two problems, faintness
and small angular size, set the unusual characteristics of astronomical
instrumentation and research.
The eye is little used in astronomical work today except in the ex-
amination of the moon and planets. While the eye is exceedingly
sensitive to light it does not have the property of integration. In
other words, the eye will not detect any star fainter than one it can
see in the first second of time. A photographic plate, on the other
hand, will record the picture of stars 100 times fainter in 100 seconds
than it will record in 1 second. In recent decades the astronomer has
principally worked with the photographic process to determine the
position, motion, and brightness of celestial objects. Photography
still represents a method of information storing unrivaled for pictorial
1 Reprinted by permission from The Indian ¢€ Eastern Engineer, 104th Anniversary
Number, 1962.
720-018—64——_20 293
294 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
display as is evidenced by the accompanying photographs. The
fastest photographic emulsions, however, utilize only about 1 percent
of the incident light. The best photoelectric devices available to the
astronomer today can utilize approximately 30 percent of the light.
TELESCOPES
The principal auxiliary instruments currently used on a telescope
are the photoelectric photometer and spectrophotometer, the photo-
graphic spectrograph, the photographic camera, and recently a new
device, the image intensification tube. A spectrograph is a most power-
ful device in the hands of the astronomer. It can reveal many
interesting properties of a star, such as temperature, mass, chemical
composition, the extent of its atmosphere, whether the star is single,
a binary system, etc., its motion toward or away from the observer and
indirectly, but effectively, the absolute brightness, distance and even
the age of the star. I cannot go into the many interesting details of
how each of these things is learned, but I hope that the recitation of
this list will give the reader a glimpse into the fascinating world open
to the astronomer.
The astronomer has pushed the telescope close to its maximum useful
size in the current century. At this time we have four telescopes
that have been built with mirror diameters of 100 inches or more.
In order of size these telescopes are the 200-inch Hale telescope on
Mount Palomar, completed in 1947; the 120-inch on Mount Hamilton,
in 1959; the 104-inch now being placed in operation in the U.S.S.R.:
and the famed 100-inch on Mount Wilson, completed in 1919 and
which did much to revolutionize observational astronomy in the hands
of Hubble and Baade. A giant telescope of 240-inch aperture and
of revolutionary design is reported under design by the Institute of
Optics in Leningrad. A new telescope of 150-inch aperture has also
reached the design stage at the Kitt Peak National Observatory
in the U.S.A.
Since new and larger telescopes cost much in return for a relatively
small gain in distance reached and in new knowledge, astronomers are
now concentrating upon the use of new methods to make better use
of the starlight that is collected by our terrestrial telescopes. They
are also looking forward to the utilization of space telescopes, but
before I speak of these new telescopes it 1s necessary to appreciate the
handicaps with which the astronomer is faced with his telescopes
located upon the surface of the earth.
The atmosphere limits the usefulness of a large telescope even on
the clearest night atop a mountain. The small turbulences present
in the atmosphere that are accompanied by thermal differences make
it impossible to sharply focus a telescope. The air itself will not
permit the far ultraviolet light or the infrared light to reach the
ASTRONOMICAL TECHNOLOGY—MEINEL 295
highest mountain. In addition, the night sky background is not
entirely dark. Far from the lights of the city and on a moonless
night one can see with the dark-adapted eye well enough to read the
large headline type of a newspaper. The stars are therefore seen by
a telescope as upon this faintly luminous background. This diffuse
“light of the night sky” and the lack of sharpness of focus from at-
mospheric turbulence combine to set the limit in faintness to which a
telescope can reach.
The total brightness of the night sky background with a large tele-
scope is approximately equal to that of one 20th magnitude star per
square second of arc. It is obvious, therefore, that we cannot tolerate
many square seconds of arc in a detector when we wish to observe a
23d magnitude star. Since the light of the night sky is a diffuse
source, its brightness does not depend upon the mirror diameter of
the telescope but only upon the ratio of the focal length divided by
the aperture, called the f-ratio or f-number of the telescope.
INCREASING THE EFFICIENCY
Faced with the above limitations the astronomer has four means
at his disposal where gains can be made as follows:
1. Increase the size of the telescope mirror,
2. Increase the efficiency of the detector,
3. Decrease the aperture, and thereby the night sky noise at the
detector,
4. Place the telescope above the atmosphere, either on a high balloon
or a satellite.
The first alternative, building a larger telescope, has been con-
sidered. While it is within the scope of present technology to build
a 400-inch telescope, its cost would be in the vicinity of $40 million.
Its ultimate benefits would be doubtful in terms of the great expense
because of the limitations imposed by atmospheric seeing unless a
site with unprecedented|y fine seeing could be found.
The term “seeing” is used by the astronomer to refer to two dis-
turbances caused by the atmosphere. They are (a) time fluctuations
in the intensity of the wavefront arriving at various points at the
telescope aperture, and (b) time fluctuations in the direction of arrival
of the wavefront. The first is called “scintillation” and is readily
seen with the unaided eye as twinkling. The second effect is usually
referred to as “seeing” since it affects the ability of the telescope,
especially a large one, to focus sharply. Research into seeing has
shown that these effects are most serious close to the land surface.
To minimize these effects telescopes are now located, at no small in-
convenience and expense, upon the summits of mountains in relatively
smooth air. In the best sites the average seeing diameter for a large
telescope is between 1 and 2 seconds of arc. Upon rare occasions the
296 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
seeing may approach 0.2 to 0.3 second of arc, as has been noted at
Pic du Midi in France; however, this size is still much larger than the
theoretical resolving power of a large instrument. As a consequence
a very large telescope can promise only a larger picture of the same
blurred celestial object as would be obtained with one perhaps only
one-half as big.
The second possibility for improvement is in the efficiency of the
detection of the photons. The photographic process, widely used for
many years, has the ability to record stars over a wide range of
brightness, although the accuracy of the measure of brightness is
relatively low. One photograph may record star images over a
range of 20 magnitudes (108 in intensity) and also record a million
information elements per square millimeter. Information densities
up to 5 million elements per square millimeter are possible under
laboratory conditions. The quantum efficiency of a photographic
emulsion is low, ranging from 0.1 to 1.0 percent. There is little hope
for a large improvement in the photographic process itself since
individual silver grains in the emulsion are quite good detectors. The
quantum efficiency for a single grain to be developable in terms of
absorbed photons is 25 percent. One developed grain, however, does
not provide a detectable quantity since every grain produced by
chemical reaction called “fog” would be indistinguishable from a
“star”. Only when groups of 20 or more grains are developed does
one recognize the clump as an entity on the background of fog grain
clumpiness.
In recent years much effort has been devoted to the utilization of the
high quantum efficiencies approaching 30 percent for the photoelectric
detector. The photomultiplier is a commercially available device of
high efficiency and built-in amplification which has been widely used
in astronomy and nuclear physics. The internal amplification of
such a device of 10° produces a measurable pulse each time a photo-
electron is emitted from the cathode. The cathode will occasionally
reject a “thermal” electron spontaneously as a consequence of the
low work function of the caesium compound emitting surface. These
thermal electrons produce what is called the “dark current,” which
adds a noise background to the signal. A good photomultiplier at
room temperature will have a dark current of 10 to 20 electrons per
second from a 1 cm.? photocathode surface. Because the dark current
emission is temperature dependent, the astronomical use of photo-
multipliers for use on faint objects is always with the device cooled
to dry-ice temperature (—80°C). At this low temperature a good
tube will have a dark current of about 0.2 electron per second per cm.?
The photomultiplier is an excellent detector of a single object at a
time. ‘The output current is accurately linear over a wide range of
intensities; hence, the brightness of a star can be measured very
ASTRONOMICAL TECHNOLOGY—MEINEL 297
accurately. In practice, the photoelectric photometer isolates a single
small region of the sky at the focus of the telescope. The size of the
diaphragm of the photometer is kept small in order to reduce the
noise signal from the background of the sky, but large enough to
permit the blurred image of the star to pass completely through the
hole and to allow for inaccuracies in the guiding of the telescope.
The usual size of the diaphragm is 1 to 2mm. diameter.
The high efficiency of the photoelectric surface has led to efforts to
construct an imaging system where the astronomer could take a “pic-
ture” of many stars at a time rather than one by one. While the
theory of an image tube is very simple—one needs only to electron-
ically accelerate and focus the electrons emitted from the cathode upon
a fluorescent screen or directly upon a photographic emulsion—the
practical attainment of an image tube proved full of technical diffi-
culties. The earliest use of an image tube in astronomy was by
Krassovsky (U.S.S.R.) who adapted an infrared snooperscope tube
to photograph the infrared airglow spectrum, a task not possible at all
with the photographic emulsion since it is not sensitive to the infrared
beyond 1 micron wavelength. The first image tubes to rival and
exceed the direct photograph were made in France by Lallemande.
While the use of these in astronomy has permitted unusual observation
such as the rotational velocity of the nuclear regions of the Androm-
eda nebula by Walker (U.S.A.), each tube must be made minutes
before use—hardly like taking a photographic plate out of a box
purchased months beforehand.
The adaptation of the television tube method to astronomy has
recently become possible by the development of tubes with high
sensitivity to low levels of light and with integrating properties.
Many astronomers in the U.S.A. are now experimenting with systems
using commercial tubes with good success. The promise of this type
of image tube is foreshadowed by the time in the near future when
astronomers will want to have their “photograph” taken from a space
telescope transmitted back to the earth.
A vast technology has developed for infrared detection in the region
from 1 to 12 microns and which has only recently been applied to
astronomy. The principal reasons for the lack of development of
infrared astronomy are that the atmosphere transmission is highly
variable in these wavelengths and detectors are still senstitive enough
only to permit one to reach the brightest stars with a large telescope.
To illustrate the problem of background noise in the case of an infra-
red telescope it is only necessary to remember that the maximum of
the infrared emission from material at room temperature is at 10
microns. The detector therefore looks at the star through a telescope
that is literally glowing with its own light even though it is night and
298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
completely dark to the eye. As a consequence, much remains to be
explored of the heavens when infrared telescopes can be flown from
balloons or space telescopes where the telescope can be made very cold.
BALLOON TECHNOLOGY
The third possibility for improvement in the operating efficiency
and research potential of a telescope has now been opened through
advances in balloon technology. As mentioned earlier, the efficiency
of a telescope increases when the “seeing” image size is decreased.
Much effort has been expended in the location of the Palomar and
Kitt Peak observatories to find a site with the best seeing conditions.
It does not appear that much can be gained in this direction for
future telescope locations as long as the terrestrial atmosphere is
involved. Only when one can place his telescope above the atmos-
phere does the theoretical resolving power of a telescope become
obtainable. Balloon-borne telescopes offer this possibility.
At balloon altitudes of approximately 80,000 feet there is effectively
no seeing disturbance even from direct sunlight on the telescope. While
visual observations have been made from balloons, the first successful
demonstration of high resolution photography was made with the 12-
inch Stratoscope I by Schwarzschild (U.S.A.). This unmanned
photographic telescope has taken superb direct photographs of the
sun, achieving the full theoretical resolution of the telescope.
At the present time the 36-inch Stratoscope II system is nearing
completion. This instrument is large enough to permit the observa-
tion of planets, stars, and nebulae, and it is designed to yield a guid-
ance accuracy of 0.1 second of arc over extended periods. The
achievement of this accuracy should, for instance, permit the solution
of the existence or nonexistence of the “canals” on the planet Mars.
Other balloon-borne telescopes are planned and several have failed.
The launching and operation of as precise an instrument as a telescope
from the tenuous platform provided from a balloon are complicated,
and the probability for a malfunction of some portion of the system
is a real threat to the success of the flight.
Rockets have been used for the last decade to obtain brief glimpses
of the sun and stars from completely above the atmosphere. Even
though a rocket-borne telescope has only 3 to 4 minutes of observing
time, such a telescope is the only device that astronomers have had to
observe the far ultraviolet beyond the atmospheric cutoff at a wave-
length of 3000A. Beautiful far ultraviolet spectra and Lyman alpha
photographs of the solar disk have been obtained by Tousey (U.S.A.).
The recent flights by Stecher and Milligan (U.S.A.) have observed the
spectrum of stars in the far ultraviolet. Since their observations
showed that the theoretical predictions of the ultraviolet brightness
of the hot O and B type stars was incorrect by a large factor much
ASTRONOMICAL TECHNOLOGY—MEINEL 299
interest now exists in the pending operation of the first space tele-
scopes. ‘Telescopes as developed for use in the early rocket vehicles
have been severely limited by the space available in the nose cone of
the rocket. The accompanying photograph shows the instrument
flown by Stecher and Milligan to illustrate this point. Their instru-
ment was designed very compactly. A 10-inch telescope and diffrac-
tion grating was fitted into a space 14 inches in diameter and 12
inches in length.
The success of the rocket experiments and the great promise for
the exploration of the universe in the far ultraviolet has led to the
initiation by NASA (U.S.A.) of a spacecraft system capable of carry-
ing a 36-inch telescope and all its related instrumentation. The
program plans three such systems at an expected cost of $100 million.
This is a large amount of money on any monetary scale and is justified
by the fact that in no other way is it possible to learn what such an
instrument will be able to tellus. The payload for the OAO telescope
will be in excess of 4,000 pounds, the largest unmanned scientific pay-
load to be launched to date by the U.S.A.
The most obvious gain to be had from a space telescope is, of course,
the accessibility of the ultraviolet. This region of wavelengths is
of great interest to the astrophysicist since the resonance absorption
and emissions from atoms occur in this region. A less obvious ad-
vantage, and one that will require more technological development,
is that an orbital telescope can work at the theoretical resolving power
of the optical system, since no “seeing” disturbance is present. Given
sufficient guiding accuracy, possible in free space, one could use dia-
phragms of very small angular size and increase the star-to-sky signal
by 5 magnitudes over the same telescope on earth. If T.V. devices of
sufficient information handling capability become available then high
resolution studies on a fulltime basis will be possible. This possi-
bility is of special interest for the observation of time-variable phe-
nomena at a predetermined time or for long periods of time since
neither weather nor daylight will interfere with the work of a space
telescope.
Space telescopes pose engineering problems that are not encountered
in terrestrial telescopes and whose solution is required before successful
missions can be made. The launching g-forces are an example.
During the launching phase the telescope will be subject to thrust
and vibration forces up to the order of 10 g’s. Asa consequence, either
the engineer must find a structural design that will preserve optical
collimation or the astronomer will have to have controls to permit him
to realign his optical systems after the telescope arrives in orbit. The
lack of proper collimation could seriously degrade the performance
of a space telescope.
300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The second major problem in the design of the space telescope is
that produced by its thermal environment while in orbit. Sunlight
intermittently illuminates one side or the other of the space craft.
This variable heating on one side coupled with the intense cold of
outer space on the other produces a large and changing temperature
gradient between the outer skin of the space craft and the telescope.
It will be necessary to keep the thermal gradient small in the optical
system if high resolution performance is to be obtained. The problem
of computing what the thermal gradients will be before the space
craft is in orbit is a difficult mathematical problem, and one that must
be done with accuracy before the engineers can design a structure to
meet the requirements.
The third problem area, one common to all complicated mecha-
nisms, is that of lifetime. Even when the probability of failure is
very small for any one component of a system, when several hundred
thousand components must function correctly the probability of fail-
ure of the system becomes large enough to present trouble. In the
case of the orbiting astronomical observatories, the design lifetime is
to be one year—an exceedingly difficult specification to design with
confidence in the results. The environment of the hyper-vacuum of
space causes many problems that we have no counterparts on earth.
Lubricants evaporate, even gross metal, like magnesium, evaporates
at such a high rate as to weaken structures. Moving parts tend to
weld together since all the surface contaminants that contribute to
low friction on earth evaporate. Primary cosmic rays can ruin the
best high voltage insulation at a single impact, not to mention the
gradual destruction of electronic components by the energetic particles
in the Van Allen radiation belts. The list of problems rapidly ex-
tends as one looks closer into the actual design of a space telescope,
yet the rewards of a new view of the universe draw astronomers
onward.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Meinel PLATE 1
1. The summer Milky Way photographed with an all-sky camera in infrared light. ‘The
brightness at the horizon is due to the upper atmosphere airglow of the earth.
2. Image orthicon telescope picture of the Whirlpool Nebula taken with an image orthicon
tube attached to the 20-inch reflector at the Organ Pass observing station of the Dearborn
Observatory. This picture would require a 100-inch telescope to photograph this object
in the same exposure time with ordinary photographic plates.
Meinel
Smithsonian Report, 1963.
PLATE 2
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Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Meinel PLATE 3
Photograph of the spiral nebula in Ursa Major (M 81) taken with the 200-inch Palomar
telescc ype.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Meinel PLATE 4
—
1. Dearborn Observatory telescope control console.
Z. Inflation of the launch balloon. Stratoscope II is in the center of the photograph.
The Analysis of Starlight’
By BERNARD PAGEL
Royal Greenwich Observatory, Sussex, England
[With 7 plates]
INTRODUCTION
Astronomy Is a branch of science that enjoys a universal fascination.
One of the reasons why it fascinates people is that the sheer romance
of the night sky never palls even for the most hardbitten observer—
at least in the warm and comparatively short nights of the summer.
In winter it has to be admitted that observing is not quite so romantic
after one has been at it for six hours or more, but there are always
enough interesting things in the sky itself to compensate one for the
effort. Another fascination exerted by astronomy is the literally
unearthly appearance of the moon, the planets, star clusters, and
nebulae seen through a small telescope or even a good pair of bi-
noculars; then also there is the possibility of the existence of other
worlds, some of which may for all we know be inhabited by in-
telligent beings, and all the exciting prospects of space exploration
by automatic instruments or even by human astronauts, which are
being brought a step further from science fiction and a step nearer to
reality practically every day.
But astronomy also has a special appeal of its own on more strictly
scientific grounds than these. The Ancients believed the heavenly
bodies to be incorruptible and not subject to the laws governing
our unhappy sublunary world, and our present belief that the same
physical laws apply in the heavens as on the Earth is really a new
and still staggering idea that goes no further back into history than
the Newtonian revolution in science. The first applications of this
idea were to the study of the motions of planets, comets, and, later
on, double stars in the light of Newtonian mechanics; and it was not
until the middle of the 19th century that the spectroscopists got to
work, starting with the discoveries of Kirchhoff and Bunsen, and
1 Reprinted by permission from The Advancement of Science (London), vol. 19, No. 82,
March 1963.
301
302 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
showed that the stars are made out of the same familiar elements of
matter that we have here—hydrogen, sodium, calcium, iron, and even
compounds such as cyanogen and titanium oxide. In the 20th century,
modern atomic physics has provided us with two basic innovations
in our thinking about the nature of stars both of which were first
noted by Sir Arthur Eddington: the first of these is the fact that the
material throughout a star, even at its center, is virtually a perfect
gas although the material in the central regions of the Sun is 100 times
as dense as water. This is because the temperature is so high—at
about 15 million degrees—that the atoms lose almost all their electrons
and become ionized; the stripped nuclei and free electrons that remain
take up very much less space than do ordinary atoms, and so they
can be compressed to very considerable densities without departing
appreciably from the ordinary behavior of ideal gases as summarized
in Boyle’s and Charles’ laws. A second important consequence of
modern atomic physics has been the realization of the mechanism which
enables the stars to shine: they derive most of their energy from
thermonuclear reactions that are very similar to the controlled fusion
processes that people are now trying to reproduce in the laboratory.
These nuclear fusion reactions most commonly involve hydrogen,
which is the most abundant element in the universe, and the energy
that comes out of the reaction is the nuclear binding energy that is
released when four hydrogen nuclei, or protons, are fused together
into one nucleus of helium, or «-particle. The weight of the helium
nucleus is slightly less than four times the weight of the proton, and
the difference is available as energy in accordance with the well-known
equation of Einstein, ’=me?. It is quite amusing to note that helium,
which is the second most abundant element in the universe after hydro-
gen, was first discovered in the spectrum of the Sun by Sir Norman
Lockyer at the total eclipse of 1868, a quarter of a century before the
gas was isolated in the laboratory by Sir William Ramsay; and in
a more general way we can say that the nuclear transformation of
hydrogen into helium that is going on in the deep interiors of stars is
just one example of the fact that astronomy can provide the physicist,
and nowadays even the technologist, with an extension of his labora-
tory facilities to a vast range of temperatures, pressures, and, of course,
sheer size, if only we have the wit to understand what is actually
happening. In fact, one astronomer of my acquaintance recently
remarked that the whole of physics and chemistry, as studied in
laboratories, is just a special case of astrophysics.
Apart from the application of astronomy as an extension of our
terrestrial laboratories, astrophysics provides us with an opportunity
of investigating the answers to questions of a more or less historical
character, such as: (2) How did the Sun, the planets, and in particular
the Earth come into existence? and (0) Why do the chemical elements
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL 303
exist in the proportions in which we actually find them? ‘The first
question has proved to be a somewhat elusive one, but the second
question—that is the one about the chemical elements—has made a
great deal of progress in the last few years as a result of observational
advances, and also very much as a result of the better understanding
that we now think we have of the way in which stars change or
“evolve” in the course of time, together with a coherent theory by
Fred Hoyle and several collaborators on the synthesis of the elements
by nuclear reactions in stars. We have seen that hydrogen is being
transformed into helium in the interior of the Sun, and spectroscopic
analysis reveals that helium is about half as abundant by weight in
the universe as hydrogen. When we look for the common heavier ele-
ments such as carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen, we find that there is much
less of them, just a few percent in comparison with hydrogen. Still
heavier elements, which astronomers tend to lump together in cavalier
fashion by referring to all of them as “metals”, are even less common,
at least among the stars and luminescent clouds of interstellar gas
that can be investigated with the spectroscope: all of them put together
on the average account for less than a tenth of 1 percent of the cosmic
mixture of elements. The situation here on the Earth, which consists
mostly of heavy elements, thus seems to be quite exceptional; pre-
sumably the hydrogen and helium, which are usually far and away
the most abundant elements, escaped at an early stage in the Earth’s
history simply because they are so volatile.
The relative proportions of the commoner metals like calcium, so-
dium, and iron do not appear to differ very radically from one another
in most stars; indeed they seem to be present in roughly similar propor-
tions to one another in the Earth, in meteorites, in stars, and in clouds
of interstellar gas. But the proportion of metals as a whole relative
to hydrogen, while always small, varies quite widely from one star to
another, ranging over a factor of maybe some hundreds. The varia-
tion in metal abundance appears to be related to the ages of stars, the
stages that they have reached in the course of their evolution, and
their distribution within the Galaxy; and I should like to say some-
thing in a very general way about these things and about our pres-
ent ideas on the origin of the heavy elements, and then something
in a little more detail about such related spectroscopic investigations
concerning metal abundances and other characteristics among the
relatively nearby stars as are now being carried out at the Royal
Greenwich Observatory in Herstmonceux and elsewhere.
GALACTIC STRUCTURE AND STELLAR POPULATIONS
When we look up at the night sky we see a number of stars in all
directions; these are relatively near to us in space, the stars visible
to the naked eye being generally between 10 and 1,000 light-years
304. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
away; that is to say they are at such distances that the light from them
takes between 10 and 1,000 years to reach us. ‘These distances are
of course unimaginably vast by ordinary human standards, since light
takes a mere 8 minutes to traverse the distance of 93 million miles
between ourselves and the Sun. But they are quite small distances in
comparison with the size of the Galaxy—which is the name that we
give to the complete system of stars, or “island universe,” that is de-
fined by the Milky Way and to which we ourselves and all the visible
stars belong. The Milky Way itself sweeps out a narrow belt in the
sky, which is simply the projection of a large thin disk containing the
Sun, many of the intrinsically bright stars (especially those that have
a high surface temperature), and clouds of luminescent gas and dark
obscuring dust.
A typical portion of the Milky Way, as seen through a telescope,
is shown in plate 1, and you can see how the stars are mixed together
with shining gas clouds and black clouds of dust that are generally
referred to briefly as interstellar matter.
Recent work has shown that the Milky Way system is a typical
spiral galaxy, somewhat similar to the great spiral nebula in Ursa
Major that is shown in plate 2. This is a galaxy rather like our own
viewed from an oblique angle so that we can see something of its
structure. The brighest stars are concentrated in spiral arms, to-
gether with lanes of obscuring dust which appear as dark streaks
over the central blob. The position of the Sun in our own Galaxy
corresponds to a point in the outermost spiral arm but one, at a dis-
tance of about 30,000 light-years from the center, and the stars visible
to the naked eye are confined within a sphere whose diameter is
somewhat less than the thickness of one spiral arm.
Plate 3 shows another similar galaxy seen edge-on, which is known
as the “Sombrero Hat” nebula. ‘The spiral arms, defined by the hor-
izontal streak of dark matter, are seen to be concentrated in a flat disk,
which corresponds to what we see projected on the sky in our own
Galaxy as the Milky Way. ‘The particular interest of this picture
is that it shows very clearly that we have at least two distinct popu-
lations of stars which interpenetrate: on one hand the disk and spiral
arm population, concentrated toward a central plane which turns out
to be exactly perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the whole system ;
and on the other hand a spherical or “halo” population which is dens-
est around the center of the galaxy but shows very little flattening
toward the plane. The disk and halo populations were christened
by the late Walter Baade as Population I and Population II respec-
tively; and the two populations differ from each other both in the
physical characteristics of their component stars and also in the kinds
of orbits in which the stars revolve round the center of the Galaxy,
somewhat in the same way as the planets revolve round the Sun in the
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL 305
Solar System. The disk stars of Population I revolve in circular
orbits that are confined to the central plane, and the Sun, for example,
is estimated to go right round a galactic circle in this plane in a period
of 200 million years; whereas the stars of the halo population go round
in elliptical orbits that are often steeply inclined to the plane.
The two stellar populations also differ from each other in their age.
The key to the age difference is that stars are formed by condensation
out of the diffuse clouds of interstellar matter which are concentrated
in the flat spiral arms, and so any stars which are young must also
be concentrated in spiral arms. The halo Population II, which is
devoid of interstellar material, is in a kind of fossilized state because
star formation must have stopped there at an early stage in the history
of the Galaxy. We imagine that the whole Galaxy itself started off
as a diffuse cloud of gas condensing under the effect of its own gravi-
tational attraction and that while it was condensing groups of stars
separated out of it at every stage, and indeed are still doing so at the
present time. Owing to the rotation of the primeval gas cloud, it
would have been gradually flattened out into a disk by centrifugal
force, but the stars that had been formed before appreciable flattening
had occurred would have been left behind in a spherical or spheroidal
bulge; and this is more or less what we observe.
Many stars are concentrated in more or less compact physical
groups known as star clusters; well-known clusters are the Pleiades
and the Hyades, which are near to the Milky Way and are typical
members of the spiral arm population or Population I; these are gen-
erally referred to as galactic or open clusters. One such cluster, the
Double Cluster in Perseus, is shown in plate 4, figure 1.
The stars of the spherical population, or Population IT, also are
frequently (though by no means always) found in clusters. These
tend to be richer in stars and more compact than the galactic clusters,
and they are known from their shape as globular clusters. One exam-
ple of a globular cluster is the system Messier 13 in Hercules shown in
plate 4, figure 2.
THE COLOR-LUMINOSITY DIAGRAM AND STELLAR EVOLUTION
Star clusters of both kinds have proved particularly helpful in
studying the evolution of stars in the course of time, because we can
suppose that all the stars in any one cluster were formed at a single
moment from one cloud of dust and gas, but that different clusters
may have been formed at different times in the past. In order to
understand how we interpret the observations of clusters, we shall
now have to go into some details both about the nature of stars and
about the kinds of observation that it is possible to make.
Suppose that a cloud of interstellar matter with a mass of the order
of 10** g. or about 1,000 times the mass of the Sun starts to condense
306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
under its own gravity and has reached a stage where it fragments
into a number of smaller masses each of which then condenses further
into an individual star. The individual clouds, or proto-stars, will
go on contracting and in doing so they will convert their gravitational
potential energy into heat which then escapes as radiation. In the
last century this process was put forward by Helmholtz and Lord
Kelvin as the main source of stellar energy, but it is easily shown that
the Sun could not have lasted long enough on contraction alone to
satisfy geological evidence as to the age of the Earth, which is now
believed to be about 5,000 million years, and the discrepancy led to
long and sometimes acrimonious debates in the British Association
and elsewhere between Kelvin and the geologists, led by T. H. Huxley.
However, as the contraction of the proto-stars goes on, their internal
temperature and pressure will steadily increase until finally the con-
ditions at the center have become sufficiently extreme for the hydro-
gen to undergo a nuclear transmutation into helium; the energy
produced by the reaction will be carried outward by processes of radi-
ative and convective transfer until it reaches the surface, from which
it will then be radiated away into space. In order to reach a steady
state, the whole star must adjust itself until two conditions are ful-
filled: first, the energy radiated from the surface (or in other words
the star’s total luminosity) must exactly balance the energy liberated
by nuclear reactions in the deep interior; and second, the pressure in
every layer of the star must exactly balance the weight of the layers
lying on top of it. When these conditions are worked out in detail,
it turns out that the whole structure of the star, and notably its bright-
ness and its size, are completely fixed by its mass. This is the basis
of the famous mass-luminosity relation, which says that the light
output of a star increases rapidly with the mass, about as the cube, so
that a star with twice the mass of the Sun should have about eight
times its intrinsic brightness.
Unfortunately we can only measure the masses of a few stars in
nearby double systems, and there is no general method of finding the
masses of stars in clusters. However, there is another relationship
that comes out of these considerations of a star’s internal equilibrium:
the brightness is related to the surface temperature, varying as about
the 12th power of the latter, so that our star with twice the mass of the
Sun and eight times its brightness should have a surface temperature
of about 1.2 times that of the Sun or 7,000°, as compared with the
Sun’s surface temperature of about 6,000°.
Now we can estimate the surface temperatures of stars in two differ-
ent ways. When you heat up a poker, then at fairly low temperatures
the radiation from it is concentrated in the infrared part of the spec-
trum. As the temperature is raised, the energy distribution shifts
its maximum from the red to the yellow and then to the blue and
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL 307
finally, at very high temperatures, to the ultraviolet. With a good
telescope, or even in good weather with the naked eye, the differences
in color between different stars are quite obvious when we look at
them. Cool stars like Betelgeuse, at the top left corner of the con-
stellation of Orion, are red, while hot stars like Rigel at the opposite
corner of Orion are bluish white. To study these differences in color
in a quantitative way, astronomers measure the brightnesses of stars
with photomultiplier cells attached to the end of the telescope which
are covered by optical filters of differently colored glass. Most com-
monly two such glass filters are used which let through mainly yellow
light and mainly blue light respectively, and in this way one obtains
a so-called color index which gives some indication of the distri-
bution of light in the continuous spectrum and hence of the surface
temperature.
A second method of estimating surface temperatures is provided
by the spectroscope, which reveals the characteristic dark absorption
lines of the different substances present in gaseous form in the visible
surface layers of the stars. Most stellar spectra can be classified into
a continuous series of “spectral types” ranging from spectra with dark
lines of helium and hydrogen at one end of the scale to spectra with
lines of metals and molecules like CH, CN, and titanium oxide at the
other end. The different spectral classes do not, in general, represent
different chemical compositions, although we saw earlier that such
differences in composition do indeed exist; but the main cause of the
different kinds of spectra that we see is the effect of thermal excitation
of the atoms, molecules, and electrons, which prevents the molecules
and metallic atoms from showing up in the spectrum unless the
temperatures are comparatively low. At higher temperatures the
molecules dissociate into their constituent atoms and the metallic
atoms lose their electrons to become ionized, while hydrogen and
helium atoms become excited to the rather high energy levels in which
they need to be in order to absorb light in the visible part of the spec-
trum. The various spectral classes are arranged in order of diminish-
ing surface temperature from about 30,000° at one end of the scale
to about 3,000° at the other end, and for certain historical reasons
the different classes have come to be designated by a series of letters
of the alphabet: OBAFGKMRNS; these letters seem to be arranged
in a completely arbitrary order, but in fact they can easily be re-
membered as the initial letters of the sentence “Oh, be a fine girl; kiss
me right now, sweetie.”
Plate 5 shows some typical spectra of the various different classes,
with the hot, bluish white O-type stars at the top and cool, red M-type
stars at the bottom. The gradations are perfectly continuous, and
each class (corresponding to one of the letters) is subdivided further
into decimal fractions so that A5, for example, is halfway between
308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
AO and F0. We see that the hottest stars, at the top of the diagram,
have lines of ionized helium, Het, and of ordinary helium; and when
we go from class O to the slightly cooler class B, the ionized helium
fades away but hydrogen becomes stronger. In class A, hydrogen
reaches it maximum strength and completely dominates the spectrum,
but this is not because hydrogen is any more abundant in these stars
than in the others, since in fact a detailed analysis shows that the
stars illustrated here have approximately the same chemical composi-
tion, with hydrogen much the most abundant element. The reason
for the progression is simply that hydrogen is mostly ionized to
H* in the O and B stars, and since H+ is merely a proton with no
electrons, it does not produce any line spectrum. When the tem-
perature is reduced to about 10,000°, corresponding to type AO, the
hydrogen is largely in its ordinary neutral state, but the temperature is
still high enough to keep an appreciable proportion of the atoms ex-
cited to their second quantum level with a stored energy of about 10
electron volts for each excited atom; they have to be in this excited
level to produce the lines of the Balmer series in the visible spectrum,
whereas when they are in the ground state, with no stored energy, they
only absorb in the far ultraviolet Lyman series that can be detected
only from rockets and satellites above our atmosphere. When we
go further along the sequence to F0, corresponding to a surface
temperature of about 7,000°, there are correspondingly fewer hydrogen
atoms excited to an energy of 10 electron volts and the hydrogen
lines become weaker; but now two strong lines show up that arise
from ionized calcium in its lowest energy state—the so-called H and
K lines discovered by Fraunhofer in 1815. When we come to type
G0, which represents stars that are just about as hot as the Sun,
the lines of ionized calcium are the strongest ones in the whole
spectrum and the hydrogen lines are still strong enough to be the
next runners up. But now we see a number of additional lines
arising from metals in the neutral state; that is, the atoms are being
bombarded less energetically by photons and electrons, and therefore
many of them are able to preserve their structure intact and show their
characteristic absorption spectrum, exactly as they do in the ordinary
electric arc. Most of the lines are due to iron, which is one of the most
abundant metals: strong lines of iron can be seen around 4400 A and
around 4050 A, and there is also a strong line of neutral calcium near
4900 A. At 4300 A, there is the first indication of an absorption
band caused by a molecule; this is the simplest hydrocarbon, CH,
and as we go on to still cooler stars of type K, with surface tem-
peratures of about 4,000°, we see the molecular bands and the lines
of iron and calcium growing steadily stronger, since the molecules
become more abundant and the atoms settle down more and more
PLATE 1
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Pagel
plate 47.)
>
on
els
N
?
é
J
Ver.
5
f the Un
0
(From Atlas
Milky Way.
in
ield
IR
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Pagel PLATE 2
Spiral galaxy M81 in Ursa Major. (From Atlas of the Universe, Nelson, plate 74.)
PEATE 3
hsonian Report, 1963.—Pagel
i+
Smi
(-
7}
CL *
eI d “uOs[aNy ‘as4a
Lu fy ayy fo SOUP
ul
"AXES LPT OLDIQUIOG,, 9YI—OBIIA Ul FOT J Axvy[e
Bb
jeardg
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Pagel PLATE
1. A galactic cluster—the double cluster of Perseus.
2. A globular cluster—M 13 in Hercules.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Pagel PEATIE 5
He Hd He II
¢ Pup
t Sco |
x Hya
109 Vir
B Ari
y Vir
t Peg
6 Com
— Boo
e Eri
Iron
Ca II Ca I
1. Spectra of main sequence stars (O5 to K2). The bright lines of iron in the comparison
spectrum at the bottom can be matched with dark lines in the coolest stars.
He He I Ho Hy
15 Ser
7 C Ma
HD 167356
HD 164514
89 Her
&0C Ma
Ti pt! Hie a
¢ Mon
© ree
a Sco
Ca Il Stl Sr ll
2. Spectra of supergiant stars (BO to M1). Note the sharpness of the hydrogen lines
compared with figure 1, above. (Photographs on this page by Radcliffe Observatory
X 10, from Astronomical Spectroscopy, by A. D. Thackeray.)
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Pagel PLATE 6
The Crab nebula.
PLATE 7
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Pagel
Mm Js)
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—
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q
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(jpusnof Jossky dos p *AS9}INOD) *UOSIIMA “OD ‘OC Aq Si¥is YJ fo vaqoedg
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MR ee ee
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vy
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vel6le OH
8H
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bidet i ee ee
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OvS6 GH
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL 309
into their lowest energy levels. We shall come back to the cool type
spectra later.
Having seen that there are two ways of estimating the surface
temperatures of stars, either from the spectral type or from the color
index, we now have to consider how we can derive their true bright-
nesses from photometric measurements. 'To do this, we have of course
to allow for their distances away from us, since we would not other-
wise know whether a certain star was very luminous and very far
away or quite faint but very close to us in space. A typical example
of the importance of the distance effect is provided by the well-known
stars Vega and Rigel, which both have about the same apparent
brightness; but Rigel is about 30 times as far away from us as Vega,
and so its intrinsic brightness must be about 900 times as great.
If the distance is less than about 100 light-years, we can measure it by
a trigonometrical surveying method using the diameter of the Earth’s
orbit around the Sun as a baseline; this is referred to by astronomers
as measuring the parallax. If they are farther away but in a cluster,
we can estimate the distance of the whole cluster, sometimes rather
roughly, by identifying stars in it whose brightnesses we think we
know on the grounds that they are the same breed of animal as
some nearby star that has been done by the trigonometric method.
In this way we can take a group of stars and plot the luminosities
against the surface temperatures, as estimated from the color dis-
tributions or spectral types; generally the color indices are preferred
as being more accurate. Figure 1 shows such a color-luminosity
eure ce Tze mpercture
10,000° 7,000° 5,000° 3,400°
/00
ke)
Brightness
compared
with the Tt
Sun
0:0 0-4 0-8 12
Colour /ndex
Ficure 1.—Color-luminosity diagram for the Hyades.
720-018—64———_21
310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
diagram for the nearest galactic cluster, the Hyades, which are ex-
ceptional in that we can estimate their distance rather accurately
by a trigonometrical method based on their group motion.
We have seen that if the stars are in equilibrium and uniform
throughout, the hot stars should be much brighter than the cool ones.
Astronomers have a peculiar habit of plotting the temperature scale
backward, with the hot stars of spectral types O and B on the left
and cool stars of spectral types K and M on the right, and we see
that most of the stars do indeed lie on a line going from top left to
bottom right in the diagram, which is known as the “main sequence”
or “dwarf sequence.”
There are however, a few stars definitely not on the main sequence.
These stars are bright, about 100 times as bright as the Sun, and
cool (that is, as hot as the Sun or cooler), and it follows from this
that they must be very much larger, having something like 10 times
the solar radius of 700,000 km. These stars, of which there are many
well-known examples like Arcturus and Capella, are therefore called
“oiants,” in contrast to “dwarfs” like the Sun which lie on the
main sequence. According to current theories of stellar evolution
developed in the last 10 years by Allan Sandage, Martin Schwarz-
child, Fred Hoyle, and others, a star is believed to remain on the
main sequence for a long period of time in the earlier part of its
life history, and the length of its lifetime on the main sequence
depends on how bright it is. A hot star will last only for a few
million years, while a relatively modest star like the Sun, which is
much more sparing in using up its nuclear fuel resources, is estimated
to be able to last for over 10,000 million years. When a certain pro-
portion of the hydrogen in its central regions has been transmuted into
helium, the star is no longer able to remain in a steady state on the
main sequence, but swells up to form a red giant; and this state of
affairs is reached much sooner by a bright, hot star than by a faint
cool one. In a young cluster, therefore, the main sequence will
stretch upward to include stars of considerable brightness, and the
upper limit where the main sequence terminates will gradually travel
downward in the diagram in the course, of time; that is, with
increasing age, the stars that have just left the main sequence will
gradually become fainter and so the age of a cluster can be judged
from observation of its color-luminosity diagram. The age of the
Hyades is estimated in this way to be a few hundred million years.
When we look at the corresponding diagram for a typical globular
cluster, like the one shown in figure 2, we see the main sequence
terminating much lower down, at about three or four times the
Sun’s brightness. Most of the bright stars in globular clusters, and
in the halo Population II generally, are red giants, and the bright
blue stars are completely absent. It is concluded from this that
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL aid
0:0 0:4 0-8 12
/coo /000
100 100
Brightness
Compared 0
with the Sun,
ho
0:0 0:4 0-3 /2
Co/our Index
Ficure 2.—Color-luminosity diagram for a globular cluster, M92.
here we have a very old stellar population with an age of about
10,000 million years—almost as old as the Galaxy itself. We also
notice that the main sequence is somewhat lower in the diagram than
the main sequence of the Hyades; these stars are referred to as
“subdwarfs,” and the existence of subdwarfs is closely related to the
evidence that we have that there is a big difference in chemical
composition between the two stellar populations in the sense that the
old stars of Population II seem to have a much lower abundance of
metals mixed in with their hydrogen than have the younger stars
of Population I. The difference between the two degrees of metal
abundance is considerable, generally a factor of about 100.
To account for the difference in metal abundance between the
stars of different ages, Hoyle suggested some time ago that when
a star has gone through the giant phase of evolution, it runs out
of hydrogen to an ever-increasing extent and further nuclear reactions
have to occur involving heavier elements, particularly helium. When
the interior of the star has contracted and heated up sufliciently,
helium nuclei can fuse together with one another or with hydrogen
to produce a number of chemical elements up to atomic weight 56,
corresponding to iron. Still heavier elements, going all the way up
to uranium and beyond, can then be built up by capturing neutrons,
and in this way Hoyle, Geoffrey and Margaret Burbidge, and William
A. Fowler of California Institute of Technology have put forward
a detailed theory which is in tolerably good agreement with the relative
abundances of the heavy elements found in nature. A further idea is
that, at a late stage of evolution, many stars explode; this is the so-
called supernova outburst in which a star suddenly becomes about
312 |§ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
a million times brighter and then gradually fades away over a period
of a few months; this is observed to happen quite frequently in
external galaxies, although the last outburst seen in our Galaxy was
in 1604. When the star explodes as a supernova, it forms a vast
expanding cloud of gas like the famous Crab nebula shown in plate
6. This nebula is the relic of a supernova outburst in the constella-
tion of Taurus witnessed by Chinese and Japanese astronomers in
A.D. 1054 and it has been steadily expanding since then. It is
supposed that such a cloud will eventually diffuse into the interstellar
medium together with the heavy elements that were manufactured in
the star just before the outburst, and in this way more and more
heavy elements become mixed with the original interstellar hydrogen
clouds as time goes on; these clouds in turn will eventually con-
dense into a new generation of stars, which will therefore contain
a larger admixture of metals than previous generations. In other
words, young stars will have a bigger proportion of heavy elements
than old stars; and this prediction is partially borne out by observa-
tions of the spectra of stars in globular clusters.
SPECTROSCOPIC OBSERVATIONS OF NEARBY STARS
These general ideas have brought us up to a point where I should
like to say something about the very nearby stars, those within a
mere 60 light-years or so from the Sun, which have recently been
studied from various points of view at the Royal Greenwich Observa-
tory. These stars are near enough for us to be able to distinguish
between dwarfs and giants by the trigonometric surveying method of
finding their distances, and we can also see dwarfs that are compara-
tively cool and faint because they are not too far away. We can
also determine at what speed and in what direction they are traveling
through space, and thus judge whether they are going round the cen-
ter of the Galaxy in circular orbits, like the stars of Population I, or in
elliptical orbits like the older stars of Population II. On the other
hand, these stars do not belong to clusters, and so they form a confus-
ing jumble of different ages and chemical compositions, and the pur-
pose of this work is to sort out exactly what kind of star we are dealing
with in each case: that is, to determine its physical and chemical prop-
erties and its genetic relationship, if any, with the stars in the galactic
and globular clusters.
Figure 3 shows the color-luminosity diagram for these nearby stars
determined by Olin J. Eggen. We see that most of the stars are
rather cool and faint as compared with the stars in young clusters,
but there is a group of rather faintish giants (known as
“subgiants”) which must have been around for long enough to
have evolved away from the main sequence. In addition to stars like
the Sun, on the normal main sequence, a number of stars are below,
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL slg
Surface Temperature
10,000° 6,000° 4,000°
400
8
10 ;
Brightness Subgiants
Compered
with the Sun
~~
Lae
e
Susdwaorfs >.
0-0 0-2 0-4 0-6 08 1-0
Colour Index.
Ficure 3.—Color-luminosity diagram for stars within 64 light-years.
or perhaps I should rather say to the left of, the main sequence, and
these are further examples of the stars that are known as subdwarfs;
these stars are of considerable interest because they appear to be re-
lated to the dwarfs in the globular clusters. For one thing, they
appear to be going round the center of the Galaxy in elliptical orbits,
sometimes with quite high eccentricities and inclinations to the galactic
plane. Furthermore, when their spectra are examined, they tend
to show a deficiency in metals, which is another resemblance to the
stars in globular clusters. They seem to be interloping members of
the halo-type Population II, or possibly an intermediate class be-
tween the extreme population types.
The fact that subdwarfs are shown lying below the main sequence
does not necessarily mean that they are peculiarly faint for their sur-
face temperature (that is to say, peculiarly small in size), because the
measured color that is plotted along the horizontal axis is itself
affected by the presence of dark absorption lines superimposed on the
continuous spectrum. It was noticed about 60 years ago by Sir Arthur
Schuster that the absorption lines are not uniformly distributed
throughout the spectrum of a star, but that they become systematically
stronger and more numerous as one goes from the red end to the blue
and on to the ultraviolet. Since the absorption lines remove some
of the energy that would otherwise be detected when we make our
measurements through yellow and blue glass filters, a star having
faint lines due to low abundance of the metals will seem to be rela-
tively brighter in the blue, as compared with the yellow, than another
star of the same surface temperature, but having higher metal content
314 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
and stronger absorption lines. Therefore the first problem that
arises in interpreting the position of subdwarfs in the color-luminosity
diagram is to sort out the effect of temperature on the color from
the effect of metal abundance, that is to say we have to decide whether
star A is more blue than star B because it is hotter, or because it has
a lower abundance of the metals. For stars that are about as hot as
the Sun, this problem has been solved by making photometric obser-
vations through a third glass filter that lets through the ultraviolet,
making use of the fact that comparison of the three different values of
the brightness obtained by measuring through the three different glass
filters gives an indication of the strength of the absorption lines and
hence of the metal content.
When we come to somewhat cooler dwarfs, with surface tempera-
tures of the order of 4,000° and corresponding to spectral type K,
the whole effect becomes more subtle and complicated, and it is this
section of the main sequence that we have recently been considering
from the viewpoint of the theory of stellar atmospheres. As the stars
become cooler, a high proportion of the metal atoms settle down into
their lowest energy states and produce numerous very strong absorp-
tion lines which overlap, so that in the blue part of the spectrum it
is no longer meaningful to speak of a continuous background at all.
Another difficulty is that there is little obvious difference between the
spectra of dwarfs and subdwarfs when they are as cool as this.
One factor having an important influence on the intensities of ab-
sorption lines is the degree of transparency, or of opacity, of the stellar
atmosphere. So far, we have dealt only with the dark absorption
lines in the spectra of stars and said nothing about the continuous
background light on which they are superposed, except to compare the
latter to the black-body type of radiation emitted by a heated poker.
In the 19th century, stars like the Sun were believed to be essentially
solid or liquid bodies, owing to their high density, and the continuous
radiation from them was believed to be quite analogous to the light
radiated from an ordinary solid or liquid heated to incandescence.
The dark absorption lines are, of course, characteristic of matter in
the gaseous state, and so it was supposed that they were produced by
a gaseous atmosphere very similar to the atmosphere of the Earth,
only hotter of course. Nowadays we know that the Sun is a gaseous
body throughout, and when we talk about the solar atmosphere or
stellar atmospheres in general, we merely mean the layers of the star
which we can see because they are close to the surface, making no dis-
tinction between the layers where the continuous radiation comes from
and the layers producing the dark lines, since both are essentially the
same surface regions. This introduces some extra complication into
the problem of predicting how intense we should expect a given absorp-
tion line in the spectrum to be, since there will now be a competition
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL 315
between the selective absorption at the line wavelength of our atoms
of hydrogen, calcium, or iron on the one hand, and the continuous
absorption of the atmosphere, at all wavelengths, on the other hand.
If the atmosphere is transparent, then we can see a large number of
atoms of calcium or hydrogen and the absorption lines will be corre-
spondingly strong; whereas if the surface layers are more opaque,
we shall see weaker lines even if the number of hydrogen and calcium
atoms per gram is the same.
Now the continuous absorption of light in cool stellar atmospheres
is due to a negative ion of hydrogen, H’, which consists of a proton
surrounded by two electrons and absorbs light by losing the extra
electron to form ordinary atomic hydrogen. The number of H- ions
in the atmosphere itself depends on the rate at which neutral hydrogen
atoms can capture free electrons, and these electrons are supplied in
turn by ionization of the metals; the degree of ionization of the
metals is here about a half, so that there is one electron for every two
metallic atoms. If we now compare a dwarf and a subdwarf, the
subdwarf having fewer metal atoms by a factor of a hundred or so, we
see that the subdwarf has not only fewer metal atoms capable of pro-
ducing a dark absorption line, but also fewer electrons to provide
general opacity in the atmosphere, so that the subdwarf atmosphere is
considerably more transparent. Consequently the metallic absorp-
tion lines do not become fainter to the same degree as one might nor-
mally have expected, certainly nothing like the factor of some hundreds
shown by the abundances, and even the weakening that does occur in
the metallic lines can be more or less got rid of by choosing your sub-
dwarf at a lower surface temperature; you will recall from the picture
of the spectral sequence how rapidly the intensities of the dark lines
increase with diminishing surface temperature toward the end of the
sequence.
These points are strikingly displayed by a series of spectra of K-
type dwarfs taken by Olin C. Wilson at Mount Wilson and Palomar
Observatories (pl. 7).
The interpretation that I have placed upon these spectra, which is
not necessarily accepted by other people, is along the lines of what
I have just said. In each pair, the lower spectrum represents a sub-
dwarf with fewer metal atoms in its atmosphere than are present in
the normal dwarf shown above, though not by the large factor of 100
that I have been quoting up to now. The difference is probably by
a factor of 5 or 10. The subdwarf, however, which is marked “b,”
has a more transparent atmosphere than the normal dwarf marked
“ry” so that the absorption lines due to metals look about equally strong
in the two spectra. However, the lines due to hydrogen—H gamma
and H delta—are quite different as can be seen; they are stronger in the
spectrum of the subdwarf because its atmosphere is more transparent
316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
0:90 1-00 1-10 1-20 1:30 1.40 1-50 Oo
1-5 |
= 1-0
O-5 4
FrSeGOm (Ge MG SanGe KOKI KS, Kt eK AO) A7 MO MI M2
Mount Wi/son type.
Ficure 4.—Color index plotted against Mount Wilson spectral type for dwarfs. (Cour-
tesy Royal Observatory Bulletins, 1962.)
owing to the shortage of electrons, and so more hydrogen atoms appear
in the line of sight. But it should be borne in mind that the hydrogen
lines are also sensitive to temperature, and it has not been established
that the stars in each pair actually have the same surface temperature ;
so that this conclusion may not turn out to be right in all cases.
There is another curious effect which has been pointed out by
Wilson, which is that the stars whose spectra have been shown display
a big difference in color at one spectral type. The interesting thing
here is that it seems to be the subdwarf, which was marked “b” for
blue, that is relatively brighter in the blue band of the spectrum
although its temperature is about the same as that of the normal
dwarf marked “r” for red; in spite of the appearance of the spectra,
on which the lines seemed to be equally strong within the very limited
degree of accuracy afforded by mere visual examination, the lines
must really be a little weaker in the subdwarf and cause the color
distribution to go in this direction although the subdwarf is no hotter,
and perhaps even a little cooler, than the normal dwarf.
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL 317
Figure 4 illustrates how the effect shows up in the color index,
which has been plotted here on the y-axis against spectral type on the
g-axis. The straight line represents the effect of variation in tempera-
ture alone for stars having the chemical composition of the Sun, or
Population I; such stars are tentatively identified here as stars
traveling in a circular orbit around the center of the Galaxy, and they
are shown as black dots. Known subdwarfs are represented
by crosses, and the open circles represent stars that are moving in
elliptical orbits round the center of the Galaxy, and it is suspected
that some of these would actually turn out to be subdwarfs as well,
if their distances were better known. For the stars of spectral types
F and G, about as hot as the Sun, the dots, circles, and crosses are
distributed anyhow, but when we come to type K, there is a definite
tendency for the subdwarfs and other elliptical-orbit stars to lie be-
low the others in the diagram, that is to say their blue light is too
strong for their spectral types because of general faintness of the
lines. The general effect is in accord with theory and provides a pos-
sible method of judging the chemical composition of a star from
comparatively simple observations and with only a fairly rough
knowledge of its distance.
Unfortunately the spectral types of stars can only be assessed rather
roughly, but we can confirm these conclusions for a limited number of
stars by appealing to photometric measurements in a relatively un-
popular region of the spectrum, the red and infrared, where absorption
lines are weak and so we have a better chance of judging the surface
temperatures of stars from observations of the color distribution.
8—V
Figure 5.—R-1 color index plotted against B-V color index. (Courtesy Royal Observa-
tory Bulletins, 1962.)
318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
This is shown in figure 5, where a red and infrared color index
measured at the Lick Observatory, Calif., and at Mount Stromlo
Observatory in Australia is plotted on the vertical axis against the
ordinary blue-yellow color index on the horizontal axis. The vertical
axis is now essentially a measure of surface temperature, with cooler
stars toward the top and right of the diagram, and the tendency of
the subdwarfs and elliptic-orbit stars is to lie to the left of the line
defined by the normal dwarfs of Population I, just as we would expect
from the relative weakness of their dark absorption lines in the blue
part of the spectrum. These results are now being extended by
Gerald E. Kron, of the Lick Observatory, who is observing the bright-
nesses of the stars in six colors—infrared, red, green, blue, violet, and
ultraviolet, and his work should soon enable a clear and quite reliable
distinction to be made between the effects of surface temperature and
metal abundance on the measurements.
CONCLUSION
Probably more than enough has been said now about the somewhat
technical details of the interpretation of the brightnesses, colors, and
spectra of the stars, and it may be worth while to try to recapitulate
a little and especially to repeat some of the reasons why we consider
this work to be of general interest. We have seen some—I think—very
pleasing pictures of external galaxies that are believed to bear close
similarity to our own Milky Way system, and some of the inferences
that can be drawn from them as to the two main stellar populations
existing in the Galaxy at large and also in our own neighbor-
hood. At one extreme we have Population II distributed in a spheri-
cal halo around the center of the Galaxy, consisting of old stars and
devoid of interstellar matter. At the other extreme we have Popula-
tion I concentrated in the central plane of the Galaxy and especially in
spiral arms, in which new stars are still being formed by condensation
out of the interstellar medium. The examination of the color-lumi-
nosity diagrams of the clusters that are characteristic of the two
stellar populations, aided by a great deal of theory developed mainly
over the last 10 years, has led to a picture of the way in which stars
evolve in time which perhaps does not quite explain everything, but
does at least provide a framework into which a wide variety of ob-
servations can be fitted. This theory has been accompanied by the
suggestion of Fred Hoyle and his collaborators that the chemical
elements in the universe, and in particular on the Earth, were formed
by nuclear synthesis from hydrogen, helium, and neutrons in the in-
teriors of hot stars which then exploded as supernovae; this mecha-
nism scatters the newly formed heavy elements into the interstellar
medium, where they mix with the hydrogen already there and form
an enriched or contaminated medium—whichever way you prefer to
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL 319
look at it—from which new generations of stars will condense. This
picture is in general agreement with spectroscopic observations which
show that stars believed to be old, like the ones in globular clusters,
have a much lower admixture of metals in their atmospheres than
stars thought to be young, like the ones in the Hyades, although there
is surprisingly little difference in metal abundance between the oldest
and youngest clusters of Population I. Most stars in clusters, how-
ever, whether of the globular or the galactic variety, are a very long
way off and their distances and real brightnesses can only be estimated
by indirect methods that are often little better than guesses. Further-
more, the clusters undoubtedly contain stars that are intrinsically faint
and so cannot be observed at all.
For these reasons, our ideas as to the nature of stars and the course
of stellar evolution need to be completed by examining the stars that
are near to us in space, especially those which are so near that we can
measure their distances directly. Except in the case of the Hyades,
such stars do not usually belong to clusters, but they may have escaped
from clusters in the past; furthermore, we can try to relate them to
the stars that are in clusters by observing their motions in space—or
in other words their orbits round the center of the Galaxy—and
their physical and chemical properties, and it is with this last question
that I have been primarily concerned.
The problem of sorting out the true nature of a star from the
physical and chemical point of view is quite a complicated one, which
has to be tackled from various different angles. First there is the
theory of stellar structure, whose task it is to calculate the relation-
ship between the luminosities and surface temperatures of stars and
to predict how these quantities will change in the course of time, that
is to develop a picture of stellar evolution. Then there is the theory
of stellar surfaces, which says what happens to the atoms and electrons
in the atmosphere and tries to predict the distribution of energy in
the continuous spectrum and the intensities of the various absorption
lines, when the luminosity, surface temperature and chemical composi-
tion of the atmosphere are given.
When we try to verify these theories by making observations, we
come up against a number of difficulties. Ideally, we should like to
make direct physical measurements of the quantities discussed in the
theory, that is we should like to measure the total brightnesses and
surface temperatures of stars and then make a quantitative chemical
analysis of the line spectrum to determine the relative abundances of
the elements. But the amount of light reaching us from a star is very
small, and so we cannot usually examine either the continuous spec-
trum or the line spectrum in the amount of detail that we should like;
the only star that is really satisfactory in this respect is the Sun.
320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
To make what use they can of the minute amounts of light that we
get from most stars, astronomers have developed their primitive-
sounding methods of photometry through colored glass filters and
spectral classification from spectra taken with low resolving power;
nowadays spectral classification is often done in a more quantitative
way by isolating a narrow band of the spectrum containing the absorp-
tion line one is interested in with the aid of an interference filter or
a spectrometer, but the principle is still not so very different from the
older and cruder method of looking at the spectrum under a micro-
scope and saying that line A is stronger than line B but weaker than
line C. All these methods can be broadly described as methods of
stellar classification, and they have two great advantages. The first
advantage is that relatively little light is required and so one can
examine stars, clusters of stars, and even galaxies at very great dis-
tances; and methods have been developed of estimating the age of a
galaxy from the color distribution or spectrum of the galaxy as a
whole, without even looking at the individual stars belonging to it.
The other advantage of such methods is their rapidity. Naturally
if the measurements are comparatively simple, one can observe a large
number of stars in a reasonably short time and so by now extensive
lists are available giving spectral types and color indices for thou-
sands of stars. On the other hand, the experience of the last few
years has shown that one can quite easily be fooled by the results of
these classification methods, because a given result can come about
from different causes. An example of this is that the color and the
spectral type of a star depend on its chemical composition as well as
on its surface temperature; and another example which complicates
the issue further is the fact that, if the distance of the star is not
known at all, we still have the problem of deciding just how bright
it is.
The moral of this is that the extensive lists of comparatively simple
observations on many stars have to be supplemented by an intensive
attack on a relatively small number of cases by using the more power-
ful but laborious approach of taking spectra with as high a resolving
power as possible and examining the weak lines as well as the strong
ones. This has been done so far for no more than about 100 stars,
which is far too few, and of course there are difficulties, in particular
the fact that it requires huge telescopes to collect enough light for
the purpose, even for the study of most of the comparatively nearby
stars. A very hopeful technical development in this direction is that
of image converter or image intensifier tubes, which have already
been brought to a considerable degree of perfection by Professor
André Lallemand of Paris Observatory, and which promise to be
about 100 times as sensitive as ordinary photography. Even this
development, however, does not mean that we shall be able to do
ANALYSIS OF STARLIGHT—PAGEL 321
without large telescopes, and I hope very much that by about 1966 we
shall have a 98-inch telescope operating in this country, at Herst-
monceux, which we shall be able to use in extending these investiga-
tions; and if this can be supplemented by an even larger telescope in
the Southern Hemisphere, then that will be even better.
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a
Astronomical Photography from the
Stratosphere’
By Martin SCHWARZCHILD
Eugene Higgins Professor of Astronomy, Princeton University
[With 2 plates]
TuHroucHout the centuries astronomers have labored under one
enormous handicap that has set harsh limits to all their observational
work. Between celestial objects which are the subject of the astrono-
mer’s research and his telescope lies the earth’s atmosphere, a murky
restless layer which forever garbles our only source of information
on the universe around our earth. This handicap imposed by the
earth’s atmosphere has made itself felt most strongly in three broad
areas: First, no ultraviolet light with wavelengths shorter than 3,000
angstroms can penetrate the earth’s atmosphere at all; this loss of
the ultraviolet prohibits us from studying the bulk of the light
emitted from the hottest and most energetic stars and prevents us
from making accurate measurements regarding many of the astro-
nomically most important chemical elements which have their main
absorption lines in this spectral region. Second, large blocks of the
infrared spectrum are completely blocked out by the earth’s atmos-
phere and thus we have been unable to study the cooler stars in detail
and to measure the absorption bands of many of the key chemical com-
pounds. Third, even the ordinary visible light, though not absorbed
by the earth’s atmosphere—or at least absorbed only to a minor
degree—does not reach our telescopes ungarbled; the turbulence of
the atmosphere bends the light rays from the stars slightly and thus
prevents us from getting as sharp pictures of the celestial bodies as
our instruments otherwise would permit. Even at the best mountain
observatories on those rare occasions when the atmosphere above be-
haved relatively quiescently only a very small number of astronomical
photographs have been obtained which show details as small as half
a second of arc; this angle corresponds to half a mile on the moon,
1The 28th annual James Arthur lecture on the sun, given under the auspices of the
Smithsonian Institution on May 8, 1962.
323
324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
200 miles on the sun, and several light years in the nearest stellar
systems such as the spiral Andromeda Nebula. Clearly, even our best
photographs have been coarse indeed.
The astronomical profession had adjusted itself through the cen-
turies to labor under this all-prevailing handicap. Then, about a
decade ago new technical tools appeared which promised to remove
this handicap for good: Rockets began to lift above the earth’s atmos-
phere small telescopes with which for a few short minutes the ultra-
violet light of the sun and the stars could be studied; balloons carried
astronomical cameras above 95 percent of the atmosphere and brought
down for the first time sharper photographs of astronomical objects;
now satellites are being developed which will carry major astronom-
ical instruments far above the earth’s atmosphere and may permit
effective research there for long time intervals.
It is hard to describe the force of the impact that this development
has had on astronomy as a science and on astronomers as persons.
Even now astronomers are far from having reached a balanced adjust-
ment to the new circumstances; we are still swaying back and forth
between elation and bewilderment. Nevertheless, I think it is by
now obvious that the new tools of rockets, balloons, and satellites open
up an immense area for astronomical research, though it would be
clearly a grave mistake to consider these new tools actually as replace-
ments for the old ground-based instruments and techniques, rather
than as decisive and stimulating additions.
If, from here on, I concentrate entirely on one specific astronomical
balloon project—Project Stratoscope—my sole reason is that I am
very closely acquainted with this activity. Project Stratoscope is
only a minute facet in the entire program of off-the-ground astro-
nomical and geophysical research. However small in the overall re-
search picture, for those of us involved it has been and continues to
be an absorbing and immensely exciting activity.
Project Stratoscope arose from a specific scientific problem. The
tremendous energies produced by hydrogen burning in the interior of
the sun are carried out to the surface by enormous convective move-
ments of the gases in the outer layers of the sun. These convective
movements can actually be seen on the surface of the sun in the form
of the granulation, the fine mottled structure covering the entire solar
surface at all times. It became clear that to understand the detailed
mechanism by which this convective motion of the gases transports the
heat energies outward is an unavoidable prerequisite to following the
evolutionary changes of any star such asthesun. On the other hand,
it became desperately clear that, though the detailed observational
study of the solar granulation would help much toward this under-
standing, such detailed observations on the ground were made essen-
tially impossible because of the image deterioration caused by the
Fit Agi Eat
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Schwarzchild
1. Stratoscope I. The cylindrical cell at the bottom of the main tube contains the 12-inch
primary mirror. ‘The flat elliptical container is the 35-mm. film magazine. Beside it,
the rectangular box houses the ‘TV camera which transmits the same picture just being
photographed down to the ground station.
Section of the solar surface photographed with Stratoscope I. ‘The penumbra of the
The sunspot is surrounded by
sunspot consists of nothing but narrow long filaments.
the granulation which covers the entire solar surface; the bright patches of the granula-
tion are hot convective gas masses rising from the interior.
PLATE 2)
Schwarzchild
Smithsonian Report, 1963.
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STRATOSPHERIC PHOTOGRAPHY—SCHWARZCHILD 325
earth’s atmosphere. For this reason we decided to study the possi-
bility of sending a telescope up on a balloon with the specific purpose
of obtaining high-definition photographs of sample areas on the solar
surface. When these studies indicated that such an undertaking
appeared technically feasible we decided to go ahead with it—elated
and filled with awe at the same time.
The instrument built for this specific research, Stratoscope I, had
to fulfill two central conditions: First, it had to contain optics capable
of producing a highly enlarged image of the solar surface on the
photographic emulsion; for this purpose a parabolic mirror 12 inches
in diameter was used as the primary optical element followed by an
enlarging lens which produced an image of part of the solar surface
with a scale equivalent to a telescope with a 200-foot focal length.
Second, this telescope had to be pointed toward the sun by electrical
motors steered by electronic devices so steadily that the telescope would
not turn by more than about a fifth of a second of arc in the required
exposure time of about two-thousandths of a second of time, an
extremely exacting condition on pointing steadiness indeed.
We flew this instrument for the first time in the summer of 1957.
After a preliminary test flight with a dummy telescope to determine
whether the balloons and launching techniques then employed were
capable of safely carrying a delicate optical instrument into the strato-
sphere and whether the return of the instrument by parachute was
practicable, two flights were carried out with Stratoscope I, itself.
These two flights brought down 16,000 photographs of parts of the
solar surface. Nearly all of these photographs were of poor quality
because of a number of instrumental inadequacies disclosed by sub-
sequent analysis. Among this vast number of photographs, however,
we found about half a dozen superb ones, which for the first time
showed the detailed structure of the convective elements in the solar
granulation well. We returned home from that first flight season
jubilant—and still filled with a sense of awe.
The next 2 years we were strenuously occupied by measuring and
analyzing the fundamental characteristics of the solar convection
shown on our best photographs and deducing from these data tentative
conclusions regarding convective energy transport in stars relevant
for the theory of stellar evolution. At the same time we concentrated
hard to eliminate the instrumental faults shown up in the first flights
of StratoscopeI. Also, we made one major modification of the instru-
ment which increased greatly the effectiveness of this telescope as a
research tool. This was the addition of a radio-command link from
a ground station to the unmanned balloon telescope by which the
focus of the telescope could be regulated and by which the telescope
could be pointed at will to any portion of the solar disk. To make
this command link effective we also added a small television link
720-018—64—_22
326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
which permitted us to see in the ground station exactly the picture
being photographed at the telescope.
In the summer of 1959 we were ready for another sequence of
flights. The character of these flights was entirely different from
those in 1957 in one decisive respect. In 1957 after launch the entire
balloon and telescope system operated completely automatically, ac-
cording to its built-in program of operations without any possibility
of human influence during the flight. In 1959, when the balloon had
reached its stable altitude of 80,000 feet in the stratosphere, a small
group of engineers and astronomers in the ground station took over
the actual operation of the telescope through the newly added com-
mand and television links. It is hard to describe the excitement we
felt as for the first time we saw on the television screen the picture of
a piece of the solar surface and as this picture moved about over the
surface of the sun in perfect accordance to the radio commands we
gave. We thus could select during the flight particularly favorable
areas for our research, such as areas on the solar disk far removed
from any apparent disturbance like sun spots or prominences. Or,
in contrast, we could move to an area occupied by an active sunspot
group to study the effects of the magnetic fields in the sunspots on
the convective gas motions.
If human contro! during the flight so greatly increased the effective-
ness of this research undertaking, one might ask whether it would
not have been better if one of us had gone up in a sealed capsule with
the telescope. I believe that such a manned flight would not have
been a good choice; the effort required to safeguard the life of the
person going up would seem far larger than the effort required in
developing the necessary radio links to permit human control from
the ground. Furthermore, the person in his capsule, attached to the
same suspension from the balloon to which the telescope itself must
be attached, would have had to avoid any moticn whatsoever to pre-
serve perfect quietness for the telescope pointing. This strong convic-
tion that unmanned balloon flights are preferable for this type of
astronomical experiment in no way implies the opinion that manned
high-altitude balloon flights have not been of decisive value. Indeed,
I believe that without the vital and energetic enthusiasm for manned
stratospheric balloon flights balloon technology would never have
developed to the state that permitted us to lift Stratoscope I into the
stratosphere. I strongly suspect that much the same situation will
hold in the satellite field. It seems entirely plausible that most of the
research results from the space program will come from unmanned
space vehicles. It appears equally true, however, that the natural
human urge for manned flight into space is the essential driving force
behind the technological developments necessary for any space flights.
But back to Project Stratoscope. After a series of four flights we
STRATOSPHERIC PHOTOGRAPH Y—SCHWARZCHILD 3o27
returned home in the fall of 1959 with a couple of hundred high-
definition solar photographs. These contained not only detailed pic-
tures of the granulation, both in undisturbed and in highly disturbed
magnetic regions, but also full-time sequences of both types of areas.
Thus it became possible in the subsequent analysis to determine not
only the distribution of sizes of convective elements in the solar atmos-
phere but also the average period of time a typical convective element
exists. These observational data have greatly strengthened our theo-
retical picture of convective heat transport in stars. As a matter of
fact we at Princeton as well as astronomers at other institutions are
continuing with the theoretical developments helped and stimulated
by these measurements.
The sun is by no means the only celestial object of which higher
definition photographs are needed for the solution of fundamental
astronomical research problems. The sky is full of objects the essen-
tial details of which are blurred on photographs taken with telescopes
on the ground. There is Venus with its cloud cover, the structure
of which has hardly been glimpsed. There is the great Orion gas
nebula in which we are sure from indirect evidence stars are now
being formed; but whether this giant gas mass is smooth or knotty
or filamentary we still cannot judge from our present photographs
though we need to know before we can securely develop a theory of
the origin of stars. There is the Andromeda spiral nebula with its
incredibly dense stellar nucleus defying photographic resolution.
Many items can be added to this list, all referring to objects that are
typical examples of the celestial phenomena filling the universe around
us. Of all these it is only for the sun that the modest aperture of 12
inches of Stratoscope I would suffice to obtain substantially sharper
photographs than those already available from the ground. ‘The other
objects would require a telescope with at least a 36-inch aperture.
After the first successful flights of Stratoscope I it was tempting to
start studying the feasibility of a larger balloon-borne telescope and
in due course we did begin the design and construction of such an
instrument—now called Stratoscope IT.
The requirements regarding optical perfection and pointing accura-
cy are, of course, much higher for the larger Stratoscope IT than they
were for Stratoscope I. For example, the pointing accuracy will have
to be better than a thirtieth of a second of arc over exposure times as
long as 1 hour to make Stratoscope II fully effective. The require-
ments on optical perfection and on guidance are much less stringent
if Stratoscope II initially is used not for high-definition photography
but for spectrophotometric investigations in the infrared. The latter
presents another effective astronomical use of a balloon-borne tele-
scope since the few percent of the atmosphere above 80,000 feet are
practically transparent in the infrared (though they are still entirely
328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
opaque in the ultraviolet). We decided therefore to take a more
cautious approach and first use Stratoscope II for a study of the infra-
red spectrum of Mars during its opposition early in 1963. Strato-
scope II was ready for infrared spectrophotometric research in
February of this year and was launched on its first flight on the eve-
ning of March 1. The events of that night could not have been more
exciting for any of us involved.
The late afternoon launching went entirely smoothly; the specially
designed balloon, capable of flying a gross load of 18,000 pounds,
lifted the 3-ton telescope off the ground by a newly developed static
launching method with accelerations not exceeding 0.2 g. In the
meantime the ground station had been set up about 200 miles down-
wind along the predicted flight path for the night. This ground
station provided a link between the engineers and scientists in it and
the telescope high above it that was far more extensive and versatile
than that used in Stratoscope I. In total more than 70 different com-
mands could be transmitted to the instrument and a similar number
of data relative to the telescope could be read in the ground station
via a telemetry channel. Even a full-scale television channel was
available to make possible the acquisition of any object in the sky.
Through these radio links Stratoscope If is perhaps at the moment
the most versatile scientific robot operated from a far distance by
man.
However, as might not be so unexpected, this robot misbehaved in
a variety of ways during his first flight. A series of inadequacies and
direct failures occurred throughout most of the night. The versa-
tility of the command system made it possible, however, to analyze
the difficulties sufficiently well to make possible their correction prior
to the next flight, and even to overcome to a certain extent their nega-
tive consequences during that first flight. This series of technical
difficulties greatly reduced in quality and quantity the scientific ma-
terial acquired during the night. Nevertheless, it was possible in
the last observing hour to obtain a number of tracings of the infrared
spectrum of Mars which in combination with the recent observations
from the ground in other wavelength regions have already contrib-
uted to our knowledge about the chemical composition of the Martian
atmosphere.
At the end of the night, when the observational work had been
concluded, one more hair-raising complication occurred. The descent
of the balloon was initiated by a radio command which opened the
helium valve at the top of the balloon. After the valve had opened
and enough helium had escaped to give the balloon the appropriate
moderate descent rate, another command was given to close the helium
valve to avoid any further acceleration. This command failed and
in spite of a variety of experiments the helium valve could not be
STRATOSPHERIC PHOTOGRAPHY—SCHWARZCHILD 329
persuaded to close again. In consequence the balloon with the tele-
scope descended more and more rapidly. Finally it became necessary
to cut (by another radio command) the balloon from the parachutes
and let the telescope come down to earth on the parachutes which are
always carried as a safety device. This type of landing is very much
rougher than direct landing by balloon. Nevertheless, by miraculous
luck the damage suffered by the whole instrument at landing was
quite modest and its repair less than a tenth of the total cost of the
instrument.
It is obviously always a bit of a disappointment when a first flight
of a new instrument does not right away provide all the new ex-
citing scientific data of which theoretically it is capable. But this
dims little the pleasure that the new data, however limited, have given
us, and much increases our eagerness to correct the inadequacies of the
instrument and to get it ready for its next flight.
I have sketched the story of Project Stratoscope up to its present
status. May I once more emphasize that Project Stratoscope is only
a small facet of the total space activity in this country. But even
this small facet clearly requires funds beyond the means of an individ-
ual university. Project Stratoscope has been sponsored by three Gov-
ernment agencies, Office of Naval Research, National Science Foun-
dation, and National Aeronautics and Space Administration. These
three agencies have in Project Stratoscope a remarkable record not
only in continuous effective cooperation with each other but also in
their persistence of giving us astronomers in Princeton the freedom to
make the scientific and technical decisions.
Even with this strong financial and moral support from the Gov-
ernment, however, we astronomers in Princeton would still be incapa-
ble of carrying out the Stratoscope experiments if it were not for
the existence of daring engineers and the commercial firms to which
they belong who are ready to cast their lot for a good while into a
risky pioneering undertaking like Project Stratoscope. We astron-
omers may know the scientific problems which need attacking and
may understand what basic type of instrumentation is needed, but it
is the ingenious engineers who—in close and continuous contact with
us—design, build, and operate the entire equipment and thus make this
type of experiment possible.
Of all the factors, however, which have to be favorable to make an
undertaking like Project Stratoscope possible, historically the most
remarkable seems to me the spirit prevalent at this time in this country
that gives us with enthusiasm the opportunity to proceed with an
endeavor that basically has an abstract scientific character and aim.
For an astronomer it is an incredibly wonderful time and place to
be alive.
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The Smithsonian’s Satellite-tracking
Program: Its History and Organization
PART 2?
By E. Netson HAYEs
Chief, Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory
THAT EVENING of October 4, 1957, the Observatory Philharmonic
Orchestra, which drew its performers from both Harvard and Smith-
sonian, held its first rehearsal for the tenth annual concert to be given
the following spring. As the rehearsal proceeded, the players were
one by one quietly called from the room. There was business at hand.
The Russians had launched an artificial earth satellite, and these
men and women were needed to attempt preliminary estimates of the
orbit, to answer inquisitive and often anxious telephone calls from the
public, to meet with newsmen, and otherwise to do the thousand and
one tasks that marked the beginning of a new era of astronomy.
It would not be too much to say that the rather abrupt ending of
that night’s rehearsal was the end also of a time when astrophysical
research was the private and what seemed to be the impractical pur-
suit of scientists isolated from the main stream of public life. Since
that evening, and perhaps for the first time since the Renaissance, the
astronomer has helped to guide the destinies of nations.
THE FIRST DAYS
Word of the launching of Sputnik I had first reached the Observa-
tory at 6:15 of that Friday evening of October 4, 1957. Everyone had
left for the weekend except Dr. J. Allen Hynek, associate director in
charge of the tracking program, and Kenneth Drummond, his assist-
ant. They were leisurely discussing plans for the following week
when the telephone rang. Hynek casually lifted the phone and gave
his name.
“Do you have any comments on the Russian satellite?” It was a
reporter from a Boston newspaper. Although not taking him quite
1 Part 1 was published in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1961,
pp. 275-322. The present article takes the development of the satellite-tracking program
up to early 1958. Other parts are to follow.
331
332 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
seriously, Hynek asked him to read the full dispatch. Only then
did he realize that the months of planning and work had suddenly and
unexpectedly culminated in the launching of a satellite that now had
to be tracked by whatever facilities were operational.
After a few moments of dazed unbelief, Hynek and Drummond
began telephoning staff members and some Moonwatch team leaders.
A few of both had to be convinced that this was not a joke, that this
was indeed the zero hour, not one that they had planned for, but here
nevertheless.
As staff members arrived at Kittredge Hall, where most of the
satellite-tracking offices were, so also did dozens of people from press,
radio, and television. The building was soon a blaze of lights, to which
were added the brightness of television and movie lamps and the blind-
ing glare of flashbulbs. It must have been a spectacular display, for a
woman living several blocks away reported that the building was on
fire, and soon confusion was compounded by a pumper and a hook-
and-ladder dispatched to the scene.
Dr. Fred L. Whipple, director of the Smithsonian Astrophysical
Observatory, and Leon Campbell, chief of the Moonwatch program,
were attending a meeting of the U.S. Committee for the IGY in
Washington, D.C. At the end of the afternoon session of October 4,
Dr. Whipple boarded a plane to return to Cambridge, and Mr. Camp-
bell went with Dr. Afshar of Iran to Springfield, Va., about 15 miles
out of Washington, where as guests of Moonwatch team-leader Robert
Dellar they were to attend a practice observing session. At about
quarter to seven, Mrs. Dellar called Leon Campbell into the house
saying “The Observatory is on the telephone. Mr. Drummond says
Russia has launched a satellite!”
In a three-way conversation, Campbell told Drummond and Hynek
that the Moonwatch network was sufficiently well organized to enable
some teams to observe the satellite. He also suggested that, since he
would be on his way the following afternoon to a meeting of the Inter-
national Astronautical Federation in Barcelona, Spain, Armand Spitz
be asked to come to Cambridge to take over temporary direction of
Moonwatch operations. Reached later that evening, Spitz promptly
agreed and set out for Cambridge.
What had been planned as a mock observing session now became an
actual search for a satellite, the first such attempt in the Western
world. The telescopes formed the fence pattern that had earlier been
determined as the most efficient technique for a Moonwatch team, and
soon the observers were at the eyepieces. It was, however, a frustrat-
ing and frustrated effort. They did not have the parameters of the
orbit; and in any case they were attempting to see what no man had
ever seen before by a method that had never previously been employed.
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 333
That team was not to make its first observation of Sputnik I until
October 15.
Campbell then went to the IGY headquarters in Washington, where
for a few hours he served as liaison officer between the Observatory and
the scientists in Washington who were attempting to determine the
orbit of Sputnik I from the little information available. Early the
following morning he flew to Boston.
