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Annual Report of the Board of Regents 


of the 


SMITHSONIAN 
INSTITUTION 


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PUBLICATION 4613 


Showing the Operations, Expenditures, and Condition of the 
Institution for the Year Ended June 30 


1964 


U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 
WASHINGTON : 1995 


For sale by the Superintendent of Documenis, U.S. Government Printing Office 
Washington, D.C., 20402 - Price $4 (Cloth) 


ih DLE RR OF yPRAWN SMe Tapa 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Washington, January 28, 1965. 


To the Congress of the United States: 

In accordance with section 5593 of the Revised Statutes of the 
United States, I have the honor, on behalf of the Board of Regents, 
to submit to Congress the annual report of the operations, expendi- 
tures, and condition of the Smithsonian Institution for the year ended 
June 380, 1964. 

Respectfully, 
S. Ditton Rieter, Secretary. 
0 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 
Cat ME a aa Re ee Soe pee nee cee ee ay ee Vv 
(eeneralistatemente see sce he oe ee eS re oe ea eee 1 
Bibesatablichtment. 2 7 cn te et OE 38 hot er ha tele a Bek ee ieee 5 
Shee GOaTe-Ol Revenis- Ss. 0s 8 NE ooh oa oS ee Does = 5 
Tio caGSe ee ee SP ek ee ee ie ee ee eee a ee ee 6 
SURES GOI ee ee tc te eae Se ag a ice ee es ee ER a PS 6 
SMEs DIAN. BICENLENININ 2. 2 2 on ene oe eee eee ase aes ees in 
Tea eNTy PApers...2 5. we eee ee OE ee ee 7 
Opening of Museum of History and Technology-_--_------------------- 9 
Batwievenicdal PrescntaMON = —.2 02. 0 = on ee eee See eee 9 
Bee Red ne ee ae oe Hae ee ean At te 10 
fone Wennedy. CONnver= ss o3-- 2s aen ee soe noe es ras re ae eee 10 
National Armed Forces Museum Advisory Board-_-_-_------------------- 11 
BMCNCe anLOrMmaion- MXCHANGe- 3 soos oe es ee es SSS U ES 12 
Sraivnsonian- \iuseum services a @ eeeoy meek Se) 0G seo She se eee 14 
Reports of branches of the Institution: 
United States National, MusedmiJ285) 2 a _ See es See ee ae 18 
tniternational Pxebange! Service: 210 Mi ao er ese et Se 69 
Bureslor American MtHnologyes ee sees SOU a Phe Jk 80 
National Zooloricnl! Park) 67) Sees ees Ae 228 Se a a ee 111 
Astrophysical Observatory 2-322 2 2 2 Sesser ee ee 157 
Wational-Collection of fine “Arte: 22 22S Ses cen BE oe 190 
reer GalleryrGn Arter stor: fal. Ti tt wae 2 re oul. Sees 201 
National/Gallery-oF Arve ous Seow aie ts Seuss eee eS See eee 217 
Canal+Zone Biological Areas 2 2s ee See Se et 231 
National AureMuseum eater at (Oe ee See eee 236 
John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts-__-_-_----------- 247 
NationalpPortrait Galleryooses fee cokes 253 Se eee eel Re 257 
enor ime Mie, Library. 2st aes a) Wee ous Bis Sa noo a eee sesso 261 
Report on Publications and Information.-.__......-------------------- 265 
Report of the executive committee of the Board of Regents-__---_-------- 274 
GENERAL APPENDIX 
PAGE 
The Quest for Life Beyond the Earth, by Carl Sagan__--_-------------- 297 
The Secret of Stonehenge, by Gerald 8. Hawkins_--------------------- 307 
The Smithsonian’s Satellite-Tracking Program: Its History and Organi- 
Equions Parti. by bo Nelson Hayes. 22 52sc sos asee eco seee === 315 
How Mountains Are Formed, by R. A. Lyttleton_.-------------------- 351 
The Future of Oceanography, by Athelstan Spilhaus_-_-~.-------------- 361 
Search for the Thresher, by F. N. Spiess and A. E. Maxwell.------------ 373 
Recent Events in Relativity, by Milton A. Rothman-__---------------- 385 


IV ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


PAGE 
The Edge:of Science, by Sanborn C: Browne o22- 0% 2 eee wees ee sae ans 401 
Anatomy of an Experiment: An Account of the Discovery of the Neutrino, 
by tobyode Eni Gowan se Sie oe eho Soe Eee Site ae ee eae rn ea 409 
Hracture or Solids, ‘Dysd--bi, icles = es ee gS ee Le oe 431 
Man-Made Diamonds—A Progress Report, by C. G. Suits__-.-________- 439 
How Do Microbes “‘Fix’”’ Nitrogen from the Air? by D. J. D. Nicholas____- 449 
The Unity of Ecology, by F. Fraser-Darling-— 22. ok sve 222 ee ele 461 
Venomous Animals and Their Toxins, by Findlay E. Russell___________~ 477 
How. Insects: Work in’ Groups; by John buddies ee 489 
Our Native Termites by Thomas* iy Snyderscaee= = eer eee ee ee 497 
The Phenomenon of Predation, by Paul L. Errington. -__--____----___- 507 
50,000 Years of Stone Age Culture in Borneo, by Tom Harrisson-__-__-__- 521 
The Emergence of the Plains Indian as the Symbol of the North American 
Indian by, John @=: Wiwersse = =e aa ee eee ee 531 


Secretary’s Report: 


Plates 14.22 o-oo a ee eee ee eer a 114 
Plates 5-8: . ..22..254...Neaa he susabelo epee ne: pee eee hfs 210 
Plates (9=14 0 2 = 2 eon et ee ee ee AS eee 226 
The Quest for Life Beyond the Earth (Sagan): Plates 1-4_____-_______- 306 
The Secret of Stonehenge (Hawkins): Plate\}e.b222) 22 be eee ee Ps 310 
How Mountains Are Formed (Lyttleton): Plates 1-2____-_-_--__--_--- 352 
The Future of Oceanography (Spilhaus): Plates 1-4_-_.....____---_--- 370 
Search for the Thresher (Spiess and Maxwell): Plates 1-4______________-_ 378 
Anatomy of an Experiment: An Account of the Discovery of the Neutrino 
(Cowan): Plates 1-8-2. =. -'--_.- 220 225 oe ee eee a ae 418 
Fracture of Solids (Field): (Plates 1—4. .- 32 =p hoes be Sees ee 438 
Man-Made Diamonds—A Progress Report (Suits): Plates 1-4____.--_-_- 446 
Venomous Animals and Their Toxins (Russell): Plates 1-2_-_-________-_ 486 
How Insects Work in Groups (Sudd): Plates 1-2_-._...____------------ 490 
50,000 Years of Stone Age Culture in Borneo (Harrisson): Plates 1-4_-_._ 526 


The Emergence of the Plains Indian as the Symbol of the North American 
Indian: (Hwers): Plates I—18---2 232252 ee eee Se 544 


THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 


June 30, 1964 


Presiding Officer ex officio—LyNpon B. Jounson, President of the United States. 
Ohancellor.—EakL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States. 
Memoers of the Institution: 
LYNDON B. JoHNSON, President of the United States. 
(Vacancy), Vice President of the United States. 
EARL WAEEEN, Chief Justice of the United States. 
Daan Rusk, Secretary of State. 
Dovuetas DiL1on, Secretary of the Treasury. 
Rozert 8S. MoNaMaza, Secretary of Defense. 
Rosert F. Kennepy, Attorney General. 
Joun A. GRONOUSEI, Postmaster General. 
Strwakrr L. UDALL, Secretary of the Interior. 
ORVILLE L. FREEMAN, Secretary of Agriculture. 
LutuHes H. Hopass, Secretary of Commerce. 
W. WILLARD Wirtz, Secretary of Labor. 
ANTHONY J. CELEBREZZE, Secretary of Health, Education, and Welfare. 
Regents of the Institution: 
Hart WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chancellor. 
(Vacancy), Vice President of the United States. 
CLINTON P. ANDERSON, Member of the Senate. 
J. WILLIAM FULBRIGHT, Member of the Senate. 
LEVERETT SALTONSTALL, Member of the Senate. 
FRANK T. Bow, Member of the House of Representatives. 
MicHAEL J. Kirwan, Member of the House of Representatives. 
Grorce H. Manon, Member of the House of Representatives. 
JOHN NICHOLAS Brown, citizen of Rhode Island. 
WituiaM A. M. Burpen, citizen of New York. 
Rosert V. FLEMING, citizen of Washington, D.C. 
CRAWFORD H. GREENEWALT, citizen of Delaware. 
Cary P. Haskins, citizen of Washington, D.C. 
JEROME C. HUNSAKER, Citizen of Massachusetts. 
Executive Committee——Rosert V. FLEMING, Chairman; Caryl P. HASKINS, CLIN- 
TON P. ANDERSON. 
Secretary.—S. DILLon RIPLEY. 
Assistant Secretary. JAMES C. BRADLEY. 
Aoting Assistant Secretary.—T. D. STEWART. 
Assistant to the Secretary.—THEODORE W. TAYLOR. 
Special assistants to the Secretary: 
For Fine Arts, THomas M. BrEcGs; 
For Traveling Exhibition Study, Mrs. ANNEMARIE POPE; 
For Scientific Matters, PH1LIP C. RITTERBUSH. 
Consultant to the Secretary for international activities —WILLIAM WARNER. 
Administrative assistant to the Secretary.—Mrs. Louisr M. PEARSON. 
Treasurer.—Hpcak L. Ror. 


VI ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Chief, editorial and publications division—PauL H. OEHSER. 
Librarian.—RutTH E. BLANCHARD. 

Curator, Smithsonian Museum service.—G. CARROLL LINDSAY. 
Buildings manager.—ANDREW F'. MICHAELS, JR. 

Director of personnel.—J. A. KENNEDY. 

Chief, supply division.—A. W. WILDING. 

Chief, photographic service division.—O. H. GREESON. 


UNITED STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM 


Director.—F¥. A. Taylor. 
Registrar.—Helena M. Weiss. 


MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 


Director.—T. D. Stewart. 
Assistant Directors.—R. 8. Cowan, I. H. Wallen. 
Administrative officer —Mrs. Mabel A. Byrd. 


DEPARTMENT OF ANTHROPOLOGY: W. R. Wedel, chairman; A. J. Andrews, exhibits 


specialist. 


Division of Archeology: Clifford Evans, Jr., R. B. Woodbury, curators; 


G. W. Van Beek, associate curator. 


Division of Ethnology: 8S. H. Riesenberg, curator; G. D. Gibson, E. I. Knez, 


W. H. Crocker, associate curators. 


Division of Physical Anthropology: J. L. Angel, curator; Lucile E. Hoyme, 


associate curator. 


DEPARTMENT OF ZooLocy: H. H. Hobbs, Jr., chairman; F. A. Chace, Jr., senior 


scientist ; W. M. Perrygo, in charge of taxidermy. 


Division of Mammals: D. H. Johnson, curator; H. W. Setzer, C. O. Handley, 


Jr., associate curators. 


Division of Birds: P. S. Humphrey, curator; G. . Watson, R. I. Zusi, associ- 


ate curators. 
Division of Reptiles and Amphibians: Doris M. Cochran, curator. 


Division of Fishes: L. P. Schultz, curator; BE. A. Lachner, W. R. Taylor, 
V. G. Springer, S. H. Weitzman, R. H. Gibbs, Jr., associate curators. 

Division of Marine Invertebrates: D. F. Squires, curator; T. BE. Bowman, 
C. E. Cutress, Jr., Marian H. Pettibone, R. B. Manning, D. L. Pawson, 
associate curators. 

Division of Mollusks: H. A. Rehder, curator; J. P. E. Morrison, Joseph 
Rosewater, associate curators. 


DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY: J. F'. G. Clarke, chairman. 


Division of Neuropteroids: O. S. Flint, Jr., associate curator in charge. 

Division of Lepidoptera: J..¥. G. Clarke, acting curator; D. R. Davis, W. D. 
Duckworth, W. D. Field, associate curators. 

Division of Coleoptera: O. L. Cartwright, curator; P. J. Spangler, associate 
curator. 

Division of Hemiptera: R. C. Froeschner, associate curator in charge. 

Division of Myriapoda and Arachnida: R. BE. Crabill, Jr., curator. 


DEPARTMENT OF BoTaANy (NATIONAL HERBARIUM): J. R. Swallen, chairman. 


Division of Phanerogams: L. B. Smith, curator; Velva E. Rudd, J. J. 
Wurdack, W. R. Ernst, D. H. Nicolson, S. G. Shetler, associate curators. 

Division of Ferns: C. V. Morton, curator; D. B. Lellinger, associate curator. 

Division of Grasses: J. R. Swallen, acting curator; T. R. Soderstrom, asso- 
ciate curator. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT vil 


DEPARTMENT OF BoTtany—Continued 

Division of Cryptogams: M. B. Hale, Jr., curator; P. S. Conger, H. E. 
Robinson, associate curators. 

Division of Plant Anatomy: W. L. Stern, curator; R. H. Byde, associate 
curator. 

DEPARTMENT OF PALEOBIOLOGY: G. A. Cooper, chairman. 

Division of Invertebrate Paleontology: R. S. Boardman, curator; P. M. Kier, 
Richard Cifelli, E. G. Kauffman, M. A. Buzas, R. H. Benson, associate 
curators. 

Division of Vertebrate Paleontology: C. L. Gazin, curator; D. H. Dunkle, 
Nicholas Hotton III, C. E. Ray, associate curators. 

Division of Paleobotany: F. M. Hueber, curator; W. H. Adey, associate 
curator. 

DEPARTMENT OF MINERAL Sciences: G. 8. Switzer, chairman. 

Division of Mineralogy: G. S. Switzer, acting curator; P. E. Desautels, 
associate curator. 

Division of Meteorites: E. P. Henderson, associate curator in charge; R. S. 
Clarke, Jr., chemist. 

OcEANOGRAPHY ProcRaM: I. E. Wallen, assistant director; H. A. Fehlmann, super- 
visory museum specialist, Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center. 


MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 


Director.—F¥. A. Taylor. 
Assistant Director.—J. C. Ewers. 
Administration oficers.—W. H. Boyle, Virginia Beets. 
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY: R. P. Multhauf, chairman; Deborah 
J. Mills, assistant curator. 
Division of Physical Sciences: R. P. Multhauf, curator; W. F. Cannon, 
Uta C. Merzbach, associate curators. 
Division of Mechanical and Civil Engineering: S. A. Bedini, curator; E. A. 
Battison, R. M. Vogel, associate curators. 
Division of Transportation: H. I. Chapelle, curator; K. M. Perry, J. H. White, 
Jr., associate curators. 
Division of Electricity: B. S. Finn, associate curator in charge. 
Division of Medical Sciences: S. K. Hamarneh, curator. 
DEPARTMENT OF ARTS AND MANUFACTURES: P. W. Bishop, chairman. 
Division of Textiles: Mrs. Grace R. Cooper, curator; Rita J. Adrosko, asso- 
ciate curator. 
Division of Ceramics and Glass: P. V. Gardner, curator; J. J. Miller II, 
associate curator. 
Division of Graphic Arts: Jacob Kainen, curator; F. O. Griffith, Eugene 
Ostroff, associate curators. 
Division of Manufactures and Heavy Industries: P. W. Bishop, acting 
curator ; L. L. Henkle, industrial specialist. 
Division of Agriculture and Forest Products: E. C. Kendall, associate curator 
in charge. 
DEPARTMENT OF Civit History: R. H. Howland, chairman; P. C. Welsh, curator ; 
Mrs. Doris E. Borthwick, Anne Castrodale, assistant curators. 
Division of Political History: W. E. Washburn, curator; Mrs. Margaret 
Brown Klapthor, K. E. Melder, Mrs. Anne W. Murray, associate curators ; 
H. R. Collins, assistant curator. 
Division of Cultural History: C. M. Watkins, curator; Mrs. Cynthia A. 
Hoover, J. N. Pearce, Rodris C. Roth, associate curators. 


vit ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


DEPARTMENT OF CiviL History—Continued 
Division of Philately and Postal History: C. H. Scheele, associate curator in 
charge. 
Division of Numismatics: Viadimir Clain-Stefanelli, curator; Mrs. Elvira 
Clain-Stefanelli, associate curator. 
DEPARTMENT OF ARMED Forces History: M. L. Peterson, chairman. 
Division of Military History: E. M. Howell, curator; C. R. Goins, Jr., asso- 
ciate curator. 
Division of Naval History: P. K. Lundeberg, curator; M. H. Jackson, 
associate curator. 
OFFICE OF EXHIBITS 
Chief.—J. E. Anglim. 
Museum of Natural History Laboratory: A. G. Wright, assistant chief; Julius 
Tretick, production supervisor. 
Museum of History and Technology Laboratory: B. W. Lawless, chief. 


CONSERVATION RESEARCH LABORATORY 


Conservator-in-charge.—C. H. Olin. 
Chemist.—Mrs. Jacqueline 8. Olin. 


INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE SERVICE 
Chief—J. A. Collins. 


NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK 


Director.—T. H. Reed. 

Associate Director.—J. L. Grimmer. 
Administrative Assistant—Trayis EH. Fauntleroy. 
Zoologist.—Marion McCrane. 
Veterinarian.—Clinton W. Gray. 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


Acting Director.—Henry B. Collins. 

Anthropologists —H. B. Collins, R. L. Stephenson, W. C. Sturtevant, Robert M. 
Laughlin. 

River Basin SuRvVEys.—R. L. Stephenson, Acting Director. 


ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 


Director.—¥F. L. Whipple. 

Assistant Directors.—C. W. Tillinghast, Charles Lundquist. 

Astronomers.—G. Colombo, L. Goldberg, G. S. Hawkins, I. G. Izsak, Y. Kozai, 
R. Martin, J. Slowey, L. Solomon, F. W. Wright. 

Mathematicians.—R. W. Briggs, D. A. Lautman. 

Physicists.—H. Avrett, N. P. Carleton, A. F. Cook, R. J. Davis, J. DeFelice, C. H. 
Dugan, G. G. Fazio, B. L. Fireman, F. Franklin, O. Gingerich, M. Grossi, P. V. 
Hodge, W. M. Irvine, L. G. Jacchia, W. Kalkofen, R. EH. McCrosky, H. Mitler, 
R. W. Noyes, C. BE. Sagan, A. Skalafuris, R. B. Southworth, D. Tilles, C. A. 
Whitney. 

Geodesists—W. Kohnlein, J. Rolff, G. Veis. 

Geologists.—O. B. Marvin, J. Wood. 

DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS: 

Chief.—W. H. Klein. 
Assistant Chief.—W. Shropshire. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT Ix 


DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS—Continued 

Biochemists.—D. L. Correll, M. M. Margulies. 

Geochemists.—A. Long. 

Plant physiologists.—J. L. Edwards, V. B. Elstad, L. Loercher, K. Mitrakos, 
L. Price, A. M. Steiner. 

Electronic engineers.—J. H. Harrison, H. J. Lehfeldt. 

Instrument engineering technicians.—D. G. Talbert, W. N. Cogswell. 

Physicist.—B. Goldberg. 


NATIONAL COLLECTION OF FINE ARTS 


Acting Director.—David W. Scott. 

Associate curator.—Rowland Lyon. 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION TRAVELING ExHIsrrion SERvice.—Mrs. Dorothy Van 
Arsdale, Acting Chief. 

SMITHSONIAN ART COMMISSION.—Paul Manship (chairman), 8. Dillon Ripley 
(secretary), Gilmore D. Clarke (vice chairman), Page Cross, David E. Finley, 
Lloyd Goodrich, Walker Hancock, Bartlett H. Hayes, Jr., Wilmarth 8. Lewis, 
Henry P. MclIihenny, Paul Mellon, Ogden M. Pleissner, Edgar P. Richardson, 
Charles H. Sawyer, Stow Wengenroth, Andrew Wyeth; Alexander Wetmore, 
Leonard Carmichael (members emeritus). 


FREER GALLERY OF ART 


Director.—John A. Pope. 

Assistant Director.—Harold P. Stern. 

Head curator, Near Eastern Art.—Richard Ettinghausen. 
Associate curator, Chinese Art—James F. Cahill. 

Head curator, Laboratory.—Rutherford J. Gettens. 


NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART 
Trustees: 
EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, Chairman. 
DEAN Rusk, Secretary of State. 
Dovatas DILion, Secretary of the Treasury. 
S. Ditton RIe_Ley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. 
JouN N. Irwin II. 
PavuL MELLON. 
FRANKLIN D. MurpHyY. 
LEssING J. ROSENWALD. 
JOHN Hay WHITNEY. 
President.—PAvL MELLON. 
Vice President. JoHN Hay WHITNEY. 
Secretary-Treasurer.—HUNTINGTON CAIRNS. 
Director —JOHN WALKER. 
Administrator.— ERNEST R. FEIDLER. 
General Counsel. HUNTINGTON CAIRNS. 
Chief Curator.—Prrry B. Cort. 
Assistant Director.—J. CARTER BROWN. 


NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM 


Advisory Board: 
S. Dillon Ripley, Chairman. 
Maj. Gen. Brooke H. Allen, U.S. Air Force. 
Vice Adm. William A. Schoech, U.S. Navy. 


ax ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Advisory Board—Continued 
James H. Doolittle (Lt. Gen., U.S.A.F. Ret.) 
Grover Loening. 
Director.—P. S. Hopkins 
Head curator and historian.—P. E. Garber. 
Curators.—L. S. Casey, R. B. Meyer, K. EB. Newland. 


CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA 


Director.—M. H. Moynihan. 
Biologists.—Robert L. Dressler, Neal G. Smith. 


JOHN F. KENNEDY CENTER FOR THE PERFORMING ARTS 


Trustees: 

Howarp F. AHMANSON. 

FLoyp D. AKERS. 

Lucius D. Battie, Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cul- 
tural Affairs, ez officio. 

RALPH BE. BECKER. 

K. LEMoyneE BILLINGs. 

ERNEST R. BREECH. 

EpGar M. BRONFMAN. 

RALPH J. BUNCHE. 

ANTHONY J. CELEBREZZE, Secretary of Health, Hducation, and Welfare, ex 
officio. 

JOSEPH S. CLARK. 

J. WILLIAM F'ULBRIGHT. 

Mgs. GrEorGcE A. GARRETT. 

GEORGE B. Hartzoe, Director of the National Park Service, ew officio. 

FRANOIS KEPPEL, Commissioner, U.S. Office of Education, ew officio. 

Mrs. ALBERT D. LASKER. 

GEORGE MEANY. 

L. Quincy Mumrorp, Librarian of Congress, ew officio. 

Mrs. CHARLOTTE T. REID. 

RICHARD 8. REYNOLDS, JR. 

FRANK H. RICKETSON, JR. 

S. DILton RIPLey, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ew officio. 

LEVERETT SALTONSTALL. 

Mrs. JOUETT SHOUSE. 

RoGeEr L. STEVENS. 

L. CoRRIN STRONG. 

FRANK THOMPSON. 

WALTER N. Tosriner, President, D.C. Board of Commissioners, ew officio. 

WILLIAM WALTON, Chairman, Commission of Fine Arts, ew officio. 

WiLtiAM M. Waters, Jz., Chairman, D.C. Recreation Board, ez officio. 

JIM WRIGHT. 

Officers: 

Honorary Chairmen.—Mrs. Dwicut D, EISENHOWER, Mrs. LyNpDON B. Joun- 
SON, Mrs. JoHN F’. KENNEDY. 

Chairman.—Rocer L. STEVENS. 

Vice chairman.—L. CorriIn Strona. 

Treasurer.—DANIEL W. BELL. 

Counsel.—RALPH BP. BEOKER. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT XI 


Ojicers—Continued 
Secretary.—K. Lt Moyne BILLINGs. 
Senior Assistant Secretary. PHILIP J. MULLIN. 
Chairman, Advisory Committee on the Arts—Rosrert W. DowLina. 


NATIONAL PORTRAIT GALLERY 


National Portrait Gallery Commission: 
CATHERINE DRINKER BOWEN. 
JULIAN P. Boyp. 
JOHN NICHOLAS Brown, Chairman. 
LEWIS DESCHLER. 
Davin H. FINLEY. 
WILMARTH SHELDON LEWIS. 
S. Ditton RIPLey, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ea officio. 
RicHARD H. SHRYOCK. 
FREDERICK P. Topp. 
JOHN WALKER, Director of the National Gallery of Art, ea officio. 
EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States, ew officio. 


NATIONAL ARMED FORCES MUSEUM ADVISORY BOARD 


STEPHEN AILES, Secretary of the Army. 

JOHN NICHOLAS Brown, Chairman. 

Mrs. JEAN KINTNER. 

Davin LLOYD KREEGER. 

Rosert S. McNAMARA, Secretary of Defense, ew officio. 

Pau. H. Nirze, Secretary of the Navy. 

WILLIAM H. PERKINS, JR. 

S. Drmton RIvrey, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, ew officio. 

EARL WARREN, Chief Justice of the United States; Chancellor of the Smithsonian 
Institution. 

HeENRY BRADFORD WASHBURN, JR. 

EUGENE M. ZucKeEnrt, Secretary of the Air Force. 


Honorary Smithsonian Fellows, Collaborators, Associates, Custodians of 
Collections, and Honorary Curators 


OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY 
John E. Graf 


UnitTep States NATIONAL MusEuM 


MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY 


Anthropology 
J. M. Campbell, Archeology. F. M. Setzler, Anthropology. 
C. G. Holland, Archeology. W. W. Taylor, Jr., Anthropology. 
N. M. Judd, Archeology. W. J. Tobin, Physical Anthropology. 


Betty J. Meggers, Archeology. Nathalie F. S. Woodbury, Archeology. 


XII ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Zoology 

O. L. Austin, Birds Laurence Irving, Birds. 
W. W. Becklund, Helminthology. Allen McIntosh, Mollusks. 
J. Bruce Bredin, Biology. J. P. Moore, Marine Invertebrates. 
W. L. Brown, Mammals. Dioscoro S. Rabor, Birds. 
Leonard Carmichael, Psychology and| W. L. Schmitt, Marine Invertebrates. 

Animal Behavior. Benjamin Schwartz, Helminthology. 
Ailsa M. Clark, Marine Invertebrates. | Robert Traub, Mammals. 
H. G. Deignan, Birds. Alexander Wetmore, Birds. 
Robert W. Ficken, Birds. Mrs. Mildred S. Wilson, Copepod Crus- 
Herbert Friedmann, Birds. tacea. 

Entomology 
Doris H. Blake. F. M. Hull. 
M. A. Carriker, Jr. W. L. Jellison. 
C. J. Drake. C. F. W. Muesebeck. 
K. C. Emerson. T. E. Snyder. 
Botany 
OC. R. Benjamin, Fungi. Mrs. Kittie F. Parker, Phanerogams. 
BH. C. Leonard, Phanerogams. J. A. Stevenson, Fungi. 
¥F. A. McClure, Grasses. W.N. Watkins, Woods. 
Paleobiology 


CG. W. Cooke, Invertebrate Paleontology. | A. A. Olsson, Invertebrate Paleontology. 
J. T. Dutro, Invertebrate Paleontology.| W. P. Woodring, Invertebrate Paleon- 
Remington Kellogg, Vertebrate Paleon- tology. 

tology. 


Mineral Sciences 


Gunnar Kullerud, Mineralogy. | W. 'T. Schaller, Mineralogy. 
MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 
Science and Technology 
D. J. Price 
Civil History 


Mrs. Arthur M. Greenwood, Cultural | Mrs. R. Henry Norweb, Numismatics. 


History. R. Henry Norweb, Numismatics. 
BE. C. Herber, History. Joan Jockwig Pearson, Cultural His- 
I. N. Hume, Cultural History. tory. 


F. W. McKay, Numismatics. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT XIII 


Armed Forces History 


W.R. Furlong. Byron McCandless. 
F, C. Lane. 


Exhibits 
W. L. Brown, Taxidermy 


BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY 


Sister M. Inez Hilger. M. W. Stirling. 
Frank H. H. Roberts. A. J. Waring, Jr. 


ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY 
C. G. Abbot 
FREER GALLERY OF ART 


Max Loehr. 
Katherine N. Rhoades. 


Oleg Grabar. 
Grace Dunham Guest. 


NATIONAL AIR MUSEUM 


Frederick C. Crawford. | Alfred V. Verville. 


NATIONAL ZOOLOGICAL PARK 


BE. P. Walker 


CANAL ZONE BIOLOGICAL AREA 


C. C. Soper 


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Report of the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution 


S. DILLON RIPLEY 
For the Year Ended June 30, 1964 


To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 

GenTLEMEN : I have the honor to submit a report showing the activi- 
ties and condition of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches for 
the fiscal year ended June 30, 1964. 


GENERAL STATEMENT 


This past year, on January 31, marked the retirement of my prede- 
cessor, Dr. Leonard Carmichael, seventh Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institution. In the Annual Report for 1963 there was presented a 
general review of the activities of the Institution from 1953 to 1963, 
which gives some impression of the magnitude of the changes and 
developments instituted under Dr. Carmichael’s regime. This splen- 
did administrator, who has done so much for the Smithsonian, deserves 
the very highest praise. Recognition of his accomplishments has been 
widely expressed, in honorary degrees conferred upon him and in 
decorations by foreign governments. The Institution will always be 
grateful to its seventh Secretary and proud of the record of progress 
and achievement that he helped to foster. Not the least have been the 
confidence and esteem which he developed with the Regents of the 
Institution, who have constantly supported and encouraged the 
programs of the Institution. The Smithsonian wishes Dr. Carmichael 
well in his new career as vice president for research of the National 
Geographic Society . 


The Smithsonian and Higher Education 


In the few months since the assumption of the post of Secretary 
by the present incumbent on February 1, 1964, certain proposals have 
been inaugurated with the support of the Regents. The general 
problem of the Smithsonian’s role in cooperating with universities 


1 


2 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


and programs of higher learning has been explored. Such a program 
represents a continuation of the traditional role of the Institution 
in the educational field, although perhaps historically it received 
greater emphasis in the early days of the Smithsonian than it has 
in recent decades. The Smithsonian’s first Secretary, Joseph Henry, 
said many years ago: “The Smithsonian, with its widening responsi- 
bilities among the arts as well as the sciences, must continue and 
expand its leadership in education and scholarship in America.” 
It seems high time that we should develop this role, for there is urgent 
need for the Smithsonian to render genuine service and leadership. 

In the broad areas of biology and anthropology, support for special- 
ized training not otherwise available under existing university pro- 
grams must and can be given by the Smithsonian. In addition to 
general programs in specialized fields, specific programs are currently 
being undertaken with eight universities. Duke University will coop- 
erate with the Smithsonian Institution in training biological oceanog- 
raphers. Johns Hopkins University will join in a common venture 
to offer graduate education opportunities in paleontology. Other 
programs of cooperative education have been developed with the 
University of Minnesota in algology, the University of Maryland in 
ornithology, George Washington University in malacology, and the 
University of Kansas in paleontology. In addition there is the well- 
known program of the Freer Gallery of Art and the University of 
Michigan in Oriental art and the Astrophysical Observatory’s inte- 
grated activities with Harvard. Through such arrangements grad- 
uate students may come to the Smithsonian Institution to carry out 
research projects under the supervision of staff members who may 
be given recognition in the form of an honorary or part-time appoint- 
ment to the university faculty. Improved use of museum and other 
laboratory facilities in this way will help to overcome severe national 
shortages of natural-science specialists in a number of fields. 

As part not only of its service to the cause of higher education in 
this country but also in order to replicate specialists in careers of 
research and study associated with museum programs, the Institution 
must always stand ready to serve as a catalyst, to create opportunities 
for research for students and staff, and to foster interchange between 
scholars both here and abroad. 


Cooperation with Museums 


As a part of this wider usefulness of the Smithsonian to education, 
we hope that it may be possible to broaden the Smithsonian’s tradi- 
tional cooperation with museums throughout the world. Museums 
and their related laboratories are just entering a new era, and museum 
resources are being drawn upon as never before for general education. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 3 


Thirty years ago a mere 15 percent of museums in America were con- 
nected with education in some form. This marked a drastic decline 
from a hundred years ago when museums housed the genesis of scien- 
tific research in the Western World. Today over 90 percent are 
involved, ranging from simple school-extension programs to post- 
graduate fellowships. It is for these reasons that we feel that the 
Smithsonian, with its superb museum resources, now has a great 
opportunity to serve the museum world in a role of leadership and 
cooperation. As a first step in this effort, the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion has entered into an agreement with the American Association 
of Museums to promote a joint publications program to facilitate 
the publication and distribution of works needed in the broad field of 
museum administration, education, museum services, and the science 
of museology. 


Emphasis on Research 


Research on wild populations and undisturbed conditions in nature 
has taken on an aspect of urgency in recent years because so many 
opportunities for study have changed or disappeared. But man’s need 
to understand his environment and use it sympathetically will require 
a broad program of observation and research, especially in the tropics. 
The Smithsonian Institution will seek to promote interest in these 
objectives throughout the public and private scientific community. 
Beginning in April, Philip C. Ritterbush was appointed Special 
Assistant to the Secretary for Scientific Matters, to explore prospects 
for cooperation with other Government agencies in this effort and to 
promote consideration of these objectives in the development of 
national science policy. 

A related objective is to strengthen the position, within science as a 
whole, of those fields of biology which have the entire organism as their 
object: ecology, genetics, systematics, botany, zoology, oceanography, 
microbiology, and paleontology, as well as the sciences of man which 
have so long been central concerns of the Smithsonian. Two related 
approaches to this subject have been begun. With hopes of contrib- 
uting to the efficiency of research and investigation, studies are under- 
way to promote the application of data processing, technician employ- 
ment and training, improved cataloging methods, and more rapid 
means of indexing and retrieving information in the biological 
sciences. In order to overcome shortages of competent investigators, 
studies have begun to indicate appropriate means of expanding educa- 
tional opportunity in neglected areas of the natural sciences. 


766—74¢—65——2 


4 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


International Activities 


During the period under review, the Institution made a determined 
effort to carry its international activities beyond traditional overseas 
field expeditions and research, which primarily benefit the Smithso- 
nian, to cooperation with other Government agencies and private insti- 
tutions in the development of exchange of persons and international 
exhibits programs, to the benefit of others. 

Beginning in March, William W. Warner was engaged as a Con- 
sultant to the Secretary for International Activities to explore appro- 
priate areas of international cooperation. The first of these has been 
in the field of archeology with the Department of State. The Depart- 
ment’s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs has expressed a 
strong interest in having the Smithsonian exercise a leading role in 
the administration of overseas archeological research or excavation 
projects in connection with those nations in which excess foreign cur- 
rencies are available through agricultural surplus sales under Public 
Law 480. The Bureau has also welcomed the Institution’s offer to 
help with the selection and programing of foreign scholarship candi- 
dates in fields of Smithsonian interest. 

The Institution has also assisted the Department’s Office of Soviet 
and Eastern European Exchanges in planning exchange of museum 
professionals and exhibits, in accordance with the new U.S.-U.S.S.R. 
Exchange Agreement, which for the first time includes specific men- 
tion of museums. The Secretary of the Smithsonian serves as chair- 
man of the American Association of Museums’ Soviet Exchange Com- 
mittee, an advisory group that has helped the Department in the choice 
of museum professionals and possible exhibits going to and coming 
from Russia. 

In addition, the Smithsonian has offered its storage facilities and 
staff assistance to the Department’s “Art for Embassies,” a project 
aimed at providing United States Embassies with representative 
American works of art. The first paintings lent under this project 
were turned over to the Smithsonian for safekeeping in June. 

Among international organizations, the Smithsonian has supported 
the concept of American participation in the UNESCO campaign for 
the preservation of the monuments of Nubia in the upper Nile Valley. 
The Secretary has assisted the State Department in its request for 
a foreign currency appropriation to provide for American participa- 
tion by explaining the significance of the monuments themselves and 
the interests of American universities and museums in the Nubian 
campaign in particular, and in the wider problems of classical archeol- 
ogy in the Near East in general. 

During May the Organization of American States’ Department 
of Scientific Affairs agreed to announce and fund, through its estab- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 5 


lished fellowship program, opportunities for Latin American students 
to serve as aides in research projects conducted at the Canal Zone 
Biological Area. Discussions have also been held on a jointly financed 
Organization of American States-Smithsonian program to provide 
postdoctoral research grants for Latin American scholars in environ- 
mental and descriptive biology tenable at both Barro Colorado in the 
Canal Zone and the Museum of Natural History. 

The Institution has also discovered considerable interest among 
major American private foundations for cooperative programs in 
relatively neglected areas of basic science in the developing countries. 
The development of these and similar activities in future years can 
help fulfill the Institution’s basic responsibility for the advancement 
of science and the humanities among all peoples. 


THE ESTABLISHMENT 


The Smithsonian Institution was created by act of Congress in 1846, 
in accordance with the terms of the will of James Smithson, of Eng- 
land, who in 1826 bequeathed his property to the United States of 
America “to found at Washington, under the name of the Smithsonian 
Institution, and establishment for the increase and diffusion of knowl- 
edge among men.” In receiving the property and accepting the trust, 
Congress determined that the Federal Government was without 
authority to administer the trust directly, and, therefore, constituted 
an “establishment,” whose statutory members are “the President, the 
Vice President, the Chief Justice, and the heads of the executive 
departments.” 

THE BOARD OF REGENTS 


The Institution suffered a great loss this year in the death of Repre- 
sentative Clarence Cannon on May 12, 1964, the day before the spring 
meeting of the Board. Mr. Cannon had served as a Regent for nearly 
30 years, longer than any other member of the Board. His wise 
counsel and unselfish devotion to the affairs of the Smithsonian will be 
sadly missed. On May 19 Representative George H. Mahon of Texas 
was appointed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives to fill 
this vacancy. 

The roll of Regents at the close of the fiscal year was as follows: 
Chief Justice of the United States Earl Warren, Chancellor; members 
from the Senate: Clinton P. Anderson, J. William Fulbright, Leverett 
Saltonstall; members from the House of Representatives: Frank 'T. 
Bow, Michael J. Kirwan, George H. Mahon; citizen members: John 
Nicholas Brown, William A. M. Burden, Robert V. Fleming, Crawford 
H. Greenewalt, Caryl P. Haskins, Jerome C. Hunsaker. 

On January 23, 1964, the annual meeting of the Board was held in 
the Regents’ Room preceded by a private ceremony of installation of 


6 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


the new Secretary. Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary, presented 
his published annual report on the activities of the Institution. The 
Chairman of the Executive and Permanent Committees of the Board, 
Dr. Robert V. Fleming, gave the financial report for the fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1963. 

On the evening preceding the annual meeting a formal dinner was 
held in the Hall of Graphic Arts of the Museum of History and Tech- 
nology to celebrate the dedication of this new museum. ‘The members 
of the Board and their wives as well as others directly concerned with 
the planning and construction of the new building were guests. 

The spring meeting of the Board of Regents was held on May 13 
in the Museum of History and Technology. The Chairman of the 
Executive Committee presented a financial report. 


FINANCES 


A statement of finances, dealing particularly with Smithsonian 
private funds, will be found in the report of the Executive Committee 
of the Board of Regents, page 274. 

Funds appropriated to the Institution for its regular operations 
for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1964, totaled $13,191,000 and were 
obligated as follows: 


Astrophysical ‘Observatory 222 = 22 ee ee eee $904, 845 
BureaulorvAmerican Hthnology 2-2 eet tei eens is ee 124, 228 
CanaljZoneBiological Area zis. te 52 3 te a edie Yee 138, 890 
International” Mxchange Service: 2s.) a ee eee 110, 000 
National: Ain > Museum a o-552 000 ish Si eae ee eee 300, 075 
National Armed Forces Museum Advisory Board__________________ 29, 115 
National Collection of Fine Arts_____ AEE EIR ey SON nF ny EE 143, 252 
National Portrait Gallery_____________ ee ee SN ee ee 16, 678 
United= States National. Musetim 22-522 3 2 eee eee 5, 587, 001 
Officeror the Secretary soe ee ee ae i a ee ee 257, 596 
Buildings’ Management Department 2 ee eee 3, 968, 759 
Administrative Services_.____.___________- £0 td Ee Ce 1, 464, 006 
Wrlop ligated an ah 8 ere onl 2 Ae 2B Sa pie ne 2 het» be ul ee a va 56, 555 

$13, 191, 000 


Besides this direct appropriation, the Institution received funds 
by transfer from other Government agencies as follows: from the Dis- 
trict of Columbia for the National Zoological Park, $1,597,356; from 
the National Park Service, Department of the Interior, for the River 
Basin Surveys, $254,500. 

VISITORS 


Visitors to the six Smithsonian buildings on the Mall again this 
year surpassed all records, with a total of 10,813,195, which was 508,359 
more than for the preceding year. June 1964, with 1,592,540, was 


SECRETARY'S REPORT a 


the month of largest attendance; April 1964 second, with 1,555,295; 
and July 1963 third, with 1,407,858. The largest attendance recorded 
for a single day was 104,285 on March 28, 1964. Table 1 gives a sum- 
mary of the attendance records for the six buildings. The National 
Zoological Park had an estimated 3,900,000 visitors during the year. 
When this figure is added to the attendance in the Institution’s build- 
ings on the Mall, and to the 1,236,155 recorded at the National Gallery 
of Art, the total Smithsonian attendance for fiscal 1964 aggregated 
15,949,350. 
SMITHSON BICENTENNIAL 


The year 1965 marks the two-hundredth anniversary of the birth of 
James Smithson, founder of the Smithsonian Institution, and plans 
are in progress to observe this event in a manner that will draw interna- 
tional attention to Smithson and the work of the establishment he 
founded. A committee of Smithsonian staff members has been named, 
under the chairmanship of John C. Ewers, to plan the celebration and 
make recommendations to the Secretary concerning it. Scheduled for 
the fall of 1965, it is the intention to plan a program that will attract 
scholars and representatives of scholarly institutions and governments, 
from all parts of the world. 


JOSEPH HENRY PAPERS 


In collaboration with the National Publications Commission, the 
National Academy of Sciences, and the American Philosophical 
Society, a project has been initiated to collect, edit, and publish the 
Papers of Joseph Henry, first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion. For at least a decade, scholars devoted to general American his- 
tory as well as to the history of science in America have felt that such 
a documentary work would provide not only the story of this outstand- 
ing scientist but also much of the history of the organization of science 
in the United States, its relations with government, and its links with 
science and scientists in Europe. ‘The significance of Henry was 
underlined in 1954 when the National Historical Publications Com- 
mission named him as one of the nonpolitical Americans whose papers 
are most worthy of publication. 

Because of the enormity of the task and the high costs involved, it is 
impossible to say at this time how rapidly this project will move for- 
ward. Formation of a permanent committee to organize and direct the 
project is planned. 


1964 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


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SECRETARY’S REPORT 9 
OPENING OF MUSEUM OF HISTORY AND TECHNOLOGY 


On the evening of January 22, 1964, with a large and distinguished 
audience in attendance, dedication ceremonies were held for the formal 
opening of the new Museum of History and Technology. The pro- 
gram included music by the United States Marine Band, introductory 
remarks by Dr. Leonard Carmichael, Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institution, who presided as master of ceremonies, and addresses by 
the Chancellor of the Smithsonian, the Honorable Earl Warren, Chief 
Justice of the United States; by the Honorable Clinton P. Anderson, 
United States Senator from New Mexico, Regent of the Smithsonian, 
and chairman of the Joint Congressional Committee on Construction 
of a Building for a Museum of History and Technology for the Smith- 
sonian Institution; and by the President of the United States, Lyndon 
B. Johnson. The texts of these addresses were later printed in 
a brochure (Smithsonian Publication 4531) distributed by the 
Institution. 

The history of the development and construction of this splendid 
new museum of the Smithsonian on Washington’s Mall has been told 
in previous reports. Suffice it here to say that in many ways it has 
exceeded expectations in its acceptance and use by the public. From 
the day of opening until June 30, a period of 22 weeks, a total of more 
than 2,500,000 visitors entered its doors. At the time of opening about 
one-fifth of the total exhibition area of the building—50 halls—were 
ready for viewing. 


LANGLEY MEDAL PRESENTATION 


The Langley Medal of the Smithsonian Institution was awarded 
on May 5 to Astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr., in recognition of his 
“courageous and pioneering contributions to scientific research as the 
first American to fly in space and the first to control the attitude of a 
spacecraft while in flight and during a condition of weightlessness.” 
Presentation, which coincided with the third anniversary of Shepard’s 
historic flight, was made by Chief Justice Earl Warren, Chancellor of 
the Smithsonian, at a brief ceremony at the Institution. In attend- 
ance were members of the Smithsonian Board of Regents, including 
Senator Clinton P. Anderson, who made a brief address; officials of 
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration; Smithsonian 
officials; and members of Commander Shepard’s family. This was 
the eleventh time the Smithsonian Institution had awarded the Lang- 
ley Medal in the 56 years since its establishment in 1908. 


10 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 
LECTURES 


Elmer A. Sperry, Jr., eminent inventor, delivered the fifth Lester D. 
Gardner lecture, “Early Airplane Instruments,” in the auditorium of 
the Freer Gallery of Art on the evening of September 27. 

Dr. James A. Van Allen, professor of physics, University of Iowa, 
gave the 29th Annual James Arthur Lecture on the Sun on the evening 
of December 12, 1963, in the auditorium of the Natural History Build- 
ing. His subject was “Some General Aspects of the Karth’s Radiation 
Belts.” 

Ben Norris, painter and professor of art, University of Hawaii, 
delivered an illustrated lecture, “Images from Hawaii—F rom Captain 
Cook to Contemporary Crossroads,” on January 20, 1964, in the audi- 
torium of the Natural History Building. This lecture was sponsored 
by the Hawaii State Society of Washington, D.C. 

George Bass, special assistant for underwater archeology, Univer- 
sity of Pennsylvania University Museum, lectured on “Diving 3,000 
Years into the Past” in the auditorium of the Natural History Build- 
ing on the evening of January 24, 1964. This illustrated lecture was 
sponsored jointly by the Smithsonian Institution and the Archaeo- 
logical Institute of America. 

The Honorable Desmond Guinness, president of the Irish Georgian 
Society, gave an illustrated lecture on “18th Century Georgian Archi- 
tecture in Ireland” in the auditorium of the Natural History Building 
on the evening of February 8, 1964. 

The first Edwin A. Link Lecture, “Training by Simulation,” was 
delivered by Astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr., in the auditorium of the 
Natural History Building on the evening of February 19, 1964. This 
series of lectures, made possible by a grant from the Link Foundation, 
is administered by the Smithsonian Institution in cooperation with 
the U.S. Office of Education. 

Miss Sylvia Kenney, associate professor of music at Bryn Mawr 
College and visiting associate professor of music at Yale University, 
gave a lecture on the subject “Paintings, Chronicles, and Stylistic 
Criteria as Guides for the Performance of 15th Century Music” in 
the auditorium of the Natural History Building on the evening of 
May 22, 1964. 

Several lectures sponsored by the Freer Gallery of Art and the 
National Gallery of Art are listed in the reports of these bureaus. 


THE KENNEDY CENTER 


In January the National Cultural Center, a bureau of the Smith- 
sonian Institution, by act of Congress was renamed the John F. Ken- 
nedy Center for the Performing Arts as a memorial to our late Presi- 
dent. By this same act, appropriation of $15.5 million was authorized 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 11 


from Federal funds to match contributions from the public. Under 
the chairmanship of Roger L. Stevens, the Center made notable prog- 
ress during the year toward its objectives. Many substantial gifts 
were received. Questions relating to the size and site of the Center 
have been resolved, and plans call for construction of the substructure 
to begin in the summer of 1965. It is estimated that about 214 years 
will be required to complete the building. The Secretary of the Smith- 
sonian Institution serves ex officio as a member of the board of trustees 
of the Center. Also serving on the board are Senator Leverett Salton- 
stall and Senator J. William Fullbright, both Regents of the Institu- 
tion. A detailed report on the John F. Kennedy Center for the year, 
together with a financial statement, is presented beginning on page 247. 


NATIONAL ARMED FORCES MUSEUM ADVISORY BOARD 


During the year the National Armed Forces Museum Advisory 
Board gained a staff to provide assistance in the execution of its mis- 
sions as assigned by Public Law 87-186. The staff head, designated 
Coordinator of Studies, is Col. John H. Magruder, III, U.S. Marine 
Corps. Colonel Magruder, Director, Marine Corps Museums, was 
detailed by the Secretary of the Navy to work part-time with the 
Board. He reported for duty October 2, 1963. Other staff members 
are James S. Hutchins, Assistant Coordinator of Studies (reported 
December 2, 1963) ; Col. Robert M. Calland, U.S. Marine Corps, Re- 
tired, Museum Specialist (reported June 1, 1964) ; and Mrs. Miriam 
H. Schuman, Administrative Assistant (reported September 23, 1963). 

The Board, at its third meeting, January 20, 1964, unanimously 
endorsed Fort Washington, Md., now administered by the National 
Park Service, as the most feasible and appropriate site for the pro- 
posed National Armed Forces Museum. The Board also recommended 
to the Smithsonian Board of Regents that necessary arrangements 
be made with the National Park Service and the Congress to provide 
for the transfer of that site to the Smithsonian Institution. 

Accordingly, representatives of the Smithsonian Institution opened 
negotiations with the National Park Service looking to acquisition of 
Fort Washington. On March 16, 1964, the Secretary met with T. Sut- 
ton Jett, Director of the National Capital Region, National Park 
Service, and discussed with him the Board’s interest in obtaining the 
Fort Washington site. On May 14, 1964, the subject again was dis- 
cussed at a meeting between the Secretary and George B. Hartzog, 
Director of the National Park Service. Further negotiations with 
the Park Service are in progress. 

During the year the staff of the National Armed Forces Museum 
Advisory Board opened negotiations with various agencies of the 
Armed Forces and the General Services Administration in regard to 


12 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


the retention and eventual transfer to the Smithsonian Institution of 
military and naval objects appropriate for the collections of the 
National Armed Forces Museum. In addition, the staff undertook its 
own thorough search for such objects at military and naval installa- 
tions throughout the continental United States. The staff, in coopera- 
tion with the Smithsonian Library, also initiated steps to acquire from 
Armed Forces historical agencies and elsewhere significant publica- 
tions in the fields of military and naval history, to serve as a nucleus 
of the study center library of the proposed museum. All govern- 
mental agencies are cooperating fully with the work of the Board. 
Once a site for the museum has been fixed, there will be no dearth of 
materiel around which to establish a museum exhibit plan. 


SCIENCE INFORMATION EXCHANGE 


The Science Information Exchange (S.IL.E.) receives, organizes, 
and disseminates information about scientific research in progress. 
Its mission is to assist the planning and management of research activi- 
ties supported by Government and non-Government agencies and insti- 
tutions by promoting the exchange of information that concerns sub- 
ject matter, distribution, level of effort, and other data pertaining to 
current research in the prepublication stage. It helps program direc- 
tors and administrators to avoid unwarranted duplication and to deter- 
mine the most advantageous distribution of research funds. It serves 
the entire scientific community by informing individual investigators 
about who is currently working on problems in their special fields. 

The Exchange is concerned only with research actually in progress 
in order to cover the 1- to 8-year information gap between the time a 
research project is proposed or started and the time the results become 
generally available in published form. Thus, the Exchange comple- 
ments, rather than duplicates, the services of technical libraries and 
established documentation centers. 

Information is received by the Exchange from all available sources, 
specifying who supports a research task, who does it, where it is being 
done, and a 200-word technical summary of what is being done. These 
basic data are cast into a one-page record, the Notice of Research 
Project (N.R.P.) that serves as the major input and output of the 
Exchange. These records are analyzed, indexed, processed, and stored 
in computer and manual files in such a way that a wide variety of 
questions about any of these items or any combination of items can be 
quickly retrieved or compiled. 

The acquisition of task records and the input workloads have con- 
tinued to climb rapidly, from about 56,000 in fiscal year 1962 to 
75,000 in 1963 and over 100,000 in 1964. The output services rendered 
to United States Government agencies and for the entire scientific 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 13 


community have also increased rapidly, from about 27,000 reports of all 
kinds in 1968 to about 84,000 this fiscal year, Over three-quarters of 
a million research task records (N.R.P.’s) were requested and dis- 
patched during the year. 

With the rapidly increasing demands, the total staff, including about 
40 scientists, grew to 155, but in recent months it has dropped slightly, 
reflecting in part the economies resulting from improved organization 
and systems control. 

To handle this rapidly increasing volume of records more efficiently 
and economically, the reorganization and expansion of the Exchange 
were completed during the past year. An entirely new assembly line 
system now is capable of receiving and processing well over 100,000 
records per year. The system is easily controlled and is amenable to 
expansion or contraction as workloads may dictate. Each unit process, 
each organizational unit, and each of the different kinds of services 
rendered can be identified and the unit costs can be determined by a 
new accounting system developed and put into operation in recent 
months. 

For almost 15 years, the Exchange was supported by a number of 
Federal agencies whose far-sighted research directors and administra- 
tors were aware of the fact that the management of multimillion-dollar 
research programs might well be facilitated by the prompt exchange 
of information about on-going programs. As this enterprise grew 
rapidly in recent years, support and management problems became 
more complex and difficult for individual agencies, and so, in 1964, 
the National Science Foundation undertook the responsibility for 
funding and overall management with continued operational responsi- 
bility under the aegis of the Smithsonian Institution. 

It is axiomatic that maximum use should be made of the large 
number of research records acquired, processed, and stored by the Ex- 
change. To this end, S.I.E. has endeavored to make these services 
known and available to all eligible users. During the past year, five 
articles were published in professional journals by staff members de- 
scribing S.I.E. and its services. Twenty-three articles and news notes 
about S.I.E. were published by others. Over 25,000 descriptive 
brochures were requested and distributed. About 685 visitors, includ- 
ing a number from overseas, called at the Exchange to find out how 
these stores of information could be adapted to their own scientific 
information and research management problems. S.I.E. staff pre- 
sented 26 talks, papers, and briefings to professional scientific societies, 
groups, and organization units. All these activities indicate a growing 
interest in S.I.E. throughout the scientific community, and there is 
good reason to believe that these activities are the most effective 
ways of increasing the use of S.I.E. and thereby contributing to effec- 
tive management of research projects and programs. 


14 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


By the end of this year all Federal agencies with significant research 
programs were participating in some degree in the S.I.E. program. 
About 90-95 percent of all Government research in life sciences and 
social sciences is being registered. In general, the physical sciences 
collection has grown slowly, but some fields now are approaching fairly 
comprehensive proportions. An estimated 15,000 to 20,000 records 
dealing mostly with applied research in physical sciences are still to be 
registered. Interest among non-Government agencies, universities, 
foundations, national fund-raising agencies, industry, State and city 
research agencies, has been growing substantially even though S.I.E. 
has concentrated its efforts in the past on Federal agency participa- 
tion. Closer cooperation with non-Government agencies may be antic- 
ipated as the Federal collections approach comprehensive proportions. 

To determine if S.I.E. does, in fact, fulfill its mission and effectively 
achieve its objectives, a questionnaire was sent to 600 scientists who 
have used the Exchange services. From their response, it was evident 
that over 95 percent received information concerning new research 
they did not know about, even in their own specialty fields. The 
majority used the information to keep up with latest developments and 
to avoid duplication in formulating new projects and research pro- 
posals. Over 70 percent affirmed good scientific quality, comprehen- 
sive coverage, and no irrelevant material. Over 60 percent indicated 
their interest and endorsement by volunteering comments and sug- 
gestions. Although the purpose of the questionnaire was primarily 
as guidance for §.I.E., this practical field test of an actual operating 
system and its products seems to offer objective and concrete 
evidence that this kind of information service on current research is 
needed and is acceptable to the research scientists for whom it was 
designed. 

SMITHSONIAN MUSEUM SERVICE 


The Smithsonian Museum Service, through appropriate educational 
media, interprets to museum visitors and to the general public the 
objects, specimens, and exhibits in the several Smithsonian museums 
and develops interpretative and educational programs relating to the 
work of the Institution in the fields of science, history, and art. The 
Museum Service also cooperates with the volunteers of the Junior 
League of Washington, D.C., who conduct the Junior League Guided 
Tour Program at the Smithsonian. A more complete report of this 
activity, directed by G. Carroll Lindsay, curator, with the assistance 
of Mrs. Nella Lloyd, visitor services assistant, is carried in the report 
on the U.S. National Museum (pp. 65-66). 

In addition, the Museum Service acts to coordinate special events 
and ceremonial activities involving the Smithsonian museums and out- 
side organizations. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 15 


The Museum Service provided assistance to professional groups and 
individuals visiting the museums of the Institution or planning to do 
so. Assistance in the form of lectures, answers to inquiries, and 
specal tours of museum areas was rendered to college and university 
groups and individuals from the United States and abroad. Mr. 
Lindsay served as consultant on museum organization and practices to 
representatives from other museums on several occasions. 

The Audioguide, or radio lecture system, in the Museum of Natural 
History continued in operation and was used by 39,504 persons. The 
complete text of the 87 Audioguide lectures was published during the 
year under the title Zhe E'xhibits Speak. In the Museum of History 
and Technology tape-recorded lectures describing the exhibits were 
made available to visitors to the First Ladies Hall. This system, using 
self-contained, battery-powered tape playback machines, is known as 
Acoustiguide. 

Assistant curator Mrs. Sophy Burnham wrote, produced, and 
directed a 27-minute, 16-millimeter, color motion picture, Zhe Leaf 
Thieves. The film shows research activities, field work, and exhibition 
preparation carried on by the Museum of Natural History, and in- 
cluded footage exposed in British Guiana during the 1962 Smithsonian 
Botany-Exhibits Expedition to that area. It is designed to acquaint 
students with the opportunities for scientific or technical careers in 
natural history museums. 

The film The Smithsonian’s Whale, describing the construction of 
the 92-foot model of a blue whale on exhibit in the Museum of Natural 
History, was distributed from 10 points across the United States and 
was shown on television stations in Washington and New York. 
Prints of this film also were borrowed directly from the Museum 
Service. This film was selected from films produced by Government 
agencies for showing at the Venice Film Festival in Venice, Italy. 

The staff docent in zoology, Mrs. Linda Gordon, and the staff docent 
in anthropology, Mrs. Marjorie Halpin, continued to handle non- 
technical correspondence from the public on their respective sub- 
jects; they provided tours for groups visiting the museum; lectured 
before classes visiting the museum; and prepared information leaflets 
on exhibition halls, bibliographies, and similar educational materials. 

Special “touch” tours for several groups of blind persons were ar- 
ranged during the year. Specimens and objects from the reference 
collections as well as selected portions of the public exhibits were 
included in the programs arranged for the blind. 

The Urban Service Corps program, under the general direction of 
Mrs. William Wirtz, held seven sessions at the Smithsonian. Empha- 
sis was placed on the work of the Musuem of Natural History, and the 
programs, designed to stimulate student participation, included lec- 
tures and tours of its exhibit areas and technical laboratories. At the 


16 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


conclusion of one of the regularly scheduled Urban Service Corps 
programs, a special session was devoted to the Museum of History and 
Technology (at that time not yet open to the public). Scientific and 
administrative staff members of the Institution also participated in 
these programs. 

Miss Mary Ann Friend continued her work as audiovisual librarian, 
cataloging slides and arranging for the loan of slides, films, and 
photographs related to Smithsonian exhibits and research activities. 
Facilities of this library were extensively used by Smithsonian staff 
members and by borrowers outside the Institution. 

During the year the responsibility for operating the museum sales 
shops was transferred to the Museum Service, and Mrs. Emily Pettinos, 
formerly with the University Museum, University of Pennsylvania, 
joined the staff as manager of the sales operations. The shops serve as 
an adjunct to the educational program of the Institution, making avail- 
able to the visitors printed materials relating to the work of the In- 
stitution and reproductions of materials in the museum collections. 
Three shops are operated in the Museum of History and Technology 
and one each in the Museum of Natural History and the Arts and In- 
dustries Building. 

Arrangements were made by the Museum Service for various Smith- 
sonian public functions and special events, including the opening of 
new exhibit halls, temporary exhibitions, film showings, lectures, visita- 
tions by heads of state and other distinguished visitors, and the open- 
ing of the Museum of History and Technology. More complete 
information about these activities will be found under appropriate 
headings elsewhere in this report. Current mailing lists for announce- 
ments of these events were maintained. 

The Smithsonian Calendar of Events, a listing of special events held 
at the Institution, was prepared and distributed monthly. An illus- 
trated directory to museums in the Washington metropolitan area was 
prepared by the Museum Service and published by the Institution, 
under the title Brief Guide to the Museums in the Washington Area. 

The Museum Service continued to assist radio and television pro- 
ducers wishing to feature Smithsonian exhibits and scientific work in 
local or network programs. In this regard the Museum Service acts 
as liaison between the broadcaster’s representatives and the various 
operating units of the Institution. 

William C. Grayson, formerly with the National Broadcasting Co., 
joined the staff as consultant to assist in the preparation of plans for 
more effective Smithsonian participation in various aspects of tele- 
vision and radio activity, including the use of the television studio in 
the Museum of History and Technology. 

Meredith Johnson, formerly director of Woodlawn Plantation, 
joined the staff of the Museum Service to assist in the development of 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 17 


educational and visitor service programs, particularly in regard to the 
greatly increased demands for such services arising upon the opening 
of the Museum of History and Technology. 

During the year curator G. Carroll Lindsay attended various pro- 
fessional meetings and conferences. He appeared on the programs 
of the following meetings: The Annual Winterthur Seminar on 
Museum Operation and Connoisseurship, Winterthur, Del.; the 
Museum Audio-Visual Applications Group, Rochester, N.Y.; the 
American Association of Museums Annual Meeting, St. Louis, Mo. 
He also attended the annual meetings of the Division of Audio-Visual 
Instruction, National Education Association, Rochester, N.Y.; and 
the Museum Stores Association, Chicago, Ill. 

He also lectured before various groups visiting the Institution, de- 
scribing for them the history and current work of the Smithsonian, 
and presented similar talks before meetings of local service clubs and 
other groups interested in the Institution. 

Mr. Lindsay continued his research in the field of early American 
culture. He also presented lectures to the St. Mary’s County, Md., 
Historical Society and to the National Trust Conference for Historic 
Museum Associates on the subject of southern colonial architecture; 
participated in the annual Forum held by the Alexandria (Va.) Asso- 
ciation and spoke on early Alexandria architecture; presented a series 
of four lectures on early American furniture as part of the Junior 
League of Washington’s adult education program; and lectured 
at the Cheltenham Township (Pa.) Adult School on the subject of 
early American silver. He appeared four times on television pro- 
grams to discuss the work of the Smithsonian Institution and twice 
for the same purpose on radio programs. 

The curator and the consultant on TV installations, William C. 
Grayson, traveled to New York to consult with the program director 
of Lincoln Center. They also observed the visitor information facili- 
ties in Williamsburg, Va. 

The assistant curator attended the Calvin Motion Picture Studio 
Workshop seminar on motion-picture production in Kansas City, Mo. 

The audiovisual librarian, Miss Mary Ann Friend, represented the 
Museum Service at the American Film Festival of the Educational 
Film Library Association in New York City for the entry of one of 
our films. 

The museum docents have made trips to the American Museum of 
Natural History to examine the education programs and confer with 
staff members. In addition, the docent in zoology traveled to Boston 
to examine the education department at the Science Museum. The 
docent in zoology attended the International Congress on Zoology 
which consisted of seminars and a film theater in action. 


Report on the United States 
National Museum 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the condi- 
tion and operations of the U.S. National Museum for the fiscal year 
ended June 30, 1964: 

COLLECTIONS 


During the year, 1,234,752 specimens were added to the national col- 
lections and distributed among the 10 departments as follows: An- 
thropology, 38,484; zoology, 196,427; botany, 30,427; entomology, 
241,947; mineral sciences, 9,186; paleobiology, 376,007; science and 
technology, 1,361; arts and manufactures, 2,697 ; civil history, 336,393 ; 
and Armed Forces history, 1,823. ‘This year’s accessions were acquired 
as gifts from individuals, by staff collecting in the field, or as transfers 
from Government departments and agencies. The complete report on 
the Museum, published as a separate document, includes a detailed 
list of the year’s acquisitions, of which the more important are sum- 
marized below. Catalog entries in all departments now total 
58,755,099. 

Anthropology.—Two large and important North American collec- 
tions were accessioned in the division of archeology. One, received 
by transfer from the River Basin Surveys, Bureau of American Eth- 
nology, included 18,603 specimens from the Medicine Creek Reservoir, 
Nebraska, and comprises one of the largest and most complete collec- 
tions extant on the prehistoric agricultural peoples of the Central 
Plains in the 9th to 14th centuries. The second lot is from the 1931-82 
investigations of the Bureau of American Ethnology at Signal Butte, 
a key stratified site in western Nebraska with a series of occupational 
levels spanning the period from 2600 B.C. to about A.D. 1700. Other 
noteworthy accessions include 6,031 pieces collected by the Bureau 
of American Ethnology from the Parita and Santa Marta areas in 
Panama; a group of handaxes from the Fezan and microlithic blades 
from Tripolitania, Libya, presented by James R. Jones of the U.S. AID 
mission to Libya; and an exceptionally well-preserved Egyptian 
cat mummy donated by Edith Goldsmith of Methuen, Mass. 

In the division of ethnology, a large portion of the year’s acquisi- 
tions were obtained, chiefly by purchase, for use in the new Hall of 
Cultures of Africa and Asia. Noteworthy Asian accessions included: 


18 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 19 


79 specimens representing Chinese opera, purchased with aid of the 
Chinese National Government; 116 items relating to agriculture and 
daily life in Japan, obtained from the Japanese Association of Mu- 
seums; a Hindu village altar assemblage of 40 specimens, purchased 
with assistance of the Government of Orissa, Bhubanaswar, and the 
Crafts Museum, New Delhi; 255 Burmese items purchased from the 
collector, Brian Peacock, University of Rangoon ; 226 specimens mostly 
from Isfahan and dealing with Iran textile printing, collected and 
donated by Mrs. Ethel J. W. Bunting; 76 items of Korean furniture, 
architectural pieces, and objects of everyday use, presented by the 
Korean Ministry of Public Information; 5 traditional Japanese 
swords, with scabbards and a leather sword case, presented by Adm. 
William M. Fechteler; a ceremonial bone apron from Tibet, by ex- 
change from Simon Kriger, Washington, D.C.; and 3 large rubbings 
of stone relief from the Bayon at Angkor, donated by the Kingdom 
of Cambodia. To the African collections were added 60 items from 
the Endo-Marakwet of Kenya, purchased for the Museum by Deric 
O’Bryan, formerly U.S. Foreign Service Officer in Nairobi; and full- 
scale copies of six rock paintings from the Tassili Mountains of Al- 
geria, made at the Musée de l’Homme under direction of Henri Lhote. 

Among the accessions in the division of physical anthropology are 
two casts of trephined skulls from Peru, one with five and the other 
with seven openings; these will be exhibited as examples of the number 
of trephine openings which have been made in a skull in vivo. Two 
Kraho Indian face masks from central Brazil were made for the 
Museum by Harold Schultz. One is to be incorporated in the map of 
peoples of the world in the new hall of physical anthropology in prep- 
aration. Other accessions include skeletal materials from Virginia, 
Maryland, Latin America, and Alaska. 

Zoology.—A currently accelerated program of field activities in the 
division of mammals added 14,869 specimens to its collections. Field 
parties working under the direction of Dr. Henry W. Setzer collected 
more than 5,000 specimens from Africa and southwestern Asia. The 
tropical areas of the Americas continued to provide large numbers 
of specimens. Of special note are Dr. C. O. Handley’s general collec- 
tions from Panama and Arthur M. Greenhall’s large collection of 
bats from Trinidad. Important accessions also include a rare marbled 
cat from Sumatra presented by Kent Crane, a series of baboons ob- 
tained by Clifford E. Sanders in Northern Rhodesia, South American 
marmosets received from the National Institutes of Health Primate 
Colony at the San Diego Zoo through Robert W. Cooper, and a good 
series of canids allied to red wolves from the south-central part of the 
United States received through the Fish and Wildlife Service. 

Accessions worthy of special note received in the division of birds 


766—-746—65——_3 


20 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


include 547 bird skins, 26 skeletons, 1 egg, and 1 nest from Panama, 
received through Dr. Alexander Wetmore; 791 bird skins, 85 skeletons, 
and 1 nest from North America, by transfer from the Fish and Wild- 
life Service; 301 bird skins from Formosa, by transfer from the De- 
partment of Defense, Department of the Navy, U.S. Naval Medical 
Research Unit No. 2, through Dr. R. E. Kuntz; 190 bird skins from 
North Borneo, gift of the Bernice P. Bishop Museum through Dr. 
J. L. Gressitt; 175 bird skins from West Pakistan, gift from Bucknell 
University through Dr. Roy C. Tasker; 156 alcoholic specimens of 
birds from Prof. D. S. Rabor, Silliman University, Dumaguete City, 
Negros Oriental, Philippines; and 52 original watercolor paintings 
executed as illustrations for F. Salomonson’s “The Birds of Green- 
land” by deposit from the artist, Aage Gitz-Johansen, Trorod, Den- 
mark, through Dr. Carl Christensen, Cultural Counselor, Embassy 
of Denmark. 

The division of reptiles and amphibians accessioned 2,639 specimens. 
Outstanding among these are 58 West Indian lizards and frogs, in- 
cluding paratypes of 13 new species and subspecies from Dr. Albert 
Schwartz of Miami, Fla.; 213 reptiles and amphibians from Mada- 
gascar collected by field parties under the direction of Dr. H. W. Setzer 
of the division of mammals; and 219 reptiles and amphibians from 
Darién, Panama, collected by Dr. Charles O. Handley, Jr., also of the 
division of mammals. 

Among the largest accessions made in the division of fishes during 
the year were 5,777 specimens received by transfer from the U.S. Fish 
and Wildlife Service, mostly through the efforts of Dr. Daniel Cohen, 
Harvey R. Bullis, Jr., Willis King, J. H. Finucane, and P. J. Struh- 
saker; a gift of 3,000 specimens of Panamanian fishes from Horace 
Loftin, Florida State University; and through exchange, 6,020 Vir- 
ginia fishes from Dr. Robert Ross, Virginia Polytechnic Institute. 
Dr. Herbert R. Axelrod, T. F. H. Publications, Inc., Jersey City, N.J., 
donated 443 South American fishes and aided in securing 18 additional 
ones. Especially important acquisitions are holotypic and paratypic 
specimens received from Dr. Jacques R. Géry, Dordogne, France; Dr. 
Edward C. Raney, Cornell University; Dr. John E. Randall, Univer- 
sity of Puerto Rico; Dr. Eugenia Clark, Cape Haze Marine Labora- 
tory; Wayne J. Baldwin, University of California; Dr. C. Lindsey, 
University of British Columbia; Dr. J. L. B. Smith, Rhodes Univer- 
sity, Grahamstown, South Africa; and Dr. Stanley Weitzman, asso- 
ciate curator in the division of fishes. The addition of 47 shark speci- 
mens, some undescribed and others representing species not previously 
contained in the national collections, was made by the following: 
Dr. J. C. Briggs, University of Texas; H. Heyamoto and Susumu 
Kato, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service; Donald Goff, Rehoboth Beach, 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 21 


Del.; Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, Scripps Institution of Oceanography; Dr. 
T. Abe, University of Tokyo, Japan; Dr. F. H. Talbot, South African 
Museum; and Jeanette D. D’Aubrey, Oceanographic Research Insti- 
tute, Durban, Natal, South Africa. Valuable specimens were also re- 
ceived from Mac Entel, Sumac Tropical Fish Hatchery, Miami, Fla. 

The addition of 27,003 Antarctic specimens to the division of marine 
invertebrates, collected by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, was of special im- 
portance. Dr. Schmitt, research associate of the division, participated 
in the U.S. Antarctic Research Program aboard the USS Staten [sland 
and made these collections during the Palmer Peninsula-South Shet- 
lands Survey in 1963. Many existing gaps in the national collections 
of the fauna of these regions have now been filled. Acquisition of the 
A. Weir Bell collection of Oligochaeta, comprising about 900 slides of 
sections of these worms, a catalog, and a library of separates of scien- 
tific articles dealing with the oligochaetes, was a significant event 
during the year. This important collection was obtained from Dr. 
R. A. Boolootian, Department of Zoology, University of California, 
Los Angeles. A collection of 2,216 specimens of polychaete worms 
from the Bering Sea was received from Dr. Donald J. Reish, Long 
Beach State College, Long Beach, Calif. 

In the division of mollusks, 69,288 specimens were added during the 
year, including 334 specimens from previously recorded accessions, 
the largest annual increment since 1953-54. This large increase is due 
mainly to three large accessions: The personal collection of Arnon L. 
Mehring consisting of approximately 23,800 specimens; a collection 
of 17,300 specimens mainly from Okinawa, Ryukyus, purchased 
through the Chamberlain Fund; and 7,600 specimens gathered by Dr. 
Harold A. Rehder in Tahiti utilizing funds provided by Gen. Frank R. 
Schwengel in memory of his wife, Jeanne S. Schwengel. Other large 
accessions include an exchange with the Academy of Natural Sciences 
of Philadelphia of 1,350 specimens, and a gift of 1,480 specimens from 
Duncan Emrich of Washington, D.C. Holotypes were received from 
the Institute of Marine Science, University of Miami, through Dr. 
F. M. Bayer; the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Laboratory, Pas- 
cagoula, Miss., through Harvey R. Bullis, Jr.; and from Richard E. 
Petit. A total of 843 specimens including a number of holotypes were 
added to the helminthological collection during the year. The largest 
accession, consisting of 339 lots collected in Panama in 1931-34, was 
presented by Dr. A. O. Foster. 

Entomology.—The division of Coleoptera received a total of 49,528 
specimens in 66 accessions. Major contributions include the follow- 
ing: 730 beetles from Nepal and Pakistan from Dr. J. Maldonado 
Capriles, University of Puerto Rico; 1,000 North American ground 
beetles from John D. Glaser, Baltimore, Md.; 5,500 beetles from Cen- 


22 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


tral America and the United States from Dr. John Kingsolver, Insect 
Identification and Parasite Introduction Research Branch, U.S. De- 
partment of Agriculture; and 1,100 Mexican beetles from Dr. Alfred 
B. Lau, Mexican Indian Training Center, Cordoba, Vera Cruz, 
Mexico. 

As a result of field work conducted by members of the Smithsonian 
staff the following were acquired: 1,100 miscellaneous South Ameri- 
can beetles from Mrs. Doris H. Blake and Dr. Doris M. Cochran; 300 
scarab beetles from South Carolina obtained by O. L. Cartwright; 
and 85,600 miscellaneous Mexican and North American beetles col- 
lected by Dr. Paul J. Spangler. 

The division of Hemiptera received 81,757 specimens in 100 acces- 
sions during the year. The most important acquisition of the year 
was the J. Douglas Hood collection of Thysanoptera (thrips), which 
contains 1,055 holotypes and 11,203 paratypes of Hood and other 
workers. The transfer of the very important collection of North 
American fleas from the Rocky Mountain Laboratory of the National 
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, Department of Health, 
Education, and Welfare, was initiated through the efforts of Dr. Wil- 
liam L. Jellison, retired, of that Institute. To date 12,780 carefully 
prepared slides from this collection have been received. The Scripps 
Institution of Oceanography, through the cooperation of Dr. Martin 
W. Johnson and H. George Snyder, presented over 1,300 specimens 
of the marine water-strider genus Walobates. Other important acces- 
sions are: 1,144 ants from the Nevada Atomic Test Site through the 
cooperation of Dr. Donald M. Allred, Atomic Energy Commission ; 
500 Australian ants from Prof. B. B. Lowery, St. Ignatius College, 
Sydney, Australia; and 215 South American ants from Dr. K. W. 
Cooper, Hanover, N.H. Other Hymenoptera, 180 named European 
wasps from W. 8. Pulawski, University of Wroclawskiego, Warsaw, 
Poland; 486 North American wasps from Dr. K. V. Krombein, Arling- 
ton, Va.; 157 South American velvet ants from Dr. Osvaldo H. Casal, 
Instituto Nacional de Microbiologia, Buenos Aires, Argentina; 443 Old 
World cercerid wasps from Dr. H. A. Scullen, Oregon State Univer- 
sity, Corvallis, Oreg.; 450 North American and Russian chalcid-flies 
from C. D. F. Miller, Canadian Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, 
Canada; and 100 European chalcid-flies from Dr. A. Hoffer, Prague, 
Czechoslovakia. 

The division of Lepidoptera? received 72,324 specimens as the re- 
sult of field activity of staff members and cooperating agencies. Sig- 
nificant contributions made by staff members include 9,115 Mexican 
moths collected by Drs. Don R. Davis and W. Donald Duckworth; 
1,280 butterflies from eastern United States collected by William D. 


1 See footnote on page 66. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 23 


Field; and 5,746 Lepidoptera (including 760 reared specimens) and 
155 Diptera from the Island of Rapa, contributed by Dr. and Mrs. 
J. F. Gates Clarke. Dr. William L. Stern, Department of Botany, 
presented 134 Philippine butterflies and moths; C. W. Sabrosky, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture, contributed 297 North American flies; 
2,718 North American flies were received from Dr. C. P. Alexander 
of Amherst, Mass.; 92 Asian flies, including 1 holotype and 9 para- 
types, came from Dr. Edward L. Coher of Waltham, Mass.; Dr. D. 
Elmo Hardy, Honolulu, presented 146 South American flies, including 
4 holotypes and 2 allotypes; and 103 Japanese moths were received 
from Dr. H. Kuroko of Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. By transfer, 
45,004 specimens, including all groups of insects, were received from 
the Insect Identification and Parasite Introduction Branch, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture. 

The division of Myriapoda and Arachnida received some extremely 
valuable material totaling 4,369 specimens in 32 transactions. H. F. 
Loomis continued to enrich our millipede collection with approximately 
300 Neotropical specimens, both typical and ordinary; Dr. G. E. Ball, 
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, presented 425 centipedes 
from Canada, southwestern United States, and Mexico. Dr. R. L. 
Hoffman, Radford College, Blacksburg, Va., sent 160 centipedes 
and millipedes, including types of the latter from the United 
States; Curator Ralph Crabill contributed 1,100 centipedes from upper 
Bavaria and Austria, including many specimens otherwise known only 
from the types; Dr. Nell B. Causey, Fayetteville, Ark., donated 215 
centipedes from Arkansas and southeastern United States. 

The most important single accession received in the division of 
neuropteroids consists of a synoptic collection of African dragonflies 
and damselflies received from Dr. E. C. G. Pinhey, Bulawayo, South- 
ern Rhodesia; 2,421 identified North American aquatic insects were 
received from Dr. Stanley G. Jewett, Jr., Portland, Oreg.; Dr. A. E. 
Brower, Augusta, Maine, presented 4,296 caddisflies from northeastern 
United States; from Fritz Plaumann, Nova Teutonia, Brazil, 4,002 
caddisflies were acquired by purchase; Dr. A. B. Gurney, Insect 
Identification and Parasite Introduction Research Branch, U.S. De- 
partment of Agriculture, presented 1,882 grasshoppers and lacewings 
from Texas and Virginia; Dr. O. S. Flint, Jr., of this division, col- 
lected and presented 6,768 caddisflies. 

Botany.—An excellent set of 1,859 plants collected on the British 
Solomon Islands by T. C. Whitmore was received from the Forestry 
Department at Honiara. Mrs. Paul Bartsch presented the herbarium 
of the late Dr. Paul Bartsch consisting of 10,220 plants from Iowa and 
Virginia, many of them of historical interest. Also received as gifts 
were 482 plants of Bolivia from M. Cardenas, Cochabamba, Bolivia; 


24 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


1,055 specimens of Araceae from southeast Asia from Dan H. Nicol- 
son; 2,215 lichens of Florida and Minnesota from Dr. Mason E. Hale; 
and 945 mosses from Dr. Frederick J. Hermann. 

Received in exchange were 4,675 plants, which included many collec- 
tions of historical importance, such as those of Guadichaud, Sieber, 
Sodiro, and Vieillard, from the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, 
Paris; 1,790 specimens mostly collected in northern South America 
by Bassett Maguire et al., from the New York Botanical Garden; 
1,733 specimens from New Guinea, Thailand, and Africa, from the 
Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Surrey, England; 1,578 specimens from 
New Guinea received from the Commonwealth Scientific and Indus- 
trial Research Organization, Canberra, Australia; 1,380 plants col- 
lected in British Guiana by R. J. A. Goodland, from McGill Univer- 
sity; 1,126 plants of Central America from the Escuela Agricola 
Panamericana, Tegucigalpa, Honduras; 880 fine specimens collected 
in Argentina by Mydel-Peterson from the Botanical Museum, Univer- 
sity of Copenhagen, Denmark; 306 selected specimens of South Afri- 
can plants from the University of Pretoria, South Africa; 500 mosses 
from the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, Stockholm, Sweden; 209 plants 
comprising issues 85-88 of Schedae ad Herbarium Florae Rossicae, 
from the Botanical Institute of the Academy of Sciences, Leningrad, 
U.S.S.R.; 345 woods from the Servico Florestal, Rio de Janeiro, 
Brazil; and 187 woods from the Conservator of Forests, Kuching, 
Sarawak. 

A total of 1,347 specimens comprising several collections was received 
from the Istituto Botanico, Caracas, Venezuela, and 1,142 from the 
Herbario “Barbosa Rodrigues,” Itajai, Santa Catarina, Brazil, in 
exchange for names. From the University of Michigan were received 
542 grasses collected by Rogers McVaugh, and 2,629 woods from 
Sumatra, the Philippines, Mexico, and British Honduras, mostly 
collected by the late H. H. Bartlett. 

Transferred from other Government departments were 9,354 speci- 
mens of Alaska from the Geological Survey through Dr. Robert S. 
Sigafoos, and 1,240 plants of Thailand from the U.S. Army at Fort 
Detrick, Md. Collected for the Museum were 564 plants of Alaska 
from William J. L. Sladen, Baltimore, Md., 554 grasses collected on 
Trinidad by Dr. Thomas R. Soderstrom, and 205 grasses collected 
by Jason R. Swallen in South Africa. 

Paleobiology—tIn the division of paleobotany important specimens 
received as gifts include 36 prepared slides containing 84 fossil spore 
and pollen type specimens from West Africa, from the Jersey Produc- 
tion Research Co. through R. E. Rohn; 11 silicified stems of the tree 
fern genus Cyathodendron from the Eocene of Texas, from S. N. 
Dobie, Whitsett, Tex.; and a large, well-preserved limb section from 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 25 


the Eocene of Wyoming from Mr. and Mrs. Jean Case, Dr. F. M. 
Hueber collected 2,000 specimens of Lower Devonian plant remains 
from the Gaspé and northern New Brunswick region of Canada, the 
field work supported by Walcott bequest. 

Among the 372,000 specimens accessioned by the division of inverte- 
brate paleontology are a number of collections which are of major 
importance. Transfers of type specimens from the U.S. Geological 
Survey included: 160 Cambrian trilobites described by A. R. Palmer; 
46 cephalopods from the western interior; conodonts from the Great 
Basin; corals from the Ordovician of Alaska; and Foraminifera from 
the Tertiary of Equatorial Africa, and the Gilbert Islands in the 
Central Pacific. 

Gifts included several noteworthy additions. Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity gave 3,700 type specimens described in the well-known Paleo- 
zoic volumes of the Maryland Geological Survey stratigraphic series. 
One thousand specimens of Middle Ordovician and Silurian inverte- 
brates were collected in southwestern Ontario by Dr. and Mrs. G. A. 
Cooper. Dr. R. S. Boardman completed a major collection of more 
than 200,000 Paleozoic Bryozoa from a number of measured sections 
in the Ordovician of Oklahoma. Dr. Franco Rasetti donated 3,500 
identified Cambrian trilobites including many type specimens. Dr. 
A. J. Boucot gave 7,000 Silurian brachiopods collected in Great 
Britain. A valuable collection of 5,000 mollusks from the Tertiary 
of Virginia and Maryland was given by Dr. R. J. Taylor. 

Other valuable gifts were: 140 specimens of Upper Paleozoic 
brachiopods from Chihuahua, Mexico, given by Teodoro Diaz G.; a 
large number of Tertiary mollusks from Hampton, Va., by Dr. T. 
Walley Williams; 10 specimens of unique Tertiary mollusks from 
Florida by Mr. and Mrs. J. B. Williams; and an extensive collection 
of Mississippian endothyrid Foraminifera consisting of more than 
1,000 thin sections, including many type specimens, donated by Dr. 
Edward Zeller. 

Funds from the Walcott bequest were used to purchase more than 
20,000 invertebrates, one of the world’s most complete collections from 
the Jurassic and Cretaceous of Chile, from Mrs. Elsa de Biese, Santi- 
ago, Chile. With the cooperation of the Arabian American Oil Co., 
and financed partly by Walcott funds, Drs. P. M. Kier and E. G. Kauff- 
man of the Museum staff collected more than 25,000 specimens of a 
variety of invertebrates from Mesozoic rocks of Saudi Arabia. The 
Springer fund made possible the purchase of 1,023 blastoids and 
crinoids from the Burlington limestone of Iowa and Missouri, and 120 
Triassic echinoids from the Moenkopi formation of Utah. 

Outstanding exchanges brought many important specimens includ- 
ing 1,050 species of Jurassic and Cretaceous mollusks from the Geologi- 


26 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


cal Survey of Pakistan; 160 plastotypes of Mesozoic mollusks housed 
at the University de Lyon; 12 species of ammonites from Moscow 
University ; and 50 plastotypes of Upper Cretaceous species in the col- 
lections of the Texas Bureau of Economic Geology. 

Particular mention is made of a collection of 122 specimens of het- 
erostrachian, acanthodian, and arthrodire fishes from a Lower De- 
vonian quarry in Lucas County, Ohio, received in an exchange with the 
Chicago Natural History Museum. 

An interesting collection of Pleistocene vertebrate remains from 
Cartersville, Ga., was donated to the Smithsonian Institution by 
Shorter College of Rome, Ga. The assemblage represented includes at 
least 20 species and is important as the most extensive Pleistocene verte- 
brate fauna yet discovered in Georgia. 

Tn the division of vertebrate paleontology two outstanding accessions 
resulted from field collecting by the staff. Dr. C. L. Gazin assisted by 
Franklin L. Pearce, collected approximately 350 specimens of early 
Tertiary mammals. The specimens were taken principally from the 
Middle Eocene Bridger formation of southwestern Wyoming, but in- 
cluded also are small collections from the Paleocene of the Green River 
and Fossil basins of southwestern Wyoming and from the Bison Basin 
of south-central Wyoming. The collections are important for the 
wealth of small forms, such as Primates, rodents, insectivores, and 
carnivores from the Middle Eocene beds of the Bridger Basin. 

Dr. D. H. Dunkle, assisted by Gladwyn B. Sullivan, collected ap- 
proximately 307 fossil fishes mainly from new localities in the upper 
Madera formation of Permian or possibly Pennsylvanian age in cen- 
tral New Mexico and consisting principally of sharks and acanthodian, 
paleoniscoid, and coelacanth fishes. Other important collections of 
these forms were obtained from the Pennsylvanian Wea shale in Ne- 
braska and Iowa. In addition, a small collection of Leptolepis re- 
mains was made in the Jurassic Todilto limestone of New Mexico, 
and various bones of arthrodires and crossopterygians were collected 
in a Middle Devonian quarry in Ohio. 

Mineral sciences—In all, 9,230 specimens were received in the divi- 
sion of mineralogy. Outstanding among the many important gifts 
was an exceptionally fine gem-quality topaz crystal from Brazil, from 
Oscar Heyman & Brothers, Inc. Other important gifts were scapolite, 
Madagascar, from John B. Jago; rhodonite, Franklin, N.J., from 
Mrs. Frank A. Lewis; opal, Australia, from Leland Quick; and tour- 
maline, Brazil, from Bernard T. Rocca, Sr. Outstanding among spec- 
imens received by exchange was a fine example of cuprosklodowskite 
from the Congo, a very fine large brazilianite crystal from Brazil, and 
an exceptionally fine, large, gem-quality crystal of beryl, variety aqua- 
marine, also from Brazil. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT a7 


A total of 4,113 specimens were added to the Roebling collection by 
purchase or exchange. Outstanding among these were a very large 
Japanese twin of quartz, from Arizona; a fine specimen of scolecite 
from Brazil; a crystal of scapolite of unusually large size from Mex- 
ico; some fine francevillite and chervetite from Gabon; and some out- 
standing specimens of raspite from Australia. Acquired by purchase 
from the Canfield fund was a very large crystal of chrysoberyl from 
Russia and an extraordinary crystal of danburite from Baja Califor- 
nia, Mexico. 

Outstanding new additions to the gem collection included a 1,000- 
carat aquamarine, from Brazil, from Evyan Perfumes, Inc.; a very 
unusual star sapphire, showing four separate stars, from Ceylon, from 
Sidney Krandall & Sons; a jade bowl, formerly in the Vetlesen col- 
lection, from Mrs. Mildred Tabor Keally; a Mexican opal, from 
Mrs. Frank A. Lewis; two fine kunzites from Brazil, weighing 296.78 
and 336.16 carats, from Robert C. Nelson, Jr.; four diamonds of rare 
blue and green colors, from Van Cleef & Arpels, Inc.; and a collection 
of spheres of jade, petrified wood, and other gem materials from 
Albert R. Cutter. Gems acquired by purchase from the Chamberlain 
fund for the Isaac Lea collection included a 22.35 carat golden sapphire 
and a 24.15-carat cat’s-eye diopside. 

Five very exceptional gems, all from Brazil, were added to the 
collection by exchange. They were a golden green beryl weighing 
1,363 carats, a 914-carat green beryl, a greenish-colored topaz weighing 
1,469 carats, a 1,862-carat amethyst, and a heart-shaped kunzite weigh- 
ing 880 carats. Received from an anonymous donor was the Portu- 
guese diamond, a fine step-cut stone weighing 127.01 carats. The 
Portuguese diamond is the largest cut diamond from Brazil and the 
thirteenth largest in the world. In the 1920’s it was recut to its present 
shape from a 150-carat cushion-shaped stone. Details of its early 
history are unknown, but it is said that it was once owned by the 
royal family of Portugal. 

EKighty-three meteorites were accessioned during the year, 28 of 
which were not previously represented in the collection, making this 
the best year in some time. The most important single addition was 
the collection of the late Arthur R. Allen of Trinidad, Colo. It con- 
tained 45 meteorites and 636 grams of tektites and was purchased 
by a grant from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 
Specimens of particular interest were the 14 fine oriented individuals 
of the Pasamonte, N. Mex., fall (totaling 1.3 kg.) and a Canyon 
Diablo specimen containing a large diamond inclusion. Seven stony 
meteorites that had not been previously known were included: Ala- 
mosa, Colo. (1.8 kg.) ; Blackwell, Okla. (2.4 kg.) ; Georgetown, Colo. 
(0.68 kg.) ; Mosquero, N. Mex. (1.6 kg.); Thatcher, Colo. (2 g.); 


28 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Tobe, Colo. (5.4 kg.) ; and Mosca, Colo. (6.1). Outstanding among 
the donations was a specimen of the widely publicized Bogou iron 
presented by President Maurice Yameogo of the Republic of Upper 
Volta. 

Science and technology—tIn the division of physical sciences an 
outstanding accession was the gift from Vassar College of the large 
telescope built in 1863 by Henry Fitz, one of America’s famous 
telescope makers, and used by Maria Mitchell at Vassar. Preston Bas- 
sett gave an 8-sided revolving mirror used by Albert Michelson in his 
famous determination of the velocity of light in 1924. A Collins 
helium cryostat, from Loyola University of New Orleans and Arthur 
D. Little, Inc., and an earlier Collins cryogenic expansion machine, 
from Samuel C. Collins, are basic artifacts in the recent development 
of commercially available low-temperature apparatus. 

In the section of chemistry, outstanding accessions relating to the 
element fluorine were a replica of the platinum apparatus for electroly- 
sis and distillation used by Henry Moissan in his epochal isolation of 
fluorine (1886), and a commercial fluorine cell made by the Harshaw 
Chemical Co., in 1942-43, and given the Museum by thecompany. The 
Moissan apparatus was fabricated through the courtesy of the Baker 
Platinum Division of Engelhard Industries, Inc. 

The collection of adding and calculating machines in the section of 
mathematics was notably enriched by the gift of 76 specimens from the 
Victor Comptometer Corp. The gift includes several famous his- 
torical machines, such as the Schilt adding machine of 1851, the oldest 
European key-driven machine; a Bollee direct-multiplication machine, 
one of only three such machines made by Louis Bollee between 1888 
and 1892; and the famous Scheutz difference engine of 1853, the first 
complete difference engine ever built. A replica of Charles Babbage’s 
difference engine was donated by the International Business Machines 
Corp. 

Among the most outstanding accessions in the section of light 
machinery and horology was a pocket watch made by Henry and James 
F. Pitkin of East Hartford, Conn., in about 1838. This specimen is 
an example of the first American attempt at watchmaking by machines. 
Other significant acquisitions by this section were a splendid example 
of a French skeleton clock of the late 18th century and a combination 
lock patented in 1841 by Dr. Solomon Andrews, an American inventor. 

The section of tools acquired the J. R. Brown Linear Dividing 
Machine of 1859 from the Brown & Sharpe Co., which was a milestone 
in the history of measurement in American manufacturing. A fully 
operative reproduction of the gun-stocking lathe developed by Thomas 
Blanchard in 1820-22 was also received. This pioneer machine, the 
original of which is in the Springfield Armory in Springfield, Mass., 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 29 


represents the beginning of American mass production by machine 
tools. A rare 19th-century Holtzapffel ornamental turning lathe was 
acquired with a very comprehensive collection of accessories. Edvard 
Johansson, Royal Swedish Consul at Detroit, donated a set of Johans- 
son gauge blocks for the hall. The adoption of the Johansson system 
of gauges invented by his father, C. E. Johansson in the late 19th 
century, revolutionized mass production by making it possible to 
achieve universal interchangeability of machine parts. This particu- 
lar set was the first to be produced in stainless steel and was made 
especially to be given to the inventor on his 71st birthday in 1933. The 
presentation was made in a formal ceremony in the hall of tools on 
March 13 by the Royal Swedish Ambassador, His Excellency Hubert 
de Besch. 

Among the outstanding models received by the division of trans- 
portation were a Pacific coast lumber steamer, a 4-masted barkentine, 
and the schooner Fly of 1812. A model of the new class of fast freight 
steamers, the American Challenger, 1962 record holder for the North 
Atlantic crossing by a freighter, was received from the United States 
Lines as a gift. 

The oldest scale model of an American-built ship, His Majesty’s 
44-oun ship America, built at Portsmouth, N.H., in 1746-1747, was 
received as a 3-year loan by special agreement from the trustees of 
the Portsmouth Athenaeum, Portsmouth, N.H. The model will be 
repaired and exhibited by the marine section and, after a year, trans- 
ferred to the division of naval history for a 2-year exhibition period. 

Three early railway signals (1880-1905) were donated by Thomas 
T. Taber to the section of land transportation. The vehicle collection 
was enriched by several important additions. The Mack Bulldog 
truck (1930) is the first commercial motor vehicle to be added to the 
collection and was donated by Victor Ottilio & Sons. A fine Rocka- 
way (1860) was the gift of Mr. and Mrs. Carl F. Flemer, Jr. A 
Hack Passenger Wagon (1880), more commonly called a mud wagon, 
was also added to the carriage collection. 

The largest object accessioned in the division of electricity was an 
85-ton alternating-current generator from the Adams station at Niag- 
ara Falls, donated jointly by Niagara-Mohawk Power Corp. and 
Westinghouse Electric Corp. It is this alternator that inaugurated 
in 1895 the modern era of central stations distributing electrical power 
over large areas. A somewhat smaller, but very important, magneto 
generator was received from the University of Virginia. It was 
made by Hippolyte Pixii in 1832 or 1833 and represents the first use 
of a commutator for the production of direct current. Only two 
other machines like this are known to exist in the world. A third 
generator, by Charles Wheatstone, was obtained on indefinite loan 


30 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


from King’s College, University of London. It is one of the first 
examples of a self-excited dynamo, a principle discovered coinci- 
dentally by Wheatstone in England and Werner Siemens in Germany 
in 1866. Excellent replicas of four alternating-current motors repre- 
senting the pioneer work of Galileo Ferraris in 1885 were given to 
the museum by the Associazione Elettrotecnica ed Elettronica Italiana 
and Istituto Elettrotecnico Nazionale Galileo Ferraris of Turin. 

Among the major accessions during the past year in the division 
of medical sciences were a collection of tools and research apparatus 
used in a late 19th century microbiology and biochemistry laboratory, 
donated by the University of Michigan, and a 1953 hydraulic turbine 
contra-angle handpiece with accessories and test model for dental 
drilling from the National Bureau of Standards. Also acquired 
were the office material, dental instruments, and personal memorabilia 
of Dr. Charles E. Kells as a gift from his daughter, Mrs. J. O. 
Pierson, through the School of Medicine of Tulane University. To 
the pharmaceutical collection, an ancient Egyptian mortar and pestle, 
weights, and amulets were added. 

Civil history Several items with Presidential associations received 
in the division of political history include a pair of leather chaps 
worn by President Theodore Roosevelt in the Dakota Territory, 
the gift of Mr. and Mrs. Kermit Roosevelt; a meerschaum pipe used 
by President Ulysses S. Grant in the White House, from the estate 
of George W. Crouch; one of the microphones used by President 
Franklin D. Roosevelt during his “fireside chats” to the American 
people in the 1930’s and 1940’s, the gift of the Columbia Broadcasting 
System and WTOP-Radio, Washington, D.C.; a pen used on January 
23, 1964, by President Lyndon B. Johnson to sign the bill establishing 
the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts, the gift of 
Senator Clinton P. Anderson. Important additions made to the First 
Ladies Collection are two dresses worn by Mrs. Grover Cleveland as 
First Lady and an evening cape that had belonged to her; these were 
the gift of Mr. and Mrs. Richard F. Cleveland. One of the new 
dresses, of black satin and iridescent taffeta, now represents Mrs. 
Cleveland in the exhibit in the First Ladies Hall. 

The division of cultural history received the frame and woodwork 
of an entire house, the gift of Alexander B. C. Mulholland; built in 
Ipswich, Mass., the older portion of this house dates from the late 17th 
century, the Jater from about 1750. The Honorable David Bruce pre- 
sented 18-century woodwork and paneling from two rooms of a 
Charleston, S.C., house. The architecture of Louis Sullivan is repre- 
sented in one lot of ornaments from his Chicago Stock Exchange 
Building, given by Mr. and Mrs. Leon M. Despres, and in another lot 


SECRETARY’S REPORT Sit 


from Sullivan’s Garrick Building, given by the Joint Committee on 
Preservation of the Garrick Building Ornament and World Book 
Encyclopedia. Mr. and Mrs. Fielding Pope Meigs, Jr., presented 223 
miscellaneous pieces of furniture, utensils, portraits, and other items, 
all heirlooms of the Meigs family. Other gifts include 33 rare early 
maps, a gouache by D. Y. Cameron, a painting by Thomas Wood, and 
two silver cans by Samuel Edwards, from Mrs. Francis P. Garvan; 
an 18th-century account and letter book of Alexander Smith of 
Alexandria, from Mrs. Jean M. Dodd; two mahogany side chairs 
from Mrs. Wellington Powell; and four side chairs and a Pennsyl- 
vania rocking chair from Mrs. George Maurice Morris. The family 
of Harry T. Peters donated a poster advertising a traveling menagerie 
from the Zoological Institute of New York City, dated 1835, a rare and 
early example of its kind. 

To the division of numismatics was added an original pewter strik- 
ing of the noted Castorland token made for the officers of the French 
colony established at Carthage, N.Y., 1796, and a rare pattern half 
dollar of 1916, both given by Ben Douglas. Other outstanding addi- 
tions to the United States series were a $20 gold piece in high relief 
and a $10 gold piece originally owned by Henry Hering, who com- 
pleted the design of these coins in 1907 for Augustus St. Gaudens, and 
Mr. Hering’s notes concerning the history of this gold coinage and 
the interest of President Theodore Roosevelt; these were the gift of 
Stack’s of New York. A die used by the J. J. Conway Co. of Colorado 
in the striking of a private $5 gold piece was donated by Robert Bash- 
low. Joseph B. Stack gave tintypes of the Bechtler family, well- 
known private gold coiners from North Carolina, a daguerreotype of 
John Little Moffat, a leading coiner in San Francisco during the gold 
rush, and the notebook of the mint engraver J. B. Longacre concerning 
the design of the 1856 flying eagle cent. 

An important collection of silver bars, bullet money, and various 
forms of media of exchange used in Siam and China were donated by 
Mrs. F. C. C. Boyd; Harvey Stack gave the Edith and Jean Jacques 
Ture collection of necessity pieces issued in France and the French 
colonies during the 1914-26 period. Willis du Pont added 645 coins 
struck during the second part of the reign of Catherine II of Russia 
and 210 Russian silver and bronze medals. Mrs. Wayte Raymond 
gave 1,167 coins of the world struck during the 19th and 20th centuries 
Mr. and Mrs. Mortimer Neinken made an important contribution of a 
specialized collection of checks of United States banks and nearly 
10,000 items of European paper currencies and documents of value. 
The first instance of the use of paper in coinage, a quarter gulden in 
cardboard issued in Leyden in 1573 during the siege by the Spaniards, 
was a gift from Dr. V. Clain-Stefanelli. 


32 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


To the division of philately and postal history Baron Takaharu 
Mitsui of Tokyo, Japan, donated an outstanding group of early letters 
and documents pertaining to the private posts of 19th-century Japan 
and the early government postal service of that country. Morrison 
Waud of Chicago, Ill., gave a large and comprehensive collection of 
United States newspaper stamps, proofs, essays, and forgeries and 
669 examples of stamped revenue paper. Mr. and Mrs. R. O. D. 
Hopkins donated a collection of essays and die proofs of the stamps 
of China and placed additional material of that nature on loan. 
A large specialized collection of stamps of South Africa was given by 
Dr. O. L. Harvey. Dr. James Matejka donated early airmail stamps 
of Syria and a rare airmail stamp of France. Harry L. Lindquist 
donated a large number of United States and foreign covers, many 
of which bear special postal markings and commemorative stamps. 
Charles H. Wuerz, Jr., continued to contribute stamps of Siam in an 
effort to complete that section of the National Postage Stamp 
Collection. 

Arts and manufactures.—Ralph E. Becker presented to the division 
of textiles a comprehensive collection of silk Jacquard woven pic- 
tures. These interesting examples of an unusual weaving art date 
from 1867 through the 1930’s. The wide variety of subjects include 
pictures of Columbus sighting America, Betsy Ross stitching the 
flag, and facsimilies of the signatures of the Declaration of Independ- 
ence. An excellent collection of American needlework was presented 
by Dr. Margaret R. Sandels. One of the embroidered pictures, “The 
Sea Beast,” of Mrs. Theodore Roosevelt, Jr., a noted needlewoman, 
was given by Mr. and Mrs. Sidney de la Rue. A colorful 18th- 
century floral border by the distinguished French designer Philippe 
de Lasalle was added to the brocade collection. 

Mrs. Clara W. Berwick supplemented her previous gifts to the 
division of ceramics and glass by 74 pieces of rare early American 
glass and 22 European and Oriental ivories. Robert H. McCauley 
presented 65 pieces of Liverpool type transfer printed earthenware, 
including a number of rare pitchers decorated with American themes. 
Mr. McCauley is the author of the definitive book Liverpool Transfer 
Designs on Anglo-American Pottery. Mrs. William A. Sutherland 
continued to add to the division’s collection of 18th-century English 
porcelains. This year she gave 28 fine examples of the production 
of 10 important factories, including a splendid Derby pitcher and a 
rare Lowestoft coffeepot. Dr. Hans Syz presented by transfer 53 
pieces of 18th-century European porcelain. One of the finest. collec- 
tions in America, the Syz collection is especially notable for examples 
of the important German factories, such as Meissen, Berlin, Héchst, 
Frankenthal, and Ludwigsburg, and of the extremely rare Viennese 
porcelain of the DuPaquier period. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 33 


The most important accession received in the division of graphic 
arts was a bequest of 243 Currier & Ives lithographs of sporting and 
western subjects from the Adele S. Colgate Estate. This gift greatly 
enhances the standing of the Museum’s collection of Currier & Ives 
prints. The important gift of Erich Cohn of 20 drawings and etch- 
ings by the German expressionist artists Paul Kleinschmidt and Lud- 
wig Meidner reflects what was probably the strongest group contri- 
bution to printmaking in this century. The Society of Washington 
Printmakers donated, through its president, Prentiss Taylor, the in- 
taglio print Zmage IIT, by Lois Fine; the woodcut The Valley, by 
Tsabella Walker; and the lithograph Vova Scotia, by Louis Lozowick. 

The section of photography acquired a number of historically note- 
worthy specimens of photographs and equipment. Lucien G. Bull 
of Paris presented a large group of material related to the early his- 
tory of high-speed photography, consisting of original negatives, 
prints, and an electromechanical timing device. Ansco, Binghamton, 
N.Y., presented a model of a photographic wagon of the type used by 
Mathew Brady during the Civil War. Nikon, Inc., presented a “Niko- 
nos” 35-mm. underwater camera, with watertight lens and body, for 
use under water without a protective housing. The Vew York Daily 
Mirror donated a lightweight Zeiss Ikon, Ernemann plate camera, 
originally purchased in the 1930’s by William Randolph Hearst to 
replace the bulkier cameras used by his newspapers, and another spe- 
cially designed camera intended to take pictures from a concealed 
position. 

The division of manufactures and heavy industries continued to 
collect for the various halls planned for the Museum of History and 
Technology. New York University presented to the section of nuclear 
energy the first subcritical reactor to be installed in a teaching institu- 
tion. Improvised from 2 tons of fuel lent by the U.S. Atomic Energy 
Commission and installed in a pickle barrel, the university was able to 
secure at a cost of $1,500 a teaching research facility which might 
otherwise have been unattainable. 

Youngstown Sheet & Tube Co. presented a model of an electric weld 
pipe mill for the hall of iron and steel. A malleable iron air furnace 
was given by Erie Malleable Iron Co.; and some Roman nails from the 
Inchtuthil excavation in Scotland came from Colvilles, Ltd., of 
Glasgow. 

The section of petroleum received further gifts as a result of the 
excellent work of the American Petroleum Institute’s subcommittee. 
Among these were an animated model of a modern sea-going drilling 
installation from Kerr-McGee Oil Industries, Inc.; three models of 
drilling rigs from the Lee C. Moore Corp.; and an interesting survey 
model of the Velma field from Skelly Oil Co. 


34 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The division of agriculture and forest products has been principally 
concerned with obtaining materials for the hall of forest products. 
The Forest Products Laboratory, Department of Agriculture, Mad- 
ison, Wis., gave a swellograph—a device that measures swelling 
changes in wood having a finished surface. Larus & Brother Co., 
Inc., reproduced a tobacco hogshead like those used 125 to 150 years 
ago. Permali, Inc., contributed samples of machined parts for elec- 
trical equipment and Fibron Products, Buffalo, N.Y., gave 17 hand- 
some pieces of compressed wood products. To the agricultural collec- 
tion has been added catalogs of agricultural implement companies 
around 1880 belonging to Sylvanus D. Locke, the inventor of the 
famous wire binder. Gordon Dentry donated a four-tined wooden 
fork used by his grandfather and possibly his great-grandfather in 
Baltimore County, Md. 

Armed Forces history.—A fine example of a Gatling gun was pre- 
sented by the Armed Forces of Honduras. Mrs. George C. Marshall 
presented several uniforms worn by General of the Army George C. 
Marshall during World War II. The division of naval history made 
significant additions to the national collection of historic warship 
models while projecting further units required to complete the hall of 
armed forces history. Particularly notable was a rigged model of 
Robert Fulton’s Steam Battery, the world’s first steam man-of-war, 
which was built by Adam and Noah Brown in 1814 for the defense of 
New York. Plans for this 26-gun blockship were provided by How- 
ard I. Chapelle who in 1961 discovered a contemporary draft of 
the Steam Battery in the Danish Royal Archives at Copenhagen. By 
happy coincidence, the division of naval history also received an origi- 
nal Fulton draft of the armored torpedo boat Mute presented by 
the family of George F. Brown, descendants of her versatile builders, 
the Brown brothers of New York. The emergence of the steam navy 
was further represented with the completion of a superb model of 
the side-wheel steamer Powhatan, which served with Commodore 
Perry in the opening of Japan. 

Through the generosity of the U.S. Coast Guard, the division of 
naval history received a fully equipped beach cart of the type used by 
the Life Saving Service for offshore rescue, a set of range lights from 
Alaska, and an oil painting by Hunter Wood of the topsail schooner 
Massachusetts, first cutter commissioned by the early Revenue Marine. 

A patent model of the revolutionary K-1 firing device, the heart of 
the antenna mine employed in the North Sea mine barrage during 
World War I, was presented by Mrs. Ralph C. Browne, widow of its 
gifted inventor. Vivid memories of the Battle of Midway were evoked 
by the bullet-torn flight jacket and combat decorations donated by 
George H. Gay, sole survivor of Torpedo Squadron 8. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 35 


Among the more important objects acquired by the section of under- 
water exploration during the year are ships’ fittings and equipment 
from a wreck site in Bermuda believed to date from the 1560’s. These 
include a bar shot, several single blocks, two parrels, small- and 
medium-sized deadeyes, and a large collection of ceramic sherds, some 
of which will yield nearly complete vessels when reconstructed. 


RESEARCH, EXPLORATION, AND FIELDWORK 


Dr. T. D. Stewart, director of the Museum of Natural History, 
accompanied by exhibits specialist John C. Widener, went to Mexico 
City in mid-December 1963, the former to select examples of pre- 
historic filed and inlayed human teeth and the latter to make molds 
thereof. Mr. Widener will make casts from the molds for an exhibit 
in the planned hall of physical anthropology. 

Dr. Stewart, serving as a member of the Committee on Research 
and Exploration of the National Geographic Society, inspected the 
Wetherill Mesa archeological project in Mesa Verde National Park 
late in June, stopping off enroute from a second trip to Mexico City 
where he attended the 33d annual meeting of the American Associa- 
tion of Physical Anthropologists. 

At various times during the year Dr. I. E. Wallen, assistant director 
for oceanography, visited institutions in Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
New York, Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Mississippi, 
Louisiana, Texas, California, and Hawaii in connection with the 
program of the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center. He also 
prepared several short papers dealing with developments in ocean- 
ography and the role of the Sorting Center. 

Dr. H. Adair Fehlmann, supervisor of the Smithsonian Oceano- 
graphic Sorting Center, participated in Cruise 4B of the R/V Anton 
Bruun, of the International Indian Ocean Expedition, from early 
November to mid-December. This trip gave him a useful oppor- 
tunity to study curatorial procedures on shipboard and to determine 
the need for a trained technician to oversee the handling of biological 
samples from the time of collection to the time the specimen cargo is 
consigned for shipment to the Sorting Center. Thanks to his recom- 
mendations, future collections should come through in better condition 
and with more complete documentation. Dr. Fehlmann also had an 
opportunity to observe the techniques and equipment used in handling 
plankton in the Indian Ocean Biological Laboratory at Ernakulam, 
South India. 

Chairman of the department of anthropology Waldo R. Wedel com- 
pleted a review of the prehistory and aboriginal ecology of north- 
central Colorado in which he emphasizes the importance of the foot- 
hills-hogback strip between the Plains and the Front Range in the 

766-746—65——4 


36 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


history of the region. In addition, he continued work on two manu- 
scripts, one dealing with the 1961-62 Smithsonian excavations at the 
Lamb Spring archeological-paleontological site near Littleton, Colo., 
and the other with the 1952 Smithsonian-Princeton investigations at 
an ancient bison kill near Cody, Wyo. The latter site has recently 
been dated by the radiocarbon method at 8,750-8,840 years ago. At 
the close of the year he was back in the Middle West. 

Dr. Clifford Evans, curator of archeology, and research associate 
Betty J. Meggers completed a major monograph on the Valdivia and 
Machalilla phases of the Early Formative period of coastal Ecuador. 
Twenty-two dates obtained by processing shell and charcoal samples 
in the Smithsonian’s Carbon Dating Laboratory convincingly bracket 
the Valdivia phase at 5,150 to 3,400 years ago. 

After joining the staff in December as associate curator of arche- 
ology, Dr. Richard B. Woodbury made two trips to the Tehuacan 
Valley in southern Puebla, Mexico, in continuation of his research on 
preindustrial systems of water management in arid regions. He found 
evidence of large-scale irrigation from Late Formative times on, that 
is, for about 2,500 years—probably the longest record of irrigation 
in the New World. Dr. Woodbury also continued working with re- 
search associate Nathalie F.S. Woodbury on a report dealing with the 
Hawikuh archeological site in New Mexico, based on the unpublished 
records obtained in 1917-23 by the late F. W. Hodge, following his 
departure from the Smithsonian’s Bureau of American Ethnology. 

In collaboration with Drs. Glen H. Cole of the Uganda Museum and 
A. Jamme of the Catholic University of America, Dr. Gus Van Beek, 
associate curator of archeology, completed a preliminary report on an 
archeological reconnaissance in Wadi Hadhramaut, South Arabia, 
undertaken in 1961-62. He also spent several weeks during April 
and May in an archeological reconnaissance in Yemen, at the invitation 
of the Yemen Arab Republic Government. On the way back to the 
States he visited sites in Ethiopia and conferred with colleagues in 
Aden and Jordan. 

Museum specialist George Metcalf continued his studies of arche- 
ological materials from central Nebraska, encouraged by 11th- to 14th- 
century site dates supplied by the Smithsonian’s Carbon Dating 
Laboratory. Dr. C. G. Holland, honorary collaborator, having visited 
161 archeological sites in southwestern Virginia in 1963, progressed 
with his analysis of the collections and site data. Honorary research 
associate Neil M. Judd completed his final monograph (Zhe Architec- 
ture of Pueblo Bonito) relating to the archeology of Chaco Canyon, 
N. Mex. During the summer of 1963, Dr. John M. Campbell, honor- 
ary research associate, carried out an archeological and ecological 
survey of the Koyukuk River drainage in northern Alaska. Follow- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT av 


ing this trip he continued preparation of a monograph on Nunamiut 
Eskimo prehistory. 

Dr. Saul H. Riesenberg, curator of ethnology, completed a mono- 
graph on the aboriginal political organization of Ponape, Caroline 
Islands. In addition, he progressed with the report on the megalithic 
structures of Nan Madol, Ponape, where a Smithsonian joint arche- 
ological-ethnological field project last year produced finds of unusual 
interest and made possible an evaluation by different disciplinary 
approaches. 

Intensive exhibit work in the hall of the cultures of Africa and Asia, 
opened informally at the end of the year, left little time for other 
research by the associate curators involved, Drs. Gordon Gibson and 
Eugene Knez. On the other hand, associate curator William Crocker 
spent 2 weeks in July 1963 and approximately 4 months early in 1964 
with the Canela Indians of Brazil, a tribe threatened with extinction. 
He was again with them as the year ended. Between trips to Brazil 
Dr. Crocker prepared two articles based on the Canela investigations. 

Dr. J. Lawrence Angel, curator of physical anthropology, com- 
pleted two manuscripts, one on osseous changes in the hip joint and 
the other on the human skeletons associated with extinct animals at 
the Tranquility site, California; he completed a paper on hyperostosis 
spongiosa to be included in a volume on paleopathology. With his 
technical assistant, Donald Ortner, Dr. Angel worked out a special 
form which will permit rapid coding of data on the anthropology of 
chronic disease for computer analysis. These data have been ob- 
tained mainly in a long-term study of students at Jefferson Medical 
College in Philadelphia, some of whom were restudied this year. 

At the beginning of the year Miss L. E. Hoyme, then museum spe- 
cialist (now associate curator of physical anthropology), was in Eng- 
land studying 19th-century skeletons of known age and sex at St. 
Bride’s Church, Fleet Street, London, and visiting laboratories of 
physical anthropology. In July she successfully defended her doc- 
toral dissertation at Oxford University and in December received her 
degree in absentia. 

From the end of January to the beginning of April the chairman 
of the department of zoology, Dr. Horton H. Hobbs, Jr., participated 
in the Bredin-Archbold-Smithsonian Biological Survey of Dominica, 
studying the fresh-water decapod crustaceans of the island. As time 
permitted, he completed a manuscript on new entocytherids from Vir- 
ginia and made progress on a revision of the entocytherid ostracods 
of Mexico and Cuba. 

Senior scientist Fenner A. Chace, Jr., completed a study initiated 
by the late Belle A. Stevens on the mesopelagic caridean shrimp 
Notostomus japonicus Bate in the northeastern Pacific. Also, he 


38 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


finished a report on the decapod crustaceans of the island of St. 
Helena in the South Atlantic. 

Although the curator of mammals, Dr. David H. Johnson, was re- 
sponsible for the general development of exhibits in the hall of oste- 
ology opened at the end of the year, he found time to study the 
distribution of hares and certain species of bats in southeastern Asia 
and to continue his general survey of the mammals of that area. 

For the better part of the year, Dr. Henry W. Setzer, associate cura- 
tor of mammals, directed from Washington the work in Iran and 
southern Africa of field parties collecting mammals and their ecto- 
parasites. This program was carried out in cooperation with the 
Army Medical Research and Development Command. Dr. Setzer 
joined the African party in mid-September and the Iranian party in 
late October, staying until mid-December. His museum work con- 
sisted chiefly of identification of mammals from Egypt and the Sudan 
collected by a Naval Medical Research Unit. 

From January to March Dr. Charles O. Handley, Jr., associate 
curator of mammals, collected specimens in the high mountains on 
the Colombian frontier of Darién Province, Panama, obtaining among 
other valuable materials, two species of bats new to the Panamanian 
fauna and a number of rare marsupials, shrews, and rodents. Late in 
June, in connection with attendance at a meeting of the American 
Society of Mammalogists in Mexico City, Dr. Handley spent 8 days 
studying fruit bats in the Instituto de Biologia. This filled one of 
the last major gaps in his revision of this large and complex genus. 

Dr. Robert A. Traub of the University of Maryland Medical School, 
honorary research associate in the division of mammals, was in Paki- 
stan from the beginning of the fiscal year until October collecting 
mammals and other vertebrates and their ectoparasites in continuation 
of his studies of rickettsial infections. 

The Pacific Ocean Biological Survey Program, under the direction 
of Dr. Philip S. Humphrey, curator of birds, has increased greatly 
in scope since its inception in October 1962. Because of its concern 
with the distribution, migrations, and ecology of central Pacific sea 
birds, collaborative relationships have been developed with the U.S. 
Bureau of Commercial Fisheries, the Bernice P. Bishop Museum, the 
State of Hawaii Division of Fish and Game, and others. Of approxi- 
mately 50 people employed this year on the project many were gradu- 
ate students who were gathering data for doctoral dissertations. 

The Rockefeller Foundation has provided support for a field study 
enabling Dr. Humphrey to work with the Belém Virus Laboratory, 
Fundacao Servico Especial de Satide Piblica, and the Museu Paraense 
“Emilio Goeldi,” Belém, Brazil. This cooperative field study deals 
with the relationship of birds and arthropod-borne virus diseases. As 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 39 


time permitted, Dr. Humphrey continued his studies of plumage suc- 
cession in birds and on the distribution, ecology, and classification of 
Patagonian and Brazilian birds. At the close of the year he was 
back in Brazil. 

From the beginning of December 1963 to the latter part of March 
1964, George E. Watson, associate curator of birds, served as official 
United States representative (observer) with the Chilean-Antarctic 
Commission. During delays in Chile for ship repairs and for the ice 
to break up he was able to spend 13 days in December at Peulla, Lian- 
quihue Province, observing and collecting forest birds. During 
another delay of 22 days in January-February at Puerto Williams, 
he was able to make a catalog of birds breeding on Navarino Island 
and to collect specimens, among which are several important additions 
to the national collections. Mr. Watson’s observations of birds made 
on shipboard in Antarctic waters will be useful in preparing an identi- 
fication guide to Antarctic birds which he has planned. Upon his 
return from Chile he completed his doctoral dissertation dealing with 
ecology and evolution of passerine birds on the islands of the Aegean 
Sea and received in June the Ph.D. degree from Yale University. 

Dr. Richard L. Zusi, associate curator of birds, spent a week in 
November at the University of Michigan working on three manu- 
scripts, which he had begun there, and consulting with Dr. R. W. Storer 
concerning their joint research project on the myology of grebes. 
From January to April he was in Dominica studying birds as a par- 
ticipant in the Bredin-Archbold-Smithsonian biological survey of that 
island. 

In continuation of his long-term field work on the birdlife of the 
Isthmus of Panama, Dr. Alexander Wetmore, honorary research asso- 
ciate and retired Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, concen- 
trated his efforts from January through March in Darién Province, 
mainly in the heavy rainforest adjacent to the Colombian boundary. 
The results were most successful, for both specimens of and observa- 
tions on species that have been little known in Panama were obtained, 
and several new records of South American birds not previously 
recorded in the area were established. 

Dr. Herbert Friedmann, honorary research associate and former 
curator of the division, continued his work on brood parasitism and 
completed a manuscript dealing with evolutionary trends in the avian 
genus Clamator. 

Herbert G. Deignan, honorary research associate and former mem- 
ber of the division, was in Washington from mid-January to late April 
studying birds from Formosa in the Naval Medical Research Unit 
(NAMRU) collections and those from Viet-Nam and Cambodia col- 
lected by Bernard Feinstein, former museum specialist in the division. 


40 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Two new honorary research associates appointed this year, Prof. 
D. S. Rabor of Silliman University, Philippine Islands, and Dr. Rob- 
ert W. Ficken of the University of Maryland, carried on important 
research. Prof. Rabor worked on the general ornithology of the Phil- 
ippine Islands; Dr. Ficken undertook extensive field and laboratory 
research on the behavior of wood warblers. 

Honorary research associate Oliver L. Austin, Jr., continued his 
technical editorial work on the two final volumes of A. C. Bent’s 
Life Histories of North American Birds. 

Dr. Doris M. Cochran, curator of reptiles and amphibians, in collab- 
oration with Dr. C. J. Goin of Gainsville, Fla., made considerable 
progress on a manuscript dealing with Colombian frogs. 

The curator of fishes, Dr. Leonard P. Schultz, accompanied by 
exhibits specialist Alfred Strohlein, spent a few days in October in 
the vicinity of Seattle, Wash., in search of a salmon-spawning area 
that would provide material for a diorama for the planned hall of 
cold-blooded vertebrates. They were successful and in addition 
returned with an 89-pound octopus, donated by the Point Defiance 
Aquarium at Tacoma. Otherwise Dr. Schultz continued his study of 
frogfishes and his recording of shark attacks throughout the world. 

Two associate curators of the division of fishes, Drs. Robert H. 
Gibbs, Jr., and Ernest A. Lachner, participated this year in cruises of 
the International Indian Ocean Expedition. Dr. Gibbs was on 
Cruise 3 of the R/V Anton Bruun, the primary purpose of which was 
to sample deep-sea ichthyofauna in the western Indian Ocean and to 
relate the distributions of species and biomass to the physicochemical 
and biological properties of the water masses sampled in a north- 
south transect. The cruise began at Bombay on August 8 and termi- 
nated at Port Louis, Mauritius, on September 20. Following the 
cruise Dr. Gibbs spent 2 months working at museums in Paris, Berlin, 
Hamburg, Bremerhaven, and Copenhagen. 

Dr. Lachner was on Cruise 4B of the same ship, the major objec- 
tive of which was to evaluate the relative distribution and abundance 
of benthic organisms inhabiting the continental shelf and upper slope 
of the Arabian Sea. This cruise began at Bombay on November 12 
and terminated off the Muscat coast of Arabia in mid-December. On 
his way to and from the cruise Dr. Lachner visited institutions in 
London, Paris, Bern, Jerusalem, Karachi, Sydney, Brisbane, Hong 
Kong, and several places in Japan. 

Dr. Victor G. Springer, associate curator of fishes, expanded his 
studies on sharks, completing revisions of three genera. During the 
year he visited Stanford University and musems in Hamburg, Paris, 
and London, studying blennioid fish types and other specimens and 
bringing close to completion a revision of the genus E’ntomacrodus. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 41 


Dr. William R. Taylor, associate curator of fishes, developed a new 
technique in the preparation of specimens for osteological study in- 
volving the use of solutions of the enzyme trypsin buffered with sodium 
borate. This treatment, which removes the muscle tissue, has proved 
effective in making both preserved and fresh specimens translucent ; the 
connective tissue, cartilage, bones, viscera, and major nerves remaining. 

Associate curator Stanley H. Weitzman completed a study of two 
genera of Asiatic minnows, three manuscripts dealing with South 
American catfishes, and a study of the osteology and relationships 
of the characid subfamilies Lebiasininae and Erythrininae. 

Dr. J. A. F. Garrick, honorary research associate, who worked in 
the division of fishes last year, returned to his home in Wellington, 
New Zealand, where he is continuing his world revision of carcha- 
rhinid sharks. During May he visited Australia to study specimens 
of sharks not available in museums of Europe, America, or Africa. 
His critical revision of carcharhinid sharks is the first ever attempted. 

From the end of December 1963 to mid-February 1964 Dr. Donald 
F’. Squires, curator of marine invertebrates, was a participant in the 
“MacQuarie Gap” cruise of the New Zealand Oceanographic Institute 
aboard HMNZS Hndeavour. Although the nominal purpose of the 
cruise was to determine the topographic relationship between the 
MacQuarie Ridge and New Zealand, considerable marine biological 
work was scheduled. To Dr. Squires’s profit, 11 of the 79 bottom 
dredgings and bottom trawls contained living corals. Through use 
of the ship’s refrigerators, these were kept alive for up to 10 days, thus 
advancing culturing techniques. The most significant advance in 
marine knowledge resulting from the cruise was the location and 
dredging of the first deep-water coral structure found outside the 
North Atlantic. 

In the museum, Dr. Squires finished, with the assistance of Ian W. 
Keys, senior paleontological technician, New Zealand Geological Sur- 
vey, a study of the biomechanics of the scleractinian coral Manicina 
areolata. He also completed several other studies on fossil and recent 
corals. 

Associate curator Thomas EK. Bowman completed an account of an 
arostrate population of the planktonic calanoid copepod Acartia 
lilljeborgii, from St. Lucia, West Indies. He described a new genus 
and species of cirolanid isopod from Madison Cave, Va., the first 
troglobitic cirolanid to be found in the United States outside of Texas; 
a new anthurid isopod from the Caguanes Caves in Cuba; and a new 
mysid crustacean, abundant in Lake Ponchartrain, La. With L. J. 
Lancaster, he described a bloom of the planktonic blue-green alga 
Skujaella in the Tonga Islands. 

During most of April and May associate curator Charles E. Cut- 
ress, Jr., accompanied by Kjell Sandved serving as photographer, 


42 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


collected marine materials along the coasts of Hawaii and southern 
California to be used in planned exhibits. Following this trip Mr. Cut- 
ress visited the Friday Harbor Laboratory of the University of Wash- 
ington in search of clarification of the taxonomy of the swimming 
anemones Stomphia. 

Dr. Raymond B. Manning, who joined the staff at the end of last 
year as associate curator of marine invertebrates, in May and June 
teamed with a research group from the Institute of Marine Science, 
University of Miami, for a 20-day offshore scientific cruise in the 
Gulf of Guinea. Following the cruise he spent several days collecting 
inshore marine invertebrates near Dakar, Senegal, before visiting 
natural history museums in Paris, Leiden, and London to study types 
of stomatopod crustaceans. 

During the year, Dr. Manning finished most of a manuscript revis- 
ing the stomatopods of the western Atlantic, collaborated with L. B. 
Holthuis, of the Rijksmuseum van Natuurlijke Historie, on a con- 
tribution dealing with stomatopods for the publication “Treatise on 
Invertebrate Paleontology,” and completed two additional manu- 
scripts on these animals. 

Associate curator Marian H. Pettibone completed a revision of 
the polychaete family Pilargiidae, including a description of three 
new species from Virginia. 

Museum specialist Henry B. Roberts completed a description of a 
new genus of Cretaceous crab, redescribed the Cretaceous crab Cam- 
pylostoma pierrense Rathbun, and compiled a checklist and _ bibli- 
ography of the Pleistocene decapods of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal 
Plain. 

Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt, honorary research associate, completed the 
revision of “Crustaceans,” a popular account prepared a few decades 
ago for the Smithsonian Scientific Series. 

Curator Harald A. Rehder continued work on a study of the marine 
mollusks of Polynesia. He sorted and arranged the material he 
gathered in Tahiti last year, and identified and studied specimens from 
Tongo and Hawaii. <A bibliography of Polynesian marine malacology 
was initiated, and progress was made on his monograph of the Har- 
pidae and on a study of certain species of the family Volutidae. 

From late October to late December, Dr. Joseph Rosewater, asso- 
ciate curator of mollusks, participated in the International Indian 
Ocean Expedition, Auxiliary Cruise “A” aboard the R/V Ze Vega. 
After a delay of 2 weeks in Singapore for ship repairs, which gave 
him an opportunity to make local collection, the ship headed north 
through the Straits of Malacca along the west coast of Malaysia with 
stops at Kuala Lumpur and Penang, then to Phuket, Thailand, and 
north to the Similan Islands, westward to Sumatra and southeast- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 43 


ward down the Mentawai Islands south of Sumatra as far as Mega. 
Unfortunately, a break in the drive shaft occurred about 60 miles 
southeast of Padang, cutting the cruise short by about 2 weeks. How- 
ever, there was obtained in the areas visited a representative collection 
of mollusks in which new records and range extentions already have 
been noted. 

Associate curator Joseph P. E. Morrison completed a manuscript 
describing new species of the families Hydrobiidae, Pyramidellidae, 
and Mactridae, from Louisiana. 

Dr. J. F. Gates Clarke, chairman of the new Department of Entomol- 
ogy, accompanied by Mrs. Clarke, visited the island of Rapa (Austral 
group) in French Polynesia from the beginning of September to mid- 
December. <A large collection of Microlepidoptera and other insect 
groups was obtained, including 760 specimens reared by Mrs. Clarke. 
Also, the food plants of more than half of the approximately 75 
species collected were ascertained and immature stages of all reared 
species were preserved. This is the first time that such information 
has been available for these small moths. A preliminary examination 
of the Microlepidoptera from Rapa suggests a close relationship with 
those in New Zealand and the Indo-Australian area. 

In June Dr. Clarke spent 5 days on Mount Magazine in the Ozark 
National Forest of the Ouachita Mountains, Ark. The nearly 3,000 
specimens he collected, of which 1,222 are Microlepidoptera, help fill 
a gap in the national collection. 

Dr. Clarke completed a paper on the genera Orsotricha and Pali- 
norsa of the families Gelechiidae and Oecophoridae, respectively. 

Associate curators of Lepidoptera Don R. Davis and W. Donald 
Duckworth made a joint collection trip from early July to mid-August 
to a hitherto poorly collected area in northeastern Mexico that extends 
along the main highway south from Nuevo Loredo and eastward to 
the Gulf coast between Tampico and Tuxpan. Interest centered pri- 
marily on the microlepidopterous families Prodoxidae and Stenomidae 
with the result that much larval material was collected and many new 
records acquired. The total collection, including representatives of 
other insect groups, amounts to approximately 25,000 specimens. 

From mid-April to the end of May, Dr. Duckworth again went into 
the field, this time to Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Through the 
help of Mrs. Duckworth another 25,000 specimens were collected here. 

Dr. Davis completed a revision of the subfamily Prodoxinae and 
Dr. Duckworth completed several papers dealing with the large family 
Stenomidae. 

In July associate curator of Lepidoptera William D. Field made a 
28-day collecting trip for Rhopalocera through the mountains of New 
York and New England. Large series of several species of butterflies 


44 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


needed for the national collection were taken. In May Mr. Field spent 
12 days in the entomologically neglected area of western Virginia and 
West Virginia collecting information, especially on the extent of the 
ranges of boreal species in the southern mountains. 

At the close of the year Dr. O. L. Cartwright, curator of Coleoptera, 
was on a trip to London and Paris to study type specimens of scarab 
beetles of the Bahamas and Micronesia. 

Dr. Paul J. Spangler, associate curator of Coleoptera, spent 7 weeks 
during July and August in Mexico and southwestern United States 
collecting much needed material for his investigations on water beetles. 
So little is known about the merging of the Nearctic and Neotropical 
Zones in Mexico that all expeditions to this area are pointed toward the 
elucidation of this factor. Not less than 6 of the genera collected 
represent new records for Mexico and not less than 20 species are new 
to science. Larvae for nearly all the species were collected, and all the 
information on immature forms is new. Specimens of semiaquatic 
beetles of the very rare family Georyssidae were collected in quantity. 

Ralph E. Crabill, Jr., curator of Myriapoda and Arachnida, was 
in Europe at the beginning of the fiscal year and stayed there until 
mid-August, during which time he visited the Zoologische Samlung 
des Bayerischen Staates, Munich, and the British Museum (Natural 
History) for the purpose of studying typical and ordinary chilopod 
specimens. In upper Bavaria and northern Austria he undertook 
four collecting trips which netted some 1,200 specimens, including some 
topotypes and a host of species not previously represented in the 
national collections. 

From mid-July to mid-August, Dr. Oliver S. Flint, Jr., associate 
curator of neuropteroids, was on a field trip to the islands of Jamaica, 
Dominica, St. Lucia, and Grenada, conducting studies on the Antillean 
caddisfly fauna. During 4 days spent on Jamaica and about a week 
each on the other islands he collected 2,000-3,000 insects, of which 500 
or more are Trichoptera. In April and June he was back in Dominica 
as a participant in the Bredin-Archbold-Smithsonian biological sur- 
vey of that island. Dr. Flint completed two papers dealing with 
certain species of Nearctic Trichoptera in the collection of the Museum 
of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, and new species discovered in 
the United States. 

Jason R. Swallen, chairman of the department of botany, visited 
South Africa in September and October at the invitation of the 
National Botanic Gardens of South Africa to join in the Golden Jubi- 
lee Celebration of the Gardens. The celebration included over a 
month’s tour of the country, which afforded an opportunity to collect 
about 200 specimens of grasses, including a number of species new to 
the National Herbarium. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 45 


Associate curator of phanerogams Velva E. Rudd continued work 
on her manuscript on the papilionoid legumes of Mexico, bringing part 
one to completion. In connection with her studies in the Leguminosae, 
she spent 6 days in September at the herbarium of the Universidad 
Nacional Auténomo de México in Mexico City. This research oppor- 
tunity was afforded by her attendance at the Secundo Congreso Mexi- 
cano de Botaénica, which met in San Luis Potosi. 

From mid-June through August, Dr. Stanwyn G. Shetler, associate 
curator of phanerogams, traveled to Alaska and collected plants in the 
western Brooks Range with a University of Alaska expedition. He 
also studied collections in the herbarium of the University of Alaska 
and searched for a suitable setting for a diorama planned for the hall 
of plant life. 

Associate curator of phanerogams Wallace R. Ernst completed a 
manuscript on “The Genus /’'schscholzia in the South Coast Ranges of 
California” and, with Dr. H. J. Thompson of the University of Cal- 
ifornia, Los Angeles, another manuscript on the pollination patterns 
and taxonomy of the genus Huenide. At the American Institute of 
Biological Sciences (AIBS) meetings at Amherst, Mass., in August his 
joint paper with Dr. Thompson won an award in taxonomy. During 
the last 3 months of the year he was in Dominica, participating in the 
Bredin-Archbold-Smithsonian biological survey of that island. 

Associate curator of phanerogams Dan H. Nicolson, along with 
associate curators Stanwyn Shetler and David Lellinger, visited the 
Great Smoky Mountains National Park in May in search of sites usable 
in preparing an eastern deciduous forest life-group in the planned Hall 
of Plant Life. 

At the beginning of the fiscal year Dr. Thomas R. Soderstrom, 
associate curator of grasses, was in the Wilhelmina Mountains of 
Surinam, on a New York Botanical Garden expedition which col- 
lected until October. About from 5 to 8 percent of the collections 
represent grasses, all of which, including duplicates, are being iden- 
tified in the National Herbarium for distribution to major herbaria. 

C. V. Morton, curator of ferns, spent 3 weeks during July in librar- 
ies in London and Paris checking bibliographic information in con- 
nection with his study of the photographs he made of fern types 
in European herbaria. With associate curator David B. Lellinger, he 
prepared a treatment of the genus Aspleniwm in Venezuela, based 
largely on the extensive collections assembled from the Guayana High- 
lands region by the New York Botanical Garden and the Chicago 
Natural History Museum. 

In August, on his way to the AIBS meetings in Amherst, Mass., 
Dr. Mason E. Hale, curator of cryptogams, collected lichens in north- 
western New Jersey, in the Catskill Mountains in New York, and in 


46 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


western Connecticut. During September and October he visited 
major herbaria in London, Stockholm, Uppsala, Lund, Turku, Hel- 
sinki, Leiden, Vienna, Munich, and Geneva. One of the purposes 
of the trip was to subject type specimens to chemical tests. In April 
Dr. Hale collected in southwestern Virginia, North Carolina, eastern 
Tennessee, Alabama, and Georgia, obtaining for chemical analysis 
approximately 1,000 specimens at 27 localities. 

Associate curator of cryptogams Harold E. Robinson spent 3 
months, from the end of January to the end of April in Dominica, 
as a participant in the Bredin-Archbold-Smithsonian biological sur- 
vey of that island. Collections were made of both plant and animal 
material, including primarily bryophytes, with approximately 200 
species, and Dolichopodidae, with approximately 90 species. 

Associate curator of cryptogams Paul Conger completed a manu- 
script on a new species of epibenthic marine diatom from Honolulu 
Harbor, Hawaii. 

Before resigning in August, associate curator Richard EK. Norris 
completed a second cruise on the R/V Anton Bruun in the Indian 
Ocean and made a collection of marine algae and plankton, which 
is being processed at the Smithsonian Oceanographic Sorting Center. 

Dr. William L. Stern, curator of plant anatomy, was transferred 
temporarily to the International Civil Service early in July so that 
he could spend a year in the Philippines as a forestry officer with the 
Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. 

On August 25, Dr. Richard H. Eyde, associate curator of plant 
anatomy, took part in an AIBS pre-meeting botanical field trip 
through the Berkshire Mountains. He also spent a long weekend in 
April visiting the Brookgreen Gardens in South Carolina for the 
purpose of obtaining preserved flowers of Vyssa aquatica, a species 
which does not grow in the Washington area. He arranged for ad- 
ditional flowers to be collected as they appear. 

Dr. Eyde completed a comparative anatomical investigation of the 
flower Garrya, an American genus of debated affinities, concluding 
that the closest allies are the Old World cornaceous genera Aucuba 
and Griselina. 

Dr. G. A. Cooper, chairman of the department of paleobiology, in 
company with Dr. J. T. Dutro of the U.S. Geological Survey, made a 
field trip to New Mexico and Texas from mid-March to the latter 
part of April. They worked on the Devonian sequence in New Mexico, 
first at Silver City, and then at Hillsboro, Mud Springs and Caballos 
Mountains, and Alamogordo (San Andres and Sacramento Moun- 
tains). In Texas they collected blocks of fossil-bearing Permian 
rocks in the Guadalupe and Glass Mountains. Lastly, they col- 
lected Permian and Pennsylvanian fossils in the vicinity of Santa 
Anna and Jacksboro, Tex. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 47 


In collaboration with Dr. R. E. Grant of the U.S. Geological Survey, 
Dr. Cooper nearly finished a large manuscript on the Permian brachio- 
pods of the Glass Mountains. 

Dr. Francis Hueber, associate curator of paleobotany, made two 
trips to Canada this year in connection with his study of fossil plants. 
On the first trip, in August, he studied sites in Lower Devonian sedi- 
ments along the shore of the Restigouche River in New Brunswick 
and type localities for certain species along the north shore of Gaspé 
Bay in Quebec. Sixteen crates of specimens were forwarded to 
the museum. His second trip, in May, took him to the Redpath Mu- 
seum at McGill University, Montreal, and to the Geological Survey 
of Canada, Ottawa, to examine collections. One of his findings during 
the second trip is that the holotype of Cladoxylon dawsoni, an Upper 
Devonian plant from New York, is distributed among three separate 
museum collections. 

Dr. Hueber spent the first week in April in Scotland examining 
collections of Rhynie Chert offered for sale. This is a classic Middle 
Devonian plant-bearing material no longer freely available from the 
type locality in Aberdeenshire. It contains exceptionally well- 
preserved and nearly intact examples of early land plants, the dis- 
covery and description of which in 1917-21 revolutionized botanical 
evolutionary thought. Thus the opportunity to select this material 
in quantity is quiterare. The lot purchased weighed 1,000 pounds. 

Curator of invertebrate paleontology Richard S. Boardman, ac- 
companied by museum specialist George T. Farmer, made a collecting 
trip to the Arbuckle Mountains in southern Oklahoma in September 
and October. The oldest known (approximately 480 million years) 
fossil Bryozoa on the continent occur here in sedimentary rocks 1,500 
feet thick. Thus, enough time is represented to demonstrate the 
evolution of early genera and the phylogenetic connections and origin 
of many of the genera occurring more commonly in younger rocks. 

Dr. Porter Kier, associate curator of invertebrate paleontology, 
was in Florida at the beginning of the fiscal year and continued there 
until July 12 studying the living habits of echinoids in the area of 
the Florida Keys. In company with Dr. Norman Sohl of the U.S. 
Geological Survey, he used scuna diving equipment to observe species 
distribution in relation to bottom conditions and depth. In April he 
transferred these investigations to Dominica as part of the Bredin- 
Archbold-Smithsonian biological survey of that island. Museum in- 
vestigations enabled Dr. Kier to complete a major study of the 
evolutionary trends in Paleozoic echinoids. 

Associate curator of invertebrate paleontology Richard Cifelli com- 
pleted a paper on planktonic Foraminifera from the western Atlantic 


and another on concentration techniques of shelled organisms from 
plankton. 


48 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Associate curator of invertebrate paleontology Erle G. Kauffman 
and museum technician G. R. Paulson were in northern New Mexico 
at the beginning of the fiscal year, measuring sections and collecting 
mollusks from typically early Upper Cretaceous rocks. Shortly there- 
after they extended the work into Colorado until the end of July. 
Approximately 4,000 specimens were obtained from 21 stratigraphic 
sections measured and collected. The data will permit revision of the 
Coloradoan stratigraphy in many areas of northern New Mexico and 
central Colorado, formation of a refined faunal zonation throughout 
the region, and precise correlation of the sequence across the Front 
Range of the Rocky Mountains. 

Dr. Kauffman, accompanied by Dr. N. F. Sohl of the U.S. Geologi- 
eal Survey, spent the last half of March in Puerto Rico studying the 
Cretaceous biostratigraphy of the island and collecting invertebrate 
fossils. All major Cretaceous localities in southwest Puerto Rico, and 
along the central cordillera, were visited during the course of the work. 
Approximately 21% tons of fossil material were collected, predomi- 
nantly limestone blocks containing silicified mollusks, corals, sponges, 
and other invertebrates. These collections, added to those obtained 
previously by Survey personnel, form the largest and most diverse as- 
semblage of invertebrate fossils from the Caribbean Cretaceous. 

Dr. Martin A. Buzas, who joined the staff late last year as associate 
curator of invertebrate paleontology, completed manuscripts on the 
Foraminifera from a late Pleistocene clay near Waterford, Maine, and 
a distributional study of the species of Foraminifera in Long Island 
Sound. 

Dr. C. L. Gazin, curator of vertebrate paleontology, accompanied 
by Franklin L. Pearce, chief of the laboratory of vertebrate paleontol- 
ogy, began exploration of the Middle Eocene Bridger formation of 
southwestern Wyoming at the beginning of the fiscal year. Unfortu- 
nately, at the end of the first week Mr. Pearce became ill and had to 
return to Washington for hospitalization. Dr. Gazin continued alone 
until early August. He devoted much time to a careful search for 
smaller mammals in the upper part of the formation, as exposed in the 
upper basin of Sage Creek, with some attention to the lower levels in 
the Grizzly Buttes and to the north of Cedar Mountain. He also 
made occasional profitable trips to localities of earlier years in the 
Paleocene and Early Eocene of adjacent basins. At the close of the 
year Dr. Gazin and Mr. Pearce were engaged in another field trip to 
New Mexico and Wyoming. 

Dr. Gazin completed his morphologic study of the Early Eocene 
condylarthran mammal Mfinicotheriwm. This includes a detailed 
review of nearly the entire skeleton, which is compared with that 
of other condylarths, of which Hyopsodus provides much new 
information. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 49 


From the beginning of September to mid-October associate curator 
of vertebrate paleontology D. H. Dunkle, accompanied by museum 
technician G. B. Sullivan, conducted field work in northwestern 
Ohio, in the area around Council Bluffs, Iowa, and in the Manzano 
Mountains of central New Mexico. The 370 specimens collected and 
the stratigraphic observations made will permit important additions 
and revisions of the known paleoichthyologica]l faunas of the Middle 
Devonian silica shale of Ohio and several Late Paleozoic horizons 
of the midcontinent and Rocky Mountain regions. The New Mexico 
occurrence investigated is of especial interest; it is practically the one 
known source in North America of a varied marine assemblage of 
well-preserved fishes, invertebrates, and plants of the Permo-Carbon- 
iferous interval. 

In September associate curator of vertebrate paleontology Nicholas 
Hotton III left Washington for field work in Africa. In addition to 
collecting in the Permo-Triassic beds of the Karroo region of South 
Africa, which has yielded a variety of mammal-like reptiles, he carried 
on during a greater part of the year a detailed stratigraphic study of 
the Beaufort series with a view toward a better understanding of the 
distribution and ecology of the forms. At the end of the year he had 
left Africa for Europe to study at certain of the leading museums. 

On December 18, 1963, Dr. Clayton E. Ray joined the staff as asso- 
ciate curator of vertebrate paleontology. During the next few 
months, in continuation of his studies of fossil and modern terrestrial 
vertebrates, especially rodents, of the Antillean region, he completed 
reports on a new species of capromyid rodent and an undescribed 
miniature ground sloth, both from a cave in the Dominican Republic. 
From mid-May to the latter part of June he conducted a field investi- 
gation of Pleistocene occurrences in the vicinity of Puebla, Mexico, in 
collaboration with an archeological party from the Peabody Museum 
in Cambridge, Mass. 

On three occasions during the year Dr. Remington Kellogg, honor- 
ary research associate, made day-long trips to the Chesapeake Bay 
area, in company with one or more members of the staff, to inspect ex- 
posed remains of Miocene vertebrates. The trip in July to Parker 
Creek, Calvert County, Md., yielded a good part of the skeleton of a 
Miocene cetothere (Mesocitus cephwnculus) which is especially use- 
ful to Dr. Kellogg in connection with studies now in progress on this 
group of extinct whalebone whales. The trip to King George, Va., in 
May revealed a shoreline concentration of mixed and abraded por- 
poise and sea-cow bones and a variety of shark teeth. Inland occur- 
rences such as this are only rarely encountered, and the distribution 
record is of interest. In the course of the year Dr. Kellogg completed 
a report on the skeleton of one of the larger Calvert Miocene whale- 
bone whales. 


50 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Chairman George Switzer of the department of mineral sciences 
completed his annual review of the diamond industry and, with ana- 
lytical chemist Roy S. Clarke, Jr., et al., completed a manuscript on 
“Fluorine in Hambergite.” 

Dr. Paul E. Desautels, associate curator of mineral sciences, com- 
pleted a study of one of the rare uranium minerals known as 
“sklodowskite,” a hydrous magnesium uranyl silicate, from a new 
locality in Mexico. 

At the beginning of the year associate curator of mineral sciences 
Dr. E. P. Henderson was in Australia prospecting for meteorites and 
tektites. He continued working there until October, in company with 
Dr. Brian Mason of the American Museum of Natural History, New 
York, and Dr. R. V. Chalmers of the Australian Museum. They 
collected meteorite material from four well-known Australian craters, 
Henbury, Boxhole, Wolf Creek, and Dalgarange; relocated the Dal- 
gety Downs meteorite and recovered nearly 500 pounds of material; 
and collected many fine tektite specimens. Exchanges arranged dur- 
ing the stay in Australia, and on the return trip through the Middle 
East and Europe, added a number of fine new specimens to the collec- 
tions. At the close of the year Dr. Henderson was back in Australia 
on another prospecting trip. 

Dr. Henderson completed two manuscripts: one, a study of the 
hexahedrite meteorite groups, and the other, a discussion of the legend- 
ary and probably nonexistent Port Orford, Oreg., meteorite. He also 
completed a metallographic study of the Bogou, Upper Volta, iron 
meteorite. . 

Analytical chemist Roy S. Clarke, Jr., in cooperation with R. J. 
Gettens and E. W. FitzHugh of the Freer Gallery of Art, investigated 
an iron-oxide corrosion product of a metal blade in the Gallery’s col- 
lection and proved that it was fabricated from meteoritic iron. He 
also completed chemical analysis of the mineral “phosphyllite” from 
Bolivia. 

Silvio A. Bedini, curator of mechanical and civil engineering of the 
Museum of History and Technology, toured technical museums and 
other institutions of learning in Great Britain and on the continent, 
presenting lectures at the Astrophysical Observatory in Arcetri and 
at the Instituto Nazionale della Ottica in Florence. Later, in collab- 
oration with Francis R. Maddison of the Museum of the History of 
Science at Oxford University, he completed a book on the de Dondi 
astrarium entitled “Mechanical Universe.” Mr. Bedini completed 
three more articles about antique science instruments in the national 
collections; also articles on the invention of the orrery (including 
study of an unrecorded instrument recently discovered in an Ameri- 
can collection), on the evolution of science museums, and on early 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 51 


Italian science museums. In addition, he competed articles on Gali- 
leo’s preoccupation with the measurement of time, on a comparison 
of Galileo’s instruments, and on the craftsmen who produced the 
instruments used by Galileo. 

Associate curator Edwin A. Battison, assisted by summer intern 
Bruce H. White, completed the first draft of a translation of Jacques 
Besson’s Theatrum Instrumentarum et Machinarum from the 16th- 
century French. This significant contribution to the history of 
technology has not previously been available in English. 

Curator of transportation Howard I. Chapelle made three trips to 
Spain to inspect the reconstruction of Columbus’s Santa Maria being 
produced by the Cardona Yard in Barcelona for exhibition at the 
World’s Fair in New York, and to do research on Spanish shipbuild- 
ing of the 18th and early 19th centuries. 

Grace Rogers Cooper, curator of textiles, completed her monograph 
on the Robertson and the Clark dolphin and cherub sewing machines 
of the 1850’s. At the end of the year she was studying textiles at the 
Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. 

Paul V. Gardner, curator of ceramics and glass, visited 64 museums, 
private collections, and glass factories in 11 European countries 
between September and December, to evaluate the recently donated 
Syz collection of 18th-century porcelains, to meet and confer with 
collectors and museum personnel in the ceramic and glass field, and to 
examine new exhibit techniques used in ceramic and glass displays. 

Jacob Kainen, curator of graphic arts, made trips to Sarasota, Phil- 
adelphia, and New York City for material relating to his study of the 
Dutch engraver Hendrick Goltzius (1558-1617). He served as juror 
for two art exhibitions: the 1963 All-Army Art Contest at Fort 
George G. Meade, Md., and the 25th National Exhibition of the Soci- 
ety of Washington Printmakers. He also had an exhibition of his 
own paintings at the Roko Gallery in New York City. 

On a trip to Europe, Eugene Ostroff, associate curator in charge of 
the section of photography, visited museums, photographic equipment 
factories, dealers, galleries, private collectors, and photographers for 
the purpose of acquiring apparatus and prints for exhibits and of 
establishing contacts for exchanges. 

Peter C. Welsh, curator under the chairman of the department of 
civil history, completed three manuscripts bearing the following titles: 
“The Metallic Bench Plane: An American Contribution to Hand Tool 
Design,” “Hand Tools as Decorative Objects,” and “Woodworking 
Tools: 1600-1900.” 

Assistant curator Doris Esch Borthwick completed a typescript of 
the letters of Charles Wilkes, leader of the United States Exploring 
Expedition. 

'766-746—65——5 


52 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Keith M. Melder, associate curator of political history, completed 
a biographical sketch of Mrs. Josephine S. Griffing, a 19th-century 
American reformer and feminist, and revised his manuscript on 
“Bryan the Campaigner.” 

The division of cultural history joined the Corning Museum of 
Glass, serving as principal sponsor, in a second 10-day archeological 
investigation of the site of John Frederick Amelung’s New Bremen 
Glassworks, which operated between 1785 and 1795 in Frederick 
County, Md. Ivor Noel Hume, research associate, was archeological 
director, with Paul N. Perrot, director of the Corning Museum, as 
administrative director. John N. Pearce, associate curator, and Rich- 
ard J. Muzzrole, archeological aide, represented Smithsonian partici- 
pation. The excavations revealed an astonishingly complex founda- 
tion structure, evidence of a complete factory unit, having two fur- 
naces, fritting areas, and the other appurtenances of a typically 
Germanic glass-house of the 18th century. This archeological discov- 
ery confirms documentary hints that Amelung’s enterprise was an 
elaborate one. The project has thus become one of the most impor- 
tant in industrial site archeology thus far undertaken in this country. 

C. Malcolm Watkins, curator of cultural history, worked with Joan 
Pearson Watkins, research collaborator, in recording by film and tape 
the still living tradition of potterymaking practiced in Moore County, 
N.C., since the second half of the 18th century. A photographic rec- 
ord of all the processes used there in making a pot, from digging the 
clay to firing the vessel, as well as tape-recorded interviews with the 
area’s leading potter, were made this year. 

Cynthia Adams Hoover, associate curator in charge of musical in- 
struments, completed a paper on “The Slide Trumpet of the 19th 
Century.” 

Carl Scheele, associate curator of philately and postal history, com- 
pleted an article which surveys the history of the division and traces 
the development of its new exhibits. 

At the beginning of the year, Dr. V. Clain-Stefanelli, curator of 
numismatics, and Mrs. E. Clain-Stefanelli, associate curator, were in 
Israel at the invitation of the Israeli Government. Dr. Stefanelli 
traveled also in Greece, the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany, and 
England, undertaking research on ancient, as well as United States, 
coins in museums and private collections, and studying the history of 
coining techniques. Mrs. Stefanelli studied ancient Greek coinage of 
Messana at the British Museum, the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford, 
the Fitzwilliam Museum in Cambridge, and the Penningkabinet in 
The Hague. 

Dr. Stefanelli completed research concerning a mission from Peru 
to procure in Philadelphia modern equipment for the Lima mint, and 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 53 


the striking in 1855, at the United States mint, of pattern coins for 
Peru. Mrs. Stefanelli prepared for publication a select numismatic 
bibliography comprising about 5,000 entries arranged in a topical 
order. 

In July and August, chairman of the department of Armed Forces 
history Mendel L. Peterson, and museum specialist Alan B. Albright, 
investigated two underwater sites in Bermuda through the cooperation 
of E. B. Tucker of the Government of Bermuda. At the close of the 
year Mr. Peterson was preparing for another diving season. He 
finished work on a preliminary report on the marking and decoration 
of muzzle-loading cannon. 

Philip K. Lundeberg, curator of naval history, was awarded the 
Moncado Prize of the American Military Institute for his publication 
on “The German Naval Critique of the U-Boat Campaign, 1915-1918.” 

Melvin H. Jackson, associate curator of naval history, in cooperation 
with Howard I. Chapelle, completed a revision of plans of the schooner 
Prince de Neufchatel preparatory to the construction of a model of 
that handsome privateer. Dr. Jackson also completed a reassessment 
of the battle of Negro Head in 1814, involving Revenue cutter Hagle, 
H.M. sloop Dispatch, and H.M. frigate Varcissus. 

Alan B. Albright, museum specialist, completed a paper on the pres- 
ervation of organic materials recovered from underwater sites. 


EXHIBITIONS 


A significant milestone in the history of the exhibits program at 
the Smithsonian Institution was passed when the equivalent of 10 
exhibit halls on the first and second floors of the Museum of History 
and Technology were presented to the public on January 23, 1964. 
These exhibition areas, totaling more than 75,000 square feet of attrac- 
tive and instructive displays, include the Flag Hall, First Ladies Hall, 
and the halls of Everyday Life in the American Past, American 
Costume, Farm Machinery, Light Machinery, Tools, Vehicles, Rail- 
roads, a portion of Heavy Machinery, the Greenough statue of George 
Washington flanked by eight cases of outstanding national treasures, 
the centrally located Foucault pendulum, and a temporary exhibition 
which presents examples of exhibits to be installed in other halls of the 
museum. This achievement was made possible through nearly 8 years 
of advanced planning, design of exhibition halls, and design and pro- 
duction of individual displays, some of which had been placed on tem- 
porary exhibition in the Arts and Industries Building prior to their 
installation in the new museum. It could not have been accomplished 
without the contribution of knowledge and of talent by many individ- 
uals on the curatorial staff, the Office of Exhibits, the Buildings Man- 
agement Division, and private contractors. 


54 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Colorful new exhibits of objects from the Near East, Japan, Korea, 
China, and North and West Africa were first placed on public view 
when the west portion of the Hall of the Cultures of Asia and Africa 
was informally opened in late June. Among the exhibits interpreting 
the traditional cultures of the Asiatic peoples are a life-size group 
portraying an episode from a Chinese opera, with accompanying push- 
button sound recording, a display of objects illustrating the evolution 
of farming in Japan, and a unit on the daily and religious life in Tibet. 
The Republic of Korea has lent one of its national art treasures, a cast- 
iron figure of Buddha from the Koryo dynasty (A.D. 935-1892), which 
is presented in a temple setting with a paneled screen of red silk bro- 
cade. North and West African cultures present many striking works 
of art from peoples whose accomplishments have had a profound influ- 
ence upon modern art in Europe and America. One of the most 
dramatic displays is a diorama portraying the smelting of iron ore in 
primitive furnaces and the fashioning of iron tools by tribesmen from 
the Mandara Mountain region of the Northern Camaroons. This 
miniature group was created by exhibits specialists John Weaver, 
Robert Caffrey, and Peter De Anna. The exhibits in this hall were 
planned by associate curators of ethnology Gordon R. Gibson and 
Eugene Knez. The hall layout was made by exhibits designer Dorothy 
Guthrie and the graphic design of individual units was executed by 
exhibits designer Lucius Lomax. 

The completely renovated life-size group portraying quarrying 
operations and making of stone artifacts by Indians some 500 years 
ago at the Piney Branch site, within the present boundaries of the 
District of Columbia, was opened to the public in the Hall of North 
American Archeology. Another life-group illustrating Indian copper 
mining in present Michigan was nearing completion at year’s end. 
Contract construction in the new Hall of Classical Archeology was 
virtually completed at year’s end; the hall was designed by exhibits 
designer Rolland O. Hower under the scientific supervision of asso- 
ciate curator Gus Van Beek. 

The construction contractor’s work in the new Hall of Physical 
Anthropology also was nearing completion at the end of June. About 
half of the exhibit units for this hall have been completed by exhibits 
designer Joseph Shannon, who also served as architectural designer 
for the hall. The contents of the exhibits have been specified by T. 
Dale Stewart, director of the Museum of Natural History, and 
Lawrence Angel, curator-in-charge of the Division of Physical 
Anthropology. 

During the spring of 1964, Dr. Knez supervised the exhibits instal- 
lation of 41 outstanding examples of Chinese, Buddhist, and Hindu 
stone sculpture, bronze, and other items from China, India, Cambodia, 


SECRETARY’S REPORT rn) 


and Java, which were received from the Alien Property Office of the 
Department of Justice. Dr. Van Beek worked with the Department 
of State and the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Serv- 
ice on arrangements for loan of the Dead Sea Scrolls and associated 
materials from the Government of Jordan. In May, during an over- 
seas detail, he conferred with officials of the Jordanian Government, 
the United States Embassy, and the Palestine Archeological Museum 
and selected specimens and photographs for use in the exhibition, 
which is scheduled to be opened in the Museum of Natural History in 
March 1965. Thereafter it will circulate for 6 months among other 
museums in the United States under the Smithsonian Institution 
Traveling Exhibition Service. 

At the end of June the exhibits in the east of the half of the Hall of 
Osteology, comprising the sections on mammals and birds, were infor- 
mally opened to the public. The skeletons in this exhibition range in 
size from one of the gray whale to those of small birds. Skeletal ma- 
terials are supplemented by graphic portrayals of the appearance of 
the particular examples displayed in the flesh. Among the many in- 
teresting displays in the mammal section is one comparing the skeleton 
of man with those of other Primates. In the section on birds a unit 
points out the bony structure differences which serve as bases for 
scientific classification of birds. The sections of this hall devoted to 
reptiles, amphibians, and fishes are in process of preparation and in- 
stallation. Planning of the exhibits in this hall has been coordinated 
by David H. Johnson, curator-in-charge of the division of mammals, 
with the cooperation of the staff members of all the divisions of this 
department. Hall design was by Anthony Di Stefano and graphic 
design by exhibits designer Morris M. Pearson. 

On February 19, 1964, a temporary exhibition entitled “Return to 
the Sea” was opened on the mezzanine of the Hall of Life in the Sea. 
This display, a joint effort of the federal Interagency Committee of 
Oceanography and the Smithsonian Institution, has as its theme the 
renewal of interest in oceanography and the marine environment. 

Associate curator Charles Cutress and Kjell Sandved spent approxi- 
mately 2 months at Honolulu, Hawaii, Dillon Beach, Calif., and 
Friday Harbor, Wash., obtaining photographs and well-preserved 
specimens of animals of which models will be made for display in 
additional permanent exhibits in this hall. 

Preparation of models and the securing of specimens for the Hall of 
Cold-blooded Vertebrates (fishes, amphibians, and reptiles) was con- 
tinued during the year. Leonard P. Schultz, curator-in-charge of the 
division of fishes, who is coordinating the planning of exhibits for this 
hall, and Alfred Strohlein spent several days in the vicinity of Seattle, 
Wash., during October collecting red salmon and background ma- 


56 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


terials for the group on salmon spawning. Exhibits designer Barbara 
Craig prepared the architectural layout for this hall. Graphic design 
is by Joseph Shannon. 

Planning for the Hall of Plant Life in the Museum of Natural 
History has continued at an accelerated rate since January 1964. 
At that time a planning committee was established consisting of 
Assistant Director R. S. Cowan, chairman, and curators M. E. 
Hale, Jr., T. R. Soderstrom, Stanwyn G. Shetler, Dan Nicolson, and 
Richard H. Eyde. This group met regularly with exhibits designer 
Rolland O. Hower to develop specific plans for the construction of 
exhibits. Preliminary statements of the intent and content of each 
unit are in preparation and a study model of a proposed organization 
of exhibits in this large hall was prepared by Mr. Hower. In the 
late spring three members of the committee visited localities in the 
eastern part of the United States to select study sites in which to 
obtain data for construction of some of the habitat groups. Prepara- 
tion of botanical models for use in the exhibits in this hall was in 
progress in the exhibits laboratory. 

Planning and design of the new physical geology and meteorite ex- 
hibits were completed in preparation for the beginning of construction 
in this area in the summer of 1964. Additional space for the gem 
exhibits will be provided in the same construction project. ‘The physi- 
cal geology exhibit will interpret the nature and properties of materials 
composing the earth, the distribution of materials throughout the 
globe, the processes by which they are formed, altered, transported, 
and distorted, and the nature and development of the landscape. 
The new hall has been planned by curator-in-charge of the division 
of mineralogy and petrology, George S. Switzer, and associate cura- 
tors Paul EK. Desautels and Edward P. Henderson. The hall layout 
has been prepared by exhibits designers Dorothy Guthrie and Barbara 
Craig. 

The fourth and last of the remarkable series of mural paintings 
in the Hall of the Age of Mammals in North America, representing 
a Pliocene mammalian assemblage was completed in June by the 
artist Jay H. Matternes. 

Associate curator Clayton E. Ray initiated preliminary planning 
of displays in the hall to be devoted to life of the Pleistocene, the 
geologic epoch immediately preceding the present, in consultations 
with members of the exhibit staff. Much of the time of the paleon- 
tological laboratory staff was devoted to repairing and remounting 
skeletons of the various larger Pleistocene mammals that were pre- 
viously exhibited and in restoring new skeletal remains for presenta- 
tion in this hall. 

Four halls of the Department of Science and Technology in the east 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 57 


portion of the first floor were opened in January when the Museum 
of History and Technology was opened to the public. 

