^■
,A-o449Q.9
"3i
Ol. t\l
cvE.Bv 18 96/97
Smithsonian Ingt« „
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
TO THE
SECRETARY OF THE SMUrHSUNlAN INSTITUTION
1S9G-07
BY
J. AV. POA^'ELL
DIRECTOR
0^ 7'
/
\?Cjl,-^J.
IjST t^\^o parts-part 1
WASHINGTON
GOVEltNJIENT PRINTING OFFICE
18 9 9
^33^
\T\\K}}w^Jiy\A..-Q<jr^ ^\V
^
HH-qo>q
LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL
Smithsonian Institution,
BuKEAU OF American Ethnology,
Washington, D. C, July 1, IS!)?.
Sir: I have the honor to submit my Eighteenth Annual Report as
Director of the Bureau of American Ethnology.
The preliminary portion comprises an exposition of the operations of
the Bureau during the fiscal year ; the remainder consists of two memoirs
on anthropologic subjects, prepared by assistants, which illustrate the
methods and results of the work of the Bureau.
Allow me to express my appreciation of your constant aid and your
wise counsel relating to the work under ray charge.
I am, with resj)ect, your obedient servant.
Director.
Honorable S. P. Langley,
iSeeretarij of the Smithsonian Institution.
CONTENTS
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR
Page
Introduction xxv
Field research and exploration : xx VII
Otfice research ; xxx
Work in eathetology xxx
Work in technology xxxi\'
Work in sociology xxxix
Work in philology XLi
Work in sophiology XLiv
Descriptive ethnology XLV
Bibliography \i.\l
Collecting XLVi
Publication xi.vm
Miscellaneous XLIX
Financial statement L
Characterization of accompanying papers LI
Subjects treated Li
The Eskimo about Bering strait Lii
Indian land cessions i.iv
List of publications of the Bureau of American Ethnology i.ix
Annual reports LIX
Bulletins i.xiv
Contributions to North American Ethnology Lxvi
Introductions lxvii
Miscellaneous publications i-x\in
Index to authors and titles LXix
liCCOMPANYING PAPERS
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT, BY EDWARD WILLIAM NELSON
Introductory 19
Sketch of the western Eskimo 23
Geographic features of their range 23
Distribution of tribes and dialects 21
Physical characteristics 26
Clothing 30
Garments in general 30
Waterproof garments •. 3G
Ear Haps 37
Gloves and mittens 38
Foot wear 40
Boots 40
Socks and boot pads 43
Clothing bags 43
V
VI BUREAU OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Sketch of tlie Tvestern Eskimo — Continued Page
Personal adornment 44
Labrets 44
Tattooing 50
Bends and earrings 52
Hair ornaments and combs 57
Bracelets 58
Belts and belt buttons 59
Utensils and implements 63
Lamps 63
Dippers, ladles, and spoons 65
Wooden dishes, trays, and buckets 70
Pestles 73
Blubber hooks and carriers 73
Bags ior water and oil 73
Rakes 74
Root picks 75
Bone breakers 75
Fire-making implements 75
Snow lieaters 77
Snow shovels and ice picks 78
Mallets 79
Implements used in arts and manufactures 80
Ivory, and bone working tools 80
Dri Us, drill bows, and caps 81
Knives 85
Chisels 86
Polishing and fiuishiug tools 87
Wedges and mauls _ 88
Arrowshaft straighteners 88
Beaver- tooth tools 89
Birch-bark tools 90
Stone implements 91
Tool bags and handles 93
Tool boxes 93
Women's workboxes 98
Handles for workboxes and water buckets 100
Xeedlecases 103
Women's " housewives" 104
Needles and bodkins 106
Boot- sole creasers 108
Women's knives 108
Thimbles and thimble holders 109
Implements for making thread and cord 110
Skin-dressing tools 112
Skin dressing 116
Hunting and hunting implements 118
Animal traps and snares 118
Bird snares and nets 131
Seal spears 135
Walrus and whale spears 137
Floats 140
Lances 145
Spear and lance heads 147
Throwing sticks 152
Bows 155
CONTENTS VII
Sketcli of the western Eskimo— Coutinueil Page
Hunting and hunting implements — Continued
Arrows 157
Arrows for large game 157
Bird arrows 159
Fish arrows 160
Arrowpoints IGX
Quivers 161
AVrist-guards 161
Boxes for arrow- and spear-points 162
Firearms 163
Hunting bags and helmets 166
Snow goggles 169
Hunting and skinning knives 171
Drag handles 172
Fishing and fishing implements 173
Methods of fisliing 173
Fish traps 183
Nets 185
Net-making implements 190
Gauges 190
Shuttles and needk-s 191
Marlinspikes 193
Reels 193
Fish spears 194
Arts and manufactures 196
Bone and ivory carving 196
Drawing 197
Written records 198
Paints and colors 198
Pottery 201
Mats, baskets, and bags 202
Travel and transportation 205
Sleds 205
Dog harness and accouterments 209
Breast yokes 211
Snowshows 212
Ice staffs 214
Ice creepers 215
Boats 216
Boat hooks 222
Paddles 223
Spear and paddle guards 226
Trade and trading voyages 228
Units of value and measurement — Numeration 232
Units of value 232
Units of measurement .232
Chronometry 2.34
Numeration 235
Villages and houses 241
Ruins 263
Food 267
Tobacco and smoking 271
Methods of using tobacco 271
Tobacio implements 273
Snuft'-boxes 273
VIII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Sketch of tlie -western Eskimo — Continued Pa^e
Tobacco auil smoking — Continneil
Tobacco implements — Continued
Snuft'-tubes 275
Boxes for fungus ashes 275
Quid boxes 278
Pipes 280
Tobacco liags 284
House-life and social customs 285
The kasbim 28p
Sweat baths 287
Dwelling houses 288
Childbirth 289
Puberty 291
Marriage 291
Moral characteristics 292-
Treatment of disease 309
Mortuary customs _ 310
Totems and family marks 322
Wars 327
Games and toys 330
Music and dances 347
Feasts and lestivals 357
The function of the celebrations 357
Calendar of festivals 357
The "luviting-in" feast 358
The "Asking" festival 359
The trading festival 3G1
Feasts to the dead 363
Mortuary feasts in general 363
Great feast to the dead 365
Masks and niaskettes 393
Other ceremonial objects 415
Religion and mythology 421
Eti'ect of Christian contact 421
Witchcraft 422
Shades of the dead 422
Genesis myth — the Raven Father 425
Supernatural powers 427
Mythic animals 441
Conception of natural jihenomena 449
Traditional showers of ashes... 449
Animal symbolism 450
Folk talcs 450
Scope of Alaskan folklore 450
Flood legends from St Michael 452
Tales of the Raven 452
The creation 452
Ra\cn takes a wife 462
The Raven, the AVhiile, and the Mink 464
The Red Bear (from St Michael and Norton sound) 467
The Giant 471
The One- who- finds-nothing 474
the Ijone Woman 479
The circling of cranes 480
The dwarf people 480
The Sun and the Moon (from St Michael) 481
CONTENTS IX
Sketch of the westeru Eskimo — Continued Page
Folk tales — ^Continued
The Sun and the Moou (from the Lower Yukon) 482
Origin of land and people 482
The bringing of the light by Kaven 483
The Red Bear (from Andrei vsky) 485
The last of the Thuuderbirds 486
The Land of the Dead 488
The strange boy 490
Origin of the Yu-gi-yhik' or I-ti-ka-tah' festival 494
Origin of winds 497
The strong man 499
The Owl-girl 499
Tab- of Ak-chlk-chiV-guk 499
The discontented Grass-plant 505
The fire ball 510
The Land of Darkness 511
The Raven and the Marmot 514
The shaman in the moou 515
The Man-worm 516
Migration legend 516
Origin of the people of Diomede islands and of East cape, Siberia 517
INDIAN LAND CESSIONS IN THE UNITED STATES, BY CHARLES C. ROYCE, WITH
AN INTRODUCTION BY CYRUS THOMAS
Introduction, by Cyrus Thomas 527
Right to the soil dependent ou discovery 527
Foreign policy toward the Indians 538
The Spanish policy 539
The French pidicy 545
The English policy 549
Colonial policy toward the Indians 562
The policy in general _ 562
Virginia 563
Maryland 569
New Y'ork 575
New Jersey 587
Pennsylvania 501
Massachusetts 599
Connecticut 611
Rhode Island 619
North Carolina 624
South Carolina 630
Georgia 634
New Hampshire and Delaware 639
Policy of the United States 640
Acknowledgments 644
Schedule of treaties and acts of Congress authorizing allotments of land
in severalty 645
Schedule of land cessions 648
Index 651
ERRATA
Plate LIII. Change "seal spear" in the title to "bird spear."
Plate LVIII. Change "bird spear" in the title to "seal spear.'
Plate XCYII. The mask shown in this plate should be inverted.
ILLUSTRATIONS'
Page
Plate I. Group of Kiuugmimt from Port Clarence 19
II. Map 23
III. Malemnt family from .Shaktolik 23
IV. Kinugumut male, Sn-ku-iik, age 25 27
V. Kinugunuit male, KoQiik-seiler, age 23 29
VI. Kinuguiiiut male, Kyo-kiuisee, age 16 31
VII. Kiruigumut male, Iser-kyiier, age 20 33
VIII. Kinugumut female, Kok-suk, age 23 35
IX. Kinugumut female, Unger-ker'-kluk, age 22 37
X. Kiilugumut female, age 22 39
XI. Siberian P^skimo : a. Womau of Meehiguie bay. h. \', omau of East
cape 40
XII. Eskimo men — Mechigmc bay, Siberia 43
XIII. Cape Prince of Wales aud Icy Cape men 45
XIV. Typically dressed women and cliildreu from East cape, Siberia 47
XV. Tj'pical dress of Kaviagmut and Kuskokwogmut meu and women.. 49
XVI. Man's birdskin frock. (64273) 50
XVII. Front and back of man's deerskin frock. (49107 ) 53
X\'III. Front and back of woman's frock. (7510) 55
XIX. Front of man's iishskin frock. (3S817) 56
XX. Men's gloves: 1 (64271), 2 (1728), 3 (48135), 4 (64-287), 5 (44350), 6
(384.54), 7 (48101) 58
XXI. ISoots, waterproof mittens, and straw socks: 1 (49082), 2 (38814),
3 (48127), 4 (43345), 5 (49083), 6 (48381), 7 (48132), 8 (38871), 9
(38779), 10 (129822), 11 (43315), 12 (49164) 60
XXII. Labrets: 1(176070), 2 (31277), 3 (176069), 4 (36869), 5 (36871), 6 (176074),
7 (37038), 8 (16210), 9 (43757), 10 (16205), 11 (16204), 12 (16203), 13
(76681), 14 (176067), 15 (76678), 16 (48749), 17 (33506), 18 (37663), 19
19 (44903), 20 (44902), 21 (48898), 22 (45200), 2i (176068), 24 (63839),
25 (44130) 62
XXIII. Kotzebne Sound Malemut meu and women with labrets 64
XXIV. Earrings: 1 (4573), 2 (48306), 3 (38170), 4 (37271), 5 (4.574), 6 (37270),
7 (4572), 8 (38051), 9 (24701), 10 (38168), 11 (4569), 12 (43667), 13
(36839), 14 (37517), 15 (37264), 16 (4570), 17 (4568), 18 (36862), 19
(44912) 66
XXV. Earrings and other ornaments: 1 (37002), 2 (37745),3 (37006), 4 (37007),
5 (43743), 6 (37003), 7 (36003), 8 (38417), 9 (37258), 10 (37254), 11
(38410), 12 (37356), 13(43730) 68
XXVI. Women and children of Cape Smith 70
' The figures in i)areutheses fullowiuj; the titles of the ilhistrations refer to the numbers of the
objects in the catalog of the United States National MuBeuiu.
XI
XII BUREAU OF AMERIf'AX ETHXOLOGY
Page
Plate XXVII. Belt fasteuers: 1 (4442«), 2 (37206), 3 (37043), 4 (48629), 5
(37212), r, (44641;, 7 (36920), 8 (43724), 9 (37034), 10 (43880),
11 (45183), 12 (36911), 13 (63835), 14 (44529), 15 (43723), 16
(37468), 17 (43719), 18 (37484), 19 (38565), 20 (37833), 21
(37012), 22 (48194), 23 (37990), 24 (43615), 25 (37209), 26
(37332), 27 (37989), 28 (38553), 29 (37706), 30 (37333) 72
XXVIII. Lamps and pots: 1 (63545), 2 (38078), 3 (64222), 4 (63544), 5
(63566), 6 (30761), 7 (63570), 8 (49196), 9 (63543), 10 (127018),
11 (49110), 12 (44338), 13 (6.3548) 74
XXIX. Ladles and dippers: 1 (38629), 2 (45054), 3 (45100), 4 (38631), 5
(38635), 6 (33062), 7 (45007), 8 (38604), 9 (45513), 10 (63575),
11 (63.576), 12 (48129) 76
XXX. Spoons and ladles: 1 (33280), 2 (63227), 3 (37340), 4 (37475), 5
(37116;, 6 (.35961), 7 (63832), 8 (37118), 9 (36855), 10 (3.5959),
11 (36358), 12 (38062), 13 (36359), 14 (36357), 15 (63278), 16
(38508), 17 (38527), 18 (4.5051), 19 (38503), 20 (43491), 21
(38637), 22 (3.5960). 23 (37120), 24 (38632), 25 (38638) 78
XXXT, Trays and pestles: 1 (63719), 2 (127007), 3 (48844), 4 (38678), 5
(37868), 6 (38683), 7 (38844), 8 (38677). 9 (127019) 80
XXXII. Tray.s and buckets: 1 (63243), 2 (38a54), 3 (38685), 4 (33066), 5
(37143),6 (37355),7 (632J5), 8 (38642) 82
XXXIII. Implements and utensils: o. Water bag, mouthpieces, bUiblier
book, and carrier: 1 (44605), 2 (35982), 3 (37432), 4 (3G488),
5 (33213), 6 (43954), 7 (30774), 8 (16135), 9 (37375), 10 (.38708),
11 (30773), 12 (33203). b, Root picks : 1 (16132), 2 (44414), 3
(33081) 84
XXXIV. Fire-making implements: 1,2,3 (33166), 4, 5 (36325;, 6 (49067),
7,8 (37961). 9 (38601) 86
XXXV. Snow sborel, pick, rake, and maul: 1 (63600), 2 (48994), 3
(63650), 4 (63601) 88
XXXVI. a, Ivory working tools : 1 (63274), 2 (65483), 3 (37980), 4 (63319), 5
(63316), 6 (43821), 7 (33604), 8 (48087), 9 (46145), 10 (48179).
b, Drill bows: 1 (44206), 2 (44209), 3 (44467), 4 (33189), 5
(33186). 6 (33191), 7 (45017), 8 (63804), 9 (44208), 10 (48021),
11(63622) 90
XXXVII. Drills, drill caj)S, and cords: 1 (45563), 2 (126986), 3 (.33171), 4
(63323), 5 (33170). G (38798), 7 (89625). 8 (89627), 9 (44203), 10
(33172), 11 (38084), 12 (63720), 13 (48585) 14 (48.565), 15
(49177), 16 (45.520), 17 (63663), 18 (33147), 19 (33174), 20
(37962), 21 (33653), 22 (33149), 23 (36321), 24 (48927), 25
(16176), 26 (4.5383), 27 (36322), 28 (44561), 29 (126995), 30
(63506) 92
XXXVIII. Wood-working tools: 1 (48705). 2 (38292), 3 (46147), 4 (48706), 5
(36427), 6 (38494), 7 (44981). 8(48704). 9 (36508). 10 (48552). 11
(38201), 12 (36420), 13 (45150), 14 (48542), 15 (43883), 16
(45163), 17 (33026), 18 (36554), 19 (32883), 20 (48847), 21
(36366), 22 (64154), 23 (38294), 24 (89634), 25 (64155), 26
(32878), 27 (63320), 28 (45488), 29 (63318), 30 (36507), 31
(48291) 94
XXXIX. Wedges and adzes: 1 (38836), 2 (16067), 3 (44601), 4 (48873), 5
(63619), 6 (48872), 7 (127023), 8 (48182), 9 (38258), 10 (33082),
11 (37865), 12 (45069), 13 (33260), 14 (33083) 96
XL. Arrowshaftstraighteners and point setters: 1 (33039), 2 (6.3723),
3 (44383), 4 (44415), 5 (33048). 0 (38492;, 7 (64159), 8 (48680),
9(48723), 10 (6.3790), 11 (43924), 12 (44745) 99
XLI. Tool bag nud bandies: 1 (64151). 2 (44169), 3 (44398). 4 (48531),
5 (63305), 6 (48.529), 7 (48089) 101
ILLUSTRATIONS XIII
Platk XLII. Tool and triuket boxes : 1 (49103), 2 (63240), 3 (36240), 4 (37561), 5
(43887), 6 (36239), 7 (36243), 8 (36241), 9 (49015), 10 (36244),
11 (3624G) 102
XLIII. Bucket aritl bos haudles : 1 (44691), 2 (48685), 3 (63824), 4 (48270),
5 (38752), 6 (30375), 7 (48461), 8 (63809), 9 (24431), 10 (38776).
11 (44716), 12 (63801), 13 (33279), 14 (48137), 15 (48164), 16
(33273), 17 (43820), 18 (38751), 19 (33220), 20 (63884), 21
(129218), 22 (44190), 23 (48163), 24 (43809), 23 (63879), 26
(41276) 104
XLH'. Thimblo guarda, ueedle-cases, aud boot-sole creasers: 1 (48496), 2
(63J2n. 3 (36459), 4 (36456), 5 (36463), 6 (36464), 7 (48299), 8
(36455), 9 (36453), 10 (36454), 11 (44011), 12 (48664), 13 (36452),
14 (44340), 15 (43861), 16 (64165), 17 (63827), 18 (64167), 19
(48570), 20 (44017), 21 (37237), 22 (36885), 23 (36878), 24 (45459),
25 (24481), 26 (33462), 27 (36880), 28 (48560), 29 (45168), 30
(641(54), 31 (38448), 32 (33699), 33 (43505), 34 (48980), 35 (36742),
36 (36758), 37 (37807), 38 (33214), 39 (36721), 40 (44137), 41
(48546), 42 (63806), 43 (16189), 44 (48289), 45 (38364), 46(38449),
47 (47738), 48 (33677), 49 (45140), 50 (43389), 51 (48543) 106
XLV. '•Housewives" aud lasteuiugs: 1 (48963), 2 (37778), 3 (43662), 4
(36690), 5 (37791), 6 (36695), 7 (37786), 8 (37189), 9 (37783), 10
(45142), n (J3663), 12 (49001), 13 (37319), 14 (64288), 15 (38691),
16 (44021), 17 (38198), 18 (48795), 19 (37767), 20 (38221), 21
(38402), 22 (36419), 23 (37310). 24 (37457), 25 (38376), 26 (38241),
27 (37739), 28 (35972), 29 (43694), 30 (38387), 31 (16343), 32
(38690) ---. 108
XLVI. Bodkins: 1 (33251), 2 (37304), 3 (38385), 4 (37752), 5 (37621), 6
(36286), 7 (36631), 8 (36634), 9 (43535), 10 (36632), 11 (37776), 12
(43388), 13 (36626), 14 (48798), 15 (48948), 16 (38495) 110
XLVII. Fish and skinning- knives: 1 (36315), 2 (63771), 3 (63773), 4 (37957),
5 ( i3892), 6 (36506), 7 (48829), 8 (48828), 9 (38256), 10 (43482).. 112
XLVIII. Thread- and cord-making implements: a, Gfasscombs: 1(44779),
2 (44777), 3 (44419), 4 (48120), 5 (33145), 6 (63657), 7 (48842),
8 (38079), 9 (48877), 10 (48918). h, Thread shuttles and
needles: 1 (24463), 2 (24461), 3 (36449), 4 (48261), 5 (48287), 6
(43740), 7 (43742), 8 (36448) 114
XLIX. Skin scrapers: 1 (30825), 2 (63851), 3 (64181), 4 (63850), 5 (48631),
■ 6 (63868), 7 (48624), 8 (44084), 9 (63849), 10 (44983), 11 (44982),
12 (48882), 13 (43408), 14 (64176), 15 (382.52), 16 (63405), 17
(38828), 18 (33086), 19 (38485), 20 (43927) 116
L. Skin-cleaning tools: 1 (43433), 2 (32890), 3 (38755), 4 (43767),
5 (48256), 6 (36520), 7 (44771), 8 (63800), 9 (63353), 10 (63351),
11 (63833), 12 (63666), 13 (37967), 14 (45730), 15 (32885), 16
(45105), 17 (48982), 18 (48549) 118
LI. Nets, snares, aud traps: 1 (38622), 2 (33716), 3 (43291), 4 (44255),
5 (120033), 6 (46072), 7 (37651), 8 (63815), 9 (33820), 10 (33812),
11 (126993), 12 (63.590), 13 (63.590), 14 (63258), 15 (126993),
16 (38441 ) 122
LII. Braining clubs and seal-capturing implements: 1 (63745), 2
(63676), 3 (38476), 4 (33143), 5 (37598), 6 (63270), 7 (63788), 8
(63787), 9 (48.503), 10 (48167), 11 (33143), 12 (48561), 13 (45113),
14 (38.500), 15 (63777), 16 (44411), 17 (45003), 18 (45005), 19
(J5047), 20 (63876), 21 (63781), 22 (44142), 23 (64218), 24
(127013), 25 (463.55), 26 (63780) 126
LII I. St Michael huuter casting a seal speai' 135
XIV BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Page
Plate LI\'. .Small seal spears aud lines: 1(175669), 2(33980), 3(36110), 4(33872),
5 (36103), 6 (37350). 7 (■1371.S). 8(36081), 9 (175673), 10(160337).. 137
LV. Spears andlauces: «, Larj;e spears : 1 (33911), 2 (29780), 3 (4815C),
4 (33973), 5 (36067), 0 (33888), 7 (45415), 8 (43429). 6, Lances :
1 (17.5672), 2 (48379), 3 (15419), 4 (15431), 5 (37388), 6 (37389).. 139
LVI. Huuting and lisliinu; apparatus: a, Float, lloat-i)lug8, and mouth-
pieces: 1 (37820), 2 (37239). 3 (44627), 4 (36499), 5 (37822), 6
(36498), 7 (4.3981), 8 (41306), 9 (43509), 10 (44629), 11 (45169),
12 (44305), 13 (43510), 14 (44770), 15 (37329), 16 (30209), 17
(.33298), 18 (63340), 19 (44285), 20 (33452), 21 (33451), 22 (36195),
23 (63663), 24 (44284), 25 (37818), 26 (33627), 27 (36209), 28
(44432), 29 (43515), 30 (45126), 31 (63342). 6, Cord attacliers:
1 (16192), 2 (37054), 3 (37060), 4 (37068), 5 (37824), 6 (37052), 7
(38149), 8 (48317), 9 (37055), 10 (37036), 11 (129271), 12(44709),
13 (37064), 14 (43624), 15 (33650), 16 (49009), 17 (43382), 18
(33630), 19 (38006), 20 (37218), 21 (37228), 22 (33445), 23 (37057) . 142
LVII. Objects used iu bunting: o. Lance points, etc. : 1 (48389), 2(43758),
3 (37657), 4 (48181), 5 (43870), 6 (38517), 7 (36294), 8 (44051), 9
(37618), 10 (36312), 11 (44217), 12 (37662), 13 (63863), 14 (44321),
15 (126915), 16 (37390), 17 (38459), 18 (38607), 19 (46070), 20
(16173), 21 (33159), 22 (44657), 23 (36333), 24 (37389), 25 (37388),
26(37581), 27 (37390). /;, Spearheads, points, finger-rests, etc. :
1 (44405), 2 (63497), 3 (126912), 4 (16125), 5 (37377), 6 (44699), 7
(44703), 8 (44746), 9 (38.529), 10 (48820), 11 (33632), 12 (48471),
13 (03334), 14 (36343), 15 (37951), 16 (44421), 17 (43461), 18
(43461), 19 (48276), 20 (44077), 21 (45171), 22 (43865), 23 (45173),
24 (63842),25(63844),26 (63843), 27 (33465),28 (44812), 29 (45170),
30 (37671), 31 (48293), 32 (33641), 33 (37417), 34 (36097) 148
LVIII. St Michael man casting a bird spear 151
LIX. Bird spears: 1 (36139), 2 (33879), 3 (48387), 4 (48354), 5 (36129),
6 (45426), 7 (33845), 8 (48350), 9 (29852), 10(33848), 11 (36076).. 1.53
- LX. Bows: 1 (36038), 2f36033),3(33886),4(160341),5(4E679),6(36034),
7,(48374), 8 (33884), 9 (73172), 10 (4.5736), 11 (36029) 155
LXI. Hunting and war implements: o. Arrows for large game and for
war: 1 (126990), 2 (176093a), 3 (63584), 4 (176093d;, 5(45433),
6 (176093i), 7 (129327), 8 (16415), 9 (36179), 10 (16415), 11
(63584), 12 (63584 ft), i, Arrowpoiuts, strengtheners for bows
andqnivcrs, aud wrist-guards: 1 (48259), 2 (48974), 3 (63374), 4
(33634), 5 (49065), 6 (4S717), 7 (48200), 8 (38.530), 9 (63860), 10
(43950), 11 (44078), 12 (63331), 13 (63276), 14 (63328), 15 (63326),
16 (46097), 17 (48446), 18 (63375), 19 (44079), 20 (63755), 21
(43872), 22 (63864), 23 (637.53), 24 (36300), 25 (44048), 26 (38450),
27 (24596). c. Bird arrows and quiver: 1 (36140), 2 (176094a),
3 (45432), 4 (33833), 5 (33821), 6 (33824), 7 (33827), 8 (176095).. 158
LXII. Iio.\es for arrowpoints and iiaints: 1 (33015), 2 (44458), 3 (33019),
4 (44450), 5 (48253), 6 (37.557), 7 (38475), 8 (24607), 9 (33024), 10
(45514), 11 (24347), 12 (43489),' 13 (38336), 14 (37342), 15
(48252), 16 (37342), 17 (43485) 162
LXIII. Objects used with guns aud iu huuting: 1 (49187), 2 (33209,), 3
(44326), 4 (14612), 5 (33210), 0 (44117), 7 (43977), 8 (36323), 9
(44773), 10 (43512), 11 (36407), 12 (43513), 13 (63349), 14 (64197),
15 (37433), 16 (36486), 17 (43923), 18 (43854), 19 (48134), 20
(44772), 21 (44966), 22 (3S100), 23 (43490), 24 (484.50), 25 (37966),
26 (36490), 27 (37363), 28 (33079), £9 (44963). 30 (44388), 31
(.36026), 32(44327), 33 (43480) 161
ILLT'STR.ATIOXS XV
P;i>:e
Plate LXI\'. Huutiug licimuts, visors, and suow goggles : 1 (44328), 2 (38659),
3 (44330), 4 (3S()58), 5 (72906), 0 (32945), 7 (63626), 8 (44256;,
9 (32942), 10 (46137), 11 (63825), 12 (63269), 13 (48996), 14
(36351), 15 (33136), 16 (37351), 17(45072), 18(160337), 19
(44349), 20(38718), 21 (38711), 22 (38713) 166
LXV. Nejihiite knife sharpener, dagger, and sheath: 1 (48586), 2, 3
(176072) 170
LXVI. Cord or drag handles: 1 (37693), 2 (44537), 3 (48190), 4 (33620), 5
(63689), 6 (38556), 7 (48567), 8 (44885), 9 (45231), 10 (48666),
11 (45176), 12 (44890), 13 (43970), 14 (33657), 15 (45026), 16
(37384), 17 (46162), 18 (44191), 19 (44151) 173
LXVII. Ice pick, scoops, and fish spears: 1 (48344), 2 (48343), 3 (33860),
4 (36070), 5 (49051), 6 (49049), 7 (49141), 8 (49142), 9 (36024),
10(33894) 175
LXYIII. Fishing implements: 1 (16303), 2 (44096), 3 (37349), 4 (37348), 5
(63513), 6 (38377), 7 (33037), 8 (33036), 9 (33376), 10 (37946),
11 (45115), 12 (44930), 13 (48298), 14 (37253), 15 (38413), 16
(36378), 17 (37253), 18 (44745), 19 (43852), 20 (63284), 21
(43401), 22 (63265), 23 (33915), 24 (45402), 25 (33816), 26
(45441), 27 (33900), 28 (33899), 29 (33038), 30 (44075), 31 (33915),
32 (03513) 176
LXIX. Fishhooks and sinkers: 1 (40318), 2 (46264), 3 (37413), 4 (44370),
5 (64199), 6 (45255), 7 (44482), 8 (45261), 9 (49172), 10 (44475),
11 (49172), 12 (44509), 13 (44953), 14 (44508), 15 (64188), 16
(63630), 17 (44125), 18 (48305), 19 (44954), 20 (44493), 21
(63634), 22 (44371), 23 (44480), 24 (44371), 25 (126983), 26
(44939), 27 (44938), 28 (63512), 29 (126984), 30 (38816), 31
(126989), 32(63897), 33 (126989a) 178
LXX. Objects used in fishing: 1 (45422), 2 (48998), 3 (37347), 4 (48699),
5 (63377), 6 (63737), 7 (63744), 8 (38808), 9 (38867), 10 (127943),
11 (38498), 12 (49148), 13 (32988), 14 (176092), 15 (38825), 16
(33138) 184
LXXI. Setting fish trap through the ice on the i'ukun, near Ikogmut.. 187
LXXII. Xet-making implements: 1 (43967), 2 (49183), 3 (63304), 4 (63305),
5 (43811), 6 (36373), 7 (48539), 8 (44487), 9 (37428), 10 (49004),
11 (48283), 12 (44202), 13 (44996), 14 (63652), 15 (48832).
16 (33176), 17 (33257), 18 (36413), 19 (44385), 20 (44607),
21 (48722), 22 (48460), 23 (44569', 24 (33267), 25 f 38276),
26 (45110) 190
LXXIII. Xet-making implements : 1 (36681), 2 (33050), 3 (37459), 4 (36416),
5 (36398), 6 (44413;, 7 (48726), 8 (38662), 9 (37927), 10 (37928),
11 (126988), 12 (63307), 13 (19408), 14 (44787), 15 (49013),
16 (38211), 17 (48938), 18 (44448), 19 (48286), 20 (63654),
21 (49000), 22 (33095), 23 (44994), 24 (44573), 25 (44463),
26 (45014), 27 (48583), 28(38501) 192
hX\l\. Objects of grass and spruce root: 1 (37603), 2 (37926), 3 (44234),
4 (36190), 5 (38204), 6 (32977), 7 (35962), 8 (32968), 9 (166949),
10 (127890), 11 (176077), 12 (176078), 13 (38467), 14 (32964),
15 (32945) 202
LXXV. Malemiit family with dog sled 205
LXXVI. Model of sled frame -n-ith other objects used in transportation :
1 (63587), 2 (63656), 3 (43849), 4 (63371), 5 (127004), 6 (44375),
7 (63361), 8 (49076), 9 (44736), 10 (63829), 11 (63698), 12
(438571,13 (4S725), 14 116251), 15 (49146), 16 (48104) 20.S
LXX VII, Model of iimiak -n-ith matting sail. (38882) 217
XVI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Page
Plate LXXVIII. Jloilel ot'iiiiiiak frame and appurteuaiices of umiak and kaiak
rigging : 1 (15284), 2 (48587), 3 (3701G), 4 ( 37672), 5 (49185),
6 (44443), 7 (37300), 8 (37461), 9 (37301), 10 (37001), 11
(37247), 12 (43538), 13 (35998), 14 (43705), 15 (44711), 16
(38284), 17 (24698), 18 (33407), 19 (44980), 20 (44755), 21
(44531), 22 (36421), 23 (37426), 24 (36424), 25 (37939), 26
(63665), 27 (33219), 28 (45380), 29 (38277), 30 (36392), 31
(33386), 32 (44759), 33 (63878), 34 (127014), 35 (46304), 36
(44758), 37 (48109), 38 (38883) 218
LXXIX. Kaiaks : 1 Nunivak island (76283), 2 Nnnivak island (160345),
3 St Michael (166932), 4 King island (160326), 5 Cape
Kspenherg (129575), 6 Capo Krnseustern (129574) 220
LXXX. Paddles and boat hooks: 1 (33893), 2 (36023), 3 (43347), 4
(36022), 5 (45408), 6 (73169), 7 (36071), 8 (36057), 9 (45406),
10 (48148) 223
LXXXI. Storeliouses at Ikogmut 245
LXXXII. Winter view of Razbinsky 247
LXXXIII. Eskimo dwellings: o. House at Plover bay. 6, Noatak sum-
mer lodge 259
LXXXIV. Women of Plover bay, Siberia 260
LXXXV. Summer camp at Cape Lisburue 263
LXXXVI. Tobacco and snuff boxes and snutf-making implements: 1
(43797), 2 (38334), 3 (48247), 4 (6580), 5 (36268), 6 (33013),
7 (36270), 8 (36276), 9 (35956), 10 (36620), 11 (36267), 12
(48839), 13 (36282), 14 (36281), 15 (36284), 16 (16094), 17
(37559), 18 (36280), 19 (43824), 20 (37857), 21 (37539), 22
(36260), 23 (43952), 24 (36274), 25 (44957), 26 (37540), 27
(1636), 28 (33097), 29 (7074), 30 (48737) 270
LXXXVII. Fungus asli boxes and tobacco bags: 1 (24744), 2 (37907), 3
(48255), 4 (64186), 5 (44059), 6 (38665), 7 (64187), 8 (63721), 9
(44960), 10 (38472), 11 (36249), 12 (48559), 13 (38664), 14
(37858) 272
LXXXA'III. Pipes and pipe mold : 1 (44393), 2 (38785), 3 (63511), 4 (48172),
5 (38790), 6 (63785), 7 (38788), 8 (45327), 9 (43963), 10
(32869), 11 (48171), 12 (43999), 13 (48076), 14 (49192) 280
LXXXIX. Ivory pipestems: 1 (7506), 2 (2292), 3 (154073), 4 (2282) 283
XC. Snuff tubes : 1 (44471), 2 (36807), 3 (38435), 4 (37498), 5 (36821),
6 (38039), 7 (38042), 8 ;36818), 9 (36817), 10 (36789), 11
(37316), 12 (35978), 13 (49026), 14 (36825), 15 (37811) 284
XCI. Graveyard at Razbinsky 317
XCII. Eskimo plate armor 330
XCIII. Dolls: 1 (44871), 2 (24S69), 3 (64209), 4 (37707), 5 (36216), 6
(38577), 7 (63518), 8 (63378) 342
XCn'. Snow kuives: 1 (36377), 2 (38359), 3 (37283), 4 (36578), 5
(43501), 6 (127407), 7 (43890), 8 (127398), 9 (36514), 10
(36591), 11 (36568), 12 (37425), 13 (36555) 344
XCV. Masks : 1 (48989), 2 (48985), 3 (33131), 4 (43779) 396
XCVI. Masks: 1 (33108), 2 (33104) 398
XCVII. Mask. (33118) 401
XCVIII. Masks: 1 (49020), 2 (64242), 3 (38733) 404
XCIX. Masks: 1 (64248), 2 (38862), 3 (38645), 4 (38811) 406
C. Masks: 1 (64260), 2 (33111), 3 (33105), 4 (33107) 408
CI. Masks: 1 (33134), 2 (37654) 410
CII. Masks: 1 (33126), 2 (48913), 3 (37864), 4 (64238) 412
ILLUSTRATIOXS XVII
Page
Plate CIII. Fingermasksandmaskoids: 1 (1621),2(64258),3(37895),4(64252),
5 (64243), 6 (64206) 414
CIV. Finger masks : 1 (24740), 2 (38648), 3, 4 (36231) 416
CV. Fingermasks: 1 (38451), 2 (33125), 3 (33121) 418
CVI. Belts and armlet: 1 (37021), 2 (64221), 3 (176071). 420
CVII. Objects etched with mytlioloj;ic figures: a, Spear rest with
figures of thunderbirds catching whales. (48169.) h, Ivory
pipestem with etihed figures of the mau-worm and the
thuudeibird. ■(154075) •. 446
No.
CVIII. Alabama 1
CIX. Alabama, northeru portion 2
ex. Arizona 1 3
CXI. Arizona 2 4
CXII. Arkansas 1 5
CXIII. Arkansas 2 6
CXIV. Califoniial 7
CXV. California 2 (with inset special map) 8
CXVI. Colorado 1 9
CXYII. Colorado 2 10
CX VIII. Xorth Dakota and South Dakota 1 11
CXIX. North Dakota and South Dakota 2 12
CXX. North Dakota and South Dakota 3 13
CXXI. Florida 14
CXXII. Georgia 15
CXXIII. Idaho 16
CXXIV. Illinois 1 17
CXXV. Illinois2 18
CXXVI. Indiana 19
CXXVII. Indiana, detail 20
CXXVIII. Indian Territory and Oklahoma 1 21
CXXIX. Indian Territory and Oklahoma 2 22
CXXX. Indian Territory and Oklahoma 3 23
CXXXI. lowal 24
CXXXII. Iowa 2 25
CXXXIII. Kansasl 26
CXXXIV. Kansas2 - 2T
CXXXV. Louisiana 28
CXXXVI. Michigan 1 29
CXXXVII. Michigan2 30
CXXXYIII. Michigan, Saginaw bay to Lake Erie r!l
CXXXIX. Michigan, region about Mackinaw and Detroit 32
CXL. Minnesota 1 33
CXLI. Minnesota 2 34
CXLII. Minnesota, northeru portion 35
CXLIII. Mississippi 36
CXLIV. Jiissouri 1 - 37
CXLV. Missouri 2 38
CXLVL Montana 1 39
CXLVIL Montana 2 40
CXLVIII. Nebraska 41
CXLIX. Nebraska, eastern portion 42
CL. Nevada 43
CLI. New Mexico 1 44
18 ETH II
XVIII BUREAl' OP AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
No.
Platk CLII. New Mexico 2 45
CLIII. New Mexico and Texas, detail 4(5
CLIV. New York 47
CLV. North Carolina, portion of 4S
CLVI. Ohio 49
CLVII. Ohio, detail 50
CLVni. Oregon 1 51
CLIX. Oregon 2 52
CLX. Pennsylvania 53
CLXI. Tennessee and portions of bordering states 54
CLXII. Tennessee, detail 55
CLXI II. Tennessee and Alabama, portions of .56
CLXIV. Texas, portion of 57
CLXV. Utah 1 58
CLXVI. Utah 2 59
CLX VII. Washington 1 60
CLXVIII. Washington 2 61
CLXIX. Washiujiton, along Admiralty inlet 62
CLXX. Washington, northwestern 63
CLXXI. Wisconsin 1 64
CLXXII. Wisc(msin2 65
CLXXIII. Wyoming 1 66
CLXXIV. Wyoming 2 67
Page
Figure 1. Scheme of color on masks and mask-like objects, grave boxes, and
totem markings 26
2. Man's hood from Konigunugumut. (38657) 32
3. Fox-skin cap 33
4. Man's hood of reindeer and marmot skin and mink fur. (37903)... 33
5. Man's wolf-head Slimmer hood from Point Hope. (64270) 34
6. Ear-flaps. (37398) 37
7. Fish-skin cloth inn- bags: 1 (37631), 2 (37401) 43
8. Clothing bag of .sealskin. (48099) 44
9. King island man with labrets of lignite 47
10. Ivotzebne sound Maleuiut men and women 49
11. Tattooing on women, (n, South of Yukon mouth; 6, East cape,
Siberia ; o, Head of Kotzebue sound) 50
12. Tattooing on a St Lawrence island girl 50
13. Tattooing on a woman of St Lawrence island 51
14. Tattooing on a woman's arm, East cape, Siberia 51
15. Circular forms of tattooing 52
16. Hair combs: 1 (.36374), 2 (48260), 3 (126985), 4 (45484), 5 (44765),
6 (63722) 57
17. Ivory belt fastener. (44523) 61
18. Lamp from Point Barrow 63
19. Ivory carving representing a lamp and stand 63
20. Marrow spoon. (7519) 69
21. Snow beaters: 1 (48995), 2 (49175), 3 (48161), 4 (44998), 5 (48162).. . 77
22. Snow shovels : 1 (36973), 2 (49143) 78
23. Mallets: 1 (48999), 2 (48909), 3 (48885) 79
24. Wood chisels: 1 (43737), 2 (36397) 87
25. Knife sharpeners : 1 (43858), 2 (33047), 3 (46109), 4 (63529), 5 (43817) . 90
26. Flint flakers: 1 (63786), 2 (64153), 3 (37600), 4 (37615),5 (48554) 91
27. Wooden trinket box. (3.5955) 96
28. Trinket box. (49075) 98
ILLUSTRATIONS XIX
Page
Figure '29. Boot-sole creaser. (7521) 108
30. Sinew twisters. ^44688) Ill
31. Sinew spinner from St La,\vrence island 112
32. Stretched se.-ilskin 116
33. Jlethod of folding sealskin 117
34. Model of a (leer snare. (48208) 119
3."i. Etching on ivory elio wing deer snares. (7.321) 120
36. Game spits. (38488) 121
37. Fox or wolf trap with sinew si)ring. (7510) 122
38. Marmot trap. (33146) 125
39. Sealskin 11 o,it. (129381, old number 48330) 141
40. Cord .attaclier. (7508) 144
41. Cord attaeher, obverse and reverse. (7509) 145
42. Spearpoints for birds and fish: 1 (38499), 2 (38783), 3 (44574), 4
(43361), 5 (126916), 6 (63333), 7 (45519), 8 (45737) 150
43. Throwing sticks : 1 (49001). 2 (38670), 3 (33897), 4 (36013), 5 (24355),
6 (45396), 7 (49002), 8 (168581), 9 (166946), 10 (15644), 11 (36018). .. 154
44. Fish arrows: 1 (160341), 2 (43680), 3 (49044), 4 (48340), 5 (48338), 6
(63578), 7 (48341), 8 (49037), 9 (33858), 10 (36161) U!0
45. Ivory ornaments for hunting helmets: 1 (37419), 2 (38325), 3(36477),
4 (49014), 5 (32954), 6 (36428), 7 (36408), 8 (43808) 169
46. Cord handle of ivory. (7517) 172
47. Tomcod fishing through sea ice at St Michael 174
48. Grayling hook. (7515) 180
49. Seining on Kotzebue sound 186
50. Mesh of dip-net made of sinew. (48923) 187
51. Mesh of dip-net made of willow bark. f48925) 187
52. Mesh, lloat. and sinker of herring seine. (33871) 188
53. Herring seine with stretcher at one end, .and with float and sinker.
(43353).... - 189
54. Sealskin-cord herring seine with stone sinker. (176090) 189
5.5. Wooden net float. (63505) 190
56. Ivory marlinspike. (16143) 193
.57. Marlinspike with Ijone point. (33100) 193
58. Wooden paint box. (38338) - 200
59. Wooden jiaint box. (359.54) 2011
60. Clay pot from Hotham inlet 202
61. Kaviak hunter with hand sled 207
62. .Sled used on the Siberian shore of Bering strait. (176084) 203
63. Suowshoes from Norton bay. (4.5400) 212
64. Snowshoe from Cape Darby. (48092) 213
65. Snowshoe from Icy cape. (63604) 213
66. Snowshoe from St Lawrence island. (63236) 214
67. Ice staff. (45424) 215
68. Ice staff. (73178) 215
69. Ice creepers: 1 and la (63881), 2 (46260), 3 (44254), 4 (126982), 5
(63514) ". 216
70. Forms of umiak paddles: a, from Kotzebue sound; 1), from Point
Hope 224
71. Kaiak paddles from Point Barrow and King island: 1 (89246), 2
(1603261 225
72. Ivory spear guard for kaiak. (176086o) 227
73. Ivory spear guard for kaiak. (176086J) 227
74. Plan of house at St Michael 242
XX BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Page
Figure 75. Storehouse at St Michael 243
76. Kashim at St Michael 246
77. Section of kashim at St Michael 247
78. Section of kashim at Kushunuk ., 250
79. Carved lamp support 252
80. Section of house at Ignituk 253
81. Section of house at Ignituk 253
82. Section of house at Cape Nome 254
83. Ground plan of house at Cape Nome 254
84. Walrus skin summer house on King island 256
85. Eskimo village at East cape, Siberia 257
86. House frame of whale ribs and jawbone 259
87. Section of house ou St Lawrence island 260
88. Summer camp at Hothani inlet 260
89. Frame for summer lodge, Hotham inlet 261
90. Arrangement of summer camp at Hotham inlet 262
91. Summer lodge at Cape Thompson 262
92. Sites of ancient villages at Cape Wankarem, Siberia 265
93. Fungus used for making ashes to mix with tobacco. (43366) 271
94. Pipe from Kotzebue sound. (4!S133; 281
95. Pipe from Cape Print e of Wales. (7516) 284
96. Respirator (front view). (388.50) 288
97. Lancet pointed with nephrite. (38797) 310
98. Backscratcher. (45107) 310
99. Positi(m in which the dead are buried at St Michael 311
100. Method of disposing of the dead at St .Michael 313
101. Position of burial of the dead on the lower Yukon 31 1
102. Grave boxes, Yukon delta 315
103. Burial box at Razbinsky 316
104. Memorial images at Cape Vancouver 317
105. Monument board at a Big lake grave 319
106. Grave box at Cape Nome 320
107. Grave on St Lawrence island 321
108. Arrowpoiut showing wolf totem signs. (43689) 322
109. Spearhead representiug a wolf. (38442) 323
110. Spearhead representing a wolf. (43751) 323
111. Spearhead representing an otter. (43750) 323
112. Spearhead representing an ermine. (36080) 323
113. Gerfalcon totems on bow and seal spear 324
114. Simple forms of the raven totem 324
115. Raven totem tattooing on a Plover bay boy 325
116. Raven totems on smoke-hole cover 325
117. Wolf totem signs on a storehouse door 325
118. Tobacco board with bear and loach signs. (48922) 326
119. Figures on a grave box 326
120. Boy with toy sled, St Lawrence island 331
121. Dart. (45475) 331
122. Top from Cape Prince of Wales. (43371) 341
123. Toy woodpecker. (33798) 341
124. Toy mouse. (48912) 342
125. Toy representing a murre swimming. (63478) 342
126. Clay doll. (48735) 342
127. Woodeudoll. (38345) 313
128. Doll. (38351 ) 343
129. Wooden doll. (37878) 344
ILLUSTRATIONS XXI
Page
Figure 130. Mechanical doll. (63814) 344
131. Toy bear with (log harness. (63644) 34.5
132. Toy dogs and sled. (63387) 345
133. Toy bear. (63867) 346
134. Toy kaiak from St Lawrence island. (63449) 346
135. Ivory image of man and bear. (37750) 346
136. Drum handle. (63797) 351
137. Drumhandle. (33308) 351
138. Ivory baton for beating time on a stick. (45282) 352
139. Wand nsed in "Asking" festival. (33804) 359
140. Plan of kashim dnring mortuary ceremony 366
141. Maskoid representing a seal-head with rising air bubbles. (33115). 414
142. Eagle-feather wand used in dances. (49061) - 414
143. Eagle-feather wand used in dances (45446) 415
144. Armlet worn during dances. (45336) 416
145. Loouskin fillet worn in dances. (49079) 417
146. Reindeer-skin fillet. (36195) 417
147. Woman with ermine fillet and eagle-feather wands 418
148. Wristlet from Ikogmut. (36198) 419
149. Armlet worn in dances. (48695) 420
150. Fetich from a Malemut kaiak 436
151. Gr.aphite fetich used in right-whale fishing. (48384) 439
152. Whale fetich of wood. (64220) 440
153. Shaman's doll fetich. (37372) 441
154. Drawing of a composite animal in a wooden tray. (38679) 444
155. Drawing of the jxi^-rai'-i/iiA- in a wooden tray. (45494) 444
156. Drawing of the ^nW-rai'-i/iifc on an umiak. (160261) 445
157. Ivory carving of a composite animal. (44143) 446
158. Ivory carving representing the man-worm. (43550) 446
159. Ivory carving of a mythic animal. (7518) 447
160. Ivory drag handle representing a comjiosite animal. (7511) 447
161. Ivory carving of a mermaid-like creature. (7520) 447
162. Ivory float handle with mermaid-like figure. (7514) 448
163. Carving representing a mermaid-like creature. (36336) 448
164. Ivory carving showing the face of a walrus inua. (43561) 448
165. Drawing of a mythic creature in a wooden tray. (38642) 448
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT
OF THE
EUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
By J. W. Powell, Director
INTRODUCTION
Researches relating to the American Indians laave been
carried forward during the fiscal year ending June 30, 18I»7,
in accordance with the act of Congress making ]n-o vision "for
continuing researches among the American Indians, mider
the direction of the Smithsonian Institution," approved Jinie
11, 1896.
The operations have been conducted in accordance with a
plan submitted on June 13, 189G. The held work of the regu-
lar officers of the Bureau has extended into Arizona, Indian
Territor}', Iowa, Maine, New Brunswick, New Mexico, New
York, Oklahoma, and Ontario, while operations have been car-
ried on by special agents in California, Colorado, Idaho, Oregon,
Utah, and Washington state, as well as in Argentina, British
Columbia, Chile, and Mexico. The office researches have dealt
with material from most of the states and from various other
portions of the American continents.
A classification of ethnic science has grown up in connection
with the classification of the aboriginal tribes through the opera-
tions of the Bureau, and this has been perfected from year to
year. During recent years, and particularly during the fiscal
year just closed, the researches have been shaped by this classi-
fication of the subject-matter of the science. The primary lines
XXVI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
of investigation relate to (1) Arts or esthetology, (2) Industries
or technology (including archeology), (3) Institutions or soci-
ologv, (4) Languages or philology, and (5) Myths and opinions
or sophiology, as well as the requisite classificatory work involv-
ing researches in somatology and psychology.
The end of research in the Bureau of American Etlmologvis
the discovery of the relations of the aboriginal American tribes
among each other and among the peoples of the world. The
simpler relations are ascertained by direct observation and
defined by the aid of generalization; and continued observa-
tion and generalizati(in have led to the establishment of prin-
ciples which aid in detining the more complex relations. The
salient principles developed through the researches have been
set forth in previous reports; they serve to define the general
science of man, to distinguish the essentially human charac-
teristics from those of the lower animals, and to outline the
primary categories of activities which characterize mankind.
The recognition of the essentially human activities affords a
means for classifying tribes and peoj^les. The classification in
terms of activities represents a decided advance beyond the
l)lane of classification in terms of physical characteristics, and
raises the science of man to the level of the older sciences
in their modern aspects — e. g., to the plane occupied during
recent years by physical astronomy or physical geology. At
the same time the classification leads to the recognition of the
lines of human development, and serves to define their trend;
and thereby it prepares the way to clear comprehension and
accurate definition of the natural stages in human develop-
ment, i. e., the four jnincipal culture grades. Since each new
recognition of relation extends the view of the student, tlie
definition of the culture grades reacts on knowledge of the
primary activities, and conduces to still more accurate and
extended survey of the coiu'se of activital growth.
The lines of development discerned among the American
aborigines were set forth in terms of the activities in the last
report; it was there shown that in each of the five categories
the activities develojaed along convergent lines. For the pres-
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXVII
ent it suffices to observe that the conckisions have been veri-
fied and extended through the researches of the hist vear.
As heretofore, the special researches are commonly initiated
in the field and completed in the office, giving rise to (I) field
research (including exploration), and (II) office research, v^diich
together constitute the original scientific work of the Bureau;
while the demands of the public service and the needs of the
collaborators give rise to (HI) work in descriptive ethnologv,
(IV) bibhogTaphic work, (V) work in collecting, (VI) publica-
tion, and (VII) concomitant administrative and miscellaneous
work.
FIELD RESEARCH AND EXPLORATION
At the beginning of the fiscal j-ear the Director was engaged
in a reconnoissance of shell mounds and other antiquities on
the coast of Maine; here he was joined by Mr Frank Hamil-
ton Gushing, and a number of shell mounds were surveyed
and excavated with success. Later in the season the Passama-
quoddy Indians still living in the vicinity were studied with
some care, and their industries, especially in house building,
were investigated; subsequently some of the older men of the
tribe were employed to collect material for and to erect an
aboriginal wigwam, which was afterward transferred to the
Zoolog-ical Park at Washington.
During July and August Dr J. Walter Fewkes was occu-
pied in making surveys and excavations of ruins, chieflv in
Arizona, with the primary object of collecting prehistoric mate-
rial for the enrichment of the National Museum, l;)ut with tlie
secondary purpose of investigating those activities of the abo-
rigines recorded in the pn^ducts of their handiwork still extant.
His operations were notably successful.
Early in Julv Mrs Matilda Coxe Stevenson proceeded to
Zufii pueblo for the purpose of investigating certain ceremo-
nies not adequately studied hitherto, to the end that they might
be incorporated in her monograph on the Zufii Indians. She
remained throughout half of the fiscal year, and was able to
complete her researches in a satisfactory manner. Incident-
XXVIII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
ally, she obtained at Zuni and 8ia a number of sacred masks
used in the religious ceremonies of the people of those pueblos,
which have been transferred to the National Museum.
Toward the end of July Dr Albert S. Gatschet repaired to
eastern Maine and adjacent portions of New Bninswick in
search of linguistic material among' tlie tribesmen still livina"
on St Croix river. His mission was successful. A large body
of vocables, paradigms, and texts representing the Passama-
quoddy dialects of the Algonquian linguistic stock was secured,
and he was able also to trace definitely, for the first time, the
derivation of many of the })eculiar place names of eastern
Maine.
From the middle of August until the middle of December
Mr J. N. B. Hewitt was occupied in collecting material repre-
senting the languages and mythology of the Iroquoian Indians
located in central New York and southern Ontario. His work
was eminently productive, yielding a larg-e amount of material
of exceptional use for comparative studies in the philology and
sophiology of the Indians.
Toward the end of September Mr James Mooney rejjaired
to Indian Territory and ( Jklahoma, where he spent several
months in collecting information and material relating chiefly
to the Kiowa Indians. The primary purpose of the trip was
research CT)nceruing the peculiar heraldic system of the tribe;
another purpose was the continuation of study of the use of
pevote or "mescal" (a toxic plant corresponding measurably
with hashish) in the ceremonies of the Kiowa, Apache, and
other Indians; later in the season advantage was taken of his
presence on the ground to make a collection representing the
Kiowa camp-circle for exhibition at the Tennessee Centennial
Exposition at Nashville.
In April Mr ^Y J IMcGee visited the ]\Iuskwaki Indian settle-
ment near Tama, Iowa, with the object of Ijeginning a special
study of the social organization of this little-known tribe.
Although preliminary onlv, his operations were successful.
Incidentally he collected a quantity of aboriginal material for
the National Museum.
Early in 1896 Mr J. B. Hatcher, of Princeton University, was
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXIX
commissioned as a special agent of the Bureau to i>btain photo-
graphs and other data pertaining to the aborig-ines of Patagonia
and Tierra del Fuego. He reached the field and connnenced
operations in the course of a few months, and re})orts of i)rog-
ress were received early in the fiscal year. His field work was
completed in June. The photography was moderately suc-
cessful only, hut the pictures were supplemented by a small
though interesting collection of objects representing the handi-
work of these southernmost representatives of the American
aborigines. The success of the work, due ^Ji'iniarily to Mr
Hatcher's energy and intrepidity, was promoted tlu-ough the
courtesy of various officials of Argentina and Chile, special
credit Ijeing due to Dr Estanislao Zeballos, formerly minister
plenipotentiary from Argentina to the United States.
On December 17, 1894, Dr Willis E. Everette was given an
honorary commission to collect linguistic and other material
among the aborigines of Oregon, Washington, British Colum-
bia, and western Mexico, and from time to time he has sub-
mitted valuable linguistic material produced by his researches
in these pro^'inces. Especially noteworthy contributions dur-
ing the year relate to the Tenu or Athapascan Indians of
Oreg(in.
Early in September Mr E. T. Perkins, jr., of the United
States Geological Survey, reported the discovery of certain
remarkable Indian carvings in Snake River valley, Idaho; and
Mr Perkins was temporarily detailed, through the courtesy
of Honorable C. D. Walcott, Dirpctor of the Survey, to make
studies and photographs representing these carvings. The
work was completed al^out the close of October.
Early in 1807 Mv H. S. Grane, of the Geological Survey,
while on a temporary furlougli, made a trip through the San
Juan country in southwestern Colorado and northwestern New
Mexico, under a commission from the Bureau, for the purpose
of reconnoitering- and photograpliing prehistoric Avorks. His
notes and pictures were duly transmitted and have been found
of special A'alue.
The information and material obtained l)y means of these
field operations have been utilized in large part in the prepara-
XXX BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
tion of reports; other portions liave Ijeeu added to the archives
for use in prospective iuvestigatious, wliile most of the objective
material has ah-eady been arranged in the National Museum
in such manner as to be accessible for study. The scientitic
results of the work are set foi'th in other paragraphs.
OFFICE RESEARCH
Work in Esthetology
During the greater part of the year ]\Ir Frank Hamilton
Cushing was employed in arranging and cataloguing the
remarkable collection of relics exhumed from salt marshes in
western Florida during the previous fiscal vear and in prej^ar-
ing his report for the press. The objects collected euil)race a
wide variety of domestic implements and utensils, weapons for
use in war and the chase, fabrics for apparel and fishing,
appurtenances to water craft, etc. In addition, there were
many olijects such as are used in primitive ceremony, compris-
ing elalxiratelv painted and carved masks and effia'ies. Many
Oil «~ .;
of the industrial devices are painted and carved in a manner
remarkable for wealth of imag-erv and delicacy of execution.
An important part of Mr Cushing's work was comparative
study of the designs, in form and color, found in connection
with the ceremonial and other objects; and substantial progress
was made in the interpretation of the designs. Most of these
are zoic. The bear, the wolf, the wild-cat, the woodpecker,
and different water birds and aquatic animals are represented
in carvings and painting's with a fidelity to detail which ren-
ders them not only readily identifiable but really artistic.
Some of the effigies approach the natural size, and are attached
to other articles in such manner as to indicate that they were
worn as masks or. crests, probably in dramatic ceremonies
analogous to those of the Indians of the pueblos and of other
primitive peoples. These elaborate carvings are associated
with wooden masks, shaped to fit the face, bearing painted and
carved designs of corresponding character, but more or less
conventionized in form and color. The realistic or partially
couventionized forms displayed on the masks are imitated not
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXI
onh' oil other ceremonial objects l)ut also on the indnstrial
devices, and the degree of conventionism increases as the
reiDresentations are reduced iu size or distorted to fit forms
determined by various conditions, so that an unbroken series
of stai>-es in the development of convention mav l)e traced all
the wav from the essentially realistic rejjresentation of the
animal heail to the design carved on the arrowshaft or toma-
hawk handle, which, at first sight, would seem to be decorative
merelv. The sequence displayed in these esthetic designs is,
indeed, ])aralleled in other collections; but the remarkably
rich assemblage of aboriginal handiwork from the Floridian
salt marshes, in which such perishable materials as wood, bone,
plant fiber, feather work, paint, and even leathern thongs are
preserved, is especially noteworthy for the completeness of
the sequence and the large number of links represented.
Accordingly the series of objects would seem to establish the
view already advocated by diflerent collaborators of the
Bureau that hig-her esthetic decoration orig-inates in svmbol-
ism, which mav gradually be transformed through conven-
tionizing, either in the interests of economy or to meet other
industrial conditions.
During the previous year Dr J. Walter Fewkes made a col-
lection of fictile ware and other aboriginal material among the
ruins of Arizona and New Mexico, which was regarded as rich
beyond precedent. During the year just closed he made explo-
rations yielding a still larger body of material, which has been
subjected to preliminarv studv, and has already been arranged
iu the Museum. As during the preceding year, fictile ware
was the predominant material. This ware is characterized by
symbolic and decorative designs, represented sometimes by
modeling or bv inscribed figures, but more commonly by colors;
and for the first time material has been olitained in sufficient
quantitv to aff'ord presumptively complete series of designs for
certain groups of aborigines at certain periods antedating
Caucasian invasion, so that various stages in the development
of esthetic designs may be traced nearly as definitely as in the
Florida collection. In general, the course of development
traced in this way is parallel to that made out on the Florida
XXXII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
coast. The course of development is from the essentially
(tliough often crudely) s^-mbolic to the conventional, and
through various stages of conventionizing- to forms and colors
which, at first sight, would be regarded as decorative merely;
accordingly the collection is important as a source of new
light on the development of artistic concepts. At the same
time, that course of developmental succession which it so clearly
attests has been used successfully in tracing certain movements
of the abonginal population. It has long been known that,
while most of the traditions of the Pueblo peoples recount
migrations in a southerly or southeasterly direction, there are
sub(_irdinate indications of a northerly or northeasterly drift
from snowless lowlands or from saline and shell-yielding shores,
and at least one of the collaborators (Mr McGee) has found
indications of a culture migration from the once populous val-
leys of Sonora, with adjacent refuges in the form of entrenched
mountains, northward into the region of cliff houses, Avhence
the mesa-prot6cted pueblos seem to have sprung. Now, Dr
Fewkes is able to trace a similar northward drift of the esthetic
designs characterizing the aboriginal pottery of the Pueblos.
This application of the researches in the development of
esthetics among the American Indians is essentially new and
is hio'hly sug-gestive. Some of the results of the work are
already incoqDorated in reports prepared for publication ; others
are held for comparison and elaboration as the research
progresses.
While in Zuni, and afterward at Sia, Mrs Matilda Coxe
Stevenson gave special attention to the masks and other
regalia used in ceremonies, and, as already noted, obtained a
nmiiber of especially sacred masks. She found the ceremonial
regalia to be essentially symbolic. The masks themselves rep-
resent zoic deities, and their appurtenances are designed to
express real or ideal attributes of the animals deified, while
the associated regalia and insignia, including apparel and the
paint apjdied to faces, bodies, and extremities, are symbolic of
similar or related concepts. All of the symbols are conven-
tionized in greater or less degree, yet the accompaniments of
voice and gesture, and e^•en the terms of the ritual, are designed
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXIII
to emphasize the symbolism, i. e., to concentrate attention on
the idea symboHzed and divert attention from the conven-
tionism.
Primarily the ceremonies and reg'alia are dramatnrg-ic, and
the use of the more important regalia is limited to the cere-
monial representation; yet to some extent the mystical or
sacred characteristics are supposed to cling to the actors in
the mystical drama, and in some measure affect their every-
day life; sometimes the actors are thereby strengthened in
their positions as shamans, and they, as well as others, may
continue to wear the less important regalia, or carry about
their persons miniature symbols of the specially deific objects.
In this way the devotional sentiment and the symbolism in
which it is crystallized are expressed in ever3'day life and
commonplace manners; and the devotion and syuibolism find
some expression in ordinary handiwork and still clearer
expression in the more unusual handiwork involved in making
and decorating the many articles connected with ceremonial
rites. The observations are highly significant., in that they
indicate the characteristics and the dominant influence of
devotional sentiment among primitive peoples; they are espe-
cially useful, too, in that they aid in interpreting the symbolism
depicted on prehistoric relics and corroborate the interpretations
already rendered.
In 1877 Mr E. W. Nelson, an acute observer and trained
naturalist, was commissioned to make collections for the United
States National Museum in Alaska and adjacent territory in
North America and Asia. In connection with other duties, he
was authorized to make ethnologic studies and collections
among the Eskimo and other Indians at the cost of the Bureau
soon after its institution. He spent some years among the
tribes, obtaining vocabularies and other linguistic material and
making- larg-e collections of esthetic aiul industrial handiwork.
He also prepared a prelimiuar\' draft of a report on the eth-
nology of the region covered by his operations. On his return
to Washington the collections were transferred to the National
Museum, but failure of health prevented him from completing
the preparation of the report, so that the collections have hith-
18 ETH III
XXXIV BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
erto remaiued without adequate explanatiou. During- the pres-
ent fiscal year he returned to Washing-ton from a prolonged
absence, chiefly in Mexico, and at once inidertook the com-
pletion of the long'-delayed rejjort. Through the com-tesy of
Museum officials the collection was brought together for
renewed study and the preparation of necessary illustrations.
Mr Nelson's original manuscripts were placed in liis hands
and, before leaving the city in April, he had practically com-
pleted a general pnper with ilhistrations of typical objects rep-
resenting the handicraft of tlie hyperborean triljes with whom
he came in contact during his sojourn about the Arctic border.
The men:ioir is particularly valuable in its full description and
illustration of the decorative design.s characterizing Eskimo
art. The Eskimo are distinctive in many respects, but in none
more strongly than in their artistic develo])ment ; they are
clever draftsmen and fairly deft carvers of wood, bone, and
ivory; many of their implements, weapons, and utensils are
graved with artistic dcA-ices or sculptured in artistic forms, and
the graving and carving apparently represent a highly conven-
tionized symbolism. Mr Nelson's motive is accurate descrip-
tion and faithful illustration of objects rather than analysis and
synthetic arrangement of designs; yet his memoir is a rich
i-epository of material from which the course of development
represented by Eskimo art may be traced. It is appended to
this report.
Work in Technology
While in contact with the Passamaquoddy Indians on the
coast of Maine, the Director and Mr Gushing had opportunity
for studying certain primitive industries yet retained by this
partially accultured people. Conspicuous among these were
the industries connected with the building and furnishing of
domicils. The long persistence of domiciliary industries
among these Indians may be explained, at least in part, by the
fact that the birch-bark wigwams are remarkably sei-viceable
and economical, so that they were only slowly dis})laced by
the little more commodious and much more expensive houses
of civilization. At the same time, there are strong- indications
of ceremonial observances in connection with the erection of
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXV
habitations, wliicli doubtless serve to prolong' the retention of
the aboriginal type.
. There is a single model for the dwellings of this branch of
the Algonquian Indians. The structure is rectangular in plan,
about 12 by 15 feet, with a narrow doorway in one end. The
end walls stand vertical, while the sides, after rising vertically
for 5 or 6 feet, are continued upward to form a curved roof,
interrupted by an orifice over the center of the earthen floor
for the exit of smoke. Hie framework is of light arbor-vitse
poles, neatly cut and shaped by stone implements and fire, the
uprights set in the ground and lashed to the horizontal pieces
by means of withes or splints. The walls and roofs are made
from large sections of birch-ljark, carefully overlapped shingle-
wise and skilfully sewn together with slender splints of ash.
The door is a dressed deerskin attached to a light crossbar,
while the smoke-hole is provided with a shifting wind-guard
which may be so adjusted as to draw out the smoke and exclude
most of the rain or snow in case of storm. The wigwam con-
structed in this way is practically wind proof and nearly rain
proof, strong enough to resist the force of storms and the weight
of winter's snow, and is capacious and commodious in almost the
highest possible degree in proportion to the material employed
in construction. It lasts five vears or more without repairs,
and with occasional repairs as needed niay last a generation.
As a means of studj'ing the house and house building, two
aged Indians were employed to set up a wigwam near the field
of work in Maiine, and with a view of extending the study and
at the same time perpetuating this form of aboriginal handi-
craft, they were afterward engaged to re-erect and furnish the
structure in Washington. It was at first designed to place it
in the National Museum, but in A'iew of the limitations of space
it Avas afterward decided to locate the building in the National
Zoological Park.
Wliile supervising the work of the Indians on the wigwam,
the Director and Mr Cushing observed them using a curved
knife, held in the hand with the blade projecting toward the
body (the handle being flattened to fit the face of the thumb,
by which the attitude of the curved blade is controlled), and
XXXVI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
di-awn toward the body in u.se; uud the resemblauce of the
implement to that found among the primitive peoples of Japan
and the similarity in use were at once noted. At the same,
time Mr Cushing, who was fresh from the tidal marshes of
Florida in Avhich curved knives of shell are entombed, was
enabled to interpret more clearly the Floridian shell knives
and tooth knives, and infer the manner of their use, which
must have been prevailingly centripetal or inward, rather than
centrifugal or outward from the body like the tools of civili-
zation. This simple discovery throws strong light on the
development of primitive industries, and removes difficulties
hitherto encountered in the interpretation of primitive imple-
ments and workmanship. Then, on examining the shell mounds
and house mounds on the Maine coast, Mr Cushing was enabled
to explain the occurrence of certain split teeth of the beaver
found in such associations as to suggest habitual use; for he
found, on attaching them to handles similar to those of the
curved knives, that they constituted surprisingly effective
implements for shaving and carving wood, for opening the
skins and severing the tissues of animals, and indeed for per-
forming all of the multifarious functions of the knife. At once
it became evident that the beaver-tooth knife was much more
efficient, and among hunters more economical in making and
carrying, than the knife of chipped stone; and, on investigat-
ing the history of the curved steel knives made by smiths for
the Indians in accordance with their own designs, it became
evident that the beaver-tooth knife was the prototype of that
in use l)y the tribesmen today. At the same time, the con-
nection between the shell knife of the Florida coast and the
beaver-tooth knife of the Maine coast seemed so close as to
indicate similarity in origin, the animal substance used in each
case being that possessing at once the advantages of accessi-
bility and of economy in manufacture and use.
Connected in Isearing with the foregoing researches are those
conducted during the year by Mr W J McGee. During pre-
vious years he visited the Seri Indians of the Gulf of Califor-
nia and collected various specimens of their handicraft. The
collection comprises a series of stone implements, of which a
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXVII
number were observed in use, representing a stage in the devel-
opment of stone art whicli lias hitherto been obscure. Initially,
these implements are natural pebbles picked up from among
the quantities of similar pebbles shingling the beach; yet they
are used for breaking the shells of crustaceans; for crushing
bones of fish, fowl, and animals; for pounding apart the tough
tissues of larger animals; or perchance for crushing and grind-
ing mesquite beans, cactus seeds, and other vegetal sub-
stances. Originally selected almost at random, the stone is
connnonly used but once and then thrown away; but, if the
habitation happens to be located near, the fitter stones are used
over and over again, j^erhaps proving so serviceable that when
the always temporary residence is changed they are carried
away as a part of the domestic propert^• of the matron.
Eventually the stone becomes battered and worn by use, so
that its shape is changed; then, if rendered less useful by the
change, it is tin-own away, while, if made more serviceable, it
is retained to become a highly esteemed piece of property,
always carried by the matron in her wanderings and buried'
with her body at death. The series of implements collected,
and the much larger series seen in Seriland, but not collected,
show no trace of predetermined design in form or finish. The
implements are fairly uniform in size, apparently because the
users are fairly uniform in strength and the uses fairly uniform
in force required, and they are fairh' uniform in shape because
of similarity in applications; but as a whole the series is char-
acterized by absence of design, Ijy fortuitous adaptation rather
than that complex invention represented by even the simplest
chipping or flaking. The culture stage represented by the
series has already been designated protolitlik. It is to be noted
that the Seri Indians liave no otlier stone industry, save a little
known and apparently accultural custom of chipping- stone for
the sole purpose of making arrowpoints, and that their knives,
scrapers, awls, needles, and ordinary arrowpoints are made
from shell, bone, wood, and other substances of organic origin.
Now, on assembling the industrial devices of the Florida
marshes, the Maine shell mounds, the Seri Indians, and the
more primitive survivors of the Algonquian tribes located in
XXXVIII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
the Maine ■woods, and comparing these with the corresponding
devices of the American tribes general!}-, it is found that the
industries involving the use of stone for implements or weapons
fall into a highly significant order, which, despite some over-
la})ping of phases, seems to represent the normal course of
industrial evolution. The first stage is that in which stone is
used in natural or fortuitous condition, without predetermined
design or invention, as among the Seri Indians; this is the
proioVitlik. stage. It is noteworthy that, in the tvpical case, and
presumptively in others, the prevailing industrial devices of
this stage are of organic material and approach in form and
function the biotic armament of lower animals. They are the
readiest sulistitutes for, and tlie direct analogues of, teeth and
claws. The second stage is that represented by wrought stone,
shaped largely or wholly in accordance Avith predetermined
design, whether by battering (undoubtedly the original method)
or by flaking and chipping; it may be called the fccJinolithic
stage. This stage is represented by most of the American
tribes. It is clearly to be noted that this arrangement of stages
in the development of primitive industry is based wholly on
research among the Ainerican Indians and among the relics of
their prehistoric ancestors. It is not designed to supplant or
discredit classifications based on the industrial devices of other
countries. It is constructive and not destructive, and is formu-
lated merely as a contribution to scientific knowledge concern-
ing the aborigines of the Western Hemisphere.
Another line of research in technology, conducted chiefly
during- the year, though the results were incorporated in a
paper accompanying a preceding- report, relates to primitive
surgery and medicine. The work, which was based on a col-
lection of Peruvian crania, was conducted by Mr McGee. Its
details are significant, in that the interpretations are based on
the primitive sophiologv known to have prevailed among the
aborigines up to the time of Caucasian invasion, rather than
on the more realistic philosophy by which civilized practi-
tioners are guided. The stages of development of curative
surgical treatment, as traced in the course of the researches,
need not be repeated; suffice it to say that the investigation
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XXXIX
appears to illumine the previously obscure orig'in of surg-ery,
and at the same time to throw much lio-ht on the origin and
development of medical treatment in general.
In earlier paragraphs summarizing the results of researches
concerning the origin and development of the arts, incidental
allusion is made to the intimate relation between the esthetic
and the industrial. The relation is double — indeed, manifold —
and reciprocal. In the first place, the industrial device is usually
a medium for esthetic devices, graved or carved or painted
upon it, usually as symbolic invocations to mystical powers
wdiereby the efficiency of the implement or utensil may be
auglTiented; while, in the second place, the execution of the
esthetic devices constitutes an important and, in some lands,
apparently a preponderant part, of the occupation of primitive
people. Accordingly, the researches in esthetology, carried
forward during the year Ijy ^'arious collaborators, including
Messrs Gushing, Fewkes, and Nelson, and Mrs Stevenson,
have thrown light on the motives and other causes underlying
industrial development.
Work in Sociology
In continuing the examination and digestion of material col-
lected during- the eighteen years of the existence of the Bureau,
the Director has given special attention to the principles under-
lying- the social organization of the American aborigines. A
portion of the results are sunmiarized in a chapter on Regimen-
tation incorporated in a preceding report. The researches are
still in progress.
Mr W J McGee has continued the coniparative study of
social organization with special reference to the Seri and
Papago Indians. In the former tribe the social organization
appears to rest wholly on kinship traced through the female
line; and one of the consequences of this organization and of
the peculiar isolation of the people is found in a singular mar-
riage custom, which has been noted in previous reports. The
Papago Indians, on the other hand, have an organization
based primarily on kinship traced in the male line, but dis-
playing also certain indications of transition into some such
XL BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
artificial system as that which, on further development, matures
in civilization, i. e., sometimes the gentes are united in such
manner that a single kinship group combines two totems; the
kinsliip terminology is incomplete in such way as to suggest
curtailment throug'h disuse; through seasonal migrations and
other causes^ there is a constant breaking up of family groups,
followed by intermingling in new combinations in the form of
colonies of patriarchal or even feudalistic character; there is
clear recognition of patriarchal pro})erty right in the waters in
which the material values of their arid territory inhere; while
the governmental control, though nominally vested in patri-
archal shamans, is really regulated by an officer selected
througli popular approval, who may be designated the people's
attorney. It is noteworthy that the Spanish invaders of the
Western Hemisphere assimilated the aboriginal much more
completely than the Anglo-Saxon invaders of more northerly
regions, so that in many instances the social institutions pre-
vailing in Mexico today have sprung from aboriginal germs.
This is especially true of the patriarchal organization charac-
teristic of the Mexican provinces remote from the greater cities
and railways, which differs in no essential particular from the
organization still found among the Papago Indians and recorded
in their time-honored traditions.
Now, the comparative studies of the Seri and Papago social
organizations, with the analogue of the latter among the mod-
ern Mexicans, gives opp( irtunity for clearing up certain inisap-
jjrehensions concerning primitive society. In bai'baric culture,
in which descent is reckoned in the male line, the govern-
mental control is vested in an elder man (whose seniority may
be either real or assumed), so that the organization is patriarchal;
and it has been inferred, without adequate observation and
with undue influence growing out of the convenience of anti-
thetic terms, that in savage culture, in which descent is reck-
oned in the female line, the social organization is matriarchal.
The case of the Seri Indians is perhaps the most striking among
many examples, indicating that, even when descent is traced
exclusively through the female line to the extent that the father
has no control over his wife's jjroperty or his own cliildren, the
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLI
tribal control is, nevertheless, vested in male rulers, who may
be either shamans of exceptional slu-ewdness, or warriors of
exceptional valor and cunning. Accordingly the term "matri-
archal" can be regarded as erroneous and misleading only when
applied to this culture stage. This becoriies especially clear in
the light of the observations among the Papago Indians and
the mixed-blood Mexicans, in which the rule is patriarchal, but
in which there is an associated matriarchy, for tlie wife of the
patriarch occupies a position among the women and children
of the gronp corresponding to that of her spouse, primarily
among the men, but secondarily among all; so that patriarchy
and matriarchy are in reality complementarj- aspects of that
culture stage in which descent is traced in the male line. Con-
fusion is avoided by designating the more primiti^^e organiza-
tion as maternal and the more advanced as paicnial, and by
restricting the terms patriarchal and matriarchal to their legit-
imate functions, as indicated by the usage of southwestern peo-
ples. The details of the researches on this subject are too
extended for summary statement; but the principles developed
through the study are important as a means of interpreting
observation and thus guiding special research and contributing
to scientific knowledge of the aborigines. The work is still
in progress.
Work in Philology
Linguistic studies were pushed forward energetically during
the earlier years of the existence of the Bureau, partly as a
means of classifying the Indians in such manner as to guide
grouping on reservations. A considerable portion of the mate-
rial collected was, after the immediate practical use, placed on
file Ipr comparison and study with a view to the discovery of
the principles of linguistic development. During the fiscal
year the Director has reviewed these records in conjunction
with those pertaining to sociology and sophiology, and has
made progress in developing the principles of philology and
applying them to the ethnic problems presented by the Ameri-
can aborigines. In primitive society language grows in two
ways: On the one hand there is a steady enrichment and differ-
entiation due to the coining of expressions for new ideas; on
XLII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
the other hand there is a spasmodic enrichment and modifica-
tion, both in terms and in yTannnatic structure, produced by the
shock of contact (whether peaceful or inimical) with other
peoples — the changes conse(|uent on conquest being- especially
important, as has l)een shown by different philologists. At the
same time both the lexic and the structural forms — i. e., both
words and sentences — are simplified through the natural tend-
ency toward economy in expression. These and other proc-
esses connected with the growth of language have been
indicated in some detail in earlier reports.
Now, on examining the aboriginal languages of America, it
is found that many of them are interrelated in such manner as
to indicate specific courses of development, and in all such
cases the dominant process has been the union or blending of
more or less diverse elements, both lexic and structural. This
blending can be explained only as a record of intertribal con-
tact, and the cases are so numerous — indeed, the}" are charac-
teristic of all of the aboriginal tongues — as to indicate that
practically all of the native languages have been built up and
shaped chiefly by the combination and blending of antece-
dently distinct and presumptively discrete tongues. This con-
clusion as to the development of oral speech in America is
corroborated by the simpler history of the development of the
so-called gesture speech, which was widely used by the Indians
as a partial substitute for, and convenient supplement to, oral
speech as an intertribal language. When the course of devel-
opment ascertained by these comparisons is so extended as to
apply to the entire assemblage of native American peoples, it
at once becomes evident that the sixty linguistic stocks and five
hundred dialects extant at the time of the discovery (themselves
the product of long-contiiuied combination and blending of
distinct tongues, as the researches liave shown) are indul)itable
records of still more numerous and still more widely distinct
lanffuag-es of an earlier time, and the more carefulh' the record
is scanned the more numerous and the more distinct do the
original components appear. It is accordingly a necessary
inference that a large number of distinct, albeit simple if not
inchoate, tongues originally existed in North Ameiica, and that
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLIII
the subsequent history has been ohiellA" one of hnouistie inte-
gration. It is a corolhu"\- of this proposition, which is but tlie
geuerahzation of all known facts relating to the aboriginal
languages of America, that the Western Hemisphere must have
been peopled by the ancestors of the modern Indian tribes
before the birth of language among them. Both the main
proposition and the corollary run counter to earlier opinions
entertained in this and other countries ; yet they are not only
sustained bv the unprecedentedly rich collection of linguistic
facts preserved in the Bureau archives or puljlished in the
reports, but bv the cumulative evidence obtained through the
researches concerning the arts, industries, institutions, and
beliefs of the American aborigines. A more detailed rc-port
on this subject is in jDreparation.
Dr Albert S. Gatschet has continued the collection of lin-
guistic material pertaining to the Algonquian Indians, and has
made progress in the preparation of the comparative dictionary
of Algonquian terms. The new material collected during the
year was obtained chiefly among the Passamaquoddy Indians
living in the woods of Maine and adjacent parts of New
Brunswick. Advantage was taken of an opportunity to obtain
a Nez Perce' vocabulary, representing the Shahaptian stock,
from Lewis D. Williams, an educated member of the tribe,
who spent some months in Washington during the earlier part
of the fiscal year. This record is deemed of special value,
not only in that it is more complete than those representing
the same stock already on file, but in that it affords means of
checking and clearing up doulitful points in the earlier records.
In addition to collecting a rich bod}' of material relating to
the laiiguages and beliefs of several Iroquoian tribes, Mr J. N. B.
Hewitt made considerable progress in the systematic arrange-
ment of material collected during preceding years. One of
the more important lines of his work was a study of the pro-
noun with special reference to its function in primitive lan-
guage and its relation to other parts of speech. His researches
indicate with greater clearness than others hitherto conducted
that the pronoun occupies a much more prominent position in
primitive speech than in the highly developed languages of
XLIV BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
cultured peoples. The preparation of a special paper on tlie
subject was commenced toward the eiid of the year. Another
line of work by Mr Hewitt, originating in the collection of
mvthologic texts, was a comparative study of the creation
myths of different Iroquoian and Algonquian tribes. The pre-
liminary results (jf this study are especially significant in their
bearing on conclusions derived from the study of language.
On comparing half a dozen versions of the Indian cosmogony
he was able to detect unmistakable indications of interchange
of such sort as to prove that originally independent myths
have undergone considerable coalescence and blending, so that
the m^•th, like the speech in which it is crystallized, is a com-
posite of many elements. Coupled with the features indicating
coalesceaice there are indeed certain features indicating differ-
entiation, chiefly in the direction required to adjust the mythic
personages to the local fauna; but the indications of differen-
tiation are far subordinate to the evidence of coalescence or
integration. A number of typical myths representing the
aborigines of the northeastern United States have been brought
together with a view to publication so soon as the general
discussion is completed.
"Work in Sophiology
Tlie scope and extent of the researches in sophiology dur-
ing the fiscal year are in some measure set forth in the
foregoing paragraphs; for the various demotic activities are
interdependent, and neither arts, industries, institutions, nor
languages can be developed without the concomitant develop-
ment of opinions, whether mythic or rational. Important
additions to the material representing the symbolism and cere-
monies of the Indians have been made through the labors of
Mr Gushing in Florida, Dr Fewkes and Mrs Stevenson in Ari-
zona and New Mexico, Dr Gatschet in Maine, and Mr Hewitt
in New York and Ontario, as already noted. Mr James
Mooney continued his researches relating to the Kiowa Indi-
ans, giving s]iecial attention to their heraldic and calendric
systems, and to the use of peyote in their ceremonies. It is
well known that dreams and visions, commonly induced by
fasting, play an important role in connection with the beliefs
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLV
and religious usages of primitive peoples; it is known also
that among some peoples drugs are used to intensity the
abnormal condition attended bv visions; ])ut there is probably
no l:)etter exannjle of this custom than that aftorded by the
Kiowa and some neighboring tribes in their use of peyote.
The mental effects of the drug are something like those pro-
duced by hashish; its influence is so strong and so certain that
the Indians using it have come to rely on it for the production
of the ecstatic state regarded as essential to the proper per-
formance of their ceremonial rites, while, in turn, the rites
have been so adjusted to the effects produced by the drug that
they are, in Mr Mooney's ojiinion, completely dependent on
it for their existence. Althoug-h the researches concerning- the
subject are not complete, preliminary announcements have
been made concerning the results of scientific examination of
jjeyote and concerning- its influence on the religious practices
of the tribe.
In connection with his work on this subject, Mr ^looney
completed during the year a memoir on the Kiowa calendar
system, wliich has been incorporated in the seventeenth annual
report. This memoir is deemed noteworthy as a remarkably
exhaustive rendering of what may be called the autobio-
graphic history of an important tribe.
In his comparative studies of the Seri, Papago, and other
tribes, Mr McGee was led to consider the course of develop-
ment of myth, or of the explanation of jihenomena in terms
of the supernatural. It is significant that, so far as can be
ascertained, supernaturalism is a more potent factor in deter-
mining conduct among the warlike Seri than among the peace-
ful Papago, and the examination of other tribes indicates that
the relation is general — i. e., that the tendency toward super-
natural explanation, with its concomitant effect on conduct, is
gradually rectified by intertribal contact in a manner akin to
that in which myths and languages are blended. The studies
are still in progress.
Descriptive Ethnology
The preparation of material for the Cyclopedia of Indian
Tribes was continued during- the year under the immediate
XLVI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
siipervisiou of Mr F. AV. Hodge. As other duties permitted,
Mr Hodge continued extracting and placing on cards material
relating to the Pueblo Indians and other south\yestern tribes.
The greater part of the work on the cyclopedia performed
during the year was that of Dr Thomas, who continued and
nearly completed tlie revision, extension, and final arrange-
ment of the A-oluminous body of material relating to the
Algoncjuian Indians, the largest and most diversified of the
aboriginal stocks of the territory of the United States. In
his detailed report Dr Thomas acknowledges gratefully the
facilities afforded b}' several libraries of the national capital,
especially tlie Library of Congress, whose rich store of
rare literature has l^een most courteously made accessible
by Librarian Ainsworth K. Spofford. Some additions to the
cyclopedia were made also liy other collaborators, jjarticularly
Mr 3Iooney.
Bibliography
The bibliographic work of the Bureau was interrupted in
1896 by the death of James C. Pilling, who had prepared a
series of reports on tlie literature relating to the languages
of several aboriginal stocks (which were issued as bulletins
during preceding years), and who had partially completed a
.similar report concerning the aboriginal languages of Mexico.
During the last fiscal year an arrangement was made whereby
this portion, at least, of tlie bibliographic work mux be com-
pleted. The task was generously undertaken by Mr George
Parker Winship, librarian of the John Carter Brown Library,
in Providence, already a contributor of valuable material to
the Bureau. Mr Winshij) began operations toward the end of
the year. The material })ertaining to Mexico, brought together
by Mr Pilling, was transferred to his custody, and by the end
of the year he was able to report substantial progress in the
work.
Collecting
The chief work of the year in this department was that of
Dr J. Walter Fewkes. Already in the field at the beg-innino'
of the fiscal year, Dr Fewkes proceeded to an extensive ruin
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLVII
on Chevlon fork of Little Colorado ri\er, early in Jnly. Later
he excavated another ruin of imposing- dimensions near Chaves
pass. His work was successful beyond precedent, yielding one
of the finest and most extensive collections of aboriginal fictile
ware and associated artifacts ever made in the United States.
As noted in earlier paragraphs, tlie material is especially rich
in symbolic painting and other expressions of the remarkable ,
religious beliefs of the Pue])lo peojiles during prehistoric times.
A noteworthy collection of ceremonial masks was made at
Zuni and Sia bv Mrs Matilda Coxe Stevenson, and has been
duly installed in the National Museum. In the course of his
field operations, Mr ^looney obtained additional material illus-
tratino- tlie handiwork and ideas of the Kiowa Indians; and
toward the close of the fiscal vear, while temporarily detailed
to make and arrange collections for the Tennessee Centennial
Exposition at Nashville, he brought together and, with the aid
of the Indians, constructed an exhibit showing in miniature
the characteristics of the Kiowa camp-circle, the significance
of which is not generally understood. Toward the end of the
vear Mr Hatcher reported the transmission of a small collec-
tion representing the primitive industries of the aborigines of
southern Patagonia. In A\m\ Mr McGee obtained an interest-
ino' collection of aborio-inal mattino- and wooden Avare from the
Muskwaki Indians, near Tama, Iowa. The greater part of
the collection has lieen transferred to the Museum. Among the
articles is a carved wooden dish corresponding in form, dimen-
sions, and ornamentation with an earthenware type frequently
found in the mounds. The specimen is of peculiar interest in
that its form was determined by the curved beaver-tooth knife
with which it was fashioned and in that its esoteric and essen-
tialK' prescriptorial symbolism was ascertained, so that it
explains one of the most persistent forms of aboriginal ware.
Several other collaborators made minor collections, and a few
others were acqu.ired from correspondents. One of these is a
series of iron tomahawk pipes, made for the Indian trade by
the French pioneers and long used by the tribesmen in lieu
of the aboriginal weapons of stone, shell, wood, and copper;
another was a particularly fine collection obtained from
XLVIII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
the mounds of Missouri and the adjoining- part of IRinois by
Coh^nel F. F. Hikler; still another was a series of stone
implements from the mounds of northern Ohio, which are
regarded as especially desirable for purposes of comparative
study in the National Museum.
Publication
Mr Hodge has remained iu charge of the details of publi-
cation, and it is gratifying- to be able to report activit}^, almost
beyond precedent in the history of the Bureau, in this branch
of the work. At the beginning of the year the Fourteenth
Annual Report was ])artly in type, the Fifteenth was in the
printer's hands, and proofs of illustrations had been received.
The Sixteenth Report was in nearly the same condition. The
editorial work was pushed forward successful!}'. About the
end of the calendar rear the Fourteenth Report was issued,
in two volumes, and the distribution was at once commenced.
The demand for the document was unprecedented, so that the
edition was practically exhausted within three months. It
may be observed that this report was more extensively noticed
and reviewed, both in scientific journals and the ephemeral
press, than any preceding publication by tlie Bureau, and that
the tone of the reviews has been favorable or still more highly
commendatory, without exception so far as known. ]\Ieantime
the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Reports received constant atten-
tion, and both were completed and published about the end of
the fiscal year. The demand for these documents also is
pressing, and they, too, are being fa^•orably received by the
reviewers.
The manuscript of the Seventeenth Annual Report was
transmitted for publication on June 18, 1897. The accompany-
ing papers comprise "The Seri Indians," by W J McGee;
"Calendar History of the Kiowa Indians," by James Mooney;
"Navaho Houses," by Cosmos Mindeleft'; together with a fully
illustrated account of an " Archeological Expedition to Arizona
in 1895," by J. Walter Fewkes.
The material for the Eighteenth Report also was brought
together, and the editorial work was well advanced before the
end of the year. It is accompanied lay two memoirs, each of
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT XLIX
considerable magnitude, so tliat it Ijeconies necessary to issue it
in t\vo volumes. The first of these is "The Eskimo About
Bering" Strait," by E. W. Nelson, and the other is the memoir
on "Indian Land Cessions in the United States," bA" C. C.
Royce, with an introduction by Cyrus Thomas, which has
been described in earlier reports. The former is fully illustrated
by photographs and drawings, representing the people and the
extensive collections made by Mr Nelson; the latter is accom-
panied by numerous ma2)s.
Miscellaneous
Libraiji. — The additions to the working library of the
Bureau were unprecedented in number and value, particularly
in respect to standard works of reference; meantime the nor-
mal growth due to accessions through exchange has continued.
At the close .of the fiscal year the contents of the library
comprised 7,138 volumes, in addition to several thousand
pamphlets and periodicals.
lUiistrations. — During the earlier part of the year the prep-
aration of illustrations for reports was continued under the
direction of Mr DeLancev W. Gill, the })hotographic work being
executed by Mr William Dinwiddie. Toward the end of the
calendar year Mr Dinwiddie retired from the Bm-eau, and on
Januarv 1 Mr Wells M. Sawyer, formerly of the Geological
Survey, was placed in charge of the illustrative work, includ-
ing- photograph}^. Tliis arrangement has been found satis-
factory, and the illustrative work is now carried forward
acceptably in all of its phases. Mr Henry Walther has aided
Mr Sawyer efficiently in cataloguing' and classifying negatives
and prints, as well as in photographic printing.
Exhibits. — As noted incidentally in earlier paragraphs, an
exhibit was prepared for the Tennessee Centennial Exposition
in Nashville. It comjirises half of a Kiowa camp-circle, repre-
sented in miniature, occupying a semicircular area with a
radius of about 20 feet in a central portion of the Government
Building. The installation of the material was completed in
time for the formal opening, and before the end of the fiscal
year it became evident that the display will be generally
regarded as attractive and successful.
18 ETH IV
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
FINANCIAL STATEMENT
Appropriation by Congress for tlie fiscal year ending Juno 30, 1897, "for
continuing ethnological researches among the American Indians, under
the direction of the Smithsonian Institution, including salaries or com-
pensation of all necessary employees " (sundry civil act, approved
June 11, 1896) $45,000.00
Salaries or compensation for services $32, 259. 15
Traveling and field expenses $3, 859. 34
Drawings and illustrations 1,429. 70
Office rental 999.96
Ethnic material (specimens, etc.) 378. 22
Office furniture 21.00
Publications for library 1, 474. 06
Stationery ." 3.30.60
Freight 216. 39
'I'emporary services 1, 231. 66 ,
Supplies 1,750.43
Reports 517.40,
Miscellaneous 314.05
12, 522. 81
44,781.96
Balauci-, .July 1, 1898, to meet outstanding liabilities 218.04
CHARACTERIZATION OF ACCOMPANYING PAPERS
Subjects Treated
The two memoirs appended to illustrate tlie results of the
work of the Bureau are of somewhat special character. The
first relates to the Eskimo about Bering strait, who were visited
and studied by Mr Nelson with the primarv purpose of collect-
ing-their typical productions for the National Museum; accord-
ingly, the ])rimar^■ motive of the memoir is description and
illustration of the handiwork of the Eskimo ; but while engaged
in making the collection the author availed himself of oppor-
tunities for observation of tribal habits, as well as of the cal-
lages and their suri'oundings, and the data so obtained are
incorporated in the description, which is thereby made to pre-
sent a general picture of the Eskimo on both sides of Beiing
strait in their various aspects. The second memoir, on Indian
Land Cessions, treats of the aborigines in their relations to
white men, rather than to primitive conditions; yet the facts
set forth in tlie maps and schedules are requisite to full under-
standing of the characteristics and movements of the native
tribes.
In geographic distribution, the first memoir relates to much
of the coastwise portion of Alaska, and to the con-esponding
area occupied by similar peoples in Siberia, while the area cov-
ered in the second paper is practically conterminous witli that
of the United States, exclusive of Alaska.
At the date of Mr Nelson's visit the Alaskan Eskimo were
comparatively little afi"ected by contact with American whalers,
missionaries, and traders, and revealed comparatively little
evidence of acculturation through earlier contact with the
Russians; accordingly, the portion of this interesting j)eople
gathered about Bering strait and described in the accompany-
ing memoir may be regarded as fairly representative, and
LII BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
about as nearly in aboriginal condition as any poi-tion of the
great Eskimauan .stock thus far studied. Naturally the memoir
on land cessions deals with tril)es after more or less complete
acculturation.
The Eskimo About Bering Strait
( )n the acquisition of Alaska by the United States, questions
as to the resources and capabilities of the newly accjuired
territory were agitated; and, as a natural and necessary step
toward answering these questions, the late Spencer F.' Baird,
then secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, instituted a series
of meteorological observations on the Alaskan coast. In can-y-
iug out the plan, Mr El. W. Nelson was stationed at St Michael
in IS? 7; and his observations were continued, with brief inter-
ruptions, until 1881, when he was made naturalist of an expe-
dition to the northern coast of Siberia. Throughout his stay
at St Michael and during several exploratory trips made there-
from, and while acting as naturalist of the later expedition,
Mr Nelson, under instructions from the Smithsonian Institution,
availed himself of opjjortunities for collecting products of
Eskimo handicraft; at the same time, under the inspiration of
noteworthy scientitic zeal, he constantly sought opportunity
for observation and inquiry concerning the habits, customs,
social regulations, beliefs, and ceremonies of the tribes with
which he came in contact. After the institution of the Bureau,
Mr Nelson was, at the instance of Secretary Baird, commis-
sioned to extend his inquiries and collections under the auspices
of the Bureau; through this special incentive, the product of
his work was materially increased in quantity and value.
With the close of the expedition, the material and the records
relating thereto were transferred to Washington, and the
collections were duly installed in the National Museum.
Unfortunately, failure of health prevented ]\Ir Nelson from
inunediately elaborating his records for publication; and he
was compelled to leave the capital and repair to the arid
regions of southwestern United States and Mexico, where he
slowh' regained strength. His inclination and abilities led
him to resume researches in natural history as his restoration
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT LIII
to health progressed, and lie became a collaborator of the
Aoricultural I)ei)artinent attached to the Bioloiiical Survey.
In 1893 he was so far recovered as to ofter, for the first time,
some j)rornise of arrani>iiig liis manuscript, and illustrating it
from the collections, in a form suitable for publication; and
daring the winter of 1895-96 this plan was largeh' carried
out. The descriptions of the territory, the tribes, and the
objective collections are incorporated in the accompanying
memoir; the linguistic collections made in connection with the
other lines of work are not yet finally elaborated.
The Eskimauan family or stock constitutes one oH the most
remarkable peoples of the world. They are noteworthy as
the most northerly and most characteristically Arctic inhabit-
ants of America and part of Eurasia; they are conspicuous
for the vast linear extent and extreme narrowness of their
range — a range merely skirting the coasts of Arctic water
from Greenland to Siberia; they are remarkable for close
similarity tlnoughout their extensive range — in language,
beliefs, industries, and a ])eculiar esthetic development — and
equally remarkable for dissimilarity from neighboring peoples
of other families; and most students have been puzzled by the
apparent absence of definite social organization, and, in some
cases, by the ajjparent absence of fiducial ceremonies. Several
of these characteristics of the P^skimo receive new lip-ht throug'h
the intimate acquaintance enjoyed by Mr Nelson with the tribes
about Bering- strait. The memoir full}' illustrates and empha-
sizes the delicate interrelation between the Eskimo and their
severe environment; the implements, utensils, weapons, cloth-
ing, and habitations are of local material, and of type deter-
mined, at least in large measure, by material and other local
conditions; the principal elements of belief and ceremony
reflect climatal and other local factors in a conspicuous degree;
while the special manifestations of capacity include endurance
of cold and wet, deftness in making and handling water craft,
ability for forced marches through sun and storm, skill in
improvising shelters, etc. On the whole, the EskiuKi afford a
peculiarly instructive example of adjustment to surroundings,
and of enforced — albeit slow — progress in making conquest of
environment in their strife for existence.
LIV BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHN'OLOGY
Distributed with fair uniformity over a practically CL>iitinu-
ous coast, the Alaskan Eskimo illustrate the social structure and
relations of the social groups of which the stock is composed.
These g-roups correspond in all essential respects to the tribes
of other aboriginal stocks, save that the tribal distinctions are
less conspicuous; each is characterized by a distinct dialect
whose special features are apparently emphasized by purposive
intonation and other devices; each hasa distinct, albeit perhaps
indetinite, organization and governmental personnel ; in many
cases there are consistent distinctions in dress, decoration, and
industrial devices ; and the groups intermarry among each other,
but avoid union with alien tribes. It is noteworthy that cer-
tain physical distinctions appear to accompany these demotic
distinctions in some instances; yet it is hardly less signiticant
that the somatic distinctions are inconstant and only partially
consistent with the demotic distinctions.
One of the most important facts developed by the work is
the existence of a regular gentile organization, with corre-
sponding totems, among the Alaskan Eskimo north of Kusko-
kwim river. As usual among the American aborigines, the
totems are zoic, including the wolf, otter, ermine, gerfalcon,
raven, bear, etc. The totems are represented by symbols on
implements and utensils, by marks on clothing, and, at least
in some cases, by tattooing. Unfortunately, the concomitant
social structure was for the most part concealed beyond reach
of any inquiries the author was able to make. The discovery
of the totems and of their connection with a definite kinship
system is especially noteworthy as practically the first of the
kind; hitherto observers among the Avesteru Eskimo have
apparently failed to penetrate the well-concealed and probably
decadent social foundation, while it would appear that among
the eastern Eskimo the primitive features are so far masked
by more advanced or cultural features as to elude detection.
Indian Land Cessions
When the Bureau was instituted in 1879, it was deemed
desirable to investigate the subject of aboriginal land tenure,
and, partly as a means to this end, partly because of the
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT LV
iuhereut interest in the work, to examine into the transfer of
the aborig-inal holdings to conquering- nations. Detailed
inquiry was assigned to j\Ir Charles C. Royce, who prepared
for the first annual report a brief paper on the Indian land
cessions of Indiana, which served to illustrate the methods
and purposes of the inquiry. The investigation was continued,
and yielded a more elaborate memoir on the land cessions of
the Cherokee Indians, published in the report for 1883-84.
With the extension of the research, manv difficulties were
encountered; in some cases the cessions were imperfectly
recorded; in the greater number of cases the cessions were
made in advance of the execution of trustworthy sm-vevs and
maps, so that the boundaries of the ceded territory were
indefinite; in numerous instances the cessions were defined by
metes and bounds, beginning at temporar}^ or shifting objects
as starting points which were lost or changed before surveys
were made; and, in many cases, the original areas were modi-
fied after the extension of the public land surveys into the
districts, and the modifications were sometimes made without
definite record. These and other obstacles to the work not
only retarded its progress materialh", Ijut sometimes introduced
elements of uncertainty in the results. In the effort to over-
come the obstacles and minimize the uncertainties, Mr Royce
engaged in extensive correspondence with state and county
officers, visited doubtful localities, and pei'sonally examined
various state and count}' records; he also examined personally
numerous unpublished papers, letters, maps, plats, and other
records in the offices of the Comniissioner of Indian Affairs
and the Commissioner of the General Land Office; and it is a
sjjecial pleasure to acknowledge the constant courtesj'' of the
officials of these sister bureaus throughout the considerable
period covered by the inquiry.
In 1885, Mr Royce, having extended liis work practically
throughout the United States, and having made his material
nearly ready for publication, retired from the Bureau and the
work. Various circumstances, including a change in the law
relating to the publications of the Bureau, delayed the final
preparation and printing of the material; and in 1894 it was
LVI BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
placed in the hands of Dr Cyrus Thomas, who was commis-
sioned to bring the schedules and maps up to date, to prepare
a general introduction, and to revi><e the material in the light of
later history. In this task Dr Thomas, like Mr Royce in the
earlier stages of the work, was courteously given access to
records, and otherwise assisted Ijy the Indian and Land offices.
The tabulatioii is brought up to 1895.
The views of primitive men, like the American aborigines,
with respect to land tenure are essentially unlike the views
prevailing in civilization, especially in that advanced culture
in which individual land tenure is customary. To the primi-
tive man, land is a free and common |)Ossession, like water in
more advanced culture, and like air in current thought; each
tribe, indeed, recognized its range, but did not regard the land
as an element, much less a basis, of value; and within the tribe
the interest in the range was common and indivisiljle. This
distinction in fundamental views of land tenure has always
formed one of the most serious obstacles in the way of har-
monious association between peoples of unlike culture grade;
and much of the strife between Caucasian and native on
American soil has grown out of the failure of each to grasp or
even to perceive the fundamental principles of the other.
Accordingly, the history of the acquisition of lands by white
men may be regarded as a history of the slow acquisition
of the first principles of civilized land tenure on the part of
the red men; and there is, perhaps, no more striking mark of
tlie intellectual progress of the Indian through contact with the
Caucasian than that afforded by the now fairly common
instances of the acceptance of land ownershii> in severalty.
The essential difference in fundamental ideas concerning land
tenure between white men and red should be constantly borne
in mind in dealing with the motives and considerations of land
cession on the part of the Indians.
Reviewing the history of Ainerica's acquisition of lands from
the Indians in the light of the fundamental differences in view
l)etween the two peoples, it becomes evident that despite the
pitiably frequent cases of personal and temporary injustice to
the weaker race, the general policy has been guided by a deep-
ADMINISTRATIVE REPORT LVII
grounded recognititm of the principles of justice and riglit on
the. part of both 2)eoi)les; it becomes equally clear that the
weaker people have suffered the more from the ctmtact simjjly
because they are the weaker, and it becomes still more clearly
evident that the recognition of the rights of the aboriginal
land-holders has grown stronger and firmer with the passing of
generations from the first settlement to the jireseut, that the
sympathy for the weaker race has increased witli nuitual
understanding, and that the justice shown the red man is more
richly tempered with mere}' today than during any earlier
decade.
While the primary purpose of the research maturing in this
memoir was strictly ethnologic, and while it was carried for-
ward with the chief object of elucidating aboriginal character-
istics, it is thought tliat the memoir will be practically useful
to historians^ students of civilized institutions, and other classes
of citizens, including especially those makers and interpreters
of our laws more directly concerned with proprietary rights
and tenures.
18 ETH V
ACCOMPANYING PAPERS
IS ETH 1
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STBArr
BY
EI)\VARIJ ^VII^LIAM NELSON
CONTENTS
Page
Iiitiodiictory 19
Sketi'U of tbe westeru Eskimo 23
Geographic features of their range 23
Distribution of tribes and dialects 24
Physical characteristics 26
Chithing 30
Garments in general 30
* Waterproof garments 36
Ear-liaps 37
Gloves and mittens 38
Foot-wear 10
Boots - 40
Socles and boot-pads 43
Clothing bags - - 43
Personal adornment 44
Labrets -■ 44
Tattooing 50
Beads aud earrings - - 52
Hair ornaments and combs .. . - - 57
Bracelets 58
Belts and belt liuttons 59
Utensils and implements - 63
Lamps - - 63
Dippers, ladles, and spoons 65
Wooden- dishes, trays, and buckets 70
Pestles 73
Blubber hooks and carriers 73
Bags for water and oil 73
Rakes 74
Root picks 75
Bone breakers 75
Fire-making implements 75
Snow beaters 77
Snow shovels and ice picks 78
Mallets 79
Implements used in arts and manufactures 80
Ivory aud bone working tools 80
Drills, drill-bows, aud caps 81
Kni ves 85
Chisels 86
Polishing and finishing tools 87
Wedges and mauls - 88
Arrowshaft straighteuers 88
Beaver-tooth tools - 89
Birch-bark tools 90
6 , CONTENTS [ETH.ANN 18
Sktt( h of tlie western Eskimn — Continued.
Iinpleiiieiits used in arts and nianni'actures — Continued. Page
Stone implements 91
Tool bags and handles. - - . - - - 93
To(d boxes !I3
Women's workboxes - !iS
Handles for workboxes and water buckets 100
Needle-cases 103
Women's ' ' housewives " 104
N'eedles and bodkins 106
Bootsole creasers .* 108
Women's knives 108
Thimbles and thimble holders - lOf)
Imiilemeuts for making thread and cord 110
Skin-dressing tools 112
Skin dressing 116
Hunting' and hunting inijilements 118
Animal traps and snares -. 118
liird snares and nets 131
Seal spears - 135
Walrus and whale spears 137
Floats 140
Lances . : 145
Spear and lance heads 117
Throwing sticks 152
Bows 155
Arrows -.. 157
Arrows for large game 157
Bird arrows , - 159
I'"i.sh arrows - 160
Arrowpoints 161
Quivers - 161
Wrist-guards - 161
Boxes for arrow- and spear-points - 162
Firearms 163
Hunting bags and helmets 166
Snow gogyles 169
Hunting and skinning knives 171
Drag haudles 172
Fishing and fishing iui])lements i73
Methods of fishing 173
Fish traps - 183
Nets 185
Net-making implements 190
Ganges 190
Shnttles and needles - 19-1
Marlinspikes 193
Reels ---. 193
Fish siiears ■ 194
Arts and manufactures _ - 196
Bone and ivory carving 196
Drawing 197
Written records !9S
Paints and colors 198
Pottery -01
Mats, baskets, and b.ags - 202
NEIS.1N1 CONTENTS (
Sketch of the western Eskimo — Continued. Page
Travel and transport:itioii - 205
Sleds 205
• Dog liarness and accouternients 20-J
Breast yokes 211
Snowshoes - 212
Ice staffs -.-- 214
Ico creepers - - 215
Boats - 216
Boat hooks - 222
Paddles '- 223
Spear and paddle guards. 226
Trade and trading voyages 228
Units of value and measurement — Numeration 232
Units of value 232
Units of measurement 232
Cbronometry 234
Numeration 235
\'illages and houses 241
Ruins : 263
Food 267
Tobacco and smoking 271
Methods of using tobacco 271
Tobacco implements 273
Sunff'-boxes 273
Snnft-tnbes - 275
Boxes for fungus ashes 275
Quid boxes 278
Pipes - 280
Tobacco bags 284
Honse-lile and social customs 285
The kashira 285
Sweat baths 287
Dwelling houses - - 288
Childbirth 289
Puberty 291
M:\rriage - 291
Mural cbaracteristics 292
Tx-catmcnt of disease ^09
Mortuary customs -^l"
Totems and family marks 322
Wars 327
Games and toys 330
Music and dances 3^7
Feasts and festivals 357
The function of the celebrations 357
Calendar of festivals 3.57
The ' ' Inviting- in " feast 358
The "Asliing" festival - 359
The trading festival - ^f'l
Feasts to the dead 363
Mortuary feasts in general 363
Great feast to the dead 365
Masks and maskettes ■ 393
Other ceremonial objects - --- ''1^
Kiligion and uivtUology 421
8 CONTENTS [ETH.ANN. 18
Sketch of the western Eskimo — Continued. Page
K(li;;ion :in(l niytholo;fy — Continued.
EHect of Christian eontact 421
Witchcraft 422
Shades of the dead 422
Genesis myth — the Raven Father 425
Supernatural powers 427
Mythic auimals 441
Conception of natural phenomena 449
Traditional showers of ashes _..... 449
Animal symliolism - 4.50
Folk tales 450
Scope of Alaskan folklore 450
Flood legends from St Michael 452
Tales of the Raven 452
The creation 452
Raven takes a wife 462
The Raven, the Whale, and the Mink 464
The Red Bear (from St Michael and Norton sound) 467
The Giant 471
The One-who-finds-nothing 474
The Lone Woman 479
The circling of cranes 480
The dwarf people ; 480
The Sun and the Jloon (from St Michael) 481
The Sun and the Moon (from the Lower Yukon) 482
Origin of laud and jieople 482
The bringing of the liglit by Raven 483
The Reil Hear 1 from Andreivsky ) 485
The last of the Thunderliirds 486
The Land of the Dead 488
The strange boy - 490
Origin of the Yu-gi-yhik' or I-tl-kS-tah' festival 494
Origin of winds 497
The strong man 499
The Owl-girl 499
Tale of Ak'-chlk-chi»'-gflk 499
The discontented Grass-plant 505
The lire ball : - 510
The Land of Darkness 511
The Raven and the Marmot •- 514
The shaman in the moon 515
The Man- worm 516
Sligration legend '. _ 516
Origin of the people of Diomede islands and of East cape, Siberia .">17
ILLUSTRATIONS'
Page
Plaik I. Group of Kinuguiimt from Port Cbirence 19
II. Diatrilmtion of the Eskimo about Bt'riii}> strait 23
III. Malemut family from Sli.-iktolik 25
IV. Kinugumut male, Su-kn-uk, age 25 27
A'. Kinugumut male, Komik-sei'ier, age 23.. 29
\'l. Kinugumut male, Kyo-kuasee. age 16 31
A'll. Kinugumut male, Isev-kyner, age 20 33
VIII. Kinugumut leraale, Kok-suk, age 23 _ 35
IX. Kinugumut female, Unger-keekluk, age 22 37
X. KinuguuMit female, age 22 39
XI. Siberian Kskimo: a. Woman of Mechigme liay. b, Woman of East
cape 40
XII. K.skiuio men — Mechigme bay, .Siberia 43
XIII. Cape Prince of Wales and Icy cajie men 45
XIV. Typically dressed women and children frcmi East cape, .Silieria 47
XV. Typical dre.ss of Kaviagmut and Kuskokwogmut men ami women. .. 49
XVI. Man's birdskin frock. (64273) ___ 50
XVII. Front and back of man's deerskin frock. (49107) 53
XVIII. l-'ront and back of woman's frock. (7510) 55
XIX. Front of man's fishskin frock. (38817) 56
XX. Men's gloves: 1 (64271), 2 (1728), 3 (48135), 4 (64'287), 5 (44350), 6
(38454 ), 7 (48101 ) 58
XXI. Hoots, waterpro d" nuttens. and straw socks: 1 (49082), 2 (38814),
3 (48127), 4 (43345), 5 (49083), 6 (48381), 7 (48132), 8 (38871), 9
(38779), 10 (129822), 11 (43315), 12(49164) tiO
XXII. Labrets: 1(176070), 2(31277), 3 (176069), 4 (36869), 5(36871), 6(176074),
7 (37038), 8 (16210), 9 (43757), 10 (16205), 11 (16204). 12 (16203), 13
(76681), 14 (176067), 15 (76678), 16 (48749), 17 (33506), 18 (37663), 19
(44903), 20 (44902), 21 (48898), 22 (45200), 23 (176068), 24 (63839),
25 (441.30) 62
XXIII. Kotzebue sound Malemut men and women with labrets 64
XXIV. Earrings: 1 (4573), 2 (48306), 3 (38170). 4 (37271), 5 (4.574). 6 (37270),
7 (4572), 8 (38051), 9 (24701), 10 (38168), 11 (4569), 12 (43667), 13
(36839), 14 (37517), 15 (37264), 16 (4570), 17 (4568), 18 (36862), 19
(44912) 66
X.W. Earrings and other ornaments: 1 (37002), 2(37745), 3 (37006), 4 (37007),
5 (43743), 6 (37003), 7 (.36003), 8 (38417), 9 (37258), 10 (37254), 11
(38410), 12 (37356), l.i (43730) 68
XX\ 1. Women and children of Cape Smith 70
'The ti^urea in parentheses following the title.s of the ^illustrations refer to the niiinhers of the
ohjects nt the catalog of the Ignited St.ites National Musenm.
9
10 IM.rsiliATIONS [F.TII.ANX.I8
r:.Ke
I'l.ATE XXVII. Belt fasteners : 1 (44428), 2 (3720t)), 3 (37043), 4 (4862!)), 7)
(37212), fi (44641), 7 (36920), 8 (43724), 9 (37034), 10 (43880),
11 (45183), 12 (36911), 13 (63835), 14 (44529), 15 (43723),. 16
(37468), 17 (43719), 18 (37484), 19 (38565), 20 (37833), 21
(37012). 22 (48194), 23 (37990), 24 (43615), 25 (37209), 26
(37332), 27 (37989), 28 (38553), 29 (37706), 30 (37333) 72
XXVIII. Lamps luul pots: 1 (63545), 2 (.38078), 3 (64222), 4 (63544), 5
(63566), 6 (30761), 7 (63.570). 8 (49196), 9 (63543), 10 (127018),
11 (49110), 12 (44338), 13(6,3.548) 74
XXIX. Ladles aufi dippers: 1 (38629), 2 (45054), 3 (45100), 4 (38631), 5
(38635), 6 (33062), 7 (45007), 8 (.38604), 9 (45513), 10 (63575),
11 (63576), 12 (48129) 76
XXX. Spoons and ladles: 1 (33280), 2 (63227), 3 (37340), 4 (37475), 5
(37116), 6 (3.5961), 7 (63832). 8 (37118), 9 (36355), 10 (35959),
11 (36358), 12 (38062), 13 (36359), 14 (36357), 15 (h3278), 16
(38508), 17 (38527), 18 (4.5051), 19 (38503), 20 (43491), 21
(38637), 22 (35960), 23(37120), 24 (38632), 25 (38638) 78
XXM. Trays and pestles: 1 (63719), 2 (127007), 3 (48844), 4 (38678), 5
(37868), 6 (38683), 7 (38844), 8 (38677), 9(127019) 80
XXXII. Trays and buckets: 1 (63243\ 2(38654), 3 (38685), 4(33066),
5 (37143), 6 (37355), 7 (63245), 8 (38642) 82
XX.XIII. Implements and utensils: a. Water bag, mouthpieces, blubber
hook, and earrier: 1 (44605), 2 (35982), 3 (37432), 4 (36488),
5 (33213), 6 (439.54), 7 (30774 ), 8 ( 16135 ), 9 (37.375), 10 (38708),
11 (30773), 12 (33203). i,Koot picks: 1 (16132), 2 (44414), 3
(33081) 84
XXXIV. Kire-making implements: 1.2,3 (33166), 4. 5(36325), 6 (49067),
7,8 (37961), 9 (38601) 86
XXXV. .Snow shovel, pick, rake, and maul: 1 (63600), 2 (48994), 3
(6.36.50), 4 (63601) 88
XXXVI. n. Ivory working tools: 1(63274), 2 (6.5483), 3 (37980), 4 (63319), 5
(63316). 6 (43821), 7 (33604), 8 (48087). 9 (46145), 10 (48179).
/), Drill bows: 1 (44206), 2 (44209), 3 (44467). 4 (33189). 5
(33186). 6 (33191 ), 7 (4.5017), 8 (63.S04). 9 (44208), 10 (48021), 11
(63622) 90
XXXVII. Drills, drill caps, and cords: 1 (45563), 2 (126986), 3 (33171), 4
(63323), 5 (33170), 6 (38798), 7 (89625), 8 (89627), 9 (44203), 10
(33172), 11 (38084), 12 ((;3720), 13 (48.585), 14 (48565), 15
(49177), 16 (45.520), 17 (63663), 18 (33147). 19 (33174). 20
(37962), 21 (336.53), 22 (33119), 23 (36321), 24 (4X927), 25
(16176), 26(45383), ,27 (.36322), 28 (44.561), 29 (126995). 30
(63506) 92
XXXVItl. Wood-working tools: 1 (48705), 2 (38292), 3 (46147). 4 (48706), 5
(36427), 6 (38494), 7 (44981), 8 (48704), 9 (36,308), 10 (485.52), 11
(38201), 12 (36420), 13 (451.50). 14 (48542), 15 (43883), 16
(45163), 17 (33026), 18 (36554), 19 (32882), 20(48847 ), 21 (36366),
22 (641.54), 23 (38294), 24 (89634), 25 (641.55), 26 (32878), 27
(63320), 28 (45488), 29 (63318), 30 (36.507), 31 (48291) 94
XXXIX. Wedges and adzes: 1 (38836), 2 (16007), 3 (44601), 4 (48873), 5
(63619), 6 (48872), 7 ( 127023), 8 (48182), 9 (38258), 10 (33082),
11 (37865), 12 (45069), 13 (33260\ 14 (33083) 96
XL. Arrowshaftstraigliteners and point setters: 1 (33039), 2 (63723),
3 (44383), 4 (44415), 5 (3.3048), 6 (38492). 7 (64159), 8 (48680>,
9(48723), 10(63790), 11 (43924), 12 (44745) 99
XLI. Tool bag and handles: 1 (64151), 2 (44169), 3 i'1439.si. 4 (18.531).
5 (63305), 6 (48529), 7 (48089) ml
KEisoNl ILLLSTKAIIUNS 11
Page
I-T.ATK XLII. 'lool and trinket boxes: 1 (491(13), 2 (63240), :', (36240), 4 (37561), 5
(43887), t) i36239). 7 (36243), .8 (36241), 9 (49015), 10 (36244),
U (362»(i) 102
XLIII. Uuiket and liox handles: 1 (44691), 2 (48685), 3 (63824), 4 (48270),
5 (38752), 6 (36375), 7(48461), 8 (63809), 9 (24431), 10 (38776),
11(44716), 12(63801), 13 (33279), 14 (48137), 15 (48164), 16
(33273), 17 (43820), 18 (38751), 19 (33220), 20 (63884), 21
(129218), 22 (44190). 23 (48163), 24 (43809), 25 (63879), 26
(44276) - 104
XLI\'. 'I'll imblf guards. iie(?dle-( uses, and boDt-sole creasers: 1 (48496). 2
(63421), 3 (36459), 4 (364.->6\, 5 (36463), 6 (36464), 7 (48299), 8
(36455), 9(36453), 10 (36454), 11 (44011), 12 (48664), 13 (36452),
14 (44340). 15 (43861). 16 (64165), 17 (63827), 18 (64167), 19
(48.570), 20 (44017), 21 (37237), 22 (36885), 2 1 (36878), 24 (45459),
25 (24484), 26 (33462), 27 (36880), 28 (48560), 29 (45168), 30
(641641, 31 (38448), 32 (33699), 33 (43505), 34 (48980), .35 (36742),
36 (36758). 37 (37807), 38 (33214), 39 (30721), 40 (44137), 41
(48546), 42 (63806), 43(16189), 44 (48289), 45 (3.^364). 46 (38449),
47 (43738), 48 (33677), 49 (45140), 50 (43389), 51 (48543) 106
XL\'. '■ Housewives" and fastenings: 1 (48963), 2 (37778), 3 (43662), 4
(36690), 5 (.37791), 6 (36695), 7 (37786), 8 (37189), 9 (37783), 10
(45142), 11 (43663), 12 (49001), 13 (37319), 14 (64288), 15 (38691),
16 (44021), 17 (38198), 18 (48795), 19 (37767), 20 (38221), 21
(384021, 22 (36419), 23 (37310), 24 (37457), 25 (38376), 26 (38241),
27 (37739), 28 (3.5972), 29 (43694), 30 (38387), 31 (16343), 32
(38690) 108
XLVI. Bodkins: 1 (33251), 2 (37304), 3 (38385), 4 (377.52), 5 (37621),
8(36286),.7,36631), 8(36634), 9(43535), IO(36(i32), 11 (37776),
12 (43388), 13 (36626), 14 (48798), 15 (48948), 16 (38495) 110
XLVIl. Fish and skinning knives : 1 (.36315), 2 (63771 ). 3 (63773), 4 37957),
5 (43892), 6 (36506), 7 (48829), 8 (48828), 9 (382.56). 10 (43482) . . 112
XLVIII. Thread- and cord-making implements: n. Grass coinhs: 1 (44779),
2 (44777), 3 (44419), 4 (48120), 5 (33145), 6 (63657), 7 (48842),
8 (38079), 9 (48877), 10 (48918). b, Thread shuttles and
needles: 1 (24463), 2 (24464), 3 (36449), 4 (48261), 5 (48287), 6
(43740), 7 (43742), 8 (36448) 114
XLIX, .Skin scrapers: 1 (30825), 2 (63851), 3(64181), 4(63850), 5(48631),
6 (ii3868), 7 (48624), 8 (44084), 9 (63849), 10 (44983), 11 (44982.1,
12 (48882), 13 (43408), 14 (64176), 15 (38252 j, 16 (63405), 17
(38828), 18 (33086), 19 (38185), 20(43927) 116
L. skin-cleaning tools: 1 (43433), 2 (32890), 3 (38755;, 4 (43767),
5 (482.56). 6(3(>.520), 7(44771), 8 (63800), 9 (63353 1, 10 (63351),
11 (63833), 12 (63666), 13 (37967), 14 (45730), 15 (32885), 16
(45105), 17(48982), 18 (48549) 118
LI. Nets, snares, and traps: 1 (38622), 2 (33716), 3 (43291), 4 (44255),
5 (126033), 6 (46072). 7 (37651), 8 (63815), 9 (33820), 10 (33812),
11 (126993), 12 (63.590), 13 (63590), 14 (63258), 15 (126993),
16(38444) 122
Lll. Braining clubs .-ind se;il-<'aptnring inij)lements; 1 (637451, 2
' (63676), 3 (38476), 4 (33143), 5 (37.598), 6 (63270). 7 (63788,i, 8
(63787), 9 (48503). 10 (48167), 11 (33143), 12 (48501), 13 (451131.
14 (38500), 15 (63777), 16 (44411), 17 (45003), 18 (450051, 19
(45047), 20 (63876), 21 (63781), 22 (44142), 23 ((542181, 24
(127013), 25 (46355), 26 (63780) 126
1-1 ; 1. ^t .\;ii h:ul hunter casting; a seal spear 135
12 ILLUSTKATIONS [htii. anx,18
Page
Pi-ATK LI^•. Small seal speais and lines : 1 (175G6'J), 2 (33980), 3 (36110), 4 (33872),
5 (36103), 6 (37350), 7 (43748), 8 (36081), 9 (175673), 10(160337).. 137
L\'. .Spears and lances: a. Larjre spears: 1 (33911), 2 (29780), 3 (48150),
4 (33373), 5 (36067), 6 (33888), 7 (45415), 8 (43429). b, Lances:
! (175672), 2 (48.379), 3 (45419), 4 (45431), 5 (37388), 6 (37389) . i:'>9
L\"I. Hunting and iishing apparatus: a. Float, float-plugs, and mouth-
pieces: 1 (37820), 2 (37239), 3 (44627), 4 (36499), 5 (37822), 6
(36498), 7 (43981), 8 (44306), 9 (43509), 10 (44629), 11 (45169),
12 (44305), 13 (43510), 14 (44770), 15 (37329), 16 (36209), 17
(33298), 18 (63340), ID (44285), 20 (33452), 21 (33451), 22 (36495),
23 (63663), 24 (44284), 25 (37818), 26 (33627), 27 (36209), 28
(44432), 29 (4.3515), 30 (45126), 31 (63342 1. 6, Cord attaehers:
1 (16192), 2 (37054), 3 (37060), 4 (37068), 5 (37824). 6 (37052), 7
(38149), 8 (48317), 9 (370.55), 10 (37036), U (129271), 12 (44709),
13 (37064), 14 (43624), 15 (336.50), ,16 (49009), 17 (4,3.382), 18
(33630), 19(38000), 20 (.37218), 21 (.37228), 22 (33445), 23 (37057). 142
I,\'II. Ohjects used in bunting: «, Lance points, etc. : 1 (48389), 2 (43758),
3 (37657), 4 (48181), 5 (43870), 6 (38517),'7 (36204), 8 (44051), 9
(37618), 10 (36312), 11 (44217), 12 (37662), 13 (63863), 14 (44321),
15 (126915), 16 (37390), 17 (38459), 18 (38607), 19 (46076), 20
(16173), 21 (33159), 22 (446.57), 23 (363.33), 24 (37389), 25'(.37388),
26 (37581), 27 (37390). b, .Spear heads, points, linger-rests, etc. :
1 (44405), 2 (63497), 3 (126912), 4 (16125), 5 (37377), 6 (44099),
7 { 14703), 8 (44746), 9 (38.529), 10 (48820), 11 (33632), 12 (48471),
13 (63334), 14 (36343), 15 (37951), 16 (44421), 17 (43461), 18
(43461), 13 (48276), 20 (44077), 21 (45171), 22 (43865), 23(45173),
24 (63842), 25 (63844), 26 (63843), 27 (33465), 28 (44812), 29(45170\
30 (37671), 31 (48293),32 (336U), 33(37417). 34 (36097) 148
L\lll. .St Michael man casting a bird spear 151
I. IX. Bird spears: 1 (36139), 2 (33879), 3 (48387), 4 (48354). 5 (36129),
6 (45426), 7 (33845), 8 (48350), 0 (29852), 10 (33848), 11 (36076) . . . 1.53
I.X. Hows: 1 (30038), 2 (36033), 3 (33886). 4 (160341), 5 (43679), G (36034).
7 (48374). 8 (33884). 9 (73172), 10 (45736), 11 (36029) 1.55
LXl. Hunting and war implements: a. Arrows for large game and for
war : 1 (126990), 2 (176093 a). 3 (63584), 4 (176093 d), 5 (45433), 6
il76093fc),7(129327), 8(16415), 9(36179), 10 (16415), 11 (63584),
12 (63584 «). '', Arrowpoints, streugtbeners for hows and
quivers, and wrist-guards: 1 (482.59), 2 (48974), 3 (63374), 4
(33634), 5 (49065), 6 (48717), 7 (48200), 8 (38530), 9 (63860), 10
(433.50), U (44078), 12 (63331), 13 (63276), 14 (63328), 15 (63326),
16 (46097), 17 (48446), 18 (63.375), 19 (44079), 20 (63755), 21
(43872), 22 (63864), 23 (63753), 24 (3(i300),25 (44048), 26 (384.50),
27 (24596). c, Bird arrows and quiver: 1 (36140), 2 (176094 «),
3(J5432). 4(33833), 5 (33821), 6 (33824), 7 (33827), 8 (176095). . . . 1.58
I.X II. lioxes for arrowpoints and paints: 1 (33015), 2 (444.58), 3 (33019),
4 (444.50), 5 (48253), 6 (37557), 7 (38475), 8 (?4607),9 (33024), 10
(45514), 11(24347), 12 (43489), 13 (38336). 14 (37342). 15 (482.52),
16 (37342). 17(43485) 162
LXIII. objects used with guns aud in bnntiug: 1 (49187), 2 (33203).3
(44326), 4 (44612), 5 (33210), 6 (44117), 7 (43077), 8 (36323). 9
(44773), 10 (43512). 11 (36407), 12 (13513). 13 (63349), 14 (64197),
15 (37433), 16 (36486), 17 (43923), 18 (43854). 19 (48134J, 20
(44772). 21 (44966), 22(38100), 23 (43490), 24 (48450), 25 (37966),
26 (36490). 27 (37363), 28 (33079). 29 (14963), 30 (41388). 31
(36026). 32 (44,327). 33 (434.S0) 164
NELSON] ILLUSTRATION'S . 13
r:ise
Plate LXIV. lliinliny helmets, visors, and snow goggles: 1 (44328), 2 (38659),
:; (44331)), 4 (38658), 5 (72906), 6 (32945), 7 (63626), 8 (44256),
9 (32942), 10 (46137), 11 (63825), 12 (63269), 13 (4899C), 14
(36351), 15 (33136), 16 (37351), 17 (45072), 18 (1(!0337), 19
(44340), 20 (38718), 21 (38711), 22 (38713) 166
LXV. Xepbrite liiiife sliarpeiuT, dagger, and sheath: 1 (48586), 2, 3
(176072) 170
LXVI. Cord or drag handles: 1 (37693),'2 (44537), 3 (48190), 4 (33620), 5
(63S89), G (38556), 7 (48567), 8 (44885), 9 (45231), 10 (48666),
11 (45176), 12 (44890), 13 (43970), 14 (33657), 15 (45026), 16
(37384), 17 (46162), 18 (44191), 19 (44151) 173
],X\'II. Ice pick, sroops, and fish spears: I (48344), 2 (48343), 3 (33860),
4'(36070), 5 (49051),0 (49049),7 (49141), 8 (49142), 9 (36024),
10 (33894 ) 175
LXXTII. Fishing implements: 1 (16303), 2 (44096), 3 (37349), 4 (37348), 5
(63513), 6 (38377), 7 (33037), 8 (33036), 9 (33376), 10 (37946),
11 (45115), 12 (44930), 13 (48298), 14 (37253), 15 (38413), 16
(36378), 17 (37253), 18 (44745), 19 (43852), 20 (63284), 21
(43401). 22 (63265), 23 (33915), 24 (45402), 25 (33816), 26
(45441), 27 (33900), 28 (33899), 29 (33038), 30 (44075), 31(33915),
32 (63513) 176
LXIX. Fishhooks and sinkers: 1 (46318), 2 (46264), 3 (37413), 4 (44370),
5 (64199), 6 (45255), 7 (44482^.8 (45261), 9 (49172), 10 (44475),
11 (49172), 12 (44509), 13 (44953), 14 (44508), 15 (64188), 16
(63630), 17 (44125), 18 (48305). 19 (44954), 20 (44493), 21
(63634), 22 (44371), 23 (44480), 24 (44371). 25 (126983), 26
(44939), 27 (44938), 28 (63512), 29 (126984), 30 (38816), 31
(126989), 32 (63897), 33 (126989fl) 178
LXX. Objects used in lishing: 1 (45422), 2 (48998), 3 (37347), 4 (48699),
5 (63377), 6 (63737), 7 (63744), 8 (38808), 9 (38867), 10 (127943),
11 (38498), 12 (49148), 13 (32988), 14 (176092), 15 (38825), 16
(33138) 184
LXXI. Setting fish trap through the ice on tlie Yukon, near Ikogmiit. . 187
LXXII. Net-making implements: 1 (43967), 2 (49183), 3 (63304), 4 (63305).
5 (43811), 6 (36373), 7 (48539), 8 (44487), 9 (37428), 10 (49004),
11 (48283), 12 (44202), 13 (44996), 14 ((53652), 15 (48832),
16 (33176), 17 (33257), 18 (3(5413), 19 (44385), 20 (44607),'
21 (48722), 22 (48460), 23 (44569), 24 (33267), 25 (38276),
26(45110) 190
LXXIII. Xet-making implements: 1 (36681), 2 (33050), 3 (37459),4 (36416),
5 (36398), 6 (44413), 7 (48726), 8 (38662), 9 (37927), 10 (37928),
11 (126988), 12 (63307). 13 (19408), 14 (44787), 15 (49013),
10 (38211), 17 (48938), 18 (44448), 19 (48286), 20 (63654),
21 (49000), 22 (33095), 23 (44994), 24 (44573), 25 (44463),
26 (45014), 27 (48583), 28 (38.501) 192
LXXIV. Objects of grass and spruce root: 1 (37603), 2 (37926), 3 (44234),
4 (36190), 5 (38204), 6 (32977), 7 (35962), 8 (32968), 9 (166949),
10 (127890;, 11 (176077), 12 (176078), 13 (38467), 14 (32964),
15 (32945) 202
LXXV. Malemut family with dog sled 205
LXXVI. Model of sled frame with other objects u.sed in transportation :
1 (63587), 2 (63656), 3 (43849), 4 (63371), 5 (127004), G (44375), .
7 (63361), 8 (49076), 9 (44736), 10 (63829), 11 (63698), 12
(438.57), 13 (48725), 14 (16251). 15 (49146), IG (48104) 208
LXXVII. Model of umiak with matting sail. (38882) 217
14 ILLUSTKATIONS ;t;th ann.18
I 'age
I'LATK LXX\"III. Model of umiak fnimcinid apimiteuauces ot'nmiak aiulkaiak
rigging: 1 (452S4;,2 (48587), 3 (370111), 4 (37(572), 5 (49185),
6 (44143), 7 (37300;, 8 (37461), 9 (37301), 10 (37001), 11
(37247), 12 (43538), 13 (35998), 14 (43705), 15 (44711), 16
(38284), 17 (24698), 18 (33407), 19 (44980), 20 (44755), 21
(44531), 22 (36421), 23 (37426), 24 (36424), 25 (37939), 26
(63665), 27 (33219), 28 (45380), 29 (38277), 30 (36392), 31
(33386), 32 (44759), 33 (63878), 34 (127014), 35 (46304),
36 (44758), 37 (48169), 38 (38883) 218
LXXIX. Kaiaks : 1 N iinivak islanil (76283), 2 Xmiivak island (160345),
3 St Michael (16G932). 4 Kiug islaurt (160326), 5 Cape
ICspenberg (129575), 6 Cape Kruseusteni (129574) 220
I. XXX. Paddles and boat Looks: 1 (33893), 2(36023), 3(43347), 4
(36022 ), 5 (45408), 6 (73169), 7 (36071 ), 8 (36057), 9 (45406),
10(48148) .' 223
LXXXl. Storebonsesat Ikogmiit 245
LXXXlt. Winter view of Uazbiusky 247
LXXXllI. Eskimo dwellings: o, Honse at Dover bay. /), X<iatak sum-
mer lodge - - 259
LXXXI\'. Women of Plover bay, Siberia 260
LXXXW SninuuT eanip at Capo Lisbnrue 263
LXXXV!. Tobacco and snutt' boxes and snuft'-niaking ini)ilemeuts: 1
(43797), 2 (38334), 3 (48247), 4 (6580), 5 (36268), 0 (33013),
7 (36270), 8 (36276), 9 (3595G), 10 (36620), 11 (36267), 12
(48839), 13 (36282), 14 (36281), 15 (36284), 16 (16094), 17
(37559), 18 (36280), 19 (43824), 20 (37857), 21 (37539), 22
(36260), 23 (43952), 24 (36274), 25 (44957), 26 (37540), 27
(1636), 28 (33097), 29 (7074)-, 30(48737) 270
LXXX.V1I. Fun-ns ash boxes and tobacco bags: 1(24744), 2 (37907), 3
(48255),4 (64186), 5 (44059). 6 (386t)5j, 7 (61187), 8 (63721), 9
(44960), 10 (38472), 11 (36249), 12 (48559), 13 (38661). 14
(37858) - 272
LXXXViri. Pipes and pipe mold: 1 (44.393), 2 (38785), 3 (63511), 4 (48172),
5 (38790), 6 (63785), 7 (.38788), 8 (45327), 9 (43963), 10
(32869), 11 (18171), 12 (43999), 13 (48076), 14 (49192) 280
LXXXIX. Ivory pipesteras: 1 (7506), 2 (2292), 3 (154073), 4 (2282).... 283
XC. SnulV tubi-s: 1 (4447P, 2 (36807). 3 (38435), 4 (37498), 5
(36821), 6 (38039), 7 (.38042). 8 (36818), 9 (36817), 10 (36789),
11 (37316). 12 (35978), 13 (49026), 14 (36825), 15 (37811) 284
XCl. Graveyard at Razbiusky 317
XCII. Eskimo plate armor 330
XCIII. D(dls: 1 (44871), 2 (24869), 3 (64209), 4 (37707), 5 (.36216i, G
(38577), 7 (63518), 8 (63378) 342
XCIV. Snow knives: 1 (36377), 2 (38359), 3 (37283), 4 (36578). 5
(43501), 6 (127407), 7 (43890), 8(127398), 9 (36514), 10
(36591), 11 (36.568), 12 (37425). 13 (385.55) 344
XC V. Masks : 1 (48989), 2 (48985), 3 (33131), 4 (43779) 396
XCVl. Masks: 1 (33108), 2 (33104) 398
XCVII. JIask. (331181 401
XCVIII. Masks: 1 (49020). 2 (64242), 3 (38733) 404
XCIX. Masks; 1 (64248), 2 (388(;2), 3 (38645),4 '3«11) 406
C. Masks: 1 (642G0), 2 (33111), 3 (33105), 4 (33107) 408
CI. JIasks: 1 (33134), 2(376.54) 410
CII. Masks: 1 (33126), 2 (48913), 3 (37864), 4(64238) 412
NELSON) ILLUiiTKATIONS 15
Pnge
Platk cm. Finger masks nmlinaskoids: UU;21), 2 (64238), 3 (37895), 4 (64252),
5 (64243), 0 (64266) -. 414
CIV. Fiuger masks: 1 (24746), 2 (38648), 3, 4 (36231) 416
CV. Finger masks: 1 (38451), 2 (3312.")), 3 (33121) 418
CVI. Belts and armlet: 1 (.37921), 2 (64221), ,3 (176071) 420
CVH. Objects etched with mythologic tignres: ri, Spear rest with
figures of thunderbirds eatchiug whales. (48169) h, Ivory
pipestem with etched ligiires of the man-worm and the
Ihnuderbird. ( I."i4ll7."'> ) - - - - ■ 446
Figiiie 1. Scheme of color on masks and mask-like objects, grave boxes, and
totem markings 26
2. Man's hood from Ivonigunugnmnt. (38657) 32
3. Fox-ski Ti cup 33
4. Man's hood of reindeer and marmot skin and mink fur. (37903).-. 33
5. Man's wolf-head summer hood Ironi Point Hope. (64270) 34
6. Ear-flap.s. (37398) 37
7. Fish-skin clothing hags: 1 (37631), 2 (37401) 43
8. Clothing bag of sealskin. (48099) 44
9. King island man with labrets of lignite 47
10. Kotzebue sound JIalemut men and women 49
11. Tattooing on women. («, South of Yukon month; h. East cape,
Siberia; c, Head of Kotzebue sound) 50
12. Tattooing on a St Lawrence island girl 50
13. Tattooing ou a woman of St. Lawrence island 51
14. Tattooing on a woman's arm, Ea.st cape, Siberia 51
15. Circular forms of tattooing 52
16. Hair combs: 1 (36374), 2 (48260), 3 (126985), 4 (45484), 5 (44765),
6 (63722) 57
17. Ivory belt fastener. (44.523) 61
18. Lamp from Point Barrow 63
19. Ivory carving representing a lamp ami stand 63
20. Marrow spoon. (7519) 69
21. Snow heaters: 1 (48995), 2 (49175), 3 (48161). 4 (44.998), 5 (48162). .. . 77
22. Snow shovels: 1 (36973), 2 (49143) 78
23. Mallets: 1 (48993), 2 (48909), 3 (48885) 79
24. AVood chisels : 1 (43737), 2 (36397) 87
2.5. Knife sharpeners: 1 (43858). 2 (33047), 3 (46109),4 (63529), 5 (43817). 90
26. Flint flakers: 1 (63786), 2 (64153),:.! (37600), 4 (37615), 5 (48554) 91
27. Wooden trinket box. (35955) 96
28. Trinket box. (49075) 98
29. Boot-sole creaser. (7521) 108
30. Sinew twisters. (44688) Ill
31. Sinew spinner from St Lawrence island - 112
32. Stretched sealskin 116
33. Method of folding sealskin 117
34. Model of a deer snare. (18208) 119
35. Etching on ivory showing dter snares. (7521) 120
36. Game spits. (38488) - 121
37. Fox or wolf trap with sinew spring. (7510) 122
38. Marmot trap. (33146) 125
39. Sealskin float. (129381, old number 48330) - 141
40. Cord attacher. (7.508) 144
41. Cord attacher, obverse and reverse. (7509) 145
42. Spearpoints for birds ami fish: 1 (38499), 2 (38783), 3 (44574), 4
(43361),5 (126916), 6 (63333), 7 (4.5519), 8 (4.37S7) 150
16 ' Il-LrSTl.'AT10.\!< [KTII.ANN 18
Page
Figun-43. Throwing sticks: 1 (4!I001),2 (:i8t;70), 3 (33897), 4 (360131.5 (24355),
6 (45391)), 7 (49002), 8 (168581), 9 (166946), 10 (1.5(i44), 11 (36018).... 154
44. Fish arrows: 1 (160341), 2 (43680), 3 (49044), 4 (48340),o (48338), 6
(63578),7 (48341),8 (49037), 9 (33858), 10 (36161) 160
45. Ivory oruaments for liunting helmets: 1 (37419), 2 (38325), 3 (36477),
4 (49014), 5 (329.54), 6 (36428), 7 (36408), 8 (43808) 169
46. Cord handle of ivory. ( 7517) 172
47. Tomcod fishing through sea ice at St .Michael 174
48. Grayling hook. (7515) 180
49. Seining on Kotzeline sound 186
50. Mesh of (lip-iiet nuide of sinew. (48923) 187
51. Mesh of dip-net nuide of willo%v bark. (48925) 187
52. Jlesh, Hoat. and sinker of herring seine. (33871).. 188
53. Herring seine with stretcher at one end and with llo:it ami sinker.
(43353) '. 189
54. Sealskin-cord herring .seine with stone sinker. (176090) 189
55. Wooden net Hoat. (63505) 1 190
56. Ivory marlinspike. (16143) 193
57. Marlinspike with bone point. (33100) 193
58. Wooden paint box. (38338) 200
59. Wooden paint box. (35954) 200
60. Clay pot from Hothani inlet 202
61. Kaviak huviter with hand sled 207
62. Sled used on the .Siberian shore of Bering strait. (176084) 208
63. Snowshoes from Norton bay. (45400) 212
64. Snowshoe from Cape Darby. (48092) 213
65. Snowshoe from Icy cape. (63604) 213
66. Snowshoe Iroiu .St Lawrence island. (63236) - 214
67. Ice staff. (45424) 215
68. Ice start. (73178) 215
69. Ice creepers: 1 and 1« (63881), 2 (46260), 3 (44254), 4(126982), 5 •
(63514) 216
70. Forms of umiak paddles: «, from Kotzebue sound: /). from Point
Hope 224
71. Kaiak jiaddles from Point I5arrow and King island: 1 (89246), 2
(160326) 225
72. Ivory spear guard for kaiak, ( 1760.*6 a) 227
73. Ivory spear guard for kaiak. ( 176086 h) 227
74. Plan of house at St Michael 242
75. Storehouse at St Michael 243
76. Kashim at St Michael 246
77. Section of kashim at St Micliael 247
78. Section of kashim at Kiishunu k 250
79. Carved lamp support 252
80. Section of house at Ignituk 2.53
81. Section of house at Ignituk 253
82. Section of house at Cape Nome 254
83. Grounil plan of house at Cape Nome 254
84. Walrus skin summer house on King island 256
85. Eskimo village at East cape, .Siberia 257
86. House frame of whale ribs and jawbone 259
87. Section of house on St Lawrence island 260
88. Summer camp at Hotham inlet 260
89. Frame for summer lodge, Hoth.im inlet 261
90. Arrangement of summer camp at Hotham inlet 262
NELSON] ILLUSTRATIONS 1 7
Page
Figure 91. SummBi- lodge at Ciipe Thorapsou 262
92. .Sites of aucient vilhiges at Cape Wankareiii, Siberia 265
93. Fungus used for making- :isUes to mix witli tobacco. (43366) 271
94. Pipe from Kotzebue sound. (48133) 281
95. Pipe from Cape Prince of Wales. (7516) 284
96. Respirator (front view). (38850) 288
97. Lancet pointed with nephrite. (38797) 310
98. Backscratcher. (45107) 310
99. Position in which the dead are buried at St Michael 311
100. Method of disposing of the dead at St Michael 313
101. Position of burial of the dead on the lower Yukon 314
102. Grave boxes, Vukou delta 315
103. Burial box at Razbinsky 316
104. Memorial images at Cape Vancouver 317
105. Monument board at a Big lake grave 319
106. Grave box at Cape Nome 320
107. Grave on St Lawrence island 321
108. Arrowpoint showing wolf totem signs. (43689) 322
109. Spearhead representing a wolf. (38412) 323
110. Spearhead representing a wolf. (43751) 323
111. Spearhead representing an otter. (43750) 323
112. Spearhead representing an ermine. (36080) 323
113. Gerfalcon totems on bow and seal spear 324
114. Simple forms of the raven totem 324
115. Raven totem tattooing on a Plover bay boy 325
116. Raven totems on smoke-hole cover 325
117. Wolf totem signs on a storehouse door 325
118. Tobacco board with bear and loach signs. (48922) 326
119. Figures on a grave box 326
120. Boy with toy sled, St Lawrence island 331
121. Dart. (45475) 334
122. Top from Cape Prince of Wales. (43371) 341
123. Toy woodpecker. (33798) 341
124. Toymouse. (48912) 342
125. Toy representing a murre swinnuing. (63478) 342
126. Clay doll. (48735) 342
127. Wooden doU. (38345) 343
128. Doll. (38351) 343
129. Wooden doll. (37878) 344
130. Mechanical doll. (63814) 344
131. Toy bear with dog harness. (63644) 345
132. Toy dogs and sled. (63387) 345
133. Toy bear. (63867) 346
134. Toy kaiak from St Lawrence island. (63449) 346
135. Ivory image of man and bear. (37750) 346
136. Drum handle. (63797) 351
137. Drum handle. (3.3308) 351
138. Ivory baton for beating time on a stick. (45282) 352
139. Wand used in asking festival. (33804) 359
140. Plan of kashim during mortuary ceremony 366
141. Maskoid representing a seal-head with rising air bubbles. (33115). 414
142. Eagle-feather wand used in dances. (49061) 414
143. Eagle-feather wand used in dances. (45446) 415
144. Armlet worn during dances. (45336) 416
145. Loouskiu fillet worn in dances. (49079) 417
IS ETH^ 2
18 ILLUSTRATIONS [kth.asn.18
Figurel46. Reindeer-skin fillet. (36195) 417
147. Woman with ermine fillet and eagle-feather wauds 418
148. Wristlet from Ikogmut. (36198) 419
149. Armlet worn in dances. (48695) 420
150. Fetich from a Malemut kaiak 436
151. Grajihite fetich used in right-whale fishing. (48384) 439
152. Whale fetich of wood. (64220) 440
153. Shaman's doll fetich. (37372) 441
154. Drawing of a composite animal in a wooden tray. (38679) 444
155. Drawing of the ^)(H-rai'-.i/«t in a wooden tray. (45494) 444
156. Drawing of the jj(n-)(i(-i/HA- on an umiak. (160261) 445
157. Ivory carving of a composite animal. (44143) 446
158. Ivory carving representing the man-worm. (43550) 446
1.59. Ivory carving of a mythic animal. (7518) 447
160. Ivory drag handle representing a composite animal. (7511) 447
161. Ivory carving of a mermaid-like creature. (7520) 447
162. Ivory float handle with mermaid-like figure. (7514) 448
163. Carving representing a mermaid-like creature. (36336) 448
164. Ivory carviug showing the face of a walrus iniia. (43561) 448
165. Drawing of a mythic creature in a wooden tray. (38642) 448
o
o
a:
o
ID
o
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
By Edward William Nelson
INTKODUOTORY
The collections and obs(^ivatioiis ou which the present work is based
were obtained by the writer durius: a residence of between four and five
years in northern Alaska. The fur-trading- station of St Michael, situ-
ated about 65 miles north of the Yukon delta and some 200 miles south-
ward from Bering strait, was my headquarters during the greater period
of my residence in that region.
On June 17, 1S77, 1 reached St Michael and remained there until the
last of June, 1S81, excei)t during the time consumed by a number of
excursions to various parts of the surrounding country. Owing to the
fact that my official work was that of procuring an unbroken series of
meteorological observations, whatever I did in other branches of science
had to be accomplished in odd moments or during the short periods
when the agents of the Alaska Commercial Comi)any kindly relieved
me of my duties by making the necessary observations.
During the first year I exjjlored the district lying immediately about
St Michael. The next year my investigations were extended over a
wider field, and on the 1st of December, 1878, I left St Michael in com-
pany with Charles Petersen, a fur trader, each of us having a sledge
and team of eight dogs. We traveled southward along the coast to the
mouth of the Y'ukon, and thence up that stream to Andreivsky, which
was Petersen's station and the second trading post from the sea. From
this point we proceeded southwestward ai'ross the upper end of the
Y'ukon delta, passing the eastern base of the Kusilvak mountains and
reaching the seacoast just south of Cape Eomanzof at a previously
unknown shallow bay. From this point we proceeded southward,
keeping along or near the coast until we reached Cape Vancouver,
opposite Nunivak island. The second day beyond this i)oint, Peter-
sen, who Lad accompanied me thus far, said the weather was too bad
to continue the Journey and he therefore turned back.
From the last-mentioned point I proceeded, accompanied by an
Eskimo, to the mouth of Kuskokwim river. After traveling some dis-
aiice up its course we turned back toward the Yukon, which we reached
at a point about a hundred miles above Andreivskj'. Turning up the
river the journey was coutiuued to Paimut village, the last Eskimo
settlement on the Yukon. At Paimut I turned and retraced my steps
down the river and theuce along the coast back to St Michael.
19
20 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18
This expedition completed a very successful reconnoissance of a
regiou previously almost completely unknown as regards its geograpliic
and ethnologic features. A very tine series of ethnologic specimens
was obtained and many interesting notes on the people were recorded;
some of their curious winter festivals were witnessed, and several vocab-
ularies were procured.
On November 9, 18S0, in company with a fur trader and two Eski-
mo, I again left St Michael on a sledge expedition. We proceeded
up the coast of Norton sound to the head of Norton bay, where we
remained for some days. Thence we traveled along the coastline past
Golofnin bay to ISledge island, south of Bering strait. Owing to the
fact that the people of this district were on the point of starvation our
farther advance was prevented and I was forced to give up my contem-
plated trip to Cape Prince of Wales and the islands of the strait at
this time. We turned back from Sledge island and reached St Michael
on April 3, after an extremely rough Journey; but the series of notes
and ethnologic specimens obtained on this reconnoissance are exten-
sive and valuable.
On November 10, 18S0, in company with another fur trader, I left St
Michael and crossed the coast mountains to the head of Anvik river,
down whicli we traveled to its junction with the Yukon. At this point
is located the fur-trading station of Anvik, which was in charge of
my companion. Bad weather delayed us at this point for some time,
but we finally set out, traveling up the Yukon, crossing Shageluk
island, exploring the country to the head of Iiiiioko river, ami return-
ing thence to Anvik. From the latter place I descended the Yukon to
its mouth and went back to St Michael along the coast. On the way
down the river I stopped at Kazbinsky and witnessed one of tlie great
Eskimo festivals in commemoration of the dead.
As was the case in all my sledge journeys, the main object in view
was to obtain as large a series of ethnologic specimens and notes on
the character and customs of the people as was possible. Unfortu-
nately my limited time on these trips prevented any extended inves-
tigation into the customs and beliefs of the peoi)le, but the series of
specimens obtained is unsurpassed in richness and variety.
At the close of June, 18S1, the United States revenue steamer Coricin
called at St Michael on her way north in search of the missing steamer
Jcannette. 15y the courtesy of the Secretary of the Treasury,- Captain
C. L. Hooper was directed to take me on board as naturalist of the
expedition. During the rest of the season I was the guest of Captain
Hooper and received many favors at his hands.
We left St Michael and sailed to St Lawrence island, where the Cap-
tain had been instructed to land me in order that 1 might investigate
the villages which had been depopulated by famine and disease dniiug
the two preceding winters. The surf was too heavy on the occasion of
this visit to risk landing at the desired points, so we passed on to Plover
bay, on the Siberian coast. Thence we coasted the shore of Siberia to
NELSON]
SCOPE OF THE WORK 21
North cape, beyond Bering strait, taking on board a sledge party
which had been left there early in the season. We then returned to St
Lawrence island, where a landing was effected and a fine series of valu-
able specimens obtained, after which we departed for St Michael
where the collections were transferred to the Alaska Commercial Com-
pany's steamer for shipment to San Francisco, and the Corwin once
more returned to the Arctic. During the remainder of the season we
visited all of the Arctic coast of Alaska from Bering strait to Toint
Barrow, including Kotzebue sound.
The ethnologic collection obtained during my residence in the north
numbers about ten thousand specimens, which are deposited in the
United States ISIational Museum, under the auspices of which my work
in Alaska was done. With the exception of a comparatively small
number of specimens obtained among the Athapascan tribes of the
lower Yukon and among the Chukchi of eastern Siberia, the entire
collection was obtained among the Eskimo.
Since my return from Alaska Mr John Murdoch has reported on the
collection and observations made by the International Polar Expedi-
tion at Point Barrow."
Although my collections cover many of the objects found along the
northern coast, I have been more explicit in describing those from
other regions visited by me rather than to duplicate the work of Mr
Murdoch. The preparation of the present work has been delayed from
various unavoidable causes, but despite the length of time which has
elapsed since my observations were made, but little has appeared
regarding the customs of the Eskimo in the region visited by me.
This being the case, the data collected at a time when the life of the
majority of the natives had not been so greatly modified by intercourse
with white men as at present, are of x^articular value. Since then the
introduction of missionary schools and the gold mining excitement
have resulted in greatly changing the status of many of the people,
and as a natural consequence their old customs and beliefs are rapidly
falling into disuse or are bec()ming greatly modified.
In this work I have confined myself to recording the information
obtained and have made no attempt to elaborate any of the matter by
generalizations. However imperfect my observations were in many
cases, I trust the information gained will serve as a basis for fuller
investigation of a very interesting field. I was placed under great
indebtedness for favors i-eceived from tlie Alaska Commercial Company
and its officers at St Michael during my residence at that point.
Through the cordial assistance of Mr liudolph Neumann and the late
M. Lorenz, who volunteered to carry on my meteorological observa-
tions during periods of absence from St Michael, I was enabled to
accomplish much work that would have been impracticable without
such aid. I am also indebted to Mr Neumann for several of the tales
from St Michael.
' Ninth Annual Report of the Bureau of Ethnology, 1887-88.
22
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
(ETH. ANN. 18
The fur traders, one ami all, furthered my work with voluntary
assistance. To Messrs McQuesten, Petersen, Fredericks, and Will-
iams I owe many favors. I am particularly grateful to the late Pro-
fessor Baird for the opportunity to accomplish the tield work which
resulted iu the accumulation of the material on which the present
report is based. I have also to extend to the authorities of the
National Museum my appreciation of their courtesy in placing the
entire Alaskan ethnological collection at my disposal during the prep-
aration of this report, and for other favors. To Professor Otis T.
Mason and Dr Walter Hough, of the United States National Museum,
I am under special obligations for their unfailing courtesy and cordial
assistance during the preparation of this work. I wish also to exi)ress
my sense of obligation to Mr Wells M. Sawyer, illustrator of the Bureau
of American Ethnology, for many suggestions and other favors while
arranging the illustrations.
ALPHABET
The following alphabet is used in writing all Eskimo names of places,
etc, in this memoir :
a
as a in father.
kn
a nasal sound formed in the roof of
a
as a iu what.
the mouth by the blending of the
a
as a iu hat.
— k into the n.
a
as aw iu law.
1
as I iu lull.
ai
as ai iu aisle.
■j?
an aspirated I.
au
as ow iu how.
Ih
a harsher aspirated sound than 1'.
b
as 6 in bhib.
ni
as m iu mum.
ch
as eft in church.
n
as n in nun.
A
as d in ihead.
n
as ny iu siug.
<y
aaj in judge.
o
as 0 in note.
e
as e in they.
o
as 0 in home, with a short pronun-
e
as e in then.
ciation.
f
as /in fife.
p
as J) in pipe.
g
as g iu get.
ph
an aspirated 2>-
g'
au aspirated r).
r
as )■ in roariug.
gh
a harshly aspirated g.
s
as s iu sauce.
h
as ft iu ha.
sh
as .s7i iu should.
h'
a soft aspiration.
t
as ( in toucli.
hi
a sound formed
by
P
acing the
tl
as (le in little. .
tougue in the position
issumed at
ts
as ts in tsar.
the end of the
pronunciation of
u
as » injrule.
/ aud then giving
ai
aspirated
u
as u in jiull.
continuation of the
sound.
ft
as K in but.
i
as i in pique.
V
as V iu valor.
i
as i iu pick.
w
as w in wisli.
J
as s ill aznie.
hw
the w sound, beginning with au aspi-
k
as k in kick.
ration.
k'
a soft aspiration o
fth
bA-
siHiml.
y
as y ill you.
kh
a hard palatal pro
longat
ou or aspi-
z
as z in zone.
ration of k.
The color scheme used in the drawings representing totem marks,
grave boxes, masks, etc., is .shown in figure 1, page I'O.
o
<
a.
<
<
a.
\-
7
OJ
0
<r\
CT
_i
z
UJ
z
UJ
J
CD
UJ
1-
>-
D
111
O
CQ
<
■*■
l/l U)
gt:
T
1 — 1
O tw
(?
j;, ^
->
6 "
m
Q
Z
X
o
L^
t >
Ul
00
C7
^ 3
Ul
>-
"
a. ^
to (0
> o
— o
E<o
O^ -o
S
(D
en
CL
E
SKETCH OF THP: WESTERN ESKIMO
GEOGRAPHIC FEATURES >F THEIR RAXGE
That portion of the western Eskimo described in the present work
is found mainly within the limits of the area which I have designated
elsewhere as the Alaskan-Arctic district. This region includes the
treeless coast belt, from 3 to 100 miles in width, which extends from
the peninsula of Alaska northward to Point Barrow, including the
adjacent islands. The Eskimo penetrate the interior of the country to
the forested region along the courses of the larger streams. Their
range into the interior is mainly along Kuskokwim, Yukon, Kowak, and
Noatak rivers. Ou all of these streams they are found several hun-
dred miles from the coast, and at their upper limits are in direct contact
with the Athapascan or Tinne tribes. In addition to the Eskimo of
the Alaskan mainland and adjacent islands, within the limits just
mentioned, I visited also the Eskimo of the neighboring Siberian coast
from East cape to Plover bay and St Lawrence island. The lives of
these people adjacent to the Tinne, as well as those of the Siberian
coast who are in constant contact with the Chukchi, have been some-
what modified"^by their surroundiugs, although in their language and
customs they are still unmistakably Eskimo. The people of the
Siberian coast and of St Lawrence island are the most aberrant group
of Eskimo encountered within the area covered by my work.
The belt bordering the Alaskan coast of Bering sea belonging to
this district is mainly low, and much of it consists of broad, marshy
tracts which are but little above sea level. This is particularly the
case in tlie large, roughly triangular r,rea lying between lower Kusko-
kwim and Yukon rivers. To the northward of tliis the country is more
broken or rolling in character, rising gradually in many places to low,
mountainous masses, several hundred feet in height and coming down
to the coast at intervals as bald headlands. The islands of Bering
straits are small and rocky and rise precipitously from the water, as
does much of the adjacent Siberian shore. St Lawrence island is large
and has an undulating surface with rocky headlands at intervals along
the coast.
North of Bering strait the country is generally rolling, with flat
areas about the head of Kotzebne sound and north of Icy cape. South
of the strait the coast c >untry has a mildly arctic climate, but to the
northward the results o* a more rigorous environment appear iu both
plant and animal life. The climate of the Siberian coast is much
severer than that of the adjacent Alaskan shore.
23
24 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn.18
Everywhere south of Point Hope a plentiful arctic vegetation is
found. Although the country is destitute of trees, along the courses
of streams and in sheltered spots on the southern slopes of hills a more
or less abundant growth of willows and alders is found. This is the
case even at the head of Kotzebue sound, directly under the Arctic
circle. Over a large portion of the low, gently rolling country are beds
of sphagnum interspersed with various grasses and flowering plants.
Inland, along the water courses, there occur spruce and white birch in
addition to the plants which are found nearer the coast. The villages
of the western Eskimo are located always near the sea or directly along
the water courses, such situations being necessitated by their depend-
ence for the greater portion of their subsistence on game and the fish
obtained from the waters in their vicinity.
Driftwood is abundant along most parts of the American coast within
the region discussed in this work, and the food supply also is more
abundant than is found in most regions inhabited by the eastern
Eskimo, so that the conditions of life with the Alaskan people are
much more favorable. The shores of Bering sea north of the Kusko-
kwim mouth are icebound from early in November until about the end
of ]May or early June of each year. Xorth of Bering strait the sea ice
is present for a somewhat longer period.
Although the aborigines living along the American coast from Point
P>arrow to Kuskokwini river iire not separateil by physical barriers,
they are divided into groups characterized by distinct dialects.
mSTRIBUTIOlsr OF TRIBES AIS^D DIALECTS
The Shaktolik people told me that in ancient times, before the Rus-
sians came, tlie Unalit occupied all the coast of Norton sound from Pas-
tolik northward to a point a little beyond Shaktolik. At that time the
southern limit of the Malcmut was at the head of Norton bay. They
have since advanced and occupied vilhige after village until now the
people at Shaktolik and Unalaklit are mainly Malennit or a mixture of
Maleniut and Unalit. They added that since the disappearance of the
reindeer along the coast the Malemut have become much less numerous
than formerly.
Various Russians and others, who were living in that region in 1872
and 187.3, informed me that at that time there were about two hundred
people living in the village of Kigiktauik, while in 1881 1 found only
about twelve or fourteen. At the time first named tlie mountains bor-
dering the coast in that neighborhood swarmed with reindeer, and in
addition to the Unalit many Malemut had congregated there to take
advantage of the hunting.
During November, 1880, I found a family of Malemut living in a
miserable hut on the upper part of Anvik river. As stated else-
where, these ])eople have become spread over a wide region. About
the middle of March, 1880, between Cupe Nome and Sledge island, I
NELSON] TRIBES AND DIALECTS 25
found a village occupied by a mixture of people from King island in
Bering strait, Sledge island, and otliers from different parts of Kaviak
peninsula. Tbese peo])le liad united there and wei'C living peaceably
together in order to fish for crabs and tomcods and to hunt for seals,
as tlie supply of food had become exhausted at tlieir homes.
There are few places among the different divisions of the people living
between Yukon and Kuskokwiiu rivers where a sharp demarkatiou is
found in the language as one passes from village to village. In every
village in this region tliey have had friendly intercourse with one
another for many years, and intermarriage has constantly taken idace.
They visit each other during their festivals, and their hunting and
fishing grounds meet. All of tliese causes have aided, since the ces-
sation of the ancient warfare which served to keep them separated, in
increasing the intercourse between them and have had a tendency to
break down the sharp distinctions that existed in their dialects. The
language used in this region, south' of the Yukon mouth, is closely
related to that of the Unalit along the shore of Norton sound north of
the Yukon.
The greatest distinctions in language appeared to be in the curious
modification of the sounds of the vowels, these being lengthened or
shortened in a different manner, thus causing the iironunciation to be
differently intoned in the two districts. The Nunivak island people
and those living at Cape Vancouver, however, appear to sjjeak a lan-
guage quite sharply divided from that of their neighbors.
As it is, one of the natives from any portion of the district south of
the Yukon mouth, except on Nunivak island or Cape Yanconver, can
readily make himself understood when visiting villages of the lower
Yukon or among the Unalit of Norton sound. The distinction between
the Unalit and Kaviagmut Eskimo, or the Unalit and the Malemut, is
considerable, and people speaking these tongues do not readily com-
municate at once, although it takes but a short time for them to learn
to talk with one another. The dialect of the people of Point Hope
appears to differ but slightly from that used at the head of Kotzebue
sound. There is such a general resemblance between the dialects
spoken by the Eskimo of the Alaskan mainland that a person belonging
to one district very quickly learns to understand and speak other dia-
lects. My Unalit interpreter from St Michael accompanied me on the
Goricin, and when at Plover bay, on the eastern coast of Siberia, man-
aged to understand a considerable portion of what the peojile of that
point said. He had great difficulty, however, in comprehending the
language of the St Lawrence islanders, and in fact could understand
but few words spoken by them. IJotli at East Cape and at Plover bay,
on the Siberian coast, there were many words that I could understand
from my knowledge of the Unalit tongue gained at St Michael. The
people of St Lawrence island and Plover bay are closely related and
the dialects spoken by them are very similar, so that they have no dififl-
cnlty in communicating with each ntlier.
26
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
ETH. AXS. 18
The Point Barrow Eskimo occupy tbe coast from Cape Lisburue to
Point Barrow. The Maleniut inhabit the country from Point Hope
around tlie shores of Kotzebiie sound to beyond Cape Espenberj;', and
thence south to Unaktolik river. From this point southward to tiie
Yukon mouth, inchidiug St Michael island, are the Unalit or Unalig-
mut. The people of Cape Prince of Wales, Port Clarence, and King
island are the Kifiuguniut. The people occupying the coast from Port
Clarence and around to Caiie Nome, Golofnin bay, and Nubviukhcbug-
aUik, including the interior of the peninsula back from the coast country
as well as Sledge (Aziak) island, are Kaviagmut.