Meanwhile, Dr. Whipple had arrived at Logan Airport in Boston
at about 6:30 p.m. Since evidently no effort had been made to con-
tact him while he was on the plane, he took a taxi directly to his home
in Belmont. His wife told him the news, and he immediately went
to the Observatory, where he stayed until four in the morning, orga-
nizing the activities of dozens of people, meeting with the press, and
otherwise dealing with the initial problems of the program.
INITIAL PROBLEMS
The satellite-tracking program faced a number of pressing prob-
lems. The first of these was communications. On October 4 there
was not a single TWX (teletypewriter exchange) machine installed
in the communications room; in fact, because extensive alterations
were being made to the offices at Kittredge Hall, there was not even a
communications room. Charles M. Peterson pulled every string in
his bow, and late that night the first teletype machine was in operation,
supplemented, of course, by telephone communications.
The next need was to track the satellite. The first Baker-Nunn
camera to be assembled at the Boller and Chivens plant in South
Pasadena, Calif., was not operational on the night of October 4.
It had been disassembled and was scattered all over the plant; some
of the gears and other intricate parts had been sent back to contractors
for remachining or refinishing. When Dr. Hynek reported to the
staff members in South Pasadena that the Russians had launched a
satellite, work had progressed so far that they discussed the possibility
of readying the camera for a Saturday night observation of the satel-
lite. Only word from Dr. Whipple that the orbit was definitely
poorly situated for observations in Pasadena led to their canceling this
plan. Two days later, Boller and Chivens set Wednesday afternoon
of October 9 as the deadline for the completion of an operational
camera.
Meanwhile, the Observatory received observations of a sort on the
evening of October 4, and early the next morning fairly good obser-
vations from the Geophysical Institute in College, Alaska. From
these data the Observatory was able to advise Moonwatch teams when
and where they might be able to sight the satellite. Within a few
days a number of Moonwatch teams sent good observations, although
actually not of the payload but of its rocket carrier.
334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Third, the Observatory had to develop as quickly as possible a
means for determining accurate predictions of transits of the satellite.
This required that in the agonizing weeks to follow the staff work
out a successful empirical program, as opposed to the more theoretical
methods that Drs. Leland Cunningham and Donald A. Lautman had
been preparing.
Finally, the Observatory found itself with many responsibilities
for which there was no adequate executive direction from the higher
echelons of the Government. The Observatory became the one
reliable American source of information about Sputnik I. Thou-
sands of inquiries poured into Kittredge Hall and extra staff had to
be hired for whom there was no budget allowance. In addition, a
reasonable public information program had to be set up for the press,
radio, and television people who, almost literally, besieged the
Observatory during the weeks that followed.
SPUTNIKS I AND II
(Satellites 1957 Alpha and Beta)
The launching of the first satellite by the U.S.S.R. came as an
overwhelming surprise not only to the American public but also to
most officials of the United States Government, including those
responsible for the IGY program. Fortunately, however, Dr.
Whipple had given considerable thought to this possibility. In a
memorandum to Dr. Schilling dated June 18, 1957, he stated that
as a matter of policy the Observatory should be on the alert to make
orbital calculations and to issue predictions for use not only in the
United States but also throughout the world. He conceived this to
be an undeniable aspect of the Observatory’s responsibility to the
IGY. He added that in case of an unexpectedly early satellite or
other space effort the announcement card system of the Harvard
College Observatory could easily be expanded to provide rapid pub-
lication of such data, to be followed by scientific results issued in the
journals. He concluded that all members of the Smithsonian
satellite-tracking program should consider themselves to be on a gen-
eral alert beginning July 1. He ended the memorandum—“Exciting
thoughts, aren’t they ?”
Later that month a group of Soviet scientists participated in the
third symposium on cosmical gas dynamics at the Smithsonian Astro-
physical Observatory in Cambridge. During their visit the Russian
delegates showed considerable interest in the IGY program for optical
tracking of satellites and suggested close cooperation between Moon-
watch and a comparable group then being organized in the U.S.S.R.
This interest even extended to the possibility of direct communica-
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 335
tion between Cambridge and Moscow, in addition to the regular
CSAGI world-warning system.
Late in July, Dr. Whipple wrote to Dr. Joseph Kaplan, chairman
for the U.S. National Committee for the IGY, a letter concerning the
acquisition, optical tracking, and data analysis of U.S.S.R. satellites
that might be launched during the IGY. Dr. Whipple felt that
serious consideration should be given to the establishment of addi-
tional Moonwatch teams at higher latitudes, possibly to 65° north
and south, and ultimately to the possibility of expanding the Baker-
Nunn camera to 20 network stations. He made clear that these
prospects had been in the minds of the Smithsonian staff for some
months and involved such further matters as additional computa-
tional requirements, public relations problems, the obtaining of pre-
liminary orbital data, and above all the question of how the Observa-
tory should fund the tracking of satellites not launched by the United
States. There was clear agreement on the part of the Observatory
staff that the nature of the Smithsonian charter involved an obliga-
tion that it track any and all satellites and issue the results of such
efforts to the public and to the scientific community.
Meanwhile, the Russians had made it perfectly evident that they
hoped and planned to launch a satellite before the United States did.
The IGY satellites were supposed to broadcast on a frequency of 108
megacycles. The Russians announced, however, through the pages
of their journal Radio that their satellites would broadcast on 20 and
40 me. in order to permit the flight of certain basic experiments and
the telemetering of data to ground stations. Most U.S. agencies paid
no attention whatsoever to these announcements, so that when Sput-
nik I was launched there was not a single radio-tracking system in the
United States able to monitor the satellite. In the words of one
rather bitter critic, the United States was “caught with its antennas
down.”
The only optical tracking facilities available in the United States
on October 4, 1957, were those of the Smithsonian Astrophysical
Observatory. As a consequence, the Observatory had to undertake
immediately an optical tracking program that involved locating and
following the satellite, issuing predictions, and similar activities not
fully provided for under the IGY grants to the Observatory. This
necessity put a heavy strain on the budget, particularly for personnel.
The scientists who promptly and willingly undertook to process the
data that resulted from the early Moonwatch tracking had to carry
on for a number of weeks without positive assurance of additional
funding and without precise assignment of responsibilities.
On October 9 the U.S. National Committee for the IGY did issue
a memorandum on Sputnik I. Under the heading of Tracking Data,
336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
it stated that “visual and optical data should be sent to the Smith-
sonian Astrophysical Observatory in Cambridge,” and radio data
to the Vanguard Control Center at Naval Research in Washing-
ton, D.C. The memorandum went on to say that “in general, the
above institutions should be allowed to make statements on the data
and the analysis, for these institutions have been assigned respectively
the optical and radio-tracking tasks. Statements by others in these
technical areas should be discussed with this office. Statements by
the above two institutions should also, if at all possible, be phoned
in prior to release.” This gave the Observatory an IGY mandate
to issue tracking data and other information about the satellite.
Sputnik I (1957 a2) was a sphere approximately 22 inches in diam-
eter and weighing 184 pounds, made of aluminum alloys, with 4
spring-loaded whip antennas. The power supply for telemetering
information to ground stations was a chemical battery. The perigee
of the initial orbit was 142 miles, the apogee 158 miles, and the period
96.17 minutes; the inclination to the equator was 64.3°; speed at
perigee was 18,000 miles per hour, and at apogee, 16,200 miles per hour.
Little information was immediately forthcoming from the Rus-
sians, who showed considerable reluctance to release data concerning
the satellite itself. The payload was probably painted black and
therefore not visible. The Baker-Nunn cameras never did acquire
it, although the Harvard super-Schmidt meteor cameras photo-
graphed it on Thanksgiving Day at both Organ Pass and Sacramento
Peak, N. Mex.
What was, then, being tracked was the rocket (1957 a 1). On the
basis of the first sightings made at College, Alaska, by Dr. Gordon
Little and his group, Dr. Whipple called Dr. McCrosky of the Harvard
Meteor Program and asked whether it could possibly be a meteor. He
replied that he did not think so but rather believed that it was the
rocket of Sputnik I. This actually was the first time that anyone had
thought about the rocket stage, since all were primarily concerned
with the payload.
There followed a policy discussion as to whether Dr. McCrosky’s
speculation should be issued to the press before it was proved. The
decision was that he should be allowed to speak as an individual
scientist giving his personal view. This he did, and shortly there-
after the Russians made the same announcement. In an ironic sequel,
the Russians later claimed that one of their rocket bodies had fallen
in Alaska and that the Americans had it and would not give it to
them. A committee of three, consisting of Dr. Schilling, Dr. Whit-
ney, and Stuart Fergusson, determined from computations and all
other possible sources of information that the rocket had indeed not
landed in U.S. territory.
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 337
A year later, when Dr. Whipple was in Russia, he and a few other
American scientists visited the exposition of agriculture and mechan-
ical arts to inspect the model of the satellite that was there on display.
He confirmed certain physical measurements and other features of
the satellite. Up to that time the Russian scientists still had not
provided such fundamental data as the mean cross-sectional area of
the satellite.
On November 8 the Russians launched their second satellite, 1957
Beta, carrying instruments to detect cosmic-ray, ultraviolet, and X-ray
radiation, and an 11-pound dog that died after approximately 100
hours at zero gravity. Transmitters and power supply were similar
to those on board Sputnik I. Its perigee was 140 miles, apogee 104
miles, inclination to the equator 65.4°, and its speed 18,000 miles per
hour at perigee, and 15,000 miles per hour at apogee. The satellite
re-entered the atmosphere and decayed on April 13, 1958.
PRESS AND PUBLIC
The public reaction to Sputnik I was, in the words of Dr. Hynek,
“a, strange mixture of awe, admiration, and fear, the last enhanced,
of course, because there had been no warning.” In those early days
people wrote thousands of letters, made hundreds of telephone calls,
to the Observatory. A few were frankly incredulous; they simply
refused to believe that the Russians had the technical capability to
launch an artificial satellite when the United States had not yet done
so. Others were openly fearful; they believed that Sputnik I carried
either atom bombs to destroy the United States or television cameras
to spy on her. Not a few felt that the scientist was once again med-
dling in cosmic affairs that were not his business; their arguments over-
looked the fact that man had already profoundly modified his natural
environment and would inevitably continue todoso. Then there were
the angry ones, who were ready and willing to blame everyone in the
Federal Government from President Eisenhower to the obscurest
technician in a laboratory for the failure of the United States to beat
the Russians into space. Finally, and these were the most numerous,
there were those who simply wanted to know; they offered hundreds
of questions for answer: What exactly was the orbit of Sputnik I?
How had it been launched? What instruments did it carry? How
long could it be expected to stay up? Many of these inquiries were
from children eager to learn, reflecting a youthful concern for things
scientific that was in itself a credit to American education and would
provide the materials for the quickening of the American school sys-
tem in response to the challenge of Sputnik I.
Both Whipple and Hynek had a profound conviction that the people
were entitled to know everything. It was their policy from the be-
338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
ginning that no question would go unanswered if the answer could
be found. There was never “no comment!” Their thesis was based on
the charter of the Smithsonian Institution, which refers to “the in-
crease and diffusion of knowledge.” They leaned heavily on that word
“diffusion,” in the argument that the Smithsonian was a public institu-
tion engaged in nonclassified work. Others outside the Observatory
wanted the information given out differently; especially there was
pressure from IGY headquarters in Washington to have all news
statements and releases channeled through that office. Both Whipple
and Hynek resisted manfully and successfully.
The Observatory became quite literally the information center for
the entire Western world on this new and frightening object in the
sky. It was in many ways a terrible responsibility. The slightest
word of Whipple or Hynek to the press carried enormous weight. To
this was added the complicating factor that Sputnik I was launched
into an orbit that made it invisible over the United States for some
days. Consequently, in the first few press interviews Whipple and
Hynek had to make judicious guesses on the basis of Russian an-
nouncements. Their guesses turned out to be correct, and this fact
helped to establish in the minds of both the press and the general
public that the word of Observatory officials was reliable.
Much of the success of the Observatory in its public relations dur-
ing those days was the result of the hard work and tactful understand-
ing of Dr. John White, the Observatory’s press officer. He helped
to “interpret” questions from and replies to the press and served as
a kind of watchdog over the remarks made by the Observatory scien-
tists. There were inevitably, of course, a few slips. Perhaps the
most glaring of these was a Boston headline reading “Mysterious
Force Grips Sputnik,” which some imaginative news reporter wrote
after Dr. Hynek released a statement to the effect that the orbit of
Sputnik I could not be explained solely by the laws of Newton, since
other factors such as atmospheric drag were involved.
Of the many reporters who descended on the Observatory that
night and stayed through the exciting days and weeks that followed,
only a few had any special training or background in science. Most
of them were pulled off other assignments. For example, one reporter
to the Massachusetts Legislature was sent over to Kittredge Hall
because at that time the legislature was not in session. He became an
expert in satellites almost overnight.
The newsmen were quick, intelligent, and earnest and showed a
remarkable facility for moving into a complicated area of scientific
research and development for which they had no suitable background.
Most of them, incidentally, went back to their own fields later after
the newspapers had been able to find or train science reporters and
editors.
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 339
The confidence of these reporters was urgently needed. First,
the Observatory wanted to see in print stories that were accurate
in fact and reassuring in tone. This was a particularly difficult task
both for the scientists and for the reporters because the latter, with
little background information, had to write intelligent and intelligible
stories in a matter of minutes. Second, the Observatory wanted to keep
toa minimum stories that would arouse further fear and anxiety among
the public. When someone telephoned a newspaper—as frequently
happened—and said that he had seen a gigantic flying saucer over his
house, the paper had the choice of printing the story or of calling the
Observatory for its opinion. More and more the newspapers did the
latter. Then the Observatory would say that the report was ex-
tremely exaggerated and that probably the man had seen a weather
balloon or something of that sort. Inquiries made directly to the
Observatory were handled in a similar manner.
How hysterical was some of the response, and how necessary the
calm reassuring word of the Observatory, can be judged from
events in November. One evening a spectacular red aurora—one of
the most startling ever recorded by astronomers—frightened thou-
sands of people. The Observatory received hundreds of telephone
calls, as did also the newspapers. People thought that the Russians
were painting the sky red or that they were sending a rocket toward
the moon, or that a hydrogen bomb had been exploded—there seemed
to be no end to the menaces that were seen in this quite natural
phenomenon. Through replies to the individuals and statements to
the press, the Observatory was able to calm the public by telling them
what was actually happening.
A similar incident occurred later that winter when the planet Mars
seemed to be close to the moon. The Russians made one of their pe-
riodic announcements that they were going to send a probe to the
moon, and suddenly people saw this little dot of light and became wor-
ried. Many had never even seen the planet before Sputnik I went up.
Again, the Observatory sent out reassuring statements. Both these
incidents served to dramatize one of the major results of Russian
Sputnik I. Millions of people who literally had never before bothered
to observe the night skies became increasingly knowledgeable of
astronomical matters.
From the first, the Observatory held press conferences daily, at
9 a.m. and at 3 p.m., and these went on for several months. Some
newspaper reporters deliberately asked odd questions designed to trap
Whipple and Hynek into foolish or melodramatic answers. The con-
ferences were an attempt to establish some kind of order and to give
the principals an opportunity to speak under organized conditions
and without improper competition among the papers.
340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
At each conference a member of the scientific staff of the Observatory
would release the news that had occurred since the preceding one
and give reporters a chance to ask questions. All the papers received
this material on an equal basis and handled it as they wished. There
also was established the standard practice of permitting a reporter to
see anybody working on a special project; by this means he could
obtain not a news scoop but a color or angle story. If another reporter
asked for the same story, he would be told that someone else was on
it but that if he still wished to pursue it he could.
Over the months the confidence of press, radio, and television
gradually grew. In time they cut down their “death watch” to one
man, and each wire service took a turn at night, usually sleeping on
the table in what had once been the ladies’ lounge in Kittredge Hall.
Here, “Chief” Peterson had set up a battery of telephones as another
step to preserve fair competition among the newsmen. The final
result of these policies was that the reporters left the staff pretty much
alone except when the Observatory really had some news to release.
Sputnik I was certainly the best and most widely publicized achieve-
ment of modern science. Leafing through the thousands of news-
paper clippings on file at the Observatory, one is again and again
impressed with the accuracy and the thoroughness of the reportage.
And in view of the scarcity of solid information in those first weeks
after October 4 it can be said that never was so much known by so
many about so little.
THE FIRST TRACKERS
MOONWATCH
Although the Observatory had planned to have Moonwatch fully
operational by March 1958, the program was in fact sufficiently ready
when Sputnik I was launched to begin supplying observations almost
immediately. On October 6 a dubious observation was reported by
the team in Terre Haute, Ind. The first confirmed Moonwatch ob-
servations were made on October 8 by groups in Sydney and Woomera,
Australia; the first in the United States on October 10 by the team
in New Haven, Conn.
During those first weeks, essentially all the observational data from
visual sightings were furnished by Moonwatch, and from these the
Observatory derived such orbital elements and predictions as were
then possible.
Here again, Dr. Whipple’s conviction, founded upon a profound
knowledge of astronomy and a no less profound understanding of
human nature, proved to be correct. He had earlier insisted that the
Moonwatch program be an effort of amateur astronomers and science
enthusiasts, at a time when the military services and other Government
agencies felt that amateurs could not be trusted to carry on such a
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 341
complex and vital program. The unique success of Moonwatch
demonstrated what amateurs could do when properly inspired and led.
And it should not be overlooked that it was certainly the least expen-
sive effort of the entire IGY program of the United States.
Toward the end of 1957, two significant steps were taken to improve
the Moonwatch observations. On November 1 a satellite simulator
built under contract by Jack A. Wegener of Gloucester, N.J., was
delivered, with arrangements being made for the completion of two
more by early 1958. The instrument was intended for training Moon-
watch teams in observing satellites. Through an eyepiece the ob-
server could watch an image similar to that which would appear
through a Moonwatch telescope sighted on a satellite. The first
simulator was sent to a team in the southwest United States, and the
Observatory then planned to send it from station to station for train-
ing purposes.
As an aid to the many Moonwatch teams scattered around the
earth and distributed through a considerable range of latitude, the
National Geographic Society in cooperation with the Observatory
had by the end of 1957 designed a map and overlay kit that could
be used for making estimates of the times at which observation of
Sputnik I or II should begin and the altitude and azimuth of the
probable passage. These aided considerably in providing the teams
with the means of making their own satellite predictions.
By the end of 1957 there were 115 Moonwatch teams registered in
the United States, and another 90 in foreign countries—71 of them
in Japan. Teams in the United States, Australia, Chile, Japan, and
Curacao had made a total of approximately 700 observations of satel-
lites 1957 Alpha and 1957 Beta. The program had successfully de-
veloped into a tracking project not only for the acquisition of satellites
but also for observations of them during their “dying” stages.
COMMUNICATIONS AND PUBLICATIONS
Meanwhile, an efficient communications network had been built up
by “Chief” Peterson. Messages were being handled through teletype
machine models 28 and 19 linked with the commercial network of
American Telephone and Telegraph. The first was used primarily
for two-way conference calls, the second for the transmission of data
to domestic sources and for contacts with overseas networks via
American Cable and Radio, Western Union, and R.C.A. A Navy
teletype machine (NTX) model 19 provided noncommercial contact
with all Government and military installations through the military
communications network. Operations were conducted on an around-
the-clock basis.
Peterson had an extraordinary ability to conjure up the communi-
cations facilities needed and to get word to anyone anywhere. He
720-018—64__23
342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
could by means that were not always quite clear locate people for
Whipple or Hynek, relying occasionally, one suspects, not only on tele-
phone and telegraph companies but also on any other sources of
information. The network he developed was the means by which
the very life blood of the tracking program was circulated.
Dr. Whipple felt that the results of the optical satellite-tracking
program should be distributed to the scientific community as promptly
as possible. He therefore conceived a series of special reports that
would publish observations, orbital elements, and scientific results
in a matter of days after they had been processed at the Observa-
tory. On October 14, ten days after Sputnik I was launched, the first
of these was issued, Zhe Preliminary Orbit Information for Satellites
al and of by Schilling and Sterne, which listed Moonwatch and other
observations. The special reports have continued to be published in
ever-increasing numbers.
THE BAKER-NUNN CAMERA
At the end of September, tests of the first Baker-Nunn camera in
South Pasadena showed that: (1) The best focus with as yet unfin-
ished optics was within 1 mm. of the value predicted by the manufac-
turers; (2) the image produced by the optics was composed of three
parts—an outer halo, an intermediate core, and a sharp inner core;
(3) the initial collimation of the mirror was satisfactory; (4) opera-
tion of the camera in several of its modes of mechanical movement
indicated that the triaxial mount was highly successful; and (5)
some mechanical vibration was observed at high operating speeds
although this apparently had little effect on the film exposure. Dr.
Whipple then knew for certain that the camera was capable of track-
ing and photographing the IGY artificial earth satellites.
By September 30, several electronic time standards had been re-
ceived from the Norrman Laboratories and were being tested. Also
Shapiro & Edwards had completed the design of the slave-clock elec-
tronic circuit and delivered a prototype to Boller and Chivens, where
it was installed in the first camera. ‘The first photographs taken by
the complete assembly were rushed to Washington by Stefan Sydor
and there displayed to the press and to scientists and administrators
attending the IGY meeting. No longer could anyone say that Van-
guard was being deliberately delayed because the Baker-Nunn camera
was not ready.
After the camera had been torn down, minor adjustments made,
and the instrument then reassembled, it was set to photograph the
first transit of 1957 « 1 over South Pasadena. On the evening of
October 17, everything and everyone were ready. The camera was
in good operating condition. Dr. Henize, Sam Whidden, Gerry Bar-
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 343
ton, and Aubrey Stinnett had received the appropriate predictions
from headquarters in Cambridge.
When the satellite appeared in the sky it looked like a large air-
plane light. In this transit it was orbiting so low and was so large
that one probably could have photographed it with a Brownie camera.
Although the observers had no difficulty in acquiring the satellite
visually, they did have problems in pointing and training the camera
in the right direction. No one had ever used a satellite-tracking cam-
era before, and the orbital information was rather inexact except for
the time of the satellite’s appearance over the horizon. The predic-
tions called for it to be in an area 29° SSW, although in fact it
appeared at approximately 41°.
By might and main the observers swung the camera around until
it was sighted along the correct altitude and then moved it by its
power drive to the proper elevation. They then started the film
mechanism. The satellite took approximately a minute and a half to
move from horizon to horizon.
When they developed the film, the observers found that the image
of Sputnik I appeared on only four or five frames. Had they been
more expert they would have been able during such a transit to
photograph the satellite on every frame.
They now had the first satellite film ever made by a tracking cam-
era of the Western world. Prints were made of the best frames and
distributed to the press. The wide publicity that resulted properly
convinced millions of Americans that if the Russians had put up a
satellite, United States scientists had been going through an orderly
process of research and development and were now actually able to
track the object.
In the nights that followed, the observers reviewed their tracking
techniques and within a short time were able to photograph the satel-
lite without difficulty. The camera remained in operation in South
Pasadena for about 3 weeks, until Sputnik I was no longer visible
in that part of the United States. It was then disassembled and
loaded on a van that had been especially provided and equipped by
Bekins, a large moving and storage company in southern California.
Gerry Barton rode aboard the van from South Pasadena to Las
Cruces, a trip of a little more than 24 hours.
INTERIM OBSERVING PROGRAM
In November only one Baker-Nunn camera was in operation to
photograph Sputnik I, and no one in this country knew what and
when the Russians would launch in the next month or two.
The staff of the New Mexico station of the Harvard Meteor Project
demonstrated that the super-Schmidt camera was capable, without
any adaptation, of photographing so bright an object as Sputnik I.
344. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Whipple and Hynek then decided upon an interim program for
satellite observations, making use of the super-Schmidt camera. One
was shipped to the site of the station in Hawaii where, under the
direction of Dr. McCrosky, it was operational early in January
1958 and by March had taken a number of satellite films.
A second super-Schmidt camera of the Harvard Meteor Project
was sent to Argentina under the supervision of Kenneth Morrison.
The observing station there had not yet been completed, the power
supply was not working, generators for auxiliary power had proved
unreliable, and a small fire had done some damage. The situation
was quite unmanageable, and Morrison was never able to use the
super-Schmidt to photograph either Sputnik I or Sputnik IT.
The Observatory also borrowed two Small Missile Telecameras
from the Army Bureau of Ordnance and shipped these to West Palm
Beach and to Curacao. By March these telecameras were tracking
satellites. Cinetheodolites were shipped to the stations in Peru, India,
and Iran asa possible backup system for the launching of an American
satellite. And, of course, the super-Schmidt at the New Mexico
station continued to photograph Sputniks I and II until the Baker-
Nunn camera was installed there.
In mid-1958 this backup program was discontinued.
FIRST OBSERVER-TRAINING PROGRAM
In September 1957 the men who were to be the first observers at
the Baker-Nunn camera stations went to South Pasadena, Calif.,
where they had an opportunity to become acquainted with the camera,
even though not a single one had yet been completed. They could
at least see the interior details and could discuss some of the operating
problems that might arise. They were also of some help in looking
after the construction of the camera-house test facilities that were
being built next to the Boller and Chivens plant.
These first observers had little in common except an intense interest
in satellite tracking and a romantic desire to visit foreign places.
They had all been inspired by the vision and enthusiasm of Whipple
and Hynek, and they felt themselves to be pioneers in a new and
splendid enterprise.
The group was led by Dr. Karl Henize, Observatory astronomer
for the satellite-tracking program. A man of unusual knowledge,
he taught as much by doing as by preaching. His deputy was James
Knight, welding engineer and lover of telescopes, whose ability to
organize men and equipment was invaluable to the program. He
later became senior observer at the station in Spain, and then station
chief in South Africa. Working closely with them in training the
first observers was Aubrey Stinnett, whose knack with machinery
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 345
had already been a major factor in the development of the Baker-
Nunn camera. He was to become the first station chief at Hawaii.
Among the observers was Morgan Thomas, an extremely keen
amateur astronomer who by profession had been a technical photog-
rapher for Boeing Aircraft; a side activity was the production of
documentary films on natural history. The group drew heavily on
his mature experience in organizing and running things. He later
became the first station chief at Iran.
Sam Whidden, who had earlier been on the Harvard Meteor Project,
was actually the first observer to be signed by Smithsonian. He had
already become something of an expert in the processing of the film
to be used in the Baker-Nunn cameras. He married Marty Holt of
the Cambridge staff and together they went to the station in India,
where he was the sole American representative. Later, upon their
return to this country, he served as a technical liaison officer between
the Baker-Nunn network and the Moonwatch program.
Walt Lang, a bearded giant, a graduate of Texas A. and M., and
a former pilot of the United States Air Force and later a mathematics
instructor, brought to the program an expert knowledge of building
design and construction. A man of unusual energy, he went on to
supervise the construction of the other stations in North and South
America, and later was chief of the station in Hawaii.
Also from Texas A. and M. was Martin Burkhead, the youngest of
the group. An enthusiastic electronics engineer, he became chief of
the station in Peru and with characteristic devotion and dedication
developed there a number of valuable techniques for observing
satellites.
An astronomer and mathematician, Robert Cameron made his most
significant contribution to the program in developing techniques for
precise setting of the Baker-Nunn camera from often inaccurate
predictions. He later became the first chief of the station in South
Africa.
From Australia came John Grady, who had been working at the
Woomera rocket range in the development of missile-tracking tech-
niques. After serving as station chief in Australia through its form-
ative months, he went to Cambridge as specialist in photographic
and tracking systems.
Responsibility for the Norrman clock was in the hands of Gerald
Barton, an expert in electronics and foreign languages, who instructed
the observers in the intricacies of the timing system. Working closely
with him was Bud Ledwith, who taught the tricks of computing and
allowing for the speed of radio time signals.
Two others who were not observers but were at the New Mexico
station at that time should also be mentioned. George Bandemer,
346 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
a cartographic engineer, was assigned to the project from the Aero-
nautical Chart and Information Center of the United States Air
Force. He brought with him an invaluable knowledge of the working
problems of those who map the world from imperfect angular ob-
servations. His own interest in satellite tracking grew as he worked
with the group, and eventually he became station chief in Argentina.
Jed Durrenberger, a senior photomechanical engineer, served as a
consultant on the assembly, adjustment, and inspection of the Baker-
Nunn camera, and in addition, led the Moonwatch team in Las Cruces.
In the early days of the satellite tracking, at Organ Pass, N. Mex., the
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory shared quarters with the
Harvard Meteor Project, which was also directed by Dr. Whipple.
At one end of the building Smithsonian personnel were preparing for
the arrival of the Baker-Nunn camera and its auxiliary equipment;
at the other end Charles Tougas, Edward Horine, Gunther Schwartz,
and Kenneth Morrison were working on the meteor program and at
the same time taking photographs of Sputnik I with their super-
Schmidt camera. These four knew the night sky with a thoroughness
that comes only after many months of intensive observation. Their
knowledge became singularly significant in the early development of
tracking techniques with the Baker-Nunn camera. Later, Tougas,
Morrison, and Horine joined the Smithsonian staff, and each became
a station chief.
In October Martin Burkhead and Walter Lang arrived at Organ
Pass to prepare for the shipment of the Baker-Nunn camera and to
uncrate and store the supplies of chemicals, films, and other materials
that would be needed. When the Norrman clock came, they set it up.
They erected a prefab powerhouse and put in a 110-volt amplifier, a
5-kilowatt generator, and the wiring to the camera house.
About 2 weeks before the Baker-Nunn arrived at Organ Pass a bad
storm took away the roof and one wall of the camera house. With
the help of the Harvard Meteor staff, Lang and Burkhead rebuilt the
walls and contracted for a new roof, which was installed on Novem-
ber 2. The next day they painted the floor. On November 4 the
camera and the observers arrived from South Pasadena, Calif. With
them came Dr. Henize, who was in charge of the group, and Aubrey
Stinnett and James Knight. The training session, which began on
November 12 after the camera had been installed, was to last until
December 6.
The men lived at a motel, some 20 miles from the station, owned
and operated by George and Irma Duchenki, who were not only host
to the group but also father and mother and, when the per diem
allowance of the observers did not come through from Cambridge or
Washington, friendly bankers.
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 347
Those weeks were not without dramatic moments quite unrelated
to the satellite-tracking program. Nearby St. Augustine Mountain,
some 8,000 feet high, became a challenge to those who were not fully
taxed by the demands of setting up the first station. On one climb,
Stinnett fractured an ankle and had to be carried down the mountain
by Whidden, Grady, and Henize. He was promptly appointed safety
officer for the group. One evening Bandemer, in the excitement of
pointing out to the Duchenkis a transit of Sputnik I, fell into the grease
pit of the gasoline station next door and had to be hospitalized for
cuts and bruises.
The training program itself was, of course, wholly without prece-
dent. There had been some talk about preparing an observer’s man-
ual, but this proved to be impossible since there was not even a proto-
type camera to work with at that time. The observers were eager to
learn the necessary techniques for the full operation of a tracking
station. This involved considerably more than the camera itself.
They had to learn how to maintain the Norrman clock, to develop
the film, to carry through a field-reduction program of measuring the
position of the satellite image on the film, and to maintain efficient
communications with headquarters in Cambridge.
The first films taken with the camera in New Mexico were out of
focus because the primary corrector cell had unfinished optics. This
cell remained in use until March 1958, when it was replaced. There-
after, the camera was able to acquire the faint image of Explorer I.
Time reduction was very primitive. None of them knew much
about the corrections that had to be applied to WWYV time in order
to calibrate the Norrman clock. At the Harvard Meteor Project,
timing was needed to an accuracy of only one-half second, in no way
comparable to the millisecond that was the goal of the satellite-
tracking system.
The film of the Baker-Nunn camera was somewhat difficult to work
with when compared with the concave molded frames used in the
Harvard Meteor Project. And there was no microscope available for
finding the star field in which the satellite image appeared.
Moonwatch was of major assistance in pinpointing predictions for
the first camera. Observatory predictions sent from Cambridge were
off by 5 or 10 minutes in Alamogordo, Las Cruces, Albuquerque, and
Phoenix. A small group in E] Paso—actually not a registered Moon-
watch team—called in observations at the last minute to Las Cruces.
The Observatory even arranged a conference with five local Moon-
watch teams so that they would, when they saw a satellite passage,
telephone the position and their location to the Organ Pass station.
Finding the satellite image itself was then no particular problem,
especially as 1957 « 1 was a very bright object. The observers could
run the film through a projector and look among the streaks with
348 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
five breaks representing the star images to find the point that was
the satellite image; at that time the camera was simply matching
the apparent motion of the satellite across the sky. Later, the oscil-
lating technique was used experimentally, but then abandoned as un-
necessary.
This was, then, a simultaneous process of developing rather in-
volved technical methods and of teaching them to one another. By
the end of the first training session, profiting from the experience and
knowledge gained in those 6 weeks, the Observatory was able to plan
a more efficient and more thorough program for the next group of
observers who came through Cambridge and New Mexico early in
1958.
THE BAKER-NUNN CAMERA STATIONS
As each Baker-Nunn camera was completed and tested at the Boller
and Chivens plant in South Pasadena, it was couriered by a member
of the Observatory staff, usually on a MATS plane, to the station
for which it was intended. Table 1 indicates the schedule of ship-
ment, the dates of first successful observations, and the object photo-
graphed. By mid-1958 the Observatory could announce that all 12
Baker-Nunn camera stations were operational.
TABLE 1.—Shipping schedule of Baker-Nunn cameras and first successful
observations
Station Date camera shipped Date of first observation Object
photographed !
New Mexico----_--- November 2, 1957___| November 26, 1957_-_| 1957 al
1958
South Africa__----- Pebruary de-2- 22-5 March 18, 1958 - --_- 1958 Alpha
Australias] eee Hebruanyez2e. == Marchal tobsa=s=2- 1957 Beta
Spaiise Gere Ee March 2 sate st ieets © Miarch 18, 19582222 1957 Beta
Japanese ie ole Miarchi20202) 24 eas April 15, 1958_..----| 1958 Alpha
nGliae See tke Marche 02 ees leash e August 29, 1958_-_-- 1958 61
eric et eee ee oe Acre See Sots ee oe July 4. LOGS ese 1958 Alpha
LENG Wea cai A ol INES er a eee May 20; 1958 0er 222" 1958 61
@urpeaote es 2 ase May bee es te oe June'22, 19582225 222 1958 Alpha
Hloridase sae INT aS erate a eres See June OMG SSsea eas 1958 62
Arcentinas oe hs yee Miya puteist ox eat duly, 1Oy1958 eee 1958 62
SEC ene en Miaiva280 ees ai July4s al 958 e508 aus 1958 Alpha
1 The designation for the first satellites was decided by Dr. Whipple, as later explained in the Smithsonian
Contributions to Astrophysics, vol. 2, No. 10, p. 189 (1958): “Notation system for satellites. The tentative
system of notation, suggested by Whipple, identifies each artificial earth satellite in the following manner:
the year of launching is followed by a letter of the Greek alphabet to indicate the order of the satellite’s
launching within the year, and, when more than one object is observed from one launching, a number is
added to indicate relative brightness. When the orbiting rocket assembly or assemblies from one launching
are referred to as a whole, or when the components are not distinguished nor considered separately, the
Greek letter is spelled out and the succeeding number is omitted.”’
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 349
The first Baker-Nunn films of Satellite 1957 a 1 were taken at
South Pasadena on October 17 and at the Organ Pass station in New
Mexico on November 26; of 1957 Beta, New Mexico, December 13; of
1958 Alpha, South Africa, March 18, 1958; and of 1958 Beta, New
Mexico, March 19, 1958.
Of the 12 Baker-Nunn camera stations, the two in Australia and
Japan were staffed entirely by nationals, and equipped by them ex-
cept for the camera, clock, and electronic accessories. In some of the
other countries, at least one national was on the staff of the station,
and usually several others provided practical support for station
operations.
There were three types of stations. First, there were those wholly
operated by fully professional astronomers or their equivalents; these
were the stations in Tokyo, India, and Australia, where all or most of
the staff were nationals. Second, there were the wholly American
groups in Florida, Hawaii, and New Mexico. The remaining six
were a “mixed” operation, which proved to be eminently successful.
At these stations the Observatory had to develop a working relation-
ship between its own high-speed, fairly well integrated organization
and the local people working at and with the station; and because
this was essentially an American-oriented scientific program and be-
cause in most of the countries there was a lack of personnel trained
to do the technical work at the station, the chief of the group was an
American.
The Observatory program had been based on the assumption that
at most each station would have to observe not more than three or
four satellites during a single night’s operation. Actually the de-
mands became much heavier as more and more satellites were launched
in 1958 and in the years to follow. It is a remarkable tribute to
designers and builders of the Baker-Nunn camera and the associated
equipment that the stations have proved capable of meeting this ever
increasing responsibility.
Again, a historical accident as far as the Americans were con-
cerned offered the time necessary for the stations to develop into a
smooth, efficient network. If after Sputnik I the Russians had im-
mediately launched Sputnik IJ, III, IV, V, and VI—all of them
designed for long ife—and if Vanguard had been initially successful
the Observatory would have had to reorganize its program. For-
tunately, with only two or three objects to track during those first
few months opportunity was provided for slower but better develop-
ment of techniques. The stations’ basic problem in the early days
was making the equipment work and getting reliable results. It was
necessarily a program of trial and error. At each station the staff
would develop their own particular means and methods of tracking
satellites. Some were good, some were mediocre, some were down-
350 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
right bad. And no matter what the methods, considerable difficulty
resulted in correlating the observations from all of the stations.
Again, the independence of the first observers proved to be both a boon
and a bane, and many of the problems that arose were not to be settled
until the first station chiefs’ conference in June 1959.
Certain operational hazards plagued the stations for many months.
Brief interruptions in tracking occurred in Iran because of cold
weather and mechanical troubles with the camera; in Florida, Curagao,
and Japan, because the slave clock had to be overhauled; in India,
because of maladjustments of the film transport system.
Each station had its unique problems. In a letter from South
Africa to Ken Drummond, Jim Knight neatly summed up several
of the pressures experienced in South Africa: “You should know that
the job here entails certain things beyond normal situations at normal
stations. In addition to running the station, one must act as Moon-
watch coordinator for three teams in the Union of South Africa, and
now one in Rhodesia. On top of this, there is Dr. Hynek’s observing
program at Radcliffe, probably a continuing one, and the additional
task of spending hours working on time propagation studies.”
And at every station there was the necessity for dealing tactfully,
constructively, and intelligently with the local people. In a sense, the
nine Baker-Nunn camera stations overseas might be thought of as
harbingers of the Peace Corps, and like that group they had both
their successes and their failures.
The first months of the stations were all the more exciting and all
the more frustrating because the initial predictions from Cambridge
were not of the desired accuracy. The perturbations of a satellite
with a significantly low perigee are such that if it is not observed on
a regular schedule or if bad weather or poor twilight conditions inter-
fere for a few weeks, predictions of time may become uncertain by a
matter of minutes, and of the position of the orbital plane by a matter
of tens of miles. In this situation, the observer had to develop search
techniques, which might require a half hour of preparation, a half
hour of observing, and many hours of scanning the films.
For 1957 « 1, the observers tried all the observing techniques that
could be used with the Baker-Nunn camera. They kept the camera
motionless, so that the satellite image would appear as a trail; they
tracked the satellite so that the stars would form trails and the object
would be a pinpoint; and they used the oscillating technique that
allowed both modes. The last method was not used very much after
the first few months because the observers soon realized that they were
devoting a good deal of time and energy to obtaining results that
really were not needed, particularly for satellites of the brightness of
1957 Alpha and Beta.
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 351
Insofar as possible the Observatory wanted long-are observations;
in other words, photographs that showed the satellite as it appeared
over the horizon, at culmination, and through to the other horizon.
While the camera could track at variable speeds in order to match the
apparent motion of the satellite, it could not follow the same pattern
without changes in altitude of the line of sight. There were two
aspects to this problem: one, to predict the path; the other, to have
the camera follow it. The observers improvised various means of
achieving these ends.
When the camera followed the motion of the satellite, the satellite
image on the film would appear as a pinpoint and therefore might be
very difficult to find. The observer soon discovered that elongated
images could be obtained just by holding the shutter open and jig-
gling the mechanism a little bit. By this means they had their first
real opportunity to detect faint satellite images.
Since some of the predictions were not accurate, the observer often
had to pattern the sky for the satellite; that is, he would scan the sky
with a camera, making changes of altitude and other corrections,
hopping by this means to catch the satellite.
After the film was developed, the observer had to identify the posi-
tion of the satellite image among the stars. The staff of the Harvard
Meteor Project in New Mexico had literally memorized the night sky.
When, using the super-Schmidt, they photographed a satellite pas-
sage, they made a mental note that it went 2° south of the star Fomal-
haut. They then took out the CD star chart and fitted the field against
that of the film.
The new observers of the Smithsonian program had no such knowl-
edge and experience, so they had to find other means of identifying
the star field quickly. Tables were prepared for rapidly converting
azimuth and altitude, known sidereal time, and even the right ascen-
sion and declination, on a star chart. Also mechanical means such as
a navigation globe were developed.
At first observers would spend as much as 9 or 10 hours identifying
the star field. As the satellite load increased, this became an im-
possible procedure. Each station developed its own particular tech-
nique for identifying the star field, and only much later would these
be standardized to a common procedure.
Finally, most of the stations had some problems with the power
supply to the Norrman clock and the slave clock. At the New
Mexico, Florida, Hawaii, and South Africa stations there were only
small and infrequent fluctuations of power in the commercial line,
and few power failures. At the other oversea stations, however, the
voltage fluctuations were often quite considerable so that the time
presentation of the slave clock would vary considerably. When the
aoe ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
field-reduced satellite position and time were sent to Cambridge, the
errors in timing became, of course, a source of errors in new predictions
generated from them.
COMPUTATIONS
The Soviet Union told the outside world little concerning the orbits
of Sputniks I and II. In fact, much of the data they distributed to
the Western press and to the IGY consisted merely of the times of
transit over major cities in both hemispheres. Nevertheless, scientists
of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and those of other
agencies and organizations were able in a very short time to issue
relatively accurate information and even, later, to predict the demise
of Sputnik II so precisely that the Russians claimed they must be
fabricating rather than forecasting.
The problems that confronted the computations staff on the night
of October 4 seemed overwhelming. The orbital programs that had
been worked out by Drs. Cunningham and Lautman could not be used
in tracking Sputnik I. The initial orbit determination program that
Slowey and Briggs had written was still being debugged and would
not be ready for a day or two for practical computations.
None of these programs included air drag; scientists everywhere
had believed that it would have only a small effect on the orbit of an
artificial earth satellite because they greatly underestimated the at-
mospheric density between 100 and 200 km. above the surface of the
earth.
Then too, the United States had planned to launch its first satel-
lite—which it assumed would be the first satellite—at a height at
which air drag would not have been a very important factor. Sput-
nik I, however, was moving low in the atmosphere.
Furthermore, the errors of the first observations received by the
Observatory were much larger than those that astronomers were ac-
customed to in the study of celestial mechanics. The computation
methods at hand were necessarily sensitive to errors of observations,
so that when the observations were poor, the orbit derived from them,
if one could be derived at all, was necessarily poor.
Finally, the practical philosophy of the Smithsonian Astrophysical
Observatory was to accumulate as many observations as possible,
rather than to work with a minimum number from the field. Ulti-
mately, the effort to combine dozens of observations into the determina-
tion of an orbit proved highly successful. At first, however, provi-
sional techniques had to be developed to use whatever data were at
hand.
The Observatory was not, of course, alone in this dilemma, The
satellite-orbit programs of other observatories failed initially for
much the same reasons. In all fairness, it should be noted that no
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES ape
one could have realized all the intricacies of atmospheric density deter-
mined by seasonal, diurnal, and solar variations. Indeed, had it been
possible to predict these intricacies, there would have been consider-
ably less purpose to any passive tracking system.
In the months that followed the launching of Sputnik I the compu-
tations staff of the Observatory had a very difficult and very busy
time. They rapidly gained the experience that they all had lacked,
experience that had been impossible before a satellite was actually
launched. They realized early the magnitude of the job before them,
and were particularly conscious of the importance of air drag in the
computing of satellite predictions. All of them were under constant
and heavy pressure, not only to organize an efficient means of gener-
ating predictions but also to help establish and maintain good rela-
tions with a now somewhat doubting public. Most of them during
those first weeks worked as much as 18 hours a day. Cots were set
up at Kittredge Hall, so that many of the computers simply did
not go home at all until they had achieved a basic and necessary
success.
Their diligence and devotion were matched by those of other mem-
bers of the Observatory staff, and especially of the wives of all of
them. Headed by Mrs. Whipple and Mrs. Hynek, these good women
maintained a constant supply of coffee, sandwiches, clean shirts, and
other necessities.
The first observations were, to say the least, rather inconsistent;
that is, the format and the data were not the same from one to the
next. In addition, some of these observations came from places that
had not been adequately “located”; for example, if someone informed
the Observatory that he had witnessed a transit of the satellite, the
computers had to find out as exactly as possible the coordinates of
his position. There was, then, a complex job of the bookkeeping,
as well as an equally complex task of reducing the data to a consistent
format.
In addition to its own scientists and technicians the Observatory
called on mathematicians and astronomers of the Harvard staff, par-
ticularly Drs. Frances Wright and Richard McCrosky, to help during
these first stages.
Jack Slowey, Robert Briggs, and Dr. John Rossoni of IBM soon
had the initial orbit program in operation. Through the traditional
Harvard Announcement Card (No. 1375) a preliminary estimate of
the orbit of Sputnik I was published on October 15.
In theory, an orbit can be predicted from a set of any three observa-
tions. In their urgency to derive the orbit of Sputnik I, mathemati-
cians of the Observatory took such a set of three observations and
fed it through the initial orbit program. When the results did not
seem to match their estimate of the orbit, they rejected it and tried
354 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
another set. Eventually, one orbit determined by this means fairly
well matched their estimate, and it was this that was distributed to
the scientific community and to the press.
Thereafter, the staff processed individually each of the observa-
tions, most of which were naked-eye or Moonwatch sightings made in
the United States; no photographic observations were available dur-
ing the first 2 weeks. The Observatory was primarily interested, at
this point, in making predictions of transits over the United States.
Many data were required to eliminate errors.
On a large map of the United States the computers marked for
each sighting a spot to indicate where the observer was. Ideally, his
observation would have: (1) The time at which he made it; (2) the
azimuth, or the direction along the horizon; and (3) the elevation
above the horizon. Observations in a different form, in which data
were given with respect to the star background, had to be reduced to
readings of azimuth and elevation.
From the position of the observer, the staff would draw a line in
the direction in which he saw the satellite, which was the azimuth
that he observed. They computed from the orbital period the height
of the satellite above the surface of the earth.
If the orbit is perfectly circular, then its height above the earth
is essentially independent of its position in the orbit. One takes the
elevation above the horizon at which the satellite was observed, and
combines this datum with the height estimated from the orbital period.
One can then calculate by simple trigonometry the distance of the
satellite from the observer, and on this azimuth line, mark a point for
the estimated position of the satellite.
This was done for one evening’s observations. Say the satellite
passed over New England. There would be perhaps half a dozen
observations. From each of these one derived a point representing
the position of the satellite projected onto the surface of the earth
at the time of the observation. There resulted half a dozen points,
more or lesson a line. A straight line was drawn among these points
as well as possible. By noticing how the points fell in relation to the
line, one could go back and correct the estimate of the height of the
satellite and obtain a more consistant analysis of these particular
observations. The line on the surface of the earth represented a
trajectory of the satellite for that evening’s pass. Then, from a
similar set of data for the following evening, one plotted another
line on the surface of the earth, representing the passage of the sat-
ellite for that evening. At this point, there was enough information
to compute with fair accuracy the period of the satellite—essentially
its velocity—and find the position of the line on the surface of the
earth for the following evening just by extrapolating the data. The
Observatory staff did this partly by using a theory that predicted the
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 355
motion of this line produced by the flattening of the earth, but since
they did not know with sufficient accuracy what the flattening was,
they did not trust the extrapolation they obtained this way.
After the first week or so the staff became a little more sophisticated.
Instead of going to the map, they would start with a desk computer.
The problem was again one of trigonometry, of finding the position
of the satetille, plotting the positions of the satellite corresponding to
the observations, and then trying to fit lines through them so that
they could predict ahead. The major difficulty was that the orbital
period was shortening fairly drastically, so they needed a good way
of determining how the period changed with time to allow them to
extrapolate ahead.
When Dr. Luigi Jacchia of the Harvard Meteor program returned
from Italy late in October, Dr. Whipple asked him to take a hand
in the computations work. He immediately considered what stop-
gap measure might best utilize Moonwatch and other observations
to derive more accurate and more automated predictions. He devised
the so-called subsatellite program that could be fed into an electronic
computer to reduce each observation. From a fairly accurate orbit—
and by this time the Observatory had such orbits—the program would
compute for each observation the position of the node and the time
of the crossing of the equator. Then, from a diagram based on these
two quantities, the program would allow one to follow the object and
to make predictions for a fairly long period of time. After some
preliminary experiments with the program by hand computation, Dr.
Jacchia asked Robert Briggs to set it up for the IBM-650, an elec-
tronic computer with which he was familiar. By late November, the
Observatory was able to reduce an observation in something less than
one minute of machine time and to prepare reasonably precise pre-
dictions of transit of Satellites 1957 Alpha and 1957 Beta.
The program developed by Jacchia could not be used by itself to
derive orbital elements. There were five other orbital elements that
still had to be determined (see part 1 of this history). The program
could derive discrepancies between the observations and the assumed
orbital elements, in much the same way that Lautman’s program
was later to operate. It was now a question of taking these discrep-
ancies and plotting them in order to decide which orbital element
most needed correction, improve that one, and then continue this
analysis of the observations again to find a new set of discrepancies;
and so on. Although, in a sense, the program was, as Dr. Hynek
described it, a “quick and dirty approach,” for the next year and a half
it was the work horse of the Computations and Analysis Division.
Jacchia found that he had unofficially taken on the task of pre-
dicting the positions of the first two Russian satellites, which he con-
tinued to do until April 1958, and which resulted in his writing the
356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
historically memorable Special Report No. 15 on the demise of
Sputnik IT.
By the end of 1957, the initial orbit determination program of
Slowey and Briggs had been completed, debugged, and was being
used to generate orbits. A loading routine had been written to per-
mit observations to be read directly into the computer in the form
in which they were received, with reduction being done internally and
automatically. Another addition to the program was the inclusion
of a routine to find suitable starting values for the topocentric dis-
tances that the program used to obtain correct orbits. On December
28 Mr. Slowey presented a general description of the method and
program to a meeting of the American Astronomical Society in
Indianapolis, Ind. It was estimated that the program was at least
90 percent effective in producing orbits from sets of observations
chosen at random.
By the end of the year, 1,956 observations of Satellite 1957 « 1, 48
dubious observations of 1957 « 2, and 494 observations of 1957 Beta
had been processed.
A master list of station coordinates, including the identification
number and the height of the station above sea level, had been com-
piled in a form that could be used as input for the IBM-704 com-
puter. Included in this list were all registered Moonwatch teams,
selected American and foreign observatories, and a number of
miscellaneous observers.
Predictions were by this time essentially of two types; the first
consisted of an ephemeris giving the time and longitude of all cross-
ings of the 40th parallel; these were distributed to the press, to obser-
vation teams throughout the world, and to interested individuals and
agencies. The second consisted of an ephemeris giving more detailed
and specific information for special observation teams such as Moon-
watch. Both ephemerides were programed for the IBM-704
computer.
PROJECT VANGUARD
Meanwhile the American public had been clamoring for a U.S.
satellite, to challenge the dramatic successes of the Soviet space pro-
gram. Seemingly the only possibility for a launching lay with Proj-
ect Vanguard, since it was the one official satellite program for the
IGY; no alternative was being developed.
While the public was impatient, the directors of Vanguard were
proceeding with necessary and commendable caution. They had de-
fined the project as “a complete system for space exploration,” for it
included not only the design, manufacture, test, and launch of the
rocket and its payload but also the development of launch, tracking
computation, and other operational facilities,
SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM——HAYES 357
As a pioneer undertaking, Project Vanguard was confronted with
delays and frustrations toward which the public showed singularly
little sympathy and understanding. In addition, the project was
plagued by lack of adequate funding. The program had been
specifically designated as nonmilitary, in keeping with the spirit of
the IGY, yet the monies for it came out of the budget for the Depart-
ment of Defense. To further complicate matters, first plans for
Vanguard grossly underestimated the funding that would be
necessary.
On December 6, 1957, what had originally been planned as a test
became in fact the first American attempt to orbit a small sphere
carrying a radio transmitter. The effort failed, to worldwide pub-
licity that was reinforced by a second miss on February 5, 1958. One
result has been that in the minds of many Americans, Project Van-
guard was a failure, when in fact the program “produced a basic
concept of launch vehicles . . . (and) pioneered the use of advanced
state-of-the-art techniques.” ?
On November 8, 1957, the newly appointed Secretary of Defense,
Neil H. McElroy, ordered the Army to undertake its own satellite
launching. By coincidence or contrivance, Von Braun and his group
had almost ready an assembly of Redstone and Sergeant rockets to
send a satellite into orbit. The payload that had been planned for
the Vanguard satellite was modified for the Army assembly, and a
target date of January 31, 1958, set for the launching.
2“The Early Years: Goddard Space Flight Center,’ National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, 1964, p. 16.
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The Neutrinos’
By MELVIN SCHWARTZ
Professor of Physics, Columbia University
[With one plate]
IN RECENT MONTHS, the attention of physics has centered upon the
most elusive of all elementary particles—the neutrino. A recent ex-
periment at Brookhaven National Laboratory and Columbia Uni-
versity has shown that there exists in nature two independent types
of neutrinos—one associated with electrons and the other associated
with mu mesons. This experiment has also opened a new chapter
in high energy physics—namely, the study of energetic neutrino
interactions.
To understand the neutrino and the history of its discovery, we
must go back some 30 or 40 years. At that time, much less was known
about nuclear physics than is known today but, on the other hand,
the triumphs of quantum mechanics were fresh and exciting and
many of the conservation laws of physics were on a very firm foot-
ing. In particular, conservation of energy was a cornerstone of the
edifice which had been built up in the three centuries since Newton’s
time.
While investigating the behavior of nuclei, physicists had noted the
phenomenon called beta decay. They observed that occasionally a
nucleus would spontaneously emit an electron (or its antiparticle, a
positron) and change into another nucleus (fig. 1). Now if this were
all that were happening, we would expect the electron and the re-
sidual nucleus to travel off in opposite directions, with the electron
having a unique energy. We would expect that the total energy
of the electron and the residual nucleus should add up to the total
energy of the initial nucleus (including the energy equivalent of the
masses involved by means of the relation E=mce’).
Now in these early experiments it was not possible to observe the
residual nucleus, but measurements of the electron energy alone indi-
cated a difficulty. Its energy was not unique; indeed, it showed a
continuous spectrum of energies up to a certain maximum value.
1 Reprinted by permission from Discovery (London), vol. 23, No. 11, November 1962.
359
360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
& ce P
=e sie: Pad Ss OG
hi eee
P nC)
proton —= neutron + neutron —= proton +
positron + neutrino electron + anti neutrino
Ficure 1.—Two examples of beta-decay, that’on the left occurring only within the nu
cleus. It was to carry away excess energy in beta-decay that the neutrino was first
postulated in the 1930’s. Decay is governed by the weak interaction.
This maximum value corresponded to the energy that might have
been expected for all of the electrons. The lack of uniqueness of
the electron energy appeared to be prima-facie evidence of a lack
of energy conservation in beta decay.
Now, with the level of sophistication which prevails in today’s
physics, the answer would have been obvious. As it was, it took the
enormous insight of Wolfgang Pauli to see it. To solve the dilemma,
he suggested that another particle had to be emitted—a particle carry-
ing no charge and having a mass less than that of the electron. This
particle would serve to carry away the energy that was clearly
missing. The only known particle with mass less than the electron
was the photon—the quantum of light. That was easily ruled out
in the case of beta decay and so the particle which was sought was
one whose presence was completely unknown until then.
A very short time later, Enrico Fermi struck the crucial blow in
favor of the Pauli hypothesis. He developed a theory which ex-
plained, in large measure, the detailed shape of the electron spectrum
from the beta decay. That is to say, he was able to predict, with
accuracy, the probability of observing particular electron energies.
The key ingredient of his theory was a new particle which he labeled
the neutrino—“the little neutral one.” To agree with experiment, the
mass of the neutrino had to be very small compared to that of the
electron. At present, it is assumed to be zero.
PARTICLES AND ANTIPARTICLES
Before proceeding, let us make a slight digression based on work
which has taken place since that time. For every particle which
can exist in nature there is an antiparticle whose existence is also
allowed. In the case of a particle which carries an electrical charge,
the antiparticle carries an equal and opposite charge. The positron,
for example, is the antiparticle of the electron. In the case of an
electrically neutral particle, the antiparticle is, of course, also neutral.
Now in the latter case the antiparticle and particle may be completely
THE NEUTRINOS—SCHWARTZ 361
indistinguishable, in which case they are assumed to be the same
particle. Experiments done in the last 10 years have shown that the
neutrino and the antineutrino are in fact distinguishable in some of
their physical properties. Insofar as beta decay is concerned, the
appearance of an electron seems to be accompanied by the production
of an antineutrino while the appearance of a positron seems to be
accompanied by the production of a neutrino (fig. 1). The decision
as to which shall be called neutrino and which antineutrino is made
by convention.
THE FOUR INTERACTIONS
To return to our story, beta decay is an example of a class of inter-
actions which have acquired the label “weak.” In nature there appear
to be four quite distinct types of interactions, each with its charac-
teristic strength. Listed in order of decreasing strength they are:
Strong, electromagnetic, weak, and gravitational. The first three are
the only ones which concern us when we discuss nuclear phenomena.
Their respective strengths are roughly in the ratio of 10%* to 10" to
1. The strong interactions are responsible for holding a nucleus
together against the repulsive electromagnetic interactions among
the various protons. The weak interactions are responsible for beta
decay. Among the above three types of interactions the neutrinos
participate only in the weak. Were it not for this class of inter-
actions, neutrinos would not exist at all (or, at best, they would be
completely undetectable and irrelevant to the rest of nature). It is
the weakness of its interaction with matter that makes the neutrino
so elusive. Just how difficult it has been to detect will shortly become
apparent.
THE NEUTRINO IS NEEDED AGAIN
As we have said, the neutrino was born out of the theoretical need
to preserve one of the fundamental laws of physics. Since it was
first proposed, more detailed experiments have shown that its presence
was also necessary to preserve other conservation laws. For example,
measurements of the direction in which the residual nucleus went
showed an apparent violation of momentum conservation. The same
neutrino also resolved the difficulty here. Furthermore, it was neces-
sary for the neutrino to carry away angular momentum—indeed, pre-
cise measurement showed that the neutrino carries the same intrinsic
angular momentum as the electron. All of these experiments served
to endow the neutrino with practically all of its properties before
it was ever observed directly.
But now we turn back the clock again some 20 years for the be-
ginning of another major chapter in the neutrino story—the dis-
covery of the pi meson (or pion, as it isoften called). Hideki Yukawa
had calculated that the forces which bind a nucleus together should
362 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
r@ ———— 3 OO v
(muon coupled)
an@kr
pi meson —s mu meson
+ anti-neutrino
Yo eve a) 0
(electron coupled) (muon coupled}
mu meson —s electron+
neutrino + anti-neutrino
Ficure 2.—Decays of pion and muon both involve neutrinos (or antineutrinos). It is
now known that two kinds of neutrino are involved, as indicated in the diagram.
be the result of a particle with a mass equal to several hundred elec-
tron masses. A search for the pi meson in cosmic rays led to the
discovery of a particle with a mass not too different from the predicted
one. However, detailed experiments showed that this new particle
did not participate in the strong interactions and hence could not be
the pion. It was subsequently called the mu meson (or muon). Its
origin was a complete mystery until sometime later when the pion
was finally found and observed to decay spontaneously into the muon.
But now the picture was again not quite complete. During this
decay of a pion into a muon there was also an apparent failure to
conserve energy and momentum. Another particle had to be formed
as well. Careful measurement indicated that the neutrino fitted per-
fectly, and so for many years the same neutrino which participated
in beta decay was presumed to participate in pion decay (fig.2). Fur-
thermore, a study of the muon itself showed that it apparently decayed
in several millionths of a second into an electron, a neutrino, and an
antineutrino.
PARITY VIOLATED
Historically, this brings us to the mid-fifties and the beginning of
a new era in the understanding of the weak interaction. One of the
fundamental “principles” in the development of quantum mechanics
until that time was the law of parity conservation. It states that
the laws of physics which one would deduce from observing nature
THE NEUTRINOS—SCHWARTZ 363
directly must be identical to the laws of physics one would deduce
from observing nature through a mirror. About that time, however,
physicists observed what appeared to be a violation of the parity law
in the decay of the K meson—which also took place by way of the
weak interactions.
As is always the case, physicists tried to preserve the rule by in-
venting all sorts of other schemes. However, T. D. Lee and C. N.
Yang, surveying all of the experimental evidence existing until that
time, pointed out (in a now famous paper which won the Nobel
Prize for physics in 1957) that the only evidence for parity conserva-
tion existed in the realm of the strong and electromagnetic inter-
actions. They proposed a series of experiments to investigate the
validity of this rule in the realm of the weak interaction. The first
crucial experiment was performed by E. Ambler and C. 8S. Wu at the
U.S. National Bureau of Standards in 1956 and showed conclusively
that parity was not conserved in beta decay. They thus resolved
the problem at hand and opened the way for a large series of addi-
tional experiments on beta decay, pion decay, and muon decay.
In each of these reactions, the violation of the parity rule became
apparent. Insofar as the neutrinos were concerned, the parity viola-
tion gave rise to a most fascinating aspect of their behavior. A
neutrino always travels as though it were a left-handed screw. An
antineutrino, on the other hand, travels like a right-handed screw.
The verification of these and other properties of the weak interaction
encompassed one of the most productive periods in modern physics.
Further progress was made shortly afterwards when R. Feynman
and M. Gell-Mann, in a brilliant paper, showed that all the features
of both beta decay and muon decay can be explained by one relatively
simple theory which seemed to be quite universal in its aspects. In-
deed, almost zoo universal, for it predicted that there was no difference
in the basic interaction of the electron and muon with other particles.
In a sense, this was quite puzzling because the two particles differ in
mass by a factor of 200, and physicists tend to think of mass as largely
the result of interaction properties. This puzzle is, as yet, unresolved.
And, as we will shortly see, it has become even sharper in recent
months.
THE NEUTRINO IS DETECTED
The mid-fifties also saw another great achievement in neutrino
physics—the first direct observation of neutrino-induced reactions.
C. Cowan and F. Reines, working at a large nuclear reactor, observed
antineutrinos which were emitted by beta decays within the reactor.
On the average, these particles could spend a full year traveling in a
straight line through solid lead before being absorbed. It was only by
passing a phenomenal number of them through a detector that they
364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
could be detected at all. Those few which did interact in the de-
tector initiated the reaction:
Pakage ae ee
anti-neutrino + proton —
neutron + positron
hes RET ag
p a
Ficure 3
It was the simultaneous appearance of the reaction products which
indicated to the experimenters that an antineutrino had been stopped.
The completion of this experiment yielded the final proof that the
neutrino really existed—anticlimatic in a sense but, nevertheless,
essential.
As we have said before, the theory was, in some sense, in good
shape. It was possible to calculate low-energy neutrino phenomena
with substantial accuracy. However, in all of this there was a basic,
deep-rooted difficulty. The theory predicted that as the neutrino en-
ergy increased, its reaction rate should increase proportionately.
Above a certain energy this leads to serious difficulties which make
the theory untenable. Just how the theory would have to be modified
to avoid these difficulties is not at all apparent. The simplest pro-
posal—one which actually dates back to Yukawa—is that there exists
a particle which is responsible for the weak interactions. This par-
ticle, by introducing a certain level of structure to the weak inter-
actions, could serve to moderate the interaction rate at high energies
and, consequently, avoid the difficulties. The particle in question is
referred to by physicists as the “intermediate boson.”
One difliculty with the intermediate boson theory was pointed out by
G. Feinberg several years ago. He showed that if there were such a
particle involved in the weak interactions, then one should expect that
once in every 10,000 or so ordinary muon decays the muon should
decay into an electron and a gamma ray (rather than an electron, a
neutrino, and an antineutrino). Experimental tests showed that this
event happened less than once every 10° normal muon decays. This
seemed to rule out the intermediate boson and Lee and Yang also
pointed out that any mechanism for removing the weak interaction
difficulty at high energies would run into the same problem. The
only solution to this paradox and one which had been favored by
numerous theorists seemed to be that the neutrino coupled to the muon
THE NEUTRINOS—SCHWARTZ 365
and the neutrino coupled to the electron (fig. 2) are not the same par-
ticle. If this were the case, the decay of a muon into an electron and
a gamma ray would be absolutely forbidden independent of the exist-
ence of an intermediate boson.
DISCOVERY OF TWO NEUTRINOS
It remained then to devise a proper test for this hypothesis. B.
Pontecorvo of the Soviet Union and the author independently pointed
out that it is feasible to do experiments with high energy neutrinos
in presently existing or planned accelerators, In these accelerators,
protons are brought up to energies in the multibillion-electron-volt
region and are then allowed to strike a target. Out of this target
come mainly pi mesons, most of which decay shortly into muons and
their neutrinos. If these neutrinos were identical to the electron-
coupled neutrinos, when they interacted with matter (a neutron in a
nucleus, for example) they would produce electrons as often as muons.
re
re
2)
e e —
°é
n ae
Vy o———»>(_) 2 pe
Ficure 4
If they were different from the electron-coupled neutrinos, they
could produce only muons and no electrons at all.
The proposed experiment has just been completed at Brookhaven
National Laboratory by a group including G. Danby, J. M. Gaillard,
K. Goulianos, L. Lederman, N. Mistry, J. Steinberger, and the author.
In this experiment (fig. 5) pions produced by 15 Bev protons are
allowed to travel for some 70 feet before striking a 40-foot thick steel
shielding wall. During this interval, about 10 percent of the pions
decay, sending their neutrinos forward. The remaining pions, muons,
and all other debris are stopped by the wall, but the neutrinos pene-
trate it as though it were nonexistent. Behind the wall, in a well-
shielded room, stands a spark chamber (pl. 1, fig. 1)—an instrument
which can be made to show a track of sparks whenever a charged
particle passes through it. This spark chamber also acted as the tar-
get for the neutrinos, and consisted of 10 tons of aluminium in the
form of 1-inch thick plates.
366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
W steel
4 Brookhave
magnet FiNB of { bd
spark —
chamber
muon
22 found
pion
muon
29 found
electron
none found
(29 expected
LL IE SE EET 1 ae RDS Con Wen Gare mio arr os eae ge if only one
neutrino)
Ficure 5.—Author and colleagues used this experimental arrangement to detect neutrino
interactions. Pions from accelerator target travel 70 feet before striking steel shield;
on the way about 10 percent decay to muons and neutrinos. Neutrinos pass through
shield to spark chamber where about 1 in 10” interact. Lower diagram shows number
and types of these interactions: shaded interaction was not observed, indicating that
there is more than one kind of neutrino.
Neutrinos, of course, show no tracks; but their reaction products
do. ‘The chamber is triggered whenever a charged particle originates
within it. After passing some 10% neutrinos through it, 51 inter-
actions were observed. Of these, 29 showed the production of a muon
alone and 22 showed the production of a muon along with a pion or
something else. If there was only one neutrino, one would have also
expected the production of 29 single electrons which would have been
easily identified in the chamber. No such electrons were observed,
leading to the conclusion that the neutrinos coupled to muons are not
the same as those coupled to electrons.
One of the implications of this discovery is quite clear. It re-
moves a major objection to the intermediate boson, and the next
neutrino experiments will be designed to search for it directly. This
boson, if it does exist and has a mass not much greater than the mass
of the proton, can be produced directly along with a muon by
presently available energetic neutrinos. Indeed, the Brookhaven
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Schwartz PLATE 1
1. A typical event in the Brookhaven spark chamber showing one of the 29 mu mesons
produced by the interaction of neutrinos. (See lower half of 1oanOe)
2. The 10-ton spark chamber at the Brookhaven Laboratory, used to detect neutrino
interactions, showing that there are two kinds of neutrino.
THE NEUTRINOS—SCHWARTZ 367
experiment has some events which could be interpreted as the pro-
duction of such a particle. The boson is expected to live for only
about 10-7 seconds before decaying, and can only be detected by
means of its decay products (which should include electrons, or muons,
along with their respective neutrinos). An event could then be
characterized, for example, by the appearance of two muons—one,
the primary muon, and the other resulting from the decay of the boson.
Finally, one may hope that future neutrino physics will yield
sufficient data about the weak interactions at high energies to lead to
a comprehensive theory of these interactions. One may even hope
to shed some light on the basic difference between the electron and the
muon which, in some way, should be related to the difference between
their respective neutrinos. At any rate, the future of neutrino physics
seems quite exciting.
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5h 7 7 in
The Antibiotics from a Botanical Viewpoint’
By Kenneth L. Jones
Professor, Department of Botany, University of Michigan
Boranists have participated energetically in antibiotic research
primarily because certain lower plants, familiarly molds, are the sole
source of most of the antibiotics used in medicine and agriculture.
The discovery and elucidation of the structure and growth require-
ments of these valuable plants have been a lively area of botanical
study. There are ancillary considerations which have given antibiotic
research a botanical flavor, such as the realization that the causal
organisms of disease may be members of the plant kingdom, notably
the fungi.
The term “antibiotic” was first suggested by Professor Selman
A. Waksman, of Rutgers University, New Jersey, an eminent re-
searcher of lower plants—the actinomycetes. The word “antibiosis”
had been used at least as long ago as 1889 by P. Vuillemin to describe
absolute antagonism of one organism to another and it subsequently
came to denote the converse of “symbiosis.” Waksman, however,
gave the word “antibiotic” a special meaning in order to set off
microbial antagonists from other antibacterial substances. His full
definition, enunciated in 1947, was:
An antibiotic is a chemical substance, produced by micro-organisms, which
has the capacity to inhibit the growth of and even destroy bacteria and other
micro-organisms. The action of an antibiotic against micro-organisms is selec-
tive in nature, some organisms being affected and others not at all or only to
a limited degree; each antibiotic is thus characterized by a specific anti-
microbial spectrum. The selective action of an antibiotic is also manifested
against microbial versus host cells. Antibiotics vary greatly in their physical
and chemical properties and in their toxicity to animals. Because of these
characteristics, some antibiotics have remarkable chemotherapeutic potentialities
and can be used for the control of various microbial infections in man and
in animals.
When Professor Waksman formulated the antibiotic concept in 1947,
three of the five antibiotics destined to revolutionize medicine had
already been discovered: penicillin, streptomycin, and chloromycetin.
1 Reprinted by permission from Michigan Quarterly Review, vol. 1, No. 3, Summer 1962.
369
370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Penicillin, the first to be discovered, was derived from a blue-
green mold, Penicillium, commonly known from blue cheese or the
spoilage of citrus fruits, bread, moist tobacco, or leather. The anti-
biotic penicillin was discovered in 1929 by Alexander Fleming, of
St. Mary’s Hospital, London. Its commercial production, however,
waited on a cooperative effort by American scientists, engineers, and
industrialists, akin to the concurrent pooling of energies to create the
atomic bomb. The great healer, penicillin, partially restored life
against the havoc of the great destroyer.
In retrospect, the botanical aspects of the cooperative effort con-
cerned (1) selection and improvement of the mold, and (2) the
establishment of the most favorable conditions for growth of the
mold as a penicillin producer. In other words, there was a genetical
approach, aimed at obtaining superlative germ plasm, and an ecologi-
cal one, to provide it the best means of expression.
Since Penicillium is lamentably sexless, the genetical program
could not exploit breeding procedures, as can be done with yeasts in
the fermentation business. It was necessary to resort to an exten-
sive selection process, in which literally thousands of molds from
soil samples were tested for antibiotic (penicillin) yield. For this
purpose soil samples from various remote parts of the world were
flown by the military to Peoria, Illinois, the home of the federal
Northern Regional Research Laboratories, where the total program
was centered. As it chanced, the mold of choice resided right in
Peoria and was picked up via a spoiled cantaloupe by a laboratory
technician, affectionately called “Moldy Mary.” ‘This prize-winning
mold was identified by Drs. Raper and Thom as Penicillium
chrysogenum.
Now a new technique, characteristic of the dawning atomic era,
was brought into play to improve Penicillium chrysogenum. This
was radiation. Scientists set out to alter the genetical nature of the
mold spores by X-radiation and ultraviolet, something never at-
tempted before for practical purposes. These pioneer researchers
met with inordinate success almost at once. New strains of mold
were obtained which yielded as much as 500 times the penicillin of
the original isolate of Fleming. Incidentally, radiation is today a
choice means of strain improvement in molds used in industry. Each
corporation has its own carefully guarded organisms, although admit-
tedly the improvements are seldom of the magnitude attained in
Penicillium in the days of high drama when it was about to make
its debut.
The great innovation on the environmental side was the submerged-
culture process. It happens that Penicillium, and molds generally,
are avid users of oxygen and therefore grow only on the surface of
liquids. It seems ridiculous to us nowadays that initially Penicdllewm
BOTANICAL VIEW OF ANTIBIOTICS—JONES 371
was grown on the surface of liquids in quart milk bottles. For each
batch of penicillin, several thousand bottles had to have their con-
tents separately inoculated, incubated, and harvested. No wonder
“practical people” despaired of the antibiotic ever coming into mass
production. Then, some ingenious person had the idea of using, in-
stead of quart milk bottles, 15,000 gallon tanks upended, through
which sterilized compressed air gushed. The tanks were practically
teeming with mold submerged in corn steep liquor. Soon penicillin
was turned out in carload lots, and the production cost was less than
that of packaging. Sir Alexander Fleming refused all patent rights
on penicillin !
Professor Selman Waksman was the discoverer of the second anti-
biotic to come into widespread use, streptomycin. Its name stems
from Streptomyces, the genus on which Waksman earned his master
of science degree at Rutgers in 1916. He systematically tested each
of some 10,000 separate cultures for antibiotic production. To stu-
dents of lower plants, the fact that most of these isolates of Strepto-
myces possessed antibiotic properties was probably a more important
datum than that one, Streptomyces griseus, yielded the valuable strep-
tomycin. It became apparent that soil organisms, particularly the
genus Streptomyces, held high promise for future exploitation. Anti-
biotics from true bacteria turned out to be dreadfully toxic to man
in many instances.
The next major antibiotic, Chloromycetin, was isolated from a
new species of Streptomyces in 1947. It was announced by a group
of researchers employed in the Detroit laboratories of Parke, Davis
and Company, working in collaboration with Professor Paul R.
Burkholder, then chairman of the Department of Botany at Yale
University, and Professor David Gottlieb of the Department of Plant
Pathology at the University of Lllinois. Burkholder isolated the
organism from soil collected in a mulched field near Caracas, Vene-
zuela, so that it was accordingly named Streptomyces venezuelae. At
about the same time, Gottlieb obtained it from a soil sample taken
from the campus in Urbana. Students of these lowly plants are
aware of the fact that they occur quite generally in soils but particu-
lar variants, producing useful antibiotics, may be rather localized,
so that it pays to explore over a wide geographic range. This is a
tolerable idea to botanists, who are prone to wander and collect speci-
mens, other than soil samples. The new antibiotic was named
Chloromycetin. This name was retained as a trademark by Parke,
Davis and Company, but the substance was later given the nonpro-
prietary name, chloramphenicol. Its discovery aroused great interest,
as it was active against a relatively wide range of infectious agents,
including the bacteria of typhoid and undulant fever, various rick-
ettsiae, and the larger viruses, including that of scrub typhus. The
372 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
antibiotic could be administered orally, a property greeted warmly
by those who had submitted to the indignities of multiple shots
of penicillin.
Incidentally, the chemical constitution of chloramphenicol and
methods of synthesizing it were worked out in 1949 by Dr. Mildred
Rebstock. It is the first, and so far the only, antibiotic to be made
commercially by total chemical synthesis, which soon displaced the
fermentation process for producing it. The manufacturing plant for
the commercial synthesis, belonging to Parke, Davis and Company,
is at Holland, Michigan. The distaff side may well be proud of its
role in the development of antibiotics. It was Dr. Mary Florey,
British physician, who first used penicillin successfully on human
beings suffering gravely from bacterial infection, and a woman assist-
ant in the Peoria Laboratory, now Mrs, Steven J. Steven, of Brook-
field, Illinois, who obtained the choice Penicillium chrysogenum.
Aureomycin was discovered in 1948 by the renowned botanist B. M.
Duggar, who was in his “retirement” from the University of Wis-
consin, as an employee of the Lederele Laboratories at Pearl River,
New York. Fellow botanists were particularly pleased to have a great
researcher in theoretical botany win laurels when he turned to an
applied field. He had been a leader in plant pathology and then in
radiation biology. (Parenthetically, Michigan’s beloved Harley
Harris Bartlett reported that it was Duggar who first grasped the
parallelism between viruses and genes—in fact, he had remarked that
viruses are escaped genes.) Aureomycin is derived from Streptomyces
aureofaciens: its name denotes the golden color of the mold and of
the antibiotic, and not that it is taken orally, as a well-known news-
paper claimed!
The last of the major antibiotics, terramycin, was discovered in
the laboratories of the Charles Pfizer and Company, Brooklyn, New
York, in 1950. It is derived from the actinomycete Streptomyces
rimosus. No claim can be made by botanists for the discovery or de-
velopment of this antibiotic. Aureomycin and terramycin are perhaps
better known to the public as the tetracyclines. Aureomycin is chlor-
tetracycline, and terramycin is chemically designated oxytetracy-
cline. Both are used commonly as broad-spectrum drugs, active
against a wide variety of bacteria and even certain amoebae and
pinworms.
It is remarkable that no antibiotic to rival penicillin or the tetracy-
clines has been discovered since 1950, in spite of large-scale attempts
by industry to locate favorable natural sources. This may mean that
the storehouse of these valuable substances in nature is indeed limited,
or perhaps that the search has been too restricted. Several safe and
effective antibiotics have been made available for medical use. Those
derived from Streptomyces lead the list: erythromycin, colymycin,
BOTANICAL VIEW OF ANTIBIOTICS—JONES 373
Table 1.—The number of actinomycetes present as spores or viable filaments in a gram
of soil from several sites in Ann Arbor. These are predominantly in the genus
Streptomyces.
8 feet
Soil site Top inch 2 feet down 4 feet down down
ip Se hs Sea eee 18, 100, 000 3, 493, 000 16, 850 67
oes Be aS ee 18, 600, 000 600, 000 402, 000 2
oe ee 10, 200, 000 970, 000 214, 000 680
i) ea 13, 700, 000 1, 620, 000 31, 200 1, 770
pee ee 25, 400, 000 1, 900, 000 27, 000 10
Geers te. IP) eb s 15, 100, 000 2, 091, 000 52, 000 6, 740
viomycin, cycloserine, carbomycin, kanamycin, novobiocin, and neomy-
cin are representative. Some of these are valuable replacements of
penicillin for patients who are sensitive to the latter or where, as is
common in staphylococcus infections, the causative organism is resist-
ant to penicillin. Many natural products, including antibiotics, are
being tested today for possible control of cancer. The Sloan-Kettering
Foundation is the center for this research.
The lower plants responsible for most antibiotics of commerce are
members of two unrelated genera, Penicillium and Streptomyces.
The first is a coarse-filamented fungus in which the threads and
spores are of the order of 10 microns in diameter. The filaments are
clearly cellular with spherical nuclei. They spread, digesting organic
materials, and in the fullness of time, form a bloom of greenish spores
that appear as a powder to the naked eye. Occasionally, under lab-
oratory conditions, botanists have observed Penicillium to reproduce
sexually with the formation of a special type of spores, ascospores.
This characteristic places the genus with the ascomycete fungi, to
which also belong various mildews and even the delectable truffles and
morels.