The Railroad Hall interprets the history of street railways, as 
well as railroads, through a few choice full-scale vehicles and an 
extended series of accurately and precisely executed scale models. 
The giant 280-ton Pacific-type steam locomotive No. 1401, largest 
and one of the most impressive 3-dimensional specimens in the 
museum, stands near the row of east windows through which it may 
be viewed from outside of the building at night, as well as by daylight. 
A cut-away scale model of a Diesel-electric locomotive shows a type 
that has supplanted the steam locomotive on American railroads in 
recent years. A full-size cable car used in Seattle, Wash., at the 
turn of the century stands on a section of narrow-gauge track in an 
elevated position so that visitors can see the underground construc- 
tion required for its operation. Basic developments in street cars, 
locomotives, and railroad cars are illustrated by nearly 80 models, most 
of them built to the same scale. The hall was planned by associate 
curator John H. White, Jr., in collaboration with exhibits designers 
James Mahoney, Virginia Mahoney, and Deborah Bretzfelder. 

The adjacent Vehicle Hall traces the development of various types 
of road vehicles in the United States from the 18th century to the 
present day. Among the outstanding horse-drawn vehicles on dis- 
play are two variations of the famous stagecoach, widely used in the 
East and West beyond the lines of the early railroads; the finely con- 
structed Lawrence family coach built in 1851; a city omnibus built by 
EK. M. Miller of Quincy, Ill. The automobiles illustrate the rapid evo- 
lution of automobile design and manufacture from the 1890’s. Along 
with the Balzer and Haynes motor wagons appear the famous Winton 
mile-a-minute racer of 1902, the Winton in which Dr. H. Nelson Jack- 
son drove the first transcontinental motor trip in 1903, and a sturdy 
Mack Bulldog truck. One of the very rare Draisines, known also as a 
hobby horse, is shown in the cycle collection. Museum Specialist Don- 
ald Berkebile planned the exhibits in this hall with assistance in lay- 
out from exhibits designer Riddick Vann. 

The Hall of Tools illustrates the history and development of ma- 
chine tools. Introductory exhibits display hand tools with which 
men performed laboriously the same tasks as were later accomplished 
with much greater speed and precision by machine. A short sound 
film in color describes the five basic machining operations—planing, 
milling, drilling and boring, turning, and grinding. The attainment 
of greater precision in measurement, important to the development 
of machine tools, is emphasized in a series of exhibits tracing the 
history of measurement from the Roman cubit to modern times. An 
outstanding feature of this hall is a reconstructed full-size machine 


58 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


shop of about 1855 equipped with some of the oldest machine tools 
in the collection. Silvio Bedini, curator-in-charge of the division 
of mechanical and civil engineering, and his predecessor, Eugene S. 
Ferguson, selected the machines and planned the case exhibits in this 
hall with the cooperation of exhibits designers Bright Springman, 
Harry Hart, and John Clendening. William Henson installed the 
machines and placed them in operating condition. 

A major portion of the Hall of Light Machinery illustrates the 
evolution of timekeeping. The introductory exhibit, through a 
revolving globe bearing smal] sundials on its surface, demonstrates 
the basic importance of the daily cycle of the earth’s rotation as the 
foundation of man’s timekeeping systems. The series of timekeeping 
exhibits illustrates the gradual developments from early sundials, 
sandglasses, and waterclocks to the most precise modern electronic 
clocks. In the center of the hall is a reconstruction of a Renaissance 
clock tower, the four sides of which will display a sun dial and civil, 
astronomical, and automation dials actuated by an American tower 
clock of 1786. Both the sun dial and civil time dials have been in- 
stalled, the former by museum specialist Dorothy Briggs and the lat- 
ter by its maker, Thwaites & Reed of London, England. The exhibits 
in other sections of this hall show machines derived from the skills 
developed by clock and instrument makers. One series traces the 
development of the phonograph from Thomas Edison’s original in- 
vention through the work of Alexander Graham Bell’s Volta Labora- 
tory and the more recent talking machines. Exhibits on the evolution 
of the typewriter include early original machines and patent models. 
Exhibits in this hall were planned by associate curator Edwin A. 
Battison in cooperation with hall designer Bright Springman and 
exhibits designer Barbara Bowes. 

At the close of the year installation of exhibits in the Hall of Civil 
Engineering was nearing completion. This hall interprets the story 
of bridge- and tunnel-building through the ages. It shows how the 
use of new materials enabled bridge builders to construct longer spans 
and illustrates through scale models many of the classic bridges of 
history. The tunnels section features a series of cut-away scale 
models illustrating the development of methods in both soft-ground 
and hard rock tunneling and depicting men at work constructing some 
of the major tunnels in which new drilling methods and mechanisms 
were employed. Associate curator Robert M. Vogel prepared the 
technical specifications for this hall. Exhibits layout and design are 
the work of exhibits designers John Brown and Harry Hart. 

Considerable progress also was made in the design, production, and 
installation of exhibits in the Hall of Heavy Machinery. Exhibits 
interpreting the early development of the steam engine—including a 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 59 


reconstruction of the Watt engine—were opened to the public in Jan- 
uary. It is planned to open the series of exhibits on refrigeration 
and the Diesel engine when the adjoining Civil Engineering Hall is 
opened in July 1964. Robert M. Vogel is responsible for planning 
this hall’s contents. The layout and units designs have been prepared 
by exhibits designer Harry Hart. 

A considerable number of the scale models of historic types of 
vessels from the museum’s outstanding watercraft collection have been 
placed in free-standing exhibition cases in the American Merchant 
Shipping Hall by exhibits specialists James A. Knowles, Jr., under the 
supervision of Howard I. Chapelle, curator-in-charge of the division 
of transportation. 

A temporary exhibition of communications satellites is being in- 
stalled in the Hall of Electricity; as a nucleus for this exhibit the 
back-up satellite for Zelstar /—presented to the museum on July 10, 
1963, the first anniversary of its launching—will be on view. Installa- 
tion of cases for permanent exhibits which will interpret current- 
electricity, was nearing completion at year’s end. These exhibits 
have been planned by Bernard S. Finn, associate curator in charge 
of the division of electricity. Exhibits designer Nadya Kayloff has 
nearly completed the design on these displays. 

In the Halls of Pharmacy, Medicine, and Dentistry installation 
neared completion of an 1890-period drugstore, of period interiors 
depicting a portion of a room in the Massachusetts General Hospital, 
and a midwestern dentist’s office. The Old World Apothecary Shop, 
formerly on view in the Arts and Industries Building, has been moved 
and is being installed in the new Hall of Pharmacy. ‘Two new ex- 
hibits destined for exhibition in the new museum were placed on 
temporary display in the Arts and Industries Building. One depicts 
in diorama form Dr. Philip S. Physick removing a large paratoid 
gland tumor in the circular room of the Pennsylvania Hospital in 
1805, long before the discovery of anesthesia. The other is an en- 
larged model of the human ear donated by the Lambert Institute of 
Otalogy of New York City. Dr. Sami K. Hamarneh, curator-in- 
charge of medical sciences, assisted by Dr. Alfred R. Henderson, con- 
sultant, are completing exhibit plans for the medical science exhibits, 
in cooperation with John Clendening, exhibits designer. 

The Foucault pendulum, prepared by the California Institute of 
Technology and exhibited in the central rotunda of the new museum, 
has fascinated visitors since the opening of the building. The divi- 
sion of physical sciences, placed in charge of this exhibit, has been 
making careful studies of its operation and of the problem of inter- 
preting it to the public. A large graphic explanation has been 
planned by Dr. Walter F. Cannon, curator-in-charge of the division, 


60 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


which is being produced by the exhibits laboratory. Development of 
exhibits for the Hall of Physical Sciences progressed with the com- 
pletion of a layout plan for the mathematics section and the produc- 
tion of all but one unit in the section on astronomy. 

The Farm Machinery Hall was on view when the new Museum of 
History and Technology building opened in January. Through dis- 
plays of original objects and accurate scale models this hall shows how 
the invention and use of labor-saving machines played a major role in 
the rapid expansion of American agriculture since the early 19th 
century. The earlier hand-wielded and horse-drawn implements are 
contrasted with later self-propelled machines which performed the 
same basic tasks of plowing, planting, cultivating, and harvesting food 
crops. Thomas Jefferson’s plan for a more efficient moldboard which 
any farmer of his time could make with his own tools and fit to his 
plow is a feature display in the series on the development of the plow. 
John Deere’s “steel” plow is shown, as are scale models of the MeCor- 
mick and Hussey reapers of the 1830’s. Colorful portable steam 
engines which supplied belted power to the old threshers and other 
farm machines are displayed along with gasoline and diesel tractors 
which pulled and powered large farm implements. The exhibits in 
this hall were planned by associate curator Edward C. Kendall in 
cooperation with exhibits designer Riddick Vann. The human figures 
which help to establish scale and add interest to the miniature models 
of reapers were executed by exhibits technician Susan Wallace. 

Installation of exhibits in the new Hall of Graphic Arts was begun 
in the spring of 1964 in anticipation of a fall opening. This hall will 
explain the processes and present outstanding examples of graphic 
works created and produced by hand and by photomechanical proc- 
esses. These exhibits have been planned by curator-in-charge Jacob 
Kainen and associate curator Fuller O. Griffith of the division of 
graphic arts in cooperation with exhibits designer Nadya Kayaloff. 

Among the displays in the preview of future exhibits in the tempo- 
rary exhibits gallery on the first floor of the new museum are a num- 
ber of outstanding objects from the collections of this department, 
including the Benjamin Franklin Press, the Kelmscott Chaucer, three 
prints of old masters, and an early American handloom, built by a 
pioneer settler of western Pennsylvania about 1800. The loom was 
prepared for weaving and is used for weekly demonstrations by asso- 
ciate curator of textiles Rita Adrosko. 

Miss Bowman, Mrs. Lois Vann, and Miss Maureen Collins of the 
division of textiles assisted in preparing the backing of the Star- 
Spangled Banner prior to its installation in the new museum. Miss 
Collins also assisted Mrs. Murray in the preparation of specimens for 
exhibition in the Hall of American Costume. Several textiles speci- 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 61 


mens were loaned to the American Museum in Britain, at Claverton 
Manor near Bath, England. 

A reproduction of the figure 8 stellerator developed by Dr. Lyman 
Spitzer of Princeton University was placed on exhibition in the west 
window area on the first floor of the new museum shortly before the 
building was opened to the public. It is symbolic of the research in- 
volving the generation of temperatures in excess of 100 million degrees 
Centigrade. 

Three of the four halls of the Department of Civil History were on 
public view when the new museum opened in January. The fourth, 
the Hall of Historic Americans, was formally opened to the public in 
June. 

The Hall of Everyday Life in the American Past, comprising the 
largest exhibition gallery in the museum, displays the material evi- 
dences of domestic life in America before 1900. The furnishings, 
utensils, decorative arts, and other objects illustrating aspects of the 
cultural life of the country are presented in a series of cases, period 
rooms, and platform groupings progressing chronologically from an 
initial series of displays devoted to the European backgrounds of early 
settlement groups. Among the outstanding exhibits are a reproduc- 
tion of a room from an 18th-century Spanish New Mexican adobe home 
and objects of religious art from the Franciscan missions of the South- 
west; displays ranging from artifacts obtained archeologically to fine 
furniture, pewter, and silver of the English colonies of the eastern 
seaboard, and an entire log house from Mill Creek Hundred, Del., 
dating from about 1740 showing both the exterior and interior con- 
struction and the furnishings of this home. This hall was planned 
and installed under the direction of C. Malcolm Watkins, curator-in- 
charge, assisted by associate curators Rodris Roth and John N. Pearce 
of the division of cultural history. It was designed by John E. Ang- 
lim, exhibits chief, with the assistance of exhibits designer Deborah 
Bretzfelder. Period rooms and the log house were executed by George 
H. Watson and his staff of restoration specialists with the professional 
assistance of Mrs. E. Boyd, curator of Spanish Colonial art, Museum 
of New Mexico, and architects Robert L. Raley of Newark, Del., and 
Robert E. Plettenberg of Santa Fe, N. Mex. 

The new First Ladies Hall provides a more appealing medium for 
continuing the Smithsonian Institution’s tradition of exhibiting the 
dresses worn by the wife or official hostess of each President of the 
United States. These dresses show the changes in American costume 
from the 18th-century style worn by Martha Washington to the simple 
lines and elegant fabrics of more recent First Ladies. The dresses 
are displayed upon mannequins in a series of eight room settings, each 
appropriately finished and furnished to indicate the periods and en- 


62 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


vironments in which the dresses are worn. Two rooms reproduce 
those in the house at 190 High Street in Philadelphia where President 
and Mrs. Washington lived before the White House was built and 
display furniture and fixtures owned and used by them. The other 
room settings combine architectural details from the White House, 
including four original White House mantels and the 1902 paneling 
from the East Room, with furniture and accessories used both in the 
White House and in Presidential family homes. This hall was devel- 
oped by associate curator Margaret Brown Klapthor in cooperation 
with exhibits chief Benjamin W. Lawless. 

The new Hall of American Costume adequately presents for the 
first time the Museum’s rich and extensive collection of men’s, wom- 
en’s, and children’s clothing of the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries. 
It includes accessories of dress such as shoes, hats, handkerchiefs, 
parasols, and gloves and such decorative accessories as fans, em- 
broidered and beaded purses, and many fine examples of period 
jewelry. Many of the clothing items are exhibited on mannequins 
which portray the hair dress appropriate to the costumes, and some 
are shown in groupings in partial room settings. Illustration of 
various types of clothing selected from paintings and engravings 
dealing with the history of costume supplements the original speci- 
mens on display. The entire hall has been one of great interest for 
historians, artists, and students of American style and taste. The 
exhibits were planned and installed under the direction of assistant 
curator Anne W. Murray. Hall design was by exhibits designer 
Robert M. Widder; graphic design by exhibits designers Judith 
Borgogni, Virginia Mahoney, and Deborah Bretzfelder. 

The Hall of Historic Americans is unlike other museum presenta- 
tions in the United States. A portion of the hall is devoted to a 
capsule history of American political campaign techniques, tracing 
their development from the era of genteel “parlor politics” to the 
modern political use of the mass media of communications. A dra- 
matic political parade illustrates the development of Presidential cam- 
paigning between 1840 and 1930 with papier maché marchers carrying 
authenic political banners, pennants, and torchlights and wearing 
campaign clothing and badges. An adjoining area, illustrating the 
important relationship between politics and the press, radio, and tele- 
vision, includes microphones used by Franklin D. Roosevelt in de- 
livering his historic fireside chats on radio and by Dwight D. Eisen- 
hower in television broadcasts. Several exhibits display memorabilia 
of distinguished families and individuals—the Washington and 
Adams families, Ulysses S. Grant, and Abraham Lincoln. In one 
of these a newly sculptured figure of Abraham Lincoln wearing the 
business suit which he wore on the day of his assassination, stands 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 63 


in a setting which closely resembles that shown in several Mathew 
Brady photographs of the President. Planning and installation of 
the exhibits in this hall were under the direction of curator-in-charge 
Wilcomb E. Washburn, assisted by associate curator Keith E. Melder 
and assistant curator Herbert R. Collins of the division of political 
history in association with exhibits designer Robert Widder. At the 
forma] ceremonies opening the hall on the evening of June 29, fea- 
tured speakers included the Honorable Frances P. Bolton, Member of 
the House of Representatives from Ohio, and the Honorable Claiborne 
Pell, United States Senator from Rhode Island. 

Marked progress was made in the preparation of the Hall of 
Philately and Postal History. During March several examples of 
stamp production equipment were transported to the Museum and 
moved into position in the stamp production alcove of this hall by 
the Bureau of Printing and Engraving. The series of exhibits on the 
history of the world’s posts were produced, exhibit cases for models 
of vehicles used to transport the mails and for postage meter and 
canceling machines were delivered to the hall, and the refinishing of 
the pull-out frames which will exhibit by country and systematic 
National Postage Stamp Collection was completed. This hall has been 
planned by curator Carl H. Scheele with the assistance of museum 
technician Francis E. Welch in collaboration with exhibits designer 
John Clendening. 

Associate curator of numismatics Elvira Clain-Stefanelli with the 
assistance of the Medallic Art Co. and the United States Mint pre- 
pared a display of contemporary United States medals for the Mu- 
seum’s Hall of Monetary History and Medallic Art. A temporary 
display illustrating the history of the traveler’s check, including James 
C. Fargo’s announcement of 1891 initiating the issuance of traveler’s 
checks by the American Express Co., was installed in February. On 
March 27 a special exhibition of original mint models and designs for 
the John F. Kennedy half dollar was placed on display through the 
good offices of the Director of the Mint, Miss Eva Adams, and the 
Superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint, Michael H. Sura. In April 
a large display of the currencies of the Austrian Empire was installed, 
employing material recently received from the Mortimer and Anna 
Neinken Collection. 

The Star-Spangled Banner, the original flag which flew over Fort 
McHenry at Baltimore during the attack of the British fleet on Sep- 
tember 13-14, 1814, and which inspired Francis Scott Key to write the 
words of what is now our National Anthem, was installed in the new 
Museum of History and Technology when it was opened to the public 
in January. Although this most important museum object related to 
the history of the United States had been exhibited in the Arts and 


64 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Industries Building since it was presented to the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution in 1912, it is now displayed for the first time at full length, 
undraped, and in a place of honor befitting its importance as a na- 
tional symbol. The flag is displayed over a supporting fabric large 
enough to indicate its original dimensions of 30 by 42 feet and com- 
pletely covers a specially designed metal grid which holds the flag 
and its supporting fabric in a vertical position and hangs in an atmos- 
phere of filtered air carefully controlled for the proper temperature 
and humidity. The flag was prepared for exhibition and installed 
under the direction of Edgar M. Howell, curator-in-charge of the 
division of military history, with the assistance of Grace Rogers 
Cooper, curator-in-charge, division of textiles. The setting for the 
flag was designed by Walker Cain of the firm of Steinmann, Cain & 
White, architects for the new Museum. The cased exhibit was de- 
signed by Robert Widder, exhibits designer. 

The entire professional staff of the department has been deeply 
concerned with the development of exhibits for the Armed Forces his- 
tory halls in the new Museum. The exhibit of Armed Forces history 
in the Arts and Industries Building will remain until the early fall 
of 1964. 

Assistant director John C. Ewers coordinated the varied exhibits 
activities of the Museum of History and Technology, with the able 
assistance of John N. Edy who planned the physical movement of 
materials. Benjamin W. Lawless continued to supervise the design, 
production, and installation of exhibits, aided by Robert Widder in 
design, Bela S. Bory and William Clark in production, Robert 
Klinger in the model shop, Stanley Santoroski in supervision of 
installation, and Carroll Lusk, lighting specialist. Editing of the 
curators’ drafts of exhibits scripts was continued by George Weiner, 
assisted by Constance Minkin and Edna Wright. The timely assist- 
ance of buildings manager Andrew F. Michaels and his staff contrib- 
uted substantially to the success of this program, as did the services 
of John E. Cudd, liaison architect, and George Watson, skilled special- 
ist in the renovation and installation of period interiors. 

John EK. Anglim, exhibits chief, continued in charge of the planning 
and preparation of all exhibits and directly supervised the operation 
of the exhibits laboratory in the Natural History Building, with the 
assistance of Gilbert Wright. Julius Tretick supervised the produc- 
tion and installation of natural history exhibits. Substantial portions 
of the Hall of the Cultures of Asia and Africa and the Hall of Oste- 
ology in the Museum of Natural History were opened to the public 
in June and progress was made on hall layout and/or exhibits design 
in five other galleries in that building. Director T. Dale Stewart 
continued to serve as chairman of the committee coordinating the 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 65 


exhibits modernization program in natural history, and assistant di- 
rector Richard S. Cowan was responsible for integrating the work 
of curators and exhibits personnel in the development of natural- 
history exhibits. 


DOCENT SERVICE 


The Junior League of Washington conducted its volunteer guide 
program for the school classes of the greater Washington area through 
the Smithsonian museums for the tenth consecutive year. The pro- 
gram was carried out through the cooperation of G. Carroll Lindsay, 
curator of the Smithsonian Museum Service, with Mrs. Dickson R. 
Loos as chairman of the League’s guide service and Mrs. Arnold B. 
McKinnon as cochairman. Mrs. McKinnon will serve as chairman 
for the forthcoming year with Mrs. Joseph Smith, Jr., as cochairman. 

During the 1963-64 school year 20,044 children were conducted on 
701 tours. During the year, the 100,000th child to participate in the 
program was conducted on a tour by the volunteers. 

Tours were conducted in the Halls of Mammals, Native Peoples of 
the Americas, and Textiles for grades 3 through 6; and in the Halls 
of Gems and Minerals and Prehistoric Life for grades 5 through junior 
high. The Prehistoric Life tour was given for the first time this 
year. The Power Hall, in which tours had been conducted for the 
past 6 years, was closed to tours because of its move to the Museum 
of History and Technology. Since the beginning of Power Hall 
tours in 1958, about 12,000 children have been conducted through this 
hall. 

Tours were offered 5 days a week, four tours each day, every half 
hour beginning at 10:00 a.m. through 11:30 a.m. in the Halls of Mam- 
mals and Native Peoples of the Americas. Tours in the Halls of Gems 
and Minerals and Prehistoric Life were offered Monday through 
Friday at 10:00 a.m. and 11:00 am. The textile tour was offered 
only on Wednesdays and Fridays at 10:00 a.m. and 11:00 a.m. 

Tours were conducted from October 2 through May 29, with the 
exception of the month of April 1964, when, as usual, tours were 
suspended because of the exceedingly heavy visitor traffic in all 
museum halls during the Easter and cherry-blossom seasons. During 
May, for the first time, the volunteers made use of compact, portable 
amplifiers. With the aid of these amplifiers it is possible to conduct 
tours even when the exhibit halls are heavily crowded. 

In addition to Mrs. Loos and Mrs. McKinnon, the members of the 
League’s guided tour committee were: 

Mrs. Timothy Atkeson, Mrs. Leon Bernstein, Mrs. Thomas A. Bradford, Jr., 
Mrs. Challen E. Caskie, Mrs. Thomas R. Cate, Mrs. F. David Clarke, Mrs. Steven 


Conger, Mrs. Henry M. deButts, Mrs. Lee M. Folger, Mrs. Rockwood Foster, Mrs. 
George Gerber, Mrs. Gilbert Grosvenor, Mrs. James Harvey, Mrs. William 


66 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Henry, Mrs. Walter M. Johnson, Jr., Mrs. Vernon Knight, Mrs. Lansing Lamont, 
Mrs. Edward Leonard, Mrs. John Manfuso, Jr., Mrs. H. Roemer McPhee, Mrs. 
R. Kendall Nottingham, Mrs. L. Edgar Prina, Mrs. W. James Sears, Mrs. Walter 
Slowinski, Mrs. Joseph Smith, Jr., Mrs. James H. Stallings, Jr., Mrs. Edwin F. 
Stetson, Mrs. E. Tilman Stirling, Mrs. John 8. Vorhees, Mrs. Richard Wallis, 
and Mrs. Mark White. 

The Institution deeply appreciates the able and devoted efforts of 
these volunteers, whose services to the schools of the Washington area 
encourage effective use of Smithsonian museum exhibits by teachers 
and students. 

BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT 


The contract for the construction of the west wing of the Natural 
History Building, including the last stage of renovation of the original 
building, was signed in August 1963. Excavation for the wing was 
begun in November and, owing to a mild winter, the foundations were 
laid and the superstructure erected at a rapid rate. By the end of the 
fiscal year most of the granite facing was in place. 

Within the original building a large L-shaped area in the northwest 
corner of the third floor was cleared for renovation by October. Work 
in this area proceeded slowly, owing to the need for preliminary in- 
stallation of electrical conduits. This area was still not finished by 
the end of the fiscal year, but work was proceeding at a faster pace. 

The General Services Administration accepted all remaining areas 
and systems of the Museum of History and Technology, not previously 
accepted, effective August 30, 1963, with certain exceptions. 

President Lyndon B. Johnson dedicated the building at ceremonies 
held in the evening of January 22, 1964. The Museum was opened to 
the public at 9:00 a.m., January 23, 1964. The Museum has been 
visited by record-breaking crowds and has become the focus of the 
attention of scholars, university departments, and museum profes- 
sionals, who are interested by the impact which the scholarly staff and 
great collections of the Smithsonian can have on education at all 
levels from the elementary student to the postgraduate. 


CHANGES IN ORGANIZATION AND STAFF 


Approval for the establishment of a Department of Entomology 
was given by former Secretary Leonard Carmichael on April 30, 1963. 
Accordingly, on July 1, 1963, the division of insects was separated 
from the Department of Zoology and became the Department of 
Entomolgy. The five divisions in the department are: Neuropteroids, 
Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Myriapoda and Arachnida, and Hemiptera.? 

2For administrative purposes, and until new divisions are established in the new 
Department of Entomology, the newly created units will deal with subject matters not 
necessarily closely related; the division of neuropteroids will handle administrative 
matters pertaining to the Orthoptera and Isoptera; the division of Lepidoptera will 


handle Diptera; the division of Hemiptera will process transactions involving Hymenop- 
tera. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 67 


Likewise, a plan to divide the Department of Geology into two depart- 
ments, Mineral Sciences and Paleobiology, was approved on August 
20, 1963, and the reorganization became effective on October 15, 1963. 
The diversity of disciplines in the old geology department made the 
partition logical and desirable. The purely physical subjects of 
mineralogy, petrology, and meteoritics are now separated from the 
biological subjects of paleontology and ecology. The Department of 
Mineral Sciences consists of three divisions, Mineralogy, Meteorites, 
and Petrology. The Department of Paleobiology consists of four 
divisions: Invertebrate Paleontology, Vertebrate Paleontology, Paleo- 
botany, and Sedimentology. 

By direction of the Secretary, a new system was inaugurated in May 
whereby certain administrative duties within the Mascan are rotated 
in order to free senior staff members for research and publication, 
permitting others to participate more widely in administration. While 
it is believed that it is at the department level that such moves are 
most needed, the designation of more than one full curator within a 
division will make it possible to rotate appointments in the divisions 
as well. This will be done by detailing a member of the division 
curatorial staff to serve as “curator in charge.” The curator formerly 
in charge of that division will either become a senior scientist or his- 
torian or continue on the personnel rolls as a full curator. Such 
rotations may be scheduled by museum directors in response to recog- 
nized needs, although they will not become a matter of set schedule 
or routine. The title “head curator” has accordingly been discon- 
tinued, and the title for the administrative head of each department 
will be “chairman.” The former chairman of a department may be 
appointed a senior scientist or continue to serve as a full curator, 
upon the recommendation of his Museum director. 

During fiscal year 1964 the following appointments were made to 
the scientific staff of the Museum of Natural History: Dr. Wallace R. 
Ernst, associate curator of phanerogams, on July 29, 1963; David B. 
Lellinger, associate curator of ferns, on August 26, 1963; Dr. Richard 
C. Froeschner, associate curator in charge of Hemiptera, on August 
26, 1963; Dr. Richard L. Zusi, associate curator of birds, on September 
8, 1963; Dr. Richard B. Woodbury, associate curator of archeology, on 
December 15, 1963; Dr. Clayton E. Ray, associate curator of vertebrate 
paleontology, on December 18, 1963; Dr. Dan H. Nicolson, associate 
curator of phanerogams, on January 5, 1964; Dr. David L. Pawson, as- 
sociate curator of marine invertebrates, on May 20, 1964; Dr. Walter H. 
Adey, associate curator of paleobotany, on June 30, 1964; and Dr. 
Richard H. Benson, associate curator of invertebrate palentology, 
on June 380, 1964. 

Among the additions to the staff of the Museum of History and 

766-746—65—_6 


68 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Technology were the appointments of Miss Deborah J. Mills, assistant 
curator in the chairman’s office, Department of Science and Technol- 
ogy, on July 16, 1963; Miss Rita J. Adrosko, associate curator in the di- 
vision of textiles, Department of Arts and Manufactures, on August 4, 
1963; Miss Anne Castrodale, assistant curator, growth of the United 
States, Department of Civil History, on September 29, 1963; and Miss 
Uta C. Merzbach, associate curator, division of physical sciences, De- 
partment of Science and Technology, on October 28, 1963. 

Mrs. Agnes Chase, world-famous agrostologist and Smithsonian 
honorary research associate, died on September 24, 1963. 

Francis J. McCall, curator of the division of philately and postal 
history, died on July 20, 1963. He had headed the division since No- 
vember 6, 1962, and had just begun to see the results of some of the 
fine programs he had inaugurated. 

Miss Ellen Joy Finnegan, assistant curator in the section of 
growth of the United States, left the Museum of History and Tech- 
nology on August 14, 1963, to accept a teaching position in Thailand. 
Junior curator Barbara F. Bode resigned from the numismatics di- 
vision on September 20, 1963, and Anthony W. Hathaway, assistant 
curator in the division of cultural history, resigned on June 23, 1964. 

Mrs. Jacqueline S. Olin became the research chemist to assist the 
conservator-in-charge of the conservation research laboratory on June 
21, 1964. 

Bela S. Bory, production supervisor of the Museum of History and 
Technology exhibits laboratory, accepted another governmental po- 
sition and left the office of exhibits on June 27, 1964. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Frank A. Taytor, Director. 
S. Diton Rirtey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the International Exchange 
Service 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the International Exchange Service for the fiscal year ended 
June 30, 1964: 

The original plan of organization of the Smithsonian Institution 
presented to the Board of Regents by Joseph Henry in 1847 pro- 
vided for a system of exchange of current publications which would 
afford the Smithsonian Institution the most ready means of entering 
into friendly relations and correspondence with all the learned so- 
cieties in the world and of enriching the Smithsonian library with the 
current transactions and proceedings of foreign institutions. 

When the first of the Smithsonian’s long series of scientific publi- 
cations, Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi Valley, was issued, 
copies were sent to scientific and learned institutions abroad. In re- 
turn, the Smithsonian Institution received many valuable publica- 
tions from foreign institutions. To continue this desirable interna- 
tional exchange of scientific information, the Smithsonian Institution 
appointed agents in a number of foreign countries to distribute the 
publications received from the Smithsonian Institution and to forward 
to the Smithsonian Institution the publications received from the 
foreign institutions. 

In 1851 the privilege of transmitting scientific, cultural, and literary 
publications through the Smithsonian Institution to other countries, 
and of receiving similar publications from foreign institutions in 
return, was extended to Government agencies and a number of scien- 
tific societies in the United States. This opportunity to distribute 
their publications abroad was eagerly accepted and the system grew 
so rapidly that today most Government agencies, many universities, 
and scientific organizations representing every State in the Union 
utilize the International Exchange Service. The International Ex- 
change Service functions as a medium for developing and executing 
in part the broad and comprehensive objective of the Smithsonian 
Institution—“the increase and diffusion of knowledge among men.” 
This service has grown from a few hundred packages of publications 
transmitted per year to more than a million packages during the past 
fiscal year. 


69 


70 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Publications weighing 891,148 pounds were received during the year 
from Government bureaus and departments, congressional committees, 
members of Congress, universities, agricultural experiment stations, 
learned societies, scientific organizations, and individuals for trans- 
mission to addressees in more than 100 different countries. Repre- 
sentative of these publications are the following: Language, Journal 
of the Linguistic Society of America; Journal of the National Educa- 
tion Association; Journal of Science; Yale University Bulletin; Year- 
book of the Carnegie Institution; Zoologica; Transactions of the 
American Association of Physicians; Expedition; Brevoria; Oregon 
Law Review; Museum of Art Register; Paleontological Contribu- 
tions; Anthropological Record; Novitates; Proceedings of the Ameri- 
can Philosophical Society; Contributions of the Scripps Institution of 
Oceanography; and Proceedings of the California Academy of 
Sciences. 

Publications are accepted for transmission to addressees in all coun- 
tries except to the mainland of China, North Korea, and Communist- 
controlled areas of Viet-Nam. Packages of publications from domes- 
tic sources intended for addressees in the United States or in a terri- 
tory subject to the jurisdiction of the United States are not accepted 
for transmission. 

Listed below are the names and addresses of the foreign exchange 
bureaus to whom the International Exchange Service forwards ad- 
dressed packages of publications for distribution. 


LIST OF EXCHANGE SERVICES 


Austria: Austrian National Library, Vienna. 

Be.erum: Service des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale de Bel- 
gique, Bruxelles. 

Cuina: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. 

CZECHOSLOVAKIA: Bureau of International Exchanges, University Library, 
Prague. 

DeNMARK: Institut Danois des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Royale, 
Copenhagen. 

Ecypt: Government Press, Publications Office, Bulag, Cairo. 

FINLAND: Library of the Scientific Societies, Helsinki. 

FrRaNce: Service des Kchanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. 

GERMANY (Eastern) : Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. 

GERMANY (Western): Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, Bad Godesberg. 

Huneary: Service Hongrois des Echanges Internationaux, Orszigos Széchenyi 
Konyvtar, Budapest. 

Inpia: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Bombay. 

INDONESIA: Minister of Education, Djakarta. 

IsRAEL: Jewish National and University Library, Jerusalem. 

IraLy: Ufficio degli Scambi Internazionali, Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, 
Rome. 

JAPAN: Division for Interlibrary Services, National Diet Library, Tokyo. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT i1 


Korea: National Central Library, Seoul.’ 

NETHERLANDS: International Exchange Bureau of the Netherlands, Royal Li- 
brary, The Hague. 

New SoutH WALES: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. 

New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. 

Norway: Service Norvégien des changes Internationaux, Bibliothéque de l’Uni- 
versité Royale, Oslo. 

PuHmirPPines: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. 

Po.anp: Service Polonais des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Nationale, 
Warsaw. 

PortuGcaL: Servico Portugués de Trocas Internacionais, Biblioteca Nacional, 
Lisbon. 

QUEENSLAND: Bureau of International Exchange of Publications, Chief Secre- 
tary’s Office, Brisbane. 

RuMANIA: International Exchange Service, Biblioteca Centrala de Stat, Bu- 
charest. 

Sourn AustTRALIA: South Australian Government Exchanges Bureau, Govern- 
ment Printing and Stationery Office, Adelaide. 

Spain: Junta de Intercambio y Adquisicién de Libros y Revistas para Bibliote- 
eas Piblicas, Ministerio de Educacién Nacional, Madrid. 

SwepEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. 

SwitzerRLAND: Service Suisse des Echanges Internationaux, Bibliothéque Cen- 
trale Fédérale, Berne. 

TASMANIA: Secretary of the Premier, Hobart. 

TurKEY: National Library, Ankara. 

Union or SoutH Arrica: Government Printing and Stationery Office, Cape 
Town. 

Union or Sovrer SocraLtist REPuUBLIcsS: Bureau of Book Exchange, State Lenin 
Library, Moscow. 

Victorta: State Library of Victoria, Melbourne. 

WESTERN AUSTRALIA: State Library, Perth. 

YuaostaviA: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade. 


FOREIGN DEPOSITORIES OF GOVERNMENTAL DOCUMENTS 


The Smithsonian Institution received during the fiscal year 664,067 
publications weighing 250,677 pounds for transmission to the recip- 
ients of the full sets of official United States Government publications, 
and 69,436 publications weighing 45,823 pounds for transmission to 
the recipients of the partial sets. The recipients of the full sets re- 
ceive copies of all of the official publications, while the recipients 
of the partial sets receive a selected list of the official publications. 


RECIPIENTS OF THE FULL SETS 
ARGENTINA: Divisién Biblioteca, Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, 
Buenos Aires. 

AUSTRALIA : National Library of Australia, Canberra. 
New SoutH WaALEs: Public Library of New South Wales, Sydney. 
QUEENSLAND: Parliamentary Library, Brisbane. 
Souta AvustTRALIA: Public Library of South Australia, Adelaide. 
TASMANIA: Parliamentary Library, Hobart. 
Vicroria: State Library of Victoria, Melbourne. 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: State Library, Perth. 


1 Change in name, 


72 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Austria: Administrative Library, federal Chancellery, Vienna. 
BretciuM: Service Belge des Echanges Internationaux, Bruxelles. 
Braziu: Biblioteca Nacional, Rio de Janeiro. 
BurMA: Government Book Depot, Rangoon. 
CanapDA: Library of Parliament, Ottawa. 
MANITOBA: Provincial Library, Winnipeg. 
Ontario: Legislative Library, Toronto. 
QveEsEc: Library of the Legislature of the Province of Quebec. 
SASKATCHEWAN: Legislative Library, Regina. 
CryLon: Department of Information, Government of Ceylon, Colombo. 
CHILE: Biblioteca Nacional, Santiago. 
CHINA: National Central Library, Taipei, Taiwan. 
National Chengchi University, Taipei, Taiwan. 
CoLoMBIA: Biblioteca Nacional, Bogota. 
Costa Rica: Biblioteca Nacional, San José. 
CuBA: Direccién de Organismos Internacionales, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex- 
teriores, Habana. 
CZECHOSLOVAKIA: University Library, Prague. 
DENMARK: Institut Danois des Hchanges Internationaux, Copenhagen. 
Eeyrt: Bureau des Publications, Ministére des Finances, Cairo. 
FINLAND: Parliamentary Library, Helsinki. 
FRANCE: Bibliothéque Nationale, Paris. 
GERMANY: Deutsche Staatsbibliothek, Berlin. 
Free University of Berlin, Berlin-Dahlem. 
Parliamentary Library, Bonn. 
GREAT BRITAIN: 
British Museum, London. 
London School of Economics and Political Science. (Depository of the 
London County Council.) 
InpIA: National Library, Calcutta. 
Central Secretariat Library, New Delhi. 
Parliament Library, New Delhi. 
InpoNnEs14: Ministry for Foreign Affairs, Djakarta. 
IRELAND: National Library of Ireland, Dublin. 
ISRAEL: State Archives and Library, Hakirya, Jerusalem. 
Iraty : Ministero della Pubblica Istruzione, Rome. 
JAPAN : National Diet Library, Tokyo? 
Mexico: Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores, Departamento de Informacién 
para el Extranjero, México, D.F. 
NETHERLANDS: Royal Library, The Hague. 
New ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. 
Norway: University Library, Oslo.” 
Peru: Seccién de Propaganda y Publicaciones, Ministerio de Relaciones Ex- 
teriores, Lima. 
PHILIPPINES: Bureau of Public Libraries, Department of Education, Manila. 
PorTUGAL: Biblioteca Nacional, Lisbon. 
Spain: Biblioteca Nacional, Madrid. 
SWEDEN: Kungliga Biblioteket, Stockholm. 
SWITZERLAND: Bibliothéque Centrale Fédérale, Berne. 
TURKEY: National Library, Ankara. 


1 Change in name. 
2 Receives two sets, 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 73 


UNION or SoutH Arrica: State Library, Pretoria, Transvaal. 

UNION OF SovieT SocraList ReeuBLIics: All-Union Lenin Library, Moscow. 
UNITED NaTIons: Library of the United Nations, Geneva, Switzerland. 
Urueuay: Oficina de Canje Internacional de Publicaciones, Montevideo. 
VENEZUELA: Biblioteca Nacional, Caracas. 

Yueostavia : Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.” 


RECIPIENTS OF THE PARTIAL SETS 


AFGHANISTAN: Library of the Afghan Academy, Kabul. 

Be.Lc1uM : Bibliothéque Royale, Bruxelles. 

Bouivia: Biblioteca del Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores y Culto, La Paz. 
BrAzIL: MINAS GERAIS: Departmento Estadul de Estatistica, Belo Horizonte. 
BRITISH GUIANA: Government Secretary’s Office, Georgetown, Demerara. 
Cambopia : Les Archives et Bibliotheque Nationale, Phnom-Penh. 

CANADA: 


ALBERTA : Provincial Library, Edmonton. 

BRITISH COLUMBIA: Provincial Library, Victoria. 

NEw BruNSwWICcE: Legislative Library, Fredericton. 
NEWFOUNDLAND: Department of Provincial Affairs, St. John’s. 
Nova Scott: Provincial Secretary of Nova Scotia, Halifax. 


DOMINICAN REPUBLIC: Biblioteca de la Universidad de Santo Domingo, Santo 


Domingo. 


Ecuapor: Biblioteca Nacional, Quito. 
EL SALVADOR: 


Biblioteca Nacional, San Salvador. 
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, San Salvador. 


GREECE: National Library, Athens. 
GUATEMALA: Biblioteca Nacional, Guatemala. 
HaitT1: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. 
HONDURAS: 


Biblioteca Nacional, Tegucigalpa. 
Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Tegucigalpa. 


IckELAnD: National Library, Reykajavik. 
INDIA: 


BomsBay: Sachivalaya Central Library, Bombay. 
BrH4ark: Revenue Department, Patna. 
KERALA: Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivandrum. 
UTTAR PRADESH: 
University of Allahabad, Allahabad. 
Secretariat Library, Lucknow. 
West BenGaL: Library, West Bengal Legislative Secretariat, Assembly 
House, Calcutta. 


IRAN : Imperial Ministry of Education, Tehran. 
IrAQ: Public Library, Baghdad. 
JAMAICA: 


Colonial Secretary, Kingston. 
University College of the West Indies, St. Andrew. 
LEBANON : American University of Beirut, Beirut. 


LiBertA: Department of State, Monrovia. 


MALAYA: Federal Secretariat, Federation of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur. 
Matta: Minister for the Treasury, Valletta. 


2 Receives two sets. 


74 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


NICARAGUA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Managua. 

PAKISTAN : Central Secretariat Library, Karachi. 

PANAMA: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Panamé. 

Paracuay: Ministerio de Relaciones Exteriores, Seccién Biblioteca, Asunci6n. 
PHILIPPINES: House of Representatives, Manila. 

ScorLanp: National Library of Scotland, Edinburgh. 

Singapore: Chief Secretary, Government Offices, Singapore. 

Supan : Gordon Memorial College, Khartoum. 

THAILAND: National Library, Bangkok. 

Viet-NaM: Direction des Archives et Bibliothéques Nationales, Saigon. 


INTERPARLIAMENTARY EXCHANGE OF THE OFFICIAL JOURNALS 


There are being sent on exchange through the International Ex- 
change Service 108 copies of the daily issues of the Congressional 
Record and 86 copies of the daily issues of the Federal Register. 
Listed below are the names and addresses of the recipients of the offi- 
cial journals. 


RECIPIENTS OF THE CONGRESSIONAL RECORD AND FEDERAL REGISTER 


ARGENTINA: 
Biblioteca del Poder Judicial, Mendoza.* 
Direccién General del Boletin Oficial e Imprentas, Buenos Aires. 
Camara de Diputados Oficina de Informacion Parliamentaria, Buenos Aires. 
AUSTRALIA : 
National Library of Australia, Canberra. 
New SourH WALES: Library of Parliament of New South Wales, Sydney. 
QUEENSLAND: Chief Secretary’s Office, Brisbane. 
Victoria: State Library of Victoria, Melbourne.® 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA: Library of Parliament of Western Australia, Perth. 
BELGIuM: Bibliothéque du Parlement, Palais de la Nation, Brussels.* 
BRAZIL: 
Biblioteca da CAmara dos Deputados, Brasilia, D.F.* 
Secretaria da Presidencia, Rio de Janeiro.‘ 
CamBopIA: Ministry of Information, Phnom-Penh. 
CAMEROON : Imprimerie Nationale, Yaoundé.* 
CANADA: 
Clerk of the Senate, Houses of Parliament, Ottawa. 
Library of Parliament, Ottawa. 
Cryton : Ceylon Ministry of Defense and External Affairs, Colombo.‘ 
CHILE: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Santiago.* 
CHINA: 
Legislative Yuan, Taipei, Taiwan.‘ 
Taiwan Provincial Assembly, Taiwan? 
CUBA: 
Biblioteca del Capitolio, Habana. 
Biblioteca Publica Panamericana, Habana.® 
CzECHOSLOVAKIA : Ceskoslovenska Akademie Ved, Prague.‘ 
1 Change in name. 


8 Federal Register only. 
4 Congressional Record only. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 


Eeypr: Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Egyptian Government, Cairo.‘ 
FinLanp: Library of the Parliament, Helsinki.‘ 
FRANCE: 
Bibliothéque Assemblée Nationale, Paris. 
Bibliothéque Conseil de la République, Paris. 
Library, Organization for European Economic Cooperation, Paris.‘ 
Bibliothéque du Conseil de l'Europe, Strasbourg." ‘ 
Service de la Documentation Etrangére Assemblée Nationale, Paris. ‘ 
GaBon : Secretary General, Assemblée Nationale, Libreville.‘ 
GERMANY: 
Amerika Institut der Universitiit Miinchen, Miinchen.*‘ 
Archiv, Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn. 
Bibliothek des Instituts fiir Weltwirtschaft an der Universitit 
Kiel-Wik. 
Bibliothek Hessischer Landtag, Wiesbaden.‘ 
Deutsches Institut fiir Rechtswissenschaft, Potsdam-Babelsberg II.* 
Deutscher Bundesrat, Bonn.‘ 
Deutscher Bundestag, Bonn.‘ 
Hamburgisches Welt-Wirtschafts-Archiv, Hamburg. 
Westdeutsche Bibliothek, Marburg, Hessen.‘* 
GHANA: Chief Secretary’s Office, Accra.* 
GREAT BRITAIN? 
Department of Printed Books, British Museum, London. 
House of Commons Library, London.‘ 
N.P.P. Warehouse, H.M. Stationery Office, London.*® 
Printed Library of the Foreign Office, London.‘ 
Royal Institute of International Affairs, London.‘ 
GREECE: Bibliothéque Chambre des Députés, Hellénique, Athens. 
GUATEMALA: Biblioteca de la Asamblea Legislativa, Guatemala. 
Harti: Bibliothéque Nationale, Port-au-Prince. 
HonpvurAS: Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional, Tegucigalpa. 
Houna@ary: Orszigos Széchenyi Konyvtar, Budapest. 
INDIA: 
Civil Secretariat Library, Lucknow, United Provinces.® 
Jammu and Kashmir Constituent Assembly, Srinagar.‘ 
Legislative Assembly, Government of Assam, Shillong.‘ 
Legislative Assembly Library, Lucknow, United Provinces. 
Kerala Legislature Secretariat, Trivandrum.‘* 
Madras State Legislature, Madras.* 
Parliament Library, New Delhi. 
Gokhale Institute of Politics and Economics, Poona.’ 
IRELAND: Dail Eireann, Dublin.‘ 
IsRAEL: Library of the Knesset, Jerusalem. 
ITALY : 
Biblioteca Camera dei Deputati, Rome. 
Biblioteca del Senato della Republica, Rome. 
International Institute for the Unification of Private Law, Rome.’ 


75 


Kiel, 


Periodicals Unit, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 


Rome.* 


1 Change in name. 

8 Federal Register only. 

4 Congressional Record only. 
5 Three copies, 

© Two copies. 


76 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Ivory Coast: Chef des Services Legislatifs, Assemblee Nationale, Abidjan.*’” 
JAPAN: 
Library of the National Diet, Tokyo. 
Ministry of Finance, Tokyo. 
JORDAN: Parliament of the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan, Amman.‘ 
Korea: Library, National Assembly, Seoul. 
LuxEemMBoure: Assemblée Commune de la C.E.C.A., Luxembourg. 
Mexico: 
Direccién General de Informaci6n, Secretaria de Governacién, México, D.F. 
Biblioteca Benjamin Franklin, México, D.F. 
AGUASCALIENTES: Gobernador del Estado de Aguascalientes, Aguascalientes. 
Basa CALIFoRNIA: Gobierno del Estado de Baja California, Mexicali.* 
CAMPECHE: Gobernador del Estado de Campeche. 
CHIAPAS : Gobernador del Estado de Chiapas, Tuxtla Gutiérrez. 
CHIHUAHUA: Gobernador del Estado de Chihuahua, Chihuahua. 
CoAHUILA: Periéddico Oficial del Estado de Coahuila, Palacio de Gobierno, 
Saltillo. 
CoLiMA : Gobernador del Estado de Colima, Colima. 
GUANAJUATO: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado, Guanajuato.* 
JALISCO: Biblioteca del Estado, Guadalajara. 
Mexico: Gaceta del Gobierno, Toluca. 
MicuoacAn: Secretaria General de Gobierno del Estado de Michoacan, 
Morelia. 
MorExLos: Palacio de Gobierno, Cuernavaca. 
NAYARIT: Gobernador de Nayarit, Tepic. 
Nuevo Lr6n: Biblioteca del Estado, Monterrey. 
Oaxaca: Periédico Oficial, Palacio de Gobierno, Oaxaca? 
PUEBLA: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Puebla. 
QUERETARO: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Seccién de Archivo, Querétaro. 
SrinALoA: Direccién del Periddico Oficial ‘El Estado de Sinaloa, Culiacan.* 
Sonora : Gobernador del Estado de Sonora, Hermosillo. 
TAMAULIPAS: Secretaria General de Gobierno, Victoria. 
VERACRUZ: Gobernador del Estado de Veracruz, Departamento de Gober- 
nacion y Justicia, Jalapa. 
YucaTAn : Gobernador del Estado de Yucatan, Mérida. 
NETHERLANDS: Koninklijke Bibliotheek, The Hague.* 
NEw ZEALAND: General Assembly Library, Wellington. 
NIGERIA : 
Office of the Clerk of the Legislature, Enugu.* 
Office of the Western Nigeria Legislature, Ibadan.*? 
Norway: Library of the Norwegian Parliament, Oslo. 
PAKISTAN: Secretary, Provincial Assembly West Pakistan, Lahore.* 
PANAMA: Biblioteca Nacional, Panama City.‘ 
PHILIPPINES: House of Representatives, Manila. 
PoLAND: Kancelaria Rady Panstwa, Biblioteka Sejmowa, Warsaw. 
RHODESIA AND NYASALAND: Federal Assembly, Salisbury.’ 
RUMANIA: Biblioteca Centrala de Stat RPR, Bucharest. 
Rwanpa: Service de la Législation, Cabinet du Président, Kigali.** 
SENEGAL: Secrétaire-Général, Assemblée Nationale, Dakar.** 
SierRA LEONE: Office of the Clerk, House of Representatives, Freetown.‘ 


1 Change in name. 

8 Federal Register only. 

4 Congressional Record only. 
7 Added during the year. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT rir 


Sparin: Boletin Oficial del Estado, Presidencia del Gobierno, Madrid. 
SWEDEN : Universitetsbiblioteket, Uppsala. 
SWITZERLAND: 
International Labour Office, Geneva.*° 
Library, United Nations, Geneva. 
TANGANYIKA: Library, University College, Dar es Salaam.* 


Toco: Ministére d’Etat, de l’Interieur, de l’Information et de la Presse, Lome. 
UcanpA: National Assembly of Uganda, Parliament House, Kampala.‘ 
Union or South AFRica: 
CAPE OF Goop Hope: Library of Parliament, Cape Town. 
TRANSVAAL: State Library, Pretoria. 
UNION oF SoviET Soctatist REPUBLICS: Fundamental’niia Biblioteka Obshchest- 
vennykh Nauk, Moscow. 
UPPER VOLTA: 
Président de la Commission des Affaires Sociales et Culturelles, Assemblée 
Nationale, Ouagadougou.‘ * 
Chef de Cabinet, Présidence, Ouagadougou.*” 
Uruevay: Diario Oficial, Calle Florida 1178, Montevideo. 
YUGOSLAVIA: Bibliografski Institut FNRJ, Belgrade.® 

During the fiscal year 1964, the International Exchange Service 
received for transmission publications weighing over 1 million pounds 
from foreign and domestic sources—the largest amount of publica- 
tions received for transmission during any one year by the Service. 
The number and weight of the packages of publications received from 
sources in the United States for transmission abroad, and the number 
and weight of packages received from foreign sources intended for 
domestic addresses, are classified for fiscal 1964 in table 1. 

Publications weighing 118,091 pounds were received during the year 
from foreign sources for distribution to addresses in the United States. 

Publications weighing 621,353 pounds, 69.7 percent of the total re- 
ceived for transmission abroad, were forwarded by ocean freight at 
a cost to the Smithsonian Institution of $36,187 or approximately 5.8 
cents per pound. 

Packages of publications are mailed directly to the addresses in the 
countries that do not have exchange bureaus. During the past fiscal 
year publications weighing 269,773 pounds, 30.3 percent of the total 
received for transmission abroad, were mailed to the intended ad- 
dresses, at a cost of $63,073 or approximately 23.4 cents per pound. 

3 Federal Register only. 

4 Congressional Record only. 


8 Two copies. 
7 Added during the year. 


78 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


TasLe 1.— The number and weight of outgoing and incoming packages handled by 
the International Exchange Service, fiscal year 1964 


Received by the Smithsonian Institution for 
transmission 


Classification For transmission abroad For distribution in the 
United States 


Number of Weight in | Number of| Weight in 
packages pounds packages pounds 


U.S. parliamentary documents re- 

ceived for transmission abroad-___-_- 744, 398 SOOO 421 |r 2 al eee 
Publications received from foreign 

sources for U.S. parliamentary 

ad GTeSSeeS a soe eee he eee a eee eee ee 8, 297 11, 038 
U.S. departmental documents re- 

ceived for transmission abroad__-__- 285, 071 PAST ea] 0) il Meine ie el AL 
Publications received from foreign 

sources for U.S. departmental 

GU OTESSCOS =e 24 = S80 a Pica FAL un etl a BARA pce aL 5, 937 13, 749 
Miscellaneous scientific and literary 

publications received for trans- 

MUNSON VOLONGs4 a0" a ee es aot 205, 890 ZOOL OS (poe ee ee 
Miscellaneous scientific and literary 

publications received from abroad 


for distribution in the United States_|_.._..._.____]__------_- 54, 016 93, 304 
yo} 21 MP a a el a lle oe ef a 1, 235, 359 | 891, 148 | 68, 250 | 118, 091 
Total packages received_-_-_-_-_- 1 SOS GOSIIES ee Oise = | acre eee ER 
Potsl pounds received’ 2e.- "6 a) so ee ee ee oe ee 1,009,239 


The chart on the opposite page gives the comparative weight of the 
packages of publications received for transmission through the Service 
between the years 1850 and 1964, by 5-year periods. 

Respectfully submitted. 

J. A. Collins, Chief. 
S. Dillon Ripley, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 79 


CuHart 1.—Comparative Weight of Packages Received for 
Transmission Through the International Exchange Service 
Between 1850 and 1964, by 5-Year Periods 


FIVE YEAR PERIOD FACH COLUIM EQUAL TO 200,000 POUNDS WEIGHT IN POUNDS 


EAS a el Oe A 25 ee 
Be ae Te se 05 Wiig a 
| 1860 - 1866 TT TT TI a2 ee ee 
EC ee a ik a 
P1670 - 1674 sd! S| TSC at awe 
P3675 - 1679 bt! | | De ee 

1880 - 1664 Soe |_| ee ie fice os BIG, EBBintte | 
| 885 - 1669 belle | |_| ails WE lethe lhaeeae a eee 
| 2690 - 1694 leteteteate | | | TT | eG Pao. cipro | 
P1895 - 1899 eatin | | |_| ef Peel [ISS A oi Meso 2 | 
a Se HESS We eee 

1905 - 1909 Lorcsgs erloe ioe eeber BARR Se ae ee 
OC ae RAMS Se See ee 
ESC a 5 So al as De 
[1920 - 192) lepers! | | | | | | || || 2725 | 
Be as SS NERA See ee 
BESS SS ee a ceoemwmmcees | | | | | | | | 3,270,382 —* 
iia Se aaa eanaeeunny oy 

1940 = 1944s bec gst eee ics eis 
BE ee eee me er ane ee 
| 1950 - 1954 eel eels nels es eerste clelereelcleleelete | | | | 4,098,909 __| 
ee ee emctmetmantemten| | | | | 3954.61 _— 
[___1960 = 1964 alnsleaalnah rbot eee: | §.676,06 


A. INTERRUPTION TO THE SERVICE DUE TO WORLD WAR I. 
B, INTERRUPTION TO THE SERVICE DUE TO WORLD WAR IL. 


Report on the Bureau of American 


Ethnology 


Str: I have the honor to submit the following report on the field 
researches, office work, and other operations of the Bureau of American 
Ethnology during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1964, conducted in 
accordance with the act of Congress of April 10, 1928, as amended 
August 22, 1949, which directs the Bureau “to continue independently 
or in cooperation anthropological researches among the American 
Indians and the natives of lands under the jurisdiction or protection 
of the United States and the excavation and preservation of archeo- 


logic remains.” 
SYSTEMATIC RESEARCHES 


Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., devoted most of the first quarter of 
the fiscal year to office duties and to general supervision of the activities 
of the Bureau and the River Basin Surveys. In mid-October he went 
on extended sick leave and retired on June 5, 1964, after 37 years 10 
months of service. During his absence from the office and the period 
from his retirement to the end of the fiscal year, Dr. Henry B. Collins 
assumed administrative responsibility for the Bureau as acting direc- 
tor, and Dr. Robert L. Stephenson functioned in a similar capacity 
for the River Basin Surveys. 

In August, Dr. Henry B. Collins, anthropologist, made a trip to 
L’Anse aux Meadows, northern Newfoundland, on behalf of the 
National Geographic Society, to check the authenticity of an archeo- 
logical site which its discoverer, Helge Ingstad, of Oslo, Norway, 
believed to be of Norse origin. As a result of his examination of 
the site, Dr. Collins was able to verify this conclusion. The ruins of 
sod-walled houses excavated by Mr. Ingstad at L’Anse aux Meadows 
are definitely not Indian or Eskimo, and there is nothing to indicate 
that they were the work of later English, French, or Portuguese 
fishermen. On the other hand, the house ruins and associated features 
are closely similar to those found at Viking sites in Greenland and 
Iceland. Thirteen radiocarbon dates, based on charcoal from the 
house ruins, cluster around the year A.D. 1000. This is the period 
of the Vinland voyages, when, according to the sagas, Leif Ericson, 
Thorfinn Karlsefni, and other Norsemen sailed westward and dis- 
covered the American mainland. 

80 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 81 


Dr. Collins continued to serve as a member of the board of gover- 
nors of the Arctic Institute of North America, as a member of its 
publications committee and as chairman of the committees directing 
two of the Arctic Institute’s projects—a Russian translation program 
and the Arctic Bibliography. The latter is a comprehensive reference 
work which abstracts and indexes in English the contents of publica- 
tions in all languages and in all fields of science pertaining to the 
Arctic and subarctic regions of the world. This work, which is sup- 
ported by a number of military and civilian agencies of the United 
States and Canada, began operating in 1947, and to date has published 
11 large volumes containing abstracts of 69,455 scientific publications 
on the Arctic. The other Arctic Institute project being carried out 
under Dr. Collins’ direction, Anthropology of the North: Translations 
from Russian Sources, continued its operations under a renewed grant 
from the National Science Foundation. The latest volume in the 
translatien series, Studies in Siberian Shamanism, edited by Dr. 
Henry N. Michael, was published by the University of Toronto Press 
in December 1963. 

Dr. Robert L. Stephenson was transferred on September 29, 1963, 
from chief of the Missouri Basin Project, River Basin Surveys, Lin- 
coln, Nebr., to the regular staff of the Bureau of American Ethnology 
as assistant director of the River Basin Surveys. He has devoted 
his time to familiarizing himself with the activities of the Washington 
headquarters of the River Basin Surveys, to the general supervision of 
that unit, and to sorting materials and writing his reports on past 
field researches. In November he attended the Southeastern Archeo- 
logical Conference in Macon, Ga. He spent the period November 29 
to December 5 in Lincoln, Nebr., consulting with representatives of 
the National Park Service and State cooperative agencies on research 
plans for the River Basin Surveys for the coming year. On February 
12-13 he participated in the annual meeting of the Committee for the 
Recovery of Archeological Remains, in Washington, D.C., and de- 
tailed the program of systematic researches of the River Basin Sur- 
veys. During May 7-9 he attended the annual meeting of the Society 
for American Archeology at Chapel Hill, N.C. On May 10 he was 
the featured speaker at the semiannual meeting of the Maryland 
Archeological Society in Washington, D.C., and presented an illus- 
trated lecture on the “Archeology of the Middle Atlantic Seaboard 
Area.” 

During the early part of the fiscal year, Dr. William C, Sturtevant, 
ethnologist, was engaged in completing his paper on “Studies in 
Ethnoscience” (still in press at the end of the year) and in preparing 
for a year’s field work in Burma. In July he flew to Gainesville, Fla., 
to work with Dr. Irving Rouse, of Yale University, and Dr. Charles 


82 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


H. Fairbanks, of the University of Florida, on projects concerning 
the editing of the obituary and collected writings of the late Dr. John 
W. Goggin. He also advised the University’s Department of Anthro- 
pology on the disposition of the Goggin manuscripts, notes, papers, 
etc., and outlined plans for the publication of nearly completed 
manuscripts. 

Publications issued by Dr. Sturtevant during the fiscal year 1964 
included the translation and annotation of “A Jesuit Missionary in 
South Carolina, 1569-70,” by Father Juan Rogel, pp. 167-175 in The 
Indian and the White Man (edited by Wilcomb E. Washburn) ; 
(with John M. Goggin) “The Calusa, a Stratified, Non-Agricultural 
Society (with notes on sibling marriage),” pp. 179-219 in Haplora- 
tions in Cultural Anthropology: Essays Presented to George Peter 
Murdock (edited by W. H. Goodenough) ; “Five Civilized Tribes,” 
Encyclopedia Britannica, vol. 9, pp. 396-397; “Seminole,” EL’ncyclo- 
pedia Britannica, vol. 20, p. 818H; “John White’s Contributions to 
Ethnology,” pp. 87-43 in vol. 1 of The American Drawings of John 
W hite, 1577-1590 (edited by Paul H. Hulton and David B. Quinn) ; 
and obituary of John M. Goggin, 1916-1963, American Anthropolo- 
gist, vol. 66, No. 2, pp. 885-394. 

Dr. Sturtevant ? left the country on October 4 for Burma, to under- 
take field work supported by a grant from the National Science 
Foundation. 

From July to October Dr. Robert M. Laughlin, ethnologist, contin- 
ued field work in Chiapas, Mexico, where he recorded and translated 
a series of 251 dreams of the Tzotzil Indians of Zinacantan, Chiapas. 
He discovered that dreams are recognized by the natives to be a form 
of mental telepathy, a two-way communications system, whereby the 
dreamer’s soul is in contact with the divine and with the souls of fellow 
(usually hostile) mortals. Dreams are held to be an indication of an 
individual’s success in withstanding enemy attack. 

Dr. Laughlin spent November and December in Santa Fe, N. Mex., 
accompanied by two Zinacantec informants who provided additional 
material for the compilation of a Tzotzil dictionary. His time in 
Washington was devoted to continuing research on his dictionary 
which involved the study of 17th- and 18th-century Tzotzil-Spanish 
manuscripts. He selected much of his own textual materials for use 
by the Coordinated Study of Tzeltal-Tzotzil Drinking of the Univer- 
sity of Rochester. Selections of music from Zinacantén and Marti- 
nique were contributed to the Cantometrics Research Project of 
Columbia University for cross-cultural analysis. 

In collaboration with Dr. B. N. Colby, of the Laboratory of Anthro- 
pology, Museum of New Mexico, Dr. Laughlin initiated a computer 


1 Temporarily transferred to Smithsonian private roll. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 83 


analysis of the values expressed in Tzotzil myths and dreams. It is 
hoped that the results will demonstrate in specific terms the close 
relationship between mythic and oneiric expression. 

A chapter on Zinacantec dream interpretation written by Dr. Laugh- 
lin was accepted for publication in Lnsayos Sobre Zinacantan (E. Z. 
Vogt, ed.). His chapter, entitled “Tzotzil,” for the Handbook of 
Middle American Indians, is in preparation. 

In addition, Dr. Laughlin attended the 62d annual meeting of the 
American Anthropological Association (San Francisco, November 
21-24) in company with his Zinacantec informants. A journal of their 
travels in Mexico and the United States was written by the informants 
in their native language. Dr. Laughlin conducted library research 
at Harvard University (May 27-29) and participated in an informal 
conference at Palo Alto (June 4-6) as a consultant for the Chicago- 
Harvard-Stanford Chiapas Aerial Survey Project. 


RIVER BASIN SURVEYS 


(Prepared by Robert L. Stephenson, acting director, from data submitted by 
staff members) 


The River Basin Surveys, a unit of the Bureau of American Ethnol- 
ogy, continued its activities throughout the year. This unit was or- 
ganized in 1945 to cooperate with the National Park Service and the 
Bureau of Reclamation of the Department of the Interior, the Corps 
of Engineers of the Department of the Army, and State and local in- 
stitutions in the program for salvage archeology in areas to be flooded 
or otherwise destroyed by the construction of large dams. Its purpose 
has remained the same over the years and its activities during the cur- 
rent year were directed toward the same objectives. The research in- 
vestigations during 1963-64 were supported by a transfer of $254,500 
from the National Park Service and a carryover of $95,768 of Missouri 
Basin money to support investigations within the Missouri River 
Basin. Additional funds were available from two other sources. A 
previous grant from the Appalachian Power Co. had a carryover of 
$5,038 to support the research along the Roanoke River in southern 
Virginia at the Smith Mountain Project. Another earlier contribu- 
tion by the Idaho Power Co. to support the researches in the Hells 
Canyon Reservoir area on the Snake River in Oregon and Idaho had 
a carryover of $4,080. The latter investigation was carried on as a 
cooperative project between the River Basin Surveys and the Museum 
of Idaho State University at Pocatello. The grand total of funds 
available for the River Basin Surveys in 1963-64 was $359,386. 

Field researches consisted largely of surveys and excavations. Most 


766—-746—65——7 


84 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


of the work was concentrated in the digging or testing of sites, but 
surveys were made in four new reservoir areas in North Dakota and 
one new reservoir area in South Dakota. At the beginning of the fiscal 
year there were 12 crews at work. One field crew was operating in 
the Smith Mountain Reservoir area in southern Virginia, seven parties 
were at work in the Oahe and Big Bend Reservoir areas of South 
Dakota, one party was excavating in the Yellowtail Reservoir area in 
Montana and Wyoming, and another was working in the Pony Creek 
drainage area in Iowa. A special crew was in Lawrence, Kans., study- 
ing human skeletal remains from the Oahe Reservoir, and one survey 
team was at work in North and South Dakota. During the second 
quarter of the year, parties worked briefly in Alabama, Nebraska, 
and Wyoming. In May two brief surveys were made in South Dakota, 
and in June nine parties began major operations in the Missouri Basin, 
where they were at work at the end of the fiscal year. 

As of June 30, 1964, archeological surveys and excavations had 
been made, since the start of the salvage program, in a total of 269 
reservoir areas, located in 29 States, as well as in 2 lock projects, 4 
canal areas, and 2 watershed areas. Since 1946, when the field work 
of the program got underway, 5,040 sites have been located and re- 
corded; of that number 1,186 were recommended for excavation or 
limited testing. Because of the emergency conditions under which the 
salvage program must operate, it is rarely possible to fully excavate a 
site. “Excavation,” as used here, usually means that about 10 percent 
of the site was dug. By the end of the fiscal year, 526 sites in 55 
reservoir basins and 2 watershed areas had been tested or excavated 
to a degree where good information about them had been obtained. 
These sites range in nature from simple camping areas, once occupied 
by early hunting and gathering Indians of some 10,000 years ago, to 
village remains left by the historic Indians of the mid-19th century 
and the remains of frontier trading posts and military installations 
of European origin. 

The results of these extensive investigations have been incorporated 
in technical reports that have been published in various scientific 
journals, in Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletins, and in the 
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. River Basin Surveys Papers 
Nos. 33-38, constituting Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 189, 
were released in June. These papers pertain to excavations carried out 
in North Dakota, South Dakota, and Kansas. Reports of other ex- 
cavations in the Dakotas and in Oregon and Idaho are now being as- 
sembled for another Bulletin. Staff members cooperated throughout 
the year with representatives of other Federal agencies in the prepara- 
tion of short popular pamphlets about some of the major reservoir 
projects. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 85 


As in previous years, the River Basin Surveys received helpful 
cooperation from the National Park Service, the Bureau of Reclama- 
tion, the Corps of Engineers, the Geological Survey, and numerous 
State and local institutions. The National Park Service continued 
to serve as liaison, among the various agencies, both in Washington and 
in the field, and prepared budget estimates and justifications for the 
funds needed to support the salvage program. Party leaders were 
assisted in many ways by personnel of all the cooperating agencies, 
and the relationship was outstanding in all areas. 

General direction and supervision of the program were continued 
from the main office in Washington. Work in the Missouri Basin was 
directed by the field headquarters and laboratory in Lincoln, Nebr. 
The project in Virginia was supervised by the Washington office. 

Washington office—Dr. Frank H. H. Reberts, Jr., continued the 
direction of the entire River Basin Surveys from the main headquar- 
ters in the Bureau of American Ethnology until October 15 when he 
went on sick leave. At that time, Dr. Robert L. Stephenson, who had 
been transferred from the field headquarters in Lincoln, Nebr., on 
September 30, to be assistant director, was designated acting director 
and served in that capacity during the remainder of the year. Carl 
F. Miller and Harold A. Huscher, archeologists, were based at the 
headquarters office throughout the year. 

At the beginning of the year Mr. Huscher was in the Washington 
office working on his materials from the Walter F. George Reservior 
area and other areas along the Chattachoochee River. At the end of 
October he visited the recently flooded Walter F. George Reservior 
area to recheck some of the sites along the shore that were beginning 
to erode, and to examine sites in the vicinity of Columbus, Ga., and 
Montgomery, Ala., that are threatened with destruction from indus- 
trial development. During the period December 12-25, he returned to 
Montgomery, Ala., to assist the Montgomery Museum of Fine Arts in 
the emergency salvage of parts of the Shine Mound site, which was 
threatened with destruction by a municipal waterplant. This work 
was done in cooperation with David W. Chase, curator of the Mont- 
gomery Museum of Fine Arts. 

On September 6-8, Mr. Huscher attended the joint Plains-Pecos 
Conference at Fort Burgwin, Taos, N. Mex., where he presented a 
paper on “Plains Influences Directly Recorded in Navajo and Western 
Apache Culture.” In November he attended the Southeastern Arche- 
ological Conference in Macon, Ga., and presented a paper entitled “A 
Summary of the Walter F. George River Basin Surveys Salvage Pro- 
gram.” His paper read at the preceding conference was published 
under the title “The Archaic of the Walter F. George Reservior Area” 
in Proceedings of the 19th Southeastern Archeological Conference, 


86 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Bulletin 1, March 1964. He attended the Eastern States Archeological 
Conference during November 9-10 and there presented a report on 
“The Cool Branch Site (9QU5), Quitman County, Georgia, a Forti- 
fied Mississippian Town with Tower Bastions.” He participated in 
a roundtable discussion of current Early Man problems at the annual 
meeting of Section H of the American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, in Cleveland, Ohio, December 26-30. Early in May 
he attended the annual meeting of the Society for American Arche- 
ology in Chapel Hill, N. C., and read a paper, “The Standing Boy 
Flint Industry, an Early Archaic Manifestation on the Chattahoochee 
River in Alabama and Georgia,” which consisted of an interim report 
on three archeological sites near Columbia, Ala. The latter paper and 
an ethnographic background paper on aboriginal salt trade, “Salt 
Traders of Cibola,” have been accepted for publication in professional 
journals. 

At the beginning of the year Mr. Miller was in charge of a field 
party in southern Virginia. On July 28 this project was brought to a 
close and he returned to the office in Washington. During the 
remainder of the year he devoted his time to research on some of his 
past fieldwork. He completely revised and enlarged his preliminary 
manuscript on “Prehistoric Occupations of the Ft. Lookout Site (39- 
LM57), Ft. Randall Reservior, South Dakota.” He had two papers 
accepted for publication in Southern Indian Studies: “A Napier-like 
Pottery Vessel from Russell Cave” and “Human-headed Adornos 
from Western Georgia.” He had one paper accepted for publication 
in The Masterkey: “Bone Flutes from Southern Virginia.” He at- 
tended the annual meetings of the Southeastern Archeological Con- 
ference in Macon, Ga., early in November and presented a paper on 
“The Appearance of Certain Projectile Points through Time at Russell 
Cave, Alabama.” On December 30 he presented a paper at the annual 
meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, 
in Cleveland, Ohio, entitled “Paleo-Indian and Early Archaic Pro- 
jectile Point Forms from Russell Cave, Northern Alabama.” In 
February he served as judge at two science fairs in Alexandria, Va., 
where he evaluated 195 public-school science exhibits. He prepared a 
bibliography on “Hopewell Culture” and one on “The Red Paint 
People” to answer inquiries from college students. 

On March 21 Mr. Miller presented a paper, “The Archeology of 
Southern Virginia,” at the meeting of the Shenandoah chapter of the 
Archeological Society of Virginia, in Strasburg, and while there 
examined several local collections of Indian materials and advised the 
chapter on their plans for a spring excavation program. During May 
7-9 he participated in the annual meeting of the Society for American 
Archeology at Chapel Hill, N.C., and presented a paper on “The 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 87 


Archeological Horizons within Russell Cave, Alabama.” His article 
“Polyhedral Cores from Northeastern Kansas,” published in the 
Plains Anthropologist, was reprinted in The Chesopican, a journal of 
Atlantic coast archeology. His monograph “The Archeological In- 
vestigations at the Hosterman Site (89PO7), Oahe Reservior Area, 
Potter County, South Dakota” was published as iver Basin Surveys 
Paper No. 35 in Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 189. 

Missouri Basin—At the end of its 18th year of operation, the 
Missouri Basin Project was well established in new quarters at 1835 
P Street, Lincoln, Nebr. Although the move to the new location was 
made during fiscal year 1963, much of the new physical plant was not 
completed until well into the first quarter of 1964. For the first time 
in many years the Project has had enough space to meet with its cur- 
rent and immediately foreseeable needs. Office accommodations are 
now adequate, storage problems have been eased, and processing 
facilities are vastly improved. 

Activities during fiscal year 1964 included large-scale excavations, 
surveys, processing and analysis of materials, preparation of manu- 
scripts, and the reporting of archeological results. During the sum- 
mer months, major efforts were devoted to excavations; the remainder 
of the year was devoted largely to analyses and the preparation of 
reports. The special chronology program begun in January 1958 was 
continued throughout the year. Dr. Robert L. Stephenson served as 
chief of the Project through the first quarter of the fiscal year. At the 
beginning of the second quarter he was succeeded by Dr. Warren W. 
Caldwell, who continued in the position through the remainder of the 
year. 

At the beginning of the year the permanent staff, in addition to the 
chief, consisted of 9 archeologists, 1 administrative assistant, 1 secre- 
tary, 1 administrative clerk, 2 clerk-typists, 1 scientific illustrator, 1 
photographer, and 4 museum aides. The temporary staff consisted of 
73 persons. There were 3 archeologists, 2 physical anthropologists, 
4 cooks, and 64 field crewmen. 

During July and August, 12 field crewmen were added to the tem- 
porary staff. By the end of the last week in September the employ- 
ment of all the field crewmen and cooks had been terminated, with 
the exception of one crewman who was later transferred to the perma- 
nent staff as museum aide. The services of all the other temporary 
employees were terminated by early October. Other changes in the 
permanent staff were: termination of positions of one museum aide, one 
archeologist, and the administrative clerk; the death of one museum 
aide, and the appointment of one museum aide and one laborer. The 
chief was transferred to the Bureau of American Ethnology on Sep- 
tember 30. Additions to the temporary staff during June were 2 
archeologists, 5 cooks, and 66 field crewmen. 


88 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


At the end of the fiscal year the permanent staff consisted of 19 
persons; these were, in addition to the chief, 7 archeologists, 1 ad- 
ministrative officer, 1 secretary, 1 administrative clerk (typist), 1 
clerk-typist, 1 scientific illustrator, 1 photographer, 4 museum aides, 
and 1 laborer. The temporary staff consisted of 73 persons. There 
were 2 archeologists, 5 cooks, and 66 field crewmen. 

During the year there were 24 Smithsonian Institution, River Basin 
Surveys, field parties at work in the Missouri Basin. Eleven of these 
were in operation during July and August, 2 during October and No- 
vember, and 11 during June. 

At the beginning of the year John J. Hoffman and a crew of 10 
men were excavating at the La Roche sites (89ST9, 89ST232)? in the 
Big Bend Reservoir of central South Dakota. Site 89ST9, on the 
right bank of the Missouri near the mouth of P L creek, consists of 
about 90 house depressions scattered over an area of about 80 acres. 
Seven circular houses were excavated, all of which were essentially 
similar and which appear to be representative of the Chouteau Aspect. 

The site also produced evidence of the Grand Detour Phase, an 
early development within the prehistoric Middle Missouri Tradition, 
as well asa small oval structure assignable, on the basis of the ceramics, 
to the Plains Woodland Phase. Fortunately, the stratigraphic evi- 
dence is clear. The Plains Woodland component precedes the Grand 
Detour component which in turn underlies the principal Chouteau 
occupation. While these temporal relationships have been recognized 
for some time, there have been few instances of such satisfactory super- 
imposition. 

Site 89ST232 occupies something less than 40 acres of level terrace 
114 miles north of 89ST9. Of the six or seven depressions visible, two 
were investigated. Both proved to contain circular houses of the 
Chouteau Aspect. However, one was distinctive in its large diameter 
(75 feet) and in the presence of six central support posts instead of the 
usual pattern of four. On the basis of artifacts and architectural 
evidence, the Chouteau components of 39ST232 and 39ST9 appear 
to be intimately related. The field party completed work on August 
30, after 79 days in the field. 

A second field party of nine men, directed by Richard E. Jensen, 
was at work in the cul-de-sac in the central part of the Big Bend 
Reservoir. This region, on the left bank of the Missouri, within the 
great bend that gives the reservoir its name, contains a large number 


2Site designations used by the River Basin Surveys are trinomial in character, con- 
sisting of symbols for State, county, and site. The State is indicated by the first number, 
according to the numerical position of the State name in an alphabetical list of the 
United States; thus, for example, 32 indicates North Dakota, 39 indicates South Dakota. 
Counties are designated by a two-letter abbreviation ; for example, MH for Mercer County, 
MN for Mountrail County, ete. ‘The final number refers to the specific site within the 
indicated State and county. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 89 


of archeological sites. Although 10 of them were excavated or tested 
by the field group, results were not encouraging. Apparently the 
area was occupied quite extensively but cultural debris is scanty and 
the habitation sites thin. 

At the Gregg site (89H Y222), one of the largest in the pocket, 
portions of two earth lodges were excavated and five interhouse areas 
were tested. A single circular lodge and several tests were dug at the 
Fry site (39HU223), two lodges were exposed at site 39 HU224 nearby, 
and a lodge and two large cache pits were cleared at the Hawk site 
(39HU238). Architectural features were not found at the remaining 
sites, but several clusters of exterior cache pits were cleared at the 
Saint John site (89HU218) and artifact collections were made at 
sites 89HU225, 39HU230, 39HU231, 839HU249, and 39HU250. 

The earth-lodge structures excavated within the area of the cul-de- 
sac are all quite similar. Fach was circular, with an irregular pat- 
tern of wall posts and four central supports. Entrance passages, 
where found, opened to the south or southwest. A small central 
hearth was characteristic and there were usually secondary firepits 
and one or more small basin-like or bell-shaped cache pits. 

Ceramics were preponderantly simple-stamped, with Talking Crow 
and “Category B” rims most usual. Other artifacts were not distince- 
tive, and except for several copper pendants and an iron blade hafted 
in a split bison rib from the Hawk site, there was no evidence of 
European contact. 

On August 12 Jensen transferred his field party to the right bank of 
the Missouri where he assisted Hoffman in the excavation of the La 
Roche sites. The party completed work on August 23, after 72 days 
in the field. 

At the beginning of the year, a third party of nine men, directed by 
William J. Folan, was assisting John J. Hoffman in excavations at the 
La Roche sites. On July 16 the Folan party moved to the left bank 
of the Missouri to begin work at the Chapelle Creek or Grandle site 
(39HU60), a large, fortified, multicomponent village in the central 
Big Bend Reservoir. Extensive trenching, exposing sections of three 
houses, a section of the defensive ditch, and a number of other features, 
was completed. Evidence of the earliest occupation consists solely of 
artifacts that are invariably found in the prehistoric, rectangular 
house complexes of the Big Bend region. The second component 
consists of the fortified settlement proper, which seems to be attribut- 
able to the historic Stanley-Le Beau complexes usually regarded as 
Arikara. The uppermost deposits contain additional Kuropean ma- 
terials that are suspected to be the remains of a small (and poorly 
documented) trading post. In view of our present knowledge of the 
early history of the Big Bend region, it may be difficult, if not impos- 


90 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


sible, to distinguish the traders’ remains from those of the 18th-century 
Arikara. 

During the first half of the field season the Folan group shared camp 
facilities with the Hoffman crew. The party completed work in 
August 30, after 79 days in the field. 

At the beginning of the year a fourth party of five men, directed 
by G. Hubert Smith, was investigating historic sites within the Big 
Bend Reservoir. Excavations were made at the Red Cloud Agency 
(89LM247), on the right bank of the Missouri near Medicine Creek. 
The Agency, established for the Oglala Sioux, under Red Cloud, was 
used only briefly (1877-78) before the group was settled permanently 
on the Pine Ridge Reservation. Although little survived at the Red 
Cloud site (apparently the buildings had been systematically re- 
moved), some structural details were recovered together with a small 
group of representative specimens. 

A thorough search was made of Dorion or Cedar Island, near the 
mouth of Cedar Creek, for the site of a trading post established in 
1802 or 1803 by Regis Loisel. Despite excellent descriptions left by 
members of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, the post could not be 
located; however, another site (89HU301) found on the island was 
partially excavated. Cultural remains were not abundant but the 
appearance of the site and the presence of a number of machine-made 
objects suggest that the site was occupied during the 1860’s by White 
“squatters” who supplied wood for steamboat fuel. 

An intensive reconnaissance was made near the mouth of Medicine 
Creek, continuing a search begun some years ago for the Fort Defiance 
(or Bouis) trading post known to have been in existence in the 1840's. 
Although there were several hopeful leads, the search was fruitless. 
The Smith party shared camp facilities with Hoffman’s crew. They 
returned to Lincoln on August 30 after 79 days in the field. 

Three field parties were at work in the Oahe Reservoir at the begin- 
ning of the fiscal year. The first, a crew of 10 men, directed by Robert 
W. Neuman, was excavating at two prehistoric sities in Dewey County 
on the right bank of the Missouri near Mobridge, S. Dak. The Grover 
Hand Mounds (39DW240) include five tumuli, one of which was ex- 
cavated by Neuman in 1963. Two additional examples were dug 
during the current year. The first was 90 feet in diameter and slightly 
more than 4 feet high. It covered a central subfloor burial pit con- 
taining about 23 secondary human burials of both sexes and various 
ages, some of which were sprinkled with hematite. The burials were 
in association with a number of implements and ornaments of bone and 
stone. Support logs overlay the burial pit, and above was another 
secondary burial partly covered by an inverted basket and associated 
with stone and shell artifacts. On the mound floor, adjacent to the 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 9] 


pit, were the partially articulated skeletons of at least six bison. The 
second mound was much the same as the first. However, the burial 
pit did not contain more than 12 individuals, and there were no human 
remains above. 

Artifact materials from the two mounds included a few cord- 
paddled pottery cherds, rentalium, busycon and olivella ornaments, an 
antler pin, worked antler butts and tines, bone awls, beads, serrated 
fleshers, beaver incisors, stone projectile points, matting, pigments, 
and a considerable variety of other materials. On the basis of burial 
pattern and the artifacts excavated, the Grover Hand Mounds show 
a very close relationship to the neighboring Swift Bird Mounds 
(89D W233) and to the Boundary and Baldhill Mound sites in North 
Dakota. 

At the end of July the Neuman party shifted to the Stelzer site 
(89DW242) to continue excavations begun during 1963. This site 
is a large camp area only a short distance from the Grover Hand 
Mounds. The occupation level, less than 114 feet below the present 
surface, is characterized by scattered midden heaps, small firepits, and 
circular pits filled with detritus. There were also 17 randomly dis- 
tributed bison long bones stuck vertically into the occupation surface. 
Artifacts from the Stelzer site, particularly projectile points and pot- 
tery, are closely comparable to those from the adjacent mound sites. 
There seems to be good evidence here for the first direct relationship 
between burial mounds and a habitation site in the northern Plains. 

The party concluded work on August 23 after 74 days in the field. 
Subsequently, Neuman and a single crewman visited previously unre- 
ported mound sites along the Sheyenne River in Barnes County, N. 
Dak., and another above Wolfe Creek in the James River Valley, S. 
Dak. 

A second party of seven men, under the leadership of Oscar L. 
Mallory, conducted test excavations at a large group of sites in Dewey 
County, along the right bank of the Missouri a short distance upstream 
from the mouth of the Moreau River. Site 89DW231, a small village 
on a terrace spur defended by two ditches, was tested extensively. A 
midden area, part of a circular house, and sections of the defensive 
system were exposed. Present evidence suggests that the principal 
occupation falls within the Chouteau Aspect and appears to be related 
to the Potts (89CD19) and No Heart (39AR1) villages of northern 
South Dakota. 

A second fortified village, 39DW1, situated at the mouth of the 
Moreau River, was also tested. It differs from 39DW231 in that it 
lay on a higher terrace and was completely surrounded by a defensive 
ditch. The ceramic collections have much in common but apparently 
differences are such that they cannot be related on the focus level. 


92 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The remaining sites investigated, 39DW230, 39D W229, 89DW228, 
39DW253, and 89DW254, were unfortified; pottery attributed to the 
La Roche horizon was usual. Portions of houses were excavated at 
39D W228, 39DW229, and 839DW230. In each case the houses were 
circular with a central firepit and four central roof supports. 

A number of additional sites were mapped or examined and a brief 
period was devoted to explorations at the Stelzer site. The latter is 
quite large, extending along the river for at least three-quarters of a 
mile. Mallory’s tests were placed near the eastern end of the site. 
The pottery found here was identical to that found by Neuman’s con- 
tinuing excavations near the western edge. The Mallory party 
shared camp facilities with the Neuman crew, and returned to Lincoln 
on August 23 after 74 days in the field. 

A third party of 12 men was directed by Dr. Alfred W. Bowers of 
the University of Idaho but temporarily attached to the Smithsonian 
Institution. The Bowers crew excavated at three small fortified vil- 
lage sites in the immediate vicinity of Mobridge, S. Dak. At the Red 
Horse Hawk site (89CO84), on the right bank of the Missouri, con- 
tinuing work begun in the summer of fiscal year 1963, the excavation 
of 15 shallow circular houses was completed and the fortification ditch 
was tested in several places. This village, which is probably pro- 
tohistoric, has produced a wealth of museum display specimens and is 
one of the two or three completely excavated sites within the Oahe 
Reservoir. 

Work was also renewed at the Davis site (39CO14), a fortified vil- 
lage adjacent to the Red Horse Hawk site, continuing 1963 excava- 
tions. During the current season investigations were hampered by 
drought conditions which made the soil both intractable and “unread- 
able.” With the use of a water wagon and power equipment, one lodge 
was completely excavated and the covering fill was removed from four 
others, but work could be carried no further. 

The Davis site is an exceedingly important one because it appears to 
bridge the temporal gap between the rectangular and circular house 
complexes. The early component at the Davis site is distinctive in 
that lodges are placed within the bastions at the corners of the fortifi- 
cation, thus limiting the entrance passage to a narrow lane around the 
lodge. 

Work was begun at the Larson site (89WW2), a small compact 
village on the left bank of the Missouri River south of Mobridge. The 
site consists of 29 circular depressions tightly clustered within an oval 
fortification ditch. Ten of the lodge depressions were trenched and 
two were completely excavated. The latter seem to have been rebuilt 
several times, but each new construction was smaller than the previous 
one. The most recent occupation seems to have been brought to an 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 93 


end by the smallpox epidemic of A.D. 1780. There is no documentary 
evidence to this effect but human remains were strewn over the lodge 
floors. The skeletons of at least 80 individuals were exposed in one 
house, 8 in another, and there is evidence of additional skeletons in the 
remaining lodges. Since the deaths do not appear to have been due to 
violence, epidemic disease is inferred. In addition to the historic 
component or components at the Larson site, there are indications of 
an earlier Woodland occupation. 

Bowers also conducted a limited survey along the now eroding banks 
of the Oahe Reservoir. A large collection of artifacts and bison bone 
was secured from the Rygh (89CA4) and Bamble (39CA6) villages 
where shoreline cutting has been extensive. Since the origin of these 
materials can be localized within the respective sites, they will be ex- 
ceedingly useful for comparative studies. The party completed work 
on September 7 after 89 days in the field. 

At the beginning of the fiscal year a field crew of five men, directed 
by Wilfred M. Husted, was excavating in the Yellowtail Reservoir 
along the Big Horn River of southern Montana and northern Wyo- 
ming. At the Mangus site (24CB221),a small rock shelter on the left 
bank of the river in Carbon County, Mont., three distinct occupation 
levels were found, the most recent of which was Late Prehistoric. A 
variety of artifacts was recovered here, including small triangular 
projectile points with and without side notches, stone knives, scrapers, 
fragments of sewn hide, cordage, and basketry. The middle zone 
carried obvious evidence of human use, but artifacts were too few to 
identify the nature of the occupation. The lowest level contained 
Agate Basin points, knives, scrapers and a mortar and pestle. Sub- 
sequently, a radiocarbon date of 1070 + 70 B.P. (A.D. 880) was 
obtained from charcoal in a roasting pit found in the Late Prehistoric 
level, and two dates, 8690 + 100 B.P. (6740 B.C.) and 8600 + 100 B.P. 
(6650 B.C.) were secured from charcoal from the Agate Basin level. 

Three other rock shelters in the vicinity, the Ledge site (24BH 252), 
the Greene site (24BH 253), and site 24BH255, all in Big Horn 
County, Mont., yielded artifacts of the Late Prehistoric Period. The 
Red Earth site (24BH251), another small shelter, contained a Late 
Prehistoric level, an unidentified occupation characterized by shallow, 
circular firepits, numerous small flakes, a mano and knife fragments. 

Site 24BH 250, also in Big Horn County, Mont., was a small shelter 
with the entrance barricaded with rocks and juniper branches. A 
large fireplace outlined by rocks was intact on the surface, and below 
it was another containing burned stones and associated with a tri- 
angular projectile point. 

A large, shallow, rock-filled firepit was excavated at site 24BH257, 
a small shelter formed by a large block fallen from the canyon wall. 


94 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Three corner-notched projectile points and several flakes were in asso- 
ciation with the firepit. Until this site was excavated only simple 
triangular points or triangular points with side notches had been 
found with such firepits. 

Three firepits, projectile points, scrapers, and a variety of worked 
flakes were found in tests at 24BH210, a large open site in Big Horn 
County. Two additional open sites, 24BH254 and 24BH259, were 
located in a badly eroded area, and tests showed that artifacts were 
restricted to the surface. 

Site 24BH204 at the mouth of Porcupine Creek was tested but with 
negative results. Animal bone was abundant but it may have origi- 
nated from gold camps that once operated at this location. Site 
24BH214, about 1 mile above the mouth of Porcupine Creek, was only 
slightly more productive. Artifacts were limited to a corner-notched 
projectile point and a few scrapers. 

Late in the season, the Husted party made exploratory tests at site 
48BH217, in Big Horn County, Wyo., a short distance south of the 
Montana border. An Agate Basin point was found here in the course 
of land leveling for a cabin. Although tests were extensive, little of 
significance was recovered. The party completed its work on August 
29 after 72 days in the field. 

Another field party of nine men, under the direction of Lionel A. 
Brown, was working in the Pony Creek watershed in southwestern 
Towa. A survey of the area added a number of new sites to the record, 
a number of tests were made, and five sites were excavated. Unfortu- 
nately, most of the endangered sites examined by the field party had 
been damaged in some degree by erosion or cultivation; nonetheless, 
architectural remains were found at four of them. 

Two square houses were excavated at the Stonebrook Village 
(18ML219) and fragments of house floors were found at both the 
Downing (183ML218) and Steinheimer (183ML222) sites. The house 
structures ranged from 20 to 30 feet square, with deep vertical walls 
and entrances approaching 15 feet in length. The associated artifacts 
include ceramics of the Beckman and McVey series, clay effigies and 
pipestems, side-notched projectile points, ovoid to triangular knives, 
planoconvex end scrapers, pecked and chipped celts, but surprisingly 
very little worked bone. 

The Thomas site (183ML204) contained a mixture of pottery pri- 
marily representative of the Woodland horizon and the Central Plains 
Tradition. The rimsherd collection includes examples of Sterns 
Creek, Beckman Ware, Swoboda Ware, and one example classified as 
Anderson Low Rim. The primary feature at the site was a pit, 20 feet 
square, similar to house pits reported for the Woodland of eastern 
Nebraska. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 95 


The Lungren site (183ML224) is an archaic camp first noted at a 
depth of 10 feet below the surface in a high cutbank. The cultural 
deposit proved to consist of a narrow (ca. 2 inches thick) zone of 
charcoal-stained soil mixed with large quantities of chipping debris 
and bone fragments. The only projectile point recovered is side- 
notched with basal grinding. It is similar to those from the Long 
Creek site in Saskatchewan, the Logan Creek and Spring Creek sites 
in Nebraska, and the Simonsen and Hill sites in Nebraska. Other 
artifacts include triangular to ovoid knives, small planoconvex end 
scrapers, hammerstones, chipped celts and choppers. Bone artifacts 
were absent. Several midden areas and a basin-shaped firepit consti- 
tute the only nonartifact features of the deposit. The party com- 
pleted work on August 30 after 81 days in the field. 

A special field party consisting of a varying number of students 
directed by Dr. William M. Bass ITI, assisted by Walter Birkby, was 
working in the laboratory at the University of Kansas, Lawrence, 
Kans., at the beginning of the fiscal year. Dr. Bass was continuing 
a study of the human skeletal remains and burial patterns from the 
Sully site (89SL4) begun in 1957. 

A total of 557 burials was excavated from the cemeteries at the 
Sully Village. This is the largest single sample from a site in the 
Plains. It is not likely to be equaled in the immediate future. If 
the ethnic affiliation of the site is substantiated, the sample provides 
a baseline for the study of the early historic Arikara population. 

In addition to observations and metric analyses, the group tabu- 
lated data on burial orientation, burial goods, and grave types. At 
the same time, three members of the University of South Dakota 
medical staff examined the physical material to record the incidence of 
nose, throat, and ear diseases occurring the population. Bass com- 
pleted his study on August 2 after 63 days of work. 

A field party, consisting of a crew of two men under the leadership 
of Dr. Elden Johnson, of the University of Minnesota, but tempo- 
rarily attached to the Smithsonian Institution, began work on June 22 
surveying several small reservoirs in North Dakota. A single, very 
thin, habitation site (39BE1), was found at the James River damsite 
in Beadle County, S. Dak. Although the area was trenched exten- 
sively, the results were minimal. No additional sites were found 
within the proposed reservoir, but a number of local collections that 
originated in adjacent areas were examined, Since the James River 
Dam is part of the much larger Oahe Diversion Project, these collec- 
tions will become important for future research when the larger proj- 
ect is activated. 

The Garrison Diversion Project proposes construction of four major 
reservoirs and an extensive system of feeder canals within eastern 


96 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


North Dakota. Archeological work during the current year was con- 
centrated within the reservoir areas since the canal routes are not yet 
established. The Taayer Reservoir east of Oakes, N. Dak., is pres- 
ently an open water slough. No sites were found to be endangered 
but a probable bison kill site (832SA1) was reported here in the 1930’s 
when the reservoir was dry. A “stone ring” site (82SA2) was re- 
corded by the survey party but it lies in the uplands outside of the 
reservoir. Hamburg Reservoir on the upper James River produced 
no sites. New Home Reservoir, in McLean County, N. Dak., east 
and south of the Garrison Dam, is in a long glacial drainage trench. 
Only a single site, 82M1L212, was found here. It consisted princi- 
pally of bison bone eroding from a cutbank but a number of chalcedony 
flakes were found in association. 

The Lone Tree Reservoir, which will include the headwaters of the 
Sheyenne River, held a number of sites and others were found in the 
immediate vicinity. Probably the most significant within the reser- 
voir is 82SHQ2, a large complex of boulder burial mounds. At least 
14 mounds are included, and associated habitation sites are possible. 
The party completed its survey on September 20. Because work was 
intermittent, the field season totaled only 49 days. 

A postseason (October 21-November 4) field party of two men, 
directed by Wilfred M. Husted, excavated at Fort Laramie National 
Historic Site, testing in four localities that will be affected by future 
expansion of visitor facilities. The remains of what is probably the 
Ward anad Guerrier trading post were found, as well as evidences of 
an aboriginal occupation. The latter was far too scanty to even 
hazard an ethnic or archeological affiliation. 

Late in September representatives of the Nebraska Game, Foresta- 
tion and Parks Commission contacted the Missouri Basin Project con- 
cerning certain stone and pottery artifacts found during biological 
research in the Little Nemaha drainage of southeastern Nebraska. 
The artifacts examined by the Missouri Basin Project staff included 
materials suggesting the presence of Stearns Creek, Logan Creek, and 
Agate Basin complexes. On November 12, after the heavy summer 
vegetation was gone, Robert W. Neuman reexamined the area in com- 
pany with Nebraska game biologists. Previous find spots were exam- 
ined on Brownell Creek and Wolf Creek, but unfortunately the arti- 
facts found to date have been secondary deposits and no true occupa- 
tion sites were discovered. 

Cooperating institutions working in the Missouri Basin at the be- 
ginning of the fiscal year included the University of Montana, the 
University of South Dakota, the University of Nebraska, the Uni- 
versity of Missouri, and the Kansas State Historical Society. 

Dr. Dee C. Taylor of the University of Montana continued the 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 97 


shoreline survey of Fort Peck Reservoir of east-central Montana, 
locating archeological sites exposed by shoreline erosion. Robert Gant 
of the W. H. Over Museum, University of South Dakota, surveyed 
the shoreline of Lewis and Clark Lake (the former Gavins Point 
Reservoir). Dr. Preston Holder, assisted by James Marshall with 
a crew of students from the University of Nebraska, began salvage 
excavations in the Glen Elder Reservoir of northwestern Kansas. 
Several University of Missouri field parties, directed by Dr. Carl 
H. Chapman, excavated in the Kaysinger Bluff, Stockton, and Mera- 
mec Basin Reservoirs of Missouri. Each of these field parties oper- 
ated under agreements with the National Park Service and the Smith- 
sonian Institution in the Inter-Agency Salvage Program. 

The 1964 field season began with two small survey teams exam- 
ining sites in the upper Big Bend Reservoir. During the winter of 
1964 the Missouri Basin Project staff had become aware that the wat- 
ers behind the Big Bend Dam were rising faster than had been antici- 
pated. Under the circumstances it was impossible to plan fieldwork 
for the approaching summer season without a close check on the 
changing conditions. On April 6 and 7, Richard E. Jensen and 
Oscar L. Mallory of the Project staff visited archeological sites along 
the left bank of the reservoir between Chapelle Creek and the city 
of Pierre. Severe weather conditions made it impossible to examine 
other areas, but as of that time water damage did not appear to be 
extensive. The reservoir level had reached a point just below many 
sites, and at least one, 39 HU60 at Chapelle Creek, was then an island. 
Another reconnaissance was made by Jensen and Lionel A. Brown 
on May 7 and 8, but despite a slight interim rise of water level, the 
archeological situation had not changed significantly. 

On June 9, a group of seven men directed by Wilfred M. Husted, 
began work in the Yellowtail Reservoir of Montana and Wyoming. 
This is the third and last season of excavation within the reservoir 
area. Previously, Smithsonian Institution field parties had concen- 
trated in the lower and central parts of the reservoir. This year 
excavations are restricted to the upper Big Horn Canyon, thus com- 
pleting the investigation of major sites within the reservoir. At the 
end of the fiscal year the crew was surveying within the upper 
reservoir. 

On June 10 three additional field parties began work within the Big 
Bend Reservoir of central South Dakota. The first, a group of nine 
men directed by Richard E. Jensen, was carrying out large-scale test- 
ing at the Sommers site (839ST56) on the right bank of the Missouri 
adjacent to the La Roche sites. It is one of the most significant villages 
of the Middle Missouri Tradition surviving within the reservoir. The 
village contains at least 70 house depressions and has a particularly 


98 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


thick mantle of debris. It is probable that two or more seasons of 
work will be required to secure an adequate sample from the site. As 
a consequence, the current excavations are exploratory, designed to 
provide an outline for further work. As of the end of the fiscal year, 
tests were underway in two long-rectangular houses in preparation for 
the use of power equipment to remove the heavy layer of overburden. 

A second field party of 11 men, under the leadership of John J. Hoff- 
man, was excavating at site 39ST17, a compact fortified village on the 
right bank of the Missouri near the mouth of Fort George Creek. The 
site is a relatively late one and probably can be attributed to the 
Arikara of the 18th century. Since the village is small, it is planned 
to excavate the entire occupied area. By the end of the fiscal year 
several tests were completed and a small circular house was exposed. 
Artifacts were few but indicate an affiliation with the Phillip Ranch 
site. The Hoffman and Jensen parties shared a camp near Fort George 
Creek, only a short distance from 39ST17. 

A third party, consisting of eight men, directed by Lionel A. Brown, 
was working at the Chapelle Creek site, 39HU60, continuing excava- 
tions begun during the summer of 1963. A considerable amount of 
material has already been excavated from the site, but much of it is 
inconclusive. The purpose of the Brown party is to find the neces- 
sary relationships essential to bring the previous work into focus. 
At the end of the fiscal year the ravages of the past winter had been 
repaired and excavation of a shallow earth lodge of the historic period 
was well underway. 

On June 22, a party of three men under the leadership of David T. 
Jones, temporarily attached to the Smithsonian Institution, was sur- 
veying, mapping, and testing the sites remaining within the upper Big 
Bend Reservoir. The results of the survey will be used as a basis for 
selecting the sites to be investigated during the next (and probably 
final) year of work within the reservoir. 

On June 15, two field parties, one under the general direction of 
Robert W. Neuman, with field supervision by Oscar L. Mallory, and 
the other under Mallory’s direction, began work in the Oahe Reservoir. 
The first, consisting of nine men, was excavating at the Stelzer site 
(39DW242) near Mobridge, S. Dak., continuing the excavations of 
1963. The second party of eight resumed work at site 39DW231, a 
multicomponent, fortified village first tested last year. By the end 
of the fiscal year both groups had removed the overwinter slumpage 
and had begun the excavation of a number of habitation features. 

A third party of 12 men, working under the direction of Dr. Alfred 
W. Bowers, began excavations in the Mobridge area of the Oahe 
Reservoir on June 17. The Bowers party was to complete the investi- 
gation of the Red Horse Hawk (39CO14) and Larson (39WW2) sites 
begun during earlier field seasons. At the end of the fiscal year the 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 99 


fill had been removed from several houses and a large cut had been 
made across the defensive ditch. 

A final field party of two men, under the direction of G. Hubert 
Smith, conducted a survey of historic sites in the Big Bend, Oahe, and 
Fort Randall Reservoirs from June 23 to 28. As was the case with 
the aboriginal sites, high water within the reservoirs has become a 
threat to previously undamaged historic sites. The Smith party 
examined a number of sites, made a photographic record of sites now 
destroyed or in the process of destruction, and secured data necessary 
for future work. 

There were seven cooperating institutions working within the Mis- 
souri Basin at the end of the fiscal year. The St. Paul Science Museum 
completed a survey of the Bowman-Haley Reservoir of northwestern 
South Dakota and in late May and in early June began a shoreline 
reconnaissance of the Garrison Reservoir in North Dakota. In both 
instances the field parties were directed by Vernon R. Helmen. Uni- 
versity of Missouri field parties, under the direction of Dr. Carl F, 
Chapman, were surveying and excavating in the Stockton and Kay- 
singer Bluff Reservoirs in Missouri, continuing the work of past sea- 
sons. University of Nebraska parties, directed by Dr. Preston Holder, 
were excavating in the Glen Elder and Milford Reservoirs of north- 
western Kansas. A State University of South Dakota group, led 
by Dr. James H. Howard, was continuing investigations within the 
Lewis and Clark Lake area along the border of South Dakota and 
Nebraska. A field group of the State Historical Society of North 
Dakota, under the direction of Dr. Donald J. Lehmer, was excavating 
at the Fire Heart Creek Village (32512) in the Upper Oahe Reservoir 
of southern North Dakota. <A field party of the Kansas State Histori- 
cal Society, under the general direction of Thomas A. Witty, was 
excavating in the Council Grove Reservoir of eastern Kansas, and a 
field group from Iowa State University, directed by David Gradwohl, 
was excavating in the Red Rock Reservoir of central Iowa. 

During the period that the Missouri Basin Project archeologists 
were not in the field, they were engaged in analyses of their materials 
and in laboratory and library research. They also prepared manu- 
scripts of technical reports and wrote articles of a popular nature. 
In addition to the regular staff, Dr. Alfred W. Bowers, of the Univer- 
sity of Idaho; Dr. William M. Bass, of the University of Kansas; and 
Dr. Elden Johnson, of the University of Minnesota, joined the Mis- 
sourl Basin Project to complete short-term laboratory and field 
research assignments. Dr. Bowers again became a temporary staff 
member on June 17, and David T. Jones, West Nottingham Academy, 
Maryland, on June 22. Both were on duty through the end of the 
fiscal year. 


766—746—65——_8 


100 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


By the end of the fiscal year the Missouri Basin Chronology Program 
has been in operation 614 years. The cooperation of other institutions 
and individuals within the anthropological profession continued as in 
the past. Dendrochronological research has been much reduced be- 
cause personnel were lacking. However, some new material was 
studied and plans have been completed for a renewed attack during 
the coming year. The carbon-14 section continued to progress with 
the addition of 15 new dates. Eight dates, from three sites, apply to 
villages of both the Middle Missouri and Coalescent Tradition of the 
Big Bend Reservoir, central South Dakota. Three additional dates 
derive from two sites, a group of burial mounds and a late fortified 
village, in the Oahe Reservoir of northern South Dakota. The re- 
mainder date various preceramic horizons from a stratified site in 
the Yellowtail Reservoir, Mont. The Missouri Basin Chronology Pro- 
gram continued to use the facilities of Isotopes, Inc., as well as those 
of the division of radiation and organisms of the Smithsonian 
Institution. 

The laboratory and office staff of the Missouri Basin Project de- 
voted most of its effort during the year to the processing of materials 
for study, preparing specimen records, typing, filing, and illustrat- 
ing records and manuscripts. The accomplishments of the laboratory 
and office staff are listed in tables 1 and 2. 

During the first quarter, Dr. Robert L. Stephenson, chief, devoted 
most of his time to the overall management of the Missouri Basin 
Project, including the office and laboratory in Lincoln and the several 
field parties. He devoted a portion of his time to laboratory analysis 
of materials he had excavated in previous years. His report, “The 
Accokeek Creek Site: A Middle Atlantic Seaboard Culture Sequence,” 
was published by the University of Michigan, and he submitted several 
book reviews for publication. Until September 30, when he assumed 
his new duties as assistant director of the River Basin Surveys in 
Washington, D.C., he continued to serve as chairman of the Missouri 
Basin Chronology Program, as assistant editor of “Current Research” 
in the Plains area for American Antiquity, and as editor of the Plains 
Anthropologist. 

Dr. Warren W. Caldwell worked in the laboratory through the first 
quarter, analyzing materials excavated in the previous two field sea- 
sons. A substantial portion of a manuscript entitled, “The Grand 
Detour Phase: Early Village Sites in the Big Bend Reservoir, South 
Dakota” (with Richard E. Jensen) was completed by September 380, at 
which time Dr. Caldwell assumed the duties of Chief of the Missouri 
Basin Project. During the remainder of the year, Dr. Caldwell devoted 
a substantial portion of his time to the management of the Project, 
to budgetary matters, and to the planning of the forthcoming field 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 101 


TABLE 1.—Specimens processed July 1, 1963, through June 30, 19641 


Number of Catalog Number of 

Reservoir sites numbers specimens 

assigned processed 
JN oa Gye ey Sere oe Ce Ee Se ee ee A 1 1 2 
Jari ey ee eee ee a See eee eee as 2 19 60 
pe ee sete a eS et rae See a ie 18 5, 008 39, 993 
Por peters sere cere Ek eh ee te ee 6 67 67 
Garneuussta ee ee ee Pee Ee ae tee 7 62 64 
Garrison’ Diversion: Project=..+...=-..---- "6 32 166 
Gawins homtss 52-6 82 = oe ee 1 66 SPArf 
James Diversion Projecto. --— 2-22-52 -= 2 1 11 22 
Onliver etre aa kets) Se se eee Ue 18 5, 852 29, 141 
Hemme recess es Sets ote eA Ok 14 1, 025 4, 590 
Rounds Mounde sec. S22 ele see eee 2 13 16 
iD hy HSS (07 eeS 7 SR a ep ee ee a ge 9 2, 806 15, 943 
BVICILO WL allem ee er ees Bere Se oe EN 22 1, 870 5002 
Pits NOLAN a TeserVvOlr. 222502 boo Fe 22 68 
Io 2 [aes cop Sak A Beg bi tea So eG 110 16, 854 95, 731 
Collections not assigned site numbers_--_-_-__-_ 6 7 20 
Grandstotalesae = aceeess a2) eae se 116 16, 861 OS oll 


1 As of June 30, 1964, the Missouri Basin Project has cataloged 1,485,104 specimens from 2,250 numbered 
sites and 66 collections not assigned site numbers. 

Specimens restored included 2 pottery vessels and 5 vessel sections. 

Specimens donated to the Missouri Basin Project included ca. 100 rim sherds and 1 vessel section from 
the Swan Creek site (39W W7) (donated by the South Dakota State Museum, University of South Dakota), 
15 projectile points from the Rinehardt Buffalo Kill No. 2 (24LT00) (donated by Carle Leavitt of 
Conrad, Mont.), a surface collection from 39Y K203 (donated by George Kostal and Ansel Petersen, civil 
engineers at the Gavins Point Dam), and a collection of pottery sherds from the Southwest (donated by 
Dr. Frank H. H. Roberts). 

Specimens collected at Fort Laramie, Wyo., were cleaned but not cataloged by the Missouri 
Basin Project. 


TABLE 2.—Record material processed, July 1, 1963, through June 80, 1964 


MISSOURI BASIN PROJECT 


Peis COTION: Obs TOCOR Sea Sek Lee Vs hk ye es Lh 6, 563 
Photographicmeratives madel2s = _ 22) aie a a ae FA ee 1, 299 
BH OGap Emi ENTS MACE hte ee eb a BL 7,169 
ENO LOS Tae | PEM tS INO UN LEC s AO tll CC = ome eee ee 4, 625 
Mrans par Cne1resinounted in: sla sseee wee oes eee ee le veers are 1, 507 
ModsGnrome Picpures: taken in lapses. 3 ee a 180 
GarLosrapmicytracines and Grawings: = 2-24 2 Se a pe at 50 
NUTESTS nee fo) cS Tene Raa LS Oe ana e e  e pe CE OOe Dy ee ae Pe Ae Oe 74 
TEGHLDE RI A ghMECR ae ae eet te ee Pe Ce eee ee oc ee 49 
Ae DRESS A s Wags Ge Celie a3 anda a cls 9 BAe ot Wg Sg St aR A 14 


102 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


season. In addition, he continued to work with Jensen on the “Grand 
Detour Phase” manuscript and prepared a monograph, “Archeological 
Salvage Investigations in the Hells Canyon area, Snake River, Oregon 
and Idaho,” for publication by the Bureau of American Ethnology. 
During the year several papers of which Dr. Caldwell was author or 
co-author were published. These include “Excavations in the Lower 
Big Bend Reservoir, South Dakota,” Plains Anthropologist, vol. 8, 
No. 20, p. 118; “Taxonomy Revisited,” Plains Anthropologist, vol. 8, 
No. 20, pp. 84-85; (with G. Hubert Smith) The Oahe Reservoir: 
Archeology, Geology, History, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Omaha, 
pp. 1-44; (with Lee G. Madison and Bernard Golden) “Archeological 
Investigations at the Hickey Brothers Site (89LM4), Big Bend Reser- 
voir, Lyman County, South Dakota,” River Basin Surveys Papers 
No. 36, Bureau of American Ethnology, Bulletin 189, pp. 267-290; 
“Fortified Villages in the Northern Plains,” Plains Anthropologist, 
vol. 9, No. 23, pp. 1-7. 

At the 201%4 Plains Conference held at Pierre, S. Dak., on July 20 
Dr. Caldwell spoke on the problem of the firearms trade and Plains 
archeology. He also attended the Governors’ Conference for the 
Lewis and Clark Reenactment Pageant at Camp Ashland on Novem- 
ber 19 and presented a brief statement regarding the potential con- 
tribution of the Missouri Basin Project to region-wide recreational 
planning. On September 6 and 7 he participated in the joint Plains- 
Pecos Conference at Fort Burgwin, near Taos, N. Mex., and spoke 
on “The LaRoche Problem.” He also attended the meetings of the 
Committee for the Recovery of Archeological Remains, in Washing- 
ton, D.C., on February 12 and 13; the 74th Meeting of the Nebraska 
Academy of Sciences, Lincoln, May 1 and 2; and the annual meeting 
of the Montana Archeological Society, Havre, May 16 and 17. At 
the last-named he presented a paper, “The Northwestern Plains and 
the Missouri River Basin,” and participated in a panel discussion of 
Plains archeological problems. He continued to serve as dendro- 
chronology chairman of the Missouri Basin Chronology Program 
and, until December, as contributing editor for reviews for the Plains 
Anthropologist. As of that time he replaced Dr. Stephenson as 
editor of the journal and continued in that capacity through the year. 
Dr. Caldwell participated in the Visiting Scientist Program of the 
Nebraska Academy of Sciences, speaking before student groups at 
Utica, Nebr., on January 8. In addition, he presented talks or lec- 
tures to eight civic and university groups. In October he was named 
as one of the organizers for the Plains Field Conference preceding 
the 1965 INQUA meeting at Boulder, Colo. During the period of 
September to June he continued to serve, on annual leave, as part- 
time assistant professor of anthropology at the University of Ne- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 103 


braska, and in January he was elected to the Graduate College. At 
the end of the year Dr. Caldwell was in the Lincoln office continuing 
his administrative duties. 

Lionel A. Brown, archeologist, when not in the field, devoted his 
time to laboratory study and reporting of materials from his 1962 
and 1963 surveys and excavations. In addition, he assumed responsi- 
bility for a portion of the backlog of unreported sites contained in the 
Missouri Basin Project files. During the spring Mr. Brown made a 
preliminary analysis of the specimens excavated from the Chapelle 
Creek Village (89HU60) during the 1963 season as a guide to further 
work at the site. A manuscript entitled “Archeological Investigations 
in the Lower Yellowtail Reservoir, Montana,” was rewritten in second 
draft. Another, a comprehensive report, “Archeological Investiga- 
tions in the Pony Creek Watershed, Iowa,” was in rough draft form, 
and “The Gillette Site (89ST23), Oahe Reservoir, South Dakota,” 
was in near final form. During the year his survey report, “An 
Appraisal of the Archeological and Paleontological Resources of Six 
Reservoir Areas in Kansas and Nebraska,” was issued for limited 
distribution. Two brief field reports, “Survey of the Pony Creek 
Watershed, Iowa,” and “Archeology of the Lower Yellowtail Reser- 
voir, Montana,” (Plains Anthropologist, vol. 8, No. 20, p. 117, and vol. 
8, No. 20, p. 119, respectively) and two articles “The Fort Smith Medi- 
cine Wheel, Montana” and “A Crow Lodge Frame” were published 
in the Plains Anthropologist (vol. 8, No. 22, pp. 225-230, 273-274, 
respectively). Another, “The Lungren Site: An Archaic Manifesta- 
tion in Southeastern Iowa,” appeared in abstract in the Proceedings 
of the 74th Annual Meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, 
Lincoln (p.3). On May 24, at the annual meeting of the Iowa Arche- 
ological Society, he presented a summary of recent work in south- 
western Iowa, and on the 25th he made a brief survey of sites in the 
Rathbun Reservoir of south-central Iowa. At the end of the year 
Mr. Brown was again in the field engaged in archeological excavations 
at the Chapelle Creek site, S. Dak. 

John J. Hoffman, archeologist, when not in the field, devoted most 
of his efforts to the laboratory analysis and preparation of reports, 
based upon materials excavated during his field work of the past two 
years. In addition, he has undertaken a reanalysis of certain pottery 
collections that have been previously described in the literature to 
bring them into accord with current concepts. <A large site report, 
“Molstad Village: A Fortified Site in the Oahe Reservoir, South 
Dakota,” was completed in first draft, and a shorter paper reexamin- 
ing a number of late prehistoric and early historic sites in the Mobridge 
area, South Dakota, and an analysis of materials from the La Roche 
sites are under way. Previous studies of Mr. Hoffman’s, published 


104 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


during the year, include “Temporal Ordering and the Chouteau 
Aspect,” Plains Anthropologist, vol. 8, No. 20, pp. 91-97; “Prehistoric 
Houses Along the Middle Missouri River,” Progress, Oct.—Dec., 1963, 
Missouri Basin Field Committee, Billings, pp. 48-57; “Investigation 
of the Swift Bird House (89DW233) in the Oahe Reservoir, South 
Dakota,” Plains Anthropologist, vol. 8, No. 22, pp. 249-256; a field 
report, “Excavations at Molstad Village in the Oahe Reservoir,” 
Plains Anthropologist, vol. 8, No. 20, pp. 118-119; and two short book 
reviews also published in the Plains Anthropologist. 

Mr. Hoffman served as chairman of the 2014 Plains Conference at 
Pierre on July 20, which he reported briefly in the Plains Anthro- 
pologist, vol. 8, No. 22, p. 262. He also participated in the joint 
Plains-Pecos meeting at Taos, N. Mex., September 6-7, where he pre- 
sented a paper entitled, “ua Roche: Some New Data,” and attended 
the annual meeting of the Montana Archeological Society at Havre, 
May 16 and 17. He also spoke before several school and civic groups 
in Nebraska and Iowa. At the end of the year Mr. Hoffman was 
again in the field engaged in archeological excavations in the Big 
Bend Reservoir of South Dakota. 

Wilfred M. Husted, archeologist, when not in the field, prepared re- 
ports, based upon materials excavated during his 1963 field investi- 
gations, and continued to work on the backlog of site collections from 
the Missouri Basin Project files. A manuscript report entitled 
“Archeological Test Excavations at Fort Laramie National Historic 
Site, Wyoming, 1963” was completed and accepted by the U.S. Na- 
tional Park Service, Midwest Region. A final draft of “The Bice 
Site (39LM31) and the Clarkstown Site (89L.M47) : Salvage Excava- 
tions in the Fort Randall Reservoir, South Dakota” was completed, 
and major drafts of three as yet untitled reports dealing with sites in 
the Big Bend and Fort Randall Reservoirs are substantially finished. 
Mr. Husted submitted two papers, “Early Occupation of the Colorado 
Front Range” and “Pueblo Pottery from Northern Colorado,” for 
publication, and two short reports, “Investigations in the Upper Yel- 
lowtail Reservoir, Montana and Wyoming” and “A Rock Alignment 
in the Colorado Front Range,” were published in the Plains Anthro- 
pologist (vol. 8, No. 20, p. 119, and vol. 8, No. 22, pp. 221-224, respec- 
tively). At the end of the year he was in the field excavating sites in 
the Yellowtail Reservoir of Wyoming and Montana. 

Richard E. Jensen, archeologist, when not in the field, worked 
primarily on the analysis and reporting of site collections excavated by 
staff members in previous years, but following the death of Dean E. 
Clark, laboratory supervisor, he assumed direction of the processing 
and cataloging staff in addition to his regular duties. He cooperated 
with Dr. Caldwell in the preparation of a major study entitled, “The 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 105 


Grand Detour Phase: Early Village Sites in the Big Bend Reservoir, 
South Dakota,” and completed a first draft of “The Peterson Site 
(39LM215), An Earth Lodge Village in the Big Bend Reservoir.” 
A study concerned with recent work in the Big Bend Reservoir, “A 
Temporal Ordering of Several Rectangular House Occupations in 
Central South Dakota” (abstract), was published in the Proceedings 
of the 74th Annual Meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, 
Lincoln, 1964, p. 4. On July 20, Mr. Jensen attended the 2014 Plains 
Conference at Pierre, S. Dak., where he reported the progress of his 
fieldwork. He also participated in the Plains-Pecos meeting at Taos, 
N. Mex., presenting a brief paper entitled, “Notes on the Archeology of 
the Big Bend Area.” At the end of the year he was in the field ex- 
cavating at the Sommers site in the Big Bend Reservoir. 

Oscar L. Mallory, archeologist, when not in the field, continued the 
analysis and reporting of materials that he excavated or collected in 
previous field seasons. A reconnaissance report, “An Archeological 
Appraisal of the Missouri Breaks Region in Montana,” was completed 
and issued for limited distribution, and a short note entitled “Survey of 
the Missouri Breaks Region, Montana,” summarizing the work, was 
published in the Plains Anthropologist (vol. 8, No. 20, p. 120). In 
addition, Mr. Mallory completed a detailed study of the artifacts from 
the Mouat Cliff Burials (24TE401), Mont., which will be a part of a 
larger study of the excavations carried out by members of the Billings 
Archeological Society. Another manuscript concerned with a group 
of sites in the vicinity of the Moreau River, Oahe Reservoir, is well 
under way. At the end of the year Mr. Mallory was in the field 
excavating sites in the Oahe Reservoir. 

Robert W. Neuman, archeologist, when not in the field, devoted most 
of his time to the analysis and reporting of data resulting from his 
excavations during previous field seasons. He has begun a major 
monograph concerned with early burial mound complexes in the north- 
ern Plains. He has also completed an article entitled “Projectile 
Points from Preceramic Occupations near Fort Thompson, South 
Dakota,” which has been accepted by the Plains Anthropologist, and, 
in addition, a number of Mr. Neuman’s research papers, most of which 
were written during the current year, were published. These include: 
“Check-stamped Pottery on the Northern and Central Great Plains,” 
American Antiquity, vol. 29, No. 1, 1963, pp. 17-26; “Field Work in 
Dewey County, South Dakota, Oahe Reservoir Area,” Plains Anthro- 
pologist, vol. 8, No. 20, pp. 121-122; “Archeological Salvage Investi- 
gations in the Lovewell Reservoir Area, Kansas,” iver Basin Surveys 
Papers No. 32, Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 185, pp. 257- 
306; (with Carl R. Kendle and Larry A. Witt) “Prehistoric Artifacts 
from the Little Nemaha River Drainage, Otoe County, Nebraska,” 


106 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Plains Anthropologist, vol. 9, No. 23, pp. 22-28; “The Good Soldier 
Site (89LM238), Big Bend Reservoir, Lyman County, South Dakota,” 
River Basin Surveys Papers No. 37, Bureau of American Ethnology 
Bulletin 189, pp. 291-318. 

Mr. Neuman attended the 2014 Plains Conference in Pierre, S. Dak., 
July 20, the annual meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, 
Lincoln, May 1 and 2, and the meeting of the Society for American 
Archeology, Chapel Hill, N.C., May 7-9, where he presented a paper 
on “A Woodland Camp and Burial Mound Complex in Dewey County, 
South Dakota.” He continued to serve as chairman of the Radiocar- 
bon Section of the Missouri Basin Chronolgy Program, was appointed 
assistant editor for current research (Plains area) for American 
Antiquity, and contributing editor for Plains facts for the Plains An- 
thropologist. Mr. Neuman participated in the Visiting Scientist Pro- 
gram of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, speaking before school 
groups at Eddyville, Nebr., and he also presented an illustrated talk 
to the National Professional Geographical Fraternity at the Univer- 
sity of Nebraska. At the end of the year Mr. Neuman was at work in 
the Lincoln laboratory. 

G. Hubert Smith, archeologist, when not in the field, was concerned 
with the preparation of reports based upon his previous work at several 
historic sites. By the end of the year he had completed a comprehen- 
sive report on investigations by the Missouri Basin Project and the 
State Historical Society of North Dakota at the sites of Like-A- 
Fishhook Village and Fort Berthold I and II (832M1L2), in the Garri- 
son Reservoir area, North Dakota. In addition, he had made 
substantial progress on reports of excavations of Fort George 
(39ST202) and 39HU301, in the Big Bend Reservoir of South Dakota 
and had begun preparation (with Caldwell and others) of the booklet 
“The Big Bend Reservoir: Archeology and History,” to be published 
by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. An article written by Mr. 
Smith, “Archeological Explorations at Fort McHenry, 1958,” was 
published in the Maryland Historical Magazine (vol. 58, No. 3, pp. 
247-250), and a brief note, “Excavations at Fort George, South Da- 
kota,” appeared in the Plains Anthropologist (vol. 8, No. 20, p. 122). 

On July 20 he took part in discussions of northern Plains ethnohis- 
tory, at the 2014 Plains Conference at Pierre,S. Dak. At the Plains- 
Pecos meeting at Taos, N. Mex., on September 6 and 7, he reported 
recent investigations at historic sites within the Missouri Basin reser- 
voirareas. During the period October 24-30 he examined historic sites 
in Missouri at the request of Dr. Carl H. Chapman and other Univer- 
sity of Missouri staff members. On October 28 Mr. Smith addressed 
the annual meeting of the Missouri Archeological Society at Colum- 
bia, Mo., and that evening spoke before the Big Bend chapter of the 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 107 


Society at Marshall, Mo. On April 10, he presented an illustrated 
lecture, “Archeological Salvage within the Missouri Basin,” before the 
annual meeting of the Minnehaha County Historical Society at Sioux 
Falls, S. Dak., and on May 2 he read a paper entitled “The Viking Site 
in Newfoundland” before the anthropological section of the Nebraska 
Academy of Sciences (published in abstract in the Proceedings of the 
74th Annual Meeting of the Nebraska Academy of Sciences, Lincoln, 
p.5). In April Mr. Smith became contributing editor for reviews for 
the Plains Anthropologist. At the end of the year he was at work in 
the Lincoln Laboratory of the Missouri Basin Project. 

Virginia—Carl F. Miller, at the beginning of the fiscal year, had an 
excavation crew at work on the Hales Ford site (44F R14) in the Smith 
Mountain Reservoir area near Rocky Mount in southern Virginia. He 
completed the work at this site on July 2, having excavated 144 arche- 
ological features and recovered various tool types, burial patterns and 
offerings, and, of particular interest, a series of bone flutes that sug- 
gested much in the way of social life of these Early to Middle Wood- 
land Indians. The power screen was used during these excavations, 
making possible a nearly complete recovery of the cultural remains. 

Mr. Miller and his crew of five men moved to the Booth Farm site 
(44FR15) on July 2, and between then and July 28, when the field 
work ended, they excavated 202 archeological features. A number of 
Savannah projectile points of the Late Archaic and Early Woodland 
Periods were found lying on sterile hardpan at the base of the site and 
in association with several random post molds. Noteworthy were the 
remains of 70 feet of stockade found at the south edge of the site. In 
this stockade, posts had been placed at intervals and reinforced with 
rocks in the postholes. Wooden stringers had connected the vertical 
posts, and to these had been attached other posts, much as a modern 
fence would be built. 

Idaho-Oregon.—Under an agreement with the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion, the Idaho State University Museum continued the work on the 
Hells Canyon Reservoir material that was excavated during the latter 
part of last fiscal year. The project, under the direction of Dr. Earl 
H. Swanson, director of the Museum, was continued by Max G. Pavesie, 
a graduate student at the University of Colorado. Work was confined 
largely to laboratory analysis of the excavated material, rechecking a 
few of the field locations, and preparation of the report. 


ARCHIVES 


Mrs. Margaret C. Blaker continued her duties as archivist, assisted 
until August 1 by Regina M. Solzbacher and for the remainder of the 
fiscal year by Margaret V. Lee. 

An extensive series of photographic prints and lantern slides, made 


108 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


in the 1880’s and 1890’s and showing Indian students at Hampton 
Institute, as well as views made on a number of western reservations, 
was borrowed from the Huntington Memorial Library of Hampton 
Institute, Hampton, Va. Approximately 400 copy negatives were 
made from this loan collection and are now in the Bureau’s active files. 

Over 150 photographs of Osage Indians, including many full-length 
portraits of individuals in native costume taken in the 1880’s and 
1890’s in the studios of G. W. Parsons and J. M. Fowler of Paw- 
huska, Okla., were received on loan from the Osage Tribal Museum, 
Pawhuska, Okla. in May and are currently being copied. 

Approximately 100 glass plate negatives exposed by Dr. Robert 
Charles Gebhardt in the period 1900-1907, showing Indians on the 
streets of Black River Ralls, Wis., and their homes and burial 
grounds near the cranberry marshes outside the town, were acquired 
from the photographer’s son, Paul Gebhardt of Towson, Md. 

Thirty photographs of Florida Seminole Indians, and Seminole 
camps, boats, and agricultural scenes, made in 1910-11 by Lorenzo 
D. Creel, special agent, were copied from Creel’s manuscript report 
in the National Archives. 

Thirteen studio and outdoor photographs of Winnebago Indians 
taken in the period from the 1870’s to about 1900 by H. H. Bennett, 
pioneer photographer of Kilbourn, Wis., now Wisconsin Dells, were 
acquired from the Bennett Studio in Wisconsin Dells. This studio 
and its files of glass negatives of persons, places, and events in the 
Wisconsin Dells area in the period 1865 to 1907 is now maintained by 
the photographer’s daughters, Miss Miriam Bennett and Mrs. Ruth 
Bennett Dyer. 

Three original prints from negatives made about 1899 in the vicinity 
of Chadron, Nebr., by Ed Edson were received from Dr. R. W. Breck- 
inridge, through the Lincoln, Nebr., office of the River Basin Surveys. 
They are portraits of Red Cloud and Little Wound, Oglala Dakotas, 
and a view of a Sioux camp near Chadron, Nebr. 

Individual portraits of five Sioux Indians, taken in 1899 by Robert 
Gish Parker of Chicago, were donated by a nephew of the photog- 
rapher, Mr. Leslie B. Taylor of Miami, Fla. The photographs in- 
clude a portrait of the famous show Indian, Iron Tail. 

Four negatives made by Dr. Francis Harper on the Poosepatuck 
Reservation, Mastic, Long Island, in 1909 were donated by Dr. Harper 
and filed with related negatives previously donated by him. 

A group of 10 photographic reproductions on postcards were 
donated by Philip Sampson of Arlington, Va. They included a full- 
length portrait as well as front and profile bust portraits of the Kaw 
(Kansa) chief Washunga, taken about 1880. 

Eugene Heflin of Reedsport, Oreg., submitted an account of his 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 109 


attempts to salvage skeletons and artifacts from the site of the historic 
village of Shet-le-shin, on Pistol River, southwest Oregon. This site 
has now been destroyed by road construction. A microfilm copy of 
Mr. Heflin’s account, which included news clippings, photographs and 
pen-and-ink drawings, was made and the original returned to him. 

A Micmac vocabulary and grammatical notes recorded by P. L. 
Muschamp while he was a graduate student at Yale University were 
deposited by Mr. Muschamp. Unfortunately Mr. Muschamp’s more 
extensive notes on his Micmac fieldwork had been lost in a fire that 
destroyed his home a number of years ago. These notes are on 8X5’ 
slips and occupy one file box. 


EDITORIAL WORK AND PUBLICATIONS 


The editorial work of the Bureau continued during the year under 
the immediate direction of Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen, assisted by Mrs. 
Phyllis W. Prescott and Miss Susan Colby. The following publica- 
tions were issued : 


Hightieth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1962-1963, 
ii+34 pp.,2 pls. 1964. 

Bulletin 178. Index to Bulletins 1-100 of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 
with index to contributions to North American Ethnology, introductions, and 
miscellaneous publications, by Biren Bonnerjea. vi+726 pp. 1963. 

Bulletin 186. Anthropological Papers, Nos. 638-67. iv-+310 pp., 60 pls., 35 figs., 
2maps. 1963. 

No. 63. Tarqui, an early site in Manabi Province, Ecuador, by Matthew W. 
and Marion Stirling. 

No. 64. Blackfoot Indian pipes and pipemaking, by John C. Ewers. 

No. 65. The Warihio Indians of Sonora-Chihuahua: An ethnographic sur- 
vey, by Howard Scott Gentry. 

No. 66. The Yaqui deer dance: A study in cultural change, by Carleton 
Stafford Wilder. 

No. 67. Chippewa mat-weaving techniques, by Karen Daniels Petersen. 

Bulletin 187. Iroquois musie and dance: Ceremonial arts of two Seneca Long- 
houses, by Gertrude P. Kurath. xvi-+268 pp., 3 pls., 164 figs. 1964. 

Bulletin 189. River Basin Surveys Papers, Nos. 33-38, Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr., 
editor. xiv-+406 pp., 58 pls., 66 figs., 13 maps. 1964. 

No. 33. The Paul Brave site (32SI4), Oahe Reservoir area, North Dakota, 
by W. Raymond Wood and Alan A. Woolworth. 

No. 34. The Demery site (39CO1), Oahe Reservoir area, South Dakota, by 
Alan R. Woolworth and W. Raymond Wood. 
No. 35. Archeological investigations at the Hosterman site (39PO7), Oahe 
Rerservoir area, Potter County, South Dakota, 1956, by Carl F. Miller. 
No. 36. Archeological investigations at the Hickey Brothers site (39LM4), 
Big Bend Reservoir, Lyman County, South Dakota, by Warren W. Cald- 
well, Lee G. Madison, and Bernard Golden. 

No. 37. The Good Soldier site (89LM38), Big Bend Reservoir, Lyman 
County, South Dakota, by Robert W. Neuman. 

No. 38. Archeological investigations in the Toronto Reservoir area, Kansas, 
by James H. Howard. 


110 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Bulletin 190. An ethnography of the Huron Indians, 1615-1649, by Elisabeth 
Tooker. iv+184 pp. 1964. 
Publications distributed totaled 35,314 as compared with 17,722 for 


the fiscal year 1963. 
ILLUSTRATIONS 


Throughout the year, E. G. Schumacher, the staff artist for the Bu- 
reau of American Ethnology, prepared and executed many varied 
illustrations in the fields of ethnology and archeology, to appear in 
Bureau publications. The bulk of the art work concerned the re- 
touching and/or restoration and assembling of photographs, the 
drawing of maps, charts, diagrams, graphs, and sundry text figures. 
Mr. Schumacher also performed miscellaneous assignments for other 
units of the Smithsonian Institution, including the Editorial and 
Publications Division. 

MISCELLANEOUS 


Dr. M. W. Stirling and Sister Inez Hilger continued as research 
associates of the Bureau. Dr. A. J. Waring, formerly research asso- 
ciate, died on March 21, 1964. Mrs. Phyllis W. Prescott, who had 
assisted in editing many of the Bureau publications, died on June 12, 
1964, after a brief illness. 

The Bureau continued its extensive service to scholars, teachers, 
students, and the interested layman in providing information on tech- 
nical questions, bibliographies, and leaflets on special topics relating 
to the American Indian. 

Specialists on the Bureau staff identified and supplied information 
on many specimens, both ethnological and archeological, which were 
brought in or received by mail. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Henry B. Coturns, Acting Director. 
S. Dion Riptey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the National Zoological Park 


Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the National Zoological Park for the fiscal year ended June 30, 


1964: 
BIRTHS 


One of the most beautiful animals in the Zoo is Mohini of Rewa, 
the so-called white tiger. With her cream-colored coat, striped with 
varying hues of gray to black, her ice-blue eyes, her great size and 
majestic mien, she has been an extremely popular exhibit since her 
arrival in 1960. Her mate, Samson, is a normal-colored tiger but 
comes from the same strain and hence carries the genes for whiteness. 
Mated to a white female, he could be expected to sire white cubs. 

On January 6, 1964, three young were born to the pair; one white, 
the other two orange. Through the courtesy of Metromedia, a closed- 
circuit television was installed, and the actual birth of the cubs was 
witnessed by members of the Zoo staff on a monitor placed in the 
vestibule of the lion house. Until the cubs were 6 weeks old the lion 
house was closed to the public. Zoo visitors could, however, watch 
the little family on either one of two television screens. Mohini 
proved to be an exceptional mother; she took the greatest care of her 
cubs, and all three, now weaned, are thriving. When they were first 
put on exhibition they were so popular that it was necessary to put 
a sign on the cage asking visitors to move on and let others enjoy the 
scene; some people actually arrived in the morning and spent the en- 
tire day standing in front of the cage until the building closed in the 
evening. <A film of the birth, combined with a film made at the 
palace of the Maharajah of Rewa in India, was shown on a half-hour 
nationwide television program. 

For many years, the National Zoological Park was famous for its 
success in breeding pygmy hippopotamuses. Then the old male died, 
and it was several years before a replacement for him could be secured. 
In 1960 President William V. S. Tubman of Liberia donated a male 
pygmy hippo, which has now sired seven offspring, three of them 
within the past year. Two Nile hippopotamuses were also born at 
the National Zoo this year. 

On September 9, 1961, the first gorilla to be bred and born at the 
National Zoological Park arrived, the offspring of Moka and 

111 


1964 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


112 


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Nikumba, lowland gorillas. The baby was named Tomoka and was 
successfully reared by the wife of Keeper Bernard M. Gallagher. 
Moka’s first pregnancy was carefully watched, and the birth of the 
baby was eagerly anticipated. After her pregnancy, like some human 
mothers, she began to put on weight, and although her diet was care- 
fully supervised she continued to gain. This, and the fact that the 
male gorilla suffered an attack of paralysis in June 1963 (see p. 143), 
account for her second baby, Leonard, arriving as something of a 
surprise package on January 10, 1964. Leonard, like his brother, is 
being raised in Keeper Gallagher’s home and gives every evidence of 
being a normal, healthy young gorilla. 

Four more calves were born to the Dorcas gazelles, increasing the 
number of these graceful little animals to a herd of eight. The 
original pair were gifts from President Habib Bourguiba of Tunisia 
in 1960. 

Other interesting additions were two hybrids between a male cotton- 
top marmoset (Saguinus oedipus) and a female red-handed tamarin 
(S. midas), born on February 19. The babies closely resemble their 
mother, lacking the white pompadour of the cottontop. 

Following the procedure of previous years, all births and hatchings 
are listed below, whether or not the young were successfully reared. 
In many instances, the record of animals having bred in captivity is 
of interest. 


MAMMALS 


Common name Number Common name Number 
aTGUKAN SATOOr Sees or ee ail MeOpardy ==" - i ale cee eee a3 
Mam pireiba teas sesior Pe ee 2 1 Fo) cg, ee ik NERO BES pa) aos ee eo 3 
Ring-tailed lemur22222 2" 222 il Bengalhitizent aes Se ee eee 3 
Squirrel monkey______________ 1 Seatlions =a seine ce ee 2 
Black spider monkey__________ 3) TER OG Excess y Ts oe ee 2 
Eby DRL GUM AEM OS Chee ee 2 Grantss7Zebrages sooo eee 3 
Rhesussmonkey2o2=22 52 =oo ns 1 Brazilianeta pisses ses eee All 
IbAnbAry) ape see Sth ees Dewi Collared peceaty = —e 5 
Sootysmansaney=— es i Nile hippopotamus____------_- 2 
Chimpanzee yeaa ee 1 Pygmy hippopotamus___----_~_ 3 
Howland: corilla =) = ena 1 Ne epves ees e 4 
uwO-bhoede sloth kee ae i Wihite: fallow, deer==—2==.—————— 2 
Erainie-do0psias22-2.-- Sa eT 6 IAISNO COT ee ee ee ee ee 4 
Egyptian spiny mouse_________ 10 Bieta lia eyes ee ee ae 2 
Patagonian cayy-_- 22 220-4 Aes Sikavdeer iets sisi eae 1 
Hairy-rumped agouti__________ 8 White-tailed deer____-__------_- 1 
mM perWwOltew sn ee il (RUGLINC CG Tay ae eee ee Sek 
IS hyloiaial nied ee ee 1 Caribou X reindeer___-—---___ ul 
European brown bear_____~-__ 3 Cane Dun alo 2252 ee 1 
Hybrid) bears. 24 .cte sat 1 Brindlede onus So se— se ss== ae Z 
Grizzlyp;pear So yee site peters 1 Dorcas zazelles2e_ Se eee 4 
Neumann’s genet __________-__ oa | African pygmy goat.._-------- il 
PROD CRG wie oe eS 1 NOUGAT este Se 1 
BIAckmleCOpand=s2= 222k n 2 e 2. Big-hora’ sheep=— =... =5------— 1 


*Stillborn. 
**Second litter destroyed by mother. 


114. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


BIRDS 


Black-crowned night heron_-__ 3 Mallarduduck42 > 222> = es 110 
Crested ‘screameri-22—==-2_--— il Péeatowl: 22s eee fe 2 SS if 
Blseck Swan sooo] nae eae — Be Nanday.parrot soo. 22. 3 
Woodsduck=—2 2222 aes = 54 Formosan red-billed pie-_----- 2 

REPTILES 
Snapping turtles ae 21 Tokay: 2eck0V ne ee ah 
Box turtle #222 22252 eee 7 African spiny lizard=4-222. == 2 
HasternspOxstUrilese esas oe 6 Pilot blackssnake= 222 22===2222 9 
Red-lined turtle 2222-2 -——-— = il Tessellated snakes: = 222-2 2222 at 
Red-bellied’ purtles22 >=. ih Cantil eau ss eo ees! See 26 
Red-eared ‘turtle. ----- 22222 = 1 

FISHES 

Red swordtails222o 22222225 40 
GIFTS 


More than a year ago the Government of Assam, India, offered the 
National Zoological Park a female rhinoceros as a mate for Tarun, 
the male rhino that came to the Zoo in May 1960. An adult female 
was secured from the Kazirangi Game Reserve, and negotiations 
began to transport her from India to Washington. Then it was dis- 
covered that “Deepali” was pregnant, and all plans for her trip to 
the United States were held in abeyance until her calf was born. In 
April 1963 she produced a female calf, subsequently named Rajkumari, 
and it was necessary to wait until the young one was weaned. In 
October Associate Director J. Lear Grimmer and Mrs. Grimmer went 
to India to arrange transportation for the huge animal. They found, 
to their delight, that the Indian Government was including the baby 
in the generous gift to the United States. Crates were built under 
Mr. Grimmer’s supervision, and both animals were brought to the 
zoo in Calcutta. No commercial airline could handle the shipment 
(Deepali, crated, weighed 4,000 pounds). Fortunately a number of 
planes from the American Air Force were in India at the time, par- 
ticipating in joint Indo-Anglo-American air exercises, and through 
the good offices of the then Vice President, Lyndon B. Johnson, who 
was a Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, and Air Force Chief 
of Staff Curtis LeMay, it was possible to load both animals on a 
C-130 transport. The animals arrived December 17, and were un- 
loaded at the elephant house at dusk. Only 11 days later Deepali 
succumbed to an acute attack of gastroenteritis. This was a tragic 
loss for the Zoo, but Rajkumari (the name means “princess”) has 
adapted nicely to the Zoo regime, is eating well, gaining weight, and 
of course is the most valuable single acquisition made by the Zoo 
during the past year. 

On February 12 the director left for Indonesia with gifts of whis- 


Secretary's Report, 1964 PLATE 1 


Caiman lizard (Dracaena guianensis) currently at the National Zoological Park. This 
unusual lizard is fed clams oysters, lobster tails, snails, and fish. 


Female Komodo dragon (Varanus komodoensis) in her outdoor summer enclosure. National 
Zoological Park. 


Secretary's Report, 1964 PLATE 2 


ml 


[he rare and vanishing Texas red wolf (Canis niger rufus). This female was acquired on 
November 19, 1958, as a 6-month-old pup. National Zoological Park. 


One of the rarest animals in the National Zoological Park’s collection, the South American 
round-eared dog (Atelocinus microtis). 


Secretary’s Report, 1964 


PLATE 3 


"Ye gq [eo1sojoo7 jeuoneN 


‘(sndipao snuinsvg) doyu0}q09 ajeur pur (soprw snuinsvg) josowseu 


pepuey-pol o[PUlof B OT 


‘ 


F961 


‘ 


il Aleniqa J uIog ‘s]JasOWIPUr pliqayy 


PHOM OPI “leq [ea!S0j007 Jeuoneyy 


pue pelg Jo. 


*so10oyd 


“eIpuy jo apis}no ulog 
raha oly M ISI ayy ‘uos P[O-YyyUOUI-7 pue BMI TUTYOTY 


Secretary's Report, 1964 PLATE 4 


Leonard, second lowland gorilla bred and born at the National Zoological Park, at 6 months 
of age. 


Rajkumari, young female Indian one-horned rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). National 
Zoological Park. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT FAD 


tling swans, ducks, and geese from Attorney General Robert Kennedy 
to President Sukarno of Indonesia. While there he accepted a most 
generous gift from the Government of Indonesia of a pair of the 
giant monitor lizards found on a few small islands in Indonesia and 
known as Komodo dragons. The male was nearly 9 feet long and 
weighed approximately 200 pounds; the female was about half that 
size. Again, the Zoo was most unfortunate, as the big male, a truly 
impressive specimen, died of systematic amebiasis on June 1, after 
only 12 weeks and 4 days on exhibition at the Park. The female 
has the same infestation with amebae, and every effort is being made 
to cure her, as she is the only one of this species in the United States 
at the present time. 

Space does not permit listing all gifts received in the course of the 
year, but the following are of interest : 


Allan, Karen, Fairfax County, Va., brush-tailed porcupine. 

Amis, Mrs. Esther V., Washington, D.C., Patas monkey. 

Birch, Mrs. H. M., Bethesda, Md., lesser hill mynah. 

Chester Zoo, Chester, England, 2 axolotls (white phase). 

Cochran, Dr. Doris, Washington, D.C., 5 tropical American turtles of 2 species. 

Collette, Mrs. B. B., Alexandria, Va., sooty mangabey. 

DesPres, Mrs. Helen, Monrovia, Liberia, Maxwell’s duiker. 

Dietlein, Lt. Donald R., Alameda, Calif., Galapagos tortoise, sulphur-breasted 
toucan. 

Godet, Dr. René, Dakar, Senegal, lungfish. 

Greenhall, Arthur, Washington, D.C., 4 spear-nosed bats, 8 vampire bats. 

Greeson’s Flying Squirrel Ranch, Arlington, Va., southern fox squirrel. 

Harding, Grayson H., New York, N.Y., kura kura turtle, Amazon spotted turtle, 
red-faced turtle, chicken turtle, southern soft-shelled turtle, diamond-back 
terrapin. 

Harris, Lester E., Takoma Park, Md., 6 timber rattlesnakes, 10 fer-de-lance. 

Houston, Robert, Arlington, Va., Swan Island iguana. 

Keegan, Lt. Col. Hugh L., U.S. Army Medical Command, Japan, 5 rat snakes 
of 4 species, Dinodon, 2 many-banded kraits, 2 palm vipers, 3 Ryukyu green 
snakes, Japanese water snake, Japanese pit viper, 4 habus of 3 species, 3 
Erabu sea snakes. 

Kennedy, Robert F., McLean, Va., 2 Geoffroy’s marmosets. 

Klikna, Mrs. Vincent, Falls Church, Va., 5 chinchillas. 

Kuntz, Dr. R. E., Washington, D.C., 2 axolotls. 

Marcus, Dr. Leonard, Washington, D.C., 3 Pacific tree frogs, caiman lizard. 

Maryland Game Department, through David J. Smith, Annapolis, Md., bald 
eagle. 

McKittrick, F. A., Ithaca, N.Y., capybara. 

Miller, Robert Fox, Jr., Washington, D.C., 5 South American sucker catfish 
(Plecostomus). 

Norfolk, John E., Upper Marlboro, Md., boa constrictor. 

Ripley, Dr. S. Dillon, Washington, D.C., 2 rosy-billed pochards. 

Rivero, Vincentes Carlos, Caracas, Venezuela, rainbow boa. 

Stair, Gary, Washington, D.C., antelope ground squirrel. 

Sweeney, Philip Niles, Washington, D.C., striped sand snake. 


766—-746—65——_9 


116 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Szaba, Mrs. Renée, Glen Burnie, Md., 3 North African pond turtles, 2 red-eared 
turtles. 

Thompson, Lynda, Vienna, Va., 2 golden-mantled ground squirrels. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Hawaii, nene or Hawaiian goose. 

U.S. Naval Medical Research Unit No. 2, Taipei, Taiwan, Far East forest cat. 

Ward, Mrs. Bettina B., Middleburg, Va., blue and yellow macaw. 


DEPOSITS 


During the past year rare or valuable specimens have been dispersed 
to locations thought to have good breeding conditions as well as better 
living accommodations than could be provided at the National Zoologi- 
cal Park while new construction is in progress under its capital im- 
provement program. Other animals have been dispersed with the 
understanding that they or similar specimens will be returned when 
suitable exhibition areas have been completed here in the park. 

These deposits are: 

Brookfield Zoo, Brookfleld, Ill., female Dall sheep. 
Busch Gardens, Tampa, Fla., male concave-casqued hornbill, female Solomon 

Islands cockatoo. 

Dallas Zoo, Dallas, Tex., a female saiga antelope. 

Defense General Supply Center Preserve, Richmond, Va., male American elk. 

Houston Zoo, Houston, Tex., 2 purple-crested touracos. 

National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C., macaw. 

Patuxent Wildlife Refuge, Laurel, Md., barred owl. 

St. Louis Zoo, St. Louis, Mo., male gaur, 3 king penguins, Adélie penguin, female 
chimpanzee. 


EXCHANGES 


The National Zoological Park participates in a continuing program 
of exchanging surplus animals with zoos of other countries. Notable 
exchange arrangements were made with several foreign organizations. 
Ueno Zoological Gardens, Tokyo, Japan, received a pair of Town- 
send’s chipmunks and a pair of golden-manteled ground squirrels. 
Dudley Zoo, Worcestershire, England, received an assortment of 19 
snakes. The zoo in West Berlin received a pair of canvasback ducks, 
a pair of wood ducks, and a female whistling swan. The Hanover 
Zoo in Germany received a female black leopard cub. <A pair of 
jaguars and a pair of Canadian lynxes were shipped to the Alipore 
Zoo in Calcutta, India, and other surplus animals will be shipped later 
as part of an exchange agreement under which the associate director 
acquired several hundred birds from India, including such interesting 
specimens as koels, racket-tailed drongos, several hornbills, painted 
and black-necked storks, over a hundred assorted parakeets, and many 
other colorful small birds. 

Animals obtained through exchange were: 


Baltimore Zoo, Baltimore, Md., 2 whistling swans. 
Bronx Zoo, New York, N.Y., springhaas. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 117 


Brookfield Zoo, Brookfleld, I1., Arabian camel. 

Calgary Zoological Society, Alberta, Canada, 2 hoary marmots, 5 Canadian lynxes. 

Cincinnati Zoo, Cincinnati, Ohio, jaguar. 

Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, Mass., giant salamander, 2 rhinoceros iguanas. 

Gillmore, Harry, Monrovia, Liberia, 3 African pythons. 

Handleman, Stanley, New York, N.Y., 2 Negev spiny mice. 

Highland Park Zoo, Pittsburgh, Pa., spotted leopard. 

Houston Zoo, Houston, Tex., 10 southern copperheads, 2 blotched water snakes, 
yellow-bellied water snake, 3 broad-banded water snakes, nine-banded 
armadillo. 

Louisville Zoo, Louisville, Ky., olingo. 

Portland Zoological Gardens, Portland, Oreg., Kodiak bear cub. 

Rand, Peter, Washington, D.C., slow loris. 

Roundlake Waterfowl Station, Roundlake, Minn., 8 giant Canada geese. 

Ruhe, Heinz, Thousand Oaks, Calif., 2 Celebes apes, 2 Moor macaques. 

San Diego Zoo, San Diego, Calif., 6 salvator lizards. 

Southwick Game Farm, Blackstone, Mass., jaguar. 

Tote-Em-In-Zoo, Wilmington, N.C., 2 curly-crested toucans, 4 titi monkeys, 
3 macaws, 2 tamanduas, 2 yellow-banded kraits, 2 northern copperheads, 30 
water snakes. 

Ueno Zoo, Tokyo, Japan, 2 Seibold’s chipmunks, 2 Formosan tree squirrels. 

Wild Cargo, Hollywood, Fla., 3 day geckos. 

Zinner, Hermann, Vienna, Austria, 4 skinks, 6 Agamid lizards, 2 Huropean glass 
snakes, 6 worm snakes, 3 Contina snakes, 7 Huropean vipers, 3 Huropean 
smooth snakes, 11 Huropean glass lizards, 1 Huropean grass snake, 2 tesselated 
water snakes, 4 Aesculapian snakes. 


The following animals were sent to other zoos and to private col- 
lectors in exchange: 


Boehm, Edward M., Trenton, N.J., 2 junglefowl, 2 wood ducks. 

British Embassy, Washington, D.C., peacock. 

Canal Zone Biological Area, Balboa, Canal Zone, Panama, 5 titi monkeys. 

Cincinnati Zoo, Cincinnati, Ohio, ring-tailed lemur, chimpanzee. 

Cunningham Wild Animal Park, Augusta, Kans., red deer. 

Delmarva Zoological Society, Salisbury, Md., 4 wood ducks. 

Detroit Zoo, Royal Oak, Mich., Patagonian cavy. 

Franklin Park Zoo, Boston, Mass., Patagonian cavy, 2 lion cubs, European 
brown bear cub. 

Palmer Chemical Company, Douglasville, Ga., black spider monkey, Java 
macaque. 

Rand, Peter, Washington, D.C., boa constrictor. 

Roger Williams Park Zoo, Providence, R.I., 2 wood ducks. 

Ruhe, Heinz, Thousand Oaks, Calif., 20 wood ducks, 17 canvasback ducks, 
12 ringneck ducks, 12 lesser scaups, 5 red-headed ducks. 

Southeast Pet Shop, Washington, D.C., 22 chinchillas. 

Southwick Game Farm, Blackstone, Mass., black leopard, 5 canvasback ducks, 
mute swan, 3 black swans, 12 lesser scaups, 5 whistling swans, gibbon. 

Tote-Em-in-Zoo, Wilmington, N.C., Canadian lynx, 4 gelada baboons, 2 wood- 
chucks, Central American opossum, spotted leopard, 3 sika deer, red deer, 
axis deer, 2 Virginia deer, 2 white fallow deer. 

Wild Cargo, Hollywood, Fla., 2 northern copperheads, 2 Taiwan cobras. 


118 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 
PURCHASES 


While the associate director was in India, he was able to acquire 
10 Indian flying foxes. These are the first of their kind to be brought 
into the United States under the revised regulations of the Depart- 
ment of the Interior through the cooperation of D. H. Janzen, direc- 
tor, Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife, Fish and Wildlife 
Service. 

Other specimens purchased in India were 2 pairs of rosy pelicans, 
6 lion-tailed macaques, a female golden cat, a female leopard cat, 
8 spot-billed ducks, 12 pairs of assorted parakeets, 12 comb ducks, 
and 2 lesser pied hornbills. Arrangements were made for the pur- 
chase of other specimens which will be shipped when accommodations 
have been completed for them here at the zoo. 

Other purchases of interest were: 


8 Costa Rican rear-fanged snakes 2 purple-created touracos 

2 hyraxes 4 Townsend’s chipmunks 

1 South American short-eared dog 1 Hastern diamondback rattlesnake 
3 Gila monsters 1 red uakari 

1 scarlet macaw 1 wattled guan 

2 wood rails 5 pygmy marmosets 

38 chuckwallas 2 cantils 

2 beaded lizards 1 Malayan box turtle 

1 caiman 12 Southwestern fence lizards 


6 Western skinks 


STATUS OF THE COLLECTION 


Class Orders Families Species or Individuals 
subspecies 

Mammals) 228) 62 Jee ee ee 14 Bil 237 666 
Bras eaters See oe eae ae 20 65 340 1, 083 
Remtles= = soho ss. «RAB RO Ree +f 28 199 739 
AOD DIANSS ee oe 2 9 25 105 
Hishesme. sgl mele Te ee 4 9 23 120 
EENTOPOUS= pect one a See ee 3 3 4 78 
Mollisks 24 Soe eee es Behe 1 1 1 30 

ROCA et ee A ee ee 48 166 829 PTET 


In the following lists of mammals and birds, sex is given where 
known; 1.0 indicates one male, 0.1 indicates one female, 1.1 indicates 
one male and one female. A plus sign (+) indicates young animals 
of which the sex is not yet known. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 119 


ANIMALS IN THE COLLECTION ON JUNE 30, 1964 


MAMMALS 
MONOTREMATA 
Family and cominon name Scientific name Number 
Tachyglossidae: 
Echidna, or spiny ant- Tachyglossus aculeatus_________-__----------~ Or 
eater. 
MARSUPIALIA 
Didelphidae: 
Opossum == esse Didelphis marsupialis virginiana____------~-- 1.0 
Central American )Didelpiis) marsupiglis= == ae 1.0 
opossum. 
Phalangeridae: 
Sugar elidersss--=- = IP CLOUT OT CDLCCD See ee aie 
Squirrel glider________. PCCOUTULSE NOTIOLGCNStS =e ew ee alters 
Phascolomidae: 
Haiey-noseds wombat. LQsiorninus, lOtiirons== ses ee ee 2.0 
Mainland wombat_____ OVO CLUS TIT SUL S a ee eee 0.1 
Macropodidae: 
Raivkanearooes 22) = ROTOR OU SIESD a eee aes nears jue ro A ee 2.3 
INSECTIVORA 
Wrinaceidae: 
Huropean hedgehog==-=sHrinaceus. ‘europaeus___—=--2- 3s ee 240 
Soricidae: 
Short-tailed shrew____- BlGning sO CUICCUdG ee ee a eee Le ee al 
Talpidae: 
HMasterm mole 2- === NCULODUSTOUULOICUS= == a= ee ee al 
CHIROPTERA 
Pteropodidae: 
Mivinestoxs sOn Slant. VELCrODIUSS ORG OILL CLG ae ee 10 
fruit bat. 
PRIMATES 
Lemuridae: 
Ring-tailed lemur__--- LCMUr. CULL = seat har Ree eis Se ae ee 152 
BrowillemtUrs ses. a = LeCmUrMUlpuSaa= sae eee ee a ee Le eee 1.0 
Lorisidae: 
Tickell’s slow loris___._ Nycticebus c. tenasserimensis________________ 0.1 
Great calagos— === =e Galagoxcrassicaudatyses = eee abaal 
BaShbabys-sese eens Galago senegalensis zanzibaricus_____________ 2.0 
Common potto______-__ IPCTrOdiCUiCUus DOLLON a one a ee ae yal 
Cebidae: 
Wouroucouli, === = — AOCUS LTAVITO GUS ee oe ee ee 2.0 
hed, wakari= 2022 === CECOIAO RUG CUNGIGES Boe D2 ee eee 0.1 
White-faced saki______ (PUNECCLOE DUE CCU EE See Se 0.1 
Capuchinv= === seen ese CEOWSi CAD UCIT Se ee ee ene ee 3D 
Weeping capuchin_____ CeDUSITOTISCULRREe SB ck rR os ay 1.0 
Squirrel monkey_______ SQAMIU4 _ SCUUTECUSS AEA 2.3+1 
Spider monkey________ Aiteles! GeOTf Oia ee Seen a a Ea 15 
Blgckospider monkeys -Ateles) jilsCiCeps en =a ee ee 1.3+-2 


Woolly monkey_______ EGG OTN OSE is sete Pete 1.2 


120 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Family and common namé 
Callithricidae: 
Pygmy marmoset__---- 
Geoffroy’s marmoset___ 
Cottontop marmoset_-_- 
Hybrid marmoset__--- 
Moustached marmoset_ 
Cercopithecidae: 
Toque, or bonnet ma- 
caque. 
Philippine macaque___- 
Crab-eating macaque__ 
Hybrid macaque__----- 
Rhesus monkey_------ 
Javan macaque_---_~- 
Formosan macaque____ 
Red-faced macaque_--- 
Wanderoo, or lion- 
tailed macaque. 
Barbary ape=———--—-—— 
Moor macaque-_--_-----. 
Crested macaque, or 
Celebes ape. 
Gray-cheeked manga- 
bey. 
Agile mangabey_------ 
Golden-bellied manga- 
bey. 
Red-crowned manga- 
bey. 
Sooty mangabey_----- 
Crested mangabey----- 
Black-crested manga- 


Olivebapoon====_-—-— 
Gelada baboon__------ 
Chacma baboon_------ 
Vervet guenon__------ 
Green guenon__------- 
Grivet guenon (color 
variant). 
Moustached monkey --- 
Diana monkey——-------= 
Roloway monkey------ 
DeBrazza’s monkey_--_~ 
White-nosed guenon_-- 
Allen’s swamp monkey- 
Patas monkey_.------- 
Spectacled, or 
Phayre’s, langur. 
Pangur sssse2e42—25es= 
Crested entellus mon- 
key. 


Scientific name Number 


Cebuelia nygmaces. se eee 
Oecdinomidas spit. ee ee 
Sagquinus \0edipussc 2252 San eee 
Saguinus midas X 8. oedipus_______-_------- 
Sagunus mystecse  eeeeeeeee 


MGCECE. SIN CC re ee a 
Macaca philippinensig_2___ =~ === 222 == 
MOACKCE ITUS2 nL a ae ee eee eee 
M.i. mordax X M. philippinensis 
Macaca mulctia= = eee 
MACOCHHTUS MOTOGD 2 see eee eee 
MQCECEXCUCIOD U8 a ee 
Macaca speciosa. 
Macaca silenus 


Macaca sylvanus 
MGACECUMNOGUTUS== aoe ae eee 
Cynopithecus niger 


Cercocebusyalbigen (== ee 
OCercocebus :agtlie222. 2-2 2 ee ee 
Cercocebus chrysogaster 


CeEncoCcebUus tO QUGTUS= = eee 
Cercocevlls jugs se 
Cercocebus aternnis—— 
OerCOCceOws GtEnT NUS ase ee eee 
Mandritius teucophacus—_ = eee 
Papio.anibis 2 a ee eS ee 
Theropithecue Gelade see 
Papio=COmMatUS== 2 = = eee 
Cercopithecus aethiops 
Cercopithecus acthions==. 
Cercopithecus aethiops 


Cercopithecusicephiu3s eee 
Cercopithecus diana: S23 S26 2a ee ee eee 
Cercopithecus diana roloway____------------- 
Cercopithecus neglectis2= = 
Cercopithecus nictitans___._______--_-_-----_- 
Allenopithecus nigroviridis..—____________---- 
Erythrocebus’: pps. eee eee eee 
Presbylis.pnayret t= a ee 


PrESOUTISMENTCULUS = anes ae a ee ee 
IPRESOULIS (Cs (CTNSUOTU San ae re eee 


= 
iS) 


= 
HNrFORNS 


ion ee 
oOorRFrF OF ON 


ES 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 121 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Pongidae: 
Wihite-handedacibbon== Hylobates) lant = 2S Sees 2 1.0 
Wau-wau gibbon —_---_ Ty LOOULES AN OLO Cae = ee oe ee Osa 
Hybrid gibbon_____-__. Hylotates iar cHylovates spo. 0.4 
Siamang gibbon____--- Symphaltangus syndactytus__—_____________ == LO 
Sumeatranioraneutan=== "PONTO" PUCINGCUS= === ae ee ALA | 
Bornean) Orangutan == POnGOn DYGINACUSHaa ee eee. ese eee 0.1 
Chimpanzee —~___--__-- POTS UT NLS ere ae a ead Ne al a B22 
Lowland gorilla______-_ COTTLORG OF UL aan ie Dee Teel at a 
EDENTATA 
Myrmecophagidae: 
Giant ‘anteater==2=2=-— Mymecophaga tridactyla=—— == = OF 
Tamandua, or collared Tamandua tetradactyla______________________ teat 
anteater. 
Bradypodidae: 
Two-toed sloth________ CROLGEDUSROLA GEE Use ee ee ae 3.90 
Dasypodidae: 
Nine-banded armadillo. Dasypus novemcinctus_______________-_-._-_-_-_.- Dae 
RODENTIA 


Sciuridae: 


Huropeanred squirrel]= Seirus Vulganis= === = ee 8 ee ee eee ee 

Grayesimirrelsalbino= = SCi7408) COTOUINENSIS = =o ee 0.2 

WS SCLC ares. Ol.  SCUiiUS: GUCit aan = eee ne te Se ee 1.0 
Abert’s, squirrel. 

Westernstox squirrel= == SCs nig eh = ee ee eae 1.0 

NSOUGHeErnEOXesqUILTe!= SCH SMNi Gera ose ee a eee 0.1 

Indian palm) squirrel=-- Funambulus palmarum=— se 0.1 

tricolored squirrel] =—— | Calloscvunuseprevostt==2222 eee eee 0.1 

Formosan tree squirrel_ Callosciurus erythraeus________________-____- 252 

Weorord enuneiky,. sOn  Marmotamonda se = ee ee ee ee 
groundhog. 