The people of the Diomede islands and of East cape, Siberia, are a
group of Eskimo of whom I failed to obtain a special designation.
South of this point the Eskimo of Plover bay and the neighboring
coast form another group. The people of St Lawrence island form
still another group, and of these also I failed to record any special
designation.
The people of the lower Yukon, from Painuit down to the vicinity of
Pastolik, including the Yukon delta, are the Ikogmut. The Magemut
are the people occupying the low, marshy country back from the lower
Yukon, between it and the Kuskokwim, extending from a line just
back of the Kuskokwim northwesterly to the coast between Cape
Eomanzof and the Kusilvak branch of the Y'ukon mouth.
The ISTunivagmut are the people of Nunivak island and the main-
land at Cape Vancouver.
The Kaialigamut are the iieople occupying the coast northward from
Cape Vancouver to Kushunuk, Kaialigamut, and the adjacent villages.
The Kuskokwagmut are the people occupying the villages along tlie
lower Kuskokwim and the adjacent country to the north of that point
to a line where begin the other divisions already named.
BLACK GREEN WHITE BLUE RED BROWN
Fig. 1— Scheme of color on maaks anil mask-like objects, grave boxes, and totem markings.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The Eskimo from Bering strait to the lower Yukon are fairly well-
built people, averaging among the men about 5 feet 2 or 3 inches in
height. The Yukon Kskimo and those living southv.ard from that
river to the Kuskokwim are, as a rule, shorter and more squarely built.
The Kuskokwim people are darker of complexion than those to the
northward, and have rounder features. The men commonly have a
considerable growth of hair on theii' faces, becoming at times a thin
13
W3
O
NELsoNl SOMATIC FEATURES 27
beard two or three inches in length, with a well-developed mustache
(plates IV, V). No such development of beard was seen elsewhere in
the territory visited.
The people in the coast region between the mouths of the Kuskokwim
and the Yukon have peculiarly high cheek bones and sharp chins, which
unite to give their faces a curiously pointed, triangular ap[)earance.
At the village of Kaialigamut I was impressed by the strong develop-
ment of the superciliarjr ridge. From a point almost directly over the
inipil of the eye, and extending thence inward to the median line of
the forehead, is a strong, bony ridge, causing the brow to stand out
sharply. From the outer edge of this the skull appears as though
beveled away to the ears, giving the temi)oral area a considerable
enlargement beyond that usually shown. This curious development of
the skull is rendered still more striking by the fact that the bridge
of the nose is low, as usual among these peoiile, so that the shelf like
projection of the brow stands out in strong relief. It is most strongly
marked among the men, and appears to be characteristic at this place.
Elsewhere in this district it was noted only rarely here and there.
All of the people in the district about Capes Vancouver and lioman-
zof, and thence to the Yukon mouth, are of unusually light complexion.
Some of the women have a pale, slightly yellowish color, with pink
cheeks, ditfering but little in complexion from that of a sallow woman
of Caucasian blood. This light complexion is so exceptionally striking
that wherever they travel these people are readily distinguished from
other Eskimo ; and before I visited their territory I had learned to know
them by their complexion whenever they came to St ^Michael.
The people of the district just mentioned are all very short and
squarely built. Inland from Cape Vancouver lies the tiat, marshy coun-
try about Big lake, which is situated between the Kuskokwim and the
Yukon. It is a well-populated district, and its inhabitants differ from
those near the coast at the capes referred to in being taller, more
slender, and having more squarely cut features. They also differ strik-
ingly from any other Eskimo with whom 1 came in contact, except those
on Kowak river, in having the bridge of the nose well developed and
at times suflQciently prominent to suggest the aquiline nose of our
southern Indian tribes.
The Eskimo of the Diomede islands in Bering strait, as well as those
of East cape and Mechigme and Plover bays on the Siberian coast, and
of St Lawrence island, are tall, strongly built people, and are generally
similar in their jihysical features (plates xi, xii). These ai-echaracterized
by the unusual heaviness of the lower part of the face, due to the very
square and massive lower jaw, which, combined with broad, high cheek
bones and flattened nose, produces a wide, flat face. These features are
frequently accompanied with a low, retreating forehead, producing a
decidedly repulsive physiognomy. The bridge of the nose is so low
and the cheek bones so heavy that a protile view will fi-equently show
28 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT 1eth.ann.18
only tlie tip of the person's nose, the eyes and upper portion of tlie
nose being completely bidden by tlie prominent outline of the clieek.
Their eyes are less oblique than is common among the people living-
southward from the Yukon mouth. Among the people at the north-
western end of St Lawrence island there is a greater range of physiog-
nomy tiian was noted iit any other of the Asiatic localities.
Tlie I'oiiit Hope people on the American coast have heavy jaws and
well-developed superciliary ridges. At Point Barrow the men are
remarkable for the irregularity of their features, amouuting to a posi-
tive degree of ugliness, which is increased and rendered specially
prominent by the expression produced by the short, tightly drawn
upper lip, the ])rqjectiiig lower lip, and tlie small beady eyes. The
women and children of this place are in curious contrast, having rather
pleasant features of the usual type.
The Eskimo from ui)per Kowak and ISfoatak rivers, who were met
at the summer camp on Hotham inlet, are notable for the fact that a
considerable number of them have hook noses and nearly all have a
cast of countenance very similar to that of the Yukon Tinne. They
are a larger and more robustly built people than these Indians, how-
ever, and speak the Eskimo language. They wear labrets, practice
the tonsure, and claim to be Eskimo, At the same time they wear
bead-ornamented hunting shirts, round caps, and tanned deerskin robes,
and use conical lodges like those of the adjacent Tinne tribes. Among
them was seen one man having a mop of coarse curly hair, almost
negroid in character. The same feature was observed in a number of
men and women on the Siberian coast between East cape and Plover
bay. This latter is undoubtedly the result of the Chukchi-Eskimo
mixture, and in the case of the man seen at Hotham inlet the same
result had been brought about by the Eskimo-Indian combination.
Among the Eskimo south of Bering strait, on the American coast, not
a single instance of this kind was observed. Tlie age of the individ-
uals having this curly hair renders it quite improbable that it came
from an admixture of blood with foreign voyagers, since some of them
must have been bora at a time when vessels were extremely rare along
these shores. As a further argument against this curly hair having
come from wliite men, I may add that I saw no trace of it among a
number of people having partly Caucasian blood. As a general thing,
the Eskimo of the region described have small hands and feet and the
features are oval in outline, rather flat, and with slightly oblique eyes.
Children and young girls have round faces and often are very pleasant
and attractive in feature, the angular race characteristics becoming
Ijrominent after the individuals approach manhood. The women age
riipidly, and only a very small proportion of the people live to an
advanced age.
The Maleinut and the people of Kaviak peninsula, including those
of the islands in Bering strait, are tall, active, and remarkably well
NELSON] INSENSIBILITY TO EXPOSURE 29
built. Among tliem it is common to see men from 5 feet 10 inches to
G feet tall and of proportionate build. I should judge the average
among' tliem to be nearly or quite e(iual in height to the whites.
Among the coast Eskimo, as a rule, the legs are short and poorly
developed, while the body is long, with disproportionately developed
dorsal and lumbar muscles, due to so much of their life being passed
in the kaiak.
The Eskimo of the LJig lake district, south of the Yukon, and from
the Kaviak peninsula, as well as the Malemut about the head of Kot-
zebue sound, are, on the contrary, very finely proportioned and athletic
men, who can not be equaled among the Indians of the Yukon region.
This fine physical development is attributable to the fact that these
people are so located that their hunting is largely on open tundra or in
the mountains, thus producing a more symmetric development than is
l^ossible among those whose lives are passed mainly in the kaiak.
Tliere were a number of halfblood children among the Eskimo,
resulting from the intercourse with people from vessels and others,
wlio generally show their Caucasian blood by large, finely shaped, and
often remarkably beautiful brown eyes. The number of thefie mixed
bloods was not very great.
As a race the Eskimo are very hardy and insensible to cold. While
the Cor win was at anchor in Hotham inlet during the fall of 1881, 1
found a Malemut woman with two little girls, one about two years and
the other five years of age, lying fast asleep on the deck of the vessel
clothed only in their ordinary garments. A very raw wind was blow-
ing at the time, and it was difficult for us to keep warm even while
moving about in heavy overcoats.
While I was at the head of Norton sound during February, when
the temi)erature stood at minus 40^ Fahrenheit, a boy 10 years of age,
with a sled and three dogs, was sent back several miles along the
previous day's trail to recover a pair of lost snowshoes. He started
off alone and returned a few hours later with the snowshoes, his cheeks
glowing red from the cold, but without other indication of the effect
of the temperature.
The men lead a hard and perilous life in the districts bordering the
sea, where much of the hunting is done in kaiaks. In spring they go
long distances offshore, and are sometimes cast adrift on the moving
ice, requiring the greatest effort to return to the land. In a number
of instances that came to my notice men were forced to spend one or
two days fighting their way back to shore in their kaiaks, after having
been driven seaward by a strong wind.
In addition, the constant wetting and exposure throughout the entire
year helps gradually to undermine the strength of the natives; as a
result, consum[)tion and rheumatic complaints are common, and but
few live to an advanced age. Families rarely have more than two or
three children, and it is not uncommon for them to have none.
30 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth ann. 18
CLOTHII^G
GARMENTS IN (iENERAI.
The garments of the wester i Eskimo are similar in general i)lan to
tbose worn by their relatives farther eastward, bat vary locally in i)at-
tern and style of ornamentation. The upper ]>art of the body of both
men and women is covered with a frock-like garment pnt on over the
head, and in the greater part of the area visited these garments are
provided with a hood. In addition, both men and women wear trousers.
Those of the men are made to reach from the hip to the ankle, the feet
being clothed with socks of deerskin or grass, over which skin boots
are drawn. The lower garments of the women are combined boots and
trousers reaching to the waist. Over the feet are sometimes drawn
skin boots, but frequently a sole of oil- tanned sealskin is attached
directly to the trousers.
On the Uioinede islands, along the eastern shore of the t^hukchi
peninsula, and on St Lawrence island the women wear a curious garment
having a loose waist, flowing sleeves, and very baggy trousers reaching
to the ankles. They put this on by thrusting the head and feet into a
slit-like opening in the back, which is then laced up. The feet and
lower part of the legs are then encased in skin boots tied about the
ankles. Usually these combined garments are loosely made, without
hoods, and are 0])ened broadly at the neck, with a narrow trinnning of
wolverine or other far about the border. They are worn usually with
the hair inside, and the smooth outer surface becomes greasy and
begrimed so that they i)resent a curious appearance. Small children
dressed in these garments waddle about and appear to move with the
greatest dirticulty. Very young children on the coast named are placed
in these combination garments with the ends of the sleeves and legs
sewed up, so that nothing but the face of the child can be seen.
In addition the women of this region wear a frock-like outer garment
reaching down to midway between the waist and knee and provided
with a hood. The hood is trimmed with wolverine skin or other fur,
the long hairs projecting halo-like about the face. In front is a broad
bib like flap, usually made from the short-hair skin taken from the
reindeer's legs, which hangs down over the breast. Sometimes, bow-
ever, these flaps are replaced by a long, narrow gore of white reindeer
skin, sewed over the shoulder on each side of the neck and extending
down the front. Very little eflbrt is made to ornament the garments
among any of the people save those of St Lawrence island, where they
are ornamented with tassels made from strips of fur taken from the
hair-seal pup and dyed a reddish brown. Mows of the crests and horny
bill sheaths from the crested anklet are also sewed along the seams.
Similar ornamentation was observed in lesser degree along the Siberian
shore.
i#^^
0).
03
Z3
NBLSONJ SIBERIAN AND ALASKAN GAKMENTS 31
The illustration (plate xiv) from a photograph taken of a party of
women and children from Bast Cape, Siberia, gives au idea of the gar-
ments described. Tlie woman on the left wears one of the combiuation
garments with tlie fur side out, the one on tlie right having the gar-
ment turned with fur inward, and the two central figuies wear the frock
in addition.
Most of the garments worn by these people are made from the skins
of tame reindeer, although those of wild reindeer are used to a limited
extent. The handsomely mottled coats of the tame deer serve to render
some of the clothing rather ornamental in appearance. On St Lawrence
island and the Diomedes the skins of waterfowl are sometimes used
for naaking the outer frock-like garment for both men and women of
the poorer class. Their boots are usually of reindeer skin, generally
taken from the leg of the animal, with a sole of tanned sealskin.
Crossing Bering strait to the American shore we tind the garments
for men and women closely alike in general style over a wide area.
They are practically identical in pattern northward to Point Bariow
and southward to the Yukon mouth, including King and Sledge islands.
The garments worn by the men consist of a skin frock, which is put
on over the head and has a hood variously bordered by strips of skin.
These borders are made usually of an outer strip of wolfskin with the
long hairs standing out like a halo, as before described. Just within
this is sewed another belt or band of skin from the wolverine so that
the long outer hairs lie back against the wolfskin border, producing a
pleasing contrast. These halo like borders, when the hood is drawn
up, surround the face and give a picturesque appearance to the weai-er
(plates IV, XIII&, xv«). The back of the hood is umde usually of several
pieces sewed in such a way as to take the form of the head. A gore
usually extends from the top of the shoulders at the base of the hood
down on each side of the chest, and is generally of white-hair skin
from the belly of the reindeer. The sleeves and lower border of this
garment are fringed with a narrow band of wolf or wolverine skin.
These garments may be made of the skins of wild or tame reindeer,
Parry's marmot, muskrats, mink, or waterfowl, such as cormorants,
auklets, murres, eider ducks, or loons, and in the region southward of
the Yukon mouth the skins of emperor and white- fiout geese are also
used for this iinrpose. One such garment is made from the skins ot
scaup ducks, with the hood of Parry's marmot skins, and is bordered
around the bottom with a narrow fringe of wolfskin. On the lower
I'ukon very i)oor people utilize even the skins of salmon for making
their frocks.
The trousers of the men extend from the hips to the ankles and are
rather awkwardly made. They are fastened about the waist with a
drawstring in a loop of skin sewed along the border. A variety of
materials are used, including wild and tame reindeer, .sealskin, dogskin,
and white-bear skin. The trousers made from the skins of reindeer
are sometimes worn with the hair inward during cold weather or with
32
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
the liair outward wlieu it is warmer. Of late years these people duriiij;'
the summer wear shirts and trousers of calico and drilling obtained
from the fur traders. Ordinary cotton shirts also are worn by them.
Reaching the lower Kusliokwim and adjacent country to the north,
the men wear frocks similar to those hitherto described, but so long
that when at full length tbey reach the ground about the wearer's feet.
Wbeu traveling these frocks are drawn up and belted about the waist
until the lower border reaches
only to the knee. They- are
made usually from the skins of
Parry's nmrmot or a species of
whistler found inthe mountains
south of the lower KuskokwiTu
district, and are ornamented
with the tails of the animals,
which are set ou, fringe-like,
with each skin hanging all
about the person. They are
made generally without hoods
and the neck is bordered by the
sliin of the Arctic hare or white
fox, or more commonly by a roll-
like edge of deerskin with the
hair on. A gore is set in ou
each side of the neck over the
chest, or sometimes a single
broader gore extends down the
middle in front. The sleeves
may be bordered by the white-
hair skin of the reindeer's belly,
and bands of the same are some-
times set in around the body
or near the lower border. In
place of hoods the wearers of
these frocks have fur caps with
ear-laps for tying under the
chin. Their trousers are sim-
ilar to tliose already described.
On the tundra between the
Kuskokwim and the lower Yukon there are worn similar, but shorter,
hoodless frocks. In place of the fur caps described as worn by the
Kuskokwim people these tundra meu wear curious headdresses made
of various skins.
One of these (figure 2), from Koniguuugumut, is a hood made of the
skins of I'arry's marmot with a border about the face of reindeer skin
with the hair on. The hood is bordered also along its lower edge by a
Fig. 2— XLin'8 hood fioiu Koniguuugumut (j^d.
>-
NELSON]
HOODS AND CAPS
..i'/rt? ..1' Im
,'..;/
Fig. 3— Fox skill i
strip, about two iucbes wide, of reindeer slciii and has a narrow band
extending up from this over tlie crown. About the lower bordei', on the
sides and behind, extends a fringe consisting of narrow strips of rein-
deer skin, 12 to 15 inches in length, which ^ ,,
hangs down the back.
Another variety of hood worn in this district
is made of a band of deerskin, with the hair
on, sewed to fit about the brow like a turban
with the crown of skins of Parry's marmot, or
of white or blue foxes. When the marmot
skins are used they are usually sewed in a
series so as to hang behind like an open sack.
If the fox skins are used they are sewed so
that the bead of the fox rests on the crown of
the wearer with the body and tail hanging
down over the back. These caps are \cry pic-
turesque and give the wearer a remarkably
dignified appearance.
In the region about Askinuk curious small
i'ur caps or hoods are worn, fitting snugly about
the head and fringed behind by a few little
tags or strips of skin, but which do not hang-
far down the back like those last described.
These hoods are made in ornamental patterns from various kinds of
skin.
A hood of reindeer and marmot skiu from Askinuk (figure 4) has
a circular piece of reindeer skiu
set in the middle of the crown;
this is surrounded by two strips
of wliite I'eindeer skin taken
from the leg of the animal with
the hair clipped. Following
this is a broader strip of similar
reindeer skiu, alternating with
a square of dark-hair reindeer-
skin on the top and marmot
skins on each side, succeeded
by another strip of reindeer skin
and bordered about the face by
a narrow fringe of mink fur.
Similar caps were obtained at
Konigunugumut.
In summer the Eskimo of
Noatak and Kowak rivers wear bead-ornamented caps similar to those
of the Tinue along the upper Yukon. On the shore of the Arctic at
Point Hope the specimen represented in figure o was obtained. This
IS ETH 3
Fig. 4 — Man's hood of reindeer and marmot akin and
miuk fur (J).
34
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
is a handsomely made hood fashioned from the skin of a wolf's head,
the nose of tlie animal resting directly over the brow and extending
back over the head, so that the ears of the animal lie on tiie nape of
the wearer's neck. From just back of the nose to a point nearly
between the ears the skin is slit and an oval ])iece of skin, tanned with
the hair off, is set in, and along it are sewed ten parallel, longitudinal
rows of blue beads. Little strings of red, white, blue, and black beads
are atta(;hed to the
sides of the head
from just back of the
wolf's nose, down
along each side, two-
thirds of the way to
the ears. Sewed to
the front border of
the hood is a strip of
long-hair wolfskin,
and two strings at
the corners in Iront
serve to tie it about
the wearer's chin.
From the Yukon
mouth northward to
Point Barrow the
frocks of the men are
cut a trifle longer
behind than in front.
South of the Yukon
these garments are
cut nearly the same
length all around.
Many of the Ko-
wak and Noatak
men seen at Hotham
inlet wear hunting
shirts of tanned
luoose-skin similar
to those used by the
Tinne of the inte-
rior, from whom they were probably obtained. Tliese Eskimo also wear
robes made from reindeer-skin tanned with the hair on. These are
made to fasten over the shoulders by two cords, and fiill behind nearly
to the ground like a cloak. They are usually bordered with a fringe
formed by cutting the skin into little strips, and on the inside the
totem signs of the owners are marked in red paint.
From one of the Diomede islands I obtained the garment illustrated
iu plate XVI, a frock without a hood, made from the skin of a guillemot.
Fiii.
-Mau's ■\voIt-lieail suinnior hood from Point Hope (I).
^
3
N
NELSON] FACE PROTECTORS FROCKS 35
Aroiiiid the back of the nec-k is a border of black-bear skin with tlie
long hair erect. The lower border of the garment is edged with a nar-
row strip of white-reindeer skin, succeeded by a border of red-bear skin
with tufts of white-bear fur sewed on all around at short intervals.
The people on the islands of Bering strait and the adjacent shores
use a kind of face protector made of a ring of white-bear skin, which is
drawn on over the head and fitted round the face. These are lield in
place by a narrow band of the same material extending over the top of
the bead ; another strip from each side joins the other at the back.
During summer the men usually wear a light frock made from the
skins of the marmot, mink, muskrat, fawns of reindeer, or the summer
reindeer with its light coat of hair. In winter two of these garments
are frequently worn, and those of the winter deerskin with its heavier
coat of hair are used in severe weather.
A man's frock from Cape Vancouver (plate xvii) is made of reindeer-
fawn skin and has a hood which forms a part of the garment instead of
being worn separately as is done farther inland. From the shoulders
hanging down both in front and behind depend broad strips of reindeer
skin with the fur cut short and having attached to their tips strings of
white, red, and blue beads from five to six inches in length with narrow
strips of wolverine fur. From the middle of the hood behind hangs a
strip of reindeer skin, tipped with wolverine fur. Little tassels of red-
bear skin are attached to strips of white-deer skin, set in, gore-like,
over the tops of shoulders. Two sharp-pointed gores of white-deer
skin are set in above the waist.
The hood has an inner border of arctic-hare skin followed by a strip
of wolf skin. The lower end of the sleeves is bordered by a band of
white-deer skin, edged by a narrow border of mink fur, the lower edge
of the garnient being bordered in the same manner. This is one of
the most ornamental garments of the kind seen in that district.
The frocks worn by the women of this region are made similar to
those of the men except that they are cut up a little farther on the sides
so as to make a more conspicuously pendent flap before and behind.
From the Yukon mouth northward the women's frocks are much
more handsomely made, the mottled white skin of the tame reindeer,
obtained from the Siberian i)eople, affording a good material for the
production of ornamental patterns. Some of these garments are very
richly ornamented; they are deeply cut up along each side, so that
before and behind the skirt hangs in a long, broad, round flap. The
hoods are bordered by wolverine and wolf skin, and the ends of the
sleeves and the lower edge of the garment are trimmed with wolf or
wolverine skin, usually the latter. A typical garment of this kind
(number 04272), from Cape Prince of Wales, has the hood made of a
central oval piece extending up from the back of the garment as a
narrow strip which broadens above. The hood is bordered on each
side by short-hair white-reindeer skin which extends to the shoulders
and then divides and forms a long, narrow gore down the front and
36 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ans. 18
back of the garment. Between tlie white skin on the sides and the
brown deerskin forming the back or central part of the hood, extends
a series of tive narrow strips of white deerskin with the hair sliaved
close and liaving welted into tlie seams narrow strips of bla<;li parch-
ment-like skill. Two of these welted seams bordering the central one
have little tufts of red wool set along at intervals of about one-fourth
of an inch. Across the shoulders from front to back extend a similar
series of strips of white deerskin with black welted seams, and the
lower border of the garment is ornamented with a broader band of the
same handsome pattern. From the top and back of the shoulders, as
well as on the middle of the back, are attached tassel-like strips of
wolverine skin eiglit to ten inches in length.
The frocks of the women of the lower Kuskokwim have the sides cut
up to a lesser degree than those to the north, and are provided with a
hood bordered with wolf, wolverine, or other skin with the fur on. Set
across the body before and behind are bands of white-hair deerskin,
having narrow welted strips of dark skin in the seams. The sleeves
and lower edge of the garment are bordered with a l)and of white-hair
reindeer skin fiiuged with wolverine skin. In addition, the women's
frocks of this district have strung along the patterns of white deer-
skin in front and back little strings of beads an inch or two in length.
The trousers worn by the women from the lower Kuskokwim to Point
Barrow are made usually of skin taken from the legs of reindeer, and
commonly by sewing in alternating strips of dift'erent colors to produce
ornamental patterns. The specimen shown in plate xviii, from the
head of Norton sound, is a woman's handsomely made frock. The
body of the garment is of marmot skins, while skins from the crowns
of the same animal are pieced together on the crown of the hood.
Tlie skirts and ornamental i)ieces are of white-hair reindeer skin, and
the trimming is of wolf and wolverine fur.
The example from Mission, illustrated in plate xix, is made of salmon
skins tanned and worked with a scraper until they have become pliable.
Most of the seams are ornamented with bands of brownish dyed tish-
skin, on the surface of which are sewed narrow strips of white parch-
ment-like skin from the throats of seals. On each shoulder are inserted
two gore-like pieces of tish-skin dyed brown and having ornamental
strips of white sewed along them and following their outline.
WATERPROOF GARMENTS
In addition to the upper garments already described the Eskimo
make waterproof frocks from the intestines of seals. The intestines
are dried and slit open, and the long, ribbon like stri|)s thus formed
are then sewed together horizontally to form a frock similar in shape
to those of far worn by the men, as already described. About the
sleeves a braided sinew cord is inclosed in a turned-down border to
form a drawstring for fastening the garment securely abnut the wrist,
in order that the water may not enter. In addition the border of the
LU
O
3
WATERPROOF GARMENTS — EAR-FLAPS
37
hood about the face is provided with a similar string, the ends of
which hang down under the chin so that tliis jiortion of the garment
Diay be drawn tightly for tlie same purpose. These garments are worn
over the others during wet weather on shore as well as at sea. Their
most important use, however, is while the hunters are at sea in kaiaks.
At such times, when the weather becomes rainy or rough, the hunter
dons his waterproof Irock and the skirt is extended over the rim of
the manhole in which he sits. A cov. j)rovided for the purpose is
wound around the outside, fastening tiie border of the skirt down into a
sunken groove left for the ])nrpose below the rim on the outside of the
kaiak. When this cord is made fast and the drawstrings about the face
and sleeves are tightened, the occupant of the kaiak is safe from being
drenched by the dashing spray, and no water can enter his boat.
These garments .are
strong and will fre-
quently withstand the
l)ressure of the water
even when the wearer is
entirely submerged be-
neath the combing sea.
Among the breakers,
howevei', they are not to
be relied on, as the writ-
er knows from experi-
ence, the weight of the
water striking heavily
from above, tearing
them and permitting
the water to enter tlie
boat.
The seams of these
waterproofs are fre-
quently ornamented by
sewing in seals' bristles
or tlie line hair-like feathers of certain waterfowl. About the islands
in Bering strait and on tlie bordering Asiatic shore the horny sheaths
from the base of the mandibles of the crested auklet are sewed along
the seams of some of these I'rocks as ornaments. Narrow strips of black,
parchment-like tanned skin are frequently welted into the seams ior
ornamental purposes, and the lower borders are sometimes narrowly
fringed with a strip of woolly fur from small hair-seals. Garments of
this kind made for the use of women are cut uj) on each side to produce
flaps similar to those of the ordinary frock.
riG. 6— Ear-flaps (J).
EAU-FLAl'S
AboxTt Chalitmut and the adjacent district on the tundra between
the Kuskokwini and the Yukon, where men's frocks are made without
38 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.asx. 18
the hood, ear-flaps are commouly used. These are made of oval flaps
of deerskin with the liair side inward and having tlie base truncated
and sewed to a naiiow band of skin to go around the head. Tlie flaj)S
are tlieii tied uuder the chin l)y meaus of strings. The tanned outer
surface of these tiaps lias various ornauiental patterns in wliite liairs
from reindeer sewed on with sinew tlireiut, tlie designs produced being
parallel Hues, either straight, curved, or in circles. Figure 0 represents
a pair of these ear-flaps.
GLOVES AND MITTENS
From the Yukon northward to Kotzebue sound and thence to Point
Barrow, mittens and gloves are found in common use. The gloves are
made usually with places for each linger and the thumb. From the
Yukon mouth to Point Barrow were obtained gloves having each of
the tiugers nuide of a separate piece sewed upon the hand, the thumb
in both cases being sewed on in the same manner and having an
awkward, triangular shape.
A pair from Sledge island (number 45085) are made of sealskin with
the hair removed and the wrists bordered with a fringe of white-bear fur.
A pair from Point Hojie (-plate XX, 1), of the usual pattern described,
is of tanned reindeer skin with the hair side inward. The wrists are
bordered with a fringe of little strips of tanned reindeer-skin, dyed
reddish brown, and on the back are numerous little pendent strings of
red-and white and red-aud-blue beads, with other beads strung on the
fringe bordeiing the wrist. These gloves are joined by a double string
of little copper cylinders, spaced by blue beads, reaching up to the
central loop of soft, tanned skin, for going completely around the neck,
thus holding the gloves without danger of their being lost if suddenly
taken ofl'.
Plate XX, 3, shows a pair of deerskin gloves of thfe common pattern
from Kotzebue sound. The skin is tanned with the hair left; on and
turned in on the inside of the baud and all around on the fingers. The
back of the hand and the thumb are covered with a piece of white-
hair deerskin, on which hang four tassel-like strips of wolverine skin.
The wrists are bordered with a series of narrow bands of reindeer skin,
with the white hair clipped short, and between the strips a nariow
band of parchment-like skin is welted in. Midway in this series of
strips a seam is bordered by a series of small, regularly spaced tufts
of red worsted. A narrow baud of wolverine fur completes this orna-
mental border.
Other gloves from Bering strait are made of skin tanned with the
hair left on and turned inward; others have the hair entirely removed.
A peculiar ijattern of gloxe is common to the Diomede islands and the
adjacent shore of Siberia. The fingers and the hand are of one piece,
with three pieces of skin of a different color set in gores along the
back and divided to extend down as a gore along the inside of each
Z3
a
ID
NELSON]
GLOVES AND MITTENS 39
finger. Plate xx, 7, illustrates an example of these gloves from King
island.
Another curious pair of gloves, from Norton sound, is shown in
plate XX, 5. These are made with separate divisions for the thumb and
the forefinger, the other fingers being provided with a single cover.
They are made like other gloves used along the American coast in that
they have the parts covering the fingers in separate pieces sewed on
tlie piece forming the hand.
The gloves illustrated in plate xx, C, were obtained on the Diomede
islands, Bering strait; they are made of tanned reindeer skin, with the
hair side inward. The front of the gloves is a dingy russet brown in
color and the skin on the back is hard-tanned and colored chestnut
brown. The back of the hand and the wrist have ornamental patterns
in red, white, and blackish stitching, made by sewing in white reindeer
hairs and red woolen yarn witli sitiew thread. These arc made in the
style peculiar to these islands and the coast of Siberia already described,
the pieces of skin sewed into the gores being pale buff' in cok)r.
The glove shown in plate xx, 2, from Anderson river, British
America, is similar in style to the gloves from the head of Xorton
sound. It is made of reindeer skin. The mittens used are of a com-
mon pattern, with a triangular thumb. They are made of the skin of
seals, reindeer, dogs, wolves, white bear, cormorant, murre, and salmon,
and are sometimes of woven grass.
For use while at sea long mittens reaching to the elbow or above are
made of well tanned sealskin and are provided at their upper border
with a cord for drawing them tightly against the arm. These mittens
are waterproof and protect the hands of the hunter from water during
cold weather.
Plate XXI, (!, represents a typical pair of these mittens measuring
21 inches in length. They are well made, with a piece of tanned skin
welted into the main seam. Near the ujjper border is a broad strip
of sealskin, and a strip of the same extends down each side of the seam,
running thence to the end of the thumb. Set about the lower border
is a wide band of skin; near the upper edge and also along each side
of the bands running to the thumb are tiiits of white seal bristles with
little tufts of young seal fur dyed a reddisli brown.
From Sledge island I obtained a similar pair of mittens made from
waterxjroof tanned sealskin, and which reach only a little above the
wrist. One of these is shown in plate xxi, 3.
On lower Yukon ami Kuskokwim rivers mittens made of salmon skin
are also used. Along all of the coast region the skin of the hair seal,
tanned with the hair on, is used for this purpose. All three of the latter
kinds are used mainly during wet weather in summer or at sea.
Mittens of woven grass are also made on the lower Yukon and thence
to the. Kuskokwim. For winter use they make clumsily shaped mit-
tens from the skins of dogs, reindeer, wolves, and cormorants.
40 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ann. 18
All along the coast where seals are limited on tbe ice during the
spring months, huge mittens of white bearskin or white dogskin are
made to reach from the hand to a little above the elbows. These are
worn by the hunters, while creeping prone n])on the ice, to serve as a
shield, the left arm being carried bent across in front of the face and
head as the hunter slowly creeps along. The bushy white hair on the
mitten, T)eing similar in color to the surface of the snow, serves as a blind
to prevent the seal from observing the approach of the hunter.
FOOT-WEAl!
Among the Eskimo boots are the most common style of foot- wear;
they ai'e made with a hard-tanned sealskin sole and a toj) reaching Just
below the knee. The tops are generally of sealskin tanned with the
hair left on, or of reindeer-skin tanned in the same manner. The seal-
skin boots of this class may have the hair side worn either inward or
outward; for this pur])ose the skin of the Plioca vituUit(( is most com-
nK)nly used. When topjjed with reindeer skin, the hair is worn usually
outward. The feet and ankles of the latter variety of boots are made
of reindeer skin in the brown, short-hair summer coat; the legs are
made usually in some pattern formed by combining pieces of the white-
hair skin from the belly of a reindeer with strijis of brown-hair skin
from the legs of that animal. For this ]nirpose skin from the white-
hair tame reindeer of Siberia is highly prized. The to]>s of the boot-
legs are surrounded usually by one or two bands of white-hair deerskin
with the fur shaved close to present a velvety surface, the seams along
these borders having narrow strips of black skin welted in with little
tufts of red worsted strung along some of the seams. Between these
bands of shaved skin and the lower portion of the legs commonly is
sewed a strip of wolverine skin, with long projecting hair, and gener-
ally two or more little tassels of the same kind of skin hanging before
and behind. The soles are of hard, oil-tanned sealskin bent up around
the border and crimped about the heel and the toe by means of a
smooth, pointed ivory crimper. The uii])ers are frequently sewed
directly to the sealskin soles, but sometimes a narrow intervening
strip of tanned sealskin is sewed in around the border. A long, nar-
row strip of rawhide has one end sewed to the sole on each side of
the ankle to fasten the boot to the foot. These straps are raised and
drawn across the rear just above the heel and then passed around in
front of the ankle and back again, and may be tied either in front
or on the sides. At the top the boots are fastened tightly over the
trousers by means of a drawstring. This style of boot is common from
the lower Yukon to the Arctic (joast northward of Kotzebue sound.
The si)ecimen from Kotzebue sound shown in plate xxi, 11!, is a typical
example of this style of footwear, but the jiattern of ornameHtatiou
varies according to individual fancv.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XI
WOMAN OF MECHIGME BAY
WOMAN OF EAST CAPE
SIBERIAN ESKIMO
HELSONl
BOOTS 41
On the tniidra south of the lower Yukou this general style of boot is
made in a somewhat ditierent fashion. The sewing is much more
crudely done in that district than in the region to the northward.
Plate XXI, 9, shows a pair of winter boots typical of the lower Kusko-
kwim district; they are made of deerskin tanned with the hair on and
the hairy side turned in. but with a long, oval tlap tuined down in front
from the top, thus having the hairy side outward on this portion. The
outer flap is bordered by one or more narrow strips of white-hair deer-
skin with little tags of worsted scattered along the lower edge, and is
finished by a narrow strip of mink tur.
The soles of the shoes worn in this district are of sealskin sewed on
in the same manner as already described, but in a very crude fashion,
owing to the unskilfulness of the needle women in this part of the
country.
On the lower Kuskokwira and southward to Tikchik lake the boots
worn are more like those from the region north of the Yukon, except
in the example shown in plate xxi, <S, from Tikchik, which have the
front and rear of the legs ornamented with little tiigs of red worsted
and white hair, ami along the sides of the seams a series of little strii)s
of reindeerskiii two or three inches in length.
The top of the boot has two bands of white hair reindeer-skin sewed
around, each bordered above by a narrow strip of plucked beaver-skin.
The lower of these white bands is bordered on its lower edge by strips
of plucked beaver-skin, three or four inches in length, hung in pairs.
These boots have two pairs of little leather ears — one on each side of the
toes and the other on each side of the ankles. A long cord is passed
across the top of the foot through the first of these, the ends of which
are crossed over the foot and i)assed through the ears at the sides of
the ankles, thence crossing behind and around forward and tied, as
already described.
On King island and the Dioinedesin Bering strait some of these deer-
skin boots are handsomely ornamented, as shown in the accomi)anying
illustration (plate xxi, 7) of a typical pair from the first named locality.
They are made of white hair reindeer-skin taken from the legs of the
animal, and have a hard-tanned sealskin sole and a narrow strip of
tanned sealskin of russet color between the sole and the uppers. The
legs are handsomely ornamented with i)atterii work sewed on in colors —
red, black, white, blue, and yellow being used. The white work is done
mainly by sewing in long reindeer luiiis. In addition colored threads
are used for the red and blue. A tine, yellow checked pattern work is
produced by drawing narrow strips of yellow-tauued seal intestine
through little slits cut along the strips of russet colored tanned sealskin
which are set into the sides of the legs. Along these bands and on the
borders of the jiattern work are set little tufts of hair from the pup
seal, dyed a deep chestnut red, alternating with little s<iuare tags of
white-hair skin. As usual, around the top are several bands of white-
42 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18
Lair skin, between tlie ui)pei' two of which is a strip of wolverine skin
witli long ])rojecting- hair. These strii)s of skin along the n])per border
have welted into the seam between them a narrow strip of hard, black-
tauned skin, so as to produee a black line along each seam. These
boots are fastened to the foot as in the lirst pair described from the
American mainland. Tiie soles are crimped in the same manner as those
from the adjacent coast, and both sewing and crimping are well done,
as is characteristic of all work of this kind j)erformed by the women
thronghont the region.
For summer wear the common style of boot is of tanned sealskin
with the hair side outward or with the hair removed. Tiie latter kind
is made waterproof, and the oil-tanned uppers are either black or
dyed a deep reddish brown by the use of alder bark. The seams
between the soles and the uppers, as well as those along the legs, are
generally heavily welted, and commonly liave the tops surrounded by
a baud of white parcliment-like tanned sealskin, turned in to hold a
drawstring for fastening the boot to the leg. The straps for fastening
these boots are made usually of white-tanned sealskin attached to the
seams between the soles and ui)pers on each side of the middle of
the foot. They are then crossed over the top of the foot, and after
passing through the ear or lap of sealskin wluch is sewed to the sole
on each side of the ankle, they are again crossed above the lieel and
carried forward around the front, then back again to be tied as already
described. Plate xxi, 10, shows one of a typical pair of these boots
from St Michael.
Tiie legs of these boots usually reach to just below tlie knees, but
some are made to extend to the hips for wearing while hunting or fishing,
and nuxny are made that reach just above the ankle. These latter are
more in the style of dress boots, being worn about the villages or while
traveling in umiaks. Their upi)ers are made commonly of white, parcli-
mentlike tanned sealskin, but sometimes from the stomach of a large
seal or walrus, which makes a beautiful white, parchment like leather.
The upi)ers are variously ornamented by welted seams and stJ'ips sewed
in successively around the edge of the sole, as shown in i)late xxi, 4,
from Golofnin bay.
These short summer boots are made sometimes of tanned sealskin,
witli the hair left on and turned inward, so that the softened inner
surface of the skin is exposed. They are surrounded at the upper
border usually by a white, i)archmentlike band with a drawstring, and
the portion of the uppers over the toes and sides of the foot in front
have sewed upon them strips of russet and white-tanned skin with
tine yellow and black checked patterns, produced by drawing narrow
strii)s of white tanned parchment through little slits cut in the material.
Plate XXI, 11, represents a typical example of this class of ornamenta-
tion. The women living on the islands of Bering strait are noted for
doing handsome work of this kind.
<
tr
LU
CD
>
<
CO
o
I
o
LU
S
XI
UJ
FOOT-WEAK — CLOTHING BAGS
43
SOCKS AND BOOT-PADS
111 additiou to the boots desciibed, socks made of deerskiu or sealskiu
with the hair not removed, and reaching a little above the ankles, com-
monly are worn in winter. For wear at all seasons socks are made of
woven grass, the patterns of weaving varying to a certain extent and
sometimes difl'ereiit colored grasses being used to produce ornamental
patterns, as shown in the sole of the example from the lower Kusko-
kwim, illustrated in i)late xxi, 2.
Plate xxr, 1, shows a typical grass sock from Razbinsky, on the
lower Yukon, and plate xxi, 5, also represents a common style of grass
sock from that district. The bot-
toms of boots of all kinds are
usually stuffed with a grass pad
made by taking wisps of long
grass stalks and binding them
over one another to form a long
cushion for the bottom of the foot.
This gives a soft footing and ab-
sorbs the moisture that penetrates
the sole, so that it requires a long
time for water to reach the foot.
At night the socks and the grass
pads are removed anil hung to dry
either over the lamp in the house
or in a convenient place in therooni,
so as to be ready for use on the fol-
lowing morning.
CLOXniXG BAGS
Along the lower Yukon and
thence to the Kuskokwim large
numbers of bags are made for vari-
ous purposes from the skins of
salmon. Some are used for stor-
ing clothes, and still smaller ones for various small objects, such as
trinkets and small odds and ends of different kinds. Otheis are made
very large, frequently with a capacity of a bushel or two, and are used
for the storage of dry fish, which is kept in them in the storehouses
until needed.
Figure 7 (2) illustrates a salmon-skin bag for storing clothing. This
example, from Tikchik lake, is ornamented with bands of russet-
colored fishskin and white, parchment-like skin from the throats of
seals, and is neatly sewed with sinew thread. The upper border of the
bag is hemmed, aiul a series of rawhide loops are sewed at intervals
around the top, through which is run a cord of the same material for
S|
B
r
1
i^-' ^
^i-
w^
..• ; _ ,
^^' '
1
Fig. 7— Fish-skin clothing tajs ( Jj.
44
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
use as a drawstring ia closing the bag. The bottom is oval in outline
and has a piece of fishskin sewed into it, with ihe seam inside. These
bags are in common use from the lower Yukon to the lower Kiiskokwiui.
Figure 7 (1) represents a handsomely ornamented bag from St ^Michael,
made from the skins of salmon tront. The bottom of the bag is fash-
ioned from a piece of deerskin with the hair side inward. Tlie sides
are ornamented with strips of white, parchment-like k-ather made from
the gullets of large seals. These strii)s are edged with narrow bauds
of russet-color leather, sewed with orna-
mental seams of bhick and Mhite. On
each of four uxiright white bands which
cross the side of the bag are sewed two
circular pieces and a four pointed i)iece
of the shiny black skin of the sea wolf,
the round pieces being edged with strips
of russet skin.
Figure 8 represents a sealskin clothing
bag from Sledge island. It is made from
the skiu of tlie ribbon seal, taken oft"
entire, including both tlippers. Tlie nose
and the eyes are sewed up; the only open-
ing is a cut extending crosswise between
the fore tlippers. The edges of this cut
are bound with a border df stout raw-
hide, ])ierced with holes at interval-; of
about two inches, through which i-* run a
strong rawhide cord for lacing the open-
ing. This skin is tanned with the hair
left on.
Bags of this character are made from
skins of all of the smaller seals, and are
useful for storing clothing from the fact
that their shape makes them convenient
for handling in umiaks or while on
sledge journeys; at the same time their
waterproof character serves to ]irotect
the contents from getting wet. Every
family has from one to three of these
bags, in which are kept their spare clothing, dressed skins, and valu-
able furs.
PERSO?fAI^ ADORNMET^T
LABRETS
The wearing of labrets and the custom of tattooing are very general
among the Eskimo of the Alaskan mainland and islands northward
from Kuskokwim river. The style of the labrets, as with the extent
and the pattern of tattooing, varies with the locality. The custom of
Fig. 8-
Isfiilskiu (i\,).
UJ
UJ
Q.
<
O
>
o
Q
Z
<
UJ
_l
<
5
UJ
o
Q.
<
NELSON] LABRETS 45
wearing labrets is almost .ost among tlie Esliimo of the Asiatic coast
and of St Lawrence island. One man seen at the latter point Lad a
circle tattooed on each side of his chin to represent these ornaments
(figure 15Z>). Someof the natives on INlechigme bay, just south of East
cape, Siberia, had labret holes iu tlieir lips. The Eskimo of the Yukon
and the Kuskokwim who live nearest the Tiune have also generally
abandoned the practice of wearing labrets, and the custom is becoming
obsolete at other points where there is constant intercourse with the
whites.
During my residence at St Michael it was rather uncommon to
see very young men among the Unalit with thp'> lips pierced, and
throughout that time 1 do not think a single boy among them had beeu
thus deformed. Many of the old men also have ceased to wear labrets,
although the incisions made for them in youth still remain.
Among the Eskimo of Bering strait and northward, where contact
with the whites has beeu irregular, labiet wearing is still in full force.
Increasing intercourse with civilized i)eoi)le makes it only a matter of
time for this custom to become entirely obsolete. In the district south-
ward from the Yukon mouth labrets were not universally worn among
the men, as is tlie case in the country northward from Bering strait,
and in every vilhige some of the men aiul many women were found
without them. The labrets of the women are of a curious sickle shape,
but vary iu detail of arrangement, as shown by the accomiianying illus-
trations. Most of them are made with holes in the lower border for
the attachment of short strings of beads. The women who wore
labrets had the under Hi) i)ierced with one or two holes just over the
middle of the chin.
The use of these labrets, iu the country visited by me, seemed to be
limited to the district lying between Yukon -and Kuskokwim rivers
and Nunivak island. Elsewhere I did not see labrets of any kind used
by women. In the villages of Askinuk, Kushunuk, and other places
iu that region the conuuou form was a small, tiattened, sickle-shape
piece of ivory, with a broad, tlatteued base for resting against the
teeth, and the outer tip brought down to a thin, flat point. Of this
style there are some variations, the most common of which is to have
the two ordinary sickle-shape labrets joined by a crosspiece of ivory
cut from the same piece and uniting the two sickle-shape parts just on
the outer side of the lip.
Another form was to joiu the inner ends of the labrets so that the
portion resting against the teeth united the bases of the two sickle-shape
points. In a labret (plate xxii, 2) from Konigunugumut the piece
joining the two sickle-shape points is flattened vertically. In another
specimen (plate xxii, 3), from Kulwoguwigumut, this crosspiece, uniting
the bases of the two projections, is flattened horizontally. In another
(plate XXII, 4) from the lower Kuskokwim, the two sickle-shape projec-
tions unite exteriorly to the lip so that a single orifice in the middle of
the lower lip serves for the insertion of the stem.
46 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT [eth. ann. 18
The National Musenin collection contains two specimens of women's
labrets (one of which is shown in phite xxii, 10) obtained on Nunivak
ishuicl l>y J)r W. II. Dall, which differ from most of those of the main-
land in having the broadened bases for resting against the teeth made
of separate pieces of ivory. These pieces are small, flattened disks with
holes in the center through which ttts the inner end of the labret, after
piercing the lips. Tliese differ also in external form, as shown by the
figures.
Anotiier specimen (plate xxii, 1) obtained on ISTunivak island has the
common sic'kle-shape parts joined by an external bar, and the inner end
is enlarged by means of similar small perforated disks of ivory set on
the rounded inner end of the labret. This specimen has attached to its
outer border three short, double strings of beads, which hang down
over the chiu. Plate xxii, 5, showing a specimen from Askinuk ; figure
7, one from Kulwognwigumut, and figure 0, one from Knshunnk, are
the ordinary forms of women's labrets of sickle shape.
The labrets worn by men in the district between the Yukon and the
Kuskokwim are rather small and are commonly formed of a long, thin,
curved ivory fiange for resting against the teeth, with a hatshape pro-
jection for extension through the lip to the surface. The hat shape
projection is provided with a central hole, through which extends a
wooden pin. This pin reaches beyond the outer border of the ivory
and has fitted npon it some kind of bead, a round piece of stone, or, as
in one specimen fiom Nnnivak island, a truncated cone of lead.
Another style of labret obtained from Nunivak island by J^octor Dall
is shown in ])Iate xxii, 10. It has the usual hat-shai)e piece for i)ierc-
ing the lip, with the wooden pin extending througii and bearing on its
outer end a white bead. Beyond this bead is attached a well-cut
piece of serjientine, apparently representing the tail of a whale. This
labret is two inches long and theserpentinetipis an inch and five-eighths
in width by an inch and a quarter long.
From the lower Yukon was obtained a large, Hat labret (plate xxii,
IG) having a rectangular ontline with the sides slightly rounded and on
the inner surface a pin five-eighths of an inch in length which serves
to pierce the lip. On this is fitted a long, oval i)ieee of ivory an inch
and a half long and five-eighths of an inch in width, made convex in
front and concave behind, with a slot in the middle for fitting it on the
pin. This labret is to insert in the lip and then the last described por-
tion is fitted on it from the inside, thus holding it in place. The face
of this labret measures an inch and seven-eighths in length by an inch
in l)readth and is made of fossil mammoth ivory.
Northward from the Yukon the comnmnest style of labret is the hat-
shape form shown in plate xxi, 21, of white quartz from 81edge island.
This si)ecimen has the inner side smoothly excavated to fit ujion the
teeth and the outer border has a groove across its face. This labret
is about half an inch across its exposed face and nine tenths of au
inch along the portion resting against the teeth.
a:
LLl
00
Q.
<
O
CO
<
HI
o
DC
Z
UJ
(T
Q
I
O
Q
Z
<
z
ul
o
5
_l
<
O
Q.
>
NELSON]
LABHETS
47
Similar labrets are shown in plate xxii, 19. 20, from Sledge island,
wliicli are from an inch to an inch and a qnarter along the beveled
inner flange, and five eighths of an inch across their outer faces; these
are made of hard stone, mottled black and white. Figure 9 shows a
pair of lignite labrets worn by a King island man.
The specimen shown in ])late xxii, 9, was obtained on King island in
Bering strait. The base is the ordinary hat-shape labi-et of walrus i voi'y,
having a slot cut in its outer face in which is fitted a well modeled
piece of serpentine two inches in length and three-fourths of an inch in
breadth, representing the tail of a right whale, and is fastened in
place by means of a wooden i)in which passes through a hole drilled
across the top of the labret and tlirough a corresponding hole in the
^ii-^
Fig. 9— King islaud man with labrets of lignite.
border of the piece of serpentine inserted in the slot. Its similarity
of .sliaiie to the specimen (plate xxii, 10) from Xunivak island is curious,
and probably represents an ancient and widely spread form that is now
rare. A labret obtained on Xunivak island by Doctor Ball (plate xxii,
11) is elaborate in form, having a hat-shape ivory base with six short
strings of beads forming the outer i)art, which are held in position by
flat ivory spacers. Another style (plate xxii, 12) from the same locality
has an ivory base with a lead tip in the form of a truncated cone.
In the neighborhood of Bering strait and Hotham inlet, large, flat
labrets made of Jadite were not uncommon. The beautiful specimen
(plate XXII, 1.5) obtained in Hotham inlet byMrWoolfemeasuresoneand
seven-eighth inches by an inch and a quarter on its outer surface. It
has an oval button on the inside an inch and a half in width; the out-
48 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
line of the exposed surface is quadrangular, with the two sides rounded ;
tlie surface is plain, beveled at each end and crossed lengthwise by a
groove. Other styles of labrets worn along this coast, in addition to
those already describeil, have a large inner tlange beveled to fit the
teeth, and a large, rounded, kudb-like head to project through the lii)S;
these are made from various materials, usually some kind of stone.
The specimen (plate xxii, 14) from Kotzebue sound is the finest labret
obtained. It is made of nephrite and measures three and a half inches
long by an inch and a quarter wide on its outer surface. It is reduced
ill thickness uniformly, is very regular in outline, and has a well-made
button-shape projection on the inner surface for fastening it in the lip.
Some large labrets made of white cpiartz were obtained at Point
Hope; they are circular in outline on their outer faces, measure au inch
and a half in diameter, and have the ordinary flanged projection inside
for holding them in i)osition. Some of these have the outer face plane
an<l a few have half of a large blue bead fastened to the center of the
outer surface. Others have the middle of the outer surface jjlane and
thence to the border slightly beveled. The labret shown in plate xxii,
IS, is a good example of the variety with the bead in relief. Plate
xxii, 17, shows one with i)lane surface.
The collection also contains a si)ecimeu obtained by Mr Woolfe from
Point Hope, which has a large blue bead fitted upon a wooden jieg
wliich pierces the hat-shape portion of the labret in a manner exactly
similar to those from the island of Nunivak and adjacent mainland.
Among the males labrets are worn only after ])uberty, as the lips of
the young boys are not pierced until that period. The hole is made
just below each corner of the mouth and at first a long, thin, nail like
plug of ivory, about an inch in length, having a slight enlargement at
the inner end, is thrust through the opening and left for some time.
After the wearer becomes accustomed to this, a somewhat larger plug is
made, like that shown in plate xxii, 2'2, from Sledge island, and inserted
in the hole for the purpose of enlarging it. This process is repeated, a
larger plug being used on each occasion until the hole is of the size
desired. In many cases it is so large that the teeth are visible through
the opening when the labret is not in place.
To complete the process of enlarging the hole, a man uses a series of
from six to eight or ten of these little plugs, which he afterward
pierces at their small ends and keeps strung ui)on a sinew cord, as
shown in plate xxii, 25, from Koyukuk river and figure 23 of the same
plate from UDaktolik. These he may keep among his small effects
or they may be hung as pendent ornaments to the end of his wife's
waist belt, or to the strap of her needle case. When they are used in
this way as ornaments, the men frequently etch little patterns upon
them, as shown in some of the specimens ([)late xxii, 23), which have
about their center a double band of incised lines, making a zigzag pat-
tern, with the raven totem nnirk toward the larger end. Various other
figures are also drawn upon these ornaments as fancy may dictate.
Q
Z
<
z
UJ
I-
o
o
o
CO
D
Q
Z
<
<
>
<
UJ
ir
Q
_l
<
O
Q.
>
NELSON]
LAIIKETS
49
Tlie people of Kowak and Noatak rivers, like those of Point Hope
and tlie adjacent Arctic coast, wear large labrets, varying from lialf au
inch to nearly two inches in diaiueter. The materials from which these
are made varies greatly, among them being granite, syenite, jadite,
quartz, slate, glass, lignite, and wood, as well as walrus and fossil mam-
moth ivory. Tlie heads, as already described, may be round, squarely
beveled, angular, knoblike, or of various other ibrms. The photographs
of men taken at Point Hoi)e and Ivotzebue sound show the appearance
of these objects wheu in place (plate xxiii and figure 10).
Kotzebue sound Maleraut men and women.
The specimen from Point Hope, figured in plate xxii, 24, is a kuob-
head labret made of a dark green stone. Another from the same
locality (plate xxii, 13) has a hat shape base of ivory with a huge blue
bead on a wooden pin inserted in a hole made in the basal portion of
the labret.
In wearing large stone labrets, the lip is dragged down by their
weight, so that the lower teeth and gums are esi)osed. It is the usual
custom to wear but one of the larger size at a time, one of smaller
dimensions being inserted on the opjjosite side of the mouth. While
traveling with these people in winter, I found that during cold days
18 ETH 4
50
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
tbe labrets were invariably removed in order to prevent the ]i]i from
freezing, as must have occurred liad they remained in place. The
labrets were removed and carried in a small bag until we approached
a village at night, when they were taken out and replaced, that the
Fig. 11— Tattooing on women (a, South of Yukon month; b. East cape, Siberia: c. c. Head of
Kotzebue sound).
wearer might present a proper appearance before the people. They
are also sometimes removed when eating aud before retiring for the
night.
TATTOOING
Tattooing is universally practiced among the women of the Bering
strait region, but has attained its greatest development on the Siberian
coast and St Lawrence island. On the tundra south of the Yukon only
part of the women are tattooed, and I was informed that the practice
is comparatively recent among them. They claim to have adopted it
from the women of Nunivak island, who had straight lines on their
cheeks, aud also from having seen tattooing on the faces of Tinue
women. The common pattern used in this district is a pair of lines
across the chin from each corner of the mouth, as shown in figure 11, «.
Fig. 12 — Tattooing on a St Lawrence island girl.
Malemut women, as well as those from Noatak and Kowak rivers,
cross the chin with series of lines of tattooing radiating from the lower
lip, as shown in figure 11, h, c; they also frequently have straight lines
across the back of the wrist and forearm. Un St Lawrence island and
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XVI
MAN'S BIRDSKIN FROCK i ABOUT one-jEventh
NELSON]
TATTOOING
51
the adjacent Siberian coast women have the sides of their faces (figure
12) and their arms and breasts covered with finely designed patterns of
circles and scroll work, sometimes crossed by straight lines.
At East cape, thewomen ordinarily have six or eight pairs of lines
crossing their chins, and on each side of their faces patterns of circles
Fig. 13 — Tattooirg on a woman of St Law
aud spiral lines; also, two or three vertical, parallel lines crossing their
tenijjles and extending to the chin. The patterns on the cheeks
usually cover a space about four inches in width extending from the ear
toward the nose and li-om the eye to the lower jaw.
On the inside of the forearm two long parallel lines usually extend
from the elbow to the bor-
der of the palm. These
are crossed just below the ^^
elbow by two short lines, "
and the wrist is crossed by
four lines which sometimes
completely encircle that part of the arm (figure 14). On the body the
tattooing covers the breast and sometimes the shoulders and upper
arms.
The pattern shown in figure lli was seen on the face of a little girl of
St Lawrence island. Figure 13, showing the tattoijjng'on the face of a
Fig. 14 — Tattooiiiy on a wonian'a arm, East cape, Siberia.
52
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. A.V.\'. 18
woman of tliis island, is from a sketcli made aud kindly presented to
me by ^Ir Henry W. Elliot.
At Mecliiguie bay, Siberia, a man was seen who bad a doable circle
connected by radiating lines on each cheek (figure 15, a). At Plover
bay a boy had the raven totem over each eye, as shown in the illustra-
tions of totem markings. On St Lawrence island a man had circles,
representing labrets, near the lower corners of his mouth, and two
short, parallel lines on each temple (figure 15, b).
BEADS AND EAKRINtiS
The practice of piercing the septum of little girls is still common
among the Eskimo of the Alaskan mainland. While the children are
small they wear one or more beads about the size of buckshot pendent
from this hole so that they rest uj)On the upper lij). Wlien the girl
reaches nuiturity, tlie nose beads are not worn, and I never observed
any use made by women of the hole in the septum except for carrying
\
a l>
Fig. 15— Circular forms of tattooing (". on a MecliiRme bay man,- (/.on a St Lawrence island .vonng
man).
small objects like needles, which are frequently thrust through the
opening and held in place by the pressure of the wings of the nose ou
either side.
On the Asiatic coast large boys and young men were frequently seen
wearing two or three beads strung on their hair so as to hang down
over their foreheads. The hair and the clothing of little girls and young
women of the district south of the lower Yukon are highly ornamented
with beads. These are hung in parallel strings, held in position as flat
bands by means of small, flat, ivory rods, or by strips of heavy skin
pierced with holes at short intervals, through which pass the cords on
which the beads are strung. Loops of these bands sometimes hang
from the earrings over the shoulders to the breast; others are attached
to the braids of hair above the ears. To these loops is frequently
attached a heavy cojjper ring.
The practice among women of piercing the lobe or outer edge of the
ear is common in all the territory occupied by the Eskimo visited by
me. In some instances only the lobe is pierced, aud in others holes
NELSON] BEADS AND EARRINGS 53
are made along the outer bonier above the lobe. It is also coinuion
for men to bave their ears jiierced, particularly in the district between
the Yukon and Kuskokwim, where they wear huge earrings, from which
frequently hang strings of beads, extending under the chin from ear
to ear in a long loop. The variety of earrings worn by the women in
the vicinity of the Yukon and the Kuskokwim is very great, as shown
by the series illustrated in plates xxiv and xxv; they are made of
ivory, with occasional settings of beads or other objects. Elsewhere
along the coast very much less variety in the ornamentation of these
objects was observed.
It is interesting to note that the greatest richness of ornamentation
and variety in form of earrings is found among the people of the district
south of the lower Yukon, which coincides with the elaborate style of
their carvings on masks and other objects.
Earrings worn by men of the tundra between the Yukon mouth and
the lower Kuskokwim are made of ivory and are very large. They are
usually rectangular and measure from an inch and a cpiarter to two
inches in length by three-quarters of an inch to an inch and a quarter
in width. Frequently there are four plane sides, but some of them
have the lower end rounded, while others have this portion beveled
from each side to the center. They commonly taper slightly from
above downward. The front is excavated, leaving a narrow rim of
ivory around the border, the sides of the excavation being parallel
with the outline of the tablet-like piece forming the ornament. Fre-
quently this excavated space is crossed midway by a narrow ridge of
ivory, which subdivides the central opening into upi)er and lower divi-
sions of equal size. This sunken area is then filled with some kind of
cement, probably made from spruce gum, in which are set various
shining objects.
The following descriptions cover some of the most interesting forms
of men's and women's earrings contained in the collection. The speci-
men from Kaialigamut shown in plate xxv, 12, measures an inch and a
quarter in length by three-quarters of an inch in width and has its
outer face divided by an ivory ridge. The excavated spaces are filled
with a black cement, and set in each subdivision are three small, square
pieces of lead, making six on each earring. The lower end is beveled
to a point, and like all of these large earrings has a boss on the pos-
terior surface near the lower border, which is pierced with a hole for
fastening the ends of little pendants of beads. In addition, this speci-.
men has a longer string of beads passing beneath the cliin to the
opiiosite side. The hook for attaching these ornaments to the ear is
cut from the same piece of ivory and extends back and downward
neaily to the lower point of the carving.
Another example from Kaialigamut (plate xxv, 10) is similar in shape
to the one last described, with the lower end beveled to a jioint. It is
two inches in length by an inch and one eighth wide, and has set iu
54 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth ann. 18
tbe cemeutecl outer face several fragments of bottle glass. Ou the
back is the usual long, stout hook, and a small pierced knob or boss
is provided near the lower point for the attachment of strings of beads.
The earring from Xunivak island shown in plate xxv, 13, is an inch
and five-eighths long by an inch wide, with the lower end of bow shape.
The excavated front surface is not subdivided by an ivory ridge, but
has an insertion of some white substance crossed by regular black lines
forming a diamond-shape pattern over which is neatly fitted a piece of
window glass.
Another specimen (plate xxv, 11), from Big lake, is of quadrilateral
outline and has an ivory septum across the center forming two sub-
divisions filled with cement, in which are set four rounded fragments
of brass, one at each corner, with a round bead of iron in the center.
A smaller specimen than this, from the same locality, has four white
beads set in the cement at each corner of the subdivisions, with frag-
ments of glass in the center. Another earring, from Kohignnngunmt,
has small fragments of mica imbedded in the cement.
The greatest variety of carving, however, is shown in the earrings
worn by women. These are sometimes plane-face, quadrate, or oval
pieces of ivory with a stout hook in the back; but, as a rule, the fronts
are varionsly carved and ornamented.
A common style of ornamentation consists of a series of concentric
rings with a round pit or dot in the center. Tlieir faces are frequently
crossed by flue, etched, ray-like lines. Another form is that of the
circles and ray-like lines shown in plate xxiv, 18, from Askinuk.
All these rings have a stout hook for attaching them to the ear, and
a pierced boss near the lower border, on the posterior side, for the attach-
ment of a string of beads.
From Cape Vancouver was obtained the specimen shown in plate
xxrv, 5, which exhibits another form, consisting of a circle five-eighths
of an inch in diameter, with a round hole in the center and a knob on
each corner, and a long, narrow bar at its lower edge, all carved from
a single piece of ivory. The front is surrounded by a series of seven
neatly etched concentric circles.
From the same locality is a similar earring (i>late xxiv, 1). having
the circles spaced in pairs, between the outer and the next to the outer
set of which are a series of round, sunken dots.
The example illustrated in plate xxiv, 2, from jSTunivak island, is an
inch and an eighth long by three-fourths of an inch wide. The upper
Ijortion is circular, with concentric rings, and the central hole is filled
with a little ivory plug; the borders have on each corner a little spur,
also of ivory, and below, extending downward, two oblong ivory pro-
jections with rounded ends which are pierced by a small, round hole.
The front surfaces of these are convex and are covered with a series of
five concentric circles; etched lines extend from the outer circle down
ou the front of the lower projections, and a little circle surrounds each
of the holes near the lower end.
o
o
z
<
o
tl.
o
o
<
m
D
z
<
z
o
NELSON] BEADS AND EARRINGS 55
The specimen from Clialitmut figured in plate xxiv, G, is small and
rounded; it is a little over half an inch in diameter, and has a rounded
knob at each corner. The center has a black spot and two concentric
rings with spaced dots scattered around these and a dot in the middle
of each corner projection.
Another small set (plate xxiv, S) from Chalitmut measures half an
inch in diameter and is rudely oval in shape, with five small circles and
dots arranged iu the form of a cross on a slightly convex face.
A single earring obtained from St Michael (number 129205) exhibits
two circles, joined one below the other, and eacli having the front cov-
ered with concentric rings with a piece of lead set in the center. There
is a hole at the lower end for the attachment of a string of beads.
A pair from Xulnkhtulogumut (plate xxiv, 3) measure three-quarters
of an inch in width. They are of the usual rounded pattern with pro-
jecting corners, and with the center excavated and set with half of a
blue bead, which is surrounded by two concentric circles, the outer one
having spur-like etclicd lines drawn from it to the corner projections.
Another examijle (plate xxiv, -i) from Kaialigamnt, is three-(|uarters
of an inch in diameter, with rounded outline and convex face, in which
is set half of a large, amber-colored glass bead.
In addition to the styles already described, the country between the
lower Yukon and the Kuskokwim affords a considerable variety of these
ornaments, upon which are carved the features of men, animals, and
tunyhdt. These are usually oval in outline, measuring from half an
inch to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, but some are oblong iu
shape. A pair from Chalitmut (plate xxiv, 15) are square, with the
features raised in relief in the center.
A pair from Kushutuk (plate xxiv, 13) are each three-quarters of an
inch in length and iu shape represent a small seal.
The ornamentation of the specimen from Cape Vancouver illustrated
in plate xxiv, Ki, represents the features of a tiuifihuk, and on another
from the same locality (plate xxiv, 14) is shown the face of a short-
ear owl.
Northward from St Michael to Bering strait the earrings used are
more oblong in shape, being longer and narrower in pro|>ortion; they
are also less handsomely ornamented, and the entire workmanship is
more crude. These measure from half an inch to an inch and a half
in length and from an eighth to half an inch in diameter.
Au oblong, convex-face pair (plate xxiv, 10), from Sledge island,
measure a little over au inch and a quarter in length and three eighths
of au inch in breadth, and have half of a large blue bead set in the
front of each. Most of the earrings from this island have the faces
crossed by deeply incised lines, although there were obtained one or
two pairs which are perfectly plain.
The specimen from Cape Vancouver shown in plate xxiv, 7, is a disk
with a series of concentric circles on its face; another (plate xxiv, 11)
56 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth ann. 18
from the same locality represents a grotesque human face with tufts
tied on each side to represent a woman's braided hair, wliile another
(plate XXIV, 17), obtained also at the same place, represents the features
of a seal.
The only metal earrings obtained were collected ou the lower Yukon.
They are made of copper, of the usual round style worn by women, with
concentric circles ou the face and projecting knobs at the comers.
A pair of earrings (plate xxiv, 9), obtained at St JMichacl by Mr L. M.
Turner, show smooth, disk-like faces tliree-eighths of an inch in diam-
eter, back of which project for about a quarter of an inch rounded
ivory pins extending downward three-quarters of an inch to roughly
truncated tips pierced for the reception of the ends of a string of beads.
These are the only earrings of this description that were seen.
A pair from Gape Vancouver (plate xxiv, 12) are long, narrow, and
oval in shape. They are an inch long, by three-eighths of an inch wide,
and taper down to a narrow, flattened point pierced as usual for attach-
ing a string of beads. Extending lengthwise along the median line of
the faces is a ridge from which the surface is beveled away on both
sides. On this doubly bev^eled surface is represented, by means of
incised lines and dots, a grotesque human face with labret holes below
the corners of the mouth.
Another pair, from Nulukhtulogumut (plate xxiv, 10), are broadly
oval iu outline with a grotesque human face on the front; they measui'e
seven-eighths of an inch long by nearly three-quarters of an inch wide.
Plate XXV, 'J, shows a pair from Ohalitmut, three quarters of an inch
long by half au inch wide, having an oval outline and a slightly con-
vex face. An incised line extends vertically through the center, with
two pairs of beveled lines extending thence diagonally downward to
the border on each side. In the three spaces thus made along each
side of the surface are three small circles and dots. From the lower
ends of these rings hang two pendants of beads two and one-half inches
in length, and a striug of beads twelve inches in length connects them
below the chin.
A pair of rounded earrings from Sfugunugnmnt (plate xxv, 7) are
about seven-eigliths of an inch in diameter and have knob-like projec-
tions on four corners, each of the latter having an incised dot in the
center. The faces are marked by two concentric circles, with a hole in
the center, which is plugged with wood. A hole in the lower edge of
these rings serves to attach the ui)per edge of a band over four inches
in length, made of seven strings of beads, which are S[)aced near the
ui)pcr end by a flattened ivory rod an inch and a half long, pierced
with a hole for each string. Xear the lower end they are held in place
by a similar strip made from a tiiick piece of sealskin.
On the islands as well as on both shores of Bering strait, the women
frequently wear pendent from their earrings, in place of beads, strings
of the little orange-color horny sheaths from the angle of the bill of
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XIX
FRONT OF MAN'S FISHSKIN FROCK ^ONE-SIXTHi
NELSON]
EAR-PENDANTS HAIR ORNAMENTS
57
the crested anklet, in a double row four or live inches in length and
terminating' in one or more beads.
HAIR ORNAMENTS AND COMBS
The tonsure is universally practiced by the Eskimo wherever I
traveled among them, whether on the American or on the Siberian
coast, with the possible exception of some of them in the upper Kusko-
Fig. 16— Hair combs {i^f)).
kwini region. The general style is to shave the top of the head, leaving
a narrow fringe of hair about the border, which usually is kept trimmed
evenly two or three inches in length around the head.
The women dress their hair by parting it along the median line and
arranging it in a pendent braid or club-shape mass behind the ear, as
shown in the accompanying illustration (plate xxvi) of some women at
Cape Smith. Sometimes the ends of the braids are united at the back
of the head, or they may be arranged with stri])s of fur or strings of
58 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT (ethann. 18
beads into club-shape rolls hanging down to the shoulders or even over
the breast. Very often the strips of fur worn are tliose of the animal
representing the family totem, aud when wrapped about the hair in this
manner they indicate the gens to which the woman belongs.
South of the Yukon mouth the women are especially fond of orna-
menting the pendent rolls or braids of hair by hanging bauds and
strings of beads upon them with ivory ornaments attached, some of
which are figured. They usually represent the faces of animals or of
grotesque semihunuxn creatures. The ornament froui Big lake illus-
trated in xdate xxv, 1, is of ivory and represents the face of a wolf.
Another (plate xxv, 2), from Korngunugunuit, represents a grotesque,
semihuman face. On one from the lower Kuskokwim (plate xx\, 3)
there is a representation of a human countenance, while one from
Agiukchugumut (plate xxv, 4) shows also a grotesque face. Another
specimen from Big lake (plate xxv, 6) is ornamented with a conven-
tional pattern.
Combs used by the Eskimo for the hair are made by cutting slots in
the straight edge of flat or slightly curved pieces of deerhorn, walrus
ivory, or bone.
A rather elaborately made deerhorn comb (figure 16,1) is from the
lower Yukon. It has a series of teeth along one edge; the handle has a
bear's head in relief on each side, and a ring of the material is left on
the back to strengthen the comb and to attbrd a better grip for the
hand. The upper side of the handle is crossed by parallel grooves
and a zigzag pattern formed by a series of circles pierced with central
holes.
A specimen from Sledge island (figure 10, 5) is a flat tablet of deer-
horn with a series of teeth in one end and two projecting animal heads
carved on the upper end of the handle. Another, from St Michael
(figure 16,4), is of deerhorn, with the handle ornamented by lines aud
dots aud terminating in a ring. In figure 16, 6, is shown a comb, from
the Diomede islands, made from a hollow bone, which has a series of
teeth of different sizes surrounding each end.
Figure 10,2, shows an example from Xunivak island made from apiece
of walrus ivory, and has one end provided with large teeth aud the
other with smaller ones. Another, from St Lawrence island (figure
16,3), is cut from a i)addle-shape piece of bone. It has large rounded
teeth and a slender handle, pierced near its upper end.
bra(:elEts
Bracelets of iron, brass, or copper are worn by women nnd girls
throughout the region visited. The men also use bracelets jnade of a
sealskin cord on which is strung one or more large beads of ivory or
other substauce. They are generally used while at sea for rolling under
the end of the sleeves of the waterproof skin frock. In plate xxv, 5.
is shown an example of these bracelets from Nunivak island.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
Eighteenth annual report pl. xx
MEN'S GLOVES
NELSON] ARTICLES OP USE AND ADORNMENT 69
BELTS AND BELT BUTTONS
Througbout the Eskimo country from the lower Kuskokwim to the
Arctic coast, a favorite waist belt worn by the women is made from the
incisors of reindeer. These are obtained by cutting off the tip of the
lower jaw, leaving sulflcient bone to retain the teeth in their natural
position. These rows of teeth are sewed along a strap of rawhide,
one overlapping the next in scale-like succession, so that they form a
continuous series along its entire length.
Some of these belts have a double row of such teeth, and as each set
represents a reindeer, it is evident that a long period of hunting is
necessary ere a sutiHcient number can be accumulated.
In addition to the belts made of reindeer incisors, they have others
made by fastening along the surface of a strap of tanned sealskin a
series of smooth brass buttons in close succession, or they ornament
the entire length of the outer surface of the belt with circles and lines
of beads arranged according to the fancy of the wearer.
When worn, the belts are brought loosely around the waist and held
in i)lace by a toggle or button, which is attached to the belt by a short
cord tied through a hole pierced in the button for the purpose. These
cords are attached to the belt about a foot or flfteeu inches from the
ends, so that the latter hang down in front of the hips on each side.
The belt buttons are passed through a cord loop on the opposite side
of the belt and tlius hold it in place. They are made of ivory, bone, or
reindeer horn, aud have very great variety of form. Some are merely
rounded knobs, or are made from the tooth of a bear or walrus pierced
in the middle, while others are in the form of hooks. Flat buttou-
shape carvings, with squared, circular, or oval outlines are common,
but most numerous of all are those made in the forms of seals, walrus,
birds, and men.
A number of these objects have been illustrated (plate xxvii) in
order to show their great variety and to demonstrate the skill and
ingenuity in carving which these people possess.
The lollowing notes describe the character of those figured, which
are made of ivory except where other substances are indicated.
The specimen from Cape i^ome, illustrated in plate xxvii, 1, is a
good example of this style of fastener. A similar object, shown in
figure 2 of the same plate, is from Chalitmut; this is a fragment of
deerhorn, an inch and three-quarters loug and three-quarters of an
inch in diameter, smoothly rounded, and pierced with a central hole.
Another (figured), from Kotzebue sound, consists of a long, quadran-
gular piece of walrus ivory an inch and a half long by half an inch in
width, with a narrow, raised ear or projection on the middle of the
inner surface, which is pierced lengthwise for the passage of a cord;
the front is marked with incised lines. Figure .5 illustrates a specimen
from Chalitmut, which is somewhat similar in shape to the last,
60 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
except that it is round and about half an inch in diameter. It has a
flattened projection on one side, which is pierced to receive the cord.
Another example from Cape iSTome (plate xxvii, G) is a narrow, oblong
piece of ivory, having the front strongly convex and the back slightly
concave, with a projection near the middle, through which passes a
broad opening for the cord. Another, from Chalitniut (i)late xxvii,
25), is a roughly oval, phimmet-Iike piece of ivory, with a stem like
projection on one end which is pierced for the cord; the surface is
crossed by incised lines extending around each face and by a similar
line around its greatest diameter, between which and the stem are four
sets of circles and dots.
The specimen from Anogogmut, illustrated in plate xxvii, 10, is a
neatly made carving of a seal an inch and three-eighths long, with a
projecting ear-like piece on its lower surface, through which a trian-
gular hole admits a cord. Another, from Is'univak island (plate xxvii,
15), is a double oval carving, with an angular projecting ear on the
lower surfa(-e for the attachment of tlie cord. On the front the double
oval surface meets at a narrow neck, each end having etched upon it a
grotesque countenance, probably rei)resenting the face of a seal.
The fastener shown in plate xxvii, 13, fiom Sfugunugnnnit, is an
inch and a half long, made from walrus ivory in the shape of a white
whale, and is pierced through tlie side. Figure 3 shows a carving
from Agiukchugumut, two and a quarter inches in length, slightly
resembling in outline the incisor of a bear; on the truncated end is a
grotesque semihuman face, and etched upon the sides are lines, circles,
and dots, including the representation of fore and hind limbs. It
represents some being recognized in the mythology of the Eskimo.
Plate XXVII, 7, represents a neatly made carving, an inch and three-
quarters long, in the form of a walrus, the flippers of the animal being
conventionally shown in relief. It is from the lower Kuskokwim.
Plate XXVII, 11, shows a miniature carving, from Sledge island, repre-
senting a white bear; it is an inch long and is pierced through the side
for the cord.
Plate XXVII, 8, illustrates a fastener, from Nunivak island, represent-
ing a walrus. It measures two and a half inches in length and is
pierced vertically for the cord.
An unnumbered piece from Kushunuk is a small carving represent-
ing on its front a grotesque ligure of a woman; it is pierced on the
back for the passage of the cord.
Plate XXVII, 10, represents a small carving, from Nunivak island, an
inch and three eighths long, almond-shape in outline, flat on the lower
edge and concave on the upper; the latter surface has marked ui)on it
the figure of a fish, with a broad, deeply incised, crescent-shape
mouth; it is pierced vertically for the cord.
Plate XXVII, 11, shows a fastener from Cape Nome; it measures au
inch and a half in length and represents the heads of two polar bears
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXI
^p'^^'^^
BOOTS, WATERPROOF MITTENS, AND STRAW SOCKS .about one-ninth.
BELTS AND BELT BUTTONS
fil
with open moutbs aud Joined at tlie ueeks. A liole passes laterally
tlirougli the bases of the necks lor the cord; the heads are divided by
a deep, broad incision, separating theiu from each other at their bases.
Another fastener from Cape Nome (figure 17) is a fine piece of com-
posite carving. Held in one position it represents the head of a white
bear; turned with the other surface upward it represents a seal, the ears
of the bear serving in that case for the fore-flippers of the latter animal,
while a ridge along both sides of the posterior iiortion of the seal's
body marks the position of its hind flipi)ers and serves to outline the
lower jaws of the bear. This object can also be used as a cord handle.
Plate xxvir, 13, from Point Hope, is an excellent representation of
the skull of a walrus an inch and a half in length. Figure 21 of the
same plate represents a fastener from Askinuk, in the form of a seven-
fingered human hand.
Another style of button or belt fastener is made from a rounded,
oval, or quadrangular flattened piece of ivory or bone, pierced through
the center with a single hole for the accommodation of the belt cord.
The following fasteners are also illustrated in plate xxvii:
Figure 19, from the lower Yukon,
is a thin, square piece of ivory,
pierced in the center by a hole for
the cord; its border is surrounded
by a series of etched lines, forming
a wave pattern; extending toward
the center from each corner are
etched the tridentate marks repre-
senting the raven totem.
Figure 20 is from Gape Vancou-
ver. It has a circular face, with four projecting knobs at the corners,
aud etched upon the front are seven concentric circles; the knobs at
the corners are pierced and the holes are plugged with wood; two
circular lines surround the holes.
Figure 22, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a round, convex-lace piece
of ivory, with the surface neatly carved in relief with a wave pattern
alternating with rings; a large ear-like projection on the back is
pierced for the cord.
Figure 18, from Auogogmut, is an inch and a quarter long, rounded
above and square below, with a slightly oval front, on which, in low
relief, is a grotesque human face. The usual ear-like ring on the back
serves for attaching the cord.
Figure 17, from Nuuivak island, is an inch find three-eighths long
and an inch and a quarter wide. It is excavated at the back, and on
the front has a well-made representation of human features, with the
mouth and the eyes pierced, and with lines representing snow goggles
across the eyes; on the back is a strong ear for attaching the cord.
Figure 24, from Cape Vancouver, represents the head of a salmon;
Fig. 17— Ivory belt fastener.
62 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
it is boll6w and has an ivory pin passing through its base, to which a
cord may be attached.
In addition to the button-like objects described, other belt fasteners
are made in the Ibrni of hooks. Tliese vary from phiin hooks, as in
plate XXVII, 30, to the elaborately carved forms shown in this plate.
Figure 2(5, from Agiukchugumut, has its surface marked by incised
lines inclosing the eye at the base of the hook, passing thence to a
point, where they unite. A similar but larger specimen is more elab-
orately ornamented ou its surface.
Figure 27, from Chalitmut, represents a fish, and has an incisioQ
along the entire length, following its outline.
Figure 23, also from Chalitmut, is a square, flattened piece of ivory
with a slit-like notch cut in on one side to a hole in the center, and
with a beveled edge on one face. Both surfaces are marked by heavily
incised lines.
Figure 28, from the mouth of the Yukon, is a rudely made hook with
the head of an animal carved upon the outer end, the other end being
pierced by a hole for the cord; along the back of the aniuml, from
between the ears, extends an incised line, from which other lines
extend diagonally down the sides as though outlining segments.
Figure 2"j, from the northern end of Norton sound, is a curiously
made hook in the shape of a human figure, represented as sitting on
its legs with the body bent forward and the head supported by the
hands placed on either side of the face; the area inclosed between the
neck and the arms serves for attaching the belt cord, and the legs
extending forward and upward parallel to the body serve as a hook
for insertion into the opposite loop.
Figure 9, from Kushunuk, represents a rudely outlined, grotesque
human figure.
Figure 30, from Agiukchugumut, shows a plain hook with an eye
for the cord and two lines etched along the surface, surrounding the
eye and following the outline.
The men and boys wear belts of various kinds. Sometimes these
may be simply a i-awhide cord or strap of tanned skin ; more com-
monly, however, they are made of the skin taken from the feet of a
wolverine or wolf, the claws being left on. It is soft-tanned without
removing the hair and the edges are sewed together to make a continu-
ous band; on the back is sewed the skin of the animal's head, the
nose being attached to the belt and the tail fastened to the lower end.
These belts are highly prized, and it is very seldom that a man or a
boy, unless he be very poor, does not possess his wolverine or wolf-skin
belt. It is supposed to give the wearer a certain strength and prowess
similar to those qualities in the animal from which the skin was taken.
Belts representing the totem animal of the owner are also worn, and
sometimes the mummified bodies of the little weasel are attached to them
in front, in the belief that some of the animal's prowess will be conveyed
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXII
LABRETS ININE-SIXTEENTHS)
WEASEL BELTS — LAMPS
63
to tbe wearer. These we.isel belts were most frequently seen among
people from the head of Norton bay and Kaviak peninsula, where
they seemed to be particularly prized. The people from that section
ofl'ered as much as two dollars' worth of furs for the skin and the head
of a weasel for this ]>nri)ose.
18— Lamp tritni I'uiiit Barrow.
UTEISTSII^S AlfD I3IPLEME5fTS
LAMPS
Throughout western Alaska, including the islands of Bering strait,
and upon the coast of Siberia, open lamps are used for burning seal oil ;
they are made of clay, soaji-
stone, or other easily worked
stone, and present consideia
ble variety of form.
At Point Barrow I saw a
tine soapstoue lamp (fignre
18), 2 feet long and 10 inches
broad, weighing about 30
pounds. The owner refused
to sell it, but the accomiiauy-
ing sketch made at the time shows the manner in wbich it is sub-
divided by ridges of stone, with sunken interspaces; it is symmetrical
in form and suboval in outline, with the convexity greatest on one side.
At East cape, Siberia, 1 saw a stone lamp lying upon a grave, just
back of tbe village, wbich is similar in outline to the Point Barrow
lamp described, but it lacked the subdivisions
across tbe interior; it is about 15 inches long and
proportionately broad.
The specimen illustrated in ])late xxviii, 3, was
found on tbe eastern coast of Siberia; it is made of
stone, is suboval in outline, deeply excavated at
tbe back, and slopes upward to a broad ledge in
front; this ledge is crossed by a ridge of stone cut
through in tbe center for holding the wick.
On the Diomede islands similar lamjiS were found
in use, but a child's toy, made from ivory in shape of a lamp, was
obtained on one of these islands, wbich shows a difterent form (figure
19). It is suboval in outline and deepest in the center, with a ridge
extending along each side just above tbe bottom, and with a groove
cut through the middle of each side for the wick. This lamp is repre-
sented as standino- upon a stool like frame, which is supported by four
legs, with a crosspiece on each side and two crosspieces on tbe ends to
hold tbe legs in place.
An example (number (54223) from Hotham inlet is of stone, siibtri-
augular in outline, with the convexity greatest on one side, toward wbich
Fig. 19— Ivmy carvinu
represeutiuj; a lamp
and stand {full sizt!).
64 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.anx. 18
tbe bottom slopes; the long, nearly straight, unuotclied sdge forms
the ledge on wliicli the wiuk rests.
From St Lawrence island a number of lamps were obtained, showing
considerable variety of form.
Plate xx\iii, 7, represents a lamp made of clay, 11| inches long, Di
wide, and lif deep; it is suboval in outline, with a tray-shape bottom; a
high, thin ridge runs along each side, Just above the bottom, which
projects upward, and inclines a little outward; a deej) notch is cut
through tlie nuddle of these ridges close to the level of the bottom for
receiving the wick. The torm of this lam]) is precisely that iudicated
on the toy.carviiig from the Dioinede islands above described (figure 19).
Plate xxviii, .S, illustrates a lamp from 8t Lawrence island, 14.} inches
long by 12| wide and 2'^ deep. It is like the last in general shape, but
slopes gradually from the sides downward to within a short distance
of the bottom, when it drops suddeidy to a depressed aiea about an
inch deep, which occupies the entire bottom of the lamp; along each
side of the bottom projects a ridge, which sloi)es upward and a little
toward the middle. These ridges are pierced by a round hole near
each end, al)Out on a line with the bottom of the lamp, through winch
the wicks were inserted. Both this lamp and the one last described
undoubtedly stood upon framework supports, and were used probably
for cooking puri)oses.
A tray-shape clay lamp (number G3569) from St Lawrence island is
15i inches long by 10^ wide; it has two projecting ridges on the inner
sides, midway between the rim and the bottom, for supporting the
wick. This, like the other large lamps from this island already
described, was undoubtedly used for cooking.
Plate xxviii, 4, shows a tray-shape lamp from St Lawrence island,
which undoubtedly was used solely for ilhuninatiug purposes. It has
the upper border flattened smoothly on three sides; along the front the
slope extends gently backward toward the deei)est part. Extending
lengthwise, midway between the bottom and the front border or lip, is
a thin projecting ridge; the front border of the lamp above this ledge
shows signs of having been burnt; evidently the wicks had their bases
supported against the raised ridge while their upper edges projected
from the lip.
Plate xxyiii, o, represents the support for the last-described lamp.
It is made of clay, and is in the form of a pot 5 inches high and 6| wide.
It has a flat bottom, with tlie sides I'ouuded to the fi'ont, where a cres-
centic depression is made in the border, with a slightly raised point on
the rim at each side. The lamp was placed on the mouth of the vessel,
the depressed portion of whicli is just beneath the ])()int where the wick
rests along the outer edge of the lip, so that any dri|)pings of oil which
might run down would be caught in the vessel below.
Tlie lamp from St Lawrence island shown in plate xxviii, 9, is some-
what similar in shape to the preceding, but having tlie bottom flattened
3URE4U OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXIII
KOTZEBUE SOUND MALEMUT MEN AND WOMEN WITH LABRETS
NELSON] LAMPS 65
and on the jiosteiior side a handle hke projection which extends oiitward
for two inches from the geuerul outliue of the lamp. Along the opposite
side the bottom slopes gradnally from the border to the side next to
the projection jnst described, where its deepest point is fonud. Just
below the border is a ridge for supporting the wick, which rests along
the upper edge of the lamp in front. Plate xxviii, 10, represents a
wooden bowl-like holder or support for this lamp. It is excavated iuto
a smoothly oval, gourdshaiie depression, and has the bottom Hat to
insure its retaining an upright position.
All of the lamps from St Lawrence island are made with nearly Hat
bottoms, with tiie exception of that shown in plate xxviii, i, in which
the base is rounded.
Plate XXVIII, 12, from Norton bay, is a crescentic toy lamj) made of
stone, with a sharp edge extending almost straight across one side, tlie
remainder of the border approaching a semicircle.
Figure 11 of the same plate is a clay lamp from St Michael, very
similar in shape to the preceding; it is the ordinary form used at that
locality and in other villages of the Uualaklit.
From St Michael tliere is a toy lamp (number 13470) made apparently
by utilizing a natural hollow iu a small stone. There is also a small
toy lamp of stone (number OIT")), from Cape Darby, of crescentic out-
liue, and sloping from the nearly straight border to the deepest point
below the rim on the opposite side.
Figure 6 represents a stone lamp obtained by Mr L. M. Turner at
St Michael; it is nearly pear-shape in outliue, with a smoothly sunken
depression.
Figure 2, from Big lake, shows a round, saucer-shape toy lamj)' of
clay, with the bottom rounded and the interior regularly depressed. A
series of three parallel grooves are incised around the outer edge, near
the border; inside the border are seven incised parallel grooves, suc-
ceeded by two others which encircle the center of the bottom and are
connected with the series on the side by four spoke-like rays, each of
which is formed by a series of four incised lines with an intermediate
row of dots.
Similar round, saucer-shape lam))s are in common use from the Kus-
kokwim to the Yukon mouth and are found also along the shore of
Norton sound to 1 1 Michael. One of these lamps from the lower
Yukon bears Museum number 3S07Sa. It has two grooves encircling
the outside, near the border; inside are four heavy grooves, and a large
cross is incised in the center of the bottom.
DIPPERS, LADLES, AND SPOONS
In the neighborhood of Norton sound and the lower Yukon the most
common form of dipper is made by cutting a long, thin strip of spruce,
three to six inches wide, and fasiiioning one end into the form of a
handle; the other end is thinned down to a long, wedge-shape point,
18 ETH 5
C)G THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethann.18
and tlie wood is steamed and bent upon itself so tbat the thin edge
rests against the strip just inside of the base of the handle. It is then
held in position by means of two pairs of sticks clamped upon opposite
sides and tied by a wrapping of cord or spruce rootlets. After the
frame becomes dry the clamps are removed and a series of holes are
punched through the overlapping wood. The bottom of the cylinder
formed by the sides has a groove extending around it, in which is fitted
a circular or an oval piece of wood, with the edges chamfered. When
this bottom is in place the stitching of rootlets is passed through the
series of holes in the overlapping ends, holding them permanently in
position.
Plate XXIX, figures 6 and 7, illustrate dippers of this description
from Norton sound and Sledge island, respectively. The latter is not
colored; the former has on the outside of the handle a band extending
around the upper and lower edges of the sides, and a strip around the
sides of the bottom painted red. The red borders on the sides are
outlined on their inner edges by narrow black lines in a slight groove.
Figure 8 of the same plate represents a dipper of slightly different
pattern from the lower Yukon. It is obovate in horizontal section, and
near the beveled edge of the end of the strips of wood which form the
sides of the dipper there is a slightly raised boss extending across it as
a streugthener. Exactly ojiposite this is a similar thickening of the
side, which strengthens it and renders the curves around the ends
uniform, in the same manner that a thickening in the center of a bow
braces it and governs the curves. After being steamed the wood is
bent until two notches cut in the upper edge come together at the
points where one end of the strip should overlap the other inside of
the handle. The ends are then held in place by means of four short,
stout sticks, which are bound in pairs on the outer and inner sides by
means of tightly wrapped spruce roots, which form a strong clamp.
In this manner the wood is held rtrmly in place until it dries, after
which the clamps are removed and a double series of holes are pierced
for sewing. A groove is cnt on the inner side near the lower edge,
into which the chamfered edges of the bottom are sprung. Spruce root-
lets are then sewed along the holes pierced in the side, and the dipper
is ready for use.
Plate XXIX, 12, from Ikogmut (Mission), represents a round, bowl-
shape dipper cut from a single piece of wood, with a flat handle project-
ing on the inner side; its capacity is about a quart.
Figure 10 of the same plate, from St Lawrence island, is a flat-
bottom, bowl-shape dipper, a little smaller than the preceding, which
has a round handle projecting from one side with a quadrate opening
cut through 'it.
The dipper from Cape Nome shown in plate xxix, 9, is made from
the horn of a Dall's sheep. It has a deep spoon-shape bowl, with a
long, slender handle provided with an ivory pin, held in place by two
ivory pegs set in a slot cut through its outer end and projecting down-
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXIV
EARRINGS
NELSON) DIPPERS, LADLES, AND f^POONS 67
ward with a recurved hook. This is intended to prevent the hand from
slipping. Dippers similar to this were obtained from Kotzebue sound.
Among the handsome dippers observed was one seen at Point Hope,
made from fossil mammoth ivory. It was oblong in outline, with a
deeply excavated interior and a handle projecting at one end.
Plate XXIX, 3, from Cape Nome, shows an oval, sijoou-shape ladle,
with a rounded handle, pierced by two orifices, projecting from one side.
A ladle similar to the preceding in form of handle is common along
the coast of Bering strait from Cape Nome to the Diomede islands.
A specimen from Sledge island, shown in figure 2 of plate xxix, is
similar as to the form of the bowl, but has a handle more ornately
carved.
The dipper from Chalitmut, shown in plate xxx, 24, has a handle
smoothly rounded, with a long, slender, oval hole pierced through it.
The inside of the bowl is surrounded by a checked pattern in black,
with a curious figure representing some mythological being marked on
the center in black paint. This jiaint is very durable, since it shows
no signs of defacement, although the utensil has been used in hot water
and in greasy compounds.
Plate xxx, 19, from the lower Kuskokwim, is somewhat similar in
outline to the last. The handle is provided with a very small hole, and
the edge of the bowl is elevated like a rim above the point of insertion
of the handle. This spoon has its inner border encircled by two black
lines with crosslines, and in the center is painted, in black, the form of
a seal with a spear attached to its back, to which is fastened a line with
a float at its outer end. Near the upper edge of the handle are black
crossbars.
Plate xxx, 20, from Cape Vancouver, shows a spoon somewhat similar
in shape to the preceding, but with the handle differing in outline and
the inside of the bowl bordered by a black line, with a conventional
drawing of some mythological animal.
Plate XXIX, 5, from Chalitmut, has the outer end of the handle trun-
cated and a long, narrow, triangular slot cut through it; the inside of
the bowl is ornamented with two drawings, in black, of the killer whale,
and the exterior surface is painted red; the handle is crossed by red
and l)lack bars.
Dipper numbered 38C.J0, is similar in outline to that just described.
On the inside the figure of a man, a circle, and two skins, apparently of
otters, are painted in black; the border of the bowl is surrounded on
the inside by a black line. The handle and the lower border are red
aiul the foi'mer is crossed by a black band.
Plate XXX, 21, from Sfuguuugumut, is similar in outline to the last
mentioned. It has a seal-like animal painted on the bottom, showing-
details of its internal anatomy, and inclosed by two long arms with the
hands extended and the palms pierced similarly to the hands. Similar
figures are seen on masks from this district.
A ladle with a deep bowl, from Paimut, illustrated in plate xxx, 25,
68 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERIXG STRAIT [eth.ann 18
Las the handle narrowed near the base, then widened and narrowed
ajjain toward the to}), ending in a rounded point; a trianguhir slot is cut
through the handle, and near the top is a circular hole; its upper sur-
face is carved around the border, and a quadrangular area with incurved
sides is sunken near the base and painted black; on the lower surface
a groove extends in toward the handle on each side and surrounds the
bottom. The form of a small fish is painted in black on the bottom of
the bowl, which, near its border, is surrounded by two black rings
connected by crossbars.
Plate XXX, 23, from Ohalitmut, has the handle made in two ])arts,
joined by a crossbar near the outer end ; the lower side of the bowl and
part of the handle are painted red; above this the handle is crossed by
one red and two black bands. On the inside of the bowl are painted
flgures of the curious hybi'id animal known in Eskimo mythology as the
metamorphosis of the white whale into a combination of wolf and whale.
Plate XXX, 22, from Sfugnuugumut, is similar in form to others
described. It has the inside of the sjioou outlined by a black line, and
in the center a pattern like that seen on women's earriugs in this dis-
trict, being a circle and a dot with four projecting points which form
corners on the outside of the circle.
Figure !* of the same plate, from Konigunugumut, is a round handle
spoon, the handle being surrounded at equal intervals with thtee beads
cut in the wood; it is not painted.
Figure 10, from Chalitmut, is a plain handle spoon having the form
of a seal painted in black on the inner surface.
Figure 16, from the Kuskokwim, is a plain-handle spoon having a
double-head bird painted in black on the inside; the inner border of
the bowl is surrounded by two black lines.
Plate XXIX, 4, shows a spoon from Sabotnisky with a plain handle
narrowed near the bowl, which is pear shape in outline and has the
figure of an otter painted within it. The border is surrounded near the
upper edge by two black lines; the edge of the rim is red, as are also
the borders of the handle on each side, which are connected by a cross-
bar of red in the middle; the two quadrangular areas of plani wood
thus left on the upper surface of the handle are outlined in black.
Plate XXX, 17, also from Sabotnisky, is a long, oval spoon, with the
bowl continued to form the handle; it has both the upper and the
lower surface ornamented with figures in black.
Plate XXIX, 1, represents a rudely shaped ladle from Big lake. It has
a long handle, flattened above and oval below, and is painted red except
oil the inner surface of the bowl. On this unpainted jiortion is out-
lined a ligure of the head and fore part of tlie body of a mythological
animal, combining features of the wolf and the killer whale. The fin
of the whale is shown rising from the shoulders of the animal, while
the fore feet and the head of the wolf are also represented.
Plate XXIX, 11, from St Lawrence island, is a broad, flattened scoop,
with a short, projecting handle on the inner end and nearly square
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXV
EARRINGS AND OTHER ORNAMENTS ISEVEN-SIXTEENTHSJ
KELSON] DIPPERS, LADLES, AND SPOONS G9
across its outer border. This utensil is used for skimming oil or for
taking the scum from boiling meat.
Plate XMX, 15, represents a small, rudely fashioned wooden spoon
from St Lawrence islaud, somewhat similar in outline to the scoop last
described.
Plate XXX, IS, from Sledge island, is a spoon with a deej) Ixjwl and
a short, neatly turned handle.
Plate XXX, 11, from Kulwoguwigumut, is a short-handle si)ooa
having a narrow black line extending around the inner border of the
bowl, in the center of which are tlie figures of three reindeer and a
large pair of antlers in black.
Plate XXX, 14, from Kushunuk, is a short-handle spoon with a
S(inare, shovel-shai)e edge.
Plate XXX, 13, is similar to the last in shape, but has on the inside
of its bowl the figure of a reindeer in black.
Plate XXX, 12, from Kaialigamnt, is a scoop-shape spoon, with a con-
ventional representation of a wolf-like animal on the bowl, which is
alsi> ornamented with bordering lines of black, and is dotted over with
ronnd, red spots.
Plate XXX, 7, from Point Hope, is a small ivory spoon, with a hole iu
the handle, to wiiicli is attached a piece of rawhide cord.
?^^^S#^i^^^^^5Ss5;;^ss
20 — Miirrow spoon (A).
Plate XXX, 4, from Anogogmut, is a Hat spoon, nmde from reindeer
horn, having its smooth ui)per surface ornamented with three concentric
circles and a black dot, and two parallel incised linos which extend
around the surface just inside the border.
Plate XXX, 3, from Kushunuk, is a long, narrow spoon of deerhorn,
with a hole iu the eud of the handle for attaching a cord.
Plate XXX, 5, from Kushunuk, is a deerhorn spoon, oval on the inner
side and straight on the outer side, with a short handle projecting sj)ur-
like on one side.
Plate XXX, 8, from Kushunuk, is a spoon with a shovel-shape bowl
and a projecting arm like handle at one corner.
Plate XXX, 0, from Kushunuk, is a long-bowl, scoop-shape spoon
without any distinct handle.
A rudely made spoon of walrus ivory, from St Lawrence island, is
reiu'eseuted iu plate xxx, 2. It has a hole at one eud of the handle for
attaching a cord. Spoons similar in shape were obtained also on the
Diomede islands.
Plate xxx, 1, from Pastolik, is a spoon for extracting the marrow from
bones. The handle is scalloped to receive the fingers; two parallel
lines are etched along the borders of the scallops, which terminate below
with the raven totem mark. A deerhorn marrow spoon from Kigik-
70 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18
tauik has a rounded tip and scalloped handle, as shown in the accom-
panying figure 20.
WOODEN DISHES, TBAYS, AND BUCKETS
The Tiune of tlie lower Yukon, adjoining the territory occupied by
the Eskimo, are expert in woodworking. They fashion from spruce
large numbers of wooden dishes, buckets, trays, and ladles, which they
ornament with red and black paint, and the maker usually places his
totem mark on each utensil. They make trips down the river for the
purpose of selling their jn-oducts to the Eskimo, and travel as far as St
iVIichael on the seacoast. In addition to this trade with the Eskimo,
the articles manufactured by these people are distributed over a much
greater extent of territorj- by means of intertribal trading among the
Eskimo themselves.
Besides the ware of this kind obtained from the Tinne, the Eskimo
make similar articles themselves, which are as a rule equally well made.
Examples of this class of work are shown in the ladles, dippers, and
spoons already described and illustrated. The simplest form of tray
or dish made by the Eskimo is that cut from a single piece of wood,
and this variety of utensil is found over a wide area.
Plate XXXI, 1, represents a rude bowl-shape wooden dish from Icy
capo, slightly flattened below to enable it to stand safely.
Figure 2 of the same plate, from St Lawrence island, is a slightly
pear-shape, dipper-like dish, with a flattened bottom and a short, pro-
jecting handle on one side. This is rather rudely made, as are all the
articles obtained on this island.
Figure 0, from the same island, is a tray-like dish with a long,
obovate outline above, and slightly flattened below, with the handle
projecting ui)right from one end. It is rudely made and is without
ornamentation.
Figure <>, from the lower Yukon, is a handsomely made, tray-like dish,
cut from a single piece and bordered around the edge, outside and in,
with a band of red paint, inside of which are two parallel narrow black
lines connected by similar straight crossliiies.
Figure 5, from Chalitmut, is a deep tray, oval in outline and having
the head of an animal at one end, which serves as a handle. At the
other end is a short, quadrate projection I'epresenting the animal's
tail. It is bordered around by a band of red, succeeded by an uncol
ored area and a red line in a groove around the outside. The bottom,
both within and without, is uncolored.
Figure 4, from Big lake, is a smoothly finished, deep, tray-like dish.
The rim is bordered with red and the inside is painted black. At one
end projects a carving representing the head and neck of a human being.
The lace is turned upward and a short string of beads hangs from each
ear. Two white beads are inlaid to represent labrets, and a blue bead
hangs from the pierced septum. A circular piece of wood was cut from
the rear of the head, through which the latter was excavated, and the
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVI
WOMEN AND CHILDREN OF CAPE SMITH
NELsoNl UTENSILS OF WOOD 71
mouth and the eyes were pierced into the hoHow interior. This orifice
is closed with a ueatly fitted circular i)iece of wood.
Figure 8 represents a very well made tray-shape dish from Big lake;
it is oval in outline and is cut from a single block. Projecting from
each end are carved figures of grotescjue human heads which serve as
handles; the eyes are represented by white beads, and others are set
around the grooved upper edge of the dish. The lower surface is not
painted. A groove around the inside, below the edge, is painted black,
succeeded by a red border, below which is a narrow black line. Tlie
inside bottom is ornamented with a large figure of a quadruped with
a short tail and a curious bird-like head marked with a crest.
Another kind of shallow tray or dish is made from two pieces of
wood, the bottom shaped like a truncated cone, the base of which is
turned up and chamfered to lit in a groove on the inside of the rim.
In most specimens the narrow, ledge-like rim is made from a thick
strip ot wood, softened by steam, and then bent around with the beveled
ends overlapping and fastened together with wooden i)egs. These are
in general use on the American coast and on the islands of Bering sea.
Specimens from St Lawrence island are made in the same way except
that the overlapping ends are sewed together with whalebone. The
ledge like borders are beveled to a central ridge on the inside and are
plane along their outer surfaces; in the middle on each side these bor-
dering strips are thickened slightly, in order that in bending them the
curves shall be thrown out regularly.
A tray of this kind from Nulukhtulogumut, represented in plate
xxxii, 3, is painted red around the rim and on the inside to cover the
border. Just inside this is a narrow black line, and on the bottom is
painted in black a grotesque figure of some mythologic animal having
upraised hands with pierced palms; along one side of this figure is a
row of five walruses and on the other five seals.
Plate XXXII, 8, shows a handsomely made tray of similar character,
also from Nulnkhtulogumut. It is about fourteen inches in length and
has inlaid around the beveled inner edge of the rim a series of eight
ueatly cut, almond-shape pieces of white stone. The rim, both outside
and in, is painted red, as is the upper edge on the inside. Just below
this, on the inside, are two parallel, narrow black lines, and jiainted in
black on the bottom is a grotesque figure of some mythological animal,
showing anatomical details.
Plate XXXII, 2, from the same locality as the last, is similar to it in
form and has two mythological figures with heads like reindeer painted
in black on the inside.
Specimen number 454:94, from Ikogmut (Mission), is a large tray
measuring about 28 inches in length and 18 inches in width. It is
painted red around the border, and h's two parallel black lines inside.
On the bottom appears an alligator-like coiled figure, inside of which
a mythologic animal is painted in black.
72 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING .STRAIT [eth.axn.18
Pliite XXXII, 7, from St Lawrence island, is auother type of tray made
from a broad, tiat iiiece of spruce, wbicli has a square groove cut across
inside of each eud; a strip of wood is beut upward to meet the end
pieees, which are fitted into the grooves and held in place by means of
thin strips of whalebone sewed through holes in both edges. This is
a rude piece of work., showing none of the tinish characteristic of speci
mens from the American coast. It is the only tray of this kind that
was seen.
Auother style of utensil made in a similar manner to the trays, but
with the overlapping ends sewed in two iiarallel seams by means of
spruce roots, are the large tubs used for containing water, seal oil,
berries, and other food supplies.
Specimen number 45495 is a tub of ibis kind from Ikogmut. Its sides
are Hi inches high above the ui^jjer edge of the bottom, which is exca-
vated and of tray shape, with chamfered edges to tit into a groove around
the inner edge of the side. The outline of the utensil is an elongated
oval and measures twenty-two inches in length. Some tubs are larger
than this; others are smaller and serve for many uses in the domestic
economy of these people. One of the smaller sizes, from St Lawrence
island (plate xxxii, 1), D inches long, 2.i inches deep, is the ordinary
style of urine tub used by the Eskimo throughout the coast and islands
visited. This with others of the same form obtained on St Lawrence
island, have the overlapping ends united by sewing thin strips of
whalebone through slit like holes made for the purpose. The buckets
used for carrying water are similar in form, the only difterence being
that they are provided with a handle or bail.
A specimen from St Lawrence island (number ti3237) has a bail made
of a narrow, curved piece of bone cut from the .jaw or rib of a whale and
fastened at each end by whalebone strips passed through holes pierced
in the edges of the bucket and in the ends of the liandle. A small
bucket from Cape Vancouver (plate xxxii, 6) has the overlapping ends
of the sides fastened by means of two seams sewed with spruce roots.
The bail is a thin, narrow strip of reindeer antler, with a hole pierced
in each end; it is bent and sprung over the inwardly pi'ojecting ends
of two short bone pegs which are inserted through the rim on each side.
Plate XXXII, 4, from Kushunuk, is very similar to the preceding,
except that the curved handle has the holes in its ends fitted over a
round, slender rod of wood which extends across the top of the bucket,
]iiercing the rim on each side.
Figure 5 of the same jilate, from Kaialigamut, has the handle made
from spruce roots, several turns of which are passed through holes
made for the purpose in the sides of the rim and then united by having
the end wound around the strands crossing the top of the bucket and
fastened at one side. From one side of the handle hangs a feather
attached by a sinew cord.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVII
BELT FASTENERS iSeven-sixteenthS'
NELSON] IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS 73
PESTLES
In coiiuectioii witli the round-bottom trays used to contain food,
broad-Lead wooden pestles are used for crushing berries, seal fat, or
livers of birds and tish with which various pastry mixtures are made.
Plate XXXI, 3, from the lower Yukon, and plate xxxi, 7, from Ikog-
mut, represent typical examples of these implements. They are made
of wootl, with large spreading heads and slightly convex lower sur-
faces; they taper in somewhat conical form toward the handle, which
in one consists of a large ring cut from the same piece as the bead,
and in the other has a flaring rim shaped like the bottom of a goblet.
BLUBBER HOOKS AND CARRIEKS
Figure S, plate xxxiiia, illustrates a hook for handling blubber,
obtained on Nuuivak island by Doctor Dall. It consists of a short
wooden handle curved to a pistol-like grip at the upper end, and having
a slot on the inside of the lower end, in which is set the butt of a
sharp-pointed ivory spur, which is pierced with a large hole, through
which passes a strong rawhide lashing, which also passes through the
wooden handle a little above the insertion of the ivory point. The
base of the ivory point is held in position in the slot by means of an
ivory pin, which is inserted through a hole made in the handle and in
the base of the hook.
A curious article, intended for carrying small pieces of meat or other
articles when traveling (tigure 9, plate xxxiiio), was obtained at Ohalit-
mut. It consists of a wooden handle about seven inches long, slightly
curved along the middle and pierced near both ends to admit the points
of a crescentic rod of deerhorn, truncated at one end and pointed at
the other, which is f)assed through one end of the wooden handle and
wedged in by a wooden pin; the ]>ointed end tits into the hole in tlie
oi)posite side. Just above this the handle is pierced to receive a raw-
hide loop, by which it can be hung up or carried. Pieces of meat or
other objects are placed upon the carrier by being slipped upon the
rod. which is withdrawn for the purpose, after which it is returned and
the point again inserted into the hole in which it fits.
BAGS FOR WATER AND OIL
For carrying water or seal oil while making hunting trips at sea or
on land small bags made from the stomachs or the bladders of reindeer,
white whale, seal, or walrus are in common use. They hold from one
to four (juarts, and usually are provided with ivory nozzles, which are
inserted in the narrow necks of the bags, and are then firmly lashed
with sinew cord above the projecting ridge at the inner ends of the
nozzles. In order that they may be filled easily these nozzles are
made usually with a slightly fiaring mouthpiece, which sometimes is
74 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ethann is
surrounded by a flaring, somewhat spoon-sbape rim. The orifice is
usually rather sraall, and is provided with a woodeu plug or stopper.
Occasionally a funnel is used for filling water bags or small oil bags of
this character.
One specimen of this kind of nozzle from St Michael (figure 11, jilate
xxxiiia) is of wood. The top is of spoon shape, rather flat in outline,
with one end in the form of a grotesque walrus head with small ivory
tusks and eyes represented by inlaid ivory pegs; the other end repre-
sents the hind flippers of the walrus, and the fore flippers are painted
on the inside of the top near the edge. The broad top is excavated
downward to the center, where it is perforated by a round hole. The
lower surface is convex, with a round, projecting, stopper-like base for
inserting in the mouth of the bag.
Figure 5, plate xxxiiio, from St Michael, is a spoon-shape nozzle,
with a projection below through which the hole passes. It is provided
with a wooden stopper attached to a sealskin cord which is fastened
into a hole made in a handle-like projection at one end.
Figure 6 of the same plate, from Nuuvogulukhlugumut, is a some-
what similar spoon-shape nozzle, with a wooden stopper attached to a
cord fastened into a hole at one end.
Figure 2, from Agiukchugumnt, is a funnel-shape mouthpiece, with
a wooden stopper inserted in a hole in the lower part of the wide-
mouth upper end. The outside is marked with raven totem signs.
Figure 3, from Anogogmiit, has a funnel-shape mouthpiece, with its
outer rim marked with raven totem signs.
Figure 4, from the lower Kuskokwim, is a funnel-shape ivory
nozzle, with the interior beveled. The outlines of a wolf and a white
whale are incised on opposite sides of the opening in the interior. The
outer border is marked with the raven totem sign..
Figure 12, from Norton sound, is a uozzIq made from walrus ivory;
the surface is ornamented with etched lines and patterns, and the form
of a seal's head and back appear in relief on two sides.
Figure 7, from St Michael, is a conical mouthpiece without orna-
mentation.
Figure 10, from Sfugunugumut, is a water bag, with a funnel-like
wooden nozzle provided with a wooden stopper attached by a cord.
RAKES
Plate XXXV, 2, rejtresents a rake, from Sabotnisky, made from
a piece of reindeer antler with the tips curved inward; the handle is
worked down flat on the lower and flattened a little on the upper side,
and has a notch for lashing it to a stout wooden haft, the lashing pass-
ing through a hole in the handle. This implement is used for taking
away the refuse in the fire hole of the kashini or for clearing away
refuse material while building a house. It is used also for cleaning
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXVIII
LAMPS AND POTS ione-fifth;
NELSON] IMPLEMEXTS OF VARIOUS KIXDS 75
drift iiKiterial from about the place where nets or lish traps are set iu
rivers or small streams.
ROOT PICKS
Small jjicks, made from bone or ivory, with wooden handles, are used
by the women for digging the edible bulbous roots of a species of grass
which grows on the plains from the Kuskokwim northward to Bering
strait.
Figure 3, plate xxxiiii, illustrates one of three picks from Xorton
sound. It has a flat, wooden handle with two large scalloped incisions
near tlie butt to aid in grasping with the hand ; it is grooved and i)ierced
by two holes. The pick is made from a long, pointed, slender rod of
walrus ivory, held in position against a groove along the front of the
handle by rawhide lashings which pass through the holes.
Figure 1 of the same plate shows a pick obtained on Nunivak island
by Doctor Dall. It has a rounded, wooden handle, with a knob-like
head, flattened in front to I'eceive the iiick and pierced by two holes for
lashings. The pick is half of a walrus tusk, and its flattened side is
bound against the front of the handle by rawhide lashings passing
through two holes in the handle and two corresponding holes in the pick.
Figure 2, from Cape Nome, is a small ivory haTidle for a root pick,
grooved along the front to receive the pick and pierced by two holes
for binding it in position ; a third hole, midway of the lower side of the
handle, is intended for another lashing, to form a brace on the lower
part of the pick.
BONE BREAKERS
For the purpose of breaking large bones in order to extract the
marrow, stone implements are used. These in some cases are simply
hammer-like stones, used without handles, but they are frequently
of very hard stone, ground to a smooth polish and fastened by thongs
to a short handle of wood or other material.
Plate xxxix, 3, represents a small hammer-shape bone breaker of pec-
tolite from Cape Nome. It is somewhat oblong in cross section, with
rounded corners. The sides are smoothly polished, but the ends are
battered and worn down by use.
At Point Hope there was seen a handsome stone breaker of clear
white quartz. It weighed about a pound and a half and was polished
to four very regular surfaces, with the coiners somewhat rounded,
and was secured to a wooden handle by a rawhide lashing.
FIRE-MAKING IMPLEMENTS
The method of obtaining flre, common to so many savage races,
from the heat developed by the friction of a stick worked with great
rapidity on a piece of soft wood by means of a cord, was found in
common use among the Eskimo throughout the region visited, and the
76 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
jjeoiile of tlie lower Yukon and thence southward to the Kuskokwim
were specially expert in its application.
A small uotch is cut in the fire stick, in which the point of the drill
is inserted, wiiile the upper end, which usually is capped with a piece
of stoue or bone, is held in the mouth ; the rai)id revolutiou of the drill
develops suflicient heat to set fire to the dust produced by the friction
which accumulates around the pivot of the drill. This fire is then
transferred to a small piece of punk or tinder and fanned into a fiame.
Plate XXXIV, 3, represents a flat stick, from Norton sound, used for
fire making. It is of dry spruce, having a deep groove along its
upper surface, with a series of little notches opposite each otiier in
pairs along the whole length; near one end are four small circular
pits, where the drill has been used. Figure 2 of this plate shows the
drill intended for use with the fire stick. It is a round, slightly
tapering stick of spruce, about 19 inches in length, and has the upper
end painted red; the bow also is made of spruce, and is about IG
inches long, with a rawhide sealskin cord attached to the holes in the
ends. With this is used the ordinary mouthpiece cap (figure 1 of the
same plate) slightly crescentic in form, with a square piece of white
quartz set in its lower side.
Figures 4, ■>, 7, and S of plate xxxiv illustrate a set of fire-making
implements, from Chalitnuit, consisting of a large drill, the cap of which
has a piece of obsidian set in its lower surface, a double-hand drill
cord with handles made from the points of small walrus tusks, and a
broad fire stick with a step like ledge on one side and several holes
along the center where the drill has been used.
In plate xxxiv, 9, is shown a broad fire stick obtained at Cape Van-
couver. It is made with a ledge along one side which sloi)es inward
a trifle toward the center, where holes have been bored in making fire.
The surface of this si)ecinien is covered with deep holes, showing that
it has frequently been used.
Plate XXXIV, G, represents a tinder box from St Micliael. It is 6i
inches in length, and is made Irom a section of reindeer horn, truncated
at each end and of roughly oval shape in cross section. It has a long,
oval opening on one side, through which the interior was excavated.
In addition to ])rocuriiig fire by means of drills tlie Eskimo make
common use of flint and steel. Sometimes the steel is replaced by a
piece of iron [jyrites, but usually a fragment of an old knife-blade or
other steel object is carried. The flint is held between the thumb and
forefinger of the left hand, just above a little wad of tinder which fre-
quently consists of fur ]ilucked from a garment. The steel is grasped
in the right liiind. and as the downward blow is struck the spark ignites
the tinder, which is then transferred to tlie bowl of the pipe, or to a
larger i)iece of tinder surrounded by fine shavings if the operator wishes
to kindle a fire.
Of late years matches have been sold by the fur traders and are
greatly prized by these people, who are always anxious to obtain them.
3UREAIJ OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXIX
LADLES AND DIPPERS lONE-FIFTHi
IMPLEMENTS OF VARIOUS KINDS
SNOW HEATERS
For beating snow from boots, clotliinj;', and other articles made of
fur, tlie western Eskimo use a long, Hattened piece of bone, ivory, or
deerliorn. Some of these are nearly straight, while others are more
or less curved.
Figure 21, 1, represents a beater of this kind, from Sabotnisky, made
from walrus ivory, smaller at one end, where a strii) of wood is lashed
on the inner side by means of rawliide cord in order to give a tirmer
grii>. This implement is suboval in cross section and is much heavier
than is usually the case.
Fig. 21 — Show beaters (^g).
A strongly curved beater from the lower Yukon (figure 21, 2) is made
from s]ilit deerhorn with a knob, carved into the form of a man's head,
terminating the handle. A snow beater brought from St Lawrence
island is exactly like the one from the lower Yukon in shape and mate-
lial, includiug the knob at the end of the handle, except that the latter
is not carved.
The specimen from Sledge island shown in flgure 21, 4, is made from
■walrus ivory, with a rounded wooden handle fitted upon one end: on
the inside it has a central ridge and on the back is a broad, shallow
groove.
A long snow beater from Cape Prince of Wales (figure 21, 5) is made
of a thin piece of whalebone, nariowed a little toward the handle and
.78
THE ESKIMO AIJOUT P.ERINU STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 13
pierced with a series of boles, througli whicli cords are passed and
M-rapped around the handle to give a stronger grip. A double cord,
about two inches in length, with a knob made from a little roll of cloth
at its upper end, is attached to the
handle, and serves for buttoning this
im])lemeut to the belt so that it may
be cariied conveniently.
Another specimeu from Cape Priuce
of Wales (figure 21, 3) consists of a
long, tapering piece of ivory, nearly
flat on one side and beveled to three
surfaces on the other; the handle has
a series of notches along each border.
Strongly curved beaters of deer-
horn, similar to those found on St
Lawrence island and the lower Yukon,
were observed in use among the na-
tives of the eastern Siberian coast.
SNOW SHOVELS AND ICE PICKS
In the region visited, the Eskimo use
wooden or bone shovels for clearing
away snow from around their houses
or for excavating the snowdrifts.
Picks of walrus ivory or deerhorn
arc also used for removing frozen snow,
for cutting holes in the ice for fishing,
and for other purposes.
A fine wooden snow shovel from
Point Barrow is rei)resented in plate
XXXV, 4. The blade is broad, nearly
flat, and formed of three pieces, hehl
together by means of lashings of
whalebone passed through holes bored
for that purpose; the lower edge of
the wood is fitted by a tongue into a
groove, in a sharp. Hat piece of walrus
ivorj', which is fastened by a series of
wooden pegs. A blue bead is inlaid
on the upper ])art of the blade near
the handle. The handle is IS inclies
in length and subtriangular in cross
section ; the upper end is bound with
braided cord of sinew, to give a firm grip for the hands, while on the
lower end, near the blade, is a lashing of whalebone.
Figure '22, 2, from St Lawrence island, is a rude shovel made from a
Fig. 22— Snow shovela {j'^).
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXX
SPOONS AND LADLES 'ABOUT two-ninths)
SHOVELS, PICKS, AND MALLETS
79
liiecc of the jawbone of a whale, worked down to a thin, flat blade,
roughly rounded in outline. On its upper edge is a projection to which
a stout wooden handle is fastened by means of a strong lashing of
rawhide, which passes through two grooves and two holes in the blade.
Figure 21.', 1 , from Ikogniut, is a wooden .shovel with a long, flat blade
and curved handle carved from one piece. The back surface of the
blade is slightly convex, with a medium ridge which extends upward to
the handle. The back and the
portion of the handle where,
held are painted red. On the
inner surface of the blade,
near the handle, is the private
mark of the owner, consisting
of an incised circle and two
straight grooves extending ob-
liquely outward from its upper
edge to the shoulders of tlie
blade.
Plate XXXV, 1, represents an
ice pick obtained at Point Bar-
row. It is made from a srhall
walrus tusk attached to a flat
wooden handle by strong raw-
bide lashing passed through a
hole in the handle and two
holes iu the butt of the pick.
The handle is wrapped in two
places with braided sinew cord,
to aftbrd a firm grip for both
hands, above which are slight
projections of the wood to pre-
vent it from slipping.
MALLETS
Mallets of wood or deerhorn
are used for breaking ice from
the framework of fish traps
and sledge runners, for driving-
purposes.
Figure 23, 1, from Sabotniskj-, is a deerhorn mallet about 12 inches
in length, with one end worked down to a flattened handle and the
other having a rounded knob truncated upon one face. The handle is
pierced for the reception of a rawhide cord, by means of whicli the
mallet can be suspended from the wrist.
Figure 23, 3, from Ikogmut, is a small wooden mallet with a slender
rod like handle about 5i inches in length ; the head is made Irom a
-Mallets (J).
small pegs, and for other similar
80 THE ESKIMO AI50UT BERING STRAIT (etiiaxn. 18
rounded ,!;rowtli of wood wliii-b had formed au excrescence on the
branch which serves as the handle.
Figure 23, 2, from Sabotnisky, is a small deerhoru mallet with a han-
dle 3A inches in length, jiierccd at its outer end for a cord and with
the head rounded above and truncated below. In the front are carved
two large, eye-like cavities with a rudely shaped nose and a slightly
incised groove to represent the mouth, giving the front a resemblauce
to a grotesque human face.
IMPIiEMENTS 1 SKI) IN ARTS AKD IVIANUFACTURES
IVOKY AND }{ONE WORKING TOOLS
111 former times the tools used by the Eskimo for working ivory, bone,
and deerhoru were chipped from flint or other hard stones, and some-
times for etching or scoring deeper lines the canine teeth of small
mammals were used, mounted on a short handle. Since iron and steel
have become common among them, however, tools made from these
metals have superseded to a great extent the more primitive imple-
ments. The tools now in use are scrapers, scoring or etching imple-
ments, wedges for splitting the material, and narrow pieces of thin iron
witli serrated edges for use as saws.
P'igure 9, plate xxxvifl, is a small saw obtained at Port Clarence by
Dr T. 11. Bean. The blade is set in a handle in a manner similar to
that of a table knife.
Figure 10 of the same i)late is a saw from Cape Prince of Wales,
evidently modeled from those in use by white men. It is 11 inches
long; the blade is a long, narrow strip of irou with teeth cut in the lower
edge; it is riveted into slots in small round pieces of ivory which are
fastened into a wooden frame. A wooden rod extends across the
middle of the frame into which it is dovetailed; a double cord of raw-
hide is stretched across the frame, between the two strands of which
a piece of bone is inserted for twisting the cords and thereby tighten-
ing the blade of the saw in the frame.
Another style of saw is made by inserting a narrow piece of iron with
a serrated edge in a slot cut in a long piece of ivory, horn, or bone.
Sometimes these saws are mere strips of iron with teeth cut in one
edge and without either handle or frame.
Figure (i. plate xxxvi«, represents a frame for one of these saws from
Unalaklit. It is made of reindeer horn and has a projecting spur on its
u])per side, the same end being bent downward to serve as a handle.
I'igure 7 of this plate is a scoring or etching implement from the
Yukon district. The irou point is wedged firmly into a slit in the end
of the handle, which has a conical hole on one side, having evidently
served as a cap for a drill.
Figure 8, from Cape Darby, is a handle for one of these tools, made
from two pieces of bone with a slot for fitting in an iron point; the two
pieces are riveted together by wooden pins, and a rawhide cord is
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL, XXXI
TRAYS AND PESTLES 'one-fifthi
NELSONJ IVORY-AVORKING TOOLS — DRILLS 81
wrapped tightly aroiiucl the lower eud to hold the iron jjoint lirinly in
position .
Figure 3 is an iron pointed awl, from Chalitmut, used as au etching
tool in ivory working as well as for a bodkiu.
Figure 1, from St Lawrence island, is a similar tool of slightly differ-
ent construction, being made with a slot on one side of the handle into
which the end of the blade is ijlaced; a wooden plug is then fitted over
the slot, and the eud wrapped around with a sinew cord to hold the
blade and plug in position. From St Lawrence island another imple-
ment of this kind was obtained; it is made in the ordinary style, with
the blade wedged into a hole cut in the bone handle.
From the same locality came another specimen (figure 4, plate
xxxvirt) which has the blade fitted into a slot cut in the side of the
wooden handle, and held in position by a wrapping of whalebone, one
eud of which is set in a slit in the handle. This is one of the rudest
implements of the kind obtained.
Figure 5, from St Lawrence island, is an ivory working tool with a
curved blade made of iron set in a notch in the end of the handle.
Figure 2, from St Michael, is another style of ivory working tool. It
has a curved handle with a small iron blade set in a slot near the end
of the handle on the lower side.
DRILLS, DRILL-HOWS, AND CAPS
Drills are used for piercing holes in bone, ivory, reindeer antler, or
wood. They consist of a wooden shaft with a point of stone or iron
merely inserted in the wood or sometimes held firmly in jdace by wrap-
ping with sinew or rawlude. A cap is fitted over the upper end, and
the shaft is made to revolve rapidly by means of a stout rawhide cord
passed twice around it and sawed backward and forward by the oper-
ator who grasps handles in the ends of the cords. The large drills,
used for boring holes in wood when manufacturing tlie frames of umiaks,
kaiaks, and sledges, or in bone for sledge runners, are worked by two
men, one of whom presses down on the cap of the stem and keeps it in
position while the other works the cord.
Smaller drills, witli finer jjoints, for more minute work are operated
by one man, a bow being used instead of a loose cord, which enables
the o^jerator to use his left hand to hold the shaft in position by press-
ing on the cap. If the material be hard and difiQcult to drill the cap
piece is grasped in the teeth and both hands used to work the bow; or
sometimes, if a small object is to be drilled, it is held in the left hand,
the cap is held in the teeth, and the drill bow worked by the right
hand.
Plate XXXVII, 8, obtained at Point Barrow by Lieutenant Eay, is
a large drill with a wooden stem, and with a well-made flint point
inserted in its lower end and held fast by a wrapping of sinew cord.
It is intended to be used with the double-hand cord.
Figure 7 of the same plate, also obtained by Lieutenant Eay from
18 ETH 0
82 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eih.ann. 18
the s.iine locality, lias a Hint point mounted in a hollowed bone ferrule
to fit on the lower end of the shaft.
Figure 10, from Norton sound, is a drill having the iron point
mounted in a bone head, the base of which is divided by a wedge-
shape slot in which the wooden shaft is mounted and held in i)lace by
a wrapping of rawhide.
Figure 9, from Cape Nome, is also an iron-point drill, mounted simi-
larly to the preceding except that the wooden shaft is held in position
in the bone head by rivets.
Figure ?«, from St Lawrence island, is a drill with a broad, flat point
of iron inserted in the wooden shaft without any wrapping or other
fastening.
Figure 4, from St Lawrence island, is somewhat similarly mounted,
but the point of the shaft is tapered down and wrapped with a strip of
whalebone.
Figure .'J, from Norton sound, has a greenstone point mounted iu
the end of a wooden shaft and held in place by a wrapping of sinew.
Another specimen, from Hothaui inlet, is provided with a finely made
nephrite point.
Figure 0, from Paimut, is a similarly made greenish stone drill
point.
Figure 2, from St Lawrence island, is another small drill. It has
the lower end of the stock narrowed down and wrapped with sinew to
hold the ])oint in position.
The large canine teeth of bears are commonly used for the cross
handles at the ends of the drill cords; they are drilled crosswise
through the middle, and the cord is then passed through and fastened
at each end. Figure 21, from Norton sound, is an example of these
handles. Various other forms of drill handles are used; some are
made from the wing-bones of waterfowl; others are carved from deer-
horn or ivory to represent seals, fish, or other forms.
Figure 14, from Ivotzebue sound, shows one of a pair of handles made
from smooth bars of walrus ivory, slightly curved on their outer surface
and having a double curve on the inside, in which the fingers rest
when grasping it.
Figure 15, from St Michael, is another of these handles carved from
walrus ivory to represent two heads of a white bear.
Figure 20, from Paimut, represents a pair of handles, each in the
form of a fish-like creature with the tail of a white wliale. Caps for
drill shafts to be used with double-hand cords are made usually with
the top smoothly rounded : sometimes they are large cnougli only for
one hand, but ordinarily are made for grasping with both. Nearly all
of these objects are provided with a hole in one end for attaching to
the drill (!ord when not in use. They are generally made of wood, with
a piece of stone set in the lower side, in which is a small conical depres-
sion to receive the top of the shaft.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXII
TRAYS AND BUCKETS iQNE-FIFTH)
NELSON] DRILL -CAPS ■ 83
Figure 30, from St Lawrence islaiul, is a piece of walrus tusk, about
five iuches in lengtli, rouglily oblong in shape, with a conical depression
in one side for receiving the top of the shaft.
Figure 29, from the same locality, is another rough piece of walrus
tusk, made with a conical depression in each side for receiving the top
of the shaft. These two are the rudest implements of this description
that were obtained.
Figure 27 is a cap having the wood rudely carved into the form of a
seal, with a square hole through the tail, in which the drill cord (-an be
tied when not in use. This specimen is from the Kuskokwim.
Figure 22, from Norton sound, is a cap with an oval piece of white
quartz set in the lower side and the wooden portion carved in the form
of a wolf flsh.
Figure 28, from Cape Nome, has a square piece of grayish-white
stone set in its lower surface, and the two long arms, one at each end,
are carved to represent the heads of white bears. This drill cap is
intended to be used either singly, with the crossbar mouthpiece, or by
grasping the ends with the hands. Figure 27, from the Kuskokwim,
is a similar cap, having inserted a \nece of stone, mottled green, black,
and white in color.
Figure 2.3, from Agiukchugumut, is made in the form of a seal, with
a hard, milky white, tlat stone set in its lower surface.
Figure 25, obtained on Nunivak island by Ur W. H. Dall, is made
from an oval piece of white quartz with a conical depression in its lower
surface. A groove extends around the side, in which is fastened a raw-
hide cord with a loop at one end to which the drill cord can be fastened.
Figure 24, from Sabotnisky, is a long, oval, green and black stone,
having the usual conical pit in one side; this, like the preceding, is
made for holding in one hand.
Figure 26, from Cape Nome, is a long, rather slender cap or handle
of wood, having a small, square piece of stone set in its lower surface
and provided with a projecting block on its ujjper side for grasping
with the teeth; it is carved at each end to reinesent a wolf's head, and
is intended for use with either a large or a small drill. A cap obtained
at Cape Darby is also made to serve for both kinds of drills.
The caps to be used exclusively with the small drills, worked with a
bow, are always provided with a projecting block on the upper sur-
face for grasping with the teeth, and are much more elaborately made
than are those used with the larger drills. They are commonly some-
what crescentic in form, and have a piece of stone or lead set in the con-
vex lower surface; where stone is used it is cut usually into a square or
rounded outline and is neatly inlaid. Two specimens, however, are of
walrus ivory and are without any stone setting, the conical depression
being made directly in the material of the cap. Of these, figure 16 is
from Cape Nome and figure 17 from the Diomede islands.
Figure 11, from the lower Yukon, has a ciescentic outline and is
carved on the convex surface at one end to represent a human face and
84 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. ant,-. 18.
at the other the head of some auimal. A round piece of stoue is
inserted iu the center.
From Yukon river and Niinivak island were obtained rudely made
si^eciraens similar in character to those used with the double hand
cord, except that they have the back carved to permit of their being
seized in the teeth.
Figure 13, from Kotzebue sound, is a crescentic i)iece of wood with a
square stone inlaid in its lower surface; a crossbar of wood for grasp-
ing in the teeth is fastened on the upper surface by means of stropg
rawhide wrappings.
Figure 1, from Cape Nome, is a crescentic piece of wood pierced
with a triangular hole near each end, and a round stone is set in the
center.
Figure 18, from Norton sound, is a crescentic piece of wood with a
squai'e piece of iron set iu the center, and a crescentic incision on each
side of the thin upper border to give a hold for the teeth.
Figure 19, from Norton sound, is a long, slender cap, having a gro-
tesque head on each end.
Figure 12, from the Diomede islands, is strongly crescentic, with a
high ledge inside for grasping with the teeth, and with blue beads
inlaid on each side of the stone center.
Drill bows, some of which are nearly straight while others are
strongly curved, measuring from 12 to 18 inches in length, are in com-
mon use over all of the region visited. They are square, suboval, or
triangular in cross section, and commonly have one or more of the sur-
faces covered with etchings rei)resenting various incidents in the life of
the owner, such as a record of the animals killed by him on various
hunts, the number of skins of certain animals he has ijossessed, or
other personal data.
Figure 7, plate xxxvi&, from Sledge island, is a slender, nearly
straight ivory bow, with one surface etched to represent houses, people,
and umiaks.
Figure 10 of the same plate, from the same locality, is triangular in
cross section, and the three sides are covered with a great number of
figures and scenes.
Figure 11, from the Diomede islands, is a nearly straight ivory rod
with the surfaces etched.
Figure 3, from Cape Nome, is triangular iu cross section and has the
three sides covered with a multitude of small etched figures.
Figure 9, from Cape Darby, is triangular in cross section and has
one side etched with figures.
Figure 1, from Cape Darby, is oblong in section and strongly curved,
with figures etched on two of its surfaces. Figure 2 shows a specimen
from the same place that is etched on all of its sides.
Figure 5, from Norton sound, is oblong in cross section, with two of
its surfaces etched.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXIII
WATER BAG, MOUTHPIECES, BLUBBER HOOK, AND CARRIER l About one-sixth)
K. 'I ■ 1 hvCKb I About une-titthl
IMPLEMENTS AND UTENSILS
NELSON) DRILL-BOWS — KNIVES 85
Figure 6, from H^orton sound, lias one end terminating in a figure
representing the head of some animal and with etched lines and pat-
terns along two sides.
Figure 4, from Norton sound, is a curved piece of deer antler, quad-
rangular in outline and etched on three of its sides.
Figure 8, from Point Hope, is triangular in cross section, with the
angles cut into scalloped outlines.
KNIVES
For whittling, carving, and finishing all kinds of woodwork the
Eskimo use what is commonly called a "crooked knife," the curved
blade of which varies from one to three inches in length, and is made
usually from hoop iron or some similar scrap, but sometimes a portion
of a steel knife blade is cut and bent for this jjurpose. The handle of
bone, horn, or wood tapers downward to a point, and is from four to
fifteen inches in length. This knife is the principal tool used in fashion-
ing and finishing a great variety of boxes, dishes, trays, tubs, spear-
shafts, bows, arrows, and frames for umiaks, kaiaks, sledges, and other
woodwork. The wood is first blocked out with an adze, after which it
is cut into the desired shape, smoothed, and finished by patient labor
with the knife. It is surprising to notice the dexterity with which this
tool is used, and the excellent work produced with it.
One of these knives (plate xxxviii, 26), from Norton sound, has the
blade set in a groove in the inner edge of the handle near the end, and
with no other fa.stening. The handle is wrapped with spruce roots
just above the blade, in order to give a better grip for the hand. The
under side of the handle has a conical depression, showing that it has
been used as a cap for a small drillhead.
Figure 31 of the same plate, from Nunivak island, is the rudest of
all the knives of. this kind that were obtained. It has a short, thick
piece of iron wedged into a slot in the handle, while the inner end of the
blade is held in place by sinew lashing. The lower side of the handle
has a small conical depression, marking its use as a cap for a drillhead.
From St Lawrence island were obtained two knives of this descrip-
tion, made of long, tapering pieces of iron set into wooden handles, but
in a manner different from the foregoing. One of these (plate xxxviii,
27) has the inner end of the blade set in a deep, flat hole in the end of
the handle, somewhat as the blade is set in an ordinary table knife.
The handle is oval in cross section, with a sliglitly enlarged truncated
end, and is only about four inches in length. Xext to the blade is a
groove, which serves to receive a sinew wrapping.
Plate XXXVIII, 29, shows a knife of similar shape, but the end of the
biade is fitted into a gore-shape slot sunk in the side of the handle, into
which is fitted a thin strip of wood, filling it out so that the outline is
continuous with the rest of the handle. Over this is wrapped a sinew
cord for holding the blade in place.
Plate XXXVIII, 30, from Kulwoguwigumut, is a knife with a bone
86 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
liaiidle about four inches long, crossed with diagonal, zigzag, etched
lines, and scored with a series of straight lines running its length, with
a groove around it near each end. In the end of the handle is wedged
a sliort, straight, iron blade about two inches in length with a heavy
back and a sharp edge. At the other extremity of the handle is a
rawhide loop fastened into a hole by a wedge.
Figure 25 of this plate, from Hotham inlet, has the blade fastened
to the handle by two iron rivets; the upper surface of the handle is
grooved for about four inches next the blade to enable a firm grasp;
the under surface of the handle is excavated. In the handle two holes
are x)iercedfor fastening the end of a cord by which a leather sheath is
attached.
Figure 22, from Hotham inlet, has the blade attached in the same
manner as the preceding and has a handle of similar shape. Instead of
grooves, as in the preceding specimen, this liuife has a series of holes
pierced along the front of the handle extending upward for about four
inches, through which are passed two rawhide cords; these are wouud
around a narrow strip of wood, holding it in place agaiust the front
edge of the handle to give a better grip for the hand. Attached to the
handle is a leather sheath.
Figure 10, from Norton sound, has a handle of two parts; the lower
piece, to which the blade is riveted, is of bone, and the upper of wood.
They are neatly joined by a close wrapping of spruce root.
Figure 28, from St ^lichael, has the blade fitted into a groove or slit
made in the inner edge of the bone handle, which is wrapped with a
stout rawhide cord to hold the blade in place, and has three ships
etched upon it.
CHISELS
A flat, round-pointed, chisel-like implement of bone is iu common
use for making incised grooves in wood preparatory to splitting it for
use in the manufacture of various articles. Specimens of these tools
were obtained at different localities from the mouth of the Kuskokwim
northward to Kotzebue sound.
Plate XXXVIII, 1-t, represents a typical imijlement of this kind from
Kotzebue sound. It is made of bone and has a sinew cord forming a
loop for suspension passed through a hole near the head of tlie instru-
ment. Another specimen, from Kushuuuk (plate xxxviii, 12), is similar
in form, but slenderer.
Plate XXXVIII, 10, from Sledge island, is a small tool of this character
made of reindeer horn. It is very slender; the handle is bent at an
angle with the shank and has tlie top neatly carved in the form of a
reindeer hoof. The thin, narrow point is used for making small inci-
sions in the wood of arrow or spear shafts for the purpose of inserting
feathers, also for making little slits in which are fastened the ends of
sinew wrappings of spears, arrows, or other imi)lements.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXIV
FIRE-MAKING IMPLEMENTS ONE-FIFTH)
CHISELS FINISHING TOOLS
87
Plate XXXVIII, 9, from Kusbunuk, is auotber slightly cuiveil iuiple-
meut of bone, suboval in cross section and Lrouglit down to a llattcned,
rounded, wedge-shape point. The handle is wrapped with a tine rootlet
to afibrd a tirmer grasp for the hand, and has a round hole near the end
for attaching a cord.
Plate XXXVIII, 15, from Ikoginut, is another of these wood-working
chisels, made of bone, having the raven totem etched on the upper
surface and a grotesque human countenance on tlie end of the handle;
just below the head it is encircled by a series of ornamental lines and
dots. Figure l.'J of the same jjlate, from
Sledge island, is a similar imijlement.
In the accompanying figure 2i, 2, is
shown a curved chisel of deerhorn for
making wooden splints. It is very
much discolored from age, and upon
the in.side of the curve are etched two
raven totem signs. This chisel is from
Kusliunuk.
Plate XXXVIII, IS, from the lower
Kuskokwim, is another of these tools.
It terminates at the upper end in a
carving which represents the head of a
gull. Figure 24, 1, from Nunivak isl-
and, is a broad-handle chisel of bone,
roughly cresceutic in cross section. It
has the convex upper surface covered
with etchings representing a seal with
anatomical details; the interspace is
filled with a complicated mixture of
other figures representing iishes and
various animals and conventional signs.
POLISHING AND FINISHING TOOLS
For producing a smooth surface and
for finishing woodwork of all kinds
when it is desired to complete it with
more than usual neatness, a variety of
small implements of deer antler are used, in which are cut notches of
varying form for the purpose of rubbing along the i)rojecting angles
and edges of the article in course of manufacture.
Plate XXXVIII, 7, represents an implement of this kind from Sledge
island, having a broad notch in each end. Plate xxxviii, 3, obtained
at Port Clarence by Ur T. H. Bean, is somewhat similar in character
to the preceding. Figure G of this plate, from the lower Yukon, has a
single notch in one end and a long, curved handle. Figures 1, 4, and 8
are from the lower Yukon, and vary m the airangement of the points
FlQ. 24— Wood cliisel;
88 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethasx. 18
and notches. Figure 2, also from the lower Yukon, has the end cut
into two notches with two i)oints of different sha])e, one on each side.
Figure 5, from the lower Yukon, shows still another form.
Plate xxxviii, 11, from the lower Yukon, is a bent piece of deerhorn
having a screw-driver set in one end; the other end is fashioned into
notches to form a finishing tool.
Plate XXXVIII, 10, from Kotzebue sound, is a small piece of fossil
mammoth ivory, with a rounded handle and a knob-like head, the lower
surface of which is convex in shape and smoothly polished. Tlie sides
and the top of the handle are provided with hollows to receive the
thumb and the first two fingers.
WEDGES AND MAULS
Wedges of wood, bone, deerhorn, and ivory are used for splitting
wood; they vary considerably in size, but the majority are from six to
eight inches in length. Heavy wooden mauls are used for driving them.
Plate XXXIX, 5, shows a wedge, from the Diomede islands, made
from the butt of an old walrus tusi;, beveled from both sides. Around
the lower end is a broad, sunken gi-oove for the attachment of a handle,
thus permitting the use of the implement as an ax.
Plate XXXIX, G, represents a small wooden wedge used in making
splints for fish traps. It has a short groove, painted red, on each side,
which is said to represent the track of a land otter in the snow and
to be the private mark of the maker. Two more of these wedges were
obtained from the same man, one of them being about five inches and
the other eleven inches in length.
Plate XXXIX, 1, represents a deerhorn wedge from the lower Yukon.
From Point Hope was obtained a rude wedge, made from a piece of
the jawbone of a whale and beveled on one of its two sides.
Plate XXXIX, 2, from Xunivak island, obtained by Dr W, H. Ball, is
a curiously shaped wedge of reindeer horn, having a projecting prong
on one side. In the middle is fastened a little tuft of reindeer hair by
means of a peg inserted in a hole made for the purpose.
Plate XXXIX, 7, from St Lawrence island, is a wedge of walrus ivory.
Plate XXXV, 3, from Hotham inlet, is a heavy maul or beetle made
from a section of fossil mammoth tusk about 18 inches in length.
AEKOAVSHAFT STBAIGHTENEBS
Straighteners for arrowshafts are in common use throughout western
Alaska, and the collection contains a large series of implements of this
kind. Deerhorn and walrus ivory are the materials commonly employed
in their manufacture, and considerable ingenuity is shown in shaping
them.
Plate XL, 9, from the lower Yukon, is a small, roughly made shaft
straightener of deerhorn, as is figure 0 of the same plate, from the same
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXV
SNOW SHOVEL. PICK, RAKE, AND MAUL iQNE-FIFTHi
NELSON] ARROWSHAFT STRAIGHTENERS BEAVER-TOOTH TOOLS. 89
locality. A speciineu (figure 11) from Golofuiu bay, made from deer-
liorn, has oue end sbaped to represent the bead of a deer. Figure 4,
from Cape Nome, has a well-carved head of a reindeer on the larger
end, with the eyes iormed by inlaid beads; the other end terminates
in a representation of a hoof.
Plate XL, 3, from Cape Nome, has the larger end terminating in the
form of the head and forelegs of a white bear, the eyes being repre-
sented by blue beads. ,
Plate XL, 12, from Sledge island, is of deerhorn, and has the head of
a deer carved upon its larger end with blue beads for eyes. Another
specimen from Sledge island is of ivory and shows signs of great
age. It is the only one of these objects showing much effort at orna-
mentation by etched figures; scattered over the surface a number of
reindeer are represented. Plate XL, 2, from the Diomede islands, is
of ivory and lias two bears' heads rudely carved on the larger end.
Figure 7, rom Hotham inlet, is a beautiful specimen representing a
reindeer in a recumbent position, witli the legs folded beneath the bodj'.
Figure 8, from Kotzebue sound, is another fine carving, representing a
reindeer lying down with the legs folded beneath the body; the horns
are represented by two spilces of iron set in the head; the eyes were
represented by beads, which have been lost. Figure 10, from Point
Hope, has the larger end rounded into a knob-like termination which
is crossed along its upper edge by a series of incised grooves. Speci-
mens similar in form to that shown in figure G were found over a wide
area and seem to be the most general type of these implements.
Plate XL, 1, from Norton sound, made from deerhorn, and figure 5, of
wood, from the same locality, are somewhat similar in form to straight-
eners for arrowshafts, but are used for straightening and setting
arrowpoiuts.
BEAVER-TOOTH TOOLS
A tool made from the chisel-shape tooth of the beaver is used as a
gouge for making the hollows for the fingers in throwing-sticks, for
cutting grooves, and for excavating hollows in fashioning boxes, masks,
spoons, and wooden dishes. The smooth back of the tooth is used also
as a polishing instrument for finishing woodwojk, and tlie carved outer
edge serves for sharpening knives by rubbing it sharply along the
blades. These tools are still in use, but to some extent they have been
superseded by implements of steel and iron, since these metals have
become more easily obtainable. Plate xxxA'iii, 21, from Chalitmut, Is
a typical example of these implements, having a beaver tooth set in a
wooden handle and held firmly in place by a wrapping of rootlets.
Figure 2~>, 3, from Port Clarence, is a beaver tooth for shariiening
steel or iron knives, set in a short wooden haft with a wrapping about
the end. Figure 25, 2, from Norton sound, is a beaver-tooth knife
sharpener, with a strip of tanned skin, about seven inches in length.
90
THE ESKIMO AliOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
fastened about the center for attaching it to tlie belt. Figure 25, 1,
from Norton sound, is a similar implement, with a strip of skin lashed
to the butt with a sinew cord for attaching it to a belt.
Plate XXXVIII, 23, from the lower Yukon, is a double-end tool of this
kind, having a tooth set in each extremity of the handle.
lilRCH-UARK TOOLS
Implements for strii)ping bark from
wherever those trees are found.
Plate xxxviii, 20, represents two
birch trees are used in Alaska
of these tools from the lower
Yukon ; they are
intended to be
used together aiid
are coupled by a
rawhide cord. Oue
of them has a
short, knife-like
blade, which pro-
jects a little more
than half an inch
from the handle
and has two sharp
points wliich are
used to mark the
outlines of the
sheets of bark to
be stripped from
the tree; the han-
dle consists of two
pieces of spruce,
between which the
blade is inserted
and is kei^t in
place by strong
Fig. 25— Knife sharpeners (Vi). Wrappings of raw
hide cord. The
other implement is a long, knife-like piece of bone, on which the raven
totem is rudely cut. After the birch-bark has been scored by the first-
described iiuplement, the point of the other is inserted between the
bark and the wood and forced around the truuk of the tree to separate
and remove the bark.
Plate xxxviii, 17, from the head of Norton sound, is a long bone knife
for removing birch-bark from the tree. It is sharpened at the point
and on one edge; the butt is heavily etched with zigzag patterns and
with the raven totem mark.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVI
(ONE-FOURTH NATURAL SIZE
(ONE-FIFTH NATURAL SlZEi
IVORY-WORKING TOOLS AND DRILL BOWS
NELSON]
CELTS, ADZKS, AND FLAKING TOOLS
91
STONE IMPLEMENTS
Celts and axes of nephrite or other hard stone are fashioned by
grinding into shape and sometimes by pecking, and are finished by
grinding or friction with other stones. Knife blades, lance points, and
whetstones are also made from these substances in a similar manner.
The stone celts, axes, and wedges are mounted on handles of wood and
deerhoru and are very skilfully used by the Eskimo for hewing atid
surfacing logs and planks, although at the present time they are being
displaced by iron and steel tools obtained from white traders. In a
hashim on the lower Yukon a plank was seen that was made many
years ago by use of a stone adz. It was 25 feet long and four or live
inches thick. The surface bore so many marks made by the hacking of
Fig. 26— Flint flakers (J).
stone adzes that it looked as if it might have been cut by beavers.
Flint knives, spearheads, and arrowpoints are made by flaking. The
flakers are made of small, rod-like pieces of deerhorn, wood, or ivory,
fastened into a slot at_the end of a handle, usually of ivory or deer-
horn, with wrappings of sinew or rawhide cord.
Figure 26, 3, represents one of these flaking implements from Kotze-
bue sound. Figure 26, 4, is another flaker from the same locality, with
a handle made from fossil mammoth ivory. Figure 20 2, from Hotliam
inlet, and figure 26, 1, from Point Hope, represent flakers with similar
handles. Figure 26, 5, from Kotzebue sound, has a handle of deerhorn.
Formerly small fragments of flint were used for scraping down the
surfaces of bone, ivory, or deerhorn articles in the course of manufac-
ture, but for this purpose steel or iron implements are now in common
use, and naturally produce much more satisfactory results.
92 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT |eth.ann. 18
• Plate XXXIX, 14, from Norton sound, is a wooden-handle adz, with
a deerhorn head in which is fitted a point of hard, greenish-colored
stone, ground to a sharp edge. Plate xxxix, 10, also from Norton
sound, is another wooden-handle adz, with a deerhorn head in which
is fitted a small, greenstone point, with a smoothly ground edge.
These two specimens are hafted in tlie style commonly employed before
iron was brought to the country by the Eussians.
A considerable variety of stone blades or celts for use as adzes was
obtained from points between the lower Kuskokwim and Kotzebue
sound.
Plate xxxix, 12, from Sledge island, is a fine large celt of nephrite,
measuring 9 inches in length, 3 inches in width, and an inch and a
quarter in thickness; it is roughly quadrate in cross section, and the
point is smoothly beveled on both sides to a chisel-shape edge. Plate
XXXIX, 8, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a small adz blade of nephrite
intended for setting into the bone or deerhorn head of the implement.
Plate XXXIX, 3, from Cape Nome, is a pale, olive-greenish colored stone
adz, hiiving two grooves around its upper end to admit rawhide lash-
ings, by means of which it can be attached directly to a haft.
Plate XXXIX, 11, from the lower Kuskokwim, is a curiously shaped
celt, partly ground and partly pecked into shape; the point is I'oughly
flattened on one side and oval on the other. A groove is jjecked
around the upper part of the head, by means of which, with the
shoulder lower down on the same face, the head is attached directly
to the handle and secured by rawhide lashings.
Plate XXXIX, 13, represents a celt from the lower Yukon, somewhat
similar in style to the last s]iecimen. Plate xxxix, 9, from the lower
Yukon, is an adz head made from slate.
Figure 1 of the same plate is an adz handle from the lower Yukon,
made fiom reindeer antler. It has been sawed from the lower end
nearly to the head, and a piece of wood inserted for the purpose of
enlarging the shaft and artbrding a better grip for the hand. Another
piece of horn, having a slot in the lower end for the reception of a
stone blade, is bound firmly to it by rawhide cords.
On one of the Diomede islands a pieceof nejihrite was obtained from
which ax heads had been cut. It was said to have been brought from the
Kaviak peninsula. It measures 9{ inches broad and 2.J inches in thick-
ness. The longest edge is smoothly iwlished and has a coarse groove
down the center, showing where a ronghed-out celt has been detached.
Nephrite is used largely for making whetstones; slate is also in com-
mon use for this purpose, and other hard stones are occasionally
employed. A nephrite whetstone from Kotzebue sound (plate lxv, 1)
has a deep longitudinal groove on each side, terminating in a hole
through which is passed a loop of sealskin for attaching the implement
to the waist belt.
Figure 2~>, 5, shows a smaller stone of similar character from Unalak-
lit. The specimen shown in figure 25, 4, was obtained on St Lawrence
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVII
DRILLS, DRILL CAPS, AND CORDS 'One-Fourth
NKLsoxl RECEPTACLES FOR TOOLS 93
island; it is made of slate, and is pierced at oue end for the receptiou
of a sinew cord.
TOOL BAGS AND HANDLES
Large oblong bags or satchels made of skin are iu common use
among the Eskimo for holding tools and implements of all kinds,
including arrow and spear points, and other odds and ends which may
have been accumulated. They have slightly arched handles of ivory or
bone stretched lengthwise across the open mouth. Peculiarly shaped,
long, narrow wooden boxes are also used for the same par))ose; these
are often carved into a variety of forms with great ingenuity.
One of these tool bags from Cape Darby is illustrated iu plate xli,
7. It is made from the skin of four wolverine heads, with a bottom of
tanned sealskin with the hair side turned inward. The walrus ivory
handle, 17 inches iu length, has etched along its lower surface repre-
sentations of thirty-four wolverine skins, and the ends are carved to
form heads of animals; the upper surface is plain, with the exception
of a groove iu one side.
Plate XLi, 2, is an ivory bag handle from Sledge island, which has
etched on it the representation of eight tails of whales and numerous
wolverine, fox, and wolf skins.
Figure i of the same plate, also of ivory, from Kotzebue sound, has
scalloped edges, and etched upon the convex surface are the outlines
of whales and skins of wolverines and otters. On the convex side is
represented a man pointing a gun at a bear, seven other bears, a man
in a kaiak pursuing a whale, and another shooting waterfowl with a
bow and arrow.
Figure ti of this plate, from Kotzebue sound, has both surfaces covered
with etchings of the skins of various fur-bearing animals.
Figure 5, from Point Hope, is a slender handle of deerhorn, having
a series of etched figures of deer and men along one side and ternunat-
ing iu the head of a deer at one end and in a sharp point to represent
the tail at the other.
Figure 1 shows an ivory handle from llotham inlet, with the 'con-
vex surface marked atone end with a representation of wolf skins, and
along the entire length beyond these are a number of waterfowl in the
act of swimming.
Figure 3, from Cape Nome, is another ivory bag handle, both sur-
faces of which are filled with etchings representing occurrences in the
life of the Eskimo, including dragging home a seal, the pursuit of a
whale, traveling with dog sledges, launching of umiaks, walrus bunt-
ing, and other similar occupations.
TOOL BOXES
A tool box obtained at Cape Nome (number 45385) is 14 inches long,
4i high, and 5 wide. The ends are dovetailed into the sides, and the
bottom is fastened on with wooden pegs. The lid, in which half a blue
bead is inlaid, is attached by rawhide hinges and has a loop of rawhide
94 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ann. 18
and a doubleeud cord for tying it down. A split in the cover has
been neatly mended by means of tbin strips of wlialebone ])assed
tbrougli holes pierced on opposite sides. A small scalloped rod of
ivory forms a handle to the coyer, held in place by a loop of rawhide
passed through two holes at each end into corresponding holes in the
tover and tlie ends knotted inside.
Plate XLii, 10, represents a box from Sfugunugumut, oval in shape,
rather truncated at the smaller end and beveled toward tlie center.
One end is carried upward in the form of a neck, terminating in a gro-
tesque human head, having a prominent nose and an incised crescent-
shape mouth with two pieces of white crockery inlaid at the corners to
i'ei)resent labrets; the other end has a pair of seal's tlippers, the entire
design being intended to represent a mythical being, with the body of
a seal and a human head. It is painted in a bluish tint, except the
head, which is black, and the incised lines that outline the tlippers,
which are red. The cover is slightly convex above and concave below,
with a broad groove cut in its upper surface; it is hinged by two raw-
hide cords, and a double-end cord is fastened in two places on the
side and passed twice around the box and tied to hold the cover in
place and to fasten it.
Another box (number 36242) from Sfugunugumut is similar in outline
to the latter, except tliat it lacks the head, and, like the preceding, the
body of the box is fashioned from a single piece of wood. The exterior
is painted a dull red and has three grooves extending around it, which
are colored black, and set in them at regular intervals are broad-head
pegs of ivory, which are ornamented with a circle and dot. The interior
of the box is divided into two compartments, unequal in size; the
smaller, conical in shape, has been used for storing fragments of red
ochcr and other substances used as paints. The cover is hinged with
rawhide and is fastened by a loo;) of rawhide which passes over a peg
in front of the box. On the top of the cover is painted in black the
figure of a curious mythical creature, so conventionalized in outline
that it is difficult to identify it. From marks on the inside of the cover
it has evidently been used in cutting tobacco.
Plate XLII, 4, from Askinuk, is a box, suboval in shape, flattened
above and below and truncated at each end, cut from a single piece
of wood. The interior is neatly excavated to about an inch in depth,
leaving a ledge crossing from side to side about an inch inward from
each end. The sides of the box are painted black while the top and the
bottom are of a bluish tint. On each of the four surfaces a shallow
groove extends from end to end; on the sides they are of equal width,
but on the top and the bottom they are narrow in the middle, broad-
ening gradually toward each end. These grooves are i)ainted red. The
cover is slightly convex without and concave within. On its inner sur-
face are painted in red and black a number of rude figures representing
two sledges, men, and various beasts, among the most consi)icuous of
which are wolves aud reindeer.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXVIII
WOOD-WORKING TOOLS 'ONE-FOURTH-
NELSON] TOOL BOXES 95
A box from Cape Vancouver (uumber 37357) is flattened oval in out-
line, with a seal's head carved upon it, the eyes of which are represented
by a piece of marble on one side and a fragment of jjorcelain on the
other; ivory pegs form the nostrils, and at the corners of the mouth
are ivory pegs with beads set in the center to represent labrets. On
the top and on each side of the head small blue beads are inserted. A
groove painted black extends around the sides of the box, in which
seven ivory pegs are inserted. The cover is attached as usual by
hinges of rawhide. The box is cracked, and has been mended by raw-
hide cords laced through holes on each side of the fissure. A rawhide
looi) passing over a peg set in the front of the box serves as a fastening.
A box from Pastolik (plate xlii, 11) is made in three pieces, the
bottom being fastened on with wooden pegs; it is rather flattened oval
in outline, and represents the body of a seal. The head is represented
with the mouth open and with wooden pegs for teeth; the nostrils
are marked by ivory pegs, and for the eyes are inlaid small oval
pieces of ivory with a hole in the center to represent the pupil; the
flippers are carved in relief on the sides and at the rear; the tail is
represented on the upper surface of the box and forms a thumb jiiece
for raising the cover. The cover is slightly convex without and con-
cave within, with a groove extending its entire length; a groove is
also cut around the body of the seal, and another below it extends the
whole length of the box. The surface is painted black, except the
grooves and the interior of the mouth of the seal, which are red.
The inside of the cover is decorated with figures in red and black,
representing human beings and animals. On one side the thunderbird
is reiiresented grasping a deer with one claw and a man in a kaiak
with the other; on the opposite side the thunderbird is seizing a whale
with one claw and a seal with the other. One curious figure represents
a double-head wolf with four legs and connected by a black line with
the hand of a man.
Another box from Pastolik (number 3S739) is made from separate
pieces, the ends being mortised into the sides; wooden wedges are
driven into the tenons to fasten them more firmly in the slots; the
bottom is attached by wooden pegs. On the inner surface of the lid
are painted in red a number of figures of men and animals, many of
winch are obscene. The outer surface is not colored, but is covered
with neatly made parallel grooves extending lengthwise and following
the outlines of the box.
A l)ox from Kaialigamut (number 37562) is made of wood, and is
oval at one end and truncated at the other; about an inch from the
truncated end a crosspiece is inserted in slots on each side, which are
cut narrow at the edges and flaring toward the inside, so that the
edges of the crosspiece, which are cut in corresponding shape, hold
the ends of the box firmly in position. The sides are formed by one
piece, which is bent to form the OA'al figure; the bottom is attached by
wooden pegs, and the cover is hinged with rawhide. For fastening, a
96 THE Ef?KlMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [etii.anx. 18
loop passes down over a projecling i^ey on the bottom of the box.
Following the outline of the box around the bottom, about one-third of
an inch from the edge is cut a bead in strong relief, and around the
sides extends a groove. The cover is carved to represent the flattened
form of a seal with a large, broad bead; the hind flippers are cut in
relief; the eyes are represented by two small white buttons, and the
nostrils by two white beads inlaid in the wood. The box is painted
red, with the exception of the groove around the sides and the Incisions
outlining the flippers and the sides of the seal, which are black. The
inside of the cover has a carious conventional design painted in black,
intended as a jjrivate mark of the owner.
Plate xxii, 0, is a long oval box from Anogogmut, cut from a single
piece of wood and divided into two compartments of unequal size by
leaving a partition at the smaller end when the interior was excavated.
The cover is neatly fitted and is hinged by two rawhide cords, and the
Fig. 27— Wooiien triuket box (J).
fastening consists of a loop of rawhide tipped with a small ivory button,
in which is a hole which fits over a bone peg. A groove is cut around
the top and the bottom of the box about half an inch from the edge, and
another passes around the center. The surface is jjainted red, with the
exception of the grooves, which are black. In the center of the cover
is set a round piece of white porcelain, and six smaller pieces are inlaid
in one of the grooves.
Figure 27 is a box from Anogogmut made from a single piece of wood,
flattened oval in outline, slightly convex above and very strongly so on
its lower surface. It is deeply excavated and has a neatly fitted cover
held in position by two rawhide hinges and fastened by a loop of cord
passed over a wooden peg on the lower edge of the box. On the upper
surlace of the cover the figure of a seal is carved in relief, having in the
center of the back a grotesque semihuman face, also in relief, probably
intended to represent the shade of the seal. The bottom of the box
is carved in the form of a larger seal witli the flippers in relief and a
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XXXIX
WEDGES AND ADZES 'ONE-FIFTH)
NELSON] TOOL BOXES 97
deeply incised, crescentic mouth. The eyes and the nostrils of the
larger seal and the eyes of the smaller seal are formed by the insertion
of ivory pegs. Ivory pegs are also set around the edges of the body of
the seal on the cover. This is a very old box, aud if it was ever painted
the coloring has long since disappeared.
Another old box (number oTHoS), from Askinuk, is oval in outline and
has one end carved to represent the head of an animal. The nostrils
are formed by blue beads, between which projects an ivory peg. Oval
pieces of bone serve for the eyes, with a slit in the center for the pupil.
The cover is an oblong strip of wood truncated at one end and the other
tapering to a projecting i)()int, which serves as a thumb-i)iece by which
it can be raised. It is held in position by pegs at each end and by a
thin strip of spruce rootlet i)assed through a hole on each side of the
box.
Plate XLii, 7, is a box from Sfugunugumut, composed of three pieces
of wood. The sides were formed by a strip bent and joined on beveled
edges at the ends. The bottom is slightly convex aud is attaclied by
■wooden pegs. The cover is similar in outline, but one end extends
upward and forms the head of a seal, the eyes of which are of ivory,
with small blue beads for the pupils. Ivory pegs form the nostrils,
and others are set at the corners of the mouth to represent labrets.
Fore-tlippers are cut in relief on each side of the cover, the intention
having been to represent a seal lying on its back. A groove extends
around the side, in which are set small ivory pegs, with a round hole
in the center of each. Similar pegs ornament the surface of the cover,
which has the usual rawhidi' hinges and loop passing over a peg in
the front of the box for a fastening.
From Kaialigamut is a box (number 37S63), cut from a single piece
of wood, the interior excavated and the cover neatly lifted. It is in the
form of a seal, the tail forming a thumb-piece by which the cover can
be raised. The mouth is incised, the nostrils are flattened spots on the
muzzle, and both are painted red. The eyes are represented by small
ivory pegs. Extending along each side and the top of the cover is a
long groove, broad in the center and narrowing at each, end, on which
are depicted various figures of men and animals in black on the back-
ground of red with which these grooves are painted. The body of the
seal is colored a dull blue. Three black stripes extend from the crown
along the sides. The center of the back and the outlines of the flippers
are also black.
Figure 28 is an oblong box from the lower Yukon. It is made from
thin boards fastened together with wooden pins. On all the surfaces
except the bottom, rows of ivory pegs are inserted. On the upper sur-
face are two small rectangular doors extending across the box from
side to side and opening into little shallow box like compartments.
They are hinged with strips of sealskin neatly sewed in place by chain
stitches of spruce root, and fastened to them are pieces of rawhide, by
IS ETH 7
98 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [et» ann. 18
Avliich tliey can be raised. In tlie center, extending lengthwise, are
two other doors, and on each side, just below the upper edge, is another
little door. A loop of cord extending over and tied across the middle
of the box keei)S all these doors shut.
women's wokkboxes
Small wooden boxes are used by the women for the safekeeping of
their needle cases, sinew and fiber thread,' scraps of skein, earrings,
pieces of coloring matter, and various other small articles used by them
in their work.
