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THIRTY-SEVENTH 
ANNUAL  REPORT  OF  THE 

BUREAU  OF 
AMERICAN  ETHNOLOGY 

TO  THE  SECRETARY  OF  THE 
SMITHSONIAN  INSTITUTION 


1915-1916 


C/ 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 

1923 


\\v-ta  <& .  <>y 


S.  S.  SUF 


LETTER  OF  TRANSMITTAL 


Smithsonian  Institution, 
Bureau  of  American  Ethnology, 

Washington,  D.  C,  August  4,  1916. 
Sir:  I  have  the  honor  to  submit  herewith  the  Thirty- 
seventh  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Eth- 
nology, for  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1916. 

With  appreciation  of  your  aid   in  the  work  under  my 
charge,  I  am 

Verv  respectfully,  yours, 

F.  W.  Hodge, 
Ethn  ologist-in-charge. 
Dr.  Charles  D.  Walcott, 

Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution. 


CONTENTS 


REPORT  OF  THE  ETHNOLOGIST-IN-CHARGE 

Page. 

Systematic  researches 1 

Special  researches 19 

Manuscripts 26 

Publications 27 

Illustrations 28 

Library 29 

Collections 30 

Property 30 

Miscellaneous 30 

ACCOMPANYING  PAPER 

The  Winnebago  Tribe,  by  Paul  Radin 33 

v 


REPORT  OF  THE 
ETHNOLOGIST-IN-GHARGE 


THIRTY-SEVENTH  ANNUAL  REPORT 

OF  THE 

BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  ETHNOLOGY 


F.  W.  Hodge,  Ethnologist-in-Charge 


The  operations  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology 
during  the  fiscal  year  ended  June  30,  1916,  were  conducted 
in  accordance  with  the  act  of  Congress  approved  March 
3,  1915,  making  appropriations  for  sundry  civil  expenses 
of  the  Government,  which  act  contains  the  following  item: 

American  ethnology :  For  continuing  ethnological  researches  among 
the  American  Indians  and  the  natives  of  Hawaii,  including  the  ex- 
cavation and  preservation  of  archaeologic  remains,  under  the  direction 
of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  including  necessary  employees  and 
the  purchase  of  necessary  books  and  periodicals,  $42,000. 

SYSTEMATIC  RESEARCHES 

Mr.  F.  W.  Hodge,  ethnologist  in  charge,  devoted  most  of 
his  energies,  as  usual,  to  administrative  affairs.  However, 
in  pursuance  of  a  plan  for  cooperative  archeological  research 
by  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  and  the  Museum  of 
the  American  Indian  (Heye  Foundation)  of  New  York,  Mr. 
Hodge  early  in  July  joined  Mr.  George  G.  Heye,  of  the 
museum  mentioned,  in  the  excavation  of  the  Nacoochee 
mound  in  White  County,  northeastern  Georgia,  permission 
to  investigate  which  was  accorded  by  the  owner,  Dr.  L.  G. 
Hardman. 

The  Nacoochee  mound  is  an  earthwork  occupied  by  the 
Cherokee  Indians  until  early  in  the  nineteenth  century. 
The  name  "Nacoochee,"  however,  is  not  of  Cherokee  origin; 
at  least,  it  is  not  identifiable  by  the  Cherokee  as  belonging 
to  their  language,  and  by  no  means  does  the  word  signify 

i 


2  BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY 

"the  evening  star"  in  any  Indian  tongue,  as  one  writer  has 
claimed. 

The  summit  of  the  mound,  which  had  been  leveled  for 
cultivation  about  30  years  ago,  measured  83  feet  in  maximum 
and  about  67  feet  in  minimum  diameter;  the  height  of  the 
mound  above  the  adjacent  field  was  17  feet  3  inches,  and  the 
circumference  of  the  base  410  feet.  These  measurements 
are  doubtless  less  than  they  were  at  the  time  the  mound 
was  abandoned  by  the  Cherokee,  as  all  the  dimensions  have 
been  more  or  less  reduced  by  cultivation,  the  slope  at  the 
base  particularly  having  been  plowed  away  for  several  feet. 
The  mound  was  reared  both  for  domicile  and  for  cemetery 
purposes  and  was  composed  of  rich  alluvial  soil  from  the 
surrounding  field.  Excavation  determined  that  the  mound 
was  not  built  at  one  time,  but  evidently  at  different  periods, 
as  circumstances  demanded.  This  was  shown  plainly  by 
the  stratification  of  the  mound  soil,  the  occurrence  of  graves 
at  different  depths  with  undisturbed  earth  above  them,  the 
presence  of  fire  pits  or  of  evidences  of  fires  throughout  the 
mound  at  varying  levels,  and  by  the  finding  of  a  few  objects 
derived  from  the  white  man  in  the  upper  part  and  in  the 
slopes  of  the  mound,  but  not  in  the  lower  levels.  From  this 
last  observation  it  is  evident  that  the  occupancy  of  the 
mound  extended  well  into  the  historical  period,  a  fact  sup- 
ported by  the  memory  of  the  grandparents  of  present  resi- 
dents of  the  Nacoochee  Valley,  who  recalled  the  mound  when 
the  Cherokee  Indians  still  occupied  it  and  the  surround- 
ing area. 

The  fact  that  the  mound  was  used  for  burial  purposes  is 
attested  by  the  finding  of  the  remains  of  75  individuals 
during  the  course  of  the  excavations,  the  graves  occurring 
from  slightly  beneath  the  summit  to  a  depth  of  about  19 
feet,  or  below  the  original  base  of  the  mound.  These  graves, 
with  few  exceptions,  were  unmarked,  and  in  most  instances 
were  not  accompanied  with  objects  of  ceremony  or  utility. 
The  exceptions  were  those  remains  with  which  were  buried 
stone  implements,  shells  or  shell  ornaments,  a  smoking  pipe, 
a  pottery  vessel,   or  the  like.     The  skeletons  were  found 


ADMINISTRATIVE    REPORT 


usually  with  the  head  pointed  in  an  eastwardly  direction, 
and  were  all  so  greatly  decomposed  that  it  was  impossible 
to  preserve  any  of  them  for  measurement  and  study,  the 
bones  in  most  cases  consisting  of  only  a  pasty  mass. 

As  mentioned  above,  most  of  the  burials  were  unmarked. 
The  exceptions  consisted  of  two  graves  incased  and  covered 
with  slabs  of  stone,  both  unearthed  near  the  very  base  of  the 
mound.  One  of  these  stone  graves  contained  a  skeleton 
the  bones  of  which  were  largely  of  the  consistency  of  corn 
meal,  owing  to  the  ravages  of  insects,  but  what  was  lacking 
in  the  remains  themselves  was  more  than  compensated  by 
the  finding  near  the  skull  of  a  beautiful  effigy  vase  of  painted 
pottery,  the  only  piece  of  painted  ware,  whole  or  fragmentary, 
found  in  the  entire  mound.  The  occurrence  of  this  type  of 
vessel  and  the  presence  of  the  stone  graves  at  the  bottom  of 
the  mound  suggest  the  possible  original  occupancy  of  the 
site  by  Indians  other  than  the  Cherokee. 

Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  feature  of  the  mound  was 
the  large  number  of  smoking  pipes  of  pottery,  mostly  broken, 
but  in  many  forms  and  of  varying  degrees  of  workmanship. 
Some  of  the  pipes  are  of  excellent  texture  and  are  highly 
ornamented  with  conventionalized  figures  of  birds,  etc.,  or 
marked  with  incised  designs.  Another  feature  of  the  mound 
was  the  presence  of  a  great  amount  of  broken  pottery,  espe- 
cially in  the  refuse  at  the  base  and  covering  the  slopes. 
This  pottery  is  chiefly  of  fine  texture,  although  some  of  the 
cooking  vessels  are  of  coarse  ware.  With  the  exception  of 
the  painted  vessel  above  noted,  the  only  ornamentation 
applied  by  the  makers  of  the  pottery  consists  of  incised  and 
impressed  designs,  the  latter  made  usually  with  a  paddle  of 
clay  or  wood,  or  worked  out  in  the  moist  ware  before  firing 
by  means  of  a  pointed  tool,  a  spatula,  a  piece  of  cane,  or  a 
shell. 

In  pursuance  of  another  plan  of  cooperative  archeological 
research,  Mr.  Hodge,  in  October,  visited  Zuni,  N.  Mex.,  with 
Mr.  Heye,  for  the  purpose  of  examining  the  ruins  of  the 
historic  pueblo  of  Hawikuh,  in  the  Zuni  Valley  southwest  of 
Zuni  pueblo,  and  of  making  the  necessary  arrangements  with 


4  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

the  Indians  for  its  excavation.  This  site  is  of  great  archeo- 
logical  and  historical  interest,  as  the  pueblo  was  inhabited 
when  first  seen  by  Fray  Marcos  de  Niza  in  1539,  and  when 
visited  and  stormed  by  Coronado  in  the  following  year. 
It  became  the  site  of  an  important  Franciscan  mission  in 
1629,  and  was  finally  abandoned  in  1670  on  account  of  depre- 
dations by  hostile  Indians.  By  reason  of  the  fact  that 
Hawikuh  was  inhabited  continuously  from  prehistoric  times 
until  130  years  after  the  opening  of  the  historical  period,  it 
is  expected  that  a  thorough  study  of  its  ruins  will  shed  im- 
portant information  on  the  effect  of  the  earliest  Spanish  con- 
tact with  the  Zuni  people  and  will  supplement  archeological 
work  conducted  in  other  village  sites  of  that  tribe.  Owing 
to  unforeseen  circumstances,  active  work  was  not  commenced 
before  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year,  but  it  is  hoped  that  its 
initiation  will  not  be  long  delayed.  A  permit  therefor  has 
been  granted  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior. 

By  provisional  agreement  with  the  School  of  American 
Archaeology  at  Santa  Fe,  N.  Mex.,  and  the  Royal  Ontario 
Museum  of  Archaeology  at  Toronto,  plans  were  perfected 
whereby  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  in  conjunction  with 
those  establishments,  was  to  conduct  archeological  researches 
of  an  intensive  character  in  the  Chaco  Canyon  of  northern 
New  Mexico,  one  of  the  most  important  culture  areas  north 
of  Mexico.  Although  every  effort  was  made  to  obtain  from 
Congress  the  necessary  appropriation  for  meeting  the  Insti- 
tution's share  of  the  expense  (a  permit  for  the  excavations 
having  been  issued  by  the  Secretary  of  the  Interior),  the 
project  was  presented  too  late  for  action,  hence  the  work,  so 
far  as  the  Smithsonian  Institution  is  concerned,  has  been 
necessarily  postponed. 

As  opportunity  offered,  the  preparation  of  the  bibliography 
of  the  Pueblo  Indians  was  continued  by  Mr.  Hodge,  who 
also  represented  the  Smithsonian  Institution  as  a  member 
of  the  United  States  Geographic  Board,  and  the  Bureau  of 
American  Ethnology  at  the  meetings  of  the  Smithsonian 
advisory  committee  on  printing  and  publication. 

Dr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes,  ethnologist,  having  been  detailed 
to  continue  the  excavation  and  repair  of  prehistoric  ruins  in 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT 


the  Mesa  Verde  National  Park,  Colo.,  under  the  joint  aus- 
pices of  this  bureau  and  the  Department  of  the  Interior,  left 
Washington  for  that  locality  in  August,  1915,  and  remained 
in  the  park  continuously  until  the  close  of  October.  Dr. 
Fewkes  devoted  his  attention  mainly  to  a  large  mound  of 
stones  and  earth  situated  near  the  point  of  a  promontory 
opposite  Cliff  Palace,  across  Cliff  Canyon,  the  excavation  of 
which  revealed  a  type  of  structure  hitherto  unknown  in  the 
Mesa  Verde  National  Park,  and  architecturally  different 
from  any  that  had  been  previously  excavated  in  the  South- 
west. The  rooms  of  this  building,  which  Dr.  Fewkes  des- 
ignates as  "Sun  Temple,"  were  thoroughly  cleared  out,  the 
debris  removed,  and  the  walls  were  repaired  in  such  manner 
that  they  will  not  be  likely  to  deteriorate  for  many  years. 
A  report  on  the  work  of  excavation  and  on  the  structural 
features  of  this  interesting  building  forms  the  subject  of  an 
illustrated  pamphlet  published  by  the  Department  of  the 
Interior  in  June,  1916,  under  the  title  "Excavation  and 
repair  of  Sun  Temple,  Mesa  Verde  National  Park." 

Structurally  the  Sun  Temple  consists  of  two  parts — an 
original  building,  to  which  an  annex  is  so  united  as  to  give 
the  two  a  D-shape  ground  plan,  the  southern  or  straight  wall 
of  which  extends  almost  exactly  east-west.  This  wall 
measures  131  feet  7  inches  in  length;  the  highest  wall  of  the 
structure  is  11  feet  7  inches,  the  lowest  5  feet.  The  walls  are 
massive,  varying  in  thickness  from  2  to  5  feet,  and  are  com- 
posed of  a  core  of  rubble  faced  on  both  sides,  the  exposed 
stones  having  been  carefully  fashioned  by  hand  and  accu- 
rately fitted,  although,  as  in  the  case  of  pueblo  masonry 
generally,  the  stones  are  usually  neither  "broken"  at  the 
joints  nor  bonded  at  the  corners.  Nevertheless  the  walls  of 
the  Sun  Temple  display  excellent  structural  qualities  that 
will  compare  favorably  with  any  of  its  class  north  of  Mexico. 
Architecturally  the  annex  resembles  certain  tower-like  struc- 
tures in  the  ancient  pueblo  region,  and  in  plan  the  whole  ruin 
bears  resemblance  also  to  Pueblo  Bonito  in  Chaco  Canyon, 
N.  Mex. 

The  building  contains  three  circular  rooms  resembling  kivas 
or  ceremonial  chambers,  still  used  by  some  of  the  Pueblo 


6  BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

Indians,  and  many  other  rooms  of  unusual  shape  and  doubt- 
ful significance.  There  was  no  indication  that  the  Sun 
Temple  had  been  roofed;  indeed,  there  is  strong  evidence 
that  the  construction  of  the  buildings  was  never  finished. 
Dr.  Fewkes  was  not  able  to  determine  the  age  of  the  Sun 
Temple,  but  he  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  was  built  later  than 
Cliff  Palace.  One  evidence  of  its  antiquity,  however,  was 
observed — namely,  a  cedar  tree  growing  from  the  top  of  the 
highest  walls  was  found  to  have  360  annual  rings  of  growth, 
indicating  that  it  sprouted  a  few  years  after  Coronado  led 
his  expedition  into  the  Southwest  in  1540. 

The  builders  of  the  Sun  Temple  are  supposed  by  Dr. 
Fewkes  to  have  been  the  former  cliff  dwellers  of  the  neigh- 
boring canyons.  As  to  its  purpose,  he  is  of  the  opinion  that 
the  building  was  used  primarily  for  worship,  but  that  like 
other  temples  among  primitive  peoples  it  was  intended  sec- 
ondarily as  a  place  of  refuge  in  case  of  attack,  and  for  the 
storage  of  provisions.  The  impression  of  a  fossil  palm  leaf 
on  the  corner  stone  at  the  southwestern  angle  is  believed  to 
mark  a  shrine  where  rites  to  the  sky  or  sun  god  were  per- 
formed long  before  the  temple  was  built.  It  is  this  sup- 
posed shrine  that  suggested  the  name  for  the  edifice. 

On  the  completion  of  the  excavation  and  repair  of  the 
Sun  Temple,  Dr.  Fewkes  similarly  treated  Oak-tree  House, 
a  cliff  dwelling  in  the  precipice  of  Fewkes  Canyon  above 
which  stands  the  Sun  Temple.  A  collection  of  artifacts 
found  in  this  dwelling  was  gathered  in  the  course  of  the  exca- 
vation and  later  deposited  in  the  National  Museum. 

En  route  to  Washington,  Dr.  Fewkes  visited  the  so-called 
"Buried  City  of  the  Panhandle,"  on  Wolf  Creek  in  Ochiltree 
County,  Tex.,  which  had  been  reported  to  the  bureau  by 
residents  of  the  neighborhood  and  had  become  locally  cele- 
brated. The  remains  examined  hardly  justify  the  name 
given  to  the  site,  which  in  former  days  was  used  as  an  en- 
campment by  wandering  Indians  rather  than  by  sedentary- 
people.  Dr.  Fewkes's  attention  was  drawn  also  to  a  sup- 
posed artificial  wall  which  gave  name  to  Rockwall,  not  far 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  7 

from  Dallas,  Tex.,  but  on  examination  this  was  found  to  be  a 
natural  sandstone  formation. 

Dr.  Fewkes  returned  to  Washington  in  November  and 
immediately  prepared  a  report  on  his  summer's  work  in  the 
Mesa  Verde  National  Park  for  the  use  of  the  Department 
of  the  Interior,  an  advance  summary  of  which,  issued  b3r  the 
department,  was  widely  published  in  the  newspapers.  An 
account  of  the  excavation  and  repair  of  Oak-tree  House  and 
Painted  House,  the  largest  cliff  ruins  in  Fewkes  Canyon,  was 
also  prepared  for  publication.  On  the  completion  of  these 
tasks  Dr.  Fewkes  devoted  the  remainder  of  his  limited  time 
to  the  preparation  of  the  extended  memoir  on  The  Abori- 
gines of  the  West  Indies  for  publication  in  a  report  of  the 
bureau.  In  June  he  again  departed  for  the  field  with  the 
view  of  initiating,  before  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year,  an 
inquiry  into  the  archeological  evidences  bearing  on  Hopi 
legends  that  ancestors  of  the  clans  of  the  ancient  pueblo  of 
Sikyatki  lived  at  Tebungki,  or  Beshbito,  an  oval  ruin  15 
miles  east  of  Keams  Canyon,  Ariz.  Dr.  Fewkes  visited  and 
surveyed  the  ruin  and  made  photographs  and  notes  thereof. 
He  likewise  investigated  certain  large  ruins  east  of  Tebungki, 
on  the  ancient  trail  of  migration  from  Chaco  Canyon,  and 
traced  for  some  distance  the  prehistoric  trail  running  from  San 
Juan  Valley  southward  past  the  great  ruins,  as  yet  unde- 
scribed,  near  Crownpoint,  N.  Mex. 

During  the  months  of  July  to  December,  1915,  Mr.  James 
Mooney,  ethnologist,  continued  to  devote  most  of  his  atten- 
tion to  the  preparation  for  publication  of  the  Cherokee 
Sacred  Formulas,  including  transliteration,  translation,  and 
explanation  of  each  formula,  with  complete  glossary  and 
botanic  index.  These  formulas,  collected  by  Mr.  Mooney  on 
the  East  Cherokee  Reservation  in  North  Carolina,  are  writ- 
ten in  the  Cherokee  language  and  alphabet  and  held  for  their 
own  secret  use  by  priests  of  the  tribe,  most  of  them  long 
since  dead.  They  consist  of  prayers,  songs,  and  prescrip- 
tions, dealing  with  medicine,  love,  hunting,  fishing,  agricul- 
ture, war,  the  ball  play,  self-protection,  etc.     They  number 


8  BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

in  all  between  500  and  550,  contained  in  several  manuscripts, 
as  follows: 

1.  Gadigwanasti  ("Belt,"  died  1888). — 186  in  a  large  blank  book 
of  foolscap  size,  and  94  others  on  separate  sheets  of  the  same  size, 
closely  written;  280  in  all.     Obtained  from  his  son. 

2.  A'yunini  (''Swimmer,"  died  1899). — Written  in  an  unpaged 
blank  book  of  242  pages,  3^  by  12  inches,  only  partially  filled;  137 
in  all.  Obtained  from  himself  and  transliterated  and  translated 
with  full  explanation  from  his  dictation  in  1888. 

3.  A'wanita  ("Young  Deer,"  died  about  1892). — 24,  written  on 
separate  sheets  and  obtained  from  him  in  1888.  Transcribed  later 
into  No.  4. 

4.  Tsiskwa  ("Bird,"  died  1880).— 22,  dictated  from  deathbed  and 
with  other  formulas  written  out  in  regular  fashion,  with  index,  in  a 
blank  book  of  200  pages,  8  by  10  inches,  by  his  nephew,  W.  W/Long 
(Wiliwesti),in  1889. 

5.  Darjwatihi  ("Catawba  Killer,"  died  about  1890). — Written  out 
from  his  dictation  by  W.  W.  Long,  in  No.  4,  in  1889;  11  in  all. 

6.  Gahuni  (died  1866). — 10  in  all,  together  with  a  Cherokee-English 
vocabulary  in  Cherokee  characters  and  other  miscellany,  contained 
in  an  unpaged  blank  book,  6  by  14  inches.  Obtained  in  1889  from 
his  widow,  Ayasta,  mother  of  W.  W.  Long. 

7.  Other  formulas  originally  written  by  Inali  ("Black  Fox,"  died 
about  1880),  Yanugtilegi  ("Climbing  Bear,"  died  1904),  Duninali 
("Tracker,"  still  living),  Ayasta  ("Spoiler,"  died  1916),  Aganstata 
("Groundhog  Meat,"  still  living),  and  others;  mostly  transcribed  into 
No.  4. 

8.  A  large  number  of  dance  songs,  ceremonial  addresses,  Civil  War 
letters  from  Cherokee  in  the  Confederate  service,  council  records,  etc., 
all  in  the  Cherokee  language  and  characters,  contained  in  various 
original  blank  book  manuscripts  and  letter  sheets.  Some  of  these 
have  been  transcribed  into  No.  4,  and  many  of  them  might  properly 
appear  with  the  Sacred  Formulas. 

Of  all  this  material,  about  150  formulas,  including  the 
entire  Swimmer  book,  No.  2,  were  transliterated,  translated, 
and  annotated  and  glossarized,  with  Swimmer's  assistance, 
in  1888-89.  Of  these,  28  specimen  formulas  were  published 
in  1891  in  "Sacred  Formulas  of  the  Cherokees,"  in  the  Sev- 
enth Annual  Report  of  the  bureau.  The  manuscript  glos- 
sary for  the  whole  150  formulas  numbers  about  2,000  words. 

All  the  other  formulas,  together  with  the  more  important 
miscellany  noted  under  No.  8,  were  transliterated  and  trans- 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  9 

lated  with  interlinear  translation  in  the  summers  of  1911-14, 
together  with  such  additional  explanation  as  might  be  fur- 
nished by  surviving  experts.  Also  some  500  or  600  plants 
noted  in  the  medical  prescriptions  have  been  collected  in  the 
field,  with  their  Cherokee  names  and  uses,  and  the  botanic 
identification  made  by  assistance  of  the  botanists  of  the 
National  Museum.  This  entire  body,  exclusive  of  No.  2 
completed,  is  now  in  process  of  final  transcription  and  elabo- 
ration, with  explanation,  botanic  appendix,  and  glossary. 
Most  of  the  work  at  present  is  being  devoted  to  the  Gadig- 
wanasti  manuscript,  but  the  interdependence  of  the  formulas 
necessitates  frequent  shifting  from  one  to  another.  The 
glossary  proceeds  incidentally  with  the  final  translation, 
but  more  slowly  as  the  full  import  of  the  words  becomes  mani- 
fest. Many  of  the  words  and  expressions  are  technical, 
symbolic,  and  in  archaic  and  unusual  dialectic  forms,  with 
corresponding  difficulty  of  interpretation.  The  complete 
glossary  will  probably  comprise  at  least  4,000  words. 

The  botanic  section  will  consist  of  a  list  of  all  the  plants 
used  in  the  formulas,  as  stated,  and  of  some  others  of  special 
importance,  with  their  Indian  names  and  meanings,  botanic 
identification,  and  Cherokee  uses  as  deduced  from  the  various 
formulas  and  from  direct  information. 

An  explanation  of  the  method  and  significance  of  the  cere- 
mony, the  preparation  of  the  medicine  and  the  manner  of  its 
application  will  accompany  each  formula,  but  this  work  is 
deferred  to  the  end,  to  insure  symmetrical  treatment  without 
unnecessary  repetition. 

It  is  planned  to  have  one  or  more  introductory  chapters 
explanatory  of  the  Cherokee  mythology,  beliefs  relating  to 
the  spiritual  and  occult  world,  ceremonial  observances,  ini- 
tiation of  hunters,  and  other  matters  illustrative  of  the  for- 
mulas, together  with  parallels  from  other  tribal  systems,  and 
also  a  chapter  explanatory  of  the  peculiar  linguistic  forms. 

More  than  200  formulas  have  received  final  form.  The 
finished  work  will  fill  at  least  one  large  report  volume  and 
require  a  year  for  completion. 

186823°— 22 2 


10  BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

In  July  and  August,  1915,  Mr.  Mooney  gave  considerable 
time  to  furnishing  information  and  suggestions  for  the  pro- 
posed Sequoya  statue  intended  to  constitute  Oklahoma's 
contribution  to  the  Capitol  gallery.  The  usual  number  of 
letter  requests  for  miscellaneous  information  also  received 
attention. 

On  May  27  Mr.  Mooney  proceeded  to  western  North  Caro- 
lina for  the  purpose  of  continuing  his  Cherokee  studies,  and 
at  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year  was  still  in  the  field. 

Dr.  John  R.  Swanton,  ethnologist,  devoted  the  greater 
part  of  the  year  to  his  memoirs  pertaining  to  the  Creek  and 
associated  tribes,  to  which  reference  was  made  in  the  last 
report.  The  first  of  these,  dealing  with  the  habitat  and  classi- 
fication of  the  former  Southeastern  Indians,  their  history  and 
population,  is  nearly  completed;  it  consists  of  upward  of  750 
typewritten  pages,  exclusive  of  the  bibliography,  all  of  which 
has  been  put  in  order  and  annotated.  Some  new  manu- 
script sources  of  information  have  recently  been  discovered 
which  will  make  further  additions  necessary,  but  with  this 
exception  the  text  is  now  complete.  Six  maps  are  to  be  used 
in  illustration ;  two  of  these,  which  are  entirely  new,  are  now 
being  made,  and  the  others  are  to  be  reproductions.  The 
second  paper,  to  cover  the  social  organization  and  social 
customs  of  the  Creeks  and  their  neighbors,  has  likewise  been 
arranged  and  annotated,  but  it  is  being  held  in  order  to 
incorporate  the  results  of  further  field  research. 

From  the  end  of  September  until  the  latter  part  of  Novem- 
ber, 1915,  Dr.  Swanton  was  in  Oklahoma,  where  he  collected 
113  pages  of  Natchez  text  from  one  of  the  three  surviving 
speakers  of  the  language;  he  also  spent  about  three  weeks 
among  the  Creek  Indians,  where  about  80  pages  of  myths  in 
English  were  procured.  Further  ethnological  material  was 
also  obtained  from  the  Creeks  and  from  the  Chickasaw,  to 
whom  a  preliminary  visit  was  made.  While  with  the  former 
people  Dr.  Swanton  perfected  arrangements  with  a  young 
man  to  furnish  texts  in  the  native  language,  which  he  is  able 
to  write  fluently,  and  in  this  way  173  pages  have  been  sub- 
mitted, not  including  translation.  From  Judge  G.  W. 
Grayson,  of  Eufaula,  Okla.,  to  whom  the  bureau  has  been 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  11 

constantly  indebted  in  many  ways,  was  obtained  in  Creek 
and  English,  and  also  in  the  form  of  a  dictaphone  record,  a 
speech  of  the  kind  formerly  delivered  at  the  annual  poskita, 
or  busk,  ceremony  of  the  Creeks.  From  an  Alibamu  corre- 
spondent, referred  to  in  previous  reports,  some  additions  to 
the  Alibamu  vocabulary  and  a  few  pages  of  Alibamu  text 
were  procured. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year  Mr.  J.  N.  B.  Hewitt, 
ethnologist,  transcribed  and  edited  the  Seneca  text  "Dooa'- 
dane'ge"'  and  Hotkwisdadege/n'a,"  making  45  pages,  to  which 
he  added  a  literal  interlinear  translation  that  required  more 
than  twice  as  many  English  words  as  Indian,  the  whole  being 
equivalent  to  about  130  pages.  This  text  is  a  part  of  the 
Seneca  material  now  in  press  for  the  Thirty-second  Annual 
Report  of  the  bureau.  Mr.  Hewitt  also  read  for  correction, 
emendation,  and  expansion,  the  galley  proofs  of  Curtin's 
Seneca  material,  and  prepared  more  than  50  pages  of  notes 
and  additions  for  the  introduction  and  also  for  the  text ;  he 
also  has  ready  notes  and  corrections  for  the  proofs  still  to 
come.  From  unedited  text  Mr.  Hewitt  completed  a  free 
translation  of  32  pages  of  the  Onondaga  version  of  the 
"requickening  address"  of  the  Ritual  of  Condolence  of  the 
League  of  the  Iroquois,  being  a  part  of  the  material  for  his 
projected  memoir  on  the  Iroquois  League. 

After  the  material  of  the  Seneca  legends  had  been  sub- 
mitted for  printing,  Mr.  Curtin's  field  records  and  notes,  made 
while  recording  this  material,  came  into  possession  of  the 
bureau.  Mr.  Hewitt  devoted  much  time  to  reading  and  ex- 
amining this  undigested  material,  some  4,000  pages,  for  the 
purpose  of  ascertaining  whether  part  of  it  should  be  utilized 
for  printing  or  for  illustrative  purposes  in  what  was  already 
in  type.  This  examination  yielded  some  good  material  for 
notes  and  interpretations,  but  only  small  return  as  to  new 
material  for  printing. 

In  the  early  autumn  Mr.  Hewitt  made  special  preparations 
for  the  prosecution  of  field  work  on  his  projected  memoir  on 
the  League  of  the  Iroquois,  by  tentative  editing  and  copying 
of  a  number  of  Mohawk  and  Onondaga  texts  recorded  hastily 
in  the  field  in  previous  years.     The  following  parts  of  the 


12  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  ETHNOLOGY 

Ritual  of  the  Condolence  Council  were  thus  typewritten :  The 
fore  part  of  the  Ceremony  of  Condolence,  called  "  Beside-The- 
Forest,"  or  "Beside-The-Thicket,"  in  Mohawk;  the  so- 
called  "  Requickening  Address,  "  in  the  Onondaga  version, 
and  also  the  explanatory  "introduction"  and  the  "reply" 
in  Onondaga  to  the  "  Beside-The-Forest "  address  already 
noted;  and  the  installation  address  in  Onondaga,  made  by 
Dekanawida  to  the  last  two  Seneca  leaders  to  join  the 
League,  was  likewise  edited  and  typewritten.  Mr.  Hewitt 
also  devoted  much  study  to  other  parts  of  the  League  ma- 
terial, for  the  purpose  of  being  able  to  discuss  it  intelligently 
and  critically  with  native  informants.  Some  of  the  most 
striking  results  of  this  year's  field  work  are  due  to  this  pre- 
paratory study  of  the  material  already  in  hand.  Mr.  Hewitt 
spent  many  days  in  the  office  in  searching  out  and  preparing 
data  for  replies  to  correspondents  of  the  bureau. 

On  April  17,  1916,  Mr.  Hewitt  left  Washington  for  the  Six 
Nations  reserve  near  Brantford,  Ontario,  for  the  purpose  of 
resuming  field  work,  having  in  view  primarily  the  putting 
into  final  form  of  the  Onondaga  and  Mohawk  texts  pertaining 
to  the  League  of  the  Iroquois,  recorded  in  former  years. 
These  texts  cover  a  wide  range  of  subjects  and  represent  the 
first  serious  attempt  to  record  in  these  languages  very  techni- 
cal and  highly  figurative  language  from  persons  unaccus- 
tomed to  dictate  connected  texts  for  recording.  These  texts 
embody  laws,  decisions,  rituals,  ceremonies,  and  constitu- 
tional principles;  hence  it  is  essential  that  correct  verbal  and 
grammatic  forms  be  given. 

One  of  the  most  important  results  of  Mr.  Hewitt's  field 
studies  is  the  demonstration  that,  contrary  to  all  available 
written  records  and  various  printed  accounts,  there  were 
never  more  than  49  federal  civil  chiefs  of  the  League  of 
the  Iroquois,  and  that  the  number  50,  due  to  misconception 
of  the  meaning  of  ordinary  terms  by  Thomas  Webster  of  the 
New  York  Onondaga,  who  died  about  30  years  ago,  is  modern 
and  unhistorical.  This  false  teaching  has  gained  credence 
because  it  arose  only  after  the  dissolution  of  the  integrity  of 
the  League  of  the  Iroquois  in  the  years  following  its  wars  with 
the  United  States,  when  most  of  the  tribes  became  divided, 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  13 

some  removing  to  Canada  and  some  remaining  in  New  York 
State,  a  condition  which  naturally  fostered  new  interpreta- 
tions and  newer  versions  of  older  legends  and  traditions. 

Mr.  Hewitt  also  recorded  a  Cayuga  version  of  the  so-called 
Dekanawida  tradition,  comprising  130  pages  of  text,  dictated 
by  Chief  John  H.  Gibson,  which  purports  to  relate  the  events 
that  led  to  the  founding  of  the  League  or  Confederation  of  the 
Five  Iroquois  tribes  and  the  part  taken  therein  by  the  prin- 
cipal actors.  In  this  interesting  version  Dekanawida  is 
known  only  by  the  epithet  "The  Fatherless,"  or  literally 
"He  Who  is  Fatherless,"  which  emphasizes  the  prophecy 
that  he  would  be  born  of  a  virgin.  In  this  version  "The 
Fatherless"  is  represented  as  establishing  among  the  Cayuga 
tribesmen  the  exact  form  of  government  that  later  he  founded 
among  the  Five  Iroquois  Tribes.  It  is  said  that  the  Cayuga 
selfishly  limited  the  scope  of  that  form  of  government,  and 
therefore  its  benefits,  to  the  Cayuga  people  alone,  for  the 
Cayuga  statemen  did  not  conceive  of  its  applicability  to  the 
affairs  and  welfare  of  all  men.  And  so,  this  tradition 
affirms,  it  became  needful  that  "The  Fatherless"  return  to 
the  neighbor  tribes  of  the  Cayuga  to  establish  among  them 
the  League  of  the  Five  Tribes  of  the  Iroquois,  which  was  de- 
signed to  be  shared  by  all  the  tribes  of  men.  This  event  is 
mentioned  in  the  other  Dekanawida  versions. 

This  Cayuga  version  also  purports  to  explain  the  origin  of 
the  dualism  lying  at  the  foundation  of  all  public  institutions 
of  Iroquois  peoples,  by  attributing  the  first  such  organization 
among  the  Cayuga  to  two  persons  who  were  related  to  each 
other  as  "  Father  and  Son,"  or  "  Mother  and  Daughter,"  and 
who  agreed  to  conduct  public  affairs  jointly.  This  statement 
of  course  is  somewhat  wide  of  the  mark,  because  it  does  not 
explain  the  existence  of  similar  dualisms  among  other  tribes, 
such  dualisms  resting  commonly,  in  the  social  organization, 
on  the  dramatization  of  the  relation  of  the  male  and  female 
principles  in  nature. 

Mr.  Hewitt  was  also  able  to  confirm  another  radical  exe- 
gesis of  a  part  of  the  installation  ceremony  of  the  League  of 
the  Iroquois  as  first  proposed  by  himself.  This  deals  with 
the  significance  and  the  correct  translation  of  the  words  of 


14  BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

the  famous  "Six  Songs"  of  this  ceremony.  All  other  inter- 
preters who  have  attempted  to  translate  these  words  have 
assumed  that  these  songs  are  "  songs  of  greeting  and  wel- 
come," but  Mr.  Hewitt,  solely  on  grammatic  grounds  and 
the  position  of  these  songs,  regards  them  rather  as  "songs 
of  parting,"  or  "songs  of  farewell,"  which  are  dramatically 
sung  by  an  impersonator  for  the  dead  chief  or  chiefs. 

Mr.  Hewitt  also  recorded,  in  the  Onondaga  dialect,  a  short 
legend  descriptive  of  the  three  Air  or  Wind  Beings  or  Gods, 
the  so-called  Hohdu"i,  the  patrons  of  the  Wooden-mask  or 
"False-face"  Society,  whose  chief  function  is  the  exorcism 
of  disease  out  of  the  community  and  out  of  the  bodies  of 
ill  persons;  another  on  the  Medicine  Flute;  another  on  the 
Husk-mask  Society ;  and  another  on  the  moccasin  game  used 
at  the  wake  for  a  dead  chief:  in  all  more  than  100  pages  of 
text  not  related  to  the  material  dealing  with  the  Iroquois 
League. 