The actinomycetes, or “actinos,” to which the genus Streptomyces
belongs, abound everywhere in topsoils where they thrive on plant
residues. Table 1 gives a characteristic census of actinomycetes, es-
sentially Streptomyces, per gram of dry soil. A gram corresponds
to a “pinch” as used in recipes for baking biscuits. These data were
obtained in Ann Arbor at fresh excavations for dwellings in this
burgeoning community. The numbers of viable cells which plate out
as colonies in the laboratory are seen in the table to decline rapidly
the farther down in the subsoil one samples. This is attributable
partly to decrease in nutrients (dead leaves, roots, and twigs) but
largely to the lack of oxygen. The prevalence of Streptomyces in
soils is manifest to all of us in a more direct manner, as the spores are
responsible for the pungent, spicy odor of newly turned soil which one
ean sense while cruising at 90 miles per hour over a country road in
springtime. Volatile aromatic substances are watted from the spores
of Streptomyces into the atmosphere. Incidentally, the relatively
few “actinos” that occur in the deeper layers of the subsoil are liable to
720-018—_64—— 25
374 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
be of a less common genus of a nonsporing nature, termed Actinomy-
ces. These aberrant, anaerobic plants have their own unique chem-
istry, structure, and life potential. Some of their representatives
were known to the medical profession as far back as 1860 as the
causal organisms of “lumpy jaw” in cattle and man. They are now
identified as agents of dangerous pulmonary abscesses and other in-
fections (“actinomycoses”) which are very stubborn—often yielding
only to appropriate antibiotics derived from their kin, the Streptomy-
cetes.
An actinomycete of any description exists in the soil as a spider-
weblike entanglement of filaments of the diameter of bacteria (one
micron). Under a light microscope, these filaments are too narrow
to reveal their internal structure, as is true of bacteria generally. The
electron microscope becomes the instrument of choice in delineating
the finer parts of the protoplasm of all microorganisms, as it gives
a magnification up to 150 times that of light microscopes, with the dis-
advantage, however, of portraying only dead, dried specimens as
mounted in a high vacuum. The filaments thus treated portray
complicated, infolded membranes, granules of diverse sizes and com-
positions, and irregular islands of nucleoplasm. The continuous (non-
septate) tubular filaments branch profusely. The branches may im-
politely disregard one another or be more amicable and intertwine,
interlock, or even fuse. Filaments from two or more plants may
thus contain segments of a polyglot character, with opportunities for
a mixing of diverse genetical materials.
The actinomycetes are usually classified as a filamentous order of
bacteria. Streptomyces is one of a half-dozen genera of actinomy-
cetes. It is characterized by the formation of spores in long chains,
at the end of special coarse, aerial filaments which protrude above the
substance on which the plant is growing. In nature the spores are
blown helter-skelter by the wind, to germinate into filaments if they
chance to fall on a moist, comfortably warm surface. They may,
however, remain dormant for months, protected as they are by a thick
waxy wall, derived from the filament within which they formed. ‘The
walls have recently been observed under the electron microscope as
smooth or variously ornamented, for example, with spines like a mini-
ature cocklebur. 'The ornamentations prove to be a convenient crite-
rion for the delineation of species.
The fine structure of the interior of the very small spores and
filaments is being studied at the University of Michigan by Dr. Pearl
Lui Chen, a botanist of the Albion College faculty. The spores are
killed and preserved by chemical treatment, with as little distortion
in structure as possible. They are then imbedded in a plastic, sec-
tioned on a machine into several serial slices per spore. These slices
are appropriately mounted on grids for observation under the electron
BOTANICAL VIEW OF ANTIBIOTICS—JONES 375
microscope, which has an inbuilt camera to record the selected observa-
tions for publication in scientific journals.
The spores contain nuclear material which is not identical in quan-
tity or configuration from spore to spore, even within a given chain.
This may explain why cultures established from single-spore isolations
of sister spores are dissimilar. In other words Streptomycetes may
have inbuilt “reasons” for being variable which have enhanced their
natural survival. Charles Darwin delighted in extolling the case for
evolution in the large, variable, wide-ranging genera. Streptomyces
would have qualified eminently.
How to identify and classify species within the genus Streptomyces
such as Streptomyces griseus, S. rimosus, S. venezuelae, and S. albus
has not yet been satisfactorily resolved. The first monographer, Ru-
dolph Lieske, of Leipzig, in 1921 gave up the task as insuperable
because of the inordinate variability of the Actinomycetes. The dif-
ficulty has been many times compounded since then by the enormous
size of collections of Streptomyces in industrial laboratories, gathered
from the four corners of the earth. Never have biologists been pre-
sented with such a welter of representatives of a genus in any group
of living things. This is a worrisome situation both for industry
and for science. Industrial establishments, seeking to recoup expenses
incurred in developing an antibiotic, wish to obtain patents that will
protect them from competitors using the same streptomycete. This
requires that a botanist write a description for the species (perhaps in
Latin!) that will be so firm and unequivocal that no other pharma-
ceutical manufacturer will produce the same drug. Unfortunately,
the species in question may be exasperatingly variable, alienating the
affections of the botanist. If he describes it too narrowly, other com-
panies may land on variants which do not fit the description and
proceed to produce the same antibiotic with impunity. On the other
hand, if the species description is too loose, the patent lawyers may
disallow it and rival interests contend that an unfair attempt is being
made to corner the fungi!
On the scientific side, there is, as I have intimated, no generally
agreed upon system of classification of Streptomyces. Official com-
missions in this country and in Europe, including Russia, are still
struggling over “valid criteria” for classification. Many members
of the commissions are experimentalists who have not served an ap-
prenticeship in taxonomy, which is really a great science, requiring
years of experience before one can hope to have a “feel” for appre-
hending characteristics and judging their significance in the delinea-
tion of species. Darwin was not writing in a moment of levity in the
Origin when he stated that the concept of species is subjective. It
has validity only insofar as the individual researcher “knows” his or-
ganism, much asa shepherd knows his sheep.
376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Western readers should be informed that Russian and American
taxonomists of Actinomycetes have enjoyed excellent relationships.
For example, immediately on announcement of a committee in the
United States to study actinomycete classification, G. F. Gauze, of
the Institute for the Study of New Antibiotics of the Academy of
Medical Sciences of the USSR, made available for English trans-
lation his monograph, Problems in the Classification of Antagonistic
Actinomycetes, which was just going to press in Russia. Through
Dr. Gauze’s personal assistance the English version was published
promptly. He and several] colleagues have paid visits to the United
States in recent years, and have shown a lively and friendly interest
in the mutual exchange of scientific data.
The Actinomycetes have been under investigation in the Department
of Botany at the University of Michigan since 1938. One of the more
significant and unexpected findings was that normal filaments of
Streptomyces, freshly isolated from nature, may carry a temperate
virus. Dr. Elwood Shirling, now professor of the Department of
Botany at Ohio Wesleyan University, made this discovery. The
viruses and the Streptomycetes are in harmonious relationship. Only
when there is disharmony is the presence of the virus evident. Then
the filaments dissolve and a mass of free infectious virus particles is
released. It has been confirmed that temperate viruses are commonly
present in normal filaments of Streptomyces. 'There is practical con-
cern to alter Streptomycetes favorably by inoculation with foreign,
temperate viruses. Theoretically, we should like to know how the
viral genes intercalate into the inheritance mechanism of the filament.
In quite another branch of science and technology from those we
have been considering, botanists serve medicine, agriculture, and for-
estry. As we mentioned in the introductory paragraph of this article,
the causal organisms of disease may be members of the plant kingdom,
notably the fungi. Botanists are employed in isolating, identifying,
classifying, and establishing the life histories of the myriad of fungi
that parasitize man, animals, crop plants, and forest trees. There
is a lively demand for medical mycologists, as fungus infections, in-
cluding the deep ones which are lethal, have been considerably on
the increase during the past 15 years, whereas those attributable to
bacteria have declined. Actually, the reported increase of fungus
diseases may reflect improved diagnostic measures, as well as the fact
that people are living to be older and the physiologically senescent
are probably more prone to fungus infection.
Since 1957 relief against deep fungus infections has come through
treatment with a new antibiotic, Amphotericin B, derived from Strep-
tomyces nodosus and developed by Squibbs as “Fungizone” and “My-
steclin F.” It has been used quite successfully, administered with
tetracycline, by an intravenous drip method.
BOTANICAL VIEW OF ANTIBIOTICS—JONES aT
Ringworm infections, including athlete’s foot, which are actually
caused by fungi and not by worms, are a pesky annoyance. ‘They are
a fringe or filamentous benefit of modern bargain-basement existence.
A remarkable remedy against the fungi of ringworm has recently
come upon the market in the antibiotic griseofulvin, which incongru-
ously must be administered orally. This antibiotic was among the
very first to be discovered. It was tried only topically and found
wanting as a deterrent to rimgworm, and promptly disregarded. Re-
cently, a chance oral administration revealed its extreme effectiveness.
It is readily absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract and exerts its fung-
istatic action in the newly growing skin, hair, and nails which, with
shedding or cutting, are replaced by normal structures free of fungi.
Dr. John Ehrlich of the Parke, Davis and Company reports: “It is
the only major advance in the therapy of infection caused by dermato-
phytes [skin fungi] in at least a half century.” ‘The antibiotic griseo-
fulvin, is named from the mold which produces it, Penicdliwm
griseofulvin.
Flowering plants and conifers are parasitized by fungi which may
cause great destruction; witness the loss of our elms from a fungus
which is transmitted by a bark beetle. Any plant has countless fun-
gus spores on its exposed surfaces, and it is not unusual to have local-
ized networks of fungus filaments within the healthy tissues. One of
the well-established, symbiotic, natural associations in plants is the
mycorrhiza (mycor-, fungi, and -rhiza, root) in which particular
species of fungi form a mantle over the young, active roots and may
penetrate into the cells. Mycorrhiza occur commonly among conifers,
heaths, and orchids but probably are of wide occurrence. These as-
sociations are apparently of a symbiotic nature: the fungus acquires
a food source, and the higher plant derives vitamins and a more ade-
quate mineral supply, as the filaments of the fungus spread beyond the
roots into leaf mold, where their presence is detected by the fruiting
bodies, mushrooms or toadstools, which they produce seasonally. In
orchids, the filaments of the fungus grow throughout the plant from
root to topmost leaf; in fact, the developing seeds within the flowers
are inoculated with the fungus and carry it away when they are shed,
tucked within their cells. Conifers cultivated in a new area may not
succeed unless the appropriate fungus is introduced into the soil.
Where trees in a forest are manifestly diseased one would do well
to suspect the growing conditions, rather than the entrance of a new
virulent pathogen. Something is usually awry ecologically or phys-
iologically, such as the water supply or mineral nutrition. These
conditions bring on a lowering of disease resistance.
Under cultivation, the entire situation may be so unnatural for
plants that diseases become a major problem to the grower. Approx-
imately 30,000 important plant diseases have been studied by botanists.
378 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Fungi are particularly common disease agents in plants where they
are responsible for such ailments as white pine blister-rust, corn smut,
potato scab, wilt of fruit trees, blights of vegetables and ornamentals,
and root rots of many crops.
One scientific approach against plant diseases is to exploit the nat-
ural disease resistance of individual plants by producing disease-
resistant strains. Apart from the time such a program obviously
entails, often special difficulties are encountered in attempting to com-
bine disease-resistant factors (genes) with those for high-yield or
favorable appearance. Always lurking under cover is the adaptable
parasite, able to evolve and grow on the new “resistant” plants.
The use of sprays to kill fungi has become a widespread practice.
However, on a large scale this may be prohibitively expensive, as
nearly all fungicides are ineffective except at high concentrations.
Unfortunately, many are detrimental to the plants and poison birds
and even man, if proper precautions are not taken.
Since antibiotics operate at extremely low concentrations and may
be absorbed by plant cells, it was logical to try them as sprays against
bacterial infection. This was first done successfully in the United
States by W. J. Smith, of the Wyoming Experiment Station, in 1949.
He used a streptomycin preparation against the bacteria that cause
halo blight of beans. Subsequently, antibiotic preparations came into
rather wide use against bacterial infections, including bacterial spot
of tomatoes and peppers, blast of stone fruits, wildfire of tobacco, seed-
piece decay and blackleg of potatoes, and bacterial wilt of chrysanthe-
mums. Special preparations of streptomycin and the tetracyclines
have been developed by commercial companies for agricultural use.
The Upjohn Company of Kalamazoo, Michigan, has pioneered in the
development of the antibiotics effective against fungus infections of
plants. Their Actidione is derived from Streptomyces griseus, the
same organism that produces streptomycin. Actidione controls such
fungus infections as melting out of golf turf, onion mildew, and mint
rust. As little as one-third of an ounce of Actidione is sufficient for the
treatment of 50,000 square feet of turf. Antibiotics, unlike ordinary
fungicides, become a part of the cell sap of each individual cell of
the plant, “grow” with the plant, and are proof against rain.
It has been found by R. L. Wain, of the University of London, for
example, that griseofulvin can be transported freely within plant
tissues and confers a systemic fungicidal effect. As pointed out above,
griseofulvin was the first compound found to be effective in the sys-
tematic treatment of ringworm in man.
Professor Wain has indicated that:
Natural resistance to infection may also be associated with the presence of
protective chemicals within the plant cells. Whilst animal cells are completely
filled with protoplasm, adult plant cells contain only a thin layer of this material
BOTANICAL VIEW OF ANTIBIOTICS—JONES 379
lining their walls. The remainder consists of vacuoles filled with a watery solu-
tion of salts. In plant defensive mechanisms the protoplasmie layer may have
a detrimental effect on the parasite, and there may also be protective substances
present in the aqueous contents of the cell. Among the examples which have
been cited to illustrate chemical protection against fungi under natural condi-
tions are the presence of protocatechnic acid in the scales of onions resistant to
smudge, phenolic substances in wheat varieties resistant to rust and linamarine
in varieties of flax showing resistance to Fusarium wilt. Again, it has been
recently shown that various phenolic compounds present in apple and pear leaves
are toxic to the fungi causing apple and pear scab. Fungicidal compounds have
also been isolated from rye, maize and wheat plants.
One must of course question the advisabilty of man using regularly,
as food, plant or animal tissues that carry even a trace of antibiotics.
Poultry, beef, and pork may thus be suspect, as farm animals are raised
on feed fortified with antibiotics to speed meat production. It is not
an easy matter to determine accurately the effects of very slight doses
of antibiotics taken into the human alimentary tract over a period of
several years. I do, however, believe that the food and drug regula-
tions in this country are carefully formulated and realistic from the
public health point of view.
My colleague, Professor Dow V. Baxter, renowned forest patholo-
gist, has kindly called to my attention that, since 1947, penicillin has
been successfully used to control a severe bacterial infection in the
giant cactus which graces parts of the Arizona deserts. Diseased cacti
attacked by the bacterium Hrwinea carnegieana were treated by in-
jecting penicillin with a hypodermic needle into the lesions. The
tissue is largely of a succulent nature, and the antibiotic diffuses
through the plant for a considerable distance.
A recent lead article in the Journal of Forestry (September 1960)
states that “a major breakthrough in the control of white pine blister
rust caused by the fungus, Cronartium ribicola Fischer, has been
accomplished with the antibiotic Actidione. Sprayed on the basal
portions of trunks, Actidione is absorbed and translocated upward
to kill the causal fungus in blister rust infections on western white
pine (Pinus monticola Dougl.). This work was carried on by joint
efforts of the Forest Service and The Upjohn Company, of Kalama-
zoo, Michigan.” It is pointed out that control of the blister rust has
been so phenomenal that “danger exists in becoming too optimistic
abut the possibilities of discontinuing a ribes destruction program to
prevent new infections.” Ribes is a generic.name commonly used to
indicate both currant and gooseberry bushes, the intermediate host-
plants of the white pine blister rust fungus.
The rote of antibiotics in nature is not easy to demonstrate directly
because their concentration is so extremely low. To what extent soil
microbes, such as Streptomyces and Penicillium, ward off competitors
380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
by their antibiotic production is unknown, as is their effect on crop
plants.
An American audience may well be interested in the comments
coming from a leading Russian scientist on this fundamental subject.
We enriched the soil artificially with actinomycetes—producers of strepto-
mycin, and we grew in this soil plants—peas and wheat. The sap of such plants
was tested for its bactericidal effect on Bac. mycoides and Staph. aureus.
Death of the bacterial cells in the sap of the experimental plants followed after
8-12 hours, and in the sap of the control plants which were grown in soil not
enriched with actinomycetes, there was only suppression of growth, but death
of the bacteria was not observed.
The extrapolation of these results to nature is expressed by
Krasil’nikov as a very intriguing hypothesis of plant immunity !
Actinomycetes, bacteria, and fungi which produce antibiotic substances grow
in the soil in the rhizosphere of plants [rhizosphere means in the immediate
vicinity of the roots]. They saturate this zone or microfoci in the soil with
the products of their metabolism, including antibiotics. ‘The latter enter the
plants through the roots and exert their action there. It is self-evident that the
concentration of antibiotics in soil, when formed under natural conditions, will
be lower than the concentrations created upon artificial introduction. How-
ever, under natural conditions these substances are constantly formed and there-
fore one would assume that their entrance into plants is not stopped during the
whole vegetative period.
Having entered the plant tissues substances protect them against the penetra-
tion of microbial parasites, suppress the growth of those that have already
invaded, produce or elevate the toxicity of the plant sap, and thus elevate to a
larger or smaller extent the immunological properties of the plant.
In other words, microbial agents are factors which increase the resistance and
insusceptibility of plants to infection.’
In this article, I have deliberately selected items of botanical interest
in the field of antibiotic research and development. It is not too
generally appreciated that the source of most of these remarkable
drugs has been lower plants whose structure, life history, natural
occurrence, isolation, and identification have been the concern of
botanists. Other specialists, including the bacteriologists, engineers,
chemists, druggists, agriculturists, nutritionists, veterinarians, clini-
cians, and medical doctors, have each made their unique and great
contributions to the discovery, development, and use of antibiotics.
One is sobered on reflection that these natural products, which
assuage man’s suffering and increase his food supply, came into his
keeping in an era of cruel wars and unprecedented population upsurge.
3N. A. Krasil’nikoy, Soil Microorganisms and Higher Plants, p. 385, 1961.
Atomic and Other Wastes in the Sea’
By 1. Kucene WALLEN
Assistant Director for Oceanography, Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution
[With 2 plates]
Durine THE production of useful devices for modern civilization,
raw materials are consumed only in part with various portions re-
maining as wastes. Often the success of a competitive business is
related to its imagination in further processing the wastes into a
second product and perhaps others from subsequent wastes.
Normally the primary and secondary products do not completely
consume the original raw material. Even with complete consump-
tion the processing procedure may utilize water and other solvents
for cooling, for catalyzing reactions, or as a mechanism for extraction
or purification of the raw material. After extraction of the valuable
portion or portions from raw material, the residue is discarded or
isolated.
Waste problems follow domestic operations and human activities.
Polluting agents from industry or in sewage consist of more or less
complex mixtures of materials which normally will be neutralized
by chemical and biological processes in the sea. When effects of such
materials are noted in the ocean, their disposal can be discontinued,
thus permitting a reasonably rapid return to normal.
Although no plans were made initially in the nuclear industry
beyond the production of nuclear material for war purposes, it was
soon realized that the wastes from plutonium processing contained
radioactive materials of sufficient value to justify their extraction.
The very great value of plutonium had made its disposal an academic
question even though it was recognized to be chemically as well as
radioactively hazardous. Uncertainties concerning the hazards of
other radioactive isotopes led to a continuing policy of containment
of all high-level wastes until such time as adequate consideration
could be given to methods for final disposition. Very low-level
1 Reprinted by permission from Ocean Sciences. Copyright 1964 by U.S. Naval Institute.
Annapolis, Md.
381
382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
materials could be disposed if proper dilution was assured. Also,
if properly packaged, these wastes could be dumped in selected oceanic
areas that had been judged to be removed from accidental contact
with man.
A major step in wastes management was taken when President
Eisenhower announced the United States policy of “Atoms for Peace”
to include the production of power and the utilization of radioisotopes
in research, in industry, and for medical purposes. The diversifica-
tion of uses of nuclear energy has resulted in confusion of the defini-
tion of nuclear wastes. Pure strontium 90 is an excellent material
for nuclear batteries that can provide electricity for oceanic and space
uses. Strontium 90 in fallout from nuclear weapons tests and from
operating nuclear reactors is a principal concern of those responsible
for the control of the use of nuclear products in industry.
Iodine 131 is a radioactive isotope that may be concentrated to their
detriment by biological organisms on contact with fresh fission wastes.
Yet iodine 131 is also a valuable material that is used for medical
treatment as an often favored alternative to X-rays.
The level of wastes concentration in the ocean is determined to a
large degree by the physical state of the wastes, initial mechanical
dilution, rates of diffusion, and the abundance and proximity of silt,
sediments, and marine populations. Radioactive wastes are peculiar
in not being susceptible to biological or oxidative treatments. Long-
lived radioisotopes may produce effects in a local area or in a dispersed
area for many years. ‘Thus, the most exacting requirements for any
industry are placed on the nuclear industry for disposal of its wastes.
If other industries met the disposal standards for the nuclear industry,
the problems of pollution would be minor ones.
Until the Atomic Energy Act of 1955 was passed, the U.S. Atomic
Energy Commission was totally responsible for all phases of the pro-
duction of nuclear materials, their utilization, and the disposal of
nuclear wastes. On the premise that a single operating agency should
not have complete responsibility for monitoring its own activities, the
President established, in 1960, a Federal Radiation Council. He
asked this council to set standards for allowable radiation exposure
and to keep watch over the routes whereby humans might be exposed
to radiation.
Such standards had been estimated, with different results, by the
U.S. National Committee on Radiation Protection and Measurements
and the International Commission on Radiological Protection. The
allowable exposure limits of the Federal Radiation Council are some-
what different from those of either of the groups mentioned above, and
each differs from the other as well, since many of the assumptions were
based more or less on educated guesses.
WASTES IN THE SEA—WALLEN 383
Likewise, three committees of the National Academy of Sciences
considered sea disposal of nuclear wastes and came to different con-
clusions concerning allowable disposal limits. Two of the reports
discussed packaged wastes from nuclear land facilities; the third was
concerned with disposal of wastes from nuclear merchant vessels.
Since they made different approaches to the problem and different
assumptions, based on plausible guesses, the result was no surprise.
The development of nuclear industries has been rapid, and none of the
three reports is adequate to apply to all mechanisms under active
consideration to release radioactive material to the sea.
HAZARDS OF OCEAN DISPOSAL
Three types of hazards may be considered in oceanic disposal of
radioactive wastes:
1. Direct hazards, in which a sufficient concentration of radioactive
material exists to injure anyone in contact with it.
2. Indirect hazards, from the concentration of radioactive wastes by
organisms living in the sea and their subsequent use as human food.
3. Ecological hazards, that may produce unpredictable changes in
the biological communities in the ocean.
Although the disposal of wastes ultimately is either through per-
manent containment or by dispersal and dilution into the environ-
ment, the nature of wastes can be varied by the type of treatment
given to them. Waste-treatment systems may include filtration,
evaporation, ion exchange, gas stripping, chemical precipitation,
coagulation, incineration, and dilution.
The decisions on method of treatment and whether to contain or
disperse the final product may vary depending on such influences as
public health, commercial or sports fisheries, and the location of cables,
buoys, channels, or other marine facilities. Since the ocean is inter-
nationally shared beyond accepted continental limits, possible inter-
national problems may be considered when disposal sites are being
selected.
SOURCES OF NUCLEAR WASTES
Nuclear wastes enter the ocean from at least four major sources:
nuclear power plants; research, military, hospital, and industrial lab-
oratories; experiments to determine various oceanic physical charac-
teristics; and nuclear explosions.
Nuclear power plants may use the ocean or its tributaries as a source
of cooling waters, returning the coolant with a higher temperature
and, in certain cases, substantial amounts of induced radioactivity.
Nuclear power plants may propel military or private vessels, and
through leakage or deliberate disposal, release wastes to the sea.
The power plants for certain airborne and space vehicles are expected
384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
to be permitted, after testing or operation, to reenter the atmosphere
and to be disposed of in the oceans. Other models of nuclear power
plants operate within the ocean for such purposes as to recover natural
resources, to provide power for military and civilian buoys and data-
collecting systems, and to heat or desalt water.
More than 100 radioisotopes are believed to have useful functions
in research, in medical treatment, and in military or industrial labora-
tories. On completion of their use, a majority of these isotopes will
have undergone radioactive decay to become stable isotopes of no con-
cern in waste disposal. The remainder are likely to be diluted or
modified in such a way that low-level, waste-disposal methods may
be used for oceanic disposal.
Although disposal of laboratory wastes by dumping packages into
the sea is practiced by Atomic Energy Commission contractors (pl.
1), studies conducted in 1961 demonstrated that containment is
achieved only partially. Casing deformation and rupture occurred
in over one-third of the drums tested in a Pneumodynamics Corpora-
tion experiment. This disintegration is probably desirable since it
encourages diffusion and dilution of the radioactivity. To the con-
trary, the intact package of radioactive wastes remains a potential
hazard to future fishing, dredging, cable-laying, or other operations
in the area (pl. 2, fig. 1).
The ocean must, of course, receive fallout from atmospheric tests
of nuclear devices. It is inevitable that some very low-level wastes,
which enter sewers or are discharged into rivers, will reach the sea.
It is likely that the sea is the safest place to dispose of certain waste
materials where advantage may be taken of its tremendous ability to
dilute. Professor John Isaacs has calculated, in an article in /nter-
national Science and Technology published in 1962, that an annual
release of all fission products from 80 tons of uranium per year could
be distributed in the ocean without obvious effect.
Project Chariot of the Atomic Energy Commission was a proposed
nuclear experiment to excavate a shoreline and produce a protected
oceanic extension that could serve asa harbor. This experiment and
others that propose tagging water masses for studies of mixing and
exchange processes would result in the release of substantial radio-
activity into the ocean. However, the expected scientific value of such
experiments would come, at least in part, from careful control and
monitoring of the resultant pool of radioactivity for as long a time as
possible to dilutions well past any possible hazardous level.
In March 1956, as Project Wigwam, the Atomic Energy Commis-
sion tested a nuclear device beneath the ocean surface with a release
of radioactivity into the surrounding water. As reported in a supple-
ment to the 1962 volume of the journal Limnology and Oceanography,
the radioactive pool could be followed for about 1 month, after which
WASTES IN THE SEA—WALLEN 385
time the radioactivity was so diluted that, for practical purposes, the
pool ceased to exist. A second such experiment was a part of the
1962 Dominic Nuclear test series, and the results, when available,
should add substantially to an understanding of dispersion in the
open ocean.
For such tests in the ocean it is not a question of “clean” (fusion)
devices and “dirty” (fission) devices, since the induced radioactive
isotopes (zinc 65, iron 55, 59; manganese 54; and cobalt 57, 58, 60)
in the vicinity of any reacting nuclear device appear to be more im-
portant to marine organisms than fission products (strontium 90 and
cesium 137).
Seagoing reactors, such as nuclear submarines, may store certain
wastes for later disposal on land but under many circumstances the
hazard to humans is less in oceanic disposal than when such wastes
are kept in proximity to ship’s personnel. Since avoidance of detec-
tion is a goal in nuclear military ship movements, care is taken to
insure that detection of the vessel not be possible by identification of
its wastes.
NATURAL RADIOACTIVITY
Not all of the radioactivity in the ocean originates from the nuclear
industry. Naturally radioactive materials are present in the earth’s
crust; and these materials may arrive in the oceans by way of dust,
ground water, and rivers. Over geological times the quantity of radio-
active isotopes from continental sources in the ocean and in sediments
is believed to have become relatively constant and to be distributed
evenly throughout the seas.
As cosmic rays pass into the atmosphere they strike atoms of stable
elements, and a small portion becomes radioactive. These cosmic
ray-produced isotopes, such as carbon 14, hydrogen 3 (tritium), and
sodium 22, are often short lived as compared to ocean turnover times,
so that they may occur in surface waters; but they never become evenly
distributed in the ocean. The concentration of these isotopes in oceanic
layers is used to indicate the circulation of the sea over a short period
of time.
In the book Radioactivity in Oceanography, F. ¥. Koczy and J. N.
Rosholt have computed the concentration of more than 70 radioactive
isotopes in the ocean from primordial, cosmic ray, and artificial
sources. Research to refine these values will assist in evaluating the
distribution and effects of waste disposal on the ocean. Various pop-
ulation groups may be exposed to radiation from land sources as great
as 16 times that of other human groups. Such differences are related
to the characteristics of the soil upon which the population lives and
the type of material used in housing. Persons who eat mostly seafood
may receive only about one one-thousandth of the exposure to radio-
386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
activity received by those who eat only terrestrial foods, which is, of
course, not considered a dangerous amount.
Although V. T. Bowen stated in 1961 that the ocean-water column
contains about three times more strontium 90 per unit area than does
the land surface at comparable latitudes, this quantity of material
diluted in water to depths of more than 1,000 meters is of far less con-
cern to man than a much smaller amount of strontium 90 in the first
few centimeters of soil.
GEOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF SEA DISPOSAL
In the disposal of wastes at sea, several of the important consid-
erations are geological. Sediments accumulate in coastal slopes and
they may shift down the slope by sliding or slumping. On occasions
when water becomes mixed with mud, a mudslide can form and move
as a turbidity current onto an adjacent, more level sea bottom, thereby
smoothing the original topography to form abyssal plains. Sediment
slides of considerable magnitude occur on the continental slopes at
unpredictable intervals. A waste container caught in such a slide
could be broken or rolled along with it. Crustal fracture zones, or
areas where the bottom sediments may be subjected to unusual stresses
from tides, waves, storm surges, and tsunamis, result in unpredictable
effects on waste containers.
Coastal waters often contain relatively large amounts of suspended
solids. The suspended material usually includes some living orga-
nisms, and substantially larger quantities of organic and inorganic
particles of detritus. The ability of these solids to adsorb radioactive
materials is variable, depending on the mineral composition of the
solids, the composition of the water, and the past history of the solids.
Although prediction values cannot be given accurately for such ad-
sorption, solids are believed to play a major role in controlling the
dispersal of liquid radioactive wastes, as well as of those that may
escape from a waste package. A relatively large accumulation of
radioactive substances is known to occur on the sediments in the area
around the outfall of the British Atomic Energy Authority processing
plant at Windscale, on the Irish Sea.
Sedimentation, if its occurs at large distances from shore outside of
bottom-fishing areas, can be considered a favorable process in removal
of radioactive wastes from the environment of man. Since it is a
concentrating process, however, it can enter into one of the routes
of radioactivity from the sea to man through contamination of fish
products, edible seaweed, fishing gear, and beaches.
Sedimentation is the ultimate step in the transfer of materials from
sea water to the sea floor, and a number of physical-chemical processes
determine the degree. These processes include the physical-chemical
WASTES IN THE SEA—-WALLEN 387
actions of absorption and adsorption, flocculation, ion exchange, pre-
cipitation, coprecipitation, and mineralization. Working in conjunc-
tion with these physical-chemical forces is gravitation, which acts on
the flocs and aggregates of particles to settle them. Attractive forces
between the suspended and the dissolved particles are critical factors
in sedimentation. Also important are the chemical characteristics
of the wastes and the composition of seawater itself.
FLOCCULATION
Certain elements have the peculiar property of forming gelatinous
precipitates when subjected to an aqueous alkaline medium. Alum-
inum and iron are the principal elements of concern in oceanic waste
disposal. Aluminum-rich wastes added to sea water form a gelatinous
precipitate. Release of wastes containing iron also results in rapid
precipitation at sea. First a characteristic green color of ferrous
hydroxide appears. Then after oxidation has occurred, a flocculent,
red precipitate appears which is characteristic of ferric hydroxide.
Both of these constituents can scavenge ions having the opposite
charge as they aggregate, exchange, and settle to the bottom.
Rivers often carry a high clay and silica content into the sea. These
constituents are chiefly colloidal and negatively charged. They floccu-
late when subjected to the cations present in sea water. Such flocs
can be dispersed and reformed by chemical processes encountered at
different depths in the sea.
ADSORPTION
When man adds particulate matter by waste disposal, the wastes
may be adsorbed to alter the rate of sinking and change their avail-
ability to man. The nature of adsorption of solutions is not clear.
The physical and chemical characteristics of finely divided particles
appear to bind molecules to the surface of solids in suspension on
a more or less permanent basis. The degree and permanency of ad-
sorption depend on the relationship between charge and size of ionic
particles, and upon the charge and topographical character of the
adsorbing surface.
Dissolved radioactive isotopes from fallout or from disposal of
liquid wastes may be readily adsorbed by particulate matter in sea
water. Sinking particles fall through the water, and eventually come
to rest on the bottom. Cerium 144 apparently sinks at a rate of
from 50 to 100 meters per month, which indicates its association with
organic particles. Promethium 147, which sinks at rates much faster
than 100 meters per month, seems to be associated principally with
Inorganic particles.
388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
PRECIPITATION
A precipitate forms when ion concentrations exceed their solu-
bility. The relatively large concentration of various ions in the sea
favors the formulation of precipitates when certain wastes are added.
Radioactive and normal elements precipitate together. Any excess
in a waste effluent of such elements as calcium, manganese, iron, and
nickel will precipitate.
Although in coastal areas a more concentrated and relatively rapid
coagulation time is observed for sediments of terrestrial origin and
a substantial proportion of the mineral suspensoid is precipitated near
shore, the open ocean has abnormally low rates of coagulation and
unexpectedly long residence times for particles, this permitting wide
areal distribution of sediments. The average rate of accumulation
of sediments is believed to fall in the range of millimeters per thou-
sand years. Accumulation rates in the South Pacific were about 0.3
to 0.6 mm per thousand years (Goldberg and Koide, 1962).
Since the sea-floor accumulation of minerals seems to be very slow,
and since the sinking time of fine particulate matter is in the order of
hundreds of years, those radioisotopes of very long half-life are of
principal concern to waste disposal in the open ocean.
COPRECIPITATION
When two elements that are chemically similar occur together in a
waste, these elements may be coprecipitated. For example, calcium
and strontium apparently precipitate together during the formation
of calcium carbonate, thus assisting in the removal of any strontium
90 that might be present.
ION EXCHANGE
When an ion in an aqueous solution comes in contact with another
ion and the necessary conditions are met, the ions may be exchanged.
Jon exchanges are used in varied chemical processing, including the
processing of wastes. Various solid constituents in the sea have good
ion-exchange properties. Natural clays, including those in deep sea
deposits, have an appreciable ion exchange capacity. Wastes which
come in contact with clay particles in the waters and in sediments
will undergo some exchange. In such cases the waste material ap-
pears to be held within the lattice of the clay particles in an excep-
tionally firm manner. Uranium and thorium may be chelated by
minerals such as zeolite so that they are no longer available to the
biota on the ocean floor.
MINERAL FORMATION
Certain wastes can serve as raw materials for the formation of
minerals through biochemical actions and organic transfer in the
ocean. Carbonate secreting organisms form calcite and aragonite in
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Wallen
aN
-
oy —
a:
~
PLATE 1
the containers
and dumped at sea in depths greater than 1,200 fathoms (more
Courtesy of Brookhaven National Laboratory.
are loaded on oceanic vessels, as shown in the picture,
Radioactive wastes of uncertain composition are incorporated or enclosed in barrels or blocks of concrete,
than one mile).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Wallen PLATE 2
/ |
1. Concrete package containing radioactive wastes ready to be dumped into the Pacific
Ocean. Ina limited area these packages may accumulate and remain a potential hazard
to local plants and animals.
2. Using a pump and hose method, seawater containing rhodamine dye is pumped from
as much as 300 feet below the surface of the ocean to the deck of a ship where its con-
centration is determined. As a method of study of distribution of particles in the sea,
rhodamine is substituted for the possibly hazardous radioactive isotopes.
WASTES IN THE SEA—WALLEN 389
their shells. Carbonates may be formed by precipitation or secre-
tion in shell formation by marine forms. KE. D. Goldberg stated in
Chemical Scavengers of the Sea, published in 1954, that zirconium
and titanium, present as anions in sea water, are scavenged by iron
oxides and deposited in sediments. Alteration of suspended detritus
into apatite may occur in the ocean with attendant uptake of radio-
active elements. Bonelike materials of marine invertebrates may be
modified into minerals and metals, or alkaline soils. A host of ele-
ments are concentrated by the minerals in the sea through accumulation
into the disordered structural layers, or by ion exchange mechanisms.
Although no economic method of harvest has been discovered, about
10 percent of the abyssal area of the ocean floor is covered by aggre-
gates of iron, manganese, and other minerals which together are
called manganese nodules. Manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron,
and perhaps other minerals are present in these nodules in such quan-
tities that they may be economically mined in the future. If radio-
active wastes contain substantial quantities of long-lived isotopes, they
should not be discharged into areas of the ocean covered by these min-
eral resources.
BIOLOGICAL TRANSFER
In addition to the translocation of waste materials through uptake
and migrations, the remains of dead organisms, undigested wastes,
and skeletal parts of marine organisms may sink to the bottom and
form a substantial portion of the bottom deposits in the ocean. Gen-
erally, the deeper sediments have relatively few biological organisms,
and no species are believed present that would readily concentrate
radioactivity to present a potential hazard to man’s food resources.
In 1961, G. Arrhenius proposed that biological extraction of barium,
strontium, and lead is evident in surface sea water, resulting in verti-
cal transport of these and other heavy metals to the sea floor where
they may be accumulated. Certain species of Protozoa (Acantharia,
Radiolaria), pteropods, and heteropods are believed to play an impor-
tant role in this vertical transport. The skeletons of certain Radio-
laria appear to sink rapidly through the water and then to dissolve
entirely before burial in the sediment. In this manner, strontium 90
could be transported at a more rapid rate than would be assumed from
its behavior in the open ocean.
Since colloidal clays tend to form stable suspensions on the sea floor
of the open ocean, the adsorption of radioactive wastes by sediments
normally would be a safety factor in their disposal. However, in
a situation where bottom areas adjacent to a disposal site are the
source of seafood products such as oysters, clams, mussels, and bottom-
dwelling fishes, the accumulation of wastes on the bottom may provide
for increased contamination of the fisheries.
720-018—64—— 26
390 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
PHYSICAL OCEANOGRAPHIC ASPECTS
What is the fate of wastes that have been released into the ocean ?
It depends on: chemical and physical forms in which the materials
are introduced and changes that occur when the wastes are added to
sea water; initial dilution of liquid wastes as they mix to attain the
density of the surrounding sea waters; dispersal of wastes away from
the area of introduction with related turbulent diffusion; and uptake
and concentration of any contained radioactivity on silt, sediments,
and biota.
The form of wastes after they have mixed with sea water will vary,
depending on chemical composition; but three principal categories
of chemical form may be expected: ionic, colloidal, and particulate.
Consideration of the ultimate distribution of wastes must include eval-
uation of three chemical forms. In 1954, A. E. Greendale and N. E.
Ballou tabulated the physical states of elements following detona-
tion of an atomic device. Since this tabulation compares favorably
with other nuclear wastes, their table is reproduced here.
PHYSICAL STATES OF ELEMENTS IN SEA WATER
(Percentage in given state)
Element Ionic Colloidal Particulate
ATP ON Yj aes se eee on ae De Shall 73 15 12
COLAND DOCS OeNS cee ore ane cee ae SA END SOREN 2 4 94
COS iUIN Seats ees ee ee eee 70 7 23
WOCINGY 2a tee eae ee ie ee ee eee eee ee 90 8 24
Molybdenum: 2222225. 2 iad heed eres 30 10 60
INTO TUTTI yg 2 es ARE ee) eS Eee 0 0 100
Ruthenium se ede Poe ee ee ees 0 5 95
Strombininiy == ee SU nae Fit. ee el, 87 3 10
Nelluriny soe Ses ae ee 2 ee ee 45 43 12
MALbtri WI a ee ee a ee 0 4 96
CAT CONT eee ae ee ee ee 1 3 96
Those elements, such as strontium, cesium, and iodine, that are
principally in ionic form, should go into solution in the ocean and
follow pathways and residence times that are equivalent to those of
other solutes in sea water. Surface currents and diffusion preclude
the accumulation of “hot spots” of radioactivity after its initial dis-
persion into the ocean.
Since stable strontium is an abundant element in the ocean, radio-
strontium will be diluted by the stable isotope. Any uptake of radio-
strontium by organisms will be in competition with uptake of the
stable isotope. The result, as demonstrated by studies following
nuclear bomb tests, is that there is no evident accumulation of radio-
active strontium in marine fishery organisms. A few days after
large releases of strontium 90, it was difficult to locate the isotope even
with precise chemical separations of sea water, according to F. G.
WASTES IN THE SEA—WALLEN 391
Lowman’s article, “Marine Biological Investigations at the Eniwetok
Test Site,” published in 1960.
Perhaps the most uncertain factor in evaluating the problem of
waste disposal into the ocean is lack of adequate knowledge of the
diffusion, mixing, and transport processes in the ocean. So-called
ocean rivers have been discovered that carry more water than the
largest inland rivers at speeds up to at least 5 knots. One of these
rivers, the Gulf Stream, meanders toward and away from shore in
such a way as to make questionable its use as a mechanism for diffu-
sion. Most oceanographers felt that, because of the possible contami-
nation of coastal beaches, the area within the Gulf Stream, at least
its southerly reaches, should not be used for disposal of wastes.
Strong equatorial currents and countercurrents also leave open to
question any attempts to dispose of substantial quantities of wastes
in these areas. Since the source of such currents is unknown, the tend-
ency is to avoid consideration of the immediately adjacent waters
either north or south of the equator as possible disposal sites.
In the upper layers of the ocean, even in the absence of strong undi-
rectional flow, the transport of radioactive nuclides occurs at a sig-
nificant rate. According to Allyn H. Seymour, one year after the
1954 test series in the Marshall Islands, some activity from close-in
fallout from those tests was found in the North Equatorial Current,
with the highest activity in an area about 3,500 miles west of the
Bikini-Eniwetok area. The activity in this area was about one-fourth
of the naturally occurring radioactivity in sea water. However, it
was measurable.
Low-level wastes introduced into the upper, well-mixed layer of the
ocean or into coastal waters will quickly be transported and diffused
away from the source. This diffusion process is best understood in
tidal and unstratified waters, where three mechanisms may be noted:
initial diffusion brought about by the method of introduction, 1.e., by
jet stream, by release into the wake of a ship, etc.; primary dispersion
due to adjustments in relative density, temperature, etc., in the first
hour or two after release; and secondary dispersion due to currents
and tidal flow.
In relatively isolated waters, the mixing of wastes with sea water
continues principally by molecular and turbulent diffusion processes.
Although for practical purposes molecular diffusion is relatively un-
important as compared with turbulent diffusion, molecular processes
establish an end point of mixing, and contribute most to the later
mixing stages.
Turbulence adds about one millionfold to the rate of molecular
diffusion. Vertical diffusion in surface waters occurs at a rate about
one thousand times greater than molecular diffusion. The dispersion
rate depends on tidal and other currents, the surface wind speed,
392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
density gradients, the direction of principal dispersion, and the volume
of the containing water. Predictions of the rates of dispersal of
wastes from any type of introduction are very difficult. Such esti-
mates await the data from experimental releases of dyes or radioactive
materials.
Turbulent diffusion results from the state of motion and the exist-
ence of gradients in the ocean. The warm surface layers are separated
from the cold bottom layers by an area that exhibits rapid temperature
decreases with depth. The intermediate layer may extend to about
1,000 meters in depth, with waters below that gradually decreasing
in temperature. Changes in salinity and density accompany the
changes in temperature and provide a base on which diffusion operates
with various pressures from gravity, tides, storms, and other forces.
The averaging of the effects of turbulent diffusion in computations
of waste disposal have been relatively unsuccessful. Thus, the recent
development of techniques to measure diffusion rates experimentally
has been noted with great interest. In one case the fluorescent dye,
rhodamine B, serves to make large-scale tracer studies in the open
ocean feasible scientifically and economically. Such experiments help
to predict the effect of an accident to a seagoing reactor, or of delib-
erate disposal of an operating nuclear space vehicle (pl. 2, fig. 2).
In the Eastern Pacific and at various other places, the oceans exhibit
areas of upwelling. Within these areas, often many square miles in
size, colder water is transported from the deep oceans to the surface.
Care must be exercised in the location of waste-disposal sites to avoid
the sea bottom where upwelling occurs.
Consideration has been given to the location of waste disposal sites
in areas where relatively isolated water occurs beyond sills that ap-
proach the surface of the ocean.
Others have suggested the use of deep trenches, although reasonably
strong currents, in the order of centimeters per second, may be noted
near the bottom of certain deep trenches. The most recent National
Academy of Sciences report of waste disposal recommends that such
trenches not be used.
MARINE ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS
The biological oceanographer is concerned with the disposal of
radioactive wastes at sea from five standpoints: the role of organisms
in increasing or decreasing the vertical and horizontal transport of
radionuclides, the ability of organisms to concentrate radioactive ma-
terials, the interaction of radioactive materials with the biota, the
biological effects of radiation on organisms, and the utilization of
added materials to trace biological processes and to study productivity
of marine waters.
WASTES IN THE SEA—WALLEN 393
From the biological standpoint, the disposal of wastes is much more
complicated than from geological, physical, or chemical standpoints.
The thousands of marine species have differing metabolic requirements,
at many different concentration levels, for different chemicals that
may or may not be abundant in the sea. Certain trace elements that
are required for rapid growth may be present in nuclear wastes.
Consideration must be given to the possible use of contaminated fish
or seaweed as fertilizers on the land, as well as to the possibility of
beach disposition of radioactive materials. Tolerances for radiation
and susceptibility to genetic changes vary widely depending on the
chromosomal structure, the stage of development, and many other
poorly known criteria.
The scale of allowable concentrations for a single constituent of
nuclear wastes is a complex one with variations between 1 and 10-7, a
10 millionfold difference. Living organisms may concentrate certain
isotopes to at least 10° times, a millionfold increase. If radioactive
wastes are of known quality and quantity and if the organisms in an
area are known to concentrate the specific wastes at a known rate,
a reasonable answer could be given to the question concerning poten-
tial effects of given disposal rates. In the absence of this information
a number of guesses must be compounded on at least a 10 million-
million scale in estimating permissible disposal levels.
The extent of accumulation of a radionuclide is dependent on its
availability to the organisms. This is regulated by the abundance of
the element, and to some extent, by the abundance of other elements.
Not only must the specific elements be considered; but also it must be
remembered that certain radionuclides may be present in chemical
combinations not readily available, or, conversely, more available, to
the marine biota.
Most organisms appear to have a greater affinity for certain ele-
ments than for others. Goldberg (1957) noted a relationship between
concentratability of metallic ions and their chemical stability. In sea-
weeds it was found that nickel is concentrated 550 times, zinc 900 times
and strontium 23 times that of seawater. Bowen and Sutton (1951)
reported concentration in sponges as 1,400 for copper, 420 for nickel,
50 for cobalt, 0.07 for magnesium and 3.5 for calcium.
In the open ocean after massive close-in fallout from nuclear tests,
most fission-product isotopes are found within a few hours of detona-
tion to be associated with biological organisms, especially plankton,
and with particulate suspensoids. Within a week the cation fission
products seem to have been mostly removed from living biological
surfaces. Induced radioactive isotopes are produced from materials
in the containment vessel of a nuclear device or from elements in
the water. The biological demand for these materials is such that
394 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
they be concentrated thousands of times in tissues of marine organisms
and remain in the tissues for much longer times than the cations.
The fission-product isotopes, strontium 90 and cesium 187, that are
of great concern in land contamination from fallout, appear to be of
substantially less concern in the ocean where the biological demand
is apparently met by stable isotopes of the same or related elements.
Although there was a great uproar in 1954 when a Japanese ship, trans-
porting newly caught tuna, was discovered to have been in the path of
radioactive fallout from a weapons test, it later developed that the par-
ticles of radioactivity were on the surface of the fish and that they could
be removed by surface washing. No hazard has been found from
uptake of radioactivity by tuna.
Only one example is known of marine organisms being destroyed
as a result of the uptake of radioactive isotopes. Following the deto-
nation of nuclear devices in the Marshall Islands in 1958, Aubrey
Gorbman, then of Columbia University, found evidence that herbivor-
ous fishes concentrated radioiodine which had already been concen-
trated by seaweeds. These high concentrations of radioiodine were
again concentrated to destroy the thyroids of carnivorous fishes which
fed on the herbivorous ones. Such carnivorous fishes were collected,
with death apparently due to destruction of thyroid tissues. Although
radioactive iodine may be concentrated by marine organisms, it is of
little serious concern except in cases of close-in fallout since its radio-
active decay rate is relatively rapid and since some dilution is present
from stable iodine in the ocean.
Information is being accumulated that will provide basic infor-
mation on the uptake and concentration of isotopes near waste out-
falls. Less information is available and little useful data has
appeared to answer the question of biological effects of radiation
during the lifetime of individual marine organisms.
A particularly interesting project now underway at the University
of Washington exposes salmon eggs and fingerlings to low-level
gamma radiation over the first 8 months of their existence. On
release they will go to sea to return in from 2 to 5 years. Comparisons
of return rates of irradiated versus unirradiated controls should give
some indication of the nature of the problem.
In considering the uptake and effects of radioactive isotopes on
marine biota, attention must be given to the location of elements in
different organs of the body. Strontium 90 may be concentrated in
the skeletons of clams, scallops, oysters, and Radiolaria of the suborder
Acantharia. Cesium 187 is concentrated about thirty to fifty times
more in the muscles of clams than in sea water. Zinc 65 may be concen-
trated several thousand times more in the muscles of oysters, clams, and
scallops than in sea water. Marine fishes concentrate zine 65 espe-
WASTES IN THE SEA—WALLEN 395
cially in the kidneys. Cobalt 60 is concentrated in the liver and
kidney of hard clams.
Biological activities of marine organisms are important to waste
disposal in the ocean. The ratios of the mineral salts of calcium,
sodium, and chloride are not much different when taken from any
part of any open-ocean area. On the other hand, biological nutrients,
such as nitrogenous compounds, phosphorus, and dissolved oxygen,
may vary significantly from one area to another. The Pacific Ocean
differs from the Atlantic by perhaps 2 percent in salinity, but the
deepwater concentration of phosphates in the Pacific is twice that
in the Atlantic. Phosphate concentration in the Mediterranean is
about one-third that of the Atlantic. This difference may be ac-
counted for by the sinking of dead organisms, and to a certain extent,
by the vertical migrations of marine species.
Zooplankton and certain fishes migrate diurnally to a varying degree
in the oceans. Such migrations usually are limited to the upper 100
to 400 meters. Although less than one ten-thousandth of the radio-
isotopes present were attached to organisms as compared with those
dissolved in the water following Pacific tests, daily migrations with
rapidly exchanging isotopes may result in the transfer of substantial
quantities of radioactivity from one level to another in the ocean.
Seasonal vertical migrations also may affect such transfer. For
example a copepod, Calanus finmarchius, lives for most of the year
at depths from 600 to 1,000 meters, but spawns close to the surface
from May to August.
Fish migrate horizontally as much as 70 miles per day, and wastes
may be transported with them. Since the migrations of fishes are
related to their aggregations, which makes them more vulnerable
to being caught, it is necessary to estimate the effect of such movements
on the possible return of pollutants to man.
A complex feeding interrelationship exists in the sea where sur-
vival appears to require the production of vast numbers of offspring.
The growing population of the ocean is dependent on microscopic
algae which incorporate nutrient materials into foods. In a micro-
scopic world, predator and prey species compete by eating smaller or,
in some cases, larger organisms. Radioisotopes incorporated into cells
of algae or adsorbed on their surfaces appear in the digestive appara-
tus of tiny animals that, in turn, are eaten by other predators. Each
of the organisms in such a food web has its own distinctive chemical
requirements, accepting certain elements and rejecting others.
How does one measure the abundance of organisms in the ocean?
Only a few marine biological groups have been collected and recorded
quantitatively, and most of these groups vary in abundance locally
and seasonally. It is known that water currents, temperature, and
396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
abundance of nutrients play a vital role in the production of many
organisms.
On the other hand, some marine species appear to be almost inde-
pendent of the usually recorded physical-chemical constituents in the
oceans. In areas where water masses come together, nutriently rich
waters may be forced to the surface to produce an abundant and
diverse fauna. Predators thrive on the concentrated food organisms,
and human food organisms may be unusually contaminated by waste
disposal into such aggregations.
Discharging rivers bring important trace nutrients to the coastal
area, and these result in a large increase in the production of marine
organisms. In such areas it is obvious that caution must be exercised
with respect to the location of waste disposal sites. The shallow
waters near the shore provide a principal habitat of commercially
important oysters and clams, as well as for valuable game fish. Dis-
posal of wastes in packages may provide an artificial reef that is
attractive to fishes. After benthic fouling organisms begin to grow
on the surface of such packages, a food chain relationship to man is
possible. The continental shelf and its overlying waters serve as a
habitat for many important game and commercial species, Since fish
populations shift their location diurnally and seasonally throughout
the shallow-water area, it is difficult to select any part of the con-
tinental shelf and give reasonable assurance that no human resource
will be adversely affected by waste disposal.
The only real basis for oceanic disposal of wastes rests in the deep
sea beyond the continental shelf. Here in tropical and temperate
waters, the established layering processes and the paucity of com-
mercial or game organisms in the waters below 1,200 fathoms leads to
the conclusion that adequate mixing times (up to 1,000 years or more
in the North Pacific) must be present to dilute most pessimistic esti-
mates of the quantities of wastes to be produced during the next 40
to 50 years.
As mentioned in the previous section, the chemical nature of the
wastes is very important. Particulate wastes will be trapped during
the normal activity of filter or mucous feeders and taken into the diges-
tive tract. If the particles are of such a nature that they can serve
in the metabolism of an animal, they may be retained. A substantial
portion of particles, particularly cerium 144 and other rare earth
elements, pass on through the digestive tract.
FATE OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS IN THE OCEAN
In disposal of radioactive wastes into the ocean it is desirable to
make a “materials accounting” of the radioactivity. Only estimates
are available of the important parameters in many cases. Radio-
active isotopes undergo decay to become stable elements. Decay is
WASTES IN THE SEA—WALLEN 397
independent of environmental conditions, and all isotopes decay in-
dependently of all others. When the chemical composition and quan-
tity of individual isotopes are known in discarded wastes, it is simple
to calculate the length of time necessary for the radioactivity of the
waste to decay to negligible levels. Likewise, if the composition and
chemical state of the wastes are known, it is possible to predict their
ultimate distribution in biological organisms, in sea water, and in
sediments.
The United States approach to nuclear wastes research differs
from that of the British. In establishing its nuclear power plant at
Windscale, the British Government encouraged scientists to investigate
openly the specific area to be exposed to radioactive wastes. Follow-
ing extensive studies the nuclear plant began operations and predic-
tions could be checked. Such an approach was favored by the scientific
community and by the public to the extent that an editorial in Vature
magazine commended the government for its waste policy.
By contrast the United States Government has preferred to investi-
gate and evaluate its waste disposal sites under a cloak of Government
classification of data, and no clear picture of the adequacy of such
studies has been made public. The result is that no broad scientific
endorsement has ever been given publicly to the Atomic Energy Com-
mission policies of waste disposal.
DECONTAMINATION
When nuclear devices are tested or utilized as well as when accidents
occur in or above harbors, estuaries, and the open ocean, large quanti-
ties of sea water may be radioactively contaminated. Studies of the
decontamination of natural sea water have had some support. Mostly
theoretical, the investigations have considered the use of various ma-
terials as decontaminating agents, including aluminum, silicates,
activated charcoal, barium and iron salts, and potassium perman-
ganate. Activated silica is used successfully as an aid to coagulation in
municipal water-treatment processes, and this use justified a detailed
study by the Naval Radiological Defense Laboratory of its use in
decontamination of sea water.
Although results of laboratory and field tests have not been conclu-
Sive, it is believed that sodium orthosilicate is the best single coagulat-
ing decontaminant. It may absorb 90 percent or more of mixed fission
products released in sea water. Liquid slurries give better results
than dried materials. ,
The radioactive decontamination of sea water is difficult because of
its high rate of chemical reactivity; however, flocculation techniques
will carry the wastes down for a considerable distance. The efficiency
of the removal of mixed fission products seems to be directly propor-
tional to the volume of floc present. The elements which are chem-
398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
ically most similar to sea-water salts, such as radioiodine and
radiocesium, give the poorest results in decontamination tests.
Recycling of the water with a different floc producer gives better
results.
From reports of fallout distribution near the Eniwetok test site,
it may be assumed that exchange processes will bind mixed fission
products for less than 1 week in the open ocean. The data from
Project Wigwam, of the Atomic Energy Commission, indicates that
this period would be long enough for oceanic processes to disperse and
dilute the radioactivity to a point of no hazard following a predictable
peacetime accident. In estuaries and coastal waters, the temporary
bonding may facilitate beach contamination.
Particulate feeding organisms, especially oysters, secrete mucus in
such a way as to entangle particles in a sort of rope which they may eat
or bypass to the open ocean. The mucus-bound material seems to be
subject to less rapid chemical exchange, thus permitting more time for
radioactive decay to reduce the hazard. In areas contaminated over
oyster beds, it should be possible to substantially reduce the direct
hazard, but the oysters would be contaminated.
The ocean offers certain survival advantages to man in case of
nuclear war, since within a few hours, dilution would bring the levels
of radioactivity near the water surface to a level much lower than on
land surfaces where the isotopes would be concentrated in the first
centimeter of soil. In addition, since water is an excellent shield for
protection from radiation damage, pelagic fish are likely to be the
least harmed of all natural resources. During the early fallout
periods, it would be possible to pull water from below the surface
for washdown decontamination of a ship, and thus lower the total
exposure of ship’s personnel.
PROBLEMS NEEDING FURTHER STUDY
Although much has been learned about waste disposal in sea water,
the initial effort has more clearly defined the problem than solved it.
The Atomic Energy Commission, the Public Health Service, and other
agencies have initiated studies designed to clarify the role of atomic
and other wastes in the environment and how they may affect man’s
health.
Physical problems of turbulent diffusion and the circulation and
residence times of water masses are of significance. Studies of the
chemistry of sea water and the biogeochemical relationships involved
in the sea water-sea floor interface must be continued, since not even
the exact composition of sea water is known. Many naturally radio-
active isotopes are present in sea water, and studies of their distribu-
tion and reactions contribute to an understanding of the added
material.
WASTES IN THE SEA—WALLEN 399
Biological problems are the most complex. An evaluation of a waste
effluent must identify the populations; learn the life cycles, feeding
mechanisms, and nutrient requirements of each species; study the tol-
erance of each species for the various harmful portions of the wastes;
know the physical-chemical parameters and interrelationships of sea
water, sediments, and wastes as related to their dilution; and under-
stand the optimum balance between the desirable addition of wastes
as nutrients and any possible detriment to man’s activities.
Although the number of fascinating research problems is legion, the
natures of the problems are so complex that many years will be re-
quired to attain a reasonably full understanding of the effects of
human and industrial wastes on the ocean and the routes of their re-
turn to man.
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANONYMOUS.
1960. Disposal of radioactive waste. Nature, vol. 185, No. 4705, pp. 1-2.
ARRHENIUS, G.
1961. Pelagic sediments. 59 pp. Preprint of monograph for The Sea, Ideas
and Observations. Interscience Publishers.
Bowen, V. T.
1961. Radioactive isotope studies. Oceanus, vol. 8, No. 1, pp. 20-24.
Bowen, V. T., and SuciHara, T. T.
1968. Cycling and levels of strontium—90, cerium—144, and promethium—147
in the Atlantic Ocean. Radioecology, pp. 185-140. Reinhold Pub-
lishing Corporation.
CaRRITT, D., ET AL.
1959. Radioactive waste disposal into Atlantic and Gulf Coastal waters.
National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Publ. No.
655. 37 pp.
CHIPMAN, W. A.
1960. Biological aspects of disposal of radioactive wastes in marine environ-
ments. 15 pp. Monaco Conference on Disposal of Radioactive
Wastes.
Go.psBenrag, E. D.
1954. Marine geochemistry I. Chemical scavengers of the sea. Journ. Geol.,
vol. 62, p. 249.
GoLpBera, E. D., and Koir, M.
1962. Geochronological studies of deep sea sediments by the ionium-
thorium method. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, vol. 26, pp.
417-450.
GREENDALE, A. E., and BAtuou, N. E.
1954, Physical state of fission product elements following their vaporiza-
tion in distilled water and sea water. U.S. Naval Radiological
Defense Laboratory, Doc. 4386, 28 pp.
Honma, M., and GREENDALE, A.
1958. Preliminary laboratory evaluation of the feasibility of decontaminat-
ing radioactive ocean areas through flocculation. U.S. Naval Radi-
ological Defense Laboratory, Technical Report 213, 21 pp.
Laboratory studies on the decontamination of radioactive sea water
by coagulation and sedimentation. U.S. Naval Radiological Defense
Laboratory, Technical Report 218, 19 pp.
400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Isaacs, JOHN D.
1962. Capacity of the oceans. International Science and Technology, Proto-
type, pp. 38-43.
Isaacs, JOHN D., ET AL.
1962. Disposal of low level radioactive wastes into Pacific coastal waters.
National Academy of Sciences-National Research Council, Pub. No.
985, 87 pp.
Koczy, F. F., and RosHott, J. N.
1961. Radioactivity in oceanography. Reprint from Nuclear Radiation in
Geophysics. Israel-Krebs, Kernstrahlung, pp. 18-46.
LowMAN, F.G.
1960. Marinebiological investigations at the Eniwetok Test Site. Monaco
Conference on Disposal of Radioactive Wastes, pp. 105-136.
NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES-NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL.
1959. Oceanography 1960 to 1970. 5. Artificial radioactivity in the marine
environment. Report of the Committee on Oceanography, 31 pp.
1960. The biological effects of atomic radiation. Summary Reports, 90 pp.
PNEUMODYNAMICS CORPORATION.
1961. Sea disposal container test and evaluation. Advanced Systems Devel-
opment No. 4652-F. 132 pp. Atomic Energy Commission Research
and Development Report, TID 4500. (Also reprinted by Office of
Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce. )
PRITCHARD, D. W., ET AL.
1959. Radioactive waste disposal from nuclear-powered ships. National
Acadamy of Sciences-National Research Council, Publ. No. 658, 52 pp.
REVELLE, ROGER, and SCHAEFER, M. B.
1957. General considerations concerning the ocean as a receptacle for arti-
ficially radioactive materials. National Academy of Sciences-
National Research Council, Publ. 551, pp. 1-25.
ROSINSEI, J., ET AL.
1959. Scavenging of particulate matter in connection with nuclear-powered
ships. Armour Research Foundation, No. 3119-10. 151 pp.
ScHAEFER, M. B., Ed.
1962. Oceanographic studies during operation “Wigwam.” Limnology and
Oceanography, Supplement to vol. 7, 91 pp.
SEymMour, ALLYN H.
1959. The distribution of radioisotopes among marine organisms in the
western central Pacific. Publ. Staz. Napoli 31 (supplement), pp.
25-30.
1963. Radionuclides in marine organisms from the western Pacific. Radio-
ecology, Reinhold Publishing Corporation, pp. 151-158.
WALDICHUE, M.
1961. Sedimentation of radioactive wastes in the sea. Fisheries Research
Board of Canada, Circular No. 59, 24 pp.
What Is Cybernetics?
By Donatp M. MacKay
Professor of Communication, University of Keele, Staffordshire, England
[With 3 plates]
A RAILWAY TRAIN needs no steering gear. The forces required to
correct for the buffetings of wind and way are supplied automatically,
by the sideways reaction of the rails against the wheel flanges. A
ship, lacking such implicit means of guidance, requires a helm, nor-
mally controlled by a helmsman. The Latin for helmsman is guber-
nator; the Greek, kybernetes. From the first comes our word gover-
nor. From the second, in 1843, André Ampére derived the term
cybernetics (la cybernétique), to denote the science of government.
In 1948, Norbert Wiener of the Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology independently proposed the same term for “The Science of
Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine,” as
the title of a book whose repercussions are among the remarkable
scientific phenomena of our century. Just as it appeared, the war-
born art of eliminating the human element in military missiles was
being rapidly adapted to peaceful applications in all manner of in-
dustrial areas, aided by the explosive postwar development of elec-
tronic computing techniques. At the same time the physiologists and
students of animal behavior, many of them fresh from wartime ex-
perience in radar and electronics, were alive as never before to the
possibilities of explaining all bodily activity—even at the human
level—in terms of hierarchies of “self-guided” mechanisms. In the
ferment of ideas thus generated, the growing realization that scien-
tists in these widely separated areas had a common problem was due
in no small measure to Wiener’s book.
What, then, is this common problem? In brief, it is to understand
(or procure) the organization of effective action—of all processes,
whether artificial or natural, in which goals, ends, standards are
sought or maintained, and unacceptable states or events avoided. As
a discipline, cybernetics thus belongs to the same family as engineer-
ing, and no sharp lines can be drawn between the two.
1 Reprinted by permission from Discovery (London), vol. 23, No. 10, October 1962.
401
402 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
What characterizes cybernetics, however, is the generality of its
ideas. Whereas much of engineering, or cell biology, or neurophys-
lology, or economics, is necessarily concerned with particular problems
of energy-transport, or biochemistry, or finance, the cyberneticist is
concerned only with those abstract features, common to systems in all
fields, by virtue of which effective action is organized.
To bring out some of these essential features, let us first look at our
helmsman. Basically, the chain of events by which the ship’s course is
governed has three stages, which we may call indication (of disparity
between actual and desired course), calculation (of form of action
required to diminish disparity), and selection (of the helm-position
calculated to be appropriate). Asa result of his action, the indication
will generally alter, so that we have here a “closed loop” of cause and
effect—the so-called “feedback loop” which is a feature of all self-
regulating, as distinct from merely physically constrained, mechanisms.
Cybernetics is built upon the realization that each of the foregoing
stages can in principle be mechanized. The compass, the ball-float,
the centrifugal governor, and the bimetallic thermometer are long-
familiar examples of sensitive devices whose mechanical output can
indicate the disparity between the present state of some quantity
(direction, water level, speed, or temperature) and some preset “goal
state.” Rudders, water cocks, steam valves, and furnace regulators
are even older examples of the third stage in the regulative chain.
What is new in scale (though not so new in principle) is the mech-
anization of the second stage—the process of calculation. Although
a mechanical general-purpose computer was devised by Charles Bab-
bage in the middle of the 19th century, it was only the advent of
electronics that gave such devices the speed and capacity needed to
replace the human brain in organizing complex regulative actions.
For the simplest type of ball-cock, steam-governor, or thermostat, the
only “calculator” required is a simple mechanical link between indi-
cator and control, so that supply is reduced when the indicator reads
“excess.”
For a self-guided missile, or a “self-optimizing” chemical process-
controller, on the other hand, the calculating mechanism must con-
tinually modify and supplement the link between the indicator and
the selector of action, in accordance with a multitude of other data
from auxiliary receptor-organs and from the past as recorded in its
storage devices.
In still more complex automata now envisaged, the repertoire of
action includes means of changing the pattern of instructions or con-
nections within the automaton itself{—a kind of gear-changing opera-
tion on its own logical machinery. In this way by “trial and error”
(a form of intelligent natural selection), as well as by calculation,
it develops within itself the organizing routines and “conditioned
WHAT IS CYBERNETICS?—MacKAY 403
reflexes” found necessary in the course of past interaction with its
field of activity. The scope of “artificial intelligence” along these
lines is virtually unlimited in principle. It is thus hardly surprising
that cybernetics in popular thought is so closely identified today with
the theory of computers.
The earliest and most characteristic mathematical developments in
cybernetics, however (in a paper by J. Clerk Maxwell in 1868), were
concerned with a more central problem—that of warding off instabil-
ity. In any closed cycle of control, if the response to control is too
sluggish or too violent, it is fatally easy for the system to become un-
stable, overcorrecting itself in a series of wild swings in opposite direc-
tions, called “hunting.” Although the mathematics of unstable be-
havior has mostly been developed for “linear” systems (those whose
responses change in strict proportion to changes in input), there are
a number of general principles and rules of thumb which invite appli-
cation in a wide range of fields at present plagued by instability.
These include, for example, keeping the nwmder of stages in a chain as
small as possible; reducing sensitivity to the minimum acceptable;
and combating sluggishness by taking rates of change of indication
as a guide to action.
The second great area of mathematical development specific to cy-
bernetics has become known as Information Theory. To control a
task of a given complexity to a given accuracy, in an environment
with given statistical features, how much information does a cyber-
netic governor need? The theory of information sets out to make
such questions precise, and to give mathematical answers to them.
Thanks largely to the work of C. E. Shannon, it has been generalized
to enable communication engineers to evaluate and compare the chan-
nel capacities of different encoding or transmitting systems, and to
take precise account of the effects of random disturbance, or “noise.”
Even more important, it has shown how statistical correlation between
different elements of a signal (“redundancy”) can be used to enable
random errors in transmission to be detected and corrected, so that
a “noisy” channel can—in principle, and given a long enough run
for statistical purposes—transmit up to a definite rate with arbitrarily
little error.
Once again it should be added, however, that in the bulk of cyber-
netic investigations to date it is the gualitative notions of information
theory—information, encoding, noise, redundancy, channel capacity,
error-correction—rather than its mathematical apparatus, which have
so far found illuminating uses. No one interested in the cybernetic
approach should be frightened off, or unduly impressed, by sprinkled
references to unfamiliar mathematics in the somewhat uneven litera-
ture of the field. With few exceptions to date, their function will turn
out to be decorative rather than pivotal.
404. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
We have confined discussion thus far to examples of natural and
artificial helmsmanship—control under the guidance of information.
This is what the term “cybernetics” was coined to denote, in contra-
distinction to the older method of physical constraint typified by our
railway example. Unfortunately the popularity of the term has led
to its being used in some quarters to include situations of the opposite
sort—those where no element of information-guided selection is pres-
ent, but (as with the railway) the necessary corrective forces depend
wholly on the inertial reaction of the situation where they are required.
Thus a pendulum, or a ball at the bottom of a bowl, is described by
some writers as a cybernetic system under “feedback,” because it
automatically suffers a force opposed to its displacement from equi-
librium. Even such lowly forms as the reaction of a floor to the
weight of an object placed on it cannot then be excluded. It is grad-
ually being realized that such usage trivializes the term; but for the
present at least the reader must expect to find it sometimes used in
confusing and even contradictory senses.
Behind the confusion there is in fact an interesting ambiguity in
the cybernetic approach—in the very nature of control itself. The
cybernetician seeking to understand a complex system begins by trying
to discern the “pattern of subordination”—asking “which controls
what?” The difficulty is to define “control.” Everyone would agree
that a watercock controls the flow of water into a cistern; but if two
cisterns are connected together, so that the level in each affects the level
in the other, can we say that one controls the other? However we
decide, there is obviously an important difference between the two
cases. ‘The second shows no more than a passive tendency to equi-
librium between action and reaction; but the first includes an “active”
element (the cock plus water supply) whose control lever determines
the flow of water without itself suffering appreciable reaction.
Suppose now that we link the cock lever to a ball floating on the
water, as in the familiar ball-cock. What now controls the level of
the water? In one sense, we may still say “the cock”; but in another
and more important sense, it is not now the cock per se, but its height
above tank bottom, which (other things being equal) governs the
final water level. If we had means of raising and lowering the whole
watercock-and-ball assembly, this would enable us to select the water
level at which the cock would turn itself off.
What this example makes clear, I think, is the subtle and arbitrary
human element that underlies many cybernetic notions. Basically, by
saying that A controls B we mean that if we could control A then we
could control B. In astrictly physical sense, divorced from the human
notion of “purpose,” the notion of control tends to be ambiguous or
meaningless. The only objective physical distinction we can firmly
draw is between (1) devices, such as watercocks, steamvalves, transis-
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—MacKay PLATE 1
Common features of the “effective actions” shown here and in plate 3 illustrate the
generality of the cybernetic approach. Both involve “indication, calculation and selec-
tion,” though in contrast to missile, chameleon’s action is largely precomputed. Pre-
computed guidance is also used in mechanical systems. Photos from “Zoo Quest to
Madagascar,” Lutterworth Press.
Piate 2
These photos symbolize three stages in the advance of control systems. Left: This
steam-engine governor, photographed in motion at the Science Museum, London, is one of
the earliest examples of a practical automatic control system. Using the engine’s output
(speed) to control the energy input to the engine, it foreshadows the use of the feedback,
so fundamental to modern control systems and to cybernetics (photo: Patrick Thurston).
Above: A modern test vehicle used for guidance and control experiments—sensing device
is at left, control devices at right. Much of the remaining space is taken up by calculating
devices—it is this stage of control that has developed so remarkably in modern systems
(Crown Copyright). Right; A look into the future of control systems. Picture shows an
experimental arrangement enabling an automaton to change its own pattern of connec-
tions. Vertical tubes are filled with electrolyte and serve also as “‘bus bars.’ Insulating
film of oxide can be formed electrolytically on horizontal wires at points of intersection by
currents passed through them, thus altering input-output relations of the network so as to
match changing patterns of demand (MacKay and Ainsworth, Brit. Pat. App. 12887/61).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—MacKay PLATE 2
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Smithsonian Report, 1963.—MacKay PEATEs
These three stages of flight of three missiles show some common features with plate 1. But
here guidance action is continually computed, controlled mainly by the error between
the paths of the missile and its target. This guidance action is very similar to that of a
tennis player returning a ball. (Photos: top, Crown Copyright; center, Bristol Siddeley;
and bottom, Bristol Aircraft.)
WHAT IS CYBERNETICS?—MacKAY 405
tors, and rudders, where the input, A, determines the form of the
output, B without supplying all the energy of B; and (2) devices
such as transmission lines, levers, springs and gear trains, where the
energy of B is totally provided from the energy of A. In the first case,
the energy of A is at least partly devoted to altering the structure
through which the energy for B is channeled—altering the coupling
between the output, B, and its internal energy supply. In the second,
no analogous process occurs. In the first case a cybernetician would
say that A exerts “active control” over B. In the second (if we wish)
we may speak of “passive control”; though to some of us it would
here seem clearer to speak simply of action and reaction.
The important point is that in cybernetics we are concerned with
the action of form upon form rather than of force upon force. The
rigorous theory of such processes is still in its infancy, and a good
deal of what is offered today under the aegis of cybernetics necessarily
has little behind it but sanctified common sense (and not always that !).
What light do all these developments throw on our understanding
of biological processes? As current scientific literature shows, they
have suggested fruitful questions right down to the level of the
components and chemistry of the individual cell, where both informa-
tional and cybernetic notions crop up. With the still more complex
structure of the brain, our problem is to find any set of manageable
abstractions whose interaction may be studied with profit.
Here the role of cybernetic models is often misunderstood. It is
not a question of finding some artificial system that will behave ex-
ternally in the same way as the brain. Superficial resemblances of
this sort can be a curse to the theoretical neurologist. As in all scien-
tific research, the role of a model is to serve as a kind of template,
which we hold up against the real thing in order that any discrepan-
cies may stand out more clearly, and guide us towards the making of
a better one. We judge a model to be useful, therefore, not merely
by its predictive successes, but also by the clarity with which its
failures can be interpreted, and lead to its refinement. Only the un-
expected yields fresh information; and even this is informative only
when we know what to make of it—hence the crucial importance of
disciplining our models as far as possible by the structural realities
of the system we want to understand. The so-called “black box” ap-
proach may serve well enough in “human engineering”; but, especially
if we want our models to account for pathological as well as normal
conditions, our progress in science is soon halted, if not totally mis-
directed, unless we work hand-in-hand with those who lift the lids and
peer inside.
Finally, what of the future of “cybernetic machinery”? Already,
we know enough to say that any pattern of behavior which can be
precisely specified—including the sorts of behavior that we would
7200186427
406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
normally classify as “intelligent,” “insightful,” “recognitive,” “pur-
poseful” and so forth—can in principle be shown by an artificial
mechanism, embodying only known processes. Some of us are devel-
oping ways of enabling such mechanisms to grow and modify parts
of their own internal wiring as a result of experience. The design
of artificial limbs, speech organs, and mechanisms of visual and audi-
tory form-perception are all likely to make rapid progress in the next
decade. Many of these and other developments will be linked with
prosthetics—the effort to replace human faculties lost by disease or
damage.
This prospect, though (like that of space travel 20 years ago) it
may savor of science fiction, inevitably raises two serious questions.
The first is whether we are now in a position (in principle—blessed
phrase!) to synthesize fully human behavior. The answer, quite
shortly, is “no.” ‘Those aspects of human behavior that we under-
stand well enough to specify exactly can indeed be mechanized, given
enough time and space and computer capacity. But mechanization,
impracticably complex though it would be, is not the real problem.
The fundamental limit to our power of synthesizing human behavior
is precisely in our own understanding of what it is to be human.
That this is incomplete at present needs no demonstration. That it
could ever be otherwise—even in principle—I personally take leave
to doubt.
The second question is whether by implication we are now entitled
to regard natural human beings as “no more than” cybernetic mecha-
nisms. This question is ambiguous. It may be asking whether the
human brain-plus-body can be regarded as no more than a cybernetic
mechanism. In that case, although our ignorance of brain mecha-
nisms still far exceeds our knowledge, most scientists today would,
I think, answer with a cautious affirmative. What they would empha-
size is the astronomical complexity of any mechanism (whether we
call it cybernetic or not) embodying 10,000 million cells, each of which
is itself bafflingly complex.
There is, however, a quite different idea which is so often expressed
by asking the same question. ‘This is the fear (or the hope, accord-
ing to taste) that a complete cybernetic explanation of human bodily
activity, if once we had it, would debunk any higher view of human
nature, in moral or religious terms. This idea, I think, is based on a
philosophical mistake—the mistaking of these higher accounts of
human action and the scientific, mechanistic account as mutually
exclusive rivals, so that if one of them were complete and correct, it
would leave no room for the other. The truth seems to be that when
theologians speak about moral and religious factors in human behav-
ior, they are not talking about quasi-physical (and scientifically
inexplicable) forces at work on the mechanism of the brain. They
WHAT IS CYBERNETICS?—MacKAY 407
are referring rather to the personal significance—the point—of the
activity whose mechanical aspect the scientist may successfully ex-
plain. Thus the religious account not only leaves room for the mecha-
nistic—it leaves a need for it (and vice versa) if justice is to be done
to all aspects of the human being. To rest content with the mecha-
nistic explanation would be to miss the point, rather in the way that
an electronic explanation of the activity of a computing machine
(though complete in itself) would miss the point that an equation
was being solved.
In this sense man remains, indeed, a mystery; but that mystery
stands wholly apart from any puzzlement we feel about the mecha-
nism of his brain.
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The Use of the Electron Microscope in the
Study of Fossils
By Witu1am W. Hay
Department of Geology, University of Illinois
[With 4 plates]
THE ELECTRON microscope has proved to be a valuable tool in many
fields of science. However, only in the past few years has electron-
microscopy become a common technique for paleontologic research.
It is now possible to investigate the skeletal hard-parts of living
organisms and fossils in greater detail than was thought possible a few
years ago. ‘Two broad avenues of investigation have opened up: (1)
Study of the structural building-blocks and the ultramicroscopic archi-
tecture of skeletal materials, and (2) investigation of modern and fos-
sil skeletal elements too small to be seen distinctly with the light
microscope.
The hard-parts of organisms are of particular interest to paleon-
tologists, those scientists who study fossils, since the most likely re-
mains to be preserved in rocks are mineralized skeletal parts. The
paleontologist has been able to study the shape and surface features
of shells. By cutting sections so thin they transmit light, he has been
able to investigate the internal structure of shell materials in the light
microscope.
In any investigation using microscopy, the resolving power of the
instrument is an important factor to consider in interpretation of the
results. The term “resolving power” refers to the ability of an optical
system to produce an image sharp enough to distinguish between two
closely spaced points. The resolution of an inexpensive light micro-
scope may be as low as 2 y,' that is, points less than 2 » apart cannot be
seen as separated points in the final image. The resolving power of
an instrument depends in large part on the wavelength of the light or
other electromagnetic radiation used to make the observations. It
is impossible to resolve two points closer than one-half the wavelength
of the light used. The wavelength of light in the visible spectrum is
1 The micron, usually written w, is a unit of measure commonly employed in microscopy.
1g is 1/1,000,000 meter, or 1/1,000 millimeter, or about 1/40,000 inch.
409
410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
about 14 p, so that the theoretical limit of resolution of the light micro-
scope is about 14 ». This means that no optical system using visible
light, no matter how perfectly constructed, can separate points less
than 14 » apart.