Figare 3, plate XLii, represents one of these workboxes from Sfugu-
nugumut. It is oval in outline, and the toi> and bottom are in the shape
of flattened, truncated cones, their thin bases resting on the sides of the
box. On the front and back, crossing the sides vertically, are inlaid flat
Flfi. 28— Triiiki't box (.xbnut I
Strips of ivory, with a series of three circles and dots engraved upon
them ; extending around the sides are a series of round, button-like pieces
of ivory, their surfaces covered by a number of concentric circles with
black centers. A hook-shape knob of ivory i)rojects from the front,
over which a rawhide loop fastened to the cover is passed to keep the
lid closed. A slender ivory rod, four inches in length, having its upper
surface etched with circle and dot patterns, forms a handle and is
attached to the top of the cover by a rawhide cord at each end.
Figure 5 of the same plate shows a box, from Ikogmut, made from a
single piece of wood in the shape of a seal lying on its back with the
head and hind flippers turned upward; the fore-flippers are also carved
in relief on the surface. On the cover a flattened ivory rod is fastened
with pegs to the main part of the box. On the upper surface of the
cover, in the center of a broad circular groove in which ivory pegs are
_l
X
^H|
^
FH
jj^^^H
BPH
J
D.
ft:
2
111
CE
^^^B
1
H
rfl
_l
<
2)
^HH ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1
V:^^^H^H
■
^^^^1
Z
z
<
I
Z
^
1
u
1-
UJ
1 *1^H Hi
1
f
I
m * l^^l
^^^^^^^H-w^H
1
l|^2^^fl^^^l
H
>
o
O
_J
o
z
I
1-
UJ
F9
^
H
<
o
B f^
^^^^^1
i.^^^H
a:
^^H 'ioTS
^^^^^^^^^^^1
'^■^^^^^^^H
UJ
<
^^H i^^^l^l
^^H
»H
O
<
^H
^f^^l
Bb
ftgE^I
^^1
i^^l
en
UJ
05
I-
z
o
a
Q
Z
<
U3
CC
UJ
z
LJ
I-
I
o
<
a:
I-
U3
<
I
CO
o
a:
cc
<
KELSON] women's workboxes 99
set, is a .semihnman face carved in relief; it has ivory labrets at each
corner of the mouth, and inlaid pieces of ivory represent the eyes.
Figure 9 of the plate sho\Ys a box, from Sabotnisky, cut from a single
piece of wood, flattened and slightly oval in outline, with truncated
ends. The form of a salmon is carved in relief on both the top and the
bottom, and a groove extends along the sides. The cover is attached
in the usual manner by rawhide hinges, and a cord is provided for
fastening it in front. . •
Another box from Sfugunugumut (number 3G245) is made from a
single piece of wood, oval in outline, truncated at one end, with a sunken
ledge around the upper edge to receive the cover, which is slightly
convex and projects upward at one end to form a thumb piece for rais-
ing it. This projection is carved in the form of a cormorant's head, the
eyes being represented by incised circles.
Figure 8, plate xlii, from Kordgunugumut, is a long, quadrate,
woodeu box, the top, bottom, and sides of which are made'from sepa-;
rate pieces, the edges of the cover and tlie bottom being beveled. It is
fastened together with wooden pegs, and the cover is attached as usual
by rawhide hiuges and fastened by a loop passing down over a project-'
ing peg in front. The bottom of the box is painted l)lack around the
edges and crossed by black bars; the ends of the top and sides are
painted red, and a broad, black band extends around the middle.
Figure 2, plate xlii, from St Lawrence island, is a workbox, circular
in form, made by bending a thin piece of spruce, three inches wide, so
that the ends overlap, and are sewed together with strips of whalebone
passed through slits pierced in both thicknesses of the beveled eiids.
The top and the bottom are truncated cones in shape, chamfered and
fitted into grooves cut around the inner edges of the sides'. A' round-
hole in the top serves for x^utting in and taking out small objects.
Figure 1, plate xlii, from Sledge island, is a box 4 inches high' and-
4J inches square, made of thin pieces of spruce smoothly finished;^ The
bottom is attached by wooden pegs; the sides are neatly inortised
together. The cover is hinged by two pieces of rawhide and is fast-'
ened in front by a double-end string passing through a rawhide loop
pendent from the cover. The handle on the cover consists of two
pieces of rawhide cord tied together in the middle, the ends passed
through holes and knotted inside, forming a loop- about an inch and a
half in length. The box is grooved around the top and the sides in-
parallel lines; the outer grooves, painted black, are broad and shallow,
while those on the inside are narrower and red in color both on the cover
and sides. On the center of the cover is a pointed oval groove, black
in color. The bottom of the box and a broad band around the sides are
not i^ainted.
A circular box, from Sledge island (number 45093), is seven inches
high and over nine inches in diameter, made from a strip of spruce
bent until the beveled edges overlap, and sewed together with a double
100 THE ESKIMO AROTT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18
row of stitching- with spruce rootlet. The bottom is cliamfered and
fitted into a groove like the head of a barrel; the cover is slightly con-
vex above and concave within; tliree parallel grooves cross the top at
equal intervals, and two others, about an inch apart, extend around
the edge. The body of the box has also a broad and a narrow groove
near each edge. The cover is painted red and a band of this color
extends around each edge of the box; the grooves are all colored
black. A cord loop, two inches in length, forms a handle for the cover,
which is hinged with sinew cord and is fastened by two ends of a raw-
hide cord which project through a hole in front of the bos and pass
through a loop pendent from the lid.
Another box (number 170081), from Sledge island, is oval in outline,
but is contracted in the middle by means of a stout, sinew cord passed
through holes on each side, foiming a stout cross-stay. The sides are
made of two pieces with the ends lapping, sewed together in the same
manner as in the preceding specimen, and the bottom is similarly fitted
into a groove by a chamfered edge. The cover is also hinged in the
same manner and is i^rovided with a similar fastening. A looped raw-
hide handle, each end of which is divided into two ^larts, is passed
through four holes and knotted on the underside.
HANDLES FOR WORKBOXES AND WATER BUCKETS
Handles for women's workboxes and for water buckets are frequently
made of ivory or of bone. They present a considerable variety of
form and many of them are handsomely carved. A large number
were obtained, of which the following specimens, illustrated in plate
XLiii, present the principal variations:
Figure 16, from Norton sound, is a plain rod of ivory, nearly square
in cross section.
Figure 5, from Unalaklit, is a rod of ivory, suboval in cross section,
with the upper surface etched iu parallel lines extending obliquely
from the middle of the top to the edge.
Figure 11, from Sledge island, is a small, flat rod, broadened verti-
cally at each end to be pierced for a cord. The upper surface is marked
with raven totem signs and a simple etched pattern.
Figure 21, from Shaktolik, has the lower side scalloi)ed and the upper
side etched coarsely with lines and points.
Figure 10, from Norton sound, is slightly curved and has the upper
portion covered with zigzag patterns.
Figure !'(!, from Cape Darby, is suboval in cross section and has
across its upper surface the figures of ten whales carved in relief.
Figure 17, from TTnalaklit, is a tlatteued ivory rod, carved at one end
to represent the head of a seal, and with the figures of several whales
etched upon its vipjjer surface.
Figure 13, from Norton sound, is nearly square in cross section,
CO
LU
_]
Q
Z
<
I
Q
Z
<
<
o
o
NELSON] WORKBOX AND WATER-BUCKET HANDLES 101
scalloped along each side, aud grooved along the middle of the npjier
surface; the ends terminate in the head of an animal which has been
much worn by long use; the details are consequently obliterated.
Figure 'J, is a handle obtained by ]Mr L. M. Turner from Norton sound.
It is suboval in cross section, aud has in relief along its upper surface
the figures of thirty seal heads; on each side of the two holes in which
the cord is fastened to attach it to the box or bucket is also carved in
relief the tigure of a right whale.
Figure 14, from Cape Darby, is an ivory rod, suboval in cross section,
with the figures of seven right-whale tails projecting from one side.
Specimen 451.57, from Sledge island, is a small rod, evidently used for
a box cover, liaving along its upper edge, iu an upright position, the
figures of twelve whale-tails joined by their tips.
Figure lli, from Point Hope, is an ivory rod, oblong in cross section.
Carved on one side of the middle is tlie projecting figure of tlje tail of
a right whale, and on the upper surface are etched the figures of two
right whales and the tails of four others.
Figure ti, from Kigilitauik, is a bucket handle of ivory, strongly
curved and liaving in relief along its upper surface the figures of nine
seal heads, several etched figures of seals with spears in their backs,
rude figures representing otters, and a framework tor storing objects
above ground.
Figure S, from Point Hope, is a slender ivory rod, triangular in cross
section, doubly scalloped along both sides, and having a slight border-
ing pattern of etched lines.
Figure 1, from Sledge island, is a bucket handle consisting of a flat,
ivory rod about four inches in length, with a neatly carved, five-link
chain of ivory depending from a loop in each end. These chains ter-
minate below with a carving, representing the head of a small seal.
Through the flat surface near each end of the handle is a large, round
hole in which fits, swivel-like, a small, round rod of iv^ory, terminating
above in the figure of a seal's head, the eyes and ears of which are
represented by a black substance inlaid in the ivory, while the mouth
aud the nostrils are etched. The lower ends of these handle rods are
pierced with holes for receiving the cords connecting them with the
bucket.
Figure 22, from Sledge island, is a heavy rod of ivory, suboval in
cross section, terminating in a ring in which hangs by another ring
the image of a right whale's tail about two inches in length. Upon
the middle of the upper surface are etched figures of two right whales,
and across the rod, near each end, are carved in strong relief two
other figures of right whales. This carving is remarkably well done
and is a very artistic piece of work.
Figure 7, from Kigiktauik, is a plain, slightly curved handle of rein-
deer horn, suboval in ci'oss section.
Figure 2, from St Michael, is a handle of deerhorn, round iu cross
102 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BEEIXG STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
sectiou, and bent at an obtuse angle in the center. It has a shallow
groove along its convex npper surface, in which are a number of small,
round points.
Figure 4, from Xunivak island, is a thin, curved piece of deerhorn
with the ends rounded, and having a rounded protuberance in tlie sides
at about one-third of the'distance from each end. The upper surface
has two parallel incised lines extending nearly its entire length, which
are intersected at the widened points by a series of concentric circles
with holes through the center.
Figure 23, from Cai)e Prince of Wales, is a large, strong handle of
walrus ivory, with a doubly serrated edge on one side but smooth on
the other. Two parallel grooves extend along the upjier surface: the
lower surface is convex.
Figure I'O, from the Diomede islands, is a bar of walrus ivory. The
ends are flattened, but the center is curved upward. Carved at each
end is the figure of a iwlar bear in a standing position, looking
outward.
Figure 21, obtained at St Michael by Mr. L. M.Turner, is a rounded
bar of ivory, flattened on its lower surface and convex above, with a
well-carved head of a polar bear, facing outward, on each end. A large
hole is pierced lengthwise Through this handle to admit the ))assage of
a cord for attaching it to a water bucket.
Figure 18, from Unalaklit, is a flattened bar of ivory with the figure
of a right whale, facing inward toward the center, carved in relief ujion
its upper surface at each end. In the back of each whale, near the
tail, are two large, vertical holes for attaching the cord.
Figure 15, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a bar of walrus ivory, flat
on the lower surface. On the upi)er side two right whales, facing out-
ward, are carved in relief on one end, and on the other end is the
figure of a wolf.
Figure 3, from Point Hope, is a small carving intended for a work-
box handle, with a pair of seals' heads, facing outward, in high relief
on each end of the upper surface. Between these heads are deeply
incised lines forming a simple pattern.
Figure 19, from St IVIichael, is a rod of ivory carved in the form of
a wolf, the legs being represented by the downward-projecting knobs,
which are pierced for the attachment of cords.
Figure 25, from the Diomede islands, is an ivory handle for a water
bucket. It is a flat bar. Si inches long and 1.^ broad, having each end
rounded and pierced with a hole three-quarters of an inch in diameter.
In the center is another smaller round hole. In the holes at the ends
are round pins, in wliich are holes with grooves below them at each side
to admit the cords for attaching the handle to the bucket. The heads
of the pins are carved to represent the heads, shoulders, and forelegs
of white bears in an upright position, facing inward toward the center.
■Inside the bears' heads, on the upper s>u face, near the hole in the center,
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLII
TOOL AND TRINKET BOXES ione-fifthi
NELSON] BUCKET HANDLES NEEDLE-CASES 103
are carved iu lelief two figures of seals with their heads facing- inward.
The whole group represents two seals lying on the ice near their hole
and two polar bears rising from the water at the edge of the ice, close
to the seals.
NEEDLE-OASES
The women have a great variety of cases for liolding their needles,
differing widely iu form and made from a diversity of materials, show-
ing the remarkable ingenuity of these people in their adaptation of
ornamental designs to practical purposes.
In the country about the lower Yukon and southward to the Kusko-
kwim a favorite form of needle-case is made from a section of the hollow
wingboiie of a goose or other large waterfowl, plugged at each end
with wooden stoppers, one representing the head and the other the tail
of a lish. The surfaces of these cases are covered with a variety of
incised patterns, as will be seen by the following figures comprising
plate XLiV:
Figure 35, from Kushunuk, is one of these needle-cases, representing
a fish. Figure 33, from Cape Vancouver, and figure Si, from Sabotnisky,
also represent fishes and have tufts of seal hair inserted around the
wooden head and tail.
Figure 3(>, from Kushunuk, has the stopper carved in the shape of
the head of a young white whale. Figure 30, also from Kushunuk, has
a flat stopper in one end and a round knob on the other.
Figure 38, from Norton sound, is an ivory tube iu the form of a
woman's leg, with etched lines to represent the seams of the trousers.
Figure 37, from Konigunugumut, is made of wood, over which are
placed five empty cartridge shells. The stopper is in the shape of a
cormorant's head.
Figure 46, from Unalaklit, is an octagonal tube of ivory.
Figure 30, from Hotham inlet, is a round, ivory tube with a figure
of an Arctic hare in strong relief on two opposite sides, near one end.
Figure 31', from St Michael, is an ivory tube, round at one end and
broadened by a ridge on each side near the other. It has the raven
totem etched upon it.
Figure 48, from Unalaklit, is a sh(n't, ivory tube plugged at one end
and with blue beads inlaid around it. The surface is surrounded by
zigzag etchings and raven totem marks.
Figure 29, from 81edge island, has in relief on two sides the figures
of two white whales.
Figure 45, from the lower Yukon, is a tube in the form of a woman
standing with her arms liehl against her sides.
Figure 40, from King island, is a rouiul tube carved with two human
figures, facing inward from each end, in a sitting position, with the
elbows resting upou the knees and the bauds folded under the chin.
This is a fine piece of carving, and from the fact that it has been much
worn by handling it is doubtless of great age.
104 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 13
Figure 31, from the lower Yukon, is a tube with the head of a wahnis
in relief ou each of two sides near one end and the head of a seal uu
the other end.
Figure 28, from Kotzebue sound, is of ivory in the shape of a small
flask closed by a wooden stopper. The wooden bottom is held in place
with woodeu pegs. In relief ou one side of the neck is the figure of a
right whale, and on opposite sides are two bears.
Needle-cases are sometimes used without stoppers, in wliich case a
large cord of sealskin is passed through the center, which terminates
in a hook of bone or ivory for holding thiuibles, or hung to it by small
cords are various little pendent oruaments, which consist sometimes
of tlie canine teeth of various auimals, but are often small carvings
representing arrowheads, human faces, miniature belt fasteners, and
various animal forms. When this style of needle-case is used the needles
are thrust into the sealskin cord and are drawn into the case by ](ulling
on the other end of the cord, aud when needed can be withdrawn by a
reverse movement.
Figure 25, obtained ou Norton sound by Mr L. M. Turner, is a good
example of this style of needle-case with sealskin iieedle holder.
Figure 26, from St Michael, is a small, neatly carved needle-case pend-
ant reijresenting a reindeer's foot.
Figures 22, 23, and 27 represent a number of these small pendants,
all of which were obtained at Kushunuk. The last mentioned is in the
form of a frog with a large head but without the fore-limbs.
women's "housewives"
The little cases or bags for materials used iu sewing and for other
articles for women's work, commonly called " housewives," are in general
use among the western Eskimo. Tliej^ are made from skins of various
kinds and embellished with needlework in ornamental patterns. The
lower eutl terminates usually in a bag and the upper end is rounded;
to the latter a rawhide cord is attached, having at its end a slender
cross-piece of , bone, ivory, or deerhorn from three to eight inches iu
length, which is generally carved iuto various designs with the inge-
nuity charafcteristic of these people. When not in use the "housewife"
is rolled up, the cord is wound several times around it and fastened by
thrusting one end of the cross-])iece under the cord.
, A specimen of these housewives from Kaialigamut (number 37918)
is made from the skin of reindeer ears and pieces of skin from other
parts of the same animal. The upper end is rounded aud trimmed with
.stripes of white, black, aud russet leather parallel to the curved edge,
the seams being sewed in black and white. The lower end terminates
in a bag, the inner surface of wliich is divided into square sections by
double rows of stitcliing, along which are jiainted bordering red lines.
Along the outer edges is a narrow striji of white reindeer fur succeeded
by a little strij) of plucked beaver, outside of which is a coarse fringe
made from little strips from the edge of the skin of reindeer ears.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT
BUCKET AND BOX HANDLES (ABOUT one-FOURTH)
KELsoxi avomen's "housewives" 105
Plate XLV, 14, from the lower Yukon, is a small housewife covered ou
the iuside with onuimental patterns of red, white, and black. It con-
tains three pockets, and is bordered with a narrow strip of muskrat
skin; the back is made of fisliskin.
Plate XLV, 32, from the lower Yukon, is a piece of flshskin intended to
form the outer ends of a large housewife. It is sewed with ornamental
patterns, oval in outline on three sides and straight across the other,
and bordered by a narrow fringe of sealskin.
Plate XLV, 31, obtained on Nunivak island by Dr W. H. Dall, is a
good example of a housewife made from the skin of reindeer ears,
bordered by a fringe of small strips of the same material. The sides
have a border of white reindeer skin, surrounded by a narrow strip of
sealskin and mink fur around its upper edge. The interior is divided
into quadrate spaces by parallel seams of black and white and rows of
small beads. At intervals around the outer edges are little tags of red
worsted. The string for fastening is covered with beads.
Plate XLV, 15, shows a specimen from Big lake, with a central baud
of deerskin about an inch and a half wide by ten inches long, bordered
along each side with skins from six reindeer ears sewed together along
the sides. On one end is a semilunar piece of skin, having its front
covered with rows of beads and an ornamental pattern of white and
reddish sealskin, sewed with sinew thread and strips of white quills.
The inside is crossed by parallel rows of stitching with red-painted
border lines: the inclosed areas are not colored, but are adorned with
small clusters of beads in their centers.
A large number of the fastening rods were obtained. The following,
figured in jilate XLV, illustrate a few of the variations in form and
outline :
Figure 29, from Nunivak island, and figure 30, from Big lake, show
two fastening rods in the shape of salmon.
Figure 27, from Konigunngnmut, and figure 28, from Agiukchugu-
mut, are also fish-like in form.
Figure 24, from Ukagamut, is a neatly carved rod in two sections,
united by a cross bar. On one side is represented a white whale, and
on the other a seal, the figures being very much elongated and slit
through the backs.
Figure 26, from Xulukhtulogumut, is a round fastening rod, repre-
senting a seal; it has an eye at the lower end for attaching the cord.
Figure 25 shows a rod from Big lake which terminates in the head
and tail of a wolf, the legs of the animal being represented by etched
lines on the surface.
Figure 17, from the lower Yukon, is a small, rod-like piece of ivory
with a grotesque head at each end, one side apparently re])resenting
that of a bird and the other that of some other creature.
Figure 13, from Chalitmut, is a handsome, flat, ivory rod, having on
one side at each end the figure of a seal carved in relief, and in the cen-
ter the Lead of a man surrounded by a raised border with ray-like,
106 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.an-n, 18
etclied lines extending out from it, evidently intended to represent a
liood with a fur border. On the other side is the face of a woman witli
tattooed lines ou the chin and a similar indication of a fur hood, and
also two seals in relief.
Figure 21, from Big lake, is a round, slender rod terminating in the
head of an unknown animal.
Figure V2, from the lower Yukon, is a slender rod having an eye at
the lower end for the attachment of a cord, and is composed of a series
of oval sections divided by grooves and raised headings.
Figure 18, from the lower Yukon, is another round rod surrounded
by grooves and headings.
Figure 10, from Cape Nome, has an eye on one end for attaching the
cord, and is sharpened at the other to serve as a bodkin. It is etched
near its base with the raven totem.
Figure 10, from Nnbviukhchugaluk, is triangular in cross section
and notched along two of the corners; on one side is etched the raven
totem. This piece also terminates in a point for use as a bodkin.
Figures 3 and 11 are both from Cape Vancouver, and have their
ends flattened to serve as solecreasers in making boots.
Figure 8, from the lower Yukon; figure 1, from Big lake; figure 7,
from Chalitmut; figure 6, from Kushunuk, and figure 5, from Kofii-
gunugumut, are all double rods, divided along the middle but joined
near the outer ends.
Figure 9, from Chalitmut, has two detached rods united by four
round iron pegs or rivets, the two rods not touching anywhere along
their length.
Figure 20, from the Yukon; figure 1, from Sabotnisky; figure 1!),
from Koiligunugumut, and figure 2, from Chalitmut, are variously orna-
mented with lines and circles etched upon the surfaces.
Figure 23, from Sfugunugumut, is a rountl ivory rod, with a seal
carved in relief on the upper side.
Figure 22, from the lower Kuskokwim, is a flattened image of a seal
carved in ivory.
NEEDLES AND BODKINS
Formerly bone needles were used exclusively by the Eskimo, the
holes for the stitches being pierced with a fine-pointed bodkin or awl
of bone, ivory, or deerhorn ; but since intercourse with white men has
become more frequent they have obtained steel needles and pieces of
iron, from which needles are made by themselves. Although many
bodkins are now pointed with iron, a great majority of those in use are
still made from bone, ivory, or horn.
Figures 1 and 2, plate xlviii (t, from St Michael, are ivory needles
used for sewing coarse seams in making boat covers or for similar
heavy -work;
; In the collection there is a small, flat, wooden tablet (number 112G4),
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL XLIV
THIMBLE GUARDS, NEEDLE-CASES, AND BOOT-SOLE CREASERS (about one-THIRD>
NELSON] NEEDLES AND BODKINS 1()7
from Cape Darby, four and one-half inclies long by three-quarters of an
inch wide and an eighth of an inch thick, used for supporting a bone
or an ivoi-y needle while the eye is being pierced. The following speci-
mens are shown in plate XLVi:
Figure 15, from Sabotnisky, is a sharp-pointed bodkin, made from
the wing-bone of a large bird.
Figure 13, from Kushunuk, is another bodkin, made from the hollow
wing-bone of a bird. It has a neatly made wooden head, inserted like
a plug in its upper end.
Figure 1, from St Michael, is of deerhorn, the upper end in the
form of a human figure, with a face represented on both sides. A
stick passing through a hole in the body and pi-ojecting on either side
forms the arms. The lower end is rounded and grooved, with a hollow
at the tip, in which is fitted a slender, tapering point of deerhorn that
can be removed and replaced at will. This is the only implement of
its kind that was seen. It is fashioned after iron-pointed tools used
for a similar purpose.
Figure 11, from Razbinsky, is a slender, tapering bodkin of ivory,
having its upper end cut into the form of a fish-head.
Figure 9, from Cape Prince of Wales, terminates in a link, by which
is attached a loose i^iece cut in the form of a bird-head. Little tufts
of seal hair are inserted in holes around the u])per end of the handle
and in the bird-head, held in place by means of wooden pegs.
Figure 8, from Big lake, is made of ivory; it has two links in its
upper end, and the top is carved to represent a fish-head.
Figure 11, from Cape Vancouver, is triangular in cross section and
has little strings of beads attached to the handle, the top of which is
surmounted by a knob.
Figure 10, from Askinuk, is terminated by a link with a pendant in
which blue beads are set.
Figure 12, from Cape Prince of Wales, is triangular in cross section,
with the upper end neatly cut into the form of a reindeer head.
Figure 7, from the Kuskokwim, is a handsome ivory bodkin termi-
nating in three links, with the hind flippers of a seal pendent from the
top.
Figure 1, from Chalitmut, has an iron point and a handle of walrus
ivory terminating in two links, the top one in the form of a fish-tail.
Figure 2, from Cape Vancouver, is a long iron point with a handle
of walrus ivory in the form of a salmon, along the body of which are
set little tufts of seal hair.
Figure G, from the lower Yukon, is an iron-pointed bodkin with a
wooden handle and a little wooden sheath for slipping over the point.
Figure IG, also from the lower Yukon, is a specimen of the larger
bodkins or awls used for piercing heavy skins employed in making
kaiaks and for other similar work.
Figure o, from i^^ulukhtuloguniut, is a strong iron implement with
an ivory handle fashioned in the shape of a seal.
108 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ann. 18
Figure 5, from Clialitmut, has an ivory liaiidle terminating' in two
knobs, one above tlie other, and separated by a projecting beading.
BOOT-SOLE CREASEES
For crimping or creasing the sealskin soles of boots around the toe
and heel, small, sharp-edged, tlat-pointed pieces of ivory or bone are
used. Sometimes these are knife-like in shape, as in figure 49, plate
XLiv, from Sledge island, or are smooth, jilaiu pieces like the specimen
shown in figure 43 of the same plate, which was obtained by Doctor
Uall from Nuniv.ik island.
Figure 47 of the plate referred to represents a creaser in the form of
a walrns; the head and tnsks are carved, and the flippers and certain
other anatomical details are etched on the back of the implement.
This specimen is also from JSIunivak island.
Plate XLIV, 42, from Point Hope, is an elaborate boot creaser of this
kind, to the upper end of which, attached by a link, is a carving repre-
senting the head of a white bear. Tlie body of the implement is sinuous
nearly to the end where it is flattened to a wedge shape.
^fi,-.Wja!:%tiiii»^tiv,^.r>uAu-.j^i»tr^.j..uuJ...vj.'..jfjrti^.'i-
%J//rA''''::~ii^^-^as^ a \:1:.
Fig, 29— Eoot-.so'.e crtaser {full size).
Plate XLIV, 41, from Ivotzebue sound, is a creaser made from ivory
ui the form of a knife, with a pendant attached by a link to the butt.
Plate XLIV, 50, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a creaser with a link
at one end, to which is attached a short bodkin.
Plate XLIV, .">1, from Kotzebue sound, is a creaser made bj' shaping
down the small end of a ])iece of bone.
The accompanying figure 29 is an ivory boot-sole creaser from Nush-
agak; it is triangular in cross-section, with pictures etched on the three
sides. The side represented shows a house with smoke issuing from
the smoke hole, an elevated storehouse to the left, and some people
a])proaching with a loaded sledge from the right.
Plate XLIV, 44, from ISTunivak island, is a creaser in the form of a
murre's head.
women's knives
The knives used by Eskimo women for skinning and cutting up
game and fish vary considerably in form. Some consist simply of a
broad piece of slate, roughly crescentic in shape, with the curved side
ground to a thin edge.
Figure S, plate xlvii, from llazbinsky, represents one ot 'these rough
slate knives.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLV
■HOUSEWIVES AND FASTENINGS 'ONE-FIFTHi
NELSON] KNIVES AND THIMBLES 109
Figure (5, plate XLVir, from Ivusliuiiuk, is a small knife made of slate
set ill a slot in tlie end of au oval wooden handle.
Figure 7, plate XLVii, from the lower Yukon, is made of a fine-grain
stone very similar in appearance to slate, set into a wooden handle.
This specimen is more neatly made than is usually the case witli these
implements.
Figure 5, plate xlvii, from the lower Yukon, is a rough piece of slate
set in a rudely made wooden handle.
Figure 9, plate xlvii, from the lower Yukon, is a slate knife attached
to a wooden handle by means of a rawhide cord passed through a hole
in the back. It has a sheath made from two pieces of wood fastened
together with a rawhide cord.
Figure 10, plate xlvii, from St Michael, is a long slate blade fitted
into a slot in the end of a wooden handle and bound in place with a
lashing of untauned sealskin.
Figure 4, plate xlvii, from Koriigunugumut, is a specimen of the
iron-blade knives which, since the introduction of iron into Alaska, are
gradually displacing the old stone and slate implements. It is set in a
neatly iixade wooden handle.
Figure 1, plate xlvii, from Sfugunugumut, is another iron- blade
knife with a solid ivory handle.
Specimens of wooden-handle knives, similar in character to those
from the American coast, were obtained on St Lawrence island, but
they show the customary rude workmanship of that district.
THIMBLES AND THIMBLK HOLDEES
Thimbles for women are made usually from small, oval pieces of tough
sealskin, having a slit extending across one edge, forming a loop-like
strap, through which the forefinger is thrust, so that the strap rests
across the nail and the pad of skin in the inner side of the finger (see
figure 20, plate xliv. from Xubviukhchugaluk). Some of the women
use metal thimbles obtained from the traders, which ai'e also imitated
in ivory by themselves, but most of the women prefer the old-fashioned
sealskin thimbles.
Figure lil, plate xliv, from Chalitinut, is one of these ivory thimbles
made to rest like a cap over the end of the finger ; the back is cut away
except for a strap or band acrosf^ the inner border. In form this is a
combination of the metal thimble of the white people and the old
style made from a piece of sealskin.
Sealskin thimbles are carried usually on a holder or guard attached
to the end of a cord, which is either fastened to the workbag or forms
a pendant to the strap of the needle-case. These holders vary greatly
in form, but are most ire(piently of hook shape.
Figure 1, plate xliv, from St Michael, is a thimble holder made from
a plain piece of bone from the leg of a bird: it is the rudest and
simx^lest form of this article.
110 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT [eth.ann. 18
Figure 24, jjlate xliv, also from St Michael, is iu the form of a
double crescent, with a hole in the middle over which the thimble is
slipped and retained in place by the crescent-shape bar.
Figure 14, plate xliv, from Xorton bay, is a plain, hook-like holder.
Figure 19, plate xliv, from Kotzebue sound; figure 18, from Hotham
inlet, and figure 17, from Point Hope, are all made from ivory and rep-
resent different forms of this, little implement.
Figure 2, plate xliv, from St Lawrence island, is a rude hook made
from a walrus tooth. Figure 4, from Kushunuk, is a rather rudely
made hook of deerhorn. Figure 3 is another deerhoru hook from the
same locality as the last. Figure 7, from Nunivak island, is a hook
made from walrus ivory in the form of a salmon.
Figures 5, 8, 9, 10, and 13, of plate xliv, represent various forms of
this implement made from ivorj-. All are from Kushunuk.
Figure 11, plate xliv, from Nubviukhchugaluk, and figure 12. of the
same plate, are ivory hook-shape holders from Kotzebue sound.
Figure 15, plate xliv, from TJnalaklit, is a hook-shape holder having
a leather band which slips down over the hook, holding it closed and
preventing the thimble from dropping off'.
Figure 6, plate xliv, from Kushunuk, is a specimen which has a
wrapjiing of spruce rootlets around the shank and inside the slot
which forms the hook to keep the thimble in place.
Figure 16, plate xliv, is a double thimble guard of ivory from Point
Hope.
IMPLEMENTS FOR MAKING THREAD AND CORD
Thread for sewing clothing or other small articles is made of sinew
from the legs of reindeer, dried and beaten with a maul to loosen the
fibers, which are then divided and cleaned. From the Kuskokwim
northward to Kotzebue sound and the islands of Bering strait, small
comb-like implements with from two to four teeth are in use for this
purpose. On the lower Yukon a species of tough grass is obtained and
utilized for making thread and for other purposes. After being dried
and beaten it is hatcheled with the combs which are used for making
thread from sinew. Cords are made in different ways and of various
materials, according to the uses for which they are intended. The
kind most commonly in use is made from tanned sealskin, which
is trimmed to an oval shape, from which a continuous strip is cut.
Sometimes an entire skin is made into an unbroken cord. For heavier
cords the skin of the walrus is utilized. Tanned reindeer skins are
also cut into thongs, and sinews of reindeer and seals are twisted into
cords of various sizes. On the lower Yukon and in the interior ter-
ritory occupied by the Eskimo, cord is made from the inner bark of the
willow. Strips of whalebone are also frerjuently employed for lashings
on sledges, boats, and various implements.
Figure 5, plate XLViiia, from Norton sound, represents one of the
combs used in making thread from sinew.
Figure 6, plate xlviii«, from the Diomede islands, is a comb or sinew
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL, XLVI
BODKINS 'ONE-THIRDI
KELSON] THREAD AND CORD IMPLEMENTS 111
shredder of walrus ivory, with four hirgc, coarse teeth and a narrow
haudle.
Figure 1, plate xlviii a, IVotn Sledge island, is a three-toothed sinew
shredder with a flattened knob-like blade at the end of the handle.
Figure 3, plate XLVIII «, from Cape Nome, is a small, flat piece of
deerhorn with three flat teeth on one end, and figure 2, plate xlviii a,
from Sledge island, is a similar implement made of ivory.
Figure 4, plate xlviii «, from Cape Darby, is a toothed ivory imple-
ment of this kind, one tooth being attached to the side of the main
piece by means of a strong wrapping of willow root.
Figures 7 and 9, plate xlviii a, from the lower Yukon: figure s, from
Mission, and figure 10, from Sabotaisky, are specimens of combs which
have been used in making grass thread.
The accompanying figure •'>(), from Sledge island, represents some of
the implements used for twisting sinew cords. A full set consists of
two flattened ivory rods with a small knob or head at each end, and
four bodkin-like ivory rods each with the figure of a deer-head at the
upper end. These implements are all pierced with holes and strung
i&tM^
Fio. 30— Sinew twisters (1).
on a rawhide cord in order that they may conveniently be carried and
not readily mislaid.
Figure 8, plate xlviii b, from Cape Vancouver, and figure 5 of the
same plate, from I^funivak island, represent reels on which thread is
wound. They are sometimes used also as shuttles in making small
meshed nets.
Figures i and 0, plate xlviii h, from Nuuivak island, are specimens
of thread reels carved to represent mythical beings, half woman and
half seal, with the hands held against the sides of the faces.
Figures 3 and 7, plate xlviii &, from the same island, are ivory reels
carved to represent seals.
Figure 31 represents a sinew cord spinner from St Lawrence island.
This object is made of ivory and consists of three parts; these are a
quadrate base for holding in the hand, and pierced in the middle of
the outer surface for the insertion of one end of a slender rod having a
knob at its other end. A flattened rod is pierced near one end and
slipped upon the first-named rod, upon which it revolves. The sinew
to be spun is attached to the flattened rod at the shoulder, just below
the hole, and by a rapid circular motion of the hand the flattened rod
is caused to revolve rapidly, giving the desired twisting to the cord.
112
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
ITo implements of this kind were seen among the Eskimo elsewhere
ill the region visited, and it is qnite possible that the St Lawrence
islanders obtained the idea from some of the whaling ships which stop
so freqnently along their shore.
Flo. 31 — Sinew spinuer t'rtnu St Lawrence island.
8ICIN-DKESSIN(> TOOLS
For dressing and tanning skins several different implements are
used, the most important of which are scrapers for cleaning the fat and
water from the surface, and polishers for the purpose of softening the
hide. From the lower Kuskokwim to the northern part of Norton
sound and the coast of I'.ering strait, stone-blade scrapers with long
handles are the prevailing style, although on the coast and islands of
Bering strait a short-handle scraper is frequently seen, while from
Kotzebue sound northward they are all of the latter type, with the
handle made to fit the liand and elaborately carved.
Plate XLix, 17, from Big lake, represents one of these scrapers of
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLVII
FISH AND SKINNING KNIVES (ONE-THIRDi
nelson! SKIX-DRESSIXG TOOLS 113
hard, green schistose grouud to a crescentic edge, fitted to a wooden
handle eleven inches in length, which extends downward, overlapping
about one-half the length of the blade, and held in place by a rawhide
lashing which is prevented from slipping by a ridge along the lower
edge of the wood. The upper part of the handle is bent downward
for convenience in grasping.
Plate XLix, 19, from the lower Yukon, is a slate scraper similar in
design to the last, with a wooden handle attached by a lashing of
spruce root, the upper part bent downward nearly to a right angle.
Plate XLIX, 2(1, from yubviukhchugalnk, is a scraper consisting of a
chisel-shape blade inserted in a broad wooden handle which overlaps
the upper part and is held in position by a lashing of spruce root. On
the upper surface of the handle is a groove to receive the forefinger,
on the inner side is another groove to receive the thumb, and two
grooves on the under surface of the downward-turned end of the handle
admit the remaining three fingers.
Plate XLIX, 15, from the lower Yukon, is a short scraper with a
wooden handle curved downward to a pistol-like grip, and a heavy
blade of black chert ground to a chisel-shape edge, litted to the handle
with an intervening pad of grass. The blade is held in position by
means of a strong lashing of sj)ruceroot.
Plate XLIX, 12, from the lower Yukon, has a broad, flattened blade of
slate, chisel-shape at the edge, with an overlapping wooden handle
held in place by a spruce-root lashing. The handle is bent downward
to form the grip.
Plate XLIX, 18, from jSTorton sound, has a large, slate blade with a
rounded, chisel-shape edge. It is fitted into a groove in the wooden
handle, which is held securely in place by a rawhide lashing. The
handle is broad near the blade and narrows gradually to a rounded
grip, which is bent abruptly downward ; a groove extends along the
upper surface, and others, on two sides, below the grip, form a rest for
the forefinger and the thumb.
Plate XLIX, 10, from Sledge island, has a flat blade of slate with a
rounded edge fitted against a shoulder on the lower surface of the
overlapping wooden handle, which has a projecting spur Just above the
grip, intended to rest between the thumb and the forefinger when the
implement is in use.
Plate XLIX, 13, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a small scraper with a
flat, chisel-like blade of black slate, held in position against the short
oval wooden handle by a rawhide cord. Another scraper from Gape
Prince of Wales (number 43405) consists of a rudely chipped flint blade,
fitted into a mortise in the rough wooden handle and secured by a
lashing of sinew. The upper end of the handle is bent downward and
has two grooves on the lower surface to receive the second and third
fingers.
Plate XLIX, 11, from Sledge island, has a thin, chisel-shape blade of
18 ETH 8
114 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.amn.18
black slate wedged into a slot in tlie wooden handle, which is broad
near the socket and tapers gradually to the grip, where it is enlarged
to form a broad oval to rest in the palm of the hand. A bi'oad groove
runs down the front of the handle, and the sides are flattened to form
rests for the thumb and the forefinger.
Plate XLix, 7, from Kotzebue sound, is a short handle for a scraper,
made of fossil mammoth ivory, with a slit in its lower end for the
insertion of a flint blade. It is hollowed on the lower side of the bent
upper iiortion to receive the thumb. On the outer surface are two
grooves for the second and third fingers. The first finger is intended to
rest at the base of the blade.
Plate XLIX, 8, from Kowak river, has a chisel-point, chipped flint
blade, inserted in a plain handle of fossil mammoth ivory. Another
specimen (number 486iJ7), from Kotzebue sound, has a chipped flint
blade inserted into a slot in the mammoth ivory handle, which has a
groove on the inside for a thumb rest and two on the upper surface for
the first and second fingers. A deep slot on the under surface is
intended to receive the third and fourth fingers.
Plate XLIX, IJr, from Hotham inlet, is a wooden handle larger than
that last described, but grooved in the same manner to receive the
fingers.
Plate XLIX, 3, also from Hotham inlet, is a short handle of mam-
moth ivory, with a slot for the insertion of a flint blade. The back of
the handle forms a flaring edge intended, when in use, to rest on the
under surface of the hand near the base of the thumb, while the first
and second fingers are placed in a deep groove in front and the third
and fourth fingers lie in a deep excavation on the under surface.
Plate XLIX, 2, from Point Hope, is a handle made from fossil mam-
moth ivory, with a deep groove on the inside for receiving the thumb,
two grooves on the upper surface for the first and second fingers, and
an excavation on the lower surface for the third and fourth fingers.
Plate XLIX, i, from Point Hope, is a scraper consisting of a small flint
blade fitted into a handle of mammoth ivory. On the inside is a shal-
low depression for the reception of the thumb, and another above for
the first and second fingers; a deep slot across the lower surface is for
the third and fourth fingers.
Plate XLIX, it, from Point Hope, has a blade of brown flint in a wooden
handle, which has a deep slot for the thumb on the inner side, two
grooves for the first and second fingers on the upper surface, and a
deep excavation below for the third and fourth fingers.
Plate XLIX, (>, from Point Hope, is a very curious specimen, roughly
triangular in shape; the chipped flint blade is fitted into a groove in a
wooden handle, which has a large blue bead inlaid on the upper part;
on the inside is a deep slot for the reception of the point of the thumb;
along the front of the top is a deep excavation bordered above by three
grooves for the ends of three fingers, and on the outside a hollow for
the little finger.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLVIII
GRASS COMBS
THREAD SHUTTLES AND NEEDLES
THREAD AND CORD MAKING IMPLEMENTS iTHREE-TENTHSJ
NELSON] SKIN-DRESSING TOOLS 115
Another form of scraper, used specially for cleaning tlie skins of
birds and small mammals, is somewhat knife-like in shape. Plate L, 5,
is a specimen of this type of implement from Nunivak island. It is
made of deerhoru with a slightly spoon-shape blade, and has incised
parallel lines across the upper side of the handle.
Plate L, 0, from Big lake, is also of deerhoim, and is somewhat simi-
lar in shaiie to the preceding.
Plate L. 3, from Ikogmut, is of ivory. The edge is sharp and across
the butt of the handle is a series of notches forming short teeth, which
are used in cleaning fat, blood, and other matter from among the
feathers or hair of the skins and for softening hard spots. On the
lower side of the handle are four round projections, each pierced with
a large hole, and on the back etched lines form a conventional pattern.
Plate L, 2, from Norton sound, is another of these ivory knife like
scrapers with a notched butt.
Plate L, 15, from Norton sound, is an ivory scraper generally similar
in form to the i^receding, but lacking the toothed butt.
Plate L, 1, from St Michael, is of ivory and has a number of small
knobs on the handle and a coarsely-toothed butt.
Plate L, 4, from Cape Prince of Wales, also of ivory, has a long, taper-
ing blade and a toothed butt. It has four grooves on the lower side of
the handle to form a grip for the fingers.
Plate L, 9, from St Michael, is a ruder implement of this kind, semi-
lunar in shape and with a flat back.
Plate L, 11, from Point Hope, is a tray-shape implement about 4
inches long and 2i inches wide, deeply excavated inside and with a
sharp edge all around the exterior rim. It is used by placing the
thumb inside with the fingers grasping the back and pressing either
side or end against the skin.
Plate L, 12, is a rudely made scraper from the Diomede islands.
Plate L, 8, from Point Hope, is a scoop-shaiie scraper made from
fossil mammoth ivory; the inside is slightly excavated and the lower
edge is sharpened. It is used by placing it in the palm of the hand
with the grooved end resting against the inside of the fingers, the con-
vex under surface against the palm, and pushing it from the operator.
This is the only implement of this kind that was seen, all the other
scoop-sliai)e scrapers being used by drawing toward the person.
Plate L, 7, from Sledge island, is a flat rod of deerhorn beveled to an
edge on one side; each end is pierced with two holes in which a strong
rawhide cord is fastened, by which the ends are drawn toward each
other until they form a horseshoe shape curve; it is used by grasping
the cross cord and drawing the edge of the scraper along the skin
toward the operator.
Plate L, IS, from Kotzebue sound, is a scraper made from the shoulder-
blade of some animal; the butt is sawed down and shaped to serve as a
handle; the outer end is also cut off and the thin lower portion cut to
a straight edge.
116
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
Plate L, 13, from Ghalitinut, is a deerborii scraper with a well shaped
upciirved handle, a blade formed like an obliquely truncated half of a
spoon, and a sharjiened edge,
Plate L, 16, from Sledge island, and figure 17, of the same plate, from
the lower Yukon, are sections of deerhorn with one surface flattened
and cut to a sharji edge.
Plate L, 11, obtained on St Lawrence island by Captain C. L. Hooper,
is a crescent-shape piece of reindeer horu with a sharp edge, flat upon
one side and beveled to three surfaces on the other, with a groove run-
ning down tlie center of each.
Plate L, 10, from St Lawrence island, is of ivory, dish-shaped, some-
what oval in outline and nearly straight on the upper or thicker side ; the
other side is curved and thinned down to a sharp edge. It is used by
resting the thumb on the interior and grasping the back with the first
and second fingers.
Plate XLix, 1 , obtained by Mr L. M. Turner at St Michael, is a rounded
bowlder-like piece of
granite about 5 inches in
its longest diameter for
rubbing and softening
skins; the lower surface
is smoothed and polished
by use.
SKIN DRESSING
Among the Eskimo it
is customary for the men
to dress the skins of large
animals such as rein-
deer, wolves, wolver-
ines, bears, seals, and walrus, while the women prepare the skins
of smaller creatures such as fawns, hares, muskrats, marmots, and
waterfowl, and sometimes assist the men in the preparation of the
larger skins.
In dressing sealskins and walrus hides they are first scrajied to free
them from the adherent particles of flesh and fat, then rolled into a
bundle with the hair side inward and kept in the house or the kashim
until they become sour and the hair loosens; small sealskins are some-
times dijiped in hot water to hasten the loosening of the hair; the hair
is then scraped oft' and the skin is stretched on a wooden frame, made
from sticks of driftwood (figure 32), by stout cords passed through
slits around the edges and over the side bars of the frame, when they
are again scraped and placed outside the house to dry. When dry
they are removed from the frames and folded compactly into flat, oblong
packages (figure 33), for convenience in carrying or storing. If the
skin is to be tanned with the hair on, for use in making boots or
Fig. 32— Stretched sealskin.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XLIX
SKIN SCRAPERS 'ONE-FOURTH'
NELSON] SKIN DRESSING 117
clotliiug, it is soaked thoroughly in urine to remove the fat, then
stretched, scraped, and dried in tlie manner described,
The beautifully white, parchment-like leather used for boots and
ornamental work is made from small sealskins from which the hair has
been removed. The skin is then soaked in urine to free it from the oil,
stretched upon the drying frame and exposed in the open air during
the coldest months of winter; the intense cold and the beating t)f the
dry snow upon the surface of the skin bleaches it to a satiny whiteness.
A finer quality of white leather is obtained from the gullets of large
seals and walrus treated in the same manner. The russet colored seal-
skin, used for ornamental work, is made by washing the surface of this
white, parchment-like leather with dye obtained from alder bark.
The skin of the wolf-flsh {Aiinayrlchas lupus), called kii-chii-hluk by
the Eskimo, when stretched and dried makes a thin, blackish, pan-hment-
like material, which is cut into narrow strips and frequently welted into
the seams of boots and other articles of clothing, or used for other
ornamental purposes. The white woolly skin of the newborn fur seal,
after being tanned, is dyed a rich brown by an infusion of alder bark
and cut into narrow strips for borders to
garments or for making tassels for boots ,.,.• ''■■"""■"■■-•.
and frocks. !^''^~~^ — ^^^ '■
To tan reindeer skin with the hair on, / ^"}
the fleshy side of the skin is wetted with Via^iiijasii^. >
urine; it is then rolled into a compact / \ J
bundle, with the hair side outward, and "■■, _ i^ _ '
permitted to remain a few hours in the \-..__ \
warm kashim, after which it is unrolled „ „ „ .^ i'\.,", ,.
' Fl J, 33— Method of folding sealskin.
and any remaining fragments of sinew or
flesh are removed with a scraper. It is then dried and again thor-
oughly scraped and hung up open in the kashim while a fire is
burning, and dried until it becomes hard and almost as brittle as
pasteboard, when it is taken down and scraped carefully and lightly
on the inner side. This breaks the grain of the leather and covers
the epidermis at the roots of the hair with numberless little cracks,
rendering the skin very pliable. After this treatment the skin is
scraped again more thoroughly, and boiled fish eggs, while still warm,
are rubbed on the inner surface. It is then rolled up and permitted to
lie for a few hours, after which it is unrolled and worked and rubbed
between the hands until it becomes dry and soft; a final scraping then
removes any remaining roughness or adherent matter and completes
the ])rocess of tanning. Eeiiideer skins tanned in this manner are
beautifully white ou the inside and the leather is as soft and pliable as
chamois skin.
Small skins are soaked in urine to remove the fat, after which they
are stretched and worked witli the hands and finally rubbed with
pieces of pumice until dry. Urine is so much used in tanning and for
118 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axx, 18
otber purposes that every bouse is providied with cue or more tubs iu
which a coustantly renewed supply is kept.
Marmot skins and the skins of muskrats and birds are rubbed and
worked in the hands, after which the women use their teeth to cbew
the harder parts to render them soft; they are then stretched and
dried and a slight wash of oil is applied to render them more pliable.
The skins of salmon and losh aie dressed and used for making bags,
boots, mittens, and waterproof garments by tbe Eskimo of the lower
Yukon. The intestines of seals, cleaned and inflated, are dried, and
form a kind of translucent parcbraent, which is cut into strips and
sewed to form the waterproof frocks worn by the men when at sea in
the kaiaks or when out on land in rainy weather. These garments
will shed water for several hours. Coverings for the smoke boles in
roofs of houses and kashims are made of this material, which is used
also for covering bedding during transportation or in open camps.
Tbe Eskimo who live away from the coast, lacking tbe sea animals,
use tbe intestines of deer and bears for similar purposes.
HUNTIlSrG AND HFNTING IMPLEMENTS
ANIMAL TRAPS AND SNARES
Owing to the rapid extermination of reindeer iu tbe neighborhood of
the coast of iSTorton sound, tbe natives depend on bunting the various
kinds of seals and on fishing for their main supply of food. For over a
hundred miles along that coast, during my residence at St Michael, not
a dozen reindeer were killed each year. Twenty years earlier reindeer
were extremely numerous throughout the same district, but the intro-
duction of firearms, after tbe Americans took possession of tbe country,
resulted iu a wasteful slaughter by the natives, who soon succeeded in
virtually exterminating these animals in the larger portion of tbe coast
region.
Before tbe introduction of firearms the Eskimo bad various ingenious
modes of capturing and killing deer. They were stalked iu the usual
manner by hunters, armed with bows and arrows, who approached tbe
herds by creeping from one shelter to another until within bow shot.
At other times two hunters went together, and when a herd of reindeer
was seen one of the hunters walked immediately behind the other, so
that their two bodies were in contact. Then, while keeping step as
one man, they walked directly toward the herd. Tbe deer would per-
mit them to come within a certain distance and then make a wide cir-
cuit for tbe purpose of passing behind the advancing hunters; tbe man
in tbe rear theu took advantage of tbe first hollow or otber shelter to
throw himself on tbe ground and lie hidden while his companion con-
tinued onward, apparently without i)aying the slightest attention to
tbe game; as a result the deer would circle in behind him, and while
watching him were almost certain to run within bow shot of tbe con-
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. L
SKIN-CLEANING TOOLS Wne-FOURTHi
NELSON] TRAPS AND SNARES 119
cealed liunter ; when they were near enough he would spring- up and
discharge his arrows; this would distract their attention from the first
man, who iu the meantime had also concealed himself. In running to
escape from the hunter who had Just discharged his arrows, the game
would frequently circle within shot of the other man and become so
confused as to run wildly back and forth, approaching each man in
turn several times before the survivors regained their wits sufticiently
to make their escape.
Another method was to close the lower end of a rocky pass through
which the deer were accustomed to travel, and then make a drive from
the open valley and inclose an entire herd at once, when they were
killed with lances and arrows. The people said that in cases of this
kind they were accustomed to kill every deer thus inclosed, with-
out regard to number, and that frequently such large numbers were
killed that they were unable to utilize them, and they were left where
they fell.
Deer were also snared with strong nooses of rawhide, which were
tied to stout bushes and held open by light strings of grass or sinew con-
necting them with other bushes, or with small
stakes planted in the ground, in feeding, the
deer would entang'e their antlers or thrust in
their heads, so that they were held or strangled
by the nooses closing around their necks.
Another method practiced by the young men
in early summer, when the fawns were born, was
to look for them, and when a fawn only a few
days old was found they would run it down.
The hunters considered this sport to be a great
test of agility and endurance, for instead of fig. 34— Model of. i deer
shooting the fawn with arrows, as might readily ™''™-
have been done, it was a matter of pride to pursue the animal until
it became so tired and its feet so tender that it stopped and permitted
itself to be captured.
At the time of my visit to Point Barrow in 1881, reindeer were still
common in the low mountains to the south and southeast of that jjlace,
but it had become very easy to obtain breech loading guns and ammu-
nition from the whalers, and the people were destroying the deer very
rapidly. One old man and his son, it was claimed, had nearly five
hundred skins in storage, and others had an abundance of them.
Ball's sheej) were also killed in large numbers by these people and
by the Eskimo of Kowak river, judging from the number of skins seen
among them.
Figure 34 shows a model of a deer snare from the lower Yukon; it
consists of two straight sticks, to the larger of which the end of the
snare is firmly attached, while the outer side of the loop is lightly held
by a smaller stick which serves to kee\} the snare iu place.
120 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT |eth.ann. 18
This method of snavinjj deer is iUustrated in figure 35, which repre-
sents a boot-sole creaser from Xushagak. It is etched on three sides,
and on the side shown are two reindeer caught in rawhide snares, with
another snare still set between them.
The white bear is found only at very rare intervals on the mainland
south of Bering strait. A single young white bear was killed a few
miles south of St Michael during my residence there, and was said to
have been the first one seen in many years. On St Lawrence island they
are frequently seen on the ice during winter and spring. The hunters
there kill them by concealing themselves among the ice hummocks in
the course the bear is pursuing, and as he passes shoot him in the head
between the eye and the ear. This spot is chosen on account of the
thinness of the skull, as the .44-caliber breech-loading guns which
they use have not power enough to kill the bear if shot in any other
part. I saw a great many skulls of these animals on the island named,
and all of them had bullet holes in the same place.
From Point Hope to Point Barrow bears are not uncommon, and a
number of Eskimo living along the coast from Bering strait northward
have been frightfully disfigured by encounters with them. A man
from Point Hope told me of an encounter with one of these animals
that took place near his vil-
lage in the winter of 1880.
Two men left the village and
Flu. 35— Etclungonivory, sbuuiugdeeismires (8). Wellt OUt OU the Sea icC dur-
ing the night to set their nets
for seals; while they were setting the nets, at some distance from each
other, one of them heard the snow cracking under the feet of a white
bear which was approaching. The hunter was without weapons of any
kind, and as it was too dark to see the animal he quietly lay down fiat
upon his back on the ice, hoping to escape notice. The bear came
directly up to him, and stopping, began smelling along his body, until
finally he pressed his cold muzzle against the hunter's nose and mouth
and snirt'ed vigorously several times. As he did this the hunter held
his breath until his head swam. Suddenly the bear heard the other
hunter moving about and raised his head to listen; then he sniffed at
the hunter's face again and started off on a trot toward the other man.
"When the bear had been gone a few moments the prostrate hunter
sprang- to his feet and fled for his life toward the shore, hearing the
death cry of his comrade as he ran. About noon the next day, when
the sun came to the horizon, the villagers armed themselves and went
out on the ice, accompanied by the wife of the missing hunter. They
reached the place at dawn and found the bear still feasting on the
hunter's remains. The wife fired the first shot at him, followed by the
others, and the bear fell; then the woman drew a hunting knife and
rushing at the bear slashed its sides until the skin hung in shreds,
when she stopped from exhaustion.
NELSON]
TRAPS AND SNARES
121
I
Another man in that region has the scalp and flesh from one side of
Lis head, including one eye, torn away by a stroke from the paw of one
of these animals.
Formerly, after bears had been brought to bay by dogs they were
killed with stone or iron-pointed lances, and, indeed, the people of the
Siberian shore still kill many in this old fashion.
Wolves are killed with guns or arrows or are taken with various
kinds of traps; steel traps have been introduced by the traders, but
the ancient devices are still sometimes used for both wolves and foxes.
One of the common methods of killing wolves in ancient tunes, which
is still practiced to a slight extent, was by the use of
spits made of whalebone. A slender piece of bone, 8
or 9 inches in length and a third of an inch wide is
pointed at each end, and, after being softened, is bent
upon itself in folds 1 J or 2 inches in length. It is then
bound in position by a strip of cord and laid aside until
it becomes dry, when it retains the form in which it has
been bent. The cord is then taken otf and the whale-
bone is soaked in oil for a short time, then wrapped in
tallow, blubber, or sometimes a piece of fish-skiu, after
which it is placed in a locality frequented by wolves
and foxes.
Discovering this morsel the animal begins to devour
it, but linding that it is not easily masticated, swallows
it entire, doubtless mistaking it for a piece of gristle.
When the whalebone becomes warm and is moistened
in the stomach, it straightens out and the pointed ends
pierce the beast to death or cause such pain that it
is soon found and dispatched by the hunter who has
followed its trail.
Figure 36 shows examples of this implement both in
the folded and extended form ; they were obtained at
St Michael. Dead falls, used as traps for minks, foxes,
and sometimes for larger animals, are made by build-
ing a small inclosure of sticks driven into the ground,
over the entrance to which a heavy log is supported by an ordinary
4-shape device.
Plate LI, 6, illustrates a bait spit for use in one of these " 4-traps,"
which was obtained at Port Clarence by Doctor Dall. It consists of a
double-pointed bone spit about seven inches in length, with a notch an
inch from one point, against which is fastened the end of another bone
spit resting against the notch, and projecting at the other end opposite
the point of the first named.
Near Andrei vsky I saw snares for catching lynxes made by building
a dome-shape pile of brusli, with one or more narrow openings leading
to the bait, which was placed on the ground under the center. At the
Fig. 36 — Game spits.
122
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
mouth of each of these openings a rawhide loop was so arranged that
the lynx could not reach the bait without getting its head or legs
entangled, and as the animal drew back the snare would close and hold
it fast.
Another common style of snare was made by setting a noose over a
•path used by animals and digging a deep hole in the ground below it.
To the lower end of the snare a hea\'y stone was attached, hanging in
the mouth of the pit; the upper part of the snare was held open by
attaching it by strings to surrounding objects, and a trigger was so
arranged that at a touch from a passing animal the stone would be
freed and drop into the hole, causing the snare to close and draw the
animal's neck down to the ground and hold it fast.
Sometimes a noose was set at the entrance to a tunnel made in the
frozen snow, with a bait of meat at the rear end, and in endeavoring
to reach this the animals were snared. I was informed that animals as
large as reindeer, and even bears, were formerly caught by means of
snares, and that
they were in gen-
eral use for tak-
ing red and white
foxes.
South of the
mouth of the Yu-
kon the Eskimo
formerly made
pits for catching
wolves by dig-
ging in summer
square holes
down to the per-
manently frozen earth, and then making a wall about the sides and
grading the earth in a gentle slope up to the outside edge, thus making
a pit so deep that no animal could jump out: it was then covered with
a frail roof concealed by straw and weeds, with the bait laid on the
center. In winter the roof was covered with snow. According to the
old men this was the commonest style of trap used in ancient times,
aiul with it many animals were caught.
One of the most ingenious traps found among the Eskimo was one
by means of which the tension of a set of strong, twisted sinew cords
was used to throw a lever and brain the animal that sprung it. These
traps were known to the people from the northern shore of Xorton
sound to Kotzebue sound; they are not now used on the American
coast, as they have been superseded by steel traps, but I was informed
that formerly they were in common use.
On St Lawrence island were found many pieces of such traps that
were large enough to kill foxes, and from this I conclude that they are
still in use in that district. The accompanying sketch (tigure 37) from
Fig. 37 — Fox or wolf trap with siuew spring.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LI
NETS, SNARES. AND TRAPS 'THREE-SIXTEENTHS"
NELSON] TRAPS AND SNARES 123
a model made by au Eskimo living at the head of Norton sound, sbows
the parts and illustrates the working of this ingenious contrivance:
1 — 1 is a cylinder of wood, that material or bone ordinarily being used
for these traps; 2 — 2 are crosspieces of wood or bone, bound together
by strong sinew cords; 3 is an ivory or bone block; i is au ivory or
bone pin, fitting into o, and is attached to a cord passing through a
bole in the cylinder to the bait at 10; 5 is a slot cut through the side
of the cylinder; 6 is a stout lever of bone with a knob at its inner end,
which is inserted through the cords connevting 2 — 2; 8 is a pointed
spike of bone or ivory (a uail is sometimes used on St Lawrence island) ;
7 is a peg projecting from the side of tlie lever. 2 — 2 are twisted in
opposite directions until the twisting of the conuectiug cords, which
pass around them and through the cylinder, causes a strong tension,
thus holding the crosspieces so firmly against the ends of the cylinders
that they can not slip back. This also draws the cord so taut in the
cylinder that when the lever, 6, is drawn back to lie parallel with 9, a
great resistance is encountered, acting like a spring t" throw it back
to its first position. The lever, <>, is held in position next to 0 by pass-
ing 4 over 7 and into 3. The bait is tied to the end of a cord attached
to 4 at 10, so that it lies just within 8. The trap is then fastened firmly
to the ground and concealed with earth, but care is taken to insure the
free working of the lever. The bait is then exjjosed in line with the
lever and when a slight pull is given, the pin, 1, is freed and the lever
springs sharply over, burying the spike set in its end in the skull of the
animal.
These traps work very nicely and strike a heavy blow. They are
ordinarily made for killing foxes and wolves, but I was told that
formerly they were sometimes used for bears.
Figure 13, plate LI, illustrates a cylinder for one of these traps from
St Lawrence island. It is 12 inches long and 5 inches in diameter, and
is made from a piece of the jawbone of a whale. It is capped at each
end by a ring of bone held in position by four iron nails. A deep notch
is cut in the middle of one side of the cylinder, at one end of which is
a slot and at the other a round hole through the side.
Figure 11, plate Li, from the same island, is a lever made of bone,
forked, and armed at the outer end with iron spikes. The inner end
terminates in a rim of bone. This is the striking arm of one of these
traps. It has a notch on one side for receiving the trigger. With this
arm is a bone ring (plate li, 1.5), pierced with four holes, intended for a
cap, at one end of the cylinder.
Figure 12, plate li, from the same island, represents another striking
arm for a trap, with three iron spikes set in it.
For trapping beavers in their houses square nets, I or 5 feet across,
with meshes large enough for the beaver's head to pass through, are
fastened over the entrance to the animal's house below the surface of
the water, so that in going out or in the animal will become entangled
and drown. These nets are sometimes used in the same way for otters.
124 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.a>n. 18
Hares are snared and netted in spring by setting the nets or snares
among the bushes which they frequent, so that they become entangled
while moving about, or by setting fine sinew nets in open spaces
among the bushes and then making a drive and frighteuing the animals
into them. This method is practiced for taking both the large Arctic
hare and the white rabbit.
Parry's marmot is a common animal in many parts of Alaska, par-
ticularly about the head of Norton sound and along the shore of
Kaviak peninsula. Their skins are highly prized for making light
frocks for summer use and form a prominent article of trade among
these people. They are best when taken early in spring, soon after the
marmots have come out of their holes and while they are still in the
soft, grayish winter fur. They are taken in several ways. One method
consists of a noose fastened to the end of a willow or alder stick 4 or
5 feet long, with the large end planted firmly in the snow or ground.
The small end, having the noose attached to it, is bent down so that
the noose hangs just over the marmot's runway in the snow or on the
ground, and is held iu place by a small cross stick above it, which is
hooked under a stick bent across the runway with its ends thrust into
the ground. It is fastened so lightly that as the animal passes a touch
releases the trigger and the bent stick springs up and catches it.
Figure 4, plate Li, is an example of this style of snare from Cape
Darby. The noose is made of whalebone, and is passed through a
small wooden cylinder, which causes it to run freely and at the same
time helps to hold it in position.
Similar nooses were obtained from the head of Kotzebue sound with
the cylinders made from the hollow wing-bones of birds. In these
latter a hole is made in one side of the bone at the lower end, in which
is tied the end of a flue rawhide line. This line passes up through
the cylinder, and has a small, round block of wood tied crosswise at
the other end of the cylinder.
Figure 3S is another style of marmot trap, from the head of Norton
soixnd, made from a cylinder of wood a little over eight inches in
length. The cylinder is made in two parts, fastened together by means
of a willow-bark lashing through holes made along the line of junction
on both sides. A slot is cut through the upper side and a deep groove
runs around the inside from it, and there are two holes near the other
end. A strong running noose, made from feather vane or whalebone,
is inserted through the upper slot and lies concealed within the groove
on the inside. At the upper end of the noose is a sinew cord, which is
attached to a bent stick having one end planted firmly in the ground
and held in position by a strand of willow bark tied to it, passed down
through the two holes in the cylinder, and knotted on the under side.
As the animal comes out of a hole or along a runway, where the trap
is set, it enters the cylinder, and finding the i)assage barred by the
strand of willow bark across the end, bites it off. This releases the
NELSON]
TRAPS AND SNARES
125
bent stick, which liics up and draws the concealed noose taut about
the animal's body and holds it against the upper side of the cylinder
until 't is strangled or the trapper comes to remove it.
Among the i^eople living to the south of the Yukon mouth thousands
of niuskrats and minks are caught every fall and winter in small
wicker fish traps, such as are used for taking the blackflsh (JJaliia).
These traps are set in creeks and small rivers, beneath the ice, with
a close wicker or brush fence extending as wings from either side and
completely shutting oft' the stream except at the opening occupied by
the funnel-shape mouth of the trap. In this way from ten to twenty
mink have been known to be taken in a single day. The traps are
completely submerged, and, of course, when the animals swim into
them they are unable to rise to the surface, and quickly drown. At
-^*,.
Fig. 38— iTarmot tra]i.
times animals even as large as the laud otter enter these traps and
are taken.
The skins of minks, muskrats, and marmots are taken off, by a slit
between the hind legs, and dried on stretchers, with the flesh side out-
ward. The stretchers are made by fastening together two long, slender
sticks by means of crossbars, which permit them to be brought
together by a hinge-like motion and pushed into the inside of the skin;
they are then spread, thus stretching the skin and holding it until it
is dry. This contrivance and the " ligure-4 " dead-fall were probably
introduced by white men.
Land otters and beavers are taken at their holes by means of steel
traps.
The hunting of fur-bearing animals of all descriptions commences
with the first heavy frost of autumn and continues until the short cold
days of midwinter. Then a period of cessation ensues until February,
126 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
when the hunting and trapping are resumed and continued until the
sun in April renders the fur too harsh and brittle to be of value.
The hunting of seals, whales, and walrus is conducted in a variety
of ways, according to the season.
Each year about the first of September the hunters on the coast of
Norton sound begin to overhaul their seal nets, repair broken or weak
places, and rig them with sinkers and tloats. The nets used are from
10 to 15 fathoms in length and from 1^ to 2 fathoms in depth, made
from rawhide, with a mesh large enough to admit easily the head of a
seal; they are buoyed with wooden floats, or sometimes with inflated
bladders; the floats are frequently made in the form of sea. fowls or
the heads of seals. The lower side of the net is strung with sinkers
of stone, bone, or ivory, and is anchored at each end by a large stone
tied with a heavy rawhide cord. These nets work precisely like the
gill nets used for salmon fishing, and ai'e very eflective.
By the middle of September fur seals of two or three species begin to
come in shore and pass about the rocky points or around reefs which
guard the entrances to the bays and coves which they are in the habit
of entering. The nets are watched by the owners, and when a seal is
caught the hunter goes out in his kaiak and brains it with a club or
stone, fashioned for the purpose; then if the net has been damaged it is
repaired and reset.
During the dark nights of midwinter seals are netted beneath the
ice. The blowholes of the seals are located during the day; at night
the hunters go out and make four holes in the ice, in the form of a
square, at equal distances from the seal hole; a square net is then
placed under the ice by means of a long pole and a cord, so arranged as
to cover the access to the hole from below, and held in place by cords
passing up through the holes in the ice. When the seal rises to breathe
it becomes entangled in the net and is captured. This method of net-
ting is common from Bering strait to I'oint Barrow.
Another method of netting seals through the ice was observed on
the shore between Bering strait and St Michael. In swimming along
the shore the seals are obliged to pass near the rocky points and head-
lands. Taking advantage of this, the hunters make a series of holes
through the ice at intervals of from 10 to 15 feet, and then, by use of a
pole a little longer than the distance between the holes, a stout sealskin
line is i)assed along from hole to hole until the cord is run out to the
distance desired, and is used to drag the long net below the ice. Sink-
ers are fastened to the lower edge of the net, and it is held in position
at each end by a stout cord tied to a crossbar at the hole or to a stake
set in the ice. While swimming beneath the ice during the night the
seals become entangled in the net and drown.
For light sinkers on these nets, long, pointed, ivory weights are used
by the people from the northern end of Norton sound to the coast of
Beriuff strait.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. Lll
BRAINING CLUBS AND SEAL-CAPTURING IMPLEMENTS 'One-fifthi
NELSON] SEAL-HUNTING IMPLEMENTS ! 27
Figure. 17, plate Lii, i.s an example of one of the ivory sinW'rs from
Sledge island; it is long, rounded, and tapers from the middle ro. ird
each end.
Figure 16, plate lii, from Cape Xome, is another sinker of this de-
scription, made from a walrus tusk, witli three links in the middle.
Figure 18, plate lii, is a light ivory sinker, from Sledge island, with
etchings on its surface representing boats and houses.
Figure 2, plate lii, from Cape Espenberg, is a club used for killing
seals; it has a rounded, curving, wooden handle, with a rawhide cord
wound around it to afford a good grip. A rounded knob of bone,
grooved to lit against the side of the handle, is fastened to the head by
a lashing passing through two holes and around a groove at the back.
Figure 5, plate Lil, from the head of Norton sound, is an oval brain-
ing stone, having a groove around the middle and the ends brought
down to a truncated point. This stone is used on the end of a stout
cord, which is fastened firmly about the groove.
Figure 1, plate lii, from Point llope, is a braining stone of mottled
black and white color, roughly oval in outline, with a hole pierced
tlirongh one end. in which is fastened a stout rawhide loop, by means of
which the hunter swings the stone and briiigs it down upon the head
of the animal.
Figure 3, plate lii, from Kigiktauik, is an oval bone head for a
braining club, witli a prominent ridge along the face and truncated on
the back ; it is provided with three holes, by means of which it is lashed
to the handle.
Figure 23, plaie lii, from the JJiomede islands, is a float for a seal
net, with a long, flattened handle, oval in cross section and pierced at
the lower end for attachment to the net cord.
Figure 22, plate lit, from Cape Xome, is a float in the shape of a
seal head, with blue beads inlaid for eyes and tufts of hair inserted on
each side of the nose to represent bristles. A hole is pierced through
the neck, through which the cord is passed for fastening it to the net.
Figure lo, plate lii, from Point Hope, is a curiously made float rep-
resenting a seal, with a rounded body, terminating at the rear in an
ivory ring for attachment of a cord ; on the back a larger ivory ring is
inserted and held in place by a wooden pin. In this ring are linked
two ivory pendants, having upon their outer surfaces incisions rep-
resenting the eyes, nostrils, and mouth of an animal, probably a seal.
The eyes of the seal in the head of the float are represented by inlaid
white beads.
Figure 21, plate lii, represents the head of a seal, with the eyes
formed by inlaid blue beads. A large bone ring is inserted in the mouth,
from which hang two ivory i)endants.
Figure 20, plate lii, represents a double-head seal, with a hole made
through the wood on the back end for the attachment of the cord, and
an ivory pin, with a single link pendant, inserted in the breast.
128 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth ann. 18
Figurr 25, plate Lii, is a rudely oval, woodeu net float, pierced ou
one side. It is from Icy cape.
Figure 24, plate lii, from St Lawrence island, is a wooden net float,
somewhat rounded in outline, with an ear on one side, which is pierced
with a hole for the attachment of the line.
Figure 14, plate lii, from St Michael, are specimens, made from wal-
rus ribs, of a class of implements wiiich serve a double purpose; they
are used as sinkers and as handles for hauling in the seal or beluga
nets.
Figure 20, plate lii, from one of the Diomede islands, is an elongated
oval sinker for a seal net, made of walrus ivory; it is surrounded with
etched bands of zigzag pattern.
About the end of February the Eskimo from Bering strait southward
begin to hunt seals at the outer edge of the shore ice, where the leads
are open at that season. On the 28th of February, 1880, 1 met a party
of people on their way from the head of Norton bay to Cape Darby,
■where they were going to hunt seals on the ice until spring .opened.
At midnight on March 28, the same season, I reached a village on
the northern shore of Norton sound as a party of seal hunters came
in from the outer edge of the ice, bringing several flue, large hair seals.
The entire village was up awaiting their return, and we were cordially
welcomed to the ensuing feast, which lasted until well into the morning.
The entrails and other parts of the viscera were cooked and passed
around as special delicacies, while the people of the village who had
come to share in the feast assisted in dressing the animals.
At this season, also, the people about St Michael begin their usual
spring hunting upon the ice. They leave their village, hauling their
kaiaks, spears, guns, and other implements on small, light sledges made
specially for the purpose. Whenever open water is to be crossed the
kaiak is launched, the sled placed upon it, and the hunter paddles to
the opposite side, where he resumes his journey upon the ice. The
method of obtaining seals at this time is by the hunter concealing him-
self ou the ice close to the water, and from this point of vantage shoot-
ing or spearing them as they swim along the edge. Sometimes a seal
is shot or speared while lying asleep on the ice.
When the ice breaks up, so that there is much open water, with
scattered floes and cakes of varying size, the hunters make long hunts
in their kaiaks, searching for places where the seals have hauled up
onto the ice.
On the 10th of May, one season, I met a party of Eskimo between
Pastolik, near the Yukon mouth, and St Michael. They had umiaks of
ordinary size on sleds, drawn by dogs, and were going with their families
to the outer edge of St Michael island to hunt seals, planning to return
to the Yukon mouth in the umiaks when the ice had left the coast.
During the early spring months the small hair seals come up through
holes in the ice to be delivered of their young. These holes are
NELSON] SEAL-STALKING IVORY SCRATC'HEQS 129
sometimes covered by the hunter with an arch of snow, and the seals are
surprised aud speared as they coine up. W hen stalking these seals as
they lie sleeping or sunning themselves on the ice, the hunter wears a
pair of knee protectors made of white bear or white dog skin, which
reach from just above the knee to the ankle, and have the long shaggy
fur outward. They are secured upon the leg by strings along their
edges, like a legging, but they do not inclose the leg in the rear. A
huge mitten of the same skin, reaching from the hand to a little above
the elbow, is also worn on the left arm. Armed with a spear, which has
a long line fastened to a detachable point, the hunter approaches erect
as near to the seal as is prudent, then lies flat upon the ice and places
his bent left arm before him so that the huge fur mitten forms a shield
between him and the seal. The fur hood is raised over his head, so that
the long border of gray or whitish fur blends with the mitten. The
color of the fur harmonizes so well with that of the snow tliat the hunter
can creep to within the desired distance of the seal without being-
detected. He is always careful to keep his body flat and in a direct
line behind the mitten, and trails his gun or spear behind him with his
right hand until near enough to make sure of his aim. When stalking
a seal in this manner the hunter carries a small wooden scratcher, con-
sisting of a neatly carved handle, tipped with seal claws. If the seal
becomes uneasy or suspicious, the hunter pauses, aud with this imple-
ment scratches the snow or ice in the same manner and with the same
force as a seal while digging a hole la the ice. Hearing this the seal,
seems satisfied and drops asleep again. This is repeated, if neces-
sary, until the hunter is within reach of the animal, when he drives his
spear into it, braces himself, and holds fast to the Une. If close to a
hole, the seal struggles into it. By holding the line the hunter i^re-
vents its escape, and the animal soon drowns and is hauled out. Of
late years guns are commonly used for this class of hunting, and the
seal is shot through the head, so that it remains on the ice.
On the Diomede islands I obtained a typical pair of white bear skin
knee protectors, having a triangular piece of sealskin sewed on their
upper edge to extend above tlie knee, along the leg, and provided with a
cord which extends thence up to the waist belt of the hunter.
Figure 7, plate Lli, from Point Hope, is an Ivory-handle scratcher
with a ring in the upper end; the handle is crescentic in cross section.
The lower end is divided into two parts, on which two claws are held
firmly in position by a sinew lashing.
Figure S, jilate lii, from Point Hope, is a similar scratcher with an
ivory handle, aud with three claws fitted on the lower end in the same
manner as in the preceding specimen. The upper end of the handle is
carved to represent the head of a seal.
Figure '.), plate LII, from St Michael, is a very ancient scratcher
obtained in the ruins of an old village. It is made of reindeer horn
and has two points forming a Y-shape end, on which the seal claws
IS ETn y
130 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth ann. 18
were fitted. The handle Las a groove around it for tlie siuew cord tliat
served to hold the claws in i)lace.
Figure 6, plate lii, from St Lawrence island, is a small scratcher
with a wooden handle, and with three large claws upon the tip, which
are held in position in the usual manner by sinew cords.
Figure 11, plate lii, from I^ortou souTid, is a wooden-handle scratcher
with three claws fastened in position by fine sinew cords passed through
a hole iu the handle. The upper end of the handle is bound with sinew
cords to aflbrd a linn grip, and a loop of similar cord is fastened to the
butt for suspending the implement from the wrist.
Figure 10, plate lit, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a handsomely
made scratcher with a long wooden handle, having three claws on the
lower end, attached iu the usual manner. The liandle is carved on
both sides, above and below, and terminates in the image of a white
bear's head, having blue beads inlaid for eyes.
Figure 4, plate lii, from St Michael, is a rather rudely made scratcher,
with a wooden liandle having four claws at the tip, held in position by
a strip of rawhide pierced with four holes and drawn over the claws,
with a flap extending back on the handle and bound by a cord lashing.
Another method of approaching seals on the ice is by the hunter
covering a light framework with white sheeting and placing it upon a
kaiak sled in such a way as to conceal himself and the sled, which he
pushes cautiously before him until he is within range and shoots the
seal with a rifle. Should he not be provided with a rifle, he uses a
spear, but approaches near enough to be sure of the cast and then
fixes the barb firmly iu the animal's body.
After having killed a seal at sea the hunter is sometimes able, if the
seal be small, to drag it upon the kaiak and thrust it inside; but if it
be large this is impossible, and he is compelled to tow it to the shore or
to the nearest ice, where it cau be cut up and stowed in the interior of
the kaiak. The towline is made fast to the animal by cutting slits in
the skin through which cords are iiassed, or the flippers are tied
together by cords and drawn against the body and a cord passed
through a slit in the upper lip and tbe head drawn down on the breast.
In order to pass the cord between the slits in the skin without ditti-
cultjs small, slender bone or ivory probes are sometimes used, having a
notch at the upi)er end and a groove along both sides. The cord is
looped and placed over the notched end; the hunter holds the two ends
iu his hands and passes the doubled cord through from one slit in the
skin to another.
Figure 12, plate lii, represents an implement of this kind obtained
on Kotzebue sound. It is of deerhorn, with a wooden handle fastened
on by sinew cords and heavily grooved on four sides to enable the
holder to secure a firm grip.
During the winter and late iu the fall seals are usually fat enough
to float when killed iu the water, but in spring, and sometimes at
NELSON] SEAL-FLOATING WHITE-WHALE NETS 131
other seasons, tliey are so thin that they sink and the hunter loses
them. To insure their floating while being towed, it is a common prac-
tice to make slits in the skin at various iioints and, with a long pointed
instrument of deerhorn, to loosen the blubber from the muscle for a
space of a foot or more in diameter. Then, by use of a hollow tube,
made from the wing-bone of a bird or from other material, air is blown
in and the place inflated; wooden plugs are then inserted in the slits
and driven in tightly to prevent the air from escaping. By the aid of
several such inflated spots the seal is floated and the danger of losing
it is avoided.
Figure 13, plate lit, from Sledge island, is one of the probes used for
loosening the blubber in the manner described. It consists of a long,
curved rod of deerhorn, round in cross section and pointed at the top.
It is set in a slit made in the round wooden handle and held in position
by means of a lashing of spruce root. A similar instrument was
obtained at Cai^e Nome.
Figure 19, plate lii, from Sledge island, shows a set of eight of the
described wooden plugs, flattened oval in cross section. They are
fashioned to a thin, rounded point at one end and are broad and trun-
cated at the other, giving them a wedge shape.
During the latter part of August and early part of September nets are
set near rocky islets or reefs to catch white whales. These nets are simi-
lar to those intended for seals, except that they have larger meshes
and are longer and wider. Whales enter them and are entangled
exactly as fish are caught in gill nets, and, Ijeiug held under water by
the weight of heavy anchor stones, are drowned and remain until the
hunter makes his visit to the net. As these nets are set so far from
shore that it is impossible to observe them from the land, a daily visit
is made in a kaiak to inspect them. Sometimes white whales are cap-
tured in seal nets near the shore, but this occurs only once or twice in
a season. Occasionally a school of these whales, while swiniming in
company, encounter one of these nets set for them and by their united
strength tear it to pieces and escape.
BIRD SNAKES AND NETS
The Eskimo have various Ingenious methods of taking ptarmigan ■
and water fowl. During the winter small sinew snares are set among
the bushes where the iitarmigan resort to feed or to rest. Sometimes
little brush fences are built, with openings at intervals in which the
snares are set so that the birds may be taken when trying to pass
through. Figure 10, plate li, illustrates one of these snares, from Nor-
ton sound. It consists of a stake nearly 1-1 inches in length, having a
rawhide running noose attached to its upper end by a sinew lashing;
a twisted sinew cord about a foot in length serves to attach the snare
and stake to the trunk or branch of an adjacent bush.
As spring opens the male birds commence to molt and the brown
132 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
summer plnmaye appears about tlieir necks. At tliis time they become
extremely ])agiiacious and utter loud notes of challenge, which so excite
other males within hearing that desperate battles ensue. The birds
occupy small knolls or banks of snow, which give them a vantage point
from which to look over the adjacent plain. If, when on his knoll, the
male ptarmigan hears another uttering his call within the area he con-
siders his own he flies to the intruder and fiercely attacks him. Tins
habit is taken advantage of by the Eskimo, who stuif the skin of one
of these birds rudely and mount it upon a stick which holds the head
outstretched. This decoy is taken to the vicinity of one of the calling
males, and it is planted on a knoll or snowdrift so that it forms a con-
spicuous object. The hunter then surrounds it with a finely made net
of sinew cord supported by slender sticks. Both netting and sticks are
pale yellow iu color, and are scarcely discernible at a short distance.
The hunter then conceals himself close by and imitates the challenge
note; the bird hears it and flies straight to the spot. As he flies swiftly
along within a few feet of the ground he sees his supiiosed rival, dashes
at hiui, and is entangled in the net. The hunter secures him, after which
he carries the decoy and the net to the vicinity of another bird.
Figure 9, plate li, illustrates one of these fine-meshed ptarmigan
nets, from St Michael. It is made of sinew cord, and is about 10 feet
in length. At each end it has a wooden spreader, in the form of a round
stake, about 18 inches in length, tapering at the lower end, to wliich a
deerhorn point is securely lashed. In the middle of the net is a similar
wooden spreader.
In the collection from Cape Prince of Wales is a similar but stronger
siuew^ net (number 43354) having the two end spreaders and three
wooden sticks for use along the middle of the net for holding it in
position.
Once when hunting near the Yukon mouth in the month of May,
while patches of snow still covered the ground in places, I saw my
Eskimo companion decoy ptarmigan by molding some soft snow into
the form of a bird; around the part representing the neck he placed a
bunch of brown moss to imitate the brown plumage. This image was
placed on a small knoll ; from a short distance the imitation of a i)tar-
migan was excellent and the hunter succeeded in calling up several
birds that were in the vicinitJ^ He told me that hunters used to call
the birds iu this manner to shoot tliem with arrows when they were
hunting on the tundra and had no food.
After the first snow of winter great flocks of ptarmigan migrate
southward across the Kaviak peninsula and resort to the valleys of
Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers for the winter. They fly mainly at
night, and usually begin to move just as it is becoming dusk, when it
is still possible to distinguish objects at a distance of 75 or 100 yards.
A favorite direction for these flights is down the valleys of the rivers
flowing southward into Norton bay.
NELSON] BIRD TRAPPING AND SNARING 133
When tLe migrating season commences tlie people take advantage of
it to caiJture the birds with salmon nets. Each net is from 30 to 100 feet
in length and is spread open l)y wooden rods; a man or a woman at each
end and another in the middle holds the net flat on the ground; when
a flock of ptarmigan come skimming along within two or three feet of
the ground, the net is suddenly raised and thrown against and over
the birds, so as to cover as many as possible. The persons at the ends
hold the net down, while the one in the middle proceeds to wring the
necks of the cai^tured birds. After throwing them to one side the net
is again placed in position. In this manner a hundred birds or more
are sometimes captured in a few minutes.
Gulls are taken about the northern shore of Norton sound and the
coast of Bering strait by means of bone or deerhorn barbs, pointed at
both ends and having a sinew or rawhide cord tied iu a groove around
the middle, the other end of the cord being fastened to any suitable
object that will serve as an anchor; or a long line is anchored at both
ends and floated on the surface of the water with barbs attached to it
at intervals. Each barb is slipped lengthwise down the throat of a
small tish which serves as bait. As the gulls in their flight see the dead
tisli floating on the water they seize and swallow them; when they
attempt to fly away the barbs turn in their throats and hold them fast.
Figure 7, plate Li, represents one of these barbs made of deerhorn;
it was obtained from Xorton sound.
Along the northern coast of Norton sound the people gather the eggs
of sea fowl from the cliti's by means of seal nets, which they roll into a
cable and lash in that shape with cords; the nets are then lowei'ed
over the clifts and the upper ends firmly fastened to rocks or stakes.
The egg gatherer fastens a sash about his waist, removes his boots,
and goes down the net, hand over hand, to the ledges below, the meshes
of the net forming excellent holding places for the fingers and toes; the
hunter then fills the inside of his frock above the sash with the eggs
and climbs to the top of the clifl'.
In a camp at Cape Thompson, on the Arctic coast, I saw many dead
murres which had been caught by letting a man down by a long line
from the top of the cliff to the ledges where the birds were breeding;
there he used a scoop net and caught as many birds as he wished by
putting it over them while they sat stupidly on their eggs.
On the islands of Bering strait the people catch great numbers of
auklets with scoop nets, and also by placing the rudely stuffed skin of
one of the birds on a rocky ledge and a fine-mesh net or snare about
it. These birds swarm around the rocky cliffs like bees and continually
alight near each other, so that the hunter has only to place the snares
in position and come out of concealment to take the birds as they are
caught.
Figure 5, ])late li, illustrates one of these snares from St Lawrence
island. It consists of a wooden stake, about five inches in length,
134 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
Laving about its upper eud a wrappiug of wbaleboue -svliifh secures
the middle of another strip of whalebone extending outward about a
foot in each direction, each eud of which is made into a running noose.
Figure 1, plate Li, represents a set of snares, from Big lake, used for
catching ducks or other wild fowl about the borders of grassy lakes.
It consists of a strong spruce root, three or four feet in length, with
a rawhide cord fastened to each eud, by which it is firmly attached to
stakes. Spaced at regular intervals along this root are eight running
nooses, also made of spruce root, spliced by one eud to the main root,
leaving a point projecting outward about two inches, which serves to
hold the noose open. The snares are set just above tJie surface of the
water across the small openings in the floating grass and weeds, and
as the birds attempt to pass through they are caught. Similar snares
of whalebone were obtained along the shore of Norton sound, and
thence northward to Kowak river and Kotzebue sound.
An ordinai'y sling, consisting of a strip of leather in the middle and
two long strings at each end, for casting a stone, is used among the
Eskimo from the mouth of the Yukon to Kotzebue sound for killing-
birds. A compound sling or bolas is used for catching birds by the
people of the coast from Unalaklit to Kotzebue sound, the islands of
Bering strait, St Lawrence island, and the adjacent Siberian coast. It
is used but little by the people around the northern eud of Norton
sound, but in the other districts mentioned it is in common use.
These implements have from four to eight braided siuew or rawhide
cords, varying from 24 to 30 inches in length, united at one end, where
they are usually bound together with a tassel of grass or fine wood
.shavings; at the free end of each cord is a weight of bone, wood, or
ivory, usually in the form of an ov'al ball, but occasionally it is carved
into the form of an animal, as in the specimen from Point Hope, illus-
trated in figure 8, plate Li, which has ivory weights representing five
white bears, a bird, and a seal. Another examitle, from Nulukhtu-
logumut, shown in figure 10, jdate li, has four pear-shape ivory balls,
with raven totem marks etched upon their surfaces at the lower
ends of the rawhide fcords; to the united upper ends are attached two
white gull feathers to guide the imi)]enient in its flight. Tlie si)ecimen
represented in figure 14, plate li, which was obtained at St Law-
rence island, lias four oval wooden balls united by a braided sinew
cord; another from Port Clarence, shown in figure 3 of the same i)late,
has six oval balls of bone attached to sinew cords.
When in search of game the bolas is worn wound around the
hunter's head like a fillet, with the balls resting on tbe brow. When
a flock of ducks, geese, or other wild fowl pass overhead, at an altitude
not exceeding 40 or 50 yards, the hunter by a quick motion untwists
the sling. Holding the united ends of the cords in his right hand, he
seizes the balls with the left and draws the cords so tight that they
lie parallel to each otlier; then, as tlie birds come within throwiug
<
UJ
Q.
CO
_l
<
LU
CO
O
z
H
CO
<
O
3
I
_l
UJ
<
I
o
cfi
NELSON] USE OF BOLAS BIRD IMPOUNDING 135
distance, he swings the balls around his head once or twice and casts
them, aiming a little in front of the rtock. When the balls leave the
hand they are close together, the cords trail behind, and they travel
so swiftly that it is difficult to follow their flight with the eye. As they
begin to lose their impetus they acquire a gyrating motion, and spread
apart until at their highest point they stand out to the full extent of
the cords in a circle four or five feet in diameter; they seem to hang
thus for a moment, then, if nothing has been encountered, turn and drop
to the earth. While in the air the cords do not appear to interfere
with each other, but when the sling reaches the ground the cords will
be found to be interwoven in a perfect network of entanglement; if a
bird is struck it is enwrapped by the cords and its wings so hampered
that it falls helpless.
It is curious to note the quickness with which this imi)lement
changes its course if one of the balls encounters any obstruction. At
Cape Wankarem 1 saw the Chukchi capture many eider ducks by its
aid, and frequently saw one of the extended balls or its cord touch a
duck, when the other balls appeared as if endowed with intelligence;
their course was rapidly changed, and the bird enwrapped as com-
pletely as if it had been struck S(|uaiely by the sling. Owing to the
space covered by these implements they are very effective when cast
among a flock of birds. They are used mostly on low points over which
waterfowl fly at certain hours of the day.
The Eskimo of the Yukon delta and the low country to the southward
make drives of waterfowl on the marshes during August, when the old
birds have molted their wing-feathers and the young are still unable
to fly. Salmon nets are arranged by means of stout braces and stakes
to form a pound with wings on one side; the iieople form a long line
across the marsh and, by shouting and striking the ground with sticks
as they advance, drive the birds before them toward the pound. As they
approach it, the line of people converge until they reach the wings, and
the birds, thus inclosed, are driven in and killed with sticks. Thou-
sands of downy young are thus slaughtered and thrown away, while
umiaks are filled with the larger or adult birds. One of the fur traders
told me that he witnessed a drive of this kind where about a. ton of
young birds were killed and thrown aside, while several umiaks were
loaded with the larger birds, among which were many varieties of ducks
and geese. Thes-e drives and the constant egg gathering that is prac-
ticed every spring are having their effect in rapidly diminishing the
number of waterfowl in this district.
SEAL SPEARS
The ordinary types of weapons used for spearing seals from a kaiak
vary from 4 to ii feet in length. They have a light wooden shaft,
rounded or slightly oval in cross section, of about the same size from
butt to point, with a long, rounded head of bone or ivory having a
136 THE ESKIMO AI50UT BERING STRAIT [etii.ann. 18
hole in the tip iii which is fitted a wooden socket with au oval slot, to
receive the wedge-shape base of a detachable barbed point of bone or
deerhoru. The heads of some of these spears are shaped into rounded,
tapering points, which are inserted in the ends of the wooden shafts;
in others the heads have deep, wedge-shape slots in which the bev-
eled ends of the shafts are fitted, and have a small shoulder at their
uijper ends to prevent the lashings from slipping. In all instances the
heads are held lirndy in position by strong lashings of braided sinew
cord, which sometimes extends up the shaft in a long spiral, with from
one to three bands of wrapping at the upper end, inclosing the (juills
of feathers placed near the butt, the other ends of the feathers being
inserted in deep slits in the shaft, as are also the ends of the sinew
cord, to hold the wi'appings in position. The ivory points for these
spears are from an inch to three inches in length, and have two or three
barbs along each side, with the points and edges formed by four beveled
faces, and are pierced near the base to receive a sealskin cord which
connects them with the hafts. When the spear is thrown, the barbed
point, when imbedded in the animal, is immediately detached from the
head of the shaft, to which it remains attached only by the sealskin
cord which has been wrapped around the shaft; as it unwinds the
shaft of the spear is drawn crosswise after the i-etreating animal, and
serves as a drag to exhaust its strength and render it more easily over-
taken by the hunter. The method most frequently used, however, is
to attach to the barbed point a line about 3i feet in length, which is
divided at about two thirds of its length into two ends, which are
attached to the shaft about two feet apart, a little nearer to the head
than to the butt, and are then wound tightly about the shaft. Plate
Liii, drawn from a ])hotograph, illustrates the attitude of a St Michael
man casting a seal spear from a kaiak.
Figure 2, plate liv, from Unalaklit, is made with the head, point,
and lashings placed upon the hafts in the usual manner, but the butt
is without feathering.
Figure i, plate liv, a typical spear of this class, from Norton
sound, has on the butt three feathers from a cormorant's tail, but is
otherwise very similar in its finish to the one just described.
Figure 3, plate liv, from St Michael, is a spear having au ivory head
fitted upon the shaft by means of a slot. The barbed point is attached
to the shaft by a line about 16 inches long, fastened just above the
lashing which binds the head to the shaft.
Figure 5, plate liv, from Big lake, has au ivory head, roughly trian-
gular in cross section, with angles rounded and the butt cut down to
a smaller size and inserted in a slot on the end of the wooden shaft,
wliich is attached to the head by a rawhide lashing passed through a
hole in the shaft and in the adjoining part of the head. Outside of this
the usual sinew lashing holds the shaft firmly over the end of the head.
Figure fi, plate liv, from Gape Vancouver, is anotlier spear, with a
double-feathered butt and au ivory head carved at the end to represent
CO
LU
z
to
tr
<
LLj
a
05
<
U5
NELSON] SEAL, WALRUS, AND WHALE SPEARS 137
the head of au otter. The inner end of the head has a wedge-shape
slot, in which the beveled point of the shaft is fitted; in the base of the
head is a hole through which a rawhide lashing is passed and wound
tightly around the projecting sides of the slot, holding the head firmly
against the shaft. A braided sinew cord is also wound about the shaft
from the head to the butt, where the featherings are held in place by a
tight wrapping.
All the small spears with featherless shafts which were collected
came from the shores of Norton sound; those with single feathering
were obtained between Bering strait and the Ku'skokwim, and those
with the double feathering from Nnnivak island and the .adjacent
mainland at Cape Vancouver, Chalitmut, and other villages of that
district.
These spears are the lightest weapons of this character used by the
Alaskan Eskimo, and serve mainly for the capture of the smaller seals.
Throwingsticks are in general use for casting them.
Figure 1, plate Lix, from Nuuivak island, is an exam^ile of another
style of seal spear intended to be used with a throwing-stick; the
head is short and thick and the feathered butt of the shaft has attaclied
to it a bladder tioat, over which is a light netting of twisted siuew cord.
WALRT'S AND WHALE SPEARS
For taking the larger and more vigorous seals, walrus, and white
whales, a spear of about the same size and length is used in connection
with a float and float-board. The dragging of the shaft against the
water, in the kind of spears just described, is siifBcieut for retarding
the flight of the smaller seals after they are struck, but for the larger ani-
mals the greater resistance of a large float on a long line is required.
This latter style of implement is in use from Kotzebue sound to Bristol
bay. The haft is not feathered, aiui the head is rather longer and
slightly heavier than that on ordinary spears of the class just described.
The heads are of ivory or bone, and, in the region about Xunivak island
and the adjacent mainland, are commonly carved into the conventional
forms of wolves or laud otters.
Figure 7, plate Liv, from Nunivak island, is such a spear, with the
end of the head carved to represent the head of a land otter, with blue
beads inlaid for eyes.
Figure 8, plate liv, from the lower Kuskokwim, is a spear with the
shaft carved to represent the conventionalized form of a wolf. The
ivory head has a wedge shape i^oint by which it is fitted to the shaft,
and is bound firmly in place by a spruce-root lashing in place of the
usital sinew or sealskin cord.
Figure 10, plate liv, from the Yukon mouth, is a spear with the
float line and board attached. The barbed ivory point has a triangular
iron tip inserted in a slot, and is united to the head by a rod of deer-
horn inserted in a hole in its lower end. The point is pierced through
the middle for the insertion of a strong rawhide line, which passes
138 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.a.xn. 18
back aiul is looped to tlie lower end of a strong sealskin line six to
eight fathoms long, connecting the spearhead with the float, which
consists of the entire skin of a seal with all of the openings closed and
having a nozzle by means of which it is inflated. A cord loop in the
front end serves to attach it to the end of the float line, which also
has a permanent loop for this puri)ose.
The float-board consists of a strong, oval hoop of spruce made in two
U -shape pieces, with the ends brought together and beveled to form
a neatly fitting joint, which is wrapped firmly with a lashing of spruce
root; the sides have holes by which a thin board is fastened to the
under side, the ends of which are notched in front to form a coarsely
serrated iiattern with five points that are inserted in slots cut in the
front of the hoop. The front of the board is oval, and the sides taper
gradually to the points of two ])rojecting arms, which extend four or
five inches behind the bow; between these arms a deep .slot is cut,
with the inner border rounded. The board has a round hole in the
center and a crescentic hole on each side (plate liv, 10).
On the kaiak the float-board is placed in front of the hunter, with
the arm-like points thrust beneath the cross lashing to hold it in posi-
tion, and upon it lies the coil of float line with the spear attached and
resting on the spear guards on the right rail of the boat; the end of
the line is passed back under the hunter's right arm to the float which,
fully inflated, rests on the deck just back of the manhole.
When the spear is thrown the coil runs ott' rapidly and the float is
thrown overboard. In some cases, when the prey is vigorous and leads
a long pursuit, another line, like that shown in figure 0, plate liv, is
made fast through the semilunar orifices in the center of the float-board,
which latter, when drawn through the water by means of this cord,
assumes a jiosition nearly at a right angle to the course of the animal
and forms a heavy drag to imjjcde its i)rogress.
When hunting on the ice the float-board, with the line coiled upon it,
is carried in the left hand of the hunter and the spear in the right hand
while he watches along the borders of tlie leads or holes for the appear-
ance of the seal. When he succeeds in striking it, he holds firmly to
the line until the animal is exhausted, or if necessary the float-board
attached to the line is cast into the water, while the hunter hurries to
his kaiak and embarks in pursuit.
In addition to the smaller spears used in connection with the throw-
ing stick and float-board, larger sjiears are used to cast directly from
the hand. These spears have a stout wooden shaft from four to seven
feet long, with a finger-rest of bone or ivory lashed on at about one-
third of its length from the butt. The head is of bone or ivory, rounded
and fitted to the wooden shaft by lashings in a manner similar to that of
the smaller spears. It is pierced near the base for the reception of the
line by which it is attached to the shaft. Several feet of this line are
wound about the shaft, so that when the point is detached the cord will
unwind and the shaft will form a drag to impede the animal in its efforts
to
LU
o
z
<
Q
z
<
CO
cc
<
UJ
Q.
05
NELSONl
WALRUS AND WHALE SPEARS 139
to escape. Figure 2, i^late Lva, is a typical spear of this bind from
St Michael.
Figure 3, plate LVrt, illustrates a typical example of this kind of
si>ear which was obtained at Sledge island. The shaft is a little over
six feet long, tapering from the middle toward both ends, the uiJjtfij"
end being the smaller. The private mark of the owner is marked on
the shaft in red and black paiut. The head is held in place by a com-
bination of sinew and rawhide lashings. Spears very similar to this
are in common use on the shores of Norton sound and Bering strait.
Figure 1, plate LV«, from Norton sound, is an example of the large
spear used in that locality.
Figure 8, plate LV<(, is another spear of this kind, about seven feet in
length, from Port Clarence. The shaft is strongly lashed with rawhide
in several places, the lashings being held in place by small bone pins,
and a strong finger-rest in the form of a seal-head is attached to one
side for use in casting; the butt has a tapering, rounded point of bone,
fastened by a rawhide lashing which passes through an orifice in the
bone. The bone head is inserted in a groove in the wooden shaft,
against which it is held firmly by a rawhide lashing; an ivory rod
about seven inches in length is inserted in the top and on it is fitted
the detachable harpoon point, the tip of which is slit and a triangular
piece of brass inserted to form a sharp point. The detachable point
has a hole through which is passed the cord which attaches it to the
shaft.
Figure 7, plate LYrt, from Sledge island, is a similar but shorter
•walrus aud whale spear, having the bone head worked into an image
of a white bear's head, with pieces of blue beads inlaid for eyes.
Spears of this character were found also in use along the coast of
Kotzebue sound and northward to Point Barrow.
From St Lawi-ence island a similar but ruder spear of this kind was
obtained. It has a long, rounded shaft, with a small ivory head and a
finger-rest at the middle; the short bone tip at the butt is sharpened
to a wedge-shape point. This specimen, which measures nearly eight
feet, is the longest of any of the spears that were seen.
Figure C, plate LVrt, from Norton sound, is a spear used for walrus
and wliales. somewhat similar in general character to those already
described, but the long, slender shaft has a si^ur-shape point of bone
inserted in its upper end aud fastened by a rawhide cord. This pro-
jects obli(iuely from the shaft instead of being in line with it, as in the
other specimens described. The usual lashings of rawhide are around
the shaft, but the bone head is smaller and terminates in a knob, in
which is inserted the bone peg on which is fitted the detachable point.
This point has a fiat, triangular, iron tip and a hole through the base
for the attachment of a stout rawhide cord that passes backward
through two grooves in the bone head and thence along the shaft to
the butt, where it is coiled and attached to a float.
Figure 5, plate LVrt, from Chichiiiagamut, is the style of large hand
140 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.a.nn. 18
spear used on Xunivak island and the adjacent mainland, between the
Yukon and the Kuskokwini. A deerhorn peg is inserted in the side of
the shaft to serve as a finger-rest for casting. The shaft is largest near
the head, round in cross section, and tapers gradually back to the
truncated tip. A modification of this style is seen in figure 4, plate
LVrt, from Pastolik, which has the finger rest formed of a small bone
pin inserted in the side of the shaft, but with the latter oval in cross
section and tapering each way, like the Norton sound spears of this
kind.
FLOATS
The sealskins u.sed as floats in connection with spears in capturing
large seals, walrus, and white whales, are taken from the seals entire
and are tanned usually with the hair removed. To stop the holes made
in them by spears or in other ways, and to prevent their fastenings from
becoming loose and the consequent loss of the float and the game, plugs
of wood, bone, ivoiy, or deerhorn are used, which are stud-like in form,
with spreading heads and a deep groove around the side. The hole in
the skin is first sewed up or patched, if necessary, leaving a very small
orifice, through which the stopper is pressed until it ))rojects far enough
on the inside for the workman to wrap a stout lashing of thin rawhide
or sinew cord around the groove and make it fast. This work is done
through a hole left open at the muzzle of the skin, after which the
nozzle through which it is inflated is inserted and fastened by rawhide
lashings. Some of these stoppers are plain, but most of them have the
upper surface carved in a great variety of ornamental designs.
Figure 5, plate lvio, illustrates a si)ecimen of one of these stoppers
obtained at Koiiigunugumut, having the top in the form of a cone.
Figure 7, plate LVirt, from Xubviukhchugaluk, has a conical head
with half of a blue bead set in the top.
Figure 1, plate LVirt, from Konigunugumut, has an oval head.
Figure 4, jilate LVi «, from the same locality, has an oval head with
the raven totem sign etched upon its surface.
Figure (5, plate lviw, also from the same locality, has around, flat top,
with two concentric circles surrounding a wooden plug set in the center.
Figure 3, plate lviw, fi'om Cape Nome, has the top surrounded by a
circle with an inlaid bead in the center and a conical base.
Figure 10, plate LVi «, from Cape Nome, has the top in the form of a
seal's head, with the eyes, nostrils, and ears indicated by round wooden
pegs inlaid in the ivory.
Figure 14, plate LVin, from Sledge island, is a large, round, wooden
plug, on the surface of which are three concentric incised circles.
Figure 13, plate LVi«, from Cape Vancouver, has the upper surface
very slightly rounded and bearing the features of a woman in low
relief The eyes, nostrils, and mouth are incised; there are two labret
holes on each side of the lower lip, and radiating lines from the middle
of the mouth indicate tattooing.
NELSON]
FLOATS
141
Figiiie. 15, plate lvi «, from Agiukcluiguuint, is of ivoiy aud Las a
human face carved on the surface of the head.
Figure 9, plate LVI«, from Cape Yaucouver, is an ivory plug, oval in
outline, with the face of a short-ear owl on its upi)er surface.
Figure .!, jilate lyi«, from Chalitmut, is a small stopper with the
face of a seal in relief ou its surface.
Figure 8, plate LVifl., from Cape Darby, is a stopjier with a stem in the
form of a link, with its base projecting and i)ien'ed with a hole, through
■which a crosspiece
of ivory is inserted
to hold the lashing
in position. In the
link, and carved
from the same piece
of ivory, is a seal-
head with bristles
set in by plugs of
wood to indicate the
whiskers; the eyes,
nostrils, and ears
are represented by
wooden plugs.
Figure l:i, plate
LVirt, from Cape
Darby, is another
link plug, having
carved on it a seal-
head, the nostrils
and eyes formed by
inlaid beads. The
base has the usual
constricted neck,
but is conical in-
stead of flattened.
Figure 11, plate
LYirt, from Sledge
island, is made like
the preceding, with
a conical base attached to the open link by a narrow neck. In this
link is another one, the outer end of whicli is carved to represent the
end of an inflated float.
Figure 16, plate lvi a, from Kusliuuuk, is a long, slender Hoat with an
ivory nozzle. It is made from tlie intestines of a seal, and is intended
to be attached to the shaft of a hand spear. Some of these floats
are made from the bladders or stomachs of seals and walrus, and are
usually oval in shape.
Figure 39, from Nunivak island, is a sealskin float, tunned with most
Pig. :>J — Stalskiii riont (:ilmul i\, )
142 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT. 'eth. ann 18
of the hair removed. It has an ivory uozzle fitted in the place of one
of the forefiippers. The front of the skin is bent downward and
wrapped with rawhide cord, with an ivory peg stuck through to pre-
vent the cord from slipping. Tlie cord has a loose end about three
feet In length with a loop for attaching it to the float line.
The nozzles for the smaller tloats, which are attached to the shafts of
spears, are made usually of ivory; they are round and have a projec-
tion at one end which is pierced for the attachment of a line to bind
the nozzle to the shaft of the spear; an enlarged rim prevents the
lashing from slipping off. In some specimens the base is not pierced,
but a projecting piece is left which is concave on the lower surface and
convex on the upi)er and serves to retain the lashing.
Figure 29, plate lvi a, represents a nozzle or mouthpiece obtained at
Cape Vancouver. It is intended for a small float.
Figure 24, plate lvi a. is a nozzle from Cape J)arby. The projection
on the side has a single hole for the passage of the cord and a shoulder
on the projecting end which is grooved for the lashing.
Figure 27, plate LVi«, from Unalaklit, is another mouthpiece with a
single flattened hole through its projecting lovyer side.
Figure 17, plate lvi u. from Kushunuk, is a large mouthpiece having
a raven totem mark on one side of the base, which is pierced with three
holes for the lashings.
Figure 20, plate lvi u, from St Michael, has two holes through the
base for the attachment of the cord.
Figure 18, plate lvi a, from St Lawrence island, is another nozzle, as
is also figure 19 of the same plate, from Cape Darby. Both of these are
of ivory, and the latter has etched upon its surface several raven totem
signs.
Figure 21, plate LViw, from the Yukon mouth, is made of deerhorn,
and has three holes along the base for the attachment of cords.
Figure 28, plate lvi a, from Cape Nome, has four holes along the base
for the attachment of cords.
Figure 25, plate lvi a, from Konigunugumut, is carved in the form
of a walrus head, the projecting tusks below forming one side of the
opening at the base for the attachment of the cords.
For the ])urpose of attaching one float line to another when greater
length is needed, or for joining lines along the shafts of spears, small
ivory blocks are used, which are made in great variety of form, and
considerable ingenuity is displayed in carving their surfaces into vari-
ous figures and patterns. One form consists of a small block with a
round hole across its length, near the underside. Another larger hole
runs from below and extends obli(iuely upward, continuing on the upper
surface as a groove around the base of an enlarged head on the upper
side of the block, in which a permanent loop is inserted. When the
hunter wishes to attach another cord to lengthen his line he passes the
loo])ed end through the hole on the underside to the upper surtaceand
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LVI
FLOAT, FLOAT PLUGS, AND MOUTH PlfcCEb
CORD ATTACHERS
HUNTING AND FISHING APPARATUS (three-Sixteenthsi
NELSON] CORD ATTACHEBS 143
slips it over the head, where it falls into the slot or ueck and forms a
firm attachment.
Figure 20, plate LVi b, represents one of these blocks, obtained at
Paimut. It is carved on the underside to represent a bear, with the
fore-paws extended around in front. When this figure is turned over,
the hind-legs and the tail, which appear on the opposite side, are seen
to form the fore-legs of another bear, while the fore-legs of the first
form tlie Iiind-limbs of the latter. In the space inclosed by the legs of
the last-naiued bear is the figure of a seal-head in strong relief, which
forms the head over which is passed the loop of the cord to be attached.
Figure 19, plate LVi />, from Chalitmut. is a block having the head
carved to represent a grotesque face.
Figure 21, plate LVift, shows a sijecimen from Kaialigamut, the head
of which is carved to form a human face and on the opposite end is
etched the head of a seal.
Figure IG, plate LVi h, from Sabotuisky, is a plain block with a deep
groove cut in the head for the permanent loop, instead of a hole side-
wise through it.
Figure 15, plate LVii", from St Michael, is one of these blocks with
a grotesque face on the head. Two rawhide loops are placed in it in
position to show the manner of making the attachment of lines.
Figure 7, plate LVI h, from Nulukhtulogumut, has a diamond-shape
head projecting forward to a point.
Figure 8, plate lvi6, from N"univak island, has an almond-shape
head, crossed lengthwise by an incised line.
Figure 22, plate LVi b, from St Michael, has the head decorated with
incised concentric circles arranged in two pairs.
Figure 9, plate la'i h, from Kushuuuk, has the head cut into an oval
form, with a strong ridge along its top, which turns abruptly down-
ward in front.
Figure 6, plate lvi6, from the lower Kuskokwim. has a long, beak-
like projection for the head, as does figure 5 of the same plate, from
Konigunugumut.
Figure 23, plate lvi^, from Askinuk, represents a grotesque counte-
nance. In it are inserted two loops to show the method of attachment.
Another style of cord attacher, commonly used to fasten the end of
the rtiiat line to the short loop on a detachable spearhead, consists of a
bar-like piece of ivory, jiierced with two holes through which is passed
the end of a rawhide loop, forming the permanent attachment, which
projects beyond the side ot the bar far enough to permit another loop
to be run through it, passed over the bar, and drawn back; the bar
lies across the end of the second loop and prevents slipping. Attachers
of this kind are commonly made in the form of a double crescent joined
along one side, having two parallel holes for the permanent loop; the
upper sides are convex and the lower ones slightly concave.
Figure 1, plate lvi^, represents one of these cord attachers, in the
144 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx. 18
form of <a white whale, with the loop in position to show the method of
attachment. It is from the coast between Yukon and Knskokwim
rivers. Figure 11 of the same plate, obtained at St Michael by Jlr L. M.
Turner, is in the form of a seal, and figure 10 shows a specimen from
the Yukon mouth, also fashioned in tlie form of a white whale.
Still another form of these cord attachers consists of a rounded,
upright»block, pierced with two parallel holes for the attachment of the
permanent loop, just above which is a deeply grooved constriction or
neck to receive the temporary looj).
Figure 13, plate lvi b, shows a specimen of this form of the implement,
obtained at Askinuk ; on it is a human face, with labret holes at the
corners of the mouth, and a raised rim around the face representing a
fur hood. The raven totem mark is incised on the sides.
Figure 12, plate lviZ*, from Sledge island, is similar in form, and has
a woman's countenance upon the upper surface, with two labret holes
in the middle of the lower lip.
Figure -i, plate LVii, from Kushunuk. has a grotesque face upon its
upper surface.
Fig. 40— Cord .ittacber (.aljoiit J).
Figure 14, plate lviZ/, from Cape Vancouver, has the face of an owl
upon the upper surface.
Figure 2, plate LYih, from Kushunuk, has a wolf-head upon the
up]ier surface.
The accompanying figure, 40, from Uualaklit, is very well carved to
represent a hair seal; blue beads are inlaid for eyes.
Figure 41 «. shows a well carved attacher from Golofnin bay; at one
end the nostrils of a seal are indicated by round holes, with the cord
hole for a mouth; in the top is a deep excavation, in the middle of
which stands a projecting knob carved to represent a seal-head, over
which the loop of the temporary attachment is passed ; on the lower
side (figure 41?*) is the figure of a whale in relief.
Figure o, xjlate LVii, from Kulwoguwigumut, has the upper surface
plain, except for a median ridge running lengthwise across it.
Figure 18, plate lvi 6, from Norton sound, is a long, flat-head speci-
men, with a cord inserted to show the manner of attaching the loops.
Figure 17, plate lvi^, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a handsomely
made ivory swivel for attachment to a float line to prevent it from
becoming twisted by the movement of the float; the block, or maia
portion, is handsomely carved in the form of a white bear's head, ia
which fragments of blue beads are set for eyes. Tlie swivel is formed
by an ivory rod, about an inch in length, with the head carved in the
FLOATS LAXCES
145
shape of a closed luiraau tist; it is placed iu a bole in the lower side of
the bear head and projects to the rear.
The front ends of large floats are coniinouly provided with a cross bar
of ivory, which serves as a handle for raising' them, and at the same
time is convenient for looping the lines.
Figure 26, plate LVirt, from Unalaklit, is such a handle bar with the
head of a seal carved at each end.
Figure 23, plate lvi«, from the Dio- "^^^ * ■ ■ *
mede islands, is another such bar carved
in the form of a woman.
Figure 22, plate lvi «, from the lower
Kuskokwim, has one end cut into the
form of a grotesque head, and figure 30
of the same plate, from Sledge island,
has npon one end the head of a salmon
and at the other a seal's hind flippers.
Figure 31, plate lvia, from St Law-
rence island, is a wooden bar. rounded
in cross section, with a rounded knob
at each end.
LANCES
In addition to the spears for killing
whales and walrus, two distinct kinds
of lances are used by the Eskimo. The
ordinary form is found generally on the
Asiatic and American coasts of Bering
straits and thence northward along the
Arctic coast. It consists of a slender
wooden shaft, from six to seven feet in
length, with a rounded point of flint,
nejjhrite, or other hard stone, held in
position by rawhide or willow-root lash-
ings. In recent years some of these
lances have been tipped with iron, but
the use of stone for this purpose is con-
nected with the superstition that exists
among these people which prohibits the
use of iron in cutting up these animals.
Figures, plate lv&, from Cape Nome, is a typical example of this
style of lance. It has a shaft about Si feet in length, oval in cross sec-
tion, with a rounded point of chipped flint set in the slot at the end and
bound firmly in position with a sinew lashing.
Figure 4, plate Lvi, from St Michael, is a shorter shafted lance, with
the point made from marble ground down to the leafshaiie outline
18 ETH 10
Fig, 41— Cord attacber, obverse and
reverse (about %).
146 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT fETn axn. 18
eoiiHiion to the stone points of these weapons, rsually the shafts of
tliese lauces are phiin, but a specimen (number 3'{S91) from Xortou
sound, has a finger-rest of bone bound midway on the shaft.
The other form of hxnce is a i>eculiar one used alonj;- tlie coast of Nor-
ton sound, about Xunivak island, and in the region lying between the
mouths of Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers. It is from 4 to 4i feet in
length and has a walrus ivory butt from L'O to 24 inches in length fas-
tened to the end of the wooden shaft. The end of the butt has two
holes, through which a sinew cord is passed and wound tightly around
the junction of the two parts of the shaft. The head has a round hole
for the reception of the point, which is held in position by a stout
lashing of sinew cord.
Figure 2, plate i,Yh, represents a specimen of this kind of lance
obtained on Nunivak island. It has a butt made from a walrus tusk,
along each side of which is etched a long, slender figure of an animal,
having a blue bead inlaid for the eye; the tip of the butt is shaped to
a tapering point. In the wooden shaft, just above the ivory butt, a
deerhorn peg is inserted for a linger rest.
Another example (number 108579) from Nunivak island has the ivory
butt etched with the outline of a long arm, with a hand at the lower
end and the palm pierced.
Figure 1, plate LV/*, from Nunivak island, has a round bone head
with three deep grooves extending around it, leaving four ridges ter-
minating in a shoulder next to the shaft, bound in position by a cotton
cord, evidently obtained from some trader. A long, tapering ivory butt,
triangular in cross section, is fiistencd to the wooden shaft, and about
the junction is a strong binding of cord similar to that used on the head.
All the points used on these lances are detachable, and every hunter
carries a small bag ina<le from sealskin or other hide, containing eight
or ten additional points.
Figure 17, plate LViicf, from the lower Yukon, is a flsh-skin bag for
holding a set of spearpoints. These points vary somewhat in char
acter, but are from S to 10 inches in length, with thin, triangular tips
of stone, glass, iron, or other material. Sometimes the points are made
of ivory or bone, but this is not common. Slate is i)erhaps most
fre(jueiitly used, and occasionally Hint or iron points are seen.
Figure 5, plate VV l>, from Chalitmut, is a lance with a wooden shaft
on which a raven totem mark is incised. The point to this is of slat*',
beveled on both sides to a sharp edge, and set in a wooden foreshaft;
with it is a wooden sheath, to slij) over the jjoint and ])rotect it when
not in use (figure 25, plate lvii a). Figure 27, j)late Lvila, represents
another form of these wooden sheaths for lance points.
Figure 10, ]>late LVii((, shows a lance from Port Clarence, Bering
strait. It has a wooden shaft, with a chipped tlint point inserted in a
slot in the end and held in position by a wrapping of whalebone. Tlie
upper end of the shaft is wrapj^ed with whalebone to prevent splitting,
and a small tutt of seal hair is inserted in a narrow slot on the side.
NELSON] LANCES SPEAR AND LANCE HEADS 147
Figure L'L', plate LVii«, from Cape Nome, ami fiynre l-'l of the same
l)late, from Xortou sound, are lances of this kind, with the poiuts bouud
to the woodeu shafts by wrappings of whalebone.
Figure 18, i)]ate LVii«, from ITnalaklit, has a wooden shaft, with a
long, slender point of tiiut, shaped like the Hint arrow-tips used in that
region for hunting deer.
Figure 24, plate LViirt, from Cape Vancouver, has a long, gracefully
shaped head of slate, set in a wooden shaft.
Some of these lances, instead of a plaiu wooden shaft or a woodeu
shaft with an ivory butt, have the upper part or foreshaft made of bone
or ivory.
Figure 23, plate lvii a, from the lower Kuskokwim. has a bone fore-
shaft set in a slot in the woodeu shaft and held in place by a sinew
lashing. It has a triangular slate point, between which and the fore-
shaft is a deep notch forming a barb.
Figure 26, plate lvii «, from Anogogmut, has a bone foreshaft with a
tiiangular slate tip. The foreshaft is excavated at its posterior end
for the reception of the cud of the wooden part, which is thrust into
this hole without other fastening.
Figure 16, plate Lvii a, from Chalitmut, has an ivory foreshaft with a
triangular iron point set in a slot in its end. <)u the side of the fore-
shaft a sharp-pointed ivory spur is set, pointed backward, and made to
serve as a barb to fix the point in the body of the animal. With this
specimen is a neat sheath, made from two pieces of wood carefully
excavated to the form of the head and bound together by a spruce-root
lashing.
Figure 20, plate LVii a, obtained on Xunivak island by Doctor Ball,
has the head made from a piece of iron riveted to a wooden shaft,
which is pierced with a hole in which a strong rawhide loop is fastened,
evidently fw attaching the head to the line, so that the weapon could
be withdi-awn and used rc[)eatedly on the same animal. A long sheath
of wood, wrapped with spruce roots, serves to protect this i)oint wheu
not in use.
These lances are used when the seal or walrus has been disabled, so
that it can not keep out of reach of its pursuers, when the hunter pad-
dles up close alongside and strikes the animal, diiving the detachable
head in its entire length. The head remains in the animal, and the
hunter immediately tits another point into the shaft and repeats the
blow, thus inserting as many of the barbed heads as possible, until
the animal is killed or the supply of points exhausted. Every hunter
has his private mark cut on these points, so that, when the animal is
secured, each is enabled to reclaim his own.
SPEAR AND LANCE HEADS
Figure 34, plate lvii b, illustrates a round ivory head for one of the
smaller seal spears used with a throwing stick, obtained at Big lake.
Figure 18, xilate L,\nb, represents one of the barbed deerhorn points
148 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth ann. 18
used ill the siiiall spears. They are from St Michael. Figure 17 of the
same plate shows a seal spearpoiiit notched along one side. It also
came from St Michael.
Figure 20, plate LVii h, from Norton bay ; figure 10, plate LVII h, from
Cape Nome, and figure 111, plate lvii b, from Nuuivak island, are exam-
ples of the points used in the large hand spears thrown by means of a
finger rest on the side of the shaft.
Figure 33, plate lvii b, from Anogogmut, is a head for a light spear
cast with a throwing stick and used in connection with the detachable
liarpoon bead and sealskin float.
Figure 12, jjlate lvii b, from Kigiktauik, is the point for one of these
spears made entirely of deerhorn. Ordinarily these points are tipped
with iron, copper, or stone set in a slot in the end of the point. When
not in use these jjoints, which have a permanent loop fastened to them,
are kept in a wooden sheath to prevent the thin metal or stone tip from
being broken.
Figure U, plate lvii b, from Kushunuk, is one of these points having
a triangular copper tip. On both the front and the back of the point
raven totem signs are etched.
Figure 15, jilate lvii h, from Kaialigamut, shows another of these
points with the sheath in position over the tip.
Figure 5, plate l.Yiib, from Chalitmut, is an iron jjoint for a walrus
spear, fastened to the bone rod which connects it with the spearhead.
The rod is lashed to a wooden butt which fits into the spearhead.
Figure G, plate L.'viib, from Sledge island, is a detached point for one
of these spears with a triangular tip of thin iron. It terminates at the
inner end in a single beveled point.
Figure S, plate LViii, from Sledge island, is a point for one of these
spears made entirely from iron worked down to a shape similar to that
of the others.
Figure 13, plate lvii&, from St Lawrence island, is a curiously
shaped point for one of these spears made from bone with a thin iron
tip inserted in a slot.
Figure 11, plate lvii b, from Unalaklit, is a bone point for a large
hand spear, the inner end terminating in two sharp points.
Figure 1, plate lvii&, obtained on Nunivak island by Doctor Dall,
is a good example of a head for a large spear, with a sheath made of
wood and wrapped with spruce root.
Figure 7, plate LVii/*, from Sledge island, is a specimen of the ivory
rods used to connect the detachable spearpoint with the head of the
spear shaft.
Figure 1, plate lvii b, from Cape Nome, is a walrus ivory spur, such
as is used at the butt of the large hand spears for walrus and whales.
This specimen is very old, and has etched along its surface upon one
side scenes of whale and walrus hunting in umiaks, and wolves and
the killer whale upon the other.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LVII
LANCE POINTS, ETC,
SPEAR HEADS, POINTS, FINGER-RESTS, ETC,
OBJECTS USED IN HUNTING
NELSON] SPEAR AND LANCE POINTS 149
Figure 3, plate lviiZ;, from St Lawrence island, is a bone spnr such
as is used on the ends of walrus spears on that island.
Figure 2, plate lvii b, from St Lawrence island, is another spur for
a walrus spear shaft.
Figure 9, plate lvii b, from the lower Yukon, and figure 10 of the
same plate, from liazbinsky, represent triangular slate tips for use on
detachable points of walrus and seal spears.
Figure 0, plate LViirt, from Kigiktauik, is a handsome tlint laiice-
point of bluish stone, very regular in form.
Figure 9, plate lvii «, from Norton bay, is a triangular slate lance-
point with the border beveled down on both sides to form the edge.
Figure 4, plate LVii «, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a large, round-
pointed, flint laucehead.
Figure 1, plate LVii«, is an old flint laucehead obtained from an
ancient village site at St Michael.
Figure 10, plate LVil a, from Kushunuk, is a curiously formed slate
lancepoiut.
Figure 11, jilate lvii«, from Oai)e Darby, is a leaf-shape slate
point.
Figure 2, plate lvii u, from King island, is a handsomely made flint
point, subtriangular in outline.
Figure 8, plate LVii«, from Nubviukhchugaluk, is a diamond shape,
flint lancepoint.
Figure 5, plate lvh «, from Unalaklit, is made of quartz crystal.
Figure 7, plate lvii «, from Big lake, is a handsomely made, oval lance-
point of bluish flint.
Figure 13, plate Lviirt, from Point Hope, and figure 12 of the same
plate, from Kotzebue sound, are well-chipped flint points.
Figure 3, plate LXiia, from Kotzebue sound, is a handsomely made
flint point of dull greenish color.
Figui'e 15, iilate lvii ft, from St Lawrence island, is a laucehead of
bone, tipped with a thin, oval iron point which is riveted in place by
an iron pin; it has a deep slot at the upper end in which the wooden
shaft is fitted, and lias a hole, just below the slot through which passes
the rawhide cord which binds it to the shaft.
Figure 42 (2), from Kotzebue sound, is one of the points used on the
three-point bird spears. Figure 42 (S), obtained on St Lawrence island
by Captain C. L. Hooper, is a rudely made prong for a bird spear-
poiut. Figure 42 (7), from Cape Nome, is a, bone point such as is used
on the shafts of bird spears. Figure 42 (3), from Cape Nome, and
figure 42 (4), from Cape Prince of Wales, represent points for bird
spears. Figure 42 (6), from St Lawrence island, is a prong or spur for
attachment to the side of the shaft of a bird spear. Figure 42 (5),
from St Lawrence island, shows the bone points for a small, three-
point bird and fish spear.
In places where there is considerable whale and walrus hunting, each
150
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
liuiiter has several lanL-epoitits, which are kept wrapped in some kiud
of skiu to protect them from injury.
Figure li, plate LViif(, from Gape Darby, illustrates a wrapper of
this kind for lancepoints, made from the skin of a swan's neck, with
the feathers left on, and having a rawhide cord attached to one end as
a fastening. The lanceheads are so wrapped that each has a fold of
the skin between it and the next.
On the shafts of the large hand spears various kinds of tinger-rests
are used. Sometimes a small pin of ivory, deerhorn, or bone is driven
into the shaft and left i)r()jecting from half an inch to aii inch, sloping
slightly backward to afford a firm rest for the linger.
From Point Hope three tinger-rests of deerhorn were obtained. Fig-
ures 25 and I'C, plate LVii&, illustrate these specimens, each of which
has the head of a deer carved on the outer end. Figure 2i of the same
Fia. 42— Spearp<iint3 ("or l)ii<K .ji
plate shows the other example, which is carved to represent the heail
of au unknown animal, the eyes being formed by inlaid blue beads.
The base of each of tin se tinger rests is in the form of a long, thin
strip for lashing ahmg the shaft of the spear.
Figure 28, plate lvii h, from Sledge island, is a handsomely carved
Anger-rest, with the head of a white bear on the outer end and the base
made concave to tit the spear shaft. There is a hole through the base
to receive the cord which fastens it in place.
Figure 20, plate lvii&, from the same locality as the specimen last
described, represents the head of a seal.
Figure 27, plate lvii/*, from St Jlichael, represents the head and
shoulders of a seal. The base has three holes to receive the cord.
Figure 22, plate lvii/*, from Unalaklit, has a triangular hole in the
base for the cord.
ir
<
UJ
Q.
Q
o
z
<
z
<
LU
<
I
o
I-
NELSON] FINGER-RESTS — lUKI) .SPEARS 151
Figure 21, plate LVii/;, fi-om Sledge island, is carved to represeut the
head of a seal.
Figure 30, plate lvii/*, from KoiJiguuugumut, is a round piece of
ivory, with the interior excavated and crossed by a triangular hole for
the passaf;e of a cord.
Figure 32, plate LViifc, from the lower Yuiion, and figure 31 of the
same plate, from Nunivak island, are roughly triangular fluger rests
of a very common style. They have three holes along the base for the
cord.
Figure 23, plate lvii/>, from Sledge island, is a small, curved object,
with a seal-head on the top and pierced with Ave small boles along
the base for the attachment of cords by which it is lashed to the shaft
of the spear. This devi(;e serves to hold a cord at a jtoint where it is
desired to pass it along the shaft in a diflereut direction without form-
ing a knot. Ordinarily small pegs are inserted in the shafts of these
spears for this purpose, but in some instances objects of this kind are
used.
In addition to the use of spears for killing seals, walrus, ami
white whales, the Eskimo have several forms of spears for capturing
birds, which vary considerably in length and in other details. The
commonest form consists of a round wooden shaft, varying from 3 feet
9 inches to -1 feet 3 inches in length, with three long, rounded, tapering
points, barbed along the inner side with a series of serrations curved
slightly outward and set in the form of a triangle in grooves around
the lower end of the shaft. A strong sinew lashing, about one-third of
the distance from their lower end, secures them to a small central knot
on the end of the shaft, thence to their lower ends they are wrapjjcd
about with a braided sinew cord, which afterward passes spirally
about the handle to the butt, where it is fastened. Plate lviii, after a
photograph, illustrates the method of casting bird spears at St Michael.
Figure H, plate Lix, ti-om Anogognuit, is a typical example of these
spears. The shaft is not feathered.
Figure 6 of the same plate, from Cape Nome, has a shorter shaft,
near the butt <>f which are inserted three feathers from the tail of a
cormorant. Figure 2, from Norton sound, is a bird spear with three
rudely made points of deerhorn, the serrations on which are made to
turn to the sides instead of toward the center as is the usual custom.
Figure 3, Irom St Michael, has three deerhorn points, with serrations
on their outer sides. Figure 4, from Xunivak island, has three bone
points, triangular in cross set-tion, with serrations in ]jairs. facing
inward.
From Nunivak island and the adjacent mainland some spears were
obtained similar to the pi-eceding, except that they were not feathered
and have four points. Figure 1, plate lix, from Nulnkhtulogumut, is
a tyjiical specimen of these four-point bird spears. It has serrations
on the inner faces of the points.
152 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT |eth.ans. 18
The most curious bird spears are those with a loug point of bone,
ivory, or ileerhoru, serrated ou one or both sides, inserted in the end
of the wooden shaft. Set in the shaft, at about one-third of the dis-
tance from the butt, are three points of bone, ivory, or deerhorn, which
are lashed in position with their sharp points extending obliquely out-
ward, forming a triangle. These spears are from 4 to 6 feet in length
and freiiuently have handsomely made points.
Figure 8, plate Lix, from Nunivak island, is one of these spears with
a bone point triangular in cross section and 22 inches in length. It is
grooved along all the angles, which have serrations along them in
pairs, at intervals of au inch or more, with a series of coarsely made
serrations near the butt. The points on the shaft are triangular in
cross section and are barbed along their inner edges. This specimen
is without feathering at the base of the shaft.
Figure 9, plate lix, represents a spear obtained by Mr L. M. Turner
at St Michael. It has three cormorant feathers on the shaft and
three barbs, on two of which the serrations face outward and on the
other they are inward. The point is of ivory, hexagonal in cross
section, and barbed on two sides.
Figure 7, plate lix, from St Michael, has an ivory point, roughly
oval in cross section, with two sets of barbs on the edges; three
barbs on the shaft are of deerhorn serrated along their inner edges.
Figure 11, plate lix, from Razbinsky, is a large and heavily made
bird spear, with a strong point of deerhorn and three heavy points
on the shaft.
Figure 10, plate lix, from St Michael, is another spear of this
description, having the point set in a slit at the upper end of the
wooden shaft and secured by a rawhide lashing. Three bone points
are lashed to the shaft near the butt.
Bird spears are used for capturing waterfowl, particularly during
the late summer and fall, when the geese and ducks have molted their
wing-feathers and are unable to tly; also for catching the young of
various water birds. The object of the three prongs on the shaft is
to catch the bird by the neck or the wing when the i>oint may have
missed it. In using the spear but little attempt is made to strike the
bird with the point, but it is thrown in such a manner that it will
diverge slightly to one side as it approaches the quarry, so that the
shaft will slide along the back or the neck and one or more of the
points will catch the neck or the wing.
THROWING STICKS
The Eskimo are very expert in casting spears with the throwing stick.
The small, light spears used in hunting seals are cast from 30 to oO
yards with considerable accuracy and force. I have seen them practice
by the hour throwing their spears at young waterfowl, and their accu-
racy is remarkable. The birds sometimes would see the spear com-
ing and dive just before it reached them, but almost invariably the
<
us
a.
CO
Q
EC
KELsi.x] THROWING STICKS 153
weapon struck in tlie middle of the circle on the water where the bird
bad gone down. Bird spears are generally cast overhand, so as to
strike from above, but if the birds are shy and dive quickly, the spears
are cast with an underhand throw so that they skim along the surface
of the water. I have seen a hunter throwing a spear at waterfowl oq
the surface of a stream when small waves were running; the spear
would tip the crests of the waves, sending up little jets of spray, and
yet continue its course for 20 or 25 yards. This method is very confus-
ing to the birds, as they are frequently struck by the spear before tliey
seem to be aware of its approach. When throwing spears into tlocks
of partly fledged ducks or geese that are bunched together, two or
even three are sometimes impaled at once upon the triple points.
Hunters in kaiaks are able to follow a seal or a diving waterfowl in
calm weather by the lines of bubbles which rise from the swimming
animal and mark its course beneath the surface. On one occasion I
amused myself for nearly half a day with two Eskimo companions in
kaiaks by pursuing half fledged eider ducks in the sea off the end of
Stuart island. After a little instruction from my companions I was
surprised to see how readily the birds could be followed, for when they
came to the surface they were always within easy range of a cast of
the spear.
In using the throwing stick for casting thes])ear in a curve through
the air by an overhand motion, the throwing stick is held pointing
backward; the end of the spear shaft is laid in the groove on its upper
surface, resting against the ivory pin or other crosspiece at the outer
end; the shaft of the spear crosses the fingers and is held in position
by grasi)ing with the thumb and forefinger arouml the throwing stick.
The under side of the spear rests upon the extended end of the third
finger, which lies along a groove in the throwing stick. This gives the
outer end of the spear an upward cant, so that when it is cast it takes
a slightly upward course. If the cast is to be made directly forward
with a vertical motion of the hand, the siiear is held witli the groove
upward ; but in throwing the spear along the surface of the water the
throwing stick is so held that the groove faces outwardly. In using
throwing sticks that have pins set along the side for finger-rests, the
sjjear is lield in position by the thumb and second finger instead of
with the thumb and first finger, as is usual with other throwing sticks.
In the case of the three-peg throwing sticks the spear rests upon the
turnedin ends of the first and thii'd fingers, while the thumb and
second finger hold it in jjosition from above.
The throwing sticks used by the Unalit Eskimo are made of a leiigth
proportioned to the size of the person who is to use them; tliis is
determined by the measurement of the forearm from the point of the
right elbow to the tip of the outstretched forefinger. Throwing sticks
used with the speai-s for hunting white whales are made longer by the
width of the forefinger than those used for seal and bird spears.
The ordinary length of t he seal spears used with throwing sticks by
154
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT
[ETH. ANN. li
the Tiialit is calculated as tliree times tbe distance from the point of
the maker's elbow to the ti^) of the outstretched forefinger, with the
added width of the left thumb for each of the first two cubits and the
width of the left hand added to the last. Seal hunters are not so care-
ful about the precise length of their throwing sticks as the white whale
hunters, who are extremely exact in their measurements.
Figure 43 (6) represents a throwing stick, from Sledge island, with the
tajiering point deeply grooved and provided with an ivory pin against
which the slightly excavated tip of the spear is intended to rest. The
handle is rounded near the end and notched on the sides to receive the
thumb and the little finger. Small, rudely made depressions in the
upper surface serve for the ends of the second and third fingers, and a
Fig. 43— Throwing sticks fjl.
hole running obliquely through is intended for the insertion of the
forefinger.
Figure 43 (1) shows a throwing stick, from Sabotnisky, with a peg of
ivory in the groove on its upper surface to receive the butt of the spear.
The handle has a hole ou the underside to receive the forefinger, a
wooden pin on the inside as a rest for the second finger, with a deep
notch opposite for the thumb, and the upper surface of the slightly
expanded butt has a flat depression to receive the ends of the last two
fingers.
F'igure 43 (7), also from Sabotnisky, is similar in form to the last, with
a wooden peg at the end of the groove to receive the butt of the s|)ear.
Another wooden pin on the inside of the handle serves as a rest for the
forefinger, while an excavation on the upper surface for the tips of the
last tliree fingers is oval in form, with incisions representing a crane
with long bill and legs, which is a totemic sign.
to
o
CD
NELSON] THROWING STICKS BOWS 155
Figure 43 (i), likewise from Sabotnisky, lias two pins on the liaiidle,
against which rest the second and little fingers. The usual slot for the
thumb and an aperture for the admission of the first finger are pro-
vided.
Figure 43 (5), from St Michael, has two pins, one of wood and the other
of deerhorn, on the side of the handle as rests for the first and last
fingers. Three hollows on the upper surface serve for the tips of the
last three fingers. An upright wooden pin at the end of the groove in
the handle is intended to retain the butt of the spear.
Figure 43 (3), from Norton sound, has a hole on the underside for the
forefinger, a shallow depression on the upper surface for receiving the
tips of the fingers, and two bone pins on the side, against which the
third and last fingers may rest.
Figure 43 (0), from St Michael, has two wooden pins on the side and
a depression on the upper surface as rests for the fingers, and a hole
through the lower part for the forefinger, in front of which is cut the
raven totem sign.
Figure 43 (2), from Gape Vancouver, is a long, slender stick, with a
narrow groove on one side of the handle for the thumb, two pins on the
opposite side as rests for the first and second fingers, and a deep
depression on the top for the ends of the last two fingers.
Figure 43 (8), from Nunivak island, has two pins on one side of the
handle as rests for the first and second fingers, a groove for the thumb,
and a crossbar of ivory at the end of the groove in the upper surface^
'with a small spur at its side to retain the butt of the spe.ar.
Figure 43 {11 ), from Kushunnk, has three pegs along one side of the
handle, and a groove on the upper surface as a rest for the fingers,
while a rounded slot on the opposite side is intended for the thumb.
Figure 43 (10), from Nunivak island, was obtained by Doctor Dall.
It has three pegs on one side of the handle and three depressions on
the upper surface as finger-rests and a deep slot to receive the thumb.
Among the throwing sticks obtained by Doctor Dall on Xunivak
island is one having two bone pegs on one side and made to use in the
left hand. This is the only example of the kind in the collection.
BOWS
Bows and arrows were still in common use for shooting birds and
fish in some districts of northwestern Alaska during my residence there.
The Eskimo hunter's rule for making his bow was that it should be the
length of his outstretched arms, measuring Irom the finger tips. The
length of the ordinary hunting or war arrow was the distance from the
tip of the extended left thumb to the inner end of the right collarbone,
but if the man happened to be short armed he usuallj' measured from
the tip of the left forefinger instead of from the thumb.
Among the Eskimo the making of sinew-backed bows attained a
high degree of excellence, particularly in the district between lower
Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, where bows are still used more than
156 THE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT [etb.ann. 18
elsewhere in Alaska. These bows are of the kind generally in use, but
some are made without backing. At St Michael, and thence to the
northward, bows without sinew backing were common, but the majority
of all bows in this region have a backing of some kind.
A large number of bows were collected which vary considerably in
form and style of backing.
Figure 1, plate LX, illustrates a bow from Askinuk, narrowed and
thickened in the middle, where it is grasped by the hand; thence it
broiideiis in each direct'ou for a short distance and then narrows
toward the tips, where it is notched for the reception of the string.
Figure i, plate lx, from Nuuivak island, is a bow with a heavy
sinew cable along the back, with three sets of cross-lashings to hold it
in position; the string is of twisted sinew.
Figure 2, plate lx, from (he lower Yukon, is backed with a single
heavy cable of sinew, with two cross-lashings near the ends and one in
the middle.
Figure 6, plate lx, is a bow from Askinuk, made with a single cable
as backing, which is held in position by fine cross lashings; to force up
and tighten this backing two small wooden blocks, each notched on its
upper side, are inserted on one side of the middle.
Figure 5, plate lx, is a broad, heavy bow from Tununuk, with a sin-
gle cable along the back and a continuous lashing to hold it in position
along the inner two-thirds of its length. The string is of sinew, with a
■wrai)ping of sjiruce root on the middle to aftbrd a good hold for the
fingers.
Figure 7, plate lx, from jSTunivak island, has a single cable along the
back, which is held in position by a continuous cross-lashing along
the middle third and one near each end; inserted under the cable in
the center of the bow is a long strip of ivory, flattejied below and
grooved above, to receive the cable, which is intended as a strength-
ener and to give elasticity.
Figure 3, plate lx, from Unalaklit, has two flattened cables of sinew
along the back, with a thin layer of skin beneath them. They are held
in position by a continuous cross-lashing of sinew, which extends along
the entire length from within about six inches of the ends.
Figure 8, plate lx, from Pastolik, has a single light cable along the
back, with across-lashing extending about one-third of the length each
way from the middle. This bow has a double curve about one-fourth
of the length inward from each end; along the back, in this curve, is
laid a piece of deerhorn, which is flat on the lower side for resting
upon the bow and grooved above to receive the cable.
Figure 10, plate lx, represents a heavy bow obtained by Captain
Hooper on St Lawrence island. It has a double curve about eight
inches from each end and is backed with a series of braided sinew
cords, the ends of which are wound around the bow and form cross-
lashings for about eight inches from each end.
Figure 11, plate lx, is a bow from Gai)e Vancouver, with a double
NELSON] BOWS AND ARROWS 157
curve about fifteen inches from each end. It has a single cable of
sinew as a backing, held in position by numerous cross lashings, and a
long strip of ivory along the middle, under the backing, to give addi-
tional strength.
Figure 9, plate Lx, is a broad, thiu bow from Eazbinsky, with a raw-
hide string and a sinew cable as backing, fastened by numerous cross-
lashings; there is a double curve about a quarter of the distance from
each end, in which is set a short, triangular wooden jiin, having a
broad base, and notched above to receive the backing. A strip of wood
is inserted under the backing as a strengthener.
Figure 20, plate lxi h, from the lower Yukon, represents a strip of
bone, flat on one side and grooved on the other. It is intended for use
as a strengthener to be inserted under the sinew backing of a bow.
Figure 2, plate Li, is a small bow from St Michael, with a sinew
backing, fastened by a number of cross lashings at short intervals.
Attached to the bow by means of long sinew cords are two slender
bone arrows about nine inches long, with barbed points. This imple-
ment is used for killing muskrats. The hunter, having found a hole of
these animals in the ground, or at the entrance of their house, sits
quietly down in front of it, with one of these arrows fitted on the string
ready to shoot. The moment the head of the muskrat is seen at the
mouth of the hole the arrow is loosed and the barb point entering the
animal prevents its escape, while the cord that attaches the arrow to
the bow enables the hunter to drag it out of its burrow.
ARROWS
ARROWS FOR LARGE GAME
Several forms of arrows are used in different parts of the Alaskan
mainland and on the adjacent islands. Among those collected the most
important were the arrows used for hunting large game and in war.
These consist of a straight wooden shaft, sometimes terminating in a
foreshaft of bone or of ivory, with a stone or metal point set in a slot
in the end. Others have a long point of bone or ivory with a sharp
edge, either notched or smooth.
Figure 5, plate lxi «, represents an arrow from Cape Darby, having
a straight bone tip, suboval in cross section, with three notches on one
side, and shaped to a sharp ijoint. The shaft has a notch for the bow-
string, but it is not feathered.
Figure 9, plate lxi «, shows a deer arrow from Big lake, having a long-
bone point with four notches along each side, and a narrow, flattened
base inserted in the split end of the shaft and firmly lashed to it by a
sinew cord. At the butt of tlie arrow are three feathers with one side
of the plume removed, the tips being inserted in little slits near the
end of the shaft, and the butts, which point forward, being held in
jiosition by a sinew lashing. This is the method commonly adopted ou
the Alaskan mainland for attaching feathers to arrows.
158 THE p:.sKi.vro AhouT Bering strait [eth. axn. is
Figuiu 1, plate lxia, sbows one of two arrows from St Lawrence island,
both of wliif.li have long, pointed, triangular lieads of ivory, the butts
of which are set in slots in the wooden shafts and fastened by sinew
lashings. The shafts have their fore ends triangular in continuation
of the shape of the points, but toward the butt they become round,
and are flattened as they approach the end. One of these shafts is
broadly liattened as an aid to the feathering in guiding its flight; the
other was feathered upon both sides of the flattened butt, but the
feathering has been lost.
Figures 4 and 6, i)late LXia, are ivory-pointed ariows from St Law-
rence island.
Figure 2, plate lxi«, represents an arrow from St Lawrence island,
having a long, triaiigular point of ivory with four notches on one side
of the point without barbing, except on the hindmost, where the point
is cut to a wedge-shape for insertion in a slot in the wooden shaft. This
shaft has two feathers from a cormorant tail, fastened in the usual
manner.
Figure 8, plate lxi«, shows an arrow obtained on Nuuivak island by
Doctor Dall. It has a long bone point with three notches on the side
and a groove running along their bases, thus marking the arrow as
belonging to a man of the wolf totem. The point is inserted in a hole
ill the shaft, which is wound with sinew lashing; it has three feathers
near the butt, held in position by a sinew cord.
Figure 3, plate lxik, shows an arrow from St Lawrence island, with
a long, flattened bone point with a strong barb on one surface and
grooved along the other. There are two tail-feathers of a cormorant
on the flattened sides of the shaft near the butt.
Figure 7, plate LXirt, shows an arrow obtained at St Michael by Mr
L. M. Turner. The point is of bone, triangular in cross-section, but
becoming round near the butt, where it is inserted in the shaft and held
in place by a sinew lashing. The butt of the shaft is not feathered.
Figure 10, plate lxi«, represents an arrow obtained by Doctor Dall
from Nunivak island; it has a foreshaft of bone, is suboval in cross-
section, with a single strong notch and barb on one side and a thin,
triangular tip of iron inserted in a notch at the top. It has three
halves of feathers at equal intervals around the butt, fastened in the
usual manner.
Figure 11, plate LXio, from St Lawrence island, has a bone fore-
shaft in which a triangular point is inserted, and two cormorant
feathers near the butt of the shaft.
Figure 12, plate LXio, from St Lawrence island, has a bone fore-
shaft set on the shaft in an unusual manner. The foreshaft has a
wedge-shape slot in which the wooden shaft is inserted, and an iron
point is fixed in a slot in tlie other end of the foreshaft. lioth i)oint
and foreshaft are held in position by wooden rivets, and a sinew lash-
ing is wound around the junction of the foreshaft and shaft to bind
them securely in i>lace.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXI
/i -ARROW POINTS, WRIST GUARDS, AND STRENGTHENERS FOR BOWS AND QUIVERS i About one-sixth i
.■—BIRD ARROWS AND QUIVER ( Thrfp-twpnlieths i
HUNTING AND WAR IMPLEMENTS
NELSON] ARROWS 159
Among the arrowi)oiiits without shafts, obtained on St Lawrence
island, are several of peculiar form. Among tUese the specimens
sbowu in figures 12, l-i, and !.">, plate LXii, differ most from those
already described. They are all made from bone.
Figure 11, i)late lxi b, from Ivowak river, is a double-notch arrow-
point of deerhorn, and figure 10 of the same plate is a siuglenotch
ivory point from Mubviukhchngaluk.
Figure 8, plate lxiZ>, from the lower Yukon, is a bone foreshaft with
a single notch oh one side and with a small slate point.
Figure 0, plate lxi 6, from Toint Hope, is a bone foreshaft with a
single deep notch and a well-made tip of chipped flint.
Figure (5, plate LXi?*, from Tvazbiusky, is a triangular slate point.
Figure 7, plate lxi/^ from Cape Prince of Wales, is a triangular
point of hard, green stone.
Figure 22, plate LXii, is a beautifully chipped flint arrowhead from
Point Hope.
Figure 21, plate lxi&, is a flint point from Uualaklit.
Figures 20, 23, plate LXi/>, are flint points from Hotham inlet.
Figure 24, j^late Lxi/j, from Shaktolik; figure 25 of the same plate,
from Nubviukhchugaluk, and figure 5 of the plate, from St Michael,
illustrate well made flint points.
Figure 13, jDlate lxi&, is an iron point, from St Lawrence island,
resembling some of the bone points in form.
BIRD AUKDWS
Arrows with blunt heads of various patterns are used for killing
birds.
Figure 2, plate LXic, is a featherless arrow from St Lawrence island,
with a rounded, conical head of ivory that has a hole in the base for
the insertion of the shaft.
Figure 3, plate LXic, is an arrow from Cape Darby, with a bone head
that terminates in a knob- shape enlargement with a series of notches
around the edge, forming a crenelated pattern.
Figure 1, plate LXic, is an arrow from Pastolik, with a long bone
head, which is excavated and crossed by two slots which form four
points ranged in a circle around the edge. The butt has two feathers.
Figure 1, plate lxic, is an arrow from Cape Vancouver, with a round
head of ivory terminating in a conical point. Just back of the liead
the shaft is crossed by two bone pins which are passed through it at
right angles, with tlie points projecting. The butt has three feathers
which arc bound on with a strip of whalebone.
Figure 5, plate lxic, is a boy's bird arrow from Kigiktauik, with a
knob-like head of bone which has four points around its surface. The
tapering end of the shaft is inserted in a hole at the base of the head.
On the butt are two feathers.
Figure G, plate lxic, shows an arrow, from Kigiktauik. witli a double-
pointed bone head on which tlie raven totem sign is engraved.
160
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANS. !8
Figure 7, plate LXic, illustrates au arrow froiu the lower Yukon, with
a kiioblike bone head notched around its edge and terminating in a
small point in the center. At the base of the shaft are three feathers
of the gerfalcon, fastened by sinew wrappings. .
FISH ARROWS
III addition to the arrows used for killing birds and mammals, the
EskiuKi have others for shooting Hsh, which vary considerably in
the shape of the heads.
Figure 44 (3) represents one of
these fish arrows from Razbinsky.
It has a wooden shaft, with three
feather vanes at the butt and
a single l)arbed point of bone in-
serted in the split end of the
shaft and held in position by
sinew lashing.
P'igure 44 (4, 5) are fish arrows
from Xunivak island, each having
a single, long point with a series of
barbs along the inside and a short
supplementary barb on the oppo-
site side of the shaft. The base is
set in a slot in the shaft and held
in i)lace by sinew lashings. At
the butt are two feathers.
Figure 44 ((5) shows a flsh arrow,
from the lower Yukon, with two
barbs of unequal length, notched
along their outer edges, set into the
head of the shaft with their backs
nearly touching, and held in posi-
tion by a strong lashing. At the
butt of the shaft are three feath-
ers, the ends of which are inserted
and fastened by sinew lashings.
Figure 44 (7) shows a fish arrow,
from ^STunivak island, somewhat
similar to the preceding specimen, having two points of bone, barbed
along their outer surfaces and held in position by siuew lashings. The
butt has three feather vanes.
Figure ^4 (S) illustrates another double-pointed flsh arrow, from
Kazbinsky, with barbs along the inner faces of the points.
Figure 44 (9) shows a flsh arrow, from Norton sound, which has three
bone points with a series of barbs along the inner face of each ; the long,
pointed lower ends are inserted in deep grooves in the sides of the
Fig. -14 — Fisli arrows dV).
NELSON] ARROWS, QUIVERS, AND WRIST- GUARDS 161
shaft, wliere tbey are fastened by sinew lasliings. At tlie base are
three feathers.
Fignre ii (10) represents a handsomely made triple point fish arrow
from Oape Vancouver, with the points serrated as in the preceding
specimen and held in position by an ivory ferule slipped over them.
At the base of the shaft are three tail-feathers of a cormorant. They
are notched along their inner vaues and bound in place by a sinew cord
at their tips and a strip of whalebone about the lower ends.
Figure 44 (2) shows a tisli arrow from Cape Vancouver; it has a bone
head, provided with a detachable barbed point fastened to the shaft by
a cord.
Figure 44 (1) shows a fish arrow from the Yukon mouth, having a
detachable point, with a long sinew cord, which is divided on its inner
half and attached at two widely sei)arated points to the shaft. When a
fish is struck and the point freed, the shaft floats and forms a drag to
impede its escape.
AREOWPOIXTS
Figure 2, plate LXift, is a bone arrowhead from Sabotnisky, the tip
of which is notched to form four points. The base forms a wedge-
shape point for insertion in the shaft.
Figure 17, plate ijXih, from Kigiktauik, is a bone point beveled down
to form five faces.
Figure 1, plate LXii, from Nunivak island, is a conical point of wood
having two short, iron crossbars inserted at right angles through the
head. The inner end is cut down to a wedge-shape point for insertion
in the shaft.
Figures 3 and 18, plate Lxi6, show conical points of ivory from St
Lawrence island. Their bases are excavated, with a round hole for
receiving the iioints of the shafts.
Figure 16, plate Lxi&, from Nuiiivak island, is of ivory, with the base
excavated to receive the shaft. The conical point is surrounded by
rounded auxiliary points, formed by incisions along the sides, making
a crenelated pattern.
QUIVERS
Figure 8, plate lxic, represents a fish-skin quiver from the lower
Yukon. It has a cord attached at the upper edge and at another point
about midway on one side.
Figure 27, plate lxi/<, shows a long ivory rod which was obtained at
St Michael by JMr Turner; it is intended for insertion along the side of
a (piiver to stift'eu it It is crescentic in cross section and large at one
end, which terminates in the figure of a wolf's head. The back of the
rod has three holes for the passage of a lashing.
WRIST-GUARDS
Figure 4, plate lxt&, shows a bone wrist- guard from St Michael, made
to wear upon the left wrist to prevent the bowstring from striking it.
18 ETH 11
162 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. a™. 18
It is bound on by a strip of rawhide, which is passed through two holes
on one side and one upon the other.
Figure 19, plate LXii, illustrates a bone wrist-guard from Kowak
river, with a single hole on one side for the attachment of a cord. Wrist-
guards are all made crescentic in cross section, in order to lit the curve
of the wrist.
BOXES FOR ARROW- AND SPEAR POINTS
The Eskimo store and carry the thin, flat points for arrows, spears,
and lances in small wooden boxes, in the manufacture of which they
display considerable ingenuity.
A box of this kind (number 36248), from Kushunuk, is flattened and
square in outline and made from a single piece of wood; the excavated
interior is shallow; it is grooved just below the upper edge to receive
the sliding cover, which has a notch on the top near one end for a
thumb-rest in drawing it out. On two corners of the box a rawhide
loop is fastened for hanging it to the belt or for attaching it to any other
object.
Figure 10, plate lxii, is a long, flattened box from Cape Nome. It
is less than an inch in height, is 7i inches long, and has a sliding
cover. The sides and top are ornamented with a variety of incised
cross-line patterns.
Figure 5, plate lxii, is a long, thin box from Nunivak island,
slightly convex above and below, jjointed oval at one end and truncated
at the other. It has a long', narrow cover, fitting like a stopper and
resting at each end on a sunken ledge, and a thumb-piece for raising it
projects at the rear. On the upper side of the front end of the box are
incised the outlines of the mouth, nostrils, and eyes of some animal.
Figure 1, plate lxii, from Pikmiktalik, is a rudely oval box, grooved
around the sides and along the bottom, but otherwise is not ornamented.
Figure 4, plate lxii, represents a box, from (Jape Nome, fashioned in
the ibrm of a fish known as the losh. The eyes are formed by small
ivory pegs with the centers excavated for the pupils; the gill openings
are marked by incised crescentic lines; the mouth is incised, and the
tail is represented as doubled and lying forward midway along tlie
body. It has a long, oval, stopper-like cover resting on a sunken ledge
at each end.
Figure 6, plate lxii, shows a box, from Askinuk, in the shape of a
seal. The eyes and the mouth are incised and the front flippers are
in relief; the cover is a long-pointed oval in outline and tits into tiio
side, thus differing from the ordinary method of fitting it either in the
upper or the under surface.
Figure 3, plate lxii, illustrates a box, from Norton sound, represent-
ing a seal in flattened outline. The head is well made, the eyes and
nostrils being formed by inlaid pieces of ivory. The cover represents
another seal, the ])rqjecting head and neck forming the thumb piece
for raising it. The eyes and the nostrils are marked by ivory pegs.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXII
17
BOXES FOR ARROWPOINTS AND PAINTS ione-fifthi
NELSON] PROJECTILE-POINT BOXES — FIREARMS 163
A box (number (UUL'O) from the Diomede islands represents a rude,
Leavily -made figure of a right whale cut from a piece of wood; the
mouth and blowholes are incised; the lower surface of the body is
excavated, forming a somewhat rounded, conical orifice on which fits a
stopper-like cover in the shai)e of a seal; this is held in place by means
of a rawhide cord passing through a hole iu the under surface of the
whale, thence through two holes in the shoulders of the seal, and is
fastened on the under surface. Toward the rear of the seal's back a
loop of cord is attached, the end of which passes through a hole in
the tail of the whale and through which the cord is passed for fasten-
ing. This box is a kind of fetich in which are kept the small spear-
and lance-points used in killing whales.
A box (number 632G8) exactly like the preceding was obtained on
St Lawrence island.
Figure 2, plate LXii, shows a flattened oval box, from Cape Nome,
representing a seal with a smaller one on its back; the latter forms a
long, pointed, oval cover; the eyes of the larger seal are indicated by
blue beads. The top of the box is crossed by a series of parallel
lines extending from the middle diagonally backward toward the
border.
FIREARMS
Although primitive forms of weapons are still largely used, guns are
common everywhere among the Eskimo. The guns obtained by them
during the early period of their contact with the Russians were
extremely clumsy, and the Eussians brought with them the forked
supports for these weapons which they were accustomed to use in
Siberia. In some of the more retired parts of the country between the
lower Yukon and the Kuskokwim these supports still exist, as the poor
quality of the guns and the scarcity of ammunition render its aid nec-
essary iu hunting to secure a fair degree of accuracy and success.
Figure 31, plate lxiii, illustrates one of these forked supports, from
Chalitmut, having two legs tipped with ivory points and a crossbar of
ivory to hold them in ijositiou. Along each of the three outer faces of
these legs is a groove iu which small, round, ivory pegs are set at inter-
vals; at the upper end the support has a rounded head in which is a
deep slot; through the sides is a hole in which fits an ivory pin, i'as-
tened by a rawhide cord. A deerhorn disk is fitted into the slot and
is held in place by a pin; it has a long, flattened projection on one side
which is grooved to receive the gun barrel and has three holes for the
lashings by which it was secured; as this disk moved freely on the i)in
the support folded down parallel to the guustock when being carried,
and could be readily set in position when needed.
Figure 24, plate lxiii, from Kigiktauik; figure 25 of the same plate,
from (Jhalitmut; and figure 20, from Kushunuk, illustrate examples of
the pieces of deerhorn intended for securing the lower side of the gun
barrel to connect the forked rest with the gun.
164 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.an.v. 18
Figure 8, plate lxiii, represents a pair of bullet molds, from Cbalit-
mut, made from two small blocks of slate ueatly bellowed out aud set
in wooden blocks, united by pins and corresponding boles so that tbe
faces of tbe molds are brougbt squarely togetber; there is a conical
hole at tbe top by means of which lead can be poured into the mold.
Figure 16, plate lxiii, represents a bullet starter, from Cape Van-
couver, for use in muzzle-loadiug guns; it is made of wood aud has a
bone handle. Figure 15, plate lxiii, shows another bullet starter
made entirely of bone, which was obtained at Anogogmut.
Nearly all the guns in use at present among the Eskimo are muzzle-
loaders, and the ingenuity of the natives is displayed in the many
forms of cap boxes, powder chargers, and tlasks made by them.
A common style of cap box is made of wood, flattened and rectangu-
lar in shape, with a sliding cover. Some of these are plain, others
have their surfaces cut into a variety of patterns. Figure 28, plate
lxiii, from Pastolik; figure 30 of the same plate, from Cape Nome;
aud figure 29, from Sledge island, are examples of this style of box.
Other small wooden cap boxes are rounded in cross section, broadest
at the base, and tapering toward tbe top, where they .are truncated
and fitted with a wooden stopper. Figure 17, plate lxiii, illustrates
one of these boxes, obtained at Cape Vancouver. It has a series of
grcToves around the sides.
■ Figure 27, jjlate lxiii, from Kushunuk, is a round sided box, shaped
like a truncated cone, with a separate piece fitted in the bottom. Fig-
ure G of tbe same plate, from Kowak river, is another tapering box of
this kind, with the top turned out to form a lip, under which is fas-
tened a rawhide cord for attaching the box to the hunting bag.
Another curious style of box, made to contain a few caps in each
end, illustrated in figure 1, plate lxiii, was obtained at St Michael.
It is a long, cylindrical box, largest in the middle and tapering toward
both ends, which are truncated. It consists of two pieces, excavated,
neatly fitted together, and fastened by sinew cords. Extending cross-
wise through the middle is a wooden pin for the attachment of the cord
which fastens the box to the hunting bag. A little wooden stopper is
inserted in each end.
Other cap boxes are made of ivory, cut into various forms, with a
stopper in one end and tbe other closed by a piece of wood which is
held in position by rivets. Figure 4, plate lxiii, from Cape Nome;
figure 5 of the same plate, from Norton sound; figure 7, from Nubviuk-
chugaluk; aud figure 2, from Kaviak peninsula, illustrate specimens
of these boxes.
Powder chargers are even more varied in form, and show more inge-
nuity in design than the cap boxes.
Figure 3, plate lxiii, is a small charger, made of bone, with a long,
round, wooden cap box attached to it by a sinew cord. It was obtained
at Norton bay.
3UREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXIII
OBJECTS USED WITH GUNS AND IN HUNTING 'ONE-FIFTHi
NELSON) POWDER CHARGERS 165
Figure 14, ])late Lxiii, represents a rounded bone cliarger from
Ilotbam inlet. It has an ornamental device of circles and dots and
tbe raven totem etched upon its surface.
Figure IS, i)late lxiii, from Unalaklit, has its lower end carved into
the form of a human head.
Figure 13, plate lxiii, from Cai)e Vancouver, represents a cormo-
rant's head.
Figure 11, plate lxiii, from Cape Vancouver, rejiresents the head of
a skua-gull.
Figure 9, plate LXiii, from Sledge island, is a cylindrical ivory
charger with a knob on the lower end.
Figure 13, plate lxiii, from St Lawrence island, is rounded with a
small, spout-like projection on the rim.
Figure 10, plate LXiii, from Cape Vancouver, rei^resents a falcon's
head.
Figure 20, plate lxiii, from Sledge island, is a rounded bone charger
with a wooden stopper; it is intended for carrying a charge of powder
ready for putting in the gun when needed.
Figure 19, plate lxiii, represents a powder tlask obtained at Kotze-
bue sound; it is made from a section of deerhorn, excavated and fitted
with a wooden stopper at each end; one of these is i^erforated and a
small plug of wood inserted, by removing which an inlet is formed
for the powder. A charger of deerhorn is attached to the flask by a
sinew cord.
Figure 23, plate lxiii, from Cape Vancouver, is a wooden powder
flask in the foi'm of a sea parrot's head. The small end at the neck is
bound together with sinew lashings, and a rounded sto])per is fitted in
the hole.
Figure 22, plate lxiii, from Nulukhtulogumut, shows a small, leather-
covered flask with an ivory mouthpiece in whicli a wooden stopper is
fitted ; to this is attached :m ivory charger in the shape of a cormorant's
head. With this charger is a small ivory disk, having a conical perfora-
tion in the center, which is intended to be placed over the nipple of the
gun for priming it.
The form of both of the preceding flasks is an imitation of those
sold by the fur traders.
Figure 21, plate lxiii, from Sledge island, is a wooden iwwder flask
with the sidies carved in a twining pattern.
Figure 32, plate lxiii, from Norton bay, is a wooden flask fitted at
each end with an ivory cover and having an iron tip at the nozzle.
The Eskimo of Plover bay on the Siberian shore and on St Lawrence
island, as well as those along the shores of Bering strait raid thence up
the Alaskan coast to Point ISarrow, are successful hunters of the right
whale; for this purpose the old-fashioned barbed spear is the weapon
ordinarily used, but it is being superceded by firearms wherever the
people have been able to obtain them. At Plover bay the natives had
166 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
a bomb gun which they had obtained from some whaler. While on a
summer cruise on a whaling ship some of the men had learned the use
of this gun and they took the earliest opportunity to obtain one; in the
fall it was planted on the ice near the entrance to the bay, and as the
whales swam slowly along the narrow lead that remained open iu
niidchannel the bomb lances were fired into them without any lines
attached. This was always done while the whales were heading up the
bay, so that they might swim as far as i)ossible toward the head of the
bay and die under the ice; a few days later the gases would inflate
their bodies to such an extent that the carcasses would burst through
the ice and indicate their i)osition to the people, who would at once cut
them up, using the blubber for food and keeping the whaleboue to be
traded to the whalers in the spring. The people at Point Barrow have
also used a whaling gun for some time.