While  in  the  field  Mr.  Hewitt  purchased  a  number  of  fine 
specimens  illustrating  Iroquois  culture,  exhibiting  art  of  a 
high  order;  these  consist  of  a  wooden  mask,  colored  black; 
a  husk-mask;  two  small  drums;  a  "medicine"  flute;  a  moc- 
casin game  used  at  a  chief's  wake;  a  pair  of  deer-hoof  rattles; 
a  horn  rattle;  and  a  squash  rattle.  During  the  time  he  was 
in  the  field,  until  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year,  Mr.  Hewitt  read, 
studied,  corrected,  and  annotated  about  8,000  lines  of  text 
other  than  that  mentioned  above,  and  also  made  a  number 
of  photographs  of  Indians. 

Mr.  Francis  La  Flesche,  ethnologist,  was  engaged  in  assem- 
bling his  notes  on  the  rites  of  the  Osage  Tribe.  Up  to  the 
month  of  February,  280  pages  of  the  ritual  of  the  Fasting 
degree  of  the  war  rites  were  finished,  completing  that  degree, 
which  comprises  492  pages.  The  Cathadse,  or  Rush-mat 
degree,  was  next  taken  up  and  completed;  this  degree  cov- 
ers 104  pages.  The  Child-naming  ritual  was  then  commenced, 
and  21  pages  have  been  finished. 

In  September,  while  on  leave  of  absence,  Mr.  La  Flesche 
was  visited  on  the  Omaha  Reservation  by  Xutha  Watonin 
of  the  Tsizhu  Wanon  gens,  who  gave  a  description  of  the 
Washabe  Athin,   or  war  ceremony,   as  he  remembered   it. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  15 

With  this  description  he  gave  5  wigie  and  14  songs.  The 
wigie  and  the  words  of  the  songs  have  been  transcribed  from 
the  dictaphone  but  are  not  yet  typewritten,  and  the  music 
of  the  songs  has  not  yet  been  transcribed.  A  number  of 
stories  also  were  obtained  from  Xutha  Watonin,  among  them 
that  of  the  Osage  traditional  story  of  the  separation  of  the 
Omaha  and  Osage  tribes.  Xutha  Watonin  died  soon  after 
his  return  home,  his  death  being  regarded  by  many  as  con- 
firming the  old-time  belief  that  anyone  who  recites  inform- 
ally the  rituals  associated  with  these  ceremonies  will  inevi- 
tably suffer  dire  punishment.  The  death  of  this  old  man 
shortly  after  giving  the  rituals  has  therefore  added  to  the 
difficulties  attending  the  task  of  recording  these  ancient  rites. 

Notwithstanding  these  obstacles,  Mr.  La  Flesche  succeeded, 
during  his  visit  to  the  Osage  Reservation  in  April  and  May, 
in  securing  from  old  Shon/gemonin  the  version  of  the  Fasting 
ritual  belonging  to  the  Tsizhu  Peace  gens,  of  which  he  is  a 
member.  The  wigie  and  the  words  of  the  songs  have  been 
transcribed  from  the  dictaphone,  but  are  not  yet  typewritten, 
and  the  music  of  the  songs  is  also  to  be  transcribed.  Shon/- 
gemonin  likewise  gave  the  Child-naming  ritual  belonging  to 
his  gens,  in  which  there  are  two  wigie,  one  containing  227 
lines  and  the  other  94.  In  addition  to  these  rituals,  Sho11'- 
gemonin,  after  considerable  hesitancy,  recounted  the  "  Seven 
and  Six"  (13)  coups  he  is  always  called  on  to  recount  when 
any  Non/ho°zhinga  of  the  Hon/ga  division  performs  the  cere- 
monies of  some  of  the  war  rites.  For  this  service  he  is  paid 
a  horse  and  goods  amounting  in  value  to  from  $125  to  $150. 

Mr.  La  Flesche  also  secured  from  Waxthizhi  information 
concerning  the  duties  of  the  two  hereditary  chiefs  of  the 
Osage  tribe,  the  gentes  from  which  they  were  chosen,  and 
how  their  orders  were  enforced.  He  also  obtained  from 
Watsemonin  two  wigie,  one  recited  by  him  at  the  ceremonies 
of  the  war  rites,  and  the  other  by  the  N6nhonzhinga  of  the 
H6nga  Ahiuto"  gens. 

In  these  studies  Mr.  La  Flesche  was  materially  assisted  by 
Washoshe  and  his  wife,  who  have  both  overcome  their  aver- 
sion to  telling  of  the  rifces.  Washoshe  resigned  from  the 
N6nhonzhinga  order  because  of  the  injustice  of  its  members 


16  BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

toward  a  woman  whom  he  selected  to  weave  ceremonially 
the  rush-mat  shrine  for  a  waxobe  when  he  was  taking  the 
Qathadse  degree.  This  man  presented  to  Mr.  La  Flesche  a 
mnemonic  stick  owned  by  his  father  and  gave  the  titles  of 
the  groups  of  lines  marked  on  the  stick,  each  of  which  repre- 
sents a  group  of  songs.  This  mnemonic  stick  will  be  placed 
in  the  National  Museum  with  the  Osage  collection. 

Mr.  John  P.  Harrington,  ethnologist,  spent  the  entire  fiscal 
year  in  making  an  exhaustive  study  of  the  Indians  of  the 
Chumashan  linguistic  stock  of  southern  California.  'Three 
different  bases  have  been  established  for  working  with  in- 
formants and  elaborating  the  notes.  The  period  from  July 
to  October,  inclusive,  was  spent  at  San  Diego,  Calif.,  where 
every  facility  for  the  work  was  granted  by  the  courtesy  of 
the  Panama-California  Exposition;  November  to  March,  in- 
clusive, at  the  Southwest  Museum,  Los  Angeles;  and  April 
to  June,  inclusive,  at  Santa  Ynez.  The  month  of  January, 
1916,  was  spent  at  Berkeley,  Calif.,  where,  through  the  cour- 
tesy of  the  Bancroft  Library  of  the  University  of  California, 
various  linguistic  manuscripts  and  historical  archives  per- 
taining to  the  Chumashan  stock  were  studied  and  copied. 
During  the  period  named  more  than  300,000  words  of  manu- 
script material  were  obtained  and  elaborated.  In  addition 
to  the  grammatical  and  ethnological  material  an  exhaustive 
dictionary  of  the  Ventureno  is  well  under  way,  which  com- 
prises some  8,000  cards.  This  is  to  be  followed  by  similar 
dictionaries  for  the  other  dialects.  The  most  satisfactory 
feature  of  the  work  was  the  collection  of  material  on  the 
supposedly  extinct  dialects  of  San  Lius  Obispo  and  La  Puri- 
sima.  The  Purisimeno  material  consists  mainly  of  words 
and  corrected  vocabularies,  while  on  the  Obispeho  important 
grammatical  material  was  also  obtained.  A  large  part  of 
the  material  which  still  remains  to  be  obtained  depends  on 
the  life  of  two  very  old  informants,  consequently  it  is  most 
important  that  Mr.  Harrington  continue  his  work  in  this 
immediate  field  until  the  opportunities  are  exhausted. 

The  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year  found  Dr.  Truman  Michel- 
son,  ethnologist,  at  Tama,  Iowa,  engaged  in  continuing  his 
researches  among  the  Fox  Indians,  which  consisted  mainly 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  17 

of  recording  sociological  data  and  ritualistic  origin  myths. 
In  August,  Dr.  Michelson  proceeded  to  Oklahoma  for  the 
purpose  of  investigating  the  sociology  and  phonetics  of  the 
Sauk  Indians,  as  well  as  of  obtaining  translations  of  Fox 
texts  pertaining  especially  to  ritualistic  origin  myths.  After 
successfully  concluding  this  work,  Dr.  Michelson  returned  to 
Washington  in  October,  when  he  commenced  the  translation 
of  the  textual  material  gathered  in  the  field.  Advantage 
was  taken  of  the  presence  in  Washington  of  a  deputation  of 
Piegan  in  obtaining  a  detailed  knowledge  of  Piegan  terms 
of  relationship.  From  these  studies  Dr.  Michelson  deter- 
mined that  the  lists  of  relationship  terms  recorded  by  Lewis 
H.  Morgan,  as  well  as  by  other  investigators,  require  revision. 
He  also  commenced  to  arrange  the  material  gathered  by  the 
late  Dr.  William  Jones  pertaining  to  the  ethnology  of  the 
Ojibwa  Tribe,  with  a  view  of  its  publication  as  a  bulletin  of 
the  bureau.  Toward  the  close  of  the  year  Dr.  Michelson 
undertook  to  restore  phonetically  the  text  of  the  White 
Buffalo  dance  of  the  Fox  Indians,  which  likewise  is  intended 
for  bulletin  publication.  It  is  believed  that  the  results  of 
this  task  will  be  ready  for  the  printer  before  the  close  of  the 
calendar  year. 

Dr.  Leo  J.  Frachtenberg,  special  ethnologist,  divided  his 
time,  as  in  previous  years,  between  field  research  and  office 
work.  On  July  8  he  left  his  winter  headquarters  at  the 
United  States  training  school  at  Chemawa,  Oreg.,  and  pro- 
ceeded to  the  Yakima  Reservation,  Wash.,  where  he  revised, 
with  the  aid  of  the  last  Atfalati  Indian,  the  Kalapuya 
manuscript  material  collected  in  1877  by  the  late  Dr.  A.  S. 
Gatschet,  of  the  bureau.  This  material,  comprising  421 
manuscript  pages,  consists  of  vocables,  stems,  grammatical 
forms,  and  ethnological  and  historical  narratives,  and 
its  revision  marked  the  completion  of  the  work  on  the 
Kalapuya  linguistic  family  commenced  two  summers  ago. 
This  work  lasted  until  the  latter  part  of  July.  In  conjunc- 
tion with  this  particular  phase  of  field  work,  Dr.  Frachten- 
berg corrected  the  second  revision  of  the  galley  proofs  of  his 
Siuslaw  grammatical  sketch  to  appear  in  the  second  part  of 
Bulletin  40. 


18  BUKEAU    OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

On  returning  to  Chemawa,  Dr.  Frachtenberg  took  up  the 
editing  and  typewriting  of  his  grammatical  sketch  of  the 
Alsea  language,  the  compilation  of  which  was  completed  dur- 
ing the  previous  winter ;  this  was  finished  in  the  early  part  of 
October,  and  the  complete  sketch,  consisting  of  158  sections 
and  421  typewritten  pages,  was  submitted  for  publication 
in  the  second  part  of  the  Handbook  of  American  Indian 
Languages  (Bulletin  40).  Dr.  Frachtenberg  interrupted  this 
work  on  August  22  and  took  a  short  trip  to  the  Siletz  Reser- 
vation, where  he  collected  52  Athapascan  and  Shastan  songs, 
which  were  transmitted  to  the  bureau  for  future  analysis. 

On  October  7  he  proceeded  to  the  Quileute  Reservation, 
where  he  enlisted  the  services  of  a  Quileute  informant,  with 
whom  he  returned  to  Chemawa,  and  brought  to  a  successful 
completion  the  study  of  the  grammar  and  mythology  of  the 
Quileute  tribe.  This  investigation  extended  from  October 
until  the  latter  part  of  March.  The  material  collected  by  Dr. 
Frachtenberg  during  this  period  consists  of  30  native  myths 
and  traditions  fully  translated,  a  large  body  of  notes  to 
these  texts,  voluminous  grammatical  forms,  and  vocables. 
In  January  Dr.  Frachtenberg  left  Chemawa  for  a  short  trip 
to  the  Grande  Roncle  Reservation,  Oreg.,  where  he  recorded 
19  Kalapuya  songs  on  the  dictaphone. 

As  Dr.  Frachtenberg's  allotment  for  field  work  among  the 
Quileute  was  then  exhausted,  he  was  obliged  to  remain  at 
Chemawa  until  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year.  He  therefore 
undertook  the  correction  of  the  page  proofs  of  his  gram- 
matical sketch  of  the  Siuslaw  language  (pp.  431-629),  and 
on  its  completion  engaged  in  translating,  editing,  and  type- 
writing the  Alsea  texts  collected  in  1910.  The  editing  of  these 
texts  involved  much  labor,  since  it  was  deemed  advisable  to 
present  in  the  introduction  a  complete  discussion  of  Alsea 
mythology,  and  a  concordance  between  the  folklore  of  this 
tribe  and  the  myths  of  the  other  tribes  of  the  Pacific  coast. 
For  that  purpose  all  the  published  works  on  the  folklore  of 
the  tribes  of  the  northwestern  area  were  consulted,  including 
that  of  the  Maidu,  Shasta,  Yana,  Klamath,  Takelma,  Coos, 
Lower  Umpqua,  Tillamook,  Chinook,  Kathlamet,  Wishram, 
Quinault,   Chilcotin,    Shuswap,   Thompson   River,   Lillooet, 


ADMINISTRATIVE    REPORT  19 

Haida,  Tlingit,  Kwakiutl,  Tsimshian,  Bellacoola,  and  the 
Athapascan  tribes  of  the  north.  This  work  was  practically 
completed  by  the  close  of  the  fiscal  year.  The  collection  con- 
sists of  8  creation  myths,  13  miscellaneous  tales,  3  ethno- 
logical and  historical  narratives,  4  statements  as  to  religious 
beliefs,  and  3  tales  collected  in  English  (31  traditions  in  all). 
It  comprises,  in  addition  to  the  introduction,  392  typewritten 
pages,  and  will  be  submitted  for  publication  as  a  bulletin  of 
the  bureau. 

SPECIAL  RESEARCHES 

Dr.  Franz  Boas,  honorary  philologist,  continued  his 
researches  connected  with  the  preparation  of  the  remainder 
of  part  2  of  the  Handbook  of  American  Indian  Languages, 
assisted  by  Dr.  Hermann  K.  Haeberlin,  Miss  H.  A.  Andrews, 
and  Miss  Mildred  Downs,  and  also  devoted  attention  to  the 
completion  of  the  report  on  Tsimshian  mythology. 

The  bulletin  on  "Kutenai  Tales,"  for  which  galley  proofs 
were  received  in  July,  1915,  has  been  revised  twice  and  is 
nearing  completion.  The  page  proof  is  being  extracted  pre- 
paratory to  the  accompanying  grammatical  sketch  and 
vocabulary. 

Through  the  liberality  of  Mr.  Homer  E.  Sargent,  of 
Chicago,  it  has  been  possible  to  do  much  work  on  the  prepa- 
ration of  an  extended  paper  on  the  Salish  dialects, 
comprising  about  500  pages  of  manuscript.  The  material 
has  been  collected  since  1886,  partly  by  Dr.  Boas  himself 
and  partly  by  Mr.  James  Teit,  the  considerable  expense  of 
the  field  work  of  Mr.  Teit  having  been  generously  met  by 
Mr.  Sargent.  In  the  course  of  the  last  30  years  it  has  been 
possible  to  collect  vocabularies  of  all  the  Salish  dialects,  suffi- 
cient to  afford  a  clear  insight  into  the  fundamental  relations 
of  these  dialects,  a  preliminary  work  necessary  to  a  more 
thorough  study  of  the  language.  At  the  same  time  Mr. 
Teit  gathered  ethnological  notes  which  are  to  be  included  in 
this  work.  The  preparation  of  the  vocabularies  and  of  the 
detailed  comparison  that  had  been  begun  in  previous  years 
by  Dr.  Boas  has  been  continued  by  Dr.  Haeberlin,  the  basis 
of  this  study  being  their  manuscript  material  and  the  pub- 


20  BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

lished  sources.  Also  through  the  liberality  of  Mr.  Sargent 
and  in  cooperation  with  Columbia  University  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  Dr.  Haeberlin  will  be  able  to  supplement  his 
material  by  an  investigation  of  one  of  the  tribes  of  Puget 
Sound. 

The  interest  of  Mr.  Sargent  has  also  made  possible  a  de- 
tailed study  of  the  Salish  basketry  of  the  interior  plateau  and 
the  preparation  of  the  illustrations  for  a  memoir  on  this  sub- 
ject. For  the  latter  purpose  there  have  been  utilized  the 
collections  of  the  United  States  National  Museum,  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  the  University 
Museum  of  Philadelphia,  the  Museum  of  the  American 
Indian  (Heye  Foundation),  and  the  private  collections  of 
Mr.  Sargent  and  others. 

The  preparation  of  a  manuscript  on  the  Ethnology  of  the 
Kwakiutl  Indians  has  been  well  advanced.  The  material 
for  the  first  volume,  which  is  to  contain  data  collected  by 
Mr.  George  Hunt,  has  been  completed,  excluding  a  number 
of  translations  which  remain  to  be  elaborated.  According 
to  the  plan,  the  work  is  to  consist  of  two  parts,  the  first  a 
collection  of  data  furnished  by  Mr.  Hunt  in  answer  to  spe- 
cific questions  asked  by  Dr.  Boas ;  the  second  a  discussion  of 
them,  and  other  data  collected  on  previous  journeys  to 
British  Columbia.  •  This  volume  is  to  consist  of  an  account 
of  the  material  culture,  social  organization,  religion,  and 
kindred  subjects.  Most  of  the  illustrations  for  this  volume 
have  been  completed,  and  about  1,600  pages  of  manuscript 
have  been  prepared.  Miss  Downs  has  made  detailed  ex- 
tracts from  Kwakiutl  myths  required  for  a  discussion  of 
this  subject. 

Miss  Downs  has  also  compared  the  proofs  of  Dr.  Frachten- 
berg's  Siuslaw  grammar  with  published  texts,  and  these 
proofs  have  been  compared  and  passed  on  by  Dr.  Frachten- 
berg.  This  work  completes  the  revision  of  the  Siuslaw 
grammar,  the  publication  of  which  has  been  delayed  owing 
to  various  reasons. 

No  progress  has  been  made  toward  the  final  publication 
of  the  Chukchee  grammar,  as  it  has  been  impossible  to  com- 
municate with  the  author,  Mr.  W.  Bogoras,  who  is  in  Russia. 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  21 

Some  progress  has  been  made  with  the  contributions  to 
Mexican  archeology  and  ethnology,  to  be  edited  by  Prof. 
Alfred  M.  Tozzer,  of  Harvard  University,  with  a  view  of 
their  publication  by  the  bureau  as  a  bulletin.  Dr.  Paul 
Radin  has  furnished  a  manuscript  on  Huave;  Dr.  Haeberlin 
has  nearly  completed  the  study  of  modern  Mexican  tales, 
collected  by  Dr.  Boas  and  by  Miss  Isabel  Ramirez  Castafieda ; 
and  Dr.  Boas  has  been  engaged  in  the  preparation  of  mate- 
rial on  certain  types  of  Mexican  pottery  and  on  an  account 
of  a  journey  to  Teul,  Zacatecas. 

Prof.  W.  H.  Holmes,  of  the  National  Museum,  completed 
for  the  bureau  the  preparation  of  part  1  of  the  Handbook  of 
American  Antiquities  (Bulletin  60),  and  at  the  close  of  the 
year  galley  proofs  of  the  entire  work  had  been  received  and 
were  in  process  of  revision.  On  account  of  the  pressure  of 
more  urgent  work  in  connection  with  his  official  duties,  only 
limited  progress  was  made  in  the  preparation  of  part  2. 
On  April  21  Mr.  Holmes  made  a  brief  visit  to  the  museums 
of  Philadelphia  and  New  York  for  the  purpose  of  conducting 
studies  required  in  the  preparation  of  this  handbook. 

Miss  Frances  Densmore's  field  trip  during  the  summer  of 
1915  for  the  purpose  of  continuing  her  studies  of  Indian 
music  comprised  visits  to  three  reservations  and  occupied 
two  and  one-half  months.  Most  of  the  time  was  spent 
among  the  Mandan  and  Hidatsa,  at  Fort  Berthold,  N.  Dak., 
and  during  part  of  her  sojourn  Miss  Densmore  camped  near 
what  is  recognized  as  the  last  Mandan  settlement,  where  she 
was  enabled  to  record  many  interesting  data  that  could  not 
have  been  obtained  in  any  other  way.  The  Indians  felt 
more  free  to  sing  there  than  at  the  agency,  and  Miss  Dens- 
more also  had  an  opportunity  to  observe  and  photograph 
native  customs,  notably  those  of  tanning  a  hide  and  pre- 
paring corn.  The  study  of  music  on  the  Fort  Berthold 
Reservation  included  that  pertaining  to  the  ceremony  con- 
nected with  eagle  catching.  An  old  eagle  trap  was  visited 
and  photographed,  and  the  songs  of  the  leader  in  the  eagle 
camp  were  recorded  by  the  only  Mandan  who  had  the 
hereditary  right  to  sing  them.  The  songs  of  the  Goose 
Women  Society  and  the  Creek  Women  Society  were  also 


22  BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

sung  by  those  who  inherited  them  and  were  recorded  phono- 
graphically.  Among  these  are  the  ceremonial  songs  sung 
by  the  "corn  priest"  in  the  spring  to  fructify  the  seed  corn. 
Songs  of  war  and  of  the  various  men's  societies  were  also 
recorded.  The  total  number  of  songs  from  this  reservation 
now  transcribed  exceeds  100. 

A  new  phase  of  the  work  was  that  of  ascertaining  the  pitch 
discrimination  of  the  Indians  by  means  of  tuning  forks. 
This  was  begun  at  Fort  Berthold  and  continued  for  compar- 
ative purposes  at  the  Standing  Rock  and  White  Earth 
Reservations.  Data  from  four  tribes  are  now  available  on 
this  subject  of  research. 

Miss  Densmore  read  all  the  galley  and  part  of  the  page 
proofs  of  the  bulletin  on  Teton  Sioux  Music.  Important 
additions  were  made  to  this  book  in  the  form  of  graphic 
representations,  original  plots  of  240  songs  and  18  diagrams 
having  been  made  to  exhibit  the  results  obtained  through 
mathematical  analyses.  Of  these  graphic  representations 
63  will  appear  in  the  bulletin.  One  hundred  and  fifty  pages 
of  manuscript  were  submitted  during  the  year,  in  addition 
to  the  descriptive  analyses  of  the  songs. 

In  the  preparation  of  the  Handbook  of  Aboriginal  Re- 
mains East  of  the  Mississippi,  Mr.  D.  I.  Bushnell,  jr.,  added 
much  new  material.  Many  letters  were  sent  to  county 
officials  in  New  England  requesting  information  regarding 
the  location  of  ancient  village  sites,  burial  places,  and  other 
traces  of  aboriginal  occupancy  in  their  respective  areas. 
Many  of  the  replies  contained  valuable  and  interesting  infor- 
mation. Letters  of  like  nature  were  addressed  to  officials 
in  the  Southern  States,  and  the  replies  were  equally  satis- 
factory. Numerous  photographs  have  been  received  from 
various  sources,  which  will  serve  as  illustrations  for  the 
handbook,  but  it  is  desired  to  increase  the  number  if  pos- 
sible. The  manuscript  of  the  handbook  will  probably  be 
completed  during  the  next  fiscal  year. 

Dr.  Walter  Hough,  of  the  National  Museum,  was  detailed 
to  the  bureau  in  June  for  the  purpose  of  conducting  archeo- 
logical  investigations  in  western  central  New  Mexico.  Pro- 
ceeding to  Luna,  Socorro  County,  Dr.  Hough  commenced 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  23 

the  excavation  of  a  ruin  previously  located  by  him,  as  de- 
scribed in  Bulletin  35  of  the  bureau  (p.  59).  This  site  was 
thought  to  contain  evidence  of  pit  dwellings  exclusively, 
but  excavations  showed  that  an  area  of  about  40  acres 
contained  circular,  semisubterranean  houses  in  which  no 
stone  was  used  for  construction.  Seven  of  the  pits  were 
cleared,  and  it  was  ascertained  that  many  more  existed 
beneath  the  surface,  dug  in  the  sandy  substratum  of  the 
region.  Burnt  sections  of  roofing  clay  showed  that  these 
houses  were  roofed  with  beams,  poles,  brush,  and  mud,  as 
in  present  pueblo  construction.  The  roof  was  supported 
by  wooden  posts,  charred  remains  of  which  were  found. 
Nothing  was  ascertained  respecting  the  construction  of  the 
sides  of  the  dwellings  or  in  regard  to  the  height  of  the  roofs. 
On  the  floor  of  each  of  the  pits  uncovered  were  a  rude  metate, 
grinding  stones,  slabs  of  stone,  and  the  outline  of  an  other- 
wise undefined  fireplace  not  quite  in  the  center  of  the  cham- 
ber. A  bench  about  a  foot  high  and  a  few  feet  in  length  was 
cut  in  the  wall  of  some  of  the  pits,  and  in  one  of  the  pits, 
against  the  wall,  was  a  fireplace  with  raised  sides  of  clay. 
Another  type  of  structures  adjoined  the  pits;  these  were 
rectangular,  open-air  houses  with  mud  roofs,  in  which 
mealing  and  culinary  work  was  carried  on.  Here  were 
numerous  metates,  manos,  rubbing  stones,  pottery,  etc.; 
some  of  the  metates  were  set  up  on  three  round  stones. 
Near  the  pit  was  a  cemetery  in  which  infants  were  buried, 
the  burials  being  associated  with  clay  hearths  and  much 
charcoal,  and  near  the  bodies  were  placed  small  pottery 
vessels.  Scrapers  of  flint  and  bones  of  deer  were  also  found 
among  the  burials.  So  far  as  ascertained,  the  people  who 
used  the  circular  semisubterranean  houses  had  a  limited 
range.  Traces  of  their  culture  have  not  been  found  below 
an  elevation  of  7,000  feet  in  the  mountain  valley,  and  it 
appears  probable  that  their  culture  was  associated  with  an 
environment  of  lakes  which  once  existed  in  these  valleys. 
It  is  evident  in  some  cases  that  the  pit  dwellings  were  dis- 
placed by  houses  of  stone.  In  most  instances  artifacts  are 
different  from  those  of  the  stone-house  builders,  and  the 
latter  have  more  points  of  resemblance  to,  than  of  differ- 


24  BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

ence  from,  the  ancient  inhabitants  of  Blue  River.  It  is 
probable  that  the  range  of  the  pit-house  people  would  be 
found  to  be  more  extensive  by  excavation  around  the  sides 
of  stone  houses  in  other  localities,  the  remains  of  pit  struc- 
tures being  easily  obliterated  by  natural  filling.  At  this 
time  the  pit-dweller  culture  can  be  affiliated  only  with  un- 
certainty with  that  of  the  ancient  Pueblos.  At  the  present 
stage  of  the  investigation  the  lack  of  skeletal  material  is 
severely  felt,  but  further  work  may  overcome  this  difficulty. 

In  continuation  of  his  preliminary  examination  of  archeo- 
logical  remains  in  western  Utah,  summarized  in  the  last 
annual  report  of  the  bureau  (pp.  51-53),  Mr.  Neil  M.  Judd, 
of  the  National  Museum,  returned  to  Utah  in  June,  1916, 
and  excavated  one  of  the  large  mounds  near  Paragonah,  in 
Iron  County.  Limited  in  time  and  handicapped  by  unfa- 
vorable weather,  the  results  obtained  were  less  than  those 
anticipated;  nevertheless  they  show  the  similarity  existing 
between  the  ancient  Paragonah  dwellings  and  those  near 
Beaver  City  and  neighboring  settlements,  and  warrant  the 
belief  that  the  builders  of  these  structures  were  more  closely 
related  to  the  house-building  peoples  of  Arizona  and  New 
Mexico  than  has  been  suspected. 

In  the  report  following  his  reconnoissance  of  last  year 
Mr.  Judd  drew  attention  to  the  fact  that  the  mounds  still 
existing  near  Paragonah  comprise  a  mere  remnant  of  the 
large  group  formerly  at  that  place  and  predicted  the  early 
razing  of  those  remaining.  The  hurried  investigation  of 
this  year  was  undertaken  for  the  purpose  of  gaining  informa- 
tion regarding  these  ruins  before  their  destruction. 

One  of  the  largest  and,  at  the  same  time,  one  of  the  least 
disturbed  mounds  was  selected  as  a  type  for  excavation. 
Its  dimensions  were  approximately  100  by  300  feet;  its 
average  height  was  4^  feet.  Two  great  gashes  had  been  made 
through  the  opposite  ends  of  the  mound  by  diggings  of 
many  years  ago,  each  cut  partially  exposing  the  walls  of  a 
single  long  room.  Including  these  two  dwellings,  which 
were  reexcavated  only  with  considerable  difficulty,  Mr. 
Judd  successfully  revealed  and  measured  the  walls  of  14 
rectangular  houses,  11  of  which  are  entirely  cleared  of  fallen 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  25 

debris  and  earth  accumulation.  The  walls  of  these  ancient 
habitations,  like  those  previously  examined  near  Beaver 
City,  had  been  constructed  entirely  of  adobe  mud;  in  their 
present  condition  they  exhibited  no  evidence  of  the  use  of 
angular  bricks  or  blocks  similar  to  those  employed  in  Pueblo 
structures  subsequent  to  the  Spanish  conquest.  On  the 
contrary,  close  examination  showed  that  the  walls  were 
invariably  formed  by  the  union  of  innumerable  masses  of 
plastic  clay,  forced  together  by  the  hands  of  the  builders 
and  surfaced  inside  and  out  during  the  process  of  construc- 
tion. Careful  inspection  of  the  ruins  showed  that  the  dwell- 
ings were  originally  roofed  in  the  manner  typical  of  cliff 
houses  and  of  modern  Pueblo  structures  throughout  the 
Southwest.  No  certain  evidence  could  be  found  that  doors 
or  other  wall  openings  were  utilized  by  the  primitive  arti- 
sans— each  house  invariably  consisted  of  a  single  room  that 
apparently  had  been  entered  from  the  roof.  One  of  the  most 
important  discoveries  made  during  the  course  of  the  Para- 
gonah  excavations  was  that  of  a  circular,  semisubterranean 
room  which,  with  similar  wall  fragments  previously  discov- 
ered in  the  Beaver  City  mounds,  tends  to  establish  the  use 
of  the  kiva,  or  ceremonial  chamber,  by  the  ancient  house- 
building peoples  of  western  Utah. 

On  the  conclusion  of  his  studies  at  Paragonah  Mr.  Judd 
proceeded  to  Fillmore,  Willard  County,  for  the  purpose  of 
investigating  certain  mounds  reported  in  that  neighborhood. 
These  and  similar  elevations  near  the  villages  of  Meadow, 
Deseret,  and  Hinckley,  were  all  superficially  identified  as  of 
the  same  type  and  representing  the  same  degree  of  culture 
as  those  above  described.  In  all  a  collection  of  more  than 
500  objects  was  gathered  during  the  course  of  the  season's 
work. 

A  pleasing  coincidence  resulting  from  Mr.  Judd's  Fillmore 
investigation  was  the  fact  that  the  guide  he  engaged  had 
been  employed  in  the  same  capacity  by  Dr.  Edward  Palmer, 
one  of  the  National  Museum's  most  indefatigable  collectors, 
during  the  latter's  expedition  of  1872. 

186S23°— 22 3 


26  BUREAU   OF  AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

The  archeological  data  collected  by  Mr.  Judd  during  his 
two  brief  expeditions  to  western  Utah  are  sufficient  to 
warrant  the  extension  of  the  northern  limits  of  the  area 
known  to  have  been  occupied  by  the  ancient  Pueblo  people. 
Further  work,  however,  is  urgent,  since  that  already  accom- 
plished has  not  only  contributed  certain  valuable  facts  to 
Southwestern  archeology,  but  it  has  shown  also  the  proba- 
bility of  finding,  in  the  unknown  desert  regions  of  that 
section,  a  solution  of  some  of  the  vital  questions  with  which 
American  anthropology  has  labored  for  many  years. 

By  reason  of  the  fact  that  Mr.  James  R.  Murie  has  been 
engaged  by  the  American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  New 
York  City,  in  connection  with  its  ethnologic  researches  per- 
taining to  the  Plains  Indians,  his  work  of  recording  the  rites 
and  ceremonies  of  the  Pawnee  Tribe  came  to  a  close,  and 
tentative  arrangements  have  been  made  whereby  the  Ameri- 
can Museum  will  complete  the  investigation  and  the  results 
published  by  the  bureau.  Dr.  Clark  Wissler,  curator  of 
anthropology  of  the  American  Museum,  has  undertaken 
this  task. 

Dr.  A.  L.  Kroeber,  of  the  University  of  California,  con- 
tinued the  preparation  of  the  Handbook  of  the  Indians  of 
California  for  publication  by  the  bureau,  and  at  this  writing 
it  is  believed  that  the  manuscript,  with  the  accompanying 
maps  and  illustrations,  will  be  submitted  for  publication 
before  the  close  of  the  calendar  year. 

MANUSCRIPTS 

The  large  collection  of  manuscripts  in  possession  of  the 
bureau  was  augmented  by  the  following  principal  items, 
which  do  not  include  manuscripts  in  process  of  preparation 
by  members  of  the  bureau's  staff  for  publication: 

Miami-French  dictionary;  photostat  copy  of  the  original 
in  the  John  Carter  Brown  Library  at  Providence,  R.  I. 

A  number  of  notebooks  from  Dr.  A.  L.  Kroeber,  on  Gros 
Ventre  and  Cheyenne- Arapaho  linguistics  and  texts.  These 
consist  of:  (a)  Gros  Ventre,  41-47,  49;  (b)  Arapaho  and 
Cheyenne,  1-14,  21-22,  24-28,  and  also  a  catalogue  of  this 


ADMINISTRATIVE  REPORT  27 

material  recorded  on  3,500  cards;  (c)  110  pages  of  manu- 
script on  the  same  subjects. 

First  draft  of  Gatschet's  Klamath  Dictionary,  177  pages. 

Copies  of  the  following  manuscripts,  made  by  photostat 
in  the  bureau  by  the  courtesy  of  Rev.  George  Worpenberg, 
S.  J.,  librarian  of  St.  Mary's  College,  St.  Marys,  Kans. : 

Catechism  dans  la  langue  Potewatemi,  A.  D.  1847. 
Petit  Catechism  en  Langue  Potewatemi,  A.  D.  1848. 
Evangelia  Dom,   and  Evangelia  in  Festis,  and  portions  of  the 
Gospels  read  on  Sundays  and  certain  Festivals  of  the  Saints. 

PUBLICATIONS 

The  task  of  editing  the  publications  of  the  bureau  has 
continued  in  charge  of  Mr.  J.  G.  Gurley,  editor,  assisted  from 
tune  to  time  by  Mrs.  Frances  S.  Nichols.  Following  is  a 
summary  for  the  year : 

PUBLICATIONS    ISSUED 

Twenty-ninth  Annual  Report  (1907-08).  Accompanying  paper: 
The  Ethnogeography  of  the  Tewa  Indians,  by  John  Peabody  Har- 
rington. 

Thirtieth  Annual  Report  (1908-09).  Accompanying  papers: 
Ethnobotany  of  the  Zuni  Indians  (Stevenson) ;  An  Inquiry  into  the 
Animism  and  Folk-lore  of  the  Guiana  Indians  (Roth). 

Bulletin  57.  An  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  the  Maya  Hiero- 
glyphs (Morley). 

Bulletin  62.  Physical  Anthropology  of  the  Lenape  or  Dela wares, 
and  of  the  Eastern  Indians  in  General  (Hrdlicka). 

PUBLICATIONS    IN    PRESS    OR    IN    PREPARATION 

Thirty-first  Annual  Report  (1909-10).  Accompanying  paper: 
Tsimshian  Mythology  (Boas) . 

Thirty-second  Annual  Report  (1910-11).  Accompanying  paper: 
Seneca  Fiction,  Legends,  and  Myths  (collected  by  Jeremiah  Cur  tin 
and  J.  N.  B.  Hewitt;  edited  by  J.  N.  B.  Hewitt). 

Thirty-third  Annual  Report  (1911-12).  Accompanying  papers: 
Designs  on  Prehistoric  Hopi  Pottery  (Fewkes) ;  Preliminary  Account 
of  the  Antiquities  of  the  Region  between  the  Mancos  and  La  Plata 
Rivers  in  Southwestern  Colorado  (Morris);  Uses  of  Plants  by  the 
Indians  of  the  Nebraska  Region  (Gilmore) ;  Mound  Excavation  in 
the  Eastern  Maya  Area,  with  an  Introduction  dealing  with  the 
General  Culture  of  the  Natives  (Gann). 


28  BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN  ETHNOLOGY 

Bulletin  40.  Handbook  of  American  Indian  Languages  (Boas). 
Part  2. 

Bulletin  55.  Ethnobotany  of  the  Tewa  Indians  (Robbins,  Har- 
rington, Freire-Marreco) . 

Bulletin  59.  Kutenai  Tales  (Boas). 