The electron microscope makes use of the fact that electrons travel-
ing at high speeds have a wave as well as a particle character, and
the very short wavelengths associated with electrons streaming down
the tube of an electron microscope permit a much higher degree of
resolution, so that points as close as 6 A? can still be separated. As
soon as paleontologists began to investigate shell structure with the
electron microscope, the reason for earlier confusion became appar-
ent—most of the fundamental building units employed by organisms
in constructing shells are so small that they cannot be resolved in the
light microscope. However, they are easily resolved and observed
in the electron microscope.
Along with the advantages of this powerful new tool come some
difficulties which do not trouble the light microscopist. First of all,
it is impossible to observe shell material directly in the electron micro-
scope, for most crystalline materials, such as calcium carbonate, are
opaque to the beam of electrons streaming down the tube of the micro-
scope. To get around this difficulty, replicas of the shell material are
prepared. ‘The replica is a film of carbon showing the details of the
shell surface, but is so thin that the electron beam passes through
it and produces an image of it on the viewing screen of the microscope.
A replica is prepared in the following manner: The specimen to be
replicated is placed in a vacuum chamber (called an evaporator) and
the air is pumped out until a high vacuum is obtained. Then a strip
of metal wire or carbon is heated to incandescence by passing an electric
current through it. The atoms in the glowing carbon tend to “boil
off” and, since there are no air molecules for them to collide with, fly
out in straight lines from the source. As a result, an extremely thin
film of carbon coats everything inside the evaporator. The delicate
carbon film is usually freed by dissolving the specimen in acid very
slowly. The film is floated off on water and picked up on support
screens used in electron microscopy. Since the film was deposited as a
stream of carbon atoms it reproduces surface features of the specimen
in minute detail, and the term replica is a well-chosen description. One
thing must constantly be kept in mind when studying replicas in the
electron microscope—they represent only the appearance of the surface
that was replicated, and do not penetrate to reveal internal structure.
2The Angstrom unit, written A, is the standard unit of measure in the size range of
atoms and molecules. 1A is 1/10,000 u.
ELECTRON-MICROSCOPY OF FOSSILS—HAY 411
As an example of the sort of study of shell ultrastructure now
possible, consider the investigations on the protozoans known as Fora-
minifera carried out recently by Hay, Towe, and Wright.*®
The Foraminifera have long been of particular interest to paleon-
tologists, since they are among the most common fossils, and are par-
ticularly useful in determining the age of strata. The Foraminifera
build shells called “tests” in two ways: (1) by gluing foreign par-
ticles together with silica, iron oxide, or calcium carbonate cement, or
(2) by constructing tests of crystalline calcium carbonate by
secretion. The first group of Foraminifera are commonly called
“arenaceous” and thesecond “calcareous.” The calcareous Foraminif-
era may be subdivided into two major groups by the external appear-
ance of the test. One group contains forms that have glistening white
walls that are opaque. They superficially resemble china so closely
that they are referred to as porcellaneous Foraminifera. The second
group has walls that are translucent, so that the tests look as though
they are made of glass, and are termed “hyaline.”
There is another major difference between the porcellaneous and
hyaline Foraminifera ; the porcellaneous forms are also called “imper-
forate” since the wall is apparently solid and the protoplasm inside
the test can communicate with the exterior only through a large open-
ing at the end of the test known as an aperture. The tests of the
hyaline Foraminifera are pierced by a number of minute pores, and
the tests are said to be perforate. The protoplasm inside the test can
communicate with the outside not only through a large aperture, but
through the myriad pores as well.
Although porcellaneous Foraminifera are very common, especially
in the shallow-water deposits of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of
the United States and are familiar to every micropaleontologist,
the nature of the porcellaneous wall has remained an enigma. Early
investigators described the walls as constructed of globular bits of
calcium carbonate, but modern workers have been unable to substan-
tiate this or to see any structure in the wall at all. Chemical analyses
have shown that the wall is made of impure calcium carbonate, with
magnesium atoms present at about 10 percent of the spaces in the
crystal structure that are usually occupied by calcium. In reflected
light some of the tests appear to glisten, indicating that the surface
must be smooth enough to reflect light. Other porcellaneous tests
belonging to the same species may be dull, but all are white and opaque
in reflected light.
Viewed by transmitted light in a microscope, the tests of porcel-
laneous Foraminifera appear to be structureless, but do possess a
8Hay, W. W., Towe, K. M., and Wright, R. C., Ultramicrostructure of some selected
foraminiferal tests. Micropaleontology, vol. 9, No. 2, pp. 171-195, pls. 1-16. 1963.
412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
unique brown color. Examination in polarized light suggests that
the wall of one large group of porcellaneous Foraminifera, the milio-
lids, must be made of minute, randomly oriented crystals. A bright
line observed at the surface of the tests suggests that a thin layer of
crystals with parallel orientation exists at the surface.
Carbon replicas of the surfaces of miliolids reveal two sorts of pat-
tern present. In one case (pl. 1, fig. 1), there appear to be numerous
stubby crystals of calcite randomly oriented. The crystals do not have
well-developed faces, but even appear to be cylindrical in some cases.
The ends are flat or rounded. The crystals are all about the same size,
about 2 » long and 14 » wide. The general appearance is chaotic,
like a jumble of short sticks, and indeed there seem to be numerous
spaces between the tiny crystals, so that the wall may be porous even
though it is not perforated by pores. Other surfaces (pl. 1, fig. 2) show
a striking pattern of tiny thin rhombohedral crystals, all having more
or less the same orientation. These crystals, like the others, are about
2 » long and 14 » wide. They are, however, distinguished by the
presence of sharp crystal faces, and they are very thin. The pattern
resembles the slate or shingle roof on a house. Often groups of two
or three crystals appear to be joined by fine sawtooth sutures between
the crystals. On some specimens the shingle pattern can be observed
to overlie the layer with marked randomly oriented crystals.
The main part of the wall of a miliolid is seen to consist of a mass of
more or less randomly oriented tiny crystals, and might actually be
somewhat porous. The surface of a fresh miliolid test is covered by
a veneer of the shingle crystal layer, and it is this layer that reflects
light, producing the glistening appearance of the test. This layer
is easily removed by corrosion revealing the randomly oriented matted
layer, which is nonreflective, producing a dull surface.
Thus details of the structure of the miliolid wall, which could only
be suggested by observations in the light microscope, have been re-
vealed by electronmicroscopic examination of the tests. The size,
shape, and distribution of the units of which the wall is constructed
are now known. Some questions, such as the cause of the brown color
observed in transmitted light, remain temporarily unanswered, and
a host of new questions arise from examination of the electronmicro-
graphs. How is the matted layer of crystals in the wall produced?
Is the shinglelike surface layer deposited before or after the rest of
the wall? How are the crystals held together? What is the mean-
ing of the sawtooth sutures between some crystals in the shingle
layer? As is common in science, the development of new techniques
results in solving some problems and suggesting many new, more pene-
trating questions to be asked of the objects of study.
The hyaline, or perforate, Foraminifera are extremely important to
micropaleontologists for it is among this group that are to be found
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Hay PLATE 1
1. Electronmicrograph of a carbon replica of part of the surface of Quinqueloculina seminulum
(Linnaeus), x 20,000 (from Hay, Towe, and Wright, 1962; micrograph by K. M. Towe).
a
~
BON
. A
2. Electronmicrograph of a carbon replica of part of the surface of Quinqueloculina seminulum
(Linnaeus) showing oriented crystals, x 20,000 (from Hay, Towe, and Wright, 1962;
micrograph by K. M. Towe).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Hay
0.5 :
Electronmicrograph of a carbon replica of a sieve-plate covering the end of a pore canal of
Robulus midwayensis (Plummer), x 140,000 (from Hay, Towe, and Wright, 1962; micro-
graph by K. M. Towe).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Hay PLATE 3
1. Electronmicrograph of a carbon replica of a coccolith from the Eocene of southwest
France (Marniére de Miretrain, near Dax, Landes), x 20,000. (Unpublished micrograph
by S. Gartner.)
Cees”
2. Electronmicrograph of a carbon replica of a coccolith from the Eocene of southwest
France (Marniére de Miretrain, near Dax, Landes), x 20,000. (Unpublished micrograph
by S. Gartner.)
PLATE 4
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Hay
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ELECTRON-MICROSCOPY OF FOSSILS—HAY 413
many of the “guide fossils” used to determine the age of a particular
stratum. In many of the species the pores in the test are large
enough to be readily visible in the light microscope. Others, how-
ever, have such fine pores that there was some question as to whether
the pores even existed or not. In the light microscope, the finely
porous wall presents a “fibrous” appearance. Electronmicroscopic
investigations reveal that the “fibers” of the wall are not calcite
crystals at all, but are the fine pore canals, which are only 4% p» in
diameter, and thus cannot be clearly observed in the light microscope.
The boundaries between the calcite crystals remain invisible, and
the fine pore canals produce the image of a “fibrous” wall.
The pore canals of the hyaline Foraminifera are lined by an organic
membrane and at intervals disks of organic material cover the pores.
These disks can be seen vaguely in the light microscope. However,
in the electron microscope they can be observed to be perforated by
a number of openings and the term “sieve-plate” has been applied
to them (pl. 2). The sieve-plates may even be preserved in fossil
foraminifera. Very little is known about these structures at the pres-
ent time. The function of the sieve-plates is unknown, but since they
are located along the channels through which the protoplasm inside
the test communicates with the outside, they may play an important
physiological role.
Another area of paleontologic investigation which has been opened
up through the development of replication techniques for use with
the electron microscope is the examination of very small fossils. The
term nannofossil (nannus=dwarf) is usually applied to these forms.
The calcareous nannofossils constitute a heterogenous group of ob-
jects ranging from 14 to 20u. in size. Recently it has become appar-
ent that many forms of calcareous nannofossils are of particular
importance to paleontologists in establishing the age equivalence of
rocks in distant places. When these fossils were first described dur-
ing the 19th century, it was thought that such small fossils must be
produced by exceedingly simple organisms, and that these organisms
could hardly be expected to show any evolutionary changes. Modern
studies have shown just the opposite to be true. Calcareous nanno-
fossils are among the most complexly constructed skeletal elements
yet studied, and evolution has wrought radical changes on them.
The most common sort of calcareous nannofossil is the coccolith
(pl. 3). Coccoliths are button-shaped objects, mostly between
1 and 5y. in diameter although they may range anywhere from 14
to 20n. On close examination, coccoliths are found to consist of two
disk or shieldlike parts connected by a very short tube. Usually one
of the disks is smaller than the other, so that the coccolith resembles
a collar button. Coccoliths are made of calcium carbonate and are
skeletal elements produced by a single-celled marine organism known
720-018—64——-28
414 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
as a coccolithophore. Coccolithophores are an interesting group of
organisms that possess some of the characters of both plants and ani-
mals and thus are intermediate between the two great biological
kingdoms. ‘They are able to carry out photosynthesis, although the
color of the chloroplasts in the cells is golden yellow to amber rather
than green. They possess two whiplike flagellae which are used to
propel the organism through the water on an erratic course. The
coccolithophores secrete coccoliths and arrange them within the cell
to form a hollow sphere, known as a coccosphere (pl. 4, fig. 1). Upon
death or proper stimulation, the coccoliths are released from the en-
closing protoplasm, and begin to drift down to the ocean floor. Coc-
colithophores live suspended in the water as plankton and may be
found in shallow inshore waters as well as in the open sea. Usually
those forms inhabiting shallow waters have smaller, more delicate
coccoliths than those found in the open oceans. Yor this reason, they
are less likely to be preserved as fossils. In oceanic deposits, rela-
tively little material derived from land is present, and over broad
areas the sediments consist largely of the remains of planktonic orga-
nisms inhabiting the upper layers of water. In tropical and tem-
perate regions where the water is less than 20,000 feet deep, large
areas of the ocean floor are covered by a deposit called Globigerina
ooze. Globigerina is a planktonic foraminifer and the shells of this
organism are the most conspicuous organic remains seen with low
power microscopic examination. However, more detailed inspection
of samples of Globigerina ooze reveals that the deposit is composed
largely of coccoliths, so that large areas of the ocean floor are essen-
tially covered by coccoliths.
It is interesting to consider the path by which the coccoliths have
come to rest on the ocean floor. The coccolithophores which produce
them live near the surface, and so the coccoliths must drift down
through nearly the whole water column before coming to rest. The
rate at which coccoliths settle in quiet standing water has been deter-
mined experimentally to range from 15 minutes to 2 hours per inch
in fresh water. In salt water they sink more slowly. This means that
in an oceanic area with depths of 20,000 feet, large coccoliths would
require 10 years, small coccoliths 50 years to reach the bottom, pro-
vided there were no ascending currents to retard their descent. But
because the waters of the oceans are always in motion, the coccoliths
will be carried great distances, often many thousands of miles from
the point where they were released, until they come to rest. The
coccoliths are caught up in the oceanic circulation of the planet and
distributed over vast areas. Herein lies their great importance to
modern stratigraphy.
Most of the strata studied by geologists on land represent shallow-
water deposits. Deep-water deposits are relatively rare on the present
ELECTRON-MICROSCOPY OF FOSSILS—HAY 415
continents, but are present in a few areas. Much of the work of the
geologist consists of correlating strata from one place to another,
either by studying the nature and sequence of the rocks or by using the
fossils found in the strata. A geologist who specializes in correlating
strata is called a stratigrapher; a paleontologist who specializes in
using fossils to establish the age equivalence of strata is called a strati-
graphic paleontologist. Stratigraphers and stratigraphic paleontolo-
gists have had great success in unraveling the geologic history of large
areas, but a very troublesome problem has always remained—how to
correlate across the ocean basins. The fossils used in correlating beds
in the shallow-water deposits which cover much of the continents often
cannot be used to correlate across vast distances. At the present time,
faunas in widely separated geographic areas are often strikingly
different, and the same is true of the past. Faunal provinces have
existed through all of geologic history, and they have presented a
barrier to intercontinental correlation and detailed examination of the
earth’s history.
The remains of planktonic organisms of the oceans are found only
rarely on the continents, but where they are present they offer an
unparalleled opportunity for intercontinental correction. The plank-
tonic Foraminifera have been used for this purpose since the 1930’s.
They have permitted detailed correlations between North and South
America and the Mediterranean region. However, it is becoming
apparent that certain planktonic Foraminifera also are restricted to
particular faunal provinces, and it is excedingly difficult to correlate
deposits in northern Europe, for example, with those of the Mediter-
ranean region. Coccoliths settle much more slowly than the tests of
planktonic foraminifera and the boundaries of coccolithophore prov-
inces (if they exist) are obscured. At present it seems as though
coccoliths may be ubiquitous in their distribution. They have a fur-
ther advantage for purposes of correlation—they show extremely
rapid evolution and a number of radical changes have taken place,
making different species easy to recognize.
Little research has been carried out on the detailed ultrastructure
of coccoliths, but high resolution electronmicrographs show fine struc-
ture, in the form of markings spaced about 100 A apart on the surface
of the elements which make up the coccolith (pl. 4, fig. 2). The nature
of these markings is still a matter of conjecture, but they probably
reflect regular changes in the structure of the crystals of which the
skeletal elements are made. Further investigation of skeletal ultra-
structure at high magnifications is sure to produce interesting results.
From these examples it can be seen that the electron microscope is
a tool that will play an important role in paleontologic research in the
future.
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Color Changes in Animals’
By D. B. CaRLIsLe
Anti-Locust Research Centre, London
[With 2 plates]
“Tren More days of this sun and I shall have a tan that should last
the winter through.” A common enough remark to hear on the beach
any day during the summer. A few minutes later I disturbed a
cuttlefish on the sea bottom 25 feet down. With startling suddenness
a white rectangle appeared in the middle of its back, then a pair of
“eye-spots,” before it finally puffed out a cloud of ink. Here we have
examples of the two chief methods of color change and illustrations
of the extremes of duration of the changes. Ten days of exposure to
the sun may be needed to produce the new pigmentation which we
call a suntan, and several months may elapse before all this pigment
is removed or destroyed again. The cuttlefish changes color by re-
deployment of pigments already within the skin and can achieve
changes of color and pattern within a fraction of a second. Color
changes which depend on the deposition of new pigment within the
skin or integument or on the removal] or destruction of pigment are
known as morphogenetic color changes; changes which are brought
about by redistribution of existing pigments within the integument
with little or no metabolism of the pigments are often called kinetic
color changes.
Both types of color change may be brought about in response to a
great many different factors. Heat and light, diet, the color of the
background, and the degree of crowding of the animals may all play
a part in morphogenetic changes. A suntan is produced by the direct
action of certain wavelengths of ultraviolet light on the cells of the
skin, which stimulates pigment formation in each cell which is exposed
to the radiation. The pink plumage of the flamingo (pl. 1) is a
result of diet and the pigment is taken almost unchanged from the
small shrimplike creatures which form a large part of the food. This
red pigment is then deposited in the feathers where it slowly fades in
1 Reprinted by permission from The Times Science Review (London), Winter 1962.
Copyright 1963 by The Times Publishing Company, Limited. All rights reserved.
417
418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
the sunlight. To maintain the pink plumage, therefore, the flamingo
needs a constant accession of food rich in pigment (which it cannot
make for itself), and a diet poor in carotenoids, as these pigments
are called, may produce a flamingo with white plumage.
These two examples illustrate changes which involve no measure
of central control. More usually the brain or central nervous
system integrates the information received through the senses and
exerts some measure of control of the change of color. A stick insect
living in the warm dark moist condition of the Amazonian forest will
be black or gray-brown, but if it moves to the treetops where it is
exposed to sunlight and dryer conditions it turns green, a morpho-
genetic change which seems upon investigation to be under some sort
of central control.
VARIETY OF STIMULI
Perhaps the most complex array of morphogenetic color changes
is to be found in locusts. When the population is low and scattered,
the hoppers (the juvenile stages before the wings have developed)
live as grasshoppers in the vegetation and shun each other’s com-
pany. Their color depends largely on the color of the vegetation in
which they are living, but temperature and humidity also play a part.
A hopper living in isolation on lush green vegetation with a high
humidity and temperature will be green (pl. 2, fig. 2) ; if the grasses
start to dry out it will turn the color of ripe hay; living on a few blades
of grass in an area which has been burnt over it may turn black.
Whatever the vegetation, in fact, the solitary hopper matches it rather
well. The situation is far different if a rising population and cli-
matic conditions force the hoppers into each other’s company. They
soon learn to keep together and form the marching bands which are
the beginnings of a locust swarm. Under these conditions they no
longer hide away in matching vegetation but take on a “warning”
coloration of black and yellow or black and orange. In the labora-
tory this can be shown to be a direct response to crowding (pl. 2, fig. 1).
Finally, the detail of this black-and-yellow pattern of the crowded
hoppers is affected by temperature. If the temperature rises the
amount of black decreases till after a period at 40° C. it may be
almost nonexistent, so that the hopper appears nearly uniformly
yellow. Conversely, if the temperature falls the amount of black
increases, until after a couple of molts at 26° C., the animal is in
effect black with slight yellow markings.
As a last type of morphogenetic color change we may mention
the breeding dress of many animals. ‘The drake mallard at the end
of winter dons a fine new colorful plumage for the breeding season,
and the female prawn adorns herself with a row of white spots like
a, string of pearls down each side of the abdomen when she is ready
COLOR CHANGES IN ANIMALS—CARLISLE 419
to breed. Mention of the mallard makes it necessary to enlarge
the scope of the definition of morphogenetic color change, for the
iridescent head of the breeding mallard owes its sheen not to pig-
ment but to the structure of the feathers which produces color by
purely physical means. Thus morphogenetic color change may in-
volve the shedding or acquiring of structures which owe their color
to optical interference, as well as the loss or gain of pigment.
Kinetic color changes too may occur as responses to a wide range
of stimuli. Many of the shrimplike creatures of the plankton—the
copepods and others—respond to unwelcome actinic radiation by
expansion of pigment to form a sort of umbrella over the sensitive
organs, just as we respond to similar unwelcome radiation by tan-
ning. Prawns (shrimps) can change color to match the background—
and pattern too, as well as color—within about a quarter of an hour,
and octopus and squid can complete within a second a change that con-
ceals them. The three-spined stickleback, the cuckoo wrasse, and the
black sea-bream can adopt a breeding dress quite as colorful as that
of the drake mallard, but by kinetic means. High temperatures and
bright light can stimulate a prawn to change color and attack by a
predator can stimulate a cuttlefish to produce the “eyespots” which
serve to frighten off the larger animal. Even the chameleon, which
changes color so slowly, shows more than a mere background or albedo
response, for its response to background color is modified by the
temperature.
EFFECTOR ORGANS
The stimuli which provoke color change are thus many and vari-
ous, but the effector organs themselves which bring about the changes
are more uniform. The pigment is largely contained within cells,
usually in droplet or granular form, rarely dissolved. The cells con-
taining the pigment may be dead—as in feathers, which are largely
composed of dead cells—and then color change can only take place by
morphogenetic means. Sometimes the pigment is found in the gen-
eral cells of the skin, as in the stick insect. In this animal all the
cells of the skin contain at least two kinds of pigment. About half-
way down the cell is a fixed barrier of light colored pigment gran-
ules. Granules of a black pigment are free to migrate up and down
the cell turning the animal black when they lie at the surface or pale
when they are hiding behind the barrier of light pigment. More
commonly the pigment is confined to special cells known as chroma-
tophores. Even in dead structures such as hairs the pigment is not
uniformly distributed but confined to once living but now dead
chromatophores. It should be obvious that where the greater part
of the body is covered by such dead structures any color change can
come about only by shedding these structures and growing fresh ones
420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
of a different color. Where the pigment is contained in living chro-
matophores it may be destroyed or replaced by fresh pigments.
Both these processes are classed as morphogenetic color change. The
pigment in our own skin is located largely in chromatophores, which
are known as melanophores since they contain the brown pigment
melanin. The granules of melanin are not free to move about in
any systematic way in these chromatophores, which remain fixed in
outline, and any color change can take place only by an alteration in
the amount of melanin present.
Superficially similar chromatophores are found in fish and chame-
leons, shrimps, and prawns, where the pattern of the integument is
made up of black or brown melanophores, red erythrophores, and yel-
low xanthophores. But unlike the mammalian chromatophores the
distribution of pigment granules within them is under precise control.
The outline of the chromatophore is fixed, consisting of a central
reservoir from which small channels—the chromorrhizae—radiate
outward branching irregularly between the surrounding cells (fig.
1). Within these channels the pigment granules may flow about,
dispersing to occupy the entire network of chromorrhizae or concen-
trating into the central mass as a small dot. With the pigment dis-
persed an area of the skin takes on the hue of the pigment concerned ;
Ficure 1—A chromatophore of a prawn in which concentration of the pigment has
just begun. The pigment has withdrawn from the finest chromorrhizae, which are
therefore no longer visible. (Magnification, X 350.)
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Carlisle PLATE 1
Greater flamingoes at the New Grounds, Slimbridge, England, of the Wildfowl Trust
Flamingoes owe their pink plumage to diet.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Carlisle PLATE 2
1. A desert locust hopper which has lived with a crowd of its own kind is colored a vivid
black and yellow.
COLOR CHANGES IN ANIMALS—CARLISLE 421
Ficure 2.—A chromatophore of a squid: Jeft, contracted, and, right, expanded. Expan-
sion is brought about by contraction of muscles which spread out the sac of pigment
to make a thin broad plate.
with it concentrated, the tiny dots are almost unnoticeable and the skin
is blanched.
This type of chromatophore is widely distributed throughout the
animal kingdom. It is found in fish, amphibians and reptiles, prawns
and shrimps, sea urchins and insects. Another type of chromatophore
is confined to the cephalopods, that group of mollusks which comprises
the squid, cuttlefish, and octopus. Here the pigment—mainly various
shades of melanin from the lightest of browns to jet black—is con-
tained within spherical sacs each surrounded by a corona of muscle
fibers (fig. 2). When these are relaxed the chromatophore is con-
tracted to an insignificant sphere, but when the muscles contract the
sac is drawn out into a thin plate covering some hundred or more
times the area.
FROM STIMULUS TO RESPONSE
The final topic I propose to consider is the question of the mediation
between stimulus and response. What means does the animal adopt to
pass on the stimulus received by the senses to the chromatophores which
produce the color change. In the simplest situation the effector organ
responds directly to the stimulus—the human skin produces melanin
as a direct response of each individual chromatophore to the ultra-
violet radiation. A single chromatophore of a prawn may react to
a spot of light, and a single chromorrhiza of a sea urchin has been
found to react to a beam of light a ten-thousandth of an inch in diam-
eter. The cells of the feather follicles of flamingos lay down the pink
carotenoid in the feather they are forming in direct ratio to the
amount supplied by the blood. In these examples of color change—
both morphogenetic and kinetic—no central control is involved; the
stimulus is received and the response is carried out by the effector
cell itself.
720-018—64——_29
422 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
More often, however, the stimulus is received through the sense
organs and the response is mediated via the central nervous system.
The most complete and detailed control of color and pattern is found
in the octopus. Here the chromatophores are never at rest. Blushes
of color pass over the surface and the individual chromatophores
expand and contract all the time. The muscles which operate the
chromatophores in these animals are under direct nervous control
and change in degree of expansion of each single chromatophore is
a matter of fractionsofasecond. Such is the complexity of the control
of the color and pattern that an entire discrete lobe of the brain of
the octopus is set aside for its operation, and the color can express
the mood of the animal and reflect its activity.
In the lower vertebrates, too, the chromatophores of the skin are
under nervous control, but here this is supplemented by hormonal con-
trol. In an unstimulated condition the pigment in the chromato-
phores is more or less completely dispersed, producing a dark skin,
and nervous stimulation tends to cause the pigment granules to mi-
grate toward the center of the chromatophore, leading to paling.
This migration is a much slower process than muscular contraction
and may take two or three minutes. An opposing innervation will
serve to reverse the process if this is to take place relatively rapidly,
but if the initial nervous stimulation merely ceases, the pigment starts
to disperse to fine branches of the chromorrhizae—a slow process
which may take several hours. Naturally, the different areas of the
skin and the different colors of chromatophores are under separate
nervous control, so that pattern and color changes may be brought
about. The nervous control is reinforced by hormones from the pitui-
tary gland, which, slower to act in the first. place, may maintain the
response for far longer. Though the hormones in sufficient dose may
serve to initiate a color change independently of the nerves, it is more
likely that their main action is exerted in lower dose by maintaining
the status quo once a pattern has been set by nervous action. That is
to say a small dose of hormone may act to prevent reexpansion of
the pigment which has been concentrated by nervous action and so
fix a pattern and shade of color which has been established by nervous
control.
Finally, many pigmentary effectors are under hormonal control
alone. This is especially true of the sexual colors of so many animals.
The breeding plumage of many male birds is under the control of the
endocrine system—the system of ductless glands which secrete the
hormones. The same is true of many fish. The male cuckoo wrasse
produces a white blotch across his shoulders by concentration of the
pigment within the red chromatophores. This seems to be under
endocrine control, though whether the hormone concerned derives
from the testis or from the pituitary gland we do not know. It is
COLOR CHANGES IN ANIMALS—CARLISLE 423
perhaps worth remarking that we have examples of both morpho-
genetic color change and kinetic color change mediated by the hor-
mones of the sexual cycle.
In the Crustacea (shrimps, prawns, crabs, and wood-lice) the chro-
matophores are activated entirely by endocrine means; they are not
innervated in any way. In the prawn there are at least 20 different
types of chromatophores which respond differentially to 6 or more
hormones. As a result a prawn can take on much of the color and
pattern of the background, though not perhaps with such precision and
speed as the octopus. One feature which many people find surprising
is that all the hormones concerned are produced within specialized
nerve cells, within the central nervous system. These cells are known
as neurosecretory cells (fig. 3) and are grouped in discrete neurosecre-
tory centers in various parts of the nervous system. The hormonal
material is then conducted inside the nerve fibers to one of two neuro-
haemal organs. These consist of enlarged nerve endings grouped in
masses against blood spaces and serve as storage and release centers
for the hormones produced in the nerve cell bodies which supply them.
One of these neurohaemal organs lying close to the eye (fig. 4) is the
sinus gland which for long was thought to be the main endocrine gland
of prawns. Now we know that it is simply a warehouse and dispatch
center for hormones produced in a number of neurosecretory centers
Ficure 3.—Two types of neurosecretory cells from the brain of the prawn. (Magni-
fication X 580.)
424. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
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ase
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Neurohaemal
organ behind
the brain
Ficure 4—The head of a prawn and, alongside it on the left, an enlargement of the
left eyestalk dissected to show the optic medullae of the brain (stippled), which are
largely concerned with visual integration. The unstippled parts of the medullae are
the sinus gland (above), supplied from below by three groups of neurosecretory cells.
in other parts of the brain. The second neurohaemal organ lies behind
the brain and is supplied by neurosecretory fibers from cells in the hind
part of the brain.
It has long been a puzzle why there should be so many centers of
production of color change hormones within the brain—there are at
least five such centers in prawns. A possible explanation may emerge
if we consider the detailed distribution of these centers within the
brain and the functions of the various parts within which they are
found. Three of the main centers lie within that part of the brain
which is concerned with the integration of visual input. At the most
peripheral level we find a neurosecretory center (sending its hormones
to the sinus gland) which appears to receive information on the num-
ber and frequency of visual cells receiving the stimulus of light; per-
haps this center regulates the degree of darkness of the body. At a
second level we find a neurosecretory center in that part of the brain
which is largely concerned with a comparison of direct illumination
with light reflected from the background. This center seems to be
concerned with the so-called albedo or background response. At a
third level the pattern of things seen may result in the activation of
a neurosecretory center which controls pattern—a uniform pattern
when on a background of sand or a stripy pattern amongst seaweed,
for example. And the center at the back of the brain may be con-
cerned with a total integration of all stimuli and central effects, visual
or otherwise, which may lead to a color change. Thus, prawns always
COLOR CHANGES IN ANIMALS—CARLISLE 425
develop a red tail at dusk. This can be shown to depend in no way
upon visual stimulation and to be mediated via the neurosecretory
center in the hind part of the brain, not via the centers associated with
visual input.
The ability to change color gives the animal the best of several
worlds. It can stay hidden from its enemies or prey and yet be able to
display visual signals when needed. It can use color and pattern in
sexual display, and yet not fear discovery from the prominence of
these colors when they are not in use. It can, like the cuttlefish, use
color change as a scaring device or, like the squid, use it to lay a false
trail. I have seen a squid pursued and slowly becoming darker, as it
failed to throw off its pursuer until it was almost jet black. Suddenly
it shot out a jet of ink, blowing it forward in the direction it was swim-
ming as a cigar shape about its own size. Simultaneously the squid
changed color becoming pale and almost transparent, and shot off at
right angles to its original course. Its pursuer continued after the
dark shape which was drifting along the original course while the
pale squid swam quietly away in a different direction. The ink of the
squid is no smokescreen as it is usually thought, but a decoy, much
more like the original dark squid than the suddenly pale squid it has
now become.
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History of the Corbin Preserve
By Ricnarp H. MANVILLE
Director, Bird and Mammal Laboratories, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
[With 4 plates]
In THE LATE 19th century it was fashionable for some of the new
magnates of industry and finance to establish preserves for the propa-
gation of game and for the sport it provided. Many of these pre-
serves have been neglected and have reverted to their natural state;
others have been absorbed by Federal or State agencies and are now
maintained as refuges; some have continued as private tracts, admin-
istered much as when they were established. Among the latter is the
Corbin Preserve in New Hampshire, one of the largest and most
successful of these areas—in a sense a holdover of the old European
system of game management, with the harvest a privilege of the
favored classes. It provides an interesting chapter in sociology, in
history, and in the development of wildlife management—a profession
which, as we know it today, was undreamed of in the 1890’s. The
Corbin Preserve witnessed some of the early gropings toward a scien-
tific method of handling game, replete with successes, failures, and
sometimes surprising results.
In the days before governmental agencies took an interest in these
matters, such conservation as we had was practiced by private agen-
cies. To them we owe a great debt of gratitude, for without their
efforts some of our game species might not have survived. Private
game preserves usually were developed on lands of moderate value,
where game was or might become abundant, and where it was pos-
sible to prevent trespass. Ultimately these preserves played an im-
portant role in the preservation of game, as well as in providing
recreation and diversion. At the turn of the century most of them
were still in an experimental stage, and many later were abandoned
or absorbed. But the Corbin Preserve thrived and is a going concern
today—unique in the annals of American game preserves.
Austin Corbin (1827-1896), a native of New Hampshire, went west
and became eminently successful in banking, railroads, and other
427
428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
enterprises. After retiring from business in 1886, he returned to
his boyhood home to develop a tract for wildlife on the grand scale.
In this he did amazingly well. The early years of the Corbin Pre-
serve were reported by Spears (1893) in a paper which the Smith-
sonian Institution reprinted 70 years ago in its Annual Report for
1891. The present account aims to review those early experiences and
trace the history of the tract to the present. Additional biographical
data on Corbin are included in an appendix to this article. Unfor-
tunately, his untimely death in 1896 prevented his seeing this favorite
project mature.
ESTABLISHMENT OF CORBIN PARK
Corbin selected an area a few miles north of Newport, centered
upon Croydon Mountain and falling within the townships of Cornish,
Croydon, Grantham, and Plainfield (fig. 1). Starting in 1886, Cor-
bin and his agents, under the direction of Sidney A. Stockwell, bought
up more than 350 individual parcels of land, including 60 sets of
buildings and comprising a tract of about 22,000 acres. To this, 4,000
acres more were later added. This area was then surrounded by 36
miles of elkproof fence, from 9 to 12 feet high. The fence was of
woven wire net to a height of 6 feet for keeping out cats and dogs
and keeping in small game. Above this were as many as 10 lines of
barbed wire. This fencing was secured to posts 10 feet apart, with a
pine or willow planted at each post to serve as a living replacement
when necessary. In this fashion 18 miles of fencing were erected;
only barbed wire was used the rest of the distance. The fence was
completed at a cost of $74,000. It had nine gates, at each of which
there was a keeper’s lodge; a telephone line atop the fence connected
all the keepers’ lodges with a central headquarters. The average cost
of the land was a fraction over $5 per acre.
From the start there was much resentment on the part of some local
residents to the park Corbin was developing. This resulted from the
feeling that they were being preempted by the affluent, despite the
fact that Corbin paid full value and sometimes more for the land,
and that subsequently he provided employment for more men than
could have made a living by farming the lands. From the time of its
establishment, the park has been the largest taxpayer in the town of
Cornish, and likewise has contributed heavily to the three other town-
ships of which it forms a part. Nonetheless, the antagonism has
continued, and threats to cut the fence frequently have been carried
out. An attitude of withdrawal and an avoidance of publicity have
naturally developed on the part of park personnel.
In 1888 the Corbin Park Association, with Austin Corbin as presi-
dent, was formed as a private club. In 1890 the enclosure was stocked
with about 30 bison, 140 deer, 185 elk, 35 moose, some European stags,
429
HISTORY OF CORBIN PRESERVE—MANVILLE
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430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
a few Himalayan goats, and 14 European wild boar. During Corbin’s
life the area was open to the public, but no hunting was permitted.
In time, some of the animals increased to an alarming extent and
control measures became necessary. Hunting was then allowed, but
only by club members and their guests.
Over the years, noted guests at Corbin Park included William E.
Chandler, Grover Cleveland, Herbert Hoover, Theodore Roosevelt,
Woodrow Wilson, and Edward VII, then Prince of Wales. The last,
visiting the park incognito during its early days, “was given per-
mission to shoot a bison and, to the indignation of the management,
bagged five or six” (Silver, 1957: 120). Resident inhabitants of near-
by areas included such personages as Herbert Adams, Maxfield Par-
rish, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, Ellen Shipman, and the American
writer Winston Churchill, in whose novel Coniston the central figure
was Ruel Durkee, crafty but honest political boss of Croydon.
Rudyard Kipling visited the park in the early 1890’s. In Captains
Courageous he described Austin Corbin, in the person of Slatin Bee-
man, in these words: “Slatin Beeman he owns ’baout every railroad
on Long Island, they say, an’ they say he’s bought *baout ha’af Noo
Hampshire an’ run a line fence around her, an’ filled her up with lions
an’ tigers an’ bears an’ buffalo an’ crocodiles an’ such all. Slatin
Beeman he’s a millionaire.”
In 1896 Corbin died almost at the gate of his own park, in a carriage
accident caused by a runaway horse. After his death the game pre-
serve, in 1899, became a limited-membership proprietary club, the
Blue Mountain Forest Association, which still operates as an exclusive
hunting club. The initial lease was for 5 years, and members were
mostly men from New York, Boston, and Washington, D.C. The New
Hampshire Legislature, in an act incorporating the association, made
special provisions for the protection of the game in the park (Palmer,
1910). These provisions remain in force today.
NATURE OF THE AREA
The Corbin tract was described by Spears (1893) as “unbroken
forest that covered hills and valleys and surrounded little lakes,
forests of birch and beech, maple and pine, spruce and hemlock, and
balsam.” The lands rise from 960 feet elevation at the southeast to
the two dominant summits, Croydon Peak (2,781) and Grantham
Mountain (2,661 feet). Included are four ponds, the two largest of
20 and 380 acres, and over 50 miles of trout streams (pl. 1). Drainage
is into the Connecticut River, via Mill Brook, Blow-me-down Brook,
and the Sugar River.
Settlers have cleared and worked some of these lands since colonial
times, but the soil is thin and rocky, the topography rough, and the
area is no longer productive for agriculture. When the park was
HISTORY OF CORBIN PRESERVE—MANVILLE 431
established, “approximately one-third of the range was in open fields
and pasture, with the balance in timber” (Silver, 1957: 119). Old
orchards and vineyards persisted as reminders of earlier farms;
remains of lumber camps, timber chutes, and sawmills attested to
earlier logging operations. Baynes (1931) tells of Shropshire sheep,
Angora goats, and other animals still roaming at large in the sum-
mer, and being kept in barns or pens during the winter months.
A reconnaissance of the area in 1940 by Neil W. Hosley (cited by
Silver, 1957: 122) disclosed three main types of forest on the tract:
(1) Northern hardwoods of maples (Acer spp.), birches (Betula spp.)
and beech(Fagus grandifolia) ; (2) red spruce (Picea rubra) and fir
(Abies balsamea); and (8) white pine (Pinus strobus), with oc-
casional red pine (P. vesinosa) and pitch pine (P. rigida). Small
stands of other species include hemlock (7Z7'suga canadensis), white
cedar (Thuja occidentalis), aspen (Populus tremuloides), and oaks
(Quercus spp.).
Much timber was cut and sold soon after Corbin’s death. The
winter of 1897 was unusually severe, and many ell and other game
animals perished. The most destructive agency to affect the pre-
serve was the hurricane of September 21, 1938, which flattened about
one-third of the merchantable stands of white pine (Silver, 1957:
124). Some 50 acres of salvage cuttings soon grew up to striped
maple (Acer pennsylvanicum), raspberry and blackberry (ubus
spp.). A serious fire in 1953 burned about 2,000 acres, but was
largely confined to steep, rocky slopes.
Weather conditions at the Corbin Preserve are best represented
by the 40-year records at Hanover, approximately 15 miles to the
north. These are summarized in Climate and Man (U.S. Dept. Agric.
Yearbook, 1941: 990) by the following average figures: January tem-
perature, 18.1° F.; July temperature, 68.8; maximum, 101; minimum,
—87; growing season, 129 days between May 22 and September 28;
annual precipitation, 35.52 inches, rather evenly distributed through-
out the year.
ORIGINAL INTRODUCTIONS
Corbin’s intention was to bring together at his preserve “all the
animals of the world that can live there harmoniously.” There was
to be no hunting at the start, nor was the park designed with this
in mind. Neither was it planned primarily for scientific research,
though it soon became apparent that it might well provide useful
data on the habits of the various animals. For the present account of
the procurement of the original stock we are indebted to Spears
(1893), who reported that “Here ... are gathered 25 buffalo, 60
elk, over 70 deer, half a dozen each of caribou and antelope, 18 wild
boars imported from Germany, and an unknown number of moose—
432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
perhaps a dozen. He had 4 reindeer brought from Labrador, but all
died.”
As an agent to supervise gathering animals from Canada, Corbin
selected Thomas H. Ryan, who had served him in various capacities
for many years. Ryan departed in October 1890 with orders to get
“any wild animals there except bears, panthers, wolves, and foxes.”
At Megantic, Quebec, arrangements were made with one Dan Ball to
procure the deer. In December, with snow 5 feet deep, Ball and six
others proceeded on snowshoes to a deeryard. The deer were ap-
proached as closely as possible without alarming them. Then, with
a wild yell and the blast of a gun loaded with powder only, the deer
were scattered. In the ensuing panic, the deer floundered in the
fluffy snow and were easily taken, and their legs were bound with
buckskin thongs. Twelve were thus captured, and in January they
boarded a boxcar on the Canadian Pacific and Ryan escorted them to
Newport. One died en route, and two others after arrival, but the
rest remained in good condition.
At Mattawa, Ontario, a trapper contracted to supply, if possible,
at least 20 each of moose, deer, and beaver. Moose, elk, and caribou,
captured along the Canadian border, were procured in Minnesota.
The bison derived from Montana stock, but were purchased in Min-
nesota. They were shipped East in the care of cowboys who unloaded
them at Newport and herded them the 5 miles or so to the preserve.
The last rail consignment, 4 days in transit, consisted of 16 moose, 3
deer, and 1 caribou. All arrived in good condition, but 8 moose later
died; it was thought that their death was attributable to changes in
their water or diet. On another occasion, with a load of 30 deer
aboard, a collision with another train killed 22 outright, and 4 others
succumbed later.
The source of 125 mule deer and 30 pronghorns is not a matter of
record. The latter failed to survive the rigorous New Hampshire
winter, and the former persisted for only a few years. The caribou
died for lack of proper food. The elk, deer, bison, and remaining
moose did well, all producing young the following year. Wild boars
were imported from Germany in September 1891, and did well from
the start. Details of the procurement of other exotic species (red deer,
Himalayan goats, and pheasant) are incomplete or lacking. In table
1 are assembled such data as are available from scattered sources.
These sources are not always in complete agreement as to numbers;
where discrepancies exist, the smaller figure is cited.
MANAGEMENT OF THE PRESERVE
Soon after raising the fence around the preserve, work began on
improving the roads. A large force worked at this for two or three
years. The marginal road was repaired, with stone watering troughs
433
HISTORY OF CORBIN PRESERVE—MANVILLE
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434. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
every 4 miles; about 15 miles of interior roads were built; a swamp was
drained for a roadway to the Central Station (Corbin, 1893). Some
of the old farm buildings were remodeled, and other cottages were
constructed for keepers. Several fenced areas were established within
the preserve. No. 1, or the Central Station (pl. 2), was an area of
about 100 acres of pastures and woodlands; here were built the main
clubhouse, dormitories for workmen, barns and pens for some of the
stock in winter, stables, kennels, and other buildings. No. 2 was an
area of 30 acres; this was a holding area for new stock, principally
bison, until it was ascertained they were in good health and otherwise
desirable. They then were transferred to area No. 3, of 1,800 acres,
where they were bred to demonstrate that their offspring were up to
standard, after which they were turned into the main preserve
(Baynes, 1931: 72).
In London in 1890 Corbin had purchased 20,000 hawthorn trees.
Two varieties—white and black hawthorn—were used extensively
in British and French game parks; growing to 10 feet in height they
were the toughest and strongest trees available. In the spring of 1892,
4,000 of these were planted at Corbin Park, some of them immediately
inside the marginal fence, to eventually replace it as it weathered
and to form a living hedge strong enough to secure the buffalo and
other large animals. Chestnuts (Castanea dentata) were planted to
provide food for the boars.
At the turn of the century the Corbin Preserve was the largest and
one of the best-equipped game preserves in the United States, and con-
siderably larger than similar establishments in Europe (Palmer,
1910). Fifteen or more wardens were employed; several men were
occupied hunting foxes and other predators; Corbin planned to secure
a forester from Germany to supervise cutting timber. Many early
records are lacking or unavailable, but there persist a few names of
managers and superintendents of the tract. The first “chief” was
Blaine 8. Viles, from Maine. “Long Tom” Currier, also from Maine,
was a superintendent in the early days; Sidney A. Stockwell served
in this capacity in 1899. Forest W. Kempton was a hunter and guide,
and “Billie” Morrison was the keeper of buffalo, about 1900. Ernest
Harold Baynes (1868-1925), writer and naturalist who in 1911 estab-
lished the Meriden Bird Sanctuary in Plainfield, was long associated
with the Corbin Preserve. A. H. Currier was the manager until 1957,
when he was succeeded by Maurice L. Nelson, who still occupies the
post.
Much attention was devoted to the bison (pl. 3). Corbin once con-
sidered crossing them with Galloway cattle, to secure a superior beef
animal, but this was not accomplished. Baynes experimented at break-
ing them to yoke, but never achieved notable success. No bison was
kept if there was any suspicion that it was not in perfect condition.
HISTORY OF CORBIN PRESERVE—MANVILLE 435
Asa result, “The Corbin herd was at one time considered the finest and
largest herd of pure-blooded buffaloes in the world” (Baynes, 1931:
75). Salt licks were provided for the bison, deer, and elk. AI] winter
long corn was fed to the boars. Hay and bran were put out where
the animals could get them when needed. An efficient system for
patrolling the boundary was instituted. In 1891 the ponds were
cleaned out, many eels “and other varieties of cannibalistic fish” were
destroyed, and trout were introduced (Spears, 1893).
Many of the introduced animals soon became acclimated and multi-
plied. By 1891, 10 of the bison cows were in calf; the elk herd had
increased by 50 percent; 6 of the moose dropped young. Gamekeepers
reported three or four different herds of wild boars. Within a few
years it was estimated there were as many as 4,000 of these introduced
species within the Park, and many of them were sold (Squires, 1956).
Needless to say, the situation was becoming impossible, even on a tract
of this size.
Baynes (1931: 126) has vividly described conditions as they existed
in 1904: “Going through this hardwood belt the most striking thing,
perhaps, was the total absence of young growth. Not a single sapling
was to be seen—not a single seedling; the animals had accounted for
them all. And so it is throughout this vast preserve; scarcely a hard-
wood seedling anywhere. No doubt, no end of nuts and seeds are
eaten up by the wild boars, but those that are left to sprout can
scarcely put out a leaf before it is nipped off by some passing deer or
elk. Nor is this condition limited to the deciduous trees; there is
practically no young growth of any species whatever that serves as
a browse for the animals I have mentioned. That is to say there are
no young balsams or hemlocks, for instance, but the spruces and the
white pines, not being eaten by the deer and elk, spring up and grow
like weeds in every clearing.”
Systematic thinning out of the population was necessary, and shoot-
ing, particularly of the deer, seemed the only practical solution. It
was recognized that this was necessary, especially in a fenced area
such as the Corbin Preserve, or overcrowding would soon lead to
deaths from hunger, degeneration, and disease. Many animals were
disposed of to zoological parks and other institutions; as late as the
1940’s many deer were sold for meat.
Predation has never been too serious a problem on the preserve. Red
foxes, bobcats, and an occasional Canada lynx were present in the
early days. Hunters were employed to control them; bloodhounds
and foxhounds were imported, but were unsatisfactory for the purpose,
and took to chasing deer instead. Gray foxes and black bears, able
to cross through or over the fence, introduced themselves. In the
unusually deep snow of 1949-50, bobcats killed 22 deer (Silver, 1957:
120). More recently, wild dogs have made their way into the pre-
436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
serve. Spreading from the Adirondacks and Vermont, coyotes have
invaded New England (Pringle, 1960). In the winter of 1959-60,
wild canids were thought to have killed 19 deer in Corbin’s Park, 11
of them within 9 days in February. One 39-pound male was trapped
and killed; its skull was examined and resembled most closely that
of a police dog. A litter of five pups, their eyes not yet opened, were
found and raised in captivity; at 5 months they weighed 30 pounds
apiece. ‘There has been much speculation as to whether these wild
canids are “‘wolves, coy-wolves, coyotes, coy-dogs, or wolf-dogs” (Ran-
dolph, 1960)—or just feral domestic dogs. During the winter of 1961-
62, four or five wild canids were thought to be in the area, and were
charged with killing 22 deer in the preserve.
For a period just before 1946 the park was privately owned, but
much of it fell into decay. It was later reorganized, again as the
Blue Mountain Forest Association, with membership limited to 30.
No dues were assessed, but expenses were shared in proportion to the
number of membership certificates held (1 to 4 per person). An open
season was set from September 15 to January 15; hunters were as-
signed to one of several marked areas; a tract about 1 mile in diameter
around the Central Station was maintained as a sanctuary. Bag
limits were determined just before the hunting season. Each member
might invite as many guests as he chose, but the game taken was pro-
rated among the members according to the number of certificates each
held (Silver, 1957: 123).
INTRODUCED SPECIES
In the following accounts, information has been freely appropri-
ated from scattered sources. Most useful were the general references
(see Literature Cited) in publications by Baynes (1931), Champollion
(1899), Child (1910, 1: 216-219), Corbin (1893), Palmer (1910),
Siegler (1962), Silver (1957), Spears (1893), Squires (1956, 2: 524),
and Woodbury (1960). Because of frequent use, these references are
not individually acknowledged throughout. Those of more limited
scope, however, are cited where applicable.
Brook trout, Salvelinus fontinalis—In 1891, after attempts to clear
out undesirable fish, trout were introduced into several of the ponds
and streams.
Largemouth bass, Aficropterus salmoides——According to Champol-
lion, black bass were stocked in Governor’s Pond in the early days of
the park.
Bobwhite quail, Colinus virginianus.—About 500 were introduced in
1890, but failed to survive their second year.
Ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus—Chinese pheasants
were liberated at the preserve in the early years, and soon became es-
tablished. Some of the farmlands were planted to buckwheat to carry
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Manville PLATE 1
So a —E <1 y |
Cy ee hd
1. General view of the Corbin Preserve from the southeast; Croydon Mountain in the
background. From Palmer (1910).
2. Mountain Marsh at the north end of the preserve. From Baynes (1931).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Manville PLATE 2
1. The Central Station, with clubhouse and other buildings, in the southern section of the
preserve. From Palmer (1910).
se RR La
. b8A
tien a
2. Cleared lands in the northwest section of the preserve. From Palmer (1910).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Manville PEASE Ss
1. The bison herd in winter quarters. From Baynes (1931).
2. One of the large bull bison on the range. From Baynes (1931).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Manville PLATE 4
1. A young wild boar in the forest. From Baynes (1931).
2. Boundary line and one entrance to the Corbin Preserve, photographed in 1904 by Baynes
From Garretson (1938).
HISTORY OF CORBIN PRESERVE—MANVILLE 437
the birds over the winter. The success of this release encouraged the
State in 1895 to undertake a program of introducing exotic game birds.
New Hampshire, however, has never been well suited to pheasants;
overwintering birds still require supplemental annual stocking to pro-
vide a huntable population.
Beaver, Castor canadensis——Beaver had earlier been extirpated in
the area. One pair was introduced, and soon caused damage to timber
for a mile back from one stream. Corbin, however, decided to keep
them, and the species still exists in the park.
Wild boar, Sus scrofa—A dozen European boar, from the Black
Forest of Germany, were purchased from Carl Hagenbeck of Ham-
burg. One died on the high seas, and the other 11 were released on
the preserve in 1889. By 1891 they had increased to three or four
herds, seen simultaneously at different localities by the gamekeepers.
Several writers speak of two lots of introduced boar, one of them
the larger, darker Russian race. Squires speaks of 14 and Spears of
18, in the early years; it is possible that some Russian stock, probably
from the Ural Mountains, comprised the lot received in September
1891. Certainly free interbreeding soon obscured any racial differ-
ences. By the autumn of 1896 they numbered not less than 500. There
was a failure of the beech crop that year, and the boar were not arti-
ficially fed during the winter of 1896-97; all but 50 of them perished.
Thereafter they recovered satisfactorily and reached an estimated
population of 500 by 1903.
The boar took naturally to the forests of the preserve where—except
for the corn they are fed in winter—they live off the land (pl.4). Per-
haps their rooting for food and destruction of insects contribute some-
what to the productivity of the soil. In winter they build large nests
of boughs or grass, resembling huge bird nests, where several may
sleep together or where the young may be born. Their habits are de-
scribed in some detail by Baynes (1923). In Corbin’s day they were
hunted from horseback with javelins, and were tracked with Austrian
boarsetters. In 1917, when staging its first municipal winter carnival,
the town of Newport featured a boar hunt on the preserve (Mahoney,
1959). Hunting, with prescribed bag limits and a 4-month open sea-
son, is the chief population control in the park. From 1948-55 a total
of 317 were taken, the largest number (79) in the 1951-52 season. A
boar hunt in the surrounding country is described by Lineaweaver
(1955).
An unknown number of boar escaped soon after the park was estab-
lished, and persisted in the adjoining country, where they constitute
a hazard to crops. Still others escaped after the hurricane of 1938,
and a loose population exists within a radius of about 15 miles of the
preserve. In 1955, one was shot across the Connecticut River in Hart-
land, Vt. (Angwin, 1955), and another near Danbury, N.H. The State
720—-018—64——30
438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
legislature in 1949 passed an act encouraging capture and killing of
wild boars, and fixing responsibility for property damage by them.
Outside of the preserve, they may be hunted without limit at any
season; a license is required, and hunting at night is not permitted.
The reported kills outside the preserve in recent years have been as
follows: 25 in 1958, 20 in 1959, 12 in 1960,and3in 1961. This isa sport
for the rugged, and relatively few attempt it.
American elk, Cervus canadensis—Sixty were introduced from
northern Minnesota in 1891. They did well from the first, and were
said to have increased by 50 percent after a year; at one time they were
estimated at 1,000. “Many perished during the severe winter of 1897,
and in 1903 the estimated number was only 300” (Palmer, 1910). The
elk—particularly the cows—soon became nearly as tame as cattle;
furthermore, they provided serious competition for the deer’s fodder,
and were not considered desirable on the preserve. However, they
have persisted to the present.
In 1903, Corbin presented eight cows and four bulls to the State for
release by the Andover Fish and Game Club. In time, they caused
damage to orchards and other croplands. Concerning restoration
efforts in the Adirondacks of New York, Seton (1929, 3:17) notes that
in March 1906, “We obtained from Austin Corbin 26 Wapiti, which
were successfully released.” In 1933, 2 more bulls and 10 cows were
released on the Pillsbury Reservation, in Washington and Goshen
townships, New Hampshire, where they increased. The hurricane of
1938 leveled many fences, permitting the escape of elk which still range
the surrounding country. Elk records in Vermont since this time have
been attributed to wandering individuals from this herd (Foote, 1944).
Red deer, Cervus elaphus—Five were originally imported from
England, and six more in 1895. The population in 1898 numbered 14,
of which only 2 were known to be hinds. The stags were suspected
of breeding with elk cows, and six supposed hybrids were noted. A
few red deer persisted until 1908, and then they disappeared.
Mule deer, Odocoileus hemionus.—Several writers mention black-
tailed and mule deer among the early introductions, but their source
isnotstated. Apparently they soon disappeared. Whether they were
absorbed by the increasing population of white-tailed deer, or repre-
sent a case of mistaken identity, may never be known.
White-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus.—Native deer had disap-
peared from the region long before the establishment of the park. In
1891, Corbin imported over 70 from near the northern Minnesota
border and from Ontario and Quebec. The first shipment evoked
much interest when unloaded at the Newport railhead, for none of the
local residents had ever seen a deer alive (L. M., 1959). As would be
expected, they did extremely well. Within a few years they numbered
250 and, according to some estimates, surpassed 1,000 by the turn of the
HISTORY OF CORBIN PRESERVE—MANVILLE 439
century ; 500 were estimated in the park in 1908. Hunting was done,
but was too slight to hold the population in check.
The history of the area is obscure for several decades. Deer and
other ungulates increased; browse lines developed on striped maples
and other preferred food plants; ground hemlock disappeared. Sup-
plemental foods were provided. In 1940, the deer population was
estimated by the park manager at from 1,000 to 1,200—a minimum
population density of one deer to 25 acres. This number had remained
fairly constant for about 10 years, with an annual kill of about 100
deer, which were said to be in good condition. The preserve may still
be overpopulated, but attempts are made to provide for the surplus.
Food plots are planted with mixtures of rye, buckwheat, clover, tur-
nips, and carrots; salt licks are provided; openings are cut in the wood-
land to provide browse; supplementary rations are provided for deer
and boar—17 tons of corn were distributed by plane during the winter
of 1952-58. From 1948-54, inclusive, a total of 575 deer were har-
vested. In 1956, the kill was 156, or about 3.9 per square mile.
Moose, Alces alces—Sixteen moose from the Canadian border of
Minnesota originally reached the preserve, but eight later died. Corbin
continued picking them up, but also losing them. One carload of 15
all died, for lack of understanding of their habits. In 1892, Corbin
estimated that he had 25 or 30. Spears states that later shipments,
plus births, brought the number up to 60—Champollion says 200!
Further efforts to establish them were abandoned after a few years
(Merrill, 1916: 36), but actually they persisted until about 1940, when
the last of them died of starvation.
Barren-ground caribou, Rangifer arcticus—Four “reindeer” were
brought from Labrador in 1890, but all soon died.
Woodland caribou, Rangifer caribou—A small herd (about six)
from northern Minnesota was imported in 1890, but soon died off for
lack of suitable food.
Roe deer, Capreolus capreolus—Champollion states that “roebuck
also were put in, but died probably on account of the severe New
Hampshire winters.” No other details are available. This was a
popular game species in Europe, and introductions were attempted
at other places at about this time, some of them with fair success
(Manville, 1957).
Pronghorn, Antilocapra americana.—Six antelopes were introduced
in 1890, but their exact source is not recorded. They apparently sur-
vived for a few years, but then succumbed to the rigorous winter
climate.
Bison, Bison bison.—In 1851, Corbin had seen “one hundred thou-
sand buffaloes at one time” on the Western plains. The great herds
of these shaggy animals numbered perhaps 60 million in the early
1800’s. “By 1883 they were practically gone, and by 1900 only 20
440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
wild bison were known to exist” (Anon., 1955). Corbin procured his
original stock prior to 1890, “three or four in Wyoming, and a dozen
in Manitoba, etc.” In 1888 he purchased six male and six female
calves from Col. Charles J. “Buffalo” Jones, who had just acquired
them from the Sam I. Bedson herd at Winnipeg. In 1892 he purchased
two male and eight female 5-year-olds, at $1,000 each, from Jones;
these were captured in 1888 from the last wild herd in the Texas Pan-
handle (Garretson, 1988: 219). By 1898 Corbin had about 75, “prob-
ably the largest herd in the world” (Champollion, 1889). They
avoided the forested tracts of the preserve, foraged in the cleared lands
in summer, and were fed on hay in the pens at the Central Station in
winter. The bison herd gradually increased, and by 1908 numbered
about 165.
In the fall of 1896 Corbin loaned 25 bison to the City of New York.
They were shipped, in the care of Billie Morrison, to a 100-acre pasture
in Van Cortlandt Park. Presently two or three sickened and died,
presumably from gastroenteritis. In 1897 the balance of the herd,
except for two that were left in New York, were returned to the Corbin
Preserve. Three or four died en route, and the rest of the group were
kept isolated from the original herd, However, they never recovered
completely, and ultimately nearly the whole group died, despite the
attentions of Morrison and Stockwell (Garretson, 1938 : 76).
Starting in 1898, many bison were sold or donated for various pur-
poses, both in this country and abroad. The bull “Cleveland” was
sold about 1898 to William C. Whitney for his October Mountain
preserve near Lenox, Mass.; this was one of the original wild
calves captured by Jones in the Texas Panhandle in 1888, but he proved
to be very vicious. In 1901 Whitney presented him to the New York
Zoological Park, which later contributed to the nucleus herds on the
Wichita (Oklahoma) and Wind Cave (South Dakota) National Game
Preserves. In 1911 Corbin sold a male and a female, and in 1914 a
bull and a heifer, to Gen. Harry C. Trexler for his game preserve near
Allentown, Pa.
In 1905 the American Bison Society, an active and effective organi-
zation in the preservation of bison and other North American big
game, was established in New York; Ernest Harold Baynes, long
affiliated with Corbin, was the first Secretary (B. B. Holden, 1959).
Under the impetus of this Society, and with the active interest of
Theodore Roosevelt, William T. Hornaday, and others, Congress
appropriated funds for the Wichita National Wildlife Refuge (1906),
the National Bison Range in Montana (1908), and the Wind Cave
National Park (1913). To these Government-owned herds Corbin con-
tributed by frequent and generous donations. In 1910, a bull and two
cows were given to the National Bison Range herd. In 1915, three
males and three females were offered for establishing a nucleus herd
HISTORY OF CORBIN PRESERVE—MANVILLE 441
on the Pisgah National Game Preserve, in North Carolina; delivery
was not accomplished until January 1919, due to wartime transporta-
tion problems (Garretson, 1938: 208,210).
As these other herds increased, it was deemed advisable to reduce the
Corbin stock to a permanent herd of about 25 head. Actually, the
Corbin herd numbered 86 in 1911; 78 (41 males, 37 females) in 1913;
and 96 (46 males, 40 females, 10 young) in 1918 (Amer. Bison Soc.,
1918, 1918). Reference is made to an apparent change in the stature
and character of the Corbin bison, which were perhaps 10 percent
larger than normal, attributed to the excellent conditions on their
range. Gradually the herd was allowed to dwindle. Numbers in the
last years (H. H. T. Jackson, 1944; and Fish and Wildlife Service
files) were 21 in 1937, 26 in 1938, 22 in 1939, 15 in 1940, and 6 in 1941.
By this time the remaining bison were in an almost domestic condition.
Contagious abortion, later identified as brucellosis, became prevalent,
and the herd was destroyed. It was not until after an 18-month hunt,
however, that the last one was shot in 1945.
Himalayan tahr, Hemitragus jemlahicus.—The “few” Himalayan
goats originally introduced were probably of this species, though
they may have been Siberian ibex, Capra ibex, and Champollion
speaks in passing of about six “European goats or chamois.” There
appears to be no record of their origin or of their ultimate fate.
Certainly they disappeared soon after their original release on the
preserve.
Bighorn, Ovis canadensis—Champollion intimates that bighorn
sheep were introduced, but “also failed.” No other record gives a
hint as to their source or numbers or the circumstances of their brief
sojourn at the Corbin Preserve.
OTHER WILDLIFE
General accounts of the native wildlife of this area have been pre-
sented by Baynes (1931), Siegler (1962), and Silver (1957). The
wood duck (Az# sponsa), ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus), turkey
(Meleagris gallopavo), woodcock (Philohela minor), and upland
plover (Bartramia longicauda) were the principal game birds in the
early days, though most were reduced before the establishment of
the Corbin Preserve. There was little suitable habitat here for
waterfowl.
Native game mammals included the snowshoe hare (Lepus ameri-
canus), cottontail (Sylvilagus transitionalis), gray squirrel (Sccurus
carolinensis), and black bear (Ursus americanus). Among important
furbearers were the beaver (Castor canadensis), muskrat (Ondatra
2zibethicus), red fox (Vulpus fulva), gray fox (Urocyon cinereoargen-
teus), raccoon (Procyon lotor), marten (Martes americana), fisher
(Martes pennanti), mink (Mustela vison), striped skunk (Mephitis
442 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
mephitis), otter (Lutra canadensis), Canada lynx (Lynw canadensis),
and bobcat (Lynx rufus). Besides the coyote (Canis latrans), pre-
viously mentioned, and the various species intentionally introduced,
the opossum (Didelphis marsupialis) made its way into the area (R.
P. Holden, 1959) early in the century.
As was so often the case in the early days of colonization, the
larger game mammals and predators were the first to be reduced.
The white-tailed deer disappeared until reintroduced by Corbin.
Woodland caribou and moose were apparently never common (Good-
win, 1986; C. F. Jackson, 1922). The cougar (felis concolor) and
wolf (Canis lupus) are now gone (Cram, 1925; R. P. Holden, 1959),
and the Canada lynx and black bear are rarities.
DISCUSSION
Of the 14 species of mammals which were introduced, four—the
beaver, boar, elk, and deer—now remain on the Corbin Preserve.
Except for the boar, all the exotics were destroyed or died out—mute
testimony to the need for ecological information before embarking on
a transplanting program. In 1962, it is estimated there are over
200 elk, upward of 250 boar, and at least 500 deer on the area.
Beavers remain, and bears, foxes, and bobcats climb over or through
the fences. The principal other game species are ruffed grouse and
snowshoe hares. Most of the game is artificially fed during the
winter; sacks of feed are dropped from airplanes into clearings for
the boar. Fields are mowed to keep them open for grazing. Food
patches are planted for wildlife.
Almost from the start, “No rare, exotic, or purely imaginative beast
has been too strange to have ‘escaped from Corbin’s Park’” (Silver,
1957: 122). Elk, moose, and wild boar, derived from the preserve,
still roam a considerable surrounding area. Corbin also provided
the state with game for stocking purposes. It was through his ex-
ample and recommendation that pheasants were introduced to New
Hampshire. His experiments in breeding and keeping bison in cap-
tivity were almost unique in his time.
Today, over 70 years since its establishment, the Corbin Preserve
still maintains its integrity as a private hunting area. Speaking of
this and other parks, Young (1956: 18) writes that “the record of
deer parks, when maintained solely for private gain, is with few
exceptions that of financial failure.” The Corbin Preserve is no ex-
ception—but then it was not intended as a financial investment. Its
profits lay elsewhere—in the recreational enjoyment it provided, in
its contributions to conservation, and to the economy of its community.
With reference to the Corbin bison herd, Trefethen (1961: 94) states
that it “expanded rapidly and assumed great importance in the later
restoration efforts.” Indeed, this sentiment was expressed nearly 60
HISTORY OF CORBIN PRESERVE—MANVILLE 443
years ago by Corbin’s longtime friend, Ernest Harold Baynes (1931:
120), as follows: “The thought came to me that, of all the works of
the late Mr. Austin Corbin, the preservation of that herd of bison was
the one that would earn his country’s deepest gratitude. . . . His ex-
periment led to the founding of the American Bison Society, and was
connected, directly or otherwise, with the formation of some of our
National Parks.”
APPENDIX
With the thought that the development of the Corbin Preserve
might be better understood by an insight into its founder’s back-
ground, further biographical notes are presented here.
In the small town of Newport, Sullivan County, N.H., Austin
Corbin was born in 1827 to a family of modest circumstances.
Here he grew up, went through grade school, and worked in local
sawmills as roller, scaler, and sawyer. Intent upon greater things,
in 1846 he departed for Boston and work as a shopkeeper. With his
savings, supplemented by earnings as a clerk in Boston stores, he
worked his way through Harvard Law School, and in 1849 began
practice in partnership with Ralph Metcalf, later Governor of New
Hampshire. Then, in 1851, with his younger brother Daniel (who
later pioneered as a banker and railroad man in the Pacific North-
west), he went to Iowa. At Davenport he soon abandoned the law,
speculated in land, and with money saved he organized a private
bank.
This was a time of wildcat banks throughout the expanding West.
The financial bubble burst with the Panic of 1857, but Corbin’s bank
was one of the few to survive. The First National Bank of Daven-
port received the first charter granted under the National Banking
Act of 1863, and soon became one of the leaders in the field. But
Corbin was still restless. He returned to New York and established
the firm of Austin Corbin & Company, private bankers, which flour-
ished at Broadway and John Street. He helped finance recreational
developments on Long Island, and developed Manhattan Beach and
Coney Island, including the building of two hotels. Railroading
attracted him and he ministered to the Long Island Railroad, which
was ailing even then. He later was active with the Philadelphia and
Reading, ultimately becoming its president. He explored the pos-
sibilities of a subway system for metropolitan New York, but in the
1880’s this was still premature. He seriously considered developing
the extreme eastern end of Long Island as a steamship terminus,
considerably lessening the traveltime to Europe, but this scheme was
forestalled by his death.
In 1853, Corbin married Hannah M. Wheeler, of Croydon. The
couple had five children—three daughters born in Davenport and
444 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
two sons born in Brooklyn, N.Y. The oldest daughter married
a Frenchman, René Champollion. They made their home in Paris,
and had one child, André. Asa young student in an American college,
André visited the Corbin Preserve and, for a class in English compo-
sition, wrote a series of naive but enlightening essays about it which
were published in 1899. In later years this grandson became a di-
rector of the preserve. Corbin’s first son lived but a few years. His
second son, Austin, Jr., succeeded his father in his banking and other
business interests, and also in the administration of the preserve.
The elder Corbin made his home at a fenced woodland estate on
Long Island. In 1885 a friend presented him with a few young deer,
which he kept because of the interest of his son, Austin, Jr., though
he himself was not then a sportsman or anaturalist. The deer thrived,
and presently there were added antelope, elk, and bison. In addition,
Corbin had 25 elk in a 10-acre enclosure at Manhattan Beach; but the
land was insufficient. Corbin was interested not in pets or do-
mesticated animals, but in wild creatures. He had observed the
vanishing of the bison from the Iowa plains and he resolved that at
least some of them should be preserved for posterity. In 1886 he re-
turned to Newport to devote his remaining years to what became more
than a passionate hobby.
In speaking of philanthropy and conservation, Udall (1961) has this
to say: “On looking back over the history of conservation it is sur-
prising how much of our total accomplishment is attributable to quiet
men from private life who at crucial moments have provided the needed
inspiration and wherewithal.” Austin Corbin was such a man, though
perhaps “quiet” is not altogether appropriate. A contemporary,
William H. Child (1910, 1: 314), described him in these words: “His
robust and active mind, his keen intelligence, his indomitable will, his
rugged independence and self-reliance made him a natural leader of
men. Whatever he did, was done with his whole strength. He de-
voted his talents to the accomplishment of worthy objects. His mis-
sion was to build up, and not destroy. Aggressive, masterful, and
fearless as he was, he also possessed the gentler traits of a genial man-
ner, a hearty honesty, and kindly and generous disposition which
endeared him to all his associates.”
LITERATURE CITED
AMERICAN BISON SOCIETY.
1918. Sixth annual report, 61 pp. Brooklyn, N.Y.
1918. Twelfth annual report, 387 pp. Brooklyn, N.Y.
ANGWIN, PERO.
1955. What comes naturally. Outdoor Life, vol. 115, No. 5, p. 28.
ANONYMOUS.
1955. The National Bison Range. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Refuge
Leaflet No. 12, 4 pp.
HISTORY OF CORBIN PRESERVE—MANVILLE 445
BAYNES, ERNEST HAROLD.
1923. Tusker—a wild boar. Nature Magazine, vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 91-92, 106.
1931. Wild life in the Blue Mountain Forest. 140 pp. Macmillan, New
York. (Reprint of articles originally published in the Boston
Transcript, 1904.)
CHAMPOLLION, A. C.
1899. Blue Mountain Forest and its animals. 177 pp. privately published.
CHILD, WILLIAM H.
1910. History of the town of Cornish, New Hampshire, with genealogical
record, 1763-1910. 2 vols. Rumford Press, Concord, N.H.
CorBIN, AUSTIN.
1893. Statements at a conference, called by the Forestry Commission of
New Hampshire, at the Senate Chamber, November 22, 1892.
Pp. 107-116 in Second report of the Forestry Commission of New
Hampshire: January Session, 1898. Concord, N.H.
CRAM, WILLIAM EVERETT.
1925. Notes on New England carnivores. Journ. Mamm., vol. 6, No. 3, p. 199.
Foote, LEONARD E.
1944. A history of wild game in Vermont. Vermont Fish and Game Serv-
ice, State Bull. No. 11, 51 pp.
GARRETSON, Martin §8.
1988. The American bison: the story of its extermination as a wild species
and its restoration under federal protection. 254 pp. New York
Zoological Society, New York.
GoopwIn, GEORGE G.
1986. Big game animals in the northeastern United States. Journ. Mamm.,
vol. 17, No. 1, pp. 48-50.
HOLDEN, BARBARA B.
1959. Baynes fought to save the bison. Newport (N.H.) Argus-Champion,
Summer Show Book Sec., p. 9.
HOLDEN, RAYMOND P.
1959. The ’possum is a tourist. Newport (N.H.) Argus-Champion, Summer
Show Book Sec., p. 48.
JACKSON, C. F.
1922. Notes on New Hampshire mammals. Journ. Mamm., vol. 3, No. 1,
pp. 13-15.
JACKSON, HARTLEY H. T.
1944. Big-game resources of the United States, 19387-1942. U.S. Fish and
Wildlife Service, Research Report No. 8, 56 pp.
L. M.
1959. Corbin Park. Newport (N.H.) Argus-Champion, Summer Show Book
Sec., pp. 17-19.
LINEAWEAVER, THOMAS H.
1955. This is New Hampshire? Outdoor Life, vol. 116, No. 5, pp. 54-55,
85-88.
MAHONEY, NICHOLAS J., JR.
1959. Editorial comment. Newport (N.H.) Argus-Champion, Summer Show
Book Sec., p. 1. '
MANVILLE, RIcHARD H.
1957. Roe deer in New York. Journ. Mamm., vol. 38, No. 3, p. 422.
MERRILL, SAMUEL.
1916. The moose book: facts and stories from northern forests. 3866 pp.
Dutton, New York.
446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
PALMER, T.S.
1910. Private game preserves and their future in the United States. U.S.
Dept. Agric., Bur. Biol. Surv., Cire. No. 72, 11 pp.
PRINGLE, LAURENCE P.
1960. Notes on coyotes in southern New England. Journ. Mamm., vol. 41,
No. 2, p. 278.
RANDOLPH, JOHN W.
1960. Fresh light shed on wildlife mystery by incidents in New Hampshire.
The New York Times, August 21, See. 5, p. S5.
SETON, ERNEST THOMPSON.
1929. Lives of game animals. 4 vols. Doubleday, Garden City, N.Y.
SIEGLER, HILBERT R.
1962. New Hampshire nature notes. 317 pp. Equity, Orford, N.H.
SILVER, HELENETTE.
1957. A history of New Hampshire game and furbearers. New Hampshire
Fish and Game Dept., Survey Report No. 6, 466 pp.
SPEARS, JOHN R.
1893. The Corbin Game Park. Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Inst. for 1891, pp.
417-423. (Reprinted from Forest and Stream, March 12, 1891
and May 26, 1892.)
Squires, JAMES DUANE.
1956. The Granite State of the United States: a history of New Hamp-
shire from 1623 to the present. 4 vols. New York.
TREFETHEN, JAMES B.
1961. Crusade for wildlife: highlights in conservation progress. Stack-
pole, Harrisburg, Pa., 377 pp.
UDALL, STEWART L.
1961. Plea for a green legacy. The Christian Science Monitor, September
11, 1961, Boston.
WOODBURY, GEORGE.
1960. Austin Corbin and famous park. Newport (N.H.) Argus-Champion,
summer issue, p. 15.
Youna, STANLEY P.
1956. The deer, the Indians, and the American pioneers. Pp. 1-27 in The
deer of North America. 668 pp. Walter P. Taylor, ed. Wildlife
Management Inst., Washington.
The Southern Ocean: A Potential for Coral
Studies
By Donatp F. Squires
Curator, Division of Marine Invertebrates, Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian
Institution
[With 4 plates]
Ir Is ALWAYS amazing to me to find persons who are surprised by
the presence of corals in the colder regions of the world. But then,
as a specialist in the study of corals, I must admit to some personal
prejudice by reason of a longstanding interest in the corals of these
regions. However, it is unfortunate that some inkling of the greater
distribution of these interesting animals has not leaked out into the
scientific world, if not to the public at large. Lack of publicity is
quite clearly the answer. So much popular and scientific material has
been written about the coral ramparts of the atolls and barrier reefs;
their beauty has long been praised, and the coral island paradise is
a familiar symbol of the idyllic life. Today, through the personal
experience of skindiving, hundreds and thousands of people are enter-
ing the sea and seeing the living coral reefs under ideal conditions, and
comprehending its diversity of life. Even at the turn of the century
the spotlight of notoriety was focused on coral reefs, as the contro-
versy among such scientific greats as the four “D’s”—Darwin, Dana,
Daly, and Davis—concerning the origin of coral islands and atolls
went far beyond academic walls, and captured the fancy of the public.
The corals from the colder regions, having no monumental structures
composed of their skeletons, no large masses brilliantly and differ-
entially colored to attract attention, have not caught the imagination
of the scientist or the interested layman.
Then, what about these corals? Are they sufficiently interesting
to warrant study? Do they, in their aggregate, represent hazards
to navigation? Do they represent potential sources of fishing
grounds? Is it worthwhile to study corals which are difficult to ap-
proach, can be studied only under some special conditions, and with
discomfort resulting from heavy seas, cold weather, and other me-
teorological vicissitudes far removed from the amenable tropical con-
447
448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
ditions? We might well question the reasons for doing any basic
research, and, although many complex reasons might be given, the
closest we can come to a simple and direct answer would be to say
that any enlargement of our knowledge of the world about us is
worthwhile. ‘The following discussion should provide a rationale for
the undertaking of a study of these corals.
There are perhaps 50 species of corals to be found in the waters
of the Southern Ocean from the shallowest to the deepest portions.
This variety is somewhat easier to comprehend than the 400 or more
species recorded from the shallow waters on the reefs of the Fiji
Islands, a number which does not include all of those corals which
might be found by divers or by dredging and trawling in the deeper
waters around those islands. But more significant than the number
of kinds involved is the number of specimens which can be collected
per unit of effort. Antarctic corals, like most cold-water bottom
dwelling invertebrates, are not evenly distributed on the sea floor,
but rather are scattered in clusters in what has been called a “con-
tagious distribution.” 'Trawl samples from the sea bottom do not
usually indicate a large variety of species present; they more often
yield large numbers of one kind of coral, with token representation
of other types. For example, in one dredge haul from Pennell Bank
in the Ross Sea, Antarctica, 141 specimens of one species were taken
together with 33 specimens belonging to three other species. In
contrast, a trawl made in the Sulu Sea by the Danish ship Siboga
collected 55 specimens representing a total of 22 species. Although
bottom trawls cannot be taken as a means of collecting quantitative
samples of bottom fauna, they are at present the most efficient means
of collecting large samples, and the examples given are probably
significant in terms of magnitude if not in comparability of absolute
numbers.
The Antarctic corals are generally small (seldom over 1 inch in
diameter) horn corals of solitary habit. A few species of colonial
corals are found, but these are loosely branching forms which construct
very open colonies. The solitary forms normally live free on the
bottom so that their shape is gently curved. Others are attached to
rocks, pebbles, or shells and are straighter and more fan shaped.
These forms are characteristic of the deeper water corals of all oceans
and in themselves are not unique. Reef corals, or more properly
hermatypic corals, are found in depths of water to no more than 90
meters while the deepwater or ahermatypic corals are found from the
surface to depths of to 6,000 meters. The term hermatypic was
proposed by J. W. Wells to include those corals which build reefs
(hence the derivation of the word) and therefore the ahermatypic
corals are non-reefbuilding. This distinction is an important one, but
not necessarily the easiest to recognize. Reef-building corals are able
CORAL STUDY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN—SQUIRES 449
to grow and secrete calcium carbonate in vast quantities because of the
unique relationship between symbiotic dinoflagellates called zooxan-
thellae and the coral animal which enhances the physiology of the
coral in its calcium-carbonate depositions. It is this same symbiotic
relationship which restricts the reef corals to warm waters and to
those waters which are lighted, for the symbionts require light for
their photosynthetic activity. Corals of the cold waters have not yet
been demonstrated to have such symbionts, and we should not expect
them in the waters of the deep ocean far beyond the penetration of
light.
The ahermatypic corals show much greater latitude in their choice of
life sites. They are found to occur through wider ranges of depths,
through greater ranges of temperature, and through a greater
diversity of conditions than their more specialized hermatypic rela-
tions. This does not affect their value in studies of the relationships be-
tween animal and environment, however, for they have developed other
habitat restrictions which are of considerable interest to the ecologist.
The very simplicity of the solitary corals is a distinct advantage in
studying the relationships between animal and environment, for
the responses of the animal are not clouded in the multiplicity of
asexually produced individuals which constitute the colonial coral
of the tropical reefs. The hermatypic corals are able to cope with
many external factors through successive minute adjustments in each
of the asexually produced members, which accumulate through their
generations major compensations in the form of the colony. The
solitary coral, on the other hand, records in its skeleton the entire
history of its personal response to the exigencies of life.