The walrus is found on many parts of the coast, but is rarely seen
near St Michael; abr)ut Xunivak island and the coast of the adjacent
mainlaud it is caught during fall and spring. Near the mouth of the
Kuskokwiiii the hunters endeavor to surprise herds of walrus in the
shallow bays along the coast. When they succeed, they form a line of
kaiaks between the animals and the sea, and by shouting and striking
the sides of the kaiaks with their paddles, so alarm them that they are
driven ashore, where they are easily killed. In the fall of 1S7!I thirty
of these animals were captured by a drive of this kind just south of
Cape Vancouver. This method, however, can be employed only where
the water is very shallow, so that the walrus can not escape by diving
and passing beneath the kaiaks.
Although spears and lances are still used in walrus hunting, as fire-
arms become more plentiful among the natives many of these ani-
mals are shot with rifles, which are used in addition to the old-style
weapons for killing the beluga or white whale. This animal is some-
times stranded at low water and is then easily killed. These whales
are treated with great respect by the Eskimo, and when one is taken
certain ceremonies must be observed to avoid offending it. At St
Michael I saw the hunters haul a recently killed beluga ashore, and
before it was completely dragged out of the water one of them poured
some urine in its mouth and then addressed several sentences to its
shade in propitiation for having killed it. At Point Hope one was
killed during tlie visit of the revenue cutter Coricin to that place in
the summer of 1881, and while it was being drawn ashore the people
gathered on the beach and sang a song of welcome such as is used in
the kashim during certain dances.
HUNTING BAGS AND HELMETS
Hunting bags are made in various forms and are worn by a strap
over the shoulders; in them the hunters carry their powder, bullets,
cap boxes, and other small articles needed in the chase. Bags of this
kind made from the skins of wolves' heads are highly prized.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXIV
HUNTING HELMETS, VISORS, AND SNOW GOGGLES
NELSON] HUNTING BAGS AND HELMETS 1(37
Figure 33, plate lxiii, from St Micbael, is such a bag made from
the skins of two wolves' beads, bound around tbe edge with red tlau-
nel and lined with white cotton. A shoulder strap made of white
cotton and ornamented witli stitching of red worsted is attached to it.
At St Michael I obtained a long, slender hunting bag (number 3845S)
made of alternating strii)S of white and brown deerskin, with a fringe
of the same cut in little strips ai ound tbe lower end. It is bordered
above by a trimming of skin from a loon's throat, which is succeeded
by ornamental bands of deerskin and a strip of wolverine fur.
The people of the seacoast between Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers
use conical wooden helmets to protect their eyes from the glare of the
sun when hunting at sea; these are ornamented with carved ivory
images or are painted with various devices.
At Kushunuk were seen many of these hats which were painted
white, on which were various i)hallic pictures in red; these pictures
had a certain significance connected with the religious beliefs of the
people, which I failed to ascertain. Tbe same idea was shown in a
phallic picture on a pair of paddles obtained at this village, each of the
two having one-half of tbe jiicture upon it, so that it was completed
by joining them at their edges.
From the mouth of the Yukon northward, wooden visors are used to
shade the eyes; these are somewhat similar in shape to the helmets
but they lack the conical top; the forej>ieces of the visors are often
ornamented with ivory carvings and have at the back a plume of
feathers from the tails of old squaw ducks.
Figure 22, plate lxiv, represents one of these conical helmets from
Kushunuk. It has a strip of deerborn lashed around the base at the
rear to hold the bent ends in position. On both sides are fastened, by
sinew cord passed through holes, wing-like pieces of ivory, carved with
open-work pattern and ornamented with groups of concentric circles,
with a central hole in each. On the middle of the Iront are two carved
walrus heads of ivory, and on each side of these are two ivory strips
representing heads of gulls. The outer surface of this helmet is
painted slate color splashed with white.
Another helmet, from Kaialigamut (figure 20, plate lxiv), is without
ivory ornaments on the front. It is held together at the back by a
strij) of deerhorn pierced with holes, through which pass lashings of
cord; the edges, where they are held together in tlie rear, are fastened
together with spruce-root lashings. The outer suiface is painted white
and decorated with red figures; bordering grooves on the top and
bottom are also red.
The visors worn by the people of Norton sound and the lower Yukon
are usually plain, but sometimes are made to represent tbe head of
some animal. They consist of a fillet of wood passing around the back
of the head, with the front carried out to form a long, rounded fore-
piece.
Figure 21, plate lxiv, illustrates one of these unornameuted visors,
168 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth ann. 18
which was obtained at Eazbinsky. It has a groove around the edge
and a deep, broad groove down the front; at the rear tlie overlapping
ends are lashed together with willow bark. The specimen from St
Michael, shown in plate LXiv, 15, is more heavily made. On the middle
of the front is a groove. The front is carried out to represent the head
of a pike, with a mouth formed by a deeply incised groove, in which
are set numerous small reindeer teeth ; two deep holes represent the
nostrils, and two amber colored beads are inlaid for eyes. One side of
the visor is black, the other side is not colored. Visors from the shore
of Norton sound are sometimes ornamented with ivory figures lashed to
their sides and front, like the helmets from south of the Yukon mouth.
Figure IS, plate LXiv, illustrates a visor of this kind, which has a
wing-like piece on each side and the head of a gull in front; the
median ridge is ornamented with the ivory images of two walrus
heads. The back of the visor has an oval ring of shavings projecting
upward and stuck full of feathers from the tails of cormorants and
old wife ducks.
Figure 2, plate LXiv, from Chalitmut; figure 19 of the same plate,
from Norton bay; and figure 17, from Sledge island, represent visors
made from pieces of wood, with a rawhide strip or cord attached on
each side for passing over the back of the head. The first specimen
mentioned is painted black on both sides and has a series of ivory pegs
and white beads inlaid in two rows on the upper surface. The visor
shown in plate lxiv, 19, has a shallow groove, painted red, around the
upper edge; inside of this is a deep, narrow groove, which, with the
remainder of the visor, is uncolored. The third specimen (plate lxiv,
17) has the lower part of the visor, a band around the edge, and a
long, oval groove down the front, painted black. A shallow groove,
extending around the borders above and below inside the black line, is
colored red.
The ornamentation of helmets with ivory carvings varies but little in
the several localities. I'sually there is a long, Hat, wing shape piece
on each side and the head of a bird in front; the middle is occupied
by carvings of walrus heads or figures of other animals.
The following specimens, shown in figure 45, illustrate some of the
ornaments:
Number 8 represents one of the wing-shape pieces from Shaktolik,
with open-work iiatteru and a series of circles and dots. Number 7
shows one of the ivory strips obtained at Kushuuuk ; it is carved to
represent the head of a cormorant. Another, from Askinuk (number
6), represents the head of a gull. A specimen from St Michael (num-
ber 5) is an ivory walrus head for the front of a helmet. Another,
from Kushuuuk (number 3), rei)resents a land otter, the eyes of which
are represented by inlaid blue beads, and similar beads are inlaid in
the centers of circles etched along the back. A thin band of deerhorn
from the lower Yukon (number 2) is tlatteued on one side and beveled
NELSON]
HELMET ORNAMENTS SNOW GOGGLES
169
to three faces on the other; it is pierced with holes, in pairs, to receive
the lashings, with which it is hound on tlie back of a helmet to hold the
bent ends of the wood in position. A walrus head, cut from ivory, from
Kushnnnk (Museum number 38719), is for ornamenting the front of a
hunting helmet. A similar ornament from Anogogmnt (number 1)
represents the flattened image of a seal, with eyes formed by inlaid
blue beads. Another of these ornaments (number i), from the lower
Yukon, is a flattened, conventionalized image of a wolf. Along the
FlO- -15 — Ivory nninnipnts for hnntiuj: liflniets (J).
back and the sides it is ornamented with etched lines and a series of
three pairs of concentric circles, each having a wooden peg inserted in
a central hole.
SNOW GOGGLES
To preserve the eyes from the glare of the sun on the snow in the
spring and thus ])revent snow blindness, goggles are in general use
among the Eskimo. They vary considerably, according to locality, but
the specimens illustrated give the principal variations in form among
those collected.
Figure .5. jjlate lxiv. represents a flattened, funnel shape specimen
of these goggles, obtained from the lower Yukon. The projecting
front extends oiit both above and below in a gradual slope to the edges
170 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BEKIXG STRAIT [eth. ann. 18
of a single broad slit, the upper boi-tler slightly overliangiug the lower.
They have a rounded notch for fitting over the nose, and are held in
position by a cord which passes over the back of the head. A speci-
men from Point Hope, shown in plate LXiv, 11, is somewhat similar to
the preceding, except that the slit is smaller and the upper front bor-
der projects farther beyond the lower.
Another pair from the Lower Yukon (plate LXIV, 4) have two narrow
slits divided in the middle by a sej)tum. A notch is cut on the inner
surface for the nose, and the front is carved in slight relief to represent
a human face, with the nose between the eye slits. The forehead lu'o-
jects at the eyebrows to form a visor like edge. The inside and top of
the goggles are painted black and the front red.
A pair from Norton sound (figure G, plate LXiv) have two slits, a
notch for the nose resting against a strong septum in the middle, and
a visor-like projection along the top in front. The gaggles from Sabot-
nisky (figure 13, plate LXiv) have a notch for the nose and two flat-
tened eye slits divided by a rudely made septum. The top is grooved
to represent hair, and a nose is shown between the slits, giving them
a mask like appearance. They are painted red in front, but are not
colored behind.
Figure 8, plate LXiv, represents spectacle-shape goggles from Cape
Darby, with two natrow eye slits and a visor-like projection in front.
There is a deep groove for the nose and the outline is narrowed in the
middle, so that the eyepieces are suboval in shape.
Another pair (figure 1, plate lxiv), from Xorton bay, are stdl more
like spectacles than the preceding, being greatly narrowed in the mid-
dle between the two slits for the eyes. The front slopes gently to the
borders of the slits and there is no visor. Another example of neatly
made goggles (figure 9, plate lxiv), .also obtained at Norton bay, are
narrowed in the middle with two narrow slits and a visor in front.
The upper borders of the eyepieces are deeply notched to permit the
circulation of air about the eyes. The pair shown in figure 3, plate lxiv,
are also from Norton bay. They consist of two suboval eyepieces, held
together by two sinew cords which are strung with beads. Each of
these eyepieces has a long, narrow eye slit.
Figure l-l, plate lxiv, represents spectacle-shape goggles from
Kushunuk; they are fashioned to extend forward, surrounding the
large, oval eyeholes in a fiattened, tubular form ; the insides of the eye-
holes are painted black, as is the upper portion of the outside, with the
exception of the borders of the eyeholes which are red.
A specimen from St Lawrence island, figure 12, plate lxiv, consists
of a trough-shape ])iece of wood, concave within and convex on the
outside; it is somewhat crescentic in form, with a notch on the lower
side for the nose; the eyeholes are straight within against the wooden
crossbar or sei)tuin which divides them, and their outer edges are oval;
they are large, and without any arrangement for shading them.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXV
KNIFE SHARPENER AND DAGGER OF NEPHRITE, WITH SHEATH ONE-HALF-
NELSON] SNOW GOGGLES — KNIVES 171
A pair of goggles (figure 10, plate lxiv) obtained at Port Clarence
by Doctor T. H. Bean, are made from three pieces of wood; both the
upper and lower ijieces are grooved to admit the insertion of a fragment
of common window glass in each oval eyehole; they are lashed together
with whalebone cord passed through holes: a projecting visor over-
hangs the front; inside a bar of wood is lashed, which is notched on
each side over the eye to permit circulation of air.
A clumsily made pair from the Diomede islands (figure 7, plate Lxiv)
consist of two pieces of canvas sewed together; eyeholes are cut in the
middle of each, in which are inserted pieces of window glass; the can-
vas is backed by a rudely formed wooden framework, rather quadrate in
outline. These are the only goggles of this kind that were seen.
Figure Ki, plate lxiv, represents a pair of wooden goggles from Nor-
ton sound; they are notched for the nose, and xiroject at the sides as
long, oval ends reaching to the temples; the tubular front has two large,
oval holes, and a strip of rawhide, rounded in front, is pegged to the
upper surface to form a visor.
HUNTING AND SKINNING KNIVES
The stone knives formerly in universal use among the Eskimo have
been almost entirely displaced by the ordinary butcher knives sold by
the traders. Some of these old-fashioned rtint knives were procured at
Hotliam inlet, and were in actual use when obtained; they are illus-
trated in plate xlvii, figures 2, 3. They consist of leaf-shape, chipped
flint blades, set in short wooden handles split at the lower end to receive
the blade which is held in ]>lace by a wrapping of rawhide or sinew
cord, or (as in figure 3) by a lashing of willow root.
From the northern end of Norton sound a beautiful knife (plate LXV, 3)
was obtained. The narrow, leaf shape blade of nephrite is 8.\ inches in
length and 2;^ inches wide at its broadest part, and is slightly convex
on one side; the other side is slightly grooved near each edge and has
a broad, slightly elevated, ilat ridge running down the center to near the
point; it is double-edged and brought to a slightly rounded point. The
handle is of ivory, oval in cross section, 3^ inches in length ; the blade is
set in a slot, the sides of which overlap about 2 inches, through which
ivory pegs are inserted to hold it in place. In the handle are seven
holes, through which a rawhide cord is wouud and crossed to aftbrd a
firm grip for the hand. The wooden sheath (plate lxv, 2) follows the
outline of the knife and extends halfway up the handle; it is in two
parts, which are fastened together by thin strips of whalebone ])assed
through holes in the edges. Across one side of the sheath, near the
butt, are two small, parallel grooves which form the private mark of the
owner. This specimen, from its large size and the beauty and regu-
larity of its finish, is probably unique. It was purchased at Xubviukli-
chugaluk from a Kaviak Eskimo who said that it had been an heirloom
in his family for many generations; although now of no practical utility
172 THE ESKIMO AISOUT BERING STRAIT (eth ann. 18
lie prized it veiy much from its association, and it was only after two
years of careful effort that I succeeded in obtaining it by paying what
he considered a large i^rice. Other jade knives, somewhat similar to
this but much smaller and with less perfect blades, were also seen.
Knives are usually worn by tlie Eskimo in a sheath strapped to the
outside of the right thigh, just below the hip, so that the handle may
readily be grasped; some of tlie men, however, have the sheath sus-
pended from the waist belt.
DRAG HANDLES
Drag handles, attached to a stout permanent loop of sealskin cord,
are used for hauling dead seals or other heavy weights over the snow
or ice. They are made of wood, bone, ivory, or deerhorn, carved in a
variety of forms, considerable ingenuity being exercised in adapting
the designs to the shape of the handle and to the purpose for which it
is to be used.
Plate LXYi, 16, from Kushiinnk, is a cylindrical wooden handle,
grooved around the middle for receiving the loop.
Plate Lxvi, 4, from St Michael, is an ivory handle, in the form of a
crossbar, with the head of a white bear carved
on each end and a square slot crosswise through
the middle for receiving the cord.
IMate LXVI, 18, from Cape Darby, represents
two white whales lashed together on their ven-
„ „ ^ ,, „ ,. ,„ tral surfaces and pierced through the middle for
receiving the ends of the cords, which project
through their mouths and form a loop on that end. The other ends of
the whales terminate in a ring from which are suspended six links
of ivory : to the last link of one of these chains is suspended a small
carving in the form of a whale's tail.
Plate LXVI, 14, shows a handle, from Sledge island, in the form of a
white bear. A cord passes through the lower surface.
A rounded block, carved in the form of two seals lying face to face,
with their fore-flirpers along their nuizzles, is illustrated in plate lxvi,
1. It has two holes pierced in one end which join and issue as a single
hole at the other end. It was obtained at Unalaklit.
Plate LXVI, 15, represents a handle, from Sledge island, in the shape
of a white whale, which is pierced transversely for the cord.
Figure 46 shows an ivory cord handle from Sledge island. It is an
extremely artistic carving, representing the head of a white bear with
a small seal in its mouth. On the lower snrface of the head is a figure,
in relief, of another seal.
Plate LXVI, 19, shows another elaborate drag handle from Cape Darby.
The central portion consists of a piece of ivory, pierced by two round
holes, and a third one forming a slot through which is passed the cord
for the loop. From one of these rings is hung, as a link, the tail of a
Avhale; and from the other two chains, each consisting of eight links.
LU
_l
Q
Z
<
I
<
q:
Q
CE
o
Q
cc
O
O
NELSON] DRAG HANDLES FISHING 173
one of wliicb teT'iiiinates in tlie head and fore-legs of a white bear and
the other iu the tail and hiud-fiii)pers of a f--eal.
Phite LXVI, 12, from Sledye island, is a four prong ivory rod, with
white-bears' heads carved upon two of the points and a seal's head on
another; the fourth point terminates in a ring in which is linked a
pendant representing the head and shoulders of a seal.
Plate LXVI, -, from Cape Nome, is a small ivory handle, pierced with
a hole at one end, which forks and terminates in two holes on the other
end. On one side is carved in relief the form of a seal, and on the
other the form of a white bear.
Plate LXVI, 17, is a handle, fashioned in the form of a white-bear's
head, with blue beads inlaid for eyes. The two cords form one loop,
projecting from the bear's mouth, and on the other side they project
from separate holes at the rear.
Plate LXVI, 11, from Sledge island, is an ivory image of a seal, with
a hole through the back, in which is fitted an ivory pin, terminating
above in the tigure of a seal's head. To the lower end is attached the
cord forming the looiJ.
Plate LXVI, 5, from the Diomede islands, is a handle made of a bar of
ivory, an elongated oval in outline, with a convexity near each end on
the lower side and slightly excavated within. In the middle of this
excavation is a hole, through which passes the cord forming a loop.
On the upper side the cords pass through holes in two figurines of
seals, which rest with their heads down against the outer borders of
the bar.
Plate LXVI, <S, from Sledge island, has carved on one end the head of
a seal and on the other that of a white bear.
Plate LXVI, 10, from Kotzebue sound, is in the shape of the head of a
white bear, represented as holding a seal crosswise in its mouth; it is
pierced lengthwise on the under side for the passage of a cord.
Plate LXVI, 7, from Kotzebue sound, is an elongated bar, with a
seal's head on each end. The handle is surrounded by eight series of
etched parallel lines.
Plate LXVI, 3, from Cape Prince of Wales, has four images of seals
carved in high relief on the small ivory center througli which the cord
passes.
Plate LXVI, 13, from Nubviukhchugaluk, is a handle in the form of a
white-bear's head, represented as holding a stick crosswise in its mouth,
and just back of this, carved from a separate piece, the head of a seal.
FISHING AND FISniNG IMPIiElMENTS
METHODS OF FISHING
Fishing forms one of the main sources of food supply among the
western Eskimo, and in its pursuit a variety of methods and imple-
ments are employed. The fishing season along the coast of Norton
sound opens about the end of March or early in April of each year; at
174
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
this time the spring tides begin to sliow along the shore, where the
■water forces its way up througli the cracks in the ice. During tlie
cold weather of winter the tonicod and the sculpin remain in deep
water, but as spring approaches they begin to return to the vicinity
of the shore, and holes in the ice are made through which they are
caught by means of hook and line. During May, as the weather grows
warmer, the tomcod become extremely numerous, and at this time the
old men and women may be seen scattered about on the ice, a few
hundred yards from the shore, where they fish during many hours of
the day. Figure 47, from a jihotograph taken at St Michael, shows
a man at one of the fishing holes.
Fig. 47 — 'J*omco(l fialiing through sea ice at St "Michael.
For fishing through the ice a hole from six to eight inches in diam-
eter is made. The ice pick employed for this purpose consists of a
stout wooden staff, usually provided with a point made from the end
of an old chisel or a tiat piece of iron; but formerly, and indeed fre-
quently during my residence in Alaska, j)icks pointed with reindeer
horn or ivory were in use.
Figure 10, plate lsvii, illustrates one of these picks from Norton
sound; it consists of a wooden staff, nearly four feet long, terminating
in a deerhorn point, which is lashed firmly to the staff witl^ cords of
sealskin.
As the ice is generally several feet in thickness, the hole becomes
filled with small fragments as the work of digging progresses. To
CO
<
UJ
a
CO
I
Q
Z
<
CO
Q.
o
o
o
CO
^^
o
□.
UJ
O
NELSON] TOMCOD FISHING 175
remove tliese, as well as to skim out the film of ice tluit constantly
forms on cold days, a small scooj) with a netted bottom is used by the
natives of the coast from the mouth of tlie Kuskokwim to Kotzebue
sound. A typical specimen of an ice sooop, from St Michael, is illus-
trated in figure 9, plate lxvii. The rim consists of a band of dcerhorn
bent into a circle, the overlapping ends being pierced and lashed
together with rawhide cord. The upper edge has a long, rounded
point in front; the lower edge has holes in pairs, through which is
passed the rawhide cord, which is netted across the bottom in a hexa-
gonal pattern. This scoop is fastened to the handle with a lashing of
sinew cord, which passes through a hole iu the handle and over the
rim. The wooden handle is oval in cross section, and is about 34
inches in length.
In the vicinity of Bering strait the net of some of these implements
is formed of a cord made of twisted filaments of whalebone.
Another variety of this implement, from St Lawrence island, is illus-
trated in figure S, plate lxvii ; it consists of a slightly grooved wooden
handle, to which is attached a scoop-shape piece of bone. Still another,
from the same locality, is shown in figure 7, ]>late lxvii ; it is made from
the shoulder-blade of some animal, pierced near its small end with two
holes, through which a lashing is passed, which fastens it tirmly to a
wooden handle four feet in length.
The implements used iu fishing for tomcod consist of a short pole,
from 25 to .'50 inches iu length, and a long line made from whalebone,
sinew, rawhide, or the feather quills of gulls or other large waterfowl.
These are split aud worked a little to render them more pliable, and
knotted together while moist, forming a tough and durable line. On
the lower end of the line, six to ten inches from tlie bottom, a sinker
of stone, bone, or ivory is attached, pierced at each end for attachment
to the line. The hooks usually have a straight ivory or bone sliank,
with a hole at the upper end for the line, and two holes near the lower
end, at right angles with each other, through which are thrust small,
double-pointed iron skewers, with dieir ends bent upward, forming a
hook with four points. The rods are usually provided near the top
with an ivory or bone guide, perforated near the tip for the passage of
the line, aud fastened to the rod by sinew cord. The base of the rod
is notched, so that the line may be wound on it when not in use. In
connection with these rods a slender stick of about the same length is
used. It is held in the left hand, and so manipulated as to enable the
fisherman to bring the hook to the surface without rising from his seat
on a mat spread on the ice. As the fish comes to the surface it is
thrown to one side on the ice and <liseugages itself, as the hook is not
barbed. The fisherman then gives it a rap with the stick to prevent it
from struggling back to the hole, and returns his hook to the water.
No bait is used, as the fish nibble at the white ivory shank, and are
caught by a continued up-and down movement of the hook.
In autumn the tomcod are extremely abundant near St Michael. At
176 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STEAIT [eth.ans. 18
this season cold north winds generally blow and render it very uncom-
fortable to remain for hours in one position on the ice. To remedy this,
small shelters are arrauged, consisting of grass mats, held on a frame-
work of sticks, to the windward of the hole. In November, soon after
the ice is formed, a fisherman frequently catches 200 pounds of tomcod
in a day, but from 10 to iO pounds is the average result of a day's
fishing.
Figure 24, plate Lxviii, represents an outfit for tomcod fishing, from
Cape Xome, consisting of the two rods, a whalebone line, stone sinker,
and hook as described. The line is guided through the notch in the
end of the rod, which is cut in at each end so that it forms a shuttle-
like stick, upon which the line is wound when not in use. In some
instances the four hooks are arranged around the sinker and held in
place by means of short, elastic leaders of whalebone or (juill.
Among the fishermen of Norton sound and along the American shore
of Bering strait the lines on wliich these hooks are held usually pass
through holes in the sinker and are wedged in place. On St Lawrence
island, sinkers are made with a hole at the bottom for suspending a
hook, and four other holes for a similar purpose at each of the rounded
corners. Figure ■>, plate lxviii, represents one of the siukei'S from this
island; the hooks are made of iron and have from three to four points
on the end of a straight shank, which is lashed to a whalebone leader
by a sinew cord ; the upper end of the leader is passed through the holes
in the sinker and knotted. Accompanying this specimen is the stick
for manipulating the line when landing the fish (figui-e 32, jilate
LXVIII). Figure 'M, plate lxviii, illustrates another tomcod fishing
outfit, from Norton sound, consisting of a shuttle like rod notched at
each end and a thin rawhide line with an ivory sinker, which is in
two parts, excavated in the middle and filled with lead; the two halves
are held together by a lashing of whalebone; a whalebone loop extends
from the bottom of the sinker and to it is attached a small hook made
by lashing a small iron point across the lower end of a whalebone
shank ; just above the sinker a leader of whalebone is attached to a line
with a similar hook.
Figure 28, plate lsix, represents a large sinker, from St Lawrence
island, made from a piece of the jawbone of a wliale. On two of the
sides, a little below the middle, are holes through which pass whale-
bone leaders about nine inches long, on which are hooks with bone
shanks having conical knobs on the lower ends; there are three slits
on one shank and two on the other, in which ui)standing points of
bone are inserted and fastened in position with tine cord made from
wimlebone.
From Cape Nome was obtained an obovate ivory sinker, shown in
figure 4, plate LXiX; It has three holes in the sides, in which are inserted
three upstanding points of ivory over an inch in length, held in posi-
tion by a wrapping of fine whalebone; lower, through one side of the
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXVlll
FISHING IMPLEMENTS lONE-FIFTHi
NELSON) TOMCOD-FISHING APPARATUS 177
sinker, passes a whalebone leader with a small hook at each end; these
hooks have an ivory shank through which is passed a pointed iron spike
bent upward at the point. Ilanging from the lower end of the sinker
is another leader of about the same length as tlie others with a straight
shanked hook of the ordinary style, with four i)oiuts.
The style of tomcod hook used from the Yukon mouth to the Kus-
kokwim is illustrated in figure 3, plate lxix. Tliis specimen, obtained
at xVskinnk, has a long, round shank of dcerhorn, with a knob at the
upper end for attachment of the line, and the lower end is enlarged
to a doubly conical base, which has three slits at equal intervals, nar-
rowed on the outside and widening within. Above these, on the upper
cone, are three similar slits alternating around the surface with the
first-named. Into these slits are fitted long, slender, sharp-pointed
spines of deerhorn, 3i to 4 inches in length, ])rqjecting upward and
slightly outward. This hook is moved slowly up and down in the
water, and catches the fish by piercing them from below while they
are gathered about the ivory sinker.
Figure 21, plate Lxvm, from Cape Prince of Wales, is a common
style of ivory-shanked tomcod hook, with four projecting iron points.
It varies from the ordinary style in having the shank made in a series
of curves instead of being straight.
A peculiar style of tomcod hook and sinker, from Cape Nome, is
shown in figure 10, plate lxix. The sinker is made from an old, stained
piece of ivory, fashioned into the shape of a fish. Two blue beads are
inserted in rings of ivory near the lower end to represent eyes, and
another is inlaid on the lower surface. The tail is formed of a piece of
white ivory attached to a truncated end of the dark material by a lash-
ing of fine cord; the mouth is represeiited by a hole, in which is a
leader, attached to which, below the sinker, are three orange-yellow
pieces from the bill of the crested auklet, which are strung on a
fine sinew cord with two blue beads, serving to attract the fish. At
the lower end of the leader is a hook, with the upper jjart of the shank
of ivory and the lower of deerhorn. These are fastened together with
small bone pegs and a lashing of fine cord around the joint. At the
base were four iron points, one of which has been broken off.
Figure 20, plate lxviii, from Cape Xome, is a rod used for fishing
for tomcod, with an ivory line guide in the end. Figure 20, plate
LXVIII, from St Lawrence island, are bone .shanks for tomcod hooks,
made with two slits on the sides at the lower end, in which may be
inserted upright bone barbs; the upper end is broadened and flattened
a little and pierced for the attachment of a line. Figure 22 of the
same plate, from St Lawrence island, is a rather flat, shuttle-shape rod,
notched at each end and having wound upon it a long line made from
whalebone, with a set of four tomcod hooks at the ends of leaders,
which are of the ordinary straight-shank pattern with four barbed
points of copper. Figure 1), plate lxviii, from St Michael, is a deer-
18 ETH 12
178 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
Lorn guide from a tomcod rod. Figure 12, plate Lxviir, shows auotber
tip for a tomcod rod, from Sledge island.
Another set of hooks and sinker from Hotham iulet are shown in
figure 5, plate lxix. The sinker is of greenish slate, with a rounded
ivory tip at the upper end, excavated to admit the pointed end of the
stone, which is riveted in place. There are two holes in the middle of
the stone, at right angles to each other, for the passage of the leaders.
Only a single pair of leaders are iu place, the other set having been
lost. Figures 14 and l(i, plate Lxviii, illustrate forms of tomcod hooks,
obtained at Sfugunugumut, which are used also for catching smelts.
When tomcod are abundant along the coast in autumn and spring,
smelts also are plentiful, and often are caught on the same hooks; but
in some localities special hooks are made for taking smelts, one of
■which, from Nunivak island, is illustrated iu figure 13, plate Lxviii.
This has a straight ivory shank, largest near its lower end, in which a
recurved copper hook is set and held in place by a wooden plug.
"While fishing for tomcod, sculpin of several species are frequently
caught in shallow water. A number of hooks made especially for taking
these fish were obtained at Cape Nome. Sculpin hooks from the northern
shore of Korton sound and from Bering strait are made from pieces of
stone and ivory, fitted together to form an oval shank (figure 21, plate
liXix). The surface of the stone is grooved to receive the ivory, which
forms the lower end, and is fastened by a lashing. The hook, either of
iron or copper, passes througli the shank and the j^oint is upturned in
front. The shank is ornamented with little tags of sinew cord at the
lower corners, to wh'ich are attached blue beads and the sheaths from
the bills of anklets. The stone chosen for these hooks varies consid-
erably, but is usually of some bright color. Sometimes the lower end
is made also of stone of another color instead of ivory, as in the speci-
men from Cape Nome, illustrated in figure 12, plate lxix, which is used
also as a grayling hook.
A sculpin hook and sinker of dark-colored stone is represented in
figure 14, ])late lxix. It was obtained at Cape Nome. The sinker
is pierced at the upper end for the attachment of the rawhide line;
to this uiiper end is fastened a finely braided sinew cord, having an
orange-yellow piece from an anklet's bill at its lower end. The other
end of the sinker has a white ivory cap fitted over it and held in place
by a wooden peg; in the lower end is a hole in which is a small seal-
skin band, to which are attached some pieces of skin from the legs of
birds, and below this extends a leader, terminating in a fiat-shank
hook. The leader is also ornamented with a blue bead and a piece from
the bill of an anklet. The shank of the hook is composed of three
pieces, the upper and lower of ivory, and the middle one of stone,
neatly fitted in grooves in the ivory and fastened bj' a lashing; a single-
point copper barb is inserted through the shank and bent upward
iu front. In the truncated base of the ivory of the shank are two
holes below the place where the hook is inserted, to which are hung
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXIX
FISHHOOKS AND SINKERS 'One-fifthi
NELSOX]
FISHING TACKLE 179
two short siuew cords, ou each of which is strung a blue bead aud au
orange-colored piece from the bill of an auklet. These various orna-
ments are intended as lures for the fish. Another of these sculpiu
hooks from Cape Nome is shown in figure 22, plate Lxix. It is
attached by a leader to a small ivory sinker, which is yellow ou one
side aud blackened ou the other; on the dark side are inserted two
white ivory eyes with a dark- colored wooden plug in the center cf each
to represent the pupil. On the other side is a hole for attaching the
leader; suuill bits of red fiannel are fastened to this end for lures. The
other end terminates in a flattened point, in which is a hole for the line.
Strung ou the leader is a blue bead and au orange yellow piece from
the bill of au auklet. The shank, which has near the end two holes
for the line, is made from deerhorn and flattened, becoming larger
toward the lower end, where au oblong piece of ivory is inserted just
back of the point of the hook, which is a single, sharp-pointed iron
barb inserted through the lower end of the shank and bent upward in
front. At each of the lower corners of the shank is a short siuew
cord, on which are strung a blue aud a white bead and an orange
sheath from the bill of an auklet.
Another sculpiu hook from the same locality is represented in figure
8, plate LXIX. It is made from a stout piece of iron, the ends bent
together aud the points sharpened and upturned. It is attached to a
sinker of gneiss, which is elongated-oval in shape aud lasteued to the
liue by a lashing of whalebone, which passes around it from end to end.
A small hook from Sledge island (figure 20, plate lxix) is made from
two pieces of ivory joined by a small connecting rod, ou which is
strung a flat blue bead. It is shaped to represent a fish. At the lower
end are two small, dark-colored wooden pegs set in to represent eyes.
A short copper hook i)rojects on the iuside. Another sculpiu hook,
from Cape Xome (number 45281), is made in three pieces. The lower
part is of dark chocolate-colored stone, the middle of reddish granite,
and the upper jjart of ivory. They are lashed together in the usual
manner.
For catching salmon trout and the large-fin grayliug, small, orna-
mented hooks are made of stone and ivory. These hooks are similar
in character to those used for catching smelts aud sculpiu along the
shore of Norton sound and the coast of Bering strait. One of these
grayling hooks from Cape Nome is shown in figure 12, plate lxix. It
is made from two pieces of stone, the upper of which is chocolate-
color and the lower reddish white. They are neatly joined together
and held in position by a sinew lashiug, which passes through a hole in
one piece and around a groove along the middle line of the other. A
small iron pin is passed through the lower part of the shank and curves
upward in frout to form the hook. Attached to the upper and lower
ends of the shank are orange-yellow sheaths from the beak of an
auklet, the lower end having also a blue bead.
Figure 21, plate lxix, represents two hooks from the Diomede
180
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH, ANN. 18
islands. One is similar iji form and ornamentation to the last pre-
ceding specimen, but the lower portion is of yellowish bone and the
upper i)art of greenish-gray stone. The other is similar in shape, but
the upper half of the shank is of white ivory, with two encircling
grooves in which narrow strips of skin from the legs of an auklet are
bound, and the lower half of the shank is of dark-colored ivory. A
grayling hoolc from Uualaklit (ligure 48) has a leader of whalebone.
The white ivory shank has a dnll green spiral band, produced by stain-
ing the ivory iu some unknown manner.
Figure 30, plate LXix, represents a set of hooks from the lower Yukon,
which are intended for catching losh. They have tapering wooden
shanks, split at the lower end to receive the butts of long wooden or
deerhorn x>oints, which are lashed in position with spruce
root. Most of these hooks are provided with rawhide
leaders, but one leader is made from a strip of whalebone.
They are held together by thrusting the points into a
rounded mass of fine shavings bound together with a
strip of spruce root.
A hook from the Lower Yukon (figure lo, plate Lxviii)
has an obovate shank of deerhorn, with a spur-like barb of
iron tlirust through the lower end. The upper end is taper-
ing, flattened, and pierced with a hole for the reception of a
line. Hooks of this kind are used for small whiteflsh and
losh in the streams back from the coast. A losh hook from
the head of Norton bay (figure 17, plate lxix) has an obo-
vate sliank of ivory, bored across through the shank and
filled with lead to give additional weight. The lower end
has a hole through which is thrust a small, double-point
rod of iron, bent upward at the ends to form two barbs.
A hook used for catching large whiteflsh or nelma (fig-
ure 10, plate lxviii) was obtained at Paimut. It has a
curved deerhorn shank, broadening toward the lower
end, in which are incisions representing the mouth and
eyes of a fish. Between the eyes is inserted a strong
iron barb, bent upward at the point. Tlie upper end of the shank is
forked like the tail of a fish, and has a hole for the line. A hook for
catching pickerel and whitefish, illustrated iu figure 19, plate lxviii,
is from Unalaklit. The shank is broad aiul flattened toward the upper
end, where it has two holes for attachment of the line. The edges are
serrated. Near the lower end it is slender and has an upcuried barb
of iron fastened with a lashing of sinew cord. Another hook, obtained
at Sledge island, is somewhat similar to the preceding, but the barb,
instead of being fastened by a lashing, is inserted through a hole in
the shank, the upper portion of which is broad and has only two
notches on the sides (figure 11, plate lxviii). Two hooks, from St
Michael, used for catching wolf fish, illustrated in figures 9 and 11,
rio. 48— Grayling
hook (i).
NELSON] FISH HOOKS AND SINKERS 181
plate i.xix, are attaclied to rounded, taperiug sinkers of ivory. One
of theui lias a deerboru sliank, serrated on the edges, with a stout
iron barb inserted through the lower end. The other hook has a
rude, straight shank, made from a stick about four inches in length,
with a notch at the upjM'r end for attaching the line, which passes
downward to the lower end, whei-e a pointed spine of deerhoni is
lashed obliquely across it. Another variety of hook is a rudely made
specimen from St Lawrence island (figure 25, jdate LXix). It is cut
from a piece of walrus ivory and is iirovided with a long barbed point.
It was used for catyhing wolf fish, but probably both this and the two
preceding examples were also used for cod-fishing.
A similar hook from the same locality is shown in figure 1".), plate
LXIX. In this case, however, the shank is of wood with a barbed point
of bone fitted in a slot at the base. The upper end of the shank has a
hole for attaching the whalebone line. This hook was used probably
for catching codfish. An outfit for catching wolf fish, illustrated in fig-
ure 27, plate lxyiii, was obtained at the head of ISTorton sound. It
consists of a shuttle-like rod, 28 inches in length, on which is wound a
rawhide line, near the end of which a rounded piece of lava, reddish
in color, is fastened with a basket lashing. The hook has a straight
deerhorn shank, to the lower end of which is lashed crosswise an iron
nail with the projecting end pointed. In the fork between the hook and
the shank a kind of bait composed of sinew-like material is secured
by a lashing. Figure 28, plate lxviii, shows a similar outfit from Nor-
ton sound, with the sinker made of a rounded granite pebble grooved
at each end for the attachment of the rawhide lashing Another out-
fit (figure 25, plate lxviii), from Norton sound, for catching blackfish
(Dnllia) is a long, slender, shuttle like rod 20 inches in length, on which
is wound a short line of sinew witli a small hoolc at one end. This
liook has a straight, rounded ivory shank and is provided with a
pointed iron pin through the lower end, with the tip upcurved.
Along the shore of Bering sea and the adjacent Arctic coast con-
siderable ingenuity is displayed by the people in manufacturing sink-
ers for fishing lines, and a great variety are made. For several S])ecies
of fish the sinker is intended to attract the fish, as well as to serve as
a weight for the line, and is made of a variegated white and dark
colored stone. Other sinkers, of ivory, ]uive a jiortion of the surface
blackened, and some of the stone sinkers have an ivory ca^). A large
collection of these objects was obtained, from which typical examples
have been selected for illustration.
A specimen from the Diomcde islands (figure 32, plate LXix) is a
piece of bone, discolored to a chocolate-brown, pierced with a hole and
grooved near the upper end to receive the line. The lower end has
a hole for fastening the leader for the hook. The lower end represents
the head of a fish, with an incision for the mouth; a blue bead repre-
sents one eye and a piece of lead the other. Another example from
182 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
the same loccality (figure 10, plate Lxix) is a long, oval stone witli a
rounded ivory cap, held in position Ijy a deerhorn piu passed through
both substances. A hole for the line is in the upper end of the ivory
cap and another in the lower end of the stone portion. A similar
sinker (flgure 1, plate lxix) was obtained at Port Clarence by Dr
Dall. It is made from a piece of granite and has a cap of chocolate-
color ivory, held in position by an iron rivet through the two pieces;
the ivory portion has a flattened point, and on the sides a pair of eyes
are represented by two inlaid rings of ivory, in which blue beads are
set. A similar sinker, from Cape Xome (flgure 7, idate lxix) is made
of stone, -with a small ivory cap fastened by a rivet. The long, round
stone sinker shown in figure 27, plate lxix, -was obtained on Sledge
island. It tapers below to a blunt point, where it is pierced for a
leader. The upper end is truncated, and has fitted on it a long, round
tail-like piece of ivory, lashed in position with a strand of whalebone
passed through holes in the two parts. In the stone is a hole to
receive a long leader for two hooks. Another sinker, of variegated
black and 'white stone, from the same locality (figure 2G, plate lxix),
has an ivory cap fastened with a lashing passed through a hole in the
lower end of the ivory and around a groove in the stone. A black
and white stone sinker from Cape Nome (flgure 23, plate lxix) has
been broken in the middle and neatly mended with a strong lashing of
whalebone passed througli two holes and around a deep groove in tlie
sides. A small sinker of greenish stone from Sledge island (flgure 19,
plate lxix) is rudely shaped to represent a fish, having ivory pegs
■with black centers inlaid for eyes. It has a small hole at each end for
attaching the lines. Another specimen from the same locality (figure
13, jilate LXIX) is a handsome sinker of variegated white and brown
stone, with a deep groove on eacli side near the ends, in which holes
are bored for attaching the lines. The black and white ivory sinker
shown in figure 18, plate LXIX, was obtained on Nunivak island. Eyes,
also black and white in color, are inlaid in the black upper surface.
The black and white, flattened stone sinker shown in flgure G, plate
LXIX, is from Cape jSTome. A long ivory sinkea' from Ilotham inlet (flgure
15, plate LXIX) has a hole at each end; the upper end is surrounded by
four grooves and raven totem marks. On one side is a rude etching
representing a framework for drying flsh. The bone sinker from St
Lawrence island, shown in figure 31, ])late lxix, is triangular in cross
section and pierced at the upper end for the line; ou the lower half,
at each of the angles, is an ear containing a hole for attaching a leader.
Another example from the same idace (figure 33, plate lxix) is a rude
bone sinker, roughly obovate in shape, with a hole at the upper end
for a line and two ear-like projections near the lower end for attaching
leaders. A heavy ivory sinker (figure 2, plate lxix) was obtained at
Plover bay by Mr W. M. Noyes. It has holes around the sides and the
bottom for attaching leaders. The upper end is oval in cross section
and tapers to a thin, flat point, pierced for the line. About the base
NELSON] SINKERS, SEINES, AND TRAPS 183
are three upright spines, projecting slightly outward, carved from the
same piece, which serve as additional hooks for capturing flsh that
may gather around, attracted by the white ivory. This sinker has
been used in fishing for tomcod and other small fish. In the deep
water oft' the headlands, from Golofnin bay to Cape Nome, large crabs
are very abundant ; sometimes specimens are seen measuring three feet
from tip to tip of their outstretched claws. They are caught during
March and A^jril by the use of a bait of dead flsh tied to the end of a
line and sunk to the bottom through a hole in the ice. In March, 1880,
near Cape Darby, I saw large numbers of people fishing for crabs by
this method, and on the 10th of ]March, west of Cape Darby, I found a
party of about twenty-five people, from Sledge island, who had been
starved out at home and were camping there, living on the tomcod and
crabs, which were abundant. Their crab lines were fastened to small
sticks set in the snow beside the holes in the ice, thus enabling one
l)erson to watch several holes. When the crab seized the bait the
stick was moved sufScieutly to attract the attention of the watcher,
who at once drew in his line. Small snow shelters were built beside
the holes to protect the fishermen from the wind; they were open on
one side and had a crescentic base with the convexity toward the direc-
tion of the wind, while some of them were partially arched over. The
crabs were so plentiful that one day, soon after my arrival, a man and
a woman came in bringing about two hundred pounds, which they had
taken during the day.
As soon as the ice leaves the coast of Norton sound, in June, herrings
arrive and spawn on the seaweed about the rocky points and shores of
the small bays. At this time many of them are caught by means of
small seines made from rawhide or sinew cord; but about the latter
part of June commences what to these people is the most important of
all fishing seasons. This is the time for the arrival of the salmon. The
king salmon enter the rivers first, and are followed during the season
by two or three smaller species of inferior quality. Along the entire
coast, from the Kuskokwim to Point Barrow and up Kuskokwim and
Yukon rivers, the Eskimo are very busy during July and August
catching and curing these lish. The cleaning is done by the women.
The flsh are split from the head to the base of the tail, the entrails
removed, and the fish thrown over a raised framework and left hanging
until dry, when they are stored away in bales or bunches. The large
king salmon {cJww-chec), after being split, are slashed crosswise at short
intervals to open the flesh and thus facilitate drying; the backbone is
also generally removed and dried separately. Wlien dry, the smaller
species, called dog salmon, are always tied in bunches of twenty, and
are stored or sold in this shape.
FISH TRAPS
Along the entire seacoast salmon are caught in gill nets, which are
placed at intervals along the shore. On lower Yukon and Ivusko-
184 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axx. 18
kwim rivers wicker fisb traps are set, witli a brush ami wiclier-worlc
fence conuectiug them with the shore. These fish traps form au elou-
gated cone,- with a funuelshape entrance in the larger end. Each has
two long poles at the sides of the month or broad end and another at
the small end, by means of which it is raised or lowered. It is set at
the outer end of the wicker-work fence witli the mouth facing down-
stream, and iield in jilace by poles driven in the river bottom with their
ends projecting above tlie water.
A model of a traf» from the lower Yukon, used for catching salmon,
is illustrated in figure It, plate i.xx. The funnel shape moutli is lis-
tened to a square framework, with handle-like extensions along the
upper and lower sides, by means of whicli poles are fastened for guid-
ing the trap in setting, and whitth rest against the i)oles driven into the
river bottom to keep the traj) in'i)osition.
The Eskimo living near the base of the Kuslevak mountains go to
the Yukon delta to fish for salmon. Norton bay and the shores around
the head of Norton sound are occupied by people from the surround-
ing districts, who gather there during the fishing season. Nearly all
of the Sledge islanders resort to the adjacent mainland at this time.
Throughout the region the i>eople go out from their villages to sum-
mer camps at places where the run of lish is known to be greatest, and
all enjoy a season of plenty, always anticipated with pleasure by the
entire community.
At times fisli are so plentiful on the lower Yukon in July, while the
dog salmon are running, that the wicker fish traps, which nieasure4 to 5
feet in diameter and about 10 feet in length, have to be emptied several
times a day to prevent their breaking. The gill nets are also watclied
constantly by the owner, who goes out in his kaiak whenever the
motion of the floats shows there are fish in them, and, drawing up the
net so that the heads of the fish are above water, he stuns them by a
blow from a short club and removes them from the net.
Figure 2, plate Lxx, represents one of these (Hubs for killing fish, which
was obtained at Sabotnisky. It is uuide of spruce and is reduced
iu size downward to form a slender handle, suboval in cross section,
grooved on each side, and wrapped with spiuce root at the grip.
Toward the end it becomes larger and is rounded, and then tapers
again to a truncated point. Another club of this character, from
Sledge island, is shown in figure 1 of the same plate. It is 30 inches
lung, and is oval iii cross section.
The blackflsli (DaUia pectoraUs) Is common wlierever sluggish
■streams and lakelets occur from Kotzebue sound to Kuskokwira river.
Througliout this region they are taken by means of small wicker traps,
about 18 inches in diameter and o feet long, which are set in small
streams, with a wicker fence leading from the mouths of the traps to the
.shore.
\ model of one of these traps, from St Michael, is illustrated iu
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXX
'mm
'"■■'"III
OBJECTS USED IN FISHING 'ONE-eighth
NELsov] FISH TRAPS AND NETS 185
ligure 13, plate LXX, sbowiuj;- the nietliod of coiistractioii. Splints of
spruce are fastened together in a buncli to form the small end of the
trap, and are held in position by a rawhide or spruce-root lashing;
thence toward the mouth they are held in ph\ee by a wrapping of
spruce root, which is wound spirally several times around the circum-
ference to the mouth, forming a cone shape basket; the si)lints are
fastened to the wrapping by a lashing of sprnce root or rawhide, which
is wound around the crossings of the framework; in the mouth of the
trap is a conical mouthpiece attached to a square framework of four
sticks and inserted in the Larger end of the trap, where it is fastened by
lashings on each side.
By means of traps of this character vast quantities of blacktish are
taken in the waters of the low country between Yukon and Kuskokwim
rivei's, where thej' are very abundant, and form one of the principal
sources of food supply for the people during several months of the
year.
After the salmon season, the main trapping for tish is done along the
lower Yukon and in the adjacent j-egion in autumn, just before and after
the streams become frozen; at this time the salmon traps are set again
and vast quantities of whitefish, losh, pickerel, and blackflsh are secured
and preserved by freezing for use later in the season. The traps are
kept out until midwinter, but the main catch is while the tish are crowd-
ing in from the small streams. I'late Lxxi, from a photograjih, shows
the method of setting these traps through the ice on the Yukon, near
Ikogmut (Mission).
On Norton sound, when high gales blow from the north during Sep-
tember and October, very low tides ensue, and the women go out among
the exposed rocks to gather mussels, ascidians, and several kinds of
fi^h which are found concealed beneath the large stones off the rocky
points.
NETS
Gill nets for salmon are set usually on a line leading from the shore.
The inner end of the line is made fast to a stone or a stake, and the
owner carries the other end out to tlie proper distance and anchors it
with a stone. At the outer end of the net is fastened a wooden marker-
tioat, commonly made iu the form of a bird. Rounded wooden floats,
varying considerably in form, are also strung at intervals along the
upper edge of the net. A specimen of these net floats, from Ikogmut,
is illustrated in figure 4, j)late LXX. It is fashioned in the shape of a
loon, with a long, projecting neck, and is made from a single i)iece of
wood. A hole runs through it for attaching the cord; two incised
grooves outline the wings, and a wide, shallow groove extends around
the edge. .All of these grooves are painted red : the center of the Ijack
Las a greenish tint, but the wings are not colored.
At Cape Blossom, on the Arctic coast, the people were seen using gill
nets about 2.5 feet in length, strung with floats and sinkei's in the usual
186 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
manner. A stout cord bekl one end fast to a stake on the shore, while
the owner, by means of several slender poles lashed together, pushed
the anchor stone on the outer end out to its place, thus setting the net.
"When the floats gave indication that fish had been caught, the net was
pulled in hand over hand, the fish removed, and the net reset. This
plan appeared to work very successfully, as evidenced by the large
number of fish on the drying frames close by.
On Kotzebue sound, in the mouth of September, I saw a party of
jVIalemut catching whiteflsh with a seine. The net was fitted with
wooden floats and stone sinkers iu the usual manner, and was about
60 feet long, the ends being spread by stout stakes secured by lashings
of cord. The shore end of the net was held by two men standing at
the water's edge; the other end was pushed out from the shore to its
full extent by the aid of several long poles. A long, rawhide line was
made fast to the outer end of the net and another to the middle of the
string of poles, by which it was pulled along. One man carried the inner
Fig. 49— Seiuins on Kotzebue sound.
end of the pole along the beach between the two rear line men and the
men holding the net. In this way the net was drawn along the beach
for 100 or 200 yards, and when the fish were running large hauls were
made. The accompanying figure 49, showing this method, is from a
sketch made at the time.
Between Cape I'omanzof and the mouth of Kuskokwim river the
greater part of the fishing is done by means of di]i-nets, but great
quantities of stickleback and other small fish are taken in small nets
or seines of fine rawhide cord. Large dipnets for whitetish are made
of the same material, and among the people south of Cape Vancouver
this style of net is used more than the gill net. A dipuet obtained by
Lieutenant Stoney at the head of Kotzebue sound is about three feet
long, and is made of twisted sinew cord. The upper third of the net has
meshes about an inch in diameter; this is joined to the finer-mesh
lower portion by a rawhide cord, which is knotted into the adjoining
meshes of the two parts. The meshes of the lower portion are less
than half the size of those of the upper part. On the lower point
of the net is a rawhide loop, by means of which it can be raised and
the contents discharged. A small dip-net obtained at Ikogmut is
o
cc
<
z
o
>
LU
1
I-
z
o
UJ
O
UJ
I
I-
X
o
D
o
ir
I
I-
a
<
q:
I
CO
z
H
I-
UJ
CO
ITELSON]
FISn NETS
187
Fig. 50 — llesh of dip-net made of sinew
(about I).
shown in figure 10, plate lxx. The hoop at the top is a round willow
stick, -with the beveled ends overlapping and bound together. The
handle extends across the hoop and projects four and one-half inches
on one side. The net is shallow, made
of twisted sinew cord, and is joined to
the hoop by a spiral wrapping of spruce
root, which j)asses around the frame and
through the bordering meshes.
The accompanyingflgure 50 shows the
mesh of alarger dip-net from Sabotnisky.
This net is about thirty inches in diame-
ter, is made of twisted sinew cord, and
is used for catching various kinds of
small flsh. A small, strongly made dip-
net of willow bark, obtained by Lieuten-
ant Stoney from the region back of
Kotzebue sound, is shown in figure 10,
plate LXX. It is only about fifteen inches in diameter; the meshes aie
of diamond shape around the border and quadrate on the bottom.
The mesh of a large dip-net used for catching salmon and whitefish
(figure 51) was obtained from Sabotnisky. It is about six feet in
length and the same in diameter, and is made of willow bark. The
hoop is of spruce wood, with a
long, slender handle of the same
material, which crosses the hoop.
Figure 12, plate lxx, represents
a dip-net from Plover bay, Sibe-
ria, made of whalebone, which is
used for catching small fish in the
lakes and streams of that vicinity.
The mouth of the net is held
open by a stout rim of whalebone.
Four strands of the same material
are attached at intervals around
the rim and fastened together
about sixteen inches above it. A
heavy granite bowlder, grooved
to receive the lashing, is fastened
to a whalebone ring in the bottom
of the net, which is used by being-
thrown out into the water and
then hauled to the shore by a cord.
A herring seine of sinew cord,
from St Michael (figure 52), has a number of rounded, subtriangular
wooden floats pierced at their small end for attachment to a sealskin
cord which runs along the upper edge of the net; to a cord stretched
Fio. 51 — ilesh of dip-net made of willow bark (§).
188
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
along the lower border are laslied pieces of deerhoru four to five inches
in leugtli, which serve as weights and also as handles by which the
net can be hauled to the shore. A seine of twisted sinew cord similar
to the preceding, obtained at Hothani inlet (number 63012), is about
thirty inches in width, with a stretcher of wood at each end. It has
oval wooden floats and deerhoru and stone sinkers.
A smallmesh seine of sinew cord, used for herring and whiteiish,
obtained at Cape Prince of Wales, is shown in figure 5'^. It is nearly
thirty inches wide, and has
wooden stretchers at each
end, a series of rounded,
tajjeriug floats along the up-
per edge, and handlelilie
sinkers of ivory along the
lower border. Another
smallmesh herring seine,
about five feet wide, obtained
at St Michael (figure 54), is
made from fine sealskin cord.
Along the bottom is strung a
sei'ies of small oval stone sink-
ers, notched above and below
to secure the lashings.
Floats for nets are some-
times carved in the shape of
birds and in other forms. Fig-
ure 15, plate Lxx, represents
a float rudely fashioned in the
form of a grebe; another, from
the lower Yukon (plate lxx,
8), represents the head of
a man and the flattened tail
of a bird. A float from St
Lawrence island (figure 55)
is round in cross section,
large in the middle, and
tapers gradually to both
ends, where there are slight
shoulders to retain the cords by which it is made fast. Others are
merely rounded blocks of wood, pierced for attachinent to the net.
In addition to the wooden floats, others are made from the inflated
bladders or stomachs of various animals. Figure 9, plate lxx, illiis
trates a set of three such floats and a wooden marker-float for use on
one end of the net. The latter is a thin, curved piece of wood in the
form of a thumbless haud, with around, excavated dei)ression in the
center, which, with the inside of the finger tips, is x)aiiited black. This
Fig. 52— Mesb, float, and .siiilicr of herring seine {J).
NELSON]
FISH SEINES
189
hand is similar to that represented so frequently iu this region on masks
and iu paintings of mythological beings. Figure 1, plate LXX, illus-
trates a stone sinker for a uet, obtained at Point Hope, consisting of a
roughly triangular pebble with
a lashing of rawhide terminating
in a loop for attaching it to the
net. It is not grooved, advant-
age being taken of the natural
shape to secui-e the lashings.
Another example (figure 0, plate
LXX), from the Diomede islands,
is a rounded bowlder, with
two pecked grooves extending
around it in opposite directions,
around which is a stout sealskin
cord. The lashings on both this
and the preceding sinker are jier-
manent, and the attachment to
the net is made by a separate
cord.
Ivory or bone weights fre-
quently alternate with stone
sinkers on the nets, and serve
both as sinkers and handles.
They vary from five to six or
seven inches iu length, are more
or less curved, and have a hole
at each end for fastening them
to the net. A small bone handle of this kind (number 36395), with
the raven totem mark on its inner surface, was obtained at Kushunuk.
A set of four such handles from the lower Yukou are shown in figure 11,
plate Lxx. Another
set of four haniUes,
from Cape "Vancou-
ver, illustrated in fig-
ure 3, plate LXX, are
slender, curved, bone
rods, with a hole at
each end. The sub-
oval weight of walrus
ivory shown in figure
5, jilate LXX, was ob-
tained on St Law-
rence island.
Directly after the freezing of the Yukon in the fall there is an annual
run of lamprey, which pass up the river, just below the ice, in great
Fig. 53 — Herring seine, witk strt-te-btT at uue cuil and
with flo.1t and sinker (J).
Flo. 54 — Sealakln-conl herring seine with stone sinker {
190 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn.18
nnmbers. Holes are kept opeu iu the ice by the people who watch for
the first appearance of these fish. As soon as the first oue is seen
everybody seizes a dip-net or a stout stick with a short cross-piece at
the lower end and throws out as
many as possible. When the njaiu
body of the fish have passed, the
people run up the river for some dis-
tance, cut other holes, and repeat the
riG.55_woodenu.t.ioa.,j,. ^-atch. This is contiuucd until the
people are exhausted by the violent
exertion or a neighboring village is reached, when they are compelled
to stop and give way to those living in that locality.
NET-MAKING IMPLEMENTS
GAUGES
Various tools are used by the Eskimo iu the manufacture of nets,
several forms of which were seen in different districts. From St Law-
rence island several curiously shaped whalebone gauges for the meshes
of nets were obtained. One of these (number 127020) is a trifle over
six and one-half inches in length, and is a flat, oblong tablet, with a
small projection at each end on one side. From the holes through it
near one end it had evidently been used previously as part of a sledge
runner. The specimen illustrated in figure 4, plate lxxii, is similar iu
form and material to the preceding, but is smaller. Similar but shorter
examples are shown in figures 2 and 3, plate lxxii. Each of these has
a long, curved handle projecting from one corner and a short spur from
the other.
A whalebone gauge from Kotzebue sound (figure 7, plate lxxii) is
notched along each side to receive a sinew cord to secure it to the
wooden handle in which it is inserted. The specimen from Sledge
island {figure 13, plate lxxii) is a long-blade gauge of ivory, with a
heavy back. The handle is grooved to receive the fingers, and ter-
minates in an image of a seal's head, with eyes, ears, and nose repre-
sented by inlaid, blackened wooden pegs.
The long blade ivory gauge with heavy back, from Cape Darby (fig-
ure 12, plate LXXII), has a long, tapering deerhorn handle riveted and
lashed to its upper side. The example from the Diomede islands (fig-
ure li, plate LXXII) is a large, heavy, ivory gauge with a plain handle,
which has a rude projection at the inner end to prevent it from slip-
ping. The deerhorn gauge from Cape Nome (figure S, plate lxxii) is
fastened in the split end of a wooden handle by a lashing of spruce
root. A gauge similar to this was obtained on Nunivak island. A
small, double-end gauge from Sabotnisky (figure 10, plate lxxii) is
slightly different in size at each end. The handle is enlarged in the
middle and has a stick lashed to it by spruce roots to make it large
enough to afford a convenient grip for the hand. The single-blade
3UREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXM
NET-MAKING IMPLEMENTS 'NEARLY ONE-FOURTHj
NLLsoNi NET-MAKING IMPLEMENTS 191
tleerliorn gauge from Sbaktolik (figure 5, plate Lxxii) is similar iu
form to the preceding; it has a circular bole through the middle, sur-
rounded by an incised circle; the handle is pierced with four holes,
three of equal size and one larger. Figure 9, plate lxxii, shows a hand-
somely made ivory gauge from Cape Vancouver, with a handle wrapped
by spruce roots, and figure G, x)late Lxxii, illustrates a small gauge from
Kushunuk, made of deerhorn, with a handle enlarged toward the butt.
The deerhorn gauge from Nunivak island shown iu figure 11, plate
Lxxii, is grooved along the upper edge and has a handle terminating
iu a hook curved downward.
The specimen from jSTubviukhchugaluk (figure 1, plate Lxxii) is a
small gauge entirely different in form from the others. It is of deer-
horn, with a handle oval in cross section, from which it projects at a
right angle a little over two inches.
SHUTTLES AND NEEDLES
The shuttles used in making nets also vary considerably in size and
form, according to locality and to the purpose for which the nets are to
be used.
Figure 14, plate lxxiii, illustrates a small wooden shuttle from
Sledge island, used for making fine-mesh nets. The long, slender, ivory
shuttle, shown in figure 2(3, plate lxxii, is also from Sledge island.
The long, slender shuttle from Cape Nome, shown in figure 25, plate
lxxiii, has the central portion of wood and the two ends made of bone,
with a wedge-shape notch on the inner side, into whicli the tapering-
ends of the wooden i^ortiou are fitted and held iu position by means of
a series of cross rivets.
The shuttle from the lower Yukon (figure 28, plate lxxiii) is made of
deerhorn and has conventional figures and patterns etched on one
surface. Another deerhorn shuttle from Cape Nome (figure 18, plate
LXXIII) has four reindeer etched on one side. The specimen from Kot-
zebue sound (figure 27, plate lxxiii) is a long, iJain, deerhorn shuttle.
The deerhorn shuttle from Nunivak island (figure 10, plate lxxiii)
has the end openings deeper than usual and the borders along the sides
are raised above the plane of the fiat, central portion. One of the arms
is made from a separate piece and is attached by means of sinew cords
passed through three holes iu the main part of the shuttle.
The specimen from Cape Nome shown in figure 24, plate lxxiii, is a
long wooden shuttle. At the bottom of the notch in each end it is
crossed by a sinew lashing, to prevent it from splitting, the lashing
passing through two holes on each side of the edge. A deep groove
runs along the sides between the notches iu the ends. The long
wooden shuttle from Sledge island represented in figure 23, plate
LXXIII, has a deep groove along the sides between the notches.
Figure 20, plate lxxiii, shows a large, heavy, woodeu shuttle, such
as is used in making nets for catching white whales or large seals. It
192 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. IS
was obtained on one of the Dioiuede islands. Tlie large wooden shuttle
from Cape Vancouver (figure 8, plate lxxiii) has two sides made of
separate pieces, which are held together by crossbars which pierce the
sides at the bottom of each notch. The inside is excavated to foru'
two long, triangular borders.
Figure 21, i)late Lxxili, represents a large, rather broad, wooden
shuttle from Nunivak island. It has a flat groove extending between
the notches.
The wooden shuttle shown in figure 10, plate lxxiii, is from Paimut,
as is also that shown in figure t> of the same plate, which is made of
one piece with two long opL'iiiugs in the middle.
The specimen from Norton sound (figure 22, plate lxxiii) is a large
wooden shuttle used in nuikiug nets for capturing seals and white
whales.
The deerhorn shuttle from Nulukhtulogumut (figure 16, plate lxxiii)
contains some fine, twisted sinew cord.
A long, narrow, wooden shuttle from Sabotnisky (figure 15, plate
LXXIII) has the two ends lashed with sinew cord to prevent the wood
from sjilitting; wound upon it is some fine cord made from the twisted
inner bark of the willow. The large wooden shuttle from the lower
Yukon (figure 17, jjlate lxxiii) is also filled with cord made from mate-
rial similar to that in the preceding s]5ecimen.
The shuttle from St Lawrence island (figure 12, plate lxxiii) is made
of whalebone in the shape of au arrowpoint, with the center excavated,
leaving a long, tongue like point projecting from the base toward the
tip. Another shuttle (figure 11, plate lxxiii) from the same locality
is filled with well-made, twisted sinew cord.
Figure 13, plate lxxiii, represents a shuttle, obtained on the coast of
Japan by General (Japron, which is similar in pattern to the preceding.
The Eskimo of eastern Siberia and of St Lawrence island must have
derived the pattern of their shuttles from farther south, and the
imported design thus replaced the ordinary kiud in use among their
relatives of the islands of Bering strait and the American shore.
Figure 7, plate lxxiii, represents a long, wooden, netting needle,
tapering toward both ends, with a large hole in the middle; it is used
for mending the broken meshes of nets. The double-point ivory net-
ting needle from Askinuk (figure 4, plate lxxiii) is similar in shape to
the preceding.
The ivory netting needle, pierced at one end, shown in figure 6, plate
lxxiii, was obtained at Oape Nome. The large, curved needle of deer-
horn represented in figure 5, plate lxxiii, is from the lower Yukon.
Figure 3, plate lxxiii, from Ukagamut. and figure 1 of the same ])late,
from Kushunuk, represent small needles used in mending the meshes
of small nets. A needle from St Michael (figure 2, plate lxxiii) is
somewhat similar to the preceding, but has a hole near the center
instead of near one end.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXIII
NET-MAKING IMPLEMENTS ^ONE-FIFTHl
NELSON] NET-MAKING IMPLEMENTS 193
MARLIXSPIKES
Marlinspikes are used for tying and slipping meshes while making
nets; they also serve for slipping meshes to enlarge or to reduce their
size when it is desired to change the uses of nets.
Figure 21, plate lxxii, illustrates a large marliuspike, from Eaz-
binsky. It is made from reindeer horn, tapers to a blunt end, and has
the upper end forked.
Figure IS, plate lxxii, shows an implement, from the lower Kusko-
kwim, similar to tlie last mentioned but smaller in size. A curved mar-
linspike from Pastolik (figure 17, plate lxxii) is made of ivory and is
oblong iu cross sec-
tion. Another exam-
ple, from Cape Nome
(figure 19, plate yk. se-ivory maiiiuspike ( j
lxxii), has an ivory
point fitted into a slot in a wooden handle and held in place by a
rawhide lashing.
Figure 10, plate lxxii, represents a mailinspike from Norton sound;
it is made of ivory and is double pointed; it is nearly plain on two
sides and convex on the other. A line of walrus is etched upon one
side, houses on another, and a conventional pattern ornaments the
third.
Figure 56 shows a marlinspike used for slipping knots in large nets.
It is from Nunivak island and is round in sliape, tlie handle terminat-
ing in a figure of the head of a murre, with tlie mouth, nostrils, and
eyes marked by incised lines. A marlinspike from Norton sound
(figure .57) has a bone point set in a slot in the wooden handle and held
in position by lashings of spruce root. The example from Cape Nome
Flo. r>7— Marlinspike with bnne imiiit (J).
(figure 20, plate lxxii) has a large, blunt point at one end and at the
other a small, spur like point which serves for loosening knots.
Figure 15, plate lxxii, represents a marlinspike from Kotzebue
sound: it is a long, slender rod of ivory, triangular in cross section,
having all its surfaces ornamented with etched figures of whales, wal-
rus, and hunting scenes. A specimen from the lower Yukon has a
round ivory point set in a wooden handle and held in place by a. lashing
of sinew cord.
EEELS
Several forms of reels are employed for holding the small cord used
in making nets.
Figure 24, plate lxxii, represents one of these reels from Norton
sound. It is neatly grooved ; at the tips of the arms of tlie fork at one
end are two seal-heads, and the hiiid-fli[>pers are at the other end; a
ISeth 13
194 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STHAIT (eth.ann 18
grooved pattern extends down their backs and the fore flippers are
indicated by etclied lines.
A grotesijuely made reel of deerborn, from Sledge island, is sbown in
figure '2C>, plate lxxii. One end is ornamented with tbe bead of a wolf;
the opposite side is forked to represent tbe legs of tbe animal, and two
forked arms at tbe otber end represent tbe bind-limbs.
A reel of deerborn from Sabotnisky (figure i'5, plate lxxii) bas tbe
tops of tbe arms at one end, as well as one of tbe arms at tbe otber
end, carved in tbe sbape of animal beads. On tbe sides are etcbed
patterns.
Figure U3, plate lxxii, from Cape Nome, and figure li2 of tbe same
plate, from Kigiktauik, represent deerborn reels witbout ornament.
FISH SPEARS
In tbe fall season boles are made in the ice at places where tbe water
is suflSciently clear to render objects visible several feet below the sur-
face. Through these holes fish are speared, and large quantities of
whitefisb and pickerel are obtained by this method.
Figure 3, plate Lxvii, shows a typical example of these fish spears
from tit Michael. It consists of a wooden shaft about six feet in length,
with a sharp, deerborn point, surrounded by narrow pieces of deer-
born with triangular points whfcb are secured by a lashing to a
shoulder on tbe shaft. At the base of these points a wooden crossbar,
fastened by a strong leather cord, holds tbe points in their relative
position. When a fish is struck with the central point, the triangular
sidepieces spread a little, grasp the fish firmly with their inner edges,
and bold it until it can be drawn out of the water. A somewhat simi-
lar fish spear from Kazbinsky (figure 5, plate Lxvii) has the central
point barbed, instead of smooth as in tbe preceding specimen; the
sidepieces are fastened against a shoulder on the shaft by rawhide
cords, and the points are lashed across the ends in a similar manner.
Figure 42, 1, represents a deerborn prong for one of these fisli spears
from tbe lower Yukon, Another fish spear, from Razbiusky (plate
LXVII, C), bas two points of reindeer born with two notches on one
side of each. A short-handle fish spear from the lower Yukon (plate
LXVII, 4) has only one large, single barb point lashed against the
side of tbe shaft. The head of a fish spear from Nunivak island,
(idate Lxviil, 1) bas tbe central point surrounded by six others,
inserted in slits in tbe end of the shaft and held in place by a lashing
of spruce root. All of these points are barbed for about four inches
along one edge.
A small fish spear from Nunivak island (figure 2, plate lxvii) has a
central point, surrounded by three other points, forming a triangle;
these points are inserted in the shaft and held in position by a rounded
ivory ferule. Tbe shaft is very slender, round in cross section, and
NELSON] FISH SPEARS 195
about four feet in len.ntli; it is in two sections with overlapping ends
beveled and held together by a lasbing of twisted sinew cord.
Another spear from the same locality (figure 1, plate Lxvii) is sim-
ilar to the preceding except that it has four points instead of three
surrounding the central point, which are also held in position by an
ivory ring. The iuuer sides of all the points on both of these spears
are notched to form barbs.
From the lower Kuskokwim northward to Kotzebue sound spears
used for taking salmon and whitehsh have large points of bone, deer-
horn, or ivory, with from one to three barbs. They are pierced near the
butt for the attachment of a cord, and at this end are of a rounded
wedge shape for insertion into a slot in the end of a long wooden shaft;
a stout sealskin line is made fast to the point, drawn up along the
shaft, and terminated in a coil, which is held in the hand of the fisher-
man. When a fish is struck the shaft becomes detached, leaving the
barbed point in the fish, which is hauled ashore by aid of the line.
The points of these spears vary considerably in character, as is shown
in the examples described ; they are iuteuded for capturing large fish in
the streams flowing into the sea, or in the tributaries of the larger
rivers in the interior; but they are also sometimes used for spearing
white whales.
Figure 7, plate lxviii, illustrates one of these points from Norton
sound; it is made of bone and has four barbs, two on each side; to
the hole in the butt is attached a piece of stout rawhide line. A slen-
der point of deerhorn, from Kowak river (figure 30, plate lxviii), has a
barb on each side. Another from the same locality (figure 2, plate
LXVIII) is a flat, slender point of bone with a single barb. A bone
point from Chalitmut (figure 3, plate lxviii) has a single barb and is
made in two pieces; the overlapping ends are riveted together and
wrapped with two rawhide lashings. A short, rudely made bone point
from Xorton sound (figure S, plate Lxviii) has two barbs, one on each
side, and two holes near the base. Figure 4, plate lxviii, from Agiuk-
chugumut, and figure 29 of the same plate, from Norton sound, repre-
sent bone points with one barb.
To attract jiickerel and large whitefish within reach of their spears
while fishing through holes in the ice, the Eskimo of the lower Yukon
make use of the figure of a fish about six or seven inches long. They
have two holes pierced through the back for sinew cords, which are tied
together a few inches above and continue thence upward as a single
string. These images are well fashioned, with the eyes, gill oi)enings,
scales, and lateral line indicated by ett^hed lines. The fisherman stands
directly over^ the hole and dangles the image a few feet below the sur-
face of the water, holding the spear in his hand ready to thrust on the
approach of the fish, which rush at the lure and are readily speared.
Figure 0, plate lxviii, represents one of these lures, which was obtained
at iiazbinsky.
196 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT [eth-ann. 16
ARTS AND MANUFACTURES
BONK AND IVORY (CARVING
Tlie Alaskan Eskimo are remarkable for their dexterity in working
wood, bone, ivory, and reindeer born. Tbis is particiiliirly noticeable
among the people on tbe islands of Bering strait and the mainland
coast from Point Hope southward to the moutli of Kuskokwim river.
Within this area the impleiiieuts used in limiting and for liousehold
])nrposes are handsomely made and often are elaborately ornamented;
special skill is shown in adapting the forms of mammals, birds, and
flsh, with which they are familiar, to the ornamentation of useful arti-
cles. In addition to utilizing animal forms for this i^urpose, they dis-
play considerable imaginative faculty in the conception of designs for
fanciful carvings, as well as in ornamental patterns, which are fre-
(juently etched on the surface of various objects. Many of their carv-
•iugs ai'e really artistic, and the skill with which animal forms are
carved in relief is admirable. The beauty of their work is the more
surprising when we consider the rude tools with which it is accom-
plished. Of the articles obtained many are very ancient, and, the old
men told me, had been made by the use of flint tools. The execution
of these carvings is equal to that of the specimens jiroduced by the use
of iron and steel tools at the present time.
While a considerable degree of artistic taste and skill is quite gen-
eral, there are some districts in whicli the people seem to have a
greater amount of ability in this direction than the average. The most
notable instance of this is among the people living between the Yukon
delta and the lower Kuskokwim, which is amply illustrated in the
collection, obtained in that locality, of elaborate masks, handsomely
ornamented wooden boxes and trays, and a great variety of beautifully
executed ivory work. The villages of Askinuk, Kushunuk, Agiulcchu-
gumut, and others in this vicinity, supplied a fine series of ivory carvings,
well-made wooden dishes, and numerous implements of wood and ivory,
all marked by excellence of workmanship. The people of Ukagamut
were living in the greatest squalor, even for Eskimo, yet among them
were found beautiful specimens of ivory carving.
Before \\orking bone, deerhorn, or ivory, it is the custom to soak
the material thoroughly in urine in order to soften it, and indeed it is
frequently wetted with the same liquid as the work progresses. For
rendering the etched lines on the surface of carvings more distinct, a
black paint is made from a mixture of gunpowder and blood, wiiich is
rubbed into the freshly cut incisions, making a permanent stain.
In places where ivory is plentiful the men appeared to delight in occu-
pying their leisure time in making carvings from that material or from
bone, sometimes for use, but frequently merely for pastime, and many
little images are made as toys for children. The articles thus produced
NELSON] CARVING AXD DRAWING 197
are not regarded by tlieiii as baviug any particular value, and I was
often amused at the delight with which they sold specimens of their
work for one or two needles, a brass button, or some similar tritie.
The women of the district between the Yukon delta and Kuskokwim
river are not very i)roficient in needlework or in ornamenting their gar-
ments, the artistic skill appearing to be confined to the men; but ou
the islands and the adjacent American shore of Bering strait, while the
men make very handsome ivory work, the women are equally skilful in
beautiful ornamental needlework on articles of clothing. This is nota-
bly the case with the tinely decorated sealskin boots for which the
natives of Diomede and King islands are noted.
The men at Point Hope, on the Arctic coast, are also skilful in ivory
work. About the shores of Kotzebue sound and Bering strait various
articles and implements, such as celts, knives, knife sharpeners, and
labrets, are made from nephrite.
On, the Asiatic shore the Eskimo appear to have lost much of their
skill in carving and other ornamental work; consequently their cloth-
ing and implements, both on the mainland coast and on St Lawrence
island, are rudely made.
In ascending Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, as the coast districts are
left behind skill in cfirving becomes less and less marked among the
Eskimo, until those living as neighbors to the Tinne ai)i)ear to have
but little ability in that art. Paimut, the last Eskimo village on the
Yukon, was notable for the fact that the tools and other implements in
use were as rude as those of the adjacent Tinne.
In addition to their skill in carving, the Eskimo of the coast display
great ability in etching upon tools and implements, notably on ivory
drill-bows, scenes from their daily life, records of hunts, or other events.
They also produce a great variety of ornamental designs, composed of
straight or curved lines, dots, circles, and human or grotesque faces.
Upon the surfaces of their wooden dishes they fre(|uently paint a ground
color of red, upon which, as well as upon those that are not colored, are
drawn in black various well made patterns and figures representing
totem animals, personal markings, or mythological creatures.
DRAWING
The Eskimo also possess considerable skill in map making. While
traveling between the Yukon delta and the Kuskokwim, several men
drew for me excellent maps of the districts with which they were
familiar, although probably they had never seen a map of any kind
made by a white man. At other points to the northward of St Michael
considerable skill was manifested by several persons in sketching out-
lines of the coast, with its indentations and projections.
During one winter at St Michael a young Eskimo, about 23 or 24 years
of age, came from the country of the Kaviak peninsula and remained
about the station. While there he took great pleasure iu looking at
198 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. I8
tlie iiuiueroiis illustrated papers we had, and would come day after day
and borrow them; finally he caine and asked me for a pencil and some
paper, which I supplied him. Some days later I chanced to go to his
tent, and found him lying prone upon the ground, with an old magazine
before him, engaged iu copying one of the pictures on the piece of
paper whiclr I had given him.
When he saw me he seemed to be very much abashed and tried to
conceal the drawing, but I took it up and was surprised at the ability
he had shown. He had done so well that I asked him if he could
draw me some pictures of Eskimo villages and scenes. He agreed to
try to do so. He was furnished with a supply of pencils and paper,
and the result was a series of a dozen or more pictures which were
remarkable, considering that they were made by a savage whose ideas
were similar to those of his people, except what he had learned by
looking over the papers I had loaned him a short time before.
WRITTEN RECORDS
The Eskimo also have an idea of keeping records or tallies of events,
as was illustrated in a trading record kept by a Malemut during a
winter trading trip which he made from St Michael to Kotzebne
sound. It was kept for his own reference and without any suggestion
from another. It was drawn on small fragments of brown paper and
was a good example of picture writing; small, partly conventional out-
lines were made to represent the various articles of trading goods,
which were drawn beside a representation of the skins for which he
had exchanged them. On the same paper he drew a route map of his
journey, marking the villages at which he had stopped.
PAINTS AND COLORS
A picture, image, paint, or color is called (i'-lhiii-i'il- by the Uualit.
Fine shades of color are not difl'erentiated bj' these people, but they
have names for most of the primary colors.
Black is called ti'ui-u'-li; white, hii-tugh-u-l'i ; red, kauig'-u-li; brown
or russet, Imu-Hj'-a-likh-lu'-gWtl;; green, chun-iikh'-Iuli or chKH-iig'-u-ll.
Various other shades are distinguished as being colored like natural
objects; gray or clay color is called M-gu' -yu-gnul' -in-ulc (from M-gu'-yuk,
clay, and a'-lhin-ul; color); purple is Id-uu' a'-lhiil-uk; blue is kulogh'-un
ii'-lhhl-uk.
Coloring matter is obtained from various sources. The dark reddish
shade which is given to tanned sealskin is obtained by soaking the
inner bark of the alder in urine for a day and washing the skin with
the infusion. White is made from a white clayey earth; yellow and
red from ocherous earths; red is also obtained from oxide of iron;
black is made from plumbago, charcoal, or gunpowder, the two latter
being mixed with blood; green is obtained from oxide of copper.
NELSON] PAINT BOXES 199
For the purpose of storing tlieir fragments of paint the Eskimo use
boxes somewhat similar in general character to those used for tools,
save that they are very much smaller. These boxes also serve for keep-
ing other small articles, such as fishhooks, spear- or arrow-points, etc.
Figure 8, plate LXii, illustrates a suiall ivory paint box obtained
from Norton sound by Mr L. M. Turner. It is about four inches long
by an inch and a half wide, Jind with the exception of the cover is
made from one piece. It is oblong, and has a sunken ledge at each
end to receive the cover. On one end a human face is carved in relief,
on the other end the mouth and nostrils of an animal, and on the
bottom the tigure of a seal. A small wooden box from St Michael
(number 33021) is oval in outline and represents the body of a seal.
The cover is in the form of a smaller seal, of which the projecting head
and neck serve as a handle for raising it. Another paint box, from
the lower Yukon (figare 13, plate LXii), is cut from a single piece of
wood and represents a salmon, the eyes, nostrils, mouth, gill openings,
and lateral line being indicated by incised lines. A square cover fits
like a stopper iu the top and has a rawhide loop on its center for
raising it. A box from Norton sound (figure 11, plate Lxii) represents
two seals, one on the back of the other, with their heads turned to
the left, the upper seal forming the cover. The eyes of both are rep-
lesented by inlaid beads, the nostrils and mouths are indicated by
incised lines, and the fore-tlippers of the larger seal are carved in
relief on its sides. A somewhat similar box (tigure 15, plate lxii) was
obtained on Nuuivak island, but it represents the figure of only a
single seal.
A curious colored box (tigure 12, plate lxii) was obtained at Cape
Vancouver. It represents a seal with the mouth open and with the
teeth in relief; the fore-fiippers are carved in relief on the sides, the
eyes and nostrils are indicated by ivory pegs, and various other pegs
are inserted on the surface of the body. The back- and fore-flippers are
painted a dull bluish color; the sides are red, and the same color extends
forward over the top of the head to the muzzle; the chin, throat, lower
surface of the body, and outline of the Hippers, with triangular spots
to mark the ears, are black ; the teeth are outlined in red. A similar
box from the same locality (tigure 17, plate lxii) represents a banded
seal. The lower surface of the body and a large, triangular space from
the crown to the shoulders are colored black; the remainder of the
upper surface is alternately banded with red and black lines.
A paint box from Norton sound (figure 9, plate lxii) is made from a
single piece, and represents a seal. The fore flippers are in relief, the
tail and hind flippers are carved free, and the whiskers are represented
by little tufts of seal hair set in on each side of the muzzle. The cover,
which is of spoon shape, fits like a stopper and is provided with a
projecting rod which serves as a thumb piece for raising it.
A curiously shaped box from Big lake (figure 16, i)late lxii) is
200
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETIl. ANN. 13
inteuiled to represent the larva of some iusect. It is cut from a single
piece iiiid has auoval, stopper-like cover, with a cord loop in the center
for raising' it. A series of alternately red and black grooves encircle
the sides of the body; the cresceutic mouth is incised, two beads rep-
resent the nostrils, and two incised rings outline the eyes. The mouth,
nostrils, and eyes are painted red, the
rest of the face showing the natural
color of the wood.
A box from the lower Yukon (figure
58) is flattened above and below, and
is pear shape around the sides, which
are formed by bending a thin strip of
wood, the ends being sewed together
with spruce root; the bottom is fast-
FiG.58-woodeDi.iii.iti...x(abouti;). cucd ou with woodcu pegs, and a
stopper-like cover, with a flaring rim,
fits into the top, on which a vseries of small triangular and circular
pieces of ivory are inlaid. The colors which originally ornamented
this box have disappeared through long use. A box from Pastolik
(number 33014) is somewhat similar to the preceding, but the cover is
held in place by a long cord which is wound several times around the
box and fastened over a peg which projects in li'ont.
A rudely oval box from the lower Yukon (figure 7, plate lxii) is
cut from a single piece of wood, and has two compartments to each
of which is fitted a stopper-like cover, one rounded in outline aud the
other with one end truncated ;
they are provided with small
cord loops for lifting them.
The body of the box has a
groove extending entirely
around the sides; another
starting from it passes under
the bottom to the opposite
side.
A handsome wooden box
from Big lake (figure 59) is
carved from a single piece,
and has a stopper-like cover.
The body of the box represents
a seal with the front flippers
in relief and the eyes formed
by white beads; the wrists of
the flippers are crossed by a small inlaid bar of ivory. At one end
of the cover is a human face carved in relief, the mouth aud eyes
being represented by pieces of ivory neatly inlaid. This face and a
circle about the eyes of the seal, as well as a long ridge connected with
Fig. 59 — Wnnden paiut box (about g).
NELSON] PAINT BOXES POTTERY 2l)l
the fliijpers aud the bottom of the box, are colored red. The rear end
of the cover is blue, aud the remainder of the bos is black.
Au oval box from St Lawreuce island (number 65267) represeuts the
rude outline of a seal with a snuiller one on its back, which forms the
cover, fitting like a stopper. On the back of the cover are inlaid six
halves of blue beads. A siuew cord projecting several inches through
the cover serves for raising it. The eyes of the larger seal are formed
by round pieces of ivory, with some black substance tilling a hole in
the center of each to indicate the pupil.
An oblong wooden box from Nunivak island (number 43878) is made
of two pieces, the lower two-thirds forming the main part aud the other
the cover, which is held in place by two bone pegs inserted in the lower
edge, at each end, and fitting into corresponding holes in the ends of
the lower portion of the box. On the sides and ends of the box are inlaid
square strips of ivory, about half an inch from the edge, and a number
of small ivory pegs are set in the space between the inlaid strijis.
POTTERY
The manufacture of pottery from clay is widely spread among the
Eskimo with whom I came in contact, but the women are the only
potters. I'he process of making vessels from clay, as witnessed at St
Michael, is as follows:
A quantity of tough, blue clay is moistened and kneaded thoroughly
with the hands until it assumes plasticity; then short, tough blades of a
species of marsh grass and a small quantity of fine, black, volcanic sand
from the beach are mixed with it. A round, flat layer of the prepared
clay is worked out to form the bottom of the vessel, and about the edge
of this a wall is built up with a thin band of clay, carried around a num-
ber of times until the desired height is reached. The top is then
smoothed, aud is either left plain or slightly scalloped with the fingers.
The sides of the vessels are usually left plain, but sometimes they
are ornamented with a series of simple, incised Hues made with a stick.
Several vessels obtained at St Michael have the sides curving slightly
until near the top, where they are somewhat constricted aud the rim
is made slightly flaring.
After the shaping and the ornamentation of the vessel are completed,
it is placed near the fire until it becomes dry; theu a fire is built both oii
the inside and the outside, and it is baked for an hour or two with as
great a heat as can be obtained.
In a summer camp at Hotham inlet a number of pots were seen,
varying in capacity from two to three gallons. Several of the larger
ones had the tops scalloped aud were slightly constricted in outline
below the rim. On the sides they were ornamented with short, paral-
lel, horizontal lines, beginning near the rim and forming a band extend-
ing to the bottom, as shown iu figure 60, from a sketch made at the
time.
202 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
Despite the ability showu by the Eskimo of this region in carving
bone and ivory, I saw only two efforts made at modeling in clay beyond
the niamifacture of pots and lamps. These were both rude clay dolls,
obtained at a village on the lower Yukon.
A specimen of earthenware from St .Michael (number 430GS) is 9 inches
hi^li by 10} wide. Around the inside, near the top, occurs a series of
small incised dots; on the inside of the rim are live parallel incised
grooves, just below a broader groove wliich borders the edge; the
upper surface of the edge is marked also with a shallow groove.
Another vessel from the same locality has three lines of dots around its
outer border, near the rim, with two sets of double parallel grooves,
and just inside the slightly flaring rim are four roughly made grooves.
From St Lawrence island were obtained some small clay vessels
which were used for suspending over ignited lamps. One of these (fig-
ure 13, plate xsviil) is ii inches long, 3^ wide, and lA in depth. It
is quadrate in outliue, with rounded corneis, each of which is jirovided
with two holes through which are passed
strips of whalebone by which it was sus-
])ended. A similar vessel from the same
locality (number 63r)4C) measures 6 inches
in length, 4f in width, and 2 inches in
depth; it has a small lug at each corner,
near the njjper edge, pierced for the recep-
"; ^ - tion of the cord by which it was suspended
9 ^ 'S over the lamp. Anotherof these small pots
^ —' / from the same place (figure 1, plate xxviii)
is oval at the ends, with the sides nearly
parallel. It measures 8i inches m length
Fir,,60— Clay ]i..t IVoiii Hutliam inlet. , „ , , , ,.,,,"' . , •
by 3 broad, and a little over au inch in
depth. Another specimen from the same island (number (i'254:l) is fash-
ioned like the preceding three vessels, all of which are too small for use
in cooking food, and probably served for the i^urpose of trying out seal
oil for use in the lami)S.
MATS, BASKETS, AND BAGS
From the shore of Norton sound to the Kuskokwim the women are
expert in weaving grass mats, baskets, and bags. Grass mats are used
on the sleeping benches and for wrapping around bedding. They are
used also as sails for kaiaks, and formerly were utilized as sails for
umiaks. They now frequently serve as curtains to partition otf the
corners of a room or a sleeping platform. Small mats are placed also
in the manholes of kaiaks to serve as seats. The bags are used for
storing fish, berries, and other food supplies, or for. clothing. Smaller
bags and baskets are made for contaiuing small articles used in the
Louse.
At Chukwuk, on the lower Yukon, I saw a woman making one of
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXIV
IS
OBJECTS OF GRASS AND SPRUCE ROOT vONE-EiGHTHi
NEL'iON] MATS, BASKETS, AND BAGS 203
these lUiits and watched the process she employed. A set of three or
four straws were twisted aud the ends turned in, forming a strand, a
number of which were arranged side by side with their ends fastened
along a sticli, forming one end of the mat and lianging down for tlie
warp. Another strand was tlien used as a woof. By a deft twist of
the fingers it was carried from one side to the other, passing above and
below the strands of the warp; then the woof strand was passed
around the outer strand of the warp and turned to repeat the operation.
The strands were made continuous by adding straws as necessary, and
with each motion the strands were twisted a little so as to keep them
firmly together. By this simple method a variety of iiatterns are
produced.
Figure 15, plate Lxxiv, illustrates a common sleeping mat of the
kind used by the Eskimo from Kotzebue sound to the Kuskokwim. It
was obtained on Norton sound. The size of these mats varies; the
example shown is i feet long by 3f wide, but they are sometimes made
twice this size.
A toy grass mat, made for use with a doll (figure 8, plate lxxiv), is
also from ISTorton sound. It is woven in the same way as the larger
mats, except that the warp is twisted at intervals and the strands
are crossed, thus producing small quadrate openings in the pattern.
In making grass bags, they are started from a point at the bottom,
where the strands of tlie warp, consisting of two or more grass stems,
are fastened together and extend vertically downward. The woof is
formed by a double strand of grass which is twisted about itself with
the strands of the warp inclosed in the turns; both are continually
twisted as the weaving progresses. In coarsely made bags, the strands
of the woof are spaced from an inch to two inches apart, ami those of
the warp at intervals of from a quarter to half an inch. These bags
Lave a conical bottom, which slopes from the center to the sides. At
the mouth the ends of the warp are braided to form a continuous edge.
Figure 14, iiiate lxxiv, represents one of these loosely woven bags
from Norton sound. These bags, when used for storing fish, sometimes
contain from 50 to 100 pounds, which is frozen into a solid mass and
packed away in storehouses for use during the months when fresh food
can not be obtained. The contents become so thoroughly frozen by the
intense cold of winter that when recpiired for use the mass has to be
separated by use ot wedges and mauls.
Another bag from Norton sound (figure 11, plate lxxiv) is similar to
the preceding, except that the bottom has a long, narrow base instead
of ending in a point. Along the mouth the strands of the warp are
bnuight together in little braids about an inch aiul a half in length,
spaced at intervals of about half an inch and merged into a thick,
braided border, which forms the rim. The weaving is done as in the
specimen last described, excei)t that the warp consists of two grass
stems, extending down the sides to the bottom, without being twisted.
204 THE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT [etii ann. 18
The woof is twisted, but tlie strands are spaced only a little over a
quarter of au inch apart.
A bag- obtained at St Michael by Mr L. M. Turner (figure 0, plate
i.xxiv) is somewhat similar to the preceding specimens, but the warp
is divided alternately by the twisted strands of the woof, forming a
slightly zigzag pattern from near the mouth to the edge of the bottom,
where the warp extends again in parallel lines.
A closely woven bag, intended to hold clothing (figure 13, plate
Lxxiv), is from the lower Kuskokwim. It is made like the example
from St Michael, except that the solid weaving of the sides extends to
the braid at tlie mouth. The warp extends up and down the sides, as
usual, and the strands of the woof are woven dose together, forming
a com]>act, thick texture. Several black lineg of varying width extend
around the bag, and are made by interweaving strands of blackened
sinew cord. This pattern and another of ornamental black bands are
made iu the country between Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers and thence
southward to Bristol bay. One specimen from the latter locality, in
addition to the blaclc lines, has three broken bands of russet brown,
nuide by drawing small strii)s of brown leather through the wari).
From the lower Kuskokwim was obtained also a grass bag, 11 inches
in height and 13 inches across tlie bottom, woven in the same numner
as the last specimen. It is circular in shape around the sides and
widest near the bottom, narrowing gradually to near the top, which is
suddenly constricted to au opening live inches in diameter.
The people of the lower Yukon and thence northward to Kotzebtie
sound make various sizes of grass baskets of a coil pattern. A strand
of grass is laid in a coil forming the warp, the woof is then woven iu
by interlacing grass stems, and the coil is continued UTitil the flat bot-
tom is completed. The coils are then superimposed one upon the other
until the basket is built up to the top, where it is narrowed in to form
a circular, oval, or square oi)ening. Frequently the coil is commenced
on the bottom around a vacant space, from an inch to three inches in
diameter, into which is sewed a piece of rawhide. The rim at the top
has the grass brought over and neatly turned in on the under side,
forming a smoothly finished edge.
One'of these baskets (number 48139), used for storing clothing and
various small articles, which was obtained from the mouth of the Yukon,
measures lOA inches in height by 13 inches in width, with an opening
at the top 10 inches in diameter. A basket of this description from
Kushunuk (figure 7, plate Lxxiv) is roughly quadrate in outline, with
rounded corners; it has the bottom woven in the same manner as those
of the bags which have been described. Another basket, obtained on
Putnam river by Lieutenant Stoney (figure 10, plate LXXIV), has a flat
bottom, with a long, oval piece of rawhide in the center; the sides
round gradually upward to an oval opening.
A basket from St Michael (figure 1, plate Lxxiv) h^is a flat bottom,
<
NELSON] BASKETS SLEDS 205
with a center made from a piece of rawhide ; the sides, built up of coils,
narrow inward to the top, where they are suddenly constricted to a
rolled rim surrounding the circular openiuu. The basket from the lower
Yukon shown in figure 4, plate Lxxiv, has a Hat bottom with a cir-
cular piece of rawhide in the center. A double strand of grass is twisted
into the woof between each of the coils on the sides, producing a
doubly ridged surface. The top has a slight rim around the central
opening.
A toy basket from the lower Yukon (figure 5, plate lxxiv) has the
warp varied at intervals with grass cords passed around the surface,
about a third of an inch apart, in three parallel rows. These cords
consist of three strands, only one of which is woven into the warp,
leaving the remainder in relief on the surface.
Figure 6, plate lxxiv, shows a basket from St Michael. In this
specimen the coil starts from the center of the flat bottom; the sides
slope slightly outward and end at the upper edge without being con-
stricted, forming a dish shape. Another basket from the coast of
Is'orton sound has the usual fiat bottom; the sides slope slightly out-
ward, swell around the middle, and then are drawn in again toward
the top to form a rim around the opening.
On the lower Yukon coiled baskets are made of spruce roots, which
form very strong, rigid walls. They vary in form, but all have flat
bottoms. A basket of this* kind, from that locality (figure 2, plate
LXXIV), is roughly quadrate in form, with rounded corners. The sides
are nearly straight, but are constricted abruptly above, forming a
nei'k-like rim about an inch high, which surrounds the square opening
in the top. Another specimen, from Sledge island (figure 3, jdate
LXXIV), is round in shape, with the sides slightly curved and constricted
above to a slightly flaring tip around the opening.
The most elaborately finished specimen procured is shown in figure
12, plate LXXIV. This was obtained from the lower Y'ukon district.
It is round ill shape, with slightly curving sides, which are constricted
abruptly to the neck of a slightly flaring rim. It has a flattened
conical top, which has two small sinew hinges, and is fastened in front
with sinew cords; a loop of the same material on the top forms the
handle.
A "housewife" of woven grass, obtained on the lower Yukon, is
woven with open-work similar to the bags which have been described.
TRAVEL, AXD TRANSPORTATIOX
SLKDS
The Alaskan Eskimo of the mainland and on all the islands about
Bering strait, including St Lawrence island, use dogs and sleds for
winter traveling. Plate Lxxv, from a jjhotograph taken at St Michael,
represents a Malemut family ready to start on a journey. On the
206 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx. 18
American coast aud adjacent islands sleds from 9 to 10 feet in leii^^tU
ai'e built strongly of driftwood. Their rnimers are from 2 to 3 inclies
broad and from G to 7 inches high. They are straight nearly to the
front, wLere they curve up regularly to the level of the bed. Along
the sides four or live stanchions are mortised into the upper edge of
the runners and project upward about 2i to 3 feet; the ends of bow-
shape pieces of wood are also jnortised in the top of the runners, and
both these and the stanchions are fastened with wooden pins. These
bow shape ineces curve upward aud inward about five inches above the
tops of the runners, forming the supports on which rests the bed of
the sled, which is from 16 to 21 inches in width, aud is formed of a kind
of latticework. A crescentic or bow-shape piece of wood is fastened
across the front, from which two long, thin, wooden slats run length-
wise to the rear, where they rest on the upcurved bows, to which they
are lashed. Across these pieces a series of thin wooden slats are lashed
by rawhide cords passed through boles and corresponding holes in the
longitudinal slats, which extend out to the rear line of the runners aud
have a long strip of wood lashed along each side. A hjug wooden rod
is fastened firmly to the upturned point of the runner on each side and
extends to the rear of the sled, resting on the tops of the stanchions,
forming a rail. A stout rawhide cord is jtassed through holes in the
top of the stanchions aud wound around the rail, holding it firmly in
])osition. The rail usually projects a few inches beyoud the last stan-
chion on each side, forming handles for guiding the sled. Some sleds
also have a crosspiece resting ou the last stanchions at the rear. On
the sides a stout rawhide cord is fastened at the end of the rail and is
passed down around the side bar of the bed and back to the rail again
in a diagonal or zigzag pattern along the entire length, thus forming
a netting, which prevents articles from falling from the sled. Inside
of this netting it is customary to place a large sheet of canvas or of
skins sewed together to form a covering for the load. The flai)S are
folded over the top, and a rawhide lashing from rail to rail holds the
load firn)lyiu place. From five to nine dogs are attached to large sleds
of this character, and a considerable load can be hauled on them. With
seven dogs it is customary, on trijjs along the coast of Norton sound, to
haul a load weighing 300 or 400 pounds.
Smaller sheds, from .5 to C leet in length, are used about the villages
or for short journeys.
Figure 1(5, plate Lxxvi, represents a model of one of these sleds,
which was obtained at the head of Norton souiul. A simpler form of
sled also is used by the people along the coast from Kotzebue sound
to the Yukon mouth. The ruuners are of the same fashion as those
last described, to which a stout crosspiece is fastened on the inside of
the upturned ends, and two or three short stanchions, 0 to 8 inches in
height, are mortised into their upper edge. A rail on each side is
lashed against the crosspiece ami extends backward, renting upon aud
SLEDS
207
lashed to the tops of the staucbions to form vails. Crosspieces con-
uect the sides of the sled between the stauchions.
These sleds are very light, weighing only from 15 to -!0 pounds.
They are used for short hunting or fishing trips, and are hauled usually
by the hunter himself. In the spring they are used by hunters to haul
their kaiaks on the sea ice to open water, or to the eracks that are
opening. When such a break is reached, the hunter places the sled on
the top of the kaiak, back of the manhole, and paddles across to the
other side, where he disembarks, places the kaiak on the sled, and
resumes his journey. In this manner these people make long trips
over the sea ice in search of seals and walrus.
4: .T-,
Fig. 61 — K.lviak hunter with hand sled.
When a hunter wishes to make a trip to the mountains iu winter in
search of reindeer and does not care to take dogs with him, he fre-
quently loads his provisions, bedding, and gun on one of these light
sleds and drags it to the cami)ing place.
The accompanying illustration (figure CI), from a photograph, rep-
resents a deer liunter leaving St Michael with one of these sleds for
a winter hunt in the mountains backward from the coast.
Both of the styles of sleds desciibed are iu common use over nearly
the entire coast district visited.
The runners of the larger sleds are commonly shod with thin, flat
strips of bone — sawed from the jawbone of a whale — of the same
width as the runner, and fastened on with wooden pegs; the smaller
208 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axx. 18
sleds commonly have the ruimers unshod, although sometimes strijisof
boue are used for that purpose.
Figure 62 illustrates a sled from Plover bay, Siberia, which is the
style used on St Lawreuce island and the adjacent Siberian coast. It
is modeled after those used by the Chukchi of eastern Siberia. The
runners are made from pieces of driftwood; they are suboval iu cross
section, about 2 inches wide by 1^ tiiick, and taper toward the front.
To the front ends of the runners is lashed an overlapping jjiece of wood
of the same width and about half an inch thiclc. which extends down
the under side of the runner and is curved up over the back, reaching
midway to the rear of the sled, where it is lashed to the end of a Hat
piece of wood which serves as the rail. Bowed pieces of reindeer
horn are fixed in the tops of the runners, to which they are fastened by
whalebone or rawhide lashings. Two flattened sticks extend from the
toj) of the first bow to a little beyond the last one, to form a resting
place for the bed of the sled and to which it is lashed. Crosspieces
are then lashed to these sticks. On each side a brace is formed by a
rod oT wood, which is lashed against the side of the stringer and to the
Fk;. 62— Sled iirtefl on the Siberian short' «ii ];< mm 'M:iir
runner 1.") inches in front of the rear end and extending obliquely for-
ward under the bed. At the rear end a bow of wood is lashed to the
last deerhorn bow under the bottom, forming a curve about 10 inches
high above the bed; from each side of this, near the top, another bow
extends forward and downward to the base of the second deerhorn
bow, where it is firmly lashed. To serve as a shoe, a thin, flat piece of
wood is fastened to the lower side of each runner by rawhide lashings
passed through the runner and through holes in the shoe, which are
countersunk, so that the friction against the surface of the snow or
rocks shall not cut the cord. The load is fastened on these sleds with
rawhide cords, and the attachment for hauling is made to the forward
part of the runners and the first crossiiiece.
This form of sled is used with dogs by the Eskimo and sedentary
Chukchi of the Asiatic coast, and with reindeer by the reindeer using
Chukchi of that region.
Figure 1, plate Lxxvr, represents another style of sled, from St
Lawrence island, used for transporting to the village the meat and blub-
ber from the place where the game is killed. It is about 15 inches in
length and the same in width, and has two stout, walrus-tusk inn-
ners about 15 inches loug, an inch and a half deep, and two thirds of an
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXVI
MODEL OF SLED FRAME, WITH OTHER OBJECTS USED IN TRANSPORTATION ' three-sixteenthS)
-NELSON] SLEDS DOG HARNKSS 209
inch wide; tliey liave a flange like projecting edge aloug tlie outside
of tlie iiijper border, and are beld together by three rounded wooden
crossbars 14 inches long, with two grooves iu their ends, held in posi-
tion by strong rawhide hishiiigs that pass through two holes in the
upper edges of the runners. Tlie front ends of the runners are curved
upward and have a large slot in them for attaching the cord by which
the sled is hauled. In the rear end of each runner are two holes, iu
which are inserted stout rawhide loops, and a hole just in front of the
second crossbar serves for another rawhide loop; these loops receive
the lashings with which the load is held in place.
DO(f HARNESS AND ACCOUTEltMENTS
The ordinary style of harness used for dogs is made of rawhide
straps. It consists of a collar with a strap extending down from the
back of the neck to the middle of the back, where it meets a strap
which passes from the lower part of the collar between the fore-legs
and up on each side over the ribs, to be attached to the back strap; at
this point is made fast the leading line, which is from three to live
feet long, and is attached either directly to the front of the sled or to a
single straight leading line fastened to the sled and extending forward
to a distance sufficient for the attachment of all the dogs belonging to
the team. When the team consists of more than three dogs, they are
attached to the main leading line in pairs, with the most intelligent
dog iu front as a leader.
When the load is very heavy, or the dogs are too numerous to work
well in a single team, they may be attached to the forward stanchions,
sometimes one or even two on each side, in addition to the team in
front.
On the islands of Bering strait and aloug the Asiatic coast, long-
handle whips are used for driving dogs; specimens of these were
obtained on Sledge, King, and St Lawrence islands. The handles of
the whips from King and St Lawrence islands are round rods of spruce,
a little over forty inches in length, and have rawhide lashes fastened
to them with sinew cord.
One of these whips from St Lawrence island (figure 15, plate Lxxvi)
has a lash made from a piece of sealskin, with the edges sewed together,
forming a round cord, with a slender strip of sealskin at the tip for a
cracker. On the handle is a ferule of walrus ivory, rudely represent-
ing the head of a white bear; the end of the handle is wedged into the
ferule, which projects spur-like on one side.
A King island whip (number 4.")1()7) has a stout lash made of a jiiece
of walrus hide, with a small rawhide cracker at the tip. At the butt
of the handle is a round ivory ferule, sloping to a flaring rim, which
extends around it. The use of these whips also extends to the main-
land of the American coast at Cape Prince of Wales, and thence north-
ward to Point Hope on the Arctic coast.
IS ETH 14
21.0 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
The Eskimo to the southward of Bering strait use short handle whips
with a long lash, generally of braided rawhide, largest just in front of
its attachment to the liandle and tapering to a point at the end, which
is provided with a sealskin cracker.
The ferules used ou the handles of these whips vary considerably
in form, as is shown in the specimens illustrated. One example, from
St Lawrence island (ligure 7, plate Lxxvi), is slightly spoon-shape in
outline, projecting spur-like on one side. A round ferule from the
Diomede islands (figure 11, plate lxxvi) is of walrus ivory and has a
lobe-like projection on each side. Figure 9, plate lxxvi, shows a
round ivory ferule from Sledge island, with a carving representing the
head of a white bear projecting on one side. Another, from Point
Hope (ligure 10, plate lxxvi), is a small ivory specimen with a flattened
spur on one side.
In many localities I found in use swivels made of bone, deerhorn,
ivory, or wood, which were fastened to the cords by which dogs were
attached to stakes or other objects, to prevent the cords from becoming
twisted by the movement of the animals.
Figure 13, i^late lxxvi, represents a large wooden swivel of this
kind from Razbinsky, on the lower Yukon. It consists of a round
wooden rod, deeply notched on one side, with a hole pierced through
the head formed by the notch, through which is inserted a stout
woodeu rod with a large head. In the opposite ends of the two rods
are holes in which cords are fastened.
Swivels exactly similar in design, but made of deerhoru or ivory,
were obtained on the Diomede islands, St Lawrence island, on Kowak
river at the head of Kotzel)ue sound, and at Point Belcher on the
Arctic coast. Figure 2, jilate lxxvi, represents one of these ivory
swivels from the Diomede islands.
Another style of swivel used similarly to the preceding, as well as on
dog harness to prevent the lines from becoming twisted, is made by
inserting a large-head rod of deerhorn or ivory in a hole in the center
of a square or oval block of the same material, around the borders of
which are four holes, to which are attached cords with their ends
fastened together a few inches beyond their starting iwiiits. Figure
12, plate lxxvi, shows such a swivel from Unalaklit, made of deer-
horn, with a square block on the head. Another swivel of this char-
acter, witli an oval head (figure G, plate LXXA'i), is from Cape Nome.
A similar specimen was obtained on Kowak river.
A deerhoru swivel from the lower Yukon (figure 8, plate lxxa'i) has
a head roughly triangular in shape, with two hides for the li iies ; through
another hole in the center is a deerhoru rod with a large head and with
a hole at the small end for the attachment of a cord.
In addition to swivels, small, double eye blocks are also commonly
used on dog harness; these are cut from bone, deerhorn, or ivory, and
have holes passing through them in two directions. Blocks of this
NKLsoN] DOG HARNESS BREAST YOKES 211
character were obtained from various localities between Norton sound
and Point Hope, on the Arctic coast, and thence across Bering strait to
the coast of Siberia, and on St Lawrence island. ,
Figure 4, plate lxxvi, illustrates a small ivory block of this charac-
ter, from St Lawrence island. It is somewhat peai-shape, witli a hole
through one end, surrounded by a lip or bead-like elevation; this hole
and a groove ou each side are intended to receive a iiermanent cord. In
a direction transverse to this hole is a larger one, through which the
cord is passed in making a temporary attachment. Another of these
blocks from St Lawrence island (figure 5, plate lxxvi) has an incised
groove, forming a neck, between the two holes.
Some of these blocks are very rudely shaped, as is shown in figure 3,
plate LXXVI, from St Lawrence island. This example is cut without
any attempt to round off the corners. Another very plainly made
specimen was obtained at Unalaklit.
In addition to tiie use of dogs for hauling sleds, it is a common prac-
tice among the Eskimo when traveling in summer to put their dogs on
shore and harness them to a long line attached to the bow of the boat,
one of the party remaining on shore to drive the dogs, which travel
along the beach and pull the boat. By the employment of this means
much labor is saved.
BREAST YOKES
From Nunivak island southward beyond the mouth of Kuskokwim
river the people are in the habit of using breast yokes when cari-ying
heavy burdens on their backs; thej' are made of HattenecP pieces of
wood, crescentic in form, with a hole at one end tlirough which a cord
is fastened; at the other end is a knob-like enlargement, with a notch
on its outer side, over which a loop on the end of the cord can be
slipped.
Figure 14, i)late Lxxvr, illustrates one of these breast yokes, which
was obtained ou Xunivak island by Doctor W. H. Dall. It consists of a
flattened board, slightly crescentic in shape, about three inches wide
ami half an inch in thickness. Ou the curved front is carved in relief a
human face, the eyes, mouth, and nostrils being incised, as are also
four parallel lines extending downward from near the corners of the
mouth, to represent tattooing; across the front each way from the face
is a broad groove which narrows to a point at the outer end, along each
edge of which are set six small reindeer teeth. The face, grooves, and
tips of the yoke are painted red ; the remainder of the front and upper
border is black. Doctor Dall obtained another yoke of this kind on
Nunivak island; it has a beveled front and a slight ridge along the cen-
ter, which is narrow in the middle but broader toward the ends.
A yoke from Ghalitmut (number 36023) is constricted in -the middle
and expanded into a wing-like form toward each end.
212
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BKRING STRAIT
[ETH. ANX. 18
SNOWSHOKH
Among the western Eskimo suowslioe.s are in common use. They
are of the greatest service for traveling, botli over the sea ice and on.
laud, and are used by both men ami women, but more largely of course
by men, as their more active life necessitates almost constant travel
while hunting, visiting netting places on the ice, or traps on the shore.
For traveling on land, where the snow is softer and deeper than ou the
sea ice, snowshoes with larger and finer netting are used. Figure 03
represents snowshoes, used for land travel, which were obtained near
the head of Norton bay. Tiiey are made of two pieces of wood, spliced
in front where they curve upward at the toe, held together by nieausof
Fni. 63— Snowshoes from Nm-toii hay-
two crossbars in the middle, before and behind the foot-rest. The net-
ting iu front of the first crossbar is hexagonal in shape, and in the rear
consists of ten cords passing through holes in the hindmost crossbar
and converging to the thong that binds the frame together at the heel.
The foot-rest is ou a stout netting made of widely spaced crosscords
attached to the framework ou the sides as well as to the crossbars.
This is the general style of snowshoo worn about the shores of
Norton sound and thence southward to the Kuskokwim, and up lower
Yukon and Ivuskokwim rivers. Various forms of coarsely netted
snowshoes are used ou the sea ice at difierent points along the coast.
Figure 64 shows the style of snowshoe used at Cape Darby. The
frame is in two pieces, rounded in cross section and tapering in front,
where they are curved strongly upward at the ends which overlap and
NELSON] SNOWSHOES 213
are laslied together. At the heel tlie rim tapers backward to a point
and is hekl together by a rawhide lashing; the toe netting is rephiced
by a cord passing from side to side and two other crosscords which
pass diagonally from near the point of the upturned toe to holes in
the front of the crossbar. The foot-rest is made of a strong cord of
rawhide passed through holes in the side of the frame and over the
Fig. 64— Suowsboe from Cape Darby.
front and rear of the crossbars, forming a pattern somewhat similar to
that in the shoes used on land.
A roughly oval shoe from Icy cape (figure 6.5) is rudely made and
pointed at the heel. The spaces in front and behind the crossbars are
filled with fine netting of babiclie, which is fastened through holes in
the rim. The foot-rest is made by rectangular netting fastened through
holes in the sides of tlie framework and over the front and rear cross-
bars. These shoes are intermediate in character between those used
on land and the ones intended for service on sea ice.
A short, stoutly made shoe from St Lawrence island (figure 60) has
the framework oblong in cross section, with the corners slightly
rounded and turned upward abruptly at the toe, the curve commenc-
FlG. 65 — Siiowalioe from Icy cape.
ing immediately in front of the first crossbar. The ends of the side-
pieces meet at the toe and are held firmly together by a lashing of
whalebone passed through holes. The rear crossbar is close to the
heel, which is held in position by the end of the cord used for the foot-
rest, which passes through a hole on one side, and, crossing the trian-
gular space behind the last crossbar, is tied through a hole in the
214
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
opposite side. Tbe space betweuu the front auil rear crossbars occupies
almost the entire area of the shoe and is crossed by a stout netting of
rectaugular pattern, with some of the strands passing diagonally, pro-
ducing a combination of patterns. These coarsely netted shoes are
intended for use upon frozen snow or on the rough surface of the sea
ice, for which purposes they are very serviceable, as the masses of
broken ice have many small openings large enough for the foot to pass
through, whicli render traveling very difficult without such assistance.
By aid of these shoes hunters are enabled to travel safely and fre-
quently to pass over weak places where newly made ice would not
otherwise support them. On the Asiatic coast the Eskimo use snow-
shoes similar to those from St Lawrence island that have been
described, and others rather more elongated but similar in general
pattern.
Fig. 66 — Snowsboe from St Lawrence island.
ICE STAFFS
When traveling or hunting on the sea ice thei'e is great risk of
breaking through thin places which have been concealed by drifted
snow. To guard against this danger the people are in the habit, at
certain seasons, of carrying a stout wooden stall" with a strong ivory
or bone point, two or three inches l<mg, inserted in the lower end and
fastened by a strong wrapping of sinew. Around the base of this
point is fastened a hoop of bone or deeihorn, hung to the start' by a
cord passed through a hole above the point. A ring of bone or horn
surrounds the base of the point, and between it and the outer hoop
strong cross-lashings of rawhide form a. sort of netting.
In walking over .suspicious places in the ice the traveler plants the
staff' solidly before him previous to taking a step; if the ice be thin the
point of the staff' goes through, but the hoop comes in contact with a
broader surface and prevents the staff from sinking farther. In this way
ICE STAFFS AND CREEPERS
215
Fig. 07— Icestaff(J).
the weight of the man is distributed over three points, and tlins he
is often enabled to pass over phices which
otherwise would not sujiport him.
These stafts are alsoused in summer travel.
During- this season the tundras are covered
with tussocks and soft beds of sphagnum,
which render walking excessively laborious
and difficult. By use of the ^taff the traveler
is enabled to walk more safely, and by lessen-
ing the weight on his feet, does not sink so
deeply in spongy patches of moss or in semi-
marshy ground.
Figure 67 illustrates one of these ice staffs
from Cape Nome.
An ice staff from Point Barrow (figure G8)
consists of a round wooden staff nearly five
feet in leTigth, the lower end being tipped
with a cap of ivory, held in place by a pin
through its base. Through the ni>per end is
a hole, in which is a sealskin loop for hang-
ing the staff on the wrist.
ICE CREEPERS
Ice creepers are used to jirevent the feet
from slipping while traveling over the sea
ice or frozen snow in spring. In some of
them the central groove is deepened to form
an oblong slot, i)iercing through, and on
others the points are formed in groups near
each end.
Figure 09 (3) represents a pair of ice creep-
ers from Cape Darby, consisting of small, fiat,
oblong ivory rods 3J inches in length, with
the upper surface slightly rounded and the
lower side having a deep, flat groove extend-
ing lengthwise along the middle, leaving
two high ridges that are crossed by deep
grooves, producing a row of pyramidal points
along each edge. The ends are provided
with two holes, in which are fastened the
rawhide cords by which the creepers are
attached to the sole of the boot.
A pair of ice creepers from St Lawrence island (figure G9, 5)
are in the form of flat, ivory bars, about 4 iliches long and an
inch wide. Eight small holes are drilled into the lower sur- "'"'"^ '*''
face, in which are inserted small, round-pointed iron spikes; there are
216
THE ESKIMO AP.OUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANX. 18
two Loles tliroug'b each end for the cords by wliicli they are fastened
to tbe foot. Figure C9 (1 and la) ?sliow the upper and lower surfiices
of a broader and heavier pair of ice creepers from the Diomede islands.
They are turned up at the ends to retain them in place on the foot, and
Lave four rows of pyramidal points along the lower surface.
Figure 09 (2 and 4), from St Michael and St Lawrence island, respec-
tively, represent ivory creepers with a low of pyramidal points along
each side. Through the middle, between the rows of points, is cut a
Fig. 69— Ico creepers (^).
long, rectangular slot, and in the ends of each are holes for the cords
by which they are fastened on.
Other creepers of similar style were obtained Irom Plover bay on
the Siberian shore.
BOATS
The Eskimo of the Alaskan coast, the islands of Bering strait, and
the coast of Siberia use large open boats, varying in length from fifteen
to forty feet, and made by covering a wooden framework with seal-
skin or wabushide. These are the umiaks so well known from their
use by Greenlanders. Among the people from the head of Norton
sound and northward to Point Barrow, these boats are known as
v'-nu'-iil: ; among the Unalit of the eastern shore of Norton sound and
southward they are called (tiV-i-jiik. .They vary in size according to
locality or to the purpose for which they are made, and their pattern
also varies slightly with the locality. Originally they were propelled
by paddles, alter which slender-blade oars were adopted in some locali-
ties, and these are still used.
Although oars are in common use, yet it is not rare to see umiaks
propelled wholly by paddles, as was done in ancient times. Paddles
NELSON] BOATS, OARS, AND SAILS 217
were seen in use at Cape Prince of Wales on Bering strait, and at
points northward and southwai'd from that locality.
The oars are held in place nsually by means of a rawhide lashing
made fast, on the inside of the boat, to the framework. The steering
is always done with a large, broad-blade paddle.
In ancient times sails sometimes were improvised by sewing together
grass mats and putting them up between two long sticks, which were
fastened to the framework of the umiak and stayed by means of cords
so as to extend upward and outward in V-shape form, one from each
side of the boat. Later, after the arrival of white men, a single iipright
mast with stays and with blocks made from bone or ivory, were adopted
in imitation of the rigging used on the ships of the strangers.
Sails were next made from the skins of reindeer or other animals,
sewed to a proper size and shaije and fastened to a yard, which was
raised or lowered by tackle made of walrus-hide cord passed through
an ivory or bone block or through a hole in the upper end of the mast.
Some sails are still made of old deerskins or light sealskins sewed
together, but many are seen of light canvas or drilling obtained from
vessels or through fnr traders.
The framework of these boats is formed of neatly- shaped pieces cut
from driftwood and lashed together with rawhide cords, which are
passed through holes drilled in the wood, as shown in the model, from
St Michael, illustrated in plate lxxvii, .'58. The covering is of heavy
sealskin or walrus-hide, tanned to remove the hair, sewed into proper
shape, and drawn over the framework. In the edges many little slits
are cut, through which is passed the cord which lashes it to the frame-
work on the inside under the rail. After it is in place the lashings are
drawn tightly and permitted to dry; as it contracts the cover becomes
as tight as a drumhead, alter which several coats of seal oil are
applied to tlie outside and allowed to become thoroughly dry, when
the cover becomes impervious to water for a week or ten days, at the
expiration of which time it becomes water-soaked and it is then neces-
sary to haul ui> the boat on the shore and, after allowing it to dr^', to
give it another coating of oil, otherwise the skins would rot. Travel-
ing is done by day, and at night the boats are hauled up on the beach
and turned bottom up or upon one edge, so that they may dry during
the night. When treated carefully in the manner described, the cover
of an umiak will last for several years.
In comparison with the Norton sound umiaks, I noticed that the
boats used by the people of Bering gtrait have somewhat less sheer to
the sides and are provided with flaps of sealskin about two feet wide,
which are attached along the rail and folded down inside the boat in
fair weather; in rough weather these flaps are raised and held in place
by stout sticks lashed to the framework around the sides and their
ends thrust into a series of holes or slots along the upper edge of the
flap. In addition to these, the people of Bering strait carry sealskin
21 S * THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.axn. 18
floiits, which are inflated and lashed under the rail on the outside, to
jirevent the boat from swamping.
Sometimes umiaks are driven out to sea by storms and their occu-
pants are unable to regain the shore, when the dashing spray and the
■waves soak the cover and the rawhide lashings of the frame until they
relax and the boat collapses, drowning all on board.
From Kotzebue sound northward the umiaks are very similar to
those of Norton sound, but are slightly narrower. At the former place,
during the summer of 1881, I saw a number of umiaks, each of which
had a figure of a man painted roughly in black close to tlie bow.
The umiaks of the Yukon and adjacent country, and thence southwai d,
are commonly ornamented, on the middle of each side, with the fig-
ure of a mythic, alligator like animal called 2>'il-r((i'-yiU,-; the head, with
open mouth and projecting tongue, is close to the bow, while the tail
reaches the stern (figure l.jf!).
The umiaks seen among the Eskimo south of East cape, Siberia, at
Mechigme bay, St Lawrence island, and Plover bay, were all very much
narrower than those of Norton sound, and with very little sheer to
their sides; some of tliem seemed to have almost perpendicular sides.
All of the umiaks used in the hitter region are provided with a set of
sealskin floats to fasten along the outside below the rail in rough
weather, which render the boats very buoyant, and but little water can
be shipped eveu in very stormy weather. With their boats fitted in
this manner with inflated floats, these people sail fearlessly along their
stormy coasts and cross back and forth between the mainland and St
Lawrence island.
The oars used in the umiaks of the American mainland are kept in
position by means of rawhide stays, which are attached firmly to a
notch in the part of the oar which rests on the rail: the stays extend
fore-and-aft a short distance and are fastened to the side pieces on the
inside below the rail. The steering is performed with a broad-blade pad-
dh\ On St Lawrence isl.ind oarlocks have been copied from those seen
on whaling vessels. An example of these (figure 34, plate lxxviii),
made of oak, is provided witli a pin to tit in a hole in the rail of the
boat, and its upper portion is pierced to receive the oar.
Figure 19, plate lxxviii, represents an ivory block, from Sledge
island, used for the rigging of an umiak. Another form of these blocks,
from the same place, is shown in figure 20 of the same jilate. A hand-
somely made little block from Cape Nome (figure 21, plate lxxviii), has
the head of a seal carved in relief on the lower side.
A smaller boat or canoe, called kai'alc, is also used along the Ameri-
can coast and the adjacent islands; but I have never seen one among
the people of the Siberian coast nor among the St Lawrence islanders.
It is decked over, except a hole amidships, where the navigator sits.
They vary somewhat in size and shape in different localities, but the
general plan of construction is the same.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGV
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXVIII
MODEL OF UMIAK FRAME AND APPURTENANCES OF UMIAK AND KAIAK RIGGING iTHREE-SIXTEENTHS^
KELSON] KAIAKS 2 1 D
The frame consists of small strips of wood running- lengthwise and
broujilit together at tlie bow and stern; tliey are connected by curved
ribs, placed at short intervals and fastened by rawhide cords; the bow
has a stem piece of wood, roughlj- triangular in form; another piece at
the stern is flattened, but varies in form ac<'ording to the style of the
kaiak in which it is jilaeed. The rail is formed of a strong piece of wood,
into whicli the upper ends of the ribs are mortised, holding the rail in
place and forming a support for the deck of the boat, in the middle of
which is a circular opening, forming the manhole, surrounded by a
wooden hoop, which is fastened to two i^ieces extending to the bow and
stern, and resting on the cross-pieces which support the deck. On each
side of the manhole is a short stanchion mortised into the rail and the
lower side of the rim of the manhole. The entire surface is covered
with sealskins, tanned with the hair taken off, and sewed together
with sinew cord. The seams are oiled or coated with reindeer tallow,
and the entire surface of the boat is thoroughly covered with oil, wiiich
is permitted to dry before the boat is i)laced in the water.
In front of the manhole the deck is crossed from side to side by two
stout rawhide cords, three or four feet apart, and one or two similar
cords are placed at the back of the manhole; slipped on these cords at
the rail, on each side, are spur-like jjieces of deerhorn, ivory, or bone,
which project upward and form a rest on which may be placed the
paddle or the hunting spears.
Commencing with the kaiaks in use at Nunivak island, the following
descriptions show the different forms used successively along the coast
nearly to Point Barrow:
Figure 2, plate Lxxix, illustrates a kaiak from \Nunivak island, 15
feet 1 inch long, 14 inches deep, with I'O inches beam. Another kaiak,
from the same island (figure 1, plate lxxix), is 15 feet 1 inch long, l-t
inches deep, and has 20 inches beam. These kaiaks are heavily made,
the framework being strong and stoutly built, in order to withstand the
stormy seas which they have to encounter about this island. A similar
form is in use on the coast of the adjacent mainland.
The manhole is placed a trifle back from the center; the rim is lashed
to the rail by rawhide cords; the cross-pieces which support the deck
are upcurved toward the middle, forming a ridge, on the top of which
is lashed a stout stick extending each way from the manhole to the bow
and to the stern, where it projects as a short, handle-like, quadrate spur ;
below this the stern slopes downward, with a slight slant toward the
front. The wooden parts on top of the bow are cut out, forming a
large, round opening just above the rail, around which the skin cover-
ing is cut away. On some of the kaiaks this opening is made to repre-
sent the eye of some mythological animal, the mouth of which is painted
in black on the outside of the covering. In front of the stern are two
loops of cord, which are attached to the central ridge, and hang on each
side, so that the shafts of the spears, which lie on the ivory rests, may
be thrust into them and tlieir points placed under the crosscord to
2"20 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
hold them firmly in i>lace. The cross section of these kaiaks is slightly
rounded along the keel, with a stronger broken curve along each side
to the rail.
Figure 3, plate Lxxix, shows a kaiak from St Michael. It is 16
feet 8J inches long and 12 inches deep, with 27J inches beam.
The kaiaks of iSTorton sound are made lighter and narrower than
those from j^univak island. They are essentially the same in the plan
of framework except that the projecting stern extends out even with
the spur-like point of the top-piece, which reaches back from the man-
hole. In the bow this top-piece extends forward to the upturned point
of the stem, leaving a broad, slot like interspace. When these kaiaks
are covered, the covering follows the point of the stem and of this cen-
tral piece so as to leave an open space. The same is done at the stern,
so that there is a slot-like opening there. This projecting point at the
stern serves as a handle for lifting the kaiak, as does the projecting
point of the centerpiece at the bow. The central ridge, produced by
the stick fastened along the top of the uiiturned crosspieces of tlie
deck, is similar to that in the kaiaks from Nuuivak island.
Figure 4, plate lxxix, re^jresents a kaiak from King island. It is 15
feet 3 inches long, 13i inches deep, and has 2Si inches beam. These
kaiaks are comparatively short and broad, with an upcurved bow very
similar in form to that of the Nunivak island type, and with the same
kind of circular opening through the bow piece. The stern is quite
different, however, as it extends back from the manhole nearly straight
for a short distance and then curves regularly down to the level of the
keel point. These kaiaks are strong!}' made; they are used in the
stormy waters of the strait, and sometimes are taken even to the Sibe-
rian coast of the strait and to St Lawrence island.
The kaiaks of jSTuuivak island and of Bering strait are curiously alike
in general form, corresponding in a broad bottom and in the strength of
their framework. The Xunivak island kaiaks, however, are sometimes
twice the size of those used in Bering strait, and at times the bow is
very strongly upcurved and the projecting end piece on the top of the
stern extends out, or out and down, so that the point reaches halfway
to the level of the keel.
At Kushunuk and Askiuuk, as well as along the southern border of
the Yukon mouth, the Nunivak island style of kaiak is in use, but to
the northward it gives way to the type used in Norton sound. South-
ward from Nunivak island there is a decrease in the size and height
until they reach their minimum in the Aleutian islands.
The kaiaks in use on the shores of Kotzebue sound are much smaller
and slenderer than those found elsewhere along the Alaskan main-
land, and are built on a somewhat diff'eient model. This style of kaiak
is found from Kotzebue sound northward to Point Barrow, but at the
latter place they are made about one-fourth longi-r than in Kotzebue
sound, and as their width is but little greater, they are proportion-
ately slenderer.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXIX
KAIAKS I ABOUT ONE-FORTIETH)
NELSON] KAIAKS 221
A kaiak from Cape Krusenstern (ttgure G, plate lxxix) is 17 feet
3 inches iu leugtli, s inches in depth back of the manhole, and has 18
inches beam. Another, from Uape Espenberg- (figure .">, plate lxxix),
is 14 feet 4 inches long, 13 inches deep, and has 2i inches beam. These
are examples of the Kotzebue sound kaiaks. They are long, slender,
and sharp-pointed at both ends; the manhole is placed somewhat back-
ward of the center, and the deck is flat from the rear of the manhole to
the stern. Just in front of the mauhole the deck is sprung upward by
means of the upcurved cross pieces so as to form a rising slope, which
extends back to the rim of the manhole.
This curving surface is brought to a central ridge by means of a strip
of wood bound along the tops of the upcurviug cross-pieces. The
manhole is iitted into position along the rear of this raised i)ortion,
with its borders sloping down and backward to the lower flat deck
behind. These kaiaks lie very low in the water, and the npsijrung
curve of the deck just in front of the manhole serves to throw off the
water and prevent the full force of the waves from striking against the
occupant.
Kaiaks with two or three manholes are now used to a limited extent
along the Alaskan coast. These have been introduced by the llussiau
traders from the Aleutian islands, but they are rarely used by the
natives. They are ordinarily made for the convenience of white men.
who can thus utilize native labor to propel them.
In Journeying on rivers or along the coast, the Eskimo fieqnently
fasten two kaiaks side by side by lashing cross-sticks against the front
and rear of the manholes with rawhide cord. A kind of ijlatform of
sticks is also made across the deck, on which small loads of goods are
placed. These are tixed usually behind the manhole, although at
times a load is carried both before and behind the occupant.
On one occasion, near St Michael, I saw two kaiaks lashed together
iu this way, with a man in each, and just behind them was i)laced a
small pile of household goods, consisting mainly of bedding, upon which
sat a woman. In front a small mast, held in position by guys, had been
raised on a crosspiece lashed on the decks near the front crosscords,
and a small sail, made from parchment-like gut skin, was raised. This
odd-looking vessel was making very good time on a small stream before
the wind. In rough weather at sea hunters frequently lash their kaiaks
together in pairs iu order to rest or to prevent accident.
When the Conriii reached King island, in Bering strait, one stormy
day in the summer of 1881, the islanders lashed their kaiaks in pairs,
and came off with piles of furs and other articles of trade heai)ed up
on the decks behind the manholes.
The rim of the manhole is made slightly flaring or with the cover
constricted just beneath it next to the deck. Around this constriction
a cord is passed, which fastens down the borders of the waterproof
frock worn by the occui)ant in rough or wet weather. With this gar-
ment lashed down it is impossible for any water to reach the interior.
222 I'HE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT (eih.ann. 18
When occupied by skillul pacMIeineii these boats are very diCticult to
upset and will ride through extremely rough weather in safety. 1 was
told that some ot the most skilful among the coast people could upset
their kaiaks and right tliem again by the use of the paddle, but the
old men said this feat was now becoming rare as the 3'oung hunters
were degenerating and were not as good kaiak meu as formerly,
BOAT HOOKS
Boat hooks are used by the men on umiaks and kaiaks all along the
coast and ou the islands, the principal difference in them being in the
larger size of those used ou the umiaks. These boat hooks are of great
service, particularly to men on kaiaks when landing ou rocky shores or
upon the ice, and those having pointed spurs at the butt are used for
feuding ott' ice when paddling about at sea during spring and autumn.
Figure 1, plate lxxx, illustrates a stout boat hook, G feet in length,
for use in a umiak, which was obtained on Norton souud. The end
of the shaft has a strong bone point lashed against a shoulder with
rawhide cords; a foot inward from the lower end a strong spur of
deerhoru is lashed against the side, from which it projects at a right
angle. This is the style of boat hook commonly used on umiaks, the
shafts varying from 0 to S feet in length.
A boat book intended for use on a kaiak, obtained at Golofnin bay,
is shown in figure 3, plate lxxx. It is 4 feet 9 inches in length; the
shaft is rounded and tapering, with a long, spur-like hook of walrus
ivory set in a notch near its end and held in jilace by lashing with
strips of whalebone passed through holes in the spur and shaft. This
hook is ilatteued triangular in cross section; the inner edge is thin,
but it broadens toward the back; it projects backward toward the end
of the shaft and ends in a tapering point.
Boat hooks of this kind are common I'rom the mouth of the Kusko-
kwim to Kotzebue sound, and vary but little in shape and in the form of
the s|)ur or hook. The backs of these ivory hooks are covered with
conventional patterns of diagonally etched lines, crossed by long, hori-
zontal grooves. This pattern is common on these implements over a
wide extent of territory. A specimen in the National Museum (num-
bered 73797) was brought from Taku harbor, in southeastern Alaska.
It is made of walrus ivory and is marked with the pattern described.
Figure 15, plate Lxxviil, shows an ivory hook from Sledge island,
which has two points at one end and the other fashioned into the form
of a seal-head. Another small ivory hook of this kind (figure !.'<!, i)late
Lxxviii) has three walrus-heads along the bai-k. A long ivory hook
from Unalaklit (figure 23, jjlate lxxviii) has etched upon it a conven-
tional pattern of straight lines and the raven totem sign.
A deerhoru hook from Askinuk (figure 2.J. plate lxxviii) lias the back
carved to represent the head of a walrus, the outlines of the flippers
NELSON]
BOAT HOOKS AND PADDLES 223
being etcbed ou the sides of the hook. A hook from Big hike (figure
22, plate lxxviii) has two raised heads exteudiiig aloug each side uear
the middle. Another, from the same place (tigure 24, plate Lxxviii), has
the back carved into the form of the head and body of a wolf, with
etched lines below on the sides to represent the legs. A boat hook
from Sledge island (figure 5, plate lxxx) has a strong wooden shaft, 3
feet 9 inches long, grooved along both sides. It has a double point
hook of deerhorn bound to one side by a rawhide lashing, which passes
through two holes in the shaft and through corresponding holes in
the hook. The other end of the shaft is heavily grooved crosswise
to afford a firmer grasp.
These double-point hooks are frequently notched at the ends, so
that the points become double, as shown in the specimen from St
Michael, illustrated in tigure 18, plate lxxviii. Boat hooks of this
style are commonly used for drawing out articles from the interior of
kaiaks which cau not be reached witli the hand.
An ivory hook (figure 17, plate Lxxviii) obtained on Xorton sound .
by Mr L. M. Turner, has a forked point at one end and the head of a
seal carved on the other.
A boat hook from the lower Yukon (figure 2, plate lxxx) has a round
handle, three feet in length, with a deerhorn hook lashed with spruce
roots to one side of the end; the lashing passes tlirough two holes
in the handle, then through a corresponding hole uear the outer end of
the hook, and around a notch at the base. Tiie holes in the handle,
through which the loops pass, are plugged with wooden pins to bind
the lashings. A detached hook for a similar implement from the lower
Yukon, shown in figure IG, plate Lxxviii, has its surface covered with
a heavily etched pattern.
A short boat hook from the lower Kuskokwim (figure 4, plate lxxx)
has a backward-pointed spur of deerhorn near one end, which is held
in place by rawhide lashings through holes in the hook and in the shaft.
A pointed spur of deerhorn at the butt is set in a groove in the same
side as the hook at the other end, and is fastened by strong rawhide
cords passed through holes in the spur and thence around the notched
shaft. The ends of the lashings at each end of the hook are inserted in
slits made iu the shaft with a fiat point chisel of bone or ivory.
PADDLES
In Kotzebue sound the blades of the paddles used on umiaks are
made rounded and very short. North of this district, at Point Hope,
the paddle blades are lanceolate in shape, broadest near the handle,
and taper downward to a long, sharp point.
The paddles used ou kaiaks are made in two forms, one having a
blade at each end and the other being provided with a single blade.
The forms of the blades vary according to locality. The single-blade
paddles have the handles terminating in a crossbar, which is sometimes
224 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
cut from the same piece of wood, and at other times is formed from a
separate i)iece pierced with a hole, by which it is fitted on the end of
the handle.
Figure 29, plate lxxviii, shows one of these crosspieces for a paddle
handle from the lower Yukon. It is made of boue, is oval in outline,
and is provided with a projecting' lip on the lower side, through which
is a round hole for putting on the end of the handle.
Figure 70 « represents an umiak paddle used in Kotzebue sound, and
figure lOh shows a form of umiak paddle seen at I'oint Hope.
The kaiak paddles used by the people of Nunivak island and the
adjacent mainland are neatly made and frequently ornamented, iu red
and black paint, with figures forming the private marks or totem
signs of the owner.
The Bering strait islanders decorate their kaiak paddles in patterns
of red and black, which probably form totem and ownership marks.
Figure 71 b represents a double-blade iiaddle from King island. It
is about 8 feet long and the handle is suboval in cross section. The
blades are long, narrow, and fiat on the surface which is to be used
b
Fig. 70— "Forms of umiak jiaddles.
against the water, and are strengthened along the backs by a ridge
down the middle. One of the blades is painted black and the other
red, and the handle is surrounded by red anil black bands. Another
double-blade paddle, obtained at Point Barrow by Lieutenant Kay
(figure 71 ((), is 7 feet in length, with the blades nearly flat on both sides
and much broader and more rounded than those of the preceding speci-
men. The backs of the blades have a very slight ridge running down
the center. A single-blade paddle from King island (figure 9, plate
Lxxx) has a large, broad blade, with a central ridge on the outside.
The lower two-thirds of the blade is painted black, and a triangular
spot of black is marked on each side; the edge of the blade, where it
joins the handle at the upper end, is also black, with a ring extending
around the handle. All of these black markings are bordered by a
narrow line of red and constitute the private marks of the owner.
Another single-blade kaiak paddle, from Kushunuk (figure 7, plate
LXXX), has a crosspiece fitted on the top of the handle by means of a
square hole. The blade is long and slender and is tipped with black for
a short distance; this is succeeded by several bands, varying in width,
alternately of red, black, and uncolored wood. The handle near the
KAIAK AND UMIAK PADDLES
225
blade is surrounded by a broad, black band, with a red baud above and
another below it.
rijiure S, plate Lxxx, represents one of a pair of single-blade kaiak
jiaddlcs from Kushunuk. It has a long, narrow
blade, and the crossbar at the end of the handle
is cut from the same piece. The paddle is marked
with black lines and bars representing a female
])hallic emblem, one-half of the figure being on
each of the two paddles forming the set. On
each side of the crossbar are incised lines repre-
senting the mouth, nostrils, and eyes of a semi-
human face. On one side the mouth is curved
downward, and on the other it is upcurved. The
two paddles are exact duplicates as to their
markings,
A single-blade paddle from Big lake (figure (!,
plate LXXX) is somewhat similar in form to the
pieceding. On the middle of the blade on each
side is painted a red disk, surrounded by a black
circle, from which a black band extends up the
median ridge of the blade to its upper edge,
where a black ring surrounds the handle; from
this point to the tip the edge of the blade is
painted black.
In the vicinity of the lower Kuskokwim the
paddle blades are somewhat similar iu shape,
but vary in the character of the figures painted
on them, which indicate the totems or the owner-
ship marks of their makers.
Figure 10, x^late lxxx, illustrates a thin, sword-
shape implement of wood, which was obtained at
Cape Deiibeigh, It is fiat on one surface, down
the middle of which extends a small groove, while
the other surface is so ridged that the cross
section forms a flattened triangle. It is employed
by seal and walrus hunters for a double pur-
pose— as a paddle for propelling the kaiak
slowly and cautiously toward sleeping seals, and
for striking the water with the flat side to
frighten a wounded animal and cause it to dive
again before it can take breath, and thus become
exliausted more quickly. From the Chukchi of
the Asiatic coast, northwest of Bering strait, I ob-
tained a similar implement made from a long. Hat
piece of whalebone litted to a wooilen handle.
Strips of bone cut from the jaw or rib of a whale are sometimes
18 ETH 15
Fig. 71— Eaiak patUUes from
Puiut Barrow and King
ishiiid dy.
226 THE E(?KIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
laslied to the rails of umiaks at the point where the oars pass over tlieiu
to preserve the cover from wear by friction.
One of tliese stri])s, obtained at Port Clarence by ])r Dall, is shown
in ligure 35, plate lxxviii. It is flattened below, with one edge turned
down, forming a slight lip; the upper portion is rounded, and has a
projecting shoulder to retain the lashing which binds it to the rail of
the boat.
SPEAU AND PADDLE GUARDS
In Bering strait, whei'e considerable whale fishing is done, small
ivory or bone forks are lashed to the bows of umiaks, just inside and
between the front CTids of the rails; in these the ends of the lances and
spears rest, and through them the lines run out. The projecting sides
of these forks are usually carved in the form of the heads and shoulders
of white bears. They are made in two jiieces and are united in the
middle by an ivory or bone block mortised in and fastened by wooden
or ivory pegs. In some instances the two halves are lashed together
by rawhide cords passed through holes; on the outer edges are holes
through which pass the lashings which attach them to the bow.
Figure 33, plate lxxviii, shows au exami)le of these lance guards
from the Diomede islands; another (figure 37, plate lxxviii) from Cai)e
Prince of Wales, has been illustrated among the mythological figures
to show the " thunderbird " which is etched on its surface (see plate
cviia).
To prevent the spears and paddles from falling off the sloping deck
of the kaiak, when not in use, there are used guards consisting of
upstanding, spur-like pieces of bone, ivory, or deerhorn, which rest on
the gunwale on each side, and are fastened to the crossline of the kaiak,
which passes through a hole in the base. This base of the guard is
flattened and sometimes heavily scored with grooves to give it a firmer
hold against the surface of the skin covering. The guards are made
in a variety of forms, the siinjilest of which is a subtriangular piece
with the broad base downward.
Figure 4, plate lxxviii, represents one of these guards, which was
obtained at KoFiigunugumut; it is rounded in outline and narrow
above, where it ends in the form of a tail of a white whale. Another,
from Chalitniut (figiire 3, plate lxxviii), is curved over at the end and
pierced with a narrow, pear-shape hole through the tip.
Another simple form is a flattened, shell-like piece of ivory, having
the bottom curved or flat for resting on the surface of the cover, with a
thin, flattened or oval upturned iioint, the outer side of which is gen-
erally covered with etched patterns. Sometimes the inner surface is
also ornamented in the same manner. Figure 8, plate lxxviii, from
Anogognint; figure 10, i)Iate lxxviii, from Knshunuk, and figures 7
and "J, i)latc lxxviii, from Sfuguuugumut, rejiresent examples of this
kind of guard.
SPKAR AND PADDLE GUARDS
227
72 — Ivory spear guard for kaiak (5).
Ill many cases these spear guards are made in the form of various
animal figures.
Figures 72 and 7.'? represent a pair of beautifully made ivory guards
from Kaialiganiut. One of theui (figure 72) has the broad outer sur-
face carved to represent grotesque semihuman features, and the upper
end represents the face of a seal, while on the two sides are the figures
of white whales. On the other (figure 73), on both sides, are carved
semihuman faces, and on each side is the figure of a seal in relief, and
terminating in the head of a seal.
These are all beautifully executed
carvings.
A guard from Cape Vancouver
(figure 12, plate lxxviii) is in the
form of a hand, with the palm
pierced and a tuft of seal hair set
in the back and held in place by a
wooden plug. Another, from Cape
Nome (figure 5, plate lxxviii), is
carved in the shape of the head of a white bear. A rounded guard with
truncated end (figure 13, plate lxxviii) is from Sfugunugunmt. A
specimen from Agiukchugumut (figure 11, plate lxxviii) is in the form
of the head and shoulders of a human being, with the hands repre-
sented by a fiipper etched on each shoulder. Another example from
Cape Nome (figure 0, plate lxxviii) is in the shape of the head of a
white bear, with fragments of blue beads representing the eyes and
another bead inlaid on the top of the head.
On Nuuivak island a somewhat different form of guard is made. It
is carved m the shape of a seal or other animal, with the body some six
or seven inches in length, and has
a hole passing diagonally through
the side, through which are passed
the cross-cords. These figures
then lie diagonally along the cover
near the rail with the heads point-
ing upward.
Figure 14, plate lxxviii, repre-
sents one of these guards, which
is in the form of a land otter.
Figure 2, plate lxxviii, shows an ivory guard, obtained at Kotzebue
sound, of a pattern different from those generally used. The portion
which rests on the cover of the kaiak is rounded above and tapers
downward to a wedge-shape point; the upright part forms an obtuse
point, which curves forward from the base. A similar guard, made
from deerliorn, was obtained on Sledge island.
For repairing broken ribs or for strengthening weak places in the
frames of umiaks and kaiaks, strips of ivory or deerhoru are used as
Fig. 73— Ivory spear giianl lor kaiak (3).
228 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
splices; holes are pierced tlironjili the ends, or a shoukler is left across
the upper side to retain the lashings by which they are fastened. Fig-
ures 32 and 36, plate Lxxvm, show examples of splices for use on
umiaks, collected on Sledge island.
A small dearborn splice, from St Michael, Intended for use on a kaiak,
is shown in figure 31, i)late Lxxviii. It is pointed oval in outline, and
has holes along the middle to receive the lashing.
A longer splice, from (Jhalitmut (figure 30, plate lxxviii), is slightly
hollowed below and convex on the outer side; it has two holes along
the central line, which is grooved on the convex surface; the latter is
crossed by numerous incised lines to prevent the lashings from slipping.
When paddling about among the broken ice in spring and autumn
there is danger of the skin covering of the kaiak being cut at the bow
by Heating pieces of ice; to lessen this risk protectors are made from
deerhorn and bound on the bow at the water line.
Figure 27, plate lxxviii, rejjresents one of these protectors from
rikniiktalik; it is 7.^ inches long, and is excavated within so as to form
a hollow shoulder. One end terminates in a hollow, spoon-shape
point, which rests against the bow above the water line. The lower
end has a bar of the material left across it, which rests against the
bow below the water line, thus permitting the curve to enter the hollow
but not to rest against the interior of the protector. Holes along the
sides and three notches across the outer surface serve for the lashing
by which it is attached to the bow of the boat. The sides are orna-
mented with a conventional pattern of etched lines.
A similar bow protector from Cape Nome (figure 28, plate lxxviii)
is made of deerhorn; it has boles along the sides for attaching it to the
boat. This protector is not ornamented.
The cross-cords for kaiaks are generally plain rawhide lines, but
sometimes they are ornamented with beads carved from walrus ivory
and strung on them. The commonest form of these represents an
inflated sealskin float, generally alternated with round or elongated
beads of ivory, and ornamented with etched patterns or having the
surfaces of the beads pierced with round holes, in which are inserted
small, black wooden pegs.
Figure 1, plate lxxviii, represents one of these cords from King
island. The ornaments strung along it are held in place by wooden
wedges, inserted in the holes through which the cord passes. Examples
of similar cords were collected at points from Bristol bay to beyond
Kotzfcbue sound.
TRADK AND TRADING VOYAGES
According to traditions of the Unalit, the people on the coast of
Bering strait, in aucient times, made regular summer trading voyages
back and forth across the strait. Old men told me of having seen small
pieces of cloth which hail been brought by the people of East (tape,
NELSON] TRADING VOYAGES 229
Siberia, aod sold as curiosities to the American Eskimo, before the Kus-
siaus tooli possessiou of the country. They also informed me that the
use of tobacco was introduced among tliem, before they were brought
into direct contact with white men, by means of trade with their
Asiatic neighbors, who brought across Bering strait small bundles,
called "hands,'' of Circassian leaf tobacco.
In ancient times intertribal communication along the coast was irreg-
ular and uncertain, owing to the hostile attitude of the people toward
one another. For this reason trading was then contined to those villages
which happened to be on friendly terms. Now the old barriers have
been broken down, and active barter between the different communities
has become a marked feature of their life. This is particularly the case
among the people living between the Kuskokwim and Kotzebue sound.
The numerous fur-trading stations which have been established among
them, and the visits of trading vessels and whaling ships to the coast
of Bering strait, have served to quicken and encourage among them
the spirit of trade. In summer the people of Bering strait make visits
to the head of Kotzebue sound and to the mouth of the Yukon, carry-
ing the skins of tame reindeer purchased from the people of the Asiatic
coast, for which they receive in barter skins of various fur-bearing
animals that are used in turn for trading with vessels in Bering strait
or with their Asiatic neighbors. For the latter purpose beaver and
land-otter skins are the most highly prized, as the Chukchi of kSiberia
will always offer two full-size deerskins for one of either of the skins
named. They cut them into strips for trimming the collars of their
deerskin coats, and use them also for trading with the Russians.
Parties of traders from East cape, Siberia, and the Uiomede islands
also make yearly voyages to Kotzebue sound, where the Eskimo of
Kowak and Xoatak rivers hold a sort of summer fair. After the sea
freezes in winter, the Eskimo, who have thus obtained a stock of rein-
deer skins, start out with dogs and sledges to travel along the coast
and barter for furs. In the winter of 1880 I met, on Norton sound, a
sledge party of Eskimo, who were making a trading trip from Sledge
island to Kotzebue sound.
The Malemut along Kotzebue S(nind make trading trips southward
to the Yukon, and even to their enemies, the Tinn<'', of Koyuknk river.
The Malemut are the most energetic and enterprising of all the people
of this region. They are great traders, and are more courageous and
domineering than most of the natives with whom they deal, and are
m conse(iuence much disliked by the people with whom they come in
contact.
When, in 1873-'74, the reindeer suddenly left the shores of Norton
sound, these people pushed on in family parties from point to point
until, in 1877-78, they had reached Kuskokwim river, Nunivak island,
and Bristol bay.
During trading voyages there are carried from one part of the couu-
230 THE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
try to aiiotbei' beads aud other articles of use or ornament, as well as
pieces of jadeite, whicli material, according to some of tbe Eskimo, is
found in tbe mountains inland from Kotzebue sound and also on Kaviak
peninsula. Small articles, sucli as green and red paint aud wooden
dishes, were sent out from the lower Yukon; and the people of other
localities who have a surplus of seal oil, dried fish, and skins of various
animals, take them to points where they can be exchanged for other
desirable commodities.
During one winter at St Michael the skin of a Siberian squirrel was
brought to me by an Eskimo living on Norton sound, he having
obtained it on Bering strait. The skin must have come from the inte-
rior of Siberia.
In the month of August, 1870, we were visited at St Michael by an
umiak from Cape Prince of Wales, and another from King island. In
July, 1881, a number of umiaks arrived from the former place. These
all brought deerskins and tanned hides of seal and walrus for trade.
Tlie umiaks in full sail, crowded with fur-clad people, dogs, and their
various possessions, made a very picturescjue sight. Among the men
were some Chukchi from the northern coast of Siberia. These were
recognized by our officers, who had spent a couple of weeks with them
earlier in the season. The Chukchi generally start out on their trad-
ing voyages in May, traveling along the shore with dog sleds, hauling
on them their nmiaks, which are folded, until they reach open water,
when the sleds are left at some point and the umiaks set up; then, tak-
ing the dogs and goods on board, they coast along the shore of Bering
sound and over to the American side. Some of them even visit the
Bnssian fair at Ghigiga, near Anadyr river, during the winter to dis-
pose of the furs they have gathered on their summer trading voyages.
During one season an umiak came to St Michael from King island,
but the people were poorly supplied with goods for trading, having
only dried salmon and seal oil. As usual, they were very difficult to
trade with on account of their slowness in closing a bargain. A man
would bring in a bunch of dried fish, throw it on the floor, and then
stand about as if he had no interest in anything going on, until asked
what he wished; when the regular price was ottered he would almost
invariably refuse, and then a long talk would ensue, which ended either
by his accepting what was ottered or by taking away the fish. This
slowness is common with these people.
I was at a trading station on the head of Norton bay one winter
when a Malemut chief wished to exchange some reindeer skins for
various articles. It was in the evening, and after prolonged haggling,
and changing one article for another, which lasted until 3 oclock next
morning, half a dozen skins were liually bought from him. We retired
aud were hardly in bed before the man came back to exchange for other
things some of the goods which he had taken. Finally the trader put
him ott' until next day, when he again occupied a couple of hours belbre
KELSON] TRADE AND TRADIXG VOYACiES 231
be was satisfied. This may be an extreme case, but it illustrates tlieir
general metliotls of trading.
In July, ISSl, we found at Hotham inlet a row of over 130 conical
lodges set up for over a mile along the beach, which were occupied
by JVIalemut from Selawik lake and natives from Kowak and Xoatak
rivers. In 1880 Captain Hooper found about twelve hundred of these
l)eople encamped at Cape Blossom, but in 1881 the main camp had
been located at Hotham inlet. When we arrived there we saw a small
trading schooner lying oft" the village, surrounded by umiaks three or
four deep and the deck crowded by a dense mass of the Eskimo.
Tobacco, drilling, knives, ammunition, and other small articles were
used to buy from them the skins of reindeer, wolves, black bear, arctic
liare, red, wliite, and cross foxes, etc. As we proceeded up the coast a
number of umiaks were seen on their way to the camp at Hotham in let, -
and at many ])oints we saw umiaks on trading trips up the coast, and
some of the people told us that they had bought rifles and cartridges
from the men of Cape Prince of Wales.
At many places from Point Hope to Point Barrow we were offered
whalebone, ivory, the skins of reindeer, mountain sheep. Parry's mar-
mot, whistlers, and many white and red fox skins. Whisky and car-
tridges seemed to be about the only articles desired by these people in
exchange. This was unfortunate, considering the fact that the object
of our visit to the coast was to prevent the sale of these very articles
to the natives.
Near Cape Lisburne we met nine umiaks containing about one
hundred people from Point Hope, who were on their way to the vicinity
of Point Barrow to trade. Their dogs were running along the shore,
keeping abreast of the boats but stopping occasionally to howl dolefully.
We obtained two photographs of their camp near our anchorage.
While we were anchored in Kotzebue sound in September, several
umiaks passed on their way back to Cape Prince of Wales from a
trading voyage up the coast. One came alongside the Coru-in that
had a huge sail made by sewing numberless pieces of deerskin into a
strange patchwork.
To show the difficulty attending the navigation of these frail boats in
Bering sti-ait I will state that, although we made six passages through
the strait during the summer of 1881, only once was it clear enough from
fog to permit the high land of both shores to be seen. Among the
islanders of Bering strait the main articles they had for barter were
coils of rawhide line, tanned sealskins, and handsomely made, water-
proof sealskin boots. At East cape and along the Siberian coast,
including St Lawrence island, the articles of trade among the Eskimo
were walrus ivory, whalebone, and the skins of white foxes and reiu-
deer. The St Lawrence islanders make frequent trading voyages to
the Siberian coast, where they obtain reindeer skins for clothing.
Formerly these people went along the American coast as far as Cape
232 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING 8TRAIT Ieth.asx. 18
ISTonie, but this has not occurred recently. On a clear day the head-
land on the Siberian shore is visible from St Lawrence island, some
40 or ."iO miles away.
During- the summer of 1879 the Tinui'> from Anvik, on the lower
Yukon, descended the river in several umiaks and visited St Michael
to exchange their wooden tubs and dishes for seal oil and other
products of the coast district.
UNITS OF VALITE AXD 3IEASUREMEXT— NUMERATION
UNITS OF VALUE
The skins of mammals, being the most valuable portable property
among the Alaskan Eskimo, give the most convenient standard of
value. In very early days, before the advent of the Russians about
the Yukon district, the skin of the full-grown land otter was consid-
ered the unit of value. Equaling it was the skin of the large hair seal.
Of late years the skin of the beaver has rei)laced the otter skin as
the unit of trade value. All other skins, furs, and articles of trade
generally are sold as "a skin"' and multiples or fractions of "a skin,"
as it is termed. In addition to this, certain small, untanned skins,
used for making fur coats or blouses, are tied in lots suflBcient to make
a coat, and are sold in this way. It requires four skins of reindeer
fawns, or forty skins of Parry's marmot or of the muskrat, for a coat,
and these sets are known by terms designating these bunches. Thus:
Four fawn skins = noi'ikli'kit.
Forty Parry's marmot skins = clii t/'ihli'-kiU.
Forty nmskrat skins = i-Uu'l-ict'ikh'-l-ut.
The pelt of a wolf or a wolverine is worth several "skins" in trade,
while a number of pelts of muskrats or I'arry's marmot are required
to make the value of "a skin."
The foregoing terms are of the Unalit, but similar ones are in use
among all the Eskimo of this i-egion.
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
AH units of linear measurement among Ihese people are based on
body measurements — mainly of the hand and the arm, which form the
readiest standards. Such units of measurement are used also by them
for gauging the size and length of all of their tools, implements, and,
in fact, of nearly everything made by them.
As the length of a man's hands and arnis are usually in proportion
to the length of his body, it is evident that bows, arrows, spears, boat
frames, etc, when made by him according to a fixed number of spans or
cubits, will be in direct proportion to himself, and thus es]iecially suit-
able to his use, whether he be large or small.
NELSON]
UNITS OF MEASUREMENT 233
The following- terms are from tbe [Tnalit, and cover tlie ur.its of
measurement commonly in use, although others probably exist:
Large, nh-to'-uk.
Small, mik' -'i-Uu' -n-uk.
Ki-fl'h>'' is the measureQieut of the length of the mesh in the largest seal nets
used for the large hair seal or mnk-}iik. It is found by measnrlng a line from the tip
of the extended thumb of the right hand across the jialni of the hand, the lingers
being closed.
Kii-ki-shiin' nt-g'hi' is the mesh of the small salmon {m'l-ka') net. This is the dis-
tance from the wrinkle or line dividing the iirst and second joints of the right fore-
finger to the line midway between the base of the thumb and the forefinger.
Tii-biikh-chun' 7>i-ifiit is the size of the mesh used for nets for tbe large sea whitetish
{iii-biik'). It is found by taking the width of the extended first three fingers on the
palmar surface at the first joint.
Tii<i-i-jiik'-w)iukli-chii»' iii-g'iii' is the size of the mesh for the large salmon (tiig-i-
shiik'-ivhiik), and is measured from the base of the extended thumb along the inner
surface of the hand to the tip of the extended first finger.
I-ka'-thlu-ukh'-p&kk-ehnn nt-g'iii is the mesh for the herring seine (herring=i-fco'-
Ihht-iikh'-puk). The width of the inner surface of the two estended first fingers at
the first joint.
Stokh-chuH' ni-g'in' is the mesh used in nets for the white whale (s'to'-iik). The tips
of the extended thumbs are placed together and the measurement taken <m the
palmar surface across both extended hiinds along the line of the thumbs.
Tiin-tii-shmi' ni-gliiik'. The length of the rawhide line used for a reiudeer snare is
obtained by passing the cord twice around tbe sole of tbe left foot and drawing the
double loop up to the groin while sitting on the fioor with feet extended.
Kai-okh'-hlikh-chtiii' ni-g'in' is the mesh used iu nets for the Arctic hare (kai-ukh -
hlik). It is determined by the width of the ]ialm at the base of the fiugers.
A-kuj'-u gikh-chun' ni-ghuk'. Tlie length of the cord used for snaring ]itarmigun
((i-kuj'-i-gik). The distance from the tip of the outstretched forefinger along the
palm and the inner side of the forearm to the point of the elbow.
Pii-lok' -tdkh-chun' ku'-bvi-shd, the mesh used in nets for beaver {pii-lok'-tuk). The
distance around the head on a line with the middle of the forehead.
C-nng' -u-mun is the distance from the tip of the extended left thumb, with fingers
closed, along the inside of the extended arm to tbe armpit.
K'okh-kog'-S-nuk, the distance measured from the end of the left thumb across the
palm of the closed hand, thence along the upper side of the outstretched arm and
across the chest to the inner end of the right collar bone.
Ttij'-i-mnii' , same as the last, but extended to the point of the right shoulder.
I-kii'-iiifi-i-niig'-ii-iiii'ik, same as the last, but extended to the point of tbe right
elbow, the right arm being extended and flexed at the elbow.
I-gu'-yi-giig'-i-)iiik. This is the measurement used for making the stem, or bow-
piece, of a kaiak. It is found by measuring from the tip of tbe extended forefinger,
through the palm of the hand and along the inner side of the arm, to the point of
the elbow, with tbe added width of the left forefinger, which is placed crosswise on
the angle of the elbow.
Ai-liiig'-u-uuk is a measurement used for making boot soles, the height of kaiak
frames, etc. It is a span, or the distance l)etweeu the outstretched tips of the
thumb and the second finger of the right hand.
Kiii-u' is the height of a man's knees from the ground; used in making dog-sleds.
Ya<i'-u-nuk. The distance from the tip of the extended left thumb, along tbe arm,
across the chest, and to the tip of the extended right thumb. This is the most com-
' Ni-g'in' is the name given to the gauge used in measuring meshes of nets of any kind.
234 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn 18
mon unit of measuro used anions these people. It is the regular measurement used
for all objects having considerable length, sucb as rawhide lines, nets, cloth, etc. It
is adopted by the fur traders, and is called a ' fathom.' By it cloth and other trading
goods of that character are sold, the end of the article to be measured being taken
in the left hand, with the extreme end opposite the tip of the left thumb, then the
edge of the cloth is .slid through the right hand and raised until it is drawn across
the chest, under the chin, by the outstretched right hand; then the left hand drops
its end and takes a new hold at the point of the right thumb, and so the operation
is repeated until the desired length is obtained.
CHRONOMETRY
The Eskimo divide their time by moons, each moon being designated
by the title of the most characteristic local pheuomeuou which accom-
pauies it. The following lists of months from various localities agree
in this. By the " moons'' all time is reckoned during the year, and dates
are set in adv.ince for certain festivals and rites. In addition to the
moons, the year is frequently divided into four seasons according to the
regular occupations that occur in each — but this is indefinite and irreg-
ular as compared with the other method.
In counting years they are referred to as winters — the winter being
the most impressive iiart of each year in this high latitude.
The following are Unalit terms:
A year, Utlil-han'-i.
A moon, i-glia'-Iiik,
Spring, u' -pi-nuhli' -kiik.
Summer, ki-iik'.
Autumn, uk-shu'-uk.
Winter, uk-shuk'.
Long ago, it-ka'.
Very long ago, u-ka-mi.
Thirteen moons are counted to a year, but I failed, unfortunately, to
obtain the complete series. In the following lists the moons are arranged
as they correspond with our mouths; as a matter of course, this corres-
pondence is not perfect, but is very close.
January, Wi'-wik. "To turn about,"' from an ancient game played with a top.
February, Nai-ikh'-cMk. Time first seals (nai'-yik') are born.
March, Ti-gh/'i-liikh'-chik. The time of creeping on game. From the custom of
hunting seals on the ice by stalking.
April, Kip-nukh'-chik. The time of cutting oflF. From the appearance of sharp
lines where the white of the ptarmigans' bodies is contrasted with the brown of the
new summer neck feathers which begin to appear at this time.
May, Kai'-Ukh-tii(j'-o-wik. Time for going in kaiaks. The ice opens at this time
so that the hunters go out to sea in kaiaks.
■June, Xo-dkli'-chut/'-u-wik. Time of fawn hunting.
.July, Eoii-iti'-nt-g'e'-nut in-ij'-u-vl-ut. The time of geese getting new wing feathers
(molting).
August, Kuj'-u-gut m-ij'-d-vi-ut. Time for brooding geese to molt.
September, Am-i-i/hai'-ghii-wik. The time for velvet shedding (from horns of rein-
deer).
October, Eti'-hvi-jukU-ptrg'-u-wik. Time for setting seal nets.
November, Ok'-whu-tiig'-u-wik. Time for bringing iii winter stores.
December, Chau' -i-ug' -ii-ivi k. Time of the drum — the month when the winter fes-
tivals begin.
NELSON] NAJIES OF MONTHS OR MOONS 235
Very often several different names may be used to designate the
same moon if it sliould chance to be at a season when different occu-
pations or notable occurrences in nature are observed, and I have used
the most common terms.
On the lower Yukon, near Mission, the following terms are.used for
the moons:
■Jannary, l'-i''U:uk. The season for toii-spiuuing aud I'lir running around the
kashini.
.January (last part, and first part of February), A-ki-Iuli' st-a'-flu-wlk. Time of
ofi'a\ eating (fvom (i-ki-lilkJislakh-tuk, " he boils offal"). This name conies from the
scarcity of food likely to occur at this time and the necessity that arises duringsuch
periods to eat scraps of every description. Another name used for this moon is
I-ija-hih -lukh, the cold moon.
February-March, Knp-nukh-chuk. The time of opening the upper passageways
into the houses. This term was said to come from the time long ago when they
claim it was much warmer than now and when the sun began to melt the snow a
month earlier than at present.
March-April, Tifi'-u-mi-iikh' Ihii-uff'-ii-iiik. Birds come.
April-M.ay, Tul'-u-mi-ag'-ii-wik. Geese come (tin- ii -mi- ilk, goose).
May-June, Miin-W an-ii'-tit. Time of eggs (muii' ik).
■lune-July, Xuk'-siig'-o-wik. Time of salmon (iiilk'-siik).
July-August, V-ko' -go-U-s6g' -ii-nnk. Time for red saXmon {u-kog' -o-Uk). Also, Tlii'-
u-mi-at' ifi-ii'-lil, Waterfowl molt.
August-Septembi-r, T'lrt'-ii-mi-iit Uri-ii'-i-i-nt. Time for young geese to fly.