Hoarnyemarmot- se. = Marmotaecchiv ats = ee ial 

Prairie-dog sos 2 aes CYUNOMYSAUGOUICION 1) Sane ee 24 

Californias (2s 0 und iOitellusmbeecheyi= samen eas Le 
squirrel. 

Washington ground Citellus washingtoni_____.____________________ 1.0 
squirrel. 

Antelope PE OMT, OLE CLULS Wh Sp ee Ne oe ree 1.0 
squirrel. 

Golden-mantled ground Citelius lateralis... 5 ik Ss 
squirrel. 

Round-tailed ground Citellus tereticaudus_________________________ 1.0 
squirrel. 

Eastern chipmunk____- ROTNGS SUVS eee oe 5 eee 12 

Eastern chipmunk, al- Tamias striatus___________.____.___.____-_____. iO 
bino. 

Yellow pine chipmunk. Hutamias amoenus_________--___-___--_____- Oxsl 

Siebold’s chipmunk____ Hutamias sibericus_.___.____________.___---___- a eal 

Eastern flying squirrel. Glaucomys volans__.________-_____-______-____ ee, 

Heteromyidae: 


KAN 2SaTOOMrA be DUOC ONY SES) eee ace ete ee 3.0 


122 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Castoridae: 
) Borel (=) gua een ee earn Castor canadensis ie er porns 3 
Pedetidae: 
Cape jumping hare__-_-. iPedetéesi capensis sa cies Se eee Des 
Cricetidae : 
Wihite-footed mouse-_- 2 Peromyscus sphere a eee eee eee 1.4 
Hast African omaned) —Lophiomys vbeanrse eee eee ee raat) 
rat. 
Fat-tailed gerbil_____-_- PAChYULOMYSMCUpT as ae eee 202 
Muridae: 
Haypransspinyemouse= A COMUS ICONRITIN US ee ate 
Heyptian Spiny mouse= Acomys dimidiaius-_— 3 eee fees 
Negev spiny mouse-_-_-_-. A COTIUT Gi SST teh ae ee Nora gn 2 
Giant forest rat__-____. Cricetomys gambianus ssp__-___ = 1.0 
Slender-tailed. cloud: -PRicecomys. Cuming 222 ee 10 
rat. 
Gliridae: 
Garden dormouse_-_--- HUCTINYS: QUCT CURLS ee eee es 0.1 
Hystricidae: 
Malay porcupine_____-. AlCON TON AUTO CRYUUT a= eee 1.0 
African porcupine__--_ LAY SETUD CTUS COE Pe ae ee 2.4 
Brush-tailed poreu- Atherurus splle2 eee al 
pine. 
Palawan porcupine_--- Thecurus pumilusel22 =e ees eee se ee nat 
Caviidae: 
Patagonian cavy—_----. Dolichotis -patagoniny a ee S12 
Dasyproctidae: 
Hairy-rumped agouti__. Dasyprocta prymnolopha______-------------- PSU) 
Agouti, dark phase____ Dasyprocta prymnolopha___----------------- eek: 
Acouchy=2- 2383s e222 = Myoprocia acouchy== == eee eee 1.0 
Chinchillidae: 
Mountain viscacha____. Lagidium isp222 5-282 ee ee eee 0.1 
©hinchilla a eee Chinchilla chinchila ee Die 
Hydrochoeridae: 
Capy bara ==2s 2-25-02 Hydrochoerus hydrochoerus__---------------- Om 
CARNIVORA 
Canidae: 
DIN SO see Le Canis familaris dingo. = eee To. 
Coyoten ase eee COMIS ALOT ONSE Ss See 2 a eee en 0.1 
Common jackal______-_- CONTSNAUT CUS a ee EL ee ee alt 
Timber wolt-------—-—- CORASTUD WS TOUS oe ee 1.4 
Texas red wolfs-2---+ CONS NAD CTE AUTUS es ee ee Ost 
enn Ge 228s re TRCNILC CUS a 2 CT ree eee ee ee es Leh: 
GTA sEO Rsk as 2s Urocyon cinereoargenteus. = - 2 ee ee ee 12, 
1257505 Dot 0's, ea ek ad NR eset VLD CST AUT a ee eee ee 1.0 
Raccoon dog__..-_-__-. Nyctereutes procyonoides________-_-_____-_—- 0.1 
Short-eared dog_______ Atélocynws emicrotlig ma eee eee Os! 
Cape hunting dog_____- TA COON DiC See ne ne eee Bee vk 
Ursidae: 
Spectacled bear_______. Tremarcros: OFnaisa a ee eee 1350; 
Himalayan bear_______ Selenarctossthibetanus ee eee ee eee 0.1 


Japanese black bear___ Selenarctos thibetanus japonicus___--_-------- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 123 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Ursidae—Continued 
Korean bear®-2 2S Selenarctos thibetanus ussuricus_____________ liga 
Huropean rowny Dear=—. UGSUsHanCtOsase ae eee eee eee ee EEL eh ial 
Tranian, brown: bear-—= Ursus -arctos ‘syriacus= =. - =e ieak 
Griznziys DCATo 2222 See OT sus hOorrivii see 2 ee es ee et Od ae ileal 
Kodiak bear==2=-=22 == Unsus mid dendor ie ae ee 1.0 
Black pears—<22 25.22 LUMO CLOSET CTACON IS =e eee ee ee iat 
Polarobearecs 2222 ee: TRAUGNCLOS! MLOPTVIINIS ea ee ree Be i 
Ey brid sbear= = saan Thalarctos maritimus X Ursus middendorffi____ 2.1 
Malayan sun bear____- ECU CEO S me TUL UCL) CL 1L 10S eer ee 0. 2 
Slothipears2222. sae MelUrSUSFUTs INU SB = a2 Be eee Ae ibs al 
Procyonidae: 
Cacomisties= == == sae BASSORUSCUS | OSULUUS Ret === = ae eee eee Zep, Be 
Va CCOON Sa es ae ET OCYON LOL OT Se ee ee ere Ree RATE ee heres 
Raccoon, albino_----~- TAOCY OVS ALOT OR Hanne ase ti ee ACES bal 
Raccoons packs phase=— LrOCyONM mlLOlOT == ree ee = ene ee eee ee 1.0 
Coatimundi---= NGSUON GSU ae sei mR pene moss x te eee Ln eegaAD eee a ee, 
Peruvian coatimundi___ Nasua nasua dorsalis__________---_=__ = dig al 
ESTA OU a se ass as oS A OLOSMILLUM Semen ore See ean eae eee PEER een meee ee re ve, 
Oling osteo ere Yee, ES OSSOTUCY ONG LO0) ea. ee ees ene ileal 
Mustelidae: 
Visiter ee epee, IVECO LCS | UNL CTL COM Un teres ee eae ee 0.1 
Mish ene a a MGT LESED CHONG) aa oe ie Sy ee ee 0.1 
Yellow-throated mar- Martes flavigula henrici__________.__________ 0.2 
ten. 
British Guiana tayra_. Hira barbara poliocephala___________________ algae 
Gurisonee ss =e eee Galetis alimondt= == ee ee ee ik@ 
Oi ye see ace een LCTONU Se SURUCUU Oe aes sara tee ety eed 1.0 
WOLVeTINGs ==. ease ee GQULG OULOSIUS CLS ee ee er ee i 0.1 
1 S21) 1S) | seek dD ge MCUIVOTEXCODCNSIS == ome 2 = ae ane Fe 1.0 
Eurasian badger______- WMCLES INC LE Sie arene ek wee Lee eee ee AES 0.1 
American badger__---- RODICeG) MOH See oe Me Siw ee baa 1.0 
Golden-bellied ferret- Melogale moschata subaurantiaca____________ aD, 
badger. 
Common skunk__-----~ Mepnitis mepnitish Wee ee, oe 0.1 
IVerHeOLLer ==) aoe EULE OR CONOLENSTS = eeu Mele SU he ROR I TE 20 
Viverridae: 
GON tee ya UE ao Genetta genetta neumanni_____-__ DA 5 
Formosan spotted civet. Viverricula indica. ion | 
insane ets re ee ETLOWO MOT UIUS ON Oi ea ae See (eal 
Africans palm, Ciyet= = VOndinid, OtNOldt d= =.= 2 ee ee ee eel 
Formosan masked civet. Paguma larvata taivana____________________-_ 1.0 
Binturong see AG CULGLUS OLIVE LT O90 mss ne eee ee ee eee 1.0 
AErICHne waler Clvet_o-Attlan PQluainOsus = ee ee ee 1.442 
African banded mon- Mungos mungo grisonar_____________________ ital 
goose. 
Cusimanses2 OnOSSORCHALSHL US CULL S ee 0.1 
White-tailed mongoose. [chneumia albicauda_________-_-_-_-_-___ 1.0 
iBlack-footed smongoose= BdCOGGl6 Spea sna ane ee ee ee ial 
Hyaenidae: 


Striped hyena__.__.... TELIA ONC == erates aga ae el ee es ilsal 


124 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Family and common name Scientific name 

Felidae: 
BobtCate sa eee Tayjn@ PUPU S22 = 3. ose ee ee a 
Canadian Jynx—-=——-—— Tnyn@. canddensis..- === = ee ee 
dangle catsi2=--=2- = Felts .cha@uss 22222. = te ee 
iPallas’s' cato22--=—-—=— Reus -manudles- = ee ee es eee Bas SS 
Servals 22. 322322 INClis: Sen0Gl 22 as ee eee 
Har hast forest cat—__- Helis eupiiluna = ee eee 
leopard ‘cat-2==—- = Helis wvengalensiss-—- 2 a ee 
Golden: .cats222-22-" = Pelis hGULGL OL oe se ee es 
Ocelote 22s Helis Ponda se2 een wae he eee eee 
Jacuarondie- ee HEUSey AG OUGTOUNCI = eee ee ee eee 
Ruma eee MEMS CONCOLOR a2 ae ee eee eee 
meonpard ===> <=220 es. Panthera pardus=2 eee 
Black leopard_-------- POntherd: Per duse === 2 er ee eee eee 
WiQh sso see Panthera: le0 2222 ee ee eee 
Bengal tigers sos — Panthera tigniss222 == ea ee 
Wihite Bengal tiger===— POntvend (iG its ae 
Upc) a Panther@ .OneG2. 25 So ee ee ee 
Clouded leopard____--- INeOTEls “nNevUulosd=a2 222 ee eee 
Snow leopard._____-.- NCD CIN CL ae eee ee ee 
Cheetahs 2025 22s S25 Acinonya. juvate2-.-2225- eeaeee 

PINNIPEDIA 

Otariidae: 
California sea-lion__--~- Zalopnus Caupornian soe eee 
Patagonian sea-lion____ Otaria flavescens___-----~---~--~-~--------- 

Phocidae: 
Harbor seal==—=—— = Phoca vituling 2 eee ee eee 

TUBULIDENTATA 

Orycteropodidae: 

WAT Vatke ss eee Orjctenopus after ee 
PROBOSCIDEA 

Elephantidae: 
African elephant___--- LOCOdontG (Africana 2— == ne 
Forest elephant-__---- Locodonta cyclotts==-—- eee 
Indian elephant-__~--- LEDS GCS ee 

HYRACOIDEA 

Procaviidae: 

Rock hyraxs=———- == Procavias capensis... —- eee 
PERISSODACTYLA 

Equidae: 
Mongolian wild horse-_ Equus przewalskii__---------------------- 
Grevy'szebrajo---=-= Quis -Gretyt a ee eee 
Grant's) zebras=-22=2-= ENG UALS OUCH CU a ee 
Burro, or donkey__---- EG UALS| (ASIN Gs ee eee 

Tapiridae: 
Brazilian tapir-—---=—— TO DUALS FLCUTESUTAS 

Rhinocerotidae : 
Indian one-horned Rhinoceros wnicornis_.--=——------ == -=— == 


rhinoceros. 


285 Ay gtk 


= 
KROOOHNWNHF REP RHHFPORPNORNEH 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 125 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Rhinocerotidae—Continued 
Atricane DLacks Enino0G=) O2CEros® sUlCOnNiss nn ee ee ital 
eros. 
Whiter. son = square-) Ceratotheriwm sunum== == i 
lipped, rhinoceros. 
ARTIODACTYLA 
Tayassuidae: 
Collared peccary_----~- ROYUQGSSU TOI OCs eee a ee ee 6.6 
Hippopotamidae: 
Hippopotamus_-_-----~-- TAppoporamus, GMphi0iws=2 eee BALAI 
Pygmy hippopotamus_.. Choeropsis liberiensis______--_______-___--___ 3.5 
Camelidae: 
Aral annesin els Camelis\dnomedanitsn= 2222 eee 1.0 
Bactrian camel_______- OE OUNIS). DOGO TO a a SS 0.1 
AA Qirny eee ee ee A eh Pt ae, OC IUGENOUGIT ae an ee ee ee ee 3. 4 
GUuanacoweeees tes Deve EON OO UPN GAG UC TULC OC tere ee 10 
PAN CRs ea at et eee YOR OOL GANTT GOK a Das en Pe Uae ee ee Ne ils al 
Cervidae: 
White fallow deer___-_-. EP OTU Ce CTU SS Fae eae ee i ee OL ei P4383 
ISS CRON ee ee ee ANDI SB UE US ee a se a er PC ap en 4,2 
Redtd Ceres ee ee Cervus claphusa. 22s ee ae ee ig 5) 
Sikaydeers a2 = 2-22 Cenviuise nip pon h= See Ee ea tae iY 
Pére David’s deer____-. FLOPS AOUACLQNUS eee eee 1.0 
White-tailed, or Vir- Odocoileus virginianus__—__—____________-___~ 0. 2 
ginia, deer. 
AmMericanie)l Kees = =e CERvUusiCOnNGdensisasee eae ee eee *1.0 
Horest caripoue-— 2 —. IGOTUGAT CT CONU0 Oar a ee eee ee eee 0.1 
eing@ecran aes RONGUCIO CON ONOU Se eet a Dee eee 3.9 
Hybrid reindeer_______ Rangifer tarandus < R. caribou______--§ --_____ Orr 
Giraffidae: 
Masaivciraii@s = 22.2 = Gara Ga tip pelskiv chinese eee 12) 
Bovidae: 
Sitatungae. 2 eee TAG CLLDIUUSES DCIGH rere ee ee ee 1.0 
INNO) 2 Tee A ee PN DOT: AUG RAS SGD et it, Al 
OY ice een ees, IP OCDRAUGMS RO TAUTUNUIL CIS ae ee eee 1153 
Goats See ee ee EVO OSU AO CUT US ae es EA eee oe ee *2.0 
Canemputtaloe=- =]. SUNCEnUS COT Crt ee eee een epetse ae 1.4 
American bison______~_- I BIOENG (SRM ENO, RA A 8 a et Ay BR Nr ged cp a 1.0 
IBTINnGled) ents = Connochactes tauninuse= ee eee 1.4 
Maxwell’s duiker_____ SCCDROLODIUSmING DICE eee i5(0) 
Dorcas gazelle________- GAZELLE COT. CO See es ee eee eee 3.5 
Saiga antelope________. SGU CREE T ACC et eee pen des Coe eee *0. 1 
Rocky Mountain goat__ Oreamnos americanus________-----_--_-_____ 0.1 
Himalayan tahr_______ Hemitragus jemiahicuse 2-2 oe 0.1 
APTI CANE DY SUV Ee OR bam ae ODOT IT CUS eee ae eee 4,1 
I) Wye) ee Mh pellicle Bie pace COpTartb ea =e eae Sa es eh ee 1.0 
Aoudad, or Barbary Ammotragus lervia=_— ee a al 
sheep. 
Dallisheepins. see aas OVS Ieee ee een ae ee Se ee eee *0,1 
Big-horn sheep_______-. OUISa CONGECNSIG aa ee eee eee aha 


*On deposit at another zoo or sanctuary. 


126 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


BIRDS 
SPHENISCIFORMES 
Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Spheniscidae: 
Kaine? pengwuin=2s22 ses ARtCNOCYTES DALAGOINCO eee *3 
Adélie penguin____-~-~ PY TOSCCUS COC Ce ee ee ee ee * i 
STRUTHIONIFORMES 
Struthionidae: 
OSirichiyes = 2s =a Struthio camels. 2 ee eee 1.0 
RHEIFORMES 
Rheidae: 
heave 0 S28 td Se ENCO OMCTICONG = 2% et eae a ee ee 1.0 
CASUARIIFORMES 
Casuariidae: 
Double-wattled casso- Casuarius bicarunculatus____________________ aah 
wary. 
Dromiceidae: 
FTV Ug a ee ee Dromiceius novaehotlandiae______- en 
TINAMIFORMES 
Tinamidae: 
Pileated tinamou_____- Crypturellus sowi panamensis__________--____ il 
PROCELLARIIFORMES 
Diomedeidae: 
Black-footed albatross= Diomedew monipess-- == ee eee 1.0 
PELECANIFORMES 
Pelecanidae: 
Rose-colored pelican... Pelecanus onocrotalus_________-______-______ 2.2, 
White pelican=-=s=———— PELCCONUS CTYUCRTOLNUNCH OSS = ee 2 
Brown pelican____-~-- IPCle CONUS OCCICENIONS 2a eee i 
Dalmatian pelican_____ (PCTECONUS: <CTAS DUS Saree nee ee ee 2 
Phalacrocoracidae: 
Double-crested cormo- Phalacrocorax auritus aurituws_______-__------ 3 
rant. 
European cormorant... Phalacrocorag carbo_______--_ = === 6 
CICONIIFORMES 
Ardeidae: 
American egret____--_- Dichromanassa rufescens rufescens_____-__--_- Ff 
Eastern green heron... Butorides virescens_.__________--___-________ 2 
Louisiana heron____--~ AVOUT ONUSSA TTI COLOR SE 2 a ee ee 1 
Black-crowned night Nycticoraw nycticorar_______.._-____________ ial 
heron. 
American bittern__-~-- IBOCOULUS) LONG INOSUS ee ee eee 1 
Micer Dittenm==----s-s== TAGrisOma UNCOUlUM 2 See an ee eee 1 
Balaenicipitidae: 
Shoebillh 22-2 ee IBQNLCNICEDS: C0» =e ee ee 0.1 
Ciconiidae: 
American wood ibis-__.. Wycteria: americana__=- = 2 
Huropean white stork... Oicoma ciconmia______________________________ 2 
White-bellied stork____ Sphenorhynchus abdimia___-_-_--~------------ 2 
Black-necked stork__.. Xenorhynchus asiaticws__.__-.----------_------. 2 
Painted stork—_—--=-—-— Tbis leucocepnalis.. 322 eae eee eee 2 


*On deposit at another zoo or sanctuary 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 127 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Threskiornithidae: 
WWai ew Diss sees GAG Cb ee eR hE el dee 1 
Scanletpibis= = a= GUE OT OCT ae een 2 
Black-faced ibis_______ TMCPUSTAGUS NLC LOMO DUR es 2 oe ee Ee 1 
Black-headed ibis______ Threskiornis melanocephala________-_.-_--_ il 
Eastern glossy ibis____ Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus_._.___________ 1 
Phoenicopteridae: 
Chilean flamingo______ Phoentconterusvenilensisas = 2 ee 1 
Cuban flamingo_______- PRoenicoplerwsisw0en ss == 8 ee ee Bs 1 
Old World flamingo___. Phoenicopterus antiquorum______.___________ al 
ANSERIFORMES 
Anhimidae: 
Crested screamer______ Chana torquatG 22 sae ee ee eee 5 
Anatidae: 
Coscoroba swan______-. COSCOTO0G .GOSCOT ODE Rune ae eee 72, Ps 
Mubeys wane ses ae CYONUS CLOTS Sasa 2 Cee en ee Se eee fil! 
Black-necked swan____- CYONUSEMCLANOCOnID Ws 2 2 eee ee 2 
Whooper swan________. QUOT CU QNUSH as ae Cee ee ee eae 1.2 
Trumpeter swan_______ Olonm0UCCINGt OTe ae ial 
Black iS wanes 2. Chenopisiatratass a Se ee a ae 
Hgyptian goose________ AlOPOCGHEN CEGUDUIOCUS= = 3 ee ee 4 
Wihtie-trontedssOose == ANnscimraluti7 ONS2 eee ns 2 ee Pee 3 
Indian bar-headed ARSCR ANOLGUS Bees ee ee ee ee 3.2 
goose. 
Emperor goose________. ANSEF CONAGICUSSED See) ee FB onl Bale 2 
IBIMClSOOSCe eee ee ANS Cr CAETCULESCENS2 2 wenn. Bese Se 2 eee 5 
Lesser snow goose___-- Anser caerulescens caeruiescens____- —_-.______ 2 
Greater snow goose____ Anser caerulescens atlanticus______- = 2, lla gh oe eet 5 
IROSSISS2OOSCa= === ANS CIT OSSTRE I a ah So ee eR, el oe a 
Nene, or Hawaiian Brantaxsanadvicensisa = ak. 3 eS Ue 2.0 
goose. 
Red-breasted goose____. BrOntGAriipiGOlis=. eee Rl ee Ree eee 2a2) 
Canada goose_________. EROUMLOM CONGUCN SI See wee ee ee ee 22 
Canada goose X Les- Branta canadensis X Anser caerulescens_____~ al 
ser snow goose, hy- 
brid. 
lesser Canada goose__. Branta, canadensis. 2-3-2 ee ee 4 
Giant Canada goose___. Branta canadensis marvima______----.-~------ 4.6 
Cackling goose________. Brante SCOnNQdensige sates = 2 Ea ee Teal 
White-cheeked goose__. Branta canadensis-_-.--—-_-____+ === 4_ see 2 
Fulvous tree duck _____. DeEndrocyonaw0t Colores = eee ee Ot 
Wiocod duck) 8s AGD: SNONS CER eS en el hl, $0 
Mandarin duck________ AWD ESO OLERI CULE per tes ae eee Es 3.2 
IPintaniduckwes ene ALINE Sim CU; tae ee tee re ae ae ak a 
Green-winged teal_____ ANUS (Che CC mate 2 eae NS ee ae. 1.0 
Gadiwallee estas ANUSISTR ED Cn ne ee en Sea 5 ee ap il 
European widgeon_____ PADS CTCL TIC eae SRE te Bp ea ET 2.0 
Spot-billed duck_______ ARTS) OCCLLOTRYUNCGRG = eee ee ee 3:2 
Mallard duck ===. ANUS DIGEYUTRYNCHOSi oes! = oa TO 60 
Black: ducks. s== 5222. ANGST UOTED ES eee Ne IS | eee ee 6. 2 
Greater scaup Guck2 2 Ayinhy a Maria: =a ee 5.0 


Lesser scaup duck____-. ATR OCU TN Ske se 2 ei ee ee 6.3 


128 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Anatidae—Continued 
Redhead===2-—s4 3 Agythya:americane=—2- = ee 1.0 
Ring-necked duck_----~- Aythya: collarigles Sess eee ee ee Se Ta) 
Canvasback duck_-___- — Agthya>oalisinerias loses 2 ee eee 0 
Indian cotton teal____-. Nettapus coromandehanus2—222-22 0.1 
Rosy-billed pochard_-__ Metopiana peposaca________-_--__----~-___-~- Deal: 
American goldeneye_--- Bucephala clangula_______-____-----_~--_-~- 0.1 
iBaldpatere====-225-—=— Mareca, americana 22s = eee 5.0 
Hooded merganser-_-_-_-- Lopnodytes cuca eee 0) 
Combi duck]s222.2 aa Serkidiornis melanotoss= = a ee 4.2 
Ruddy shelduck__-~-~_ CASAC TERRUgined== ===. ee eee 3.3 
FALCONIFORMES 
Cathartidae: 
Andean condor_____-~- Valturgrypnis se See eee eee eee 1.0 
Kansiyulburesss=2————— Sarcorampnus papel. ee eee alt 
Sagittariidae: 
Secretarybird ~.-_----- ISHARES. SEA WEL OUCI TI ils at 
Accipitridae: 
Hooded vulture_____-- INCCTOSUTLESMANLOTULCILUS mee eer eee 1 
Griffon vulture__------ Gaps fulvuss 2a ee eee ea eee il 
Riippell’s vulture_____- Gay psnunp elites See ee ae ee ee i 
Red-winged hawk-_-_--- FLEtCrOSpiZiGs) MerigiOnadlissas =e ee il 
Red-tailed hawk__----- BuUuteO JQMaCensisas esas ss eee ee 2 
Swainson’s hawk__---- BULL CO\ PSU GUUS ONT a eee ee ee il 
Red-shoulderedshawk= sy ULeCOm Liem til sea ae ee ee ik 
Manduyt’s hawk eagle. Spizaetus ornatus_-___-_____----___--__-____- 1 
Black-erested) eagles=—= -Lovnaetus oceipitans ee al 
Goldenveavle2=-2 === Aquila ChrYSact0s= se ee eee ee 5 
Imperial eagle_____---_- Aquila 2eiaca= a2 ee ee 2 
W hite-breasted sea Haliaeetus leucogaster_—__—__—-==_ == it 
eagle. 
Pallas’s eagle__.__.-..- TROUGECCTUS LEU COTY DIU See ee et 1 
IBaldeaglezls- 32222222 HQAnGeetus lCUCOCEDNAUIS=e == ee 8 
Bateleur eagle___---~- Rerathopuis Ccaudatus = eee a 
hammergeiers2 22 =—- Gypactus’ barlatuse = 2s eee eee 1 
Falconidae: 
Sparrow hawk_------- Paleo sparventites.s 2222. ee ee 2 
Dick hawke sas Falco peregrinus anatum___-—-_-—__ 1 
Red-footed falcon____- PAICO: DCSPertinuss see ee ee ree 1 
Feilden’s faleonet______ NiCONLET OD CINCRCICEN Saree ae ee 1 
Morestifalcon=—--— === MIG CR OSTUTNSCINULONG ILS as i 
ATICUDON-S CAarlcaTra-—-— 01 0OLWS. ChETUC CY ee 2 
White-throated cara- Phalcoboenus albogularis_____________-__--_~- 1 
cara. 
GALLIFORMES 
Megapodiidae: 
Brush turkey. = 22 Ailectire lathomiz2 = ee ee eee 1.0 
Cracidae: 
Wattled curassow_-_-_- CTGD! GlODUIOSG2 5 a= ee ee ee ual 
White-headed piping Pipile cumanemsis___.____._-__-_----_.------ 1.0 
guan. 


Wattled guan_____~_.- Pintle ps 225 Le eee eee 0.1 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 129 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Cracidae—Continued 
Gambel’s quail________ LOL OY O OEE TE CTD Wh spn a 1.0 
Valleyiqualla==ss2e22s= Lophortyz californica vallicola_._._.__._________ 2 
IREVGO CUT RN ee RAT yA a eee ea oe eT Yo ial 
Argus pheasant_______ AGUS TTS oe LT GUS eee een ee ee ee tO 1.0 
Golden pheasant_______ CREUSOLOD USE DICT Sa ane eae ee ee 0. 2 
Black-backed kaleege Gennaeus melanonotus_______________________ i1,al 
pheasant. 
Silver pheasant_______ Gennaeus nycthemerus2 = ee 1.0 
Ring-necked pheasant_. Phasianus colchicus_._._._____.___.______________ il, 
Ring-necked pheasant, Phasianus colchicus_._________._______________ Out 
albino. 
Ring-necked pheasant Phasianus colchicus X Phasianus versicolor._£ 1.0 
xX Green pheasant, 
hybrid. 
Bhutan, or gray pea- Polyplectron bicalcaratum___________________ A 
cock-pheasant. 
Palawan pheasant____- Polyplectron chinquis__._________-=.-----22-2 a 
PeatO Wee O00) ChISLO CUS t= Serene te eee 3.3 
Red junglefowl________ COUSCOUS oe Ae ae a 1.0 
Chukar partridge______ AVCCLOTAS! OT WCCO. Beek Tee Aa A eles 1 
Painted partridge_____ Prancotinua pichuss22sscck 52s seas | aie i 
Gray partridge________ Francolinus pondicerianus___________________ ia 
Black partridge_______ Melanoner dim nigra== 22 220s Se ae es 3. 4 
Numididae: 
Vulturine guineafowl__ Acryllium vulturinum____..__________________ 1 
GRUIFORMES 
Gruidae: 
Siberian crane________ Grus: leucogeranus. =.) 2s eee ee 1.0 
European crane_______ GAGES OTS SES CN a eh Uae aes 2 
Sarusicranens aaa GUS ONTGONC Sem ee ae Ae Se eae ne 1 
Demoiselle crane_____- ARNT ODOLCS VAT OO Langan as ae be Se ee eS 4 
African crowned crane. Balearica pavonina__________________________ 5 
Rallidae: 
Cayenne woods rails 22 Aramides Cajancd 222 eee ee a 
Purple gallinule_______ Porphyrula  martinica. 2 2 1 
Indian moorhen_______ Gallina ChlGrOp tts ee 9 
Eurypygidae: 
Sunebitterne] 22 BUPYDYOO SWCUGS2 22 os ao Behe eee ee eee 1 
Cariamidae: 
Cariama, or seriama_. Cariama cristata_._.__.__._._._.____.____._..__ 1 
Otididae: 
Koribustarda 22 222.2= BU pOGOV 8 arises. eek re ee eT Leen 2.0 
Senegal bustard_______ Hupodotis’ seneqgalensige—— ee 1.0 
CHARADRIIFORMES 
Jacanidae: 
Common jacana_______ SOCCUUMSD IN OSG ste ae ert eee ae eer ee Ne 7 
Pheasant-tailed jacana. Hydrophasianus chirurgus_______--__-________ 2 
Charadriidae: 
AUStEAMIAN DAMM ed) “LORier tiCOlone en ee ee 2 
plover. 


Gray plover 2-22-22 ACU CLOSES OAL LE OTOL = eee 1 


130 


Family and common name 
Charadriidae—Continued 
European lapwing_---- 
South American lap- 
wing. 
Crocodile bird#=—2=—=== 
Recurvirostridae: 
Black-necked stilt----~ 
Laridae: 
Ring-billed gull_--_--_- 
manchineg culls ee 
erring joule 2 eee 
Great black-backed 
gull. 
Silvers eullo= = 2 


Columbidae: 
High-flying 
pigeon. 
Black-billed pigeon_--~ 
Triangular spotted 

pigeon. 
Imperial green pigeon_-_ 
Orange-breasted green 
pigeon. 
Crowned pigeon___---~- 
Blue ground doyve_____- 
Ruddy ground dove___-_ 
Indian emerald- 
winged tree dove. 
Diamond | | Govess=ss—— 
Plain-breasted ground 
dove. 
Groundudovess. 22 22— 
Ring-necked dove____-- 
Blue-headed ring dove 
White-winged dove___- 
Mourning dove__-___-- 


Budapest 


Psittacidae: 

Keainarroteee ose 

Banksian cockatoo___-~- 

White cockatoo________ 

Solomon Islands cock- 
atoo. 

Sulphur-crested cock- 
atoo. 

Bare-eyed cockatoo____ 

Great red-crested cock- 
atoo. 

Leadbeater’s cockatoo- 

Wockartielase= oe ae) 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Scientific name Number 
Vanelius .vanceliuse 2 ee ee = 
Belonopterus cayennensis=-—-.._____ =... 3 
PHDIONUS CEOYDLIUS == ee ee a 
HUmantopussMmeriConys= == ee eee al 
TDiGTUS. CELA OREN SIGE ates pene ee ee 3 
TGOTAUS | ETA COULD So: 22 ee Oa eee ee eee ey LS 3 
TiGUU8 ONG CNEGHUS 2 2 ee 1 
EGU UU OTUNUG ee a ene Ss 1 
Haus novachotandiae. =] SS eee 5 

COLUMBIFORMES 
Columba. Uivida2o2 22 = eee 1 
Coltumbaxnignrostiis SS 1 
COU Das GUC EE Se ee re eee 2 
Duculandeneg= sh eee eee 2 
Rreron bic incl (a Se ee eee 2 
GOURG SU CLON AG a ee ed 1 
Oleravis’ pretiosa. tet Ee bee een eeee 2 
Chacmenecngariipennis=—— == ee il 
Chalcopnans, indicas = eee 3 
Geonelia: \CunetiG-==. =a ee eee 1 
COVINDAG ALN A UE ee ee ee 2 
Coltumbigatling. passeninads—-—- === ‘il 
SULEDLODEIG eCCO CLO ne ae ee ee ee 3 
Streptopelia tranquebarica___________________ 2 
Li ONOACG RO STGLIC Oe ee eC eee alt 
LCR GLCUE Oa DUCCT OUT Ce ee 2 

PSITTACIFORMES 
Neston NOTAOli geet e ve See ee ee eee 1 
Calyptorhynchus magnificus_________------_-- 1.0 
KGKAtO eC). (AUC 0 2s eee eee ee ee al 
TGKAtOEH#QAUCTODS et Se a ee Ae +] 
EiQhOtOC QO QUCTAL sao ee ee er ee en ee 2 
KaQkatoe Sanguine ee ee eee 1 
ISGEGLOG » MOTMLCCON SIS = eee == eee eee il 
Kakatoe leadbeatents 222 See eee 5 
NUMPNICUS: NOUCKCICN Sas = ee ee ere il 


*On deposit at another zoo or sanctuary. 


Family and common name 
Psittacidae—Continued 


Yellow-and-blue 
caw. 


Red-and-blue macaw___ Ara chloroptera 
Red - blue - and-yellow 


macaw. 


Illiger’s macaw ___---- 
con- 


Brown-throated 
ure, 


Petz’s parakeet______~ 
Rusty-cheeked parrot__ 
Tovir parakeet... ==). 
Yellow-naped parrot__- 
Blue-fronted parrot ___ 
Double yellow-headed 


parrot. 


Black-headed, or Nan- 


day, parrot. 


Lineolated parakeet__- 
White-winged para- 


keet. 


African gray parrot___ 


Red-sided eclectus 


Greater ring-necked. 


parakeet. 


Rose-breasted para- 


keet. 


Moustached parakeet__ 
Lesser ring-necked 


parakeet. 


Blossom-headed para- 


keet. 
Malabar parakeet 


Quaker parakeet______ 
Grass parakeet________ 
Red-faced lovebird____ 
Rosy-faced lovebird____ 
Masked lovebird_______ 
Black-headed  caique, 

or seven-color parrot. 
Yellow-thighed caique_ 


Musophagidae: 


White-bellied go-away 


bird. 


White-cheeked turaco__ 
Purple-crested turaco__ 


Cuculidae: 


Red-winged crested 


cuckoo. 


766-746—65 


ma- 


10 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


Scientific name 


A TOR CUTOUT Cee ee 


AON INO CO Oe ee 


ATES OT ACHING aaa sen eee ee ee 
Conurus aeruginosus___=_________ 


Aratinga canicularison 22 = 
ALUUNOU DET UNG ia ee 
EROCOGCTUS: | ILO UL ATU Ga ee ee 
AMAZONG  QULODALNGtE 2 = one oe 
LNT TERUG! SOC pa 
AUC Z ONG ONO Taare ee es ea 


ICA OIA TIOIS TO LTNCI AT a 


Bolborhynchus lineolatus__________ 
Brotogeris versicolorus____________ 


IP SULA CUSL CTT ACUS =e eee 
TI CLC CLUS MN CCLONOLES a ane 
PSiLLaCUlLaNCUDULTIG nee 


Psitiacula alesandri ee 


EASULLO CULE TO SCICLE =a eee 
Psittacia kramer. 


Psittacula cynocephala__.__________ 


Psittacula columboides__.________- 
Maynopsitta  MOnacn@ 2 ae 
Melopsittacus undulatus__.________ 
Agapornis pullaria ssp_____-__~__- 
AGADOnNNIS TOSCICOllise 2k Seely 
AQGONOrnis Personagtaeeavl ll los 
Pionites melanocephala____________ 


Pionites leucogaster 2 es 


CUCULIFORMES 


Onimien= (Cucogasiere. = ae 


Tauraco leucotis leucotis__________ 
Gallirix porphyreolophus__________ 


Eudynamys scolopacea____________ 
Geococcyx californianus __..-______ 
Clamator coromandus_____________ 


131 


Number 


NED H HH 


WNRrFNrR Oo 


jo 


rob 


132 


Family and common name 

Tytonidae: 
Barn owl 

Strigidae: 
Screech owl 
Spectacled owl_------- 
Malay fishing owl_---- 
Snow yO Wiles =e 
Barred owl 
Nepal brown wood owl_ 


Alcedinidae: 
Kookaburra 
White-breasted 

fisher. 

Coraciidae: 
Lilac-breasted roller___ 
Indianiroller=-22=— = 

Bucerotidae: 
Concave-casqued 

hornbill. 
Piedshornbills = 
Lesser pied hornbill___ 


king- 


Abyssinian ground 
hornbill. 

Leadbeater’s ground 
hornbill. 


Wreathed hornbill____-_ 

Gray, hornbllesse2=2—= 

Crowned hornbill__-___ 

Yellow-billed hornbill__ 

Great black-casqued 
hornbill. 


Capitonidae: 
Asiatie great barbet__- 
Blue-throated barbet —- 
Streaked barbet__-_-~~ 

Ramphastidae: 
Keel-billed toucan_.-__ 
Sulphur-and-white- 

breasted toucan. 

Curly-crested toucanet_ 
Razor-billed toucanet__ 

Picidae: 
Flicker 


Tyrannidae: 
Kiskadee flycatcher___- 
Eastern kingbird__-_-_ 
Alaudidae: 
Homedgiank=oo =a eee 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


STRIGIFORMES 


Scientific name Number 
TYCO. OURO sae ee eee al 
OPUS WAS10 ee St A ER ee eee 2 ee 2 
PULSGEFAD DCTS DUCULGE Oe a ee 2 
TE CEUD ANCE LUD Sarna TE a ee 1 
ING CLEG ni ClCne). Sn ee eee 4 
SUG (0aTi C= ee ee ee eee eee 5 
Strix leptogrammica newarensis_______-__---- 1 

CORACIIFORMES 
TVG CELO 1G OS a a ge ee ee we 12 
LOUCT ON RSTIU TCT S VS ae a ee 2 
OF CUCS COAL Ce ee 2 
COTACLUSTOCNORQICRSIS = eee ee 2 
IBUCETO8 (OLCOTNIS 22 eee eee 2 
Anthracoceros malabarniGus. 22-2 4 
ANURTACOCEROSECOLONQULS =e ee ee 2 
BUCOLUUSICOUSSUNACU Sa eee ee 2 
BU COLUUSPLCRUU COLT ae eee at eee 1.0 
EUUUUAG CT. OSMAUTUCLLLL LEAL S ae ee ee ee af 
TOCKWS OU; OSTTIS So = a oes ee ee ee Ord 
TOCKUSEAlDOLCHININAtUS = eee 1 
POCKUS UCUULOS UTS eee oe ee rarer 0.1 
Ceratogyumna Ct eee 0.1 

PICIFORMES 
MeCIOLAAING LUT CNS eek eee eee 1 
MeCOCIOING USiCt COS eee eee 4 
MejataimazviineuG eee ( 
Ramphastos culminetus 2-2 2 ee ee 2 
RAM DWAOStTOSTUTLCLLINUS Ese ae eee ee a 
PtCrOglossus’ CCCUNLOUTNGC8itane 2 eee 3 
PP CCHOGLOSSIUS (COSLOILO US = ae ee ee 2 
COLD TES AOU OLS ee eee 1 

PASSERIFORMES 
PUtAnG Us. SUP Nun iistane no eee ee 3 
LYLONTUUSHE YT ONITUS Sa ee ee eee A 
EREMOpLila QIDestris ann ee eee eee eee eee 1 


Family and common name 


Dicruridae: 


Racket-tailed drongo__-_ 


Corvidae: 
Magpie —____- 


Yellow-billed magpie__ 


Asiatic tree pi 


———— 


Magpies jays. === 


European jay_ 


African white-necked 


crow. 
American crow 
havens == 


Formosan red - billed 


pie. 
Occipital blue 


ples= === 


Hunting) crow222—— === 


Paridae: 


GER Ca tent lts ees a ase 


Sittidae: 


Chestnut - bellied nut- 


hatch. 
Timaliidae: 
Scimitar babbl 
White - crested 
ing thrush. 


eres 
laugh- 


Black-headed sibia____ 
Silver-eared mesia____ 


Pekin robin___ 
Pycnonotidae: 


Black-headed bulbul__. 


Red-vented bul 
White-cheeked 


{ojo ie 
bulbul__ 


White-eared bulbul____ 


Red-whiskered 
White-throated 
Chloropseidae: 


bulbul_ 
bulbul_ 


Gold-fronted chlorop- 


sis. 


Blue-winged fruitsuck- 


er. 
Blue - mantled 
bluebird. 
Turdidae: 
Robin, albino_ 
European song 
Blackbird —~~- 
Cliffichat=2 = 


Orange-headed ground Geocichla citrina 


thrush. 
Shama _ thrush 
Muscicapidae: 


Verditer flycatcher___. Muscicapa thalassina 


fairy 


thrush_ 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


Scientific name 


DACTUTUS DARLOISCUSS= ee ee 


TRACTED LC == Pe ieee eee eae 
PI CUM TULL See ee ee 
Cryupsizina formosdes == es 
COloctela{OnimOsg= ee eee 
Garrulus glandarius____+-____.__-=— 
COTvUS! CUDUS Sass eens ee 


Corvus brachyrhynchosee2— 2 — ss 
COGUUST COT ALI DTINCUNGNS se 
ONS SOM COCRULE Gs oa ee eye Mele 


CSS, OCCIDILCLIS ee eee 
CAS SGMICHINCNSU8 i= = ae ee ee 


Pomatorhinus schisticeps__________ 
(COEAPOUITED WON pa ee 


Heterophasia capistrata___________ 
MCSiO; CEU CHIGUTIS= 2 essen a ee en 
WG CROTGED MULL LCL See ta ee 


PV CRONOUISE CUI CCDS= =a 
EYCHONOUUS CO Ch === = eae 
Pycnonotus lewcogenys____ _-______ 
CRONOUS WLCALCOLI Sa eee eee 
PUCRONOLUSMOCOSUSe eae 
CTINIVETAAUCOMLS ee = ae a ee ee 


Chloropsis aurifrons._—_-— --_-_-_-___ 
Chloropsis hardwickit____________— 
Irena puella matayensis___..____-___ 


TUrdus: MUO ULOTUUS= ee 
LUPUS. CTriCClOTUn == 


133 


Number 


UE EPH 


iv) 


134 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Bombycillidae: 
Cedar waxwing ....-- BONMUDUCULG. COONOTUN eee ae ee ee al 
Sturnidae: 
ROSG-COlOLCOupANtOl=—== PGS lOrerOSCUSe meee = = a eee ee a | 
Purple starling===22= LAMpPrOCouUus PUT OULCUS =e wee eee 3 
Burehell’s long-tailed Lamprotornis caudatws_______-___--_______-~- il 
starling. 
Amethyst starling_---- Oimnyricincius leucogaster== 222222222 -—— al 
‘Dri-Coloredsrstanline <= <i 7eOs SDN UUs ta eee 1 
Junzle pnynahe == ACTICOLNCTCS. TTISTISS = eee ee ee ee 1 
Lesser hill mynah___-- Gracia Tenis indice ee eee 3 
Greater Indian hill Gracula religiosa intermedia____-___-------~-- 2 
mynah. 
Rothsehila’s mynah2=—> Lencopsar TOtvscnilii= ae ae 2, 
Balitmynah===22=22.2= Sturmnuscontr® Vales.) EE 3 
Nectariniidae: 
Variable sunbird__-_-~ CUNnyris VENUSTUS 7 OCCS a 1 
Scarlet-tufted ~mala=- Nectarinie jolhnstoniz==— 2-283 sess u 
chite sunbird. 
Purple*sunbird2==s2=-= INC CLOTANIG OSI OLICO a ee ere il 
Zosteropidae: 
Wihite-eyes)2oee 2 Sees ZOStenops “DUP CUT OS aeons 2, 
Coerebidae: 
Black-headed sugar- Chlorophanes spiza____-______---------__---._ 2 
bird. 
Bananaquites-2=-—-—-— Coeréva Paver ee ee eee 1 
Parulidae: 
Kentucky warbler__--- OPOrOrnis fOr MOSUse sso = a eee ee eee eee al 
Redstart) eos SCLOD TOG Tbe UU a ne eee 1 
Ovenbird #222222 eeree SCUUnws -GULOCODIN Sane ee ee eee il 
Ploceidae: 
Red-naped widowbird_. Coliuspasser laticauda______---------------- 4 
Giant “whydah=222==== DiCtrOpUras DT OCN C2. = ne ee eee al 
Baya weaver____-._.-. PLOCCUS TORY Cae aee aa ee Oe ee ee 3 
Vitelline masked weav- | Ploceus vitellinus 22 ee eee al 
er. 
Red “bishop weaver--——. Hiuplecles Orla se eee eee 1 
White-headed nun____- EONGRUTG M0j Wee 2252 eee oe eee ee 2 
Indian silverbill__-_-~ LONGI AROLCOOTACU Se re ee a 
Bengalese finch _---- én DUON CHUNG “Sanco ese ee aa ee ee eee Z 
Black-headed munia==— Lonchura malaccas22 es eee eee 3 
Spotted munia_______. GONChURG  PUNCHNOtO se aa eee 5 
Reqs munig= 2ose~ eee EStrilda (monde ug se ee ae eee 2 
Cut-throat Weaver “A MG0iING: fOSCIG Cason ee oe ee eee eee eee 1 
finch. 
Lavender finch________ SUPA COCTULCS CONS amt ee eee ee re 1 
Common waxbill_____- Strida Royton ylese eee ee eee eee ee 1 
Pera sNCN eee eee ee IPOCDIALG. COSTONO TS ae ee ee eee 5 
Gouldian finch ________ Poecphila Gouldide= = ee ee 1 
Icteridae: 
Yellow-headed black- Xanthocephalus xanthocephalus____-__------- 1 
bird. 
Rice erackles2=-— =~ P80MGCOLAD: (OTYZIU0T dae eee eee eee eee 2 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 135 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Icteridae—Continued 
Swainson’s grackle____ Holoquiscalus lugubris________.__.___________ 1 
Glossy cowbird_______-_ NOLO LIURAUUS UO NATLECTUSUS te 2 
Brown-headed COWe BeMOLO CRTALS EL LG Tee mm een net eee oe ey oe 1 
bird. 
Bay COWwDind] = IMMOVOCH TAU SEO LO LG eee ne ee eer ee 1 
Colombian red-eye. Vangavius Qrninenti-2 2 en eee il 
cowbird. 
Red-winged blackbird__ Agelaius phoeniceus_________________________ 2 
med-ureasted. marsh-- Leistes militaria... z 
bird. 
Thraupidae: 
Blue tanacer = eT TUY CULT) lee CTU ee we ees ee a 
iWihite-edeeds tanager=— iraupis leucOpte Qa. == aaa il 
Yellow-rumped tanager Ramphocelus iceteronotus_____________-_____ 1 
Passerini’s tanager__._ Ramphocelus passérinit__________.-§ ___-- Al 
Maroon, or silver-beak- Ramphocelus jacapa______-___________________ 1 
ed, tanager. 
Fringillidae: 
‘Mropicaly Sscedsnnch= == OTZ000TUS LOTTIOUS = eee 2 
Black-throated, cardi- Paroamia gularis2 222222 oe eee 2 
nal, 
HuropeanweoOlanneCh= 210 GTCWEltS) CONMICIIS a ee eee 1 
Green tinehwss 2 =e COLON TSACTULOTA Sere teak oP Oe tee ee Eee il 
GES SET VEU Osea f1Nd Cera ee SCOUTS LULU CO Ce see 1 
Swronjenne hese ee SRGOUUSE (UU CO Le een ee ee ae eee een 3 
White-lined finch______ SY DEPLOY OL UITAS US HEA DUITBE S s  a led oso 3 
SIALE-COLOTEG HUM COm= == CO IU GII Se ee ee ee 1 
Buti-chroated: saltator— S@ULatOr NOTIN WS. — ee ee il 
Tawny-bellied SECO = US DOOD IU DIVULGE a eee eee yet +) 
eater. 
Song sparrow..____._— MECLOSD US UaPVCLO C1 ee ered eee al 
IMickcisseliese= es Ses OCI CON Dein ae eee ie eee aL ee ete 3 
White-crowned spar- Zonotrichia leucophrys__-_._______----_----___ 2 
row. 
Yellowhammer ______— LUO CTH. A CUOTUIVCULG Sra ae ee es eee eee 1 
European bunting_____ IETEO CT Ne NCO UUILO TD es eee et ore ne ard see ners 1 
PACALUON cee hee ese ee VOTED I DCT) eae res Mesos nets ey Or ate 2 
REPTILES 
LORICATA 
Alligatoridae: 
@anmniaimeets 2 See COAMEANES CLOG D Sai ae aera a ee Ae ate pe A RY Ee 16 
Black eaimaneo ese MM ClONOSUGTALS a 11LG CT eee ee eae eas a ee a 3 
American, allivator-—--, Alligators mississipiensisa = 2 8 14 
Chinese alligator______ ALN OG CLOTASINCN SIS! aoa e ae ee 2 
Crocodilidae: 
Broad-nosed crocodile. Ostecolaemius tetraspis.___ = 2 
African crocodile______ CROCOCUTUSE ALO UCTS E = eee ae ay ee eee 3 
Narrow-nosed croco- Crocodylus cataphractus__._._._______._._.______ it 
dile. 
Salt-water crocodile... Crocodylus porosus______-___-§ ---- - AL 


American. crocodile.___ _Crocodylus acuiuse al 


136 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


Family and common name Scientifie name 
Gavialidae: 
Imdian- caviaian== 22 2= Gaviatis"gangeticus= = See 
CHELONIA 
Chelydridae: 
Snapping turtle___---- Chelydra serpentine Se 
Alligator snapping Macrochelys temminckii--___----~~- 
turtle. 
Kinosternidae: 
SGNKOb yh eo SLETMNOTLETUS OCOTATUS === 
Miudeturtles 3. sees Kinosternon subrubrum_—__________ 
Tropical American 
mud turtle. Kinosternon spurret_____=-_-_- 
South American mud Kinosternon cruentatum___------_~ 
turtle. 
Emydidae: 


Tropical American Geoemyda puncturia______________- 


pointed-nosed turtle. 


IBOxs cress ee Lerrapene COON dase 
Gulf Coast box turtle_. Terrapene carolina major_____-_-__ 
Three-toed box turtle__ Terrapene carolina triunguis_______ 
Wiorida box turtle___-- Terrapene carolina bauwri_______-__ 
Ornate box turtle__--- Terrapene ornata ornata_______-_- 
Kura kura box turtle__ Cuora amboinensis__________-- = — 
Diamondback terrapin. Malaclemys terrapin__-----------~- 
Mapp wturtle-22 =e Graptemys geographica____________ 
Barbour’s map turtle-— Grapiemys barbowri 
Mississippi map turtle. Graptemys pseudogeographica kohni 
Raintedsturiles==——=—=— CHRYSCMY Sa DIGG =e eee 
Western painted turtle. Chrysemys picta belli_______-----_- 
Southern painted tur- Chrysemys picta dorsalis____-__--~~ 


tle. 


Cumberland turtle__-_- Pseudemys scripta troostit________- 
South American red- Pseudemys scripta callirostris_____- 


lined turtle. 


Yellow-bellied turtle__. Pseudemys scripta scripta_______-~- 


Red-eared turtle-_---_ Pseudemys scripta elegans__-_---__- 
Red-bellied turtle______ Pseudemys rubriventrirs_________-- 
COOLET esa sne eee ee Pseudemys flomdandga- 2s -e 
Florida red-bellied Pseudemys nelsoni_________-__.-__. 
turtle. 
Central American tur- Psewdemys ornata___.__________~__- 
tle. 
Cuban water turtle_._._._ Pseudemys decussata______________ 
Chicken furtle_-______ Deirochelys retieulama so 
Spotted turtle____._____ Clemniys Outlet eee 
Wood turtle-=2—-_—=2-= Clemmys Ansculpt@ 22 nea 
Iberian pond turtie__-- Clemmys leprosG=— sesso eee 


European water terra- Clemmys caspica rivulata_____----_- 


pin. 


European pond turtle_. Emys orbiculari3________--___----- 


1964 


Number 


pe 09 


to 


& 


BROOWFREHE ANWR ON 


SECRETARY’S REPORT T3Z 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Testudinidae: 
Duncan Island tortoise. Testudo ephippium__-__~._________.-.-._____ 2 
Galapagos tortoise_____ REStwao sClLEpNANtOpUs, ViCING@. ee 2 
Galapagos tortoise___-_ REStUCOMCLEDNGNTODUS Se ae eee 2 
(Chea: ANIGEN ORE) TOROS SHAOGO WGN Po ee es ee 2 
Souchy Americans tor) Testudo) denticulata@ ss. 5 
toise. 
Stare lontoisese= == sane ESTULCON CLOU CUR ear ee pe ene ee ye 
Mountain tortoise_____ (RESTUCOMCTIUYS =e a= nis AL tO A ee ye a 2 
Gopher tortoise__-_-_-- GODRETUSIUOLUDNCNU See a ee eee 2 
Mexas| tortoises == Gophenus, berlandient = 25 ae eee 1 
Pelomedusidae: 
Atrican awater turtles LeClLOM EC US Um Stitt tee ee 2 
irican Dlack Mud Cut) ElMuStOSuSWUNtG Cie 1 
tle. 
Red-faced turtle_______ EP OCOCHEMASECCLAN UES sae ee ul 
Amazon spotted turtles Podocnemis unijfilisno2 2 2 5 
Chelydidae: 
South American side- Batrachemys nasuta__._____.__________________ 2 
necked turtle. 
Australian side-necked Chelodina longicollis____c._c-__._.__c....______- 3 
turtle. 
Matamata turtle_______ CREWS PUNO OLS ee eee ee ee eee af 
Small side-necked tur- Hydromedusa tectifera_______________.______- 2 
tle. 
arse side-necked tur-. Phrynops hilarit... 2+ 2 ae ee 7 
tle. 
iKerefit/s, turtles DT OOO LIPO! ARG 1 UC a ey EE es 3 
Miumrayaturble=_2- SHER OSEGR. COIL OO LICE i 3 
South American gibba Mesoclemmys gibba_.._._____________________ 2 
turtle. 
Flat-headed turtle_____ BULLET SE DUGUUCED Lee oe eee 2 
Trionychidae: 
Spiny softshell________. RTVONYD fC OW ea petites ai ane Oe meee 5 
Moxa sorsnelles =o == DIAGN DCT OL CHILOT Var ee a ee oft 
African softshell______ TET O TUS Oe TUTE TU CUS ore eee me ee eee 2 
SAURIA 
Gekkonidae: 
IROkay, SCCKOL— es, Gel KOT CCI. Bae iene a 27 
Daye FOCKOn = eee EP CUSIATIG) GCED COUNT ane 3 
Dave CCK Ot see ee PTECUSUTIVGTES sare ed A ae eel al 
Agamidae: 
Agamid: lizard — --- ALO GING: SLC LLL Ot Se ean ea Oe dre lee a a he 4 
Ico MARTE ee ALG CMTS ys rks Cae) ek Sa ae le i 
Blood -Ssucker Zarda — 1 CQlOtes Versi COlOT me ae 5 
Iguanidae: 
Common iguana_______ ER OWMOMUOS AG UOT Ser Seno orate ean tons Seo ae t 
Swan Island iguana___. Iguana delicatissima____.___.__._._._.--______ af: 
Basiisic lizard2.2 eee, ES USALES CUE S [0 eee etna Se bite had 1 
Rhinoceros iguana_____ Ca CHU GUCOT NUE Bee aa ed ee 2 
Carolina anole________. ATOUIS ee COTOUIN CNS Se ae aa eee ee ee 50 


Mence lizard. ==, NCCLODOTUSHALIGAULOL TLS ee 11 


138 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Family and common name Scientific name 

Iguanidae—Continued 
Mencevizargd— oss. s——- Sceloporus "sp. eee eee 
Pliea lizard=—-2=—=-==2 Plita? pluicaee Oot Bete eee SS 
C@huckwalla—--======-2— Sauromatius obesuszi22=* - aes PS SSeS 

Scincidae: 
Mourning skink__---~--. Bgernia tactios@i2 se eee 
Wrihibe'siskink 22222225 Hoernia whiter. 22 ee eee 
Sy otra] fot en BHumeces. anthracinusi22225- = see 
NS) ero) oie ae eae ees Humeces ‘sp. 22et eee eee 
Five-lined skink_______ Humecesjascicns._ SS See 
Four-lined skink____~-_. Humeces tetragrammus=—— === -—— 
Great Plains skink___-. Humeces (o0solcius.= SS 
Stump-tailed skink___-. Tiliqua rugosa 22a eee 
Malayan skink_____-__ Mabuya multifasciatas—=— == 2 


Gerrhosauridae: 


African plated: lizard. Zonosaturius (‘Spl ee Sa ee 
Madagascar plated Zonosaurus madagascariensis________--_ 


lizard. 
Platedsizard= 2s Gerrhosaurus naj 07 
Lacertidae: 
European lizard_______ Lacerta strigata tritineata. 
Teiidae: 
Ameiva) lizard=22--= =~ Ameiva ameiva praesignis__-_.-~—--—----~-~ 
Caiman lizard==s2— Dracaena quanenss = EE 


Cordylidae: 


South African spiny Cordylus vandami perkoensis____-----~-- 


lizard. 
African spiny lizard=== \Cordyius polyzonis= eee 

Varanidae: 
Komodo dragon____~__-. Viaranws KOMOCOeNnSis ela eee eee 
Ingdian Monitors =— Varanus fiavescens feat ede Se ee SRE 
Duméril’s monitor__--- ViGranws \Cumern eee 
EPhilippinemnmMoniiom==—— Varanus  NuCchahissa === eee 
Malayan monitor__---- Varanus salvator. =. eee 


Helodermatidae: 


Gila smonsters222222-== Heloderma suspectwime= 2 essa see 
Mexican beaded lizard. Heloderma horridum____---—~~-~---~-~-- 
Beaded lizard, black Heloderma horridum alvernensis_.___---- 


phase. 

Anguidae: 
Bastern glass lizard_.. Ophisaurus ventralis_.._.-.--..-------- 
European glass lizard__ Ophisaurus apodus_____---____----_---_ 
Huropean glass lizard, Angus fragilisss2=*22=- 2222222222 


or slow worm. 


San Diego alligator Gerrhonotus multicarinatus webbi__----- 


lizard. 
SERPENTES 
Boidae: 
Cook’s' tree boas =22=2= Boa: COG LE ne ee ae eee ee Se 
Boa constrictor —----- Constrictor COnstriCtOfosese eee 
Hmperor boasbas==a2== Constricton’ tmpervatore ao nee ee eee ee eee 
Cuban ground boa___-- Tropidophis melanuras ee 


inainbowsD0a8 == 222222 Phicrates’ cenchrigs 2 ae eee 


i HE 


NHeE A OO 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


Family and common name Scientific name Number 
Boidae—Continued 
Samngupogte eee ETA) DOC OTELC Ot es See ee ah Ne a. 
‘Ballanythons===-22.22- PUURON RC OMNIS eee er eS Se 
Indiansrocks pythons) LULhON MOlUITUS=— a es eae 
Regal: python =. --.>-_ PaeWOr T CORCMLATS Soe A 8 ae 
African python____---- DPA CON EXON pos ee ae 5 Se 
Colubridae: 
Eastern king snake____ Lampropeltis getulus getulus________________- 
Speckled king snake___ Lampropeltis getulus holbrooki_______-______- 
Florida king snake____ Lampropeltis getulus floridana________-_____~ 
Sonora king snake_---- Lampropeltis getulus splendida_______________ 
Scarlet king snake____- Lampropeltis doliata doliata_________________ 
Tropical king snake___ Lampropeltis doliata polyzonus______________- 
Eastern milk snake____ Lampropeltis doliata triangulum____---______ 
Coastal Plain milk 
Snakes eee ey es Lampropeltis doliata temporalis______-________ 
Mole snake -_--------- Lampropeltis calligaster rhombomaculata_____ 


Eastern garter snake-- [pgmnophis sirtalis sirtalis_____.______.______ 

Garter snake, melan- [yqmnophis sirtalis______________-----_-____ 
istic phase. 

Eastern hog-nosed weterodon platyrhinos_______________________ 
snake. 

Common water snake_- NGETID SAD CO OTE eek ee IS Pl 


Broad-banded water wWatrix sipedon confluens_____________-_______ 
snake. 


Red-bellied water wyaqtriz erythrogaster erythrogaster__--__-____ 
snake. 

Blotched water snake-_ Watriz erythrogaster transversa______________ 

Yellow-bellied water Natrige erythrogaster flavigaster______________ 
snake. 

European grass snake_- Ngtrig natriv natrir___..__________.._______ 


European grass snake_- Natrig natriv bilineata___________-----______ 
Diamondback water Natriz rhombifera 


snake. 
Brown water snake_--- Natrig tavispilota____.c.......________ 
Tessellated water Natrig tessellatus__.iine.........._ 
snake. 
Eastern indigo snake-- Drymarchon corais couperi______---_________ 
Texas indigo snake---- Drymarchon corais erebennus________________ 
Mexican indigo snake_- Drymarchon corais ssp_-_----------_-_______ 
Black rat snake____~-- Elaphe obsoleta-obsoletass.__.__._.____._ tes 
Black rat snake, albino_ Elaphe obsoleta obsoleta_____________________ 
Yellow rat snake_____ - Elaphe obsoleta quadrivittata________________ 
Texas rat snake______~ Elaphe obsoleta lindheimeri_.___._____________ 
(ormsnaie 22.28 22. Elaphe, guttata guttata sees 
Great Plains rat snake_. Elaphe guttata emoryi__________.___________ 
asiatie striped rat. Hlaphe tachiurasweleyots ao anti ee 
snake. 
Japanese rat snake____. Hlaphescimacophora.. =. 2 tee 
Chinese rat snake______ Hianhercarinata= sss sare Peo ee ea 
Aesculapian snake_____ Blenhedtongisstnas sewed bale enn, 


Aesculapian snake_____ Elaphe longissima subgrisea_________________ 


KBPreRNeE Dh Wb 


me hohe 


= 


OE BDH Hoe ep 


robe 


140 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 
Family and common name Scientific name 
Colubridae—Continued 
Banded red snake_----- Dinodon rufozonatum____---------- 
Rainbow snake_------- Abastor erythrogrammus__—---—----- 
Northern black racer_-. Coluber constrictor constrictor__--~- 
European racer_------- Coluber jugularis caspius_____------ 
IReduracer.e= 2222 2se2e2 Masticophis flagellum piceus__------ 
Western coachwhip___- Masticophis flagellum testaceus___-_-- 
Northern ringneck Diadophis punciatus edwardsti__--_- 
snake. 
Eastern worm snake___ Carphophis amoenus amoenus___--- 
Brown snake .==]-22=— SEOnCHIC (EKG Yte= Se ee 
Green vine snake__--~--. Dryopnis” prasinuss =) se 
Bullssnake===2=——--——— Pituophis catenifer sayi-______-----~- 
Great Basin gopher Pituophis catenifer deserticola__-_- 
snake. 
Milejsnake2===—>—- =. Simocephalus capensis______-_------ 
Wolf snakes]22=2222>—- Lycodon flavomaculatus______-----~ 
Cat-eyed snake___--~~.. Hieirodipsas: spo 
Green-headed tree Leptophis mexicanus_-._----------~-- 
snake. 
Typhlopidae: 
Blind-snakes=—==s22--— Typhlops vermicularis___________--- 
BiMNdWwnAkes=2s——ssa—— Taynhlops OlUMW SS ees = 
Elapidae: 
Indians cobras-=—-———=— NGG NG) C2225 2 oS eee 
Maiwanncopniasa-eee == Naja najaketras Se eee 
King cobras. 2---===—— Ophiophagus hannah_______-_--____ 
Many-banded krait_---. Bungarus multicinctus________-__-- 
Banded) krait=-2—--==2 22 BUNGOELUS “fOSCULUUS == te ee 
Acrochordidae: 


Elephant trunk snake_. Acrochordus javanicus__------------ 


Crotalidae: 


Southern copperhead__. Ancistrodon contortrig contortrixr___ 
Northern copperhead__. Ancistrodon contortrix mokeson__--- 
Broad-banded copper- Ancistrodon contortrig laticinctus__- 


head 
Cottonmoutha = s=-—-: Ancistrodon piscivorus_____--------- 
Western cottonmouth__. Ancistrodon piscivorus leucostoma__ 
Japanese pit viper_--_-- Ancistrodon Rays es eee 
Green palm viper__-_-- _ Trimeresurus gramineus__-___------- 
Mamushis sss Trimeresurus elegans___--------~-~- 
12 (ey) ee es Trimeresurus flavoviridis_____------ 
Okinawa habu__-__---- Trimeresurus okinavensis__--------- 
TaiwaAnehaApules see a Trimeresurus mucrosquamatus__—--- 
Eastern diamondback Crotalus adamanteus___---~-------- 
rattlesnake. 
Timber rattlesnake____. Orotalus horriduss=22s 2 See 
Western diamondback Crotalus atrow___-_.-.-------------- 
rattlesnake. 
Viperidae: 


European viper__----- Vipera verus bosniensis_____-------- 


—— 


Se ee 


1964 


Lalla m mpwnwor oo oo ao RFPpoRHH are ee Cee 


BEEN HE ee OD OO 


ao 


Family and common name 
Cryptobranchidae: 

Giant salamander_____ 
Amphiumidae: 

Conroveel ==] a2 2 2.e25 = 
Ambystomatidae: 

Axolotl, white phase___ 

AXOlOb Ss 2 see ae Ae 

Spotted salamander___ 
Salamandridae: 

Japanese ' red-bellied 

newt. 
Red-spotted newt_____- 
Broken-striped newt__- 


Bufonidae: 
American toad______-- 
Fowler’s toad_________ 
Blomberg’s toad____--- 
Giant toads. 222 = ee 


Crested Central Ameri- 
can toad. 
South American point- 
ed-nosed toad. 
Colorada River toad___ 
Western toad________- 
Pipidae: 
Surinamptoad=22.—)——— 
African clawed frog_-_ 
Hylidae: 
Pacifie tree, froge == 
Gray. treesirog 222 
Microhylidae: 
Narrow-mouthed toad_ 
Ranidae: 
American bullfrog_____ 
Green froge. =] aes ee 
Meopardstrors=s= 2s 


Protopteridae: 
African lungfish___-___ 


Characidae: 
inane eo ee 


Metynnis, 
dollar. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


141 


AMPHIBIANS 

CAUDATA 
Scientific name Number 
Megalobatrachus japonicus_____________-_____ 2? 
AMDRIUMG MEONS= nee =n eens SO il 
Ambystoma tigrintm. 2s Ns ee ee 2 
ANNOY STOM@ GTN UN ese ee ee eres 3 
AIVOYSTOMG MACULOLUM wee ee ae 1 
LVCMICLY Sa DULENOUORLCT 3 ee ee 8 
Diemictylus viridescens viridescens__________ 14 
Diemictylus viridescens dorsalis______________ 7 

SALIENTIA 
BU OVCCTreEStTts GMETICONUS ee eee 1 
BUpOAOOdHOUSEL [OWlET =a ee ee 1 
SES AULT OM LORIE CTO Ua seen eee 1 
USO! NGI UNS a eae ee Ee era ee 9 
BUsOMpellocepnaliigecs a ks tA ae ee eee 6 
BU tDLONIUS =o ee te SP ee eee 2 
ES ORG TELL O SIL Gatto ers eee ee 1 
BUS ORALUOTULSE 22a ORs See hele Ve Le ee 2 
Baby ORDO CUS ae aie a Se a 1 
EVD OG UD Oe ie A ah cee A el ata Se ha 6 
EXCNODUS TUL CUS a ee ee ae ee ae a 3 
ELL POY UG ES Sacre ee eee SC 3 
FL YLGS DCTSUCOLORS AE RG oo SA ae I 1 
MicronylaCGrOUnensise ae ae eae ee 2 
QM COLESO CONG 22 = oe Ces hak a ees ee ee 1 
TONG CLOMALONS: MClANOLG se ee 1 
RONGY DUD Lens ent eat eed MeL heehee ee 25 

FISHES 

NEOCERATODONTOIDEI 
UzNOLODLCTALSICTVIVECL CIS ee ne ee 3 
OSTARIOPHYSOIDEI 

NETTOSQUNUSINIG erie aes Loa ee eee 1 
Gymnocorymbus ternetzi_._._....._____________ ii 
MCT NNISE MACHT Sine Sea a ae Feeds 1 


142 


Family and common name 
Cyprinidae: 
ZepracQaniOne = os2es—= 
VETS pal ob, ee 
White cloud mountain 
fish. 
Loricariidae: 
South American suck- 
ing catfish. 
Black bullhead__---_- 
Electropboridae: 
Riectric eels i= 2 ssa 


Poeciliidae : 
Flag-tailed guppy---- 
(UP yaa ora 
Biackimolie2=.22 2 
Platy, or moonfish____ 
Green swordtail_..__-- 
Red sywordtaila===22— 


Anabantidae: 
Kissing gourami__--_-. 
Centrarchidae: 
Common bluegill____- 
Cichlidae: 
Peacock cichlid-_--~~ 
Jack Dempsey fish_-- 
Egyptian mouth- 
breeder. 
African 
breeder. 
Angelfish 
Gobiidae: 
Bumblebee fish______. 


mouth- 


Cenobitidae: 
Land hermit crab_---- 
Key West hermit crab- 


Aviculariidae: 
Tarantula] o--~=e 


Blattidae: 
Tropical 
roach. 


giant cock- 


Planorbidae: 
Pond ssnall =e ee 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 
Scientific name Number 
BrachyQGnio S.CT105= = ee a 1 
Barbus  partipentazonas =e 1 
MonichiRy s QvueOmuues= 2. eee eee 1 
Hiypostomus plecostomus=—-_— = ee 3 
TetavirUsnmneclase. —=8 ae ee ee ae il 
FLECEFODMOTUS CLOCUTACUS sae eee 6 
CYPRINODONTOIDEIL 
Lebvistesreticulatusee ss eee eee 10 
Bevistes  erigulanysesss Se eee 15 
Mollienesia VWatipinnassss 2222222 al 
XIN NOPROTUS MMACUIOVUS == SS ee 5 
MiP WOV NOT US US) ee ee 20 
XiphOplonus, Spo) = ee ee ee eee 40 
PERCOMORPHOIDEL 
Helostomaitemminchi == eee 1 
Lepomis) Macrochintis eee i 
Astronotus ocellatus. = eee a 
Cichlasoma-biocellatim: == ee 3 
ELaplochromis MU COlOT ee eee ee 1 
Pelmatochromis guenthen=2—— =~ =s"s==2 1 
IP LETOD UIUC UIVC HK Cla re 1 
BrachygouvusrdOrTiae= en eee 1 
CRUSTACEANS 
Ocencbitaclypeatus= = ee 29 
Coenobita, 0109 €nes== == ne ee ee eee 13 
ARANEIDA 
Hurypetina sp. sas ee ee 1 
ORTHOPTERA 
BlUverus CLO ANLCUS eae eee eee 35 
MOLLUSKS 
PULMONATA 
Helisoma trivolwis.. 3 2 2 30 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 143 


REPORT OF THE VETERINARIAN 


Nikumba, the adult male gorilla, whose paraplegia was mentioned in 
last year’s Report, made an essentially complete recovery in 8 months. 
A tentative diagnosis was made of a selective spotty viral infection of 
the spinal cord. Nikumba was treated daily for approximately 3 
months. Chloromycetin succinate and Bejectal, a vitamin-B complex, 
were injected intramuscularly, by the use of the projectile syringe and 
the Cap-Chur gun. Methylprednisolone was given orally in Coca 
Cola syrup. The most noteworthy progress was seen approximately 
214 months after the onset of the paralytic attack when Nikumba was 
able to stand erect and take two or three steps before returning to a 
sitting position. His progress since that time has been slow and 
steady; he has regained his original weight and is moving in a normal 
manner. 

One of the most interesting things that occurred during the treat- 
ment period was the gorilla’s reaction to the use of the Cap-Chur gun 
equipment. One could enter the room with empty hands and Nikumba 
would come to the bars with a desire to hold your arm or your hand, 
and displayed every evidence of affection. As soon as the equipment 
was produced, however, Nikumba would retreat to a far corner of the 
cage or climb to the top of the shift cage. He became very nervous 
and would swing from the horizontal bars in the cage to escape the 
administration of the medication. Immediately following the injec- 
tion Nikumba would realize that the treatment had been completed 
and would then come forward to the bars and display his normal 
friendliness. 

His recovery has been observed with a great deal of interest because 
he is not only an excellent specimen of the male lowland gorilla but 
also a proven sire. The first baby, Tomoka, was born on September 
9, 1961. Leonard, a second male, was born on January 10, 1964. The 
last observed mating of the parent gorillas took place on April 24 and 
25, 1963, approximately 2 months before the onset of the paraplegia of 
the breeding male. It has been necessary for both babies to be raised 
by the wife of a keeper, since Moka had no milk following either birth. 
The entire staff is anxiously awaiting Moka’s return to a regular 
menstrual cycle to observe Nikumba’s ability to mate following his 
paralysis. 

On December 16, 1963, Deepali, an adult Indian rhinoceros and her 
baby were received by air from India. Eleven days following the 
arrival symptoms of an intestinal colic were noted in the adult at 1 
p-m., and death occurred at 9 o’clock that evening. An immediate 
autopsy was performed and the cause of death was found to be a per- 
acute hemorrhagic gastroenteritis. Approximately 4 liters of free 
blood were found in the stomach and the anterior portion of the small 


144 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


intestine. This problem was further complicated by the presence of 
a large number of fringed and diphyllobothrium tapeworms and in- 
testinal flukes, as well as numerous strongyloides. Treatment was 
instituted immediately to relieve the parasitic infestation of the baby 
rhino, Rajkumari, with excellent results, and her growth has been 
quite satisfactory. 

On March 4, 1964, the director of the National Zoological Park 
returned from Djakarta, Indonesia, with a pair of Komodo dragons 
(Varanus komodoensis). The male dragon was 8 feet 11 inches long 
and weighed approximately 200 pounds. The smaller female was 6 
feet long and weighed 75 pounds. The first fecal samples harvested 
following their arrival revealed a heavy infestation of protozoa with 
ameboid-like nuclei. On May 21 the large dragon became affected 
with severe gastric cramps which were relieved by the injection of 
atropine sulfate, but it died the next day. An intensive autopsy was 
performed, and the cause of death was established as intestinal and 
extraintestinal amebiasis. Histopathological sections were made from 
tissues harvested during the autopsy. Outstanding degeneration was 
noted in the liver, in which no functional tissue could be found; it 
consisted entirely of a mass of ameboid-like cysts. This has been 
reported only once in literature and much more extensive studies are 
being conducted by the veterinary division in cooperation with the 
Parasitology Department of George Washington University Medical 
School and the staff of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology to 
determine the incidence of such liver cyst occurrence in our available 
lizards. 

With the assistance of Dr. Thomas Sappington, an internal medicine 
specialist in Washington, a research program is being developed in 
the incidence and extent of tissue damage caused by amebae in lizards. 
This will include a study of the blood picture, parasite history, and 
possible liver damage caused by amebiasis in the monitor lizard. 

A 6-day treatment of the female Komodo dragon consisted of re- 
tention enemas of 200 cc. of physiological saline, containing 650 mg. 
of diodoquin, and intramuscular injections of 500 mg. of tetracycline. 
In the meantime, tests were being conducted on Varanus salvator to 
determine the lizard’s tolerance of 0.0325 mg. of intramuscular emetine 
hydrochloride as an effort to arrest the extraintestinal amebiasis. This 
test continued for 6 days with no apparent side effects. After estab- 
lishing the safety of the drug, the Komodo dragon then received the 
same dosage. The results were a marked reduction in the number of 
amebae and flagellates in the stool. 

Studies are continuing in the hope of finding a more satisfactory 
parasiticide for use in various species of mammals, birds, and reptiles. 
Ambutochloride has been used in canines, as well as reptiles; thiaben- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 145 


dazole has been used in equines, rhinoceroses, tapirs, and several mon- 
keys; and a research product, called Alcopar, which contains the 
bephenium ion, shows a great deal of promise in selected species of 
animals. To generalize, thiabendazole has been the first product we 
have used in the zebras that has been so thorough that routine worm- 
ing has become unnecessary; and the use of Alcopar in the large cats 
has caused a reduction in the egg count of both ascarid and hookworm. 

Bird losses on the shipment arriving from India on December 16 
were high, owing primarily to travel trauma. Among 69 waterfowl 
and pheasants quarantined at Clifton, N.J., 8 undiagnosed deaths 
occurred. Psittacine birds are required to be quarantined for a period 
of 90 days under the direction of the U.S. Public Health Service, and 
101 birds were placed in a closed quarantine area. Quarantine pro- 
cedure consists of 45 days on tetracycline-treated seeds, and a further 
45-day period of observation. Of the quarantined birds, 48 died and 
were sent to the Communicable Disease Center. Psittacosis virus was 
isolated in some of the birds. 

Every effort is being made to improve the effectivness of the veteri- 
nary division in the care of animal health in the Park. X-ray equip- 
ment purchased early in the year has been invaluable in the correction 
of several fractures. Equipment and supplies have been obtained to 
institute a system of bacteriological culturing in both living animals 
and autopsy specimens in an effort to establish the cause of death more 
definitely, and diagnose illnesses and infections in the living animals 
more rapidly. 

The veterinary division has been fortunate in having the cooperation 
and assistance of various specialists in the fields of clinical investiga- 
tion and medicine. Among these men were Dr. Henry Feffer, ortho- 
pedist ; Dr. Hugo Rizzoli, neurosurgeon; Dr. A. G. Karlsen of the Mayo 
Clinic in Rochester, Minn.; Dr. F. R. Lucas, director of the Livestock 
Sanitary Laboratory in Centerville, Md.; Dr. Anthony Morris of the 
National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md.; and Dr. Leonard 
Marcus and staff, of the Armed Forces Institute of Pathology. Dr. 
Clarence Hartman, Dr. William McCarten, and Miss Bessie Sonnen- 
berg, parasitologists on the staff of George Washington Medical 
School, connected with the Tropical Disease Program, have given 
assistance in the diagnosis of and identification of the parasites that 
we have encountered in the Zoo, and their advice on treatment has been 
most helpful. 

A Brahminy kite (Haliastur indus) collected for the National 
Zoological Park by the National Geographic Society-Smithsonian 
Institution Expedition to the East Indies, received September 28, 1937, 
died on April 18, 1964. This bird had been in the collection 26 years 
5 months 21 days. 


146 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Following are autopsy statistics for the mortality which occurred at 
the National Zoological Park during the last fiscal year, and a table 
of comparison with the past 6 years: 


TaBLE 1.—Autopsy statistics, 1958-64 


Mortality, fiscal year 1964 
Total mortality 


past 7 years 
Cause Reptiles! | Birds | Mammals 
No autopsy for sundry reasons ?______- 126 27 17 | 1958_.-.550 
Attrition (within 14 days after arrival) __ 1 26 20 | 1959____472 
Sysvemic aiseases ©4202 ys) te 39 36 19 | 1960____532 
Intiectiousidiseasests 2a. eae ee ae nee 5 LP TOG Se Sbi7 
Parasites a ean ed | Pree Sire eran ee 9 3 1 | 1962____584 
Injuries? accidental: 424-648 eo%) ice hles 19 74 41 | 1963____636 
Muhamasrat ee eis ont Sea ee ei ee 2 Gil) Stew - eee 
Miscellaneous (stillborn, old age, 
SOC) seats ree ia eee yee ea un eae fn ee dF i bat Aa 8h a Tal 
Wndetermined 4 ee ee ye 36 57 DOMIB ILE Ligeti Choe 
Total: eo sey AE a Woe Ree 237 230 152 | 1964____619 


1 Included with reptile deaths are amphibians, fishes, and insects. : 

2 Reasons include preserving of intact specimen for museum and research, progressed decomposition, 
insufficient remains in case of predators, ete. : 

‘Systemic diseases include acute and chronic diseases of lung, liver. kidney and heart, and intestinal 
ailments other than parasite involvement, as wel! as CNS disorders. 

4 Infectious diseases include TB, viremia, toxoplasmodis, etc. 


RESEARCH 


The National Zoological Park is expanding its scope in the field of 
animal behavioral studies to programs designed to develop a greater 
knowledge of animal husbandry as it applies to worldwide conserva- 
tion efforts. 

All possible efforts and means must immediately be turned to the 
task of preserving representative fauna from all parts of the world. 
International and national organizations of zoos and wildlife con- 
servators do consonantly strive to preserve those species which are 
threatened in the countries of habitat. To foster and breed such 
species is a task well within the capabilities of the zoos and conserva- 
tion societies of the world. It remains only to know enough about 
these vanishing animals to recreate at least minimum niches which 
may result in reversal and establishment of breeding units. To this 
end the National Zoological Park is participating and cooperating in 
the following projects: 

Group relationships and social niches of the Barbary ape, A/acaca 
sylvanus; investigators, Dr. R. K. Lahiri, Director Alipore Zoo, Cal- 
cutta, India, and Dr. Charles Southwick, Director, School of Bio- 
medicine, Johns Hopkins University. 

Social behavior of titi monkeys, Callicebus ; investigator, Dr. Martin 
Moynihan, Canal Zone Biological Area, Balboa, Panama. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 147 


Ecology and behavior of Suncus murinus; investigator, Dr. Kyle 
Barbehenn. This work is continuing with emphasis on captive be- 
havior at the National Zoological Park. 

The arrangement and structure of the genetic complex in wild 
animals is an active project in which the National Zoological Park 
is contributing culture bases to Dr. Kurt Benirschke, department of 
genetics, Dartmouth University. A great deal of information, which 
should lead to better understanding of breeding programs, is 
anticipated. 

The National Zoological Park will continue to devote, within the 
organization, as much time and effort as possible to increase the know]l- 
edge of the requirements of wild animals both captive and free. To 
this end, the zoo plans, at the first opportunity, to activate a section 
of Animal Research and Behavior. 


VISITORS 


The 16th International Congress of Zoology was held in Washington 
from August 20 to 26, and many of the delegates visited the National 
Zoo. On the night of August 20 approximately 2,000 were taken on 
a night tour and served refreshments. Members of the American 
Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, meeting in Wash- 
ington from September 23 to 26, visited the Park frequently and on 
September 24 were taken on a late-afternoon tour of the Zoo. The 
annual meeting of the Virginia Herpetological Society was held in 
the reptile house on December 28 and was attended by 62 members. 
On June 6, 1964, the same society met again in the reptile house and 
heard an illustrated lecture on the snakes of Taiwan, given by Dr. R. 
E. Kuntz. 

About 2 p.m. each day the cars then parked in the Zoo are counted 
and listed according to the State or country from which they come. 
This is, of course, not a census of the cars coming to the Zoo but is 
valuable in showing the percentage of attendance by States of people 
in private automobiles. Many District of Columbia, Maryland, and 
Virginia cars come to the Zoo to bring guests from other States. The 
tabulation for fiscal year 1964 is as follows: 


Percentage Percentage 
Marya ye ee ee te es on a0) ||\COnnechiCiitit 22-2 nee Bs 6 
\fiieiegu ay 02 ie eee es ee ee ee 2454) || SOULE LO ano lin ae =e aes ee 6 
District of Columbia==-2---- == TESTS Ca OnN geese eee ee 6 
BRennsylyaniay eee2s- = nee Aes PEL OI Seen ee ee, 5 
ING Wa MOTKRS 2 Sie aCe Meine A Do) | VACHS aes ean ee ae ER 5 
North) Caroling ase ee eee ES ROXAS hye eee oe ea ao ESS Sed ce 2 5 
ING Wee OTSO No etes cea te he Ae iGeongia, sate sh bow PT .4 
(OLN PRS RS eee eee St EM GlAWwares ese ae ee 4 
WeSE: {Vain gimras ee ae aL oP Ni BOY Ug 0a) eee iP SOL i ee Ses .4 
1 GIN XG ee Wea ale Der SE a ee eee 170 ——. 
Massa chusetisy econ see sees a 9 STO tah Se eee a a, 2 96. 0 
BReNneSSCe oe ee ee hele lle .6 


766-746—65——11 


148 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The remaining 4 percent came from other States, Belgium, Canada, 
Canal Zone, England, France, Germany, Honduras, Japan, Mexico, 
Puerto Rico, Thailand, and Turkey. On the days of even small at- 
tendance there are cars parked in the Zoo from at least 15 States, 
Territories, the District of Columbia, and foreign countries. 

Owing to the construction work in progress in the Zoo in connection 
with the redevelopment program, the number of available parking 
spaces fluctuates between 650 and 1,100. 


TABLE 2.—Number of bus groups visiting the Zoo in fiscal year 1964 


Locality Number Number Locality Number Number 
of groups in groups of groups | in groups 

Alabamass oes. SS 17. 616 || Mississippi-------- 2 46 
AT KamsSastiaies oe 1 Boul NIISSO Lease ae 1 32 
California] =e 2 49 || New Hampshire--_- 3 107 
Connecticut__..___ 1l 339 || New Jersey_.----- 29 1, 288 
District of New Yorkec-eo20e 203 7, 532 

Columbia =-2== 286 9,978 || North Carolina_--_ 203 6, 484 
Delaware a2) sae 12 AD? Ohiotzetes2 sess 29 1, 025 
Hlonida22 S25 3s ay 1, 139 || Pennsylvania___---- 392 14, 079 
Georgia..2-2 22 Ses 15 554 || Rhode Island___--- 12 389 
HENOISs S225 as5 5 17 578 || South Carolina_--_- 55 2, 022 
nists. 265 22 10 330 || Tennessee_____---- 53 1, 808 
LOwALe sss e see 2 O07 ||exases === se ae 9 203 
Kansass: 228. See A 13\\ Virginias 2 294228 894 35, 227 
Kentuekyar sae se 13 43300) Vermont s = ons = 1 39 
Massachusetts_-_--- 20 727 || Washington_-_-_---- 1 29 
Miamyiamn dass 1, 161 44,028 || West Virginia----- 51 1, 977 
Maine2 223. eee 2 80° |) Wisconsin= 2-22 =2== 5 197 
Wichigan = 2.22.5 4 132 pHa Ss | 
Minnesotassa see 4 174 ROY aoe 3}, Bas |) Wey 

PERSONNEL 


Eppie Bell was transferred from the Smithsonian Institution to 
become maintenance general foreman of the National Zoological Park 
on May 24, 1964. John Monday, transferred from the District of 
Columbia Government Water Department, was appointed gardener 
foreman on March 15, 1964. Wilbur Banner, formerly with the Navy 
Department in Norfolk, Va., was appointed mason lead foreman on 
December 31, 1962. 

During the year only three employees left the Zoo. Dr. W. T. Roth, 
general curator since August 7, 1961, resigned on June 30, 1964. Pvt. 
George McLeod, a member of the police force since September 1, 1928, 
retired on December 31, 1963. Lt. Earl King, appointed to the police 
force on August 4, 1944, retired because of disability on January 14, 
1964. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 149 


The director attended the annual meeting of the International Union 
of Directors of Zoological Gardens in Chester, England, from Septem- 
ber 9 to 13. At the annual conference of the American Association of 
Zoological Parks and Aquariums, held in Washington September 23 
to 26, the director was elected president of the Association. He 
attended the meetings of the executive board of the American Institute 
of Park Executives, held in New York January 17 to 20, and a com- 
mittee meeting of the AAZPA in New York on February 7. From 
October 30 to November 3, he was in Sumter, S.C., as consultant to 
city officials who plan to build a zoo in that city. On May 17, he was 
present at the dedication of a new feline house in City Park Zoo, 
Denver, Colo., and on the following 3 days he attended the Western 
Regional Zoo Conference in Salt Lake City, Utah. On June 21 he 
left for London, England, as a delegate to a symposium on the role of 
zoos in animal conservation. Following the conference in London he 
visited zoos in Munich, Turin, and Barcelona. 

The director gave three radio talks and made three television appear- 
ances. He addressed the College Park (Md.) Rotary Club and also 
spoke at a meeting of the D.C. Veterinary Medical Association. 

J. Lear Grimmer, associate director, on January 20 made a sound 
film to be broadcast in India over the Voice of America. On April 3 
he gave a half-hour talk over WETA-TV, an educational channel, and 
on June 27 appeared on a film for the U.S. Information Agency. He 
spoke on a radio program about new animals at the Zoo (June 10) and 
addressed the Virginia Herpetological Society on June 6. While in 
India he had an opportunity to visit zoos in Delhi, Calcutta, and 
Guahati, as well as wildlife sanctuaries in Assam and in Sundarbans 
bordering the Bay of Bengal. On May 14 and 15 he attended meet- 
ings of the Inland Field Conference at the National Science Founda- 
tion, Washington, D.C. 

In June Travis E. Fauntleroy, assistant to the director, visited zoos 
in Buffalo, Detroit, Milwaukee, Chicago, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, 
Columbus, Toledo, and Cleveland, observing children’s zoos in particu- 
lar and management operations in general. 

Keeper H. Stroman appeared on a television program for the U.S. 
Information Agency on May 18, showing a European brown bear cub 
and a baby pygmy hippopotamus. 

In the fiscal year 1964 the Zoo had 211 authorized positions: office of 
the director, 11; operations and maintenance department, which in- 
cludes the mechanical division, police division, grounds division, and 
services division, 122; animal department, 77 (an increase of 1 night 
keeper) ; and scientific research department, 1. 


150 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 
POLICE DIVISION 


Alterations to the topography of the Park during the past year 
created problems for the Zoo police, but they have made the necessary 
adjustments to meet the changes in flow of traffic, congested areas, 
dangerous locations, and changed sites of parking lots. 

Four new members joined the force to replace men who retired or 
transferred. A new police cruiser replaced the old one, and two more 
horses were acquired for patrolling remote parts of the Park. Addi- 
tional walkie-talkie sets facilitate direct communication between men 
working in widely scattered locations. 

The police locker room and improved kitchen facilities were relo- 
cated to eliminate congestion in the police station and add to the 
comfort of the division. 

AFGE Lodge No. 185 was recognized by the Smithsonian Institu- 
tion as the official bargaining agent in disputes and discussion between 
the police department and management. 

Eight letters of commendation were received, citing various officers 
for the courtesy, kindness, and assistance to the public. 

Twenty-five officers qualified on the pistol range. The division now 
has seven experts, nine sharpshooters, and nine marksmen. 

Lieutenant Wolfe attended the President’s Conference on Occupa- 
tional Safety. Captain Brink attended a seminar on management 
and employee relations, held at the Civil Service Commission. Lt. D. 
B. Bell conducted a refresher course in law enforcement. Sgt. A. L. 
Canter and Pvt. D. R. Bowman held classes in first aid. 

During the year at the Zoo there were 1,501 traffic violations, 131 
juvenile arrests, 62 criminal arrests, 106 truant children, 295 lost chil- 
dren, 535 minor first-aid cases, and 47 serious first-aid cases. A total 
of 9,395 visitors asked for information or assistance at the police 
station. 

Through the efforts of Lieutenant Wolfe, blood procurement officer, 
38 pints of blood were donated to the Red Cross Blood Bank. Thirty- 
seven pairs of eyeglasses, found and unclaimed, were donated to the 
D.C. Chapter of the Society for the Prevention of Blindness; 12 bags 
of clothing and miscellaneous articles, found and unclaimed, were 
turned over to Goodwill Industries. 

Nine groups of handicapped children and 11 busloads of patients 
from St. Elizabeth’s Hospital were escorted through the Zoo by var- 
ious police officers throughout the year. On May 9 a total of 7,378 
School Safety Patrol children, transported in 190 buses, visited the 
Park after the annual parade. Buses were parked and dispersed 
efficiently by the police in the limited parking areas available. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 151 
MAINTENANCE, CONSTRUCTION, AND GROUNDS 


The mechanical division has the responsibility for the maintenance 
and repair of the buildings and facilities of the National Zoological 
Park. This responsibility is met by the heating and ventilating sec- 
tion and by the building section which, in addition to continuing 
maintenance, constructs new shelters, paddocks, and cages for the 
animals, 

Considerable work was done on the monkey house this year. The 
wooden partitions and floors in the inside cages were rebuilt, new 
shifting doors installed, and inside and outside cages painted. New 
doors were built and installed at the building’s entrance. The reloca- 
tion of the Connecticut Avenue-Harvard Street road necessitated the 
installation of fences for visitor safety and animal protection. The 
small stone house for hoofed stock, back of the small mammal house, 
was remodeled to make it suitable for camels. One of the large alliga- 
tor cages on the north end of the reptile house was remodeled and 
now is provided with radiant heat in the floor to make it more com- 
fortable for the Komodo dragon. The small waterfowl] pond behind 
the main bear line was remodeled as an exhibit area for the Komodo 
dragon and the Malayan monitors during the summer months. 

Plumbers, electricians, carpenters, and painters are constantly at 
work keeping the old buildings in a decent state of repair. One of 
the year’s tasks was to build a crate for a full-grown giraffe. 

Work of the grounds division included the planting of 107 trees 
(some of them flowering), 63 shrubs, 78 evergreens, and various bulbs 
and annuals. ‘These were planted along the new road, on banks near 
the shop, and throughout the Zoo lawns. Other projects included 
seeding new areas where contractors had been working on the road; 
seeding of deer paddocks, which had never before had grass; making 
several new flowerbeds; renewing the soil and preparing a special me- 
dium for the Komodo dragon’s outdoor cage; gathering forage and 
grass clippings for animal food; filling in holes in lawns and walk- 
ways; and cutting of perches desired for birds and animals. The 
ground division also cut back branches overhanging bridle paths and 
cleared horse trails along the fence line; removed dead wood from 
195 trees over walks, roads, and public areas; felled 92 trees that were 
dead or in bad condition; cut 49 unsightly stumps from Zoo lawns 
with the aid of a stump chipper borrowed from the U.S. Army, 
Cameron Station, Va.; moved snow and ice from sidewalks and build- 
ing steps; sprayed bees’ nests to protect the public from stings; and 
helped other departments in the Zoo with the Skyworker. Gifts of 
plants were received from the District Waterworks, Botanical Gar- 
den, Bureau of Standards, Glendale Nursery, Walter Reed Hospital, 
Naval Hospital, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, and the management of 
the annual Flower and Garden Show. 


152 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 
INFORMATION AND EDUCATION 


The major activity of the information-education department was the 
continuation of signing and relabeling. During the year a total of 
457 animal identification labels were completed; since the program 
began in October 1962, a total of eight buildings and units of the Zoo 
have been relabeled—the puma house, main bear dens, short bear line 
and ring cages, elephant house, reptile house, lion house, beaver valley, 
and all outdoor hoofed stock. Also produced were 221 supporting 
informational signs (safety signs, building signs, directional maps, 
etc.) and 131 other visual information projects such as maps, charts, 
and graphs. Four scale models were produced in conjunction with 
the renovation plans for the Zoo. The mechanical department as- 
sisted in framing and erecting the information signs on cages and 
exhibits throughout the Park. 

Additional department activities during the year included dissemi- 
nation of animal information by telephone and correspondence, 
library maintenance, and five special guided tours for groups of handi- 
capped children, visiting schools and colleges, and foreign guests. 
Two such groups of interest were delegates of the Foreign Museum 
Professionals, sponsored by the American Association of Museums in 
cooperation with the Department of State, and children from the 
United Cerebral Palsy of Northern Virginia. 

To study educational programs, labeling-exhibit techniques, and 
children’s zoos, the zoologist visited zoos, aquariums, and museums in 
Texas (Dallas and Fort Worth), Arizona (Tucson), and California 
(San Diego, Los Angeles, and San Francisco), from October 27 to 
November 13. From May 20 to May 28, the zoologist toured zoos 
and museums in Atlanta, Ga., and Tampa and Miami, Fla., for the 


same purpose. 
SAFETY SUBCOMMITTEE 


The National Zoological Park’s safety subcommittee consists of 
Lt. John R. Wolfe, chairman; Capt. C. E. Brink, police division; 
F. M. Dellar, administration office; Bert J. Barker, animal depart- 
ment; Reily Straw, maintenance and construction; John Monday, 
grounds department; and Mrs. W. M. Holden, secretary. Monthly 
meetings were held to suggest, discuss, and make recommendations to 
the director on safety improvements. 

The safety subcommittee is constantly on the alert for dangers that 
might arise due to the construction program. Three contractors are 
working on separate projects at the present time. Committee mem- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 153 


bers are also vigilant in seeing that previous recommendations for 
safety measures are carried out. 

Safety precautions taken included paving 600 feet of sidewalk, re- 
pairing potholes in roadways, installation of handrails at front and 
rear entrances of administration building, extending the step on the 
loading platform at the shop, and putting guards on power mowers. 


FINANCES 


Funds for the operation of the National Zoological Park are appro- 
priated annually under the District of Columbia Appropriation Act. 
The operation and maintenance appropriation for the fiscal year 1964 
totaled $1,597,356, which was $127,156 more than for the preceding 
year. The increase consisted of $25,010 to cover salary increases for 
general-schedule employees in accordance with Public Law 87-793; 
$43,260 to cover salary increases for wage-board employees; $18,560 
for within-grade salary advancements for both general-schedule and 
wage-board employees; $21,030 to cover costs of reallocations; $8,750 
for annualization of five positions established in fiscal year 1963; 
$4,841 to employ temporary police; $3,505 to establish one position 
for one-half of the year; $1,200 for miscellaneous supplies; and $1,000 
for the purchase of new equipment. 

Of the total appropriation, 84.5 percent ($1,349,407) was used for 
salaries and related personnel costs, and 15.5 percent ($247,949) for 
the maintenance and operation of the Zoo. Included in the latter fig- 
ure were $85,150 for animal food ; $23,700 for fuel for heating ; $24,188 
for materials for building construction and repairs; $12,473 for elec- 
tricity ; $12,119 for the purchase of animals; $6,933 for telephone, 
postal, and telegraph services; and $7,660 for veterinarian equipment 
and supplies. The balance of $75,726 in operational funds was ex- 
pended for other items, including freight, sundry supplies, uniforms, 
gasoline, road repairs, equipment replacement, and new equipment. 


COOPERATION 


At all times special efforts are made to maintain friendly contacts 
with other Federal and State agencies, private concerns and individ- 
uals, and scientific workers for mutual assistance. As a result, the 
Zoo receives much help and advice and many valuable animals, and in 
turn it furnishes information and, whenever possible, animals it does 
not need. 

Special acknowledgement is due William Taback and John Pulaski, 
in the office of the Dispatch Agent in New York City, and Stephen E. 
Lato, Dispatch Agent in San Francisco, who are frequently called 
upon to clear shipments of animals coming from abroad, often at times 
of personal inconvenience. 


154 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


When it is necessary to quarantine animals coming into this country, 
they are taken to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s station in 
Clifton, N.J. During the past year Dr. H. A. Waters and Andy 
Goodel, two of the officials stationed there, were most cooperative in 
keeping the National Zoological Park informed as to the well-being 
of animals and birds being held there for quarantine. 

Animals that die in the Zoo are offered to the U.S. National Museum. 
If the Museum does not need them, either as study specimens or as ex- 
hibits, they are sent on request to research workers in other institutions. 
Specialists at the Museum are always willing to be of help in identify- 
ing rare specimens acquired at the Zoo. 

The National Zoological Park cooperated with the National Capital 
Parks and lent small animals to Park naturalists and to the Nature 
Center in Rock Creek Park for demonstration. A Taiwan cobra was 
lent to the New England Aquarium in Boston, Mass., for a television 
showing. 

FRIENDS OF THE NATIONAL ZOO 


The Board of Governors of the Friends of the National Zoo, at their 
regular monthly meeting in April, passed the following resolution: 

Resolved: That the Board of Governors of the Friends of the National Zoo does 
hereby designate the Society’s primary purpose and function to be the encourage- 
ment of a broader zoological interest and knowledge, formed particularly in the 
National Zoological Park. To achieve this goal, we propose that the Society pro- 
mote the development of an educational service which would utilize all effective 
contemporary media. 

Therefore, the President is authorized to establish an Educational Steering 
Committee, not necessarily limited in membership to present members of the 
Society, which would formulate and recommend to the Board programs designed 
to achieve these above-mentioned ends. 

Since the 10-year program of capital improvements is so well under 
way, physically and financially, it was felt that the urgency of work- 
ing in behalf of the physical rehabilitation of the Zoo was no longer 
great, and that the Friends could turn their energies toward develop- 
ing various programs aimed at increasing and strengthening the edu- 
cational potential of the National Zoological Park. 

In March of this year the Friends published the first issue of their 
newsletter, called Spots and Stripes, which elicited much favorable 
comment. Present plans are for it to be published quarterly. The 
Zoo has long felt the need for this sort of publication, and staff mem- 
bers were glad to cooperate with the Friends in getting out the first 
two issues. 

The annual Zoo Night was held on June 12, 1964. Approximately 
250 members, with their families, were taken on a tour of the buildings, 
which were illuminated for the evening. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 155 
CAPITAL IMPROVEMENTS 


Money in this year’s Smithsonian Institution Appropriation Act 
amounted to $1,275,000 for the capital improvement program at the 
National Zoological Park. A portion of this is being used for the ad- 
vance planning of the multiclimate house and aquatic mammal exhibit, 
preliminary studies of the sewage system, and detailed planning for 
the Connecticut Avenue entrance, hardy hoofed-stock and delicate 
hoofed-stock enclosures, and additional parking lots. A portion of the 
remainder is being used to construct new deer pens and new parking 
lots near the Connecticut Avenue entrance. The balance will be com- 
bined with fiscal 1965 money to construct the hardy hoofed-stock and 
delicate hoofed-stock exhibits. A portion of the money was used to 
build an incinerator between the shop and the heating plant. Con- 
struction of the Connecticut Avenue entrance and the hardy hoofed- 
stock exhibit have been combined with the delicate hoofed stock in 1965 
because of delays in design due to refinements and improvements sug- 
gested by the Fine Arts Commission. 

During this fiscal year work continued on the remodeling of the 
birdhouse and construction of a new flight cage. It is hoped that con- 
struction will be finished and the house stocked and opened to the pub- 
lic in late December or early January. 

The relocation of the east-west access road from Connecticut Avenue 
to Beach Drive was completed and opened to the public. The elephant 
house parking lot is utilized by the visitors. Through traffic in the 
center of the Zoo has been completely eliminated except for Zoo vehi- 
cles. The removal of intrusive and dangerous automobile traffic has 
created a more leisurely and parklike atmosphere in the heart of the 
Zoo. As with any change, there have been some objections from the 
public; however, it is gratifying that many more compliments have 
been received than complaints. 

The incinerator was constructed by the Edrow Engineering Co. 
It is now possible for the National Zoological Park to destroy com- 
pletely all combustible waste material on the Zoo grounds. A long- 
standing source of embarrassingly poor housekeeping has been 
eliminated. 

National Capital Parks, Department of the Interior, has com- 
pleted the first phase of the relocation of Beach Drive, which consists 
of a tunnel under “Administration Hill,” retaining walls, a roadbed, 
and new bridle trail on the east side of Rock Creek. 

The Department of Sanitary Engineering of the District of Co- 
lumbia installed a new 60-inch relief interceptor sewer beginning in 
the Zoo downstream from the wolves, near “Purcell Rock,” and con- 
tinuing along the west bank of the creek adjacent to an already existing 
sewer line crossing Beach Drive within the Zoo just below the lower 


156 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


ford and continuing down through Rock Creek Park. This is part 
of a program of sewage improvement of the District of Columbia. 
Unfortunately the installation of such a large sewer necessitated the 
removal of most of the trees along the west bank of Rock Creek, and 
also the closing of the fords for many more days this year than is 
normal. 

At various times during the year there was construction going on 
in five different areas of the Zoo. This caused some inconvenience to 
visitors and necessitated changes in their parking and established 
traffic patterns. These changes, however, were met with ready ac- 
ceptance by the visiting public and a great deal of friendly interest 
by local citizens. 

There was a drop in the number of organized bus groups visiting 
the Zoo because of the difficulty of parking buses during the con- 
struction program. 

All redevelopment work is being done under the direction of the 
District of Columbia Department of Buildings and Grounds. Spe- 
cial acknowledgment is due the director of that department and his 
able staff. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Tueropore H. Reep, Director. 
S. Ditton Rirtey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the Astrophysical Observatory 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- 
tions of the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory for the fiscal 
year ended June 30, 1964: 


DIVISION OF ASTROPHYSICAL RESEARCH 


The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory’s broad research pro- 
gram* this past year embraced six major areas—planetary science, 
meteoritic studies, cometary science, solar observation, stellar observa- 
tion, and stellar theory. This division of the research program is 
wholly arbitrary, and the six areas are strongly interrelated. 

A recent work of the director of the Observatory is an example 
of the amalgamation of several of these topics. For the 100th anni- 
versary of the U.S. National Academy of Sciences, held in Wash- 
ington in October 1963, Dr. Whipple was invited to present a critical 
summary on the history of the solar system. This lecture, consider- 
ably expanded to present his interpretation of the present state of 
theory of the evolution of the solar system, is now in press for the 
Academy’s Proceedings. In preparing this summary, Dr. Whipple 
reviewed critically a number of the processes visualized as opera- 
tive in the earlier stages of the evolution of our solar system. In 
the coming years Observatory scientists will expand their explorations 
in these areas. 

A strong feature of the Observatory’s scientific program is the ease 
with which a scientist investigating a particular topic may draw on 
experience and techniques generated by others pursuing different 
topics. Thus the expertise developed by the Baker-Nunn network 
for tracking satellites has been applied to an enlarged program of 
comet and flare star observations. 

Planetary sciences——With each year of mounting space activity, 
the other planets seem less remote. Popular response and scientific 
attention to planetary studies seem destined to increase as we approach 
the ultimate objective of manned exploration. The current studies 
of the earth, facilitated and stimulated by satellite observations, will 
eventually be repeated for the other planets. At present these geo- 

*Unless otherwise noted, research is supported from Federal funds appropriated to 
Smithsonian Institution. ‘The Observatory, by paying scientists’ salaries, shares in the 


support of all research. Support from outside sources is detailed in footnotes 1-17 
(Gos a ae 


157 


158 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


physical investigations predominate in the planetary research activ- 
ities of the Observatory and much of the scientific community. 

Scientists of the Observatory, using precise satellite-tracking data 
from the network of Baker-Nunn cameras,’ investigate three major 
geophysical topics: the detailed representation of the earth’s gravi- 
tational field; the geometrical relation between points on the earth’s 
surface; and the density and temperature of the upper atmosphere 
and their variations. These topics are interrelated in a way that 
requires that they be investigated concurrently. The director of the 
Observatory is responsible for initiating the coordinated attack on 
these problems and for monitoring their interaction with national and 
international programs. 

As a satellite moves in its orbit, the details of its motion reflect 
the many irregularities in the gravitational field corresponding to the 
nonuniform mass distribution within the earth. The gravitational 
potential is conventionally represented mathematically as a series ex- 
pansion in spherical harmonics. Imre G. Izsak has used a total of 
26,447 precisely reduced Baker-Nunn observations of 11 objects to 
obtain least-squares estimates for the coefficients of tesseral and sec- 
torial harmonics of the geopotential.1_ The method yields estimates 
of geophysical significance for harmonics up to the sixth degree. 
Evaluations of zonal-harmonics coefficients in the earth’s gravita- 
tional potential up to the 14th order have been made by Dr. Y. Kozai,! 
who used precisely reduced Baker-Nunn observations of 1959 a1, 1959 
Eta, 1960 .2, 1961 Nu, 1961 o1 and 2, 1961 a1, and 1962 ae, inclina- 
tions of which are between 28° and 95°. 

A basic computer program used in all analyses of satellite motions 
is the Differential Orbit Improvement program (DOI), which has 
been extended by Mr. Izsak, M. J. Davies, and E. M. Gaposchkin 
to incorporate the effects of the tesseral harmonics in the geopotential. 

Dr. Walter Kéhnlein has analyzed the geometrical structure of 
the earth’s gravitational field in the harmonic representation. Of 
particular interest were the shapes of the surfaces of constant po- 
tential (geoid) and constant gravity, their Gaussian and mean curva- 
tures, and the curvature and torsion of the plumb lines. 

Theoretical studies by Dr. Chi-yuen Wang on the correlation be- 
tween the satellite-derived geoid and the heat flow distribution on 
the surface of the earth have justified the hypothesis that the irregu- 
lar undulations of the satellite geoid can be explained as the conse- 
quence of uneven thermal expansion of the earth’s mantle, result- 
ing from some heating process, perhaps an inhomogeneous distribution 
of radioactive heat sources.1. Computation of variations of temperature 
corresponding to several proposed models of distribution of heat 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 159 


sources has led to the following conclusions: 1. The inhomogeneous 
layer is extended from the top of the mantle to a depth of approxi- 
mately 100 to 200 km. 2. The isothermal surfaces are not simple 
geometrical surfaces. Temperatures on a “level surface” near the 
top mantle have fluctuations with amplitude of about 100° C, 

The Satellite-Tracking Program is now at fruition in its geodetic 
objectives, not only for the earth’s geopotential but also in the area 
of geodetic positions and the establishment of a much more precise 
worldwide geodetic system.1. Several independent calculations of im- 
proved coordinates of the Baker-Nunn stations have been made dur- 
ing the past year. When all detailed questions in these different 
approaches to the problems have been resolved, a consolidated, con- 
sistent result is expected. 

Over 45,000 observations from the 12 Baker-Nunn Stations were 
analyzed by Dr. George Veis, with the assistance of Mrs. Elizabeth 
Wombwell, to derive the coordinates of the stations and the absolute 
deflection of the vertical for seven datums.1. Although these results 
are preliminary, a value of 6,378,169 meters for the semimajor axis 
of the earth’s ellipsoid is obtained from the above derived deflections. 
A total of 26,447 precisely reduced photographic observations of 11 
objects were analyzed by Mr. Izsak to obtain least-squares estimates 
for the corrections to the coordinates of the 12 camera stations. The 
latter calculation was made in conjunction with determinations of 
the coefficients for the tesseral and sectorial harmonics of the 
geopotential. 

Using simultaneous observations of satellites from pairs of the five 
Baker-Nunn cameras in the Americas, Dr. Veis and Antanas Girnius 
have determined the directions of the lines connecting the stations 
with an accuracy of better than 1 second of are. More data from 
simultaneous observations are now under analysis. These will allow 
the determination of directions in both the North American and the 
European datums and will permit a connection between them. 
Dr. K6hnlein also devised several computer programs for the adjust- 
ment of space triangulations. By using the correlation of already 
adjusted coordinate values, he combines a pure geometrical method 
and a dynamical method for a joint adjustment computation of the 
station coordinates.* 

Although instrumented satellites are beginning to be important, 
satellite drag determined from tracking data continues to be the 
most productive source of information concerning the atmosphere 
above 200 km. Recent work at the Observatory, made possible by 
the Jnjun 3 and F'xplorer 17 satellites, includes the study of the atmos- 
phere under conditions of low solar activity and at low heights and 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


160 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


high latitudes.1 Atmospheric density variations, which directly in- 
fluence satellite drag, are interpreted as the result of temperature 
changes in the atmosphere. Dr. Luigi G. Jacchia generated a com- 
prehensive model of the major temperature variations—diurnal, with 
solar activity, with geomagnetic activity and semiannual—for presen- 
tation at the fifth International Space Science Symposium in Florence 
in May. Dr. Jacchia and Jack W. Slowey found that the heating 
accompanying geomagnetic disturbances was greater in the auroral 
zones than at middle latitudes; on quiet days, however, there is no 
detectable latitude effect. The relation between atmospheric heating 
and the geomagnetic index A,, which had been found to be nearly 
linear during magnetic storms, was found to depart very markedly 
from linearity on near-quiet days. This finding implies greater heat- 
ing from this source than had been suspected before. 

Plans are being drafted for a construction of quasi-static atmospheric 
models to be followed by dynamic models to fit the observed density 
data. 

Techniques other than satellite tracking are also useful in high- 
atmosphere studies by Observatory scientists. Instrumentation aug- 
menting the Radio Meteor Project has been developed by Dr. Mario 
D. Grossi to measure wind velocities at altitudes about 90 km. above 
ground level by collecting and processing doppler information con- 
tained in radar returns from meteor trails.?- A network of three sta- 
tions about 50 km. apart will allow at least two determinations per 
hour of the three components of the wind velocity vector with an 
accuracy of a few m sec*. 

Dr. N. P. Carleton conducts a program of research that includes 
laboratory study of certain atomic collision processes and analysis 
of phenomena of the aurora and airglow in terms of the collision 
processes involved.’ In the laboratory Dr. Carleton and Dr. Charles 
H. Dugan have been continuing study of excitation of metastable 
states of N., O., CO, and O by electron impact, combined with a 
study of subsequent collision processes involving these metastable 
atoms and molecules. Dr. Carleton has modified computer programs 
to examine the solution of two new problems: (1) the exact heating 
effects of the input of energetic photoelectrons into the ionosphere 
during the day, with application to the excitation of the dayglow, and 
(2) the calculation of the heating effects that could be produced in 
the ionosphere by a rocket-borne transmitter. 

Dr. Carl Sagan and his colleagues considered several phenomena 
and properties of the planet Venus, The 8-13 micron limb-darkening 
observations of Venus from Afariner IZ and other observations have 
been shown to be consistent with a wide variety of models of the 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 161 


Cytherean clouds and atmosphere, including semi-infinite, purely ab- 
sorbing atmospheres in radiative or convective equilibrium, and 
multiple-scattering cloud layers with a range of single-scattering al- 
bedos, again in radiative or convective equilibrium. Calculations in 
another paper show that the microwave phase effect can be explained 
in terms of the thermal and electrical properties of certain geochem- 
ically abundant materials at the temperatures of Venus’s surface, 
assuming very slow planetary rotation. 

Conditions on Mars have also been studied by Dr. Sagan, who has 
found that the wave of darkening is preferentially localized in times 
and locales on Mars when the mean daytime temperatures in the nuclei 
of the dark areas are above the freezing point of water. This result 
is consistent with the hypothesis that the wave of darkening is a bio- 
logical response to local increases in humidity and temperature. From 
investigations of the question of nitrogen oxides on Mars, Dr. Sagan 
and his associates find that previously published observations of Mars 
in the infrared, visible, and ultraviolet set an upper limit to the NO, 
abundance there of about 1 mm-atm. If there is no water on Mars, the 
theoretical upper limit obtained from photochemical and thermo- 
dynamic equilibrium is also 1 mm-atm. With 10 microns of precipi- 
table water in the Martian atmosphere, the NO, upper limit is reduced 
by an order of magnitude. These quantities of NO, are so small that 
it seems unlikely that the nitrogen oxides play a significant role in 
any observable on Mars, except possibly the blue haze. 

Life may have evolved on other planets of this or other solar systems 
as it has on the planet earth. Dr. Sagan and his colleagues have 
reported the laboratory synthesis of one of the key molecules impli- 
cated in the origin of life. The molecule, adenosine triphosphate 
(ATP), supplies most of the energy for chemical processes in all 
terrestrial organisms, The work was performed in collaboration with 
Cyril Ponnamperuma and Ruth Mariner, at NASA’s Ames Research 
Center. The ATP was synthesized by shining ultraviolet light on a 
solution of adenine, ribose, and a phosphorus compound. Adenine 
and ribose have previously been synthesized in similar experiments; 
phosphates are thought to have been present in the primitive oceans. 
Because of the absence of ozone from the primitive atmosphere of the 
earth, ultraviolet light is thought to have penetrated to the primitive 
oceans. The efficiency with which ATP was produced in these experi- 
ments suggests the possibility that the first organisms on earth ob- 
tained most of their energy from ATP synthesized abiologically by 
ultraviolet solar radiation, instead of from metabolically produced 
ATP, as contemporary organisms do. 

Drs. Fred Franklin and Allan F. Cook have continued their study 


162 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


of the structure of Saturn’s rings. The dynamics of the rings are 
considered in a rediscussion of Maxwell’s Adams Prize Essay on the 
stability of the rings. Photometry of rings A and B has been used 
to derive the optical thickness of five representative portions of the 
rings and the phase variation and albedo of the ring particles. 

The theory of diffuse reflection from scattering layers based on the 
equations of radiative transfer breaks down for dense dispersions of 
scattered particles very large relative to the wavelength. Dr. William 
M. Irvine’s recent examinations of the necessary correction to the 
usual multiple-scattering theory may relate to the situation of Saturn’s 
rings. 

Disturbances to the motion of Neptune previously attributed to the 
planet Pluto have been reexamined by Dr. Whipple. Other evidence 
indicates that Pluto is too small to produce the observed effects. Dr. 
Whipple has shown that a belt of comets outside the orbit of Neptune 
can account for the disturbances. 

A long-range project of Mr. Izsak’s concerns the utilization of 
digital computers for the complex algebraic manipulations required 
by analytical perturbation theories in celestial mechanics. A com- 
puter program for the analytical development of the planetary dis- 
turbing function has just been completed.1. With the help of this 
program the duplication of Leverrier’s classical development for 
Jupiter and Saturn takes about one minute of computing time. 

Meteoritice science—Many rich clues to the origin and workings of 
the solar system are provided by meteorites, meteoroids, interplane- 
tary dust, and the wide range of phenomena related to them. These 
phenomena must be contained comfortably in any satisfactory picture 
of the evolution of the solar system. To exploit the diverse informa- 
tion offered by these bits and fragments of solid matter, the research 
program of the Observatory is correspondingly broad. 

Fiscal year 1964 was particularly noteworthy for the meteoritic 
science program, because several important instrumentation complexes 
were completed. Large-trough antennas were added to all five remain- 
ing sites of the Radio Meteor Project ‘+; the full 16-station Prairie 
Meteorite Network ® went into operation; the simultaneous optical and 
radar networks for observing artificial meteors from Wallops Island 
became operational *®; and the mass spectrometer for stable-isotope 
analyses of meteorites was finished.’ Since observational data are the 
backbone of any scientific program, the availability of these new 
facilities holds promise of many productive investigations. 

The addition of large-trough antennas to all the sites of the Har- 
vard-Smithsonian Radio Meteor Project permitted the collection of 
reliable data on meteors smaller than any we have previously been 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 163 


able to study. Thus a long-standing objective has been met, and major 
results from the operation of the improved network are imminent. 
Using data selected from that obtained over the past several years, 
Drs. Gerald S. Hawkins and Richard B. Southworth have examined 
the physical characteristics of the small radio meteors; they find that 
the majority of the faint radio meteors show total fragmentation. 
The decrease in average velocity as the size of the bodies decreases, 
originally reported by Drs. Hawkins, Southworth, and B. A. Lind- 
blad, was studied further by Kenneth Baker.* 

The relationship between the flux of meteors incident on the earth 
and the observed rate of radio meteors has been determined by Dr. 
W. G. Elford ¢ in terms of (1) the distribution law as a function of 
magnitude; (2) the density of meteor radiants over the celestial 
sphere; (3) the parameters of the radio equipment; and (4) a simple 
form for the ionized trail. The theory has been applied to the Har- 
vard-Smithsonian Radio Meteor system at Havana, Illinois, and an 
estimate has been made of the average flux over the earth of meteors 
of magnitude 2+12. A provisional value of 80 km~hr* has been 
obtained. The analysis is being extended to determine the relative 
density of meteor radiants over the celestial sphere.* 

A new analysis of 413 precisely reduced meteors photographed some 
years ago with the Super-Schmidt cameras has been made by Dr. 
Jacchia, Dr. Franco Verniani, and Robert Briggs.1 Several physical 
characteristics of meteor bodies, together with their interdependences, 
have been determined more accurately than has hitherto been possible. 

Dr. Verniani’s investigations of the luminous and ionizing efficiencies 
of meteors have been completed. These two quantities are essential 
for the determination of meteor masses and densities. The photo- 
graphic luminous efficiency +», measured with respect to kinetic energy, 
has been rederived from Super-Schmidt photographic data, taking 
fragmentation into account. The dependence of rt, on the meteor 
velocity v is found to take the form r»~v". The exponent n turns out 
to be 1.0++0.15 for both faint and bright photographic meteors. The 
present evaluation of 7, has also allowed the determination of the 
lonizing efficiency tz. Drs. Verniani and Hawkins‘ have found tz~v?. 
The comparison of the rates of photographic and radio meteors of 
about the same magnitude confirms this relation. 

The Observatory has established a field operation to observe the 
luminosity and ionization produced by artificial meteors fired from 
rockets launched at Wallops Island, Virginia.* The Observatory now 
operates two Super-Schmidt cameras for this program. A third 
camera site will be built, and a prism will be added to an additional 
Super-Schmidt at the Wallops Island site. Four radar-receiving 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


766-746—65——12 


164 |= ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


systems have been established at sites along the coast of North 
Carolina. These receivers, together with a transmitter and receiver 
on an ocean-going vessel, can make measurements of the ionization 
of artificial meteors simultaneously with the optical observations. Dr. 
Richard E. McCrosky is responsible for analysis of the optical data, 
and Drs. Hawkins and Southworth, for the radar data. 

The entire 16-station Prairie Meteorite Network ® has been in full 
operation since early May 1964. Dr. McCrosky is principal investi- 
gator. During the first months of operation the network obtained 
double-station photographs of two extremely bright objects. With 
magnitudes of the order of —12 and —15, both these meteors far 
exceed in luminosity any object on which data have previously been 
acquired. Their analysis is expected to yield interesting results. In 
each case, unfortunately, the terminal mass was judged to be too 
small to justify a search for the meteorite. 

Dr. Cook has continued work § with Dr. Peter M. Millman of the 
National Research Council, Ottawa, and Dr. Ian Halliday of the 
Dominion Observatory, Ottawa, on three Perseid meteor spectra ob- 
tained at the Springhill Meteor Observatory at Springhill, Ontario, 
in 1957. Dr. Cook has also worked on the physics of meteors to 
generate a criterion for the mode of ablation, i.e., to determine whether 
vaporization does or does not occur and then to seek observational 
evidence for the action of this criterion. 

During its long life the earth’s surface has been hit many times by 
large meteorites, which have produced craters. Only a limited num- 
ber of these have been recognized and studied. It is clear that appro- 
priate effort can extend this number significantly, and the Observatory 
has been involved in occasional studies of craters or possible craters. 
Dr. Paul W. Hodge visited the Henbury Meteorite Craters and the 
Boxhole Crater in Australia to study the meteoritic debris in the 
soil surrounding them. 

A field party > made up of Ursula B. Marvin, T. C. Marvin, and 
Walter A. Munn spent 16 days in August 1963 mapping and collecting 
samples at the site of an unusual craterlike formation in the San Luis 
Valley, Colo., to test the possibility that it could have resulted from 
the impact of a small meteorite or comet. The plane-table map shows 
that the “crater” is not a bowl-shaped depression in the landscape, 
but that the rim is a positive feature surrounding a floor that is 
concordant with the slope of the alluvial fan on which it lies. The 
search through the samples for meteorite strippings, nickel-iron 
spherules, or such impact products as glass or shock-produced silica 
minerals has not been completed, but results to date are negative. 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 165 


The tentative conclusions are that the feature is probably not an 
impact site but an uncommon type of sand-dune formation. 

Tektites, their distribution, and possible associated impactites and 
earth craters pose interesting questions. Are tektites terrestrial or 
extraterrestrial in origin? If they are terrestrial, are there associated 
impact craters? Dr. Whipple has suggested that a large crater, on 
the order of 15 miles in diameter, may exist in the Far East area of 
tektite-strewn fields. Therefore Don W. Farnsworth has begun a 
map search for such an impact structure. He has so far examined 
nearly 1,000 topographic maps of Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and nearby 
islands. Maps showing depth to ocean bottom have been examined 
and contoured. Search for an impact crater continues as maps be- 
come available. 

Very small particles striking the high atmosphere are stopped by 
atmospheric drag before they are destroyed. Larger bodies may 
fragment or ablate on striking the atmosphere, generating many 
smaller particles. Hence a rain of small particles from outside the 
earth is constantly falling through the atmosphere to the surface. 
The identification and analysis of these particles is a challenging 
problem. 

The use of radio isotope techniques offers one means to identify 
material as extraterrestrial. For this purpose Dr. Edward L. Fire- 
man, working with Chester C. Langway of the Army Cold Regions 
Research Laboratories, has collected and analyzed dust from melted 
snow deep within the Greenland ice sheet. Results from this study 
indicate that the exposure age of silicates in dust is less than 10,000 
years.° 

Mrs. Ursula B. Marvin has made comparative studies of the miner- 
alogy, chemical composition, and physical properties of black spher- 
ules from the Greenland ice cap and industrial black spherules 
produced by welding operations.’° Results showed that weld spatter 
sometimes duplicates a type of black spherule, consisting of iron oxide 
(magnetite) with less than 1 percent of manganese, that 1s found in 
the Greenland ice and has been reported from many other environ- 
ments where researchers have sought extraterrestrial dust. 'The most 
common weld spatter, however, is metallic iron or nickel-iron that can 
be distinguished from cosmic dust by a high content of chromium. 
This work was done in collaboration with Mr. Langway. 

Collections of small particles have also been made on Observatory 
collectors flown on a U-2 at high altitudes by the U.S. Air Force, 
and on a B-52 by the NASA Flight Research Center, both at Edwards 
Air Force Base, California. These collections have been analyzed by 
Dr. Frances Wright and Dr. Hodge. They have also examined 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


166 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


material from polar ice cores in search for extraterrestrial particles 
and have collected particles on the slopes of the Arizona Meteorite 
Crater for analysis and comparison with other matter that now seems 
to be extraterrestrial. 

A particular problem has been the isolation of volcanic particles, 
which may be confused with extraterrestrial material. To better 
characterize volcanic particles, Dr. Wright is examining collections 
made by personnel from the Baker-Nunn Stations: samples from 
Kilauea Iki 1959 eruption, collected by D. V. Mechau; samples from 
Trazu 1963 eruption, collected by Ron La Count; and samples from 
Ubinas 1954 eruption, collected by A. Oakes. 

Drs. Wright and Hodge have sampled these volcanic dust deposits 
to search for and analyze microscopic spherules that might possibly 
be similar to the supposed meteoritic spherules found in polar ice 
sediments. In the size range of 10 to 100p, approximately 2X 10-> of 
voleanic particles are perfect or nearly perfect spherules, and 210-5 
are rough magnetic spheroids. In composition they are similar to 
only a few of the polar glacier particles the two have analyzed. 
They have concluded that since the numerical ratio of spherules to 
irregular particles for the volcanic dust is so much different from that 
for the ice sediments, a volcanic origin for the latter seems impossible. 
Therefore a meteoroidal origin for the arctic and antarctic spherules 
is the most reasonable hypothesis. 

Another place where cosmic dust might be expected to accumulate 
is the sediment on the ocean floor. Dr. Craig M. Merrihue is explor- 
ing this possibility. A mass-spectrometric search for extraterrestrial 
material in a magnetic separate from a modern Pacific red clay 
revealed the presence of He* and an argon isotope anomaly, suggest- 
ing the presence of cosmic dust. The cosmic gases are not cosmogenic 
because the isotope pattern does not resemble that expected from 
cosmic-ray-induced reactions. It appears that the most abundant 
magnetic component of cosmic dust is saturated with gases picked up 
from the solar wind. A computer program has been assembled to 
solve the diffusion equation for gases from spheres, assuming an arbi- 
trary nonuniform initial gas profile. This program will permit accu- 
rate determinations of diffusion constants and activation energies for 
meteoritic minerals, 

The Observatory’s interest in dust goes beyond the earth’s atmos- 
phere. The joint research of Drs. Giuseppe Colombo and Don A. 
Lautman, with Irving Shapiro of the M.I.T. Lincoln Laboratory, 
concerning the concentration of cosmic dust around the earth has 
established that the density of dust in the vicinity of the earth can 
be enhanced by a factor of nearly 10‘ over that in the zodiacal cloud, 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 167 


provided that the initial velocities with respect to the earth are small 
(about 1.5 km sec). The trapping mechanism consists of an initial 
encounter with the earth’s atmosphere followed by conversion to a 
long-lifetime orbit by radiation pressure. Drs. Colombo and Laut- 
man have found that long-lifetime orbits of particles ejected from 
the moon cannot contribute significantly to the cloud, nor can particle 
breakup, since the drag pressure at the relatively high capture altitudes 
is not high enough to break the particles. 

The particles responsible for the zodiacal light are concentrated 
near the plane of the ecliptic. Dr. Southworth has performed a cal- 
culation combining the space-density distribution of the zodiacal dust 
particles (as observed in the zodiacal light, and as theoretically pre- 
dicted from the Poynting-Robertson effect) with the observed redden- 
ing of the Fraunhofer corona (which is sunlight diffracted by the par- 
ticles), showing that the mean radius of the observed particles exceeds 
15 microns. Some invisible submicron particles may also be present, 
but their total mass will be negligible compared to that of the larger 
particles. 

Dr. Charles Whitney has obtained laboratory evidence confirming 
the suggestion that interstellar bands are produced by resonant absorp- 
tion in small grains. Experimental work confirms the presence of the 
band for Na grains, and theory shows that such grains, when coated 
with ordinary ice, will produce an absorption just at the astronomi- 
cally observed wavelength. 

Meteorites, solid bodies from space that survive the plunge through 
the earth’s atmosphere, warrant careful attention, since they are the 
only samples yet available of extraterrestrial material. It is fruitful 
to study their mineralogy, crystal structure, metallurgy, chemical 
composition, isotope distribution, and other physical properties. 

In her continuing mineralogical studies Mrs. Marvin has estab- 
lished zircon as a meteoritic mineral by its positive identification in 
the Vaca Muerta mesosiderite and the Toluca iron meteorite.?° Zir- 
con, because it concentrates uranium, thorium, hafnium, and rare 
earths, is a mineral of choice for age determinations and measure- 
ments of Zr/Hf ratios and rare-earth distribution in meteorites. The 
character and mode of occurrence of zircon in Vaca Muerta and 
Toluca were studied in detail in collaboration with Cornelis Klein, of 
the Harvard University Department of Geological Sciences, who 
determined chemical compositions by means of electron-probe 
microanalyses. 

During the past year Dr. Joseph I. Goldstein completed a metallur- 
gical study of Widmanstitten patterns in metallic meteorites. The 
object of the project was to establish the roles of pressure, tempera- 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


168 |= ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


ture, and time in the formation of these patterns. A method of analy- 
sis using the method of finite differences was developed for the 
diffusion-controlled growth of the Widmanstitten patterns. As nec- 
essary inputs to the growth analysis, the interdiffusion coefficients for 
the Fe-Ni system, as a function of pressure, temperature, and compo- 
sition, were measured, as were the diffusion coefficients in both the « 
and y phases. The Fe-Ni phase diagram was also redetermined at 
temperatures above 500° C. Dr. Goldstein proposes two alternative 
models for the origin of meteorites in which the Widmanstitten 
pattern formed at low pressures. 

Dr. Matthias F. Comerford has initiated a program to investigate 
defect structures in meteorites and micrometeorites. An attempt is 
being made to relate the substructure observed in extraterrestrial ob- 
jects to the thermomechanical procedures required to produce simi- 
lar structures in laboratory alloys. The environmental effects of both 
pressure and temperature upon the kinetics of nucleation and growth 
of these defect structures can be examined in some detail. Prelimi- 
nary results indicate that both effects are present and may act in 
opposing ways. 

Dr. Fireman and his associates conduct a broad program of re- 
search to measure cosmic-ray-produced radioactive and stable isotopes 
in meteorites, in recovered satellites, in dust collections from the polar 
regions, and in deep-sea sediments. In this program one must con- 
stantly improve and maintain low-level counting equipment and other 
types of analytical apparatus. The group has determined the time 
various meteorites were exposed to cosmic rays. The youngest is the 
Farmington meteorite, which was exposed for only 10,000 years; the 
oldest stony meteorite is Norton County, exposed for about 400,000,000 
years. Results on recovered satellites indicate that in addition to 
cosmic rays there are isotope effects produced by Van Allen particles 
and solar flares. These effects are quite different from cosmic-ray 
effects. 

An important advance was made during the past year when James 
C. DeFelice and Dr. Fireman obtained sufficient material to measure 
the short-lived argon-37 in the whole-rock, magnetic, and nonmagnetic 
phases of the recently fallen chondrite Peace River. Although the 
radioactive contents are similar to those of other newly fallen chon- 
drites, the ratio of argon-37 to argon-39 is somewhat lower than they 
have previously observed. Also, its carbon-14 is lower. In another 
analysis, the cosmic-ray exposure age of the Pribram meteorite was 
found to be identical to the value of the exposure age obtained for the 
Bruderheim fall, which is typical for chondrites. The tritium, argon- 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 169 


39, and carbon-14 contents are similar to those obtained for other stony 
meteoroids. 

Earlier measurements of tritium in satellite fragments have been 
extended by Dr. David Tilles and Mr. DeFelice, who have obtained 
upper limits for the tritium content of Discoverer 14 and for the 
amount of tritium in a trapped state in August 1960. These measure- 
ments, combined with measurements previously reported in other 
satellites, have given evidence for an increase of at least an order of 
magnitude in trapped tritium flux in less than 4 months and a decrease 
of at least an order of magnitude in less than 7 months. Such time 
variations are believed to have been caused by direct injection of solar- 
flare tritons into the Van Allen belts in November 1960. 

Dr. Merrihue’s analysis of data on xenon and krypton from minerals 
and chondrules from the Bruderheim meteorite indicates that chon- 
drules, enriched in Xe” yet depleted in xenon, are the most primitive 
material yet studied and reflect an early high-temperature origin. 
Based on a Xe’”*-xenon correlation, the minerals appear to be an equi- 
librum aggregation. The difference between meteoritic and terrestrial 
xenon can be attributed to a fast proton irradiation of meteoritic mate- 
rial and the accumulation in meteorites of fission xenon, possibly from 
Pu™* spontaneous fission. 

Dr. Merrihue has devised a method of trace-element determinations 
by mass spectrometry of neutron-irradiated samples. Preliminary 
results, based on data collected at Berkeley, were obtained for U2**, Se, 
Te, I, Br, and Cl, and also for the Br®/Br® ratio, which appears to be 
anomalous in meteorites. Also, a new method of potassium-argon 
dating, applicable to minute samples, has been established, based on 
A“/A® ratios in neutron-irradiated samples in which A*® is produced 
by the K*(n,p) reaction. Thus both potassium and radiogenic argon 
are determined in the same sample, and a correction for air contamina- 
tion can be applied using the measured A**. This represents a con- 
siderable improvement over conventional methods. 

The rare-gas mass spectrometer has been completed by Dr. Tilles 
and his associates.’ As a first application of the instrument, the 
group plans searches of deep-sea sediment for evidence of material 
of extraterrestrial origin. Similar searches are planned in particulate 
matter from Greenland ice, collected by Dr. Fireman and Mr. Lang- 
way. The major research emphasis with this spectrometer will be on 
studies of meteoritic samples—isotopic composition and amounts of all 
noble gases in separated phases of meteorites. 

From the theoretical aspect, Dr. Henri E. Mitler is studying the 
effects of cosmic-ray bombardment on meteorites. Quantitative analy- 
sis of radionuclides produced can lead to estimates of the preatmos- 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


170 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


pheric size of the meteorite and of the proton flux to which it has been 
subjected. 

Cometary science-—Comets and their associated phenomena are inti- 
mately related to other aspects of the solar system, such as zodiacal 
dust, micrometeorites, and evolution of the planets. Cometary in- 
vestigations hence constitute a vital link in the Observatory’s overall 
research program. 

A study by Dr. Whipple of the secular variation in the absolute 
brightnesses of comets leads to the possibility that several of the known 
periodic comets may disappear within the coming decade. The ob- 
servational rediscoveries of the periodic comets suggest that these cal- 
culations are more pessimistic with regard to the lifetimes of comets 
than is justified; nevertheless, the predictions should serve a useful 
purpose in stimulating search for the rediscovery of old comets and in 
clarifying the question concerning the actual decay processes whereby 
comets do, indeed, cease to be visible. 

Dr. Whipple, in the study mentioned earlier, has also discussed the 
evidence that a thin belt of comets probably remains in a plane not far 
from the mean plane of the planets, but outside the orbit of Neptune. 
Such a belt of comets can account for disturbances of Neptune’s 
motion. 

The utilization of the Baker-Nunn cameras for comet observations 
has been expanded.!2,+ Using photographs thus obtained, the Ob- 
servatory is pursuing three objectives: determination and understand- 
ing of the motion of comet tails; photometry of comets; and time-lapse 
motion pictures to document the changes in a comet and its tail with 
time. 

The research on tail motions is guided by Daniel Malaise,’* who has 
previously observed that the direction of the tail of a comet may 
oscillate significantly about the line directed through the comet away 
from the sun. The explanation of this phenomenon is not clear, but 
it may be related to some characteristic of the solar wind. Baker- 
Nunn photographs are an excellent source of the observational data 
required to pursue this topic. Data obtained during the past year 
are being analyzed. 

The photometric investigations are the responsibility of Dr. 
Southworth. For this purpose, defocusing lenses have been sent to 
a number of the stations. An unresolved question in cometary 
astronomy is whether comet magnitudes do indeed change in correla- 
tion with solar activity, as some investigators have reported. A study 
of this question is one of several investigations based on the photo- 
metric data. 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 171 


In conjunction with the icy-conglomerate model of a comet, Dr. 
Whitney reexamined the theory of heat transfer within glaciers. He 
showed that radioactive transfer can be appreciable and can signifi- 
cantly influence measured temperatures in glaciers. Dr. Whitney, 
Dr. Charles A. Lundquist, and Douglas Pitman have initiated labora- 
tory work to elucidate the transfer of heat and mass within porous, 
subliming matrices such as snow or frosty sand. Preliminary experi- 
ments confirm that this work will be highly valuable for insight into 
comet phenomena. 

Solar observations —Information about solar phenomena may be 
acquired by relatively direct or by indirect observational techniques. 
Heating of the earth’s atmosphere or oscillations in the direction of a 
comet’s tail are examples of indirect means of gleaning solar data. 
The Observatory is also involved in more direct measurements. 

Dr. Leo Goldberg directs a broad program of solar-oriented re- 
search, mostly under the auspices of Harvard College Observatory, but 
partly within the research program of the Astrophysical Observatory. 
An important part of Dr. Goldberg’s program concerns the prepara- 
tion of solar spectrometers for rocket and satellite flights. 

A model of the Harvard spectrometer for Orbiting Solar Observa- 
tory B was flown in an Aerobee high rocket from White Sands, New 
Mexico, on September 6, 1963. Three full scans and part of a fourth 
were obtained of the solar spectrum between 1350 and 500 A. Good 
records were obtained of the emission lines and of the Lyman con- 
tinuum. Dr. Robert W. Noyes of the Astrophysical Observatory as- 
sisted in the reduction of the data from this experiment. 

The flight model for the OSO-B spectrometer was integrated into 
the spacecraft at Ball Brothers Research Corporation in Colorado 
and subsequently delivered to Cape Kennedy for final testing and 
preparation for flight. A disastrous accident during spin-balance 
testing, in which the third stage of the rocket to which the satellite was 
attached ignited, caused the destruction of the entire payload. A 
spare instrument now being calibrated will be integrated into a new 
spacecraft during the next fiscal year. Dr. Noyes supervised the set- 
ting up of a “Quick Look” Data System, by which data from experi- 
ments aboard the Orbiting Solar Observatories will be acquired by 
Harvard-SAO in decoded, legible form within a short time of the 
satellite’s pass over a ground station, thus permitting near-real-time 
control of the experiment. 

Designs are currently being prepared ® for an improved version of 
the spectrometer capable of one arc minute resolution on the disk, 
which will probably be flown about 1966. 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


172 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Observations made at the Kitt Peak National Observatory concern- 
ing magnetic fields in the solar photosphere have been analyzed by 
Dr. Noyes. These observations yielded a definite correlation between 
photospheric velocities and magnetic fields, in the sense that the highest 
magnetic fields (about 50-75 gauss) found in quiet regions tend to 
occur in regions where material is moving downward (with velocities 
of about 0.2 km sec). This has been interpreted as a result of con- 
vective sweeping of magnetic fields toward the downward-descending 
periphery of the large convective cells (supergranulation) which cover 
the surface of the quiet sun. 

Dr. Giovanni Fazio has reduced gamma-ray detector data from 1,000 
orbits of Orbiting Solar Observatory I.1° These reductions have 
shown no evidence of gamma rays with energy greater than 50 million 
ev from the sun, even during solar flares, with an upper limit of the 
order of 10-* photons/cm? sec. Likewise, no evidence was found for 
celestial sources of primary gamma rays. The sensitivity of the detec- 
tor was limited by background radiation. 

The possibility of detecting neutrinos from the sun is a lively topic 
of discussion in astrophysical circles. Some authors suggest that this 
can be accomplished by using the reaction in which a solar ve combines 
with a Cl" nucleus to give Ar*? and an electron. The radioactive gas 
Ar®” may be detected by counting techniques. The Observatory has 
laboratories equipped to do this counting, as Ar*’ is one of the radio- 
active isotopes analyzed in meteorites. Since the v- reaction cross sec- 
tion with Ar*’ is extremely low, vast quantities of Cl must be used. 
Since Ar®? can also be generated by cosmic-ray-induced rections, the 
experiment must be performed under conditions of extreme radiation 
shielding—say deep in the earth. Dr. Lundquist has suggested that 
commercially pumped brine wells might meet these requirements, if 
the Ar*’ from the chlorine-rich brine could be measured. Dr. Mitler 
has made a study of the relative amounts of Ar*’ generated by the solar 
neutrino reaction and by other undesired reactions. The practical 
implementation of the experiment is being studied. 

Stellar observations—A feature of current astrophysics is the rapid 
expansion of observational possibilities into previously inaccessible 
parts of the electromagnetic spectrum and to radiation other than 
electromagnetic. This has been accomplished in part by carrying 
instruments above the absorption of the atmosphere. New technology 
has also contributed to the enlarged observational capabilities. Com- 
parison and correlation of data from widely spaced frequencies have 
also proved to be powerful procedures. 

An example of correlated observations at quite different frequencies 
is the study of flare stars... During preagreed time intervals, the 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 173 


Observatory employs its network of Baker-Nunn cameras to photo- 
graph a flare star repeatedly. The probability of successful observa- 
tion is good since several of the cameras can be used simultaneously. 
During the same interval, one of several radio telescopes cooperating in 
the program continuously observes the same flare star. The resulting 
records are searched for nearly simultaneous optical flares and sudden 
increases in radio signal. During the past year about 180 hours of 
combined observations have been made. Correlations previously 
found to exist between faint optical flares and radio events were con- 
firmed by several major events. 

The continuing cooperative effort with Sir Bernard Lovell of the 
Jodrell Bank Experimental Station, England, and Dr. Whipple and 
Leonard H. Solomon of the Astrophysical Observatory has led to 
further new evidence concerning optical flares and radio flares on 
peculiar dwarf stars, such as UV Ceti. A distinction between two 
types of event has been made, with at least one analogy to solar phe- 
nomena being drawn. Further, the coincidence in time between 
optical and radio flares shows that the velocity of light is constant to 
better than one part in 2X 10° over a range in wavelength exceeding a 
factor of 210°. Similar joint programs are being pursued with the 
Division of Radiophysics, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial 
Research Organization, Sydney, Australia, and the Arecibo Iono- 
spheric Observatory of Cornell University. 

Project Celescope,” the satellite project to use television techniques 
to survey the ultraviolet magnitude of stars, has finished its develop- 
mental phase with completion of the prototype instrument. The proj- 
ect next enters the critical phase during which the prototype undergoes 
extensive environmental testing, and the instrument for flight on an 
Orbiting Astronomical Observatory is fabricated to the proven proto- 
type design. Overall aspects of this challenging undertaking have 
engaged the attention of Dr. Whipple, Dr. Lundquist, and Project 
Scientist Dr. Robert Davis. The procedures for absolute calibration 
of the four ultraviolet television photometers have been established by 
Dr. Davis and Mr. Malaise. Preparations for automated data reduc- 
tion and analysis are coordinated by Dr. Owen Gingerich. 

At wavelengths still shorter than ultraviolet light, projects are 
underway at the Observatory to measure X-rays and y-rays from 
astronomical sources. The most exciting experiment now in progress 
is an attempt by Dr. Fazio and Dr. Henry Helmken of the Observatory 
and Dr. D. Hill of M.I.T. to detect y-rays with energy greater than 10’? 
ev from the radio galaxy Cygnus A and from the quasi-stellar radio 
sources. A large (28 ft. square) fixed parabolic mirror in conjunction 
with a steerable plane mirror (40 ft. square) is being used to detect the 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


174 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Cerenkov light resulting from charged-particle showers in the atmos- 
phere. One possible origin of these showers is extraterrestrial gamma 
radiation. In the experiment an increase in the number of showers as 
a source transits the sensitive cone of the mirror would indicate the 
emission of gamma radiation by the source. In preliminary trials 
Cerenkov light was detected, and results indicate that this device 
should provide the most sensitive detector thus far in the search for 
gamma radiation. The mirror system is part of the solar furnace at 
the U.S. Army Laboratories, Natick, Mass. The Army has provided 
use of the instrument and technicians during these experiments. 

The feasibility of using a spark chamber in conjunction with a tele- 
vision recording system to detect primary gamma rays was exhibited 
in the laboratory, and a high-altitude balloon experiment using this 
detector is in preparation. A series of spark chambers was con- 
structed and evaluated, and a final design was chosen. A television 
camera (vidicon) was used to observe spark patterns of cosmic-ray 
particles in the chambers. The vidicon picture was recorded on 
16 mm film by a kinescope recorder and also transmitted by radio 
and recorded. In its ultimate form, this instrumentation can be 
adapted for satellite use to measure the flux of primary gamma rays 
and to determine their arrival direction and energy. 

Dr. Comerford and Dr. Fazio are using laboratory X-ray apparatus 
to evaluate techniques such as reflection and scattering for the collec- 
tion and detection of radiation from distant sources and to aid in the 
design and construction of devices to implement these techniques. 
Currently, the aim is not to map the sky, but to look carefully at dis- 
crete sources in the hope of resolving some of the uncertainties about 
their nature. 

Returning to the less exotic but ever-important visible portion of 
the spectrum, Drs. Wright and Hodge have completed the Atlas of 
the Large Magellanic Cloud. Heretofore it has been the custom for 
scientists who have identified and studied certain objects in the Large 
Magellanic Clouds to publish identifications in the form of coordi- 
nates on one of three different coordinate systems. The experience 
of most scientists with this method of identification has been very 
unsatisfactory, as the coordinates are inadequate, especially for stellar 
objects. Ambiguity arises because of the crowded nature of the star 
fields and the difficulty of establishing the coordinate systems on dif- 
ferent plates with different scales and distortions. A further hin- 
drance to progress in the study of the Magellanic Clouds is the lack 
of any central source of information on objects that have been iden- 
tified and studied. There have been much confusion and duplication 
in identification of variable stars, star clusters, and emission regions. 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT L775 


Hence this Atlas presents a photographic bibliography of past dis- 
coveries so that identification can be made quickly and accurately. 
The photographic plates taken expressly for the Atlas have now been 
completed. They were taken with the Schmidt telescopes at the 
Boyden and Mt. Stromlo Observatories. Two sets of plates were taken, 
one with a yellow filter and one with a blue filter. From these, 160 
charts size 11 by 11 inches have been made. The charts made from 
plates taken with a blue filter have identified on them all published 
verifiable variable stars, over 2,000 in number, while the other charts 
have identified on them all of the NGC objects, all star clusters, and 
all emission objects for which positions have been published. In the 
process of identifying past discoveries, 500 new star clusters were 
identified. 

The SAO Star Catalog, initially reduced in the FK-3 system, has 
been converted to the FK-4. All the preparatory work for publica- 
tion in book form has been completed.t_ Dr. Veis and Mrs. Katherine 
Haramundanis have begun the groundwork for a possible future en- 
largement by compiling a bibliography of star catalogs and references 
pertaining to them; determining approximate orientation angles for 
1,231 galaxies; and compiling a catalog of about 2,500 discrete radio 
sources. 

Stellar theory.—The Astrophysical Observatory has become a rec- 
ognized leader in the application of modern electronic computers to 
stellar models. In January 1964 the Observatory was host to an in- 
forma] 3-day international Conference on Model Stellar Atmospheres, 
which provided an opportunity for workers in this field to discuss 
their current researches. The conference was convened by Dr. Whit- 
ney and his associates. 

Extensive calculations of model stellar atmospheres are being con- 
tinued by Drs. Eugene H. Avrett and Stephen E. Strom.?. The grid 
of models calculated during the past year has been very successful 
in establishing an improved effective temperature scale for early-type 
stars. The effects of individual lines and of line blanketing are now 
being incorporated into the computer program. The first phase of 
investigation of line formation under conditions of noncoherent scat- 
tering has been completed. Solutions were obtained for the fre- 
quency-independent line source function for a two-level atom. Of 
greater importance, the necessary mathematical techniques have been 
developed for the solution of a wide variety of line-transfer problems. 

Dr. Strom has investigated the validity of model stellar atmo- 
spheres by means of comparing predicted continuous fluxes and spec- 
tral lines with the corresponding observed quantities. He obtained 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


176 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


many of the observations at Harvard’s Agassiz Station. The con- 
tinuous flux and H8, Hy, and Hf profiles for Vega were predicted 
remarkably well by a model atmosphere that included opacities caused 
by the blended wings of the higher Balmer and Lyman lines. The 
effective temperature of the model that best reproduced the observa- 
tions matched that derived from recent measurements of this star’s 
radius. 

Dr. Gingerich has investigated the role of opacities from metals in 
stellar atmospheres," finding good agreement between a predicted 
model and the solar rocket ultraviolet observations, and also showing 
that such opacities must be considered even in much hotter stars, such 
as Sirius, which probably has anomalously high metal abundances. 
In the work with S. S. Kumar on cool stars, with effective tempera- 
tures from 2,500 to 4,500°, he found unusually sharp maxima in the 
infrared spectrum near 16,500 A, which have been partially confirmed 
by the Princeton Stratoscope balloon observations. Electron and 
Rayleigh scattering has been incorporated into a stellar atmosphere 
computer program, both for the cool stars and for hotter stars. With 
this program David Latham has been able to show that the introduc- 
tion of convection into a consistent nongray solar model has little 
effect on the overlying temperature structure, and no effect on the 
visible spectrum. 

Dr. Wolfgang Kalkofen is developing a model whose aim is to 
predict the radiation from variable stars.11 This involves the cal- 
culation of the radiation field emerging from a medium that departs 
from local thermodynamic equilibrium, and that is in motion, with 
a velocity dependent upon position in the medium. 

Drs. Colombo and Whitney are studying a nonlinear autonomous 
system with two or three degrees of freedom. This system is chosen 
to simulate the mechanics of a pulsating star. 

Dr. Mitler has made theoretical study of the isotope abundances of 
the light elements. He shows that the observed abundances of Li, 
Be, and B can be explained by their spallation in small, prototerres- 
trial bodies. He considers spheres of arbitrary composition and 
radius irradiated by protons and finds that the present-day proton 
flux is too soft to give the desired results reasonably, and that a mean 
proton energy of 300 mev is necessary to get the observed isotopic 
ratios. The results are not sensitive to the composition, and he can 
obtain the measured Li, Be, and B abundances by taking dry silicate 
spheres of about 14 m radius for the prototerrestrial bodies, 140 m 
for the protoasteroidal bodies. 


See footnotes, p. 177. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT sy 
PUBLICATIONS 


The following papers by staff members of the Astrophysical Ob- 
servatory appeared in various journals: 


AvRETT, HE. H., AnD Strom, 8S. E. Calculation of early-type model stellar atmos- 
pheres (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 69, p. 150, 1964. 

Baker, K. Additional data on the velocity of faint meteors. Harvard Radio 
Meteor Project Research Report No. 4, December, 1963. 

Influx of Gemini meteors relative to the sporadic background at mag- 
nitudes +4 and +8. Harvard Radio Meteor Project Research Report No. 6, 
June, 1964. 

CARLETON, N. P., AND Mercitt, L. R. Excitation by local electric fields in the 
aurora and airglow. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, pp. 101-122, 1964. 

CoLomBo, G., AND Frocco, G. Optical radar results and meteoric fragmentation. 
Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, pp. 1795-1808, 1964. 

Cook, A. F., AND FRANKLIN, F. A. Rediscussion of Maxwell’s Adams prize essay 
on the stability of Saturn’s rings. Astron. Journ., vol. 69, pp. 173-200, 1964. 

Desus, K. H.; JoHnson, W. G.; HEMBREE, R. V.; AND LUNDQuisT, C. A. A pre- 
liminary review of the upper atmosphere observations made during the 
Saturn high water experiment. Proc. 13th Int. Astronaut. Congress, 
pp. 182-196, Springer-Verlag, 1964. 

DEFELIc#, J.; Fazio, G. G.; AND FirEMAN, EH. L. Cosmic-ray exposure age of the 
Farmington meteorite from radioactive isotopes. Science, vol. 142, pp. 673- 
674, 1963. 

See also Fireman and DeFelice; Tilles and DeFelice; Tilles, DeFelice, 
and Fireman. 

DeFeEticz, J.; FIREMAN, E. L.; Anp Tities, D. Tritium, argon-37 and man- 
ganese—54 radioactivities in a fragment of Sputnik 4. Journ. Geophys. Res., 
vol. 68, pp. 5289-5296, 1963. 


1 Supported by grant NsG 87/60 from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 

2 Supported by contract AF 19(628)—3248 with the U.S. Air Force. 

3? Supported by contracts AF 19(628)—2949 (now completed) and AF 19(628)—4203 with 
the U.S. Air Force. 

“Supported by grants G 20135 and GP 388 from the National Science Foundation to 
Harvard University and by contract NASr-158 between the National Aeronautics and 
Space Administration and Harvard University. 

5 Supported by grant NsG 291-62 from the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- 
tration. 

*Supported by research grant NsG 536 from the National Aeronautics and Space Admin- 
istration. 

7 Supported by grant NsF 16067 from the National Science Foundation. 

8 Supported by contract AF 19(604)-5196 between the U.S. Air Force and Harvard 
University. 

® Supported in part by grant NsF 16067 from the National Science Foundation. 

10 Supported in part by grant NsG 282-63 from the National Aeronautics and Space 
Administration to Dr. Clifford Frondel of Harvard University. 

1 Supported by grant GP 940 from the National Science Foundation, 

22 Supported by grant GP 2999 from the National Science Foundation. 

33 Research sponsored by fellowships from NASA, Fonds National de la Recherche Scien- 
tifique, Belgium, and Huropean Preparatory Commission for Space Research. 

144 Supported by contract NASw 184 between the National Aeronautics and Space Admin- 
istration and Harvard University. 

% Supported by grant NsG 438 from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration 
to Harvard University. 

1° Supported by grant NAS5-3255 from the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- 
tration. 

* Supported by contract NAS5-1535 with the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- 
tration. 


178 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Ducean, C. H. Experimental studies of metastable atoms and molecules. Dis- 
sertation, Harvard University, 1963. 

Fazio, G. G. See DeFelice, Fazio, and Fireman; Pollack and Fazio. 

FIREMAN, E. L. Radioactivities in meteorites and in recovered satellites. Proc. 
Int. Conf. on Cosmic Rays (Jaipur), vol. 1, 19638. 

FireMAN, E. L., AND DEFELIcE, J. Tritium and argon-—39 in the Pribram meteo- 
rite. Bull. Astron. Inst. Czechoslovakia, vol. 15, p. 118, 1964. 

Radioactive nuclides in the Peace River meteorite. Trans. Amer. 

Geophys. Union, vol. 25, pp. 89-90, 1964. 

See also DeFelice, Fireman, and Tilles; DeFelice, Fazio, and Fireman ; 
Tilles, DeFelice, and Fireman. 

FRANKLIN, F. A. See Cook and Franklin. 

GInGERICH, O. Studies in nongray stellar atmospheres. I. Computer procedures 
and iteration techniques. Astrophys. Journ., vol. 138, pp. 576-586, 1963. 
Investigations of a model solar atmosphere (abstract). Astron. Journ., 

vol. 69, p. 139, 1964. 
Laboratory exercises in astronomy—the moon’s orbit. Sky and Tel., 
vol. 27, p. 220, 1964. 
The computer versus Kepler. Amer. Scientist, vol. 52, pp. 218-226, 


1964. 


Introduction to the astrophysics of stars. Translation, J. Dufay, Dover 
Press, 1964. 

GINGERICH, O., AND Kumar, 8. S. Calculations of low-temperature model stellar 
atmospheres (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 69, p. 139, 1964. 

Go.pbere, L. Solar spectroscopy. Journ. Quant. Spectrosc. Radiat. Transfer, 
vol. 3, pp. 519-528, 1963. 

GOLDBERG, L.; DupREE, A. K.; AND Kopp, R. A. Abundance of iron derived from 
faint Fraunhofer lines (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 69, p. 139, 1963. 
GOLDBERG, L.; PARKINSON, W. H.; Reeves, E. M.; AND Noyes, R. W. Preliminary 
results of a rocket flight of the Harvard OSO-B spectrometer (abstract). 

Astron. Journ., vol. 69, p. 140, 1963. 

GotpsTEIN, J. J. The growth of the Widmanstiitten pattern in metallic mete- 
orites. Dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 1964. 

GoLpsTEIN, J. I., AND OciLvir, R. E. Electron microanalysis of metallic mete- 
orites. Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, vol. 27, pp. 623-637, 1963. 

Grossi, M. D. A technique for wind measurements in the lower ionosphere by 
collection and processing of doppler information contained in VHF radar 
returns from meteor trails. Proc. Conf. on Aeronomiec Measurements in 
the Lower Ionosphere, pp. 82-88, University of Illinois, 1963. 

Aeronomic measurements in the lower ionosphere. Report to USAF 
on Contract AF 19(628)-3248, Smithsonian Astrophys. Obs., September, 
1963. 

Hawkins, G. S. The meteor population. Harvard Radio Meteor Project Re- 
search Report No. 3, August, 1963. 

Stonehenge decoded. Nature, vol. 200, pp. 306-308, 1963. 

Stonehenge: a neolithic computer. Nature, vol. 202, pp. 1258-1261, 1964. 

Hawkins, G. 8.; Meunier, P.; aND RosrentTuHAL, S. The plume over a meterorite 
crater. Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta., vol. 28, pp. 1011-1014, 1964. 

HAWKINS, G. S., AND SourHwortH, R. B. The physical characteristics of mete- 
ors. Harvard Radio Meteor Project Research Report No. 2, July, 1963. 

See also Verniani and Hawkins. 

HELMKEN, H. F. Galactic gamma radiation. Dissertation, Massachusetts Insti- 
tute of Technology, 1964. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 179 


Honer, P. W. Distribution of stars in Leo I dwarf galaxy. Astron. Journ., vol. 
68, pp. 470-474, 1963. 

Hoper, P. W., AND Wricut, F. W. Studies of particles for extraterrestrial origin. 
2. A comparison of microscopic spherules of meteoritic and volcanic origin. 
Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, pp. 2449-2454, 1964. 

See also Wright, Hodge, and Langway. 

IRVINE, W. M. Formation of absorption bands in a scattering atmosphere 
(abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 68, p. 538, 1963. 

The asymmetry of the scattering diagram of a spherical particle. 

Bull. Astron. Inst. Netherlands, vol. 17, pp. 176-184, 1963. 

The shadowing effect in diffuse reflection (abstract). Trans. Amer. 

Geophys. Union, vol. 44, p. 873, 1963. 

The formation of absorption bands and the distribution of photon opti- 

cal paths in a scattering atmosphere. Bull. Astron. Inst. Netherlands, vol. 

17, pp. 266-279, 1964. 

Electrodynamics in a rotating system of reference. Physica, vol. 30, 
pp. 1160-1170, 1964. 

Izsak, I. G. A note on perturbation theory. Astron. Journ., vol. 68, pp. 59-61, 
1968. 


Tesseral harmonics in the geopotential. Nature, vol. 199, pp. 187-1389, 
1963. 


Tesseral harmonics of the geopotential and corrections to station co- 
ordinates. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 69 pp. 2621-2630, 1964. 

JaccHta, L. G. Variations in the earth’s upper atmosphere as revealed by 
satellite drag. Rev. Mod. Phys., vol. 35, pp. 973-991, 1963. 

Influence of solar activity on the earth’s upper atmosphere. Planet. 
Space Sci., vol. 12, pp. 355-378, 1964. 

JACCHIA, L. G., AND SLtowey, J. Atmospheric heating in the auroral zones from 
the drag analysis of the Injun III satellite. Astron. Journ., vol 68, pp. 
5388-539, 1963. 

An analysis of the atmospheric drag of the Explorer IX satellite from 

precisely reduced photographic observations. Jn P. Muller, ed., Space Re- 

search IV, pp. 257-270, North-Hollard Publ., Amsterdam, 1964. 

Atmospheric heating in the auroral zones: A preliminary analysis of 
the drag of the Injun III satellite. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 69, 905-910, 
1964. 

LAUTMAN, D. A. On the distribution of the perihelia of the asteroids (abstract). 
Astron. Journ., vol. 68, p. 539, 1963. 

LOvVELL, B.; WuIprLe, F. L.; AND SoLomon, L.H. Observation of a solar type radio 
burst from a flare star. Nature, vol. 201, pp. 1013-1014, 1964. 

Relative velocity of light and radio waves in space. Nature, vol. 202, 
p. 377, 1964. 

Lunpquist, C. A. See Debus, Johnson, Hembree, and Lundquist. 

Ma.aise, D. Photographie observations of the tail activity of comet Burnham 
1960 II. Astron. Journ., vol. 68, pp. 561-565, 1963. 

Marvin, U. B. Mineralogy of the oxidation products of the Sputnik 4 fragment 
and of iron meteorites. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, pp. 5059-5068, 1963. 

Marvin, U. B., AND KLEeIn, C. Meteoritice zircon (abstract). Trans. Amer. Geo- 
phys. Union, vol. 45, p. 86, 1964. 

Merrinve, C. M. On the origin of I’ in meteorites (abstract). Trans. Amer. 
Geophys. Union, vol. 45, p. 90, 1964. 

Mitter, H. BE. He’® in planetesimals. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, pp. 4587- 
4594, 1963. 


766—-746—65 13 


180 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Noyes, R. W., See Goldberg, Parkinson, Reeves, and Noyes. 

Noyes, R. W., AND LEIGHTON, R. Velocity fields in the solar atmosphere. II. 
The oscillatory field. Astrophys. Journ., vol. 138, pp. 631-647, 1963. 

Packer, E.; Scuer, S.; AND SaGAn, C. Biological contamination of Mars. II. 
Cold and aridity as constraints on the survival of terrestrial microorganisms 
in simulated Martian environments. Icarus, vol. 2, pp. 293-316, 1963. 

PoLuLAck, J. B., AND Fazio, G. G. Production of 7-mesons and gamma radiation 
in the galaxy by cosmic rays. Phys. Rev., vol. 131, pp. 2684-2691, 1963. 

ROSENTHAL, 8S. See Hawkins, Meunier, and Rosenthal. 

Saean, C. Microwave properties of the atmosphere and cloud layer of Venus. 
In B. C. Jordan, ed., Electromagnetic Theory and Antennas, vol. 2, p. 771, 
Pergamon Press, 1963. 

Biological exploration of Mars. Adv. Astronaut. Sci., vol. 15, p. 571-581, 


1963. 

Interstellar communication (book review). Planet. Space Sci., vol. 12, 

p. 259, 1964. 

Exobiology: a critical review. In M. Florkin and A. Dollfus, eds., Life 

Sciences and Space Research II, North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1964. 

See also Packer, Scher, and Sagan; Scher, Packer, and Sagan. 

Sacan, C., AND KELLoce, W. W. The terrestrial planets. Ann. Rev. Astron. and 
Astrophys., vol. 1, p. 285-266, 1963. 

Scuer, 8.; Packer, H.; AND Saaan, C. Biological contamination of Mars: I. 
Survival of terrestrial microorganisms in simulated martian environments. 
In M. Florkin and A. Dollfus, eds., Life Sciences and Space Research II, pp. 
352-356. North-Holland Publ., Amsterdam, 1964. 

SxauaFuris, A.J. See Whitney and Skalafuris. 

SLEE, O. B.; Sonomon, L. H.; anp Patsron, G. E. Radio emission from flare star 
V371 Orionis. Nature, vol. 199, pp. 991-993, 1964. 

Stowey, J. See Jacchia and Slowey. 

Sotomon, L. H. See Lovell, Whipple, and Solomon; Slee, Solomon, and Patston. 

SouTHWworTH, R. B. See Hawkins and Southworth. 

Strom, S. E. Comparison between model atmospheres and observations of early- 
type stars. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1964. 

See also Avrett and Strom. 

TILLES, D. Tritium retention in iron meteorites. Nature, vol. 200, p. 563, 1963. 

Meteoritic tritium and diffusion in a- and y-iron. Nature, vol. 201, p. 