The Southern Ocean, lying as a moat about the Antarctic Continent,
is actually composed of the southern segments of the other three great
oceans and as a result must be defined by arbitrary borders. Its
unity and identity le principally in the cohesive nature of the
hydrology of the Southern Ocean, because through most of its extent—
the Southern Ocean is unbroken by land and is overlain by a potent
driving force of the Westerly Winds—it is powered by a basically
simple current system widely characterized as the West Wind Drift
composed of the “Roaring Forties,” the “Furious Fifties” and the
“Screaming Sixties.” The wind-driven system carries water about
the poles in a continuous broad band interrupted only by the relatively
insignificant Subantarctic Islands, by the projection into its northern
margin of the South Island of New Zealand, and severely constricted
only by the remnants of the Andean chain extending from Tierra del
Fuego across to Antarctica through the grand curvature of the
Scotia Arc. The water movement in these areas is actually not
directed solely around the Antarctic continent, but carries with it a
strong northern component so that Antarctic water is continually
450 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
pele neces
She pets /
Ficure 1.—Map of the Southern Ocean. (After G. A. Knox, 1960, Proc. Roy. Soc. ,
Ser. B., vol. 152.)
moving northward into the subtropical regions. There are two
regions in which the northward movement is strongly noted, one
being where the South Island of New Zealand lies athwart the north-
ern portion of the West Wind Drift, and the other, the tip of South
America. In both cases major currents are deflected northward by
these projections.
To the south, adjacent to the Antarctic Continent, there is a west-
ward-flowing current, feeble in comparison to the West Wind Drift,
but nonetheless important in the distribution of the near-ice animals,
for it circulates slowly in a counterclockwise direction, opposite to
the stronger West Wind Drift. The East Wind Drift is not com-
pletely circumpolar, for in the region of the Scotia Arc it is broken
and there is not a completely circumpolar near-shore current.
Temperature gradients between the Antarctic waters and the warmer
waters of the Tropics are not even, but are rather concentrated at two
zones which surround the Antarctic Continent. These zones of high
temperature gradient are known as convergences; the inner one is
the Antarctic Convergence and the outer is the Subtropical Conver-
CORAL STUDY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN—SQUIRES 451
gence. Two zones of water within the Southern Ocean are defined by
these (the Subtropical Convergence being used here as the northern
boundary of the Southern Ocean). Both zones are relatively shallow,
for the ocean is layered vertically as well as horizontally. Innermost
of these water masses is the Antarctic Surface water which surrounds
the Antarctic in a sinuous fashion. This is the area of floating ice
or pack ice, and is completely dominated by the East Wind Drift.
The waters are cold, being below or only slightly above the freezing
point all year round. The water is less saline in the summer because
the melting ice adds fresh water, but becomes more saline in the winter
as ice is frozen. Across the Antarctic Convergence, which has a tem-
>
OT AI OP OE EO PA OP AD OF OS BO ED OOS OA ROLE SE OS OE SOO BOOS OSES OD OEE Oe OR NS Oe ne Os Oe Ot On OS OS OS EOE OOS EES EONS LAER SOE EE EEEe Tee
160° W 180°E 130°
Ficure 2.—Map of the Continental Shelves, Southern Ocean. (After N. A. MacKintosh,
1960, Proc.’Roy. Soc., Ser. B, vol. 152.)
452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
perature difference of 2° C., lies the body of the subantarctic water,
dominated and moved by the West Wind Drift. This water is warmer
than the Antarctic Surface water and is less variable in its salinity.
Because of the roughness of the region, the surface-water zone is very
thick and well mixed. The Subtropical Convergence is a region of
very sharp temperature changes, the average change from one side to
the other being about 4° to 5° C.
At the Antarctic Convergence, the northward moving Antarctic
Surface water meets the Subantarctic Surface water and, because
it is denser by reason of being colder, slides beneath the Subantarctic
Surface water and forms the Antarctic Intermediate Current. Lying
beneath that mass is a warm, deep current of water which formed well
to the north of the Southern Ocean. The most important water body
of the Southern Ocean is probably the Antarctic Bottom water, for
this is the water which flows along the bottom of the entire Southern
Ocean region and is the water which is in contact with the benthic
animals, although the effect of the surface conditions upon bottom
animals is not to be underestimated. During the winter, as the freez-
ing of ice withdraws fresh water from the sea, the cold, saline, dense
water formed sinks below the surface waters and slowly flows outward
along the bottom to the edge of the Antarctic Continental Shelf and
thence outward to the deep waters below the West Wind Drift.
Knowledge of this body of water is not complete for there is still
much to be learned about where it forms, and to what extent it main-
tains its identity. G. E. R. Deacon stated that deepwater formation
was largely in the region of the Wedell Sea and that Antarctic Bottom
water then flowed eastward about the continent. Bottom water form-
ing in other areas is kept isolated by the ridges of the bottom topog-
raphy.
The cold saline waters of the Antarctic sink below the warmer, less
saline waters of the West Wind Drift along the Antarctic Convergence,
the boundary between the eastward- and westward-flowing currents
(fig. 4) and then flow northward along the bottom as the Antarctic
Bottom current. In general then, the bottom animals of the Antarctic
are living in an environment which is broadly uniform and one which
has very little seasonal change when considered from the aspects of
temperature, salinity, oxygen content, and nutrients and in compari-
son with the variation of these factors in the shallow tropical en-
vironment. The glacial history of the region has made one feature of
the environment quite variable: The bottom sediments, which change
constantly, both laterally and in time, imparting a variety of habitats
upon the scene. This aspect of the environment seems to have a par-
ticularly striking effect upon corals.
Still to be answered is the question “Why study the corals of the
Southern Ocean in preference to the deepwater corals of other oceans?”
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Squires PEATE; 1
1. Living Flabellum curvatum, the common cup coral of the Argentine shelf. Closely
related species of this coral live through the Antarctic and New Zealand.
2. An assortment of invertebrates collected in the Ross Sea area of the Antarctic.
Echinoderms (sea stars, brittle stars, and sea urchins) predominate with sponges,
alcyonarians, and pyconogonids (sea spiders) also present. (Courtesy U.S. Navy Oceano-
graphic Office.)
PLATE 2
Squires
Smithsonian Report, 1963.
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Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Squires PLATE 4
1. Contents of the trawl being examined immediately after being dumped from the bag.
The mass is largely composed of sponges. (Courtesy U.S. Navy Oceanographic Office.)
a
2. The contents of a bottom trawl from which the large soft-bodied animals have been
removed. ‘The residue is largely composed of plates of barnacles and stylasterine corals.
(Courtesy U.S. Navy Oceanographic Office.)
CORAL STUDY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN—SQUIRES 453
The answer lies in the postulate that the physical and biological
characteristics of the Southern Ocean which have been outlined above
should provide us with an area in which to study the effects of en-
vironmental factors upon corals, distribution mechanisms, and the
changes which occur in the organisms as they move broadly throughout
a tremendous area such as the Southern Ocean. In short, how do the
corals react to their environment and how does the environment (and
time) modify the corals?
Corals distribute themselves about the sea floor during a portion
of their life cycle in which the developing larval form is free. In
tropical corals the free portion of the larval life may last from several
days to several weeks, but this period is apparently much shorter in
the cold-water corals. One observed instance of the production of
planulae in a subantarctic coral showed that the larvae were highly
developed and ready for a sessile life almost at “birth.” Some caution
must be placed between this observation and a conclusion, for it is
known that when tropical corals produce larvae over a span of time,
those first produced are less well developed than those which come later.
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A54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
By this mechanism the coral provides for long-range exploratory
colonization by the first produced larvae which have a long free life,
and for more assured colonization of the immediate environment by
the later produced forms which are ready for sessile life almost im-
mediately. The observable contagious distribution of corals in the
Antarctic argues that the latter distributional means prevails; corals
occur in local high density populations because of their short larval life.
The current pattern of the Southern Ocean is well calculated to
develop a widely distributed shallow-water fauna about the Antarctic
Continent. The West Wind Drift should effectively carry the shallow
water marine fauna of South America to the Subantarctic Islands
along the route of the sea mounts and high ridges, as should the fauna
of the southern portion of New Zealand be distributed through its
Subantarctic Islands. The range of these faunas is now being studied.
One feature that has emerged is that the West Wind Drift, while being
effective as a transportation agent, is also acting as a barrier to the
distribution of animals from the subantarctic regions to the Antarctic.
For example, the Scotia Arc should provide an excellent series of
steppingstones for the shallow fauna of the South American coast to
reach the Antarctic. Instead, we find that the region between Cape
Horn and Shag Rock (fig. 2) is apparently a barrier—that the Ant-
arctic fauna extends to Shag Rock, while the South American fauna
has not been notably successful in crossing Drake Passage. The
strong winds and current which are a means for such short-flighted
birds as the Rail to make the jump from Tierra del Fuego to South
Georgia are an effective barrier to a number of marine organisms.
Near shore the East Wind Drift should be the distributing mechanism
about the Antarctic, and the circumpolar aspect of the fauna attests
to its effectiveness. However, we are basing our claims upon the sup-
position that surface currents are effective to the depth of the conti-
nental shelves. It may be that bottom currents acting in different
directions are the actual distributing mechanisms, for ths larvae of
the corals do not rise far above the bottom if they are advanced in
development upon liberation. A fascinating, but as yet incompletely
tested hypothesis dealing with this aspect suggests that the direction
of movement of the Antarctic Bottom water should infiuence the dis-
tribution of species. One shred of evidence for this was collected
when at approximately 2,000 meters on the Argentine Continental
Slope a trawl containing a few species of “Argentine” corals also con-
tained individuals of a species characteristic of shallow waters on the
Antarctic Shelf. Could this be an instance of the animal following the
temperature gradient and possibly migrating across the Drake Pas-
sage? Many more finds of a similar nature will be required to give a
definite answer. The distribution of corals at depths greater than
those of the Continental Shelves is difficult to generalize about, for as
CORAL STUDY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN—SQUIRES 455
ographic Publication 705.)
EAST WIND DRIFT
INTARCTIC DIVERGENCE
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ANTARCTIC
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Ficure 4.—A cross-secti
456 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
yet very few collections have been made. Collections now under
study, made by the U.S. Antarctic Program, the Navy “Deep-Freeze”
Program, and others, will ultimately yield some of this needed informa-
tion, but the distribution of collecting stations is still very sparse.
From examination of the shallow-water corals of the Argentine
Shelf, the Chilean Region, the Antarctic Shelf, and the New Zealand
Shelf, it is apparent that a plexus of very closely related species exists.
Highly specialized species, living in special environments, differing
from one another only in minor features which make them difficult to
identify, and having counterparts in each of the areas given above,
apparently signify recent evolution. In other words, the stock is not
an old one which has had opportunity to diversify greatly and to be-
come quite specialized morphologically, but is a recent one, probing
into new areas. For example, there is a plexus of species, not all
members of which have been as yet distinguished, within the genus
Flabellum. On the Argentine shelf are the species 7. curvatum, F.
thoursii, and F. patagonicum. The first lives free upon the bottom,
while the second lives only where there are pebbles to which it may
become attached. In the Antarctic are F. ¢mpensum and F. antarc-
ticum and a third unnamed species. In New Zealand there are FP.
gracile and F. rubrum. This closely knit group of species is not found
elsewhere in the world and has, as yet, been only partly studied. It
appears to bea recently evolved plexus.
Recent evolution should not be unexpected, however, for during the
Pleistocene glaciation it would be presumed that mass mortality oc-
curred among the animals living on the Antarctic Shelf. As the glacial
ice moved out across the shelf, many were physically exterminated,
the remainder of the species found their lebensraum severely curtailed.
With the retreat of the glacial ice, whole new areas were opened to
colonization and it would be only from the areas to the north that the
new immigrants could come. But from where did they come?
To logically answer this question one inquires into the historical
aspects of the observed distribution of the animal. How much of the
distribution noted today is the result of past factors? Were past
migration routes, current patterns, or land connections the same as,
or in some degree similar to, present-day situations? There are two
possible approaches to problems of this nature: One, to understand
the geological history of the region and to deduce from this knowledge,
what the patterns of seas, currents, and physical environments were
during any given episode of geological time. A second approach
would be to observe the distribution of animals in the past by means
of the fossil record and to obtain from this a series of working hypoth-
eses about the arrangements of the physical and chemical environ-
ments which would have fostered the observed distribution.
CORAL STUDY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN—SQUIRES 457
Unfortunately, it is here that the Southern Ocean fails to provide
us with the required data, for as yet the Antarctic Continent has re-
fused to yield information on the distribution of Tertiary Corals. To
date the oldest records of corals are from raised moraine deposits in
the McMurdo Sound area of the Ross Sea and these have been dated as
Pliocene. The coral identified from these deposits is Gardineria
antarctica and it is a member of the modern fauna. However, there
are two other areas which have close relationships to the Antarctic:
South America and New Zealand. Although the fauna of the former
has been studied only in a most general way, it apparently is of re-
stricted age range and of restricted environmental types. The Tertiary
fauna of New Zealand has, on the other hand, been demonstrated to
be extremely rich and to represent a wide span of ages and of environ-
mental types.
Perhaps one of the most interesting aspects of a study of the New
Zealand Tertiary Mollusca by C. A. Fleming was the apparent move-
ment through time of the position of the Subtropical Convergence
deduced from the distribution of these fossils. This movement, later
also found to be demonstrated by the distribution of corals is recorded
in the fossil record by the progressive migration, first south, and then
north of the cold-water faunas of New Zealand. For example, during
the Miocene, coral reefs existed in the northern portion of the North
Island, indicating that the Subtropical Convergence was farther to
the south than at present, for water temperatures in the vicinity of
North Cape are now only just about warm enough to support the most
hardy of the reef corals. However, after a brief episode, these coral
reefs were exterminated by cooling marine climates and the warm-
water fauna which had penetrated far to the south was slowly driven
northward. Finally, all New Zealand was occupied by a cool-water
fauna during the Pleistocene. Now there is apparently a reversal and
new immigrants from the northern, warmer waters are appearing.
It may well be that in some time not too long in the future, the northern
portions of New Zealand may again be ringed by protective coral reefs.
From this type of study, we can expect a picture of the present-day
distribution of corals and hypotheses of their past distribution to
emerge. From these results much can be deduced regarding the mecha-
nism by which the corals (and other faunal elements) have migrated,
and of the controls upon their distribution. Because many elements
of the study of larval life are as yet beyond experimental means, re-
quiring pressure and temperature controls which make them prohibi-
tive, deductions based upon distributional information regarding larval
life will be the sole means for gathering this type of data for some
time tocome. Much information regarding the geological history of
the Antarctic region can be derived from additional faunal informa-
458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
tion. For example, the Scotia Are undoubtedly was once more con-
tinuous than at present. Because the influence of such a continuous
structure upon the faunas must have been great, a study of the faunal
continuity may give us information on the “how” and “when” of such
connections.
But aside from such broad-scale regional studies, what values are
there in the study of the Antarctic corals? One of the most important
features of the coral fauna of the Southern Ocean is the availability of
large numbers of individuals of one species, making possible studies
of intraspecific behavior and ecological relationships rather than only
the broad application of ecology to a faunule. We are therefore able
to phrase such questions as: How does the form of an individual coral
vary in response to the local differences in environment? What are
the mechanisms by which the animal adapts to these local changes?
How do these animals which possess only a rudimentary nervous system
(members of the Coelenterata, the group which includes the corals,
have the most primitive nervous systems of the animal kingdom) orient
themselves and sense the environment? These questions could be an-
swered to some degree on other corals in other places. Reef corals
are very accessible and satisfactory for certain types of physiological
experimentation. Shallow-water occurrences of solitary corals are
now being utilized for experimental studies in temperate and tropical
regions. But these latter are essentially the studies of individuals
and of individual reactions, and colonies give only a summation of the
collective response through time. The large populations of individuals
of a single species to be found in the Southern Ocean permit studies
of population response and behavior, on a statistical basis.
Among the questions being studied are: How does the animal react
to the unfavorable cold climate in the secretion of calcium carbonate ?
What mechanisms are involved in the protection of the skeleton from
the effects of the environment and from predators? In progress are
studies of the way a coral reacts to the instability of its environment,
as in the instance of the coral which attaches to a pebble. While the
coral is small, the pebble is proportionately large in mass, but as the
coral grows, the pebble becomes proportionately smaller and smaller
in respect to the coral until it does not afford the stability that it once
did. Some species apparently do not “care” and continue to live quite
successfully even after they have fallen over; others do not thrive in
a prone position and deposit a variety of structures and roots to better
secure themselves in their environment. Once some of the basic ques-
tions involved in this sort of performance are answered, such as (1)
How does the coral (lacking sense organs as we generally think of
them) know it is not vertically aligned? (2) How does the coral know
where and what type of roots or supporting structures to form? (3)
How do the larvae know what size pebble to select before settling?
CORAL STUDY IN THE SOUTHERN OCEAN—SQUIRES 459
and a host of other questions, we may be able to get to such funda-
mentals as the relationship between age and calcium-carbonate deposi-
tion. All of these problems bear upon the entire animal kingdom and
the lessons learned here may be applied elsewhere.
Having considered the whys of the Southern Ocean coral situation,
it may be well to discuss the hows. With the exception of a few New
Zealand and Patagonian shallow-water corals, most of the species being
studied occur on the continental shelves in water depths of 40 meters
or more. Some are found in depths of 6,000 meters—the deepest
known occurrences of corals. Because of these depths, much of the
work is done from oceanographic ships. Collections are made with
many different types of equipment dragged on cables from the ships.
Bottom trawls, rock dredges, grab samplers, etc., are all used in special
instances to obtain special samples, and all yield corals. At present
we are not concerned with some of the finer problems such as popula-
tion density, and the techniques requiring quantitative sampling, for
we are still obtaining on a regional basis such basic knowledge as
which corals are found where. For this sort of data, cruder instru-
ments are used. However, bottom photography utilizing any of the
many cameras which have been developed for this purpose has shown
itself to be an excellent method of obtaining general bottom informa-
tion, and considerable detailed information about how corals live and
in what numbers.
Despite the many features of the Southern Ocean which suggest the
desirability of a study such as the one outlined, when the work actually
begins numerous difficulties are encountered. The Southern Ocean is
an area of many moods, most of them belligerent. Much of the area
is available only to marine scientists aboard icebreakers, and then for
only a limited portion of the year. In much of the remaining area,
seas and winds make work unpleasant or impossible for a great deal of
the time. It almost seems as if the Southern Ocean is attempting to
retain its own, reluctantly parting with information about itself. Yet,
only a few months at sea each year will provide more than enough
data for several years of laboratory analysis. At our present stage
of knowledge about Southern Ocean corals, each new collection sug-
gests new problems, often resulting in reexamination of much of the
accumulated data, and opening new attacks upon older unsolved ques-
tions.
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The Promise of Underwater Archeology’
By Grorce F. Bass
Research Associate, University Museum, University of Pennsylvania
Tue creat historical wealth lying on the bottom of the Mediter-
ranean has been known to archeologists only since the turn of the
century. At that time a group of Greek spongedivers stumbled onto
a wreck at Antikythera that yielded quantities of marble and bronze
statues, pottery, glass, and a remarkable astronomical computer
that has greatly increased our respect for Greek technology. After
the addition of the magnificent “Antikythera Youth” to the Athens
Museum, sculptures continued to come from the sea: the Marathon
Boy, the marbles from the Piraeus harbor, the jockey and horse
from Artemision, and above all the Artemision Zeus.
These were chance finds and, while important in themselves, their
excavation can hardly be called scientific. Only with the invention
of the aqualung by Cousteau and Gagnan in 1943 did divers gain
the mobility necessary for the delicate work demanded by systematic
archeology. Soon after, notably along the French and Italian coasts,
expeditions were able to concern themselves with hull construction,
methods of lading and even the daily life on ancient ships. These
excavations used the technique of sketching underwater on frosted
plastic, and established the airlift, a type of suction hose, as the
primary excavating tool of the marine archeologist. Unfortunately,
however, the supervision usually came from nondiving archeologists
who could follow the work only through sketches, photographs, and,
occasionally, underwater television.
The primary duty of the field archeologist is to record and present
the smallest details of his excavation so that the proof of his inter-
pretation is readily available to other scholars. At least one ancient
wreck has puzzled some experts on ancient pottery who claim that
various pieces of the cargo are divided by two centuries. Their
thesis, that two wrecks were involved, may be denied by the ex-
cavators of the wreck, but the proof of the denial is not to be found
in the excavation report since it contains not a plan or section of
1 Reprinted by permission from the American Scholar, Spring 1968. Drawings are by
Eric J. Ryan.
461
462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
the material as it lay on the seabed. That two ships could fall in
the same spot is not at all improbable. On the treacherous reef
at Yassi Island, near ancient Halicarnassus in western Turkey, wreck
is piled upon wreck, and, nearby, two marvelously preserved wrecks
lie within 75 feet of each other. Methods of making accurate plans
and sections under water became the pressing need.
With the development of various sounding devices, metal de-
tectors, and small, inexpensive submarines, there can be no doubt
that wrecks of all periods of antiquity will be discovered and ex-
cavated in the Mediterranean. Neolithic and Early Bronze Age ships
may settle forever the question of early migration routes. If Middle
Bronze Age peoples came to Greece by sea, we should find ships carry-
ing the typical grey “Minyan” pottery so closely associated with
them. One or two Iron Age ships may solve the problem of the
ivory trade of that period, or answer the puzzle of whence came the
bronze griffin heads found from Turkey to the Etruscan tombs of
Italy. And, if precise methods of excavation are followed, we will
learn exactly how triremes were rowed.
The University Museum of the University of Pennsylvania in 1960
undertook a program to develop the means of recording and preserving
the data from such wrecks. The first step in the program was to
staff the Museum’s marine expeditions with the proper personnel;
it was realized at once that weekend skindivers and helmeted sponge-
divers, who had done so much of the previous work, had no more
place in such operations than they would have on land digs. The
present staff consists of archeologists and archeology students, drafts-
men, photographers, an architect, a marine biologist, and a medical
doctor, all of whom dive and most of whom learned to dive specifically
for underwater archeology. Rounding out the staff are a number of
carefully selected experienced divers and mechanics. Such a staff
must of necessity be larger than most found on land for its members
do the actual digging and cleaning. On land one archeologist may
direct a vast crew of skilled and unskilled laborers. Underwater,
however, each worker must be able to supervise himself and make
sudden decisions that may radically affect the interpretation of the
finds.
The areas chosen for study, along the coasts of Lycia and Caria
in southwest Turkey, were charted by Peter Throckmorton. Gath-
ering his leads while working and diving with Turkish sponge
divers, Mr. Throckmorton was able to locate about 30 wrecks cover-
ing a span of over two millennia. The first of these wrecks to be
excavated was dated to the Late Bronze Age by a study of the finds
raised upon its discovery. It lay in 90 feet of water just off Cape
Gelidonya.
UNDERWATER ARCHEOLOGY—BASS 463
A preliminary survey revealed that the wreck rested on a rocky
bottom with almost no covering of sand to preserve wood and other
organic material. The metal cargo was still in sttu, but it was cov-
ered with a lime sea deposit up to 8 inches thick, and hard as concrete.
The concretion presented a double problem: how to make an accurate
plan of the objects imbedded in it, and how to remove and preserve
fragile artifacts such as bronze knife blades and spearpoints without
breaking them.
On land such problems could have been easily overcome, but on
land there is not the all-important time limitation. Underwater, a
diver must breathe air at the same pressure as the pressure of the
water surrounding him. The deeper he goes and the longer he remains
at any depth, the more pressurized nitrogen will be absorbed by his
body. If the diver ascends too rapidly, the nitrogen will come out of
solution with much the same effect as bubbles appearing in a bottle
of champagne when it is uncorked. Such bubbles in the body may
block the bloodstream in various areas, causing the crippling and
often fatal divers’ disease known as the bends. The only precaution
is strict adherence to diving tables giving the rate of ascent following
dives of various depths and duration. At Gelidonya the practical
limit was only 1 hour and 8 minutes for each diver to work each day.
In order to save these precious minutes on the bottom, it was decided
to cut loose lumps of concreted cargo, weighing up to 300 pounds a
piece, and to raise these intact. Before being cut free with hammer
and chisel, each lump was marked in several spots. These spots were
triangulated with horizontal metertapes running from fixed reference
points driven into the rock around the site. The triangulated points
were put onto a plan and the Jumps were raised to the surface with
a winch and cable. In one instance wood was seen protruding from
beneath a heap of concreted cargo. Winching from a small boat in
a rough sea presented the real danger that this fragile evidence might
be crushed. The mass of concretion was, therefore, attached to a
large plastic balloon with a lifting force of 400 pounds; the balloon
was inflated on the bottom from a diver’s mouthpiece and carried the
cargo gently to the surface.
The lumps of concretion were carried to the expedition camp and
reassembled exactly as they had appeared on the seabed. Then they
were cleaned with chisels so that the cargo finally lay free and could
be drawn and photographed in detail. Using the points triangulated
on the bottom, the architect was able to add the details to his overall
plan which now showed the position of each object as it had rested in
the ancient ship. A record of the work in progress was also kept in a
number of “aerial surveys.” These were made by a photographer,
with plumb line and level attached to his camera, swimming at a
464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
fixed distance above the wreck. The resultant series of photographs
were enlarged to a set scale and glued together to form montages
showing the entire site.
Such work was exceedingly slow. The jumble of wood that had
been crushed beneath the cargo was the only well-preserved portion
of the ship’s hull. Although this covered an area of little more than
a square meter, it took the entire team of divers 3 weeks to cut behind
the solid rock on which it rested so that the wood fragments could be
raised together and studied on land.
These framents matched the elements used by Odysseus in making
a small boat (not, it would seem, a raft) with the aid of Calypso
(Odyssey 5.233-261). There were planks with bored holes and
dowels, and at least two of the planks were joined together at their
ends. On board, perhaps only as part of the cargo, were the main
tools used by Odysseus: axes and adzes. Homer also tells how Odys-
seus made a wattle fence around his ship to keep out the waves, and
then “spread out a great deal of brushwood.” Because this last phrase
has made little sense to classical scholars, it has been variously trans-
lated and interpreted as a brushwood bed, as part of the wattle fence
or a backing for it, and even as ballast. It would now seem that a lit-
eral translation of the passage is all that is needed. Over the planks
of the Gelidonya wreck was spread a layer of brushwood, with the
bark still well preserved, which served as a cushion between the heavy
metal cargo and the thin hull planks.
Not enough wood was preserved to give an accurate idea of the size
of the ship, but the distribution of the cargo suggests a length of not
much more than 8 or 9 meters. This would easily have handled the
cargo and ballast stones that were collected from the site. The cargo
was almost completely of metal. More than a ton of copper and
bronze objects was preserved, making this by far the largest hoard of
such implements yet found by preclassical archeologists.
Forty ingots of almost pure copper, in the so-called “oxhide” shape
and averaging 45 pounds apiece in weight, were found piled neatly on
thesite. Traces of matting indicate that these may have been wrapped
together in small stacks. Over 90 of these ingots had been known pre-
viously from the Late Bronze Age, appearing in Cyprus, Crete,
Greece, and Sardinia, and many numismatists considered them a pre-
monetary form of currency. Their superficial resemblance to dried
oxhides had even led to the conclusion that one ingot was worth
one ox, Careful study of the Gelidonya group, however, has revealed
that the ingots were merely convenient forms for transporting raw
copper. They have no standard weight (variations in weight among
those from different sites had been attributed by some archeologists
to local standards in use), and their resemblance to dried skins has
been shown to be completely fortuitous. Their “legs,” previously
UNDERWATER ARCHEOLOGY—BASS 465
known as rather late developments in the evolution of the ingot shape,
were merely handles for ease of porterage; the faces, one rough and
“hairy,” and the other with a rolled rim seemingly representing the
curling of a dried skin are simply the result of the method of casting
and the type of mold used. Dozens of ingot fragments, in small
groups on the wreck, have proved by weight not to be fractional
parts of whole ingots, as might be expected if the ingots were truly
currency.
The use of these ingots is seen in a wall painting in the Tomb of
Rekh-mi-ré at Thebes. Egyptian smiths are shown melting down
“oxhide” ingots to be cast with square white ingots. The obvious
conclusion from this scene, that copper and tin were being mixed to
form bronze, has been contested by some authorities who have thought
that the white ingots must be lead. This is not as arbitrary as it
might seem, for only two or three items of pure tin have been found
from this early date. The Gelidonya wreck, however, yielded a num-
ber of piles of white powdery material that, after being carefully
collected in plastic bags and analyzed, proved to be pure tin oxide.
This proves that the previous lack of evidence of industrial tin had
been due only to the fortunes of excavation. Not only may we now
feel sure that the white ingots of the Egyptian tomb paintings are
tin, but this discovery also adds an argument for the identification of
anaku in the old Assyrian documents from Cappadocia as tin rather
than lead.
Most of the ingots are stamped with Cypro-Minoan signs. The
meaning of these letters might add greatly to our understanding of
this still-undeciphered script. Only after careful analysis of each
ingot will it be possible to say if the marks refer to different mines,
foundries, destinations, or metal quality. Careful excavation again
plays an important role. Stratigraphy, so essential for chronological
conclusions in the excavation of land sites, might seem to be of little
value in the study of an ancient wreck; most of the objects on a
ship are contemporary. Even here, however, the general rule that
“higher means later” has validity. If all of the ingots (or, in the
case of other ships, wine jars or tiles) were not put on board at the
same place, those lowest in the hold would have come from the
earliest ports of call. Thus, if we find by analysis that the lower
ingots from the Bronze Age ship seem to come from different mines
than those above, it may some day be possible to trace the route of
the vessel. This information, together with a study of ancient place
names, might offer still another clue to the meaning of the ingot signs.
With the ingot fragments, often packed together in the same
baskets, were hundreds of bronze tools, weapons, and household uten-
sils. These included picks, hoes, axes, adzes, mirrors, bowls, chisels,
knives, a hammer, a spade, and a spit. Some were complete and may
466 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
have been used by the crew of the ship, but the vast majority were
broken before being stored on board. One perfectly preserved wicker
basket bottom was found still holding tightly packed scraps of metal.
Similar founder’s hoards have been found on land and it was known
from these that old utensils were commonly melted and recast in
Mycenaean times. A swage block and a possible stone anvil make
it almost certain that a smith traveled on board the ship. Numerous
whetstones, found in the “cabin” area, would have been used to
sharpen newly made tools.
From the area assumed to be the cabin of the ship came such per-
sonal possessions as scarabs, weights, pottery, stone mace-heads, pieces
of crystal, a cylinder seal, an oil lamp, and even traces of a meal:
olive pits and fish bones were found imbedded in concretion. An
astragal was probably only for playing the popular ancient game of
knucklebones. The only nonmetallic objects certainly not from the
cabin area were two stone mortars and a jar of glass beads.
A study of the ship and its cargo allows us to reconstruct some-
thing of its history. The bits of broken pottery give a date of around
1200 B.C., when the entire eastern Mediterranean was in a state of
upheaval. The main part of the cargo was certainly from Cyprus,
known as the copper center of the late Bronze Age; not only the
ingots, but 232 of 302 bronze objects found on board find their
closest parallels on Cyprus.
Although the ship loaded its cargo in Cyprus, there is no reason
to assume that it was Cypriot. Egyptian tomb paintings show
both Cretan Minoans and Syrians bringing copper “oxhide” ingots
to the pharaoh as tribute. The pottery seems to have a mixed back-
ground, but the lamp—the most likely of the terra cotta objects to
have been a permanent item in the ship—is Syrian. Some of the
weights are of a type and standard used in Egypt, Syria, and Cyprus,
and tell us little. The scarabs and cylinder seal, while possibly
trinkets picked up en route, seem also to be Syrian. There is also
a possibility that the tin originated in Syria. Such evidence, although
not conclusive, led the author to believe that we were dealing with a
Syrian merchantman that had picked up its cargo in Cyprus. Since
that time an analysis of the wood has shown that the hull was
probably made with Syrian wood, while the brushwood, surely picked
up with the metal cargo, seems to be Cypriot.
With the lessons learned at Gelidonya it was possible to devise more
efficient methods of working underwater for the next project. This
was a Byzantine wreck lying on a slope in 100 to 130 feet of water
just off Yassi Island near Bodrum. The greater depth limited daily
diving times to the extent that mechanical aids, offering both speed
and accuracy, became essential to the architect. Three new devices
were tried (fig.1). The first was a pair of plane tables set on opposite
UNDERWATER ARCHEOLOGY—BASS 467
Ficure 1.—Mapping devices, suction hose, and lifting balloon used in excavation of
Byzantine shipwreck during 1961.
sides of the wreck. Two divers, sighting through simple alidades,
could record vectors and elevations on a surveying pole held by a
third diver. This proved successful for overall measurements, but de-
manded great clarity of the water and the use of three divers. A
5-meter square mapping frame was then placed over part of the
wreck; this was leveled on its telescopic legs and positioned by the
plane tables. A horizontal beam rode across the top of the frame,
using two sides of the frame as tracks. Yoked to this beam was a
468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
vertical pole that could be moved back and forth on the beam as
well as up and down. The sides of the frame, the horizontal beam
and the vertical pole were all calibrated in centimeters. By placing
the bottom of the pole on an object, therefore, it was possible to read
both coordinates and an elevation for its position. Again, too much
time was taken in recording each point, so a movable, 2-meter square
grid was placed on the wreck. Detailed drawings, photographs,
and elevations could be made through the wires of the grid, making
it necessary to record only the four corners of the grid with the
mapping frame.
These aids were excellent for a beginning, but all needed refine-
ment before being used on a detailed plan of the wooden hull that
came to light under the cargo. In the second season on the Byzantine
wreck a variation of the mapping frame was used (figs. 2 and 38).
This is essentially a combination of nine frames, each 2 meters by
6 meters, assembled like steps over the entire length of the wreck.
Each step is horizontal and may be moved down independently of
the others on its legs as the excavation goes deeper into the sand;
this insures that the frames are always level and are always near the
objects to be plotted beneath. A number of 2-meter square grids
ride over the frames, each having three positions on each step. Thus
the wreck is broken into 27 squares that can be independently exca-
vated, drawn, and photographed. Photographic towers of light metal
are bolted to the grids to insure perfect grid pictures of each area.
Objects are identified in the photographs by numbered plastic tags
attached to the objects on the wreck as they appear in the course of
excavation. Distortion caused by the slope of the ground, which
puts some objects at an appreciably lower level than the grid, must
be corrected by the architect before he can use these grid photographs
in making his plans and sections; lens distortion has not been sig-
nificant when using the proper cameras.
Improvements in the airlift were also made. The airlift is no
more than a large, vertical pipe with a flexible lower end. Air is
sent to the lower end of the pipe through a hose. This air rises
through the pipe, pulling water, sand, and mud with it. The airlift
should be used only for removing loose sand and not, as is common, for
actual excavating. Wood can be easily broken by it, and the original
location of small objects sucked up by it is never known. Tiny
pieces from time to time do enter the pipe, so at Yassi Island a
wire basket was bolted to the top of the pipe. The mesh of the wire
allows most of the sand to be carried away by the current, but coarse
sand and small objects are trapped and fall into a bag attached
beneath the basket. The bag is raised whenever full and the sand
within is carefully inspected on land.
UNDERWATER ARCHEOLOGY—BASS
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469
470 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
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120 feet.
The Byzantine wreck is still being excavated, but already much
has been learned. The hull was filled with a cargo of nearly 1,000
wine jars, mostly large globular amphoras, stacked in several layers.
Across the bow lay six iron anchors with a seventh just off the star-
board side. Toward the stern of the ship was found a fiat,
depressed area with scattered roof tiles that had covered the ship’s
cabin, and just aft of this was the crew’s large water jar. Beneath
the tiles were found the personal belongings of the captain. A small
hoard of gold coins, all dated to the reign of the Emperor Heraclius
(610-641), gives us a fairly solid date for the sinking of the ship and,
therefore, dates the objects found in it. This would make the
tableware from the cabin, including plates, pitchers, cups, bowls, jars,
UNDERWATER ARCHEOLOGY—BASS 471
and cooking pots, probably the best-dated collection of pottery from
that century. A set of silver-inlaid bronze weights, a whetstone and
a stone mortar show how little the belongings of a sea merchant had
changed in nearly two millennia. Thirteen terra cotta lamps, in a
style often dated two centuries earlier, now provide a fixed date for
others of their type. A censer and cross in bronze and a caldron and
tray in copper also came to light. Two bronze steelyards for weigh-
ing cargo were found with chains and hooks in perfect condition.
The bar of the larger was decorated at its ends with bronze animal
heads, and its counterweight was a lead-filled bronze bust of Athena.
A Greek inscription on this steelyard gives us the name of its owner:
George Senior Sea Captain. A small glass medallion, with a cruci-
form monogram of the name Theodore, suggests the name of a second
member of the crew.
All of these finds could have been turned up quickly by any diver,
but much information would have been lost. The wood of the hull
and scattered traces of wood from the rigging are now pinned in
place on the packed sand of the seabed with thousands of sharpened
bicycle spokes. A restoration, based on plans and sections of these
pieces, will give the first information regarding the details of
Byzantine ship construction. Because the positions of the fallen roof
tiles had been plotted to the centimeter, and the angle at which the
keel lies had been measured, it will even be possible to estimate the
height and position of the cabin by measuring the distance between
the tiles and the keel; the tiles themselves will give us the size of the
cabin. All of the iron nails and spikes have long since disappeared,
but iron-oxide shells remain; plaster casts taken of the hollow
interiors, when the shells are sawed in half, reproduce perfectly the
original shapes and sizes of the missing iron pieces.
Such work is slow and laborious, but well worth the effort. Almost
any object made by ancient man was likely to have been transported
by sea. Even the architectural members of temples and churches
have been found as cargo on sunken ships. Seldom are archeologists
offered material in such perfectly dated contexts on land, and seldom
has the material been so well preserved against the destruction of men
themselves. It is hoped that patience and care will be used in bring-
ing these findings to light.
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Plants in the Arctic-Alpine Environment’
By Stanwyn G. SHETLER
Department of Botany, Museum of Natural History
Smithsonian Institution
[With 12 plates]
ANYONE wuo has ever climbed a high mountain to that windswept
zone where forest shrinks and hesitatingly defers to tortured scrub;
who then has scrambled on to fresh green meadows gay with splashy
little herbs; and who finally has picked his way, perhaps on hands
and knees, up treacherous rubble slopes to the last rock pinnacles and
ledges where tiny drabas and top-heavy bellfiowers cling so pre-
cariously to crevice and scree—he it is who knows the Alpine in all
its splendor and spell with its hostile yet come-hither appeal. Poet,
philosopher, naturalist, scientist, or layman—no one who has beheld
the Alpine, whether on this continent or that, can fail to wonder
how, amidst the primitive ferocity of this environment where life
itself seems most improbable, a plant—any plant—not only survives
but thrives. Yet year in and year out these alpine dwarfs, tender
but tenacious, manage to stay alive and to reproduce their kind,
though they lease life day by day or even hour by hour. Truly, this
is biological intrigue of compelling dimension.
To those who have known the Arctic, however, the Alpine is but
an overture. Forbidding though the elements of the Alpine may
be, the Arctic can in all points be more hostile and unforgiving.
The Alpine, if you will, is but a junior version of the Arctic. It
is like a small enclave of the Arctic outside the Arctic, which has
gained by altitude what it has lost by latitude—but not quite. The
Arctic is a contiguous region around the North Pole, but the Alpine
is fragmented into a thousand parcels, of greater or lesser area, held
in common by all the higher mountains of the world, yet abruptly
disjunct from each other because of the more moderate conditions of
the intervening lower elevations. For a given latitude, the higher
the mountain the more authentic its imitation of the Arctic, other
1 Based on a paper read before the annual meeting of the Biological Society of Wash-
ington, June 7, 1963, as a part of a symposium on the “Adaptations of Plants and Animals
to Their Environment.”
473
474 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
factors being equal, and the nearer the Pole the lower the critical
altitude need be. Thus while in Colorado one may need to scale to
heights of 11,000 feet or beyond for characteristic Alpine, in north-
ern Alaska near the continental limit of trees he may find such
Alpine at scarcely more than 1,000 feet. The highest mountains
of temperate latitudes can produce some pretty fancy imitations of
arctic conditions, but hardly can surpass the best that the Arctic itself
can produce.
From the days of the early Polar explorers, many of whom were
unceremoniously swallowed up by the very land they came to ex-
plore, man has tried to solve the riddles of the Arctic—to fathom
from the evolutionary pages of geological history and from the dy-
namics of modern-day pattern and process the conquest of life over
perpetual ice and snow, perennial freeze and thaw, and eternal days
and eternal nights. The conquest of man over this conquest of nature
has only begun. Every year research in the Arctic is being broadened
and intensified until today there is hardly a branch of science not
represented in the Arctic quest.
Quite obviously the scope of my subject reaches far beyond the po-
tential of this paper, or of any other single paper for that matter,
and I shall not even attempt to cover all aspects of this topic. I will
talk only about the subject without meaning to synthesize and sum-
marize it. I will speak only of some aspects that have intrigued me
in the course of my own research. Greater emphasis will be placed
throughout on the Arctic than on the Alpine, because my own experi-
ence is primarily with the Arctic, and all the features concerned are
more accentuated in the Arctic. Much of what I say about the Arctic
can be applied equally though to a lesser degree to the Alpine, but the
applications will not always be made here, at least not explicitly. The
same holds for the Southern Hemisphere, about which nothing will
be said here.
DEFINITIONS
To the astronomer the Arctic is that zone surrounding the North
Pole, lying north of the imaginary and legendary Arctie Circle
(66°30’ N. lat.), where on the shortest day the sun never rises and on
the longest day it never sets. Mention the Arctic toa climatologist, and
he thinks about low mean temperature and precipitation, early and
late killing frosts, and a very truncated growing season. The geologist
is likely to picture permanently frozen ground, soil polygons, and
glaciers. Wemust turn to the botanist to whom the Arctic is a matter
of vegetation, however, for a really vivid and in many ways more
meaningful concept of the Arctic. He is quick to point out that
vegetation is influenced by all the other factors and can be regarded as
integrating them into one total response—the vegetation type.
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 475
When a botanist sets foot anywhere in the Arctic, he notices first
and foremost the complete absence of orthodox trees. If any woody
plants are present, they are nothing more than shrubs, usually very low
and hugging the ground. There is the occasional patch of tall wil-
lows and alders, possibly achieving twice the height of a man, in
sheltered gulches or on river bars and banks, but only in the lower
parts of the Arctic. In the High Arctic even shrubs are scarce, and
those present rarely exceed a few inches. Throughout the vast
reaches of the Arctic as a whole, however, the botanist comes to ex-
pect very low shrubs (less than 18 in.), if any. The herbaceous vege-
tation may form a rather continuous mat or heath, or in the High
Arctic it may be confined to scattered patches on barren rock and
gravel slopes and plains. This treeless vegetation type is what the
botanist calls “tundra,” from the Finnish word “tundren,” meaning
treeless rolling plain; and the vast circumpolar zone without per-
manent tree growth, sandwiched between the boreal coniferous forest
and the polar icecap, may be designated by the proper name, the
“Tundra.” In fact, to the botanist the Arctic 27s the Tundra.
While botanically the word tundra may connote primarily a type
of vegetation, the Finnish word suggests also a type of landform,
which is perhaps equally as important in giving us a concept of tundra
as isthe vegetation. This is a landform of flat or rolling plains under-
lain by frozen ground, dominated by bog soils or lithsols, dotted by
numerous lakes and meandering rivers, and tending in many places to
be quite wet and almost spongy at the surface. Patterned ground and,
close up, tussocky or hummocky microrelief are characteristic. In
some respects, the Tundra, in its vegetational and geological features is
like a gargantuan bog, only the water beneath is permanently frozen.
Above all, the Tundra always strikes me, wherever I see it, as incom-
parably vast and bleak—bleak, that is, until I am able to get my feet
down among the tussocks and to see the many microcosms that compose
the whole.
The Tundra I have depicted is of course a stereotype, which is well
illustrated by the pictures in plate 3. These photographs, taken near
Point Barrow, Alaska, aptly convey a characteristic expanse of tundra
on Alaska’s Arctic Coastal Plain. This is textbook tundra where the
vegetation forms an almost continuous heath cover, but it is not char-
acteristic of large parts within the Arctic. As already mentioned, the
higher one goes into the Arctic the sparser becomes the vegetation, and
the land might more properly be termed “rock desert.” This is true
in general of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago, which has been the
subject of some very interesting papers by the distinguished Canadian
botanist A. E. Porsild (1951, 1955, 1957). Some would restrict the
term “tundra” entirely to the continuously vegetated portions of the
476 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Arctic and exclude the barren grounds of the far north. For our
general purposes, however, we will use the term broadly, and the
idiosyncrasies of the Tundra will be largely ignored.
Let us return to the Alpine for a botanical look. By simple exten-
sion of what has already been said about the Arctic, we can now go on
to say that the Alpine comprises the treeless zone of high mountains.
Alpine vegetation is in many ways quite tundralike, as anyone who has
seen both the Alpine and the Arctic can testify, and, in fact, some plant
ecologists go so far as to use the same term, Tundra (or Tundra For-
mation), for arctic-alpine vegetation in general, calling the one “Alpine
Tundra” and the other “Arctic Tundra” (Oosting, 1956). We can-
not digress to argue the merits of this view or any other except for a
few comments. Profound differences separate the Arctic from the
Alpine, as anyone who has done research in both knows, and
in any thorough-going scientific analysis these differences could
not justly be ignored and glossed over by one simple terminology.
Yet in the worldwide context of climates, floras, and vegetation one is
amply justified, I believe, in thinking singularly of one environment,
one flora, and one type of vegetation common to both the Arctic and
the Alpine, as I am doing in part here. Without other modification,
however, I will use the proper term “Tundra” only for the Arctic, as
in widespread usage.
In the final analysis we are not so much concerned here with a care-
fully circumscribed area as with a concept. Whether, for example, we
define the Arctic by latitude, landform, isotherm, or vegetation type,
all definitions tend to converge on roughly the same area around the
Pole. What is far more crucial than a specific area is the concept of
environment and vegetation in concomitant transition. Relative to
organisms of ordinary tolerances, the environment gradually becomes
more rigorous and hostile as one moves poleward or upward from sea
level, and this transition is accompanied by gradual changes in the
vegetation toward ever more hardy types. The opposite ends of the
transitions are strikingly different, but the changes in between are for
the most part too subtle to permit the delineation of sharp boundaries
between one zone and another. If, however, a definition is necessary,
then let us think simply of the Arctic as being north of treeline and the
Alpine as being above treeline.
Treeline, by which is meant here the upper limit of continuous forest,
is seldom a sharp line either in the Alpine or the Arctic, at least
when seen close up. Unless there are very steep or abruptly dis-
continuous changes in topography or climate, the proverbial tree- or
timber-/ine is more likely to be a band or broad zone, which in the
Arctic may be many miles wide, where trees only gradually thin out
from forest to scattered clump and finally give way to open meadows
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 477
andtundra. Here there isa certain tension between forest and tundra,
where the trees can’t decide, as it were, when to giveup. This vacilla-
tion is depicted well for two Alpine areas in some of the pictures of
plates 1 and 8.
THE ENVIRONMENT
Frigid temperatures, low precipitation, high winds, permanent frost,
and a very asymmetric annual light regime are a few of the problems
that confront plants of the Tundra. Add to this the contingent factor
of an extremely short growing season, and you have quite an order
for any plant species to tolerate.
If there is any one fact that virtually everyone thinks he knows
about arctic-alpine regions, it is that the climate is cold—very cold.
The average person pictures the Arctic as a place of perennial snow
and subzero weather, barren and virtually lifeless—in short, nothing
but an icebox. One cannot deny that the Arctic can be very cold
and very barren, but this “icebox” image grossly distorts the true pic-
ture and hides the real significance of temperature as a variable in the
arctic-alpine environment. Throughout vast parts of the Arctic there
comes a perfectly orthodox shirtsleeve summer, which though abbrevi-
ated permits a remarkably diverse and luxuriant growth of plants.
Temperature is critical in the arctic-alpine environment both for its
low extremes and low means, although perhaps more so for the latter
thanthe former. We can gain some insight into this variable by exam-
ining a specific case. The data on climate which follow have all been
drawn from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s Yearbook of Agri-
culture for 1941, Climate and Man. Despite the date of publication,
there is no reason to believe that the overall picture has changed over
the past 23 years.
Let us examine in some detail the conditions at Point Barrow,
Alaska, which lies north of 71° N. latitude, well within the Arctic by
any definition, and about as far north as one can get on the North
American Continent. Over a 25-year period the average temperature
for the warmest month, July, was 40° F., only 8° above freezing, and
for the coldest month, January, —17° F. The recorded minimum over
this period was a frigid —56° F. and the maximum a balmy 78° F.
Thus the average range here is from —17° to 40° F., or 57°, which is
more or less typical for the Arctic coast of Alaska in general and for
many other areas throughout the Arctic. This range is of course less
than half as great as the 134° range between the 25-year extremes.
Quite clearly arctic plants have got to exist on a relatively low annual
heat budget, when the temperatures of the warmest month do not aver-
age more than 40° F. In fact, at Barrow they drop below zero an
average of 170 days a year, almost half the year, and some snow falls
478 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
in every month. Note that I said below zero, not merely below freez-
ing. But, while summer temperatures average dangerously close to
freezing, winter averages are milder than one might expect, and there
obviously cannot be many — 56’s coming along to allow sucha relatively
mild January mean of —17° F. Nonetheless, even a single —56°
cannot be ignored asa factor in the destiny of arctic plants.
Barrow gets neither the most extreme nor the mildest temperatures
of the Arctic, but on the average it is reasonably typical. Despite
increasing latitude, average temperatures are remarkably uniform
throughout the Arctic, owing largely to the ameliorating effects on all
sides of the polar sea. The average temperature for the warmest
month is commonly between 40° F. and 50° F., and in fact the 50° F.
isotherm is often taken as the climatological southern limit of the
Arctic.
Temperature is an extremely capricious variable anywhere in the
arctic-alpine environment, and its effects are not all measured by means
and long-term extremes. Drastic short-term or sustained fluctuations
during the critical growing period are common fare year in and year
out for arctic-alpine plants, which must be adapted to withstand
these hazards. In the Arctic of Alaska I have frequently seen the
temperature fluctuate 40° F. or more in less than 24 hours, going in one
case from near 80° F. down to very near freezing. Porsild (1951)
recounts a fascinating experience he had east of Great Bear Lake,
northern Canada, one April, watching the frost play with a clump
of Richardson’s willow (Saltw richardsonit Hook.). During a brief
thaw the buds swelled to the point where the catkins were ready to
expand, even while the basal parts of the clump were buried in 3
feet of ice and snow. Then, abruptly, freezing temperatures set in
for another 3 weeks, and the buds froze solid. When the final thaw
came, they began where they had quit and went on quickly to flower and
produce seed, apparently unaffected by the frigid interlude. He tells
also of one July night in the Yukon when he saw the large purple
flowers of E'pzlobium latifoliwm L. freeze solid like wax flowers, only
to thaw out again next day looking no worse for having frozen. One
need not reflect long on his own experience to realize that these are
not ordinary tolerances.
Along the Arctic coast fog and cloud cover are significant factors
in regulating surface temperatures during the growing season, and
they can be responsible for very rapid fluctuations. As anyone knows
who has ever been to Barrow, for example, the skies can be bright and
sunny one moment and almost the next be blanked out by a “soupy”
fog. Ina land of frozen ground, where the surface holds little residual
heat, temperatures spiral downward rather dramatically sometimes
when the skies become even partially overcast.
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 479
The arctic-alpine environment in general scarcely has what might
be called an annual safe period, insofar as frosts are concerned. ‘There
may be an annual period during which on the average frosts do not
occur, but an occasional frost may descend upon the plants anywhere
at any time even in the dead of summer. Over an 18-year period the
average frost-free period at Barrow was July 4-21, for an average
growing season of /7 days a year! Doubilessly, the effectéve growing
season is considerably longer, yet we get some idea of just how trun-
cated the Arctic summer can be for plants. On the basis of the
few comparative data available, we can safely conclude, I believe,
that the growing season is no longer than 50 days throughout a large
part of the Arctic, and it is often much shorter. Still, this can be an
adequate season for the arctic plants, which are physiologically
adapted for getting the reproductive cycle over with a rush. The
ubiquitous purple saxifrage (Sawifraga oppositofolia L., pl. 5), for
example, can begin growth and set good seeds within a month (Porsild,
1951). As for the Alpine, we know even less about the growing
season from systematic weather records, but we do know from casual
observations alone that late-lying snows reduce the effective growing
season in many alpine situations to approximately that of the Arctic.
Subsurface temperatures in most of the arctic region are continu-
ously below freezing from one year to the next, and the ground is
permanently frozen. This soil frost, called “permafrost,” extends from
the surface or near it, depending on the season, downward several
feet to hundreds of feet; in places the permafrost zone is more than
1,000 feet deep. Each summer the top few inches to 2 or 3 feet—in
alluvial sites to 6 or 8 feet—thaw, and the average annual depth of
thaw establishes the nature of the vegetation that can colonize the area.
Permafrost is impenetrable to plant roots, and the annual frost-free
layer must serve as the effect root zone where water and mineral ex-
change can occur and roots can take anchor. This zone is usually
very narrow, and deep-rooting species are harshly selected out, which
surely is one important reason why trees cannot establish themselves
on the Tundra. Deeper thawing in alluvial sites, where the soil is
coarser, explains perhaps why taller shrubs and certain typically
deeper rooted plants, such as some legumes, are often found here.
The formation of “soil polygons” is one of the most celebrated
geomorphic phenomena in the Arctic. Their occurrence is widespread
in permafrost areas, and despite much study their development is still
a matter of controversy. From a high vantage point, as from a plane,
they are most conspicuous, imparting to the land surface a polygonal
pattern like giant mud cracks (pl. 4). They can be described as a
series of mounds or dishlike impressions, usually at least 25 feet or
more on a side, separated from each other by a reticulum of more or
480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
less rectilinear ditches. Mounded polygons are called “high center”
polygons, and hollowed out ones “low center.” The basins of the latter
type usually hold a few inches to several feet of standing water (pl. 4).
The ditches of both types also usually contain at least a little standing
water. In very general terms, soil polygons can be said to arise
through the differential effects of perennial freezing and thawing
in the surface layers. Convection movements churn and sort the par-
ticles into a more or less regular pattern. Some kinds of polygons are
related to the development of discontinuous ice lenses in the subsoil.
Whatever their precise geomorphic origin and significance, they
are extremely significant to plant growth in that they create considera-
ble microrelief in many areas otherwise flat and thereby create a
greater diversity of habitats. Consequently, xerophytic and hydro-
phytic species can exist side by side.
Let me digress for a moment to emphasize the extreme importance
of microrelief in general to the development of vegetation in the Arctic.
Vast areas of tundra are essentially flat (pl. 3) and poorly drained, and
the slightest difference in elevation, even a few inches, can change the
moisture-holding capacity and drainage characteristics of the soil
toward a more xeric condition. Often the texture of the soil is coarser
on the mounds too. Consequently, on the drier tussocks and hum-
mocks one finds a slightly more xerophytic vegetation. If the differ-
ences in elevation are pronounced, the differences in vegetation may
also be quite pronounced. Phenological traits are frequently affected.
The wetter the soil the longer it takes in early summer for the soil
temperature to warm up sufficiently for growth, and I have seen again
and again the same species in full bloom in the depressions but with
nearly mature fruits on the adjacent mounds, with scarcely more than
a 6-inch difference in relief. This can only be due, I think, to a rela-
tively slight differential in soil moisture and/or temperature.
Frost action leads to still other phenomena of significance to plants.
On medium-to-steep slopes broad bands or lobes of surface material,
rubble or turf, tend to slump during the early thawing period when
the soil is saturated. This is one of several phenomena referred to as
solifluction (pl. 10, fig. 1). The hard upper surface of the permafrost
zone functions like a shear plane, and large masses of surficial ma-
terial, consolidated and unconsolidated, simply creep slowly down-
slope under their own weight. After a period of years, sizable rup-
tures may be created, where primary ecological succession can begin
again. Whole turfs and herbmats may be displaced downslope, but
the movement is usually slow enough that little if any significant
damage is suffered, apart from the actual displacement itself.
On the higher slopes and plains of the Tundra, Arctic and Alpine,
annual freezing and thawing may eventually have almost violent
consequences for the soil, heaving it upward and rupturing the sur-
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 481
face in small patches (pl. 4, fig. 2). These “frost boils,” as they are
called, keep the surface soil churned up and unstable for plant growth.
One of the most curious aspects of the Arctic environment is that
while water is almost universally evident on the Tundra in bogs,
pools, lakes, and streams, the climate is basically arid, and water is
frequently a limiting factor for plant growth. Mean annual precipi-
tation is extremely variable but seldom exceeds 20 inches, except for
certain localized zones especially in mountains. Probably more than
half of the vast Arctic gets 10 inches or less, and Barrow averaged only
a little over 4 inches a year for a 23-year period. This low figure
compares favorably with the annual rates for many warm temperate
desert situations. Summer rainfall can account for as much as half
of the annual precipitation in the Arctic, but snowfall commonly con-
tributes the greater portion.
Under conditions of good drainage and rapid drying, such a low
precipitation would give rise to lifeless desert. What prevents this
in large part in the Arctic is the presence of permafrost, which keeps
surface water from percolating downward out of the root zone. Also,
the land is very flat and geologically youthful, and drainage patterns
are generally erratic and poorly developed. Most of the annual
precipitation accumulates in depressions, large and small, and stag-
nates, forming bogs, wet meadows, pools, and lakes in very large
numbers. On the other hand, evaporation and transpiration are rela-
tively high owing to frequent winds and generally low humidity, and
a plant must have a ready water supply in order to survive. The
abundant hummocks, terraces, ridges, and low slopes of the Tundra
often become extremely xeric after the spring thaw and brief initial
saturation period, and here only plants with adaptations not unlike
those required by desert plants can grow. As noted earlier, the higher
one goes into the Arctic the more desertlike the habitats become.
Despite popular misconception, the Arctic is not generally deluged
each year by large deposits of snow. Average annual snowfall de-
creases as one moves northward on the continent, and in arctic regions
it is usually less than 40 inches. This is about equal to the minimum
average fall for the State of Pennsylvania and about half the maai-
mum fall! Insofar as the plants are concerned, then, the nature and
distribution of the snow, not the quantity, are the significant features.
In winter, except for depressions and leeward slopes, the mantle of
snow is very thin over most of the Tundra, and large areas get swept
completely bare by high winds. The plants are afforded little if any
insulation over these enormous areas and must be adapted to with-
stand the freezing winds that sweep the tundra slopes and plains.
The very cold temperatures cause the snow to be dry and gritty, which
in the wind does considerable damage to exposed plants by mechanical
abrasion. In summer, a light snow may fall at any time and linger
482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
for a few minutes to a few days, and the plants must be hardy enough
to withstand such chilling cloaks (pl. 7).
Snow does accumulate, of course, in sheltered places and slight
depressions, where it will linger, depending on its depth, well into the
summer season and much beyond the general snow cover, which dis-
appears almost overnight once thawing begins. On river flats and
flood plains large fields of ice will accumulate (Awfeis) and persist
sometimes well into August or even until new ice begins to form. I
remember particularly such a large icefield along the outlet of Old
John Lake, in the Brooks Range of eastern Alaska, back in 1957,
which was still very extensive in early August. Here, at the southern
limit of the Arctic, pussy willows (Salix alaxensis (Anderss.) Cov.)
and the early spring purple saxifrage (pl. 5) were just bursting into
flower in the wake of the retreating ice, in effect Just emerging from
winter even though the calendar said summer was about over for the
Arctic. The immediate environs of a lingering snowbed or icefield
are always choice spots for visiting botanists to find; such a spot is
usually a mecca for late-blooming stragglers of many species that have
long since gone to fruit elsewhere.
There are basically two types of snow accumulations: the snowbed
(or snowbank, icefield) and the snowpatch. Snowbeds form in large
depressions or on leeward slopes and usually are several to many
feet deep at peak accumulation. Seasonal snowbeds are common sights
both in arctic and alpine situations, but they are particularly familiar
to many of us in the Alpine (pl. 6). As a snowbed melts, it creates
a saturated flush area along the lower margins, where plants emerg-
ing from the overburden of snow quickly burst into flower. With
increasing radius from the snowbed, the stage of development becomes
later and later, so that within a snowflush area one can usually find
a given species in all stages of development from bud to fruit. Be-
cause of the abundant and steady water supply snowflush areas gen-
erally support rather luxuriant herbmats, but the species must be
adapted for cold soil temperatures, caused by the meltwater, and very
short growing seasons. Obviously, a plant that does not emerge from
under the snow until mid or late summer has got to go through its
reproductive cycle in high gear.
Snowpatches are relatively small and shallow accumulations in
slight tundra depressions, which melt very rapidly in the spring only
a little behind the general snow cover. They leave saturated soil
patches in which lush turf or herbmat develops. These patches
stand out conspicuously from the surrounding drier areas.
The Arctic suggests glaciers to many, yet glaciers are a relatively
insignificant factor to plants in the present-day Arctic as a whole.
Except in Greenland and in parts of the Arctic Archipelago, the
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 483
primary significance of glaciation lies in its historical role in shaping
the Arctic as we now know it. Most of the present-day Arctic is
simply too arid and flat for large accumulations of ice. There are,
however, scattered montane glaciers of local significance in the Low
Arctic. Nonetheless, one is conscious of the recent geological past in
this youthful land where in many instances primary ecological suc-
cession has only just begun since the retreat of Pleistocene ice. In
the Alpine, on the contrary, glaciers and glaciation are still a present
factor in the environment. This is particularly evident in subarctic
Alaska, where receding glaciers annually continue to bare new land
surfaces and moraines for plants to colonize (pl. 7, fig. 1).
Snow and snow accumulations per se are considerably more im-
portant in the Alpine than in the Arctic, at least the nonmontane
parts of it. Annual snowfall is usually much heavier, to be measured
in feet not inches, and this makes not only for a deeper accumulation,
hence later thawing, but also for much greater mechanical hazards.
Heavy deposits may crush woody plants, especially at timberline,
and violent snowslides may sweep whole slopes clean of vegetation
in one swift moment, not just once, perhaps, but again and again.
Frequent snowslides apparently account for some large open areas
at timberline that might otherwise have been overgrown with trees
(pl. 6, fig. 1).
Flooding can be an important influence in the development of vege-
tation both in the Arctic and the Alpine, but particularly the former.
Annual spring thaws send torrents of meltwater rushing down
gulches and ravines, which in the Arctic feed large rivers that flood
the tundra slopes and plains, sometimes altering the landscape mark-
edly. During unusually rainy summers, as our party experienced
in the Alaskan Arctic in 1963, flooding may be prolonged and re-
peated. While camped along the lower reaches of the Noatak River
(northwestern Alaska) in late June and early July, in less than a
week we watched that mighty river rise ominously to a flood stage
of more than 5 feet above normal. Virtually every flat and gulch
along the river was inundated, as the water backed far up into the
tributaries. Many willows, legumes, and other plants in full flower
became partially or wholly submerged by the icy water not many
degrees above freezing and remained submerged for several days
to nearly a week before the flood completely subsided. One small
patch of mountain avens (Dryas integrifolia M. Vahl; very similar
to other species in pl. 9) stood completely buried in about 6 inches
of clear cold water for nearly a week without showing any apparent
damage; all the while its big white flowers looked as fresh as ever.
It was as though they and many other flowers had been put in the
refrigerator for a week to prolong their life, and outside of a little
484. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
silt deposited on the leaves and flowers the plants looked no worse
for having been submerged. Nonetheless, even a week of arrested
development during the growing season could be crucial in preventing
seed development.
Wind, desiccating in summer and freezing in winter, is a relentless
force in the arctic-alpine environment, influencing both the form and
function of the plants. Tender young shoots have a veritable gantlet
to run in order to become established, especially if they project any
distance at all above the protection of the surrounding vegetation.
At timberline, the low trees and shrubs often betray this ceaseless
pounding of gusts and gales by pointing all their limbs in the direction
of the prevailing winds (pl. 8), and arborescent growth here is in gen-
eral likely to be gnarled and dwarfed from winds (pl. 8). Instead of
growing vertically, the plants, plied by the winds during their tender
years, sprawl horizontally over the meadows and screes. This prostrate
twisted habit, typical of tree limit anywhere, is sometimes called
Krummholz after the Germans. Beyond tree limit all growth, her-
baceous or woody, is dwarfed except in sheltered spots, and we know
from horticultural and ecological research and experience that the
dwarf habit of many arctic-alpine species is at least in part genetically
controlled. This habit surely must be an adaptive response in large
part to the factor of wind. I must hasten to append the caution, how-
ever, that constant strong winds are not universal in the Arctic, and
therefore the dwarf habit cannot be so easily explained as to attribute
it simply to wind.
Everyone knows that the Arctic is the land of midnight sun. Indeed,
to the plant the annual light regime is very bizarre. Each summer for
several weeks or more the days last for 24 hours and light is continuous.
In view of the short summer, it is doubtful that any vascular plant
could propagate itself by seed if it were not for this additional daily
insolation. In large part the longer days compensate for the shorter
season. Light intensity is not uniform throughout the 24-hour day,
of course, but falls off sharply at night. The nights are often like an
extended early twilight or early dawn. Owing to the more oblique
angle of incidence throughout the higher latitudes in summer, the
sun’s rays must pass through a thicker layer of atmosphere than in
temperate and tropical regions, and they strike the land surface with
less intensity, hence less heating capacity. As one might guess, the
longer duration, lower intensity, and somewhat different quality of the
light have definite effects on the plants. Quite a few arctic plants are
“long-day” plants; this means that they require relatively long days
and short nights for flowering and cannot be brought into flowering at
lower latitude without supplementary light. Rosette-forming species
are very common in the Arctic, and there is some evidence to suggest
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PLATE 1
1. Timberline meadow (subalpine) in saddle at 8,500 feet on Joseph Mountain in the Wallowa
Mountains of northeastern Oregon. Once probably to different exposures or soil
conditions, forest extends much higher on the background ridge than into foreground
saddle.
2. Alpine ridge just east (to the right) of meadow in fig. 1 (only slightly higher than
meadow). A few low trees straggle to summit on east side. For oe view of rubble
slope in center of picture, see pl. 2, fig. 1.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PEATE 2:
7 : . : 7 Ler ara pe or me chee ade
1. Rubble slope with only scattered clumps of vegetation on the alpine ridge pictured
in plate 1.
2. Boulder field high on north slope of Oyukak Mountain, 3,500 feet, overlooking the Upper
Noatak River Valley in the vicinity of Lake Omelaktavik, Alaska. ‘This area is wholly
within the Arctic Tundra Zone in the western Brooks Range, South Slope.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PEATEs
1. A typical expanse of tundra on the Arctic Coastal Plain of Alaska, just west of Pcint
Barrow. Characteristically, the landscape is flat and dotted with numerous lakes as far
as the eye can see. Aerial photograph taken at about 2,000 feet.
2. Closeup view of Arctic Coastal Plain tundra south of Point Barrow with a continuous
grass-sedge heath. The typical low, hummocky microrelief of arctic tundra is evident.
Here, in early July 1959, flowering had hardly begun.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PLATE 4
1. Aerial view of low-center soil polygons on the Alaskan Arctic Coastal Plain west of
Point Barrow. ‘Their basins are water-filled (dark), but some of the ponds are nearly
or quite choked off by vegetation (light). In foreground are parallel tracks of a winter
“cat” trail, made by tracked vehicles like the “Weasel.” ‘Taken from altitude of about
100-200 feet.
Summit, east-central Alaska. Vegetation patches are mainly mountain avens (Dryas)
and a dwarf willow (Salix phlebophylla). ‘Taken in late June 1957.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PLATE 5
‘
1. The very early purple saxifrage (Saxifraga oppositifolia), an extremely wide-ranging
arctic-alpine species. Observe the highly telescoped stems and consequently much-
compacted leaves. Plants slightly larger than natural size. Photograph by James
Warren.
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2. A common dwarf arctic willow, Salix phlebophylla, which projects only a few inches above
the ground and tends to form large mats. Here the mature catkins, scarcely larger than
a man’s thumb, can be seen beginning to shed their cotton-tufted seeds (Eagle Summit,
late June 1957; see pl. 4, fig. 2). Notice the scalloped leaves of Dryas octopetala in the
background.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PLATE 6
1. Deep snow still covers timberline meadows in Logan Pass, Glacier National Park,
Montana, on June 1, 1957 (altitude about 6,000 feet). The dead limbs and trees are
likely the result of perennial wind and snow damage.
2. Alpine snowbeds on August 1, 1960, near highest point (ca. 12,000 feet) along highway
through Rocky Mountain National Park, Colorado.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PLATE 7
1. Worthington Glacier in the Pacific Coast Range just north of Valdez, Alaska. Notice
how close to the terminus of the glacier patches of vegetation have invaded the new end
moraine.
2. Alpine flowers on Eagle Summit, Alaska, nearly smothered while in full bloom by light
snow on June 21, 1957. Most prominent species here: Arctic poppy (Papaver radicatum
Rottb.) and louseworts (Pedicularis lanata C. & S., P. oederi Vahl). Photograph by
Gene Whitaker.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PLATE 8
1. A tortured spruce sentinel near the upper limit of trees on Snowy Range Pass (10,800
feet) in the Medicine Bow Mountains of southcentral Wyoming, tellingly pointing all its
branches in the direction of the prevailing winds. Here can be seen the interdigitating
of forest and alpine and a tendency toward the development of typical timberline
Krummholz.
2. The Arctic blueberry, Vaccinium uliginosum L., is an abundant low shrub of the Tundra
in all quarters of the Arctic. The fruits are often quite oblong as in this picture (about
one-half life size).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PLATE 9
1. The white-flowered Arctic sandwort (drenaria arctica Stev.), belonging to the chickweed
family (Caryophyllaceae), is a very showy species of arctic and alpine rock-deserts.
Above-ground vegetative parts are minimal.
2. Mountain avens (Dryas octopetala L.), a dwarf mat-forming shrub (chamaephyte), is
one of the most widespread arctic-alpine species. A member of the rose family (Rosa-
ceae), it inhabits dry heaths, herbslopes, talus, barrens, etc., and has large showy white
flowers and almost no upright stems.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PEATE SO
1. An alpine rock desert on Eagle Summit, Alaska, during the peak of flowering (late June
1957). Here in this veritable rock garden, the author is seen collecting Arctic sandwort
and mountain avens (see pl. 9), the dominant species. Observe the hummocky solifluc-
tion slope in the background.
2. A typical arctic tundra meadow of cottongrass tussocks (“niggerhead meadow’’) on
rolling foothill slopes along the lower Noatak River in the western Brooks Range, Alaska.
Late in June 1963, the tufts of the mature white bristles (‘‘cotton’’) of the fruiting spikes
are dominating this landscape like fresh-fallen snow. Note the persisting old snowbeds
in the background.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Shetler PLATE 11
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1. The hardy, coarse-textured fragrant shield-fern, Dryopterts fragrans (L.) Schott., is a
nearly ubiquitous inhabitant of sheltered ledges and crevices of rock outcrops in some
sectors of the Arctic and Subarctic, as for example Alaska. Characteristically, the shelter-
ing rocks are covered with crustose and flattened foliose lichens.
=
2. The creamy white Cetraria cucullata (Bell.) Ach., an antler like fruticose lichen, is one
of the many species of lichens that everywhere help to make up arctic tundra heaths.
(Slightly under natural size.)
Shetler
Smithsonian Report, 1963.
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PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 485
that the rosette habit is at least in part brought about by the arctic
type of light regime.
In the Alpine the light regime is quite different in temperate regions.
Owing to the thinner high-altitude atmosphere, the light is both very
intense and high in ultraviolet rays. The days are not abnormally
long, of course, and the sun is more directly overhead.
THE PLANTS
Every time I step from a “bush” plane into a different part of the
Arctic or climb to the Alpine of a new mountain, I am impressed anew
with the basic uniformity of their habitats and vegetation. To the
biologist, botanist and zoologist alike, it has come to be axiomatic that
one encounters fewer and fewer species, which at the same time become
more and more widespread, as he moves from tropical to temperate
to polar regions or, on a smaller scale, from sea level to higher eleva-
tions. Thus, the botanist finds that the arctic-alpine flora is not nearly
so diverse and rich in species as temperate and tropical floras, and it
has a much smaller endemic element. Arctic-alpine species tend to
be circumpolar. This uniformity of the flora clearly reflects the
almost tedious uniformity of the environment, which is generally so
harsh and hostile to plants that only a small percentage of the earth’s
flora has been able to invade it. Once successfully adapted, a species
is then able to spread throughout the peculiar arctic-alpine environ-
ment, and many species have done just that.
In order that we might get a bird’s-eye view of the plants in the
-arctic-alpine environment, I will attempt in the ensuing discussion to
touch briefly on some ecological, morphological, floristic, taxonomic,
and geographic aspects.
LIFE ZONES AND CLIMAX FORMATIONS
The correlation of certain plants and animals with altitude on the
one hand and latitude on the other was first carefully examined by
C. Hart Merriam, who, as the result of a biological survey in the San
Francisco Mountains of Arizona in 1889, formulated his classic “Life
Zone” concept and certain climatic laws to explain it. He was able to
recognize rather distinct horizontal vegetation belts on the mountain
slopes, which graded from one into another with increasing altitude.
He postulated that this rather distinct zonation of the vegetation was
due to a climatic zonation, and he went on the generalize that this was
not a local phenomenon but that the same zones in the same unique
sequence occurred on all high mountains. Depending on the latitude,
the whole sequence was shifted up or down in altitude. Further, he
proposed that some of these zones had latitudinal counterparts. His
zones, from highest to lowest, were: Arctic-alpine, Hudsonian, Cana-
720-018— 64-33
486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
dian, Transition, and Upper and Lower Sonoran. His latitudinal
counterpart for the Arctic-alpine Zone was the Tundra. In this zone,
presumably, the climate did not permit the permanent development of
trees. He was particularly interested in explaining the distribution of
birds and animals on the basis of these vegetation zones.
While Merriam greatly oversimplified the geographic relationship
of plants and animals to their environment by focusing only on cli-
mate, he is to be credited, nonetheless, with making the first serious at-
tempt to interpret biogeography climatically. He was a bit short
sighted, however, when he wrote, “It appears, therefore, that in its
broader aspects the study of the geographic distribution of life in
North America is completed. The primary divisions and their sub-
divisions have been defined and mapped, the problems involved in the
control of distribution have been solved, and the laws themselves have
been formulated.” THis “laws” have never enjoyed wide acceptance,
but his Life Zone concept and terminology are still quite useful for
general descriptive ecology, especially in montane areas for which,
after all, they were first formulated.
The well-known plant ecologist F. E. Clements was also greatly
impressed by the correlation of vegetation and climate, and he de-
veloped a whole new school of ecology, founded on the now classic
concepts of “succession” and “climax.” ‘These concepts had from
the beginning a far wider application and validity than Merriam’s
Life Zone concept, and they are still widely held despite rather severe
criticism in recent years by phytosociologists. In Clements’ view,
there was on any newly exposed land surface, such as a glacial moraine,
a more or less orderly succession of vegetation types from the ac-
cidental first colonizers through to an ultimate mature type, which
attained a dynamic equilibrium with the regional climatic regimen and
was subject to no further important changes so long as the climate
didn’t change. This swecesston was regarded as a very long-term pro-
cess that could only culminate after the climate had succeeded in
bringing about general physiographic uniformity, including a mature
soil. Persistent local variations in soils or topography, for example,
could arrest the plant succession at any given stage and put off the
the arrival of the final one indefinitely. The final stage was termed the
climaz, and it was postulated by Clements that those regions with
the same climate ultimately developed the same vegetation climax.
The major plant formations of the world, such as the coniferous Boreal
Forest and the Tundra, were seen, then, as climax types. Thus, the
so-called “Tundra Formation” represents a climax without trees,
which presumably will always develop under the influence of the
arctic-alpine climate.
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 487
THE TUNDRA FORMATION—AN ECOLOGICAL LOOK
Our attention is drawn first to the general phystognomy or structure
of the vegetation—the “gross anatomy,” if you will, of the tundra
vegetation. Closer examination will bring us secondarily to the
nature and composition of the individual plant communities.
Every mature plant has a particular habit or shape and mode of
growth that we call its “growth-habit” or “growth-form.” It may be
woody or herbaceous, tall or short, erect or prostrate, bushy or fastig-
iate, annual or perennial, etc. Growth-form may vary greatly
within the same species and habitat; yet there is a distinct tendency
for the members of a given species, sometimes of a whole genus or
family, to fluctuate around an average highly characteristic form.
This more-or-less stabilized, presumably growth-form is called the
“life-form” of the species. (Some species encompass more than one
race, and the races may have different life-forms.) It represents a
long-term genetic compromise with the environment. Raunkiaer
called the life-form a “biological type.”
Various systems have been devised for classifying plants according
to their life-form. The ancient Greeks already used the obvious dis-
tinctions between trees, shrubs, and herbs to classify plants. In
modern times, a more refined system has been proposed by the late
Danish botanist Raunkiaer, based on the position of the “perennating”
(renewing) bud. It has been variously modified by other authors,
but the usual classes are essentially Raunkiaer’s:
1. Phanerophytes—Renewal buds on shoots at least 25 centimeters
above the surface of the ground; mostly trees or shrubs.
2. Chamaephytes——Renewal buds on shoots between ground-level
and 25 centimeters high; perennial herbs and some undershrubs.
3. Hemicryptophytes.—Renewal buds at ground level or within the
surface layer of the soil; perennial herbs.
4. Geophytes.—Renewal organs (bulbs, tubers, rhizomes) well bur-
ied in the soil; biennial or perennial herbs (subclass of Cryptophytes).
5. Hydrophytes——Water plants, whether anchored to the bottom or
not, except free-floating or swimming types; tends to cut across other
types and is often omitted (subclass of Cryptophytes).
6. Therophytes——Annuals, completing entire life cycle in a single
growing season, surviving unfavorable periods as seeds or spores.
Raunkiaer used this system to derive life-form “spectra” for various
floras, as a whole, converting the number of species in each of the life-
form classes into a percentage of the total sample. Asa standard, he
developed a so-called “normal spectrum,” based on 400 species chosen
more or less at random from the world’s flora. Then he was able to
deduce, for example, whether a tropical flora had more or less thero-
phytes than an arctic flora, etc. Some general observations were: (1)
488 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Phanerophytes and hemicryptophytes are the two largest classes in
the world’s flora as a whole; (2) warm humid regions have a pre-
ponderance of phanerophytes; (3) warm arid regions are overly
represented by therophytes; and (4) chamaephytes predominate in
arctic and alpine regions. This last generalization is significant to
our discussion here.
Cautiously applied, Raunkiaer’s scheme provides one means of quan-
tifying the physiognomy of vegetation. It also serves in this case to
focus our attention on several adaptive features of arctic-alpine plants
in general. Perennating buds simply could not survive the freezing
and desiccating arctic and alpine winds without heavy protection; and
one would expect the environment to select in favor of those species
and biotypes that have their renewing buds at or near the surface of the
ground—in other words, low chamaephytes and hemicryptophytes.
Maximum protection from the environment, harsh both above and
below ground, is provided at the surface by the litter and snow. These
are precisely the classes, of course, that Raunkiaer’s scheme shows to be
most abundant in the Arctic. Good examples of very low chamae-
phytes are the dwarf willows, purple saxifrage, and mountain avens
(pls. 5, 9) ; their perennating buds are scarcely over an inch or two
above the ground in winter. The bilberry or arctic blueberry (pl. 8)
can be either a tall chamaephyte or short phanerophyte. Numerous
herbs that die back to the ground completely each year or form basal
rosettes fit the category of hemicryptophyte, although the distinction
between this class and chamaephytes is in cases debatable as indeed be-
tween alltheclasses. The lines are arbitrary and for convenience only.
A large flora of geophytes is precluded in the Arctic by permafrost.
It is common knowledge that the floras of high latitudes and high
altitudes are comprised predominantly of perennial species. Owing
to the extremely vigorous and selective environment, establishment by
seed or other propagule is a very difficult and fortuitous event at best.