Bulletin  60.  Handbook  of  Aboriginal  American  Antiquities,  Part  1 . 
Introductory.  The  Lithic  Industries:  Mining,  Quarrying,  Manu- 
facture (Holmes). 

Bulletin  61.  Teton  Sioux  Music  (Densmore). 

The  distribution  of  the  publications  of  the  bureau  has 
continued  in  immediate  charge  of  Miss  Helen  Munroe,  of  the 
Smithsonian  Institution,  and  at  times  by  Mr.  E.  L.  Springer, 
assisted  from  the  beginning  of  the  fiscal  year  until  his 
resignation  on  April  15  by  Mr.  W.  A.  Humphrey,  and  sub- 
sequently by  Miss  Lana  V.  Schelski.  Notwithstanding  con- 
ditions in  Europe  and  the  impossibility  of  sending  publica- 
tions abroad  except  to  a  very  limited  extent,  2,235  more 
publications  were  distributed  than  during  the  previous  fiscal 
year.    This  distribution  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

Series  CopieB 

Annual  reports  and  separates 2,  036 

Bulletins  and  separates 9,  990 

Contributions  to  North  American  Ethnology — volumes  and 

separates 18 

Introductions 9 

Miscellaneous  publications 367 

12  420 
ILLUSTRATIONS 

Mr.  DeLancey  Gill,  illustrator,  has  continued  in  charge  of 
the  preparation  of  the  illustrations  for  the  publications  of 
the  bureau  and  of  photographing  the  members  of  visiting 
Indian  deputations  to  Washington,  in  which  work  he  has 
been  assisted  by  Mr.  Albert  E.  Sweeney.  The  results 
accomplished  in  this  direction  are  as  follows : 

Number 

Photographic  prints  for  distribution  and  office  use 1,  137 

Negatives  of  ethnologic  and  archeologic  subjects 126 

Negative  films  developed  from  field  exposures 188 

Photostat  prints  from  books  and  manuscripts 1,  125 

Mounts  used 78 

Proofs  examined 251 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  29 

Number 

Photographs  retouched -  -  43 

Drawings  made 187 

Portrait  negatives  of  visiting  delegations  (Pawnee,  Sauk  and 

Fox,  Winnebago,  Blackfoot,  Cheyenne,  Chippewa) 25 

The  complete  editions  of  three  colored  plates,  aggregating 
20,000  prints,  were  examined  at  the  Government  Printing 
Office.  Illustrative  material  for  three  bulletins  was  com- 
pleted for  reproduction,  and  progress  was  made  on  similar 
work  for  the  Thirty-third  Annual  Report. 

LIBRARY 

The  library  of  the  bureau  continued  in  charge  of  Miss  Ella 
Leary,  librarian,  assisted  by  Charles  B.  Newman,  messenger 
boy.  During  the  year  1,078  volumes  were  accessioned;  of 
these  214  were  purchased,  135  were  acquired  by  gift  and 
exchange,  and  729  are  volumes  of  serials  which  were  entered 
after  having  been  bound  for  the  first  time.  The  library 
also  procured  272  pamphlets,  chiefly  by  gift.  The  periodicals 
currently  received  number  about  750,  of  which  12  are 
acquired  by  subscription  and  738  by  exchange.  Among  the 
more  noteworthy  accessions  of  books  are  20  volumes  of 
Bibles,  Testaments,  and  portions  of  the  Bible  in  American 
Indian  languages.  The  library  now  contains  about  21,315 
volumes,  13,460  pamphlets,  and  several  thousand  unbound 
periodicals.  There  were  sent  to  the  Government  Printing 
Office  for  binding,  1,338  books,  pamphlets,  and  serial  pub- 
lications, and  of  these  all  but  20  had  been  returned  to  the 
bureau  before  the  close  of  the  year. 

In  addition  to  the  cataloguing  of  current  accessions  the 
efforts  of  the  librarian  were  devoted  to  making  a  subject, 
author,  and  analytical  catalogue  of  the  books  represented 
in  the  old  catalogue  by  an  imperfect  author  catalogue  alone. 
In  this  connection  special  attention  was  given  to  linguistic 
works.  From  time  to  time  Mrs.  F.  S.  Nichols  has  assisted 
in  this  work,  and  satisfactory  progress  has  been  made. 

Although  maintained  primarily  for  the  use  of  the  staff, 
the  library  is  consulted  more  and  more  by  students  not  mem- 
bers of  the  bureau,  as  well  as  by  officials  of  the  Library  of 
Congress  and  of  the  Government  departments. 


30  BUREAU   OF   AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 

COLLECTIONS 

The  following  collections  were  acquired  by  the  bureau,  by 
members  of  its  staff,  or  by  those  detailed  in  connection  with 
its  researches,  and  have  been  transferred  to  the  National 
Museum : 

704  archeological  objects  gathered  in  Utah  and  Wyoming  by  Mr. 
Neil  M.  Judd.     (58757.) 

Collection  of  potsherds  showing  types  of  ornamentation,  from  the 
Nacoochee  Mound,  White  County,  Georgia,  being  a  part  of  the  objects 
gathered  by  the  joint  expedition  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnologv 
and  Museum  of  the  American  Indian  (Heye  Foundation).     (58819.) 

170  archeological  specimens  collected  by  Mr.  Gerard  Fowke  at  the 
flint  quarry  shop  sites  at  Crescent,  St.  Louis  County,  Missouri. 
(59015.) 

Collection  of  nonhuman  bones  from  the  Nacoochee  Mound,  Georgia. 
(59017.) 

A  small  collection  of  prayer-sticks  from  a  Pueblo  shrine  on  the  sum- 
mit of  Langley  Peak,  west  of  the  Rio  Grande  and  south  of  the  Rio 
Chama,  New  Mexico,  presented  by  Mr.  Robert  H.  Chapman.     (59112.) 

53  Indian  potsherds  and  arrow  points  presented  by  Mr.  Arthur  L. 
Norman,  Troup,  Texas.     (59252.) 

Stone  "collar"  from  Porto  Rico,  received  by  purchase  from  Mr.  K. 
A.  Behne,  San  German,  Porto  Rico.     (59280.) 

A  point  and  tackle  of  a  salmon  spear,  a  halibut  hook,  and  five  small 
fishhooks,  the  gift  of  Mr.  Robert  H.  Chapman.     (59288.) 

Set  of  ear  perforators  formerly  owned  by  Wathuxage  of  the  Tsizhu 
Washtage  gens  of  the  Osage,  presented  through  Mr.  Francis  La 
Flesche  by  Mrs.  Fred  Lookout.     (59782.) 

Sacred  hawk  bundle,  or  waxobe,  of  the  Buffalo-face  People  of  the 
Osage  tribe,  collected  by  Mr.  Francis  La  Flesche.     (59792.) 

Osage  war  shield,  collected  by  Mr.  Francis  La  Flesche.     (59934.) 

PROPERTY 

In  regard  to  the  property  of  the  bureau  there  is  nothing 
to  add  to  the  statements  presented  in  recent  reports.  The 
cost  of  necessary  furniture,  typewriters,  and  photographic 
and  other  apparatus  acquired  during  the  fiscal  year  was 
$238.54. 

MISCELLANEOUS 

Quarters. — One  of  the  rooms  in  the  north  tower  occupied 
by  the  bureau  force  was  repaired  and  painted,  a  new  electric 


ADMINISTRATIVE   REPORT  31 

fixture  installed,  and  the  wooden  casing  under  the  exposed 
stairway  removed  and  fireproofing  substituted. 

Personnel. — The  only  change  in  the  personnel  of  the 
bureau  was  the  resignation  of  Mr.  William  A.  Humphrey, 
stenographer  and  typewriter,  on  April  15,  1916,  and  the 
appointment  of  Miss  Lana  V.  Schelski  on  May  15  to  fill  the 
vacancy. 

The  correspondence  and  other  clerical  work  of  the  office, 

in  addition  to  that  above  mentioned,  has  been  conducted 

by  Miss  Florence  M.  Poast,  clerk  to  the  ethnologist  in  charge ; 

Miss  May  S.  Clark,  who  particularly  aided  Mr.  Bushnell  in 

correspondence    connected    with    the    preparation    of    the 

Handbook  of  Aboriginal  Remains;  and  Mrs.  F.  S.  Nichols, 

who  has  aided  the  editor. 

Respectfully  submitted. 

F.  W.  Hodge, 

Ethnologist  in  Charge. 
Dr.  Charles  D.  Walcott, 

Secretary  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 

Washington,  D.  C. 


ACCOMPANYING  PAPER 


33 


THE  WINNEBAGO  TRIBE 


PAUL  RADIN 


35 


CONTENTS 

Page 

Preface 47 

Part  I 

Chapter  I. — History 49 

General  remarks 49 

The  Tale  of  Tcap'o'sgaga 59 

How  the  Winnebago  first  came  into  contact  with  the  French  and  the 

origin  of  the  Decora  family 65 

What  the  Shawnee  prophet  told  the  Winnebago 69 

Winnebago  names  of  other  tribes  and  peoples 75 

Chapter  II. — Winnebago  archeology 76 

General  problems 76 

Implements  of  stone  and  other  materials 87 

Copper  implements 87 

Earthworks  and  mounds 88 

Intaglio  mounds 90 

Conical  mounds 90 

Linear  mounds 92 

Effigy  mounds 98 

Description  of  Lake  Koshkonong  mounds 100 

The  conical  mounds 100 

Combinations  of  conical  and  linear  forms 100 

Linear  mounds 101 

Effigies 101 

Bird  effigies 101 

Mammal  effigies 101 

Turtle  and  allied  forms 101 

The  grouping 102 

The  man  mound 102 

Miscellaneous  structures 103 

Chapter  III. — Material  culture 104 

Habitations 104 

Clothing  and  adornment 109 

Hunting 109 

Fishing  and  agriculture 114 

Games  and  amusements 120 

Travel  and  transportation 123 

Musical  instruments 123 

Divisions  of  time 124 

Chapter  IV. — General  social  customs 126 

Male  terms  of  address 128 

Female  terms  of  address 131 

Joking  relationship 133 

Mother-indaw  and  father-indaw  taboo 135 

Puberty  customs 135 

Marriage 138 

Adoption 139 

37 


38  CONTENTS 

Page. 

Chapter  V. — Burial  and  funeral  customs 140 

Description  of  funeral  customs  and  wake 140 

Generalized  description  of  funeral  customs  and  wake 144 

Funeral  customs  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  (first  version) 146 

Death  and  funeral  customs  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  (second  version) 146 

Death  and  funeral  customs  of  the  Bear  clan 148 

Funeral  customs  of  the  Buffalo  clan 154 

Origin  myth  of  the  four-nights'  wake 154 

Grave-post  marks 155 

Chapter  VI. — Warfare  and  the  council  lodge ., 156 

Warfare 156 

The  council  lodge 163 

Chapter  VII. — System  of  education 166 

.My  father's  teaching  to  his  sons  and  daughters 166 

System  of  instruction  to  son 166 

System  of  instruction  to  daughter 177 

System  of  instruction  to  children 180 

Part  II 

Chapter  VIII. — .Social  organization — General  discussion 181 

The  twofold  grouping 185 

Functions  of  the  twofold  division 187 

<  Ian  organization 190 

Reckoning  of  descent 192 

Individual  names 193 

Attitude  toward  clan  animals "  195 

Relationship  to  clan  animals 196 

The  clan  tie 198 

Clan  functions 199 

The  reciprocal  relationship  of  the  clans 201 

The  specific  possessions  of  the  clan 202 

Immaterial  possessions  of  the  clan 203 

The  clan  marks  of  identification 203 

Influence  of  the  clan  upon  ceremonial  organization 204 

Chapter  IX. — Social  organization — Specific  clans 207 

The  Thunderbird  clan 207 

Introduction 207 

Clan  myths  and  names 212 

The  Warrior  clan 218 

Introduction 218 

Origin  myth 219 

Clan  songs 220 

Eagle  and  Pigeon  clans 220 

Clan  names 221 

The  Bear  clan 225 

Introduction 225 

Origin  myths 229 

Clan  songs 235 

Clan  names 236 

The  Wolf  clan 238 

Introduction 238 

Origin  myths 238 

Clan  songs 240 

Clan  names 240 


CONTENTS  39 

Chapter  IX. — Social  organization — Specific  clans — Continued.  Page. 

The  Water-spirit  clan 241 

Introduction 241 

Origin  myth 242 

Clan  names 242 

The  Buffalo  clan 243 

Introduction 243 

Origin  myth 243 

Clan  songs 245 

Clan  names 246 

The  Deer  clan 246 

Introduction 246 

Origin  myths 247 

Clan  song 249 

Clan  names 249 

The  Elk  clan 249 

Introduction 249 

Origin  myth 250 

Clan  names 250 

Snake  and  Fish  clans 250 

Clan  names 250 

Clan  names 251 

Chapter  X. — Shanianistic  and  medicinal  practices 254 

Introduction 254 

Tales  concerning  Midjistega 255 

Lincoln's  grandfather 258 

The  uses  of  the  stench-earth  medicine 259 

How  an  Indian  shaman  cures  his  patients ■    270 

Thundercloud's  fasting  experience 275 

Chapter  XI. — Religion 277 

Introduction 277 

The  concept  of  supernatural  power 281 

The  concept  and  nature  of  the  spirits 283 

The  power  and  localization  of  the  spirits 288 

The  twofold  interpretation  of  the  relation  of  the  spirits  to  man 289 

The  guardian  spirits 290 

Personal  religious  experiences 291 

How  Wegi'ceka  tried  to  see  Earthmaker 291 

Account  of  J.'s  fasting 293 

R.'s  fasting 296 

Aratcge'ka's  fasting 296 

Account  of  X.'s  fasting 298 

How  Y.  fasted  and  was  blessed  with  a  war  bundle 299 

What  G.  obtained  in  his  fast 300 

How  a  bear  blessed  a  man 301 

How  the  daughter  of  Mank'erexka  refused  a  blessing  from  Disease- 
giver 302 

Fasting  experience 304 

J.  B.'s  fasting  experience 308 

How  a  man  defied  Disease-giver 309 

Methods  of  bringing  the  spirits  into  relation  with  man , 310 

The  folkloristic  concepts 311 

The  cosmological  ideas 316 


40  CONTENTS 

Part  III 

Page. 

Chapter  XII. — Ceremonial  organization 317 

Introduction 317 

Ceremonies  associated  with  the  clans , 318 

The  clan  feasts 318 

The  Thunderbird  clan  or  chief  feast 318 

The  Bear  clan  feast  (first  version) 321 

The  Bear  clan  feast  (second  version  I 324 

The  Snake  clan  feast 325 

Chapter  XIII. — Religious  societies  based  on  blessings  from  spirits 329 

Society  of  those  who  have  received  blessings  from  the  Night  Spirits 329 

Society  of  those  who  have  been  blessed  by  the  Herok'a 343 

Society  of  those  who  have  been  blessed  by  the  Buffalo  spirits 344 

Society  of  those  who  have  been  blessed  by  the  grizzly  bear 347 

Chapter  XIV. — The  Medicine  dance 350 

Origin  myth 350 

Organization  of  the  bands 359 

Personal  accounts  of  initiation 374 

Chapter  XV. — Miscellaneous  dances 379 

The  Hokixe're  dance 379 

The  Herucka  dance 384 

Watconan k'ewe  feast 384 

The  Captive's  Death  dance 384 

The  Farewell  dance 385 

The  Soldier's  dance 386 

Ceremony  of  Uangeru x 387 

Feast  to  Buffalo  Tail 387 

Kikre  waci  and  Tcebokonank  dances 387 

Chapter  XVI.— The  Peyote  cult 388 

General  description 388 

John  Rave's  account  of  the  Peyote  cult  and  of  his  conversion 389 

O.  L.'s  description  of  the  Peyote  cult 394 

J.  B.'s  account  of  the  leader  of  the  Peyote 396 

Albert  Hensley's  account  of  the  Peyote 397 

J.  B.'s  Peyote  experiences 400 

J.  B.'s  account  of  his  conversion 412 

Jesse  Clay's  account  of  the  Arapaho  manner  of  giving  the  Peyote  cere- 
mony which  he  introduced  among  the  Winnebago  in  1912 415 

Development  of  the  ritualistic  complex 419 

Dissemination  of  the  doctrine , 422 

What  the  converts  introduced 424 

The  attitude  of  the  conservatives 425 

Chapter  XVII. — The  clan  war-bundle  feasts 427 

The  war-bundle  feast  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  (first  version) 427 

Introductory  remarks 427 

Analytical  presentation  of  the  ceremony 428 

Analysis  of  types  of  action  and  speeches 432 

The  development  of  the  war-bundle  feast  and  its  place  in  the  cere- 
monial organization  of  the  Winnebago 432 

Characterization  of  the  spirits  mentioned  in  the  war-bundle  feast 436 

Description  of  the  war-bundle  feast 441 

First  division  of  the  ceremony — in  honor  of  the  Thunderbirds 447 

Sweat-lodge  ritual 447 


CONTENTS  41 

Chapter  XVII. — The  clan  war-bundle  feasts — Continued.  Page 
The  war-bundle  feast  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  (first  version) — Continued. 
First  division  of  the  ceremony — in  honor  of  the  Thunderbirds — Continued. 

The  Dog  ritual 451 

General  placing  of  the  tobacco 451 

The  tobacco  offering  to  the  spirits 453 

The  buckskin  offerings  to  the  spirits 465 

Filling  of  the  ceremonial  pipe  and  smoking  ritual 469 

Basic  ritual 471 

The  feast 481 

The  fast-eating  contest 485 

Continuation  of  the  basic  ritual 487 

Second  division  of  the  ceremony- — in  honor  of  the  Night  Spirits 501 

The  tobacco  offering 501 

Basic  ritual 505 

The  throwing  out  of  the  buckskins 513 

Feast  to  the  Night  Spirits 519 

Rite  of  those  who  have  been  crazed  by  the  Night  Spirits 519 

Continuation  of  the  basic  ritual 521 

Terminal  address  to  the  dog 527 

Addenda 529 

The  war-bundle  feast  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  (second  version) 530 

The  war-bundle  feast  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  (third  version) 534 

The  war-bundle  feast  of  the  Bear  clan 547 

Index 551 

1S6S230— 22 4 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PLATES 

Page. 

1.  Red  Banks,  Green  Bay,  Wis 66 

2.  a,  Black  Wolf,  chief  of  Winnebago.     6,  Four  Legs,  chief  of  Winnebago.  ...  66 

3.  Jasper  Blowsnake 66 

4.  John  Fisher 66 

5.  a,  James  Pine,     ft,  John  Rave  and  family 66 

6.  a,  ft,  John  Fireman,     c,  Whitebreast.     </,  John  Raymond 66 

7.  a,  Young  Winnebago  woman  and  daughter,  ft,  Old  Winnebago  and  daughter.  66 

8.  a,  Gray  Hair,     ft,   Red  Wing,     c,  James   Ricehill.     d,  Albert  Hensley 

(front  view) 66 

9.  a,  John  Baptiste.     6,  Hugh  Hunter,     e,  Levi  St.  Cyr.    d,  Albert  Hensley 

( profile  view) 88 

10.  Winnebago  bone  implements 88 

11.  Four  Legs'  village  on  Doty  Island,  1830 88 

12.  Aztalan 88 

13.  Wisconsin  intaglios 90 

14.  a,  Burial  in  a  mound  at  Borchers  Beach,     ft.  Conical  mound,  Cutler  Park, 

Waukesha,  Wis 90 

15.  A  series  of  burial  mounds 92 

16.  Stone  chamber  in  burial  mound,  Buffalo  Lake,  Marquette  County,  Wis.  . .  92 

17.  Zahn  Mound,  Calumet  County,  Wis 92 

18.  a,  Lodge  made  of  reed  matting.     6,  Lodge  made  of  bark  with  covering  of 

reed  matting,     c,  Lodge  made  of  bark 92 

19.  a,  Lodge  of  bark.     6,  Modern  lodge  with    canvas  covering,     c  Lodge  of 

reed  matting 104 

20.  a,  Thomas  Mallory .     6,  Winnebago  in  full  dress 104 

21.  o,  Winnebago  women  in  modern  dress.     6,  Winnebago  women  in  old-style 

dress 104 

22.  a,  Child  in  modern  dress.     6,  Young  boy  in  full  warrior's  costume 104 

23.  a,  Group  of  Winnebago  in  old-style  costumes,     ft,  Winnebago  family 108 

24.  Decorated  moccasins 108 

25.  Decorated  moccasins 108 

26.  a,  Winnebago,  showing  modern  headgear,     ft,  Winnebago   with  deer-tail 

headdress 108 

27.  Beaded  belts 108 

28.  Women's  hair  ornaments  and  small  beaded  bag 108 

29.  Beaded  articles  of  modern  type 108 

30.  Miscellaneous  objects 108 

31.  Bo w  and  bird  arrow 118 

32.  Woven  bags  with  old  designs 118 

33.  Woven  bags 118 

34.  Varieties  of  woven  bags 118 

35.  Woven  bags  with  old  designs 118 

36.  Woven  bags  (Peabody  Museum ) 118 

37.  Openwork  woven  bags  (Peabody  Museum) 118 

43 


44  ILLUSTRATIONS 

Page. 

38.  a,  Wooden  dishes,     b,  Wooden  spoons,    r,  Wooden  mortars  and  pestles. .. .  118 

39.  Moccasin  game 122 

40.  Snowshoes 1 22 

41.  a,  Winnebago  and  daughter,     b,  Old  Winnebago  woman,     c,  Woman  and 

child,  showing  cradle  board,     rf,  Woman  and  child,  showing  method  of 

carrying  infant 126 

42.  a,  Infant  with  ornamented  cradle  board.     6,  Group  of  Winnebago 126 

43.  a,  War  clubs  of  the  Upper  Division,     b,  Whips 156 

44.  Drums 156 

45.  War  clubs 156 

46.  Facial  burial  marks 248 

47.  Buckskin  offerings 248 

48.  Buckskin  offerings 248 

49.  a,  Exterior  of  Medicine  dance  lodge,     b,  Interior  of  Medicine  dance  lodge.  350 

50.  a,  Exterior  of  Medicine  dance  lodge,     b,  Interior  of  Medicine  dance  lodge.  350 

51.  Otter-skin  medicine  pouches  used  at  Medicine  dance 362 

52.  Pouches  of  animal  skins  used  at  Medicine  dance 362 

53.  Skin  pouches  and  feather  fans  used  at  Medicine  dance 362 

54.  a,  Peyote  leaders,     b,  Burial  huts 388 

55.  a,  Oliver  Lamere.     b,  John  Rave 388 

56.  a,  Thunderbird  war  bundle,     b,  Hawk  war  bundle 428 

57.  Contents  of  Thunderbird  war  bundle 428 

58.  Contents  of  Hawk  war  bundle 428 

TEXT   FIGURES 

1.  Sectional  map  of  Wisconsin,  giving  the  locations  of  some  of  the  old  villages..  51 

2.  Map  of  Wisconsin,  showing  distribution  of  circular  mounds 77 

3.  Map  of  Wisconsin,  showing  distribution  of  effigy  mounds 78 

4.  Effigy  mounds  (panther  or  water-spirit  type) 90 

5.  Bear  effigy  mound,  Madison,  Wis 91 

6.  Burial  mounds,  upper  Baraboo  Valley,  Wis 91 

7.  Burial  mounds  in  a  group  at  Rice  Lake,  Rusk  County,  Wis 92 

8.  Effigy  and  dumb-bell-shaped  mounds 93 

9.  Linear  mounds  at  Madison,  Wis 93 

10.  Linear  mounds,  Clyde  Township,  Iowa  County,  Wis 93 

11.  Effigy  and  linear  mounds,  Pishtaka,  Waukesha  County,  Wis 94 

12.  Effigy  mounds  in  the  Wingra  group,  Madison,  Wis 94 

13.  Bird  effigy  mounds 95 

14.  Man  mound,  Greenfield  Township,  Sauk  County,  Wis . 95 

15.  Types  of  mammal  effigy  mounds 96 

16.  Types  of  so-called  turtle  effigy  mounds 96 

17.  Effigy  mound  of  unknown  animal 96 

18.  La  Valle  man  mound,  Sauk  County,  Wis 97 

19.  Group  of  mounds  of  different  types,  Lake  Koshkonong,  Wis 97 

20.  Archeologic  map  of  Lake  Koshkonong 99 

21.  Wisconsin  garden  beds 103 

22.  a,  Cross  section  of  round  lodge.     6,  Cross  section  of  gable  lodge 105 

23.  Pattern  of  men's  buckskin  leggings 106 

24.  Pattern  of  women's  buckskin  shirt 106 

25.  Pattern  of  men's  moccasin 107 

26.  Pattern  of  women's  moccasin 108 

27.  Men's  lacrosse 120 


ILLUSTRATIONS  45 

Page. 

28.  Grave-post  marks 155 

29.  Seating  arrangement  in  council  lodge  according  to  Thunderbird  clan 164 

30.  Seating  arrangement  in  council  lodge  according  to  Bear  clan 164 

31 .  Seating  arrangement  in  council  lodge  according  to  Thunderbird  clan 165 

32.  Seating  arrangement  in  council  lodge  according  to  Wolf  clan 165 

33.  Plan  of  village  according  to  Thundercloud,  of  the  Thunderbird  clan 188 

34.  Plan  of  village  according  to  John  Rave,  of  Bear  clan 1S9 

35.  Diagram  of  Bear  lodge 229 

36.  Plan  of  Bear  clan  war-bundle  feast  as  given  by  John  Rave 321 

37.  Plan  of  Soldier's  dance 386 

38.  Plan  of  Thunderbird  clan  war-bundle  feast 530 


PREFACE 

The  information  included  in  this  volume  was  obtained  during  the 
years  1908-1913  while  employed  by  the  Bureau  of  American  Eth- 
nology and  on  private  expeditions.  In  all  cases  wherever  it  was 
possible  the  author  tried  to  obtain  his  information  in  Winnebago, 
although  the  English  version  is  printed  here.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  the  Winnebago  have  for  some  time  been  accustomed  to  the  use 
of  a  syllabic  alphabet  borrowed  from  the  Sauk  and  Fox,  it  was  a 
comparatively  easy  task  to  induce  them  to  write  down  their  mythol- 
ogy and,  at  times,  their  ceremonies,  and  then  have  an  interpreter 
translate  them.  As  the  author  has  a  fair  command  of  Winnebago 
grammar,  he  was  able  to  control  these  translations  and  thus  insure 
their  approximate  accuracy.  On  account  of  the  importance  of  having 
as  accurate  a  record  of  the  ceremonies  as  possible,  those  few  cere- 
monies that  were  obtained  in  syllabic  text  were  subsequently  taken 
down  in  phonetic  text. 

It  has  been  the  aim  of  the  author  to  separate  as  definitely  as  possi- 
ble his  own  comments  from  the  actual  data  obtained,  and  for  that 
reason  every  chapter,  with  the  exception  of  those  on  history,  arche- 
ology, and  material  culture,  is  divided  into  two  parts,  a  discussion 
of  the  data  and  the  data  itself. 

Certain  subjects,  such  as  mythology,  art,  and  music,  have  been 
entirely  omitted.  In  order  to  discuss  the  second  a  comparative 
study  of  woodland  art  and  design  would  have  been  necessary,  which 
would  have  entailed  a  prolonged  study  at  different  museums;  and  to 
discuss  the  latter,  specific  training  and  knowledge  were  demanded, 
which  the  author  does  not  possess. 

The  following  monograph  does  not  claim  to  be  a  comparative 
study,  but  simply  as  intensive  an  investigation  as  the  time  spent 
allowed,  of  an  unusually  interesting  tribe,  made  under  exceptionally 
propitious  conditions.  It  is  principally  the  raw  material  that  is  pre- 
sented here.  Throughout  the  work,  the  Indian  has  been  allowed  to 
tell  the  facts  in  his  own  way.  For  that  reason  no  attempt  has  been 
made  to  change  the  English,  except  when  it  was  ungrammatical  or 
unintelligible.  This  will  explain  the  simple  and  at  times  poor  Eng- 
lish of  the  accounts. 

The  work  ends  rather  abruptly  because  the  section  on  mythology 
and  the  general  conclusion  have  been  reserved  for  special  treatment. 

In  conclusion,  the  author  wishes  to  thank  all  those  Winnebago 
who  helped  him  since  he  first  came  among  them.     In  particular  does 

47 


48  PEEFACE. 

he  wish  to  thank  his  interpreter,  Oliver  Lamere,  of  Winnebago, 
Nebraska,  without  whom  this  work  could  hardly  have  been  completed, 
and  his  three  main  informants,  Jasper  Blowsnake  and  Sam  Carley, 
both  of  Black  River  Falls,  Wisconsin,  and  John  Rave,  of  Winnebago, 
Nebraska. 

To  Prof.  Franz  Boas  he  is  under  especial  obligations  for  directing 
him  to  the  Winnebago,  for  the  methods  of  research  inculcated  in  him 
at  Columbia  University,  and  particularly  for  impressing  upon  him  the 
necessity  of  obtaining  as  much  information  as  possible  in  text. 

His  thanks  are  also  due  to  the  following  individual  and  institutions: 
To  Mr.  C.  Brown,  of  Madison,  Wis.,  for  a  number  of  illustrations 
previously  published  in  the  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  and  to  the 
American  Museum  of  Natural  History,  the  Peabody  Museum,  and 
the  Milwaukee  Public  Museum  for  numerous  photographs  of  objects 
in  their  collections. 

His  brother,  Dr.  Max  Radin,  he  wishes  to  thank  for  financing  his 
first  visit  to  the  Winnebago  in  1908. 

The  manuscript  was  finished  in  1913. 

Paul  Radin. 

Santa  Fe,  New  Mexico,  May  11,  1916. 


THE  WINNEBAGO  TRIBE 


Part  I 

CHAPTER  I 


HISTORY 
General  Remarks 

At  what  time  the  Winnebago  entered  Wisconsin  it  is  impossible 
to  say.  It  seems  quite  reasonable  to  suppose  that  they  came  from 
the  east.  If  we  are  right  in  assuming  that  they  are  the  builders  of 
the  effigy  mounds,  then  we  are  justified  in  assigning  a  certain  signifi- 
cance to  the  distribution  of  the  latter.  One  of  the  interesting  points 
of  this  distribution  is  that  many  are  found  along  the  shore  of  Lake 
Michigan  and  northward  to  Two  Rivers,  that  some  are  found  in 
Rock  County,  and  that  they  gradually  decrease  in  number  as  one 
proceeds  north.  This  would  lead  us  to  assume  that  the  Winnebago 
entered  Wisconsin  from  the  south,  probably  from  the  southeast.  We 
ought,  then,  to  find  effigy  mounds  in  Illinois  and,  in  general,  on  the 
route  of  their  probable  journey  from  the  east.  This  is  not  the  case, 
and  it  is  very  difficult  to  account  for  their  absence  unless  we  assume 
that  all  traces  of  them  have  disappeared;  that  the  Winnebago  first 
developed  their  mound-building  habit  after  they  had  reached  Wis- 
consin; or  that  the  mounds  in  Illinois  are  their  work  (and  that 
of  kindred  tribes),  and  finally  that  the  type  of  mound  developed 
along  different  lines  after  they  had  definitely  settled  in  Wisconsin. 
It  is  also  possible  that  since  the  effigy  mounds  are  undoubtedly 
closely  associated  with  the  clan  organization  this  type  of  social 
organization  was  adopted  by  the  Winnebago  only  after  they  entered 
Wisconsin. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  but  that  the  Winnebago  and  the  closely 
related  tribes  like  the  Missouri,  Oto,  and  Iowa  represented  the  second 
of  the  Siouan  migrations  westward.  There  were  probably  four  of 
these  migrations,  as  G.  F.  Will  and  H.  J.  Spinden  claim,  succeeding 
each  other  as  follows: 

1.  Mandan,  Hidatsa,  Crow. 

2.  Iowa,  Oto,  Missouri,  Winnebago. 

49 


50  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

3.  Omaha,  Ponca,  Osage,  Kansa,  Quapaw. 

4.  Dakota,  Assiniboin.1 

The  linguistic  grouping  seems  to  bear  out  this  theory  with  the 
exception  of  the  Mandan,  who  are  far  more  closely  related  to  the 
Winnebago  and  their  kindred  than  to  the  Hidatsa.  It  seems  like- 
wise strange  that  the  Hidatsa  and  Crow,  on  the  one  hand,  and  the 
Dakota  and  Assiniboin,  on  the  other,  belonging  to  the  first  and  fourth 
'migrations,"  should  nevertheless  speak  dialects  that  are  closely 
related.  One  might  have  expected  that  Dakota  would  be  more  like 
Omaha  and  its  group. 

The  Winnebago  themselves  have  no  traditions  telling  of  their 
migrations  from  the  east.  The  majority  of  the  people  questioned 
asserted  that  the  tribe  had  originated  at  Green  Bay.  This  is,  how- 
ever, merely  the  origin  myth  of  the  Thunderbird  clan,  which  appa- 
rently has  displaced  other  origin  accounts.  While,  in  a  few  instances, 
other  places  were  mentioned,  the  localities  to  which  they  referred 
were  all  in  Wisconsin.  There  may  be  some  significance  in  the  origin 
legends  of  some  of  the  clans  which  claim  that  they  came  from  over 
the  sea  (the  lake),  but  it  is  utterly  impossible  to  determine  whether 
we  are  here  dealing  with  a  myth  pure  and  simple  or  with  a  vague 
memory  of  some  historical  happening. 

The  Winnebago  have,  however,  some  recollection  of  their  separa- 
tion from  their  kindred  Siouan  tribes.  The  accounts  collected  are 
short  and  fragmentary,  but  this  may  be  due  largely  to  the  fact  that 
no  systematic  attempt  was  made  by  the  author  to  obtain  detailed 
information  on  this  point.  The  following  fragmentary  accounts 
will  give  some  idea  of  the  value  of  these  recollections. 

a.  In  the  early  days  the  Winnebago  often  went  out  hunting  after 
they  had  finished  hoeing  their  corn  and  other  crops.  During  one  of 
these  travels  they  killed  an  elk  and  every  lodge  received  a  piece  of  the 
animal  except  one  lodge  in  which  a  man,  his  wife,  and  six  daughters 
with  their  husbands  lived.  Thinking  that  they  were  disliked  by  the 
rest  of  the  tribe,  these  remained  behind  the  next  day  when  the  others 
continued  their  journey.  They  have  never  been  heard  from  since. 
It  is  said  that  the  Quapaws  do  not  know  where  they  come  from  and  we 
think  that  they  may  be  descended  from  this  family. 

b.  When  the  Winnebago  lived  on  Lake  Michigan  the  tribe  was  so 
large  that  each  clan  had  its  own  chief  and  a  general  chief  presided 
over  the  whole  tribe.  After  a  while  it  became  so  hard  to  obtain  food 
that  a  band  of  Winnebago  went  south.  They  never  returned.  These 
are  now  in  the  Southwest.  Some  of  them  are  the  Missouri  and  some 
the  Iowa.  Band  after  band  kept  moving  away  until  only  one  was 
left — the  present  Winnebago. 

1  The  Mandans,  Papers  of  the  Peabody  Museum.    Vol.  m,  no.  4,  pp.  97-98,  Cambridge,  1906. 


ti.U'IN   I 


HISTORY 


51 


c.  Four  lodges  once  left  the  main  tribe  at  Prairie  du  Chien  or  Mac- 
Gregor,  Wisconsin,  and  never  returned.  This  happened  after  all  the 
other  tribes  had  leagued  together  against  the  Winnebago.  The  reason 
these  four  lodges  left  the  Winnebago  was  because  they  were  afraid 
that  war  might  break  out  again.     Some  people  believe  that  the  Oto 


Fig.  1.— SECTIONAL  MAP   OF  WISCONSIN,  GIVING  THE   LOCATIONS  OF  SOME  OF  THE 

OLD  VILLAGES. 

EXPLANATION  OF  MAP. 

[The  numbers  on  the  map  indicate  the  locations  of  some  of  the  Wisconson  Winnebago  villages.] 


1.  Doty  Island  village,  1634-1832. 

2.  Pesheu  s  village,  '1797-1*33. 

3.  Black  Wolf  s  village,  1828. 

4.  Smoker's  village,  1816. 

5.  Sarrochau's\illage,  1788. 

6.  Rush  Lake  village. 

7.  Yellow  Thunder  s  village,  1S28-32. 

8.  Sarcel's  village,  1827. 

9.  Old  Gray-headed  Decorah's  village,  1793. 

10.  Big  Fox's  village,  1832. 

11.  Watertown  village. 

12.  Iron  Walker  s  village. 

13.  Little  Priest  s  village,  1832. 

Whirling  Thunder  s  village,  1836. 