808, 1964. 

Stable silicon isotope ratios in tektites. Geochim. et Cosmochim. Acta, 

vol. 28, pp. 1015-1017, 1964. 

See also DeFelice, Fireman, and Tilles. 

TILLES, D., AND DreFE ice, J. Time variations of abundance of geomagnetically 
trapped tritium. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, vol. 45, p. 351, 1964. 

TILLES, D.; DEFELICE, J.; AND FIREMAN, BE. L. Measurements of tritium in satel- 
lite and rocket material, 1960-1961. Icarus, vol. 2, pp. 258-279, 1963. 

Vets, G. Optical tracking of artificial satellites. Space Sci. Rev., vol. II, pp. 
250-296, 1963. 

VERNIANI, F., AND Hawkins, G. 8. On the ionizing efficiency of meteors. Har- 
vard Radio Meteor Project Research Report No. 5, February, 1964. 

Wana, C. Y. On the correlation between the fluctuations of heat flow and gravi- 
tational potential of the earth (abstract). Trans. Amer. Geophys. Union, 
vol. 45, p. 36, 1964. 

Wana, C. Y. Figure of the earth as obtained from satellite data and its geo- 
physical implications. Dissertation, Harvard University, 1964. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 181 


WHIPPLE, F. L. Earth, moon, and planets. 2d ed., 278 pp. Harvard Univer- 
sity Press, 1963. 

On meteoroids and penetration. Journ. Geophys. Res., vol. 68, pp. 4929-— 

4939, 1963. 

The history of the solar system. Space Sci., XIII, vol. 5, pp. 2-6, 1964. 

— —. Disintegrating comets. Sky and Tel., vol. 3, pp. 148-149, 1964. 

Brightness changes in periodic comets (abstract). Astron. Journ., vol. 

69, p. 152, 1964. 

Evidence of a comet belt beyond Neptune. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci., vol. 

51, pp. 711-718, 1964. 

See also Lovell, Whipple, and Solomon. 

Wuirney, C. A. Thermal response of the solar atmosphere. Astrophys. Journ., 
vol. 188, pp. 587-551, 1968. 

WuHirTney, C. A., AND SKALAFURIS, A. J. The structure of shock fronts in atomic 
hydrogen. I. The effect of precursor radiation in the Lyman continuum. 
Astrophys. Journ., vol. 188, pp. 200-215, 1963. 

Woop, J. A. On the origin of chondrules and chondrites. Icarus, vol. 2, pp. 337~ 
401, 1963. 

Wricut, Fr. W. See Hodge and Wright. 

WriecuT, Ff. W.; Hoper, P. W.; anp Laneway, C. C., Jz. Studies of particles for 
extraterrestrial origin. I. Chemical analyses of 118 particles. Journ. 
Geophys. Res., vol. 68, pp. 5575-5587, 1963. 


The Special Reports of the Astrophysical Observatory distribute 
catalogs of satellite observations, orbital data, and preliminary results 
of data analysis prior to journal publication. Numbers 127 through 
156, issued during the year, contain the following material: 


No. 127, July 8, 1963 
Attitude determination from specular and diffuse reflection by cylindrical ar- 
tificial satellites, by R. H. Giese. 
No. 128, July 10, 1963 
Ultraviolet synthesis of adenosine triphosphate under possible primitive earth 
conditions, by C. Ponnamperuma, C. Sagan, and R. Mariner. 
No. 129, July 15, 1963 
Laplace coefficients and their Newcomb derivatives, by I. G. Izsak. 
No. 130, July 17, 1963 
Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1958 a (Hwplorer 1), 1959 al 
(Vanguard 2), 1959 » (Vanguard 3), and 1959 11 (He«plorer 7), for July 1- 
Dec. 31, 1962; Satellite 1958 82 (Vanguard 1) for Sept. 22—Oct. i8, 1962; 
and Satellite 1960 y2 (Transit 1B) for Sept. 29-Oct. 24, 1962, prepared by 
B. Miller. 
No. 131, July 18, 1963 
Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1960 «1 (Hecho 1), 1960 :2 (Echo 
1 rocket), and 1960 {1 (Hzplorer 8) for July 1—Dec. 31, 1962, prepared by 
B. Miller. 
No. 182, July 19, 1963 
Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1961 61 (Haplorer 9), 1961 o1 
(Transit 44), and 1961 02 (Injun Solar Radiation 8) for July 1-Dee. 31, 
1962; Satellite 1962 ael (Telstar 1) for July 10—Dec. 31, 1962; Satellite 1962 
BA1 (Explorer 15) for Nov. 2—Dec. 20, 1962; Satellite 1962 Bul (Anna 1B) 
for Nov. 1—Dec. 31, 1962; Satellite 1962 6vl (Relay 1) for Dec. 15-81, 1962; 
and Satellite 1962 Bx1 (EHzplorer 16) for Dec. 16-21, 1962, prepared by 
B. Miller. 


182 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


No. 183, August 16, 1963 
The determination of absolute directions in space with artificial satellites, 
by G. Veis. 
No. 134, September 12, 1963 
On the distribution of surface heat flows and the second order variations in 
the external gravitational field, by C. Y. Wang. 
No. 135, September 16, 1963 
Formulae and tables for the computation of lifetimes of artificial satellites, 
by L. G. Jacchia and J. Slowey. 
No. 136, September 17, 1963 
Atmospheric heating in the auroral zones: A preliminary analysis of the 
atmospherie drag of the Injun III satellite, by L. G. Jacchia and J. Slowey. 
No. 187, September 30, 1963 
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellite 1960 y2 (Transit 1B) 
for May 7-19, 1960; Satellite 1960 «1 (Hcho 1) for Aug. 12-31, 1960; and 
Satellite 1961 61 (Haplorer 9) for July 1-Dec. 31, 1961, prepared by P. 
Stern. 
No. 188, October 1, 1963 
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellites 1959 al (Vanguard 2), 
1959 » (Vanguard 3), 1960 2 (Hecho 1 rocket), and 1961 51 (Ezplorer 9) 
for Jan. 1-June 30, 1962, prepared by P. Stern. 
No. 139, October 15, 1963 
Optical radar results and meteoric fragmentation, by G. Colombo and G. 
Fiocco. 
No. 140, January 24, 1964 
Construction of Newcomb operators on a digital computer, by I. G. Izsak, 
J. M. Gerard, R. Efimba, and M. P. Barnett. 
No. 141, January 30, 1964 
Satellite orbital data: Satellites 1959 al (Vanguard 2), 1959 y (Vanguard 8), 
1960 1.2 (Echo 1 rocket), and 1961 51 (Hzplorer 9) for Jan. 1—June 30, 1962; 
Satellite 1960 61 (Tiros 1 rocket) for Apr. 12—-Mag 26, 1960; Satellite 1960 
B2 (Tiros 1) for Apr. 12-Sept. 15, 1960; Satellite 1960 1 (Hecho 1) for 
Aug. 14-30, 1960; Satellite 1961 01 (T'ransit 44) for Aug. 11, 1961—June 25, 
1962; and Satellite 1961 02 (Injun 3), for Aug. 11, 1961-June 29, 1962, pre- 
pared by I. G. Izsak. 
No. 142, January 31, 1964 
Satellite orbital data: Satellites 1958 a (Hxplorer 1), 1959 a1 (Vanguard 2), 
1959 » (Vanguard 8), 1959 1 (Hezplorer 7), 1960 11 (Hecho 1), 1960 #4 
(Ezplorer 8), and 1961 61 (Hzplorer 9) for Jan. 1—Apr. 1, 1963, prepared 
by I. G. Izsak. 
No. 148, February 8, 1964 
Inhomogeneous distribution of the radioactive heat sources. I. Theory, by 
C. Y. Wang. 
No. 144, February 10, 1964 
Geodesics on an equipotential surface of revolution, by W. Koéhnlein. 
No. 145, February 17, 1964 
On the luminous efficiency of meteors, by F. Verniani. 
No. 146, February 24, 1964 
On the visual tracking of two bright satellites from C-130-type aircraft, by 
R. C. Vanderburgh. 
No. 147, February 27, 1964 
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellite 1960 B1 (Tiros 1 rocket) 
for Apr. 5-June 1, 1960; Satellite 1960 62 (Tiros 1) for Apr. 5-Sept. 21, 1960; 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 183 


and Satellites 1961 01 (T7'ransit 44) and 1961 02 (Injun Solar Radiation 3) 
for Aug. 5, 1961—Deec. 31, 1962, prepared by P. Stern. 
No. 148, February 28, 1964 
Catalog of precisely reduced observations: Satellites 1959 al (Vanguard 2), 
1959 » (Vanguard 3), 1960 12 (Hcho 1 rocket), and 1961 81 (Ezplorer 9) 
for July 1-Dec. 31, 1962; Satellite 1961 51 (Midas 4) for Mar. 9-—Dee. 31. 
1962; and Satellite 1962 wel (Telstar 1) for July 13—Dec. 31, 1962, prepared 
by P. Stern. 
No. 149, April 15, 1964 
Long-period effects in nearly commensurable cases of the restricted three- 
body problem, by J. Schubart. 
No. 150, April 22, 1964 
The temperature above the thermopause, by L. G. Jacchia. 
No. 151, May 5, 1964 
A catalog of positions and proper motions of 258,997 stars for the epoch 
and equinox of 1950.0, by the Staff of the Smithsonian Astrophysical 
Observatory. 
No. 152, June 15, 1964 
Temperature variations in the upper atmosphere during geomagnetically quiet 
intervals, by L. G. Jacchia and J. Slowey. 
No. 158, June 16, 1964 
Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1958 a1 (Haplorer 1), 1959 «1 
(Vanguard 2), 1959 71 (Vanguard 3), and 1959 «1 (Heplorer 7) for Jan. 1- 
June 30, 1963, prepared by B. Miller. 
No. 154, June 17, 1964 
Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1960 11 (Hcho 1), 1960 :2 (Echo 1 
rocket), 1960 ¢1 (H«plorer 8), and 1961 81 (Zz«plorer 9) for Jan. 1-June 30, 
1963, prepared by P. Stern. 
No. 155, June 18, 1964 
Catalogue of satellite observations: Satellites 1961 01 (Transit 44), 1961 02 
(Injun Solar Radiation 3), 1962 ae1 (Telstar 1), and 1962 Bul (Anna 1B) 
for Jan. 1-June 30, 1963; Satellite 1962 vl (Cosmos 5) for Mar. 11—Apr. 30, 
1963; Satellite 1962 Br2 (Injun 3) for Jan. 16—-June 30, 1963; Satellite 1962 
Bul (Relay 1) for Jan. 4-June 30, 1963; Satellite 1963 9A (Haplorer 17) for 
Apr. 6-June 24, 1963; and Satellite 1963 13A (Telstar 2) for May 11- 
June 30, 1963, prepared by B. Miller. 
No. 156, June 25, 1964 
Baker-Nunn photography of the Syncom IT fourth-stage ignition, by R. Citron 
and L. H. Solomon; and Tracking of Centaur (AC-2), by L. H. Solomon. 


STAFF CHANGES 


Scientists who joined the Observatory staff during the year are 
Dr. Henry F. Helmken, Dr. Craig Merrihue, and Dr. William G. 
Elford, physicists; Dr. Richard R. Haefner, supervisor of computa- 
tions operations; Douglas T. Pitman, chemist; Leendert Aardoom, 
geodesist ; Carlton G. Lehr and Yasushi Nozawa, electronic engineers; 
and Dr. P. L. Bhatnagar, astrophysicist. 

Resignations during the year included those of Dr. Morton J. 
Davies, Dr. Wolfgang Kalkofen, and Dr. Max Krook, physicists; 
Dr. Joachim Schubart, celestial mechanician; Richard C. Bruck, chief 


184 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


of station operations; and Col. Olcott M. Brown (now serving as con- 
ultant), station coordinator of Moonwatch. 

Consultants at the Observatory during the year were Dr. Pol 
Swings, Dr. John A. Wood, Sir A. C. B. Lovell, Mr. Thomas C. 
Marvin, Dr. George Murray, and Dr. Om P. Rustgi. 

On June 30, 1964, the Observatory employed 404 persons. 


DIVISION OF RADIATION AND ORGANISMS 
Prepared by W. H. Kuetn, Chief of the Division 


Research of the Division of Radiation and Organisms is directed 
toward those areas of investigation in which radiation affects or 
controls, directly and indirectly, the functions of living organisms. 
Specific areas which have been investigated intensively by the division 
include the control of regulatory mechanisms by nonionizing radiation 
such as photomorphogenesis, phototropism, the induction of photo- 
synthetic activity and the interaction of ionizing radiation with syn- 
thetic and morphological systems, such as the effects of X-rays and 
gamma rays at the cellular and subcellular levels. Research has con- 
tinued on the storage of energy in and synthesis of macromolecules 
in such diverse systems as higher plants and marine algae. The 
service activity of the carbon-dating laboratory has been expanded, 
and the division also conducts basic research in developing and ex- 
tending dating techniques. 

Investigation of the mechanism by which chloramphenicol, an anti- 
biotic protein inhibitor, inhibits light-dependent development of 
photosynthetic activity of bean leaves has been continued. The 
chloramphenicol prevents formation of a normal chloroplast struc- 
ture, the absence of which is correlated with a larger percentage of 
water-soluble plastid protein. Investigations by serological tech- 
niques of differences between water-soluble proteins of plastids from 
treated and untreated leaves are in progress. The results indicate 
that there are different proteins in the soluble fractions from the 
two sources. The plastids from treated and untreated leaves differ 
in ability to generate antibodies, indicating differences in arrange- 
ment of proteins in the two types of plastids. 

Although diatoms grown in the dark synthesize photosynthetic 
pigments, less chlorophyll is produced than in the light. Some evi- 
dence indicating a difference in the ratio of chlorophylls to carot- 
enoids in light- and dark-grown cells has been obtained. Changes 
in the absorption spectrum of diatom cells brought about by heating 
also occur on treatment with chemicals known to bring about changes 
in the configuration of protein molecules. Studies on the changes 
of the absorption spectra of the diatom cells that occur on heating 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 185 


suggest a different molecular environment for carotenoids and 
chlorophylls. 

In the area of phosphorus metabolism the structure and physiology 
of ribonucleic acid-polyphosphates in algae have been studied. Ex- 
tracts have been obtained from synchronous algal cultures, and poly- 
mers have been hydrolyzed by various means; the low molecular- 
weight products have been investigated to ascertain the linkage group 
which connects the ribonucleic acid to polyphosphates. In December 
1963 through February 1964, an extensive Antarctic collecting trip 
aboard the U.S.S. Zltanin was made. Algal and diatom collections 
were made in the Humboldt current off the coast of Chile and in a 
great circle arc from Valparaiso to Peter I Island. From these plank- 
ton, sample determinations were made on total phosphorus and 
organic nitrogen. The distribution of phosphorus within certain 
compounds and relative rates of radioactive phosphate incorporation 
into various fractions were determined. Concurrently, sea-water 
samples were obtained at the same sites at which organisms were 
collected to determine the major nutrients to which the plankton 
were exposed. 

A glycopeptide was isolated, purified, and characterized from the 
green alga Chlorella pyrenoidosa. This glycopeptide contains sialic 
acid, a sugar derivative which has not previously been reported in 
any photosynthetic organism. Sialic acid confers antigenic speci- 
ficity upon such macromolecules as blood-group substances and bac- 
terial cell-wall sheaths. 

The continued investigation of intracellular, phytochrome-mediated 
responses in corn-leaf sections has demonstrated a light catalyzed 
utilization of carbohydrates more closely associated with the radiant- 
energy stimulus than any other phytochrome-mediated biochemica! 
response reported heretofore. Increase in utilization occurs well be- 
fore any growth response is detectable. Total sugar loss is the first 
change observable, preceding starch disappearance. Specific sugar 
changes occurring during the first hours immediately following the 
light pretreatment reveal major changes in both nonreducing and 
reducing sugars. 

Continuation of the studies on the correlation between measured 
in vivo changes in phytochrome pigment concentrations and observed 
physiological responses induced by red or far-red irradiation show 
that the logarithmic change in pigment concentration correlates ex- 
actly with the physiological dose-response curve for initial light 
treatments. The time rate of bean hypocotyl hook opening has been 
measured by time-lapse photography. The rate of hook opening is 
directly proportional to the intial dose of red light. The onset of 
opening occurs after about 5 hours and is the same for all exposures. 


186 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The fact that the opening rate remains linear for as long as 20 hours 
suggests that the magnitude of the final opening is directly propor- 
tional to the amount of phytochrome produced by the initial red-light 
exposure. However, any subsequent light treatments after the initial 
ones show no correlation between the physiological system and the 
measured 7m vivo pigment changes. Possible explanations for these 
results are that only a small amount of the phytochrome is active, 
that there is another form of the pigment as yet undetected, or that 
the amount of phytochrome required to initiate the physiological re- 
sponse cannot be detected by available instrumentation. At present, 
our experimental data indicate that current theories are deficient and 
need revision or modification. 

The action spectra for growth and tropic responses in Phycomyces 
blakesleeanus have been extended into the near ultraviolet. The 
spectra in this range indicate that either a second pigment system is 
involved or that bleaching of the photoreceptor occurs. 

Experiments measuring the activity of extracts of sporangiophores 
in the luciferin-luciferase assay system indicated that a 50-percent 
change of activity occurs within 30 seconds after a blue-light stimulus. 
There is no correlation between luciferin-luciferase activity and the 
level of adaptation of sporangiophores. The activity is constant for 
all levels of adaptation. Comparison between growing and nongrow- 
ing samples indicated that all of the luciferin-luciferase activity 
changes occur in the growing zones. These experiments show that one 
of the early metabolic systems affected by blue-light stimuli involves 
high-energy phosphate compounds such as adenosine triphosphate 
which are active in the luciferin-luciferase assay. 

The blue fluorescing unknown which was reported previously to be 
present in large amounts in light-sensitive stages of sporangiophore 
development has been isolated in large enough amounts to be identi- 
fied. This material is a derivative of gallic acid and can be prepared 
directly from gallic acid in the laboratory. Gallic acid is known to 
occur at near-saturation concentrations in the sporangiophore, and 
it is surprising that a material which correlates with the light- 
sensitivity of sporangiophores is derived from material present in such 
large amounts. 

To date, 80 samples of archeological, geological, and hydrological 
interest have been analyzed by the carbon-dating laboratory, most of 
them having been submitted in connection with research at the 
Smithsonian. 

Carbon-14 determinations on the dissolved bicarbonate in ground 
water have permitted estimates to be made on the flow rates in certain 
mountain areas in Arizona. Such high-resolution age determination 
is possible in certain situations owing to the rapid rise in atmospheric 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 187 


carbon-14 produced by thermonuclear devices. It is assumed that the 
carbon dioxide in the water as it entered the ground-water system 
was in isotopic equilibrium with the atmosphere, and that the carbon 
dioxide the water picked up as it percolated into the ground-water 
system was from recently decayed organic material. Thus, the re- 
charge water would have acarbon-14 age of less than two years. 
Measurement of the carbon-14 content of water near the recharge area 
bears out this assumption. It is further assumed that exchange of 
carbon dioxide with older carbonate in the system is insignificant. 
The resultant data for water from a particular locality will be the 
average travel time of the water from the recharge areas to the sample 
locality. In the cases studied, water requires less than 10 years to get 
from the top of the mountain as rain to the main ground-water system 
at the base of the mountain. 

The simultaneous measurement of spectral quality regions of sun 
and sky radiation as perceived by a horizontal flat receiver is progress- 
ing. Technical difficulties encountered in automating the recording 
system have been largely overcome or corrected by modification and 
adaptation. We expect to achieve a continuous operation by early fall. 

Preliminary experimental data from plant material have been 
obtained, primarily to test the operation of the growth rooms and 
greenhouse. These results indicate that, within specified limits, the 
growing rooms and greenhouse area can be controlled and made uni- 
form with each other in respect to light intensity, temperature, carbon- 
dioxide content, and day length. The photosynthetic rates of the plant 
material in the three areas, as measured by dry-weight production, 
are uniform, indicating that the physical control system operates 
effectively. 

PUBLICATIONS 


KLEIN, WILLIAM H.; Price, L.; AND MirraKkos K. Light stimulated starch de 
gradation in plastids and leaf morphogenesis. Photochemistry and Photo- 
biology, vol. 2, pp. 233-240, 1963. 

MiTrAkos, K. Chlorophyll metabolism and its relationship to photoperiodism, 
endogenous daily rhythm and red, far-red reaction system. Photochemistry 
and Photobiology, vol. 2, pp. 223-231, 1963. 

Price, LEONARD; Mirrakos, K.; anp KiLeIn, W. H. Photomorphogenesis and 
carbohydrate changes in etiolated leaf tissue. Quart. Rev. Biol., vol. 39, 
pp. 11-18, 1964. 

SIGALOVE, JOEL J., AND Lone, A. Smithsonian Institution radiocarbon measure- 
ments I. Radiocarbon, vol. 6, pp. 182-188, 1964. 


OTHER ACTIVITIES 
The division was represented during the year at a number of sci- 
entific meetings. In attendance at the American Institute of Bio- 


logical Sciences meeting in August at the University of Massachusetts, 
Amherst, Mass., were J. L. Edwards, R. H. Gettens, Dr. W. H. Klein, 


188 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Dr. R. L. Latterell, Dr. M. M. Margulies, Dr. K. Mitrakos, L. Price, 
and Dr. W. A. Shropshire. Papers presented at the meetings included 
“Light-induced Biochemical Changes in Phycomyces Sporangio- 
phores,” by Miss Gettens and Dr. Shropshire; “Red, Far-red System 
and Phytochrome,” by Mr. Edwards and Dr. Klein; “Chloroplasts 
from Chloramphenicol Treated leaves,” by Dr. Margulies; and “Phy- 
tochrome Mediated Carbohydrate Responses in Etiolated Corn Leaf 
Sections,” by Dr. Mitrakos, Mr. Price, and Dr. Klein. Dr. Klein 
attended the executive committee sessions of the American Society of 
Plant Physiologists and was chairman of a session. 

J. H. Harrison attended the Intermediate Seminar for Scientific 
Glass Blowers held in July at the State University of New York, 
Alfred, N.Y. 

Joel J. Sigalove traveled to Tucson, Ariz., in September to collect 
water samples to determine flow rates of ground water in certain 
mountain areas of Arizona. In October Dr. Margulies was a par- 
ticipant in a symposium on “Photosynthetic Mechanisms of Green 
Plants” sponsored by the Photobiology Committees of the National 
Academy of Science—National Research Council at Warrenton, Va. 

Mr. Sigalove and Austin Long attended the Geological Society of 
America meeting held in New York City in November. 

Mr. Goldberg and Mr. Harrison attended a 2-week training course 
in programing computers given by the Control Data Corporation in 
Rockville, Md. 

In December Dr. D. L. Correll participated in a 3-month Antarctic 
collecting trip aboard the National Science Foundation vessel, the 
U.S.S. Lltianin. The party sailed from Valparaiso, Chile, on Decem- 
ber 17 and spent 2 months collecting in the Antarctic Ocean. 

Dr. Shropshire attended the annual meetings of the Biophysical 
Society in Chicago in February. Dr. Klein spent a week in March 
in San Juan and Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, consulting with staff scien- 
tists of the U.S. Atomic Energy Commission installations. Dr. Cor- 
rell attended the regional meetings of the American Chemical Society 
in April at the University of Maryland, College Park. In May 
Dr. Klein was a visiting lecturer at the University of Texas in Austin. 
Dr. Correll attended meetings of the American Society of Limnology 
and Oceanography in Miami, Fla., June 14-20, and presented his paper 
“Pelagic Phosphorus Metabolism in the Antarctic.” 

Dr. Margulies presented a lecture at the Research Institute of 
Advanced Studies in Baltimore on June 10. Dr. Shropshire traveled 
in June to Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. to confer with Dr. John Cairns 
at the biological laboratory. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 189 
STAFF CHANGES 


Scientists who joined the staff during the year are Austin Long, 
geochemist in the carbon-14 laboratory, and Dr. Adolf Steiner, visit- 
ing plant physiologist from the University of Freiburg, Germany. 
Dr. Peter A. J. deLint, visiting plant physiologist, returned to 
Wageningen, Holland. Resignations: Dr. R. L. Latterell, cytogeneti- 
cist, and J. Sigalove, geochemist. 

On June 80, 1964, the Division staff numbered 32 members. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Frep L. Wurertr, Director. 


S. Ditton Rirtey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the National Collection 
of Fine Arts 


Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the National Collection of Fine Arts for the fiscal year ended 


June 80, 1963: 
SMITHSONIAN ART COMMISSION 


The 41st annual meeting of the Smithsonian Art Commission was 
held in Washington on Tuesday, December 3, 1963. Members present 
were Paul Manship, chairman; Leonard Carmichael, secretary; Gil- 
more D. Clarke, David E. Finley, Lloyd Goodrich, Walker Hancock, 
Bartlett H. Hayes, Jr., Henry P. McIlhenny, Paul Mellon, Ogden M. 
Pleissner, Edgar P. Richardson, Charles H. Sawyer, and Andrew 
Wyeth. Also present were James C. Bradley, Assistant Secretary ; 
Theodore W. Taylor, Assistant to the Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institution; Thomas M. Beggs, Director, National Collection of Fine 
Arts, and David W. Scott, Assistant Director. 

The Commission recommended the appointment of Page Cross to fill 
the vacancy caused by the resignation of Douglas Orr. 

Recommendations were made for the reappointment of Lloyd Good- 
rich, Bartlett H. Hayes, Jr., and Walker Hancock for the usual 4-year 
period. 

Dr. Leonard Carmichael, who was to retire as Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution on January 31, 1964, was elected Member 
Emeritus of the Commission. 

The following officers were elected for the ensuing year: Paul Man- 
ship, chairman; Gilmore D. Clarke, vice chairman; and Leonard Car- 
michael, secretary (to be succeeded by S. Dillon Ripley upon his 
assumption of duties as Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution). 

The following were elected members of the executive committee for 
the ensuing year: David E. Finley, chairman; Gilmore D. Clarke; 
Ogden M. Pleissner; Edgar P. Richardson; with Paul Manship and 
Leonard Carmichael, ea officio (to be succeeded by S. Dillon Ripley 
upon his assumption of duties as Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institution). 

Dr. Carmichael reviewed the purpose of the National Collection of 
Fine Arts for the Commission and indicated the current status of 
the development on the proposed new gallery in the Old Patent Office 


190 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 191 


Building. He noted the passage of the fiscal year 1964 appropriation 
bill providing $5,465,000 for renovation of this building. 

The Commission recommended acceptance of the following for the 
National Collection of Fine Arts: 


Oil, Group Portrait of Anna Maria Mabie, John Henry Mabie, and George 
Winfield Mabie, by Undetermined Artist. Offered by Mr. and Mrs. William A. 
Sturm, Bladensburg, Md. 

Fifty-eight pen-and-ink drawings by E. C. Peixotto (1869-1940). Offered 
by Fortunato Porotto, Washington, D.C. 

Two miniatures, watercolor on ivory, Emilia Field Brewer, possibly by John 
Henry Brown (1818-1891), and Portrait of a Child, by Undetermined Artist. 
Offered by Mrs. David Karrick, Washington, D.C. 

A miniature, watercolor on ivory, Unknown Gentleman, by Undetermined 
Artist. Offered by Mrs. C. H. Roper, Austin, Tex. 


The Commission recommended that the following be added to the 
Study Collection : 


Pastel, The New Moon, by George Randolph Barse, Jr. (1861— ). Offered 
by Eugene W. Bolling, Upper Montclair, N.J. 

Miniature, oil on porcelain, Two Girls in a Garden, by Undetermined Artist. 
Offered by Mrs. David Karrick, Washington, D.C. 


The Commission recommended that the following be held for sub- 
mission to the National Portrait Gallery Commission : 


Two sculptures, bronze, William Howard Taft (1857-1930), and terracotta, 
Cordell Hull (1871-1955), by Bryant Baker (1881- ). Offered by the sculp- 
tor, New York City. 

Oil, General John J. Pershing (1860-1948), by Leopold Seyffert (1887-1956). 
Offered by Mr. and Mrs. Dudley Cooper, Norfolk, Va. 


The Commission recommended that the following be added to the 
Lending Collection: 


Oil, 3:00 a.m., by Adelaide Morris Gardner. Offered by Mrs. Fred Gardner, 
Sarasota, Fla. 


THE CATHERINE WALDEN MYER FUND 


The following miniatures, watercolor on ivory, were acquired from 
the fund established through the bequest of Catherine Walden Myer: 


No. 150. Barnabus Bates, attributed to Thomas Sully (1783-1872). Ac- 
quired from Mrs. Eva W. Chadbourne, Washington, D.C. 

No. 151. Betsy Goodrich, by Sarah Goodridge (1788-1858). 

No. 152. R&R. M. Copeland, by Thomas Edwards (ac. 1822-1856, Boston). 

No. 153. Child, attributed to Edward Greene Malbone (1777-1802). 

No. 154. James Morris, by Henry Colton Shumway (1807-1884). 

No. 155. Mrs. James Morris, by Henry Colton Shumway (1807-1884). 

No. 156. Lewis Gaylord Clark, attributed to Charles Loring Elliot (1842- 
1868). 

No. 157. Gentleman, by Undetermined Artist (resembling the style of Copley). 

No. 158. Lady, by Bernard Lens (1682-1740). 

Nos. 151-158 acquired from Edwin C. Buxbaum, Wilmington, Del. 


192 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


STUDY COLLECTION 


The Director and curatorial staff accepted the following for the 
Study Collection: 

Four silhouettes and a miniature, by Undetermined Artist. Offered by the 
Misses Gatchell, Washington, D.C. 

One miniature, by Undetermined Artist, and other related material. Offered 
by Miss Mary Schaff, Washington, D.C. 

Watercolor, Williamburg Post Office, by Dwight Williams. Offered by Felix 
Stapleton, Washington, D.C. 


WORKS OF ART LENT AND RETURNED, PERMANENT COLLECTION 


Institutions Loans Loans 
returned 
American Kederation o£ Arts22 > 223s ee ee 2 22 
Bowdoin Colleges ss eee eee Se ne eee eee 1 128 
Bureau Of wher budcet=e as ees eee 27 ee 
GeneraluNervicesAGministration=. = Sa eee eee 3 1 
Indian Claims “Commission= 3 2 2 ans ee LA: il 
Interior, Department o£ thes 22220] es ee ee ees 1 an 
International Business Machines Corporation_______________ 3 3 
interstate, Commerce Commission#]2 a. .=— ===) eee 33 ae 
JoshynwArl Museumiss 2-2 ee ee ae ee ee Se 1 
Justice Department sofas ee eee eee ee 2 a5 
Maser Of nim eA Toliss sks OSE OTe ae ee al 1 
Portland. VonSeCUM weVialn Cas oe ee ee ee eee 1 il 
State: Department Ol sso -e 2. See ee ee eee 1 has 
University 01 Arizona Art Gallerya== === = se a eee ee eee il al 
WES> CAntarchiewProjectSsas= es Sas Ses See ee eee it bees 
U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia___________-__ 2 ee 
eS: DistrictiCourt,Richnond] Val eee 12 Ded 
U-S;bnformationAwency == =2= =e e 2a ee eee al 1 
TESTS ae TG a a ene a es ee aL ap 
Washington County Museum of Fine Arts__-________-_______ 14 14 
They Winitevel Ouse ss 22 oe Sens le Lae et 3 2 
The White House (Plans for Progress Office) _-_____________ 10 ne 
The White House (Office of Special Representative for Trade 
INC ZO ELA tT OD S|) a tee eee ee ee ee 9 a 
WihitnieysMuseumbol Americant Antes 282 22-2 eee ee eee 1 1 


100 27 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 193 


WORKS OF ART LENT AND RETURNED, LENDING COLLECTION 


Institutions Loans Loans 

returned 
Barney” Nelehborhood House: 222. = 2b es eee ee eee 12 2 
BuresuTtombhe ssuGretee a. 2 Sirs 2 oe ee ee eee 16 = 
HOXCrOEEE SCHOO lees noe eee haere Baar) ee eee ee eee a i 
Health, Education, and Welfare, Department of___-__-__-_- 2 = 
ETO Wares WOMiVeTSIit ys ee ee ee ee es Be eee 19 16 
Mounterlessantiiiibranyess— 2. ese ee he ea ee 2 2 
President’s Advisory Committee on Science____-___------_-- 6 =. 
Muaskecees INStivutee atte) See Se eee ee Ae SE 1 
U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia__-________- 5 ae 
ThemVyWhitewELOUSG mt Se ae ee ed eee A SL 2 2 


The White House (Office of Special Representative for Trade 
ING 270 tLe Gi O11 S)) eee See a ee 8 


73 22 
ALICE PIKE BARNEY MEMORIAL FUND 


Additions to the principal during the year amounting to $2,088.06 
increased the total invested sums in the Alice Pike Barney Memorial 
Fund to $47,512.55. 


THE HENRY WARD RANGER FUND 


According to a provision of the Henry Ward Ranger bequest, that 
paintings purchased by the Council of the National Academy of 
Design from the fund provided by the bequest and assigned to Amer- 
ican art institutions may be claimed during the 5-year period begin- 
ning 10 years after the death of the artist represented, the following 
paintings were recalled for action of the Smithsonian Art Commis- 
sion at its meeting December 3, 1963: 

No. 140. Tide Water Creek, Oregon (watercolor), by Theodore Kautzky 
(1896-1953), was accepted to become a permanent accession. 


No. 179. The Eviction (pastel), by Everett Shinn (1876-1953), was accepted 
to become a permanent accession. 


194 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The following paintings, purchased by the Council of the National 


Academy of Design since the last report, 


follows: 


Title and artist 


278. Milestone (oil), by Philip B. White (1935- 


279. 


ie 
Interior with Figure (oil), by Sarah Blakes- 
lee (1912- We 


. The Beach (oil), by Hughie Lee-Smith, 
(1915- )s 
. From my Window (oil), by Jacques Hniz- 


dovsky (1915- Ne 


. Portrait of Susan B. Stewart (oil), by Wal- 


ter Stuempfig (1914— Die 


. Connemara (oil), by Colleen Browning 
(1925- Ne 
The New Tent (oil), by Sperry Andrews 


(1917- ). 


. The Wait (watercolor), by Doris White 


(1924— Ne 


. Reunion (oil), by Richard Wynn (1928- 


) 


. The High City (watercolor), by Betty 


Bowes (1911-— Ne 


. Landscape (watercolor), by Douglas Gors- 
line (1913- is 
. Mountain Glen (watercolor), by Henry C. 
Pitz (1895- We 


. Expressway Site (watercolor), by Charles 


Taylor (1910- 5 

. Roof Tops, Ste. Agnes (watercolor), by 
Stuart Garrett (1922- Ve 

. Ludlow Snow (watercolor), by David M. 
Checkley (1917- Ne 


. Embankment, III (watercolor), by Glenn R. 
Bradshaw (1922- yrs 


. North of Truro (watercolor), by Saraga P. 


Saffer (1927- Dis 

. Studio Interior (watercolor), 

Knaus (1928- We 

. Beach at Quoque (watercolor), by Joseph 

W. Arcier (1909- Ne 

. Gathering Storm (watercolor), by Forrest 

Orr (1895-— ie 

. Viaduct (watercolor), by Fred B. Marshall 
(1904— ) 


by Wick 


have been assigned as 


Assignment 
Assignment pending. 


Hackley Art Gallery, Mus- 
kegon, Mich. 
Assignment pending. 


University of Delaware, 
Newark, Del. 
Birmingham Museum of 
Art, Birmingham, Ala. 
Assignment pending. 
Pomona College, Clare- 
mont, Calif. 
Assignment pending. 


Assignment pending. 


University of Southern 
California, Los Angeles, 
Calif. 

Rollins College, 
Park, Fla. 

Fine Arts Gallery, 
versity of 
Boulder, Colo. 

Assignment pending. 


Winter 


Uni- 
Colorado, 


Assignment pending. 


The University Guild, 
Northwestern  Univer- 
sity, Evanston, Ill. 

Fine Arts Gallery of San 
Diego, San Diego, Calif. 

Museum of New Mexico, 
Santa Fe, N. Mex. 

Assignment pending. 


Sioux City Art Center, 
Sioux City, Iowa. 
Assignment pending. 


Assignment pending. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 195 
SMITHSONIAN TRAVELING EXHIBITION SERVICE 


Mrs. Dorothy T. Van Arsdale was appointed Acting Chief to re- 
place Mrs. Annemarie Pope, who was named Special Assistant to 
the Secretary for Traveling Exhibition Study in May of this year. 

In addition to 99 exhibits held over from previous years as indicated 
below, 37 new shows were introduced. The total of 189 shows was 
circulated to 297 museums in the United States. Two exhibitions 
were delivered to the U.S. Information Service for circulation abroad. 


EXHIBITS CONTINUED FROM PRIOR YEARS 


1956-57 : Japan II by Werner Bischof. 

1957-58: The American City in the 19th Century ; Theatrical Posters of the Gay 
Nineties ; Japanese Dolls. 

1958-59: Advertising in 19th Century America; Religious Subjects in Modern 
Graphic Arts; Our Town; Shaker Craftsmanship. 

1959-60: American Prints Today; Brazilian Printmakers; Arts and Cultural 
Centers; Photographs by Robert Capa II; Prints and Drawings by Jacques 
Villon; Portraits of Greatness by Yousuf Karsh; Paintings by Young 
Africans; Japan I. 

1960-61: The Technique of Fresco Painting; The America of Currier and Ives; 
Drawings by Sculptors; Eskimo Graphic Art; American Art Nouveau Post- 
ers; Japan by Werner Bischof; The Spirit of the Japanese Print; Ameri- 
cans—A view from the East; Contemporary Swedish Architecture; Mies 
van der Rohe; Irish Architecture of the Georgian Period; Brasilia—A New 
Capital; Design in Germany Today; Designed for Silver ; American Textiles; 
The Seasons, color photographs by Hliot Porter; The World of Werner 
Bischof; The Image of Physics; Charles Darwin: The Evolution of an 
Evolutionist ; The Beginning of Flight; The Magnificent Enterprise—Hduca- 
tion Opens the Door; The New Theatre in Germany; Tropical Africa I; 
Tropical Africa II; Symphony in Color; Paintings and Pastels by Children 
of Tokyo; Children’s Art from Italy; Hawaiian Children’s Art; Designs 
by Children of Ceylon. 

1961-62: Tutankhamun’s Treasures: Fourteen Americans in France; George 
Catlin, Paintings and Prints; Physics and Painting; UNESCO Watercolor 
Reproductions ; Belgian Drawings; The Lithographs of Childe Hassam ; Con- 
temporary Italian Drawings; John Baptist Jackson; Contemporary Swedish 
Prints; Japanese Posters; The Face of Viet Nam; Architectural Photog- 
raphy (New HWditions) ; Le Corbusier—Chapel at Ronchamp; The Family, 
The Neighborhood, the City; One Hundred Books from the Grabhorn Press; 
Wisconsin Designer-Craftsmen; Caribbean Journey; The Swedish Film; 
The Story of a Winery; This is the American Earth; The Hidden World of 
Crystals; Hummingbirds; Brazilian Children’s Art; Children Look at 
UNESCO; My Friends. 

1962-63: The Daniells in India; Eskimo Carvings; Holland: The New Genera- 
tion; John Sloan; Contemporary Japanese Sumi Paintings; American 
Prints Today, 1962; Contemporary American Drawings; Work by Ernst 
Barlach; Old Master Drawings from Chatsworth; English Watercolors and 
Drawings; Hskimo Graphic Art II; Pakistan Stone Rubbings; Contem- 
porary Canadian Architecture; Twelve Churches; Pre-Hispanic Mexico; 


766-746—65——_14 


196 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Today’s American Wall-Coverings; Craftmen of the City; The Tradition 
of French Fabrics; A Child’s World of Nature; West German Students’ 
Art; Historic Annapolis ; The Old Navy, 1776-1860. 


EXHIBITIONS INITIATED IN 1964 
Archeology 


7000 Years of Iranian 
Ag fatness tfen 2S Saini es 5 Iranian Government; Archaeological Museum in 
Tehran; Madam Foroughi. 


Paintings and Sculpture 


The Bird That Never 


SW Sees eee. oe Musée National d’Art Moderne in Paris; Artist. 
Indian Miniatures_____-- India Library, London, Mrs. Mildred Archer; P & O 
Lines. 
Religious Themes by Old 
Masters) 22 222252 ee Inter Nationes, Bonn; German Embassy. 
Turner Watercolors__-_-- British Museum, Mr. E. Croft-Murray. 


Drawings and Prints 


Fifty Years of American 


Prints (se cesee eee ee Pennell Fund Collection, Library of Congress, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 
Antonio Frasconi 1952- 
106382 = eee ees The Artist. 
Prints by Mary Cassatt__ The National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. 
Graphies"6322222— 22=2_22 Mr. Richard reeman, University of Kentucky. 


Treasures from the 
Plantin-Moretus Mu- 


Seuny 2 ee Se Plantin-Moretus Museum, Antwerp. 
Highteenth Century Ve- 
netian Drawings__-___ Correr Museum, Venice, Dr. Terisio Pignatti. 


Design and Crafts 


Albers: Interaction of 
COLOR ha ne) ae eee Yale University Press. 
American Costumes-_-.._- Index of American Design, National Gallery of Art, 
Washington, D.C. 
Eugene Berman—New 


Stage Designs____---_ Artist; M. Knoedler & Company, New York City. 
Craftsmen of the East- 
CLIN Ales 2 ee ee Museum of Contemporary Crafts, New York City, 
Mr. Paul Smith. 
Eskimo Carvings___----- Eskimo Art, Ine., Ann Arbor, Mich., Mr. Eugene 
Powell. 


Finnish Rugs and Tapes- 
tries by Oili Maki______ Artist. 
Masters of Ballet Design. Spreckels Collection, California Palace of the Legion 
of Honor, San Francisco, Calif. 
Swedish Design Today__._ Svensk Form-Design Center, Stockholm, Ake Huldt, 
Managing Director. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 197 


Swedish Folk Art__----- Nordiska Museset, Stockholm; Dr. Eskerod, Swedish 
Embassy. 
Swiss Posters.__._._._..~- Pro Helvetia, Zurich; Embassy of Switzerland. 
Architecture 
Alvar Aaiton-sosescceao Traveling Exhibition Service, Mr. E. Kidder-Smith, 
Photographer. 


Contemporary American 
Landscape Archi- 
LeCCULe re ona en Hubbard Educational Trust; American Society of 
Landscape Architects. 
Recent American Syna- 


gogue Architecture___-.Mr. Richard Meier, Architect; Jewish Museum in 

New York. 

Eero Saarinen__________. Public Relations Department, TWA, New York; Ezra 
Stoller, Photographer. 

Historic Annapolis___-_-__. Historic Annapolis, Inc. 

History 

The American Flag______ Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 

Hearts and Flowers____-. Hallmark Historical Collection, Hallmark Cards, Inc., 
Kansas City, Mo. 

Worldelairg= =. 2222s: Prints and Photographs Division, Library of Congress, 


Washington, D.C. 
Ohildren’s Art 


American Kindergarten 


JN | ppp et er a ee eet BS National Kindergarten Association. 
Paintings by Young 
iBallinese qs 2et ek Be 3 Collection of Mrs. Gordon Wiles, Encino, Calif. 


Washington—My City___. District Art Department, Washington, D.C. 
Natural History and Science 
Birds .Of Asiae se Loke Wan Thos, Chinese Photographer. 
Photography 


Africa, Antarctica, The 
PATINA OMe sree ee ee IBM Gallery, New York City. 
African Folkways of An- 
gola and Mozambique. National Geographic Society; Museum of Primitive 
Art, New York City. 
The Hloquent Light— 


Ansel Adams__________ Mrs. Nancy Newhall, George Eastman House, Roches- 
ter, N.Y. 
ThernNilesso. Se ae Eliot Elisofon, Photographer. 
LIBRARY 


During the year the library accessioned 784 publications, 416 of 
which were obtained through exchange or gift. In all, 178 books and 
36 subscriptions to periodicals were purchased. 


198 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The slide collection was greatly augmented. A checklist of slides 
was instituted; 2,537 slides were accessioned. The Carnegie Corpora- 
tion aided in the purchase of the Carnegie Survey, Arts of the United 
States. 

STAFF ACTIVITIES 


Thomas M. Beggs, Director of the National Collection of Fine Arts 
for 17 years, was appointed Special Assistant to the Secretary for 
Fine Arts. David W. Scott was appointed Assistant Director, and 
subsequently, Acting Director. 

During the past year the following were added to the staff: Val 
Lewton, museum technician; Robin Bolton-Smith, research asistant; 
Judith Chance, clerk-typist. 

The office handled approximately 1,800 personal inquiries, in addi- 
tion to about 22,000 requests for information by mail and telephone; 
437 works of art were examined by the curatorial staff and the director. 

The reserve, permanent, and the lending collections were installed in 
a new screen storage area, and the foyer gallery was refurbished. 

Physical inventory of paintings, sculpture, prints, and miniatures 
in the collection has been completed and an inventory of the decorative 
arts collection was begun by staff members. Two preliminary cata- 
log listings, one of paintings, drawings, and sculpture, the other of 
graphic arts, were completed by Robin Bolton-Smith, Donald McClel- 
land, and David W. Scott. A survey of W.P.A. paintings at the De- 
partment of Labor was carried on by Val Lewton. 

Thomas M. Beggs wrote the catalog introductions to the Washing- 
ton County Museum exhibition Old Masters and the Department of 
State exhibition American Indian and Eskimo Arts and Crafis. An 
article on Ralph Earl was published in Antiques Journal by Rowland 
Lyon. Staff members served as jurors for local art exhibitions and 
lectured on the collection. 

A survey concerning the development of the collection was com- 
pleted by John Kerr. Special services with reference to cataloging 
were performed by Keyes Porter. Delight Hall prepared a text on the 
Alice Pike Barney Memorial Collection and began an inventory of 
the paintings. The inventory was completed by Jean Lawton. A 
survey of art in Government buildings was undertaken by Miss Hall, 
but was interrupted by the unfortunate accident which caused her 
death. 


Henri G. Courtais restored and repaired the following paintings: 


John Gellatly, by Irving R. Wiles (1861-1948) ; Lord Mulgrave, by Thomas 
Gainsborough (1727-1788) ; Mary Hopkinson, by Benjamin West (17388-1820) ; 
Edinburgh—A Painting of Sunlight and Air, by Joseph M. W. Turner (1775- 
1851) ; Water Carriers, Venice, by Frank Duveneck (1848-1919) ; Joseph Head, 
by Gilbert Stuart (1755-1828) ; Madonna and Child with St. John and an Angel, 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 199 


by Sebastiano Mainardi (1466-1513) ; At Nature’s Mirror, by Ralph Albert Blake- 
lock (1847-1919) ; Moonrise, by Ralph Albert Blakelock (1847-1919) ; Man with 
a Large Hat, by Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-1669) ; The Prince of Wales, by Sir 
John Watson Gordon (1790-1864) ; The Great Western, by William Marsh (fl. 
1844-1858) ; Pomona, by Childe Hassam (1859-1935) ; Young Girl in a Green 
Bonnet, by Mary Cassatt (1845-1926). 


Harold F. Cross restored and repaired the following paintings: 


Natalie with a Violin, by Alice Pike Barney (1857-1931) ; Sundown, by George 
Inness (1825-1894); The Brass Kettle, by Alice Pike Barney (1857-1931) ; 
Hippolyte Dreyfus, by Alice Pike Barney (1857-1931) ; Lord Abercorn, by Sir 
Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830) ; The Mystic Marriaye of St. Catherine of Aleaw- 
andria, by Giacomo Francia (1486-1557) ; View in Rome with the Church of Ara 
Coeli, by School of Canaletto; L’Automne, by Pierre Puvis de Chavannes (1824-— 
1898) ; Feldama, by George Fuller (1822-1884) ; Westward the Course of Em- 
pire Takes its Way, by Emanuel Leutze (1816-1868) ; Gentleman, by Sir Godfrey 
Kneller (1646-1723); The Doctor’s Visit, by Jan Steen (1626-1679) ; Dutch 
Landscape with Figures, by Jacobus van Strij (1756-1815). 


Repairs and regilding were done to 88 frames for paintings, prints, 
and watercolors by Val Lewton, Linwood Lucas, and Istvan Pfeiffer. 


SPECIAL EXHIBITIONS AND EVENTS 


July 8—-August 1, 1963. Tenth Interservice Photography Contest, sponsored 
by the Department of Defense. 

August 10-—September 2, 1963. Sixteenth International Congress of Zoology, 
sponsored by the United States National Museum. 

September 8-29, 1963. Pakistan Stone Rubbings, circulated by the Smithso- 
nian Institution Traveling Exhibition, together with Pakistan textiles and 
jewelry lent by Mrs. E. J. W. Bunting, and miscellaneous objects from the 
Division of Ethnology, USNM. A catalogue was privately printed. 

September 8—-October 10, 1968. Ninth International Exhibition of Ceramic 
Art, sponsored by the Kiln Club of Washington, D.C. An illustrated catalogue 
was privately printed. 

October 5-24, 1968. Seventieth Annual Exhibition of the Society of Washing- 
ton Artists. A catalogue was privately printed. 

November 3-24, 1968. American Artists Professional League under the au- 
spices of the New Jersey Chapter. Memorial to Frederick Ballard Williams. A 
catalogue and brochure were privately printed. 

December 8—January 2, 1964. Twenty-sixth Anniversary of the Metropolitan 
Art Exhibition, sponsored by the American Art League. A brochure was printed 
privately. 

December 8, 1963—January 2, 1964. Hearts and Flowers, a history of the 
greeting card from the 18th century to 1910, circulated by the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution Traveling Exhibition Service, from Hallmark Historical Collection, 
Kansas City, Mo. 

January 11-February 2, 1964. Ninth Annual Painting of the Year Exhibition, 
sponsored by the Mead Corporation. <A special catalogue was privately printed. 

January 12-80, 1964. African Folkways in Angola and Mozambique, photo- 
graphs by Volkmar Wentzel, under the auspices of the National Geographic 
Society and the Museum of Primitive Art. 

January 20, 1964. Images of Hawaii—from Captain Cook to Contemporary 
Crossroads—a lecture on the development of Hawaiian art by Ben Norris, profes- 


200 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


sor of art at the University of Hawaii, sponsored by the Hawaii State Society 
of Washington, D.C. 

February 8-March 1, 1964. Twenty-fifth National Exhibition of the Society 
of Washington Printmakers. A catalogue was privately printed. 

February 8—March 1, 1964. Prints by Antonio Frasconi, 1952-1963, circulated 
by the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. A special bro- 
chure was privately printed. 

February 10-—March 8, 1964. An oil painting, ‘“‘The Range Burial,” by Harry 
Jackson, together with related sculptures and studies, sponsored by the Honor- 
able Milward Lee Simpson, Senator from Wyoming, the Wyoming State Society 
of Washington, D.C., and the Coe Foundation. An illustrated catalogue was 
privately printed. 

March 7-29, 1964. Craftsmen of the Eastern States, an exhibit of textiles, 
ceramics, jewelry, metalwork, and furniture, circulated by the Smithsonian Insti- 
tution Traveling Exhibition Service. A special catalogue was privately printed. 

April 5-28, 1964. The twenty-second Biennial Art Exhibition, sponsored by 
the National League of American Pen Women. A catalogue was privately 
printed. 

April 4-26, 1964. Graphics ’63, sponsored by the University of Kentucky and 
circulated by the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. A 
catalogue was privately printed. 

May 3-21, 1964. Sixty-seventh Annual National Exhibition of the Washington 
Watercolor Association. 

May 3-21, 1964. Thirty-first Annual Exhibition of the Miniature Painters, 
Sculptors, and Gravers Society of Washington, D.C.. A special catalogue was 
privately printed. 

May 2-24, 1964. The Nile, photographs by Eliot Hlisofon, circulated by the 
Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service. A special book was 
printed. 

May 11—June 14, 1964. Sculpture and Drawings by Juan de Avalos, spon- 
sored by the Ambassador of Spain. A catalogue was privately printed. 

June 27—July 19, 1964. Tuscany in the 19th Century, an exhibition of paint- 
ings, sponsored by the American Federation of Art and the Ambassador of Italy. 


Respectfully submitted. 
Davw W. Scorr, Acting Director. 
S. Ditton Rrerey. 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the Freer Gallery of Art 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the 44th annual report on the Freer 
Gallery of Art, for the year ended June 30, 1964. 


THE COLLECTIONS 


Twenty-two objects were added to the collections by purchase as 
follows: 
METALWORK 


63.15. Persian, Achaemenid, 6th/5th century B.C. Wild goat, rearing, with 
front legs bent double. Gold, hollow; a band of fine gold wire over 
center of body. Originally one of two handles of an amphora- 
shaped vase. Cf. 64.6. Three small holes. Height: 0.196; weight: 
50z. (Ilustrated.) 

64.3. Persian, Sasanian, 6th/7th century A.D. Vase, silver, partially gilded ; 
triangular notched design repeated three times; tri-lobed leaf mold- 
ing around neck. Height: 0.175; diameter (at rim) : 0.057; weight: 
1 1b. 6% oz. 


64.6. Persian, Achaemenid, 6th/5th century B.C. Wild goat, rearing, with 
front legs bent double, standing on a tube-like support with chevron 
pattern and a central rib in relief. Gold, hollow; a band of fine 
gold wire over center of body. Originally one of two handles of an 
amphora-shaped vase. Cf. 63.15. Cracks in front of neck and ears. 
Length : 0.226; weight: 4144 oz. (MTllustrated.) 


PAINTING 


64.2. Chinese, Ming, by Liu Chiieh (1410-72). Landscape, with bamboo 
grove. Five inscriptions and 10 seals on the painting; 1 seal on the 
mounting preceding the painting ; colophon with 1 seal following the 
painting. Label on outside mount. Height: 0.386; width: 0.578. 
(Illustrated. ) 

64.5. Chinese, Ch’ing, Yang-chou school, by Lo P’ing (1733-99). Album 
of 12 leaves: landscapes and figures; dated 1774. Painted in ink 
and colors on paper. Title on outside mount; artist’s inscription and 
seal on each leaf; collector’s inscription and two seals on mount- 
ing beside last leaf. Height: 0.241; width: 0.305. 

63.4. Indian, Mughal, ea. 1588 (996 H.), attributed to ’Abdl al-Samad Shirin 
Qalam. Leaf from the Jahangir album: Verso: Jamshid writing on 
a rock, retainers in landscape; border of gold flowers and colored 
birds. Recto: calligraphy (nasta‘lig by Mir ‘Ali) ; marginal design 
with small human figures in gold landscape. Small areas of pig- 
ments chipped off. Height: 0.420; width: 0.265. 

63.2. Japanese, Ashikaga, Muromachi Suiboku school, by Oguri Soritsu 
(16th century). Willows and birds; swmi on paper. Kakemono: 
height: 1.105; width: 0.520. 


201 


202 


63.11. 


63.12-18. 


63.14. 


63.16. 


63.10. 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Japanese, Edo, Individualist school, by Mori Sosen (1747-1821). 
Monkeys and waterfall; sumi and slight color on paper. Kakemono: 
height : 0.885; width: 0.310. 

Japanese, Ashikaga, early 15th century, Muromachi Suiboku school, 
attributed to Shtibun. Landscape; ink on paper. Kakemono: 
height: 0.905; width: 0.350. 

Japanese, Heian period, 12th century, Buddhist school. The Bodhis- 
attva Fugen. Ink, color, gold and silver on silk. Kakemono 
height : 1.556; width: 0.831. (Illustrated.) 


Japanese, Edo, 19th century, Individualist school, by Shibata Zeshin 
(1807-91). Carp. Lacquer on paper. Height: 0.846; width: 


0.472. 

Japanese, Momoyama period, Kand school, by Kano Hitoku (1543- 
90). A pair of six-fold screens depicting “The Four Accomplish- 
ments.” Ink on paper. Each screen: height: 1.540; width: 3.540. 

Japanese, Kamakura, Buddhist school. The Bodhisattva Fugen and 
attendants. Ink, color and gold on silk. Kakemono: height: 
1.404; width: 0.7380. 


POTTERY 


Chinese, Sung, ting ware. Shallow bowl with wide, flaring rim bound 
with copper; small foot. Clay: fine off-white stoneware. Glaze: 
transparent, slightly bubbly, some “teardrops” on outside. Decora- 
tion: two ducks swimming among water plants incised in the paste 
under the glaze. Height: 0.048 ; diameter: 0.210. 

Japanese, Edo period, kakiemon ware, early 18th century. Deep 
bowl, octagonal in section, with slightly flaring rim and upright lip. 
Clay: white porcelain. Glaze: transparent. Decoration: flowers, 
tree trunks, rocks, and scrolling vines in underglaze blue and over- 
glaze enamel colors; brown rim; single circle in underglaze blue 
on base. Height: 0.102; diameter: 0.212. 

Japanese, Edo period, nabeshima ware. Dish on high foot. Footrim 
repaired. Clay: fine white porcelain. Glaze: transparent. Decora- 
tion: in underglaze blue and overglaze enamel colors; outside, 
flowers on cavetto and typical “comb pattern on foot” ; inside auspi- 
cious objects and “kotobuki” reserved in white. Height: 0.058; 
diameter: 0.203. 

Japanese, Momoyama period, oribe ware. Small dish with flattened, 
foliate rim. Clay: buff stoneware with areas of iron red near the 
glaze. Glaze: deep green with uneven flow. Decoration: incised, 
floral motifs and grasses in cavetto; a donkey carrying a grain 
sack in center. Height: 0.036; diameter: 0.115. 

Japanese, Edo period, 17th century, Ninsei. Rectangular vase with 
rounded profile, short neck and small out-turning lip. Signature 
incised on rough unglazed base. Clay: gray stoneware, fired red- 
dish buff. Glaze: uneven reddish brown with black areas. Height: 
0.248 ; width: 0.273 (maximum). (Illustrated.) 

Japanese, Momoyama, shino-oribe ware. Bottle, gourd-shaped. Clay: 
rough stoneware. Glaze: transparent. Decoration: grapes and 
trellis design. Height: 0.215; diameter : 0.105. 

Japanese, Edo, nabeshima ware. Plate, footed. Clay: porcelain. 
Glaze: partial celadon. Decoration: design in underglaze blue and 
incised iron. Height : 0.057; diameter : 0.203. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 203 


63.7. Turkish, Ottoman period, mid-16th century, isnik ware. Plate with a 
design of zinnias, pomegranates, and hyacinths in light blue, purple, 
and white on dark blue ground, on the inside; and of two tulips 
alternating with a zinnia in light and dark blue on white ground on 
outside wall. Small area along the upper right edge lost and replaced 
by painted plaster, nicks along edge; two holes in ring-foot for sus- 
pension. Height: 0.058: diameter: 0.312. 


REPAIRS TO THE COLLECTION 


Twenty-four Chinese and Japanese paintings and screens were re- 
stored, repaired, or remounted by T. Sugiura, Oriental picture 
mounter. F. A. Haentschke, illustrator, remounted 34 Persian paint- 
ings. Repairs and regilding of six frames for American paintings 
were done outside the Gallery. 


CHANGES IN EXHIBITIONS 


Changes in exhibitions amounted to 378, which were as follows: 


American art: Japanese art: 
Paanibiniog 2 eed ess 1 Paintingg 22255) fotos, 79 
Chinese art: Pottery -----------------_-- 27 
Bronzer) Ses ga Seea Less g 4 eet ------------------- a 
Christian alee Near Hastern art: 
Manuscripts 2. === 20 iD 7a Sard eae | etiik oni y re 
Stone sculpture________-____ i) Maspiderinias sess. osm 32 
Indian art: Palniinea, oes ie.s cea 79 
iil 28 POtleny iis ee ee 83 
LIBRARY 


The library has been coming into full use with the recent intro- 
duction of courses in Oriental Art in the local colleges and universities. 
The graduate and undergraduate students, many of whom have used 
our collection for research, as well as the three students on fellowships 
studying at the Gallery this past year, have given an impetus to 
the “diffusion of knowledge.” 

During the year, 472 items (books, pamphlets, periodical parts) 
were acquired by the library; 258 of these were by purchase and 214 
by exchange and gift. Nineteen microfilms augmented the collection, 
and the study file increased by 1,069 photographs. 

The year’s cataloging projects included a total of 900 entries; 596 
analytics were made and 199 new titles of books, pamphlets, and 
microfilms were cataloged. Additions to the sets of books numbered 
115, and 3,151 cards were added to the card catalog. Only 11 per- 
cent of these were available as printed cards; nearly 90 percent of 
the cataloging is original work. 


204 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Since many instructors at the university Oriental Art courses 
depend on the library for supplementary material and visual aids, 
the importance of the slide collection has markedly increased. The 
library acquired 1,412 new slides, and 2,778 were bound, labeled, 
classified, or repaired. Slide loans totaled 2,962, of which 487, or 
17.5 percent, were for the use of the Gallery staff in their lectures. 

There were 434 requests for bibliographic information by telephone 
and letter. Visitors were frequent: 686 scholars and students who 
were not members of the Freer staff used the library resources, 5 saw 
and studied the Washington Manuscripts, and 6 came to see the 
library equipment and facilities. 

After years of searching, two copies of Shih-chu-chai shu-hua p’u 
(Painting manual from the Ten Bamboo Studio) were acquired. The 
larger copy is undated, and has 181 colored illustrations on 45 canon 
folds, while the second copy has the illustrated text in eight pén, pub- 
lished in Shanghai and dated 1879. 

Another rare and valuable book, acquired for the documentation 
of Moronobu’s works, is Byobu kakemono edzukushi (Designs for 
sereens and kakemono), Tokyo, 1701 (first edition published in 1682). 
This work clearly establishes that Moronobu was familiar with, and 
followed, other techniques and schools of art besides Ukiyoe. 

The following gifts deserve special mention because of their out- 
standing quality. Kokuhdé henshi-iin (National treasures of Japan), 
Tokyo, Mainichi Shimbun-sha, 1963—, is a folio set eventually to 
be compiete in six volumes; it is made available to us through the 
Weedon gift. Another set, Vikuhitsu Ukiyoe (Ukiyoe painting), 
Tokyo, Kodansha, 1962-63, two folio volumes, is the gift of Mr. and 
Mrs. Felix Juda. The staff continues to be generous with their 
writings and the literature sent to them. 

Holdings of Whistler correspondence, 630 leaves in all, were lami- 
nated by the Archival Restoration Associates, Inc. 

Mrs. Bertha M. Usilton, librarian since 1944, retired on June 30; 
Mrs. Constance B. Olsen will take charge of the library with the be- 
ginning of the new fiscal year. 


PUBLICATIONS 


Two publications were issued by the Gallery as follows: 


Ars Orientalis, Vol. V. 19 articles in English, French, or German, 18 book 
reviews, 1 bibliography, 2 notes, 3 memorials. 354 pp., 206 plates, text 
illustrations. (Smithsonian Institution Publication 4540.) 

Oriental Studies, No. 6: Armenian Manuscripts in the Freer Gallery of Art, by 
Sirarpie Der Nersessian, 145 pp., 108 plates. (Smithsonian Institution 
Publication 4516.) 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 205 


Publications of staff members were as follows: 


Canm1, James F. Yiian Chiang and his school. Part I. Ars Orientalis, vol. 
5 (1963), pp. 259-272, 20 pls. 

Review of “The birth of Landscape Painting in China,” by Michael 

Sullivan. Burlington Magazine, vol. 105 (Oct. 1963), p. 452. 

Translation of “Concerning the I-p‘in Style of Painting, Part III,” 
by S. Shimada. Oriental Art, n.s. vol. 10 (1964), pp. 19-26, illus. 

EYrINGHAUSEN, RicHarD. Iran under Islam. 7000 Years of Iranian Art, cir- 
culated by the Smithsonian Institution . . . 1964-65 (1964), pp. 33-46. 

Art of the Islamic period, bibliography. 7000 Years of Iranian Art, 

culated by the Smithsonian Institution .. . 1964-65 (1964), pp. 50-51. 

Chinese representations of Central Asian Turks. Beitrage zur Kunst- 

geschichte Asiens; in memoriam Ernst Diez. Istanbul (1963), pp. 208-222, 

16 figs. 

Historical subjects, The East: Islam. Hncyclopedia of World Art, 

vol. VII, cols. 495-497. 

Masterpieces of Iranian rugs and textiles. [An exhibition at the 

Textile Museum, Washington, D.C., June 9-September 12, 1964.] 12 pp., 9 

illus. on 7 pls. 

New pictorial evidence of Catholic missionary activity in Mughal 

India (early XVIIth century). Perennites ...P. Thomas Michels... 

zum 70. Geburtstag. Miinster, Verlag Aschendorff (1968), pp. 385-396, 

11 pls. 

Oreeiceria (Goldsmithing); L’Islam. Hnciclopedia Universale dell 

’Arte, vol. 10, cols. 141-142. 

Pre-Mughal painting in India. Trudy dvadstat’ pyatogo mezhdunaro- 

thnogo kongressa vostokovedov, Moskva 1960. (Proceedings of the 25th 

International Congress of Orientalists, Moscow, 1960), vol. 4, section 14, 

pp. 191-192. 

Some Deccani miniatures in the United States. Marg, vol. 16 (March 

1963), pp. 14-16, 32-83, 5 illus. (Published as two articles under titles 

“Bijapur” and “Portfolio [Deccani painting]’’). 

Yemenite Bible manuscripts of the XVth century. Jerusalem, Israel 

exploration society, 19638. Hretz-Israel, vol. 7, L. A. Mayer memorial volume, 

pp. 32-89, 13 pls. 

Youssef Sida: paintings, drawings, ceramics. An Introduction. [An 

exhibition at Middle East House, March 17-April 12, 1964, Washington, 

D.C.] 5 pp. 

Review of “Introduction 4 Vhistoire de l’Orient Musulman,” by Jean 

Sauvaget. Der Islam, bd. 39 (Feb. 1964). 

Review of “Natural History Drawings in the Indian Office Library,” 
by Mildred Archer. Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 22 (Feb. 1963), pp. 
250-252. 

GeTTens, R. J. Conservators in Russia. Museum News, vol. 42 (May 1964), 
pp. 11-17, 13 illus. 

Review of “Archaeology and the Microscope; the Scientific Hxamina- 

tion of Archaeological Evidence,” by Leo Biek. Science, vol. 143 (June 38, 

1963), p. 36. 


206 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Pore, Joun A. Archibald Gibson Wenley; an appreciation. Ars Orientalis, 
vol. 5 (1963), pp. 1-5, port. 

—_—. Stockholm: The Museum of Far Hastern Antiquities. Apollo, vol. 78 
(July 1963), pp. 29-83, 8 illus. 

Review of “Chinese Trade Porcelain,” by Michel Beurdeley. Journal 

of the American Oriental Society, vol. 82 (Oct.—Dec. 1962), pp. 601-605. 

Review of “The Golden Peaches of Samarkand; a Study of T’ang 

Exotics,” by Edward H. Schafer. Journal of Asian Studies, vol. 23 (1964), 

pp. 296-297. 

Review of “La route de la soie,”’ by Luce Boulnois. Journal of Asian 
Studies, vol. 23 (1964), p. 318. 

Stern, Harorp P. In memoriam, James Marshall Plumer. Ars Orientalis, 
vol. 5 (1963), pp. 829-331, port. 

Introduction to: Japanese drawings. Great drawings of all time, New 

York, Shorewood press, vol. IV, 2 pp., plates 907-926. 

Introduction to: A hundred pots by Shoji Hamada. [A loan exhibi- 
tion at the Phillips Collection, Washington, D.C., Oct. 13—Noy. 18, 1963.] 

TROUSDALE, WILLIAM B. Chinese jade at Philadelphia. Oriental Art. vol. 10 
(Summer 1964), pp. 107-114, illus. 

Review of “Archaeology in China, vol. 2, Shang China,’ by Cheng 

Tek‘ un. Ars Orientalis, vol. 5 (1963), pp. 303-306. 

Review of “Archaeology in China,’ by William Watson. Ars Orien- 

talis, vol. 5 (1963), p. 306. 

Review of “Chinese Jade Throughout the Ages; a Review of Its Char- 
acteristics, Decoration, Folklore and Symbolism,” by Stanley Charles Nott. 
Burlington Magazine, vol. 105 (Oct. 1963), pp. 452-453. 

Usi~ton, BertHA M. Bibliography and writings of James Marshall Plumer. 
Ars Orientalis, vol. 5 (19638). pp. 3381-3837. 

The museum library. Museum News, vol. 42 (Oct. 1963), pp. 11-14, 


illus. 


PHOTOGRAPHIC LABORATORY AND SALES DESK 


The photographic laboratory made 10,403 items during the year as 
follows: 5,649 prints, 971 negatives, 3,451 color slides, 297 black-and- 
white slides, and 35 color sheet films. At the sales desk 67,589 items 
were sold, comprising 5,278 publications, and 62,316 reproductions 
(including postcards, slides, photographs, reproductions in the round, 
etc.). Chief photographer Raymond A. Schwartz spent 7 months in 
Japan and Taiwan on the Taiwan Photographic Project, and thus the 
production of the photographic laboratory was proportionately 
decreased ; however, the figures for the sales desk indicate an increase 
of approximately 20 percent over the sales of the preceding year. 


BUILDING AND GROUNDS 


The exterior of the building appears to be sound and in good condi- 
tion. The exterior masonry, including the walls of the courtyard has 
been cleaned. Blisters have appeared on the roof, but no serious 
damage has occurred; however, this condition will bear continuous 
watching. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 207 


In the interior, the structural steel in the attic remains in need of 
painting. An experimental system to be used in relamping consisting 
of a metal superstructure was installed over Galleries VIII, [X, and 
X, and has proved to be unsatisfactory. All steam pipes in the attic 
were removed and heating units installed in the existing ducts. This 
commendable measure made many areas more accessible for storage 
and general use. 

Galleries I through VIIT and XIII through XIX, including the east 
and west corridors, have been redecorated with vinyl resin-coated 
fabric to match Galleries [X, X,and XI. All baseboards, grills, and 
belt courses were painted as work progressed. The galleries now 
appear much improved and in good condition. 

The exposed ceiling of the American painting storage was reinstalled 
and the area painted. Safety latches were designed and installed on 
each of the picture racks. Repair and refinishing of the panel storage 
eases has begun; work on the cases on the north and south sides of the 
room has been completed. Nine sets of doors remain to be refinished. 

The wall, trim, doors, and window frames of the auditorium have 
been painted, and a new Altec No. 342B Amplifier-Preamplifier was 
installed and connected into the existing sound system. The north 
wall and ceiling at the back of the auditorium have been repaired. 

The cabinet shop made and repaired furniture and equipment as the 
need arose. 

Seasonal plantings in the courtyard were made and have flourished, 
and the entire courtyard was bird-proofed. 


ATTENDANCE 


The Gallery was open to the public from 9:00 to 4:30 every day 
except Christmas Day. The total number of visitors to come in the 
main entrance was 168,625. The highest monthly attendance was in 
July—22,329. 

There were 3,224 visitors who came to the Gallery office for such 
varied purposes as to seek general information, to submit objects for 
examination, to consult staff members, to take photographs or sketch 
in the galleries, to use the library, to examine objects in storage, etc. 


AUDITORIUM 
The series of illustrated lectures was continued as follows: 
1963 
Octoberi8s2-22 2 William G. Archer, Esq., Victoria and Albert Museum, Lon- 
don, England, “Rajput Painting.” Attendance, 17. 
November 12_______ Donald H. Rochlen, Esq., United States Information Agency, 


“Thailand, an Archeological Treasure House.” Attend- 
ance, 270. 


208 ANNUAL 
1964 

January 14222) >= 

Webruary 112---- 


March 1 O22 sae 


April gd vee eee 


REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Dr. Harold P. Stern, Freer Gallery of Art, “Life in 14th 
Century Japan.” Attendance, 132. 
Dr. Aschwin Lippe, Metropolitan Museum of Art, “Early 
Chalukya Sculpture of India (Sixth and Seventh Cen- 
turies).’’ Attendance, 46. 

Michael Gough, Esq., British Institute of Archaeology, 
Ankara, Turkey, “Christian Archaeology in Asia Minor; 
the Last Ten Years.” Attendance, 218. 

Fujio Koyama, Esq., Ceramics Historian, Tokyo, Japan, 

“Three-color Pottery in the Shosdin.” Attendance, 91. 


The Smithsonian Institution used the auditorium as follows: 


1963 
September 27______ 


National Air Museum—lecture by Elmer A. Sperry, Jr., 
“Early Airplane Instruments.’ Attendance, 112. 


The auditorium was used by seven outside organizations for 39 
meetings as follows: 


1963 
United States Department of Agriculture: 
United Givers Fund__________ September 19; attendance, 50. 
4-H Club Group__-__-------_ October 24; attendance, 111. 


National Outlook Conference. November 20; attendance, 230. 


November 21; attendance, 83. 


Annual Farmers’ Cooperative December 9; attendance, 120. 


Workshop. 


United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare: 
Food and Drug Administra- November 13; attendance, 138 


tion, Bureau 


of Biological 


and Physical Sciences. 
DAL / RP Bee ee December 10; attendance, 81. 
Women’s Committee, National October 2; attendance, 95. 
Symphony Orchestra. 
Washington Chapter, National October 2; attendance, 91. 
Women’s Committee, Brandeis 


University. 


1964 


United States Department of Agriculture: 
Federal Extension Service___ January 8; attendance, 92. 


January 9; attendance, 8&5. 
January 10; attendance, 97. 
February 5; attendance, 638. 


Forest Service.._..—..-..=.=. January 22; attendance, 64. 


March 2; attendance, 189. 


Rural Electrification Admin- February 4; attendance, 71. 


istration. 


Publicsnearing= =) 22-3 ee April 9; attendance, 225. 


April 10; attendance, 81. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 209 


Office of the Inspector Gen- April 28; attendance, 48. 
eral. April 29; attendance, 70. 
April 30; attendance, 83. 

May 1; attendance, 63. 

May 5; attendance, 75. 

May 6; attendance, 84. 

May 7; attendance, 95. 

May 8; attendance, 59. 


United States Department of Health, Education, and Welfare: 
Food and Drug Administra- January 15; attendance, 93. 
tion, Bureau of Biological February 19; attendance, 137. 
and Physical Sciences. 
Division of Pharmacology___. January 24; attendance, 81. 
General meeting_____________ April 15; attendance, 76. 


Washington Fashion Group: 
Ninth Fashion Career Course: 


“Fashion Showmanship”’_.._ February 17; attendance, 242. 
“Accessories to Fashion”___ February 24; attendance, 256. 
“Fashion in the Home’_____ March 2; attendance, 235. 


“Fashion Communication”__ March 9; attendance, 234. 
“Fashion Careers Un- March16; attendance, 234. 
limited.” 
“Fashion Designing”’_______ March 28 ; attendance, 237. 
Archaeological Institute of America: 


Lecture by Professor D. P. April 16; attendance, 35. 
Hansen, New York Uni- 

versity, “Sculpture from 

Nippur.” 


National Academy of Sciences: 


Committee on Vision_________ April 23; attendance, 122. 
April 24 ; attendance, 160. 


STAFF ACTIVITIES 


The work of the staff members has been devoted to the study of 
new accessions, of objects contemplated for purchase, and of objects 
submitted for examination, as well as to individual research projects 
in the fields represented by the collection of Chinese, Japanese, Per- 
sian, Arabic, and Indian materials. In all, 17,894 objects and 1,298 
photographs were examined, and 1,093 Oriental language inscriptions 
were translated for outside individuals and institutions. By request, 
32 groups totaling 859 persons met in the exhibition galleries for 
docent service by the staff members. Ten groups totaling 98 persons 
were given docent service by staff members in the storage rooms. 

Among the visitors were 132 distinguished foreign scholars or 
persons holding official positions in their own countries who came here 
under the auspices of the Department of State to study museum ad- 
ministration and practices in this country. 


210 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


TECHNICAL LABORATORY 


A total of 218 objects was examined by various methods, including 
microscopic and microchemical examination, and examination in ul- 
traviolet light. Of the 85 Freer objects examined, 47 were bronze ob- 
jects analysed by wet chemical methods, and 28 were objects of stone, 
bronze, silver, and other metalwork and pottery which were cleaned 
and/or repaired. Forty-two objects being considered for purchase 
were examined. Ninety-one objects were examined for other divisions 
of the Smithsonian, other museums, and private owners. Two of these 
were repaired, and 10 written reports were made. Forty-seven of 
these objects were coins belonging to the Dumbarton Oaks Research 
Library and Collection, of which the specific gravity was determined. 
In addition, 22 bronze standards were analyzed by wet methods; and 
75 identifications were made by X-ray diffraction. Twenty inquiries 
were answered by letter, and numerous inquiries by telephone. 

Analysis by wet chemical methods of Chinese bronzes in the Freer 
collection was continued. Further systematic collection of data on 
the technology of ancient copper and bronze in the Far East was 
undertaken. Much of the information gained will be presented in 
a forthcoming catalog on Ancient Chinese Bronze Ceremonial Vessels 
in the Freer Gallery of Art. Continued studies on the corrosion 
products of ancient metal objects were made. The editing of J/C 
Abstracts, published by the International Institute of Conservation 
of Historic and Artistic Works, London, continued to be carried on 
in the Technical Laboratory. 


LECTURES BY STAFF MEMBERS 


By invitation, the following lectures were given outside the Gallery 
by staff members (illustrated unless otherwise noted) : 


1963 

June 25—August 25__. W. B. Trousdale gave a series of 16 lectures on Chinese 
Art History, for the Second Summer Institute in Chi- 
nese Civilization, under the auspices of the United 
States Education Foundation in China, Taichung, Tai- 
wan. Average attendance, 29; total attendance, 464. 

Duly ioe eae eee Mr. Trousdale, at the China Society, Taichung Branch, 
Tunghai University, Taiwan, “Archaic Chinese Jade.” 
Attendance, 50. 

guOlyegose seek ees Dr. Richard Httinghausen, at Georgetown University 
(Peace Corps Training Program), Washington, D.C., 
“Turkish Art.” Attendance, 100. 

DUN eo ae ees R. J. Gettens, at the meeting of the ICOM Committee for 
Scientific Museum Laboratories held in Leningrad, 
U.S.S.R., read a paper on “Mineral Alteration Products 
on Ancient Metal Objects.’ Attendance, 75. 


Secretary's Report, 1964 


a 


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Persian metalwork, Achaemenid period, 6th/5th century B.C. 63.15 and 


Wild Goats. 
64.6 Freer Galley of Art. 


Secretary's Report, 1964 PLATE 6 


The Bodhisattva Fugen. Japanese painting, Heian period, 12th century 
Buddhist school. 63.3, Freer Gallery of Art. 


Secretary’s Report, 1964 PLATE 7 


Vase, by Ninsei Nonomura. Japanese pottery, Edo period, 17th century. 64.1, Freer 
Gallery of Art. 


Secretary's Report, 1964 PLATE 8 


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64.2, Freer Gallery of Art. 


Ming dynasty. 


Chinese painting. 


Landscape, by Liu Chiieh (1410-1472). 


SECRETARY’S REPORT Zit 


1968 

October! (2525228 2s Dr. John A. Pope, at the Society for Asian Art, Berkeley, 
Calif., “Japanese Porcelain and the Dutch Trade.” 
Attendance, 75. 

October 822 = Dr. Pope, at Stanford University, Stanford, Calif., ‘‘The 
Monuments of Angkor.” Attendance, 750. 

October: 92-222 222.2 Dr. Pope, at the University of California, Berkeley, Jap- 
anese Porcelain and the Dutch Trade.” Attendance, 
200. 

Octoberslon a2. Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Alburz Foundation, Teheran, 
Iran, “The Meaning of Art and Archaeology” (not 
illustrated). Attendance, 65. 

Octobernd4 SS. 2-2... Dr. Pope, at the Santa Barbara Museum of Art, Santa 
Barbara, Calif., “The Monuments of Angkor.” Attend- 
ance, 150. 

Octoberl422-2.- == Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Iran-American Society, Teheran, 


Iran, “The Interest of the United States in Iranian 
Art and Culture.” Attendance, 165. 

October! G222222-22 Dr. Pope, at the Collectors Group, Los Angeles County 
Museum, Los Angeles, Calif., ““The Collectors and Collec- 
tions of Chinese Art.” Attendance, 40. 

October d 6222223 5—5 Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Faculty of Fine Arts of the 
University of Teheran, “Masterworks of Iranian Art in 
Washington.” Attendance, 250. 


October ie ee Dr. Pope, at the University of California in Los Angeles, 
“The Harly Trade in Chinese Porcelain.” Attendance, 
150. 

October i252. 2. Dr. Pope, at the Japan-America Society of Southern Cali- 


fornia, Los Angeles, “Japanese Porcelain and the Dutch 
Trade.” Attendance, 250. 

October £72 = = Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Literary College of the University 
of Teheran, ‘‘Persian Miniature Painting.” Attendance, 
135. 

OctobertS 2 aco Dr. Pope, at the San Diego Fine Arts Gallery, San Diego, 
Calif., “The Early Trade in Chinese Porcelain.” Attend- 
ance, 125. 

Octobernia9eek eo Dr. Pope, at the Art Center in La Jolla, Calif., “Collectors 
and Collections of Chinese Art.” Attendance, 150. 

October 21s 2 Dr. Pope, at the University of Arizona, Tucson, “The 
Monuments of Angkor.” Attendance, 150. 

October sla .22 seus 2 Dr. Pope, at Cornell University, Ithaca, N.Y., “Note on 
the Early Trade in Chinese Porcelain.” Attendance, 
alts 

November 4______-- Dr. Httinghausen, at the Turkish-American Association, 
The Art Lovers’ Club, Ankara, Turkey, ‘American In- 
terest in Turkish Art’ (not illustrated). Attendance, 
150. 

November {i2i=2.2 =. Dr. Ettinghausen, at Ankara University, Literary College, 
“Persian Miniatures” (in German). Attendance, 100. 


766-476—65——_15 


212 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


19638 

November 14-------- Dr. H. P. Stern, at the Royal Ontario Museum, Toronto, 
Canada, “Popular Painting of Tokugawa Japan.” At- 
tendance, 175. 

December’ b=2——---—- Dr. Ettinghausen, at the Oriental Seminar of the Univer- 
sity of Frankfurt, Germany, “The Development of Per- 
sian Miniature Painting” (in German). Attendance, 25. 

December 122---==_- Dr. Pope, at Princeton University, Princeton, N.J., “Some 
Aspects of the Pre-Eighteenth Century World Trade in 
Chinese Porcelain.’ Attendance, 175. 

1964 

acme 3 Ue Dr. Pope, at the Williamsburg Antiques Forum, Williams- 
burg, Va., “The Far East and Early America ; Especially 
Porcelain.’ Attendance, 350. 

March, 1322 Mr. Gettens, at a symposium on “Aims and Essential In- 
formation for Reports on Technical Studies of Archae- 
ological Objects,’ at Columbia University, New York 
City, “Requirements for Published Data on Chemical 
Analysis of Archaeological Objects.” Attendance, 30. 

Marchnto2 ss eae Dr. Pope, at a symposium on “Chinese Export Porcelain,” 
at Winterthur, Del., “Shapes and Decoration Common to 
Porcelain Made for Export to the Middle East, Portugal, 
Holland, and England to 1750.” Attendance, 100. 


Aprila(ps see eee Dr. Stern, at the Musée Guimet, Paris, France, “Japanese 
Art.” Attendance, 10. (Staff members only.) 

April (eee Dr. Stern, at the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam, The Nether- 
lands, “Hokusai.” Attendance, 125. 

April Zoe) a Dr. J. F. Cahill, at the Norton Gallery of Art, West Palm 


Beach, Fla., “Chinese Painting and Contemporary Art.” 
Attendance, 70. 

Aprilt 22-2 Sons eae Dr. Cahill, at the “Coffee Hour Talk,” Princeton Univer- 
sity, Princeton, N.J., “Photographing in Taiwan.” At- 
tendance, 30. 

April 2322.22 Sooeene Mr. Gettens, at the 1964 National Junior Science and 
Humanities Symposium, Industrial College of the Armed 
Forces, Fort McNair, ‘““Prying into Chinese Ceremonial 
Bronzes, the Documents of an Ancient Culture.” At- 
tendance, 35. 

Mary 22 ee Dr. Cahill, at the University of Chattanooga Faculty Semi- 
nar, Chattanooga, Tenn., “Chinese and Japanese Art: 
Concurrences and Divergences,” and “Chinese and Jap- 
anese Paintings.” Attendance, respectively, 150 and 14. 


May 142 See ee Dr. Stern, at the Nationalmuseet, Copenhagen, Denmark, 
“Life in 14th Century Japan.” Attendance, 150. 

Mayie2e nib eee Dr. Stern, at the Museum of Decorative Art, Copenhagen, 
“Hokusai.” Attendance, 150. 

Mavis Zee ee Dr. Stern, at Oxford University, England, “Hokusai.” At- 
tendance, 75. 

May, Ios see Dr. Stern, at Oxford University, “Life in 14th Century 
Japan.” Attendance, 80. 

Mays eo sace aces Dr. Stern, at the Japan Society of England, London, “Ho- 


kusai.” Attendance, 65. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 213 


1964 
prio ey a 2 LS a ee Dr. Ettinghausen, at the National Gallery of Art, “The 
Last Flowering of Iranian Art.” Attendance, 375. 
une) Oe kes Dr. Cahill, at the Conference on the China for Presidents, 


Deans and Senior Faculty Members of New York State 
Colleges, Pinebrook, Saranac Lake, N.Y., “Chinese Art 
and Its Background in Thought.” Attendance, 35. 


Members of the staff traveled outside Washington on official business 
as follows: 


19638 

May 8—July 9_---._- Dr. J. A. Pope, in Europe, attended the opening of the 
new Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, in Stockholm, 
Sweden. He also saw other collections in Sweden, 
Denmark, The Netherlands, Austria, Switzerland, 
France, and England: in numerous museums, private 
collections, and dealers. 

June 14-July 15_____ Miss H. H. West, in Europe, visited numerous museums in 
Italy, France, and England; she also attended a sym- 
posium on art conservation sponsored by the Conserva- 
tion Center of the Institute of Fine Arts, New York 
University, held at the Institut Royal du Patrimoine 
Artistique, in Brussels, Belgium. 

June 17-Novem- W. B. Trousdale, in the Orient and Hurope, examined 

ber 22. objects in museums and private collections, and visited 
archeological sites, in Japan, Taiwan, India, Afghanis- 
tan, Iran, Lebanon, Turkey, Switzerland, Sweden, and 
England. 

June 29-July 1___-~- Dr. J. F. Cahill, in New York City, attended the exhibi- 
tion, “Evolution of the Buddha Image,” at Asia House 
Gallery ; and examined objects for numerous dealers. 


wuly 15—-19seess oss Mrs. B. M. Usilton, in Chicago, Ill., attended the annual 
meetings of the American Library Association. 

AUSUSEF1O2: SEL ees Dr. Pope, in Williamsburg, Va., examined pottery for Co- 
lonial Williamsburg. 

Ageust 20ceaouer ek Dr. H. P. Stern, in New York City, examined miscellan- 
eous objects for a dealer. 

August 21-22_______ Dr. Stern, in Philadelphia, examined miscellaneous objects 


at the Museum of Art and at the University Museum; 
the latter included the collection of Edmund Zalinski. 
August 29-Novem- T. Sugiura, in Japan, met with other restorers, ordered 
ber 22. special silks and other supplies unobtainable in the 
United States, and saw numerous objects in museums, 
private collections, and dealers. 
September 1-Octo- Mr. Gettens, in Europe, attended meetings of the ICOM 
ber 16. Committee for Scientific Museum Laboratories held in 
Leningrad and Moscow. He also visited museums and 
laboratories in these two cities, and in Vienna, Miinich, 
Ziirich, Stuttgart, Brussels, Paris, London, and Dublin, 
examining objects at the British Museum in London, 
the Musée Cernuschi in Paris, and the Institut Royal du 
Patrimoine Artistique in Brussels. 


214 |= ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


1963 
September 2-March Dr. Cahill, in Japan, Formosa (Taiwan), and Hong Kong, 
30. attended a number of exhibitions, including “Art of the 


Ming and Ch‘ing Dynasties” and “Indian Art” at the 
Tokyo National Museum; saw numerous objects in 
museums and private collections; and participated in 
the Taiwan Photographie Project to aid in the estab- 
lishment of two archives of photographic negatives of 
objects in the National Palace and Central Museums, 
one archive to be kept in Taiwan, and the other to be 
deposited with an institution in the United States; this 
project was financed by the Rockefeller, Bollingen, and 
Henry Luce Foundations, with the Freer Gallery of Art 
administering the funds. 

September 2-April R. A. Schwartz, in Japan and Formosa (Taiwan), at- 

24. tended a number of exhibitions and saw numerous ob- 
jects in museums and private collections; photographed 
Chinese paintings in the exhibition, “Art of the Ming 
and Ch‘ing Dynasties” at the Tokyo National Museum; 
and participated in the Taiwan Photographie Project, 
doing the actual photographie work; photographed 
numerous kiln sites and outstanding examples of old 
palace architecture; approximately 7,000 color and 9,000 
black-and-white negatives, a total of 16,000, were made 
on the taiwan project. 

September 7-9__-~- Dr. Pope, in New York City, examined miscellaneous 
Chinese and Japanese objects at the Metropolitan Mu- 
seum of Art and at one dealer’s. 

September 9-20__._._ Dr. Stern, in Ann Arbor, Mich., taught a 2-week seminar 
on Ukivoe painting, at the University of Michigan. 

September 18-De- Dr. Ettinghausen, in Venice, Italy, attended the Second 

cember 16. International Congress of Turkish Art; helped plan two 
traveling exhibitions. “7,000 Years of Iranian Art” and 
“Art Treasures from Turkish Museums,” to be shown 
in the United States: saw collections in museums in 
Iran, Turkey, Italy, Switzerland, Germany, France, and 
England, and examined objects for numerous private 
collectors and dealers. 

October 7-24_______. Dr. Pope, in California, visited the collections and exam- 
ined objects in the Brundage Collection of the M. H. 
DeYoung Memorial Museum, the Stanford University 
Museum, the Santa Barbara Museum of Art, and the 
San Diego Museum of Art; also examined objects at 
numerous dealers and in private collectors, including 
one in Tucson, Ariz. 


October 16-19_____-_. Mrs. Usilton, in Atlantie City, N.J., attended meetings of 
the Middle Atlantic Regional Library Conference. 

October 18-19______. Dr. Stern, in New York City, examined objects at several 
dealers. 

October sie 2a Dr. Pope, in Ithaca, N.Y., examined Chinese pottery at the 
Andrew Dixon White Museum of Art, Cornell Univer- 
sity. 

November 1-2______. Dr. Pope, in New York City, examined objects at several 


dealers. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 215 


1963 
November 4-8_-----. Dr. Stern, in Ann Arbor, taught a one-week seminar on 
Japanese painting, at the University of Michigan. 
November 13-15_-_--. Dr. Stern, in Toronto, Canada, examined numerous Chi- 
nese and Japanese objects at the Royal Ontario Museum. 
November 18__-----. Dr. Pope, in Greenville, Del., examined objects in a pri- 
vate collection and at the Winterthur Museum. 
November 29- Dr. Pope, in Kansas City, Mo., examined objects at the 
December 2. William Rockhill Nelson Gallery of Art and in a private 
collection; and in Chicago examined objects at the Art 
Institute and at a dealer. 
1964 
AJIT TA PA Mrs. E. West TitzHugh, in Baltimore, Md., visited the Wal- 


ters Art Gallery, regarding the conservation of Arme- 
nian manuscripts, and the new laboratory at the Balti- 
more Museum of Art. 

January, 18=2222-2-— Dr. Pope, in Cambridge, Mass., attended a meeting of the 
ad hoc Committee on Tenure Appointments, Harvard 
University ; and in New York City examined objects at 
several dealers. 

January 28-80______ Dr. Pope, in Williamsburg, attended the Antiques Forum, 
during which time he examined objects for the Depart- 
ment of Archaeology, Colonial Williamsburg. 

January 30-31______ Dr. Ettinghausen, in Philadelphia, attended the annual 
meeting of the College Art Association and examined 
objects at the Free Library of Philadelphia and in a 
private collection. 

February 7—-8__-_~_- Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, attended the exhibi- 
tion of Mughal painting at Asia House; met with Prof. 
Edith Porada, Columbia University, regarding the cata- 
log of the exhibition, ‘7,000 Years of Iranian Art’; and 
examined objects at several dealers. 

February 15-16_____ Dr. Pope, in New York City, attended meetings of the 
American Council of Learned Societies S8.S.R.C. Com- 
mittee for Grants on Asian Studies. 


Marchrge = tesa ies Dr. Pope, in Buffalo, N.Y., examined objects in the von der 
Heydt Collection at the Museum of Science. 

March isoeseeer Dr. Pope, at Winterthur, Del., examined objects for the 
Winterthur Museum and in a private collection. 

Marche Geers Mr. Gettens, in New York City, attended a symposium 
at Columbia University. 

Mareh’ 23-25_ == Dr. Pope, in New York City, examined objects at several 


dealers and in a private collection. 

March 26-June 16__. Dr. Stern, in Europe, saw collections in Lisbon, Portugal; 
Paris, France; Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Copen- 
hagen, Denmark; and London, England: in numerous 
museums and private collections and at dealers. 

Aprile S2O cs en a Oe Dr. Pope, in New York City, attended meetings of the 
American Oriental Society and reported in his capacity 
as chairman of the Louise Wallace Hackney Scholarship 
Committee; examined objects at the Metropolitan 
Museum of Art and at one dealer and a private collec- 
tion. 


216 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


1964 
Aprile19-21 SS es Dr. Cahill, in West Palm Beach, Fla., examined objects 
at the Norton Gallery of Art and in a private collection. 
Aprilio2 a2 soos Dr. Cahill, in Princeton, N.J., examined objects in a pri- 
vate collection. 
Anrile24-2)= see ee Dr. Pope, in Philadelphia, recorded two taped programs 


for ‘What in the World” at WCAU-TV broadcasting 
station; and in New York City attended the board meet- 
ing of the College Art Association. 

May ta Osoe n= ee Mr. Trousdale, in New York City, did preliminary work 
on a film narration for the Asia Society; and examined 
a large private collection of jade. 

May 17-—June 30___-. R. C. Mielke saw building installations at the Dayton Art 
Institute, Cincinnati Art Museum, John Herron Art In- 
stitute, City Art Museum of St. Louis, William Rockhill 
Nelson Gallery of Art, Art Institute of Chicago, Detroit 
Institute of Arts, Cleveland Museum of Art, and Toledo 
Museum of Art. 

Mayi21ao2 sae eee Dr. Cahill, in New York City, attended a meeting of the 
American Council of Learned Societies, Committee on 
Studies of Chinese Civilization; saw the exhibition “Art 
of Nepal’ at Asia House; and examined objects at 
several dealers. 

May’ 25—26. S22 see Mrs. E. West FitzHugh, in St. Louis, Mo., attended the 
annual meeting of the International Institute for the 
Conservation of Museum Objects, American Group. 


May? 25-276 ee ete Mrs. L. O. West and Mrs. M. H. Quail, in Chicago, I1., 
attended meetings of the Museums Sales Association. 
Maiyj25=20 ee Mr. Gettens, in St. Louis, Mo., attended meetings of the 


I.1.C., American Group, and the American Association 
of Museums; he also examined objects at the City Art 
Museum of St. Louis and the Allen Art Museum, Oberlin 
College, Oberlin, Ohio. 


UM Bes a ie Dr. Pope left for Europe to visit museums and collections 
in England and France. 
UNC eh Oe ee eee Mrs. FitzHugh, in Baltimore, Md., visited the Walters 


Art Gallery where she worked in the conservation lab- 
oratory on the chemical microscopy of pigments. 

Afoh o(ss A al ae ee Dr. Ettinghausen, in New York City, examined objects 
at several dealers. 

As in former years, members of the staff undertook a wide variety of 
peripheral duties outside the Gallery, served on committees, held 
honorary posts, and received recognitions. 

Respectfully submitted. 


Joun A. Popr, Director. 
S. Ditton Rievtey, 


Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the National Gallery of Art 


Srr: I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trustees, 
the 27th annual report of the National Gallery of Art, for the fiscal 
year ended June 30, 1964. This report is made pursuant to the provi- 
sions of section 5(d) of Public Resolution No. 14, 75th Congress, Ist 
session, approved March 24, 1987 (50 Stat. 51). 


ORGANIZATION 


The statutory members of the Board of Trustees of the National 
Gallery of Art are the Chief Justice of the United States, the Secre- 
tary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, and the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, ex officio. On January 9, 1964, Lessing J. 
Rosenwald and Dr. Franklin D. Murphy were elected general trustees 
of the National Gallery of Art. The three other general trustees con- 
tinuing in office during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1964, were Paul 
Mellon, John Hay Whitney, and John N. Irwin II. On May 7, 1964, 
Paul Mellon was reelected by the Board of Trustees to serve as presi- 
dent of the Gallery, and John Hay Whitney was reelected vice presi- 
dent. On January 9, 1964, J. Carter Brown was elected assistant 
director. 

The executive officers of the Gallery as of June 30, 1964, were as 
follows: 


Chief Justice of the United States, John Walker, Director. 


Earl Warren, Chairman. Ernest R. Feidler, Administrator. 
Paul Mellon, President. Huntington Cairns, General Counsel. 
John Hay Whitney, Vice President. Perry B. Cott, Chief Curator. 
Huntington Cairns, Secretary- J. Carter Brown, Assistant Director. 

Treasurer. 


The three standing committees of the Board, as constituted at the 
annual meeting on May 7, 1964, were as follows: 


EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


Chief Justice of the United States, Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Harl Warren, Chairman. Institution, S. Dillon Ripley. 
Paul Mellon, Vice Chairman. John Hay Whitney. 
Dr. Franklin D. Murphy. 


217 


218 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


FINANCE COMMITTEE 


Secretary of the Treasury, C. Douglas Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Dillon, Chairman. Institution, S. Dillon Ripley. 
Paul Mellon. John Hay Whitney. 


John N. Irwin II. 


ACQUISITIONS COMMITTEE 


Paul Mellon, Chairman. Lessing J. Rosenwald. 
John Hay Whitney. John Walker. 
John N. Irwin II. 


PERSONNEL 


At the close of fiscal year 1964, full-time Government employees on 
the permanent staff of the National Gallery of Art numbered 305. 
The U.S. Civil Service regulations govern the appointment of em- 
ployees paid from appropriated funds. 

Continued emphasis was given to the training of employees under 
the Government Employees Training Act, and it was possible to give 
training to seven employees under that Act. 


APPROPRIATIONS 


For the fiscal year ended June 30, 1964, the Congress of the United 
States, in the regular annual appropriation, and a supplemental appro- 
priation required for pay increases for wage-board employees, pro- 
vided $2,176,000 to be used for salaries and expenses in the operation 
and upkeep of the National Gallery of Art, the protection and care 
of works of art acquired by the Board of Trustees, and all adminis- 
trative expenses incident thereto, as authorized by the basic statute 
establishing the National Gallery of Art. 

The following obligations were incurred : 


Personnel compensation and penehtses == ae ee $1, 831, 443. 17 
AST Ober TCeM Sapa Sees ee oe ee ee 315, 774. 41 
ROCA Obie a tO mS ee os a ee et ee 2, 147, 217. 58 


Because the low bid for the contract to renovate the skylights 
over the east wing of the Gallery was considerably below the amount 
included in the appropriation for that purpose, it was possible to 
return $28,782 to the Treasury as an unobligated balance. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 219 


ATTENDANCE 


There were 1,236,155 visitors to the Gallery during fiscal year 1964. 
The attendance for the previous fiscal year was higher by 557,545 
visitors. This resulted from the large number of people who came to 
see the Afona Lisa by Leonardo da Vinci when it was on exhibition at 
the National Gallery of Art for 27 days in fiscal year 1963. The daily 
average number of visitors during the past fiscal year was 3,415. This 
is the largest average in the past 10 years, except those years in which 
occurred the unusually popular exhibitions of the Mona Lisa and the 
Tutankhamen Treasures. 


ACCESSIONS 


There were 5,002 accessions by the National Gallery of Art as gifts, 
loans, or deposits during the fiscal year, an increase of 3,796 over the 
previous year. 


GIFTS 


During the year the following gifts or bequests were accepted by the 
Board of Trustees: 


PAINTINGS 
Donor Artist Title 
Avalon Foundation, New Cropsey.__---- Autumn on the Hudson River. 
York, N.Y. 
LD Yoel oes. Set ree eree Soro Doughtyae==—= Fanciful Landscape. 
John W. Beatty, Jr., Pitts- Homer_______- Marshy Scene with Man in 
burgh, Pa. Boat. 
National Gallery of Art, Ailsa Poussin._____- The Assumption of the Virgin. 
Mellon Bruce Fund. 
Paul Mellon, Upperville, Va. Canaletto___-_- Landscape Capriccio with Col- 
umn. 
GS oft Aba A ee orn Ne iy Aad L Landscape Capriccio with 
Palace. 
MO) rope res ees shee oy 2 2 Devyisseces fo Conversation Piece, Ashdon 
House. 
Bie esos es Peel | o's apa ip Lord Brand of Hurndall Park. 
National Gallery of Art, Rubens______- Tiberius and Agrippina. 
Andrew Mellon Fund. 
National Gallery of Art, Copley_._____- Watson and the Shark. 


Adolph Caspar Miller 
Fund. 


220 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


GRAPHIC ARTS 


Donor Artist Title 
Mrs. George Matthew Adams, Legros__-_--__-- Cardinal Manning. 
New York, N.Y. 
Dowty eee Pi ape as ee Hand of His Daughter. 
Mrs. George Matthew Adams, Legros_.------ Nude. 
New York, N.Y. 
John W. Beatty, Jr., Pitts- Various_------ Nineteen prints and drawings. 
burgh, Pa. 
Mr. and Mrs. Frank Eyerly, Miro__-------- Ink and pastel drawing. 
Des Moines, Iowa. 
1D) Qa see ae = Bee Feininger_---.-- Spire of Gelmeroda. 
Mrs. Beatrice Beck Fahne- Watteau____-_- A Mezzetin. 
stock, Washington, D.C. 

Samuel H. Kress Foundation, Various___----- Thirty-four French and Italian 
New York, N.Y. drawings and water colors. 
Mrs. Laura T. Magnuson, Renoir_-_------ Red-chalk drawing of a child. 

Washington, D.C. 
Print Council of America, Various_------ Set of 55 prints in the exhibi- 
New York, N.Y. tion ‘“‘American Prints To- 
day—1962.” 
Lessing J. Rosenwald, Jen- ----do------.-- 2,574 prints, drawings, illus- 
kintown, Pa. trated books, and reference 
works. Among the prints 
are important works by 
Aldegrever, Baldung Grien, 
Direr, Bruegel, Bosch, Rem- 
brandt, Goya, Daumier, and 
Degas. 
David E. Rust, Washington, Gentileschi, A Young Girl Playing a Lute. 
D.C. Orazio. 


EXCHANGE OF WORKS OF ART 


In exchange for a print by Daumier entitled “Un plaideur peu sat- 
isfait” in the Rosenwald Collection, Mr. Rosenwald gave a woodcut 
by Christoffel Jegher, after Rubens, entitled “The Rest on the Flight 
into Egypt.” 

OTHER GIFTS 


In the fiscal year 1964 gifts of money were made by Avalon Foun- 
dation, Mrs. Cordelia S. May, Old Dominion Foundation, Calouste 
Gulbenkian Foundation, J. I. Foundation, Inc., The Frelinghuysen 
Foundation, Samuel H. Kress Foundation, 16th International Con- 
gress of Zoology, and Mrs. Landon C. Bell. 

Mrs. Mellon Bruce contributed additional funds for the purchase 
of works of art for the National Gallery of Art and for educational 
purposes related to works of art 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 23 


The Gallery received a bequest of funds by the late Chester Dale 
to provide fellowships for painters, sculptors, and historians and crit- 
ics of the fine arts. 

WORKS OF ART ON LOAN 
The following works of art were received on loan by the Gallery: 


From Artist Title 
Mr. and Mrs. David Lloyd Bonnard._----- Le Jardin de Bosquet. 
Kreeger, Washington, D.C. 
Dovetets 6 a ciny. ee es Cézanne__._._- La Route Tournante. 
DOs oes ee eee aE Van Gogh-_____- Vase of Flowers. 
DQ mee ae ee ee eee Maillol= 22a s= Pomona (sculpture). 
Bones eo. teleosts Picassorieus sf Café de la Rotonde. 
WO eee ne a Renom =. >-2- Bather. 
Doe ss. ee tis ne 286 22 “2 dostenkiis View of Venice. 
Mrs. Eugene E. Meyer, Wash- Dufresne_-_-__- Still Life. 
ington, D.C. 
DG. eee See ee Rano. 268.55 Man Lying on Sofa. 
1D Xo fee ene LYS, S278 CE Be Oe Se Nude. 
The Honorable Claiborne Bingham eb. -= The Jolly Flatboatman. 
Pell, Washington, D.C. 
§. Dillon Ripley, Washington, Audubon__-_-_-- Washington Sea Eagle. 
D.C. 


WORKS OF ART ON LOAN RETURNED 


The following works of art on loan were returned during the fiscal 
year: 


To Artist Title 
Col. and Mrs. Edgar W. Gar- Senior..-_----- The Sportman’s Dream. 
bisch, New York, N.Y. 
Mr. and Mrs. David Lloyd Bonnard-_-----_- Le Jardin de Bosquet. 
Kreeger, Washington, D.C. 
LE fa oe I ee enetes tp Ls Cézanne... __- La Route Tournante. 
Opes cheer ee as 2 CE i UE Van Gogh. ._-_- Vase of Flowers. 
[D0 es oe RR ca kA Picassoe p22 Café de la Rotonde. 
Ques st sh A EES eae Renoir. 222s - Bather. 
Dov ee uk as ue nwemeie Site. Sead joe View of Venice. 
Mrs. Eugene E. Meyer, Wash- Dufresne---_--- Still Life. 
ington, D.C. 
Oe ai ee ete Renoirslee = Man Lying on Sofa. 
AERC eae eed ae PA ANTS: ote Sado ae SU Nude. 


WORKS OF ART LENT 


The American Federation of Arts, New York, N.Y., circulated the 
following works of art during the fiscal year to the Rochester Memorial 
Art Gallery, Rochester, N.Y.; Milwaukee Art Center, Milwaukee, 
Wis.; Isaac Delgado Museum of Art, New Orleans, La.; Baltimore 


222 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Museum of Art, Baltimore, Md.; Philadelphia Museum of Art, Phil- 
adelphia, Pa.; Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Mass.; and Detroit Art 


Institute, Detroit, Mich. : 


To Artist 


American Federation of Arts, Joseph Badger- 
New York, N.Y. 


DO ea ys eae John Bradley~- 
DDO ce ees oats pte? oe Bundyaeeee 
De aes See. CR ie Rae Marlee sus eee 
DD) oR ee EE it Th Eoimanna= === 
Doves sic See we Se tee Linton Park__- 
Doe tea : ee ey Susanne 
Walters___-_ 
Dow She Sea sede te tee Unknown__-_-__-_ 
Dostes. 22 eRe ee 2 NGO= seas el 
DD) Ques eee Ses = er Oen ee aS 
Do Be es ee are F102 Hs SEE 
DG Fee he Ea eee Par eee (0 reaper =), Bear 
Dose SLE enii Aes Mii ak = pidocweea ase 
DG 22s. eee Ee ee ueeedOsa=see st 
1D) Oe ee ee Bet (Goya eS 
POs soo2=2 oo eee E1300 tes BES 
1D yey A) eee eae Aa oe SOO maa ee 
DB) eee PDS MAE BAL 2 eAMER se ido: t eke 


Title 
Mrs. Isaac Foster. 


Little Girl in Lavender. 
Vermont Lawyer. 

Family Portrait. 

Berks County Almshouse. 
Flax Scutching Bee. 


Memorial to Nicholas M. S. 
Catlin. 

Jonathan Benham. 

The Start of the Hunt. 

The End of the Hunt. 

The Sargent Family. 

Alice Slade. 

Joseph Slade. 

General Washington on White 
Charger. 

Blue Eyes. 

The Hobby Horse. 

Mahantango Valley Farm. 

Civil War Battle Scene. 


The following loans also were made during the fiscal year: 


American Embassy, London, Canaletto_---- 
England. 
DO2s2 a 25 eee sie AO. teers 
DG 322 sare eet es Devise we a2 
1D oe ee eee ee seks 2d O55) 2 eee 
Cleveland Museum of Art, Stuart.___.--_- 
Cleveland, Ohio. 
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Homer_-_-_----- 
Mass. 
LD [Yani t oeaner eeepa nee Unknown_----- 
Columbia Museum of Art, Healy_-_------ 
Columbia, 8.C. 
1D Yo peg ROS SRNT oe See SP a used Osea eee 
1D (oa Bee) ke egret eas = aw Lambdin-_-_-_-- 
Ont e2e. Feel ee ee, Stuartjass=-s=— 
1S) ee RS Se Sk Vasey SU ys eee 
VD) es es = Mel eS ne ae VR Unknown------ 
Coreoran Gallery of Art, Sargent... __- 
Washington, D.C. 
Oe Sere ON hee Oi ae, et eye 0 Lopes oe oI 


Landscape Capriccio with 
Column. 
Landscape Capriccio with 
Palace. 
Conversation Piece, Ashdon 
House. 


Lord Brand of Hurndall Park. 
The Skater. 


Right and Left. 
Burning of Old South Church, 
Bath, Maine. 


Franklin Pierce. 


Daniel Webster. 


John Marshall. 
Horace Binney. 

John Quincy Adams. 
President John Tyler. 
Repose. 


Street in Venice. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 


To 
Detroit Institute of Arts, 
Detroit, Mich. 
Museum of Early American 
Folk Arts, New York, N.Y. 


The Minneapolis Institute of 
Arts, Minneapolis, Minn. 


Portland Museum of Art, 
Portland, Maine. 

City Art Museum of St. Louis, 
St. Louis, Mo. 

Smithsonian Institution, Mu- 
seum of History and Tech- 
nology. 


Smithsonian Institution, Mu- 
seum of History and Tech- 
nology, Presidential Recep- 
tion Room. 


Virginia Museum of Fine Arts, 
Richmond, Va. 

Washington County Museum 
of Fine Arts, Hagerstown, 
Md. 


ton, D.C. 


Whitney Museum of Ameri- 
can Art, New York, N.Y. 


223 


Artist 
British School__ 


Title 
Pocahontas. 


LaSachsssse22. The Herbert Children. 

Unknown__-__-_- Baby in Blue Cradle, 

Se Sa fc ME Child with Rocking Horse. 

Copleyoas = 552 - Epes Sargent. 

WWWieaGs 203i yee 2 The Battle of La Hogue. 

Unknown...-__ Burning of Old South Church, 
Bath, Maine. 

SMart 25 are Mrs. Yates. 


British School.__ Pocahontas. 


Reales se aba William Moultrie, 

PING 3 sae or General Smallwood. 

Pp OKs ees Washington at Princeton. 
Nullyesoe esses Major Thomas Biddle. 
AUNIS oes chs Commodore Rodgers. 
heaven a(n se Daniel Webster. 
Benlecee ees Robert Coleman. 


British School. Pocahontas. 


Pesles sao ne John Philip de Haas. 

cere HC Ot Ayala General William Moultrie. 

JE dose ea Benjamin Harrison, Jr. 

Sully sale capes Andrew Jackson. 

Healy 23.6 2 Henry Clay. 

Shive hc hos eee = George Washington. 

Homerus 22.222 Right and Left. 
EXHIBITIONS 


The following exhibitions were held at the National Gallery of 
Art during the fiscal year 1964: 


Prints and Drawings by Mary Cassatt. 
through September 12, 1963. 
From the Rosenwald Collection. Continued from the pre- 


Landscape Prints. 


Continued from the preceding fiscal year 


ceding fiscal year through October 14, 1963. 

Evhibition of Modern Prints and Illustrated Books from the Rosenwald Collec- 
tion. July 13 through September 2, 1963. 

Water Colors by J. M. W. Turner from the collection of the British Museuin, 
September 15 through October 13, 1963. 


224. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Echibition of Etchings and Mezzotints from J. M. W. Turner’s “Liber Studiorum.” 
September 15 through October 18, 1963. 

Eighteenth-Century Venetian Drawings from the Correr Museum. October 27 
through November 24, 1963. 

Eighteenth-Century Venetian Etchings from the National Gallery of Art Collec- 
tion. October 27 through November 24, 1963. 

National Gallery of Art 1963 Christmas Card Subjects from the Graphic Arts. 
November 20 through December 10, and from December 17, 1968, through Janu- 
ary 7, 1964. 

Prints by Kathe Kollwitz from the Rosenwald Collection in Commemoration of 
Human Rights week. December 10 through December 18, 1963. 

Paintings from The Museum of Modern Art, New York. December 17, 1963, 
through March 22, 1964. 

Expressionist Prints from the Rosenwald Collection. December 17, 1963, through 
March 22, 1964. 

Thomas Rowlandson Prints from the Rosenwald Collection. January 7 through 
April 17, 1964. 

Drawings from the National Gallery of Art Collection. April 17, 1964, to con- 
tinue into the next fiscal year. 

7000 Years of Iranian Art. June 7, 1964, to continue into the next fiscal year. 

Portrait of the Artist’s Mother: Arrangement in Gray and Black, No. 1 by James 
Abbott McNeill Whistler. Lent by the Musée du Louvre. June 10 through 
June 30, 1964. 

Whistler Prints from the National Gallery of Art Collection. June 10, 1964, to 
continue into the next fiscal year. 

Exhibitions of recent accessions: “Joris W. Vezeler” and ‘Margaretha Boghe, 
Wife of Joris W. Vezeler” by Joos van Cleve. Continued from the preceding 
fiscal year through July 11, 1963; ‘“‘The Bookseller’s Wife” by Goya, August 30, 
through October 30, 1963; “The Assumption of the Virgin” by Poussin, Novem- 
ber 17, 1963, through January 10, 1964. 


TRAVELING EXHIBITIONS 


Special exhibitions of graphic arts from the National Gallery of Art 
collections were circulated during the fiscal year to 50 museums, univer- 
sities, schools, and art centers in the United States and abroad. 


Index of American Design. Fifty-eight exhibitions (2,344 plates) of material 
from the Index were circulated to 18 States and the District of Columbia. 


CURATORIAL ACTIVITIES 


Under the direction of Perry B. Cott, chief curator, the curatorial 
department accessioned 2,700 gifts to the Gallery during the fiscal year 
1964. Advice was given with respect to 1,918 works of art brought to 
the Gallery for expert opinion, and 20 visits to collections were made 
by members of the staff in connection with offers of gifts. About 6,691 
inquiries, many of them requiring research, were answered verbally 
and by letter. 

William P. Campbell, assistant chief curator, served as a member of 
the Special Fine Arts Committee of the Department of State. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 225 


Hereward Lester Cooke, curator of painting, continued as consultant 
to National Aeronautics and Space Administration with duties of 
organizing and supervising commissions to artists for paintings of 
themes relating to the space program. He also acted as judge for the 
Tri-State Exhibition, Evansville, Ind., and the Savannah Art Associa- 
tion exhibition during the fiscal year. 

The Richter Archives received and cataloged 84 photographs on 
exchange from museums here and abroad; 2,289 photographs were pur- 
chased, and about 1,000 reproductions have been added to the archives. 


RESTORATION 


Francis Sullivan, resident restorer of the Gallery, made regular and 
systematic inspection of all works of art in the Gallery and on loan to 
Government buildings in Washington, and periodically removed dust 
and bloom as required. He relined, cleaned, and restored 18 paintings 
and gave special treatment to 37. Thirty-four paintings were X-rayed 
as an aid in research. He continued experiments with synthetic 
materials as suggested by the National Gallery of Art Research 
Project at the Mellon Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa. Technical advice 
was given in response to 237 telephone inquiries. Special treatment 
was given to works of art belonging to Government agencies, including 
the U.S. Capitol and the Treasury Department. In other instances 
advice was furnished to various agencies concerning the care and 
conservation of paintings. 


PUBLICATIONS 


A new book by John Walker, director, on the history and collections 
of the Gallery entitled National Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. 
appeared during the year. 

Mr. Cooke wrote an article for Art in America, October 1963 issue, 
entitled “Count-Down at Canaveral.” He also wrote the text for 16 
National Gallery leaflets. 

Miss Katharine Shepard, assistant curator of graphic arts, wrote 
a book review for the American Journal of Archaeology, April 1964 
issue. 

PUBLICATIONS FUND 


During the fiscal year 1964, the Publications Fund placed on sale 
six new publications including two books: National Gallery of 
Art, Washington, D.C. by John Walker and The Eternal Present: 
The Beginnings of Architecture by S. Giedion, the latter being the 
second volume of the 1957 A. W. Mellon Lectures in the Fine Arts. 
Four exhibition catalogs were placed on sale: Turner Water Colors: 
Kighteenth-Century Venetian Drawings from the Correr Museum; 


226 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Paintings from the Museum of Modern Art, New York; and 7000 
Years of Iranian Art. The number of 11- by 14-inch color reproduc- 
tions published by the Gallery was increased to 238 with the addition 
of 37 new subjects, and 44 new postcards were published to make a 
total of 196 subjects now available. Two new slide sets of paintings 
by Rembrandt and by Renoir were placed on sale. The 1963 Christ- 
mas card selection included 14 new color subjects. With Gallery 
cooperation, six new collotype reproductions were produced: Botti- 
eelli— Madonna and Child with Angels, Canaletto—The Portello and 
the Brenta Canal at Padua, Van Cleve—Joris W. Vezeler and Mar- 
garetha Boghe, Wife of Joris W. Vezeler, Gentileschi—7he Lute 
Player, and Redon—Wildflowers. Five small sculpture reproduc- 
tions were added to the items available to the public. 


EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM 


The program of the educational department was carried out under 
the direction of Raymond S. Stites and his staff. Lectures and con- 
ducted tours on works of art in the Gallery’s collections were given. 

Attendance for the general tours, tours of the week, and picture-of- 
the-week talks amounted to 40,801. The attendance at the Sunday 
afternoon lectures in the auditorium totaled 13,450. 

Special tours, lectures, and conferences were arranged for a total of 
17,371 persons. These special appointments were made for Govern- 
ment agency groups, and at the request of congressional offices, for 
educators, foreign students, club and study groups, religious organiza- 
tions, conventions, museum officials, and groups from hospitals, as 
well as school groups from various parts of the country. 

The program of training volunteer docents continued, and special 
instruction was given to approximately 130 volunteers from the 
Junior League of Washington and the American Association of Uni- 
versity Women. By special arrangement with the public and paro- 
chial schools of the District of Columbia and surrounding counties 
of Maryland and Virginia, these organizations conducted tours for 
68,836 children, representing an increase over last year of 2,308. They 
also guided 750 Safety Patrol girls from Atlanta, Ga., on tours of the 
Gallery. 

Fifty-two lectures were given in the auditorium on Sunday after- 
noons. Of these, 34 were delivered by guest lecturers, 10 by members 
of the staff, and two were full-length film presentations. Jakob 
Rosenberg delivered the 13th annual series of the A. W. Mellon Lec- 
tures in the Fine Arts on seven consecutive Sundays beginning on 
March 8 on the general subject: “On Quality in Art: Criteria of Fa- 
cellence in the Past and Present.” 


PLATE 9 


Secretary’s Report, 1964 


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PLATE 10 


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Secretary's Report, 1964 


Secretary's Report. 1964 PLATE 11 


Lord Brand of Hurndall Park, by Arthur Devis (1711-1787). Gift of Paul Mellon. National 
Gallery of Art. 


Conversation Piece, Ashdon House, by Arthur Devis (1711-1787). Gift of Paul Mellon. 
National Gallery of Art. 


Secretary's Report, 1964 


PLATE 12 


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Secretary's Report, 1964 PLATE 13 


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Autumn on the Hudson River, by Jasper Francis Cropsey (1823-1900). Gift of the Avalon 
Foundation. National Gallery of Art. 


Fanciful Landscape, by Thomas Doughty (1793-1856). Gift of the Avalon Foundation. 
National Gallery of Art. 


PLATE 14 


Report, 1964 


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SECRETARY’S REPORT 227 


The slide library of the educational department has a total of 47,624 
slides in its permanent and lending collections. During the year 1,942 
slides were added to the collections. Altogether, 458 persons borrowed 
a total of 11,494 slides from the collections. It is estimated that these 
slides were seen by 21,420 viewers. 

Members of the staff participated in outside activities delivering 
lectures, teaching courses in local schools at night, and attending 
College Art Association meetings. Staff members prepared and re- 
corded scripts for Lectour recordings and radio talks, and prepared the 
material for the school tour program and the slide lending program. 

A printed calendar of events was prepared and distributed monthly 
toa mailing list of more than 7,900 names. 


EXTENSION SERVICES 


The office of extension services, under the direction of the curator of 
the Index of American Design, Grose Evans, circulated to the public 
traveling exhibitions, films, slide lectures, and filmstrip sets of works 
of art in the National Gallery of Art’s collections. There are 44 travel- 
ing exhibits in circulation, lent free of charge except for shipping 
expenses. ‘These were circulated in 399 bookings and were seen by 
an estimated 199,500 viewers. Eleven special exhibits, lent to a church 
organization for circulation in 96 bookings, were seen by 37,552 viewers. 
Thirteen copies each of exhibits were lent to 13 New York State schools, 
having a total of 13,768 students—estimated viewers, 55,072. Two films 
on the National Gallery were circulated in 171 bookings and were seen 
by an estimated 51,300 viewers. <A total of 1,174 slide lecture sets were 
circulated in 3,485 bookings and were seen by an estimated 206,100 
viewers. The extension service reached approximately 549,524 persons 
during the year; this is an increase of 164,964 over the number of per- 
sons served last year. 

The curator of the Index prepared the texts for the slide lectures 
and new circulating exhibits; also he attended conferences to demon- 
strate the extension services and to keep abreast of new developments 
in the audiovisual field. 

LIBRARY 


During the year the library, under the supervision of Ruth E. Carl- 
son, accessioned 3,724 publications, of which 3,548 were obtained 
through exchange, by gift, or purchased from private funds. 
Government funds were used to purchase 23 books and 26 subscriptions 
to periodicals, and for the binding of 127 volumes of periodicals. A 
total of 2,373 photographs were added to library stock and to the 
archives and were acquired by exchange or purchased from private 


funds. 


766—-746—-65——_16 


228 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


During the year 1,944 publications were cataloged and classified ; 
7,100 cards were filed in the main catalog and the shelf-list. Library 
of Congress cards were used for 508 titles; original cataloging was 
done for 454 titles. There were 3,169 periodicals recorded, 11,187 
periodicals circulated, and 5,291 books charged out to the staff. There 
were 6,193 books shelved in normal routine. The Gallery borrowed 
1,512 books on interlibrary loan. The exchange program was con- 
tinued during the year, and 1,689 National Gallery publications were 
distributed. The Gallery received 2,454 publications of various types 
under this program. 

The library is the depository for black-and-white photographs 
of works of art in the Gallery’s collections. ‘These are maintained 
for use in research by the staff, for exchange with other institutions, 
for reproduction in approved publications, and for sale to the public. 
Approximately 6,000 photographs were added to the stock in the li- 
brary during the year, and 1,420 orders for 6,018 photographs were 
filled. There were 411 permits for reproduction of 1,058 subjects 
processed in the library. 


INDEX OF AMERICAN DESIGN 


The Index of American Design, under the supervision of Grose 
Evans, circulated, in addition to the traveling exhibits referred to 
above, 140 sets of color slides (7,073) throughout the United States, 
and 518 photographs of Index materials were used for exhibits, study, 
and publication. The photographic file has been increased by 110 
negatives and 116 prints; 22 permits to reproduce 73 subjects from 
the Index were issued. Special exhibits of Index material were pre- 
pared at the request of various groups involving a total of 178 water 
colors. ‘The material of the Index was studied during the year by 319 
persons conducting research, collecting material for publication and 
design, and for illustration. The curator of the Index held confer- 
ences with important scholars, attended meetings, conducted a televi- 
sion course in conjunction with George Washington University, and 
lectured to a variety of groups, including USIA personnel. 


MAINTENANCE OF THE BUILDING AND GROUNDS 


The Gallery building, mechanical equipment, and grounds have 
been maintained throughout the year at the established standards. 

The Gallery entered into contracts for the renovation of the skylight 
on the east wing of the building and to construct six new galleries for 
the exhibition of the Chester Dale Collection of paintings. Work 
under these contracts will be completed during the next fiscal year. 

The Gallery staff made special preparations in the ground floor gal- 
leries and the central gallery for the exhibition of paintings from 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 229 


the Museum of Modern Art and the exhibition entitled 7000 Years of 
Iranian Art. 

The Gallery greenhouse continued to produce flowering and foliage 
plants in quantities sufficient for all decorative needs of special open- 
ings and day-to-day requirements of the Garden Courts. 

The program of increased security protection for the Gallery and 
its works of art was furthered during the fiscal year by the acquisi- 
tion of a guard dog. This dog and his handler, a Gallery employee, 
were graduated from the regular training school of the District of 
Columbia Metropolitan Police K-9 Corps and are now on duty at 
the Gallery building. 

LECTOUR 


During the fiscal year 1964 Lectour, the Gallery’s electronic guide 
system, was used by 59,472 visitors. 


OTHER ACTIVITIES 


Forty Sunday evening concerts were given during the fiscal year in 
the East Garden Court. These concerts were sponsored by the 
Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, the J. I. Foundation, Inc., and the 
Andrew Mellon Endowment Fund of the National Gallery of Art. 
The National Gallery Orchestra, conducted by Richard Bales, played 
nine concerts at the Gallery during the season. One of these was 
made possible in part by a grant from the Music Performance Trust 
Fund of the American Recording Industry. The National Gallery 
Strings, conducted by Mr. Bales, furnished music during two ex- 
hibition openings. The concert on Sunday, October 20, 1963, was 
dedicated to United Nations Day. Six Sunday evenings, in May and 
June, were devoted to the Gallery’s 21st American Music Festival. 
All concerts were broadcast in their entirety by radio station WGMS- 
AM and FM. Washington music critics continued their regular 
coverage of the concerts. During the intermission periods of the 
Sunday evening broadcasts, talks were delivered by members of the 
staff of the educational department on various art topics, and by Mr. 
Bales on the musical programs. Seven 1-hour TV concerts of the 
National Gallery Orchestra, with Mr. Bales conducting, were taped 
at the National Gallery and telecast on WTOP-TV. Mr. Bales and 
the National Gallery Orchestra received an award from the American 
Association of University Women for the outstanding cultura] and 
educational contribution to the community through the television 
programs; and the Washington Chapter of the Academy of Television 
Arts and Sciences presented an award to WTOP-TY for the presen- 
tation of the National Gallery Orchestra’s program of Italian Music 
and Art, citing it as the best cultural program of the year. The 
Baltimore Symphony Orchestra played Mr. Bales’s arrangement of 


230 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


“The Battle of Trenton”; and “The Blue and Gray Quadrille” by 
Mr. Bales was published in April 1964. Another of Mr. Bales’s 
arrangements was published by the Gregorian Institute in a memorial 
edition to President Kennedy. The Institute also commissioned a 
hymn by Mr. Bales. 

In response to requests, 18,261 copies of “An Invitation to the Na- 
tional Gallery of Art” and 712 information booklets were distributed 
to Congressmen and various organizations in the area. 

Henry Beville, head of the photographic laboratory, and his as- 
sistants processed 24,314 items including negatives, prints, slides, 
color transparencies, and color separations. 

A total of 153 permits were issued to copy works of art in the 
National Gallery, and 72 permits to photograph were issued. 


AUDIT OF PRIVATE FUNDS OF THE GALLERY 


An audit of the private funds of the Gallery will be made for the 
fiscal year ended June 30, 1964, by Price Waterhouse & Co., public 
accountants. A report of the audit will be forwarded to the Gallery. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Huntineton Cairns, Secretary. 
S. Ditton Rririey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the Canal Zone Biological Area 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the opera- 
tions of the Canal Zone Biological Area for the fiscal year ended 
June 30, 1964: 

The Canal Zone Biological Area is responsible for maintaining 
Barro Colorado Island in Gatun Lake, Canal Zone, as a biological 
preserve. The area of the island is approximately 3,600 acres. It 
is almost completely covered by “tropical monsoon forest” (see tables 
1 and 2 for the annual rainfall) and contains a rich fauna. It is 
one of the few places in the American tropics close to large centers 
of human population yet largely unaffected by recent human activi- 
ties. Thus, it is particularly suitable and convenient for research 
on many aspects of tropical biology and the tropical environment. 


Taste 1.—Annual rainfall, Barro Colorado Island, Canal Zone, 1925-63 


Year Total Station Year Total Station 

inches average inches average 
NO ZO ee ae QAM St lene ate 194 2s Sot Se ee 120. 42 109. 84 
HO ZG ese eee eee 118. 22 ASSO t9462 5-2 ee es 87. 38 108. 81 
OPA (eens ae ee 116. 36 TRAN GS (194/28 Pee ees 77. 92 107. 49 
O28 eh a Eee er 101. 52 TT Sie WGA ee a meeer yy 83. 16 106. 43 
1,2 p48 epee epee ae ae 87. 84 TOGO Gt |elGA Gees =e ee ee 114. 86 106. 76 
NOS Oar Ae hee 16. 57 LOM ik ||) OSD se Bk oe Pee ee 114. 51 107. 07 
BG Bierce ted erie are 123-530 10469 ALO G dint vdeo cence 112. 72 107. 28 
GB Zire ree ok oh 113. 52 IUDYS SFr Gy Wig DSS ys BRD Gee Naat kh ue 97. 68 106. 94 
1A ee eee eee LOS NODES 2 iil O DS teense sen ine ale: 104. 97 106. 87 
ee LE ee eee 122. 42 LOGEOA SL O54 eis eee ee ee 105. 68 106. 82 
UCR See eee 1438. 42 ALTOS Sor. S955 aes See aa 114. 42 107. 09 
NOS GRR ee eee) 93. 88 1OS298 | O56 Sesseeees fees 114. 05 107. 30 
ICE a es ee ee 124, 13 TON el eee se es 97. 97 106. 98 
PSS Cybernet ete A a 117. 09 1NORG2 7 POS Se eee aa see 100. 20 106. 70 
OS Oe se ee 115. 47 TOS 94. (N95 9 eae eee 94. 88 106. 48 
TOO RE Ree ee eae 86. 51 HOOMAS Hh FUGGOE sie ee: ses 140. 07 107. 41 
OA Diets tet lh oh eal 91. 82 HOS DAs GG bate Bee 100. 21 106. 95 
GY Gs ee eae oe AO TOSsooy He LOGZ erent eB e 100. 52 107. 07 
IC Se ee eae ee 120. 29 LOS; 200 | 19G32 2 eee 108. 94 107. 10 
NOAA soe 2 111. 96 109. 30 


231 


232 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The Canal Zone Biological Area also has authority to use a small 
amount of land on the adjacent mainland, near Gamboa, Canal Zone. 
This mainland territory is covered by various types of second-growth 
vegetation and patches of forest which are more humid than the forest 
on Barro Colorado Island. 

The bureau maintains a small but well-equipped laboratory on 
Barro Colorado Island, with attached library and living quarters, 
available for use by scientists and students from all over the world. 

The scientific staff of the bureau conducts research on several groups 
of animals and plants on Barro Colorado itself, in adjacent regions 
of the Canal Zone and the Republic of Panama, and in other parts 
of Central and South America. 


TaBLE 2.—Comparison of 1962 and 1963 rainfall, Barro Colorado Island 


{In inches] 
Total Accumulated 
Month ae es SL Cie eee tel Station Years of | 1963 excess or excess OF 
average record deficiency deficiency 
1962 1963 

Janaby= ees 2 1. 86 7. 94 2. 29 38 +5. 65 +5. 65 
Febriary= 2.22222. 67 3. 14 1. 36 38 +1. 78 +7. 43 
Maire he tes 08 1. 65 1, 22 38 +. 43 +7. 86 
Apriles 22 eS 1. 84 6. 38 3. 52 39 +2. 86 +10. 72 
I eye a ee se ee 12. 84 9. 08 10. 90 39 — oe +8. 90 
JUNC eis. Seo 10. 13 5. 96 10. 69 39 —4, 73 +4. 17 
A (0 5 gies Ree ens LL 13. 26 12. 83 157 39 +1. 26 +5. 43 
Wucust 2 2-26 13. 21 18. 87 12. 60 39 +6. 27 +11. 70 
September --_---- 13. 57 8. 06 10. 29 39 —2, 23 +9. 47 
October 2—2 22-2 8. 43 10. 19 13. 89 39 —3. 70 +5. 77 
November____---- 13. 82 21. 60 17. 95 39 +3. 65 +9, 42 
December..------ 10. 81 3. 24 10. 82 39 —7. 58 +1. 84 
Yeara 222 HOORS 251) FLOSAO Aa al 7p 10 | eee ee ee | Se eae +1. 84 

Dry season.-=--=-- 4, 45 19. 11 S13 OPE Soa Se ae eae ee +10. 72 
Wet season__.---- 96. 07 89. 73 oon dd ie (ROR PR 2 a gs ee —8. 88 


RESEARCH ACTIVITIES 


Ninety scientists and students visited Barro Colorado Island for at 
least several days and/or made use of bureau research facilities on 
the mainland last year. This represents a slight increase over the 
preceding year. The increase would have been larger had it not 
been for the reports of local civil disturbances which caused an 
appreciable number of scientists to cancel their proposed visits. For- 
tunately, the disturbances did not actually impede the day-to-day 
operations of the bureau. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 233 


Two scientists were added to the permanent staff last year: Dr. Rob- 
ert L. Dressler and Dr. Neal G. Smith. 

Dr. Dressler continued the studies of Orchidaceae which he has 
been pursuing for some years, supported by a National Science Foun- 
dation grant. In connection with this project, he made short field 
trips to Costa Rica and the Cayman Islands and studied specimens in 
the collection of the Missouri Botanical Garden. He also visited 
Miami to observe various species of orchids in cultivation there and 
to consult with Dr. C. H. Dodson, with whom he is collaborating 
in a study of pollination. 

Dr. Smith began field work on the behavior and ecology of sev- 
eral groups of birds. He also visited Virginia Polytechnic Institute 
to secure information on histological and laparotomy techniques. 
studied collections of plant materials in the Gray Herbarium and the 
U.S. National Museum, studied the zoological collection of the U.S. 
National Museum, and visited the New York Zoological Society to 
obtain information on keeping and raising certain species of birds 
in captivity. 

Dr. Moynihan continued studies of the signal patterns of platyr- 
rhine monkeys and New World “nine-primaried” songbirds, and be- 
gan a long-term investigation of geographical variation in social be- 
havior among Andean birds, supported by a grant from the National 
Science Foundation. This last project necessitated field trips to Peru 
and Bolivia. Dr. Moynihan also attended the Eighth International 
Ethological Conference at The Hague in September 1963, studied col- 
lections in the U.S. National Museum and the American Museum of 
Natural History, and visited Harvard University for discussion of 
bioacoustical problems and techniques. 

The following papers by current and former staff members of the 
Canal Zone Biological Area appeared in various publications: 
Bennett, C. F., Jr. A phytophysiognomic reconnaissance of Barro Colorado 

Island, Canal Zone. Smithsonian Misc. Coll., vol. 145, No. 7, pp. 1-8, 1963. 
Dresster, R. L. Index of orchid names-1962. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard., vol. 50, 

pp. 538-54, 1963. 

Another natural hybrid in Hpidendrum. Amer. Orchid Soc. Bull., 

vol. 33, pp. 289-291, 1963. 

KAUFMANN, J. H., and Kaurmann, A. Some comments on the relationship be- 
tween field and laboratory studies of behaviour, with special reference to 

Coatis. Animal Behaviour, vol. 11, pp. 464-469, 1963. 


Moyniman, M. Inter-specific relations between some Andean birds. Ibis, vol. 
105, pp. 327-839, 1963. 


BUILDINGS AND EQUIPMENT 


Maintenance activities on Barro Colorado Island continued as usual. 
Installation of the electric cable from the mainland to the island was 
delayed by various factors, but it is hoped that the work will be com- 


234 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


pleted within the next few months. Remodeling of the laboratory, in 
anticipation of the air conditioning that will be installed after the 
cable is completed, has begun. 

New cages for animals and a shade house for plants were con- 
structed. 

Five vehicles were obtained from U.S. Army surplus. They will 
be used for field research on the mainland. They are being recondi- 
tioned and remodeled for use as mobile field laboratories. 

Expansion of the library has continued. In all probability, it is 
now the largest and best general biological library in the American 
tropics. It is frequently used by members of other scientific and edu- 
cational organizations in the Canal Zone and the Republic of Panama, 
in addition to the scientists and students conducting research on Barro 
Colorado itself. 

FINANCES 


Trust funds for the maintenance of the island and its living facilities 
are obtained by collections from visitors and scientists, table subscrip- 
tions, and donations. 

The following institutions continued their support of the laboratory 
through the payment of table subscriptions: Eastman Kodak Co., 
New York Zoological Society, and the Smithsonian Institution. 
Donations are also gratefully acknowledged from Dr. Eugene Eisen- 
mann and C. M. Goethe. 

PLANS 


Discussions with the Organization of American States have been 
initiated in the hope of setting up a joint Smithsonian-OAS program 
of fellowships and assistantships, or grants-in-aid, to provide support 
for scientists and students, especially Latin Americans who do not 
have access to many other sources of support. It is hoped to continue 
expansion of the scientific staff and research activities of the bureau 
and to attract larger numbers of visiting scientists and students. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The Canal Zone Biological Area can operate only with the excellent 
cooperation of the Canal Zone Government and the Panama Canal 
Company. Thanks are due especially to the Customs and Immigra- 
tion officials; the Police Division; and the Division of Sanitation. 
Also deeply appreciated are the advice and assistance provided by 
the Gorgas Memorial Laboratory, the Inter-American Geodetic Sur- 
vey, Dr. Nathan B. Gale of the Division of Veterinary Medicine, Dr. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 235 


W. John Smith of Harvard University, Dr. C. C. Soper of the East- 
man Kodak Co., and R. A. Botzenmayer, Chief Engineer, Southern 
Command Network. 
Respectfully submitted. 
Martin H. Morninan, Director. 
S. Ditton Ritey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the National Air Museum 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the National Air Museum for the fiscal year ended June 30, 
1964: 

In July 1963 a Congressional appropriation of $511,000 was ap- 
proved for the first year’s planning funds for the new National Air 
Museum Building. The firm of Hellmuth, Obata & Kassabaum of 
St. Louis was employed as architects for the new building, with Mills, 
Petticord & Mills of Washington, D.C., as associate architects. Dur- 
ing fiscal year 1964 the architects submitted a preliminary concept for 
the new building which received the approval of the National Air 
Museum staff and Advisory Board, members of the Smithsonian 
Board of Regents, the General Services Administration, the National 
Capital Planning Commission, and the National Commission of Fine 
Arts. 

Legislation was introduced in Congress to change the name of the 
National Air Museum to the National Air and Space Museum, to in- 
crease the membership on the Advisory Board, and to authorize con- 
struction of the new building. 

A generous gift to the Smithsonian Institution for the use of the 
National Air Museum was announced during the year—a grant from 
the Daniel and Florence Guggenheim Foundation of $250,000 over a 
10-year period. The income from the grant is to be used for an annual 
lecture, 2 commemorative exhibit in the new building, and the em- 
ployment of graduate students of history for research in the Museum’s 
Historical Flight Research Center. 

The beginning of a new exhibits department was established during 
the year in anticipation of the new building. James A. Mahoney was 
employed to head the unit. 

A number of historically significant accessions were received by the 
Museum during the year. Among them were a Fleet Model 7 air- 
craft, from the Fleet Foundation; a Mark XV Norden Bombsight 
from John Wible; Helioplane No. 1, from the Helio Aircraft Corp.; 
a replica of Oscar J, world’s first amateur satellite, from Project 
Oscar, Inc.; an RAF 1A aircraft engine of 1914, from United Aircraft 
Corp.; a Napier “Nomad” FE, diesel compounded with turobjet aero- 
nautical engine, from Napier Aero Engines, Ltd.; a DeHavilland 98 


236 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 237 


“Mosquito” light bomber of World War II vintage, from the Royal 
Air Force; the McDonnell X V—1 Convertoplane, from the McDonnell 
Aircraft Corp.; Inertial Guidance System from a Thor Launch 
Vehicle, from the U.S. Air Force; a collection of 419 medals and 
awards, all aviation related, from the American Institute of Aero- 
nautics and Astronautics formerly the Institute of the Aeronautical 
Sciences; memorabilia of Lowell H. Smith, Commanding Officer of 
the First Round-the-World Flight, from Mrs. Lowell H. Smith; a 
Lincoln Standard J-1 aircraft of 1920, from the Kerr-McGee Oil 
Industries, Inc.; the first supercharged aircraft engines, from Vera C. 
Murray; oil portraits of Wilbur and Orville Wright, from the Flight 
Safety Foundation; a 1912 parachute used by “Tiny” Broadwick, 
from Mrs. G. T. Brown (Tiny Broadwick) ; Wiley Post’s first pres- 
sure helmet,.from the B. F. Goodrich Co.; oil portraits of Jacqueline 
Cochran and Charles E. Yeager by artist Chet Engle, from the Lock- 
heed Aircraft Corp.; and memorabilia of Admiral Moffett from Rear 
Admiral Moffett, Jr. 

An ever-growing information service to authors, researchers, his- 
torians, schools, Government agencies, students, and the public was an 
active function of the Museum during the year. 


ADVISORY BOARD 


The National Air Museum Advisory Board met in Washington on 
April 1, 1964, with all members present. Secretary S. Dillon Ripley 
was elected chairman. The Board approved the new building concept 
presented by the architects. 


SPECIAL EVENTS 


The first annual Edwin A. Link Lecture was presented on Febru- 
ary 19, 1964, by Astronaut Alan B. Shepard, Jr. The annual Lester 
D. Gardner Lecture was presented on September 27, 1963, by Elmer A. 
Sperry, Jr. The Langley Medal was presented to Astronaut Alan B. 
Shepard, Jr., on May 5, 1964. Many distinguished visitors came to 
the Museum during the year to see the exhibit or to participate in 
special presentation and commemorative ceremonies. 

The director attended several meetings of aviation, aerospace, and 
educational organizations and societies. He also visited a number of 
Air Force and Navy bases, Nationa] Aeronautics and Space Admin- 
istration space centers, and contractors of these agencies in the aero- 
space flight program. Hespoke frequently on these visits. 

Paul E. Garber, head curator and historian, Louis S. Casey and 
Kenneth E. Newland, curators, and Walter Male, superintendent, rep- 
resented the Museum at a number of aviation and aerospace meetings 


238 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


during the year and spoke on the work of the Museum. Mr. Garber 
delivered 46 lectures. 


IMPROVEMENT IN EXHIBITS 


Continued experiments with display techniques in the Air and Space 
Building provided valuable experience in planning the exhibit for the 
new building. 


REPAIR, PRESERVATION, AND RESTORATION 


Storage, restoration, preservation, and the preparation of speci- 
mens for display in the new building were active and continuing 
functions at the Silver Hill, Md., activity. 


ASSISTANCE TO GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS 


Varied services, including information and counseling, were ex- 
tended to the Federal Aviation Agency, National Aeronautics and 
Space Administration, the Department of Justice, the U.S. Navy, and 
the U.S. Air Force, during the year. 


REFERENCE MATERIAL AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


The Museum’s Historical Flight Research Center was greatly 
enriched during the year with valuable research materials. As space 
permits, these are being integrated into the files for the use of the 
Museum staff and other researchers. 

The cooperation of the following persons and organizations in 
providing this material is sincerely appreciated and acknowledged: 


Arm Force ASssocraTION, EArt SourHer, Athens, Pa.: Two pages from a 
scrapbook—Bert Acosta and Emile Burgin and their airplane; Viola Gentry 
and Jack Ashcroft and the airplane The Answer. 

Atm Force ASSOCIATION, RICHARD SKINNER, Washington, D.C.: Books, Speaking 
of Space by Richard M. Skinner and William Leavitt; and The Wild Blue by 
John F. Loosbrock and Richard M. Skinner. 

Arm Force Museum, Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio: 8 boxes of documents—books, 
files, photos, and other data. 

ALL-WoOMEN TRANSCONTINENTAL ATR Race, Inc., Mrs. Kay A. Bricx, Teterboro, 
N.J.: 2 copies “Official Program” 1961 race; 2 copies of the 1961 results; 5 
photos, 1 of 1961 race winner, 2 of 1962 race winner, 2 of 19638 race winners. 

AMERICAN ANTIQUARIAN Society, Marcus A. McCorison, Worcester, Mass.: 
Scrapbook, “Ballooning in Springfield, Mass., 1908 and On” by Harlan T. 
Pierpont. 

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTICS, New York, N.Y.: 
Books, magazines, drawings, photos, and printed matter. 

ARMY, DEPARTMENT OF THE, PAUL J. BURNETTE, Washington, D.C.: Microfilm 
Pegasus, 1943-1957 (on 15 reels). 

AUTONETICS (THROUGH JAMES CAREY), Anaheim, Calif.: Photographs (175) of 
the XN-1/XN-2. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 239 


Bearp, Rosert L., Winfield, Kans.: 1 photo of the NC-4 at Ponta Del Gada, 
Azores; 1 photo of the NC-3 at Ponta Del Gada, Azores; 1 photo of the story 
of the NC transatlantic flight printed on a piece of Wong linen from the 
NC-3; 1 photo of the USS Melville, dated 8/22/18; 1 photo of Mr. Beard. 

BELKNAPP, HuauH S., North Hollywood, Calif.: 3-view assembly drawing of the 
Ryan NYP. 

BERLINER, Henry A., ENGINEERING AND RESEARCH CENTER, Riverdale, Md.: 19 
pamphlets; 15 books; 59 8- by 10-inch negatives; 3 4- by 5-inch glass nega- 
tives; 33 photographs—miscellaneous; report on the Probable Performance 
of the Berliner Helicopter in Climb; letters from MIT to Berliner. 

Bosserr, Lt. Cor. Ropert L., USAF, Washington, D.C.: “The Evolution of Mili- 
tary Flight Pay,” by Lt. Col. Robert L. Bobbett, USAF. 2 bound copies of 
typed papers, reproduced by a copy process, including illustrations, some fur- 
nished by the National Air Museum, and so acknowledged. 

BRAZELTON, Davin H., Bartonville, Il.: Drawing of Curtis BT-1 aircraft. 

Bristo. SippeLEY ENGINE, Lrp., J. M. Toocoop, Leavesden, Hertfordshire, Eng- 
land: 1 copy of a 16 mm. color sound film showing Sir Geoffrey de Havilland 
with replica of his first engine; 1 12- by 17-inch color photograph; 1 11- by 14- 
inch matte finish black and white photograph; 1 8- by 10-inch glossy finish 
black and white photograph showing the de Havilland engine showroom at 
Leavesden. 

CAPRONI DI TALIENDO, CouNTESS, Milan, Italy: 7 books and a set of postcards. 
Postcards-Senra Cozzar Dirocco: Books, Let Us Kill the War; Senra Cozzar 
Dirocco; Sandrino Con I Caproni in Guerra; Ali Tricolori in Africa; La 
Centuria di Ferro (3). 

Casey, L. S., Washington, D.C.: Book, The Incomparable Sabreliner by North 
American Aviation, Inc. 

CATHCART, DonaLp G., Hermosa Beach, Calif.: Photos; album; magazines; 
books; personal records; and papers. 

CHAMBERLAIN, RALPH, Lincoln Park, Mich.: Book, Dedication of the Wright 
Brothers’ Home and Shop in Greenfield Village by the Edison Institute. 

CiarkK, Henry AUSTIN JR., Glen Cove, Long Island, N.Y.: Photographs; reports; 
newspaper clippings; magazines; books; records and personal papers of John 
J. Ide. 

Coast Guarp, UNITED States, Elizabeth City, N.C.: 80 reels of microfilm on 
HSS/HUS helicopters. 

CoNTINENTAL AIRLINES, GEoRGE R. Corrry, Los Angeles, Calif.: 11 photographs; 
11 “The Conair News”; 17 “The Golden Jet”; 3 “The Continental Eagle”; 1 
“Hyerything’s ‘Go’ on Continental”; Annual Report 1962; “Golden Jet Boeing 
720B”; “Continental Airlines” a story of growth by Robert F. Six; timetable 
October 27, 1963; reprint from Business Week; “Airline Thrives of Split Per- 
sonality” ; two news releases. 

EXPERIMENTAL AIRCRAFT ASSOCIATION AIR MuseuM FounpaATion, Inc., Hales 
Corners, Wis.: Book, paper cover, The Golden Age of Air Racing Pre 1940 by 
EAA; 13 EAA publications. 

FreperaAL Aviation AGENCY, W. H. Weeks, Washington, D.C.: Reports on the 
President’s Airport Commission, 1952; booklet, A History of Propeller Manu- 
facturers by FAA. 

Fiuireri, BERNARD P., Baltimore, Md. : 26 books on Lindbergh. 

Fiscuer, Harorp A., Tonawanda, N.Y.: Drawings of the Fokker T-2 (3 plates) ; 
drawings of the Spandau machinegun (contract) ; drawing of the fuel, oil, and 
eooling systems—Fokker T~2. 


240 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


FLIEDNER, C. S., Chevy Chase, Md.: Album received from the estate of Carlysle 
Fliedner, August 14, 1961, De Havilland H. 1 engine; contains 25 photographs 
and 12 transparencies. 

Forster, McGuire & Co. Lrp., R. D. Forster, Montreal, Canada: Book, The Magic 
of a Name by Harold Nockolds. 

Frantz, Harry W., Washington, D.C.: Book, De Palos Al Plata by Comandante 
Franco and Capitan Ruiz de Alda. 

GENERAL DYNAMICS, PAYNE B. JOHNSON, San Diego, Calif.: Copy of black and 
white film taken at the presentation of the Mercury Control Center model. 
GILL, Maset B., Baltimore, Md.: 3 aviation scrapbooks; 3 auto scrapbooks; 14 
auto photos; newspaper clippings; 2 membership cards—Baltimore Athletic 
Club 1907 and the Automobile Club of America; New Jersey automobile 

driver’s license No. 27001. 

GLEICK JosepH T., Highland Park, Ill.: Curtiss Robertson Airplane Mfg. Co. 
organization chart ; 12 negatives of Curtiss “Robin.” 

GREENE, FRANK L., Glasonbury, Conn.: Booklet, ‘History of the Grumman F4F 
‘Wildcat’ ”’ by Frank L. Greene. 

HArpINn, GEORGE W., Greeneville, Tenn.: Patents; photo and artist drawing of air- 
ship with 4-engine transport; photo of George W. Hardin; newspaper page; 
bill of authorization; report on hearings before the Committee on Military 
Affairs June 26, 1935 and March 20, 1936. 

Hip, Frep C., Miami, Fla.: 1 scrapbook of newspaper clippings; 1 scrapbook 
of photographs; 1 ledger of the American Aeroplane Supply House; and bio- 
graphical history. 

Hitpes-SermM, Erick, Fairfield, Conn.: Pamphlet, “The Air Arm of the Confeder- 
acy” by Joseph Jenkins Cornish III. 

Hoover, FREDERICK A., La Jolla, Calif.: Newspaper clippings, the Chirp, June 
1936; 30 photos, some on post cards; Aeromarine Airways leaflet “Ninety 
Minutes in Heaven,” 1922; souvenir catalogue, Aeronautical Exposition, March 
1-15, 1919; newspaper clippings (3)—“Museum Adds Prewar Biplane,” San 
Diego Union, October 25, 1963; “Rep. Bob Wilson,” San Diego Union, Septem- 
ber—October 1963; “A Man With an Urge to Fly Like the Birds,” Donald H. 
Gordon, San Diego Union, May 8, 1964. 

Horxins, Puiip 8., Washington, D.C.: 7 booklets; 3 books; and “Class Outline 
for Instructors,” by P. S. Hopkins. 

INFORMATION AGENCY, UNITED STATES, Washington, D.C.: Tapes-Age of Flight, 
Nos. 1-4; Charles A. Macready, Parts I and II; B. Foulois Interview, Parts 
I and II; N. Halaby ; Grover Loening—Pioneer Aviator; Conely Interview with 
Igor Sikorsky, Aviation Pioneer. 

IsTEL, JACQUES ANDRE, Orange, Mass.: 1 8- by 10-inch photograph of Jacques 
Istel, Lewis Sanborn, Nathan Pond, and William Jolly; 2 homologation docu- 
ments dated April 17, 1962. 

JABLONSKI, EpwArp, New York, N.Y.: ABRONCA 19387 brochure: SOHIO road- 
map guide to the 1989 National Air Race; Eastern Air Lines timetable May 
17, 1987; United Air Lines timetable March 1, 1937; “Learning to Fly”; Sym- 
bols and Notes for Department of Commerce Sectional Airways Maps; the 
Fairchild 24.” 

JAHN, Mrs. ., White Plains, N.Y.: 1 scrapbook compiled by James V. Martin; 
140 photographs of various J. V. Martin aeroplanes, stabilizers, wheels, and 
retractable chassis. 

Krcer, Henry J., Los Angeles, Calif.: Book, Modern Aircraft by Page. 

Kerrey, Rosert V., HrHyt Corporation, Detroit, Mich.: Air Corps technical re- 
port “American and Foreign Military and Commercial Aircraft’; Booklet, 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 241 


“A New Wasp, Series ‘H’”; 3 photos with captions of Boeing 314 “Clipper” ; 
1 photo Boeing 307 “Substratosphere” with caption and fact sheet; 24 cover 
sheets “Technical Data Digest” by U.S. Army Air Corps; 1 booklet titled “Origin 
of A-N Performance Number System” ; 1 handbook titled “Research on Aviation 
Spark Plug Problems” ; 1 pamphlet titled “The 17.6 Engine, Its Design, Devel- 
opment and Applications” by A. E. Felt and Robert V. Kerley. 

Lancaster, Mrs. Hucu K., Mill Valley, Calif.: 2 sets of 11 photos each of Mar- 
tin 130 “China Clipper.” 

Lecu, ANpREW F., Glendora, Calif.: Drawing of “Ryan NYP Spirit of St. Louis” 
(3 plates). 

Macavtay, Mrs. T. C., Severna Park, Md.: Album, photos, and letters of T. C. 
Macaulay. 

Means, James H., Boston, Mass.: Original patents awarded and held by James 
Means. Patent drawings and reports; correspondence; photographs; news- 
paper clippings ; and biographical material. 

Meyer, Orro, Augsburg, West Germany: Pamphlet, “On the History of Air 
Transportation.” 

Mitrina, Margaret, Washington, D.C.: 16 military certificates and statements ; 
375 photographs of various sizes of Milling, other aviators and planes; 1 14- 
by 11-inch photo of General Milling in uniform; 4 8- by 10-inch negatives ; 
approximately 35 to 40 pieces of news articles; four pieces of correspondence. 

Mo.tieEr, JosepH A., Tucson, Ariz.: Book, The Story of the 390th Bombardment 
Group (Hf). 

Mytres, Mrs. Evcenre Louise, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: Book, Airborne 
from Edmonton by Eugenie Louise Myles. 

NasH, Miss Carotyn, Washington, D.C.: 1 Norwegian pamphlet on the Amund- 
sen-Ellsworth Expedition, 1925; 1 post card showing the memorial stone in 
Ny-Aalesund of the Amundsen-Ellsworth Expedition, 1925; 1 fragment of 
balloon cloth or parachute cloth. 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION, PAUL HANEY, Houston, Tex. : 
30 reels of motion-picture films. 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION, JAMES J. MODARELLI, Cleve- 
land, Ohio: Aircraft engine overhaul instructions handbooks for J35-A-17D, 
J35-A-27A, J35-A-29A USAF, U35-A-29A USN, and for J-83-A-33, J-33—A- 
383A USAF; photographs, 8 by 10, black and white of the four pilots who 
were honored as recipients of the Robert J. Collier Trophy for the year 
1961—Joseph A. Walker, CDR Forrest S. Petersen, Major Robert M. White, 
and A. Scott Crossfield. 

Navy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, AVIATION Sarety Center, Norfolk, Va.: “Approach,” 
bound Vol. 8, July 1962-June 1963. 

NEWLAND, KENNETH E., Alexandria, Va.: Book, Squadrons of the Royal Air 
Force by Maj. F. A. de V. Robertson, Lt. Comdr. C. N. Colson, and Flying 
Officer W. A. Cook; book, The Incomparable Sabreliner by North American 
Aviation, Inc. 

Nyg, Wis L., Hayward, Calif.: Drawing of Curtiss S-3. 

OLMSTEAD, GERHART, Little Rock, Ark.: 364 photos and negatives; 10 10- by 
13-inch brown envelopes containing papers and reports; C.M.O. notebook ; 
certificate from Patent Office: notebook-laws and minutes of C.M.O. Physical 
Laboratory, Inc.; scrapbook-calculations; scrapbook, Flying Test of Olmsted 
Propellers. 


242 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Pacer, Greorce A. Jr., Reynoldsburg, Ohio: 2 photograph albums, Volume I con- 
taining 234 prints of the CW-20, H 75B, P-40-171, XP-46, O-52, XP-60 
XP-62; Volume II containing 128 prints of the HF5—6, P-40-100, XP60-16, 
P4474, B-24-1, G—205-1. 

PARSONS, REAR ADMIRAL H. C., Osprey, Fla.: Book, I Flew with the Lafayette 
Escadrille by 4. C. Parsons. 

Pratt, JoHN Brooxs, Charlotte Amalie, Virgin Islands: 8- by 10-inch photo- 
graphs and negatives of the “Round the World Cruisers” being serviced 
(wheels for pontoons) on the Hoogly River on June 27, 1924. 

RUSSELL, FRANK F., New York, N.Y.: Colored aviation prints of 14 aviation 
scenes; 4 French aviator portraits of World War I by H. Farre. 

Sampson, Puitie Squire, Arlington, Va.: Newspaper clippings, 1 full page of 
Lindbergh (head and shoulders) ; 2 full pages of some of the items sent to 
the Missouri Historical Society, St. Louis; 6 pertaining to Harry W. Lyon, 
navigator of the transpacific airplane Southern Cross. 

SHAMBURGER, Miss Pace, Aberdeen, N.C.: Book, 1st ed., Tracks Across the Sky 
by Page Shamburger. 

Soartne Socrery or AMERICA, Los Angeles, Calif.: 49 back issues of Soaring 
Magazine. 

Sotomon, SAMvEL J., Silver Spring, Md.: Two booklets, “Survival” by Airlines 
War Training Institute; and “Pilgrim’s Process” by Air Transport Command, 
U.S. Army Air Forces. 

Strong, Victor L., Reseda, Calif.: Parts catalog of Robertson Aircraft Co. and 
“Catalog A” 1928 parts list of Curtiss OX5-OXX6 and Hispano-Suiza. 

Srratron, SAMUEL WESLEY, FAMILY oF (through Wes Ley S. Hosss), Tulsa, 
Okla.: 2 photograph scrapbooks, 1 on the “Langley,” a Handley Page bomber 
built by the Standard Aircraft Corporation, 1918; 1 titled “Sezione Fotografica 
di Aviazione per la R. Marine” (Italian aviation photographs of World War I). 

TrETZLAFF, Delavan, Wis.: Magnetic recording tape, 7-inch size, of interview with 
Jesse C. Bradazon, an Karly Bird. 

Tracy, DanreL, Lakewood, Ohio: 2-view drawing of Wright “J” long-hulled 
flying boat, 1915, 3 sheets. 

TUSCARAWAS County AVIATION, INnc., New Philadelphia, Ohio: John H. Glenn’s 
original primary flight file. 

WATERMAN, Epwarp C., Miami, Fla.: 25 8- by 10-inch prints of early personages 
of the 1914-1918 period at North Island. 

WATERTOWN Daity TIMES, JoHN B. Jounson, Watertown, N.Y.: 2 photos, article 
on the Pepin airship; photo of airship Inocrain. 

WEATHER BurREAU, UNITED States, Washington, D.C.: Project Tiros data, 12 
black and white 8- by 10-inch photos; 1 map of world showing route of Tiros, 
12 by 30; 1 color 8- by 10-inch print ; 3 mosaics. 

WEIMAN, KEN, South Miami, Fla.: 9 aviation photographs including 4 Douglas 
World Cruisers, 1 Boeing SP-12A, and 1 Douglas BT-2B. 

Wuirttirr, Rosert J., South Duxbury, Mass.: Drawings from Curtiss Engineer- 
ing Corporation, eighth size, Curtiss Oriole. 

Wiser, Pauw F., Rochester, N.Y.: 16 4%4- by 6-inch photographs of Curtiss 
copy type airplane, Curtiss flying boat, Benoist airplanes, Maximotor engines, 
and Tony Jannus with Benoist; 4 pages of xerox copy of newspaper articles 
of Paul Wilber; 1 3-view blueprint of a standard Curtiss Type Biplane 28’4’’ ; 
1 blueprint of wood details for 28’4’’ Curtiss Type Biplane. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 243 


Wru1aMson, Mrs. Marcaret S., Cleveland, Tenn.: Single issue of Aerial Age, 
February 2, 1920. 

Yacer, Mr. & Mrs. Frank R., Anaheim, Calif.: Saga of the U.S. Air Mail Service 
by the Air Mail Pioneers, Inc.; poem, “The Westbound Mail” by Phil Braniff ; 
A Brief History of the Air Mail Service of the U.S. Post Office Department 
(May 15, 1918-August 31,1927) by Edward A. Keogh. 


ACCESSIONS 


Additions to the National Aeronautical and Space Collections, 
received and recorded during the fiscal year 1964, totaled 559 speci- 
mens in 71 separate accessions, as listed below. Those from Govern- 
ment departments are entered as transfers, unless otherwise indicated ; 
others were received as gifts or loans. 


Are Force, DEPARTMENT OF THE, ANDREWS AFB, Md.: Holley automatic cutaway 
yariable Venturi carburetor (ca. 1941) (N.A.M. 1451); VaNnpbENBURG AFB, 
Calif.: Inertial guidance system from a Tuor launch vehicle (N.A.M. 1442) ; 
CAMERON STATION, Va.: Redstone rocket engine recovered after the June 11, 
1958, ballistic missile trajectory flight from Canaveral (N.A.M. 1473). 

B. F. Goopricu Co., Akron, Ohio: Pressure helmet used by Wiley Post with his 
first two experimental space suits (N.A.M. 1467). 

Barcas, Victor, Washington, D.C.: Autographed original menu for luncheon 
given for C. A. Lindbergh in Paris, autographed by Lindbergh, Glenn, Carpen- 
ter, Gargarin, and Titov (N.A.M. 1448). 

Bett ArrcraFrt Co., Buffalo, N.Y.: Bell model 47D-1 single 2-blade rotor helicop- 
ter with directional rotor at aft end of machine (N.A.M. 1480). 

Brown, Mrs. G. T., Henderson, N.C.: Very early back-pack parachute used by 
“Tiny” Broadwick for exhibition jumps from airplanes in 1912 (N.A.M. 1466). 

Crom, Curtiss G., Springfield, Va.: Unusual dress uniforms and officer’s saber 
which belonged to donor’s late father, colonel in USAF (N.A.M. 1462). 

Dienes, NicHotas §., Fort Belvoir, Va.: Fragment, airship Hindenburg girder 
(N.A.M. 1458). 

Doo.itTLe, JAMES H., SpAcE TECHNOLOGY LABORATORIES, Redondo Beach, Calif. : 
Medal of the Ordre Souveraine de Chypre (No. PA 400) given to the donor 
(N.A.M. 1480). 

Dove tas Arrcrarr Co., Washington, D.C.: Model THor IRBM space launch 
vehicle, 1:22 size (N.A.M. 1469). 

EASTERN AiR LINES, INc., New York, N.Y.: 2 framed study sketches by Dean 
Cornell made for murals in EAL building (N.A.M. 1441). 

Emerson, Hart A., Arlington, Va.: World War II USAF winter flying suit, worn 
on antisubmarine patrol by Lt. James D. Emerson, son of the donor (N.A.M. 
1468). 

FLeet Founpation, San Diego, Calif.: Fleet model 7 aircraft powered by 160 
hp. Kinner R-56 engine (N.A.M. 1417). 

Fuicut Sarery Founpation, New York, N.Y.: 2 oil portraits of the Wright 
Brothers, painted by Efrem Melik (N.A.M. 1465). 

GARBER, PAUL E., Washington, D.C.: La Crocciera Atlantica Gold Medal (N.A.M. 
1446). 