Se]itember-October, Am-i-gai'-gii-n'ik. Tinu' for shedding velvet (d-mi'-rik) from
reindeer horns.
October-Xoveuiber, Chuji'-ivhtk. Mush ice forms.
November-December, Ka'-gi li'igh'-i'i-wik. Time of muskrats (ka-yi'-tak).
December-January, Cltai-iigli'-u-wik. Time of the feast (chai'iik).
Among the Eskimo just south of the Yukon delta the following
moons are recognized:
January, Wi'-wik. From the game with atop; also the time of a certain festival in
which the dancers wear straw fillets stuck full of feathers.
February, A-g/'ih-liikli'-hik. The time of much moon (long nights).
March, Cil-i'igli-o-wik. Time of taking hares in nets.
April, Kup-iiiikh'-clnik. Time of opening summer doors.
May. Tin-mi-ugh'-ii-icik. Arriv.al of geese.
June, Chi-si~igli'-ii-teik. Time of whitefish.
July, Tiig-i-ijiik'-piik ka-gu'-ii. The time of liraining salmon. (The fish are struck
on the head when lifted from the water.)
August, T'ul-n-mi-iit in-u'-ti. Geese molt.
September, Ku'-gl-tjui' in-u'-ti. Swans molt.
October, Tin-u'-til. The flying away (migration of birds).
November, Atn'-i-gha'-ghtin. Time of velvet shedding (from reindeer horns).
The name for December was not obtained.
NUMERATION
The following notes and numerals are from the Unalit Eskimo, but
are typical of the system in use among all the Eskimo with whom I
came in contact, except those of the Aleutian islands:
/Li(-s(c/ii', count.
Elt-HlcIii'-nuk, counting.
Kit'-stchi-ok, he counts.
236 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [btu.ann. 18
The hiteitribal comiiiunicatioii between the luainlaiid Alaslian Eskimo
and the coustaiit trade carried on anions' them have developed consider-
able quickness in the use of numbers up to two or three hundred; this
is quite general with both old and young. Going beyond the numbers
ordinarily used in trade, however, the most intelligent among them
become quickly confused.
In order for them to count correctly it is necessary to have the objects
lying before them, and these are placed in groups of twenties as they
are counted. If required to count abstractly they soon become con-
fused after reaching one or two score; in this, however, there is great
individual variation. About the Bering strait region most boys of 10
or 12 years of age count objects very readily up to one hundred and
over, and some men. can reach four hundred, but it is only among the
most intelligent natives of this section that four hundred can be
counted, and it is rare that attempt is made to exceed that number.
The Eskimo system of counting is based on a series of fives, rising
in this way to twenties. The Angers and toes furnish the counters for
conqmtiug numbers, as is explained below. Among the Unalit Eskimo,
as elsewhere among these peojile, there is great variability in indi-
vidual i)ower. The most intelligent men and boys can count very
readily ui) to two hundred or more, while others seem incapable of
counting to twenty without blundering and repeated mistakes, like a
stupid, slow-witted child. At every mistake made by such persons
they are compelled to return and commence at one again, being-
unable to hold the numbers clearly enough in mind to take them up at
intermediate points. Not even the most intelligent among them seem
capable of counting readily beyond the number of his fingers and toes
without the aid of objects directly before him. For this purpose I
usually i)rovided gun caps or matches, which served very conveniently
as markers.
In counting such small objects they commonly placed them in groups
of live, and as four of these were completed they were swejjt into a
single large group of twenty; in this way successive twenties were
conii)leted and kept separately.
VVlien making twenty the ])erson would sometimes count the fives,
commencing each time at one, but the most intelligent usually counted
on to twenty, using the numerals of the regular series as given in the
list. When an Eskimo was asked to count up to twenty without using
fingers or toes, his eyes would seek, involuntarily, for something with
which to tally, and even when asked to count five his eyes would turn
at once to one of his hands, though he might make no visible use of his
fingers.
In using the fingers and toes for counting, the closed hands are held m
front of the waist, palms down, and thumbs near together. Commenc
ing with the little finger of the right hand, as one. they pass to the left,
oijening or extending each finger in succession as its number is called
NELSON] _ SVSTEM OF NUMEKATION 237
uutil the rijiht tliuiub, or Dumber five, is reached. Passiug thence to
the little fiuger of the left hand for six, the fingers of this hand are
opened successively until the left thumb and ten are reached. As ten is
said the two hands, thumbs near together and fingers all outstretched,
palms dowu, are extended a little from the body. Then the right foot is
advanced a little and the right forefinger points at the little toe of that
foot as the counter says (it-lhalh'-tdk. This word ordinarily means "it
goes down,'" and is used here both to indicate the descent ii; counting
from hands to feet as well as having, at times, au ac(iuired meaning in
this connection of eleven. The toes are counted from right to left until
the right great toe is reached, when both hands with open fingers,
jialms down, are extended toward the right foot, which is advanced a
little more as the counter announces fifteen. The counter then lets the
lelt hand fall by the side and points at the left great toe, saying, {/I'lkh'-tdk,
meaning "it goes over,'' and sometimes conveying in this connection
the acquired meaning of sixteen, as well as the going "over" of the
count from one side of the body to the other. The other toes of the left
foot are then enumerated from right to left, and as the small toe is
reached, if the person be sitting, he extends both feet in front of him,
doing the same with his hands, palms dowu, and says twenty; if he be
standing, then the open hands are extended downward with a slight
motion and the number is spoken.
The use o{ (it-lh(ilh'-tdlc and i/i'il-h'-tok for numerals, as given above,
is not uncommon among the intelligent people who are able to count
readily up to twenty in a single series of numerals. Among the igno-
rant and slow-witted twenty is reached by making up four series of num-
bers running from one to five. In cases of this kind these two words
are used between ten and eleven and fifteen and sixteen, simply to
convey their regular meaning. They are most commonly used in count-
ing the fingers and toes, when their api)lication is quite natural; but
often they are used in counting various other objects, and seem to be
iu a transitional state toward becoming the regularly recognized numer-
als. When used as numerals, as noted above, their meaning in that
sense seems to be recognized by everyone.
Two is usually mal'-u-ghul; but it is often replaced by ai'-pa, which
means second, or a pair. This latter word is used commonly to desig-
nate one of a pair, such, for instance, as iu speaking of the close friend
of another person, who is referred to as his ai'-pa. The name for the
right arm and hand taken together is iiihltli'qvl;.
The term for five is iii-hli'm'il;. The right hand alone is called
ta-hlik'-pim ai'-M {ai'-hil; — hand, either right or left).
Nine is ko'-lifio-f/hotai'-liH-uu, from ko-lin'^ ten, and tdi'-tnh, not, or
lacking; i. e., ten lacking one.
K<i-Vni\ ten, is from l-ohli', the upper half or the upper part of the
body, or the count of the fingers. The word half is ko'kitn.
Twenty is yu-i' niik, from yuk, man, and means "a man completed."
238 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx. 18
When the person reaches twenty he will verj- often say yu-i-iuikli'tdJc,
meaning "the man is finished." If he is asked how many fingers and
toes he has counted he will reply ".)/»-('-»»/.■."
When forty is reached a singular change takes place in the naming
of the twenties. For instance, forty is mi(l'-u-ghu4'-p}-('ik, from miil'-u-
(jliiili, two, and i'-jn-ak, a set of animal's legs and paws, with the toes,
this last coming from i'-pik, the name given to the combined leg, foot,
and toes of any mammal. Thus forty becomes "two sets of animal's
paws." In this way each succeeding twenty is designated by combin-
ing one of the cardinal numbers with i'-2)hiik up to four hundred. At
this point a change occurs, and the idea of a man is combined with that
of the animal, as follows: Four hundred is yu-i'-num yum i-pl'. This
may be analyzed as follows: 2/"-«'-m«''«, twenty; j/jmh, of a man's; i-in',
sets of paws; or, "twenty sets of man's paws," this meaning twenty
times twenty.
The following tables of Unalit numerals, with explanatory notes and
the facts already given, will render plain their system of counting.
The first column in the first table gives the numerals as commonly
used w^hen counting the fingers and toes; the second column gives the
forms used in counting exterior objects or to express a complete num-
ber. These two sets of numbers are sometimes interchangeably used,
so that no invariable custom defines their usage.
1. il-tau'-tsik d-taii'-tsik-.
2. miiV-u-ghuk, or ai'-pa miil-u-ghuk, or ai -2>a.
3. pin-a'-shu-nk inn-aV-yun.
4. sta'-mik sta'-nu'tn.
5. ta-UH'-mik ta-hU'-mihi.
6. ti-iihu-htn'-ghiik a-gliu-hiu'-lign.
7. mtil-u-yhun'-lign inal-il-ghun'-lign.
8. pin-ai-gun'-lign pUi-ai-giin'-Ugn.
9. ko'-Uh-o-gho-tai'-Un-un ko'lin-o-glio-tai'-lii'i-un.
10. ko-lin' io-lin'.
11. Ut-khakh'-tok, or d-tau'-tsik ko-W a-tau'-tsi-muk chi'-pi-idk.
12. ai'-pa, or maV-u-ghuk ko-Ui' mUl-u-gu'-iuk ohV-p'i-ldk.
13. p'ln-a' -slitt-uk ko-W pin-ai'-yiin-ik cM'-pl-tuk.
14. sta'-niik ko-UV sta'-min-ik chi-pi-idk.
15. ci-ki'-mi-cik, or Id-hli'-mik ko-Ui tii-hli-miiii-ik chl-pf-tok.
16. giikk'-tdk ko-ld' a-ghii-hin'-lign-ik chi-pi-tok.
17. ai'-pd, oimiiV-u-ghuk ko-hV mal-u-ghiiii'-lign-ik chi-pi-tok.
18. pin-a'shu-iik ko-Jd' pin-ai' -yun-Ugn-ik chi-pi-iuk.
19. aia'-mlk ko-W ko-Un'-o-gho-iai'-lin-dg'-a-g'iik.
20. yu-i'-nHk, or td-hli'-mik yu-i'-nuk.
21. d-iau'-isik yu-i'-niik ii-taii'-tsi-miik chip -lilii-kii.
22. aV-pd, or maV -u-ghuk yu-i'-niik mdl-ii-ghiin'-ik chip -hlii-kii.
23. pin-a'-shu-Ak yu-i'-nuk piil-ai-yioi-ik chip'-hlu-ku.
24. 8ta'-mik yu-i'-niik sta'-min-ik chip'-hlu-ku.
2.5. td-hli'mik yu-i'-niik td-hli'-mi>i-ik chip'-hht-kn.
26. a-ghu-hin-ghuk yu-i'-niik a-ghu-bin'-Ugn-ik chiji'-hlu ku.
27. mdl'-u-ijhun'-lign yu-i'-niik niiil-ii-gliun'-tigu-ik chip'-lilu-ku.
28. piu-ai-yun'-lign yu-i'-niik piii-ai-yun'-lign-ik chi2>'-hlu-ku.
NELSON] SYSTEM OF NUMERATION 239
29. lo' -Vni-o-filio-tai' -Ih't-fin yii-i'-iiuk ko-lhl-o-fihii-'ai'-!iri-off'-i'i-f/'i'ik rhip-
hlu-lai.
30. Ico-liii' nii-i'-nulc liO-liii'-ik chip-hhi-l k.
40. miiV -ii-(jh\i-i' -pi-iU; .
50. miiV -u-gliu-i' -in-iik Ico-lin -Ik chip'-i-hlii'-kii,
60. piri-ni'-ijnn i'-jyi-iik.
70. pin-ai'-yim i'-pl-ak ko-Un'-ik vhip'-i-hht'-kii,
80. sta'-mun i'-pt-cik.
90. sta'-mun i'-pi-ak ko-lin'-ik chip'-i-liUi'-kii.
100. ta-hli -niiin i'-pl-ak.
400. ijii-i'-iinm yum i-pi'.
It will bo noted that numerals above ten in tLe second column have
the verb cM'-pi-toh, signifying "it is added," or "additional." Thus
l:n-Ja' a-iau'-txi-mulc cM'-pi-tdk means, literally, "to ten one is added."
Above twenty the verb chip'-hlu-lm, or chip'-hhlu-ku, is used, meaning
"is added of the next." Thus yu4' nuh ii-tau' -tsi-mitk chip'-hlu-ku
means, literally, " twenty, and one is added of the next."
The ordinal numbers are as follows:
First ch i-6k'-lilik.
Second kin-ok'-li lik.
Third pin-a'-sh ii-iit.
Fourth sla'-mit.
Fifth ta-hU'-mit.
Sixth a-ijhu-hin' -ijlint.
Seventh mal'-ii-ghuii'-U-iihiU.
Eighth pln-ai-yidi'-U-gJiiit.
Ninth ko' -Un-o-yho-tnV -Jiii-o-iH.
Tenth ko' -Un-o-ul' .
Eleventh ko-lim' chip'-mi-ghn.
Twelfth ko'-lin miil-ii-ghii'-gii-nik chip'-niil-ut.
Thirteenth ko'-lin jnn-ai'-yu-iiik cirip'-nin-ut.
Fourteenth ko'-Jhi sta'-miin-ik chip' -n'ui-id.
Fifteenth a-ki'-mX-a'-ghut.
Sixteenth a-ki'-mi-agm' chtp'-nu-gha.
Seventeenth U-ki'-mi-dk miil-u-ghu'-gu-nik cliXp' -mn-ut.
Eighteenth d-ki' -ml-ak piii-aV -yu-mk ckip'-nm-ut.
Nineteenth a-ki' -mi-ak sta'-miin-ik cMp' -mn-ut.
Twentieth ii-ki' -mi-ak tii-hlV -mUn-ik chip' -niii-nt , or yii-i'-niit.
Thirtieth yu-i'-nuk ko'-lln-ik chip'-nin-Hk.
Fortieth mdl-u-ghuk' i'-jii-a'-ghut.
Fil'tieth mal-u-ghuk' i'pi-ak ko'-U-miik chijy'-nifi-uk.
The numerals of repetition are:
Once ii-tau'-tsikh ku'-miik.
Twi(/e miil'-i'i-ghtikh kii'-gii-nik.
Three times pin-ai'-yiikh kii'-nik.
Four ti mes sta'-mukk kii'-nik.
Five times ...tii-hW-mukh ku'-nik.
Six times a-gliu-hin' -hlkli ku'-nik.
Seven times miil-ii-gliun'-li'ikh ku'-nik.
Eight times jnn-ai-yun'-liikh ku'-nik.
Nine times ko'-lin-o-gho-tai'-Uri-okh ku'-nik.
Ten times ko'-Jin-okh ku'-nik.
240 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
Eleven times Ico'-lu » lau'-tnlkli Icu'->iik.
Twelve times ho' -Id maV-d-ghulih kii'-nil:
Thirteen times ko'-Id pin-ai'-yukh ku'-nik.
Fourteen times ko'-Id 8ta'-mukh kii'-nik.
Fifteen times ko'-ld td-hli'-vtukk ku'-nik.
Sixteen times ko'-ld d-ghu-bin-lukli ku'-nik.
Seventeen times ko'-ld mdl-ii-ijhun'-li~ikh ku'-nik.
Eighteen times ko'-Id. jnii-ai-yun'-lukli ku'-uik.
Nineteen times ko'-ld ko-Uu-o-gho-lai'-lifi-okh ku'-nik.
Twi'nty times iju-i'-niikh kn'-mi'tk.
Tliiity times yu-i'-iiuk ko'-lin-iikh kii'-nik.
Forty times mdl-u-ijhiik i'-pi-nkh kii'-miik.
Fifty times vidl'-ii-f/huk i'-pi-iikh ko-lin-okh kii'-nik.
Sixty times pin-a'-ynn i'-pi-dkh ku'-nik.
The distributive numerals iire:
One to each d-tan'tsi-d kd-glinkh'-lu-ku.
Two to each mUl'-u-ghu kd-ghakW-lu-ku.
Three to each jnu-a'-sliii-d ka-ghakh'-lu-ku.
Four to each sta-mdu ka'-ghakh'-ht-ku.
Five to each td-hli'-mau ka'-ghakh'-ln-ku.
Six to each d-ghu-hin' -Ukh-kok ka'-ghakh'-ln kn.
Seven to each mdl-ii-ghuii' Ukh-kok kii'-gliakli'-lu-ku.
Eight to eacli 2)iii-ai' -y un-likli -kok ka'-yhakh'-ln-ku.
Nine to each ko'-llu-o-gho-lai'-lin-okh'-kok ka'-gliiikh'-lu-ku.
Ten to each ko-liu-okh-kok ka'-gliakh'-hi-ku.
Eleven to each ko-ld u-tnu'-tsi-miik chip'-uiukh kd-gliakh'-lu-ku.
Twelve to each ko-ld mal-it-glinn'-ik chip'-niiikli kd-ghakh'-lu-ku.
Tliirteen to each ko-ld inn-ai'-ynn-ik chlp'-niukh kd-ghakh'-hi-ku.
Fourteen to each ko-ld sta-maii'-fk chip-niukh kd-ghakh'-lu-ku .
Fifteen to each ko-ld tU-hW -mdn-ik or, d-ki'-mi-dkh' ka-ghakh'-lu-ku.
Sixteen to each d-ki'-mi-dka-tau'-isi-inHk chip'-tiinkh kd-ghakh'-lu-ku.
Seventeen to each d-ki'-mi-dk mdl-ii-ghun'-ikh chlp'-ninkk kd-ghakk'-lu-ku.
Eighteen to each d-ki' -ni-dk pXn-ai' ■ yun-ik chip' -ninkh kd-gliakh -lii-ku.
Nineteen to each u-ki' -mi-dk sta'-man-ik chip -iiinkh kd-ghakh'-ln-ku.
Twenty to each d-ki'-mi-dk id-hlV -uiin ik chip'-niukli kd-ghakh'-lu-ku, or
yu-i'-uam kd-ghakh'-ln-kn.
Thirty to each yu-i'-niik ko'-lin-ik kd-ghakh'-lu-ku.
Forty to each mdV -ii-ghu-i' -pi-a' -ghii kd-ghakh'-lu-ku.
Fifty to each mdV -ii-ghu-i' -pi-dk ko'-hn-ik kd-ghakh'-lu-ku.
Four linndred to each yu-i-num i'-pi-itm kd-ghakh'-lu-ku.
Followiug are a number of niiscellaneous terms bearing- on numeration :
How many ? kaf- ch i-u'-ut ?
Several kdf'-chi-khdn.
One only a-lau'Ui-khuk.
Two only mdl-ii-ghn' -khuk.
Three only piii-ai' yu-khdn.
Four only sta'-md-khdn.
Five only td-hli'-nid-khdn.
Six only ii-gho-hin' -U-khdn
Seven only mdl-u-ghun'-U-khdu.
Eight only pin-ai-yun'-li-khdu.
Nine only ko-liu' -o-gho-tai' -liii-o-khdn .
Ten only ko-lii'-khdn.
NELSON] UNIT OF BARTER VILLAGES 241
Fifteen only ii-lu'-mi-a'-lchan.
Twenty only ya-i'nd-lhan.
Forty only mal'-il-ghuk i'-pi-a'-khaii.
One-half (in lensith) lo-Jcdn' -Ui- ]cih'-ii-;/Iiii.
One-half (in quantity) an-Uh'-hu, or au-Uh'-u-hiik.
A part or portion, in length or quantity au-nl-h'-tH-.
All '" III (in' .
None pi'-ti'ik.
For purposes of barter four skiusof tbc reindeer fawn — ;iust enough
to make a fur coat or parkie — are tied iu a buncli and called a "parkie
ol fawn skins." The following set of numerals is nsed in counting
these sets of fawn skins or parkies:
One parkie of fawn skins ii-tan' -isi-kiit .
Two parkies of lawn skins iiial'-u-ghu'-i-kut.
Three parkies of fawn skins pin-a-shn'-i-kut.
Fonr parkies of fawn skins sla-mal'-kiU.
Five parkies of fawn skins tii-MV-mai-ki'it.
Sis parkies uf fawn skins a-ghii-hhi'-Ukh-kiit.
Seven parkies of fawn skins nuil-ii-ghiin'-likh-kiit.
Ei^'ht parkies of fawn skins plfi-ai-ijiin'-Ukh-knt.
Nine parkies of fawn skins ko'-lln-o-gho-tai'-Uri-okh'-kiit.
Ten parkies of fawn skins ko'-li-kiit.
Eleven parkies of fawn skins ko'-lt-kiit ii-tau' -tsi-nik cliip'-i-titt.
Twelve parkies of fawn skins ko'-li-kiit miil-il-ghu'-i-nik cliip'-i-tiit.
Thirteen parkies of fawn skins ko' -ii-kiit piii-a-sUu' -i-nik chip'-i-tut.
Fourteen parkies of fawn skins ko'-li-kiit sla-mai'-nik chip'-i-tiit.
Fifteen parkies of fawn skins ko'-lt-kiit tci'-hli-mai'-nik cliip'i-tui, or ii-ki'-mi-
dkh'-ktU.
Sixteen parkies of fawn skins ii-kV -mi-akli-kut ii-tau-tsi' -nlk cMp'-i-ttit.
Seventeen parkies of fawn skins ii-kV -mi-akh-knt mUl-H-ghu'-i-nik cMp'-i-tiit.
Eighteen parkies of fawn skins ii-ki'-mi-dkh-kiit jiiri-a-alm'-i-nik diip'i-tiit.
Nineteen parkies of fawn skins (i-ki'-mi-dkk-kiit sta-mai'-tiik chip'-i-tiit.
Twenty parkies of fawn skins ii-ki'-tni-dkli-kiit lii'-hH-mai'-nik cliip'-i-tiU, or
ilii-i'-nakli-kiik.
Forty parkies of fawn skins miil -li-gliii-V -pi-akh' -kiik.
Sixty parkies of fawn skins pin-tii'-iiini i'-pi-akli'-kiik.
VILLAGES AND HOUSES
The Eskimo villages of western Alaska are located with reference to
proximity to hunting and fishing grounds and to the most favorable
landing place for their kaiaks and umiaks that may be found. The
sites vary greatly, from the head of some beautifully sheltered cove to
the precipitous face of a rocky slope, as on Sledge and King islands.
Formerly, the constant danger from hostile raids caused the people to
choose locations for their dwellings which were easy of defense. This
is demonstrated by the sites of ruins on the coast of Bering sea and the
ruins of former Eskimo villages on the Arctic coast of Siberia, north-
westward of Bering strait.
These ancient villages were built usually ou the highest i^oints of
islands, near the shore, or on high capes or peninsulas commanding
18 ETH IG
242
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STEAIT
[ETH. iXN. 18
a wide view over both sea and laud. Formerly, as at present, the vil-
lage was usually an irregular group of semi- subterranean houses built
about a large ceutral building, called by the Unalit, h'ij'-h()i. This term
corresponds to the name lasliim'^ of the fur traders, which has been
used throughout this paper to designate structures of this kind.
These buildings are on the same general plan as the dwelling houses,
but are much larger and are used as the central point of the village
social life. They are ordinarily made large enough to contain all the
villagers, besides guests that may come during festivals. In some of
the villages, however, where the number of inhabitants is considerable,
two or more of these buildings are constructed. Their size is neces-
sarily limited by the material available, which is mainly drift logs cast
up along the shore. The people of the lower Yukon have a tradition
that there formerly existed below Ikogmut a village that contained
thirty-five kashims; at i)resent there are many villages in which there
are two of these buildings.
w/f^oow
Wy///M'/.y//////y/////M
Fio. 74 — Plan of house at St Michael.
Snow houses, so common among the Eskimo of Greenland and other
eastern regions, are known in Alaska only as temporary shelters erected
by hunters when out on short excursions from tlieir village during
winter; they are termed an-igu-yiW , and their use is familiar to all of
the Eskimo, although they are so rarely constructed.
On Kowak river there are villages in which the Eskimo have adopted
from their Tinne neighbors the use of conical lodges for summer use,
and it is worthy of note that the former appear to have adopted other
customs from the same source. On Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers the
contrary is the case; there the Tinne have adopted many of the Eskimo
customs and usages, while the Eskimo appear to have derived very little
from their Tinne neighbors.
The Eskimo of the Kuskokwim and northward to the \dcinity of
Bering strait have summer villages, built in a more or less permanent
manner, to which they resort during the fishing season. From Kotze-
bue sound northward the people use tents or skin lodges while at their
fishing stations in summer.
' This term is derived from the word tej'-i-r;rim= "my kaj'-i-gl."
ST MICHAEL DWELLINGS
>43
A typical dwelling house used by the people of St Michael is cou-
structc'd by building a rectaugiilar framework of logs, S or 9 feet high
in the middle uud 5 feet at the sides; this is covered with smaller logs
or rude slabs, over which earth is thrown to a thickness of 3 or 4
feet, liaised platforms occupy three sides of the single room and are
used for sleeping lilaces, commonly by a fanuly on each side. The front
of the room has a low, arched doorway leading in from the outer cov-
ered entry, which is used only in summer, when a bearskin hangs over
Fir. 75— Storehouse ;it St Mi.liael.
the doorway as a curtain; in winter this entrance is closed and an
underground passage or tunnel leads from the outer end of the covered
entry way to a point below the floor just inside tbe summer door. The
place on each side of the door, or an unoccupied platform on one side of
the room, is used for the storage of bags of seal oil, wooden dishes, tubs,
or other domestic utensils, and of articles of food. Figure 74 is a sec-
tion plan of one of these houses. Each family has a small saucer-shape
clay lamp burning near its platform. On the earthen floor directly
244 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. anx. 18
under the smoke hole is a fireplace, wliere cooking is done; this usu-
ally has a flat slab of stone set edgewise in the floor on the side toward
the doorway to serve as a wind-break for preventing drafts from striking
directly on the fire.
Many of the houses are built with a long, low, covered passageway,
used both in winter and in summer, and the underground entrance is
omitted; some houses are very narrow and have only one wide sleeping
bench at the rear end, where one or two families are accommodated.
In some cases the entrance passage above ground is large enough to
serve as a storeroom, but usually every household is the owner of a
storehouse. Where timber is scarce, as in the country between Cape
Vancouver and the mouth of the Kuskokwim, these are built of turf.
At Point Barrow underground storerooms, with a trap iu the roof,
were seen. At St Michael storehouses are erected on four stout posts,
made from drift logs, set firmly in the ground and ijrojecting 10 or 12
feet, forming an equal-sided quadrangle. About 5 feet from the ground
the hewed ends of timbers aie inserted to form parallel stringers, on
which are laid roughly hewed sticks for a floor, the ends projecting
2 or 3 feet on either side. To form the walls rough planks are fitted,
with their ends locked by means of notches. The top is covered with
sticks similar to the flooring, on which is placed a grass thatch or
sometimes a covering of earth. The doorway in front, 2J to 3 feet
square, is framed beside one of the corner posts by a roughly hewed
cap and. jamb; the door is of rough plank, on rawhide hinges, fastened
by a stout cord.
Outside on the iirojecting ends of the floor are laid the sledge, kaiak,
and other objects belonging to the owner, while the inside serves as a
receptacle for food supjilies and other jierishable articles.
The accompanying illustration (figure 75) gives a good idea of a
typical storehouse of this character.
Where timber is abundant, as on the lower Yukon, these storehouses
are more elaborately constructed, being raised from 6 to 8 feet above
the ground, with the posts arranged and held in place in the same
manner as in those at St Michael. The front and rear walls are made
of well-hewed jflanks, set upright, with an oval door iu the center of
the front, access to which is gained by a notched log. The ends of the
floor logs project in front far enough to support separate cross sticks,
forming a narrow outside platform. On the sides, the planks forming
the walls are placed horizontally. The roof has a double intch, and is
usually made of bark held in place by cross sticks or other weights.
The upright planks that form the front and rear of these structures
are held in jiosition by crosspieces extending between the corner iiosts,
as shown in plate lxxxi.
In addition to the storehouses, every village has elevated frames
upon which sledges and kaiaks may be placed : this is necessary, owing
to the number of dogs in every village and the danger of their eating
z
o
O
O
<
03
UJ
CO
D
O
I
UJ
cd
O
ifELsoN] KASHIM CONSTRUCTION 245
the 1-awhide covers of tlie kaiaks aud the lasliings of the sledges.
These frames are formed usually of two horizontal, parallel poles, or
small logs, raised ou posts with forked ends or mortised into the
timber, their size and strength depending ou the abundance of neces-
sary material.
Kashims are common everywhere among the Eskimo and have been
adopted by the adjacent Tinne of lower Yukon aud Kuskokwim rivers.
They vary in size according to the number of inhabitants in the village.
The material used for these structures is driftwood, consisting of logs
and poles which float down the rivers ia spring and are strewn along
their banks or carried to sea and scattered along the coast during the
following summer. Spruce is the most common variety. The logs are
usually deprived of their bark by friction and are seasoned by exposure.
Logs 15 or 20 inches in diameter are not uncommon, and some are
found reaching 30 feet in length; as a rule, however, the timbers are
much smaller.
In constructing a kashim the logs are laid iu the form of a square
to the height of 7 or 8 feet; from thence they are drawn iu on every
side, in alternate courses, until the last are short, and surround a square
opening in the roof, directly over the middle of the room, and from 9 to
12 feet above the floor, forming a frame for the smoke hole, which is
about 2 or 2i feet in width. If the building is small, it is covered with
a heavy layer of earth, but if large, a crib work is built around it, held
together by a frame, so as to inclose the building and form a double
wall, inside of which is thrown a heavy layer of earth.
The floor is usually of hewed planks laid close together, and occupies
about one- third of the area of the room, in the shai)e of a square iu the
center; it is laid on sills at the end so that the planks can readily be
taken up; below these there is a pit from 3 to 1 feet deep, in which the
fire is built to heat the room for sweat baths, or at rare intervals in
winter; but usually the heat from the bodies of the occuijants keeps the
temperature so high that they remain nude, or partly so, much of the
time, even iu winter. Other planks usually cover the ground back to
the walls, although in many places, especially where wood is scarce, the
floor of this iiortiou of the room consists merely of the earth, beaten
hard. The' entrance consists of a long, roofed passage, built of logs
and covered with earth; the outer end of this is faced with planks,
over which is a square, round, or arched doorway leading into the room
in summer, when it is closed only by a bearskin curtain. In winter
this entrance, which is above the ground, is closed tightly, and a round
hole in the floor near the outer end of the upper passage leads through
a low tunnel, along which the peojile pass on their hands aud knees to
the fire pit, and thence through a circular or oval hole to the middle of
the room.
These rooms are from 12 to 25 feet square. Around the inside, about
4 feet from the floor, extends a bench, hewed from a single log, 15 to 18
246
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
inclies wide and usually from 4 to 6 iuclies in thickness, or left half
rounded below ; this heavy bench is supported by stout sticks placed
diagonally across the corners of the room, and is used as a sleeping
place, also as a seat during festivals and at other times.
At the back of the room, supported on an upright post from L' to 3
feet high, a lamp is kept burning, by public contribution, at iill times
when the kashim is gloomy. A gut-skin cover is used over the smoke
hole at all times, except when the fire is burning in the pit, or when the
heat becomes too oppressive.
The accompanying illustration (figure 76) shows the outside of the
kashim at St Michael, with the long passageway of logs. A sectional
plan of one of these buildings is given in figure 77.
Jr IG. 70 — Ivusliiiu at St Michael.
rikmiktalik was a very populous place in the days when reindeer
were plentiful along this coast, some ten or fifteen years previously to
my residence in this region ; but in 1878 only two or three families
remained, and the kashim and other houses were falling to pieces.
Pastolik, near the Yukon mouth, is the southernmost settlement of
the Unalit, and its buildings are typical. Ascending the Yukon and
passing several unimportant little villages, the first characteristic
settlement of the Yukon Eskimo is reached above Andreivsky. From
that point up the river the towns are similar to one another, consisting
of winter houses and kashims built on the ordinary plan, and of large,
loosely built summer houses of hewed planks on an inner framework,
with sloping roofs.
NELSON)
KASHIMS
247
The village of Starikwikhpak above Audreivsky, is built on a high
bauk of the Yukon in the midst of a thick growth of tall alders and
cottonwoods, and contains aboiit forty people.
Next above is Razbiusky, containing some twenty-five houses and
two kashims. It is the largest existing village of the Yukon Eskimo,
and the ouly cue seen that was arranged with any degree of regu-
larity. There the winter and summer houses are built together, and
the rude alignment of the summer houses is evidenced in the illustra-
tion (plate Lxxxii). Tlie summer houses front a small creek which
flows iuto the Yukon at that point. Back of them, iu a more regular
arrangement, are most of the winter houses. Near one end of this
row are two kashims, and immediately back of them is the graveyard,
the latter forming a part of the village and becoming so offensive in
summer that it is impossible at times for the fur traders to camp in
the vicinity.
The summer houses at this place and all along the Y'ukon up to
w/r^DOW
Fig. 77 — Section of kasliim at St Miclaael.
Paimut, the upper Eskimo village on the river, are alike built of heavy
slabs and planks split and hewed from drift logs.
Plate LXXXII, from a photograph, is a view taken at Razbiusky in
•winter, showing the tops of some winter houses in the foreground and
a row of x>lank summer houses in the background.
The summer houses throughout this part of Alaska vary so slightly
in the details of their construction that a description of those seen at
Razbiusky will serve as typical of all in that region. The front and
rear ends are constructed of roughly hewed planks set upright; the
sides are of horizontal timbers hewed and loosely fitted. About five
feet from the ground a log extends from side to side of the structure,
resting upon two posts iu the middle, with braces at either end, hav-
ing their ends set in the ground, and connected by similar logs which
extend from front to rear along the eaves.
In some houses the braces at the front and rear are replaced by two
tall i^oles set in the ground midway between the corners, two or three
248 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
yards apart aud projecting several feet above the top of the roof.
Lengthwise over the top of the house extend hewed sticks which hokl
in position the upright posts and the logs that bind the upright planks.
The use of crosspieces fastened at each end to the top of upright
timbers is a common method adopted by the P^skimo of Norton sound
and the lower Yukon for binding the framework of their structures.
Braces, which fit into a notch in an upright post with the other end
planted in the ground, are also commonly used. Sometimes the walls
of summer houses are built with u])right sticks all around, as can be
seen at Ikogmut, but more commonly the ends are formed of upright
pieces aud the sides of timbers laid horizontally. The inner frame-
work is bound together by withes or wooden pins and held in place at
the eaves by joists, across which are thrown poles or planks, forming
an open attic or platform for the storage of dried fish and other arti-
cles of food, nets, and various implements. The roof is double-pitched
aud covered with slabs or i^lanks over which pieces of bark are laid.
Along the sides of the room, at from one to three feet above the floor, are
broad sleeping platfornjs, which accommodate from one to three fami-
lies. In the front, a foot or two above the ground, a semilunar piece
is cut from each of two adjoining planks, forming an oval doorway
about three feet high. Small square or round windows, a few inches in
diameter, are sometimes cut in the walls near the sleeping platforms.
There is also plenty of ventilation from other directions, as very little
effort is made to prevent the wind from circulating freely through the
numerous cracks.
Plate Lxxxi, which represents the storehouses at Ikogmut, shows
also one of these summer houses in the background.
In the winter of 18S0 tlie people at Paimut were found living in their
summer houses on a high bank overlooking the Yukon, and I was told
that their winter village ou the island in the river had been swept
away by high water the season before.
At Chukwhuk, just above Ikogmut, the winter houses, as is usual in
this district, were arranged with the sleeping platforms raised about
three feet from the ground, leaving s])a(!e below for storing supplies.
The house at which I stopped was supplied with three of these plat-
forms, each having its oil lamp on an upright post. Near one lamp a
woman was making a pair of ornamented gloves, and by another lamp
a woman was braiding a straw mat.
At a village in the Big-lake district, lying in the strip of country
between the two nearest pointsof lower Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers,
the houses were of the ordinary kind, except that they were rather
smaller than on the Yukon and had extraordinarily long entrance
passages.
At the base of Kuslevak mountains the houses were made of smaller
timbers, brought a long distance from the coast in boats, or of a
light framework of short, crooked alder trunks covered with brush
KELSON] DWELLINGS AND KASHIMS 249
from the banks of the streams in the neighborhood. These houses were
very small and depended for their strength partly upon the hard, ftozeu
covering of earth. Igiogagamut, a village lying between Kuslevak
mountains and Cape Romauzof, consisted of several small hovels of this
kind. Their interior plan was as near the usual type as the material
would allow, as the rooms were oulj^ 4i feet high to the small, square
smoke holes, which were covered with sheets of clear ice about i inches
thick instead of with the usual gut skin. From the smoke holes the walls
sloped to the ground, making iiiclosures from 12 to 15 feet in diameter.
These places were crowded with people. On the earthen tloors were
layers of soft, decaying garbage of every descrii)tion, from which the
heat arising from the crowded human bodies evolved a sickening odor.
Near Gape Eomanof was a summer tishing village of four houses,
which looked like so many mounds, about 6 feet high. We found them
to be built entirely above ground and of split drift logs, held uji in the
usual manner and covered with earth. A square opening 3 feet high
in one wall served as a door, entering directly into the room, and the
square smoke hole in the roof formed the only other aperture. Sleep-
ing platforms were rudely made on the earthen floor.
Askiuuk, south of Cape IJomanzof, is built on the top of an earthen
mound which rises about 15 feet above the level of the surrounding
country. The present village covers nearly the entire top of this mound.
The inhabitants say that this elevation has accumulated from the long
occujjancy of the spot by their people, and its present appearance
would seem to justify the assertion.
The houses are clustered together in the most irregular manner, and
the entrances to the passageways leading to the interiors open out in
the most unexpected places. Sometimes one of these passages opens
on the top of another house built lower down on the side of the mound,
or, it may be, between two houses, or almost against the side of an
adjoining one. Near by is a very extensive graveyard, which has some
interesting burial places, but my visit was too brief to enable me to
examine it carefully.
The Askiuuk kashim is like those at the next village to the south,
called Kushunuk. At this place there are two kashims, the smaller one
being about 30 by 30 feet on the Hoor and '20 feet high at the smoke
hole. The walls are of split logs placed vertically, with their plane
faces inward and resting at their upper ends against the logs which
form the framework of the roof: the tloor is of heavy hewed planks.
Extending around the room on the floor, and about 3i feet from the
walls, ai'e small logs, serving to mark ott' the sleeping places of the
men and at the same time as head rests, the sleepers lying with their
heads toward the middle of the room. Three feet above and 0 inches
neai'er the walls other logs extend around the room, with planks
between them and the sides, afl'ording a broad sleeping bench, sup-
ported in the middle by upright posts and at each end inserted in the
250
THE ESKIMO ABOLT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
wall of the structure. The roof is made by the usual arrangemont
of logs formiug- a rectangular pyramid with a flat top, in the middle of
which is the smoke hole. The entrance i)assage is unusually high
and roomy, opening directly into the kashim above ground by means
of a round hole in the front of the wall.
In winter the entrance is through a hole in the floor of the entrance
passage, thence through the underground tunnel as usual to an exit
hole, which has on each side a walrus tusk with the point and base
sunk into the plank and the curve upward, affording convenient hand-
rests when going in and out and preventing the necessity of placing
the hands on the wet planks at the side of the hole. The plan of this
kashim is shown in figure 78.
In addition to the kashims, the village contained about twenty
houses, accommodating about one hundred and tweiity-flve people. It
F[G. 78 — Section of kashim at Kiishunnk.
is built in a straggling manner on a slightly rising piece of ground,
with elevated storehouses and raised frameworks for the boats and
sledges. The entire area covered is about a quarter of a mile in
length. iSTearer the sea is the site of an ancient village that was
occupied by the ancestors of these i)eople.
To the southward of this place the next village was Kaialigamut,
which contained about one hundred people and two kashims. The
houses and kashims were like those of the last two villages described,
except that the kashims were smaller and were provided with a second
and narrower shelf above the first sleeping benches, on which the men
placed their clothing and other belongings.
Tlie early Kussian traders who visited this district say that the peo-
ple in these large villages had underground passageways leading from
the kashim to adjacent houses, for use in case of sudden attack by au
enemy. A Russian told me that he once discovered a passage of this
NEL=0NJ HOUSES IN VARIOUS LOCALITIES 251
kiud from the kashim to au ancient house and from there to another
house. It was further stated that in tliose days the people made tlieir
houses larger, so that they could use their bows in them for repelling
an attack by the enemy.
The village of Ukagamut, near Blount Robert Lincoln, contained
about twenty people. The huts were extremely small, owing to the scar-
city of wood. The interiors were excessively filthy and permeated with
the stench of decaying animal matter. The smoke holes were covered
with slabs of ice, and the Hoors were several inches deep with an oozy
mass of refuse. The dried fish stored in the houses and used for food
was covered with blue and green mold, and the entire place was the
most miserable that I saw in that region. The inhabitants were suf-
fering from skin diseases and from the attacks of au ailment resembling
epilepsy.
Tununuk was a summer village on Cape Vancouver at the time of my
visit in December, 1879. A few jieople were found wintering there.
Wood was scarce and the houses were small and filthy.
South of this point wood was so scarce that in several villages there
was none for making elevated storehouses, and for that jjurpose small
huts were built of turf cut into slabs and laid up in walls, which were
frozen solid and covered with fiat roofs of the same material. The
doors, which were the only openings, consisted of slabs of frozen turf
about 2i by 3 feet and 4 inches thick. At one village I saw about
twenty of these huts, all of which were i or 5 feet high and from (i to 8
feet in diameter.
In the second village south of Cape Vancouver the houses were
made of turf slabs laid up about the frail framework of small sticks
and brush and covered with earth. This had been wet and frozen so
that the walls were very firm, but the people stated that they would
leave them early in the spring, for as soon as warm weather began the
walls would melt and fall in.
The smoke holes of the houses in all this district were covered with
slabs of ice, from which the heat inside continually caused water to
drop down the walls, rendering the tloor a soft and sticky mass except
in the coldest weather.
From Cape Vancouver to the Kuskokwim the land is very low, and
whenever the wind blows a gale in shore the coast villages are in dan-
ger of being flooded. The day before my arrival at Chalitmut the sea
flowed inland and rose to a depth of three feet over the floor of the
kashim; the people who were caught inside made a hole in the roof, to
which they crept and stayed for hours, until the water had subsided.
Every few years the ice sweeps away one or more villages in this district,
causing loss of life.
At ChichiQagamut, in this district, a heavy rain fell during my stay,
and the water came into the kashim from the surrounding drainage so
that it was IS inches deep in the tunnel-like entrance passage and had
252
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ ETH. ANN. 18
to be baled out twice a day. The kasbim was very small and low, with
no floor except the beaten earth ; the fire pit in the middle of the room
was in the depression \Yliich began at the walls and sloped gradually
toward the center. This central depression was fall of water, and
the entire iloor was covered except for a narrow border about four feet
wide around the sides. In this kashim two lamps were burning upon
supports, one on each side of the room. These supports were rudely
carved in the form of a human face, represeuting quite a different type
from the couiiteuauces of the ]>eoi)le, and constituted the only attemjit
at such work that I saw among the Eskimo (figure 79). When the
Knskokwim was reached the abundance of driftwood was shown by
the larger size of the houses and kashims, and by the ijresence of ele-
vated storehouses and frames for sleds and boats.
From St Michael northward along the coast of the mainland there
existed a much greater variety of houses than
had been noted to the southward of that
place. From St Michael to Uilaktolik, in-
cluding Kigiktauik,Uualaklit, and Shaktolik,
with a few smaller places, the houses are of
the type general among the Unalit, as the
people belong mainly to that group.
Tup-hanikwa, north of Unalaklit, had in
February, 1S80, a single house, which was
occupied by three families. The single room
was 10 by 12 feet in dimension and about 5^
feet high. On the night of my visit sixteen
adults slept on the earthen floor of this small
room.
At the villages of Atnuk and Nubviukh-
chugaluk the houses were large, well made,
and provided with a floor of hewed planks;
the sleeping platforms were raised about IS
inches above the floor.
In March, 1S80, the village of Ignituk, near Gape Darby, contained
about one hundred and fifty people. It w-as built at the mouth of a
small canyon leading down to the sea, and the lower houses were on the
upper edge of an abrupt slope 40 or 50 feet above the beach, where were
ai'ranged on sleds the kaiaks of the villagers ready for seal hunting on
the sea ice. The houses had plank floors and broad sleeping benches.
They were built with a small, square anteroom, which was used as a
storeroom for provisions, and from it a passage about 3 feet high and
10 to 20 feet in length led to the round hole giving access to the living
room. This hole was either in the end of the passage opening through
the wall of the room Just above the floor, or through the floor inside
the front wall. In the middle of the floor the planks were laid so that
they could be taken up, as is done iu the kashims. Close to the fire-
Fir.. 79— Carved lamp support.
VARIOUS FOKMS OF HOUSES
253
place, between it and the door, was a lai'ge flat slab of stone placed on
edge to protect tlie lire from the draft. Some of the houses had two
sleeping platforms, one above the other, the lower one raised very little
above the floor and the other about three feet above it. Plans of two
of these houses are shown in flgnres 80 and 81.
On the long strip of low, sandy coast, between Ignituk and Cape
Nome, were located a number of small houses, which were used by the
people while snaring marmots [SpermopMlus parryi) in spring, or
when salmon Ashing in summer. These summer houses, or shelters,
were conical lodges, made by standing up sticks of driftwood in a
Fio, 60 — Section of bonsi^ at I;:uituk.
close circle, with their tops leaning together, forming a structure like
an Indian tipi; they were built by first lashing together three pieces
of wood and setting them up like a tripod, the others being leaned
against them to complete the rude structure. On the inside a rough
sleeping platform was supported on four corner stakes at the back of
the room. A narrow vacant space between two of the logs, forming
the wall, served as a doorway.
In the village on the north side of Cape Nome the houses were built
very much like those of Ignituk, but varied in some particulars.
Fig. 81 — Section of hoiiao n.t Ignituk.
They were constructed of driftwood, with an outer storeroom, which
was entered through a hole in the roof, access to which was gained by
means of a notched ladder. From this stoi'eroom was a passage about
three feet high, which ended in a hole leading through the wall directly
onto the plank floor of the living room, which had a sleejiing bench
about four feet from the floor, and below this the floor was usually occu-
pied for the same purpose. Leading from the entrance storeroom
were one or two other passages communicating with other living rooms,
and on one side a short passage opened into a room about 8 by 10 feet
in dimension and 6 or 7 feet in height, which served as a cooking room
254
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETB. ANN. 18
for the group of families living in the structure. No flres were ever lit
iu the living rooms. The sectional plan of one of these houses is shown
in figure S2, and a grouutl plan iu figure 83.
On Sledge island the winter village was perched on a steep slope,
facing the sea, and well above the water. The houses were set one
Fig. 82 — .Sectiuu of house at Cape is'iniie.
back of the other on the slope of the rocky talus that extends up to
the Lop of the high bluff; they were built on the plan of those at Cape
Nome, above described, e.\cept that the storeroom usually opened on a
level with the ground in front, instead of through the roof. In July,
1881, this village was almost deserted, as the i)eoi)le were on the adja-
cent mainland engaged in salmon fishing.
In all the last named villages elevated frameworks for boats and
sledges were numerous; iu those where the floors were made of hewed
UIV1N& ROOM
STORE ROOM
m
Fig. 83— Ground plan ot' house at Cape Nome.
planks, long use had worn them smooth and the inmates were careful
to keep them clean, sweeping them as often as necessary with a little
wisp of twigs.
King island, in Bering strait, is a ragged mass of granite rising
sheer fi-om the water for hundreds of feet on three sides, and on the
NELSON] KING ISLAND SUMMER HOUSES 255
fourtli side, where the village is located, it is very difficult to make a
landing. In July, 1881, the Coririn anchored a few hundred yards off
the shore; the rugged granite walls rose in sharp, serrated, angular
slopes Jilmost perpendicularly from the edge of the water to the village
and thence upward to the high crest. Along the edge of the water
great granite bowlders added to the difticulty of landing, thence up
to the village a broken path zigzagged sharply up the jagged slope.
From the vessel the village presented the appearance of a cluster of
cliff-swallows' nests on the face of the island, the entrances to the
houses looking like rounded black holes among the granite bowlders
used for their walls. As the anchor chain went rattling out, the peo-
ple, who had been watching us from the houses, gave a loud shout and
ran down to the water, leaping from rock to rock and looking like pig-
mies, so dwarfed were they by the gigantic background.
The winter houses at this place were made by excavating the loose
rocks, thus forming a deep niche in the steep slope, and by walling up
the front and sides with stones ]ilaced over a driftwood framework.
Access to these houses was gained by a long, arched stone passage-
way, which sloped from the outer entrance in and up to a hole in the
plank floor. The iuside of the living rooms were arranged with plank
floor and benches, just as on Sledge island, but there were no outer
storerooms or cooking rooms in the i)assageway. Driftwood was abun-
dant there, but the principal material used for covering the houses was
broken granite.
The summer houses were remarkable structures; they were square
inclosures, made wholly of tanned walrus hide, with a slightly arched
roof of walrirs skins drawn snugly over the wooden framewoi'k and
lashed firmly in place. The houses were elevated and held in ])lace
by a framework which consisted of two main poles standing upright
with their bases fastened among the rocks and connected by a wooden
crossbar lashed to them 10 or 20 feet from the ground. From this
crossbar other bars extended on a level back to the slope of the hill,
where they were made fast. The floor was of roughly hewed planks,
and at the back rested against the face of the hill. From the hillside
a plank extended to one of the corners of the house, and a little plank
walk passed thence arou,nd the side of the house to the front, being
railed by a pole lashed, at about the height of a man's hand, to uprights
set in the rocks. On the seaward side was a circular opening, which
served as a combined door and window. Figure 84 represents one of
these summer houses.
In some of these houses one corner was walled off ft-om the room with
wah'us hide as a square inclosure to serve as a sleeping room. In one
of the houses the entire rear half was walled across and again subdi-
vided by a walrus-skin partition, forming two sleeping rooms, entrance
to which was given by a round hole cut in the skiu. Each of these
inner rooms served for a family, aud contained their bedding and
256
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
lETH. ANX. 18
various small possessions, the longer outer room being a general sit-
ting and -work room and a receptacle for dried fish and other stores.
The translucent walrus hides rendered these houses very light, and
they were kept quite clean. .In summer fresh meat and fish were kept
in a great cleft in the cliff close to the landing place, and accessible
only from the water. There were various elevated frameworks here
for storing the boats.
On the larger Diomede island, in the middle of Bering strait, the vil-
lages differed in several respects from those of the King islanders.
Fig. 84 — ^Valnis skin siuiinier liouse on King island.
The summer houses were built among the winter dwellings, and were
above ground, with stone walls and" gravel covered roofs. An arched
stone passage, similar to those of tlie winter houses, but shorter, led to the
living room. With the exception of being less carefully built to exclude
water, these summer houses were very similar to those used in winter,
liaised ou four posts over or very near the entrance to each summer
house was a storehouse, the supporting posts and framework of which
were made from driftwood, and the sides and roofs of walrus hide, like
the elevated houses ou King island.
KELSON]
HOUSES AT EAST CAPE
257
At Cape Prince of Wales, on the Aiueiican shore of Bering strait,
tliere were two villages. One near the hill at the southern side of the
cape was called the "hill village," and the other, located ou the flat, was
called the "spit village." They were separated by a space of about 75
yards. The houses were built of driftwood covered with earth, and
were very similar to those of the Dioniede islands. The people of
these two villages had a standing fend that occasionally broke into
open quarrels. Those of the "spit village" were the most aggressive,
and were hated and feared by the others.
Crossing the strait a large Eskimo village was found on the point of
East cape, Siberia. This was built on a steep slope fronting the sea,
and its dome-shape houses with small outer openings gave it the
same appearance of being a cluster of cliff swallows' nests tliat we had
Fig. S5— Eskimo village at East cape, Siberia.
noticed on our aj)proach to King island. From the anchorage fifty four
occupied houses were counted; these must have contained over two
hundred and lifty people.
Just around the cape, to the north, was a village of equal size, which
was not visited. The village ou the point was built ou a slope of loose
granite fragments inclined at such an angle that there was space for
only a narrow trail in front of most of the houses, and then a sharp
descent of some yards. The houses consisted of a stone wall laid up
two or three feet from the ground, in oval form, and continued in the
shape of an arched or open-top entrance passage three or four yards
long, as shown in figure 8."i.
Upon this stone wall was a framework of whale-ribs arched to a com-
mon point over one side of the entrance, where they were met by the
18 ETH 17
258 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eih.ann 18
jawbone of a whale, the upper end of which was slightly curved inward
to meet the ribs crossed on the top. The jawbone, held in place by
lashings and heavy stones, was thus made to sustain the weight of the
structure. Over this framework tanned walrus hides were hud and
secured by lashings and heavy stones or whale vertebrae attached to the
ends of cords. The front part of the room was used for storing various
articles of food and property, and the rear part was supplied with pologs,
or small rooms, made by sewing reindeer skins into the form of ii cov-
ered square or rectangular box without a bottom, about 7 or 8 by 10 or
12 feet siiuare and about i feet high, which were held in place by raw-
hide ropes extending from each upper corner and the middle of the
sides to the framework of the riiof. In this way very close, warm rooms
■were made inside the house, in which, on a small raised platform of
planks or beaten earth, the beds were placed. ICach family had its own
Xjolog. Wood seemed to be very scarce among these people. The
illustration shows the situation of the village and the position of the
houses. The elevated iilatform on the right, for sleds and boats, is
made of whales' jawbones (figure 8.5).
Scattered along the hillside among the occupied houses were the
remains of many ruined houses, which were similar in character to the
dwellings seen on the Diomede islands — partly underground, with
external stone walls — and a very large number of pits showed the sites
of still older houses. It was evident that in earlier times these peoi)le
had used underground houses exclusively, but more recently had
abandoned them and built their dwellings in the manner described.
At riover bay, on the same coast, the village consisted mainly
of walrus-hide huts similar to those at East cape, except that they
Lad no stone walls about the bases, and the frames were composed of
driftwood instead of whale ribs; but the interior arrangement of deer-
skin pologs was the same. The illustration (plate Lxxxiii a), from a
photograph, will give an idea of the exterior of these houses.
A few small, half underground houses of driftwood and whalebones
covered with earth iu the regular Eskimo style, were found here. On
the northern side of the mouth of the bay a zigzag path leads high up
on the bluffs to a r(jck-walled shelter u.sed as a lookout to watch for
whales or for ve.-5sels at sea.
This village is not very populous, and through the introduction of
whisky and of various diseases by the whalers, wlio call here every
season, the Eskimo at this point are in a fair way to become extinct.
The accompanying illustration (plate lxxxiv) represents two women
from this locality.
St Lawrence island had several large and po])ulous villages i)revi()us
to the year 1879. IJuring the winter of 187U-'80 a famine, accompanied
by disease, caused the death of at least two-thirds of the entire popu-
lation of the island, and several villages were comi)!etely depoitulated.
During the summer of 1881 I visited these villages on the revenue
CO
o
z
UJ
D
05
i
■^
W
1
%
i
^
\-
i
• . ;^
U'
nelson)
VILLAGES ON ST LAWRENCE ISLAND
259
cutter Corn-in, and fouiul the tundra surrounding the village sites cov-
ered with corpses of the inhabitants; and dozens of them were still
Ij'ing where they had died in the houses.
In two villages at the southwestern end of the island were several
summer Louses of walrus skin, like those used at I'lover bay, and
various winter houses. These latter were framed with the jawbones
and ribs of whales, which were planted in the ground, arching in at the
top, forming an oval framework supporting the roof. The latter was
made of similar bones with a little driftwood added, and the entire
structure was covered with earth. Owing to the scarcity of material
these houses were small and rude, but were very similar to buildings
on the northern shore of Xortou sound.
Close by the winter houses were elevated storehouses, upheld on four
jawbones of whales i)lanted U])right in the ground. jNIost of the
summer houses were framed of long strips of bone sawed lengthwise
from whales' jaws, with one end planted in the ground and the other
bent over toward a stout jawbone of a whale standing upright in the
ground, on one side of the oval area inclosed
by the bone strips. Alternating with these
strips were whale ribs, which also curved
over toward the upright post. The frame
pieces were planted very shallowly in the
ground and were held steady by a rock
weighing over 100 pounds, which was hung
from the post-like jawbone which formed
the maiu strength of the structure. An
idea of these frames is given by the accom-
Ijanying sketch {figure 86).
The interior of these summer houses
measured about 20 feet in diameter, and were supplied with pologs
made of reindeer skins sewed together and suspended from the roof,
as is done on the Siberian coast. Exteriorly they were covered with
walrus skins, which were lashed on and held in place by heavy weights
of stone, driftwood, and bones, to i)revent their being tojipled over by
the frequent gales.
In a large village ou the northern shore of the island, where all the
inhabitants had jjerished, I found many similar summer houses, also
some partly subterranean winter houses, differing from any others seen
in this region. They were roofed with whalebones and driftwood, over
which was the usual layer of earth. Over the outer end of the passage-
way was a roofed, stockaded shelter made of driftwood, with one side
or a part of one side left open, facing away from the direction of the
prevailing wind. These shelters were from 5 to 8 feet across and about
.l or 0 feet high. In the floor opened a square hole, giving access to the
passageway, which was 2 or 3 feet high and from ."»() to 75 feet in length
and built wholly underground. In several instances they were curved
Fig. 80— Houae frame of whale ribs
and jawbone.
260
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[etu. axn. 18
laterally or turned at an aiij^le, as if to cut ott' a draft; but it is possible
tills may Lave beeu caused by startiug at both ends of the tunnel when
excavating it and failing to meet in a direct line. TLc houses had two
sets of broad sleeping benches on the right and left sides of the room.
Over the center of the floor was a square hole in the roof; just back of
Fig'. 87 — Section of house on St Lawrence island.
this a round opening had been made, in which was fitted a large ver-
tebra of a whale hollowed out to form a short cylinder, serving as a
smoke hole or ventilator, wLich could be left open during stormy
■weather when the larger oiieuing was covered. The accompanying
section of one of these houses (figure 87) explains the method of their
construction.
m*^ '"'■•■—■'-" -
ijMiC^i^kM^^^W^}:
feg:;vvcC-r:S,Ni»l>alg-
i I...OO — >L.,,,,,i. L ......i. ..., Hotliam inlet.
At Cape Espenberg, on Kotzebue sound, in July, ISSl, we found a
camp of traveling Malemut. They had several low, round-top tents, 3i
to 4 feet high and G to 7 feet wide, made of drilling drawn over slender
poles crossed and bent, with their ends thrust into the ground. One
conical lodge, also covered with drilling, was about 10 feet high and 8
leet in diameter on the ground.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXXIV
WOMEN OF PLOVER BAY, SIBERIA
SUMMER CAMP ON HOTHAM INLET
2G1
At llotbaiu iulet, near the bead of Kotzebiie sound, on tbe 15th of
July of the same year, a large gatberiug of Eskimo from Kowak and
!Ko!itak rivers was seen. Tliey were living in a row of conical lodges
extending in a line for more tlian a mile along a low, sandy sjtit par-
allel to tbe shore of tbe sound. Figure SS, from a photograph, illus-
trates this camp for the season of 1881. This camp was arranged with
almost military j)recision; along the beach, above high-water mark,
with their sterns to the sea, were ranged between sixty and seventy
umiaks, turned with the bottom upward and toward the prevailing
wind, tilted on one rail, the other being supported on two sticks 3i to
4 feet long. Sevent}--five yards back from the umiaks, in a line parallel
to the beach, were ranged over two hundred kaiaks, supported about
three feet from the ground on low trestles made of branching stakes.
Below each kaiak, supported on a rest 3 or 4 inclies above the ground,
was the set of spears, paddles, etc, belonging to the boat. The kaiaks
were all of the long, slender
pattern common at Kotze-
bue sound, and were ranged
parallel to each other, point-
ing toward the sea, in a line
with the niniaks. Fifty
yards back from the kaiaks,
and ranged in aline parallel
with them, were the conical
lodges occupied by the i)eo-
ple; they were framed by
slender poles standing in a
circle, with the upper ends
meeting and held in ]ilace
by a strong wooden hoop
lashed to the poles with
rawhide cord midway between the ground and the top. The accom-
panying sketch (figure 89) shows the manner of arranging the framework.
The frames were about 10 feet high and from 12 to 15 feet iu diam-
eter at the base; they were covered with untanned winter deerskins
sewed into srpiares containing about six deerskins, which were thrown
over the framework with the hair outward. Several of these squares
were necessary for each lodge. In some cases the deerskins were cov-
ered with a large sheet of drilling or calico, as shown in plate Lxxxiii h.
Behind the lodges were stakes to which each family had tied its dogs,
fastened so as to be just out of reach of each other.
This was a summer trading camp of these people, and contained
from six to eight hundred persons. Figure 90 shows the plan of the
encampment.
In size and methodical arrangement this camp presented a very
striking appearance and was the only one I ever saw iu which the
Fig. S9— Frame for summer lodire. Hotliam inlet.
262
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
Eskimo had followed a deliberate plan. The large number of boats,
and the necessity for having clear space to enable each crew to launch
without interfering with its neighbors, must have brought about this
plan, which could not have been improved, as the entire camp could
embark and paddle to a trading vessel in less than five minutes.
\
F[f:. 90 — Arrangement of sunimtT cump at Hut hum inlet.
This was a temporary camp which is located here for a few weeks
each summer for the purpose of trading with vessels which cruise in
these waters, as well as for meeting and trading with the people from
both shores of Bering strait.
At Point Hope, just north of Kotzebue sound, was found a large
Eskimo village, containing between three hundred and four hundred peo-
ple, living in conical summer lodges. The winter village of semi-subter-
ranean houses was on the outer edge of the cape, the summer village
being nearer the mainland.
Near Cape Thompson was
found a small party of peo-
ple, from Point Hope, who
were on their way up the
coast and were waiting here
for better weather. They
were living in conical lodges
covered with a patchwork
of sealskins sewed together.
7 The entrance to each lodge
was through a square hole
in one side, about two feet
from the ground, as shown
in the accompanying illus-
tration (figure 01).
At Cape Lisburne was found another camp of Point Hope people on
their way noithward Two photographs of this camp were obtained,
from one of which plate LXXXV was drawn. This camp had the usual
conical lodges, some of them being round-topped like those seen at
Cape Espenberg.
Fit). 91— Suiniiierltnlfii' at Cape Thompson.
NELSON] SUMMER CAMPS RUINS 263
Just iiortli of Cape Lisburne three or four winter Louses were seeu,
but it could uot be determined wbetber tbey were occupied.
Near Icy cape were several summer caiiips of Point Barrow people.
Tbey were living in conical lodges, many of wbicb were covered witb
canvas takeu from wrecked wbaling vessels. In front of eacb camp
was erected a stout Y>ost from 12 to 20 fnet bigb, notcbed on the sides
for convenience in climbing. Near the top was a crossbar, used as a
seat or percb. Tbe coast in tbis jiart of the district is very flat and
low, and tbese posts are used as lookout points wbence the peo])le are
able to see tbe " blowing" of wbales or the approach of ships. As we
passed by tbe shore eacb post was usually occupied by a man who
waved bis shirt to induce us to stop.
From here to Point Barrow were several similar summer camps of
from two to ten lodges eacb. At Point Barrow tbe winter bouses were
of tlie ordinary iialf underground type witb a long, tunnel like entrance
way; scarcity of driftwood had necessitated the use of whale ribs and
jawbones in framing these bouses. At this point the storehouses for
meat were built very nearly in tbe style of the winter houses, except
that the only entrance was by a trapdoor in the roof, so that they
were really half underground cellars.
Near the winter houses were platforms 6 to 8 feet above the ground,
on which were stored spears, nets, and various hunting and household
paraphernalia. At tbe time of our visit in August tbe inhabitants
were living in conical lodges.
RUINS
Euins of ancient Eskimo villages are common on tbe lower Yukon and
thence along tbe coast line to Point Barrow. On tbe Siberian shore
tbey were seen from East cape along tbe Arctic coast to Cape Wanka-
rem. Various circumstances prevented the recording of more than a
few superficial notes in regard to them, which are here inserted for the
purpose of bringing them to the attention of future workers in that
region. On tbe shore of tbe bay on tbe southern side of St Michael
island I dug into an old village site where saucer-shape pits indicated
the places formerly occupied by bouses. The village had been burned,
as was evident from the numerous fragments of charred timbers mixed
with the soil. In tbe few cubic feet of earth turned up at tbis i^lace
were found a slate tisb knife, an ivory spearhead, a doll, and a toy dish,
tbe latter two cut from bark. Tbe men I had with me from the village
at St Michael became so alarmed by their superstitious feelings that
I was obliged to give up tlie idea of getting further aid from them in
this place. I learned afterward that tbis village bad been built by
people from Pastolik, at tbe mouth of the Yukon, who went there to
fish and to hunt seals before the Russians came to the country.
On tbe highest point of Whale island, which is a steep islet just off-
shore near the present village of St Michael, were the ruins of a
264 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ann. 18
kasliim and of several houses. The St Michael people told me that this
place was destroyed, long before the Russians came, by a war party from
below the Yukon mouth. The sea has encroached upon the islet until
a portion of the land formerly occupied by the village has been washed
away. The permanently fiozen soil at this place stopped us at the
depth of about two feet. Here, and at another ancient Unalit village
site which was examined superficially, we found specimens of bone and
ivory carvings which were very ancient, as many of them crumbled to
pieces on being exi)osed.
Along the lower Yixkon are many indications of villages destroyed
by war parties. According to the old men these parties came from
Askiuuk and Kushunuk, near the Kuskokwim, as there was almost
constant warfare between the people of these two sections before the
advent of the Russians.
Both the fur traders and the Eskimo claim that there are a large
number of house sites on the left bank of the Yuiion, a few miles below
Ikogmut. This is the village that the Yukon Eskimo say had 35
kashims, and there are many tales rehiting to the period when it was
occupied. At the time of my Yukon trips this site was heavily <!0V-
ered with snow, and I could not see it; but it would undoubtedly well
repay thorough excavation during the summer months. One of the
traditions is that this village was built by people from Bristol bay,
joined by others from Nunivak island and Kushunuk. One informant
said that a portion of this village was occupied up to 1848, when the
last inhabitants died of smallpox, but whether or not this is true I was
unable to learn.
Another informant told me that near the entrance of Goodnews bay,
near the mouth of the Kuskokwim, there is a circular pit about 75 feet
in diameter, marking the former site of a very large kashim. A few
miles south of Shaktolik, near the head of Norton sound, I learned of the
existence of a lai'ge village site. Both the Eskimo and the fur traders
who told me of this said that the houses had been those of Shaktolik
peoi)le, and that some of them must have been connected by under-
ground passageways, judging from the ditch like depressions from one
to the other along the surface of the ground. The Shaktolik men who
told me this said that there were many other old village sites about
there and that they were once inhabited by a race of very small people
who have all disappeared.
From the Malemut of Kotzebue sound and adjacent region I learned
that there are many old village sites in that district. Many of these
places were destroyed by war parties of Tiune from the interior, accord-
ing to the traditions of the present inhabitants.
On Elephant point, at the head of Kotzebue sound, 1 saw the site of
an old village, with about fifteen pits marking the locations of the
houses. The pits sloped toward the center and showed by their out-
lines that the houses had been small and roughly circular, with a short
KELSON]
RUINS AT CAPE WANKAREM
265
passageway leading into tbem, the entire structure having been partly
underground.
Tlie Eskimo of East cape, Siberia, said tliat there were many old
village sites along the coast in that vicinity. These houses had stone
foundations, many of which are still in place. There is a large ruined
village of this kind near the one still occu])ied on the cape.
On the extreme point of Cape Wankarem, and at its greatest eleva-
tion, just above the itrescut camp of the reindeer Chukchi, a series of
three sites of old Eskimo villages were found. The accompanying
sketch map of the cape shows the relative sites of these villages, and
also indicates another fact which may give a slight clew to the age of
one of them.
Fig. 92— Sites of ancient Tillages at Cape Wankarera, Siberia.
Number 1 is the site of a village which at present contains the ruins
of three houses: other houses have evidently been washed away by tlie
encroachment of the sea. These three houses are of mound shape, with
a pit or depression in the middle, and a trench-like depression lead-
ing out from each of them toward the sea shows the position of the
entrance passage. Numerous ribs and jawbone's of whales lie scattered
aboiit, and the decaying end of a whale's jawbone, projecting through
the top of one of the mounds, shows tlie material used in framing them.
Number 2 represents a series of five similar house sites, facing the
dotted area on the sketch maj); and at number 3 is indicated still
another series of ten house sites like the preceding, all unquestionably
of Eskimo origin.
Number 4 is the site of the present Chukchi camp, consisting of skin
lodges, as we found it at the time of our visit. No recent whale bones
266 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
were seeu about the Ghukclii camp, but tbere were many vertebra' and
otLer bones gathered from the ruins of the Eskimo houses. A man
was seeu digging up a whale's jawbone from one of the okl house sites,
and there were evidences that many others had been removed in the
same manner by the present inhabitants.
During repeated visits made to these ruins I was impressed by
several circumstances which may serve to shed light on their age, as
shown by the following observations:
Villages 1 and 2 are on a high knoll whicli rises like an island from
the low, flat shore, the sides sloping down to the narrow, pebble cov-
ered neck of land (at 7) which separates a lagoon on one side from the
open sea on the other. Number -1 is on higher ground than the neck at
number 7, and is made up of sand and gravel. Number 5 is the present
seashore or water line. Number 0 is a well-marked ancient water line,
close to the edge of which was built the village marked 3. There is
a gravelly beach between the present and former water lines. Number
7 is a pebble- covered beach, probably two feet above extreme high water
line at present.
It will be noticed that number 2 fronts directly upon 7 and is located
exactly as an Eskimo village would be placed if 7 were an open chan-
nel. The western Eskimo have an almost invariable custom of build-
ing their villages facing the water and parallel with the shore line. I
think it may safely be stated that none of these people ever placed a
village site in the relation to the sea that the site of number 2 now bears,
aiul it consequently follows, almost as a demonstrated fact, that village
number 2 was built and occupied when 7 was an open waterway, sepa-
rating the high knoll of Cape Wankarem from the mainland and thus
forming it into an island.
I think number 2 marks the most ancient of the villages, for number
3 is so placed in regard to the ancient beach (6) that it could not have
been safely inhabited until the sea came to occupy nearly its present
water line. 1 should conclude that the land had been laised about
three feet from its ancient level at the time the water line stood at G,
when village number 3 was occupied. The gradual upraising of the
coast nuist have made village number 2 untenable and caused the
peoi)]e to change to number 3, that and number 1 i)robably being the
last villages occupied by the Eskimo, who had disappeared from this
part of the coast before the historical period.
The severity of the Arctic climate on this bleak coast renders it very
ditiicult, if not impossible, to nuike an estimate of any value (basing cal-
culatious upon the decay of i)erishable articles) as to the length of time
that has elapsed since an ancient site was occupied. If data were at
hand to estinuite the rate of the rise of the laud on the northwestern
Alaska and Siberian coasts, we would have a key to the approximate
age of villages 2 and 3 at Cape Wankarem, and probably to the age of
numerous other settlements along the same shore.
NELSON] MEAT AND FISH CURING 267
FOOD
Being a race of hunters and flsliermen the food supply of the Eskimo
is essentially composed of game and tish, which are prepared iu a
variety of ways. But little attention is paid to cleanliness in the
preparation of food among these people. The tlesh of reindeer, moun-
tain sheei), bears, seals, walrus and other large game are commonly
boiled in sea water to give it a salty ilavor.
Meat is freijuently kept for a considerable length of time and some-
times until it becomes semiputrid. At Point Barrow, in the middle of
August, 1881, the people still had the carcasses of deer which had been
killed the preceding winter aiul .si)ring. This meat was kept in small
underground pits, whidi the frozen subsoil rendered cold, but not cold
enough to prevent a bluish fungus growth which completely covered
the carcasses of the animals and the walls of the storerooms.
ileat killed in summer is otten dried, as are also the various kinds of
salmon, which are split down to tlie base of the tail and hung on wooden
frames until dry. The smaller species of salmon, known as dog salmon,
are tied in bunches of twenty when dry and placed in storehouses for
future use.
Tiie large tlakes of dried king salmon are usually packed away ia
bales or bundles. Tomcod, sculpin, and whitetish also are dried, the
smaller species, such as tomcod and sculpin, being hung upon strings.
The roe of herring is gathered on the seaweed during spawning time
and some of this is dried and preserved for winter use, when it is boiled
and eaten with great relish.
On the lower Kuskokwim and thence to the Yukon the people try
out the oil from a species of wiiitetish found there and store in bags
for winter use the clear white fat thus obtained.
Fish are boiled and sometimes are roasted over an ojieu fire as is
frecjuently done with meat, but boiling is the usual method of jirepar-
ijig" both fish and meat. Fish taken in winter are usually placed in
grass bags and kept frozen until required, when they are eaten raw,
while still frozen, or are boiled. Crabs, mussels, and ascidians are boiled.
In the district between the Yukon and the Kuskokwim, the heads 'of
king salmon, taken iu summer, are placed iu small pits iu the ground
surrounded by straw and covered with turf. They are kept there during
summer and in the autumn have decayed until even the bones have
become of the same consistency as the general mass. They are then
taken out and kneaded in a wooden tray until they form a pasty com-
pound and are eaten as a favorite dish by some of the people. The
odor of this mess is almost unendurable to one not accustomed to it,
and is even too strong for the stomachs of many of the Eskimo.
The back fat of the reindeer is cut into small pieces and chewed by
the women until it becomes a pasty mass, which is put into a wooden
dish. When enough of this has been i)repared, a quantity of snow and
268 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. ann. 18
some salmon or craiibemes are mixed with it and the whoe is ktieaded
until it becomes a homogeneous mass. This comiiound is regarded as
the greatest delicacy that can be served to guests and at feasts.
The blubber of seals, walrus, or whales is stored and often eaten in
its natural form; or the oil may be tried out and stored in bags and
used for food as well as for burning in lamps. When used as food it
is placed in a small wooden tray or dish and the people dip their dried
fish or other meat into it. The oil is never drunk by them except when
desiring to take it as a purgative; at such times a large draft of seal
oil is usually effective.
The oil obtained from whiteflsh is regarded as a great delicacy when
eaten with dried salmon. Walrus flippers and the skin of the white
whale are also among the choice bits of the Eskimo larder. The blood
of seals or other large game is made into a stew called kai-u'-shulc. The
soup of boiled meat is called mf-chu'-a and is greatly relished.
On the mainland it is customary for the women to go out every spring
and search the marshes for the eggs of wild fowl which breed there.
Upon the islands waterfowl are caught and their eggs taken from the
clifls facing the sea, and many geese and ducks are speared or netted
while molting at the end of the breeding season.
In autumn the women gather a large supply of blueberries, heath
berries, salmon berries, and cranberries, which they store for winter
use. At this season is also gathered a kind of wild sorrel, which is
boiled and crushed with a pestle and then put into a wooden tub or
barrel and covered with water, where it is left to ferment in the sun.
This makes a very pleasant acid relish, which is added to various dishes
in the winter and is called ko-pa'-tuh. Young willow leaves are also
boiled and eaten.
The women also gather the bulbous roots of a species of grass, which
are either boiled or eaten raw ; they have a sweetish, nutty flavor. They
also search for the little stores of these roots which have been gathered
by field mice. They feel around among the grass-covered knolls with
a long-handle staff until a soft spot is found, showing the location of
the hidden store, which they quickly transfer to their baskets.
All the Eskimo are forced by the harsh nature of their climatic sur-
roundings to provide a supply of food for winter, but they are careless
and improvident in many ways. They frequently consume nearly all of
their stores during midwinter festivals and live in semi-starvation
throughout the early spring.
The seal nets set out in the fall are of the utmost importance to the
natives, as they depend upon the catch ot seals at this time for food
and for a supply of oil tor their lamps and other purposes, as well as
the skins for buying necessary articles from the traders.
Just before the netting season, one of my paddle men, an unusually
industrious hunter, found that there was some whisky in a village
where we stopped. Before I knew it he had traded off" his only seal
uet for enough whisky to make himself intoxicated, in which condition
NELSON] FAMINE ON ST LAWRENCE ISLAND 269
he immediately proceeded to place liiiiiself. The result was that he aud
his family were very .short of Ibotl diiriiig' the following- winter.
The terrible faihiue and accoiiipanyiiig' disease which caused the death
of over a thousand jjeople on St Lawrence island during the winter of
1879 and 1880 was said to have been caused by the use of whisky.
The people of that island usually obtained their supply of food lor tiie
winter by killing walrtis from the great herds of these animals that go
through Bering strait on the first ice in the fall. The walrus reinain
about the island only a few days and then go south, when the ice closes
about aud shuts the island in till spring.
Just before the time for the walrus to reach the island that season,
the Eskimo obtained a supply of whisky from some vessels and began
a prolonged debauch, which ended ouly when the supply was exhausted.
When this occurred the annual migration of the walrus had j^assed,
and the people were shut in for the winter by the ice. The result was
that over two-thirds of the population died before spring. The follow-
ing spring, when the Corivin visited the islands, some of the survivors
came ou board bringing a few articles for trade. They wished only to
Ijurchase ride cartridges and more whisky.
During July, 1881, the Gorwin made a visit to this famine stricken
district, where the miserable survivors were seen. Only a single dog
was left among them, the others having been eaten by the starving
people. Two of the largest villages were entirely depopulated.
In July I landed at a place on the northern shore where two houses
were standing, iu which, wrapped in their fur blaukets on the sleeping
platforuis, lay about 25 dead bodies of adults, and upon the ground
aud outside were a few others. Some miles to the eastward, along the
coast, was another village, where there were 200 dead people, lii a
large house were found about 15 bodies phiced one upon another like
cordwood at one end of the room, while as numy others lay dead iu
their blaukets ou the platforms.
In the houses all the wooden and clay food vessels were found turned
bottom upward and put away in one corner — mute evidences of the
famine. Scattered about the houses on the outside were various tools
and implements, clay pots, wooden dishes, trays, guns, knives, axes,
ammunition, and empty bottles; among these articles were the skulls of
walrus and of many dogs. The bodies of the people were found every-
where in the village as well as scattered along iu a line toward the
graveyard for half a mile inland.
The first to die had beeu taken farthest away, and usually placed
at full length beside the sled that had carried the bodies. Scattered
about such bodies lay the tools and implements belouging to the dead.
In one instance a body lay outstretched upon a sled, while behind it,
prone upon his face, with arms outstretched aud almost touching the
sled runners, lay the liody of a mau who had died while pushing the
sled bearing the body of his friend or relative.
Others were found lying in the uudergrouud passageways to the
270 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BEEiNG STKAIT [eth.ann. 18
houses, and one body was found halfway out of the entrance. Most of
the bodies- lying about the villages had evidently been dragged there
and left wherever it was most convenient by the living during the later
period of the famine. The total absence of the bodies of (ihildreu in
these villages gave rise to the suspicion that they had been eaten by the
adults; but possibly this may not have been the case. The strongest
evidence in tliis regard, however, was in one village where there were
over two hundred dead adults, and although 1 looked carefully for the
bodies of children, none could be found; yet there was no positive evi-
dence that cannibalism had been practiced by the natives. Tliat this
custom sometimes prevailed, however, in ancient times, during famines,
I learned from the Unalit; nevertheless they openly expressed their
abhorrence of the practice.
On the bluff at the northwest i)oint of this island we found a couple
of surviving families living in round top, walrus-hide summer houses.
At the foot of the hill not far from their present camping i)lace was a
winter village, where about 100 people lay dead; the bodies were scat-
tered about outside or were lying in their blankets in the houses, as we
had seen them in other places.
The two families living there consisted of about a dozen ])eople; the
adults seemed very much depressed and had little animation. Among
them were two bright little girls, who had the usual childish careless-
ness, and kept near us while we were on shore. When 1 shot a snow
bunting near the village they called to me and ran to show me its nest
on the hillside.
When 1 asked one of the inhabitants what had become of the people
who formerly lived on that part of the island, he waved his hand toward
the winter village, saying, "All mucky mucky,^^ being the .jargon term
for ''dead."'
I tried to obtain a photograph of the women and little girls, and for
that purpose placed them in position and focused the camera. While
I was waiting for a lull in the wind to take the picture, the husband of
one of the women came up and asked in a listless, matter-of-fact tone,
"All w( »((•/.•(/ now?" meaning, "Will they all die now?" He evidently
took it for granted that my camera was a conjuring box, which would
complete tlie work of tlie famine, yet he seemed perfectly iudiflerent to
the consequences.
A curious trait noticed among these survivors was their apparent
loss of the customary fear which the natives usually show when near a
spot where many persons have died. The death of all their friends
and relatives seemed to have rendered them apathetic and beyond the
influence of ordinary fear of that kind. The two families mentioned
were cam])ed on the hilf.just above the village full of dead bodies, and
whenever they went down to the shore to launch their umiak they were
forced to pass close to the dead, yet they seemed oblivious to their
gruesome surroundings.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXXVI
H^ #'A (fii
TOBACCO AND SNUFF BOXES AND SNUFF-MAKING IMPLEMENTS iQNE-FIFTHi
MODE OF PREPARING TOBAUCO
271
TOBACCO AXD SMOKING
METHODS OF USING TOBACCO
Tobacco was first iutrodiiced among the Alaskali Eskimo from Asia,
by way of Bering- strait, by their Siberian neigbbors, and by the same
route came the pipes witli cylindrical bowls and wide rims, similar to
those used in eastern Asia.
Tobacco is used in different forms by both sexes; the women usually
chew it or take it in the form of snutf, but rarely smoke it; the meu
use it in all these ways. The tobacco now used by these people is
obtained from the traders, and is usually in the form of the natural leaf,
tied iu snuill bunches called "hands."
For chewing, the tobacco is cut into shreds on small boards which
ai'e usually merely plain tablets from a few inches to a foot or more
in diameter, but they
are sometimes orna-
mented with an incised
jiattern. When the
tobacco has been cut
sufiicieutly fine it is
mixed with ashes ob-
tained from tree fun-
gus and kneaded and
rolled into rounded
pellets or rjuids, ofteu
being chewed a little
by the women in order
to incorporate the
ashes more thorough-
ly. The tree fungus
from which the ashes
are made forms a regular article of trade with the Tinue of tiie iute
rior, who bring it to the coast every summer and sell it to the Eskimo.
Figure i)3 represents a specimen of this tree fungus, which was obtained
at St Michael from a trading party of the Yukon Tinn6. Figure 118
illustrates one of the tobacco boards.
It is common when traveling among these people to see the women
engaged iu cutting up tobacco, kneading it with ashes, or chewing it
into ([uids iu order to supply their husbands or other male relatives
with a stock for use on the ensuing day. From four to eight of the
pellets are prepared at one tune; these are packed in little boxes ready
for use.
The men do not usually chew the quids, but hold them iu the cheek,
and rarely expectorate the juice. After holding a quid iu his mouth
for some time, if the chewer wishes to rest, eat, or drink, he takes it
out, and after rolling it into a little ball, places it behind his right ear,
where it remains until again needed.
Fig. 93 — Fungus u.sed for making asliea to mix witli tobacco.
272 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethann. 18
lu addition to tlie usual tobacco mixed witli fungus asbes these
people are also fond of usiug the nicotine that accumulates in their
pipestems. At intervals every smoker opens his pipestem ; nd care-
fully removes the oily mass of tobacco extract, which he places with
bis chewing tobacco; a jiortiou of this is combined with the quid and
adds greatly to his enjoyment, owing to its strong narcotic influence.
I have frequently seen them place this material in their mouths almost
undiluted and in quantity that appeared sufficient to cause the indi-
vidual's death, yet apparently without producing the least nausea or
other ill efl'ect.
Some of tlie writers on the Eskimo have claimed that they eat this
concentrated tobacco, but I think this a mistake, as I frequently saw
them placing it in their mouths and holding it there in the same man-
ner that they did ordinary quids.
For smoking the tobacco is cut very fine, then a little tuft of fur is
plucked from tlie clothing and wadded at the bottom of the narrow,
cylindrical bowl of the pipe, and the tobacco is placed on top of this
until the bowl is full. A small fragment of tinder is then lighted with
flint and steel and placed on the tobacco. The smoker gives two or
three short, sharp draws, which thoroughly ignite the tinder and
tobacco, and then draws the smoke into his lungs by a long, deep
inhalation, which consumes all the tobacco contained in the pipe.
After retaining the smoke as long as po&sible it is exhaled, and the
smoker puts away the pipe.
For making suuft' the tobacco is finely shredded, and is then thor-
oughly dried, after which it is pounded in a small wooden mortar with
a wooden jiestle until reduced to powder. These mortars are gener-
ally more or less goblet-shape, although I obtained one specimen from
the lower Yukon, shown in plate Lxxxvi, 30, which is like a small
wooden dipper, with a hole near the end of the handle for suspending
it. Another typical example of these mortars (plate lxxsv, 28) was
obtained at Eazbinsky. The pestles usually consist of sticks from an
iucli to au inch and a half in diameter, rounded at the lower end, and
from 10 to 15 inches in length. A good specimen of these implements,
from Kigiktauik, is shown in figure 27.
After the tobacco has been reduced to powder it is sifted, to remove
the coarser particles, until it is finally of the fineness required. For
this purpose there are used small sieves, similar to the specimen from
liazbinsky (figure 29), which are made by cutting out a cylinder of
wood about two inches long, and fastening over one end a cover of
jiarchment made from some thin skin or from the intestine of some
animal, which is punctured with numerous small holes, and the edges
bound to the cylinder by a sinew cord wrapped around a groove in the
border. The sieve frames are sometimes made from bark, and one
such specimen collected on the lower Yukon has the sieve made from
a piece of coarse sacking.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXXVII
FUNGUS ASH BOXES AND TOBACCO BAGS ONE-FOURTH
NELsoNj SNUFF-r.OXES DESCRIISEU 273
TOBACCO IMPLEMENTS
SNUFF-IiOXES
The snuff is kept in neatly made boxes, and is used by placing' one
end of a tube (made from the wing-bone of a goose or other water fowl)
successively in each of the nostrils and inhaling vigorously from the
snuff-box in which the other end of the tube is jilaced.
The boxes used for containing snuff vary greatly in form, many of
them showing remarkable skill in carving and ingenuity in conception
of the designs.
A snuff-box from Kigiktauik (number 33074) is formed of a band of
bone bent into a circle and riveted at the ends by pieces of iron; this
serves as a foundation on which is titted a to]i and a bottom in the form
of truncated cones, the top having a ronnd hole lu the center, capped
with a wooden cover. The band of bone has a few circles and dots
etched on its surface.
A circular wooden snuff-box from Kaialigamut (figure 20, plate
LXXXVi) is slightly narrower at the top and is beveled inward from
the rim both above and below to the convex top and bottom; the
cover has a projecting arm, extending slightly beyond the edge of the
box, by which it can be raised. In both top and bottom are set live
small ivory pegs with broad heads. The box is painted black, except
the beveled edge of the rim above and below and the lever-like handle
on the cover, which are red. Another specimen, brought from jSTorton
sound, is shaped similarly to the preceding, but has four grooves around
the outside, forming bead-like ridges, the upper and lower ones being
the largest.
The .snuff-box from Auogogmut (figure 21, plate lxxxti) is somewhat
similar to the above-described specimen from Kigiktauik, but the top
and the bottom are carved in relief to represent a human face surrounded
by a beveled ridge; two beads are inlaid to represent labrets, and the
mouth and the eyes are indicated by inlaid pieces of ivory. A series of
beads is set in a groove around the middle of the box, which is painted
red.
Au oval wooden box from Kushunuk (figure 11, plate Lxxxvi) forms
a sharp angle at each end; the top and bottom are slightly convex.
The sides are painted with alternate stripes of bla(-k and red; on the
top the red is replaced by dull blue, the bottom also being of that
color. A loop of sealskin cord three and a half inches long forms a
handle on the cover.
Another oval box, obtained at St Michael (figure 0, plate lxxxvi)
has the sides made of leather covered with black whalebone, the ends
of which are notched and interlocked. The to]) and bottom are of wood
neatly fitted. To the center of the top is fastened a stout rawhide cord
about three inches long, which has attached to its end a small tube for
inhaling snuff'.
18 ETH IS
274 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth an.v. 18
A curious box from Chalitmut (ligure 15, plate lxxxvi) is oval in
shape aud is cut from a single piece of wood. The oval cover is set
in one side and lias a rawliide handle. On the sides, carved in strong
relief, are two grotestiue, seal-like animals facing each other. The
bodies are painted red and the intervening area black. The entire
surface of the box is marlied with crescent-shape incisions and studded
with white beads of different sizes.
A box from the lower Yukon (figure 12, plate lxxxvi) represents a
large seal upon its back with the head aud the tail upraised and a smaller
seal lying upon it, this latter forming the cover. This is a well-made
carving in strong relief, with numerous small ivory pegs and white
beads set about the surface. Around the neck of each seal is fastened
a flattened piece of bird quill. The seals are represented with open
mouths and beads form the eyes.
The small square box from Nunivak island (figure 3, plate lxxxvi)
is made of ivory, with the top aud bottom of separate pieces fastened
by pegs. Across tlie top three strips ot brass are inlaid, aud the small
wooden lid has a loop of rawhide for a handle. The sides of the box
are etched with two parallel lines connecting a series of circles and
dots.
A square wooden box from Nulukhtulogumut (figure 2, plate lxxxvi)
has the bottom neatly fitted and a small, square lid near one end with
a loop of sinew for a handle; around the sides and the top, passing over
the middle in both directions, narrow strips of ivory are inlaid. The
bottom of the box, the sides of the top, and the end farthest from the
lid are painted red; the remainder is black.
A round-cornered box from King island (figure 1, plate lxxxvi) has
square pieces of lead and bone inlaid around the sides and the top. In
the top are two circular pieces of white bone, and white beads are
inserted over the surface, except on the bottom. The lid is a thin
piece of wood which slides in a groove and has a projecting thumb-
piece at one end. A box very similar to this was obtained on Nuui-
vak island ; its surface is inlaid with strips and squares of brass and
numerous white beads.
Another box from Nunivak island (figure 4, plate lxxxvi) is of wood
heavily inlaid with cross-bands of brass. The lid, which is inlaid in
the same manner, consists of a small, square, wooden cap fitted into
the beveled edges of a small hole in the center of the top.
An oval box from Kushunuk (figure 5, plate lxxxvi) is made of
birch-bark which is bent and the overlapping ends cut and interlaced.
The top and the bottom are fitted with wooden stoppers, the upper one
having a strip of beaver skin for a handle. Another box from Kushu-
nuk (figure 7, plate lxxxvi) is of wood, oval in outline. The bottom
and the cover are pointed oval in form, and the latter has a projecting
thumb piece at one end. It is painted black and pieces of white crock-
ery are inlaid in regular series over the surface.
NELSON] SNUFF-TUBES FUNGUS-ASH BOXES 275
A large ivory smiftbox from 2fubviukbchugaluk (figure 23, plate
Lxxxvi) is neatly made from a liollowed-out cross section of a walrus
tusk. The top and the bottom are of wood and the surface is grooved
Lorizoutally and vertically.
SNUFF-TUBES
For taking snuff from tbe boxes, tubes made from the hollow wing-
boues of geese and other water fowl are used; they are truncated at
both euds, and vary in length from 3^ to 5.^ inches. Frequently they
are attached to the cover of the snuff-box by a rawhide cord, but some-
times they are carried separately. They are in genexal use from the
Kuskokwim northward to Kotzebue sound, and the method of using
them is the same as previously desca'ibed.
The surface of these implements is sometimes plain, as in the speci-
men shown in plate xo, 1, from Cape Is'ome, which has merely a rude
groove around the middle for the attachment of a cord.
Another tube (figure 2, i)late xc) from Kushuuuk, is also plain, and
has wound around it, near one end, several turns of a smooth rootlet,
the ends being tucked under to hold it in place. The specimen from
Anogogmut (figure 4, plate xc) is likewise plain, but its ends are slightly
reduced in size, aud near the shoulder, around the tube, are three
parallel incised lines.
A tube from the lower Yukon (figure 3, plate xc) has the ends
slightly reduced and the sides beveled to form eight faces. Another,
from Eazbinsky (plate xc, 13), is encircled with smooth, parallel grooves
exteuding in a regular series from end to end, producing a scalloped
surfiice, the intervening ridges being neatly rounded. The specimen
from Cape Vancouver (plate xc, 14) is similar to this, but has an incised
groove around the top of each ridge.
Another tube (figure 5, jjlate xc) from Askinuk, has two broad
grooves near each end, with three incised lines around the bordering
ridges. Another specimen from the same place (figure 15, plate xc) is
handsomely etched with lines, circles, dots, and cross patterns, and has
numerous tridentate marks representing the raven totem.
The sijecimens illustrated in figures 6 and 12, plate xc, are from C'lial-
itmut.
Tabes variously ornamented with etched lines are shown in figure
11, from the lower Yukon; figure 1», from Koiiigunugumut; figure 10,
from Askinuk; figure 7, from the lower Yukon, and figure 8, from Cape
Vancouver.
BOXES FOE FUNGUS ASHES
For storing the wood fungus ashes, which are used with chewing-
tobacco, small boxes are made; these are usually rather tubular in
shape and are made from a cotisiderable variety of materials. Among
the large series obtained are speciincns made from sections of reindeer
276 THE ESKIMO ABOUT liEKIXG STRAIT [eth.axx. 18
antler hollowed out aud titted with a cap of wood or antler at each
end. Some are made from the butts of walrus tusks hollowed out and
fitted with covers, aud others are of wood or bone.
Oue of tliese boxes, from Hotham inlet (figure 7, plate lxxxvii), is
made from a piece of walrus ivory and shaped something like the hoof
of a reindeer. About its upper end is sewed a piece of cloth provided
with a 2)uckering string for closing it. The surface is plain, except for
a series of circles and dots which extend around its upper border.
A box from Golofniu bay (figure 5, plate lxxxvii) is made from the
butt of a large walrus tusk, and has a wooden bottom held in place by
wooden pins set through holes drilled in the ivory. The sides of this
box, which have been split, are repaired with small copper clamps aud
a sinew cord wound around the middle. The top is neatly made of
walrus ivory, oval in outline, with a sunken shoulder to fit in the open-
ing of the box. In the back are two holes through which a rawhide
cord is passed and tied; the cord then runs up through a hole in the
edge of the cover and along a slot on the top, then down again near
the front edge aud through a hole just below the top of the box, from
which bangs its free end. By the use of this simple contrivance the
cover can be raised or closed without danger of dropping it. This
device for the covers of these boxes is in coinnjou use along the coast
from the Yukon mouth to Kotzebue sound.
A specimen from Hotham inlet (plate lxxxvii, 4) is made from a
piece of reindeer antler and has a wooden bottom held in place by
snugly fitting the outline of the box. The top is a simple wooden piece
with a short rawhide cord, with a knot in its end, projecting from the
middle of the upper surface, by which it can be lifted out. The box is
oval in shape, and has incised lines in pairs around the outside, dividing
it into four nearly equal sections, in which are etched a variety of fig-
ures, including birds, mammals, boats, sledges, trees, waterfowl, and
people. The etching is deep and is rendereil very distinct by having
dark-reddish coloring matter rubbed into the incised lines. On oue
side is etched the raven totem, with a circle and dot just in front, simi-
lar to the mark described as existing on a kasliiui cover at Kigiktauik,
and undoubtedly intended to represent the same idea of the raven's
tracks in the snow, with the mark left where it had eaten meat (see
figure 110, page 325).
Number (M184: is a tall box of walrus ivory, tlattened-oval in shape,
also from Hotham inlet. Around the base ou one side are etched the
figures of six reindeer; on the other side is represented a house with
an elevated cache and a man shooting at the hindmost of the deer.
Around the upper border is carved a zigzag pattern, ])endent from
which is a series of raven totem marks. Ou another specimen of simi-
lar shape, from Eazbinsky, on the lower Yukon, each of the borders is
ornamented with a zigzag pattern and with raven totem marks extend-
ing thence toward the middle of the box.
NELSON] FUNGUS-ASH BOXES 277
Another box from Hotliam iulet (flgiire 8, plate lxxxmi) is made
from a piece of reindeer antler, with a knob on the side, and a wooden
lid which is held in position by a cord fastened on one side and strung
through holes in the cover, as in the specimen shown in hgure 5 of the
same plate. The surface of the box is covered with circles and dots,
and has etched around the middle a series of conical summer lodges.
A long, cylindrical specimen from Sledge island (figure it, plate
LXXXTii) has the surface carved in a series of scallops and ridges
extending around it. The bottom is fastened with four wooden pins.
The box is i^rovided with a wooden lid.
A box from Nunivak island (figure 3, plate Lxxxvii) is of reindeer
antler, with a wooden top and bottom. In .slight relief upon its sides
ai'e represented the fore and hind flippers of a seal, with circle-and-dot
patterns elsewhere along the sides.
Figure 1-, plate lxxxvii, represents a box, from Kotzebue sound,
made from a piece of whalebone. The bottom is formed of a rounded
piece of the same material. On the surface are etched the arms and the
breast of a woman with a curious fish-like head; on the back a small,
square piece of iron is inlaid. A specimen from Xorton sound (number
33199) has a zigzag border pattern on both ends and raven totem
marks extending toward the middle.
A vase-shape wooden box from Kaialigamut (figure li, plate
lxxxvii) is four inches in height and is very regular in outliue. It has
a flaring rim and a wooden cover; the sides are set with small, round,
ivory pegs symmetrically arranged, and around the rim are inserted four
white beads. Another round wooden box (figure 11, plate lxxxvii) has
a beveled edge, like the chime of a barrel, and the bottom is neatly
inserted. In the center of the lid is set a piece of wood, convex in out-
liue, on which is carved in relief a grotesijue face intended to represent
some mythological being. The eyes are formed by ivory pegs with large
heads, and the sides of the box are ornamented with similar pegs, as well
as with long, triangular pieces of ivory neatly inlaid near the upper edge,
with the smaller ends pointing downward. The box is painted black
around the sides, with a red border, and a black circle surrounds the
cover. The face on the cov^er has a red forehead, a broad black band
across the eyes, a red band across the mouth and cheeks, and a black
chin. From each corner of the mouth extends a stout rawhide cord
about four inches in length, which serves as a handle for raising the
cover.
An oval wooden box, from the country south of the Yukon mouth,
has a groove incised around its border in two directions. The tojt and
the bottom are made of thin pieces of wood set into holes cut parallel
to the sides of the box. The surface is inlaid in symmetrical patterns
with small square, triangular, and round pieces of white crockery.
A square wooden box from Kn,shunuk (figure 13. plate lxxxvii) has
the corners beveled and scored with a deep, vertical groove; another
278 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eih.asn. 18
groove eucircles tbe bottom of the box, which alt^o has a circuhir groove
on the center. The neatly fitted cover is a thin piece of wood, with an
incised circle about the middle and a projecting thumb-piece which fits
upon beveled shoulders on the rim at one side.
A round wooden box from the lower Yukon (figure 6, plate Lxxsvii)
is a little less than .5 inches in height and 2 inches in diameter. It has
a deep incision around the base, with a tlaring, rim-like bottom. The
cover is fitted, like a stopper, into the top, and is incised to tbrni a flar-
ing rim; it has a knob on the top.
Another round box from the Yukon (figure 10, plate lxxxvii) has the
middle part formed by a narrow band of bone bent and fastened with
bone rivets and iiegs. The excavated top and bottom are made of
•wood in the form of truncated cones with slightly projecting rims;
they fit stopper like into the bone circle. On the bone part are etched
circles and dots with a continuous zigzag border. On the top of the
box a round section of walrus tooth is inlaid in the center, and five
smaller i)ie(es are set at regular intervals around the beveled edge. On
both the upper and the lower edge of the border are inserted small tufts
of seal hair fastened with pegs.
QUID BOXES
Figure 16, plate lxxxvi, represents a small quid box, obtained on
Nunivak island Tiy T>t W. H. Dall. It is shaped in the form of a
murre's head, the lower mandible forming a thumb-piece for raising the
lid. The cover is formed by the jaw and throat; the eyes are outlined
by incised circles; the nostrils consist of a hole pierced through the
mandible in front of the eyes, in which is a sinew cord for attaching
the box to the belt or for hanging it around the neck of the owner.
A quid box from Chalitmut (figure 8, plate lxxxvi) is flattened
above and below, and is oval in outline, with one end truncated. It is
cut from a single piece, with the exception of the cover, which fits into
the top flush with its edges, on which a rawhide loop serves as a handle.
Around the sides, near the upper edge, is a deep groove, in which nine
ivory pegs are set at rej;ular intervals. Six ivory pegs are inserted
in the top and seven on the bottom along an incised line following the
border. In the truncated end are five others, one at each corner and
one in the middle.
A specimen from Kushunuk (figure 1-1, plate lxxxvi) is an oval
box large enough to hold only one or two quids of tobacco. The top
is rather more flattened than that of the preceding box, and has a
stopper-like cover. Each end is carved to represent the features of
some animal, incised lines marking the mouth, nostrils, and eyebrows.
On its surface are several inlaid white beads, and similar beads repre
sent the eyes and nostrils.
A quid box from Askinuk (figure 17, plate lxxxvi) represents a
walrus, with projecting tusks, lying on its back. On its abdominal sur-
NELSON] QUID BOXES 27f)
face is the figure of a youug walrus, which forms the lid and fits
stopper like into au oval opening in the larger animal. The flipi)ers
are carved in relief, and the eyes are represented by inlaid beads, those
of the larger walrus being red, those of the young one white. One of
the tusks of the larger animal is made of wood and the other of bone.
Those of the smaller walrus are both of bone. Another specimen
from Askinuk (figure -'0, plate lxxxvi) is a curiously grotesque box,
rather oval in shape, with two long, flijjper-like projections on one end.
The cover rudely represents a seal-head turned up to form the thumb-
piece, while the neck and shoulders slope downward and have a
stopper-shape base which fits into au oval hole in the top of the bos.
A box from Anogogmut (figure 9, plate lxxxvi) is egg-shape in out-
line and flattened above and below. It is carved from a single piece
of wood, except the stopper, which fits neatly into the toj). Around
the sides are inlaid beads and circular bits of crockery, and a gored pat-
tern is cut in relief on the surface of the sides. This box, which is
apparently made of birch, is a very neat piece of workmanship.
The handsomely carved box from Kulwoguwigumut (figure 13, plate
lxxxvi) is rather flat on its upper surface and oval on the other sides;
the cover, more or less square in shape, flts like a stopper into the upper
surface and has a projecting thumb-piece about half an inch long.
Holding this box with the cover downward it represents a grotesque
figure of a porcupine ; the mouth is deeply incised ; the eyes, formed by
ivory pegs, are in saucer-shape depressions with incised cresceutic '
lines back of the eyes; the nostrils are indicated by small x)ieces of
ivory. On the rear side of the figure are three round-head ivory pegs
set in a triangle.
A circular box from Kushunuk (figure 22, plate lxxxvi) is formed
of a band of spruce, with the overlapping ends beveled and fastened by
some kind of gum or cement; the bottom is fitted into a groove in the
rim and the top is also neatly fitted. The cap of the box fits stopper-
like into the top and is slightly convex in <nit)ine, having the face of a
man carved m low relief on its upper surface. The eyes and labrets
are represented by round-liead ivorj' pegs, and the mouth is a crescentic
incision with a hole in the center, through which is fastened a rawhide
loop, serving to lift the cover.
A round wooden box from Sledge island (figure 25, plate lxxxvi) is
made in two nearly equal parts which fit together by an inner border on
the under half. It is ci'acked on one side and bound together by a
sinew cord.
A small wooden box from Chalitmut (figure IS, plate lxxxvi) has the
form of a human head; the face is carved in relief, the eyes and labrets
are represented by inlaid white beads; the moutli is deeply incised and
crescentic in form. In a groove which extends around the face are set
a series of round-head ivory pegs; the back of the head has a hole
in which fits a cover with a projecting thumb-piece crossing a notch on
280 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.an.v. ]8
the edge of the box. The fece is paiuted red, the back of the head
black, and the cover bhiish.
Another box from Ohalitraut (figure 24, plate Lxxxvi) is carved in
shape of a bear's head; it is painted blade, with the open mouth and
nostrils in red; one eye is formed bj' an incised circle with a black cen-
ter, the other is an oval incision with a small fragment of glass set in
the center to represent the pupil. The cover is ingeniously made so
that the lower jaw of the open mouth serves as a thumb-piece by which
it can be raised. There is a circular orifice in the head into which the
cover fits, with a flaring rim, forming a continuous outline with the
body of the box.
An oval wooden quid box from Kushunuk (ligure 10, plate Lxxxvi)
has the top and the bottom neatly fitted; a groove is incised around
the side and three grooves in the cover, which has a rawhide loop.
Bound ivory pegs are inlaid on all the surfaces; it is painted bluish
and the grooves are red.
An ivory quid box from Unalaklit (figure 19, plate lxxxvi) has
carved on the surface, in relief, the figures of four seals. A braided
grass cord is attached for a handle, and the bottom is closed by a
wooden stopper. The cover has been lost.
PIPES
The tobacco pipes used by the Eskimo on the mainland and adja-
cent islands of northern Alaska vary considerably in ditterent locali-
ties, as shown in the series illustrated, but in general their remarkable
likeness to ])ipes used in China and Japan is noteworthy, and suggests
the source whence the patterns were derived. All of them have a
small, cylindrical bowl, with a flaring top of greater or less breadth.
The bowls are ordinarily made of stone, lead, or copper. They are set
on the end of the stem and held in place by rawhide or sinew cord
passed around the stem or through holes pierced in it.
Exceptions to this style are found in some pipes from Kotzebue
sound, Cape Prince of Wales, Cape Nome, and St Lawrence island,
which are made with the bowl and the stem in one piece; but in general
character they are similar to the others.
Pipe stems are usually of wood, with a mouthpiece of bone or ivory,
although sometimes the wood itself is rounded to serve this purpose,
or it may be tipped with an empty brass or copper cartridge shell, with
a hole bored in the head. On Norton sound and iu the Yukon district
the stems are made usually of two pieces of wood, hollowed out and
lashed together with a rawhide cord, so that they can be separated to
obtain the nicotine, which is removed occasionally and mixed with the
chewing tobacco.
On the coast of Bering strait and at Cape Nome, Port Clarence,
Cape Prince of Wales, Sledge island, and Kotzebue sound, the ]iipes,
which are made in one piece, have small, door-like pieces fitted neatly
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. LXXXVIII
PIPES AND PIPE MOLD ione-fourthi
NELSU.N]
PIPES
281
ill tbe lower part of the stem, wliieli can be removed at will to enable
tbe owner to clean out tbe accumulated nicotine. • Each pipe is usually
provided with a small metal implement, which is used for cleaning the
bowl and for tamping- the tobacco; it is attached to the stem by a string
or band of beads, or sometimes by a strip of tanned rawhide.
In addition to those described, there are handsomely ornamented
pipes made of ivory, with metal bowls. These are not very numerous,
but were seen at widely separated localities from the Yukon mouth
northward through Bering strait to Kotzebue sound. They are of the
ordinary type, but have a narrow stem, beveled on four sides, and are
handsoinely ornamented with etched scenes, illustrating native customs
and life, similar in general style to the etchings on drill bows.
Figure 13, plate lxxxviii, represents a wooden mold used by the
Eskimo for casting the wide-mouth leaden bowls for their pipes. It
was obtained at St Michael. It consists of five pieces; the two side
pieces in which the shape of the pipe is excavated are held together by
sinew cords in notches at each end; below a stjuare stick forms the
base, ou which stands a small, upright, round stick to form the hole in
Fig. !}4— Pipe Irnni Kotzetme soiiiul (about \).
the bottom of the bowl, on the inside of which is a ring of wood with
five spoke-like projections reaching to the edge of the mold, which
serves to produce the pattern that is seen on the bowls of many of the
pipes. A round wooden cover fits snugly over the top of the mold,
which has a round hole in the center through which the molten lead is
poured.
From among the large number of pipes obtained from widely sepa-
rated localities, the lollowiug specimens have been selected for illus-
tration as representing the principal varieties found among them:
A pipe from Kotzebue sound (figure 91) is a huge affair, very heavy
and clumsy. The wooden stem, IS inches in length and 3 inches in
diameter near the bowl, is beveled to form eight sides, and has two
neatly fitted square tablets, about 4 J inches long, fitted into its lower
side: these have a projection on one end to enable them to be lifted out
for the purpose of extracting the accumulated nicotine. The bowl of
the pipe is of lead, and several roughly oval pieces of the same metal
are inlaid on the stem near the bowl; the mouthpiece is a tapering
tube of lead about 2i inches in length.
282 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. a.nn. 13
A wooden pipe from Cape Priuce of Wales (figure 4, plate lxxxa'III)
is cut from a single piece, the slightly flaring bowl being lined with
tin, and an empty cartridge shell is fitted on the end of the stem for a
mouthpiece. The lower end of the stem has tbree long pieces of wood
fitted into openings to permit the removal of the nicotine from the
interior. Fragments of a large blue bead are inlaid on the stem.
The pipe from Cape Nome (figure 1, plate Lxxxviii) is somewhat
similar to the preceding, but the end of the stem is made in a separate
piece, fitted into the larger part by a tapeiing joint, and wrapped with
rawhide cord; a copper cartridge shell forms the mouthpiece. The
underside of the pipe has a long oval piece of wood set in an opening,
the rear end of which is guarded by a strip of tin, having its two ends
inserted in the wood and fitted against the curve of the surface. An
iron picker about three inches in length is fastened to the stem by a
strip of rawhide. This picker is neatly made, with one end bent over
against a notch in the stem, forming an eye for the strap; the lower
end is octagonal and has a chisel-shape tip.
A pipe from Sledge island (figure 2. plate Lxxxvili) is very similar
to the preceding. The bowl forms a part of the stem and is lined with
lead; on the underside of the stem, near the bowl, is inserted a long,
narrow jiiece of wood, to cover a hole made for removing the nicotine,
and a similar hole appears near the moutlipiece, on the upper part of
the stem. The mouthpiece is made by shaping the tip of the stem to a
rounded point, leaving a shoulder about one-third of an inch frbm
the end.
The pipe from St Lawrence island (figure 3, LXXXVili) is similar
in shape to the preceding, but both the stem and the bowl are of lead.
On the lower portion of the stem, next to the bowl, is an open pat-
tern, in which are inlaid small pieces of wood; the bowl is fitted on
the top of the stem, and held in place by a rawhide cord which i)asses
around the enlarged end of the stem, the lower surface of which has
the usual long, narrow tablet for covering an orifice.
A pipe from Unalaklit (figure 5, plate lxxxviii) has a wooden stem
made in two jiieces, the rear section jointed to the forward by a
shoulder and a long, cone-shape, beveled point, which is inserted in
the other section and fastened by a ring of bi-ass, the ends of which
are united by copper rivets. The mouthpiece is a smoothly tapering
piece of ivory fitted into the stem, the joint being surrounded by a
broad copper ring. A plug of wood fits into the front end of the stem
to permit the removal of the nicotine, for which purpose the joint in
the stem is also contrived. The small cylindrical bowl is of lead with
a broad flaring rim; on its base are two shoulders for securing the bowl
to the stem by a rawliide cord, which is wound several times around
the shoulders and the end of the stem and tucked under itself at each
side.
The pipe shown in figure 11, plate lxxxviii, is more strongly curved
CO
Q-
>
QC
O
>
NELSON] PIPES 2 S3
than the preceding, with a tapering wooden stem on which is mounted
a neatly made copper bowl, with openwork patterns on the flaring rim,
and with shoulders for the coi'd by which it is attached to the stem.
Two narrow tablets are inserted on the lower side of the stem, and the
front end is excavated and the hole closed by a wooden plug; the mouth-
piece is of ivory, neatly made and titted into the wood, the joint being-
covered with a ferrule made from a brass cartridge shell.
The pipe from Cape Nome (figure 8, i)late Lxxxviii) is somewhat
similar in shape to the i)receding and has a well-made copper bowl and
a wooden stem, in which are two holes; through them a cord is passed
and wrapped around shoulders on the bowl, making two or three turns
on each side, the ends being fastened by tucking them under. In the
front of the stem is a small wooden plug with a projecting end to
enable the owner to remove it with his teeth; a small tablet is also
fitted into a hole in the stem and provided with a tag of sealskin to
facilitate its removal. The well-made mouthpiece of ivory is fitted into
the wood and the joint is wrapped with sinew cord. A small iron
l>icker is attached to the upper part of the stem by a string of beads
about seven inches in length.
A pipe from Port Clarence (figure 7, plate lxxxviii) isvery similar in
shape to the preceding, but its bowl is made from soft stone lashed on
with sinew cord jtassed around the end of the stem. The mouthpiece
consists of a small cartridge shell titted into the wood, and over the
joint is a copper thimble.
Figure 10, plate lxxxviii, represents a pipe of the style generally in
use about Xorton sound and southward to the lower Kuskokwim. The
wooden stem is split lengthwise and the two parts are held together by
a continuous wrapping of sealskin cord, which serves also to hold the
leaden bowl in position on the stem. The bowl is neatly made, with
openwork around the flaring rim. The mouthpiece is a copper car-
tridge shell fitted over the end of the stem. An iron picker is attached
to the stem by a band of beads made of six strings, separated by leather
spacers and fastened by the lashing on the stem.
A pipe with a stem similar to the preceding (figure C, plate lxxxviii)
is from Point Hope. A mouthpiece of walrus ivory is fitted to the stem
by a copper cartridge shell. The flaring rim of the bowl is made from
bituminous coal lined with a thin sheet of iron, and is set directly on
the stem without the usual neck-piece between. An iron picker is
attached to the stem by a rawhide strap fastened v.ith a sinew cord.
At present pipe bowls generally are made of metal, copper and lead
being most in use, but formerly stone bowls, similar in shape, were
common, and a few specimens of these were obtained, principally from
the vicinity of Bering strait.
Figure 12, plate lxxxviii, represents one of these bowls, made of
hard, olive-gray stone. It was obtained at Nubviukhchngalnk.
A bowl made of walrus ivory (figure 14, lxxxviii) was dug from the
284 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn.18
site of an old village near St Michael. It is sliglitly difterent in pat-
tern from either the stoue or the metal bowls. It is very old, ante-
dating the arrival of the Eussiaus on the shore of Xorton sonnd.
A wooden-stem pii)e from Cape Prince of Wales (figure 9.5) has a
small brass bowl. I'ipes of this shape are occasionally seen between
Norton sound and Kotzebue sound.
Figure 1, plate lxxxix, represents an ivory-stem pipe with a
stoue bowl which was obtained at St ^Michael. The stem is diamond-
shape in cross section, and has its surface elaborately etched. Ou
one side a series of umiaks and kaiaks are pursuing a walrus; on the
other side are reindeer that have just crossed a river, and a man in a
kaiak has thrown a sj>ear into the back of the last one as it emerges
from the water, while at the farther end a man is shooting another with
an arrow. On the remainder of the surface is a series of conventional
designs.
Another handsomely etched ivory j)ipestem (figure 3, plate lxxxix)
was obtained at Norton sound. Ou the side shown in the illustratiou
are various hunting scenes in which are whales, walrus, and seals, and
Fig. 95— Pipe from Capo Prince of Wales (J).
a man is shooting with a bow and arrow just in front of a kashim in
■which people are dancing to the music of a drum.
The handsomely etched pipestem shown in plate Lxxxix, 2, was
obtained in Kotzebue sound by Lieutenant Stoney. It has the raven
totem marks near the mouthpiece, and a variety of hunting and other
scenes of Eskimo life, besides various conventional designs, over its
surface. Another handsome pipe (figure 4, i>late lxxxix) was also
obtained at the same place i)y Lieutenant Stoney. The leaden bowl
has an old clock-wheel inlaid in the top of the flaring rim. Like the
preceding, the stem lias the raven totem mark near the mouthpiece,
and is elaborately etched with scenes from the life of the people, among
which are the hunting and trapping of game and fish, dancing iu the
kashim, and playing football.
T0I5ACC0 BAGS
With the pipes ai-e carried small, roundbottom tobacco bags, made
from various kinds of ornamental fur or skin, the borders often having
handsome patterns formed by different colored skins, fur, or beadwork
tassels. The top is generally bordered by strips of fur of the wolverine,
mink, or other animal, or sometimes by a baud of ornamental needle-
work.
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XC
SNUFF TUBES 'ABOUT nine-sixteenths '
NELSON] TOBACCO BAGS THE KASHIM 285
Figure 2, plate Lxxxvii, represents one of tliese bags, wliich was
obtained at Paiiuut, on tlie lower Yukon. It is about 10 inclies deep,
and is intended for carrying the pipe, tobacco, flint, steel, and tinder.
The back is of winter reindeer skin, with the hair cut close; the
front is of the skin of Parry's marmot; around the lower edge and near
the upper border are sewed strips of wolverine skin. The lower two-
thirds of the bag is ornamented by a pattern of white-hair deerskin
with two narrow strips of black skin welted in the seams, and a row
of small tufts of red worsted spaced around at regular intervals. The
mouth (if the bag is surrounded by pattern work of white and dark
threads on narrow strips of yellow and black skin, the extreme edge
being bound with calico.
A similar bag, of nearly the same size and shape (number 4S13C), was
obtained at Cape Darby. As is usual in all these bags, the bottom is
rounded and the top straight. The lower two-thirds is fringed with
a narrow strip of mink skin, inside which is a pattern made with strips
of white reindeer skin, with narrow strijis of black skin welted into the
seams, and two series of small red worsted tags spaced all around. The
border of the bag is of white, parchment-like sealskin, and the string
for closing it is of the same material.
Figure 1, plate lxxxvii, represents a smaller bag of the same shape,
but with less ornamentation. It is 5^ inches deep, and is made of deer-
skin, which is worn nearly bare of hair by use. A band of skin is sewed
around the mouth and little strings of red and white beads, about an
inch in length, hang in pairs around the lower border and sides, each
string having pendent from it a small tuft of mink fur.
HOUSE-LIFE AND SOCIAL CUSTOMS
THE KASHi:\r
Among the Eskimo in every village of the Alaskan mainland and the
islands of Bering strait the Icashim is the center of social and religious
life. In it every man has a recognized place according to his standing
in the community, and it is also the common sleeping place for the men.
The women and the cliildren live in liouses a^iart. and the men sleep
with their families only occasionally.
When a new kashim is to be built the villagers of Norton sound make
a song of invitation to jjeople of the same tribe living in neighboring
places, which is learned by one of the young men, who is then sent to
invite the guests. The messenger goes to the designated vdlage, where
he enters the kashim and dui-mg a dance sings his song of invitation to
both men and women. When an invitation of this kind is given all
respond and join in building the new kashim. This is said to jiroduce
friendly feeling between the neighboring places, which will render them
successful in their hunting.
286 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethaxn. 18
The men are nearly always to be found in the kashim when in the
village, this being their general gathering place, where they work on
tools or implements of the chase, or in preparing skins.
Dances and festivals of all kinds are lield in this building, and there
the shamans perform some of tlu-ir most important ceremonies. The
eld men gather there and lepeat the traditions of their fathers. The
younger ones are thus instructed and become familiar witli the tales
and wisdom of the elders.
It is the usual place for the reception of gaests; and there is scarcely
an occurrence of note in the life of. an Eskimo man which he can not
connect with rites in which the kashim plays an important part. This
is essentially the house of the men; at certain times, and during the
performance of certain rites, the women are rigidly excluded, and the
men sleep there at all times when their observances require them to
keep apart from their wives.
(xames are played there in winter by men and boys, and twice or three
times a day food is brought by the women from the surrounding houses.
Unmarried men sleep there at all times, as they have no recognized
Ijlace elsewhere, except as the providers of food for their parents or other
relatives dependent on their exertions. [The sleeping place, near the
oil lamp which burns at the back of the room opposite the summer
entrance, is the place of honor, where the wise old men sit with the
shamans and best hunters. The place near the entrance on the front
side of the room is allotted to the worthless men who are poor and con-
tribute nothing to the general welfare of the community, also to orphan
boys and friendless persons.
The first time a child is taken into a kashim in the village of its
parents, the latter present a gift to each person present at the time
as a propitiatory offering and to secure the good will of their neigh-
bors. A similar custom is observed by all strangers arriving at the
village; they are required to dance and sing a little and, if on an ordi-
nary journey, are supposed to make presents according to their means.
All messengers who reach villages for the purpose of announcing a
festival or an invitation to other observances in their own town, deliver
their message in the form of a song while dancing in the kashim.
In the summer of 1870 a party of Eskimo from East cape, Siberia,
and the Diomede islands in Bering strait, came to St Michael. On
their arrival they sang and danced in the kashim, making offerings to
the people. The songs and dances were very similar to those I had
seen performed on Sledge island iii honor of the fur trader and myself
during our winter visit to that place.
At the time of this visit we entered the kashim and gave the headman
some tobacco to distribute among the men present and some needles
for the women. These he divided among them, and afterward the men
who took part in the dance as representatives of the community gave
us each a small present, which was considered as establishing friendly
nelson]
KASHIM CUSTOMS SWEAT BATHS 287
feeliug between us, extending the privilege of tlie kasliiin, and as a
testimony of the good will of the inhabitants.
South of the Yukon the fur traders make a practice of complying
with this custom of giving jiresents whenever they visit a village for
the first time, and at St Michael we did the same whenever we were
invited to attend the iirst autumnal festival; but the Eskimo do not
expect the white men to dance and sing, as would be obligatory with
their own people.
The presents are always handed to the headmen of the village, who
divide and distribute them among their fellow townsmen. All guests
whom it is desired to lionor are given seats on the side of the kashim
where the old men of the village sit. If that side of the kashim
chances to be fully occupied, some of the men make room for their
guests. At a village near the head of Norton sound I was given
the usual place of honor in the kashim, and when the women brought
in food a dish of boiled seal intestines was ])resented to me as a spe-
cial delicacy.
The observance of giving presents and of placing the old men and the
guests at the head of the kashim is customary also among the Tiune of
the Yukon, who have adopted these customs from the Eskimo.
The men usually wear no clothing while iu the kashim, but this being
the custom it does not excite the slightest notice. The women fre-
quently sit upon the floor by their relatives until the latter have fin-
ished their repast, or sometimes leave after delivering the food and
return later to remove the empty dishes. During festivals, dances, and
other ceremonies the women gather in the kashim as si^ectators and
sometimes take part in the i^erformances.
SWEAT BATHS
In these buildings sweat baths are taken by men and boys at inter-
vals of a week or ten days during the winter. Every man has a small
urine tub near his place, where this liquid is saved for use in bathing.
A portion of the floor in the center of the room is made of planks so
arranged that it can be taken up, exposing a pit beneath, in which a fire
of drift logs is built. When the smoke has passed off and the wood is
reduced to a bed of coals, a cover is put over the smoke hole in the
roof and the meu sit naked about the room until they are iu i^rofuse
perspiration ; they then bathe in the urine, which combines with the oil
on their bodies, and thus takes the place of soap, after which they go
outside and pour water over their bodies until they become cool. While
bathing they remain in the kashim with the temperature so high that
their skin becomes shining red and appears to be almost at the point
of blistering; then going outside they squat about in the snow perfectly
nude, and seem to enjoy the contrasting temperature. On several
occasions I saw them go from the sweat bath to holes in the ice on
neighboring streams and, squatting there, pour ice water over their
J8b
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. AXN. 13
backs and shoulders with a wooden dipper, apparently experiencing the
greatest jileasiire from the operation.
Throughout the region visited the men, while taking their sweat
baths, are accustomed to use a cap made of the skin of some waterfowl,
usually the red- or black-throat loou. The skin is cut open along tlie
belly and removed entire, minus the neck, wings and legs; it is then
dried and softened so as to be pliable and is fastened together at the
neck in such a way tliat it can be worn on the head. Owing to the
intense heat generated in the tire pit, the bathers, who are always
males, are obliged to use respirators to protect their lungs. These are
made of fine shavings of willow or spruce bound into the form of an
oblong pad formed to cover the nmuth, the chin, and a portion of the
cheeks. These pads are convex externally and concave within; cross-
ing the concave side is a small wooden rod, either round or square, so
that the wearer can
grasp it in his teeth
and thus hold the
respirator in posi-
tion.
Some of the res-
l^irators are made of
shavings bound to-
gether at each end
by a few strands of
the same material
and furnished with
a wooden holder.
Others are more
elaborately made, as
in the example from
Shaktolik shown in figure 9(5. This is a little over 5 inches in length
and 4 inches broad, and is made of fine wood shavings; it is smoothly
oval in or<tline, with the border rounded by means of a rope-like band
of shavings tightly wound with a cord made of the same material.
Inclosed within this oval ring is a soft mass of shavings held in posi-
tion by a loosely twisted cord made of the same. On the inner side
the shavings are packed loosely and held in position by the rod or
mouthpiece which crosses the pad horizontally.
DWELLINO HOUSES
The dwelling houses are the domain of the women. From one to
three families may occupy the platforms in the single room which the
house contains, but each is quite separate and independent in all of its
domestic arrangements. Each woman who is the head of a family has
an oil lamp beside her sleeping bench where she sews or carries on her
household work. Uer own cooking utensds and wooden dishes for food,
Ke^l'irattn-, Iroiit \i
-NELSON] NATAL CUSTOMS 289
togethei- with tbe stock of seal oil, dried salmon, and other articles of
domestic economy, are kept at one side of the platform or in a corner
of the room devoted to thi.s purpose.
When the time approaches for the prepai'ation of a meal, a lire is
bnilt in the middle of the room and the food made ready, after which
each woman places a quantity in que or more wooden dishes, takes it to
the kashiin, and sets it beside her husband, father, or whoever she has
provided for.
CHILDBIRTH
During childbirth old women who are reputed to have skill in such
matters act as midwives. Formerly, among the Unalit, when a woman
was confined with her first child she was considered unclean and put out
in a tent or other shelter by herself for a certain period. This custom is
now becoming obsolete, but it is still observed by the Eskimo of
Kaviak peninsula, by the JMalemut, and by other remote tribes. In one
case that came to my knowledge a young Malemut woman was confined
with her first child at a village on the lower Yukon. It was midwinter,
but she was put outside in a small brush hut covered with snow and
her food handed her by her husband through a small opening. Despite
the intensely cold weather, she was kept there for about two months.
When a child is born it is given the name of the last person who
died in the village, or the name of a deceased relative who may have
lived in another place. The child thus becomes the namesake and
representative of the dead person at the feast to the dead, as described
under the heading of that festival. In case the child is born away
from the village, at a camp or on the tundra, it is commonly given the
name of the first object that catches its mother's eyes, such as a bush
or other plant, a mountain, lake, or other natural object.
The name thus given is sometimes changed. When a person becomes
old he takes a new name, hoping thereby to obtain an extension of life.
The new name given is usually indicative of some personal peculiarity,
and, after a person makes a change of this kind, it is considered
improper to mention the former one. Some of the Malemut dislike
very much to pronounce their own names, and if a man be asked his
name he will appear confused and will generally turn to a bystander,
asking him to give the desired information.
Formerly it was a common custom to kill female children at birth if
they were not wanted, and guls were often killed when from 4 to 6
years of age. Children of this sex are looked upon as a burden, since
they are not capable of contributing to the Ibod supply of the family,
while they add to the number of persons to be maintained. When
infants are killed they are taken out naked to the graveyard and there
exposed to the cold, their mouths being filled with snow, so that they
will freeze to death quickly.
Xear St Michael I saw a young Malemut girl of 10 or lii years,
18 ETH 19
290 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [etii. a-xx. 18
■who, soon after birtli, had been exposed in this manner with her mouth
filled with snow. Fortunately for tlie child, this occurred close to a
trading station. By accident the trader found her a lew moments
later, and by threats succeeded in making the mother take her back.
The child was afterward reared ■without further attempt on the ])art of
the i>arents to take its life.
One of the Eskimo told me that if a man had a girl not more than 5
or G years old who cried much, or if he disliked it for any reason, or
found it difficult to obtain food for the family, he would take it far out
on the ice at sea or on the tundra during a severe snow storm, and
there abandon it to ])erish by exposure.
A man at St Michael was in my house one day and told me in a
casual way that his wife had given birth to anotlier girl, and added,
"At first I was going to thi'ow it away on the tundra, and then I could
not, for it was too dear to me." This man "was cue of the most intelli-
gent Eskimo I knew. lie had been associated with the IJussians and
other white men since early boyhood, and was one of the socalled con-
verts of the Russian church ; yet the idea that a man was not perfectly
justified in disposing of a girl child as he saw tit never for a moment
occurred to him.
On the other hand, a pair of childless Eskimo frequently adopt a
child, either a girl or a boy, preferably the latter. This is done so that
when they die there will be some one left whose duty it will be to make
the customary feast and offerings to their shades at the festival of the
dead. AH of the Eskimo appear to have great dread of dying ■without
being assured that their shades -null be remembered during tlie fes-
tivals, fearing if neglected that they would thereby suffer destitution
in the future life.
In March, 1880, while on a journey to Sledge island, just south of
Bering strait, we were accompanied for the last 75 miles by the wife of
our Eskimo interpreter, who was a fine looking woman of about 30
years and was heavy with child. She went with us in order that her
confinement might take place among her own people, who lived on the
island. Notwithstanding her condition, she tramped steadily through
the snow with the rest of us day after day, and on the morning of our
arrival at the island she was in the room with us talking and laughing
when she became suddenly ill, went to her mother's house, and was
delivered of a fine boy in less than half an hour. Directly after the
birth a shaman came in and borrowed from me a drum and a small
ivory carving of a white whale, which I had purchased on the road.
The father explained that the image of the whale was borrowed to put
in the child's mouth so as to feed him upon something that would make
him gi-ow up a fine hunter. The shaman beat the drum and sang for
half an hour over the boy to nmke him stout-hearted and manly. The
woman remained at this village a few days and then walked back the
75 miles to her home, carrying the child on her back.
PUBERTY AXD MARRIAGE RITES 291
PUBERTY
Among the Maleinut, ami southward from the lower Yukon and adja-
ceut districts, when a girl reaches the age of jjubertj' she is considered
unclean for forty days; she must therefore live by herself la a corner of
the house with her face to the wall, and always keep her hood over her
head, with her hair hanging disheveled over her eyes. During this time
she must not go out by day and but once each night when every tnie is
asleep, but if it is summer the girl commonly lives in a rough shelter out-
side the house. At the end of the period she bathes and is clothed in
new garments, after which she maj' be taken in marriage. The same
custom formerly prevailed among the Unalit, but at iiresent the girl is
secluded behind a grass mat in one corner of the room for the period of
only four days, during which time she is said to be d'-gu-liH-ght'-guk,
meaning she becomes a woman, and is considered unclean. A peculiar
atmosphere is supposed to surround her at this time, and if a young
man should come near enough for it to touch him it would render him
visible to every animal he might hunt, so that his success as a hunter
Wduld be gone. Should a considerable time pass after a girl reaches
jmberty and no suitor appear, the father accumulates a large amount
of food and makes a festival for the purpose of announcing that his
daughter is ready for marriage.
MARRIAGE
Among the Unalit when a young man sees a girl he wishes to marry
he tells his parents and one of them goes to the girl's parents to ask
their consent. Having obtained this, the suitor dresses in his finest
clothing and goes to the bride's house with a new suit of garments,
which he puts upon her and she becomes his wife. If the i)arents of
either party have no children at home, the newly married couple go to
live with them; otherwise they set up an establishment of their own,
either building a new house or sharing one with some one else.
The Unalit frequently marry first cousins or remote blood relatives
with the idea that in such a case a wife is nearer to her husband. One
man said that in case of famine, if a man's wife was from another family
she would steal food from him to save her own life, while the husband
would die of starvation ; but should a woman be of his own blood she
would share fairly with him. The wife is considered to become more a
part of the husband's family than he of hers. However, brothers and
sisters, and stepbrothers and step-sisters, do not intermarry.
From the lower Yukon to the Kuskokwiiu child betrothals are com-
mon and may occur in two ways. The parents of a very small girl
who have no son may agree with the parents of several sons that one
of the boys shall live with them and become the giiTs husband. Again,
a young boy ma,y sometimes choose a family, containing a girl, in which
292 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERIN'G STRAIT [etii.a.nn. 18
be would like to live. In sucli ease lie takes with liim liis clotliiiig
and implements, besides a tine suit of elotlies for liis future bride, and
leaving Lis own parents, goes to the people whom he has adopted, and
transfers filial duty of every kind to his adopted father to the exclusion
of his own parents. In such cases the girl is I'requently not over 4 or 5
years of age. Sometimes such arrangements are made by a couple
to take effect when the first girl is born.
In these child marriages when the girl reaches puberty both she and
her husband are considered unclean, and neither of them is permitted
to take jjart in any work for a month, at the eud of which period the
young husband takes presents to the kashim and distributes them.
After this he enjoys the rights of other heads of families.
Men who are able to provide for them frequently take two or even
more wives. In such cases the first wife is regarded as the head of the
family and has charge of the food, but either may carry food to the
kashim for the husband. A man may discard a wife who is a scold, or
unfaithful to him, or who is niggardly with food, keeping the best for
herself. On the other hand, a woman may leave a mau who is cruel to
her or who fails to provide the necessary subsistence. When a husbaud
finds that his wife is unfaithful he may beat her, but he rarely avenges
himself on the man concerned, although at times this may form an
excuse for an affray where enmity had previously existed between the
parties. Au old man told me that in ancient times when the husband
and a lover (luarreled about a woman they were disarmed by the neigh-
bors and then settled the trouble with their fists or by wrestling, the
victor in the struggle taking the woman. It is a common custom for
two meu living in different villages to agree to become bond fellows, or
brothers by adoption. Having made this arrangement, whenever one
of the men goes to the other's village he is received as the bond
brothers guest and is given the use of his host's bed with his wife
during his stay. When the visit is returned the same favor is extended
to the other, consequently neither family knows who is the father of
the childi'en. Meu who have made this arrangement term one another
Mn'-t-f/hm'; each terms the other one's wife nulf-u'yul:, and the chil-
dren of the two families call each other T;dt-l;nun'. Among people south
of the Yukon the last term is sometimes used between children of two
families where the man has married the discarded wife of another.
It is frequently the case that a mau enjoys the rights of a husband
before living regularly with the woman he takes for a wife, and noth-
ing wrong is thought of it, unmarried females being considered free to
suit themselves in this regard.
MORAL CHARACTERISTICS
Blood revenge is considered a sacred duty among all the Eskimo, and
it is a common thing to find men who dare not visit certain villages
because of a blood feud existing, owing to their having killed some one
NELSON] BLOOD REVENGE 293
whose uear relatives live iu the place. On different occasions 1 had
men go with me where they dared not go without the protection afl'orded
by a white man's presence. In one place a man kept by me like a
shadow for two days and slept touching me at night. The man who
held the feud against him would come into the house where we stopped
and sit for hours watching the one with me like a beiist of prey, and the
mere i'act that my Eskimo companion was with a white man was all
that saved him.
In another case a boy of 14 years shot and killed a man who had
murdered his father when the boy was an infant. The duty of blood
revenge belongs to the nearest male relative, so that if the son is an
infant, and too young to avenge his father at the time, it rests with him
to seek revenge as soon as he attains puberty. If a man has no sou,
then his brother, father, uncle, or whosoever is nearest of kin must
avenge him.
In the case of the boy mentioned, the man who had killed his father
lived in the same village with him until he became grown. One morn-
ing, as the man was preparing to hitch up his dogs and start on a trip,
the boy's uncle handed him a loaded ritle and told him that it was time
to avenge his father's death; the boy at once went outside and, taking
deliberate aim, shot the man dead. Fortunately the dead man had no
relatives, or it would have devolved upon them to retaliate by killing
the boy.
Owing to this custom, a man who has killed another watches inces-
santly, and in the end his eyes acquire a peculiar restless expression
which the Eskimo have learned to recognize at once. Several of them
told me that they could always recognize a man who had killed another
by the expression of his eyes, and from cases observed by myself I think
that this is undoubtedly true.
The desultory feud existing between the Kotzebue sound Malemut
and the Tinne of the interior jiartakes of the character of blood revenge,
except that each side seeks to avenge the death of relatives or fellow
tribesmen upon any of the opposing tribe.
Stealing from people of the same village or tribe is regarded as
wrong. The thief is made ashamed by being talked to in the kashim
wlieu all the people are present, and in this way is frequently forced to
restore the articles he lias taken. An old man at St Michael told me
that once a number of men took an incorrigible thief and while some
held him others beat him on tlie back of his hand until he roared with
pain, but that the fellow stole just the same afterward, and nothing
further was done except to talk to him in the kashim. To steal from a
stranger or from ])eople of another tribe is not considered wrong so
long as it does not bring trouble on the community.
The Eskimo living about the trading stations have adopted some
ideas in regard to this matter from the whites. As a result of this,
coupled with the memory of some wholesome chastisements that have
294 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann la
followed theft at various times, the property of white men 's tolerably
safe in most places.
The only feeling of conscience or moral duty that I noted among the
Eskimo seemed to be an instinctive desire to do that which was most
conducive to the general good of the community, as looked at from their
point of view. Whatever experience has taught them to be best is
done, guided by superstitious usages and customs If asked why they
do certain things, they would almost invai-iably reply, ''We bave
always done so." But in most cases an underlying reason could be
obtained if they were questioned further, and if they had sufiicieut
confidence in the questioner to express themselves to him freely regard-
ing their deepest beliefs.
A curious innate distrust of strangers, or of people apart from them-
selves, was shown by the common demand for pay in advance when
they were asked to do anything for white men. This was seen repeat-
edly among the Unalit, yet I do not suppose that in all their dealings
with white men during I'ecent years they had known of au instance in
which one was employed without being paid in full.
In the same way they would hesitate and even refuse to give white
men any articles of value to be paid for at another time. On the other
hand, it was a constant practice among them to obtain credit at the
trading stations, to be paid when they should have procured the neces-
sary skins. In this, however, they were very honest, paying all debts
contracted in this manner.
During my residence at St Michael I saw men trusted for goods who
came from distant villages and were scarcely known by sight to the
traders. This would olteu happen when the man lived in a village 100
or 200 miles away.
On one occasion an Eskimo came to St Michael in midwinter from
near Kotzebue sound, bringing a mink skin to settle a debt which he
had contracted with the trader the previous year. If this man had
desired to do so, he need not have come and the trader would have
had no means of obtaining his pay. This was but one of many such
cases that came to my notice.
A curious part of this custom was that very often the same Eskimo
who would be perfectly honest and go to great trouble and exertion to
settle a debt would not hesitate to steal from the same trader. Among
themselves this feeling is not generally so strong, and if a man borrows
from another and fails to return the article he is not held to account
for it. This is done under the general feeling that if a person has
enough property to enable him to lend some of it, he has more than he
needs. The one who makes the loan under these circumstances does
not even feel justified in asking a return of the article, and waits for it
to be given back voluntarily.
My interjireter, a full-blood Eskimo, once told me that he had loaned
an old pistol the season before and the borrower had never returned
NELSON] BEGGING HOSPITALITY 295
it. I askeil liiiii why he did not ask for it, as they lived near each
other in the same village. To this he replied that he could not, and
must wait for the man to bring the pistol back of his own accord.
Begging is common only among those Eskimo who have had consider-
able intercourse with white men. This custom has evidently come al)0ut
throniih indiscriminate giving of presents. From St Michael south-
ward to the Yukon mouth, and thence up the river to Ohnkwhnk, the
people have had more dealiugs with white meu than elsewhere in the
region covered by my travels. They were also the most persistent
beggars that I met, and in some villages Avere so importunate that they
fairly drove me away
The peo])le not accustomed to meeting white men were little addicted
to begging, and their manners were usually much more frank and
attractive.
Hospitality is regarded as a duty among the Eskimo, so far as con-
cerns their own friends in the surrounding villages, and to strangers
in certain cases, as well as to all guests visiting the villages during
festivals. By the exercise of hospitality to their friends and the people
of neighboring villages their good will is retained and they are saved
from any evil influence to which they might otherwise be subjected.
Strangers are usually regarded with more or less suspicion, and in
ancient times were commonly put to death.
During my sledge journeys among them I experienced a hospitable
reception at most of the places, but on a few occasions the people were
sullen and disobliging, apparently resenting my presence. At Cape
Nome and on Sledge island during a winter visit I found the people
extremely kind and hospitable.
At the time of our arrival at Sledge island the inhabitants were so
destitute that their dogs had all died of starvation, and some of the
people were living upon scraps. Owing to the lack of food for our
dogs the tiader and myself decided to return at once to the mainland,
but the headman and several of the other villagers surrounded us,
urging us to stay over two nights, in order that they might show their
appreciation of our visit, and assuring us at the same time that they
would find something for onr dogs.
True to his itromise, the headman went out among the villagers and
the women soon came to us, bringing little fragments of seal meat,
blubber, and tish, so that we finally gathered enough food for our dogs.
We were shown to the best house in the place, and in the evening, wheu
we had unrolled our blankets, the headman asked if we wished to
sleep. When we replied that we did, he at once sent out all of the
people who had congregated there with the exception- of the owners of
the house.
Stopping on Sledge island at this time we found a number of King
islanders trom farther north in Bering strait. Tiiey had come down the
coast, visiting at various villages in order to live upon the people, as
296 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT Ieth.ann. 18
the food supply at tlieir own home had been exhausted. They were a
strono-, energetic set of men, and, being bold and dishonest, did not
hesitate to bully and otherwise terrify the more peaceable villagers into
supplying them with food.
In the morning after my arrival at Sledge island a knife was stolen
from my box of tradiug goods, and on making this known to the head-
man he sent out a small boy, who returned in a few moments witli the
knife, everyone apparently knowing who had committed the theft.
A little later one of the King island men, who was sitting close by
nie, and who had traveled down the coast with the trader and myself
the previous day, tried to steal a small article from me but was
detected in the act, aud I at once ordered him to leave the house. To
this he paid no attention. I then seized him by the right arm, and
when he saw that I was in earnest his face grew dark with passion, but
he did not hesitate to take up his mittens and leave the room. He did
not return during the day, but that evening when the people had left the
room and the trader and myself were ]irepariug for bed, we noticed that
the headman of the village was still seated by the entiance way on the
other side of the room, although everyone else had left and the family
occupying the house were asleep. Making down our beds upon the
tloor, we wrai)ped ourselves in the blankets. "We had a suspicion that
the cause of the headman's presence was due to the trouble that I had
had with the King islander during the day, and I awoke several times
during the night and found him sitting wakeful by the entrance hole.
About 3 oclock the next morning I was awakened by a slight noise,
and, raising uiy head cautiously, heard someone creeping in through the
passageway. A moment later the head of the thief whom I had sent
out and shamed before his companions the day before was thrust into
the room. In an instant the watchful headman bad taken him by the
shoulder and spoke rapidly to him in an xmdertone. In a few minutes
the King islander drew back and went away. The headman remained
in his place until we arose in the morning. During the day we left
the island and at a hut on the mainland encountered the same King-
islander, he having left the village immediately after going out of the
house.
I have always considered that the watch kept by the headman dur-
ing that night was all that prevented an attempt by the King islander
to obtain revenge for my having offended him.
When we came to the tirst hut on the mainland, upon our return
from the island, the Eskimo living there urged us to remain all night,
and when we refused to do this he insisted on our going in to eat some
crabs and dried fish with him before resuming our journey.
Near Cape Darby we were welcomed in a cordial way and made to
join in a feast of freshly killed seal, and in villages on the lower Yukon
I met tlie same hospitable treatment.
At some other places our reception was the reverse of this. In the
KELsox] HOSPITALIXy 297
large village of Konigunugumut, near tlie uioutli of tlie Kuskokwim,
I ^as given a very surly reception, and it was almost necessary for lue
to use force before I could get anyone to guide me to the next village.
On the contrary, at Askinuk and Kaialigamut, in the same district, tbe
peojile ran out at our approach, unharnessed our dogs, put our sledges
on the framework, and carried our bedding into the kashim with the
greatest good ■will.
At King island, iu Bering strait, the same spirit was shown by the
people during the visit of the Conrin, when they insisted on having us
enter their houses. Tiieir attention sometimes became embarrassing,
as in one instance when I was stopping in a house on tbe outer side of
St Micliael island. An old man came home from hshing in the afternoon
anil was given a small tray containing tomcod livers and berries, kneaded
by his wife into a kind of paste. From his trinket box he took an old
spoon fastened to a short wooden handle and began eating the mix-
ture with great pleasure, until he suddenly remembered that there was
a guest present. At this he stopped eating and, wiping tbe bowl of the
spoon on the toe of bis sealskin boot, gravely handed it and tbe dish
to me, whereupon I declined them with equal gravity.
That morning I had fallen into the water while hunting, and a.s a
consequence remained iu the house all day to dry my clothes. At one
time or another during the day nearly everyone in tbe village came to
see me, and in every instance my hostess placed a few tomcods before
the callers.
This practice of ottering a small quantity of food to guests is con-
sidered to be proper among tiie Eskimo. Wherever I visited them,
and any people of the same village came in in a social way, they were
given food, unless everyone was on tbe verge of famine.
On October 3, 1878, 1 arrived at Kigiktauik in a large kaiak with two
paddle men. As we drew near the village one of tbe men welcomed
us by firing bis gun in tbe air, and then ran down to help us land, after
which he led the way to his house. Tbe room was partly filled with
bags of seal oil and other food supplies, and the remaining space was
soon occupied by a dozen or more villagers, who came to see us and
were regaled with the tea that was left after I had finished my supper,
and soon after my blankets were taken to the kashim, wliere I retired.
A small knot of Eskimo were gathered in the middle of the room
around a blanket spread on the floor, and were, deeply interested iu a
game of poker, the stakes being musket caps, wlticli were used for chips.
Scattered about on the floor and sleeping benches were a number
of men and boys in varying stages of nudity, which was entirely justi-
fied by the oppressive heat arising from tbe bodies of the people congre-
gated in tbe tightly closed room. Two small seal-oil lamps, consisting
of saucer-shape clay dishes of oil with moss wicks, threw a dim light
on tbe smoke-blackeued interior. In a short time the jilanks were
taken up from over the fire pit, and a roaring fire was built for a sweat
298 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.asx.18
batli. The men and boys brouglit in their urine tubs, and wore loou-
skin caps on their heads. Each one Lad a respirator made of fine wood
shavings woven into a pad to hold in the teeth to cover the lips and
nostrils, without which it would not have been possible for them to
breathe in the stifling heat. When the wood had burned down to a
bed of coals the cover was replaced over the smoke hole in the roof,
and when the men had ])erspired enough they bathed and then went
out to take a cold-water douche.
lu the winter of 1880 I traveled around the northern coast of Norton
sound and found many of the villages on the verge of famine. This
was due mainly to the fact that they had eaten most of their su}>plies
early in the season, trusting to the weather being Such that they could
take sufficient fish for their needs later on. As the winter turned out
to be excessively severe, nearly all of the dogs along this coast were
starved and the people were on very short allowance for a long time.
Just north of Unalaklit I camped in a small hut 10 by 12 feet iu area
and 5i feet high in the middle. Three fnmilies were living in this
house, and including my party numbered sixteen adults who occupied
the room that night. The air was so foul that when a candle was
lighted it went out, and a match would flare up and immediately become
extinguished as though dipped in water. After making a hole iu one
corner of the cover ol' the smoke hole the air became sufficiently pure
for us to pass the night without ill effect.
At the village of Unaktolik, just beyond the last place mentioned, I
found a room 15 by 20 feet in area and 6 feet high, where we numbered
twenty-five people during the night of our stay.
Wherever we found the people with a small food supply thej"^ were
usually (|uiet and depressed; but at a village on the northern shore of
Norton sound, where food was plentiful, everyone appeared to be in
the greatest good humor.
During the summer food is more abundant than in winter, and the
people are moie cheerlul at that season and inclined to give a heartier
welcome to a stranger. Tlie winter season being one of possible famine,
there is generally a slight feeling of uncertainty regarding the future.'
When we landed from the Corwin at a summer trading village on
the shore of Ilotham inlet, iu Kotzebue sound, we were surrounded at
once by two or three hundred people, all shouting and smiling good
naturedly. They crowded about us with the greatest curiosity, and
several at once volunteered to carry my camera and box of trading
goods to one of the lodges. We walked along iu the midst of a rabble
of fur-clad flgares and a great variety of strong odors which they
exhaled. The dirty brown faces, ornamented with the huge stone
labrets of the men and the tattooed chin lines of the women, were alive
with animation; tlieir mouths were wide open and their eyes glisteued
with curiosity and excitement. Before us moved a crowd of fat chil-
dren, wiio tried to run ahead and look back at the same time, so that
NELSON] HOSPITALITY — STEALING 299
they were constantly falliug over one another. Entering one of the
lodges where the owner hail carried my stock of trading goods, I pro-
ceeded to purchase such ethnological material as was brought me by
the people.
The eagerness to see the strangers was so great that a dense crowd
outside pressed against the frail walls of the lodge until the frame-
work was broken in several places. At this the owner became offended
and insisted on my giving him a present to pay for the damage thus
done by his fellow-villagers.
At Cape Espenberg we landed at another summer village of five
lodges, where some thirty people were stopping. Several u])turned
sleds and umiaks, and supplies of dried seal and walrus meat lay scat-
tered about, and a freshly killed seal was lying under an old piece of
sealskin.
Fastened to stakes in a circle about the camp were over twenty dogs,
which set up a howl of welcome as we lauded, their cries being joined
by the voices of the children. The women and children ran down to
the shore to meet us, and the whole party was very friendly.
At Cape Lisburne we found a camp of people from Point Hope.
Nine umiaks were drawn up on the shore and braced up ou oue edge
by sticks and paddles. Scattered about on the ground were sealskin
bags of oil and large pieces of walrus and whale meat. Just back of
the umiaks were the conical and round-top lodges, where the men
and the women of the camp were walking about or sitting in the sun,
engaged in sewing or in other work. These people were dressed in fur
clothing, which was very ragged and daubed with dirt and grease,
presenting an extremely filthy ai)pearance. In one of the lodges an
old woman, stripped to the waist, was rolling up a bed. Children
played about the lodges with small, fat puppies, and numerous well-fed
dogs prowled listlessly through the camp.
Between the lodges ran a clear, sparkling brook, entering the sea
over the pebbly beach, and just back of the camp rose high clifis,
fronting the shore.
Before we left they broke camp. The umiaks were launched, oil
bags, tents, clothing, meat, and supplies were bundled into them, and
several dogs being harnessed to the towline from each umiak, they
started up the coast, a single person from each umiak remaining on
shore to drive the dogs.
The people of the islands and shore of Bering strait and Kotzebue
sound are notorious among the trading vessels for pilfering. On
several occasions the villagers of Cape Prince of Wales fairly took
possession of vessels with small crews, and carried off whatever they
wished.
While in the village at East ca^ie, Siberia, the children were con-
stantly trying to steal small objects from me and repeatedly attempted
to take my handkerchief from my pocket. At Point Hope, while I was
300 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [etii ann. 18
buying etb)iological specimens iu the village, one of the men suddenly
began talking and demanded some tobacco, saying that he bad not
been paid enough for something which he had sold me. He assumed an
air of auger and iu a loud voice and with many gestures tried to bully
me into giving him something additional; while he was motioning with
his bands to emphasize his demands I noticed that be hail concealed
in his palm a small comb, which I at once recognized as having been
stolen from my box of trading goods. I immediately grasped bis wrist
and wrested the comb from his hand, calling him a thief. His com-
panions, who had undoubtedly seen him take the article, laughed at
him in ridicule at his being caught, whereupon he slunk away without
further word.
As with all savages, the Eskimo are extremely sensitive to ridicule
and are very quick to take otfense at real or seeming slights.
When among their own tribesmen in large villages they frequently
become obtrusive, and the energetic, athletic peojile about the
shores of Bering strait and northward are inclined to become over-
bearing and domineering when in sufBcient numbers to warrant it. On
the other hand, when traveling away from their native places in
small numbers, among strangers, they become very quiet and mild-
mannered. When we landed at Point Hope a great crowd of peojjle
came running down to the beach, crying, "«-smi', d-sm'," meaning "a
present, a present," and caught hold of us on either side. They hung
to our arms and clothing, continually asking for presents. Two men
ran along on each side of the captain of the Coririn, begging for the
gloves-be wore, while others kept trying to steal some tobacco leaves
which I was carrying under my arm.
The whalers give the people of this locality a bad reputation, as they
do likewise those of Point Barrow. During the summer ot our visit a
whaling vessel was crushed by the ice pack just ofi' Point Barrow, aud
the crew threw upon the ice a large quantitj' of provisions, clothing,
and other articles before the vessel sank. The Eskimo at the jjoint
had seen the accident and with their dog sleds hurried out to the
wreck where they at once set to work to loot everything they could get
hold of. They ran aloft like monkeys and cut away the sails, which,
with the sails of the small boats, they carried ashore.
They stole the clothes chests of the officers, the chronometers, charts,
and the ship's books; the latter they tore up, and the next day, when
the officers tried to recover some of their clothes, they refused to deliver
them, and wore them about before the eyes of the owners. The
wrecked crew went ashore and camped near the place occupied by the
Eskimo, who were living upon canned meats and crackers from the
ship's stores, and refused to permit any of the whalers to take any
unless it was paid for with some of the small supply of tobacco which
had been saved. As a consequence, the wrecked crew were forced to
give up what few things they had been able to save and were forced
NELSON] MORAL CHARACTEKISTICS 301
to live for some time ui)ou seal and walrus meat, while their Eskimo
ueighbors were feasting upou the provisions from the wreck.
Owiug to the constant danger of being wrecked at this i)oint and
cast ashore among these ])eople, the whalers fear to oft'end them
and constantly make them presents. The Eskimo recognize this as
being a sort of peace offering resulting from a feeling of fear, and
they are therefore insolent and overbearing. When they came on
board the Corwin they were sulky, and any slight contradiction seemed
to render them very angry.
The Malemnt at the head of Kotzebue sound are another vigorous,
overbearing tribe. As among the Eskimo of Bering strait, they are
quarrelsome and have frequent bloody affrays among themselves. The
Unalit and Yukon people regard them with the greatest fear and hatred
and say that they are like dogs — always showing their teeth and ready
to tight. The Malemnt are the only Eskimo who still keep up the old
feud against the Tinne, and arfe a brave, hardy set of men. They are
extremely reckless of human life, and a shaman was killed by them
during my residence at St Michael, because, they said, "he told too
many lies."
They buy whisky from trading vessels and liave drunken orgies, dur-
ing which several persons are usually hurt or killed. In 18711 a fatal
quarrel of this kind took place on Kotzebue sound; the people said it
was the fault of the Americans for selling them whisky, and the rela-
tives of the dead men threatened to kill with impunity the first white
man they could in order to have blood revenge.
They also had the reputation of being extremely treacherous among
themselves, not hesitating to kill one another, even of their own tribe,
when opportunity offered while hunting in the mountains^a gun or a
few skins being sufficient incentive. As a consequence, hunters among
this tribe would not go into the mountains with each other, unless they
chanced to be relatives or had become companions by a sort of
formal adoption.
One intelligent Malemut, who was a line hunter, told me it was very
hard work to hunt reindeer in the mountains, as a man could only
sleep a little, having to watcli that other men did not surprise and kill
him.
One winter, while preparing for a sledge journey into the Malemut
country, my Unalit interpreter begged me not to go. saying that the
Malemut were very bad people. He was soon followed by the head-
man of the Unalit at St Michael, who repeated the injunction, assuring
me that the "dogs of Malemut" would surely kill me if I went.
On the other hand, the Malemut despise the Unalit, saying that they
are cowards and like children. When the Corwin anchored oft' Cape
Prince of Wales in Bering strait, the people came off to us in a number
of umiaks. They halted at some distance from the vessel and shouted,
" nii-kii-rul-, nuku-rid,'' meaning " good, good,"' in order to assure us of
302 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT - [eth.ann is
their frieuiUy disposition. Wiieii tliey were motioned to come aloug-
side, tbey approached hesitatingly until some of them recognized me,
having seen me during a visit they had made to St Michael the previ-
ous year. At this they began to shout vociferously to attract my
attention, and immediately came on l)oard. This lack of confidence
was caused by the fact that these jieople had looted a small trading
vessel the year before, and later in the same season, when they boarded
a larger ship, they had been very roughly handled.
When the trading umiaks from the shores of Bering strait made
their summer visits to St Michael, the people were always remarkably
civil and quiet, in marked contrast to their manner when seen about
their native place. At Cape Prince of Wales I went ashore in a small
boat with a couple of men. On our way we met au umiak with twelve
or fifteen paddlers; as they came near they turned and paddled straight
at our little dingy, whooping and shouting at the top of their voices
and coming so directly at us that 1 feared they would run us down.
When within a boat's length the paddle men on one side suddenly
backed water while those of the other side made a heavy stroke, causing
the big umiak to turn as on a pivot and shoot astern of us. As we
landed several hundred people ran down to meet us and as many as
could get hold of our boat seized it along the sides and dragged it some
2.J or 30 yards up the beach with us still seated in it; afterward, when
I wished to go on board, it was only with the greatest difticulty that I
could get one of them to help launch the boat.
As already noted, the people at Point Hope were boisterous and
confident when we saw them at home, but later in the season when we
met several umiaks with people from that place near Cape Lisburne,
they came within about 150 yards of the Coricin and then all raised
their empty hands over their heads, shouting ^^nu-ki'i-riik, nu-hH-n'd;''
until the officer of the deck called to them, after which they came on
board, but were very quiet.
The Malemut extend their wanderings from Kotzebue sound even to
Knskokwim river and Bristol bay, but hardy as they are they have the
sajiie prudence in avoiding trouble while away from home. One case
illustrating this came to my knowledge in connection with a party of
them who were camping beside a village of Kuskokwim Eskimo. One
of the Malemut became enraged at a Kuskokwim man. and hastened
into his tent to obtain a weapon. Two of his companions went after
him and tried to persuade him to give up his idea of revenge for the
slight affront, but he refused to listen to them and went out. His two
fellow tribesmen then took liim, one by eacli arm, and walked along,
still trying to dissuade him from his project. When he again refused
to listen to them, the man on his right suddenly drew his long sheath
knife and .slashed him in the abdomen, completely disemboweling him,
so that he sank down and died in a few moments. In speaking of it
afterward, the man who had done the killing said that if they had
NELSON] HEADMEN SELF CONSTITUTED 303
been among their own i)eople lie would not have interfered, but added:
" We were only a few among the Kuskokwim men, and if our companion
had killed one of their men they would have killed all of us, and it
was better that he should die.''
It was not uncommon among the Eskimo, i)articularly about the
shores of Bering strait and nortliward, for some man of great courage
and superior al)ility to gather about him a certain following and then
rule the i:)eople through fear; such men usually confirmed their p(nver
by killing any one who opposed them. In order to keep theii' follow-
ers in a friendly mood, they made particular efl'ort to supply them
with an abundance of food in times of scarcity, or to give them presents
of clothing at festivals; they also try to secure the good will of white
men whenever they think it to their interest to do so.
At Point Hope we saw such a chief, who had killed four men and
had the entire village terrorized. The people were overawed by his
courage and cunning, and bated him so much that a number of them
went (pxietly to the captain of the (Joy win and begged him to carry the
man away.
During our stay at Point Hope this fellow was never seen without a
ritle in his hand, and the people said he always carried it. During the
trading on the Goncin, whenever one of the villagers was offered a fair
price for one of his articles and began to haggle for a greater one, this
man would quietly take the goods offered and give them to the other,
who would then accept them without another word. I tried to procure
his photogra|)h, but he became very nervous and could not be made to
stand quiet, until he was told that it would be very bad for him if he
did not. As soon as I had taken his photograph he insisted on having
me stand in the same position that he had taken while being photo-
graphed. Then he looked under the cloth covering the camera, and
when he saw my image on the ground glass he appeared to be greatly
])]eased, seeming to think that he had thus counteracted any ill effect
that might follow in his own case.
While stopping at a village near the head of Norton sound I was
shown a man who was badly crippled, and my informant gave me the
history of the manner in which he received his injury. He went out
with three companions hunting reindeer in the mountains, back of the
head of jSTorton sound. At night they made camp, and i)laciug a
spruce log under a light shelter, all lay down, side by side, using the
log for a ])illow. A man who entertained enmity against one of the
party had followed them from their own village ; in the night, while they
were asleep, he crept up and fired his rifle into the head of the man
upon one side in such a manner that it was in line with tlie heads of
the others, and the ball passed through the heads of three of the men,
killing them instantly. The other one sprang to his feet, but before he
could collect his wits he was struck down by the clubbed gun in the
hands of the murderer, and beaten until he appeared to be dead. The
304 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT Ieth.ann. 18
murderer then calmly returiieil to tlie village as tbougli iiotbiiig had
happened. In the course of the next twenty-four hours the man who
had been beaten managed to crawl back to the village, where, after a
long illness, he finally recovered, but was badly crippled for life. The
one who had done the killing made uo further effort to molest him, and
no one attempted to aveuge him for the murder of the other three men.
The murderer and the survivor continued to live in the same village
for years.
The Alaskan Eskimo, so fai" as I observed, have no recognized chiefs
except such as gain a certain influence over their fellow-villagers
through superior shrewdness, wisdom, age, wealth, or shamanism.
The old men are listened to with respect, and there are usually one
or more in each village who by their extended acquaintance with the
traditions, customs, and rites connected with the festivals, as well as
being possessed of an unusual degree of common sense, are deferred to
and act as chief advisers of the community.
On the lower Yukon and beyond to Kuskokwim river such leaders
are termed niis-Jcitlx. meaning literally "the head." Among the Unalit
Eskimo they are called itri-ai-yu-kdk, "the one to whom all listen.'"
These terms are also applied to men who gain a leadership by means
of their greater shrewdness, whereby they become possessed of more
property than their fellows, and by a judicious distribution of food
and their superior force of character obtain a higher standing and a
certain following among the people.
The man who has accumulated much property, but is without ability
to guide his fellows, is referred to merely as a rich man or ti'i-r/ii.
All Eskimo villages have a headman, whose influence is obtained
through the general belief of his fellow villagers in his superior ability
and good judgment. These men possess no fixed authority, but are
respected, and their directions as to the movements and occupations of
the villagers are generally heeded.
In some cases a headman may be succeeded by his son when tlie
latter has the necessary qualities. An example of this was the Eskimo
named Tal-y4-luk, the headman at Unalaklit, whose father had been
one of the best headmen in that region. ^
In some villages, where trading stations are established, the traders
are accustomed to make a sort of chief by choosing men who are
friendly to the whites, and who at the same time have a certain amount
of influence among their people. In order to have any standing in a
position of this kind a man must be endowed with a greater amount
of good sense and ability than the majority of his fellows. Usually
these headmen have greater force of character than their associates
and are either feared or liked by them; in either case their position is
assured. If at any time another man shows superior ability or skill in
promoting the welfare of the village, the older leader may be replaced
by common consent.
NELSON] CONSKQUENCES OF WEALTH 305
Amoug the Malemut, as also among tbe Eskimo of Bering strait and
the adjacent Arctic coast, an active trade is carried on. lu this region it
is common for tbe shrewdest man in each village to accumulate several
hundreds of dollars' worth of property and become a recognized leader
among his fellows.
The Eskimo are very jealous of anyone who accumulates much piop-
erty, and in consequence these rich men, in order to retain the public
good will, are forced to be very open-handed with the community and
thus create a body of dependents. They make little festivals at which
are distributed food and other presents, so that the people appreciate
the fact that it is to their interest to encourage the man in his efforts
toward leadership, in order that they may be benefited thereby.
lu every trading expedition these men are usually the owners of the
umiaks, and control the others, even to tbe extent of doing their trad-
ing for them, but tbe authority of such a leader lasts only so long as
he is looked upon as a public benefactor. Such men make a point of
gathering au abundant supply of Ibod every summer in order that they
may feed the needy and give numerous festivals during the winter.
Sometimes they obtain a stronger intluence over the people by combin-
ing the oflBces of shaman with those of headman.
Whenever a successful trader among them accumulates property and
food, and is known to work solely for his own welfare, and is careless
of his fellow villagers, he becomes an object of envy and hatred which
ends in one of two ways — the villagers may compel him to make a feast
and distribute his goods, or they may kill him and divide his property
among themselves. When the first choice is given him he must give
away all he possesses at the enforced festival and must then abandon
the itlea of accumulating more, under fear of being killed. If he is
killed his property is distributed among tbe people, entirely regardless
of the claims of his family, which is left destitute and dependent ou
the charity of others. This was done at the time of tbe killing of
A-gun-a-pai'-ak, at Unalaklit. This man was a native of tbe Kaviak
peninsula, on tbe coast of Bering strait, and had been forced to leave
there after having killed a man, for fear of the dead man's relatives
taking blood revenge. He bad located at Tnalaklit, and by his domi-
neering character and ability as a trader became one of the most prom-
inent leaders among the people of that region. He plotted to capture
and rob the trading station at St Michael, and was prevented from
carrying out the plan only by the timidity these people manifest when
dealing with white men.
He constantly made trading voyages by umiak to Bering strait in
summer, and in winter made long sledge journeys. Wherever he went
be was accompanied by various hangers-on and was feared by the people
he visited. During my residence I kuew of several murders he bad
committed, some of which were very atrocious. In one instance be
IS ETH 20
306 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
Avisbed to go to St Michael iu his umiak during the summer, and being
short of an oarsman be seized a woman living in Unalaklit and thrust
Ler aboard the boat. The woman's husband was crippled so that he
needed her services, and to prevent his wile from going be hurried
down to the shore and tried to detain her. This enraged the headman,
■who drew his knife and killed the husband on the spot, and, leaving
liim where he lay, pushed off and made the trip, the wife serving at the
oar during the entire time. The following winter this man became
extremely overbearing and very free with his threats towiud various
jjeople, and at last threatened the life of his brother-in-law for having
refused to join in the murder of some people iu order to get their furs.
The brotherin-law received iufoiination of this, and entei-iug the man's
Louse one night while he was sleeping, struck him on the head with an
ax, killing him instantly. The man's sou, a grown youth, was sleeping
iu the room and sprang up at the sound of the blow and was struck
<lown by his uncle, who had just slain the father. After this occur-
rence the people of the surrounding villages felt greatly relieved. Yet,
from that time forth, the man who bad done the killing was constantly
under the influence of fear from the expectation that blood revenge
might be taken by relatives of the dead man.
The nephew of this man killed a fur trader on Kuskokwim river
in a very brutal manner and was arrested by the fur traders at St
Michael iu the spring of 1877. His younger brother bad beeu impli-
cated in the murder, and as soon as Kuu'-ii-giin was arrested be turned
to the men who took him, saying, " Kill me, but do not hurt my brother."