14.  Karraymaunee's  village,  1832. 


15.  Spotted  Arm  s  village. 

16.  Davton  village. 

17.  Wliite  Crow  s  village,  1832. 

18.  Choukeka's  village,  1816. 

White  Ox's  village,  1832. 

19.  Old  Gray-headed  Decorah  s  village,  1793-1836. 

20.  Yellow  Thunder's"forty." 

21.  Karravmaunee's  village,  1832-42. 

22.  Sarcel's  village,  1827. 

23.  Washington  Decorah's  village  1S32. 

24.  Buzzard  Decorah's  village,  1787. 

One-eyed  Decorah's  village,  1832. 

25.  Little  Decorah's  village,  1857. 

26.  Big  Hawk's  village,  Pike  Lake. 


are  this  lost  branch,  for  they  speak  the  same  language  with  but  few 
differences  and  use  many  old  words  that  the  Winnebago  employed 
long  ago  but  have  now  given  up. 

d.  Some  lodges  left  the  tribe  never  to  return.  Some  say  there 
were  four,  others  give  different  numbers  (of  long  lodges).  Some  say 
only  one  lodge.  My  uncle  us^d  to  say  that  there  were  four.  "I  think 
that  it  is  believed  that  they  went  to  the  east,"  he  said. 


52  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

The  other  tribes  of  the  second  "migration"  have  semihistorical 
legends  telling  of  their  separation  from  the  Winnebago.  Major 
Bean  told  Maximilian  that  an  Oto  chief  had  informed  him  that  origi- 
nally the  Winnebago  inhabited  the  lakes  and  that  they  subsequently 
migrated  to  the  Southwest,  presumably  in  pursuit  of  buffalo.  At 
Green  Bay  they  divided,  the  Winnebago  remaining  there  while  the 
others  continued  their  journey. 

Dorsey  was  informed  by  Iowa  chiefs  2  that  "their  people  and  the 
Oto,  Missouri,  Omaha,  and  Ponca  'once  formed  part  of  the  Winne- 
bago nation.'  According  to  the  traditions  of  these  tribes,  at  an  early 
period  they  came  with  the  Winnebago  from  their  priscan  home  north 
of  the  Great  Lakes,  but  that  the  Winnebago  stopped  on  the  shore  of 
a  great  lake  (Lake  Michigan),  attracted  by  the  abundant  fish." 

When  the  Winnebago  were  first  discovered  they  were  entirely  sur- 
rounded by  Central  Algonquian  tribes.  To  the  north  of  them  lay  the 
Menominee  on  the  shore  of  Green  Bay,  to  the  southeast  the  Miami, 
to  the  south  and  southwest  the  Sauk  and  Fox,  and  to  the  west 
the  Ojibwa.  The  nearest  of  their  kindred  were  in  southern  Iowa, 
western  Wisconsin,  and  eastern  Minnesota.  LTnder*  these  circum- 
stances it  is  not  strange  that  the  Winnebago  show  marked  evidence 
of  Central  Algonquian  influence  (fig.  1). 

At  what  time  the  Winnebago  were  isolated  from  their  Siouan  kin- 
dred it  is  impossible  to  state.  We  doubt,  however,  whether  this 
occurred  before  the  sixteenth  century.  The  Central  Algonquian 
tribes  in  this  region  are  clearly  intruders.  The  Ojibwa  came  from  the 
northeast  and  the  Fox,  Miami,  etc.,  from  the  south  and  the  south- 
east. It  seems  clear,  to  judge  from  the  number  of  effigy  mounds 
found  in  the  territory  occupied  by  the  Fox  and  Miami,  that  the  Win- 
nebago had  lived  there  for  a  considerable  length  of  time  before  they 
were  pushed  westward  and  northwestward  by  these  tribes.  When 
the  Menominee  arrived,  and  from  what  direction,  it  is  difficult  to 
determine.  On  purely  linguistic  grounds,  judging  from  the  close  re- 
lationship of  Menominee  to  Fox,  we  might  assume  that  they,  like  the 
Fox  and  the  Miami,  entered  Wisconsin  from  the  south.  In  that  case 
they  might  either  be  interpreted  as  representing  the  northernmost 
extension  of  the  same  migration  which  carried  the  Miami  northward 
along  the  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  or  as  representing  a  prior  invasion 
along  the  same  route.  If  the  latter  assumption  is  correct,  they  may 
have  arrived  in  Wisconsin  before  the  Winnebago.  One  point  seems 
to  confirm  the  thesis  of  their  priority,  namely,  that  they  were  never 
at  war  with  the  Winnebago,  and  it  hardly  seems  possible  that,  had 

»  Handbook  of  Amer.  Inds.,  Bur.  Amer.  Ethn.,  Bull.  30,  part  1,  p.  612,  Washington,  1907. 


Radin]  HISTORY  53 

they  forced  their  way  through  the  country  occupied  by  the  Winne- 
bago, war  would  not  have  occurred. 

The  Winnebago  call  themselves  Hotcarjgara,  which  has  been  vari- 
ously interpreted  as  "people  of  the  parent  speech"  by  James  Owen 
Dorsey  and  as  'big  fish  people"  by  other  observers.  Dorsey's  explana- 
tion, which  is  the  one  most  generally  accepted,  is  most  certainly  wrong, 
and  represents  an  interpretation  read  into  the  word  to  make  it  fit  the 
legends  which  claimed  that  the  dialect  was  the  most  archaic  of  all 
the  Siouan  languages.  It  is  true  that  ho  may  mean  "speech,"  but 
tcur/k  can  only  mean  one  thing,  and  that  is  "big,  real."  It  is  found 
with  a  number  of  animal  names,  such  as  ketcurjk,  "turtle,"  and 
cvriktcuyJc,  "wolf."  It  corresponds  strictly  to  the  Dakotan  tank, 
"large."  Ho  means  "fish"  in  Winnebago.  The  name  Winnebago, 
as  is  well  known,  is  of  Algonquian  origin. 

The  Winnebago  were  first  encountered  by  white  men  in  1634,  when 
Jean  Nicolet  visited  them  as  agent  for  Governor  Champlain.  Where 
he  encountered  them  is  not  definitely  known.  The  Winnebago  as  a 
rule  claim  that  it  was  at  Green  Bay.  Some  discussion  has  arisen  of 
late  years  on  this  question.  No  contemporary  narrative  of  the  event 
exists,  nor  have  the  Winnebago  any  clearly  marked  legend  that  might 
be  interpreted  as  referring  to  it. 

An  excellent  description  of  their  history  has  been  given  by  P.  V. 
Lawson  3  and  from  this  we  will  quote  at  some  length,  selecting  those 
periods  that  are  of  greatest  importance  in  the  history  of  the  tribe  and 
which  can  be  illustrated  by  semihistorical  legends  still  known  to  the 
Winnebago. 

Much  of  our  knowledge  of  the  early  history  of  the  Winnebago  is 
derived  from  Baqueville  de  la  Potherie's  Histoire  de  l'Amerique  Sep- 
tentrionale.  A  good  deal  of  his  information  was  obtained  from 
Nicholas  Perrot.  For  the  period  covering  the  years  1640-1660  we 
have  the  following  information:  * 

A  few  years  ago,  they  numbered  possibly  150  warriors.  These  savages  have  no 
mutual  fellow-feeling;  they  have  caused  their  own  ruin,  and  have  been  obliged  to 
divide  their  own  forces.  They  are  naturally  very  impatient  of  control,  and  very 
passionate;  a  little  matter  excites  them;  and  they  are  great  braggarts.  They  are, 
however,  well-built,  and  are  brave  soldiers,  who  do  not  know  what  danger  is;  and 
they  are  subtle  and  crafty  in  war.  Although  they  are  convinced  that  their  ancestors 
drew  upon  themselves  the  enmity  of  all  the  surrounding  Nations,  they  cannot  be 
humble.  Their  women  are  extremely  laborious;  they  are  neat  in  their  houses,  but 
very  disgusting  about  their  food. 

3  The  Winnebago  tribe,  in  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.  6,  no.  3,  Milwaukee,  1907. 
'  Quoted  in  Lawson's  paper,  p.  90. 


54  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

Perrot  also  gives  an  account  of  the  relentless  war  waged  against 
them: 

This  nation  was  a  populous  one,  very  redoubtable  and  spared  no  one;  they  violated 
all  the  laws  of  nature;  they  were  Sodomites,  and  even  had  intercourse  with  beasts. 
If  a  stranger  came  among  them,  he  was  cooked  in  their  kettles.  The  Malhominis 
(Menominees)  were  the  only  tribe  who  maintained  relations  with  them;  ihey  did  not 
dare  even  to  complain  of  their  tyranny. 

Lawson  goes  on  to  say: 

So  aggressive  were  the  Winnebago  that  although  their  only  arms  "were  stone 
hatchets  and  knives,"  they  declared  war  on  all  the  other  tribes.  Envoys  sent  to 
them  by  the  Ottawa  were  eaten,  which  cruel  deed  so  incensed  the  surrounding  tribes 
that  they  formed  an  alliance  and  sent  frequent  war  expeditions  against  the  common 
enemy,  and  greatly  harassed  them.  As  a  result  of  disagreements  among  themselves 
and  the  continued  troublesome  activities  of  the  allied  tribes,  civil  wars  broke  out 
among  the  Winnebago.  For  better  protection  against  the  tribes  they  were  finally 
forced  "to  unite  all  their  forces  in  one  village,  where  they  numbered  four  or  five 
thousand  men,"  but  an  epidemic  occurred  which  soon  reduced  their  number  to  1,500. 

"Despite  all  these  misfortunes,  they  sent  a  party  of  500  warriors  against  the  Outagamis 
(Fox),  who  dwelt  on  the  other  shore  of  the  lake;  but  all  those  men  perished,  while 
making  that  journey,  by  a  tempest  that  arose." 

We  suppose  that  this  disaster  occurred  on  Little  Lake  Butte  des  Morts,  as  it  has 
been  stated  that  the  Winnebago  resided  on  an  island,  which  we  suppose  was  Doty 
Island.  The  Winnebago  being  now  greatly  reduced  by  despair  and  famine,  the  other 
tribes  were  moved  to  pity  by  their  condition  and  ceased  to  make  war,  and  the  Illinois 
sent  500  men,  including  "50  of  the  most  prominent  persons  in  their  nation,"  to  carry 
to  them  a  supply  of  provisions.  These  the  Winnebago  received  "with  the  utmost 
gratitude;"  but  at  the  same  time  meditated  sacrificing  the  Illinois  to  the  shades  of 
their  dead.  A  large  cabin  was  erected  to  lodge  their  guests,  and  arrangements  made 
for  a  dance  in  their  honor.  While  the  Illinois  were  dancing  their  bowstrings  were 
cut,  and  the  Winnebago  "flung  themselves  upon  the  Illinois,  massacred  them,  not 
sparing  one  man,  and  made  a  general  feast  of  their  flesh." 

Reproaching  themselves  for  this  dastardly  deed,  and  fearing  the  vengeance  of  the 
allied  tribes  when  it  should  become  known  to  them,  the  Winnebago  "resolved  to 
abandon  the  place  which  they  were  occupying,"  and  "took  refuge  on  an  island, 
which  has  since  been  swept  away  by  ice  floes."  There  they  considered  themselves 
safe,  as  the  Illinois  did  not  use  canoes.  The  Illinois,  finding  that  their  people  did 
not  return,  investigated  the  place  and  found  only  their  bones.  In  order  to  allow 
a  proper  period  for  mourning  for  the  dead: 

"They  deferred  hostilities  until  the  second  year,  when  they  assembled  a  large  body 
of  men  from  all  Nations  who  were  interested  in  the  undertaking;  and  they  set  out  in 
the  winter  season,  in  order  not  to  fail  therein.  Having  reached  the  Island  over  the 
ice,  they  found  only  the  cabins  in  which  there  still  remained  some  fire,  the  Puans 
(Winnebago)  had  gone  to  their  Hunt  on  the  day  before,  and  were  traveling  in  a 
body,  that  they  might  not,  in  an  emergency,  be  surprised  by  the  Illinois." 

They  followed  the  hunters  in  the  dead  of  winter,  coming  up  to  them  on  the  sixth 
day  and  attacking  their  camp. 

"So  vigorous  was  their  attack  that  they  killed,  wounded,  or  made  prisoners  all  the 
Puans,  except  a  few  who  escaped,  and  who  reached  the  Malhouminis'  village,  but 
severely  wounded  by  arrows." 

He  [Perrot]  again  refers  to  these  traditional  events  as  those  of  "the  ancestors"  of 
the  tribe  as  he  knew  them,  and  which  we  judge  to  refer  to  ancestors  of  the  Winnebago 


Rapin]  HISTORY  55 

of  possibly  the  year  1660.  There  is  no  record  to  say  how  many  years  before,  though 
it  was  doubtless  several  score,  for  50  years  before  La  Potherie  published  his  history 
Allouez  had  told  the  same  story  of  the  destruction  of  the  Winnebago  by  the  Illinois: 

"About  30  years  ago  all  the  people  of  this  nation  were  killed  or  taken  captive  by  the 
Iliniouek  with  the  exception  of  a  single  man,  who  escaped,  shot  through  the  body 
with  an  arrow." 

This  would  place  the  event  in  about  the  year  1640. 

He  adds  that  when  the  captives  were  permitted  to  return  to  their  homes  this  one 
was  made  a  "Captain  of  his  Nation,"  as  having  never  been  a  slave.  Shea  commenting 
on  this  disastrous  defeat  of  the  Winnebago  says,  "If  this  strange  event  took  place  at 
all,  we  must  ascribe  it  to  an  earlier  date  than  1639  (1634),  when  visited  by  Nicolet, 
who  "found  them  prosperous,  and  we  can  hardly  suppose  a  tribe  almost  annihilated 
and  then  restored  to  its  former  numbers  in  30  years."  .  .  .  Nicolet,  it  will  be  remem- 
bered, was  sent  to  this  then  unknown  region  for  the  purpose  of  "making  peace" 
between  the  Winnebago  and  the  Hurons.  As  the  Winnebago  were  strong  enough 
to  command  that  attention  from  Governor  Champlain,  Doctor  Shea  is  quite  correct 
in  supposing  the  Winnebago  to  have  been  "a  prosperous  tribe"  in  1634.  The  events 
mentioned  in  the  foregoing  accounts  are  not  historical,  but  traditional,  for  assuredly 
they  did  not  take  place  after  the  coming  of  Nicolet,  as  he  was  followed  by  other  white 
men  in  such  short  periods  as  to  make  it  impossible  for  the  occurrence  of  these  stirring 
events  to  go  unrecorded  by  others. 

Charlevoix  visited  the  tribe  in  1720,  and  though  a  historian  of  note  in  old  Canada, 
records  the  occurrence  as  history,  though  we  have  shown  it  to  have  taken  place,  if  at 
all,  more  than  a  century  before  he  went  among  them.  He  possibly  got  the  story 
from  the  records  of  Allouez,  made  a  half  century  before,  though  it  may  have  been  a 
riverside  or  cabin  story  heard  by  him  at  the  time  of  his  visit  to  this  frontier  of  New 
France.     He  says: 

"The  Otchagras,  who  are  commonly  called  Puans,  formerly  lived  on  the  shores 
of  the  bay  .  .  .  but  they  were  attacked  by  the  Illinois,  who  slew  great  numbers  of 
them;  the  rest  took  refuge  on  the  river  of  the  Outagamis  (Fox  River),  which  empties 
into  the  end  of  the  bay.  They  settled  upon  the  shores  of  a  sort  of  lake  (Lake 
Winnebago)." 

Charlevoix  .  .  .  adds  another  disaster  not  mentioned  by  the  other  old  writers. 
In  this  same  narrative  he  records  that  "sometime  after"  the  Winnebago  had  settled 
on  Lake  Winnebago: 

"They  undertook  to  revenge  the  defeat  which  they  had  suffered  from  the  Illinois. 
Six  hundred  of  their  best  men  embarked  to  seek  their  enemy;  but  while  they 
were  crossing  Lake  Michigan  they  were  surprised  by  a  furious  gale,  which  caused 
them  all  to  perish."6 

The  Winnebago  still  tell  of  these  events  and  practically  in  the 
same  words  as  Perrot  obtained  them,  as  can  be  learned  from  the 
following  versions  obtained  in  1910. 

a.  When  the  Winnebago  first  originated,  they  were  holy  and 
clever.  They  were  equal  to  the  spirits.  In  those  days  there  lived  a 
Winnebago  who  could  fly  like  a  bird,  one  who  could  fly  as  far  as  four 
days'  journey  from  the  village.  There  was  another  Winnebago  who 
could  scent  anything  as  far  away  as  four  days'  journey  from  the 
village.  Then  there  was  one  man  who  could  talk  with  the  trees. 
They  told  him  many  things.  Finally  there  was  one  who  could  trans- 
form himself  into  a  buffalo.     On  account  of  these  four  men,  it  was 

6  Op.  cit.,  pp.  90-93. 


56  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

quite  impossible  for  an  enemy  to  approach  near  the  village  without 
the  knowledge  of  the  Winnebago,  for  he  who  could  scent  well  would 
scent  them,  he  who  could  fly  far  would  see  them,  and  he  who  could 
converse  with  trees  would  be  informed  of  their  approach.  The  one 
who  could  transform  himself  into  a  buffalo  always  bore  the  brunt  of 
the  fighting.  He  would  transform  himself  into  a  buffalo  whenever 
he  got  angry.  In  consequence  the  Winnebago  were  feared  by  all. 
They  could  do  what  they  pleased  with  the  other  tribes.  If  the  other 
tribes  did  not  make  war  on  them,  they  would  make  war  on  the  other 
tribes. 

One  day  he  who  could  transform  himself  into  a  buffalo  had  the 
sensation  which  generally  preceded  a  battle.  So  he  told  the  other 
three.  Then  the  one  who  could  fly  went  out  to  make  a  reconnois- 
sance  of  the  country  around  them,  but  returned  without  having  seen 
anything;  then  the  one  who  could  scent  well,  scented  all  around,  but 
likewise  could  find  nothing;  then  the  tree-converser  asked  the  trees 
and  they  also  told  him  that  they  knew  of  nothing.  In  spite  of  it  all, 
however,  the  buffalo-man  said  that  he  still  had  the  premonition  of 
something  happening.  Then  he  who  could  fly  again  went  out,  this 
time  going  to  a  distance  four  days'  journey  from  the  village,  but  he 
saw  nothing.  Each  time  that  he  went  out,  however,  he  noticed  a 
pile  of  rocks  in  a  hollow  near  their  village.  When  he  returned  he 
said  to  the  people,  "Over  there,  there  is  a  pile  of  rocks  which  I  never 
noticed  before.  I  wonder  what  it  can  beV  Then  the  buffalo- 
man  said  again,  ' '  I  really  feel  that  I  am  going  to  fight.  Look  out  for 
yourselves  therefore."  However,  they  told  him  that  he  was  worry- 
ing himself  unnecessarily,  that  he  ought  to  go  to  sleep. 

However,  the  feuffalo-man  stayed  awake  all  that  night,  and  just  as 
he  had  anticipated,  the  whole  village  was  surrounded  by  enemies  in 
the  morning.  The  other  three  men  were  at  once  awakened  and  the 
one  who  could  fly  made  a  rush  at  the  enemy,  but  was  killed.  Then 
the  one  who  could  scent  well  made  a  rush  at  the  enemy,  but  he,  too, 
was  killed.  Up  to  this  time  the  latter  had  been  absolutely  invulnerable. 
Then  the  one  who  could  converse  with  trees  made  a  rush,  but  he,  too, 
was  killed.  Thus  all  three  were  killed.  Then  the  people  said  to 
Buffalo-man,  whose  real  name  was  Long- Wing,  "O  Long- Wing,  your 
people  are  being  destroyed!  Do  you  try  and  accomplish  something." 
Then  Long- Wing  answered,  "Ho!"  and,  making  a  rush  for  the  enemy, 
killed  four  of  them,  the  holiest  of  their  warriors.  Then  the  enemy 
gave  the  signal  for  stopping  the  battle,  which  is  uGu."  This  signal 
is  held  to  be  sacred  both  among  the  Winnebago  and  other  tribes. 
There  the  battle  ended. 

The  Winnebago  felt  terrible  about  the  loss  of  their  three  warriors. 
The  rocks  that  the  one  who  could  fly  had  seen  in  the  hollow  were 
the  enemy.     The  name  of  the  one  who  could  fly  well  was  Short- Wing ; 


Radin]  HISTORY  57 

that  of  the  keen  scenter  was  White-Dog:  and  that  of  the  tree  con- 
verser  was  Buffalo. 

Shortly  after  this  battle  a  band  of  visitors  from  another  tribe  came 
over  to  Long-Wing's  lodge,  which  had  been  pointed  out  to  them  as 
the  lodge  of  the  chief.  The  visitors  entered  it.  In  the  meantime 
the  Winnebago  held  a  hurried  council  and  decided  to  kill  these 
visitors  to  avenge  the  death  of  their  three  warriors,  whose  loss  they 
were  still  lamenting.  It  was  decided  to  scald  the  visitors  to  death 
with  hot  water.  The  roofs  of  the  lodges,  which  were  gable-lodges, 
could  easily  be  opened. 

When  everything  was  in  readiness  they  called  their  chief  out  and 
closed  the  entrances  firmly.  The  chief,  however,  begged  them  not 
to  kill  the  visitors  in  his  lodge  (for  it  was  holy).  The  Winnebago, 
however,  paid  no  attention  to  him,  and  as  they  had  already  taken 
the  weapons  from  the  strangers,  they  poured  hot  water  through  the 
roof  upon  their  heads.  They  killed  all  except  two,  who  succeeded 
in  making  their  escape  through  the  roof.  One  of  these  changed  him- 
self into  a  turkey  and  flew  away  and  the  other  got  to  the  roof  and 
kept  jumping  from  one  roof  to  the  other  until  he  came  to  the  end  of 
the  village,  where  he  succeeded  in  making  his  escape.  However,  the 
Winnebago  noticed  his  shell  neck  ornament  which  had  twisted 
around  to  the  back  of  his  neck  and  one  of  them  threw  a  stone  hammer 
at  him  and  killed  him.     In  reality,  therefore,  only  one  man  escaped. 

After  they  had  brought  the  last  body  back  to  the  village  the  chief 
told  them  that  they  had  not  acted  rightly,  for  they  had  killed  people 
in  his  (the  chief's)  lodge,  and  that  from  then  on  the  lodge  was  to 
remain  as  a  warrior's  lodge. 

That  same  night  an  owl  came  to  the  top  of  the  lodge  and  hooted, 
saying,  "The  Winnebago  will  have  bad  luck.''  Then  the  Winne- 
bago asked,  ''What  can  be  the  matter  with  us?"  The  chief  inter- 
preted the  owl's  meaning  and  told  them  that  it  meant  that  from 
that  time  on  the  Winnebago  would  lose  their  power. 

Shortly  after  all  these  things  happened  the  Winnebago  were 
attacked  by  a  disease  that  turned  their  bodies  yellow  and  many  died 
of  this  sickness. 

b.  When  the  Winnebago  were  in  trouble  because  all  the  other 
tribes  had  leagued  against  them,  they  were  living  at  a  place  near 
Red  Banks.  The  enemy  had  shut  off  all  the  water  and  the  only 
way  they  could  get  any  was  to  tie  their  pack  straps  to  their  pails 
and  let  down  these  pails  in  a  deep  canyon.  However,  this  was  also 
discovered  after  a  while  and  the  enemy  cut  the  pack  straps. 

So  terrible  were  their  straits  that  they  finally  spread  their  blankets 
on  the  ground  and  offered  tobacco  to  their  medicine  men  and  asked 
186S23°— 22 5 


58  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ass.  37 

them  to  make  it  rain.  Then,  after  the  rain  had  fallen,  they  wrung  out 
their  blankets  and  drank  the  water. 

All  this  time  the  men  of  the  tribe  were  being  killed  off.  After  a 
while  they  began  to  kill  the  male  children  too.  Whenever  they 
saw  a  child  they  raised  up  its  dress  and  if  it  was  a  male  child,  they 
killed  it.  However,  there  was  a  young  mother  who  had  a  boy,  and 
fearing  that  if  the  enemy  discovered  him  they  would  kill  him,  she 
tied  a  string  to  the  end  of  the  child's  penis  and  pulled  the  string  back 
under  its  legs  so  that  the  child  was  given  the  appearance  of  a  girl. 
From  this  woman  and  her  child  all  the  pure  blood  Winnebago  living 
to-day  are  descended. 

The  war  against  the  Winnebago  was  ended  by  a  young  Winnebago 
chief  painting  himself  blue  and  surrendering  himself  to  the  other 
tribes. 

The  most  important  events  of  Winnebago  history  during  the 
eighteenth  century  were  the  various  alliances  into  which  they  were 
drawn  with  and  against  the  Fox  Indians  in  the  wars  that  the  French 
waged  against  this  brave  tribe.  The  Winnebago  at  first  allied  them- 
selves with  the  Fox,  but  afterwards  joined  the  French.  This  alliance 
was  destined  to  bring  upon  them  a  great  disaster.  Lawson  describes 
this  period  in  their  history  as  follows.7 

In  pursuance  of  their  policy  to  combine  all  the  tribes  against  the  Fox,  the  French 
in  some  manner  won  over  the  Winnebago,  their  former  friends  and  allies.  Thus  we 
learn  that  in  the  autumn  of  1729  word  was  brought  to  Quebec  of  an  attack  by  the  Win- 
nebago, Ottawa,  and  Menominee  on  a  Fox  village,  in  which  there  were  killed  100  Fox 
warriors  and  70  women  and  children.  Among  the  killed  of  the  assaulting  party  were 
four  Winnebago.  .  .  .  Another  account  gives  this  assault  as  on  a  party  of  Fox 
returning  from  a  buffalo  hunt,  and  as  made  by  Ottawa,  Chippewa,  Menominee,  and 
Winnebago.  The  Fox  village  contained  80  men,  all  of  whom  were  killed  or  burned 
except  three.  The  allied  Indians  burned  the  cabins  and  also  killed  300  women  and 
children.  This  probably  occurred  in  the  winter  of  1729,  as  the  reports  are  of  the  date 
of  May  fi,  1730. 

The  Winnebago  having  broken  with  their  neighbors  and  friends,  the  Fox,  by  this 
treacherous  and  unprovoked  slaughter,  were  now  in  terror  for  the  consequences  of 
their  miserable  acts.  Further  attempts  against  the  Fox  tribes  having  been  projected 
from  Quebec  by  the  fall  of  1729,  Sieur  Captain  Marin  appeared  at  the  old  French  fort  at 
La  Baye  (Green  Bay),  and  repaired  its  fallen  roofs.  He  had  with  him  ten  Frenchmen. 
On  September  10th  the  Winnebago  returned  from  their  hunt  and  went  to  Marin  to 
assure  him  that  they  still  remained  faithful  to  the  French,  at  the  same  time  presenting 
him  with  three  slaves.  They  were  rewarded  with  gifts  of  powder,  bullets,  hatchets, 
guns,  and  knives.  Having  ascertained  that  the  Fox  were  not  in  their  own  country, 
the  Winnebago  took  their  families  and  camped  on  Dendo  Island  in  the  Fox  River,  ad- 
joining their  former  location  on  Doty  Island.  Very  soon  thereafter  the  Fox  and  Sauk 
returned  and  surprised  and  killed  some  Winnebago  fishermen.  Then  began  a  long 
siege  of  the  Winnebago  through  the  erection  by  the  Fox  on  the  Doty  Island  waterside 
of  two  forts  to  command  the  water  in  all  directions. 

In  order  to  compensate  the  Fox  for  the  loss  of  two  of  their  number  through  treachery, 
and  procure  a  cessation  of  hostilities,  the  Winnebago  decapitated  two  Menominee 

7  Op.  cit.,  pp.  95-97. 


eadin]  HISTORY  59 

who  were  with  them,  and  delivered  to  them  two  others.  But  the  Fox  refused  to  be 
satisfied  unless  they  also  delivered  to  them  four  of  their  own  number.  This  proposal 
the  Winnebago  considered  an  insult,  and  the  siege  was  resumed.  After  the  fighting 
had  continued  for  about  six  weeks,  ( 'apt.  Marin  with  five  Frenchmen  and  thirty-four 
Menominee,  came  to  the  assistance  of  the  besieged.  When  the  treachery  of  the 
Winnebago  in  giving  up  several  of  their  comrades  to  the  Fox  became  known  to  the 
Menominee  it  required  all  Marin's  powers  of  persuasion  to  prevent  their  deserting  from 
his  small  command  and  leaving  the  besieged  to  their  fate.  After  four  days  of  fight- 
ing with  the  relief  party  under  Marin  it  was  discovered  that  the  Fox  had  raised  the  siege 
by  decamping  in  the  night.  Thus  were  the  Winnebago,  who  had  in  the  meantime 
been  reduced  by  famine  to  the  eating  of  boiled  bear  skins,  delivered  from  the 
enemy.  Marin's  force  thereupon  retired,  the  Winnebago  accompanying  him  to  Green 
Bay,  "where  they  established  themselves  in  a  fort." 

For  a  more  detailed  account  of  the  same  events  see  Wisconsin 
Historical  Collections,  Vol.  XVII,  88-100.  The  Winnebago  have 
preserved  a  clear  recollection  of  these  stirring  events  in  the  semi- 
historical  tale  known  as  Tcap'o'sgaga. 

THE    TALE    OF    TCAP'o'SGAGA8 

In  the  early  days  of  their  existence  the  Winnebago  were  a  success- 
ful people.  They  all  fasted  and  were  blessed  by  the  spirits.  It  is 
for  that  reason  that  they  were  powerful  and  were  called  Hota-qgara. 

At  one  time  a  Fox  Indian,  whose  nation  was  about  to  be  destroyed 
by  its  enemies,  came  to  these  much-feared  Winnebago  and  said, 
"Brothers,  I  have  come  to  you  for  aid." 

The  Winnebago  lived  on  one  side  of  the  lake9  and  the  Fox  on  the 
other  and  (because  of  the  appeal)  the  former  made  friends  of  the 
latter,  it  is  said,  and  the  chiefs  presented  the  pipe  to  one  another. 
When  chiefs  exchange  pipes  with  one  another  a  very  sacred  bond  is 
established.  Thus  many  Winnebago  and  Foxes  became  friends, 
and  Winnebago  men  married  Fox  women  and  Fox  men  married 
Winnebago  women. 

There  was  once  a  very  famous  warrior  among  the  Winnebago  whose 
crops  were  molested  by  the  Foxes.  Tcap'o'sgaga's  wife10  thereupon 
said  to  him,  "Why  don't  you  take  them  (the  marauders)  to  task?" 
Then  Tcap'o'sgaga  went  to  the  Foxes  and  said,  ''Boys,  all  the  water- 
melons are  yours  when  they  are  ripe,  if  you  desire  to  eat  them. "  "All 
right,"  they  answered. 

On  the  morning  after  the  second  night  Tcap'o'sgaga's  wife  woke 
up  very  early  and  went  out  to  inspect  the  crops.  Again  they  had 
been  disturbed,  so  she  immediately  went  back  exclaiming,  "How 
terrible:  The  largest  and  best  of  Tcap'o'sgaga's  crops  have  been 

«  This  has  also  been  published  by  me  with  the  accompanying  Winnebago  text  in  the  Proceedings  of  the 
Wisconsin  Historical  Society,  1914,  pp.  192-207,  Madison,  1915. 
9  Probably  at  the  junction  of  the  Fox  River  with  Lake  Winnebago, 
i"  This  name  means  White-throat. 


60  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  Ieth.  ann.  37 

damaged.  Indeed,  you  {Tcap'o'sgaga)  should  have  forbidden 
.them*."     Then  Tcap'o'sgaga  went  over  and  forbad  them. 

Early  in  the  morning  after  the  third  night  the  old  woman  again 
woke  up  and  went  to  inspect  the  crops.  Again  they  had  damaged 
almost  everything.  "The  nicest  of  Tcap'o'sgaga's  crops  they  have 
destroyed.  He  should  have  forbidden  them.  Why  indeed  did  you 
not  forbid  it?  They  have  utterly  destroyed  your  crops."  Then 
Tcap'o'sgaga  got  up  and  said,'T  will  go  and  forbid  them."  So  he 
went  over  to  the  Foxes  and  said,  'Leave  my  crops  alone,  I  told  you. 
Instead  of  that  you  have  destroyed  them.  If  again  to-night  you 
dare  do  this,  as  I  am  a  man  who  thinks  (of  revenge) ,  beware.  Dare 
do  it  again  (and  take  the  consequences),"  he  said. 

One  of  the  wicked  ones  among  the  Foxes  who  was  doing  this  said, 
"O  pshaw:  He  acts  as  though  he  were  the  only  man  (i.  e.,  great 
warrior)  in  creation." 

The  next  morning  Tcap'o'sgaga  himself  got  up  early  and  went  to 
inspect  his  crops,  and  indeed  they  had  been  utterly  destroyed. 
What  had  been  left  (from  previous  depredations)  had  now  been 
utterly  ruined,  and  even  the  vines  had  been  torn  up.  Tcap'o'sgaga 
felt  grieved  and  said,  "Have  my  attendants  go  and  call  my  war- 
bundle  bearer.""  They  went  and  called  him  and  when  he  (and  others) 
had  arrived  (they  asked),  "What  are  we  to  do?"  Tcap'o'sgaga 
said,  "Put  on  the  food."  Then  they  prepared  the  food.12  When 
the  food  had  been  cooked  they  went  to  invite  as  the  feasters  the 
most  important  (of  the  people).  When  the  feasters  finished,  then 
he  said,  "I  am  going  on  the  warpath.  At  the  end  of  the  path  I  see 
my  enemy.  I  am  going  to  have  the  pleasure  of  killing  the  ten  men 
that  my  grandfathers  (the  spirits),  who  are  in  control  of  war,  ob- 
tained for  me.     For  ten  chiefs  I  am  going. " 

Near  the  door  he  indicated  what  would  be  the  first  stopping  place. 
Then  he  placed  the  war-bundle  across  the  entrance  and  jumped  over 
it.13  Then  he  put  the  war-bundle  on  his  back  and  walked  toward 
his  boat,  his  attendants  accompanying  him.  They  had  hardly 
pushed  off  when  they  were  greeted  by  a  "Here!  here!"  Then  they 
saw  a  very  long  boat  filled  with  chiefs,  all  of  whom  were  dressed  in 
their  best  finery;  their  faces  painted  blue  and  medals  around  their 
'necks.14  They  (the  Winnebago)  permitted  the  boat  to  pass  and  then 
when  it  was  exactly  alongside  of  them,  they  shot  the  occupants  and 
tipped  the  boat  over.  Soon  after,  a  strong  wind  arose  and  all  the 
people  in  the  village  started  out  to  give  chase  (to  the  enemy).15 

11  The  youths  who  carry  the  war-bundle  on  the  warpath.    They  are  generally  the  nephews  of  the  war 
leaders. 

12  For  the  war-bundle  or  winter  feast  which  is  always  given  before  a  war  party  starts. 
u  It  was  always  customary  for  the  leader  to  do  this. 

11  The  boat  contained  the  Fox  chiefs  who  had  come  to  make  reparation  for  the  damage  inflicted  upon 
Tcap'o'sgaga's  crops. 
'5 1,  e.,  started  on  a  tribal  warpath. 


Radin]  HISTORY  61 

The  Foxes  in  their  village  said,  "Say,  I  believe  the  chiefs  have 
been  killed.  This  is  a  time  of  war.  Tcap'o'sgaga  has  been  angered. 
When  Tcap'o'sgaga  gets  very  angry  he  generally  does  what  he 
threatens."  Then  the  bad  Foxes  said,  "Perhaps  they  are  eating  the 
objects  we  donated".16 

"The  Foxes  will  not  be  coming  back  for  some  time"  (the  Winne- 
bago said).  (The  Foxes)  at  the  same  time  had  gathered  together 
and  discussed  the  fate  of  the  chiefs  who  had  gone  to  give  themselves 
up  (to  the  Winnebago)  and  had  never  returned.  "Very  likely  they 
are  not  alive  any  more, "  they  said. 

Tcap'o'sgaga  returned  to  the  Winnebago  village  after  he  killed 
(the  chiefs)  and  then  started  for  the  smaller  of  the  two  villages  in 
which  the  Foxes  lived.  It  was  at  the  smaller  village  that  the  lake 
was  narrowest.     Toward  this  one  he  was  going,  he  said. 