GENERAL Dynamics, San Diego, Calif.: 4-foot square scale model of Mercury 
Control Center at Cape Canaveral (N.A.M. 1481). 


766—746—_65——_17 


244 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Git, Mrs. Manet E., Baltimore, Md.: Silver tray-trophy awarded to H. W. Gill 
(N.A.M. 1484) 

GoppArD, Mrs. Roserr H., Worcester, Mass.: 2 bronze reproductions of gold 
medal awarded to Dr. Goddard by Congress in 1959 (N.A.M. 1427). 

Grayson, Lr. Compr. K. B., Forest Hills, N.Y.: Mark 1A bombsight of World 
War I period (N.A.M. 1419). 

Hartwick, Hersert D., Cayucos, Calif.: Model of Fokker D-VII, 1:16 size 
(N.A.M. 1482). 

Hextio AIRCRAFT CoRPORATION, Norwood, Mass.: Helioplane No. 1, first of a series 
of controllable STOL aircraft (N.A.M. 1425). 

Hoxitowoop, CHARLES L., Pittsburgh, Pa.: Model of Stinson, Jr., aircraft (N.A.M. 
1436). 

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF AERONAUTICS AND ASTRONAUTIOS, New York, N.Y.: 4 
personal watches of the Wright Brothers (N.A.M. 1450); collection of 419 
medals and awards, all related to aviation (N.A.M. 1452). 

Jones, Mrs. Louis C., Cooperstown, N.Y.: Flag and barometer used by Charles 
F. Durant (N.A.M. 1479). 

KERLEY, Ropert V., HrHyt Corporation, Detroit, Mich.: Engine components 
and awards and medals belonging to S. D. Heron, engine and fuel expert 
(N.A.M. 1471) ; slide rule and drafting set belonging to S. D. Heron (N.A.M. 
1432). 

Kerr-McGre Om Inpustries, INc., Oklahoma City, Okla.: Aircraft, Lincoln 
Standard J-1, Reg. No. 1875, Ser. No. 177, 1920, powered by Hispano-Suiza 
Model A-3, Ser. No. 5407 (N.A.M. 1455). 

KimKHAM, CHARLES B., Montgomery, N.Y.: Kirkham air-cooled engine built in 
1929, 6-cylinder, horizontally opposed (N.A.M. 1416). 

Lreire, Ronaxwp F., Alexandria, Va.: Lang propeller (English) designed for the 
400-hp. Liberty engine, 1918 (N.A.M. 1478). 

LOCKHEED AIRCRAFT CORPORATION, Burbank, Calif.: Model of Lockheed F-104, 
1:48 size (N.A.M. 1457); oil portraits of “Jackie” Cochran and “Chuck” 
Yaeger (N.A.M. 1472) ; Model of Lockheed TF-104G (N.A.M. 1459). 

Martin ArrcorArt Co., Baltimore, Md.: Model of Martin B-10 bomber (N.A.M. 
1439). 

McDonNELL AIRCRAFT CORPORATION, St. Louis, Mo.: McDonnell XV-1 Converto- 
plane (N.A.M. 1435). 

MiKesH, Magor Rosgert C., San Franciso, Calif.: Model of Douglas DST (first 
of DC-3 series) in American Airlines livery, Neg. No. NC 14988 on rudder and 
wings (N.A.M. 1456); series of 8 B-17 models depicting the development of 
the B-17 series (N.A.M. 1440). 

Mruine, Mrs. T. DeWitt, Washington, D.C.: Military aviator wings awarded to 
2nd Lt. T. D. Milling, October 6, 1913 (N.A.M. 1449). 

Morrett, Rear ApM., JR., Virginia. Beach, Va.: Memorabilia of Admiral Moffett— 
Adm. Moffett’s magnetic compass; plaster bust of Adm. Moffett; rear admiral 
flag; rivet press and gold rivet used on Shenandoah (N.A.M. 1483). 

Murray, Miss Vera C., Washington, D.C.: 2 Murray engines, 70-hp., 2-cycle, 
6-cylinder ; 30-hp., 2-cycle, 6-cylinder rotary engine; tools (N.A.M. 1464). 

Napier Arro Enernes, Ltp., London, England: Napier “Nomad” WH, diesel com- 
pounded with turbojet aeronautical engine (N.A.M. 1429). 

NATIONAL AERONAUTIC ASSOCIATION, Washington, D.C.: Plaque of William Thaw 
and 4 Gordon Bennett Trophy plaques (N.A.M. 1474). 

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION, Washington, D.C.: Duplicate 
of NASA Distinguished Service Medal awarded to Alan B. Shepard, Jr. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 245 


(N.A.M. 1444); LaNetEY ReseAROH CENTER, Langley Field, Va.: 3 scale 
models—Ryan Flex-Wing; Supersonic Furled Flex-Wing; and wind tunnel 
item—Vlex-Wing (N.A.M. 1476). 

Navy, DEPARTMENT OF THE, Williamsburg, Va.: Hispano-Suiza engine model 
BH (N.A.M. 1486) ; Navan AcApEMy, Annapolis, Md.: Models of Douglas TBD-1, 
Grumman J2¥-1, Vought SB2U-1 scout bomber (N.A.M. 1460) ; MARINE Corps, 
Quantico, Va.: Japanese double-barreled aircraft machinegun and Spandau 
German aircraft machinegun (N.A.M. 1453) ; MARIng Corps ScHOOL, Quantico, 
Va.: 9 aircraft machineguns and cannons with spare barrel assembly (N.A.M. 
1470). 

Pan AMERIOAN WorLp Arrways, New York, N.Y.: Model of Douglas DC-7¥ 
showing cargo handling equipment (N.A.M. 1461). 

Progect Oscar, Inc., Sunnyvale, Calif.: Full-size replica of OSOAR J, world’s 
first amateur satellite, plus two separate components of the radio signalling 
device (N.A.M, 1426). 

Pyte, JAMEs T., Washington, D.C.: Early flying suit, 1930’s (N.A.M. 1463). 

Ray, Dr. BE. L., through Burke M. Ray, Washington, D.C.: 2 silver spoons com- 
memorating 1935 flight of Thor Solberg from Norway to United States (N.A.M. 
1424). 

REPUBLIC AVIATION CoRPORATION, Farmingdale, Long Island, N.Y.: Model of 
Republic FH-105 USAF fighter (N.A.M. 1445). 

Roya Arm Force, United Kingdom: DeHavilland 98 Mosquito light bomber of 
World War II vintage (N.A.M. 1434). 

Sminey, Dr. C. H., Providence, R.I.: Cent carried by donor on flight to photo- 
graph eclipse of 7/20/63 (N.A.M. 1423). 

SmirH, J. C., Massillon, Ohio: Scale model of Verville CA-3 aircraft (N.A.M. 
1443). 

SmMiTH, Mrs. LoweLnt H., Tucson, Ariz.: Memorabilia including personal items, 
awards, scrapbooks, photographs, etc., belonging to Lowell H. Smith, the com- 
manding officer of the first Round-the-World Flight (N.A.M. 1454). 

SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, Exuisits Division, Washington, D.C.: Model of 
Boeing B-17G World War II bomber (N.A.M. 1422) ; model of Wright Brothers 
1899 kite (N.A.M. 14388). 

Space TecHNoLoGy LazoraAtories, Redondo Beach, Calif.: 3 full-scale models of 
research satellites, Pioneer I, Pioneer V, and Explorer VI (N.A.M. 1475). 

Spencer, PercivaL H., Hawthorne, Calif.: Working model of Motorized Bird, 
an ornithopter (N.A.M. 1487). 

STANLEY AVIATION Corporation, Denver, Colo.: B-58 supersonic ejection seat 
and capsule (N.A.M. 1483). 

Swain, Jonn, Arlington, Va.: Pilot’s leather helmet, late 20’s (N.A.M. 1420). 

THIOKOL CHEMICAL CoRPORATION, Ogden, Utah: Cutaway of M-—58 Falcon rocket 
motor (N.A.M. 1421); Reacrion Morors Division, Danville, N.J.: Rocket 
jump-belt by Thiokol (N.A.M. 1485). 

Tracy, Danie. E., Cleveland, Ohio: Scale model of Macchi-39 Schneider trophy- 
winning seaplane, 1929 (N.A.M. 1447). 

UNITED AIRCARFT CoRPORATION, Hartford, Conn.: RAF 1A aircraft engine of 1914 
(N.A.M. 1428). 

WIBLE, JoHN, Andrews AFB, Md.: Mark XV Norden bombsight (N.A.M. 1418). 

WILBURN, GENE, N., Chevy Chase, Md.: Unidentified wind tunnel test model 
(N.A.M. 1477). 

ZIEMER, Mason H. A., Pine Bluff, Ark.: Collection of 225 civilian and military 
buttons (N.A.M. 1481). 


246 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Philip S. Hopkins, director of the National Air Museum since 1958, 
announced his retirement as of August 1, 1964. 5S. Paul Johnston has 
been selected as the new director. He will take office on September 1, 
1964. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Pure 8. Hopxins, Director. 
S. Ditton Rir ey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the John F. Kennedy Center 
for the Performing Arts 


Sim: I have the honor to submit, on behalf of the Board of Trustees, 
a status and financial report on the John F, Kennedy Center for the 
Performing Arts (formerly the National Cultural Center) for the 
period July 1, 1968, through June 30, 1964. 


ORGANIZATION 


Public Law 85-874, September 2, 1958, established the National 
Cultural Center as a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution. The 
initial legislation was amended by Public Law 86-297, September 21, 
1959. Public Law 88-100 was enacted on August 19, 1963. This 
amended the original law by extending the term for fund-raising 
from 5 to 8 years and increased the maximum number of public 
members of the Board of Trustees from 15 to 30. 

With the tragic death of President Kennedy, a spontaneous reac- 
tion spread throughout the country to dedicate the National Cultural 
Center as his sole memorial in the Nation’s Capital. In December 
1963 President Lyndon Johnson sent the proposal to Congress, and 
hearings were subsequently held before a joint sessicn of the House 
and Senate Public Works Committee. I had the honor of testifying 
before these hearings. The Bill passed the House and the Senate 
with full bipartisan support, and on January 238, 1964, President 
Johnson signed it into law. 

Provisions of the legislation—The National Cultural Center was 
renamed the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts. 
Under the provisions of this Act, authorization was given for the 
appropriation of $15.5 million to match funds raised by the public. 
In addition, the Center’s trustees were empowered to issue revenue 
bonds to the Treasury payable from revenues accruing to the Board, 
up to a sum of $15.4 million to cover the cost of a 3-level parking 
facility for approximately 1,600 cars. This unit will also form the 
substructure of the building. (The National Capital Planning Com- 
mission was granted a further appropriation of $2.175 million for 
the purchase of land within and without the designated site and for 
relocation payments.) 

247 


248 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The Center’s testimony was given before the House and Senate Ap- 
propriations Committees, and final action was taken when both houses 
of Congress agreed to the amended Appropriations Bill on June 29. 
(It was signed by President Johnson on July 7.) Under the terms 
of this legislation (P.L. 88-356) Congress provided “such amounts 
which in the aggregate will equal gifts, bequests, and devises of 
money, securities, and other property, received by the Board for the 
benefit of the John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts prior 
to July 1, 1965, and available or used for expenditures directly inci- 
dent to the planning, contracting, and construction of the Center: 
Provided, That the total amount appropriated by this paragraph 
shall not exceed $15,500,000.” 

The John F. Kennedy Center Act made no change in the composi- 
tion of the Board of Trustees, the officers, the Advisory Committee on 
the Arts, or the concept and charter of the Center. 

Mrs. Lyndon B. Johnson agreed to serve as honorary cochairman 
with Mrs. John F. Kennedy and Mrs. Dwight D. Eisenhower. 

At the present time the Board of 'Trustees and elected officers of the 
Center are as follows: 


Trustees: 
Howard F. Ahmanson George Meany 
Floyd D. Akers L. Quincy Mumford 
Lucius D. Battle Mrs. Charlotte T. Reid 
Kk. LeMoyne Billings Richard S. Reynolds, Jr. 
Ralph E. Becker Frank H. Ricketson, Jr. 
Ernest R. Breech S. Dillon Ripley, IT 
Edgar M. Bronfman Leverett Saltonstall 
Ralph J. Bunche Mrs. Jouett Shouse 
Anthony J. Celebrezze L. Corrin Strong 
Joseph 8. Clark Frank Thompson 
J. William Fulbright Walter N. Tobriner 
Mrs. George A. Garrett William Walton 
George B. Hartzog William H. Waters, Jr. 
Francis Keppel James C. Wright, Jr. 


Mrs. Albert D. Lasker 


Chairman, Roger L. Stevens 

Vice Chairman, L. Corrin Strong 
Treasurer, Daniel W. Bell 

General Counsel, Ralph WH. Becker 
Secretary, K. LeMoyne Billings 

Senior Assistant Secretary, Philip J. Mullin 


PROGRESS DURING 1963-1964 
All the Center’s fund-raising committees continued, on an increased 
scale, the activities initiated in the previous year: 
(1) President’s Business Committee.—Ernest R. Breech, formerly 
chairman, Ford Motor Co., maintained his effective leadership of this 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 249 


committee which has, to date, raised more than $2.7 million. In 
October 1963 President Kennedy was host at a luncheon in the White 
House to members of the Committee, as well as other top business 
leaders from all parts of the country. (As a direct result of this 
occasion, industrial contributions amounting to approximately $1 mil- 
lion were received within a short period of time thereafter.) 

(2) Service band recordings—During the year a second royalty 
payment was received from RCA Victor Records covering the sale of 
the four military service band albums issued by RCA on behalf of 
the Center, for a further 6-month period, September 1963 through 
February 1964. This royalty payment amounted to $60,197.81, bring- 
ing the total proceeds from the sale of the records to $120,039.02. 

(3) “Creative America,” published by Ridge Press, went on nation- 
wide sale in February 1963. A percentage of the proceeds from the 
sale of the book is being paid to the Center. The book traces the full 
circle of artistic creation and contains a foreword by President Ken- 
nedy, original articles by General Eisenhower, President Truman, 
James Baldwin, Mark Van Doren, John Ciardi, among others, as 
well as more than 90 pages of color pictures by the staff of Magnum, 
one of the world’s outstanding associations of photographers. 

(4) Gifts of foreign governments.—During the year the Center 
received substantial gifts from two foreign governments. In July 
1963 President Kennedy announced that the Italian Government 
through President Segni had offered a contribution of all the marble 
required in the building of the Center. In October the Prime Minister 
of Ireland, Mr. Sean Lemass, offered the gift of a Waterford chan- 
delier to hang in the Center’s symphony hall. Several other foreign 
governments have also shown an interest in making donations to the 
Center. 

(5) In October 1963 the Rockefeller Foundation made an un- 
conditional grant to the Center of $1 million, and in December a gift 
of $500,000 came from the Old Dominion Foundation. 

(6) Special Gifts Commitiee.—Plans have been completed for the 
formation of a national Special Gifts Committee to seek substantia! 
contributions to the Center from sources other than business and in- 
dustry. A contract has been negotiated with the firm of Bowen & 
Gurin, New York City, to coordinate the fund-raising efforts of this 
committee, 

(7) Mrs. Kennedy’s Christmas cards —During the summer of 1968 
Mrs. Kennedy graciously offered to design two Christmas cards to be 
sold for the benefit of the Center. The cards were published and dis- 
tributed by Hallmark Cards and enjoyed a very considerable sale. 


250 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Publicity relating to the cards was nationwide and the Center received 
approximately $26,000 from their sale. 

(8) Announcement of Center's programs.—During the course of 
the year, two programs were announced in which the Center was a 
joint sponsor. 

a. In October, President Kennedy announced the formation 
of a national company of the Metropolitan, to be presented 
by the Metropolitan Opera and the Center. The purpose 
of this company, which will begin its first tour of some 
35-37 cities in the fall of 1965, is to provide training and 
experience for young American singers, and to bring the 
best in live opera to cities throughout the country where 
little or none has previously existed. 

6. Plans were also announced for a National University 
Theatre Festival to be held in Washington, D.C., during 
a 3-week period in the spring of 1965. Jointly sponsored 
by the Center, the American Educational Theatre Associa- 
tion, and the American National Theatre and Academy, 
the Festival is inviting the participation of the many col- 
lege and university theatre groups in the country. Or- 
ganized at the outset on a regional basis, it is expected that 
some 10 or 12 college groups will be selected to present 
their outstanding productions to audiences in the Capital. 


ADMINISTRATIVE CHANGES 


With the pending eligibility for Government funds, both through 
our borrowing authority and from Congressional appropriations, the 
Center has been in close consultation with the offices of the Secretary 
of the Treasury, the Comptroller General, the Bureau of the Budget, 
and the Smithsonian Institution. Upon their recommendation and 
with the unanimous approval of the Board of Trustees, an Adminis- 
trative Officer, Philip J. Mullin, was appointed who will be respon- 
sible for the administrative and fiscal management of the Center. 


GENERAL SERVICES ADMINISTRATION 


Arrangements were made whereby the Public Buildings Service of 
the General Services Administration will serve as the Center’s agent 
for design and construction, and a contract to this effect is about to be 
signed. Standard GSA procedures will be followed, including the 
award of contracts on the basis of competitive bids. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 251 


MEMORIAL COMMITTEE 


In accordance with the provisions of the John F. Kennedy Center 
Act, a Memorial Committee under the chairmanship of K. LeMoyne 
Billings has been appointed. This committee will originate, assemble, 
and review proposals, and make recommendations, for a suitable 
memorial to President Kennedy to be placed within the Center itself. 
The trustees will then make their recommendation to the Congress and 
to the Regents of the Smithsonian as the law provides. Members of 
this committee are: 

Senator William Fulbright 

Senator Leverett Saltonstall 

Congressman Torbert H. Macdonald 

Mrs. Stephen Smith, President Kennedy’s sister 

Mrs. Albert D. Lasker, a Trustee 

Edward Durell Stone, the Center’s architect 

S. Dillon Ripley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution 

Theodore C. Sorensen, who served as Special Counsel to President Kennedy 
(Roger L. Stevens will serve as an eg officio member) 


FINE ARTS ACCESSIONS COMMITTEE 


Because of an increasing number of objects of art that are being 
offered to the Center, it has been found necessary to appoint a Trust- 
ees’ Fine Arts Accessions Committee to determine acceptance or re- 
fusal of such gifts. The Committee will, in turn, appoint a subcom- 
mittee containing representatives of the architect, the General Services 
Administration, the National Collection of Fine Arts, the National 
Gallery of Art, and of two leading non-Federal galleries in Washing- 
ton. Members of the Accessions Committee are: 

S. Dillon Ripley, Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, Chairman 
Mrs. Albert D. Lasker, Mrs. Jouett F. Shouse, and Senator J. William 
Fulbright 
ARCHITECTURAL PLANNING 


Following some controversy in the press on the size and site of the 
Center, all questions relating to these matters were finally and satis- 
factorily resolved on June 4 when the National Capital Planning Com- 
mission, the central planning agency for the Federal and District 
of Columbia Governments, voted approval of the site, access points, 
height, bulk, and profile of the building, as well as of the dimensions 
of the three halls. ‘This action left the way clear for final planning 
of the construction of the Center. 


252 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Preliminary architectural plans have now been completed and the 
architect and his staff are starting on the working drawings. Site 
borings have been completed. It is hoped that construction on the 
substructure of the building will begin in the summer of 1965, with 
completion of the Center within 30 months. A ground-breaking cere- 
mony is now being planned. 


FUTURE PROSPECTS 

The events of the past fiscal year have put us well within sight of our 
objective to create in the Nation’s Capital a national center for the 
performing arts, as well as an appropriate and living memorial to 
President Kennedy. 

To comply technically with the matching provisions of the Appro- 
priations Act $2 million more is needed before June 80, 1965. In 
addition, it is the intention to raise $3 million to provide working 
capital and a reserve against increased building costs. 

Respectfully submitted. 

Roger L. STevens, 
Chairman. 
S. Ditton Rivtey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


The Center’s Financial Report for the period July 1, 1963, through 
June 30, 1964, follows: 
AUDIT 
July 25, 1964 
Washington, D.C. 
To THE BOARD Or TRUSTEES OF THE 
JOHN F. KENNEDY CENTER FOR THE PERFORMING ARTS 
Washington, D.O. 


Gentlemen: 


We have examined the books and records of the JOHN F. KENNEDY 
CENTER FOR THE PERFORMING ARTS for the period July 1, 1963, through 
June 30, 1964, and submit our report herewith as follows: 

Exhibit A—Balance Sheet as of June 30, 1964. 

Exhibit B—Statement of Income, Expenses and Fund Balance for the Year 
July 1, 1963, through June 30, 1064. 

Exhibit B-1 Statement of Expenses for the Year July 1, 1963, through June 
30, 1964. 

Schedule 1—Schedule of Time Deposits, Savings Account and Treasury Bills. 

Our examination was made in accordance with generally accepted auditing 
standards and accordingly included such tests of the accounting records and 
such other auditing procedures as we considered necessary in the circumstances. 

In our opinion the accompanying report presents fairly the financial position 
of the JOHN F. KENNEDY CENTER FOR THE PERFORMING ARTS at June 
30, 1964, and the results of its operation for the period then ended in conformity 
with generally accepted accounting principles. 


Respectfully submitted. 


(S) Joun J. ApDDABBO, 
Certified Public Accountant. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 253 


EXHIBIT A 
BALANCE SHEET 
June 30, 1964 
ASSETS 
Current assets: 
Cash in banks: 
General account____________ $269, 151. 29 
Reserve: accounts-2-2---- 22 50, 428. 49 
Time deposits and savings 
ACCOUNTS eee sere ae ee 2, 584, 753. 97 
$2, 904, 333. 75 
Mregsurys Diss sas ee 1, 160, 887. 00 
Stock and property received________________ 12, 500. 00 
UPC EE Yj 8 CUS Te ee re tS a hh 400. 00 
Deposit with airlines ss sees a ee 425. 00 
———————_ $4, 078, 545. 75 
Pledges receivable: 
National General Account. senses eenaaa see 5, 091, 627. 98 
National’ Tangible: Property--2 ooo eee eee 1, 168, 000. 00 
National Seat Reserve Account___________-_ 67, 444. 00 
President’s Business Committee___.______-__- 822, 134. 67 
Washington Area Building Fund—General__ 294, 228. 46 
Washington Area Building Fund—Reserve-_-_-_ 346, 400. 60 
Washington Area Seat Reserve Account______ 1038, 638. 48 
Washington Area Federal Employee Drive__- 3, 286. 50 
Washington Area Federal Employee Drive— 
SEAT HNGOWMEN tee ae ee ee ee 1, 660. 00 
Washington Area Tangible Property_------- 35, 000. 00 
School Children’s Reserve Fund______-_-_-~_ 185. 00 
J. F. Kennedy Memorial Fund__-_______---_ 1, 000. 00 
israeli Beneiite ee ee 20, 190. 00 
—_——_—————_ 7, 954, 795. 09 
Fixed assets: 
Cost of land—advanced to National Capital 
Plann COMMISSIONS eae eee ee ee ee 146, 000. 00 
Construction costs—architect and design costs_ 507, 498. 25 
Furniture and equipment—book value____--_-_-. 5, 962. 62 
659, 460. 87 
Other assets: 
Deferred charges—Creative America___._.______________--- 56, 425. 00 
PROUT EM ASSCUS ss ee ee ee ee $12, 749, 226. 71 
LIABILITIES AND NET WORTH 
Liabilities: 
IP AVRO US LAKON & worl Gin Gl Cae ee ed $1, 177. 54 
Net worth: 
PTO SOSETOCOLV ADs ee ee Sa $7, 954, 795. 09 
Fund balance—June 30, 1964______-_________ 4, 798, 254. 08 
12, 748, 049, 17 
Potalpiiabilitiestand net worthe 222 ee. ee sone $12, 749, 226. 71 


Nore: Pledges receivable; national general account includes Ford Foundation 
grant of $5,000,000.00 on a two-to-one matching basis of nongovernmental funds. 


254 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


EXHIBIT B 


STATEMENT OF INCOME, EXPENSES, AND FUND BALANCE 
Year ended June 30, 1964 
Contributions and pledges paid in: 
General accounts: 


National General (A ccount=2 222 sae aa $1, 757, 966. 84 
President’s Business Committee____________ 153292, 577528 
HinevArts Giftss Committees === seas ae 5, 000. 00 
Closed Circuit? Relecast]2 2225 2s Saee ree le 7, 281. 82 
Washington Area Building Fund___----_-_~- 261, 823. 98 
Washington Area Federal Employee Drive___ 118, 035. 50 
ASEAN HmMbpassy, benetaa- 2s === ass e ee 13, 322. 53 
Peter Pan Benefite. =: ss Bases 18, 845. 73 
Israeli: Benefitess2ses2 252) 42 tee i nee ees 26, 942. 22 
MNCETESE* MCOM Gs nema ate eae eee rae 28, 932. 98 
Total general Yaeccounts =. 22a ee ee ee $3, 525, 728. 88 


Reserve accounts: 


National Seat Reserve Account______________ $105, 325. 00 
Washington Area Building Fund ___________ 207, 983. 54 
Washington Area Seat Reserve Account______ 133, 673. 57 


WY ashin Stony Area eH nd OM aT en iG ee Ur Gee 
Washington Area Federal Employee Drive— 


Seat (Wind owinentee ss eee 23, 149. 43 

School Children’s Reserve Fund____-________ 20, 497. 86 

John F. Kennedy Memorial Fund____-__-----_ 15, 235. 51 
‘Total Sreserves accounts se 2-222 eee ee eee 505, 864. 91 
Motal sine@omie:s fase oe ee i a a 4, 031, 593. 79 
Deduct/expenses—exhibit Bal] eee 557, 576. 47 
Excess of receipts over expenses_______________________-_____ 3, 474, 017. 32 


Fund balance—beginning of year____________________________ 1, 319, 236. 76 


Fund balance—June 30, 1964..-__.____.______ epee ret BM eh $4, 793, 254. 08 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 255 


EXHIBIT B-1 


STATEMENT OF EXPENSES 
Year ended June 30, 1964 


Sat lard Osan ca] Tee ees eae eT oe eee a bh $63, 671. 48 
SEM es CSS DO a A SES EE Els seg ee eet sere cake 22, 735. 48 
PSECU Sg VES Saeed Ea gS RS cae RTA BL Serle Sy cee A ae 
Jie] Vg CET, CRS SEE SSSR Sk A NS ae eel ee oR 8, 869. 89 
Depreciation—furniture and equipment______________________ 716. 51 
Rguipment—rental ‘and repainss 2.20) Soe ee) ee 62732 
I GESY DYESS ERE APS i SS 2 FNS NR ee a ee 747.18 
IGHigersHppller srt POStaee.e es 2 PEN te 7, 918. 15 
iC Marea <expenses——eeneraie ll feeiee Lie oe ee Le 5, 950. 47 
Hine SAT tS) Girts’ Committees ses oe ee 2 Pe eS ee eS 
CHET CHO OWIMeNte ws 225 SOL eas a ere 2d eae ee ee) 8 580. 43 
Brintineg and spubli cibyseo ss Se Se Ae ee Sees Bea ee ee 3, 882. 82 
TOM OGL One Sere ee ee eee Ne Lt ee a i ae oe al 35, 188. 33 
UID HGR GLOUS Se ee Sea eR ASE SA BE Oe ee al al 2, 370. 25 
Relephone an deteleg sip hese se Nee ee 12, 820. 70 
ErAVeL And, Maintenances ssa.s eGo ese Lek Se eee ee ee 17, 029. 96 
DPaxes—payTroils and) Clvil Services eee Ps he Se 2, 792. 95 
ROG) SS ifr ches NS eI RE TNS Be Tae eee NE A RNA 1, 388. 39 
EXC COLE bin eee, mae esha ree! eT oe eed oe) el eae 4, 005. 00 
RT SACO ee mk ee NE Ee ee A de Bo 3, 624. 93 
MNO TOS Gis ete ee ee ee ree ene Sg abe ee eee i I 
Mun G=-raisineyt Cesmsos = tee le eu SR el 50, 750. 00 
HC Salen eC e Seman riers See aie are Sb eMC ENs eCrcrtiau i a AS oat Poe 21, 900. 00 
DE Tae eat a RS ea et Eo kh eh a Ne RE Rl EB 
Presidents businessh Committees ieee es ee a 118, 898. 98 
Heder mip lO y Sey ey rei ves ye ate Hee aera tid ll) Pelee ee 2, 012. 50 
Closed sCircwits Nel eas tee kN ee RE el ae Be 152, 561. 80 
Peters BanyRene hires sist cies We i hee eee eee 5, 125. 82 
ATISUELAT DAS Yas GNOT Geeta hs re RS a 2, 062. 89 
TSraelivgmenent swore wee ae. ce EN Re ea? EI Ra Re 1, 197. 37 
Colleseg rar a WON Gl yale tbe oe eRe se aay Se 5, 000. 00 
ARO ReCONG Ing aera neem ee eet, Se ue dR ue es ean S 1, 055. 30 
Sousse Meniorial | iumd eter is so cake oe er Lee ee ey Ao el 1, 914. 08 
NEYOUWOrIGia Hair mMmausuralopalie. 2s. eR Pee eens 5, 142. 49 

MOtAl expen Seg < Sake aA We eA he ee Thi ha $557, 576. 47 


Notre: Expenses include capitalized expenditures charged off in the amount 
of $150,000.00. 


256 


SCHEDULE 1 


SCHEDULE OF TIME DEPOSITS, SAVINGS ACCOUNT, AND TREASURY BILLS 
June 30, 1964 


Depositary 


American Security & Trust Co_- 
Washington, D.C. 


Perpetual Bldg. Assoc___------- 
Washington, D.C. 
Manufacturers Hanover Trust 
Co., 
New York, N.Y. 
Enyine rust Co. 2-2 ok 
New York, N.Y. 
National Bank of Detroit______- 
Detroit, Mich. 
Morgan Guaranty Trust Co___-_- 
New York, N.Y. 
Manufacturers Nat’l Bank of 
Detroit. 
Detroit, Mich. 
Home Savings & Loan Assn-_--- 
Beverly Hills, Calif. 
Savings Account 
Interest credited Jan. 
1964. 
Chase Manhattan Bank. -----_-- 
New York, N.Y. 
Schroder ‘Trust, Co..—- -=-2=2 5. 
New York, N.Y. 
Chemical Bank N.Y. Trust Co-- 
New York, N.Y. 
ATGSSUrY -DUIns = =o 5- oe Cee 


Date Maturity Interest 

deposited date rate per 

annum 
2/17/64 8/17/64 3%4% 
2/17/64 8/17/64 33%4% 
2/21/64 8/21/64 3%4% 
3/ 2/64 Q/ 2/64 3%% 
11/15/63 11/15/64 4% 
11/18/63 11/18/64 3%% 
11/18/63 11/18/64 3%% 
11/18/63 11/18/64 4% 
3/25/64 3/25/65 4% 
11/18/63 11/18/64 3%% 
11/18/63 11/18/64 34% 
11/18/63 11/18/64 4.85% 
12/31/63 1/ 4/65 34% 
1/10/64 1/11/65 4% 
2/18/64 | 8/18/64 34% 
2/26/64 8/26/64 34% 
2/28/64 8/28/64 34% 
#1446905 130/640 |ee 
#5706009 Giro (Ga ec eee 
#5706108 RU/YS/GA see 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Amount 
deposited 


$18, 000. 
225, 000. 

40, 000. 
100, 000. 
200, 000. 


200, 000. 


200, 000. 


200, 000. 
150, 000. 
200, 000. 


200, 000. 


300, 000. 


1, 753. 


100, 000. 
150, 000. 
100, 000. 


100, 000. 
100, 000. 
963, 300. 

99, 121. 


00 


00 


Report on the National Portrait Gallery 


Sir: IT have the honor to submit the following report on the activities 

of the National Portrait Gallery for the fiscal year ended June 30, 
1964: 
The Act of April 27, 1962 (Public Law 87-448) provided for the 
establishment of the National Portrait Gallery as a bureau of the 
Smithsonian Institution. As described in the act, the purpose of the 
Gallery is to “function as a free public museum for the exhibition 
and study of portraiture and statuary depicting men and women who 
have made significant contributions to the history, development, and 
culture of the people of the United States and of the artists who 
created such portraiture and statuary.” 

The Smithsonian Board of Regents at its January 1963 meeting took 
two important actions: 

(1) Approved the functions of the National Portrait Gallery 
Commission: 


The National Portrait Gallery Commission shall have the primary functions 
of promoting the administration, development, and utilization of the National 
Portrait Gallery, including the acquisition of material of high quality represent- 
ing men and women who have made significant contributions to the history, 
development, and culture of the people of the United States and of the artists 
who created such portraiture and statuary. 

In this connection, the Commission shall: 

(1) Advise the Secretary on the appointment and compensation of the Direc- 
tor of the National Portrait Gallery, with the consent of the Board of Regents. 

(2) With the assistance of the Director of the National Portrait Gallery, pre- 
pare recommended criteria for the acquisition of portraits, statuary, or other 
items authorized under the Act of April 27, 1962, for presentation to the Board 
of Regents for adoption. 

(3) Develop proposed rules and regulations for the operation of the National 
Portrait Gallery. 

(4) Act as a “board of recommendation” for items presented to the National 
Portrait Gallery, or items proposed to be purchased for the National Portrait 
Gallery, subject to final approval by the Board of Regents. 

(5) Adopt an official seal which shall be officially noticed. 

(6) Be responsible for reviewing the proposed program for the development 
of the National Portrait Gallery, developed by the Director of that Gallery. 

(7) As a group and as individual members, be responsible for encouraging 
gifts, within the criteria approved by the Board of Regents, of funds, portraits, 
statuary, and other items which would enhance the value and significance of this 
important Gallery to the people of the United States in commemorating the men 


257 


258 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


and women who have made significant contributions to the history, development, 
and culture of the United States. 
(8) Submit to the Board of Regents an annual report of the operations of 


the Gallery. 


(II) Determined the number and tenure of members of the National 
Portrait Galley Commission: 


The National Portrait Gallery Commission, created by Public Law 87-448, 
April 27, 1962, shall be composed of the Chief Justice of the United States, the 
Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, and the Director of the National Gallery 
of Art, as members ez-oficio; and eight appointive members, chosen as provided 
in this section, who shall be citizens of the United States. 

The appointive members of the Commission first taking office shall be chosen 
by the Board and shall have terms expiring two each on July 1 of 1965, 1966, 
1967, and 1968, as designated by the Board. Successors shall be chosen by the 
Board from nominees presented by the Commission and the Secretary of the 
Smithsonian Institution, and shall have a term expiring six years from the date 
of the expiration of the term for which the predecessor was chosen, except that 
a successor chosen to fill a vacancy occurring prior to the expiration of such term 
shall be chosen only for the remainder of such term. Notwithstanding the 
expiration of the term of office provided by this section for any member of the 
Commission, such member shall continue to serve as such until his successor has 
been appointed and has qualified. 

The Commission may function notwithstanding vacancies, and six members 
shall constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. 

The Chancellor of the Board of Regents, the Honorable Earl 
Warren, announced the membership of the National Portrait Gallery 
Commission on June 21, 1963. (The members are listed in the 1963 
report.) 

The significant first meeting of the National Portrait Gallery Com- 
mission was held on October 21, 1963. Dr. John Nicholas Brown, 
Regent of the Smithsonian Institution, was elected chairman. The 
basic functions of the National Portrait Gallery were discussed and 
a subcommittee was appointed to develop criteria for admission to 
the National Portrait Gallery. 

A discussion of the qualifications for Director and Associate Direc- 
tor resulted in an agreement that the two types of skills needed at 
the top of the organization were: 

(1) A highly capable museum or art gallery director who is a good 
administrator, and 

(2) A historian who knows American history and could be a leading 
research man. 

Dr. Brown designated the following terms of Commission members: 


Term ending July 1 of 
year indicated below 


Mrs; Bowen-and":Dr; "Boyd 228 58: Rita? MARS bs 5h cate eae oe 1965 
DreBrown and! Dr} Deschleress 212) Sy eh alae as ee eee 1966 
Mraiiniey and Jor. Lewis'.==. -2 ess ee eee 1967 


Dr Shryock and ‘Colonel odd eee ese ee ee 1968 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 259 


At the second meeting of the Commission on December 20, 1963, it 
was reported that bids for the remodeling of the F Street Building 
were 35 percent higher than the funds available. Therefore, the bids 
had to be rejected, with the understanding that the Smithsonian would 
work with the architect and the General Services Administration to 
reduce the scope of the remodeling to bring the cost within the funds 
available. 

At this meeting the twofold objectives of the National Portrait 
Gallery were reaffirmed: (1) exhibition of portraits and statuary of 
men and women who have made contributions to the history, develop- 
ment, and culture of the United States, and (2) the provision of 
necessary bibliographical, biographical, and historical materials for 
a study center. 

The chairman announced that he had appointed the following 
subcommittee on criteria: Mr. Lewis (chairman), Mrs. Bowen, and 
Mr. Boyd. The Commission recommended and the Regents approved 
the appointment of Charles Nagel to be Director of the National 
Portrait Gallery, and this was announced on March 3, 1964. 
Mr. Nagel will enter on duty July 1, 1964. Mr. Nagel has been 
director of the City Art Museum of St. Louis, Mo., and prior to that 
he was director of the Brooklyn Museum. 

At the third meeting of the Commission on February 26, there was 
a detailed discussion of the proposed rules for selection to the per- 
manent collections to the National Portrait Gallery. A subcommittee 
was appointed to make recommendations on the proposed library, 
research, and publication program. The members were Dr. Shryock, 
Mr. Lewis, and Dr. Boyd. 

At the fourth meeting of the Commission on May 1, 1964, the pro- 
posed library, research, and publication program were discussed. The 
rules for selection to the permanent collection were approved for 
submission to the Board of Regents. 

In their May 1964 meeting, the Regents approved the rules for 
selection to the permanent collection, as follows: 

The purpose of the National Portrait Gallery is to collect and exhibit por- 
traits and sculpture of persons who have made significant contributions to 
the history, development, and culture of the United States of America from 
its earliest period of discovery to the present and, as integral to this pur- 
pose, to establish a research center in American iconography and biography. 

I. The Gallery hopes to acquire the best likenesses available, originals from 
life if possible, replicas or copies if necessary. The initial selection shall be 
made by the National Portrait Gallery Commission acting upon the recom- 
mendations of the Director and the Committee on acquisitions. The recom- 
mendations shall be circulated to the Commission before the meeting at which 
the selections are to be made. Approval of such recommendations shall be by 


a majority of two-thirds of the Commission. Proxy votes shall be admissible 
for this purpose. 


766—-746—65——__18 


260 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


II. No likeness of any person who has been dead less than ten years shall 
be exhibited in the permanent collection with the exception of the President 
of the United States and his wife. 

III. Temporary exhibitions dealing with specific fields of interest may be held 
from time to time. Special provision shall be made in the Gallery for the 
display of the likenesses of the President of the United States and his wife, 
the Vice President, the Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Chief 
Justice of the United States, the Secretary of State, the Associate Justices of 
the Supreme Court, the President’s Cabinet, and Members of the Congress. 

IV. The Research Center shall include archival material necessary for icono- 
graphical, biographical, and historical study. 


Respectfully submitted. 


TuHeEopore W. Tartor, Assistant to the Secretary. 
S. Ditton Rivtey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on the Library 


Sm: I have the honor to submit the following report on the activi- 
ties of the Smithsonian library for the fiscal year ended June 30, 1964: 


ACQUISITIONS 


The acquisitions section received 120,008 publications during the 
year. This included 4,498 purchased items and 1,284 journal sub- 
scriptions. The rest were received by exchange or as gifts. Arrange- 
ments were made with 81 new organizations for the exchange of new 
publications. 

Some of the outstanding gifts presented to the library by interested 
donors are: 


Brasher, Rex. Birds and trees of North America. 4 vols. New York, 1961- 
1962, from Rowman and Littlefield, Inc., New York, N.Y. 

A collection of 19th century travel literature (479 brochures, maps, folders, 
guides), from Mr. and Mrs. EH. P. Morris, Southampton, Pa. 

Griffiths, John Willis. Treatise on marine and naval architecture. 1849, from 
Mrs. Myrtie Hall, Landers, Calif. 

Kienbusch, Carl Otto von. The Kretzschmar von Kienbusch collection of armor 
and arms. Princeton, 1963, from C. O. von Kienbusch, New York, N.Y. 

Leupold, Jacob. Theatrum pontificale ... 1726, and 11 additional volumes 
on architecture, art and geography, published between 1738 and 1871, from 
Mrs. Carolyn Edwards, Glen Echo, Md. 

Marconi’s wireless telegraphic code, 1907, and four additional volumes on 
electricity and communications, from Laurence BE. Whittemore, Short Hills, 
NJ. 

Mearns, Louis de Zerega. Mammals and birds; a collection of biological pub- 
lications . . . 1897-1908, from Mrs. C. L. Coleman, Troy, N.Y. 

Piranesi, Giovanni Battista, 1720-1778. Antiquariorum Regiae Societatis Lon- 
dinensis Campus Martius Antiquae Urbis. 1762 (Opere...v. 10), and a 
volume of engravings, from Mrs. ©. DB. Bullowa, Philadelphia, Pa. 

22 books on the physical sciences published 1891-1935, from the Estate of 
William W. Coblentz, Brightwood, Va. 

55 volumes, including works on art and on science, from the Embassy of the 
Federal Republic of Germany, Washington, D.C. 

400 volumes of historical materials on science and technology, including a set 
of Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie, 1875-1912, from the U.S. Naval Observa- 
tory Library. 


A total of 71,094 pieces of duplicate and extraneous materials were 
forwarded to other libraries. The Library of Congress received 
60,977 items; the National Library of Medicine, 2,245; and the 


261 


262 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


National Agricultural Library, 1,406 pieces. A combined total of 
191,102 pieces of material was handled by the section. 


CATALOGING AND BINDING 


The catalog section cataloged 10,574 volumes, recataloged 205 items, 
transferred 750 publications, discarded 138 volumes, recorded 35,042 
serials in the Serial Record, and filed 34,718 cards into the card 
catalogs. In addition, 478 trade catalogs were added to the collection. 

The binding unit prepared 5,175 books and journals for binding by 
a commercial binder. The hand-binding staff preserved 1,859 pub- 
lications which were fragile or too valuable to be sent outside the 
Institution for repair. 


REFERENCE AND CIRCULATION 


The reference librarians answered 38,453 requests for specific types 
of information, replied to 3,459 pieces of correspondence, circulated 
40,409 books and journals, and cleared the loan records on 30,277 
volumes. No record is kept of the circulation and use of the publica- 
tions assigned to the divisional libraries where they circulate freely 
within the division. Publications borrowed from other libraries, 
chiefly the Library of Congress, numbered 4,777, and 1,309 volumes 
were lent. Xerox copies of many articles were supplied in lieu of 
loaning the old, fragile, or heavily used publications. The reading 
and reference facilities were used by 29,146 persons. 


BRANCH LIBRARIES 


The branch library for the Museum of History and Technology 
answered 12,496 reference questions, circulated 13,588 books and jour- 
nals, and added 478 trade catalogs to the collection. Persons using 
the reading and reference areas numbered 5,149. This library was 
moved from the Arts and Industries Building to the new Museum 
of History and Technology Building in February. 

The Bureau of American Ethnology branch library answered 697 
reference questions, circulated 924 books and journals, and provided 
assistance to 774 patrons. Mrs. Carol Jopling, librarian, resigned in 
October. 

The branch library for the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, 
Cambridge, Mass., answered 3,135 reference requests, circulated 2,045 
books and journals, and provided library services for 7,577 users. 

The department of entomology branch library answered 996 refer- 
ence requests, circulated 985 books and journals, and 1,571 patrons 
used the library facilities. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 263 


PROGRAMS AND FACILITIES 


Features that contribute to the usefulness of the new library for 
the Museum of History and Technology are its central location, read- 
ing and browsing areas, new furniture and equipment, workspace for 
the staff, and good natural and artificial lighting. 

Funds were allotted by the library to the different departments 
and bureaus for the selection of library materials. Keysort record 
cards are in process for use in ordering periodical subscriptions and 
continuations. 

Through participation in the National Science Foundation Public 
Law 480 program for translation of Russian text materials, the Smith- 
sonian Institution received English translations of 36 scientific mono- 
graphs pertinent to Smithsonian interests. Copies of these transla- 
tions have been distributed to American libraries. 


STAFF ACTIVITIES 


The staff continued to attend special courses and seminars for 
growth and development. Participation was active in professional 
organizations and in attendance at the annual conferences for the 
Special Libraries Association and American Library Association. 
Jack Goodwin was elected chairman of the museum division of the 
Special Libraries Association. 

Mrs. Parepa Jackson, exchange librarian, in the acquisitions section, 
retired in March. Mrs, Frances Jones visited the libraries for the 
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory and Harvard University, 
Cambridge, Mass., and the libraries for the Vermont State Historical 
Society, Montpelier, and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. 


SUMMARIZED STATISTICS 


TABLE 1.—Accessions to the Library in fiscal year 1964 


Library Volumes Total recorded 
volumes, 1964 


Smithsonian central library including the Museum of 


Rust teral Pistarge eet eee fw ed oc wk 4, 544 961, 848 
Museum of History and Technology-__.------------ 3, 530 ; 
Astrophysical Observatory (SI)_..-.-.2--.--=_-2__. 1 13, 408 
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, Cambridge, 

IVE aise bee eee (28 ced ie SANE Ces ete Se ee i Se 561 2, 903 
Hadiation/and:Orceanienis. fs 420 oe eee los oes 77 2, 244 
Bureau of American Ethnology__...---------------- 257 40,151 
NationalpAin iWinseumes 22 eo ee ee eee 184 1, 327 
National! Collection :of Fine Arts. 2..2.<c20. 4242. 179 14, 698 
National Zoolocicalvbark= 2222 5222 2205 2 oe ee 31 4, 333 
National Portraits Gallery... -.- 222-5222 een cae 73 73 

PROGUAIe sea e hee ee ee MS See Ae 9, 437 440, 985 


cL he LS (Gia a 9 Pe 478 4,154 


264 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Unbound volumes of periodicals and reprints and separates from 
serial publications, of which there are many thousands, have not been 
included in the above totals. 


Exchanges: 
INew.exchangessarranged 22-321 tots Soe ee ee ee 81 
Specially requested publications received_-...-.:._--------------- 1, 064 
Cataloging: 
Volumes catalowed:: S020 .3 022 ae ee eerie eee 11, 489 
Catalogicards fled: ih O. Lube Bee he Ee a ae teen ee EA 34, 718 
Serials: “Number of serials recorded 2. 3-0 = ee 35, 042 
Circulation: Loans of books and periodicals..__....-_-.---.---------- 40, 409 
Binding and repair: 
Volumes sent ‘to the: bindery~ =< 7-2. 242i 4 2's Sy ae ee ee 5, 175 
Volumes fepaired in ‘the library2<- 222 oal ce. Sac ese seen 1, 859 
Respectfully submitted. 


Rors E. Buancuarp, Librarian. 
S. Ditton RIrrey, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report on Publications and Information 


Sir: I have the honor to submit the following report on the publi- 
cations of the Smithsonian Institution and its branches and on other 
informational activities for the year ended June 30, 1964: 

The editorial and publications division, the publishing arm of the 
Institution, maintains a four-part program. One includes the editing, 
designing, and publishing of books and reports on explorations and 
research by staff members and collaborators of the Institution in the 
fields of science, history, and art, and the production of publications 
of a more popular nature, such as museum guidebooks, informational 
leaflets, and art catalogs. The second is the control and distribution 
of these publications. The third deals with the day-to-day dissemina- 
tion of information concerning the Smithsonian to the press and the 
inquiring public; the chief of the division serves as public-relations 
officer of the Institution. And the fourth covers the printing of ma- 
terials of a current and emergency nature, such as museum labels and 
invitations and announcements of Smithsonian events, in a branch of 
the Government Printing Office which is housed at the Institution 
for that purpose. 

PUBLICATIONS PROGRAM 


Ninety-five publications appeared under the Smithsonian imprint 
during the past year in its various series, as listed below. These pub- 
lications are issued partly from federally appropriated funds (Smith- 
sonian Reports and publications of the National Museum, the Bureau 
of American Ethnology, the National Air Museum, and the Astro- 
physicial Observatory) and partly from private endowment funds 
(Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, publications of the Freer 
Gallery of Art, and some special publications). The Institution also 
publishes under the auspices of the Freer Gallery of Art the series 
Ars Orientalis, which appears under the joint imprint of the Uni- 
versity of Michigan and the Smithsonian Institution. In addition, 
the Smithsonian publishes for sale to visitors guidebooks, information 
pamphlets, postcards, folders, and popular publications on scientific 
and historical subjects related to its important exhibits and collections. 


SMITHSONIAN MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS 
In this series, under the immediate editorship of Mrs. Nancy Link 
Powars, the following papers were issued : 


265 


266 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Volume 145 


No. 5. Tertiary echinoids from the Caloosahatchee and Tamiami formations 
of Florida, by Porter M. Kier. 64 pp. 18 pls. (Publ. 4548.) August 2, 1963. 
($2.) 

No. 6 Additions to records of birds known from the Republic of Panama, by 
Alexander Wetmore. 11 pp. (Publ. 4523.) December 16, 1963. (50 cents.) 

No. 7. A phytophysiognomic reconnaissance of Barro Colorado Island, Canal 
Zone, by Charles F. Bennett, Jr. 8 pp. 1 map. (Publ. 4527.) December 20, 
1963. (50 cents.) 

Volume 146 


No. 2. A contribution toward an encyclopedia of insect anatomy, by Robert E. 
Snodgrass. 48 pp. (Publ. 4544.) July 12,1963. ($1.) 

No. 3. Solar variation and weather, by C. G. Abbot. 68 pp. 4 pls. (Publ. 
4545.) October 18, 1963. ($1.) 


Volume 147 


No. 1. The architecture of Pueblo Bonito, by Neil M. Judd. 349 pp. 81 pls. 
(Publ. 4524.) June 30, 1964. ($6.) 


SmiITHsSONIAN ANNUAL REPORTS 
REPORT FOR 1962 


The complete volume of the Annual Report of the Board of Regents 
for 1962 was received from the printer on September 26, 1963. 


Annual Report of the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution showing 
the operations, expenditures, and condition of the Institution for the year 
ended June 30, 1962. x +610 pp., illustr. (Publ. 4518.) 


The general appendix contained the following papers (Publ. 4546- 
4566) : 


Aireraft propulsion: A review of the evolution of aircraft powerplants, by C. 
Fayette Taylor. 

Rocket propulsion, by Ralph 8. Cooper. 

The early history of radar, by R. M. Page. 

Modern glass, by S. Donald Stookey. 

The great earthquakes of May 1960 in Chile, by Pierre Saint-Armand. 

The rim of the reef, by E. Yale Dawson. 

What’s happening to water? By Charles J. Robinove. 

The opening of the Arctic Ocean, by James T. Strong. 

The place of genetics in modern biology, by George W. Beadle. 

The shark that hibernates, by L. Harrison Matthews. 

Man in a world of insects, by Dwight M. DeLong. 

Tropical fruit-fly menace, by L. D. Christenson. 

The soil as a habitat for life, by Sir John Russell. 

The evolution of the echinoderms, by E. Barraclough Fell. 

Mangroves: Trees that make land, by William M. Stephens. 

The history and relationships of the world’s cottons, by Sir Joseph Hutchinson. 

Some mysteries of life and existence, by R. E. Snodgrass. 

Civilization and the landscape, by Sylvia Crowe. 

How many people have ever lived on earth? By Annabelle Desmond. 

Bows and arrows: A chapter in the evolution of archery in America, by Paul E. 
Klopsteg. 


SECRETARY'S REPORT 267 


Scientific methods in the examination and conservation of antiquities, by A. HB. A. 


Werner. 
REPORT FOR 1963 


The report of the Secretary, which will form part of the 1963 Annual 
Report of the Board of Regents, was issued January 23, 1964. 


Report of the Secretary and financial report of the Executive Committee of 
the Board of Regents for the year ended June 30, 1968. xii + 275 pp. 15 pls. 
(Publ. 4525.) 

SPECIAL PUBLICATIONS 


Preliminary field guide to the mackerel- and tuna-like fishes of the Indian Ocean 
(Scombridae), by Bruce B. Collette and Robert H. Gibbs, Jr. 48 pp. 10 pls. 
(Publ. 4567.) August 9, 1963. 

The gown of Mrs. John IF. Kennedy. [Supplement to “The Dresses of the First 
Ladies of the White House,” by Margaret W. Brown, published by the Smith- 
sonian Institution in 1952. (Publ. 4060.)] November 26, 1963. (50 cents.) 

The Star-Spangled Banner. 16 pp. + postcard. (Publ. 4529.) January 1964. 
(15 cents.) 

Brief guide to the museums in the Washington area. 39 pp. illus. (Publ. 
4588.) March 6, 1964. (25 cents.) 

Dedication of the Museum of History and Technology of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution. 26 pp. (Publ. 4531.) March 24, 1964. (50 cents.) 

The exhibits speak, by Sophy Burnham. (With a section on “Birds of the 
World,’ by Linda §S. Gordon.) 49 pp. (Publ. 4586.) June 5, 1964. (50 
cents. ) 

REPRINTS 


Smithsonian meteorological tables. Prepared by Robert J. List. Sixth revised 
edition. Second reprint. (Publ. 4014.) July 19, 19638. ($5.) 

The First Ladies Hall. 8 pp. (Publ. 4212.) (Tworuns: July 31, 1963; April 27, 
1964.) (25 cents.) 

The Smithsonian Institution. 50pp. (Publ. 4145.) August1,1963. (50 cents.) 

The fishes of North and Middle America, by David Starr Jordan and Barton 
Warren Evermann. (Bulletin 47 of the United States National Museum.) 
4 vols. 1x+3,313 pp. illustr. (Reprinted for the Smithsonian Institution by 
T.F.H. Publications.) May 18, 1964. ($25.) 

First book of grasses: the structure of grasses explained for the beginner, by 
Agnes Chase. 127 pp. (Publ. 4351.) Third edition. June 3, 1964. ($3.) 


Unitep States NATIONAL Museum PUBLICATIONS 


The editorial work of the National Museum continued during the 
year under the immediate direction of John S. Lea, assistant chief of 
the division. The following publications were issued : 


REPORT 


The United States National Museum annual report for the year ended June 30, 
1963. Pp. vii+226, illustr., January 238, 1964. 
BULLETINS 


226. Checklist of the birds of Thailand, by Herbert G. Deignan. Pp. x-+263, 1 fig. 
December 31, 1963. 


268 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


227. Part 1. Marine polychaete worms of the New England region: 1. Families 
Aphroditidae through Trochochaetidae, by Marian H. Pettibone. Pp. v-+356, 
83 figs., November 5, 19638. 

234. Cephalopods of the Philippine Islands, by Gilbert L. Voss. Pp. v+180, 
4 pls.. 36 figs., August 27, 1963. 

236. Free-living Copepoda from Ifaluk Atoll in the Caroline Islands with notes 
on related species, Willem Vervoort. Pp. ix+481, 151 figs., June 30, 1964. 
244. Bagworm moths of the Western Hemisphere (Lepidoptera: Psychidae), 

by Donald R. Davis. Pp. v-+233, 12 maps, 385 figs., June 1, 1964. 


CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE NATIONAL HERBARIUM 
Volume 82 


Part 4. The genus Dussia (Leguminosae), by Velva E. Rudd. Pp. iii-+247-277, 
11 figs., November 4, 1963. 
Volume 34 


Part 2. The woods and flora of the Florida Keys: Capparaceae, by William L. 
Stern. George K. Brizicky, and Francisco N. Tamolang. Pp. 25-48, 7 pls., 
November 4, 1963. 

Volume 86 


Part 3. The lichen family Graphidaceae in Mexico, by Michael Wirth and 
Mason E. Hale, Jr. Pp. 68-119, 82 figs., December 6, 1963. 


Volume 88 


Part 1. A revision of T'richantha (Gesneriaceae), by Conrad V. Morton. Pp. 
1-27, October 9, 1963. 
PROCEEDINGS 


Volume 115 


No. 3476. Additional information on the morphology of an embryo whale shark, 
by J. A. F. Garrick. Pp. 1-7, 4 pls., February 28, 1964. 

No. 3477. Notes on new and old species of Alticinae (Coleoptera) from the West 
Indies, by Doris H. Blake. Pp. 9-29, 25 figs., February 28, 1964. 

No. 8478. Asteroidea of the Blue Dolphin expeditions to Labrador, by BH. H. 
Grainger. Pp. 31-46, 4 figs., February 28, 1964. 

No. 3479. Moths of the genus Rhabdatomis Dyar (Arctiidae: Lithosiinae), by 
William D. Field. Pp. 47-60, 6 pls. (83 figs.), February 28, 1964. 

No. 3480. Neotropical Microlepidoptera, III. Restriction of Gonionota melo- 
baphes Walsingham with descriptions of new species (Lepidoptera : Oecophori- 
dae), by J. F. Gates Clarke. Pp. 61-83, 3 pls. (1 color), 7 figs., March 17, 
1964. 

No. 3481. Chironomid midges of California. II. Tanypodinae, Podonominae, 
and Diamesinae, by James E. Sublette. Pp. 85-135, 7 figs., February 28, 1964. 

No. 3482. Caligoid copepods (Crustacea) of the Hawaiian Islands: parasitic on 
fishes of the family Acanthuridae, by Alan G. Lewis. Pp. 137-244, 24 figs., 
February 28, 1964. 

No. 3483. Notes on Aradidae in the U.S. National Museum. III. Subfamily Mez- 
irinae (Hemiptera), by Nicholas A. Kormilev. Pp. 245-258, 7 figs., February 
28, 1964. 

No. 3484. A generic revision of the leafhopper subfamily Neocoelidiinae (Homop- 
tera: Cicadellidae), by James P. Kramer. Pp. 259-287, 114 figs., March 17, 
1964. 


SECRETARY’S REPORT 269 


No. 3485. A review of the North American moths of the family Walshiidae 
(Lepidoptera: Gelechioidea), by Ronald W. Hodges. Pp. 289-829, 66 figs., 
March 17, 1964. 

No. 3486. American species of the lacebug genus Acalypta (Hemiptera: Tingi- 
dae), by Carl J. Drake and John D. Lattin. Pp. 331-345, 15 pls., December 
31, 1963. 

No. 3487. The caligid copepod genus Dentigryps (Crustacea: Caligoida), by 
Alan G. Lewis. Pp. 347-380, 13 figs., March 17, 1964. 

No. 3488. A new Brazilian moth of the genus Gonioterma with notes on re- 
lated species (Lepidoptera: Stenomidae), by W. Donald Duckworth. Pp. 
3881-389, 3 figs., March 17, 1964. 

No. 3489. Seven new amphipods from the west coast of North America with 
notes on some unusual species, by Clarence R. Shoemaker. Pp. 391-429, 
15 figs., March 17, 1964. 

No. 3490. Shrimps of the genus Betaeus on the Pacific coast of North America 
with descriptions of three new species, by Josephine F. L. Hart. Pp. 481-466, 
2 pls., 80 figs., February 28, 1964. 

No. 3491. Notes on some nearctic Psychomyiidae with special reference to their 
larvae (Trichoptera), by Oliver S. Flint, Jr. Pp. 467-481, 5 figs., February 
28, 1964. 


Bureau OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY PUBLICATIONS 


The editorial work of the Bureau continued under the immediate 
direction of Mrs. Eloise B. Edelen. The following publications were 


issued during the year: 
REPORT 


Eightieth Annual Report of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 1962-1968, ii+34 
pp.,2pls. 1964. 
BULLETINS 


Bulletin 178. Index to Bulletins 1-100 of the Bureau of American Ethnology, 
with index to Contributions to North American Ethnology, Introductions, and 
Miscellaneous Publications, by Biren Bonnerjea. vi-+-726 pp. 1963. 

Bulletin 186. Anthropological Papers, Nos. 63-67. iv-+310 pp., 60 pls., 35 figs., 2 
maps. 1968. 

No. 63. Tarqui, an early site in Manabi Province, Ecuador, by Matthew W. 
and Marion Stirling. 

No. 64. Blackfoot Indian pipes and pipemaking, by John C. Ewers. 

No. 65. The Warihio Indians of Sonora-Chihuahua: An ethnographic sur- 
vey, by Howard Scott Gentry. 

No. 66. The Yaqui deer dance: A study in cultural change, by Carleton 
Stafford Wilder. 

No. 67. Chippewa mat-weaving techniques, by Karen Daniels Petersen. 

Bulletin 187. Iroquois music and dance: Ceremonial arts of two Seneca Long- 
houses, by Gertrude P. Kurath. xvi+268 pp., 3 pls., 164 figs. 1964. 

Bulletin 189. River Basin Surveys Papers, Nos. 33-38, Frank H. H. Roberts, 
Jr., editor. xiv-+406 pp., 58 pls., 65 figs., 13 maps. 1964. 

No. 33. The Paul Brave site (82814), Oahe Reservoir area, North Dakota, 
by W. Raymond Wood and Alan R. Woolworth. 

No. 34. The Demery site (39CO1), Oahe Reservoir area, South Dakota, by 
Alan R. Woolworth and W. Raymond Wood. 

No. 35. Archeological investigations at the Hosterman site (39P07), Oahe 
Reservoir area, Potter County, South Dakota, 1956, by Carl F. Miller. 


270 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


No. 36. Archeological investigations at the Hickey Brothers site (39LM4), 
Big Bend Reservoir, Lyman County, South Dakota, by Warren W. Cald- 
well, Lee G. Madison, and Bernard Golden. 

No. 37. The Good Soldier site (39LM238), Big Bend Reservoir, Lyman 
County, South Dakota, by Robert W. Neuman. 

No. 38. Archeological investigations in the Toronto Reservoir area, Kansas, 
by James H. Howard. 

Bulletin 190. An ethnography of the Huron Indians, 1615-1649, by Elisabeth 
Tooker. iv+184pp. 1964. 


ASTROPHYSICAL OBSERVATORY PUBLICATIONS 


The year’s publications in the series Smithsonian Contributions to 


Astrophysics are as follows: 
Volume 4 


No. 5. A criterion for the mode of ablation in stone meteors, by Allan F. Cook. 
Pp. ii + 131-136. July 3, 1963. 
No. 6. The microscopic properties of meteorites, by Gustav Tschermak. Pp. ix 
---137-239. June 4, 1964. 
Volume 6 


Research in space science, by Fred L. Whipple, et al. 242 pp. August 30, 1963. 


Volume 8 


No. 1. Accurate drag determinations for eight artificial satellites; atmospheric 
densities and temperatures, by Luigi G. Jacchia and Jack Slowey. Pp. 1-99. 
September 12, 1963. 

No. 2. The relative positions of sunspots and flares, by John G. Wolbach. Pp. 
101-118. July 12, 1968. 

No. 3. Type IV solar radio bursts, geomagnetic storms, and polar cap absorption 
(PCA) events. Pp. 119-1381. October 3, 1963. 


NATIONAL COLLECTION OF Fine Arts PUBLICATIONS 


The following catalogs were issued by the Smithsonian Institution 
Traveling Exhibition Service during the year: 
Turner watercolors. 23 pp. +80 illus. (Publ. 4519.) 1963. 
Indian miniatures. 67 pp. (Publ. 4520.) 19638. 


Eighteenth-century Venetian drawings. 58 pp. + 118 illus. 1963. 
7000 years of Iranian art. 184 pp. +157 illus. (Publ. 4535.) 1964. 


Freer GALLERY OF ArT PUBLICATIONS 


Ars Orientalis, vol. V. (Publ. 4540.) 354 pp. illus. December 30, 1963. ($31.) 

Oriental Studies No. 6. Armenian illustrated manuscripts in the Freer Gallery 
of Art, by Sirarpie Der Nersessian. (Publ. 4516.) 145 pp. + 108 pls. Decem- 
ber 30, 1963. ($10.) 


AMERICAN Historical AssociATION REPORTS 
The annual reports of the American Historical Association are 
transmitted by the Association to the Secretary of the Smithsonian 
Institution and are by him communicated to Congress, as provided in 
the act of incorporation of the Association. The following reports 
were issued during the year: 


SECRETARY'S REPORT Pare | 


Annual report of the American Historical Association for 1962. Vol.1. Proceed- 
ings. November 1963. 

Writings in American history, 1955. Vol. 2 of Annual Report of the American 
Historical Association for 1957. September 25, 1963. 

Writings in American history, 1956. Vol. 2 of Annual Report of the American 
Historical Association for 1958. May 28, 1964. 


Report OF THE NATIONAL Society, DAUGHTERS OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION 


In accordance with law, the manuscript of the 66th annual report 
of the National Society, Daughters of the American Revolution, was 
transmitted to Congress on February 11, 1964.1 


DISTRIBUTION PROGRAM 


Requests for publications and information concerning them con- 
tinued to increase during the year. The publications distribution sec- 
tion, under the immediate supervision of Mrs. Eileen M. McCarthy, 
received 39,017 requests for publications from foreign and domestic 
libraries, universities, research institutions, educational establish- 
ments, and individuals throughout the world. Visitors to the office 
and replies to inquiries numbered 33,027. 

A total of 656,330 copies of publications and miscellaneous items 
were distributed : 10 Contributions to Knowledge; 16,751 Smithsonian 
Miscellaneous Collections; 7,912 Annual Report Volumes and 22,686 
pamphlet copies of Report separates; 181,568 special publications; 111 
reports of the Harriman Alaska Expedition; 62,658 publications of 
the National Museum; 35,314 publications of the Bureau of American 
Ethnology ; 49,002 catalogs and leaflets of the National Collection of 
Fine Arts; 148 publications of the Freer Gallery of Art; ? 7 Annals 
of the Astrophysical Observatory; 12,965 Smithsonian Contributions 
to Astrophysics; 678 War Background Studies; 4,987 reports of the 
American Historical Association; and 53,937 publications not issued 
by the Smithsonian Institution. Miscellaneous items: 12 sets of North 
American Wild Flowers and 181 North American Wild Flower prints; 
3 Pitcher Plant volumes; 207,400 information leaflets. 

The following titles were issued and distributed to libraries as a 
result of the Institution’s participation in the National Science Foun- 
dation translation program: 


Fauna of USS.R., Fishes, vol. 2, No. 1, Clupeidae, by A. N. 
Svetovidov; Fauna of U.S.S.2., Crustacea, vol. 3, No. 3, Freshwater 
Cyclopoida, by V. M. Rylov; Fauna of Russia and Adjacent Coun- 
tries, Reptiles, vol. 1, Chelonia and Sauria, by A. M. Nikol’skii; 
Genus Woodsia Rh. Br. in Yugoslavia (Genus Woodsia R. Br. V. 


1D.A.R. reports are published as Senate documents and are not available from the 
Smithsonian Institution. 
2 In addition to those distributed by the Gallery itself, 


272 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Jugoslaviji), by E. Mayer; Morphology, Biology and Zoogeography 
of European Temnocephala and their Systematic Position, by J. 
Matjasic; Morphological Taxonomical and Typological Problems 
Concerning Echinocystis Lobata (Michaux) Torrey and Gray, by 
V. Petkovsek; Mammals of US.S.R. and Adjacent Countries, vol. 
6, Rodents, by S. I. Ognev; Fauna and Flora of the Rivers, Lakes 
and Reservoirs of the US.S.R., by VY. I. Zhadin and S. V. Gerd; 
Preparatory Works for the Flora of Slovenia. I1., III. II. Odontites 
Hall, IIT. Euphrasia L., by E. Mayer; A Contribution to the Knowl- 
ledge of the Flora of the Western Julian Alps, by BE. Mayer; Mam- 
mals of USS.R. and Adjacent Countries, vol. 7, Rodents, by S. I. 
Ognev; Fauna of U.SS.R., Crustacea, vol. 7, No. 5, by Ya. A. 
Birstein; Fishes of the Northern Seas of the U.S.S.R., by A. P. 
Andriyashev ; Locusts and Grasshoppers of the US.S.R. and Adja- 
cent Countries, part I, by K. Ya. Bei-Bienko and L. L. Mishchenko; 
Locusts and Grasshoppers of the U.S.S.R. and Adjacent Countries, 
part IT, by G. Ya. Bei-Bienko and L. L. Mishchenko. 


INFORMATION PROGRAM 


Information activities for the past year included the issuance of 
88 news releases on noteworthy events and researches of the Smith- 
sonian. ‘These were utilized extensively by press and other com- 
munications media throughout the country. Over 500 written in- 
quiries and more than 1,000 telephone calls for specific information 
were answered. Approximately 260 visitors, many of them writers 
and newsmen, sought knowledge concerning the work, facilities, his- 
tory, and resources of the Institution. Definite plans were made to 
improve information services in the coming year to meet the needs 
of a growing population, and to increase the effectiveness of this link 
between the Institution and the public. 


PRINTING PROGRAM 


The Smithsonian print shop, a branch of the Government Printing 
Office, under the immediate supervision of Murray C. Ballard operated 
at maximum capacity during the past year, completing 552 individual 
printing jobs. These assignments included labels, forms, invitations, 
programs, leaflets, flyers, announcements, and other printing of a cur- 
rent and emergency nature. 


OTHER ACTIVITIES 


The chief of the division continued to represent the Smithsonian 
Institution on the board of trustees of the Greater Washington Educa- 
tional Television Association, Inc., of which the Institution is a 
member. He and the assistant chief of the division represented the 


SECRETARY’S REPORT Lie 


Institution at the annual meeting of the Association of American 
University Presses held the latter part of May and the first part of 
June at Chicago, Il. 

The Smithsonian Institution and T.F.H. Publications, Inc., of 
Jersey City, N.J., in May 1963 entered into an agreement to establish 
a restricted fund to be known as the “T.F.H. fund for the increase 
and diffusion of knowledge concerning fishes suitable for home 
aquaria.” T.F.H. will donate to the Smithsonian Institution re- 
printed books to be sold by the Institution at not less than cost. The 
money derived from such sales will be earmarked for research, col- 
lection or purchase of fish specimens, explorations, and publication of 
scientific reports related to aquarium fishes. The first reprint under 
this agreement was published May 18, 1964; it is the four-volume 
work The Fishes of North and Middle America, by David Starr 
Jordan and Barton Warren Evermann, Bulletin 47 of the U.S. 
National Museum, originally issued in 1896. 


STAFF CHANGES 


Three new editors were added to the staff of the division during 
the past year: Miss Louise J. Heskett on September 30, 1963; Mrs. 
Nancy Link Powars on December 2, 1963; and Thomas C. Wither- 
spoon on April 14, 1964. 

On May 18, 1964, Mrs. Jewell S. Baker was appointed adminis- 
trative assistant in the division and Miss Sue D. Wallace was ap- 
pointed clerk-stenographer, following the resignation of Mrs. 
Margaret L. Poling. 

Mrs. Phyllis W. Prescott, who had assisted in editing many of the 
Bureau of American Ethnology publications, died on June 12, 1964, 
after a brief illness. She had been associated with the Smithsonian 
since 1942, 

Respectfully submitted. 


Pavut H. Ornser, 
Chief, Editorial and Publications Division. 


S. Ditton Rrerry, 
Secretary, Smithsonian Institution. 


Report of the Executive Committee of the 
Board of Regents of the Smithsonian 


Institution 
For the Year Ended June 30, 1964 


To the Board of Regents of the Smithsonian Institution: 

Your executive committee respectfully submits the following report 
in relation to the funds of the Smithsonian Institution, together with 
a statement of the appropriations by Congress for the Government 
bureaus in the administrative charge of the Institution. 


SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 
PARENT FUND 


The original bequest of James Smithson was £104,960 8s 6d— 
$508,318.46. Refunds of money expended in prosecution of the claim, 
freight, insurance, and other incidental expenses, together with pay- 
ment into the fund of the sum of £5,015, which had been withheld dur- 
ing the lifetime of Madame de la Batut, brought the fund to the 
amount of $550,000. 

The gift of James Smithson was “lent to the United States Treas- 
ury, at 6 per centum per annum interest” (20 USC. 54) and by the Act 
of March 12, 1894 (20 USC. 55) the Secretary of the Treasury was 
“authorized to receive into the Treasury, on the same terms as the orig- 
inal bequest of James Smithson, such sums as the Regents may, from 
time to time see fit to deposit, not exceeding, with the original bequest 
the sum of $1,000,000.” 

The maximum of $1,000,000 which the Smithsonian Institution was 
authorized to deposit in the Treasury of the United States was reached 
on January 11,1917, by the deposit of $2,000. 

Under the above authority the amounts shown below are deposited 
in the United States Treasury and draw 6 percent interest : 

Unrestricted 


funds Income 1964 

James Smithsoneces) J ouew- Seeece ee $727, 640 $43, 658. 40 
TREY acca cia, it ret ae oo WEA cect acs 14, 000 840. 00 
PAN see tee oye hes el ee ee ere Ae ee 500 30. 00 
Hamilton ess 2:5 Soe ea ea eee ee 2, 500 150. 00 
Hodekins (General): i242 geno 116, 000 6, 960. 00 
Roanes= s2ecce! 25 ds eee ees eed ve 26, 670 1, 600. 20 
IR Cesta ee Ee ee 590 35. 40 
CEIEO Re) seen eee A Solr ke aa at ees 1, 100 66. 00 

DOals 2 sey SES EE as een $889, 000 $53, 340. 00 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


Restricted funds 


Hodekins (Specific)= 2-2-2. $100, 000 
ere eee ee re rae cs 11, 000 
LTE, Skea ae Seer $111, 000 
Grand totalwene asec ose ao eee $1, 000, 000 


275 


Income 1964 
$6, 000. 00 
660. 00 


6, 660. 00 


$60, 000. 00 


In addition to the $1,000,000 deposited in the Treasury of the United 
States there has been accumulated from income and bequests the sum of 
$7 ,233,033.28 which has been invested. Of this sum, $6,278,181.67 is 
carried on the books of the Institution as the Consolidated Fund, a 
policy approved by the Regents at their meeting on December 14, 1916. 


The balance is made up of several small funds. 


CONSOLIDATED FUND 


(Income for the unrestricted use of the Institution) 


Fund Investment 1964 

ADDO EEE Neelin SUCCIAM sce. ales eee te $24, 177. 94 
PA very. overt 9./anG .yGia. tt. 25st oe 64, 101. 76 
Forrest, Robert Lee, Bequest_--------------- 1, 753, 815. 48 
Gifts, royalties, gain on sale of securities______- 448, 086. 13 
Hachenberg, George P. and Caroline____----- 6, 526. 73 
SEH amilton. J aAMese ass. ee Le ees eee ee 655. 07 
arE CG StaVURRete ee hee Sa Ue Se 790. 43 
IeGry MC ArQUNO =A. Basin 2s ee 1, 962. 71 
Henry, Josephiand Harriet A>. ....c-2..-<2-=- 79, 553. 39 
*Hodgkins, Thomas C. (General)_...--------- 49, 160. 26 
TGTEO WO WIP TGA VN ese ae 8 ek Wi es 125, 493. 59 
Olmsted Helen ACs aces ue ee oe alt 1, 301. 09 
*Poore,uucy ....and George, Wo 2--s25- 222544: 264, 125. 96 
IBOnteHerenny sn kem ab = ae le ee oie ee 464, 776. 51 
MUN CEH WV MAM JONESY: £40 0 Sd. oh be ote DS LOLs hit 
= SamfOnG sn GeOne ey elas aes eee ee geek el 1, 444. 61 
TSmuthsou, James: 28203022 le Us had ete 1, 981. 23 
DEES aN CET ocr ieee ag eae ee 580. 42 
Higbee, Harry, Memorial Fund___..---_-_--_- 19, 019. 89 
Witherspoon, Dnomas Ac 24. kek et 209, 430. 31 

Ca | ge RR A eh ee poe. eres Seng any $3, 517, 751. 23 


*In addition_to funds deposited in the United States Treasury. 


766—-746—65——-19 


Income 1984 


$1, 082. 
2, 870. 
65, 850. 
20, 062. 
292. 

29. 


$144, 826. 


276 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


CONSOLIDATED FUND—Continued 


(Income restricted to specific use) 


Fund Investment 1964 Income 1964 


Abbott, William L., for investigationsin biology $169, 186. 94 $7, 574. 92 
Armstrong, Edwin James, for use of Depart- 
ment of Invertebrate Paleontology when 


principalsamounts, to $5,000.20 2S 8 2, 237. 37 95. 89 
Arthur, James, for investigations and study of 
the sun and annual lecture on same_____-___ 64, 903. 62 2, 905. 87 


Bacon, Virginia Purdy, for traveling scholarship 

to investigate fauna of countries other than 

the United Statess. 2... < ah sete Sf fate fae 81, 306. 56 3, 640. 28 
Baird, Spencer Fullerton, for expenses in whole 

or in part of a scientific exploration and 

biological research or for the purchase of 

specimens of natural objects or archeological 

Bpecinipnsl eS. ites ee ee hee 59, 500. 00 2, 663. 95 
Barney, Alice Pike, for collection of paintings 

and pastels and for encouragement of 


American artistic endeavor___-_______-_-_____ 46, 546. 23 2, 083. 96 
Barstow, Frederick D., for purchase of animals 
for ZO0lomicalvPark a: os 781 teen ne eee. 1, 622. 40 72. 62 


Brown, Roland W., endowment fund—study, 
care, and improvement of the Smithsonian 


paleobotanical collections._.._.__..___--__- 52, 861. 91 2, 366. 75 
Canfield collection, for increase and care of the 
Canfield collection of minerals_____________-_ 62, 069. 64 PA TCS (Ot) 


Casey, Thomas I., for maintenance of the 

Casey collection and promotion of researches 

relating to Coleopterat 22 a4 -2oeeee ule et 20, 341. 68 910. 72 
Chamberlain, Francis Lea, for increase and 

promotion of Isaac Lea Collection of gems 

and wmoluska 2U. 285 sete S 28 SA kee aii fom 45, 700. 54 2, 046. 11 
Dykes, Charles, for support in financial research 69, 869. 81 3, 128. 24 
Kickemeyer, Florence Brevoort, for preserva- 

tion and exhibition of the photographic col- 

lection of Rudolph Hickemeyer, Jr___-_-_--- 17, 639. 63 789. 79 
Guggenheim, Daniel and Florence Foundation 

for a commemorative Guggenheim Exhibit, 

an annual Daniel Guggenheim Lecture, and 

annual Guggenheim Fellowships for graduate 

students for research at the National Air 

Wiasuein 220 2 ee SS ee ete ee an ib ae ees 25, 000. 00 0 
Hanson, Martin Gustav and Caroline Runice, 

for some scientific work of the Institution, 


preferably in chemistry or medicine__._--_-_~- 14, 427. 04 645. 92 
Higbee, Harry, income for general use of the 
Smithsonian Institution after June 11, 1967_- 689. 63 78. 59 


Hillyer Virgil, for increase and care of Virgil 
Hillyer collection of lighting objects_________ 10, 665. 69 477. 54 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


CONSOLIDATED FUND—Continued 


(Income restricted to specific use)—Continued 


Fund Investment 1964 


Hitchcock, Albert 8., for care of the Hitchcock 


Rerontological Mibraryet .- oo) 25 oe e eens $2, 560. 


Hrdli¢ka, AleS and Marie, to further researches 
in physical anthropology and publication in 


connection therewith-..2222..-.---.-..=..+ 89, 665. 
Hughes, Bruce, to found Hughes alcove______- 31, 063. 


Johnson, E. R. Fenimore, research in under- 


Water pnOLographye >. 25.565 o0. > Geeeaee 12, 428. 


Loeb, Morris, for furtherance of knowledge in 


thevexactsclences: Slee: oe oe ek 141, 436. 


Long, Annette and Edith C., for upkeep and 
preservation of Long collection of embroid- 


Bries) laces And textiles._.22 52 2255-20 nea: 881. 


Maxwell, Mary E., for care and exhibition of 


Maxwellicollection=-.2-oae oat ee eee Sl Sole 


Myer, Catherine Walden, for purchase of first- 
class works of art for use and benefit of the 


National Collection of Fine Arts_.__.______- 32, 780. 


Nelson, Edward W., for support of biological 


BUCHER eam eee arte ei ite cenemL Be eens kan Una 38, 626. 


Noyes, Frank B., for use in connection with the 
collection of dolls placed in the U.S. National 
Museum through the interest of Mr. and Mrs. 


ING YO San ah me AN ee Be ph A a ca 1, 559. 


Pell, Cornelia Livingston, for maintenance of 


Alfred Duane Pell collection. .......__.__-- 12, 029. 


Petrocelli, Joseph, for the care of the Petrocelli 
collection of photographic prints and for the 
enlargement and development of the section 


of photography of the U.S. National Museum_ 12, 030. 
Rathbun, Richard, for use of division of U.S. 

National Museum containing Crustacea_ -_-_- 17, 260. 
*Reid, Addison T., for founding chair in biology, 

INEMEeMoOnvsOrmAShenVmUInisa: == aes ee 28, 866. 
Roebling Collection, for care, improvement, and 

increase of Roebling collection of minerals__- 195, 860. 
Roebling Solar Research. — 202 3_ 2. 225ltscol ee 40, 695. 
Rollins, Miriam and William, for investigations 

INSP VRICE ATGc REINA! Vee is ne ee aa 242, 033. 
Smithsonian employees’ retirement___-_______- 37, 423, 


Springer, Frank, for care and increase of the 


Springer collection and library___._....-___- 29, 102. 


Strong, Julia D., for benefit of the National 


Collection of Fine Arts. .o. ees eee 16, 226. 


Walcott, Charles D. and Mary Vaux, for de- 
velopment of geological and paleontological 


studies and publishing results of same______- 778, 915. 


76 


38 


71 


22 


88 


16 


06 


LG 


19 


12 


3l 


75 


69 


03 


04 
49 


39 
68 


46 


11 


07 


2 


$114. 
3, 842. 
1, 390. 
819. 


6, 332. 


39. 


1, 425. 


1, 467. 


1, 682. 


69. 


538. 


538, 
772, 
1, 292. 


8, 769. 
S22, 


10, 599. 
1, 691. 


1, 302. 


726. 


34, 842. 


V7 


Income 1964 


65 


51 


79 


28 


49 


46 


15 


64 


71 


83 


56 


278 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


CONSOLIDATED FUND—Continued 
(Income restricted to specific use) Continued 


Fund Investment 1964 Income 1964 
Walcott, Mary Vaux, for publication in botany- $93, 939. 64 $4, 205. 91 
Younger, Helen Walcott, held in trust._.___~_ 127, 107. 05 6, 500. 71 
Zerbee, Francis Brinckle, for endowment of 
AG UIATI AS Sot ese Sh ok he pe ea Ue SS 1, 539. 39 68. 91 
hota] Rees eal et. Se oon 3 $2, 760, 430. 44 | $121, 416. 45 


FREER GALLERY OF ART FUND 


Early in 1906, by deed of gift, Charles L. Freer, of Detroit, gave to 
the Institution his collection of Chinese and other Oriental subjects 
of art, as well as paintings, etchings, and other works of art by Whis- 
tler, Thayer, Dewing, and other artists. Later he also gave funds for 
construction of a building to house the collection, and finally in his 
will, probated November 6, 1919, he provided stocks and securities to 
the estimated value of $1,958,591.42, as an endowment fund for the 
operation of the Gallery. The fund now amounts to $10,987,835.54. 


SUMMARY OF ENDOWMENTS 


Invested endowment for general purposes______-_-_____-___- $5, 248, 151. 23 

Invested endowment for specific purposes other than Freer en- 
Gowment 2222 2-60 oe ee Se LE Se era 2, 989, 882. 05 
Total invested endowment other than Freer_____-____~ 8, 233, 033. 28 
Freer invested endowment for specific purposes______________ 10, 987, 835. 34 
Total invested endowment for all purposes_____________ $19, 220, 868. 62 


CLASSIFICATION OF INVESTMENTS 


Deposited in the U.S. Treasury at 6 percent per annum, as au- 

thorized in the U.S. Revised Statutes, sec. 5591______________ $1, 000, 000. 00 
Investments other than Freer endowment (cost 

or market value at date acquired) : 


BOTS tan ies Sa ee eR ee as $2, 641, 924. 90 

StOCK Ss £8 sks Whe ee EA ae Pl 3, 601, 024. 68 

Realrestatesandwunorteaves 2 951, 406. 00 

Uninvestedweapitalee =. 22 eee 38, 677. 70 7, 233, 033. 28 
Total investments other than Freer endowment_________ 8, 233, 033. 28 


Investments of Freer endowment (cost or mar- 
ket value at date acquired) : 


BONG Ss ses a oi os ie Ul eae $6, 032, 418. 24 
SCOGMS Es Bate = a ete mt ee Se 4, 954, 472. 28 
WUninyvestedwcapitalos 2== os a ee ee 944.82 10, 987, 8385. 34 


Total investments 25 e ve a ete ee ed  e $19, 220, 868. 62 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 279 


EXHIBIT A 
BALANCE SHEET OF PRIVATE FUNDS 
June 30, 1964 
ASSETS 
Current funds: 
General: 
Cash: 
United States Treasury current account______-__-__~__ $76, 965. 48 


In pAN KS An OPONMMaN Gs see noo eee ee slae aks ayy 


232, 678. 65 

Investments—stocks and bonds (quoted market value 
CSP OPA) bot UG DLO 0 cee a ep an meee em rp eet ee ata eas 2, 030, 531. 30 
TravelsanodsOcher advances. soe es a ee ee eee 13, 983. 65 


Totaly general’ fund sae Sets ee ee ee ee ee 2, 277, 193. 60 
Restricted : 
Cash—United States Treasury current 
MCCOUN Tt ee ee ee eee $1, 731, 447. 28 
Investments—stocks and bonds (quoted 
market value $496,064.00) (note) ------_ 498, 641. 63 


otal srestri cited fhundses 222 So oe ee 2, 230, 088. 91 


ADORE | CT Gre) EIS GUS AS feet Nee Ts Rapa eo ee ae 4, 507, 282. 51 
Endowment funds and funds functioning as 
endowment: 
Investments: 
Freer Gallery of Art: 
Cit ees ee 8 ool ts 944. 82 
Stocks and bonds (quoted market 
value $17,404,618.00) (note) ------- 10, 986, 890. 52 


10, 987, 835. 34 
Consolidated : 
COP TG 6) aa 5 ARR Oe us $27, 875. 21 
Stocks and bonds (quoted 
market value $7,924,- 
024.00) (note) -------- 6, 113, 080. 63 


6, 140, 955. 84 
Loan to United States 
RECA SUT Ye eee ss Sete See 1, 000, 000. 00 
Other stocks and bonds 
(quoted market value 


$182,068.00) (note) ----_ 129, 868. 95 
Casha. <2 224 eT oe 10, 802. 49 
Heal estate. 2-2-2 5. ss 951,406.00 8, 233, 033. 28 


Total endowment funds and funds functioning as 
Gnd O wane te ee ee eS ee oes ee $19, 220, 868. 62 


No tal sae see See a he eee he $23, 728, 151. 13 


1 Investments are stated at cost or appraisal value at date of gift. 


280 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


FUND BALANCES 
Current funds: 


General: 


Unexpended funds—unrestricted____________----_--______ $2, 277, 193. 60 


Total general funds 


aie ete a Rb ag pis Soe a Se i aes 2, 277, 193. 60 
Restricted : 
Unexpended income from endowment______ $1, 292, 324. 13 
Funds for special purposes: 
CRIA see i pe a cee ae Bae a 514, 631. 55 
Grants es fon sae see es ee ee eee 1, 216, 815. 73 
Contracts 


Seen oe eee mai (793, 682. 50) 


aes se ee re pe as 2, 230, 088. 91 


Total wcurrent rungs: 22222 fe eee 4, 507, 282. 51 
Endowment funds and funds functioning as endowment : 
MreersG aleryaeOheA Does eee ee 10, 987, 835. 34 


Other: 
Restricted2 = eet $2, 989, 882. 05 
General: ..42 2 este es 5, 248, 151. 23 
8, 238, 033. 28 
Total endowment funds and funds functioning as 
@nd OW MeN bie S_ aaree es ee re  ee etes 19, 220, 868. 62 
Total 


a et ce $23, 728, 151. 13 


281 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTER: 


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ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


282 


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283 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


Ome eT) (eer oe ene eee og ee ee re Sh ee OO CCl a reaXk Jo pus 4e aourleg 

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ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


284 


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285 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


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Sh wees 2 ee Sl 662 Sco “|e “So Ve oe ee 2 COMIC MIKO SUT OnUT 


286 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 
EXHIBIT D 


PRIVATE FUNDS 


STATEMENT OF CHANGES IN PRINCIPAL OF ENDOWMENT FUNDS AND FUNDS 
FUNCTIONING AS ENDOWMENT 


Year ended June 30, 1964 


Balanceratibezinningor yearns. sane ee eee eee $16, 086, 025. 07 
Add: 
Gifts and jpequests 232. 2s ek Oe ee ee 1, 211, 648. 50 
Income added to principal as prescribed by donor________-_- 10, 596. 00 
Transfer from current fund for investment______________-- 1, 370, 621. 19 
Net gain: (On) investmen tse ose See as ae eee 542, 684. 43 
19, 221, 575. 19 
Less: 
Transfer to cover deficit in employees’ retirement 
GY 0.66 (emeepe OB ee Bi as ig ee Be OE ee $849. 82 
Income paid to income beneficiary as prescribed by 
GONOT Stes SE ee OE ae ee be oe ee 356. 75 
706. 57 
Balance vat send sot, yearss oe ee ee ee $19, 220, 868. 62 
Balance at end of year consisting of: 
reer: Gallery ofreArts 2) oes oe See eee ee ee eee 10, 987, 835. 34 
Other: 
Restricted! See ee Ee eee 2, 989, 882. 05 


General 2.2 eh ie ee an 5, 248, 151. 23 


$19, 220, 868. 62 


The practice of maintaining savings accounts in several of the 
Washington banks and trust companies has been continued during 
the past year, and interest on these deposits amounted to $7,817.98. 

Deposits are made in banks for convenience in collection of checks, 
and later such funds are withdrawn and deposited in the United 
States Treasury. Disbursement of funds is made by check signed 
by the Secretary of the Institution and drawn on the United States 
Treasury. 

The Institution gratefully acknowledges gifts and grants from the 
following: 


Anonymous, a gift for special purposes. 
Atomic Energy Commission, a grant for research entitled “A Study of the Bio- 


chemical Effects of Ionizing and Nonionizing Radiation on Plant Metabolism 
during Development.” 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE: 287 


Boston University, a grant to defray travel expenses to the West Coast to study 
research materials. 


Bredin Foundation, a grant for the support of research entitled “Biological 
Survey of Dominica Project.” 
A grant for the support of research entitled “Ocean Food Chain Cycle.” 


David K. E. Bruce, a gift for special purposes. 
Mary Grace Bruce, a gift for special purposes. 
Mrs. J. Campbell, a gift to the Zoo Animal Fund. 


Department of the Air Force: Additional grant for the support of research 
entitled “Study of Atomic and Electronic Collision Processes which occur 
in the Atmosphere at Auroral Heights.” 

A grant for studies directed toward the development of a technique for 
measuring wind speed and direction at heights using ionized paths gen- 
erated by meteors. 

A grant for the exploration of computer techniques in the preparation of 
indexes. 

A grant to prepare and conduct a course in operation maintenance and 
calibration training for seven government personnel on the Baker-Nunn 
Camera System. 

A grant to perform numerical analysis of observational data to determine 
the rate of satellite period. 

A grant for time standard calibrating training and consulting in support for 
the ‘Field and Precision Reduction of Baker-Nunn Film.” 


Department of the Army: Additional grant for the support of basic research 
entitled “Potential Vectors and Reservoirs of Disease in Strategie Overseas 
Area.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Mammals and their 
Ectoparasites from Iran.” 

Additional grant for support of research on the analysis of bird migration in 
the Pacific Area and the study of the ecology of birds and mammals on one 
or more Pacific Islands. 

A grant for research entitled “Bio-Ecological Classification for Military En- 
vironments.” 


Ethyl Corporation, a gift for the 8. D. Heron Memorial Fund. 

Robert Lee Forrest Bequest for unrestricted use of Smithsonian Institution. 
Esther Goddard, a gift to the Goddard Memorial Fund. 

Robert H. Groh, a gift for the purchase of Egyptian Bronze Situla. 


Guggenheim, Daniel and Florence, Foundation for a commemorative Guggen- 
heim Exhibit, an annual Daniel Guggenheim Lecture, and annual Guggenheim 
Fellowships for graduate students for research at the National Air Museum. 


288 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Felix and Helen Juda, a gift to the Freer Gallery of Art, for the purchase of 
collections. 


Joseph H. Kler, a gift for the Delaware Log House Exhibit Fund. 


Landegger Foundation Inc., a gift for research entitled ‘‘The Landegger Under- 
water Exploration.” 


Link Foundation, a grant for the publication of the pamphlet “Opportunities in 
Oceanography.” 


James H. Means, a gift for the James Means and the Problem of Manflight Fund. 
Paul Mellon, a contribution for the Traveling Exhibition Service. 
Vera C. Murray, a gift for the purchase of two historic aircraft engines. 


National Aeronautics and Space Administration: Additional grant for the 

support of research entitled “Optical Satellite Tracking Program.” 

Additional grant for the scientific and engineering study for instrumenting 
and orbiting telescope. 

A grant for research entitled “Optical and Radar Investigation of Simulated 
and Natural Meteors.” 

A grant for research entitled “Computation of Data Reduction of S-16 High 
Energy Gamma-Ray Experiment.” 

A grant for research studies in the recovery and analysis of space fragments. 

A grant for an investigation and collection of meteorites, tektites, and related 
materials. 


National Geographic Society: Additional grant for research entitled “Link 
Prolonged and Deep Submergence Study Program.” 
A grant for research expedition to Australia. 
A grant for publication entitled “Archeology of Pueblo Bonito.” 


National Institutes of Health: Additional grant for research entitled “Studies 
of Asian Biting Flies.” 
Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Generic Classification 
of the Proctotrupoidea.” 
A grant for the support of research entitled “Chronic Disease in Relation to 
Social Efficiency.” 


National Science Foundation: Additional grant for the support of research 

entitled “Early Tertiary Mammals of North America.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Earth Albedo Obser- 
vations.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘Revisionary Study 
of Blattoidea.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Rare Gases in 
Meteorites.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘Morphology and Paleo- 
ecology of Permian Brachiopods of the Glass Mountain, Texas.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Tertiary Forests of 
the Tonasi-Santiago Basin of Panama.” 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 289 


Additional grant for the support of research entitled “South Asian Micro- 
lepidoptera, particularly the Philippine Series.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “The Mammals of 
Panama.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Ecology and Behavior 
of Suncus murinus.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘“Photoresponse and 
Optical Properties of Phycomyces Sporangiophores.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Taxonomy of Bam- 
boos.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Lower Cretaceous 
Ostracoda of Israel.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘Marine Mollusks of 
Polynesia.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Tertiary Echinoids of 
the Eastern United States and the Caribbean.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Monographie Revision 
of Carcharinid Sharks of the Tropical Indo-Pacific Oceans.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Zoogeography of South- 
ern Ocean Sclearactinian Coral Faunas.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “The American Com- 
mensal Crabs of the Family Pinnotheridae.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Prehistory of South- 
west, Virginia.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘Indo-Australian Vespidae 
sens. lat. and Specidae.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Support of Publication 
of an English Translation of Flora of Japan, by Jisaburo Ohwi.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Revision of Genera of 
Paleozoic Bryozoa.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Research of Stellar 
Atmosphere.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘Monographie Studies 
of the Tingidae of the World.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘“Ethnoscientific Analysis 
of American Ethnology.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Pelagic Phosphorus 
Metabolism: Phosphorus-containing Compounds in Plankton.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Study of Type Speci- 
mens of Ferns in European Herbaria.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘‘Polychaetous Annelids 
of New England.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “The Phanerogams of 
Colombia.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Monograph of Parmelia 
Subgenus Xanthoparmelia.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Revision of Scarab 
Beetles of the Genus Ataenius.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Systemic Studies of 
the Archidaceae, Subtribe Epidendrinae.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “A Monograph of the 
Stomatopod Crustaceans of the Western Atlantic.” 


290 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Recording of Data for 
Specimens Collected during the U.S. Antarctic Program.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Mammals of South- 
eastern United States.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Exploration in Southern 
Brazil.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Distribution of North 
America Calanoid and Harpacticoid Copepoda.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Megalithic Structures of 
Panope.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Collection of Meteorites 
and Tektites in Australia.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘Installation of Power 
Line to Barro Colorado from Mainland.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “European Tertiary 
Dicotyledon Floras.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Science Information 
Exchange.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Geographic Variation in 
the Inter-specific Relations among Certain Andean Passeriformes.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Upper Cretaceous 
Inoceraminae in North America and Western Hurope.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Environment of Permo- 
Triassic Reptiles of the Order Therapsida in South Africa.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘“‘Taxonomic and Biologi- 
cal Studies of Neotropical Water Beetles.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Evolution and Distribu- 
tion of Parmelia in Eastern Asia and Pacific.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘Sorting of U.S. Antarctic 
Research Program Biological Collections.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Taxonomic Studies of the 
Family Stenomidae in Neotropical Region.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Pre-Industrial System 
of Water Management in Arid Region.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Effects of Displacement.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Revisionary Studies in 
the Chilopoda.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Photographic Investi- 
gation of Comets.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Purchase of the Hood 
Collection of Thrips.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled ‘Archaeological Survey of 
Southwestern Kansas.” 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Taxonomic and Bio- 
logical Studies on Central American Caddisflies.” 


Neinken Foundation, a gift for philately research. 


Office of Naval Research: Additional grant to perform aeronautical research 
studies. 
Additional grant to provide expert consultants to advise the Navy Advisory 
Committee. 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 291 


Additional grant to perform psychological research studies. 

Additional grant for the support of research entitled “Information of Shark 
Distribution and Distribution of Shark Attack All Over the World.” 

Additional grant for studies concerning the development of a proposal for an 
institute for laboratory of human performance standards. 

A grant for research entitled “Microlepidoptera of the Island of Rapa.” 

A grant to conduct research on the Medusae and related organisms from the 
Indian Ocean Collection. 


O’Neill Brothers Foundation, a gift for the purchase of rare Alaskan notes for 
numismatic collection. 


Charles Pfizer and Company, a gift for purchase of objects for exhibits on the 
history of pharmacy. 


Rockefeller Foundation, a grant for research entitled “Bird Virus Diseases in 
the Region of Belem, Brazil.” 


Mr. and Mrs. R. Tom Sawyer, a gift for the Tom Sawyer—Model of the first Gas 
Turbine Locomotive Fund. 


Frank R. Schwengel, a gift toward the study of mollusks of Polynesia. 


For the support of the Science Information Exchange: 
Atomic Energy Commission 
Department of Defense 
National Institutes of Health 
National Science Foundation 


Jerome A. Straka, a gift for the purchase of the antique Feregham carpet. 


For the support of the Taiwan Photographie Project : 
Bollingen Foundation 
Henry Luce Foundation 
Rockefeller Foundation 


Ellen Bayard Weedon Foundation, a gift to the Freer Gallery of Art for the 
Library Fund. 


Wenner Gren Foundation, a gift for anthropological research entitled “To Aid 
Study of Rapid Change and Adjustment under Conditions of Shock and Terri- 
torial Displacement among Canela of Brazil.” 


Westinghouse Corporation, a contribution toward the dismantling and transpor- 
tation of one of the original generators at the Niagara Falls Power Company. 


Woods Hole Marine Biological Laboratory, a gift for marine biological research 
(Buzas). 


Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, a gift to provide funds to permit the par- 
ticipation in the International Indian Ocean Expedition. 


Charles Mortiz Wormser, a gift for the Mortiz Wormser Memorial Fund. 
766—746—65——20 


292 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The following appropriations were made by Congress for the Gov- 
ernment bureaus under the administrative charge of the Smithsonian 
Institution for the fiscal year 1964: 


Sinibhutecypnes his aaeiyse  e  eeee $13, 191, 000. 00 
Ispehmtosmesd | VA) Creer | Vee is ee ee $1, 597, 356. 00 
The appropriation made to the National Gallery of Art (which 

is a bureau of the Smithsonian Institution) was__-__-------- $2, 138, 000. 00 


Tn addition, funds were transferred from other Government agencies 
for expenditure under the direction of the Smithsonian Institution as 


follows: 
Working funds, transferred from the National Park Service, 
Interior Department, for archeological investigations in river 
Dasins throuchout the) United: States=222-- es aan ee eee $254, 500. 00 
The Institution also administers a trust fund for partial support of 
the Canal Zone Biological Area, located on Barro Colorado Island in 


the Canal Zone. 
ROBERT LEE FORREST BEQUEST 


The final settlement was made during the year by the Mercantile 
Safe Deposit and Trust Company of Baltimore, Md., as executors of 
the will of Robert Lee Forrest, who died on October 30, 1962. The 
Smithsonian Institution was named in the will as the residuary legatee. 

The distribution resulted in the following being received by and 
for the unrestricted use of the Smithsonian Institution : 


OSI IgteerQ(a tl ee ee $1, 370, 621. 19 
5,498 shares of The Borden Company, fair market value_- 847, 748. 50 


In addition to the above there was received three parcels of real 
property consisting of a farm known as “Java Farm,” located in Anne 
Arundel County, Md., of approximately 360 acres; one lot and im- 
provements located at 7-11 Chesapeake Street, Towson, Md., one un- 
improved lot located at 700 N. Kresson Street, Baltimore, Md. ‘There 
also was received some odd lots of stock of “no value” which included 
292 shares, preferred, of The Municipal Asphalt Company, 30 shares, 
Common, of the Municipal Asphalt Company, 100 shares of The 
Fast Bearing Company, and 100 shares of Medical Chemicals, 


Incorporated. 
AUDIT 


The report of the audit of the Smithsonian Private Funds follows: 


THE BOARD OF REGENTS 
Smithsonian Institution 
Washington, D.O., 20560 

We have examined the balance sheet of private funds of Smithsonian Institu- 
tion as of June 30, 1964 and the related statement of current general private 
funds receipts and disbursements and the several statements of changes in 


REPORT OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 293 


funds for the year then ended. Our examination was made in accordance with 
generally accepted auditing standards, and accordingly included such tests of 
the accounting records and such other auditing procedures as we considered 
necessary in the circumstances. 

Except for certain real estate acquired by gift or purchased from proceeds 
of gifts which are valued at cost or appraised value at date of gift, land, build- 
ings, furniture, equipment, works of art, living and other specimens and certain 
sundry property are not included in the accounts of the Institution; likewise, 
the accompanying statements do not include the National Gallery of Art, the 
John F. Kennedy Center for the Performing Arts and other departments, bureaus 
and operations administered by the Institution under Federal appropriations. 
The accounts of the Institution are maintained on the basis of cash receipts and 
disbursements, with the result that the accompanying statements do not reflect 
income earned but not collected or expenses incurred but not paid. 

In our opinion, subject to the matters referred to in the preceding paragraph, 
the accompanying statement of private funds presents fairly the assets and 
funds principal of Smithsonian Institution at June 30, 1964; further, the 
accompanying statement of current general private funds receipts and dis- 
bursements and several statements of changes in funds, which have been pre- 
pared on a basis consistent with that of the preceding year, present fairly the 
cash transactions of the private funds for the year then ended. 

(S) Prat, MarwicyH, MiTcHeE tt & Co. 
WASHINGTON, D.C. 
October 16, 1964 
Respectfully submitted : 
(S) Rosert V. FLEMING, 
(S) Cary P. HAsKINs, 
(S) Cxrvron P. ANDERSON, 
Executive Committee. 


GENERAL APPENDIX 


to the 


SMITHSONIAN REPORT FOR 1964 


PREFACE 


The object of the Genera Apprenprx to the Annual Report of the 
Smithsonian Institution is to furnish brief accounts of scientific dis- 
covery in particular directions; reports of investigations made by stafi 
members and collaborators of the Institution; and memoirs of a gen- 
eral character or on special topics that are of interest or value to the 
numerous correspondents of the Institution. 

It has been a prominent object of the Board of Regents of the 
Smithsonian Institution from a very early date to enrich the annual 
report required of them by law with memoirs illustrating the more 
remarkable and important developments in physical and biological 
discovery, as well as showing the general character of the operations 
of the Institution; and, during the greater part of its history, this 
purpose has been carried out largely by the publication of such papers 
as would possess an interest to all attracted by scientific progress. 

In 1880, induced in part by the discontinuance of an annual sum- 
mary of progress which for 30 years previously had been issued by 
well-known private publishing firms, the Secretary had a series of 
abstracts prepared by competent, collaborators, showing concisely the 
prominent features of recent scientific progress in astronomy, geology, 
meteorology, physics, chemistry, mineralogy, botany, zoology, and 
anthropology. This latter plan was continued, though not altogether 
satisfactorily, down to and including the year 1888. 

In the report of 1889, a return was made to the earlier method of 
presenting a miscellaneous selection of papers (some of them original) 
embracing a considerable range of scientific investigation and discus- 
sion. This method has been continued in the present report for 1964. 

An “Author-Subject Index to Articles in Smithsonian Annual 
Reports, 1849-1961” (Smithsonian Publication 4503) was issued in 
1963. 

Reprints of the various papers in the General Appendix may be 
obtained, as long as the supply lasts, on request addressed to the 
Editorial and Publications Division, Smithsonian Institution, Wash- 
ington, D.C., 20560. 


296 


The Quest for Life Beyond the Earth’ 


By Cari SAcAN 


Staff member, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, and Assistant Professor of 
Astronomy, Harvard University 


[With 4 plates] 


We are nor alone in the universe. Among the countless galaxies, 
each with billions of stars, there must be many planets on which life 
is now flourishing. Unfortunately, there is little prospect of travel to 
these distant worlds—at least for the next century or so—and statisti- 
cal arguments do not satisfy that amalgam of scientific curiosity and 
the love of high adventure which motivates the search for the beings 
of other planets. 

But it may not be necessary to venture beyond our solar system. 
The possibility that neighboring planets are inhabited, at least by 
simple organisms, is a concept that is both very old and very popular. 
Its immediate appeal, however, should be tempered by the facts. De- 
spite the wide range of studies which have already been performed, we 
do not know whether the other planets of our solar system are in- 
habited. The problem often reduces to probability considerations, 
and to estimates of observational reliability. At convenient places 
in the following discussion I shall try to pause and give brief expres- 
sion to alternative interpretations. In almost all cases, an optimistic 
view can be found which holds that the evidence is strongly sugges- 
tive of, or, at the worst, not inconsistent with, the existence of extra- 
terrestrial life; and a pessimistic view can be found, which holds that 
the evidence adduced in favor of extraterrestrial life is unconvincing, 
irrelevant, or has an alternative, nonbiological explanation. I leave 
it to the reader to pick his own way among the factions. 

Extraterrestrial life and the origin of life are questions intertwined. 
If it appears relatively easy for life to have emerged in the primitive 
terrestrial environment, it may follow that the origin of life is a fairly 
general planetary phenomenon. So let us begin with a discussion of 


1The A. Calvert Smith prize-winning essay at Harvard University for 1964. Reprinted 
by permission from Harvard Alumni Bulletin, April 4, 1964. 


297 


298 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


QUEST FOR LIFE BEYOND THE EARTH—SAGAN 299 


recent ideas on the origin of life on Earth some 4 billion years ago, and 
then continue with a discussion of the physical environments of the 
moon and planets, and finally, a look at the more direct evidence for 
life beyond the Earth. 

When life began depends upon the definition of life, and, curiously 
enough, there is no definition acceptable to all biologists. Yet, the 
many characteristic features of living systems—their complex and 
highly structured forms, their growth, metabolism, and reproduction— 
are all ultimately attributable to evolution by natural selection. And 
evolution occurs in plants and animals because of the interaction of 
the environment with the hereditary material, a kind of molecular 
blueprint which controls metabolism, produces a replica of itself for 
the next generation to follow, and, through the centuries, gradually 
changes, or mutates, occasioning new forms of life. The key mole- 
cules of the hereditary material are the nucleic acids, ribonucleic acid 
(RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). Thus, the problem of the 
origin of life seems to be connected with the problem of the origin 
of nucleic acids. 

The structure and function of DNA have been elucidated chiefly by 
James D. Watson, of Harvard, and Francis H. C. Crick, of Cambridge 
University. It is a long molecule, comprising two molecular strands 
wound about each other in a coil, or helix. During cell division, the 
strands separate, and each synthesizes a copy of the other, yielding two 
molecules of DNA where originally there was one. The building 
blocks for this synthesis are called nucleoside phosphates, and much of 
the activity of the cell is devoted to constructing these building blocks 
from yet simpler molecules, and joining them together to form nucleic 
acids. The nucleoside phosphates are each composed of a sugar, a 
base, and one, two, or three phosphates. A given nucleic acid molecule 
is generally composed of four kinds of nucleoside phosphates. Their 
sequencing along the chain is a kind of four-letter code that deter- 
mines which proteins a cell will make. Proteins, in turn, are long 
chains of amino acids, and recent evidence indicates that three nucle- 
oside phosphates are required to specify each amino acid in a protein. 
The transcription sequence is this: DNA makes RNA; several kinds of 
RNA make proteins—in particular, enzymes; and enzymes govern the 


<—_—_ 


Ficure 1.—Schematic illustration of a short section of the Watson-Crick model of DNA. 
The two helical strands can be seen running vertically, in opposite directions, on the 
right and left sides of the figure. As the detailed inset shows, the strands are 
connected by pairs of bases, chosen from the four bases adenine (A), cytosine (C), 
guanine (G), and thymine (T). The strands themselves are made of sugars (S) and 
phosphates (P). A combination of a base and a sugar (e.g., A-S) is called a nucleoside; 
a combination of a base, a sugar, and a phosphate (e.g., A-S—P) is known as a nucleoside 
phosphate. Thus, the DNA molecule can be considered to be constructed of a linear 
sequence of nucleoside phosphates. The sequence of bases (e.g., along the left 
strand of the inset TCAG) specifies the genetic code. 


300 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


metabolism of the cell. In this way, the nucleic acids control the 
form and functions of all cells. 

With geological time available for the origin of life, the key event 
may then have been the spontaneous production of nucleoside phos- 
phates in the primitive environment. In contemporary cells, these 
building blocks join together in the presence of special enzymes which 
speed their rate of reaction; but given enough time, it is possible that 
nucleoside phosphates will spontaneously polymerize to nucleic acids. 

How might such nucleoside phosphates have originated, billions of 
years ago, on the primitive Earth? ‘There are very good reasons for 
believing that the primitive atmosphere of the Earth contained large 
amounts of hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universe. 
Some 4 billion years ago, the atmosphere should have consisted pri- 
marily of hydrogen and the hydrogen-rich gases methane, ammonia, 
and water. The transition from this primitive atmosphere to our 
present oxidizing one is due in part to the escape of hydrogen into 
interplanetary space, and in part to the production of oxygen by 
plant photosynthesis. In 1953, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey 
applied an electric spark—lightning on a smaller scale—to a mixture 
of gases resembling the primitive atmosphere of the Earth. They 
produced a variety of amino acids, the building blocks of proteins. 
Since these pioneering experiments, other scientists have produced 
other organic molecules—cyanides, aldehydes, hydrocarbons—in simu- 
lated primitive atmospheres. In addition to electrical discharges, 
other energy sources available on the early Earth, such as ultraviolet 
light and high temperatures, have been utilized. 

In later experiments, the amino acids and other simple products 
have themselves been used as starting points in the production of 
more complex organic molecules—polypeptides, resembling simple 
proteins; sugars; and the kinds of bases found in nucleosides. It is 
a curious fact that these bases absorb ultraviolet light at just those 
wavelengths transmitted, in the absence of ozone, by the primitive 
terrestrial atmosphere. For this reason, Cyril Ponnamperuma, Ruth 
Mariner, and I last year irradiated dilute solutions of bases, sugars, 
and phosphorus compounds, and found that we had made in high yield 
various nucleosides and nucleoside phosphates. One of these was 
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). It is not only the most important 
energy-storage molecule in plants and animals; ATP is also an RNA 
precursor, and differs in only one atom from an important building 
block of DNA. From experiments such as these, it can be estimated 
that the amount of organic matter produced from natural energy 
sources in early times is so large that, if dissolved in the present 
oceans, it would make about a 1 percent organic solution. 

Here, then, is a picture of the early stages of the origin of life. 
Ultraviolet light, lightning, or other forms of energy produce sugars 


QUEST FOR LIFE BEYOND THE EARTH—SAGAN 301 


and bases in the primitive oceans. Under continued ultraviolet 
irradiation, they combine with phosphorus compounds already in 
the oceans to form nucleoside phosphates. In turn, the eventual 
interaction of nucleoside phosphates yields nucleic acids resembling 
DNA. Because of their characteristic chemical structure, the nucleic 
acids slowly replicate—that is, they begin forcing the production of 
other, identical nucleic acids from adjacent building blocks in the 
primitive oceans. 

Occasionally, an error in replication occurs, yielding different vari- 
eties of the original nucleic acid molecule. These varieties, however, 
also reproduce themselves. Some of these new molecules may replicate 
more rapidly or more efficiently, and they prosper; others do not. 
Thus, a kind of evolution begins, a natural selection on the molecular 
level. When, in time, nucleic acid molecules developed which weakly 
controlled chemical reactions outside themselves, the chain of life 
from molecule toman began. The critical event has been the produc- 
tion of the first molecule which could reproduce itself. 

This picture provides a convenient scaffolding for draping our 
ideas, but there are many problems which remain to be answered. 
Will enough nucleoside phosphates be produced, and interact, in 
primitive times, to form many nucleic acids? How did early nucleic 
acids control their environment, in the absence of the elaborate con- 
temporary DNA-RNA-protein transcription apparatus? What is the 
effect of molecular contaminants on the course of prebiological organic 
chemistry? What is the origin of the cell? 

Despite the many uncertainties remaining, certain features of the 
origin of life are now becoming clear. It is a remarkable fact that 
the physics and chemistry of the primitive terrestrial environment 
were such that large numbers of organic molecules were produced— 
organic molecules which today are intricately entwined in the fabric 
of life. This has two implications for the possibility of extra- 
terrestrial life. First, the origin of life may be a highly probable 
event arising by the operation of very general energy sources on very 
common primitive planetary environments. Second, fundamental 
extraterrestrial biochemistry may be of a familiar type, even if extra- 
terrestrial morphology and physiology are not. 

Although all the planets may have started with similar primitive 
environments, it is clear that subsequent planetary development has 
produced a diversity of extraterrestrial environments. The Harvard 
paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson has emphasized that evolu- 
tion is an opportunistic, and not a far-sighted, process. Adaptations 
occur to immediate environmental crises, and not because of any long- 
term plans. Each evolutionary step must build on the previous ones, 
and the number of evolutionary “decisions” in the ancestry of any 
organism is enormous. Thus, we must not expect the inhabitants of 


302 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


these diverse planetary environments—if, indeed, there are inhab- 
itants—to have familiar forms. They have made other adaptations 
to other environments. But the anticipated diversity and unfamiliar- 
ity of extraterrestrial organisms provide a profound challenge and 
a supreme opportunity for biologists. 

What, then, are our neighbors in the solar system like? What are 
these planetary environments? 

Mercury and the moon are similar in many ways: little or no 
atmosphere, no surface water or other likely solvents, and extremes 
of temperature. With no atmosphere, the moon receives intense ultra- 
violet radiation and proton bombardment from the sun, and no 
terrestrial organism could survive, unprotected, on the lunar surface 
for more than a few hours. But conditions are much milder below 
the lunar surface. Here, there is no solar radiation, the temperature 
variations are small, at some depths the average temperature is mild, 
and there may be liquid water trapped below a layer of permafrost. 
Nevertheless, the likelihood of subsurface life on the moon seems re- 
mote, because in the absence of sunlight there is no convenient energy 
source for living systems. 

The planet Venus emits radio waves characteristic of a body at a 
temperature of 600 or 700° F. Until recently, however, no one knew 
for certain whether this high-temperature emission came from the 
surface of the planet, or from some region high in its atmosphere. 
The voyage of the NASA space vehicle Mariner IT to the vicinity of 
Venus, in 1962, helped solve this problem. Aboard Mariner was a 
sensitive radiometer designed by five scientists, including A. E. 
Lilley of the Harvard College Observatory, which radioed back to 
Earth the news that the radio emission arises from the surface of 
Venus. The planet is therefore too hot for any familiar biochemicals, 
and a terrestrial organism placed there would fry. Indigenous life 
on Venus is very unlikely. 

Between Mars, of which we will speak presently, and Jupiter are 
fragments of stone and rock known as the asteroids. Chips off the 
asteroids occasionally intercept the orbit of the Earth, and fall to its 
surface as meteorites. Meteorites are the only samples of extra- 
terrestrial material now available for laboratory analysis. A few 
meteorites, known as the carbonaceous chondrites, contain a few per- 
cent of very complex organic matter. It is not known whether this 
organic matter was produced in the absence of life, by chemical 
processes similar to those invoked for the origin of life on Earth, or 
whether—more interestingly, but less likely—it was produced by liv- 
ing organisms on the parent bodies of the chondrites. Inclusions 
which superficially resemble microorganisms have also been found in 
these meteorites. But some have been shown to be inorganic, and 
others, to result from Earthly contamination-—for example, by rag- 


QUEST FOR LIFE BEYOND THE EARTH—SAGAN 303 


weed pollen. It is not known, however, whether all the inclusions can 
be similarly explained away. There is no evidence for viable micro- 
organisms in meteorites. 

At first sight, the Jovian planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and 
Neptune) seem far too hostile to support life. Their measured 
temperatures range to several hundred degrees below zero Fahrenheit, 
and their atmospheres are mixtures of methane, ammonia, and other 
ordinarily poisonous gases. The low temperatures, however, refer to 
the top of the visible cloud layers on these planets; as on Earth, the 
temperatures should be much higher below the clouds. Furthermore, 
rather than being unambiguously poisonous, the atmospheres of the 
Jovian planets are similar to the primitive atmosphere of the Earth 
in which living organisms first arose. Even today, there are many 
microorganisms which do well in hydrogen-rich, anaerobic environ- 
ments. It has recently been shown that water condensation is to be 
expected at moderate temperatures below the visible cloud layers. 
Organic molecules are likely being synthesized today, by ultraviolet 
light and electrical discharges, in the Jovian atmospheres. The 
amounts of organic material probably produced there over the last 5 
billion years areenormous. The Jovian planets may eventually prove 
to be immense and invaluable planetary laboratories on the origins of 
life. 

The most Earthlike of the other planets in our solar system is Mars. 
There is a detectable atmosphere, composed mainly of nitrogen and 
carbon dioxide and smaller amounts of water vapor. The polar ice 
caps wax and wane with the seasons, so that the amount of water 
vapor in the atmosphere varies with time and place. The highest 
temperatures measured on Mars are about 80° F.; but every night, the 
temperature falls 150° or so, and the average over the entire planet is 
about 40° below zero. To round things out, there is no detectable 
oxygen and ozone, and solar ultraviolet radiation harmful to terrestrial 
organisms may reach the surface. 

Tentative identifications have been made of very small amounts of 
nitrogen dioxide (NO.) on Mars. Since large amounts of NO, are 
injurious to many familiar organisms, a few scientists have concluded 
that life on Mars is impossible. It is of interest to note that the 
amount of NO, in the air of smog-filled Los Angeles often exceeds 
the amount on Mars. Life in Los Angeles may be difficult, but it is 
not yet impossible. 

Freezing kills in two ways: it produces ice crystals which disrupt 
cellular structure, and it makes liquid water unavailable, an effect 
especially deleterious in microorganisms. Food technologists have 
long known, however, that microorganisms can survive freeze-thaw 
cycles comparable to those on Mars. Recently, a number of labora- 
tories have tested the survival and growth of terrestrial microorga- 

766-746—65 21 


304 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


nisms in a more completely simulated Martian environment. ‘Two of 
my colleagues and I have found that in every sample of soil tested, 
some microorganisms could survive indefinitely the apparent rigors 
of the Martian environment. Other experimenters have observed that 
when a more plentiful supply of water is assumed (such as may occur 
at the edge of the retreating polar ice caps), many soil organisms grow 
and reproduce. 

If biologically tractable mechanisms exist for the survival of ter- 
restrial microorganisms, what may we not expect of the indigenous 
biology? We are almost entirely ignorant of the availability of water 
in the Martian subsurface, and this remains the chief uncertainty 
in assessing the possibility of life there. Nighttime ice crystallization 
of tissue water would preclude the existence of larger plants and ani- 
mals on Mars; but one can envision a variety of adaptations to circum- 
vent this difficulty. It seems premature to exclude, at the present time, 
the presence of large organisms on Mars. 

These experiments also underscore the necessity for sterilization 
of space vehicles intended for Mars landings. Suppose an unsterilized 
space vehicle Janded on Mars and the terrestrial microbiological con- 
taminants which it contained then proliferated. If, several years 
later, a life-detection experiment finds Mars populated with micro- 
organisms of a familiar type, what shall we conclude? That the evolu- 
tion of life on Mars paralleled that on Earth? That biological contact 
between Mars and Earth had occurred in earlier times? Or that the 
previous space vehicle had not been sterilized ? 

Of the other planets in our solar system, serious direct evidence for 
indigenous life exists only for Mars. That any evidence should exist 
at all is in itself remarkable, a fact which perhaps can best be appreci- 
ated by considering the circumstances reversed. Imagine that we 
are situated on Mars, and provided with the same level of astronomical 
instrumentation which exists on Earth today. Is there life on Earth? 

The largest engineering works would be invisible. In 100,000 Tiros 
photographs of Earth, of higher quality than could be obtained with 
a 200-inch telescope from Mars, only one image showed any sign of 
the works of man. Lights from large cities, such as Los Angeles, 
would be marginally detectable, and interpretation would not be easy. 
Seasonal color changes of deciduous forests and of crops—for example, 
in the American midwest, or in the Ukraine—would be observed, but 
here there would arise vexing questions on the reliability of Martian 
color vision, and the chromatic aberration of telescopes. 

Occasionally, bright flashes of light might be discernible. Their 
durations would be only several seconds, and there would be some 
evidence of their recurrence only in a few restricted locales, such as 
Eniwetok and Novaya Zemlya. It is doubtful whether they would 
be considered evidence for life on Earth—much less, intelligent life. 


QUEST FOR LIFE BEYOND THE EARTH—SAGAN 305 


If the hypothetical Martians had radio reception equipment, and chose 
to scan Earth in narrow wave bands, they would certainly be re- 
warded—if that is the word—by television transmission from Earth. 
There would be an intensity maximum when the North American 
continent faced Mars, and it would perhaps be possible to determine 
that this radio frequency emission was not entirely random noise. 
But barring such observations, the problem of life on Earth would 
remain an open question. 

What evidence, then, do we have for life on Mars? The green color- 
ation and rectilinear markings on Mars were once interpreted, respec- 
tively, as vegetation and the artificial waterways of intelligent beings. 
It is now known that the dominant color of the dark areas of Mars 
is gray, not green, and that the so-called “canals” resolve, under the 
best seeing conditions, into disconnected fine detail. 

There are, however, more reliable observations which may be indica- 
tive of life on Mars. As the polar ice caps recede each year, releasing 
water vapor into the Martian atmosphere, a wave of darkening pro- 
ceeds from the polar regions toward the dark areas near the equator. 
The edges of the dark areas sharpen and delicate pastels of brown, 
green, and blue appear. There is no doubt about the darkening, but 
some dispute exists about the reality of the color changes. The bio- 
logical interpretation of these phenomena is this: the Martian dark 
areas are covered with organisms, perhaps plants, whose metabolism 
is sensitive to the availability of water. During most of the year they 
are ina dormant state. As the wave front of water from the vaporiz- 
ing polar cap arrives, the organisms grow rapidly and proliferate. 
The changes in darkness and color of the dark areas can be attributed 
to these metabolic activities. As the water vapor wave front passes, 
the organisms once again fall into dormancy. 

It has also been proposed that the Martian dark areas are covered 
with crystals which change their color and darkness when the avail- 
ability of water increases. The polarimetric evidence, however, shows 
that the dark areas cannot contain large amounts of such crystals. 

Analysis of the polarization of light reflected from Mars indicates 
that the dark areas are covered with fine dark grains which change 
in size and darkness with the seasons. These particles could be organ- 
isms which grow to maximum size and proliferate as the wave front 
of water arrives. But it may also be possible that the polarization 
changes can be explained by a redistribution of sizes of inorganic 
grains. Perhaps winds which accompany the water vapor front dis- 
turb the surface dust, which in the absence of winds has settled with 
the very large and very small particles deepest. 

When the Martian dark areas are observed with an infrared spec- 
trometer, three features are observed which are possibly produced 
by the absorption of infrared radiation by organic molecules. The 


306 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


wavelengths at which these features are observed are specific for hydro- 
carbons and aldehydes; and no reasonable inorganic materials absorb 
at these wavelengths. The presence of hydrocarbons and aldehydes 
on Mars may provide a key to Martian biochemistry, but it is also 
possible—if less likely—that they are irrelevant to the question of life 
on Mars. We have already seen that complex organic molecules can 
be formed in the absence of living systems. 

While none of the pieces of evidence is convincing by itself, together 
they are suggestive of at least simple life forms on Mars, composed 
of familiar organic substances, dependent upon water, proliferating 
in the springtime, and covering a major fraction of the planetary 
surface. But we are far from sure. 

So we must, after all, go to Mars. The plans are already being 
formulated, both in the United States and in the Soviet Union, for 
these voyages of discovery and high scientific adventure which may, 
perhaps, begin before the decade is out. Instruments have been de- 
signed, prototypes built and tested, to land in preselected locales, search 
for the presence of life, and radio the news back to Earth. Television 
cameras will see what there is to see—perhaps only sand dunes, but 
perhaps... foliage? ... fossils? . . . footprints? Coupled with 
microscopes, they will seek out microorganisms. Culture media will 
be automatically inoculated with soil samples, and then monitored. 
Do Martian organisms eat terrestrial foodstuffs ? 

In various forms, life has existed on the planet Earth for some 
4 billion years. Thus, on a random basis, the probability of being 
alive during just that decade when the first definitive study is made 
of life beyond the Earth is about one-millionth of a percent. To seek 
the beings of other worlds is the rarest of adventures—an adventure 
we will all be fortunate enough to share. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Sagan PLATE 1 


— 


A three-dimensional model of a short section of the DNA molecule. Here, each atom of 
hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and phosphorus is represented by a different-colored 
y gen, ) gen, oxygen, p Pp ) 
or -shaped atom. (Courtesy of Professor Paul M. Doty, Harvard University.) 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Sagan PLATE 2 


The Mariner II spacecraft, as it might have looked during its encounter with Venus on 


December 14, 1962. The horizontal panels are solar cells for the conversion of sunlight 


into electricity. "The microwave radiometer is the dish-shaped instrument above the solar 
cells, in the middle of the spacecraft. (Courtesy of the National Aeronautics and Space 
Administration.) 


PLATE 3 


Sagan 


Report, 1964. 


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Smithson 


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PLATE 4 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Sagan 


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ree es 


The Secret of Stonehenge’ 


By Geratp S. Hawkins 


Astronomer, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory; Research Associate, Harvard 
College Observatory; Chairman, Department of Astronomy, Boston University; Director, 
Boston University Observatory 


[With one plate] 


A FEW MONTHS ago the book of Stonehenge seemed closed. It was 
thought that little more could ever be learned about the mysterious 
stone structure on England’s Salisbury Plain. The fraternity of 
diggers—archeologists and other students of the past—had fixed the 
dates of construction, from 2000 to 1500 B.C., and the probable meth- 
ods. Shaping the great stones could have been done by fire, water, and 
much pounding. Sturdy English schoolboys proved by toil and sweat 
that cement blocks as big as Stonehenge stones could be floated by 
raft and rolled overland from quarries as far away as Wales. (Legend 
said the slabs were brought from Africa to Ireland by giants, and 
whisked over to England by Merlin’s “word of power.”) The 50-ton 
uprights of the trilithons (three-stone archways) could have been 
tilted into retaining holes. Finally, the 6-ton crosspieces could have 
been levered up on timber towers. 

But why was Stonehenge built ? 

Buried bones indicated that it had been a mortuary, also a crema- 
torium, and it almost certainly was a temple, though not necessarily 
Druid. But was it more? The unique monument, which Henry 
James said “stands as lonely in history as it does on the great plain,” 
guarded its secrets well... . 

I first became interested in Stonehenge in 1954, when I went to the 
Larkhill missile-testing base nearby. (Of course, we took pains to aim 
our missiles away from Stonehenge—we were horrified to hear that 
during World War I an airstrip commander, and a British one at 
that, had requested that for his planes’ convenience the Stonehenge 
megaliths be flattened. Request denied.) I used to visit that gaunt 
ruin whenever I could. Even when it was alive and loud with tourists 


1 Reprinted by permission from Harper’s Magazine, June 1964. 
307 


308 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


it seemed remote, timeless, brooding. I poked around, marveled, and 
read everything I could find about it. 

The word that originally struck me in the literature was “coinci- 
dence.” The one thing that all laymen know about Stonehenge—that 
if you stand in the center on a clear Midsummer morning (around 
the summer solstice, June 22) and lock down “the avenue” you will 
see the sun rise almost exactly over the distant “heelstone’”—was 
called a coincidence by most archeologists. Beware, it leads to “fruit- 
less conjecture,” warned one authority. As an astronomer I could not 
help feeling that such an alinement of the most important direction 
of the structure with the point of sunrise of the longest day of the 
year might well have been deliberate. I wondered. 

Then, early in 1961, I had occasion to mention Stonehenge in my 
book Splendor in the Sky: 

. .. If the axis of the temple had been chosen at random the probability 
of selecting this point by accident would be less than one in five hundred. 
Now if the builders of Stonehenge had wished simply to mark the sun- 
rise they needed no more than two stones. Yet hundreds of tons of 
voleanic rock were carved and placed in position. . . . It must have been 
the focal point for ancient Britons. . . . The stone blocks are mute, but 
perhaps some day, by a chance discovery, we will learn their secrets. 

As I wrote those words, the thought that had been nebulous in my 
head for some 7 years suddenly crystallized: something should be 
done. So that summer I went there again, and my wife and I stalked 
the Stonehenge sunrise. We made base camp in an Amesbury hotel 
close by, and a few days before Midsummer (alas, we couldn’t be there 
on The Day itself), we went over. Not without overtones of ght 
comedy: sunrise was due about 4:30 (daylight time); we had ne- 
elected to tell the hotel we would be going out so early, and we hadn’t 
paid our bill; so with exceeding furtiveness we tiptoed down the long 
dark hall, past the loudly ticking grandfather clock, and we started 
our car quietly. 

Stonehenge stood black against the lightening sky. I climbed the 
barbed wire fence (which defeated my wife), placed myself at the 
center of the circles,? and made ready my 8-millimeter telephoto movie 
camera. And suddenly, there it was—the first red flash of the sun, 
rising just one-half a diameter to the right of the heelstone. For a 
moment I was lost in time, bemused, trying to go back 8,500 years to 
those other sunrises, similarly witnessed by what other people, for 
what other purpose? But quickly I returned to the 20th century, 
because I felt surrounded by questions calling out for answer: Why 


2The inner circle consists of five trilithons set in a horseshoe pattern; the next, tra- 
ditionally called the Sarcen (Saracen?) circle, is a ring of upright boulders, some with 
lintels on the top; the outer or Aubrey circle (named for the 17th-century investigator 
John Aubrey) is marked by 56 equally spaced holes and mounds. 


THE SECRET OF STONEHENGE—HAWKINS 309 


is the heelstone ever so slightly out of line, so that to see it through 
the trilithon arch you must stand 6 inches to the left of the center of 
the circles? Why are those trilithon arches so narrow? The huge 
uprights stand 20 feet high, but the space between is less than a foot. 
Why do these spaces line up? What do those alinements point to? 

As an astronomer, I thought, “Aha! A transit instrument. These 
arches were used to point to stars or planets or different things in 


the sky.” 


AVENUE 


BANK 
(LATER THAN 
STONEHENGE 1) 


25000000 
ee 0 


p? @; 


° 


) 
56 


MIDSUMMER 
SUNRISE 


UNEXCAVATED 1965 


*. STATION STONE RECTANGLE _ 


SCALE OF FEET 


Ficure 1.—Schematic plan of Stonehenge. 


310 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


And as I pondered, the sun kept rising. And it was rising almost 
horizontally, so that it had traveled fully 2 degrees before the disk 
stood clear of the horizon. That meant that it would be—would have 
been—extremely difficult to estimate the exact spot at which it lifted 
clear of the horizon. Clouds, of course, are common in England, and 
the Stonehenge people were probably no more fortunate than the 
modern Briton. Nowadays I think only one in five Midsummer sun- 
rises at Stonehenge is clear. All of these things would make the set- 
ting of the stones difficult. Critical conditions, devices capable of 
precise measurement, evidence of knowledge, skill, purpose—all for 
what? 

I thought, in that lonely place: “Was Stonehenge an observatory ?” 

There seemed to be significance in those delicate alinements, and it 
would most logically be astronomical significance. What would you 
line sighting-stones on? Surely on the heavenly bodies—the gods of 
prehistory and so-called barbarism. The center-heelstone certainly 
pointed to Midsummer sunrise; could there have been other such 
alinements, such as a corresponding one pointing to Midwinter sunset ? 
T read at Stonehenge that the noted British archeologist R. S. Newall 
had suggested that possibility, but there had been no verification. 
What did those alinements point to ? 

I said to myself, “It’s no good just talking. The problem is too 
complicated. We need precise measurement, more elaborate calcula- 
tion that I am prepared to do. We need the machine.” But at that 
moment, I had more mundane problems to face—the barbed wire fence, 
the hotel bill, and an English summer squall that was dashing cold 
rain across the plain. 


WHAT THE COMPUTER SAID 


Before I left England I got plans and charts of the site. Back in 
Cambridge, Mass., I armed myself with all the pertinent material in 
Warvard’s Widener Library. I defined the problem: What, if any, 
correlation is there between Stonehenge alinements and the rise or set 
points of any heavenly bodies, as of the period 2000-1500 B.C.? ‘Then 
with the help of Shoshana Rosenthal and Judy Copeland at the 
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, I went to the machines. 

First we put charts of Stonehenge into “Oscar,” a plotting machine 
that transforms positions into X, Y coordinates on punched cards. 
Then we fed those coordinates into the Harvard-Smithsonian IBM 
7090 computer and asked it to calculate azimuths, or compass direc- 
tions, determined by some 170 pairs of positions, a position being a 
stone, stone hole, mound, archway, or the center. Next we asked the 
machine to translate those azimuths into declinations, that is, to deter- 
mine the “latitudes” of the celestial sphere they intersected. 


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THE SECRET OF STONEHENGE—HAWKINS Sil 


Then we examined those declinations, the horizon spots to which 
the Stonehenge pairs pointed. Was there any pattern to them? Did 
the pairs point to significant rise or set positions of celestial bodies? 
A quick check showed no significant matching with planets or with the 
bigger stars, Sirius, Canopus, Arcturus, Betelgeuse, Spica, Vega... . 

But the most cursory naked-eye glance at those declinations told us 
of probable sun correlation. The figures +24 and —24 were fre- 
quent—and those figures are the declination of the sun at Midsummer 
and Midwinter, its farthest north and south. 

I was somewhat prepared for such solar correlation. Indeed, I had 
suspected it. But what we next discovered took us by surprise: even 
more frequently than the +24 of the sun, the +29 and +19 of the 
moon appeared. The moon has a more complicated relative motion 
than the sun. During a 9-year cycle its maximum north and south 
declination moves from 19 to 29 degrees. The machine’s finding 
seemed to show that not only was Stonehenge alined to the sun—it was 
also oriented to the moon. 

I must admit that it was with some unscientific emotion that we 
programed the machine to take the sun and moon back to 1500 B.C., 
to get an accurate check of those azimuth alinements. What we found 
was beyond expectation. To a mean accuracy of 1 degree there were 
10 sun correlations. To a mean accuracy of 1.5 degrees, there were 14 
moon correlations. 

We did the work in spare moments over the course of a year. About 
10 hours were spent measuring the charts, about 20 hours were spent 
preparing the machine program, and the final run on the Harvard- 
Smithsonian IBM 7090 computing machine took about 1 minute. 

It is important to note that ald of the 24 alinements are between key 
positions—the center of the structure, the “avenue” or most important 
axis, the great trilithon arches, the rectangle of “stations,” the uniquely 
placed stones near the entrance. Every one of these key positions 
paired with others to point to a sun or moon rise or set. That solidly 
establishes the fact that those alinements were significant, deliberate, 
basic in the construction. Stonehenge lived by the sun and moon. 
Could it possibly have been coincidence? Bernouilli’s theorem of 
probability indicates that there is less than one chance in a hundred 
million that this could happen without a prearranged design. 

And what does it mean? It means that Stonehenge was an astro- 
nomical observatory. And a good one, too. It could have formed a 
reliable calendar to predict change of seasons. It could also have 
signaled danger periods for eclipses of the sun or moon. It could 
have formed a dramatic setting for observation of the interchange 
between the sun—dominator of summer—and the moon—ruler of the 
winter. How it actually was used we may never know. All that we 
can now state with certainty is that it was designed, with astonishing 

766-746—65——_22 


312 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


——D SUNRISE 
-~—-—-’D MOONRISE 
<< SUNSET 
<-—-—-—- MOONSET 


+29 WINTER MOON HIGH 
+19 WINTER MOON LOW 
+24 SUMMER SUN 

+5 EQUINOX MOON 

—5 EQUINOX MOON 

+0 EQUINOX SUN 
—24 WINTER SUN 
—19 SUMMER MOON HIGH 
—29 SUMMER MOON LOW 


Je 
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—24 


—24 0 10 20 30 40 50 
Ss es es | 
SCALE OF FEET 


Ficure 2.—The sun and moon alinements found for Stonehenge. 


skill, as an observatory, and that it could have been used for many 
astronomic purposes. 

It is now the responsibility of archeology to digest this new infor- 
mation and from it draw new historic conclusions. 


WHAT THE ARCHEOLOGIST SAID 


I first published an account of my discovery in the British magazine 
Nature, last October. There has been a surprising amount of response. 
Newspapers and other magazines from many countries have com- 
mented, from England and Canada to Spain and South Africa. 
Among the letters I have received from archeologists was one, par- 
ticularly engaging, from R. S. Newall in England: 


It is always difficult, I suppose, when two different sciences meet (if 
archeology can be called a science), to come to agreement. Astronomers 


THE SECRET OF STONEHENGE—HAWKINS 313 


have their eyes in the sky; archeologists in the earth. . . . However, 
I agree that Stonehenge is oriented to the winter solstice setting sun 
in the great central trilithon as seen from the center or anywhere else 
on the axis, and since the plan of Stonehenge is sepulchral, it is in some 
way the mortuary temple to the sun in his old age when he goes down 
to the lower world at the end of the year or life.... 

Mr. Newall also wondered if Stonehenge could aline to an astro- 
nomic point, the point of sunrise at equinox. He was right; two of the 
main stoneholes do this to within one-tenth of a degree. The aline- 
ment was overlooked by me, I regret to say, and the machine is blame- 
less. Finally he quoted the first-century B.c. writer Diodorus, who 
said that in the mysterious northern island of “Hyperborea” there was 
a “spherical temple” to Apollo, and “the god visits the island every 
19 years, the period in which the return of the stars to the same place 
in heaven is accomplished. .. .” 

The archeologist concluded: “Now I do noé say that that refers to 
Stonehenge, but could it ... ? Could the full moon do something 
spectacular once every 19 years at Stonehenge?” 

It is a fact that some Jewish and Chinese calendars used a 19-year 
cycle, and that the Greek Meton knew that the full moon occurs 
exactly on the same calendar date after a lapse of 19 years. But I was 
struck by Newall’s wonderment about the moon at Stonehenge. I 
thought, “What about eclipses, at the most spectacular place—over the 
heelstone?” So I looked up eclipse records for some 150 years. Moon 
eclipses in December—January, the approximate time when the eclipsed 
moon would rise over the heelstone, occurred mostly at intervals of 
19 years, with sometimes an interval of 18 or 8. Interesting? 

A similar condition occurs at Midsummer, and this phase of the 
Stonehenge cycle is going to happen in 1964, this very month! * The 
full moon is eclipsed at 2 a.m. on June 25, and then sets in the great 
trilithon as seen from the center of Stonehenge. The monument will 
be closed to visitors at that time, unfortunately. 

In the course of this investigation, I have found out many other 
arresting things, indicating avenues for further exploration. The 
machine, quick, dispassionate, tireless, makes possible much more thor- 
ough analysis of such an elaborate problem than humans would care 
to attempt. A new chapter in the ancient book of Stonehenge now lies 
open. 


3 June 1964. [This eclipse, and the Midsummer sunrise, was filmed and shown in “The 
Mystery of Stonehenge,” presented by CBS—TV.] 


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The Smithsonian’s Satellite-Tracking 
Program: Its History and Organization 


PART 3’ 


By E. Newson Hayes 


Editor-in-chief, Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory 


Tue Unirep States launched its first artificial earth satellite from 
Cape Canaveral at 10:48 p.m., eastern standard time, on January 31, 
1958. The disappointment and frustration of the preceding months 
lifted as the Jupiter-C Rocket thrust Satellite 1958 Alpha into an 
orbit with apogee of 1,573 miles, perigee of 224 miles, and period of 
114.8 minutes. The payload, weighing 30.8 pounds, carried experi- 
ments to measure cosmic rays and upper atmospheric temperatures, 
and to detect micrometeors. This first American satellite made pos- 
sible one of the most important discoveries of the International Geo- 
physical Year (IGY)—the existence of what is now known as the Van 
Allen radiation belt. 

The worldwide Moonwatch network of the Smithsonian Astrophys- 
ical Observatory was immediately alerted, and on February 2 teams 
in Bryan, Tex., and Albuquerque, N. Mex., reported sightings of the 
object. In the ensuing weeks, predictions were sent to those Baker- 
Nunn camera installations that were in operation, and on March 18 
the station in South Africa made the first photograph of 1958 Alpha; 
Japan followed with an observation on April 5, and the New Mexico 
station made observations on April 11, 15, and 18. These observations 
were in fulfillment of the Observatory’s obligations to the IGY. 
Those responsibilities were defined in a memorandum to Dr. Fred L. 
Whipple, director of the Observatory, from Hugh Odishaw, executive 
secretary of the U.S. Committee for the IGY. He specified that the 
Observatory was to assume “responsibility for optical tracking of all 
satellite bodies launched by the U.S. that are not sending out radio 


1Part 1 was published in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1961, 
pp. 275-322; Part 2 in the Annual Report of the Smithsonian Institution for 1963, pp. 
331-357. 


315 


316 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


tracking signals,” and “to promptly forward to NAS and to AGI- 
WARN all optical observations of all future U.S.S.R. launch satellites 
received directly which are sufficiently reliable to use in orbit 
predictions.” 

These instructions were based on the assumption that the space 
efforts of the United States and Russia during the IGY would be rela- 
tively modest. In fact, however, before the IGY ended, on December 
51, 1958, the United States had launched eight satellites, and the Soviet 
Union three. Together, these objects represented a greater tracking 
load than had been foreseen, and only the superb instrumentation of 
the 12 Baker-Nunn camera stations and the highly efficient organiza- 
tion of the more than 200 volunteer Moonwatch teams enabled the 
Smithsonian to make observations of all of them. 

By mid-1958 it became apparent that both national and scientific 
interests demanded the continuance of the United States space pro- 
gram beyond the end of the IGY. However, no civilian Government 
agency had the funds, personnel, and desire to carry through the work. 
As a provisional measure, the IGY was continued on an interim basis 
as the International Geophysical Cooperation (IGC) and the sug- 
gestion made that the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics 
(NACA) assume the support of the various components of the IGY 
tracking program. 

Meanwhile, a special committee, appointed by President Eisenhower 
in 1957 to determine our national objectives and requirements in space, 
recommended in March 1958 that a civilian agency be created to con- 
duct a full-scale program of space exploration. On July 29, Congress 
passed a bill creating the National Aeronautics and Space Adminis- 
tration (NASA), and it was this organization that in the succeeding 
months gradually would bring under its aegis most space activities 
of the United States. 

By late 1958, the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory no longer 
was responsible for tracking every satellite launched. Instead, the 
National Aeronautics and Space Administration assigned to the Ob- 
servatory and to other tracking networks responsibility for specific 
satellites. During the last quarter of the year, the Observatory was 
formally assigned the tracking of Satellites 1958 Alpha, 1958 81, 1958 
§2, and 1958 Epsilon. In addition, it made orbital and ephemeris 
computations on 1958 62 and 1958 Zeta for the purpose of preparing 
predictions of passages. In the first quarter of 1959, the Observatory 
was given responsibility for two additional objects, 1959 al and a2 
launched on February 17. 

The Observatory also had a special assignment from the Army 
Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA), which had total responsibility 
for ExplorersTV and V. Explorer V had an unsuccessful launching ; 
but Explorer IV went into orbit on July 26,1958. Designated Satel- 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 317 


lite 1958 Epsilon, it had an apogee of 1,380 miles, a perigee of 163, 
and a period of 110.27 minutes. Its instrumentation, consisting of 
geiger and scintillation counters and two transmitters, was designed 
to telemeter to earth new data on the radiation belts. Its radio signals 
failed on October 6, and the satellite came down on October 23, 1959. 

The Observatory had proposed to ABMA in May 1958 that it 
monitor the two Explorers, and furnish space-time coordinates in a 
special form adapted to the specific purpose of the experiments carried 
in the satellites to ensure the ultimate value of the telemetered data. 
This latter work was to be conducted in conjunction with the tracking 
operations. Dr. Charles A. Lundquist coordinated the program for 
ABMA; Dr. G. F. Schilling, for the Somthsonian Astrophysical 
Observatory. 

The first Baker-Nunn photographs of Explorer IV were obtained 
34 hours after launch. Within a few days, the Observatory was able 
to supply ABMA with minute-by-minute positions of the satellite. 
It also prepared orbital elements on a regular basis throughout the 
lifetime of the radio transmitter. In all, 130 photographic and 250 
Moonwatch observations of the satellite were obtained. 

In addition, the contract between the Observatory and ABMA 
provided that various computer programs be written, particularly 
a numerical integration program and a differential correction proce- 
dure, both based on work done by Dr. Leland Cunningham. This 
cooperative undertaking proved to be highly successful. Explorer 
IV was the first satellite for which ephemerides were reproduced 
in multiple copies and sent in a brief time—a matter of a few days 
or a week—to all interested parties. This procedure has now become 
routine. 

As for the Observatory, the success of the project reflected the re- 
fined skill of the satellite-tracking network, a skill that was to ensure 
the continuance of the network after the IGC. 


MOONWATCH 


By early 1958, the Moonwatch network consisted of 230 teams; 121 
of them were within the continental United States, 1 in Canada, 
13 in South and Central America, 77 in Japan, 5 in Australia, 5 in 
other islands in the Pacific, 3 on the Asia mainland, and 5 in Africa. 
During the first quarter of the year, the Observatory received 1,371 
observations from the teams; 1,272 of these were of Satellite 1957 
Beta, 85 of 1958 Alpha, 8 of 1958 Beta, and 6 of 1958 Gamma. Moon- 
watch observations since October now totaled 3,141. 

These observations were of unique and vital importance, especially 
since the radio signals from Sputnik I ceased 3 weeks after its launch- 
ing on October 4, and those from Sputnik IT ceased 7 days after it was 


318 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


placed in orbit on November 3. Moonwatch teams had even been 
able to sight the faint third component (the nose cone) of Sputnik I. 
Widely separated teams reported 11 different observations; without 
these the existence of 1957 «3 might never have been verified. 

Under the leadership of Leon Campbell, Jr., Moonwatch was more 
than fulfilling the expectations of its creators and was demonstrat- 
ing its ability to provide data of singular scientific significance. 


THE MOONWATCH TEAMS 


Hundreds of people of widely differing personalities and vocations 
had responded to the romantic and even adventuresome appeal of 
Moonwatch. Among professionals who joined were many doctors, 
dentists, engineers, clergymen, and teachers. Radio hams and photog- 
raphers were especially attracted to the program. Then there were 
the scores of housewives, salesmen, clerks, factory workers, and secre- 
taries. Students were particularly responsive and came not only 
from high school and college levels but from grade school as well. 
One could even find a watchmaker, an artist, a retired Naval captain, 
a newspaperman, a railway engineer, a priest, a weatherman, a hotel 
administrator, and an automobile dealer. And the inmates of a State 
penitentiary offered to establish a team; difficulties in choosing an 
acceptable observing site rendered this suggestion impractical. 

In all, the teams represented a fine balance between the enthusiasm 
of the amateur and the skill of the technician. What was most needed, 
however, and fortunately usually was found, was the ability to get 
along with people, and, for the leaders, a talent for organizing and 
inspiring others. Frequently, the pattern was for the engineer or 
other technical specialist to design new equipment, develop observing 
techniques, and set up efficient communications, while a clergyman, or 
teacher, or doctor would arouse and sustain the interest of other 
members of the team. 

That interest was infectious. In many communities, Moonwatch 
took up where Chautauqua and similar activities of the 19th century 
left off. Then, Americans had neither radio nor television; people 
in small towns made many of their own amusements and intellectual 
pursuits, and brought in outsiders to lecture, teach, and entertain. 
Today, everybody is likely to stay in his own living room and watch 
television. Moonwatch drew many people away from such passivity 
and back into a community activity in which many could participate 
either directly or indirectly. Even those who were not members of a 
local Moonwatch team could derive much satisfaction from supporting 
it. 

Additional support came from companies and business firms, which 
often helped to coordinate the efforts of the teams. One company, 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 319 


for example, bought the telescopes and supplied the local Moonwatch 
team with radio and all other necessary equipment. Another in- 
stituted a telephone-answering service, so set up in the factory that 
one could dial a number for satellite information. Every day the 
tapes were changed, and callers could learn where the satellite was 
and whether it could be seen locally. The tapes were done in language 
that everyone could understand. The service started with 1 telephone; 
before it was through, there were 12 automatic telephone-answering 
lines. In this way, the entire community became involved in the 
Moonwatch program. Such companies did not use Moonwatch to 
advertise their products or services; rather, their motives were good 
will and a wish to do something for the community. 

The greatest impact of Moonwatch was on youth. Indeed, a few 
teams in the United States were set up and successfully operated 
entirely by young people. 

One team in the Southwest was started by a schoolteacher who 
instructed a course in general science. The town had a considerable 
problem of juvenile delinquency, and school officials frowned on any 
activity that would bring the children together at night. Neverthe- 
less, the teacher persevered in setting up the team, and through it gen- 
erated sufficient interest in science and in satellite tracking not only 
to achieve a high technical level but also to absorb profitably the 
energies of dozens of children who might otherwise have been less well 
employed. In time, the local high school took part in Moonwatch 
activities and the team was permitted to build a permanent station 
on top of the school building. Over a period of years, the incidence 
of juvenile delinquency sharply declined and the whole community 
benefited from the project. 

In another town, a 79-year-old woman felt the challenge of space 
and created a Moonwatch team consisting of children and parents 
who observed side by side. She instilled so much enthusiasm for 
science among these children that many of them went on to college 
to major in physics, astronomy, and other sciences. Perhaps the most 
remarkable aspect of her achievement was that she was totally blind. 

At the other extreme were teams primarily manned by academicians. 
One, for example, drew chiefly from the oceanography staff of a large 
university. Another team was established by a young professor in 
a Texas college that had no department of astronomy. The team at- 
tained great excellence in its observations; the professor built a larger 
telescope of his own, and so stimulated interest in both the community 
and in the college that the latter now has an observatory of profes- 
sional status. 

All of these Moonwatch teams had similar problems involving 
money, equipment, personnel, observing techniques, and communica- 
tions with Cambridge. Many of them solved these problems in their 


320 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


own individual ways; others required assistance from field represen- 
tatives later sent out by the Observatory. 

The Smithsonian had no funds to supply equipment other than 
M-17 telescopes and the loan of satellite simulators, tape recorders, 
and a few other items, most of them U.S. Government surplus. Each 
team, therefore, was required to provide its own means for correct 
timing of the observations, its own observing site, and other facilities. 
The Moonwatchers showed great ingenuity in supplying themselves 
with these necessities. 

In all probability, any other arrangement would have proved disas- 
trous. Had the Observatory given money for these purchases, un- 
doubtedly a wholly different type of person would have volunteered 
for the teams. He would not have been essentially a pioneer; he 
would not have wanted to devise ways and means of meeting needs. 
In this respect, the first Moonwatchers resembled the first observers 
at the Baker-Nunn stations, who also had to pioneer in the develop- 
ment of observing techniques and in the most efficient use of available 
equipment. 

On the other hand, a vital difference between the Moonwatch teams 
and the Baker-Nunn stations needs to be stressed. Both had to de- 
velop techniques to meet individual situations. For the Moonwatch 
teams, this proved a means of maintaining a lively interest in the pro- 
gram and of taxing the creativity and energy of the participants. 
The same was also true of the observers at the Baker-Nunn stations 
during the initial phases of the program. Later, however, the re- 
quirement that the Baker-Nunn observations be standardized to a 
single formula and that a high level of consistent excellence be main- 
tained necessitated the development of strict routines that proved in 
some instances to be unacceptable to the independent spirit of the 
observers. This problem had to be faced and solved at the first 
station chiefs’ conference in 1959. 

Meanwhile, the Moonwatch network flourished during those early 
days of satellite tracking. But as the Baker-Nunn network gradually 
became more and more productive of extremely accurate observations 
the value of marginal Moonwatch observations became less and less. 
Consequently, by the middle of 1959 all of the teams were revaluated, 
and each was assigned a status based on such criteria as its observa- 
tional record, its potential for valuable contributions to the program, 
its geographical location, and its organizational and financial stabil- 
ity. Of the 200 teams, 35 were classified as prime-A; 10 as prime-B; 
2 as special; 81 as standard; and 36 as reserve. By July, 36 other 
teams were withdrawn from the program. Thus, when the program 
went under the auspices of the National Aeronautics and Space Ad- 
ministration on July 1, 1959, there was a total of 164 teams with a 
membership of approximately 5,000. 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 321 


The contribution that Moonwatch had made to the IGY and IGC 
was recognized in a series of awards that were given to teams, in- 
dividual Moonwatchers, and to sponsors and other individuals 
who had participated. The awards were in the form of Moon- 
watch emblem pins, printed certificates, and letters of commendation. 
By mid-1959, more than 4,000 pins and 8,000 certificates had been 
awarded, and Moonwatch headquarters in Cambridge had forwarded 
to the IGY National Committee recommendations for achievement 
certificates to some 50 Moonwatch teams and for 205 other awards 
to individuals who had made outstanding contributions. These were 
duly made. 


OBSERVATIONAL ACHIEVEMENTS OF MOONWATCH 


What the Observatory required from each Moonwatch team was 
a message giving the time and position of a satellite during transit over 
the site. Although these observational data needed to be as accurate 
as possible, they did not have to be obtained by any particular observ- 
ing technique so long as the procedures provided data in the right 
format and the team exercised caution in the choice of methods. 

Table 1 lists the number of Moonwatch observations of each satel- 
lite launched from October 1957 through June 1959. Some of these 
observations were quite remarkable achievements, and a number of 
them provided unique data for research and analysis at Cambridge. 

On April 13, 1958, dozens of Moonwatch teams were alerted to 
observe the demise of Sputnik IT. Sightings of the satellite in its 
descent were made by teams in Millbrook, N.Y.; New Haven, Conn. ; 
and Bryn Athyn, Pa.; final observations were made from ships and 
islands in the Caribbean as the satellite plunged to its death near 
the northern coast of South America. This dramatic occurrence was 
recounted by Dr. Luigi Jacchia in the Observatory’s Special Report 
No. 15. 


TABLE 1.—Moonwatch Observations, October 1957 to June 1959 


Satellite Number of Satellite Number of 
observations observations 
LO fol Peers ISTP is Fay SOD PIOSStoS et EERE ee re ae 9 
PO Gree ee ae ale G1 POSS .04e4 i ae a 1 
1h! 15 Ais ae eee ee ne 11 LO5Sebpsilon= eee. Jae 384 
i yA 2) 2) 2 A deep ene 2° 389 Wop e Aebalaaoense ee 247 
PTE seis es SS ET ga) RUG ol bps acer A as alee 172 
NOHS: Glee ees ae Ae} VE AQUVELO SOL age eos Se 277 
OSS Bees es eis eh rage 8 fat OHO Gamma;t! ed yes ae 3 
Ob SAG amine see ee 59 
NO roles a ae oe 3, 855 Kl 0) iE opesaeetes me ee he eager! 9, 835 


322 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Late in October 1958, observations of Satellite 1958 Alpha had fallen 
off to such an extent that accurate predictions for the Baker-Nunn 
stations could not be prepared. Consequently, no Baker-Nunn pho- 
tographs were being made, and the satellite was in danger of being 
lost. Twenty-five Moonwatch teams in the United States were asked 
to make a special effort to find the object and were sent rough predic- 
tions derived mainly from “best guesses” and extrapolations. Moon- 
watch observations began to come in again, finally in sufficient number 
to generate good predictions for the Baker-Nunn stations. There- 
after the satellite was photographed on a regular basis. The “lost” 
satellite was found. 

In May of the same year, Professor Arthur S. Leonard, leader of 
the Sacramento, Calif., Moonwatch team, derived the orbital elements 
of the carrier rocket of the first Vanguard satellite from observations 
obtained at Albuquerque, N. Mex., and at Sacramento. These data 
were then used by the Observatory to make Baker-Nunn predictions 
that resulted in photographs of the object on May 11 by the station 
at Organ Pass, N. Mex., and on May 12 by the station in Hawaii. 
Confirming visua] observations were made by Moonwatch teams in 
China Lake, Whittier, and Walnut Creek, all in California, on 
May 11. 

One of the most elusive objects was Vanguard I itself, a 6-inch 
sphere orbiting between 409 and 2,453 miles from the earth. In July, 
Moonwatch reported that the teams in Yuma, Ariz., and Alamagordo, 
N. Mex., had observed the satellite passing some 2,000 miles above the 
earth over a point as much as 1,000 miles south of them. Thereafter, 
few observations were made of the satellite either by Moonwatch teams 
or by Baker-Nunn cameras. A special search undertaken by Moon- 
watch teams in the fall of 1958 failed to locate the satellite. Early 
the following year, Dr. Henize developed a new search pattern for 
another attempt. Some 42 Moonwatch teams having special experi- 
ence and capabilities were selected to participate in the search begin- 
ning April 1 and to extend for about 6 weeks. The plan utilized 
a network of teams in pairs separated north and south about 15 
degrees. The basic idea was to find some search area in the meridian 
plane of the observing teams through which the satellite must pass 
within some given time interval and to concentrate the search within 
this area for the required time so as to ensure that the satellite would 
not slip through the net. Using an observation made on May 6 by 
the two Moonwatch teams in Albuquerque, N. Mex., Professor Leon- 
ard in Sacramento modified the orbital elements of Satellite 1958 
B2. Using the resulting predictions, his team observed the satellite on 
May 10. From new predictions several other Moonwatch teams in 
the West and Southwest were able to observe the satellite, and by May 
12 the Baker-Nunn camera stations could once more begin to photo- 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 323 


graph the object. Thus another satellite was rediscovered by 
Moonwatch. 

When the third Russian satellite (Satellite 1958 Delta) was launched 
on May 15, 1958, a large number of Moonwatch observations made it 
possible to determine that the satellite was accompanied by at least 
three components. On November 21, all Moonwatch teams were 
alerted to observe the last few revolutions of 1958 81. Many such 
observations were received, including two made during what is be- 
lieved to have been the next to last revolution of the satellite; these 
sightings were by teams in Wichita, Kans., and Albuquerque, N. Mex. 

In the late spring of 1958 only three observations were made of 
Satellite 1958 Epsilon; these were not sufficient for the preparation 
of predictions for the Baker-Nunn stations. Fifteen Moonwatch 
teams were assigned to concentrate on this object and a number of ob- 
servations were made shortly thereafter. The satellite, however, 
proved to be so erratic that special observations of it were again re- 
quested in December. This time, however, Moonwatch was unable 
to find it. 

Within 2 days of the launching on February 17, 1959, of Satellite 
1959 al (Vanguard II), Moonwatch teams were called upon to de- 
termine whether the third stage component of the rocket, Satellite 
1958 «2, was in fact in orbit. By the end of the month a number of 
teams had made observations of the object and from these the Ob- 
servatory was able to prepare preliminary ephemerides for the Baker- 
Nunn stations. Subsequent photographs confirmed the existence of 
the satellite. 

These are but a few of the noteworthy achievements of the Moon- 
match network during the IGY and the IGC. 


BAKER-NUNN CAMERA STATIONS 


Explorer I offered the first significant challenge to the capabilities 
of the Baker-Nunn camera that could reasonably be expected to be 
met. Satellite 1957 a2 (Sputnik I) had been a 22.8-inch sphere, 
probably painted black, that during its brief lifetime of 92 days could 
not be successfully photographed by the only Baker-Nunn camera 
then in operation, first at South Pasadena, Calif., and then at the Las 
Cruces station in New Mexico. The rocket case (Satellite 1957 a1) 
had been a large object visible to the naked eye and easily photo- 
graphed by the camera. Satellite 1957 Beta consisted of the payload 
of Sputnik IT and the rocket case, which never separated; together 
they were probably 85 feet long and weighed as much as 4 tons. 
Again, the satellite was visible to the naked eye and easily photo- 
graphed. 

Satellite 1958 Alpha consisted of a payload 22 inches in diameter 
and about 10.5 pounds in weight, and a cylinder of approximately 30 


324 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


pounds; together they formed an object approximately 80 inches in 
length and 6 inches in diameter. Its rapidly changing orbit required 
that predictions of its passages be good; its poor visibility required 
that a camera of exceptional capabilities be used in photographing it. 
The predictions from Cambridge during the initial days of the satel- 
lite’s orbiting were not of high quality. In addition, the observers 
had considerable difficulty in finding the satellite image on the plates; 
in part, this was due to inexperience and, in part, it was a consequence 
of the satellite image on the film being quite small. 

As predictions were improved and as field procedures were refined, 
more and more successful photographs were taken of this satellite and 
of those launched subsequently. 

The first Baker-Nunn camera station was established in Las Cruces, 
N. Mex., and the first photographic observation of Satellite 1957 a1 
made there November 26, 1957. There also the first observers were 
trained to use the camera and related equipment and prepared to man 
the other stations as soon as possible. 

From February through May, those other stations were established, 
the 2d camera being shipped from California to South Africa on 
February 3, and the 12th to Hawaii on May 28. The last station 
to begin photographing satellites was that in India, on August 29, 
1958; although the camera had been shipped there on March 30, films 
could not be taken earlier because of the monsoon season. 

As soon as all cameras were in the field, the observers carried out 
tests, including the making of focus plates to be sent to Cambridge 
for analysis. The results showed that all cameras, except that in 
India for which no test films were yet available, yielded image diam- 
eters in the center of the field of 60 microns or less, with an average 
diameter on the order of 35 microns. Differences in focus between the 
center and the edge of the field of the film indicated the need for 
further adjustments and possibly for a refiguring of the backup plates 
in several cameras. However, the image quality of the cameras was 
good, demonstrating that each of them was capable of photographing 
the faint United States satellites 1958 Alpha and 1958 Epsilson. 

While these tests proved that the cameras were more than adequate 
to the task for which they had been designed, limited steps were taken 
during the remainder of the IGY to improve their performance, in- 
cluding visits by Mr. Sydor, the optical specialist of the Observatory, 
to a number of stations to adjust the optical systems. 

One nagging fear had been that the KzFS-2 glass used in the outer 
elements of the corrector cell of the camera would prove unduly 
fragile as that glass was sensitive to acid staining and was “soluble” 
in distilled water. Obviously, it was necessary to protect the glass 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 325 


from rain. The lens cover, therefore, had to be kept on the corrector 
cell at all times except during actual photography, and the air-drying 
system for the camera kept in good working condition. Later, special 
desiccators would be installed. At each station, however, some highly 
individual methods were used to ensure that the outer lens was kept 
dry; at one, the observers found that a quick swipe of the lens with a 
baby’s diaper was highly effective. 

In any case, experience proved that although the outer lens was 
inevitably pockmarked to some extent by moisture in the air, the loss 
of transmission was very small—not more than 10 percent. Although 
acceptable, this was not ideal, and later means would be found to pro- 
tect the lens better. 

Another problem was that the camera was “blind” to the observer. 
In other words, there were no means whereby the observer could see 
what the camera was photographing. To remedy this situation, late 
in 1958 the Observatory shipped 5-inch aperture telescopes to the 
stations. One of these was attached to each camera so that the axes 
of the two telescopes were parallel. The observer could then watch 
what the Baker-Nunn camera was photographing and during a transit 
make any necessary adjustments in the tracking mechanisms so that 
the image of the satellite would remain roughly centered on the film. 
This procedure proved to be extremely valuable in directing the 
camera to photograph newly launched satellites for which predictions 
might be somewhat inaccurate. 