He kept repeating this, evidently thinking that the men would execute
vengeance on him at once. He was placed on board a vessel and sent
to San Francisco, where he was condemned to five years' imprison-
ment. There be was reported to have become an industrious workman
and a favorite with the prison officials.
The men who aspire to be leaders make it a special point to put
themselves as nearly as possible on an equal footing with white men,
and become very sullen and angry if they are not treated with greater
consideration than their lellows.
From Bering strait northward the rich man becomes known as
■u'-mi-a'-l'ih-, or the umiak owner. During the time that war was car-
ried on between the tribes the best warrior planned the attack, and
was known among the Uualit as mii-gokh'-ch-td. He, however, had no
fixed authority, as each one fought indejiendently of the others, but all
combined in the general onslaught. An enemy was termed um'-i-l'ls'-
iu-yd, or " one who is angry with me."
One born in another village is termed a-um'-tu. A stranger is tihl-
'in'-it-huhh', or " seen the first time.'' This term is also applied to strange
objects of any kind. A person belonging to the same clan is recog-
nized as a relative, ujo'-hul;'.
The Eskimo of J^orton sound speak of themselves as Yii'-p)!;, meaning
NEI.SOX] INHERITANCE FIRST GAME 307
fine or complete people. Au Indian, or Tinue, is termed In-li'-lll-, from
vV-l-il-, "a louse egg:"' tliis is a term of derision, referring to the fact
tliat tbe long hair of the Tinue is commonly tilled with the eggs of
these parasites. The Eskimo practice the tonsure, so that their hair is
not so cons])icuous as that of the Tinne. The liussiaus are termed
Kiis-ill', from Cossack; all other whites are known as A-f/^U'-i'tli.
Among the Unalit, with the exceptions mentioned below, whatever
a man makes, or obtains by hunting, is his own.
Wlien a man dies some of his implements and other articles are
placed by his grave and the renminder are divided among his children
and other relatives, the former usually receiving the larger share. The
wife generally makes the distribution soon after her husband's death,
often on the day of the funeral. In some cases, however, if a man's
blood relatives are greedy, they make the division among themselves,
leaving very little for the family.
To the sons usually pass the hunting implements, while the orna-
ments and household articles go to the wife and daughters. If there
are several sons the eldest get the least, the most valuable things
being given to the youngest. Articles of particular value, such as
heirlooms {i)(ii-ti'tk), go to the j-oungest son, as does also the father's
rifle, which, however, Is used by the eldest brother until the younger
one is old enough to use it.
When a man dies his sons, if old enough, support the family; other-
wise they are cared for by relatives.
The most ]>roductive places for setting seal and salmon nets are cer-
tain rocky points which guard the entrances to bays. The right to use
them is regarded as personal property, and is handed down from father
to son. After the death of the father the sons use these places in com-
mon until all of the brothers, save one, get new places at unoccupied
points. If anyone else puts a net in one of these places the original
owner is permitted to take it out and put down his own. These net
places are sometimes rented or given out on shares, when the man who
allows another to use his place is entitled to half the catch.
The first deer, seal, white whale, or other kind of large game killed
by a young man is brought to the village, and there one of the old men
cuts it up and divides it among the villagers, without leaving a particle
for the young hunter; this is done, they say, that the young man may
be successful afterward in hunting. If a net is set for any particular
game and something else is caught, the latter also is divided among
the villagers in the same way, it being said that if this is done other
animals of the same kind will come to the net. This is the practice
when a white whale is caught in a seal net or a seal in a salmon net.
Seals killed with gun or spear may be taken at once to the village,
but all seals taken in nets in the fall must be stored in a cache built of
stones and covered with logs and stones. These storage places are
bnilt on the shore near the places where the nets are set. The cache
308 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx. 18
is called h'l-n-nul'. If a seal carcass is taken from the netting place
or from tLe cache and carried to tbe village before the netting season
is over, it is claimed that all the other seals will know it and become
angry, so that no more will be taken dnriug that season.
If meat is needed a piece of llcsh may be cut from the seals and
carried overland to the village, but a person must be very cautious
and keep away from the shore. At the close of the netting season the
seal bodies may be taken from the cache and carried to the village by
water.
The idea that unexpected game is a kind of treasure trove is l:rmly
fixed in the minds of these people. On occasions when I sent men out
to shoot waterfowl and they chanced to kill a seal they always consid-
ered the latter their own property, although they were hired to hunt
and were paid for their time. In such instances if I obtained the seal
it was by paying for it in addition to the regular wages. Their invari-
able reply when asked about this would be: "You said nothing about
killing a seal, so it is mine.''
On one occasion, while stopping for a short time in a small village
just west of Cape Darby, on the shore of Xorton sound, I refused to
buy the ivory carvings and other ethnological specimens offered, telling
the villagers that I would return in a few days and buy the things they
had to sell. On my return I found the entire village was ofleuded at
my having refused to buy their articles on the former visit, and not one
of them would trade with me.
As a rule the Eskimo sold their implements and ivory carvings at
prices fixed by myself and seemed to regard it as a great piece of sport
that anyone would be simple enough to purchase such objects. At
Sabotnisky, on the Yukon, the people took whatever I offered, and
laughed over obtaining such prizes as needles, buttons, tobacco, etc,
in exchange for such objects, saying that I was giving away my goods.
In large villages the peoi>le would frequently struggle to get within
reach of me, each striving to be first, saying that my goods would be
"" gone before they could get any of them. At a village on the lower
Y'ukon it was amusing to witness the absurd delight some of the natives
exhibited when I bought their carvings and other small objects.
About St Michael the children were always pleased to be employed
on little errands or jobs of light work, and they were eager to trap and
bring me mice and shrews for specimens. They were given iu return
gun caps, matches, or ship's bread, and the deliberate gravity with
which some of them would decide what they would have for a mouse
was very amusing. They are very mischievous in a quiet way, delight-
ing in petty practical jokes on one another. One day I surprised a boy
10 years of age who was following close behind me mimicking my
motions, while his comrades stood at a safe distance greatly enter-
tained by the performance.
The young men are cheerful, light-hearted, and fond of jokes and
NELSON] HUMOR — TRADIXG — TREATMENT OF DISEASE 309
amusenieut. During my huuting excursions, whenever I had several
young men along they were continually telling stories,.] oking, singing,
etc. When in carni) aud during all-night festivals in winter I fre-
quently heard them laugh at one another for being sleepy. At one
of the bladder feasts a young fellow who could scarcely keep his eyes
open replied to the sallies made at his expense by saying that he saw
three of everything he looked at aud accused his comrade sitting next
to him of being unable to find his mouth with the food before him.
Among the furs otiered us at Point Hope was the skin of an Arctic
hare with the tail of a fox sewed upon it as a practical joke. After
they had sold all of their valuable articles, they were persistent in
offei'ing worthless things, and would laugh heartily when these were
rejected. The same men would return again and again, repeatedly
offering something which had been refused, and seemed to be greatly
amused each time.
They are quick to express their ideas by signs when dealing with
people who do not understand their language. At Point Hope the
men kept holding up their hands together in a cup-shape position,
locking the palms and wagging their heads from side to side in a droll
way to indicate that they wished to get some whisky with which to
become drunk.
Ou the lower Yukon aud southward there is a trading custom known
as 2)u-tuJch'-ti'(k. When a person wishes to start one of these he takes
some article into the kashim aud gives it to the man with whom he
wishes to trade, saying at the same time, "It is a piitukh'-tnl.''^ The
other is bound to receive it, and give in return some article of about
equal value; the first man then brings something else, and so they
alternate uutil, sometimes, two meu will exchange nearly everything
they originally possessed; the man who received the first present being
bound to continue uutil the originator wishes to stop.
The fur traders sometimes take advantage of this custom to force au
Eskimo to trade his furs when they can get them in no other way. A
fur trader told me of securing in this way from one man the skins of
30 mink, 8 laud otters, 4 seals, and 2 cups and saucers; finally the
Eskimo wished to give his rifie, but at that the trader stopped the
transaction.
TKEATMEXT OF DISEASE
lu treating diseases the most common method is for the shamans to
perform certain incantations. There are cases, however, iu which more
direct methods are i^ursued: blood letting is commonly practiced to
relieve iufiamed or aching portions of the body. For this purpose
small lancets of stone or iron are used. In one instance I saw a mau
lancing the scalp of his little girl's head, the long, thin, iron point of
the instrument being thrust twelve or fifteen times between the scalp
and the skull.
310
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. AXX. 18
Fig. 97 — Ljinift pointed with iit'iilirite (J).
One of these laucets (figure 07) was obtaiued on tlie northern shore
of jS^ortou sound. It is a small, thin, double-edge blade, of hard, pale-
greenish stone,
an inch and an
eighth in length,
broad-
ened at
the butt,
which is Inserted in the sylit end of a short wooden handle
and wrapped tightly with a strong sinew cord. I saw other
old instruments of this kind made of folate, but at present
most of the lancets are siinilar in shajie but are made of iron.
An aching tooth is extracted by placing the square point
of a piece of deerhorn against it and striking the other end
a sharp blow with an object used as a mallet.
On the islands in Bering strait I saw men using long-
handle scratchers to relieve irritation caused by eruptions
on the skin or by parasites. Figure 98 illustrates one of
these implements which was obtained on Sledge island. It
consists of a wooden rod about 17 inches in length, having a
thin-edge ivory disk an inch in diameter fitted on one end.
In the collection obtained in Labrador by Mr L. M. Turner,
there is a specimen of a similar instrument.
MORTUARY CUSTOMS
The burial customs of the Eskimo with whom I came in con-
tact vary so greatly that I have given in detail an account
of the observances noted in different localities, beginning with
the Uualit at St Michael.
The following are Unalit terms nsed by the St Michael
people :
Corpse tiV -\co-maV -u-g'i-a (dead oue).
Spirit or shade la-g'un'-ii-ghak.
Ghost, or visible sbado o-Ihi-ukli'-foli.
Grave km'i-K'.
When a person dies during the day his relivtives, amid loud
wailing, proceed at once to dress him in the best clothing
they possess, using, if possible, garments that have never
been worn. Should the death take place at night, the body
is not dressed until just at sunrise the following morning.
Some of the male relatives or friends go out and make a
rude box of drift logs in the usual burial place, which is a
short distance back of the village. During this time the ^"'- os-nack
scratcher (i).
body lies in its place on the sleeping platform, with the oil
lamp burning day and night close by, until the burial, while the rel-
atives and friends sit about on other sleeping benches. When the box
MORTUARY CUSTOMS
311
is completed, either on the same day or the next, the body is placed
in a .sitting posture with the heels drawn back against the hips and
the knees resting against the chest; the elbows are drawn down
against the sides, and the forearms and hands are bent so as to clasp
the abdomen, the right hand and arm being placed above the left.
Fignre 90 shows the position of the body ready for burial. It is then
wra])ped in grass mats or deerskins and bound tightly with rawhide
cords. By means of cords the body is usually raised through the smoke
hole in the roof, but is never taken out by the doorway. Should the
smoke hole be too small, an opening is made in the rear side of the house
and then closed again. The body is taken to the grave and placed
upon one side in the box, below it being placed the deerskin bed of
the deceased, and over it his blankets. If the deceased be a man, his
pipe, Hint and steel, tinder, and pouch of tobacco are placed in the box,
and, if a snuff taker, his snuff-box and tube. Then the cover of rough
planks or logs is put on and fastened down
with logs or stones. In case of a man, his pad-
dle is planted blade upward in the ground near
by, or is lashed to a corner post of the box itself,
so that the relatives and friends may see the
U' hlin-iik or totem mark, and thus know whose
remains lie there.
If the grave box is made of planks the totem
picture is usually drawn upon its front in red or
black, or sometimes the front bears the picture
of some animal which the father of the dead
man excelled in hunting. If the father took
l>art m a war party against the common enemy
of his tribe, then the figure of a bow is painted
on the box. Sliould this receptacle be of such
a nature as not to iiermit the making of pic-
tures upon its surface, they are drawn on a small piece of board made
for the purpose and fastened to the end of a stick five or six feet long,
and the latter is planted at the side or at one end of the box. In a con-
spicuous place on a corner post of the grave, or on jjosts set up for
the purpose, are placed the dead man's snowshoes, spears, bow and
arrows, or gun; upon the ground by the grave is laid his open work
bag, with all the small tools in place, and his kaiak frame is set
close by.
Should the deceased be a woman, her workbag, needles, thread, and
fish knife are placed beside her in the box. Her wooden dishes, pots,
and other belongings are placed by the grave, and to the corner post
are hung her metal bracelets, deer-tooth belt, and favorite wooden dish,
and sometimes a fish knife. The markings upon the grave box, or on
the small board made for the purpose, are those of her family totem,
or illustrate the exploits of her father, as is done in the case of a man.
Fig. 99— r.>sitiuii of l>iirial of
the (lead at St Michael.
312 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT [eth.-uw. 18
These customs, with certain variations, are still observed. At St
Michael I saw a father's grave marked with his totem picture, while
on the grave box of his son close bj' was the picture of the animal
which the father had excelled in hunting.
When the grave with its various belongings is arranged, the rela-
tives make small offerings of food of dirt'erent kinds, and ponr water on
the ground beside it, after which all go home.
During the day on which a person dies in the village no one is per-
mitted to work, and the relatives must perform no labor during the
three following days. It is especially forbidden during this period to
cut with any edged instrument, such as a knife or an ax; and the use
of pointed instruments, like needles or bodkins, is also forbidden. This
is said to be done to avoid cutting or injuring the shade, which may be
present at any time during this period, and, if accidentally injured by
any of these things, it would become very angry and bring sickness or
death to the people. The relatives must also be very careful at this
time not to make any loud or harsh noises that may startle or anger
the shade.
In ancient times the Unalit of this vicinity exposed their dead on
the open tundra back of the village, throwing their weapons and tools
beside them. It was the custom to lay the body at full length on its
back and plant two slicks about three feet long, one on each side of the
head, so that they would cross over the tace. The old man who told
me this said that cverj'one u.sed to be thrown on the ground in this
manner, but he thought that it was from seeing the grave boxes made
lor the dead iu other places that the Unalit had been led to adopt the
present custom. The use of grave boxes undoubtedly came from the
south, as it was observed that their greatest elaboration was found
south of the territory occupied by the Unalit, while to the northward
the Malemut still throw out many of their dead. My informant added
that it was better to keep the dead in grave boxes, for it ke])t their
shades from wandering about as they used to do; besides, it was bad
to have the dogs eat the bodies.
If the deceased was a hunter, the totem of his father was usually
liainted on his grave box at the time of the burial, but if he was not a
liunter this totem picture was not made on the box until the stake of
invitation to the feast of the dead was planted by the grave the follow-
ing winter. (See account of festivals to the dead.) If the person was
disliked, or was without relatives to make a feast, no totem markings
were put on the box. If he was a very bad man he was buried in a box,
while food and water were offered to the shade; but no weapons or
other marks of respect were placed beside the grave, no feast was made
to his memory, and he was forgotten.
About eight miles from the village of Kigiktauik I saw the remains
of a body with a sled. My Eskimo companions told me it was the
body of a man who had died iu the village from a loathsome disease,
NELSON]
MORTUARY CUSTOMS
313
and tbe people had brought it out there aud abandoned it without any
attendant observances.
Among the Unalit the graveyard is usually quite close to one side of
the village, generally behind it or on a small adjacent knoll. The
illustration (figure 100) from a photograph taken near St Michael, will
show the method of disposing of the dead in that vicinity.
During my residence at St Michael a shaman died, and the following
uotes were made on the observances that followed:
Flu. liiiJ— Method ul" ili.si>u.siuji ul thf tU-ad at St Micliael.
In consideration of the fact that the deceased had been a shaman,
no one did any work iu the village for three days following his death.
The body, however, had been prepared and placed iu the grave box
on the morning that he died. The night following, when the people
prepared to retire, each man in the village took his urine tub and
poured a little of its contents upon the ground before the door, saying,
"This is our water; drink"' — believing that should the shade return
during the night aud try to enter, it would taste this water and, finding
it bad, would go away.
314
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
During tbe first clay after the death everyone near the village was
said to be soft and nerveless, with very slight power of resistance, so
that any evil influence could injure him easily; but the next day the
people said they were a little liarder than before, and on the third day
the body was becoming frozen, so that they were approaching hardi-
ness again.
On the evening of the second day the men in every house iu the vil-
lage took their urine buckets and, turning them bottom upward, went
about the house, thrusting the bottom of the vessel into every corner
and into the smokehole and the doorway. This, it was said, was done to
drive out the shade if it should be in the house, and from this custom
the second day of mourning is called ((■hluH'-ig-nt, or "the bottom daj\"
After this was done and the people were ready to retire for the night
every man took a long grass stem and, bending it. stuck both ends into
the ground in a consi)icuous place iu the middle of the doorway. They
said this would frighten the spirit off, for should it come about and
try to enter the house it would see this bent
grass, and, believing it to be a snare, would
go away, fearing to be caught. On tlie
tliird morning, before eating, every man,
woman, and cliild in the village bathed in
urine, which cleansed them of any evil that
might have gathered about their persons,
and also reudeied their flesh firm, so that
they were hardy and able to withstand tbe
ordinary influence of the shade.
On the lower Yukon, below Ikogmut, the
following customs were observed:
These people are very averse to hav-
ing a dead body in the house, and the
corpse is ]>laced in the grave box at the earliest possible moment.
This is so marked that the relatives frequently dress the person in the
new burial clothing while he is dying in order that he may be removed
immediately after death. After death the body is placed in a sitting
posture on the floor; the knees are drawn up and the feet back, so that
the knees rest against the chest and the heels against the hips; then
the head is forced down between the knees until the back of the neck
is on a line with the tops of the knees; the arms are drawn around
encircling the legs above the ankles and just under the forehead. It
is then tied with strong cords to hold it iu this position and drawn up
through the smoke hole in the roof and carried to the graveyard, where
it is placed upon the top of an old grave box while one is being made
for it. Figure 101 illustrates the position of the body ready for burial.
When the box is ready, usually the next day, the body is placed in it
upon a deerskin bed, while other deerskins or cloth covers are thrown
over it. All of the small tools of the deceased are placed iu the box
Fig. 101— Position ol'burialof tlietleail
on tbe lower Yukon.
MORTUARV CUSTOMS
315
aucl a cover of rougli planks is fastened down over the top with wooden
pegs. Just before the body is placed in the box the cords that bind it
are cut, in order, they say, tliat the shade may return and occupy tlie
body and move about if necessary.
The grave boxes in this vicinity are made of hewn slabs or jilanks,
squared at the ends, and supported by a stout central piece from
below, and frequently with four corner posts, which extend some dis-
tance above the box. None of the relatives touch the body, this work
being done by others. The housemates of the deceased must remain
in their accustomed places in the house during the four days following
the death, while the shade is believed to be still about. During this
time all of them must keep fur hoods drawn over their heads to pre-
vent the influence of the shade from entering their heads and killing
them. At once, after the body is taken out of the house, his sleeping
place must be swept clean and piled lull of bags and otiier things, so
as not to leave any room for the
shade to return and reoccupy
it. At the same time the two
persons who slept with him
upon each side must not, ujion
any account, leave their places.
If they were to do so the shade
might return and, by occupy-
ing a vacant place, bring sick-
ness or death to its original
owner or to the inmates of the
house. For this reason none of
the dead person's housemates -
are permitted to go outside
during the four days following
the death. The deceased per-
son's nearest relatives cut their hair short along the forehead in sign of
mourning.
During the four days that the shade is thought to remain with the
body none of the relatives are permitted to use any sharp edge or
pointed instrument for fear of injuring the shade and causing it to
become angry and to bring misfortune upon them. One old man said
that should the relatives cut anything with a sharp instrument dur-
ing this time, it would be as though he had cut his own shade and
would die.
Near the upper end of the Yukon delta is a small graveyard in
which was seen a newly made box placed over an old one made for a
member of the same family. This new box was made of heavy hewn
planks, painted red, and supported about a foot above the old one by
the same set of corner posts, as shown in figure 102.
To the pole erected before this grave were attached a cup, a spoon
Fig. 102— Grave boxes, Yukon delta.
316
THE ESKIMO ABOl'T BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
aud a kaiak paddle, and a pair of umiak oars were placed against
the box, which contained the body of a boy, the son of an old man in
the village, who, it was said, was prohibited from doing any work for
three inoons following the death of his son.
At each end of the boxes at this place was erected a post, to the top
of which was fastened a cross-board bearing some articles of ornament
or of value belonging to the deceased. The boxes were all supported
two feet or more above the ground by corner posts, which extended
several feet above tlieir tops.
At Eazbinsky the graveyard is placed immediately behind the kashim
in the winter village, so near that the odor arising from the bodies
becomes almost unbearable iu the warm weather when spring opens.
These grave boxes are well made and are ranged roughly in rows,
forming an irregular square. At the time of my visit there were about
thirty of them, some of which are
shown in plate xci.
They were made of hewn planks
about oj by 3 feet in horizontal
measurement and 2 feet deep, aud
were raised about two feet from
the ground on corner posts, with
a fifth support formed by the
butts of small trees so ])lanted
that thesjireading routs upturned
supported the bottoms of the
boxes, which were all jjaiuted red,
and the posts were banded with
the same color. The fronts of the
" ' "^ ' boxes were ornamented with rows
Fig 103 — Burial bnx at Razliiiiskv- „ , i . ji
of boue pegs, as shown in the
illustration (figure 103), and the corner posts were also ornamented in
the same manner.
On some of the boxes were rude figures in black of a man shooting
with bow and arrow at a deer or bear. The number and arrangement
of the bone pegs varied, but the general plan was the same.
At llazbiiisky most of the utensils of the deceased were placed iu the
boxes with the bodies. A few old reindeer horns and some posts bear-
ing invitation ettigies for the feast to the dead were the main objects to
be seen about these boxes. Beside some of them, ho« ever, were hewn
boards five or six feet long, supported six or seven feet from the ground
on two posts, and bearing the figures of skins of animals and other
objects on their fronts.
At the village of Starikwikhpak, just below Kazbinsky, were two
grave boxes almost exactly like those just described. On the front of
one of them was a large figure in black, representing a man shooting
with bow and arrow at a reindeer.
MORTUARY CUSTOMS MEMORIAL IMAGES
317
At Kuslmuuk, near Cape Vancouver, the dead are placed with the
knees drawn up against the chest, and the wrists are crossed and tied to
the ankles in front. They are then buried in rude boxes, made of small
drift logs, which are bnilt on the ground near the village. About and
upon the boxes are placed the tools and weapons of the deceased.
Tunuuuk village, at Cape Vancouver, faces the sea; on a small flat
and about 20 yards in front of the entrance to the kashim, between it
and the sea, were three large wooden posts, representing human fig-
ures, and several subordinate posts. They were of drift logs, G or 7
feet high by 12 to 15 inches in diameter, without bark, and not carved
except on the top. These were ranged in a row parallel to the beach
and across the front of the kashim. The top of each post was carved
to represent a human head and neck. Commencing on the left, as I
faced them, the following account describes them in succession:
The first jiost had its head covered with the remains of a fur hood,
such as is worn by the people of this vicinity. The mouth and eyes
Fm. Iu4 — Memorial images at Cfiiie VancouviT.
were made of ivory, iidaid in the wood; from each shoulder of the flg-
ui'B a walrus tusk curved outward and upward to represent arms.
These tusks were notched above to form places for hanging objects;
that on the right side bore suspended from it an ivory-handle fish
knife, and near the body were several iron bracelets. From the tip of
the left arm hung a small wooden dish, and nearer the body were more
iron bracelets. About where the hips should be was another x>air of
walrus tusks inserted parallel to tlie upper ones, representing legs.
The post was painted in broad, alternating bands of colors, commenc-
ing at the head and going down in the following order, namely, red,
white, black, white, red. To the left of this was a plain, upright post,
to which hung an iron bucket, and on the ground near its base was a
woodeu box containing a woman's woi-kbag and outfit of clothing.
The next large post represented a man, whose mouth and eyes were
of inlaid ivory, and with tusks for arms and legs, as in the post first
described. Two large bead labrets were at the corners of the mouth.
318 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
At tbe b.ase of this post a bow and quiver of arrows were fastened.
Just behind it was a box full of man's clotliins' and small tools.
On a small post to tlie right there was a wooden model of an umiak,
and ou another post to the left were five wooden models of kaiaks.
Close to these last was another post, bearing on the board across its top
nine images of the large hair seal. A fourth post bore a model of a
kaiak.in which was a man holding a spear poised ready to cast. These
symbols were explained to me as follows: The umiak and kaiak models
showed that the person represented had made and owned these boats.
The nine hair seals were the result of his greatest day's liunting, and
the kaiak with the man seated in it showed that he had been a hunter
at sea.
The third large post was very old and dilapidated from long expo-
sure. Its mouth, eyes, and arms, like the others, were of ivory, but it
was not provided with legs. On two posts close by were models of a
large hair seal and a reindeer, with a third post to the right bearing
the figure of a man in a kaiak with poised si)ear. This man was said
to have been a good hunter both on land and at sea, esiiecially at sea.
These posts (figure 104) were said to represent peoijle who had been
lost and their bodies never recovered. The first post was for a woman
who had been buried by a landslide in the mountains, while the men
were drowned at sea. I was told that among the people of this and
neighboring villages, as well as of the villages about Big lake, in the
interior from this point, it is the custom to erect memorial posts for all
people who die in such a manner that their bodies are not recovered.
Each year for five years succeeding the death a new fur coat or cloth
shirt is put on the figure at the time of invitation to the festival for the
dead, and offerings are made to it as though the body of the deceased
were in its grave box there. When the shade comes about tbe village
to attend the festival to the dead, or at other times, these posts are
supposed to afford it a resting place, and it sees that it has not been
forgotten or left unhonored by its relatives.
At several villages between Cape Vancouver and the mouth of
Kuskokwim river were found grave boxes rudely made of driftwood,
and about them were placed the usual display of guns, bows and arrows,
paddles, and similar objects.
At the next village to the south, beyond Cape Vancouver, the graves
were located on a high knoll overlooking the village, and were unusually
conspicuous on account of the long poles of driftwood which were
erected near each, and to the tops of which an ax or a gun was
usually fastened crosswise.
At Big lake village, on the tundra, midway between Yukon and Kusko-
kwim rivers, are a number of small wooden figures similar in character
to those abov'e described, and, like them, raised in honor of people whose
bodies were lost. In front of many of the graves at this place were large
headboards, made of hewn planks about four feet long, placed across
MEMORIAL BOARl)S SHADES
319
the top of two upright posts. To the middle of these wei-e piuiied from
two to three woodeu maskoids, lepresentiug human faces with iulaid
ivoiy eyes aud mouths; from holes or pegs at the ears hung small
strings of beads, such as the villagers wear, aud below the masks wei-e
bead necklaces, some of the latter being very valuable from the Eskimo
point of view. The accompanying illustratiou (figure 105), from a sketch
made on the spot, shows two of these maskoids. The graveyard at this
place was very curious, having a large number of maskoids and images
with curious ornamentation, but I was unable to remain long enough
to give it a thorough examination.
I was informed that the graveyards of the villages on the Kuskokwim,
below Kolmakof lledoubt, are full of remarkable images of carved
wood. One was described
to me as being roofed 1 1) ■ uL
with wooden slabs, aud
consisted of a life-size
figure, with round face,
narrow slits for eyes, aud
four hands like a Hindoo
idol. Two of the hands
held a tin plate each for
votive offerings, aud the
body was dressed in a
new white shirt and bore
elaborate bead orna-
ments. The abundance
of carved figures in the
graveyards of this dis-
trict, as was noted also
among those of the adja-
cent Tinne of the lower
Yukon, is very remarka-
ble, and their use does
not extend northward of the Yukon in a single instance, so far as could
be learned.
On lower Kuskokwim river the Eskimo l)elieve that the shade of a
male stays with the body uutil the fifth day after his death; the shade
of a female remains with the body for four days. On the Y'ukon and
among the Eskimo to the north the shades of men and women alike
are believed to remain with the body four days after death. Through-
out this region the villagers abstain from all work on the day of the
death, and in many places the day following is similarl3' observed.
None of the relatives of the deceased must do any work during the
entire time in which the shade is l)elieved to remain with the body.
Along the coast north of St Michael there is much less elaboration. in
the mode of burial. On the beach near Cape jSTome, on the northern
Fig. 105 — Monument board at a Eig-lake grave.
320
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH ANN. 18
shore of Norton souutl, several summer fishing camps were located, and
among these were a few rude graves made by building up slight
inclosures of drift logs and covering them with similar material. At
one place in this vicinity was a cone-shape iuclosure made by standing
drift logs on end in a circle eight or nine feet in diameter, with their
upper ends meeting. From the top of this projected a long pole, and
inside was a wooden box containing the remains of a shaman, swung
by cords midway between the ground and the top of the structure.
This man, I was told, had caused himself to be burned alive two years
before the time of my visit, in the expectation of returning to life with
much stronger powers than he had previously possessed; but the hope
of the shaman failed to become realized at the appointed time, so his
body was inclosed in a box and the cone of driftwood was erected over it.
Xear the village at Cape Nome was a large burial box (figure 106)
supported about
O live feet above the
' g r 0 u n (I on lour
posts. This box
was made of rude,
hewn planks cut
Irom drift logs, and
was said to be the
grave of a noted
shaman who could
breathe fire from
his mouth. The
other graves about
the village at this
cape were roughly
made of drift logs,
with the remains
of totem marks,
stones, and imple-
burial places near St
Fig. 10*1 — Grave bos at Cap<^ Nome
the drift loi;
ments about them, very much like
Michael, previously described.
Ou Sledge island, in Bering strait, I examined several graves on a
sharp rocky slope of the island just above the village. These consisted
of shallow pits among the rocks, surrounded by rude lines of stones,
forming rims, over which were laid drift logs held in i^lace by heavy
stones. Xo implements or other marks of distinction were observed
about these graves, possibly on account of their age.
In July, 1881, I climbed the rocky hill above the Eskimo village at
East cape, Siberia, and found tbe graves located just above and back
of the houses among the rocks covering a long ridge. They were very
rude, consisting of a shallow pit formed by taking out the stones and
laying them to form a rectangular iuclosure G or 8 feet long and 2 or 3
METHODS OF BURIAL
321
km
^>~-^
feet wide. In these places the bodies were laid at full leujith upou
their backs, with deerskin beds below, and over the top was a covering
of rude planks or drift logs, or sometimes a
small cairn. Upon and about the graves lay ^^ £S,^
various implements of the deceased. C&/ ^^^
Graves of men in this spot were marked with
spearheads; those of the women with x>ot-
sherds and stoue lamps ; at one of these graves
was the skull of a polar bear, and at another
a few reindeer horns. The inclosures were so
roughly and lightly made that the village
dogs had robbed many of them of their con-
tents. The graveyard extended along the
hillside for nearly a mile just above and in
sight of the village, and as I reached one of
the graves quite near the houses I found a dog
devouring the remains of a boy 10 or 12 years
of age. Some village children who had fol-
lowed me did not pay the slightest attention
to this, although but a few days before the
dead boy must have been their playmate.
On the southern point of St Lawrence island
I found the graveyard located about a mile
back of the village. Some bodies had been
placed under acairn andothers were laid at full
length on the ground, with a ring of stones
ranged around them and a stick of driftwood
six or eight feet long either on the ground at
the foot of the grave or planted so as to pro-
ject at an angle like the bowsprit of a ship
(figure 107). No implements were seen here.
From the lack of graves near other villages
visited on this island, it is probable that the
villagers place their dead at a distance from
their houses, as is the custom at Plover bay,
Siberia. This may possibly account for the
absence of children's bodies among the scores
of victims of famine and disease which were
found iu two or three villages visited on this
island. At Plover bay, Siberia, the burial
place was located at the base of the low spot
on which the village stands, and about a mile
from the houses. Some graves were on the
flat at the foot of a rocky slope, and others
on the rocky bench, about a hundred feet
above. Many of the bodies were laid at full " '~ '™]sian°i.
18 ETH 21
^n
IV
322 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
length iu shallow pits made by removiug the rocks, and were covered
with stones. Along the edges of the graves lines of small stones were
arranged in a rude oval. Over the heads of some of them were piled
four or five pairs of reindeer antlers.
A musket and numerous spears, with other implements, all broken
so as to render them useless, were scattered about. Many of the
bodies had been laid upon the ground and surrounded by an oval of
stones, with a stick of driftwood at the foot, exactly as in graves seen
on St Lawrence island. At none of those made iu this manner were
there any implements or other things deposited, and they may have
been the burial places of people from St Lawrence island.
At Point Hope, just beyond Kotzebue sound, was a large graveyard,
iu which the bodies were placed in rude boxes built of driftwood, above
the ground, and surrounded by implements. Still north of this, at
Cape Lisburne, I found a solitary grave on the side of a ravine by the
shore. It was an irregularly walled iuclosure in rectangular shape,
about 3 feet high, 3 feet wide, and 6 feet long, built of fragments of
slate rock, and covered with drift logs. This grave was very old, as
the skeleton was nearly destroyed by weathering, and no implements
whatever were found.
TOTEMS AXD FA3I1LY ]MARKS
From Kuskokwim river northward to the shores of Bering strait and
Kotzebue sound the Eskimo have a regular system of totem marks
and the accompanying subdivision of the people into gentes. It was
extremely difficult to obtain information on this point, but the follow-
ing notes are sufliciently definite to settle the fact of the existence
among them of gentes and totemic signs:
Pictures, carvings, or devices of any kind, totemic or otherwise, are
called ii'-lhiii-ulc by the IJualit. People belonging to the same gens
are considered to be relatives, termed u-jo'-hiil;' by the Unalit.
Fig. 108— A^ro^vlPMi^t sliowiu^ wolf totem sign.s (^).
The gray wolf is called My'-u-lun'-uk; the wolf totem or mark,
Mg-u-lun' -A-go' -nl; ; the wolf gens, Mg'-u-lun'-H-go-alh'-i-yit.
Arrows or other weapons marked with the sign of the wolf or other
animal totem mark are believed to become invested with some of the
qualities of the animal represented and to be endowed with special
fatality.
Among other totem marks that of the wolf is well represented on
some arrows with deerhorn points, used for large game by a party
of Malemut who were hunting reindeer on Nunivak island. These
arrows have two isolated barbs with a line along their base to rei)re-
scnt a wolf's back with ux)stauding ears, which are indicated by the
NELSONJ
TOTEM MARKS
323
two barbs. The same idea is expressed on tlie base of the arrowpoiut,
where au iucised line about an inch iu length is drawn along the sur-
face of the bone with the two short, pai'allel, incised lines projecting
from it. The arrowpoint illustrated to show this 'figure 108) was
Fig. 109 — Spearbeail represeutinL; a wolf (/a).
obtained on Nunivak island, but was made and used by a Malemut from
the vicinity of Kotzebue sound.
The wolf totem is exhibited on numerous spearheads of wali'us ivory
obtained at various places from the shore of ifortou sound south-
FiG. 110 — Spearhead representing a -wolf (about g).
ward to Kuskokwim river. These spearheads are usually well made,
showing the mouth of the wolf open, with the line of teeth in relief
around the open jaws, in the front of which is a hole lined with a
wooden socket, in which the conical butt of the spearpoint is placed.
Fig. Ill — Spearhead representing an otter (J).
The nostrils and the eyes of the wolf are often represented by blackened
incised lines; or they may be circular pits in which wooden pegs are set,
or filled with a black substance, so as to show prominently. The wolf's
ears are usually carved iu relief, or are made of sharp-pointed pegs of
Fig. 112— Spearhead representing an ermine (J).
ivory set in the sides of the bead. In the latter case the eyes also are
made of round pegs of ivory, and the boles for the nostrils are plugged
with wooden pins. Others have the eyes represented by blue or black
beads inlaid in the ivory. The accompanying illustrations of two of
324
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
!
these give au idea of tlieir general character. Figure 109 is from lower
Kitskokwiin river and figure 110 from Nuiiivak island.
Nearly all the wolf spearheads have represented upou
the surface the form of the wolf's body in low relief,
with the legs and feet extending around the under side.
The representation of the wolf or of some other ani-
mal totem seems to be common on this class of weap-
ons, which are used principally for killing white whales
or walrus.
Figure 111 illustrates a similar spearhead obtained
on Nunivak island. It is of ivory and repi-esents the
laud-otter totem. The muzzle is rounded, with a cir-
cular perforation for the eye. The mouth, nostrils, and
muzzle are outlined by incised lines, but no teeth are
shown. Along the sides are other incised figures, as
shown in the illustration.
A spearhead from Chalitmut (figure 112) is carved
to rejiresent an ermine, indicating the totem mark of
the owner.
Women belonging to the wolf gens braid strips of
wolfskin in their hair, and young men and boys wear
a wolf tail hung behind on the belt. It is said to have
been the ancient custom for all to wear some mark about
the dress by which the gens of each person might be
distinguished.
Another gens among the Cnalit is that of the ger-
falcon (Falcorusticolus (lyrfulco). The name for gerfal-
cou is chi-huhv'-l-uli; the gerfalcon totem, cht-Jcubv'-i-a-
|i' lllll j gii'-i'il-; the gerfalcon gens, (7*^/l■»/yr'■^a'-(70■H/i/'■^<'/(^ On
spears and arrows this totem mark is made by bars of
red paint, which are said to represent the bars on the
|]l| I gerfalcon's tail. These bars are shown on the arrow
illustrated in the accompanying figure 113. On the
bow represented in the same figure this totem is indi-
cated by a red and black line along a shallow groove
in the middle of the inside of the bow.
The raven totem or mark is represented bj- an etched
outline of the bird's foot and leg, forming a trideutate
1
4
< <
Fig. 113 — Gerfalcon
totems on bow and
seal spear.
Fig. 114 — Simple forms of the raven totem.
mark, or sometimes merely by an outline of the foot.
Forms of this totem are shown in figure 114.
At East cape, Siberia, I saw numerous arrow- and spear-heads of
TOTEM MARKS
325
Fig. 115— EuTen totem
tattooing on a Plover
liay Itor.
bone or ivory beariug tlie ravea mark, and tbe same mark was seeu
tattooed on the forehead of a boy at Plover bay (figure 115).
These marks are frequently seen on carvings, weapons, and iniiile-
ments of almost every description. On clothing or
wooden utensils it may be marked witli paint. On the
gutskin smoke-hole cover of the kashim at Kigiktauik
two raven signs were drawn close together, with a red
spot in front of them, as shown in figure 116.
On inquiry I was told that the man who presented
the kashim with this cover had marked upon it his to-
tem sign, and that the red si)ot in front was intended
to represent the bloody mark in the snow where the
raven had eaten meat. My informant added that
sometimes a ring was drawn before the raven tracks
on the cover to represent a seal hole in the ice.
If a man who i)reseiited a cover to the kashim belonged to another
gens, or if his ancestors excelled in hunting a special kind of large game,
the figure of that animal was drawn
on the cover. One man, whose ances-
tors were noted for being successful
hunters of sea animals, drew three
<-shape marks on the cover which he
presented to the kashim, as follows-.
< < < . These marks were said to
represent the rippling wake of an ani-
mal swimming in the water.
It is cnstoinary for liunters to carry
about with them an object representing their totem. A man belong-
ing to the raven gens carries in his quiver a pair of raveu feet and
a quill feather from the same bird.
The gerfalcon man carries in his
quiver a quill feather of that totem
bird.
There are other marks which are
somewhat different in significance
from the totem mark, but which may
be adopted for various reasons. At
St Michael a man told me of three
hunters who went out one winter
during a famine, and after hunting
for a long time could find no game.
Finally one of them w^ent back to
their sledge and took from it the
ham of a dog which he had brought with him. After eating some of
this he started off again, carrying the bone with him. He had gone
only a short distance when he encountered a seal and killed it. This,
V
■'i •' ..ft Vir
;.l;.^....X
Fig. 116 — Haven totems on emoke-Lole cover.
Fig.
117 — W^olf totem signs on a
door.
storehouse
326
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[eth. axn. 13
it was said, was due to tlie dog's lianibone wliicb he had with him, and
thereafter he carried this bone aud adopted a marlc to represeut it iu
place of his totem
sigu, as did his sou
after him.
At Sabotuisky, on
the lower Yiilcou, I
saw an oval door of
hewn boards in a
storehouse, on which
was marked, with red
ocher, the outline of
an extended wolfskin
with the rude figure
of a wolf outlined on
the skin and sur-
rounded by a circle
(figure 117). In reply
to a question, one of
the villagers told me
that it was tlie fam-
ily mark of one of the
villagers. "All of our
people," he added,
"have marks which
have been handed
down by our fathers
from very long ago,
and we put them on
all of our things."
Another man at
Fig. llti— Tobacco lioanl ^vitll bear and loacb si^'ns. this village said that
his ancient namesake
had been a famous bowman, and once while hunting, having nothing
but blunt-head arrows, such as are used for killing rabbits and other
small game, came across a large red bear, which he immediately began
to shoot; finally he broke all of the
bear's bones and killed it. After this
he adopted the red bear as his sign and
his descendants still use this mark.
Figure 118 represents a thin board,
on which tobacco is cut, which was
Fig. U9 — Figures on a grave box.
obtained at Sabotuisky. There is a
broad, shallow groove along each side,
succeeded by a small groove along its inner edge. The broad groove has
two incised curved marks representing bear claws. On each side and
NELSON] TOTEM MARKS WARS 327
near tlie end on each side is an incised crescentic mark with a ijointed
groove below, said to represent the moutli and liarbel of a loach. At the
base of each bear claw is inserted a tuft of white seal bristles, with an-
other tnft on the edge close by and one on the tip of the barbel of the
loach. Abont one- third of the distance from the front are crosslines rep-
resenting a fish net stretched across the board. The edge of the board,
including the broad groove, bear-claw incisions, and loach mouth, is
painted red; the net is of dull blnish color. All of these marks have
toteniic meanings which I did not have an op])ortunity to determine.
Figure 11!» illustrates the figures painted on a grave box at Stari-
kwikhpak, which indicates that the father of the deceased was a noted
reindeer hunter.
WARS
Previous to the arrival of the Eussians on the Alaskan shore of
Bering sea the Eskimo waged an almost constant intertribal warfare;
at the same time, along the line of contact with the Tinne tribes of the
interior, a bitter feud was always in existence. The people of the coast
from the Yukon mouth to Kotzebue sound have many tales of villages
destroyed by war parties of Tinne. Back from the head of Jforton
bay and Kotzebue sound, during the time of my residence in that
region, several Tinne were killed by Malemut while hunting reindeer
on the strip of uninhabited tundra lying between the districts occupied
by the two peoi)les. Duriug the summer of 1879 a party of three Male-
mut from the head of Kotzebue sound ambushed and killed seven
Tinne who were found hunting reindeer in the interior.
As related by various Eskimo questioned by me, it appeared that a
favorite mode of carrying on their ancient warfare was to lie in ambush
near a village until night and then to creep up and close the passage-
way to the kashim, thus confining the men within, and afterward
shooting them with arrows through the smoke hole in the roof. Some-
times the women were put to death, at other times they were taken
home by the victors; but the men and the boys were always killed.
In those days villages were built on high points, where defense was
more easily made against an attacking party and from which a lookout
was kept almost constantly. When the warriors of one of the Unalit
villages wished to make up a party to attack an enemy, a song of invi-
tation was made and a messenger sent to sing it in the kashims at
other friendly villages; meanwhile the men of the village originating
the plot set to work in the kashim and made supplies of new bows and
arrows and prepared other weapons while waiting for their friends. The
people invited would join the men from the first village and all would
set out stealthily to surprise the enemy duriug the night. If they failed
in this an open battle ensued, unless the attacking party became dis-
couraged and returned home. Near St Michael there were shown me
some of the old lookout places where the watchmen were stationed to
328 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
guard against the approacli of tlie Magemut, Tvlio lived just soutb of
tlie Yukon moutli and were the cliief enemies of the Uualit.
Near St Micbael, on tbe top of aii elevated islet close to tbe coast, is
the site of an ancient village which had been sui'iirised and destroyed
by this last-named people long before the arrival of the liussians iu
that region. Digging in some of the pits marking the places once
occupied by houses, I found charred fragments of wood and various
small articles belonging to the former occupants.
The following account of the ancient warfare of the Eskimo on the
lower Yukou and adjacent region southward was given me iu January,
1881, by an old mau living near Andreivsky:
The people of the lower Yukon and Pastolik fought against those
living on the southern part of the Yukon delta and the country south-
ward, including the villages at Big lake and in the Kuslevak mountains
and the ]\Iagemut of the coast just south of the Yukon mouth. The
old man said that the main war between these i)Cople started in a
great village located near Ikogmut. Two boys were playing with a
bonetip dart, and one of them accidentally pierced his companion's
eye; this so enraged the father of the injured boy that he caught the
other and destroyed both his eyes. The fathers of the two boys then
fought, one armed with a beaver-tooth knife and the other with a bone
bodkin, the light resulting in the death of both men. The (piarrel was
taken up by relatives and friends on both sides, the village became
divided, and the weaker party was forced to leave the Yukon and go
southward, where they settled. From that time continual warfare was
carried on between them.
Battles took place usually in summer, and the victors killed all they
could of the males of the opposing side, even including infants, to
prevent them from growing up as enemies. The dead were thrown in
heaps and left. Tlie females were commonly spared from death, but
were taken as slaves.
When young men fought in their first battle each was given to drink
some of the blood and made to eat a small piece of the heart of the
first enemy killed by them, in order to render them brave. An Unalit
at St Michael told me that in former days each of their young warriors
always ate a small piece of the heart of the first enemy killed by him
on a hostile raid.
During the battles on the Yukon the best fighters used to throw
themselves on their backs and kick their heels in the air in derision of
the enemy when they approached one another. When any of the men
exhausted their supply of arrows they would stand in front of their
comrades and break those of the enemy with their spear shafts by
striking them as they flew past. No shields were used. They said
that if an arrow was coming straight at a man he could not see it, so
it was very hard to avoid being hit, but that a mau could readily see
one flying toward another. Some of the warriors are said to have
been very expert bowmen. My old informant told me that his name-
NELSON] MAGEMUT AND YUKON ESKIMO WARFARE 329
sake was a famous bowman. On one occasion lie was said to liave
pinned an enemy to a wall of a house with an arrow so that he could
not release himself.
If a fight lasted a long time, so that both parties became tired and
hungry or sleepy, a fur coat would be waved on a stick by one side as
a sign of truce, during which both parties would rest, eat, or sleep, and
then renew tlie conflict. During the truce both sides stationed guards
who watched against surprise. Sonietimes, the old man said, a man
would be shot so full of arrows that his body would bristle with them,
and, falling, be held almost free from the ground by their number.
At times volleys of ari'ows were fired in order to render it more diffi-
cult for the enemy to escape being hit. When one of the warriors had
shot away all his arrows and chanced to be surrounded by the enemy,
he could sometimes escape death for a long time by dodging and leap-
ing from side to side, but finally would be killed by some of them strik-
ing him upon the head with a warclub having a sharp spur of l)one or
ivory on one side. The defeated party was always pursued and, if
possible, exterminated.
The Magemnt are said to have been stronger in battle than the
Yukon men, and a larger number of the latter were always killed in a
conflict between these two people. Neither side had any recognized
chief, but each fought as he pleased, with the exception that some of
tlie older men had general supervision and control of the expedition.
When a man on either side had relatives in the opposing party, and
for this reason did not wish to take part in the battle, he would blacken
his face with charcoal and remain a noncombatant, both sides respect-
ing his neutrality. In this event, a man with his face blackened had
the privilege of going without danger among the people of either side
during a truce.
The Magemnt always carried oflf the women after a successful raid,
but my Yukon informant told me this was not done by his people, which
statement was probably nmde merely from a desire on his part to give
his own people the advantage in my eyes. He admitted, however, the
superior fighting qualities of his enemies, the Magemut.
When possible night raids were made by the villagers on both sides,
and the people were usually clubbed or speared to death. The con-
quered village was always pillaged, and if a warrior saw any personal
ornament on a slain enemy which pleased him, he seized it and wore it
himself, even placing in his lips the labrets taken from the face of a
dead foe. If one of the conquerors chanced to see a woman wearing
handsome beads or other ornaments, he would brain her and strip
them off.
The old man told me that in battles between the people of lower
Knskoquim river and those of Bristol bay the victors nmde a 2)ractice
of cutting off the heads of their slain enemies and placing them on the
top of sharp stakes set in the ground, with arrows thrust crosswise
through their noses.
330 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. a.v.n. 18
The last battle fought between the Yukon people and the Magemut
was about the time the Kussiaus first established themselves at St
Michael. This fight took place on a fiat piece of ground at the head of
the northern branch of the Yukon mouth. Several low mounds visible
on this little flat are said to mark the places where the dead were left
in a heap after the battle.
In ancient times the Eskimo of Bering strait were constantly at war
with one another, the people of the Diomede islands being leagued with
the Eskimo of the Siberian shore against the combined forces of those
on King island and the American shore from near the head of Kotze-
bue sound to Cape Prince of Wales and Port Clarence. An old man
from Sledge island told me that formerly it was customary among the
people of the Siberian coast to kill at sight any Eskimo from the Ameri-
can shore who might have been driven by storm across the strait,
either in umiaks or on the ice.
I was also informed that at one time the inhabitants of the lesser
Diomede island became angry with those of the greater Diomede
island and united with the people of Cajie Prince of Wales against
them, but were defeated. The last war party in this district came in
a fleet of umiaks from East cape, Siberia, and the Diomede islands,
and sailed up Port Clarence, but meeting a large force of the American
Eskimo; both sides agreed upon a peace, which has not since been
broken.
During the wars formerly waged among the people living on the
coasts and islands of Bering strait, there was in common use a kind of
armor made of imbricated plates of walrus ivory fastened together with
sealskin cords. Plate xcii illustrates a nearly complete set of this
body armor, which was obtained ou the Diomede islands.
Plates of ivory for armor of this kind were seen on St Lawrence
island, and on the Siberian shore at Cape Wankareni.
The people about the shores of I^orton and Kotzebue sounds were
also familiar with the use of armor in ancient times. During my resi-
dence at St Michael two or three of the natives who lived turbulent
lives were reputed to have worn light iron armor under their fur irocks,
which it was claimed had been purchased from vessels, and from the
description must have been shirts of chain mail.
GAMES AKD TOYS
The Eskimo of the lower Yukon, the Alaskan coast district of Bering
sea, and the Arctic ocean have a considerable variety of games, both
for outdoor and indoor amusement, and most of them have a wide
range. The following detailed descriptions of some of them, although
taken mainly from the Unalit of Xorton sound, represent games found
among other tribes. The greater portion of them are played while the
men are confined to the villages during the short, cold days of winter.
In the vicinity of St Michael and some other trading stations the
Eskimo have learned to play cards, usually poker, and are passionately
SURCAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL XCII
^. .^V^4-Si<s^^^ji%-^
ESKIMO PLATE ARMOF
NELSON]
GAMES AND TOYS
331
fond of tliem ; as with the southern aborigines, the Eskimo will gamble
away everything they possess. In the descrii)tions of the various
games the locality where each was observed is given, but it should be
noted that they are not ordinarily limited to any one tribe or district,
but, so far as could be learned, seemed to be generally distributed,
with slight local raodificatious. Implements used in some of the games
were obtained from widely separated jilaces.
Friendly contests in trials of strength, wrestling, etc, were much
more common before than they have been since the arrival of white
men, their coming having put a stop to the predatory raids of one vil-
lage upon another aud caused a diminution in the rivalry among the
Fig. 120 — Boy with toy sled, St La^vrence island.
young men to excel in strength and agility wliich accompanied the
more warlilce spirit of other days.
In addition to the games of the men, others are played by the women
and children. Boys have toy hunting outfits, with models of sleds,
kaiaks, and umiaks, and small bows ami arrows for huntingbirds; they
also snare birds and set traps for mice aud other small game. The girls
play with dolls made of ivory or other material, and also have small
models of dishes aud other women's household utensils, with which
they amuse themselves in the house very much after the manner of
children in civilized countries, playing at housekeeping and women's
work of various kinds. Figure 120, from a sketch made by Mr 11. W.
Elliott on St Lawrence island, represents the boy Poonook, with, his
332 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [etii.ann.18
toy sled. In the background is the shelter over the entrance of the
tunnel leading to the interior of the half-undergrouod house, the roof of
which appears like a mound on the right.
During one of my sledge journeys I was storm-bound at Cape Darby,
near Bering strait, and during the day an old man in the house where
I stopped amused me by the ingenuity with which he made intricate
patterns of cord, holding the loop between his extended hands after the
manner of children making a "cat's cradle." For an hour or more he
made a constant succession of patterns with his sinew cord, forming
outlines of various birds and other animals of the region. The readi-
ness with which he wove the strings in and out showed that his dex-
terity must have been gained by long practice. I also heard of this
form of amusement among the Eskimo along the coast southward to the
mouth of the Kuskokwim.
The following games are in common use throughout this region:
First game — (St Michael). A round block about G inches long is
cut into the form of a large spool, but with the flaring rim of one end
replaced by a sharpened point. The top is from 2A to 3 inches across
and has a deep hole in the center. This spool-like object is planted in
the floor of the kashim with the large end upward, and an indetinite
number of jilayers gather around it seated cross-legged on the floor.
Kear the spool is a small pile of short sticks, of uniform size, used as
counters. The.se, with a small, pointed wooden dart, in size and shape
almost exactly like a sharpened lead pencil, compose the implements of
the game. The first player takes the butt of the dart between the
thumb and forefinger, with its point iipward and his hand Jiearly on a
level with the spool. Then he gives the dart a deft upward toss, trying
to cause it to take a curved course, so that it will f:ill with the point
downward and remain fast in the hole at the top of the spool. If he
succeeds he takes one of the counting sticks from the pile and tries
again; when he misses, the dart is passed to the next player, and so
on, until the counters are all gone, when the players count up and the
one having the most counters is the winner. Ordinarily this game is
played by men, women, or children merely for pastime, but sometimes
small articles are staked upon the outcome. It is a source of much
sport to the players, who banter and laugh like school children at each
other's bad play.
Second game — (St Michael). A bundle of from fifty to seventy-
five small, squared, wooden splints, about 4 inches long and a little
larger than a match, are placed in a small pile crosswise on the back of
the player's outstretclied right hand. The player then removes his
hand quickly and tries to grasp the falling sticks between his thumb and
fingers, still keeping the palm downward. If one or more of the sticks
fall to the ground it is a miss and the next i)layer tries. Every time a
player succeeds in catching all of the falling sticks, he lays aside one
of them as a counter until all are gone, when each ijlayer counts up and
NELSON] GAMES 333
the one boldiug tlie greatest number is the ^yinner. These squared
sijliiits are similar to those used for markers in the first game described.
Small stakes are sometimes played for in this game as in the first.
Third game — (St Michael). The bunch of slender splints already
described are also used to play a game exactly like jaekstraws. The
player grasps the bunch of sticks between the thumb and the forefinger
of the right hand, resting one end upon the floor; then he suddenly
releases them and they fall in a smallheap. The players have a small
wooden hook, and each in succession removes as many of the sticks as
he can without moving any but the one taken. Each player keeps
those he succeeds in removing, and the one holding the largest number
at the end is the winner. Both men and women play this game, but
usually not together.
Fourth game {a-zhiikh'-ch-taJc of the Unalit) — (St Michael). This
is played by men and women during the long twilight nights of June,
and is often continued during the whole night. A stake (nu-piuj'-ihzhuk)
is driven into the ground so as to project a foot or two. About this, in
a cii'cle, some four yards away, sit the men and women players. One
of them places some small article of value at the foot of the stake for a
prize {an-khu'-ttk). The next player takes a small ring of twisted grass
{U-zh.ul;h'-ch-tal;) about G inches in diameter, and tries to toss it so as to
encircle the stake. If he misses, the ring is passed to the next player.
When one encircles the stake he takes a prize and must substitute for
it another of about equal value, but of a different kind. In this way
a kind of trading is brought about, since each i^uts up something of
■which he has a surplus.
Top spinning (m-j'-m-h/i) — (Lower Yukon). In winter alongthe lower
Yukon and adjacent region to the south the children of both sexes
gather in the kashim, and eacli child in succession spins its top. The
moment the top is spun the owner runs out through the entrance pas-
sage and attempts to make a complete circuit of the house and enter
again before the top stops si)inning. A score is made every time this
is done successfully.
Dart throwing {yokh'-whi'tk)—{St Michael). This is played in the
kashim by two or more persons, usually for a prize or stake. The
darts are small, short, and made of wood, largest at the point and
tapering backward toward the butt, in which is fastened a bird (piill
for guiding the dart in its flight. In the large end of the dart is
fastened a sharp spike of bone, horn, or sometimes of ivory. The
target is a small, upright stick of some soft wood planted in the floor.
This may be placed in the middle of the room and the i)layers divided
into two parties, seated ou opposite sides of the target, or it may be
placed on one side of the room and the players seated together on the
other, lu the former case a man is appointed from each side to return
the darts to the throwers and to give each player a counter when a
point is made. Each j)layer has two darts which he throws one after
334
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
(ETH. ANN. 18
tbe other, and a score is made when a dart remains sticking into the
target. Ten small wooden counting sticks are placed ou
the tloor by the target, and one of these is given for each
score; the side gaining the most of these counters takes
the prize, aud the game begins again.
At Cape Xome, south of Bering strait, a similar dart game
was seen, but there the target was a square, board-like
piece of wood with a dark-colored bull's-eye painted in the
center. This was set up in the kashim and the men and
boys threw their darts at it, scoring when they hit the bull's-
eye. The wooden portion of the darts used in this game,
both at Cape Nome and St Michael, was from live to six
inches in length and from three fourths of an inch to an
inch in diameter at the larger end. Figure 121 represents
a dart from Cape Kome, used for throwing at a square board
target with a round, black bull's eye painted ou its center.
The players place the target on one side of the kashim and
stand upon the other side to throw, scoring one for each
dart that sticks in the bull's-eye. These darts are nearly
two feet in lengtli aud have a tapering wooden handle, larg-
est at the front, with an ivory point fastened in the lower
end by a tapering, wedge-shape point, which is inserted in
the split end and lashed firmly. The upper end of the
shaft tajters to a small, round point, on which is fastened
the end of a feather from a cormorant's tail, which serves
to guide the dart in its tlight.
Net and DART-XHROWiNa GAME (nu-(fo' -hli-g''a' -nulc) —
(St Michael). This is played in the kashim by men only.
A small, oval, wooden frame, about three inches long by
an inch and a half wide, having the interior finely netted
with cord, is hung from the roof aud held in place by a cord
at each end. It is placed about four feet from the fioor in
front of the summer entrance or under the smoke-hole in
the roof. Each player has a long, slender dart, about three
feet in length and a quarter of an inch in diameter, with a
barbed point of bone or deerhorn. To the butt end of the
dart is fastened a small cord, so that the player can draw it
back after throwing. When the point of the dart enters
tbe wooden ring it is held fast by the barbs on the point,
and this scores one for the successful player. Under this
target each player places some object as a prize. Then all
go to one side of the room and throw three darts in succes-
sion at the target. Whenever a player pierces the target so
that he must remove bis dart with his hands, be is entitled
to take anything he wishes from the pile of prizes. In this
Fig. 121— Dart. ^^^Y the game continues until all the articles are disposed of.
N-ELsox] DART-THROWING FOOTBALL 335
THRO\yiN(> STICKS {la-bu'-tul-) — (St Michael). A rectangular ivory
])iii, from five to seven incbes in length, is planted upright in the tloor
of the kashim. Each player puts up an object for a prize, and stand-
ing at a certain distance from the pin tosses in succession tvro small,
Hat, ivory rods toward it. The man whose rod lies closest to the pin
when all havethi-own is entitled to his choice of the articles staked by
the players, and the game proceeds until all of the articles are won.
The ivory rods used in this game are from about 2i to 4 or 5 inches in
length, rather flattened, and quadrangular in cross section, the coruers
rounded, and on one side of each end is a rounded bead, the two beads
facing in different directions. The name of these two small rods is the
same as that of the game. They are sometimes grooved along one or
both faces, and usually are pierced near one end so that they may be
strung on a cord with from two to four larger ivory jiins like that stuck
in the floor. These latter are brought down to a flat, rounded point at
one end, while the other is larger and rounded or squared, often with
the head of an animal carved upon it.
This collection of rods serves primarily for preparing and twisting
the sinew for sinewbai-ked bows, as has been explained by Mr John
Murdoch. These objects, including both classes of rods, were obtained
from the Alaskan coast between Kuskokwim river and the vicinity of
Point Barrow, as well as from the islands in Bering strait and on Bt
Lawrence island.
A handsome set obtained on Sledge island consists of four of the
large pins with the upper ends carved to represent reindeer heads, and
two of the ordinary, small, flat rods. These, like most implements of
this kind, are made of walrus ivory; occasionally bone is used, but
this is uncommon in the region where ivory is found. One set of the
fiat rods from Ilothani inlet, Kotzebue sound, are marked with the
raven totem; others have a series of circleand-dot ornamentation, but
many of them are plain. One specimen of the pin from Point Hope has
the larger end carved to represent one of the joints in the leg-bone of
a mammal, and another set from the same place has carved on them
the head of some small animal, probably a fox. Another set of these
implements in the National Museum was obtained by Mr Macfarlaue at
Fort Anderson, in Hudson Bay territory.
Football (i-tif/'-u-mi-u'-hh(-ttn) — (St :\Iichael). The ball [uil'l-al-)
used in this game is made of leather, stuffed with deer hair or moss,
and varies in size, but rarely exceeds five or six inches in diameter.
The game is i)layed by young men and children. The usual season for
it is at the end of winter or in spring. I saw it played in various places
from Bering strait to the mouth of the Kuskokwim; at Cape Darby
it was played by children on the hard, drifted snow ; it is also a popular
game on the lower Yukon. Two of the participants act as leaders,
one on each side choosing a player alternately from among those gath-
ered until they are equally divided. At a given distance apart two
336 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. ann. 18
conspicuous marks are made on the suow or ground which serve as
goals, the players stand each by their goal and the ball is tossed upon
the ground midway between them; a rush is then made, each side
striving to drive the ball across its adversaries' line.
Another football game is begun by the men standing in two close,
parallel lines midway between the goals, their legs and bodies tbrming
two walls. The ball is then thrown between them and driven back
and forth by kicks and blows until it passes through one of the lines;
as soon as this occurs all rush to drive it to one or the other of the
goals.
The northern lights (aurora) of winter are said by these people to be
boys playing this game; others say that it is a game being played by
shades using walrus skulls as balls.
Women's football [uil-Ml'-u-ff'it) — (St Michael and neighboring
coast region, both north and south). Tliis game is played by women
usually during the fall and winter. The ball used is generally consid-
erably larger than the one used in the men's game. The four players
stand opposite each other, thus —
Each pair has a ball, which is thrown or di-iven back and forth across
the square. The ball is thrown upon the ground midway between the
players, so that it shall bound toward the opposite one. She strikes the
ball down and back toward her partner with the palm of her open hand.
Sometimes the ball is caught on the toe or hand and tossed up and
struck or kicked back toward the other side. The person who misses
least or has fewer " dead " balls on her side wins. At times this game
is played by only two women.
Hand ball (Jcai-tdl'-ihcfU) — (St Michael). The ball used in this
game is a rounded rectangular leather bag about three by six inches,
filled with sand or earth. This bag is called lai'-tul: The young men
of the village form one side in this game, tossing the ball from one to
the other, while the young women are on the opposite side and strive
to secure the bag and keep it going among themselves. A player on
the same side as another is called i-li'-ka (plural, iW-put) and tlieopi)o-
nents are called iUMl'-u-o^U. It is played in May and June, during the
long, pleasant twilight nights, sometimes lasting the entire night.
When one of the young men has chanced not to have the ball in his
hand for a long time, his comrades cry out that he is " hungry " and try
to get the ball to him. The women exert every effort to intercept it and
NELSUN] GAMES 337
if they succeed imrsue and catch the uulucky player aud rub his head
witli the ball, telliiig- him that they will "oil his head so that he shall
not starve," while the other phiyers shriek with laughter. Tliis game
goes ou Jiight alter uight duriug the season ou top of a hill near St
Michael, the laughter aud cries of the players being heard for hours.
lu addition to this game another is played, particularly among the
women, in which the ball is merely tossed from hand to hand.
Hockey {ai'-yu-tnV'-u-(/it or pi'it-k'i(-tiir'-i\-(j''lt) — (St Jlichael). This
is played with a small ball of ivory, leather, or wood, and a stick
curved at the lower end. The ball aud stick are called pdl-kUi'-tulc.
The ball is placed on the ground or ice aud the i)layers divide into two
parties. J]ach player with his stick attempts to drive the ball across
the opponents' goal, which is established as in the football game.
Ghassuall game (w(i «»'-«-;/'«) — (St Michael). In summer the men
make a stout ball of grass, live or six inches in diameter, from which
the game takes its name. Sides are chosen and each, when having the
ball, pursues the other. The members of each side try to hit their
opponents with the ball while the latter attempt to avoid being struck
or to obtain the ball in order to hit their opponents. The side scoring
the greatest number of hits is the winner.
EoPE JUMPING [ii-tiikli' -ta-(j ak) — (St Michael). This is a summer
game played out of doors. A heavy rope, from 18 to 24 feet in length,
made of braided grass, is held at each end by a man or a woman and
swung in a circle. One player stands in the middle, sidewise to the
rope, and must jump it twice in succession as it is swung around and
then spring away without being touched. He is then replaced by a
companion, who repeats the performance. If either fails he exchanges
place with one of those swinging the rope. This rope is called
pi-hakh'-luk.
Blind-man's buff {(■haf-t.a'-(fatin) — (St MichaeD. This is played by
young people duriug spring and summer. One of the players, either a
man or a woman, is blindfolded and the others stand in a circle around
him and set up a shout. After this all try to keep perfectly quiet,
creeping softly about on the ground to avoid being caught, the flrst
person caught being in turn blindfolded.
Hide and seek ii-yhc' ta-gkt' -tl-htt) — (St Michael). This game is
played in summer, when the grass is long, by both men and women,
but not together. The players divide into two sides, standing oppo-
site each other and bent over so that the crowns of each opposing pair
rest against each other, their hands being clasped and outstretched on
each side. Then a designated player hides in the grass or behind some
shelter aud when well concealed utters a faint cry. The two sides
then separate, the opposing side searching for the one concealed.
When he Is found all join as before, with heads and hands together,
while the one successful in discovering the other conceals himself in
the same manner.
IS ETH 22
338 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ethann.is
Tag {u-In'-l-i-ta'-ff'i'tk) — (St Michael). This game is played at any sea-
sou by ineu and womeu divided into equal paities, wliicU are subdivided
into pairs. Tbeu a designated player starts oft', pursued by the others,
the players on the opposite side trying to overtake and touch him
before he can touch the mate he was given from his own party. Tliis
mate strives to get withiu reach of his companion, the opposite side
meanwhile using every ettbrt to interfere between the two by running
after the first and hindering the latter. If the ])layer succeeds in
touching his mate before he is touched he wins and another pair of
runners come out from his side. If he is touched first by one of his
opponents, he loses, and a pair of runners come out from among theui
and take his place.
TwI^" TAO {ki-hlukh'-ku-ia'-ffuk) — (St Michael). In this game the
players are fastened together in pairs, being tied by the ankles. One
pair are given a start and are pursued by the others until one of the
two is touched by another pair, whereupon the latter take their places.
This is a summer game.
EiNcf AROUND (»/i/W)— (St Michael). The players in this game are
either men or women together or separately. Tlie players are divided
into two equal parties, each party joining hands and facing toward the
center of a circle. When ready they circle about as swiftly as possible,
all the time advancing toward a certain jtoint agreed upon, and the
circle or ring of players which first reaches the goal is victorious.
This game affords much sport, as the members of each ring are eager
to reach the goal, but the double motion frequently causes them to
stumble and fall promiscuously over one another.
Tossing on ■\valrus skin {aj-u-tal'-u-(fit). — I heard of this game
from Bering strait to the mouth of the Yukon. A large walrus hide
is spread out and hand-holes are cut around its border. One of the play-
ers stands upon the center, and a party of men on one side and women
on the other, numbering as many as can reach it, take hold of the skin.
By united effort the players jerk the skin up, holding it tightly
stretched. The person on it is thrown high in the air and if he alights
on his feet one of the other side must take his jilace. Should he fall in
any other j)osition he or one of his side must remain on the skin. Tiiis
is a summer game, but is sometimes practiced by the young men in the
kashim during winter.
Tug of war [tiH-ulch-tai'-ffann) — (St Michael). This is played
at any season. A strong rawhide loop is made; the contestants are
divided into two parties, and the strongest man of each party grasps
the loop with his right hand. The men on each side form a queue with
their arms around each other's bodies and pull at a given signal; the
side which first looses its hold on the loop is defeated. The loop is
called Ici-cMk'. This game is played either out of doors or in the kashim,
by either men or women ; sometimes it is played by a single pair of
men or women and is then called no-ku'-taun.
NELsuN] PHYSICAL CONTESTS 339
Arm pulling (/,vV.s-o'r/Vu(»)— (St Michael). Two men lock tbeir
right aims aud a string of other men form a queue, pulling on both
sides until one gives way. This is a winter contest, engaged in within
the kashim.
Pole pulling {no-kuj'-un) — (St Michael). A round, slender pole, six
or eight feet long, is laid on the floor of the kashim aud an equal number
of men sit upon the floor along each side of it with their knees bent
and hands grasping it. At a given signal all pull, the side dragging
the other across the central line being victors.
Stick kaising {yd-g'u'-tal-) — (St Michael). A round stick a little
larger than a broom handle is grasped firmly by two i)layers who are
usually standing; one player holds it down at arm's length, grasping
it firmly with both hands while the other attempts to raise it above
his head.
Finger pulling (a-fin'-li-phun) — (St Michael). This is played iu
the kashim by four men; the two strongest players hook their right
second fingers and each man is grasped about his right shoulder and
under the left arm by his second; then all jtull until one is defeated by
loosing his hold.
Foot pulling {it-l:ha'-g^auii) — (St IMichael.) Two men lie upon
their faces on the floor of the kashim with their feet together and
heads in opposite directions. Their right feet are hooked into a
short, rawhide loop, and each tries to crawl away aud drag the other
backward.
Neck pulling {tu-nnchu'-(faiin)—{&t Michael). Two men kneel
on the floor of the kashim, near and facing each other; their heads are
bowed and a rawhide loop is placed so as to rest over the backs of
their necks. A stick is placed crosswise between each man's teeth,
projecting on either side above the cord of the loop so as to keep the
latter from slipping over the head. The men then droj) forward on
their bauds and each tries to back away, dragging his adversary;
the one who first succeeds is the victor.
Head pushing {clmn-uM!-tn-g''aun) — (St Michael). Two men go
down upon their hands and knees on the kashim floor and, pressing
their foreheads together, strive to push each other back from their
positions.
Battering ram [iu' -'ku-M-fiu' ■1iT)~{&t Michael). This is played by
four men in the kashim. Two of the players each takes his partner
upon his shoulder, the latter lying face downward with his body stif-
fened and feet projecting horizontally in front of the man carrying him.
In this positiou the carriers face each other and run one at the other
so that the feet of the two men on their shoulders shall come together,
trying in this way to upset each other, the defeated pair falling iguo-
miniously to the floor.
Wrestling {chii'-hIuk)—(St :Michael). Wrestling is usually done
by each man seizing his opponent by the arms or body, trying to gain
'340 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING .STIJAIT [f.th.ann. 18
a square fall on tlie back without the aid of trii)pin^- or any other use
of the feet or legs, except as supports. This is generally doue for sport,
but I was told that in ancient times disputed claims for women were
sometimes settled in this manner. A stranger, upon arrival in a village,
is frequently challenged to wrestle with the local champion. Powerful
men are very rough iu this sport, aud one method is to attempt by a
terrific hug to crusli the opponent. One old man told me that he had
seen the blood gush from a wrestler's mouth aud nose from the pressure
of his antagonist. I heard of au instance where a white man visiting
the village of the Malemut at Kotzebue sound during the winter was
repeatedly challenged to wrestle by one of the villagers. Finally, the
annoyance became so great that the stranger accepted the challenge,
and, being an extremely powerful man, seized the Eskimo aud dashed
him to the floor of the kashim so heavily that he was badly hurt. This
was considered quite legitimate and the stranger was not molested
further.
Knee walking {chis-lcH'm{-uk') — (St Michael). The young men of
a village kTieel on the plank flooring of the kashim and holding their
feet up with their hands walk about on bare knees, each trying to
outdo the others in endurance.
High jumping (In'tt'-khiik) — (St Michael). A stick is held or fas-
tened above the floor at a certain distauce and the young men try to
excel in leaping over it, the stick gradually being raised to the limit of
the jumpers' powers.
Horizontal jumping (mi-chUch-fuT:) — (St Michael). The jumpers
iu this game practice it either outside of or within the kashim. A mark
is made from which the jumping is done and another on the ground or
floor scores the point reached by each.
Hurdle jumping (i/d'-li-l-u'-juk) — (St Michael). Four umiak oars
are placed at an equal distance apart around the sides of the kashim,
about breast high above the floor; the contestants start iu pairs, jump-
ing over them one after the other until one of each pair is defeated by
failing to clear one of the oars.
Foot racing {iik-tohaun') — (St Michael). This is a favorite sport
among the Eskimo and is practiced usually in autumn when the new
ice is formed. The race extends from one to several miles, the course
usually lying to aud around some natural object, such as an island or
a point of rocks, then back to the starting point.
Kaiak racing (iiari-n-ffdHH') — (St Michael). The men, each iu his
kaiak, are ranged side by side near the shore, and then at a signal
paddle around a rock or islet, the winner being he who first touches
the shore on returning to the starting point.
Umiak races are also conducted in the same way, and hunters engage
in contests in throwing seal and walrus spears of various kinds.
From Kuskokwim river to Cape Prince of Wales, on both the main-
laud and the islands, children of both sexes were found using tops.
KELSON]
TOPS, HUZZES, AND OTHEK TOYS
341
Fig. 122— Top from Cape
Princeof Wales (about*).
These are commonlj' of di.sk .shape, thiii at tbe edge and i^erfoiated iu
the center for a peg. One from Cape Priuee of Wales (figure 122) is of
walrus ivory; it is 2i inches in diameter and has a hole an inch wide
in the middle, which is clo.sed by a neatly fitted wooden plug of the
same thickness as the top, through which passes a spindle-shape peg
four inches long. This is the general style of top nsed in the region
mentioned, but another kind is made to be spun with a guiding stick
and cord; these are often used by men as well as
by boys.
On the lower Yukon the children amuse them-
selves iu winter by spinning tops on the wooden
floor of the kashim. The game is played by each
child spinning its top and then hurrying out
through the long i)assage to the entrance, making
a comi)lete circuit around the outside of the
building, then back to the interior, trying to
return before the top has ceased spinning. These
toys are si)un between the two hands, the upi)er
part of the spindle being held npright between
the palms.
Among other games, the children also have a
buzz, usually made by stringing a doubly perfo-
rated, flattened disk on a cord. The two ends of the eord are tied
together and the ends of the loop thus formed are held in their hands,
so that by tightening and relaxing their hold the disk is caused to
twirl about, exactly as is done with a similar toy by civilized chil-
dren. These buzzes are usually made of wood, ivory, or bone,
although of recent years some are made of metal. I obtained one at
St Michael made from the adjoining i)halangeal bones of some animal,
probably a seal, still
united by their carti-
lage. The string is a
single cord of sinew,
which is made fast be-
tween the two middle
bones, and at each end
of the string is tied a
short cross-stick for
grasping.
Another toy obtained at St Michael, represented in figure 123, is the
image of a woodpecker made of wood fastened to a small wooden
spatula by means of a stout quill in place of legs. The surface of the
spatula is dotted over with red i^aiiit to represent food. By means of
a string fastened to the point of the bird's beak and passing down
through a hole in the spatula, the child is enabled to pull the bird's
head down. On releasing it, the elasticity of the quill throws it up
Flo 123— Toy wcioilix'Cker (Jl.
342
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
|ETH. ANN. 18
again, thus giving a ])ecking motion and imitating tlie movements of
feeding. Various toys of this cliaractei- are made by tlie Eskimo to
represent familiar animals or birds.
125 — Toy reitreaeiitiug a murre awim-
iiiing (full size).
Fin. 124— Toy mouse (aliout !)■
Figure 12i represents a toy obtained at tbe village of Sabotnisky, on
the lower Yukon. It is a slender, flat rod a little over an inch wide
and about 10 inches long, perforated with six round holes at equal
intervals along its length, through
which is passed in and out a sinew
cord, having its ends fastened to the
extremities of a small, narrow strip of
fur, forming an endless loop. Grasp-
ing tbe rod by the handle at one end,
the child draws on tlie free part of the
cord, causing the strip of fur to run in
and out of the holes along the surface,
thus representing a mouse.
The children also have small figures of birds, seals, and other ani-
mals, which their fathers carve in ivory, bone, and wood. Along the
seacoast ivory is tbe material ordinarily used for making these objects,
but among the Eskimo of the tundras, or along the
rivei s of tlie interior, bone or deerhorn is more com-
monly employed. The bird images usually represent
gee.se, muires, or other waterfowl, and are made flat
upon the lower surface, so that tliey sit upright.
On St Lawrence island, and at various other points
wliich were visited, many of these objects were ob-
tained, of which the toy bird shown in figure 125 is
an example. They are similar in character to the
images with which a sort of game is played among
the eastern Eskimo.
In addition to the foregoing objects, dolls made for
girls are among the most interesting of the children's
toys. On St Lawrence island two wei-e obtained;
these are shown in figure 7, plate xciii, made rudely
of wood, and figure 8, plate xciii, which is of ivory.
The makers of these displayed very little skill or
artistic ability, as might be expected from their general lack of culture
in tliis direction compared with the people of the adjacent American
coast. Along the Alaskan shore wherever I went, as well as along
Fio. 120
loll (4).
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIII
DOLLS (THIRTEEN-SIXTEENTHS)
SELSON]
DOLLS
343
Flii. 12
-Wooden doll (j).
Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers and on o^univak island, dolls were fonnd
in common use. They are usually small images of wood, ivory, or bone;
indeed, tlie only instance that I saw of the use of clay among the Eskimo
for making images of any kind was a pair of rudely
modeled dolls representing the head and body,
which were obtained at liazbinsky, on the lower
Yukon. One of these dolls is shown in figure 126.
The inartistic character of these clay figures is in
striking contrast to the carvings produced by the
same people.
The dolls usually represent the anatomic details
of both sexes, and are from an inch to a foot or more
in length. Many of them are carved to re])resent
grotesque human figures, but the majority are sim-
ply upright ivory images with the arms by the sides
(as represented in figure 2, ])late xciii) or held in
various positions across the body, sometimes one
hand being placed in front and the other behind
the back. IMany of the natives use hard material
merely for the upper half of the body, the legs being made of skin,
stuffed with hair or skin to give them a semblance to the natural
form.
An ivory figure from Cape Prince
of Wales (figure 4, plate xciii) repre-
sents an old man with his hands
clasped behind the back. The arms
and legs are carved free from the body
and the work gives evidence of con-
siderable skill and ingenuity.
(July from Big lake, between the
lower Yukon and the mouth of the
Kuskokwim, were dolls obtained with
heads hollowed out, so that the eyes
and the mouth were pierced into the
cavity. The back of the heads of
these dolls, after the interior Lad
been excavated, were replaced by a
thin wooden cover neatly fitted in
the opening. Figure 127 represents
a hollow-head, wooden doll from Big
lake. Figure 5, plate xcni, from the
same locality, is made of bone, with
the head fitted on a wooden pin pro-
jecting from the body, so that it turns as on a swivel.
Another doll from Big lake (figure 128) is similar to the preceding and
is clothed in reindeer skin. The head is made of bone, and the beads
Fig. 1
344
THE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT
(ETH. ANN. IS
Fir. 129— "Wooden tlnU (}i.
attaclied to a cord passed tbrougii lioles at the corners of the mouth
represent labrets. The interior of the head is excavated.
The faces of dolls made in representation of females are etched to
show the eyebrows, and sometimes the tattooing; tlie faces of dolls
made to represent men have labrets of beads or pieces of ivory inserted
at the coiners of the mouth. The method of dressing the hair of women
and their nose- and ear-rings are represented
by hair and beads hung in the proper places.
Some of the ivory dolls are provided with brace-
lets and bead necklaces as shown in lignre 3,
plate xciii, from Ilotham inlet.
Large dolls of wood, from the country be-
tween Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers, have the
eyes and the mouth repre-
sented by pieces of ivory
inlaid in the wood, as in fig-
ure 120, from Kaialigamut.
One of the most ingenious
of these toys was obtained
at Point Hope, on the Arctic
coast, and is represented in
figure 1.30. It is made of
wood, and the well-carved head has a short string
of beads attached to each side of the forehead for
earrings, while the labret holes at the corners of
the mouth show that it is intended to represent
a man. Each eye is indicated by a blue bead,
inserted so that the hole in the bead forms the
pupil. The neck is in the form of a smooth, round
liin, about half an inch in diameter, which sets
in a deep socket cut into the shoulders. About
the lower eiul of this pin are fastened two ends
of a cord which is passed around in opposite direc-
tions and out in front, through two small holes
in the bodj', and are tied together; thence they
pass downward through a larger hole to the back.
The lower part of the body is gTasi)ed from be-
hind by the thumb and last two fingers, leaving
the other two fingers resting in the loop of the
cord. By slight pressure, either on one side or
the other of the loop, the head of the doll is made to turn to the right
or left at will. Another ivory doll (figure 6, i>late xciii), from Uua-
laklit, represents a woman holding a cliild in her arms. Similar dolls
are sometimes made to represent. a small child in the hood of the fur
coat, after the fashion in which women are wont to carry their infants
thronghout this region.
Fig. 130-Merliniii(Ml
doll(>).
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIV
@ uirfji>'j/jjj/^^^j ^// 77 77~
(a
SNOW KNIVES -ABOUT ONE-FOURTH>
TOY IMAGES SNOW KNH'ES
345
Fiii. 131 — Toy bear with dog Itarnt-ss {^).
The girls frequently have <i number of dolls varying in size, the
smaller ones being made so that they will stand upright. While making
a brief visit to Sledge island, two little girls in the house where we
stopped amused us by watching their opportunity, while we were busy
about other things, to place their dolls standing in a semicircle before
us upon the floor, while they sat quietly behind as though permitting
their dolls to take a look at the strangers. In connection with these
toys girls have also a complete outfit of toy bedding made from the
skins of mice or lemmings, small grass mats, toy boots, mittens, and
clothing, all patterned after those used
by the peoiile of the locality.
Other favorite toys of the children
of both sexes are snow knives, which
are from four to fifteen inches long
and are made of ivory, bone, or wood,
the two first-named materials being
most commonly used. They are small
at the handle and expand toward
the end, usually curving upward and sometimes to one side. The mak-
ers frequently show great artistic skill in these objects; the handle
is often tipped with a carving representing the head of a salmon, gull,
seal, or other animal; the grip of the handle is insured by various pro-
jections, which sometimes consist of a series of three or more rounded
bosses pierced by a small hole in the middle, as in figure 2, plate xciv,
from the lower Yukon. This specimen is well carved from a piece of bone.
Figure .">, plate xciv, represents a large, handsomely made ivory
knife from Konigunugumut; the raven totem mark is etched on each
side; three projecting
knobs on the handle
are ]Herced and the
holes plugged with
wood. Another speci-
men, from Chalitmut
(figure 4, plate xciv),
is made of ivory and has fi)ur inurre heads in relief on the handle;
the surface is ornamented with etched lines. An ivory knife from
Ikogmut (figure 7, plate xciv) has two long, rounded projections extend-
ing forward from the butt.
A large, handsomely made ivory knife from Kordguiiugumut (figure 1,
plate xciA) has on the under side of the handle five rounded projections
which are pierced for the insertion of plugs of wood ; the raven totem
sign is etched on both sides. Figure .5, plate xcn', illustrates an ivory
knife from Cape Vancouver, heavily etched on both sides; on the handle
are three sets of concentric circles, iiierced in the center and with
wooden plugs inserted in the holes. A deerhorn knife from Kusliiinuk,
represented in figure 9, plate xciv, has a long slit in the handle, in
Fig. I32_Toy ilogs anil sled (about J).
34G
THE ESKDrO AHOUT BERINTi STRAIT
'ETH. AN.V. 18
wbicli is wound a piece of spruce root to afford a tirui grip. Another
deerborn knife, from Big lake (ligiue 11, plate xciv), is very plainly
made. A well-made deerhorn knife from tlie lower Knskokwim (figure
13, plate XCIV) has the handle pierced with a large hole from which a
slit extends forward.
Figure C, plate xciv, represents a
handsome ivory knife, obtained on
Togiak river by Mr Applegate.
Tlie handle is curiously slit, with a
cross-bar in the opening, and an or-
dinary conventional design is etched
on the surface. Another knife, obtained also by Mr A})plegate at the
same place (figure 8, plate xciv), is of deerhorn and is elaborately
etched. The end of the handle is carved to represent the head of a
bird, proliably a gerfalcon. A well-made ivory knife from Nulukhtulo-
gumut (figure 10, plate xciv) has the handle carved to represent the
133— Toy bear (i).
Fig. 13-1 — Toy kaiak froni St Lawrence island (i).
head of a salmon. A small and rather rudely made ivory knife from
Ikogmut (figure 12, plate xciv) also has the handle carved in the shape
of a sahnon-liead.
A large number of the.se knives were collected, most of them being-
carved and etched in great variety of pattern. Many of these objects
in the National JIuseum repre-
sent localities from the extreme
southern limit of the Alaskan
Eskimo nearly to Point Barrow.
These knives are rarely used
for any other purpose than as
toys; the children play with
them in winter, cutting up the
hard, drifted snow, or marking
thereon various fantastic fig-
ures representing mammals, birds, or other fancies. In a village south
of the Yukon mouth I saw children make figures of animals in the
snow and then run about cutting them up with their knives, evidently
imitating the killing of game by the hunters.
Figure 1.31 represents a toy figure of a white bear, which was
obtained on the Diomede island. It is made of wood and lias a raw-
Fig. '.35 — Ivory iiiKiii** ot'nian anil bear (\),
NELsoNl • TOYS — SONGS 347
hide baruess on the neck and back, similar to that used for dogs. Tlie
body is fashioned from a single piece, but the legs are made separately
and are attached to the body by a peg inserted in a hole and fastened
by other pegs.
A toy sled from St Lawrence island (figure l.'il!) is carved from a
single piece of ivory and has two small ivory figures of dogs attached
to it with sinew cord.
Figure 133, from the same locality, represents a toy figure of a white
bear carved from a single piece of ivory. ,
Figure 134 illustrates au ivory model of a kaiak, from St Lawrence
island, and is a representation of the boats in use at that place. Look-
ing up from the manhole is a human head carved in relief, and just
back of the manhole is represented an inflated sealskin float.
The specimen from Norton bay, shown in figure 135, is au ivory
figure of a white bear with a man lying along its back. This toy is
intended as an illustration of au occurrence in one of the folktales.
MUSIC AXD DANCES
The Eskimo of Bering sea and the lower Yukon are very fond of
singing. Songs have a prominent place in their religious observances
and festivals, as well as in their sports and dances. They also serve to
while away the time when traveling at sea and sometimes on shore.
Men are usually the singers, and will often keep up a monotonous
chant for hours when traveling a long distance by water, and I often
heard my men singing at night during sledge journeys when they were
unable to sleep from the severe cold or for other cause. On one occa-
sion I asked one of the men who was singing at night why he did so,
and he replied that it made him feel warmer. Frequently songs of this
kind, and some of those used while dancing, are a mere series of
meaningless syllables, such as at otiier times serve as a refrain. Songs
are composed for various other purposes, sometimes to preserve a rec-
ollection of past occurrences, to glorify some event, or for i-idiculing
one another; these latter are similar to the nith songs of Greenland, and
are said to have been commonly used before white men came to Alaska.
During my residence at St Michael I heard of instances of tlieir hav-
iug been sung by the Eskimo in some of the villages on the tundra,
between the mouths of Kuskokwim and Yukon rivers, before the assem-
bled people in the kashim. The only result was the satisfaction gained
by the victor's consciousness that he had enlisted the sympathy of his
fellow-townsmen and the chagrin of the one who felt himself worsted.
Songs are employed by shamans in their incantations and daring
religious festivals. Special songs are sung to the shades of the dead
or to the inuas of various kinds to which the people are addressing their
petitions, either for the purpose of propitiating the superior powers to
prevent evil or to secure successful hunting. The songs in memory
34R THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAfr |eth ann. 18
of the (lead are heard at all festivals to departed shades, and at times
ai'B of an inexpressibly niouriiful character.
Almost invariably songs of every description, when sung in the
kashim, are accompanied by the beating in regular time of one or more
tainbouiine-like drums in the hands of old men, and the drummers,
who are usually the leaders, sometimes sing a song, phrase by jthrase,
a repetition by the rest of the people following. At other times they
are the only singers; this is particularly the case when dances are being
performed.
Bongs for the great festivals of a religious character and often those
in honor of the dead, or for the bladder feast, are practiced for a long
period by the villagers so that they may be given correctly at the proper
time, the composer of the soug usuillly teaching it to the others a few
words at a time. Otliers of the songs have been handed down from
ancient times, being transmitted, like the folktales, from generation to
generation.
During one of my sledge Journeys I chanced to stop at a village near
Cape Vancouver where tlie people were learning a song for the feast to
the dead. In the evening the lights were all extinguished in the
kashim and in complete darkness an old man gave out the song, a few
words at a time, and about twenty-tive men, ranged around the middle
of the room, united in singing the words to the time of a single drum
beaten by another old man. Tlie burden of the song I did not catch,
but the refrain was a repetition of the syllables ih'i' -ai-yd-hai'-ya-yu,
which serve for this purpose in many dift'erent songs over most of this
region.
At another village in the same district a song was rendered in parts,
the bass being sung by a number of men who kept excellent time
to the beating- of several drums, while the women and the boys, who were
all arranged together on one side of the room, joined in the chorus
every few minutes, ])roducing a very pleasing effect. One song tliat is
sung in a long, wailing chant is very effective, calling on the shades of
the dead to enter the offerings that may be given them during the fes-
tival in their honor. The i)art of this song recorded at St Michael is
as follows:
Tu-ko' -miil-ii-i/'i' -I'l idi -hin-i'i. A-la -ai-ija'. Mu-Mu(j-u-mnk kiin-iikk -liuh-iim' -kin.
Dead ones c-ome liert-. (Chorus.) Hair sealskin tent you-will-iict (for a)
,i la'-ai-ya'.
(Cliorus.)
Tai' -k'tn-u-ka' ; inn-tu'-muk cho-(j olh' -kun-um' -kin . A-la'-ai-j/a' . TaV-kln-fi-ka'.
Come here, do ; reindeer skin bed you will get (for a). (Chorus.) Come here, do.
During one festival to the dead that was witnessed the mourners who
were making the gift offerings to the namesakes of their deceased rela-
tives, entered and, dancing together in the center of the kashim, sang an
invitation to their dead ones to return. The burden of the song was
that the absent ones were missed and were begged to return as their
friends were lonely. The loud, wailing manner in which this song was
NELSON] FESTIVAL SONGS 349
rendered to the music of the drums aud the steady, monotonous ehaut
of the drummers rendered the whole very eti'ective.
The following two songs give a general idea of the character of those
sung at festivals for pastime. The first is a song of a Malemut hunter
from the head of Kotzebue sound. He wishes for the time to come
when the reindeer shall renew their horns, tiiat the hunting seasou
may begin. It was noted that the same idea was repeated again and
again with constant repetition of the same chorus, so that a few
phrases did duty for hours:
Sl-tin'-d-yai ya-l-yac HH-a-i-;/<i i-i/ii ui-yac-ig'-i-a
(Chorus) (Chorus)
Co-ai-d-vhug' -tl-li yae-yd-i-a ilii' -a-i-yd-i-ya-ai
1 want (C'liorus) (Chorus)
d-to'-ai-yud-ly un-i-yae-yae kin -yh'-klun'-d
very much (Chorus) to see
i-yae-i-yd nug-g'ul-in.
(Chorus) the deer horns make, etc.
The following song, composed aud sung by a man at Cape Prince of
Wales in Bering strait, expressed his wish to see tlie shii)s come in the
spring, because his tobacco was gone:
I-ghi-yhiin-d tTi-i-yu-ae-ya mai'-u-ruk'-i-gd I-yiin-i-yd-yd
The niouutain (Chorus) I wish to clitub iChorus)
chi()i-mii-i-itak\ I-yae-yd Kut-kU'-kit-md,
to get to the water. (Chorus) I sit on the top,
ki-nig'-nii'i-gdk I-yiin-u-yd-ya nm'-i-uk-puk-mun-d
I wish to see (Chorus) the big boats coming
A-yi'i-yae-ya ti-bd'-lae-ka.
(Chorus) tobac(^o (with).
The following music was written for me by Bishop Seghers, an accom-
plished Catholic missionary (afterward killed on the upper Yulion), from
a song sung by the Eskimo during a dance at Ikogmut on the lower
Yukon in the winter of 1879. This gentleman, who was a skilled musi-
cian, said that the most remarkable thing he had noted in the songs of
the Eskimo, both of the lower Yukon and of the adjacent coast of
Bering sea, was the ease and accuracy "with which they raised and
dropped an exact octave when singing :
\^m
-^—v-
-y—y-
Despite the fact that these people are so fond of their own music,
they are unable to understand or enjoy that of a more comxilicated
character. At St Michael some of the men were frequently invited
into one of the houses wliere there was a small organ, and the agent of
the Fur company would play simple melodies for them. In every
instance the visitors kept perfectly quiet, and watched the keyboard
of the instrument closely, as if fascinated. Finally, I asked an old
man who had attended several of these concerts if he enjoyed the
music, aud he replied frankly that he did not, because, said he, •'!
350 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT |eih.ann. 18
do not iindersraud what the iioisfi says. It sounds coufusedly iu my
ears aud is strange to them, so that I do not know what it says. I like
better to hear the drum and siugiug iu the kashim, for I understand
it." But he added that he liked to watch the movements of the per-
former's fingers as they sped over the keyboard, the rapid motion pleas-
ing him. I afterward made the same inquiry of other men from various
distant localities along the coast, when they heard the music at St
Michael, and received an almost identical reply.
The drums used by the Eskiuu) of western Alaska and on the adjacent
coast of Siberia are made iu one pattern, having a rounded tambouriue-
like frame, over one side of which is stretched a thin, parchment like
covering, usually made from the bladders of seals aud walrus. The cover
is held in place by a cord of sinew or rawhide, wound around the outer
border of the drum in a sunken groove, enabling the cover to be tight-
ened at will.
The frames, usually made of spruce, are from one to three iuches iu
width aud are bent to form a ring, either circular or somewhat pear-
shape iu outline, measuring from ten to thirty inches in diameter. The
largest ones seen in use were in the district between lower Yukon and
Kuskokwim rivers. Near the Kuslevak mouutains a drum was seen
covered with tanned reindeer skin, which was the only exceptiou to
the ordinary covering that was noted, and this was due to the fact that
the usual material could not be obtained at that point.
Ordinarily the ends of the drum frame overlap aud are fastened with
sinew or rawhide cords, which pass through holes m the wood; but
along the coast from Bering strait northward, drums were seen which
had the ends of the frame beveled to wedge-shape i)oints aud inserted
in a short, intervening piece of ivory of the same width and thickness
as the frame. These pieces were beveled with a deep, wedge-sliape
slot to receive the ends of the wood, and pierced with holes tiirough
which were i^assed wooden pegs to fasten the euds of the frame iu place,
thus forming a neatly made joint. This splice is carved on its outer
border to nuitch the groove on the edge of the frame for the reception of
the cover lashiugs. They are usually fitted with a handle from four to
six inches long, with a square notch in its upper surface for the recep-
tion of the lower edge of the frame. The latter is ordinarily held in posi-
tion by sinew lashings passed through holes and thence through corre-
sponding holes in the handle just below the notch, or are passed around
the handle. A drum from Sledge island and another from Cape Wan
karem, Siberia, are attached to their handles with wooden pegs inserted
through holes at the inner end of the handle aud through the drum
frame iu the notch. These handles are commonly plain rods of ivory,
deerhorn, or bone, round or oval iu section, with the ends rounded, but
in many instances they are carved in various iiatterns.
One of these handles (number 43807), which was obtained at Shakto-
lik, is of walrus ivory, aud is six inches long by an inch aud a half iu
IfELSON]
DRUMS
3r)l
diameter. It is carved in the form of a walrus, tlie well -made head
beiug placed at the iimer eud; ou the lower side are four diagonal
grooves for finger-rests, and at the rear the animal's flippers are rei)re-
sented. The back is etched with short lines to indicate bristly hairs.
A handle from Point Hope, on the Arctic coast (figure 13(3) is of ivory,
four inches long. At one end is carved a human face, with small blue
beads inlaid for eyes and the mouth incised; along the lower side are
four finger-grooves, and an ivory strip is fitted in the square slot for the
ends of the drum frame. Another specimen from the same place (uum-
Fig. 136_Dram handle (}).
ber 6.3798) is similar to the jirecediug, but has the face curiously dis-
torted. The tip of the handle is patched with a block of wood neatly
fastened with five wooden pegs.
A handle of reindeer horn from St Michael (figure 137) measures
five inches in length and represents the head and neck of a sand hill
crane. The beak is open, and small, round incisions mark the eyes
and ears: the slot for the frame of the drum is at the base of the neck,
and the wings of the bird are indicated by an incised line on each side,
extending diagonally to the rear, where they meet on the back ; short,
parallel, incised lines represent the quill feathers. A drum obtained at
Sledge island (number
45-tOl) has a handle made
from a section of deerliorn
without ornamentation.
The frame, made of spruce,
is slightly pear-shape, with
the small end next to the
handle, and is about 20 inches in diameter. The ends overlap and are
fastened with sinew cord. It is fastened in the slot of the handle by
a wooden pin, and is beveled both ways on the inside from a central
ridge. On the outer surface, near the upper edge, is a deep groove to
receive the braided sinew cord that fastens the cover, which has the
looped end attached to a projecting wooden peg on the frame to the
right of the handle.
In a drum (number 38840) obtained at Cajie Vancouver, the frame,
made of spruce wood, 3 inches broad, is bent in a circle, 28 inches in
diameter, the overlapping ends being sewed together with rawhide cord.
352
THE KSKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. AN.X. 18
Over tbis fiaiue is stretched a cover of walrus or wliite-whale iutestiue,
liekl in place by a cord iu a groove arouud the middle of the frame. It
has a large handle, 20 inches loug, made of the same material as the
frame, and largest oq the iuiier end, which is iu the shape of a sea par-
rot's head. Ou the bade of the bird's neck is a square notch, an inch
deep, into which the frame fits, and outside of which the handle proje(;ts
about 20 inches. The bill of the sea-parrot is colored red; the rest of the
handle is the color of the wood, except a band of red near the middle.
These large drums are frequently held by one man while the other
beats them with a long, slender rod. As with the smaller drums, they
are frequently struck so that the rod taps against the frame at the
same time that it strikes the cover, thus producing a sharp, rapping
sound which mingles with the more resonant tone.
The International Polar Expedition obtained at Point Barrow large
drums, somewhat similar to that collected by me at Cai)e Vancouver,
withhandlesalsocarvedontheinnerends to represent the heads of birds,
one of which is that of a cormorant and another the head of a murre.
FiGf. 138 — Ivory baton for beating time on a stick (^^n).
In the country between the lower Yukon and the Kuskokwim, as well
as on the American shore of Bering strait, I saw large and small drums
used at the same time, producing a pleasing combination of sound.
The drum is held by the handle in the left hand, the top slightly inclined
away from the drummer and about on a level with his chin. When
excited by the sound and movement, the drummers sometimes raise the
drums almost at arm length, so that the handles are on a level with
their brows. They are beaten in measured time, two strokes iu quick
succession, then a short pau.se, and two strokes again. Each drummer
has a single slender, flat rod about 12 to 10 inches long, which he holds
iu the right hand.
While witnessing a festival to the dead on the lower Yukon, I saw
people dancing near the graves to time beateu with a stick on the end
of a log projecting from one of the houses, and another party dancing
on the ice on the river to time beaten on a piece of driftwood which had
been taken to the river for the purpose. This was the only instance
south of Norton sound in which 1 saw such an accompaniment to danc-
ing. On the American shore of Bering strait, and thence northward
N-ELsox] DANCES 353
along the Arctic coast, resonant pieces of wood are regularly beateu
to aid the drum accompauimeut during dauciug. ■ For this purpose a
short, heavy baton of walrus ivory is generally used. Such an instru-
ment (figure 138), was obtained at Port Clarence. It is lOi inches in
length by au inch in diameter, rounded, beveled at each end, and has
the slight curve of the tusk from which it was made. Fine shavings
arc bound around the butt by a braided sinew cord to attbrd a gri)i, and
a deerhoru peg close to the projecting end of the handle prevents the
hand from slipping. Extending from near this peg to the other end of
the grip is a looj) of twisted sinew cord which aids in holding the instru-
ment firmly. On its outer end the mouth, eyes, and blowiu)les of a
right whale are represented by incised holes aTid i)its. ISetween the
blowholes are inserted some small, downy feathers, held in place by
wooden pegs, to represent the si)outing of the wbale.
In addition to the dances performed during the various festivals and
described in connectiou with those ceremonies, various others are prac-
ticed among the Eskimo with whom I came in contact. These latter
are generally executed for pastime, and are often merely a series of
movement.s supposed to be graceful or ])leasing; at other times they
are distinctly symbolic, frequently carrying out and illustrating a long
narrative by gestures and sometimes accompanied by a song. Dances
are usually accompanied by the beating of one or more drums and by
the singing of the drummers, and sometimes of other males, but at times
tiie drummers cease, and the dancing continues to the sound of voices.
Some of these performances are extremely grotesque, the dancers being
young men, often quite nude or simply wearing a pair of ornamental
trunks made of fine deerskin, who sing or utter loud cries and leap
about, gesticulating with their arms and legs and contorting their bodies
in every conceivable manner. The object of such dances is apparently
to amuse the spectators, and the successful dancers frequently cause
great laughter among the assembled people by the absurdity of their
attitudes and movements. Tlie young men exert themselves in fi iendly
rivalry at sucli times until they are forced to cease from sheer exhaustion.
Both men and women take part in the dances, each having certaiu
movements peculiar to himself. The women remain with their feet
planted s<iuarclj on the floor and, swaying the body and slowly gestic-
ulating witli hands and arms, go through the figures permitted to them,
alwiiys keeping time to the music. Very commonly the women have a
long, feather wand in each hand which they wave slowly back and forth
as they move. During certain religious festivals they also use finger-
masks — small, round, flat pieces of wood witli a projection below, through
which are one or two holes lor admitting the first or the first and second
fingers; they are carved to represent a human face or a face supposed to
belong to some animal, an inn<(, or some supernatural being. They
are generally painted and surrounded by a halo like fringe, formed
by the upstanding hair on a narrow baud of skin, usually of the reiu-
18 KTH I'.J
354 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axx is
deer or wolf. Tbey are also oruaiiieiited with qnill feathers of various
birds, frequeutly tijiped with down.
The men ordinarily rest the weight of the body iirst on one foot and
then on the other, while the free foot is advanced, the ball resting on
the floor and the heel continually raised and brought down with a
sounding thump in time to the beating of the drums. At the same time
the dancers contort the body and gesticulate with the bauds and arms
in rythmic motion. Frequently the dancer sings or utters loud cries at
regular intervals, springing from one side to the other. The rythmic
beating of the drums and the accompanying songs work the dancers
to a pitch of great excitement, and they sometimes go on for hours
with these violent exertions, the perspiration rolling down their bodies,
until they cease from exhaustion.
With rare exceptions the dances are performed in the kashim, taking-
place during the winter months, that is, from October until the end
of April. Both songs and dances are practiced beforehand when pre
paring for any great festival. In addition to the larger performances
accomi)anying the more important festivals, there are small dances of
rather frequent occurrence among the villagers during the early part of
winter; but these are informal affairs performed for amusement by a
few of the young men.
A ceremonial dance is performed by a stranger who enters lor the
first time the kashim of a village. On such occasion he is expected to
make a small offering or gift of pi'opitiation to the headman, who
divides it among the other old men. The stranger then steps out upon
the floor and dances for a short time, sometimes singing a song express-
ing his friendship for the people he is with, or merely a chorus song.
In this way he is considered to have introduced himself properly and
thus to have gained the freedom of the kashim.
At St Michael we were usually invited to the first dances held in
the kashim every autumn. Each year we made a practice of carrying
a little tobacco, which we handed to the headman upon entering, and
this he would divide into small portions and distribute among the
other men. At such times, if one of us would steji out upon the floor
and execute a short dance alter tiie style of the Eskimo, it was received
with great merriment by the assembled villagers.
The dances of the Eskimo, whether on the islands of Bering sea or
on the banks of Kuskokwiin river, are very similar in general character,
but local variations are common. On Sledge Island, in March, 1880,
was witnessed a curious and characteristic performance, different from
anything seen elsewhere. We found the people on the verge of star-
vation, and nearly all of their dogs had died from lack of food. Our
own dogs were dying from the same cause, so we decided to return
at once to the mainland. When the headman of the villagers learned
this he came to beg us to remain at least one night with them so that
they might show us their api)reciatiou of our visit, promising that the
NEi-soN] DANCE ON SLEDGK ISLAND 355
iiiliabitaiits would find soinetliiiig with which to feed our dogs and that
they would give a dance in the kashiin in our lionor.
About two hours after dark we were invited into the kashini and
given the place of honor at the rear end of the room. Half a dozen men,
including the headmen of the vilhige, stepped out in time to singing
and diuniming, and went through the movements of an ordinary <lance
such as had been seen at the l>eginning's of dances at Cape Darby, L"na-
laklit, and elsewhere southward to the mouth of Kuskokwim river.
One of these dancers wore about his brow a fillet made fi'om the
skin of the head and neck of an Adams loon, with the beak left on and
jirojecting over the middle of the forehead; another man wore a fillet
made from the white breast of a murre with the wing-feather of a
gerfalcon stuck in it so as to stand erect over the forehead.
Then a man and a woman took the floor, jjerforming some figures or
movements such as I had seen used by a couple at Unalaklit. Next
was a dance of similar character by a half-grown boy and a girl; their
motions were greatly varied, but in perfect unison ; they postured with
the body inclined first to one side and then to the other, alternating
with an inclination forward until their heads nearly touched the floor.
]\lany of their movements were characterized by the swaying grace
that is notable in many of the dances of these peoiile.
When this was finished nine women and girls seated themselves close
together, cross-legged, and strii)i)ed to the waist, on a bench extend-
ing along one side of the room, facing in one direction along the length
of the bench. Drummers and singers struck up a medley different
from anything I had ever heard, and the women on the bench responded
by executing a long and complicated series of swaying motions with
the head, arms, and body, in perfect unison. From where I sat the
dancers were in profile, and their light-colored bodies showed in strong
contrast against the sooty wall. Their slow, regular motions, with
bodies swaying alternately from one side to the other, now inclining
forward and then swaying back, the arms constantly waving in a series
of graceful movements, presented a remarkably pleasing sight.
The headman asked me if I liked the dance, and 1 told him that I
did and that I thought it a good one, whereupon he seemed greatly
pleased and told me that several of the dancers were his wives. Directly
afterward he ciilled out something to the singers, and the latter innne-
diately began a different song and the women a different set of motions.
In this way the headman changed the dances until over twenty distinct
songs and sets of motions had been executed; some of the songs and
movements were done in very slow time, while others were rapid. All
of the movements were evidently conventional and carefully learned
by the performers, as they were executed with great regularity.
On one occnsion, at 8abotnisky, on the lower Yukon, a dance was
given for my benefit by several villagers. Two women took the most
prominent part. One of the performers by her gestures told the story
356 THE ESKIMO ABOUT liERIXG 8TKAIT [eth.anx 18
of lier fathers life and battles daring- the wars among the villagers
l)receding the arrival of the white lueu; the gestures were mainly
beyond my comprehension, but the Eskimo about me appeared to
understand them all. I could interpret the motions of stealthy a])proaeh
and retreat, then a struggle with the enemy and the flight, ending by a
sudden turn and the killing of a i)nrsuer by a spear thrust. In addition
there were a great deal of gesture aud posture with hands and bodies
which seemed to be full of meaning to the people about me. This
woman's companion went through a series of motions describing berry
])ickiug aud various other occupations of women in the summer and fall.
During all their movements both of them were extremely graceful and
kept accurate time to the music.
Ou February 12, 1880, 1 remained over night in the village of Unalak-
lit, where a number of dances were given in my honor. Soon after dark
I was invited to the kashim, where a dozen young men were stripped to
the waist and ranged around the room in a circle. Five or six old men
stood near the lamp at the rear end of the room beating a drum and
singing one of the common dance songs; the young men postured and
leaped with such energy that the persiiiration rau down their bodies,
as it did also from the faces of the drum men. There seemed to bo a
rivalry between the musicians and the dancers to outdo one another,
and the singers would stop to take breath occasionally, ijuickly begin-
ning again while the dancers were still panting, causing laughter at tiie
expense of the latter. This continued for some time, until the dancers
acknowledged themselves defeated and sat down. Then a young man
came out alone, stripped to the waist, and stood before the entrance
hole in the middle of the room. On his face was a mask representing a
wolf-head. He stood for a few moments appearing to look intently
into the hole in the floor while he postured slowly back and forth with
his anus and body; while he did this two women came ui) behind him,
stood close by and began gesturing, imitating in perfect time every
motion made by him. Then the time of the song suddenly changed, the
women stepjiiiig out quickly, one upon each side a few iiaces away,
and all three postured, swaying back and forth to the song. The man
moved first toward one woman then toward the other with a gliding
motion and appeared to try to grasp thetn with one hand, never losing
the time and keei)ing the motion uniform with the movements of the
women. After he had done this he resumed his first position, the women
ste])ped back to their former place, and the dance soon ended. This
was said to represent a wolf hunting reindeer.
Wlien tliis dance ended, the man who wore the wolf mask went out,
but came in again very quickly wearing a mask representing a human
face; he took the same position as before, beginning with a set of
l)ostures of the arras aud body diflerent from those seen in the first
dance. He was joined by the two women, one on each side of him, and
all went through the motion of picking berries, which was done very
NSLSox] DANCES AND FESTIVALS 357
slowly with ii (!Oiitiiia;il grafet'iil swaying of the body. This daiic^e
ended the ])erfoiii]aiice.
At Cape Darby, on tlie same jouriiej', I passed a uight with the vil-
lagers aud was iuvited into the liashini with my companion to witness
a dance given for iis. We went in and found the entire population of
the village assembled. A small ])resent of tobacco to the headman
was our offering as strangers, after which we were given the place of
honor by the drummers at the rear end of the room. The song and the
drum-beating began at once, with a chorus song of meaningless syllables
like those sung in dances of conventional style. A nnmberof men and
women kei)t the floor, going through a series of ordinary postures
until they became tired and sat down. These were followed by a man
and a woman who came forward and went through a new set of motions,
which I wa.s told they had learned from people on the shore of Bering
strait. Afterward a woman came out and imitated the gathering of
eggs of sea fowl among the rocks. At certain intervals a song accom-
panied her movements, which was intended to represent the cries of
birds startled liom their nests.
FEASTS AND FESTIVALS
THE FUNCTION OF THE CELEBRATIONS
Among the Eskimo of lower Kuskokwim and Yukon rivers and
thence northward along the coast to Kotzebue sound, as well as on the
islands of Bering strait, the festivals form some of the most important
features of their social life. The same may undoubtedly be said of the
Eskimo elsewhere in Alaska, but these remarks are intended to cover
the region over which my personal observations extended.
These festivals serve to enliven the long, depressing evenings of
Arctic winter, and at intervals render the cold, stormy season a period
of enjoyment and feasting. They serve also to promote friendly inter-
course between the people of adjacent villages and districts. Through
the festivals comes an interchange of products and manufactures of
different localities, and, above all, they are important in expressing and
carrying out the religious beliefs and observances of these peoi)le.
Nearly or quite all of the formal festivals of the Eskimo in this
region are of a more or less religious character. As examples of these
may be noted the Bladder feast and the Feast to the Dead.
CALENDAR OP FESTIVALS
Having been more familiar with the Unalit Eskimo of Norton sound
than with any others of this region, I subjoin a list of festivals ob-
served among them, although it is probably not complete. A somewhat
similar program exists among the other tribes within the limits of the
region covered by the present paper. While the same festival may
exist in ditlerent localities over a considerable area, rites vary locally
358 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethann. 18
to a greater or less extent, altbougli the central idea is preserved,
luterioursc witli the Russians and subsequently with the Americans at
St Micliael and adjacent parts of Norton sound has modified in many
respects the customs of the Eskimo in tliiit region, yet the ancient
beliefs and observances are still preserved among the older people.
€ertiun festivals, however, are no longer celebrated in the district
named. Perhaps tlie most striking change has been in the disuse of
masks, which are still used in the complicated ceremonials of the
inhabitants of the country lying between the mouths of the Kusko-
kwim and the Yukon. Among the TJnalit Eskimo about St Michael I
noted the following festivals:
1. Ai-ya'-g^iiTc, or Asking festival, which takes place each year about
the middle or latter part of November.
2. Jlil'-i'i-ffi, the Festival to the Dead. In this there are songs and
dances, with food offerings and libations in honor of the dead. It is
held the last of November or the first of December.
3. Chaii'-i-ytik, the Bladder feast. This is held usually during the
December moon and sometimes extends into January. It is a festival
belonging essentially to the coast ijeople, but is still preserved in
modified form among the Eskimo of lower Kuskokwim and Yukon
rivers.
4. A repetition of the Festival to the Dead is given at St Michael
two days after the close of the Bladder feast, and (5) another just
before the opening of the flsliing season in spring.
C. J kh' -tii-la' tHkh-tiU-, Great feast to the Dead. This is the most nota-
ble of all the festivals, owing to the fact that years are spent in prepar-
ing for the display with which it is celebrated. Among the fur traders
it is known as the "Ten-year feast," but in reality there is no dcfniile
number of years between its recurrence. It is held at the time when the
makers (ionsider that they have accumulated sufficient material in the
shape of food, skins of fur-bearing animals, aiul other objects of value
to propeily honor the shades of their deceased relatives for whose
benefit the feast is held.
THE "INVITING-IN" FEAST
LthiV-lca-f/ul; a mask festival, known as the "invitingin feast," is
observed along the lower Yukon and southward to Kuskokwim river.
Masks in every variety of shai)e and form are made by the men for use in
it. Some of these are so large that it becomes necessary to hang them
from the roof of the kashim by a stout cord, and the owner stands behind
with the nuisk fastened to his head, wagging and swaying it from side
to side. The masks aie usually carved to represent heads of animals,
frequently the totemic animals of the maker, and very often expressing
mythological fancies, which will be more fully detailed in treating
of masks. The shamans make masks rei)resenting the faces of their
supernatural or semihumau familiars by whose aid they claiu) to work
'IXVITING-IN AND "ASKING FESTIVALS
359
their will. Tbe object of these faces is to pro])itiate and do honor to
the animals or beings represented by them, and tluis to bring about
plenty of game during tbe coming year and to ward oft' evil influences.
The imias or shades of the various animals are invited and are sup-
posed to be present and enjoy the songs and dances, with the food and
drink offerings, given in their hoin)r. The masks are burned at the
conclusion of the ceremonies, and should a man sell his mask he must
replace it with wood in about equal amount for the sacrificial Are which
takes jilace subsequent to the ceremony. This
festival is held usually in January or February
of each year. Although I was not able to
witness one of these observances, many of
the masks used in them were obtained.
THE "ASKING" FESTIVAL
The Asking
Michael, takes
of ]S'ovember, when
water along the coast
their winter stores
Tutu' -Ilk, or the "going
the hunters and laige boys
the kashim and remove all
then blacks his face with a mix
oil and paints his body with
I he then takes a wooden dish in his
ing and making all sorts of discord
go out in single tile and pass from house
until every one in the village has been
The women are all at home on this night,
who is the head of a family has a large tub
ries and other food ready. The procession of
iui. 139— wanu '•^^'^ boys tlles into each house, all holding
usediuAakiug their dishes while they stamp their feet and
testnai (J). \xUei' gruutlug souuds. The women at every house
place food in each of the dishes, and when the round is completed
all return to the kashim, shouting and stamping. While in the house
tlieir faces are kept turned toward the floor so that they shall not be
recognized. Outside the children follow them from house to house,
shouting and makiug a great outcry. When they return to the kashim
the soot is washed from their faces and bodies with urine and, giving
some of the food to the old men, all sit down to the feast, ^ext day a
wand, called ai-ija'-(fuk, is made by a man chosen for the purpose. This
wand has a slender, rod like handle, with three hanging globes at the
outer end. Figure 139 illustrates one of these wands.
festival, Ai-ya'-g''uk, observed a St
place each year after the middle
the fish have left the shallow
and the people have gathered
The first night is called
around." Soon after dark
in the village gather iu
their clothing. Each
ture of charcoal and
stripes and dots;
hand, and, howl-
ant noises, all
to house
visited,
and each
of ber-
men
out
360 THE ESKIMO ABOUT HERING 8TRAIT [eth.ann. 18
In the eveuing of this day the men are gathered in the kashini and
the women in their houses, as on the preceding night. The iinin who
prepared the wand takes it in liis hand and stands with it in the nii(hlle
of the room; any man in the community has the privilege of telling
him the name of auy article he wishes, sometimes giving him the name
of the woman from whom he desires to obtain it. The wand-bearer
then goes to the house of the woman named and stands before her,
swinging the hanging globes on the wand, at the same time telling
her what he has come for, and then stands waiting. The woman thinks
of something which she desires in return and tells the wand-bearer,
whereupon he returns to the kashim and, swinging the globes before the
one who sent him, tells what is desired in return for the object he
demanded. In this way every one in the village asks for something.
When the messenger has (•omi)leted his task, the men go to their houses
and bring the articles for which they were asked, and when all have
returned to the kashim a dance is performed.
The women then come, bringing with them the things asked for, and
the exchange is made through the messenger, who must have his face
blackened and wear a fishskiu coat, or some other poor dress, having a
dogskin belt with the tail fastened on behind. If any article is desired
which the person asked does not possess, he is bound by custom to
obtain it as soon as i)ossible after the festival and present it to the one
who wishes it. The two exchanging presents in this way are considered
to hold a certain temporary relationship, termed i-lo'-ffiil;. Formerly
those once made i-lo'-g'itk exchanged presents each succeeding year at
this festival, but that custom is now less strictly observed.
At the time of this festival any man had a right to request the
messenger to inform the woman he named, if she was unmarried, that
he wished to share her bed that night. The woman returned answer
that he must bring a deerskin for the bedding. When all were gath-
ered in the kashim he gave her the deerskin, and after the festival was
ended renuiined with her for the night.
After the wand has been used while conveying the messages of the
different ]ieople, it is hung in a conspicuous place in the kashim and kept
there until the festival is ended. This instrument is much respected
by the community, and it is considered shameful to refuse the reiiuests
made with it, and a person doing this would be despised by every one.
In some districts this festival is observed by asking presents between
persons of the same sex. It exists substantially as described from the
vicinity of Bering strait to the mouth of Kuskokwim river, although
each locality varies slightly the details and rites performed.
The custom of the men taking women during the night of this festi-
val is observed throughout this district. One variation of the festival
is for the messenger to be told secretly the desire of each person, and
until all meet in the kashim no one knows with whom he is to exchange.
On the lower Yukon and in the adjacent districts to the southward this
NELSON] '"asking" and trading festivals 3H1
is accomplished by each person raukiiig a small image of the object he
desires and hanging- it on the messenger's wand, which is taken into
the kashim where all examine the images. Each then takes the image
of whatever lie wishes to supi)ly, and the messenger tells him from
whom it comes and what is desired in return.
THE TKADING FESTIVAL
Another celebration, known as the Trading festival and somewhat
allied to the preceding, is held at irregular intervals almost everywhere
throughout the region. The following description of its observance at
Aiidreivsky, on the lower Yukon, will serve as an illustration of its
character. The lur trader who made the iestival was instructed by
an old Eskimo and observed all the customary ceremonies.
Early in the winter the trader sent to several villages in the sur-
rounding district a messenger, who was instructed to go to tw(j or three
of the best hunters in each place and tell them that the trader thought
they had skins of mink, otter, or of other fur-bearing animals, as the
case might be. The maker of the feast and the two or three men in
each village to whom he sent his special invitation were known during
the festival as niis'ktit' or "heads." Each tiiis'l-ul,' replied to the mes-
senger that he thought the trader had powder, lead, or whatever
else he most desired. Then the messenger Avent into the kashim and
addressed the young men generally, saying that his niis'l-nl' thought
they possessed skins of various kinds. In tliis way the man went fiom
village to village, learning at the same time the date or time in a cer-
tain moon when all could go to tlie feast. A message of this kind
sent to a village is considered as an invitation to the feast to be held
at the village of the giver. The messenger having ended his errand,
returned, telling the niis'kid'' when the guests would arrive; also
what each headman among the invited guests wished from him. The
chief nas'kuJc' then prepared lor his guests, gathering food in abun-
dance, together with the various articles desired by the people invited.
Those who had been invited gathered at a predetermined village and
in a body approached the place appointed for the festival.
In the present feast, as soon as the guests came in sight a messenger
went to meet them on the ice of the Yukon. He ran out and stopped
just before the guests, so that they might send any message they wished
to the feast giver. In this instance an old woman sent word to a little
girl in the trader's family that she wished a reindeer skin. When the
first messenger came back, two others ran out to meet the guests, cry-
ing out as they went, "Are we not strong men? Are we not strong
men?" Then, as if in reply, "Yes, we are strong; yes, we axe strong;
we do not steal," and much more of the same kind of self glorification.
Eunning up close to the guests, they stojiped and stared at them with-
out speaking, then turned and ran swiftly back. When they returned,
two others ran out in the same wav. The last four messengers wore
362 THE ESKIMO ABOUT 15ERINC4 STKAIT [eth. an.n. 13
about their heads fillets made of skin from the throats of reindeer, so
arransed that tlie long hairs stood up, loDkiuy like crowns.
When the guests were close to the house of the feast giver they
stopped and two drums were taken out to them by messengers. Then,
while the villagers where the feast was given stood in front of their houses
looking at the guests, the latter sang and danced on the ice for a i'ew
minutes. After they stopped the people of the trader's village danced
and sang a welcome. The dancing and singing of the guests was a
proi)itiatory ceremony, snch as is customary with strangers on first
entering a kashim, while the dance of the hosts was one of welcome.
Then the guests came forward, passing by their hosts without a word,
and went into the kashim. As soon as they were seated, the host, or
chief ««s7««/i-, brought in and gave them the articles reipiested of the
messenger when he went out on the ice to meet them. After this, food
was distribirted to every one. In the evening the " heads" took into
the kashim the skins or other articles they had brought. Each nanJ^uk
must bring at least one of the skins of the kind named by the messengers
in the invitation to the feast or he would be shamed. They usually
try, in defense of honor, to bring as many skins as possible of each kind
requested.
While these skins are being brought in the hosts are seated at one
side of the room, beating drums and singing. As the n((sluk to whom
the messenger went iirst in the village goes in with his furs, the host or
chief H«sA!(/v of the entertainers meets him as the most important guest
and puts upon him a new fur coat as a mark of honor. Then as each
headman goes m and throws down his skins he executes a short dance
in time with the drums, giving a pantomime representing some exploit
of his father or of his own, and singing at the same time in j)raise of the
l)erson represented. After this the young men who came on the gen-
eral invitation bring in their furs, each having at least one skin of the
kind desired, but as it is a distinction to bring more, some of them have
(juite a number; these are thrown in a heap near the lamp at the head
of the room. When all of the guests have brought in their skins they
sit about the room for a time and sing. The host then takes out the
skins brought by the other headmen. He soon returns, bringing to
one of the headmen the articles requested of the messenger, these being
a fair equivalent for the furs he had brought to the trader. .Vt the
same time the host throws down near the lamp some articles of value
and dances for a short time. He then goes out and returns with
the articles desired by the second headman, and so on until all have
received the things they desired. Uy this time the heap of articles
near the lamp has been augmented by the host on each return to the
kashim until there is an equiva''Mit for the pile of furs l)rought by the
young men, when it is distributed among them. Then the host enter-
tains the guests by songs and dances and the festival is ended by the
distribution of food.
xELsox] TRADING FESTIVAL MORTUARY FEASTS 363
The skins brought by the yomig men in this instance were takun by
the trader, but when the Eskimo give tlie festival tliese are distributed
among the young men of the village who contribute to the general
supply of articles to be distribated among the guests.
In the middle of February, ISSO, while at tlie head of Norton sound,
a party (if Malemut were met on their way to a trading festival of this
kind at ITualaklit. Their sledges were laden with reindeer skins. I
afterward learned that they took part In the festival, but being dissatis-
fied with the presents given in return for their skins, they took them
back and returned home.
In a rude sketch drawn for me by an Eskimo from the Kaviak pen-
insula, the figures of a party of men from Cape Prince of Wales are
portrayed, showing them on their way to a festival of tliis kind and
being met by the villagers of the place to which they are going.
FEASTS TO THE DEAD
MonXlARV FKASTS IX (JEXERAL
Every year the Ihl'-ihg'i' at St Michael is held during the latter part
of November or early in December. It is repeated two days after the
Bladder feast of autumn and just before the beginning of the salmon
fishing in spring. It is given for the sole purpose of making offerings
of food, water, and clothing to the shades of those recently deceased,
and of offerings to the dead who have not yet been honored by one
of the great festivals. The makers of this feast are the nearest rela-
tives of those who have died during the preceding year, joined by all
others of the village who have not given a great feast to their dead.
The day before the festival, among the Eskimo of St Michael and on
the lower Yukon, the nearest male relative goes to the grave of the
deceased and plants before it, if it be that of a man, a newly made stake
upon which is placed a small model of a seal spear, and if of a woman,
a wooden dish. Sometimes the spear model is replaced by the model of
a kaiak paddle or an umiak oar. Upon these implements are marked
the totems of the dead. At times, however, the totem of the deceased
is indicated by a simple wooden image of the totem animal, which is
j)laced on top of the stake. This is the notification which brings the
shade from the land of the dead to the grave, where it waits, ready to
be called into the kasliim by the songs of invitation during the festival.
At the IhVu-gH' held the year preceding a great festival to the dead,
those making the festival plant other stakes of invitation bearing the
same symbols before the graves of those to be honored, and by these
graves are sung songs of invitation to the shades, informing them of
the approaching f"stival. It is said that when one of these festivals
begins with its opening song of invitation, the shades are in their
graves and come thence to the kashim, where they assemble in tlie fire
pit, under the tloor. At the proper time they ascend from their place'
364 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. Axnk. 18
beneath tlie floor, entering' i\nd possessing' the bodies of tlieir name-
sakes in tlie kashiui, and thus obtaining for tliemselves the offerings
of food, drink, or clothing which are made to these namesakes for the
benefit of the deceased. It is by means of such offerings that the
shade is believed to obtain tlie supjjlies necessary for its wants in the
hind of the dead.
When the offerings have been made and the .songs concluded, the
sliades are sent back to their abiding place by stamping nijon the
floor. On the day of the feast no one is permitted to do any work
about the village, and all work with sharp-edged or pointed tools is
])rohibited for fear that some shade may be about, and, being injured,
become angry an<l do harm to the people. All are supposed to take
part in this festival whose nearest relatives have died, and in propor-
tion to the care and generosity exercised on these occasions the shade
is made happy and comfortable.
These Eskimo fear to die unless they have someone to make offer-
ings to their memory, and childless persons generally adopt a child so
that their shade may not be forgotten at the festivals, as people who
have no one to make offerings for them ai'e supposed to suffer great
destitution in the other world. For this reason it is regarded as the
severest punishment possible for a shade to have these rites neglected
by its relatives. When a person has been very much disliked, his shade
is sometimes purposely ignored.
At St Michael and the lower Ynkon, when this feast is held, each of
those who have dead friends to honor takes an oil lamp into the kashim
at midday, where the lamps are lighted and arranged around the room
a yard or two from the wall on supports about two feet high. If the
shade of a man is to be honored a lamp is placed in front of the place
he formerly occupied in the room. These lamps are kept burning until
the festival is ended, and in this way the shades are supposed to be
lighted on their way back to the earth and to receive in the land of the
dead the light which they used in their houses. After this an old man
takes a drum, and sitting in Iront of the main lamp in the middle of
the room, beats it in slow, regular time, while singing the invitation to
the shades, accompanied by all the villagers. This is quite a long song,
of which the following few words are given:
Tu-ko'-mUX-u-g'V-u, tai'-kin-a; A-la'-ai-ya' mu-lclug' -u-muk
Dead ones. come here : (Chorus) sealskins (for a)
lUn-ukh'-kih'i-iim'-liin. j-la'-ai-i/a'. Tai'-kin-u'-ka; tHn-tu'-mnk
teut you will ;L;et. (Chorus.) Come here, do, reindeer skins
cho-g'okh'-kiin-um'-kiii. A-la'-ni-i/a'. TaV-kiu-a'-ka'.
for a beil jou will get. (Chorus.) Come here, do.
When this is completed the persons who are making the feast rise,
and going to the food they have prepared and placed at the doorway,
take a small portion from every dish aiul cast it down on the floor as
an offering; then each takes a ladle of water and pours a little on the
'floor so that it runs through the cracks. In this way they believe that
KELSON] MiiRTUARV FEAS'lS 3()5
the spiritual essence of tlic entire quantity of food and water from which
the siuall portions are offered goes to the shade. This essence of the
offerings is believed to be transported mysteriously to the abodes of
the shades and tlius supply their wants until the time of the next
festival. After these offerings have been made the festival maker dis-
tributes the food that is left among the peojde present and all eat
heartily. Then, with songs and dances, the feast is ended and the
shades are dismissed.
GREAT FEAST TO THE DEAD
The great feast to the dead (the ten-year Uf/rusha of the fur trader)
is the IlcJi'-tu-l-a'-ti'iJch-ii'iJc of the Unalit at St Michael and the Ukli'-ta
or rii-g^i of the Eskimo at Ikogmut on the lower Yukon. The latter
term means "throwing away," from the custom of the feast makers
giving away everything during the festival. The nearest relative of
a deceased Eskimo in this region must honor the shade of the departed
with presents of food,- drink, and clothing, through the dead person's
namesake at the first festival in honor of the shades following his
death; also by small food offerings at each of the following annual
observances of this festival until he takes part in the great feast to
the dead. The chief mourner is the nearest blood relative, either the
father, son, brother, or other near relation. The chief mourner, after
tlie expiration of one or two j'ears, commences to save up valuable
articles, such as skins of various kinds, clothing, and other things
prized by these people ; thus he or she saves for four, six, or even more
years until the store of goods has grown to a large amount of i)roperty,
as these people regard it, often worth hundreds of dollars.
At the same time others in the village are doing the same, until
finally a number of persons conclude that they have enough to malie
one of these great festivals, when they agree on a time for its observ-
ance on .some day during a certain moon in the ensuing year. Then, at
the holding of the next minor feast to the dead, each relative plants his
invitation stake before the grave of the one he wishes to honor. The
invitation stake consists of a slender wooden rod, four to six feet high,
commonly having rings of red paint about its freshly cut surface, and
topped bj' a small, painted, wooden image of the totemic animal of the
deceased; this stake is supposed to notify the shade of the dead of the
approaching festival. To still further notify the .shades, a song of invi-
tation is sung at the minor festival to the dead given the year before
the great feast, and as the shades are believed to be present at these
festivals, this song is suppo.sed to be heard by them.
With the observance of this great festival a person is supposed to
have done his entire duty to tlie shades of his dead, and thenceforth
may abstain from making any further feasts in their honor without
being ashamed before his fellow villagers. However, shoulil lie lose
another very near relation he would be expected to repeat the usual
'6GG
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
rites, unless there should be someoue to take his ijlace. The shade is
su])posed to be supi)lied with sufticient food and property at this feast
to euable it to exist thenceforth without fear of want.
Ill January, 1880, I chauced to be at the small village of llazbinsky,
on the lower Yukon, when the festival to the dead was held and the vil-
lagers were invited to attend the great feast to be given them the next
year. This preliminary feast was entirely in the hands of the women,
who distributed food and ijresents among the people and sang the
song of invitation to the shades to return again next year. At the
same time a slow dance was executed.
I was informed that the great festival to which the shades were invited
would be given entirely by men. People from surrounding villages,
sometimes in a circuit of nearly 200 miles, are invited by messengers to
take part as guests in this feast.
The feast makers strive to make
as much show as possible and dis-
tribute great quantities of food
among the guests.
The following is an account of
one of these festivals witnessed
at Eazbinsky in Januarj'^, 1881,
which will give a general idea of
their good character. It is from
notes made at the time the festi-
val was in progress.
Peojile came to this feast from
all the neighboring villages and
even from Kuskokwim river, until
the village was tilled to overflow-
ing. On the evening of the day
on which the festival began, the
kashim was packed with men,
women, and children. A place was given me on a bench in a corner
of the room and this was reserved during the entire time of the festival.
At the beginning of the festival the people were arranged in tlie
kashim as shown in the accompanying figure 140.
Six men with drums sat in the rear end of the kashim, facing the
door. Along each side, as shown in the diagram, sat a low of men who
did the singing. The drummers and singers all sat on long, rude
benches. The space from the drummers to the door was unoccupied,
but the back and sides of the rooni were packed with people. Several
songs were sung, all expressing welcome to the expected guests. Dur-
ing one of these a man who had come with other guests from Kusko-
kwim river suddenly appeared in the door, and, raising his voice over
the din of the drums and singing, shouted: ''Oh, oh, oh, oh, oh! Look
3
1 1 1
o o o
1
0
1 1
o o
o
o
0 ^
o .
3 O
0 3
o
s
o
o
- 4.
o
Fig. 140— Plan of kaslnra during mortuary cerc-
raony. (1, six drum nieu; 2, singers: 'A, space
occupied by spectators; 4, entrance or doorway:
5, vacant space under wliich the shades are sup-
posed to gather.)
KELsu.N] GREAT FEAST TO THE DEAD 3G7
at Hie. What are you saying of us Kuskokwim i^eople? See berewbat
y^e bring you for presents." He tbeu tbrew down some skins lie bad
in bis bands and went out, but retuiiicd imniediately, dragging in sev-
eral large deerskins, wbicli were placed in tlie same pile, and was fol-
lowed by four companions, who came from the same place, each of
whom added to the pile. My interpreter told me that this was tlie
customary offering of guests who came from a distance.
I then sent him out to my sledge to obtain some articles with which
to make our offering in the same manner, so as to observe the custom of
propitiatory gifts. He returned with some leaf tobacco, which he
brought in while the singing still continued, crying out, as had the
others, "Oh, oh, oh, oh, oh! See here. What are you saying about
us St Michael people?" Throwing the tobacco on the common heap,
he went out and returned with one end of a roll of calico in his hands,
drawing the remainder through the entrance hole -with great delibera-
tion, to make it appear as long as possible. An old man of the village
arose to distribute these offerings, and with this the day's entertainment
■was closed. This is called the guests' day, or i/n-giikh'-tut. The guests
from closely neighboring villages are not expected to make propitia-
tory presents at these festivals, as they recixirooate by giving feasts
themselves, but those from afar are looked upon with disfavor unless
they make the customary gifts. Should the guest wish to take part in
any of the dances, it is almost imperative that he should have made
such jireseiits on his arrival. The guests at these festivals are fur-
ui-shcd with food both for themselves and their dogs during the time of
their attendance.
Second daif
The kashim was filled with people in the evening, as it was th(! day
before. The drummers and singers were arranged in the same jiosition,
and several songs were sung in time to the drums, one of which,
intended to describe the dangers and difficulties of a journey, is trans-
lated as follows :
We will sing a soug.
AVe will go (lowu tbe current.
The waves will rise;
Tlie waves will fall.
The (logs will growl at ns.
After several songs had been sung, one of the men making the feast
came in suddenly with his face bent toward the tioor and made a feint as
if intending to dance; then wheeled about abruptly and went out. His
place was taken at once by five men and five women, also feast givers,
dressed in fine new clotliiug. Some of the women wore men's clothes
and some women's garments, thus indicating the sex of the person for
whom they were making the feast. After a short dance these five went
out and were replaced by others until all the feast givers had danced.
This completed the second day's performance. In this dance some of
the men wore wolfskin fillets and some of the women fillets made from
368 THE ESKIMO AISOUT KEIIING STRAIT [eth.axx. 18
two ermine skins, tlie lieads of the einiines beiny- joined o\er tlie niid-
dleoftbe foreliead and the skins drawn back on each side, and hanging
over the sides of the face. Thege were said to be totemic insignia.
Third day
About 4 ocloek in the morning all the guests were aroused and called
into the kashiiii, where a fur trader and myself, having come from
the most i"emote couutrj-, were giveu the places of honor on the bench
at the back of the room, to the left of the entrance. Xext to us were
the guests from Ivuskokwim river, who came from the next farthest
place, the guests being placed in i)recedence according to the distance
from which they had come. The people were all seated in this way
under the direction of the old headman of the village, who sits at the
left of the drummers during the dances.
When the guests were all seated the villagers came in and tilled the
vacant places. The seats of the guests thus allotted are reserved
throughout the festival, and if a villager happens to be seated in one
of them when the guest enters, he at once vacates it in favor of the
original occupant; not to do so would be considered gross rudeness
and would call forth a reprimand from the old men.
The kashim at tliis place had two tiers of sleeping beuches around its
sides, and these were both fully occupied by the guests. The villagers
gathered in a compact mass between the vacant space in the middle of
the room and the wall, but leaving a passageway along the sides and
back of the room, in which were ranged, at regular intervals, twelve
clay lamps, supjiorted on wooden posts or wicker- top holders about 30
inches high.
Each of these lamps was filled with seal oil and kept burning day
and night during the festival. These lights are said to be made to
burn constantly, so that the road back and forth from the land of the
dead may be lighted and the shades to be honored nmy have no dilK-
cuity in coming to the feast. If one of the feast makers fails to put up
a lamp in the kashim and keep it lighted, the shade he or she wishes
to honor would be unable to tiud its way and would thus miss the feast.
When the people, numberiug about two hundred, were seated, an old
man took a large drum, about 3i feet in diameter, and sat on a stool in
the middle of the floor jnst in front of the custonmry lamp which burns
at the back of the room. Then tlie headman of the village, who had
attended to the seating of the guests, sat on a small stool at the right
of the drummer, and on the left sat the headman's brother on a similar
stool. These acted as directors of the ceremonies and served also the
purpose of prompting the drummer during the songs. The arrange-
ment of the kashim was the same as on the first evening.
The feast givers now tiled in, each carrying a woven grass bag con-
taining a fine suit of clothing worn during the dance of the preceding
evening. At this time each was dressed in his or her j)oorest and old-
est suit of clothing, tied about the waist by a cord of plaited grass.
NELSON] GREAT FEAST TO THE DEAD 3G9
As they came in, they stooped over and crej)! softly aud humbly to
their places in the open space around the sides of the kashim as though
trying to avoid being seen. The wearing of old clothing and their
coming into the room in this way was to express humility and to show
how little they value their oli'erings. It is said that if one did not
enter in this manner, but should hold up his head and afterward not
be able to give as much as some of the others, he would be ashamed
and become the subject of ridicule; each feast maker is emulous to give
more than his fellows, aud as no one knows how much the others have
to give, they come humbly so as not to assume any credit they may
subsequently lose. During all the rites of this festival, even in danc-
ing, they kept their faces cast to the floor to express their humility.
From this time forth throughout the festival, the feast makers wore
the filthiest and most miserable clothing they had, putting on the fine
garments in the grass bags only while performing certain dances. The
feast givers are expected to enter the kashim in the humble manner
described only when rites are being performed; at other times they
come in walking erect and moving briskly.
It is customary for the guests and others aside from the givers of the
feast to cuter aud leave the room slowly and with as little noise as
possible, so as not to attract attention, thus showing their respect for
the feast givers.
Having ranged themselves around the two sides and back of the
room, the feast givers took out the suits of new clothing from the grass
bags and exchanged them for their old garments. The wolfskin aud
ermine fillets, already described, were put on, aud the women held iu
each hand a wand about two feet in length. These were slender sticks,
having the quill feathers of the golden eagle bound along their leugth,
and projecting from their tips were three bare vanes of large feathers,
each tipped with a tuft of downy plumes.
The drummers began to beat in measured time and sang the song of
invitation to the shades as if coming from the mourners. The song,
translated, is as follows, each person being supposed to invoke the rela-
tion he or she was honoring:
Come, my brother,
Eeturii to us iigain;
We wait I'or you ;
Come, Ijiotber, come.
(Chorus)
Our mother, come back to us.
Eeturu ouce more.
(Cliorus)
Return, our father;
AVe wait for you;
Come b:ick to us,
Au<l Ave, who are lonely,
Will give you food — etc.
18ETII 24
370 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
Tlie singing continued iu mournful tones for some time. When ifc
ended a man on one side of the room made a whining cry, which was
answered by another feast giver from the opposite side: at this signal
all of them arose, the men ranging themselves along the sides of the
room while the women filed back and stood behind the drummers, all
facing toward the center. The women wme tillets of various kinds and
held a feather wand upright in each liand. Then the song of invitation
to the shades was repeated by both feast makers and drummers.
Suddenly the time of the drum beats was changed from slow to fast,
and two women just behind tlie drummers stepped forward dose to them
and began a pantomime dance in imitation of walking: the hands were
used for these motions and moved alternately back and forth, the wands
being held nearly upright and parallel; at the same time they kept up
a slight swaying motion of the body, bending the knees slightly iu time
to the drums. The other women feast givers stood in tlieir places, and
some of them went through the same dance, while others performed
various other movements, among which was a pantomime of tying up
packages and ijacking away articles of various kinds by i)utting them
in a pile, then encircling them with a cord and tying it, shown by moving
the right hand from right to left over the left arm, all done iu perfect
time to the music.
Then two men stepped forward, one ou each side, one of whom began
to imitate the motion of a man's feet walking on snowshoes by the
outstretched hands held palm downward and moved alternately back
and forth, at the same time stamping heavily with his right foot; the
other imitated a bear walking and stopping every now and then, as
though raising itself up on its hind feet and staring about. After
standing in this way for a few moments with his arms bowed in front
of him iu an absurdly realistic position, he would again begin stamp-
ing heavily on the floor, giving his body a rolling motion, while he
moved his hands and arms iu imitation of a bear's gait. This was
done remarkably well, and great laughter was created, this being the
object of the dancer.
Other men among the feast givers then took part in the dance, each
pantomiming some occupation of daily life. The most striking of these
was an imitation by one of traveling a long distance on snowshoes and
winding in and out among the hills. The hands of the performer were
iu front of him, palms downward, and he moved back and forth with a
walking motion, inclining obliquely one way and the other to indicate
the slopes of the hills. Then he stopped and ajjpeared to seize and
strike something. I could not understand this, but the Eskimo next
to me said tlie man was killing an otter in the snow. Another man
Imitated making a hole iu the ice with his ice chisel, another paddling
a kaiak, and so various other pantomimes were executed, every motion
being made in time to the drum.
After a time the drummers ceased and rapped sharply ou their stools
NELSON] GREAT FEAST TO THE DEAD 371
witb the drum handles. The dancers stopped and stamped quickly on
the floor, first with cue foot, then with the other. Each of them raised
his hands over his head and drew them down over the body as if
wiping' something from it. When their hands reached their hips they
began slapping' their thighs quickly and sat down slowly on the floor.
Then the men, with bent bodies, tiled slowly back to their original
places and sat down by their companions. After sitting quietly for a
long time the dancers went home to replace with their old suits the
new clothing they had worn during the dance. I was told that the
wiping motion, followed by the stamping and the slapping on the
thighs, indicated that the feast makers thus cast off all uncleanness
that might be offensive to the shades, and thus render their offerings
acceptable.
In a short time the namesakes of the dead gathered in the place
made for them in the center of the room and sat down. The feast
givers then came in, each bearing one or more new wooden buckets
containing frozen fish. They went first to the lamps burning for the
shades and dropped on the floor by them fragments of the fish as food
offerings. Then a bucket of water was given to each of the namesakes,
and tliey dipped their hands twice into it and sprinkled it on the floor,
thus making a libation to the shades to accompany the food. After
this each feast maker gave the remainder of the fish to the namesakeof
his dead. After the namesakes had all eaten, the empty dishes were
removed. The feast givers then brought in between 3,000 and 4,000
pounds of frozen fish, consisting mainly of loach, whitefish, blackflsh,
and pickerel, which were placed by the door in individual piles. This
fish was in woven-grass bags and frozen solid, having been kept thus
since autumn. Each feast giver sat down silently beside his or her
pile, and in a few moments a man came in and started to cross the
room to his place, when an old man called out some epithet, to which
he replied in seeming anger. The first speaker answered, and the two
kept up a rapid and apparently angry series of retorts for several
minutes.
This byplay, which had been prearranged in order to i>ut the guests
in good humor, caused great laughter. When it was finished the feast
givers rose and, with wooden mauls and reindeer-horn wedges, sepa-
rated the masses of frozen fish into fragments, which were distributed
among the people, the guests from the greatest distance receiving the
most. The fur trader and myself received about 250 pounds each.
Fourth datj
Very early in the morning the feast makers came into the kashim and
refilled their lamps with seal oil, and then brought in food consisting
of whitefish oil, dried salmon, and seal blubber. After they had made
their customary offering of small fragments before each of the lamps
burning for the dead, the food was distributed among the people, and
372 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth, ann. 18
everyone broke his fast. After the food was disposed of, sougs of invi-
tation were sung to the dead and a dance was performed exactly like
that of the previous day. When this was ended, the feast givers
brought iu about a ton of fine dried salmon, and each sat down behind
his or her pile. Then a man came in and the same style of word play
was engaged in as on the day before, after which the feast givers dis-
tributed their salmon, the trader and myself getting about 200 pounds
each. This was followed by an interval of about an hour, when the
dance was repeated. Following this more salmon and a quantity
of cranberries were distributed; then another interval ensued, lasting
until just before dark, and the dance given in the morning was again
repeated, but with a different ending.
As the dance concluded the central drummer, an old man, arose, and,
holding the drum and stick overhead, called out, " Turn now as light (of
day) goes," and, with a loud, hissing noise, he turned slowly a quarter of
a circle with the sun, from left to right, and stopped; after a short pause
he turned another quarter of a circle and stopped again, and so on
until the circle was completed. At the same time all the dancers turned,
stopped, and started again with the drummer, making the same hissing
noise; when the circle was completed the dancers stamped their feet
and slapped their thighs to make themselves clean, and all went out
side. About half of the dancers then stood in front of the kashim and
began to dance, while most of the others went among the graves, which
were just behind the building, and danced before the grave boxes of
those in whose honor the feast was given. At the same time four men
who had lost relatives by drowning went to the ice of the Yukon,
where they danced. The old drummer stood on the top of the kashim
beating his drum for those dancing before the door; the dancers among
the graves had time beaten for them by an old man striking the end of
a log projecting from tlie wall of a house near by, and those who went
to the river danced to time beaten on a piece of wood carried by one of
the old men.
The reason given for the dance by the graves was that the shades of
the dead were believed to have returned from their place of abode m
the other world in response to the invitations and to be occupying their
grave boxes when not in the kashim, and by the dance the shades were
shown that their relatives were taking iiart in the festival. At the
close of this dance the children of the village, to the number of seventy
or eighty, gathered in the kashim, occupying the center of the room in
a square body, each child having a small wooden dish and a grass bag
in its hands, and shouting iu deafening chorus, " Wi-hlti!" (me, too)
'' Wi-hlur' " Wi-hlu!''
The women had come in, meanwhile, bringing bags of berries, which
they put by handfuls into the dishes of the children, who immediately
emptied the dishes into the bags and held them out again, crying for
NELSON] GREAT FEAST TO THE DEAD 373
more. This lasted about lialf an hour, aud was greatly enjoyed by the
children, each trying to procure more than the next, while the spec-
tators api)eared to be much amused.
Meanwhile berries aud fish were handed about among the adults, who
sat packed around the sides of the room. Then the women feast givers
made presents of straw pads for skin boots and finely combed grass for
towels, the trader and myself getting our portion. The feast givers
then made an oftering of water before each of the lamps, by pouring
a little on the floor, after which they gave the remaintler to the
namesakes.
Later the two tiers of benches along the sides of the room were
crowded with men, and in the middle of the floor was a compact mass of
women and children, leaving a narrow passage around the sides next to
the wall, so that the feast givers could move about the lamps.
In a short time they came in and took their usual places by the
lamps. The women among them had brought a large number of small
articles, such as spruce gum, wooden snow knives for children, wooden
ladles, dishes, sjiruce root used for lashing, willow splints for fish traps,
reindeer sinew thread, and various other things. When all were in
the room and seated the husband or nearest male relation of each of
the women feast givers arose aud held up the articles one after another,
making depreciative remarks about them, as if they had been obtained
so easily that they were of trifling value. One of the men held up
some reindeer sinew, saying, "Look at this. What is it? I don't
know. I was sitting in the snow last spring and it fell before me from
the sky." Another said, holding up another article, '• Look at this. It
was given me by Charlie" (the fur trader who was with me at the fes-
tival). Some of these remarks were quite amusing, causing everyone
to laugh heartily, and the whole performance was very much enjoyed.
W^hen the men had finished this preliminary announcement the women
arose and each one called out the names of those to whom she wished to
make i)resents, and when the latter answered the articles were handed
or tossed to them. As there were a dozen or more persons calling out
and replying at the same time, the uproar was very great. Instead of
calling the person's real name in every case, some of the women gave
them apt nicknames. My presence in the village to obtain ethno-
logical specimens had excited great curiosity, and one woman caused
shouts of laughter by crying out, "Where is the buyer of good-for-
nothing things?" — and then handed me some presents.
For the first time during any parr of the ceremony the feast givers
stood erect while distributing these presents. When nearly all of
the articles had been distributed, a small stick, attached to the end
of a line, was dropped down through the smoke hole in the roof One of
the women feast givers who was sitting below caught hold of it and
began to draw in the line. As she did this she sang a slow-measured
37-i THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ann. 18
song, keeping time to the motions she made in liauling the cord. It
was very mournful, and might have been some old hymn iu a minor
key. It ran as follows :
Oh, my brother, come back to me,
Ai-yii-yd-yai.
Come back, my brother, I am lonely,
Ai-yd-yd-yai.
My brother come back and we
Will give you a small present,
Ai-yd-yd-yai-yae-yai, etc.
Along the line was fastened a number of articles. Each of the
women had a string, which she drew down in the same manner, singing
a similar song, asking the return of those for whom she mourned, while
the assembled people joined iu at intervals wailing a mournful chorus.
The articles ftxstened to these lines consisted of grass mats, grass
baskets or bags, grass socks, fl.shskin bags, calico, white drilling, tobacco
bags, wooden dishes, ladles, fishskin boots, workbags, loon-skin bathing
caps, and tool bags. Each line had many of these articles on it, one
kind always predominating, and to the end was fastened one or more
small wooden models of some implement such as small oars, paddles,
or other things symbolical of the occupation of the relative for whom
she was mourning, and from them the sex of the deceased could be
known. As these symbols appeared the women to whom they belonged
would grasp them, and, holding them out at arms' length above their
heads, would cry, "See! I have searched and this is what I have
found," meaning that they had looked for their lost ones and had found
only a toy or implement which they hail used.
When the last of the line was drawn in, each song came to a close,
and the articles were untied and placed in a pile before the owner.
When all were ready, they arose and made excuses for tlie small num-
ber of things they had been able to gather for gifts. One woman said,
"I am poor and have no husband, so could get no more." A common
excuse was, " I have been sick a great deal and have been unable to
get more." A woman who had an unusually large number of articles
would announce the number and then make her excuses with mock
humility. One of them had a hundred grass mats and a large number
of grass bags which she had made. Another had sixty grass mats.
One very old woman, on the end of whose line an arrow was tied,
began a song as she drew iu the line and was joined by her husband.
Both were very old, and their quavering voices united in a sad wail
for their lost ones, as follows :
My children, where are yoiif
Ai-yd-yd-yoi.
Come back to us, our children.
We are lonely and sad.
Ai-yd-yd-yai.
NELSON] GREAT FEAST TO THE DEAD 375
For our children are gone,
While those of our friends remain.
M-y(i-i/d-yai.
Come back, nephew, tome back, we miss you;
Ai-i/n-iici-ijai.
Come back to us, onr lost ones,
We have presents for you.
Ai-!iiUiid-yai.
This song bad a wild, iiiouriifal harmony, and was sung with an
earnestness that made it seem like a requiem for the dead.
When the women had given out all their articles among those present
the day's ceremonies were completed.
Fifth ddtj
At midday the men among the feast givers were busy outside the
kashim tying together on long rawhide cords various articles, among
which were deer- and seal-skins. One man had eighty deerskins, worth
in trade one dollar each, and forty large sealskins, each worth two dol-
lars and a half. Others had smaller numbers of the same articles,
besides other things, and some men had a mixed assortment, among
which I saw over twenty pairs of trousers made of white drilling for
summer use, wooden dishes, rabbit-skin coats, and steel fox-traps. The
large articles were made into a roll and tied to one end of the cord, and
the smaller ones were strung on poles.
The men and the large boys were gathered in the kashim, but no
women or children were permitted there at this time. When the male
feast makers were ready they went into the kashim and occupied the
middle of the room. Their bundles of skins, etc, were then lowered
through the smoke hole, four at a time, one at each corner. As the bun-
dles appeared the owners stepped forward and began a song of invita-
tion to the dead, like those sung by the women on the previous day.
After the bundles had been raised and lowered from above several times
they rested on the floor and were untied. Then the cords were raised
and other bundles let down while the singing continued. In this way
all the bundles were lowered, the singers received their articles, and
the .songs were ended. The poles bearing the smaller articles were put
down in the same way. When everything was in the kashim the feast
givers arose and told how easily they had obtained them, depreciating
their value in the same style as had been done with the gifts of the
women on the previous day. Then the articles were distributed with
excellent judgmeut. The guests from the interior were given seal-
skins, the givers saying they did this because seals were scarce with
those people. For a similar reason the people from the coast were
given reindeer skins.
After this was ended an interval passed during which the women and
the children came in. Then the male feast givers brought in a large
376 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. anx. :8
amount of seal, wbale, and fish oil, some back fat of reindeer, several
boxes of pilot bread, and other food, which was piled up about the room,
each of the owners sitting by his pile. After they had all told how easily
they had procured this food, two of them had a mock (piarrel similar to
the performance on previous days. This depreciation of the articles is
to show their humility and lack of pride in their gifts. If this is not
done they believe that the shades will become angry and bring sick-
ness or other evil upon the village, and at the same time it serves to
assure the people that the givers do not feel proud of their posses-
sions.
When the food was ready for distribution, each person made a small
offering, by his or her lamp, of every kind of food and from each bag
of oil, dish, or tub, after which the remainder was distributed.
Among the food was a lot of small, bulbous roots, taken by the women
from the winter stores of mice on the tundra. After the boxes of pilot
bread were emptied of all but the fragments, the small boys, numbering
about tlilrty, were permitted to scramble for them, which they did with
great glee and good nature; when the boys had secured all the frag-
ments, they each cast down a few crumbs at the foot of the lamps, as an
offering to the shades, and went away. While standing about tlie room
the male feast givers then sang a short, lively song, at the end of which
the people carried home the food that had been distributed.
When this had all been taken out of the kashiui, a shout was heard at
the smoke hole in the roof, and a man cried out: " Your bag is only h.alf
full — that is the reason you have been sick," and lowered a large grass
bag filled to its utmost capacity. Another man shouted down, " Big
sleeper! You slept all the last two, years, and are still asleep; that is
the reason you have an empty bag." Another cried: "You stole very
little last year when the people were away from home; that is the reason
your bag is empty."
Accomi)anied by some such cry, a large bag of things, belonging to
each feast maker, male and female, was lowered to the floor. The owners
then came forward, opened their bags, and held up the articles contained
therein, crying out, often six or eight of them at once, giving an imag-
inary history of the manner in which they had beeu obtained, and
belittling the efforts required to obtaiu them. The trader who was with
me was named Charlie Peterson, and article after article was held up
and its owner would cry out, "I stole this from Charlie;" or, " I took
this from Charlie;" or, "I took this from Charlie's man," which seemed
to afford considerable amusement. One man held up a rabbit-skin coat,
in mock admiration, and said: "This is counted as fine fur upon this
side." Each bag contained several suits of fur clothing, intended for
the namesakes of the dead. The shouting of the fictitious histories of
the articles contained in the bags continued for about two hours. JIany
of the accounts were extremely ludicrous, causing much merriment.
As eacli feast giver finished taking the things out of the bag he or she
KELSON] GREAT FEAt^T TO THE DEAD 377
called out, "Come to me, my best beloved relative,'" at which the name-
sake of the deceased relative came forward from amoug the people. The
feast giver then removed the clothing from the namesake and replaced
it with a comijlete new suit, the person sitting passively while this was
being done. As soon as the new suit had been put upon the namesake,
the feast giver gathered up the discarded clothing on the floor with the
bags and placed them in the namesake's arms, who returned to his or
her place among the villagers. As the namesake turned away the feast
giver cried out in a loud voice, bidding the shade of his relative to
return to the grave where its bones lay.
This was sometimes accom]ianied by directions, such as, "Go back
to your grave ou Clear creek and there circle about it once and then
enter your grave box." Others told the shade to circle about its grave
three times and enter it. Others told the shade to circle about the vil-
lage-where it was buried and then enter the grave. The dead who
were buried beside this village were t<dd to go out and circle about the
place or kashim and return to their graves. Shades of persons who
had been drowned were bidden to return to the river.
During this festival, from the time the dance of invitation is first
performed in front of the graves, the shades of the dead are supposed
to congregate in the jjit under the floor of the kashim, and there to
bear and enjoy everything that goes on. Sometimes they are said to
be in the kashim itself, but are invisible. During the last day they are
believed to enter the bodies of their namesakes, so that when the
clothing is put on the latter the shades are clothed.
When a relative bids a shade to return to its burial place it must
obey, and it goes back wearing the essence of tlie new clothing, as it
is believed that when the old clothing is removed from the namesake
and the new put on, the spiritual essence of the new garments goes to
the shade.
Two men among the namesakes were given complete suits of cloth-
ing; also loaded guns, flasks of powder, caps, filled bullet pouches, and
similar articles. After receiving their gifts these men danced wildly
about, flourishing their guns and shouting in great excitement. One
man cried, "You don't believe me; you think I lie, but I will guard and
protect the village from danger," at the same time firing his gun
toward the roof. The other ma.: who received a gun went through a
similar performance. The shouts of twenty or thirty people among
the crowd of eager spectators and the firing of guns in the dim light of
the feeble oil lamps created a wild scene.
Soon after the new clothing was jiut on the namesakes, they went to
their homes, where they left their extra garments and returned to the
kashim. Then the feast givers exchanged their old garments for new
ones, taking the old clothing home, where it was left. In an hour
everyone had returned to the kashim, the drums were brought out again,
and the old men struck up the ordinary chorus song:
Ai-iid-yii-uii-ai-yii, etc.
378 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann 18
The boys aucl the young meu occupied the middle of the room, shout-
ing wildly, coutorting their bodies, and springing about in great excite-
ment until compelled to stop from lack of breath, but resuming the
dance after a short rest. This was continued without intermission
until the middle of the night.
Until this dance was concluded and the festival thus ended no one
was permitted to leave the village, as it was ccmsidered that to do so
would offend the shades and bring misfortune upon the villagers.
After the dance ended a great tire was lighted in the kashim, and the
men took a sweat bath. On the following morning the guests dispersed
to their homes.
On one of my sledge journeys I chanced to arrive at Kushutuk, near
liazbinsky, on the lower Yukon, one night during the great festival to
the dead. At dusk I lighted a candle in the kashim, where none of the
usual seal-oil lamps were burning at the time, and an old man at once
took a pole, seven or eight feet long, and began thumping on the floor
at the head of the room with measured strokes. At the same time two
young men arose and lighted a lamp upon each side of the room.
After about five minutes the old man gave the pole to a boy who con-
tinued the thumping for a few minutes longer, until about a dozen of
the feast givers came in, each carrying a grass bag of new clothing.
They crept to their places in the same stooping posture noted at Raz-
biusky, indicating their humility. After ranging themselves about the
room the feast givers changed their old clothing for the new suits con-
tained in the bag, and several men and women put on wolfskin fillets.
The women all carried feather-ornamented wands. The men formeil in
line at the head of the room, standing in front of tlie drummers and,
when the latter began to beat time and sing, they commenced a dance.
Other men took their places on each side of the room and joined in the
dance, which, including the bear dance, was almost an exact repetition
of the one performed at iJazbinsky.
After about five minutes the dancers stamped heavily on the floor, to
cleanse themselves, as they said, and then sat down. Soon after they
went out and brought in food, which they distributed after making the
customary offering to the shades by casting a small portion on the floor.
One of the old men told me that the thumping on the floor was to
arouse the shades and call them to the dance. They were said to be
sitting in the grave boxes, with the body, awaiting the invitation and
to answer the summons at once. They are supposed to enjoy these
dances equally with the living, and as the feasting and dancing please
the invited guests, so are the shades pleased and enlivened. The next
morning 1 was obliged to resume my journey and so failed to witness
the conclusion of this festival.
At Askinuk, near Cape Vancouver, I was in the kashim about dusk
one evening and found the women learning a song to be given at the
NELSON] DOLL FESTIVAL BLADDER FEAST 379
festival to the dead a little later in the season. Later, during the same
evening, I sat with a lighted candle before me in the kashim writing my
journal when a number of men came very quietly and seated tlieni-
selves in a semicircle about me with their backs in my direction so that
the light of the candle was shut off from the rest of the room. I
in(|uired the reason for this and was told they wished to sing but could
not while the room was lighted, so they had arranged themselves in
this manner to shut off my light from the other part of the room with-
out disturbing me. I immediately blew out the light, leaving the room
in intense darkness, and the song began. I did not obtain the song,
but a chorus of the common syllables, ihV-ai-yu-hai'-ya-ya, occurred
between every few words as they were given out by some of the old
men. About twenty-five men were singing, their heavy bass voices
sounding very well. Each time they came to the end of the portion
recited, they closed with a curious kind of howl, and waited until the
next words were chanted by the prompters and then went on again.
They told me afterward that their reason for practicing this song in
utter darkness was that any shade which desired to be present to hear
the singing might do so without being driven away by the light.
DOLL FESTIVAL
For notes on the Doll festival ( Yu-gi-yhih' or I'4i-M-tah'), observed at
Ikogmut, the reader is referred to the tale of the Yu-gi-yktl' among the
legends, and in this connection attention is also called to the Doll festi-
val, or Ti'(h-tulin', among the Tinn6 near Anvik. The Russian priest at
Mission (Ikogmut) regards this festival as idolatrous, and has tried for
many years to prevent the jjeople from observing it at that place and
in the neighboring villages. As a consequence, I found it diflicult to
learn much about it from the Eskimo during my brief stay in that
vicinity.
One old man at Ikogmut told me the legend of the Yu-fji-yhil;', giving
an account of the origin of this festival as kept in their traditions, and
added that the day after the images were set up in the kashim the men
and the large boys of the place go out to bring firewood to the village,
which they leave at the doors of the women and girls with whom they
are paired during the festival.
During the continuance of the festival the namesakes of dead men
are paired with namesakes of their deceased wives without regard to
age, and during this period the men or the bof s bring their temporary
partners firewood, and the latter prepare food for them, thus symboliz-
ing the former union of the dead.
BLADDER FEASTS
The bladder feast [Ghau-l-yuli) occurs annually at St Michael, com-
mencing between the 10th and the 20th of December, the exact date
depending on the phase of the moon.
380 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ann. 18
First claij
The festival opens by the men giving the kashiui, including the lire-
pit, a thorough cleaning. After dark all the men, women, and children
in the village gather on the roof of the kashini and an old man beats a
drum while the people unite in a song addressed to the wild parsnip
(Archangclica), the stalks of which are standing ungathered on the
distant hillsides.
Second day
On the second day four men go out and gather bundles of stalks of
the wild parsnip (i-ki-tul-) which they place on top of the entrance way
outside the kashim. When evening comes these bundles are taken
inside and laid on the floor, while the little boys of the village roll over
them and wrestle with one another on top of them ; then they are opened,
the stalks spread on the floor, and each man takes one in his hand and
sits at his place in the kashim uniting with the others in a song asking
the stalks to become dry; when the heat of the I'oom dries the stalks
they are formed into a large sheaf.
Thndday
At daybreak on this morning the sheaf is opened and from its con-
tents a smaller sheaf is made about a foot in diameter, one end of
which is thrust down on a stake, four or five feet long, planted in the
floor, in front of the oil lamp which ordinarily burns at the rear of the
room. When it is daylight each hunter brings into the kashim the
inflated bladders of all the seals, whales, walrus, and white bears that
he has killed during the year. Each man ties the bladders in a bunch
by the necks and these bunches are hung up on seal spears stuck in the
wall in a row six or eight feet above tlie floor, at the back of the room.
Food is then brought into the kashim and offerings of small fragments
are thrown on the floor before the bladders; a libation of water is also
made in the same place; then the food is passed about and everyone
partakes of it.
Fourth day
On this morning every hunter takes down his bunch of bladders and
marks each with bands and dots of paint made from charcoal and oil;
the charcoal used for this purpose is made usually from wild parsnip
stalks. In the evening small torches are made from parsnip stalks,
which burn with a bright, flaring, resinous flame. Each of the young
men takes one of the torches and rushes about the room, leaping and
shrieking like a madmau, waving the flaming torches about the blad-
ders, so as to bathe them slightly in the fire and smoke, and then into
the faces of the men who are sitting about the room. When the place
becomes filled with thick smoke this performance ends by the torch
bearers jumping wildly about and shouting, while the young men and
boys catch one another and in succession each one is forced l)ackward
down through the hole in the middle of the floor; everyone resists in a
good-natured way until he is overcome and forced through.