He  had  again  planned  a  war-party.  All  those  within  the  village 
who  were  likely  to  show  any  skill  in  killing  men  prepared  themselves 
for  (attacking)  the  smaller  village.  They  started  at  dawn,  and  they 
reached  the  smaller  village  at  night  and  ferried  themselves  across. 
By  dawn  all  had  crossed  and  the  village  was  surrounded.  As  soon 
as  it  was  broad  daylight  they  gave  the  war-whoop  in  four  different 
places.  Then  they  rushed  on  to  the  small  village  and  destroyed  it 
completely.     Then  they  burned  up  the  houses  and  went  home. 

When  they  got  home  everyone  was  happy.  They  danced  the 
victory  dance  and  at  night  they  had  the  Hok'ixe're  dance.  So 
happy  were  the  Winnebago. 

Although  they  thought  they  had  killed  all  in  the  smaller  village, 
one  young  girl  who  was  lying  on  top  of  a  small  cliff,  near  where  they 
crossed,  fasting,  had  not  been  killed.  Now  the  Foxes  were  living 
also  in  a  large  village  right  across  the  lake  from  the  Winnebago.  To 
this  place  the  young  woman  who  had  not  been  killed  went,  and  when 
she  got  to  the  big  Fox  village  she  told  them  the  news,  namely,  "The 
Winnebago  have  completely  destroyed  us,  I  believe.  Some  of  them 
(the  enemy)  I  partially  recognized.  Go  and  see,  however,  whether 
they  were  Winnebago,  for  (if  it  was  they)  the  lodges  will  be  found 
burned  to  the  ground,  that  being  their  custom  when  they  go  on  a 
war-path." 

Then  the  older  Foxes  went  and  when  they  returned,  spies  an- 
nounced, "Yes,  they  were  Winnebago,  for  the  lodges  have  been 
burned  down.  It  is  true  that  the  chiefs  who  had  gone  to  make 
peace  have  been  killed. "  Then  the  Foxes  went  into  mourning  for 
them.  "There  are  many  of  the  Winnebago  and  we  will  not  be  able 
to  fight  them,"  said  the  Foxes.  Indeed  the  Foxes  were  afraid. 
Although  a  Fox  disliked  a  Winnebago  not  one  could  he  kill. 

'« I.  e.,  the  chiefs  who  went  to  make  peace. 


62  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

All  the  Foxes  went  into  mourning. 

Ten  Winnebago  youths  proud  of  their  tattoos  had  been  out  (in 
the  woods)  before  these  troubles  began.  As  they  were  returning 
they  said  to  the  one  who  was  their  leader,  "Let  us  go  around  the 
large  village  and  court  women. "  "Only  if  you  go  around  the  small 
village  will  you  escape  unharmed, "  said  the  leader.  "We  will  go 
by  the  large  village  even  if  all  of  us  are  killed  by  the  spirits," 
they  said.  "Well,  let  us  go  by  way  of  the  small  village,"  the  war 
leader  said  to  them.  "If  you  are  afraid,  as  you  say,  you  may  go 
alone  by  way  of  the  smaller  village ;  we,  however,  will  go  by  the  way 
of  the  large  village."  The  leader,  however,  refused  and  also  went 
by  way  of  the  large  village.  That  they  would  die,  he  knew  very 
well,  but  nevertheless  he  accompanied  them  to  the  edge  of  the  big 
village.     When  they  got  there  (they  said),  "Let  us  paint  ourselves." 

Then  they  painted  themselves,  and  as  they  were  painting  them- 
selves an  old  man  in  deep  mourning  appeared  and  said,  "Are  you 
returning  from  your  travels  ?  Stay  with  us,  for  our  men  are  giving 
a  feast.     I  will  tell  them  to  come  after  you. " 

Then  he  went  away  and  soon  a  young  man  came  (and  said) ,  ' '  You 
are  invited.  Come  right  along."  "Men,  you  have  seen  that  all 
are  in  mourning.  Once  more,  let  me  tell  you  something.  In  the 
feast  in  which  you  are  now  to  take  part,  do  not  lend  your  knives  to 
anyone.  Hold  your  knife  ready,"  he  told  them.  "All  right,"  said 
they. 

Then  they  entered  the  lodge  and  when  all  were  in  they  (the  Foxes) 
made  room  for  them  and  they  sat  down.  Then  the  host  arose  and 
spoke  and  pointed  to  a  place  that  was  nearest  him,  for  the  leader. 
Then  toward  another  place  he  pointed  for  the  second  and  thus  each 
one  (Winnebago)  received  a  seat.  With  each  Winnebago  were  placed 
several  Foxes,  making  eight  in  all. 

Then  the  host  spoke,  "As  I  rise,  I  will  blow  upon  my  flute  and 
have  a  song  started.  I  am  anxious  to  have  them  start  a  song,"  he 
said.  Then  he  rose  and  blew  his  flute  and  as  soon  as  the  song  was 
started  the  Winnebago  were  seized.  It  was  a  long  time  before  they 
could  seize  the  war  leader,  but  the  others  had  lent  their  knives  and 
were  consequently  seized  easily.  The  war  leader  killed  many,  but 
finally  his  knife  broke  and  he  was  seized.  Then  they  bound  him 
and  prepared  the  torture.  Ten  posts  they  stuck  in  the  ground. 
Then  the  war  leader  said,  "I  told  you  of  this,  but  you  doubted  me. 
Here  we  are  going  to  die. " 

Then  the  youths  came  after  them  and  they  began  torturing  them. 
They  applied  firebrands  to  them.  They  burnt  them  in  those  places 
where  they  would  suffer  most.  Then  the  war  leader  said,  "Well, 
my  boys,  we  are  now  courting  women." 

Thus  they  burned  them  to  death  and  destroyed  them  utterly. 


KADIX] 


HISTORY  63 


The  Foxes  now  offered  tobacco  to  many  different  tribes,  giving 
them  beautifully  decorated  pipes.  They  desired  to  annihilate  the 
Winnebago.  All  the  different  peoples  liked  this  because  they  hated 
the  Winnebago.  They  made  their  plans  carefully,  but  even  then 
they  could  not  defeat  (the  Winnebago)  in  battle.  They  (the  Winne- 
bago) always  kept  on  moving  back  as  the  others  tried  to  overcome 
them.  The  Winnebago  were  driven  into  the  water.  They  crossed 
to  an  island,  taking  with  them  the  women  and  children.  Here  they 
lived  in  lodges  and  ate  the  crops  as  they  stayed  there.  All  summer 
they  were  besieged  on  this  island,  as  the  enemy  hoped  to  destroy 
them. 

One  night  a  man  wearing  a  black  skin  robe  inside  out,  said,  "This 
they  are  going  to  do  to  you,  we  heard.  So  far  only  the  fleetest 
have  come.  Soon  the  slower  ones  will  come,  peeling  basswood  bark 
as  they  go  along  with  which  to  bind  the  people.  If  some  are  still 
alive  we  can  then  take  them  home  bound." 

Tcap'o'sgaga  felt  sad  and  said,  "He  will  die,  the  one  who  said 
that."  Then  he  shot  at  him  and  tumbled  him  down.  The  one 
who  had  said  this  was  sitting  on  top  of  a  tree. 

One  day  (the  Foxes)  said,  "Turn  over  to  us  those  Menominee 
who  have  married  into  your  tribe.  We  are  longing  for  some  Me- 
nominee soup.  If  you  give  these  (men)  to  us  we  will  let  up  on  you." 
The  two  Menominee  among  the  Winnebago  were  great  warriors 
and  it  was  for  them  that  (the  Foxes)  were  asking.  These  Menominee 
talked  to  one  another  and  the  one  who  spoke  first  said,  "It  is  a  bard 
thing  to  be  a  son-in-law  in  a  tribe  not  your  own,  my  father  used  to 
say  to  me.  Whenever  the  members  of  the  tribe  are  in  difficulties 
and  they  wish  to  save  themselves,  they  turn  (their  attention  to  the 
strangers  among  them)."  "Thus  it  is"  (said  the  other),  "but  they 
may  sacrifice  me."  "My  friend,  I  feel  the  same  way  about  it  just 
as  my  father  told  me.  I  spoke  to  you  because  I  thought  that  you 
might  dread  it." 

Then  the  Winnebago  gave  the  Menominee  away,  but  the  Foxes 
did  not  let  up  on  them. 

After  a  while  the  Menominee  came  to  the  aid  of  the  Winnebago, 
but  the  Foxes  said,  "Wait  a  little;  let  us  speak  to  you  first."  The 
Menominee  listened  and  the  Foxes  told  them,  "The  Winnebago  are 
not  to  be  pitied.  There  are  two  Menominee  who  had  married 
among  them  and  they  handed  them  over  to  us.  In  this  way  we 
again  drank  Menominee  soup.  For  this  reason  am  I  speaking  to  you. 
You  may  help  them  now,  if  you  wish  to,  now  that  I  have  told  you." 

The  Menominee  had  come  to  help  the  Winnebago,  but  now  that 
the  two  Menominee  had  been  handed  over  to  the  Foxes  they  turned 
back. 


64  THE    WINNEBAGO    TEIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

Tcap'o'sgaga  had  been  offered  tobacco.  "Well,"  he  said,  "I  will 
try  it."  At  night  he  started  out  and  jumped  into  the  water.  Across 
there  were  enemies,  so  he  turned  himself  into  a  goose.  In  the  middle 
of  the  lake,  a  lone  goose  suddenly  squawked.  Those  across  shouted, 
"Tcap'o'sgaga  is  over  there."  "Yes,"  was  the  answer.  Then  he 
went  around  the  shallow  water  and  crossed  over,  and  as  he  sat  there 
bathing  some  one  went  by.  They  said  to  him,  "Are  you  cooling 
yourself  off  with  water?"     "Yes,"  he  answered. 

Then  he  got  himself  ready  and  went  to  the  French  and  when  he 
arrived  among  them  he  said,  "Father,  different  tribes  banded 
together  are  trying  to  destroy  us."  "My  child,  go  home,  for  I  will 
come  to-morrow." 

When  Tcap'o'sgaga  returned  he  went  around  the  other  tribes. 
He  went  across  the  island.  When  he  was  home  he  said  to  the 
Winnebago,  "Our  father  is  going  to  come."  All  therefore  expected 
that  their  father  would  come.  Soon  after  the  French  ship  came  in 
sight.  The  other  tribes  went  toward  the  boat  as  it  came  in  sight. 
The  Winnebago  saw  them  go  toward  it.  The  Winnebago  were 
frightened  as  they  saw  the  other  people  go  toward  the  boat,  thinking 
that  the  French  might  take  part  against  them. 

Then  the  other  tribes  spoke  to  the  French.  "Father,  you  know 
very  well  that  the  Winnebago  are  bad  people.  Just  as  a  big  dog 
jumps  on  to  a  small  dog  and  would  like  to  kill  it,  so  the  Winnebago 
used  to  do  to  us.  Let  us  therefore  reduce  them  to  ashes."  The 
Frenchman  agreed  with  them  and  said,  "You  have  spoken  the  truth 
and  I  will  help  you.  I  will  let  you  go  on  (if  you  wish)  but  the  result 
will  be  simply  that  you  will  reduce  everything  to  ashes.  This  is 
what  will  happen  if  you  continue.  You  know  that  the  Winnebago 
gets  very  resourceful  when  he  starves.  That  is  his  nature  and 
therefore  I  will  take  him  home  with  me  and  fatten  him  up  for  you. 
But  you  must  do  what  I  now  tell  you.  From  whatever  different 
places  you  come,  go  back  to  them.  If  you  don't  do  it,  as  long  as  I 
live,  never  will  I  sell  any  ammunition  to  you.  If  you  do  not  let  up 
on  the  Winnebago,  I  will  give  them  ammunition  and  lend  them  my 
own  men."     "All  right,"  said  they. 

Then  they  scattered  and  the  women  and  children  were  taken  into 
the  boat.  The  men  who  could  walk  fast,  walked.  As  soon  as  he 
had  brought  them  back  near  the  fort  he  gave  them  food  with  which 
to  sustain  themselves.  When  they  were  strong  enough  he  bade 
them  flee  and  gave  them  good  guns  and  as  much  food  as  they  could 
carry  in  their  boats.  Coffee,  sugar,  bread,  and  all  kinds  of  food 
he  provided  for  them  and  he  said,  "Children,  as  you're  about  to  flee 
(remember  this) .  Never  hunt  fish  with  a  spear.  You  might  thus  let 
a  fish  escape  and  if  it  dies  later  on  and  (the  enemy)  hook  a  dead  fish 
and  inspect  it,  they  will  say,  'This  fish  was  speared  and  got  away 


Radin]  HISTORY  65 

and  died  and  therefore  they  (the  Winnebago)  have  passed  here.' 
Likewise,  if  you  build  a  fire,  always  cover  up  the  embers,  for  if  you 
should  throw  away  any  into  the  water  (you  would  be  detected)." 

Then  they  went  away  in  boats  and  returned  to  the  lake.  When 
they  came  to  the  narrow  place  where  the  main  body  of  water  lies 
there  they  went  ahead  along  the  left  branch.     Now  this  is  all  of  this. 

After  a  while  the  tribes  came  to  see  the  Frenchman,  for  it  was 
about  the  time  fixed,  and  they  said,  "How  have  you  been  getting 
along?"  Then  he  said,  "Children,  you  know  what  kind  of  people 
the  Winnebago  are.  We  watched  them  very  closely,  but  they  got 
away,  in  what  direction  I  do  not  even  know.  In  the  morning  they 
were  gone.  I  believe  they  went  downstream,  although  I  haven't 
even  hunted  for  them  upstream." 

Well,  all  these  different  tribes  looked  for  the  Winnebago,  for  they 
wished  to  trail  them  and  kill  them.  Now,  although  the  Frenchman 
had  expressly  forbidden  them,  sure  enough  (the  Foxes)  found  a  fish 
that  had  been  speared.  "They've  come  past  here,"  they  said. 
However,  when  they  came  to  the  fork  of  the  stream  they  didn't 
know  which  way  (the  Winnebago)  had  gone,  but  they  noticed 
embers  in  the  water.  "They've  gone  by  here."  As  it  was  impossible 
to  go  to  the  end  of  the  stream  in  boats,  all  the  half-breed  Foxes  got 
out  (and  walked) .  Soon  they  saw  the  oval  lodges.  ' '  There  they  are," 
they  said.  For  that  reason  the  Foxes  carefully  looked  them  over 
and  watched  them.  They  inquired  about  them  and  found  out 
that  they  had  passed  by. 

The  road  (trail)  was  visible,  so  they  chased  them.  Soon  a  cold 
autumn  spell  overtook  them  and  they  (the  enemy)  gave  up  the 
chase  and  returned  home. 

We  will  not  follow  the  course  of  Winnebago  history  through  all 
its  vicissitudes  from  their  defeat  by  the  Foxes  to  the  British  and 
American  occupancy,  but  only  indicate  important  facts.  An  im- 
portant local  event  was  the  coming  of  the  Frenchman  Decora  among 
them  and  his  marriage  to  the  daughter  of  the  chief  of  the  tribe. 
An  account  of  this  has  been  preserved  by  the  Decora  family,  although 
it  is  clearly  mixed  up  with  what  we  believe  is  an  account  of  the 
first  contact  of  the  Winnebago  with  the  French. 

HOW   THE   WINNEBAGO    FIRST   CAME   INTO   CONTACT   WITH   THE    FRENCH 
AND    THE    ORIGIN    OF   THE"  DECORA    FAMILY 

The  Winnebago  originated  at  a  place  called  Red  Banks  (Green 
Bay,  Wis.)  (pi.  1).  They  had  no  tools  to  work  with  at  that  time.  All 
they  had  were  bows  and  arrows  and  a  fire-starter.  They  had  no  iron, 
and  if  they  saw  a  stone  that  was  naturally  sharpened  in  any  way  it 
was  considered  sacred  and  they  offered  tobacco  for  it.  They  had 
tobacco  from  the  beginning.     It  was  their  most  valued  possession. 


66  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [rth.axn*.  37 

They  fasted  and  became  holy.  The  greatest  honor  was  to  be  a 
brave  man,  and  for  that  reason  they  did  nothing  but  go  to  war. 
They  were  prepared  for  war  at  all  times.  They  tried  to  obtain  war 
honors.  They  wished  to  go  to  war  all  the  time  and  kill  many  enemies. 
If  a  person  fasted  and  went  without  food  for  a  long  time,  gave  offer- 
ings of  tobacco  often,  and  was  then  blessed  by  the  spirits,  then  it  would 
be  very  hard  to  kill  such  a  person  in  battle.  The  people  knew  that 
such  powers  could  be  obtained,  and  that  is  why  they  did  these  things 
all  the  time. 

They  gave  many  feasts.  When  a  person  gives  a  feast,  then  he  offers 
the  spirits  tobacco  and  asks  in  return  that  their  weapons  be  sharper 
than  those  of  their  enemies  (i.  e.,  that  he  kill  an  enemy  and  escape 
unharmed).  That  is  why  they  used  to  give  so  many  feasts,  that  they 
might  be  victorious  in  war.  They  make  offerings  to  the  war  spirits, 
and  if  these  then  bless  them  they  will  become  great  warriors.  They 
desired  greatly  to  obtain  these  blessings. 

Tobacco  is  the  greatest  possession  they  have.  After  Earthmaker 
created  all  things  he  created  man.  Man  was  the  last  of  the  created 
objects.  Those  created  before  were  spirits,  and  he  put  them  all  in 
charge  of  something.  Even  the  smallest  insects  are  able  to  foresee 
things  four  days  ahead.  The  human  beings  were  the  least  of  all  Earth- 
maker's  creations.  They  were  put  in  charge  of  nothing,  and  they  could 
not  even  foresee  one  day  ahead.  They  were  the  last  created  and  they 
were  the  poorest.  Then  Earthmaker  created  a  weed  with  a  pleasant 
odor  and  all  the  spirits  wanted  it.  Some  were  almost  certain  that  it 
would  be  given  to  them.  They  would  each  think  to  themselves, 
"I  am  going  to  be  put  in  charge  of  that,  for  1  am  one  of  the  greatest 
spirits  in  the  world."  Then  the  Creator  said,  "To  all  of  jtou  (spirits) 
I  have  given  something  valuable.  Now  you  all  like  this  weed  and 
I  myself  like  it.  Now  this  is  the  way  it  is  going  to  be  used."  Then 
he  took  one  of  the  leaves  and  mashed  it  up.  Then  making  a  pipe 
he  smoked  it  and  the  odor  was  pleasant  to  smell.  All  of  the  spirits 
longed  for  it.  Then  he  gave  each  one  of  them  a  puff.  "Now,  what- 
ever (the  human  beings)  ask  from  me  and  for  which  they  offer  tobacco, 
I  will  not  be  able  to  refuse  it.  I  myself  will  not  be  in  control  of  this 
weed.  If  they  give  me  a  pipefulof  this  and  make  a  request  I  will  not 
be  able  to  refuse  it.  This  weed  will  be  called  tobacco.  The  human 
beings  are  the  only  ones  of  my  creation  who  are  poor.  I  did  not  give 
them  anything,  so  therefore  this  will  be  their  foremost  possession  and 
from  them  we  will  have  to  obtain  it.  If  a  human  being  gives  a  pipeful 
and  makes  a  request  we  will  always  grant  it."    Thus  spoke  Earthmaker. 

For  that  reason  the  human  beings  are  in  control  of  tobacco ;  it  is 
their  natural  possession.  This  is  the  story  that  was  handed  down  to 
us.  The  Winnebago  made  war  and  made  many  offerings  of  tobacco. 
It  is  said  that  the  Winnebago  were  the  bravest  of  all  the  Indians. 


BUREAU   OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY     THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL   REPORT       PLATE 


a.  RED  BANKS.  NEAR  GREEN  BAY.  WIS.,  LEGENDARY  ORIGIN 
PLACE  OF  THE  WINNEBAGO 


6,  RED  BANKS,  NEAR  GREEN  BAY,  WIS. 


a. 
o 


z 
z 
< 

I 


o 

_1 

o 

z 
I 


BUREAU   OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY     THIRTY-SEVENTH   ANNUAL   REPORT     PLATE  3 


JASPER      BLOWSNAKE 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY     THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE   4 


JOHN      FISHER 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY     THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE   5 


o.  JAMES  PINE 


6.  JOHN    RAVE    AND    FAMILY 


BUREAU   OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY  THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL   REPORT      PLATE  6 


a.  JOHN    FIREMAN 
(  Front  view) 


6.  JOHN   FIREMAN 

(Profile  view) 


c.   WHITEBREAST 


d.  JOHN    RAYMOND 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY     TH  I  RTY-SEVENT  H    AN  NU  AL    REPORT      PLATE  7 


a.  YOUNG  WINNEBAGO  WOMAN  AND   DAUGHTER 


6.  OLD    WINNEBAGO    AND    DAUGHTER 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY  THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE 


«.   GRAY    HAIR 


b.   RED    WING 


c.  JAMES    RICEHILL  </.   ALBERT    HENSLEY    (Front  view) 

WINNEBAGO    TYPES 


Radin]  HISTORY  67 

They  say  that  the  tobacco  was  given  to  them  directly  and  that 
Earthmaker  loves  the  Winnebago  more  than  any  other  race.  For 
that  reason  they  were  very  clever.  Now  this  is  what  the  old  men 
have  said  and  handed  down  to  us. 

Once  something  appeared  in  the  middle  of  the  lake  (Green  Bay). 
They  were  the  French :  they  were  the  first  to  come  to  the  Winnebago. 
The  ship  came  nearer  and  the  Winnebago  went  to  the  edge  of  the  lake 
with  offerings  of  tobacco  and  white  deerskins.  There  they  stood. 
When  the  French  were  about  to  come  ashore  they  fired  their  guns 
off  in  the  air  as  a  salute  to  the  Indians.  The  Indians  said,  "They 
are  thunderbirds."  They  had  never  heard  the  report  of  a  gun  before 
that  time  and  that  is  why  they  thought  they  were  thunderbirds. 

Then  the  French  landed  their  boats  and  came  ashore  and  extended 
their  hands  to  the  Winnebago,  and  the  Indians  put  tobacco  in  their 
hands.  The  French,  of  course,  wanted  to  shake  hands  with  the 
Indians.  They  did  not  know  what  tobacco  was,  and  therefore  did 
not  know  what  to  do  with  it.  Some  of  the  Winnebago  poured  tobacco 
on  their  heads,  asking  them  for  victory  in  war.  The  French  tried  to 
speak  to  them,  but  they  could  not,  of  course,  make  themselves  under- 
stood. After  a  while  they  discovered  that  they  were  without  tools, 
so  they  taught  the  Indians  how  to  use  an  ax  and  chop  a  tree  down. 
The  Indians,  however,  were  afraid  of  it,  because  they  thought  that 
the  ax  was  holy.  Then  the  French  taught  the  Indians  how  to  use 
guns,  but  they  held  aloof  for  a  long  time  through  fear,  thinking  that 
all  these  things  were  holy- 

Suddenly  a  Frenchman  saw  an  old  man  smoking  and  poured  water 
on  him.  They  knew  nothing  about  smoking  or  tobacco.  After  a 
while  they  got  more  accustomed  to  one  another.  The  Indians 
learned  how  to  shoot  the  guns  and  began  trading  objects  for  axes. 
They  would  give  furs  and  things  of  that  nature  for  the  guns,  knives, 
and  axes  of  the  whites.  They  still  considered  them  holy,  however. 
Finally  they  learned  how  to  handle  guns  quite  well  and  they  liked 
them  very  much.  They  would  even  build  fires  at  night  so  that  they 
might  try  their  guns,  for  they  could  not  wait  for  the  day,  they  were 
so  impatient.  When  they  were  out  of  ammunition  they  would  go 
to  the  traders  and  tell  their  people  that  they  would  soon  return. 
By  this  time  they  had  learned  to  make  themselves  understood  by 
various  signs. 

The  second  time  they  went  to  visit  the  French  they  took  with  them 
all  the  various  articles  that  they  possessed.  There  the  French 
taught  them  how  to  sew,  how  to  use  an  ax,  and  how  to  use  a  knife. 
Then  the  leader  of  the  whites  took  a  liking  to  a  Winnebago  girl,  the 
daughter  of  the  chief,  and  he  asked  her  parents  for  permission  to 
marry  her.  They  told  him  that  her  two  brothers  had  the  right  to 
give  her  away  in  marriage.     So  he  asked  them  and  they  consented. 


68  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ass.  37 

Then  he  married  her.  He  lived  there  and  worked  for  the  Indians 
and  stayed  with  them  for  many  years  and  he  taught  them  the  use 
of  many  tools.  He  went  home  every  once  in  a  while  and  his  wife 
went  with  him,  but  he  always  came  back  again.  After  a  while  a 
son  was  born  to  him  and  then  another.  When  the  boys  were  some- 
what grown  up  he  decided  to  take  his  oldest  son  with  him  to  his 
country  and  bring  him  up  in  such  a  way  that  he  would  not  be  in 
danger,  as  was  the  case  here  in  the  woods.  The  Indians  consented 
to  it  and  they  agreed  that  the  mother  was  to  bring  up  the  youngest 
child. 

So  he  took  Ids  oldest  boy  home  with  him  and  when  he  got  home  he 
went  to  live  with  his  parents,  as  he  had  not  been  married  in  his  own 
country.  He  was  a  leader  of  men.  The  boy  was  with  him  all  the 
time  and  everyone  took  a  great  liking  to  him.  People  would  come 
to  see  him  and  bring  him  presents.  They  gave  him  many  toys. 
However,  in  spite  of  all,  he  got  homesick  and  he  would  cry  every 
night  until  he  fell  asleep.  He  cried  all  the  time  and  would  not  eat. 
After  a  while  the  people  thought  it  best  to  bring  him  back  to  his 
home,  as  they  were  afraid  that  he  would  get  sick  and  die.  Before 
long  they  brought  him  back.  The  father  said:  "My  sons  are  men 
and  they  can  remain  here  and  grow  up  among  you.  You  are  to 
bring  them  up  in  your  own  way  and  they  are  to  live  just  as  you  do." 

The  Indians  made  them  fast.  One  morning  the  oldest  one  got  up 
very  early  and  did  not  go  out  fasting.  His  older  uncle,  seeing  him 
try  to  eat  some  corn,  took  it  away  from  him  and,  taking  a  piece  of 
charcoal,  mashed  it,  rubbed  it  over  his  face,  and  threw  him  out  of 
doors.  He  went  out  into  the  wilderness  and  hid  himself  in  a  secret 
place.  Afterwards  the  people  searched  for  him  everywhere,  but 
they  could  not  find  him.  Then  the  people  told  the  uncle  that  he 
had  done  wrong  in  throwing  the  boy  out.  The  latter  was  sorry,  but 
there  was  nothing  to  be  done  any  more.  In  reality  the  uncle  was  afraid 
of  the  boy's  father.     They  looked  everywhere  but  could  not  find  him. 

After  a  full  month  the  boy  came  home  and  brought  with  him  a 
circle  of  wood  (i.  e.,  a  drum).  He  told  the  people  that  this  is  what  he 
had  received  in  a  dream,  and  that  it  was  not  to  be  used  in  war;  that 
it  was  something  with  which  to  obtain  life.  He  said  that  if  a  feast 
was  made  to  it,  this  feast  would  be  one  to  Earthmaker,  as  Earthmaker 
had  blessed  him  and  told  him  to  put  his  life  in  the  service  of  the 
Winnebago. 

From  this  man  they  received  many  benefits.  He  was  called  to 
take  the  foremost  part  in  everything.  They  called  him  the  French- 
man, his  younger  brother  being  called  Tcap'o'sgaga,  White-throat. 
And  as  they  said,  so  it  has  always  been.  A  person  with  French  blood 
has  always  been  the  chief.  Only  they  could  accomplish  anything 
among  the  whites.     At  the  present  time  there  is  no  clan  as  numerous 


Radin]  HISTORY  69 

as  the  descendants  of  that  family  and  the  object  that  he  said  was 
sacred  (the  drum)  is  indeed  sacred.  It  is  powerful  to  the  present 
day.  His  descendants  are  the  most  intelligent  of  all  the  people  and 
they  are  becoming  more  intelligent  all  the  time.  What  they  did 
was  the  best  that  could  be  done.  The  ways  of  the  white  man  are  the 
best.  This  is  the  way  they  were  brought  up. 
This  is  the  end  of  the  history  of  the  Decoras. 

One  of  the  interesting  developments  resulting  from  the  Indian  con- 
tact with  the  whites  has  been  the  appearance  of  prophets.  In  almost 
all  cases  these  prophets  were  concerned  with  attempts  to  so  adapt 
the  life  of  their  fellow-Indians  to  the  new  conditions  that  they 
would  be  better  able  to  cope  with  the  invaders  who  were  sweeping 
all  before  them.  Whether  prophets  sprang  up  only  in  response  to  the 
peculiar  conditions  resulting  from  the  presence  of  the  whites  it  is  im- 
possible to  say,  but  there  seems  no  reason  to  believe  that  such  had 
always  been  the  case.  It  is  quite  possible  that  conditions  similar  to 
those  developing  from  the  occupancy  of  America  by  Europeans  had 
occurred  in  pre-Columbian  times  when  one  tribe  was  hard  pressed 
by  another. 

The  Winnebago  seem  to  have  had  their  share  of  prophets,  and 
seem  likewise  to  have  been  influenced  by  some  of  the  great  prophets 
of  other  tribes,  like  the  Shawnee  prophet.  An  interesting  account  of 
what  he  told  the  Winnebago  has  been  preserved  and  we  will  give  it  at 
length. 

One  of  the  suggestive  things  about  the  following  account  is  the  way 
in  which  the  informant,  who  is  evidently  a  devout  Peyote  follower, 
connects  the  teachings  of  the  Shawnee  prophet  with  the  modern 
Peyote  movement,  thus  evincing  a  remarkable  feeling  for  historical 
continuity. 

WHAT    THE    SHAWNEE    PROPHET    TOLD    THE    WINNEBAGO 

Now  this  is  what  the  Winnebago  heard  from  the  Shawnee  prophet ; 
this  is  what  he  said,  it  is  said,  by  those  who  heard  him: 

"Let  the  people  give  up  the  customs  they  are  now  observing  and  I 
will  give  them  new  ones."     This  is  what  he  said. 

Some  of  the  Winnebago  did  this  and  threw  away  their  war  bundles. 
But  he  had  meant  their  bad  customs.  Some  also  threw  away  their 
good  medicines.  At  last  they  decided  to  go  over  to  where  he  was.  A 
man  named  Smoke- Walker  led  a  number  of  young  men  over.  "  We 
will  walk  as  the  thunderbirds  do,"  said  the  leader.  Then  a  great  and 
holy  man  called  Dog-Head  said  that  he  also  was  going  along.  He 
was  then  an  old  man.  The  leader  said,  ''You  had  better  not  come 
along  for  we  are  going  to  walk  as  the  thunderbirds  do,  and  for  that 
reason  I  wish  only  young  men."     But  Dog- Head  said,  "I  am  going 


70  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

along  nevertheless,  and  whenever  you  wish  to  walk  like  the  thunder- 
birds  and  walk  above  the  earth,  then  I  can  turn  back.  I  will  go 
along." 

There  were  eleven  who  went  along.  When  they  got  to  the  place 
where  the  Shawnee  prophet  was  staying  they  found  all  the  other 
tribes  (represented)  there  except  the  Winnebago. 

Then  the  prophet  said,  "It  is  good,  my  younger  brothers.-'  He 
called  the  Winnebago  younger  brothers.  "There  are  many  tribes 
here,  but  I  wanted  to  see  you  here  especially.  It  is  good  you  have 
come.  I  want  to  talk  to  you,  but  it  is  impossible  (because  I  can  not 
speak  your  language)."  Now  the  old  man  who  had  come  along 
against  the  wishes  of  the  chief  could  speak  any  Indian  language,  so 
the  leader  said  to  Dog-Head,  "Older  brother,  you  used  to  speak 
almost  any  language;  can  you  still  do  it?"  Then  Dog-Head  said, 
"My  younger  brother,  I  can  understand  what  he  is  saying,  but  I 
don't  know  whether  I  could  talk  the  language  myself.  I  may  or 
may  not  be  able  to  speak  it  (enough  to  make  myself  understood). 
I  don't  know."  Then  the  leader  said,  "It  is  good,  older  brother. 
Try  to  talk  to  him,  and  whatever  you  do  will  be  better  than  nothing." 
Then  Dog-Head  said  to  the  Shawnee  prophet,  "I  can  understand 
what  you  are  saying,  but  I  am  afraid  to  talk  to  you  because  I  don't 
know  whether  I  could  make  myself  clear  to  you."  The  prophet 
thanked  him  and  said,  "It  is  good.     I  want  to  talk  to  you  Winnebago." 

Then  they  had  a  long  conversation  and  this  is  what  he  said, 
"Younger  brothers,  we  are  not  doing  the  right  thing  and  that  is 
why  we  are  not  getting  along  very  well  in  life." 

At  that  time  they  (the  otber  tribes)  were  having  their  night  dances, 
so  the  Winnebago  moved  over  to  them.  There  they  heard  the 
prophet  speak.  He  said  that  he  had  been  sent  by  the  Creator  because 
the  Indians  were  wandering  away  from  their  old  customs.  For 
that  reason  the  Creator  had  sent  him  to  tell  them  of  it.  He  at  first 
forgot  all  about  it,  for  the  devil  misrepresented  things  to  him  and 
he  believed  him.  The  devil  had  told  him  that  he  would  go  to  heaven 
and  that  he  could  not  be  ki'led.  He  had  told  him  that  he  had  given 
him  a  holy  belt.  He  was  a  bad  person.  Whenever  he  got  angry 
he  would  throw  his  belt  down  on  the  ground  and  it  would  change 
into  a  yellow  rattlesnake  and  rattle.  When  he  did  this  the  rest  of 
the  people  were  afraid  of  him.  He  was  very  mean  when  drunk. 
They  were  afraid  of  him,  not  only  on  account  of  his  belt,  which  he 
could  turn  into  a  yellow  rattlesnake,  but  also  because  of  the  fact 
that  he  was  very  strong.  If,  when  he  was  drunk,  a  number  of  people 
jumped  on  him,  aftei  wards  he  would  find  out  about  it  and  hit  them. 
If  they  would  resist  he  would  kill  them. 

It  was  utterly  impossible  for  him  to  be  killed.  He  was  unkind 
to  the  women.     They  would  go  with  him  not  because  they  liked  him 


eadin]  HISTORY  71 

but  because  they  were  afraid  of  him.  It  was  a  dangerous  thing  to 
say  anything  about  him.  Whenever  he  wished  to  drink  he  would 
take  some  person's  valuables  and  buy  drink  with  it.  These  are  the 
things  he  did.  The  Creator  had  sent  him  on  a  mission  to  the  earth, 
but  the  devil  had  misled  him. 

On  one  occasion  (when  he  was  drunk)  quite  a  number  of  people 
jumped  on  him  and  nearly  killed  him.  When  he  awoke  the  next 
morning  he  asked  his  wife  who  had  done  it  and  she  told  him.  "Well, 
they  will  hear  of  me  soon.  However,  I  want  to  go  and  take  a  bath 
first  and  cool  off  and  then  take  my  revenge,  when  I  get  back. "  When 
he  was  in  bathing  a  man  came  to  him  and  said,  "They  have  told  me 
to  come  after  you,  so  let  us  go. "  Then  he  went  back  with  him  and  he 
took  him  to  the  place  from  which  he  had  originally  started.  Then 
the  Creator  said,  "How  are  you  getting  on  with  the  work  which  you 
were  to  do  V  Then  he  remembered  what  he  had  been  doing.  Then 
the  Creator  said,  "  Is  it  for  this  that  I  created  you  ?"  Then  he  took 
his  mouth  and  showed  it  to  him  and  he  saw  that  it  was  crooked  and 
sticking  out  in  all  directions.  Then  he  took  his  understanding  (and 
showing  it  to  him),  he  said,  "Did  I  create  you  thus?"  Then  he 
looked  into  his  ears  and  they  were  crooked  and  ragged.  Thus  he 
made  him  see  all  his  bad  characteristics  and  his  evil  mind.  Then 
he  took  out  his  heart  and  showed  it  to  him.  It  was  all  furrowed  up 
and  bad  to  look  upon.     "Did  I  create  you  thus?"  said  the  Creator. 

"Now,  then,  you  will  do  better  the  next  time,"  and  he  sent  him 
back.  This  time,  however,  he  (the  prophet)  did  not  come  here  to 
get  revenge.  He  came  to  tell  of  the  mysteries,  but  no  one  would 
believe  him.  "He  is  just  getting  crazier  all  the  time,"  they  said  of 
him.  Then  he  told  all  to  gather  in  one  place  and  he  promised 
to  say  nothing  but  the  truth.  Then  he  made  a  small  flat  war  club, 
cleared  a  piece  of  ground  and  laid  it  there.  Then  he  said  to  those 
assembled,  "If  anyone  can  lift  this,  then  I  will  not  say  it  (i.  e.,  talk 
about  my  mission)." 