A third difficulty involved the Norrman time standard. In part, 
this was a consequence of the heavy strain that was placed on the 
mechanism itself. For example, a transformer proved to be sub- 
standard to the needs of the system and had to be replaced in all the 
clocks. In part, also, it was the result of inadequate power supply to 
some of the stations. Consequently, the amplifier to the clock had 
to be modified, and other means found to ensure a constant and steady 
power. 

The film chosen for the camera was the famous ID-2, which pro- 
vided the spectral distribution needed and was extremely fast. Never- 
theless during the remainder of the IGY consideration was given 
to several other types of film. Early in 1958, Eastman Kodak pro- 
posed the use of their 8.0.1200 emulsion. Tests at the New Mexico 
station proved that the film was about twice as fast the ID-2. How- 
ever, the manufacturer encountered serious production difficulties that 
prevented production of the film in sufficient quantities. Later that 
year, one other film was tried: a Dupont emulsion coated on a “cronar” 
base. It was unsuitable. In addition, tests were made to determine 
the possibility of photographing very bright satellites during the day 
by using an infrared-sensitive film together with an infrared filter 


326 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


over the corrector lens of the camera. These tests did not give very 
hopeful results. 

Meanwhile, the ID-2 film was proving more than satisfactory, and 
as the number of satellites increased and the skill of the observers im- 
proved, it was needed in greater quantities. By early 1959, plans 
were made to send an additional 20,000 feet of film to each station— 
enough for 100,000 home snapshots. This amount was based on the 
assumption that the average weekly use of film was about 1,000 feet. 

In addition, each station had to be shipped various other materials 
to ensure continuous operation. These included not only the usual 
nuts-and-bolts necessary to the maintenance of any mechanical equip- 
ment, but also substantial electronics supplies for the Norrman time 
standard. 

The kinds of problems encountered at the stations can perhaps best 
be summarized by noting some of the specific difficulties that occurred 
during the second quarter of 1959. 

In Argentina four anchor bolts holding the large diesel engine for 
the auxiliary power supply broke off because of the inferior quality 
of the metal. New bolts had to be installed in fresh concrete. One of 
the bearings of the 15-kilowatt generator was badly scored, and a 
new one had to be obtained and installed, along with new brushes. The 
pulley was realined and the generator cleaned. The power was then 
turned off so that the clock could be reset. 

In South Africa the Baker-Nunn mirror seemed loose and the 
collimation poor. The corrector cell had to be dismantled and sent 
to the Bureau of Standards in Pretoria for collimation. The mirror 
was adjusted and cleaned and a new shear-pin unit and clutch were 
installed. The power amplifier was moved into the camera house and 
new relays installed. Later the crystal clock ceased to operate and 
had to be repaired. 

In India the film transport system of the camera jammed when 
operating at 82 seconds per cycle. Both generators were out of order 
for a week, and the clock lost time at.a high rate. 

In Peru the Norrman clock gained 2.9 seconds and the power am- 
plifier continued to give trouble. The clock failures during this time 
were believed to be the result of low-line voltage or earthquakes. 

In Curagao the slave clock stopped because of a failure of a filter 
condenser in the power amplifier. 

These difficulties were of the sort that could be expected, and each 
was resolved in turn. All of them were part of the operations of each 
station as they had originally been conceived. When, however, it 
became evident that the Smithsonian satellite-tracking program would 
continue after the IGY and the IGC, plans would develop for overall 
improvement of the system. These included better dehumidification, 
sealing the interior of the camera house, various additions to station 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 327 


buildings, and, above all, engineering studies to improve operation 
of both the camera and the timing system. These and other modifica- 
tions of the network would be carried out when the program was 
funded by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s grant 
to the Observatory. 

Meanwhile, however, the observational achievements of the system 
were notable. From July through September of 1958—the first quar- 
terly period when all of the stations were operational—the stations 
reported 480 observations of four satellites: 1958 Alpha, 1958 81, 1958 
62, and 1958 Epsilon. ‘The total for each station was as follows: 


ING ye Mies COs = ae ewe es al POT, eee eee ee ee eee 86 
SOULE LIMAVETS Cotes = rete eee eee (3) HD cfs OY eee eps YR et Se Rd Se ae Rs 18 
PA CLA NG i eee ee ee eee 62 Curaca Ors = as a ee eee 47 
Siac hhay See eee Reece oes ee eee 40 HlOniG as) ou ee ee aS 14 
JED ay nah) 2 eee SE NOS Se eee be 44 AT SOMTIN Sse © ee eee eae et Ne 3 
106 Li Yen, OO SR RE ee EE A a 1 ELS Wye Gees oe Sa ee ee ae eer 45 


During April and May of 1959, shortly before the close of the IGC, 
the stations recorded the following number of observations: 


NeW rMexicos ee tele sear ys 160 Pe@rU 2 Gee is Rd ed se 210 
South BATT Cae ek fee J ee 79 fits a) BO (a Sete Lg boy a ee Pee 68 
SNES ANU: f SSE ee eee Fee Og 237 CuTa CaO gs a= = be as a eee 74 
NO) OPI ce, Mae Ea ai eee ar ee 130 NOL aves he et eee ees 57 
CLIC FOE ee eS a ra, a i le ek 94 APO CNGITNA ee ene he nee 86 
SD OVOWED oe te a eS ty SES LP eS 149 anal ee 2 Dae oe ieee 105 


In part, of course, this large increase was a consequence of the 
number of satellites in orbit; in part, also, it was the result of vastly 
improved predictions and observing techniques. 

From November 1957 through June 1959, the stations made the total 
observations shown in table 2. 

The outstanding single achievement was photographing the Van- 
guard experimental sphere (1958 82). This object, 6 inches in diam- 
eter, was filmed at a distance of 2,400 miles, first by the station in 
Woomera, Australia, and subsequently, at comparable ranges, by 
several others, 

THE STATION OBSERVERS 


Originally, the Observatory had determined that two observers at 
each station would be a sufficient number, although in fact in the very 
early days usually each station was manned by only one. This meant 
that the observer had to be an electrician, a mechanic, a maintenance 
man, a carpenter, a computer, and, of course, an observer. Typically, 
he made two or three observations a night. 

Even when each station was staffed with two men, the increasing 
load proved to be too much, so that by mid-1958, the Observatory had 
decided that at least three trained observers were necessary at each 
station to ensure continuous and eflicient operation. As a consequence, 


766—-746—65——23 


328 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


TABLE 2.—Number of Baker-Nunn Observations (Separated by More Than 8 
Minutes) October 1957 thru June 1959 


Baker-Nunn Camera Station 


fo} iss] 
tellite ¥ & 3 er sat 
ci 23 |e | de | os |<2|-¢|-8|_2| glee les|aa] 
Be Ee ae ge ae =e 5s 58 B& | 58 Ee ae 
1957 whe ed hey Mota tne RD EL BN CR TC aI 3 
1058 quelle 116 | 90 |109 | 55 | 88 {102 |145 | 35 | 67 | 56 | 40 |116 | 1,014 
1958 B1____- POM Bara bh Bile Bal Ah BOW esd 2s Fate Nats 199 
1958 82.___- OFT NA Oy Td. SLO. lb aldo eo aaa) eter 40) 129 
Ey aah 14 1933136") 85 |) 28 [coh mStar it a eoel ce abe 215 
1958 52... _- 67 | 43 | 87 | 80 | 93 | 54 | 50 | 35 | 35 | 18 | 15 | 29 606 
195863 2 le epee oe PN PR (MI eu loser pate | Geet ce 2 
L(y ae cl eR (es He en og gpa Miele en hry east Ba Sesol pt 13 
os ae 34. (794) 461 39) 54-1) 971 ga) Sead) Alte 319 
1958 ¢1____- 71 Ma Yelp fy a cae ba Cys fare kt esc lee S| Deed Pen) 50 


1959 ai--222 123 | 56 {121 | 66 | 48 | 76 {103 | 45 | 73 | 60 | 45 | 75 891 
TORO =o 103 | 51 {120 | 53 | 46 | 44 |102 | 35 | 71 | 50 | 39] 71 785 


Total per 
station_|504 |329 |593 |346 |374 |320 [520 |194 |289 |224 |176 |357 | 4, 226 


a recruiting program was initiated to find new men for the job. In- 
quiries were circulated to astronomical and associated scientific de- 
partments of major American colleges and universities, and courtesy 
notices were placed in various technical publications. The response 
was slow, and many of those who applied were not suited for the work. 
Meanwhile, a second observer training program in New Mexico began 
in late January 1958, with Dr. Henize and Messrs. Burkhead and 
Ledwith instructing the apprentices. New training sessions continued 
in the months that followed, so that by July 1959 a total of 82 pro- 
spective observers had been instructed in the use of the camera and its 
related equipment. 

The original pattern of personalities and of work at the station was 
largely set by the character of the first observers. In the early months, 
running a Baker-Nunn camera station was very much a do-it-yourself 
project, a one-man project, at best a two-man project. The program 
demanded, and received, the devoted efforts of men who were willing 
to work 80 to 100 hours a week. 

Enthusiasm was an obvious necessity as were considerable intelli- 
gence and an ability to understand and work with mechanical things. 
Perhaps the most important characteristic required was a sense of 
humor, for it often proved the buffer against circumstances that might 
otherwise have been unbearable. 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 329 


The observers were not theoreticians. Their interest was chiefly 
applied rather than pure science. Only one of them, Dr. Kozai, was 
successful both as a tracker of satellites and as an analyzer of data. 
After a period at the station in Japan, he joined the staff at Cambridge 
and achieved significant results in the use of observations in studies 
of the upper atmosphere and of the geopotential. 

As additional observers joined the program, the work at each station 
became more and more a team effort, so that in addition to the minimum 
level of technical competence, there developed the need for people to 
work together, and for someone to guide and direct them. From this 
change emerged the concept of a chief who bore responsibility for the 
running of the station. Further, there developed necessarily a basic 
routine for getting things done and at the same time a loss of some 
of the romantic thrill that had resulted from accomplishing single- 
handedly the seemingly impossible. This was to result in major 
changes later in the kind of person needed in the program. 

One of the most interesting aspects of the field program was the 
evolution of a kind of migratory system. Observers moved from one 
station to another, and often spent some time doing work at head- 
quarters in Cambridge. This crossfertilization was a deliberate effort 
on the part of the people in Cambridge to make the observers see the 
program as a whole and to understand the needs at headquarters as 
well as the needs in the field. As a consequence, there came about a 
better rapport between the two groups. 

Learning in the field was in many ways a unique experience in this 
day and age. The group had to adjust to an often trying situation, 
had constantly to be developing new techniques, and to find related or 
allied interests at the station, such as geology, seismology, and arche- 
ology, to occupy their spare time profitably as the workload at the 
station became less burdensome. 

The attitude of the observer toward his job was, of course, of crucial 
importance. At some stations there tended to be an unhealthy compe- 
tition among the observers, which led to friction that interfered with 
the productivity of the group. Frequently there had to be a shake- 
down period when new observers arrived, a time during which the 
energies devoted to internal dissension had instead to be directed 
toward the job at hand. 

Yet, there was always a great sense of responsibility among the 
observers so that in spite of some personal friction and despite the 
fact that the early staff was small, no station ever went unmanned. 

Not only did the observers have to learn to live and work together; 
they also had to learn to live and work with local people. Ata number 
of stations, the experiences of the nationals with Americans had been 
limited to military missions and to commercial enterprises. The 
personnel of the Baker-Nunn camera station proved a refreshing 


330 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


change. From the beginning, the local people could see what the 
observers were doing and realize immediately that it had no military 
connotations, was not intended to make money from them, and had no 
purposes other than those of peaceful scientific work. There was never 
anything secret about the optical tracking of satellites. 

On the other hand, the actual meaning of the tracking of satellites 
and the worldwide effort of the IGY were not always readily under- 
stood in some communities. The observers had to make an effort, 
therefore, to reach and teach the people. This they did by giving 
lectures, contributing equipment and photographs for various shows, 
inviting local school classes to tour the station, and declaring certain 
days “open house” at the station so that anyone and everyone could 
visit. In addition, many observers went into the local communities 
to help out in whatever ways they could. In some instances this meant 
the loan of tools or the sending of a truck. In others, it meant setting 
up of classes to teach English to the people. At the station in Peru 
the observers helped out greatly after the earthquake of 1959. In 
Iran, the observers taught hospital personnel how to build and use 
needed medical equipment, and even constructed an incubator for 
babies. 

Perhaps most important, each station became a center of information 
about artificial earth satellites, a clearing-house for celestial activity. 
It was the policy of the Smithsonian and the aim of the observers to 
have each station function locally in a manner smiliar to that of the 
Observatory in Cambridge—as a source of public information, as a 
means of informing people of astronomy and the space program. 

From the first, the Observatory encouraged the observers to take 
their wives and children with them, a policy that served to broaden 
the contacts between station personnel and the local people, and that 
added stability to the whole arrangement. The reactions of the wives 
varied as one would expect. Their attitudes were reflected in a series 
of round-robin news letters that were issued from 1958 through 1961. 

For some of the wives, life at the station proved to be flat, stale, 
and unprofitable. They seemed to lead lives of constant frustration 
and fear—frustration because life at a foreign station was not like life 
in America, and fear because disease and other dangers seemed always 
to be at hand. These women, of course, failed almost completely to 
integrate with the local community and to learn from the experience. 
One of the best symbolic expressions of this failure was the inclusion 
in one of the news letters of an exotic recipe from Harper’s Bazaar! 

For others, however, it was a richly rewarding experience. The 
wives not only made pleasant homes for their husbands overseas, but 
also participated as much as they could in community affairs. They 
taught in local schools, conducted special adult classes in English, 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 331 


went on archeological and other field trips with their husbands, learned 
the local language, and by such means filled their days with activity. 

No less a range of response occurred among the observers themselves. 
Some could hardly wait to return to the United States. Others, work- 
ing under the happiest of circumstances for themselves, flourished 
and gained a new kind of education that perhaps would not in those 
years have been possible in any other way. 

As individuals and as families, they learned that entertainment 
could come without mechanical means, such as radio and TV. The 
emphasis was on participation. One could not in this situation be a 
passive individual. He had to take part in the life going on around 
him if he himself wished to enjoy life. It was, in the words of one 
observer, “a return to fundamental human relationships.” 

It could be, and for many was, in every respect a broadening and 
fascinating experience. The observers and their families began to 
think “globally.” There developed the notion that the world was full 
of people not unlike themselves. For in spite of differences, the 
similarities between observers and nationals were overwhelming. And 
even the differences became less and less as the language barrier was 
surmounted. 

Perhaps what had to be learned was best summarized in a brief 
essay that Paul Wankowicz wrote while in Iran: 


Persia is a country of melons. They come in ail sizes, shapes, and colors, and 
the supply seems almost inexhaustible. 

In Iran, as in the United States, the problem remains the same. The cold, 
silent outside of the melon tells very little of what you will find inside. 

The most common method of determining whether a melon is ripe is the 
thump system, which entails gently thumping it with your knuckles. If the 
thump is hollow and resounding the melon is good. If it is hard, with a bell- 
like sound, then the melon is green. And, of course, if your fingers sink into it, 
the melon is rotten. Melons tend, however, to vary greatly in their thump 
quality. 

The next method depends on the structural quality of the shell. If you gently 
squash the melon in the middle it will elongate slightly so that you can feel 
its springiness. You possibly can develop a feel for the tensile strength of the 
outside and the compression that the seeds and pith will take on the inside, as 
well as of the stiffness of the meat between. Of course, slightly later you 
discover that melons vary according to the region in which they were grown. 
The melons from villages that skimp on water or have lazy jube diggers tend 
toward a harder inside. So the tensile-strength analysis does not yield 
thoroughly satisfactory results. 

For the next step, you decide that the condition of the melon can be deter- 
mined from the little grey patch on the bottom, which has continually rested on 
the ground. This patch tends to be slightly softer than the rest of the melon 
because of the moisture that it has picked up from the ground, and the shade 
in which it has been kept as the melon ripened. If it is too soft the melon is 
probably over-ripe. If it is too hard, moisture of the ground hasn’t had time 
to work on it, and the melon is probably unripe. But when you have found one 


332 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


that you think is the king of all melons, you still discover that there are melons 
that absolutely defy the scientific approach. 

After you pass this stage you are considered an expert if you develop the final 
and fool-proof system. The secret of success and the secret of good melon 
lunches in Iran is very simple. You walk up to the storekeeper and say: “Give 
me one good melon please.” This roughly runs: “Lotfan yeki harbuse hoob bedi 
hemen.” When he hands it to you you ask him in a rising inflection: ‘““Hoob ast?” 
which means: “Is it good?” And if you have dealt with him before so he 
knows that you are a man of the world, then he is sure to give you a delicious 
melon. This system does not fail! 

The intense experience of life at an overseas station, and of tracking 
satellites, considerably altered everyone who participated in it. The 
observer was no longer the same man as when he started in the system; 
similarly, his wife and children had changed. Each had matured in 
his own individual way. And in general, those who left the project 
for one reason or another found that their experiences were both cul- 
turally and financially profitable. 

Yet, a fundamental dilemma still remained. The kinds of people 
who did the kinds of things that the Observatory wanted in those early 
months—those who could combine technical knowledge with an ability 
to work with people—became less and less contented with the situation 
as the work became increasingly routine and therefore offered fewer 
and fewer rewards. This was to become a crucial issue at the first 
station chiefs’ conference in mid-1959. 


COMMUNICATIONS 


In the first half of 1958, generally satisfactory communications 
were established at all of the tracking stations. A number were linked 
with Cambridge through the military network and others by com- 
mercial wire services and teletype. At that time the possibility of 
direct radio linkage with certain of the stations was considered, but 
since the existing system was working efficiently, there did not seem 
any need for such an arrangement. By March of 1958, the communi- 
cations center in Cambridge was handling nearly 400,000 words per 
month. 

Inevitably, there were delays of one kind or another; messages were 
lost; and sometimes the wrong material or information was sent to 
the stations. At one point, the chief observer at one station sent the 
following memorandum to headquarters in Cambridge: “We have re- 
ceived the material on ‘stuffing’ and I might say it will come in handy 
if we have any more visitors before we get this station into full oper- 
ation. Since I failed to bring along my aqualung, I feel that it is 
inadvisable to try collecting invertebrate animals other than insects 
and molluscs. There are, however, thousands of fossils just a few 
hundred yards down the hill from the station, so perhaps Ill try my 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 333 


hand at this operation when I have time.” He had been sent by 
mistake a packet from the Smithsonian U.S. National Museum. 

By mid-1958, excellent routines for the exchange of satellite in- 
formation had been worked out. Tapes were cut and ready for im- 
mediate transmission to all stations giving the news that a satellite had 
been launched. 

Another tape was cut stating that the satellite went into orbit at a 
particular time, and this information was then sent to the station. 
Following this second message, still another gave all the latest 
information received on the satellite itself—its size, weight, revolution, 
perigee, apogee, etc. 

There was constant improvement of the system and efforts to over- 
come annoying delays. By early 1959, the communications center was 
already beginning to tie into the services of the National Aeronautics 
and Space Administration. Thus, the teletype services to South 
Africa were put through NASA facilities, and similar arrangements 
were being discussed for lines to Australia and Peru. By March, a 
privately leased teletype line was in operation between the head- 
quarters in Cambridge and the Space Control Center in Washington, 


D.C. 
PHOTOREDUCTION 


The first Baker-Nunn films of satellite transits were tediously re- 
duced at the stations, and information on the time and coordinates of 
the satellite image was rushed to Cambridge by cable. The time 
shown on the slave clock was, of course, directly photographed on the 
film. The position of the satellite image was determined in relation 
to the background of stars. These measurements were sufficiently 
good for the generation of new predictions of satellite passages and 
for preliminary estimates of atmospheric density and other phe- 
nomena. They did not, however, provide nearly so precise information 
as the Baker-Nunn camera was capable of offering. In fact, these 
measurements of position were inaccurate on the average between 60 
and 90 seconds of arc, which might represent for a low-orbiting satel- 
lite as much as 1,000 feet in space. 

There arose, therefore, the necessity for finding a much more ac- 
curate, reliable, and rapid means of reducing the films. As early as 
March 1957, an experimental machine for measuring Baker-Nunn film 
was constructed ; it incorporated a film backup plate similar to that 
used in the camera so that angular distances could be measured 
directly. In the ensuing months, however, as construction of the first 
Baker-Nunn camera was rushed to completion, and then as the first 
satellites were launched and tracked, this aspect of the program re- 
ceived relatively little attention. It was not until early 1958 that the 
staff of the Observatory formally outlined the possible equipment and 


334 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


procedures by which the precise reduction of film might be 
accomplished. 

The objectives of this phase of the work were detailed as follows: 
(1) to establish means of defining the film images that were measurable 
and of locating them on the film when they were not apparent to the 
naked eye; (2) to test the several machines available for the measuring 
procedures; (8) to select and identify the reference stars in the back- 
ground; and (4) to estimate satellite magnitudes and variations in 
brightness. 

Procedures were set up for filing and indexing all films received 
from the Baker-Nunn camera stations and for sending to them pre- 
liminary comments on the quality of the films themselves. Each film 
was searched for satellite images not detected during field reduction. 
For this purpose, film viewers and binocular microscopes were used. 
With magnifications of 6.6 < and 20 X, a film could be scanned in two 
sweeps, and then the microscope zeroed in on possible satellite images. 
There was the suggestion that Mr. Nunn design a special blink-micro- 
scope for detailed searching of the Baker-Nunn films; this was never 
built, however, because commercially available microscopes proved 
wholly adequate to the job. 

Two sophisticated machines for measuring positions on the film 
were chosen for test: the Mann two-screw comparator, and the Van 
Biesbroeck goniometer. Preliminary estimates suggested that the 
former might be used on those films that, because of excellent images 
and favorable distribution of reference stars, might produce the most 
refined measurements, while the latter would provide sufficient accu- 
racy for run-of-the-mill films. However, before any decision was 
made, a detailed comparison of the two machines had to be undertaken. 

On the Van Biesbroeck photogoniometer the film is stretched to a 
curvature similar to that at the focal surface of the Baker-Nunn 
camera. The film is then positioned in a manner similar to that of the 
strip in the Baker-Nunn camera itself. The plate takes the original 
orientation with the use of known stars, and the measurer points a 
microscope to the satellite image. The images are measured with a 
precision goniometer placed in the center of the curved film. The 
film holder is shifted toward the goniometer or away from it until 
the angular distance of the selected stars (about 20 to 25 degrees 
apart), as measured with the goniometer, satisfactorily approximates 
the angular distance of these stars in the sky. Then the film holder 
is moved in until the frame appears in the position in which the film 
was taken; the horizontal plane corresponds to the celestial equator. 
The differences in horizontal circular readings now equal the differences 
in right ascension, and the differences in vertical circular readings 
equal those in declination. 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 335 


The differences between the theodolite readings for the satellite and 
any one of the reference stars give a value for the satellite position. 
The mean of the values obtained for all the reference stars is accepted 
for the final position of the satellite. The smallest readable unit on 
the Van Biesbroeck goniometer is 1 second of arc. 

With the Mann machine, the film is placed on the comparator near a 
zero-degree orientation; i.e., with the oscilloscope edge toward the 
measurer. The satellite image is brought to a point near the center 
of the target screen. The stage of the Mann machine is rotated until 
the trail of the satellite is as nearly parallel with the horizontal cross- 
hair as is possible, and the stage is locked. The satellite image (or 
central break) is brought to the cross-hair intersection. The two 
plane coordinates, x and y, of the reference stars and the satellite are 
then measured. The stage of the Mann machine is then rotated 180° 
and the measurements are repeated. This is done to eliminate the 
magnitude error—a systematic but not a constant error of the observer. 

For the computation of the 6 plate constants, the measurer used 6 
stars, employing the least-squares method to compute the 6 constants 
from 12 equations. When there were large residuals, one or two refer- 
ence stars were sometimes omitted. If large residuals still remained, 
he repeated the measurements, never using fewer than four comparison 
stars. 

A measuring accuracy of 1 micron (which corresponds to 0.4 second 
of arc on the Baker-Nunn films) or better can be achieved with the 
Mann comparator. 

Before the introduction of the completely automatic equipment the 
x and y coordinates were read by eye and written down by hand. 
These data as well as the catalog data on the reference stars were 
punched on tape by a Flexowriter and the position of the satellite was 
computed by a Burroughs E-101 computer using the Flexowriter tape 
as input. The computation with this machine took about 30 to 40 
minutes. 

As a preliminary step, the two machines were used to locate “un- 
known” stars from the Yale catalog by measuring their positions 
relative to nearby reference stars also selected from the Yale catalog. 
By this means, the nature and extent of several sources of error could be 
determined. First, of course, there were the errors inherent in the 
machines themselves. For example, the Mann engine was operated by 
means of a periodic screw and a secular screw; each of these mecha- 
nisms had to be evaluated. 

Second, there was the human element. Each person using the 
machine would do so in his own particular way; he would handle the 
machine in an individual fashion and would be more or less accurate 
compared to other measurers. The personal error could in general 
be eliminated, however, by making direct and reverse measurements of 


336 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


the unknown star and reference stars in the preliminary testing of the 
machines. 

Third, there inevitably would be errors in the setting of the machine. 
Preliminary estimates indicated, for example, that when images of 
40-micron diameter were measured with the Mann machine, there was, 
in the settings, a consistent and repeatable error of 1 micron on the 
average. 

A further error could be introduced by the camera itself, although 
it seemed unlikely that the geometry of the Baker-Nunn system would 
cause any very considerable error of this sort. In any case, it had to 
be determined whether the image of the star on the film would be of 
such a magnitude as to introduce a significant variation in the 
measurements. 

Finally, and most importantly, distortion of the film as placed in the 
machine might introduce a substantial error. That distortion would 
not be the same in every direction, and therefore positions reduced with 
linear plate constants might not be reliable. However, over small 
distances of 1 or 2 centimeters of film, it was expected that fluctuations 
in the plate-scale would be small, not exceeding 1 or 2 seconds of are. 
The staff devised a simple method of evaluating this problem by meas- 
uring the same grouping of stars on several separate frames and then 
studying the residuals and positions from frame to frame. 

By mid-1958, the photoreduction section had developed an efficient 
system of filing the films, had undertaken the searching of films with 
microscope viewer, and was planning the techniques for measuring the 
satellite images on the films. Again, this was a two-fold problem, 
one of developing appropriate methods, and the other, at the same time, 
of training personnel to use them. 

Precision reduction of the Baker-Nunn films of artificial satellites 
began in June 1958, and by the end of September the positions of some 
69 satellite images had been precisely determined. It was initially a 
very slow procedure; a trained operator could measure between four 
and six satellite images per day with either the Van Biesbroeck or the 
Mann measuring engine. 

The initial phases of the work had been carried out by Pedro 
Kokaras, under the immediate supervision of Drs. Whipple, Hynek, 
and Henize. In October, however, Dr. Karoly Lassovszky, a refugee 
from Hungary, joined the staff as astronomer in charge of photo- 
reduction. Mr. Kokaras then served as his administrative and techni- 
cal assistant and supervised the work of the measurers. 

During the last quarter of 1958, some preliminary evaluations of the 
two measuring engines were possible. In those 3 months, 94 images 
were measured on a modified Van Biesbroeck machine, with a mean 
estimated probable error of 7.4 seconds of are in right ascension, and 
5.5 seconds of arc in declination. 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 337 


Meanwhile, the staff was working on the problem of measuring films 
with the Mann machine. The positions of nine images were reduced 
with a probable error in right ascension of 1.05 seconds of arc, and 
in declination of 0.54 second of arc. At the same time, a program 
was written for the reduction of measurements made by this machine 
so that computations that required 1 or 2 days by hand could now be 
performed on a Burroughs E-101 electronic computer in some 15 
minutes. This was the first step toward automating as much of the 
procedure as possible. 

As a further step to facilitate the work, a special project was under- 
taken to assign Yale catalog numbers to the BD and CD star charts. 

Precision reduction of the films continued, so that in the first quarter 
of 1959, a total of 155 satellite images were measured and in the 
second quarter 109. Meanwhile, however, the Baker-Nunn stations 
were taking films at a considerably faster rate; during the same 
6-month period, more than 4,000 films were received in Cambridge. 
Clearly, more rapid and efficient means of measuring the films remained 
to be found and put into practice. 


COMPUTATIONS 


Before Explorer I was launched early in 1958, the Observatory had 
developed two computer programs that were to be the basis for the 
determination of orbits and the preparation of predictions for the next 
year and a half (see Part 2 of this history ”). 

From a set of observations of a satellite the Herrick-Briggs-Slowey 
initial orbit determination program was used to derive the orbit with- 
out any previous knowledge of it. With a program of this type, the 
accuracy cannot be high since usually only three observations are 
used for the calculation of an orbit. However, an initial concept of 
the elements of the orbit can be obtained. 

Two major improvements were soon made in the program. First, 
an empirical correction for air drag used an expression for the nodal 
period as input and computed the corrections to the observations 
necessary to give the osculating orbit at the time of the first observa- 
tion. The second provided an alternate method of interpolation when 
the usual method failed. In this mode of operation, the program must 
find any and all elliptical solutions in a given range that fitted the 
observations. 

By mid-1958 the program was fully debugged, tested, and com- 
pletely operational in all of its essential parts. Proof of the usefulness 
and accuracy of the program was demonstrated by its application to 
the tracking of 1958 Delta. The program was used not only to obtain 
an initial orbit but also to follow the changes in the orbital elements. 


2 See footnote 1 on page 315. 


338 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Thereafter a number of simple, but relatively important refinements 
were made in the program as the computations group of the Observa- 
tory became more sophisticated in their approach. 

The second program was the subsatellite procedure, developed by 
Dr, Luigi Jacchia, which provided a quick analysis of incoming ob- 
servations. From each observation, a subsatellite point was computed 
from a given set of orbital elements derived from the initial deter- 
mination program. From the subsatellite points, the position and time 
of the crossing of the ascending node were computed, as well as the 
nearest perigee crossing. A plot of these quantities was sufficient to 
tell whether the observation was good or bad. 

The subsatellite program could be used to predict all the modifica- 
tions of the orbit. One had only to follow the position of the satellite ; 
therefore, air drag could be determined as a byproduct of the program. 
it was an empirical approach, but the modifications of the orbit were 
observed; from these one could deduce theoretically the changes of 
the orbit. Again, during the months that followed, the staff was to 
make various improvements to this program. 

Using input from the subsatellite program, the ephemeris 0 gave 
the time of crossing of a satellite at various parallels—10°, 20°, 30°, 
ete.—with height, correction for time, angle of trajectory, and so forth, 
so that an observer with a minimum amount of calculation could work 
out fairly accurately the appearance of a satellite transit from his 
particular position. This program was started shortly after Sputnik I 
was launched, and became the basic prediction procedure for Moon- 
watch teams and for people interested in making their own observa- 
tions of the satellite. 

For the Baker-Nunn camera stations, however, a somewhat more 
complex ephemeris was required. By early 1958, the basic program- 
ing of the detailed station ephemeris was completed and debugging 
was in process. Not until a year later, however, was the program fully 
operational. By February of 1959, it had proved itself to be com- 
pletely satisfactory and thereafter only minor refinements were made. 

Meanwhile, during the latter part of 1957 and continuing for sev- 
eral years, Dr. Cunningham’s major project was to develop a very 
precise method of deriving, from the details of the equations of 
motion, the position of a satellite as a function of time. This ap- 
proach meant starting with an initial position of the satellite in terms 
of its velocity and time. Then, by numerical integration, which 
simply means step-by-step calculations using intervals of perhaps 
one minute or less in time, the position of the satellite is computed. 
This numerical integration program represents a difficult procedure 
if one wishes to carry out the calculations for, let us say, 10 days in 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 339 


which time the satellite may perform as many as 150 revolutions 
around the earth. During this period, any errors made by not com- 
puting enough significant figures tend to accumulate. 

Cunningham’s effort was aimed at constructing a program that 
could be used as a standard reference for computing accurate, defini- 
tive orbits after all the observations were in, and for checking more 
approximate theories. His work was not intended to provide a prac- 
tical approach to computing orbits on a day-to-day basis, for his 
program required at least one minute to compute a single orbit of 
perhaps an hour and a half. 

By mid-1958, the program was being debugged and checked out. 
At the same time, it was being modified so that elements of it could 
be included in the differential correction program of Dr. Lautman. 

The latter program had been completed by late 1958, thus providing 
an extremely accurate method of correcting orbits of satellites, with 
or without drag. Again, the large amount of computer time necessary 
for its operation precluded its use for day-by-day corrections and 
ephemerides. The Observatory expected, however, that its accuracy 
and general applicability would result in its use as a powerful tool for 
analysis, especially when geodetic satellites were available. 

Both of these programs required that the magnitude of satellite 
drag, the size and shape of the satellite, and other physical parameters 
be known and included in the calculations. In contrast, a differential 
orbit improvement program developed by Dr. George Veis included 
virtually everything as unknown and approached the problem purely 
as one of defining the orbit without having recourse to theory. 
The theory came afterward once the motion of the satellite had been 
determined. 

The Russians had developed such a program, which seemed the most 
practical way to compute orbits for generating predictions. Mean- 
while, Veis had included in his doctoral dissertation at Ohio State a 
chapter on satellite-orbit computing that contained all the features of 
the Russian program. His method was entirely satisfactory from 
every point of view. He had worked it out independently and had not 
the slightest notion of what was being done elsewhere. When Dr. 
Whipple learned of the features of Dr. Veis’ program, he asked that it 
be set up as quickly as possible for use at the Observatory. 

Dr. Veis’ program had originally been developed for geodetic pur- 
poses, that is, he planned to use it to determine precisely the positions 
of stations from which observations of satellites were made. The 
problem now was to invert that program in such a way that, the posi- 
tions of the Baker-Nunn stations being relatively well known, the time 
and position of satellites could be determined from observations made 
from those stations. 


340 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


In the summer of 1958, Dr. Veis, assisted by Charles Moore, a 
student at M.I.T., modified the program so as to omit its geodetic 
aspects. By the end of the year, they had a working program, al- 
though it still needed a good deal of effort to smooth out difficulties. 
In the spring of 1959, Dr. Veis presented a paper on this technique, 
at the N.A.S.A. conference on Orbit and Space Trajectory Determina- 
tion in Washington; the program itself went into routine operation 
at about the same time. 

This differential orbit improvement program, with the modifications 
that have been made since its inception, has proved to be the work- 
horse of the computing effort of the Observatory. In fact, it 
has so far exceeded its original purpose that it continues in the 
mid-1960’s to be the best program for correcting orbits and has been 
used for the highly precise geodetic work of Imre Izsak and others, 
as well as for further refinement of measurements of upper atmos- 
pheric densities and temperatures. 

Various other programs, many of them highly specialized, were 
also undertaken by the computations group of the Observatory in 
this period. Two merit special attention, since they were to have 
important bearing on the development of the satellite-tracking project 
after it came under the auspices of the National Aeronautics and 
Space Administration. 

Mr. Slowey began a study of observing techniques and orbit deter- 
mination methods relating to long-arc satellite transits. A primary 
purpose of long-arc observations would be to make simultaneous sight- 
ings of a satellite from two or more Baker-Nunn camera stations; the 
resultant data could be used to determine more exactly the geodetic 
positions of the stations themselves. 

Dr. Veis initiated a long-range program of establishing a star 
catalog in puncheard format. This project would in time result in 
the preparation of the famous SAO catalog giving the positions and 
other data on more than a quarter of a million stars. 

While these and other programs were being developed, the com- 
putations group carried on its day-to-day activities with increasing 
efficiency and success. In the first quarter of 1958 they processed 
approximately 2,500 satellite observations, including some from Mini- 
track. This number steadily grew during the months that followed, 
so that from April to June of 1959, more than 12,000 observations 
were processed. The group achieved a similarly spectacular increase 
in the number of predictions of satellite transits sent to the 12 Baker- 
Nunn stations. From the meager beginnings late in 1957, the figure 
rose to 1,700 for the last 3 months of 1958, and to 6,700 for April 
through June of 1959. 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 341 
RESEARCH AND ANALYSIS 


Once satellites had been launched and tracked, and observations of 
them reduced to precise statements of time and position, there re- 
mained the most important job—the use of these data for scientific 
purposes. Satellite orbits are sensitive to a number of influences—the 
earth’s gravitation, atmospheric density (which changes with both 
electromagnetic and corpuscular solar radiation), and the pull of the 
sun and the moon. By means of powerful mathematical tools, includ- 
ing computer programs especially developed for the purpose, scientists 
are able to separate these influences from one another and to measure 
them individually. From this study have come some of the most 
exciting and significant discoveries of the space age. 

Late in 1957 Dr. Allen Hynek, associate director of the Observatory, 
outlined such a program of satellite research and analysis. He pro- 
posed to reduce and analyze the data from visual and photographic 
observations of earth satellites: “Data are now being received at the 
Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory from stations and observa- 
tories on a worldwide basis. . . . The project would extend the present 
work to future satellites, conduct basic research on the reduced data 
with the objectives of determining values of upper atmosphere density, 
geodetic parameters, and the value of gravity in geopotential. Pre- 
liminary results will be published in special project reports for rapid 
dissemination among the scientific community and final results will 
be published in standard scientific journals.” 

Already the Observatory had undertaken such a program, and had 
issued six Special Reports on Sputniks I and IJ, including a prelimi- 
nary estimate on upper atmospheric density derived from observa- 
tions of Satellites 1957 Alpha and Beta. The call now was for a 
greatly expanded project that could adequately handle the many data 
and derive maximum scientific results from them. 

By mid-1958, when the project was well under way, Dr. Whipple 
wrote to Mr. Odishaw: “I want to underscore the real need for more 
scientists and money for rapid reduction and interpretation of the data 
obtained. In my opinion this problem will reach crucial proportions 
not only in the rocket and satellite fields but also in other IGY areas 
where you are faced with the accumulation of a considerable amount 
of raw data in very complex form.” More scientists and more monies 
were forthcoming, and the Observatory developed a major program of 
research and analysis. 

The plan of the IGY was to launch satellites that could contribute 
to the gathering of information about the earth during those 18 


342 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


months. The period from July 1957 through December 1958 had been 
selected to coincide with maximum activity in the sun. Since solar 
phenomena involving ultraviolet and corpuscular radiation cannot be 
observed on the ground because the atmosphere cuts off most or all 
of their effects, the satellites were to carry instrumentation that would 
measure these and other astrophysical events and telemeter the data 
to ground stations. 

The initial purpose of the Observatory’s program for the optical 
tracking of satellites was primarily surveillance—that is, to keep the 
object in view as it went around the earth, particularly if its radio 
transmitter failed for one reason or another. In fact, the transmitters 
in several of the first satellites did fail, so that the optical system was 
often the only means of tracking. 

The Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory planned also and more 
importantly to make secondary use of these satellites. It was to track 
them as passive objects and analyze the resultant data to derive new 
knowledge about the earth and its atmosphere. 

The satellites could, of course, be tracked by other means—radio, 
radar, and doppler measurements in particular. At the time, however, 
none of these was nearly so accurate as the optical techniques de- 
veloped by the Observatory. Optical tracking was based on astro- 
nomical methods that had been refined over a long period of time and 
were well understood by scientists. ‘The other methods were relatively 
new, and until actually employed in the tracking of a satellite were not 
wholly predictable. These techniques were quickly refined following 
the launching of Sputnik I. 

The first American discoveries from satellites were made almost 
entirely with Moonwatch observations of Satellites 1957 Alpha and 
Beta. For Satellite 1958 Alpha the observations were primarily 
Baker-Nunn. And for Vanguard I, the observations were mainly 
Minitrack, because the satellite was too faint except for occasional ob- 
servations by the Baker-Nunn cameras. All of these observations 
were used for research purposes and it was Vanguard I from which 
the most important early determinations concerning the structure and 
variation of the upper atmosphere were derived. These facts serve 
to emphasize once again the close and necessary cooperation that 
existed among the projects of the IGY and that continues today 
among the various programs of the U.S. space effort. 

The first satellite research of the Observatory concerned the upper 
atmosphere. The atmosphere had already been explored by balloons 
and probed by rockets to a height of about 200 kms., and approximate 
profiles of temperature, density, and composition drawn for that re- 
gion. What scientists now wished to do was to refine that picture and 
to extend it to the boundary of the interplanetary medium. They 
had realized from the first, of course, that passive satellites could be 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 343 


used for the determination of atmospheric density and temperature. 
They would thus be able to obtain corrections to the profiles that had 
been more or less guesswork before the first satellites were launched. 
What they had not realized was that there were such large variations 
of the atmospheric density related to phenomena outside the earth 
and that the satellites, simply through the irregularities of their mo- 
tions, could monitor those variations. 
Dr. Jacchia has described the motion of a satellite in orbit : 


In a first approximation, then, we can say that the satellite describes an 
elliptical orbit, but the plane of this ellipse slowly rotates, and the major axis 
of the ellipse rotates in this plane. Moreover, we shall find small periodic 
deviations from the elliptic motion in the course of one revolution. The motions 
of the orbital plane and of the major axis are progressive and slow when com- 
pared to the orbital motion; they are called secular perturbations, a term taken 
from the theory of planetary motions, in which the period of such perturbations 
amounts to many centuries. All the other gravitational perturbations are much 
smaller and of an oscillatory character, and are called periodic perturbations. 


Atmospheric density causes a “drag” on the motion of the satellites. 
Continuing with Dr. Jacchia’s description : 


This atmospheric drag has seemingly paradoxical effects. While a gun pro- 
jectile is decelerated by drag in the course of its trajectory, the same drag accel- 
erates a Satellite in its orbit. The reason for this paradox is that drag causes 
the satellite to lose energy and to fall to smaller orbits in which the period of 
revolution is shorter. Although the kinetic energy of the satellite increases, 
the total energy involved in the course of one revolution decreases. ... 

Much information about the upper atmosphere can therefore be derived by 
analyzing the motion of satellites. The rate at which the satellite’s period de- 
creases with time—the so-called orbital acceleration—yields a value for the 
atmospheric density at perigee height. True, to have an accurate determination 
of density we must first know how the density varies with atmospheric height 
(the local “scale height”). Then we must have an exact knowledge of the drag 
mechanism, and we must make sure that no drag other than atmospheric drag 
operates on the satellites. And finally we must know the exact physical char- 
acteristics of the satellite (if the satellite is a sphere, the problem is relatively 
simple ; not quite so simple if it is a cylinder or an irregular body). 


At a meeting at the Observatory in 1957, scientists adopted a model 
atmosphere based on the latest results from rocket and balloon explor- 
ations. Virtually all research to that date consistently underestimated 
atmospheric densities above 100 km. Before any satellites were 
launched, Dr. Theodore E. Sterne of the Observatory’s staff worked 
out a theory of orbital variations due to drag. However, he and other 
scientists prayerfully hoped that the drag would be so small that in 
fact it could be taken into account by empirical corrections in orbit 
computations; that is, they expected that once the satellite was up, 
they could then best determine corrections for atmospheric drag to be 
included in the computations. 

The first efforts to derive the orbit of Sputnik I, launched October 4, 


1957, from early observations by Moonwatch teams convinced sci- 
766-746—65——24 


344 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


entists that at the altitude of its perigee—approximately 220 kms. 
above the earth—there was a good deal more atmospheric density than 
had been anticipated. On November 6, the Observatory and the U.S. 
Naval Research Laboratory jointly announced preliminary results 
from the tracking of the Soviet satellite. Whereas pre-Sputnik esti- 
mates had indicated a density of 10-* grams per cubic cm., analysis of 
the orbit of Sputnik I now suggested a density of perhaps five times 
that amount. These calculations had been made by Dr. Sterne, as- 
sisted by Dr. J.S. Rinehart and Dr. G. F. Schilling. 

They had, then, the rather paradoxical situation that one of the 
reasons for sending up a satellite was to determine atmospheric den- 
sity, but that a fairly good estimate of the density was needed in order 
to compute orbits and make predictions of satellite transits. 

A milestone in research and analysis of satellite data was reached in 
May of 1958 at a meeting of the American Geophysical Union at the 
National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. There, some of 
the results on Explorers I and III were summarized. Dr. Van 
Allen presented his conclusions concerning the existence of a radia- 
tion belt around the earth. Other scientists made preliminary esti- 
mates of the concentration of meteors at the altitudes at which the 
satellites were orbiting. And Drs. Schilling and Sterne offered a sum- 
mary of tentative conclusions concerning the density of the upper 
atmosphere as derived from satellite observations; table 8, which 
appears in the Observatory’s Special Report No. 12, dated April 30, 
details their results. 

The authors noted that these estimates were made from observations 
at different geographic latitudes and that the data were too few to pro- 
vide an accurate mean value. They further cautioned that the esti- 
mates were not strictly comparable because no allowances had been 
made for seasonal, diurnal, and other sporadic variations of air den- 
sity. These were now to become a major concern in the study of 
atmospheric phenomena. 

Meanwhile, the Observatory had incorporated into its program for 
the computation of orbits the changes of period caused by air drag. 
They found, however, that they were still faced with rather serious 
errors in predictions, although not nearly so bad as they had been 
earlier. The problem was complicated by the fact that Sputnik IT and 
Explorer I were not spherical; therefore, as their orientation changed 
in space, the amount of surface against which atmospheric density 
could act to decrease the altitude and increase the speed of the satellite 
changed. 

Nevertheless, the variations in satellite drag from day to day did 
not seem accountable by considerations of the presentation area. When 
the spherical satellite Vanguard I showed the same type of oscilla- 
tions that had appeared in the orbits of Sputnik II and Explorer I, 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 345 


TABLE 3.—Atmospheric Densities Derived by Various Investigators 


Height (kilometers) Density (gm/em’) Satellite Author 
Bees See Se ue Es 105% 1958 Alpha- ---- Sterne. 
Reece Eo 14 10-% 1958 Alpha----- Sterne. 
PAT 5 eS valiant S.5:), LOPE) l9S7 a2. Harris and Jastrow. 
Pos oS ST este eh 2.5 10% 1957 a2_____--_| Royal Aircraft. 
Doonan pan © sere 2.2 107% 1957 61_____--_| Sterne and Schilling. 
3 Ne Te ee 1S By OFC? )y i LOST 2s 2S a Harris and Jastrow. 
771 Se ee Fh Gat Oe LOB Vials sts be Sterne and Schilling. 
7d Se ee ee 4.5 107% OGY (GPL SB See Sterne and Schilling. 
5? We etl a 4,0 10-8 Lovee eee Sterne. 
7) Vi) Raa ae 4.7 10-8 Ly A eae Priester et al. 
Fad tage Ne ee Rs 4.8 10-8 NOS 7vBle + 2 ee Sterne and Schilling. 
7) bp. 0) er 4,4 10-8 Gir gis) eee een ees Sterne and Schilling. 


their origin had to be sought in the atmosphere itself rather than in 
the shape of the satellite. 

Dr. Jacchia discovered that the oscillations had a period of approxi- 
mately 27 days, equal to that of the sun’s rotation, and immediately 
surmised that the cause of the variations of density in the atmosphere 
revealed by these variations of drag might be solar radiation. 

He outlined this possibility in a paper entitled “The Erratic Orbital 
Acceleration of 1957 Beta” in the April 1958 issue of Sky and T'ele- 
scope. When Dr. Wolfgang Priester of Germany studied the text, 
he noted that the curve of the drag of Sputnik II resembled the varia- 
tions of the 20-cm. radio flux from the sun. The resemblance could 
not be seen clearly because unfortunately there were just two minima 
and one maximum on the curve, and the satellite’s perigee went from 
night into day and back into night exactly at the time when the drag 
was rising and then declining. The curves did, however, appear to 
be similar. 

By the time Priester had made this analysis, Jacchia had many more 
data at hand, including several months of observations of Vanguard 
I for which he had not published any detailed accelerations. Since 
he did not have access to the 20-cm. fiux, which is measured in East 
Berlin, he made use of the 10-cm. flux which behaves very much like 
the other, and which is measured in Canada. He plotted the 10-cm. 
flux against the drag of Vanguard I. The two curves were almost 
identical: every single minimum and maximum in one was reflected in 
the other. There could no longer be any doubt of a relationship be- 
tween something that was happening in the sun and something that 
was happening in the atmosphere to affect the motion of the satellite. 

It must be emphasized that there is no direct causal relationship 
between the 10-cm. flux and the variations of the density, since the 
atmosphere is completely transparent to that radiation and therefore 


346 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


cannot be heated by it. There simply must be another kind of radia- 
tion in the sun that varies in more or less the same way as does the 
radio flux and that influences the orbit of the satellite. 

It was reasonable to assume that extreme ultraviolet radiation, 
including soft X-rays, emitted from sunspots varies in a manner 
similar to that of the 10-cm. radiation; that is, the same primary cause 
underlies the two phenomena and therefore they are in unison. If this 
is true, then the 10-cm. flux serves as a fairly accurate indicator of 
variations of the emission of the extreme ultraviolet. The latter can- 
not, of course, be observed from earth because it is completely shielded 
by the atmosphere. Its existence, however, had earlier been confirmed 
and measured by rockets lofted before the IGY. Since sunspots have 
a tendency to concentrate in a few long-lasting active areas, the radio 
flux and the extreme ultraviolet flux will show a maximum every 27 
days when the rotation of the sun brings them near the center of the 
visible disk. And since the number of sunspots greatly varies with the 
11-year solar cycle, there is a corresponding variation in the two fluxes, 
which is reflected in the heating of the atmosphere. Actually, this 
variation with the 11-year cycle is by far the largest observed in the 
atmosphere. 

This, then, was the first major discovery concerning variations of 
upper atmospheric density made from the tracking of satellites. The 
importance of this finding has frequently been compared to that of 
the Van Allen radiation belt. 

Shortly after the discovery of the 27-day variations, another kind 
was found from observations of the rocket of Sputnik III (1958 81). 
Jacchia noted that one two occasions during the lifetime of the object 
the drag increased much more suddenly than it did during the 27-day 
fluctuation. Each of these increases occurred within a matter of two 
days, one during which density rose, and the other when it fell. He 
then searched for any unusual happening on those days. They proved 
to be the dates of the only two large magnetic storms during the life- 
time of the satellite. The maximum of each storm coincided with 
the maximum of disturbance in the drag to within a fraction of a day. 
Once he computed the acceleration curves and compared them with 
the magnetic indices, he found that they were almost identical. 

Such magnetic storms are caused by solar flares. In both cases, 
in July and in September, the magnetic storms started approximately 
24 hours after the appearance of a +38 flare on the sun. 

The agent that caused the storm was corpuscular radiation. Its 
role in heating the atmosphere was completely unknown before the 
space age. Violent flares on the sun emit charged particles. When 
they are in the vicinity of our planet, they interact with its magnetic 
field and cause perturbations of the magnetic needle. The same par- 
ticles indirectly also cause the temperature of the atmosphere to in- 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 347 


crease and therefore its density at a given altitude. It must be added 
that scientists do not yet understand precisely how this heating occurs. 

The next discovery by Dr. Jacchia was that the atmosphere at a 
given height is denser in the illuminated—that is, the bright—hemi- 
sphere than it is in the night hemisphere. In other words, the atmos- 
phere bulges out toward the sun. This diurnal bulge is another phe- 
nomenon caused primarily by the extreme ultraviolet radiation from 
the sun. 

At a height of 150 km., surfaces of equal density in the atmosphere 
are nearly concentric with the earth. At higher altitudes, however, 
a slight bulging out occurs around the point that is at the same latitude 
as the subsolar point but shifted 2 hours in longitude. This bulging 
out reaches a maximum in the region between 600 and 1,000 km.; the 
bulge then decreases in the helium and hydrogen regions of the atmos- 
phere. The temperature goes up much more sharply in the bulge. 
At the height of Vanguard I, for example, the density of the atmos- 
phere in 1958-59 varied by nearly one order of magnitude across the 
bulge; the density increased by nearly one order of magnitude going 
through its center, and then decreased. 

A fourth effect of solar radiation is the semiannual variation. In 
1960 Professor H. K. Paetzold found from Dr. Jacchia’s observations 
of Vanguard I and Satellite 1958 Alpha that there are indications of a 
small semiannual oscillation in the drag. His discovery was then sub- 
stantiated by Priester and Jacchia. The maxima and minima of this 
oscillation agree with the maxima and minima of the semiannual 
oscillation in the geomagnetic indices and with the maxima and minima 
of aurorae and magnetic disturbances. 

Again, the mechanism of this variation is not understood. The 
changing dip of the magnetic axis of the earth with respect to the 
“solar wind” has been invoked to explain the effect, but this explana- 
tion seems to meet with increasing difficulties. 

From all of these observations and deductions, a new model of 
atmospheric heating resulted. The troposphere extends to between 
8 and 12 km. from the ground. The ground is heated by visible radia- 
tion; then the heat is transferred from the ground to the atmosphere by 
conduction and convection. Above the troposphere is the ozonosphere, 
the layer of atmosphere that contains a quantity of ozone which absorbs 
the near ultraviolet ; most of this region is between 25 and 40 km. above 
the earth. The layer above is heated from the ozonosphere in the same 
way that the troposphere is heated by the ground. These facts had 
already been available, however, to estimate the nature and extent of 
heating in the upper atmosphere above 100 km. 


348 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


In 1957 the most popular hypothesis on the heating of the upper 
atmosphere was Chapman’s idea that the heating occurred by con- 
duction from a hot interplanetary space that was part of the solar 
corona. The belief was that the earth moved in a thin medium with 
a temperature of something of the order of a quarter of a million to 
possibly a half-million degrees and that this heat percolated by con- 
duction into the atmosphere. This conception proved to be completely 
wrong, for in fact the temperature of the upper atmosphere above a 
given point of the earth and at a given time is just about constant from 
300 km. upward, at a relatively cool level, about 1000° to 2000° Kelvin. 

Both the extreme ultraviolet radiation and the heating energy from 
the corpuscular fiux from the sun seem to be absorbed at comparable 
heights of the order of between 100 and 200 km. above the earth. 
This layer has the same role for the upper atmosphere as the ground 
has for the troposphere, except that instead of convection there is only 
conduction. The lower regions heat the upper regions. The extreme 
ultraviolet and the heating energy from the corpuscular radiation 
directly heat the atmosphere, and then heat the layers above by 
conduction. 

The temperature of the atmosphere does not increase constantly 
as one goes upward. Actually, it increases in a tremendous leap 
in the region between 100 and 200 km., going from 200° Kelvin at 
90 km. to a possible 2000° Kelvin at maximum sun activity in a matter 
of 100 to 200 km. Then it remains stationary in the higher regions 
of the atmosphere. In other words, it is almost an inverted picture 
from what had been anticipated before the IGY. 

In summary, extreme ultraviolet radiation from the sun heats the 
atmosphere unequally in the dark and bright hemispheres and thus 
causes the diurnal effect, and it varies from day to day and therefore 
creates the erratic “27-day” effect, as well as the 11-year variations. 
Corpuscular radiation from the sun indirectly heats the atmosphere 
during magnetic storms and may or may not be related to the mys- 
terious semiannual effect. These, then, were some of the major scien- 
tific results derived from optical observations of satellites during the 
IGY. 

Scientists at the Observatory also undertook other research pro- 
grams as part of the IGY. From observations of Satellites 1957 
B1 and 1957 B2, Dr. Jacchia derived new values for the second- 
and fourth-order coefficients of the earth’s gravitational potential. 
Dr. Kozai made a theoretical study of the motion of a satellite by 
taking into account the second-, third- and fourth-order terms of the 
earth’s potential; his results provided more accurate expressions for 
the secular motions of the perigee and the node. He also developed 
a theory of secular perturbations on satellite motions caused by the 
sun and the moon. Other scientists began developing further means 


SATELLITE-TRACKING PROGRAM—HAYES 349 


for using satellite observations in geodetic studies. ‘These and other 
programs of research and analysis were to reach fruition after the 
IGY when the Satellite-Tracking Program of the Observatory came 
under the sponsorship of the National Aeronautics and Space 
Administration. 


ACHIEVEMENTS DURING THE IGY AND IGC 


When the Satellite-Tracking Program came under the National 
Aeronautics and Space Administration on July 1, 1959, the Observa- 
tory’s direct participation in the International Geophysical Year and 
the International Geophysical Cooporation ended. 

The changes, the progress, the achievements of the program during 
those years had been momentous. 

The Observatory staff—most of whom were involved in the satellite 
program in one capacity or another—grew from 38 when the 
Observatory moved to Cambridge in 1955 to a cosmopolitan group 
of more than 175 people. 

In 3 years, the Observatory built and manned a worldwide network 
of 12 stations, each equipped with a specially designed and constructed 
Baker-Nunn camera and Norrman time standard. The camera was 
so sensitive and so accurate that it photographed the Vanguard 6-inch 
sphere at a distance of some 2,400 miles; the clock could display time 
to one-thousandth of a second. By mid-1959 these 12 stations had 
made more than 4,000 photographic observations of U.S. and U.S.S.R. 
satellites launched during the IGY and IGC. 

A communications network linking the stations with headquarters 
in Cambridge handled each month 400,000 words of information on 
predictions and observations of satellite transits. 

More than 8,000 volunteers joined the Moonwatch program of visual 
observations of satellites. More than 200 teams were organized, not 
only in the United States but also throughout the world. Together, 
they made nearly 10,000 observations and were of unique value in 
locating several “lost” satellites and in observing the demise of 
Sputnik IT. 

Techniques were developed for the precise reduction of the films 
from the Baker-Nunn cameras, and by June 1959 the times and posi- 
tions recorded on the photographs were being routinely determined. 

The computations group successfully evolved a series of programs, 
among them the DOJ, for the generation of predictions to the camera 
stations and the Moonwatch teams and for the derivation of precise 
orbits. They also created a number of other significant programs for 
research and analysis. 

Scientists used the observational data to define several influences on 
the motion of satellites and thereby made new estimates of atmospheric 


350 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


density and discovered the role of solar electromagnetic and corpuscu- 
lar radiation in heating the atmosphere. Other research using satellite 
data was initiated in studies of geodesy. 

Members of the staff presented some 20 papers to scientific meetings, 
and published 30 others in leading scientific journals. The Observa- 
tory issued 27 special reports on research in space science, ranging 
in subject from observational data to plans for a flashing satellite for 
geodetic studies. In the years to follow, literally scores of other papers 
and reports based on IGY activities were to appear. 

The imaginative vision of 1955 had become a splendid reality. 


How Mountains Are Formed’ 


By R. A. LYTTLETON 


Reader in Theoretical Astronomy 
University of Cambridge 


[With 2 plates] 


THE EXISTENCE Of mountains has remained for generations one of 
the most perplexing problems of geology and geophysics despite the 
enormous amount of evidence apparently available. True, we have 
been told since childhood that mountains are due to shrinkage of the 
Earth as it cools causing corrugations as on a withered apple. But 
a purely verbal explanation of this kind represents only the first 
glimmerings of a theory. Before any theory can be regarded as satis- 
factory, it has to show that all the proposed processes would occur 
to correct numerical amount. If experiments are not possible, this 
can be done only by working out the mathematical consequences of 
physical laws. A verbal theory can keep the moon swinging around 
the Earth with a piece of cotton, but as soon as numbers are put into 
the scheme it founders. This has happened to various theories of the 
origin of mountains. 

The geologist can explore the surface of the Earth in all its detail. 
As yet, the prospector can bore down only a small distance, but he 
can examine present surface rocks and features that must formerly 
have been buried much deeper. The geologist can see sedimentary 
layers, which were originally deposited horizontally, so compressed 
from the sides as to be folded and contorted here, and sheared and 
thrusted layer-over-layer there (pl. 1, upper fig.), and also uplifted 
and turned through large angles. He can examine lands that at one 
time formed seabeds, and he can examine intrusive rocks and lavas 
poured out in seemingly gigantic amounts from volcanoes. He can 
tunnel through mountains and examine them in all their forms. This 
has been done on an immense scale but has produced few clues as to 
the ultimate cause of mountains except to show that worldwide com- 
pressive forces have been at work. The origin of the forces has 
remained a mystery. 


1 Reprinted by permission from Discovery (London), vol. 25, No. 2, February 1964. 


766—746—65 25 351 


352 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


One of the reasons for this is that the accessible material is far less 
than one-thousandth part of the whole mass of the Earth. In this 
minute proportion, the geologist nevertheless finds signs of almost 
every kind of disturbance that could be conceived, with the result that 
almost any conjecture about the Earth’s history can find some apparent 
evidence for its support. This renders the task of the theorist both 
difficult and thankless. However, one general conclusion has emerged 
from this work, and that is that the outer crust of the Earth has under- 
gone considerable horizontal shortening, as if to fit down on to a de- 
creasing and shrinking interior. The problem is to find the cause of 
this contraction. 

CONVECTION CELLS 


One obvious suggestion is that at one time the Earth rotated much 
faster than now. This would have caused it to have bulged out far 
more at the equator than at present. As the shape became less sphe- 
roidal, this would lead to crumpling at the surface, presumably mainly 
along meridional lines. There is certainly some evidence of a greater 
rotation rate in the past, but this theory would place the greatest 
changes in surface area far back in the Earth’s history, whereas moun- 
tain building is still going on now, even though changes of surface 
area due to changes of shape are negligible. 

An entirely different theory maintains that the mountains are pro- 
duced by the drag of circulating convection currents actually flowing 
in the Earth’s solid mantle (see fig. 1). It is considered that such cur- 
rents would have a pattern, dividing off into a certain number of 
convection cells just filling the volume of the mantle. From time to 
time, as a result of the increase in size of the liquid core of the Earth, 
the number of cells would have to increase by one. The drag on the 
surface layers, if effective at all, would be producing mountains all 


stationary continent 


moving continent 
an —~ 
BLE 5 Sia “ 
>. 
and rift z & yy — 


et 


ma 


splitting continent 


| / 


Ficure 1.—The diagram shows how circulating convection currents in the solid mantle 
deep within the Earth are supposed to give rise to surface features. ‘These convection- 
cells are also supposed to account for Earth’s drifting continents. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Lyttleton PLATE 1 


he we. 


These strata of sedimentary rock would be horizontal when first deposited. Changes in 
the Earth’s crust as it shrinks cause thrusting, folding, and compression of the rock 
layers. These distortions of rock are found on every scale from relatively small changes 


like this to whole mountain ranges such as the French Alps. 


The Earth probably developed from a cool, low density cloud of gas and dust such as the 
one shown here in the “horsehead nebula” in Orion. Subsequent heating and formation 
of a liquid core would have caused the Earth to contract. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Lyttleton PLATE 2 


Deep gash of the Grand Canyon in Arizona illustrates vividly the powerful forces of uplift 


and erosion that produce the Earth’s surface features. 


HOW MOUNTAINS ARE FORMED—LYTTLETON 353 


the time (and as an additional flourish would make the continents 
drift), and the readjustment when the number of cells increased is 
associated in the theory with a period of intense mountain building. 

Ingenious as this descriptive theory is, it is hard to see why hori- 
zontal currents near the surface should produce such enormous uplifts, 
and it is even more difficult to see why such currents should occur in 
solid matter of considerable strength. It is difficult to prove one way 
or the other whether a sufficient force will cause “solid” material to 
flow if applied long enough, but there is recent evidence from the 
motions of artificial satellites that the Earth may possess enough 
strength to maintain a slightly more spheroidal form than its present 
rotation warrants (presumably a relic of a time of faster rotation). 
This could tell heavily against the notion of convection currents. The 
mechanism would also require regions of unequal heating to produce 
currents, or some other departure from symmetry. Moreover, the 
theory requires a growing core, and for this the theory speculates still 
further and assumes that free iron is present deep within the solid 
mantle. Because this iron would be heavier than the surroundings, 
it would sink gradually to build up a metallic core. The Earth does 
in fact contain a heavy core, almost entirely liquid, with radius now 
some 55 percent of the whole Earth-radius, but the presence of the 
requisite chunks of iron is highly dubious. A body containing nearly 
40 percent of heavy metals would be a cosmic object of the utmost 
curiosity. 

THE EARTH’S ORIGIN 


Several epochs of mountain building have now been traced right back 
in time by the geologists. There have been at least three major periods 
well authenticated in post-Cambrian times (that is, within the last 
500 million years). Numerous others occurred over a range of some 
thousands of millions of years, with their greatest intensity at intervals 
of the order of a hundred million years. Thus any inquiry as to the 
origin of mountains must face the question of the original state of 
the Earth. It seems to be here that a new approach may bring 
order where for so long there has seemed to be only difficulty 
and contradiction. 

For almost a century it has been widely believed that the Earth 
began its existence as an entirely molten body, so that its development 
seemed to be explicable simply by the processes of cooling of such a 
body. Indeed, the thermal-contraction hypothesis, whereby the moun- 
tains are supposed to result from this cooling as it extends downward, 
has long been regarded as the obvious cause. The surface would cool 
first and become solid to a certain depth, and then, when a lower layer 
cooled and contracted, the already solid outer crust would find itself 
too large to fit continuously over the cooled adjacent interior. It 


354 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


would therefore buckle and thrust over itself sideways, piling up 
material against gravity. 

Attractive and inevitable as this mechanism seemed, detailed calcula- 
tions showed that it was likely to give far less contraction than would 
satisfy the geologists. Measured in terms of circumferential contrac- 
tion of the entire globe, it might lead in the whole age of the Earth to 
a reduction of a hundred kilometers or so. The geologists need at 
least a thousand kilometers—some would prefer even two or three times 
this amount—to allow adequately for all the earlier periods of moun- 
tain building. 

But even more serious doubt has been thrown on this hypothesis by 
the gradually emerging conclusion that initially the Earth may have 
been sufficiently cool to have been solid throughout. When proposals 
for the origin of the planets were under review a few decades ago, 
the only possible source for material seemed to lie in the stars, and here 
all the material was known to be at very high temperatures. Could 
released stellar material settle down into a compact planetary mass 
straightway? It now seems much more likely that material removed 
from a star by some catastrophic occurrence would expand almost 
indefinitely, thereby cooling, and instead of giving rise to a planet 
would produce a gigantic low-density cloud of gas and dust. The 
heavens, it is now established, are replete with such clouds, which 
occupy some 10 percent of all galactic space (pl. 1, lower fig.). It thus 
becomes necessary to think in terms of planets developing initially 
from cool material. 

There are a number of mechanisms by which the sun could have 
acquired sufficient dust and gas to form all the planets. For example, 
a companion star to the sun may have exploded as a supernova to pro- 
vide the material; alternatively, the sun may have nosed sufficiently 
slowly through one of these clouds to form a dust-and-gas cloud cir- 
culating round itself. (The clouds themselves would possess slow 
circulation in the first place.) Once captured, a cloud of gas and dust 
would settle down into a thin disklike form moving round the sun, 
somewhat resembling a giant Saturn’s ring but on an immensely larger 
scale and much further out in proportion. Within this disk the 
planets would have grown by a process of gradual accretion. But for 
present purposes it is not necessary to go into the details of all this: it 
is sufficient if we postulate an initially cool and entirely solid Earth, 
and ask how such a planet would develop. 


SIZE OF AN ALL-SOLID EARTH 


Tf then we imagine all the material of the Earth initially gathered 
into a single all-solid body, almost the first question that springs to 
mind is to ask how big such a planet would be. To answer this with 


HOW MOUNTAINS ARE FORMED—LYTTLETON 355 


any worthwhile degree of accuracy would be an almost impossible 
task were it not for the occurrence of earthquakes. For study of their 
wave effects has enabled a great deal to be learned about the pressures, 
densities, and elastic properties of the material existing at all depths 
within the present Earth. The pressures inside the Earth are of the 
order of millions of atmospheres, and far above the strengths of solid 
materials in all but the extreme outer layers. This great pressure 
renders the problem tractable, for the internal material must be so 
distributed that it is supported against gravity entirely by pressure. 
The times of travel of earthquake waves enable the physical properties 
of the material, in particular its compressibility, to be found at these 
enormous pressures. ‘This is obviously essential information if we 
are to calculate the initial size of the Earth. 

If the Earth grew by accretion of cosmic dust, there would be no 
reason to suppose any great difference of composition from one part to 
another, and it would be easy to calculate the uncompressed volume 
that a mass equal to that of the Earth would occupy if composed of 
dust. However, the compression squeezes the matter to higher density, 
the more so the deeper it is inside the Earth, and it is this that makes 
the calculation awkward. It is necessary to have precise knowledge 
of how the density varies with pressure. 

Geophysicists have long since determined the incompressibility at 
almost all parts of the Earth by their studies of earthquake travel- 
times. The results show that the incompressibility is almost exactly 
a linear function of the pressure (see fig 2). The same type of law 
had also been arrived at quite independently more than a decade ago 
from purely physical considerations. It therefore seems probable 
that such a law holds with an accuracy greater than that of the present 
geophysical data from which it can also be inferred. 

It is found that a straight-line law holds not only throughout the 
solid mantle and the solid outer shell of the Earth (which is just over 
400 kilometers deep), but also in the liquid core. The constant of in- 
compressibility associated with zero pressure is different in each zone, 
but the slope of the straight-line law is the same. Our first require- 
ment is to consider an all-solid Earth. Its radius is readily calculated 
by means of the linear law (and the use of a computer) and comes out 
to about 350 kilometers greater than the present Earth-radius of 6,371 
kilometers. This means an initial circumference more than 2,000 
kilometers greater than the present value, and a surface-area about 60 
million square kilometers greater! This is the area that would have 
been tucked away by folding and thrusting to change the Earth to 
its present size. These are exactly the kind of changes the geologists 
need to account for all the epochs of mountain building (see fig. 3). 


356 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The pressure at the bottom of the mantle, 2,900 kilometers below 
the surface, is about 1.37 million atmospheres, whereas at the center 
of an entirely solid Earth it would be only just over 20 percent greater. 
Thus no more than a modest extrapolation of the law between pressure 
and density is required. 


INCOMPRESSIBILITY (10" dyneycm. ) 


I 2 3 


PRESSURE (10 dyne/cm. *) 


Ficure 2.—The incompressibility of each of the Earth’s three main zones is a linear func- 
tion of pressure. But the greater compressibility of the liquid core means that as radio- 
active heating at great pressure causes more liquid to form, the Earth contracts. 
Where the outer shell meets the solid mantle, the pressure is 0.141 x 10!2 dyne cm.~; 
at the boundary of the mantle and core, 1.36 x 10!2 dyne cm.~; and at the Earth’s 
center, about 3.9 x 10! dyne cm.~?; (10! dyne cm.~ is approximately 1 million 
atmospheres). 


HOW MOUNTAINS ARE FORMED—LYTTLETON 357 


Figure 3.—The Earth’s initial radius was about 350 kilometers greater than it is now. 
Its surface area must therefore have been reduced by about 60 million square kilometers. 
This additional material would have been tucked away by folding and thrusting, giving 
rise to epochs of mountain building which still continue. 


HEATING AND CONTRACTION 


But this is only the beginning of the story. We have also to explain 
how the Earth has come to possess its liquid central core, with a radius 
more than half that of the Earth. Clearly something must have 
happened to raise the temperature enough to cause the Earth to melt. 
There is no difficulty here, however, for this could be achieved by only 
a minute content of radioactive materials: no more than a few percent 
of the proportion found to be present near the Earth’s surface would 
gradually raise the temperature as these materials—mainly uranium, 
thorium, and potassium—decayed into other elements, thereby releas- 
ing energy. Thus, instead of the Earth cooling down, it has in fact 
been warming up and is still probably doing so. It may well have 
remained entirely solid for a thousand million years or more, until the 


358 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


central temperature reached the melting point of the material there: 
this would mark the beginning of the growth of the core. Further 
release of radioactive energy would increase the temperature, and the 
core would continue to extend further out. 

The crucial point is that this liquid form, which the material is 
converted into as a result of both the high pressure and temperature, 
is more compressible than the solid form constituting the mantle. 
Thus, as the core mass increases, the Earth gradually gets smaller. 
Over the whole age of the Earth, the average rate of decrease of the 
outer radius has been about one-tenth of a millimeter a year—in 3.5 X 
10° years this amounts to 350 kilometers. This contraction also re- 
leases gravitational energy, which will augment the heating by radio- 
active energy, but in a planet as small as the Earth this additional 
source of heat cannot be tapped until radioactive heating has first 
produced liquefaction, so that contraction can begin. 

An indirect consequence of the gradual contraction would be that the 
rotation of the Earth would have speeded up: the rotatory inertia of 
the planet would have decreased as the body contracted. It now has 
only about 4/5 of the original value, and so the present angular velocity 
would be about 5/4 of the original rate in order to conserve rotatory 
momentum. This means that the day, if affected by this process only, 
would initially have been about 30 hours long. It is known that the 
tides of the sun and moon act to slow the Earth down, but the present 
process appears to be of comparable importance, and it will need to 
be taken into account in future discussions of the evolution of the 
Earth’s rotation. 

STRAIN, FRACTURE, BUCKLING 


It is the response of the outer layers of the Earth to this steady lique- 
faction of the deep interior that is ultimately responsible for the 
formation of mountains. But the surface does not follow the con- 
traction entirely uniformly because the strengths of the materials in 
the outer few kilometers are greater than the pressure. Thus the 
contraction in the core for a time produces no catastrophic effect at 
the surface, but only builds up increasing strains. Rocks can be com- 
pressed by rather more than one part in a thousand of their linear 
dimensions before they yield altogether and fracture. Thus a spheri- 
cal Earth could contract down by a few kilometers without serious 
distortion at the surface, but then any further contraction would re- 
sult in widespread fracture and buckling of the outer layers. Some 
catastrophic readjustments would be made as the material gave way 
under excess strains. This stage would correspond to a period of 
mountain building. What exactly would take place in any such cata- 
strophic epoch is almost impossible to consider theoretically, for the 
Earth’s surface layers will have different strengths at different parts, 


HOW MOUNTAINS ARE FORMED—LYTTLETON 359 


and the processes will automatically always find the weakest parts of 
the planet’s crust. 

It is unlikely that the mountains were produced exactly in their 
present forms. Long ridges would develop where one layer was thrust 
over another, and then erosion would carve out gorges and canyons 
by wearing away huge quantities of the more readily removable ma- 
terial (see pl. 2). The resulting reduction in weight would cause the 
whole area gradually to rise, maintaining a kind of floating equilibrium 
on the layers below. This would increase the surface irregularity, 
though clearly there is a limit to which the process could go. Simi- 
larly, where the relief of stresses took the form of folding of the sur- 
face layers, subsequent erosion would accentuate the surface features, 
at least for a time. 


THE EARTH’S STORY IN OUTLINE 


Thus it now seems probable that the Earth began as a cool feature- 
less planet with minute traces of radioactive minerals spread through 
its volume. Aeons may have passed while the internal temperature 
slowly but inexorably rose, until suddenly the crucial melting point at 
the center was reached and the process of contraction was set in motion. 
Compression of the liquefied central part would take place automati- 
cally at this stage because of the high pressure, and the outer parts 
would then follow down to restore equilibrium. Continuing compres- 
sion would begin the cycle of mountain formation by building up 
stresses in the outer layers. This would be followed eventually by 
catastrophic release as the surface rocks folded and fractured, and 
erosion of the resulting foldings and thrustings would finally produce 
huge areas of mountain ranges. And there is no reason to suppose that 
the process has ceased: the lifetimes of radioactive elements are such 
that heat is still being produced throughout the Earth, though cer- 
tainly at only a fraction of the original rate. But until it practically 
ceases altogether, the Earth will go on contracting and periods of 
mountain building will continue to occur. 


MOUNTAINS ON OTHER PLANETS? 


To the question: could mountains be formed by this process on the 
moon or on any of the small planets, such as Mercury, Venus, or Mars, 
the theory can in fact give quite definite answers. Venus, for example, 
has an observed radius consistent with the value it would have if the 
planet is made of material with similar properties to the Earth. Since 
its mass is only a little less than that of the Earth, the internal condi- 
tions of pressure and temperature are likely to be such that melting 
near the center has occurred, and a liquid core formed deep within it, 
but not to quite the same extent as in the Earth. Folded and thrusted 
mountains would therefore be expected to be found on Venus. 


360 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Mars, on the other hand, is only about one-ninth the mass of the 
Earth, and not only would the temperatures due to radioactive heating 
at corresponding depths be rather less than in the Earth, but the 
pressures are far too low for liquefaction yet to have occurred in its 
central regions. So no contraction of Mars can have occurred : indeed, 
if anything has happened as a result of internal heating, it would 
rather have produced very slight expansion of the outer parts, possibly 
thereby bringing about rifting of the solid surface. Whether such 
riftings could be eroded into anything resembling terrestrial moun- 
tains is doubtful. Although the surface is directly visible, Mars is 
rather too distant for the question to be settled for certain at present. 
Nevertheless it has long been believed from observations near the edge 
of the planet’s disk that there can be no irregularities of more than a 
few thousand feet, and the absence of detectable shadows means there 
is no direct evidence even for this amount. Photographic or other 
kinds of survey from space probes passing close to the planet may 
clarify the situation in the next few years. 

The same conclusion holds for both Mercury and the moon, and the 
theory indicates that these bodies have always been solid throughout. 
Hence no mountains of the terrestrial kind can be expected at their 
surfaces. It is of course generally recognized that no such features 
are to be found on the lunar surface; all the so-called “mountains” can 
be associated with the remnants of the rims of large craters that have 
been heavily eroded. 

However, special processes, perhaps chemical or radioactive, might 
lead to the development of intense loca] heating in comparatively 
small regions of the outer parts of the planets or of the moon. For 
example, a large meteorite of high radioactive content plunging into 
a planet might produce sufficient heating to bring about volcanic effects 
hundreds of millions of years later. This in turn could lead to the 
building up of volcanic mountains, but these make an almost negligible 
contribution to the whole area of the Earth covered by mountains. 

We can conclude that if the inner planets began as molten bodies, 
they should all possess mountains produced by thermal contraction. 
But if they began as entirely cool bodies, only the Earth and Venus 
can have mountains. Thus we have an absolutely clear-cut test of a 
new hypothesis which implies a great deal about the deep interiors 
of the planets—a realm that can be explored theoretically. And there 
is an intriguing opportunity for space research to obtain the necessary 
evidence by direct exploration of the surfaces of these planets. 


The Future of Oceanography’ 


By ATHELSTAN SPILHAUS 


Dean of the Institute of Technology 
University of Minnesota 


[With 4 plates] 


OcEANOGRAPHY’S FUTURE depends on the uses to which we put the 
ocean. The science of oceanography is not a discipline but an adven- 
ture wherein any discipline or combination of disciplines may be 
focused on understanding and using the sea and all that isin it. Often 
the arts of using the sea precede the full understanding of it and point 
to questions yet unanswered. For example, submarines led to the 
study of how sound travels in the ocean; aircraft carriers to the study 
of waves. But equally, scientific discoveries resulting from sheer 
curiosity point the way to new uses. The finding (first by the Chal- 
lenger) of manganese nodules on the bottom of the sea, followed by 
recent photographs showing their abundance, has led to serious work 
on “surface” mining the sea bottom. In all science there is a continu- 
ous interplay between artisan and scientist; in oceanography, it is 
between sailor, submariner, fisherman, and oceanographer. 

So, to speculate about oceanography’s future, we must extend pres- 
ent uses into the future, dream of entirely new uses, and see what we 
can do to bring them about. 

One of the first and still one of the foremost uses man makes of the 
ocean is as a magnificent highway with “straight,” great circle routes 
to travel from any point on the coast of the world island to any other 
point on its coast. Surface navigation has been highly developed 
with excellent “road signs” from the simplest buoy or lighthouse 
through radio time signals, sonar, long-range radar, and radio direc- 
tion-finding navigational aids, to the most modern systems of naviga- 
tion utilizing the navigational satellite as a “lighthouse in the sky.” 
Here, as in all cases, the needs for pure, scientific oceanography, for 
industrial exploitation, and for the Navy are parallel. It is no use 
for the oceanographer to know in detail the character of a certain body 

1 Reprinted by permission from Ocean Sciences, edited by E. John Long. Copyright 
1964 by U.S. Naval Institute, Annapolis, Md. 

361 
766-746—65—_26 


362 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


of water, the currents, or the nature of the ocean bottom there if he 
does not know precisely where “there” is. Now that the Polaris mis- 
sile can be launched from the sea, the Navy must also know the exact 
launching point in order to aim. 

Navigation of the future will be done more and more under water. 
Although submarines have thus far been used principally for military 
purposes, the advantages of traveling below the disturbed interface 
between ocean and atmosphere with its waves, windstorms, and ice 
mean that submarine freight and passenger travel, as well as a variety 
of submarine vessels for research purposes, will undoubtedly be devel- 
oped. Under water the navigational problems are even greater. The 
navigator must have complete maps of the bottom topography, the 
gravimetry, magnetic anomalies, and the nature of the sea bottom. He 
must have instruments to detect these so that he may “see” where he 
is just as a land or air traveler sees his position on ordinary maps. He 
will also, for regular routes, have a beacon system under the sea, as 
airplanes have in the air; thus, he will home from beacon to beacon. 

The other age-old use that men have made of the sea is to gather 
their food from it. It is not immediately obvious that studies of life 
in the sea are important to the Navy, but in fact, the Navy has given 
considerable support to work in marine biology. Two obvious exam- 
ples of direct naval significance are research on marine fouling orga- 
nisms and the noises that animals make in the sea that confuse hydro- 
phone listening. Unquestionably, studies of life in the sea will find 
increasing importance, not only for the needs of people in peacetime 
but also for military applications. 

Food from the sea is not properly exploited. On the one hand, some 
desirable species of fish are overfished to the extent of threatening 
extermination; on the other hand, some are not used at all. Countries 
having ample food within their land boundaries, such as the United 
States, use less fish than heavily populated countries surrounded by 
the sea, such as Japan. Only 5 percent of our protein comes from the 
sea as compared to the world average of 12 percent. This world aver- 
age must inevitably increase with population growth. There are other 
factors which affect the use of protein from the sea. Even in protein- 
poor countries such as India, abundant fish from the Indian Ocean 
are not extensively used. This is partly due to the difficulty of preserv- 
ing fish without expensive refrigeration in hot lands. Modern can- 
ning and dehydration can surmount these difficulties. Education to 
overcome taboos and use protein-rich, nonspoilable fish flour can pro- 
vide the necessary supplement to the diet of one-fourth of the world’s 
population which is undernourished now. 

If we harvested this renewable source of food properly, we do not 
know whether we could steadily take five times the present amount out 
of the sea or a hundred times that amount. Marine biological and 


THE FUTURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY—SPILHAUS 363 


fishery research must give us an estimate of productivity which would 
let us plan the size of the harvest so that it would be constantly con- 
served and renewed, at the same time it is being used. 

But, once we establish the present productivity of the sea, we need 
not stop there. Agriculture on land has made tremendous increases in 
productivity per acre by growing single stands instead of mixed 
populations, by breeding special strains adapted to a particular locality 
and resistent to disease, by renewing the land by plowing, fertilizing, 
and irrigating. All of these methods have their counterparts in aqua- 
culture, the farming of the sea. Behavioral research on marine 
animals’ reactions to stimuli— electrical, acoustical, chemical, physical 
bubbles and currents, and temperatures—all point the way to the 
kind of “fences” we may use to isolate species and special breeds and 
harvest them more readily than do present fishermen who merely 
hunt them. 

The nutrients needed by life in the sea are presently renewed and 
concentrated by various processes of nature. When we understand 
these, we may be able to emulate them in artificial processes. Winds 
drive away surface water in the lee of a coast, bringing up nutrient- 
rich lower water. This suggests that barriers placed in the open ocean 
might form artificial lees with rich patches of water around them. In 
the open ocean when winds diverge, they also bring up bottom water 
at the center of the divergence, and the natural stirring of currents 
plows the sea. Perhaps we can “boil up” the nutrient-rich bottom 
water by putting a nuclear stove down there. Possibly the waste 
heat of an underwater nuclear powerplant for submarine beacons for 
navigation could be used for this. Without aquaculture, the problem 
in the sea is similar to the problem of gathering food from the wild 
mixed animal and plant life in the undeveloped tropics. It is simply 
that the desirable foodstuffs, plant or animal, are widely scattered 
and hard to gather. Some way must be found to concentrate or herd 
them. We shall need “shepherds” and “cowboys” in the sea. Perhaps 
they will ride bucking one-man submarines, or perhaps as a result of 
the present behavioral studies, we can train dolphins as sheep dogs 
of the sea. 

The difference between wild scrub cattle and the highly bred, heavy 
beef cattle is a result of selective breeding, good pasturage, and sup- 
plemented feeding. Fish husbandry can do the same for fish in isolated 
areas of the sea. 

Present-day fishing methods are mainly of two types, either netting 
fish, which are closely gathered in schools, or hooking them with bait. 
How fish respond to stimuli points the way to powerful new methods 
of fishing and shows that the fish will line up and swim toward one 
pole in a field of electric current. “Electric fishing,” already practical 
in fresh water, requires greater currents in the ocean water electrolyte; 


364 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


but pulses of high energy may soon be used to make fish swim straight 
into a funnel hose, thence to be pumped directly into the hold of the 
factory ship. The most important sense a fish has is its chemical 
sense, and this may be exploited by ringing a school with a repellant 
to concentrate it and then luring it to an attracting chemical. Finally, 
the fish may be rendered senseless by another chemical and swept 
from the surface of the sea. They can be processed immediately in 
floating factories which will look more like chemical engineering 
plants than ships as we know them today. Around these factory ships, 
cities will grow, especially in the most productive waters of the world 
such as the Humboldt Current and Antarctic waters. The cities will 
be made up of apartment ships with shopping centers, having protected 
sea gardens between them, and airport ships. And, as other extensions 
of the floating city grow, perhaps even “municipal” hydrofoil trans- 
portation will be needed. 

Even more archaic than the primitive state of present day fishing 
is the way we use (or don’t use) the vegetation of the sea. It is true 
that peoples in Asia use seaweed as an important part of their diet, 
and in Japan it is grown on fences for ease of harvesting; but in our 
country we use it only as a source of algin in ice cream, cosmetics, and 
jellies. Surely just as the grasses of the land were developed to yield 
the wheat, corn, barley, rice, rye, oats, and even sugar for our daily 
bread, seaweed can be cultivated to form an important part of our food. 

Even the useless poisonous living plants and animals in the sea 
may be put to use. They are sources of important drugs, antibiotics, 
and tranquilizers. We may separate the poisons from hideous sea 
cucumbers and stingrays for our medicine cabinet and eat the rest. 

The most important need of life that comes to us from the sea is 
fresh water, distilled naturally by the sun, condensed into rain or snow 
and carried onto our lands. Until very recently the importance of 
this sea resource was hardly appreciated because of its abundance. 
Now, however, lack of fresh water is often the one critical factor not 
only in the support of peoples in arid and semiarid lands, but also 
in modern cities. Methods of producing fresh water artificially from 
brackish or sea water are being vigorously pursued, and without ques- 
tion, this will be a big industry of the future. As technology advances, 
the cost of separating fresh water from salt will go down. As popu- 
lation increases, the value of fresh water goes up. When these two 
curves meet, the process is “economical.” In parts of the world, such 
as the oil towns of Arabia and isolated naval base islands in the Pacific, 
they have already crossed. 

Half a dozen radically different methods of obtaining fresh water 
from the sea are now being tried. Distillation, emulating the natural 
way the sun makes fresh water, is one which may not turn out to be 
the most practical unless abundant solar or cheap nuclear power can 


THE FUTURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY—SPILHAUS 365 


be used. Freezing of sea water in nature leaves about one-third of 
the salts in pockets in the ice, but the technique of zone refining of 
metals which results in ultra purity suggests the method of “zone” 
freezing, which would have the advantage over distillation in that 
it requires only about one-sixth of the power. Semipermeable mem- 
branes, ion exchange, and even salt-eating bacteria are other 
possibilities. 

As the need for fresh water increases, more and more rivers will be 
stopped from running into the sea. This does not mean that the 
rivers will cease to exist, but simply that their waters will be used and 
reused and returned to the sea through the evaporative cycle rather 
than by waste flow. Every drop of fresh water that flows into the sea 
represents a waste of the solar energy that was used to distill it. The 
rivers of the world carry 2,000 million tons of salt each year into 
the oceans, and one might think that by tampering with river flow 
we would upset the balance of ocean salts. But to give an idea of 
how tiny this effect is, the annual amount of salt going into the sea 
is only one hundred-millionth of the total already there. 

As well as producing fresh water for use on land, we will develop 
ways of producing it under the sea. This is done now by evaporation 
in the nuclear submarines, as it is indeed on surface vessels. When 
we understand how penguins can exist without a drop of fresh water 
and exclude the excess salt, perhaps we can build counterparts of their 
mechanism to get fresh water. 

Before man required fresh water from the sea, he needed just the 
opposite—to extract the salt. This is an ancient art; at first the salt 
was used only for the seasoning of food. But in the last 40 years, not 
only have sodium, potassium, and magnesium salts been extracted 
economically, but also bromine and magnesium metal. The difficulty 
of getting anything out of sea water is that everything occurs in a 
highly dilute state, and large amounts of water have to be pumped 
and processed. But power is getting cheaper, and perhaps, instead 
of pumping sea water through plants on land, we will have floating 
processing plants at sea, propelling themselves through the water as 
they take what they need from it, just as marine animals do. The 
advantage of such floating “refineries” is that they do not occupy 
expensive shore land and can move to areas of rich sea “ore.” Perhaps 
deuterium taken from the sea water itself will power them. 

Many valuable elements are so dilute that it is not economical to 
extract them from sea water, yet nature concentrates them in high- 
grade deposits on the floor of the sea. Nodules on the sea bottom are 
already being mined for phosphorus, and nodules of manganese, not 
valuable enough in itself, may contain enough valuable nickel, cobalt, 
molybdenum, and zirconium to warrant scraping them off the bottom 
in a deep sea mining enterprise. The most interesting facet of this 


366 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


deep sea mining is that the nodules seem to form at a rate exceeding 
what we might conceivably take out to cover the present total world 
consumption of these metals. They are like self-renewing mines. 

As time goes on, other valuable materials may be discovered on the 
bottom of the sea. Already, off Southwest Africa, a company is recov- 
ering diamonds. They are hopeful of getting 75,000 carats a month 
in sizes up to 10 carats. But the nodules and diamonds are just a 
start; undersea prospecting has hardly begun. 

It is not surprising that we now drill for oil under the sea on the 
continental shelves which are merely extensions of the land, the shore- 
line being an accident of present sea level. We should therefore 
expect that, as our ability to drill in deeper water increases, oil rigs 
will push farther and farther off shore. 

Exploitation of all of these things we need from the sea for living 
will inevitably lead to international disagreements and then, we hope, 
to agreements surrounding the “ownership” of the oceans. 

Parts of the edges of the ocean must be exempt from exploitation 
of any kind and must be saved for two other uses. First, for scientific 
purposes as well as aesthetic, we must have some land, estuarian water, 
sea, and island communities preserved in their natural state. If we 
do not do this soon, the whole coast of the United States will be bulk- 
headed with concrete by well-meaning engineers to prevent the 
“ravages” of wind and wave. All our estuaries will be filled to make 
“valuable” shoreline property. Tidal estuaries will be polluted. These 
and other competitive uses will destroy our valuable seashore and 
leave none in its natural state. Furthermore, as fishing methods 
become more efficient, sport fishing even more than commercial fishing, 
unhampered by the cost of acquisition of aqualungs, guns, chemical 
lures, electronic fish calls, may deplete certain species. These same 
species may be the very ones that need the disappearing estuaries as 
nurseries for their larvae and young. 

Secondly, men during their working lives must periodically take 
time for “recreation.” As the land becomes more crowded and cities 
grow, men turn to the sea for holidays. This important use should 
not be forgotten among other competitive uses of the coastal seas. 
The same reasons have led us to set aside wilderness areas on land. 

Mass-produced underwater vehicles within the reach of many will 
become as common as automobiles. Advances in underwater breathing 
gases and apparatus will make it possible for everyone to go down 
into the sea. Underwater resorts will develop. People will drive 
down under the sea, park their submobiles, check into submarines, and 
participate in one of the many recreations the resort will offer. Like 
land resorts, the ideal undersea resorts will be in clear, warm water 
regions—F lorida, the Bahamas, across the Antilles, Hawaii, the Pacific 
islands, and similar areas. Submarine trains and guided tours will 


THE FUTURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY—SPILHAUS 367 


take people through the reefs and underwater world so different from 
their normal environment. Underwater hunting and photography 
will become ever more popular sports. 

One of the best means of averting war is complete surveillance. If 
peoples and nations make their moves openly, exposed to the vigilant 
eyes of their world neighbors, there is less chance of conflict. This 
is the basic reason for developing surveillance systems on land and 
in the air. It is equally valid for the sea. Fixed defenses, such as 
mines and bottom-moored weapons, are tremendously effective, but 
because of international ownership of the sea, in times of peace, they 
cannot be placed unless it is covertly done. This is very different 
from the pre-aimed intercontinental ballistic missile silos that stand 
ready on home land. 

Until the time comes when we have complete surveillance in the 
sea, the first military task for submariners is to “see” yet be “unseen.” 
And all the developments of sonar and the silencing of submarine 
weapons and vessels are toward this end. The second important mili- 
tary objective is to go deeper in the sea than your enemy. In fights 
between aircraft, the one that could climb higher had the advantage. 
First rockets, and now satellites, have virtually removed any ceiling. 
In the sea, the only way to be sure the enemy cannot get below us is 
for our submarines to be able to go to the deepest part of the ocean. 

But speed is as important as depth. AI] submarines up to the present 
time have been built with positive buoyancy so that if the engines 
failed or were shut off, they could float directly to the surface. Per- 
haps this idea should be abandoned, as it was with aircraft when we 
moved from the floating dirigible to the dynamically supported air- 
plane. Pencillike submarines with negative buoyancy might have the 
strength and streamlining for the necessary depth with speed. They 
would rely on the dynamical lift of their hydrofoils with the reliability 
of their motors to raise them from the deeps. The third point is to 
know where you are. This has been satisfied by the submarines’ new 
navigational aids. The fourth military consideration is to be able to 
hit what you aim at. It is incredible that the United States can guide 
a probe to the vicinity of Venus, yet not be sure of hitting a target 
from a submarine a mile away. 

The ocean engineering of submarine travel, research, exploitation 
of the sea, and living in or upon it does not, for the most part involve 
new inventions. The elements are now known. A vehicle can be 
built to take us anywhere in the sea, even 7 miles down. We know 
how to build the structures and how to arrange communications. 
These new engineering products will emerge just as soon as research, 
defense, or industrial needs demand and justify them economically. 

Flip, the ship that goes to sea and then submerges its stern with 
just the bow peeking out of water as a floating station, can easily have 


368 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


a bathyspherelike elevator built into its stern so that, once in position, 
investigators or workers can go down to the bottom or any inter- 
mediate level by elevator and return home to Fp when their work 
is done. 

The extraordinary success of the early attempts to drill toward the 
earth’s mantle—the MOHO project—will for scientific reasons, if no 
other, make drilling the ocean bottom another routine survey proce- 
dure. Instead of drilling from a rig floating on the hazardous, wavy, 
stormy surface of the sea, with a threadlike string twisting through 
miles of water before reaching the drill, the rig, power, and everything 
will in the future be located on the bottom. 

It is most exciting for the scientist to explore the bottom of the sea, 
because it has preserved the history of the earth in the layerings of its 
sediments without the weathering, folding, and creasing of the pages 
that occurs on land. Perhaps the best place to estimate the quantities 
and recover the materials—meteorites—which come to the earth from 
space is the undisturbed bottom of the sea. 

When we have blue-green lasers, possibly with choppers to reduce 
backscattering, we will be able to see and photograph through the sea 
water “window” a greater distance. Self-perpetuating ocean power 
sources will be developed; some will generate electricity by biological 
means using bacterial anodes and cathodes. Missiles for the explora- 
tion of space or other uses may be launched more cheaply from “silos” 
in the sea. Undersea pipelines, already well developed, may carry 
all kinds of fluids or fluidized substances under the sea with less 
maintenance than land pipelines. Submarine freight transport may 
be far more practical than surface vessels adversely affected by storm 
and wind, and more economical than air freight because of the 
buoyancy of sea water. 

Transit-type satellites have already proved their worth for naviga- 
tion at sea, but this is just a beginning. Satellites can be used to 
collect and retransmit data from buoys and ships at sea, to take 
pictures of ice conditions near the poles, by infrared sensing to trace 
ocean currents by the differences of temperature, and even for track- 
ing the worldwide migration of certain sea animals with transmitters 
attached. 

In the air we are accustomed to breathe, the inert gas nitrogen dilutes 
our oxygen supply. Some of the most exciting experiments are those 
that show that, for underwater breathing at high pressures, other 
inert gases are superior, and various mixtures have been tried with 
some success to prolong the length of time and the depths at which 
men may stay under water. Extension of this research will show 
us how to “condition” the air for underwater resorts, underwater mili- 
tary establishments to service true submarines, and for cities if we 
are driven to the protection of the sea to survive atomic attack, It is 


THE FUTURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY—SPILHAUS 369 


not out of the question that some, perhaps at first clumsy, large replica 
of the natural mechanism by which fish extract oxygen from sea water 
through their gills may be made and used by men under the sea. 

Oceanography is moving rapidly away from the expedition stage. 
Already there are the multi-ship efforts to get a synoptic or bird’s-eye 
view of changing current systems and interest in moored buoys as 
observing stations. Ultimately, all over the oceans, we must have a 
permanent network of stations observing and reporting conditions 
on the surface and down to the bottom. This would be a counterpart 
of the worldwide weather network which observes conditions on the 
earth and high in the atmosphere. This network of stations will 
consist of manned and unmanned buoys and artificial islands on reefs 
and seamounts close to the surface. Surface ships and submarine 
survey ships will routinely fill in the gaps between the permanent 
station network. Airplane and shore bases will be established for 
gathering data on ice and from automatic reporting buoys. A satellite 
network will receive, collect, and retransmit the worldwide synoptic 
ocean data to central storage, analysis, and forecasting computers in 
various countries. 

The survey ships will need to have semiautomatic means of taking 
and processing the vast amount of data to feed it to the computing 
centers. We will need a census of living matter in the sea. We may 
count fish of different species by sonar, radio, chemical, or other dis- 
tinguishing tags. We will need automatic methods for the pre- 
liminary sorting of microscopic plankton. 

It is this kind of data which will develop ocean forecasting. The 
already accurate forecasting of tides will be extended to the prediction 
of tidal currents. Ice and iceberg distribution, growth, and melting 
will be foretold. The best channels for sound communication will 
be predicted, and forecasts of the varying strength of ocean currents, 
winds, and waves will indicate the safest and most advantageous course 
for ships. A worldwide fishery forecast both from observation of the 
distribution of fish and by inference from winds, currents, and physical 
conditions will tell us where the fish are. “Fish Futures” will be 
bought and sold as commodities on the basis of observations of each 
year’s larvae and information as to when and if they will produce a 
good crop of 3-year-old or 4-year-old fish. 

One of the more important outcomes of oceanographic forecasting 
will be its contribution to weather forecasting and even to seasonal 
and longer term predictions of climate. 

The ocean’s effect on climate is only understood in broad outline. 
With nuclear explosives, we have powerful earth-moving devices 
which put within the realm of possibility the actual blocking of 
straits, damming or diversion of warm or cold currents which could 
profoundly affect climates. In most cases, however, we do not even 

766-746—65 27 


370 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


know what the direction of change might be. For example, if warm 
water were pumped, as has been suggested, into the Arctic Basin 
through the Bering Strait, would the warming be beneficial or would 
so much more snow come to Canada as to reduce the habitable land 
area? With the observations from the oceanographic network and 
by varying certain factors put into the forecasting, we could conduct 
experiments to see what would happen before we try it. 

Climate control by cloud seeding is more the province of the mete- 
orologist, but anyone who has gone to sea knows how clouds hover over 
the edges of the Gulf Stream, for example. By influencing the re- 
flectivity and absorptivity of the sea surface, or of sea ice in polar 
regions, we may be able to redistribute the clouds, even break up an 
area in the tropics which may be the breeding place of a hurricane. 
Or, alternatively, for offensive purposes, we might encourage the 
generation of the hurricane. Such control of weather can be used 
either way for warlike or peaceful purposes. 

We may even speculate about control of whole seas. In special 
cases such as the Mediterranean, the connection to the deep Atlantic 
is blocked by a comparatively shallow sill, so the Mediterranean is 
nutrient poor because the inflow of the phophorus rich deeper Atlantic 
water isdammed. With controlled atomic explosives this dam might 
be removed, increasing the productivity of the whole Mediterranean 
Sea. 

Just as we now accept complete surveillance as one of the important 
deterrents to war and have built elaborate air surveillance networks 
and are negotiationg for international seismological surveillance sys- 
tems on land, so our sonar and other means of keeping track and iden- 
tifying every vessel, surface or submarine, military or commercial, in 
the sea must be perfected. Perhaps international surveillance systems 
may come about by agreement between nations. 

Oceanography has for many years set a pattern of international 
cooperation in studying the seas. The kind of survey work necessary 
to assess all marine resources is one that is too great for any one 
nation. It should be done internationally. 

Another urgently needed international project in the oceans is to 
set aside presently uninhabited islands and their surrounding waters 
as international sea wilderness areas. Examples are Inaccessible and 
Nightingale Island in the Tristan da Cunha group, Bouvet in the 
South Atlantic, and numerous Pacific islands. This should be done 
soon so that the continuity of marine and sea bird wildlife may be 
preserved before the pressures of population cause the islands to be 
inhabited and thus upset the balance of these last natural sanctuaries. 

The freedom of the seas has been jealousy preserved over the ages. 
But as we take more from the sea, not just along our shorelines but 
from the open ocean, we shall need more international agreements, 


PEATE 1 


Spilhaus 


Smithsonian Report, 1964. 


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THE FUTURE OF OCEANOGRAPHY—SPILHAUS 371 


perhaps even the granting of rights for exploitation. When no single 
nation owns any parts of the ocean, then no nation worries about the 
conservation of its resources. Rights to exploit the oceans of the 
world should carry with them specific responsibilities for their 
conservation. 

When amicable agreements are arrived at with respect to who takes 
what and where, we shall still need an international seaborne control 
force to see that these agreements are carried out. Hopefully, this 
force should resemble an international commission of game wardens or 
officials of a world bank of ocean economic resources rather than the 
familiar pattern of the more politically involved international 
organizations, 

Much of this article has been mere speculation about oceanography’s 
future. It is exciting to dream about some of the ways in which man 
may use the sea. But if the dreams are to come true, we must roll 
up our sleeves and make them come true. 


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Search for the Thresher’ 


By F. N. Spiess 
Marine Physical Laboratory, Scripps Institution of Oceanography 
and 
A. E. MAxwELi 
Geophysics Branch, Office of Naval Research 


[With 4 plates] 


ON THE MorNING of April 9, 1963, the nuclear-powered attack sub- 
marine Thresher steamed out of Portsmouth Navy Yard toward a 
nearby submarine operating area. Her purpose was to conduct the 
usual series of check dives which follow any major overhaul period 
for submarines of our Navy. With her, to provide escort and commu- 
nication contact, was the rescue ship Skylark. Assoon asthe Thresher 
was clear of the shipyard, the crew rigged for dive and check-dived 
the boat in shallow water, following procedures developed over many 
years of submarine operations. At 0745 the following day, she sent 
her routine diving message to Skylark and to submarine force head- 
quarters, then shortly after disappeared into the sea on her dive to 
test depth. About an hour and a half later a routine report was made 
by sonic telephone to the escorting ship—all was going well except 
for some minor difficulty. Then there was a more hasty, garbled 
report indicating more severe trouble; this was followed by noises 
resembling, it seemed to the sonar man on the Skylark, sounds associ- 
ated with the breakup of a sinking ship. The Zhresher, with all 
hands, was lost. 

This ship (pl. 1, fig. 1) was the first of our Navy’s newest class of 
attack submarines, the 15th nuclear-powered undersea craft of about 
60 that have been in operation since the commissioning of the Vautilus 
in 1954. The number of innovations which have been brought to 
reality in these boats is so great that experienced submariners of 
World War II would scarcely recognize these craft as related to the 
wartime submarines except for the cylindrical hull and ballasting 


1 Reprinted by permission from Science, vol. 145, No. 3630, pp. 349-355; copyright 
1964 by the American Association for the Advancement of Science. 


766—746—65——_28 373 


374 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


principles common to both. Speed, endurance when submerged, oper- 
ating depth, search capability, and weapons effectiveness all have 
increased by factors unimagined 20 years ago. With these great 
improvements has come, with much less fanfare, though it is of com- 
parable significance, an increase in safety of operation. Through 
all of the second-guessing as to the cause of the loss of this beautiful 
piece of machinery and its human crew, much has been said of meas- 
ures which could have been taken to increase its structural integrity 
or its ability to respond under conditions of extreme stress, and even 
of a need to install special emergency data-recording equipment. The 
remarkable reality, however, and the reason for shock within the 
submarine forces, is that this loss terminated a 14-year period in 
which not a single U.S. submarine had been sunk. This is the longest 
such period since the introduction of these craft into our Navy in 
1900, with the commissioning of the U.S.S. Holland. There has been 
a tendency to forget that duty in submarines is considered hazardous 
in the same sense that duty in military aircraft is. The shock engen- 
dered by the Thresher accident, in contrast to our acceptance of the 
loss of more lives in 1963 alone in military aircraft accidents than 
were lost aboard the Z'hresher, is a tribute to this new standard of 
operational safety. 

The purpose of this article is, however, not to recount the various 
theories as to why this unfortunate event occurred or to discuss the 
engineering and construction improvements which it has triggered. 
Rather, we describe the participation of marine scientists and their 
tools in the search for the wreckage of this ship, which must eventually 
have found its way to the floor of the sea. Clearly, such a discussion 
must start with some consideration of why one might want to make 
such a search at all. There are several answers, each of which was 
pertinent to a different phase of the operation as it developed. At 
the very first there was a hope that perhaps the boat had not really 
gone down but had surfaced in the rough seas and, though crippled, 
might yet be found, or that some survivors might have escaped. This 
hope rapidly faded and was replaced by a determination to learn 
as much as possible for the future from the accident by photography, 
or perhaps even recovery, of parts of the hulk. Finally, as over- 
optimistic piecemeal adaptation of techniques showed that the location 
problem itself was a difficult one and that the craft had been cata- 
strophically damaged, the emphasis shifted to the long-term problem 
of developing specialized equipment for careful examination of objects 
on the sea floor. In this last context the 7hresher has become simply 
a good specific case on which to test the effectiveness of newly develop- 
ing systems. 

The marine scientific community was actively involved from the 
beginning of the first phase of operations. Atlantis IJ, the recently 


SEARCH FOR THE THRESHER—SPIESS AND MAXWELL 375 


completed research ship of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institu- 
tion, was at sea within 150 kilometers of the accident and immediately 
joined the destroyers, aircraft, submarines, and other Navy craft 
which responded to the emergency signals from the Skylark. The 
search initially was concentrated on effects observable at the surface, 
although the Atlantis IJ began use of its precision echo sounder early 
in the operation. The many ships plowed the area looking for slicks 
and debris, while the aircraft, im addition, surveyed the area with 
radiological monitoring equipment. Negative results with this equip- 
ment eliminated the fear that some reactor accident had occurred, 
with associated high-level contamination of the sea. As this phase 
developed it became clear not only that the boat was lost but that 
there was an uncertainty of several kilometers concerning the position 
of Thresher at the time of her last contact with the Skylark. 

Determination to find the wreck in order to ascertain the cause of 
the disaster developed very quickly. During this same time the Navy 
began to realize that it had no operational techniques, in the con- 
ventional sense, adequate for the job. The Navy has, however, 
strongly supported research activity at sea, and thus had available 
a pool of interested scientists and research ships eager to assist with 
this new problem. Soon other research laboratories in the vicinity 
joined the search: Lamont Geological Observatory with its new 
(Navy-provided) ship Conrad; Hudson Laboratories with Gibbs, 
Allegheny, and Mission Capistrano; the Navy Research Laboratory, 
the Naval Oceanographic Office, and the Naval Ordnance Laboratory, 
working together, with another new research ship, Gls, in addition 
to the Rockville and the Prevail. 

Some organization of this effort was required, and for this purpose 
a seagoing unit was established—Task Group 89.7, under the command 
of Captain Frank Andrews, whose normal assignment was that of 
Commander Submarine Development Group Two, based at New Lon- 
don,Conn. Overall technical coordination was vested in the 7’hresher 
Advisory Group, under the direction of Arthur E. Maxwell, Office 
of Naval Research. This group included representatives from the 
laboratories mentioned above as well as from the University of Rhode 
Island School of Oceanography, the University of Miami Marine 
Laboratory, the Bureau of Ships, and the Office of the Chief of Naval 
Operations. The group met from time to time during the search 
to lay out plans and evaluate results. In addition, they were backed 
up by a full-time analysis staff assembled at Woods Hole and utilizing 
personnel from Woods Hole, the Navy Oceanographic Office, Sub- 
marine Development Group Two, the Naval Underwater Ordnance 
Station, and the Navy Electronics Laboratory. 

Throughout this phase of the search there was a sense of urgency. 
Initially this was a residue of the urgency that characterized the ini- 


376 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


tial effort, when there was a true need for emergency action. Later 
on, the feeling of pressure continued because all the major participants 
had previous plans for research expeditions, to which they were 
anxious to return. As time passed and the difficulties became more 
apparent, there was pressure to bring the operation to a successful 
conclusion before bad weather set in, in the fall. 

The individual techniques which were immediately recognized as 
potentially useful and which were already being employed in some 
fashion in exploration of the sea floor were use of acoustic echo 
sounders or near-bottom sonar; magnetic, electric, radiation detection ; 
photographic detection ; real-time optical detection, either direct view- 
ing or viewing by closed-circuit television from deep-operating craft; 
and dragging or dredging. The group rejected the last alternative, 
primarily on grounds that it would disturb the site in ways which 
might confuse interpretation of the situation when the wreck was 
found. Direct observation could not be implemented initially, but 
the bathyscaphe 7rieste was immediately transported by ship from 
San Diego to Boston and readied for use. 

Of the techniques available, the one which was most immediately 
and widely applicable was use of the precision echo sounder. This 
device consists of a downward-looking broad-beam sound transmitter 
and receiver; the received signal is displayed on a facsimile-type 
recorder having a very stable time base. This display produces, on 
an expanded scale if desired, an analog record of the echo return times 
for successive sound pulses transmitted into the water as the ship 
travels along. In normal use, this system provides an approximate 
representation of the topography for the construction of charts or the 
study of shapes of naturally occurring features. For search purposes 
this technique would be useful only if the sea floor were relatively 
smooth. If this were the case, attention would be directed to search 
for a small crescent-shaped pattern superposed on the echo returns 
from the sea floor. Simple geometry shows that the return from a 
submarine will be the first echo, even if the hulk is 150 meters to the 
side of the search ship’s track, for target height of 10 meters in water 
depth of 2500 meters (about that in the search area). Comprehensive 
application of this technique thus dictated a stringent requirement 
for a navigational capability not normally possessed by research 
ships in this area. 

SEARCH AREAS AND ACCURACY 


The navigational problem was first met by the use of the Loran C 
electromagnetic system. After difficult-to-obtain Loran C receivers 
were obtained, it became rapidly apparent that the shore station 
locations were such that only one coordinate was useful. Therefore, 
arrangements were made to utilize, in addition, a Decca system in the 


SEARCH FOR THE THRESHER—SPIESS AND MAXWELL 377 


area, which provided another nearly orthogonal coordinte. Over a 
single weekend, new charts were prepared and receivers were provided 
for six ships. This system (combination Loran C and Decca), al- 
though it lacked accuracy at night, provided the primary navigational 
reference throughout the search. Reproducibility of position, as 
judged relative to bottom topography and moored buoys, was about 
100 meters. 

In the beginning of the operation the search area of 18 by 18 kilo- 
meters (10 by 10 nautical miles) was quartered, and one ship was 
assigned to each sector. With the availability of the improved naviga- 
tional system it became apparent, however, that a more systematic 
approach was required. It was thus decided that four ships (Adl/e- 
gheny, Mission Capistrano, Prevail, and Rockville) would make a 
navigationally controlled, precision exploration of the entire area, 
with 250 meters between tracks, while Conrad, Gillis, and Atlantis II 
would move in to investigate possibly significant contacts. The sys- 
tematic survey required 2 weeks of operating time in the area during 
which time the data were plotted and contoured aboard ship. The 
results provided the first quantitative indication of the difficulties of 
using the echo sounder for this purpose. A model showing the com- 
plexity of the topography is shown in plate 1, figure 2, in comparison 
with a model based on previously available data. The result was the 
conclusion that in about half the area the sea floor was too rough for 
search by this technique. In the other half there were six possible 
target indications, one of which was point “delta,” first observed by 
Atlantis II. Because “delta” was close to the location deduced from 
the rough navigational record provided initially by Skylark, and be- 
cause the echogram (pl. 2, fig. 1) was especially convincing, this point 
was given the highest priority for further investigation. 

During the time the four ships were conducting their detailed 
sweep of the area, Conrad, Atlantis IJ, and Gillis had already begun 
investigation of the most likely locations. They relied principally on 
photographic equipment built over the years to solve the needs of 
submarine geologists. With such equipment it was possible to make 
stereo pair photographs of a strip about 7 to 10 meters wide, with over- 
lapping coverage for successive exposures, while the vessel was travel- 
ing at speeds of 1 to 2 knots (1.8 to 3.6 km/hr). Aside from the result- 
ing very slow search rate (about 214 km.? per week), this technique 
has the additional disadvantage of requiring a bottom-referenced navi- 
gation system accurate to within at least 5 meters to assure that there 
are no appreciable gaps in coverage. As an investigative tool in a 
restricted area, however, this is an essential method, since it can provide 
the detailed view of a wreck that is needed by investigators. 

Underwater television was another device with similar restrictions 
that was available for optical investigation of the area. At the time 


378 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


of the Thresher sinking, the Navy Research Laboratory had under test 
a slow-scan underwater television system. It was being developed by 
the laboratory for direct observation of the bottom in real time, to 
correlate with acoustic reflection measurements, as well as for examina- 
tion of instruments and structures emplaced on and in the bottom. 
The unit had been tested through 6,700 meters of cable on the dock, but 
had never been to sea or even in the water. By accelerating the de- 
velopment program, the system was readied for use aboard the lis in 
May. Although the television had an advantage over photography in 
providing real-time observations (one picture every 2 seconds), it had 
a relatively poor 600-line resolution. Fortunately, the cameras could 
be activated to give pictures of better resolution when interesting ob- 
jects came into view on the tube. Many thousands of “looks” at the 
bottom were obtained by this technique, complementing the results 
obtained by photography. 


DEBRIS IS PHOTOGRAPHED 


In spite of lack of knowledge of the exact location of the photo- 
graphic or television camera (on the end of 2,500 meters of wire) 
relative to a lump on the sea bottom that had been found by the echo 
sounder at the surface, the ships criss-crossed the area with some 
success. Using combined photographic, echo ranging, electric poten- 
tial, and radioactive equipment, part of which was loaned to Woods 
Hole by Schlumberger, the Atlantis JJ searched in a predominantly 
north-south pattern based on 7hresher’s last known course of 090 
degrees, in the hope that some evidence of her passage might be de- 
tected. This strategy paid off with the receipt of the first pictures of 
fresh man-made materials on the sea floor, and was used by other ships 
to build up, gradually, sufficient evidence to indicate a streak of debris 
about 1,000 meters wide and at least 4,000 meters long. However, none 
of the pieces of debris photographed at this stage showed any item 
clearly identifiable as belonging uniquely to Thresher. 

At this time the need to identify the debris streak with Thresher 
became strong enough to override, temporarily, the earlier restriction 
against dredging. Conrad had on board equipment normally used to 
gather rock samples from the sea floor. She dragged this across the 
debris area and, in several passes, recovered some envelopes containing 
spare gaskets. ‘These were identified, from notes on the envelopes, as 
being definitely from the interior of the Thresher. Similarly, the 
Atlantis II dredged up pieces of battery plates that were later identi- 
fied, by chemical analysis, as being of the type carried on nuclear 
submarines. 

Dredging, photography, and echo sounding were three techniques 
which could be used in this search without any modification. Mag- 
netometers [obviously applicable in a search for a 3,000-ton (2,700- 


PLATE 1 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Spiess and Maxwell 


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Because of the size and shape of this contact an accelerated search for the 


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1 kilometer to the north. 


The first photographs of debris were obtained about 


(Courtesy Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.) 


2. Photograph of debris from the Thresher, taken by the Navy Electronics Laboratory 
bathyscaphe Trieste, on August 24, 1963, at a depth of 2,600 meters. (Courtesy U.S. 


Navy.) 


PLATE 3 


Spiess and Maxwell 


Smithsonian Report, 1964. 


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SEARCH FOR THE THRESHER—SPIESS AND MAXWELL 379 


metric-ton) lump of iron] had been used for geophysical exploration 
both on land and at sea, but usually as airborne or shallow-towed 
instruments. Only the geophysical group at Cambridge University, 
England, had a magnetometer capable of being towed at great depth, 
and this particular instrument was then in use in the Indian Ocean. 
Several laboratories (Lamont, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 
and the Naval Ordnance Laboratory) thus began packaging the avail- 
able magnetometers for use at depths which would give the required 
proximity (about 200 meters) to the hulk during search. More was 
involved than simple provision of a pressure-proof case; also required 
were a strong towing wire having good capability as a conductor of 
an electrical signal and proper telemetering circuitry to make the 
signal available on the towing ship. In early attempts there were 
many electrical problems. Nevertheless, one credible anomaly was 
found, at about the time of the dredging operations, but it was appar- 
ently remote from the debris area by more than a kilometer. Some- 
what later, another signal (fig. 1) was found, several times, by Conrad. 
Still later this magnetic signal was confirmed by both Gibbs and Gillis 
(with equipment from Scripps and the Naval Research Laboratory). 
In each instance, navigational uncertainty and lack of ability to make 
photographs or view by television at the time the signal was obtained 
precluded the possibility of identifying these signals with 7hresher, 
or even of being sure that they were all generated by the same object. 
The amplitude and dimensions of the signals were such that it is highly 
probable that they were generated by a mass of iron of the approximate 
dimension of a submarine, but whether this was Z’hresher, some other 
wreck, or even natural background is as yet not known. 
High-resolution acoustic techniques, used near the sea floor, were 
regarded from the start as providing a most promising type of search. 
Two units were assembled through modification of existing equipment 
(by Marine Physical Laboratory and Woods Hole Oceanographic In- 
stitution), but these units lacked adequate resolution in angle. West- 
inghouse, under contract with Hudson Laboratories, built a unit 
specifically designed for the purpose, and it was operating effectively 
by July. This unit was towed near bottom, by means of a cable similar 
to that used with the magnetometers; it had an acoustic transmitter 
and receiver whose two narrow beams were directed one to each side. 
The variation in amplitude of the nearly continuous sea-floor reverber- 
ation from each transmitted pulse was plotted on a facsimile-type 
recorder. In this way, for each pulse a high-intensity mark was made 
at the ranges of highly reflecting sea-floor features and virtually no 
intensity was recorded at ranges corresponding to shadows. Thus, 
as the towed unit moved along, from successive pings it created a 
picture of the sea floor similar to that used by cartographers to show 
roughness of terrain, or similar to the “PPI” (plan position indicator) 


380 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


100 
90 
80 


70 


oO 


— pt 
TIME 0430 0445 0500 


12 JUNE 1963 


Ficure 1.—Graph obtained with the deep-towed proton precession magnetometer, showing 
an anomaly of approximately 100 gammas in the intensity of the total magnetic field. 
This anomaly, first observed aboard the Conrad, was later confirmed by observers 
aboard the Gillis and the Gibbs. ‘This single clue indicates that the hull, though badly 
torn, is still essentially in one piece. (Courtesy the Lamont Geological Observatory.) 


display from a radar installation looking out at a flat angle over the 
land. Many informative pictures were obtained with this unit, but 
none could be positively identified with Z'hresher. 


TRIESTE AIDS THE SEARCH 


As additional evidence from photography, television, magnetom- 
eters, and side-looking sonar was accumulated, it became evident that 
the most promising region, where search should be concentrated, was 


SEARCH FOR THE THRESHER—SPIESS AND MAXWELL 381 


the small area directly to the east of the strip of debris charted by 
Atlantis II, Gillis, and Conrad. This was the area in which the 
magnetometer contacts were obtained, as well as the photographs of 
the larger pieces of debris. Because this area was sufficiently re- 
stricted in size to allow effective use of Z’rieste, the bathyscaphe was 
brought to the scene. She is one of the few craft in the world (and 
the only one belonging to the United States) which can operate to 
the depth necessary for observing the bottom in this area. Like all 
others (French and Japanese craft), Z’rieste lacks the cruising range 
and maneuverability necessary for an extensive search operation, but 
her observational capability makes her a useful investigative adjunct, 
once an area of high probability has been established. Operation of 
this craft is time-consuming and provides a good example, for the 
nonseagoing scientist, of the slow pace at which many seagoing experi- 
mental activities must be conducted. TZ rieste must be towed from port 
to the operating area at a speed set by the conditions of wind and sea, 
at best not in excess of 5 knots. She is essentially a fair-weather ve- 
hicle and is very vulnerable if caught under tow in a storm; thus, she 
is not taken out of port unless there is a prediction of good weather for 
the entire operation period. 

In the present case, the tow from Boston took about 3 days. Once on 
station, it is necessary to transfer personnel from the towing ship to 
Trieste in small boats, and to maintain divers in the water until she has 
started her descent. This portion of the operation typically takes 
more than an hour. Once on her way, 7 7ieste sinks at a rate of less 
than 1 meter per second, requiring some 60 minutes to reach bottom in 
the Thresher area. After 7'rieste’s arrival on the bottom (and possi- 
bly after oscillating maneuvers to free her from mud, if her descent 
was not checked in time), her ballast is adjusted and she can begin to 
cruise horizontally at speeds of 14 to 1 meter per second at an elevation 
of about 10 meters above the sea floor. From this position, one of 
the three men in the sphere (2 meters in diameter) can observe a patch 
of sea floor a few meters wide and 10 to 15 meters long, ahead of the 
vehicle. Her turning circle is about 20 meters in diameter, and thus 
a 180-degree turn takes about 2 minutes and no single spot on the 
sea floor can be kept in view during that time. When the battery 
supply is exhausted, after she has been at the bottom for 4 or 5 hours, 
ballast is released and she ascends to the surface. Once the 77este is 
at the surface it is necessary to check out all equipment, recharge bat- 
teries, and load ballast before she can make another dive. One dive 
per day is her maximum capability under good weather conditions in 
this area. 

Trieste made two series of five dives each in connection with the 
Thresher search. Because of navigational difficulties and minor mal- 
functions of equipment, only two out of each five dives were highly 


382 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


successful. The remaining three dives per series, while useful, pro- 
vided essentially negative evidence, such as evidence on where 7 hresher 
was not. During these dives, personnel of the 7’rieste were able to 
plot the limits of debris on the bottom, obtain photographs (pl. 2, 
fig. 2) of many parts of the hulk (including draft markings from the 
bow), and recover pieces of the debris. The debris area has been 
described by the 7 rieste’s pilot, Lt. Comd. Donald Keach, as “re- 
sembling an automobile junk yard.” Unfortunately, a magnetometer 
aboard the 7’rieste did not operate properly and the magnetic anomaly 
observed by the surface ships could not be positively associated with 
the debris. Radiation detectors, both total-count and pulse-height 
analyzers, showed the radioactivity in the area to be normal and to be 
attributable primarily to the potassium-40 in the sediments. 

Results from the 7'rieste operations showed the microstructure of 
the bottom to be sufficiently complicated to make further use of surface 
echo sounders impractical. As a consequence, considerable effort was 
expended to improve deep-towed instrument packages. The Navy 
Research Laboratory combined their television camera unit with a 
proton precession magnetometer and a side-looking sonar (pls. 3 
and 4). Although there was interference between the various com- 
ponents, nonetheless, the advantage and practicability of multiple 
sensors was amply demonstrated. Even with this increase in capa- 
bility there remained the problem of accurate navigation with respect 
to the bottom, which hampered all phases of the search operation. 


NEW TRACKING SYSTEM 


As the difficulties in finding 7’hresher became more apparent it also 
became clear that a major requirement would be the ability to keep a 
record of the tracks of various instrument packages and of 7’reste in 
their traverses across the area. Initial estimates of the positions of 
deep-towed instruments relative to the towing ships were made from 
knowledge of the ship’s speed, the amount of towing wire used, and 
the angle of the towing wire at the ship. However, the currents in 
the area are not constant, either as a function of time or as a function 
of depth; thus, particularly at the low towing speeds which were 
necessary, the 3000 meters of wire allowed a considerable position un- 
certainty. It was known from other work that acoustic methods 
could be used to determine the position of the tow relative to the 
tending ship. Thus, the Woods Hole group on Atlantis JJ put into 
operation a tracking system in which a sound source on the towed 
package transmitted a signal picked up by three elements, two mounted 
(fore and aft) on the ship and the third mounted on an outrigger to 
provide a 15-meter athwartship separation between the receivers. 
With this arrangement and with knowledge of the water depth from 
echo sounding, it was possible to compute the approximate position 


SEARCH FOR THE THRESHER—SPIESS AND MAXWELL 383 


of the sound source. By the time the 7’rieste made her second series 
of dives, a more elaborate tracking system, assembled by the Applied 
Physical Laboratory of the University of Washington, had been in- 
stalled on the research ship Gillis. In this system a short pulse signal 
is transmitted from the ship and answered automatically by the sound 
source (transponder) on the tow. Three receivers are mounted on 
the ship, and their outputs are fed to a computer which produces all 
three coordinates of the transponder relative to the ship for each pulse. 

This system was used to track 7’7este in her second series of dives 
and to navigate (lis relative to a transponder fixed to the sea floor. 
Throughout the entire operation consideration had been given to the 
use of acoustic transponders or beacons to mark various reference 
points, but erratic performance and fear of overloading the area 
with confusing noisemakers made the Advisory Group reluctant to 
use them extensively. 

While acoustic methods seemed appropriate for use with most in- 
strument packages, there was also a realization on the part of some 
participants that even simple, after-the-fact, knowledge of the posi- 
tion of photographic equipment relative to the sea floor would be 
useful. This led to the use of “fortune cookies”—plastic sheets (40 
by 55 cm.) numbered sequentially, rolled, tied with a soluble band, 
weighted, and dropped into the sea by one of theships. This provided 
strings of spots on the sea floor which were then used for correlating 
different photographic sequences traversing the same area. This sys- 
tem also proved useful in orienting observers during bathyscaphe 
dives. 

Following the second series of 7'rieste dives the weather began to 
worsen, and the decision was made to terminate the entire operation, 
at least for 1963. By that time the debris area had been well de- 
termined and convincing photographs and pieces of material from 
within the submarine had been obtained; there no longer remained 
any doubt that the site of the accident had been found and that any 
properly equipped ship could return to the debris area at will. The 
evidence clearly indicated that some catastrophic event had occurred 
as the eventual result of loss of buoyancy and control by Thresher. 
It did not appear that any direct information on the chain of events 
leading to the violent hull failure could be reconstructed from the de- 
bris thus far found. Some questions still remain, however, which 
make the area an interesting one for testing new and improved systems 
for sea-floor search. Specifically, the location and condition of the 
remains of the pressure hull and the reactor are of considerable in- 
terest, particularly in view of the variety of credible hypotheses as 
to their behavior that have been proposed. These range from a 
hypothesis of complete burial in the sediment, due to high sinking 
speed, to one of possible temporary surfacing of a portion, resulting 


384 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


from a diesel-engine-like explosion following rapid flooding from 
one end. 

Further activity in the search area this summer is already under 
way. Complete systems combining acoustic, magnetic, and photo- 
graphic techniques are being used, in connection with careful sonic 
navigation. 7Z'rieste has been extensively rebuilt (this work had been 
started prior to the 7hresher accident) and has returned to the scene 
as a far more rugged piece of seagoing machinery. Concurrently, 
the Navy is preparing to implement a long-term development pro- 
gram, based on work of special study group (the deep Submergence 
Systems Review Group), which will give it capability in locating, 
examining, and (in special instances) recovering objects on the deep 
sea floor. This program will include the construction and outfitting 
of small submarines having greater mobility, cruising range, and 
work capability (though not greater operating depth) than 7’rieste. 
Many marine scientists have long desired development of craft with 
the observational, instrument-planting, and recovery capabilities that 
these small submarines will have. It is unfortunate but true that 
it has taken the 7 hresher tragedy to awaken many to our lack of ability 
to investigate the deep sea—a lack not of basic knowledge of fruitful 
techniques but of experience and equipment in being. Such capabili- 
ties as we had a year ago grew directly out of our existing marine 
research effort. The new capabilities which are being brought into 
being as a result of last summer’s work will help push forward our 
ability to make even more fruitful exploration of the depths of the sea. 


Recent Events in Relativity’ 


By Mitton A. RoTHMAN 


Research Physicist, Plasma Physics Laboratory, 
Princeton University 


Iv MAY HAPPEN in some future time that a man will be able to step 
into a spaceship and travel to another solar system at a speed ap- 
proaching that of light. If this ever occurs, certain events predicted 
by the theory of relativity will take place, events decidedly peculiar 
by present standards. 

Suppose, for example, that our traveler sets out for a star 10 light- 
years distant, and is quickly able to attain a velocity of 90 percent 
that of hight. It will take him about 11 years to reach his destination, 
and if he then turns around and comes back at the same speed, 22 years 
will have elapsed on earth by the time he makes his landing. 

To the voyager, matters appear somewhat different. Once he 
reaches a constant velocity, he feels no sense of motion. However, he 
sees the earth receding and the destination approaching at a speed 90 
percent that of light. Owing to the contraction of length predicted by 
relativity, he finds that the distance to be traveled is only 4.35 light- 
years, rather than 10 light-years. Therefore, he finds it takes him 
only 4.85 years to go, and an equal time to return, or a total round trip 
time of 9.70 years. 

Asa result, a person who has remained on earth finds himself aged 22 
years, while the person who went on the trip is aged 9.7 years. Time 
has been going more slowly on the spaceship than on the earth. This 
is In agreement with rule 4 of table 2, which gives some of the con- 
clusions drawn from the Special Theory of Relativity. 

On the other hand, we might raise an objection to this conclusion. 
While a clock in motion appears to be going more slowly than a clock 
which is at rest with respect to the observer, the direction of motion 
does not enter into the equation. If motion is completely relative, 
then as far as the man in the ship is concerned, it is the earth which is 


1 Reprinted by permission from Foote Prints, vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 15-24, copyright 1963 
by the Foote Mineral Company, Exton, Pa. 


766-746—65 29 385 


386 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


moving. Therefore the man in the ship should find that the clock 
on the earth is going more slowly than his clock. 

The traveler feels that he should be the older one at the end of the 
trip—not the one who stayed home! 

This famous “clock paradox” has been well-known for many years, 
and has been discussed thoroughly by a great many writers. The 
consensus has been that indeed the traveling man would come back to 
earth younger than the stay-at-home individual. In spite of this, there 
has been a vocal minority which has maintained that there would be 
no difference in age between the two people (Dingle, 1956, 1957). 

Until very recently there was no experimental evidence bearing 
upon this paradox one way or the other. After all, it has proven 
difficult enough to get an observer out in space without getting him up 
to relativistic velocities—that is, velocities great enough to observe 
these small effects. It requires a speed of 42,000 kilometers per second 
to produce a 1-percent change in the length, mass, or time rate of a 
body. With ordinary laboratory or rocket-type velocities, the effects 
are exceedingly small. 

However, during the past 2 years a new laboratory tool (the Méss- 
bauer effect) has made possible experiments of such precision that 
previously they were not considered feasible. As a result of this, 
interest in experimental proof of the Principle of Relativity is now 
at a higher level of activity than ever, despite the fact that a great 
many facets of the theory have already been proven in the 55 years 
since Einstein first proposed it. 

Since relativity is the foundation of modern physics, any experi- 
ments which help establish its validity are considered very funda- 
mental and important. The newly invented techniques illuminate 
certain aspects of the theory which have been inaccessible up to now. 


THE PRINCIPLE OF EQUIVALENCE 


The Special Theory of Relativity is based upon the two assumptions 
listed in table 1. While the Special Theory (published by Einstein 
in 1905) deals with observers moving at constant velocity, the later 


TABLE 1.—Basic Assumptions of the Special Theory of 
Relativity 


1. The velocity of light in free space is always a constant, 
regardless of the motion of source or observer. 

2. The laws of nature are always the same to any observer 
moving with constant velocity, regardless of this velocity. 

The Principle of Equivalence: A body in a gravitational 
field behaves exactly the same as it would if it were subjected 
to an equivalent acceleration, without the presence of the 
gravitational field. 


RECENT EVENTS IN RELATIVITY—ROTHMAN 387 


and more elaborate General Theory (1915) deals with accelerated 
systems. In an intermediate paper of 1911, Einstein discussed the 
Principle of Equivalence (table 1), which has been the subject of some 
of the recent experiments. 

This principle, in effect, says that if we do an experiment on the 
surface of the earth, under 1 g. of gravitational acceleration, then 
we should get exactly the same result if we do the experiment out in 
space, in a ship undergoing 1 g. of rocket acceleration. In fact, we 
see here that the terminology of the astronaut explicitly recognizes 
the Principle of Equivalence, for 1 g. of acceleration always means 
the same thing, whether it is caused by gravity or rocket thrust. 

What this implies is a very basic assumption: Gravitational mass 
(the mass which determines the force of gravity) is exactly the same 
as inertial mass (the mass which determines the acceleration resulting 
from an applied force). 

If this were not true, then bodies with different masses would fall 
at different rates. It has not always been obvious to people that 
different masses do fall at the same rate. Since the time of Galileo 
we have believed this assumption to be true. Nevertheless, our experi- 
ments are only approximations, and there is always the chance that 
an experiment giving another decimal place of accuracy might dis- 
cover small differences between gravitational and inertial mass. Be- 
cause of this, we are always on the alert for new and novel experi- 
ments which tend to settle the question more definitely. 

The predictions of the Special Theory, listed in table 2, have been 
verified by numerous experiments during the past 50 years. How- 
ever, the Principle of Equivalence has not been so fortunate, since the 
effects which it predicts are so minute that until very recently labora- 
tory experiments of the required precision have been out of the 
question. 

One effect which the Principle of Equivalence predicts is the “gravi- 
tational red shift.” Ifa source of light emits radiation which travels 
from a region of low gravitational potential to a region of high 
gravitational potential—that is, if the light is traveling wp, then the 


TABLE 2.— Results of the Special Theory of Relativity 


1. A body which is moving relative to an observer appears 
to be shortened in the direction of motion. 

2. The mass of this moving body is greater than when it is 
at rest. This increase of mass is directly related to the 
kinetie energy of the moving body. 

3. The total mass of a body is related to its total energy 
according to the expression: E=mc’. 

4. A clock which is moving relative to an observer runs 
more slowly than a clock at rest. 

5. The maximum velocity for the transmission of any 
signal is the speed of light. 


388 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


frequency of this radiation is decreased. The wavelength is shifted 
toward the red. 

Astronomers have sought to observe this in the hight coming from 
very heavy stars. If we look at this hght by means of a spectroscope, 
and compare the wavelength of a particular spectral line with the same 
line from a terrestrial source, the line from the star should be shifted 
toward the red. This is a very small shift, and is superimposed upon 
the normal Doppler shift due to the motion of the star away from the 
earth, so that the measurement is very difficult to make. 

The same sort of shift should be observed if we use a source of light 
at the surface of the earth, while the observer or detector is stationed 
at some height above the surface of the earth (fig. 1). In this case, 
the amount of shift would be very small indeed. 

There are a number of ways of “explaining” how this comes about, 
all of which are ultimately equivalent in terms of the theory of rela- 
tivity. One way of understanding the reason for the gravitational 
red shift is to consider that the ight emitted from the source is in 


DETEEHOR 


SOURCE OF 
MONOCHROMATIC LIGHT 


EARTH 


FIGure 1.—Light traveling up from the surface of the earth has a longer wavelength than 
light from the same source traveling parallel to the earth’s surface. 


RECENT EVENTS IN RELATIVITY—ROTHMAN 389 


the form of photons. Each photon has a certain energy which is 
proportional to the frequency of the radiation. Associated with this 
energy is a definite mass. When the photon rises from the surface 
of the earth, it must do work against the gravitational field. It is 
“pulled back” by the force of gravity. Therefore, the photon loses 
kinetic energy. Since its velocity must remain a constant, this loss 
of energy is observed as a decrease in the quantum energy—in other 
words, a decrease in the frequency. 

Conversely, a photon falling toward the earth must acquire an 
increased frequency. 

An alternative way of describing the same situation is offered by 
the Principle of Equivalence. We imagine the source of radiation 
and the observer to be located in a spaceship undergoing 1 g. of ac- 
celeration (fig. 2). The source and observer are always the same 


Ficure 2.—Light leaving the source A heads for the observer B. By the time the light 
reaches the observer, the latter is at D, and is traveling faster than it was when the 
light left the source. 


390 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


distance apart—they are at rest with respect to each other. A photon 
emitted by the source at A travels toward the observer at B. However, 
by the time this photon reaches the observer, the latter has reached 
the point DY. In addition, the observer is now traveling faster than 
he was at point B, because he has been under constant acceleration. 

In other words, although the source and observer always remain the 
same distance apart, the acceleration produces an effect as if the 
observer were always running away from the source. If we calculate 
the additional velocity acquired by the observer during the time it 
takes the photon to reach it, we can then calculate the Doppler shift 
resulting from this velocity. This turns out to be exactly the same as 
the shift which is calculated on the principle that the photon is rising 
against the acceleration of gravity. 

The statement is sometimes made that the gravitational red shift is 
observed when the source of light is in a stronger gravitational field 
than is the observer. However, this is incorrect, since the calculation 
outlined above shows that the shift can be observed even when source 
and observer are in a uniform field. The only thing that matters is 
that the observer must be higher than the source. In other words, it 
is the difference of potential that enters into the calculation. If the 
observer is lower than the source, the result will be a blue shift. 

Measurements of the gravitational frequency shift within the con- 
fines of a laboratory were formerly unheard of, because there was no 
way of measuring the tiny amount of shift produced by the earth’s 
eravitational field. With the advent of satellites, proposals were made 
to send up very precise radio-frequency oscillators, whose signals 
would be compared with those of an identical oscillator down on the 
ground. Since the amount of shift depends on the difference in alti- 
tude between transmitter and receiver, it was calculated that a meas- 
urable effect would be obtained. 

However, before this could be done, a development in a totally 
unexpected direction made these satellite experiments obsolete before 
they were even undertaken. This new development came from the 
field of nuclear physics, and it came from a rather obscure corner of 
a specialty known as low-energy nuclear spectroscopy. 


THE MOSSBAUER EFFECT 


The story illustrates quite beautifully the strongest argument in 
favor of basic research: You never know when a piece of research will 
turn out to have important consequences in an unpredictable appli- 
cation. 

For several years a number of nuclear physicists have been using the 
phenomenon of nuclear resonance fluorescence to measure properties 
of the excited states of various nuclei. This is based upon the idea 


RECENT EVENTS IN RELATIVITY—ROTHMAN 391 


Coo’ 
a. Th Kev 
Gamma 
Ray 
SSO 
ELE SA 
Eeo/ Feo! 


Ficure 3.—Radioactive cobalt-57 decays by beta emission to an excited state of iron-57, 
which quickly emits a 14-kev gamma ray. If this gamma ray photon encounters 
another nucleus of iron-57, it may be absorbed. 


that when a nucleus has been raised to an excited state, it decays to the 
normal ground state by emitting a gamma ray of a definite frequency. 
If this gamma ray now encounters another nucleus of the same kind 
as the first, this second nucleus may now be raised to its excited state 
by absorbing the energy of the gamma ray (fig. 3). 

This is a resonance effect. If the gamma ray differs in frequency 
by as little as one part in 10%? of the resonance frequency, the absorp- 
tion will be greatly reduced—the amount of reduction depends upon 
the “width,” or energy spread, of the excited level. Theoretically, at 
least, the absorption can be measured by counting the gamma rays 
from an appropriate radioactive source first with and then without 
the proper absorber between the source and counter. 

Unfortunately, when a nucleus emits a gamma ray, some of the 
energy of the excited state goes into recoil motion of the nucleus. This 
means that the gamma ray frequency is reduced considerably, so that 
when it hits a nucleus which might be receptive to it, it is far-off 
resonance, and there is no absorption at all. In the past, people have 
managed to compensate for this recoil motion by heating the source 
or by whirling it around in a centrifuge. 

In 1958, R. L. Mossbauer, a young German physicist, discovered 
that in a few favorable cases one could obtain gamma rays with prac- 
tically no recoil at all (Méssbauer, 1958; Benedetti, 1960). There are 
a few radioactive elements which emit rather low energy gamma rays 
and which are so strongly bound in their crystal lattice that the recoil 
energy is taken up by the crystal as a whole rather than by the individ- 
ual radiating nucleus. 

Immediately, a number of physicists realized that the Mossbauer 
effect provided a source of radiation of unparalleled precision, as far 
as the energy (or frequency) of the radiation was concerned. The 


392 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


most commonly used isotope is cobalt-57, which decays by the emis- 
sion of beta rays to iron-57, with a half-life of 280 days. 

Following the beta emission, the iron-57 nucleus is in an excited 
state which lasts for about a tenth of a microsecond, a reasonably long 
time as nuclear lifetimes go. It now emits a gamma ray of about 14 
kilo-electron-volt energy, which corresponds to a frequency of 3 X 10*§ 
oscillations per second. This gamma ray may be visualized as a wave 
packet containing about 10’? waves altogether. 

If this packet encounters another iron nucleus likewise bound in a 
crystal lattice, it is able to raise the nucleus up to its 14 kev. excited 
state, and is absorbed in the process. The nucleus behaves as a very 
delicate frequency-measuring device. If the frequency of the incom- 
ing wave varies by only one part in 10", the probability of absorption 
will be reduced by a large factor. 

Thus we have a wave whose frequency is very sharply defined, and 
we also have a measuring device which is equally sensitive to changes 
in frequency. 

So sensitive is this system that if the source is moving only a few 
millimeters per second with respect to the absorber, the resonance is 
wiped out, due to the Doppler shift in the emitted frequency. ‘The 
standard method of doing a Méssbauer effect experiment is to have a 
radioactive source mounted on some device (such as a lathe carriage) 
which can move it at a known speed toward or away from a scintilla- 
tion counter which counts the number of photons transmitted through 
an absorber (fig. 4). If the source is iron-57, the absorber is usually 
of iron enriched in the isotope iron-57. By plotting the number of 
photons counted in a given time at various source velocities, the reso- 
nance curve shown in figure 5 may be obtained. 

The measurement of this type of resonance curve is the basis for all 
of the recent experiments which have been performed to test the theory 
of relativity. 

The theory of the Doppler shift informs us that the frequency of 
the emitted radiation is increased when the source moves toward the 
absorber, and is decreased when the source moves away from the 


RADIOACTIVE ABSORBER 
SOURCE 


SCINTILLATION 
COUNTER 


Ficure 4.—The basic apparatus for a Mossbauer effect experiment. 


RECENT EVENTS IN RELATIVITY—ROTHMAN 393 


INTENSITY TRANSMITTED BY ABSORBER 


-0.4 0 +0,4 +0.8 


D 
= 
foe) 


RELATIVE VELOCITY (c.m. per second) 


Ficure 5.—Typical resonance curve obtained by the apparatus of figure 4. 


absorber. (This refers to those photons which are moving toward 
the absorber.) 

In addition, there is another, much smaller, reduction of frequency 
which always takes place, no matter what the direction of motion. 
This is an effect of relativity, and has been of the greatest interest in 
the recent experiments. 

When the source (or the observer) is moving at right angles to the 
motion of the radiation, only the small effect of relativity is observed. 
This reduction of frequency—the “transverse Doppler shift”—arises 
from the slowing down of the atomic clocks in the moving source. This 
is the relativistic time dilatation, and the amount of slowing down 
depends only upon the magnitude of the relative velocity between the 
source of radiation and the observer. 

The transverse Doppler effect was recently observed in an experi- 
ment performed at Harwell, England, using the Méssbauer effect as a 
tool (Hay et al., 1960). The radioactive source was placed at the 
center of a rotating wheel, while the absorber was at the edge. The 
scintillation counter was at rest outside the periphery of the wheel. 
In this arrangement the absorber is always moving at right angles to 
the photons, and so any shift in frequency is a result of the transverse 
Doppler effect, and is therefore a manifestation of the time dilatation. 


394 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 
WEIGHING THE PHOTON 


Perhaps the most extensive and completely worked-out test of rela- 
tivity performed with the Méssbauer effect has been that of R. V. 
Pound and G. A. Rebka, at Harvard, begun early in 1960, and still in 
progress. 

The initial purpose of this experiment was to check the gravitational 
red shift, and in the course of doing this it almost incidentally cast 
a great deal of light on the problem of the clock paradox. 

Pound’s experiment measured the change in the resonance between 
an iron-57 source and an iron absorber (enriched in iron-57) differing 
in height by a distance of 74 feet. The apparatus was set up in a 
tower at Harvard University which, fortunately, had been built many 
years previously for an entirely different purpose. 

When the source is at the bottom, the frequency of the radiation is 
shifted to the lower side of the resonance point, because the photons 
must lose energy in rising against gravity, as described previously. 
This, in effect, measures the “weight” of the photons. When the source 
is at the top, on the other hand, the absorber “sees” that the frequency 


VIBRATOR 
SOURCE 


ABSORBER i 


SCINTILLATION . 
COUNTER ea 


UP 
SCALER 
SWITCHING 
CIRCUIT 
DOWN 
SCALER 


Ficure 6.—Experimental arrangement for measuring the gravitational red shift by means 
of the Mossbauer effect. 


RECENT EVENTS IN RELATIVITY—ROTHMAN 395 


of the descending photons has shifted toward the high side of the 
resonance frequency. 

The actual percentage shift in frequency measured in this experi- 
ment is rather small, amounting to about 5 parts in 10. If you were 
performing this experiment with a 100 megacycle radio-frequency 
oscillator, you would have to detect a change of five cycles out of about 
4 months’ operation of the oscillator to obtain the same sensitivity. 
The method for measuring this small change by means of the Moss- 
bauer effect is as follows (fig. 6) : 

The radioactive source is mounted on a vibrator so that it moves 
rapidly up and down—toward and away from the absorber. The 
scintillation counter is connected to scalers through electronic switches 
so that one scaler is counting while the source is moving towards the 
absorber, and the other scaler is counting while the source is moving 
away from the absorber. 

The Doppler shift due to this motion changes the frequency of the 
gamma rays to points above and below the center of the absorption 
resonance (fig. 7). If both source and absorber were at the same 
height, the scalers would be counting at points A and B on the curve. 
However, if the source is higher than the absorber, the photons are 
shifted to slightly higher frequencies when they reach the absorber, 


INTENSITY TRANSMITTED BY ABSORBER 


O 


RELATIVE VELOCITY OF 
SOURCE AND ABSORBER 


Ficure 7.—Effect of gravitational shift upon resonance curve. 


396 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


and so the counts are measured actually at points C and D on the curve. 
The difference in counting rates between the two scalers measures the 
change in frequency due to the gravitational effect. 

Because of the 74-foot distance between the source and detectors, - 
the counting rates are rather low, and it takes many hours to acquire 
sufficient counts to give good statistics. In the course of the experi- 
ment it was noticed that there was a slow drift in the relative counting 
rates of the two scalers—a drift large enough to wipe out the effect 
being sought. The drift was somewhat periodic—with a period of 
about 2 days. 

After a good deal of soul-searching and examination into possible 
causes for this drift, it was finally realized that this error was a result 
of the small temperature difference between the source and absorber. 
It requires a difference of only 1° C. to produce a frequency shift as 
large as the one being looked for. 

The temperature correction turns out to be directly related to the 
relativistic Doppler shift mentioned previously. The atoms of the 
radioactive source are vibrating in their crystal lattice with a mean- 
square velocity proportional to the temperature, and the relativistic 
Doppler shift depends upon just this velocity. Utilizing this as a 
basis, Pound calculated the amount of correction to apply in order to 
eliminate the temperature effect. 

When this correction was used, it was found that the remaining 
frequency shift agreed very well with that calculated from the theory 
of relativity, using the 74-foot difference in height between the source 
and absorber. 

In this way the gravitational “red shift” was verified. 


THE CLOCK PARADOX 


Following publication of this experiment, it was noticed by C. W. 
Sherwin, of the University of Illinois, that the clock paradox plays 
a role in this situation (Sherwin, 1960). 

We recall that the relativistic Doppler shift is associated with the 
time dilatation of the moving source. In the present experiment, the 
source of radiation is an atomic nucleus which is vibrating back and 
forth in a crystal lattice with a mean-square velocity proportional to 
the temperature of the material. ‘The emitting nucleus actually goes 
back and forth many times during the time that the wave packet is 
being emitted. 

This, we see, is very much like the clock paradox situation described 
at the beginning of this article. Instead of a spaceship going away 
and coming back, we have a radioactive nucleus going away and com- 
ing back many times. The radiation passing between the emitter and 
absorber is a means of continually comparing the clocks located on the 


RECENT EVENTS IN RELATIVITY—ROTHMAN 397 


“spaceship” and “earth.” The clock, in this case, is the resonant fre- 
quency of the nucleus in the act of emitting or absorbing the radiation. 

The effect actually observed is this: The nucleus traveling with the 
highest average velocity (at the highest temperature) has the lowest 
resonance frequency. In other words, its clock runs at the slowest rate, 
as seen by the observer in the laboratory, who considers himself 
motionless. 

In terms of our original paradox, the man who goes off in the space- 
ship will always return to find himself younger than the man who 
stayed at home. His time has been passing at a lower rate. 

What is it that makes the difference between the clock on the ship 
and the clock on earth? What is it that makes the situation 
unsymmetrical ? 

It is simply the fact that in order for the spaceship to go away and 
come back, it must undergo acceleration at least once during the trip. 
The clock on earth has been moving at a constant velocity in the mean- 
time. Itisthis difference which allows us to put a label on the one who 
is going to emerge with the slower clock at the end of the voyage. 

The experiment of Pound and Rebka has verified that the magnitude 
of this effect—the amount by which the clock slows down—depends 
only upon the mean-square velocity of the moving bodies. It does not 
depend upon the magnitude of the acceleration, or upon the amount of 
time between accelerations. In this experiment both the source and 
absorber nuclei are moving, both clocks are slowed down relative to the 
laboratory observer, and therefore the difference between the two 
clock rates depends upon the difference in temperature between source 
and absorber. 

This experiment is not the first time that the time dilatation effect 
has been observed in the laboratory. The relativistic Doppler shift 
was measured by H. E. Ives in 1938 by observing the light emitted by 
rapidly moving hydrogen atoms. However, this new experiment 
marks the first time that the effect has been observed using the radia- 
tion from a source which is moving back and forth, thus duplicating 
the situation of the clock paradox, 


CONCERNING THE SHAPE OF MOVING OBJECTS 


For many years we have agreed that an object moving at a high 
velocity will appear to be shortened in the direction of motion. This 
idea originated even prior to Einstein. It is, in fact, called the Lor- 
entz-Fitzgerald contraction in honor of the prerelativistic scientists 
who conceived it in order to explain away the observation that light 
always has the same velocity regardless of the motion of the observer. 

As a result of this, writers of science fiction have spoken of long, 
thin spaceships appearing to be short and squat when in motion, while 
the passing stars are turned into ellipsoids. 


398 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


E E 
=s-=n= Vv 
Fae > 
Perma ns 73 
A |] D 
TO OBSERVER 
E bis Cc 
AD=L 
w(t) 
FA D F x : 
NON-RELATIVISTIC 
V 
SinO=— 
cues é 
oat Jin (b) 
C2 
AF=(X)L 
ae D 
RELATIVISTIC 


(a) 


Ficure 8.—(a) Appearance of moving cube. (b) Appearance of rotated cube. 


It now appears that we have all been wrong. 

Fortunately, the basic ideas have not been wrong—only the inter- 
pretation of what we would actually observe have been mistaken. 'The 
error was recently pointed out by J. Terrell (1959), and expanded on 
by V. F. Weisskopf (1960). It is one of those embarrassing things 
which appears obvious after it is pointed out to you. 

Suppose we consider a cube which is moving at right angles to the 
observer’s line of sight (fig. 8). The observer takes an instantaneous 
photograph of the cube, so what he records is the position of those light 
rays which reach the photographic plate at one instant of time. 

Our first impulse is to say that we would simply see one side of the 
cube—the square ABCD. However, we must keep in mind the fact 
that the points # and F are farther away from the photographic plate 
than points A and B. Therefore light from B which leaves the cube at 
a certain instant will reach the plate at the same time as light from /’ 
which left the cube L/C seconds earlier. But during that time the 


RECENT EVENTS IN RELATIVITY—ROTHMAN 399 


cube moved a distance Lv/c. Therefore it is really the light from Z” 
which reaches the plate simultaneously with light from B. 

Thus we would expect to see a picture like the one labeled “Non- 
Relativistic,” where we find a square ABCD, followed by the projec- 
tion of the rear end of the cube, ABH. Without relativity, we expect 
to see a distorted, elongated picture of the moving cube. 

How does relativity change the situation? Relativity says that all 
lengths are shortened in the direction of motion by the factor-y1—v?/c?. 
The other lengths, at right angles to the direction of motion, are not 
changed. Therefore, under the relativistic interpretation, we would 
see the shortened square ABCD, followed by the rear end of the cube, 
ABEF, as shown in the diagram labeled “Relativistic.” 

What makes this interesting is illustrated in figure 8b. If we take 
the same cube, motionless, but simply rotated through an angle 9, 
whose sine is v/e, its picture will be exactly the same as the one obtained 
from the moving, relativistic, cube. 

In other words, a person looking at a cube moving rapidly will see 
that it appears to be rotated through the angle 9, but that it otherwise 
appears normal. Previously, the relativistic interpretation would 
have said that the cube appeared shortened—now we say that it 
appears rotated. 

When this argument is applied to a sphere, such as a star or planet, 
we conclude that the sphere remains spherical in shape, but appears to 
be rotated. If you were moving fast enough you could see part way 
around the opposite side of the sphere. 

Professor Weisskopf, in his paper, goes into the details of how a 
moving object changes its appearance as it comes towards us, passes 
by, and then recedes. In brief: We first see the front face of the object, 
strongly Doppler shifted to high frequencies. When the angle of 
vision reaches a certain value, the color shifts toward lower frequen- 
cies, the intensity of the light drops, and the object seems to turn. 
Soon the object has turned all around and we are looking at its trailing 
face. As Weisskopf says, “It is the picture expected when the object 
is receding. However, it appears already when the object is moving 
toward us.” 

This description, of course, applies only to objects which are moving 
very nearly at the speed of light. 

As stated originally, none of this invalidates the basic findings of the 
theory of relativity. It merely emphasizes, as many have found to 
their chagrin, that we must always be very careful in interpreting the 
results of the theory. 


400 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


LITERATURE CITED 
Benedetti, S. de. 
1960. Mdéssbauer effect: with biographical sketch. Scientific American, 
vol. 202, April, pp. 42, 72-80, 220. 


Dingle, H. 
1956. A problem in relativity theory. Proc. Phys. Soc., vol. A69, pp. 925- 
935. London. 
1957. The clock paradox in relativity. Nature, vol. 180, No. 4597, pp. 1275- 
1276. 


Hay, J. J.; Schiffer, J. P.; Cranshaw, T. E.; and Eegelstaff, P. A. 
1960. Measurement of the red shift in an accelerated system using the 
Mossbauer effect in Fe”. Physical Review Letters, vol. 4, No. 4, p. 
165. 
Mossbauer, R. L. 
1958. Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von Gammastrahlung in Ir™. Zeitschrift 
fiir Physik, vol. 151, pp. 124-143. 
Pound, R. Y., and Rebka, G. A. 
1960. Variation with temperature of the energy of recoil-free gamma rays 
from solids. Physical Review Letters, vol. 4, No. 6, pp. 274-275. 
Sherwin, C. W. 
1960. Some recent experimental tests of the “clock paradox.’ 
Review, vol. 120, No. 1, pp. 17-21. 


) 


Physical 


Terrell, J. 
1959. Invisibility of the Lorentz contraction. Physical Review, vol. 116, 
No. 4, pp. 1041-1045. 
Weisskopf, V. K. 
1960. The physical appearance of rapidly moving objects. Physics Today, 
vol. 13, No. 9, pp. 24-27. 


The Edge of Science 


By Sansorn C. BROWN 


Associate Dean, Graduate School, Massachusetts Institute of Technology 


Tr 1s very seldom in the life of a scientist that a whole new vista of 
knowledge opens up, vast and challenging before him. But this has 
really occurred in what has come to be called plasma physics. 

In physics a plasma is defined as a neutral collection of electrons and 
positive ions (atoms that have been stripped of their electrons) which 
move around in random thermal motion. We have discovered that 
this is the most common form in which matter is found in the universe. 
If you go out into the far reaches of so-called empty space, or to the 
stars or the solar system, or almost anywhere in the galaxy except our 
peculiarly cold bit of dust which we call the Earth, you will find 
matter in this ionized state, the plasma state. Nearly all of the matter 
in the universe is in this state, and yet it is only within the past 10 
years or so it has been recognized as a common state of matter. The 
whole subject of what we call plasma physics has excited a great frac- 
tion of the scientific community. 

To bring order into a fairly chaotic collection of phenomena, I refer 
you to a plot in which the nature of matter is defined in terms of two 
variables: the density of electrons per cubic meter and the temperature 
at which these electrons are to be found. The diagram shows the vari- 
ous areas covered by plasma physics. 

To start our discussion we begin in the lower left corner of this 
diagram. If we get to very cold electrons and to very transparent 
matter, we are in what is called interstellar space, including any nebulae 
we find in a study of the sky. It has not been long since all our infor- 
mation about the interstellar space came from visual telescopes. Col- 
lections of charged particles such as electrons and hydrogen nuclei, 
which are dancing around in space, but which are still held together 
by their mutual gravitational attraction, are not necessarily visible 
optically but may be visible by radio telescopes. We call these collec- 

1This article is based on Professor Brown’s remarks at the Alumni Symposium on 


“Engineering, Science, and Education for Tomorrow,” held in Newark, N.J., April 18, 


1964, and is reprinted by permission from the Technology Review, vol. 66, No. 9, July 
1964. 


766—746—65——30 401 


402 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


tions “stars.” Many of you are aware of the tremendous amount of 
work which is going on all over the world in studying the nature of 
the electrical signals which we get from these interstellar spaces. 

Interplanetary space, that is, space within our own solar system, 
which on the average happens to be kept warmer because we have the 
hot sun in our vicinity, reaches temperatures of around 10,000 degrees 
K. In interplanetary space the number of particles per cubic meter, 
except when we actually get to the surface of a planet, is fairly small, 
between a million or perhaps 10 million particles in each cubic meter. 
This is fairly transparent space. The interplanetary plasmas are of 
extreme importance to modern science because it is through this me- 
dium that we must travel if we are to go out any distance from the 
surface of the earth into interplanetary space, where we have already 
sent a fair number of probes. The physicists and engineers who are 
involved in space research are studying the mechanisms and the inter- 
actions of the plasma state in these interplanetary regions. 

Perhaps the one astronomical area that has been studied most is the 
Earth. Around it there is a charged blanket resulting from the fact 
that the atmosphere attached to the earth is being bombarded by solar 
radiation and the solar radiation produces a plasma from the neutral 
gases which make the earth habitable. This layer is called the iono- 
sphere and always insulates us from the outside space. This plasma 
blanket around the earth has been well known for a long time. It is 
relatively cold, 1,000-10,000 degrees K, and the electron density can 
get fairly high, up to about 10*°-10" electrons per cubic meter. ‘There 
are some very interesting and important phenomena which occur as a 
result of this ionospheric blanket. Well known to radio engineers is 
the fact that you can bounce radio waves off the ionosphere. ‘The in- 
teraction of electromagnetic radio waves with the ionosphere has been 
a major study for many years by both electrical engineers and 
physicists. 

Recently the newspapers have been full of another phenomenon 
which was predicted theoretically long ago but actually found experi- 
mentally only a few years ago when we started sending up rockets 
and high-altitude balloons. This has been called the “Van Allen 
belts.” These belts are areas of plasma concentration which have 
been caught in the inhomogeneous magnetic field around the earth. 
If you put a moving electron in a magnetic field, it has a tendency to 
go around in a circle, the diameter of which is inversely proportional 
to the magnetic field. If a charged particle is high above the earth 
somewhere near the equator, where the earth’s magnetic field is not 
very strong, it goes around slowly in a big circle, but as it gets closer 
to the pole, where the strength of the magnetic field is greater, it must 
move in smaller and smaller circles. In shortening the radius of the 


ELECTRON DENSITY PER CUBIC METER 


ro) 
@ 


THE EDGE OF SCIENCE—BROWN 403 


U crank 


22 PON 
ARCS i RON TUBE 
102° 
UW En . CZs RS). 
HOLLOW CATHODE THERMON oe FUSION 
10'8 LOW PRESSURE ARCS 
106 FLUORESCENT LAMPS 


GLOW DISCHARCES 
neon tubes 


_— 

.e) 
A 
he) 


Oo 
ae 
ro) 


IONOSPHERE 


INTERPLANETARY 
ee ee 


108 L eae TYPES OF PLASMAS 
CO 


10? {0° 104 10° 10° {07 10 ~=—>_ {0? 


ELECTRON TEMPERATURE -T (°K) 


Ficure 1 


404 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


circle, a radial force is applied, and in conserving its angular momen- 
tum the particle speeds up so that it not only moves in tighter spirals 
but goes around the tighter spirals more rapidly. In the Van Allen 
belts, the plasma particles are caught in a gigantic “magnetic mirror.” 
As these ions and electrons approach the poles, they are wound in 
tighter spirals, but as they rotate faster in smaller circles they con- 
serve energy by moving more slowly toward the poles. In fact, they 
actually slow down and stop, and are then reflected by the mirror into 
reversing their directions. They go back and forth, caught in the 
Van Allen belts. The mirror effect is not perfect, and the charged 
particles leaking out the ends of the Van Allen belts cause the north- 
ern lights, or the aurora borealis. This electrical discharge is the 
visible indication of the ionosphere, or the charged plasma, escaping 
out the ends of the Van Allen belts. 

Our very existence on earth depends upon our greatest plasma 
source, the sun. Its energy comes from the process we call thermonu- 
clear fusion. ‘Two heavy hydrogen nuclei are fused in such a way 
that helium is formed. There is energy left over which keeps the 
process going and incidentally keeps us warm. The whole process 
of the operation of the sun is a nuclear reaction occuring in the plasma 
of the sun itself. 

There are some other things on the diagram that show how univer- 
sal the plasma state is. Perhaps one of the earliest plasmas studied 
as an easy way of producing a neutral collection of electrons and ions 
was aflame. A flame even from a candle is not very hot, maybe 1,000 
degrees K, but it is extremely dense because it occurs at atmospheric 
pressure. Chemical flames themselves are not usually studied, but 
many varieties of chemical or electric “torches” produce plasmas 
which are not only laboratory tools for increasing our understanding 
of the plasma state but are technically important tools for such varied 
operations as welding or chemical synthesis. Also, for example, me- 
teors burn up when they come into the atmosphere and are reduced 
to the plasma state. Much of our information about meteoric physics 
and chemistry comes from studies of the behavior of the plasma state. 

If you go to a plasma a little hotter than a flame, and a little denser, 
you come to the most common everyday form of plasma, a gas dis- 
charge tube of some sort, a neon sign or a fluorescent light. Most of 
the original studies of the plasma state were done in what was called 
a “glow discharge” because this was a readily available way of pro- 
ducing a plasma to study in the laboratory. A great deal of the infor- 
mation we are now gaining about the ionosphere, the sun, and 
interplanetary and interstellar space comes from studies made in the 
laboratory with a glow discharge. Practically, there are many appli- 
cations of a glow discharge, particularly in the field of control and 
gas tubes of various sorts. Glow discharge studies not only explore 


THE EDGE OF SCIENCE—BROWN 405 


the theory of the plasma state but have led to engineering applications 
which have been very numerous indeed. 