Consequently, it is of supreme advantage to a species or biotype if once
it gets a foothold it is able to colonize rapidly and endure for more
than a single season. Perennials clearly have the edge on annuals, and
the northernmost floras have few if any annual species. The abun-
dance of grasses and sedges in tundra vegetation is particularly note-
worthy in this respect. A species may not always have the same
duration in every habitat, however. The European Linaria alpina
Mill. (toadflax), for example, is annual in the lowlands, biennial in
the lower mountains, and perennial at high altitudes. Low tempera-
tures seem to reduce the annual duration of vegetative growth while
increasing the life-span of the individual (Combes, p. 100).
There is a vast literature on the subject of plant communities in the
Arctic-Alpine environment, and it would be foolish for me to attempt
either summary or synthesis here. Particularly noteworthy, insofar
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 489
as North America is concerned, are the works of Polunin, Porsild, and
Raup. I should like, however, to make a few summary comments
about plant communities.
If we take only an overview of the Tundra, we find that its plant
communities can be grouped in three major groups: (1) rock desert
communities, (2) heath and grass-sedge communities, and (3) aquatic
communities.
Under rock desert communities, I include barrens, screes, rubble
slopes, boulder fields, pavements, and river or coastal strands and
dunes—any conmmunity where the vegetation is discontinuous and
sparsely scattered in patches or polsters (pls. 1, fig. 2; 2; 4, fig. 2; 8,
fig. 1; 10, fig.1). In winter, these habitats are covered by little if any
snow. Rock deserts may be veritable flower gardens during the short
flowering season (pl. 10, fig. 1), and some of the Arctic-Alpine’s most
attractive members thrive here amidst the rocks (pl.9). Rock crevices
shelter a variety of species at the higher elevations, including several
species of ferns (pl. 11). The rocks on these rock deserts may look
completely barren from a distance, but all is not desert between the
patches of ferns and flowering plants. Lichens, especially crustose
lichens, cover large areas of rock surface, sometimes almost completely
(pl 1t, fig.1).
Within the continuous-vegetation group of communities, the heaths
and grass-sedge prairies, individual types and subtypes are almost
legion, and all generalizations must be treated cautiously. Mosses
and lichens are ubiquitous in the Arctic, forming an almost continuous
heath over vast areas, often as an understory to other vegetation. The
creamy white Cetraria cucullata (Bell.) Ach. (pl. 11, fig. 2) is a very
common heath lichen of the Tundra, and certain of these cetrarias
(Cetraria spp.) and some cladonias (Cladonia spp.) are called “rein-
deer moss” by some, alluding to their food role for caribou and rein-
deer. Dwarf-shrub heaths cover enormous areas in total, and they
are often dominated by species of the heather family, Ericaceae.
Good examples are the arctic blueberry (pl. 8) and Labrador tea
(pl. 12), both very widespread constituents of tundra heaths in the
Arctic. These heaths are very like bog heaths of temperate latitudes,
which probably are but glacial relicts of a once more widespread
arctic type of vegetation. Some of the same species, such as bog rose-
mary (Andromeda poltfolia L., pl. 12), are found both in tundra
heaths and temperate bog heaths.
The prairie communities vary from marsh or wet meadow to very
dry upland meadow, depending on the general terrain and microrelief.
In localized spots, snowflush and alder-willow thicket communities,
mentioned before, occur. Usually, grasses and sedges of one or more
species predominate in the prairie communities, but from place to
place large patches of herbmat will be in evidence, particularly in snow-
490 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
flushes and snowpatch areas. Typical examples of tundra prairie are
illustrated by the pictures in plates 3 and 10, taken in the Alaskan Arc-
tic. One was taken before most species had begun to flower and the
other at the peak of flowering. The cottongrass tussock meadow (pl.
10), often called “niggerhead” meadow, is one of the most characteris-
tic plant communities of the Arctic. The principal tussock-forming
species is the sedge Hriophorum vaginatum L. (cottongrass), a
strongly cespitose (clump-forming) species. By a combination proc-
ess of their own growing habit and the perennial forces of freeze and
thaw, these sedges build up over a period of years more or less conical
mounds, composed primarily of organic remains of previous growth.
The new year’s growth is always at the apex of the tussock. Other
plants, not able to thrive in the wetter depressions, can often gain a
foothold on these relatively dry tussocks. The top of the mound, ex-
cluding the new stems, may be a foot or more above the surrounding
depressions. Only those who have tried to hike for miles across these
niggerhead meadows can fully appreciate just what sort of landscape
the tussocks create. In total aspect, these meadows are very attractive
when the “cotton” (fruiting-head bristles) is ripe; from the air one
sees this cotton dominating the landscape for hundreds of miles along
the Alaskan Arctic Slope for several weeks, looking just like a light
fresh snow.
Arctic freshwater habitats are generally quite sterile because of the
frigid water temperatures, even in summer, and the presence of ice
through much of the year. Shallower lakes and streams freeze to
the bottom in winter, and the deepest lakes may be so cold year-
round that they scarcely lose their surface layer of ice before a new
layer begins to form. Nonetheless, a fair number of aquatic species
do recur across the Tundra in lakes, ponds, and streams. Pondweeds
(Potamogeton spp.), several species of buttercups (Ranunculus spp.
and Caltha spp.), and marestail (Hippuris vulgaris L.) are some of
the most widely occurring ones.
MORPHOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ARCTIC-ALPINE PLANTS
One could accumulate from the literature a fairly long catalog of
specific correlations of morphological features with environmental
factors, demonstrated for this or that species or taxonomic group, but
precious few generalizations can be made about arctic-alpine plants
as a whole. For example, I can demonstrate statistical correlations
between height of plant or diameter of corolla and altitude in
Campanula rotundifolia L., the harebells, an extremely polymorphic
complex on which I have done considerable research. Height
decreases as altitude increases, a negative correlation, and corolla
diameter increases while altitude increases, a positive correlation. To
a degree, but harder to show statistically, these same correlations exist
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 491
with latitude. In themselves, altitude or latitude are not significant
of course, but only as indices of a changing environment.
These two examples illustrate the biologist’s perennial dilemma
when he tries to translate correlation, in this case statistically signifi-
cant, into something of biological significance. The negative height
correlation is quite genera] and well known in plants; we expect plants
to get shorter as we go toward arctic or alpine areas, because of the
more rigorous environmental conditions, already discussed. I am
simply saying statistically here what we have already stated earlier—
arctic-alpine plants tend to be dwarfed. On the other hand, the tend-
ency for the harebell flowers to get larger with increasing altitude or
latitude is not as general a tendency, and the biological significance of
this trend is more equivocal. Perhaps the larger flowers compensate
for the fewer insects in this environment; their greater size might
have greater attracting power. Certainly, insect-pollinated species,
such as the harebell, must attract insects to reproduce successfully,
and a reduced insect density is a handicap. Not all the insect-polli-
nated species have large flowers, however, and it would be misleading
to conclude that pollination relationships explain the larger flowers
in the arctic-alpine environment satisfactorily. Whatever the reasons,
nevertheless, the correlation is often noted that arctic-alpine species
tend to have large showy flowers (pl. 9, fig. 2).
The well-known tendency of arctic-alpine plants to become dwarfed
suggests to us what might be the only important generalization that
can be made, namely, that there is in the arctic-alpine environment
an overall trend among the plants toward the reduction of surface
area. WDwarfing has the effect of reducing the amount of exposed
shoot, including stem, branches, leaves, and inflorescence. The above-
ground stem may be virtually nonexistent, or if present it may creep
along the surface of the ground. Grasses and sedges, both very
successful in the arctic-alpine environment, have subterranean or
partially superficial creeping stems; the same can be said for the
willows. Dwarf willows, for example Salix phlebophylla Anders.
(pl. 5), provide superb examples of this tendency. In all their re-
productive features they are perfectly orthodox willows, yet their
vegetative parts are so reduced that those familiar with only temperate
willows are prone to be taken aback by their first experience with
these arctic-alpine dwarfs. They have in effect done away with
every vegetative flourish that the life cycle could spare, retaining
little more than the inflorescence above ground. Such is true of
arctic-alpine plants generally, which fact impresses one time and
again as he moves about in tundra regions (pl. 9).
The reduction-of-surface-area trend can be observed in the very
form and structure of the plant organs of many plants. The leaves
are often more or less in-rolled (revolute), leathery, and hairy on
492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
one or both surfaces, as is well illustrated by some species of the
heather family (pl. 12). These are all xeromorphic features, which
presumably reduce water loss, that one is accustomed to seeing in
plants of very arid environments. The inflorescence tends also to be
reduced to one or a few flowers, which however may be quite large,
as already discussed. Asa result of much abbreviated stems, the stem
leaves are often highly compacted, sometimes very distinctively so
as in the purple saxifrage (pl. 5, fig. 1).
POLYPLOIDY AND APOMIKXIS
Typically, the vegetative cells of plants, as the somatic cells of
animals, have two sets of chromosomes, a paternal set and a maternal
set. This is the well-known diploid condition. But plants, unlike
animals, often have one or more additional sets (usually pairs of
additional sets) per cell in a condition known as polyploidy. These
plants are called polyploids in general, but they may be referred to
more specifically as triploids (3 sets), tetraploids (4 sets), etc.
Early cytological studies of certain European and Scandinavian
floras led to the generalization that polyploidy is more common at
high latitudes, i.e., arctic latitudes, than at low latitudes. The corol-
lary was quickly proposed that polyploids must therefore be more
hardy and successful than diploids in the extreme arctic type of
environment, hence more tolerant of extreme conditions in general.
This conclusion is still generally accepted, but the evidence is not
as unambiguous as first seemed. If polyploids were really more
tolerant of extreme conditions, then one would expect to find high
percentages of them also in alpine areas, arid regions, marine habitats,
and disturbed situations, but this is not altogether true. However,
much more research on this question is still needed.
If we subject the proposition that polyploidy is relatively more
frequent in the northern latitudes to examination by case study, we
find indeed that examples can be found of species pairs (one diploid
and one polyploid species) in which the diploid member of the pair
has the more southern range (e.g., in genera H’mpetrum, crowberry,
and Clethra). However, the converse can also be found (Vaccinium,
blueberries and cranberries, /ris, and Campanula, harebells and bell-
flowers). Campanula rotundifolia Lu. (harebell), for instance, is
a widespread circumpolar species, comprised both of diploid and
tetraploid biotypes, but almost all known diploid biotypes have been
found in Greenland (Bécher). Valid general comparisons with
tropical angiosperm floras really can’t be made at present, owing to
our sketchy cytological knowledge of these floras. Manton studied
the fern flora of Ceylon and concluded that polyploidy among Cey-
lonese ferns must be at least as great as among British ferns.
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 493
Whatever the true relative frequency of polyploidy on the earth’s
surface, we must reckon with the fact that the number of species ex-
hibiting some polyploidy within their ranks may reach as high as 80
percent of the total flora in certain arctic areas. Perhaps the ex-
planation lies in an ability of polyploids to tolerate more extreme
conditions, as has usually been suggested, but certain other facts
tend in part to explain this high percentage quite apart from their
ecological tolerance. These facts cannot be overlooked in any at-
tempt at generalization. First, the families Gramineae (grasses) and
Cyperaceae (sedges) are known to have an unusually high incidence
of polyploidy among their species, and these particular families com-
prise a relatively large segment of the arctic flora, as already noted.
Second, polyploidy is also particularly frequent among herbaceous
perennials with efficient means of asexual reproduction, such as tend
to dominate the arctic flora. Third, glaciated areas tend to be higher
in polyploids than unglaciated areas, and a large segment of the
present-day arctic flora occupies glaciated land. The presumption
is that polyploids are better early colonizers. In summary, then, the
explanation for the apparently high incidence of polyploidy in the
Arctic may be far more indirect and complex than has been thought.
The second consideration above raises the question of apomizis,
which in the strict sense refers to the production of viable seeds
parthenogenetically (without fertilization by male), and in the broad
sense includes all asexual means of reproduction. In either sense, apo-
mictic species are uncommonly frequent in the Arctic. What’s more,
an apomictic species is very likely to be polyploid, and many poly-
ploids are apomictic. This correlation is not necessarily unexpected.
A polyploid species can escape all the cytological difficulties of normal
seed production that usually attend polyploidy, 7f it reproduces by
some asexual means instead. In other words, an apomictic “bypass”
of sexual reproduction permits certain polyploid biotypes that would
ordinarily be eliminated rather quickly to survive and even to thrive
and spread. Clearly, apomixis is advantageous to arctic-alpine plants,
and apomictic biotypes would tend to accumulate in these harsh en-
vironments over a long period of time. Thus, we can understand
how apomixis would be an adaptation for arctic-alpine environments
and how polyploidy can survive in apomictic households, but this
still leaves open the real question of the selective advantage of poly-
ploids in the Arctic, if any.
FLORISTIC AND GEOGRAPHICAL ASPECTS OF ARCTIC-ALPINE VEGETATION
If from an ecological viewpoint the vegetation of the arctic-alpine
environment is unique, what about the individual species that com-
prise it? To what degree is the flora of the Arctic-Alpine unique?
494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Three principal classes of species are to be found in the arctic-
alpine environment :
1. Widespread circumboreal species, meaning species with a world-
wide distribution in North Temperate regions, having a large ecolog-
ical tolerance (amplitude) that permits them to transgress two or
more major climatic, hence environmental, zones and plant formations.
In other words, this class includes species that might occur widely,
for example, in both coniferous forests and tundra. Such species
may thrive in arctic-alpine habitats simply by virtue of a wide phys-
iological tolerance rather than any particular genetic adaptation.
Certain species of the heather family, as bog rosemary (Andromeda
polifolia L.; pl. 12), provide good examples.
2. Widespread circumboreal species represented in the Arctic-
Alpine by specially adapted, hardy biotypes that have become estab-
lished as separate physiological races, which may or may not be
morphologically marked. These are sometimes called ecotypes—
ecological races. An example here is the widespread species Ledum
palustre L. (Labrador tea; pl. 12), which has differentiated a race,
ssp. decumbens (Ait.) Hult., that is found only in the Arctic.
3. Endemic species found only in some part of the Arctic-Alpine
either with or without more than one race. These species may be ex-
tremely localized or virtually circumpolar; confined to the Arctic or
some part of the Alpine or common to both. There are of course minor
overlaps into the next vegetation zones at the lower limits of the
Arctic and Alpine. Several of the saxifrages, like Sawifraga flagel-
laris Willd. and S. oppositifolia L. (pl. 5), and Diapensia lapponica
L. are good examples of widespread arctic-alpine species, endemic in
the sense used here.
These must of course be arbitrary categories, and their sole function
is to point up the major patterns of distribution. It is very difficult
to categorize many species found growing in the Arctic-Alpine, for
the simple reason that we lack rudimentary data about their ecological
requirements and ofttimes have a poor picture of their distribution.
The classic transplant studies of Turesson, the team of Clausen, Keck
and Hiesey, Bécher, and others have provided ample evidence to con-
vince us that widespread species do differentiate ecological races in
alpine and arctic regions. They grew plants, transplanted from an
arctic or alpine habitat, under uniform conditions at lower latitudes
and elevations to determine whether their characteristic growth-form
was due to environment or heredity. The Clausen team added the
refinement of taking pieces from the same clone (same genetic in-
dividual) of certain plants, as grasses, and planting them at different
altitudes to see what the same genetic stuff could produce under dif-
ferent environments. All of these studies leave no doubt that in the
cases studied, at least, both environment and heredity have a strong
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 495
hand in the development of certain characteristic arctic-alpine fea-
tures, but also that the arctic-apline race is a real thing. Ideally, we
need transplant studies in every last species before we can decide
whether it is a widespread tolerant species, a physiologically differ-
entiated race of some widespread species, which may or may not also be
morphologically differentiated, or a fully isolated endemic species,
incapable of thriving under other than arctic-alpine conditions. We
will have to wait many years, however, before this sort of information
will be available. Meanwhile, we must continue as in the past to infer
what the real situation is from descriptive data.
Using the transplant work that has already been done as a guide-
line, we are now able to infer much more safely from morphological
and phytogeographical data and methods just what the answers to
the questions posed here really are from group to group. As our
knowledge of distributions increases, for example, we approach a
fairly complete picture of the species that are found only in the
Arctic-Alpine, the endemics, and it seems safe to assume that their
very restriction to this environment speaks to peculiar physiological
adaptation. We havea wealth of descriptive information available on
arctic-alpine plants, especially on the distribution of the species and
their morphological varieties, thanks in large measure to the pioneer-
ing work of Hultén (1937, 1962) and Polunin (1959). These papers
and others of Hultén’s are truly monumental in the scope of the task
they attempt and in large measure already have achieved. They have
set a comprehensive groundwork for all future studies of arctic-alpine
plants, particularly arctic plants.
Let us come finally to the present status of botanical research in
the Arctic-Alpine. Most of the known flora of this region throughout
the world was described before the advent of experimental and
cytological methods, which have turned our minds to the problems of
polyploidy and ecological (physiological) races. Furthermore, this
descriptive work was done in widely separated quarters of the world
by botanists who not only held sometimes divergent views but were
able to communicate infrequently at best with each other. For one
reason or another, many of the efforts were strictly national efforts,
stopping at the limits of national boundaries. The plants, on the
other hand, know no national boundaries, and, as we have already seen,
many are essentially circumpolar. (Consequently, time and again
the same species has got described from different areas by new and
different names. One could recapitulate numerous case histories,
hardly necessary here. As a result, however, we have come to have
many more names than species in the arctic-alpine flora. The situa-
tion is confounded even more by the fact that we have lacked not
only international, but énéranational coordination. In North Amer-
ica, for example, the students of the Arctic have been largely different
496 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
from the students of the Alpine, and we are often at a loss to know
whether certain species in the Rocky Mountains, for instance, are con-
specific with similar arctic species or are merely close relatives.
Fortunately, the recent trend among students of the arctic-alpine
flora everywhere is to study only a very small group of closely related
species, but on a very broad geographical basis taking in, if possible,
the entire worldwide range. Only after this has been done for all
the major problem groups can we begin to sift out the numerous
superfluous names and come to a real understanding of the origins
and affinities of arctic-alpine species. Of especial personal interest is
the question of the overall affinities of the Alaskan arctic-alpine flora
to the Rocky Mountain alpine flora and to the Eurasian arctic-alpine
flora. Rydberg studied the Rocky Mountain flora, Hultén has been
studying the Alaskan flora, and the Russians have largely reserved
to themselves the study of the arctic-alpine flora of the vast Siberian
region, which comes to within a matter of miles of the Alaskan Arctic.
We have hardly begun to integrate our knowledge of these regions,
to say nothing of attempting to study their floras through the same
eyes. When the latter becomes possible, I am convinced that we will
find an even greater unity among these regions than is presently sus-
pected. The signal contributions of Hultén and Polunin have pointed
the way, we hope, to a new era of international cooperation in arctic-
alpine botanical research. Let us also hope that we have begun to see
the end of national species and that more international species are just
around the corner, speaking biologically of course and not politically.
LITERATURE CITED
BOcHER, Tyee W.
1960. Experimental and cytological studies on plant species. V. The Camp-
anula rotundifolia complex. Biol. Skr. Dan. Vid. Selsk., vol. 11, No.
4, pp. 1-69.
CLAUSEN, JENS.
1951. Stages in the evolution of plant species. 206 pp. Ithaca, N.Y., Cornell
University Press.
CLEMENTS, F. E.
1916. Plant succession: an analysis of the development of vegetation.
Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 242, 512 pp.
ComBgEs, R.
1946. La forme des végétaux et le milieu. Coll. Armand Collin, No. 240,
Paris.
HULTEN, ERIC.
1937. Outline of the history of arctic and boreal biota during the Quaternary
Period. Stockholm. 168 pp.
1962. The circumpolar plants, I: vascular cryptogams, conifers, mono-
eotyledons. 275 pp. Stockholm, Almqvist & Wiksell.
Manrov, I.
1953. The cytological evolution of the fern flora of Ceylon. Symposia Soc.
for Exper. Biol. No. 7, pp. 174-185.
PLANTS IN ARCTIC-ALPINE ENVIRONMENT—SHETLER 497
MERRIAM, C. HART.
1894. The geographic distribution of animals and plants in North America.
Yearbook of Agriculture, 1894, pp. 203-214.
OostiNn@, H. J.
1956. The study of plant communities: an introduction to plant ecology.
2d ed. San Francisco, W. H. Freeman and Co. 440 pp.
PoLUNIN, NICHOLAS.
1940-1948. Botany of the Canadian Eastern Arctic. Parts I-III. Bull. Nat.
Mus. Canada, Nos. 92, 97, 104.
1959. Circumpolar arctic flora. 514 pp. London, Oxford University Press.
Porst, A. E.
1951. Plant life in the Arctic. 27 pp. (Reprinted by Nat. Mus. Canada
from Canadian Geogr. Jour., Mar. 1951.)
1955. The vascular plants of the Western Canadian Arctic Archipelago.
Bull. Nat. Mus. Canada, vol. 155, pp. 1-226.
1957. Illustrated flora of the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. Bull. Nat. Mus.
Canada, vol. 146, pp. 1-209.
RAUNEIAER, C.
1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography; being the
collected papers of C. Raunkiaer. 632 pp. Oxford, The Clarendon
Press.
Ravp, HueH M.
1947. The botany of southwestern Mackenzie. Sargentia, vol. 6, pp. 1-275.
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
1941. Climate and man. Yearbook of Agriculture, 1,248 pp. Washington,
Government Printing Office.
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Concerning Whales and Museums’
By A. E. Parr
Senior Scientist, The American Museum of Natural History
[With 8 plates]
WHALES HAVE always been a problem and a challenge to exhibitors.
Gargantuan size provides a readymade source of excitement. But op-
tical uniformity of environment offers little opportunity for visual
enrichment of setting.
Stranded whales have probably drawn crowds of curious or hungry
spectators before written history began. When somebody first got the
idea of claiming ownership and charging admission to the spectacle
is not recorded. But it undoubtedly happened a long time ago.
In the early days, problems of size and decay confined the show to
the spot where the whale had reached its doom under its own power.
When we learned to delay the state of repulsiveness by icing and em-
balming, it became possible to take time to move the disconsolate
carcass to more favorable locations for mass attendance. The wake
of the whale might cover long distances and much time before dust
returned to dust. The traveling corpse of a minor behemoth of the
seas could be admired in New York as late as in 1954, upon payment of
a proper tribute to the dead.
Much as one may now criticize the tedium of endless rows of stuffed
specimens on shelves, even the earliest museums of the 18th century
obeyed the cardinal principle that a living species must be restored
to the posture of life before it is shown. This was even true of the
thousands of birds on the tiresome T-perches we now despise so much.
When whales in the round finally followed their skeletons into the
museums, their dejected appearance of death and imminent decay was
properly deemed to offer a completely unacceptable image of the
elegant bodies that glide so easily through the waters.
Since whales do not perch, the problem of presenting them in their
living form was a good deal more complicated than the difficulties of
bird taxidermy. In consideration of their normal environment, it was
recognized that the specimens should have as little contact with other
Reprinted by permission from Curator (the American Museum of Natural History),
vol. 6, No. 1, 1963.
499
500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
solids as possible. The question was whether to suspend or support.
Supports are mechanically simpler and also carry an illusion of greater
safety. The first museum whales could therefore be seen placidly
floating across the tops of three or four newel posts or similar devices,
after the manner of museum sharks. With more experience and con-
fidence in the structural use of steel, suspension became the preferred
method of installation.
In the meantime, the influence of some of the best, illustrated works
on nature favored the resting over the hanging whale. In any kind of
graphic rendering a whale in the water becomes a whale in a void.
Plate 3, figure 2 illustrates the dilemma very clearly. Whether the
void is blue or blank makes little difference. No wonder, therefore,
that artists sought satisfaction for their sense of design by the use of
imaginary forces that nature could never duplicate. Giant whales are
tenderly deposited, without a scratch, high among rocks and other pic-
turesque objects on shore, as gracefully draped as Paisley shawls. The
whimsical tableau that pleased the artists and art lovers most could not
have been more embarrassing, humiliating, and disastrous for the poor
whales. But they did provide handsome pictures that anyone can be
glad to own, and it seems reasonable to assume that they may have
helped to bring about such a pleasingly casual exhibit as that shown
in plate 5, figure 2.
The method used in Malmé to show a small porpoise is, unfortu-
nately, not equally applicable to larger whales. The reason for this is
in itself a demonstration of a biophysical principle of considerable in-
terest, which was first called to our attention by Galileo himself.
Other things being equal, the weight of a body is approximately com-
mensurate with its three-dimensional volume, while the strength of its
supporting tissues such as bone and muscle is related only to their two-
dimensional cross sections. If a body grows to eight (i.e., 2%) times
its original volume and weight, and all its parts remain in the same pro-
portion to one another as before, then the strength of the supporting
organs will have been multiplied only by four (i.e., 27) and will not
be strong enough to sustain the increased load. This is the basic rea-
son why the skeleton of a large land animal is so much heavier in pro-
portion to its body than that of asmall species. The difference becomes
very striking when two such skeletons are shown in illustrations of the
same size. Galileo quite logically felt that the mathematical relation-
ship between overall dimensions and the dimensions of supporting
parts imposes a maximum limit on the size that can be reached by any
animal having to resist the forces of gravity by the strength of its
own structure. The whales have partly circumvented the problem by
letting the buoyancy of the water carry most of the load and have
thereby become dependent upon the watery uplift to maintain the
streamlined shape of even the most athletic members of their tribe.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Parr PLATE 1
The Malm6 whale in Stockholm, 1866, mounted skin. After Lowegren (1961).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Parr PLATE 2
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The Haroy whale in New York, 1954, embalmed.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Parr
PEATE 3
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1. The Malmo whale, Naturhistoriska Museet, Gotebord. After Lowegren (1961).
2. A whale i
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1 the water is a whale in a void. American Museum of Natural History.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Parr PLATE 4
é
4
1. Rorqual as shown by Jardine (1837).
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2 Onde CRTIMCES - AALICH OUT? reigaal Balanoptera varqual, Lave.) Yes de gr
2. Rorqual as shown by d’Orbigny (1849).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Parr PLATE 5
1. Dolphin according to d’Orbigny (1849).
2. Porpoise in the Malmo Museum. From Lowegren (1961).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Parr PLATE 6
Galileo’s principle. Skeletons of opossum and of hippopotamus reduced to the same size.
Smithsonian Report, 1963,.—Parr PLATE 7
1. Images of gross obesity. Scale models of beached whales, from Jacobi (1914).
on
2. Suspended like a big boat in a barn. American Museum of Natural History.
PLATE 8
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Parr
“OUIPS fo MolA [eq UuOl a6
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WHALES AND MUSEUMS—PARR 501
When it comes to the larger whales, the museums would therefore
seem to have realized from the start that the body of one of the mon-
sters resting on the ground could not convey any of the grace and
power of the swift leviathans of the sea, but rather an image of gross
and feeble obesity, unless the evidence of a biologically important and
historically interesting principle were falsely denied.
Jacobi, in his discussion of whale models, actually felt that even such
a small and firm species as the porpoise would be too distorted to make a
good exhibit, if a mold was made from a specimen resting on a dry sur-
face. Jacobi went to considerable trouble to obtain a cast showing the
true shape that this little whale holds in the water. But, without
opportunity to display life-sized models of the large whalebone whales,
Jacobi found it necessary to show miniatures of two of the beasts rest-
ing on shore, in order to establish the scale of reduction by the juxta-
position of human figures, which could not very well have been
introduced in circumstances that would be more natural for the whales.
Since the modeling of the miniatures was done with complete honesty,
they also show the shortcomings of whales on land, suffering the effects
of Galileo’s principle from which they had found surcease at sea.
The museums that wanted to exhibit life-sized models of the giants
therefore realized the necessity of showing them in their hydrodynami-
cally suspended and not in their mechanically supported shape, letting
the air take on the role of the water in the visual image. But pedestals
holding an object up from below are not particularly helpful to the
conceit of a body floating in space, and suspension from above there-
fore became the accepted method of installation as soon as it could be
safely used.
Since unencumbered space large enough to suggest even the limited
freedom of an aquarium for beasts of such size is rare, the total im-
pression of a whale in the museum is one of conflicting images like those
created by a large boat stored in a barn. The space might fit the di-
mensions of the carcass, but it did nothing to suggest a marine environ-
ment. It is one of the merits of the fine new installation of a “sound-
ing” whale in the United States National Museum that it has finally
broken this deadlock between unyielding architecture and unwieldy
contents.
To create the illusion of having joined the whale in its own domain,
or even of looking in upon it in its natural habitat, would obviously
be impossible. Any attempt to suggest environment by treatment of
the background would become a distracting and cbjectionable strain
upon the imagination. But, instead of giving in and simply present-
ing us with another whale in a museum hall, as others have done before
them, the designers, in this instance, turned their attention from the
impossibilities of the exhibit itself to the previously unexplored pos-
sibilities of its framing in space.
720-018—64——-34
502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The hall itself has been remodeled into bold asymmetry. Along one
side of its length the solid bulk of double-decked display housing rises
and recedes, to counterbalance the plunging volume of the whale in
the clear, rectangular space opposite. The gently curved shape of
the second-tier balcony and its railing evokes memories of ships, with-
out straining credulity by actual imitation of form and structure.
The stairs leading from main floor to balcony, and from balcony up
and out of the room, are unobtrusively reminiscent of companionways.
By these, and other, gently suggestive devices the designers have
very cleverly managed to imbue the space itself with a subtly nautical
air that makes the whale, in defiance of all logic, seem a far more
reasonable and attractive sight than it ever did before under a roof.
REFERENCES
JACOBI, A.
1914. Modelle von Waltieren und ihre Herstellung. Abhandl. u. Ber. K.
Zool. Anthrop.-Ethnogr. Mus. Dresden, vol. 14, No. 4.
JARDINE, SIR WILLIAM.
1837. Mammalia. In A Naturalist’s Library, vol. 6, pl. 5. Edinburgh.
LOWEGREN, YNGVE.
1961. Zoologisk Museiteknik, Djurens Virld, vol. 15. Malmo.
d’ORBIGNY, CHARLES.
1849. Dictionnaire universel d’histoire naturelle. Atlas, vol. 1, pls. 22, 23.
Paris.
Tropical Subsistence Agriculture in Latin
America: Some Neglected Aspects and
Implications
By Raymonp E. Crist?
Research Professor of Geography
University of Florida
[With 8 plates]
Muc# HAS BEEN written about the adverse physical factors in the
less-developed lands of the tropics: The hot, steaming, depressing
climate; the “tropical” diseases; the infertile, leached-out soils; the
impenetrable forests with their “varmints” and venomous snakes—to
mention but the most formidable in the whole capacious grabbag of
horror factors, real or imagined, that are widely reported to cut pro-
ductive capacity and potential to zero, or very near it. But less
paper and ink and cerebration have been devoted to some of the more
subtle, but perhaps more significant, or even sinister, cultural brakes,
or roadblocks, operative for man in the tropics.
TROPICAL SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE, A WAY OF LIFE FOR MILLIONS
It is estimated that some 200 millions of people in the tropical areas
of Latin America, Africa, and Asia—even in areas usually thought of
as densely populated, such as the Indian subcontinent—make their liv-
ing by practicing some form of “shifting agriculture,” “slash-and-
burn farming,” “forest fallow,” “nomadic agriculture,” or whatever
the local name for it. Thus perhaps 1 person out of every 12 or 15
in the world, a population roughly equal to the population of the
United States, is engaged in this hand-to-mouth agriculture.
This remarkable system of agriculture, developed on a trial-and-
error basis millennia before the principles of modern science were
dreamed of, consists of clearing land of tropical forest or bush, except
for huge trees which are left standing but killed by girdling; burning
the trash when dry; and planting to crops for from 1 to 5 years. As
1Jhe author has over the years carried out field investigations in Latin America under
a continuing grant of the John Simon Guggenheim Memorial Foundation.
503
504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
yields decline owing to the leaching out of soluble salts and plant nu-
trients, as weeds take possession, and as rodent, bird, and insect popu-
lations build up, this land is abandoned for another nearby plot. The
jungle takes over for anywhere from 3 to 20 or 30 years, and the cycle
is repeated. Since under this system of soil management it requires
some 15 hectares of land to support one person, subsistence farmers
are exploiting some 3 to 6 billion hectares of land, depending on the
length of the fallow period. Over the millennia, hundreds of mil-
lions of hectares of forest and brushland have been cut over in this
cycle, the forest-fallow phases of which may become longer and longer,
especially on easily eroded mountain slopes. One has but to observe
the beautiful leaves of a typical second-growth tree, the Cecropia sp.,
as their silvery undersides are turned up in the afternoon breeze to
reflect the rays of the tropical sun over vast stretches of what might
appear to the uninitiated observer to be virgin forest, to realize the
extent of deforestation, and subsequent natural afforestation, due to
the activities of countless generations of slash-and-burn farmers.
Such subsistence farmers operate in a kind of shatter zone, where
first the forest and then man has the upper hand, a temporary no-
man’s land of charred trees and stumps, fallen logs, and piles of un-
burned brush; Lilliputian man gradually causes to emerge from this
seeming chaos a successful system of land management from which he
is able to make his living as well as to achieve a degree of harmony be-
tween himself and his physical environment.
SIGNIFICANT FACETS IN THE LIFE OF THE SUBSISTENCE CULTIVATOR
First, a visit to a home in the forest: All the materials for house
construction are cut in the surrounding forest; the six to eight upright
posts, often of the extremely hard center of a palm tree, and the cross-
beams and rafters, of 3- or 4-inch saplings of the hardwood trees
locally available, are all bound together with the long, ropelike lianas,
or bejucos, so pliable they can be tied when green or wet in a knot like
a rope; the thatch for the roof is made of palm leaves, also deftly tied
to the rafters with lianas; not a nail is used in tying the whole structure
together so securely that it will withstand windstorms as well as tor-
rential downpours in spite of its somewhat frail appearance; yet it is
ideal for a tropical climate, giving ample air circulation while being a
shelter from the rain. Such a house can be constructed in a few days; it
is socially acceptable, as well as being ideal for the climate, and there
are no mortgage payments to be made. The cooking is done over a
wood fire in one corner of the house. Most kitchen utensils, water
jars, spoons, bowls, plates, and so on, are made of wood or of hollowed-
out gourds.
SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE IN LATIN AMERICA—CRIST 5()5
A cotton shrub or so grows near the house from which tufts or bolls
of the raw fiber are gathered, then seeded or ginned by hand, to be sold
as raw cotton or spun by hand by the womenfolk into coarse thread.
Some coarse cloth may be woven by an old woman on a primitive
handmade loom, or the simple cotton clothing of the adults may be
purchased ; children wear no clothing until they are 6 or 8 years old.
The family all sleep in hammocks, often made at home of palm
fibers. If they can afford it and are accultured to that extent, they
sleep under mosquito netting, but more often they do not, the smoke
of the kitchen fire helping to keep insects at bay. It can get coolish
and damp at night, especially noticeable if one sleeps in soiled, sweat-
soaked clothing. The first thing the woman of the house does as she
crawls out of her hammock in the morning is to put firewood on the
embers that have smoldered all night to get the fire going for heating
the water to make coffee, which she pours into cups made of a half
shell of a coconut. Both she and her husband put in more brown
sugar than the beverage will dissolve, but the coffee-flavored sugar in
the bottom of the cup is carefully licked out; sugar gives them quick
energy. If coffee is unavailable, they will probably have hot water
sweetened with brown sugar—agua de panela. The woman continues
with her household chores as her husband follows the path to his
clearing (roza, conuco, milpa). The heavy drops of dew seem cold
to his legs as they brush against the plants along the path; he is
carrying his long, well-sharpened machete, and, if in the process of
clearing land, he may be carrying his most prized, most costly tool,
his axe. After working a few hours his wife or children will bring
him his breakfast—a bowl of black beans, or cooking bananas
(plantains) or yuca, boiled, baked, roasted or fried; or he may have
corn cooked in various ways, or rice—the type of food will depend on
the season and on how well off or on how lucky he has been. At all
events, it will be relieved of its monotony only by occasional fruits,
game or fish, and herbs.
Over millennia this primitive farmer has evolved a sure-fire crop
complex: Corn, yuca, beans, and pumpkins or squash. To this list has
been added, since the Spanish Conquest, the cooking banana. The
techniques of this kind of primitive farming look simpler than they
are. The great toe of the farmer’s bare foot is used—or a dibble stick
if one is fancy—to make a hole in the soft earth of the burnt-over
plot, preferably after the first rain; two or three grains of corn and a
few beans and squash or pumpkin seeds are put in, and the hole is
covered up by a swipe of the foot and the earth is tamped down by
being stepped on. The corn comes up rapidly and shoots up fast, its
green stalk forming a living pole for the beans to climb up on; it will
be harvested in about 90 days, the beans a month or so later. The
506 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
squash or pumpkins are ideal for this kind of farming, for their vines
spread all over the ground and over the fallen logs and heaps of brush
that have not been burned. Thus every bit of land is actually in use,
and each crop gets its quota of sunshine. Near the house, especially
where the slops are thrown, will usually be the patch of cooking
bananas, one of the first plants to be planted and a great producer of
food for all. One of the most significant food plants is yuca, a patch
of which is usually found near most huts. It grows from cuttings in
about any kind of soil—sandy, rocky, moist, dry, etc.—seems to have
few pests, always makes a crop of some kind, and has the advantage
of keeping well in the ground after it has matured; thus there is no
storage problem, as the roots can be dug up whenever needed from the
time they are small, the size of young carrots, to when they are full
grown, weighing many pounds.
It is difficult for the author to draw a clear line between garden
agriculture and fire agriculture. Undoubtedly, even the most primi-
tive farmers had, and have today, dooryard gardens. As seeds of
fruits and vegetables were thrown out on refuse heaps, some of them
sprouted, grew up as “volunteers,” and began themselves to produce
fruits and vegetables right there, handy to the house dwellers. As this
process continued, more ground would be cleared for them, first by fire
alone perhaps, then later on by the felling of brush and small trees, the
girdling of larger trees, and the firing of the whole complex when it
is dry—the slash-and-burn agriculture of today. It is a short step
from the dooryard gardens created accidently or casually, to the well-
kept gardens achieved by design, in which rare plants, such as exotics
and spices, would be grown. As has been seen, the diet of the sub-
sistence farmer is apt to be monotonous, at least for certain parts of
the year when only one food item is available. When one has lived for
weeks or months on cooking bananas, sweet yuca, or farina, it is
small wonder that powerful herbs such as small green onions, chives,
coriander, hot peppers, and so on, may be resorted to, both for variety
as well as for purgatives.
The subsistence farmer is in a closed, almost hermetically sealed,
economic unit or cocoon that he spins around himself; he may try to
work his way out of this cell by taking to market a bag of raw cotton,
or perhaps an extra bunch of cooking bananas, or even a few kilos of
yuca, but these small surpluses usually are not produced by design.
The load of firewood or charcoal, however, carried by mule or canoe
or even on one’s back, is expressly cut or made for sale and is often
the only and seemingly very tenuous economic thread that gives the
slash-and-burn cultivator contact with his fellows on the regional
scene. It also serves the purpose of getting him and his family to
the village or market town, where they gorge themselves on items
SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE IN LATIN AMERICA—CRIST 507
often lacking in their daily diet, and in general participate in the social
life around them, that is by no means a passive form of entertainment.
Any listlessness they may show may be due more to the ravages of
intestinal parasites than to the erosion of the spirit so common in our
society, where millions of people try to “get through the day” by re-
sorting to the use of tranquilizers or stimulants.
INSECURITY OF TENURE: INFLUENCE OF CULTURAL CONTROL
A basic factor in the development of any country or area is who owns
or controls how much and what kind of land, for the use made of it is
so often determined by those who control it. One naturally wonders
who owns this land in forest fallow, and the answer is that it may
belong to the Government, to individuals, or to large corporations,
foreign or domestic—but almost never to the slash-and-burn farmer.
Even those who claim it often have only the vaguest notion of where
the actual boundary lines of their holdings are. Most of the less-
developed areas of the world are innocent of land surveys; properties
and national boundaries are marked by a system of metes and bounds;
even national boundaries are in dispute, wide zones between nations
being a kind of no-man’s land, claimed by both nations—Guatemala
and British Honduras, Peru and Ecuador, Venezuela and Colombia
are cases in point. If even international boundaries are vague and
often unmarked, it is small wonder that the property of persons and
corporations within the several countries themselves should be poorly
delimited, if at all. The result is that de facto landholding may be
even more important than de jure landholding: 1.e., powerful persons
or groups own or control vast areas and are in a position to put the
squeeze on anyone squatting on their land; hence anyone who does
squat on and work obviously unused land gets far away from those
in the seats of the mighty and produces just enough for subsistence,
for if his activities are called to the attention of those who own or
claim the land he can the more easily slip away, higher up the moun-
tain side or deeper into the forest. The words “own” or “control”
or “claim” are used because a powerful person can do about as he
pleases in setting the boundary to his property, for he almost in-
variably has on his side the police force and the army, as well as the
religious authorities.
Thus the primitive farmer is, so to speak, between the devil and
the dark green forest. But the forest is his home, as it has usually
been for all of his ancestors. It has no terrors for him because he
and his ancestors have wrested their living from it; he is really terri-
fied, and with good reason, of the landlord, or local cacique, or boss,
with his bespectacled lawyer whose briefcase is full of lengthy docu-
ments that are backed up by the police. He knows all too well that
508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
he will lose in any fight with them, for he and his kind have always
lost when confronted with those representing urban power—asi es
la vida.
Millions of human beings, poorly qualified and equipped to cope
with modern agricultural problems, are relegated by cultural controls
precisely to those areas where the problems of soil management are
most difficult. Often those with wealth and training have control
over large land tracts physically good and within easy reach of mar-
kets. Such people can apply the techniques of modern scientific
management to produce crops for the market, domestic or foreign, and
thus achieve a high profit per hectare. Further, they are powerful
enough to acquire control of still larger expanses of good land to
hold for speculative purposes, that is, to hold it at prices which the
land would have if it were already settled and being farmed; in other
words the cost would be so high as to price the land out of the market
for any small farmer. When access roads are built into sparsely
settled areas, politicians and speculators often control the very land
that the road was to make accessible, with the result that what was
meant to be an access road may even drain out of the territory the few
subsistence farmers already living there! Western Canada, the Mid-
dle West of the United States, New Zealand, and Australia were
opened up by an influx of people who followed the new transportation
lines and were able to acquire lands near them. This has all too often
not been possible for potential settlers in the less-developed tropical
areas today. These divers cultural and economic roadblocks spin
around each individual subsistence farmer a cocoon of individual
autarchy ; and the national economy, unable to go forward dynamically,
either stays on a dead center or retrogresses.
OTHER FACTORS FAVORING THE STATUS QUO
As the outsider looks at Latin America he is aware of the fact that
there is a lack of continuity in many spheres. Political groups shoot
their way into and are shot out of office with sickening regularity. A
man may be a newspaper editor one day, a college professor another,
only to be a salesman for a large importing firm the next day, or his
country’s representative abroad, traveling for his health. And so on.
But the institution of the subsistence farmer is one that is centuries
old, and shows very little chance of losing continuity; it may bend, to
be sure, but the possibility of a complete break with the past seems
remote. Where the price or market mechanism is practically inoper-
ative, change of any kind seems most difficult indeed.
But other peoples in other times have experienced population ex-
plosions and a rural exodus. How did France manage to feed its
population that grew from some 18 million to 25 or 26 millions during
the century before the French Revolution? A large part of this ex-
SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE IN LATIN AMERICA—CRIST 509
panding population migrated into the growing towns and cities. But
in France as the population grew, roads were improved, canals were
built, and maritime trade increased; these developments were good
for the towns, but they also served to pull the peasantry along with
them, as it were, toward increased production. More up-to-date ex-
amples are not lacking: Canada, the United States, New Zealand, and
so on, are cases in point. Tropical Latin America shows in many
respects the reverse of the coin: The average small-scale subsistence
farmer is not surplus or market-minded, and, even if he should be, the
road or river tends to be a one-way street—1.e., the products that move
over them tend to lose most of their value en route, as they must pay
high transportation costs, or high taxes, or suffer outright confiscation
at the hands of one who claims to own the land on which the produce
was grown. Further, native peoples, ignorant of the oflicial language,
who occasionally try to enter the market economy are frequently, and
sometimes even openly and flagrantly, robbed by the small village shop-
keepers, who consider themselves civilized. As long as these things
go on, it will be difficult to make the subsistence farmer market-ori-
ented. Roads and rivers should be two-way streets, along which pro-
duce flows to market to be exchanged for cash or goods of sufficient
value to make the trip worthwhile and to motivate further rewarding
trips on the part of the producer of raw materials.
NATURAL AND SUPERNATURAL FORCES
The subsistence agriculturalist lives in a world pervaded by fears.
His life is hemmed about by taboos, for evil spirits are at work every-
where. He may not be able to enter, much less to clear and grow
crops on certain pieces of forest because of the spirit or spirits that
live there. He may have to work on an infertile hillside instead of a
piece of fertile alluvial riverbottom land, over which hovers the ghost
of his old friend and compadre, Juan Lopez—for Juan, late one night
and full of aguardiente, fell face down in the little pond there and
breathed his last. In Haiti the peasant may have to spend much time
keeping the voodoo of his enemies off his own plantings and at the same
time harnessing those occult forces of black magic for his own ends
of bringing discomfiture and bad luck to those who wish him ill; he
may have to bury the head of a white rooster in his neighbor’s door-
yard, or hang the right wing of a guinea hen in the palm tree closest
his door, and so on. Thus, phantoms, demons, and horrible appari-
tions will be called forth to haunt his neighbor. Long and learned
papers have been written about such practices and their implications,
in many parts of the world; social anthropologists are doing outstand-
ing work in this field. Suffice it to say that when a large part of one’s
daily life is taken up with propitiating the gods, or trying to, or wish-
510 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
ing one could propitiate them; when the evil eye is a constant menace;
when every wind, every heavy rain, every drought, every phase of the
moon—in short every natural force—has its religious significance and
must be interpreted ; when indeed almost every act is portentous, then,
although the individual’s disciplined, hemmed-about, and inhibited
life might seem to him—and thinking makes it so, remember—fulfilled,
the fact is inescapable that his productive capacity and potential are,
in the modern sense and to say the least, not at their maximum. These
factors are mentioned merely to emphasize the truth that what is true
of the world’s better developed lands is equally true of the hand-to-
mouth agriculturalist of the less developed areas, namely, that in-
creased production, progress if you will, everywhere in the world is
more profoundly affected by the motivations, attitudes, and capabili-
ties of its people than by all other factors.
[A few paragraphs in brackets are indicated here in which to
emphasize the fact that fear is a great brake on production among
groups and individuals in many walks of life. The rancher in many
regions—less often now than formerly, to be sure—sees little sense in
increasing his herds and in breeding them up if a revolutionary band
may come along at any time and drive them off, without ceremony and
without compensation of course, only to barbecue them over the camp-
fires of their peripatetic messhall.
[Latin American writers have used such incidents as the raw mate-
rial upon which to base their novels. Gonzalo Picén-Febres dedicated
Ll Sargento Felipe “to the honorable and industrious people of Vene-
zuela—the real victim of our civil wars,” and then goes on to describe
in vivid prose the material and moral ruin of Felipe’s home and family.
Felipe was rounded up for army service by a ‘government’ recruiting
patrol. While he was away, his livestock was driven off, his coffee
was stolen, and his daughter became the mistress of Don Jacinto, a
wealthy landowner. The novel is a series of pictures of country life,
and particularly of the havoc of war. ‘The soldiery, “pushed into war
by hunger and misery, had as their highest ideal the booty to be stolen
from those conquered in battle. . .. As they passed, the landowner
trembled for the fate of his hacienda, the village church for the jewels
of the virgin, the businessman for his tiny savings, the working man
for his life, and the women for their honor.”
[The foreign corporation with vast tracts in bananas or sugarcane,
or whatever, may become so fearful of confiscation without compensa-
tion as to allow production to decrease, sometimes even to zero. And
of course the fear of “el quedirdn,” of public opinion, may effectively
keep people from introducing a new crop, no matter how productive,
and a hostile political climate is often sufficient to nip production in
the bud or cut it once it has started. The fear of unstable prices in
SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE IN LATIN AMERICA—CRIST 51]
any agricultural activity that is completely market-oriented is also
a significant factor in inducing caution, or even inaction, in the
production of crops. |
PROTEIN-CALORIE MALNUTRITION
To return to the subsistence farmers: The diet of such hand-to-
mouth farmers is extremely monotonous for months at a time; protec-
tive foods such as meat, eggs, and milk products are in short supply;
the protein intake of these families is often inadequate and many of the
members show signs of undernourishment or malnutrition—a bad skin
condition, depigmentation of the hair, the so-called “Dutch hair” in
Brazil, and so on. One of the consequences of inadequacy in protein
intake (kwashiorkor) is cirrhosis of the liver, which is extremely com-
mon even among children in many tropical countries; such people are
extremely susceptible to infections and infestations to which better-fed
people would either be immune or highly resistant. Although it may
be medical heresy to say so, there may be things of the spirit that in
some measure overcome some of these nutritional deficiencies. Once
these simple people have propitiated the gods, in whatever is the
customary way, they are resigned to their fate; instead of being a prey
to tensions they are relaxed, kindly, hospitable, and fatalistic: what-
ever is to be, will be—it is the will of God; a certain amount of fasting,
even when involuntary, may perhaps provide an opportunity for the
operation of certain emergency mechanisms built by nature into the
human body. Manmade institutions also have evolved that increase
survival advantage; every effort is made by the whole family to get
to the nearest caserio, or village, on those days of the week or month
that are market days, even though the trip requires a whole day, or
even longer; going to market serves many needs besides the need to
buy merchandise and to sell produce, and one of the important benefits
for the entire family of attending market is that everyone has a chance
to consume quantities of protein and fats in the form of roast pig,
guinea-pig, toasted nuts, and so on, as well as fermented beverages,
such as chicha, pulque, palm wine, and the like, that contain all the
factors of the juices from which they are made as well as those gen-
erated by the microorganisms involved in the process of fermentation.
Comparative studies of dietary regimes carried out recently have
shown that teenagers in Michigan who practically live on soft drinks
and snacks may have a diet less in balance than their Mexican counter-
parts who consume substantial amounts of black beans, tortillas, chile
peppers, and pulque. Malnutrition may be a reality even in the midst
of plenty. “They are as sick that surfeit with too much,” says Nerissa
in The Merchant of Venice, “as they that starve with nothing.”
Ancestral habits and cultural influences greatly limit the type of foods
512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
that are acceptable and often impose the use of others which are
actually deleterious.”
It is not enough to tell people that certain foods are good, and good
for them, and that they can easily produce them, for no amount of
urging will get them to produce—or even to consume—foodstuffs that
they do not, for whatever reason, want to eat. A case in point: A few
years ago on a 10-day jeep trip from Bogota to Cartagena, Colombia,
our party stopped overnight at a little village surrounded by a vast
area inhabited by self-sufficient agriculturalists, where we were wel-
comed by the local priest who gave us lodging in his home. We were
extremely hungry and ate heartily of the excellent meal the kind
padre set before us, indeed down to the last crumb. Seeing this devas-
tation, our host excused himself from the table, left the room, and
came back with a 10-pound can of cheese spread, marked in Spanish,
“Gift of the People of the United States to the people of Colombia.”
This can had been opened, but very little of it had been used; when
asked if we would like this, we answered in the affirmative, and we
began a kind of second round of eating. Our generous host beamed
his delight at this cheese finding such a good market, for he pointed out
that even his most poverty-stricken parishioners were not interested
in it, that, although it tasted and smelled like cheese, and he had as-
sured them that it was cheese, it was soft and lacking in resistance. In
Spanish, cheese is macho, that is, it is a male food, the opposite of soft
and malleable; it must be one that offers resistance to the teeth, that
must be bitten off in hard chunks, and must be chewed on with vigor
if one is to make headway with it. Since this cheese spread did not
correspond to the local concept of what a cheese should be, few people
were interested in it, including himself; he had used some of it to mix
with chicken feed and the fowls had rather enjoyed it, but he was
happy to find people who ate it with such relish, and he presented us
with an unopened can to carry along with us the next day!
THE PRIMITIVE FARMER: CULTURALLY AND TECHNOLOGICALLY
ILL-FAVORED
The millions of subsistence farmers have for the most part lived out
their obscure lives beyond the impact of almost all those factors that
we associate with modern life. Education has not penetrated their
world, which means that, among other things, the fundamentals of
modern hygiene and asepsis are not known—even the boiling of water
to kill noxious, waterborne bacteria is not knowingly practiced.
Fortunately for the visitor to the little thatch-roofed hut in the forest,
water has first to be boiled to make the coffee or the sweetened water
that is so hospitably proffered by one’s host. These primitive farmers
° Frederick J. Simoons, “Eat Not This Flesh,’ University of Wisconsin Press, Madison,
1961.
SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE IN LATIN AMERICA—CRIST 513
are not only illiterate, they know next to nothing about balanced diets,
soil science, seed selection, technology, mechanics, and soon. It is little
short of a miracle that these milperos, conuqueros, rozeros, or what-
ever the local words for self-sufficient farmers, living largely apart
from other human beings, are still the carriers, albeit to be sure only
in the most simplified forms, of elements of nonmaterial culture, such
as language, religion, and social organization. Time and again these
people, living what seems marginal, obscure lives, will be found to
have the manners and the savoir faire of people who have had cultural
advantages. They are by no means examples of Homo ferus, the
abandoned forest children of the Middle Ages; they do not perhaps
have the sense of fulfillment that comes from the intimate participa-
tion in the creative activities of a group, but they have not become
dulled by automation and dial watching; they are not bored; their lives
may seem monotonous to the casual observer, but they are a challenge
compared to those of the ordinary factory workers of today; life is
hard and uncertain but their will to live is great; suicides are unknown;
they are so intent on keeping body and soul together that they have
no time for brooding over the difficult lives they are leading.
Self-sufliciency at the family level means lack of interest in innova-
tions, such as the introduction of new techniques, new crops, and so on.
The head of the household at present depends on the outside world
practically not at all; hence why should he effect changes suggested by
those from outside? A change in the age-old routine has in the past
often meant disaster. It took centuries for the European peasant to
adopt corn and potatoes, the great food crops brought from the New
World. The first to accept such innovations are usually those who have
enough food supplies from other crops to keep them from being de-
pendent upon the new crop for survival. A farmer naturally will fol-
low the routine that has meant survival for his forefathers as well as
for himself. But this routine, this self-sufficient agricultural system,
means that practically everyone must engage in the same kind of
activity to produce sufficient food—there is no chance for a large sur-
plus, for capital accumulation. As the population increases, the
cropping phase must be lengthened and the period of forest fallow
is decreased, with a consequent drop in production; then the people
must reduce their numbers or migrate, as must have happened often
throughout history.
Those who begin as subsistence farmers, but who ultimately pro-
duce a surplus may even be able to support advanced civilizations. The
pre-Columbian Mayans lived almost exclusively on corn, grown on
small plots, the soils of which were neither worked, nor fertilized, nor
irrigated. The surplus they produced was used to support an urban
elite. As the population increased, the period of time a given plot
could be in second-growth brush or forest was shortened as the pres-
514 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
sure of population on the land resource increased. Hence it became
necessary to establish mz/pas farther and farther away from the urban
centers where the farmers had their homes and to which they had to
carry their crop on their backs, often as much as 50 miles, or even
more. Lesides, they had to pay heavy taxes in kind to the political
and religious authorities. It is possible that the cost in time, of trans-
portation, plus heavy taxation, ultimately made the system unwork-
able, and the population, like swarms of bees, migrated in all direc-
tions to establish new centers closer to their farms; thus new cities
were being founded in Yucatan at the same time that older ones were
being abandoned to the encroaching second-growth brush and forest.
And in another century or so the cycle was completed again—from
subsistence farmer, to populated urban agglomeration, to disintegrat-
ing urban center, back to the subsistence farmer on his small plot far
from any organized settlement.
After exhaustive studies of present-day soil fertility in the Petén,
Dr. Cowgill concludes that “with present agricultural methods the
central Petén is capable of permanently supplying food needs of per-
haps 200 people per square mile and certainly not less than 100 people
per square mile (compared to 1.5 people per square mile for the entire
department at present). . . . In other words, half the adult popula-
tion could be full time, non-food producing specialists supported by
the other half of the population.” #
Most of the less-developed nations, with their huge contingents of
subsistence farmers, have heads too small for their bodies, as it were.
The rural areas, unorganized and poorly coordinated, are like the
lumbering bodies of gargantuan dinosaurs, capriciously lunging about,
with little or no direction from the central nerve centers, i.e., the
regional and national capitals, themselves in imbalance because of
the influx of rural dwellers and the consequent accretion of slums.
The concept of the hollow frontier does not fit into this picture at all.
The vast, sparsely populated areas are largely in forest fallow; where
subsistence agriculture is the way of life of practically all rural
dwellers, the maximum human carrying capacity is a function of the
amount of forest land available for clearing at any given time, which
in turn depends on the amount of time required for afforestation,
or the regrowth of forest on the cutover sections, and for the soil-
formation thereby implied. Wherever subsistence agriculture is a
reality, the concept of the hollow frontier is inapplicable, for such a
frontier cannot exist there; the terms are territorially mutually
exclusive.
* Ursula M. Cowgill, “Soil Fertility and the Ancient Maya,” Transactions, Connecticut
Academy of Arts and Sciences, vol. 42, Oct. 1961, p. 40.
SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE IN LATIN AMERICA—CRIST 515
A SELF-SUFFICIENT FARMER PRO TEM.
Political upheavals and violence of any kind may bring about a
marked increase in the number of subsistence, or near-subsistence,
farmers. The violence—la violencia—in Colombia during the past
decade or more has had the effect of breaking up many formerly
settled communities, some of whose inhabitants migrated to the cities
in search of a livelihood and protection, while others fled to the un-
settled areas in the mountains or in the eastern plains of the country.
One such refugee, living some 10 miles up the Meta River from Puerto
Lépez, was from the mountains of Tolima, where he had been able
barely to scratch out a living from his tiny plot. Murders of farmers
in his vicinity became so common that he feared for his life and moved
to town, but he had no skills and could find no way of making a living.
He was finally able to get a ride in a cattle truck returning to Puerto
Lépez from Bogota. From there he went upriver in a dugout canoe
with his wife and children, and began to grow a crop of corn at the
edge of the river. He is at present a subsistence farmer, to be sure,
but one that might correctly be referred to as a subsistence farmer in
transition, because as soon as there is a market and he can produce a
surplus he will be interested in entering a money economy by supply-
ing that market with surplus corn, a fattened hog, a few chickens,
papayas, or a bunch of cooking bananas. M. Rodriguez had as helper
a Huitoto Indian girl, who was learning Spanish and in general taking
on the ways of the sedentary agriculturist. Thus this was a case of a
subsistence farmer in transition using the labor of an Indian girl in
process of acculturation. Her children will probably be better adapted
to hot country farming than either she or the Rodriguez family are
at present.
BETTER RURAL LIVING CONDITIONS OR CITY SLUMS?
At present the self-sufficient farmer operates in a kind of social,
economic, and political no-man’s land that officially belongs to a na-
tion or political entity, yet the area under cultivation, or forest fallow,
is not an “effective” part of the nation. The Jesuits early saw the
necessity of having the seminomadic Indians of many parts of the
Americas assembled in villages, or méisiones, if they were to have eflec-
tive control over their charges. Modern governments may perhaps
have to act in a similar manner, for it would seem that their leaders
can hardly afford to allow their unskilled farmers to swell the slum
sectors of cities where their labor cannot be utilized. It would seem
more rational to keep them on the land by having them engaged in
tasks they can perform, such as the building of roads and dams, drain-
age ditches and canals, and even crude schools, houses, and community
centers, and so on, rather than to be allowed to agglomerate into an
516 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
amorphous mass in shanty towns, without streets, lights, water, or
doctors, thus creating a kind of cancerous growth, a subproletariat, a
class of pariahs or untouchables. Once they have enjoyed just a few
of the amenities associated with the bright city lights, the modern
Lorelei, once they have lived in modern times, even if just barely on
the margin of modernity, getting literally fringe or crumb benefits,
they will never willingly return to isolation and a way of life that has
not changed in thousands of years—their eyes will continue to be on
the stars, rather than on the pitfalls of slumdwellers. Even illiterates
can enjoy electric lights, moviehouses, radios, television, music, as-
phalt streets, running water, and sanitation, and they can dream of
the time when they might enter the Promised Land of decent houses,
schools, libraries, and supermarkets; one of the ways then to build up
uninhabited or sparsely settled rural areas is to make some of these
amenities available in the county as well as in town.
A kind of national service on the land might be instituted, since the
only investment most self-sufficient rural dwellers can make toward
the development of their country is their labor; and in future there is
going to be less and less employment for the unskilled worker, either
manual or clerical. In many of the less-developed areas where self-
sufficient agriculture is the norm for a large part of the population,
authoritarian regimes are well-entrenched and represent the political
status quo and continuum. Barriga llena, corazon contento (a full
belly, a contented heart) is an old Spanish proverb; people used to
authoritarian regimes would find little to complain of regarding
national service on the land if performing that service meant receiving
three square meals a day, along with even a few of the amenities
usually available in a modern urban community.
CONCLUSIONS
The small-scale independent farmer simply cannot bring the full
weight of modern technology to bear on the problem of producing
food, fats, oils, fibers, rubber, medicine, and lumber, which is modern
agriculture’s job. Wherever the new methods of scientific technology
are being applied to farming, there are huge surpluses, a veritable
cornucopia of tropical plenty, of bananas, palm products, coffee, cacao,
pineapples, and so on.
Agricultural surpluses are a major source of the investment capital
necessary to finance the development of the less-developed countries,
but small holdings do not seem to attract the enlightened manage-
ment or the capital required for the modern equipment, fertilizers,
pesticides, marketing, and so on, necessary to produce agricultural
surpluses; hence, if governments adopt policies of land fragmentation
that make agriculture less rather than more efficient, they invite
economic stagnation, or worse. The subsistence farmer is in many
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Crist PEATE 1
1. Squatter’s clearing and hut on good alluvial soil at Tamazunchale, Mexico. The corn
crop has been harvested. ‘The patch of cooking bananas and yuca is to the left, beyond
which is an abandoned clearing. Note beehives in front of the house; papaya tree in,
foreground.
2. A subsistence farmer’s hut on the natural levee of the lower Calima River, Choco
Colombia. ‘The main items in his diet of corn and bananas are supplemented by the
fruit of the native Chontaduro palm (Pejibaye), seen surrounding the house, and fish
from the river.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Crist PLATE 2
1. Subsistence plots south of Lake Valencia, Venezuela, near the hamlet of Gtigue. The
plot of corn in the foreground will soon ripen; the second, in the middle ground, is about
a month old. ‘The farmer has planted yuca on the rocky slope in the background.
2. A canefield on the hacienda Tacrigua, Lake Valencia Basin, covers all the good alluvial
soil, and the only land available for subsistence is on the hillsides; these farmers almost
every year enter the money economy of the country by working as cane cutters.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Crist PLATE 3
1. An isolated hut on a hillside south of Valencia, Venezuela, with plants of cooking
bananas near the house and a cornfield on the steep hillside to the left, a prey to erosion.
2. View from the back of the hut in plate 2, figure 1, showing a cornfield to the left, a former
clearing to the right in “forest fallow” (rastrojo), with virgin forest in the background.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Crist PLATE 4
1. The subsistence tarmer changes very little from decade to decade and from country to
country. Pictures on this and the facing page are of Mr. Sanchez, a subsistence squatter
(called pardsito in Costa Rica), and his home and plot, taken near San Vito, in south-
western Costa Rica, February 18, 1964.
"Mr. Sanchez stands beside his house. From the huge trees he fells he saws up by
hand the planks seen in the foreground, which he sells to market-oriented coffee growers
in the vicinity.
He had planted bushes of chile peppers and other herbs as well as a few stalks of tobacco
for his own use; unhulled beans and unshucked corn were drying on the roof of the house,
made entirely, roof and walls, of the trunks of slender palms split in half.
2. Mr. Sanchez looks out over a landscape of fallen logs; the soil is fairly intensively used:
stalks of mature corn are seen to the right, while the patch of land to the left, this side
of the lean-to, is just being planted to corn. Beans are planted with the corn, whose
stalks grow up just in time to act as poles for the climbing beans. To the right of the
lean-to is a patch of yuca, a staple root crop that hardly ever fails. In the background
to the right the cutting edge of the cultural frontier meets the uncut virgin forest.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Crist PLATE 5
1. Closeup of Mr. Sanchez’s house, with a pepper plant in the right-hand foreground, and a
plant of cooking bananas (plantains) behind our host. Corn and beans are to be seen
drying on the roof.
The primitive hand press, just to our right of Mr. Sanchez, which consists of a pole
stuck through a hole in a post, is used to squeeze the juice out of a stalk of cane; the juice
is used straight, or to sweeten coffee; when fermented, it is a refreshing drink.
a ‘
>
2. Mr. Sanchez standing beside his lean-to at the far end of the clearing from his house,
with the mass of fallen trees in the middle ground and virgin forest still standing in the
background.
The 70 million Sanchezes in Latin America, even on the small plots they do not own,
are a conservative group; they are indeed a prey to fears of the forces unleashed by both
man and nature; but they are imbued with the spirit of pioneers, not easily swayed by
the winds of revolutionary change advocated by a floating, landless proletariat, or willing
meekly to submit to the whims of a power elite intent upon preserving the status quo.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Crist PLATE 6
1. In the Western Cordillera, west of Popayan Colombia, a rancher has grubstaked land-
less laborers to clear the forest, with the first crop of corn as their payment; then they
plant the cleared land to grass, turn it over to the landlord, and clear more forest land.
‘The white, black-eared cattle grazing in the foreground are a hardy triple-purpose (used
as work animals, as well as for meat and milk) breed that seems to have evolved in
Antioquia.
2. A settler on the banks of the Meta River, who fled the poverty and political violence
endemic to his mountain province of Huila. His wife and daughter and the Indian girl,
to the right, help him to grown corn, beans, yuca, and squash on the natural levee of the
river. It is a hand-to-mouth existence now, but Mr. R. looks forward to the time when
he can produce a surplus—corn, cooking bananas, a fattened hog perhaps—that will tie
him to the market at Puerto Lopez.
PLATE 7
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Crist
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Crist
Smithsonian Report, 1963.
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SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE IN LATIN AMERICA—CRIST 517
respects a museum piece, an anachronism. The future of agriculture
certainly belongs to the large-scale operator, whether an individual, a
corporation, or the state, but for today and for the immediate future
the subsistence farmer is forced to survive by following his time-
honored regime on the land or to become a completely uprooted slum-
dweller.
More and more, young people obstinately refuse to follow in the
footsteps of their elders, to lead lives of drudgery, penury, and isola-
tion. The psychological factors that have already been so effective
everywhere in achieving the rural exodus are operative even among
the remotest subsistence farmers. These factors will continue to exert
their powerful influence until that day when the life of the subsistence
farmer will be transformed, when his home will be provided with
those amenities that make for at least a semblance of ease and well-
being, when his village will have become a genuine social and cultural
center, full of life and gaiety, no longer isolated, backward, and
wretched.
And that day will come only when there is widespread education
in farming methods and techniques, when agriculture will be as as-
siduously served by educational institutions as are modern industry
and the liberal professions, when soils scientists, agricultural engineers,
and county agents will have no more feelings of inferiority than do
biochemists or nuclear physicists. To achieve this transformation is a
tremendous task for the leaders of nations with vast undeveloped
tropical regions. These leaders already have the means and the ability
to carry forward this great campaign; they should now show the de-
termination to effect this revolution, peacefully. Their survival de-
pends on it.
The subsistence farmer lacks a formal education, but is by no means
unintelligent; he is a cautious operator whose activities conform to
age-old practices on land that does not belong to him. He is where
he is, geographically and from the point of view of development, for
various reasons: his own tradition and the power position of the elite
favor the status quo. He often suffers from malnutrition as well as
intestinal and blood parasites, so that he has just enough energy to
cope with his life as it is. He is either too far from market to think
in terms of sizable marketable surpluses, or, if he does chance to do so,
some one turns up with a document proving himself to be the “owner
of all this land,” and from experience the squatter knows that it is
“healthier” for him to move farther into the forest without a struggle.
He has no capital, few tools, and only those skills that have enabled
him to survive with the most primitive of farming techniques. Armed
only with a cutting tool—apparently the Mayans used the blunt stone
axe—millions of subsistence farmers over the millennia have cut over
billions of hectares of tropical forest. He has done what the Scottish
720-018—64——35
518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
crofter, the New England farmer, the “Okies” of the 30’s, the Chinese
and the Indian peasant, and many others, have often been unable to
do, that is, he has survived on farming alone. He has on a trial-and-
error basis devised a system of agriculture valid for his cultural
equipment in his physical milieu—by planting the right crop or crops
at the right time, the subsistence farmers of the world have achieved
survival advantage for themselves and their descendants; those who
failed to follow the routine were weeded out as impartially as a sieve
retains those particles larger than its mesh. Hence, the problem is
not one of survival—they have survived—but rather one of whether
they are to play the role of the Trojan Horse in the Harlems, Notting
Hills, and their equivalents in the less-developed areas of the world,
or whether they will be economically, socially, and politically inte-
grated into our modern scientific, technological society. According
as this integration is or is not effective, millions of subsistence farmers
will achieve levels of living to which human beings in this modern
world are justified in aspiring, or they will continue to lead obscure,
poorly rewarded lives—either in the almost trackless forests or in the
growing slums of great cities—that are marginal to the powerful cur-
rents of modern technology.
I have, for more than three decades, observed the way of life of
humble, primitive agriculturalists, from Mexico to Patagonia; it
seems fitting to close with a quotation from Rene Dubos in which he
uses part of a sentence from Lucretius’s De Rerum Natura:
Men come and go, but however limited their individual strength, small
their contribution, and short their life span, their efforts are never in
vain because, like runners in a race, they hand on the torch of life.‘
SELECTED GENERAL REFERENCES
ANDERSON, EDGAR.
1952. Plants, man, and life. Chapter IX. Little, Brown, and Co., Boston.
BARRAU, JACQUES.
1958. Subsistence agriculture in Melanesia. Bull. 219, Bishop Museum.
Honolulu, Hawaii. 111 pp.
3ARTLETT, H. H.
1956. Fire, primitive agriculture, and grazing in the tropics. Pp. 692-720.
In Man’s role in changing the face of the earth, edited by W. L.
Thomas, Jr., University of Chicago Press.
BENNETT, MERRILL K.
1963. Longer and shorter views of the Malthusian prospect. Food Research
Institute Studies, vol. IV, No.1. Stanford, Calif.
4Rene Dubos, “The Torch of Life.” Focket Book Edition, New York, 1962, p. 152.
SUBSISTENCE AGRICULTURE IN LATIN AMERICA—CRIST 519
Brass, L. J.
1941. Stone age agriculture in New Guinea. Geogr. Rey., vol. 31, pp.
555-569.
ConkKLIN, Harold C.
1957. Hanun6oo agriculture; a report on an integral system of shifting culti-
vation in the Philippines. FAO Forestry Development Paper No. 12,
Rome.
Cook, O. F.
1921. Milpa agriculture, a primitive tropical system. Ann. Rep. Smith-
sonian Institution for 1919, pp. 307-326.
Dossy, E. H. G.
1950. Southeast Asia. University of London Press Ltd., London.
EMERSON, R. A.
1953. A preliminary survey of the milpa system maize culture as practiced
by the Maya Indians of the northern part of the Yucatan Peninsula.
Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, vol. 40, No. 1, pp. 51-62.
HWAUCHER, DANIEL.
1962. La vie rurale vue par un géographe. Institut de Géographie de la
Faculté des Lettres et Sciences Humaines. Toulouse, France.
GOUROU, PIERRE.
1958. Les pays tropicaux. Paris.
Hester, J. A., JR.
1954. Natural and cultural bases of ancient Maya subsistence economy.
(Ph. D. dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.)
Mortey, 8. G.
1956. The ancient Maya. 3d ed. Stanford University Press. Stanford, Calif.
PENDLETON, ROBERT L.
1956. The place of tropical soils in feeding the world. Ann. Rep. Smith-
sonian Institution for 1955, pp. 441-458.
PoPENOE, HuGH.
1957. The influence of the shifting cultivation cycle on soil properties in
Central America. Ninth Pacific Science Congress.
1963. The pre-industrial cultivator in the tropics. Paper given before the
Ninth Technical Meeting of the International Union for Conserva-
tion of Nature and Natural Resources, September 16-24, 1963.
Nairobi, Kenya.
SAUER, Cart O.
1952. Agricultural origins and dispersals. The American Geographical So-
ciety, New York, N.Y.
SPATE, O. H. K.
19538. Changing agriculture in New Guinea. Geogr. Rev., vol. 18, pt. 2, pp.
151-172.
SreccEerRDA, M.
1941. Maya Indians of Yucatan. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Wash-
ington, D.C.
WATTERS, R. F.
1960. The nature of shifting cultivation. Pacific Viewpoint, vol. 1, No. 1,
pp. 59-99.
An Archeological Reconnaissance in Hadhra-
maut, South Arabia—A Preliminary
Report
By Gus W. Van BEEK
Smithsonian Institution
Guten H. CoLe
Uganda Museum
and
ALBERT JAMME, W. F.
Catholic University of America
[With 8 plates]
Oovr KNow_eEnce of culture history in the Old World is surprisingly
uneven after more than a century of archeological research. For
some areas and for certain time periods, such as Dynastic Egypt,
Bronze and Iron Age Palestine, and Classical Greece, the outline
of culture history has been firmly fixed, and the future task is largely
one of refining and filling in details. But for other areas, and for
such related studies as interregional contacts, only sketches of the
culture history—in varying degrees of completeness—are available,
and only within the last decade or so have archeologists devoted
themselves to fixing the bare outline.
Southern Arabia is one of these latter areas. Located on the fringe
of lands of great archeological interest, and burdened with a reputa-
tion for inhospitality and insalubrity, this region did not receive its
first professional archeological mission until 1937. At that time,
Gertrude Caton Thompson excavated several structures dating from
the fifth to the second centuries B.C. at Hureidha in Hadhramaut
(Caton Thompson, 1944). The next field research was carried on
by the American Foundation for the Study of Man Arabian Expedi-
tions led by Wendell Phillips and under the successive archeological
direction of W. F. Albright, F. P. Albright, and R. L. Cleveland in
521
522 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Wadi Beihan, at Marib, in Dhofar, and at Sohar (Bowen and
Albright, 1958; Cleveland, 1959, 1960; Van Beek 1952, 1961). The
results of these expeditions were considerable. Chronology for the
period from about the 10th century B.C. to the 7th century A.D. was
largely fixed and much information on the culture history was dis-
covered, e.g., data on irrigation techniques and installations, and on
successive waves of cultural influence from other parts of the ancient
world.
But enormous gaps in our knowledge remained. Little systematic
work had been done on prehistory, with the result that the develop-
ment and affinities of the early cultures of the region were largely
unknown. Further, no systematically collected evidence had come
to light of human occupation between the Middle Paleolithic stage—
represented by artifacts picked up by Miss Caton Thompson’s team
and others—and the 10th century B.C. in Wadi Beihan, or the 5th
century B.C. in Wadi Hadhramaut. There were also many unan-
swered questions regarding the role of southern Arabia—if indeed it
played a role—in the diffusion of cultural traits, the development of
trade, the migration of man, and the interchange of cultivated plants
and domestic animals between Africa and Asia.
To obtain data that would contribute to the solution of these prob-
lems, an intensive archeological reconnaissance in one of the major
drainage systems of southern Arabia was organized and directed by
Van Beek. After much consideration, Wadi Hadhramaut was se-
lected as the survey area, because it is one of the two or three most
fertile and intensively cultivated valley systems in southern Arabia
today, and presumably was throughout antiquity also. Such an area
is likely to have been continuously inhabited, and thus to contain
evidence for a complete culture sequence from earliest times to the
present.
Wadi Hadhramaut is located in the East Aden Protectorate, ap-
proximately 165 Iilometers north of the southern coast of the Arabian
Peninsula (pl. 1:1). It runs roughly parallel to this coast for a
distance of about 200 kilometers (fig. 1), and then gradually turns
southeastward to empty into the Gulf of Aden. On the west, near
Qarn Qaimah, the wadi is approximately 15 kilometers wide, but
eastward its width gradually diminishes to little more than 2 kilo-
meters just beyond Tarim. Except for the last few kilometers of
its course where it is perennial, the upper reaches of the wadi are
dry. Occasionally a seézd (Arabic for fiash flood), formed of the
runoff from the plateau, covers part—rarely all—of the wadi floor.
At present, some areas of the main wadi and virtually all silt-covered
tributaries are cultivated by means of sei] (flash-flood) irrigation.
Elsewhere, and especially in the main wadi where the water table
ranges from about 15 to 20 meters deep, well irrigation is extensively
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 523
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N3qGV 3O 41Nd
Naav
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VINSNIN3d
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VIVA NVHI38 Veh E
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(
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e
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LINuVSvH
v,VAIGNM %
YVSOHO Wy
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ONWVHL HVOUvHS 77 -713 LVOSVHS
Yu
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524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
used and is the basis of agriculture in the area. Rainfall averages
less than 20 centimeters per year. Wheat and dates are the chief
agricultural products, but tomatoes, onions, eggplant, and carrots are
also grown. ‘The principal livestock are goats and sheep, oxen used
in working the fields, and camels used in both transport and agri-
cultural activities. Since Wadi Hadhramaut is an inland area, virtu-
ally all of its commercial contacts are with the coast at the present
time, and although camel caravans still carry commodities they
are rapidly being replaced by motortrucks and airplanes. The pres-
ent population of the wadi is estimated at 100,000 people, mostly
settled in three cities, Tarim, Seiyun, and Shibam, and a host of
villages and small towns. The most distinguished feature of Ha-
dhramaut is its magnificent mud-brick architecture, in which some
buildings attain a height of eight stories and are decorated with
elaborate geometric relief. This information on the Hadhramaut
today is necessary for an understanding of the area in antiquity.
The expedition, conducted under the auspices of the Smithsonian
Institution with additional financial support from the National
Science Foundation, had a staff of one part-time and three full-time
scientists. Van Beek was responsible for all ceramic-phase sites
from earliest times to the present, but was primarily concerned with
sites of the pre-Islamic period, i.e., before the seventh century A.D.;
he also studied the megalithic sites which apparently belong to a pre-
ceramic phase. Glen H. Cole investigated prehistoric, 1.e., preceramic,
lithic sites, and assisted Van Beek with megalithic sites. Albert
Jamme recorded ancient South Arabic graffiti and formal inscrip-
tions, and also undertook the important task of accurately recording
place names for future map additions and corrections. For 1 month,
Henry W. Setzer collected modern mammals for the study of the
present fauna of the area and to facilitate identification of bones
from future archeological excavations.
During the 314 months of fieldwork, from November 15, 1961, to
February 25, 1962, the expedition surveyed approximately 1380 kilo-
meters of the main wadi and portions of all tributary wadies. From
just beyond Tarim to the vicinity of Shibam—a distance of about
65 kilometers—the area was intensively investigated for 214 months;
during the remaining month, only known sites and certain selected
areas in the region from Shibam to Qarn Qaimah were studied. This
procedure enabled us to achieve a balance between detailed examina-
tion and broad coverage of the terrain. Most of the survey was con-
ducted on foot, but local vehicles were hired to facilitate the examina-
tion of larger tributaries and more distant sites. Each site was
plotted on a topographic map; detailed notes, photographs, and when
possible sketch plans were made; and large samplings of surface
artifacts were collected. At one site, test pits were dug which clarified
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 525
the nature of the disturbance of debris and the process of erosion; at
another, soil samples were taken from the exposed silt beneath one
of the earliest towns to provide data on the environmental situation
at the time the silt was deposited. Graffiti and inscriptions were
recorded by means of scale drawings and by both black-and-white
and colored photographs.
For this interim report, each archeologist prepared a paper describ-
ing his area of research; these papers were edited and assembled by
the senior author to form this article.
PREHISTORY
Stone artifacts are widespread and abundant in the Hadhramaut.
Except on the broad alluvial flat in the main wadies, sporadic flakes
and other artifacts can be picked up anywhere from the limestone
rubble and gravel flanking the flat, up to and including the plateau
surface over 300 meters above. Collections of artifacts were made from
110 localities extending from the Tarim area on the east to Qarn
Qaimah, some 130 kilometers to the west. All artifacts were collected
from the surface. Apart from pre-Islamic village sites, no place was
seen which would appear promising for archeological excavation.