Now  he  (the  prophet)  was  one  of  triplets.  The  third  one  was 
teased  a  good  deal  and  one  day  he  said,  "I  am  getting  tired  of  this 
teasing  and  am  going  home."  Then  he  died.  They  had  been  teas- 
ing him  about  his  head,  which  was  very  narrow.  There  were  thus 
two  left.  The  brother  who  was  left  was  a  powerful  man.  Bullets 
could  not  penetrate  him,  and  indeed  it  was  impossible  to  kill  him 
in  any  way.  It  was  this  brother  who  had  told  him  not  to  talk  (about 
his  mission).  Then  the  prophet  said  to  him,  "Well,  if  you  can  lift 
this  war  club  I  will  not  speak  about  it  any  more."  Then  he  tried 
to  lift  the  little  war  club  and  failed.  After  that  the  brother  made 
no  more  remarks  about  it. 

Then  he  had  them  make  a  long  lodge  and  they  were  told  to  go 
after  a  number  of  bears.     As  many  as  he  told  them  to  get,  that  many 


72  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  anx.  37 

they  would  bring  home  with  them.  Thus  they  knew  that  he  was 
telling  the  truth.  All  the  people  in  the  country  listened  to  him  and 
what  he  prophesied  came  true,  so  they  believed  him  holy. 

One  day  they  told  him  that  the  whites  were  coming.  After  a  short 
time  they  said,  "They  are  still  coming.  There  are  very  many  of 
them."  The  lookouts  were  always  watching  and  they  saw  them 
coming.  Then  the  prophet  said,  "When  they  come,  listen  to  them, 
and  when  they  sleep  we  will  attend  to  them."  Now  the  whites  had 
come;  they  had  to  cut  through  the  roads  to  come.  When  they  were 
near  one  of  their  number  came  over  to  ask  where  they  could  camp 
and  they  were  told  to  camp  right  there.  In  the  night,  when  they 
were  asleep,  they  shot  at  them.  They  were  half  asleep  and  they  ran 
away  without  their  weapons.  A  tribe  of  Indians  was  just  then 
going  down  the  stream  and  these  shot  at  the  whites,  too.  Then  they 
turned  back  and  the  commander  had  the  bugle  blow  and  called  them 
to  themselves.  Then  they  took  their  guns  and  fought.  Many 
Indians  were  killed.  The  one  who  had  led  the  Winnebago  over  was 
killed  in  this  battle. 

Then  his  son  started  back  home.  His  name  was  Small-Snake. 
As  they  were  returning,  unprepared  for  danger,  a  boat  came  down  the 
stream  and  passed  very  close  to  them.  The  women  (he  was  the 
only  man  among  them)  cried  out.  He  was  without  any  ammunition 
except  two  shots.  Just  as  he  got  ready  to  shoot  they  were  recog- 
nized. The  people  in  the  boat  were  not  Americans  but  Frenchmen 
and  they  were  very  hungry.  Thus  they  were  saved,  and  the  French- 
men gave  them  plenty  of  ammunition.     Then  they  passed  safely  on. 

The  Indians  had  scattered  in  every  direction  and  no  one  knew  who 
was  alive.  Then  Dog-Head  blessed  them  with  a  powerful  medicine 
that  he  possessed.  "My  son  (he  was  addressing  Small-Snake),  if  I 
were  to  induce  you  to  join  the  Medicine  Dance,  why  that  honor 
would  perish  with  your  death.  Now  they  say  that  a  man  named 
Large-Walker  had  a  vision  in  which  he  was  blessed  by  a  loon.  The 
loon  blessed  him,  saying,  'Large-Walker,  I  also  bless  you  with  this 
(medicine).  When  I  work  for  the  chief  and  when  I  sweep  his  lodge, 
I  sweep  all  the  bad  things  outside.  It  will  be  the  same  with  this 
medicine.  If  a  person  partakes  of  something  bad,  he  will  not  die, 
no  matter  how  bad  it  is,  but,  on  the  contrary,  he  will  live.  Now 
when  you  wish  to  use  this  medicine,  pour  some  tobacco  for  me  and 
I  will  smoke  it. '  Then  he  looked  at  the  loon  and  the  loon  had  some- 
thing growing  out  of  his  back.  That  is  what  he  was  referring  to. 
Then  the  loon  said  again,  'When  you  want  to  dig  it,  don't  dig  it  right 
away  (i.  e.,  without  performing  the  proper  rites).  You  must  offer  a 
white  feather,  a  white  deerskin,  red  feathers,  and  tobacco.  Then 
you  can  dig  it.     If  you  make  these  offerings,  you  will  never  fail  in 


badin]  HISTORY  73 

anything.  With  this  I  bless  you  (this  herb),  and  no  one  else  in  the 
world  will  know  it.'" 

This  is  what  Dog-Head  told  Small-Snake:  "As  long  as  your  pos- 
terity lasts,  so  long  can  you  use  this  medicine.  If  I  had  given  you 
clothes,  when  they  were  worn  out,  that  would  be  the  end  of  them. 
Your  father  spoke  to  me  in  your  behalf  and  that  is  why  I  am  giving 
you  this  medicine."  Dog-Head  told  the  truth,  for  even  to  the 
present  day  this  medicine  is  being  used.  *It  is  a  purgative  and  a  val- 
uable medicine. 

When  the  Winnebago  returned  the  possessor  of  the  medicine 
was  careless  and  placed  it  in  a  hole  in  a  cliff.  When  he  came  back 
for  it  it  could  not  be  found.  He  looked  all  over  for  it  but  it  was 
apparently  gone.  Then  they  said,  "We  should  not  have  done  this. 
We  should  look  before  acting."  Indeed,  nowhere  did  they  ever 
find  it  afterwards. 

Now,  it  is  four  generations  since  the  Shawnee  prophet  prophesied, 
and  from  that  time  there  have  been  many  prophets  among  us,  as  he 
is  said  to  have  told  the  people.  Many  have  prophesied,  but  none 
have  told  anything  that  seemed  reasonable.  The  Shawnee  prophet 
was  good,  but  those  who  have  come  after  him  have  prophesied  so 
that  people  might  praise  them,  or  just  for  the  sake  of  talking. 

It  is  said  that  the  Shawnee  prophet  said  that  there  would  come  a 
time  when  a  woman  would  prophesy  and  that  she  should  be  imme- 
diately killed.  The  end  of  the  world  would  be  near  then.  Then  he 
is  said  to  have  said  that  a  little  boy  would  prophesy  and  that  one 
was  to  give  ear  to  what  he  said. 

The  Peyote  people  claim  that  their  ceremony  is  the  fulfillment  of 
this  prophesy  and  that  it  is  true.  The  Shawnee  prophet  had  said  that 
there  would  be  springs  of  water  in  front  of  the  people's  lodges  and 
it  is  so  at  the  present  time,  for  the  water  is  at  our  very  doors.  His 
prophesy  was  correct  and  he  told  the  truth.  Then  he  said  that 
trees  would  travel  and  this  is  happening  to-day,  for  trees  are  loaded 
into  trains  and  are  carried  all  around  the  country.  He  told  the 
truth  and  he  knew  what  was  going  to  happen.  He  said  that  one  day 
we  would  be  able  to  write  our  own  language  and  we  are  doing  that 
to-day,  for  we  have  a  Bible  in  Winnebago  and  we  are  able  to  write 
to  one  another  in  our  own  language.  All  these  things  he  was  able  to 
foretell  four  generations  ago. 

A  Winnebago  by  the  name  of  Noise-Thunder  had  also  prophesied 
that  we  would  be  able  to  write  our  own  language.  One  thing  that 
he  said,  however,  was  not  correct.  He  said  that  the  bad  thing  that 
has  come  upon  us  will  make  us  forget  our  own  ways.  He  meant 
that  we  should  not  take  up  with  the  white  man's  ways.  "Don't  do 
1S6S23°— 22 6 


b> 


74  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [bth.  anjj.  37 

it,  for  if  you  do,  we  will  all  die."  Now,  he  was  mistaken  in  that. 
"The  Creator  has  given  two  plates  and  they  are  getting  empty.  He 
gave  the  men  a  plate  for  them  to  fill  and  the  women  a  plate  for  them 
to  fill.  The  women's  plate  is  empty."  He  meant  that  the  Creator 
had  made  men  to  hunt  and  the  women  to  dig  the  soil  and  raise  vege- 
tahles,  and  that  the  latter  were  not  doing  it.  That  is  what  he  meant 
hy  saying  that  their  plates  were  empty.  Noise-Thunder  insisted 
that  this  was  the  white  man's  fault ;  he  thought  that  we  were  being 
weakened  by  the  white  man's  food.  Quite  a  number  of  people 
believed  him.  "The  birds  eat  what  was  provided  for  them  to  eat, 
game  and  vegetables,  and  the  whites  eat  what  was  provided  for 
them.  Why  should  we  not  eat  what  was  provided  for  us?"  He 
was  right,  but  then  the  Creator  also  created  the  food  that  the  whites 
are  eating.  We  are  now  getting  accustomed  to  it  and  are  getting 
stronger  on  this  food. 

The  Winnebago  were  decreasing  in  number,  so  the  Creator  gave 
them  a  medicine  which  would  enable  them  to  get  accustomed  to  the 
white  man's  food ;  that,  also,  they  might  know  the  Creator  and  that 
he  is  the  true  bread  and  food.  This  they  found  out  by  using  this 
medicine.  They  are  going  into  it  deeper  and  deeper  all  the  time, 
they  who  had  been  lost,  and  this  has  all  been  accomplished  by  the 
medicine  (the  peyote). 

The  following  notes  were  also  obtained  concerning  other  prophets: 

"There  was  a  prophet  among  the  Winnebago  recently  named 
George  Wilkinson.  He  claimed  that  he  was  the  Trickster;  that 
there  were  two  worlds ;  that  he  had  been  to  the  first  and  that  he  was 
now  on  the  second.  After  a  while  he  was  to  return  to  ma! una  (Earth- 
maker).  He  told  all  the  Winnebago  to  plant  their  tobacco  and  corn- 
fields again.  (This  is  what  he  was  ordered  to  say.)  He  said  that 
the  power  of  the  war  bundles  was  entirely  exhausted,  but  that  it 
could  be  restored  if  a  person  were  to  fast  for  four  days.  When  the 
spirits  addressed  him  by  name  they  called  him  "  He-Who-Stands- 
Blue."     This  happened  fifteen  years  ago. 

•'Thundercloud  claims  to  be  the  Hare." 

Another  man  named  Xuga  prophesied  the  same,  led  them  on  a 
warpath,  and  lost  a  lot  of  people. 

The  most  important  religious  revival  of  the  last  century  among 
the  Winnebago  is  the  Peyote  or  Mescal  religion.  It  is  described  in 
detail  on  page  388. 


RADIN] 


HISTOKY 


75 


Winnebago  Names  of  Other  Tribes  and  Peoples 


At  the  present  time 
for  the  following  tribes 

Omaha,  Omanhan. 
Sioux,  Canhan. 
Oto,  Wadjokdjadja. 
Iowa,  Waxotc. 
Pawnee,  Pani. 
Menominee,  Ka7i. 
Fox,  Wacereke. 
Sauk,  Zagi. 
Potawatomi,  Warax. 


the  Winnebago  appears  to  have  names  only 
and  peoples: 

Ojibway,  Regatci. 

Kickapoo,  JakdJAnagi. 

Osage,  Worac. 

French,  Djimoxgemena. 

Germans,  Daieri. 

English,  Zagananc. 

Irish,  Hit£e  waracicik. 

Whites  in  general,  Manhi  xedera. 


CHAPTER  II 


WINNEBAGO  ARCHEOLOGY 
General  Problems 

One  of  the  most  interesting  and  important  features  of  the  area  oc- 
cupied by  the  Winnebago  is  the  large  number  of  earth  mounds  found. 
That  these  mounds  were  made  by  the  Winnebago  or  the  Sioux  there 
seems  to  be  little  doubt.  The  participation  of  the  Sioux  in  the  con- 
struction of  these  earth  mounds  seems,  however,  to  have  been  con- 
fined entirely  to  the  so-called  linear  and  conical  types.  The  effigy 
mounds  seem  to  have  been  the  work  of  the  Winnebago  exclusively1 
(figs.  2,  3). 

The  first  really  serious  study  of  the  Wisconsin  mounds  was  made 
by  I.  A.  Lapham  in  1850,  and  his  work  must  be  considered  of  consid- 
erable importance  still,  by  reason  of  the  admirable  plats  of  mounds 
long  since  leveled.  The  next  discussion  is  found  in  Cyrus  Thomas's 
Report  on  the  Mound  Explorations,  2  but  he  makes  no  attempt  to 
explain  them.  Our  first  accurate  knowledge  dates  from  the  in- 
ception of  the  Wisconsin  Archeologist  in  1901.  Any  attempt  to 
study  the  archeology  of  Wisconsin  will  necessarily  have  to  be  based 
on  material  there  published.  An  extremely  useful  and  suggestive 
summary  of  the  data  has  been  made  by  A.  B.  Stout.  This  little 
pamphlet  and  that  on  the  Koshkonong  region  3  by  the  same  author 
are  of  prime  importance  in  the  study  of  Winnebago  archeology . 

In  order  to  understand  the  archeology  of  this  region  clearly  it  will 
be  best  to  say  a  few  words  about  the  regions  which  were  the  early 
habitations  of  the  Winnebago  and  the  tribes  that  were  their  imme- 
diate neighbors. 

The  Winnebago,  when  first  found,  were  inhabiting  the  southern 
shore  of  Green  Bay,  Wis.  Whether,  at  this  time,  they  already  ex- 
tended farther  south  and  west,  it  is  impossible  to  say.     The  tradi- 

1  C'f.  Radin, " Some  Aspects  of  Winnebago  Archaeology,"  Amer.  Anthropologist,  n.  s.,  vol.  13,  no.  4, 1911. 

Prof.  Dixon  in  his  articlo  on  "Some  Aspects  of  North  American  Archaeology,"  Amer.  Anthropologist, 
n.  s.,  vol.  15,  no.  4, 1913,  accepts  this  conclusion.  "The  association  of  the  effigy  mounds  of  Wisconsin  and 
the  adjacent  area  with  the  Winnebago  or  other  Siouan  tribes  seems  now  reasonably  certain,  and  one  might 
therefore  naturally  regard  the  ?erpent  mound  and  the  few  others  of  this  effigy  type  in  the  Ohio  Valley  as 
due  also  to  tribes  of  the  same  stock,"  p.  501. 

»  Twelfth  Annual  Report  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  pp.  47-49,  Washington,  1S94. 

a  "  Prehistoric  Earthworks  iu  Wisconsin,"  Ohio  Archaeological  and  Historical  Quarterly,  vol  XX,  no.  1, 
Columbus,  1911;  and  "The  \rchseology  of  the  Lake  Koshkonong  Region,"  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol. 
7,  no.  2,  1908. 
76 


RADIN] 


WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY 


77 


tions  speak  only  of  Green  Bay  as  their  original  habitat.  On  the  other 
shore  of  Green  Bay  were  the  Menominee,  who  likewise  have  no  recol- 
lection of  having  lived  anywhere  else.  To  the  northeast,  along  Door 
Peninsula,  were  the  Potawatomi,  unquestionably  intruders,  who  had 
come  by  way  of  Mackinaw.  To  the  southwest  lay  the  Sauk  and  Fox, 
the  closely  related  Kickapoo,  and  the  enigmatic  Mascoutin.     Finally, 


Fig.  2.— MAP  OF  WISCONSIN,  SHOWING  DISTRIBUTION   OF  CIRCULAR  MOUNDS. 

to  the  south  lay  the  Miami.  Such  seems  to  have  been  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  tribes  around  Green  Bay  and  Lake  Michigan  at  the  first 
advent  of  the  whites.  Within  50  years  of  the  landing  of  Nicollet  the 
places  were  entirely  shifted.  Winnebago  villages  are  found  scattered 
all  along  the  Fox  River  and  Lake  Winnebago,  the  Sauk  and  Fox  and 
Kickapoo  are  on  their  way  farther  south,  and  the  Potawatomi  are  in 
possession  of  the  southern  shore  of  Green  Bay  and  the  western  shore 
of  Lake  Michigan.     Later  still  we  find  the  Winnebago  extending  all 


78 


THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE 


[ETH.  ANN.  37 


along  the  Wisconsin  River  and  west  of  it  to  the  Mississippi,  and,  at  the 
same  time,  occupying  the  territory  south  of  Lake  Winnebago  through 
the  region  of  the  Four  Lakes,  the  shores  of  Lake  Koshkonong  and 
farther  down  along  the  Rock  River  into  Illinois.  Their  eastern 
boundary  was  determined  by  the  Potawatomi. 

Let  us  return  now  to  the  distribution  of  the  mounds.     Of  the  three 
kinds  of  mounds  found  in  Wisconsin,  the  conical  and  oval  ones  are  the 


Fig  3.— MAP   OF   WISCONSIN,  SHOWING   DISTRIBUTION   OF   EFFIGY   MOUNDS. 


commonest,  and  they  are  met  with  in  practically  every  county  of  the 
State  in  which  records  have  been  made.  They  have  also  been  found 
in  Minnesota.  The  so-called  effigy  mounds,  on  the  other  hand, 
have  never  been  found  north  of  a  line  drawn  through  the  southern 
boundary  of  Lincoln  County.  They  have,  however,  been  found  in 
every  area  which  the  Winnebago  occupied  at  one  time  or  another, 


radix]  WIXNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY  79 

with  the  exception  of  the  eastern  shore  of  Green  Bay  and  the  Fox 
River.  At  the  same  time  they  have  been  discovered  in  fairly  large 
numbers  in  the  counties  of  Sheboygan,  Ozaukee,  Washington,  Wau- 
kesha, Racine,  and  Kenosha,  which,  as  far  as  our  historical  informa- 
tion extends,  had  never  been  occupied  by  the  Winnebago.  Flint 
arrow  points  and  pottery  shards  are  found  throughout  the  entire 
State.  The  distribution  of  copper  implements  has  not  yet  been 
thoroughly  investigated,  but  the  present  status  of  our  knowledge  has 
been  ably  discussed  by  Charles  E.  Brown.4  To  judge  from  the  papers 
of  Brown,  implements  of  copper  are  found  pretty  generally  dis- 
tributed over  the  State,  although  certain  objects  seem  to  be  found  in 
greater  abundance  in  some  places  than  in  others. 

There  are  three  types  of  mounds  in  Wisconsin  and  the  territory 
immediately  adjacent  to  it — the  effigy,  the  linear,  and  the  intaglio. 
All  of  these  have  been  subjected  to  a  variety  of  explanations  at  the 
hands  of  archeologists,  from  Lapham's  time  to 'our  own.  The  car- 
dinal error  in  all  their  attempts  at  explanation  has  perhaps  been  the 
assumption  that  the  mounds  were  necessarily  of  great  antiquity. 
For  a  long  time  it  was  not  considered  likely  that  the  present  inhabit- 
ants of  the  region,  the  Winnebago  or  their  ancestors,  had  had  any- 
thing to  do  with  their  erection.  As  soon,  however,  as  systematic 
inquiries  had  been  made  among  living  Winnebago  it  was  discovered 
that  not  only  were  they  able  to  give  more  or  less  reasonable  explana- 
tions of  the  uses  of  most  of  the  mounds,  but  a  number  of  the  older 
people  claimed  to  have  distinct  recollections  of  the  erection  of  some 
of  them.  In  obtaining  notes  on  social  organization  the  writer  was 
told  incidentally  that  it  had  been  customary  not  very  long  ago  to 
erect  near  the  habitation  of  each  clan  an  effigy  of  their  clan  animal. 
Subsequently,  upon  a  more  systematic  inquiry,  it  was  discovered  that 
not  only  were  such  effigy  mounds  erected  near  clan  habitations,  but 
also  on  every  plantation  owned  by  a  certain  clan.  In  other  words, 
these  effigy  mounds  were,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  property  marks. 
Similar  effigies  are  found  in  the  porcupine  quill  work,  on  the  war 
bundles,  and  on  the  woven  bags  still  used  by  the  Winnebago  in  Wis- 
consin. This  interpretation  has  been  so  fully  corroborated  that  there 
can  no  longer  be  any  possible  doubt  about  it.  The  age  of  the  mounds 
thus  diminishes  considerably.  Of  course  some  may  have  been  erected 
long  ago,  but  it  is  quite  evident  that  the  effigy  mounds  found  near  the 
Mississippi  must  have  been  erected  during  the  eighteenth  century, 
as  the  Winnebago  did  not  reach  this  region  before  that  time. 

In  connection  with  the  effigy  mounds  two  things  need  explanation — 
namely,  why  there  are  no  mounds  of  this  type  near  Red  Banks,  Green 
Bay,  and  why  there  are  so  niany  directly  south  of  this  region  along 

4  "The  Native  Copper  Implements  of  Wisconsin,"  in  Wisconsin  Arekeologist,  vol.3,  no.  2;  and  "The 
Native  Copper  Ornaments  of  Wisconsin,"  ibid.,  vol.  3,  no.  3, 1904. 


80  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  anx.  37 

the  eastern  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  a  territory  in  which  the  Winne- 
bago have  no  recollection  of  ever  having  lived.  The  first  question 
is  very  difficult  to  answer.  There  is  always  the  possibility  that  some 
mounds  may  yet  be  discovered  and  again  it  is  possible  that  all  have 
been  leveled  considerably.  The  apparent  persistency  with  which  the 
Winnebago  held  to  the  custom  of  mound  building  during  their  forced 
migration  since  the  eighteenth  century,  even  when  they  lived  in 
places  for  only  a  short  time,  and"  the  absence  of  any  mounds  in  their 
legendary  home,  suggest  the  possibility  that  they  never  lived  per- 
manently near  Green  Bay.5  This  inference  has  not  been  drawn  from 
a  study  of  the  archeological  but  from  a  study  of  the  historical  sources, 
by  Mr.  P.  V.  Lawson.6  In  this  paper  the  writer  tries  to  prove  that 
all  the  old  sources  point  to  Doty  Island  situated  in  Fox  River,  at  the 
foot  of  Lake  Winnebago,  as  the  place  where  Nicollet  first  met  the 
Winnebago.  Whatever  the  merits  of  the  case  may  be,  it  is  certain 
that,  according  to  the  Winnebago  themselves,  their  original  home  was 
Green  Bay.  Into  this  tradition  many  legendary  details  have,  of 
course,  been  woven,  and  it  seems  to  us  that  the  presumption  of  evi- 
dence favors  Green  Bay,  although  the  complete  absence  of  what  seems 
to  have  been  such  a  characteristic  feature  of  Winnebago  culture  as 
effigy  mounds  suggests  a  possibility  that  the  Green  Bay  settlement 
represented  just  the  northernmost  extension  of  the  tribe.  The  large 
settlements  found  along  Lake  Winnebago  so  soon  after  Nicollet's  land- 
ing make  it  reasonably  certain  that  the  Winnebago  had  been  there 
before  his  arrival  in  Wisconsin. 

We  will  also  have  to  assume  that  the  Winnebago  erected  the  effigy 
mounds  along  the  western  shore  of  Lake  Michigan,  in  an  area  that, 
since  the  coming  of  the  whites,  has  been  occupied  successively  by  the 
Miami  and  Potawatomi.  This  would  indicate  that  the  Winnebago 
originally  came  in  a  compact  mass  from  the  south.  They,  however, 
have  no  recollection  of  this  fact  and  it  must  indeed  have  taken  place 
a  long  time  ago.     This  is,  of  course,  only  an  hypothesis. 

The  effigy  mounds  are  unquestionably  supposed  to  represent  the 
eponymous  clan  animals  of  the  Winnebago.  It  seems,  however,  as 
if  three  clan  animals  were  never  represented — namely,  the  wolf,  the 
buffalo,  and  the  fish.  It  is  possible  that  the  mound  found  near  the 
asylum  grounds  at  Madison,  Wis.,  is  intended  to  represent  a  wolf,  but, 
even  if  this  could  be  established,  it  would  not  explain  the  apparent 
absence  of  any  more  examples  of  one  of  the  most  import  ant  Winnebago 
clans. 

*  The  absence  of  any  mention  of  them  in  early  records  has  no  significance,  for  even  in  the  nineteenth  cen- 
tury, in  regions  where  it  seems  incredible  that  they  should  have  escaped  notice,  no  mention  is  ever  made 
of  them  by  travelers. 

- «  "  The  Habitat  of  the  Winnebago,"  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  State  Historical  Society  of  Wisconsin,  1906. 
Mr.  A.  C  Neville  in  a  previous  paper  published  in  the  Proceedings  of  1905,  sought  to  establish  the  thesis ol 
a  Green  Bay  home  from  the  same  data. 


RADIN]  WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY  81 

There  are  a  large  number  of  effigies  that,  for  want  of  a  better  name, 
most  Wisconsin  archeologists  have  called  "turtle"  mounds.  No 
explanations  can  be  offered  of  these  peculiar  effigies  unless  they  are 
attempts  to  picture  fish  or  are  altered  water-spirit  mounds.  The 
Winnebago  had  no  turtle  clan,  but  the  turtle  plays  an  important  part 
in  their  mythology. 

Perhaps  the  most  peculiar  effigy  mounds  are  the  famous  "Man" 
mounds,  of  which  only  two  examples  are  in  existence,  and  the  so- 
called  "intaglios."  Good  descriptions  of  both  types  have  been 
given.1 

The  two  "Man"  mounds  have  generally  been  regarded  as  inex- 
plicable or  connected  with  some  prehistoric  rite,  and  it  seemed  useless 
to  attempt  any  explanation.  As  there  seemed  to  be  no  reason  why 
these  mounds  might  not  fall  into  the  same  category  as  the  clan 
mounds,  the  writer  took  the  opportunity  of  inquiring  about  them 
among  the  older  Winnebago.  A  number  of  the  people  asked  knew 
nothing  about  them,  but,  fortunately,  two  very  old  members  of  the 
tribe  interpreted  them,  as  soon  as  they  were  described,  as  represen- 
tations of  the  Warrior  or  Hawk  clan.  As  this  clan  belonged  to  the 
Bird  phratry,  no  one  had  ever  looked  for  any  but  bird  emblems. 

No  information  has  been  obtained  from  living  Winnebago  that 
could  throw  any  light  on  the  "  intaglio"  mounds.  We  wish,  however, 
to  hazard  a  suggestion  as  to  their  possible  meaning.  "The  intaglio 
effigies, "  to  quote  Mr.  Brown, "  may  be  described  as  being  the  reverse 
of  the  ordinary  effigy  mounds.  They  are  excavated  out  of  the  soil 
instead  of  erected  upon  it,  the  earth  removed  from  the  shallow  exca- 
vation being  heaped  up  with  care  along  the  edges,  giving  form  and 
prominence  to  the  animal  shapes  depicted."2  The  Winnebago  fre- 
quently placed  symbols  referring  to  water  deities  under  water,  and,  as 
10  of  the  12  intaglios  that  have  been  described  belong  unquestionably 
to  the  Water-spirit  clan,  it  may  have  been  customary  to  keep  these 
"intaglios"  filled  with  water.  The  discovery  of  two  supposedly 
Bear  "intaglios"  militates  against  this  suggestion.  However,  ac- 
cording to  the  Bear  clan  legends,  the  ancestors  of  that  clan  came 
from  the  water,  as  did  likewise  those  of  the  Wolf  and  Buffalo  clans. 

We  now  come  to  the  most  unsatisfactory  problem  of  our  area — 
namely,  the  nature  and  significance  of  the  linear  mounds.  The 
various  types  have  been  best  described  by  Mr.  A.  B.  Stout  and  we 
will  do  best  to  quote  him  in  extenso: 

The  principal  classes  of  linear  mounds  are  as  follows: 

The  pure  linear  type  is  a  straight  wall-like  mound  of  uniform  width  and  height. 
They  are  usually  about  2\  feet  in  height  and  from  10  to  20  feet  in  width.     Some  are  so 

1  "The  Preservation  of  the  Man  Mound,"  in  vol.  7,  no.  4,  of  the  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  and  "  The 
Intaglio  Mounds  of  Wisconsin/'  in  vol  9,  no.  1,  of  the  same  journal;  both  papers  by  C.  Brown. 
1  Cf.  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.  9,  no.  1,  p.  6. 


82  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

short  that  they  approach  the  oval  and  platform  mound  types,  while  the  longest  are 
over  900  feet  in  length. 

The  straight  pointed  linear  is  usually  of  considerable  length  and  differs  from  the 
pure  linear  as  given  above  in  having  one  end  tapering  to  a  long  drawn  out  point.   .   .   . 

Club-shaped  linears  are  frequently  found  .  .  .  and  kidney-shaped  linears  are 
not  wanting.     .     .     . 

The  various  linear  types  described  above  are  sometimes  modified  by  an  enlargement 
at  one  end.  .  .  .  This  ranges  from  a  low,  flattened  enlargement  to  a  rounded, 
well  built  conical  mound.  Various  projections  or  appendages  to  some  of  the  linear 
forms  .  .  .  give  figures  that  shade  toward  effigies  proper.  These  types  of  linear 
mounds  are  mingled  in  the  mound  groups  as  shown  in  the  various  group  plats.  .  .  . 

Besides  the  types  already  discussed  there  are  peculiar  combinations  and  composite 
mounds  which  do  not  admit  of  any  rational  explanation.3 

Many  explanations  have  been  given  by  investigators  and,  for  that 
matter,  by  Indians  themselves,  of  the  significance  of  these  linear 
mounds.  Not  only  is  it  necessary  to  account  for  the  peculiar  and 
manifold  shapes,  but  for  the  equally  strange  combinations  into  which 
they  have  entered.  With  regard  to  the  latter  type,  Mr.  Stout 
refuses  even  to  suggest  an  interpretation.  He,  however,  takes  a 
determined  stand  with  regard  to  the  linear  mounds  proper  and 
interprets  them  as  having  been  constructed  for  the  purpose  of 
symbolizing  inanimate  things,  and  consequently  as  really  conven- 
tionalized effigies.  This  seems  to  him  the  only  satisfactory  explana- 
tion. "  It  is  evident,"  he  says,  "  that  there  are  intermediate  or  transi- 
tional forms  between  the  linears  and  the  pure  effigy  types  with  which 
they  are  mingled."4  He  admits  the  existence  of  linear  mounds  ex- 
tending westward  into  Minnesota  and  Manitoba,  far  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  effigy  type,  but  he  does  not  believe  it  necessary  either 
to  regard  these  latter  as  effigies  or  to  change  his  interpretation  of 
the  significance  of  the  former.  Mr.  Stout's  interpretation  is  indeed 
a  purely  arbitrary  one.  Whereas  his  identification  of  the  effigy 
mounds  was  based  upon  information  obtained  directly  from  some 
Winnebago  Indians,  that  of  the  linear  is  based  upon  what  he  thought 
was  the  necessity  of  the  case.  • 

Inquiries  made  among  the  Winnebago  of  Wisconsin  by  the  writer 
brought  out  the  fact  that  the  Indians  were  unanimous  in  claiming 
their  forefathers  as  the  authors  of  the  mounds,  but  they  were  not 
at  all  unanimous  as  to  their  significance.  By  far  the  largest  number 
of  individuals,  however,  insisted  that  these  linears  were  defensive 
works  behind  which  they  dodged  during  battle.  These  must  not  be 
confused  with  anything  in  the  nature  of  breastworks  or  fortifications. 
The  Indians  claimed  that  these  mounds  ought  to  be  found  in  great 
numbers  along  Lake  Koshkonong,  because  it  was  there  that  a  terrific 
struggle  had  once  been  waged  by  the  Winnebago  against  one  of 

»  Ohio  Archaeological  and  Historical  Quarterly,  Vol.  XX,  no.  1,  Jan.,  1911,  pp.  22-23. 
•  Ibid.,  pp.  24-26. 


RADIN]  WIKNEBAGO    ARCHEOLOGY  83 

their  hereditary  enemies.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  according  to  Mr. 
Stout,  in  the  small  area  of  31  square  miles  around  the  lake,  no  less 
than  48 1  linear  mounds  have  been  found,  and,  if  we  take  into  con- 
sideration the  fact  that  but  50  miles  to  the  northwest,  in  the  Sauk 
County  area,  734  were  found,  we  have  within  a  radius  of  231  square 
miles  an  enormous  number  of  linear  mounds.  Whether,  however, 
this  has  anything  to  do  with  the  statements  of  the  Indians  mentioned 
above  is  very  doubtful.  When  the  writer  called  the  Indians' 
attention  to  the  fact  that  structures  that  were  so  low  could  hardly 
serve  as  an  adequate  protection  against  arrows  they  retorted  by 
saying  that  the  Indians  did  not  stand  up  when  attacked  but  lay 
stretched  on  the  ground  behind  the  mounds. 

The  same  two  areas  that  yielded  such  a  large  number  of  linear 
mounds  were  also  rich  in  effigy  and  conical  mounds,  containing  225 
of  the  former  and  646  of  the  latter.  The  conclusion  is  thus  forced 
upon  us  that  we  have  here  the  seat  of  a  large  number  of  Winnebago 
settlements.  The  linear  mounds  may  therefore  be  said  to  be  char- 
acteristic features  of  certain  villages.  A  similarly  large  number  of 
linear  mounds  seems  to  exist  in  Crawford  County,  according  to  the 
investigations  of  Lapham.  It  is  possible  that  a  continuation  of 
thorough  and  systematic  studies  like  those  made  by  Mr.  Stout  in 
Sauk  County  and  Lake  Koshkonong  will  bring  to  light  many  such 
linear  mound  areas  closely  associated  with  village  sites. 

With  regard  to  the  Winnebago  interpretation  given  above  it 
might  be  said  that  we  know  of  numerous  battles  that  occurred  both 
along  Lake  Koshkonong  and  the  Mississippi,  and  that  it  would 
require  no  manipulation  of  the  facts  to  accept  the  Indians'  explana- 
tion. It  might,  nevertheless,  justifiably  be  asked  why  these  peculiar 
shapes  ?     They  can  hardly  have  had  any  importance  in  warfare. 

As  opposed  to  the  view  advanced  above,  various  interpretations 
have  been  given  at  different  times.  Peet  regarded  the  linear  mounds 
as  game  drives,  but  this  explanation  seems  to  have  been  quite 
arbitrary.  At  least  we  know  of  no  facts  that  were  brought  forth  in 
its  defense. 

Although  the  interpretation  that  we  were  here  dealing  with  de- 
fensive structures  was  by  far  the  most  common,  two  other  explana- 
tions were  obtained,  one  to  the  effect  that  the  linear  mounds  were 
the  bases  of  lodges  and  the  other  that  some,  at  least,  were  snake 
effigies.  It  is  impossible  to  say  anything  about  the  latter  conten- 
tion, although  there  may  be  more  in  it  than  is  suspected.  The 
other  explanation,  even  though  they  had  a  special  name  for  the 
projections  that  are  often  found  at  one  end  of  the  linears  (natci,  or 
wood  houses),  must  be  accepted  with  caution.  The  enormous 
length  of  some  of  the  linears  hardly  seems  to  support  such  an  assump- 


84  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

tion.  The  Winnebago  themselves  claimed  that  the  reason  lodges 
were  built  upon  mounds  was  because  they  could  thus  shed  water 
most  easily. 

The  conical  mounds  were  unquestionably  used  for  purposes  of 
burial.  Whether,  however,  they  were  always  constructed  with  that 
particular  object  in  view  may  be  seriously  doubted,  for  in  some 
cases  the  burials  seem  to  represent  clear  evidences  of  being  intrusive 
in  character.  A  few  Indians  insisted  that  some  of  the  conical 
mounds  were  used  as  platforms  from  which  to  address  an  audience; 
that  some  were  "stations"  in  the  game  of  lacrosse,  and  that  some 
were  bases  of  lodges. 

The  composite  type  of  mound,  characterized  by  the  union  of  a 
conical  and  a  linear  or  by  the  union  of  a  number  of  each,  was  inter- 
preted by  the  Winnebago  questioned  as  lodge  bases  connected  with 
one  another,  the  conical  mound  being  the  base  of  the  lodge  and  the 
"linear"  acting  as  a  sort  of  connecting  passageway. 