If we continue to pour more and more energy into an ordinary glow 
discharge, it turns into what we call an “are.” In an arc, the electron 
density can rise to 10° times the charge density that is found in the 
sun at perhaps one-thousandth of the temperature. These kinds of 
arc studies in the laboratory provide us with powerful tools for study- 
ing the behavior of the plasma of the sun. Incidentally, at this kind 
of temperature and pressure a great deal of work is now being done 
to produce what. are called “ion jet” engines. Ion engines may well 
be the kind of engine that will move spaceships through the inter- 
planetary space for long sustained flight after chemical rockets have 
achieved the high initial force necessary to escape the earth’s gravi- 
tional field. Plasma jet engines are capable of providing a driving 
force over the thousand years you need to reach out into interstellar 
space. Obviously a great deal of practical engineering must be done 
before this method of ion propulsion is perfected. 

The high-pressure arcs are the densest form of plasma that we 
know. Here, all the material that is in the are is ionized; everything 
is in the charged state. Here the theoretical studies are the most 
characteristic of a plasma because the plasma is pure, undiluted by 
un-ionized gas. Here also some very practical devices are being 
worked on, particularly the “magnetohydrodynamic energy con- 
verter.” In a conventional turbine, gas energy is converted into the 
kinetic energy of a moving conductor which then generates the elec- 
tricity by cutting lines of magnetic flux, but if a gas conductor, a mov- 
ing plasma, is used, the intermediate step is completely eliminated. 
The plasma moving in a magnetic field produces a flowing current 
which will allow us to produce generators without any moving parts. 
There are plans for building very large generating stations by this 
scheme in which the plasma is produced either by nuclear power, fis- 
sion heat, or from a chemical reaction. 

Making very dense plasmas and going a little farther up into the 
temperature region of 100,000 degrees K, we find the “shock tube” 
as a plasma production device. When a mechanical] shock wave is 
driven down a tube faster than the velocity of sound, the shock wave 
acts as a piston. Just as with a bicycle pump, you get heat because 
the piston is pushing against the gas and doing work on it, so in the 
shock tube you can produce very high temperatures. Some of the 
highest temperatures we have achieved in the laboratory are produced 
by shock waves. Another phenomenon which has been known to 
physicists for a long time, but has only recently received attention in 
the popular press, appears when we try to pull astronauts back out 
of interplanetary space through our own atmosphere. When a 
capsule comes down through our own atmosphere, it produces a shock 


406 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


wave ahead of it which is so strong that it builds a plasma sheath all 
the way around the astronaut, and our communication with the astro- 
naut disappears. 

Physicists and engineers have been spending a great deal of their 
time in a search for a way of producing controlled thermonuclear 
fusion. We all know the sun is hot—a million degrees or more on 
the corona. At those temperatures a controlled thermonuclear reac- 
tion is produced, as we mentioned before. We would like to be able 
to carry on the same reaction in a controlled fashion on the surface 
of the earth. The advantages would be tremendous. For one thing 
we are going to run out of fuel to produce power if we keep on using 
fossil fuel. The fission fuel is rather dangerous because radioactive 
products are left over after the reaction. If we went completely to 
fission power, we would eventually have difficulty in disposing safely 
of all the radioactive waste. The thermonuclear reaction has no ra- 
dioactive waste. It ends up as ordinary helium. Furthermore, its 
fuel is a plentiful isotope of hydrogen, found in all water. Wherever 
human beings are, there is water, and you can burn this water to 
produce thermonuclear reactions. We know that a thermonuclear 
reaction works because the hydrogen bomb is exactly this: by explod- 
ing a fission bomb in contact with the hydrogen isotopes, you heat 
them so hot that the fusion reaction takes place. We would like to 
be able to do this in a controlled way in the laboratory; we have not 
yet succeeded. 

It should be quite clear from this description of the plasma state 
that its science and technology do not fall within any one of the usual 
established disciplines. It is well known that the Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology is a place where particular disciplines do not 
have any very rigid boundaries. The field of plasma physics cap- 
italizes upon the philosophy of teaching at M.I.T. 

At the moment there are over 80 members of the faculty working 
on some phase of the plasma program. There are about 100 grad- 
uate students doing research and about 30 undergraduates absorbed 
into the laboratory in various ways. It is difficult to know how many 
courses are being taught at the graduate level because many of the 
courses are not of a very formal nature. However, listed in the cata- 
log are more than 20 different courses in the plasma field, taught in 
many departments in both Science and Engineering. For example, 
in Mechanica] Engineering there are courses having to do with the 
magnetohydrodynamic fluid flow, magnetohydrodynamic machines, 
shock waves, and direct energy conversion. You would expect the 
Electrical Engineering Department to cover a great many of these 
areas and they do. There is a magneto-fluid dynamics course; there 
are some energy conversion courses; there are microwave interaction 
courses that deal with radio astronomy and the structure and be- 


THE EDGE OF SCIENCE—BROWN 407 


havior of the ionosphere. In the Physics Department courses in the 
electrical properties of electrons and ions and the effects of magnetic 
fields on plasmas are taught. Also there are courses in the nonlinear 
phenomena in fluids and plasma and wave propagation in this new 
kind of medium. There is a very strong group in cosmic physics. 
They specialize in satellites and in making tests of the plasma nature 
of space in the interplanetary system, as well as in problems of radio 
astronomy. 

As you would expect, the Department of Aeronautics and Astro- 
nautics has research teams working in various areas of this plasma 
group. They are interested in problems of astronaut propulsion and 
in high-speed flow, since many of the very high-speed phenomena 
occurring in plasmas are of great interest if you want to get some- 
where in the universe away from the earth. The Mathematics De- 
partment has a course in mathematical theory of magneto-fluid 
mechanics, and our mathematicians are developing the basic mathe- 
matical tools for understanding many of the plasma phenomena on 
earth and in the astronomical regions of space. Finally the Nuclear 
Engineering Department has four courses which have to do with the 
thermonuclear processes which we hope will lead to a controlled 
thermonuclear fusion reactor. This is still in the future, but we are 
learning a great deal about this reaction as a potential source of power. 

To me, as a teacher, one of the interesting things about suddenly 
opening up a new field is its effect on our teaching policies. What 
kind of physics do we teach our undergraduates to give them basic 
information for more advanced work in this field? For generations 
we have been dropping out things like fluid flow, but this is precisely 
what you need for an understanding of the fundamentals of plasma 
physics. As the research areas change, the change must be reflected 
in the more elementary educational processes. 

To make progress in this direction we convened at. M.I.T. a group 
of physicists and engineers who were basically interested in trying to 
teach plasma physics at an elementary level. There were some M.I.T. 
professors, professors from Pittsburgh, from Princeton, from Caltech, 
from Swarthmore, from the University of California at Berkeley, 
from Stanford, and some industrial physicists from Bell Labs, from 
Aveo, and from Government laboratories like those at Los Alamos and 
Livermore. We worked together for a week, devising what we thought 
was a reasonably good course. We published it in outline form. Many 
of us in various places in the country are trying now to teach this 
undergraduate course in plasma physics, including the areas having 
to do with plasma astronomy, charged particle physics, magneto- 
hydrodynamic flow, and so forth. This interuniversity cooperation 
is a very real attempt to develop undergraduate courses which will 
lay the foundations for further work in this field. 


408 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Now let me close this brief survey of a fascinating new area of 
physics in essentially the way I began. It is rare that scientists are 
suddenly faced with a whole new state of matter which they had not 
recognized before. The plasma physicist finds himself in this situation, 
riding the leading edge of science. Tremendous endeavors are gen- 
erated whose influence reaches into all areas of human affairs. The 
sensation is exhilarating. 


Anatomy of an Experiment: An Account 
of the Discovery of the Neutrino 


By CiypE L. Cowan 


Professor of Physics, Catholic University of America 


[With 8 plates] 


The first three decades of this century saw the absolute conservation 
laws and the theory of relativity take on dimensions extending from 
the astronomical to the atomic. But during these years a serious 
challenge to their general validity was also building up as a group at 
the Cavendish Laboratory led the work of compiling the facts of 
radioactivity. Of the three kinds of radioactivity known at that 
time—alpha, beta, and gamma decay—the first and the last were well 
behaved. In these, the alpha particle and the gamma ray were found 
to carry away from the decaying nucleus just the right amount of 
energy and momentum. Each time such a decay occurred, the energy 
lost by the decaying nucleus was to be found in the emitted particle. 

For beta decay the story was very different. Although, again, the 
amount of energy lost by the nucleus was well known, the emitted beta 
particle never carried away this amount from the decay. It was in- 
triguing that the beta particle never had too much energy, but. always 
too little. The distribution-in-energy, called the “energy spectrum,” 
of the beta particles from any given type of decay, when collected for 
many decays and plotted in a bar graph resulted in a plot typified by 
figure 1. 

Energy was, apparently, being lost—disappearing from the uni- 
verse. Otherwise, each time a beta decay occurred, the beta particle 
would have had that energy, and all would have been plotted in a 
single bar at the point marked “end point energy” in the figure. 


THE FABLE OF THE FRUSTRATED BULLETMAKER 


Consider an analogous (but totally mythical) situation: A maker 
of rifle bullets compounds a new gunpowder and, of course, must test 
it by firing a number of bullets filled with the new mixture. He 
mounts his test rifle on a firm stand and aims it down range. The first 


409 


410 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Typical Distribution-in-Energy (Energy Spectrum) found for beta 
particles from decays of a given kind of nucleus. 


Number of electrons found in each 


interval of energy 


ENERGY, DIVIDED INTO EQUAL INTERVALS 


Ficure 1 


few firings are sufficient to convince him that something has gone 
wrong, for none of his bullets travels the expected distance. Instead, 
they all fall short at different distances (one even rolled out of the 
barrel and dropped at his feet). Puzzled, the bulletmaker takes his 
gun apart, but finds it to be in perfect shape. He opens a number of 
his shells to inspect the powder. It is dry. He fires a few more, but 
with the same result. 

Returning to his laboratory, the bulletmaker looks into the jars and 
boxes of sulfur and lampblack and nitrates. He tests each—only to 
find them normal. He prepares more of the new mixture, fills more 
shells and plugs them with new bullets. He has been overly careful to 
weigh the same amount of powder into each shell, and as he knows the 


Ss Se. 


The Bulletmaker’s Dilemma 


_ 
due a, atone z 
i 2 cant ' "eq, g stl, lle, 
ge oY te 
ee SS 
—~. 


—-- — -ee---- 
a ns 


WW 


a -— 


Ficure 2 


DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 411 


amount of energy each measure of powder has in it, he calculates again 
how far the charge should carry each bullet. 

Back on the rifle range, the bulletmaker again fires his new bullets, 
and again, none goes far enough. He checks his gun again and again, 
then fires good, old-fashioned bullets using powder that has worked 
well for years. These behave perfectly. Each falls at exactly the 
right place. But when he tries his new powder, none of the bullets 
behave sensibly. He checks for gas leakage from the rifle breech. 
There is none. He examines the shells after firing. The powder has 
burned perfectly and completely. Tormented by the puzzle, the master 


—— 


ee 
After a Month of Shooting! 


Ficure 3 


bulletmaker drives himself to discover where the loss of power is occur- 
ring. After firing bullets for some weeks, the spent bullets lie in a long 
continuous heap stretching down range from his gun. 

By now, many of the bulletmaker’s friends have heard of his strange 
problem and visit his rifle range to see for themselves. Of course, 
each has an opinion, and each is invited to correct the difficulty. They 
fire the bullets with their guns, but the bullets merely fall onto the 
growing pile. They test the powder over again, but find that it always 
burns completely and at the same rate. Many end by shaking their 
heads and declaring that the bulletmaking craft is no longer an exact 
science, that the familiar rules can no longer be relied upon. 

One friend, however, takes a meter stick and measures the dimen- 
sions of the pile of spent bullets. He measures its depth at various 
distances from the gun. Then he makes a suggestion (for he doesn’t 
want to give up the rules so readily). “Suppose ¢wo bullets come 
out of the gun at each firing with this new powder! One would be 
the bullet seen to fall onto the pile, and the other a very small one 
which travels a great distance at high speed and is not seen. The new 


412 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


bullet would be ‘made’ at the instant of firmg by the powder, and 
would share the energy of the powder charge with the ordinary bul- 
let.” His friends glance at one another in amusement, but he continues, 
“Now if this new little bullet never travels down the barrel but always 
leaves the gun through the sides and back of the breech, then we could 
keep our rules for the energy of a powder charge and explain the shape 
of the pile of spent bullets in front of us.” 

The idea is met with astonishment. How could any sane bulletmaker 
seriously propose such a wild thought as this? Surely, this is just 
a strained excuse for holding onto obsolete rules concerning the amount 
of energy available in a given weight of powder. 

But another friend in the group speaks up. He says, “Let us assume 
that this ‘ghost bullet’ idea is correct. Let us write an equation which 
relates the distance the ordinary bullet travels with the direction of the 
recoil of the gun and the amount of recoil, assuming that a ghost 
bullet does travel off at some strange angle each time. We'll assume 
that the powder makes the ghost bullet as it burns.” 

When this is done, it is found that the same equation always describes 
the situation correctly. It says how the recoiling gun and the ordinary 
bullet are to act. They always do so. It correctly describes the shape 
of a pile of spent bullets. It even suggests the rules for making new 
powders that also behave strangely and predicts their spent-bullet 
pile very well. 

And so the attitude of the assembly of bulletmakers changes. They 
say, ‘This man’s theory is correct in telling us about the pile of bullets 
and the recoil of the gun. It preserves our old rules for these things.” 

Thus it comes to pass that the Guild of Master Bulletmakers starts 
making bullets once again as if they really believe in their recipes 
for gunpowder. Every now and then a batch of strange powder is 
made by accident. Then they recall the ghost bullet and say, “The 
little bullet is being made here, too.” Sometimes they have to say 
that éwo little ghost bullets are being made in order to explain a par- 
ticularly strange batch of powder. 

When other friends ask them about the little bullet, they become 
a bit evasive, pointing out how accurately they can describe the funny 
recoils and the strung-out pile of spent bullets. “Of course, the little 
ghost bullet exists!” they exclaim. Then, a bit wistfully, some might 
be heard to say, “But it would be nice to find one someday.” 


PAULI’S SUGGESTION: A LITTLE GHOST PARTICLE AND THE FERMI-DIRAC 
THEORY 


Knergy was being lost from beta decay that was not to be found in 
the beta particle. This much was clear. There was widespread dis- 
cussion of the problem, and some suggested that the laws of conserva- 
tion of energy and momentum either failed when events occurred in the 


DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 413 


small regions of the nucleus or, at best, only held on the average there. 
Wolfgang Pauli, however, suggested in 1931 that the rules held fast, 
but that there was a new, small, electrically neutral particle which was 
emitted simultaneously with the beta particle and which carried away 
the missing energy and momentum. 

Unorthodox proposals such as this seldom find a friendly audience— 
nor did this one. In the early 1930’s, few took Pauli seriously, but one 
who did was Enrico Fermi. Building a theory analogous to the theory 
of gamma decay (which describes the creation of a photon by a 
nucleus) but in which an electron and Pauli’s little particle were pro- 
duced simultaneously, Fermi succeeded in 1934 in devising an equation 
which described the phenomena of beta decay with uncanny accuracy. 
It correctly predicted the shapes of the energy spectra for various 
kinds of beta decay and correctly predicted the half-lives of these 
various radioactive nuclei. With such impressive success with Pauli’s 
little neutral particle, Fermi suggested that it be named “neutrino.” 

In constructing his theory, Fermi had used the results obtained by 
P. A. M. Dirac in 1928 in which Dirac had succeeded in finding an 
equation for the electron which satisfied the theory of relativity. An 
unexpected result of Dirac’s work was the prediction of the existence 
of positive electrons in nature—a prediction confirmed by the observa- 
tion of “positrons” by Carl D. Anderson in 1932. Fermi applied 
this theory not only to the beta particle (the fast electron ejected by 
a decaying nucleus) but also to the neutrino. Thus, the neutrino would 
not only be coupled with an antineutrino in nature (as the electron 
is to an antielectron; the positron), but also would have an intrinsic 
spin angular momentum of 14 unit, the same as does the electron. 
In using these theoretical predictions of the Dirac equation, Fermi 
was building a complete conservation into his own theory: That of 
energy, of linear momentum, of angular momentum, of electric charge, 
and of “light particles” (now called “leptons”). 


INTERACTIONS AND THE PENETRATION OF MATTER 


Natural phenomena are treated by modern physics in terms of “in- 
teractions,” or basic forces which can be looked upon as causing 
things to happen. The “constant of gravitation,” the G in Newton’s 
equation for the gravitational attraction between two masses, is the 
most venerable of the “interactions” we know of in nature. Electrical 
phenomena are described in terms of the Coulomb interaction, and 
nuclear reactions in terms of a “strong” nuclear force. For his theory 
of beta decay, Fermi postulated yet another interaction—that which 
causes the decay. The strength of the interaction affects the rapidity 
with which a given event will occur. In radioactive decay it de- 
termines the half-life of any given radioactive species. Conversely, 
if the half-life is measured for a given species, and if the theoretical 


414 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


expression for the decay of that species is known, then the strength 
of the interaction may be computed. 

This experimental evaluation of Fermi’s interaction was made for 
many different radioactive species. It was the same for each, and— 
what was most surprising—it was found to be extremely small com- 
pared with the other known nuclear force. For this reason, it has 
become known as a second kind of nuclear force termed the “weak 
interaction.” 

As it is the field of force that a particle carries along that determines 
how readily it will collide with other particles, the strength of this 
force field determines how much matter a particle will penetrate 
before it is stopped. Because of this, the neutrino described by the 
theory of Fermi turns out to be an extremely penetrating particle. 
All other particles known carry some or all of the other force fields 
with them, and so they slow down quite readily when they enter a 
thick layer of matter. The neutrino, on the other hand, carries only 
this weak field with it and so sees other particles very poorly; in fact, 
hardly at all. 

We may give the value of the force numerically, but it might be 
more comprehensible if we instead interpret it in terms of how deeply 
a neutrino may be expected to penetrate matter. This can be done 
by recounting a true story involving the author and his colleague, Dr. 
Frederick Reines. In dreaming of ways to detect neutrinos from the 
sun (for the sun should be making neutrinos as it generates its own 
nuclear energy), we wondered how one might prove that such neu- 
trinos actually came from the sun, once detected. The first thought 
was simple: Observe the signal rate at noon and at midnight, then 
compare the two rates. The one taken at night would require solar 
neutrinos to have penetrated the earth, and so the signal would be 
reduced by absorption in passing through the earth. We calculated 
the reduction to be expected, and found that the midnight rate would 
be indistinguishable from the noontime rate. We must have more ab- 
sorber than the earth can provide! Well, let’s perform the experi- 
ment during a solar eclipse, when the moon would also be an absorber 
for us. Still no change worth considering. Our curiosity aroused, 
we then calculated how many moons, all eclipsing the sun at the same 
time, would be required to reduce the signal by a detectable amount. 
We found that there isn’t enough room between here and the sun to 
crowd in enough moons to do this! It would take a line of moons some 
3 or 4 light-years long to absorb only one neutrino of every two that 
started through them. So small is the “weak interaction.” 

Another way to visualize a neutrino is by a “size.” If we relate 
the penetrating ability of a neutrino to its size, in the sense that the 
smaller it is, the less likely it will be to strike anything, then the neu- 
trino which would penetrate our long line of moons would have a cross- 


DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 415 


sectional area of about 10-*° square centimeters. But this is a number 
so smal] that it is impossible to visualize. We can make the com- 
parison with an electron, however, and say that the electron is several 
hundred billion billion times larger than a neutrino. The neutrino is 
quite surely the smallest piece of reality that has even been seriously 
contemplated by man. 


TO CATCH A NEUTRINO 


It is precisely this extreme penetrating power of a neutrino which 
caused them to escape from the beta decay experiments leading to 
Pauli’s hypothesis. It is also this ability to penetrate matter which 
sets the main problem in trying to observe a neutrino in flight from 
the instant of its birth. In order to “observe” an entity like an ele- 
mentary particle, the entity must react with something so as to pro- 
duce an observable signal—say an electrical impulse. In the case of 
a neutrino, we have seen that it will penetrate astronomical thicknesses 
of matter before it has the opportunity to react at all. But, given 
sufficient thickness of matter, it will react. And here is the key to the 
detection problem. For, if instead of asking for one neutrino to 
react with a great thickness, we can turn the question around and sup- 
ply a reasonable thickness and ask for an astronomical number of 
neutrinos to be incident upon it. Then we can hope to detect inter- 
actions in this matter. 

In the years following the hypothesis of Pauli and the theory of 
Fermi, such attempts were made, but not nearly enough radioactive 
material was available to supply the astronomical number of neu- 
trinos required. Attention then turned to the investigation of those 
aspects of beta decay which were observable. Measurements of beta 
spectra and lifetimes were refined greatly. The theory itself was re- 
fined to account for some deviations found, and it began to yield a 
deepening insight into the nature of the elementary particles. 

The search for the neutrino turned to indirect methods. Careful 
measurements both of the beta particle momentum and the recoil of 
the nucleus were made. It turned out that, within the accuracy at- 
tainable, the two particles, nucleus and electron, recoiled from the site 
of the decay just as if a neutrino had shot off in some other direction. 
Thus, if a neutrino did shoot off as the theory said, the conservation 
laws still held true. These observations of conservation of energy 
and momentum, asswming the existence of a neutrino, became a popular 
argument for the existence of the tiny particle. The concept of the 
neutrino had been developed to save the conservation laws. The fact 
that the concept then permitted their retention—as it must if the 
algebra is worked correctly—was then taken as proof of the existence 
of the neutrino. This circular reasoning is the sort that postulates 
the existence of a poltergeist to explain the unattended movement of a 


416 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


chair across the room, then takes the observed movement of the chair 
as proof of the existence of the poltergeist. 

The story of these exciting times and the ingenious and painstaking 
efforts made to test the neutrino hypothesis is told at length in the 
technical and popular literature, an introduction to which is given 
as a part of the bibliography More detailed and complete accounts 
of the properties of the neutrino as anticipated before its observation 
and as they have developed since that time are also to be found there. 
Suffice it to say that physics had a genuine poltergeist in its house by 
the time the 1950’s were drawing to an end, for by then a considerable 
list of reactions of the elementary particles called upon this ghostly 
particle to help conserve the conservation laws. 


PROJECT POLTERGEIST—I 


We have said that the extreme reluctance of the hypothesized neu- 
trino to interact and so reveal itself might be overcome if an astro- 
nomical number of such reluctant particles were allowed to fall on a 
reasonable amount of absorber. Such astronomical quantities were 
presumably becoming available during the years following World 
War II, if indeed neutrinos did exist, as nuclear explosions were set 
off from time-to-time. These explosions of fissioning uranium and 
plutonium resulted in great concentrations of radioactive nuclei, 
known as “fission fragments.” In general, the fission of one atom of 
uranium will produce a chain of some six or more radioactive decays, 
each one a beta decay. Thus, each fission should produce on the 
average some S1x or more neutrinos. 

Here we must particularize somewhat. We have said that Fermi’s 
applications of Dirac’s equations to his theory would predict that both 
neutrinos and antineutrinos are made in nature. Just what the dif- 
ference between the two sorts of neutrino might be was not understood 
at that time, except that beta decay which produces negative electrons 
as beta particles must also produce antineutrinos, while beta decay 
producing positrons would produce neutrinos. And as all the radio- 
active fission fragments being made in the nuclear explosions resulted 
in negatron decays, then the six small partners from these decays must 
be antineutrinos. 

We also have said that the only field the neutrino (let us continue 
to use this word to indicate both sorts, except where it is necessary to 
specify one kind only) carries with it is the weak field which causes 
beta decay. This means that the only reaction one can reasonably 
expect the neutrino to produce is another beta decay. Such a forced 
decay, if made by neutrinos in a detector, would constitute the first 
synthetic beta decay and would signal the possible capture of a neu- 
trino. To tag the neutrino as the culprit which stole the energy from 


DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 417 


a given decaying nucleus, one must find that energy in the particle 
and show that it came from the site of the theft. If theory was correct, 
there were plenty of these small culprits fleeing from the decaying 
nuclei in a nuclear explosion fireball so that one could hope to catch 
a few of them. 

Frederick Reines and the author resolved to attempt this. As a 
signal of the capture of an antineutrino in flight, we would ask for 
the radioactive decay of a proton. Now protons, most familiar as 
nuclei of ordinary hydrogen, are among the most stable objects 
known—they never decay spontaneously. If one should capture an 
antineutrino, however, it would be forced into changing into a neutron 
by emission of a positive beta particle, a positron. 

Thus, if one detects protons emitting positrons, then one has every 
reason to believe that an antineutrino has been captured. We calcu- 
lated that we could provide enough protons (as hydrogen atoms) in a 
few hundred gallons of an organic liquid so that a few hundred such 
positrons should be produced by antineutrinos coming from a nuclear 
fireball—if we could get the liquid close enough to the fireball. 

Two problems were raised by this conclusion, however: (1) How 
could a few hundred positrons be detected when released in several 
hundred gallons of liquid; and (2) how could such a detector, once 
built, be placed close enough to the violence of a nuclear explosion and 
survive to tell the story ? 

By “close enough,” we calculated that it must be at least within 
200 feet or so from the base of a tower on which a 20-kiloton explosion 
was fired. Such towers are usually about 100 feet high. We set about 
finding answers to these questions. 

For the first problem, there was already a lead. Certain organic 
liquids had been found which when purified and then contaminated 
with traces of particular compounds become sensitive to the passage 
of fast electrons. They “scintillate’—they emit short bursts of light. 
These bursts are extremely weak, but what intensity they have 
is proportional to the range (therefore, the energy) of the electron 
passing through them. These bursts of light are detected by highly 
sensitive phototubes which in turn produce pulses of electricity. This 
lead was partial, however, for at that time (1950) such organic liquid 
scintillators had only been made and used in small quantities. To see 
into several hundred gallons of it would require some additional effort. 

To test this possibility, Reines and I (both of us were working at 
the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory at the time) built a large bi- 
pyramidal brass tank, of about 1 cubic meter in volume, and mounted 
four photomultiplier tubes at the two opposing apexes, We filled this 
tank (now named El Monstro) with very pure toluene activated so 

766-746—65——31 


418 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


that it would scintillate. Tests using radioactive sources of electrons 
and gamma rays showed us that the scheme could be made to work, 
and that we could “see” into almost any size container we wished to use. 

The second problem was a stickler. The extreme violence of a large 
nuclear explosion, accompanied by a searing heat wave and vast num- 
bers of gamma, rays and neutrons, was hardly reduced at all at a dis- 
tance of several hundred feet. A detector placed on the ground at 
that distance would be melted, torn apart, and scattered in small pieces 
over the countryside. We could put it into a heavy concrete block- 
house, but the shock alone would still damage it beyond use, and only 
a few neutrons leaking through the walls would completely obscure 
our hoped-for-signal. We would have to shield it by at least a hundred 
feet of earth from the ordinary neutrons and gamma rays to reduce 
their intensity sufficiently. 

The plan evolved was finally this: We would dig a shaft near 
“sround zero” about 10 feet in diameter and about 150 feet deep. We 
would put a tank, 10 feet in diameter and about 75 feet long on end 
at the bottom of the shaft. We would then suspend our detector from 
the top of the tank, along with its recording apparatus, and back-fill 
the shaft above the tank. 

As the time for the explosion approached, we would start vacuum 
pumps and evacuate the tank as highly as possible. Then, when the 
countdown reached “zero,” we would break the suspension with a small 
explosive, allowing the detector to fall freely in the vacuum. For 
about 2 seconds, the falling detector would be seeing antineutrinos 
and recording the pulses from them while the earth shock passed 
harmlessly by, rattling the tank mightily but not disturbing our falling 
detector. When all was relatively quiet, the detector would reach the 
bottom of the tank, landing on a thick pile of foam rubber and feathers 
(fig. 4). 

We would return to the site of the shaft in a few days (when the 
surface radioactivity had died away sufficiently) and dig down to the 
tank, recover the detector, and know the truth about neutrinos! We 
did a lot of thinking about this matter before we broached the idea 
to anyone. Our first conversation on the matter was with Enrico 
Fermi. He questioned us closely and examined our plan in detail. 
His was the first encouragement we received for our plan, and we felt 
that the race was at least half won at that point. We approached the 
laboratory director, Norris Bradbury, and received more encourage- 
ment—plus permission to proceed! Assembling a group of physicists, 
engineers, and technicians from around the laboratory who were suf- 
ficiently intrigued by the project to take on work additional to their 
own, we set out to catch a neutrino. 

As it made little difference precisely where we placed our shaft, 
we chose to put it 137 feet from the base of the tower for luck. (If 


PEATE! 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Cowan 


Richard Jones (left) and Martin Warren (right), two members of our team from Los Alamos, 
use the special fork lift to insert the top target tank into the detector shield at the Sa- 
Heavy lead doors behind Warren move by hydraulic 


vannah River Plant reactor. 
A rack of preamplifiers are seen behind 


control to cover the detector when it is operated. 
Jones. These amplified the small voltage pulses obtained from the tubes and sent them 
through coaxial cables to the electronics trailer parked outside the reactor building. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Cowan PLATE 2 


‘ ce 


1. One of the thin ‘“‘meat” tanks for the “double-decker club sandwich” detector. This 
tank, containing scintillating solution and a cadmium salt, was used for analysis of the 
detector and calibration of its performance. It was replaced by a tank of water and 
cadmium acetate (later heavy-water and cadmium acetate) for the measurement at the 
reactor. ‘There were, of course, two of these target tanks in the detector. It is shown 


resting in a special fork-lift built to handle the detector sections. 


2. A completed detector section ready for insertion in the shield. ‘The tank is made of 


steel plate, with the exception of the bottom. ‘This is a cellular aluminum structure, 
similar to aircraft skin sections, which provides strength against bending while affording 
little obstruction to the entry of gamma rays from below. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Cowan PLATE 3 


ee ee 


1. Three 1,200-gallon steel tanks on a flat-bed trailer comprise our tank farm. With a 
network of stainless-steel pipes and valves, along with special pumps, the apparatus was 
used to mix and transport our load of scintillating solution from Los Alamos to the Sa- 
vannah River Plant. ‘The tanks are coated with epoxy on their interiors and were later 
wrapped with layers of electrical heating strips on their outsides, then covered with 
fiber-glass insulation. On the trip to South Carolina, they were plugged into the elec- 
trical outlets of kindly filling-station operators to warm up overnight; they kept sufficient 
heat during the next day’s run to preserve the solution. 


2. The final test of our signal was to shield the entire detector even more so than neutrons 


and gamma rays would be further attenuated. The signal, however, did not change, 
unless the reactor was turned off. The shield, shown here, consisted of many bags of 
sawdust, saturated with water, and had a mean density of 0.5. It was over 4 feet thick 
at all places. A pound of hominy grits, placed near the center of this face of the shield, 
completed it in a little ceremony in salute to our southern hosts. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Cowan PLATE 4 


1. The lower “triad” of detectors of the system used at the Savannah River Plant rests 
in its lead shield ready for test at the Los Alamos Scientific Laboratory. The dark 
rectangles labeled ‘‘2”? and “3” are the ends of the large liquid scintillation tanks which 

were to form the “bread” of the club-sandwich-detector. ‘The target liquid is in the 

white center tank. 


2. This multichamber dark-box was built to put each of the many photomultiplier tubes 
through a rigorous testing and balancing procedure before use in the detector. Three 
chambers are shown opened, and a photomultiplier with a sodium iodide crystal may be 
seen in one of them. The tubes were thus carefully selected for uniformity and stability 
from a large number of candidates. 


PLATE 5 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Cowan 


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Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Cowan PLATE 6 


1. A view of the interior of one of the large liquid scintillation tanks before mounting the 
photomultipliers in the end. A plexiglass sheet seals off the end forming a chamber which 
will contain the tubes. The thin, corrugated, stainless-steel top for the tank is seen 
resting behind it. 


2. Exterior view of the end of a scintillation tank after mounting photomultipliers. The 


tube mounts and bases are seen protruding from the end. After wiring the bases into a 
circuit, a steel box cover was bolted in place over the end. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Cowan PLATE 7 


One of the 112 photomultiplier tubes used in each large tank, shown with its mounting 
socket. ‘The 5-inch diameter face, equivalent to perhaps 100 human eyes, contains a thin, 
photosensitive surface. When a photon of light falls on it, an electron is ejected from the 
surface toward the interior of the tube. The electron strikes the first metal element 
known as a “dynode” where it splashes several more electrons out of the metal. These, 
in turn, repeat this over some nine more dynodes, multiplying the number each time until, 
finally, several million electrons appear at the base for each one started from the tube 
face. ‘These produce a pulse of voltage in the circuit at the base which is then amplified 
and analyzed by the equipment farther along the line. 


PLATE 8 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Cowan 


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DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 419 


Nuclear Explosive 


_,_ Expected Fireball 
» from Explosion 


ce i Buried Signal Line for 
ea aoe Triggering Release 


Back Fill Vacuum Pump 


4—Vacuum Line 


Suspended Detector—, 1 


Vacuum Tank 


SCHEME FOR DETECTING NEUTRINOS 


FROM A NUCLEAR EXPLOSION ¢-Feathers and Foam Rubber 


Ficure 4 


you think that physicists are not superstitious, just ask one about the 
number 137 sometime. He’ll be evasive and say, “Oh, you mean 1/137, 
the fine structure constant.” Press him to explain it, however, and 
youll see what I mean.) We arranged for the drilling of a hole and 
the taking of cores at the nuclear test site in Nevada to explore the 
underground conditions there. Arrangements also were made to 
measure ground shocks and neutron backgrounds at various depths in 
the hole during forthcoming nuclear explosions so that we could plan 
more specifically. Our group began work on the problems of light 
transmission over long paths in the scintillator liquids, the operation of 
large banks of photomultiplier tubes, and the design of the great 
vacuum tank and its release mechanism. 

But then we stopped the work suddenly, for a better idea had 
occurred to us. 

PROJECT POLTERGEIST—II 


It was a late evening in the fall of 1952. Reines and I had addressed 
a seminar of the Laboratory’s Physics Division that afternoon, de- 
scribing the progress of the work and our latest plans. At the end, Dr. 
J. M. B. Kellogg, Chairman of the Division, had suggested that we re- 


420 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


view the problem just once more to see if we could possibly use the neu- 
trinos emitted by a fission reactor rather than those from a fission 
explosion. We knew that the flux of neutrinos from even the largest of 
reactors would be thousands of times less than that from an explosion, 
while the background noise from neutrons and gamma rays would be 
about the same with the available shielding. Nevertheless, we sat late 
into the evening going over every estimate. Then the thought struck! 

We were planning to force protons to undergo beta decay by absorp- 
tion of antineutrinos. This decay would be the emission of a positron 
as the proton was changed into a neutron. The positron, being an 
antielectron, would be captured quickly by one of the ordinary elec- 
trons in the atoms of the liquid, both positron and electron would 
vanish, and two 0.51 Mev. (million electron volts) gamma rays would 
be produced. These gamma rays were to constitute our signal, as 
they, in turn, bounced off other electrons in the liquid, making it 
scintillate. The neutron, we knew, would also bounce around in the 
liquid as it struck protons and lost its energy to them, then would drift 
about for many microseconds before finally being captured by a proton 
to form deuterium, or heavy hydrogen. The neutron-proton capture 
would release a gamma ray of 2.2 Mev., but we had planned to use this 
gamma ray only as an independent signal to increase the detection 
efficiency somewhat. 

Suddenly, we realized that if we could manage to dissolve a cadmium 
salt in our liquid, then the neutron would be captured more quickly 
(as cadmium has a much greater “cross section” for neutron capture 
than has hydrogen), and we could mark a neutrino signal by two 
characteristic bursts of gamma radiation which followed one another 
by a few microseconds: First, the two 0.51 Mev. gammas from posi- 
tron-electron annihilation, then a burst of gammas totaling about 9 
Mev. as the neutron was captured by cadium. This unique set of sig- 
nals would provide us with a powerful discrimination against the 
backgrounds from a reactor. It would then be possible to use the 
much weaker but calmer neutrino fluxes emitted by a reactor. Instead 
of detecting a burst of neutrinos in a second or two coming from the 
fury of a nuclear explosion, we would now be able to watch patiently 
near a reactor and catch one every few hours or so. And there are 
many hours available for watching in a month—or a year. 


A new plan and a first try 


We called a meeting of our group the following day and set about 
devising a plan for work near a reactor. The road ahead now looked 
much clearer, and we felt that we were finally closing in on our quarry. 

During the winter of 1952 we built two cylindrical detectors, each 
about 30 inches high and 28 inches in diameter. We mounted 90 photo- 
multipliers around the curved walls of each and filled them with 


DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 421 


liquid scintillator made of toluene. We learned how to connect these 
tubes into two interleaved banks for operation in coincidence to reduce 
the spurious “dark-current” signals generated by the tubes themselves. 
As for the cadmium salt, we found that the propionate of cadmium 
would dissolve in the scintillator quite well without reducing its light 
output seriously. 

The winter was spent in testing the system in an isolated and 
unheated building while keeping the detector warm with several 
electrical bow] fires. Some of our group swept the snow away from 
outside the building and set about casting many large blocks of 
paraffin wax and borax for use as neutron shielding when we would 
go to a reactor. Others began mixing gallons of liquid scintillator 
in batches with varying composition. We found that we could also 
make a scintillating liquid from just one of the several brands of 
mineral oil carried by the local druggists. This would give us a 
different hydrogen density in our detector from that of toluene, 
allowing us to test the fact that it is a proton which reacts to yield 
a neutrino signal. We ordered several barrels of the oil, and this was 
duly mixed with the chemicals to make it scintillate. 

It was during this testing period that we also investigated the radio- 
active content of the materials which were used to construct the 
detectors. We built a cylindrical well into one of the detectors and 
proceeded to put quantities of steel, liquids, wax, and other materials 
into it for testing. We found that brass and aluminum were quite 
radioactive compared to iron and steel, and that the potassium in the 
glass envelopes of our photomultiplier tubes would contribute to the 
detector backgrounds. By putting the detector “into itself” in this 
manner, piece-by-piece, we were able to avoid the more seriously 
contaminated materials in its construction. 

During this time, one of our group, Robert Shuch, proposed making 
the well in the detector a bit larger so that we might be able to put 
a human being into the detector. This was done, and a number of 
people, including our secretary, were trussed up and lowered into 
the 18-inch hole. We found quite a detectable counting rate from 
everyone. It was due to the radioactive potassium-40 naturally 
present in the body. Using small radium sources strapped near the 
navel of a subject, we found that extremely minute quantities of radio- 
active contaminants were measurable in the human body. This brief 
interlude thus saw the birth of the total-immersion, or “whole-body” 
counter. The two neutrino detectors were later to be placed into 
service as the first of many such large clinical and medical research 
counters. 

In the very early spring of 1953 we set out for Hanford, Wash., 
where the largest and newest of the country’s fission reactors was Just 
being put into operation. The work at Hanford, while tedious in 

766-746—65—32 


422 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


the doing, need not be so in the telling. We put our detector very 
close to the face of the reactor wall, piling all of our shielding around 
it and all the lead that was available at the Hanford plant until the 
floor sagged, and then we “listened.” We restacked our shield and 
listened again for the double pulses signaling neutrinos when the 
reactor was operating. (See pl. 5.) 

The lesson of the work was clear: It is easy to shield out the noise 
men make, but impossible to shut out the cosmos. Neutrons and 
gamma rays from the reactor, which we had feared most, were stopped 
in our thick walls of paraffin, borax, and lead, but the cosmic ray 
mesons penetrated gleefully, generating backgrounds in our equipment 
as they passed or stopped in it. We had brought large trays of geiger 
counters to place around and over the detector, so that cosmic rays 
could be identified as such and rejected from the signal rate. 

We did record neutrinolike signals which, seen in retrospect, were 
genuine. They appeared and disappeared as the reactor was raised to 
power and then shut down again. But the cosmic rays with their 
neutron secondaries generated in our shield were some 10 times more 
abundant than were the neutrino signals. Under these circumstances, 
it was quite impossible to test the neutrino signal by changing the 
number of proton targets in the detector or by altering the cadmium 
concentration to alter the neutron capture times as we had planned. 

We felt that we had the neutrino by its coattails, but our evidence 
would not yet stand up in court. We must be more clever than this. 
We returned to Los Alamos with a gleam in our eyes, for we felt that 
now we knew how to catch the neutrino. 


PROJECT POLTERGEIST—III 


Tt was time to become serious about Project Poltergeist, and so the 
Laboratory suggested that we set up a formal group for the sole 
purpose of tracking neutrinos. This we did, taking with us those of 
the original team who could leave their other work behind, and recruit- 
ing several new members to the group. 

Looking again at the reaction which signals the capture of an anti- 
neutrino, we recall that the capture of the particle by a proton changes 
the proton into a neutron with the emission of a positron. We had 
used the time correlation of the two pulses produced by positron 
annihilation and by neutron capture in hydrogen. We would now 
use the spatial correlation of the various gamma rays as well. This 
would give us a great advantage over the spurious signals produced 
by the cosmic rays. 

A new detector was designed in which a large thin tank of water 
supplied the proton targets, and cadmium acetate dissolved in the 
water lay in wait to capture the neutrons produced. Positron annihi- 
lation results in two 0.51 Mev. gamma rays which travel away from 


DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 423 


the annihilation in opposite directions. Thus, quite often one gamma 
ray would emerge from the top of the water slab, and the other from 
the bottom. Neutron capture in cadmium produces a burst of many 
gamma rays which total about 9 Mev. in energy. These also would 
emerge from both top and bottom of theslab. By placing large thick 
tanks of liquid scintillator on either side of the water slab, we could 
expect to see these events in top-bottom coincidence as well as in time- 
delayed correlation. A detector of this description was designed but, 
in a sense, was made twofold. We designed two such slabs and placed 
them between three thick liquid scintillator detectors, much as the meat 
is placed between three slices of bread in a club sandwich. This would 
provide a running check on the equipment, as both detectors must 
operate in agreement as to what they see. (See pl. 4, fig. 1.) 

Another year’s work at Los Alamos went into the construction and 
testing of the new detector. Dr. John Wheeler suggested during that 
time that we make our next measurement at the new Savannah River 
Plant and arranged for our visit to that laboratory. With the co- 
operation of the Du Pont scientists there we quickly found an almost 
ideal spot near one of their reactors. During the year we also de- 
veloped a new scintillating solution (of triethylbenzene) which was 
much less hazardous than toluene. (See pl. 4, fig. 2.) 

When completed and sitting in its great lead shield in the physics 
building at Los Alamos, the detector was about 10 feet high. It 
occupied a floorspace some 6 feet by 12 feet. The shield around it 
was made of a steel framework holding walls of lead 6 inches thick. 
The lead top and bottom were also of this thickness, and hydraulically 
operated lead doors some 4 inches thick closed the two ends. Three 
separate scintillation detectors were stacked inside the shield, and 
between each pair was a flat tank of water and cadmium acetate as a 
target. 

The detectors were made of rectangular steel tanks which held the 
liquid scintillator in their center sections. Each was 2 feet thick, about 
4 feet wide, and some 11 feet long. Each center section of scintillator 
was 6 feet long. End sections were filled with a clear, nonscintillating 
liquid to act as shields against radioactivity from the banks of photo- 
multipliers looking in fromeach end. There were 55 photomultipliers 
on each end of each of the 3 detectors. Each photomultiplier was a 
large 5-inch diameter “eye” which stared fixedly at the sensitive liquid 
in the tank and reported the faint flashes of light there with electrical 
pulses. The “compound eye” of the total detector thus had a retinal 
area greater than 45 square feet. Each of the photomultipliers had 
been carefully selected and its sensitivity balanced to a standard value. 
The tanks were painted white inside to conserve every photon possible 
and reflect it toward the phototubes. (See pls. 2,6,7, and 8.) 


424 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


As the spot chosen at the Savannah River Plant reactor was only 
large enough to hold the detector, we would have to send the electrical 
pulses from it to the equipment some distance away. We decided to 
build all of our electronic gear into a large trailer which would then 
act as our laboratory. Holding amplifiers, coincidence and gating 
circuits, scalers and recording equipment, some 12 racks finally lined 
one side of the trailer from floor to ceiling. A blower and conduit 
outside the trailer served to keep the equipment cool while it was 
operating. 

To prepare and handle the liquid scintillator, a “tank farm” was 
built on a flat bed trailer. This consisted of three steel tanks, each of 
1200-gallon capacity. The tanks were coated on their interior sur- 
faces with an epoxy paint to preserve the purity of the liquids and 
were wrapped with several layers of insulating material on their out- 
sides. As the tanks must never be allowed to fall below about 60° 
F. when they contain scintillator, long strips of electrical heating 
elements were embedded in the exterior insulation. A network of 
stainless steel pipe, valves, and pumps complete the tank farm. (See 
pl. 3.) 

The year was spent in building and testing. It was important that 
we know the details of the performance of our system quite well before 
we left home. The effects of the ever-present cosmic ray muons were 
also determined in great detail. 

In November 1955, we were ready to leave Los Alamos again in 
quest of neutrinos. Early one morning, after a blessing of the group 
and its equipment by Father Francis Schuler, the Catholic pastor of the 
parish at Los Alamos, in the ancient Latin phrases that down through 
the centuries have sent men across the world in search of knowledge 
and adventure, our little convoy snaked down the mountainside and 
set out for South Carolina. 


The work at the Savannah River Plant 


The new year found our detector installed near the great reactor, 
with its pipes and bundles of wires and coaxial cables running to the 
laboratory and tank farm trailers parked outside. Calibrations were 
undertaken using artificial radioactive sources and the cosmic rays, 
and backgrounds were measured in the myriad different forms they 
assume in such equipment. By early spring we felt that we were ready 
for our quarry. (See pl. 1.) 

The bait that we were using was hydrogen—or rather the nuclei of 
hydrogen, protons. Let us review the anticipated reaction and the 
signals produced which would demonstrate that antineutrinos were, 
in truth, coming from the reactor. Of the several hundred million 
billion antineutrinos which should (according to theory and the known 
power level of the reactor) be streaming through our detector each 


DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 425 


second, virtually all would pass through as if the detector were not 
there. Several times each hour, however, one antineutrino would 
react with a proton—the nucleus of a hydrogen atom in one or the other 
H,O target tank. When this occurred, a fast positron would be 
emitted by the proton, and the proton would then be a moderately 
fast neutron as it recoiled from the site of the event. We knew what 
the energy spectrum of the antineutrinos coming from the reactor 
should be, because we knew quite a bit about the various radioactive 
fission fragment nuclei being formed in it, and we had Fermi’s theory 
to guide us from there. We knew, for instance, that about 10% 
antineutrinos should strike each square centimeter of our water target 
per second, that the effective energy of these antineutrinos should be 
about 3 Mev., and that the cross section presented by each proton in 
the water hydrogen to each antineutrino would be about 10-* square 
centimeters. 

After an antineutrino had reacted with a proton, the positron 
would slow to a stop very quickly in the water, would capture an 
electron from near where it stopped, and then the two would combine 
to produce two 0.51 Mev. gamma rays. Suppose this happened 
in the top water target. Then one gamma would pass into the 
top scintillator, producing a flash of light there, while the other 
would do the same—at the same time—in the center scintillator. A 
pair of pulses would then be recorded by our equipment as having 
occurred “in coincidence,” and the electronics would be alerted by 
this and start to watch for a second signal produced by the neutron. 

The neutron would leave the site of the event with a few Kev. energy, 
and, being much heavier than the positron, would slow down much 
more reluctantly. Nevertheless, the neutron would be of “thermal” 
energy in about 2 microseconds and would then drift about in the 
water until it happened close to a cadmium nucleus. Let us imagine 
that this would be about 4 microseconds later. One of the cadmium 
isotopes has a strong affinity for neutrons that are just drifting about 
with little energy. The neutron is quickly captured by the cadmium, 
and a burst of gamma rays then is emitted by the cadmium nucleus. 
Again, some of these would pass into the top scintillator, some into the 
center. Flashes of light would again be detected as they produced 
pulses of electricity in the equipment. We know the total energy of 
the cadmium gamma rays when it captures a neutron, so the total 
light produced should be just the right amount. So also, should the 
total electrical pulse voltage, i.e., the sum of the two electrical pulses. 

Thus, a set of four pulses (two of the right amplitude each, fol- 
lowed in 6 microseconds by two of the right total amplitude) would 
be fed into the electronic racks in the trailer. This particular pattern 
is very distinctive and is not very likely to occur by accident or by 
any other sort of nuclear interaction in the detector. Among the 


426 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


many electrical pulses which rattle through the electronic equipment 
each second from other causes, this one pattern can be picked out 
by the equipment very nicely. 

In addition to going to the electronic analysis equipment, our set of 
pulses from the top scintillator has also been sent down a long trans- 
mission line, wrapped back and forth inside the trailer. They take 
10 microseconds to emerge from the other end. ‘They are then sent to 
an oscilloscope. The electronic equipment, having sensed the possi- 
bility of an interesting pattern, signals to the oscilloscope when it 
sees the second pair of pulses, and the electron beam of the cathode 
ray tube starts to trace a line of light across the tube face. It will 
take 20 microseconds to traverse the tube face. 

Thus, 4 microseconds later (10 for the time spent in the transmis- 
sion line minus 6 while waiting for the neutron signal), the positron 
pulse from the top scintillator tank emerges from the line and causes 
the electron beam to deflect upward briefly, then return to its steady 
sweep across the face of the tube. The amount of deflection of the 
beam during the pulse is proportional to the energy deposited in the 
tank, and this is known from our calibration work. Six microseconds 
later, the neutron pulse arrives from the same top tank. It also 
deflects the beam briefly, proportional to its amplitude. The beam 
then completes its track across the remaining part of the tube face, 
and it is turned off to wait for another interesting event to send it 
on its brief trip. 

All this has occurred for those signals coming from the top tank. 
Exactly the same has occurred for those from the center tank of 
scintillator as well. The pulses from the center tank have passed 
down their own transmission line and then to the oscilloscope to 
cause another beam in the same tube to deflect. Its track les below 
the first beam so as not to obscure it. The bottom tank is connected 
as well to a third transmission line and then to a third beam in the 
tube. But no signals came from this tank in our example described 
here, so its beam has just swept undeflected across the oscilloscope 
face. 

During this time a 35 mm. camera loaded with 100 feet of film 
has been watching the tube face with its shutter permanently open, 
so that the streaks of light which appeared there are now recorded on 
one frame of film. After the action has finished, the camera motor 
advances the film to a fresh frame. 

Thus were the signals from the three tanks sorted out, analyzed, 
and recorded on film whenever they occurred in a pattern which may 
have been due to the capture of an antineutrino in the detector. Two 
triple-beam oscilloscopes were used in parallel, as described above, 
so that one operating at low gain could look for large pulses while 
the other operated at higher gain to record the smaller pulses. Each 


DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 427 


day the films would be removed and developed for reading. At that 
time tests would be made of the detector and electronic system to catch 
any changes that might have occurred. 


THE FIVE ELEMENTS OF PROOF 


Having the equipment operate as planned near the reactor and 
observing the correct patterns of pulses now and then was most satis- 
fying. But now the work remained to test these signals to ascertain 
whether or not they were in fact produced by antineutrinos from the 
reactor. Five experiments were performed using these pulses, with 
objectives as listed below: 

1. The rate at which they were recorded must be correct, knowing 
the reactor power and detector efficiency. This rate must drop to 
zero (or to a relatively low and well-understood background) when 
the reactor is shut down. 

2. The first pair of pulses must be shown to be due to the annihila- 
tion of a positron by an electron. 

3. The second pair of pulses must be shown to be due to the capture 
of a neutron by cadmium, and the neutron must have appeared in 
the detector at the same instant as did the positron. 

4. The signal rate must be proportional to the number of protons 
in the water target tanks. If the amount of hydrogen is changed, 
the signal rate must change accordingly. 

5. The signal, when shown to be associated with the reactor being 
run, must be shown to be independent of gamma rays and neutrons 
leaking from the reactor shield. 

The following months saw these tests undertaken. In each test, 
the two water tanks operated as independent targets, and the data 
obtained from each were analyzed and required to check one another. 
The checks were made in various, sometimes redundant, ways, In 
order to apply every test we could devise. The details of these checks 
and the resulting data are reported in the relevant papers listed in 
the bibliography, and will be described only in general terms here. 

Dependence of the signal rate on reactor power.—This is the 
easiest to describe. The equipment was operated for 893.5 hours 
(in two separate runs) with the reactor on, and for 263.4 hours (again, 
in two separate runs) with the reactor off. With the reactor on, the 
signal rate was about 1.8 per hour, and with the reactor off, it was 
about one-fifth of this. This background rate was understood in 
terms of cosmic ray interferences, similar to the ones which had forced 
us to stop work at Hanford. But there, the cosmic ray backgrounds 
were some 10 times Aigher than the signal rate produced by the reac- 
tor. We could also work our data “in reverse,” calculating a cross 
section for the reaction from them, then comparing it with the 
theoretical one. The two—experimental and _ theoretical—agreed 


428 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


well within the limits imposed by statistical fluctuations and lack of 
absolute knowledge concerning the neutrino spectrum. 

Evidence that the first pulse pair was due to a positron.—Here we 
had two checks. We had dissolved a known positron-emitting radio- 
active material (copper-64) in the water of a target tank and observed 
the pulse amplitude spectrum obtained from it. The spectrum of 
pulses in the first pair of reactor-produced events agreed with it 
nicely. The second check consisted of placing thin sheets of lead as 
an absorber between the water targets and the scintillation detector 
tanks. By measuring the reduction in counting rate produced by 
the lead, we could check the energy of the gamma rays in the first 
pulse. They were found to be the two simultaneous gamma rays 
produced when a positron-electron pair combines (or “annihilates,” 
in the vernacular). 

Evidence that the second pulse pair was due to the capture of a 
neutron by cadmium, and that the neutron had appeared in the 
detector simultaneously with the positron.—Again, we had two 
checks of this. We varied the amount of cadmium salt in the water 
targets and observed the varying times for observation of the second 
pulse following the first. These checked with the same data when a 
known neutron source was placed near the detector and neutron 
capture times measured. These capture time curves had already been 
run on computers at Los Alamos for different cadmium concentra- 
tions. These also agreed. The second check was the total pulse am- 
plitude spectrum. This agreed with that obtained with known neu- 
tron sources. The pulses were due to neutrons. The capture time 
curves also demonstrated that the neutron had appeared with the 
positron, for it was the interval between the two that was measured, 
and this interval would not have checked had this not been so. Three 
different runs were made with different cadmium concentrations. 

Dependence of the signal rate on the number of protons in the 
target.—For this check, we reduced the amount of hydrogen in the 
target to half, but did not reduce the amount of water. This was 
done by replacing the ordinary water with a mixture of 50 percent 
ordinary (light) water and 50 percent heavy water. Thus, 50 percent 
of the hydrogen had been replaced by deuterium, which has a com- 
paratively very low cross section for antineutrinos compared with 
hydrogen. The signal rate fell when this was done as expected. 
This checked another point at the same time. By putting deuterium 
into the detector, we were sensitizing it to the effects of gamma rays 
and neutrons. Such backgrounds can easily break up a deuteron 
and mock up an antineutrino signal. Therefore, if the gamma ray 
and neutron backgrounds were fooling us before, the signal rate 
should have increased now rather than decreased as it was observed 
to do. 


DISCOVERY OF THE NEUTRINO—COWAN 429 


If we were seeing antineutrinos from the reactor, we should not 
be able to reduce their intensity on the detector by putting absorbers 
around it. If, on the other hand, we were seeing only gamma rays 
and neutrons, it should be easy to change the rate with absorber.— 
This simple experiment, however, took some time to devise, for a 
considerable amount of material was needed to stack around the 
detector to form our shield. This amount of anything looked very 
expensive to us. We first thought of wooden planks and timbers. 
The cutting and fitting problem was too great for wood. We consid- 
ered water, but the tanks required would have been expensive and very 
large. 

As we were in South Carolina in the summer, an obvious suggestion 
was a great pile of watermelons. We doubted that they would have 
survived long enought in a sweet condition. Another suggestion 
was sacks of hominy grits. An enterprising member of the group 
actually located a warehouseman in Augusta, Ga., who was willing to 
lend us the requisite amount. We feared, however, that he would be 
reluctant to take them back when he learned that they had been placed 
very close to the Nation’s largest nuclear reactor! The native resources 
of the South did come to our rescue, however. 

We used sawdust. Obtained free from a sawmill in Aiken, S.C., 
and bagged as it came from the chute, we hauled it in great truckloads 
to the reactor site. The sawdust was too light for our liking, so we 
piled it into a smal] mountain and squirted it with a firehose for several 
days. Drained and stacked around our detector, it provided a fine 
shield. In recognition of the Southern hospitality which we were 
enjoying all this time, we also incorporated hominy grits into the 
shield—a pound of it. (See pl. 3, fig. 2.) 

Tested with neutron and gamma ray sources carried around it and 
placed in various places in it, the shield was fine. It reduced such 
artificial signals by large amounts. But it made no difference to our 
reactor signal. 

This test, alone, was sufficient to demonstrate that we were observ- 
ing antineutrinos from the reactor. 


QUOD ERAT DEMONSTRANDUM 


We were done. For a few days, we enjoyed the knowledge privately 
that Pauli had guessed correctly as we prepared a report to this effect 
for publication in the literature and for a summer meeting of the 
American Physical Society at Yale. The experience of knowing a 
fact new to mankind and knowing it for awhile all alone is an un- 
forgettable one. The neutrino existed as an objective, demonstrable 
fact of nature. The great laws of conservation stood firm. And our 
small group had had the privilege of sharing in the work that made 
them so. 


430 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 
ALLEN, JAMES S. 

1957. The neutrino. Princeton, N.J. [This excellent monograph covers much 
of the material omitted in this paper and supplies a generous bibli- 
ography in context. ] 

Cowan, C. L., JR. ; REINES, F.; ET AL. 
1956. Detection of the free neutrino: A confirmation. Science, vol. 124, 
No. 3212, pp. 103-104. 
REINES, F., and Cowan, C. L., JR. 
1953a. Detection of the free neutrino. Phys. Rev., vol. 92, No. 3, pp. 830-831. 
1953b. A proposed experiment to detect the free neutrino. Phys. Reyv., 
vol. 90, No. 3, pp. 492-498. 
REINES, F.; Cowan, C. L., JR. ; ET AL. 

1960. Detection of the free antineutrino. Phys. Rev., vol. 117, No. 1, pp. 

159-178. 


Fracture of Solids’ 


By J. E. Fretp 
Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge, England 


[With 4 plates] 


THE FAILURE OF a solid by fracture is an experience common to all, 
whether it be the breaking of a cup, the shattering of a car windscreen, 
or the event leading to disaster with an aircraft. The nature of the 
initiation, subsequent path, and speed of development of fracture often 
appear unpredictable. The result of fracture is frequently cata- 
strophic. It is this aspect of finality which creates the greatest prob- 
lems for the engineer who at present only overcomes them by clever 
design and the use of large safety factors. 

It would, of course, be difficult and undesirable to avoid using brittle 
solids since they combine so many useful properties with their brittle- 
ness. Glass as the prime example of a brittle solid has, in one or 
other of its forms, high hardness, good resistance to chemical reaction 
and thermal shock as well as its most valuable of properties, trans- 
parency. Further, one of the many modern requirements is for solids 
which remain strong at high temperatures. Above about 1,000° C. 
the solids which still retain some degree of strength are frequently 
those that exhibit brittleness at room temperature. 

Fracture is, however, not only a calamity to be avoided; it is fre- 
quently the best way of dividing a solid. The energy required to 
cleave a diamond or split a log is far lower than that needed by any 
sawing process. The surfaces of cleaved materials are frequently 
smooth and plane; properties which have many scientific uses besides 
their importance in jewel stones. 


TYPES OF FRACTURE 


If a solid is pulled hard enough it will eventually fracture. On the 
atomic scale this is the stage where the binding forces between the 
atoms are finally overcome by the tensile stress we have applied. The 

1 Reprinted by permission from The Times Science Review (London), No. 51, Spring 


1964. 
431 


432 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


process of separation can take a variety of forms: A rubbery material 
elongates enormously before tearing; metals often deform before 
breaking (ductile fracture) ; glass fractures with little previous de- 
formation (brittle behavior); and crystals frequently cleave along 
definite crystallographic planes. It is important to realize that a 
given material does not fall into a specific class regardless of the con- 
ditions in which it is used. A rubbery solid, for example, if taken to 
a low enough temperature, will fracture in a brittle fashion, and metals 
show similar temperature transitions from ductile to brittle behavior. 
A factor as important as temperature is the time taken in applying the 
stress to the material. If the stress is applied in a short time (i.e. a 
high rate of strain) the effect is analogous to that of decreasing the 
temperature of the body. The variation of behavior with strain rate 
is readily apparent with polymers such as Perspex. If a steel ball 
is pressed slowly against the surface the material deforms to give a 
permanent depression. If, however, the ball is allowed to fall from a 
height of a few inches, a circular ring fracture similar to those pro- 
duced on glass is formed. 


STRENGTH OF SOLIDS 


Theoretical calculations of strength are usually based on the way 
that the forces between the atoms vary with separation. Usually the 
maximum force occurs when the separation between the atoms has 
been increased by 10 to 20 percent, or in other words, the theoretical 
strengths of solids lhe between #/5 and #/10, where # is the Young’s 
modulus of the solid. However, one of the more striking features 
about the strength of solids is the divergence between practical meas- 
ured strengths and theoretical estimates: This divergence is greatest 
with brittle solids. Calculations on glass, for example, predict 
strengths as high as 2 million p.s.i., but plate glass has usually a 
strength only about one-hundredth of this and even glass in fiber form 
rarely exceeds one-tenth of the theoretical estimate. 

A possible explanation for the low practical strengths was put for- 
ward in 1920 by A. A. Griffith, who suggested that microcracks on the 
surface and in the bulk of a solid could cause loss of strength. A 
useful analogy here is to imagine the cracks acting as levers to separate 
the atoms, the cracks becoming more effective the longer their lengths. 
Griffith, in experiments on glass, was able to show that the strength 
was in fact related to the depths of cracks which he artificially added 
to the glass. 

The size of the microcracks sufficient to explain a practical strength 
for glass of 20,000 p.s.i. when its theoretical strength is 100 times higher 
turns out to be very small; cracks of length 1 or 2 microns (10~cm.) 
and widths of a few angstréms (1A=10-°cm.) are sufficient. It is not 
surprising, therefore, that even with modern electron microscopes 


FRACTURE OF SOLIDS—FIELD 433 


these microcracks are not easily observable. However, since 1920, 
decoration and etching techniques coupled with fracture experiments 
have built up a considerable body of evidence which largely substan- 
tiates the idea of microcracks. Other sources of weakness can also 
occur such as inclusions, voids, notches, and growth steps. All of 
these can act so as to increase the stress concentration at a point in the 
solid. 

Crystalline materials (and this includes metallic crystals) may or 
may not contain microcracks initially, but they will usually contain 
defects of structure (dislocations) which will allow the planes of atoms 
to slide relative to each other without separation (plastic deformation). 
If the movement of the dislocations is blocked (this could be caused by 
the inclusion of a foreign particle) the dislocations build up causing a 
high-stress concentration with the possible formation of a microcrack. 
This crack could then initiate bulk fracture. 

Materials without defects, such as carefully produced whiskers or 
fibers, exhibit high strengths approaching the theoretical values. This 
tends to confirm the importance of defects and indicates a possible, 
albeit difficult, way of obtaining high-strength solids. 


TRANSMISSION OF STRESS 


When a stress is applied to a body the disturbance is not experienced 
instantaneously throughout the whole body, but is transmitted by stress 
waves which travel with a definite velocity. The effect is very similar 
to that when ripples traverse the surface of a pond. In a solid whose 
properties are independent of direction, a disturbance travels through 
the body of the solid in two waves—a longitudinal (dilatational) wave 
in which the particle motions are in the direction of propagation, and 
transverse (distortional waves in which the particle motions normal to 
the wave front. The velocities of the wave depend on the elastic con- 
stants of the solid. These constants are themselves related to the 
elastic moduli (i.e., ratio of stress to strain produced). For glass, the 
longitudinal and transverse wave velocities are about 18,000 and 11,000 
feet. per second respectively, but for diamond, a material with very 
high elastic constants, the velocities are higher, having values of about 
60,000 and 40,000 feet per second. Physically, the more rigid the 
atomic structure the faster the waves pass and vice versa. 

Plate 1, fig. 1, shows pictures taken from a sequence of high-speed 
photographs of stress waves propagating in a Perspex specimen of 
dimensions 2 in.X2 in.X34. in. The waves were initiated by the 
detonation of a small charge of explosive at the midpoint of the top 
edge, and were made visible by the insertion of crossed polaroids into 
the optical system of the camera. Both waves are seen; the velocity of 
the fastest wave, the longitudinal, is about twice that of the transverse 
waves. When the waves reach the boundaries of the Perspex they 


434 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


reflect and return through the block. This reflection always causes 
a change of phase and the longitudinal wave, for example, which passes 
out as a compression returns as a wave of tension. In thin plates of 
brittle material this effect can lead to failure causing a scab of material 
to become detached from the rear surface. The brittle solid fails in 
this manner since although it is strong in compression it is compara- 
tively weak in tension. Instances of this so-called “scabbing” fracture 
were frequent in the last war when thin sheets of armor plate were 
struck by fast projectiles. Reinforcement by two waves, of either the 
same or different type, can also lead to localized fracture. 

On the surface of a solid a third type of wave, the Rayleigh Surface 
wave, is developed. This wave travels at a velocity about 90 percent 
of the transverse wave. Since it exists only in a thin layer at the 
surface it loses energy in two dimensions, whereas the body waves do 
so in three. When transmitted over large distances this wave retains 
its intensity to a greater degree and is usually the main component of 
the disturbance from earthquakes. As will be seen below it is also 
important in explaining certain fracture phenomena. 


MODE OF FRACTURE 


The way in which the stress is applied to a solid greatly influences the 
final form of fracture. Starting at the one extreme of “static” loading 
this can perhaps best be represented by the example of a steel ball 
pressed with increasing force against the surface of a solid. With a 
brittle solid such as glass, the first form of failure is the formation of a 
“ring” crack which closely follows the edge of the contact area where 
the maximum tensile forces exist. The fracture usually starts at 
one point and then travels round, keeping at right angles to the maxi- 
mum tensile stress, until the full circle is complete. The point of 
initiation may be slightly away from the contact area since it will 
depend on the location of the microcrack which gives the greatest 
stress concentration. If the stress is increased still further a second 
ring crack forms while the initial fracture develops into the solid 
forming a conical surface of fracture. Plate 1, fig. 2, shows this stage; 
the faint circular bands around the ring cracks are interference fringes 
formed in the gap between the fracture planes. In thin glass the 
fracture may reach the back surface giving a perfect cone of material. 
The cone angle is usually about 140°. (This form of failure is not to 
be confused with the scabbing failure mentioned briefly above in con- 
nection with stress waves.) Thin glass will also bend causing large 
tensile forces at the rear surface which result in long radial fractures 
growing from a point opposite the loaded area. 

If the steel ball impacts against the glass stress waves have to be con- 
sidered. At relatively low impact velocities the general appearance 
of the fracture does not greatly alter from the static case except that 


FRACTURE OF SOLIDS—FIELD 435 


the fracturing is more severe. The reason for this is that at low 
impact velocities the time of impact is relatively long and the stress 
waves, with their high velocity, have time to distribute information 
about the stress to all parts of the body during the impact time. Since 
the stress distribution quickly approaches that of the static case, the 
pattern of fracture for a low velocity impact is similar to that for 
static indentation. An example of this is window glass broken by a 
stone; the long radial fractures and the displaced cone of glass are the 
main features of the impact. 

For very high impact velocities the duration of the impact becomes 
short compared with the time taken by the stress waves to pass through 
the body. Thus a point in the solid no longer receives a long train 
of stress waves which gradually build up the stress, but rather a con- 
centrated pulse of stress of short duration. Very intense pulses last- 
ing only 1 or 2 millionths of a second can be produced by a variety 
of methods, one of which is the detonation of a small quantity of ex- 
plosive on the surface of a solid, or, as has been shown recently at Cam- 
bridge, when a jet of liquid strikes a solid at high velocity. (This re- 
sult has practical significance when aircraft pass through rain.) An 
example of the fracturing caused by the impact of a cylinder of liquid 
water of diameter 8 mm. at 2,400 feet per second on plate glass is shown 
in plate 2, fig. 1. The diameter of the large ring fracture corresponds 
closely with the size of the head of the cylindrical jet. This ring 
fracture and central area closely resemble the static case illustrated in 
plate 1, fig. 2, except that the main ring crack is made up of several 
fractures rather than one continuous crack. The additional features 
are the short circumferential fractures. These are entirely of stress 
wave origin, and are formed when the sharp pulse reaches a micro- 
crack capable of giving a stress concentration sufficient for fracture. 
The fractures remain short and develop as separate events since the 
stress waves are themselves of short duration. The stress wave which 
causes these particular fractures is the Rayleigh Surface wave. Their 
formation is illustrated in plate 2, fig. 2. The pictures, separated by 
only 2 microseconds, show a lead slug impacting against the top edge 
of a3 in. by 3 in. by 14 in. glass specimen at about 600 feet per second. 
The point at which fresh fractures appear moves out from the center 
at the Rayleigh wave velocity of approximately 10,000 feet per second. 

When thin plates of glass are loaded by intense short duration pulses 
extra “bands” of fracture occur as seen in Plate 3, fig. 1. This shows 
the result of the impact of a cylinder of water at a velocity of approxi- 
mately 4,000 feet per second on 14-inch-thick glass. The circular bands 
of fracture are again of stress wave origin, and occur only on the front 
surface. They are formed when the Rayleigh Surface wave is rein- 
forced by tensile components from the stress waves reflected at the 
back surface of the glass. Similar bands have been produced on hard 


436 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


polymers and certain crystalline solids. High-speed photographic 
records show that the formation of the bands is complete before the 
plate specimen starts to bend and that only at a later time do the long 
radial fractures produced by the bending start to develop. 


FRACTURE VELOCITY 


Once a fracture is initiated the question arises as to how fast it can 
travel. The answer appears to be that a fracture can have any 
velocity up to a certain maximum. It is reasonable that a maximum 
velocity exists since it would not be expected that a fracture velocity 
would exceed stress wave velocities, since in the one case a rupture of 
atomic bands occurs and in the other merely a transmission of stress. 

The measurement of fracture velocities is usually achieved by the 
use of high-speed photography or ultrasonic techniques, although 
markings on the fracture surfaces often give extra information. Ex- 
amples of these markings include faint lines called “rib” marks which 
are formed when a fracture pauses, and other lines (“river” patterns) 
which denote the direction of travel of the fracture for each part of 
the surface. These “river” patterns occur on glasses, and both metallic 
and nonmetallic crystals and are formed when the fracture advances 
simultaneously on slightly different levels. The most important mark- 
ings for velocity determinations are Wallner lines (named after H. 
Wallner who first explained them) and an example is shown in plate 3, 
fig. 2. These were photographed on the fracture surface of a glass 
plate. The lines are formed by the interaction of the fracture front 
with transverse stress pulses started when the fracture passes through 
an imperfection, usually at the edge of the specimen. If the fracture 
origin is known and also the transverse wave velocity for the solid, 
the fracture velocity can be determined. This idea has recently been 
extended and an ultrasonic beam of waves of frequency about 5 mega- 
cycles per second is passed through the solid as the fracture advances. 
The resultant fracture surface shows a series of fine ripples, and the 
spacing of these, since the time interval is accurately known, gives a 
direct measure of the fracture velocity. 

High-speed photography is a technique which can measure fracture 
velocities accurately (to about 1 percent) provided the camera is 
capable of giving accurate synchronization and framing rates in ex- 
cess of 10° per second (i.e., the order of 1 microsecond between pic- 
tures). A sequence showing the fracture of a toughened glass 
specimen is given in plate 4, fig. 1. This is the type of glass frequently 
used in car windowscreens. The glass is about five times stronger than 
plate glass, and is made from plate glass by a heat treatment process 
which puts a thin outer layer into compression. However, the treat- 
ment leaves the inner layers in tension and if a crack grows through 
the outer layer the fracture propagates catastrophically. It is clear 


FRACTURE OF SOLIDS—FIELD 437 


TABLE 1.—Fracture and Stress Wave Velocities (In feet per second) 


Material r Fracture Longitudinal | Transverse wave Ve/Ci 
velocity (V) |wave velocity(C:)| velocity (C2) 


———— | ee 


NRE u = esa Se eee 5, 000 18, 000 11, 000 


0. 28 
used tsiiicaees | S322 eae 7, 000 19, 500 12, 500 0. 36 
Sa paps Cire sg og 14, 500 36, 000 21, 000 0. 4 
Digmonds 220 see see 24, 000 60, 000 40, 000 0. 4 


from the picture that the fractures all travel at the same velocity. The 
change of appearance in the fracture pattern after frame 8 (fourth in 
row 2) is caused by the interaction of the reflected longitudinal pulse, 
now a tension, with the advancing front. 

Recent fracture velocity and stress wave velocity measurements 
made at Cambridge from sequences such as in plate 1, fig. 1; plate 2, 
fig. 2; and plate 4, fig. 2, are shown in table 1 above. The fracture 
velocities are all approximately one-third of the longitudinal stress 
wave velocity. Fracture velocities in metals are usually a lower frac- 
tion of the stress wave velocities. This is mainly because much of the 
fracture energy is lost in doing plastic work. The smaller value of 
the ratio for glass (0.28 as compared with 0.4 for sapphire and 
diamond) may also be significant in showing that glass itself does 
not behave in a completely brittle fashion. (Indentation experiments 
have also indicated this.) 


REMOVAL OF SURFACE DEFECTS 


It appears that the key to the strength of solids lies in the existence 
of microcracks and other imperfections. Once these are removed 
higher strengths ensue. Several materials have already been produced 
in fiber and whisker form with high strengths. Experiment shows that 
glass has most of its flaws located at the surface and is therefore amen- 
able to surface treatments such as toughening, ion exchange (in which 
the sodium atoms at the surface are replaced by larger ones, thus put- 
ting the surface layers into compression), and etching. In the etching 
process hydrofluoric acid acts partly by removing the flawed layer and 
partly by rounding off the flaw tips. The effect of removing a few 
microns (10-* cm.) of glass, and greatly improving the strength, is 
illustrated by the impact mark in plate 4, fig. 2, in which the lower half 
only of the specimen was etched. Impact was by a liquid jet on the 
dividing line between the treated and untreated regions (see also plate 
2, fig. 1). Improvements of strength by etching of up to 500,000 p.s.i. 
have so far been reported. Materials such as hard polymers and 
ceramics have flaws distributed throughout the bulk, so a surface treat- 
ment alone does not have such a marked effect (their initial practical 
strengths may, of course, be higher). 

766-746-6533 


438 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The fact that fractures propagate less easily in materials in which 
some plastic work occurs as the fracture advances may prove useful. 
Indications are that reinforced solids can be devised which, while 
retaining many of the good properties that brittle solids have, will 
inhibit fracture growth of catastrophic nature. Certainly a large 
amount of information about the strength properties of solids has 
been assembled in the comparatively short time since the original paper 
by Griffith. In the last few years understanding of the cause of frac- 
ture and the mechanism of its propagation has advanced considerably. 
It is reasonable to expect that in the near future new and exciting 
materials will be developed. 


PLATE 1 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Field 


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Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Field PLATE 2 


This impact gives a short but intense pulse of pressure which initiates the many short 
circumferential cracks. These cracks are not found under static or slow impact condi- 
tions. (Magnification 13.5.) 


di <a Seana Ir wT 


TTP, 


2. The short fractures along the top edge of the glass plate are initiated by the Rayleigh 
Surface wave caused by the impact of the lead slug. The interval between frames is 2 


microseconds. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Field PLATE 3 


, 


1. Fractures produced on the surface of a }4 inch thick glass plate by the impact of a liq- 
uid cylinder at 4,000 feet per second. The “bands” of fracture are caused by the rein- 
forcement of the Rayleigh Surface wave by stress waves reflected from the rear surface 


of the plate. (Magnification X 1.04.) 


2. Wallner lines found on the fracture surface of a glass plate. Since they are formed by 
the interference of the fracture front with transverse stress waves it is possible to de- 
termine the fracture velocity. (Magnification X 6.5.) 


PLATE 4 


—Field 


1964. 


Smithsonian Report, 


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. 


Man-Made’ Diamonds—A Progress Report” 


By C. G. Suits 


Vice President and Director of Research 
General Electric Company 


[With 4 plates] 


Tuis 1s, rirst of all, a story about carbon, the most aggressively 
gregarious element of the periodic table. Carbon, compounded, is so 
versatile in nature that the major branches of chemistry are determined 
entirely by the presence or absence of this element. Carbon, by itself 
in crystalline form, offers another distinctive dichotomy: It can be 
slippery, messy graphite worth a few pennies a pound; and, at the 
other extreme, it can be magnificent diamond, nature’s hardest and 
most glamorous substance, sometimes valued at millions of dollars an 
ounce. 

Converting a plentiful, cheap, and even worthless material into 
something rare and valuable was once thought to be a peculiar pre- 
occupation of alchemists. If a play on words will be forgiven, we 
might say that this is now a worthy occupation for all chemists, all 
physicists, and all metallurgists—at. least in industrial laboratories. 

There have, of course, been some spectacular successes in this effort. 
Witness, as examples, the conversion of nearly worthless natural silicon 
found in sand to the highly valuable semiconductor-grade silicon on 
which a large segment of the semiconductor industry is based; or the 
conversion of cheap hydrocarbons—residues from coal, oil, and gas— 
to monomers and then to polymers of great utility and economic value. 
The planning, execution, and fruition of a successful venture in modern 
alchemy are among the great satisfactions of today’s scientists, tech- 
nologists, and engineers, 

It is not surprising that the history of science is replete with at- 
tempts to convert base carbon to noble diamond, and that the story is 
interlaced with claims and disclaimers, mystery and jealousy, suspense 
and intrigue. 


1 Trademark of General Electric Co. 
2 Reprinted by permission from American Scientist, vol. 52, 1964. 


439 


440 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The task itself is conceptually simple. Graphite is composed of 
carbon atoms, tightly bound in planes, with comparatively weak atomic 
forces holding the planes together; the flaky character of graphite is 
the macroscopic evidence of this atomic structure. Diamond is com- 
posed of precisely the same carbon atoms squeezed together to achieve 
substantially uniform inter-atom distances throughout the lattice. 
Thus, the diamond lattice is a neat packing configuration which gives 
each atom a tight hold on each of the four atoms arrayed around it. 
In other words, to turn graphite into diamond, all one must do is press 
it into the more compact atomic arrangement of diamond, as is shown 
in plate 1, fig. 1. What could be simpler? 

But, alas, as countless investigators over the years have learned to 
their agonizing dismay, Mother Nature did not intend her own achieve- 
ment—probably performed at mysterious, unexplored depths far 
beneath the surface of the earth—to be easily accomplished by man. 
The late Professor Percy Bridgman of Harvard, a Nobel laureate for 
his work on high-pressure phenomena, put it succinctly. “Graphite,” 
he said, “is nature’s strongest spring.” 

Or, in the less grammatical phrase of one of our laboratory associ- 
ates, it might be said that “it is easy to squeeze carbon atoms together, 
but very difficult to keep them squz.” 

Professor Bridgman spent many years trying to make diamonds 
during the 1920’s, 1930’s, and 1940’s, and found serious natural road- 
blocks at every step on this road. The most serious roadblocks were: 
(1) An understanding of the diamond-making process, and (2) the 
requirement of high pressure and high temperature simultaneously, 
both held for an appreciable interval of time. Bridgman produced 
pressures which were much greater than required, but the “spring” 
relaxed to graphite when the pressure was reduced. On the basis of 
what he learned, Bridgman concluded that all previous claims to 
success in diamond-making were based on wishful thinking and not 
scientific proof. 

In 1951, my associates * and I decided to launch a new, all-out assault 
on this problem. We resolved to delve into the process whereby 
diamond might be made, using not only new techniques for attaining 
fantastically high pressures, but also for attaining the simultaneous 
high temperatures that would be required to “latch” this spring: thus, 
to form diamond from graphite. 

Let us now discuss three aspects of the diamond problem in turn: 
the pressure, the temperature, and the chemistry—and then add a 
comment about a fourth factor—time. 

Using the strongest available materials, unique prestressing tech- 
niques, and geometrically complex designs which permit the microflow 


8A group led by A. J. Nerad and including Drs. F. P. Bundy, H. T. Hall, H. M. Strong, 
R. H. Wentorf, Jr., and H. P. Bovenkerk. 


MAN-MADE DIAMONDS—SUITS 441 


of pistons and cylinders at extremes of pressure, the project to which 
we have referred has developed equipment capable of withstanding 
pressures of up to 3,000,000 pounds per square inch. This is 200,000 
times atmospheric pressure, or, as the scientists put it, 200 kilobars. It 
is the pressure that would be found some 330 miles beneath the earth’s 
surface. Or, expressed another way, it represents the pressure of 
a column of mercury 100 miles high, a rather substantial barometer 
reading. ‘These astounding pressures, however, are not a record. 
Bridgman attained much higher pressures by far simpler means. The 
hew progress, in apparatus, came from a chamber design that per- 
mitted the simultaneous attainment of high pressure and high 
temperature. 

In terms of temperature, we have consistently referred to ‘5000 
degrees.” In the early days of diamond-making we meant Fahrenheit, 
and 5000° F. is still the temperature which can be held for “a long 
time’”’—hours if need be. More recently, temperatures of 5000° K.— 
about 9000° F’.—have been achieved for periods of a few hundredths 
of a second in our superpressure chambers. This is nearly the tem- 
perature of the sun’s surface. 

The development of these pressure chambers has been described in 
detail on another occasion.*. The present form of the high pressure 
“belt” is shown in diagrammatic view in figure 1. 

Chemistry was at least as important to the initial achievement of 
diamond-making as the temperature-pressure combination. It has 
been found that certain metals, which are molten in the process en- 
vironment, act as catalysts and greatly enhance the rate of the required 
change in the lattice arrangement. The net result of catalysis is a 
higher yield at a higher rate, at significantly reduced temperatures 
and pressures. Thanks to pressure, temperature, and chemistry, the 
graphite “stayed squz” and emerged as diamond. 

As we have seen, it is possible in superpressure chambers to hold the 
chamber conditions for long periods of time and thus to achieve a 
steady state for reactions under study. A temperature limit of about 
3000° KX. is set for such steady state use primarily by the available ma- 
terial properties, particularly the melting points of ceramic bodies. 
Under steady state conditions, say, 1.5 million pounds per square inch 
and 1500° K., the diamond stable region of the carbon phase diagram 
is attained, but the diamond transition was not originally observed 
except in the presence of the catalyst. Francis Bundy showed, in static 
apparatus, by extending the temperature to 5000° K. for transient 
excursions, that the direct conversion of graphite to diamond—that is, 
without catalyst action—takes place. This is illustrated strikingly 


#C. G. Suits, “The Synthesis of Diamond—A Case History in Modern Science,” read 
November 38, 1960, before the American Chemical Society, General Electrie Research 
Laboratory Report No. 60-GP-189. 


766—746—65 ot 


442 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


G.E. HIGH-COMPRESSION BELT APPARATUS 


PRESS FORCE | 


PRESS FORCE 


Ficure |.—Present form of the high pressure “belt.” 


by the photograph (pl. 1, fig. 2) of a bar of graphite which has been 
squeezed to diamond in its central section by these extreme transient 
conditions. (The density of graphite is 2.25; that of diamond, 3.52.) 
Still more recently, Bundy and Robert H. Wentorf, Jr., have detected 
direct conversions at the upper end of the steady state temperature- 
pressure regime. And, the answer to the question of ime is one of 
nature’s bounties; the time is “short”—a matter of minutes or seconds, 
once reaction conditions have been attained. 

The announcement that diamonds had been made at the General 
Klectric Research Laboratory appeared in February 1955. To be 
honest, it should be noted that the diamonds made up to that time 
were small, as shown in plate 2, fig. 1. Although they could be seen 
with the naked eye, it was better to use a microscope, and it was im- 
portant not to sneeze, for that might have done away with the entire 
world supply at that time. 


MAN-MADE DIAMONDS—SUITS 443 


The initial reaction to this announcement was, nevertheless, spectac- 
ular. For example, on the stock market, the total value of General 
Electric stock increased that day by more than $300 million. Although 
this was an important discovery, the market reaction was in this case, 
as in other cases that might be mentioned, more emotional than analyti- 
cal. To justify a $300-million increase in market price on the basis of 
a diamond business, even with very favorable profit ratios, would re- 
quire an annual sales volume greater than $3 billion, which was the 
approximate level of General Electric total sales at that time. The 
total worldwide sales of the diamond industry at that time were about 
1% of this level. After a few days, during which such calculations 
were undoubtedly performed, the price of General Electric stock 
“recovered” to nearly its former level. 

The announcement released in 1955 made it clear that Man-Made 
diamonds were small and were not of gem quality. One might jump to 
the conclusion that only diamond gems are really valuable. To put this 
question in proper perspective, one must bear in mind that the bulk of 
diamond production from all sources, worldwide, is in industrial grades 
with a total market value of about $60 million. The very much smaller 
physical volume of gem diamond sells at a very much larger unit price 
to achieve a worldwide sales level of about $300 million per annum. 

A few points should be made concerning the value of diamond, the 
price of diamond, and some factors which determine both. Diamond 
has only one unique property—hardness—and this property is funda- 
mental to its industrial use and its usefulness as a gem. However, 
hardness is a necessary but not a sufficient attribute of a crystal to be 
usedasa gem. Asa gem, diamond has other important properties such 
as a high refractive index and must have other additional qualities, 
such as size, color, and optical clarity. But, without its exceptional 
hardness, diamond would not be preeminent as a gem. <A higher re- 
fractive index is available in other crystals, especially titania, and large 
clear crystals of many other minerals are readily available. 

Many persons have had the experience of wearing a ruby or sap- 
phire gem in a ring for a period of years. A careful examination of 
the stone will show definite evidence of wear. On a true hardness 
scale, however, as figure 2 shows, diamond is about five times harder 
than ruby and sapphire and it will accommodate the appreciable wear 
requirements of a gem stone. Thus, diamond is probably the only gem 
which can be used in an engagement ring which will survive the ideal 
marriage. 

The same unique property—hardness—is the essence of diamond’s 
industrial usefulness. This reduces in most cases to the ability, as in 
the case of a gem, to retain sharp corners under conditions of wear. 
The conditions of wear in industrial applications are, of course, much 


444 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


HARDNESS OF THE DIAMOND 
KNOOP INDENTER 
8000 — 


DIAMOND 
7000 — 


~ 6000 — 


500 

HARDNESS 
Nee 

Kg/mm™ ano — 


3000 — 
SILICON CARBIDE 
2000 — 
microcLine TON? « 
QUARTZ SAPPHIRE 
Genet TALC. CALCITE APATITE | PP 


GYPSUM | FLUORITE CARBOLOY RUBY 


| | | | 
| 2 3 4 ) 6 ri 8 9 10 


Moh HARDNESS 


Ficure 2.—Diamond is many times harder than ruby and sapphire. 


more severe than in engagement ring service. A suitable diamond saw 
can be used to cut concrete, for example, which it does, much as a steel 
saw cuts wood. Even more important, diamond wheels are used to cut 
the hardest and strongest metals and alloys—hke Carboloy cemented 
carbides—and the vital industrial usefulness of these carbides depends 
upon the availability of diamond for cutting these materials during 
manufacture. 

Fortunately, diamonds do not have to be beautiful in order to be 
hard. The bulk of the diamonds dug from the earth are small, dis- 
colored, and not worth polishing, but their hardness is the same as 
diamond of gem quality. These poor cousins of the million-dollars- 
an-ounce gem stones are worth only a fraction of gem prices, which 
fraction, however, is still about $6,000 a pound based on a typical dia- 
mond grit price of $2.65 per carat. 

Soon after the discovery of the laboratory diamond process, we had 
to face the question: “Can Man-Made diamonds be produced that are 
good enough and inexpensive enough to compete with natural diamond 
bort ?” 

The answer came in a remarkably short time. A team of scientists, 
engineers, and manufacturing experts joined forces to make these Man- 
Made diamonds a competitive industrial product, and—as plate 2, fig. 2, 
shows—this objective was achieved in less than 3 years. 


MAN-MADE DIAMONDS—SUITS 445 


With this final step, America acquired for the first time an independ- 
ent source of industrial diamond, a material which is very important 
to the industrial economy, and which is absolutely vital in key defense 
industries. The assurance of a steady supply of industrial diamond 
has encouraged broader use of this exceptional material for new appli- 
cations. And, surprisingly enough, the new Man-Made product has 
turned out to be better than natural diamond for many applications. 

Man-Made diamonds are grown under controlled conditions, and re- 
markable control can be exercised over the properties of the tiny 
crystals. For some purposes it is desirable to produce friable crystals, 
so that fresh cutting surfaces will be exposed during use; such crystals 
can be grown. For other purposes—for example, metal-bonded circu- 
lar saws—the ideal crystal would be an octahedron of the correct size ; 
such crystals can be grown. This is an improvement on natural dia- 
mond because tiny crystals are not recovered from natural sources, and 
hence fine mesh-size, natural diamond is generally produced by crush- 
ing, which does not readily yield the desired crystal shape. Thus, 
nature’s hardest substance is now subject to quality control, which has 
significantly enhanced its industrial usefulness. 

A “diamond mine,” in Detroit, part of the General Electric Co.’s 
Metallurgical Products Department, is now one of the largest single 
sources of industrial diamond in the world. The product is made 
reliably and at a price that is directly competitive with natural dia- 
monds. The total production of diamonds from this mine to date is 
not properly measured in carats, but in tons. 

Most industrial diamonds, including Man-Made diamonds now on 
the market, are very small: up to about half a millimeter in diameter 
and weighing only about a thousandth of a carat or less. However, 
diamonds in these small sizes in the form of abrasive grit fill a large 
portion of industrial needs. Meanwhile, considerably larger Man- 
Made diamonds—1 or 2 mm. long and of good quality—can be made. 

Research continues toward the development of larger industrial 
stones, up to and including the carat-size diamonds required for oil- 
drill bits and wiredrawing dies. By growing the crystals in a multi- 
step process—adding a layer at a time—it has been possible in the 
laboratory to make diamonds weighing more than two carats (pl. 3). 
It must be noted, however, that these crystals are quite imperfect. 
They are not very strong because of inclusions, particularly between 
the layers, and because of internal strains in the crystal structure. 
They are definitely not the kind of clear, perfect stones suitable for 
polishing into something of interest to the ladies. 

The scientific achievement of Man-Made diamond, and the commer- 
cial success of the product, have served to stimulate broad interest in 
high-pressure research at laboratories all over the world. Approxi- 
mately 200 laboratories are now equipped for superpressure research, 


446 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


and much new useful knowledge of nature’s physical extremes is com- 
ing from this work. 

Many of the exploratory efforts in superpressure incorporate so- 
called “dynamic” or explosive shock techniques in which very high 
temperatures and pressures up to a million atmospheres are obtained 
for very short periods of time, usually a few millionths of a second. 
Diamonds have been made by these processes. Alternatively, very 
high “static” pressures, such as 500 kilobars, together with high 
temperatures, may be attained at a sacrifice of reaction volume, and 
some interesting researches are being conducted by this method. Many 
new forms of matter are being explored at superpressures, and it is 
clear that the final chapters to the story of superpressure have not yet 
been written. One must expect exciting news from this source of 
scientific exploration for many years in the future. 

The chart in figure 3 shows some of the capabilities of different ap- 
proaches. ‘The “belt” apparatus developed at the General Electric Re- 
search Laboratory, because of its unique combination of 200 kilobar 
pressures and 3000 to 5000° KX. temperatures—plus workable pressure- 
chamber volumes—has thus far provided an excellent diamondmaking 
method as well as the research technique with greatest versatility. 
Superpressure research around the world is now concerned with such 
subjects as the determination of the elastic constants of various mate- 


PRESSURE- TEMPERATURE AREAS ATTAINABLE 
1964 
800, 


SHOCK 
COMPRESSION 
(millionths of 

asecond) 


00. 
MODIFIED 


ANVIL 
PRESSURE APPARATUS 
(KILOBARS) (hours) 
400 
200: oe APPARATUS (hours) 
Kelvin 1000° 2000° 3000° 4000° 5000° 
Fahrenheit 1300°  3100° 4900° 6700° 8500° 


TEMPERATURE 


Ficure 3.—Capabilities of different approaches. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Suits PLATE 1 


ity fy vs 
TT: sstae 


[arscddinty ite Sateag 
Tues | 


1. Model of graphite lattice (left) and diamond lattice (right). 


2. Bar of graphite squeezed to diamond in its central section. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Suits PLATE 2 


2. Collection of one-quarter million carats of Man-Made diamonds. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Suits PLATE 3 


Man-Made diamonds weighing two carats (9 X). 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Suits 


2. Face of natural diamond gem stone (right) scratched by a piece of Borazon. 


MAN-MADE DIAMONDS—SUITS 447 


rials, the properties of semiconductors at high pressure, nuclear mag- 
netic resonance in solids and liquids under pressure, the determination 
of fixed points on the high-pressure scale, geochemical and geophysical 
studies, a variety of thermodynamic approaches to the study of acti- 
vated processes under high pressure, and scores of other seemingly 
esoteric but inherently valuable research objectives. 

In more down-to-earth language, it might be said that—obviously— 
it is possible to put many materials other than carbon into these cham- 
bers and subject them to high pressure and high temperature for long 
periods of time. Such possibilities provide a virtually infinite chal- 
lenge for the research scientist. 

One of the first results of this kind of exploration was a new form of 
boron nitride. Boron nitride, in its common form, has a structure very 
similar to graphite, with boron and nitrogen replacing carbon in the 
lattice. It is a slippery material so much like graphite in mechanical 
properties that it is often called “white graphite.” Boron nitride was 
sufficiently intriguing to prompt Wentorf at our laboratory to try 
superpressure techniques on this material. 

The result was spectacular: A completely new material never found 
in nature (pl. 4, fig 1). “Borazon,” as it was named, is in the same 
range of hardness as diamond. As the photograph (pl. 4, fig. 2) shows, 
it is the only material other than diamond that has ever been able to 
scratch diamond. Because borazon is more oxidation-resistant than 
diamond, we believe it will eventually have important industrial 
applications. In addition to borazon, more than 20 new forms of 
matter have been created through superpressure research in the one 
program with which I am most familiar. Principally, these are 
chemical compounds, although in some cases they are single elements 
converted into new crystalline arrangements. At present there is 
considerable scientific excitement in the laboratory concerning evidence 
which points to the possibility of a completely new crystal form of 
carbon. However, this work is still incomplete, and requires con- 
firmation. In the case of both germanium and silicon, we and other 
workers in the field have identified some new high-density forms sub- 
stantially different from the crystal structure which helps give these 
materials their unique value as semiconductors. 

But this was to be mainly a story about carbon, that many-faceted 
element which is so dominant in science and life. What is the future 
for carbon as we continue to heat it and squeeze it and catalyze it ? 

We are gradually learning how to make larger and larger diamond 
crystals—how to control the nucleation of crystal growth and achieve 
bigger single crystals with fewer occlusions and imperfections. We 
are learning how to keep unwanted atoms out of the carbon structure, 
and it seems reasonable to hope that stronger, more perfect crystals 
will result. Finally, we like to look at the phase diagram for carbon 


448 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


1000 rio 


| 
SOLID II! 
(metallic) 


800 


600 - 


PRESSURE 
(KILOBARS) 


400 - 


DIAMOND 


200 : ' ———— 


' 


i cok | 


i. © supe apne © 3000 4000 5000 
. T (°K) 


Ficure 4.—Phase diagram for carbon. 


in figure 4 and dream of the time when we can attain the presently 
unattainable areas of temperature and pressure. Perhaps carbon will 
assune a new form harder than diamond. In any event, crystal- 
lographers can conceive of atomic arrangements which might put 
carbon atoms even closer together—and more firmly bound—than they 
are in diamond. ‘The result might be—who knows! 


How Do Microbes “Fix” Nitrogen 
From the Air? ' 


By De. Ds Nieromas 


Long Ashton Research Station, University of Bristol 


Au Livine things contain nitrogen compounds and all agriculture 
depends upon the presence of combined nitrogen in the soil. A supply 
of nitrogen compounds on Earth has been built up over a period of 
millions of years by physical forces, notably lightning, whereby nitric 
acid is formed in thunderstorms. The bulk of the combined nitrogen 
comes, however, from the remarkable ability to convert the nitrogen 
gas of the air into protein, possessed by a few species of free-living 
microorganisms that inhabit soils and seas, and by others that live in 
interdependence (symbiosis) with the roots or leaves of plants. ‘These 
microorganisms “fix” about 100 million tons of nitrogen a year and 
play a vital part in the nitrogen cycle in nature (fig. 2), without which 
all plant, animal, and human life would come to a halt. 

The relatively few microorganisms so far known to fix atmospheric 
nitrogen gas are listed in table 1. Of the free-living bacteria, only 
Azotobacter requires oxygen for growth (fig. 1). The majority, how- 
ever, are “anaerobes,” inhibited by oxygen and thriving only when it 
is absent. Other types of nitrogen-fixing bacteria also ultilize carbon 
dioxide from the air, however, in the process of photosynthesis, and 
some blue-green algae perform this dual function of carbon dioxide 
and nitrogen fixation. 

What of the microorganisms that fix nitrogen while living in sym- 
biotic association with higher plants? The best known plants taking 
part in this process are probably the leguminous species, including the 
economic crops, clover, alfalfa, peas and beans, where various strains 
of rhizobia bacteria invade the roots, forming nodules. It is not 
widely known that about nine kinds of ordinary flowering plants (non- 
legumes) also have root nodules in which nitrogen fixation takes place, 
such as alder in temperate zones and Casuarina and Myrica in warmer 


1 Reprinted by permission from New Scientist (No. 169), London, December 1965. 


35 449 


766—746—65 


450 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 


1964 


. chroococcum. 


(Courtesy H. L. Jensen.) 


A. agilis. 


hs (X 1757). 


-contrast micrograp 


Azotobacter phase 


IGURE l. 


HOW DO MICROBES “FIX” NITROGEN FROM THE AIR?—NICHOLAS 451 


REDUCTION: energy required 


seni bi § Protein 
Denitrification, Fixation synthesis 
NItrOQ 2 een A m monic ® ( Micro-organisms 


Nitrate 
gas and green 
plants) 
D 
e 


Animals 
Nitrification 


OXIDATION: energy required 


Ficure 2.—Principal reactions in the nitrogen cycle in nature. 


TABLE 1.—Asymbiotic and symbiotic microorganisms which fix nitrogen gas 
Biological system Type Microorganism 


Asymbiotic free-living micro- 


organisms: 
Bacteras.Ue lo! Viet Aerobessl 2 2. Azotobacter 
Aerobe (Photo- | Rhodospirillum rubrum, 
synthetic). Chromatium, Chlorobium, 
Rhodomicrobium 
Anaerobe-_------ Aerobacter, Bacillus poly- 
myxa, Achromobacter 
Mprereat VaR ogl eh tee. Aerape! 23 225s Rhodotorula 
Blue-green algae__-__----- Aerobe (Photo- | Nostoc, Anabaena, Calothriz, 
synthetic). etc. 
Symbiotic microorganisms in 
nodules of plants: 
Root-nodules. Lepumes, |-2..--.=-s2s..-. Rhizobium 
e.g., peas, beans, clover, 
alfalfa. 
Root)nedules:;.. Nonleg- |_.--.---..------ Actinomycetes? 


umes, e.g., alder, Casu- 
arina, Myrica. 

iheatinodtilesy aPsycho-. |. c2ls222-abece 2 Klebsiella 
tria bacteriophila. 


7 66—746—65——36 


452 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


areas. The organisms responsible for nitrogen fixation in these non- 
leguminous plants have not been definitely identified but they are 
believed to be Actinomycetes. 

An interesting association has been found recently between a nitro- 
gen-fixing bacterium occurring in “leaf nodules” of a subtropical plant 
Psychotria bacteriophila. The bacterium, identified as a Hlebsiella, 
is the first example of a symbiotic microorganism that will fix nitrogen 
when grown in the absence of its host. Another interesting feature is 
that this bacterium not only fixes nitrogen gas but is also involved in 
the synthesis of substances that promote growth in the host plant and 
are essential for its normal development. 

Not all the examples given in table 1 have been thoroughly checked 
for their fixation abilities and it is still doubtful whether the yeast 
Rhodotorula is able to fix gaseous nitrogen. Claims have been put 
forward for other microorganisms either alone or in association with 
other organisms such as actinomycetes, yeasts, mycorhiza, and lichens, 
and for some unusual associations of bacteria with insects and goats. 
These reports of nitrogen fixation, however, have still to be confirmed. 

Atmospheric nitrogen is relatively inert. The industrial synthesis 
of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen requires temperatures of 
about 500° C. and pressures above 350 atmospheres. The process con- 
sumes a great deal of energy—equivalent to 5 tons of coal per ton of 
nitrogen (see table 2). By contrast, microbial fixation works at 
ordinary temperatures and pressures. 

Although the assimilation of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis in 
green plants has been resolved, largely through the brilliant work of 
Calvin and his associates at Berkeley, the equally important mecha- 
nism of nitrogen fixation is still relatively unexplored. Since the 
pioneer work carried out over 20 years ago by Virtanen and his col- 
leagues in Helsinki, and by Burris and Wilson and their group at 
the University of Wisconsin, progress has, until recently, been slow. 
There were two main reasons. The first was the lack of success in 
extracting the nitrogen-fixing enzymes from living cells, and the sec- 
ond has been the absence of satisfactory isotopes of nitrogen for 
“tracer” studies of the fate of nitrogen gas in the bacteria. Only 


TaBLE 2.—Materials and energy requirements for the industrial production of 
ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen (1 ton liquefied ammonia) 


Natural cas (92 percent/CH)) 2224222 ee 26,000 cu. ft. 
Catalysitor shift reaction: =o = a eee 0.3 1b. 
SYHCHESISICALALY Sts 22 ee ee 0.5 lb. 
Oaustieisod aes 3. oes eee ee ee ee ee eee 8 lb. 
Monethanolamines. 2 os eee 0.3 Ib. 

Byte grok Big in as a a I ea eee 22,000,000 B.t.u. 
Hlectricity.22 55 es Ss eee eee 108 kw-hr. 


Wisteria ee ee ee ee eee ee. 6,000 gal. 


HOW DO MICROBES “FIX” NITROGEN FROM THE AIR?—NICHOLAS 453 


two isotopes, apart from ordinary nitrogen-14, are available: the 
stable heavy isotope nitrogen-15 and the more recently developed radio- 
active nitrogen-13. The use of the stable isotope is time consuming 
and needs expensive mass spectrometers. Nitrogen-13, on the other 
hand, has to be made continuously in a cyclotron and experiments have 
to be done within about 2 hours because of its very short half-life of 
only 10.05 minutes. Nevertheless, the tracer has been effectively used 
In some recent experiments with Azotobacter. 

An important advance has been made with the development of 
methods for preparing cell-free extracts of microorganisms that fix 
atmospheric nitrogen. This discovery occurred, as is often the case, 
in a number of laboratories almost simultaneously and independently. 
In 1960, the Du Pont organization in the U.S.A. succeeded with 
Clostridium pasteurianum, the Long Ashton workers with Azotobacter 
vinelandiz, the Wisconsin laboratory with Rhodospirillum rubrum and 
blue-green algae, and a California group with the sulphur bacterium 
Chromatium. In all cases, fixation depended on special methods of 
cell disruption and on supplies of special substrates. For the first 
time, it became possible to study the enzymes concerned in nitrogen 
fixation outside the living cell. 

The Du Pont group found that sodium pyruvate was required for 
nitrogen fixation in extracts of C. pastewrianwm. No other compound 
will initiate the activation of the gas. Since about 100 parts of 
pyruvate have to be added to the extracts to fix 1 part of nitrogen 
gas as ammonia it is clear that some intermediate product in the 
metabolism of pyruvate, rather than pyruvate itself, is required for 
nitrogen fixation. This intermediate factor has not been identified. 
However, it has been possible to separate two enzyme complexes from 
the extracts. The first is the reducing system which produces hydrogen 
from pyruvate and the second is the nitrogen-fixing component. 
Neither will, on its own, activate nitrogen gas, but when they are 
recombined active fixation takes place. An unexpected result was 
the identification of a new reducing protein, containing iron, which 
is required for the hydrogen production from pyruvate by this bac- 
terlum. The substance has now been isolated, purified, and named 
ferredoxin. It has a molecular weight of about 15,000, contains about 
5 atoms of iron per molecule of protein, and is a most important elec- 
tron carrier, especially in bacteria that live without oxygen. It is also 
found in green plants, 

The enzymes that fix nitrogen in C. pastewrianum are present in the 
soluble parts of the cell; in Azotobacter vinelandii, on the other hand, 
they are located in particles which are components of the cell mem- 
branes. Another difference is that sodium pyruvate has no effect on 
fixation in Azotobacter—fixation is stimulated instead by unidentified 
reducing factors excreted into the culture medium during early growth. 


454. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Oxidation/reduction 
state of nitrogen atom 


HO 


paps HON-NOH thyponitrite ) 


RE oe, 


+1 
HN-NO, (nitramide} 


HL. 


«@ keto acids 


HN=NH 2NH30H 


(diimide) (hydroxylamine) oximes 


@ keto acids 


NH-N3H azines 
2 
{hydrazine} hydrazones 


2NH3 
{ammonia) 


amino acids 


protein and other cell nitrogen constituents 


Ficure 3.—Possible pathways of nitrogen fixation. 


Inhibitors of fixation accumulate in cell-free extracts of Azotobacter 
cells during growth; these inhibitors may be destroyed by putting the 
cells in liquid air. 

The various ways in which nitrogen gas might be converted to 
ammonia are given in figure 3. The uppermost route, via nitrous 
oxide, is not now thought to be likely; in fact, nitrous oxide is a potent 
inhibitor of fixation. Hydroxylamine and hydrazine have both been 
suggested as possible intermediates but the evidence for either is slim. 
Recent work with cell-free extracts of C. pastewrianum by the Wis- 
consin workers, using nitrogen-15, and by the Long Ashton group 
with extracts of Azotobacter using radioactive nitrogen-13, showed 
impressive labeling of nitrogen in ammonia but there was no detectable 
trace of hydroxylamine or hydrazine. The results suggest that free 
hydroxylamine or hydrazine are not intermediates in the reaction 
but do not rule out the possibility that they and other compounds may 
occur tightly bound to the enzyme protein. In fact evidence for 
enzyme-bound intermediates has come from experiments with Azo- 
tobacter, in which fractions exposed to radioactive nitrogen-13 incor- 
porated more of the tracer than appeared in the form of ammonia. 


HOW DO MICROBES “FIX” NITROGEN FROM THE AIR?—NICHOLAS 455 


This means either that intermediates between nitrogen and ammonia 
are tightly held by enzyme surfaces or that a labeled enzyme is formed, 
or both. When fractions were exposed to the tracer for brief periods, 
the isotope which was tightly bound to one protein fraction after the 
shortest exposure became dispersed into three protein fractions after 
a longer one. This again supports the theory that enzyme-bound 
intermediates are formed before ammonia, but no one has yet isolated 
or identified them. 

It has been known for some time that trace metals including molyb- 
denum, iron, copper, and boron are essential for nitrogen fixation, and, 
more recently, cobalt has been added to the list. Their precise func- 
tions in the process are not known. The technique of electron para- 
magnetic resonance (EPR) has been used in attempts to identify sig- 
nals associated with free radicals, particular states of transition metals 
(iron, molybdenum, copper, manganese, etc.) and other systems con- 
taining unpaired electrons in bacterial extracts that fix nitrogen. 
Cell-particles that fix nitrogen prepared from Azotobacter were found 
to give signals for flavin semiquinone, for molybdenum in a highly 


Azotobacter particles 
grownon Ny — grown on NHX 


g=1-97 g=2-00 
g=1'94|g=2.00 — gzl-94 


Gas with 
ar SA 
+medium 


Gas with 


N> ake 


Ficure 4.—Electron paramagnetic resonance spectra (EPR) of particles prepared from 
Axotobacter vinelandii (OP). Signals recorded in gauss (g). Left column, particles 
actively fixing nitrogen. Right column, particles that do not fix nitrogen, from cells 
grown with an ammonium salt as nitrogen source. Upper row, spectra of particles as 
isolated. In the nitrogen fixing particles there is a signal at g=1.97 probably associated 
with molybdenum valency 5+. Middle row, after adding 10ul of culture medium in 
which the bacterium had been growing and gassing with hydrogen. Lower curve, 
gassing with nitrogen after the hydrogen and medium treatment. 


456 | ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


oxidized state, and for an unidentified iron component. This iron 
factor is distinct from ferredoxin, mentioned earlier; in fact, ferre- 
doxin does not produce EPR signals and is not present in Azotobacter. 
It was possible to reduce this iron and molybdenum by hydrogen and 
culture media factors and they were reoxidized by nitrogen (fig. 4). 
Comparisons with similar effects in the oxygen-fixing respiratory 
mechanisms suggest that nitrogen and oxygen are alternative targets 
for chemical reducing power that is transferred successively from 
hydrogen to iron to flavin and then via cytochrome to capture oxygen 
or molybdenum to capture nitrogen. Support for the view that mo- 
lybdenum is a key link in the chain comes from experiments in which 
particles from cells that do not fix nitrogen proved to contain very 
little molybdenum. 

Much work has been done on the mechanism of root nodule forma- 
tion in clover, and similar studies have also been made in other types 
of flowering plants. It is clear that the host plant derives the advan- 
tage of the readymade products of nitrogen fixation and the micro- 
organisms in turn get a supply of food that the plant makes during 
photosynthesis, as well as a favorable environment for nitrogen 
fixation. 

Bergersen and his associates in Canberra have shown that the 
rhizobia bacteria in the nodules of clover are enclosed in a double 
layered membrane envelope. The bacteria are devoid of cell walls 
and are termed bacteroids (fig. 5). They are bathed in a solution of 
hemoglobin, which has a high affinity for oxygen, and this may provide 


Ficure 5.—Rods and bacteroids from root nodules. A, rods from a white ineffective 
nodule. B, bacteroids from a red ineffective nodule. C, rods from a green ineffective 
nodule. D, various forms of bacteroids. (After Virtanen.) 


HOW DO MICROBES “FIX” NITROGEN FROM THE AIR?—-NICHOLAS 457 


a mechanism for preventing free oxygen from coming in direct contact 
with the nitrogen-fixing system and competing with nitrogen for the 
reducing power generated by the bacteroids. When the rhizobia are 
cultivated outside the nodules they require nitrogen compounds for 
growth, such as nitrate, ammonia, or amino acids, as they are unable 
to fix nitrogen without the host plant. Nodules cut out or sliced soon 
lose their capacity to utilize nitrogen gas. 

There are two current theories of the mechanism of nitrogen fixation 
in the nodules. The first is that fixation occurs in the membrane en- 
velopes where the gas is activated and reduced to ammonia. Nitrogen 
is envisaged as the ultimate acceptor of the reducing power which is 
generated in the bacteroids and involves hemoglobin as a carrier. The 
host plant supplies the carbon compounds which are partially oxidized 
by the bacteroids and which then serve as a source of electrons for 
the reduction of the activated nitrogen. The products of the incom- 
plete oxidation of the substrates serve as acceptors of ammonia from 
the fixation process which is needed for amino acid production in the 
bacteroids. The acids then become available to the host plant. This 
overall scheme is presented in figure 6. The second theory suggests 
that hemoglobin itself is the site of nitrogen fixation in the nodule. 
Future work will decide between these and other theories put forward 
to explain the symbiotic system. 

The products of fixation appear to be similar in the nodules of 
leguminous plants as those already described for Azotobacter and 
Clostridium, that is, ammonia is heavily labeled with nitrogen-15 
followed by glutamic acid. An interesting difference, however, has 
been found in alder nodules where the amino acid citrulline contained 
more nitrogen-15 than did glutamic acid. 

Nodulated plants of soybean were first shown by Evans and his 
collaborators at Corvallis in Oregon to require minute amounts of 
cobalt (0.1 microgram per liter of culture solution) when relying 
solely on atmospheric nitrogen. Similar results were obtained subse- 
quently with alder, Casuarina, and Myrica. A. vinelandii also requires 
0.1 microgram of cobalt per liter of culture solution for nitrogen 
fixation. Since the amount is so small it is unlikely that it functions 
directly in nitrogen fixation but is probably required for the biosyn- 
thesis of enzymes involved in the fixation process. Cobalt is incorpo- 
rated into vitamin B,,. coenzymes in Azotobacter and in the root nod- 
ules of some legumes and alder. In our laboratory at Long Ashton 
we have found that (. pastewrianum also requires cobalt or vitamin 
B,, for nitrogen fixation. 

What of the future? 

Over 70 percent of industrial ammonia is used in the fertilizer in- 
dustry and at present production exceeds demand, not because there 
is no pressing need for it but because the product is expensive. AlI- 


458 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Carbon substrates 


Partial oxidation 
Red 


Cytochromes 


Host cytoplasm 


Membrane envelope 


Ficure 6—A diagram of a hypothesis for nodule nitrogen fixation. One nitrogen-fixing 
unit is shown. Reducing power, generated in the bacteroids by partial oxidation of 
carbon substrates supplied by the host plant, is passed along an electron transport 
chain involving haemoglobin and is used for the ultimate reduction to NHsg of Ne 
activated in the membrane envelopes. X=unknown steps between the bacteroid 
metabolism and haemoglobin. Y=unknown steps between haemoglobin and the 
ay of NH3. (F. J. Bergersen. Bacterial. Rev., vol. 24, pt. 1, pp. 246-250. 
1960. 


though the synthetic nitrogenous fertilizers are making a valuable 
contribution in various farming systems, the amounts employed are 
still small in comparison with the total amounts of nitrogen concerned 
in the world’s crop production. Cereal crops in Britain remove about 
50 pounds of nitrogen from an acre of soil, and a similar amount is 
present in about 1,000 gallons of milk; yet only 22 pounds of fertilizer 
nitrogen is returned to the soil, and a substantial amount of this is lost 
by bacterial denitrification or washed away by rain. As long as the 
world’s population increases and arable land remains even at its pres- 
ent acreage there will be rising demand for nitrogenous fertilizers; 
unfortunately it is not economical to use them on a large scale in under- 
developed countries where, of course, the need for protein for animal 
and human consumption is greatest. 


HOW DO MICROBES “FIX” NITROGEN FROM THE AIR?—NICHOLAS 459 


Most of the world’s agricultural nitrogen is still supplied by soil 
microorganisms, <A grass-clover pasture is capable of fixing over 500 
pounds of nitrogen per acre ina year. Some interesting and exciting 
possibilities exist for inducing other types of microorganisms to fix 
nitrogen and encouraging symbiotic associations with other economic 
crops. Why should not grasses, cereals, or brassica crops or fruit trees 
have their own built-in symbiotic associations with nitrogen-fixing 
microorganisms? The answers to such questions—which could revo- 
lutionize agriculture and go a long way to producing food supplies 
cheaply—must await the results of fundamental research work on the 
basic mechanism and requirements of the fixation process in free-living 
microorganisms and in those in symbiotic association with plants. The 
immediate requirement is the separation and purification of the nitro- 
gen fixing enzymes from cell-free preparations of microorganisms. 
There is no doubt that the mechanism of activation of nitrogen gas 
will be resolved eventually with the aid of chemical and physical tech- 
niques now being developed, but these studies must also seek an un- 
derstanding of the cell organization and structure. 

How the industrial process for forming ammonia from nitrogen and 
hydrogen works is still not completely understood, though it was 
developed at the turn of the century. It provides a relatively simple 
inorganic model for ammonia production, involving a solid catalyst 
based on iron oxide supplemented with salts of aluminum and prob- 
ably those of molybdenum and vanadium, but it is significant that the 
main clues to the mechanism of nitrogen fixation have come from work 
with the biological system. It has been suggested in some quarters 
that by solving the problem of nitrogen fixation by microbial enzymes 
the process might then be exploited to produce nitrogenous fertilizers 
cheaply. This view may be too optimistic. There is no doubt, how- 
ever, that some novel features in catalysis involving iron and possibly 
molybdenum will be found when the nitrogen-fixing enzyme system 
is eventually crystallized and analyzed by modern methods. 


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The Unity of Ecology’ 


By F. Fraser DARLING 


Vice-President, The Conservation Foundation, New York, N.Y. 


Ir Is RATHER extraordinary to be asked by educated people, what 
is ecology ?—the more so, as economics is a word used by everyone and 
the substitution of the letter “e” for the diphthong “c” disturbs no- 
body. Both ecology and economics, so properly derived from the 
Greek o7ios—the home, are concerned with the ordering of the habitat 
and income and expenditure. Both sciences deal with communities 
and are, at simplest, observational studies of communities. Economics 
has tended to deal with income and expenditure symbolized in money, 
and the most dangerous economists have been those who have mistaken 
the symbol for the reality. There is now a refreshing trend to con- 
sider wealth as availability of resources, often natural and renewable 
and organic resources. The changes in the status of availability are 
subtle, depending on history, growth and movements of populations, 
and on technology. The resources themselves change in economic 
status with changes in human needs and desires, emergencies and 
fashions. 

Ecology deals with income and expenditure in terms of energy cycles 
in communities of plants and animals, deriving from sunlight, water, 
carbon dioxide and the phenomenon of photosynthesis by which or- 
ganic compounds are built. This raw definition is made more interest- 
ing by what I would emphasize as the observational study of com- 
munities of animals and plants. Here comes the possibility of that 
more general definition of ecology as the science of organisms in rela- 
tion to their total environment, and the interrelations of organisms 
interspecifically and between themselves. The total environment in- 
cludes all manner of physical factors such as climate, physiography 
and soil, the stillness or movement of water and the salts borne in 
solution. The interrelations of organisms and environment are in some 
measure reciprocal in influence; in animal life it is becoming increas- 


1 Presidential address delivered to Section D (Zoology) on August 29, 1963, at the 
Aberdeen Meeting of the British Association for the Advancement of Science, and re- 
printed by permission from Advancement of Science, November 1963. 


461 


462 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


ingly clear that important environmental influences are operative in 
what may be called psychological factors. Social behavior can be of 
critical quality ecologically, and this field serves, perhaps, to show 
how inadequate and imperfect as yet is our observation, especially of 
interspecific social behavior apparent in a complex biological com- 
munity which includes man. The ecologist tends ultimately to con- 
sider man as a member of the indigenous fauna if man is a primitive 
hunter-foodgatherer, or as an introduced species if he is buffering 
himself against the environment by civilization, developed technology, 
and an export trade in natural resources. But there is one outstanding 
difference between man and the rest of creation ecologically. He isa 
political animal and in our day and age it is quite unreal to ignore 
the political nature of man as an ecological factor. 

I am already giving the impression, perhaps, that there is such a 
subject as human ecology, a matter which has called forth some tart 
difference of opinion until very recently. For myself, there is no such 
subject as human ecology; there is ecology only, which must accept 
man as part of the field of reference; but man can have an ecological 
outlook in studying his own problems, whatever they are—medical, 
agricultural, or those of labor relations. 

Haeckel coined the word oecology in 1869 and he had animals in 
mind. There is something ironical in the speculation that so ecolog- 
ically perceptive a man as Charles Darwin probably set back the 
study of ecology for half a century because after 1859 the paleonto- 
logical data concerning evolution had necessarily to be gathered. 
Ecology as we knew it 50 years ago was a botanical science primarily, 
handicapped by a certain restriction of vision associated with those 
whose eyes are focused on the sward. The early literature of ecology 
gravely neglected the influence of the biotic factor on vegetation; 
indeed, it was not until 1932 that the British Ecological Society pub- 
lished its second journal of Animal Ecology. Shelford was reacting 
to animal ecology in his studies of succession in the first decade of 
this century and his book on animal communities appeared in 1913, 
the same year in which C. C. Adams published his Guide to Animal 
Ecology. 

Perhaps World War I explains the gap between 1913 and the early 
twenties, when Charles Elton’s series of papers appeared, culminating 
in his Animal Ecology of 1927, giving us the fundamental ecological 
ideas of cyclicism in populations, food chains of varying complexity 
between species, leading to the concept of what is now known as the 
Eltonian pyramid, and the idea of animals filling néches in the func- 
tions of conversion of matter. Charles Adams, to whom I have al- 
ready referred, made a profound remark to the effect that ecology 
was a study of process—process which is not necessarily progress, 
although the developmental quality apparent in the slow building 


THE UNITY OF ECOLOGY—DARLING 463 


of biological communities was tacit in the phenomena of plant suc- 
cessions elucidated by the Clementian school of ecologists in America. 
Adams saw that the orderly thread of developmental succession could 
easily be broken or influenced by all manner of factors, but there was 
still the unbreakable thread of process or, in fact, history. There 
is at present some reaction against the idea of orderly succession to 
a climax state which is stable and continuing, because so many ex- 
amples can be brought forward to show how natural phenomena such 
as hurricane, fire, and frost-heave—each at certain moments of bio- 
logical significance such as a seed year or not—can make nonsense 
of orderly progression within the community under investigation. 
But they do not make nonsense of the idea and the trend, and the plain 
record of process of history brings us to a perspective of reality. It 
is part of the thesis of this essay that man was able to civilize by 
being a breaker of climaxes, giving him the stored wealth of the ages 
in plants, animals, and soil fertility with which to buttress himself 
against the environment and to enjoy the immense capacity for social 
evolution provided by the new ability to be permanently gregarious. 

The concept of the dynamic biological community took a long time 
to mature—if we admit that it is even now much advanced beyond 
adolescence. Its development shows all the signs of what most of us 
detect some time or other in our personal investigations, inability 
to see much more than what we are looking for, or seeing without 
apprehending significance. Edward Forbes saw the concept of com- 
munity clearly in his classic marine work of 1843-45, but his early 
death robbed Scotland and ecology of a luminous mind. The plant 
ecologists of the late 19th century, headed by Warming, made the 
concept of community a cornerstone of a growing science, and Tansley’s 
famous paper of 1920 codified it and gave it greater significance. 
Tansley emphasized in this paper that conceptual arguments and 
hypotheses must be firmly based on observation of the vegetation itself 
and that one must constantly go back to the field. It was a necessary 
admonition in that laboratory era. Tansley developed then the idea 
of the community as a quasi-organism or organic entity, of the whole 
being greater than the sum of its parts. He made comparisons of 
plant communities with human communities, and remarked that lack- 
ing psychical awareness, instinctive cooperation did not develop—only 
symbioses of varying degrees—and that competition was the law of 
relationship. It was later, in Vegetation of the British Islands, that 
Tansley gave lengthy consideration to the biotic or animal factor in 
the expression of communities, realizing for example that a landscape 
of chalk downland, so old and English and accepted as natural, de- 
pends completely on the continued grazing of sheep. The very habitat 
of chalk grassland is man-produced by way of the sheep, yet it is 


464 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


a habitat with well-defined floristic and entomological characteristics. 
We see here an example of organic evolution aligning itself with the 
long pursuance of human activity toward development of habitat. 
We have much to learn in this field in Africa, one of the main cradles 
of humanity, where man-produced habitats, such as savannah by the 
agency of fire, have developed their own ungulate faunas. Time has 
had its chance, unaffected by glaciation or major changes of climate. 
Some of the shocks of human impact on biological communities 
may have turned the Americans the more surely to study such organic 
entities as inextricable webs of plants and animals; one of Shelford’s 
pupils, W. C. Allee, expressed the notion of unconscious cooperation 
in biological communities, a concept so much easier to elucidate from 
studying plants and animals together. Some measure of the ‘psychic 
awareness’ not obvious to Tansley in 1920 was now seen to be present 
in the enlarged wholes of biological communities which we accept 
nowadays. Allee’s unconscious cooperation was entirely scientific 
and utterly removed from the wishful thinking or pious hopefulness 
of Kropotkin’s Mutual Aid. All the same, Allee brought warmth 
and light into a field which had tended to be chillingly botanical. 
But the strings of past philosophy trail round our feet, making 
us conservative from a sense of prudence rather than reason. Judaic 
monotheism put man and nature apart, an idea strengthened by Car- 
tesian dualism of mind and matter. The older Dionysian intuition 
of wholeness was heresy, and the ancient Chinese comprehension of 
a universe of checks and balances and compensations, in which man 
was essentially a part and no more, was unknown and unscientific 
anyway. Hence, far into our own day, man was not a proper part of 
the study of ecology. If you studied man you might have been an 
anthropologist or an archeologist or a historian, but if you studied 
ecology you dealt with nature as she was conceived to be and not with 
man. The notion of human ecology was considered not to be schol- 
arly, though such a man as Patrick Geddes had made most illuminating 
contributions to the ecology of human life and had collaborated with 
J. A. Thomson who held this rostrum so long. Also, there were sev- 
eral people in manifestly defined fields such as geography, sociology, 
epidemiology, and social anthropology, who were jumping on this 
new bandwagon and calling their subjects human ecology. Ecologists 
would have none of it. They were aware of the wide spread of their 
subject and of their dependence on good taxonomy; there was some 
suspicion already that an ecologist might be a jack of all trades and 
master of none, and it was academic suicide to be an ecologist except 
incidentally to an acknowledged position in botany or zoology. The 
ultimate necessity of considering the biological community as a work- 
ing whole, ecology being as it were the physiology of community, pro- 


THE UNITY OF ECOLOGY—DARLING 465 


duced crops of errors where good botanists were less good zoologists, 
and good zoologists very inadequate botanists. In such an atmosphere 
of the titter behind the hand, it was not easy to embrace man and his 
possible ecology as well. 

But for several reasons the intellectual climate is changing. The 
archeologist has shown in recent years that protocivilization is several 
thousand years older in the Old World than we had thought, and the 
primitive Folsom Man in the New World was much earlier than the 
accepted Quaternary immigration from northeast Asia. As we have 
learned how man lived, what he ate, how his houses were built, and 
what his devotional buildings signified, what movements he made, 
we have been compelled to speculate on the influences man has had 
on his environment through many thousands of years. Also, the dy- 
namic world of this century, particularly of the past 20 years, has made 
us intensely and often painfully aware of change in the landscape. 
We have been rather roughly pitchforked into a world of democracy, 
so-called; into a world of human population explosion, into a world 
of mobility made possible by the invention of the internal combustion 
engine and the exploitation of fossil fuels. Land use has changed 
in character and so much more land has been used, often uncritically, 
following earlier patterns in different climates. The immense plan- 
etary buffer and reservoir of wilderness has shrunk in area and influ- 
ence. Quite suddenly in these past 25 years and particularly since 
the last war there has been a shaking of confidence. The all-conquer- 
ing technological man whose mind had the same characteristics as the 
bulldozers employed to grow groundnuts on a prodigious scale in Tan- 
ganyika is already out of date, although the breed is highly inventive 
and has in no way accepted defeat. There is apparent in politicians 
an unsureness: they look longingly and hopefully at the extreme 
technological man, but now it is perhaps as well to listen also to the 
biologists, not merely the ones who overcome noxious insects with 
magical rapidity, but ecologists as well. 

What do ecologists offer? No panaceas or quick returns, so much 
as a point of view which restrains, shows the consequences of different 
types of action, and possibly how mistakes in land-use can be rectified ; 
and why they were mistakes. Ecology is a science of identifying 
causes and consequences. 

Here, I think, is where we may consider the place of history: the 
political situation and the changes brought about by individuals and 
ideas are the stuff of history and it is difficult to find out what influ- 
ence man was having on his environment and what accommodations 
the organic world of nature was making. But it can be done to a 
considerable extent if we will give time to it and reconsider history 
in ecological terms for enrichment of our experience in making future 
decisions. 


466 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


I would like to take as an example at random, pulling out one 
thread of English history, the course of sheep farming from Saxon 
times until the latter end of the Middle Ages. England was once a 
country of deep forest in the vales, with scrub on the chalk hills and 
wolds. Neolithic man could tackle the scrub with his tools of stone 
and bone, but not the forest. The Roman, better equipped, drove his 
roads through everything, making islands in the sea of forest. The 
Saxon came from forested lands, and working in his own ecological 
fashion soon reduced the forest to islands in a sea of cultivated or 
cleared land. The Saxon was a swineherd who undoubtedly valued 
the pig’s snout in life as its hams after slaughter. Large numbers of 
herded swine must have been effective implements in scarifying the 
forest floor, disturbing or eradicating the pristine flora, influencing 
the physicochemical state of the ground and preventing regeneration, 
so that forest with undercover would decline and open woodland with 
fewer and fewer standards would be left. The food-gathering, soil- 
working pig may be looked upon as a pioneer when present in suf- 
ficient numbers, creating conditions in which a sward of grass could 
form in an increasingly parklike terrain. At this stage the sheep 
could take over, living on the sward, maintaining it and quite surely 
preventing the regeneration of woodland. The cattle grazing among 
the sheep also helped in the establishment of permanent grassland and 
were creating the possibility of fairly rapid conversion into arable 
land when pressure of population demanded extension. 

Historical research has revealed that England and parts of southern 
Scotland were already important wool-producing country in Saxon 
times. That was the main economic function of the sheep, to pro- 
duce wool; mutton was welcome but incidental. Some of the wool 
was used at home but it was an important item of export which al- 
lowed importation of Continental luxuries and even goods from the 
Levant. The great early development of medieval sheep farming did 
but build on the existing Saxon foundation. England was the prin- 
cipal European producer of fine wool. Italy, and later the Low Coun- 
tries, were the large manufacturers of fine textiles. This interde- 
pendence must have helped in the unification of the medieval world. 
When England eventually produced her own fine cloth and cut down 
her export trade in wool, she inevitably crystallized more sharply. 
Italian bankers and merchants were prominent in the early trade and 
the Church was a pioneer agent in the spread of sheep farming to new 
areas. The Cistercian order particularly was responsible for extension 
into the north and west, where flocks of several thousands were kept 
by each foundation, such as Fountains and Rievaulx. Lords of the 
manor and peasants were all in this golden age of English sheep 
farming. The late Eileen Power gave a vivid impression in her Ox- 
ford series of lectures entitled The Larly English Wool Trade. Reck- 


THE UNITY OF ECOLOGY—DARLING 467 


oning from the number of sacks exported and allowing for some being 
used at home, there were probably 15 million sheep in England in the 
early 14th century. 

It has probably been insufficiently realized what effect this vast 
sheep farming enterprise must have had on the landscape and wildlife. 
Despite the patches of forest, the fringes of parklike country in 
transition and gorse-clad commons, there must have been extensive 
bald spots where open-field cultivation and sheep farming between 
them would have destroyed all tree growth. The land of England 
was being mined of its stored fertility, but in such a favored area do 
we live that regeneration made good part of the loss in flora and fauna, 
seen and unseen, and consequently that much of the lost fertility. 

Now comes the political act with its ecological consequences: this 
economically prosperous sheep farming era was wrecked by taxes in 
wool and on wool. Edward III was on the warpath, and wars, as 
we know all too well, are an expensive form of dissipation. The 
lords of the manor began to let their ploughed lands, and later their 
sheep also as going concerns. The rates of exploitation probably in- 
creased as the small men came in and had to create their capital. But 
the removal of the Wool Staple to Calais was the disintegrating blow. 
A system of husbandry was pretty well at an end, and before long the 
Reformation and the advent of American gold started a period of 
enclosure of land. This enclosure undoubtedly made for stabilization 
and a husbandry based on maintenance rather than pure extraction. 
The 18th-century introduction of leguminous crop plants and the 
more skilled application of the principle of rotation produced a con- 
version cycle of energy fiow vastly in excess of that of the centuries 
immediately preceding. Not all of it was translated into human in- 
crease and economic prosperity. Hedges, hedgerow timber, increased 
leisure (for the few) for such country pursuits as hunting and shoot- 
ing, which needed a varied landscape, and not least the emergence of 
the Romance poets in their delight in landscape, all contributed to 
diversification of habitat which the wild flora and fauna were quick to 
exploit in this favored climate. 

The story in Scotland has been less happy. The more acidic soils 
did not withstand the sheep farming as well as those in England, if 
we exclude the millstone grits of the English Pennine Chain; the 
Southern Uplands of Scotland are still in sheep, but are deteriorating 
slowly. The Highlands, poorer and wetter and steeper, suffered their 
hardest blow of deforestation and the coming of the sheep in the 18th 
century, and have deteriorated to an ecological decrepitude which is 
plain for those with eyes to see. The political situation is not yet 
sufficiently ecological in climate to tackle this essentially biological 
problem of rehabilitation in a biological and geographical manner, al- 
though, as I said at the outset, it is improving. 


766—746—65——37 


468 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Let us now look at an older and larger pattern of animal domesti- 
cation which has profoundly influenced the characteristics of flora 
and fauna over a vast area of the land surface of the Old World. The 
development of the highly specialized husbandry known as nomadism 
is far from primitive, though because it shows so many examples of 
arrested cultural growth we are apt so to consider it. Nomadic pas- 
toralism is one of the surest means of breaking ecological climaxes. 
It is an insidious means also. There is not the primary traumatic 
onslaught of tree-felling, brush-grubbing, and ploughing that agri- 
culture demands. Pastoralism is a penetration of terrain by a rela- 
tively small number of human beings. The landscape is not altered 
immediately and there are no considerable works of man evident to 
the eye. But numbers of grazing animals and close treading place 
selective pressures on the vegetational complex. Where fire is used, 
selection is more rapid. In effect, the herbage complex is simplified, 
and that means gaps in the original niche structure, with consequent 
overall loss in biological efficiency of the community. Broadly, the 
vegetation moves toward the xeric. 

Nomadism postdates agriculture by an undetermined period running 
to some thousands of years. The specialization is like that of the 
seafaring man, no longer content to paddle about in the shallows with 
primitive raft or formless dug-out canoe, who has built himself a 
ship, beautiful in form because it is functional in crossing uncharted 
seas of uncertain temper, and who has developed the skill to navigate 
by the stars and sail the ship as if it were a live thing. Equally, the 
nomad did not just walk out into the sea of the steppe which stretches 
from the Crimea of Europe to the Yellow River of China: he was a 
riverside dweller, a forest-edge dweller venturing no farther than his 
domesticated animals could go and come in a day, or perhaps a little 
farther in the season of rains. Domestication itself probably arose 
on religious grounds, for the animals in sight, touchable and ready 
for sacrifice, were the embodiment of that which was desired, life- 
giving and life-enhancing. One of the characteristics of nomad stock 
is the capacity to herd close, and to move and feed and rest as one, a 
matter for selection conscious and unconscious, before man could go 
forth with flocks and herds on to the ecean of the steppe. 

The sheep is the mainstay of nomadism just as it is the mainstay 
of the husbandry of wild lands today. The goat provides brains for 
the most part. The multiplicity of mouths are wealth-gatherers ac- 
tivated by four times as many superbly adapted legs and feet. Water 
is needed in minimal quantities, and the animal itself provides man 
with milk, meat, and warmth. But the nomad, interposing animals 
between himself and the generally inhospitable environment of the 
steppe, realized quite well that the several sorts of domesticated ani- 
mals gave him different securities and desirable ends in an environ- 


THE UNITY OF ECOLOGY—DARLING 469 


ment not as uniform as our school geography books would lead us to 
believe. Cattle are much more efficient converters, as individuals, of 
forage into meat, milk, and leather, and they can be used for traction 
and as weight carriers; but their heavy water requirements govern the 
possible nomadic routes. The camel, on the other hand, gives the 
nomad the greatest penetration or retreat into arid regions. Lastly, 
the horse was of great benefit as a producer of meat, milk, and tractive 
power. Domestication of these animals meant their presence where 
and when they were wanted, their mental and even physical charac- 
teristics so far modified that they did not move as quickly as wild ones. 
In consequence, the animals were in general on the ground for a 
longer period and in greater numbers than when they were wild. The 
nomad society arising gradually from the more sedentary agricultural 
group would early realize that overgrazing hung like a sword of 
Damocles. The price of the life-way of grazing animals is move- 
ment, the brand of Ishmael. In the ideal, agriculture is concentra- 
tion of effort, or intensification: pastoralism is conscious, well-or- 
ganized diffusion. 

Yet man does not prefer constant or random movement. Even 
the most highly developed nomads do not go far, no more than 150 
or possibly 200 miles of farthest distance in the year, and relatively 
long spells of pitched tents are desired. The women wish it so, caring 
nothing for floristic composition of the grazing. At best the nomad 
was on the chernozem soils of the Ukraine or in delectable valleys: at 
worst in the wastes of the Gobi or the Tarim Depression. Nomadism 
in its highest development did not occur until after 1500 B.C. and it 
came with achievement of that maximum state of mobility, the mas- 
tery of riding horses, as distinct from using this animal for traction. 

Horse riding seems to have arisen on the plateau of northwest 
Persia. If you have ever ridden a pony of stocky Prjewalski type you 
will know the relief of getting off it for a rest: but once you have 
ridden one of the delicately controllable, long-gaited creatures of 
what we now call the Arab type, one’s whole outlook changes on the 
mounted state. Man well mounted is a superior being, and the nomad 
soon geared his way of life to that which gave the male element swift 
and far range; even his eyes are a yard higher above the ground—no 
mean advantage. We cannot know the details of the dominant muta- 
tion which produced the dish-faced, long-necked, sloping-shouldered, 
fine-boned “horse of heaven,” as it came to be called, but nomadic man 
quickly made use of it. Even his status changed, producing the cheva- 
lier, the caballero, and the knight, who were with us till the Land 
Rover came and the girls took over the pony clubs. 

Now came maximum exploitation of the steppe environment, not 
only nomadism which, as I have said, is never over a very long dis- 
tance, but in migration. The Indo-European tribes began their great 


470 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


easterly migrations of thousands of miles through a thousand years, by 
which time they reached the Ordos country of the Yellow River. 
Within this time the civilizations of the Near East had learned the 
survival value of cavalry, and the Chinese finally learned the same 
lesson. They became an equestrian nation in all its elite grades. 
Expeditions were sent into Turkestan to bring back these “horses of 
heaven.” One of the Pazirik felts, so miraculously preserved in the ice 
of an Indo-European grave since some hundreds of years B.C. in 
Siberia, shows a gay cavalier with impeccable military moustache on 
his Arab-type steed, meeting a seated man of Mongol type in Mongol 
dress. 

Even the bronze art of the Indo-European nomad traveled over 
this whole region. These people knew their animals: just asa Navaho 
Indian boy today does not need to look at a horse to draw it in any 
posture, so the Indo-Europeans thought their animals—horses, cattle, 
sheep, goats—in lifelike simple terms; yes, but wild animals were of 
immense importance to them as well, whether ungulate or carnivore, 
and the dramatic moment of the lion’s attack on the stag or antelope 
is often captured in a stylized but dynamic bronze plaque. There 
are the Scythian bronzes of the Kuban, the anima] bronzes of Luris- 
tan, and at the eastern end the bronzes of the Ordos bend, which show 
a remarkable sensitiveness to animal form. The involved twisting 
stylized representation can be found also in the Celtic and Nordic 
scrollwork in metal and stone on the Atlantic seaboard. Tamara 
Talbot Rice has brought out this wide spread of nomad art in her 
book on the Scythians. 

The archeologists have produced much of this material for us and 
set it in perspective, but zoologically they have not done so well. I 
suggest that it is up to zoologists to examine it with care, so that elk are 
not called stags, antelopes deer, or Urial sheep ibexes. The Saiga 
antelope also appears in these bronzes, unrecognized as such, and 
crested cranes seem of some significance. I myself have a complete 
Luristan bit, the cheek pieces of which are representations of elk. 
The use by the elk of the two posterior toes has been faithfully ob- 
served by this bronze-caster of nearly 3,000 years ago. How did this 
get into the Zagros Mountains? Had it come from the Caucasus? 
I also have what must be one of the earliest surviving representations 
of a peacock from Amlach in the Elburz country south of the Caspian. 
Forgive my digression, but I hope this nomad animal art will be 
examined in relation to possible distribution of species in the past and 
to ecological history. 

Once the Mongols became equestrian, the backward, westward surge 
began, culminating in the empire of Genghis Khan which frightened 
Europe and conquered China for a spell until Kublai was himself 


THE UNITY OF ECOLOGY—DARLING A471 


conquered by Chinese culture. So many of the remaining nomads 
of Central Asia are Mongoloid, even as far west as Kazakstan, but 
the Indo-Europeans also survive in pockets as far east as northern 
Afghanistan. By the end of the Mongol Yuan dynasty it is esti- 
mated that the human population of China had been reduced by 40 
millions, which in itself must have had interesting ecological conse- 
quences for a generation or two. 

The original fauna of this great region of the steppe survives in 
the mountain ranges, and the Saiga antelope is back on the plains in 
millions thanks to an enlightened policy of conservation by the Rus- 
sians. But how long can nomadism survive? The brand of Ishmael 
produces this highly specialized form of society which in effect finds 
itself in a cultural cul-de-sac unable to evolve, whereas the less spe- 
cialized and once handicapped societies at the edge of the steppe did 
evolve into the civilizations of today. Political feeling is against 
nomadism and the biological necessity of movement in pastoral 
nomadism if the habitat is to be conserved, is ignored. If there can be 
irrigation of the steppe, the obvious access of foods and fibers thus 
made possible means the nomads must change or go, and going is no 
longer possible in our contracting world. Farming nibbles at the 
alluvial river flats and the bore hole brings up fossil water also and 
cripples the wholeness of the habitat for the nomad. The Russians 
seem definitely to be eliminating nomadism, and such western nations 
as have any seem to be doing the same thing. Individual Britons 
have admired nomads and their way of life, but collectively or 
politically Britain is depressing nomadism: the Masai of the semiarid 
East African steppe are being eased out of their culture of arrested 
development in favor of Kikuyu and Sukumba, rapidly increasing 
tribes under the Pax Britannica, which were formerly despised and 
harried by the nomads. The reindeer Lapps are also finding their 
winter grounds falling within the agricultural penumbra and there is 
the social urge toward education, which tends to make the winter com- 
munities static. Nomadism will die, at the expense of sterilizing large 
areas of back country which only nomads could utilize, as far as do- 
mesticated livestock is concerned. Whether in the future we may 
return to controlled cropping of wild animals on wild lands unfitted 
to human settlement remains to be seen, but despite the tentative 
experimentation in Africa and the successful Russian work on the 
Saiga antelope, I have the feeling that man is still going to degrade 
much good wildlife country in an effort to farm it, before it is fully 
realized that the nature of such country in its water relations and soil 
characteristics precludes agriculture. There is some false moral self- 
delusion which makes modern governments try and fail rather than 
consider the wholeness of land-use ecology before formulating a land- 
use plan. 


472 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The mention of the pastoralism of wild lands by wild animals 
brings me back to a form of nomadism in the New World which has 
several points of interesting comparison with the early development 
of specialized nomadism in the Old World through use of the horse. 
We may take it for granted that the late flowering of civilization in 
the Americas was the result of having fewer and less convenient 
domesticable plants, especially cereals, and certainly fewer and less 
convenient domesticable animals. At the more primitive level, the 
North American Indians were forest and forest-edge and river-valley 
people. Their beast of burden was the dog, sometimes dragging a 
travois—a sorry means indeed. They too were near a great central 
steppe of prairie where the wild bison conducted its own seasonal 
movements which took it away from the haunts of men. Hunting of 
this animal meant enticement to newly burned grazing, and stalking 
which even included wearing a bison mask—a most unenviable 
method. Nevertheless, it would seem that from about the 16th century 
man was increasing the range of the bison by burning at the forest 
edge. 

The advent of the horse by way of Mexico and the Rio Grande far 
into the Southwest was a major liberation for the American Indian. 
Horses were stolen or went feral and the terrain was that dry steppe 
phenologically perfect for this animal. Here man did not need to 
wait for the mutation which produced the “horses of heaven,” for it 
was the less carefully bred examples of this type which so rapidly 
colonized the American steppe. The Spaniards lost their advantage 
when the horse went feral and spread northward and came into the 
hands of the Indians, who immediately rode. 

There now occurred that specialization toward nomadism. The 
Indian could leave the forest edge and follow the bison. Thus, from 
the beginning of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th there 
was a strong man-induced extension of the bison’s range and there 
was a rapid specialization by certain tribes to become horse nomads, 
in effect pastoralizing the wild bison instead of domesticated stock. 
Agriculture was minimal, carried on by the women, for the water 
situation was generally easier than in the Old World steppe. 

This situation could have gone on indefinitely as a biological con- 
tinuum, for the wild animal prevented overgrazing by its migratory 
habits, and the enlargement of bison-inhabited country by Indian 
fire seems merely to have been an enlargement of soil conserving 
prairie grassland rather than extension of less biologically productive 
savannah such as we see today in South America and Africa. It was 
the white man overrunning the West with domesticated stock, pack- 
ing it and going away with the proceeds that devastated millions of 
acres at a much faster rate than the Old World nomads reduced the 
productive potential of the Asian steppe with close-herded domesti- 


THE UNITY OF ECOLOGY—DARLING 473 


cated animals. Just as the Ukraine country of the Scythians came 
ultimately to wheat, so did the Middle West prairie become a bread 
basket. The Indians of the Middle West have gone the way of the 
Scythians. 

We will not pause to consider the 19th-century calamity that befell 
the bison and the Indian, but what must be pointed out is that the 
sudden disintegration of this nomadism imposed by the wanderings 
of the bison, hit hardest those tribes which had specialized most 
in this way of life. Even today the observer can see that the horse 
tribes have come off worst in social and economic adaptation. The 
tribes which remained in the forest or at the forest edge are now woods- 
men and construction men; the Pueblo Indians of the Rio Grande 
valley may be anything that the white man is, because of their urban 
tradition ; but the horse tribes who accepted the exhilaration of liberty 
of distance and became what we have come to call Plains Indians, 
have found themselves in the deepest bondage of the drastically 
changed economic base. Now, as pastoralists, they are finding move- 
ment cut down, and yet a dawning ecology of land use is demonstrat- 
ing the old truth, that the pastoralism of wild lands imposes movement 
of the animals. There is the continuing paradox of political ten- 
dencies to restrain the movement of people on wild lands, and scientific 
evidence that animals on wild lands must be kept moving. Only wild 
animals conduct this aspect of their lives without human direction, 
and on this shrinking planet of exploding humanity even the wild 
animals are having their necessary movements constricted. The threat 
to the elephant in Africa is not the killing that goes on but the merci- 
less restriction of range and movement. Without the movement, 
habitat is destroyed and other species of wild animals suffer in train. 
A dramatic example of this trend has been the build-up of elephants 
in the sanctuary of the Tsavo Royal National Park in Kenya. De- 
struction of trees and bush by the elephants endangered the food 
supply of the rhinoceros, so that a period of long drought made this 
painfully apparent in the starvation of over 200 rhinoceroses. They 
were not short of water themselves, for the river never dried, but 
they died with their bellies full of indigestible cellulose fiber. I saw 
some of these creatures die and helped in the post-mortem examina- 
tions. I saw the wreck bush which would not even become a fire- 
climax savannah. I did not put the blame on the elephants. 

I began this address with the statement that ecology was the obser- 
vational study of communities of living things in time as well as space, 
and I repeated Charles Adams’s dictum that it was essentially con- 
cerned with process. I have allowed myself to range about the world 
seeing man, plant communities, the communities of his own domesti- 
cated animals and some wild animals in dynamic process through 


474. ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


some thousands of years of man’s most fertile years of culture, and you 
may agree with me that in any synecological studies it is difficult to 
exclude man or to be a plant or an animal ecologist. There is only one 
ecology. If we are to follow an ecological approach to the study of 
society—be it historical, sociological, agricultural, anthropological, or 
economic—we must keep in mind that man’s habitat and human so- 
cieties are not static. The cross section presented by a socioanthro- 
pological study needs amplification in time. Cultures are altering 
continually, progressing or retrogressing, and these trends, though 
subject inexorably to natural laws, are also the results of human be- 
havior. Such action may have been unseeing of consequences in the 
past, but if ecology is to concern itself with human influences, and 
take its place at the council table of human affairs, it should accept 
the premise that our species has in many parts of the world arrived 
at the stage of mental evolution at which it is possible to foresee the 
consequences of various kinds of direct and indirect modifications of 
habitats and their biological communities. The well-being of the 
habitats and the human communities therein can be influenced and 
sustained by understanding the interrelationship of the biological 
communities in which we coexist. 

I have put forward the thesis that man has been able to enjoy 
gregariousness and civilize as a result of learning how to tap the stored 
wealth of ecological climaxes—soil fertility, timber and other plants, 
and animals. His agriculture of annual or biennial plants sets back 
ecological succession and demands a high skill to maintain fertility; 
the general history of animal exploitation is of over-use. Are we faced 
with the proposition that civilization is a contradiction in terms; that 
civilization carries its own seeds of decay because ecologically retro- 
gressive processes once begun cannot be checked? I believe there is 
some danger of this, but there need not be in an ecologically conscious 
world. The suffering planet has immense power of natural rehabilita- 
tion if given its chance and we are also learning how these wonderful 
integrated processes of healing take place. As I said earlier, ecology 
is the physiology of community. Understanding it we can avoid 
undesirable consequences. Perhaps it is necessary to say that I am 
not crying “back to nature”; our growing understanding of the 
physiology of community gives power of planned manipulation, find- 
ing other ways round to desired ends. The history of the Nature Con- 
servancy in this country is a vivid example of men learning how to 
manage biological communities in a manner simulating the natural. 

Man often reminds me of the Irish elk in that the elk’s antlers could 
develop nonadaptatively in evolution as a byproduct of increase in body 
size, what Julian Huxley calls heterogonic growth. The enormous 
drain on the organism of growing so much nonfunctional calcium 
phosphate every year was too much once the prodigality of the 


THE UNITY OF ECOLOGY—DARLING 475 


Pleistocene had passed. Well, man conjures from his mind ways of 
using resources unproductively, be it pyramid building in Egypt, 
temple building and human sacrifice in Mexico, and now defense and 
nationalism. Nationalism is the modern Irish Elkism. In a world 
where the only hope for man is internationalism, nationalism is the 
political ecological factor which prevents any constructive action to 
curb population increase. And withal, we are faced with the ironic 
paradox of splintering nationalism and pseudo-national costumes, 
with the dismal destruction of individuality inside them, which varia- 
bility is as desirable in the social system as in the eco-system. Further- 
more, I believe that the pressure of population on land is presenting us 
with an emergency earlier than the problem of growing enough food 
for the increase. Mobility by way of the internal combustion engine, 
vastly increased leisure by way of automation, and sophisticated modes 
of outdoor recreation are changing the land-use pattern far quicker 
than we are learning how to cope withit. Fifteen years ago the excuse 
of increased food production was enough to get rid of hedgerow trees 
in England; but at this moment the amenity value of such trees in such 
a populous country, needing the balm of the green leaf, far outweighs 
the small increase of food production which might accrue from their 
removal. The picture in the United States is of food surpluses but 
a very real shortage of recreational land. An Outdoor Recreation 
Bureau has been established as a department of government to help 
in planning the solution of this very considerable problem of land-use 
ecology in its widest sense, and I am glad to say ecologists have been 
brought in at the beginning. 

It would be fantastic, nevertheless, to make the mistake now of so 
expanding the scope of ecology that it would become all-embracing, 
so that the ecologist would bog down in a morass of his own ignorance, 
and become the supreme irritating busybody. That, I think, was 
feared by those who years ago wished to exclude man from their studies 
and would not admit human ecology. Neither doI; there isno human 
ecology—only ecology—but in those sciences dealing with man, from 
political economy to social anthropology and archeology, there is 
plenty of room for the ecological slant of mind. As a corollary, I 
think that ecological research must become more and more the effort of 
teams of workers; the single worker will continue to discover beautiful 
expressions of phenomena, but the synecological studies in depth of 
habitats and communities which we need today demand far more 
than what one man can compass. Ecological studies are not designed 
ad hoc to solve land-use problems but to discover truth, and this high 
scientific approach must be jealously guarded, but thereafter ecologists 
can have a social conscience and apply their discoveries to the problems 
of land-use by man. The teams I envisage are not collections of 


476 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


specialists, if they are to be successful, but, to borrow Tansley’s 
expression, organic entities. 


REFERENCES 


ADAMS, C. C. 
1913. Guide to the study of animal ecology. New York. 
ALLEE, W. C. 
1931. Animal aggregations. Chicago. 
CREEL, H. G. 
1937. Thebirth of China. Chicago. 
DARLING, F. FRASER. 
1955. West Highland survey. Oxford. 
1956. Man’s ecological dominance through domesticated animals on wild 
lands, pp. 778-87 in Man’s role in changing the face of the Earth 
(ed. Thomas). Chicago. 
ELTON, C. 
1927. Animalecology. London. 
FORBES, EH. 
1848. Report on the molluscs and Radiata of the Aegean Sea, and on their 
distribution considered as bearing on geology. Report Brit. Assoc. 
Ady. Sci., vol. 13, pp. 130-93. 
Forp, C. DARYLL. 
1934. Habitat, economy and society. London. 
LATTIMORE, O. 
1951. Inner Asian frontiers of China. New York. 
POWER, EILEEN. 
1941. The wool tradein English medieval history. Oxford. 
SHELFORD, V. E. 
1918. Animal communities in Temperate America. Bull. Geogr. Soe. 
Chicago, vol. 5, pp. 1-368. 
Tatpot Ricer, T. 
1957. TheSeythians. London. 
TANSLEY, A. G. 
1920. The classification of vegetation and the concept of development. 
Journ. Ecology, vol. 8, pp. 118-49. 
1939. The British Islands and their vegetation. Cambridge. 
THOMPSON, J. A., and GEDDES, P. 
1931. Life: outlines of general biology. London. 
TOYNBEER, A. J. 
1934. A study of history. Oxford. 
WARMING, J. E. B. 
1909. Oecology of plants (trans. from Danish of 1895). Oxford. 
WISSMAN, H. von. 
1956. On the role of nature and man in changing the face of the Dry Belt 
of Asia, pp. 278-803 in Man’s role in changing the face of the Earth 
(ed. Thomas). Chicago. 


Venomous Animals and Their Toxins 


By Finpiay E. RussELn 


Director, Laboratory of Neurological Research, School of Medicine 
Loma Linda University, Los Angeles, Calif. 


[With 2 plates] 


VENOMOUS ANIMALS are found in every phylum except the birds. 
While it would be difficult to propose a figure for the number of species 
of venomous animals, because we do not as yet know about the possible 
venomousness of a score of arthropods and fishes, we do have some 
idea of the approximate number of poisonous species in most of the 
phyla. Of the 2,500 or so species of snakes found throughout the 
world, only about 250 are dangerous toman. Table 1 gives the names 
of some of the more important venomous snakes of the world, their 
adult average lengths, the approximate amount of dried venom con- 
tained within the venom glands of adult specimens, and the intra- 
peritoneal and intravenous LD,;, (the dose required to kill 50 percent 
of the test animals of a given group), expressed in milligrams per 
kilogram (mg./kg.) weight of test animal. 

In the marine animals there are many venomous forms; at least 200 
species of marine animals and freshwater fishes are known to be 
venomous or poisonous. Table 2 gives the names of a few venomous 
aquatic animals. The lethal doses for the marine toxins vary con- 
siderably. The geographer cone, Conus geographus, has an LD5o of 
less than 5 micrograms per kilogram; the venom of the round stingray, 
Urolophus halleri, has an LD;) of approximately 25 mg./kg. while the 
LD;» for the toxin of certain catfishes is of the order of 200 mg./kg. 

Among the arthropods at least 700 species are known to be venomous. 
These include the black widow spider (Zatrodectus) , funnel web spider 
(Atrax robustus), the spiders Lycosa raptoria and Phoneutria fera, 
the scorpions, particularly Centruroides sculpturatus, Tityus bahien- 
sis, and 7’. serrulatus, the bees, wasps, hornets, certain centipedes, 
millipedes, caterpillars, moths, ticks, beetles, and ants. Even among 
the mammals there are several venomous forms, the platypus and sev- 
eral of the shrews. 


1Printed by permission from The Times Science Review (London), Autumn 1963. 


477 


478 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


TABLE 1.—Some venomous snakes of the world 


Yield Intra- Intrave- 
Snake Length venom | peritoneal | nous LD: 
adult (cm.) (mg.) LDso 3 (mg./kg.) 
(mg./kg.) 
Europe: 
Viper (Vipera): 
Common viper (V. berus)_------ 54-60 6 0. 80 0. 55 
North America: 
Rattlesnake (Crotalus) : 
Eastern diamond (C. adaman- 
HATE) Wa Se ese a es Paap ee a ys See ' 80-210 | 410 1. 89 1. 68 
Western diamond (C. atrox)____- 74-175 230 3. 71 4, 20 
Moccasin (Agkistrodon): 
Cottonmouth (A. piscivorus) _ __- 65-135 125 A, TL 4. 00 
Copperhead (A. contortrix)_____- 55-115 52 10. 50 10. 92 
Coral (Micrurus): 
Coral snake (M. fulvius)_._____- 50-70 2 5 OF, vee, Bee 
South America: 
Rattlesnake (Crotalus): 
Tropical rattlesnake (C. durissus 
Herrrjieus) ite MM eS. Tip Fe 50-148 35 «SO? |= af PERE 
New World pit vipers (Bothrops) 
Fer-de-lance (B. atror)____------ 125-175 80 3. 80 4, 27 


Bushmaster (Lachesis): 
Common bushmaster (Z. muta)__| 175-270 | 411 5. 93 
Australia: 


Tiger snake (Notechis scutatus)__---- 95-150 25 SOA oe ee eee 
Asia: 
Cobra (Naja): 
Indian cobra (N. naja)_--------- 120-160 | 220 . 40 . 40 
Viper (Vipera): 
Russell’s viper (V. russelli) ____-- 90-125 130) jpteke 2s . 82 
Krait (Bungarus): 
Common krait (B. caeruleus) - --- 88-120 i iy es eer anes . 09 
Africa: 
Viper (Vipera): 
Puff adder (Bitis arietans) ___-_-- 100-145 130 OOS" See. are 
Mamba, (Dendroaspis) : 
Green mamba (D. angustriceps)__| 225-285 SO) esses 2 . 45 


® Dose required to kill 50 percent of the test animals of a given group. 


TABLE 2.—Some venomous aquatic animals of the world 


Coelenterata : 
Fire coral (Millepora alcicornis) 
Portuguese man-o’-war (Physalia physalis) 
Sea nettle (Dactylomecira quinquecirrha) 
Certain sea anemones 
Mollusca : 
Geographer cone (Conus geographus), textile cone (Conus textile) 
Common octopus (Octopus vulgaris) 


VENOMOUS ANIMALS AND THEIR TOXINS—RUSSELL 479 


TABLE 2.—Some venomous aquatic animals of the world—Continued 


Echinodermata: 


Sea urchins, Diadma setosum and Tozopneustes pileolus 
Fishes: 

Stingrays, all species, particularly Urolophus halleri 

Scorpionfishes, all species, particularly the stonefish Synanceja horrida and 
the lionfish Pterois volitans 

Toadfiskes (Barchatus), surgeonfishes (Acanthurus), stargazers (Uranos- 
copus), weeverfishes (Zrachinus), certain catfishes (Plotosus, Galeich- 
thys) 


FOLKLORE AND FACT 


Few areas of biology have stimulated the minds and superstitions of 
man more than venomology. In early times the consequences of the 
bites or stings of venomous animals were often attributed to forces 
beyond nature, sometimes to vengeful deities thought to be embodied 
in the animals. To these peoples the effects of venoms were so sur- 
prising and varied, so violent and sometimes incapacitating, that these 
substances were always shrouded with much myth and superstition. 
Even today considerable folklore concerning venoms still exists, par- 
ticularly about methods of treating the injuries inflicted by venomous 
animals. During the past decade, however, a considerable amount of 
Inowledge on the chemical and zootoxicological properties of venoms 
and plant poisons has been gained and one can now propose a few 
general considerations. 

Venoms are complex mixtures, chiefly proteins, many of which are 
enzymes. Studies to the present time indicate that in those toxins 
rich in enzymes, such as snake venoms, much of the lethal and more 
deleterious biological properties appears to be more closely related to 
the nonenzymatic protein portions of the venom than to the enzymes 
and enzymatic combinations, although these latter substances certainly 
contribute to the overall toxicity of the venom. The effects of the 
separate and combined activities of these substances, and of the metab- 
olites formed by their interactions, is complicated by the response 
of the envenomated organism, which may itself produce and/or release 
substances such as adenosine, bradykinin and histamine, which may 
not only complicate the poisoning but also may in themselves pro- 
duce more serious consequences than the venom. The toxin of the 
bee, for example, is relatively nonlethal. It takes more than 150 
simultaneous bee stings to kill the adult human; however, persons 
sensitive to bee venom may die from a single sting, the result of auto- 
pharmacologic changes. 

The venoms of snakes are the most complex of all the mixtures of 
the animal toxins. They contain many enzymes, some of which, such 
as the proteases, phosphomonoesterase, phosphodiesterase, L-amino 
acid oxidase, 5-nucleotidase, cholinesterase, ribonuclease, desoxyribo- 


480 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


nuclease, ATPase, DNPase, and hyaluronidase are being used by the 
biochemist, pharmacologist, and physician. However, these enzymes 
are not present in all snake venom. In general, Elapidae venoms are 
rich in cholinesterase and phosphotidase and poor in ATPase. Cro- 
talidae venoms contain large amounts of hyaluronidase, phosphodies- 
terase, ribonuclease, and desoxyribonuclease, but little or no cholines- 
terase. There are species from both families that do not contain 
L-amino acid oxidase, even though this enzyme has been identified in 
the venoms of more than 55 species of venomous snakes. While there 
tends to be a relationship between enzymatic content and the genus of 
snake, it is not always possible to predict the enzymes present in the 
venom from data on closely related genera or even species. Not only 
do different species of the same genus contain different enzymes—or, 
as in some cases, different amounts of the same enzyme—but even 
snakes of the same species at different times of the year or under 
different environmental conditions may exhibit considerable variation 
in the enzymatic composition of their venoms. Such variations have 
little relation to the lethality of the whole venom. 

A number of nonenzymatic proteins have been separated from snake 
venoms, and these appear to be considerably more lethal and in many 
ways more deleterious than the enzymes. These proteins also differ in 
number and molecular weight in the venoms of the three families of 
snakes so far examined. The first of these proteins was isolated from 
the venom of the tropical rattlesnake, Crotalus terrificus terrificus by 
K. Slotta and H. Fraenkel-Conrat in 1938. The fraction was called 
“crotoxin” and contained, in addition to the toxic nonenzymatic pro- 
tein, several enzymes. It was given the tentative formula C,.30Hiz76- 
OuzeNgesSz63 1t had a molecular weight of 30,000 and was said to be ap- 
proximately 15 times more lethal than the crude venom. Some years 
later, J. M. Goncalves obtained three fractions from the same venom, 
all having specific biological activity: (1) “crotamine,” with a molecu- 
lar weight of 10,000 to 15,000; (2) “proteolytic enzyme”; and (3) “neu- 
rotoxin,” which corresponded to crotoxin in its biological properties. 
Since the work of these investigators a number of chemical studies have 
been carried out on the nonenzymatic portion of snake venoms, and 
studies to date indicate that there may be no less than 6 and perhaps 
as many as 15 nonenzymatic proteins in most reptile toxins. Some of 
these fractions, such as “crotactin” and “crotamine,” have been identi- 
fied with specific biological activities; others appear to have several 
biological activities, while for still others we have not yet found the use 
to which their properties have been designed. 

The composition of the venoms of marine animals varies consider- 
ably. Some coelenterate venoms contain: (1) several quaternary 
ammonium compounds, the most toxic of which is tetramethyl am- 
monium hydroxide or “tetramine”; (2) 5-hydroxytryptamine; (3) 


VENOMOUS ANIMALS AND THEIR TOXINS—RUSSELL 481 


histamine and histamine releasers; and (4) several proteins whose 
composition has not yet been determined, although there is a likelihood 
of one or several of these toxic proteins being peptides. 

Studies on the chemistry of fish venoms have been limited by several 
factors. In many fishes there is no true venom gland; rather the venom 
is produced in certain highly specialized secretory cells which le in 
dermal tissues that are not otherwise toxic. These cells are shown in 
figure1. Unlike the snake venoms, which retain their zootoxicological 
properties even after 20 or 30 years, the fish venoms are extremely 
unstable, most of them losing their biological activity on standing for 
an hour at room temperature. In general, fish venoms are composed 
of 8 to 10 proteins and have little or no enzymatic activity. They are 
very unstable when heated and most of the toxic fraction is nondia- 
lyzable. On electrophoresis one to five fractions can be identified, 
only one or two of which appear to have biological activities that are 
deleterious.? 