Any Pleistocene deposits which exist must be buried in the deep silt
fill of the wadi system.
The geology of that portion of the Hadhramaut investigated is
strikingly similar throughout. One is everywhere confronted with
Eocene limestones, which form precipitous cliffs. These overlay
Cretaceous sands and silts, forming low spurs and outliers which pro-
trude into the wadies. These lower deposits usually are capped with
rather thick breccias (cemented talus, up to 10 meters thick in one
measured section) apparently graded to a level well below that of the
present wadi floors. Traces of an earlier phase of wadi erosion seem
to be found in the relatively slight inclination of the breccia-capped
tops of some of the spurs and outliers. These “flat” tops, commonly
strewn with stone artifacts, evidently relate to a wadi floor at a higher
level than that of the present. The generalized section given in
figure 2 is everywhere applicable except that in the smaller tributaries,
where the alluvial silt flat is not present, the wadies are floored by
more or less irregular gravel and rubble spreads, alluvial fans, talus
material, and channel gravels which are locally incised and terraced.
Also, the occurrence of spurs and outliers is more exceptional than
characteristic; a section taken at random is more likely to have a
breccia-capped or talus slope extending from below the lower cliff-
forming limestone directly to the wadi floor (dotted line, fig. 2),
fringed at its foot by talus and outwash material.
1Caton Thompson and Gardner (1939) regard certain terrace deposits along the modern
channel cut in Wadi ‘Amd near Hureidha as being of Pleistocene age.
526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Although an occasional isolated artifact of particular interest was
collected, the vast majority of material was taken from sites which, in
nearly all cases, appear to be localities of human activity. In a few
instances, it is possible that the collected artifacts had been trans-
ported—probably no very great distance—by running water. The
sites can be grouped according to the morphological features upon
which they occur: On the plateau where artifacts are often found in
great abundance over considerable areas; on talus slopes where arti-
facts—presumably workshop and mining debris—are retained more
or less in place by the coarse, angular limestone cobbles; on benches
formed by the lower cliff-forming limestone; on the “flat” topped
spurs; and on low-lying, terraced, alluvial remnants, gravel and
rubble spreads, and mounds of Cretaceous sediments.
Sites on the upper plateau remnants (fig. 2-A).—A good quality
chert occurs at the top of some of these buttes and was very extensively
worked; the heaviest artifact concentrations are found on these
surfaces. In some cases, the artifacts are so abundant that they form
a solid pavement (pl. 1:2). At one such locality southwest of
Ghurfah, near the confluence of Wadi Jibb with the main wadi, a
crescent-shaped butte contains two areas of dense artifact concentra-
tion separated by some 200 meters of relatively sterile ground. The
area covered by artifacts is roughly 50,000 square meters. Within
this area, a 2-meter square was plotted at a randomly selected point
and 529 artifacts were collected from it. The majority of these
artifacts are small, relatively fresh, and characterized by a pink or
light reddish-brown patina. This is in sharp contrast to the larger
artifacts with dark brown-to-black glossy surfaces which are generally
found on the main plateau surface. A few of these larger, dark-
colored artifacts are, in fact, to be found on the upper plateau remnants
as well. This suggests that at a period much later than that of the
main human activity on the plateau, the isolated chert resources of
these old plateau remnants were exploited.
Sites on the main plateau surface (fig. 2-B).—Because of the dif-
ficulty of gaining access to the plateau surface in certain areas, this
feature was investigated less intensively than those more easily reached
from the wadi floor. Access to the plateau is most readily gained
via certain tributary wadies which cut through the upper cliffs.
Such wadies are not abundant; most of the small wadies cutting into
the plateau (see Caton Thompson and Gardner, 1939, plate 1) hang
well up on these cliffs (pl. 2:1). The fact that artifacts occur abun-
dantly around the upper portions of these access wadies suggests that
the same routes were available during Upper Pleistocene times (to
which the artifacts concerned must date). At one locality near Tarim
where the plateau was reached by employing cliff-hanging tactics, arti-
facts were scattered over a wide area and found only occasionally.
tit
i
ent,
me
ae
| “OS
alta aa |
aa a
Ln ee
[eee
fe
7)
=n
=e
ae
ee
fe]
te
UE
HH.
a
AT
i
ne
4
io ke
goes
= CRETACEOUS -
SEIL BED
ALLUVIAL FILL
a Oe SS A
Ficure 2.—Generalized profile of Wadi Hadhramaut.
528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
It is likely that the impression of heavy artifact concentration on the
plateau gained by restricting investigation to the area along and near
the wadi edge, especially near access routes to the wadi bottom, would
not hold true for the Jol (as this dissected limestone plateau is known)
generally. Caton Thompson’s experience would tend to lend weight
to this supposition. On making the journey from the coast to Tarim,
virtually no “paleoliths” were found until the edge of the Wadi Ha-
dhramaut above Tarim was reached (Caton Thompson, 1953, p. 191).
On this trip, intensive search was not possible. It is quite likely that
scattered implements would have been discovered if she had been able
to make an intensive search, but such heavy artifact concentrations as
those that occur along the wadi edges could not have been overlooked
easily, even from a moving vehicle.
Trimming and workshop debris is largely wanting on the plateau.
The tools and flakes occurring there are characterized by a dark brown
to nearly black glossy patina. Sometimes in the vicinity of those
small buttes which bear a supply of chert, small numbers of the lightly
patinated artifacts which are common on the tops of the buttes are
found on this lower surface as well.
Flint and chert are usually not far away; they are found in the
underlying limestone and are exposed in places along the access wadies,
or in the cliffs and fallen rock easily reached from them.
Talus sites (fig. 2-C).—Artifacts do not seem to occur in any abun-
dance on the upper talus slopes. Unlike most of the lower-lying sites
whose locations can often be predicted, the upper talus is everywhere
similar and presents no clues as to where artifacts might be found.
When artifacts were chanced upon, they generally consisted of a few
core trimming flakes and perhaps an occasional core. In a few cases,
however, presumably where the flint or chert was of good quality
and/or particularly plentiful, such workshop debris occurs in con-
siderable abundance. This mostly seems to have undergone much less
patination than the material exposed on the plateau above and on the
limestone bench below. This may indicate that this material was
worked later in time, or, more likely, that since it occurs between blocks
of limestone on the talus slope it is much more sheltered from the sun,
is possibly more protected from frequent wetting by dew, and perhaps
from whatever other factors might contribute to forming the dark
desert patination.
One talus site of particular interest deserves mention. This is a
flint mining site on a high ridge in the Qatn area (pl. 2:1). Nodules
of flint up to 10 or 15 centimeters in diameter were exposed; these had
been flaked off flush with the limestone surface. The limestone proved
to be very tough; Cole was unable to extract any of the nodules with
the aid of a geologist’s pick. From the relatively fresh, somewhat
concave surface of the limestone, it appeared that a surface layer of
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 529
weathered material had been chipped away and the flint nodules
recovered, but as fresh limestone was reached, the flint miners had
to content themselves with flaking what they could from the embedded
nodules. Trimming debris could be found for a considerable distance
down the slope below the site of mining operations.
Flint or chert was similarly trimmed from detached blocks of lime-
stone. In some cases where the block was sufficiently small, the matrix
was apparently flaked away to bare the desired nodule. In any event,
it is not uncommon to find large trimming flakes that are part chert
and part limestone.
Limestone bench sites (fig. 2-D).—Stone implements, flakes, and
debris commonly occur on the bench at the top of the lower cliff-
forming limestone. In places, especially at wadi junctions, this bench
becomes quite wide forming a large, very flat area. These features,
which provide a flat surface free of limestone rubble, a good view
into both wadies, and easy access to the wadi floor, seem to have been
a favorite camping situation for certain of the prehistoric inhabitants
of the Hadhramaut. They usually contain artifacts in sufficient
abundance to warrant collection. Occasionally broad, flat, bench
localities were found which had few or no artifacts, but generally
this seems to have been the result of a local deficiency of raw material
for toolmaking.
The artifacts found on the bench sites appeared—superficially at
least—to be similar to those collected from the plateau, although
occasionally material reminiscent of that found on low-lying features
was encountered. The artifacts are usually darkly patinated. It was
noted, however, that more trimming debris is to be found on these
sites than on the plateau, presumably reflecting easy accessibility of
raw material from the talus which is always close by.
Although the bench sometimes narrows to a mere ledge or disappears
altogether, it often provided the best means of access to lower-lying
features. It was easier to walk along this bench and descend to
possible sites than to negotiate the talus slopes and rubble fields situated
at their foot. It was from this practice that most of the talus sites
were discovered.
Sites on spurs and outliers (fig. 2-E).—Artifacts are generally found
atop these features, and often occur in abundance (pl. 2:2). On the
higher, breccia-capped spurs and outliers, the material seems to be
indistinguishable from that of the bench sites. In fact, the inter-
vening cliff is sometimes quite insignificant, being only a few meters
in height, and a single spread of artifactual material covers both
bench and the upper portion of a spur. Flint or chert is often
locally available (from the breccias), and workshop debris is gener-
ally found mixed with the “finished” artifacts. These spurs fre-
quently protrude into the wadies in such a manner as to command an
530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
excellent view of the surrounding terrain, and for this reason they
were commonly used as sites of watchtowers and forts of recent date.
Others, which do not offer a commanding view, were presumably used
because of the presence of raw material, their more sheltered locations,
and possibly other advantages, such as availability of water, which
cannot be assessed today. Often spurs are found in close proximity
to other spurs and outliers, suggesting the possibility that these fea-
tures are remnants of what was once a large continuous surface which
held a greater spread of artifacts. If this is the case, these artifact
concentrations may not represent isolated campsites.
Sites on low-lying features (fig. 2-F).—These sites, which are often
no more than 10 or 15 meters above wadi level, occur on top of mounds
and spurs of Cretaceous sediments, on abandoned portions of alluvial
fans, and on rubble and gravel spreads (pl. 3:1). These surfaces
presumably had not yet come into existence when people were leay-
ing artifacts about on the plateau, benches, spurs, and outliers. The
darkly patinated artifacts characteristic of sites on the latter fea-
tures rarely occur on these low-lying surfaces. Until there has been
time to study this material, little can be said about it except that it is
only slightly or not at all patinated. In certain situations where arti-
facts are subject to occasional inundation, this patination is thin and
white. The average artifact size is much smaller than that of the
higher-lying material, and typologically late implements—tanged pro-
jectile points, bifacial foliate (leaf-shaped) points, etc.—sometimes oc-
cur in these contexts. It is possible that analysis will permit this ma-
terial to be referred to two industries: The one just mentioned which
sometimes approaches microlithic proportions, and a second, interest-
ingly enough, which is often associated with pre-Islamic and perhaps
even preceramic architectural features. This might be described as
a crude, nondescript flake industry, generally of rather small average
flake size. Unpatinated or slightly patinated artifacts were, in sev-
eral cases, found in and about curious stone structures, often without
ceramic associations. ‘These structures were most commonly stone
circles, although rectangular alignments of stone, and complexes of
circles, or of circles and rectangles also occur. As these stone struc-
tures are commonly found on the low-lying rubble and gravel spreads
where artifacts of this kind are apt to occur, it is possible that the
association is fortuitous.
Rock shelters (fig. 2-G) —Large fall blocks from the limestone cliffs
are strewn about on the lower slopes and on the gravel and rubble
spreads (pl. 3:2). Some of the more favorably situated blocks are
used today by Bedouin as shelters, and are the primary source of pre-
Islamic South Arabic graffiti and rock paintings. In a few instances,
flaked stone artifacts were found around the shelters in sufficient
quantity to suggest that they are associated with occupation. Judging
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 531
from the random chipping in evidence, it is possible that flint or chert
artifacts were picked up and brought to a shelter for purposes of fire-
making. (The present-day Bedouin employ them in this fashion.)
Shallow shelters sometimes occur in the limestone cliffs but, with a
single exception, no surface evidence of human occupation was found
in any of them. The exception is a rather large shelter beneath the
lower cliff-forming limestone near Henin. This will be mentioned
again below.
A few hand axes or hand axlike tools were found during the course
of thesurvey. In several cases, these were associated with assortments
of surface material characterized by a Levallois technique of flake
preparation. Two specimens, however, were isolated finds on talus
slopes, and one of these appears quite acceptable as an Acheulian-type
implement. In fact, several of these tools would not be out of place in
various East African Acheulian assemblages although, with the ex-
ception noted, they could not be regarded as typical. The suspected
Acheulian hand ax (pl. 4:1) was found near Qarn Qaimah. It is of
a material distinct from the ubiquitous grey limestone of the Hadhra-
maut, displaying a reddish, heavily weathered surface. It may prove
to be of the same material as the second isolated find mentioned above.
The second implement was found in Kathiri territory, and as all ma-
terial collected there had been packed before entering the Qu ‘aiti state
there was no possibility of comparing the two specimens.
The scarcity of these possible Acheulian bifaces, together with the
apparent lack of cleavers, picks, large flake scrapers, and other Acheu-
lian artifact types, and the fact that nothing even vaguely reminiscent
of Acheulian workshop debris was seen, suggests that Acheulian oc-
cupation of the Hadhramaut was very sparse, if it occurred at all.
The possibility that evidence of such occupation has been buried be-
neath thick silt deposits must not be dismissed. Although chert is
abundant, suitable raw material above the level of the present wadi
floors appears to be virtually nonexistent. Judging from the size of
slightly worked cores and core-trimming flakes, it would seem that the
nodules were too small to be used for the manufacture of characteristic
large-sized Acheulian implements. If suitable material were available
below the present level of wadi fill—and there is some reason to think
this may have been the case ?—certainly workshop debris would not
be found far removed from the source, and finished artifacts are not
apt to have been taken very far up the slopes.
The industry most abundantly represented in the area covered by the
survey is based on a Levallois technique of flake preparation. The
basic flake type is the quadrilateral flake derived from longitudinally
2In the upper reaches of that part of the Wadi Hadhramaut that was investigated,
occasional pieces of a hard siliceous sandstone were seen and a few artifacts made of it
were noted. ‘The exposed thickness of Cretaceous sediment is greater here, and it may be
that this material comprises a lower member of the series, although no outcrops were seen.
532 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
prepared cores. Triangular flakes produced from convergent prepa-
ration of the core, and oval or discoidal to irregular shaped flakes de-
rived from radially prepared cores are also in evidence. Irregular
flakes derived from biconical, discoidal, and formless cores, as well as
from other kinds of nonprepared cores are an important component,
and in some cases, these were the dominant flake type. Any of these
flake types may be retouched to form a variety of scrapers as well as
points and other tool types. As was true of the flakes collected by
Caton Thompson (1953, p. 209) near Tarim, the prepared flakes some-
times bear remnants of a faceted striking platform, but they were more
commonly struck from a plain platform. In addition to these flakes,
the various kinds of cores from which they were produced were found.
In spite of the fact that artifacts occur on surfaces which have been
exposed since they were first left on them, it seems in some cases that
they represent a single, short period of occupation rather than an ac-
cumulation over a long period of time. In places, for instance, where
a good supply of flint or chert is available, artifacts have doubtless
accumulated over a long period. In such localities, artifacts with
widely differing patination are found, and wide ranges in flake dimen-
sions areapparent. Here also, one sometimes finds cores or other pieces
of material that display two or more degrees of patination. A core
which had been discarded after having yielded the larger flakes de-
sired at an early period became serviceable again at a later time when
much smaller flake sizes were required.
However, a number of sites with relatively small concentrations of
artifacts were found, sometimes in places that have no obvious attrac-
tion as campsites. At such sites, workshop debris is usually absent
because flint and chert are not immediately available. Often these
sites occur on the plateau where there would have been no water, and
in places where such advantages as shelter or an unrestricted view of
areas where game might have been expected would not have been
obtained. Further, uniformity of such characteristics as flake size,
tool types, and patination suggests that the artifacts are, in fact, in
archeological context, and that these contexts represent temporary
campsites, or possibly killsites. Once detailed analysis of the collec-
tions is completed, it is thought that it will be possible to demonstrate
that statistically significant differences in such characteristics as mean
flake size, and flake and tool typology, exist between certain of the
assortments, and that these differences can be correlated with degree of
patination. On the basis of these analyses and correlations, it may be
that a crude seriation can be developed to accommodate some of this
material.
Thanks to the activities of the Desert Locust Survey personnel and,
more recently, of Aramco geologists and surveyors, something is known
of the archeology of the southwestern extreme of the Rub‘ al-Khali
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Van Beek, Cole, and Jamme PLATE 1
an
2. Artifact pavement on an upper plateau remnant near Qatn.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Van Beek, Cole, and Jamme PLATE 2
A Sg ERT
wean: © Oe
Z
SS Ceara. Sey iad
1. Flint mining took place around the large block on the skyline near the ridge crest. Not
hanging valleys in the cliffs across the wadi.
2. A typical flat-topped spur; the flat top of the spur was a prolific source of artifacts.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Van Beek, Cole, and Jamme PLATE 3
neo) fo
1. A low spur at the junction of two wadies near Qatn. Small, relatively unpatinated
artifacts, including several of the Habarut type were found on the lower, flattened portion
of the spur. A site occurs on the bench of the lower cliff-forming limestone across the
wadi.
2. Large limestone fall blocks near Seiyun. Artifacts were found in fair abundance around
these blocks. Modern Bedouin encampments also occur here.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Van Beek, Cole, and Jamme
PLATE 4
1. Hand ax from near Qarn Qaimah.
2. Rock shelter west of Henin.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Van Beek, Cole, and 'Jamme PEATE. S
1. Megalithic complex in Wadi Sarr. The square enclosure is on the right, the fallen
dolmen on the left, and behind the dolmen is the row of standing stones and one of the
stone circles.
2. Typical pecked crenelated design on the inner face of a slab in the square enclosure.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Van Beek, Cole, and Jamme PLATE 6
CS Randel. ee ae
es Se
1. Remains of pre-Islamic structure, probably a customs post or caravansary near Qatn.
2. Eroded pre-Islamic town site in Wadi ‘Idim. Note remains of stone buildings in upper
left quarter of photograph.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Van Beek, Cole, and Jamme PLATE 7
1. Exposed building in site shown on plate 6, fig. 2, showing different masonry styles and
well-preserved mud-brick walls.
3.
+
2. Section of exposed pre-Islamic irrigation canal in Wadi Du‘an. ‘The stone piles in the
upper right corner are remnants of other installations in this system.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Van Beek, Cole, and Jamme PLATE 8
1. Remains of an early Islamic village built on an outlier east of Seiyun.
2. Ruins of a recently abandoned Islamic village. }
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 533
and its fringes (Zeuner, 1954; Field, 1955, 1956, 1958, 1960; Smith
and Maranjian, 1962). Industries referred to as “Neolithic” are rep-
resented by a number of sites located from 200 to 400 kilometers north
and northwest of the Hadhramaut (fig.1). Bifacial leaf-shaped and
triangular points, barbed and tanged arrowheads, rhomboidal bifacial
points, and a variety of scrapers have been described. Curiously, no
evidence of similar industries was found in the Hadhramaut, although
some of the individual tool types occur infrequently. One rock shelter
near Henin (pl. 4:2) yielded a small assortment of tanged and barbed
projectile points, a few of which are made of obsidian. Obsidian
otherwise seems to occur only on pre-Islamic sites where microlithic
artifacts were fashioned from it (Caton Thompson, 1944, p. 184). A
few small tanged points came from scattered localities, usually low-
lying spurs or outliers. But one site in Wadi Bin ‘Ali, on top of the
lower cliff-forming limestone, yielded a very few of these artifacts.
A single, relatively large tanged point (5.2 cm.), virtually identical in
shape with the one figured in Zeuner (1954, pl. 1, b), was found on the
plateau near Qatn. Bifacially worked foliate points were even less
frequently encountered, and no rhomboidal bifacial points are recalled.
It is possible that comparable scraper types will appear on detailed
examination of the collections.
A place known as Habarut, some 350 kilometers to the east of Tarim
near the Dhofar border, has also produced some material similar to
that of the Rub‘ al-Khali fringe sites, but more characteristically
yields an abundance of trihedral rods (tools, triangular in section,
with pressure flaking on entire surface of each side), points, and other
implements fashioned on triangular-sectioned pieces carefully worked,
sometimes on two but usually on all three faces.2 Relatively large (10
cm. and more) crudely trimmed bifacial foliates and limaces also occur,
and these appear to be most similar to artifacts in certain “Late Stone
Age” contexts. Such artifacts, for example, occur in a Somaliland
Doian industry, and are referred to a “Neolithic” aspect (Clark, 1954,
p- 258), but overall similarities to the Doian are not close. The Fayum
“Neolithic” (Caton Thompson, 1934) would seem to offer rather closer
parallels, although numerous points of difference exist. For example,
the hollow (concave) based arrowhead—present in the Doian as well
as this industry—seems to be lacking in South Arabia. A few pieces
similar to material from Habarut have also been found on the coast
near Mukalla (Caton Thompson, 1953, fig. 7, Nos. 59-62).
As with material from the Rub‘ al-Khali fringe sites, occasional
artifacts of the kind found at Habarut appear in the Wadi Hadhra-
maut, but nothing even remotely similar to the total assortment—or to
8 Material from Habarut has been collected by various British political officers and is,
in large part, housed at the Aden Museum. These collections were kindly made available
to Cole by Brian Doe, Director of Antiquities of the Government of Aden.
720—018—64—— 36
534 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
any of the separate collections examined—was seen there. A few of
the trihedral rods were found in scattered localities. One low-lying
spur in Wadi Bin Selman had these associated with several bifacial
foliate points. Crudely trimmed large bifacial foliates were rarely
found.
At one of the Rub‘ al-Khali sites, arrowheads were found associated
with a hearth. Charcoal recovered from it has given a Carbon 14
date of 3,181+200 B.C. (Field, 1960 b). Caton Thompson (1934, p.
93) has advanced a slightly earlier date (ca. 5,000-4,000 B.C.) for
those Fayum industries which are comparable with that of Habarut.
Thus it would seem that hunting groups, if they were not actually
living in the Hadhramaut, at least visited it on occasion during the
first few millennia B.C. and doubtless were still doing so at the time
of the appearance of potterymaking town dwellers.
Apart from the possibility of people employing Acheulian tech-
niques of implement manufacture having lived in the Hadhramaut,
the typological affiliations of the older industry so abundantly repre-
sented in this area would seem to be to that complex of industries in
the Near East and North Africa referred to as the “Middle Paleo-
lithic.” In Africa, the similarities are with the “Middle Stone Age”
(more is involved than mere Anglicizations, see Malan, 1957). In-
sofar as can be told from the Hadhramaut material, “Upper Paleo-
lithic” industries do not occur. It has been suggested that a similar
situation exists in North Africa (Forde-Johnston, 1959, p. 15). As-
suming continuous occupation of the area during Upper Pleistocene
and Post Pleistocene time, it would appear that a “Levalloiso-Mous-
terian” industry persisted until quite late. Industries of “Bedoin
Microlithic” and “Desert Neolithic” type seem to appear on the scene,
rather than develop from the earlier tradition. No Aterian-type in-
dustries are known here. Even should subsequent analysis reveal
a possible transitional industry, the fact that all material is from
the surface will always allow for the possibility, or probability that
mixed assortments are involved.
The above remarks, it should be remembered, are based on a casual
examination of only a small part of the material collected from the
Hadhramaut, although more careful study of material from certain
Rub‘ al-Khali fringe sites and from Habarut has been possible. A
detailed account of the collected material awaits careful study, after
which it may be possible to suggest more precise affiliations of the
early Hadhramaut cultures with those of the Near East and Africa.
PRE-ISLAMIC PERIOD
In the absence of a fixed nomenclature for the archeological periods
in South Arabia, the term “pre-Islamic” is used here to denote the
period from the end of the Prehistoric period to the coming of Islam
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 535
in the 7th century A.D. It overlaps the Prehistoric period at the
stage represented by megalithic structures, and it includes the long
period of settled town life both before and after the introduction of
writing, an event which cannot yet be precisely dated. Thus, the
term is vague and should remain so until the cultural development
of this area can be described in terms of cultural achievements, tech-
nological levels, or historical periods as are commonly used elsewhere
in the Near East—a description which must await additional ex-
cavation and interpretation of archeological data.
A total of 23 sites belonging to the pre-Islamic period were recorded
in Hadhramaut. Of these, seven sites were already known, and our
chief contribution at these sites will be in the analyses of the large
collections of pottery. The remaining 16 sites, so far as we have
been able to learn, were recorded for the first time. These 238 sites
include several different types: (1) Megalithic structures; (2) guard
or customs posts, some of which probably served as caravansaries;
(3) townsites; and (4) irrigation installations. In this brief report,
obviously not all sites can be discussed; only those of special interest
and with features common to a number of sites will be mentioned.
Three sites with megalithic structures and several other sites with
similar structures but built with smaller stones were discovered dur-
ing the survey. All of these structures are located on the low-lying
benches or gravel-covered terrace usually near the base of the cliff.
Two of the three megalithic sites consisted of large circles of stand-
ing stones, and on one stone, a palimpsest of South Arabic graffiti was
found, which had been carved after the stone was set up. ‘To the best
of our knowledge, this is the first unequivocal evidence that structures
of this type antedate Islamic times in this region. The most interest-
ing of these sites is a complex of structures in Wadi Sarr, one of the
northern tributaries (pl. 5:1). This complex, which occupies a
gravel-covered terrace along the west side of the wadi, consists of
several structures. The central structure is a square enclosure formed
of standing limestone slabs and surrounded on all sides by large
horizontal sandstone blocks, which apparently serve as a foundation
or a curbing for the square enclosure. Within the enclosure is a
dolmenlike chamber in the southwest corner, the cover slab of which
is supported on two sides by the standing slabs of the enclosure and
on the other two sides by slabs inside the square. There are also
other standing slabs within the enclosure which, at first sight, appear
to have been placed at random, but on further examination were al-
most certainly arranged to support cover slabs in the other three
corners of the square; this suggests that originally there were dolmen-
like chambers in each corner of the structure.
An important feature of this complex is the decoration on the inner
face of most of the slabs of the square (pl. 5:2); in all probability,
536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
it originally appeared on all of the slabs forming a continuous design
inside the enclosure. ‘The motif consists of at least three broad lines,
each forming a crenelated design (fig. 3:a). These lines are usually
pecked with a hammerstone, but on at least one slab, they are incised.
Also noteworthy is a group of graffiti carved on the outer face of one
of the enclosure slabs, which shows that the slab was in situ when the
graffiti were engraved, and that the structure dates no later than the
date of the graffiti. Other features of this complex include a separate
dolmen which is also surrounded by large horizontal blocks, a row of
10 large stones, and 2 stone circles, one of which is formed of tall
standing slabs. Numerous chert artifacts were collected around this
complex; a few sherds and glass fragments of recent date were also
found which attest to recent Bedouin encampments.
Figure 3.—a, Crenelated design on the inner face of most slabs in the Wadi Sarr
megalithic structure; 6, Natufian B design on a bone plaque from Mugharet el-Wad in
Palestine (after Garrod and Bate, 1937 pl. 13:2:17),
What is the purpose, the cultural affinities, and date of this complex ?
Perhaps none of the questions can be answered with certainty.
Clearly the elaborate construction and the carefully worked design
inside the structure point to a special function. If dolmens are indeed
tombs as is commonly held, then this may have served as a burial
complex for a distinguished family, the leading members of a tribe,
or other important persons. So far as cultural relationships are con-
cerned, we know of no similar complex anywhere in Arabia or in the
entire Near East. The nearest dolmen fields known to the senior
author are in the Jordan River valley, where several hundred dolmens
survive on the terraces to the east of the river. There, they are
usually considered to belong to the Neolithic period. The closest
parallel that we have been able to find thus far to the crenelated deco-
rative motif is a Lower Natufian (Mesolithic) design that appears on
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 537
a bone plaque from Mugharet el-Wad (fig. 3:b), one of the Mount
Carmel caves, and on a basalt bowl from Eynan, Israel; the design
of these parallels is more elaborate—and perhaps more advanced—
than the Wadi Sarr example, in view of the adjustments in the width
of the crenels required by the compression of the crenelated lines which
form the basic element of the motif. Whether the similarities between
these structures and designs in Palestine and Hadhramaut are coinci-
dental or are evidence of cultural relationship cannot be determined at
this time. Ifa relationship exists—and this is by no means impossi-
ble—it may indicate that the Wadi Sarr complex represents a
Mesolithic or Neolithic horizon in southern Arabia which may belong
somewhere between the eighth and second millennia B.C.
Another type of site discovered during the reconnaissance usually
consists of no more than one building, and is always located near one of
the camel tracks leading to the southern coast of Arabia. These sites
are invariably situated on the west side of the southern tributaries
near their junctions with the main wadi. They occur in every wadi in
which there is a caravan track to the plateau; none was found in wadies
which do not provide access to the plateau for camel traffic. The size
and strategic location of these sites suggest that they served as cus-
toms or guard posts, where import and transit taxes were levied on
products consigned to the main wadi and to regions to the north and
west of Hadhramaut. One site (pl. 6:1), located in the Qatn area,
was built of stone and finished with smooth-dressed stone wall panels.
In front of it was a rectangular enclosure formed of large undressed
stones, which may have been a corral for caravans in transit, suggest-
ing that the site may have served as a caravansary as well as a cus-
toms-guard post. Another site, a small stone fort, was situated on
the ledge of the lower cliff-forming limestone a few meters from a
track which runs along the ledge in its ascent to the plateau. The only
artifacts found at such sites are sherds and, in one instance, fragments
of dressed wall panels.
In Hadhramaut, the largest and most impressive pre-Islamic re-
mains are those of town sites. These sites usually are located either in
the middle of the wadi on the silt or close to the cliff wall near the
junction of the gravel talus and the silt. In the southern tributary
wadies, such as Wadies Du‘an and ‘Idim, some of these sites attain
considerable size; one measures about 600 meters long by 300 meters
wide, and the occupation debris reaches a depth of at least 9
meters (pl. 6:2). Because of their location on the silt, all sites are
badly eroded from the action of flash floods, with the result that
each site consists of a series of small mounds separated by gullies of
varying depth. Each of these mounds preserves the remains of one or
two buildings. At some sites—in addition to natural erosion—sed/
farming is being carried on in the eroded gullies, exposed dressed
538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
blocks are carried away for use in modern construction, debris soil
is being removed by farmers for their fields, and in some instances,
the site has been leveled, plowed, and incorporated into a modern field
system. It is worth noting in passing that these forces of destruction
have made it impossible in many parts of the sites to determine the
stratigraphic relationship between buildings, since the intervening
layers of debris have been removed.
Because of erosion and other agents of destruction, many details
of the ancient sites can be seen on the surface. Most of the buildings
were constructed with foundations and lower courses of stone, and a
variety of masonry types and dressing techniques appear in each site
and occasionally in the same building, suggesting different periods of
construction. The superstructure is usually represented by a pile of
disintegrated mud brick, but often mud-brick walls and even in-
dividual bricks can be distinguished (pl. 7:1). On the larger and
earlier sites, the surface is strewn with literally hundreds of thousands
of sherds which have eroded out of the debris. Architectural frag-
ments, incense burners, an occasional fragment of sculpture, inscribed
pieces, and obsidian points and sickle blades are also found.
Perhaps the most surprising discovery of the survey is the lack of
townsites in the main wadi. Today the main wadi contains perhaps
90 percent of the entire population of the Hadhramaut drainage.
Because of its present large population, it is reasonable to expect a
proportionately heavy population in antiquity and to find a heavy
concentration of sites in the main wadi. Yet only one townsite and a
trace of a second were found; the former is located on the gravel-
strewn talus, while the skimpy remains of the latter are situated on
the silt floor of the valley. How can this apparent lack of ancient
settlements be explained? While the collected data have not yet been
thoroughly evaluated, it seems likely that there may have been many
sites in the main wadi in antiquity which were destroyed within the
last thousand years or so by (1) the construction of irrigation installa-
tions, and (2) the erosion of the valley floor. With regard to the
former, it should be noted that large sections of the main wadi have
been cultivated using seé/ irrigation techniques. This method of irri-
gation, which has been used throughout the Islamic period, requires
the leveling of fields, the cutting of canals in the silt floor, and the erec-
tion of earthen dykes around each field plot. Thus everything, in-
cluding ancient building remains, was leveled. From many of the
dykes still in use and from others long abandoned, pre-Islamic pottery
is eroding out, while in the immediate vicinity, there is not a trace of
a pre-Islamic structure. It was from such a dyke that the only trace of
pre-Islamic pottery on the silt of the main wadi was found. It should
also be noted that the silt beneath this dyke now stands 2 meters above
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 539
the present wadi floor. Yet, at one time, the wadi floor must have
been level with the present surface of this block of silt, and perhaps
both were even higher. It seems probable that this block of silt has
been preserved by chance, while the remainder of the surrounding
valley floor has eroded 2 meters to its present level. If this is the case—
and there appears to be supporting evidence elsewhere—any sites that
may have stood on the silt have been washed away without leaving
a trace. At the same time, the height of the silt floor seems to have
increased at the eastern end of the wadi, near its confluence with Wadi
‘Idim; when wells are dug in this area, pre-Islamic artifacts are
often found a meter or so below the present surface. In other words,
a gradual grading of the western two-thirds of the valley floor may
have destroyed all evidence of pre-Islamic towns in that area, while
deposition of this graded material together with silt from Wadi ‘Idim
has buried pre-Islamic towns below the surface in the eastern part of
the main wadi. Although this explanation may not be correct in all
details, it seems likely that some such phenomenon is responsible for
the disappearance of what must have been many townsites in the main
wadi.
Some pre-Islamic towns in Wadies ‘Idim and Du‘an go back to at
least the 9th or 10th century B.C. and possibly a century or so earlier,
judging from similarities between the pottery from these sites and
that of Hajar Bin Humeid in Wadi Beihan. Many also come down in
time to the early post-Christian centuries, and possibly to the Islamic
period. Altogether it is probable that the entire pre-Islamic period
is represented in the collections made at townsites during the
reconnaissance.
One extremely important site of this period is a large field of ruins
of a pre-Islamic irrigation system in Wadi Du‘an. Within an area
of about 2 square kilometers, there are several hundred—and perhaps
as many as a thousand—partially exposed mounds revealing sections
of canals and sluices, some of which are in an excellent state of pres-
ervation (pl. 7:2). All were constructed of stone and mortar. That
these ruins belong to the pre-Islamic period is certain from an exam-
ination of the installations themselves and associated artifacts. This
type of construction was not used in the Islamic period anywhere in
the Hadhramaut drainage; as noted above, Islamic period installations
are entirely of earthen construction. Further, all the sherds found on
the silt surface surrounding these canals and sluices are weathered,
heavily patinated pre-Islamic sherds; not one Islamic sherd was found
in this area. By contrast, the field plots of the Islamic irrigation sys-
tems have only Islamic sherds, except for those instances described
above where pre-Islamic sites were ploughed up and incorporated in
the field system.
540 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
ISLAMIC PERIOD
While the expedition focused its fieldwork on the Prehistoric and
pre-Islamic periods, it seemed worthwhile to record and to make
collections at a few sites of the Islamic period, from the seventh cen-
tury A.D. to the present. It was hoped that such an investigation
would (1) provide the later material necessary to complete the devel-
opment of a ceramic sequence for Hadhramaut, (2) determine whether
a number of sites described in the literature and marked on maps
as “ancient” and “pre-Islamic” are as represented or are Islamic and
of comparatively recent date, and (8) yield evidence that could be
used to distinguish pre-Islamic from Islamic irrigation installations.
A total of 27 Islamic sites were selected for study from hundreds
in the wadi. Three types of sites are represented among those re-
corded: Guard posts or fortresses, isolated villas, and townsites.
Guard posts abound in the main wadi and tributaries. In general,
they consist of one or two very small rooms, and are constructed of
dry laid slabs or undressed stones. They are always strategically
located near a camel or foot track and in a good defensive position
whether on the plateau, the lower cliff-forming limestone ledge, or
the benches and outliers. As might be expected, artifacts are scarce
at such sites, but enough are found to enable us to distinguish between
early and late Islamic posts.
Also occupying benches and outliers are a number of large isolated
houses or villas. These structures presumably were built on high
ground to provide better defense against attack, and this, together
with the many remains of guard posts, suggest that much of the
Islamic period was characterized by strife and insecurity. Some of
the early villas were constructed entirely of well-dressed stone (pl.
8:1), others of roughly dressed stone with mud-brick superstructures.
Later houses are invariably built of mud brick on a foundation of
only a few courses of undressed stone. A house plan common in more
recent ruins consists of a virtually square building with a roughly
cylindrical tower attached to each corner. A few buildings of this
type are still occupied—the best example is the Sultan’s palace in
Seiyun—but no new buildings using this plan are being constructed
now. This style of building is a good time marker for the Islamic
period; it was not used in the early Islamic period, but was common
in late Islamic times, and has only recently been abandoned.
Most Islamic towns, including present-day towns and cities, are
built of mud brick on the talus near the base of the cliff and sometimes
incorporate natural features such as benches or outliers in their built-
up area (pl. 8:2); a few small villages and clusters of houses are
located on the silt in the middle of the wadi, but these quickly dis-
solve when flash floods fill the wadi, leaving only a course or two of
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 54]
stone foundations and a few artifacts. Except in the larger towns
and cities, little or no repair work is done to houses that begin to
disintegrate; instead, houses are abandoned, and the inhabitants build
an entirely new town nearby. Because of this practice, high mounds
are not being formed now, and if this tradition began in antiquity it
would explain the lack of depth in most pre-Islamic sites. Artifacts
from early Islamic structures include plain buff pottery, glass, and
occasional sherds of imported ceramics, such as celadon. In recent
Islamic sites, red slip pottery and painted pottery are common; glass,
wooden, and metal artifacts, and imported European and Asian por-
celain also appear; many similar objects are still available in local
shops and represent a continuum between the recent past and the
present.
EPIGRAPHY
About 1,300 South Arabic graffiti and rock inscriptions were copied
in the main wadi and tributaries between Tarim and Qarn Qaimah
during the 314 months of fieldwork. These graffiti and inscriptions
are either engraved or pecked, in all probability with hammerstones or
similar tools. They are chiefly found on boulders which broke away
from the limestone cliffs and tumbled to their present locations on the
talus or silt. A few inscriptions are preserved on the vertical cliff
surfaces, and originally there may have been many more in such posi-
tions which weathered away. The decipherment of most of the texts
is unusually difficult because of the rough surface of the boulders, and
the light incision and pecking of letters on the limestone. These dif-
ficulties are compounded by the fact that many graffiti and inscriptions
are located in chamberlike places where the light is exceptionally poor.
These texts contain only personal names, but a great number of
them are new and represent an important addition to the corpus of
South Arabian names. Rarely are they accompanied by names in-
dicating filiation or the clan or family to which the person belonged, as
is more commonly found in the western part of southern Arabia. Sev-
eral very important forms of letters were also found which shed new
light on Semitic paleography. For example, some forms of ’alif are
practically identical to some found in Protosinaitic and early Phoeni-
cian (Canaanite) inscriptions. Wasm or tribal signs also appear in
the Hadhramaut inscriptions.
While searching for graffiti and inscriptions, Jamme also sought to
obtain information on the toponymy of the area. In order to achieve
maximum accuracy in the spelling of local geographic names, literate
local guides were hired to write place names in Arabic in our note-
books; whenever possible, their spellings were checked by other native
informants. This material was turned over to the U.S. Army Map
Service and to the Directorate of Military Survey in England for their
use in improving the maps of this region.
542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
During the course of the survey, Jamme was privileged to make
several major epigraphic excursions to places outside the reconnais-
sance area. Near the town of al-Wastah, which is located about 20
kilometers northeast of Tarim, a small collection of graffiti was found
high on a cliff just below the plateau. This group consists of 6 South
Arabic and 18 Thamudic graffiti. This is the southernmost find of
Thamudic graffiti which are most commonly found in northwestern
Arabia.
On the occasion of the annual pilgrimage to Nabi Allah Hud, Jamme
visited the small village of Sana, which is located about 45 kilometers
southeast of al-Wastah. About 2.5 kilometers northwest of Sana are
the ruins of a pre-Islamic temple which was dedicated to Sin, the lunar
god of ancient Hadhramaut. At this site photographs were made of
27 fragmentary South Arabic inscriptions.
In the vicinity of al-‘Abr, a Protectorate military post located about
150 kilometers west-northwest of Shibam, about 300 photographs of
graffiti and rock inscriptions were made. Most of these are located
about 11 miles north of the military post. The initial study of these
photographs shows that the general characteristics of the texts are
similar to those of texts from Wadi Hadhramaut, but that wasm or
tribal signs are more numerous and diverse. Several forms of letters
used in these inscriptions are also important for the study of South
Arabic paleography.
About 100 kilometers southwest of al-‘Abr are three large boulders
covered with inscriptions at a place Known as al-‘Uqlah. Jamme spent
5 hours studying 86 texts on the main boulder and 3 texts on each of
2 other boulders. ‘These texts mention several consecutive Hadhrami
kings as well as a Sabean provincial king who ruled toward the end
of the third century A.D. Many of these texts were copied in 1936
by the well-known Arabian explorer, H. St. J. B. Philby. It is now
clear that his copies of these inscriptions require major additions and
corrections, and it will now be possible to correct these errors.
Twenty-eight of these inscriptions were copied for the first time
(Jamme, 19632).
Thus the epigraphic work of this expedition is of considerable im-
portance to the study of language, literature, and culture history of
South Arabia. The texts discovered will make a valuable contribution
to the South Arabian onomasticon, and especially to the study of pale-
ography ; the latter, in turn, sheds light on the origin and evolution of
the South Arabian alphabet. It is probable that important data on
migrations and trade will be forthcoming once the personal names
have been studied (Jamme, 1963a).
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 543
SUMMARY
From the foregoing discussion, it is clear that when the data col-
lected by the expedition have been analyzed and interpreted, they will
fill some of the gaps in our knowledge of the culture history of south-
ern Arabia. With regard to prehistory, this first systematic recon-
naissance for evidence of the earliest cultures has given us a broad
framework of the culture sequence of the area. Until the area was
systematically surveyed, it was impossible to determine if the occasional
collections which had been made were representative. It now appears
that the earliest. widespread industry belongs to a “Levalloiso-Mous-
terian” tradition and is most closely related to the group of industries
labeled “Middle Paleolithic.” This industry, which must have per-
sisted a long time, apparently was followed by a “Desert Neolithic”
industry, of which few sites were found in Wadi Hadhramaut. Per-
haps to this period belong the megalithic structures, the most important
complex of which may reflect a northern tradition of design, con-
struction, and decoration.
It seems probable at this stage in our investigation, that this area
remained at a “stone age” level of culture until late in the second
millennium B.C., lagging far behind contemporary developments in the
Fertile Crescent. At least no remains were found that could be as-
signed to the period between the hunters and gatherers of the lithic cul-
tures and the earliest towns, which belong to the beginning of the first
millennium B.C. or slightly earlier. It appears at this time that peo-
ple with an advanced culture, probably from the northwestern fringes
of the Fertile Crescent, migrated to Hadhramaut, driving out, killing
off, or assimilating the inhabitants of the area, late in the second mil-
lennium B.C. They brought a tradition of urban living, a knowledge
of ceramics, metallurgy, irrigation agriculture, and perhaps writing,
and developed the extremely lucrative frankincense and myrrh trade.
Based on a preliminary examination of the pottery and other arti-
facts, it appears that while Hadhramaut shared in the main stream of
the culture that prevailed over all of southern Arabia, it also developed
provincial or local features that in part make its culture clearly dis-
tinguishable.
This summary, based on 314 months’ work in Hadhramaut, but with-
out the benefit of analyses of the collections, is necessarily tentative.
Minor adjustments and revisions will certainly be required and prob-
ably some radical alterations will have to be made, but the broad outline
is likely to remain. For filling in the details and for answering many
important questions, the excavation of several pre-Islamic sites will
be required. This is our next task.
044 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to record here our gratitude to many organizations and
individuals who assisted us in various phases of our work: The staff
of the American Consulate, Aden, and Mr. Stephen J. Campbell, Con-
sul, in particular; officials of the Government of Aden, and especially
Mr. D. Brian Doe, Director of Antiquities, Mr. James Ellis, Resident
Adviser, Setyun, Mr. and Mrs. Charles Inge of Mukalla, and Mr.
Richard Etridge, Assistant Resident Adviser at al-‘Abr; officials of
the Kathiri State of Seiyun and the Qu‘aiti State in Mukalla; the U.S.
Army Map Service; Directorate of Military Survey; Directorate of
Overseas Survey; the Royal Air Force, and especially Group Cap-
tain J. F. Davis, Officer Commanding, R.A.F. Khormaksar; Mr.
and Mrs. A. B. Besse and the staff of the A. Besse and Company (Aden)
Limited ; and the Alkaff family in Aden, Tarim, and Seiyun.
REFERENCES CITED
BowEN, RIcHARD LEBARON, JR., ALBRIGHT, F’. P., ET AL.
1958. Archaeological discoveries in South Arabia. Baltimore.
CATON THOMPSON, G.
1944. The tombs and Moon Temple of Hureidha (Hadhramaut). Oxford.
1953. Some palaeoliths from South Arabia. Proc. of the Prehistoric Soc.,
vol. 19, No. 2, pp. 189-218.
CaTON THOMPSON, G., and GARDNER, FE. W.
1934. The Desert Fayum. The Royal Anthropological Institute of Great
Britain. London.
1939. Climate, irrigation, and early man in the Hadhramaut. Geogr. Journ.,
vol. 93, No. 1, pp. 18-35.
CLARK, J. D.
1954. The prehistoric cultures of the Horn of Africa. Cambridge.
CLEVELAND, Ray L.
1959. Preliminary report on archaeological soundings at Sohar (‘Oman).
Bull. of the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 153, pp. 11-
19.
1960. The 1960 American archaeological expedition to Dhofar. Bull. of
the American Schools of Oriental Research, No. 159, pp. 14-26.
FIELD, H.
1955. New stone age sites in the Arabian peninsula. Man, No. 145.
1956. Ancient and modern man in southwestern Arabia. Coral Gables,
Fla.
1958. Stone implements from the Rub’al Khali, southern Arabia. Man,
No. 121.
1960a. Stone implements from the Rub’al Khali. Man, No. 30.
1960b. Carbon-14 date for a ‘Neolithic’ site in the Rub’al Khali. Man,
No. 214.
FOorRDE-JOHNSTON, J.
1959. Neolithic cultures of North Africa. Liverpool.
Garrop, D. A. E., and Batr, D. M. A.
1937. The stone age of Mount Carmel. Vol. 1. Oxford.
ARCHEOLOGY IN SOUTH ARABIA—VAN BEEK, COLE, AND JAMME 545
JAMME, A.
1963a. The Al-‘Uglah texts. Washington, D.C.
1963b. Preliminary report on epigraphic research in northeastern Wadi
Hadramawt and at Al-‘Abar. Bull. Amer. Schools Oriental Research,
No. 172, pp. 41-54.
MALaAN, B. D.
1957. The term “Middle Stone Age.” Third Pan African Congress on
Prehistory. J. D. Clark, ed. London.
SmiTH, Puiie BE. L., and MARANJIAN, G.
1962. Two ‘Neolithic’ collections from Saudi Arabia. Man, No. 17.
VAN BEEK, Gus W.
1952. Recovering the ancient civilization of Arabia. Biblical Archaeolo-
gist, vol. 15, pp. 2-18.
1960. Frankincense and myrrh. Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 28, pp. 70-95.
1961. South Arabian history and archaeology, The Bible and the Ancient
Near Fast. New York. pp. 229-248.
ZEUNER, F. EH.
1954. ‘Neolithic’ sites from the Rub’al Khali, southern Arabia. Man, No.
209.
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‘ ih UptuR
The Corrosion Products of Metal
Antiquities’
By RuTHerrorD J. GETTENS
Head Curator, Freer Gallery Laboratory, Freer Gallery of Art
Smithsonian Institution
[With 10 plates]
ArcHeEoLocists who find the remains of metal antiquities in the earth
or in the sea have observed the wide variety of products that encrust
their surfaces. These encrustments are caused by the chemical inter-
action of the metal with the corroding agencies of earth, air, and water.
Many generations of museum curators and collectors have been con-
cerned with the nature of these products, especially when they want
to show a corroded object close to its original condition. A few chem-
ists have investigated metal corrosion crusts, and have been impressed
by their diversity and complexity. Mineralogists have observed in the
corrosion crusts crystalline compounds identical with some of the
minerals of the earth’s crust. Information about these inorganic
mineral products in corrosion crusts is scattered far and wide in the
scientific literature and in unpublished notes in museum files and
laboratory notebooks. It is important that it be collected, classified,
and made readily available to the collector, curator, and the scientific
investigator.
The term “mineral” is used to designate the chemical elements or
compounds occurring in the earth’s crust as a product of natural
inorganic processes. Minerals have more or less constant chemical
composition and characteristic atomic structure, and hence character-
istic crystalline form and physical properties. Most minerals can have
chemical formulas assigned to them. Metal corrosion products give
X-ray diffraction patterns identical with their mineral prototypes,
thus the same chemical formula can be assigned with confidence to the
1A preliminary report under the title “Mineral Alteration Products of Ancient Metal
Antiquities” was read at the First Conference of the International Institute for Con-
servation of Historic and Artistic Works (IIC) in Rome, 1961. This report has since been
published in the collected papers of the Rome Conference under the title ‘““Recent Advances
in Conservation.” London: Buterworth and Company (1963), pp. 89-92; edited by G.
Thomson.
547
548 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
corrosion product. A corrosion product that cannot be identified with
a known mineral may be analyzed and described in chemical termi-
nology until a corresponding earth mineral has been discovered. Some
mineralogists insist that a true mineral can only be formed by geologic
processes working on geologic material, yet there are no differences
either physical or chemical between compounds created by purely
natural processes and those formed on an artifact where man acci-
dentally assisted in bringing the artifact and the proper environment
together. Austin F. Rogers (1903), former professor of mineralogy
at Stanford University, early in the century described the corrosion
crusts on ancient Chinese coins and he named the mineral species he
found among them such as malachite, cuprite, and others. F. W.
Clarke (1924), in his classic work on geochemistry makes several
allusions to minerals in artifacts; in Dana’s System of Mineralogy
(Palache, Berman, and Frondel, 1944, 1951), there is reference to a
number of occurrences of minerals on man-made objects. Admittedly,
this is an ambiguous area that has not been finally resolved by
mineralogists.
The mineral crusts on ancient objects are important for a number of
reasons. Under certain circumstances the mineral] alteration product
formed on a metal adds interest and even beauty to an object and
increases its value in the eyes of collectors. The artistic term “patina”
is applied by them to the colorful, thin, but continuous corrosion films
that form on the surface of copper and its alloys giving evidence of
age and long use. H. J. Plenderleith says (1938) “. .. patina is a
form of incrustation which is stable under normal conditions of tem-
perature and humidity, is protective in proportion as it is hard and
non-porous, and has often an aesthetic appeal in accordance with
its hue or the play of colours of the minerals of which it is com-
posed.” Green and red patina on ancient bronze is so admired that it
is sometimes produced artificially on recently made objects to simu-
late appearance of age and authenticity. Even old leaden objects
with thin crusts of cerussite and litharge are more interesting than
lead in the raw. Unfortunately, however, most corrosion products
on metals are ugly and disfiguring. Rust on iron and tarnish on
silver have little appeal. Even copper and bronze is unattractive
when covered with chloride-bearing corrosion crusts. Thick corro-
sion can obscure fine details of decoration and modeling and can com-
pletely hide gilding, inlays, and inscriptions. Sometimes corrosion
crusts act as cementing agents for clay and earthy accretions. The
term patina does not properly apply to corrosion crusts and earthy
overlayers that conceal and disfigure.
Because ugly corrosion crusts so often detract from the appearance
of metal artifacts, there is frequently an urge to clean them away
CORROSION OF METAL ANTIQUITIES—GETTENS 549
immediately after recovery of the artifacts from soil or sea or after
long storage to ready them for exhibition and display. Herein lie
certain dangers and opportunities for oversight, not only because of
possible damage to the object itself from enthusiastic but untrained
hands, but because of inadvertent loss of valuable historical and scien-
tific information which may be contained in or concealed under
unwanted encrusting materials. In the mineral shell there may be
evidence of metal composition, of age, and even of place of origin.
The corrosion crust sometimes has a layered structure containing two
or more distinct minerals in which the outer more stable minerals
can serve as natural protective coatings for less stable compounds
lying beneath. For these several reasons corrosion crusts should be
carefully examined and identified by an expert before they are scraped
away or dissolved off by a technician and thrown casually into waste
jar or sink. An added reason for the careful examination of corro-
sion crusts is that they may contain rare minerals unknown or little
known to science which add greatly to their interest and importance.
In industry the utilitarian terms “corrosion” and “corrosion
products” are widely used to describe the chemical and electrochemical
changes in which the metal passes from the elemental to the combined
state, and those terms, for practical purposes, are retained here al-
though some mineralogists seem to prefer the terms “mineral altera-
tion products” and collectors still prefer to speak of any kind of altera-
tion of the surface as patina. In the various modern textbooks on
corrosion of metals the emphasis is almost entirely on causes of corro-
sion, corrosion mechanism, and corrosion prevention, but hardly any
consideration is given to the products of corrosion. These appear to
be unwanted materials that are scraped or brushed away or covered
over.
In the early part of this century the microscopic identification of
mineral alteration products using methods of optical crystallography
was slow and laborious. The task was made difficult by the finely
crystalline character of the alteration products and complexity of
the mixtures. Today, using X-ray diffraction and X-ray fluorescence
methods of analysis, identification of inorganic crystalline materials is
much easier, and what was formerly wearisome and time consuming
has become fast and routine.
This paper gathers together, classifies, and briefly describes the
wide variety of mineral corrosion products that occur on ancient
metal objects. It is an exercise in taxonomy within the widest mean-
ing of that term. Precise criteria for recognizing mineral species
will not be given because those are adequately dealt with in standard
texts on mineralogy. No attempt will be made here to explain cor-
rosion mechanism or corrosion theory. That has been treated by
720—018—64——37
550 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
numerous investigators over many decades, and the results are sum-
marized in monographs on metal corrosion like those of Evans (1960),
Uhlig (1948), La Que and Copson (1963), and others.
COPPER
Of all the metals used in antiquity, copper forms the most colorful
and interesting group of mineral alteration products.
In the older literature one occasionally encounters the word “aerugo”
(from Z; aes—brass or copper) which refers particularly to the “rust”
of bronze, copper, or brass. Although now an archaism, aerugo is
quite an appropriate term. Much less correct is the term “verdigris”
which is sometimes used to describe the green on copper, but this name
refers specifically to the green product formed by the action of
acetic acid (vinegar and other organic products of fermentation) on
copper and its alloys and hence is not a proper mineralogical term.
COPPER OXIDES
Probably the most widely occurring alteration product of ancient
copper and its alloys is the red cuprous oxide, Cu,Q,? called cuprite.
Usually most of the cuprite is concealed beneath overlying green and
blue basic salts of copper and it seems to be an intermediate compound
in the conversion of metal to those salts. A cuprite underlayer is
often revealed when the outer green oxidation crusts are removed
by mechanical or partial chemical cleaning. In cast bronzes cuprite
sometimes forms along grain boundaries or in seams that penetrate
deeply into the metal core, but more often it occurs in coarsely crystal-
line masses in which perfect crystals of cubic habit abound. A frac-
tured or scaled surface of cuprite on bronze occasionally has a sugary
or drusy appearance caused by reflection of light from numerous
small erystal faces. This crystalline cuprite is usually cochineal
red in color but sometimes fine-grained cuprite in inner or inter-
mingled layers is quite orange-red or even yellow. In primitively
smelted copper, cuprite is often disseminated in small globules among
the copper crystal grains. This is not a corrosion product but is
cuprite formed under inadequate reducing conditions at the time of
smelting. Collins (1934) concluded from evidence of X-ray diffrac-
tion studies that the “mirror black” patina of certain Chinese bronzes
consists of crystalline cuprite of unusual structure possibly having
a thin film of tenorite on the surface.
Tenorite: Fink and Polushkin (1936), who studied the microstruc-
ture of patina, observed that cuprite and/or tenorite is always found
as an intermediate layer between copper or bronze and malachite.
2 The chemical formulae used here for minerals are those employed by Palache, Berman,
and Frondel in their revision of Dana’s ‘‘System of Mineralogy.”
CORROSION OF METAL ANTIQUITIES—GETTENS 551
The black cupric oxide, CuO, is seldom reported; if present, it seems
to be consistently overlooked. Tenorite was recently reported, how-
ever, by Périnet (1961) among the products found among the inner
layers of a corroded copper nail recovered from a sunken second cen-
tury B.C. Greek vessel found in 1952 off the islet of Grand Congloiie
in the Mediterranean not far from Marseilles.
COPPER CARBONATES
Malachite and azurite, both basic carbonates of copper, are perhaps
the most familiar natural alteration products on copper artifacts, and
they are the most desirable constituents of bronze patina from the
point of view of the collector.
Malachite, Cu,(OH).CO;, sometimes occurs as a smooth dark green
compact layer on the surface of a bronze and gives it an enameled
appearance, but more often it is seen in scattered rounded masses
described as mammillary, or as botryoidal because of their resem-
blance to clusters of grapes. Occasionally, rounded nodules several
millimeters in diameter are found on the interior of bronze vessels
and also on objects of base silver. The banded structure characteristic
of large malachite masses is sometimes seen on ancient bronze pieces
that have been cleaned down and polished. Occasionally, malachite
is observed on bronzes in delicate fibrous aggregates, sheaflike in
form. Patches of bright green malachite can make an ordinary cop-
per object look interesting and precious.
Azurite, Cu,(OH).(CO;)2, although similar in composition to
malachite, has about 3 percent less water of constitution, and its color
ranges from bright blue to dark indigo. Like malachite it sometimes
occurs on objects as a thin, compact, enamel-like layer; but it is ob-
served ordinarily in fine blue crystal aggregates scattered among
patches of malachite. In nature azurite is less abundant than mala-
chite and on artifacts the same is true. Azurite is most often encoun-
tered on the interior surfaces of hollow vessels where less humid
conditions may favor azurite formation. Occasionally, a bronze will
appear to be completely transformed to crystalline azurite.
Presumably malachite and azurite are formed by contact of the
object with soil water or even rain water charged with carbonic acid
gas in the presence of atmospheric oxygen. Cuprite, as mentioned
above, is sometimes observed in an intermediate zone between the
carbonate surface layer and the metal core of an object, but it is not yet
certain that cuprite formation is essential to the reaction.
Chalconatronite: A few years ago Gettens and Frondel (1955) dis-
covered a bluish-green chalky crust on the hollow interior of an
Egyptian bronze figurine of the deity Sekhmet in the Fogg Museum
of Art. This product did not have the properties of any of the copper
Hoe ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
minerals commonly found on ancient buried bronze. After study, it
was determined that it is a hydrous double carbonate of copper and
sodium having the composition Na,Cu(CO;)2°3H.O and that it is a
new mineral species not previously decribed. It has been given the
name “chalconatronite.” This mineral was also observed on an Egyp-
tian bronze group, “Cat and Kittens,” in the Gulbenkian Collection in
Lisbon, and on a Coptic censer in the Freer Gallery of Art. Chal-
conatronite seems to be a product peculiar to the arid soils of Egypt
where in certain districts alkali carbonates occur abundantly.
COPPER CHLORIDES
On ancient copper and bronze objects found after long contact with
the saline soils of desert regions or buried in the sea, the green cor-
rosion crusts are usually a mixture of the chlorides of copper. Sur-
face crusts containing chlorides do not form a desirable patina on
bronzes but are usually ugly and disfiguring. They give rise to a
troublesome kind of alteration product which has long caused concern
among collectors for the safety of bronze objects and have stimulated
more scientific inquiries in museum laboratories than any other class
of corrosion phenomena. A description of several of these copper
chloride minerals follows.
Atacamite, Cu,(OH).Cl, the most common copper chloride mineral,
gets it name from the desert of Atacama in northern Chile where it
occurs in secondary copper ore deposits. Since sodium chloride is
highly reactive toward copper and its alloys, ancient artifacts of
these metals exposed to it are often converted to fissured and nearly
formless masses of atacamite. The color of the mineral ranges from
emerald to blackish green. On the surface of many bronze objects
from Egypt and Mesopotamia atacamite occurs as a continuous, sugar-
like coating of dark green glistening crystals.
Atacamite is a fairly common product. Rooksby and Chirnside
(1934), who were among the first to apply X-ray diffraction methods of
analysis to metal corrosion products, observed that the green corrosion
product on modern electrical copper wire exposed to sea water and also
to artificial salt solutions is atacamite.
Often crystalline atacamite is associated with a paler green powdery
product which gives the X-ray diffraction pattern of paratacamite,
a mineral identical in chemical composition, but having hexagonal crys-
tal form, whereas atacamite is orthorhombic. Such related minerals
are called dimorphs. One form appears to occur about as abundantly
astheother. Although both atacamite and paratacamite are observed
most commonly on bronzes from arid areas, they may also be found on
bronzes from regions of normal rainfall. Otto (1959) cites the occur-
rence of both minerals on bronze objects from Germany and other
parts of Europe, and he adds that paratacamite occurs much more fre-
CORROSION OF METAL ANTIQUITIES—GETTENS 553
quently than hitherto realized. It is also found on bronzes from
Anyang and other parts of central and eastern China.
Paratacamite is the pulverulent green product of hydrolysis and
oxidation of synthetic cuprous chloride in moist air. It is also the
green powder that forms on chloride-corroded bronzes when the inner
unstable nantokite (cuprous chloride) layer is exposed to air by cross
sectioning or mechanical cleaning. It is not clearly stated in books
on mineralogy which of the dimorphs is more stable; but on basis
of museum experience it appears that paratacamite is the initial prod-
uct of rapid nantokite transformation, but that atacamite (perhaps
mixed with malachite) is the final one. The formation of parata-
camite is the manifestation of what is called “bronze disease,” a
phenomenon which will be treated more fully under “nantokite” (vide
infra).
Botallacite, Cuz(OH);Cl-H.O, is another basic copper chloride.
It was found originally at the Botallack mine, St. Just, Cornwall, Eng-
land, and was first described by A. H. Church (1865). The
type specimen was placed in the British Museum (Natural History),
but for nearly a century no other occurrence of this mineral was re-
ported until a specimen of greenish-blue alteration product taken
from the interior of an Egyptian bronze figurine of the deity Bastet
in the Fogg Museum of Art was identified by Professor Clifford
Frondel of Harvard University as this same botallacite (1950). A
second occurrence on an artifact was observed by the author on
an Egyptian bronze censer in the Walters Art Gallery, Baltimore.
Botallacite may occur on ancient bronzes more commonly than is
suspected. Dr. Frondel has described other natural basic copper
chlorides (1950) which someday may be found on an antiquity of
brass or bronze.
Nantokite: Cross section studies on bronzes massively coated with
atacamite and on others coated with cuprite sometimes reveal an inner
layer of a pale gray waxy-looking substance which has been shown
to be cuprous chloride, CuCl. It conforms to the unstable mineral
called nantokite named from the first noted occurrence at Nantoko,
Copiapo, Chile. Because of its waxy appearance, Rosenberg (1917),
who seems to have been the first to describe its occurrence on ancient
bronzes, appropriately calls it “matiére stearineuse.” Caley (1941)
found that nantokite was one of the principal alteration minerals of
the extensively corroded bronze and copper objects recovered from
deep wells at the site of the Athenian Agora, and from the Fountain
Peirene at Corinth. Various investigators have shown that nantokite
is the parent substance of both paratacamite and atacamite which are
described above and that it is the cause of “bronze disease.” Gettens
(1932, 1936) described the occurrence of nantokite in corroded copper
nails from a second millennium B.C. Mesopotamian site called Nuzi
504 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
(Iraq). Later he proposed (1951) a series of chemical reactions to
explain the complex processes that are involved in the transformation
of nantokite to cuprite and alternately to atacamite. Essentially nan-
tokite rapidly hydrolizes and oxidizes when exposed to moist air and
forms simultaneously red cuprous oxide and basic cupric chlorides.
R. M. Organ (1963) has recently given a new review of the chemical
reactions involved in chloride corrosion of copper, and described
various methods used at the British Museum Research Laboratory for
arresting it. One of these is to keep the antiquity in a dry atmos-
phere; the second is to effect complete removal of cuprous chloride
by cathodic reduction at hight current density followed by intensive
washing; the third, which employs soaking for long periods of time
in changes of aqueous sodium sesquicarbonate, aims to convert cu-
prous chloride to harmless cuprous oxide. The fourth method makes
use of silver oxide powder to form an impermeable seal of silver
chloride over exposed cuprous chloride. This method is applicable for
arresting local areas of disease on objects which cannot be treated by
total immersion methods.
The occurrence of chloride minerals on artifacts from areas of
fairly heavy rainfall, such as Europe and eastern China as noted above,
is interesting but puzzling. Captain Collins remarks in his discussion
of one of Vernon and Whitby’s reports (1930) that “Soluble chlorides
seem to cling to bronzes, though there may often be little chloride in
the surrounding region.” This would be an interesting subject for
further investigation by soil chemists.
COPPER SULFATES
The bright green basic sulfate of copper corresponding to the min-
eral brochantite, Cus(SO.) (OH)., is seldom reported on artifacts
although it might be expected on bronzes exposed to sulfate-bearing
waters. H. Otto (1961), however, reports the occurrence of this min-
eral on bronze artifacts found in German graves. The author (1933)
found evidence of basic copper sulfate in the green corrosion crusts of
a bronze statute of Nathan Hale in Hartford, Conn. The refractive
index of the green material indicated that the green was more like
antlerite, Cus(SOx) (OH) 4[Cus(SO.) (OH).], than brochantite but
unfortunately, X-ray diffraction methods for mineral identification
were not available at that early date to permit precise identification.
Some years ago the author examined the thin green corrosion crusts on
a number of bronze statues of the Garden Court of the Ringling Mu-
seum, Sarasota, Fla., and found that the alteration product gave an
X-ray diffraction pattern corresponding to brochantite. The sulfate
at Sarasota appears to originate in the hydrogen-sulfide-bearing water
used in the irrigation system in the garden. Likewise, a sample of
CORROSION OF METAL ANTIQUITIES—GETTENS 555
green removed from a weather-exposed bronze lamp post in front of
the Freer Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C., gives a brochantite
pattern. Kosting (1937) also found that the green on a 10-year-ex-
posed copper roof in Washington, D.C., is brochantite over a layer of
cuprite. He further notes that only antlerite was detected in the
patina from copper that was formed by accelerated weathering in the
laboratory. There is good evidence that the green on copper roofs
and statutary bronze in urban areas is mostly basic copper sulfate,
formed from sulfur compounds produced in the burning of coal and
fuel oil. Vernon and Whitby (1930) in the late 1920’s carried out
extensive researches on the green of copper roofs in London and other
parts of England. They concluded that the main constituent of the
green alteration product is basic copper sulfate and that it corresponds
to the mineral brochantite when it has been exposed long enough to
attain full basicity (cupric hydroxide content). This may require
upward of 70 years. Mixed with basic copper sulfate are lesser
amounts of basic copper carbonate and of copper chloride whose com-
positions correspond to the minerals malachite and atacamite when
they reach full basicity.
Connellite: Recently H. Otto (1963) reported on the basis of X-ray
diffraction analysis the occurrence of the rare mineral connellite,
[Cur (SOx) Cls(OH) 32°3H.O 2], on rings made of bronze sheets from
the only group of graves of the La Téne Period found in southwestern
Germany. The bright blue needlelike crystals of connellite occur
mixed with other copper minerals in the bronze corrosion crusts.
COPPER SULFIDES
Sulfides are not often reported as occurring on copper artifacts,
but they might be expected where objects have been in contact with
sulfur-bearing waters. Both Austin F. Rogers (1903) and F. W.
Clarke (1924) mention the investigations of A. G. Daubrée (1875,
1881) and others who examined Roman coins and medals recovered
years ago from French mineral springs and report occurrences of chal-
cocite, Cu.S, chalcopyrite, CuF eS., bornite, Cu;FeS,, and tetrahedrite,
(Cu,Fe)1.Sb,S,3;. Daubrée (1875) also noted the occurrence of indigo
blue covellite, CuS, among the other sulfide minerals in the corrosion
crusts of coins. He believed the sulfide in the thermal spring water
came from the reduction of soluble sulfates by bacterial action on
vegetable material. Quite recently Mendel Peterson of the Smith-
sonian Institution recovered several fragments of a much corroded
copper gunpowder can from the wreck of the ?’Herminie, wooden flag-
ship of the French West Indies fleet, sunk off Bermuda in 1838, Ex-
amination showed that the copper metal was completely altered to
a blue-black brittle mass, identified by X-ray diffraction analysis as
556 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
covellite. The source of sulfide appears to be sulfate-reducing bacteria
in the wood. Likewise, shapeless lumps found by Mr. Peterson in a
17th century Spanish shipwreck, also off Bermuda, were found to be
nearly pure covellite and appear to have been derived from copper or
bronze artifacts or fittings that came in contact with a source of sulfide
ion. Peterson suggests that some of the sulfide may come from gun-
powder stored in magazines of warships. Gunpowder is a mixture of
charcoal, saltpeter, and elemental sulfur. Lacroix (1910) observed
covellite mixed with chalcocite as an alteration product on copper
nails in a Roman shipwreck off Mahdia, Tunis. Here again the sulfide
probably originated from bacterial decomposition of organic debris.
Mr. R. M. Organ * of the British Museum Laboratory says that
chalcocite was found on a bronze sword blade dated about 1,000 B.C.,
taken from the river at Kings Lynn, Norfolk. A. Lacroix (1909) in
France over a half century ago described Roman bronze coins found in
a thermal spring at Grisy-en Saint Symphonén-de-Margne (Saéne-et-
Loire) that had been transformed to black chalcocite which is sectile
and locally crystalline. Daubrée (1881) also noted the occurrence of
a black form of chalcocite with metallic lustre on old copper coins from
thermal springs, which he called cupréine. A. Périnet (1961) found
chaleocite and digenite (Cu,S;) among the alteration products on a
copper nail recovered from the ancient sunken wooden ship in the
Mediterranean off Grande Congloiie.
COPPER NITRATES
The occurrence of heavy metal nitrates in nature is rather rare
because of their solubility in water, although the nitrates of the alkali
metals, sodium and potassium, which are especially soluble, occur
abundantly in certain desert regions. Aoyama (1960, 1961) has identi-
fied basic copper nitrate, Cu(NO;).°3Cu(OH)., among green corro-
sion products on copper electric powerlines in Japanese mountain areas.
Although X-ray diffraction data is given, the exact mineralogical
species is not named. The writer has had the privilege of taking
samples of green crystalline corrosion products from bronze vessels
found by University of Pennsylvania archeologists in a royal tomb
at Gordion in Anatolia. Preliminary studies showed the crystals give
X-ray diffraction patterns identical with patterns of monoclinic syn-
thetic basic copper nitrates which have not yet been reported to occur
naturally. There may be new minerals yet to be identified among the
copper corrosion products of the numerous bronze vessels found at
Gordion. It is feared, however, that most of them have been lost by
premature cleaning.
8 Private communication,
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Gettens PLATE 1
255 Ps Be oe
gitiziri
yitizint
triste
ziety
atest
per)
er
bad
son enemy
errr rr
me tenn nate
Chinese bronze ceremonial vessel of the type ting. Shang Dynasty. From long burial this
ancient bronze has been almost completely altered to mineral products of copper, tin
and lead, similar to the ore minerals from which those metals were originally derived.
Courtesy Royal Ontario Museum (Menzies Collection), Toronto.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Gettens PLATE 2
3ronze statuette of the Egyptian deity Amen-ra; probably XXV-XXVI Dynasty. An
inlaid inscription and a delicate inlaid checker pattern has been revealed completely
hidden under a layer of atacamite, which is a mineral corrosion product of copper. It
was formed during burial and contact with the salt-ridden soil of Egypt. Freer Gallery
of Art 08.50.
(SOIT
‘ON) My Jo Ado][eH Joely “pury siqi fo sjossoa Surjsvo ul pasn sjjour ulj-Joddoo 0} sjsisinjjejour asauryd Ayjive Aq poppe
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sytyM JO soyszed smoys apisiopun oy} JO MoIA styy, “AyseuAq noyD ‘zany adAq dy} JO Jassoa [eIUOWIII9D 9ZU0Iq asoUTYD
PLATE 3
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Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Gettens PLATE 4
The corrosion crusts on the stem of this old Persian lamp (25 cm. high) made of leaded
bronze contain rare mineral salts of copper and lead. Some clusters of the distinct
mineral crystal forms found in the crusts are shown in detail in plate 5 opposite. Freer
Gallery of Art, SC. 541.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Gettens PLATE 5
a
Zz of
NS
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ve
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= 7+ = » ond 2
The detail, upper (magnification c. 15X), taken from the stem of the old Persian lamp
(plate 4, opposite) shows colorless crystals of phosgenite which is a double salt of lead
carbonate and lead chloride. The larger phosgenite crystals are intermingled with
smaller dark blue crystals of the rare mineral cumengite shown in the detail, lower (c. 15X).
Cumengite is a complex basic salt of lead and copper chlorides. Freer Gallery of Art.
PLATE 6
Smithsonian Report 1963.—Gettens
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PLATE 7
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Gettens
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Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Gettens PLATE 8
Ivory and bronze mounted iron knife. Graeco-Roman 3d-4th century A.D. The
inherent stability of three different materials are shown in a single object. The iron
blade is almost completely converted to rust; the bronze lion is only superficially cor-
roded with malachite; the ivory figure is stained with copper green from the lion, and is
cracked and fissured, but it has lost little of its original modeling. Courtesy Dumbarton
Oaks Research Library and Collection. Washington, D.C. (No. 53.37.1).
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Gettens PLATE 9
ey
mam 10 CM.
4_IN.
aad
Several 6-pound cast-iron cannon balls were recovered from the wreck site of the H.M.S.
Looe sunk in 1744 off Looe Key in the Florida Straits. The upper illustration shows
the condition of one ball after removal of calcareous incrustations.
cross section of another ball in which a lead plug had been employed to fill a hole in the
The iron core is surrounded with a thick rind of iron oxide but the lead is rela-
Courtesy Department of Armed Forces History, Smithsonian
The lower shows a
casting.
tively unaffected.
Institution.
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Gettens PLATE 10
Chinese bronze ceremonial vessel of the type yu. Chou Dynasty. In the detail photo-
graph of the inside lip of the vessel the imprint of a coarse fabric, probably straw
matting, plainly shows. Fabrics of various kinds were used to wrap or lay over objects
when they were placed in tombs. Even imprints of delicately woven fabrics like fine
silk are sometimes encountered on ancient bronzes. Freer Gallery of Art No. 37.1.
CORROSION OF METAL ANTIQUITIES—GETTENS iar
COPPER PHOSPHATES
Bone and horn materials buried in direct contact with copper and
bronze are often found stained blue-green with copper phosphate salts
formed by action of copper salt solutions on calcium phosphate of
the bone. Geilmann and Meisel (1942), on the basis of X-ray diffrac-
tion studies, identified as Zébethenite [Cu.(PO;) (OH) ], a green-blue
mass on a bronze spiral which had been in contact with bone in a
German grave. H. Otto cites (1959) three occurrences of copper
phosphate on artifacts. He does not call this alteration product libe-
thenite, but gives the formula as Cu; (PO,)2°3H,O, a compound which
he claims is not known to occur in nature.
OTHER COPPER MINERALS
No occurrence of the natural silicate of copper chrysocolla seems
to have been reported. Native or redeposited copper sometimes occurs
among the inner layers of heavily chloride-encrusted bronzes. It is
probably formed by reduction of cuprous chloride (nantokite) by the
more electropositive high-tin phases of bronze alloys. Redeposited
copper can occur in isolated pockets or patches or as a continuous
inner layer. It is sometimes revealed in the form of little scales be-
neath the green corrosion crusts when they are stripped from the bronze
surface with formic or other mild organic acids. Often the flakes
are intermingled with cuprite.
In spite of the considerable amount of research already done, much
remains to be learned about corrosion products and corrosion processes
of copper and its alloys. Investigators for industry have been much
concerned with corroding agencies and corrosion prevention, but they
have given little attention to corrosion products themselves. These,
unfortunately, are usually summarily discarded as worthless and un-
interesting end products of corrosion reactions.
LEAD
Among ancient metals, lead, next to copper, forms the widest variety
of corrosion products. It also forms some double salts with copper.
LEAD CARBONATES
The commonest alteration product on lead is cerussite, or lead car-
bonate, PbCO;. This is the dense, adherent, warm-gray deposit usually
seen on old lead seals, sarcophagi, statuary, and on all sorts of buried
lead objects. Cerussite, fortunately, seems to form a protective layer
on lead and prevents its progressive and complete disintegration. In
1959, during the restoration of the east front of the U.S. Capitol in
Washington, sheet lead pads were found under the old marble columns.
720-018-6438
558 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The columns and pads were set in place in 1825. When un-
covered the lead was observed to be thinly coated with a white crust
which was shown by X-ray diffraction analysis to be hydrocerussite
[Pb;(CO;)2(OH).], corresponding to artificial white lead, commonly
used as a paint pigment. When exposed to open air it will probably
further alter to cerussite as it often does in nature.
In the Freer Gallery collection of ancient Chinese bronze cere-
monial vessels those with high lead content frequently have cerussite
as a mineral alteration product among the corrosion constituents. On
some of the vessels it covers large areas with rather ugly grayish
crusts interspersed with patches of reddish lead oxide (litharge)
and malachite. It is not uncommon to find cerussite as a distinct layer
underlying malachite. In some occurrences, cerussite is found as
well-formed crystals with glistening crystal faces; in others, it occurs
as rounded excrescences much like malachite, and in one early bronze
vessel cerussite took the form of the original bronze surface much as
tin oxide does when it replaces copper pseudomorphically. Cerussite
often reveals itself on ancient bronze by its pinkish yellow fluorescence
in long wavelength ultraviolet light.
LEAD OXIDES
Next to the carbonates the several oxides of lead seem to be the
most commonly occurring lead minerals. Caley (1955) identified
massicot or yellow lead monoxide, PbO, on lead objects excavated at
the Agora in Athens. He also found dark brown patches of lead
dioxide or plattnerite, PbO., in a thin layer next to the lead metal.
On the lead pads from the U.S. Capitol, already mentioned, patches
of a hard salmon pink encrustation gave the X-ray diffraction pat-
tern of litharge, another form of lead monoxide. The third common
oxide of lead called minium (red lead) is found also in nature, but
its occurrence on a lead artifact apparently has not been recorded.
LEAD SULFIDE
A. G. Daubrée (1875), reported the occurrence of galena, PbS, on
a specimen of lead metal found in a thermal spring at Bourbonne-
les-Bains in France. Strangely, no other occurrence of this naturally
abundant mineral of lead has been noted.
LEAD CHLORIDES
The occurrence of the rather rare white lead mineral cotunnite,
PbCl., was observed by A. Lacroix (1910) as an alteration product
on lead plates of a sunken Roman ship found off Mahdia, Tunis, in
1907. Cotunnite was first found at Vesuvius as a product of sublima-
tion. Lacroix also reported another white lead mineral, phosgenite
CORROSION OF METAL ANTIQUITIES—GETTENS 559
[Pb.(CO;)Cl.], from the same source and on a lead pipe in hot springs
from Bourbonne-les-Bains, France (1909). At the Laurion mines
in Greece this double salt of lead was found with laurionite and other
lead minerals formed by the action of sea water upon ancient slags
produced from smelting lead ores. Lacroix notes that only the
normal lead salts have been observed on the objects found in the
reducing environment of deep sea water off Mahdia, while at the
water’s edge at Laurion the basic (oxy) salts predominate. A large
crystal of phosgenite was found by A. A. Moss* inside a metal
vessel, possibly pre-Roman in date, from the Great Cave, Wookey
Hole, Somerset, England. The metal contained 60 percent lead and
40 percent tin.