NELSON] BLADDER FESTIVAL 381
, Fifth (lay
On this day the men remain in the kashim and no one is permitted to
do any work in tlie village, while all wait for the full moon. The first
nittht of the waning moon each man ties his bladders into a bundle,
which is fastened about the head of a large seal s^jear, and they are
then hung on a line strung across the back of the room. The same day
the men go out and make a hole in the sea ice before the village about
a quarter of a mile from the shore. When this has been done two men,
each with a small seal spear in his hAnd, run out to the hole in the ice
and dip the point of their spears in the water and run back to the
kashim as quickly as possible and stir up their bladders with tiie points
of their spears, after which they drop their spears, and. going over to
the large bundle of i)arsuip stalks, strike it with their open hands.
Then two or three men start out and repeat this ceremony, and so on
until it has been done by every one of the hunters.
When this is finished all the hunters seat themselves around the
kashim and join in a song of welcome to the guests, while the other vil-
lagers, men, women, and children, file in one after the other and exe-
cute a short dance.
Sixth day
Just at sunrise the following morning every man takes his spear, on
which the bladders are hung, and, forming a long file, all go out to the
hole in the ice as fast as they can run. Keaching this, each kneels down
by it, and, tearing the bladders from his spear, thrusts them down one
by one through the hole under the ice. When this is finished all return
to the village. Meanwhile the old men have brought out the bundle
of parsnip stalks from the kashim and, placing them on the sea ice in
front of the village, have built a small fire of driftwood. As the men
return from the hole, the entire poi)ulation gathers about the fire and
unites in a song of welcome to the guests.
Fire is now applied to the bundle of wild parsnip stalks and they
burst into a high, waving flame. As the returning men draw near
they start to run for the fire, each leaping through it in succession,
uttering a, loud whoop in which the villagers join with a chorus of
shrieks and cries. On the occasions of my witnessing this rite I was
asked by the Eskimo to jump through the flame with the hunters, and
as they seemed to think it was required by custom I complied. When
the men have all passed through the flame the women and children rush
frantically into the fire, stamping and dashing the embers about until
it is extinguished, perfectly regardless of burning boots and clothing.
Everyone then forms in a line and marches once around the village;
sometimes two files are formed which march about the ijlace in opposite
directions at the same time.
After this a fire is built in the kashim and the men take a sweat bath.
The fire having burned down, the kashim is closed, the floor planks put
in place, and the men form a circle around the room, each bent over aud
382 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann.18
liaviug bis liaiuls on the nape of the one in front of him; everyone is
couipletelj' mule. Two nude boys are ))laced in the middle of the rin<^
while the men circle four times around the room from left to right (with
the suii), the boys, except those in the middle of the ring, climbing upon
their backs and chasing each other about.
As soon as the four circuits of the room have been completed, the
men stop and slap each other heartily upon the back until each has had
enough; then they stand back from the hole iu the middle of the floor
and jump over it until some one nearly falls in. Two lines are now let
down from the roof; haudles are tied to the ends, which are souie dis-
tance from the floor, and the men grasp them, attempting to raise
themselves up and ])erform other trials of strength. This ends the
festival, but no work must be done iu the village duriug the next
four days.
At oue of these festivals witnessed at St Michael, the ceremonies of
the last morniug varied from those described. Just before sunrise a
small bunch of dried parsnip stalks was liglited and waved about the
bladders and also over and inside the waterproof gut-skin shirts woru
by the hunters when in their kaiaks at sea, which were brought in for the
purjiose. The headman of the village theu stood up aiul each hunter
placed beside himself a small bundle of dried grass. The headman took
these, oue after the other, and passed them about the bladders belong-
ing to their owners, repeating at the same time certain directions to
the shades in a low tone of voice. As soon as he had completed this,
the hunter to whom the bladders belonged would cry out '■'■Aiyai!^''
The straws were theu lighted and again passed over the bladders, the
charred stumps being returned to the side of their owner, after which
the hunters made black paint of wild-i)arsnip charcoal and oil, with
which they striped one another's faces and drew a double cross {%)
upon the middle of each one's back and chest.
Then each hunter took the spear to which his bladders had been
fastened and all marched about the hole iu the middle of the floor, each
making several feints before putting his bladders through the hole and
taking them outside. At the hole iu the ice the bladders were burst
by means of a seal-claw ice scratcher, and several strands of seal sinew
were tied to each before thriistiug it under the ice.
On December 15, 1879, 1 reached Kushunuk, near Cape Vancouver,
and found the Bladder festival in progress. Hanging from the wjof
over the middle of the floor was a fantastic bird-shape image, said to
represent a sea gull. It had the primary quill feather of a gull stuck
iu each side of the body to represent the wings. The body was covered
with the skiu and feathers of the small Canada goose (Branta cana-
densis minima). It was fastened to a long, slender, rawhide cord
which passed through an eye fastened to one of the roof logs, and
thence down to the floor ou one side of the room. By pulling and
XELSONJ BLADDER F'ESTIVAL 383
releasing this cord, tbe image could be made to glide up and down.
Behind this, at the back of the room, was planted a pole about ten feet
long, to the upper end of which a bundle of wild-parsnip stalks was
bound like a great brush or besom. The pole was banded along its
entire length with red and white paint, and fastened on two sides of it,
near the middle, were two pairs of reindeer-skin strips which hung down
two or three feet. On the left side of the room, hung horizontally mid-
way between the floor and ceiling, was a large sheaf of seal and walrus
spears, their heads partly in one direction and partly in another.
Attached to these, a bunch being fastened to each spear, were sev-
eral hundred seal and walrus bladders, all of which were spotted
and blotched with grayish-white paint; each spear had tied to it the
bladders belonging to its owner. Hanging about the room, singly or
in bunches, were a number of reindeer bladders, but none of these were
hung with those of the seal and the walrus. On the side of the room
opposite the spears and bladders, at an equal height from the floor,
hung a large bundle of wild-parsnip stalks. All about the room and
ou the sides were arranged various spears used in hunting seals and
walrus. Under the wild-parsnip stalks and beneath the spears and
bladders was a i)ile of thirty or forty wooden hunting helmets of various
shapes, some of which were ornamented with carved ivory images,
while others were not thus ornamented; they were painted white or
brown, with white blotches, and on many of them were depicted female
phallic symbols. Back of the entrance hole in the floor stood a large
walrus skull.
When I entered the room one of my dogs followed, and immediately
a man seized a drum and began beating it to exorcise the evil intlueuce
of the dog's presence until it was hastily expelled. I looked about the
room and went over to the bladders and felt one to learn the nature of
the paint with which it was spotted; my movements seemed to startle
the men very much and all raised a loud outcry. I afterward lieard
the same cry raised if any loud noise was accidentally made near these
objects. When our camping outfit was brought in from the sledges,
two men took drums, and as the clothing and goods of the traders who
were with me were brought in, the drums were beaten softly and a song-
was sung in a low, humming tone, but when our guns and some steel
traps were brought in, with other articles of iron, the drums were beaten
loudly and the songs raised in proportion. This was done that the
shades of the animals present in the bladders might not be frightened.
Early in the evening the boys of the village gathered outside the
kashim and raised a great outcry. An hour later the hunting helmets
were ranged around the kashim, forming a circle on the floor inclosing
the walrus skull and the stake. Very soon after this a bundle of straw,
such as is used for pads in boot soles, was thrown down from the hole
in tlie roof; a man took this, and holding it at arm's length over his
head while he marched around the I'ing of helmets, deposited it ou the
384 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. axx.is
floor at tlie base of tbe stake. The walius skull was then placed close
to the hole in the floor with a folded straw mat before it; two small
wooden buckets of water were brought iu and placed iu front of the
hole to symbolize the sea, the hole thus representing a seal hole lead-
ing into the sea through the ice. After this no one was ]>ermitted to
leave the room until the evening ceremonies were completed, as the exit
hole was the only means of egress and was supposed to be used during
this time by the shades of the animals, and consequently was tabooed.
During this time it became, flguratively, the entrance to the sea.
The men and the boys now put on their helmets, and the one who had
first taken the grass from beside each hunter again took it up and, after
waving it over his head, scattered it in the ring Just inside the place
where the circle of helmets had been ; this was said to represent the
drift weeds lying on the seashore.
A young man now seated himself under the si^ear? and bladders and
another under the large bundle of wild-parsnip stalks, their feet resting
on the ring of grass. The drums began to beat loudly, and the young
men around the room imitated the notes of the eider duck. In a short
time the men and the boys ranged themselves around the room just
outside the circle made by the grass, the women and the girls being
behind them and next to tbe wall. The headman chanted a few words
of a song in time to the beating of the drums, which was taken up as
a refrain by every one, including men, women, and boys, each party
repeating it iu alternation. During this song one of the young men
imitated iu pantomime tlie motions of a loon and another those of a
murre. These men remained seated upon the floor, swaying their heads
and bodies about in the most singular postures, like those of a bird
diving and swimming under water, or on the surface, pecking with their
beaks, etc, after which they made a flapping motion with their hands as
if rising and flying away, imitating at the same time the cries of the
birds they were representing.
A short interval followed, during which a single drummer and singer
continued the music; then various others of the dancers began similar
bird movements, and all began drumming and singing as before. The
new dancers stood about the ring of grass, and one made the motions
of a beaver at work cutting bushes and building a dam. Another
gestured his encounter with the enemy and his escape from a hostile
force.
Suddenly one of the singers sprang to his feet and, seizing the two
wooden buckets of water, vanished through the hole iu the floor. At
the same moment the men and boys ran out to the large bundle of wild-
parsnip stalks and each put his hunting helmet upon it as (pxickly as
possible. Nearly every one lett the kashim at this time, and soon a nnin
came in who had been stripped to the waist at the outer door. He bore
a wooden dish of food, which ho held high over his head, and circled
once around the room as an otieriug to the shades and funi/hat in the
NELSON] BLADDER FESTIVAL 385
sky laud; tbeu lie stamped on the lloor two or three tiuies and the peo-
ple came in, bringing food, of which he partook.
Xo further ceremonies were conducted until the middle of the night,
when the lights were suddenly extinguished and the shaman uttered,
from the roof, a long series of unintelligible words ending with a loud
shout, followed by his entry into the kashini. Then the lights were
renewed and a bucket of water was placed on the floor under the blad-
ders. A man and three boys then stripi)ed, and one of the boys was
placed astride the man's back, where he hung by his arms and legs
twined about the man's body; the other two boys stood in a stooping
posture in front of the bucket of water, and the man carrying the boy
on his back stood beside them.
This man dipped up some water with his hand and tossed it up
toward the bladders, so that it fell back in a shower ui)on the two
boys and himself. After doing this for some time he carried the bucket
around the room, continually flirting the water up toward the roof with
one hand as a libation to the ttuujhat of the air. The boys then knelt
in the middle of the room with l)Owed heads and rounded shoulders
while the cold water in the buckets was dashed over them. Shortly
after a growling noise was heard under the floor, and a man with the
hood of his fur coat over his head and a kaiak paddle iu his hand
entered and stood in one corner of the room. He was soon followed
by another, also carrying a paddle, who went to the corner occupied
by the first comer, while the latter went on to the next corner ; then
a third man came in, and the preceding ones advanced each to the
next corner, and the first corner was occujjied by the third man; a
fourth entered, and the changing of places was continued so that each
of the four corners was occupied. These men then marched around
the room several times, lifting the bladders with their paddle blades as
they passed and knocking down the spears that were stuck up on the
walls of the room.
After this they filed out, and the people gathered up the fallen spears,
removing their points. The bunch of wild-parsnip stalks was fast-
ened to the stake at the back of the room, and the bundle of spears, to
which the bladders were hung, was lowered to a level with the sleeping
benches, between three and four feet above the floor. When the four
men went outside they planted their jiaddles, blade downward, in front
of the kashim, forming a row across the enti'ance. To the top of each the
owner fastened his wooden hunting helmet, which had been worn under
his fur hood when in the kashim. To each helmet was fastened a bunch
of straw or grass similar to that used to form the ring on the floor, rep-
resenting seaweed. To the heads of this grass were fastened a few
small, downy gull feathers.
Early on the following morning the old men told us that we must not
stamp our feet in the kashim during that day, for fear of alarming the
shades of the animals that were expected to be present. The bunch of
18 ETH 25
386 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eih.ax.x.18
wild-parsnip stalks was lighted and waved tiamiug, toward the cardinal
points, after which the charred stumps were laid at the foot of the
stake. About noon two men took the small bundles of parsnip stalks
and lighted them, waving the flame about the bladders, and after
carrying them around the room went out through the passageway
to the outer door. The charred stalks were then brought back and
laid on the floor under the large bundle of stalks on the stake. Noth-
ing more was done until just after noon, when a bag made of sealskin
was brought in. The men then took their urine buckets and went out-
side, carrying the bag, and each poured urine from his bucket ui)on it,
shouting loudly some unintelligible words, after which all came back
into the room and stripped themselves to the waist.
Soon afterward the cover was removed from the smoke hole in the
roof, and the sealskin bag, having attached to it the four helmets worn
by the men who had entered with the paddles on the previous evening,
was lowered through the hole by a rawhide line and was hung on the
stake at the head of the room ; then the owners went to the helmets
and removed the grass that was fastened to them, and each tied a few
blades to his bunch of bladders. The helmets were then taken down
and placed on the floor at the foot of the stake.
Up to this time the seal bag had been empty, but it was now taken
down and inflated and hung up by the nose on the middle of the sheaf
of spears to which the bladders were fastened; to each hind-flipper
was tied a i)rimary wing-feather of the Pacific glaucous gull. There
was then an interval without ceremonies lasting until evening.
Early in the evening everyone gathered in the kashim and the wal-
rus skull and the grass mats were placed in the same position as on the
previous evening. Suddenly a burning stalk of wild parsnip was
waved in the entrance hole from below, a man's head appeared, and a
dish of food was placed on the floor and slid across to the corner of the
room between the bladders and the stake; the man entered and went
over to the bladders, where he stopped. Another man then went through
the same performance, waving the burning stalk and sliding in a dish
of food, etc, succeeded by two others, until the four men were ranged
side by side in front of the bladders. They were the same who had
come in with the paddles during a former ceremony.
The first lighted a bunch of parsnip stalks, to which was tied all the
points taken from the fallen spears on the preceding night. Waving
this about a few times in the corner where his wooden dish had been
slid, he raised it over his head and turned once slowly around. After
this the blazing mass was waved over the four wooden dishes which
had been slid into the corner, over the two emjity buckets which had
contained the water symbolizing the sea during the last night's cere-
monies, and about the bladders and the charred stumps were then laid
at the foot of the stake.
He went next to the four wooden dishes and made motions as though
NELSON] BLADDER FESTIVAL 387
scooping up food from theui in both bands and casting it toward the
bladders; at tUe same time a man sitting in an obscure corner gave a
vigorous pull to the line passing from his hand through a loop in the
roof and down to the bladders, which caused them to oscillate violently
and was supposed to indicate the acceptance of the offering by the
shades of the animals in the bladders.
The other three men repeated these rites in every detail, after which
the drums were beaten and the four men executed a curious dance in
front of the bladders, which were swung about as before, to indicate
their pleasure. The dance was begun by a pecking, jerking motion
from side to side and forward, while the dancers moved slowly along
in front of the bladders. Then the dance was changed to an oblique
galloping movement, after which the arms were tossed up and down,
giving the body a Jumping motion; then first one leg, then the other,
was thrown up and a hop made on the other, followed by (piick hops
sidewiseaud long jumps forward, all keeping perfect time to the drums.
This dance was said to be an imitation of the movements of seals and
walrus.
Throughout the performance a half-grown girl stood beside the four
dancers swaying her body back and forth with an undulating motion.
The four men repeated their series of motions or dances several times
in succession, until they were compelled to stop from exhaustion; when
they ceased their places were taken by lour others, who repeated the
dance, and they in turn by four others, and these again by two other
sets, another girl being substituted with each set of dancers.
One of the men told me that each of these sets of dancers comprised
only men of the same "kin," by which, so far as I could ascertain, he
referred to the gens, since people of the same gens are considered by
them as being of the same kin. In this case it evidently implied that
four gentes were represented in the festival, as indicated by the totem
marks on the four paddles standing before the door.
When the dance ended, the four dishes of food were carried around
the hole in the tioor, after which their contents were distributed and
eaten. In a short time two straw mats were spread on the floor before
the entrance hole, and two men stripped to the waist sat upon them,
facing the hole. In the pit under the floor were all the hunters who
owned the bladders hanging in the kashim, and each had in his hand a
small wisp of straw or grass like that already described, which were
handed, in succession, to the men on the mats, the one handing them
up showing nothing but his hand and arm. As each wisp was passed
up, the man who received it called out the name of its owner, who
responded by making a short speech, which created great laughter
among the people seated around the kashim.
Among other things, the men stated in the speeches that the grass
they were handing up served as beds for the imias of the bladders. When
each speech was ended, the man who hnd taken the grass handed it
388 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx. 18
to the man opposite on the otbei^ mat, who broke it into halves and bound
the two ends together. Then taking up the stump of the parsnip-stalk
torch, to which the spearpoiiits were attached, lie lighted it and passed
the lighted end over and around the grass, at the same time saying in
a loud voice, " When they sit down they aie sleepy and fall down;"
he then fell, and, rolling over, laid the grass on the floor. This was
repeated for every hunter, and symbolized the killing of the seals with
the speari^oints which were attached to the torch. In the middle of the
night the lamps were again extinguished and the shaman went on the
roof, where another speech was made to the bladders through the smoke
hole. This speech was ended by a blowing noise, such as is made by
seals and walrus when they come to the surface to breathe. Afterward
the shaman made a squeaking and grunting noise, such as a pup seal
utters when trying to find its mother.
At i ocLock in the morning everyone arose, and the dances given by
sets of four men on the previous night were repeated in all their details,
except that fewer motions were made with the arms and the upper part
of the body. The woman dancing with each set took the unlighted
bunch of parsnip stalks and passed it about the dishes of food before
they were offered to the inuas of the bladders.
When the dance and the food offerings had been comx^leted, the chief
shaman — the one first mentioned as leading the ceremonies and who
directed all the observances — lighted a parsnip-stalk torch and passed
it about the room, holding it close to the floor. He then circled with it
about each of the dancers, who removed their fur coats and the torch
was passed about their bodies and inside and about their fur coats.
This was said to be done to purify the room and the dancers and to
remove any evil influence that might bring sickness or bad luck to the
hunters. Four of the men then sat beneath the bladders for a short
time, after which they arose and seated themselves close together on
the sleeping bench behind the spears and bladders.
A woman then brought in a large wooden bucket of food, and, after
passing a lighted parsnip-stalk torch about it, made an offering to the
bladders. She then stood in front of the bladders, facing the middle
of the room, and so near that the bladders brushed her back when
they were swung back and forth a moment later by a man hauling on
a cord. The shaman then took a boy about twelve years of age, who
was stripped to the waist, and laid him across the entrance hole in the
floor, at the same time kneeling over him and making a low noise like
the note of the murre. Beneath the floor a man started a song, in
which the people in the kashim joined.
Immediately after the song was finished the hunters rushed to the
bladders and each took those he owned and fastened them about the
heads of two or three of the pointless spearshafts. A song was then
sung by the people and the bladders were laid with the spearshafts on the
floor by the entrance hole, while all of the other spears, the large stake,
NELSON] BLADDER FE^^TIVAL 389
and the other things were taken down from the walls, and all the wild-
parsnip stalks that remained in the room were tied in a large bnndle,
which was fastened to the top of tlie stake like a huge broom or l)rush.
When this was done, the shaman went on the roof and, removing the
cover, put in his head rejieatedly at each corner of the smoke hole,
while he made a grunting noise like a young puppy. Another knelt
over the entrance hole in front of the kashini and repeated the noise.
It was now 3 oclock, and the spearshafts to which the bladders were
fastened were passed up to the shaman through the smoke hole. Their
owners immediately went out through tlie passageway, and each obtain-
ing the shafts bearing his bladders ran rapidly to the foot of the knoll
on which the village is located. When the hunters were all outside,
the top of the great brush of parsnip stalks on the stake was lighted,
making a huge torch, which was passed up through the smoke hole.
The chief shaman took it on his shoulder and ran across the snow-
covered plain as rapidly as possible, followed by all the men, holding
the bladders aloft on the ends of the sjiearshafts. Behind the hunters
ran the women, children, and old men, howling, screaming, and making
a great uproar.
The night was cold, calm, and very dark, so that the lurid flame of
the torch arose ten or twelve feet, casting a red glare over the snow-
covered plain and lighting up the swarm of fantastic, fur-covered
figures that went streaming along in wild excitement. Nearly a quar-
ter of a mile from the village the crowd reached the borders of a small
pond, where a square hole had been made through the ice, close by
which the shaman thrust the lower end of the stake into the snow so
that the torch stood erect. The hunters then stood by the hole in the
ice and, using a detached spearpoint, ripped open the bladders. Then
taking the collapsed bladders in one hand and a kaiak paddle in the
other, they marched several times around the hole, each time dipping
the point of the paddle blade and the collapsed bladders in the water
at the corners of the hole. They then put the bladders one at a time
into the water under the ice, where they remained. This ended the
ceremony and all returned to the village.
Soon after daybreak four men with their paddles came in and, as
before, moved from corner to corner in succession until all were in,
when they marched around the room, making no motions with their
paddles, and then went out. When the first of these men came in he
was greeted by a great shout from everyone in the room, and the other
three were greeted successively on their entrance by a loud groaning
noise. An hour later the old men told everyone to be quiet, and two
men went to the entrance hole in the floor where they sat down side
by side. One of them held a bundle of small sticks, each stick repre-
senting a hunter, and as he passed these singly from hand to hand the
other man rolled over on the floor as he had done with the grass wisps
on the previous evening.
390 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
During tliis day all work was prohil)ited in the village. Even the
fur trader and myself were requested to do none, it being explained
that to work on this day would cause some of the people to die, since
it would ofteud the shades of the animals. We were also asked to be
very careful not to make any noise in the kashim. Every time any
sudden noise was accidentally made all of the men present united in a
chorus of cries, imitating the 7iotes of the eider duck, so that the
shades of seals and other animals whose bladders had been suspended
in the room should attribute the noise to those birds rather than to the
people. In the afternoon a dance was performed by these men, in time
to drums and singing. It consisted of leaping and jumping movements
like those already described in the dance to the bladders. That even-
ing the head shaman, stripped to the skin, sat on the straw mat in front
of the exit hole in the floor with a fur hood over his head. Some men
then bound his hands and feet with rawhide cords and a long cord was
fastened to his neck by a slipping noose.
Two assistants then carried him down through the hole and placed
him on a grass mat in the fire pit. Another cord was then passed
around his Lauds and knees and bound at the back of his neck, being
drawn so tight that his face was brought down between his knees, and
in this position he was made fast. One of the assistants went out to
guard the outer door of the passageway, while the other came back
into the room and, after di'awiug tight the line fastened to the shaman's
neck, spread a grass mat over the hole in the floor. This line held by
the assistant now began to run out, then slacken up, then run out again,
as though something was traveling away with it below the floor.
This was continued for some time; meanwhile the drumming and
singing of the men in the kashim were kept up. Finally a kind of
groaning was heard from the shaman and several men ran to the hole
■vyith the light, and found him bound as he had been at flrst, but about
five feet from the point where he had been placed.
During the performance the cord fastened to the shaman's neck, one
end of which was held by his assistant in the kashim, had been pulled
down under the floor for ten or fifteen yards, which must have been
done by the assistant outside, as the shaman was bound too securely
to do more than hitch a little along the ground, but the people in the
kashim believed that the drawing out of the cord had been done by the
shaman himself, indicating that he had traveled far away.
When he was unbound he came back into the kashim and sat down
before the exit hole. After sitting quietly for a moment he began to
tell a long story describing the journey he had just made into the sea,
following the shades of the seal bladders. He said that he had talked
with all but two of the shades and had seen some shades of the blad-
ders he owned playing together in the water; that some of the shades
told him they were very much pleased with the men who had taken
them and given them such a tine festival; others complained that
NELSON] BLADDER FESTIVAL 391
the hmiters liad treated them badly and had not offered them sutlicient
food. He added that the shades of the bhidders swam faster this year
than the year before, making' it more difficult to overtake them.
During this account the names of the hunters were mentioned and
the shaman represented the bladder shades as criticising very harshly
tlie prominent faults of some of them, which seemed to chagrin the
victims of this criticism considerably. After this was ended two
buckets of water were placed in front of the exit hole iu the floor and
a man lay down on each side of it. At midnight everyone in the
kashim arose and stripped to the skin, the floor was removed, and a great
fire made in the pit. When the wood burned down, leaving a bed of
glowing coals, the heat became intense, so that the men were in a
scorching atmosphere with the perspiration rolling down their bodies.
While iu this condition all bathed in urine, which had beeu retained iu
the wooden buckets. This was said to render them clean from any evil
influence that might follow from the recent presence of the shades iu their
midst, and euded the observances connected with the festival. Until
this bath had been taken no one was permitted to leave the kashim, nor
during the course of the festival was auyone permitted to hunt or fish.
At this village there were two kashims side by side, half of the vil-
lage belonging to ea^h. During the time that the feast just described
was being observed in one of these houses a similar festival was going
on in the other. I was unable to learu anything about the ceremonies
conducted there, as my attention was fully occupied iu the one where I
stopped, but a hasty visit showed that the arrangement of the interior
was exactly the same as iu the one described, except that in place of a
gull's image suspended in the middle of the roof there was a rude
wooden image of a man wrapped in the skin of an eider duck.
I was informed here that the bladders were kept in the kashim for
seventeen days, with a different set of ceremonies for each day.
Two days after leaving Kushunuk, at the end of the festival, I
arrived at the large village of Kaialigamut, situated in the same dis-
trict, and learned that the bladders had on that morning been put into
a small lake near by. In front of the kashim stood a row of four kaiak
paddles, their blades planted in the snow, showiug that at least some
of the observances here were identical with those at Kushunuk.
When I entered the kashim and began to stamp the suow from my
feet a chorus of ^eider-duck sounds was raised by the men, showing
that a loud noise was tabooed here also. On noticing this I at once
ceased and went to one side of the room to sit down, when one of the
old men came over and brushed the snow from my fur clothing, at the
same time pointing to an inflated sealskin that hung over my head,
and asked me to change to another part of the room.
These people seemed much more strict in their observances than those
at Kushunuk, to judge by the excessive caution used to avoid making
392 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT Iethaxn. IS
noise. Any slight noise served to raise a few eider-ducli notes, and
once wlieu a dog strayed in everj' one in tlie kashiiii grunted vocifer-
ously, at which the dog slunk out abashed.
No work was permitted here during this day, and no one was per-
mitted to leave the village until after all had taken a bath on the mid-
night following. Should this rule be broken they believed that some
one would surelj" die before another feast.
On a December afternoon in 1878 I arrived at Chifukhluguinut, a
village near the Yukon, south of Andreivsky, while the people were
celebrating the bladder feast. They were gathered in the kashim
siuging to the beating of three drums, two of which were very large
and the other of ordinary size. The large drums were about two and
a half feet in diameter and covered with tanned reindeer skin. The
songs were sung in very slow time and were descriptive of the wars
and exploits of their fathers in ancient times.
The only decorations in the kashim consisted of a bundle of wild-
l)arsnii) stalks fastened horizontallj' to the rear end of the room by
means of two wooden pegs, and layeis of these stalks about six feet long
which were fastened to the wall like screens on the sides of the room.
The drumming and songs were repeated three times during the fol-
lowing afternoon. One of the old men told me that, as they lived far
from the seacoast, they had killed no seals nor walrus, so had no
bladders to put in the water, consequently they did not burn the stalks
of the wild parsnips but ]>ut tliem in the kashim to make offerings to
them. At the end of the feast the stalks are laid on the frozen surface
of a small river near by, where they remain until carried away by the
ice in spring.
Here, as in other villages, no work of any kind was i)ermitted during
the festival, and no wood must be cut with an iron ax, but when abso-
lutely necessary bone wedges may be used for splitting firewood. At
Kushunuk they used for this i^urpose a large i)ick, consisting of a
wooden handle with a walrus tusk for the point, the use of iron axes
being tabooed there as elsewhere in this region during the continuance
of this festival. All loud noises are also forbidden, even out of doors.
At a little village on the Yukon near Andreivsky, on January 17,
ISSl, I found the people performing their final dance at the close of the
bladder feast. This date is a month later than is customary.
The bladders used in this festival are supposed to contain the shades
or i)uias of the slain animals. After an animal is killed the hunter
carefully removes and preserves the bladder until the time approaches
for the festival. When this time arrives songs are sung and the bladder
is inflated and hung in the kashim; the shade of the animal to which
the bladder belonged is supposed to remain with it and to exist in the
inflated bladder when it is Lung in the kashim.
The feast is given for the purpose of pleasing and amusing the shades
and thus propitiating them, after wliich the bladders are taken to a
NELSON) MASKS AXD MASKETTE8 393
liole ill the ice and, after being opened, are thrust into the water under
the ice so that the shade may return to its proper element. The shade
is supposed to swim far out to sea and there to enter the bodies of
unborn animals of their kind, thus becoming reiucarnated and render-
ing game more plentiful than it would be otherwise. If the shades are
pleased with the manner in which they have been treated by the
hunter who killed the animal they occupied, it is said they will not be
afraid when they meet him in their new form and will permit him to
approach and kill them again without trouble.
Several of .the St Michael Eskimo told me that they knew this rein-
carnation to be true, as a man living at a village on the outer side of
the island killed a seal a few years ago which had the same mark on its
bladder that he had put on the bladders at the festival the previous
year. It should be noted that each hunter puts his totem mark or
other jiersonal sign in red or black paint upon his bladders so that
they may be distinguished from those of other hunters. The aromatic
smoke a:id red flames of tlie resinous stalks of the wild parsnip ai'e
thought to be very pleasing to the shades of the animals whose bladders
are treated with them, and at the same time the flame drives away any
uncleanness and unfavorable influence that may be present.
During the continuance of this festival at St Michael, and at other
jjlaces where it is observed, no man or large boy sleeps away from the
kashim and the men keep rigidly apart from the womeu. If a man
breaks this rule it is said he will have no success as a seal hunter. On
this account the men avoid as much as possible going into their own or
any other house, for fear of becoming unclean. They bathe twice a day,
morning and evening, in the kashim, but their food and water are
brought to them as usual by the womeu.
No females who have reached puberty are permitted near or umler
the bladders while they hang in the kashim, as they are said to be
unclean and might offend the shades. Young, immature girls, how-
ever, may go about them as freely as the boys.
During the continuance of this festival it is a necessary observance
that the kashim shall never be left entirely vacant. An old man at St
Michael told me that during one of these festivals at Pastolik the men
forgot this and went to an adjacent kashim for a short time. Suddenly
one of them remembered that their kashim had been left vacant and
hurried back in time to hear the shades in the bladders talking to one
another. One end of the line to which they were hung had become
untied and the bladders were said to have moved near the doorway
ready to leave, the shades being angry at their neglect.
MASKS AXD MASKETTES
Masks were found in irse among the Eskimo from Kotzebue sound
to the mouth of the Kuskokwim, but their use attains the greatest
development in the country along tlie lower Yukon and thence south-
394 THE ESKIMO ABOUT I'.ERINU STRAIT [::th. A^•^■. 18
ward tlirougli the iutermecliate country to tbe Koskokwim. Formerly
the Eskimo of oSforton sound used masks much more than at present,
tbe iurtuence of white men liaviiig considerably moditie<l their ideas and
caused some of the ancieut customs to become more or less obsolete.
On the rivers named, and especiiilly on the little- visited marshy plain
lying between the lower courses of these streams, mask festivals were
observed with all their ancieut elaboration and strictness of ceremony
during my residence at St Michael. Unfortunately, none of my jour-
neys were made at a time when tliese festivals were being held, but in
various villages I saw men at work preparing masks for approaching
cei-emonies. The significance of the masks described is given from
information obtained directly from tbe Eskimo, unless otherwise stated.
In connection with tbe description of these curiously carved and
ornamented objects some prefatory remarks are necessary. Shamans
make masks representing grotesque faces of sujier natural l>eings which
they claim to have seen. These maybe yu-u, which are the spirits of
the elements, of places, and of inanimate things in general; the tun-
glu'it, or wandering genii, or the shades of people and animals. The
first-named are seen in lonely places, on the plains and mountains or
at sea, and more rarely about the villages, by the clairvoyant vision of
the shamans. Tbey are usually invisible to common eyes, but some-
times render themselves visible to the people for various inirposes.
Many of them, especially among tbe tunghlit, are of evil character,
bringing sickness and misfortune upon people from mere wantonness
or for some fancied injury. The Eskimo believe that everything, ani-
mate or inanimate, is possessed of a shade, having semiluimau form
and features, enjoying more or less freedom of motion; the sbamans
give form to tlieir ideas of them in masks, as well as of others which
they claim inhabit the moon and the sky-laud. In their daily life, if
the people witness some strange occurrence, are curiously aftected, or
have a remarkable adventure, during which tbey seem to be influenced
or aided in a supernatural manner, tbe shamans interpret tbe meaning
and describe the appearance of the being that exerted its power.
Curious mythological beasts are also said to inhabit both land and
sea, but to become visible only on special occasions. These ideas fur-
nish material upon which their fancy works, conjuring up strange forms
that are usually raodiflcations of known creatures. It is also believed
that in early days all animate beings bad a dual existence, becoming at
will either like man or the animal forms they now wear. In those early
days there were but few people; if an animal wished to assume its
human form, tbe forearm, wing, or other limb was raised and pushed up
the muzzle or beak as if it were a mask, and tbe creature became man-
like in form and features. This idea is still held, and it is believed that
many animals now possess this power. The manlike form thus apjiear-
ing is called tbe Inua and is supposed to represent the thinking i^art of
tbe creature, and at death becomes its shade.
NELSON] MASKS AND MASK FESTIVALS 395
Shamaus are believed to have the power of seeing tbi-ough the
animal mask to the manlike features behind. The ideas held on this
subject are well illustrated in the Eaveu legends, where the changes
are made repeatedly from one form to another.
Masks may also represent totemic animals, and the wearers during
the festivals are believed actually to become the creature represented or
at least to be endowed with its spiritual essence. Some of the masks
of the lower Yukon and the adjacent territory to the Kuskokwim are
made with double faces. This is done by having the muzzle of the
animal fitted over and concealing the face of the inua below, the outer
mask being held in place by pegs so arranged that it can be removed
quickly at a certain time in the ceremony, thus symbolizing the trans-
formation.
Another style of mask from the lower Kuskokwim has the under face
concealed by a small hinged door on each side, which opens out at tlie
proper time in a ceremony, indicating the metamorphosis. When the
mask represents a totemic animal, the werrer needs no double face,
since he represents in person the shade of the totemic animal.
When worn in any ceremonial, either as a totem mask or as represent-
ing the shade, yu-it or tunghnl;, the wearer is believed to become myste-
riously and unconsciously imbued with the spirit of the being which his
mask represents, just as the namesakes are entered into and possessed
by the shades at certain parts of the Festival to the Dead.
In connection with the collection of masks obtained it is interesting
that a number of them have wooden models of thumbless hands
attached to their sides, the palms of the hands being pierced with large,
circular holes; these are usually found on masks representing birds,
beasts, and spirits, having some connection with making game more or
less plentiful. I am inclined to think that the holes in the palms indi-
cate that the being will not hold the game, but will let it pass through
to the earth.
Many of the masks from this region are very complicated, having
numerous appendages of feathers and carved wood; these either rej)-
reseut limbs or are symbolic. The masks are also jjainted to represent
features or ideas connected with the mythology of the being.
Mask festivals are usually held as a species of thanksgiving to the
shades and powers of earth, air, and water for giving the hunters suc-
cess. The inuas or shades of the powers and creatures of the earth
are represented that they may be propitiated, thus insuring further
success. Unfortunately, I failed to secure the data by which the entire
significance of customs and beliefs connected with masks can be solved
satisfactorily. I trust, however, that the present notes, with the expla-
nations and descriptions of the masks, may serve as a foundation ibr
more successful study of these subjects in the future ; the field is now
open, but in a few years the customs of this people will be so modi-
fied that it will be difficult to obtain reliable data. When the Eskimo
396 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axx. 18
between Yukon and Kuskokwim rivers become so sophisticated by con-
tact witli white men that mask festivals fall into disuse, it will be but
a short time until all the wealth of mythological fancy connected with
them will become a sealed book.
Among the very large number of these objects obtained some of the
more interesting have been chosen for description and illustration, giv-
ing with each, so far as i)ossible, its significance. Their wonderful vari-
ety and complexity of ornamentation, which is symbolical throughout,
evinces a lively fancy in the makers.
Figure 2, plate xcv, shows a long, flat, pear-shape mask from Sabot-
nisky on the lower Yukon, excavated behind and rather convex in front;
it measures G by 9 inches, and represents the features of a black bear.
On one side, covering the area of the right eye aud cheek, is a round,
human face overhung by live tufts of human hair, which represents the
i)iua of the bear. The main surface of this mask is painted white,
bordered by red, the muzzle of the bear and border of the human face
being of the same color; the remainder of the face is black. From the
left corner of the mouth depends a small, red, wooden appendage repre-
senting the lower half of the tongue, which is attached to the intei'ior
of the mouth by a small willow splint or peg so that it can move freely.
About the sides and upper border of the mask are nine holes where
large feathers were inserted upright.
Another mask from the same locality, and very much like the pre-
ceding, represents a red bear and has a human face on the right side,
painted red ; the ears are indicated by small, paddle shajje, flattened
sticks lashed to split quills, which are fastened to the sides of the mask
by wooden plugs. It is 5i inches broad by 8 inches long.
The collection contains another mask of the .same character repre-
senting a red bear, but it is a little larger than either of those described.
It is from Starikwikhpak, on the lower Yukon.
The mask shown in figure 4, plate xcv, is from Cape Vancouver. It
is an oval representation of a semihuman face, a little over 8 inches
high by 52 wide, rounded in front and slightly excavated behind. This
is a grotesque mask, portraying the features of a imuihul;. The right eye
is i)rominent and rounded to the same size and shape as the mouth; the
left eye is a crescentic opening about two inches long with the corners
turned down and near the upper border of an oval, flattened area on
the face. Just above the mouth on the inside is fastened, by means
I if a peg, a tuft of long reindeer hair, which extends down and out of
the mouth and hangs over the chin; there are no nostrils. A large
feather tipped with small, downy plumes extends out from each side
of the forehead, and another from the top. The border of this mask
has a narrow, red band around the top and sides, ending opposite the
mouth; the flattened space extending from the crescent-shape eye
downward on the cheek is red, coarsely spotted with white : the remain-
tier of the face is wltite.
Bureau of American ethnology
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCV
M NJ fit/ '
MASKS (ABOUT ONE-FOURTH
NELSON] MASKS 397
Figure 1, plate scv, represents a small, flat, rounded mask, 5^ by4f
iuciies, from Sabotnisky, on the lower Yukon. It is sballowly exca-
vated, and is pierced for tbe eyes and moutb; the right eye is hori-
zontally oblong, the left is round. The mouth is represented by two
flattened, oval o])euiugs, inclined toward the center, which is occupied
by a rudely carved imitation of an owl's beak, fastened on by means of
a square pin fitted into an orifice in tbe mask. The sides of the face
and forehead, with a line descending between the eyes to the beak, are
green; an area about each eye and covering the cheeks is white,
spotted with red. The beak is not painted, except the red along the
grooves marking the gape; the lower sides of the face and the entire
chin are black. Three quill feathers tipped with downy plumes are
inserted in the forehead. This figure represents the inua of the short-
ear owl.
Figure 3, plate xov, from the tundra south of the Yukon mouth, is a
well-carved mask representing a human face, 7^ inches long by 5i wide,
oval in front and deeply concave behind. The features are well carved
and smoothly rounded. About the border are set eight wooden pegs,
with the ends split for holding a strip of deerskin with outstanding
hair to represent the fur hood worn by the Eskimo in winter. It is one
of the most carefully modeled of any mask obtained, and is one of the
few which represents a human face without distortion of some kind.
The eyes and mouth are jiierced, and a large globular labret is rep-
resented at each corner of the mouth, fastened in place by a wooden
pin. The entire face is painted Indian red, with the goatee, mustache,
eyebrows, and upper eyelashes black.
Extending over the forehead and down each side of the face is a long,
black line with ray-like black markings projecting backward from it;
on each side of the chin this black line ends in the head and fore-feet
of the alligator like animal known an palidiyul: A disk-like pendant
with two concentric circles and a spot in the center is drawn in black
on the forehead, and is connected with the body of the palraiyuk,
where it crosses the brow, by black cross-lines.
Plate xcvi (I, from Cape Ivomanzof, is a very large mask, measuring
12 by 22 inches and C inches in depth, carved from a single piece of
wood, and is supposed to represent the sea parrot [Lunda cirrhata).
The open mouth of the bird covers over half the surface, and the
points of the mandibles project free from the face. In the open mouth
is represented the supposed features of the bird's inua. The eyes
are narrow and are set obliciuely above two widely separated, round
nostrils and a broad, semilunar mouth with the corners depressed.
Around the border of the mouth of the bird, and thus bordering the
inclosed face, are small wooden pegs half au inch in length to represent
teeth. On the forehead of the mask, near the base and upper portion
of the beak, are carved the eyes of the bird. Surrounding the outer
border of the mask, and held out from it half to three-quarters of an
398 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. as.n. 18
inch by wooden pegs, is a hoop of spliuts. The interior of the masli is
roughly excavated, with a projecting Ing on each side to prevent it
from slipping sidewise ou tlie face, wliile below another lug serves as
a cliiu rest for the wearer. The general surface of the front of the mask
is painted a dull blue, coarsely spotted with white; the eyes have white
pujiils and red irides ; the beak of the bird is red, obliquely striped with
white, and the sides of its mouth are painted red. The face of the InuK
is white, the interior of the nostrils red, each having four black, ray like
lines drawn from its border about an inch upward on the side of the
face.
Plate XCV16, from Cape Eomanzof, south of the Yukon mouth, is a
very large mask about 30 inches high by 10 inches wide. It is broadly
oval below and tapers up into a long projection or neck above, which
is formed of a separate piece fitted upon the body of the mask with
three pegs, inserted from behind, attaching a projecting shoulder to
the.main part. On the extreme upper tip is a small figure of a human
head. Surrounding the mask on all sides, and held at a short distance
from it by lashings of willow root, is a hoop made of two thin, narrow
splints. A series of split pegs around the border holds in position a
narrow strip of reindeer skin, bearing long, upstanding hairs, which
reaches up a little over half way on the neck or handle-like projection,
and there its ends are inserted in the wood.
The lower portion or body of the mask represents two faces. The
lower, which is much the larger and occupies at least two-thirds of the
entire surface, is a grotesque semihuman face, having a huge, crescentic
mouth with upturned corners. There are two large, round nostrils in a
broad, spreading, rounded nose, and two crescentic eyes with upturned
corners, over which hang the broad, heavy eyebrows, which project an
inch and a half and sweep down with a crescentic curve over each eye,
meeting at an angle on the base of the nose two inches above their
lower border. The upper portion of the mask is occupied by the
rounded face of some animal, apparently intended to represent a seal,
which has a bulging brow and rounded, fiat hose with nostrils deeply
incised, and a wide, oval mouth, with four square teeth cut in relief on
the lower jaw. The eyes are rounded and pierced, with a notch estend-
iug downward at the inner corner. The chin of this face rests on the
forehead of the huge lower one. The handle like projection extends
upward from the top of the last-described head, and is over 12 inches
high; it is ilat behind, but rather oval on the sides, and has along its
front a deep, rounded groove extending the entire length to the head
at the top; along each side is a row of wooden pegs to represent teeth.
The head capping this projection is about 2J inches high aiid 2 inches
broad, representing ordinary human features; it is surrounded on the
edges by a groove in which is a band of reindeer skin with the hair
projecting like a halo. The large lower face is mainly white, the
mouth is red; the line about the upper lip, representing a mustache, is
-•*!''>;*•//
r^m
''"^^^^^^M
g=r^ ^: ?S
.Jiis*
CO
CO
<
KELSON] MASKS 399
blatk, aud tlie circle about eacb iiostiil is of tbe same color; tbe
iuterior of the nostrils and tbe line foUowiug tbe outline of tbe eye-
brows are bluisb slate color. Tbe animal face resting above tbis is also
colored bluisb slate, witbtbe nioutii painted red. Tbe front of tbe ])ro-
jectiou above is wliite, tbe groove being red, as is also tbe entire face
of tbe small bead at tbe top; tbe booj) surrounding tbe border of tbe
mask is also red. Tbe meaning of tbis mask is unknown, but 1 would
call attention to its general similarity to tbe composite masks and
carvings made among tbe Tlinket of soutbern Alaska.
Tbe mask (number 38850) from Sabotuiskj^is SJ by G iucbes, and rep-
resents a grotesque buman countenance. It is oval and deeply exca-
vated bebind. Upon tbe sides are curved ridges in relief to represent
ears; tbe nose is a rounded, triangular piece fastened bj' two wooden
liegs; tbe eyes and moutb are pierced tbrougb tbe mask, tbe latter
being bordered by a row of reindeer teetb above and below. Tbe face
is painted brigbt red and bordered by a band of reindeer skiu witb
long bair. It is one of tbe few masks jirocured tbat approacbes closely
to an ordinary buman countenance. Its significance was not learned.
Plate xcviii sbows a buge mask, cut from a slab of wood, nearly 2
feet bigb bj' 13 inebes across, convex on its front and squared in out-
line, rougbly excavated in tbe back witb tbree projecting lugs for
bokling tbe mask in place against tbe cbin aud tbe sides of tbe face.
It represents a gigantic face, witb large, rounded blocks of wood for
labrets just below tbe corners of' tbe crescentic mouth. Above these
and joining tbe crescentic nioutb on eacb side projects a flat, paddle-
like piece of wood representing a buman band and arm, tbe former
pierced by a large, round bole. Just back of these hands, aud fast-
ened up and down along the side of the mask but separated from it
by about two inches, are two thin, flat strips of wood about two and a
half inches wide, held in place by pegs in the sides of tbe mask aud
ill tbe arms. These strips have feathers along their outer edges as
ornaments, as has also the squared top of the mask. The moutb is
very large, somewhat crescentic in shape, with tbe corners upturned
and extending out along the arms, nearly to the wrists. The nose
is large aud rounded, with two large, round nostrils, and the eyes,
like the nostrils, are pierced through the wood; the brow is very
overhanging, and has a row of flat, oval, pointed wooden pegs along
its edge to represent eyebrows. In tbe forehead is cut a square hole
a little over two and a half inches in diameter. Below the upper li])
there is a row of square, flat wooden pegs along its edge to indicate
teeth, matching a similar set in the lower jaw; teeth, both upper and
under, are also represented in the portion of the mouth extending along
the arms.
On the brow of the mask are the wooden images of five seals and
two reindeer. The sides have a row of squared wooden pegs, rejire-
seuting teeth, up and down along its length above the arms, and another
400 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.an.s. 18
set along the bordering Hat strip of vrood parallel to the side of the
mask, thus representing a vertical mouth on each side of the face. The
images of the seals, reindeer, labrets, and arms, as well as the teeth and
eyebrows, are fastened to the main body of the mask by wooden pegs
inserted iu holes. The inside of tbe mouths, on the sides of the head
as well as that in the usual place, are painted red, as are also the iusides
of the hands; the chin is bluish; the labrets are white, with black
spots; the arms are blue below and white above, with a black line
drawn along the upper border of the mouth, joining the mustache line
of the upi)er lip on the body of the mask. Over each nostril is a curved
black line to represent a depression; there is also a broad black band
across the region of the eyes from side to side, and a border of red
extends along the brow above the pegs, indicating the eyebrows. This
image represents the tumjhuk or being that controls the supply of game.
It is usually represented as living iu the moon. The shamans commonly
make a pretense of going to him with offerings in order to bring game
into their district when the hunters hav'e been unsuccessful for some time.
Masks of this character are too heavy to be worn u^iou the face with-
out additional support, so they are ordinarily suspended from the roof
of the kashim by sti'ong cords. The wearer stands behind with the
mask boixnd about his head, and wags it from side to side during the
dance so as to produce the ordinary motion. I was told that in alt the
great mask festivals several of these huge objects were usually thus
suspended from the roof.
From the lower Kuskokwim there is a circular mask, 15 inches in
diameter, in the form of a round board with a human face in relief on its
center in front, and excavated in the back. A hoop of splints surrounds
the border of this mask, joined to it below and held out from the sides
elsewhere to a distance of from one to two inches by lashings. All
around the sides and top of the border are set the white, secondary quill-
feathers of swans or gulls. Above the forehead on each side is a rudely
carved head of a fish, and below on each side of the cheeks is the head
of a seal, all of which are set into the mask by pegs in their bases and
project forward at right angles to the plane of face. Between these
heads and on the border of the board opposite the sides of the face are
attached by pegs curious tlat representations of thumbless hands with
holes in the palms. The month is large, wide, rounded at the corners,
and set around with the teeth of some mammal. The nostrils are large
and rounded; the eyes are oval and set in obliquely with their near cor
uers highest. The mouth, nostrils, and eyes are pierced through the
wood. The upper portion of this mask is made from a separate piece,
which is neatly fitted to the main part and held in place by rawhide
lashings. The main color of the front of the mask is white; a baud of
black encircles the surface an inch or more outside the border of the
face. The borders of the face in relief are painted a dull green; the
inside of the mouth is red, and a heavy mustache and the depression
NELSON] MASKS 401
over each nostril are black. The remainder of the face is white; the
hands are red, as are also the two seal-heads; the fish-heads are green.
This mask represents the face of a tunfjliul:
A mask bearing original number 14:45, from the country south of the
Yukon mouth, represents a human figure with outstretched arms and
legs, having a human face in relief on the front of the body. The head,
arms, and legs of this figure are attached to the central part of the
mask with woodeu pins. A hoop fastened to the inside of the arms near
the elbows and to the legs at the knees holds the limbs ia their out-
stretched position. On each side of the face on the front of the body
is a thr.iubless hand cut fioni a fiatteiied piece of wood. Tliese are
attached to the mask with flexible pegs of wood. This uiask, from the
lower part of the body to the top of head, is 14 inches high and nearly
7 iuches broad on the body. Its posterior surface is roughly concave,
with a projecting ledge of wood near the lower border of excava-
tion, to enable the wearer to seize it with his teeth for tlie purj)ose of
holding the mask more firmly in position. Around the body of the
mask are iuserted downy, white swan's feathers; the outstretched
hands of the figure are thumbless, as are the hands on nearly all the
masks collected in that region. The holes in the palms, which are
usually made large aiul conspicuous, are indicated in this case by small,
round punctures about one-tenth of an inch in diameter. Tlie main
color of the front of the mask, including the arms, legs, and the hoop,
is white. The ears on the head of the figure are represented by small,
flat woodeu pegs painted red; the mouth is also red. The eyebrows,
excavations for the eyes, mustache, and beard are indicated in black
paint, the eyebrows and mustache being represented by dots. The
arms, between the shoulders and elbows, are surrounded by a black
band with a white spot in the middle, and the forearms and the hands
to tlie fingers are red; the ends of the fingers are not painted.
The second pair of hands, mentioned as being on either side of the
face in front of t'le body, are painted like the arms. There is a black
band around the thigh with a white spot in the center, and the lower
legs and the feet are red, with a white spot on the inside of the calf,
which corresponds to a similar spot on the iuside of each wrist. The
border around the face carved on the front of the body is red, with white
dots at regular intervals about the circle. The face itself is white, with
eyebrows, snow-goggles, nostrils, a line over each nostril, mustache,
aiul beard represented in black ; the lips are painted red. The eyes and
the mouth are pierced through. The exact significance of this mask
was not learned, but the face on the front of the body undoubtedly
represents the supposed features of the inna of the being represented
by the main figure.
A mask from the lower Kuskokwim (number 64234), 10 by Gi inches,
is oval and deeply excavated, with a convex front imitating a hair seal
pierced by four almond shape openings representing eyes and nostrils.
18 ETH 26
402 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ann. 18
Just below these the chin is cut away aud the carved, woodeu head is
attached by sinew cords, so that it may be moved np and down, and
is controlled by a sinew cord passing through a hole from the rear of
the mask to its attachment on the throat. The flippers, both before
and behind, are represented by small, paddle shape wooden attach-
ments fastened to the body with small strips of whalebone. Upon
each side of the eyes and nostrils, which are pierced through the face
of the mask, are fastened small, wing-like doors, as if to close and
cover the face, but they are tied so as to remain permanently open.
On each of these doors is painted in black the image of a white whale,
and a black line is drawn through the eyes ou the face. A stout
splint hoop is attached at the shoulders on either side by wooden
splints, and surrounds the entire bolder of the mask, except in front.
The face aud the interior of the doors are white, with the exception
of tlie black figures mentioned; also all of the seal's head, except
the crown and nape, which, with the back of the figure forming the
front of the mask, are painted slate color with white spots. This figure
is intended to represent a seal, the concealed face on its back being
the imta.
Figui'e 1, i)late xcviii, is a long, slender mask representing the head,
neck, and beak of a sand-hill crane {Grvs ca7iadensis). It is 30 inches
long, with the head and beak about 2-t inches in length, and is rudely
carved, having the top of the biixl's head excavated for a small lamp,
with a hole in front on each side, representing the ej-es for the light
to shine through. On the beak are a few wooden pegs to indicate
teeth, and the slender neck extends down to the breast of the bird
where the wood takes a roughly oval form on which is a rudely shaped
human face, with the chin narrow and long drawn down. This face is
about 5i inches broad and slightly and roughly excavated behind. The
interior of the bird's mouth and the area around the eyes and ears, the
sides of the neck, as well as the sjiace about the eyes, nostrils, aud interior
of the mouth of the human face at the lower portion are painted red.
This mask was said to represent the inua of the crane. The maker was
a shaman, who claimed that once, when he was alone upon the tundra,
he saw a sand-hill crane standing at a distance looking at him; as he
approached, the feathers on the bird's breast jiarted, revealing the face
of the bird's inua, as shown in the carving.
Figure 2, plate xcviii, from the lower Kuskokwim, is a long, narrow,
flattened mask, Hi by 4i inches, representing an extremely elongated
human countenance with the face divided across the middle. Just above
the lower point of the nose, and hinged together with rawhide cord so
as to move upon itself. The eyes aud the mouth are crescentic with
down-turned corners; the nose is long and slender with two rounded
nostrils pierced through the wood and having a dumbbell-shape pend-
ant ou the nose ring. On the middle of the lower lip is a peculiarly
shaped labret made of a carved woodeu flap, indicating, from the style
NELSON] MASKS 403
of wearing this ornament, that the face represented is that of a woman.
The upper half of the countenance is painted white and the lower half
bluish slate color. Surrounding the upper halt, at intervals of about
two inches, are inserted white swan feathers. The posterior surface is
rndely excavated. The meaning of this mask is not known.
Figure 3, plate xcviii, from Sabotnisky, on the lower Yukon, is a
grotesque human face with the forehead drawn out to the rear as a
long, skillet-like handle. This mask is about 20 inches in length, of
which the handle or projection back of the forehead represents three-
fourths. The inner side is shallowly excavated. The nose is very
short and rudely carved, and is placed so far up between the eyes as
to leave a very broad, tiatteued space for the upper lip and cheeks.
Below this is a broad, crescent-shape mouth with corners upturned,
and long, widely spaced teeth, represented by wooden pegs. Com-
mencing just at the base of the nose, above the eyes, and extending
back along the top of the extension to its extreme posterior end is a
deep groove representing a mouth bordered by widely spaced wooden
pegs for teeth. Along each side of this are set two feathers. The
entire front and upper surface of this mask is painted red, with the
face between the mouth and the eyes splashed with blood. This rejire-
sents some mythical being, but its exact signiflcatiou was not learned.
Figure 3, plate xcix, from Paimut, on the lower Yukon, is 8i by 7^
inches. This is a thin, flattened, rounded mask re])resenting a gro-
tesque semihuman countenance. It has one round eye in the forehead,
one in the proper place on the left side, and another in the center of the
right cheek. Still another eye, of crescentic shape, is situated just
above the round one on the right side. The nose is narrow at the top,
curving down to the right and ending in a broad point. The mouth is
wide, slit-like, and pierced in two parts, the narrow, slit-like part on
the left being sei)arated from the round, eyehole-like opening on the
right corner by a narrow, closed space. Surrounding the entire border
of the mouth are wooden pegs to represent teeth. The eyebrow above
the crescentic eye and a band around the border of the mask, as well
as the mouth and the chin, are red. The forehead and the top of the
nose are dull green, and the remainder of the face is white. When in
use the mask had quill feathers inserted around the edge. This rep-
resents the countenance of a Umghdlc and is from the extreme upper
border of the Eskimo territory along the Yukon.
Figure 2, plate xcix, from Sabotnisky, on the lower Yukon, is a thin,
flattened mask, with the posterior side slightly excavated, represent-
ing a rude, semihuman face. In the center of the face is a rounded
hole for the mouth, with two narrow, slit-like eyeholes above. Sur-
rounding the mouth, between it and the border of the mask, are four
broad, concentric grooves. The interior of the mouth and a line around
the border of the mask are red, the rest is painted white. This mask
also represents the features of a timghuk.
404 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
Figure 4, plate xcix, from Sabotnisky, is SJ inches long by GJ inches
wide. It is a flattened, rounded mask, slightly excavated behind, with
a fantastic human face ou the front. The nose is very short, leaving
the upper lips and cheek in one broad plane; the mouth is wide and
crescentic, with upturned corners. Surrounding the forehead from the
ears on either side is a band of deerskin witli the hair upstanding.
Upon either cheek and from the middle of the forehead extend short
pieces of whalebone, having attached to their outer ends slender,
wooden, pencil like appendages about five inches long, which move
with the motions of the dancer. Strung along the forehead above the
brows are small strips of parchment which are held in place by pegs
inserted in the wood and hang down over the eyes. The entire face
is painted green and spotted coarsely with dull brown ]iigment; the
sticks ou the ends of the whalebone are red. Like preceding masks
this represents the face of a ticnghuk.
Figure 1, plate xcix, is a thin, flattened mask, measuring 8 by 5.J
inches, somewhat quadrate but rounded at the corners. The mouth is
crescentic, with the corners turned down, and two round eyeholes
l^ierce the front. Just above the mouth is set a carved attachment
representing the top of the head and upper mandible of a bird. A
wooden peg inserted below the mouth indicates the lower mandible.
Upon each side of the face is attached a long, narrow, flat strip, evi-
dently intended to indicate the doors, which open and close ou similar
masks made in this district. Two crescentic iucisions curving over the
eyes represent eyebrows and are colored red. Surrounding the borders
of the mask on each side and above are inserted feathers of the horned
owl. The main color of the face, as well as the inside of the flaps upon
each side is white. The bird's eyes and beak are black, as are also a
line across the eyebrows and cheeks, as well as the figures of the seal,
walrus, killer whale, reindeer, wolf, and beaver, which are drawn upon
the surface of the flaps on each side. This face re^jresents tlie tHiia of
some species of waterfowl, the name of which 1 did not learn; but from
the drawings of the various game aninmls upon the flaps attached to
the sides, I judge that it was used in festivals connected wiih obtaining
success in the hunt, which I learned to be the case with similar masks
in tliat region.
Figure 4, plate c, is a rudely carved figure of the sea parrot (Mormon
arctic(t), 7i inches long hy ih wide. This represents the upper half of
the bird's body as it would appear when swimming on the water. The
head and neck are made of a separate piece joined to the body by a
round j)in. In the upturned beak is the wooden figure of a walrus, the
neck of which is nunle of cloth so as to form a loose joint and permit the
head to flap about as the wearer of the mask dances. The mask is
surrounded by two successive hoops of splints held in place by being
lashed to pegs fastened in holes about the edges. Just in front of these
pegs is attached a narrow strij) of reindeer skin from which long hairs
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCVIII
MASKS
NKLSON] MASKS 405
project all around like a halo. This is held in position by being inserted
in the split ends of i)egs placed around the border of the mask.
To the outer hoop surrounding the mask, one on each side and one
on the top, are attached three long quill feathers having the vanes
removed on one side and with a tuft of downy feathers tied to their
ends. The bird's wings are represented by small, flat, somewhat paddle-
shape pieces, which are fastened to the shoulders of the image with flexi-
ble pieces of root inserted in holes, enabling the wings to play as the
wearer moved. Just back of these, one on each side, are rudely cut
representations of a pair of thumbless hands with the fingers free and
the ])alms pierced by a large, round hole. Back of these hands are
two paddle shape attachments of wood, rei)resentiug the bird's feet,
also fastened to the body with flexible pieces of root. At the posterior
end three long, slender, paddle shape strips are fastened in the same
manner to represent the bird's tail.
In the middle of the bird's back, occupying about one-half the space,
is a well-<'arved semiluiman face, supposed to represent the inua of the
bird. This face has the eyes pierced through the mask; the mouth is
represented as open, with the teeth thrown in relief by incised cross
lines. The walrus, bird's beak and feet, the pierced hands on the sides
with the exception of the tips of the lingers, the hoops encircling the
mask, and the border of the face on the bird's back, are painted red, as
well as the outlines of the mouth and the teeth. The bird's wings, neck,
hack, and tail-feathers are dull blue. The bird's face and the pupil of
the eye are white and the iris black, the face on the bird's back is
white with black dots to represent the mustache, beard, and eyebrows.
The depression just above the nostrils is indicated in black, as is also a
representation of snow-goggles drawn across the eyes.
Figure 2, plate C, from Cape Komanzof, south of the mouth ot the
Yukon, is a mask 9 by ui inches, reitresentiug a guillemot swimming
on the surface of the water. The head and neck are carved from a
separate piece, which is fastened to the body by a peg. The wings are
indicated by thin, flipper-like pieces of wood attached by flexible pieces
of root, and at one time the tail was represented by similar appendages
M Inch have been broken off and lost. On the back of this figure is
carved in relief a curious, hastate-shape countenance, with the sharp
point near the base of the bird's neck. iSTear the center of the base of
this hastate shape area on the bird's rump a single round hole pierces
the wood and represents an eye. Below this are placed two obliquely-
set, oval nostrils and a crescent-shape month with the corners upturned.
The upper part of the head, neck, and body of the bird are painted
dull blue, with large white spots. The lower part of the neck and
breast, with the surface of the flippers and the face on the back, are
white. The white face is thinly spotted with black on the sides and
lower portion and a single black spot is on the middle of the wing.
The interior of the nostrils is dull blue, and a broadly crescentic, white
406 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
area surroandiug the eye is bordered by a uarrow black line. The face
on the back of the bird represents its inua.
Figure 1, plate r, from lower Knskokwim river, is Hi inches long- by
5 inches wide, and represents a human figure with outspread arms and
legs. The head, arms, and legs are set in by squared pegs at their
inner portion, which are inserted into holes in the body of the mask.
The front of the body of this mask has a grotes(iue, semihuman face
in low relief, shut in by little doors which, hinged upon either side,
are made to open outward, and are controlled by sinew cords. This
figure is similar in general character, excei)t the doors, to a mask
described from the lower Yukon (number 1445). The inside of the head
is deeply excavated and the back of the body is shallowly concave.
Along the inside of the hands and arms, as well as of the legs to the
feet, extend grooves painted red, bordered with black, and set with
pegs to represent teeth. This indicates that the being represented was
supposed to be provided with mouths all along these portions of its fig-
ure. The head has two round eyes and a crescentic mouth with points
upturned, but no features in relief. The face on the front of the body
has the eyeholes, broadly spaced nostrils, and flattened oval, nearly
horizontal mouth ])ierced through the mask; the mouth is provided
with squared, peg like projections to indicate teeth. The entire mask,
when the doors are closed in front, with the exception of the mouth
area along the arms and legs, is white.
The inner surfaces of the doors, as well as the concealed face, are
white with the exception of the outlined spectacle-like figure covering
the eyes, a line indicating the mustache, and the figures of two rein-
deer upon the inner side of one of the doors and the figures of two
seals upon the inner side of the other door, which are black. A nar-
row strip of deerskin with upstanding hair surrounds the head. Upon
each shoulder, as well as along the sides, are inserted white feathers.
The exact meaning of this figure is not known, but the doors conceal-
ing the face on the front of the body indicate that the concealed features
are supposed to represent the inner countenance or inmi of the being.
Other masks of this character were seen in the region between Kusko-
kwim and Yukon rivers, as well as on the lower Kuskokwim, and in one
or more instances I saw masks having an outer or movable portion
representing the muzzle of some animal which could be removed at a
certain time in the festival by a single motion of the hand. These
were used to represent the metamorphosis from the ordinary form of
the being indicated to that of its iitiia.
Figure 3, plate c, from Pastolik, at the northern border of the Yukon
mouth, is a rather flat, pear shape mask, 12f inches long by oi inches
broad. It is made with a grotesque, semihuman face on the rounded
larger end and tapers back to an obtuse point at the top. On the left side
of the face are two rudely carved representations of human legs fastened
to the mask by quills. One of these is inserted near the corner of the
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLCGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. XCIX
MASKS I NEARLY ONE-FOURTH)
NELSON] MASKS 407
mouth and tlie other just above the top of the face. On the opposite
side are two sliglitly curved pieces of wood of the same size as the legs
and fastened to the mask in a similar manner. Each of these pieces
has five small, cylindrical sticks an inch and a half long fastened along
its lower border by sinew cords. Above these, on the sides of the
tapering summit of the mask, are two quills with downy feathers at
their tips, and the extreme summit has inserted in it a white swan
feather. The face of this mask is very grotesque, one eye being round
and nearly in the middle of the upper portion, to the left of which is a
cresccntic eye over two inches iii length, the points of the crescent
being toward the center of the face. Between these eyes the ridge of
the nose is represented as having a curve similar to the outer border
of the crescentic eye, and the nostrils are jilaced vertically one above
the other. The mouth is crescent-shape and twisted around under the
large round eye, and in its left corner is a round opening. The teeth
are represented by squared, wooden pegs, and the mouth and eyes are
pierced through the mask. The face is white, splashed about the mouth
with some dark liquid, apparently blood. The two legs, as well as the
opposite attachments, are red, as is also a narrow border and the long,
pointed extension above the face. The cylindrical pendants are white,
and the ])roiectiou above the face is painted black, with large white
spots. This mask represents the features of a tunghaJc.
Figure 1, plate ci, from south of the lower Yukon, is 12 by 6 inches,
and represents a salmon. It is a flat, oval mask, having the head
carved from a separate piece and fitted to the front entl by a wooden
peg. At the other end the tail is represented by two loose pieces on
each side, fastened to the mask by pegs. Beneath the throat of the
salmou is the wooden eftigy of a hair seal, represented as swimming
crosswise to the course of the salmon, and fastened in position by a
peg. On the back, in front of the tail, is a small model of a kaiak,
held upright and crosswise to the length of the fish by a small splint;
at one time the kaiak evidently bore the image of a man seated in the
manhole.
On each side of the salmon's body are broad, thin, paddle-shape
pieces of wood, fastened with pegs, to rei)resent the pectoral fins.
Just behind these, and near the tail, on each side, is the flat, wooden
image of a small salmon, the mouth, eyes, and gill openings of which
are represented by incised lines. Just below the junction of the sal-
mon's neck with the body are incised lines which represent a large
mouth with teeth ; in the rear of this, on each fjide, is a large eye cut
in relief. The entire back of the fish is occupied by a semihuman face,
having a remarkable V-shape mouth, with the corners turned up and the
teeth cut in relief; two oval nostrils and the eyes are pierced through
the wood. The outline of the mouth and the gill openings of the sal-
mon's head, also of the mouth below the salmon's neck and the outlines
of the mouth and teeth in the face on the back, are red; and a band
408 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
extending from the neck of the salmon arouud on each side to the end
of the tail, as well as the band along the sides of tlie small fish repre-
sented on either side of the salmon, are of tlie same color. The pupil
of the salmon's eje, the outline of the teetli in the large mouth below
the neck and outline of the eye Just behind this, the spectacle-shape
area covering the eyes of the face, the interior of the nostrils, and the
line indicating the mustache, as well as a line surrounding the raised
border of the face, are black. The remainder of the outer side of the
mask, including the seal model and kaiak, are white; the seams on the
kaiak, however, are indicated by black lines. About the border of this
mask are set white quill-feathers of some gull. The interior is exca-
vated. The face on the back represents the imca of the fish.
Figure '2, plate ci, from lower Kuskokwim river, represents the hair
seal [Phoca harhnta). This mask is carved as a flattened image of the
common hair seal. It is about 11 inches long by 0 inches in width, and
has four large, flipper-shape, wooden attachments to represent the four
limbs. These are carved on their borders to represent the toes of the
animal, and the eyes, nose, and mouth are well represented on the
rounded head. On the seal's back the greater portion of the surface is
occupied by a circular face like that of a man, having below the eyes
two pear-shape nostrils and a crescentic mouth, with upturned corners,
which has a double row of square-cut teeth. The upper surface of
this mask is painted white, and the membrane between the toes and
the hind flippers are black. Across the eyes of the human face is
marked in black the outline of a pair of snow-goggles. The interior
of this mask has a shallow excavation, and the border is surrounded by
a groove in which is fastened a strip of skin from the neck of a rein-
deer, with the long hairs staiuling out all around like a halo. The face
on the back of this mask is supposed to represent the features of the
seal's inua.
Figure 3, plate cii, from the lower Kuskokwim, measures 7i by 5
inches. It is an oval, flattened mask of thin matei-ial, having carved
in slight relief a grotesque human countenance with a Chinese like
physiognomy. The almond-shape eyes are set obliquely and the
broad, flattened nose with oval nostrils and huge ci escentic mouth with
upturned corners are curiously like an exaggerated Chinese face. The
eyes are indicated by a sunken area on the surface of the wood, in which
are pierced the large, round pupils. Teeth are indicated by square-
cut, peg-like projections. A band of deerskin with long, projecting
hair is set in a groove arouud the border. A broad, black line is drawn
across the eyes, and the upper lip and chin are jiainted red, the teeth
and rest of face being white, including the interior of the eyes. The
signification of this mask is unknown.
Figure 2, plate cii, shows a mask, from Sabotnisky, measuring 8i by
6A inches. It is a rudely oval representation of a death's-head and is
made by using fire to char the wood into the proper shape. The eyes
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH Ai-.NUAL REPORT PL. C
MASKS IQNE-FIFTHI
NELSON] MASKS 409
are large, irregularly rounded, and pierced through. On each side of
the chiu are represented two huge labrets, and a roughly fashioned
nose and high cheekbones are also indicated. In the rear the mask is
slightly excavated, with a ledge to enable the wearer to grasp it with
his teeth.
Figure 4, plate cii, from the lower Kuskok wini, measures C^ by 7 inches.
It is a quadrangular mask, with rounded corners, and is made of a thin,
rather flattened piece of wood. It has a broad mouth extending clear
across, with the lower jaw carved in a separate piece and hinged near
the ends with sinew, so that it can be moved up and down. At the cor-
ners of the lower jaw are represented, by squared wooden appendages
with small, wooden strips, labret pendants of peculiar style, attached to
the chin with whalebone. The mouth above and below is bordered with
wooden pegs to represent teeth. Two suboval nostrils, near the middle
of the face, and eyes of the same size and shape are pierced through
the mask. The pupils are represented by small wooden pegs, carved
narrow at the ends and rounded in the middle, set in so that their
broad, rounded portion is in the middle of the eye opening. Just above
the eye, on each side, and set in by a squared wooden peg, is a some-
what pointed, flattened, or paddle-shape piece of wood representing an
ear. Fastened to each side of the lace by splints, just above the cor-
ners of the mouth, are the ends of two hoops which extend out and
around the upper side of the countenance and are held in position
by the wrappings of splint; to the outer of these hoops are attached
three long feathers with downy plumes at their tips. Fastened imme-
diately about the face of the mask, and held in position by the split
ends of pegs set around the border, is a strip of deerskin with long,
upstanding hairs, forming a halo-like fringe. This mask represents
the inua of a Canada lynx. The ear tips are painted black behind, and
are white near their bases to represent the markings on the ears of
the lynx. The entire face is white, with rounded, bluish spots and a
series of brownish blotches along the borders of the mouth, above and
below, and a black line is drawn from eye to eye.
Figure 1, plate cii, shows a mask, from south of the Yukon mouth,
measuring 6 inches high by 4i wide. It is thin and rather flat, being
only slightly excavated behind, square on top and along the sides,
becoming rounded on the lower portion. It represents seniihumau
features with bird like mandibles projecting from above and below the
mouth, which is broad with the corners upturned, and extends on each
side to the extreme borders of the mask. The center of the mouth is
pierced through; a round block projects outward between the mandi-
bles and has attached to its outer end by a rag the rudely carved
eflSgy of a walrus head with projecting tusks. The eyes and nostrils
are pierced through the mask. Above the eyes, upon each side, are
the head and shoulders of a wolf in relief. The remainder of the
wolf's body and all its limbs are carved free on a block extending
410 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. ann. 18
outward Lorizoiitally and attached to the side of the mask liy woodeu
pegs so as to be coutiuuoiis with the p.art on the niasli. These wolves
are represented as walking toward the center, their heads close to-
gether and tails outstretched in opposite directions. Surrounding the
masks at a short distance is a small woodeu hoop, in which is inserted
three feathers tipped with downy plumes, one on each side and one
on top. The forehead, a ring around each ej'e, a line over the nostrils,
the mustache, and the chin, with the entire figure of the wolf on the
left side, are black, spotted si)arsely with white. The other wolf is
white, with the end of its tail and feet black, as are its eyes and
nostrils. The inside of the wolves' mouths, the mouth of the mask,
including the inside of the mandibles and the figure of the walrus, ex-
cepting the tusks, are red. The signilicatiou of this mask is unknown,
but I believe that the black and white wolves bear a symbolic reference
to day and night.
Figure 5, plate oiii, from lower Kuskokwim river, is 7^ by 4^
inches. It is a rudely carved, rather flattened maskette, thin on one
side and thicker on the other, with a nearly straight outline along
one side and rounded on the other three sides. Facing the straight
side of the mask the surface is excavated, leaving a raised edge or rim
near the other border, and in the depression thus formed is a rounded,
saucer like excavation about two inches in diameter in which are pierced
two holes for eyes and a crescentic mouth. Surrounding the borders of
this maskette are two hoops of splint held in position by willow bark
lashings. The space occupied by the small face is painted a slaty bluish
color, and a band of the same color is drawn along the ridge toward the
outer border on the main portion of the maskette; the remainder is
white. This maskette represents a half moon and is connected with
religious ceremonials held during the winter in that region, but I failed
to learn its exact significance.
Figure 4, plate cm, from lower Kuskokwim river, is 5^ by 3J
inches. It is a small, flattened, rudely shaped maskette, representing a
grotes(iue semihuman countenance with two rounded eyes and an oval
mouth piercing the front. The nostrils are indicated by two squared
depressions. In the mouth three wooden pegs, two above and one
below, indicate teeth. The borders of this object are set with small,
white feathers and a rawhide cord is attached to its upper edge for
the purpose of sustaining it. It is somewhat pear-shape above, con-
tracting on the sides at a i^oint between the nostrils and the mouth
and then expanding to form the rounded chin. Its significance is not
known.
Figure 6, plate cm, is a maskette from the lower Kuskokwim, measur-
ing 5 by IJ inches. It is a rudely quadrangular, flattened piece of wood,
having roughly oval eyes and a crescentic mouth, pierced through.
Upon each side of the face are inserted two paddle-shape, slightly curved
sticks, expanded toward the ends. From the base of the nose a groove
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CI
^A)K
MASKS lABOUT ONE-FOURTH I
NELSON] MASKETTES 411
exteuds along the surface to the upper eud. Tlie eliin and a space
above the eyes are dark shite in color, spotted with white; the re-
mainder is white. The purpose of this niaskette is for use in religious
observances, but the exact ceremonies in which it flgured were not
learned.
Figure 2, plate cm, is a maskette from lower Kuskokwim river. It
measures Ci by 2f inches, and is a very rudely made specimen, repre-
senting semihuman features on a long, thin, quadrangular block of
wood. The back portion is very slightly concave; the front has a ridge
running down the middle, from which a bevel extends to the outer
border on the right side. On the left side the surface of the mask is
scooped out parallel to this ridge to a depth of half an inch, so that
the ridge rises abruptly Irom the nearly ijlane surface on that side. By
means of a hinge of bark a long, thin, leaf-like tablet is attached to the
left side of the face. This little tablet closes like a door upon the face,
covering it completely to the median ridge on that side. The beveled
right side of the face has a crescentic eye with the corners pointing
downward, and an ovate hole through the little door on the other side
of the face serves as an eye for that side when it is closed.
The mouth is rudely and irregularly cut near the lower edge of the
maskette, having its left corner drawn up and expanded. A notch in
the lower end of the door upon that side serves, when it is closed, as a
portion of the mouth. The median ridge described serves as the nose.
Upon each side thin, fiat strips of wood, somewhat quadrate in shape
with a rounded projection at their lower end, are attached by fibrous
bark and represent earrings. From the middle of the chin is hung, in
the same manner by a peg and a small strip of bark, another similarly
shaped, flat strip of wood, with the rounded projection ou the lower eud
but with a s(iuared slit extending up and down its middle. This repre-
sents a curious form of labret and, from its position, indicates that the
face is intended for that of a woman. The general surface of the
maskette, including the fronts of the earrings, the labret, and both sides
of the small, leaf-like door are painted white. The nostril on the right
side is outlined in black. The earrings and labret have their outer
surfaces crossed with black lines, and the rounded lower end is black.
The inner side of the little door has painted upon it, in black, the out-
line of an umiak with the sail up and a solitary human figure iu the
stern with the arms upraised. The portion of the maskette covered by
this leaflet has rudely drawn upou it, in black, four semihuman faces
repi'eseuting mythical beings. Three feathers of the horned owl are
stuck along the upper edge. The meaning of this object is unknown.
Figure 3, jilate cm, from the lower Kuskokwim, is a thin disk, 3 J inches
in diameter, with the back concavely excavated and the front having a
raised ridge slightly within the border, inside of which is a circular face
with a distorted semihuman appearance. From the rim mentioned it is
beveled both outwardly and inwardly, the inner beveled portion border-
412. THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ank. 18
lug the face. The right eye is indicated by a cresceutic hole, with the
corners downward; the left eye is marked by an inserted wooden pUig
projecting about one-fourth of au inch. An almond-shape nostril is the
only one represented. The nose, in dim relief, is twisted toward the
right; the mouth is large and rounded on the right corner, thence
extending across and up on the left side, ending in a sharp angle near
the eye peg. In a groove around the border is a strip of reindeer skin
with upstanding hair. Ou each side and at the top are inserted three
quills tipped with downy plumes. Distorted countenances of this kind
are made to represent the supposed features of a number of supernatural
beings known as tuiu/hiit.
Figure 1, plate cm, is a maskoid from Razbiusky. It is a roughly
rounded block, 2i| by 3 inches, having at its lower side a projection with
a hole for the insertion of one hnger. Upon one side is carved a rep-
resentation of a bird's bead; on the other a human countenance is
shown, A groove extends around the side of this block at the junction
of the two images, in which several feathers are set.
The representation of the entire head of any bird or animal on linger
masks is uncommon, this instance being one of the few that came to my
notice. The human face is painted red, as are the eyes and mouth
of the bird; the bird's face on each side and the line on the top of head
are white. The sides of the head and the line extending forward along
the ridge of the nose or beak are of slate color. This is used as a
finger mask by women iu ceremonial dances; the exact meaning is
unknown.
From Razbiusky, on the lower Yukon, is a very large and rather
roughly made finger mask (number 1(320), representing ou one side a
human face and deeply excavated ou tlie other. It is the largest finger
mask that was seen; it measures 4i| by 7 inches.
Figure 2, plate civ, is a finger mask from Big lake. It is a square,
thin block, with a broad, rounded extension projecting from its lower
edge through which are pierced two finger holes. The rear is exca-
vated smoothly. The front has a distorted semihuman face, in slight
relief, surrounded by a circular groove; the right eye is almond-shape
and is inclined toward the nose. On the left side is a cresceutic eye
with the corners turned down. The mouth is a flattened oval with the
right baud corner drawn outward 'and up; the nose is twisted to the
left. From the border of the circular countenance to each corner of
the block is drawn a black line, and the cresceutic eye is surrounded by
a black area; the remainder of the face is painted white. Anmud the
border are inserted six long tufts of reindeer hair and six tail-feathers
of the old squaw duck, with tips of plumes. It is used by women in
ceremonial dances; otherwise its significance is unknown.
Figures 3 and 4, plate civ, show two finger masks from Konigunu-
gumut. Each is made from a discoidal, flattened block 25 inches thick,
connected by a small neck with a broad wooden attachment, which is
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. Oil
MASKS 'NEARLY ONE-FQURTHI
NELSON] FINGER MAf?KS 413
pierced by a doubly rounded hole for tbe insertion of two fingers. It is
surrounded by a groove in which is set a strip of deerskin with tbe long
hair upstanding and with a quill tipped with dowuy feathers extending
out over each side and up from the top. On one side of figure 4 is a
grotescjue semihuman face, with the mouth commencing as a down-
turned corner ou the right side, thence extending over and down on
the other side, then sweeping up around the left border of the face and
forehead. The eye upon the left side is absent; upon the right side is
a crescentic eye with corners down-turned, and the nose is curved
around toward the right. In the other exam[ile (figure 3) the block
is surrounded near its border by a ridge from which a narrow bevel
extends outward to the edge and another one inward to the border of
a face in relief which occupies the middle. This face has no nose, but
has the two crescentic eyes inclined downward toward the center and
a crescentic mouth with down-turned corners cut into the block. This
is used in ceremonial dances, as are other objects of this kind. The
distorted countenance of the mask shown in figure 4 represents the
supposed features of a tmujlial;.
Figure 1, plate civ, from Norton sound, is a rounded, flattened disk,
5 inches long by 2J broad, with the center removed, forming a ring and
connected below by a short neck to an enlarged ring-like appendage
for the insertion of two fingers. The hole through the center is nearly
an inch and a half in diameter and is crossed by two small strips of
wood. On each face of the disk, or ring, just inside tbe border, is a
shallow groove. Along another groove, around the outer edge of the
ring, are inserted five long, downy feathers. This specimen was col-
lected by Mr L. M. Turner, who states that it was intended to represent
a star, the feathers indicating the twinkling of the light. This finger
mask was used by women in certain ceremonial dances.
Figure 1, plate cv, from Big lake, between Yukon and Kuskokwim
rivers, is a ring 4i inches in diameter inclosing a second ring a little
over 2i inches in diameter, which is attached to the outer one by two
proje(;tions on opposite sides. On tbe lower side is a roanded projec-
tion about an inch in length and two inches broad, through which
are pierced holes for tbe insertion of two fingers. Each one of the
wooden rings is grooved entirely around the middle, and tbe outer one
is beveled on tbe inner half toward the center, while the inner one is
beveled both ways from tbe middle. The outer ring has its border
white, and is black, with white spots, ou the beveled inner half. The
inner ring has its outer portion white, with black spots, the inner por-
tion being red, with white spots. Surrounding the border is a strip of
deerskin with upstanding hair, and five tail-feathers of the old-squaw
duck tipped with dowuy plumes. This mask also is used by women in
ceremonial dances, but its signification is unknown.
Figure 3, plate cv, from Pastolik, is 4^ by 2f inches. It is a rudely
carved wooden block, roughly pear-sbape in outline, with a curiously
414
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[eth. asn. 18
rounded, semihumaii countenance ui^ou the front and deeply but roughly
excavated behind. A projection
below is pierced with a round hole
for the finger. Two round open-
ings for eyes and a larger one rep-
resenting tlie nioutli pierce tlie
face and are the only indications
of a countenance. The face is
j)ainted black, with a red border.
Upon each side and on the top is
inserted a quill with downy
plumes at the end. It is a wo-
man's Unger mask, used in cere-
monial dances, but its
meaning is unknown.
Figure 2, plate CA',
from Cape Konianof, is
a pear-shape ring con-
taining -within it a simi-
larly shaped block at-
tached at
the sharp
point of
the ring
and hav-
ing an ob-
ovate pro-
jection be-
low w i t h
a hole in
the center
for the insertion of the finger.
The outer ring is beveled both
outwardly and inwardly, and has
a deep groove about its border
in which is fastened a strip of
reindeer skin having the long
hairs upstanding. On each side
and above are inserted long
feathers from the tail of the old-
squaw duck, tipped with down.
The ring and the central block
are painted yellowish white on
both surfaces, with round red
and black dots. This mask was
used by the women in ceremo-
nial dances.
Figure 141 shows a maskoid, from the lower Yukon, representing the
Fig. 141 — Maskoid r^-present-
ing a seal-bead "svith rising
air bubbles (1).
Fig. 142— Eagle-featlier wand used in dances (J).
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CM
FINGER MASKS AND MASKO'DS 'ABOUT ONE-FOURTH
CEEEMONIAL WANDS
415
.')2
lieacl of .1 small hair seal, with a slendei" rod about 9 inches in length,
projecting from the mouth and turning upward, hav-
ing fastened along its length at regular intervals five
flat wooden disks about an inch and a half in diame-
ter, representing bubbles rising on the surface of the
water. The seal's face is painted white, with black
dots on the muzzle for the whiskers, and the eyes and
nostrils are outlined in black. The inside of the mouth
IS painted red and the top of head light blue. This
maskoid is 4i inches in diameter, and has the posterior
side excavated.
Number 3.3025 is a woman's linger mask, from Chalit-
mut, south of the Yukon delta. It is a rounded wooden
ring, with a wooden disk in the center, held in position
by four small, spokclike attachments from the outer
ring. This wooden disk has upon one surface two
incised eyes and a down curved, crescentic mouth.
Upon the other surface it has a grotesque mouth twist-
ed far to one side, with a small wooden peg to repre-
sent an eye and a small, deep hole for the single nostril.
A strip of reindeer skin, with long, upstanding hair,
is fastened in a groove extending around the edge of
the outer ring. This is used by women during cere-
monial dances; its meaning is unknown.
OTHER CKREMOXIAIj OBJECTS
In addition to the masks various other articles
of personal adornment are used during ceremonial
dances. Among these may specially be noted the
feathered wands used by women and the tillets worn
about the head by both men and women. At Cape
Nome, on the northern shore of Norton sound, I ob-
tained several specimens of wands made from the
quill-feathers of eagles, each of which consists of a
single primary feather with a short wooden rod thrust
into the truncated quill and held in jdace by a lashing
of sinew. At the tip of the feather are lashed two or
three downy plumes from the eagle.
On the coast of Bering sea from Norton bay south to
the Kuskokwim somewhat similar wands were in use.
On the lower Yukon and thence southward these
wands are made by lashing an eagle quill-feather
along the length of a slender rod, having fastened at
its upper end two or three bare quills several inches in
length, with downy plumes attached to the ends, like
that shown in figure 142, from Razbiusky. About the
Fig. U3 — E,-igle-
feather wand
used ta dances (i).
416
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETH. ANN. 18
handle of the wand, snrroiuuliiig the base of the large quill-feathers, are
lashfd tufts of wolf hair or reindeer skiu with the long hairs projecting.
A wand obtained at Cape Nome (figure 143) measures a little over 30
inches in length; those from the coast of Bering sea, farther to the
south, are somewhat longer. These wands are lield upright in the
hands of the women dancers and are moved back and forth, or from
one side to the other, with a slight swaying or beating motion, in time
with the movements of the dancers and the beating of the drum.
In addition to the wands mentioned there were obtained at Cape
Nome other articles used for personal adornment during the ijerform-
ance of a winter festival at that place. One of these is an armlet
(figure 144) consisting of a strap made of tanned sealskin, to which
is sewed under an inclosing fiap the front part of the lower jaw of a
white fox.
At the same place were procured a pair of tanned sealskin gloves with
a pair of sea-parrot feet
sewed upon their backs.
Used in the same dances
at this place is a fillet
(original number G343)
made of a small, rounded
ring of fine shavings
twisted together and hav-
ing thrust through it a
small wooden peg, ti> the
upper end of which, in
front, are attached three
short eagle feathers about
six inches long, and three long eagle quills just behind these. To each
side of this ring is attached the end of a narrow rawhide strap for
passing over the top of the head. This is worn so that the ring of
shavings rests like a pad on the middle of the forehead, with the eagle
feathers standing upright.
On Sledge island was seen a fillet, worn by a man during one of the
dances, which was made from the skin of the head, neck, and back of
the yellow-bill loon.
On Ivotzebue sound was obtained one of these headdresses (figure 145).
The skin, with feathers in place, had been removed, leaving the beak
in position. The skull had also been removed and the skin split along
the head and neck both above and below, and a narrow strip from
along the middle of the back upon each side formed a continuation of
the bands of neck skin. These long strips of skin are tied together at
the junction of the neck and the body, thus leaving the skin from the
back to hang down twelve or fifteen inches over the wearer's shoulders.
The fillet is worn in such a position that the long yellow beak of the
bird projects outward over the forehead.
Yio. 144— Armlet worn dariDg dances (§).
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CIV
FliMGER MASKS (One-fifth)
NELSON I
CEREMONIAL FILLETS
417
On the lower Yukon and tbence to Kuskokwim river, the men during
certain dances wear broad lillets made of wolfskin or of skin from the
neck of the reindeer, with the long hair upstanding. The wolfskin
lillets arc made from narrow strips of skin taken from the animal's
shoulders or neck, where the fur is longest. These
strips are sewed to the edges of a baud of tanned
sealskin, forming an upstandingringof fur extend-
ing from the edges both upward and downward.
On the surface of the intermediate strip of seal-
skin, whi('h is from two to three inches broad, are
sewed uarrow, parallel strips of white, parchment-
like, tanned sealskin, or reindeer-skin with
hair clipped so as to give it a velvety surface.
Another fillet (figure 14G) from the same region
is made from
. 145 — Loonskin fillet
woru iu dances.
a s t r i !> of
white, parch-
men t - like,
tanned seal-
skin about
two inches in
breadth, bav-
in g sew e d
along its sur-
face two narrow strips of black,
tanned sealskin half an inch apart,
with two parallel cords sewed to
the skin at equal distances between
these black bands. The upper bor-
der of this fillet has sewed on, iu
addition, a narrow strip of skiu from
the neck of the reindeer, with up-
standing hair eight inches in length.
The wolfskin lilletis worn so that
one of the bordering lines of wolf hair extends down, concealing the
upper half of the face, while the other line of fur stands up about the
crown. In the fillet last described the outer standing hairs form a
tall, crest-like circle about the crown.
IS ETU 27
rio. 146— Reindeer bkiu fillet (J).
418
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
[ETII. ANN. 18
Another kind of fillet is tliat worn by wonieu during the dances.
Two of these were seen at a festival on the lower Yukon, one of which
was made from the skin of the white fox with the fur left ou, and was
formed by a band of skin which extended around the head, with two
hanging strips attached over each temple and hanging below the chin
on each side. Another was made from skins of tlie large ei-mine of
that region. First was formed a band with the hair on and about an
inch and a half broad, to pass around the head. Attached to this by
Fio. 147— Woman -with criiiiiir lillft ami i-a;.'lr IVatlur wands.
their heads, and hanging down over each side of tbe face, were two
complete ermine skins. The women who wore these also carried eagle-
feather wands in their hands during the dances. In the accomiiany-
iug illustration (figure 1-17), from a photograph, the ermine-skin fillet
described is shown.
Ornamental armlets of various kinds are used by the men in these
dances. Figure 1. plate cvi, from Ikoginut, ou the lower Yukon, is a
good exam])le of these. It is a broad band of reindeer skin with
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CV
FINGER MASKS iabout one-fourth i
NELSON] CEREMONIAL ARMLETS AND WRISTLETS 419
the hair clipped from it, and used with the hair side outward; the
band measures 9 by 3^ inches. On the outside the border is occupied
by three successive narrow bands of skin, the outer one of reindeer,
the hair being clipped to about half au inch in length. This is suc-
ceeded by a narrow baud of skin from the neck of a duck, the feathers
forming a narrow border, which is succeeded by a narrow band of skin
from the hair seal with the short hairs remaining. Inside of these
bordering strips of fur is a surface of tanned skin colored reddish
brown. This is suri-ounded by a narrow strip of white, parchment like
sealskin, having set in pairs at regular intervals along the two sides
tufts of hair 3i inches long, djed reddish brown. The rest of the sur-
face is covered by narrow, alternating strips of white tanned parch-
ment of sealskin divided by equal spaces of the red skin of the back-
ground. Each of the white strips is held in place by heavy stitching
Fig. 148— Wristlet from Ikogmut (full size).
of sinew thread sewed over and binding in two or three long, white,
reindeer hairs, which are laid along the strips, x:)roducing an alternat-
ing black and white seam. Along each red stri]) are four parallel rows
of stitches of the same kind, giving the surface of the armlet a longi-
tudinally striped and dotted appearance. This armlet is held in place
by leather thongs with the hair left on. A i)air of these, fastened at
one end of the armlet, is made of alternating pieces of mink, reindeer,
and a smooth, dark, tanned skin. They are sewed with sinew and rein-
deer hair, as described, in seams ou the surface of the armlet. To the
tips of these thongs are attached several thin strips of sealskin with
the hair left on, serving as a sort of tassel. Armlets of this kind have
various styles of ornamentation, some of them being fringed with strips
of skin still bearing the hair, with their main surfaces of white, parch-
ment-like sealskin, sometimes having little strings of beads as pendants
420
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT
[ETH. AXN. 18
along' their borders, or striped with narrow bands of skin or rows of
heavy stitching.
Figure 14S shows a wristlet from Ikogmut, on the lower Yukon, used
in these dauces. It is made of tauued sealskin bordered by a narrow
strip with the hair left on. On the rest of the surface there is a series
of nine narrow alternating strips of yellowish-white and reddish-brown
tanned sealskin, most of which have along their length a row of stripes
of the alternating dark and white patterns formed by sewing in -white
reindeer hairs with sinew thread. At equal intervals in the midst of
other bands are two broader strips of the reddish brown stin, having
reindeer hairs crossing their surface and gathered in the middle by the
sinew stitching, so that a continuous series of X-shape figures are
formed around the entire length of the
wristlet.
Figure 149, from Sabotnisky, on the
lower Yukon, is an armlet worn by men on
each arm, between the elbow and shoulder,
during the bladder festival. It consists
of a long, rounded, tapering pad made of
some soft material, covered with fish-skin,
and having the two ends provided with a
rawhide cord for tying it about the arm.
This long pad is crossed diagonally by two
pairs of narrow strips of skin sewed to its
surface. One of tliese strips is black and
made of the skin from the foot of some
waterfowl, probably a goose or swan.
The other strij) is colored a dingy reddish
brown and was taken from some fish.
The pairs of strips mentioned extend
from the inside, near the point of the pad,
cross over its outer portion, and turn under
toward the opposite point again, so that the pairs cross on the outer side
near the middle. Inserted in the middle of the i)ad and projecting back
from it, so as to'stand out a little from the arm when worn, is a wooden
rod having three wooden vanes lashed at each end along its length, to
represent the feather vanes used for feathering the butt of an arrow,
which this attachment is intended to represent.
The central shaft and one of these wooden vanes are painted red, the
other two are dull green. The red vane is crossed by a series of diag-
onally tapering black lines, broadest along the outer edge, the other
two are crossed by a series of black lines extending diagonally from
the border of the inner edge.
At Unalakit, on the shore of Norton sound, I obtained a pair of
ornamented trunks (number 487!)9) used in dances by the INIalemut.
They measure about 15 inches in length and extend from the hip to
Fig. 149— Armlet worn in dances i\).
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVI
BELTS AND ARMLET 'ABOUT one-fourth)
NELSON] EFFECT OF CHRISTIANITY 421
the upper thigh, and are made of tame reiudeer skin mottled white
and brown. They have an ornamental strip extending from the lower
border on each side and curving upward around the back of the gar-
ment, reaching within about 2i inches of the upper border in the rear.
Extending part way down the front of the leg, on each side, is an
ornamental band of white deerskin having a seam along the border
on one side with a row of small spaced bunches of red worsted. The
ornamental baud, which extends from the lower edge of the trousers
around to the rear, and the short bands in front, are bordered by a
strip of wolverine fur. About the waist is a baiid containing a draw-
string for binding the garment around the hips.
Figure 2, plate cvi, from one of the Diomede islands, is a belt made
from the jaws of crabs, worn by women during certain festivals.
KELIGION^ A]sri> MYTHOLOGY
EFFECT OF CHRISTIAN CONTACT
During the time of my residence in Alaska the Eskimo of the main-
land were still firm believers in their ancient religion; but slight
modification could be found in their customs, even immediately about
St Michael or at Mission (Ikognuit) on the lower Yukon, where the resi-
dence of Itussian priests during thirty-five or forty years had exerted
greater influence against the ancient beliefs than at any other point.
Services have been conducted irregularly in the small Greek Catholic
churches at the places named, as well as at one or two points farther
southward, but the influence on the Eskimo has been very slight. So
far as could be observed, the sole effect of the priestly efforts have
been to cause the Eskimo to become more secretive than formerly about
practicing their religious rites when in the vicinity of white men.
By gifts of small metal crosses, which the i)eople wore as ornaments,
and by other means, they were occasionally induced to attend church
service. I venture to say that during my residence there not a half
dozen full-blood Eskimo could be found in all that region who really
understood and believed in the white man's religion, aud not one could
be found who did not believe implicitly in the power of the shamans
and in the religious rites handed down by the elders.
In some districts, notably between lower Kuskokwim and lower
Yukon rivers, the ancient rites and beliefs were still i)racticed in their
aboriginal purity. Elsewhere the principal modification was in the
gradual but persistent weakening of the old ideas produced by inter-
course with the fur traders. This eflect was more apjiarent than real,
for the llnssians and Americans alike had ridiculed or treated with
contempt the old customs, until it had become almost impossible to
prevail upou the people to talk of their beliefs and traditions until, by
long accinaintance, their confidence had been gained. Curiously
enough, the great mask festival (A-yal'-yu-nul;) of the Eskimo south of
422 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT ;eth.ann.18
the Yukon mouth has supplied terms by which the natives speak of the
Greek cliurch and its services among themselves. When they saw
the Russian priests in embroidered robes performing the complicated
ofiBces of the church it was believed that they were witnessing the white
man's method of celebrating a mask festival similar to their own.
WITCHCRAFT
The Eskimo believe that persons dealing in witchcraft have the i>ower
of stealing a person's inua or shade, so that it will cause him to i)iiie away
and die. This I saw illustrated at a village on the lower Yukon, where
I had set up my camera to obtain a picture of the people as they were
moving about among the houses. When I was focusing the instrument
the headman of the village came up and insisted on looking under
the cloth. When I permitted him to do this he gazed intently for
a minute at the moving figures on the ground glass and then suddenly
withdrew his head and shouted at the top of his voice to the surround-
ing people, "He has all of your shades in this box," whereupon a i)anic
ensued among the group and in an instant they disappeared in their
houses.
SHADES OF ]'HE DEAD
A ghost or visible shade is called a-lM-ukh'-tol:, and is a form that an
invisible shade may sometimes assume. My iufjuiries among the ])eople
developed the fact that they believe in the existence of two or three
distinct forms of the spiritual essence or soul. The Ul-ghun' -n-gWlt, or
invisible shade, is formed exactly in the shape of the body, is sentient,
and destined for a future life. Another is t\xe, po-ldihm' tu-ghi'iii'-u-g'd,
which has a form exactly like that of the body and is the life-giving
warmth. It is withoirt sense and takes liight into the air when a per-
son dies.
From the people with whom I talked 1 obtained a suggestion of a third
kind of shade, which is supposed to remain with the body and to pos-
sess evil powers which, however, seem to be limited, but I could
not obtain more detiiute information about it. The shades of the dead
are believed to linger for some time in the vicinity of their life scenes,
and on the northern shore of "JSTorton sound 1 learned that for three
months after the death of a son the father must not drink from an
uncovered vessel, for if he does he may swallow some impurity from
the shade that may be present, and die.
During one of my sledge journeys I had an Eskimo with me from
the head of Norton sound to Sledge island. During the journey I
noticed for some days that whenever he drank he inserted a small dip-
per beneath his far coat, and then lowering his face under the collar
drank from beneath. On in(iuiry I was told that this was because his
son had died a short time before and he dared not drink from an
uncovered vessel, fearing that some emanation from his son's shade
might get into the water and, being swallowed, do him harm.
NELSON] SHADES OF THE DEAD 423
lu ancient times the sinews in the arms aud legs of a dead persou
who liad been of evil repute during- life were (;ut in order to prevent
the shade from returning to the body and causing it to walk at uight as
a ghoul.
Nearly every attribute possessed by the shades of people is also
believed to be possessed equally by the shades of animals, and the
iniia or shade of every animal is believed to possess seniihunian form.
There are two places to whicli the shades of the dead may depart.
Some of the Eskimo told me it was believed that the shades of shamans
or persons wlio died by accident, violence, or starvation, go to a land of
plenty in the sky, where it has light, food, and water in abundance.
Shades of people who die from natural- causes go to the under-
ground land of the dead. There also go the shades of all dead animals,
where each kind lives in a village of its own. In this underground
world the shades of people depend entirely on the offerings of food,
water, aud clothing made to them by their relatives in the festivals
given to the dead. Even the shades in the land of plenty can be made
happier by being remembered with presents in these festivals.
Some few persons are supposed to be uncomfortable after death.
These are maiidy thieves who steal from their fellow villagers, sorcerers
or bad shamans, witches, and tlic people who i)ractice certain forbidden
customs. The shades of evil persons, as well as those of animals, are
sometimes believed to return aud haunt the vicinity of their burial
place. In illustration of this belief I saw a curious custom observed at
the village of Kigiktauik. A hunter entered the kashim bringing a red
fox which he had just taken from the trap; after skinning it the pelt
was stretched aud placed in his storehouse. Then he returned to the
kashim and, taking the carcass, carefully cut the tendons of the fore
and hind legs and a hole at the navel. Carrying the carcass outside
he took it to the roof and, opening the smoke hole, held the body over
it. The men sitting in the kashim at once united in shouting, ^'■An-oh'!,
(he goes) .Lf('7,'.' An-ol;'!'''' at the top of their voices. The carcass was
then i)laccd on the top of the hunter's storcliouse, so that no dogs could
reach it. The people told mc that by tliis ceremony the shade of the
fox was dismissed either to the laud of the dead or back to the tundra,
where it would be harmless. If this should not be done it might remain
with the body and go about in that shape, doing evil to the hunters or
others in the village. The legs must have the tendons cut in order to
keep the shade from reentering the body and walking about in that
form. No dog must be permitted to touch or defile the body for fear
of rendering the shade angry, aud thus causing it to bring misfortune
to the hunter.
There is considerable difference between the Eskimo of different dis-
tricts in their manner of regarding the dead. At Eazbinsky, on the
Yukon, the graves are placed so close to the houses that they form a
part of the village, and become excessively offensive during summer.
The same custom is observed throughout that section of country.
424 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx. 18
When tlie Coririn was lying at tlie head of Kotzebue sound a Male
mut begged to be permitted to stay all nigbt on board, because if be
went on slioie at dusk lie would have to paddle by the grave of a man
who had died several weeks before.
Among the lower Yukon people it is said that when a person dies he
can not see or hear anything at first, but when his body is placed in
the grave box his shade becomes clairvoyant and can see all that goes
on about him; then other dead people come and point out the road
leading to the land of the shades. In this connection reference is made
to the tale which gives an account of the return of a girl from the land
of the dead and covering the beliefs held on this subject among the
lower Yukon Eskimo.
When the shade of a recently deceased person becomes conscious, it
rises in form and clothing exactly as in life, and travels along the path
that leads away from the grave. The road has many others branching
off on one side or the other to villages where the shades of different
animals are living, each kind by itself. In these villages the shades of
animals occupy houses like those of human beings on earth. Finally
the shade arrives at a village, where it is claimed by relatives who have
died before, and is taken to a house where it lives an aimless existence,
depending on offerings of food, water, and clothing made by relatives
during the festivals to the dead.
During this journey from the grave the shade has brought with it the
tools placed by its grave with the ofleriugs of food and water. Upon
these suitplies the shade subsists during its journey to the other world.
On the Yukon a man told me that on the road to the village of the
dead the shade is offered water in a bucket, and if it attempts to drink
from the large receptacle without using the dipper, the other shades
clap the bucket over his head so that he is unable to drink. If a shade
disobeys the instructions of the shades in other ways they cause his
trousers to sliji down so that he can not walk, and they otherwise annoy
him.
The lirst child born in a village after a person dies is given the dead
one's name, and must rein-esent that person in subsequent festivals
which are given in his honor. This is the case if a child is born in the
village between the time of the death and the next festival to the dead.
If there be no child born, then one of the persons who helped prepare
the grave box for the deceased is given his name and abandons his own
for that purpose.
When the festival to the dead is given in which the relatives of the
dead person wish to make offerings to the shade, the latter is invited to
attend by means of songs of invitation and by putting up sticks with
the totem marks of the deceased upon them. The shade becomes noti-
fied in this manner and returns to its grave box at the time appointed.
Songs of invitation and greeting call the shade from the grave box to
the fire pit under the floor of the kashim. where, in company with others,
NELSON] SHADES Ob' THE DEAD 425
it receives the oflerings of food, water, and clothing that are cast on
the floor. Then is rendered the song that announces the presence of
the namesake, at which the shade enters the form of that person.
The feast giver then removes the new suit of clothing he wears for the
purpose and places it upon the namesake, and in doing this the shade
becomes newly clothed; the food offerings given to the namesake dur-
ing this festival are in the same way believed to be really given to the
dead. When this ceremony is finished the shade is dismissed back to
the land of the dead. During these festivals the shades iiresent, below
the floor of the kashim, are supposed to enjoy the songs and dances
equally with the living. Songs and dances praising the exploits of the
dead are supposed to be especially pleasing to them.
If a person dies without anyone to make a festival for him, or to
obtain a namesake, he is forgotten and can never return to these festi-
vals, but must live as the poor and friendless live upon the earth. The
shades of all animals are believed to be formed like people, and many
kinds are supposed to be able to talk with one another and at times are
able to understand the speech of men. The shades of game animals
must be i>ropitiated in many ways by offerings and by feasts and
dances, as in the Bladder festival.
It is believed that in ancient times all animals had the power to
change their forms at will. When they wished to become iieojile they
merely pushed up the muzzle or beak in front of the head and changed
at once into man-like beings. The muzzle of the animal then remained
like a cap on top of the head, or it might be removed altogether, and
in order to become an animal again it had only to pull it down. Some
animals are still claimed to possess this power, but when they change
into people they become invisible except to shamans or others endowed
with mystic powers.
GENESIS MYTH — THE RAVEN FATHER
The belief referred to is well illustrated in the raven tales, where the
changes are repeatedly made by the characters. In this belief rests the
foundation of the mask dances of the Eskimo. The creation of the
earth and everything upon it is credited to the Haven Father {Tu-lu'-
Mu-giil-), who is said to have come from the sky and made the earth
when everytlung was covered with water. During a large part of the
time he retained the form of a raven and changed to a man at will l)v
pushing up his beak. The raven legends hereafter given render a
detailed statement regarding this matter superfluous here.
It should be added, however, that the part played by the raven, as
stated in the creation legend, is believed by the Eskimo from Kusko-
kwim river northward to Bering strait and well around on the Arctic
coast. By these legends it will be seen that the Raven came from the
sky, where he had a father and where dwarf people were living, and
426 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BEKING STRAIT [ethaxn.18
tbat lie made tbiugs on earth so much like those in the sky that the
shamans still pretend to replace animals on the earth by trips to the
sky land.
The first man made on the earth returned to the sky land, where the
shades of shamans and people who are recompensed for a violent death
also go; the Eaven Father is believed still to live there. I was informed
that the Eskimo about Norton sound place fragments of dried fish or
other food in different places on the tundra as oft'eriugs to the Kaven
Father in the sky; in return for which he gives them tine weather.
The Uualit say that to kill a raven will cause the Raven Father to
become very angry and to send bad weatber, and the lower Yukon
Eskimo dislike and fear ravens as evil birds.
The common mark symbolizing the raven is found upon all kinds of
carvings, ornamental work, tools, implements, and utensils among the
western Eskimo, as previously described and illustrated. On the eth-
nological specimens obtained from Point Barrow and through Eeriiig
strait to Kuskokwim river, this mark is common. There is an ivory
bodkin in the National Museum, brought from the mouth of Mackenzie
river, which bears this mark, and I saw the same device tattooed on
the forehead of a boy at Plover bay, Siberia (see figure 115).
The Raven Father, who made the laud and everything upon it, is the
subject of many tales in which he is represented as benefiting man-
kind. When he returned to the sky he left ou earth children like him-
self, and some of these are the subjects of numerous tales among the
Eskimo and adjacent tribes of Tinuc, in northern Alaska. These Raven
children frequently figure in their tales as boasters or in other discredit-
able and absurd ways, and while the ravens now living are thought to
be descendants of the Raven Father, they have lost their magical
powers.
For a long time tliey were said to have retained their powers of
changing back and forth at will from men to birds, but gradually lost
these ijowers until they became ordinary ravens as we see them today.
Many things, such as physical features of the landscape, etc, con-
nected with raven tales are ijointed out as evidence of the Eaven ^
Father's former presence when the earth was new. Below Paimut on
the Yukon is a large block of stone resting near the water's edge which
they say was dropped there by the Eaven Father after he had made the
earth. When he bad placed it there he told the people of the Yukon
that whenever fish became scarce they must tie an intlaited bladder to
this stone and throw both into the river, whereupon fish would become
plentiful. They say that one year, when flsh were very scarce, the
shamans did this and when the stone and the bladder struck the water
the latter immediately sank out of sight and the stone floated like
a piece of dry wood some distance down the river; then it returned
upstream of its own volition, went to its former place on the bank and
flsh immediately became very numerous.
NELSON] ANIMAL TRANSFORMATIONS SUPERNATURAL POWERS 427
Near St Michael is an island which the Eskimo say was made from
the straw pad from a boot which Raven Father once threw into the sea.
In the Kaven tales it is made a point to describe the Eaven as dressed
in dogskin or other miserable garments, and he always occupies a place
by the entrance of the kashim where the poor people are seated.
Curious transformations of people into beasts are also believed to
have taken place. Among these may be mentioned the one given in
the tale of Tahu'-lca, where a woman became transformed into a red
bear, and which also accounts for the manner in which these animals
became ferocious.
In another tale the red bears originated from an image made by an
old woman near the Yukon. All animals are believed to have changed
from the original human-like being, taking throughout life their present
form, but the hiua or shade is still similar to its former appearance.
SUPERNATURAL POWERS
Among the Unalit, who form a typical Eskimo group of this region,
the belief exists that there are different ways in which the person may
be gifted with supernatural power. Those who are able to foretell are
called (V-hlu-lMi'-lhl-iil:, "the one who knows everything."' There are
also people who are clairvoyant, besides wizards or witches who control
supernatural beings or tuuijliiif, and conjure by means of magic words
and in other ways, and know the hidden properties of things.
There are also people who possess the secret of making amulets which
serve for various purposes. Occurrences out of the usual order of
events are thought to be the work of some supernatural influence.
Those possessing power over the invisible world are usually men, but
this power is sometimes held by women.
In connection with the belief in supernatural powers is an apparent
mystic virtue contained in the number four. In the creation legend the
liaven waved his wing four times over the clay images to endow them
with life. The first man in the same legend slept four years at the bot-
tom of the sea. The Raven was absent four days in the sky-land when
he went to bring berries to the earth. The "Whale in which the Raven
entered, in another tale, was four days in dying. In the tale of the
Strange Boy, from the Yukon, the hero slept in the kashim every fourth
night. Tlie woman in the tale of the Land of Darkness, from Sledge
island, was told to take four steps, and these transported her to her
home from a great distance. In the Bladder festival, witnessed south
of the Yukon mouth, four men, representing four gentes, took a promi-
nent part.
In their original beliefs the Eskimo have no conception of a single
supreme being or deity, but their spirit world is made up of shades
and tuniihiit, which have an existence quite independent of any central
authority. At Ikogmut, on the lower Yukon, where the Russians have
had a mission for many years, the Eskimo fall God Tioi'-rihl-ai'-yuk,
428 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
or chid tKii-i/hal:, a name which has undoubtedly been introduced with
the ideas of the wliite man's religion. Some of these tunghiit are more
powerful than others, just as some men are more skilful and shrewd
than others. Their ideas of the invisible world are based on conditions
of the present life with which they are familiar.
They have great faith in the power and wisdom of the shamans, who
are the highest authority, to whom all questions of religion and the
mysteries of the invisible world are referred.
Among the Unalit and adjacent people of the Bering seacoast the
shaman is known as the tim'-gha-lili; at Point Barrow he is called
an-alh'-lok.
A man first becomes aware of possessing shamanio jiowers by baying'
his attention drawn to some remarkable circumstance or event in his
life. Having noticed this, he secures the aid of some old shaman, or
jjractices in secret, to secure control of sufficient power to warrant
announcing himself to the people.
A noted shaman of the lower Yukon said that he was first led to
become such by having strange dreams and by frequently finding him-
self when he awoke at a different place from that in which he went to
sleep. From this he believed that the invisible powers wished him to
become a shaman, so he began to practice and soon succeeded in
becoming one.
Every tioi'-gha-lfk, as the name implies, is the owner or eoutroller of
shades or supernatural beings called titn'-fihul; dual tun'ghi'd; plural
Um'-(jh(it. These beings possess supernatural power, and the more
of them the shaman subjects to his will the more powerful he becomes.
Tun'-ghiit are believed to be the personifications of various objects and
natural forces, or may be wandering shades of men and animals, and
are invisible to all except shamaii.s or people possessing clairvoyant
powers, unless they become visiDle to ordinary people in order to
accomplish some particular purpose. They have various strange forms,
usually manlike, with grotesque or monstrous faces, such as are shown
on many of the masks obtained in this region. They have the power of
changing their form; in many instances becoming animals or assuming
very terrifying shapes. At such times if they render themselves visible
to ordinary people the latter may be killed merely by the sight of them.
By their influence over these mysteries the shamans may avert or
drive away evil influences of all kinds. If the evil has been produced
by some very powerful influence, through the magic of a bad shaman
or some wickedly disposed iuH'-i/hiil; the shaman must enlist the aid of
others until, by their united power, they finally overcome the possessing
tun'-ghdk and drive it away.
Among other exercises of their power the shamans claim to make
journeys to the land of the dead, and upon their return relate to the
people what they have seen in that region, and from this have arisen the
ideas commonly diffused among them on this subject. In addition to
NELsoNl SUPERNATURAL POWERS 429
tlie funyliUt of inanimate tilings tlie shamans can see tlie shades of
dead people or animals which are invisible to iiersons not specially
endowed.
The shades of people or of animals frequently come at the call of
shamans, doing their bidding, and sometimes the shade of a dead shaman
will appear for this purpose.
The Unalit told me of a shaman who once lived among them and
was aided by his dog, with whom he could talk, the dog being a
fiiiiijhdl: which had taken that form. A common form of imujh'ik is
the iju-a, or spirit of the elements, places, and things.
Along the coast of Norton sound and the lower Yukon shamans
scmietimes cause the death of new born infants and afterward steal the
body and dry it carefully, in order to keep it and have control of its
shade as a specially strong intluence. On the Yukon I heard of an
instance in which one of these men stole the dried body of an infant
from another shaman and by aid of its shade became noted for his
remarkable powers. When he died his relatives were very much afraid
of the small mummy and burned it.
Men who are not shamans, but who understand some of these things,
will sometimes cause the death of a new-born child for the purpose of
having the services of its shade to secure success iu hunting. The
child must be killed secretly and its body stolen, so that no one knows
of it; after the body is dried, it is placed iu a bag and worn on the
person or carried in a kaiak when at sea. One of the best hunters at
St Michael had such a body, which he carried, wrapped in a little bag,
in his kaiak. By careful inquiry I learned that he had caused its
death and then obtained the body from its grave box near the village
•without the knowledge of the mother. It is believed that when the
hunter carries one of these objects tke shade of the infant, which is
clairvoj-ant, assists its possessor in tindiug game and directs the spear
in its flight so that the animal shall not escape. Owners of these
objects are extremely jealous of them and try to keep their possession
secret. It was by mere accident that I discovered the existence of the
one just mentioned.
At Point Hope, on the Arctic coast, a young man came on board the
Goricin wearing a pair of gloves, on the back of which were sewed a
liair of outspread feet of the sea parrot {Mormon aretica). On question-
ing his companions they said that he was a shaman, and once while he
was tishing along the shore one of these birds had alighted on his
hands, leaving its leet to bring him success in salmon tishing.
Shamans are greatly feared, and their advice concerning hunting,
traveling, and other matters of this kind is usually obeyed, but many
failures on their part to give good counsel or to cure sickness may result
in serious consequences. In the fall of 1870 the Malemut of Kotzebue
sound killed a shaman, saying in explanation that he told too many lies.
If a shaman is suspected of using his powers to work evil upon his
430 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth axx. 18
fellow-villagers be is also in danger of being killed by common consent
of the community. I beard of such men being killed in tbe region lying
between tbe mouths of tbe Yukon and Kuskokwim for failing to fulfill
their predictions and for suspected witchcraft. Observance of various
festivals and the attendant rites are usually executed according to
instructions of shamans, who learn by the aid of their mysterious power
what is acceptable to tbe shades and tbe tungluit.
Tbe moon is believed to be inhabited by a great man-like being,
which controls all tbe animals that are found on tbe earth, and when
a season of scarcity comes the shamans pretend to go up and make
offerings to him. If they succeed in pleasing this being he gives them
one of the kind of animals that have become scarce, whereupon the
shaman returns with it to the earth and turns it loose, after which the
species agaiu becomes plentiful. It is claimed that only in this way
can the earth be kept supplied with game, owing to the number killed
by hunters and by disease. On one occasion at St Michael, at the
beginning of the fall seal hunting, tbe old headman of tbe village was
seen to go out secretly and make food offerings to the new moon while
he sang a long song of propitiation to the spirit supposed to live in that
planet in order to control tbe supply of game.
The shamans claim that tbe man who lives in the moon has a very
bright face, so that they fear to look at him, and when they come near
they must look downward; for this reason two usually go together,
since one alone would be abashed. On tbe Yukon they claim to climb
up to tbe moon, but at the head of Norton sound an old man told me that
he used to tiy up to the sky like a bird. In all this region the shamans
claim to possess the power of visiting the moon. One winter on the
lower Yukon, about the middle of February, there was an eclipse of the
moon, and soon after throat disoase caused the death of about a dozen
people. Two shamans, father and son, started to visit the man in tbe
moon to find out why the disease had been sent and to learn how to
stop it. Tbe pair were absent from the village several days, and then
returned and reported that when they bad climbed nearly to the moon
the old man became tired and stopped for a while, but tbe young man
went on. When be was near the moon the man came down to meet him
and was very angry, asking what he wanted there; the young man
was very much frightened, but told tbe reason for bis approach. He
was then told that the disease would kill several other people before it
would stop ; and tbe moon man was going to keep the young fellow, but
his father begged so hard for him from below that he was permitted to
return.
On the lower Yukon and southward they say that there are other
ways of getting to tbe moon, one of which is for a man to put a slip
noose about bis neck and have the i)eople drag bim about tbe interior
of the kashim until he is dead. At one time two noted shamans on tbe
Yukon did this, telling tbe people to watch for them as they would
NELSON] CONCEPTION OF NATURAL PHENOMENA 431
come back during tlie next berry season. When the season designated
had passed, the people of the village said that one of the shamans came
back, coming a little out of the ground, looking like a doll, but he was
very small and weak and there was no one outside the houses at tlie
time to feed and care for him, except some children, so that he was
overlooked and went away again.
Nearly all epidemic diseases are supposed to come i'rom the moon,
but occasionally they descend from the sun. An eclipse of the moon
is said to foretell an epidemic, and the shamans immediately i^roceed to
learn the cause in order to appease the being living there and, by
diverting his anger, save the people. Among the inhabitants along
the lower Yukon it is believed that a subtle essence or unclean influ-
ence descends to the earth during an eclipse, and if any of it is
caught in utensils of any kind it will produce sickness. As a result,
immediately on the commencement of an eclipse, every woman turns
bottom side up all her i)ots, wooden buckets, and dishes.
After an eclipse at St Michael the I'nalit said that the sun had
died and come to life again. The length of duration of an eclipse is
said to indicate the severity of the visitation to ibllow. In the village
of Paimut, on the lower Yukon, in December, 1880, 1 overheard people
talking about a recent eclipse of the moon and all agreed that it fore-
boded either an epidemic or war. Some thought that it meant a raid
of the Tinn('', living higher up the river, as revenge upon the Eskimo
for having killed some moose the year before, the Eskimo evidently
thinking that the moose belonged to the people in the region where they
are usually found, and their having killed some of the animals would
call for reprisals by the Tinnc.
South of Cape Vancouver, at the village of Ghichliiagamut, we were
overtaken by a severe storm and, in order to witness the rites. I paid
a shaman to change the weather. After dark he knelt on a straw mat
in the middle of the kashim and envelojjed himself, with the exception
of his face, in a large gut-skin shirt; then, resting his knees and elbows
on the rioor, he uttered a long speech at the top of his voice. When
this was ended he concealed his face in the shirt and made a great
variety of grunts, groans, and other noises. During this time two men
stood on each side of him and over his back passed a double cord,
extending lengthwise of his body, with a stick fastened to each end,
which was held fast to the floor on each side of him. When the sha-
man finished making the noises mentioned a third man made a panto-
mime with his hands as if lifting some invisible substance from the
shaman's back. This motion was repeated a number of times and then
the two men'raised the sticks to which the cords were tied and circled
several times around the shaman, constantly turning their sticks end
over end, and iinally stopping in their former positions. The shaman
then caused his voice to die away in the distance, after which he arose
and said that we would have a change of weather in two davs.
432 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn. 18
At the village of 8fu,i;uiiuguTuat, in tlie same district, auotber shauian
attempted to eliange the weather for my benefit as follows: He put on
a gutskin shirt and was wrapped closely in a large straw mat while
squatting in a sitting posture on the lioor of the kashim. Four men
stood about him, and alter he had uttered a long series of curious cries
they went through various lifting motions in unison as if raising some-
thing from him. Then followed several ventriloquial voices, after which
the old man was unwrapped and assured us of good weather in two
days.
At a village just north of Oai)e Vancouver another shaman essayed to
conjure the weather for me. He knelt in front of the entrance, inside of
the kashim. and held both hands beneath his gutskin shirt, rattling
it about while he uttered various cries and noises. A voice was then
made to reply to him from the passageway, after which he assured us
of good weather.
At (Jhalitmut, near the mouth of Kuskokwim river, I arrived late
one winter afternoon and found a grass mat hanging over the outer
entrance to the kashim. Inside were two shamans at work on the form
of a withered old man, who lay with closed eyes on the deerskin in the
middle of the floor, evidently too feeble to move. Uiion two sides of
the room stood a coui)le of men beating slowly upon drums. The sha-
mans, dressed in gut-skin shirts, were walking about the patient with
a strutting gait, each holding one hand before him inside the shirt and
the other behind him in the same way, rattling the shirt with both
hands. The motions and appearance of the two men were absurdly
like those of two gamecocks preparing for battle. During this time
they continued uttering cries like those used by the other shamans
mentioned when doctoring the weather. Suddenly they dropped upon
tlioir knees, one at the old man's head and the other at his feet, both
facing him and uttering a series of shrill cries and hisses. Leaping to
their feet after this they repeated the cries, and two assistants came
forward and went through lifting motions exactly as the men had done
to procure good weather. When they had done this the assistants
each i)lac.ed his arms and palms together in front of him and then
separated his hands by drawing one back toward the body and push-
ing the other away from him with a sliding motion. With this the
jierlormance ended and the old man was carried out.
In another village, near the one last mentioned, I found a man standing
on the roof of a kashim, the door of which was closed by a straw mat and
guarded by an old woman who tried to prevent my entrance. I'assiug
her I entered and surprised two shamans performing their incantations
over a sick child. The people of the village were seatefl around the
room and the child was lying naked in his mother's lap in the middle
of the raoni. The shamans also were entirely naked and were circling
about when I entered, but stopped immediately and the woman hurriea
out with the child.
xELso.N] POWERS OF SHAMANS 433
One curious method of leainiiig the causes of disease is ]iiactieed by
the shamans on the plain south of the Yulion mouth. If a nniu becomes
ill they determine the character of his malady by tying a cord attached
to the end of a stick to his head or a limb as he lies outstretched, and
lifting it by the stick find from the weight of the part the character of
the disease. If seriously affected the part is supposed to be very heavy,
but becomes lighter or easier to raise as the malady passes away.
In the summer of ISSl my interpreter refused, at the last moment, to
go on the Corwin with me during our Arctic cruise, saying that the
shamans had told him that we would uever come back.
One of the greatest feats attributed to the shamans is to visit the
land of the dead and come back again; in every district one hears of
those who, apparently dead, have been to the land of the shades and
returned.
An old shaman from Selawik lake, near Kotzebue sound, told me that
a shaman, living there many years ago, died and made such a journey.
When he returned he told the people that after his death his shade
traveled for two days along the hard, beaten path formed by those who
had gone before. During all this time he heard crying and wailing
which he knew to be the voices of people on earth mourning for their
dead'. Then he came to a great village, like those upon the earth,
and was met by the shades of two men who led him into a house.
In the middle of the room a tire was burning, in front of which were
roasting some pieces of meat, stuck on, shar]i sticks; in this flesh were
living eyes which rolled about and watched his movements. His com-
panions told him not to eat any of tlie meat, as it would be bad for him.
After stopping here for a short time he went on and came to the milky
way, which he followed for a long distance, finally returning by it to
his gi'ave box. When the shade entered the box his body became
alive, and rising, he went back to the village and told his friends of
his experience.
The old shaman who related the foregoing said that once he himself
had died and gone to the land of shades, remaining there until he
became tired, when he returned to the earth and entering the liody of
an unborn child, was born again.
Another method the shainaus claim to possess for visiting the land of
the dead is practiced in the region south of the lower Yukon as well
as about Norton sound. They pretend to be burned to death and after-
ward to return to life.
At the head of aSTorton sound my Eskimo guide pointed out tlie grave
of a shaman who had tried to do this, and said that after being burned to
death he had failed to return. The man in telling of it seemed to have
perfect faith that such a thing was possible, and said that many sha-
mans caused themselves to be burned to ashes and then returned to life,
not even their clothing showing a trace of fire. He added that the
shaman buried in the grave which we passed had made a mistake in
IS ETH 28
434 THE ESKIMO AHOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx. is
tbe kiud of vrood used for the fire, or some otber necessary observance
had been neglected. This was known from the fact that after he had
been burned his body reappeared unharmed excejit for a small buni on
one shoulder, but lie failed to become alive. The body was placed over
the pyre and a cone of upright drift logs raised over it to mark the .spot.
My iuforiiiant added that when people passed this spot they always
made small offerings of food and other things to i)ropitiate the shade
of the sham an.
The following description of burning a shaman is from a village
south of the Yukon month, and was obtained from a fur trader who
knew the circumstances: The shaiiiau gathered all the villagers into
the kashim and. after putting on his fur coat, told them that he wished
to be burned and return to them in order that he might be of greater
service to the village. He directed that a crib of drift logs should be
built waist high, in the form of a square, with an open space in the
center, where he could stand. He chose two assistants, whom he paid
liberally to attend to the lire and aid him in other ways. His hands
and feet were bound and a large mask, covering his face and body to
the waist, was i)ut on him. Then the people carried him out and set
him inside the crib, after which everyone except the assistants returned
to the kashim and the assistants set lire to the pyre in front. Smoke
and flames rose from the logs so that the inside of the crib was ren-
dered slightly indistinct; the as.sistants called out the people, who,
when they saw the mask as they had left it, facing them through the
smoke, were satisfied. After they had seen it they were ordered to
remain within doors until the next morning upon pain of calling down
upon them the anger of the tiiiKjhiit.
Immediately after the people went inside the assistants unbound the
shaman and substituted a log of wood behind the mask, while the
shaman concealed himself near by until the next morning. Mean-
while, the mask and the crib burned to the ground. At daybreak
the shaman returned and, taking a couple of firebrands from the smol-
dering pyre, mounted very quietly on the roof of the kashim and
sat by the smoke hole. The gutskiu cover to this outlet was raised
and bulging, as usual, from the heat within; over this translucent cover
the shaman waved his spark scattering firebrand, at the same time
moving his feet abont on its surface. The people inside could distin-
guish the fire and the faint outlines of the feet and said, "He is walk-
ing in the air over the window."' When he was satisfied that he had
created sufficient sensation, he descended, entered the kashim, and was
ever afterward considered to be a great shaman. I was told that this
ordeal of fire was supposed to endow the person enduring it with the
power to cast off or assume the bodily form at will and to greatly
increase his power in t)ther ways.
In addition to other supernatural aids that are invoked, amulets and
fetiches of wood, stone, bone, or in fact almost anything else will serve.
NELSON] TALISMANS AND AMULETS 435
Frequently the virtue is inherent in the object, but sometimes is secured
by means of a shaman's power or the aid of one who knows. In addi-
tion to the ordinary in-ghdli, or fetich, an heirloom {paitid-) may become
a fetich by reasDn of its extreme age and long possession in one family.
Such objects are treasured and are handed down from father to son.
They are supposed to be endowed with reason and to be gifted with
supernatural powers to aid and protect their owners.
With these objects may be classed sueli things as are used for
obtaining success in the hunt — like the dried bodies of ii-ewborn
infants already described, and others which are supposed to protect
their owners from bodily injury.
Women wear belts made from the incisors of reindeer taken out with
a small fragment of bone, and attached scale-like to a rawhide strap,
overlapi)ing each other in a continuous series. When one of these
belts has been in the family a long time, it is believed to acquire a cer-
tain virtue for curing disease. In case of rheumatic or other pains the
l)art affected is struck smartly a number of times with the end of the
belt and the difliculty is supposed to be relieved.
While at St Michael a shaman sent to me on one occasion to borrow
the skin of a pine squirrel, brought from the head of the Yukon, which
he used in his conjuring to cure a sick man, and claimed to drive into
the squirrel the sickness from the per.son afflicted, after which the skiu
was returned to me.
Another method of curing local x)ain, such as neuralgia, toothache,
or similar affections, is for the shaman to suck the skin over the spot
vigorously for a time, and then take a small bone or other object outot
his mouth, showing it to the jjatient as the cause of the trouble.
Dogs are never beaten for biting a person, as it is claimed that should
this be done the iitua of the dog would become angry and prevent the
wound from healing. During my stay at St Michael a little girl four
or five years of age was brought to me to dress her face, which had
been badly torn by a savage dog. I told the father that he ought to
kill such an animal, to which he replied in alarm, "Xo, no; that would
be very bad for the child ; the wound would not heal."'
As a rule, married women are very anxious to liave a son, and in case
of long continued barrenness they consult a shaman, who commonlj-
makes, or lias the husband make, a small, doll-like image over which
he performs certain secret rites, and the womau is directed to sleep
with it under her pillow.
A Kaviagmut from Sledge island, who killed two men on Norton
sound during my stay at St Michael, once came to have me cure some
sores on his back. When he removed Lis clothing, I saw that he had
on a curious harness-like arrangement of round rawhide cords which
went loosely about his neck and, dividing on the chest and back,
formed a loop under each arm. On inquiring the meaning of this, he
replied that it was to protect him from his enemies. This referred to
his fear of blood revenge by relatives of the men he had killed.
436
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
(ETH. ANX. 18
Images aud masks are used by the people of Point Barrow to bring
success ill wbale hunting. In an umiak at that place I found two masks
of liuman faces mounted on the middle of slightly crescentic boards,
to each of which was tied by a sinew cord a small wooden model of a
right whale. After considerable effort one of the shields and masks
were secured, but the owners absolutely refused to sell the others or
any of the little whales, which were well carved and about three inches
long. The men said they were used in whale hunting and they did not
dare to sell them as, if they did, they would bring them bad luck.
Small carved images of fabulous animals are sometimes carried for
the same purpose. In Kotzebue sound a young Malemut white-whale
hunter came off to the Corwin one day and I found hanging from the
framework inside his kaiak, just behind the manhole, a curious wooden
image about eight inches long aud three inches in diameter. It was
Fig. 150— Fetich from a Malemut kaiak (J).
shaped as shown in tigure 150. The seinihumau face, with holes incised
for the eyes aud nose, and the deeply cut mouth bordered by teeth, had
two large, projecting tusks, which with the teeth were made of walrus
ivory. Extending lengthwise along the abdomen was a long, deep slit
like a mouth, with a row of peg-like ivory teeth along its edges. Held
by the teeth in this mouth was the rudely carved wooden figure of a
white whale. I tried to buy the image, but the owner seemed to be
alarmed when he found that I had discovered it, and said he would die
if he parted with it; thereupon I handed the image back to him and
he quickly went ashore aud hid it, after which he returned to the vessel.
The images and fetiches used in hunting are supposed to watch for
game and, by some clairvoyant power, to see it at a great distance; the
hunter is then guided by the influence of the fetich to find it. They
are also supposed to guide the spears so that they will be cast straight.
NELSON] T.ALISMANS AND AMULETS 437
Sometimes the iiiHueuco of the amulet or fetieh is supposed to briug
the game to the hunter.
Amoug the peopU' of Kaviak peniusuhi and Kotzebue sound a body
of the common weasel, which is said to be one of the totem animals of
the Eskimo, is very highly prized as a fetich. The body is dried entire
and is worn on the belt or carried in a pouch by boys and young men;
for this purpose they are valued at the i)rice of a marten skin. The
possession of these weasel mummies is supposed to endow their owners
with agility and prowess as hunters. In all cases it follows that the
owner of a mummy of any animal or of a child carries with it pi)W> r
over its shade, which becomes the servant of the possessor.
The hunter is believed to be able to propitiate and control to a certain
extent the shades of sea animals which he kills by keeping them with
their bladders and, after the ceremonies and offerings described in the
Bladder feast, dismissing them back to the sea to reenter other animals
of their kind and so return that he ma.y be able to kill them again. In
this way the hunter is believed to be able to procure more game than
would be possible were he to allow the shades of the animals killed to
go to the land of the dead or to wander freely.
The same belief extends to inanimate objects. When a hunter sells
furs it is a common custom for him to cut a small fragment from each
skin, usually from the end of the nose, and place it carefully in a pouch.
If he sells a seal entire he must cut off the tip of its tongue and swallow
it, and sometimes I saw natives swallow fragments from skins they were
selling to the traders. Fragments are even cut from garments that
they sell, a minute portion being retained in an amulet pouch. In
retaining these jjieces it is believed that the possessor keeps the essen-
tial essence or spirit of the entire article, and is thus certain to become
possessed, through its agency, of another of the same kind. Should he
neglect to do this in any of the foregoing cases the objects disposed of
would be gone forever, and although he might get articles of the same
kind, he would obtain fewer than if he had kept the fragment.
In the same manner offerings of small particles of food and a little
water from the large quantities distributed at feasts are supposed to
convey to the shades the essence or essential parts of the entire amount.
In two of the tales it is related that small i)ieces were taken from skins
and afterward these again became full-size skins, to the beneiit of their
possessor, thus indicating the meaning of this custom.
In the Bladder festivals seen south of the lower Yukon, whenever
food and water were brought into the kashim a little of each was cast
to the floor and up against the roof as offerings to the shades of the
upper and lower worlds.
All places, things, and the elements are supi)osed each to have a yii-a
or mystery which is human or semihuman in form, but with grotescjue
features which are invisible except to shamans and others especially
gifted. Hunters at sea and elsewhere in lonely places, when about to
438 THE ESKIMO A1?0L'T BERING STRAIT [eth an.v. 18
eat cast dowu food and water offerings to the yu-a before eating or
drinking themselves, and often add propitiatory words. If offended, a
yua has tlie power of causing a person's death, or making him ill, or
taking away his success as a hunter. It is also believed that many
animals have supernatural powers of hearing, it being claimed that if
they are spoken of, although far away, they will know it. lu this
respect red and black bears are much feared, and it is said that if a
man makes sport of bears or calls them by any disrespectful nickname
or epithet, uo matter where he is, the bears will hear and will watch
for and kill him the next time he enters the mountains. For this
reason a hunter who is going out for bears will speak of them with the
greatest respect and announce that he is going for some other animal,
so that they will be deceived and not expect him. They never like to
speak of what they intend to hunt for fear that the animals may hear
and give them bad luck. Ou one occasion 1 was talking with my guide,
who was going reindeer hunting, and spoke of his chances of success
in securing deer; he appeared to be offended and reproved me for letting
the deer know what he wished to do.
The beaver is another animal that is regarded as especially gifted
with power of learning the intentions of people; it is also said to
understand what a man says to it, and if a beaver is driven into a hole
and the hunter finds tluit the animal holds down its tail so closelj* that
he cau not raise it, all he need do is to say, "Beaver, lift your tail,"
wheieupon the beaver does as told and can be drawn out easily.
The dead bodies of various animals must be treated very carefully
by the hunter who obtains them, so that their shades may not be
offended and bring bad luck or even death upon him or his i)eople.
This is illustrated by the various observances which were seen when a
white whale was killed by an Uiialit hunter. No one who aids in kill-
ing a white whale, or even helps to take one from the net, is permitted
to do any work on the four days following, this being the time during
which the shade stays with the body. No one in the village must use
any sharp or pointed instrument at this time for fear of wounding the
whale's shade, which is supposed to be in the vicinity but invisible;
nor must any loud noise be made for fear of frightening and otVending
it. Whoever cuts a white whale's body with an iron ax will die. The
use of iron instruments in the village is also forbidden during the four
days, and wood must not be cut with an iron ax during the entire
season for hunting these animals.
Dogs arc regarded as very unclean and offensive to the shades of
game animals, and great care is exercised that no dog shall have an
opi)ortunity to touch tlie bones of a white whale. Should a dog touch
one of them the huuter might lose his luck — his nets would break or be
avoided by the whales and his spears would fail to strike.
One of the best hunters at St Michael once let a dog eat a portion of
a white whale's head, and the people attributed to this the fact that he
A>;LMAL FKTirHES
439
took no more in his net during that season. When the bones of a white
whale have been cleaned of the flesh, the hunter takes them to some
secluded spot, usually on clift's fronting the seashore, where dogs do not
go, and places them there with several broken spearshafts.
Not far from the village of St Michael is a rocky, shelf like shelter,
lacing the sea and very difficult of access. In this I found over twenty
white whale skulls and skeletons, accompanied by numerous broken
spearshafts, and near by were other smaller but similar deposits.
The lashings and heads of the spears had been removed, only the
wooden shafts being left. Usually
the siiears were thrown down singly,
but in one deposit a half dozen were
tied together.
Figure 151, from Aziak or Sledge
island, is a beautifully made graph-
ite model of a right whale, eleven
inches iu length. It is deeply ex-
cavated below and has a hole pass-
ing through the back to the exca-
vation within. The mouth and
blowholes are indicated by grooves
iu the surface; the hole through the
back serves for attaching a stout
rawhide cord.
I was told by the people from
whom I purchased this object that
it was used in right-whale fishing as
a kind of charm. The heavy image,
hanging to the end of a stout cord,
is thrown over the flukes or flippers
of the whale, or across its body, and
draws the cord down into the water
on the other side. Then the men manage to recover the lower end of
the coi'd by reaching below the whale with a long-handle boat hook
and draw it in to make it fast.
During the whaling season at Cape Prince of Wales the handles used
for water buckets are carved to represent the forms of whales, and
small imagfs of these animals, handsomely carved from ivory, are fre-
(piently attached to the sides of the buckets. These images also figure
iu the winter festivals, at which offerings are made to pro[)itiate the
shades of those animals. It is with this idea of propitiation that the
weights nsed on cords for making fast to whales after they have been
killed are carved to represent these animals.
Figure 152 shows a hollow wooden image of a right wliale, from the
Diomede islands, used for storing lancepoints, and supposed to liave
certain occult virtues to aid iu giving success to the owner.
Fig. 151 — (Irajihite I'etich usfd in right-whale
iishing (about 5)-
440 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (ethann.i«
Xu-na' hliil-h'-tiik is tbe Unalit name for a spot of ground where
certain things are tabooed, or where there is to be feared any evil
inllnence caused by the presence of oB'ended shades of men or animals,
or through the influence of other supernatural means. This ground
is sometimes considered unclean, and to go upon it would bring mis-
fortune to the olVender, producing sickness, death, or lack of success in
hunting or Ashing. The same term is also applied to ground where
certain animals have been killed or have died.
Under the latter circumstance the ground is not considered danger-
ous unless a person performs there some foi-bidden act. The ground
about the place on the shore where a dead white whale has been beached
is so regarded. At such a time to chop wood with an iron ax is sup-
posed to produce death. The same result is said to follow the <'utting
of wood with an iron ax near where salmon are being dressed.
An old man at St Michael told me that he knew of a case in which
an Eskimo began to chop a log near a woman who was splitting salmon,
and both of thum died soon afterward. The cause of this, he said, was
that the inna of the salmon and the yu-a of the ground did not like
it and became angry.
^ — ■^ ~~~~--~,,^^^ When offenses of this
/^^^ ^^-^^^'^'^"^"^^ ~-^^^ kind are committed ev-
r/^'^ \ g ]r \ ery one present is sup-
r -^^ c> \^^ posed to die. If one or
p=-^^$:v^ > "'i — ;7 '~^ more people die sudden-
^ — -^:i==- -'^^^^'^^^rj/ ly of any strange or un-
y^ usual disease, the occu-
lt ,-o Tv^ 1 , .■ 1 f 1 IX-. pants of the dwelling
I' IN. lo2 — Whale leticll of wood (^). ^ ^
immediately forsake it,
saying that the place is bad. I saw places of this kind on the Yukon,
and a group of four houses were pointed out on the shore of Kotzebue
sound that had been deserted by the people because a wonmn had died
there in this uuinner.
This evil influence in certain sjjots may be brought about by witch-
craft, and while shamans may sometimes succeed in counteracting it,
the danger is regarded as great and may even kill the jiriests as well
as other people.
There are other kinds of uncleanness which are less serious, but which
produce sickness or bad luck in hunting. These consist of a kind of
invisible, impalpable atmosphere like a vapor, which may att.ach itself
to a person from some contamination. If a hunter gets in this condi-
tion he becomes much more than ordinarily visible to game, so that his
success in the chase is destroyed until he succeeds in becoming clean
once more. During menstruation women are considered unclean and
hunters must avoid them or become unable to secure game. During
the period that the bladders are in the kashini the hunters avoid all
intercourse with women, saying that if they fail in this respect the
shades will be offended.
ANIMAL FETICHES MYTHIC ANIMALS
441
Cncleamiess of tliis kind may be removed in some cases by batliiiiii' in
urine. Sometimes wheu a man learns that be bas become unclean be goes
to a grave and scrapes bimself from bead to foot with a human rib, thus
leaving the bad influence at the grave. This condition may be brought
about by witchcraft, but usually it is caused by contact with some per-
son or thing already unclean. In the Bladder feast the
flames of wild ])arsnip stalks are supposed to purify " '' ^
the bladders and thereby prevent any influence of this
kind. At the same time they are believed to remove
from the hunters the influence that may have afi'ected
tbem from their association with so many shades or
inuas.
In a case that came to my notice one autumn, on
Norton sound, a Malemut woman was ill ibr several
months with some uterine trouble, and neither her
husband nor other male relative would enter her
house during the entire period, saying that if they
did so tliey would become unclean and could kill no
more game.
The object illustrated in figure 153 is a grotesque
wooden head about three and a half inches long,
with the nose of an ermine skin fastened on its fore-
head and extending thence backward and falling
down behind, with the tail and hind feet as pendants.
A strip of bear skin on the back of the head furnishes
long hair to represent that of a human being. The
features are grotesquely carved, with projecting brow,
squarely cut nose, deeply incised, triangular eyes, and
a crescentic, upturned moutli. A pair of incisors of
some rodent project from the upper jaw, curving out-
ward and down over the mouth. The face is painted
dark red, except the area about the mouth, which is blackened with
gum, in which are set the teeth. The neck has a round hole in its
lower end, apparently for receiving a peg upon which the image was
placed. This object was used by a shaman to represent one of his iun-
ghiif, by whose aid he claimed to accomplish his mysterious works.
/^:
m
Fig. 153 — Sliaman's
(lull Ictkh (J).
MYTHIC ANIMALS
The Unalit and other Eskimo of this region believe in the existence
of various fabulous monstei'S, some of tlie most imjiortant of which are
described below. It will be noted that the majority of these beasts
are apparently derived from traditional accounts of existing animals
or their remains, some of which have already been treated in the chap-
ter relating to masks.
It is said that there are sometimes born, among other beings, mon-
strous children which begin to devour their mother's breasts as soon as
442 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.an.n. 18
they are made to uurse. One was described to uie as liaviiiy been boru
at rikmilctalik many years ago; it devoured its mother's breast, aud
wheu the people rau into the honse in response to her cries the child
escaped through the smoke hole in the roof. When they followed it
outside, it was seen sitting between the horns of a reindeer, riding
toward the mountains, where it disappeared.
Other curious beings are believed by the people of the lower Yukon
to exist in the moon, but are said sometimes to be found on the earth.
These are manlike creatures without head or neck, but having a broad
mouth, armed with sharp teeth, across the chest. A wooden image of
one of these was obtained by me, but it has since been lost.
The a-mi'-lnil- is said to be a large, slimy, leathery-skin sea animal
with four long arms; it is very tierce and seizes a hunter in his kaiak
at sea, dragging both under the water. When it pursues a man it is
useless for him to try to escape, for if he gets upon the ice the beast
will swim below and burst up under his feet; should he reach the
shore the creature will swim through the earth in pursuit as easily as
through the water.
Xear St Michael the jjcople believe that these creatures swim from
the sea up through the land to some land-locked lakes in the craters of
extinct volcanoes and to similar inland places. Several dry lake-beds
were shown to me in that vicinity as having been drained by these ani-
mals when they swam out to the sea, leaving a channel made by their
passage through the earth. It is said that if the (hmi'-kuk returns the
water follows from the sea and again fills the lake. The idea of this
creature may have had its origin in the octopus.
Wi'-lu-(jh6-yuk is the sea shiewinouse — a small animal, exactly like
the common shrew-mouse in size and appearance, but it possesses cer-
tain supernatural powers. It lives on the ice at sea, and the moment it
observes a man it darts at him with incredible swiftness, piercing the
toe of his boot and crawling all over his body in a moment. If he
remains perfectly quiet it disappears by the hole through which it
entered without doing him any injury and, after this, he becomes a
very successful hunter. If a man stir ever so little, however, while the
animal is on him, it instantly burrows into his tlesh, going straight to
the heart and killing him. Hunters are very much afraid of this ani-
mal, aud if they chance to come across a shrew-mouse on the ice at S' a
they staud motionless until the creature goes away. In one case, of
which I chanced to hear at St Michael, a hunter who was out on the
sea ice in that vicinity during winter stood in one spot for hours, while
a shrew-mouse remained near him, and the villagers all agreed that he
had a narrow escape.
Az'-i-icit-fjihn l-i-nuikh'-tJ, the walrus dog. This animal is believed to
be found in company with large herds of walrus, and is very tierce
toward men. It is a long, slender animal, covered with black scales
which are tough but may be pierced by a good spear.- It has a head,
NELSON] MYTHIC ANIMALS 443
teeth somewhat like those of a dog, and four legs; its tail is loug,
rounded, and scaly, and a stroke from it will kill a mau. The i^eople
of the islands in Bering strait told me that sometimes they see these
walrus dogs, and that their walrus hunters are very much afraid of
them ; they also informed me that on one occasion a walrus dog attacked
an umiak full of people and killed them all.
The bones of the mammoth whicli are found on the coast country of
Bering sea and in the adjacent interior are said to belong to au animal
known as the l-t-hu/'-u-wi'tlc {Iw-f/ulh'pi'iJ: of the Yukon). The creature
is claimed to live under ground, where it burrows from place to place,
and when by accident one of them comes to the surface, so that even
the tip of its nose ap])ears above ground and breathes the air, it dies
at once. This explains the fact that the bones of these animals are
nearly always found partly buried in the earth. The Eskimo say that
these animals belong to the nnder world and for that reason the air of
the outer world is fatal to them.
Ko'-fjat are the tiiitghat of lonely lakes; they are semihuman in form
and kill or steal the shade of any person found near their haunts.
They have a loud, wailing cry and are much feared.
The yu-il are the shades of inanimate things and the elements and,
according to the beliefs of these people, usually have curiously dis-
torted, grotesque faces.
The nihi'-inhn yi'i-n is the essence or mystery which is believed to be
present in or near a lake and when it goes away the lake dries up.
These yu-it are believed to have the forms of men or women, and when
visiting remote lakes people make food offerings to them so that they
may be propitiated.
Ti'-silxh-jml; the great worm. This animal, which figures in numerous
tales, was shaped like an enormous worm or caterpillar. It lived in the
(lays when animals were supposed to have the power of changing their
foiin at will to that of human beings, and in the tales it is indifferently
a worm or a man. Among the carvings in ivory representing this crea-
ture were several having the body shaped like a worm with a human
face on the head.
I-muhli'-in-ml akUtn'-linn, the sea weasel. The Norton sound people
described this as a long, weasel-shape animal found in the sea. They
say It has black fur like the shrew-mouse with a white patch between
its forelegs. This animal is also known among peoi:)le living on the
islands of Bering strait. There is no question that this myth has its
origin in the sea otter, although the latter has been unknown in this
region for a long period. Owing to its absence it has been invested
with various supernatural traits, among which it is said to bring harm
to lonely hunters when it finds them at sea. To this same animal may
be ascribed also the imum' tsni'-kak or l-mum' pikh-ti'ikh'-cM, a rare
animal said to be like a land otter, but which lives in. the sea and is
taken by only the best hunters.
444 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [etb.ans. 18
t-mum' l-('(hv^-(i ga, sea fox. This is described as being similar in
appearance to the red fox, but it is said to live far out at sea aud is
very fierce, often attacking and killing hunters.
KHk-irhau'-i'iglidt ]:hi-i'i-Ii('-n1h: The killer whale [ukh'-hd] is undoubt-
edly the original of this mythic creature. It is described as being simi-
lar in form to the killer whale and
is credited with the power of
changing at will to a wolf; after
roaming about over the land it
may return to the sea and again
become a whale. While in the
Fig. 154-Diawing of a composite animal in a wolf form it is knOWQ by the aboVB
wooden tray (J). i xt -i-i i • j-\
name, and the Eskimo say they
know thab this change takes place as they have seen wolf tracks lead-
ing to the edge of the sea ice and ending at the water, or beginning at
the edge of tiie water and leading to the shore. This of course results
from the breaking away of a portion of the ice on which the wolf tracks
had been. These animals are said to be very fierce and to kill men.
The same jjower of changing its form is sometimes credited to the white
whale, which interchanges form with the reindeer, as shown in the
drawing, reproduced in figure 154, on the bottom of a wooden tray from
south of the Yukon mouth. This belief is prevalent among all the
Eskimo along the shore of Bering sea.
A strange, crocodile-like animal, known ?is pal-rai-yi'di, is painted on
' the sides of umiaks and on the inside of wooden dishes (see figures
lo'), .l'>(>) by natives along lower Yu-
kon and Kuskokwim rivers. A mask
(plate xcv, 3) from the tundra south
of the Y^ukon mouth has this animal
drawn down each side of the lace.
According to the traditions of the peo-
ple in this district the climate in an-
cient times was very much warmer
than at present and the winters were
shorter. In those days the mythic
animals referred to were abundant in
the swampy country between the two
rivers, being more common near the
Kuskokwim, where the climate was ^- ^^^^-^ToX w uf ™'-''''' '° '^
more temperate than on the Yukon.
In those days the waterfowl and other birds came back from the
south in February and the snow melted during that month and the
water ran into the passages of houses as it does now in April. At
that time the i;((/-mi'-2/»fc lived in lakes, creeks, and marshes, where it
killed men and animals for food. Several of the lower Yukon Eskimo
recounted the killing of the last one by a hunter whose wife the beast
NELSOX]
MYTHIC ANIMALS
445
liail caught and dovdiued while she was getting water from the lake.
In the tale of the creation by the Eaven, as the latter and the First
Man were traveling in the Skyland, the Eaven cautioned his com-
l)aniou not to drink from the lakes which were jiassed, because in them
were animals lie had made that would seize and destroy any one who
ventured near. These were the iml-ral-i/iik.
In the drawings of this animal on umiaks, at intervals along the
body are open spaces, inside which are represented parts of a human
body, showing the belief in its having eaten such food. It was said to
live in the water, where it lay hidden among the grass, whence it sud-
denly rushed to seize a person on the bank or to attack kaiaks when
crossing its haunts.
The curious likeness of these animals to the alligator, as shown in
the accounts of its habits and in drawings representing it, is very
remarkable. Xearly all of the umiaks in the country of the lower
Yukon and to the southward have a picture of this animal drawn along
the entire length on each side of the boat, with the head near the bow,
and the figure is common also on wooden dishes in that region. It
appears to be a local myth, and can scarcely have been brought to these
l)eople since the advent of the whites. The country where this myth
Firi, 156 — "Drawing of the pdl-rat-yi'fl' on an umiak f^).
is most prevalent is one of the least visited of any along the coast of
Bering sea. The accompanying tigure 158 represents a model of an
umiak from the lower Yukon, with the animal drawn along the sides.
In one of the Eaven tales a large beast is described as having been
seen haunting a dry lake bed overgrown with tall grass while Eaven
and First JIan were journeying in the sky land. It is said to have
rested by lying down on the tips of the growing grass, without bend-
ing the stems. When this animal was killed by the Sky people it was
necessary for them first to place logs under it, for when dead it became
so heavy that it would sink into the ground as will a lean seal in water.
It is described as having a long head and six legs, the hind legs unusu-
ally large and the fore ones short, with the small middle pair hanging
from the belly. A fine, thick fur, like that on the shrew-mouse, is said
to grow all over its body and is thickest about the feet. On the back
of the head are a pair of thick, short horns, which extend forward and
outward and then curve back at the points. The animal has small
eyes and is very dark colored. This undoubtedly refers to the muskox,
which has been extinct lor ages in the region where these i^eople live.
TiH-mi-i'(l'pH]x, the great eagle (Thunderbird). This is described as
an enormous eagle which varies in its habits according to locality.
446
THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT
tETH. A>TJ. 18
Fli;. 157— Ivory carvinLTof a composite animal (J).
The people of Bering strait said that it preys upon right whales. On
a spear- rest used iu the bow of an umiak (plate cvia) are etched
four of these birds, two upon each side. On one side tlie birds are
represented as having their claws in the backs of the whales, which
they are carrying away; on
the other side the birds are
represented as not yet hav-
ing seized their prey.
On the shore of Norton
sound the t^n-nii-i'd-'-pi'd- is
said tocatch either whalesor
reindeer, and alongthelower
Yukon it was rei)orted to
jney upon people and rein-
deer. Among the tales herein recorded is one from the lower Yukon
describing the last pair of these birds which were believed to have lived
there. In that district the toj) of a mountain below Ikogmut was
jioiiited out as one on which these birds were said to have nested.
Plate evil l> .shows a handsomely etched ivory pipestem from Norton
sound. The side represented in the illustration has several groups of
human figures. There is also a kashim with men dancing inside to the
music of a drum; others are entering through the summer passage-
way above ground, and others on the roof. Next is a man with a bow
and arrow shooting another who holds a si)ear upraised. The next is
a representation of the Thnnderbird seizing a reindeer, followed by the
figure of the huge man-worm, or ti-s^lh-jinl:, that figures in Eskimo
mythology. Other less important figures are also etclied on this sur-
face, as is shown in the ilUistration.
The small sculpin, which is very common along the rocky shore of
Norton sound, is called the rainmaker, and the Eskimo say it will cause
heavy rain if a person takes one of them in his hand.
Small fragments of quartz crystal are said to be the centers of masses
of ice that have frozen harder than usual, so that the cores have turned
to stone. These are prized as amulets.
I was told by a fur trader who was fa-
miliar with the Nunivak islanders that
the latter claim descent liom a dog.
Eigure 157, from Cape Darby, on the
northern shore of Norton sound, is an
ivory carving 3.J inches long, representing the head and shoulders of a
white bear and the bodj' of a seal. The bear has in its mouth an object
wliich projects upon either side and is grasped by the paws. This is a
well made carving, and is pierced longitudinally through the under
surface for the passage of a cord. It was used as a handle for drag-
ging seals and other heavy bodies over the ice and represents one of
the mythic animals of the people on the shore of Bering strait.
Fig. 158 — Ivory carving representing the
man-worm (full size).
BUREAU OF AMERICAN ETHNOLOGY.
EIGHTEENTH ANNUAL REPORT PL. CVII
u bPEAR REST »V1TH FIGURES OF THUNDERBIRDS CATCHING WHALES
6— IVORY PIPESTEM WITH ETCHED FIGURES OF THE MAN-WORM AND THE THUNDERBIRD
OBJECTS ETCHED WITH MYTHOLOGIC FIGURES
KELSON]
MYTHIC ANIMALS
447
» Figure lo8, from Cape Vaucouver, is a carving of walrus ivory, repre-
senting a worui-like body encircled by incised rings to represent the
segments, wbicli are colored alternately green and red. On the front
end of the body is represented a semihumau face, below which project
two paws with four fingers or toes. The carving tapers toward the tail,
whieli is narrow and somewhat flattened, with a hole pierced through
for the admission of a cord. This object was used as a i>endant on a
woman's belt, and represents the
man-worm which appears in nu-
merous tales of these iieojile.
Fig.
\5'J — Ivory carviD^r of a mytliic animal (full
size).
Figure 159, from Cape Vau-
couver, is a handsome little ivory
carving representing the figure of a seal with the mouth of a lamprey;
the middle of the bodj' is carved into two joined links. This represents
one of the numerous mythic animals supposed to inhabit the sea.
Figure 1(!0, from Sledge island, is an ivory cord handle representing
one of the mythic animals believed to inhabit the sea and to be half
white bear and half whale.
Fig. l(ju — Ivuiy diai; liaiitlle ri'predeutiiig a composite anini.Tl (§1.
Figure 101 shows a cord handle of ivory from Sledge island. It is
carved to represent a mythic creature, half seal and half human, that
the Eskimo of Norton sound and Bering strait claim exists in the sea.
They are said to be caught in nets or killed by hunters at times, and
when this hapi^ens the one who is responsible for it is i>resumcd to suf-
fer many misfortunes.
Figure IG'2, from Sledge island, is an ivory handle for a whale float.
One end represents a sealhead. and the other the head of one of the
mermaid-like beings said
to live in the sea and to
have the head and shoul-
ders of a human being, the
remainder of the animal
being like a seal.
Figure 103, from Kush-
unuk, is a carving of wood three inches in length. It represents the
body of a seal with the head and neck of a human being. Ujion the
shoulders incised lines represent hands and arms; a seal claw is set in
the lower part of the breast and curved downward and back. This
object represents a mythic animal su])posed to live in the sea, and is
without definite use. It shows a mermaid-like creature, half human
Fig. 161 — Ivory carriug of a mermaid-lilie creature (fij).
448
THE ESKIMO AliOUT BERING STRAIT
lETH. ANN. 18
and half setil. described as having the upper part of the body cov-
ered with white skin, witli Inw^ liair on the liead, and the legs repLiced
by a sears body. It is a mythi-
cal couception common among
the westeru Eskimo.
Figure 104, from Cai)e Van-
couver, is a carving an inch and
three-quarters long, representing
a walrus. On the breast is a
human face, inclosed within the
front nippers and looking forward, intended to represent the features
of the walrus inua. The body is ornamented with concentric circles
Fig. 1G2 — Ivory float hnDillc with nierniiiid-like
figure (2'-
Fig. 163 — Carving representing a niennaid-like
creature {Ij.
Fio. 164 — Ivory carving showing the face
lit a -walrus inva (full size).
with centr^il dots, made by filling round holes in the ivory with
wooden plugs. The general execution of this carving is very good,
the shape of the walrus, including the tusks,
nostrils, and small sunken dots about the
muzzle, representing bristles, being well re-
produced.
An ivory carving (number 43717), three
inches in length, from Xnnivak island, rep-
resents a seal's body with a man's head and
neck. It is pierced crosswise through the
shoulders for the passage of a cord, and is
used as a fastener for a woman's belt. This
represents one of the composite animals
which figure in the mythology of this region.
A carving, from Sledge island in Bering
strait (number ■45236), represents a seal's
body with a semihuman face. It is pierced
lengthwise along the lower side for the pas-
sage of a cord, is used for the same purpose
as the specimen last described, and, like it,
illustrates a mythic animal.
Another carving (figure 135), from the
northern shore of Norton sound, is 4.J inches
in length, made from mammoth ivory, and
represents a white bear carrying upon its back the extended figure of
a man lying face downward with his head over the animal's hips and
Fig. 165— Drawing of mythic
creature iu a wnoik-n tray (i).
NELSON] CONCEPTION OF NATURAL PHENOMENA 449
grasping it about the hauuclies. It is a spirited carving, illustrating
an incident in one of the Kskimo tales.
Fiu'ure IGj is copied from a figure painted on the bottom of a wooden
tray (number 3S642) obtained at Nnlnkhtnlogumut, and represents a
mythical creature described in the tales of that region.
In the Eaven tale are described reindeer which came from the sky
and which had teeth like dogs. These are said still to exist, but are
invisible except to shamans, who see them on the plains and describe
them as having a large hole through the body, back of the shoulders.
People sujjposed to be gifted with clairvoyant powers sometimes see
and shoot at them, believing tijcm to be like other deer, but no ordi-
nary weapon can kill them. Carvings of these animals were seen among
the people south of the Yukon mouth.
In the far north there are said to be men having tails and two faces —
one in front and one behind.
CONCEPTION OF NATURAL PHENOMENA
The aurora is believed to be a grouji of boys playing football, some-
times using a walrus skull as the ball. The swaying movement of the
lights back and forth represents the struggles of the players. When
the light fades away the Eskimo utter a low whistle, which they say
will call the boys back.
The galaxy is said to be the track made by Eaven's snowshoes when
he walked across the sky during one of his journeys while creating the
inhabitants of the earth.
The Pleiades are called the "Little foxes,"' and are said to be a litter
of fox cubs.
The stars of Orion's belt are called the ''Great stretchers,"' being
regarded as ijosts on which rawhide lines are being stretched.
The vertical bar in a parhelion is called the " Sun's walking stick,"
and .shooting stars are termed star dung.
Sirius is the -'Moon-dog,"' which makes high winds when it is near
the moon.
TRADITIONAL SHOWERS OP ASHES
The Eskimo have various traditions of occurrences long past. One
very old woman on the lower Yukon told me she had heard related by
old people when she was a girl that showers of matter like ashes fell
there very long ago. The first shower of ashes she heard of was quite
deep, killing fish in the rivers and causing the death of many people
by starvation.
At St ]Michael an old man related that before the Enssians came to
tlie country he knew of one fall of a strange substance like ashes
which covered the ground like a slight fall of snow and adhered to what-
ever it fell upon so that when rubbed off from wood it left a polished
IS ETH 29
450 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
appearaiu'e. This man said that sach showers were known to have
taken place at widely distant intervals and that people were very mnch
frightened by them. After one occurred they saved all the bones and
scraps of food, even the skins of animals, after removing the hair, in
order to forestall the expected famine. During the cold months of
■winter following one of these occurrences the peoi)le ate every scrap,
saving the dried lish and better food for spring, when they feared
another fall might take place.
These accounts undoubtedly refer to falls of volcanic ashes from
eruptions taking place in the Aleutian islands and other points in this
region, and are interesting as showing the manner in which occurrences
of this kind are treasured in the memories of these people.
ANIMAL i^YMBOLISM
When the first foxes caught in fall are lean the old men predict a hard
winter, and if the white geese commence to fly southward early in
autumn an early winter is expected to follow.
The names of birds and other forms of animal life used among these
people are frequently very expressive, as for instance, the term applied
to the emperor goose, which means " the hooded one," and the name for
the grass snipe {Trhu/a macnlata), called "the walrus talker" from its
booming note, which is similar to that of the walrus.
FOLK TAIiES
SCOPE OF ALASKAN FOLKLORE
The following legends are from various localities. The name of the
place whence each was obtained is given at the beginning of each tale.
The Alaskan Eskimo possess an almost endless number of tales and
legends, which express in many details their religious beliefs and con-
vey in au interesting form an idea of their ancient customs and modes
of thought. In a section treating of their mythology are give notes on
tlie supernatural animals and other beings which are mentioned in the
legends.
These tales are best known by certain old men who entertain their
fellow-villagers by repeating them before the assembled people in the
kashim. The Eaven legends form a series of culture myths, and are
especially popular as accounting for the existence of all things. These
have a widely-extended distribution, and I know personally of tlieir
existence among the iieople from Kotzebiie sound southward around
Bering strait to the mouth of Kuskokwim river. The Raven myth also
exists on the Asiatic shore of Bering strait. At I'lover bay, Siberia,
there was seen a boy 10 or 12 years of age who had the raven totem
tattooed on his forehead (figure 115).
Special attention is invited to this series of legends, which are so
similar in character to Raven legends existing among the Tlinket of
KEt-sox] SCOPE OF ALASKAN FOLKLORE 451
soutlieastern Alaska. These tales apparently have a common source.
The Tliunclerbird of the Tlinket also appears in the mythology of the
Eskimo, at least as far north as Bering- strait.
Young- men -^'ho have an aptitude for learning tales become narrators
and repeat them verbatim, even with the accompanying intiections of
the voice and gestures. On lower Kuskokwim river and the adjacent
district toward the Yukon mouth, some of the important tales are given
by two men, who sit cross-legged near together and facing each other;
one is the narrator and the other holds a bundle of small sticks in one
hand. The tale proceeds and at certain points one of these sticks is
Ijlaced on the floor between them, forming a sort of chapter mark. If the
narrator is at fault he is prompted by his companion. Some of the tales
are long, occupying several successive evenings in their recital. The
narrators are very careful to repeat them in a certain set phraseology,
with repetitious in dehnitely determined places. When an error is
made it is common for the narrator to go back and rej^eat from some
prominent incident. The voice is intoned to imitate the different char-
acters in a more or less dramatic manner, and with the gestures makes
a very effective recital. The listeners are quiet and attentive, and at
certain incidents express by a word or two their feelings of surprise or
satisfaction. These tales are heard with pleasure over and over again,
forming the unwritten lore upon which they draw for entertainment
during the long winter evenings. During a sledge journey to the
mouth of Knskokwini river in 1879 I was kept awake several nights
by young men lying in the kashim repeating for hours the tales they
were memorizing, although the other Eskimo slept through it all with
perfect indift'erence.