The venoms of some species of ants contain formic acid—which is 
very simple chemically—while others contain a toxin so complex by 
contrast, as “dendrolasin” C,;H,.O, 8 (4:8-dimethylnona-3, 7-dieny1) 
furan. Bee and wasp venoms are very complex mixtures containing a 
protein hydrochloride called “mellitin” and a number of other sub- 
stances including at least seven enzymes as well as 5-hydroxytrypta- 
mine, kinin, and histamine. The venom of Latrodectus contains at 
least 12 aminoacids. As most spider venoms, it is rich in glutamic acid 
and A-aminobutyric acid. Six protein fractions have been separated 
by paper and column electrophoresis, and most of the toxic activity is 
found in one of them. The venom has spreading activity but no 
haemolytic activity and does not appear to inactivate cholinesterase. 
The LD;, for Latrodectus mactans venom is 0.550 mg./kg. test animal 
body weight. 

The effects of venoms on the various organ systems of mammals 
and certain arthropods are quite well known. In spite of this, however, 
and at the present stage of our knowledge, it seems wise to avoid the 
arbitrary division of venoms into such groups as “neurotoxins, haemo- 
toxins, cardiotoxins,” ete., for while these classifications do serve some 
useful purpose, they have led to much misunderstanding and certainly 
to a number of errors in clinical judgment. It has become increasingly 
apparent from chemical and physiopharmacological studies that these 
divisions are oversimplified and misleading. Neurotoxins can, and 
often do, have cardiotoxic or haemotoxic activity, or both; cardiotoxins 
may have neurotoxic or haemotoxic activity, or both, and haemotoxins 


2D. B. Carlisle has demonstrated that some 60 percent of the dry weight of the venom 
of the weeverfish appears to consist of toxic mucosubstances, which can be separated 
into two albumins and an amino polysaccharide, although in the crude venom they are 
probably associated in a single complex mucosubstance. He has suggested that the 5- 
hydroxytryptamine contributes to the pain-producing property of the venom. 


482 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


may have the other activities. Until the fractions responsible for the 
deleterious effects of venoms has been isolated and studied individually, 
and in combination, one must consider all venoms as substances capable 
of producing several changes, sometimes concomitantly, in one or more 
of the organ systems. 


THE ANIMAL’S SIDE 


Most data on the zootoxicological properties of venoms are based 
on our studies on mammals, which, of course, makes them of limited 
usefulness for understanding the design of some of the toxins in the 
animals’ armament. The venom of Latrodectus, for instance, did not 
evolve and adapt to the problems existing between that spider and the 
mammals. Thus, it is not surprising to find that its venom is 20 times 
less lethal to some insects than it is to the mouse, while on the other 
hand it is also 10 times more lethal to certain other insects, which have 
not adapted in the same manner. Some sharks appear to be relatively 
immune to stingray venom while others from completely different 
habitats are very sensitive to this toxin. The California mountain king 
snake is highly immune to the venom of the Southern Pacific rattle- 
snake. A dose which would make a man dangerously ill, or may even 
kill him, has no observable effect on the king snake. The remarkable 
thing is that this venom, which produces such necrotic lesions in mam- 
mals, fails to produce even the slightest necrotic wound in the king 
snake. Thus, care must be exercised in applying data derived from 
studies in one group of animals to conclusions about the biological 
effects of a venom in another group of animals, or to data on the design, 
use, and adaptation of the venom (pl. 1, fig. 1). 

Perhaps some considerations for classification might be proposed on 
the basis of the use to which the animal puts its toxin. Most venom 
delivered from the head, or more generally from the oral pole, of the 
animal is used during an offensive act, as in the gaining of food. This 
is particularly evident in the snakes and only slightly less so in the 
spiders. The venoms of these animals tend to have a higher enzymatic 
content than those delivered from the anal end, i.e., from the aboral 
pole of the abdomen, as those of the scorpions and bees. However, 
both of these groups use their toxins as part of their offensive arma- 
ment; whereas the toxins of most venomous fishes and the poisons of 
certain amphibians, which are derived from dermal tissues, are used 
in the defensive armament. These latter toxins contain few or no 
enzymatic constituents. The snake uses its venom to immobilize 
or kill its prey, and to aid in its digestion. The prey is incapacitated 
by the toxin so that it becomes unnecessary for the snake to hold it 
after envenomation, thereby avoiding the possibility of being bitten. 
In most instances the venom kills the animal so quickly that it rarely 
has time to stumble more than a few feet from where it has been struck. 


VENOMOUS ANIMALS AND THEIR TOXINS—RUSSELL 483 


Ficure 1.—The sting of the stingray showing (a) the spine; (b) a cross section through the 
middle of (a) at AB; (c) an enlargement of a ventrolateral groove, drawn from the 
area marked CD in (b). The large venom-producing cells are below the surface of the 
sheath. 


We have some evidence on which to speculate that it would be to the 
snake’s advantage not to kill its prey immediately on envenomation. 
It would seem that if the enzymatic components of the venom were 
to serve their best use they should be circulated, so far as possible, 
throughout the prey’s body immediately prior to its death. The fact 
is that mice sacrificed and injected with the venom show less evidence 
of tissue autolysis than those killed by the venom within a minute of 
the poisoning. While snake venoms serve an important digestive 
function they do not appear to be absolutely necessary for this function. 

With these several considerations in mind some insight into the 
physiopharmacological or zootoxicological properties of venoms is 


484 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


obtained. Cvotalus venom, for instance, causes deleterious changes 
in the tissues at the area of envenomation, changes in the red blood 
cells, defects in coagulation, injury to the linings of vessels and to a 
lesser extent damage to the heart muscle, kidneys, and lungs. While 
most of the North American Crota/us venoms produce relatively minor 
changes in transmission at the neuromuscular junction, the venoms 
of the South American species produce marked changes in nerve con- 
duction and neuromuscular transmission. When Crotalus venom is 
injected intravenously there is an immediate precipitous fall in sys- 
tematic arterial pressure with concomitant changes in venous and 
cisternal pressures, heart rate, and respiration. These changes are 
thought to be due principally to changes in the resistances of the pul- 
monary circulatory parameters, and to some extent changes in the 
cardiac cycle. 
EVIDENCE OF USE 


The black widow spider (fig. 2 and pl. 1, fig. 2) uses its venom to 
paralyze or subdue its foe and to a lesser extent to assist in digestive 
functions. The amount of the several enzymes in this venom is not 
sufficient to have any serious effect on man or most other mammals but 
they certainly play a part in the breakdown of the tissues of the 
spider’s prey. In mammals, the venom induces a mild arterial hyper- 


Ficure 2.—Black widow spider and egg sac in web. 


VENOMOUS ANIMALS AND THEIR TOXINS—RUSSELL 485 


tension; it produces bronchial spasms and changes at the neuromuscu- 
lar junction. Plate 2, fig. 1,shows the tarantula. 

The venoms of some scorpions paralyze; they are among the most 
effective of the neuromuscular blocking toxins. The venoms of some 
of the parastic wasps are also potent nerve-muscie blocking agents. 
‘They are capable of paralyzing the junction in the body muscle masses 
of their host while having no eifect on visceral musculature; the heart 
of the paralyzed host may beat for many weeks. The toxicity of 
some of these venoms is comparable with that of the bacterial toxins. 
Beard has estimated that 1 part of bracon hebetor venom in 200 million 
parts of the host’s blood is sufficient to produce paralysis in a late instar 
larva. 

All of the fish venoms studied to date are known to be used by 
venomous fishes in their defense, particularly against those animals 
which feed upon them. On the basis of our findings in man it is 
assumed that fish venoms are capable of producing a similar degree 
of excruciating pain in other animals. i have injected small doses 
of a number of diferent venoms into myself and have found none quite 
as painful as those of the stingray and scorpion fishes. A pain- 
producing substance in the venom of the stingray, and other such 
venomous fishes (pl. 2, fig. 2), would appear to be a great asset to 
those fishes in their defensive armament. 

There seems little doubt that the “convulsions” seen following 
stringray injuries, as reported by some of the early writers, were prob- 
ably no more than reactions of hyperactivity provoked by the painful 
efiects of the venom, rather than responses due to the direct effects 
of the venom on the central nervous system. This venom does not 
appear to elicit specific changes in the central nervous system except 
as secondary effects of cardiovascular changes. Stingray venom, and 
the toxins of many poisonous fishes, have a direct effect on the pace- 
maker of the heart, as well as on several other parameters of the car- 
diovascular system. Both smali and large doses of this venom 
produce a hypotensive crisis in mammals. Small amounts of the 
venom appear to cause peripheral vasodilation while large amounts 
cause vasoconstriction. The venoms of the stingrays and weeverfishes 
(pl. 2, fig. 2) do not appear to have any effect on neuromuscular 
transmission. 

Snake-venom poisoning constitutes a serious medical problem in 
some areas of the world. In Asia, excluding China, a few years ago 
approximately 30,000 deaths from snakebites were reported annually. 
Most of these deaths were due to bites by the cobras Vaja naja and 
Ophiophagus hannah, the kraits Bungarus candidus and B. fasciatus, 
and the vipers Vipera russelli and /'chis carinatus. In Africa as many 
as 1,000 deaths a year may be attributed to snakebite. Most of these 
deaths are due to bites by the adders Bitis arietans and Causus rhom- 


766-746—653——38 


486 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


beatus, the cobras Naja flava, N. haje, Sepedon haemachates, N. nigri- 
collis, and N. melanoleuca, and the mambas Dendroaspis angusticeps, 
D. jamesoni, and D. viridis. In South America approximately 3,000 
deaths from snakebite are reported annually, most of which are caused 
by the tropical rattlesnake Crotalus durissus terrificus, the fer-de-lance 
Bothrops atrox and related species, and the bushmaster Lachesis muta. 
In Australia the tiger snake Votechis scutatus, the death adder Acan- 
thophis antarcticus, the taipan Oxyuranus scutellatus, and the brown 
snakes Dermansia have all been implicated in deaths to humans. 
While most of the Pacific islands between 180° E.-170° E., New Zea- 
land, the Hawaiian Islands, and some others are free of venomous 
snakes, New Guinea, the Solomon Islands, the Philippines, and Japan 
contain several venomous forms. The more dangerous snakes in 
Papua and New Guinea are the death adder and brown snakes, while 
the mamushi, A ghistrodon blomhofi, is the commonest venomous snake 
in Japan. In Malaya the pit viper Agkistrodon rhodostoma is re- 
sponsible for a large number of bites and some deaths. In the United 
States there are approximately 6,000 cases of snake venom poisoning 
reported each year, with an average of 14 deaths a year. The most 
dangerous snakes in that country are the coral snake Micrurus fulvius 
and the rattlesnakes Crotalus adamanteus, C. atrox, C. viridis helleri, 
and C. scutulatus. : 

Fortunately, since the advent of antivenins and their extensive dis- 
tribution, the case fatality rates for snake-venom poisoning in the vari- 
ous endemic areas of the world have been declining very significantly. 
In the United States the fatality rate has fallen from 11 percent to less 
than 1 percent since the introduction and widespread use of antivenin. 
Today hyperantivenins are being produced by exposing the immunized 
animal to certain of the very active fractions of venoms in a mixture 
with the whole venom. It is quite probable that within the not too 
distant future it will be possible to recommend the use of a single 
antivenin for the treatment of envenomation by Viperidae, Crotalidae, 
and Elapidae. 

Poisonings by arthropods are common in many areas of the world, 
although statistics on the incidence of the bites or stings of these ani- 
mals are lacking. In Mexico during 1957 there were 1,495 deaths due 
to the stings of scorpions, while in the United States at least 26 deaths 
a year are attributed to the bites or stings of arthropods; almost twice 
the number attributed to the bites of the venomous snakes. Stingings 
by venomous marine animals are also common in many parts of the 
world. In the United States, where studies have been made on the 
incidence of stingings by these animals, it has been found that approx- 
imately 750 people a year are stung by stingrays, 300 persons a year 
are stung by the scorpion fishes, 300 a year by venomous catfishes, and 
an undetermined number by coelenterates, sponges, and certain 


PLATE 1 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Russell 


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uo4qIq u9s9q pey YT YOTyM Aq 9uUO SNOWOUIA ATT B SULINOASp oxeUS SnNOWOUSAUOU V HE 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Russell PLATE 2 


% 


1. As a danger to man the tarantula has been overrated, though some South American 
species are lethal. 


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2. The greater weever. Protective spines are reinforced in venomous fish by association 
with cells that produce pain-producing toxins (c.f., fig. 1). ‘The sting of the lesser weever 
is familiar to East Coast fishermen. 


VENOMOUS ANIMALS AND THEIR TOXINS—RUSSELL 487 


echinoderms. Only one death has been reported in that country dur- 
ing the past 50 years following a stingray injury. 

The past decade has been a period of “tooling up” for the venomolo- 
gist. Through the advent of chromatography, electrophoresis, and 
certain physiological monitoring devices, our knowledge on venoms has 
increased a hundredfold. During the next 10 years we should not only 
learn to separate and identify the various fractions of venoms, and 
to correlate them with specific biological activities, but we should dis- 
cover how these complex proteins can be used to further man’s studies 
of the cellular membrane and his fight against pain and disease. 


766-746—65—_-39 


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How Insects Work in Groups’ 


By Joun Supp 


Lecturer in Entomology at the University of Hull, England 


[With 2 plates] 


WHEN PEOPLE SEE ANTS or bees collecting food, or the giant mounds 
built by termites in the tropics, they usually sense some fellow-feeling, 
some idea that insect and human societies are at bottom similarly 
constituted. The reason why these insects are held up to us in Scrip- 
ture and in fable as models is that they can be seen going about tasks 
as men do, collecting and carrying food, building and fighting. Per- 
haps more important, they appear to combine in groups to catch, carry, 
or build things beyond the power of a single individual. 

A termites’ nest may be 2 meters high and a meter across at ground- 
level. Each of the grains of soil of which the nest is built has been 
carried separately and placed by a termite perhaps half a centimeter 
long. Clearly many termite-lifetimes of work were involved—just 
as many as the man-years of work in building a pyramid or in a space 
program. But termite mounds are not shapeless heaps; like pyramids 
they have a characteristic shape as well as a complex set of internal 
passages and chambers. The behavior of each of the huge number of 
termites has been directed to achieve this shape; each addition to the 
nest has somehow been brought into a correct relation with preceding 
ones. (See pl. 2, fig. 2.) 

We can call the behavior of termites in building such a nest coopera- 
tive, using the word in its everyday sense, because we can see in it the 
three points we look for before we say that people are cooperating. 
These are, first that there should be a number of people working, sec- 
ond that they should gain some advantage by making something larger 
or more quickly than they could working alone, and last, and perhaps 
most important, that each man should adjust his work to suit that of 
his workmates. 


1 Reprinted by permission from Discovery, June 1963. 


489 


490 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 
APPROACHING COOPERATION 


In the termites’ nest it is obvious that adjustment must have oc- 
curred; in other cases it may not be so obvious. Where mutual adjust- 
ment of behavior cannot be seen we must be careful to avoid the 
conclusion that any advantage gained from being in a group is the 
result of cooperation. The larvae of the white pine weevil feed 
under the bark of twigs, eating their way down towards the base of 
the shoot. The number of grubs in a shoot is always just enough to 
eat away the plant tissues all round the twig. If there are too many 
larvae, some are crowded out and cannot feed, while if there are too 
few, resin flows sideways from uneaten tissues into the damaged area 
and kills the larvae. Clearly the larvae gain an advantage from 
group feeding, but as there is no adjustment of their behavior to suit 
that of their fellows (no alteration of the rate of feeding or of the 
width of cut, for instance) the advantage is not the result of coopera- 
tion. 

A closer approach to cooperation is to be found in young larvae of 
the jack pine sawfly. These caterpillars feed in groups on the foliage 
of Pinus banksiana (pl. 1); caterpillars feeding singly are very rare. 
The aggregation is not imposed on the caterpillars by the way the 
female laid her eggs. Groups form on needles where no eggs were 
laid, and will reform if the caterpillars are artificially spread out over 
the foliage. However, regrouping does not occur if the caterpillars 
are spread out on a sheet of paper. This behavior is related to a defi- 
nite situation—feeding—and it is this which provides the key stimuli. 

A. W. Ghent has shown that groups form around feeding cater- 
pillars which have succeeded in penetrating the hard cuticle of the 
leaf. The situation provides the necessary stimuli for grouping—the 
smell of damaged foliage and of a resinous secretion produced by 
feeding larvae. Since the small first-stage larvae have difficulty in 
biting through the cuticle, breaks in it are important for their survival. 
Young caterpillars make full use of any presumably lucky break in 
the cuticle by extending the cut edge. Therefore caterpillars feeding 
in a group are better able to feed and correspondingly more survive to 
their first molt. 

As these groups are formed by adjustment of the behavior of some 
larvae to use the success of others, the caterpillars can be said to 
cooperate in exploiting these situations. They respond to the evidence 
of success—the smell of damaged leaves. The cut in the leaf is the 
only link between members of the group, for sometimes larvae ap- 
proach the opposite side of the cut to the larva that started it, and they 
move away from each other as they feed. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Sudd PLATE 1 


Larvae of the jack pine 
sawfly gather where the 
tough pine needles have 
been pierced. ‘They are 
attracted by the smell of 
the damaged foliage. 


PLATE 2 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Sudd 


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JUOWIOZURIIe YT, “ISU dy} 0} Ie[[Idiojevo v SUISSvIP S]JUB POOA\ ‘T 


ate 


HOW INSECTS WORK IN GROUPS—SUDD 49] 
SUCCESS—A KEY STIMULUS 


Among the truly social insects the ants are perhaps the most varied 
in their behavior. One of the wonders of the ant world is the nest of 
the tailor ants. These ants live in the Tropics, in a continuous range 
from North Queensland to West Africa, and always build their nests 
in trees. Unlike the many other tree-dwelling ants, their nests are 
made by drawing living leaves together to form envelopes which they 
secure with silk threads produced by their own mature larvae. In 
West Africa the French zoologist A. Ledoux has shown that leaves 
are bent to form nests in two ways: Either two nearby leaves are 
drawn together and their edges held in a tissue of silk, or a single 
leaf can be rolled up to form a tube. 

The rolling-up of leaves to form the second type of nest is most 
interesting. The leaf is not rolled up in a logical way by a group 
of ants collecting at its apex and pulling it back under the leaf-blade. 
On the contrary, ants begin pulling at any point around the leaf mar- 
gin, and they pull singly, not in groups. These first efforts are mostly 
abandoned, and some ants leave the leaf altogether, others merely move 
to another point on it—particularly to places where the leaf is already 
bent, either naturally or experimentally. Soon some ants succeed in 
bending the leaf edge. Because of the arrangement of veins in the 
leaf this is more likely to happen at the tip of the leaf than at its sides. 

Throughout the process ants let go of the leaf and move about on 
its surface before they settle again, and these ants are attracted to 
places where bending is well advanced, so that they add themselves 
to the most successful groups. In this way the efforts of the ants are 
gradually concentrated at promising sites, usually the tip of the leaf, 
which are drawn down under the leaf blade. As the successful party 
moves down the leaf, ants pulling at the sides are drawn in too. 
Finally, when the leaf is doubled back, ants appear carrying larvae 
and close up the gaps with silk. How they are called in at this point 
is not known. 

There are a good many similarities here to the case of the jack 
pine sawfly. Although ants are in general attracted to one another, 
those which are beginning to pull leaves do not aggregate in this way. 
The groups of ants which bend leaves form only as the work of bend- 
ing progresses, just as the feeding groups of the sawfly did not form 
unless some larvae were feeding. Ant groups, like the sawfly groups, 
formed where there was evidence of success at the job in hand. 


PULLING THEIR WEIGHT 


The existence of cooperation has been most debated in the trans- 
port of prey by ants. Many ants are carnivorous and take insect 
prey back to their nest to feed their growing brood. In some species, 

766-746—65—40 


492 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


though not all, a large insect is dragged home by a group of ants, 
some of which seem to be pulling together while others seem to be 
pushing. Some naturalists, struck by the ants’ success in moving 
large prey, have concluded that this group transport shows a high 
degree of cooperation. Others, who noticed that some ants pull 
against one another and others simply ride on the prey while their 
comrades pull, thought that cooperation was absent. 

In the wood ants, which occur in many parts of Britain, I have 
found evidence which seems to support both sides of the question. 
A few minutes after offering a large insect to these ants, a group of 
5 to 10 ants forms round it. Many of these do not pull the prey at all 
and those that do, pull in different directions (fig. 1). There is a 
deadlock, and what movement there is, is often reversed and cancelled 
out in the next minute. At first, it seems that the ants are incapable 
of cooperation and that the more of them there are, the worse the con- 
fusion gets. But after 10 or 15 minutes, movement toward the nest 
starts and short of accidents goes on at a good rate. The group of 
ants is now usually small (pl. 2, fig. 1)—two pulling and one pushing 
is a common combination—and the ants’ bodies are more closely alined 
with one another than in deadlock groups. ‘Transporting groups seem 
to arise from deadlock groups when some ants leave the prey and others 
rearrange themselves so that their efforts are not opposed. The push- 
ing ants are probably acquiescing rather than helping. At this stage 
the ants seem to be showing a fair degree of cooperation. 

I have shown that changes which result in formation of a transport- 
ing group from a deadlock stem from behavior which can be seen 
equally well when a single ant is moving prey. The changes are 
basically part of the ant’s method of coping with the difficulties it 
meets in moving prey. Perhaps the most obvious of these is a change 
in the mode of transport from carrying used for light prey, when 
the ant walks head foremost to the nest, to dragging, when it walks 
backward trailing a heavier insect behind it. This change seems to 
occur when the prey is about three times the weight of the ant. 

The decision to carry or to drag is not, however, made once and 
for all at the start of transport. The ant changes from one to the other 
according to the gradient and smoothness of the surface, which affect 
the resistance the ant feels in pulling. This probably explains the 
existence of pushers and pullers in groups. Although the prey may be 
10 times the weight of an ant, an ant pushing feels only a fraction of 
this and behaves as though it was carrying light prey. Actually the 
motive power is almost all supplied by the pulling ants, just as gravity 
supplies the power when a single ant carries prey down a deep slope. 

Other remedies for difficulty in moving prey are not so well defined. 
When the prey an ant is dragging gets snagged on an obstacle, the ant 
swings itself through an angle of between 20° and 80° to pull at 


HOW INSECTS WORK IN GROUPS—SUDD 493 


a different angle, and it goes on trying new angles until it finds a line 
along which the prey will move. If this doesn’t work it may release 
the prey and seize it again at a new position. These changes of position 
are not based on any knowledge of the type of snag; it is simply a ques- 
tion of “trial and error.” If after a short time the prey does not come 
loose, the ant may abandon it. But if the difficulty in transport is not 
caused by, say, a grass stem, but by another ant pulling in the opposite 
direction, swings and changes of position may again result in finding 
angles at which the ants are not opposed to one another. This seems 
to be the way in which transporting groups are formed from deadlocks, 
although there is possibly also a tendency for pulling ants to aline 
themselves with the direction of movement once it has begun. 


DISORDER, SEARCH, AND ORDER 


These three examples have an underlying pattern in common, a pat- 
tern of three phases—disorder, search and order (see fig. 1). The 
gradual appearance of order in these tasks suggests that cooperation 
is not due to the imposition of a master plan but arises through the trial 
of many possibilities, those which are unsuccessful being abandoned. 
The trials are judged by effects, and the medium of communication 
between individuals which enables them to tell whether or not they are 
cooperating, is not incidental signals—scent, sounds, gestures—but the 
progress of the work itself. It is deeds that tell, not words. 

Termites almost certainly build their strange-shaped nests by the 
same system. Professor P-P. Grassé has kept termites in the labora- 
tory, and given them soil for building. At first they laid their pellets 
of soil at random, but later they were attracted to places where pellets 
had already been laid, so that pillars and walls were formed. When 
these were 4-5 mm. high, the termites began to build in horizontal 
sheets, joining one pillar to another. The progress of the work not 
only was the link between the work of individual termites, but also 
provided the cue for a change from vertical to horizontal building. 
Grassé calls this stimulatory effect of work “stigmergy” (from 
stigma— prick, stimulus,’ and ergon—‘work’). 


SUCCESS BY RANDOM CHANGE 


Many of the movements in an animal’s behavior are closely adapted 
to some rather restricted function, for instance, the pairing of the sexes. 
Here, since all males and all females of the same species are similar, the 
problems involved in bringing the pairs from the random positions 
in which they first encounter one another to the stereotyped position 
in which mating is possible, are predictable, and can be solved by a 
fixed program, a kind of countdown of standard movements and re- 
sponses. This is provided by the courtship of many animals. 


494 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Disorder 


Jack pine sawfly 
young larvae find it difficult to 
penetrate the pine leaf cuticle 
Tailor.ants 
ants begin to pull at places wide 
apart but leave places hard to bend 
Wood ants 


at first many ants gather round the 
prey, pulling in all directions 


Ficure 1.—In many group activities a definite pattern of development is seen, as shown 
successful, when order is 


HOW INSECTS WORK IN GROUPS—SUDD 495 


Search Order 


the smell of damaged tissues causes 


they move over the shoots until one 
larvae to collect to exploit the gap 


is successful and starts to feed 


they wander over the leaf but stay this collective effort at places of 
where bending is advanced (at apex) success gives a typical rolled nest 


unsuccessful, some move away while these changes turn the prey to a 
others change their angle of puil position suitable for transport 
on this and the facing page. Starting in disorder, insects search at random until they are 
established in the group. 


496 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


In other situations, however, the animal is so much at the mercy 
of circumstances that it cannot develop a specific routine solution. 
This is nowhere more true than in a group activity, where the animal 
faces not only the variation in conditions but also the unpredictable 
and shifting behavior of its workmates. The tailor ant building 
a leaf nest or the wood ant dragging its prey solve these problems 
by changes in behavior which are not specifically related to the nature 
of the difficulty. 

The success of this method is proved by the ability of tailor ants 
to build a nest with all types of leaves from the stiff broad leaf of an 
orange to the narrow flexible leaflet of a palm, and the ability of wood 
ants to move all shapes and sizes of prey over all types of surfaces. 
The undirected searching nature of their response to these conditions 
gives an appearance of chaos to group activities. But it is the same 
response which eventually finds a way through the difficulties. 


Our Native Termites 


By Tuomas E. SNYDER 


Honorary Research Associate, Smithsonian Institution 


SINCE TERMITES are social insects and have a caste system and di- 
vision of labor, there has been considerable interest in their habits. 
They also cause large amounts of damage and consequent money 
losses. This article discusses the termites of the United States, the 
damage they cause, and recent researches in termite control. 


HABITS 


Termites are most abundant and conspicuous in tropical countries 
where their high mound and tree nests attract the attention of the 
traveler. However, some termites occur in countries with temperate 
climates. In the continental United States, 41 living species (4 
families) and 16 fossil (5 families) termites have been found. The 
living species have been found in 49 States. It is believed that 
all of these termites are native, with the possible exception of Crypto- 
termes brevis (Walker) which may have been introduced into Key 
West, Fla., from some nearby tropical island. 

The nests of our native termites are inconspicuously located in 
stumps, logs, dead trees, fenceposts, utility poles, the woodwork of 
buildings, or in the ground. Subterranean termites may move from 
ground to wood and vice versa. The population of Zootermopsis 
colonies may be several thousand. The drywood termite colony (/n- 
cisitermes), reaching 5,000 individuals, is large. One quarter million 
individuals of a subterranean Reticulitermes colony constitute prob- 
ably the maximum population, in contrast to several millions in some 
nests of tropical termites. 

CASTE SYSTEM 


The different forms or castes of these social insects include: The 
reproductives or primary macropterous pigmented king and queen, 
developed from winged adults; the brachypterous or short wing pad 
slightly pigmented supplementary reproductives, developed from 
nymphs, and the very slightly pigmented apterous reproductives, also 
developed from nymphs; the soldiers or defense caste, which cannot 
feed themselves; and finally, the worker caste which do most of the 


497 


498 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


damage to wood, and care for the other castes (fig. 1). Where work- 
ers are not present, nymphs or pseudoworkers take over their duties. 

The inhibition theory of caste differentiation first developed by 
Drs. A. L. Pickens and G. B. Castle of the University of California 
in the early 1930’s has recently been substantiated by the Swiss en- 
tomologist Dr. Martin Liischer (1952) in his studies of hormones. 
Their theory is that males, females, soldiers, and workers secrete ecto- 
hormones which inhibit the nymphal development of individuals of 
the same sex or caste as that of the form secreting the hormone. In 
small colonies where reproductive forms are fully functioning, the 
development of any additional sexual forms is inhibited by the secre- 
tions of the parent reproductive forms of the king and queen. 

This substance is supposed to be distributed throughout the colony 
by the grooming habit of the individuals. Or each caste, if present 
in the colony in sufficient numbers, tends to delay or inhibit the de- 
velopment of the individuals of the same caste by a hormone 
regulation. 

Dr. Liischer found that this inhibitory effect can operate only when 
workers can touch the functional reproductives. He theorized that 
it is the saliva, feces, or exudates of the reproductives that possibly 
contain an ectohormone that is the inhibiting agent. The surplus 
supplementary reproductives are eaten by the workers. If contact 
is cut off, the inhibiting influence that prevents the production of 
supplementary reproductives does not operate. 

At the Fourth International Congress for the Study of Social In- 
sects, held at the 600-year old University of Pavia, in Italy, I presented 
a paper (Snyder, 1963) dealing with the fate of the supplementary 
reproductives in small colonies of eastern species of Reticulitermes 
in the United States. In the spring, large numbers of supplementary 
reproductives are present in colonies before the annual colonizing 
flight or “swarm” of the winged adult. These disappear just before 
or at the time of the flight of the winged. Are they killed by the 
workers as being unnecessary in the parent colony where reproduc- 
tives are already present? Or, impelled by the same stimuli as the 
winged, do they migrate—with or without workers—by subterranean 
galleries to form new colonies ? 

In the discussion which followed the presentation of the above, 
it appeared that there exist substantial differences between the habits 
of species of Reticulitermes in Italy and the habits of those species 
commonly found in eastern United States. In Italy, Reticulitermes 
colonies are headed only by supplementary reproductives, whereas in 
the United States colonies are commonly founded by winged or ma- 
cropterous adults. In France, both reproductive forms found 
colonies. 


OUR NATIVE TERMITES—SNYDER 499 


- 


Ficure 1.—Life cycle of the common subterranean termite Reticulitermes flavipes (Kollar). 
(a) Egg. (b) Newly hatched nymph. (c) Immature nymph in quiescent or resting 
stage. (d) Soldier. (e) Worker. (f) Sexual winged adult. (g) Brachypterous 
(young) reproductive form. (h) Apterous (young) reproductive form. (i) Primary or 
macropterous queen. (j) Brachypterous supplementary queen. (k) Apterous supple- 
mentary queen. All enlarged. (Courtesy U.S. Department of Agriculture.) 


500 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


There are probably differences as well in the frequency with which 
colonies are headed by macropterous reproductives or by supplemen- 
tary forms of Pacific coast and eastern species. Apparently fewer 
colonies on the Pacific coast are founded by primary reproductives 
than in the Eastern States. 


COMMUNICATION 


Dr. A. M. Stuart, an entomologist from New Zealand, now at the 
University of Chicago, in 1961 published on laboratory experiments 
with trail-laying by Zootermopsis nevadensis. A substance secreted 
by a gland in the ventral part of the fifth segment of the abdomen 
produced a clear-cut trail following. The nymphs are often seen 
dragging their abdomens along the ground when moving, thus bring- 
ing the fifth segment in contact with the substrate or surface. The 
substance from the gland can quite easily escape from the reservoir 
onto the surface on which the insect is crawling. Nymphs accurately 
followed the path. It leads termites to follow a straight line to food. 

In a later paper (19632), Stuart found the trails which the termites 
follow to be odor trails. In southwestern United States and northern 
Mexico, species of eticulitermes build shelter tubes straight up to 
a beam on walls of adobe houses. 

Also in 1963 Stuart (1963b) discovered that there is a directional 
vector in the communication of alarm by Zootermopsis. This vector 
was a trail laid by an alarmed termite from the point of disturbance 
to the main area of the nest. Individuals are recruited to the site 
of alarm by following such trails. Alarm is transmitted principally 
by contact. 

SPECIALIZED FORMS 


Dr. K. Krishna (1961) listed systematically the protozoa of the 
family Kalotermitidae.t. These low forms of animal life live in the 
intestines of about 500, or one-fourth, of the 2,100 known species of 
termites in a symbiotic relationship and contain enzymes which digest 


1 Also in 1961, Dr. Krishna, then at the University of Chicago, now at the American 
Museum of Natural History at New York, revised the family Kalotermitidae. Several 
termites of the United States had their names changed. Kalotermes jouteli Banks of 
southern Florida was placed in Neotermes; Kalotermes occidantis (Walker) of Arizona 
was Placed in Pterotermes ; Kalotermes arizonensis Snyder of Arizona, K. banksi Snyder 
of Arizona and Texas, K. milleri Emerson of southern Florida, K. minor Hagen of Cali- 
fornia, Utah, and Arizona, K. schwarzi Banks of southern Florida and K. snyderi Light of 
southeastern United States were all placed in Incisitermes Krishna; and Procryptotermes 
hubbardi (Banks) of Arizona and California was placed in Marginitermes Krishna. Only 
a few species of economic importance are involved. 

Such changes, however, are hard to accept by workers in economic control work and 
pest control operators, who have terms of “Kalis’’ for the termites, and “Kalo guns” for 
equipment in the control of drywood termites in California. They may find it difficult to 
refer to Kalotermes minor as Incisitermes minor. 


OUR NATIVE TERMITES—SNYDER 501 


the wood which they eat. Most of the more highly specialized termites 
do not contain these symbiotic protozoa. 

There are other termites of interesting shape and habits, especially 
in the Southwestern States. The nasutiform termites, species of 
Tenuirostritermes, have a nasus or beak instead of biting jaws for 
defense. From this exudes an acidulous secretion which gums up 
attacking ants, usually at the pedicle or middle of the body. The 
soldierless termites, species of Anoplotermes, must rely on large- 
jawed workers for defense. The desert termites, species of Amitermes, 
destroy sound wood. Species of Gnathamitermes cover over vegetation 
and wood with earthlike tubes to induce decay, then merely scarify or 
erode the wood. These are highly specialized types of termites. 

Further studies are needed on all of these unusual termites although 
none causes relatively serious damage compared with that caused by 
the lower or less specialized groups. 


DAMAGE 


Only 11 of our 41 species of termites of the continental United 
States cause serious damage. 

For convenience in control, the destructive termites of this country 
have been grouped with: Dampwood types—Zootermopsis angusti- 
collis (Hagen), Z. nevadensis (Hagen) of the Far West, and Pro- 
rhinotermes simplex (Hagen) of southern Florida; drywood types— 
especially Incisitermes minor (Hagen) of California, J. snyderi 
(Light) of southeastern United States, and Cryptotermes brevis 
(Walker) of southern Florida; and subterranean types— Feticuli- 
termes flavipes (Kollar) common in the United States, except for the 
Far West, 2. virginicus and R. hageni of eastern United States, R. 
hesperus Banks of the Pacific coast, and the arid land subterranean 
termite /. tibialis Banks of the Western States. 

For the last 10 to 15 years there have been noticeable movements 
of termites. The large dampwood termite Zootermopsis angusticollis 
has been shipped in green lumber from the Pacific coast into 20 States 
east of its range but, so far as is known, has infested no buildings and 
has nowhere become established. Its spread since 1950 is due to the 
large amount of insect- and fire-killed timber salvaged and moved 
east. 

Through the transportation of furniture, the drywood termite 
Incisitermes minor of Western United States and Mexico has infested 
houses in 12 States east of its range, but has not become established. 
Cryptotermes brevis has become a major pest of buildings in southern 
Florida and has damaged buildings in five States north of Florida, 
probably from infested furniture; this termite has not become estab- 
lished locally except in the Gulf States. 


502 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The dark, southern subterranean termite Reticulitermes virginicus 
(Banks), whose northern range was Washington, D.C., in 1951 was 
found at Philadelphia, Pa., and has been found on Long Island, N.Y.., 
since 1959. The light southern subterranean Feticulitermes hageni 
Banks, whose northern range was Washington, D.C., was found in 
1958 in a building at Trenton, N.J. It is believed that these last. two 
northward spreads were due to the trend toward warmer winters. 

Most States have only the subterranean types as injurious species 
of economic importance but California and Florida both have all three 
types. 

The California Structural Pest Control Board at Los Angeles issues 
quarterly pest infestation reports by counties, giving the comparative 
amount of damage for the three types of termites. Averaged for 55 
counties out of 58 for 1962 and 1963, the figures are: Dampwood 0.4 
percent, drywood 33.8 percent, and subterranean 44.52 percent. The 
remaining percentage related to other matters. 

For the entire United States, it is estimated that the losses caused 
amount to one quarter billion dollars. 


CONTROL 


PREVENTION 


With the increase in the number of buildings constructed on concrete 
slabs on the ground and consequent increase in the number of buildings 
infested with subterranean termites, the less costly pretreatment of 
the soil with insecticides became practicable in the late 1950’s. Before 
the concrete slab is laid, you must secure proper drainage, remove all 
wood debris from the building site, and saturate the soil with long- 
lasting soil poisons such as water emulsions of chlordane and dieldrin. 
This may save more difficult and expensive treatment after the house 


has been built. 
FUMIGATION 


The most successful method of killing drywood termites damaging 
buildings in southern California and southern Florida is to seal them 
with heavy Kraft paper or cover them with tarpaulins and then fumi- 
gate with heavy dosages of lethal gases. Of course there is no residual 
effect and the buildings may soon become reinfested. However, it 
would take a long time to build up new destructive populations. 


DESICCATION 


Dr. Margaret S. Collins, now of Howard University, Washing- 
ton, D.C., has since 1950 been interested in differences in toleration of 
drying between species of our native subterranean termites (Meticu- 


OUR NATIVE TERMITES—SNYDER 503 


litermes species). She early discovered that our arid land R. tibialis is 
more resistant to drying than our common &. flavipes. 

In 1959, Drs. Walter Ebeling and R. E. Wagner, entomologists 
of the University of California at Los Angeles, discovered that in- 
festation or reinfestation after eradication of drywood termites could 
be prevented by treating susceptible timbers with inert sorptive dusts, 
silica aerogel, nontoxic to humans or animals, These dusts removed 
lipids of the termite epicuticle which caused a rapid desiccation and 
death of the termites. Later it was discovered that water soluble 
fluorides incorporated into the silica gels increased the effectiveness 
with increasing relative humidities. After the wax is disrupted, flu- 
orides can act as contact insecticides. 

In 1963 Dr. Collins, with Dr. A. G. Richards of the University of 
Minnesota, studied in the laboratory of that university the tolerance 
to drying of five eastern species of Reticulitermes. Included were the 
rather desiccation-tolerant ¢ibialis, which loses water at a consistently 
low rate, three species that lose water relatively slowly but show great 
variability under experimental conditions, and a species flavipes, that 
shows a variable but relatively high rate of water loss. The desiccation 
tolerance of ¢bzalis, which ranges from west to east, appears to be 
associated with a relatively effective waterproofing mechanism, a 
well-developed cement layer, and moderate size. 

When treated to demonstrate the cement layer, species of Reticu- 
litermes other than tibialis were found to have very small argentaflin 
granules in depressed areas, instead of the heavy scaly layer found in 
tibialis. 

fF. flavipes seems to have the least efficient transpiration-retarding 
mechanism—the fact that this species may outlive species having lower 
loss rates during drying is probably due to its large size. There also 
were differences in the survival times in the castes. 

Transpiration resistance Increases with age, in the absence of dam- 
age, as does the resistance of the waterproofing to damage. This re- 
sults in the rate of transpiration in imagoes (adults) falling to about 
one-third the rate of teneral (not quite hardened) imagoes. 

Size appears to have no influence on the rate of loss, though it can 
influence length of survival under dry conditions. 

Under field conditions, tibialis ranges into more arid areas than 
the sand-dwelling arenincola, and both inhabit more arid situations 
than flavipes. In areas inhabited by both arenincola and tibialis, 
the former can be found most readily in logs and stumps on the surface 
in spring during periods of abundant rainfall. The latter may be 
taken at the surface during either spring or fall. In Florida, vir- 
ginicus and hageni are found more easily than flavipes during dry 
periods in nonforested areas. 


504 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 
POTENTIAL CONTROLS 


ATTRACTANTS 


In the early 1960’s Dr. G. R. Esenther, entomologist stationed at 
the Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis., and a group at the 
University of Wisconsin published a paper on a termite attractant 
(Ksenther et al., 1961). It was discovered that the subterranean 
termite Reticulitermes flavipes will follow a concentration gradient 
of an attractive material, a culture of the brown rot fungus (Lenzvtes 
trabea) on pine to find decaying wood. It was believed that such 
a potent termite attractant might be useful in termite surveys and 
control. 

Esenther and Dr. H. C. Coppel of the University of Wisconsin 
in 1964 published on results on laboratory experiments continued 
in the laboratory at Madison, Wis., with the response of /eticuli- 
terms flavipes to attractants from extractives and synthetics especially 
to extracts from white pine infected with the brown rot fungus 
Lenzites trabea. Periodically for as long as several weeks the termite 
would not respond to any attractant; the cause remained unexplained. 

Receptors appear to be terminal antennal segments and hind tarsi. 
The reproductive caste gave the most positive response. Specific 
differences, between termite species and specific wood-decaying fungi, 
are being studied. 

Field studies indicate that sterilized Z. trabea infected wood is the 
best field attractant. A modified attractant insecticide unit was used : 
A sandwich of five corrugated fiberboard pieces in which the center 
and two outermost pieces were not treated with insecticides. The 
second and fourth pieces were dipped in either 1 percent chlordane 
or dieldrin solutions, or a massive dose of dieldrin was applied to a 
sandwich unit by shaking only the central piece in a plastic bag that 
contained 75 percent wettable powder. ‘The last method caused the 
greatest mortality. Decayed wood contains both an orientating and 
feeding stimulus; synthetic attractants show poorer results because 
they may be orientative attractants only. 

Apparently, attractants’ usefulness in economic control work is 
not yet proven. 

FUNGI 


In the early 1960’s Dr. A. E. Lund of the Koppers Co., Verona, Pa., 
obtained conclusive evidence in the laboratory that certain species of 
our subterranean termites (Reticulitermes) initiate attack on the wood 
of southern yellow pine without previous infection of the wood by 
wood-destroying fungi. Further laboratory studies (Lund, 1962, 
1963) proved that there was an influence on eastern subterranean 
termites by wood-destroying fungi. 


OUR NATIVE TERMITES—SNYDER 505 


One fungus, Zentinus lepideus, produce metabolites (end prod- 
ucts) that appear to be very toxic to termites. Lenzites trabea pro- 
duces an attractant. Porta incrassata extended the laboratory life 
considerably. Poria monticola exhibited a somewhat repellent effect. 
Still other fungi seem to be neutral in effect. At least one of the com- 
mon molds (Penicillium spp., Aspergillus spp., ete.) reduced the 
longevity and the termites’ death followed shortly. 

As yet some of these relationships are not supported by laboratory 
or field evidence. 


LITERATURE CITED 


CALIFORNIA STRUCTURAL PEST CONTROL BOARD. 

1963. 1962 yearly structural pest infestation report by county. P.C.O. News, 
vol. 28, No. 6, pp. 6-7. 

1964. 1963 yearly structural pest infestation report by county. P.C.O. News, 
vol. 24, No. 11, pp. 24-25. 

CASTLE, C. B. 

1934. The dampwood termites of western United States, genus Zootermopsis. 
In “Termites and termite control,’ ed. by C. A. Kofoid. University 
of California Press, Berkeley. pp. 273-310. 

CoLiins, M. S., and RicH Arps, A. G. 

1963. Studies on water relations in North American termites 1. Eastern 
species of the genus Reticulitermes (Isoptera, Rhinotermitidae). 
Ecology, vol. 44, No. 3, pp. 600-604. 4 tables. 

EXBELING, W., and WAGNER, R. E. 

1959. Rapid desiccation of drywood termites with inert sorptive dusts and 
other substances. Journ. Hcon. Ent., vol. 52, No. 2, pp. 190-207. 5 
figs., 11 tables. 

ESENTHER, G. R.; ALLEN, T. C.; CAsipa, J. E.; and SHENEFELT, R. D. 

1961. Termite attractant from fungus-infected wood. Science, vol. 134, No. 

3471, p. 50. 
ESENTHER, G. R., and Copret, H. C. 

1964. Current research on termite attractants. Pest Control, vol. 32, No. 

2, pp. 34, 36, 38, 42, 44,46. 3 figs., 1 table. 
KrisHna, K. 

1961. A generic revision and phylogenetic study of the family Kalotermitidae 
(Isoptera). Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. 122, Art. 4, pp. 303- 
408. 81 figs, 6 tables. 

Lunp, A. E. 

1962. Subterraneans and their environment. New concepts of termite 
ecology. Pest Control, vol. 30, No. 2, pp. 30-34, 36, 60-61. 2 figs., 
3 tables. 

1963. Subterranean termites and fungi—theoretical interactions. Pest Con- 
trol, vol. 31, No. 10, p. 78. 

LtscuHe_er, M. 

1952. New evidence of an ectohormonal control of caste determination in 

termites. Trans. 9th Internat. Congr. Ent., vol. 1, pp. 289-294, 1 fig. 
PIcKINS, A. L. 

1932. Observations on the genus Reticulitermes Holmgren. Pan-Pacific En- 

tomol., vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 178-180. 


506 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


SNYDER, T. BH. 
1963. The foundation of new termite colonies by supplementary reproduc- 
tives of species of Reticulitermes. Symposia Genetica et Biologica 
Italica. Atti. IV Congr. U.I.E.I.S.-Pavia, 9-14 setembre 1961, pp. 
175-179. December 14, 1963. 
Stuart, A. M. 
1961. Mechanism of trail-laying in two species of termites. Nature, vol. 189, 
No. 4762, p. 419. London. 
1963a. Origin of the trail in the termites Nasutitermes corniger (Motschul- 
sky) and Zootermopis nevadensis (Hagen), Isoptera. Physiolog. 
Zool., vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 69-84. 2 figs., 6 tables. 
1963b. Studies on the communication of alarm in the termite Zootermopsis 
nevadensis (Hagen) Isoptera. Physiolog. Zool., vol. 36, No. 1, pp. 
85-96. 5figs. January. 


The Phenomenon of Predation’ 


By THE LATE PAu. L. ErrincTon 


“NATURE’S WAY IS ANY way that works.” My students know I like 
that expression. As a generalization relating to the opportunism 
and adjustment of Life, relating to the eaters and the eaten, it covers 
the field. 

Predators kill and eat the animals they know as prey, however they 
are able to do so. They prey according to their opportunities, their 
adaptations, and—sometimes—their psychological preferences. Their 
predation may be rather indiscriminate, that is, within common sense 
limitations. It may be highly specific, highly selective. It may grade 
into the related phenomenon that we refer to as parasitism. When the 
prey consists of eggs or sessile animals, it may not differ fundamentally 
in its operation from grazing by herbivores. 

For that matter, certain peculiarly adapted plants may prey upon 
animals. Bladderworts capture and digest small crustaceans in their 
traplike organs. Pitcher plants and sundews take insect victims as a 
regular way of life. And, whether one thinks of bacteria or viruses as 
being predatory or parasitic or saprophytic, the basic natural laws to 
which they conform in their exploitation of the exploitable are still 
those applying to the phylogenetically higher organisms. 

The common denominator throughout is exploitation of the exploit- 
able; but, if we think of just that in considering the phenomenon of 
predation, we may easily oversimplify. For there has been a lot of 
evolution shaping the patterns of interrelationships of living things 
with each other and with their physical environments. Diversity and 
complexity in these interrelationships are wholly consistent with 
diversity and complexity in the forms of living things. 

I do not advocate straining to distinguish between borderline cases of 
predation and parasitism, or trying to judge precisely where predation 
and parasitism leave off and exploitation of dead or dying organic 
material begins. Preoccupation with definitions in relationships that 
by their nature have much leeway in them can, I think, defeat under- 


1 Reprinted by permission from American Scientist, June 1963. 
766-746—65——41 507 


508 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


standing. Just where do we logically put the dividing line between 
what a feeding mosquito does in taking a meal of either blood or juices, 
what a spider does to a fly, a water bug to a minnow, a robber fly to a 
grasshopper, a sea lamprey to a lake trout or a whitefish? What a 
killer whale or a shark or a bird of prey or a wolf does in eating some- 
thing, alive or dead? What a snapping turtle does when it feeds upon 
algae, scavenge upon anything dead, eats the tails off live fishes on 
a fisherman’s stringer or grabs a coot by a foot? 

Gradations exist, whichever way we look, and I shall not further 
belabor what seems to me the pointlessness of labeling categories be- 
yond what the facts justify. Regardless of the opportunism common 
to a bacterial infection and a violent attack by a genuine tooth-or-talon 
predator, the obvious differences are such as to merit separate treat- 
ment; and there is plenty about the phenomenon of predation that may 
be discussed in ordinary terms of animals being sought by or escaping 
from other forms that would kill or eat them, or, of them, if they could. 


ADAPTIVENESS OF PREDATORS 


Relatively few mammals and birds are adapted to exploit only a 
particular kind of prey. One of these is the Everglade kite, which has 
a hooked beak that is exactly right for extracting soft parts from the 
shell of a single genus of snail, and so the bird lives. The Canada lynx 
and the Arctic fox may, on occasion, be all but restricted to only certain 
of the foods available to them, apparently because of their own lack of 
adaptiveness; on the other hand, their relatives, the bay lynx or bobcat 
and the red and gray foxes of central and southern North America, 
may readily eat a wide diversity of foods. Gray wolves having op- 
portunities to do so may, by choice, prey almost exclusively upon white- 
tailed deer. But predatory mammals and birds collectively are om- 
nivorous feeders compared to the vast numbers of insects that show 
rigid selectivity in their predatory (or parasitic) behavior. Far down 
the phylogenetic scale are extremely host-specific viruses and bacteria, 
as well as some showing great versatility. The virus of rabies, the 
bacterium of tularemia, and the roundworm causing trichinosis each 
can attack an astonishing variety of at least warm-blooded host 
animals. 

Food preferences or hunting techniques based upon individual learn- 
ing are not restricted to higher vertebrates, though they naturally tend 
to be prominent among the more intelligent animals. Next to man, 
I should say that members of the dog family—individual red foxes, 
coyotes, gray wolves, domestic dogs—can show as much special choice 
of prey as anything of which Iknow. The favoritisms and originality 
that some of these animals develop in their preying may at times result 
in unusually severe local exploitation of a vulnerable prey population. 
Even prey species that are living with notable security from other 


THE PHENOMENON OF PREDATION—ERRINGTON 509 


predators may at times suffer from concerted canine predation—I have 
known instances of this sort of thing in my studies of predation by 
foxes and dogs upon muskrats and ground-nesting birds. 

But, modern studies on predation by lower vertebrates have demon- 
strated that learning can have a pronounced influence on their food 
habits. Fishes learn to take certain food items. Frogs may prey 
selectively through experience. Also, in late years, I have been gain- 
ing an impression from various sources that some insects and other 
active invertebrates may have capabilities for more individual pref- 
erences than we commonly have thought. A morphologically ad- 
vanced brain is not an absolute prerequisite to a psychology of learn- 
ing and choice. 

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS 


Let us consider some of the ways that predation may be influenced by 
the psychology of either or both predators and their prospective prey— 
not forgetting that predators may generally take such prey as is 
easiest for them to get, suitable for their requirements, and recognized 
as food. 

Some of the clearest examples of psychological influence in pred- 
ator-prey relations are those in which adversaries do a good deal of 
testing out and appraising each other’s intentions and capabilities. 
The caution that predators show toward dangerous prey may be 
illustrated by wolves sizing up their prospects for attacking moose, 
bison, or muskoxen, or by the behavior of minks in the presence of 
formidable muskrats; but a predator’s decision to attack or not attack 
may be quite unrelated to any threat of danger to the predators, them- 
selves. Wolves also appraise their chances with caribou that they 
have no reason to fear. Bird-hunting hawks may repeatedly test by 
preliminary feints the attitudes of small birds that could not possibly 
do more than to escape. 

Prospective prey that displays alertness toward predatory dangers 
yet conducts itself in a recognizably confident manner may discourage 
predators from attacking or cause the predators to desist soon after 
an attack is undertaken. I think we should give many predatory 
vertebrates credit for knowing pretty well when a serious attempt is 
not worth going through with. Conversely, except for manifest in- 
juries or helplessness, panic on the part of the prey may encourage 
attacks about as much as anything. 

There may be, however, a still weightier psychological factor in 
some predator-prey relationships: social intolerance. 

One aspect of social intolerance—territoriality, or the defense of an 
area—has been best studied in mammals and birds, in some lower 
vertebrates, and in a relatively few invertebrates. Even among the 
mammals and birds for which it represents most nearly characteristic 
behavior, territoriality may exist in virtually all conceivable degrees 


510 |§ ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


of intensity, the year around or only part of a breeding season. It 
may represent either highly sterotyped or highly adaptive behavior. 

A territory, as for a nesting pair of peregrine falcons, may be several 
miles across; or, as in some colony-nesting birds, approximately the 
distance that a bird can reach with its beak while sitting on its nest. 
For one species of East African bishopbird, a territory may have 
boundaries that are exceedingly resistant to change, yet, for a closely 
related species of bishopbird, a territory may be almost indefinitely 
compressible. There are examples of communal territories defended 
by whole colonies. There are examples of the defended territories of 
some waterfowl actually lying outside of the nesting grounds. 

While usually directed against members of the same species, terri- 
torial exclusiveness may also take the form of antagonisms toward 
members of different species. Wrens and coots include species of birds 
that can be among the more savagely aggressive toward other species 
about territorial boundaries. 

Savagely aggressive social intolerance is not necessarily restricted to 
defense of territories, as is illustrated by the mobbing of hawks and 
owls by crows and the mobbing of the crows, in their turn, by smaller 
birds. Social tolerances and intolerances may also be influenced by 
the traditions that either individuals or populations may build up. 
Much may depend upon what animals become accustomed to. 

Concerning territorial and other intolerances, one may again easily 
regard Nature’s way as being any way that works. 

A wolf pack may lay claim to a whole watershed, and the wolves 
may jealously keep that area for themselves. Or, they may admit 
to their social order or their holdings neighboring groups of wolves 
or unattached individuals—depending upon interplays of wolfish 
(really doggish) formalities, necessities, and the tolerance or dis- 
crimination allowed by individual dispositions. The chief prey ani- 
mals of these wolves in the northern Lake States and adjacent Canada 
are the white-tailed deer, which have social intolerances too weak to be 
much of a self-limiting factor; and the deer may increase up to such 
numbers that they starve and seriously damage their environment 
while so doing. At least under some conditions, an adequate popula- 
tion of wolves may hold the deer down to levels that are in better 
biological balance than populations not subject to effective predation. 

Social intolerances of minks may not fit too well into the category 
of actually defended areas, but the intolerances do work to keep mink 
populations spread out. As essentially solitary animals, their winter 
densities on the marshes that are the most food-rich for them—the 
most generally attractive for them of which I know—seem to level off 
at between 12 and 20 minks per square mile. I have never observed 
that any superabundance of readily available food ever resulted in 
concentrations of free-living minks to the extent that individuals 


THE PHENOMENON OF PREDATION—ERRINGTON 511 


would be likely to encounter each other with great frequency in their 
daily lives. It has always seemed to me that excess minks tend to 
withdraw from the mink-crowded places, though this might mean 
wandering or trying to live in ecologically inferior environment. 

If North American minks have any one favorite food, I should say 
that it isthe muskrat. Minks may at times subsist upon muskrat flesh 
almost as exclusively as wolves may upon venison—with the outstand- 
ing difference that the minks may not find the presence of large num- 
bers of muskrats synonymous with availability of large numbers of 
muskratsasfood. Our Iowa data show a peak fall population of about 
9,000 muskrats living securely on a 935-acre marsh, despite the activi- 
ties of about 30 muskrat-hungry minks. The distinction between 
availability to predators and mere presence of prey animals should be 
emphasized. In the case of our Iowa muskrats, the predation is 
centered upon overproduced young; upon the restless, the strangers, 
and those physically handicapped by injuries or weakness; upon ani- 
mals evicted by droughts, floods, or social tensions; and upon what is 
identifiable as the more biologically expendable parts of the popula- 
tions. 

I do not think that predation should be regarded as a true limiting 
factor of these muskrat populations. To the extent that predation 
operates only incidentally, removing little except the wastage parts of 
populations that are more or less destined to be frittered away somehow 
through one agency or another, it may make little difference to the 
population levels reached or maintained if the predation losses are light 
orheavy. Ishould say that the dominant limiting factor of a muskrat 
population is still its own sociology, within the frame of reference im- 
posed by the material features of its environment. 

Another predator-prey relationship in which severity of the preda- 
tion suffered by the prey may be most misleading in off-hand appraisals 
of population effects is that of the great horned owl and the bobwhite 
quail in north-central United States. Our year-after-year popula- 
tion case histories show heavy predation by low populations of owls 
upon either high or low populations of quail; light predation by high 
populations of owls upon either high or low populations of quail; and 
much variation in between. What counts in determining the popula- 
tions reached or maintained is not that the owls have quail to eat or that 
the quail have owls to eat them. Both species are highly territorial 
and show a strong degree of self-limitation independently of each 
other. Big owl or small quail, neither under normal conditions per- 
mits itself to increase up to levels that are biologically top-heavy. 
Each of these two species has in this way much in common, though 
one is subject to very little predation and the other is subject to much. 

In its workings, territoriality tends to separate the haves from the 
have-nots in a population, with the holders of “property rights” having 


512 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


tremendous psychological advantages in whatever competition takes 
place. Proper consideration of this factor calls for some modification 
of conventional views as to the struggle for existence, the ruthlessness 
of natural testings, and the nature of predation. The favored parts of 
a territorial population that live in relative social peace and are well 
adjusted to their environmental resources may, in fact, have fairly 
easy lives. They may not have to do much more than to conduct them- 
selves according to their ordinary endowments to live securely with 
respect to their ancient predatory enemies. In contrast, life can be 
anything but benign for the wastage parts of a territorial population, 
and these are characteristically vulnerable to such predators as have 
aptitudes for preying upon them. 

Species having weak if any territoriality may show much more vio- 
lent fluctuations. It is quite understandable that the less a population 
is self-limited, the more it must be limited by something else: by preda- 
tion, parasitism, disease, emigration, malnutrition or exhaustion of 
food, exposure to climatic emergencies, and the miscellaneous troubles 
that become compounded whenever populations get out of bounds. 


THE ROLE OF TERRITORY 


Surely, one of the principal differences to be seen in predator-prey 
relationships of higher vertebrates and invertebrates is linked with the 
relative importance of territoriality in these phylogenetically differing 
groups. Between the extremes represented by the most socially ex- 
clusive of the mammals and birds and, let us say, oysters growing on top 
of one another, many forms have developed territorial behavior to 
some degree. 

Lizards and fishes—among them chameleons, sunfishes, and stickle- 
backs—include territory holders at least during their breeding seasons. 
Although territoriality in lizards and fishes may allow great numerical 
abundance, populations of these forms may still show distinct tenden- 
cies to level off with increased crowding and, often, with apparent inde- 
pendence of predatory enemies. Phylogenetically down-scale a little 
more, we also have insects and crustaceans that are capable of display- 
ing effective antagonism toward possible competitors; and their popu- 
lations may have at least some of the features of thresholds of security 
and vulnerable overflows. I think of dragonflies perched on tips of 
cattail stalks and patrolling their holdings, and, if their behavior is 
not truly territorial in so doing, it looks like the next thing to it. 

J. H. Pepper published, in the mid-fifties, a most informative com- 
parison of the population dynamics of Montana grasshoppers and 
Towa muskrats. As far apart in their taxonomic relationships and 
as diverse in their living requirements as grasshoppers and muskrats 
are, they may show social intolerances and habitat responsiveness that 


THE PHENOMENON OF PREDATION—ERRINGTON 513 


appear, broadly, not too dissimilar. Parts of grasshopper popula- 
tions may, as for the muskrats, be relatively well situated ; other parts, 
crowded into inferior habitats or beset by the frictions of overpopula- 
tions, are more exposed to miscellaneous mortality factors, including 
predation. 

I can now see that a good deal of the predation suffered by grass- 
hoppers—which I had long assumed to be more random, more of a 
gradual-attrition type—falls instead in more of an off-and-on, secure- 
and-insecure dichotomy. 

(I am reminded that once I had even felt that the predation borne 
by an abundant muskrat population was proportional to the numbers 
of muskrats and the predators preying upon them, whittling down the 
general muskrat population little by little. That was before any 
attempts were made to inquire more deeply into what was happening. 
With careful local analyses, it became apparent that the predation 
that suggested gradual attrition was not in fact working that way 
on the muskrat population as a whole; it was conforming to the same 
overall rules of order that the Iowa muskrat studies had been bringing 
out again and again, whereby parts of the population lived very vul- 
nerably while other parts retained their security.) 

When reexamining questions of social intolerances and population 
effects of predation in the Animal Kingdom, I do not feel surprised 
because of the fewness of pat answers that come to mind. 

Predator-prey relationships are hardly likely to be unaffected by 
social frictions, established property rights, and complex behavior 
patterns just because the participants happen to be classed as lizards, 
fishes, insects, and crustaceans instead of as mammals and birds. Nor 
should the greater collective fecundity of lower vertebrates, with 
corresponding individual cheapness of life, be considered a complete 
explanation for the lesser territoriality of lower vertebrates. Even 
among higher vertebrates, the strongly territorial gray wolf with 
close family ties has, on paper, a far higher biotic potential than its 
prey, the deer and caribou that may congregate in tremendous num- 
bers. Nor can the lesser territoriality of lower vertebates be wholly 
explained in terms of their lesser intelligence and lesser adaptiveness, 
for territoriality reaches some of its most pronounced evolutionary 
peaks in birds, which as a class are less intelligent and adaptable than 
are mammals as a class. 

The point is, once more, that Life selects for what works out, ir- 
respective of our human efforts to define and classify. 


INTERCOMPENSATIONS 


We may next consider something else that Life selects for, something 
that is very often interlinked with or a byproduct of territoriality. 
It is a tendency to compensate, one of the prime upsetters of both 


514 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


theoretical and “common sense” calculations as to how things work 
out in natural equations. 

Intercompensatory trends in rates of population gains and losses 
go along way toward conferring a singular degree of biological safety 
upon species that are subject to vicissitudes. In a resilient population, 
severe loss rates may in effect substitute for each other without mount- 
ing up excessively high in their totality. Extraordinary losses 
through one agency may automatically protect from losses through 
many other agencies. The death of one individual may mean little 
more than improving the chances for living of another one. Fur- 
thermore, in some species, extraordinary losses may be compensated 
by accelerated reproduction, more young being produced in conse- 
quence of more being destroyed. 

From these considerations, it can be perceived why I am not inclined 
to accept mere conventional vital statistics as a suitable base for ap- 
praising the population effects of predation. More may be needed 
than figures as to how many individuals are brought into the world 
and how many or what proportions die through predaceous agencies. 

Whether the population resiliences permitted by the compensatory 
trends enable a species to escape being dangerously reduced by great 
trials, or to resist changes in status quo, or to fill up biological frontiers 
with explosive rapidity, they obviously can be an important part of 
Life. Whether the purposes of human manipulations of animal popu- 
lations are to encourage or discourage a particular species, in con- 
nection with nature protection, fish and game management, or pest 
control, we cannot afford to forget the fact that natural compensations 
can nullify much of the thinking that fails to take them into proper 
account. 

The renesting prowess of some popular game birds is sufficient to 
confound many of the pencil-and-paper figurings of laymen, who 
easily become emotional at the thought of a crow or a skunk destroy- 
ing a clutch of eggs. To the bobwhite quail and the ring-necked 
pheasant, the loss of a clutch or two early in the nesting season does 
not necessarily signify a corresponding net decrease in productivity 
of young. For species that are constituted to hatch only one cluich of 
eggs per year and that have a long breeding season and several possible 
nesting trials with which to do it, half to three-quarters of their nests 
may fail and still allow the breeding females to fill their one-brood 
“quota” for the breeding season. The more resilient nesters among 
waterfowl seem to be almost as persistent and as ultimately successful 
in their renesting efforts. Within broad limits set by physiology and 
climate, it may not really matter whether the crows, skunks, raccoons, 
or other wild egg eaters plunder a large proportion of the nests or 
whether they do not. It may all come out much the same in the end. 


THE PHENOMENON OF PREDATION—ERRINGTON 515 


Breeding resilience may also compensate for high juvenile mortality 
in some of the more prolific mammals. This, too, should not be con- 
fused with the mere production of immense numbers of young to allow 
for or to compensate in advance for heavy losses. Rather, the popula- 
tion adjusts to the social tolerances of the species and the status of 
the habitat. Extraordinary losses of young may stimulate reproduc- 
tion. For the muskrats of north-central United States, averages 
approaching four litters during a breeding season may be born to 
uncrowded adult females living under favorable conditions. Averages 
as low as a litter to a litter and a half may satisfy crowded popula- 
tions in the same kind of place. But, if the early-born young suffer 
very high rates of mortality—as through the agencies of floods and 
epizootic disease on the north-central study areas—even crowded pop- 
ulations may give birth to many additional litters that plainly would 
not have come into existence had it not been for the severity of the 
earlier losses. After the young of these resilient breeders are hatched 
or born, compensatory trends in loss rates go into a substitution phase. 
While a minimal loss of young during the rearing season is inevitable 
under the best of conditions, a lot of the postbreeding shaking down 
of overproduced young depends upon the extent that their environ- 
ment is already filled up with their own species. The net population 
increases often tend to be according to definite curves or to reach 
certain density levels, often in conformity to year-to-year mathemat- 
ical patterns that look unaffected by changes in kinds and numbers 
of predatory enemies, the impacts of the less sweeping deadly emer- 
gencies, and so on. We can thus see evidence of balancing and coun- 
terbalancing that make meaningless any calculations as to population 
effect based solely upon the numbers or percentages of individuals that 
may die through this agency or that. 

Muskrat populations comfortably situated in rich environment may 
give birth to many young and rear most of the young born; those 
populations that are beset by endless stress may give birth to few young 
and rear comparatively few of them. When the social squeeze is on 
and life is hard, there are bound to be heavy losses from various agen- 
cies, including predation from different kinds of predators. Still, 
I cannot see that such predation actually operates as a limiting 
factor—at any rate insofar as something else is doing the real limiting. 
Particularly do I find it difficult to see why some predators, for ex- 
ample the mink, may be considered a limiting factor on the basis of 
the large numbers of muskrats the mink as a species may kill, as long 
as in the absence of minks the muskrats may neither reach nor maintain 
their numbers at perceptibly higher density levels than they do in the 
presence of the minks. The Iowa case histories of mink-muskrat rela- 
tionship repeatedly support this view. 


516 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


We may go on from quail and pheasants and muskrats and see simi- 
lar evidences of social interplays and compensations in the extensive 
literature on population dynamics. Poison-depleted rat and ground- 
squirrel populations have responded to lessened social tensions by ac- 
celerated rates of increase. The red fox, despite sport and bounty 
hunting in north-central United States, not only maintains its numbers 
at high levels in suitable range but also, I should say, thrives with 
heavy hunting mortality. Heavily hunted deer populations produce 
greater numbers of twin fawns than the less hunted. Mallard ducks, 
though overshot by man, have remarkably low “natural” loss rates 
compared to blue-winged teal, which are relatively little subject to 
human hunting. Heavily exploited stocks of sport or food fishes have 
faster growing individuals than less exploited stocks in the same 
waters. The Iowa lake that most consistently produces the greatest 
numbers of large bullheads of which I know is at the same time among 
the most heavily fished. 

Of course, one could easily overgeneralize. I am aware that many 
species of birds have practically no renesting in them. Some grouse 
may normally make but a feeble attempt at renesting and then only 
if their initial clutches of eggs for the season be destroyed before the 
laying birds have invested much time in incubation. The shortness 
of the summer does not leave Arctic-nesting waterfowl much time for 
renesting, at best, if the late-hatched young are to develop enough to 
fly out before freeze-up. Even the bobwhite quail may lose its renest- 
ing resilience under the influence of severe and prolonged drought. 
There are conditions under which the most resilient of species will not 
try to breed at all, under which there seems to be no chance for any 
kind of compensatory balancing, at any stage of life. 

As concerns either the lack or the prevalence of intercompensatory 
trends in the population dynamics of invertebrates, I feel too unsure of 
myself to generalize. I do not have to go far in this direction soon to 
find myself outside of my radius of professional experience. Of the 
opinions about compensations expressed in the invertebrate literature, 
a great deal remains inconclusive. Many leading students of popula- 
tion dynamics of insects regard compensatory tendencies as of general 
application throughout the Animal Kingdom; another very respected 
entomologist regards compensatory predation as probably uncommon 
in insects. 

Perhaps, it may be argued that, concerning phenomena in which 
almost anything can happen, everyone can make whatever choice 
pleases him, but I do not think that that is a scientifically fair judgment 
to make. In studies of the exploiters and the exploited, we deal with 
adaptations of long standing. We need not restrict ourselves to the 
Animal Kingdom to see this. Grass grows anew in response to graz- 


THE PHENOMENON OF PREDATION—ERRINGTON 517 


ing, and part of the annual production of a pasture depends upon the 
grazing pressure that it receives. 


PREDATION ON INVERTEBRATES 


The literature on biological control has among its bewildering fig- 
ures and variables and mathematical models and claims and counter- 
claims some examples of causes and effects that look quite clear. Some 
of the evidence as to controlling or regulating influence of predation 
upon invertebrate prey populations can be duplicated by experimenta- 
tion practically at will, or verified by repeated observations of natural 
events that fall into patterns. 

Granted that we must know what preys upon what, it is not dis- 
advantageous to know about relative severities of predation drawn 
by the prey, provided that we do not thereby conclude overmuch. 
I have nothing against the idea of exploring what can be explored with 
the aid of theoretical means, but I would hesitate to endorse anything 
following the line of thought that a given theory must be correct 
because it has no alternatives its proponents would rate as logical. 
I confess also to a distrust of conclusions derived from mathematical 
models that assume more randomness of contacts between predator 
and prey than I am accustomed to see under natural conditions— 
though, by this, I do not contend that randomness cannot or does 
not occur in true-to-life equations. 

In general, the more patently the evidence comes from the land— 
or the water—itself, the more reassured I feel as to its validity as any 
sort of proof, one way or another. And, while even long-term experi- 
mentation on the land with predator-prey (or parasite-host) relation- 
ships very frequently gives rise to negative or inconclusive results, 
there are enough convincing cases of populations of especially insect 
prey responding either to increased or decreased predator (or parasite) 
pressure to demonstrate causes and effects. Some of the examples 
coming out of biological control experiments are by now classics in 
the literature on predation. I suppose that almost everyone who has 
done much reading in biology knows about lady-bird larvae preying 
upon plant lice. Similar examples that are scarcely less celebrated 
have been reported from many regions of the world. Indeed, the 
books and review papers on biological control attest to a tremendous 
amount of collective experience with this sort of thing and to the 
frequency with which, among the invertebrates, a predator can in- 
fluence the population levels of its prey; and the idea of managing 
entomophagous insects through environmental manipulation, estab- 
lishment of “refuge stations” in intensively cultivated areas, etc., is 
not new in applied entomology. I am uncertain, however, as to how 
effectively this type of management may increase an economically 
desirable type of predation. 


518 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


The role of insectivorous birds in pest control has been threshed over 
for decades, sometimes with extravagant claims and assumptions. In 
my opinion, the desirability of having birds around can be well advo- 
cated on grounds other than the quantities of insects that they eat, 
without straining to justify economically what is not economic. 
When it comes to appraisal of bird predation upon insects, worms, 
slugs, and the small creatures that do what we do not want them to, 
the questions continue to arise as to whether such predation does have 
a controlling influence or genuinely contribute to control. 

The few case histories of control of insect populations through bird 
predation that look convincing to me have one thing in common: 
superlative intensity of predation. A small garden enclosed by lux- 
urious shade trees and shrubbery may concentrate the feeding of a 
large number of birds and thus have its insect populations reduced 
by the sheer weight of the predatory effort exerted. A homely anal- 
ogy may be seen in neighborhood robin depredations on the cherry 
crop ripening on someone’s lone backyard tree. But, in considering 
predation by birds upon invertebrates on a more spacious scale, it 
becomes more difficult to argue from sober facts. The property on 
which I live never seems to have any dearth of earthworms, however 
much the local robins may be observed pulling them out of the ground 
or collecting them in their bills after rains. (Neither do the ground- 
plowing moles seem to affect earthworm numbers appreciably, as a 
spadeful of soil turned in any place suitable for earthworms will 
reveal at almost any time.) We see the chickadees working the tree 
branches, the flickers and meadowlarks out in the fields, the swallows 
feeding in the air; and we know that they are eating insects, perhaps 
of known kinds and in quantities that might be calculated, but, aside 
from that, what do we really know about it? 

Considering predation by birds on a still more spacious scale, I am 
willing to concede that the early Mormon settlers of Utah may have 
had good cause to erect a monument to cricket-eating gulls. The 
gulls, flocking to feed on the hordes of crickets that threatened the 
Mormon crops, very possibly brought the crickets under sufficient 
control to save the crops; but, from what I have been able to learn 
about this event, it would seem to have been a matter of rather local 
concentration of gulls in response to a concentrated food supply; and 
I would doubt that the gull predation resulted in any significant 
population control of the crickets over truly immense areas. 

This naturally leads to philosophical questions as to how much some 
degree of predation here and there and now and then by this predator 
or that may contribute to the control of an invertebrate species when 
added to its other mortality factors; and I am reminded, too, about all 
of the confusion between facts of predation and effects of predation 
that exists in the literature on vertebrates and invertebrates, alike. 


THE PHENOMENON OF PREDATION—ERRINGTON 519 


The population effects of predation by raptorial birds upon mice and 
upon songbirds may be equated with the numbers of prey killed; so 
may predation by the mice and the songbirds upon the insects that 
these may kill; so may predation (or parasitism) by insect species upon 
each other, by the hornets, the dragonflies, the powerful biters and 
stingers of lesser creatures that cannot escape; and yet I should say 
that the grounds for imputing population control may be flimsy indeed 
without consideration of possible intercompensatory adjustments. 


CONCLUSIONS 


To sum up concerning predation as a phenomenon, with special 
reference to its significance in population control: As may easily be 
judged, I regard the outstanding source of error in appraisals of preda- 
tor-prey relationships as confusion of the fact of predation with effect 
of predation. Apart from a number of extreme or dramatic cases of 
predation depleting prey populations in ways that are self-evident, my 
inclinations are to look very critically upon figures presented, by 
themselves, as proof of population effect. They may constitute no 
proof at all, however imposing they may be when superficially 
regarded. 

For intercompensation remains one of the big answers of prey 
species—especially of the less fecund or the only moderately fecund of 
prey species—to predation losses as well as to many other losses, On 
the basis of my own experience as a student of predation, the best ad- 
vice I have to offer anyone interested in exploring the subject on his 
own responsibility, or to those trying to obtain workable concepts of its 
mechanisms, is, in short: Watch out for the compensations in attempt- 
ing to distinguish between what does or does not count. When com- 
pensations are important in population dynamics, they simply can- 
not be ignored in calculations as to regulation effects of mortality 
factors, if the truth is to be reached. 


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ud F +i : 7 


50,000 Years of Stone Age Culture 


in Borneo’ 


By Tom Harrisson, D.S.O., O.B.E. 


Government Ethnologist and Curator of The Museum 
Kuching, Sarawak 


[With 4 plates] 


Wuen I wap the privilege of becoming curator of the Sarawak 
Museum in 1947, no systematic archeology had been done in the island 
of Borneo and most of the published material on its prehistory was 
speculative or even subjective. Slowly, in the past 16 years, we have 
been able to accumulate an organized body of fact, starting in Sarawak 
itself, and subsequently extending to Brunei and in a preliminary way 
to Sabah (North Borneo). 

We have reached down to the level of beyond 50,000 B.C. in our 
excavation of the Great Cave at Niah. But in considering prehistory 
in the context of a place like Borneo, it is necessary to recognize that 
as well as extending far back into the past it continues, living, in the 
present. 

It is not possible to understand the living cultures of Borneo 
today without tracing back through their history into prehistory. 
This history (among peoples who until recently were really illiterate) 
is nevertheless firmly held in a most elaborate sung and spoken folklore. 
In this folklore, past events are often identified with specific persons, 
places, and numbers of generations back from the present. Though 
subject to even more error and argument than the work of Western his- 
torians, recent work in Borneo has shown that there is a great deal 
of objective value in this folk material; a considerable part of our 
Museum energies has been expended in collecting what is left of it, 
before the great old singers and story-tellers die out. 

In several cases, we have followed up folk tales by actual excavation, 
and proved an association between spoken words and things in the 


1Read to the Commonwealth Section of the Royal Society of Arts, on November 28, 
1963, and subsequently awarded a Prince Philip Medal. From the Journal of the Royal 
Society of Arts, vol. 112, No. 5091, pp. 174-191, 1964. Reprinted with revisions by 
permission of the Royal Society of Arts. 


521 


522 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


ground. By and large, this folk information can be regarded as 
having a varying but appreciable validity up to 20 generations back, 
especially among people like the Kenyahs and Sea Dayaks, who use 
remarkable atde-mémoires—in the form of marked planks—to refresh 
the compositions of successive generations. After about 20 genera- 
tions, 1 or 2 generations may represent centuries, and we move back, 
usually, into a world of spirits and psychoses. Nevertheless, even in 
this twilight of remembered thought, it is possible to identify distinct 
major events, such as the advent of Islam in the 14th century; the 
impact of great Hindu figures earlier than that; and the impact of 
iron early in the Chinese impacts of the T’ang dynasty. 

I first became directly conscious of this stone age element in the 
present when I landed, by parachute, among the Kelabits in the far 
interior during the Japanese [Second World] War. They were then 
at the very end of an actual stone age—such as still persists on a 
massive scale in parts of Central New Guinea. They were still using 
stone hammers on stone anvils to beat out crude irons for their rice 
hoes and jungle knives. Among their most valued cult objects were 
peculiar conical stones, which I now believe represent pounders for 
root crops and other purposes completely lost since the arrival of rice. 
These people have lived above the 3,000-foot level in the remotest part 
of the island, less disturbed than any others in this constantly dynamic 
and changing island population. I also saw then, and have explored 
since, extensive systems of upland irrigation in remote areas and a 
tremendously impressive range of megalithic monuments, some of 
them junior Stonehenges, standing days of walking away in the jungle. 

For these and many other “mysteries,” the Kelabits have extensive 
explanations in their folklore. Following up these cult objects of 
stone, one finds they are common to many Borneo peoples. But none 
of the others have conical pounders. Among the Kenyahs and Kayans 
of Sarawak and Kalimantan, another form of adz is characteris- 
tically kept and believed to be a magical thunderbolt. Farther north, 
among some of the Sabah people, the earlier findings of the late I. H. N. 
Evans are extensively confirmed by further collection. There he found 
small squared adzes and some remarkable gouges, cigar-shaped and 
nearly a foot long. Along the coast and southwest, we find even more 
peculiar stone tools (since published in Afan). 

Without elaborating on this to the extent of confusion, patterns of 
different stone age cultures (in a simple technological sense) can be 
mapped over different areas of the island. But, of course, with the 
mobility of many of the groups—even in historic times for the Sea 
Dayks and others—it does not follow that the tools now found in this 
way within any area were originally used there. They may well have 
been brought from another island, millennia ago. 


50,000 YEARS OF STONE AGE CULTURE IN BORNEO—HARRISSON 523 


Now, gradually, we are finding some of the same tools in stratified 
excavation, in our cave sites and elsewhere. Only this year, for the 
first time, have we found the crescentic adz in situ. This, most puz- 
zling, in a new sector of the Niah Great Cave well in the darkness; but 
not in the ordinary succession in the enormous cave mouth, to which I 
will refer again presently. Others of the cult stone-tools have not so 
far been identified by excavation within Borneo, though known 
outside. 

There is another significant linkage between the protohistory of 
ethnology plus folklore and prehistory by excavation, which must be 
briefly mentioned in connection with my present theme. Stories are 
told (among some peoples) of the actual introduction of iron. The 
Kelabits register this as a sort of miracle transformation, where sud- 
denly a man appeared, with the first iron tool; he was able to multiply 
his agriculture enormously in one splendid day. 

As well as stories about iron, there are others about bronze, and these 
again are in several cases associated with cult objects. One of these 
cult objects, which has a 20+ generation genealogy, has recently been 
presented to the Museum by the hereditary owner, a Kayan who no 
longer felt his group had the necessary pagan basis and power to pre- 
serve it in its deep spiritual context. This figure, called Lmun Ajo, is a 
superbly modeled small bronze of a man with a hornbill headdress, 
closely related to the D’ongson bronze age culture of Indo-China.? 
Imun Ajo is regarded as a sort of fossilized living person, in transfor- 
mation from stone to metal. But the important inferences of stories 
about him (and others) is that there was an almost direct transition 
in Borneo from the late stone age (Neolithic) to iron. There was no 
real bronze age in between, in Borneo; which moved from a tremen- 
dously developed Neolithic bang to a massive explosion of iron (I 
believe). 

We have now traced some of the actual ironworking sites in the 
Sarawak River delta, where metal is always associated with impressive 
debris of a Chinese trade, noticeably ceramics of T’ang-Sung date. 
Using mine detectors, we have been able to plot some of these. One 
stretches for nearly a mile along a now silted-up creek; another, cover- 
ing about 3 acres, has accumulations of iron slag down to 12 feet in 
depth—if it were not so inaccessible in what is now mangrove swamp, 
it would be extracted by bulldozer to provide Sarawak with much 
needed road metal. 

This iron, in the living context of the great and difficult Borneo rain 
forest, had an even more radical effect here than in many places. It 
facilitated techniques for felling and clearing. And it provided a 


2 Photographs and particulars will be published in a forthcoming issue of Artibus Asiae. 
3 See papers in Oriental Art and Transactions of the Oriental Ceramic Society. 


766—746—65—42 


524 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


means of boring long straight holes through hardwood to provide that 
wonderfully efficient weapon, the Bornean type of polished blowpipe, 
which can shoot a dart accurately for long distances, including into 
the forest canopy. The extensive evidence from analyses of the very 
large quantities of food bone we have been recovering from the stone 
age levels of the Niah cave (over a million pieces to date) underlines 
how difficult it had previously been for man to hunt the rich fauna 
of the highest jungle levels, and how much he tended to concentrate on 
the terrestrial and lower arboreal. 

Nevertheless, there is much to show that through Borneo iron pro- 
duced a technological acceleration rather than a “revolution”: that 
to a large extent it was adapted to and within the continuing frame- 
work of emerging advances in Neolithic thinking and social organiza- 
tion, with a population rapidly expanding before iron appeared. In 
this connection one must emphasize that quite recent explorations in 
Central New Guinea have shown nearly a million people living with a 
highly developed culture and irrigated agriculture, above the 3,000- 
foot mark there, strictly in the stone age. 

By now (1965) it may have become almost painfully clear, to those 
who have been patient enough to follow my thesis so far, that both the 
Borneo present and the Borneo past are exceedingly complex; if we 
are ever to understand them we must use archeology in parallel with 
folklore—and also, of course, ethnology, anthropology, and linguistics. 
But I do not for a moment wish to imply that the task is too difficult 
to be undertaken. On the contrary, it can be very rewarding. For 
there is, I think, a better chance of getting a full picture for Borneo 
than perhaps anywhere else in far Asia. Conditions that encouraged 
active and extending fieldwork since 1947 continue into 1965. There 
are, of course, grave political difficulties as between Indonesia and 
Malaysia. But it is an ethnic fact that nearly all the major groups 
of island population are represented on both sides of the political 
border and that a large part of the total picture can be built up from 
one side. Later, under happier conditions, the rest can be filled in 
from the other. One great thing about archeology is that it can nearly 
always wait. A pressing urgency about folklore is that in emergent 
new nations it is liable to be lost unless immediately recorded for 
future generations. 

Let me now concentrate on the archeological aspect more strictly. 

From 1947 on, the Sarawak Museum began to train local staff in 
excavating techniques, beginning with simple work at the early iron 
age sites in the Sarawak River delta already referred to and in some 
small caves at Bau, close to the Museum in the capital at Kuching. 
Some of the results of this earlier work have been published in the 
Journal of the Polynesian Society, and fairly extensively in the Sara- 
wak Museum Journal. This latter journal, in which we have pro- 


50,000 YEARS OF STONE AGE CULTURE IN BORNEO—HARRISSON 525 


duced 4,000 pages of original work since 1947, has also dealt extensively 
with the more elaborate excavations which we have gradually devel- 
oped, particularly at the Niah caves, with personnel trained on the 
lesser sites. Three papers have appeared in Man, but I am only too 
conscious of the fact that we have been so much engaged with the work 
itself that we have tended to publish only locally. Nevertheless, the 
material which I will now seek to summarize is largely available in 
that print, including papers by foreign experts who have generously 
assisted our project by studying material sent to them from Sarawak, 
notably Dr. D. A. Hooijer and Professor G. H. R. von Koenigswald 
from Holland; Dr. D. Brothwell, the Karl of Cranbrook, Miss Mary 
Tregear, Professor S. Tratman, and Dr. Calvin Wells in Britain; 
Dr. Robert Griffing, Dr. R. Kerr, Dr. A. R. Griswold, Dr. W. 8S. Sol- 
heim and Dr. Robert Inger from the U.S.A. This is also the moment 
to express warm thanks to the Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation, who 
have made a series of very generous grants to the work; to the Shell 
Group of companies and the Chicago Natural History Museum, who 
have supported us in many ways in the field; and to the Sarawak 
government for its continuing basic support. We have also had en- 
couragement and good advice from Sir Wilfrid Le Gros Clark, F.R.S., 
Dr. Kenneth Oakley, F.B.A., Dr. M. Burkitt, Dr. Richard Shutler, and 
Professor W. W. Howells. Most of these mentioned above have come 
to see our work on the spot. 

We began digging at Niah in 1954, by which time I had enough 
trained staff and some initial financial support. By then we already 
knew that the Great Cave covered over 25 acres. The first trial trench, 
dug with Mr. Michael Tweedie and Mr. Hugh Gibb, showed rich hu- 
man materials under a surface which indicated nothing. I have traced, 
in the Sarawak Museum Journal for 1958, the strange story of early 
searches in this cave, the first inspired by the great Alfred Russel Wal- 
lace—who spent more than a year in Sarawak just over a century ago 
and focused attention on the search for a Borneo “missing link.” I 
have also there explained how this vast cavern with more than 2 million 
edible bird’s-nest swiftlets and nearly half a million bats (of seven 
species), was lost to human knowledge and exploitation for several 
centuries after the collapse of the China-Borneo trade in the Ming 
dynasty; how it was rediscovered by nomadic Punans, and again be- 
came a socioeconomic center, first as a major source of bird’s-nests, and 
subsequently of bat guano for fertilizer. But the swiftlets and bats 
live in the dark bowels of the caves, which through various chambers 
run for miles through the Niah mountain. 

The main or west mouth of the Great Cave is about 200 yards wide 
and up to 100 yards high. This is so light that it is free of guano, and 
thus remained untouched until 1954. After initially proving the site 
in 1954, it took some time to raise the large additional funds and out- 


526 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


side help that were clearly going to be necessary, but in 1957 we started 
large-scale regular excavation. Now, in 1968, we have a house inside 
the cave, mouth and a large base camp organization on the river 2 
miles away, with a connecting hardwood plank-walk from river to 
cave. Permanent staff are on duty all the year round. We average 
4 to 5 months’ field excavation during the year; and all-the-year-round 
analysis back in Kuching (where we now have a fine new research 
building). 

The simplest fact about the Great Cave west mouth is that what 
appears to be earth producing a wide pleasant floor is really aimost 
solid human deposit, back at least into the middle Paleolithic. The 
outer part of the mouth was used primarily for frequentation in the 
Neolithic—by which time people were making some permanent dwell- 
ings out in the rain forest; and for regular habitation in the earlier 
phases of stone age (Paleolithic—Mesolithic). 

In front of the guano belt of darkness, the whole floor is netted with 
burials, of which we have now more than 100 left exposed in situ, under 
perspex covers—for later full study. Burials also occur in the habita- 
tion-frequentation zone, mostly at the deeper levels; usually the bodies 
distorted, crouched, or the head alone. The deepest of these so far is a 
young Homo sapiens boy which has been fully published by Dr. Broth- 
well and generally accepted (eg., at the recent Pacific Science 
Congress, Hawaii) as corresponding to a carbon-14-dated level of 
around 38,000 p.c. There is good reason to believe that its date is 
correct within, at the worst, a few thousand years; and it therefore 
represents much the earliest Homo sapiens (“modern man’) found so 
far East. The further inferences is that Homo sapiens was much more 
widely distributed considerably earlier than has previously been sup- 
posed. This is indirectly supported by other archeological indica- 
tions that human culture advanced early and rapidly in West Borneo. 
I believe that full excavation elsewhere in Southeast Asia will un- 
doubtedly provide similar material in Malaya, Thailand, and Indo- 
nesia. Dr. Robert Fox (of the National Museum in Manila) and I 
visited Palawan in the Southern Philippines 2 years ago, on an archeo- 
logical reconnaissance, and he has since, using similar techniques there, 
already produced Homo sapiens material which is datable to beyond 
20,000 z.c. from a Palawan cave. 

The Brothwell Niah skull comes from 100 inches level in the West 
Mouth excavations at a pit we call “Hell’”—owing to the heat and dis- 
comfort of working there . .. The deposit down here is extremely 
fine and difficult to work. Soon after 100 inches, bone (both human or 
food remains) and all food shell (of which 20 species occur in quantity 
higher up) disintegrate completely through the mere process of equa- 
torial time. For a feature of Niah is that nothing in these deposits 
has fossilized. Under the peculiar conditions of this great limestone 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Harrisson PLATE 1 


1. Sarawak Museum’s laboratory inside Niah Great Cave mouth. Edible birdsnest climbing 
poles are shown on each side of the hut, rising from a declivity in the background. 


2. General view up main excavation area in West Mouth, Niah Great Cave. “Cemetery” 


is at far back; main “frequentation” area is in foreground. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Harrisson PLATE 2 


1. Neolithic burial (No. 76) at Niah Great Cave, with associated pottery. 


2. Massive earthenware urn, decorated in three colors and used for “secondary burials,” 
especially of women and babies, in the late Neolithic of West Borneo. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Harrisson PLATE 3 


Teh ial 


Ws bai 


in dell? at 


1. Working below the 100-inch layer—on which the author is standing 


c. 40,000 B.C. in Niah Great Cave. 


tro 


. The Deep Skull, from Niah—earliest Homo sapiens known in Far Asia. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Harrisson PLATE 4 


1. Wall paintings in scarlet haematite, Painted Cave, Niah. A major emphasis is on 
“death ships.” 


2. “Death ship” coffins lying on floor of Painted Cave, Niah. 


50,000 YEARS OF STONE AGE CULTURE IN BORNEO—HARRISSON 527 


cave, it has been so naturally and slowly dehydrated that bone and 
shell simply continue until they expire. 

Below 120 inches—and we are now working well below this—the 
main indications of human activity are through chemical analyses of 
the “soil” (which have been undertaken for us by Dr. C. A. Sutton 
and others), by certain pollens (on which we have been working with 
the Shell laboratories), and by the presence of stone tools and fire 
strikers. 

Stone tools are, of course, the clearest indication of all. But here 
we come up against another peculiarity of Niah and West Borneo 
generally. There is a great shortage of durable, workable stone 
throughout the area—even of rough stone suitable for roadmaking. 
Whereas in Sabah, Malayan, Thai, and Palawan caves large quan- 
tities of stone tools are generally found, all through West Borneo hard 
stone has been sparse, and was clearly precious to early man. At the 
deeper levels we are finding only very small, fine flakes of quartzite. 
Even in the late Neolithic, when there was clearly much mobility and 
even sea traflic, the polished stone tools are quite few and far between 
in the excavation. By presistence over the years, we have now ac- 
quired a good series for the whole deposit. But it is not unusual, with 
a team of up to 50 or so working, to recover no more than one stone tool 
during the day. Correspondingly, there has been an elaboration of 
bone tools, on which Lord Medway and I have recently published a 
first attempt at an 18-category typology. 

It is quite possible that as we continue lower at Niah we shall come 
to a level of true fossilization; or, anyway, limification. Otherwise, 
we have little chance of finding pre-Homo skeletal remains such as 
Pithecanthropus. We may now reach that sort of depth by 1965. 
Meanwhile, common sense suggests that such early hominids were 
present in Borneo, which had a land link with Java and “Java men” 
in the Pleistocene. We have recently recovered, in a bauxite mine near 
Kuching, two large stone tools which may well belong to that “cul- 
ture,” as described by Dr. von Koenigswald and Dubois. 

Of particular interest in this connection is the presence, in the “Hell” 
deposit at Niah, of the extinct giant pangolin, Mainis palaeojavanica 
(Dubois). This was previously described from the fossil beds of 
Trinil in Java associated with Pithecanthropus. The curator of the 
Dubois Collection at Leyden, Dr. Hooijer, has now identified from 
Niah a series of bones of this huge, scaly anteater—in of course non- 
fossil condition—extending to the limit of our bone survival depth in 
“Hell.” It has not been found in the high levels. 

In the higher levels, for which we have a series of published carbon- 
14 dates, and others in preparation, I very provisionally put forward 
the crude tabulation shown in table 1. 


528 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


TasBLeE 1.—Preliminary Niah phaseology 


Approximate Niah 


Phase Main “‘characteristic’”’ starting date 
(estimated) 
1. Middle Paleolithic? ___-- ding flakes 42. a 144 bs iees ees 40,000+ B.C. 
7 Ni a gl Se (6 (oT ee Re LARC Oa Fee ‘““Mid-Sohan”’ flake !____._____- 35—40,000 B.C. 
3. Upper Paleolithic? . __-_- Chopping tools and large flakes__| ca. 30,000 B.C. 
4. eS 6 (cS aya LO Srnaall flakes) See mee eae 25-30,000 B.C. 
5. ‘‘Paleo—Mesolithic’’?____| ‘‘Advanced flakes”_________-__ 10,000 B.C.? 
63/2 Mesolithie?=b Gi. 11868 Edge-ground tools___---------- ca. 7,000 B.C. 
d-(eNeolighie. 2251-2 F ee “Round ax’7 Zc Jee se Ns Tee av ca. 4,000 B.C. 
(or later). 
Sees Cs Gao Sap tag sala See at Quadrangular adzes; fine ca. 250 B.C. 
pottery, jewelry, mats, nets, 
etc. 
9:7 Chaleolithie’ 4322.02 “Soft tool” in stone; slight ca. 250 B.C. 
nonfunctional bronze; 
elaborate pottery, beads. 
LOS diarly iran So ee Tron tools, imported ceramics, A.D. 650 (until 
glass beads, etc. A.D. 13800). 


1 See Man, 1959. 


I should emphasize the apparent absence (at No. 6 in table 1) of 
those distinctive struck pebble tools usually attributed to the Mesolithic 
in Malaya and Indonesia and name “Hoabinhian” after the type site 
in Vietnam. I am mildly sceptical about the “Hoabinhian” as gen- 
erally accepted; in any case, it is—as at present defined—strikingly 
absent at Niah. 

The situation at Niah is not, clearly, unique. Further cave explora- 
tion in Borneo will surely yield similar results. But there are certain 
conditions that are desirable to produce a site of this richness, For 
one thing, a cave floor must be well above sea level, to avoid effects of 
prehistorical changes in level and also massive floods from the great 
rivers—which have continued even in historical times. It was also 
a big attraction to early man to have a cave literally teeming with 
protein in the form of edible birds and bats. 

Yet the extent to which a place like Niah became a center of stone 
age civilization has only been barely indicated above. As well as the 
work in the West Mouth, in the last 5 years we have been exploring 
the whole limestone formation of the Niah massif. We have found 
literally scores of other caves of archeological value. One of these, 
first identified from the air, involved a group of skilled climbers in 
5 days’ preparation and ladder building before they could reach it 
high up in the cliff. It proved to be a cave almost as impressive as 
the West Mouth itself; and a first scratch at the surface produced posi- 
tive human results. We have so far excavated extensively in 5 other 


50,000 YEARS OF STONE AGE CULTURE IN BORNEO—HARRISSON 529 


caves in the formation. The broad results fit with the West Mouth 
picture: But in every case something new and special has appeared as 
well—including some evidence for a small Neolithic “negritoid” popu- 
lation living alongside larger people, but using separate burial caves 
(there have been no negritos on the island in historic times). 

Most exciting of all is a beautiful cave 300 ft. up in a difficult cliff, 
the whole back wall of which is painted with primitive designs in 
scarlet hematite. The cave floor is littered with relics of late stone and 
early iron age rituals for secondary burial (transference of bones) and 
the journey of the dead, including quantities of early Chinese porce- 
lain and other mainland imports. A separate monograph on this cave 
is now under preparation. 

This “Painted Cave” showed no sign of having been visited by man 
during several centuries. It is too high and light to contain either of 
Niah’s modern incentives for search—bat guano or edible nests. After 
reconstructing, by excavation in association with the wall paintings, 
a picture of what we think was going on there about a thousand and 
more years ago, we found that some of the same ideas were present in 
the folklore and custom of the Punans living at Niah today. They 
themselves became so interested in this that, with the help of some of 
the oldest men, we have been able to “revive” the old Punan death 
rites for secondary burial to assist the spirits in the journey of the 
dead. This clearly goes right back into the ancient past—and now 
it can be shown in film. 

On the whole, the most striking impression gained from all this 
work is of the highly advanced culture that was achieved as the stone 
age proceeded in West Borneo. By the later Neolithic, say at 2,000 
B.c., there were beautifully made polished tools, superb pottery dec- 
orated in three colors, of which we now have reconstructed or whole 
pieces and over 200,000 classified sherds. They had an elaboration of 
shell, bone, and stone jewelry (including jade) ; mats, nets, and good 
boats. They showed what could fairly be described as a love of the 
dead, extending not only to exquisitely laid out primary burials, but 
also to secondary burial and cremation, especially of babies—these long 
predating the Hindu influence to which this custom had hitherto 
been attributed in Southeast Asia.* They had a small domestic dog, 
possibly a Neolithic lap dog rather than a hunter—as proved by bones 
not only from Niah but from 400 miles away behind Kuching. This 
dog features in folklore but is now extinct, completely swamped by 
the only too familiar bigger “pye dog” of the East, which iself is related 
to the Basenji breed of sophisticated dog breeders. 

This dynamic Neolithic undoubtedly extended far inland into the 
central highlands; and along the coast even to tiny offshore islands. 


*¥For a fuller account of the growth and elaboration of contemporary death rites out of 
the stone age, see ‘Borneo Death,” Bijdragen, vol. 116. Leiden. 1962. 


530 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Recently, the Sabah Government was faced with the necessity of blow- 
ing up a whole islet to get “fill” for the extension of the airport of 
Labuan, for this was the only hard stone anywhere near. In the 
process the engineers came across a tiny cave. A Sarawak Museum 
unit was rushed up there; and we were able to recover what remained 
before the work of necessary destruction proceeded. On this one of 
many small islands, in a cave hardly big enough for three bodies, 
lay secondary burials associated with a three-color ware pottery and 
polished stone tools. This is just one clue to the scale and extent of 
human probing, that long ago. 

Borneo has an astonishingly rich, varying, and enterprising culture 
today. I think that the part which Sabah and Sarawak are going to 
play in the new Federation of Malaysia will amply demonstrate this 
in the most modern of settings. A good deal of the strength in this 
setup derives directly from a tremendous tradition of development 
and human evolution going right back to the Brothwell skull—and 
behind that. 

This is, necessarily, both a general report and a preliminary one. 
Within a few months, I hope to be back working at Niah for at least 
another 2 years. Meanwhile, also, we are training local personnel to 
extend these investigations more widely in Malaysian Borneo and the 
State of Brunei. We should welcome further outside support, par- 
ticularly from specialists prepared to collaborate on specific sections 
of the project, whether out there or back here in the West.. 


5 For a picture of living cultures inside Borneo, see the 1963 Dickson Asia Lecture to 
the Royal Geographical Society in Geographical Journal, 1964. The megalithic culture and 
past population of the uplands are also discused there. 


The Emergence of the Plains Indian as the 
Symbol of the North American Indian 


By Joun C. Ewers 


Director, Museum of History and Technology 
Smithsonian Institution 


[With 18 plates] 


Onz sumMMeER’s pAy in 1941 I stood on the North Montana Fair- 
ground in Great Falls. From a stand in front of me a fast-talking 
patent medicine salesman was vigorously extolling the curative powers 
of his bottled wares. From time to time he pointed to the living 
advertisement standing beside him—a tall, erect, young White man 
whose paint-streaked face was framed by a beautiful, flowing-feather 
bonnet. The young man’s body was clothed in a cloth shirt, leggings, 
and a breechclout dyed to resemble buckskin. His feet were clad in 
beaded moccasins. The audience, for the most part, was composed 
of Indians from Montana reservations wearing common White men’s 
clothes—shirts and trousers. I was intrigued by the fact that this 
pale-faced symbol of an American Indian standing before us was 
wearing a close approximation of the same costume the Blackfeet, 
Crees, and Crows in the audience would put on when they staged an 
Indian show for the enjoyment of tourists. 

How did this picturesque costume come to symbolize “Indianness” 
to the minds of Indians and Whites alike? How did the popular 
image of the Indian come to be formed in a Plains Indian mold? 
Why de people in Europe and America, when they think of Indians, 
tend to think of them as wearers of backswept feather bonnets, as 
dwellers in conical tipis, and as mounted warriors and buffalo hunters ? 
Surely our founding fathers had no such conception of the Indian in 
the days when the frontier of settlement extended only a short distance 
west of the Alleghenies, and the only Indians the remote frontiersmen 
knew were forest dwellers who lived in bark-covered houses, traveled 
in bark canoes or dugouts, hunted and fought on foot, and wore no 
flowing-feather bonnets. Nor was the prevailing popular image of 
the Indian an original creation of the motion pictures during the 20th 
century. How and when, then, did this image emerge? 


766-746—65——43 531 


532 § ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Probing into history we find that the creation and clarification of 
this image was a prolonged process to which many factors contributed. 
Let us try to trace the development of this image from what appear 
to be its earliest beginnings. 


THE FIRST PICTURES OF PLAINS INDIANS (1804-1840) 


Obviously before non-Indians could begin: to picture Indians in 
Plains Indian terms, they had to have fairly clear ideas of the appear- 
ance of the Indians of the Great Plains and of those aspects of their 
culture that typified their way of life. European explorers and 
traders traversed considerable portions of the Plains in the 214 cen- 
turies between Coronado’s quest for the fabled city of Quivera on the 
grasslands of Kansas in 1541 and the purchase of Louisiana by the 
United States in 1803. Nevertheless, those Spaniards, French, and 
Englishmen produced no popular literature about and no known 
pictures of Plains Indians—either portraits or scenes of Indian life. 
At the time of the Louisiana Purchase these Indians remained vir- 
tually unknown to the peoples of Europe and the United States (al- 
though a number of earlier explorers’ and traders’ accounts have been 
published since that time). 

The earliest known portraits of Plains Indians were made in the 
cities of the East during the first decade of the 19th century. They 
were likenesses of Indians whom President Jefferson urged Lewis 
and Clark to send to the seat of government in Washington. They 
were profiles executed by two very competent artists, who both em- 
ployed versions of a mechanical device, known as a physiognotrace, 
to accurately delineate the outlines of their sitters’ heads. The French 
refugee artist Charles Balthazer Fevret de Saint-Mémin made por- 
traits of some of the 12 men and 2 boys of the Osages who comprised 
the first delegation of Indians from beyond the Mississippi. Thomas 
Jefferson welcomed these Indians to the Presidential Mansion in the 
summer of 1804, and enthusiastically termed them “the most gigantic” 
and “the finest men we have ever seen” (Jackson, 1962, p. 199). Saint- 
Mémin’s most striking profile is that of the chief of the Little Osages 
(pl.d, fie, 1). 

Charles Willson Peale, prominent Philadelphia artist and museum 
proprietor, cut miniature silhouettes of 10 members of a second Indian 
delegation from the West. He sent a set of these profiles to President 
Jefferson on February 8, 1806 (Jackson, 1962, p. 299). One of these 
sitters was Pagesgata, a young Republican Pawnee from the Platte 
Valley (pl. 1, fig. 2). 

After his return from the Pacific coast, Meriwether Lewis purchased 
several originals or copies of Saint-Mémin’s Indian portraits. Un- 
doubtedly he intended to reproduce them in an elaborately illustrated 
account of the Lewis and Clark explorations which he proposed, but 


THE PLAINS INDIAN—EWERS Dae 


never produced because of his untimely death in 1809. Peale also was 
to have furnished illustrations for this ill-fated work. Doubtless they 
would have included accurate drawings of the Plains Indian costumes 
and other artifacts sent or brought back by Lewis and Clark, which 
Peale exhibited in his popular Philadelphia Museum. 

More significant factors in the early diffusion of the Plains Indian 
image were the oil portraits of several members of an Indian delega- 
tion from the Lower Missouri and Platte Valley tribes who arrived 
in Washington late in the year 1821. Although Charles Bird King 
painted these Indians for Thomas McKenney, Superintendent of 
Indian Trade, he executed several replicas of these paintings that 
were diffused more widely—one set being sent to Denmark, another 
to London. The original portraits formed the nucleus of the National 
Indian Portrait Gallery, which became one of Washington’s popular 
tourist attractions before it was almost completely destroyed in the 
Smithsonian Institution fire of 1865 (Ewers, 1954). 

The most popular Indian in that 1821 delegation was Petalesharro, 
a young Pawnee warrior. He was hailed as a hero during his eastern 
tour because he had courageously rescued a Comanche girl captive 
just as her life was to be taken in the traditional human sacrifice to 
the morning star, an annual Pawnee ceremony. Petalesharro’s por- 
trait was painted by John Neagle in Philadelphia, as well as by King, 
and Samuel F. B. Morse placed him in front of the visitor’s gallery 
in his well-known painting of “The Old House of Representatives,” 
executed in 1822. (See pl. 2.) All three paintings show this Indian 
hero wearing a flowing-feather bonnet. They are, to the best of my 
knowledge, the first of the millions of pictorial renderings of this 
picturesque Indian headgear produced by artists and photographers. 

The popular novelist James Fenimore Cooper met Petalesharro 
during that Indian’s eastern tour. This meeting was a source of in- 
spiration to the author in writing Zhe Prairie, the only one of the 
Leatherstocking Tales to have a Great Plains setting (Keiser, 1933, 
pp. 184-138). In the living Indians of the Plains, Cooper recognized 
the virtues he had imputed to his Woodland Indian heroes of an earlier 
period in The Last of the Mohicans. Writing of the Indians 2 years 
after that popular novel was published, he observed: “The majority of 
them, in or near the settlements, are an humbled and much degraded 
race. As you recede from the Mississippi, the finer traits of savage 
life become visible.” 

Cooper thought that Plains Indian chiefs possessed a “loftiness of 
spirit, of bearing and of savage heroism . . . that might embarrass 
the fertility of the richest inventor to equal,” and he cited Petal- 
esharro as a prime example (Cooper, 1828, vol. 2, pp. 287-288). 

Some of the distinctive traits of the Plains Indians were pictured 
in illustrated books and magazines prior to 1840. The first published 


534 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


picture of the conical skin-covered tipis of the nomadic Plains tribes 
was a crude engraving after Titian Peale’s field sketch on Major 
Long’s expedition of 1819-20, which appeared in Edwin James’ ac- 
count of those explorations (James, 1823). (See pl. 3, fig. 1.) The 
first reproduction of a Plains Indian warrior on horseback probably 
was the lithograph of Peter Rindisbacher’s drawing “Sioux Warrior 
Charging” that appeared in the October 1829 issue of Zhe American 
Turf Register and Sporting Magazine (pl. 4). Young Rindisbacher 
had ample opportunities to observe Plains Indian warriors and buffalo 
hunters during nearly 5 years’ residence in Lord Selkirk’s settlement 
on the Red River of the North, 1821-26. His lively portrayal of 
Indians on horseback chasing buffalo was offered as the colored litho- 
graphic frontispiece in the first volume of Thomas McKenney and 
James Hall’s classic History of the Indian Tribes of North America 
(1836-44). (See pl. 5.) However, of the 120 finely printed colored 
lithographs of Indians in that handsome work only a small proportion 
portray Plains Indians, and all of these were portraits of members 
of western delegations to Washington, the originals of which had 
been executed by Saint-Mémin, King, or the latter’s pupil George 
Cooke. 

In 1839 Samuel George Morton of Philadelphia, now known as the 
father of physical anthropology in America, published his major work, 
Crania Americana. Its frontispiece is a lithographic reproduction of 
John Neagle’s portrait of the Omaha head chief Big Elk, a prominent 
member of the 1821 deputation from the Great Plains. Morton ex- 
plained this selection : “Among the multitude of Indian portraits which 
have come under my notice, I know of no one that embraces more 
characteristic traits than this, as seen in the retreating forehead, the 
low brow, the dull and seemingly unobservant eye, the large aquiline 
nose, the high cheek bones, full mouth and chin and angular face” 
(Morton, 1839, p. 292). (See pl. 3, fig. 2.) 

The first illustrated schoolbook on American history was Rev. 
Charles A. Goodrich’s History of the United States. First published 
in 1823, it went through 150 printings by 1847. However, Noah 
Webster’s History of the United States was a popular competitor from 
its first appearance in 1832. The small and sometimes indistinct 
woodcuts in these books are not numerous. Nevertheless, some of them 
include Indians. A few scenes in Webster’s history were adopted from 
John White’s 16th-century drawings of Indian life in coastal North 
Carolina. But the scenes depicting early explorers’ meetings with 
Indians, the making of Indian treaties, and the conduct of Indian wars 
seem to be based largely upon the imaginations of their anonymous 
creators. Plains Indians are conspicuously absent. They had yet to 
make an indelible mark upon American history in their determined 


THE PLAINS INDIAN—EWERS 535 


resistence to the expansion of White settlement onto and across their 
grassy homeland. 


THE INFLUENCE OF GEORGE CATLIN AND KARL BODMER (1841-60) 


No other mid-19th century factors had such a stimulating influence 
on both (1) the projection of the Plains Indian image and (2) 
the acceptance of this image as that of the American Indian par ex- 
cellence as did the writings of the American artist George Catlin and 
the German scientist Maximilian Alexander Philipp, Prince of Wied- 
Neuwied; and the pictures of Catlin and of the Swiss artist Karl 
Bodmer, who accompanied the prince on his exploration of the Upper 
Missouri in 1833-34. 

Inspired by the site of a delegation of western Indians passing 
through Philadelphia on their way to Washington, and his own con- 
viction that the picturesque Plains Indians were doomed to cultural 
extinction as the frontier expanded westward, Catlin determined to 
rescue these Indians from oblivion and to “become their historian” 
before it was too late. During the summers of 1832 and 1834 he 
traveled among the tribes of the Upper Missouri and the Southern 
Plains gathering information and preparing pictures for an Indian 
Gallery, which he exhibited to enthusiastic audiences in the larger 
American cities. In 1840, he took the exhibition to England for a 
4-year display in London; this was followed by a Paris exhibition that 
included a special showing for King Louis Philippe in the Louvre. In 
addition to his paintings this exhibition included costumed manne- 
quins, a pitched Crow tipi, and enactments of Indian dances and cere- 
monies by Chippewa or Iowa Indians. No one had brought the Wild 
West to civilization as had Catlin, and his exhibition must have made a 
lasting impression upon all Americans and Europeans who saw it. 

Nevertheless, Catlin’s books must have had a still wider influence. 
His two-volume Manners, Customs and Condition of the North 
American Indians, published in London in 1841, combined a vivid 
description of his travels and observations with 312 steel-engraved 
reproductions of his paintings. The work was enthusiastically re- 
viewed in America and abroad, and was reprinted five times in as 
many years. Although Catlin included brief descriptions and illustra- 
tions, primarily portraits, of a number of the semicivilized Woodland 
tribes, he concentrated primarily upon the wild tribes of the Great 
Plains. There could be no mistaking either from his text or from his 
pictures that the Plains Indians were his favorites. Repeatedly, if 
not consistently, Catlin sang their praises. He declared that the tribes 
of the Upper Missouri were the “finest specimens of Indians on the 
Continent . . . all entirely in the state of primitive rudeness and wild- 
ness, and consequently are picturesque and handsome, almost beyond 


536 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


description.” The Crows were as “handsome and well-formed set of 
men as can be seen in any part of the world”; the Assiniboins “a fine 
and noble looking race.” There were no “finer looking men than the 
Sioux”; and Catlin used almost the same words to describe the 
Cheyennes. (Catlin, 1841, vol. 1, pp. 22-28, 49, 54, 210; vol. 2, p. 2.) 
Catlin devoted several chapters of his book to Four Bears, the second 
chief of the Mandan, whom he called the “most extraordinary man, 
perhaps, who lives to this day, in the atmosphere of Nature’s 
noblemen.” (See pl. 6, fig. 1.) 

Prince Maximilian’s Reise in das Innere Nord-America in den 
Jahren 1832 bis 1834, first published in Coblenz (1839-41), offered a 
more restrained, scientific description of the Indians of the Upper 
Missouri. Nevertheless, it was reprinted in Paris and London within 
3 years, and the demand for it soon exceeded the supply. Its great 
popularity was due largely to the excellent reproductions of Karl 
Bodmer’s incomparable field sketches of Plains Indians that appeared 
in the accompanying Ad/as, 

Together the works of Catlin and Maximilian-Bodmer, appearing 
almost simultaneously, greatly stimulated popular interest in the 
Plains Indians in this country and abroad, and had a strong influence 
on the work of many other artists. 

They influenced the pictorial representation of Indians during the 
mid-19th century in three important ways. First, the Catlin- 
Maximilian-Bodmer example encouraged other artists to go west and 
to draw and/or paint the Indians of the Plains in the field. Among 
the best known of these artists were the American John Mix Stanley, 
the German-American Charles Wimar, the Canadian Paul Kane, and 
the Swiss Rudolph Friederich Kurz. 

Secondly, they encouraged some of the most able illustrators of 
the period, who had not visited the western Indian Country, to help 
meet the popular demand for pictures of Plains Indians by using the 
works of Catlin and Bodmer for reference. In 1848, 2 years after 
the first publication of Catlin’s popular book, an enterprising Phila- 
delphia publisher offered Scenes in Indian Life: A Series of Original 
Designs Portraying Events in the Life of an Indian Chief. Drawn 
and etched on Stone by Felix O. C. Darley. This pictures episodes in 
the life history of a fictional Sioux chief. The artist was then an 
almost unknown “local boy,” 20 years of age; but he possessed re- 
markable skill asa draftsman. Darley became the outstanding Ameri- 
can book and magazine illustrator of the century. Even though most 
of his finely drawn illustrations are of non-Indian subjects, he re- 
peatedly pictures buffalo hunts and other Plains Indian activities. He 
prepared the frontispiece and illustrated title page for the first edition 
of Francis Parkman’s classic, 7he California and Oregon Trail (1849), 
and toward the end of his life designed a colored lithograph, “Return 
from the Hunt,” which has the qualities of spurious realism that only a 


THE PLAINS INDIAN—EWERS Hat 


highly skilled artist who does not know his subject can impart to 
his work. The picture shows a birchbark canoe in the foreground, 
a village of tipis in the middle ground, and a background of high 
mountains. Darley appears to have produced a handsome geograph- 
ical and cultural monstrosity in which characteristics of the region 
from the Great Lakes to the Rocky Mountains are compressed into a 
single scene (pl. 9). 

Darley was on firmer ground when he followed Catlin and Bodmer 
more closely. A few of his book illustrations are frankly acknowl- 
edged as “after Catlin” (pl. 8). 

Some of the most popular Currier and Ives prints of the 1850’s and 
1860’s were western scenes, lithographed from very realistic drawings 
executed jointly by German-born Louis Maurer and English-born 
Arthur Fitzwilliam Tait, neither of whom had any first-hand know]l- 
edge of Plains Indians. Maurer acknowledged that they learned about 
Indians from the reproductions of Bodmer’s and Catlin’s works in the 
Astor Library in New York City (Peters, 1931, p. 21). 

Finally Catlin and Bodmer powerfully influenced those lesser, poorly 
paid artists who anonymously illustrated a number of popular books 
on Indians as well as school histories; these began to appear within 
a very few years after the books of Catlin and Bodmer were published. 
One can trace the progressive degeneration of truthfulness in illustra- 
tion in the copies of these once popular books preserved in the Rare 
Book Room of the Library of Congress. 

A prolific writer of popular books of the 1840-60 period was Samuel 
Griswold Goodrich, who commonly used the pen name “Peter Parley,” 
and who claimed in 1856 that he had written 170 books of which 7 
million copies had been sold. Goodrich had discovered Catlin by 
1844, when he published History of the Indians of North and South 
America; he quoted Catlin in the text and copied Catlin’s “Four Bears” 
in one illustration. Two years later Goodrich’s The Manners, Cus- 
toms, and Antiquities of the Indians of North America derived all of 
its 35 illustrations of North American Indians from Catlin—28 of 
these being Plains Indian subjects. Finally, in Goodrich’s Zhe Amer- 
ican Child’s Pictorial History of the United States, first published in 
1860, and adopted as a textbook for the public schools of Maryland 
5 years later, the Indians of New England, Virginia, and Roanoke 
Island are pictured living in tipis and wearing flowing-feather bonnets 
of Plains Indian type, while 17th-century Indians of Virginia are 
shown wrapped in painted buffalo robes and performing a buffalo 
dance in front of their tipis. 

Impressionable young readers of popular histories of the Indian 
wars published in the 1850’s also saw the common traits of Plains 
Indian culture applied to the Woodland tribes. John Frost’s Indian 
Wars of the United States from the Earliest Period to the Present 


538 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Time pictures a buffalo hunt on horseback in the chapter on the French 
and Indian Wars, Catlin’s Crow warrior on horseback in the one on 
the War of 1812, and the same artist’s portrait of Eagle Ribs, a Black- 
foot warrior, in the Creek war chapter. 

Catlin’s and Bodmer’s representations of Plains Indians underwent 
even more miraculous changes in identity in William V. Moore’s /ndian 
Wars of the United States from the Discovery to the Present Time. 
In that book Catlin’s “Four Bears” became “Pontiac” (pl. 6, fig. 2), 
his Crow Indian on horseback “A Creek Warrior” (pl. 7, fig. 2), and 
a ceremonial in a Mandan setting emerged as “Village of the Semi- 
noles.” Bodmer’s well-identified portraits of Mandan, Hidatsa, and 
Sioux leaders became “Saturiouva,” a 16th-century Florida chief, and 
two leaders in the Indian wars of colonial New England. 

The first illustrated edition of Henry Wadsworth Longfellow’s pop- 
ular Song of Hiawatha was published in England in 1856. John Gil- 
bert, its illustrator, did not copy Catlin slavishly but leaned heavily 
upon him in representing the poet’s ancient Ojibwa of the southern 
shore of Lake Superior as typical Indians of the Upper Missouri. 
His portrait of “Paw-puk-keewis,” for example, is but a slightly altered 
version of Catlin’s Mandan hero, “Four Bears” (pl. 6, fig. 3). 

Nor were these Woodland Indians in Plains Indian clothing limited 
to the works of artists who had had no first-hand knowledge of Indians. 
John Mix Stanley had known the Plains tribes well, yet when he 
attempted a portrait of “Young Uncas” (the 17th-century Mohegan) 
or “The Trial of Red Jacket” (the Seneca), he tended to clothe his 
Indians in the dress costume of the tribes of the western grasslands 
(pl. 10). And when Karl Bodmer collaborated with the French artist 
Jean Francois Millet to produce a series of realistic but imaginative 
scenes in the border warfare of the Ohio Valley during the Revolu- 
tionary War, the war-bonneted Plains Indian was clearly portrayed 
(Smith, 1910, p. 83). 


INFLUENCE OF THE PLAINS INDIAN WARS (1860-90) 


In 1860 a new medium appeared to exploit the American boy’s fasci- 
nation for the Indian’s prowess as a warrior. Dime novels increased 
very rapidly in both numbers and sales. A favorite theme in this 
lurid literature was Indian fighting on the Western Plains in which 
many a wild Comanche, Kiowa, Blackfoot, or Sioux “bit the dust” 
before the hero ended his perilous adventures. Bales of these cheap 
“paperbacks” were sent to the soldiers in camp or in the field during 
the Civil War, and reading them helped the boys in blue or gray 
to forget, for a time at least, their own hardships and sufferings 
(Johannsen, vol. 1, p. 39). 

The horrors of Plains Indian warfare became very real as emigrants, 
prospectors, stage, and telegraph and railroad lines pushed across the 


THE PLAINS INDIAN—EWERS 539 


Plains after the Civil War, and the Sioux, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Kiowa, 
and Comanche resisted White invasion of their buffalo hunting 
grounds. Newspaper and magazine reporters were sent West to re- 
port the resultant Indian wars. Theodore R. Davis, artist-reporter 
for Harper's Weekly, was riding in a Butterfield Overland Dispatch 
Coach when it was attacked by Cheyennes near the Smoky Hill Spring 
stage station on November 24, 1865. His vivid picture of this real- 
life experience, published in Harper’s Weekly, April 21, 1866, was the 
prototype of one of the most enduring symbols of the Wild West— 
the Indian attack on the overland stage (pl. 11). 

As the Indians of the Plains made their desperate last stand against 
the Army of the United States they again and again demonstrated 
their courage and skill as warriors. On the Little Bighorn, June 26, 
1876, they wiped out Custer’s immediate command in the most decisive 
defeat for American arms in our long history. Numerous artists, 
largely upon the basis of their imaginations, sought to picture that 
dramatic action. One pictorial reconstruction of a closing stage of 
this battle, Otto Becker’s lithograph “Custer’s Last Fight,” after 
Cassilly Adams’ painting, has become one of the best-known American 
pictures. Copyrighted by Anheuser-Busch in 1896, more than 150,000 
copies of this large print have been distributed. It has provided a 
lively conversation piece for millions of customers in thousands of 
barrooms throughout the country (Taft, 1953, pp. 142-148). (See 
pl. 12.) 

Four years before his death, George Armstrong Custer published 
serially in the Galawy, a respectable middle-class magazine, “My Life 
on the Plains,” in which he expressed his admiration for “the fearless 
hunter, matchless horseman and warrior of the Plains.” Many Army 
officers who had fought against these Indians expressed similar opin- 
ions in widely read books on their experiences, some of which were 
profusely illustrated with reproductions of drawings and photographs, 
including portraits of many of the leading chiefs and warriors among 
the hostiles—Red Cloud, Satanta, Gaul, Sitting Bull, and others. 
The exploits of these leaders on the warpath became better known to 
late 19th-century readers than those of such earlier Indian heroes of 
the forest as King Philip, Pontiac, Tecumseh, Osceola, and Black 
Hawk. 


THE WILD WEST SHOW AND ITS INFLUENCES (1883- ) 


On July 20, 1881, Sitting Bull, the last of the prominent Indian 
leaders in the Plains Indian wars to surrender his rifle, returned from 
his Canadian exile and gave himself up to the authorities of the United 
States. But within 2 years William F. Cody, pony express rider, 
scout, Indian fighter, and hero of hundreds of dime novels, whose 
hunting skill had earned him the name “Buffalo Bill,” organized a 


540 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


reenactment of exciting episodes of the Old West that was so realistic 
no one who ever saw it could forget it. Buffalo Bill’s Wild West 
Show opened in Omaha, Nebr., on May 17, 1883. It ran for more 
than three decades, before millions of wide-eyed viewers in the cities 
and towns of the United States and Canada; in England; and on the 
continent of Europe. Sitting Bull himself traveled with the show 
in 1885. It always included a series of performances staged in the 
open by genuine Plains Indians—Pawnees, Sioux, Cheyennes, and/or 
Arapahoes—chasing a small herd of buffalo, war dancing, horse 
racing, attacking a settler’s cabin and/or an emigrant train crossing 
the Plains. A highlight of every performance was the Indian attack 
on the Deadwood Mail Coach, whose passengers were rescued in the 
nick of time by “Buffalo Bill” himself and his hard-riding cowboys. 
This scene was commonly portrayed on the program covers and the 
posters advertising the show (pl. 18). 

In 1887 this show was the hit of the American Exhibition at the 
celebration of Queen Victoria’s Golden Jubilee in England, playing to 
packed audiences in a large arena that held 40,000 spectators. The 
Illustrated London News for April 16, 1887, tried to explain its 
fascination : 

This remarkable exhibition, the “Wild West,” has created a furore in America, 
and the reason is easy to understand. It is not a circus, nor indeed is it acting 
at all, in a theatrical sense, but an exact reproduction of daily scenes in frontier 
life, as experienced and enacted by the very people who now form the “Wild 
West” Company. 

Except in Spain, where no outdoor drama could quite replace the 
bullfight, Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show met with almost equal suc- 
cess on the European continent. During its 7 months’ stand at the 
Paris Exposition of 1889 it attracted many artists. The famous 
French animal painter Rosa Bonheur pictured the show Indians 
chasing buffalo. What is more, the Indians inspired Cyrus Dallin, a 
gifted American sculptor then studying in Paris, to create the first 
of a series of heroic statues of Plains Indians. “The Signal of Peace,” 
completed in time to win a medal at the Paris Salon of 1890, now 
stands in Lincoln Park, Chicago. A second work, “The Medicine 
Man” (1899), is in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. The famous 
sculptor Lorado Taft considered it Dallin’s “greatest achievement” 
and “one of the most notable and significant products of American 
sculpture” (pl. 14). Another, “The Appeal” (to the Great Spirit), 
winner of a gold medal at the Paris Salon of 1909, sits astride his 
horse in front of the Museum of Fine Art in Boston. And still a 
fourth, “The Scout,” may be seen atop a hill in Kansas City. Taft 
termed Dallin’s realistic equestrian Plains Indians “among the most 
interesting public monuments in the country” (Taft, 1925, pp. 476-8, 
576). 


THE PLAINS INDIAN—EWERS 541 


The phenomenal success of Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show encour- 
aged others to organize similar shows, which together with the small- 
scale Indian “medicine” shows toured the country and the Canadian 
Provinces in the early years of the present century, giving employ- 
ment to many Indians who were not members of the Plains tribes. 
These shows played a definite role in diffusing such Plains Indian 
traits as the flowing-feather bonnet, the tipi, and the war dances of 
the Plains tribes to Indians who lived at very considerable distances 
from the Great Plains. A Cheyenne Indian who traveled with a med- 
icine show is reputed to have introduced the “war bonnet” among the 
Indians of Cape Breton Island as early as the 1890’s (Shaw, 1945, 
p- iv). Contacts with Plains Indian showmen at the Pan-American 
Exposition in Buffalo during 1901 encouraged New York State Seneca 
Indians to substitute the Plains type of feather bonnet for their tra- 
ditional crown of upright feathers, and to learn to ride and dance like 
the Plains Indians so that they could obtain employment with the pop- 
ular Indian shows of the period.t Carl Standing Deer, a professional 
sideshow and circus Indian, is credited with introducing the Plains 
Indian feather bonnet among his people, the Cherokee of North Caro- 
lina, in the fall of 1911.? 

The acceptance of typical Plains Indian costume, of the tipi, and 
some other traits of Plains Indian culture as standard “show Indian” 
equipment by Indians of other culture areas is revealed through study 
of 20th-century pictures. My collection of photographic prints, post 
cards, and newspaper clippings dating from the turn of the century 
shows Penobscot Indians of Maine wearing typical Plains Indian garb 
(women as well as men), dancing in front of their tipis at an Indian 
celebration in Bangor; a Yuma Indian brass band in Arizona, every 
member of which wears a complete Plains Indian costume; dancing 
Zia Pueblo Indians of New Mexico wearing flowing-feather bonnets; 
Cayuse Indians of Oregon posing in typical Plains Indian garb in 
front of a tipi (pl. 15, fig. 1) ; and a young Indian standing in front of 
a tipi in the town of Cherokee, N.C., to attract picture-taking tourists 
and to lure them into an adjacent curio shop (pl. 15, fig. 2). 

In 1958 I talked to a Mattaponi Indian in tidewater Virginia about 
the handsome Sioux-type feather bonnet he was wearing as he wel- 
comed visitors to the little Indian museum on his reservation. He was 
proud of the fact that he had made it himself, even to beading the brow- 
band. With that simple and irrefutable logic which so often appears 
in Indian comments on American culture, he explained : “Your women 


1Communication from Dr. William N. Fenton, director, New York State Museum, June 
12, 1964, 

*Communication from John Witthoft, anthropologist, Pennsylvania Historical and 
Museum Commission, August 2, 1964. 


542 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


copy their hats from Paris because they likethem. We Indians use the 
styles of other tribes because we like them too.” 

The trend toward standardization in Indian costume based upon 
Plains Indian models has also been reflected in the art of some of the 
able painters of the Taos, N. Mex., art colony, for whom a sensi- 
tive interpretation of “Indianness” was more important than tribal 
consistency in detail. Likewise, it appears in prominently placed 
paintings purporting to commemorate significant historic events of 
the colonial period in the East. It is not difficult to recognize the 
Plains Indian costumes in Robert Reid’s mural “Boston Tea Party,” 
in the State House, Boston, or in Edward Trumbull’s “William Penn’s 
Treaty with the Indians” in the Capitol at Harrisburg, both of which 
were executed in the first quarter of this century. So perhaps it should 
not seem strange to see 19th-century Plains Indians sitting at the feast 
in Jennie Brownscombe’s appealing painting “The First Thanks- 
giving,” which hangs in Pilgrim Hall, Plymouth, Mass. (pl. 16). 


THE PLAINS INDIAN AS A NATIONAL SYMBOL 


It is a fact that every American coin bearing any resemblance to 
a representation of an Indian has strong Plains Indian associations. 
Both the Indian-head penny, first minted in 1859, and the $10 gold 
piece designed by Augustus Saint-Gaudens for issue in 1907 represent 
the artists’ conceptions of the Goddess of Liberty wearing a feathered 
bonnet. A number of Indians have claimed they were the models 
for the fine Indian head on the famous “buffalo nickel.” However, 
its designer, James Earle Fraser, in a letter to the Commissioner of 
Indian Affairs, dated June 10, 1931, stated: “I used three different 
heads: I remember two of the men, one was Irontail, the best Indian 
head I can remember; the other one was Two Moons, and the third 
T cannot recall.” 

Significantly, the two models remembered by the artist were Plains 
Indians. Two Moons, the Cheyenne chief, had helped to “rub out” 
Custer’s force on the Little Big Horn. Strong-featured Iron Tail 
had repeatedly led the Sioux attack on the Deadwood Coach in Buf- 
falo Bill’s Wild West Show. (See pl. 17.) For 25 years after this 
coin was first minted in 1913—during the days when a nickel would 
purchase a ride on the New York subway, a cigar, or an ice-cream 
cone—this striking Indian head in association with the buffalo on the 
opposite side of the coin served to remind Americans of the Plains 
Indians. 

The only regular issue United States stamp to bear the portrait of 
an Indian is the 14-cent stamp issued May 30, 1923. Titled “American 
Indian,” it bears the likeness of Hollow Horn Bear, a handsome Sioux 
from the Rosebud Reservation, South Datota, who died in Washing- 


THE PLAINS INDIAN—EWERS 543 


ton after participating in the parade after President Woodrow 
Wilson’s inauguration (pl. 18). 

In the solemn ceremonies marking the burial of the Unknown 
Soldier of World War I in Arlington Cemetery on November 11, 
1921, one man was selected to place a magnificent feather bonnet upon 
the casket as a tribute from all American Indians to their country’s 
unknown dead. He was Plenty Coups, an aged, dignified war chief 
among the Crow Indians of Montana. This was one hundred years 
to the very month after the young Pawnee hero Petalesharro first 
appeared in the Nation’s capital wearing a picturesque flowing-feather 
bonnet. During the intervening century the war-bonneted Plains 
Indian emerged as the widely recognized symbol of the North 
American Indian. 


REFERENCES 


AMERICAN TURF REGISTER AND SPORTING MAGAZINE. 
1829. Vol. I, No. 2. Baltimore. 
CATLIN, GEORGE. 
1841. Letters and notes on the manners, customs and condition of the North 
American Indians. 2 vols. London. 
CooPER, JAMES FENIMORE. 
1828. Notions of the Americans: Picked up by a traveling bachelor. 2 vols. 
Philadelphia. 
CustTER, GEORGE ARMSTRONG. 
1872-73. My life on the Plains. The Galaxy. [Magazine.] Jn vols. 13-16. 
New York. 
DaRxtey, Ferrx O. C. 
1843. Scenes in Indian life: A series of original designs portraying events 
in the life of an Indian chief. Drawn and etched on stone by Felix 
O. C. Darley. Philadelphia. 
EWErs, JOHN C. 
1954. Charles Bird King, painter of Indian visitors to the Nation’s Capital. 
Ann. Rep. Smithsonian Institution for 1953. 
Frost, JOHN. 
1852. The book of the Indians of North America, illustrating their manners, 
customs, and present state. Hartford, Conn. 
1856. Indian wars of the United States from the earliest period to the 
present time. New York. 
GoopRIcH, REV. CHARLES AUGUSTUS. 
1823. History of the United States. Hartford, Conn. 
GoopRicH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD. 
1844. History of the Indians of North and South America. Boston. 
1846. The manners, customs, and antiquities of the Indians of North and 
South America. Philadelphia. 
1847. Parley’s primary histories. North America; or the United States and 
the adjacent countries. Louisville. 


1860. The American child’s pictorial history of the United States. Phila- 
delphia. 


766—746—65—44 


544 ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


JACKSON, DONALD. 

1962. Letters of the Lewis and Clark Expedition, with related documents, 

1783-1854. Urbana, Ill. 
JAMES, EDWIN. 

1823. Account of an expedition from Pittsburgh to the Rocky Mountains 
performed in the years 1819 and 1820. 2 vols. and Atlas. Phila- 
delphia and London. 

JOHANNSEN, ALBERT. 
1950. The house of Beadle and Adams and its dime and nickel novels. 
Norman, Okla. 
KEISER, ALBERT. 
1933. The Indian in American literature. New York. 
LINDERMAN, FRANK BIrp. 
1930. American. The life story of a great Indian, Plenty Coups, Chief of 
the Crows. Yonkers, N.Y. 
LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH. 
1856. Song of Hiawatha. London. 
McKENNEY, THOMAS L., and HALL, JAMES. 

1836-44. History of the Indian tribes of North America. 3 vols. Phila- 

delphia. 
MoorE, WILLIAM V. 

1856. Indian wars of the United States from the discovery to the present 

time. Philadelphia. 
Morton, SAMUEL GEORGE. 
1839. Crania Americana; or a comparative view of the skulls of the various 
aboriginal nations of North and South America. Philadelphia. 

PARKMAN, FRANCIS. 

1849. The California and Oregon Trail. New York. 
PETERS, Harry T. 

1931. America on stone. Garden City, N.Y. 
RUSSELL, Don. 

1960. The lives and legends of Buffalo Bill. Norman, Okla. 
SHaw, AVERY. 

1945. A Micmac Glengarry. New Brunswick Museum. Saint John, New 
Brunswick. 

SmituH, DE Cost. 
1910. Jean Francois Millet’s drawings of American Indians. The Century 
Illustrated Monthly Magazine, vol. 80, No. 1, pp. 78-84. 

Tarr, LoRADO. 

1925. The history of American sculpture. New York. 
TAFT, ROBERT. 

1953. Artists and illustrators of the Old West, 1850-1900. New York. 
Wesster, NOAH. 

1832. History of the United States. New Haven, Conn. 
WIepD-NEUWIED, MAXIMILIAN ALEXANDER PHILIPP, PRINZ VON. 

1839-41. Reise in das Innere Nord-America in den Jahren 1832 bis 1834. 

Coblenz, Germany. 


PLATE 1 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers 


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Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers PLATE 3 


BT) 
Mt 


1. First published illustration of Plains Indian tipis, after Titian Peale’s field sketch on 
Major Long’s expedition to the Rocky Mountains of 1819-20. (1823) 


2. Ongpatonga (Big Elk), Omaha Head Chief. Lithograph after a painting by John Neagle 
in 1821. Frontispiece in Samuel Morton’s Crania Americana, 1839. 


PLATE 4 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers 


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Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers 


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Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers 


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Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers 


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Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers 


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Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers 


(Courtesy 


la. 


Cyrus Dallin’s “The Medicine Man” in Fairmount Park, Philadelph 


) 


jation 


Fairmount Park Art Assoc 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers PLATE 15 


1. Cayuse Indians of Oregon. Photograph by Major Lee Moorhouse, ca. 1900. 


a 
me 


2. Cherokee Indian “chiefing” for a curio shop in Cherokee, N.C. Photograph by the 
author, 1962. 


PLATE 16 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers 


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Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers PLATE 17 


AS 


1. Iron Tail, Sioux, one of James Earle Fraser’s models for the Indian side of the “buffalo 


nickel.” 


2. The “buffalo nickel,” first minted in 1913. 


Smithsonian Report, 1964.—Ewers PLATE 18 


Hollow Horn Bear, Sioux Indian model for the 14-cent “American Indian” stamp shown 


in the inset. ‘The stamp was issued May 30, 1923. 


INDEX 


A 


Abbot, C. G., xiii 
Accessions, 114, 191, 219, 243, 261 
Library, 261 
National Air Museum, 243 
National Collection of Fine Arts, 
191 
National Gallery of Art, 219 
National Museum, 18 
National Zoological Park, 114 
Adey, W. H., vii 
Adrosko, Rita R., vii 
Ahmanson, Howard F., x 
Ailes, Stephen, Secretary of the Army, xi 
Akers, Floyd D., x 
Allen, Maj. Gen. Brooke E., U.S. Air 
Force, ix 
American Historical Association, 270 
Anderson, Clinton P., Regent of the 
Institution, v, 293 
Andrews, A. J., vi 
Angel, J. L., vi 
Anglim, J. E., viii 
Appropriations, 6, 153, 218 
National Gallery of Art, 218 
National Zoological Park, 153 
River Basin Surveys, 6, 83 
Astrophysical Observatory, viii, xiii, 6, 
157 
Astrophysical Research Division, 
157 
Publications, 177, 187 
Radiation and Organisms Division, 
184 
Report, 157 
Staff, viii, ix, 183 
Austin, O. L., xii 
Avrett, E., viii 


B 


Ballard, Murray C., 272 

Battison, E. A., vii 

Battle, Lucius D., Assistant Secretary of 
State for Educational and Cultural 
Affairs, x 

Becker, Ralph E., x 

Becklund, W. W., xii 


Bedini, 8. A., vii 
eets, Virginia, vii 
Beggs, Thomas M., Special Assistant for 
Fine Arts, v 
Bell, Daniel W., x 
Benjamin, C. R., xii 
Benson, R. H., vii 
Billings, K. LeMoyne, xi 
Bishop, P. W., vii 
Blake, Doris H., xii 
Blanchard, Ruth E., Librarian, vi, 264 
Boardman, R. &., 
Borneo, Stone Age Culture (Tom Harris- 
son, 521 
Borthwick, Mrs. Doris E., vii 
Bow, Frank T., Regent of the Institu- 
tion, v 
Bowen, Catherine Drinker, xi 
Bowman, T. E., vi 
Boyd, Julian P., xi 
Boyle, W. E., vii 
Bradley, James C., Assistant Secretary 
of the Institution, v 
Bredin, J. Bruce, xii 
Breech, Ernest R., x 
Briggs, R. W., viii 
Bronfman, Edgar M., x 
Brown, J. Carter, ix 
Brown, John Nicholas, Regent of the 
Institution, v, xi 
Brown, Sanborn C. (The edge of science), 
401 
Brown, W. L., xii, xiii 
Bunche, Ralph J., x 
Burden, William A. M., Regent of the 
Institution, v 
Bureau of American Ethnology, viii, 
xiii, 6, 80, 110 
Archives, 107 
Editorial work and _ publications, 
109 
Illustrations, 110 
Report, 80 
River Basin Surveys, 83 
545 


vii 


546 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Bureau of American Ethnology—Con. | Cooper, Mrs. Grace R., vii 


Staff, viii, 110 
Systematic researches, 80 
Buzas, M. A., vii 
Byrd, Mrs. Mabel A., vi 


Cc 


Cahill, James F., ix 
Cairns, Huntington, ix, 230 
Campbell, J. M., xi 
Canal Zone Biological Area, x, xiii, 
231 
Buildings and equipment, 233 
Finances, 6, 234 
Plans, 234 
Rainfall, 231, 232 
Report, 231 
Research activities, 232 
Cannon, Clarence, Regent of the Insti- 
tution, 5 
Cannon, W. F., vii 
Carleton, N. P., viii 
Carmichael, Leonard, ix, xii 
Carriker, M. A., Jr., xii 
Cartwright, O. L., vi 
Casey, L. 8., x 
Castrodale, Anne, vii 
Celebrezze, Anthony J., Secretary of 
Health, Education, and Welfare, 
member of the Institution, v, x 
Chace, F. A., Jr., vi 
Chapelle, H. L., vii 
Chase, Mrs. Agnes, 68 
Cifelli, Richard, vii 
Clain-Stefanelli, Mrs. Elvira, viii 
Clain-Stefanelli, Vladimir, viii 
Clark, Ailsa M., xii 
Clark, Joseph §., x 
Clarke, Gilmore D., ix 
Clarke, J. F. G., vi 
Clarke, R.S. Jr., vii 
Cochran, Doris M., vi 
Cogswell, W. N., ix 
Collins, H. R., vii 
Collins, Henry B., Acting Director, 
Bureau of American Ethnology, viii, 
80, 110 
Collins, J. A., Chief, International Ex- 
change Service, viii, 78 
Colombo, G., viii 
Conger, P. S., vii 
Cook, A. F., viii 
Cooke, C. W., xii 
Cooper, G. A., vii 


Correll, D. L., ix 

Cott, Perry B., ix 

Cowan, Clyde L. (Anatomy of an Ex- 
periment: Account of the Discovery 
of the Neutrino), 409 

Cowan, R. S., vi 

Crabill, R. E., Jr., vi 

Crawford, Frederick C., xiii 

Crocker, W. H., vi 

Cross, Page, ix 

Cutress, C. E., Jr., vi 


D 


Darling, F. Fraser (The Unity of Ecolo- 
gy), 460 

Daughters of the American Revolution, 
Society of, 271 

Davis, D. R., vi 

Davis, R. J., viii 

DeFelice, J., viii 

Deignan, H. G., xii 

Desautels, P. E., vii 

Deschler, Lewis, xi 

Diamonds, Man-Made (C.G. Suits), 439 

Dillon, Douglas, Secretary of the Treas- 
ury, member of the Institution, v, ix 

Doolittle, James H. (Lt. Gen., U.S.A.F. 
ret.), xX 

Dowling, Robert W., xi 

Drake, C. J., xii 

Dressler, Robert L., x 

Duckworth, W. D., vi 

Dugan, C. H., viii 

Dunkle, D. H., vii 

Dutro, J. T., xii 


E 


Ecology, The unity of (F. Fraser Dar- 
ling), 460 

Edelen, Mrs. Eloise B., 109, 269 

Education, Smithsonian’s role in, 1 

Edwards, J. L., ix 

Eisenhower, Mrs. Dwight D., x 

Elstad, V. B., ix 

Emerson, K. C., xii 

Ernst, W. R., vi 

Errington, Paul L. (The Phenomenon of 
Predation), 507 

Ettinghausen, Richard, ix 


INDEX 


Evans, Clifford, Jr., vi 
Ewers, John C., vii 
(The Emergence of the Plains Indian 
as the Symbol of the North Ameri- 
can Indian), 531 
Executive Committee of the Board of 
Regents, v, 274 
Report, 274 
Exhibitions, National Gallery of Art, 
223 
National Museum, 53 
Smithsonian Institution Traveling 
Exhibition Service, ix, 195 
Explorations and fieldwork, 35, 80, 83 
Bureau of American Ethnology, 80 
National Museum, 35 
River Basin Surveys, 83 
Eyde, R. H., vii 


F 


Fauntleroy, Travis E., viii 
Fazio, G. G., viii 
Fehlmann, H. A., vii 
Feidler, Ernest R., ix 
Ficken, Robert W., xii 
Field, J. E. (Fracture of Solids), 431 
Field, W. D., vi 
Finances, 6, 153, 274, 278, 292 
Audit, 292 
Endowments, summary of, 274, 278 
Executive Committee Report, 274 
National Zoological Park, 153 
Private funds, 274, 279, 281, 284, 
286 
See also Appropriations. 
Finley, David S., ix, xi 
Finn, B. S., vii 
Fireman, E. L., viii 
Fleming, Robert V., Regent of the In- 
stitution, v, 293 
Flint, O. 8., Jr., vi 
Fracture of Solids (J. E. Field), 431 
Franklin, F., viii 
Freeman, Orville L., Secretary of Agri- 
culture, member of the Institution, v 
Freer Gallery of Art, ix, xiii, 201 
Attendance, 207 
Auditorium, 207 
Building and grounds, 206 
Changes in exhibitions, 203 
Collections, 201 
Fund, 278 
766—-746—_65——45 


547 


Freer Gallery of Art—Continued 
Lectures by staff members, 210 
Library, 203 
Photographic laboratory and sales 

desk, 206 
Publications, 204 
Repairs to the collection, 203 
Report, 201 
Staff activities, 209 
Technical laboratory, 210 

Friedmann, Herbert, xii 

Froeschner, R. C., vi 

Fulbright, J. William, Regent of the 

Institution, v, x 

Furlong, W. R., xiii 


G 

Garber, P. E., x 

Gardner, P. V., vii 

Garrett, Mrs. George A., x 

Gazin, C. L., vii 

Gettens, Rutherford J., ix 

Gibbs, R. H., Jr., vi 

Gibson, G. D., vi 

Gingerich, O., viii 

Goins, C. R., Jr., viii 

Goldberg, B., ix 

Goldberg, L., viii 

Goodrich, Lloyd, ix 

Grabar, Oleg, xiii 

Graf, John E., xi 

Gray, Clinton W., viii 

Greenewalt, Crawford H., Regent of the 
Institution, v 

Greenwood, Mrs. Arthur M., xii 

Greeson, O. H., Chief, Photographic 
service division, vi 

Griffith, F. O., vii 

Grimmer, J. L., viii 

Gronouski, John A., Postmaster Gen- 
eral, member of the Institution, v 

Grossi, M., viii 

Guest, Grace Dunham, xiii 


H 


Hale, M. E., Jr., vii 

Hamarnebh, S. K., vii 

Hancock, Walker, ix 

Handley, C. O., Jr., vi 

Harrison, J. H., ix 

Harrisson, Tom (50,000 Years of Stone 
Age Culture in Borneo), 521 


548 


Hartzog, George B., Director of the 
National Park Service, x 

Haskins, Caryl P., Regent of the Insti- 
tution, v, 293 

Hawkins, Gerald §., viii 

(The Secret of Stonehenge), 307 

Hayes, Bartlett H., Jr., ix 

Hayes, E. Nelson (The Smithsonian’s 
Satellite-Tracking Program: lts His- 
tory and Organization, Part 3), 315 

Henderson, E. P., vii 

Henkle, L. L., vii 

Henry, Joseph, papers, 7 

Herber, E. C., xii 

Hilger, Sister M. Inez, xiii, 110 

Hobbs, H. H., Jr., vi 

Hodge, P. V., viii 

Hodges, Luther H., Secretary of Com- 
merce, member of the Institution, v 

Holland, C. G., xi 

Hoover, Mrs. Cynthia A., vii 

Hopkins, P. S., Director, National Air 
Museum, x, 246 

Hotton, Nicholas III, vii 

Howell, E. M., viii 

Howland, R. H., vii 

Hoyme, Lucile E., vi 

Hueber, F. M., vii 

Hull, F. M., xii 

Hume, 1. N., xii 

Humphrey, P. §., vi 

Hunsaker, Jerome C., Regent of the 
Institution, v 


I 


Information program, 272 
Insects, Work in Groups (John Sudd), 
489 
International Exchange Service, viii, 6, 
69 
Foreign depositories of govern- 
mental documents, 71 
Interparliamentary exchange of of- 
ficial journals, 74 
List of services, 70 
Report, 69 
Irvin, John N. 11, ix 
Irvine, W. M., viii 
Irving, Laurence, xii 
Izsak, I. G., viii 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


J 


Jacchia, L. G., viii 
Jackson, M. H., viii 
Jellison, W. L., xii 
John F. Kennedy Center for the Per- 
forming Arts, x, 10, 247 
Administrative changes, 250 
Architectural planning, 251 
Board of Trustees, x, 248 
Financial report, 254 
Fine arts accessions committee, 251 
Future prospects, 252 
General Services Administration, 
250 
Memorial committee, 251 
Organization, 247 
Progress during 1963-1964, 248 
Report, 247 
Johnson, D. H., vi 
Johnson, Lyndon B., President of the 
United States, member of the Insti- 
tution and presiding officer ex officio, 
v 
Johnson, Mrs. Lyndon B., x 
Judd, N. M., xi 


K 


Kainen, Jacob, vii 

Kalkofen, W.., viii 

Kauffman, E. G., vii 

Kellogg, Remington, xii 

Kendall, E. C., vii 

Kennedy, J. A., director of personnel, 
vi 

Kennedy, Mrs. John F., x 

Kennedy, Robert F., Attorney General, 
member of the Institution, v 

Keppel, Francis, Commissioner, U.S. 
Office of Education, x 

Kier, P. M., vii 

Kintner, Mrs. Jean, xi 

Kirwan, Michael J., 
Institution, v 

Klapthor, Mrs. Margaret Brown, vii 

Klein, W. H., viii, 184 

Knez, E. I., vi 

K6hnlein, W., viii 

Kozai, Y., vili 

Kreeger, David Lloyd, xi 

Kullerud, Gunner, xii 


Regent of the 


INDEX 


L 


Lachner, E. A., vi 
Lane, F. C., xiii 
Langley Medal presentation, 9 
Lasker, Mrs. Albert D., x 
Laughlin, Robert M., viii 
Lautman, D. A., viii 
Lawless, B. W., viii 
Lea, John §S., 267 
Lectures, 10, 210, 226 
Lehfeldt, H. J., ix 
Lellinger, D. B., vi 
Leonard, E. C., xii 
Lewis, Wilmarth S., ix, xi 
Library, 261 
Acquisitions, 261 
Branch libraries, 262 
Cataloging and binding, 262 
Freer Gallery of Art, 203 
National Collection of Fine Arts, 
197 
National Gallery of Art, 227 
Programs and facilities, 263 
Reference and circulation, 262 
Report, 261 
Staff activities, 263 
Summarized statistics, 263 
Life beyond the Earth, The Quest for 
(Carl Sagan), 297 
Lindsay, G. Carroll, curator, Smith- 
sonian Museum Service, vi 
Loehr, Max, xiii 
Loercher, L., ix 
Long, A., ix 
Lundeberg, P. K., viii 
Lundquist, Charles, viii 
Lyon, Roland, ix 
Lyttleton, R. A. (How Mountains Are 
Formed), 351 
M 


Mahon, George H., Regent of the 
Institution, v 

Man-Made Diamonds—A Progress Re- 
port (C. G. Suits), 439 

Manning, R. B., vi 

Manship, Paul, ix 

Martin, R.., viii 

Marvin, O. B., viii 

Maxwell, A. E., see Spiess and Maxwell, 373 

McCall, Francis J., 68 

McCandless, Byron, xiii 

McCarthy, Mrs. Eileen M., 271 

McClure, F. A., xii 


549 


McCrane, Marion, viii 

McCrosky, R. E., viii 

Mcellhenny, Henry P., ix 

MelIntosh, Allen, xii 

McKay, E. W., xii 

McNamara, Robert S., Secretary of 
Defense, member of the Institution, 
Vv, xi 

Meany, George, x 

Meggers, Betty J., xi 

Melder, K. E., vii 

Mellon, Paul, ix 

Merzbach, Uta C., vii 

Meyer, R. B., x 

Michaels, Andrew F., Jr., buildings man- 
ager, vi 

Miller, J. J., II, vii 

Mills, Deborah J., vii 

Mitler, H., viii 

Mitrakos, K., ix 

Moore, J. P., xii 

Morrison, J. P. E., vi 

Morton, C. V., vi 

Mountains, Formation of (R. A. Lyt- 
tleton), 351 

Moynihan, M. H., Director, Canal Zone 
Biological Area, x, 235 

Muesebeck, C. F., xii 

Mullin, Philip J., xi 

Multhauf, R. P., vii 

Mumford, L. Quincy, Librarian of Con- 
gress, X 

Murphy, Franklin D., ix 

Murray, Mrs. Anne W., vii 

Museum of History and Technology, 
Vil, xii, 0 

Museum of Natural History, vi, xi 

See also National Museum. 

Museums, Smithsonian cooperation 

with, 2 
N 


National Air Museum, ix, xiii, 6, 236 
Accessions, 243 
Advisory board, 237 
Assistance to Government Depart- 
ments, 238 
Exhibits, 238 
Reference material, 238 
Report, 236 
Special events, 237 
Specimens, repair, preservation, and 
restoration, 238 
National Armed Forces Museum Ad- 
visory Board, xi, 6, 11 


550 


National Collection of Fine Arts, ix, 
6, 190 

Accessions, 191 

Alice Pike Barney Memorial Fund, 
193 

Art works lent and returned, 192, 
193 

Catherine Walden Myer Fund, 191, 
193 

Henry Ward Ranger Fund, 193 

Library, 197 

Paintings purchased, 194 

Report, 190 

Smithsonian Traveling Exhibition 
Service, 195 

Special exhibitions and events, 199 

Staff activities, 198 

Study collection, 192 

National Gallery of Art, ix, 217 

Accessions, 219 

Appropriations, 218 

Attendance, 219 

Audit of private funds, 230 

Concerts, 229 

Curatorial activities, 224 

Educational program, 226 

Exchange of works of art, 220 

Exhibitions, 223 

Extension services, 227 

Gifts, 219, 220 


Index of American Design, 228 
Lectour, 229 
Library, 227 
Maintenance of buildings and 


grounds, 228 
Organization, 217 
Personnel, 218 
Publications, 225 
Publications fund, 225 
Report, 217 
Restoration, 225 
Traveling exhibitions, 224 
Works of art on loan, 221 
National Museum, vi, 6, 18 
Buildings and equipment, 66 
Collections, 18 
Docent service, 65 
Exhibitions, 53 
Organization and staff changes, 66 
Report, 18 
Research, exploration, and field- 
work, 35 
National Portrait Gallery, xi, 6, 257 
Commission, 257, 258 
Report, 257 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


National Zoological Park, viii, xiii, 6, 
11s 
Births, 111 
Capital improvements, 155 
Cooperation, 153 
Deposits, 116 
Exchanges, 116 
Finances, 6, 153 
Friends of the National Zoo, 154 
Gifts, 114 
Information and education, 152 
Personnel, viii, xiii, 148 
Police division, 150 
Purchases, 118 
Report, 111 
Research, 146 
Safety subcommittee, 152 
Veterinarian report, 143 
Visitors, 147 
Neutrino, Account of Discovery of 
(Clyde L. Cowan), 409 
Newland, K. E., x 
Nicholas, D. J. D. (How Do Microbes 
“Fix”? Nitrogen From the Air?), 449 
Nicolson, D. H., vi 
Nitrogen, Fixation (D. J. D. Nicholas), 
449 
Nitze, Paul H., xi 
Norweb, R. Henry, xii 
Noyes, R. W., viii 


O 


Oceanography, The Future of (Spilhaus), 
361 

Oehser, Paul H., Chief, editorial and, 
publications division, vi, 273 

Office of Exhibits, viii 

Olin, C. H., conservator, U.S. National 
Museum, viii 

Olin, Mrs. Jacqueline S., viii 

Olsson, A. A., xii 

Ostroff, Eugene, vii 


My 


Parker, Mrs. Kittie F., xii 

Pawson, D. L., vi 

Pearson, Joan Jockwig, xii 

Pearson, Mrs. Louise M., administra- 
tive assistant to the Secretary, v 

Perkins, William H., Jr., xi 

Perry, K. M., vii 

Perrygo, W. M., vi 

Peterson, M. L., viii 

Pettibone, Marian H., vi 


INDEX 


Phenomenon of Predation, The (Paul 
L. Errington), 507 
Pierce, J. N., vii 
Plains Indian, as Symbol of North 
American Indian (John C. Ewers), 531 
Pleissner, Ogden M., ix 
Pope, John A., Director, Freer Gallery of 
Art, ix, 216 
Pope, Mrs. Annemarie, Special Assist- 
ant for Traveling Exhibition Study, v 
Powars, Mrs. Nancy Link, 265, 273 
Predation, Phenomenon of (Paul L. 
Errington), 507 
Prescott, Mrs. Phyllis W., 110, 273 
Price, J, xii 
Price, L., ix, xii 
Publications and Information, 265 
American Historical Association, 
270 
Astrophysical Observatory, 177, 270 
Bureau of American Ethnology, 
109, 269 
Distribution, 271 
Freer Gallery of Art, 204 
National Collection of Fine Arts, 
270 
National Herbarium, 268 
National Museum, 267 
Program, 265, 272 
Report, 265 
Report National Society, Daugh- 
ters of the American Revolution, 
271 
Reports American Historical As- 
sociation, 270 
Reprints, 273 
Smithsonian Annual Reports, 266 
Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collec- 
tion, 265 
Staff changes, 273 


R 


Rabor, Dioscoro §&., xii 
Radiation and Organisms, Division of, 
viii, 184 
Publications, 187 
Report, 184 
Staff changes, 159 
Ray, C. E., vii 
Reed, T. H., Director National Zoo- 
logical Park, viii, 156 
Regents, Board of, v 
Rehder, H. A., vi 


551 


Reid, Mrs. Charlotte T., x 
Relativity, Recent Events in (Milton A. 
Rothman), 385 
Research, Smithsonian emphasis on, 3 
Reynolds, Richard §., Jr., x 
Rhoades, Katherine N., xiii 
Richardson, Edgar P., ix 
Ricketson, Frank H., Jr., x 
Riesenberg, S. H., vi 
Ripley, S. Dillon, Secretary of the In- 
stitution, v, ix, x, xi, 1, 68 
Ritterbush, Philip C., Special Assistant 
for Scientific Matters, v 
River Basin Surveys, vii, 6, 83 
Appropriations, 6, 83 
Fieldwork, 83 
Missouri Basin, 87 
Virginia, 107 
Idaho-Oregon, 107 
Report, 83 
Washington office, 85 
Roberts, Frank H. H., xiii 
Robinson, H. E., vii 
Rolff, J., viii 
Rosenwald, Lessing J., ix 
Rosewater, Joseph, vi 
Roth, Rodris C., vii 
Rothman, Milton A. (Recent Events 
in Relativity), 385 
Roy, Edgar L., Treasurer, v 
Rudd, Velva E., vi 
Rusk, Dean, Secretary of State, mem- 
ber of the Institution, v, ix 
Russell, Findlay E. (Venomous Animals 
and Their Toxins), 477 


8 


Sagan, Carl E., viii, 297 
(The Quest for Life Beyond the 
Earth), 297 
Saltonstall, Leverett, Regent of the In- 
stitution, v, x 
Sawyer, Charles H., ix 
Schaller, W. T., xii 
Scheele, C. H., viii 
Schmitt, W. L., xii 
Schoech, Vice Adm. William A., U.S. 
Navy, ix 
Schultz, L. P., vi 
Schwartz, Benjamin, xii 
Science, The Edge of (Sanborn C. 
Brown), 401 
Science Information Exchange, 12 
Scott, David W., Acting Director, Na- 
tional Collection of Fine Arts, ix, 200 


552 


Secretary of the Institution (S. Dillon 
Ripley), v, ix 
Setzer, H. W., vi 
Setzler, F. M., xi 
Shetler, 8. G., vi 
Shouse, Mrs. Jouett, x 
Shropshire, W., viii 
Shryock, Richard H., xi 
Skalafuris, A., viii 
Slowey, J., viii 
Smith, L. B., vi 
Smith, Neal G., x 
Smithson Bicentennial, 7 
Smithsonian Art Commission, ix, 190 
Smithsonian Institution, Board of Re- 
gents, 5 
Consolidated fund, 275 
Establishment, 5 
Finances, 6, 274 
International activities, 4 
Members of, v 
Parent fund, 274 
Private funds, 279, 281, 284, 286 
Summary of accomplishments, 
1963-1964, 1 
Visitors, 6, 8, 147 
Smithsonian Institution Traveling Ex- 
hibition Service, ix, 195 
Exhibits contained from prior 
years, 195 
Exhibits initiated in 1964, 196 
Smithsonian Museum Service, 14 
Smithsonian’s Satellite-Tracking Pro- 
gram: Its History and Organization, 
Part 3, The (E. Nelson Hayes), 315 
Snyder, Thomas E., xii 
(Our Native Termites), 497 
Soderstrom, T. R., vi 
Solids, Fracture of (J. E. Field), 431 
Solomon, L., viii 
Soper, C. C., xiii 
Southworth, R. B., viii 
Spangler, P. J., vi 
Spiess, F. N., and Maxwell, 
(Search for the Thresher), 373 
Spilhaus, Athelstan (The Future of 
Oceanography), 361 
Springer, V. G., vi 
Squires, D. F., vi 
Steiner, A. M., ix 
Stephenson, R. L., viii, 83 
Stern, Harold P., ix 
Stern, W. L., vii 
Stevens, Roger L., x 
Stevenson, J. A., xii 


A. E. 


ANNUAL REPORT SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, 1964 


Stewart, T. D., Acting Assistant Sec- 
retary of the Institution, v, vi 

Stirling, M. W., xiii 

Stonehenge, The Secret of (Gerald S. 
Hawkins), 307 

Strong, L. Corrin, x 

Sturtevant, W. C., viii 

Sudd, John (How Insects Work in 
Groups), 489 

Suits, C. G. (Man-Made Diamonds— 
A Progress Report), 439 

Swallen, J. R., vi 

Switzer, G. S., vii 


T 


Talbert, D. G., ix 

Taylor, F. A., Director, U.S. National 
Museum, vi, vii, 68 

Taylor, Theodore W., Assistant to the 
Secretary, v, 260 

Taylor, W. R., vi 

Taylor, W. W., Jr., xi 

Termites, Our Native (T. E. Snyder), 
497 

Thompson, Frank, x 

Thresher, Search for (F. N. Spiess and 
A. E. Maxwell), 373 

Tilles, D., viii 

Tillinghast, C. W., viii 

Tobin, W. J., xi 

Tobriner, Walter N., President, D.C. 
Board of Commissioners, x 

Todd, Frederick P., xi 

Traub, Robert, xii 

Tretick, Julius, viii 


U 


Udall, Stewart L., Secretary of the 
Interior, member of the Institution, 
Vv 

United States National Museum, vi, 
xi 

Report, 18 


Vv 


Van Arsdale, Mrs. Dorothy, ix 

Van Beek, G. W., vi 

Veis, G., viii 

Venomous Animals and Their Toxins 
(Findlay E. Russell), 477 

Verville, Alfred V., xiii 

Visitors, 6, 8, 147 

Vogel, R. M., vii 


INDEX 


W 


Walker, E. P., xiii 

Walker, John, Director, National Gal- 
lery of Art, ix, xi 

Wallen, I. E., vii 

Walton, William, Chairman, Commis- 
sion of Fine Arts, x 

Waring, A. J., Jr. xiii, 110 

Warner, William, Consultant to the 
Secretary for international activities, 
v 

Warren, Earl, Chief Justice of the 
United States, Chancellor, v, ix, xi 

Washburn, Henry Bradford, Jr., xi 

Washburn, W. E., vii 

Waters, William N., Jr., Chairman, D.C. 
Recreation Board, x 

Watkins, C. M., vii 

Watkins, W. N., xii 

Watson, G. E., vi 

Wedel, W. R., vi 

Weiss, Helena M., Registrar, vi 

Weitzman, S. H., vi 

Welsh, P. C., vii 

Wengenroth, Stow, ix 


553 


Wetmore, Alexander, ix, xii 

Whipple, F. L., Director, Astrophysical 
Observatory, viii, 189 

White, J. H., Jr., vii 

Whitney, C. A., viii 

Whitney, John Hay, ix 

Wilding, A. W., Chief, supply division, 
vi 

Wilson, Mrs. Mildred &., xii 

Wirtz, W. Willard, Secretary of Labor, 
member of the Institution, v 

Wood, J., viii 

Woodbury, Nathalie F. S., xi 

Woodbury, R. B., vi 

Woodring, W. P., xii 

Wright, A. G., viii 

Wright, F. W., viii 

Wright, Jim, x 

Wurdack, J. J., vi 


Z 


Zuckert, Eugene M., Secretary of the 
Air Force, xi 
Zusi, R. I., vi 


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