We  mentioned  before  that  Mr.  Stout  maintains  the  view  that  the 
linear  are  in  reality  conventionalized  effigy  mounds.  Our  main 
objection  to  such  an  interpretation  would  be  that  conventionaliza- 
tion is  a  method  of  artistic  expression  exceedingly  rare  among  the 
Winnebago.  Had  it  been  common  it  would  certainly  have  been 
found  in  use  in  their  bead  and  quill  work  or  in  their  woven  bags. 
There  is  a  possibility  that  some  of  the  linears  may  be  either  very 
crudely  constructed  effigy  mounds  or  that  they  may  represent  effigy 
mounds  that  have  been  changed  through  the  influences  of  weather 
and  general  climatic  conditions,  as  well  as,  to  a  smaller  extent,  by 
human  hands,  factors  that  have  been  neglected  altogether  too  much 
in  this  connection,  especially  in  the  interpretation  of  what  appear 
to  be  anomalies.  From  this  point  of  view,  it  would  be  suggestive 
to  compare  some  of  the  so-called  "turtle"  effigies  with  the  water- 
spirit  or  "panther"  type,  on  the  one  hand,  and  with  the  linears  on 
the  other.  It  is  perhaps  such  "transitional"  forms  that  have  led 
Mr.  Stout  to  postulate  that  all  linears  are  effigies. 

Summing  up,  we  might  say  that  the  linears  may  be  either  effigies, 
in  part  representing  a  snake,  or  they  may  be,  in  part,  altered  or 
mutilated  or  crude  effigies ;  or  they  may  be  the  bases  of  lodges.  We 
have  the  authority  of  a  number  of  Indians  that  some  are  snake  effi- 
gies. The  interpretation  that  some  are  altered  or  mutilated  has 
never  been  confirmed  by  the  Indians  themselves.  Finally,  that  some 
of  them  are  the  bases  of  lodges  is  the  statement  of  a  large  number  of 
Indians,  but  it  must  await  further  evidence  before  it  can  be  accepted. 

That  some  of  the  mounds  found  in  the  Winnebago  territory  ante- 
date, in  part,  the  coming  of  the  whites,  and  can  consequently  be 
regarded  as  constituting  an  archeological  problem,  there  can  hardly 
be  any  doubt.     Nevertheless,  many  of  them  have  been  erected  since 


radin]  WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY  85 

Nicollet's  time,  some  even  within  the  recollection  of  Winnebago  still 
living.  All  were  unquestionably  erected  by  the  Winnebago,  and 
since  there  is  no  reason  for  believing  that  this  tribe  entered  Wisconsin 
many  centuries  before  the  first  appearance  of  Europeans  in  America, 
it  is  quite  erroneous  to  state,  as  Mr.  Stout  does,  that  the  evidence  at 
hand  justifies  us  in  dividing  the  occupancy  of  Wisconsin  into  two 
principal  periods,  the  effigy  mound-budding  era  and  the  time  that 
has  elapsed  since  that  period. 

The  use  of  copper  by  the  Winnebago  prior  to  their  contact  with 
Europeans  is  another  of  the  rather  baffling  questions  connected  with 
Winnebago  archeology.  There  are  references  to  its  use  in  the  myth 
of  the  Twins,  but  the  sections  of  the  myth  where  it  is  mentioned 
show  marked  evidences  of  European  influence  and  can  hardly  be 
accepted  as  reflecting  the  original  mode  of  life  of  the  Winnebago. 
Copper  is  found  in  a  number  of  mounds,  but  we  have  no  way  of 
determining  whether  these  mounds  are  pre-Columbian  or  not. 

In  all  likelihood,  almost  all  the  copper  found  in  Wisconsin  comes 
from  the  original  copper  workings  at  Isle  Royale,  Keweenaw,  Onto- 
nagon, and  elsewhere,  in  the  Lake  Superior  district.  "A  provisional 
description  of  the  territory  in  which  the  greatest  number  of  such 
artifacts  have  been  recovered  up  to  the  present  time  may  be  given 
as  extending  from  about  the  middle  of  MUwaukee  County,  northward 
along  the  west  shore  of  Lake  Michigan  to  Door  County,  thence  west- 
ward to  the  Wisconsin  River  or  slightly  beyond,  thence  southward 
along  this  stream  to  Dane  Comity  and  eastward  to  Milwaukee  County, 
the  starting  point.  Embraced  within  this  territory  are  the  extensive 
lake  shore  village  sites,  from  which  thousands  of  articles  have  already 
been  recovered,  and  certain  well-known  sites  in  Green  Lake  and 
adjoining  counties,  the  Rush  Lake  and  similarly  productive  regions."11 

The  region  thus  described  embraces  the  Winnebago  territory  and 
that  subsequently  occupied  by  the  Central  Algonquian  tribes.  It  does 
not  follow  the  line  of  Winnebago  migrations  farther  than  the  Wis- 
consin River  to  the  west  or  farther  than  the  southern  boundary  of 
Dane  County  to  the  south  or  southwest.  As  far  as  the  writer  knows 
no  one  has  ever  been  able  to  obtain  any  information  from  the  Winne- 
bago that  would  in  any  manner  connect  them  with  the  authorship 
of  the  copper  implements  found  associated  with  their  old  village 
sites.  All  Indians  questioned  denied  that  their  ancestors  had  ever 
used  copper  before  the  arrival  of  the  early  French  traders.  For  the 
Winnebago,  it  seems  to  the  writer,  the  problem  connected  with  the. 
occurrence  of  copper  implements  is  not  whether  the  Winnebago  made 
them,  but  how  they  came  to  obtain  them.  The  solution  of  this 
problem  would  be  immensely  facflitated  if  we  had  accurate  knowledge 

11  Brown,  in  Ihe  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.  3,  no.  2,  p.  58. 


86  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

of  the  distribution  of  copper  among  the  Sauk,  Fox,  and  Kickapoo, 
and  if  we  were  in  a  position  to  tell  whether  or  not  these  tribes  had 
copper  before  their  arrival  in  Wisconsin.  We  might  then  be  in  a 
better  position  to  decide  whether  the  Winnebago  obtained  their  cop- 
per from  these  tribes  or  from  some  northern  tribe,  presumably  the 
Potawatomi  or  Menominee.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  they 
actually  did  obtain  their  copper  implements  through  the  intermedi- 
ation of  these  two  last-mentioned  tribes,  although  there  is  no  really 
conclusive  evidence  for  it.  That  opportunities  for  their  trans- 
mission through  the  Menominee  or  Potawatomi  were  plentiful  is 
unquestioned,  and  the  only  problem  is  whether  the  systematic  ex- 
change was  not  conditioned  by  the  appearance  of  the  white  traders. 

The  last  problem  connected  with  Winnebago  archeology  is  the 
authorship  of  the  numerous  flint  arrowheads.  They  are  found  all 
over  Wisconsin,  in  every  nook  and  corner  of  Winnebago  territory, 
in  every  stage  of  manufacture,  and  yet  the  Winnebago  of  to-day 
regard  them  as  having  been  made  by  some  other  tribe.  The  most 
common  explanation  of  their  origin  is  the  legendary  one  that  they 
were  made  by  worms.  In  the  few  cases  where  the  old  men  were  of 
a  different  opinion,  the  writer  was  assured  that  they  were  the  "  bones" 
of  the  water-spirits,  and  consequently  holy.  Numerous  myths 
speak  of  them  in  connection  with  the  water-spirit.  The  Indians  ad- 
mit that  they  had  at  times  used  them  as  arrow  points,  but  insist  that 
in  every  case  they  were  found  in  the  earth ;  that  in  fact  people  were 
generally  blessed  with  them.  Mr.  Skinner  informs  me  that  the 
Menominee,  on  the  other  hand,  remember  very  well  how  they  were 
made.  Among  the  Winnebago,  until  recently,  three  kinds  of  arrow 
points  were  in  use:  one,  properly  not  an  arrow  point  at  all  but  simply 
a  sharpened  arrow,  the  second  consisting  of  sharpened  portions  of 
pieces  of  antlers,  and  the  third  consisting  of  a  turtle  claw  that  had 
been  softened  and  straightened.  It  has  generally  been  maintained 
that  the  presence  of  regular  "quarries"  absolutely  clinched  the 
hypothesis  of  a  Winnebago  origin  for  the  flint  arrow  points,  but  it 
seems  to  us  that  we  would  first  have  to  prove  that  in  every  case 
where  such  quarries  are  found  no  tribe  but  the  Winnebago  had  ever 
occupied  that  territory,  because  had  any  Algonquian  tribe  been  there 
they  might  be  held  as  much  responsible  for  these  quarries  as  the 
Winnebago.  That  they  were  not  used  within  the  recollection  of  the 
oldest  men  among  the  Winnebago  there  can  be  no  doubt,  because 
this  question  was  repeatedly  put  to  them,  with  negative  results. 

It  seems  best,  therefore,  to  attach  some  significance  to  current 
belief  as  to  the  origin  of  the  flint  arrow  points  and  to  assume  for  the 
present  that  they  were  either  the  work  of  the  prehistoric  ancestors 
of  the  Winnebago  or  that  of  some  tribe  that  had  occupied  the  terri- 


hadin]  WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY  87 

tory  before   them;  or — but  this  is  extremely  unlikely — that   they 
were  all  of  Algonquian  origin. 

Implements  of  Stone  and  Other  Materials 

As  pointed  out  before,  we  ought  not  to  expect  to  find  much  strictly 
archeological  data  relating  to  the  Winnebago  in  their  Wisconsin  habi- 
tat. As,  however,  they  probably  reached  this  habitat  before  the  dis- 
covery of  America,  some  of  the  archeological  finds  may  easily  go  back 
that  far.  Unfortunately  we  have  no  way  of  determining,  even 
approximately,  the  age  of  the  artifacts. 

We  will  now  confine  ourselves  to  a  description  of  the  more  impor- 
tant types  of  artifacts  and  remains  found  on  old  Winnebago  sites 
without  going  into  the  question  of  their  respective  age. 

Implements  and  utensils  were  made  of  stone,  clay,  shell,  bone, 
wood,  antlers,  and  turtle  claws  (pi.  10).  According  to  information  ob- 
tained from  the  present  Winnebago,  which  is  supported  by  the  testi- 
mony of  the  myths  and  tales,  but  few  objects  were  made  of  stone. 
The  most  important  of  these  was  the  stone  hatchet.  It  may  even  be 
questioned  whether  the  Winnebago  originally  made  these,  for  they 
are  given  a  supernatural  origin  by  those  few  Winnebago  who  men- 
tioned their  existence,  and  it  has  been  the  author's  experience  that 
objects  to  which  a  supernatural  origin  is  ascribed  are  generally  either 
of  recent  origin  or  have  been  borrowed.  None  of  the  myths  or  tales 
even  mention  their  existence.  Nevertheless  a  large  number  of  stone 
implements,  most  of  them  presumably  stone  hatchets,  has  been 
found  at  Doty  Island,  near  Menasha,  Wis.  (pi.  11),  which  had  at  one 
time  been  one  of  their  principal  village  sites.  It  is  quite  probable  that 
the  Winnebago  obtained  most  of  these  from  the  neighboring  Algonquian 
tribes  who  were  well  known  for  their  skill  in  working  stone. 

Copper  Implements 

The  Winnebago  are  known  to  have  used  copper  implements  in 
fairly  great  abundance,  the  only  question  being  whether  they  were 
the  original  makers  of  these  objects.  We  do  not  think  they  were, 
and  base  our  opinion  on  the  answers  given  by  present-day  Indians 
and  the  total  absence  of  their  mention  in  the  myths.  Both  iron  and 
presumably  copper  are  mentioned  in  certain  myths,  but  these  pas- 
sages are  clearly  of  European  origin. 

Practically  all  of  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  distribution  of 
copper  objects  in  Wisconsin  has  been  conveniently  summarized  in  Mr. 
C.  E.  Brown's  paper  entitled  "  The  native  copper  implements  of 
Wisconsin,"12  and  all  that  we  mention  here  is  taken  from  this  little 
monograph. 

»  The  Wisconsin  Arcbtsologist,  vol.  3,  no.  2. 


88  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

Following  Brown's  classification,  we  note  the  following  copper  ob- 
jects in  Wisconsin:  Axes  or  hatchets  (the  most  common),  chisels, 
"spuds,"  gouges,  spiles,  spatulas,  knives,  spear  and  arrow  points, 
harpoon  points,  pikes  and  punches,  awls  and  drills,  spikes,  needles, 
and  fishhooks. 

The  most  important  types  of  axes  were  the  following:  Those  oblong 
in  outline,  with  edges  nearly  parallel;  those  with  straight  edges  and 
tapering,  widest  toward  the  cutting  edge  and  becoming  narrower 
toward  the  head.  The  head  itself  may  be  either  flattened,  rounded, 
or  roundly  pointed.  This  is  the  most  common  type  found.  The 
third  type,  according  to  Brown,  resembles  the  second,  "with  the  ex- 
ception that  the  margin  at  the  edges  is  slightly  but  distinctly  elevated, 
thus  giving  a  slightly  depressed  or  concave  surface  in  the  center  and 
from  end  to  end  on  one  or  both  broad  faces  of  the  ax.  In  some  ex- 
amples this  margin  is  fully  one-half  inch  in  width  at  or  near  the 
middle."13 

Three  principal  types  of  chisels  were  found:  Those  broadest  at  the 
cutting  edge,  with  edges  tapering  gradually  from  this  cutting  edge 
to  the  head;  those  of  nearly  uniform  width  with  straight  parallel 
edges;  and  those  with  a  more  or  less  prominent  median  ridge. 

According  to  Brown  there  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  their  use.  "It 
probably  included  the  hollowing  out  of  wooden  canoes,  troughs,  and 
vessels     .     .     ,"u 

Knives  are  quite  common,  there  being  two  principal  types — one 
with  a  straight  back  and  oblique,  curved,  or  straight  cutting  edge; 
and  another  distinguished  from  the  latter  by  a  greater  breadth  of  its 
broad  curved  blade  and  terminating  in  a  broadly  rounded  point. 

Spear  and  arrow  points  are  found  in  great  profusion  and  fall  into 
many  types:  The  leaf -shaped,  the  stemmed  and  flat,  the  ridged,  the 
beveled,  the  eyed,  the  notched,  the  toothed,  the  spatula-shaped,  the 
short-stemmed,  the  barbed  or  pronged,  the  conical,  the  rolled 
socketed,  and  the  ridged  socketed. 

Earthworks  and  Mounds 

Aztalan. — Apart  from  the  mounds  there  is  one  very  famous  earth- 
work in  Wisoonsin  called  Aztalan  (pi.  12)  which  has  for  many  decades 
puzzled  archeologists.  We  will  not  enter  into  any  of  the  numerous 
explanations  given  at  different  times  by  observers,  but  will  confine 
ourselves  exclusively  to  quoting  the  rather  clear  description  given 
by  Mr.  G.  A.  West:15 

The  inclosure  and  associated  earthworks  at  Aztalan,  on  the  Crawfish  River  in 
Jefferson  County,  have  long  been  considered  among  the  most  interesting  and  important 

"  The  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.  3,  no.  2,  p.  61. 

"Ibid.,  p.  62. 

15  "The  Indian  authorship  of  Wisconsin  antiquities,"  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.6,  no.  4,  pp.  219-222. 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY  THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE   9 


a.  JOHN    BAPTISTE 


6.   HUGH    HUNTER 


c.   LEVI    ST.  CYR  d.   ALBERT    HENSLEY  (Profile  view) 

WINNEBAGO    TYPES 


3UREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY       THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE   10 


WINNEBAGO    BONE     IMPLEMENTS 

(From  Wisconsin  Archeologist) 


Radin]  WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY  89 

of  the  aboriginal  monuments  of  Wisconsin.  The  inclosure  was  first  noticed  by  the 
government  surveyor.  In  1837  a  hasty  survey  was  made  by  N.  F.  Hyer,  who  after- 
wards published  a  brief  description.  ...  In  1850  Lapham  made  a  careful  survey  of 
Aztalan.  .  .  and  in  1855  published  a  description  illustrated  with  several  fine  plates 
and  figures  in  his  "Antiquities  of  Wisconsin."  .  .  . 

This  interesting  inclosure.  now  almost  obliterated  by  many  years  of  cultivation, 
may  be  briefly  described  as  being  in  the  shape  of  an  irregular  parallelogram,  lacking 
one  of  the  long  sides  which  is  supplied  by  the  bank  of  the  Crawfish  which  forms  its 
eastern  boundary.  It  is  reported  to  contain  17f  acres  of  land.  The  length  of  the 
north  wall  Lapham  gives  as  631,  the  westas  1,419,  and  the  south  as  700  feet.  The  width 
is  given  as  about  22  feet  and  the  height  at  from  1  to  5  feet.  Along  the  outer  edge  of  its 
entire  length,  at  somewhat  regular  distances,  were  rounded  projections  which  have 
been  frequently  referred  to  as  "buttresses  or  bastions,"  but  which  Lapham  deter- 
mined "were  never  designed  for  either  of  the  purposes  indicated  by  these  names." 

"The  distance  from  one  to  another  varies  from  61  to  95  feet,  scarcely  any  two  of  them 
being  exactly  alike.  Their  mean  distance  apart  is  82  feet.  On  the  north  wall  and 
on  most  of  the  west  wall  they  have  the  same  height  as  the  connecting  ridge  and  at  a 
little  distance  resemble  a  simple  row  of  mounds. 

"On  the  inner  wall,  opposite  many  of  these  mounds  (projections),  is  a  slight  de- 
pression or  sinus;  possibly  the  remains  of  a  sloping  way  by  which  the  wall  was  as- 
cended from  within  the  inclosure." — Lapham,  Antiquities,  43. 

Within  the  wall  at  the  northwest  corner  of  the  inclosure  was  a  rectangular  truncated 
pyramidal  mound,  its  level  top  measuring  60  by  65  feet.  At  its  southeast  corner  was 
a  sloping  ascent.  At  the  southwest  corner,  also  within  the  wall,  was  a  square,  trun- 
cated mound,  the  level  area  on  its  top  being  53  feet  wide  on  the  west  side,  it  being 
originally  in  all  probability  a  square  of  this  size.  Lapham's  figure  shows  the  sides 
of  the  mound  rising  in  two  terraces  to  the  top.  There  appeared  to  be  a  sloping  way' 
leading  down  from  its  top  toward  the  east.  It  was  the  highest  earthwork  within  the 
wall,  which  it  overlooked.  These  two  mounds  he  judged  to  have  been  the  probable 
foundations  of  buildings  or  of  other  structures  of  perishable  materials.  From  the 
eastern  side  of  the  last-mentioned  mound  a  line  of  wall  with  a  number  of  projections 
similar  to  those  on  the  wall  of  the  inclosure  extended  about  two-thirds  of  the  way 
to  the  river,  where  it  angled  and  proceeded  in  a  northwesterly  direction,  being  broken 
near  its  middle  to  within  about  250  feet  of  the  north  wall.  Beginning  near  the  angle 
and  on  the  east  side  of  and  paralleling  this  wall  for  its  entire  length  was  a  second  line 
of  wall  with  projections  distributed  at  various  distances  along  its  sides. 

Within  the  inclosure  were  also  a  number  of  excavations,  conical  mounds,  embank- 
ments, and  other  earthworks,  some  of  which  our  present  knowledge  enables-us  to  iden- 
tify as  very  probably  effigy  or  emblematic  mounds. 

Opposite  the  southwestern  angle  of  the  wall  of  the  inclosure  were  several  embank- 
ments also  with  projections  along  their  sides.  Scattered  at  intervals  along  the  entire 
front  of  the  west  wall  were  a  considerable  number  of  excavations  irregular  in  outline 
and  of  different  sizes  from  which  some  of  the  earth  used  in  the  construction  of  the  wall 
was  most  probably  taken. 

A  short  distance  west  of  these,  and  also  extending  along  the  front  of  the  wall,  is  a 
long  mound  of  the  familiar  tapering  effigy  type,  an  irregular  line  of  conical  mounds, 
and  a  single  linear  mound.  Several  hundred  feet  northwest  of  the  inclosure  on  the 
higher  ground  was  a  double  line  of  60  or  more  conical  mounds  of  different  sizes,  extend- 
ing from  west  of  the  present  Aztalan  road  across  the  road  and  in  a  general  northerly 
direction  into  the  present  village  of  Aztalan.  A  small  number  of  the  more  prominent 
of  these  can  still  be  seen  along  the  road. 

On  the  east  bank  of  the  Crawfish  opposite  the  inclosure  were  two  long  earthen 
embankments  and  a  group  of  conical  mounds.     The  larger  of  the  two  embankments 
1S6823°— 22 7 


90  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Lapham's  plat  shows  to  have  been  about  660  feet  in  length  and  probably  18  feet  in 
width. 

Intaglio  Mounds 

The  intaglio  mounds  (pi.  13)  are  clearly  the  reverse  of  effigy 
mounds.  They  were  discovered  by  Lapham  60  years  or  more  ago 
and  since  that  time  no  others  have  been  found.  Lapham  himself 
located  nine  of  them,  all  associated  with  earthworks,  at  Milwaukee, 
Pewaukee,  Theresa,  and  Fort  Atkinson.      At  about  the  same  time 


J' 


X 


1 


Fig.  4.— EFFIGY  MOUNDS  (PANTHER  OR  WATER-SPIRIT 
TYPE).  FORKS  OF  THE  MANITOWOC  RIVER,  CALUMET 
COUNTY,  WIS. 

Mr.  W.  H.  Canfield"  located  two  near  the  earthworks  at  Baraboo. 
Those  found  by  Lapham  are  undoubtedly  intended  to  represent 
what  most  Wisconsin  archeologists  call  the  "panther,"  but  which 
the  Winnebago  call  the  water-spirit  (wakdjexi)  (fig.  4),  while  those 
found  by  Canfield  are  probably  intended  to  represent  the  bear  (fig.  5). 


BUREAU   OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY      THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL   REPORT      PLATE    13 


) 


,&*.;*> 


WISCONSIN     INTAGLIOS 
(After  Laphamj 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY  THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE    14 


a.   BURIAL    IN    A    MOUND    AT    BORCHER'S    BEACH 
(From  Wisconsin  Archeologist) 


b.   CONICAL    MOUND,   CUTLER    PARK,   WAUKESHA,   WIS. 


BADIN] 


WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY 


91 


The  Fort  Atkinson  intaglio  is  the  only  one  now  in  existence. 
"Its  greatest  depth  (at  the  middle  of  the  hody)  is  slightly  over  2 
feet.  The  great  tail  of  the  animal  reaches  to  within  about  25  feet 
of  a  fine  large  conical  burial  mound."  16 

Conical  Mounds 

These  are  found  all  over  the  territory  once  occupied  by  the  Winne- 
bago, but  we  know  definitely  that  the 
Central  Algonquian  tribes  also  erected 
them.  In  the  following  section  we 
will  describe  but  one  group  of  these 
mounds  found  on  territory  formerly 
inhabited  by  the  Winnebago  and 
which  was  never,  or  only  for  a  very 
short  time,  occupied  by  other  tribes 
(pi.  14). 

This  interesting  group  was  located  in  Angelo  Township,  Juneau 
County,  and  is  known  as  Mound  Prairie,  West  Group  (Fig.  6). 
Twelve  mounds  are  preserved  there  with  the  following  dimensions: 


Fig.  5.— BEAR  EFFIGY  MOUND.  MADI- 
SON, WIS. 


K 


IB 


IM 


ni, 


H/ OH  WAY 


Fig.  6.— BURIAL  MOUNDS,  UPPER  BARABOO  VALLEY,  WIS. 


A  53  feet  in  diameter. 
B  48  feet  in  diameter. 
C  48  feet  in  diameter. 
D  45  feet  in  diameter. 
E  44  feet  in  diameter. 
G  48  feet  in  diameter. 


H  46  feet  in  diameter. 
I  45  feet  in  diameter. 
J  42  feet  in  diameter. 
K  65  by  30  feet. 
L  46  feet  in  diameter. 
M  38  feet  in  diameter. 


"C.  E.  Brown,  "  The  Intaglio  Mounds  of  Wisconsin,"  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.9,  no.  1,  p.  9. 


92 


THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE 


[ETH.  ANN.  37 


As  a  rule,  whenever  the  conical  mounds  represent  the  work  of  the 
Winnebago  they  are  always  found  accompanied  by  linear  and  effigy 
mounds.  At  Lake  Koshkonong,  out  of  a  total  of  481  mounds  309 
are  conical.  A  similar  proportion  is  found  in  other  groups.  Little 
has  ever  been  found  in  them  except  burials  and  there  seems  little 
doubt  that  the  vast  majority  of  them  were  always  used  for  this 
purpose.     (Pis.  15-17;  fig.  7.) 


Fig.  7.— BURIAL  MOUNDS  IN  A   GROUP  AT  RICE    LAKE,  RUSK  COUNTY,  WIS. 

In  a  number  of  places  conical  mounds  are  joined  to  linear  mounds 
or  to  other  structures,  often  producing  irregular  figures.  Mr.  A.  B. 
Stout  classifies  them  as  belonging  in  general  to  three  types.  The 
commonest  of  these  combinations  are  those  called  by  Mr.  Stout  the 
dumb-bell  and  tadpole  type  (fig.  S). 

Linear  Mounds 

Linear  mounds,  like  conical  mounds,  are  found  all  over  the  territory 
once  occupied  by  the  Winnebago.  What  purpose  they  could  have 
served  is  not  definitely  known,   although  the  modern  Winnebago 


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EAU   OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY    THIRTY-SEVENTH   ANNUAL  REPORT      PLA  l  E   18 


V 


■    . 


w 


a.   LODGE    MADE    OF    REED    MATTING 


6.  LODGE     MADE    OF    BARK    WITH    COVERING    OF    REED 

MATTING 


c.    LODGE     MADE    OF    BARK 


RADIX] 


WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY 


03 


»•  ft!!* 

Tig.  8.— EFFIGY  AND  DUMB-BELL-SHAPED  MOUNDS. 


<0 


T 

Q 


JE 


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Fig.  9.— LINEAR  MOUNDS  AT  MADISON,  WIS. 
n-  ,  s  c  o  -v  -5  -  ~  "  '  v  £  * 


Fig.  10.— LINEAR    MOUNDS,  CLYDE   TOWNSHIP,  IOWA  COUNTY.  WIS. 


94 


THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE 


[DTH.  ANN.  37 


Fig.  11.— EFFIGY  AND  LINEAR   MOUNDS,  PISHTAKA,  WAUKESHA  COUNTY,  WIS. 


Fig.  12.— EFFIGY  MOUNDS  IN  THE   WINGRA   GROUP,  MADISON,  WIS. 


KADIN] 


WIXXEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY 


95 


Fig.  13.— BIRD  EFFIGY  MOUNDS. 


Fig.  14— MAN   MOUND,  GREENFD2LD  TOWNSHIP,  SAUK  COUNTY,  WIS. 


THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE 


[ETH.  ANN.  37 


Fig.  16.-TYPES  OF  SO-CALLED  TURTLE  EFFIGY  MOUNDS. 


FIG.  17.— EFFIGY  MOUND   OF  UNKNOWN  ANIMAL. 


BADIN] 


WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY 


97 


FIG.  18.-LA   VALLE   MAN   MOUND,  SAUK  COUNTY,  WIS. 


Sec. Line 


Ji 


ifcy^t-r 


^ 


^ 


Fig.  19.-GROUP  OF  MOUNDS  OF  DIFFERENT  TYPES,  LAKE   KOSHKONONC,  WIS. 


98  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

seem  to  be  practically  unanimous  in  explaining  them  as  either  the 
base  of  lodges  or  as  defenses  (figs.  9,  10,  11). 

Effigy  Mounds 

Effigy  mounds  (figs.  4,  5,  11-18)  are  discussed  at  some  length 
in  the  following  pages.  The  following  types  are  found:  The 
bird,  the  bear,  the  panther  or  water-spirit,  the  deer  (uncommon), 
the  wolf  (uncommon),  the  turtle,  and  the  so-called  man.  The 
commonest  by  far  are  the  bird,  bear,  and  water-spirit,  and  this 
woidd  seem  to  corroborate  the  statements  of  living  Winnebago 
that  these  mounds  represent  the  clan  effigies,  for  these  three  clans 
were  by  far  the  most  important  and  numerous  in  the  tribe.  Certain 
of  the  clans  are  apparently  not  represented,  particularly  the  elk, 
the  buffalo,  the  snake,  and  the  fish,  while  but.  isolated  examples 
of  two  fairly  important  clans,  the  wolf  and  the  deer,  are  found. 
If  the  so-called  turtle  mounds  (fig.  16)  were  really  intended  to 
represent  that  animal,  we  would  have  the  only  instance  of  a 
large  number  of  mounds  that  can  not  possibly  be  connected  with  the 
Winnebago  clans,  for  the  tribe  never  had  a  Turtle  clan.  However, 
these  mounds  may  not  really  have  been  intended  to  represent  turtles. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  believe  that  the 
effigy  mounds  represented  only  clan  animals.  It  is  possible  that 
some  were  erected  for  religious  purposes. 

Owing  to  the  fact  that  so  many  effigy  mounds  have  been  destroyed 
in  the  last  two  or  three  centuries,  it  is  quite  impossible  to  be  certain 
of  the  distribution  of  specific  types.  Even  those  still  in  existence 
have  not  all  been  carefully  noted  and  described.  Until  this  is  done, 
no  even  approximately  definitive  conclusions  can  be  drawn  as  to  the 
reasons  for  the  prevalence  of  certain  types  in  one  area  and  others  in 
other  areas.  To  give  some  idea  of  their  distribution,  however,  we 
will  describe  briefly  their  distribution  in  those  sections  of  Wisconsin 
that  have  been  fairly  thoroughly  studied: 

Lake  Mendota. — Two  types  of  bird,  bear,  water-spirit,  and  the 
very  rare  effigy  of  a  frog. 

Lake  Koshkonong. — Two  types  of  bird,  water-spirit,  frog  ?  mink  ( 
and  an  unknown  mammal. 

Fond  du  Lac. — Water-spirit,  one  type  of  bird,  turtle. 

Lake  Wauiesa. — Water-spirit,  three  types  of  bird,  bear,  turtle, 
and  lynx. 

Turtle  Creek,  Bock  County.  —Water-spirit,  turtle. 

Winnebago  County. — Water-spirit,  bear,  bird. 

Lake  Wingra. — Water-spirit,  turtle,  three  types  of  bird,  and  bear. 

Mantiowoc  County. — Bird,  water-spirit,  turtle. 

Sauk  County. — One  type  of  bird,  bear,  mink,  water-spirit. 


RADIX] 


WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY 


99 


In  general  it  may  be  said  that  effigies  of  the  bird  type  are  found 
over  the  entire  region  in  which  effigies  are  found,  although  certain 
types  seem  to  have  a  restricted  range — the  bear  type,  westward  from 
Lake  Waubesa  to  Sauk  County  and  probably  beyond;  the  water- 
spirit,  over  the  entire  region  from  Milwaukee  to  Madison  and  as  far 
north  as  Gills   Landing  in  Waupaca  County;  the  goose,  at  Lake 


Fig.20.— ARCHEOLOllIC  MAP  OF  LAKE  KOSHKONONG. 


INDEX  Tj   MAP. 


Conch  shell  cache,  1842. 
Black  Hawk's  camp,  1832. 
Ogden  group. 

Rock  River  group  and  village  site. 
Tay-e-he-dah  group  and  village  site. 
Taylor  House  group. 
Fulton  group. 

Koshkonong  group  and  village  sir- 
John  Son  group. 

Noe  Springs  group  and  village  site. 
North  group. 
Rufus  Bingnam  group. 
Le  Sellier  group  and  village  site. 
Goldthorpe  burials. 
Messmer  Garden  beds. 
Kumlien  group, 
a-b-c.  Koshkonong  Creek  mounds  and  village 

site. 
Conch  shell  cache,  1867. 


19.  Draves  group. 

20.  Skavlem  group. 

21.  Carcajou  mounds  and  White  Orow's  village. 

22.  Loge  Bay  mounds  and  garden  beds. 

23.  Altpeter  group  and  White  Ox's  village. 

24.  Man  Eater's  village. 

24  and  25.  Gen.  Atkinson  group. 

26.  Hoard  group  and  Kewaskum's  camp. 

27.  Fun  Hunter's  Point  mound  and  cornfield. 

28.  Lookout  group. 

29.  Haight's  Creek  group. 

30.  Atkinson's  camp. 

31.  Indian  cornfields. 

32  and  33.  Ira  Bingham  group  and  village  site. 

34  and  35.  Thiebeau  Point  village siteand  cornfields. 

36.  French  trader's  cabin  sites. 

37.  Camp  site  and  cornfield. 

38.  Black  Hawk  Island  camp  site. 


100  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [ets.  ann.  37 

Waubesa  and  the  upper  Madison  lakes;  the  lynx  type,  at  Lake 
Waubesa,  as  far  east  as  Lake  Koshkonong,  and  as  far  west  as  Devils 
Lake  in  Sauk  County. 

Description  of  Lake  Koshkonong  Mounds 

In  order  to  give  an  idea  of  what  a  carefully  planned  survey  of  a 
particular  region  has  yielded  we  will  quote  Mr.  A.  B.  Stout's  summary 
of  his  work  at  Lake  Koshkonong  (figs.  19,  20) :  " 

A  total  of  481  mounds  are  here  noted.  This  does  not  include  the  mounds  entirely 
destroyed  at  Thiebeau  Point,  the  Koshkonong  Groups,  and  the  Kumlien  Group. 
There  are  157  mounds  on  the  east  side  and  324  on  the  west  side  of  the  lake.  There 
are  still  well  preserved  394  mounds.  There  is  a  total  of  309  conical  mounds  of  which 
233  are  on  the  west  side,  but  of  the  42  effigies  24  are  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake. 

In  most  cases  the  grouping  as  given  is  in  no  wise  arbitrary.  All  the  large  and 
important  groups  are  composed  of  mounds  rather  compactly  arranged.  Groups  3, 
4,  6,  11,  and  17  are  more  or  less  scattered  and  are  considered  as  groups  chiefly  for 
convenience  in  description. 

The  largest  group  is  the  Koshkonong  Group  of  78  mounds.  Next  in  rank  are  the 
General  Atkinson  Group  of  73,  the  Noe  Springs  Group  of  64,  the  Hoard  Group  of  36, 
the  Le  Sellier  Group  of  29,  the  Kumlien  Group  of  28,  the  Altpeter  Group  of  28,  and 
the  Rufus  Bingham  Group  of  21.  In  these  8  well-defined  groups  are  found  357  of 
the  total  of  481  mounds. 

All  of  these  mounds  are  found  in  an  area  of  42  square  miles,  of  which  13  are  covered 
with  water  and  at  least  5  more  occupied  by  swamp  and  marsh  lands. 

THE   CONICAL   MOUNDS 

As  previously  stated,  this  type  is  the  most  abundant.  Most  are  low,  many  are  no 
more  than  2  feet  in  height.  In  fact,  there  are  but  23  that  are  4  or  more  feet  in  height. 
The  largest  of  the  conical  mounds  are  as  follows:  ...  60  by  12  feet  in  diameter; 
...  75  by  10;  ...  45  by  8;  ...  54  by  7;  ...  63  by  6. 

.  .  .  Some  conical  mounds  are  built  with  edges  overlapping,  forming  a  sort  of 
chain  of  mounds.     There  is  some  evidence  of  superimposed  mounds.  .  .  . 

Nearly  all  the  conical  mounds  have  been  opened  in  a  more  or  less  desultory  manner. 
The  few  clues  at  hand  as  to  the  results  of  such  digging  confirm  the  opinion  that  this 
type  of  mound  was  built  for  burial  purposes. 

It  will  be  noted  .  .  .  that  several  mounds  are  oval  in  outline.  Two  others  are 
pear-shaped  .  .  .  with  the  larger  end  built  considerably  higher.  The  oval  type 
appears  to  grade  into  the  short  linear.  This  may  be  noted  in  the  General  Atkinson 
and  Altpeter  groups. 

COMBINATIONS    OF  CONICAL  AND   LINEAR   FORMS 

The  dumb-bell  form . — Two  mounds  of  the  Altpeter  Group  are  of  this  form  ...  In 
these  the  ends  are  decidedly  conical  and  may  possibly  be  superimposed  upon  the 
ends  of  short  linear  mounds. 

The  tadpole  type. — This  type  of  mound  consists  of  a  more  or  less  pronounced  conical 
mound  from  which  extends  a  straight  pointed  linear  portion  that  varies  in  length  .  .  . 
In  No.  4  of  the  Koshkonong  Group  the  conical  part  is  40  by  6  with  the  linear  part 
comparatively  low  and  short.  In  other  cases  .  .  .  the  conical  part  is  wide  and 
flattened.     In  still  other  cases  the  linear  part  is  quite  long  .  .  . 