In addition to the more important tales, which ai'e the property of
the men, there are many children's stories, which the women relate,
frequently entertaining each other as well as the children ; these are
short, simple stories and are looked upon as belonging peculiarly to
the women. An example of these is the tale of the Raven and the
Marmot.
A collection of tales fi-om the shore of Bering strait would undoubt-
edly give valuable insight into the intercourse formerly held with the
Asiatic shore, the tale Ale' -chi k-chi'i' ■(/ I'lJi being an example in point. An
old man related this tale, at the same time drawing a map showing the
course taken by the brothers to Cape Prince of Wales and across the
strait to East cape, Siberia, and southward along that coast until they
found their sister; the villages were all marked and named, and
the map, though rude, gave a good idea of the coastlines and islands.
The tales of these people seem to have originated largely from cer-
tain distinct sources; there are tales of hunting and adventure, includ-
ing voyages and incidents of the ordinary life of the people which may
start from someone who recounts an episode in his life in a pleasing
manner, so that it is taken up and repeated, with various additions,
452 THE ESI^IMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. anx. 18
maiuly of a supernatural character, and flually becomes fixed in the
tribal folklore.
Another class is made up and recouuted by the shamans, or medi-
ciuemeu, always dealing with .supernatural powers and beings, and
are intended to increase the public regard for them and their ability to
deal with the shades that are believed to exist everywnere, through
the propitiation of wliich the public aud private welfare is secured.
;Many of their festivals have undoubtedly originated from tales told by
the shamans regarding visions seen and instructions said to have been
obtained from supernatural beings, while asleep or in a trance. One
such tale is that of the Yiujul: festival of the luWer Yukon.
FLOOD LEGENDS FROM ST MICHAEL
The Xortou sound Eskimo have a legend that in the first days the
earth was flooded except a very high mountain in the middle. The
water came up from the sea and covered all the land except the top
of this mountain; only a few animals were saved, which escaped by
going up the mountain side. A few people escaped by going into an
umiak and subsisting on the fish they caught until the water subsided.
Finally, as the waters lowered, the people who were saved went to live
upon the mountains, eventually descending to the coast; the animals
also came down and replenished the earth with their kind. During the
flood the waves and currents cut the surface of the land into hollows
and ridges, and then, as the water receded, it ran back into the sea,
leaving the mountains and valleys as they are today. Legends very
similar to this are widely spread among other Eskimo on the coast of
Bering sea.
TALES OF THE RAVEN (TU-LU-KAU'-GUK)
THK CREATIOX
(From Kigiktauik)
The following was related by an old Uualit man living at Kigik-
tauik, who learned it, when he was a boy, from an old man. Fragments
aud versions of the same tale were found among the Eskimo from the
Arctic coast to the banks of Kuskokwim river. The last portion of
this series of legends, describing the recovery of the light by Eaven,
was repeated by Eskimo from Kotzebue sound, IsTortou bay, and Kns-
kokwim and Yukon rivers.
My narrator said that the old man from whom he learned it came
from Bering strait, and that always, when he finished the tales on the
third evening, he would pour a cup of water on the floor and say:
"Drink well, spirits of those of whom I have told."
It was in the time when there were no people on the earth plain.
During four days the first man lay coiled up in the pod of a beachpea
{L. maritimiis). On the fifth day he stretched out his feet aud burst
NELSON) RAVEN CREATION MYTH 453
the pod, falling to tbe ground, where be stood up, a full-growu
man. He looked about him, and then moved his hands and arms, his
neck and legs, and examined himself curiously. Looking back, he saw
the pod from which he had fallen, still hanging to the vine, with a hole
in the lower end, out of which he had dropped. Then he looked about
him again and saw that he was getting farther away from his starting
place, and that the ground moved up and down under bis feet and
seemed very soft. After a while he bad an unpleasant feeling in bis
stomach, and be stooped down to take some water into bis mouth from
a small pool at bis feet. The water ran down into his stomach and be
felt better. When he looked up again be saw approaching, with a
waving motion, a dark object which came on until just in front of
bim, when it stopped, and, standing on the ground, looked at him.
This was a raven, and, as soon as it stopped, it raised one of its
wings, pushed up its beak, like a mask, to the top of its head, and
changed at once into a man. Before be raised bis mask Eaveu had
stared at tbe man, and after it was raised he stared more than ever,
moving about from side to side to obtain a better view. At last be
said: "^A'hat are you? Whence did you come? I have never seen
anything like you.'' Then Raven looked at Man, and was still more
surprised to find that this strange new being was so much like himself
in shape.
Then he told Man to walk away a few steps, and in astonishment
exclaimed again : " Whence did you come ? I have never seen anything
like you before." To this Man replied: "I came from the peapod."'
And be pointed to the plant from which he came. "Ah !'' exclaimed
Raven, " I made that vine, but did not know that anything like you
wonld ever come from it. Come with me to the high ground over there :
this ground 1 made later, and It is still soft and thin, but it is thicker
and harder there."
In a short time they came to the higher laud, which was firm under
their feet. Then Raven asked Man if he bad eaten anything. Tbe
latter answered that be bad taken .some soft stufl' into bim at one of
the pools. "Ah!" said Raven, "you drank some water. Ifow wait
for me here."
Then be drew down tbe mask over his face, changing again into a
bird, and flew far up into the sky where be disappeared. Man waited
where he bad been left until tbe fourth day, when Raven returned,
bringing four berries in bis claws. Pushing up his mask. Raven became
a man again and held out two salmonberi'ies and two heathberries,
saying, "Here is what I have made for you to eat. I also wish them
to be plentiful over the earth. Now eat them." Man took the berries
and placed them in bis mouth one after the other and they satisfied
his hunger, which bad made him feel uncomfortable. Raven then led
Man to a small creek near by and left him while be went to tbe water's
edge and molded a couple of pieces of clay into tbe form of a i>air of
454 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.ann. 18
mountmii sheep, wbicli be held in his hand, and when they became dry
he called Man to show him what he had done. Man thought they were
very pretty, and Eaveu told him to close his eyes. As soon as Mail's
eyes were closed Eaven drew down his mask and waved his wings
four times over the images, when they became endowed with life and
bounded away as full-grown mountain sheep. Kaven then raised his
mask and told Man to look. When Man saw the sheep moving away,
full of life, he cried out with pleasure. Seeing how pleased Man was,
Raven said, "If these animals are numerous, perhaps people will wish
very much to get them." And Man said he thought they would.
"Well," said Raven, "it will be better for them to liave their home
among the high cliffs, so that every one can not kill them, and there
only shall they be found."
Then Raven made two animals of clay which he endowed with life as
before, but as they were dry only in spots when they were given life,
they remained brown and white, and so originated the tame reindeer
with mottled coat. Man thought these were very handsome, and
Raven told him that they would be very scarce. In the same way a
pair of wild reindeer were made and permitted to get dry and white
only on their bellies, then they were given life; in consequence, to
this day the belly of the wild reindeer is the only white part about it.
Raven told Man that these animals would be very common, and people
would kill many of them.
"You will be very lonely by yourself," said Raven. "I will make
you a companion." He then went to a spot some distance from where
he had made the animals, and, looking now and then at Man, made an
image very much like him. Then he fastened a lot of fine water grass
on the back of the head for hair, and after the image had dried in his
hands, he waived his wings over it as before and a beautiful young
woman arose and stood beside Man. "There," cried Raven, "is a com-
panion for you," and he led them back to a small knoll near by.
In those days there were no mountains far or near, and the sun never
ceased shining brightly; no rain ever fell and no winds blew. When
they came to the knoll. Raven showed the pair how to make a bed in
the dry moss, and they slept there very warmly; Raven drew down his
mask and slept near by in the form of a bird. Waking before the
others, Raven went back to the creek and made a pair each of stickle-
backs, graylings, and blackflsh. When these were swimming about in
the water, he called Man to see them. When the latter looked at them
and saw the sticklebacks swim up the stream with a wriggling motion
he was so surprised that he raised his hand suddenly and the fish
darted away. Raven then showed him the graylings and told him that
they would be found in clear mountain streams, while the sticklebacks
would live along the seacoast and that both would be good for food.
Next the shrew-mouse was made, Raven saying that it would not be
good for food but would enliven the ground and prevent it from seeming
barren and cheerless.
NELSON] RAVEN CREATION MYTH 455
In this way Eaven continued for several days making birds, fislies,
and animals, showing them to Man, and explaining their uses.
After this he flew away to the sliy and was gone four days, when
he returned, bringing bade a salmon for the use of Man. Looking
about he saw that the ponds and lakes were silent and lonely, so he
created many water insects upon their surfaces, and from the same
clay he made the beaver and the mnskrat to frequent their borders.
Then, also, were made flies, mosqiiitoes, and various other land and
water insects, it being explained to Man that these were made to
enliven and make cheerful the earth. At that time the mosquito was
like the house-fly in its habits and did not bite as it does now.
Man was shown the mnskrat and told to take its skin for clothing.
He was also told that the beavers would live along the streams and
build strong houses and that he must follow their example, and like-
wise that the beavers would be very cunning and only good hunters
would be able to take them.
At this time the woman gave birth to a child, and Raven directed
Man how to feed and care for it, telling him that it would grow into a
man like himself. As soon as the child was born, Kaven and Man took
it to a creek, rubbed it over with clay, and then returned with it to his
stopping place on the knoll. The next morning the child was running
about pulling up grass and other plants which Raven had caused to
grow near by; on the third day the child became a full-grown man.
After this Raven thought that if he did not create something to
make men afraid they would destroy everything he had made to
inhabit the earth. Then he went to a creek near by, where he formed
a bear and gave it life, jumping to one side quickly as the bear stood
up and looked fiercely about. Man was then called and told that the
bear would be very fierce and would tear him to pieces if he disturbed
it. Then were made different kinds of seals, and their names and habits
■were explained to man. Raven also taught Man to make rawhide lines
from sealskin, and snares for deer, but cautioned him to wait until the
deer were abundant before he snared any of them.
In time the woman was with child again, and Raven said it would
be a gii'l and they must rub her over with clay as soon as she was
born, and that after she was grown she must marry her brother. Then
Eaven went away to the place of the pea vine, where the first man was
found. While he was gone a girl was born and the pair did as they
were told, and the next day the girl walked about. On the third day
she became a full-grown woman, and was married to the young man as
directed by Raven, in order that the earth might be peopled more
rapidly.
When Raven reached the pea vine he found three other men had
just fallen from the pea pod that gave the first one. These men, like
the first, were looking about them in wonder, and Eaven led them away
in an opposite direction from that in which he had taken the first man,
afterward bringing them to firm land close to the sea. Here they
45G THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axx. is
stopped, and Raveu remained with tlieni a Ions; time, teaching tliem
liow to live. He taught them how to make a fire drill and bow from a
piece of dry wood and a cord, taking the wood from the bushes and
small trees he had caused to grow in hollows and sheltered places on
the hillside. He made for each of the men a wife, aud also made
many jjlauts aud birds such as frequent the seacoast, but fewer kinds
than he had made iu the land where the first man lived. He taught
the men to make bows and arrows, spears, nets, and all the imple-
ments of the chase and how to use them ; also how to capture the seals
which had now become plentiful in the sea. After he had taught them
how to make kaiaks, he showed them how to build houses of drift logs
and bushes covered with earth. Xow the three wives of the last men
were all pregnant, and Itaven went back to the first man, where he
found the children were married; then he told Man about all he had
done for the people on the seacoast. Looking about here he thought the
earth seemed bare; so, while the othei-s slept, he caused birch, spruce,
and Cottonwood trees to spring up in low places, and then awoke tlie
people, who were much pleasetl at seeing the trees. After this they
were taught how to make fire with the fire drill aud to place the spark
of tinder in a bunch of dry grass and wave it about until it blazed,
then to place dry wood upon it. They were shown how to roast fish on
a stick, to make fish traps of splints and willow bark, to dry salmon
for winter use, and to make houses.
Haven then went back to the coast men again. When he had goue
Man aud his son went down to the sea and the son caught a seal which
they tried to kill with their hands but could not, until, finally, the sou
killed it by a blow with his fist. Then the father took otf its skin with
his hands aloue and made it into lines which they dried. With these
lines they set snares in the woods for reindeer. When they went to look
at these the next morning, they found the cords bitten in two and the
snares goue, for in those days reindeer had sharp teeth like dogs.
After thinking for a time the young man made a deep hole in the deer
trail and hung in it a heavy stone fastened to the snare so that when
it caught a deer the stone would slip down into the hole, drag the deer's
neck down to the ground, aud hold it fast. The next morning when
they returned they found a deer entangled in the snare. Taking it
out they killed and skinned it, carrying the skin home for a bed; some
of the flesh was roasted on the fire and found to be very good to eat.
One day Man went out seal hunting along the seashore. He saw
many seals, but in each case after he had crept carefully up they would
tumble into the water before he could get to tliem, until only one was
left on the rocks; Man crept up to it more carefully than before, but it
also escaped. Then he stood up and his breast seemed full of a strange
feeling, and the water began to run in drops from his eyes and down
his face. He put up his hand and caught some of the drops to look at
them aud found that thej' were really water: then, without any wish
KELso-N] RAVEN CREATION MYTH 457
on Lis part, loud cries began to break from him and tlie tears ran down
Ills face as lie went home. ^Yhen his son saw him coming, he called to
his wife and mother to see Man coming along making such a strange
noise ; when he reached them they were still more surprised to see water
running down his face. After he told them the story of his disappoint-
ment they were all stricken with the same strange ailment and began to
wail with him, and in this way people first learned how to cry. After
this the son killed another seal and they made more deer snares from
its hide.
When the deer caught this time was brought home, INIan told his peo-
ple to take a splint bone from its foreleg and to drill a hole in the large
end. Into this they put some strands of sinew from the deer and sewed
skins upon their bodies to keep themselves warm when winter came;
for Eaven had told them to do this, so that the fresh deerskins dried
upon them. Man then showed his son how to make bows and arrows
and to tip the latter with points of horn for killing deer; with them
the sou killed his first deer. After he had cut up this deer he placed
its fat on a bush and then fell asleep; when he awoke he was very
angry to find that mosquitoes had eaten all of it. Until this time
mosquitoes had never bitten people, but Man scolded them for what
they had done and said, " Never eat meat again, but eat men," and
since that day mosquitoes have always bitten people.
Where the first man lived there had now grown a large village, for
the people did everything as Eaven directed them, and as soon as a
child was born it was rubbed with clay and so caused to grow to its
full stature in three days. One day Eaven came back and sat by Man,
and they talked of many things. Man asked Eaven about the land he
had made in the sky. Eaven said that he had made a fine laud there,
whereupon Man asked to be taken to see it. This was agreed to and
thej' started toward the sky where they arrived in a short time. There
Man found himself in a beautiful country with a very much better
climate than that on earth : but the people who lived there were very
small. Their heads reached only to his thigh when they stood beside
him. Man looked about as they journeyed and saw many strange
animals; also that the country was much finer than the one he had left.
Eaven told him that this land, with its people and animals, was the
first lie had made.
The people living here wore handsomely made fur clothing, worked
in ornamental patterns, such as people now wear on earth ; for Man, on
his return, showed his people how to make clothes in this manner, and
the patterns have been retained ever since. After a time they came to
a large kashim, and went in; a very old man, the first made by Eaveu
in the sky land, came out from his place of honor at the head of the room,
opposite the door, and welcomed them, telling the people to bring food
for the guest from the lower land, who was his friend. Then boiled
flesh of a kind which 'Man had never eaten before was brought to him.
458 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.akn. 18
Eaven told liim that it was from the mountain sheep and tlie tame rein-
deer. After Man had eaten Raven led him on again to show him other
things which he had made, and told him not to try to drink from any of
the lakes they might pass, for in them he had made animals that would
seize and destroy him if he went near.
On the way they came to a dry lake bed in which tall grass was
growing thickly. Lying upon the very tips of this grass, which did not
bend vinder its weight, was a large, strange-looking animal, with a long
head and six legs. The two hind-legs were unusually large; the fore-
legs were short, and a small pair extended down from the belly. All
over the animal's body grew fine, thick hair, like that on the shrew-
mouse, but it -was longer about the feet. From the back of the head
grew a pair of thick, short horns, which extended forward and curved
back at the tips. The animal had small eyes and was of very dark
color or blackish.
Raven told Man that when people wished to kill one of these animals
they lirst placed logs on the ground under them, for, if they did not, the
animal would sink into the earth when he fell and be lost. In order to
kill one of them many people were needed, and when the animal fell on
the logs other logs must be thrown over it and held down, while two
men took large clubs and beat in its skull between the eyes.
Next they came to a round hole in the sky, around the border of
which grew a ring of short grass, glowing like fire. This, Raven
said, was a star called the Mooudog [i-gha-lum M-mi;kh'-tI). The tops
of the grass bordering the hole were gone, and Raven said that his
mother had taken some, and he had taken the rest to make the first fire
on earth. He added that he had tried to make some of this same kind
of grass on the earth but could not.
Man was now told to close his eyes and he would be taken to another
place. Raven took him upon his wings and, dropping through the star
hole, they floated down for a long time, until at last they entered some-
thing that seemed to resist their course. Finally they stopped, and
Raven said they were standing at the bottom of the sea. Man breathed
quite easily there, and Raven told him that the foggy appearance was
caused by the water. He said, " I will make some new kinds of ani-
mals here; but you must not walk about; you must lie down, and if
you become tired you may turn over upon the other side."
Raven then left Man lying on one side, where he rested for a long
time; finally he awoke, but felt very tired, so he tried to turn over, but
could not. Then Man thought, "I wish I could turn over;'' and in a
moment he turned without eflbrt. As he did this he was surprised to
see that his body had become covered with long, white hairs and that
his fingers had become long claws, but he quickly fell asleep again. He
awoke, and turned over and fell asleep three times more. When he
awoke the fourth time Raven stood beside him and said, "I have
changed you into a white bear. How do you like it?" Man tried to
NELSON]
RAVEN CREATION MYTH 459
answer, but could not make a sound until the Raven waved his magic
wing over him, when he replied that he did not like it, for he would have
to live on the sea while his sou would be on the shore, and he would
feel badly. Then Raven made a stroke with his wings and the bearskin
fell from Man and lay empty at one side while he sat up in his original
form. Then Raven took one of his tail-feathers, placing it inside the
bearskin for a spine, and, after waving his wing over it, a white bear
arose. Then they passed on, and ever since white bears have been
found ou the frozen sea.
Raven asked Man how many times he had turned over, and he
answered, '^ four." " That was four years," said Raven, "for you slept
there just four years." They had gone only a short distance beyond
this, when they saw a small animal like a shrew-mouse; this was a
ici'-lugho'-yuk. It is like the shrew that lives on the land, but this one
always lives at sea on the ice. When it sees a man it darts at him, and,
entering the toe of his boot, crawls all over his body, after which, if he
keeps perfectly quiet, it will leave him unharmed and the man will
become a successful hunter. In case the man moves even a finger
while this animal is on him, it instantly burrows into his flesh and
goes directly to his heart, causing death.
Tiien RaveTi made the (hin!'-l-iil; a large, slimy, leathery-skin animal,
with four long, wide-spreading arms. This is a fierce animal, living
in the sea, which wraps its arms about a man or a kaiak and drags
them under the water; if the man tries to escape from it by leaving his
kaiak and getting ou the ice it will dart underneath, breaking the ice
beneath his feet, and even pursuing him on shore by burrowing through
the earth as easily as it swims in the water, so that no one can escape
from it when it once pursues him.
Beyond this, they saw two large dark-colored animals, around which
swam a smaller one. Raven hurried forward and sat upon the head of
the smaller animal, and it became quiet. When Man drew near. Raven
showed him two walrus, and said that the animal upon whose head he
was borne was a walrus dog {az-i-iou' -(jumlci-nmlih' -tl). This animal,
he said, would always go with large herds of walru.s and would kill
people. It was long and rather slender, covered with black scales
which were not too hard to be pierced by a spear. Its head and teeth
were somewhat like those of a dog; it had four legs and a long, round
tail covered with scales like those on the body; with a stroke of this
tail it could kill a man.
Some whales and grampus were seen next. Raven told Man that
only good hunters could kill them, and that when one was killed an
entire village could feast. Then they saw the l-mum' lai'-hvi-d-gd, or sea
fox, an animal very much like the red fox, except that it lives in the
sea and is so fierce that it kills men. Xear this were two imum' tsni'-
Ttak or i-mum' pikh-tilkh'-cM, the sea otter, which is like the land otter,
but has much finer fur, tipped with white, and is very scarce, only the
460 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STBAIT [eth.ann. 18
best hunters being able to capture it. They passed many kinds of tisb
and then the shore rose before theiu, and overhead coukl be seen the
ripples on the siu-face of the water. "Close your eyes, and hold fast
to nie,'' said Eaveu. As soon as he had done this, Man found himself
standing on the shore near his home, and was verj- much astonished to
see a large village where he had left only a few huts : his wife had
become very old and his son was an old luau. The people saw him and
welcomed him back, making him their headman; he was given the
place of honor in the kashim, and there told the people what be had
seen and taught the young men many things. The villagers would
have given Eaven a seat by the old man in the ijlace of honor, but he
refused it and chose a seat with the humble people near the entrance.
After a time the old man began to wish to see the fine sky land
again, but his people tried to induce him to stay with them. He told
his children that they must not feel badly at his absence, and then, in
company with Eaven, he returned to the sky laud. The dwarf people
welcomed them, and they lived there for a long time, until the villagers
on the earth had become very numerous and killed a great many ani-
mals. This angered Man and Eaven so much that one night they took
a long line and a grass basket with which they descended to the earth.
Eaveu caught ten reindeer, which he i)ut into the basket with the old
man; then one end of the cord was fastened to the basket and Eaven
returned to the sky, drawing it up after him. The next evening they
took the reindeer and went down close to Man's village; the deer were
then told to break down the first house they came to and destroy the
people, for men were becoming too uumerous. The reindeer did as
they were told aud ate up the people with their sharp, wolf-like teeth,
after which they returned to the sky; the next night they came back
and destroyed another house with its people in the same manner. The
villagers had now become much frightened and covered the third house
with a mixture of deer fat and berries. When the reindeer tried to
destroy this house they filled their mouths with the fat and sour
berries, which caused them to run off, shaking their heads so violently
that all their long, sharp teeth fell out. Afterward small teeth, such as
reindeer now have, grew in their places, and these animals became
harmless.
Man and Eaven returned to the sky after the reindeer ran away, j\Iau
saying, " If something is not done to stop people from taking so many
animals they will continue until they have killed everything you have
made. It is better to take away the sun from them so that they will
be in the dark and will die."
To this Eaven agreed, saying, "You remain here aud I will go and
take away the sun." So he went away and, taking the sun, put it into
his skin bag and carried it far away to a ])art of the sky land where
his parents lived, and it became very dark on earth. In his father's
village Eaven took to himself a wife from the maidens of the place and
lived there, keeping the sun hidden carefully in the bag.
NELSON] RAVEN CREATION MYTH 4G1
The people on earth were very much frightened wheu the suu was
taken away, and tried to get it back by ofl'ering llaven rich presents of
food and furs, but without ettect. After many trials the people propiti-
ated Raven so that he let them have the light for a short time. Then
he would hold up the sun in one hand for two days at a time, so that
the people could hunt and get food, after which it would be taken away
and all would become dark. After this a long time would pass and it
required many otteriugs before he would let them have light again.
This was repeated many times.
Eaven had living in this village au older brother who began to feel
sorry for the earth people and to think of means by which he could
get the sun and return it to its place. After he had thought a long
time he pretended to die, and was put away in a grave box, as was
customary. As soon as the mourners left his grave he arose and went
out a short distance from the village, where he hid his raven mask and
coat in a tree; then he went to the spring where the villagers got their
water, and waited. In a short time his brother's wife came for water,
and after she had tilled her bucket she took up a ladle full of water to
drink. As she drank. Raven's brother, by a magic spell, changed liim-
self into a small leaf, falling into the ladle, and was swallowed with
the water. The woman coughed and then hastened home, where she
told her husband that she had swallowed some strange thing while
drinking at the spring, to which he paid little attention, saying it was
probably a small leaf.
Immediately after this the woman became witli child, and in a few
days gave birth to a boy, who was very lively and crept about at
once and in a few days was running about. lie cried continually for
the sun, and, as the father was very fond of him, he frequently let the
child have it for a plaything, but was always careful to take it back
again. As soon as the boy began to play out of doors he cried and
begged for the sun more than ever. After refusing for a long time, his
father let him take the sun again and the boy played with it iu the
house, and then, when no one was looking, he carried it outside, ran
quickly to the tree, put ou his raven mask and coat, and flew far away
with it. When he was far up from the sky he heard his father crying
out to him, "Do not hide the sun. Let it out of the bag to make some
light. Do not keep it always dark." For he feared his .son had stolen
it to keep it for himself.
Then Raven went home and the Raven boy flew ou to the place where
the sun belonged. There he tore off the skin covering and put the sun
iu its place again. From this place he saw a broad path leading far
away, which he followed. It led him to the side of a hole surrounded
by short grass glowing with light, some of which he plucked. He
remembered that his father had called to him not to keep it always
dark, but to make it partly dark and partly light. Thinking of this, he
caused the sky to revolve, so that it moved around the earth, carrying
the sun and stars with it. thus making day and night.
462 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STKAIT [eth.ann. is
While lie was standing close by the edge of the earth, just before
sunrise, he stuck into the sky a bunch of the glowing grass that
he held in his hand, and it has stayed there ever since, forming the
brilliant morning star. Going down to the earth he came at last to the
village where the first people lived. There the old people welcomed
him, and be told them that Raven had been angry with them and had
taken the sun away, but tliat he had put it back himself so that it
Mould never be moved again.
Among the people who welcomed him was the headman of the sky
dwarfs, who had come down with some of his people to live on the
earth. Theu the i^eople asked him what had become of Man, who had
gone up to the sky with Eaven. This was the first time the Eaveu boy
had heard of Man, and he tried to fly up to the sky to see him, but
found that he could rise only a short distance above the earth. When
he found that he could not get back to the sky, he wandered away until
he came to a village where lived the children of the other meu last
born from the pea- vine. There he took a wife and lived a long time,
having many children, all of whom became Eaveu people like himself
and were able to fly over the earth, but they gradually lost their magic
powers until finally they became ordinary ravens like the birds we see
now on the tundras.
RAVEN TAKES A WIFE
(From the Unalit of Norton sound)
For a long time Eaven lived alone, but finally became tired of this and
decided to take a wife. For this purpose he looked about and noticed
that it was late in the fall and that the birds were going soutliward in
large flocks. Then Eaveu flew away and stopped directly in the path
taken by the geese and other wild fowl on their way to the land of sum-
mer. As he sat by the way he saw a pretty youug Hutchius goose com-
ing near. Then he modestly hid his face by looking at his feet, and as
the goose passed he called out, " Who wishes me for a husband ? I am a
very nice man." Unheeding him, the goose flew on, and Eaven looked
after her and sighed. Soon after a black brant passed, and Raven
cried out as before, with the same result. He looked after her and cried
out, "Ah, what kind of people are these? They do not even wait to
listen.'' Again he waited, and a duck passed near, and when Eaven
cried out she turned a little toward him but passed on. For an instant
his heart beat (piickly with hope, and as the duck passed, he cried,
"Ah, I came very near then ; perhaps 1 shall succeed this time;" aud
he stood waiting with bowed head.
Very soon a family of white-front Geese came along, consisting of
the i)arents with four brothers aud a sister, and the Eaven cried out,
"Who wishes me for a husband? I am a fine hunter aud am young
and handsome." As he finished they alighted .just beyond him, and he
thought, " Now I will get a wife." Then he looked about and saw a
NELSON] KAVKN TAKES A WIFE 463
pretty white stoue with a hole in it lying near; he picked it up and,
strinyiug it on a long grass stem, hung it about his neck. As soon as
he had done this he pushed up his bill so that it slid to the top of his
head like a mask, and he became a dark-colored young man, who walked
up to the Geese. At the same time each of the Geese pushed up its bill
in the same manner, and tiiey became nice-looking people. Raven was
much pleased with the looks of the girl and, going to her, gave her
the stone, choosing her for his wife, and she hung it about her own
neck. Then all pushed down their bills, becoming birds again, and
flew away toward the south.
The Geese Happed their wings heavily and worked slowly along, but
Raven with his outspread wings glided on faster than his party, while
the geese looked after him, exclaiming, in admiration, " How light and
graceful he is I" At length Raven grew weary, so he said, "We had
better stop early and look for a place to sleep." The others agreed to
this, so they stopped and were soon asleep.
Early next morning the Geese were astir and wished to be off,
but Raven still slept so heavily that they had to arouse him. The
father Goose said, " We must make haste, for it will snow here soon ;
let us not linger,"
As soon as Raven was fully awake he pretended to be eager to get
away, and, as on the day before, led the others with outspread wings
and was greatly admired by his young companions. And so Raven
kept on, above or in front of his companions, who made admiring
remarks to one another, such as "Ah, see how light and graceful he
is." Thus the party traveled on until they stopped one evening upon
the seashore, where they feasted iipon the berries that were plentiful
all about them, and theii went to sleep.
Early the next morning the Geese made ready to go without stopping
for breakfast. Raven's stomach cried out for some of the fine berries
that were so plentiful, but the Geese would not wait, so he dared not
object to starting. As they left the seashore the father Goose told them
that they would stop to rest once on the way, and the next stretcli
would bring them to the other shore. Raven began to feel very doubt-
ful about being able to reach the other shore, but he was ashamed to
say so and thought he would risk making the attem^it; so off they all
flew. The Geese flew steadily ou and on. After a long time Raven
began to fall behind. His widespread wings ached, yet the Geese kept
on steadily and untiringly. Raven flapped heavily along, and then
would glide on outspread pinions for a time, trying to ease his tired
wings, but to no purpose, so he fell farther and farther behind. Finally
the Geese looked back, and the father Goose exclaimed, "1 thought he
was light and active, but he must be getting tired; let us wait." Then
the Geese settled close together in tlie water, and Raven came laboring
up and sunk upon their backs, gasping for breath. In a short time he
l)artly recovered, and, putting one hand on his breast, said, "I have an
464 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
arrowhead here from an old war I was iu and it pains me greatly; that
is the reason I fell behind."'
After resting' they went on, but the others had to wait for Eaven
again, and he repeated the story of the arrowhead, which he told them
had pierced his heart. Then he had his wife put her hand on his breast
to feel it shaking about. She did so, but could feel only his heart
beating like a hammerstone and no sign of an arrowpoint, yet she said
nothing. Thus they went od, and again they waited for Haven, but now
the brothers began to talk about him, saying among themselves, ''I do
not believe that story about the arrowhead. How could he live with
an arrowhead in his heart.'"
When they were rested they saw the far-away shore before them.
The father Goose now told Raven that tliey would wait for him no more
until they reached the land. Then all arose and flew on, Eaven slowly
flapping his wings, which felt very heavy. The Geese kept steadily on
toward the shore, while Eaven sank lower and lower, getting nearer
and nearer to the dreaded water. As he came close'to the waves he
cried and shrieked to his wife, "Leave me the white stone! Throw it
back to me I" for it contained magical properties. Thus he kept crying
until suddenly his wings lost their power and he floated helplessly iu
the water as the Geese gained the shore. He tried to rise from the water,
but his wings seemed to be weighted down, and he drifted back and
forth along the beach. The waves arose, and soon succeeding white
caps buried him until he was soaked, and only with the greatest dirtl-
cultj' could he get his beak above the surface to breathe a little between
the waves. After a long time a great wave cast him upon the land.
Then, as it flowed back, he dug his claws into the pebbles and only
by great eftbrt did he save himself from being dragged back again into
the sea. As soon as he was able he struggled up the beach, an unhappy-
looking object. The water ran in streams from his soaked feathers and
his wings dragged on the ground. He fell several times, and at last,
with wide-gaping mouth, reached some bushes, where he pushed up his
beak and became a small, dark-colored man. Then he took oft' his
raven coat and mask, hanging them on a bush, while he made a fire-
drill out of some pieces of wood and soon had a fire burning, before
which he dried himself
IIIK UAXEX. THE WHALE. AND THE MIXK
[This tale is related either separately or in conjunction with the fore-
going legend, of which it forms a part.]
. After Eaven had dried his clothing at the fire he chanced to look
toward the sea and saw a large whale passing close along the shore,
and he cried out, "When you come up again shut your eyes and open
your mouth wide."' Quickly putting on his raven coat, he drew down
his mask, then, carrying his fire-drill under his wings, flew out over
the water. The whale soon came up again and did as it was told, and
NELSON] THE RAVEN, THE WHALE, AND THE MINK 465
whea Eaven saw the open mouth he flew straight down tue whale's
throat. The whale closed its mouth and went down again, while Raven
stood looking' about, finding himself at the entrance of a tine room, at
one end of which burned a lamp. He went in and was surprised to
see a very beautiful young woman sitting there. The place was clean
and dry, the roof being supported by the whale's spine, while its ribs
formed tlic walls. From a tube that extended along the whale's back-
bone, oil was dropping slowly into the lamp. When Kaven stepped in
the woman started up and cried out, " How came you here? You are
the first man who ever came in here." Eaven told how he came there,
and she asked him to be seated on the other side of the room. This
woman was the shade or inua of the whale, which was a female. Then
she prepared him food, giving him some berries and oil, at the same
time telling him that she had gathered the berries the year before.
For four days Eaven stayed there as the guest of the inua, and con-
tinually wondered what the tube was that ran along the roof of the
bouse. Each time the wonuxn left the room she told him that he must
not touch it. At last, when she left the room again, he went to the
lamp, and holding out his claw caught a large drop of the oil and licked
it with bis tongue. It tasted so sweet that he began to catch and
eat other drops as fast as they fell. This soon became too slow for
him, so he reached up and tore a piece from the side of the tube and
ate it. A.S soon as this was done a great rush of oil poured into the
room, extinguishing the light, while the room itself began to roll wildly
about. This continued for four days and Eaven was nearly dead from
weariness and the bruises which he had received. Then the room
became still and the whale was dead, for Eaven had torn off a part of
one of the heart vessels. The inua never came back to the room, and
the whale drifted upon the shore.
Eaven now found himself a prisoner, and while trying to think of a
plan for escaping, heard two men talking on top of the whale, and pro-
posing to bring all of their village mates to the place. This was done
very quickly, and the people soon had a hole made through the upper
side of the whale's body. This hole was enlarged until, watching his
chance while everybody was carrying a load of meat to the shore, Eaven
flew out and alighted on the top of a hill close by without being noticed.
Then he remembered that he had left his fire-drill behind, and exclaimed,
"Ah, ray good fire drill; I have forgotten it." He quickly removed his
raven mask and coat, becoming a young man again, and started along
the shore toward the whale. The people on the carcass soon saw a
small, dark colored man in a strangely made deerskin coat coming
toward them, and they looked at him curiously. Eaven drew near and
said, " Ho, you have found a tine, large whale. Well, I will help you
cut him up." He rolled up his sleeves and set to work. Very soon a
man working inside the whale's body cried out, "Ah, see what I have
found. A fire drill inside the whale." At once Eaven began to roll
18 ETH 30
466 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethaxn. 18
down liis sleeves, saying, "That is bad, for my daugliter lias told me
that if a fire-drill is found in a wliale and people try to cnt up that
whale many of them will die. I shall run away." And away he ran.
When Raven had gone the people looked at one another and said,
"Perhaps he is right;" and away they all ran, every one trying to rub
the oil off his hands as he went. From his hiding place near by Kaven
.looked on and laughed as the people ran away, and then he went for
bis mask and coat. After proc.ring them he returned to the whale and
began cutting it up and carrying the flesh back from the shore. As
be thought of the feast in store for him he even said, "Thanks" to the
shades.
When he had stored away enough meat he wished to save some oil,
but Lad no bag to put it in, so he walked along the shore trying to
find a seal. He had gone only a short distance when he saw a mink
run swiftly by, and he called out, " What are you running after so fast?
Are you going for something to eat?"
Mink stopped, and pushing up his nose like a mask, as Raven had
done with his beak, became a small, dark-colored man. Then Raven
cried, "Ah, you will be my friend"? I have plenty of food, but I am
lonely, for I have no one with me." To this Mink agreed, and both
walked back to the whale and went to work, but Mink did the most
for Raven was very lazy.
They made grass bags and mats for the meat and blubber, storing great
quantities of it in holes in the ground. After this was done they built
a fine kashiin. When it was finished Raven said, "It is lonely; let us
make a feast." And he told Mink to go out and invite the sea people to
join them.
To this Mink agreed, so next morning he started out, while Raven
made a short, round, slender rod, at one end of which he painted two
rings with charcoal paint. When he had finished this, he gathered a
large ball of sticky spruce gum, which he placed with the rod in the
kashim.
Mink soon returned and told Raven that on the morrow plenty of sea
people would come to the feast. To this Raven answered, "Thanks."
Early the next morning Mink called Raven outside and xwinted toward
the sea, the surface of whic'. was covered with different kinds of seals
coming to the feast. Riiveu went back into the kashim, while Mink
went down to the water to meet the guests and escort them to the
house.
As each seal came on shore he pushed up his mask and became a
small man, and all entered the house until it was full. Raven looked
about at the guests and exclaimed, " What a number of people.
How shall I be able to make a feast for all of you? But never mind;
let me first rub the eyes of some of you with this stuft', in order that
you may be able to see better; it is dark in here."
With his ball of gum Raven then fastened shut the eyes of every
NELSON] TALE OF THE RED BEAR 467
seal, except a small one uear the door, wbich he overlooked. The last
seal whose eyes were shut was also a small one, and as soou as its eyes
were nnide fast it tried to get them open, and began to cry. The little
cue by the door cried out to the others, ''Raven has stuck your eyes shut,
and you can not open them." Tlien every seal tried to open his eyes,
but could not. With the stick lie had made tlie day before Raven now
killed all the guests by striking them on the head, each seal mau
changing back to a seal as it was killed. As soou as the little one by
t je door saw Raven killing his companions, it ran out and escaped alone
into the sea.
When he had finished, Raven turned to Mink and said, ''See what a
lot of seals I have killed. We will have plenty of oil bags uow." Then
they made bags of the sealskins and filled them with oil ibr the winter.
Ever since that time Raveu and Mink have been friends, and even to
this day ravens will not eat the flesh of a mink, be they ever so hungry;
and the mink and the raveu are often found very close together on the
tundras.
THE RED BEAR (TA-KU'-KA)
(From St Michael and Nortou sound)
On the seashore, near where the village of Pikmiktalik now stands,
there once lived the Eskimo hunter I'i-tlkh' cho-llk' and his wife
Ta ku'-ka. The mountains were filled with great herds of reindeer
and the sea was full of seals and fish, so that Pi-tikh'-chollk' brought
home an abundance of food and .skins.
One fine summer evening Ta-ku'-ka stood on the seashore waiting
for her husband's return. She was uneasy and anxious, as he had
remained away much longer than usual on his recent hunting excur-
sions, although he had explained to her that the deer were getting
farther back into the mountains and the seals were to be found only
farther at sea.
After a time Ta-ku'-ka went into the house to attend to her children
and when she came out again her husband was putting his kaiak on
the framework standing by the house.
She asked him many questions about his long stay, but lie replied
peevishly that he had gone far out to sea and had remained because
he did not wish to come home without game. When they went into
the house Ta-ku'-ka placed before him diflerent kinds of food, jirepared
as he liked it best, but he ate very little, and seemed gloomy and sad.
His wife urged him to tell her the cause of his sadness, and at last he
said, " If you must know the cause of my sadness, hear it. I feel that
I am going to die, and the third day from now will be the time of my
death."'
At this Taku'-ka began to cry very bitterly, but he stopped her,
saying, "Do not cry and make me unliappy while I am with you, but
hear my last wishes. When I am dead j-ou must put my kaiak into
468 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
the water aud fasten it to the shore; lay uiy paddle, spears, and lines
upon it in their pro])er places; dress my body in the waterproof shirt
and put me into the kaiak, fastening the shirt to tlie manhole as you
have seen me do when going to sea. Every evening for three days
place fish, deer fat, and berries before my body that my inua may be
satisfied. Do you promise me this?" Ta-ku-'ka promised and wept
silently. Pi-tlkh'-cho lik' did not leave the house again, and he died on
the third day. Then Ta-ku'ka cried very much, but did as she had
been told. Every morning she saw that the shade had eaten, for all
the food before the body was gone. On the fourth morning, when she
went to the shore to lament for her dead as usual, she saw that the
kaiak with all its contents had disappeared. Then she threw herself
upon the ground and lay there for a long time in her sorrow; finally she
remembered her children and went back to the house to care for them.
For a long time Ta-ku'ka worked very hard, gathering berries or
catching and drying fish to prepare her store of winter food.
One day while gathering berries she wandered far from home and
went to the top of a mountain ; there she looked out over the land and
far away saw j)ufts of smoke drifting upward from the ground. This
was the first sign she had ever seen of other people, and she decided
to go to see what they were like. After some time she drew near the
place and crept softly to the edge of the hill, that fell away sharply on
one side to the sea, but sloped gradually toward a portion of the inland
side. Near the water were three houses, from one of which came the
smoke she had seen.
Here Ta-ku'ka waited quietly to see what kind of people were there,
and soon a woman came out, shading her eyes with one hand and look-
ing out to sea; then she hui-ried back to the house, calling to someone
within. At this two other women came out, and all went down to the
water's edge, where they began to sing a love song and to dance upon
the sand facing the sea. Taku'-ka had been so interested in watching
these women and their handsome fur gai'ments that she had not uoticed
anything else, but now the low, pleasant sound of a man's voice rising
in song struck her ear and made her heart beat faster. She looked
beyond the women and saw a man urging his kaiak swiftly toward the
shore, singing aud playfully throwing his seal spear before him, aud
picking it up as he passed.
"When he came near, Ta-ku'ka recognized the song as one that
Pitlkh'-cho-lik' used to sing to her in the old days; then the kaiak
man came on shore and the women met him with exclamations of
jileasure. Ta-ku'-ka could scarcely believe her eyes when she saw that
the man was indeed her husband, whom she had believed to be dead.
He went into the house with the women, and Ta ku'-ka felt a strange,
fierce auger in her heart, such as she had never known before. She
stood on the liillside listening to the songs and laughter coming from
the house until far into the night.
NELSON] TALE OF THE RED BEAR 469
Morning came and Pi-tikh'-clio-lik' came out of the house and
arranged bis hunting gear upon the kaiak. After saying '■ good-bye"
to the women on the shore he paddled out to sea, singing pleasantly.
When he was out of sight Ta-ku'-ka went down from the hillside and
followed the women into one of the houses; they seemed surprised to
see her, but made her welcome, asking her many questions. They
admired her face and its color, which was lighter than theirs, also
several tattooed lines on her face, one up and down between her 'yes
and three that extended down across the chin from her lowei lip;
they were also ])leased with the shape of her garments, which were
different from theirs. By and by one of the women said, " You are
very handsome with the beautiful lines marked on your face; I would
give much if you would teach me how to make my face like yours."
Ta-ku'-ka answered, '• I will show you how it is done, if I can please
you, but it will hurt j'ou and you may not wish to bear the pain." " I
shall not mind the pain," said the woman, " for I wish to be handsome,
as you are, and am ready to bear it." " Be it as you wish," said
Ta ku'-ka. " Go into the house and make a fire, and put by it a large
clay pot, filled with oil; when the oil boils call me. I will make your
face beautiful like mine." When the woman had thanked hsr and had
gone to make ready, the other women asked her many questions.
" Will it hurt very much?" and " Will she really be as ]iretty as you
are?" and others. To which Ta ku'-ka replied, " She will not be hurt
very much, and she will be prettier even than I."
In a short time the woman came back, saying that the oil was ready.
Ta-ku'-ka then went into the house and told her to kneel before the pot
of boiling oil and to bend her face over it. As soon as this was done,
Ta-ku'-ka grasped her by the hair and thrust her face down into the
hot oil and held it there until the woman was dead, saying, "There, you
will always be beautiful now." Then she laid the body on the bed
platform, and covering the face, went back to the other women. Dur-
ing her absence the other two had been talking together, and when she
came Back they asked her if she had succeeded in making their com-
panion handsome, and Ta-ku'-ka nodded her head.
Then both women said, "We, too, will make you presents if you will
make us beautiful," and she consented. Then all went to the dead
woman's house, and Ta-ku'-ka said to her comi^anions, " Do not disturb
your friend ; she sleeps now and her face is covered so that nothing will
break the charm ; when she awakes she will be very handsome." After
this she killed both the other women as she had the first, saying, as she
laid them on the ground, " You, too, will be very jiretty." She then
made three crosses of sticks and placed them upright in the sand where
the women had danced on the shore the evening before, upon which she
placed the clothing of the dead women so that a person at a distance
would think they were standing there. Then she took a red bearskin
and went back to her hiding place in the rocks. Evening came, and the
470 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERiNG STRAIT [eth.ann. H
bnnter drew uear, singing as on tlie previous night. No answer readied
him, but he thought he saw his wives standing on the shore, and although
he raised his song in praise of them, they gave no answer. He became
angry and stopped his song; then he began to scold and upbraid them,
but still they were silent. Landing, he hurried to the silent figures
and then on to the nearest house. There and at the second Louse he
found nothing, but in the last he saw his wives as they lay dead, and
Ta ku'-ka heard his cries of sorrow when he saw them.
Pi tikh'cho-lik' rushed raging from the house, wailing with sormw,
shouting in wild anger, "If any bad spirits have done this, I fear them
not. Let them come and try to work their evil npou me. I hate and
scorn them." All remained quiet. "If any evil shade, man or beast,
has done this, let it come out from its hiding place," he shouted, "and
dare to face a man who will tear out its heart and eat its blood; oh,
miserable good-for-nothing !"
As if iu answer, he heard a deep growl coming from the hillside, and
there he saw a red bear standing on its hind feet, swaying its body
back and forth. This was Taku'-ka, who had placed a flat stone on
each side of her body to protect herself from wounds by arrow or spear
and had wrapped herself in the bearskin.
Pi-tikh'cho-lik' saw her and thought she was really a bear and began
calling every opprobrious name he could think of, while he quickly fitted
an arrow to his bow and loosed it. Tlie arrow struck one of the stones
and fell harmless, and the bear turneil its other side toward him. Again
he shot a well aimed arrow, and again it fell harmless. Then the bear
rushed down the slope straight at him, and Pi-tikh'-cho-lik"s spear,
striking the bear's side, broke in his hands. In a few moments the bear
had thrown him down lifeless and torn out and eaten his heart. Then
the fury which had urged Ta ku'-ka on seemed to leave her and her bet-
ter feelings began to return. She tried to take off" the bearskin, but
it closed about her so firmly that she could not.
Suddenly Ta-ku'-ka thought of her children at home, so taking her
basket of berries from the hilltop, she started for her dwelling. As she
went along she began to be frightened at her strange desire for blood,
mingled with the thoughts of her children. Hurrying on she came at
last to the house and rushed in. The two children were asleep, and as
soon as Ta-ku'-ka saw them a fierce, uncontrollable desire for blood
again came over her, so that she at once tore them to pieces. After this
she went out and wandered over the earth, filled with a desire to destroy
every one she came across.
Up to that time red bears had been harmless, but Ta-ku'-ka filled
them with her own rage, so that they have been very savage ever
since. Finally she reached Kuskokwim river and was killed Ijy a
hunter, whose arrow found its way through a crack that had been
made in one of the stones on her side.
KELSON] TALE OF THE GIANT 471
TUB GIANT (KIN' AK)
I From Iliialaklit, Norton souiid'i
One (lark winter uiglit a woniiin ran tbrougli the village of Nikh'-tit
and out on to the snow-covered tundra; she was fleeing from her hus-
band whose cruelty had become unbearable. All through the night
and for many days afterward she traveled on toward the north, always
going around the villages she came near, fearing that she might be
pursued. Finally she left all signs of human life behind, and the cold
became more and more intense ; her small supply of food was exhausted
and she began to eat snow to lessen her hunger. One day, as evening
drew nigh, she was in such a wind-swept place that she forced herself
to go on. At last she saw before her what seemed to be a hill with five
elevations on its crest; when she came to it she saw that it looked like
an enormous human foot. Eemoving the snow from between two eleva-
tions, that looked like huge toes, she found it warm and comfortable,
and slept there until morning, when she started and walked toward a
single elevation that showed in the snowy level. This she reached near
nightfall and noticed that it appeared to be shaped like a great knee.
Finding a sheltered place by it she stayed there until morning, when
she went on. That evening a hill like a huge thigh sheltered her for
the night. The next night she was sheltered in a round pit-like hollow,
around which grew scattered brush; as she left this place in the morn-
ing it appeared to her like a great navel.
The next night she slept near two hills shaped like enormous breasts;
the night following she found a siieltered, comlortable hollow, where she
slept. As she was about to start from there in the raoi-niug a great
voice seemed to come from beneath her feet, saying: "Who are you?
What has driven you to me, to whom human beings never come ?" She
was very much frightened, but managed to tell her sorrowful tale, and
then the voice spoke again : " Well, you may stay here, but you nuist
not sleep again near my mouth nor on my lips, for if I should breathe
on yon it would blow you away. You must be hungry. I will get you
something to eat."
W^hile she waited it suddenly occurred to her that for five days she had
been traveling on the body of the giant, Iviu'-a-g'ak', or Kin'-iik. Then
the sky became suddenly obscured, and a great black cloud came swiftly
toward her; when it was near she saw that it was the giant's hand,
which opened and dropped a freshly killed reindeer, and the voice told
her to eat of it. Very quickly she got some of the brushwood that grew
all about, made a fire, and ate heartily of the roasted flesh. The giant
spoke again : '' I know you wish a place in which to rest, aud it is best
for you to go into my beard where it grows most thickly, for I wish to
take breath now and to clear from my lungs the hoarfrost which has
gathered there and which bothers me ; so go quickly.''
472 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ask. 18
She barely had time to get down into the giant's beard when a furious
gale of wind rushed o^'er her head, aecomiiauied by a blinding snow-
storm, which ended as quickly as it began, after extending far out over
the tundra, and the sky became clear once more.
The next day Kin-iik told her to lind a good place and build herself
a hut of hairs from his beard. She looked about and chose a spot on
the left side of the giant's nose, not far from his nostril, and built her
hut from hairs taken from his mustache. Here she lived for a long
time, the giant supplying her wants by reaching out his great hand
and capturing deer, seals, and whatever she wished for food. From
the skins of wolves, wolverines, and other fur-bearing animals that he
caught for her she made herself handsome clothing, and in a little time
had on hand a great store of skins and furs.
Kin-iik began to find his mustache getting thin, as she used the hairs
for firewood, so forbade her using any more of it, but told her to get
some of the hair growing down the side of his face whenever she
needed any. Thus a long time i^assed.
One day Kin-iik asked her if she would not like to return home.
"Yes," she replied, "only I fear my husband will beat me again, and
I shall have no one who will protect me."
"I will protect you," said he. "Go and cut the ear tips from all the
skins you have and put them in the basket. Then set yourself before
my mouth, and whenever you are in danger remember to call, 'Kin-iik,
Kin-iik, come to me,' and I will protect you. Uo now and do as I have
told you. It is time. I have grown tired of lying so long in one place
and wish to turn over, and if you were here you would be crushed."
Then the woman did as she had been told, and crouched before his
mouth.
At once there burst forth a tempest of wind and fine snow, and the
woman felt herself driven before it until she became sleepy and closed
her eyes. When she awoke she was on the ground before the houses
of Nikh'-ta, but could not believe it was so until she heard the familiar
howling of the dogs. She waited until evening, and after placing the
basket of ear tips in her storehouse, entered her husband's home. He
had long mourned her as dead, and his ])leasure was very gieat when
she returned. Then she told her story and her husband promised
never to treat her badly again. When he went to his storehouse the
next day he was very much surprised to find it filled with valuable
furs, for every ear tip brought by his wife had turned into a complete
skin during the night.
These skins made him very rich, so that he became one of the head-
men of the village. After a time he began to feel badly because they
had no children, and said to his wife, " What will become of us when we
arc old and weak, with no one to care for us? Ah, if we could but
have a son." One day he told his wife to bathe herself carefully;
then he dipped a feather in oil and with it drew the form of a boy on her
abdomen. In due time she bore a sou and they were very hapi^y.
KELSON] TALE OP THE GIANT 473
The boy grew rapidly and excelled all of liis yontlifiil coiiipaiiioiis in
strength, agility, and marksmanship. He was named Kiu-iik. in mem-
ory of the giant. Then by degrees the husband became unkind and
harsh as he had been before, until one day he became so enraged that
he caught up a large stick to beat his wife. She ran out of the house
in fear, but slipped and fell just outside, and her husband was close
upon her when she remembered the giant and called '' Kin-iik ! Kin-iik !
come to me.'' Scarcely liad she said these words when a terrible blast
of wind passed over her, blowing her husband away, and he was never
seen again.
The years passed until young Kihiik grew to be a handsome and
powerful young man and became a very successful hunter, but he had
a fierce and cruel temper. One evening he came home and told his
mother that he had quarreled with two of his companions and had
killed both of tliem. His mother remonstrated with him, telling of
the danger he would be in from the blood revenge of the relatives of
the murdered men. Time went on, and the matter seemed to be for-
gotten.
Again Kin-iik came home with a tale of having killed a companion.
After this every few days he would quarrel with someone and end by
killing him: at last he had killed so many people that his mother
refused to ])ermit him to live with her any longer. He seemed greatly
surprised at this, saying, "Are you not my mother"? How is it that
you can thus treat me "?"
"Yes," she replied, "I am your mother, but your evil temjier has
ended in killing or driving away all our friends. Everyoue hates and
fears you,- and soon no one will be left living in the village except old
women and children. Go away; leave this place, for it will be better
for all of ns."'
Kin-iik made no reply, but for some time he hunted continually until
he had filled his mother's storehouse with food and skins. Then he
went to her, saying, "Xow that I have ]>rovided you with food niid
skins, as was my duty, I am ready to leave,'' and he went forth.
By chance he took the same road his mother had traveled during
her flight, and came at last to the giant's head. When the giant
understood that he was the son of the woman who had been there he
liermitted the young man to stay on his face, but told him never to
come about his lips, for if he ventured there evil would befall him.
For some time Kin-ilk lived there quietly, but at last made up his
mind to go upon the giant's lip and see what was there. After a great
deal of hard work in getting through the tangled thicket of beard on
the giant's chin he reached the mouth. The moment he stepped upon
the lips and approached the oitening between them a mighty blast of
wind swept forth and he was hurled into the air and never seen again.
The giant still lives in the north, although no one has ever been to
him since that day; but whenever he breathes the fierce snow-drifting
north winds of winter make his existence known.
474 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
THE ONEWHO-FINDSNOTHING (PI CHU'-I-LIN-UK)
(From St Michael)
Oi'.ce there was a small, ugly-face youug man who could never hud
anything- that he looked for. Whenever he went out with his sled for
wood, he returned without any, because he could never succeed in
finding any, not the least piece. Then he entered the kashiin and sat
down in his place over the entrance way. When he sat down there
he would remain quiet for a long time. The one sitting beside him
sometimes gave him water, which he would drink and then become
quite still again.
If forced to go out, he would ])ut on his boots and go, but would
return again very soon and sit as before. Once when thirsty he went
out to the water hole for a drink, but when he came to the place he
could not find the water hole, as it seemed not to be there. Then he
returned to the kashim again without drinking and sat down in his
lilace, the one beside him giving him water.
At night in bed, not being able to sleep and being thirsty, he went
out to hud his elder brother's house. After much searching he could
not tind the place, so went back to the kashim and lay down. Awaking
in the morning, he took some Ashing tackle and went fishing. When
he came to the water he could not find it, and after looking for it unsuc-
cessfully he returned without fishing. Thus he came back once more
without anything and was hungry also when he sat in his place as
usual.
Then he thought, "If I go to pick berries I suppose I will not be able
to find any."' Taking a wooden bucket he went for berries. After look-
ing, but failing to find any, he returned to his place in the kashim. The
next morning, becoming hungry, he took his arrows and went hunting
for wild geese. Not finding any, and seeing nothing else, he returned
again. Other men brought back hair seals they had killed. The One-
who-finds-nothing took his kaiak and putting it into the water went
out seal hunting. He hunted long for the seals, but thei'e seemed to be
none; and seeing nothing, he came back to liis place in tlie kashim.
Winter came, and he thought, "I do not know what to do with
myself." The next day he took his miserable bed and rolled it up with
his poor tool bag, put the bundle on his back, and went out to the land-
ward side of the village, beyond the houses, and sat down. Being
.seated, he took his bundle from his back and, opening it, untied his tool
bag. This being done, he scattered the tools about him and threw
away the bag. Then he spread down his bed and, sitting upon it, lay
back, saying, " Here will I die."
There he lay all night without moving. When the sun came up he
heard a Raven croaking, and then its mate. He remained quiet and
the Raven came, alighting near him with its mate just beyond. The
NELSON] THE ONE-WHO-FINDS-NOTHING 475
nearest Eaven spoke, sayiug, "Look! here is sometliing to eat. We
have not eaten, and we had better not wait. Let (is have liis eyes."
The farthest Raven answered, "No, he is not dead.'' "Why does he lie
there, then, as if he were dead?'' said the first Eaven. "Xo, he is not
dead; for look there, there is no smoke' by him," replied the second
one.
Then the first Eaven became enraged and cast himself about, saying,
"Why is he thrown oat, then ? Look at his things scattered about
him.'- "I do not wish any of it," said the mate, "there is no smoke by
him. I will leave you." And he flew away. "All right: you can fly
olf," said the first Eaven; "I will have his eyes."
Then the man opened his eyes very slightly and looked sidewise at
the Eaven. This one, coming toward the small, ugly-face young man,
stood there holding vip his beak, which became a fine knife. He went
nearer, and between his eyelashes the man saw, raised by the hilt, a
fine knife. lie thought, "I have no knife." Then the i>oint came close
to him. He thought again, "I have no knife." He suddenly caught it
and snatched it away from the Eaven.
Back sprang Eaven, and the man sat up. "Give me my knife," said
Eaven. The man answered, saying, "I have no knife, and this shall
be my knife. The Eaven replied, "I will pay you for it with all kinds
of game."
"No," said the man, "I will not give it back. I always go out hunt-
ing and can get nothing." "Then,'' said the Eaven, "if you wish to go
back to the village you will not reach thei-e when you try." "I have
no knife," replied the man. Here the Eaven coughed and fell down,
saying, "Thus will you do. Keep my knife, if you prize it," said he,
and flew away.
The man sat up, still keeping the knife. Then he started to go back
to the village. As he was going his throat contracted, his back bent
over in front, and he rested his hands on his knees. Suddenly he
became an old man. He could not walk. He lay on his face. He did
not stir. He was dead.
Following is the same tale in Eskimo with an English interlinear
translation :
ri-rhii -i-lhl-iil' ( The Oiie-ii-lio-fuuls-iiothhig)
N'u-gulth' -pt-i( il' -i-na' -ff uk pi'-c]iu-i'-tok u-kiikh-tuklt'-ka-iiu ka-»i)gh'-u-
A small, ugly-face yoimg (who) can not going out for wood with a
niau find (anything)
lu'-nii n-kukh' tni'ifo-hliiklt'iok (i-ko-ja' •fp-jakh' -lu-ni u'-ti'ikhnaukli'-fok.
sled the wood he goes to bring without finding .any again returned he.
U-ku'-gn-muh tMlch'-pu-Mn'-cin-i u'-tukhnaukh'-tok pldkh'-pilk-tt-kit'-
The wood having seen none of it again returned he without the least
' Of his burial fire.
476 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT Ieth.ann. 18
naulh toh chii ii-i' -nag- I'l lu' -nt. K('ij'-hf/i-nauM,'-tok a-mim' 'ko-Vi'-nun ulch-
came back having none. The kashim went into the above sat
he lie door
nauldt' -tol: ukh-cha' -nn wi' -tdn-aulh' -tok, Chi-ki-ikh'-Tciit-ni um chun-ik'-
down he sitting down there remained he. When given (by) along-
bini
hli-mi mug' -u-naiikh' -i<ik. Tnk-hniV -mi tau-dtn' wi' -iiin-aukh' -tok. Kum-
side water drank he. Finishing thus there remained lie. His
gu'-gt-nt ti-gu-a'-mi-gtk iit-nau'-guk Ihiaukh'-tok. Tfth'tk-wha'-mi iin-ug-u-
boots taking putting on went out he. Outside defe-
naiikh'-tok klio' -hlu-t-ni' -hlu i-tug' -n-nankli' -tok it-kha'-m) ukh-naukh'-tok.
cated he urinated and cauie back he coming in sat down he.
JJkh-chu' -ml iri'-tdn-aukh'-tok. Mt'ik'-shu-a'-m'i iin-aukh' -tok la'g''u-mun'
Sitting down there reniaiued he. Being thirsty out went he to the water-
hole
tt-bvil-naukh'-tok ti-ki-cha-miu' riau'-gica la' -gukh-tai' -t uk mukh'-pu-khi'-
went he coming to it ' again the water-hole without drink-
was not (there)
dn-t u-tvkh-naukh'tok Kdj'-i-gi'-mim it-kha'-mi nu-na' -mi-nun' ukh-cha' -mi
ing returned he again to the kashim. reaching to his place sitting down
wi'-tdn-ankli'-tok. Ghdn-ik'-Idl-michi-kian'-lniHgh'-u-miik' mugh'-iliiaukh'-
thereremsiiniidhv. The one beside giving water drank
him
tok tau'-a wi' -td'n-aukh' -tok. U-tiug' -it-ml kau-ag' -n-JHii-i-gikh' -kn' -mi dn-
he thus there remained he. At night not sleeping out
aukh'-tok dn-lfi-a'-ml til-mnn' muk'-shu-a'-mi u'-gi-navkh'-tok ni-tai'-g'ut-
went he to his elder the house being thirsty went he but found it
brother of
naukh'-tok nl-fshog' -n-jakh' -hi-ni kaj'-i-gi-naukh'-tok i' -nukh-naukh' -tok.
not he searching much for it went to the K;ij-ga he laid down he.
Tu-pi' -mt mdn-a' -ko-tiUi' -i-n1k ti-gu'-chd-mi mdn-ng' -u-jng' -u-lu' -n\ ai-ug-u-
Awakiug lishing tackle taking fishing went
naukh'-tok. Miigh'-il-tnun' tl-ki' -chd-mi mukh-tai'-g^u-tuk tau'-d mt-shog'-
he. To the water coining water was not and then searching
i-jakh' lu-nl mdn-iikh' -pu-htn' -dn-i u-tukh- naukh'-tok ti-gU-naukh' -tok
uusuccessfuUy not fishing returned again he brought he
chxXn-i' -ndg-xl-lu' -nl nu'-gu-hu-mil'-)-g''i-d'-whd tl-ki' -chd-mt nu-na' -minim'
nothing hungry was he also coming to his place
ukh-naukh'-tok. Um' -ju-ukh' -tl-kok d-chiikh-cho'-ku-ma'-gik d-chukh' -mln-
sat down he. Thought he berries if I go to pick ])erbap8 I will
aitlll-u-g'i-afi'-d. Kdthl-td' -miik tl-gu'-cha-mi ai-ukh'-tok d-chus'-ug-l-
not be able to get A bucket taking goes he having searched
any.
jdkh'-lu-ni u-tukh' -tok d-chnkh'-tof-kl-na'-nl. Tiki' -cha-mt nu-na' -mi-nun'
for them back went without getting any. Coming back to his place
unsuccessfully he
ukh-rhd'-ml iri'-tauk. Xu'-gu-jufi-a'-mi u' -nii-u/ -ko-un-ukh-chim' khn'-nt-
sitt.iug down is there. Becoming hungry morning the next taking
NELSON] THE ONE-WHO-FINDS-NOTHING 477
tki'-ua'-mi-gi ai-akh'tok ti ft' -n-mi - i(kh' -chotj- li -hi' -ni thV-i'i-mia'-xlMg-
bis arrows goes he hunting wild .!>eese forthegeeso
uja'-kok thT-u-mi-iikh-tai'-tuk. Tun-hi' u-ifi-la' -mi utukh'tok. Yut'icM
hunted he wild geese are none. Seeeing nothing returned ho. Men other
muk-hlug'-m-tk ti'-ki-ok-in'tIu(fit ihl-mthV pi-ta'-niukh-nik. Im'-'i-iui
hair seals bringing them by them- taken. That (one)
selves
pi'-chu-i'-lhl-ok kai-a'-nl dt-khdkh'chi miit ai-akh'-tok m uk'-lukh-chog'-
one who finds his kaiak putting down goes he hair seal
nothing
ulu'-ni. Mil-kill' -Hhiig i-Jit'-kok muk'-liikh-tni'-tok ii-tukh'-tok ti'nikh'-pxt-
hunting. For hair seals hunts hi' hair .seals are not back went he seeing
ktH-iin'-i ti-M'-chd-mi wi'-taiik. Uk-shog'-u-hi'-nl hln um'-i-a'-gu-tok
nothing coming there. Winter coming and thinks he
ihl-mi'-nik kai-ukli'-ichi'i-ttik pi-Phi'. U'-nu-d'-ko-un d-hW -ko-hvu' -Id u-a' -ni
himself don't know what The next day his miserable bed
to do.
ti-gu-o'-miu Mil' -ug'-u-icV -hlu-a-ni d-lili'-ko-hvi'ig'- it-mi' -nvn i'-mii-gu'-ta
taking and his mean tool bag putting in his bed rolling it up
dt'-mi okh'-tok dt-mi'-miu ai-dkh'-tok nn-nnm ttut-i'-ituii ni-td-lokh'-chd-
a bundle he ties it on goes he to tlie side the houses
makes land
nii'-M a-ku'-miik. A-knm'-ui't-am-i di-miig'-ii-ni mii-tiikh'-tai dii-i'-tai
beyond sits down. Being seated the bundle taking off undoing it
aii-i' -chu-mi' -ki hli'-liig ii-wi'-ni tUj-u-a' -miu an-i'-idi. KdfhI-pt'tkh-chd'-miu
being undone the tool bag taking undoing it. Being open
i-man'-i nkh kd'-kai a-irdt-mi'-nun hW -liig-it- tr i' ■ ni-Iilu. A-hU'-i'i-ku-pa-m
the con- throwing around him the bag too. His bedding
tents
ti'-gtt-a'-miu d-chi'mi-nun chiikh-td Kaiii'-dn-un' d-ko'-mitk nu-iikh'-tok
taking under him placed upon it sitting lies back he
Jcdn-iig-it-lu'-ni "«'»(-«? tii-kori'-it-uok'-hli.''' U-nukh'-pitk iatt-atn pit-kt'-Vtk-
saying "here will I die.'' All night thus stirring
sliaun' -dn-i wi'tauk. Ukh'-tok md-djiikh' -hlu-miig' -ii-lu' -ni ni'-tok tti-hi'-
not he is thus. Morning it is and the sun rising hears he a
kau-g''itk kdV ■u-gl-u-g^i-d wiin-i'-tdn im-ai'-pa-ni'-tok a-hla'-muk. Pil-ki'-tik-
raven croaking then its mate hears he besides. Remaining
shatm'-un-i wi'-tauk. Tau-d' mi-tok' ya-ti'-ntin uu'i-ni' -tdn im-ai'-pd ya-ti'-
still he is there. And lights beyond and here its mate beyond
then he him
nun mi-tok'. Tau-atn' pi'i-ki'-tik-shaun'-dn-i u-i'-tauk. U-giik'-hli-d
it lights he. And yet he remaining not stirring is there. The nearest one
kan-itkh'-tok ^Ha-iva'-lthit ni'i-gV-kak' u-nd nii-g^i'tk' .slidi'-tit-gnk
says he "see here some food he eat had not better
iH'-tiif-kin'-dn-uk' i-tog'-it-lau'-iik'''' in'-'t-nd aipnn' yak-hli'-dn M-u'-g\t
wait eyes let us have" that mate farthest answers
(.one) (the)
478 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [etii.ahn.18
'■'■Mn'-a tu-ko'-mnn-x-g'i'-tokJ' lii-i'im yak'-hll-un li-u'-cfa ^^ch<i-ku'-ni-
"no dead is not he.'' The oue nearest answers "why di>es he
gik ma'-nf ehii-hViW-clu-lalf" hV-itm yak-liU'-iin '^Kihl'-d ti'i-l-o'-miin-
lie here as if thrown out?'' the one farthest "No dead is
u-(fi'-tol; ii-tum' tiifi'-khii l;in-itn'-v-<f)' iio-i-iikh-iai'-lm-ut.''' Jm'-i-nd
iiot he for see look here in his phice smoke is none." That one
u-guh' -hU-a Mn-ukh'-tok ^•chd-lu'-ni-f/il-f''' tau'-d chu-iig'-u-jvgii-lu'-tu
nearest says he " why is he thrown and then becoming enraged
(out)?"
chd-hrig'-i-ni-ul-h'-td ^'d-tiiin' infi'-hhu vhai'-md-ijtif' a-wa-ii'-nt chd-hlW-
threw' himself about "see here look his things around scat-
u-ffit.^' J)V-{-nd ai'-pd kdniiMi'-foh ^^wi'-pin-ai'-tu-d u-ni-chi'-a-kum-kin
te'red." That one's mate says he " I do not wish it I will leave you
d-tum' tnii-khu kiii-vn'-n-g^i pn'-jui' -Vin-ut." Tin'-ok '■'■tau'-d trii-irii"
for see look in his place there is no smoke." Flies he "AH right Hy you'
aipa kdn-ukh'-tok "«■« i-tin'i'-iiin-icdg'-n-lL^' Im'-i-nd yiikh un-thn'-i-
thc mate says he "I will have his eyes." That man opeus his
.shuakh'-tokta-gu'-ya-ga' ilu-guthl-pi-ihl'-i-n(('-g'uk. Tai-uT -i-n(innn' -u-kd-
eyes a. little looks sidewise tlie small, ugly young man. The oue stands
coming
jil'-lg^i-u Vi-yu'-m) a'-go-H-M chan ikh'-iiik tai' -kd-tukh' -tok ti-M'-chdviiu'
there holding a line knife nearer comes he coming close
tau-atu' ki-liim'-i-hi'-ni kn-m I'lg'-u-ja'-nu a-gu-Ht'-h um ki-ukh-kog'-il-li(-ni
and then watching eyelashes between looking a little
tt-ki'-cM-miu ok-hU-u'-td chau-1g'-1-mi'-nik. TTm-ju-ukh'-tt-kok " Chau-
close by raised by the hilt his line knife. Thinks he "1 have
hvi'-cliu-kwa^^ wun-ikh'-ichd kd-pi'ik'-d-ta'-ni vm-ju-vkh'-ti-kok '■'■Chan-
no knife" and here the point coming close thinks he "I have
bvi'-chu-kwatl'-gu-iVch'4dd-}ilokh'-hlu-kiiakh'-kh-tok. Im'-i-nda-ku'-mok.
no knife" catching it and snatching it back jumps That one sits up he.
he.
'■'■ Ghau-i' -kd tai'-si-gu" kdn-ukh'-tok Ui-hi'-kau-ghVc. In'-t-nd a-ku'-mok
"My knife give here," says the raven. That erne sits he
"chau-hvi'-iu-a wi-chau-^k'-i-cM'-d-k(1-k(V^ hn'-i nd hl-i-nd kdn-iikh-tok
"knife I have not my knife it shall be" this one that one says he
^hiu-nii'-likh-chi-a-kum'-khi phiukh'-kut td-mai'-tu." "Kdn'-d" hn'-hnd
"I will pay you of game all kinds." "No," this one
u'-nd '' iu-ninai'-td-kd ai-thT-g'ii-nui p'ihliin'-i-g''i-iu-d:'' Jm'-1-nd ul'-hnd
to him "1 will not I always go out I get nothing." This one that oue
tu-lu'-kMi-g^uk '■'■pxkli-slmkli-pa'-gim ki I'l-u' -mikh-phl-im' u-tug'-iis-gn'-iit
the raven " If you wish to return to your place when you go back
ti kij'-in-ai'-hitn ki-u'-g^a ''chaubri'-tu-a." Wthi-i'-tdn um tu-lu'-kau g'i'tk
you will not get answered " I have no knife." Here then he the raven
there (he)
ko-i-ikh'-tok I'-kii-a'-lu-m " ^mUn pl-chV -a-kutn chnu-i'-kd i-g''Uh'l{'-kxi'-
coughs he falling "Thus will you do knife my keep if you
NELSON] THE LONE WOMAN 479
bi't-gii" tin'-ok. Kun-idh'-chami hn'-gut uM'-koM-hia'-nJ l;(i-iol;h'hih1
prize it" flies he. Staiidinj; up those scattered about gathciiuj; uj)
hn'-^-na chau'-fk ti-gu'-mi-a'-ka u-ifikli'-iol; u-tukh'-gninnn'-i-ga'-m ig'-i-
that knife keeping goes back he back when he is going his
jag'-a ka-hla'-tin-in'-ok kJio'-ka d-inin' -i-trn-in' -ok chis-kog'4-ni ai-a'-pufi'-
throat contracts it the back curves it • on his knees his bands
uV-ik ki-i'-mu pi-u'-ju-i'-g^u-tok un-n'-hlii-ukh'-tok ki-i'-mu xhi-Jokh'-tok
rest suddenly can not walk he old man becomes he suddenly on bis face
pu-M' ■in-u-g'Htok tau-a'-nl tA-ko'hin'i.
stirs not he and then is dead.
lies he
THE LONE WOMAN
(From St Michael)-
Very long ago there were many men living in the northlaud, but
there was no woman among them. Far away in the southland a single
woman was known to live. At last one of the young men in the north
started and traveled to the south until he came to the woman's house,
where be stopped and in a short time became her husband. One day
he sat in the house thinking of his home and said, "Ah, I have a wife,
while the son of the headman in the north has none." And he was
much pleased in thinking of his good fortune.
Meanwhile the headman's son also had set out to journey toward the
south, and while the husband was talking thus to himself the son
stood in the entrance passage to the house listening to him. He waited
there in the jiassage until the people inside were asleep, when he crept
into the house and, seizing the woman by the shoulders, began drag-
ging her away.
Just as he reached the doorway he was overtaken by the husband,
who caught the woman by her feet. Then followed a struggle, which
ended bj' pulling the woman in two, the thief carrying the up])er half
of the body away to his home in the northlaud, while the husband
was left with the lower portion of his wife. Each man set to work to
replace the missing parts from carved wood. After these were fitted
on they became endowed with life, and so two women were made from
the halves of one.
The woman in the south, however, was a poor needlewoman, owing
to the clumsiness of her wooden fingers, but was a fine dancer. The
woman in the north was very expert in needlework, but her wooden
legs made her a very poor dancer. Each of these women gave to her
daughters these characteristics, so that to the present time the same
difterence is noted between the women of the north and those of the
south, thus showing that the tale is true.'
' This tale refers to notable facts iu regard to the. accomplishmeuts of the women in the districts
north and south of St Michael.
480 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.a.nn. 18
THE CIRCLINa OF CRANES
(From St Michael auil otht-r places ou Nortuu souud)
One autumn day, very long ago, the cranes were preparing to go
southward. As they wei^e. gathered in a great flock they saw a beau-
til'ul young woman standing alone near the village. Admiring her
greatly, the cranes gathered about, and lifting her on their widespread
wings, bore her far up in the air and away. While the cranes were
taking her up they circled below her so closely that she could not fall,
and their loud, hoarse cries drowned her calls for, help, so she was
carried away and never seen again. Ever since that time the cranes
always circle about in autumn, uttering their loud cries while preparing
to fly southward, as they did at that time.
THE DWARF PEOPLE
(From St Michael ami Pikiniktalik)
Very long ago, before we knew of the white men, there was a large
village at Pikraiktalik. One winter day the people living there were
very mm-h surprised to see a little man and a little woman with a child
coming down the river ou the ice. The man was so small that he wore
a coat made from a single white fox skin. The woman's coat was made
from the skins of two white hares, and two muskrat skins clothed the
child.
The old people were about two cubits high and the boy not over the
length of one's forearm. Though he was so small, the man was dragging
a sled much larger than those used by the villagers, and he had on it a
heavy load of various articles. When they came to the village he easily
drew his sled up the steep bank, and taking it by the rear end raised
it on the sled frame, a feat that would have required the united
strength of several villagers.
Then the couple entered one of the houses and were made welcome.
This small family remained in the village for some time, the man taking
his place in the kashim with the other men. He was very fond of his
little son, but one day as the latter was playing outside the house
he was bitten so badly by a savage dog that he died. The father in his
anger caught the dog up by the tail and struck it so hard against a
post that the dog fell into halves. Then the father in great sorrow
made a handsome grave box for his son, in which he placed the child
with his toys, after which he returned into his house and for four
days did no work. At the end of that time he took his sled and with
his wife returned up the river on their old trail, while the villagers sor-
rowfully watched them go, for they had come to like the pair vei-y
much.
Before this time the villagers hail always made a bed for their sleds
NELSON] THE DWARF PEOPLE 481
from long strips of wood runniiig- lengthwise, but after they had seen
the dwarf's sled with many crosspieces, they adopted this model.
TJp to the time when they saw the dwarf people bury their sou in a
grave box with small articles placed about him, the villagers had
always cast their dead out u[)ou the tundra to be the prey of dogs aud
wild beasts. But thenceforth they buried their dead and observed
four days of seclusion for mourning, as had been done by the dwarf.
Since that time the hunters claim that they sometimes see upon the
tundi'a dwarf people who are said usually to carry bows and ari'ows,
aud when approached suddenly disappear into the ground, and deer
hunters ofteu see their tracks near Pikniiktalik mountains. Xo one
has ever spoken to oue of these dwarfs since the time they left the vil- '
lage. They are harmless people, never attempting to do any one an
injury.
THE SUN AND THE MOON
(From St Micbael)
In a coast village once lived a man and his wife who had two children,
a girl and a boy. When these children grew large enough, so that the
boy could turn over the gravel stone, he became in love with his sister.
Being constantly importuned by the boy his sister finally, to avoid
hiui, floated away into the sky and became the moon. The boy has
pursued her ever since, becoming the sun, and sometimes overtakes
and embraces her, thus causing an eclipse of the moon.
After his childreu had gone their father became very gloomy and
hated his kind, going about the earth scattering disease and death
among mankind, and the victims of disease became his food, until he
became so evil that his desire could not be satisfied in this way, so
he killed and ate people who were well.
Tlirough fear of this being people threw the bodies of their dead
just outside the village that he might be fed without injuring the
living. Whenever he came about the bodies would disappear during
the night. Finally he became so bad that all the most i)owerful sha-
mans joined together and, by using their magic powers, were enabled
to capture and bind him hand aud foot, so that he was no longer able
to wauder about doing mischief. Although bound aud unable to move
about, he has still the power to introduce disease aud afflict mankind.
To prevent evil spirits from wandering and takiug possession of
dead bodies and thus giving them a fictitious animation for evil pur-
poses, and in memory of the binding of this evil one, the dead are no
longer thrown out, but are tied baud and foot in the position in which
the demon was bound and placed in the grave box.'
1 There ja another Kortou sound version of this tale similar to the one I'rom the lower Yukon, which
will be given with the tales from that district.
18 ETH 31
482 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ans. 18
THE SUN AND THE MOON
(From the lower Yukon)
In a certain village on tbe great river once lived four brothers and a
sister. The sister had for a comi)aiiion a small boy of whom she was
very fond. This boy was lazy and could never be made to work. The
other brothers were great huuters and in the fall hunted at sea, for
they lived near the shore. As soon as the Bladder feast was over
they went to the mountains and huutcd reindeer.
The boy never went with them, but stayed at home with the sister,
and they amused each other. One night the sister awoke and found
the boy lying in bed close to her, at which she became very angry and
made him go to sleep in the kashini with the men. The next evening,
when she carried food to her brothers in the kashini she gave none to
the boy; instead, she went home, and after mixing some berries and
deer fat, cut oft' one of her breasts, placed it in the dish, and carried it
to the boy. Putting the disli before him she said, "You wanted me
last night, so I have given you my breast. If you desire me, eat it."
The boy refused the dish, so she took it up and went outside. As
she went out she saw a ladder leading up into the sky, with a line
hanging down by the side of it. Taking hold of the line, she ascended
the ladder, going up into the sky. As she was going up her younger
brother came out and saw her and at once ran back into the kashim,
telling his brothers. They began at once to scold the boy and ran out
to see for themselves.
The boy caught up his sealskin breeches and, being in such a hurry,
thrust one leg into them and then drew a deerskin sock upon the other
foot as he ran outside. There he saw the girl far away up in the sky and
began at once to go up the ladder toward her, but she floated away, he
following in turn.
The girl then became the sun and the boy became the moon, and ever
since that time he j)ursues but never overtakes her. At night the sun
sinks in the west and the moon is seen coming up in the east to go
circling after, but always too late. The moon, being without food.wanes
slowly away from starvation until it is quite lost from sight; then the
sun reaches out and feeds it from tlie dish in which the girl had placed
her breast. After the moon is fed and gradually brought to the full, it
is then permitted to starve again, so producing the waxing and waning
every month.
ORIGIN OF LAND AND PEOPLE
(From the lower Yukon)
In the beginning there was water over all the earth, and it was very
cold; the water was covered with ice, and there were no people. Then
the ice ground together, making long ridges and hummocks. At this
time came a man irom the far side of the great water and stopped
NKLSONI ORIGIN OF LAND AND PEOPLE 483
Oil tlie ice hills near wliere Pikiuiktalik now is, taking for his wife a
she-wolf. By and by he had mauy childien, which were always boru
iu pairs — a boy and a girl. Each pair spoke a tongue of their own, dif-
fering from that of their parents and different from any spoken by their
brothers and sisters.
As soon as they were large enough each pair was sent out iu a difter-
eut direction from the others, and thus the family spread far and near
from the ice hills, which now became snow-covered mountains. As the
snow melted it ran down the hillsides, scooping out ravines and river
beds, and so making the earth with its streams.
The twins peopled the earth with their children, and as each pair
with their children spoke a language different from the others, the
various tongues found on the earth were established and continue
until this day.
THE BRINGING OF THE LIGHT BY EAVKN
(Fruiu Paiiuut, ou the lower Yukon)
In the first days there was light from the sun and the moon as we
now have it. Then the sun and the moon were taken away, and people
were left on the earth for a long time with no light but the shining of
the stars. The shamans made their strongest charms to no purpose,
for the darkness of night continued.
In a village of the lower Yukon there lived an orphan boy who always
sat upon the bench with the humble people over the entrance way
in the kashini. The other people thought he was foolish, and he" was
despised and ill-treated by everyone. Alter the shamans had tried
very bard to bring back the sun and the moon but failed, the boy began
to mock them, saying, " ^Yhat line shamans you must be, not to be able
to bring back the light, when even 1 can do it."
At this the shamans became very angry and beat him and drove bim
out of the kashim. This jioor orphan was like any other boy until he
put on a black coat which he had, ■when he changed into a raven, pre-
serving this form until he took off the coat again.
When the shamans drove the boy out of the kashim, he went to the
house of his aunt in the village and told her what he had said to them
and how they had beaten him and driven him out of the kashim. Then
he said he wished her to tell him where the sun and the moon had gone,
for he "wished to go after them.
She denied that she knew where they were hidden, but the boy
said, " I am sure you know where they are, for look at what a finely
sewed coat you wear, and you could not see to sew it iu that way if
you did not know where the light is." After a long time he prevailed
upon his aunt, and she said to him, " Well, if you wish to find the
light you must take your snowshoes and go far to the south, to the
place you will know when you get there."
484 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [etu.asn. 18
The Eaven boy at once took bis siiowslioes and set off for the south.
Foi' many days lie traveled, and the darkness was always the same.
When he had gone a very long way he saw far in front of him a ray of
light, and then he felt encouraged. As he huri'ied on the light showed
again, plainer than before, and then vanished and appeared at intervals.
At last he came to a large hill, one side of which was in a bright light
while the other appeared in the blackness of night. In front of him
and close to the hill the boy saw a hut with a man near by who was
shoveling snow from the front of it.
The man was tossing the snow high in the air, and each time that he
did this the light became obscured, thus causing the alternations of
light and darkness which the boy had seen as he approached. Close
beside the house he saw the light he had come in search of, looking
like a large ball of fire. Then the boy stopped and began to plan how
to secure the light and the shovel from the man.
After a time he walked up to the man and said, " Why are you
throwing up the snow and hiding the light from our village?" The
man stopped, looked up, and said, " I am only cleaning away the snow
from my door; I am not hiding the light. But who are you, and whence
did you come?" "It is so dark at our village that I did not like
to live there, so I came here to live with you," said the boy. "What,
all the time ?" asked the man. " Yes," replied the boy. The man then
said, "It is well; come into the house with me," and he dropped his
shovel on the grouml, and, stooping down, led the way through the
undergound passage into the house, letting the curtain fall in front of
the door as he passed, thinking the boy was close behind him.
The moment the door flap fell behind the man as he entered, the boy
caught up the ball of light and put it in the turned up flap of his fur coat
in front; then, catching up the shovel in one hand, he fled away to the
nortli, running until his feet became tired; then by means of his magic
coat he changed into a raven and flew as fast as his wings would carry
hira. Behind he heard the frightful shrieks and cries of the old man,
following fast in pursuit. When the old man saw that he could not
overtake the Raven he cried out, "Nevermind; you may keep the light,
but give me my shovel."
To this the boy answered, "No; you made our village dark and
you can not have your shovel," and Kaven flew ott', leaving him. As
Eaven traveled to his home he broke off a piece of the light and threw
it away, thus making day. Then he went on for a long time in dark-
ness and then threw out another piece of light, making it day again.
This he continued to do at intervals until he reached the outside of the
kashim in his own village, when he threw away the last piece. Then he
went into the kashim and said, "Now, you good-for-nothing shamans,
you see I have brought back the light, and it will be light and then
dark so as to make day and night," and the shamans could not answer
him.
After this the Raven boy went out ui>on the ice, for his home was on
NELSON] BRINGING OK LIGHT BY RAVEN 485
the seacoast, and a great wind arose, drifting him with the ice across
the sea to tlie hind on the other shore. There he found a village of
people and took a wife from among them, living with her people nntil
he had three daughters and four sons. In time he became very old and
told his children how he had come to their country, and after telling
them that they must go to the land whence he came, he died.
Raven's children then went away as he had directed them, and finally
they came to their father's land. There they became ravens, and their
descendants afterward forgot how to change themselves into people
and so have continued to be ravens to this day.
At Eaven's village day and night follow each other as he told them
it would, and the length of each was unequal, as sometimes Kaven
traveled a long time without throwing out any light and again he threw
out the light at frequent intervals, so that the nights were very short,
and thus they have continued.
THE KED BEAR (TA-KU-KA)
(From Amlreivaky, on the lower Yukon)
On the tundra, south of the Yukon mouth, there once lived an orphan
boy with his aunt. They were quite alone, and one summer day the boy
took his kaiak and traveled away to see where people lived on the
Yukon, of whom he had heard. When he came to the river, he traveled
up its course until he reached a large village. There he landed and
the people ran down to the shore, seized him, broke his kaiak to pieces,
tore his clothing from him, and beat him badly.
The boy was kept there until the end of summer, the subject of con-
tinual beating and ill ti'eatment from the villagers. In the fall one of
the men took pity on him, made him a kaiak, and startetl him home-
ward, where he arrived after a long absence. When he reached home
he saw that a large village had grown up by his aunt's house. As soon
as he landed, he went to his aunt's house and entered, frightening her
very much, for he had been starved and beaten so long that he looked
almost like a skeleton.
When his aunt recognized him, she i-eceived his story with words of
pity, then words of anger at the cruel villagers. When he had finished
telling her of his sutferings, she told him to bring her a piece of wood,
which he did; this they worked into a small image of an animal with
long teeth and long, sharp claws, painting it red upon the sides and
white on the throat. Tlieu they took the image to the edge of the
creek and placed it in the water, the aunt telling it to go and destroy
every one it could find at the village where her boy had been.
The image did not move, and the old woman took it out of the water
and cried over it, letting her tears fall upon it, and then put it back in
the water, saying, "Xow, go and kill the bad people who beat my boy."
At this the image floated across the creek and crawled up the other
bank, where it began to grow, soon rea,ching a large size, when it became
486 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT (eth.akn. 18
a red bear. It turued and looked at the old woman until she called out
to it to go and spare none.
The bear then went away until he came to the village on the great
river. It met a man Just going for water and it quickly tore him to
pieces; then the bear stayed near this village until he had killed more
than half of the people, and the others wei'e j)repariug to leave it in
order to escape destruction. He then swam across the Yukon and
went over the tundra to the farther side of Kiiskokwim river, killing
every one he saw, for the least sign of life seemed to fill him with
fury until it was destroyed. From the Kuskokwim the bear turned
back, and one day it stood on the creek bank where it had become
endowed with life. Seeing the people on the other bank he became
filled with fury, tearing the ground with his claws and growling, and
began to cross the creek. When the villagers saw this they were much
frightened and ran about, saying, "Here is the old woman's dog; we
shall all be killed. Tell the old woman to stop her dog." And they
sent her to meet the bear. The bear did not try to hurt her, but was
passing by to get at the other people when she caught it by the hair
on its neck, saying, -'Do not hurt these people who have been kind to
me and have given nie food when I was hungry."
After this she led the bear into her house and, sitting down, told
him that he had done her bidding well and had pleased her, but that
he nuist not injure people any more unless they tried to hurt or abuse
him. When she had finished telling him this she led him to the door
and sent him away over the tundra. Since this time there have always
been red bears.
THE LAST OF THE THUNDERBIRDS (M^-TX>GH'-0-WIK)
(From the lower Yukon)
Very long ago there were many giant eagles or thunderbirds living
in the mountains, but they all disappeared except a single jjair which
made their home on the mountain top overlooking the Yukon river near
Sabotnisky. The top of this mountain was round, and the eagles had
hollowed out a great basin on the summit which they used for their
nest, around the edges of which was a rocky rim from which they could
look down upon the large village near the water's edge.
From their perch on this rocky wall these great birds would soar
awa.\ nn their broad wings, looking like a cloud in the sky, sometimes
to seize a reindeer from some passing herd to bring back to their young;
again they would circle out, with a noise like thunder from their shaking
wings, and descend upon a fisherman in his canoe on the surface of the
river, carrying man and canoe to the top of the mountain. There the
man would be eaten by the young thunderbirds and the canoe would
lie bleaching among the bones and other refuse scattered along the
border of the nest.
Every fall the young birds would tly away into the northland, while
the old ones would remain. Then came a time, after many hunters had
NELSON] THE LAST OF THE THUNDERBIRDS 487
been carried away by the birds, that only the most daring would go
upon the great river. One summer day a brave young hunter started
out to look at his fish traps on the river, but before he went lie told his
wife to be careful aud not leave the house for fear of the birds. After
her husband had gone the young wife saw that the water tub was
empty, so she took a bucket and went to the river for water. As she
turned to go back, a roaring noise like thunder filled the air, and one of
the birds darted down and seized her in its talons. The villagers cried
out in sorrow and despair when they saw her cai'ried to the mountain top.
When the hunter came home the people hastened to tell him of his
wife's death, but he said nothing. Going to his empty house he took
down his bow and a quiver full of war arrows, and after examining
them carefully he started out toward the eagle mountain. Vainly did
his friends try to stoj) him by telling him that the birds would surely
destroy him. He would not listen to them, but hurried on. With firm
steins at last he gained the rim of the great nest and looked in. The
old birds were away, but the fierce j'oung eagles met him with shrill
cries and fiery, shining eyes. The hunter's heart was full of anger, and
he quickly bent his bow, loosing the war arrows one after another until
the last one of the hateful birds lay dead in the nest.
With heart still burning for revenge, the hunter sheltered himself
by a great rock near the nest and waited for the i^arent birds. The
old birds came. They saw their young lying dead and bloody in the
nest, and uttered such cries of rage that the sound echoed from the
farther side of the great river as they soared up into the air lookiug
for the one who had killed their young. Very quickly they saw the
brave hunter by the great stone, and the mother bird swooped down
upon him, her wings sounding like a gale in the spruce forest. Quickly
fitting an arrow to his string, as the eagle came down the hunter sent
it deep into her tl :oat. With a hoarse cry she turned aud flew away
to the north, far beyond the hills.
Then the father bird circled overhead and came roaring down u])on
the hunter, who, at the right moment, crouched close to the ground
behind the stone and the eagle's sharp claws struck only the hard rock.
As the bird arose, eager to swoop down again, the hunter sprang from
his shelter aud, with all his strength, drove two heavy war anows
deep under its great wing. Uttering a cry of rage and spreading
abroad his wings, the thunderbird floated away like a cloud in the sky
far into the northland and was never seen again.
Having taken blood vengeance, the hunter's heart felt lighter, and he
went down into the nest where he found some fragments of his wife,
which he carried to the water's edge and, building a fire, made food
offerings and libations of water pleasing to the shade.'
' The truth of tliis tale is implicitly believed by the Eskimo of the lower Yukon. They point out
the crater of an old volcano as the nest of the giant eagles, and say that the ribs of old canoes and
curiously colored stones carried there by tiie birds may still be seen about the rim of the nest. This
is one of the various legends of the giant eagles or thunderbirds that are familiar to the Eskimo of
the Yukon and to those of Bering strait and Kotzebiie sound.
488 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth-ann. 18
THE LAND OF THE DEAD
(From Andreivsky, on tin- Icwer Yukon)
[The following- tale is known all along the lower Yukon, and was
related by an old shaman who said that it occurred several generations
ago. It is believed by the Eskimo to have been an actual occurrence,
and it gives a fair idea of their belief of the condition of the shade after
death.]
A young woman living at a village on the lower Yukon became ill
and died. When death came to her she lost consciousness for a time;
then slie was awakened by some one shaking her, saying, "Get up, do
not sleep; you are dead." When she opened her eyes she saw that she
was lying in her grave box, and her dead grandfather's shade was
standing beside her. He put out his hand to help her rise from the box
and told her to look about. She did so, and saw many people whom
she knew moving about in the village. The old man then turned her
with her back to the village and she saw that the country she knew so
well had disappeared and in its place was a strange village, extending
as far as the eye could reach. They went to the village, and the old
man told her to go iuto one of the houses. So soon as she entered the
house a woman sitting there picked up a piece of wood and raised it to
strike her, saying, angrily, "What do you want here!" She ran out
crying and told the old man about the woman. He said, "This is the
village of the dog shades, and from that you can see how the living dogs
feel when beaten by i^eople."
From this they passed on and came to another village, in which stood
a large kashim. Close to this village she saw a man lying on the ground
with grass growing up through all his joints, and, though he could
move, he could not arise. Her grandfather told her that this shade
was punished thus for pulling up and chewing grass stems when he
was on the earth. Looking curiously at his shade for a time, she turned
to speak to her grandfather, but he had disappeared. Extending onward
before her was a path leading to a distant village, so she followed it.
She soon came to a swift river, which seemed to bar her way. This
river was made up of the tears of the ])eople who weep on earth for the
dead. When the girl saw that she could uot cross, she sat on the bank
and began to weep. When she wiped her eyes she saw a mass of straw
and other stuff like refuse thrown from houses, floating down the
stream, and it stopped in front of her. Upon this she crossed the
river as over a bridge. When she reached the farther side the refuse
vanished and she went on her way. Before she reached the village
the shades had smelled her and cried out, "Someone is coming."
When she reached them they crowded about her, saying, "Who is
she? Whence does she come?" They examined her clothing, fluding
the totem marks, which showed where she belonged, for in ancient
days people always had their totem marks on their clothing and other
articles, so that members of every village and family were thus known.
NELSON] THE LAND OF THE DEAD 489
Just then someone said, "Where is she? Where is she?" — and she
saw her grandfather's shade coming toward her. Taking her by the
hand, he led her into a house near by. On the farther side of the room
she saw an old woman, who gave several grunts and then said, "Come
and sit by me.'' This old woman was her grandmother, and she asked
the girl if she wanted a drink, at the same time beginning to weep.
When the girl became thirst}' she looked about and saw some strange
looking tubs of water, among which only one, nearly empty, was made
like those in her own village.
Her grandmother told her to drink water from this tub only, as that
was their own Yukon water, while the other tubs wei'e all full of water
from the village of the shades. When she became hungry her grand-
mother gave her a piece of deer fat, telling her that it had been given
them by her son, the girl's father, at one of the festivals of the dead,
and at the same time he had given them the tub of water from which
she had just drunk.
The old woman told the girl that the reason her grandfather had
become her guide was because when she was dying she had thought
of him. When a dying person thinks of his relatives who are dead the
thought is heard in the land of shades, and the person thought of by the
dying one hurries off to show the new shade the road.
When the season came for the feast of the dead to be given at the
dead girl's village, two messengers were sent out, as usual, to invite
the neighboring villagers to the festival. The messengers traveled a
long time toward one of the villages, and it became dark before they
reached it, but at last they heard the drums beat and the sound of the
dancers' feet in the kashim. Going in, they delivered to the people
their invitation to the feast of the dead.
Sitting invisible on a bench among these people, with the girl between
them, were the shades of the grandfather and grandmother, and when
the messengers went back to their own village the next day the three
shades followed them, but were still invisible. When the festival had
nearly been completed, the mother of tlie dead girl was given water,
which she drank. Then the shades went outside of the kashim to wait
for their names to be called for the ceremony of the putting of clothing
upon namesakes of the dead.
As the shades of the girl and her grandparents went out of the kashim
the old man gave the girl a push, which caused her to fall and lose her
senses in the passageway. When she recovered she looked about and
found herself alone. She arose and stood in the corner of the entrance
way under a lamp burning there, and waited for the other shades to
come out that she might join her companions. There she waited until
all of the living people came out dressed in tine new clothing, but she
saw none of her companion shades.
Soon after this an old man with a stick came hobbling into the
entrance, and as he looked up he saw the shade standing in the corner
490 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
with her feet rsiised more thau a spau above the floor. He asked her
if she was a live person or a shade, but she did not reply, and he
went hurriedly into the kashim. There he told the men to hasten out
and look at the strange being standing in the passageway, whose feet
did not rest on the earth and who did not belong to their village. All
the men hurried out, and, seeing her, some of them took down the
lamp and by its light she was recognized and hurried into the house of
her parents.
When the men first saw her she appeared in form and color exactly
as when alive, but the moment she sat down in her father's house her
color faded and she shrank away until she became nothing but skin
and bone, and was too weak to speak.
Early the next morning her namesake, a woman in the same village,
died, and her shade went away to the land of the dead in the girl's
place, and the latter gradually became strong again and lived for many
years.
THE STRANGE I50Y
(From Andreivsliy, on tlie lower Yukou)
At a village fnv away iu the north once lived a man with his wife and
one child, a son. This boy was very different from others, and while
the village children ran about and shouted and took part in sports
with one another, he would sit silent and thoughtful on the roof of the
kashim. He would never eat any food or take any drink but that given
him by his mother.
The years passed by until he grew to manhood, but his manner was
always the same. Then his mother began to make him a pair of skin
boots with soles of many thicknesses; also, a waterproof coat of double
thickness and a fine coat of yearling reindeer skins. Every day he sat
on the roof of the kashim, going home at twilight for food and to sleep
until early the next morning; then he would go back to his place on
the roof and wait for daybreak.
One morning he went home just after sunrise and found his new
clothing ready. He took some food and put on the clothing, after which
he told his mother that he was going on a journey to the north, His
mother cried bitterly and begged him not to go, for no one ever went
to the far uorthland and returned again. He did not mind this, but
taking his bear spear and saying tiirewell, he started out, leaving his
parents weeping and without hope of ever seeing him again, for they
loved him very much, and his mother had told him truly that no one
ever came back who had gone away from their village to the north.
The young man traveled far away, and as evening came on he I'eached
a hut with the smoke rolling up through the hole in the roof. Tak-
ing off his waterproof coat, he laid it down near the door and crept
carefully upon the roof and looked through the smoke hole. In the
middle of the room burned a fire, and an old woman was sitting on the
NELsoNl THE STRANGE BOY 491
farther side, while just under him was sittiug an old man making
arrows. As the young man lay on the roof, the man on the Inside
cried out, without even raising his head, "Why do you lie there on the
outside! Come in." Surprised at being noticed by the old mnn with-
out the latter even looking up, he arose and went in. When he entered
the house the man greeted him and asked why he was going to the
north in search of a wife. Continued the old man, "Tliere are many
dangers there and you had better turn back. I am your father's
brother and mean well by you. Beyond here people are very bad, and
if you go on you may never return."
The young man was Aery much surprised to be told tlie object of his
journey, when he had not revealed it even to his parents. After taking
some food he slept until morning, then he prepared to go on his way.
Tlie old man gave him a small black object, filled with a yellow sub-
stance like the yolk of an egg, saying, as he did so, "Perhaps you
will have little to eat on your way, and this will give you strength."
The traveler swallowed it at once and found it very strong to the taste,
so that it made him draw a deep breath, saying, as he did so, "Ah, I
feel strong." Then he took up his spear and went on. Just before
night he came to another solitary hut, and, as before, looked in, seeing
a tire burning and an old woman sitting on one side and an old man
making arrows just below him. Again the old man called out without
raising his head, and asked him why he did not come in and not stay
outside. He again was surprised by being told the object of his journey,
and was warned against going farther. The young man gave no atten-
tion to this, but ate and slept as before. When he was ready to set out
in the morning the old man saw he could not stay him, so gave him a
.small, clear, white object, telling the traveler that he would not get
much to eat on the road, and it would help him. The young man at
once swallowed this, but did not tind it as strong as the' object he had
swallowed the day before. He was then told by the old man that if he
heard anything on the way that frightened, him he must do the first
thing that came into his mind.
"I will have no one to wee]) for me if anything should happen," said
the traveler, and he journeyed on. spear in hand. Toward the middle
of the day he came to a large pond lying near the seashore, so he
turned oft' to go around it on the inland side. When he had passed
part of the way around the lake he heard a frightful roar like a clap of
thunder, but so loud that it made him dizzy, and for a moment he lost
all sense of his surroundings. He hurried forward^ but every few
moments the terrible noise was repeated, each time making him reel
and feel giddy and even on the point of fainting, but he kept on. The
noise increased in loudness and seemed to come nearer at every roar,
until it sounded on one side close to him. Looking in the direction
whence it came, he saw a large basket made of woven willow roots
floating toward him iu the air, and from it came the fearful noise.
492 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.axn.18
Seeing a hole in the ground close by, the traveler sprang into it just
as a terrible crash shook the earth and rendered him unconscious. He
lay as if dead for some time, while the basket kept moving about as if
searching for him and continuously giving out the fearful sounds.
When the young man's senses returned, he listened for a short time,
and, everything having become quiet, went outside of his shelter and
looked about. Close by was the basket resting on the ground with a
man's head and shoulders sticking out of its top. The moment he saw
it the young man cried out, "Why are you waiting! Go on; don't
stop and give me a good loud noise, you." Then he sprang back into
the hole again and was instantly struck senseless by the fearful noise
made by the basket. When he had recovered sufficiently he went out
again, but could not see the basket. Then he raised both of his hands
and called upon the thunder and lightning to come to his aid. Just
then the basket came near again, witli only the man's head projecting
from the top. He at once told the thunder and lightning to roar and
riash about the basket, and they obeyed and crashed with such force
that the basket shaman began to tremble with fear and fell to the
ground.
As soon as the thunder stopped the basket began to retreat, the
shaman being almost dead from fear. Then the young man cried out,
"Thunder, pursue liim; go before and. behind him and terrify him."
The thunder did so, and the basket floated away slowly, falling to the
ground now and then. Then the traveler went on, arriving at a
village just at twilight. As he drew near a boy came out from the
village to meet him, saying, " How do you come here from that direc-
tion? Xo one ever came here from that side before, for the basket
shaman allows no living thing to pass the lake; no, not even a mouse.
He always knows when anything comes that way and goes out to meet
and destroy it."
"I did not see anything," said the traveler. "Well, you have not
escaped yet," said the boy, "for there is the basket man now, and he
will kill you unless you go back." When the young man looked he saw
a great eagle rise and fly toward him, and the boy ran away. As the
eagle came nearer it rose a short distance and then darted down to
seize him in its claws. As it came down the young man struck himself
on the breast with one hand and a gerfalcon darted forth from his
:nouth straight toward the eagle, flying directly into its abdomen and
passing out of its mouth and away.
This gerfalcon was from the strong substance the .young man had
been given by the first old man on the road. When the gerfalcon
darted from him the eagle closed his eyes, gasping for breath, which
gave the young man a chance to spring to one side so that the eagle's
claws caught into the ground where he had stood. Again the eagle
arose and darted down, and again the young man struck his breast
with his hand, and an ermine sprang from his mouth and darted
NELSON] THE STRANGE BOY 493
like a flash of light at the eagle and lodged under its wings, and in a
moment had eaten its way twice back and forth through the bird's
side, and it fell dead, whereupon the ermine vanished. This ermine
came from the gift of the second man with whom the ti-aveler had
sto]iped.
When the eagle fell the young man started toward the shaman's
house, and the boy cried to him, "Don't go there, for you will be
killed." To this the traveler replied, "I don't care; I wish to see the
women there. I will go now, for I am angry, and if I wait till morning
my anger will be gone and I will not be .so strong as I am at i>resent."
"You had better wait till morning," said the boy, "for there are two
bears guarding the door and they will surely kill you. But if you will
go, go then, and be destroyed. 1 have tried to save you and will have
nothing more to do with you." And the boy went angrily back to the
kashini. The young man then went on to the house, and looking into
the entrance passage, saw a very large white bear lying there asleep.
He called out, "Ah, White-bear," at which the bear sprang up and ran
at him. The young man leaped iipon the top of the passageway and,
as the bear ran out at him, drove the point of his spear into its brain,
so that it fell dead. Then he drew the body to one side, looked in
again, and saw a red bear lying there. Again he called out, "Ah, Eed- ■
bear." The red bear ran out at him and he sprang uj) to his former
place. The red bear struck at him with one of its forepaws as it
passed, and the young man caught the paw in his hand and, swinging the
bear about his head, beat it upon the ground until there was nothing
but the paw left, and this he threw away and went into the house with-
out further trouble. Sitting at the side of the room were an old man
and woman, and on the other side was a beautiful young woman whose
image he had seen in his dreams, which had caused him to mal;e his
long journey. She was crying when he went in, and he went and safc
beside her, saying, "What are you crying for; what do you love
enough to cry for?" To which she replied, "You have killed my hus-
band, but I am not sorry for that, for he was a bad man ; but you killed
the two bears. They were my brothers, and I feel badly and cry for
them." "Do not cry," said he, "for I will be your husband." Here he
remained for a time, taking this woman for his wife and living in the
house with her i^areuts. He slept in the kashim every fourth night
and at home the rest of the time.
After he had lived there for a while, he saw that his wife and her
parents became more and more gloomy, and they cried very often.
Then he saw things done that made him think they intended to do him
evil. Becoming sure of this, he went home one day and, putting his
hand on his wife's forehead, turned her face to him, and said: "You
are idanniug to kill me, you unfaithful woman, and as a punishment
you shall die." Then taking his knife, he cut his wife's throat, and
went gloomily back to his village, where he lived with his parents as
494 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
before. Wbeu the memory of bis unfaithful wife had become faint, he
took a wife from among- the maidens of the village and lived happily
with her tlie rest of his days.
ORIGIN OF THE TU-GI-YHIK' OR I'-TI-KA-TAH' FESTIVAL
(From Ikogmut, on tlio lower Yukon)
[This festival is observed by the Eskimo of the lower Yukon from
about Ikogmut (Mission) up to the limit of their range on the river.
Beyond that the festival is observed by the Tinnt' at least as far as
Anvik, they having borrowed it from the Eskimo. The festival is
characterized by the placing of a wooden doll or image of a human
being in the kashim and making it the center of various ceremonies,
after "which it is wrapped in birch-bark and hung in a tree in some
retired spot until the following year. During the year the shamans
sometimes pretend to consult this image to ascertain what success will
attend the season's hunting or fishing. If the year is to be a good one
for deer hunting, the shamans pretend to find a deer hair within the
wrappings of the image. In case they wish to predict success in fish-
ing, they claim to find fish scales in the same place. At times small
offerings of food in the shape of fragments of deer fat or of dried fish
are placed within the wrappings. The place where the image is con-
cealed is not generally known by the people of the village, but is a
secret to all except the shamans and, perhaps, some of the oldest men
who take prominent j)arts in the festival. An old headman among the
Mission Eskimo informed me that the legend and festival originated
among the people of a place that lias long been deserted, near the
])resent village of Paimut, and tliat thence it was introduced botli up
and down the- Yukon and across the tundra to the people living on
lower Koskokwim river. The names of this festival are derived, first,
Yu-yi-yluk from yu'-gi'ik, a doll or manikin, and I'-ti-M-tah' from itul'h-
toll, "he comes in," thus meaning the doll festival or the coming-in
festival, the latter referring to tbe bringing in of the doll from the tree
where it is kept during tbe year.]
At the foot of the mountains below Paimut, near where a small sum-
mer village now stands, there was in ancient days a very large village
of Eskimo, which was so large that the bouses extended from the river
bank some distance up tbe hillside.
In this village lived two young men who were relatives and were also
noted shamans and fast friends. For a long time tbey remained unmar-
ried, but at last one of them took a wife, and in tbe course of time had
a daughter who grew to womanhood, was married, and to her was born
a son. As soon as this child was born its grandfather killed it and
carried the body out into tbe spruce forest and bung it to a ti-ee, where
it remained until it was dried or mummified.
Tlien the old man took it down, placed it in a small bag, which he
bung about his neck by a cord, and wore it secretly under his clothing
NELSON] ORIGIN OF THK DOLL FESTIVAL 495
as an amulet, tbiis liaviiis' tlie services of its 'iniia to assist him iu bis
ceremonies. His wife and danghter, however, knew what he liad done
with the child.
The iininanied shaman uever took a wife, and after his friend began
to wear the child about his neck, he fre(iueutly saw among the shades
that came to do his bidding that of a small, new-born child. What it
was or why it came he could not understand, as it did not come at his
bidding. This was observed very often, and still he did not know that
his friend had the body.
When one of these men was practicing his rites and found it difficult
to obtain help from the shades, his I'riend would assist him to accom-
plish his object. One tine, warm day the unmarried shaman went up
on the hillside back of the village and sat down. As night came on he
fell asleep, and as he slept he saw the air filled with falling stars, and
then that the sky was sinking toward liim until finally it rested upon
the hilltop so close that he had barely enough room to move about
below it. Looking around, he saw that every star was in reality a
round hole in the sky through which the light from above was shining.
Kaising himself up, he put his head through the nearest star hole and
saw another sky with many stars shining above the first one. As he
looked, this sky sank slowly down until he could put his head through
one of the star holes in it, and above this were shining the stars iu
still another sky. This, too, sank slowly down, and standing up he
found himself breast high above the third skj-, and close by was a
kashim surrounded by a village like the one in which he lived.
From fannliar signs he saw tliat the men had Just taken a sweat
bath. A woman was at work covering the air hole iu the roof of the
kashim with the gut-skin covering, while other women were carrying
in food. After looking about for a short time he decided to go into the
kashim and see the people. Tlieu raising himself through the star
holes he walked to the kashim and entered it through the under-
ground passageway. When lie reached the inside he found the room
full of people sitting around on the floor and benches. He started to
cross the room to take a seat iu the place of honor opposite the door,
but a man sitting over the main entrance called to him to sit beside
him, which he did.
The women were still bringing in food, and the man who had spoken
first to the shaman, said, in a low voice, "If you are offered food
do not eat it, for you will see that it is not fit to eat." The shaman
then looked about the room and saw lying at the side of eac^h mau a
small wooden image, all of which represented different kinds of mam-
mals, birds, and fishes. Over the lamps beside the entrance door were
two slender sticks of wood more than a fathom in length, joined at the
lower end and spread apart above like two outspread arms, along
the sides of which were fastened swan quills, and the upper end of
each stick bore a tuft of wolf hair. These sticks were designed to repre-
496 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
sent the outspread wings of the Eaveii father who made the world.
Over the entrance to the room hung another pair of these sticks simi-
larly ornamented.
From the roof hung two great hoops extending entirely around the
room, one of which was a little below the other, and both were about
midway between the roof and the floor. Extending from the roof hole
down to the upper hoop were many slender rods, the lower ends of
which were fastened to the hoop at regular intervals. Fastened to the
hoops and rods in many places were tufts of feathers and down. These
hoops and rods represented the heavens arching over the earth, and
the tufts of feathers were the stars mingled with snowflakes. The cord
suspending the rings passed through a loop fastened to the roof, and
the end passed down and was held by a man sitting near the lamp.
This man raised and lowered the rings slowly by drawing in and letting
out the cord in time to the beating of a drum by another man sitting
on the opposite side of the lamp. [This movement of the rings was
symbolical of the apparent approach and retreat of the heavens accord-
ing to the condition of the atmosphere.]
The shaman had just time to notice this much when he saw a woman
come in with a dish of food which seemed like freshly-boiled meat.
Looking about, she asked, '• Where is the guest?" — to which he replied,
"Here I am," and she handed him the dish. As soon as the steam
cleared away a little the shaman saw lying in the dish a new born
boy who was wriggling about. The shaman was so startled by the
sight that he did not know what to do and let the dish turn toward
the floor so that the child slipped out and fell. At this moment
the shaman felt himself driven head foremost from his seat down
through the exit hole in the floor. Starting up, he looked about and
found himself reclining upon the mountain top near his village, and
day was just breaking in the east. Fusing, he hastened down to the
village and told his friend, the other shaman, what had occurred to
him, and the latter advised that they should unite in working their
strongest charms to learn the meaning of this vision. Then they called
the shaman's wife and went with her into the kashim where they worked
their spells, and it was revealed to them that during the February
moon in each year the i)eople of the earth should hold a great festival.
They were directed to decorate the kashim just as the shaman had seen
it in the sky house, and by the two shamans the people were taught
all the necessary observances and ceremonies, during which food and
drink ott'erings were made to the hiuas of the sky house and songs
were sung in their honor. If these instructions were properly followed,
game and food would be plentiful on the earth, for the people in the
sky house were the shades or inuas controlling all kinds of birds and
fish and other game animals on the earth, and from the small images
of the various kinds which the shaman had seen lying beside the sky
people was the supply of each kind replenished on earth. When the
NELSON] THE ORIGIN OF WINDS • 497
sky people or shades were satisfied by the ofteriiigs and ceremonies of
the eartli people, they would cause an image of the kind of animal
that was needed to grow to the proper size, endow it witli life and send
it down to the earth, where it caused its kind to become again very
numerous.
ORIGIN op "WINDS
(Fi'om thu lower Yukon)
lu a village on the lower Yukon lived a man and his wife who had
no children. After a long time the woman spoke to her husband one
day and said, "I can not understand why we have no children; can
you?" To which the husband replied that he could not. She then
told her husband to go on the tundra to a solitary tree that grew there
and bring back a part of its trunk and make a doll from it. The man
went out of the house and saw a long track of bright light, like" that
made by the moon shining on the snow, leading otf across the tundra
in the direction he must take. Along this path of light he traveled
far away until he saw before him a beautiful object shining in the
bright light. Going np to it, he found that it was the tree for which
be came in search. The tree was small, so he took his hunting knife,
cut off a part of its trunk and cai-ried the fragment home.
When he returned he sat down and carved from the wood an image
of a small boy, for which his wife made a couple of suits of fur clothing
in which she dressed it. Directed by his wile, the man then carved a
set of toy dishes from the wood, but said he could see no use for all
this trouble, as it would make them no better oft than they were
before. To this his wife replied that before they had nothing but
themselves to talk about, but the doll would give them amusement
and a subject of conversation. She then deposited the doll in the place
of honor on the bench opposite the entrance, with the toy dishes full
of food and water before it.
Wheu the couple had gone to bed that night and the room was very
dark they heard several low whistling sounds. The woman shook her
husband, saying, "Do you hear that? It was the doll;" to which he
agreed. They got up at once, and, making a light, saw that the doll
had eaten the food and drank the water, and they could see its eyes
move. The woman caught it up with delight and fondled and played
with it for a long time. When she became tired it was put back on
the bench and they went to bed again.
In the morning, when the couple got up, they found the doll was
gone. They looked for it about the house, but could find no trace of
it, and, going outside, found its tracks leading away from the door.
These tracks passed from the door along the bank of a small creek
until a little outside the village, where they ended, as the doll had
walked from this place on the path of light' upon which the man had
gone to find tiie tree.
IS ETii 32
498 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [etha-nx-IS
The man and his wife followed no farther, but went home. Doll
had traveled on along the bright path until he came to the edge of
day, where the sky comes down to the earth and walls in the light.
Clo.se to where he was, in the east, he saw a gutskin cover fastened
over the hole in the sky wall, which was bulging inward apparently
owing to some strong force on the other side. The doll stoi)ped and
said, " It is very quiet in here. I think a little wind will make it better."
So he drew his knife and cut the cover loose about the edge of the hole,
and a strong wind blew through, every now and then bringing with it
a live reindeer. Looking through the hole, Doll saw beyond the wall
another world like the earth. He drew the cover over the hole again
and bade the wind not to blow too hard, but he said "Sometimes blow
hard, sometimes light, and sometimes do not blow at all.'"
Then he walked along the sky wall until he came to another opening
at thje southeast, which was covered, and the covering iiressed inward
like the tirst. When he cut this cover loose the force of the gale swept
in, bringing reindeer, trees, and bushes. Closing the hole again, he
bade it do as he had told the first one, and passed on. In a short time
he came to a hole in the south, and when the cover was cut a hot wind
came rushing in, accompanied by rain and the spray from the great sea
lying beyond the sky hole on that side.
Doll closed this opening and instructed it as before, and passed on
to the west. There he saw another opening, aild as soon as the cover
was cut the wind brought in a heavy rainstorm, with sleet and spray,
from the ocean. This 0])ening was also closed, with the same instruc-
tions, and he passed on to the northwest, where he found another open-
ing. When the cover to this was cut away a blast of cold wind came
rushing in, bringing in snow and ice, so that he was chilled to the bone
and half frozen, and he hastened to close it, as he had the others.
Again he went along the sky wall to the north, the cold becoming so
great that he was obliged to leave it and make a circuit, going back to
it where he saw the opening. There the cold was so intense that he
hesitated for some time, but linally cut the cover away. At once a
fearful blast rushed in, carrying great masses of snow and ice, strewing
it all over the earth plain. He closed the hole very quickly, and hav-
ing admonished it as usual, traveled on until he came to the middle of
the earth plain.
When he reached there he looked up and saw the sky arching over-
head, supported by long, slender poles, arranged like those of a conical
lodge, but made of some beautiful material unknown to him. Turning
again, he traveled far away, until he reached the village whence he had
started. There he circled once completely around the place, and then
entered one after the other of the houses, going to his own home last
of all. This he did that the i^eople should become his friends, and care
for him in case his parents should die.
After this Doll lived in the village for a very long time. When his
NELSON] ALASKAN FOLKLORE 499
foster parents died lie was taken by other ])eople, and so lived for
manj- generations, until finally he died. From him people learned the
custom of wearing masks, and since his death ijareuts have been
accustomed to make dolls for their children in imitation of the people
who made the one of which I have told.'
THE STRONG MAN
(From tlie lower Yukon) ,
In ancient times a very strong man (Yukhpuk) lived in the Aslviuuk
mountains, near the Yukon river. One day he picked up a part of
these mountains and, i)lacing them on his shoulders, carried them out
upon the level country, where he threw them down. In this way he
made the Kuslevak mountains. When the mountain was thrown from
the man's shoulders, the effort caused his feet to sink into the ground
so that two deep pits were left, which filled with water, making two
small lakes, which now lie at the base of this mountain. From there
he traveled up the Yukon, giving names to all the places he passed.
THE OWL GIRL
The lower Yukon Eskimo have a legend that the short-ear 'owl was
once a little girl who lived at a village by the river. She was changed
by magic into a bird with a long beak and became so frightened that she
sprang up and tlew off' in an erratic way until she struck the side of a
house, flattening her bill and face so that she became just as these owls
are seen today.
TALE OF AK'-CHIK-CHU'-gC:K
(From Sledge island)
At the village of Kalul'-i-git- a terrible wind was blowing, which
filled the air with flying snow and kept everyone in the house. One
house in the village was occupied by a family of eight people — the par-
ents and five sons and a daughter. The eldest son, named Ak'-chik-
chu'-guk, was noted for the great breadth of his shoulders, and the
strength of his hands was greater than that of the most powerful walrus
flippers. The daughter was well known for her kindness and beauty.
As the day passed, one of the brothers asked his mother for some
food, and she replied that none h;id been prepared, nor did she have
any water with which to cook meat. Turning to the daughter, she
told her to take a tub and go down to the water hole in the ice and
bring some sea water that she might boil meat. The girl hesitated
about going on account of the storm, and the brothers joined with her
'The path of light mentioned in this tale is the galaxy, which figures in numerous Eskimo myths
* Point Iloduev, on the eastern shore of Bering strait.
500 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING .STRAIT [eth.ann.18
iu tiyiug to peisuade the iiiotlier to give up the idea of having water
bi'ought at that time, but all to no puri)ose.
Then Ak'-chik-chu'-giik told the youngest biotlier to go and heli^ his
sister, and the pair left the house. After some difficulty in getting to
the water bole they rested for a time, and then slowly tilled the tub;
when it was full they turned back and, with bowed heads, struggled
toward the shore in the face of the wind. As they were moving along
the path, they suddenly started back in fear, for, in place of the shore,
they saV the black, open water iu a rapidly widening crack where the
ice had broken and was drifting away from the laud. Dropping the water
tub they ran wildly back and forth along the edge of the ice until they
were exhausted. After waiting for some time, the people in the house
became alarmed, and one of the brothers ran down to the shore where,
by the open water, he saw what had taken place. He hastened back
and told his family and, as soon as the storm ceased, the brothers
searcthed the sea as far as they could, but saw nothing of the missing
ones. Then one of the brothers traveled along the coast to the north
and another went to the south, informing the villagers they met of their
loss, but both returned without any tidings.
Spring came, and their mother told the brothers that they must search
for their lost ones far along the coast, for it was likely that they had
been driven on shore somewhere. The brothers then set to work to
bnild a tine, large umiak; when it was finished they decided to try it
before they started on their voyage. Launching the umiak the three
younger brothers rowed while Ak'-chikchii'-gi'dj; sat in the stern with
the broad-blade steering paddle. They had gone only a short distance
when a wild goose came Myiug by, and the three brothers strained their
arms iu trying to equal the bird in swiftness, but in vain. Suddenly
Ak'-chik-chii' guk raised the broad paddle and the first stroke caused
the umiak to leap forward so suddenly that his brothers were thrown
from their seats into the bottom of the boat; after this, he bound them
firmly to their seats and iiad them take iu their oars. Then, under his
strokes, the umiak darted through the water like an arrow, throwing a
streak of foam away on both sides. Very soon they were close along-
side the goose, and the bird ti-ied hard to escape from its strange com-
panions, but was quickly passed by the umiak and left far behind.
On another short preparatory trii> they made along the coast they
landed near a great rock. Ak'-chikchii'-guk told his brothers to take
up some small drift logs on the beach and follow him; then, taking uii
the rock, he placed it upon his shoulders and carried it up the shore,
although his feet sank deep in the earth at every step, so heavy was his
burden. At some distance from the water he stopped and had his
brothers form a platform of their logs, on which he placed the stone,
saying: " Xow I will not be forgotten, for the people who come after
us will point out this rock and remember my name;" and this is true,
for the villagers say that the rock lies there until this day and Ak'-chik-
cha'-guk's luiuie is not forgotten.
NELSON] TALE OF Ak'-CHIK-CHC'-gCk 5<J1
Theu the brothers returned home aucl completed their preparatious
for the journey. When everytliiug was ready, Ak'chik-ehu'-gi'ik had
bis brothers remove all their clothing and, -taking his knife, with a
single stroke he cut oti' the head of each. After this he made their
mother carry the bodies outside and dismember them, putting the
fragments into a grept earthen pot, where they were boiled. At first
his mother refused, but Ak'-chik-chu'-giik compelled her to obey him.
When she had done as she was bid, she came in and told him; then,
ordering her to remain in the house and upon no account to come out-
side until he gave her peiniission, he went out and, by the aid t)f a
powerful inua that did his bidding, restored his brothers to life again.
When all her sous entered the house alive once more, the mother
was very glad. At the bidding of Ak'-chikchu'-gfik she put some
decayed fish roe and some bird-skin coats into the umiak, and they
started on their search, leaving their parents alone. The brothers
journeyed on until they reached a large village, where they stopped,
and, going into the kashim, asked for tidings of their sister.
The people answered in an unfriendly way, and soon after one of the
villagers cried out, '' We must kill these men," and everyone seized his
weapons and started toward the brothers. Ak'-chik-chu'-giik seemed
not to notice the treacherous villagers until they were close to him;
then, raising his right arm and placing the elbow against his side,
drew the entire arm into his body; as he did this everyone of the
villagers was compelled to do the same, and they stood helpless,
without the use of their right arms.
" Why do you not kill us '? Why do you wait ? '' and similar mocking
taunts were directed to them by Ak'-chik chu'-guk. When the vilhigers
had promised to let them go in peace, he thrust forth his own arm again,
and at once everyone of the villagers was able to do the same; the
people then told them that they might hear of their sister in the next
village.
After journeying for several days they came to the village and went
into the kashim, where again they made inquiries for their sister. As
before, the people answered in an unfriendly tone and rushed at the
strangers to kill them. Ak'chik-chii'-giik paid no attention to his
enemies until they were close to him, when he suddenly closed both
eyes and the villagers were forced to do the same, after which he
taunted them as he had taunted the men at the other village, then made
them promise not to try to injure himself or his brothers, and restored
their sight by opening his own eyes. These people told them that
possibly they might get tidings at the next village, so the brothers
went on.
When they reached that place they made inquiry, and, as at the
other villages, the people wished to kill them, and were quite near the
brothers with their weapons raised when Ak'chik-chu'-gfik put his hands
on each side of his face and turned his head about on his shoulders
502 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [etm.ann. 18
SO that bis face looked backward. Instantly the heads of all the vil-
lagers turned around on their shoulders and the backs of their heads
rested where their faces should have been, while their bodies were in
the position of rushing forward. Ou getting the usual promise from
them, Ak'-chik chu'-guk replaced the villagers' h-jads, and the brothers
were directed to make inquiries at the next place.
In that village they were attacked again, and the villagers were
forced to put their hands behind their backs by the strong magic of
the elder brother. Here the people told the brothers that their sister
was in the next village, but that she was the wife of a very iwwerful
and wicked shaman, and they tried to keep the brothers from going on,
saying that harm would come to them if they did. No heed was given
to this, and they went on until they came in sight of the village.
There they stopped while Ak'-chik-chu'-giik smeared his hands and
face with the decayed tish roe and changed his line deerskin clothing
for the old bird-skin garments his mother had put in the boat. Then
he coiled himself up in the bottom of the boat, bending down his
shoulders until he looked like a feeble old man. His brothers were
instructed what to do, and, rowing on, they soon landed at the village.
Then the brothers started to carry Ak'-chik-chu'-gidi into the village,
when they were met by several people, among whom was the bad shaman.
He asked them why they carried with them such a miserable old man;
to which they replied that he did not belong to them, but they had
found him on the shore and brought him along with them.
Asking about their sister, they were told that they could see her
when they had carried the old man in the kashim. Ak'-chik-chii'-gfik
was placed in the kashim, where they left him lying apparently helpless.
Then they were taken to another house and shown a young woman
dressed in fine furs, and were told that she was their sister. The two
elder brothers believed this, but the youngest one was suspicious of
some wrong, but said nothing and went back to the kashim with the
others.
When the brothers were inside the kashim, the shaman went down
to the beach, where he untied the lashings of the umiak, rolled the
framework up in the cover, and hid it. When night fell and everyone
was asleep, the youngest brother crept out and went to the shaman's
house. In the passageway he heard a hoarse, choking sound, and at
first was frightened, but soon felt stronger and asked, "Who is tlieref
No reply came, and he went forward carefully until he reached the
door beyond which he had heard the strange sound. He listened a
moment, and then pushed the door open and went in.
There on the floor lay his sister dressed in coarse, heavy sealskins
and bound hand and foot, with a cord drawn tightly about her neck and
another fastened her tongue. Very quickly she was released, and then
told him that the wicked shaman had kept her in this way and treated
her very cruelly; her brother put his hand on her breast and found her
NELSo.N] TALE OF AK'-CHIK-CHu'-GUK 503
SO emaciated that the bones were almost through the skin. Leaving her
there, he closed the door and soon brought the next elder brother to the
girl; after which both went back and, awakening the others, told them
what they had seen.
After this all the brothers kept awake and watchful until morning.
As dawn appeared the bad shaman came to the window in the roof and
cried out, "Now it is time to kill those strangers." Going into the
kashim, he sent a man for a lai-ge, sharp-edge piece of whalebone, while
he had another take away loose i^lanks from the middle of the door,
which left a square open pit several feet deep, and about the edge of
this the shaman bound upright the piece of whalebone with the sharp
edge. The brothers were then challenged to wrestle with him.
Ak'-chik-chu'guk whispered that they should wrestle with him without
fear, as he had killed and restored them to life again before leaving
home, so that men could not harm them.
One of the brothers stepped forward, and after a short struggle the
shaman stooped quickly, caught the young man by the ankles, and
raising him from the floor with a great swing, brought him down so
that his neck was cut off across the edge of the whalebone. Casting
the body to one side, the shaman repeated the challenge and killed the
second brother in the same way. Again the shaman made his scorn-
ful challenge, but scarcely had he finished speaking when Ak'-chik-
chu'-guk wiped the fish roe from his face and hands, and with a wrench
tore the bird-skin coat from his body and sprang up as a powerful
young man with anger shining in his eyes.
When the shaman saw this sudden change he started back, with his
heart growing weak within him; he could not escape, however, and
very soon Ak'-chikchu'-guk caught him in his arms, pressed in his
sides until the blood gu.shed from his mouth, and, stooping, caught
him by the ankles and whirled him over his head and across the whale-
bone, cutting his neck apart : then he brought the body down again
and it fell in two. Throwing aside the fragment in his hand, he turned
to the frightened villagers and said, "Ijb there any relative, brother,
father, or son of this miserable shaman who thinks I have done wrong?
If there is, let him come forward and take re-venge."
The villagers eagerly expressed their Joy at the shaman's death, as
they had been in constant fear of him, and he had killed every stranger
who came to their village. Then Ak'-chik-chu'-guk sent everyone out
of the kashim, and soon, by help of his magic, restored his two brothers
to life; after this they went out and released their sister, and clothed
ing her in fine new garments. She told them of her long drifting on the
ice with her brother and of their landing near Un-a'-shiik,' the village
at which they then were; also how the shaman had killed her brother
and kept her a prisoner.
The brothers were now treated so kindly by the people in the village
*Un-a'-shtik, a village near St Lawrence bay, on the Siberian shore of Beiiug strait.
504 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ethaxn. 18
that they lingered there from day to day until a considerable time had
elapsed, during which two of them made flue bows and quivers full of
arrows, and another made a strong, stone-head spear.
One day nearly all the men were gathered lu the kashim when the
youngest brother hurried in and said that the sea was covered with
umiaks, so that the flashing of their paddles looked like falling rain-
drops in the sun. The villagers told the brothers that the umiaks
were from a neighboring place and that the men in them meant no
harm to the people of Uii-a'-shuk, but were coming to kill the strangers.
Hearing this, Ak'-chik-chfl'-guk told the villagers to stay within their
houses and sent his brothers out to meet the enemy. The umiaks
soon came to the shore and a fierce battle ensued. The umiak men
tried in vain to kill or wound the brothers, while the latter killed many
of them. Finally the youngest brother returned to the kashim, saying
that his arrows were exhausted, but that their enemies were nearly all
dead. Soon afterward the next younger brother came in and said that
all his arrows were -gone and only a few of the enemy were left. He
had scarcely finished si^eaking when the third brother came in, his
spear all bloody, and told them that only one man had been spared to
carry home news of the fate of his comrades. Going out the villagers
saw the shore covered with the dead men and were astonished, but they
said nothing.
Still the brothers lingered, disliking to begin the long homeward
journey, and at last another fleet of umiaks, larger than the first, bear-
ing the friends and relatives of the men slain in the first battle, came
in sight; these, the villagers said, were people coming for blood revenge.
Again Ak'-chik-chii'-guk sent all of the villagers to their homes, telling
them not to leave their houses. When they were gone he sat side by
side with his brothers in the kashim and awaited the enemy.
The umiaks came to the shore very quickly, and the warriors, fully
armed, hurried to the kashim to seek their victims, coming in such num-
bers that the last had hard work to get into the house. The brothers
sat still ill tlie midst of their enemies, who became quiet when they
were all in the house and seemed to be waiting for something. In a few
moments two extremely old women came in, each carrying a small
grass basket in her hands. One of them sat quietly in a corner while
the warriors made room for the other to come up in front of the broth-
ers. She looked at them with an evil eye and drew from the basket a
finger bone of one of the men killed in the first battle, setting it up on
the floor in front of the youngest brother; then taking out a human
rib, she looked fixedly at the young man and struck the bone with the
rib, saying at the same time, "He is dead." Instantly the young man
fell over from his seat dead. Quickly she placed the second bone in
front of another brother and he, too, fell dead from his seat.
At this Ak'-chik-chii'gnk uttered a cry of anger, and springing upon
the witch, before anyone could move, caught both her hands and crushed
NELSON] THE DISCONTENTED GRASS PLANT 505
them to a shapeless mass. Then he caught up her basket aud scattered
about him in a circle all the fiuger boues it contained. Without a
moment's delay he took the rib and strilcing the boues as quickly as
possible, repeated, "He is dead. He is dead. He is dead." And his
enemies fell as he moved until not one of them was left alive. Then
he exercised his magic power and restored his brothers to life again,
after which the villagers were called in. When the latter came and
saw the kashim tilled with dead men, they were full of fear and told the
brothers that so many people had been killed by them that they feared
to have them remain there any longer.
The brothers consented to go, and preparing their umiak, they
embarked with tlieir sister. Just as they were leaving, the villagers
told them to be sure to stop and build a large fire on the beach as soon
as they came in sight of their native village. They traveled slowly
back as they had come, and finally they were pleased to see their
village just ahead of them. At this time the sister was walking along
the shore with a dog, towing the boat by means of a long, walrus-hide
line. When she saw the houses she remembered the directions of the
villagers about building a fire when they came in sight of their home,
and reminded her brotiiers of it, but Ak'-chlkciin'-guk was eager to
complete the journey, and said impatiently, " iv o, no, we will not trouble
ourselves to do tliat; I wish to hurry home." When the sister turned
and stai'ted to go on she had scarcely taken a step forward when her
feet felt so heavy that she could not raise them. She shrieked in fear,
and said, "My feet feel as if they were becoming stone." As she spoke
she changed into stone from head to foot. Then the same change
occurred with the dog, and out along the line to the boat, changing it
and its occupants into stone. There until this day, as a rocky ledge, is
the boat where it stopped, the brothers facing their home, and a slender
reef running to the land where thetowliue dro^jped, while on shore are
the stony figures of the giil and the dog.
THE DISCONTENTED GRASS PLANT
(From Sleilge islainl)
Near the village of Pastolik, at the Yulfon mouth, grows a tall, slen-
der kind of grass. Every fall just before winter commences the women
from the villages go out and gather great stores of it, pulling or cut-
ting it off close to the ground, and making large bundles which they
carry home on tlieir backs. This grass is dried and used for braiding
mats and baskets and for pads in the soles of skin boots.
One of these Grass-stalks that had been almost pulled out of the
ground by a woman, began to think that it had been very unfortunate
in not being something else, so it looked about. Almost at first glance
it spied a bunch of herbs growing near by, looking so quiet and undis-
turbed that the Grass began to wish to be like them. As soon as this
50G THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.a>-n.18
wish liad been formed tlie Grass-stem became an Herb like those it had
envied, and for a short time it remained in i)eace.
One day it saw the women coming back carrjing sharp-pointed picks,
with which they began to dig up these herbs and eat some of the roots,
while others were ]>ut into baskets and carried home. The change-
ling was left when the women went home in the evening, and having
seen the fate of its companions, it wislied it had taken another form;
"so looking about, it saw a small, creeping i>lant which jileased it, being
so tiny and obscure; without delay it wished and became one of them.
Again passecl a time of quiet, and again came the women tearing up its
companions but overlooking the changeling. Once more the latter was
filled with fear and by wishing became a small tuber-bearing plant like
others growing near. Scarcely had this change been made when a
small tundra mouse came softly through the grass and began digging
np one of the tubers of a similar plant near by, holding it in its fore-
paws and nibbling it, after which the mouse went on again. "To be
secure I must become a mouse," tliought tlie changeling, and at once
it became a Mouse and ran off, glad of the new change. Now and
then it would pause to dig up and eat one of the tubers as the other
mouse had done, or it would sit up on its hind feet to look around at
the new scenes that came in view. While traveling nimbly along in
this manner, the Mouse saw a strange, white object coming toward it,
which kept dropping down upon the ground, and after stopping to eat
son;etliing would fly on again. When it came near tlie Mouse saw that
it was a great white owl. At the same moment the owl saw the Mouse
and swooped down upon it. Darting off, the Mouse was fortunate
enough to escape by running into a hole made by one of its kind, so
the owl flew away.
After a while the IMouse ventured to come out of its shelter, though
its heart beat painfully from its recent fright. "I will be an owl,"
thought the Mouse, "and in this way will be safe." So again it changed
with the wish into a beautiful white Owl, and with slow, noiseless wing
flaps set off toward the north, pausing every now and then to catch
and eat a mouse. After a long flight Sledge island came in view, and
the Owl thought it would go there. AVhen far out at sea its untried
wings became so tired that only with great difticulty did It manage to
reach the shore, where it ])ei'ched upon a piece of driftwood that stood
up in the sand. In a .short time it saw two fine-looking men pass along
the shore, and the old feeling of discontent arose again. "I will be a
man," it thought, and, with a single flap of the wings, it stood upon
the ground, where it changed immediately into a fine young Man, but
was without clothing. Night came over tlie earth soon after, and Man
sat down with his back against the stick of wood on which, as an
Owl, he had perched, and slept there until morning. He was awakened
by the warm sun, and upon rising (JhuM-uh' Ink, as he called himself,
felt stift' and lame from sitting in the cold night air.
KELSON] THE DISCONTENTED URASS PLANT 507
Looking about, lie fouucl some grass, wbi{;li be wove into a kind of
loose mantle, wbicb belped to keep out tbe cold, after whicb be saw some
reindeer grazing near by and felt a sudden desire to kill and eat one
of tbem. He crept closely on bis bauds and knees, and springing for-
ward on the nearest one seized it by tbe borns and broke its neqk witb a
single effort, tbrcw it over bis sboulders, returned, and cast it down near
bis sleeping place. Tbeu be felt all over tbe reindeer's body and found
tbat its skin formed a covering wbicb bis fingers were unable to pene-
trate. For a long time be tried to tbink of a way to remove tbe skin,
and finally noticed a sharp-edge stone, which be picked up and ibund
tbat lie conld cirt through the skin with it. The deer was (piickly
skinned, but be felt tbe lack of a fire with whicb to cook the flesh.
Looking around, be found two round, white stones upon the beach
and, striking tbem together, saw tliat tbey gave out numerous sparks.
Witli these and some dry material found along tbe shore be succeeded
in making a fire, upon which he roasted some of tbe meat. He tried
to swallow a very large piece of tbe meat just as he had eaten mice
when he was an Owl, but found tbat be could not do it; then be cut
off some small fragments and ate tbem. Another night passed, and
in the morning be caught another reindeer, and tbe day following two
others; both of these last deer be threw over his sboulders, and at once
carried tbem back to his camping place on the shore. Chun-ub'-lnk
found the nights very cold, so he skinned tbe last two reindeer and
wrapped himself from head to foot in their skins, which dried upon
him very soon and became like a part of his body. But the nights
grew colder and colder, so tbat Obun-i'ib'-luk collected a (juantity of
driftwood along tbe shore, with whicb be made himself a rough but,
whicb was very comfortable.
After linisbing liis bouse he was walking over tbe bills one day when
he saw a strange black animal among some blueberry bushes eating
tbe berries. Cbnn-uh'-lfdc did not at first know whether be should
interfere with this unknown animal or not, but finally be caught it by
one of its hind legs. With an angry growl it turned about and faced
him, showing its white teeth. In a moment Obun-iih'-luk caught the
bear by tbe coarse hair upon each cheek and swung it over his bead,
bringing it down to tlie ground witb such force tbat the bear lay dead;
then he threw it across his shoulders and went home.
In skinning the bear Ghuu-uh'-luk found tbat it contained mucli fat,
and tbat he niiglit have a light in bis bouse if he could find something
to liold tbe grease, for he had found it very dark inside and trouble-
some to move about. Going along the beach he found a long, fiat stone
with a hollow in one surface, and in this the oil remained very well, so
that when he had put a lighted moss wick into it he saw tbat bis bouse
was lighted as well as he could wish.
In tbe doorway be bung the bearskin to keep out the cold wind which
sometimes had come in and cliilled biin during the night. In this way
508 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.anx.18
be lived for mauy (lays, until he began to feel lonely, when he remem-
bered the two young men he had seen when he stood on the shore as
an Owl. Then he thought, "I saw two men pass here once, and it can
not be far to where others live. I will go and sieek them, for it is very
lonely h^re."' So he went out iu search of people. He wandered along
the coast for some distance, and at last came to two fine new kaiaks,
lying at the font of a hill, u))0u which were spears, lines, floats, and
otlier hunting implements.
After having examined these curiously he saw a path near by, lead-
ing up to the top of a hill, which he followed. Ou the top of the hill
was a house with two storehouses iu the viciuity, and on the ground
in front of him were several recently killed white whales, with the
skulls of many others grouped around. Wishing to see the people
iu the bouse before showing himself, he crept with noiseless steps
into the entrance way and up to the door. Lifting cautiously one
corner of the skin that hung in the doorway, he looked in. Opposite
the door was a young man sitting at work on some arrows, while a bow
lay beside him. Chiin-iih'-lfdc drojjped the curtain and stood quite still
for some time, fearing that if he entered the house the young man would
slioot him with the arrows before he could make known bis good will.
He ended by thinking, " If I enter and say, 'I have come, brother,' be
will not hurt me," so, raisiug the curtain quickly, he entered. The
housebolder at once seized the bow and drew an arrow to the bead I'eady
to shoot, just as Chim-ub'-lidv said, " I have come, brother." .At this the
bow and arrow were dropped and the youug man cried out with delight,
"Are you my brother ? Come and sit beside me." And Cbuu-iib'-luk
did so very gladly. Then the householder showed his pleasure and
said, " I am very glad to see you, brother, for I always believed I had
one somewhere, but I could never find him. Where have you lived?
Have you known any parents? How did you grow up?" and asked
many other questions, to which Chiiu-iib'-luk replied that be bad never
known his parents, and described bis life by the seashore until be bad
started on the present search. The housebolder then said tbat he also
bad never known any parents, and bis earliest recoUectiou was of find-
ing himself alone in that bouse, where he bad lived ever since, killing
game for food.
Telling his brother to follow bim, the householder led Cbiin-ub'-liik
to one of the storehouses, where there was a great i^ile of rich furs,
with an abundance of seal oil and other food. Opening the door of the
other storehouse, the newcomer was shown a great many dead people
lying there. The householder said be bad killed them in revenge for
the deatli of bis parents, for he felt certain tbat tbey bad been killed
by these people, so be let no one pass him alive.
When tbey returned to the house, the brothers fell asleep and slept
till morning. At daybreak they arose and, after breakfast, the house-
bolder told Cbiin-ub'-luk that as be bad no bow and arrows, be should
KELSON] THE DISCONTENTED GRASS PLANT 509
stay at home ami cook for tlieni botli wliile he \veut out hiiusilf to kill
the game. Theu Ije weut away and came back at night, bringing some
reindeer meat. Chuu-nh'lfdc had food ready, and after eating they
both went to bed and slept soundly. In this manner they lived for
several days, until Chuu-iih'-luk began to tire of cooking and of staying
in the house.
One morning lie asked permission to go out to hunt with his brother,
but tlie latter refused and started out alone. Soon after, when he
began to stalk some reindeer, Churiuh'luk eanie creeping softly behind
and grasped him by the foot, so that without alarming the game his
brother should know he was there. Turning, the hunter sai<l angrily,
"What do you meau by following me? You can not kill anything
without a bow and arrows." '•! can kill game with my hands alone,"
said Chftu-fih'-luk; but his brother spoke scornfully, and said: "Go
home, and attend to your cooking."' Chim-iih'-liik turned away, but
instead of going home he crept up to a herd of reindeer and killed two
of them with his hands, as he had done while living alone. Then he
stood up and waved his hands for his brother to come. The latter
came, and was very much astonished to see the two reindeer, for he
had killed none with his arrows. Chiiii-iih'-luk then lifted both of the
reindeer upon his shoulders and carried them home.
His brother followed with dark brow and evil thoughts in his heart,
until jealousy and anger replaced all the kindly feelings he had for
Chun-iih'-luk, and there was also a feeling of fear after having seen his
brother manifest such great strength. During all the evening he sat
silent and moody, scarcely tasting the Ibod placed before him, until
finally his suspicions and evil thoughts began to produce the same
feelings in OhuTi-fdi'-lnk's breast. Thus they sat through the night,
each watching the other and fearing some treachery.
The following day was calm and bright, and the householder asked
Chuii-fih'-luk if he could paddle a kaiak, to which the latter answered
that he thought he could. Theu the householder led the way to the
kaiaks upon the shore, iuto one of which he got, and telling Chu£i-uh'-luk
to follow him in the other. At first Chnu-uh'-hlk had some trouble in
keeping his kaiak steady, but he soon learned to control it, and they
paddled far out to sea. When the shore was very distant they turned
back, and the householder said: "Xow, let us see who can gain the
shore first." Lightly the kaiaks darted away, and first oue, then the
other, seemed to have the advantage, until at last, with a final eflbrt,
they ran ashore, and the rivals sprang up the beach at the same
moment. With scowling brow the householder turned to Chiin-tih'-
luk and said: "You are no more my brother. You go in that direction
and I will go in this," and they turned their backs to each other and
separated angrily. As they went Chiiii-uh'-luk changed into a
Wolverine, his brother becoming a Gray Wolf, and until this day they
are found wandering in the same country, but never together.
510 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
THE FIRE BALI.
(From Sledge island)
In the village of Kiiii'-gim (Cape Prince of Walijs), very long ago,
tbere lived a i)Oor orphan boy who had no one to care for him and was
treated badly by everyone, being made to run here and there at the
bidding of the villagers. One evening he was told to go out of the
kashim and see how the weather was. He had no skin boots, and being
winter, he did not wish to go, but he was driven out. Very soon he
came back and said there was no change in the weather. After this
the men kept sending him out on the same errand until at last became
back and told them that he had seen a great ball of tire like the moon
coming over the hill not far away. The people laughed at him and
made him go out again, when he saw that the lire had come nearer
until it was quite close. Then the orphan ran inside telling what he
had seen and hid himself because he was frightened.
Soon after this the peojjle in the kashim saw a fiery figure dancing on
the gut-skin covering over the roof hole, and directly after a human
skeleton came crawling into the room through the passageway, creep-
ing on its knees and elbows. When it came into the room the skeleton
made a motion toward the people, causing all of them to fall upon their
knees and elbows in the same i^osition taken by the skeleton. Then
turning about it crawled out as it had come, followed by the people,
who were forced to go after it. Outside the skeleton crept away from
the village, followed by all the men, and iu a -short time everyone of
them was dead and the skeleton had vanished. Some of the villagers
had been absent when the skeleton, or timyhdk, came, and when they
returned they found dead people lying on the ground all about. Enter-
ing the kashim they found the orphan boy, who told them how the
people had been killed. After this they followed the tracks of the tun-
ghak through the snow and were led up the side of the mountain until
they came to a very ancient grave, where the tracks ended.
In a few days the brother of one of the men who had been killed
went fishing upon the sea ice far from the village. He stayed late, and
it became dark while he was still a long way from home. As he was
walking along the tunyhak suddenly appeared before him and began
to cross back and forth in his path. The young man tried to pass it
and escape, but could not, as the tuiujhuk kept in front of him, do what
he might. As he could think of nothing else, he suddenly caught a
fish out of his basket and threw it at the iuiH/hak. When he threw
the fish it was frozen hard, but as it was thrown and came near the
tunghcilc, it turned back suddenly, passing over the young man's shoul-
ders, and fell into his basket again, where it began to flap about, having
become alive.
Then the fisherman pulled oif one of his dogskin mittens and threw it.
As it fell near the tunghdk the mitten changed into a dog, which ran
NELSON] THE FIRE BALL THE LAND OF DARKNESS 511
growling and snarling about the apparition, distracting its attention so
that the young man was able to dart bj- and run as fast as he could
toward the village. When he had gone part of the way he was again
stoj)ped by the tunglulk, and at the same time a voice from overhead
said, "Untie his feet; they are bound with cord;" but he was too
badly frightened to obey. He then threw his other mitten, and it, too,
changed into a dog, delaying the Innghul; as the Urst one had done.
The young man ran off as fast as he could, and fell exhausted near
the kashim door as the tungln'ik came up. The latter passed very near
without seeing him and went into the house, but finding no one there,
came out and went away. The young man then got up and went home,
but did not dare to tell liis mother what be had seen. The following
day he went fishing again, and on his way came to a man lying in
the path whose face and hands were black. When he drew near, the
black man told him to get on his back and close his eyes. He obeyed,
and in a short time was told to open his eyes. When the young man did
this he saw just before him a house and near it a fine young woman. She
spoke to him, saying, " Why did you not do as I told you the other night
■when the tunghuk pursued you?" and be replied that he had been
afraid to do it. The woman then gave him a magic stone as an amulet
to protect him from the tungluit in the future, and the black man again
took him on his back, and when he opened his eyes he was at home.
After this the young man claimed to be a shaman, but he thought
continually of the beautiful young woman he had seen, so that he did
not have much jiower. At last his father said to him, "You are no
shaman; you will make me ashamed of you; go somewhere else.'' The
next morning the young man left the village at daybreak, and was never
heard of again.
THE LAND OF DARKNESS
(From Sledge islautl)
Very long ago there lived on Aziak (Sledge) island a man with his
wife and little son. The husband loved his wife very much, but was so
jealous of her that frequently without cause he ti'eated her very badly.
After a time the wife became so unhappy that she preferred to die rather
than live with him longer. Going to her mother, who lived near by,
she related all her troubles. The old woman listened to the complaints
and then told her daughter to take a sealskin and rub it with the excre-
ment of three ptarmigans and three foxes; then to fill a wooden dish
with food and with her child upon her back to go and meet her husband,
and perhaps all might be well with her.
Doing as she was directed, she went down to the shore to meet her
husband. When he came within hearing, however, he began to scold
and abuse her as usual, telling her to go home at once and he would
give her a beating as soon as he got there. When the poor woman
heard this she ran to the edge of a low bluff overhanging the sea, and
512 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth. aj<.\M8
as her husband drew his kaiak upou the shore she cast her sealskiu into
the water aud leaped after it. Her Imsband saw this with alarm, aud
ran quickly to the top of a hill to see what had become of his wife. He
saw her sittiug upon the extended sealskin., which was supported at
each corner by a bladder, tioating- rapidly away from tiie shore, for when
the woman leaped into the sea, the sealskin she threw in had suddenly
opened out and a float ai)peared at each corner. This caught her upou
its surface and held her up safely. Very soon after she began to float
away a storm arose and night shut her from her husband's sight, aud
he went home scolding angrily, blaming every one but himself for his
loss.
On and on floated the woman, seated on the magic sealskin, and for
several days no laud could be seen. She used all her food, but still
she floated on until it became unbroken night. After a time she became
so exhausted that she fell asleep, and was awakened by several sharp
shocks and could hear the waves breaking on a pebbly shore. Kealiz-
ing this, she began to try to save herself; so she stejiped from the seal-
skin and was greatly pleased to find herself standing on a beach made
up of small rounded objects, into which her feet sank ankle deep at
every step.
These round objects made her curious, so she stopped and picked up
two handfuls of them, putting them in her food dish, after which she
went slowly on into the deep blackness. Before she had gone far she
came to a house, aud, feeling along its side, found the entrance and
went in. The passageway was dimly lighted by an oil lamp, showing
many deerskins piled on oue side, and on the other were pieces of flesh
and bags of whale aud seal oil. When she entered the house there
were two oil lamps burning, one on each side of the room, but no one
was at home. Over one of the lamps hung a piece of seal fat, and over
the other a piece of reindeer fat, from which the oil dropped and fed
the flames, and in one corner of the room was a deerskin bed.
She entered aud sat down, waiting for what would come to her. At
last there was a noise in the entrance way, aud a man said, " I smell
strange iJeople." Then the man came into the room, frightening the
woman very badlj-, for his face and hands were coal black. He said
nothing, but crossed the room to his bed, where, after stripping the
upper part of his body, he took a tub of water and washed himself.
The woman was relievetl to see that his chest was as white as her
own. While sitting here she saw a dish of some cooked flesh suddenly
placed inside the door by an unseen person, from which the man lielped
his guest and then took his own meal. Wheu they had done eating he
asked her how she came there, and she told him her story. He told
her not to feel badly, and went out and brought in a number of deer-
skins, telling her t<> make clothing from them for herself and her child,
for she had kept her child safely upon her back all the time. When
she told him that she had no needle, he brought her oue of copper.
NELSON] THE LAND OF DARKNESS 513
which pleased lier very imicli, for until then she had never seen any but
bone needles.
For some time they lived thus, until at last the man told her that as
they were living alone it would be better for her to become his wife, to
which she agreed. The husband then told her not to go outside the
house, and they lived quietly together.
While her little boy was playing about one day, he cried out suddenly
with delight, and when the woman looked at him she saw that he had
si)illed the things which she had put in her dish when she stepped on
the shore. Examining them, she found thej' were large, handsome,
blue beads.'
In time she gave birth to a fine boy, of which her husband was very
fond, telling her to be very careful of him. In this waj' they lived for
several years, and in time the boy she had brought with her became a
youth. His foster father made him a bow and arrows, and when the boy
had killed some birds with them he was allowed to accompany him when
hunting. One day the boy killed and brought home two hares, which,
like all the animals and birds in this country, were coal black. They
were skinned and left outside, and shortly after, freshly cooked and
steaming, they were placed just inside tiie door iu a wooden dish, as was
always done with their food. The woman noticed for the first time that
when the dish was pushed inside the door it was held by two hands.
This remained in her mind until she became suspicious that her hus-
band was not faithful to her. Finally he saw that something troubled
her; he asked what it was, and she told him. After sitting and thinking
for a short time he asked her if she did not wish to go back to her
friends, to which she replied that there was no use in wishing for any-
thing that she could not do. So he said, '• Well, listen to my story, I
am from Unalaklit. where I had a handsome wife whom I loved, but
who had a very bad temper, which troubled me so much that I lost
heart and was in despair, and from being a good and successful hunter
I could no longer succeed. One day I was paddling in my kaiak far
out at sea, filled with heavy thoughts, when a great storm broke upon
me and I was unable to returu to the shore. The high wind forced my
kaiak through the water so fiercely that at last I lost consciousness
and remembered no more until I found myself lying bruised and lame
upon the shore where you, too, were cast. Beside me was a dish of
food, of which I ate, and feeling strengthened, I arose, thinking that
the food must have been placed there by some one, and started to
search for the people, but could find no one. W^hile my wants were
still supplied with food every time I became hungry, the thick dark-
ness hid everything from me; but I could find no people, and when my
ej'es became accustomed to the unbroken darkness, so that I could see
a little, I built this house and since then I have lived here, being cared
for by the inua who, as you have seen, serves my food. This iniia usually
' Beada of this kind are stiU highly prized by the Eskimo of this coast.
18 ETH 33
514 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
takes tbe form of a large jelly fish, and althougli I go limiting it is this
being that secures my game for me. 1 became accustomed to the
darkness after a time, but the exposure to the continual b'ackness has
made my face and hands as you see, and that is the reason why I told
you not to go outside."
Iler husband then told her to follow him, and he led her into tbe
entrance way of the storeroom, which was full of furs, and then he
opened a door into another room full of tine furs of the rarest kinds.
He then told her to take the ear tips from these skins and put them
into her dish with the beads she had found on the shore, and she did
so. Then the man said, "You wish to see your old home and I also
wish to see my friends, and we will part. Take your boy upon your
back, shut your eyes, and take four steps." She did as he told her, and
so soou as she had opened her eyes she was obliged to close them,
for they were dazzled by the bright sunshine about her. When her
eyes became used to the light, she looked about and was greatly sur-
prised to see her old home close by. She went at once to her mother's
storehouse and placed in it her wooden dish containing the beads and
ear tips she had brought with her. Then she entered the house and
was received with great joy, and the news of her return quickly spread
through the village. Very soon her former husband came in and she
saw with pity that his eyes were red and inflamed from constant
weeping for her. He asked her to forgive him for being so harsh, and
promised if she would return to him as his wife that he would always
treat her kindly. When she had considered this for a long time she
finally consented, and for a time she lived happily with him. At length,
however, his old habits returned and his wife became unhappy.
Her sou became a young man and his mother showed him the beads
she had brought from the land of darkness, and also a great pile of
rich furs, for every ear tip she had brought back with her had now
become a full-size skin. These she gave to her sou and then went
away and was never seen again by her people. Her sou afterward
became a headman of the village from his success as a hunter and
the wealth of furs and beads given him by his mother.
THE RAVEN AND THE MARMOT
(A wom.Tn's tale, from Norton bay)
Once a Raven was flying over a reef near the seashore, when he was
seen by some Sea-birds that were perched on the rocks, and they began
to revile him, crying, "Oh, you oftal eater! Oh, you carrion eater! Oh,
you black one!" until the Eaven turned and flew away, crying, " Gunk,
gnuk, glial! why do they revile me?" And he flew faraway across the
gi'eat water until he came to a mountain on the other side, where be
stopped.
Looking about lie saw just in front of him a marmot hole. The Kaven
stood by the hole watching, and very soou the Marmot came back
NELSON] RAVEN AND THE MARMOT 515
bringing home some food. When the Marmot saw the Raveu in front
of his door he asked him to stand aside, but the Raven refused, saying,
"They called me carrion eater, and I will show that I am not, for I will
eat you." To this the Marmot answered, "All right; but I have heard
that you are a very fine dancer; now, if you will dance, I will sing,
and then you can eat me, but I wish to see you dance before I die."
This pleased the Raven so much that he agreed to dance, so the Mar-
mot sang, " Oh, Raven, Raven, Raven, how well you dance ! Oh, Raven,
Raven, Raveu, how well you dance!"' Then they stoi)ped to rest, and
the Marmot said, "I am very much pleased with your dancing, and
now I will sing once more, so shut your eyes and dance your best."
The Raveu closed his ej'es and hopped clumsily about while the Mar-
mot sang, " Oh, Raven, Raveu, Raveu, what a graceful dancer ! Oh,
Raven, Raveu, Raven, what a fool you are ! " Then the Marmot, with a
quick run, darted between the Raven's legs and was safe in his hole.
As soon as the Marmot was safe he put out the tip of his nose and
laughed mockingly, saying, ^•Ghi-kik-kil; chi-lcilc-kil:, chi-k'ik-l-il! You
are the greatest fool I ever saw ; what a comical figure you made while
dancing; I could hardly keep from laughing; and just look at me; see
how fat I am. Don't you wish you could eat me! " And he tormented
the Raven until the latter flew far away in a lage.
THE SHAMAN IN THE MOON
(From Kotzeline sound)
A Malemut shaman from Kotzebue sound near Selawik lake told me
that a great chief lives in the moou who is visited now and then by
shamans, who always go to him two at a time, as one man is ashamed
to go alone. In the moon live all kinds of animals that are on the
earth, and when any animal becomes scarce here the shamans go up to
the chief in the moon and, if he is pleased with the offerings that have
been made to him, he gives them one of the animals that they wish for,
and they bring it down to the earth and turn it loose, after which its
kind becomes numerous again.
The shaman who told me the foregoing said he hail never been to the
moon himself, but he knew a shaman who had been there. He had
been up only as high as the sky, and went up that high by flying like
a bird and found that the sky was a land like the earth, only that the
grass grew hanging downward and was filled with snow. When the
wind blows up there it rustles the grass stems, loosening iiarticles of
snow which fall down to the earth as a snowstorm.
When he was up near the sky he saw a great many small, round
lakes in the grass, and these shine at night to make the stars. The
Malemut of Kotzebue sound also say that the north wind is the breath
of a giant, and when the snow falls it is because he is building himself
a snow house and the particles are flying from his snow shovel. The
south wind is the breath of a woman living in the warm southland.
516 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [eth.ann. 18
THE MAN-WORM
(From Kotzebue soiiml)
[There are various tales amoug the Eskimo along the east shore of
Bering sea and the adjacent Arctic coast in which a Man-worm figures,
and among the mythical beings illustrated in the chapter on mythology
will be found figures of carvings representing this being.]
In verj^ ancient days there lived a large Worm who was married to a
woman, and they had a son who was also a Worm. When the son was
fully grown the father told him to go to the middle of the earth plain
and there in a small house he would find a wife. The son then used
his magic powers and made himself small, so that he could travel faster,
and journeyed away. When he came near the small house of which his
father had told him, he felt the earth shake and tremble under his feet,
and he feared that he would be killed. This happened several times,
until finally he reached the house. Here he found that the cause of the
shaking of the earth was the talk of au old woman who lived in the
house with her daughter. These people received him hospitably, and
finding that the girl was very beautiful, he married her. After he had
lived there four years he remembered his parents and started to go
back to visit them, but on the road he was killed by another Man-worm,
who was a shaman. In a short time after this the father felt a strong
desire to see his son, so he started to go to him. On the way he found
the body of his son, and looking about saw a large village close at hand.
He went to the spring where the villagers got their water, and making
himself small, hid in it, where, by the use of magic, he killed nearly all
the people in revenge for his son's death. When there were only a few
people left, an old woman in the village, knowing that some magic was
employed against them, worked a strong charm which caused the sea to
rise and break the ice upon its surface and carried it over the land
until the spring was covered; then the floating ice blocks were dashed
together until the Man-worm was ground to pieces and destroyed, so
that the people were freed from his magic.
MIGRATION LEGEND
[The following legend was obtained from an old man at Ikogmut, on
the lower Yukon. I had no opportunity of verifying any part of it,
which was given as a statement of fact.]
Very long ago the Eskimo lived far away from the Yukon, and were
continually moving from place to place; traveling from the far east to
the west. After long wanderings some of them built a village on the
bank of Yukon river, just below where Ikogmut now stands, which
increased in size until there were thirty-five kashims. The ruins of this
village can be seen at the present time, with large pits where the
kashims stood.
KELSON] MIGRATION LEGEND 517
Filially tlie villagers quarreled, formed two parties, and made war
against each other. The inhabitants of the surrouudiug villages bad
hated these people for a long time on account of their overbearing
manner, and when they began to quarrel among themselves the out-
side people united to make war upon them. These enemies were so
powerful that they were able to defeat the divided forces of the villagers
in a battle, and those who sur^^ved became sejiarated into three parties
and dispersed.
One party stopped at the village of Knshunuk, near Cape Van-
couver; another party went to Nunivak island, and auother traveled
on until it reached Bristol bay, and settled near where Nushagak now
stands. The people on the great island of Kodiak, having heard of
the strangers near Nushagak, sent a war party across from the island
to attack them, but the newcomers on Bristol bay succeeded in almost
exterminating them. After this the Aleut, on the island of Uminak,
heard of the strangers, and of their having defeated the Kodiak men,
so they sent out a war party against these people. This time the Yukon
men were defeated and lost half their number. Those who were left
then Joined with some of their friends from Nunivak island and attacked
the people living at Goodiiews bay, below the mouth of Kuskokwim
river, killing them and burning their village.
The victors then built themselves a village in the same locality,
where they were living at the time the Russians came to the country.
"\^'hen the liussians came the people on Gooduews bay resisted them for
some time, but finally they scattered, some going back to Bristol bay
and others settling with their people on Xunivak island. Since then
the descendants of these people have gradually returned to Goodnews
bay, where they are now living. During the last few years the people
on Bristol bay have been gradually working along the coast toward
the mouth of the Kuskokwim.
During the time of the migration from the Yukon all of these people
spoke one tongue, but having settled at three widely separated places,
their languages gradually became different, the people living at Bristol
bay and on Nunivak island being nearest alike in speech.
ORIGIN OF THE PEOPLE OF DIOMEDE ISLANDS, AND AT EAST CAPE,
SIBERIA
An old man from the Diomede islands told me that it was believed
among his people that the first human beings who came to Big Diomede
island were a man and a woman who came down from the sky and
lived on the island a long time, but had no children. At last the man
took some walrus ivory and carved five images of jieople. Then he
took some wood and made five more images from it and put all of them
to one side. The next morning the ten dolls had become transformed
into ten people. Those coming from the ivory dolls were men, being
hardy and brave, and those from the wood were women and were soft
and timid. From these ten people came the inhabitants of the islands.
518 THE ESKIMO ABOUT BERING STRAIT [ eth. ann. 18
An Eskimo liviug at East cape, Siberia, told me that the first
Eskimo wlio lived ou East cape were a man and a woman who came
there in two kaiaks from St Lawrence island. The kaiaks turued to
stoue when the pair lauded, aud two peculiarly shaped stones, one on
each side of the cape, are pointed out as being these kaiaks. From
this pair of people came all of the Siberian Eskimo.
In those days there were two kiuds of people on East cape, who
could not understand each other, but after a time the other people
went away and only the Eskimo were left, as they are today.
/
BOSTON PUBLIC LIBRARY
3 9999 06313 722 6
Live Music Archive
Librivox Free Audio
Metropolitan Museum
Cleveland Museum of Art
Internet Arcade
Console Living Room
Books to Borrow
Open Library
TV News
Understanding 9/11