In the Freer Gallery study collection there is a stem or column of
an old Persian lamp which is made of highly leaded bronze. Most
of the surface is covered with nondescript corrosion crusts of copper,
but samples taken from scattered crystalline whitish patches give an
X-ray diffraction pattern of phosgenite. Also, on this same lamp
there were observed scattered small clusters of deep blue, highly re-
fracting crystals which X-ray diffraction analysis showed were made
of an even more rare mineral cumengette [Pb,Cu,Cls(OH) 5], named
after the French mining engineer, Edward Cumenge (1829-92). Only
a single occurrence from Baja California, Mexico, is reported in
Dana (1951). This is one more example of a rare mineral appearing
on an artifact.
Other lead-copper minerals may occur, but they have not been
observed or reported. Here is a possible opportunity which should
not be overlooked by the archeological chemist or the rare mineral
collector.
LEAD SULFATE
An occurrence of white crystalline anglesite, PbSO,, mixed with
galena on an ancient lead artifact from the thermal springs at
Bourbonne-les-Bains in France was reported by A. Daubrée (1875).
Small deposits of anglesite mixed with phosgenite were observed by
G. Périnet (1961) on lead plates from the ancient sunken ship found
off Grand Congloiie. Anglesite probably occurs on lead artifacts
more commonly than is realized.
TIN
Tin is a metal of prime importance in archeology, not as an
individual craft material but as a necessary adjunct to the making
of bronze. Unfortunately, few objects of pure tin survive from
antiquity even from centers of early bronze making such as Egypt,
Mesopotamia, and China. If much pure tin was made in antiquity, it
«Private communication R. M. Organ.
560 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
has perished, perhaps for two reasons: First, it has been transformed
by direct intercrystalline oxidation to mixed stannous and stannic
oxides. Plenderleith and Organ (1953) have described tin oxidation
in some detail, and Caley (1941) and Mantell (1949) have emphasized
the important role of halides, especially of sodium chloride, in stimu-
lating corrosion attack on tin. Secondly, it is sometimes transformed
by allotropic modification to powdery gray tin (vide infra).
Although we have few objects of pure tin from remote antiquity to
examine, an impressive bit of evidence of early commerce in tin was
found preserved in the Bronze Age shipwreck found off Cape
Gelidonya on the southwest coast of Turkey in 1960 by a University
of Pennsylvania expedition lead by George F. Bass (1961). The
wreck yielded the largest hoard of pre-Classical metal tools and “ox-
hide” ingots of copper ever found. In addition there were lumps of
tin oxide, all that remained, it is presumed, of ingots of tin. Sea
water had promoted the complete oxidation of the tin, but it had acted
only superficially on the surface of the copper ingots. Samples of
the powdery white tin residues from these ingots were supplied to the
author by Mr. Bass. The powder gives the X-ray diffraction pattern
of cassiterite, SnO2, and the lines of the pattern are as sharp as those
given by cassiterite ore specimens.
In one of the earliest published articles on applications of chemistry
to archeology, Dr. Otto Olshausen (1884) of Berlin described three tin
objects from early German graves which had been converted almost
completely to tin oxide (Zinnsdure). These are further examples that
show why so many early tin artifacts have completely disappeared.
Tin oxide, however, is an important alteration product on the
surface of ancient high-tin bronze objects. Gettens (1949) found that
stannic oxide is a major constituent of the smooth gray-green patina
on Chinese bronze mirrors and ceremonial vessels sometimes calied
“water patina” by collectors. It also occurs on high-tin Etruscan
and other European bronzes. This alteration product, which may
penetrate into the bronze for a distance of 1 to 2 millimeters, may be
a hydrous form of a stannic oxide. The pale greenish color is a
stain caused by a small impurity of copper. It appears that, under
certain conditions of soil contact, the copper is dissolved away from
the surface of the bronze and replaced, atom by atom without volume
change, by stannic oxide. This phenomenon is identical with
pseudomorphic substitution of elements in mineralogy. The tin
oxide encasing corroded high-tin bronzes is sometimes compact and
translucent like ceramic glaze. Geilmann (1950, 1956) has published
the analyses of a dozen Bronze Age artifacts from Europe in which
tin oxide resulting from alteration is now the principal constituent.
These were all originally bronze objects in which copper has been
pseudomorphically replaced by a brownish colored hydrous tin oxide.
CORROSION OF METAL ANTIQUITIES—GETTENS 561
Copper is now only a minor constituent. This type of patina forma-
tion seems to occur principally on bronzes buried in sandy soils. Here,
both carbonic and humic acids play an important role in dissolving
out the copper of the alloy, leaving the tin constituent as stannic acid.
In other occurrences the tin oxide is powdery and friable. The
hydrous tin oxide patina alteration product is similar to cassiterite but
the lines are broader and more diffuse, which suggests that it is
eryptocrystalline and more finely divided than natural cassiterite.
It has recently developed that there is a close resemblance between
the diffuse X-ray diffraction pattern of tin oxide alteration product
on bronzes and that of the yellow tin mineral varlamoffite discovered
in recent years in the Maniema region of the Belgian Congo by the
mineralogist N. Varlamoff. It was named after the discoverer by
S. Gastellier (1950) who made the first analyses. These show that
the material is not a definite mineral species but a complex mixture
containing: Metastannic acid, H.SnO;, average 59.22 percent; SnO,
25.55; Fe.O; 9.45; SiO, 1.68; and H,O 2.12; total 98.02. The yellow
color is caused by the ferric oxide. Another occurrence of varlamof-
fite from Cornwall, England, was subsequently described by Russel
and Vincent (1950-52), who showed that the X-ray powder patterns
of varlamoffite and of hydrated stannic oxide (metastannic acid) pre-
pared in the laboratory are identical in spacing and intensity with
cassiterite, but that they are broader and less well defined. In tests
made in the Freer Gallery Laboratory, the diffuse cassiterite patterns
given by several specimens of stannic oxide from ancient Chinese
bronzes were found to match perfectly the diffuse lines and spacings
given by a specimen of varlamoflite from Cornwall, England (speci-
men USNM R8886). A specimen of varlamoffite from the Belgian
Congo (USNM 115558), however, gave lines only slightly less sharp
than cassiterite. Although the investigators of varlamoffite mentioned
above speak of hydrated stannic oxide or metastannic acid, H.SnOs,
Weisser and Milligan (1932) many years ago showed conclusively
by thermal differential analysis and by X-ray diffraction analysis
that no true hydrates of stannic oxide exist. They maintain that the
diffuseness of lines of the cassiterite pattern is caused by the small
particle size of the stannic oxide crystals and that any water involved
is adsorbed water.
F. Lihl (1962) as well as Plenderleith and Organ (1953) have
reported evidence of stannous oxide as well as stannic oxide among
corrosion crusts on tin objects, but there is no mineral of stannous
oxide listed in the current edition of Dana’s System of Mineralogy.
Much must be done before the mechanism of the solution of copper
and its replacement by tin oxide on bronze surfaces is completely
understood.
562 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The second reason mentioned above for the rarity of metallic tin
may be a physical change called “tin pest,” whereby tetragonal metal-
lic white B-tin is transformed to cubic powdery grey «-tin by allo-
tropic modification at equilibrium temperature about 13.2° C. (55.8°
F.). This behavior of tin is well described by Plenderleith and
Organ (1953) and by F. Lih] (1962) who admit the existence of allo-
tropic modification but minimize its importance in respect to the decay
and disappearance of ancient tin objects. They agree that often what
appears to be tin pest is nothing more than intergranular oxidation of
tin with formation of mixed stannous and stannic oxides. This view
is strongly supported by the X-ray diffraction analysis investigation
carried out by Lihl on old corroded tin sarcophagi in Vienna.
SILVER
SILVER SULFIDES
Like tin, silver forms few alteration products. Black silver tar-
nish formed by action of hydrogen sulfide in the atmosphere is familiar
to every householder. Strangely, the occurrence of the well-known
silver mineral argentite, Ag.S, has not been noted in the literature.
Two occurrences of argentite, however, have been observed recently in
the Freer Gallery Laboratory in the soft black corrosion crusts formed
on silver coins found in wrecks of wooden Spanish treasure ships.
One is a silver “piece of eight” from the Spanish ship San Antonio,
which sank off Bermuda in 1621. Another is from a ship of the
Spanish treasure fieet lost off Key Largo, Fla., July 18, 1783. It has
been previously noted that copper objects retrieved from ships long
sunk are commonly altered to sulfides (see under Copper). Source of
the sulfide ion again may be sulfate-reducing bacteria harbored by the
decayed wood. A. B. Albright of the Department of Armed Forces
History, Smithsonian Institution, says that old wooden fragments
brought to the surface from these marine wrecks often reek with
hydrogen sulfide.
Perhaps the rare mineral, stromeyerite, CuAgsS, should also occur
where copper-silver alloys are subjected to similar environments;
but, if so, it is one of those many interesting corrosion products that
go down the workshop drain unrecognized, unadmired for color, and
unappreciated for rarity.
Acanthite, Ag.S, an orthorhombic dimorph of argentite was ob-
served as shining faceted black crystals inside the hollow stem of a
medieval silver chalice excavated at Mellifont, Eire. Identification
was made by the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural
History). It was also found as a black inlay (niello?) on a Sasanian
dish made of base silver by the Research Laboratory of the British
Museum.
CORROSION OF METAL ANTIQUITIES—GETTENS 563
SILVER CHLORIDES
Silver objects retrieved from desert soils are often encrusted with
a gray-brown or dull lavender crust of cerargyrite or silver chloride,
AgCl. Silver coins recovered from salt water are sometimes super-
ficially altered to this mineral. There are instances, however, where
silver chloride penetrates deeply into the metal structure. Many of
the silver ewers and bowls now displayed in the University of Penn-
sylvania Museum, recovered by the late Sir Leonard Wooley from Ur
of the Chaldees, were originally heavily encrusted with cerargyrite.
After the crusts were removed by Kenneth A. Graham (1929) by
means of electrolysis and formic acid, much of the original appearance
of these precious antiquities was restored. A Persian silver plate
dating from Sasanian times recently acquired by the Freer Gallery
of Art has a continuous dull, purplish-gray color caused by alteration
of the surface metal to cerargyrite. The color of the surface resembles
the mauve color of the silver halides of an undeveloped photographic
film exposed to full light. The appropriateness of the common name,
horn silver, is apparent when one attempts to remove the deposit from
the object with blunt tools. Cerargyrite and paratacamite associated
with cuprite are sometimes found on base silver objects.
We still do not find listed in Dana’s System of Mineralogy a com-
pound mineral of copper and silver chlorides, although there is one of
silver iodide, AgI, called miersite in which copper substitutes for silver.
A new mineral of copper and silver chlorides may first be identified
on some silver artifact. This is one more reason to stay the hand of
those who may want to put unsightly freshly excavated silver objects
through the cleaning bath before they can be properly examined.
IRON
Rust on iron objects is so common and is held in such disfavor
that it is got rid of quickly if the object is of any interest. Since the
beginning of this century quantities of iron artifacts have been stripped
of corrosion crusts by electrochemical and electrolytic procedures.
This has no doubt made possible the recovery of many important ob-
jects, but it is not likely that much attention was given to the nature
of the iron alteration products.
IRON OXIDES
In the process known as rusting, iron is converted to its hydrous
oxide goethite, FeO(OH), named for the German poet Goethe. In
the older mineralogical literature it is called Zimonite. The mineral
is dull yellow or yellow-brown in color. Daubrée (1875) noted that
iron chains of Roman origin found in the thermal springs at Bour-
564 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
bonne-les-Bains in France were completely transformed to mammil-
lary limonite.
Magnetite [FeFe.0,], the black oxide of iron, probably occurs on
archeological iron more commonly than realized, especially on the inte-
rior of deeply corroded large iron objects where reducing conditions
are likely to prevail. There is a large technical literature in the rust-
ing of iron, but little that is available or useful to the archeologist
except in an excellent short summary given by Plenderleith in chapter
13 of his well-known work (1956) on the conservation of antiquities.
IRON PHOSPHATE
This class of compound seems to be getting some notice by archeologi-
cal chemists especially in England. The bright blue mineral which
is seen on iron artifacts recovered in certain wet clay soils is recognized
as vivianite, Fe; (PO.)2°8H.O. Leo Biek (1963), chief of the Ancient
Monuments Laboratory in Londen, has shown the writer various frag-
ments of ancient iron and of waterlogged wood from archeological
sites stained blue by this mineral. Vivianite quite commonly occurs
also on nonartifactual organic material found in deeply buried archeo-
logical sites especially along river banks, and it testifies to the general
soil conditions that prevail there. Vivianite is colorless when freshly
uncovered in excavations, but quickly becomes blue in color when ex-
posed to air. Booth (1962) and coworkers in England have observed
the protective effect of vivianite coatings on iron nails which have been
exposed since the 16th century to normally corrosive soils. The com-
mercial use of phosphate salts in our time to protect iron from rusting
is well known. Also, some interesting observations on the role of
tannates and phosphates in the preservation of buried iron objects
recovered from clay deposits have been made by Farrer, Biek, and
Wormwell (1953), investigators from the Ancient Monuments Labora-
tory. Both vivianite and oxidized vivianite were identified on a
Roman knife. It was also identified on an iron axhead excavated
from a crannog on Loch Glashan, Argylshire, Scotland. H. Barker
(1950) of the British Museum Laboratory has described the occurrence
of a dark brown hydrated ferric-phosphate accretion among the mate-
rials identified in the famous Sutton Hoo ship burial. Jt appears that
the phosphatic constituent was derived from the dissolution of cal-
cined bone in contact with iron artifacts. The ferric phosphate ma-
terial was described as “amorphous” since it gave indefinite X-ray
diffraction pattern, and no mineralogical species was identified.
There is little doubt that the familiar and well-ploughed field of
iron corrosion could be further examined with benefit to archeology.
5 Private communication, R. M. Organ.
CORROSION OF METAL ANTIQUITIES—GETTENS 565
ZINC
Although the Romans, and later the Chinese, produced brass or
copper-zine alloy, and zinc metal probably came into use in China
and India in the Middle Ages, it was not recognized in Europe as
a distinct element until the 18th century. After that zinc gradually
came into commercial production in the West. Because of its early
scarcity and also because of the chemical activity of zinc, few objects
of that metal have survived from antiquity, hence little attention
has been given to its alteration products. A grayish crust on a
19th century Italian ink pot of zinc, now in the United States
National Museum, was shown to be hydrozincite, Zn;(OH)«(COs) >.
A single occurrence of rosasite [ (Cu, Zn) »(OH)2COs], similar in out-
ward form to botryoidal malachite, but bluer in tone, was identified
at the Department of Mineralogy, British Museum (Natural History) *®
on a Chinese bronze cannister of the Han period, and also on a Chinese
vessel of the type ¢wz of about 300 B.C. Smithsonite, ZnCO,, and
perhaps some other rare copper-zinc minerals may appear someday.
CONCLUSION
The accumulated knowledge of mineral alteration products on metal
antiquities has practical as weil as academic interest. The collector
and curator of metal antiquities can use the information to supple-
ment stylistic, historical, and epigraphic evidence in judging age, au-
thenticity, and condition of newly met objects. Although it is rarely
possible to estimate age and authenticity or antiquities solely on the
kind and extent of mineral alteration products, these materials can
provide valuable background information. They permit detailed
and close comparison of objects of unknown provenience with those
whose age and source are known. The pale green tin oxide water
patina on a Chinese bronze ceremonial vessel of Shang Period is unique
and characteristic of its time and place of origin. The dark green
crystalline crusts of atacamite on an Egyptian bronze figurine may
not assure ancient Egyptian origin; but if other attributes indicate
the source as Egypt, the presence of mineral chlorides lend support-
ing evidence. Knowledge of the kind and character of corrosion
products is essential to a rational method of cleaning metal objects.
To increase the background knowledge necessary for the understand-
ing and the conservation of metal antiquities, archeologists and col-
lectors must begin to look upon decay and rust with a more appre-
ciative and sympathetic eye.
6 Private communication, R. M. Organ.
566 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
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Religious Art East and West’
By BENJAMIN ROWLAND
Gleason Professor of Fine Arts, Harvard University
[With 6 plates]
THE RELIGIOUS ART of all peoples and periods has always been the
expression in visual form of their belief in unseen supernatural powers
governing their lives and destinies. This revelation of the truths of
belief may take either a symbolic or an anthropomorphic form, de-
pending on the religion and the social conditions of the times. AI-
though the artist devoted to religious themes may work within a
discipline imposed by tradition, it is always possible that a painter
like Giotto or El Greco may impose on timeworn themes such hu-
manity or such an aura of supernal mystery as to impel the beholder
to belief by this moving pictorial presentation that is in reality the
artist’s personal interpretation of scripture. Under such conditions
religious art becomes a new religious experience. In the same way,
an artist working within the framework of a tradition of prescribed
iconography and technical procedure may out of his own imagination
present such a heightened comprehension, an exegesis of the articles
of belief, that his painted or sculptured icon will move the devotee
more than an image by another uninspired artisan who simply fol-
lows the canons imposed upon him by his tradition. In many of the
works to be discussed here, the icons, although not in any sense original
inventions, are the works of men who, within the discipline of their
craft and using prototypes drawn from many sources, produced crea-
tions of compelling splendor.
It can be stated as a generality that religious art employs the same
techniques and styles as what is called secular art, so that, for example,
the intricate convolutions on a page illuminated by an Irish monk
in the eighth century are no different from the ornaments in gold
wrought by secular craftsmen of the same period. Again, the pathos
and realism of a saint painted in the Baroque period are also present
in the representations of pagan themes in the 17th century.
1 Reprinted by permission from Midway, No. 16, autumn 19638, and based on a longer
and more detailed version in History of Religions, vol. 2, No. 1, summer 1962.
569
570 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
The artist dedicated to producing religious works of art in a pe-
riod of belief will be possessed of a body of iconographical and tech-
nical recipes inherited as part of his training or imparted by clerical
instruction. This corpus of information makes him an artist compe-
tent to express the truths of the faith comprehensible at different
levels and in different ways by the learned churchman and the layman.
The icon which he manufactures will be imbued with the symbolic
attributes necessary to make it at once magically effective as a revela-
tion of a divine prototype and touching the heart or inspiring the awe
of the ordinary worshiper. This language of religious expression
manifests itself within the framework of the style determined by such
factors as the society and the background of the artist.
It is the concern of the religious artist to translate into concrete
terms the concepts of Christian and Buddhist doctrine, sometimes of
such a transcendent metaphysical nature as to defy an explicit em-
bodiment in plastic form. Although every great artist will bring
what we describe as imagination or originality to his creation, it is
as true of Michelangelo as of the anonymous maker of Buddhist
images that he is inevitably affected by his knowledge of preexisting
forms that provide models for his guidance. Although some forms
of religious art are perforce inventions for which no pictorial proto-
types existed, the artists of early Christianity and Buddhism in
many instances adopted the vocabulary of earlier religious art for the
expression of new ideas. This is the principal concern of this essay.
There is, of course, the possibility that craftsmen separated in time
and place might independently arrive at a similar solution for pre-
senting a like concept, but the history of the development of the style
and iconography of Christian and Buddhist art reveals that in the
main the artist attached to these religions relied on readymade forms
in pagan art or earlier Asiatic art which they found readily adaptable
to the solution of their problems. The result of this common heritage
is a great number of parallels both in iconography and style, which
are of great interest and importance for the study of the interrelation-
ships between Buddhism and Christianity in the beginning of their
plastic traditions.
The parallels that exist between religious art in the worlds of early
Buddhism and Christianity are partly the result of similarities in-
herited from beliefs of previous periods, revealing themselves in
similar plastic or pictorial form. In other cases they may be attrib-
uted to the transmission of artistic influences, in which the preexisting
form may in turn affect belief and its artistic expression. At other
times these parallels may be attributed to exchanges in doctrine
through the intermediary of faiths like Mithraism and Mazdaism that
prevailed in the geographic regions separating East and West, or they
may be traced to certain common backgrounds in the religions of the
RELIGIOUS ART EAST AND WEST—ROWLAND 571
ancient Near East. These parallels are not always contemporary
but often reflect the taking up of earlier artistic forms or beliefs by
one or the other religious system over a period of centuries.
The nimbus is a common attribute of early Christian and Byzantine
art, as it is of Indian art from the first century A.D. onward. In this
case we are dealing with a common adaptation of the sun disk used as
a device to symbolize supraterrestrial splendor or divine light in the
Mazdean period or Achaemenid art in Iran. In the Iranian art of
this classical period a disk is set behind the personification of Ahura
Mazda as a symbolic reference to the sun and the celestial glory of the
supreme light. In this very simple example of the adaptation of older
emblems by later religious systems the sun disk of Ahura Mazda was
transformed into the halo to denote the divine radiance emanating
from the persons of Christ and Buddha.
As will be seen, we also have to deal with the phenomenon in art
of separate religious systems literally inventing a new imagery based
on their common heritage from both the Asiatic and Hellenic past
and in each case modified by the requirements of a particular iconog-
raphy. Although the question of the independent evolution of ideas
and belief and their portrayal in art in widely separated places and
times is always within the range of possibility, it is logical to assume
that many of these parallels represent both developments from a
common source or borrowings by one religious system from another.
The examination of a number of these spiritual and artistic affinities
is a subject of vital importance both for the history of religions and
the history of art.
The development of Christian and Buddhist art im the early cen-
turies of our era affords an opportunity for the study of certain
parallels in concepts and stylistic expression that are the result partly
of similarities in doctrine, and partly the result of common borrow-
ings from the tradition of classical pagan art. Most of the examples
chosen for comparison and analysis will be drawn from early Christian
sculpture of the third to the fifth centuries and from the semi-Roman
school of art that flourished in Gandhara, now northwestern Pakistan,
in the first five centuries of the Christian era.
Among the parallels existing between Christian and Buddhist art
that are founded on common iconographical as well as doctrinal back-
ground are the first representations of Christ and Buddha in early
Christian art and the Greco-Buddhist art of Gandhara.
GANDHARA AND EARLY CHRISTIAN ART: BUDDHA PALLIATUS
The resemblance of certain Gandhiara statues of the Buddha, such
as those excavated at Hadda in Afghanistan, to early representations
of Christ (pl. 1) has long been noticed, as has the fact that both
apparently spring from the Greek orator type as exemplified by the
572 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Sophocles of the Lateran. In these Buddha figures the garment worn
is unmistakenly a himation and not the regular sanghati: even though
the undergarment visible in some of these statues suggests the tunic
worn under the Roman toga, this mantle should, as will be explained
directly, be described as a himation or pallium from the association
of this dress with the ancient philosophers. The various personages
in antique sculpture with the right hand emerging from the himation
or pallium illustrate a style of wearing the garment that prevailed in
every quarter of the late Antique world: it is paralleled at once in the
Buddhas of Gandhara, in Roman portrait statues, in portrayals of
Christ, and in the countless grave reliefs of Palmyra. The fact that
the pallium, draped in such a way that the right arm was supported
as though muffled in a sling, continued to be worn until at least
the fourth century is illustrated in many portrait statues, notably
the effigy of Julian the Apostate in the Louvre. It was not a prevail-
ing fashion of dress, however, but the association of this costume with
ancient representations of philosophers and teachers that led to its
adaptation to the early images of Christ and Buddha. However, the
resemblance between the first statues of Christ and Buddha is not at
all surprising if we consider that both are the result of closely parallel
philosophic concepts in the religious complex of the Greco-Roman
orbit: Justin had stated that Socrates was the “best” of the classic
philosophers, since he denied the ancient gods and enjoined man to
seek the unknown god in the Logos; he therefore urged his followers
to know Christ as the personal appearance of the Logos indwelling in
all people. The implication that Christ is of the line of the great
classic teachers is almost too obvious. Augustine again draws a par-
allel between Christ, the Master of the new doctrine, and the ancient
philosophers: “paucis mutatis verbis,” he says, in speaking of Plato,
atque sententus Christiant fierent.” Christ the Pedagogue is here
again thought of as replacing the teachers of the ancients. Concepts of
this sort made it natural to represent the great teacher of Christianity
in the iconography of the “teacher-orator” of the classic world. So
also Justin preached the Word of God clad in the philosopher’s gown.
It seems almost redundant to point out that, in a similar way, Buddha
was regarded as the great teacher, the denier of the ancient order as
represented by the Vedas: the Greco-Roman workmen who fashioned
his images in Gandhara, like their early Christian cousins, chose the
classic orator type as the most suitable for portraying the Teacher, the
“Logos” of the Eastern world. The philosopher’s gown was worn by
holy men in the Roman Christian world of the second and third cen-
turies and it was regarded as a garb of honor. There was nothing
unusual in the selection of the pagan orator type for the representation
of our Lord, who was Himself the supreme teacher, the eternal
Pedagogue.
PEATE 1
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Rowland
‘UP ISIUPY SIV ‘unasnyyy [nqey “av Ain}uad
YIInoj-p1ryy SuUeSIt YsjV “eppeyy wooly vYppng ‘7
I
“Ul[ og “umnasny\y Yolipoll aI IOSIE YS “av Ainques
ATU “PILRULPS wolf Ssnse OD1RS "i
Gk
\
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Rowland
es.
The 175-foot Buddha, Bamiyan, Afghanistan, fourth-fifth century A.D.
PLATE 2
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Rowland BEATERS
Budda Maitreya, Group E, Bamiyan, Afghanistan, ca. fifth century A.D.
Fear eae
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Rowland
ent, Grosseto
gem
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PIlATiEyS
Smithsonian Report, 1963.—Rowland
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2)
I
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I s9sSN} SGLW Ainjuao Yqnof ‘ue
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7 OUI pure ISITYD)
PEATE
-Rowland
Smithsonian Report, 1963.-
anistan.
Atgh
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a
, third century A.D., Hadd
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Buddhas in
I
RELIGIOUS ART EAST AND WEST—ROWLAND 5io
It is eminently worthy of note that, in both the Buddha and
Christ image, a youthful ephebic type is substituted for the mature
bearded faces of the orators. It has been suggested that the early
Christian representations of Christ as a young man with long hair
are taken over from earlier Apollonian prototypes. Our Lord’s Resur-
rection is the sun’s rising; His descent into Hell the setting of the orb
beyond the Western rim. The analogy to the daily and eternal course
of Helios-Apollo is apparent at once. Beyond this there are many
descriptions in the Gospels and the writings of the church fathers
that, by the luciferous character attributed to Christ, must have sug-
gested the pagan images of the sun-god as models for representing
Him. I need mention only Our Lord’s “glory,” referred to so often
in the Gospels (John 1:14, ete.) or that His face “did shine as the
sun” (Matt. 7:2). Ambrose, indeed, addresses Christ directly as
“Sol” :
Splendor paternae gloriae
de luce lucem proferens,
Primordiis lucis novae
diem dies illuminans.
Verusque sol illabere,
micans nitore perpeti,...
A similar choice of the classic sun-god as the type for the Buddha
may naturally have suggested itself to the Eurasian artisans who
carved the images at Gandhara from the frequent allusions to the
Buddha’s solar character in the sutras. The following quotations will
illustrate this point:
The Buddhas shine both by night and by day.
Like the Sun bursting from a cloud in the morning, .. .so he, too, when
he was born from his mother’s womb, made the world bright like gold,...
dispelled the darkness.
He shone like the young sun descended upon the earth.
He will shine forth as a sun of knowledge to destroy the darkness of illusion
in the world.
As far as we can say at the moment, Sakyamuni must have been
represented in the guise of Sophocles and Aeschinus at the same time
that Christ was given a similar anthropomorphic representation. We
may be justified in assuming that the iconographic type was intro-
duced from the Roman Orient. Again the stylistic parallels between
this type in the East and West are as close as the spiritual similarities
suggested by the literary sources mentioned above: the Buddha in
our illustration (pl. 1, fig. 2) has—as is only to be expected—the same
sharp and linear caricature of the form-fitting robe of the Hellenistic
orator type that we find in the well-known example from Psamatia
(pl tte.)
720-018-6439
574 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
SOLAR SYMBOLISM IN BUDDHISM AND CHRISTIANITY
The solar nature of Christ and Buddha has already been referred
to in our examination of the “palliatus” type. Even more explicit
suggestions of solar symbolism in Buddhism and early Christianity
are worthy of more intensive exploration.
Significant as at least partly explaining the mentality that led to
the eventual emergence of the Buddha and Sun myths is a passage
from the Buddhacarita in which Sakyamuni, on entering the “place
of austerities,” is mistaken for the sun-god or the moon: “This is
Siryadeva or Canadradeva, coming down.”
This is enough to show that fundamentally the identification of
Buddha with the sun seems to have grown up within the complex of
Indian philosophic-religious ideas. The transformation of the
Buddha into the driver of the solar chariot is not markedly different
from the ideology that deified the Roman emperor as Helios-Kos-
mokrator, and Khosrau as the brother of the sun and moon: as an
example of this iconography we may cite the portrayal of Caracalla
and other rulers as the sun-god Helios. Something of the same con-
cept is seen in the early Christian representations of Helios in con-
nection with figures of Peter, the Good Shepherd, etc.; Philo of
Alexandria saw the Logos in the rising sun; in the poetry and exegesis
of Christian Egypt, the morning orb is Christ himself. The solar
character of Christ is, of course, symbolized in the feast of His birth,
supplanting the Roman festival for the New Year and the sun, a
means whereby the early Christians sought to rival the ancient pagan
holiday with their own. In the tympana of the cathedrals of Parma
and Piacenza the sun is included as a symbol of Christ as the Light
of the World; the moon, the reflector of this light, as a symbol of the
church.
An illustration of the Buddha’s solar symbolism is provided by
a wall painting of the sun-god in a chariot on the vault of the niche
of the colossal 120-foot Buddha in the Bamiyan Valley of Afghani-
stan. ‘The central figure in the decoration stands upon a crescent and
is inclosed in a huge sun disk. It is clad in a long mantle of the
Parthian and Kushan sovereigns and surrounded by a variety of em-
blems stressing the astral character of the decoration. This image
is a reference to the Buddha as another sun, rising to illuminate the
darkness of the world. A symbolic allusion to the solar nature indi-
cated by the Apollonian type of Buddha is discussed in an earlier
section. The painting is evidently intended to be read in context with
the giant statue beneath and the paintings of the Buddhas of past
eras represented on the haunch of the vault. Pictorially this is only
one of a number of such references in Buddhist art to Sakyamuni in
his solar aspect.
RELIGIOUS ART EAST AND WEST—ROWLAND 575
In a relief from Mathura, we have a frieze with a series of events
from the life of the Buddha: in this arrangement, the place normally
occupied by the Nativity of Gautama is replaced by a representation of
Sirya in his chariot. Below this band of carving is a zone with the
Buddhas of the past and Maitreya, so that, as at Bamiyan with the
painted representations of the Manushi Buddhas, the symbolical im-
plication is that, like these other teachers of other eras, Sikyamuni at
his birth dawned as another sun to illumine the world. In the same
way the many other portrayals of Stirya the sun-god at Bodh Gaya,
Bhaja, and elsewhere are allusions to the Buddha’s solar nature just
as the cars of sun and moon at Parma are references to the celestial
hight of Christ.
THE COLOSSAL IMAGE IN BUDDHIST AND CHRISTIAN ART
The enlargement of the earliest images of Christ and Buddha to
colossal size presents another problem of iconographic and stylistic
affinities in thetworeligions. This problem of the use of magnification
to suggest the supernatural aspects of the deity is one that concerns
both the iconography of Buddhism and that of early Christianity.
Everyone is, of course, familiar with the making of giant statues in
the ancient world and the transference of this concept to the statues
of the deified Roman emperors in the late Antique Period. In Bud-
dhism the earliest examples of the colossus in art are to be found in
the two giant Buddha statues carved in the sandstone cliff at Bamiyan.
The larger of the two colossi at Bamiyan (pl. 2) is housed in an
enormous cusped niche at the western end of the great cliff. It was
carved presumably at about the same time as its smaller companion.
Although the hands are now broken off, it seems likely that originally
the right hand was raised in “abhaya mudrda,” and the left, as in so
many Buddha statues of Mathura and Gandhara, was shown holding
a fold of the robe. It is notable that, in his description of this statue,
Hsiian-tsang refers to it merely as “Fo hsiang” (Jap. butswzd), or
“Buddha image,” whereas he specifically designated the smaller idol
at Bamiyan as Sakyamuni.
The scheme of painted decoration in the interior of the great vaulted
chamber originally was even more extensive and complicated than the
cycle in the niche of the smaller Buddha. We can see standing on the
head of the colossus, ornamenting the ceiling above, the images of nu-
merous enthroned bodhisattvas with attendants and musicians. Onthe
haunch of the vault at the right and left again are rows of these seated
deities. Immediately below are painted Buddhas in multicolored
halos and in various mudrds. Looking up from the feet of the giant
statue we can see that the under surfaces of the cusps of the arches are
painted with the representations of trinities of flying deities in medal-
lions. Below these again are the fragments of row upon row of Bud-
576 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
dhas, differentiated from one another by their mudrds and the trees
under which they are seated. At present the first 75 feet of wall sur-
face is devoid of any painting.
I repeat here that the very scale of this great image at Bamiyan
implies that the religious of this center considered the Buddha as a
more than mortal teacher and is thereby thoroughly in keeping with
the transcendent nature attributed to him by the Lokottaravadins.
We should also consider in this regard the possible influence of classic
antiquity on the fashioning of enormous images of the gods not only
in Christian iconography, but also as here on Buddhist art. I need
only mention the statue of the Olympian Zeus and the effigies of the
divinized emperors of Rome among the logical artistic prototypes for
the practice of magnification to suggest a supraterrestrial power.
There is a possible parallel and explanation for the making of colossi
in the beginnings of Christian art. In the West, the early Christian
conception of the Lord as the Good Shepherd was in Byzantium of
the fourth century and was later replaced by the conception of the
superhuman Christ reigning in majesty above the skies. Under in-
fluences almost certainly emanating from Iran, the emperors as early
as Constantine had assumed the title of kosmokrator; the founder of
Byzantium himself was portrayed in statues of giant size, dimensions
deemed appropriate for the Lord of the Universe. When the emperor
himself had thus grown to colossal stature, it was hardly possible to
show any longer the Light of the World as a mere man; there evolved
immediately the Christ Pantocrator, Ruler of All, and regal embodi-
ment of the World of the Father. Since colossi do not appear in
Buddhism before the Gandhara school, it may be that among the con-
tributions of this hybrid art was the plastic realization of the super-
human nature of the Buddha contained in the texts, aided and abetted
by the Greco-Roman artists’ knowledge of over life-sized figures of
gods and kosmokrators in the West.
Although Christian art can boast no images on the scale of the
Eastern examples, the enormously enlarged representations of Christ
in the mosaics of the domes and apses of Byzantine churches are illus-
trations of the same principle. In both Buddhist and Christian art
the colossus is an outgrowth of the ancient device of hieratic scaling,
in which the most significant personage was magnified in order to
assert its importance over other figures in the painting or relief.
Before the colossi at Bamiyaén and the pantocrators of Byzantium the
spectator himself provides the scale for the giant being that over-
shadows him.
One very good reason for creating colossal images of Buddha even
at a very early period would be the conception of the Lord as
Mahapurusa. Buddha and Cakravartin, with whom he early became
identified, are essentially the Purusa (Prajapati) of vedic mythology
RELIGIOUS ART EAST AND WEST—ROWLAND 577
and mysticism: the “laksanas” are derived from the distinctive marks
of the Cosmic Man. They are in no sense physiological features but
“cosmognomical emblems.” The Great Person is at once the year
and a solar myth and contains all worlds within his mystic anatomy.
One could look on this concept as a synthesism with ideas already ex-
pressed in the Bhagavad Gita where we read: “There in the body of the
God of Gods, the son of Pandu saw the whole universe resting in one”
(XI, 13) ; and “The space betwixt heaven and earth and all quarters
are filled by Thee alone” (XI, 20). “Thou art the Ancient Purusa”
(XI, 18). As Paul Mus has remarked, there is a suggestion of just
such a cosmological stature in the Buddha’s flattening the earth with
his footsteps, in the likening of his head to an umbrella; indeed, A. K.
Coomaraswamy has shown that the early icons symbolizing Buddha
by a parasol, altar, and footprints are really likenesses of the “mys-
tical” body of the Great Person, respectively, sky, air, and earth—or,
in other words, the cosmic anatomy of Prajapati. It becomes clear
with this that, as cosmic god and universal ruler (Purusa-Cakravartin)
equal to all space, Buddha could appropriately be shown in enor-
mous size as though literally filling a whole “cosmos.” 'That cosmos
is—in the case of the Bamiyan Buddhas—the shrine or niche that,
like the chaitya, the elevation of which it reproduces in cross section,
may be understood as the cosmic house—its portals broad as the earth,
its roof the sky: “Cut . . . in the vertical direction, the massive world
fabric shows its net where everything is fixed in its place.”
This idea of the Buddha-Purusa is already present in the chapter on
the vision of the Universal Form in the Bhagavad Gita and corre-
sponds to the conception of Vairocana in the Kegonkyd, in which text
the Tathagata’s body is described as comprehending all the directions,
all space, all living beings; a similar text, the Bommokyé, determined
the iconography of the Daibutsu at Nara. On the Nara Daibutsu the
various Buddhas and worlds contained in Vairocana’s universal form
are represented on the petals of the lotus throne; at Yiin Kang the
colossal image of Vairocana in Cave 18 has its body clothed in a veri-
table garment of small Buddhas exactly in the same way that the
multiple emanations of LokeSvara cover the statutes of this deity in
Indo-China. It is perhaps not too difficult to see that, as on the Nara
Daibutsu the worlds are engraved on the petals of the lotus throne so
at Bamiy4an these creations of the Cosmic Lord’s are painted, row upon
row, on the sides and vault of the niche. Although it is, of course,
impossible to state categorically that the colossus in Afghanistan al-
ready represents a production of the worship of Vairocana or Uni-
versal Buddha as understood by the esoteric sects, the implications of
what we see at Bamiyin—an enormous image surrounded by paintings
of multiple Buddhas and bodhisattvas—certainly suggests that the
idea of Vairocana is there in all but name.
578 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
It is safe to say that the concept of Buddhas as Mahapurusa, present
even in Hinay4na texts, and the role of Lokottara, assigned to him in
the Mahasinghika sects, can be seen as working together to produce
these first colossi of the Buddhist world. The giant statues of Yiin
Kang and Lung-men are the full development of this ideology and
show us the Universal Lord of the Lotus Sitra and the Avatamsaka-
Buddha as Brahma, the Father of the World.
THE TRANSCENDENTAL CHRIST AND BUDDHA
Related to the idea of the colossus as a supernatural portrayal of
divinity are certain types of Christian and Buddhist art in which
various other iconographical devices are employed to suggest the
supernal nature of the divinity. Again, one of the more striking ex-
amples may be found at the great monastic site of Bamiyan.
Group E is the designation given a small complex of caves about a
hundred yards to the west of the smaller colossal Buddha at Bamiyan
(pl. 3). The only surviving painted decoration in these caves is a
bodhisattva painted on the soffit of the niche that shelters the smallest
statue of a seated Buddha at Bamiyan. The divinity is ensconced
under a blunted pediment and wearing a costume that recalls the dress
of the Gandhara bodhisattvas. The right hand is raised in vitarka
mudra. A necklace and heavy scarves are the only ornaments of the
upper part of the body. In the headdress are fluttering ribbons con-
ventionalized in the shape of French horns. The bodhisattva is repre-
sented seated on a rainbow of seven colors that at the same time serves
as the aureole of the sculptured figure below it. This conception is
strangely suggestive of the vision of the Apocalyptic Christ seated on
the rainbow above the firmament. In St. John’s description, the rain-
bow is a familiar natural phenomenon employed in the mystic’s vocab-
ulary to suggest more tangibly the transcendent beauty of the Lord,
and by its position spanning the heavens to place the pantocrator
vividly above the sky beyond the world. Besides its appropriateness
as a glory or throne, the rainbow is probably intended as a symbol of
the Lord’s mercy, an illusion to his compact of Genesis 9: 13-17.
A painting of the Last Judgment from the circle of Guido da Siena
in the Church of the Misericordia at Grosseto (pl. 4) is illuminating
with regard to the function of the rainbow in the iconography of the
Revelation: The Pantocrator is seated on an arc of spectral colors that
bisects his enframing mandorla; another smaller rainbow serves as a
footstool, and below this is the Cross supported by angels, rising like
the cosmic tree to the top of the sky and suggestive of Christ’s earthly
body and sufferings, as the Buddha in the niche may be the nirman-
skaya of the vision above.
Anyone looking at the Grosseto icon would have been reminded that
Christ by his cross brought peace as the rainbow symbolized the peace
RELIGIOUS ART EAST AND WEST—ROWLAND 579
of the cosmic forces. Although no such allusion to a covenant with the
deity is implied in the Buddhist painting, the rainbow still fulfils the
function of suggesting a being raised above the world by the heavenly
arc with a like implication of transcendence over the cosmos.
In Buddhist iconography, the aureoles of rainbow hue are probably
to be taken as standing for the magic rays of varicolored light of
“precious substances” that the Buddhas emanate from their persons.
A suggestion of the possible symbolic significance of the nimbus that
forms the seat of our bodhisattva is contained in the opening of the
eleventh chapter of the Saddharma Pundarika: then there arose a
Stiipa, consisting of seven precious substances, from the place of the
earth opposite the Lord, the assembly being in the middle, a Stipa five
hundred yojanas in height and proportionate in circumference.” H.
Kern explains this phenomenon as follows: “between the Lord and
(the Sun) is the stupa of seven ratnas,” that is, the rainbow of seven
colors. He goes on to say that there are in Indian ideology either five
or seven colors (RV, pancarasmi and saptarasmi) and that just as
there exists a parallelism between the five colors and five planets, there
should be a like parallelism between the ratnas, seven colors and the
seven grihas or stellar mansions.
A more pertinent Christian interpretation of this ancient stellar
symbolism is expressly stated by John (Rev. 1:20): “As for the
mystery of the seven stars that thou seest in my right hand, and the
seven golden lamp-stands—the seven stars are the seven angels of the
seven churches, and the seven lamp-stands are the seven churches.”
In other words, the ancient astronomical symbolism has been swept
away in favor of a symbolism understandable to the evangelist’s
contemporaries.
The bodhisattva at Bamiydn is dressed in the turban-crown and
jewels of a Royal Buddha: the position of this deity seated on the
rainbow suggests that he may be intended as the Sambhogakaya in
the skies in relation to the earthly teacher, Virmdnakaya of Buddha,
personified in the ruined statue below. Such an arrangement would
be analogous to the Paradise pictures of Tun-huang in which
Sakyamuni in the center preaches of the Buddha Amitabha who ap-
pears as a viny vision at the top of the sky; it is Sakyamuni in his
transcendental aspect who introduces mortals to the happy land in
the West. This is the Buddhist equivalent of the Christ of the dictum
in the Fourth Gospel, “Vemo venit ad patrem nisi per me.”
THE ARCHITECTURE OF PARADISE IN BUDDHIST AND CHRISTIAN ART
A final and somewhat more complex example of the iconographical
relations between Christianity and Buddhism may be examined in
the artistic device known as the homme-arcade motif, the use of an
architectural setting—a colonnade—to frame divine personages for
580 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
iconographical as well as artistic reasons. Here again the compari-
sons will be between examples from Gandhara and early Christian
art (pls.5 and 6).
From what we know of the movement of artistic influences in the
late Antique world, it is unlikely that the arcade-and-figure motif
originated in Gandhara and spread from there to the West. The
synthetic character of art in the twilight of the classic world is such
that probably the truth lies in all the proposed explanations for the
appearance of the concept in India; that is, it is derived ultimately
from the facades with engaged orders in the Roman world, and more
specifically from the form as developed on early Christian sarcophagi
through the collaboration of Syrian workmen, who, as will be ex-
plained below, saw the appropriateness of this funerary architecture
to the needs of the Buddhist church of Gandhara. Since the de-
veloped form of the homme-arcade is unknown before the Asiatic
sarcophagi of the late second century A.D., it would be impossible to
suppose that any occurrence of the type in Gandhara is prior to this
date.
In studying the photographs of the Gandhara s¢iépas with their
multiple images of Buddhas under arcades we are faced with another
problem of an iconographical nature. It is not without importance
for the stylistic aspects of the question: anyone seriously investigat-
ing the religious art of the East is bound to ask himself first of all
whether the work of art he is examining was made for the expression
of a definite concept that determined its form. In this case, one is
bound to ask whether the repeated figures of the Buddha, each one
nearly identical to its neighbor, were made as parts of a whole repre-
senting the miraculous appearance of the Buddha in many places at
one time, as in the Great Miracle of Sravasti and in the transcendental
sections of the Lotus Sutra (Saddharma Pundarika) , or whether these
are merely repeated effigies of Sakyamuni duplicated for the merit
believed to accrue from the making of statues of the Great Teacher.
From what we know of Buddhism in Gandhara there is little evidence
that the sculpture of this region was dedicated to Mahayana Bud-
dhism: the only bodhisattva recognizable in Gandhara art is
Maitreya; insofar as we know, the mystic Buddhas of Mahayana are
unknown, and only Sakyamuni and his mortal predecessors, the
manusi Buddhas, are carved in the sanctuaries of northwestern India.
More often than not, the number of statues seems determined solely
by the dimensions of the space to be filled, but since the individual
figures are differentiated from one another, it may be that they are
either Sakyamuni at various moments of his career, or Sakyamuni
and the Buddhas of the Past who were worshipped in Gandhara.
The story related by Hsiian-tsang about the double-bodied Buddha
at the great stwpa of Kanishka at Peshawar furnishes us a clue to the
RELIGIOUS ART EAST AND WEST—ROWLAND 581
significance of Buddha images on the séipas: in this legend two men
each engaged an artist to paint a picture of the Enlightened One;
when they came to pay their respects to the icons they had ordered,
the two patrons were disappointed to find only one painting of the
Buddha. At the artist’s insistence that he had not defrauded them
and that the picture would give some “spiritual indication” of this,
the Painted Buddha divided in two from the waist upward, and the
two men “believed and exulted.” It is specifically implied in this
passage that each man wished to have his own picture of the Buddha;
in other words, we might well be justified in assuming that the multi-
ple statues of Buddhas on the monuments at Taxila and Hadda are
individual donations, or, at least, different likenesses of the same Bud-
dha. In the photograph of the Ali-Masjid stupa one can make out
statues of Buddhas and bodhisattvas of various types: it is tempting
to think of these as different deities or different aspects of the same
deity each in its separate niche like the chapels dedicated to various
saints or types of Christ in the ambulatory of a great cathedral. One
could see in this repetition of the Buddha images on all four sides
of the stupas the germ of the idea embodied in the four-faced statues
of Lokesvara at Angkor which are not four-headed monsters but one
deity both seen and seeing everywhere at once. The multiple Bud-
dha images could be interpreted as representing not many different
Buddhas but one Buddha seen everywhere and simultaneously.
I have already suggested that the homme-arcade, a motif univer-
sally employed for sepulchral monuments in the West, was for this
reason found appropriate for the decoration of reliquaries and stupas
which can be regarded as funerary in function.
It has been suggested that, first and foremost, the pagan sarcophagus
was the House of the Dead: it was also a representation of the Palace
of Hades as abode of the shades. In Christian art the Palace of Hades
is converted into the Halls of Heaven or the Heavenly Jerusalem;
Christ and the elect emerge from the colonnade that had formerly
sheltered Apollo and the Muses as companions of the departed. What
could be more appropriate for a sepulchral monument than the repre-
sentation of the Celestial City where the soul hoped to dwell in peace
with the Savior? In the same way, the pagan sarcophagi with the
flora and fauna of Elysium are converted into those Christian coflins
that portray the bay trees, the gardens, and goodly walks of Jerusalem
the Golden. The conception of Paradise as a “palace” is almost uni-
versal in Indian mythology: I need mention only the palace of the
Cakravartin, the King of the World who sits enthroned in the center of
the great wheel of the world, and that center is his palace on the sum-
mit of Mount Meru, the cosmic mountain that pillars apart Heaven
and Earth. Sometimes the Heaven of the Tusita gods, the dwelling
place of the Bodhisattva Siddhartha before his last incarnation, is like-
582 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
wise described as a palace. The nearest textual confirmation to the
suggestion that the revetment of the stipa was in a sense a vision of
celestial architecture is contained in the description of the building of
the Lohapasada in the Mahavamsa.
The significance of this seeming digression is that with the accept-
ance of the homme-arcade as a means of representing the architecture
of Paradise it seems not at all unlikely, but indeed very probable, that
the form was adopted for Buddhist usage to represent the realms of the
Buddahs. In earlier Indian art, as, for example, on the east gate at
Sanci, the palaces of the devas are represented as columnar halls prob-
ably drawn from contemporary architecture; such a conception of the
Buddhist Heaven recurs in the sixth-century fresco of Buddha in the
Tusita Heaven in Cave 2 at Ajantaa. In this regard, it is interesting
to note that we may identify the three central figures of the Bimaran
reliquary as a representation of the descent of Sakyamuni from the
Tusita Heaven. The multiple images of Buddhas on the stipas of
Gandhara, then, could be explained as representing the Buddha and
the Buddhas of other kalpas enshrined in the golden halls of their
heavens: the substitution of classical architectural forms being made
the easier by the fact that Indian architectural forms had already been
used for paradisiacal settings in earlier Indian art. The fact that the
homme-arcade was specifically used to depict the architecture of the
celestial regions in the West would only make it more acceptable to the
Buddhists of Gandhara who always showed themselves open to bor-
rowing readymade classical types and techniques of all sorts for the
realization of their iconographical ideas. Theconcept of the Buddhas
in their heavens as a decoration for the exterior of the stwpa is not in
the least incompatible with the essential meaning of these monuments
as symbols of the universe. The hypothesis becomes even more con-
vincing when we recall that although the arcade undergoes a consider-
able transformation—into Indian terms—it is still employed to shel-
ter the Buddhas of the Four Directions whose multiple images once
crowded the niches of the Mahabodhi temple at Gaya and the many
copies of that memorial in the Eastern world. Again, single images of
Buddhas, either of the Four Buddhas of the Past or the Four Mystic
Buddhas, were often placed at the four sides of stupa bases to symbolize
the paradises of these Tathagatas at the four points of the compass.
The Buddhas on the stupas of Gandhira, sitting or standing in a
palatial architectural setting of mixed classical and Indian form, could
then be said to be a primitive form of the Paradise iconography, a
concept exactly paralleling the prototype of the Heavenly Jerusalem
as symbolized by the arcades of the early Christian sarcophagi.
In conclusion, it should be emphasized that, in the examples of
religious art we have examined, traditions of the most ancient cos-
RELIGIOUS ART EAST AND WEST—ROWLAND 583
mologies known to man, traditions of magic, craft, and ritual—which,
although no longer completely understood in later periods, still de-
termined the forms proper to religious concepts—from the orientation
of the temple to the least of the symbols decorating the footprints
of Buddha. For the centuries of faith these remain in a way apart
from change except insofar as they are variously interpreted in the
stylistic form language accidental to different places and periods.
This latter problem is a separate one which is no less significant in
weighing the—for us—final value of the icon in the history of art.
This problem is separate and different because such “aesthetic”
or antiquarian considerations never entered the mind of a craftsman
working in a tradition before the rise of the individual “artist” in
the modern sense of the term. In the great periods of Asiatic art,
before the breakdown of tradition in craft and religion, the geometry
of the images of Buddha, the particular concepts that necessitated
their particular form, the method and purpose of making and wor-
shiping icons remained very much the same as did the technical
training and spiritual approach of the actual craftsman. In later
periods the primordial secrets of the time-and-space mechanism of
the cosmos, the reasons for the images being as they were—abstract
and beyond nature—were remembered only dimly by the majority
or else they were repeated only as formulas not truly understood;
but even in later centuries in India, China, and Japan there were men
by whom the ancient mysteries were still understood in all the awful
clarity of their original meaning, and to these the survival of the
ancient traditions is due. In periods like our own time when tradition
is almost synonymous with superstition, such concepts as the Tree
of Life suggest only a design in a modern “Numdah” rug, and no
explanation beyond technical inadequacy is deemed necessary for the
attenuated proportions of the early icons of Christ and Buddha. In
the period with which we are concerned, enough of these traditions
were still alive all over Asia to account for the seeming identity in
“style’—the identity is really as much in “content.” It must be
pointed out that, in Asiatic art, comparisons of details according to
the systems of modern scientific art history, although revealing to
a certain degree, are actually useless and beside the point in such a
unified, traditional art as that of Asia in which the artist never emerges
completely as an individual, but is dedicated to expressing communal
ideas, not his own personality. The language of his expression is
based on certain forms which, by common consent through genera-
tions of artistic practice, have been conceived as proper to revealing
the essential nature of the divinities for the edification of the believers.
The likenesses and differences in physical type in such things as detail
in ornaments are due to racial likenesses and differences and ideals
584 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
which are beyond the control even of traditional iconography or
what the art historian is pleased to call influences. As Langdon
Warner has so well expressed it: “Dealing directly with the artist’s
Formal Cause and original conception is quite apart from dealing
with influences, where the artist either copies externals or is so close
in the grip of his tradition that his spiritual stimulus is controlled
by traditional shapes. The critic’s difficulty is that he often has to
deal with material produced under mixed conditions: direct original
imagination clothed in traditional shapes.”
A valuable lesson in what influences really are can be learned in
studying the vicissitudes of the Udayina Buddha type. The famous
sandalwood image was, according to legend, made in the lifetime of
Sakyamuni for the king of Udayana. The original Udayana Buddha
in art was, judging from existing copies, an image of the Gandhara
school which the latter adopted as the legendary effigy of Sakyamuni.
The story has the earmarks of a pious fabrication designed to popu-
larize and to justify the worship of the first and very foreign images
of Buddha with the “rippling” folds of their Roman togas. Copies
were known in China in Hsiian-tsang’s time and continued to be made
in Japan through the Kamakura Period; the type survives in Tibet and
Nepal to the present day. On the grossly humanistic concept of the
Gandharan original, the artist of the dark and mystic figure that we
see today in the shrine at Seirydji has produced something abstract
and enormously ghostly. The general lines of the robe of a Gandhara
image are there; we recognize them as superficially related, but in the
Japanese statue the folds are worked into rhythms that greatly ag-
grandize the figure and convey the feeling of the universal character
of drapery structure—not the particular attempt to show the surface
appearance of a special robe. In the same way the formalization
of the realism of the Roman dress in the early Christian images of
Christ and the reduction of the sensuous beauty of the Apollo head
to a bland mask of serenity in these and the Gandhira Buddhas im-
part a ghostly character that was not present in the humanistic
originals.
Finally, it must be emphasized that no matter how large the stylistic
factor may loom in such problems of art history, more significant still
in traditional art is the concept that determined the form: in tracing
down the history of the content and in analyzing it we shall come
closer to truth than in a pursuit of such will-o’-the-wisps as “influ-
ences” so often turn out to be. In the origin of the dominating idea
we shall find in part the explanation of the form as well. The bio-
logical expansion of the cosmos described with both faith and the
authority of science by Pére Teilhard is only an ordering of concepts
of the metaphysical structure of the universe embodied in the texts
RELIGIOUS ART EAST AND WEST—ROWLAND 585
of and iconography of mystical Buddhism: that world tree whose
branches flower into space, towering upward to.infinity to bear us all
at last to our astral home, is a scientifically explained miracle em-
bodied in the ancient ideas of the world-axis, of Ygedrasil, and the
all-embracing cosmic person who is at once Christ and Buddha.
means :
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Lg fe ‘sbralscronds ot ries, The See au wll } that | ice! vita oe.
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eran Shem iyertiin, Came thie ual ne 1) 6 tH a
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INDEX
A
Abbot, C. G., xii
Accessions, 27, 107, 181, 207, 230, 246
Library, 246
National Air Museum, 230
National Collection of Fine Arts,
181
National Gallery of Art, 207
National Museum, 27
National Zoological Park, 107
Agriculture, tropical subsistence, in
Latin America: some neglected as-
pects and implications (Raymond
E. Crist), 503
Ahmanson, Howard F., ix
Akers, Floyd D., ix
Allen, Maj. Gen. Brooke E., U.S. Air
Force, ix
American Historical Association, 255
Anderson, Clinton P., Regent of the
Institution, v
Andrews, A. J., vi
Angel, J, L., vi
Anglim, J. E., vii
Antibiotics from a botanical viewpoint,
(Kenneth L. Jones), 369
Appropriations, 145, 207
National Gallery of Art, 207
National Zoological Park, 145
Archeological reconnaissance in Ha-
dhramaut, South Arabia—a prelimi-
nary report (Gus W. Van Beek, Glen
H. Cole, and Albert Jamme), 521
Archeology, the promise of underwater
(George F. Bass), 461
Arctic-Alpine environment, plants in
the (Stanwyn G. Shelter), 473
Astronomical photography from the
stratosphere (Martin Schwarzchild),
323
Astronomical technology, advances in
(Aden B. Meinel), 293
Astrophysical Observatory, viii, xii, 12,
147
Astrophysical Research Division,
147
Buildings and equipment, 165
Publications, 166, 178
Radiation and Organisms Division,
173
Report, 147
Staff, viii, 173
Atomic and other wastes in the sea (L.
Eugene Wallen), 381
Austin, O. L., xi
Avrett, E., viii
B
Bass, George F. (The promise of under-
water archeology), 461
Battison, E. A., vii
Battle, Lucius D., Assistant Secretary
of State for Educational and Cultural
Affairs, ix
Becker, Ralph E., ix, x
Becklund, W. W., xi
Bedini, S. A., vii
Beggs, T. M., Director, National Collec-
tion of Fine Arts, viii, 190
Bell, Daniel W., x
Benjamin, C. R., xi
Billings, K. LeMoyne, ix
Birgfeld, Kenneth, x
Bishop, P. W., vii
Blake, Mrs. Doris H., xi
Blanchard, Ruth E., Librarian, v, 249
Boardman, R.S., vi
Bode, Barbara F., vii
Borthwick, Mrs. Doris E., vii
Bory, S.S., vii
Bow, Frank T., Regent of the Institu-
tion, V
Bowen, Catherine Drinker, x, 22
Bowman, T. E., vi
Boyd, Julian P., x, 22
Boyle, W. E., vil
587
588
Bradley, James C., Assistant Secretary ; Chief Justice of the United States (Earl
of the Institution, v
Bredin, J. Bruce, xi
Briggs, R. W., viii
Bronfman, Edgar M., ix
Brown, John Nicholas, Regent of the
Institution, v, ix, x, 22, 233
Brown, W. L., xi, xii
Bunch, Ralph J., ix
Burden, William A. M., Regent of the
Institution, v
Bureau of American Ethnology, viii, xii,
8, 74
Archives, 101
Editorial work and publications, 105
Illustrations, 105
Library, 104
Report, 74
River Basin Surveys, 77
Staff, viii, 106
Systematic Researches, 74
Buzas, M. A., vi
Byrd, Mrs. Mabel A., vi
Cc
Cahill, James F., ix
Cairns, Huntington, ix, 218
Campbell, J. M., xi
Canal Zone Biological Area, ix, xii, 219
Finances, 224
Plans and requirements, 224
Rainfall, 222, 223
Report, 219
Scientists, students, and observers,
219
Cannon, Clarence, Regent of the Insti-
tution, v, 275
Cannon, W. F., vii
Cantrell, Mrs. James, x
Carleton, N. P., viii
Carmichael, Leonard, Secretary of the
Institution, v, viii, ix, x, 1
Carriker, M. A., Jr., xi
Cartwright, O. L., vi
Casey, L. S., ix
Celebrezze, Anthony J., Secretary of
Health, Education, and Welfare,
member of the Institution, v, ix
Chace, F. A., Jr., vi
Chapelle, H. I., vii
Chase, Mrs. Agnes, xi
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Warren, Chancellor of the Institu-
[HKOV AY) SAypib.<, a
Cifelli, Richard, vi
Clain-Stefanelli, Mrs. Elvira, vii
Clain-Stefanelli, Vladimir, vii
Clark, Ailsa M., xi
Clark, Joseph S., ix
Clarke, Gilmore D., viii
Clarke, J. F. G., vi
Clarke, R. S., Jr., vi
Clement, Rufus E., x, 23
Cochran, Doris M., vi
Cogswell, W. N., viii
Cole, Glen H, see Van Beek, G. W., and
Jamme, Albert W. F., 521
Collins, H. B., Jr., viii
Collins, H. R., vii
Collins, J. A., Chief, International Ex-
change Service, vii, 73
Colombo, G., viii
Conger, P.S., vi
Cook, A. F., viii
Cooke, C. W., xi
Cooper, G. A., vi
Coral studies in the Southern Ocean: po-
tential for (Squires, Donald F.), 447
Cooper, Mrs. Grace R., vii
Correll, D. L., viii
Corrosion products of metal antiquities
(Rutherford J. Gettens) , 547
Cott, Perry B., ix
Cowan, R. &., vi
Crabill, R. E. Jr., vi
Crawford, Frederick C., xii
Crist, Raymond F (Tropical subsist-
ence agriculture in Latin America:
some neglected aspects and implica-
tions) , 503
Crocker, W. H., vi
Cutress, C. E., Jr., vi
Cybernetics, what is? (Donald M. Mac-
Kay), 401
D
Daughters of the American Revolution,
Society of, 255
Davis, D. R., vi
Davis, R. J., viii
Day, J. Edward, Postmaster General,
member of the Institution, v
DeFelice, J., viii
INDEX
Deignan, H. G., xi
deLint, P. J. A. L., viii
Desautels, P. E., vi
Deschler, Lewis, x, 22
Dillon, Douglas, Secretary of the Treas-
ury, member of the Institution, v, ix
Doolittle, James H. (Lt. Gen., U.S.A.F.
Ret.), ix
Drake, C. J., xi
Duckworth, D. W., vi
Dugan, C. H., viii
Dunkle, D. H., vi
DULTO, de Ls, Xt
E
Edwards, J. L., viii
Electric microscope in the study of fos-
sils, the use of (William W. Hay),
409
Elstad, V. B., viii
Emerson, K. C., xi
Establishment, The, 20
Httinghausen, Richard, ix
Evans, Clifford, Jr., vi
Ewers, J. C., vii
Executive Committee of the Board of
Regents, V
Report, 261
Exhibitions, 189
National Gallery of Art, 211
National Museum, 53
Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition
Service, 185
Exploration and fieldwork, 38, 74, 77
Bureau of American Ethnology, 74,
77
National Museum, 38
River Basin Survey, 77
Hyde, R. H., vi
Kr
Fazio, G. G., viii
Fehlmann, H. A., vii
Feidler, Ernest R., ix
Field, W. D., vi
Finances, 24
Audit, 275
Endowments, summary of, 262
Executive Committee Report, 261
National Zoological Park, 145
See also Appropriations.
740—-018—_64——-40
589
Financial resources, Smithsonian In-
stitution, 19
Finley, David E., viii, x, 22
Finn, B. S., vii
Finnegan, Ellen J., vii
Fireman, EH. L., viii
Fleming, Robert V., Regent of the In-
stitution, v, 275
Flint, O.S., Jr., vi
Fossils, the use of the electric micro-
scope in the study of (William W.
Hay), 409
Franklin, F., viii
Freeman, Orville L., Secretary of Agri-
culture, member of the Institution, v
Freer Gallery of Art, viii, xii, 16, 191
Attendance, 196
Auditorium, 196
Building and grounds, 195
Changes in exhibitions, 192
Collections, 191
Library, 193
Photographie laboratory and sales
desk, 195
Publications, 194
Repairs to the collection, 192
Report, 191
Staff activities, 197
Friedmann, Herbert, xi
Fulbright, J. William, Regent of the
Institution, v, ix
Furlong, W. R., xii
G
Garrett, Mrs. George A., x
Gardner, P. V., vii
Garber, P. E., ix
Gazin, C. L., vi
Gettens, Rutherford J., ix, 547
Gettens, Rutherford J. (The corrosion
products of metal antiquities), 547
Gibbs, R. H., vi
Gibson, G. D., vi
Gingerich, O., viii
Goins, C. R., Jr., vii
Goldberg, B., viii
Goldberg, L., viii
Goodrich, Lloyd, viii
Grabar, Oleg., xii
Graf, John E., xi,
Gray, Clinton T., viii
590
ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Greenewalt, Clifford H., Regent of the; Hunsaker, Jerome C., Regent of the
Institution, v
Greenwood, Mrs. Arthur M., xii
Greeson, O. H., Chief, photographic
service division, Vi
Griffith, F. O., vii
Grimmer, J. L., viii
Grossi, M., viii
Guest, Grace Dunbar, xii
H
Hadhramaut, South Arabia, an archeo-
logical reconnaissance in—a prelim-
inary report (Gus W. Van Beek et
al.), 521
Hale, M. E., Jr., vi
Hamarneh, S. K., vii
Hancock, Walter, viii
Handley, C. O., Jr., vi
Harrison, J. H., viii
Haskins, Caryl P., Regent of the Insti-
tution, v, 275
Hathaway, A. W.,, vii
Hawkins, G.S., viii
Hay, William W. (The use of the elec-
tron microscope in the study of fos-
sils), 409
Hayes, Bartlett H., Jr., viii
Hayes, E. Nelson (The Smithsonian’s
satellite-tracking program; its his-
tory and organization, part 2, 331
Henderson, E. P., vi
Herber, E. C., xii
Hilger, Sister M. Inez, xii
History of the Corbin Preserve (Rich-
ard H. Manville), 427
Hobbs, H. H., jr., vi
Hodge, P. V., viii
Hodges, Luther H., Secretary of Com-
merce, member of the Institution, v
Holland, C. G., xi
Hoover, Mrs. Cynthia A., vii
Hopkins, P. 8., Director, National Air
Museun, ix, 233
Hotton, Nicholas ITI, vi
Howell, E. M., vii
Howland, R. H., vii
Hueber, F. M., vi
Hull, F. M., xi
Hume, I. N., xii
Humphrey, P. S., vi
institution, v
I
Ide, John J., xii
International Exchange Service,
7, 64
Foreign exchange of governmental
documents, 67
Interparliamentary exchange of the
official journals, 70
Packages forwarded, 73
Publications received, 73
Report, 64
Irvine, W. M., viii
Irving, Laurence, xi
Irwin, John N., II, ix
Izsak, I. G., viii
Vii,
J
Jacchia, L. G., viii
Jackson, M. H., vii
Jamme, Albert, W. F., see Van Beek,
Gus W.; Cole, Glen H.; and, 521
Jellison, W. L., xi
Johnson, D. H., vi
Johnson, Lyndon B., Vice President of
the United States, member of the In-
stitution, v
Jones, Kenneth L. (The antibiotics from
a botanical viewpoint), 369
Judd, N. M., xi
K
Kainen, Jacob, vii
Kalkofen, W., vili
Kauffman, E. G., vi
Kellogg, Remington, xi, 21
Kendall, E. C., vii
Kennedy, J. A., director of personnel, v
Kennedy, John F., President of the
United States, Presiding Officer ex
officio, v
Kennedy, Robert F., Attorney General,
member of the Institution, v
Keppel, Francis, Commissioner, U.S.
Office of Education, x
Kier, P. M., vi
Killip, E. P., xi
Kirwan, Michael J., Regent of the In-
stitution, v
Klapthor, Mrs. Margaret Brown, vii
Klein, W. H., viii, 173
Knez, E. L., vi
INDEX
K6hnlein, W., viii
Korth, Fred, Secretary of the Navy, x,
23
Kozai, Y., viii
Kreeger, David L., x, 23
Krieger, H. W., xi
L
Lachner, E. A., vi
Lane, F. C., xii
Lasker, Mrs. Albert, D, x
Latin America, tropical subsistence ag-
riculture in; some neglected aspects
and implications (Raymond E. Crist),
503
Laughlin, Robert M., viii
Lautman, D. A., viii
Lawless, B. W., Vii
Lectures, 257
Lehfeldt, H. J., viii
Leonard, E. C., xi
Lewis, Wilmarth §., viii, x, 22
Library, 246
Acquisitions, 246
Branch libraries, 247
Bureau of American Ethnology, 104
Cataloging and binding, 247
Freer Gallery of Art, 193
Main Smithsonian Library, 246
National Gallery of Art, 216
Programs and faculties, 248
Reference and circulation, 247
Report, 246
Staff changes and activities, 248
Summarized statistics, 248
Lindsay, G. Carroll, curator, Smith-
sonian Museum Service, v
Loebr, Max, xii
Loening, Grover, ix
Loercher, L., viii
Lovell, Sir Bernard,
the), 279
Lundeberg, P. K., vii
Lundquist, Charles, viii
Lyon, Roland, viii
(Solar system,
M
MacKay, Donald M. (What is cyber-
netics?), 401
Manning, R. R., vi
Manship, Paul, viii
591
Manville, Richard H. (History of the
Corbin Preserve), 427
Margulies, M. M., viii
Martin, R., viii
Marvin, O. B., viii
McCall, F. J., vii
McCandless, Byron, xii
McClure, F. A., xi
McCrane, Marion, viii
McCrosky, R. E., viii
Mcellhenny, Henry, viii
McIntosh, Allen, xi
McKay, F. W., xii
McNamara, Robert 8., Secretary of De-
fense, member of the Institution, v, x
Meany, George, x
Meggers, Betty J., xi
Meinel, Aden B. (Astronomical tech-
nology, advances in), 293
Melder, K. E., vii
Mellon, Paul, viii, ix
Metal antiquities, the corrosion prod-
ucts of (Rutherford J. Gettens), 547
Meyer, R. B., ix
Michaels, Andrew F., Jr.,
manager, V
Miller, J. J. I, vii
Mitler, H., viii
Mitrakos, K., viii
Moore, J. P., xi
Morrison, J. P. E., vi
Morton, C. V., vi
Moynihan, M. H., director, Canal Zone
Biological Area, ix, 224
Muesebeck, C. F. W., xi
Multhauf, R. P., vii
Mumford, L. Quincy, Librarian of Con-
gress, x
Murray, Mrs. Anne W., vii
Museum of History and Technology,
Vii, xii
Museum of Natural History, vi, xi
See also National Museum.
N
National Air Museum, ix, xii, 17, 225
Accessions, 230
Advisory Board, 225
Assistance to Government Depart-
ments, 226
Exhibits, improvements in, 226
buildings
592 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Reference material and acknowl- Organization, 206
edgements, 226 Personnel, 207
Report, 225 Publications, 213
Special events, 226 Publications fund, 214
Specimens, repair, preservation, and Report, 206
restoration, 226 Restoration, 213
Staff, ix, xii Traveling exhibitions, 212
National Armed Forces Museum Ad- Trustees, 206
visory Board, x, 23 Works of art lent, 209, 210
National Collection of Fine Arts, viii, | National Museum, 2, 27
15, 180 Accessions, 27
Accessions, 181 Buildings and equipment, 61
Alice Pike Barney Memorial Fund, Collections, 27
184 Docent service, 59
Art works lent and returned, 183, Pxhibitions, 53
184. Exploration and fieldwork, 38
Catherine Walden Myer Fund, 182 Organization and staff, 61
Funds, 17 Publications, 252
Henry Ward Ranger Fund, 184 Report, 27
Loans accepted, 182 Staff, vi, 61
LISLE et ; ; National Portrait Gallery, x, 22
Smithsonian Lending Collection, acta
Commission, 22
= Report, 22
Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition! : : at es
Service, 185 | National Zoological Park, 10, viii, xii,
Special exhibitions, 189 i pes
Staff activities, 188 Animal department, 139
National Cultural Center, ix, 234 Births and hatchings, 109
Architectural planning, 236 Capital improvements, 145
Audit, 238 Cooperation, 144
Board of Trustees, 234, 235 Deposits, 110
Financial report, 287 Exchanges, 110
Organization, 234 Finances, 145
Progress during 1962-63, 235 Friends of the National Zoo, 144
Report, 234 Gifts, 107
National Gallery of Art, ix, 17, 206
Accessions, 207
Appropriations, 17, 207
Attendance, 207
Information and education, 143
Maintenance, construction, and
grounds, 141
Audit of private funds, 218 SONG tee
Concerts, 217 Police division, 140
Curatorial activities, 212 Report, 107 ;
Educational program, 214 Safety subcommittee, 144
Exhibitions, 211 Veterinarian report, 135
Extension services, 215 Visitors, 136
Gifts, 208 Neutrinos, the (Melvin Schwartz) , 359
Index of American Design, 216 Newland, K. E., ix
Lectour, 217 Norris, R. E., vi
Library, 216 Norweb, Emery May, xii
Maintenance of building and | Norweb, R. Henry, xii
grounds, 217 Noyes, R. W., villi
INDEX
O
Oehser, Paul H., Chief, editorial and
publications division, v, 256
Office of Exhibits, vii
Office of the Secretary, xi
Olin, C. H., conservator, United National
Museum, vi
Olsson, A. A., xi
Orr, Douglas, viii
Ostroff, Eugene, vii
JE:
Pagel, Bernard (Analysis of starlight,
the), 301
Parker, Mrs. Kittie F., xi
Parr, A. E., (Concerning whales and
museums), 499
Pearce, J. N., vii
Pearson, Mrs. Louise M., Administrative
assistant to the Secretary, v
Perry, K. M., vii
Perrygo, W. M., vi
Peterson, M. L., vii
Pettibone, Marian H., vi
Pierce, F. L., vi
Plants in the Arctic-Alpine environ-
ment (Stanwyn G. Shelton), 473
Pleissner, Ogden M., viii
Pope, John A., Director, Freer Gallery
of Art, viii, 205
Pope, Mrs. Annemarie H., viii
Price, Wyse, Xl
Price, L., viii
Publications, 250
American Historical Association,
255
Astrophysical Observatory, 254
Bureau of American Ethnology, 253
Distribution, 255
Freer Gallery of Art, 255
National Collection of Fine Arts,
255
National Museum, 252
Radiation and Organisms, 178
Report, 250
Report National Society, Daughters
of the American Revolution, 255
Reports American Historical Asso-
ciation, 255
Reprints, 252
Smithsonian Annual Reports, 251
593
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec-
tions, 250
Special publications, 252
R
Radiation and Organisms, Division of,
il
Publications, 178
Report, 173
Staff, viii
Reed, T. H., Director of National Zoo-
logical Park, viii, 146
Regents, Board of, v, 21
Annual meeting, 261
Executive Committee, 261
Rehder, H. A., vi
Reid, Mrs. Charlotte T., x
Religious art East and West (Benjamin
Rowland), 569
Reynolds, Richard S8., Jr., x
Rhoads, Katherine N., xii
Richardson, Edgar P., viii
Riesenberg, 8. H., vi
River Basin Surveys, 77
Appropriations, 77
Fieldwork, 77
Report, 77
Staff, 83
Roberts, F. H. H., Jr., Director of Bu-
reau of American Ethnology, viii, 106
Robinson, H. E., vi
Rolff, J., viii
Rosewater, Joseph, vi
Roth, Rodris, C., vii
Roth, Waldfried T., viii
Rowland, Benjamin (Religious art East
and West), 569
Roy, Edgar L., Treasurer, v
Rudd, Velva E., vi
Rusk, Dean, Secretary of State, mem-
ber of the Institution, v, ix
s
Sagan, C. E., viii
Saltonstall, Leverett, Regent of the In-
stitution, v, x
Satellite-tracking program: its organi-
zation and history, part 2, the Smith-
sonian’s, 331
Sawyer, Charles H., viii
Schaller, W. T., xi
594 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1963
Scheele, C. H., vii Southern Ocean: a potential for coral
Schmitt, W. L., xi studies, 447
Schoech, Vice Adm. William A., U.S. | Southworth, R. B., viii
Navy, ix Spangler, P. J., vi
Schultz, L. P., vi Springer, V. G., vi
Schwartz, Benjamin, xi Squires, Donald F., vi, 447
Schwartz, Melvin (The neutrinos), 359 (The Southern Ocean: a potential
Schwarzchild, Martin (Astronomical for coral studies) , 447
photography from the stratosphere), | Starlight, analysis of (Bernard Pagel),
323 301
Science Information Exchange, 257 Stephenson, R. L., viii
Secretary of the Institution (Leonard | Stern, Harold P., viii, 237
Carmichael), v Stern, W. L., vi
Seltzer, Paul, x Stevens, Roger L., x
Setzer, H. W., vi Stevenson, J. A., xi
Setzler, F. M., xi Stewart, T. D., Director, Museum Nat-
Shetler, Stanwyn G., vi, 473 ural History, vi
(Plants in the Arctic-Alpine en- | Stirling, M. W., xii
vironment), 473 Stratosphere, astronomical photography
Shouse, Mrs. Jouett, x from the (Martin Schwarzchild), 323
Shropshire, W., viii Strong, L. Corrin, x
Shryock, Richard H., x Sturtevant, W. C., viii
Sigalove, J. J., viii Swallen, J. R., vi
Skalafuris, A., viii Switzer, G.S., vi
Slowey, J., viii T
Smith, Albert C., Assistant Secretary, v|
Smith, L. B., vi
Smithsonian Art Commission, 180
Talbert, D. G., viii
Taylor, F. A., Director, United States
; ; gs National Museum, vi, vii, 63
Smithsonian Institution, establishment, 'Taylor, Theodore W., Assistant to the
20 Secretary, v
Financial resources, 19 | Taylor, W. R., vi
Members of, v Taylor, W. W., Jr., xi
Summary of accomplishments, | ~hompson, Frank, x
1953-1963, 2 | Tilles, D., viii
Smithsonian Institution Traveling Ex- | Tillinghast, C. W., viii
hibition Service, 185 | Tobin, W. J., xi
Exhibits continued from former | Tobriner, Walter N., President, D.C.
y cars; 185 d Board of Commissioners, x
Exhibits initiated in 1963, 186 Paddkecdacick Eee
ese Museum Service, 258 Townes, H. K., xi
Smithsonian's satellite-tracking pro- Traub, Robert, xi
gram: its history and organization,
part 2 (E. Nelson Hayes), 331
Smithson plaque, replacement of, 24
Snyder, T. E., xi
Tretick, Julius, vii
Tropical subsistence agriculture in
Latin America: some _ neglected
aspects and implications (Raymond
Soderstrom, T. R., vi E. Crist), 503
Solar system, the (Sir Bernard Lovell),
279 WY
Solomon, L., viii Udall, Stewart L., Secretary of the In-
Soper, C. C., xii terior, member of the Institution, v
INDEX
Underwater archeology, the promise of
(George F. Bass), 461
United States National Museum, vi, xi,
20
W
Van Beek, G. W., vi, 521
Van Beek, Gus W.; Cole, Glen H.; and
Jamme, Albert, W. F. (An archeologi-
cal reconnaissance in Hadhramaut,
South Arabia—a preliminary report),
521
Vance, Cyrus R., Secretary of the Army,
> 73)
Veis, G., viii
Verville, Alfred V., xii
Visitors, 24, 25
Air and Space Building, 25
Arts and Industries Building, 25
Canal Zone Biological Area, 222
Freer Gallery of Art, 25
Groups of schoolchildren, 26
National Zoological Park, 186
Natural History building, 25
Smithsonian building, 25
Vogel, R. M., vii
WwW
Walker, E. P., xii
Walker, John, Director, National Gal-
lery of Art, ix, x
Wallen, I, Eugene, vi, vii, 381
(Atomic and other wastes in the
sea), 381
Walton, William, x
Waring, A. J., Jr., xii
Warren, Earl, Chief Justice of the
United States, Chancellor of the In-
stitution, v, ix, x, 23
Washburn, Henry B., Jr., x
Washburn, W. E., vii
595
Wastes in the sea, atomic and other
(I. Eugene Wallen), 381
Waters, William H., Jr., Chairman D.C.
Recreation Board, x
Watkins, C. M., vii
Watkins, W. N., xi
Watson, G. E., vi
Wedel, W. R., vi
Weiss, Helena M., Registrar, United
States National Museum, vi
Weitzman, S. H., vi
Welsh, P. C., vii
Wengenroth, Stow, viii
Wetmore, Alexander, viii, xi
Whales and museums, concerning (A. E.
Parr), 499
Whipple, F. L., Director, Astrophysi-
cal Observatory, viii, 179
White, J. H., Jr., vii
Whiteman, William W., Jr., x
Whitney, John Hay, ix
Whitney, C. A., viii
Wilding, A. W., chief, supply division,
vi
Wilson, Mrs. Mildred S., xi
Wirth, Conrad L., Director, National
Park Service, x
Wirtz, W. Willard, Secretary of Labor,
member of the Institution, v
Wood, J., viii
Woodring, W. P., xi
Wright, A. G., vii
Wright, F. W., viii
right, Jim, x
Wurdack, J. J., vi
Wyeth, Andrew, viii
Z
Zuckert, Eugene M., Secretary of the
Air Force, x
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