Irregular  forms. — Nos.  5  and  6  of  the  Noe  Springs  Group  are  unusual  combinations 
of  conical  and  linear  mounds.     The  conical  mounds  are  in  some  cases  several  feet 

"  "The  Archaeology  of  the  Lake  Koshkonong  Region,"  by  A.  B.  Stout  and  H.  L.  Skavlem,  Wisconsin 
Archeologift,  vol.  7,  no.  2,  1908. 


eadin]  WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY  101 

higher  than  the  adjoining  linear  part.  The  surface  examination  made  at  the  time 
of  this  survey  gave  the  opinion  that  the  conical  mounds  had  been  built  upon  the 
linear  parts  possibly  at  a  later  period. 

LINEAR   MOUNDS 

The  -pure  linear  type. — This  type  is  shown  in  .  .  .  [fig.  8].  The  mounds  thus 
classed  are  straight  and  uniform  in  height  and  width .  Some  are  so  short  as  to  almost 
approach  the  oval  form. 

The  straight  pointed  linear  type. — Thi3  form  is  shown  in  .  .  .  [fig.  8]  and  is 
usually  of  great  length,  widest  at  one  end  and  tapering  to  a  point  at  the  other  .  .  . 
Twelve  of  this  type  are  found.     The  longest  measures  675  and  the  shortest  120  feet. 

The  angular  linear  type. — In  group  9,  No.  3  .  .  .  [fig.  8]  there  is  this  peculiar 
type  which  is  so  abundant  along  the  Wisconsin  River  in  Sauk  County. 

The  club-shaped  linear  type. — This  form  is  shown  in  .  .  .  [fig.  8]  and  is  a  slight 
variation  of  the  pure  linear  type.     There  are  three  of  this  class. 

The  curved  linear  type. — This  is  a  linear  form  having  a  slight  kidney  or-  crescent 
shape.     There  are  but  two  mounds  of  this  type  at  Lake  Koshkonong. 

In  the  Altpeter  Group  are  three  linear-like  mounds  that  might  be  classed  as  effigies. 
No.  1  [fig.  S]  is  much  like  the  "mink"  type.  No.  3  bears  some  resemblance  to  the 
same  type,  and  No.  2  to  the  "tadpole"  type.  In  the  latter,  however,  the  head  end  is 
but  little  higher  than  the  adjoining  linear  part  and  bulges  slightly  more  on  one  side. 

EFFIGIES 

The  forms  and  sizes  of  the  various  effigies  can  be  best  understood  by  a  study  of  the 
[various  illustrations]  .  .  .  Not  including  the  three  mounds  just  mentioned  or  any 
of  the  "tadpole"  type,  there  are  42  mounds  that  are  plainly  effigies.  Three  of  these 
are  nearly  destroyed;  the  others  are  well  preserved. 

BIRD    EFFIGIES 

.  .  .  All  of  these  lie  on  the  east  side  of  the  lake  in  two  closely  associated  groups. 
There  are  six  such  effigies  in  the  General  Atkinson  Group  and  four  in  the  Hoard 
Group. 

But  two  have  the  wings  at  right  angles  to  the  body  and  both  of  these  are  low  and 
flattened  with  heavy  broad  bodies  in  marked  contrast  to  splendid  mounds  of  this 
class  in  other  parts  of  the  State. 

Of  the  class  having  the  wings  extremely  drooped  .  .  .  there  are  five.  Nos.  28 
and  29  in  the  Hoard  Group  have  a  conical-like  breast,  while  those  of  the  General 
Atkinson  Group  have  the  surface  of  the  body  nearly  level.  The  two  small  bird  effi- 
gies close  to  the  Lake  View  Hotel  .  .   .  have  a  conical  breast  and  wings  half  drooping. 

MAMMAL    EFFIGIES 

All  of  the  mounds  shown  in  .  .  .  [fig.  15]  represent  the  animal  as  lying  on  one  side 
with  the  fore  limbs  and  the  hind  limbs  united.  It  will  be  seen  that  there  are  several 
splendid  examples  of  the  "  panther"  type. 

Nos.  4  and  31  are  of  similar  form,  but  represent  the  animal  with  the  tail  raised. 
These  two  are  on  opposite  sides  of  the  lake  and  are  the  only  effigies  of  this  precise 
character. 

Of  the  "mink"  type  there  is  an  example  in  the  Le  Sellier  Group. 

Mound  No.  1  of  the  Draves  Group  and  the  effigy  in  the  Taylor  House  Group  are 
the  only  ones  of  their  class  existing  at  the  lake. 

Of  all  the  forms  and  types  to  be  found  in  this  region  the  mound  shown  in  .  .  . 
[fig.  17]  is  perhaps  the  most  .  .  .  complicated,  and  it  will  be  interesting  to  learn 
if  there  exists  elsewhere  in  the  State  a  mound  of  similar  form. 

TURTLE   AND   ALLIED   FORMS 

There  are  seven  short  .  .  .  and  two  .  .  .  long-tailed  "turtle"  effigies  in  this  region. 

Mound  No.  60  of  the  Atkinson  Group  differs  from  the  "turtle"  effigy  in  profile  as 

well  as  in  outline.     The  head  is  considerably  higher  than  the  part  midway  between 


102 


THE   WINNEBAGO   TEIBE 


[ETH.  ANN.  37 


the  hind  limbs.  No.  36  of  the  Hoard  Group  is  similar,  'but  has  a  truncated  tail. 
Mound  No.  61  shows  still  another  departure  in  outline.  .  .  .  The  four  mounds  just 
mentioned  have  no  duplicates  in  the  area.  All  the  mounds  shown  in  .  .  .  [fig.  16] 
are  similar  in  that  the  animal  is  represented  from  a  dorsal  view  .  .  . 

THE   GROUPING 

A  study  of  the  various  groups  shows  that  there  was  no  uniform  plan  in  their  con- 
struction. In  general  they  occupy  prominent  elevations  near  the  lake.  There  is  a 
rather  promiscuous  mingling  of  types  and  arrangement  of  mounds  which  suggests  that 
a  group  is  the  result  of  several  or  many  years  of  continuous  building  during  which 
mounds  were  added  as  desired  and  simply  grouped  to  suit  the  immediate  topography.'8 


Stone 


Arrow  and  spearpoints. 

Perforators  and  scrapers. 

Hammerstones. 

Clubheads. 

Grinding  and  polishing  stones. 

Gorgets. 

Plummets. 

IHscoidals. 

Stone  balls. 


Spearpoints. 

Awls. 

Blanks. 

Rolled  copper  arrowpoints. 

Beads. 


Pipe,  broken,  and  fragments  of  others. 
Pottery  disks. 


Bone  beads,  several  styles. 
Bone  aw  1. 

Columella  of  large  sea  shell. 
Valves  of  fresh-water  clamshells. 
Bones  of  various  birds  and  animals. 


Knives. 

Grooved  axes  and  hammers. 

Celts,  numerous,  many  broken. 

Pipes  and  fragments  of  pipes  (of  catlinite,  steatite, 

limestone,  sandstone,  etc.). 
Sawed  pieces  of  catlinite. 
Flint  spalls,  chips,  flakes,  fragments,  nodules,  and 

rejects. 
Burned  stones  from  fireplaces. 


Copper 


Earring. 

Fishhook. 

Chisel. 

Knives. 

Rings. 


Pottery 

t    Potsherds,  shell,  sand  and  quartz  tempered. 

Bone  and  shell 

"Jewel  stones ''  from  sheepshead  perch. 

Jawbones  of  pickerel. 

Carapace  of  mud  turtle. 

Shell  beads,  disk-shaped  and  cylindrical  styles. 

Shell  gorget. 


The  Max  Mound 


What  probably  constitutes  the  most  interesting  type  of  mound 
found  in  Wisconsin  is  the  so-called  Man  mound,  two  examples  of 
which  are  known,  both  from  Sauk  County,  one  from  Greenfield 
Township  and  the  other  known  as  the  La  Valle  Man  mound.  The 
second  of  these  has  long  been  obliterated,  but  is  known  to  us  from  a 
plat  made  by  Mr.  Canheld  in  1872  (figs.  14,  18.) 

Lapham  19  described  the  Greenfield  township  Man  mound  as 
follows: 

The  figure  is  no  less  than  214  feet  in  length,  the  head  30  feet  long,  the  body  100,  and 
the  legs  84.     The  head  lies  toward  the  south  and  the  movement  [of  the  body]  is  west- 

•  18  The  following  will  give  an  idea  of  the  material  collected  from  one  village  site  in  this  region.    The  village 
site  is  known  as  the  White  Crow  site.    The  information  is  taken  from  the  Wisconsin  Areheologist,  vol. 
7,  no.  2,  p.  93. 
19  Quoted  by  Brown  in  Wisconsin  Areheologist,  vol.  7,  no.  4,  p.  140. 


BADIN] 


WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY 


103 


ward.  All  of  the  lines  of  this  most  singular  effigy  are  curved  gracefully,  and  much 
care  has  been  bestowed  upon  its  construction.  The  head  is  ornamented  with  two 
projections,  or  horns,  giving  a  comical  expression  to  the  whole  figure,     [fig.  14.] 

Miscellaneous  Structures 

Stone  chambers. — These  are  found  in  a  number  of  places  and  were 
apparently  always  used  for  burial.  According  to  the  present  Winne- 
bago, chiefs  were  often  buried  in  them  (pi.  16). 

Garden  beds  (fig.  21). — These 
were  first  described  by  Lapham. 
According  to  him20  they  were  "low, 
broad,  parallel  ridges,  as  if  corn 
had  been  planted  in  chills.  They 
average  4  feet  in  width,  25  of  them 
having  been  counted  in  the  space 
of  a  hundred  feet,  and  the  depth 
of  the  walk  between  them  is  about 
6  inches." 

Mr.  C.  E.  Brown  also  found 
some  which  he  has  described  in 2l 
his  paper  on  "Wisconsin  Garden 
Beds:" 

To  the  southwest  .  .  .  was  a  remnant  of 
a  fourth  plot  of  beds  with  11  rows.  Their 
direction  was  northeast  and  southwest,  and 
their  length  then  about  52  feet,  a  portion 
having  been  obliterated  by  the  plow.  On 
another  plot  of  ground,  lying  to  the  west 
of  that  upon  which  all  of  the  above  de- 
scribed are  situated,  occurred  a  fifth  plot 
of  beds,  having  a  northeast  and  southwest 
direction.     The  rows  numbered    12   and 

were  about  48  feet  long.  A  sixth  plot  of  beds,  running  north  and  south,  numbered 
28  rows,  each  about  84  feet  long.  Its  dimensions  were  about  the  same  as  those  of  the 
first  plot. 

In  summing  up,  Mr.  Brown  says:22 

In  concluding  an  examination  of  the  evidence  now  available  upon  the  subject  of 
the  age  of  the  Wisconsin  garden  beds  it  may  be  stated  that  examples  have  now  been 
located  in  16  different  localities  in  the  State.  The  area  in  which  these  occur  may  be 
described  as  being  bounded  by  Green  Bay  on  the  north  and  Racine  County  on  the 
south,  and  extending  from  Lake  Michigan  westward  to  the  Fox- Wisconsin  waterway. 
In  nearly  every  instance  where  garden  beds  are  closely  associated  with  mounds  there 
is  good  reason  to  believe  that  their  origin  and  age  is  identical.  Like  the  mounds,  most 
garden  beds  are  prehistoric,  but  some  were  constructed  in  early  historic  times.  Their 
association  in  some  instances  with  plots  of  cornhills  indicates  that  in  these  cases  these 
two  features  of  our  archeology  are  also  contemporaneous. 

20  Antiquities  of  Wisconsin.    Smithsonian  Cont.  to  Knowledge,  vol.  vn,  p.  19,  1855. 

21  Wisconsin  Archeologist,  vol.  8,  no.  3,  p.  100. 

22  Ibid.,  pp.  104-105. 


Fig.  21—  WISCONSIN  GARDEN  BEDS. 


CHAPTER  III 


MATERIAL  CULTURE 
Habitations 

In  former  times  the  Winnebago  seem  to  have  had  eight  types  of 
lodges:  The  round  lodge  (tci  p'arap'a'ratc),  the  long  lodge  (tci 
se'retc),  the  tipi,  the  grass  lodge,  the  gable  lodge  ( nanhaitci  p'a'ra-p'- 
aratc),  the  platform  lodge,  the  ceremonial  lodge,  and  the  sweat, 
lodge.  Of  the  round  lodge  and  the  long  lodge  there  are  three  varie- 
ties— one  made  entirely  of  bark  (pi.  18,  c ) ;  another  made  entirely  of 
reed  mattings  (pi.  18,  a) ;  and  still  another  of  bark  with  a  roof  cover- 
ing of  reed  matting  (pi.  18,  b).  The  round  and  long  lodges  of  all 
three  types  are  occasionally  seen  even  now,  rarely  as  habitations, 
however,  but  as  storehouses  (pi.  19).  Gable  lodges  are  no  longer 
found  among  the  Winnebago,  but  the  writer  has  been  informed  that 
a  few  still  exist  among  the  Sauk  and  Fox  living  near  Tama,  Iowa. 

The  round  and  the  long  bark  lodges  are  constructed  in  a  very 
simple  manner.  These  are  built  of  poles  of  ironwood  (tcatco'rm) 
driven  into  the  ground,  bent  over  and  lashed  to  other  poles 
which  meet  them  from  the  opposite  direction.  The  poles  are  tied 
together  with  basswood  bark  (Mnclce'xuntc).  The  same  material 
is  used  in  attaching  to  these  poles  the  cedar  bark  that  forms  the 
walls  of  the  lodge.  The  walls  are  supported  on  the  inside  by  a  vary- 
ing number  of  poles  (tcicu'  curuleanp)  attached  to  the  corresponding 
poles  of  the  other  side.  In  many  cases  a  series  of  transverse  poles 
(tcicu'  nanjiy¥ere)  are  inserted  beneath  the  exterior  vertical  poles. 
These  can  be  seen  in  plate  18,  a,  b,  c.  The  bark  roofs  are  incased 
in  frames  made  of  irregularly  distributed  vertical  poles  with  generally 
one  transverse  pole  (pi.  18,  a,  b,  c).  If  the  roofs  are  of  reed  mat- 
ting two  or  three  of  the  external  poles  have  poles  attached  to  them 
which  are  arched  across  the  matting  (pi.  18  a,  b,  c).  The  reed 
matting  lodges,  as  a  rule,  have  no  external  vertical  poles  and  only 
two  transverse  poles  each,  one  on  the  outside  and  one  on  the  inside 
(pl.  19,  e). 

Although  considered  of  Winnebago  origin  by  many  Indians,  these 

bark  and  reed  matting  lodges  are  in  all  probability  of  Central  Algon- 

quian  origin.     They  are  easily  constructed  and  for  that  reason  were 

generally  used  for  temporary  purposes  in  the  olden  times.     Accord- 

104 


BUREAU  OF    AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY     THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE    19 


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a.    LODGE    MADE    OF    BARK 


6.    MODERN    LODGE    WITH    CANVAS    COVERING 


LODGE    MADE    OF    REED    MATTING 


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MATERIAL    CULTURE 


105 


a 


ing  to  the  oldest  informants,  the  earliest  type  of  lodge  used  by  the 
Winnebago  was  the  ten-fire  gable  lodge,  of  which  there  were  two 
types,  rectangular  in  form,  one  built  on  a  platform  and  the  other  on 
the  ground.  Poles  of  cedar,  forked  at  the  top,  formed  the  sides. 
Through  the  forks  transverse  poles  were  laid  to  which  the  gable  roof 
was  attached.  Three  poles  (nanji'¥ere)  were  arranged  in  the  center 
of  the  lodge  for  the  better  support  of  the  roof.  Beds  were  placed 
along  both  of  the  long  sides  on  a  platform  raised  2  feet  (haza'tc). 
Frequently  a  platform  4  to  5  feet  high  was 
erected  in  the  rear  of  the  lodge  and  parti- 
tioned off.  Here  the  favorite  child  of  the 
family  lived  when  he  was  fasting.  In  front 
of  the  lodge  a  spot  was  always  kept  carefully 
cleared  ( nowaxi'nera) .  There  were  two  door- 
ways to  the  lodge.  Often  the  entrances  were 
shaded  with  boughs.  According  to  some  in- 
formants, this  was  only  done  for  the  chief's 
lodge.  According  to  another  description  of 
the  gable  lodge,  there  were  only  two  centra 
poles,  one  at  each  entrance ;  these  were  always 
painted  blue  to  symbolize  the  day  (fig.  22,  b). 

As  far  as  can  be  learned  at  the  present  tune, 
the  platform  lodges  were  merely  gable  lodges 
on  platforms.  What  purpose  the  platform 
served  is  now  difficult  to  determine,  but  most 
Winnebago  questioned  said  that  it  was  pro- 
vided as  a  protection  against  the  dampness 
of  the  ground  and  insects. 

Tire  ceremonial  lodge  was  merely  a  large, 
long  bark  lodge.  The  grass  lodge  seems  to 
have  been  a  roughly  constructed  round  lodge 
with  a  covering  of  grass  instead  of  bark. 
The  sweat  lodge  was  a  round  bark  lodge 
having  a  framework  of  four  poles.  The  tipi 
was  of  a  simple  type  provided  with  a  three- 
pole  framework. 

All  the  evidence  obtained  points  to  the  fact 
that  lodges  of  these  types  were  used  synchronously.  According  to  the 
myths  and  the  oldest  informants,  in  ancient  times  a  village  occupied  for 
a  considerable  period  consisted  entirely  of  gable  lodges,  but  these  seem 
to  have  given  way  to  the  round  and  long  type,  probably  borrowed  from 
the  Central  Algonquian.  The  gable  type  seems  to  have  held  its  own, 
however,  among  the  more  western  villages  of  the  Winnebago.  The 
round  bark  lodges  were  used  in  winter  and  the  reed  matting  lodges  in 
186823"— 22 S 


Fig.  22  — a,  CROSS-SECTION 
OF  ROUND  LODGE. 
b,  CROSS-SECTION  OF 
GABLE  LODGE. 


106 


THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE 


[ETH.  ANN.  37 


spring  and  summer.  In  the  spring  those  who  still  lived  in  bark 
lodges  covered  the  roofs  with  reed  matting,  as  that  material  shed 
water  more  effectually  than  bark.  The  tipi  was  generally  used  on 
the  hunt,  the  grass  lodge  merely  for  a  shelter  overnight. 

All  the  duties  connected  with  the  construction  of  the  lodge  be- 
longed to  the  woman.  These  duties  do  not  seem  to  have  been  re- 
stricted to  any  special  class  of  women  except  in  the  construction  of 
ceremonial  lodges,  in  which  only  women  who  had  passed  their  cli- 
macteric could  participate. 

Clothing  and  Adornment 

In  discussing  the  personal  adornment  of  men  it  must  be  remem- 
bered that  in  former  times  each  costume  generally  had  special  sig- 
nificance  and  could  be  worn  only  on  certain  occasions.     Moreover, 


Fig.  23.— PATTERN  OF  MEN'S 
BUCKSKIN  LEGOINGS. 


/  srw 

SFW      \ 

Fig.  24. 


-PATTERN  OF  WOMEN'S  BUCKSKIN 
SHIRT. 


certain  articles  of  dress,  as  arm  bands  and  garters,  could  be  worn 
only  by  certain  people.  The  significance  of  most  of  the  items  com- 
prising a  man's  costume,  as  well  as  the  proper  occasion  for  wearing 
them,  has  long  been  forgotten  and  today  everything  relating  to  dress 
and  adornment  is  hopelessly  confused.  Illustrations  of  the  various 
articles  of  apparel  will  be  found  in  plates  20-23;  figures  23-26. 
The  men's  clothing  is  thus  described  by  Skinner:1 

The  men's  garments  obtained  in  Wisconsin  consisted  of  leggings  of  ribbon-worked 
cloth,  or  of  plain  buckskin .  ...  Some  of  the  latter  are  made  skin-tight,  with  a  broad 
flap  fringed  at  the  edge.  The  decorated  flap  of  the  cloth  and  the  fringe  of  the  buck- 
skin are  worn  outside.  Some  are  made  by  folding  over  a  rectangular  piece  of  leather 
and  holding  the  sides  together  by  means  of  thongs  passing  through  from  side  to  side, 
their  ends  serving  in  lieu  of  a  fringe.  Some  little  boys'  leggings  are  skin-tight  and 
fringed  only  at  the  top.  The  clout  is  of  three  pieces,  a  strip  of  plain,  cheap  material 
to  cover  the  genitals,  supported  at  each  end  by  a  belt,  and  two  beaded  broadcloth 


i  In  "Notes  Concerning  New  Collections,"  Anthr.  Papers  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.,  vol.  rv,  part  II,  pp. 
292-293. 


RADIX] 


MATERIAL    CULTURE 


107 


flaps  falling  over  the  front  and  rear,  and  sometimes  merely  two  ornamented  flaps  tying 
on  like  aprons  fore  and  aft  and  not  passing  between  the  legs  at  all.  Shirts  of  cloth  or 
buckskin  are  beaded  about  the  collar,  over  the  shoulders,  and  down  the  front  over 
the  chest,  where  the  head  opening  is.  Buckskin  shirts  are  often  fringed  at  the  junc- 
ture of  the  sleeves  with  the  trunk  at  the  shoulders,  as  well  as  along  the  seamB  of  the 
sleeves.  Beaded  garters  are  worn  outside  the  leggings  below  the  knees,  and  beaded, 
or  (ierman  silver,  arm  bands  may  be  seen. 

The  shirt  worn  by  the  women  in  former  times  seems  to  have  been 
similar  except  as  to  length  to  that  worn  by  the  men,  but  the  leg- 


COLLAH 


FIG.  25— PATTERN  OF  MEN'S  MOCCASIN. 

gings  were  characteristically  different.  These  consisted  of  a  straight 
piece  of  buckskin  folded  around  itself  so  as  to  leave  no  free  flap. 
The  upper  part  had  a  cuff.  There  was  no  flap  at  the  bottom  falling 
over  the  moccasin,  as  in  the  case  of  men's  leggings  (figs.  23,  24). 

The  skirt  is  a  single  piece  of  broadcloth,  the  ends  of  which  are  handsomely  ribbon- 
worked  in  applique  on  the  outer  side.  The  garment  is  wrapped  around  the  body, 
the  ends  meeting  in  front,  bringing  the  ribbon-worked  horizontal  bands  together,  the 
opening  being  in  front.  The  upper  part  of  the  garment  is  folded  outward  over  the 
woven  belt  which  confines  it.  A  curious  shirtwaist,  short  and  beribboned,  is  worn 
outside  the  belt.     A  shawl  or  blanket  of  broadcloth,  handsomely  ribboned,  completes 


108 


THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE 


[ETH.  ANN.  37 


the  costume.  This  is  worn  not  over  the  head,  but  the  shoulders.  ...  It  may  be 
observed  that  in  the  photographs  which  date  back  a  number  of  years,  the  waists  Worn 
by  the  women  are  very  much  longer  than  those  now  in  vogue,  falling  almost  to  the 


There  is  a  marked  difference  between  the  moccasins  worn  by 
men  and  those  worn  by  women  (pis.  24,  25).  The  former  are  cut 
out  as  shown  in  figure  25,  a.  h.      When  folded,  they  have  the  shape 


Fig.  26. -PATTERN  OF  WOMEN'S  MOCCASIN. 


shown  in  figure  25,  b.  There  are  two  seams,  one  in  front  and  one  in 
the  back.  The  women's  moccasins  are  cut  in  much  the  same  manner, 
but  they  have  a  large  flap  falling  over  the  front  (fig.  26,  a,  b). 
The  string  used  in  fastening  the  moccasins  to  the  feet  is  always 
attached  to  the  rear  end  (fig.  25,  a,  b).- 

Hats. — As  a  rule  no  head  coverings  of  any  kind  were  worn,  but 
in  winter,  according  to  the  author's  Wisconsin  informants,  the 
head  was  protected  by  a  hoodlike   covering. 

-  Excellent  illustrations  of  Winnebago  moccasins  may  be  found  also  in  Anthr.  Papers  Amer.  Mas.  Xat. 
Hist.,  vol.  iv,  pt.  n,  p.  291. 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY        THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE   23 


a.   GROUP    OF    WINNEBAGO     IN    OLD-STYLE    COSTUMES 


b.   WINNEBAGO    FAMILY 


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BUREAU    OF    AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY       THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE   30 


MISCELLANEOUS    OBJECTS 


a.  Birch-bark  receptacle. 

b.  Frame  for  stringing  beads. 

c.  Stall  with  personal  markings. 


d.  Wooden  flute. 

e.  Catlinite  pipe. 
/.   Gourd  rattle. 


Radin]  MATERIAL   CULTURE  109 

Method  of  wearing  the  hair. — In  former  times  the  men  wore  their 
hair  in  two  long  braids,  although  some  seem  to  have  affected  the 
Sauk  and  Fox  roach.  The  scalp  along  the  parting  of  the  hair  was 
always  painted,  the  color  varying  with  individuals.  There  is  no 
indication  of  any  distinctions  in  the  method  of  wearing  the  hair 
among  the  various  clans  as  found  among  the  Osage. 

A  variety  of  coiffures  exist  among  the  Winnebago  women  at  the 
present  day  and  the  assumption  that  these  are  all  recent  is  unwar- 
ranted. It  seems  probable  that  in  the  old  days  the  hair  was  usually 
worn  in  one  braid,  which  on  festive  occasions  was  inclosed  in  a  case. 
This  consisted  of  two  parts — a  rectangular  piece  of  broadcloth 
beaded,  and  long  strips  of  beaded  work  (pi.  28). 

Earrings  and  bracelets. — At  the  present  time  earrings  are  fashioned 
either  of  10-cent  pieces  strung  together  or  of  various  ornaments  of 
German  silver.  Strings  of  beads  also  are  worn  occasionally.  Brace- 
lets now  are  made  generally  of  German  silver,  while  in  former  times 
beaded  or  quillwork  buckskin  was  used. 

Arm  bands  and  necklaces.  — Arm  bands  are  made  either  of  German 
silver  or  beaded  work.  The  necklaces  consist  of  long  strings  of 
various  articles,  as  modern  wampum,  seeds,  and  elk  teeth. 

Belts,  as  well  as  cross  belts,  are  now  either  beaded  or  woven,  but 
formerly  they  were  always  woven  from  buffalo  hair.  Shell  gorgets 
are  generally  of  the  type  shown  in  plates  22,  24,  26,  b.  Tight 
collars  are  now  made  of  beaded  work.  Bandoliers  consist  of  long 
sashes  with  bags  attached;  both  sash  and  bag  are  always  gorgeously 
beaded.  The  bandoliers  are  worn  in  three  ways,  with  the  bag  hang- 
ing on  the  right  side,  on  the  left  side,  or  in  front.  Often  the  same 
individual  wears  two  or  three  bandoliers.  Garters  are  now  made 
of  beaded  work;  formerly  these  were  generally  made  of  the  skins  of 
various  animals,  preferably  the  polecat  (pis.  27,  28,  29,  30,  b). 

Headdress  and  taildress. — The  Winnebago  headdress  has  been  well 
described  by  Skinner  (op.  cit.,  p.  293),  as  follows: 

The  typical  headdress  is  a  roach  or  comb-like  ornament  woven  from  deer's  hair  and 
generally  dyed  red.  A  carved  bone,  somewhat  like  an  elongate  isosceles  triangle  in 
shape,  spread  out  this  roach  and  was  attached  near  the  front  to  another  tubular  bone 
in  which  an  eagle  feather  was  inserted.  Often  the  latter  was  ornamented  with  dyed 
horse  hair  and  rattlesnake  rattles.  .  .  .  The  whole  was  fastened  on  the  crown  of  the 
head  slightly  back  of  the  forehead.  It  was  usually  pinned  to  the  hair,  the  scalplock 
serving  to  hold  it  on. 

A  taildress,  consisting  of  the  tail  of  some  animal,  was  worn  only 
at  certain  dances,  particularly  the  Herucka. 

Hunting 

In  their  original  habitat  hunting  was  the  most  important  means 
of  subsistence  of  the  Winnebago.     Practically  all  game  available  was 


110  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

hunted,  very  few  animals  being  tabooed.  So  far  as  the  author 
knows,  the  following  animals  only  were  not  eaten:  Skunk,  mink, 
marten,  otter,  horse,  the  weasel,  gophers  of  all  kinds,  crows  (northern 
ravens?),  and  eagles. 

Bovj. — The  bow  and  arrow  and  traps  were  used  in  hunting.  The 
bow  is  of  a  very  simple  type,  having  ends  more  or  less  pointed  by 
rubbing  them  on  stones.  In  former  times  the  bowstring  was  made 
of  sinew. 

Arrows. — There  were  five  types  of  arrows,  distinguished  both  by 
the  nature  of  the  arrowhead  and  by  their  use:  Man  p'axe'dera,  bird 
arrow;  ma'nsantc  jfaf'u71,  rabbit,  or  small  mammal,  arrow;  ma?1 
Tc'etcUftk  cdko'V ere ,  deer  and  large  mammal  arrow;  main  su'ra,  or 
mainso'¥ere,  used  in  battle;  and  the  man  p'a'euna,  also  used  in  battle. 
The  first  two  and  the  last  were  made  entirely  of  wood,  generally 
hickory,  the  last  being  merely  a  pointed  stick.  The  third  and  the 
fourth  were  the  only  ones  that  had  separate  heads  attached.  The 
head  of  the  third  was,  as  the  name  implies,  a  turtle  claw,  and  that 
of  the  fourth  a  fragment  of  flint.  The  Winnebago  have  no  recol- 
lection of  ever  having  made  flint  arrowheads  and  claim  that  those 
they  used  were  found  in  the  ground  (pi.  31). 

Traps. — One  of  the  principal  traps  consisted  of  a  heavy  timber 
supported  very  slightly  by  an  upright,  to  which  a  piece  of  wood  was 
attached  bearing  bait  at  the  end.  No  sooner  does  the  animal — 
wolf,  bear,  fox,  or  raccoon — touch  the  bait  than  the  heavy  timber 
falls  upon  his  head,  killing  him  instantly.  Another  trap  commonly 
used  for  rabbits  may  be  described  thus:  The  head  of  a  post  is  hol- 
lowed out  to  receive  the  knob-shaped  end  of  a  long  pliable  piece  of 
wood  that  fits  into  it  very  lightly.  To  the  latter  is  attached  a  noose, 
so  arranged  that  it  draws  away  the  knob-shaped  head  at  the  slightest 
touch.  The  rabbit  must  put  his  head  into  the  noose  in  order  to  get 
at  the  bait;  in  so  doing  he  invariably  moves  the  lever,  which  springs 
back,  jerking  him  into  the  air  and  strangling  him. 

For  trapping  deer  a  very  ingenious  method  is  used.  Taking  ad- 
vantage of  the  animal's  habit  of  following  repeatedly  the  same  trail, 
the  hunter  at  some  point  of  a  deer  trail  piles  across  it  a  mass  of  brush 
to  a  height  of  about  4  feet.  Behind  this  he  plants  a  pointed  stake  so 
that  it  can  not  be  seen  by  the  animal.  On  encountering  the  obstruc- 
tion the  deer  leaps  over  it  and  is  impaled  on  the  stake. 

Knowledge  of  the  habits  of  beavers  and  otters  is  utilized  in  the 
following  way :  Many  of  these  animals  live  along  winding  creeks,  and 
in  proceeding  from  one  place  to  another,  instead  of  following  all 
the  meanderings  of  the  streams,  they  cut  across  the  land.  The 
Winnebago  hunter  digs  deep  holes  in  these  cut-offs  and  covers  them 
with  hay.     Into  these  the  animals  fall  and  are  unable  to  get  out. 


radix]  MATERIAL   CULTURE  111 

The  bear  hunt. — Bears  were  hunted  by  individuals  or  by  the  tribe. 
Before  a  man  started  on  a  bear  hunt  he  went  through  the  following 
ceremony,  known  as  wanaHce're,  literally  "concentration  of  the 
mind."  He  either  built  a  special  lodge  or  used  his  own  for  the  cere- 
mony. A  kettle  containing  food  was  placed  on  the  fireplace;  this 
was  intended  for  the  particular  bear  the  man  wished  to  kill.  The 
food  generally  consisted  of  corn  or  dried  fruit;  tobacco  and  red 
feathers  also  were  offered,  the  former  in  small  bark  vessels.  All 
these  offerings  were  made  not  only  as  sacrifices  to  the  bear  but  in 
order  to  make  the  feast  as  tempting  as  possible.  When  everything 
was  in  readiness,  the  host  rubbed  two  sticks  having  rough  surfaces 
against  each  other,  called  nai'nearax  or  nainwaidjo'¥  ere.  The  host 
never  ate.  He  continued  his  singing  and  rubbing  until  he  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  bear,  as  indicated  by  the  appearance  of  a  little 
streak  of  flame  passing  from  the  fire  toward  the  gifts  he  brought 
for  him. 

The  same  ceremony  was  performed  before  starting  on  a  deer  or  a 
raccoon  hunt.  In  addition  to  this  ceremony,  individuals  always  used 
the  special  hunting  medicines  that  they  obtained  during  their  fasts. 
This  was  frequently  chewed  and  then  rubbed  into  the  arrow  (now- 
adays into  the  gun).3 

There  is  a  time  of  the  year  called  hiruci'c,  when  bear  break  hickory 
or  oak  branches  for  the  nuts  or  the  acorns.  It  seems  they  are  then 
very  easy  to  approach.  If  a  man  killed  a  bear  he  would  always 
refer  to  it  in  terms  of  respect. 

The  tribal  bear  hunt  always  took  place  in  summer.  As  enemies 
were  generally  encountered  on  the  way  a  winter  or  war  feast  was 
always  given  before  the  party  started.  This  had  nothing  to  do, 
however,  with  the  hunt  proper.  Following  is  a  fairly  close  transla- 
tion of  an  account  of  a  Winnebago  bear  hunt  and  buffalo  hunt  secured 
by  the  author: 

Description  of  a  bear  hunt. — When  the  Winnebago  went  on  the  bear  hunt  they 
always  traveled  in  large  numbers.  They  would  always  be  able  to  find  bears  in  the 
groves  of  red  timber-oak,  and  it  would  be  very  easy  to  kill  them.  Nevertheless  the 
old  people  considered  it  a  very  dangerous  affair,  especially  if  the  hunters  came  upon 
breeding  bear.  If  anyone  killed  a  breeding  bear  he  would  cause  very  much  trouble. 
The  male  bear  would  get  very  angry  and  chase  the  man  who  had  done  the  killing, 
and  if  it  ever  happened  that  he  was  out  of  ammunition,  the  man  surely  would  be 
killed.  The  bear  would  jump  upon  him  and  tear  him  to  pieces.  It  is  said  that  when 
bears  kill  a  human  being  they  always  eat  him.  Another  way  of  getting  at  the  bears 
was  to  clear  away  the  ground  for  them.  It  is  very  easy  to  kill  them  then.  This 
generally  takes  place  at  the  time  of  the  year  when  the  acorns  fall  to  the  ground. 
The  bears  gather  in  the  cleared  spaces  and  lie  down  there.  They  lie  in  the  timber 
under  the  trees.  They  look  like  black  objects  in  the  distance.  It  is  customary  to 
shoot  at  them  from  some  distance,  but  care  is  always  taken  not  to  shoot  all  of  them 
nor  to  shoot  when  the  wind  was  with  them,  for  then  they  would  scent  the  hunters 

'  Numerous  descriptions  of  the  wanantce're  are  given  in  the  Hare  Trickster  cycle. 


112  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  a.nn.37 

or  hear  the  noise  and  run  away.  For  this  reason  the  hunters  are  very  careful  about 
these  two  things — namely,  the  number  of  bears  shot  and  the  direction  of  the  wind. 
The  method  of  hunting  bears  when  the  acornc  fall  and  they  come  to  the  open  or 
cleared  spaces  is  known  as  the  hiruci'c  method.  When  the  bears  eat  acorns  then 
only  is  it  easy  to  find  them  and  kill  them  without,  much  effort. 

Description  of  a  buffalo  hunt. — Whenever  the  Winnebago  went  buffalo  hunjting, 
they  always  went  in  large  numbers,  for  the  people  used  to  say  that  on  a  buffalo  hunt, 
they  are  likely  to  encounter  their  enemies  and  a  fight  might  take  place.  It  is  even 
said  that  some  people  went  purposely  for  the  fighting.  They  generally  went  together 
with  the  Homanna  i  Missouri  ?),  Waxotcera,  Iowa,  and  Wadjokdjadjera,  the  Oto. 
Many  women  accompanied  them.  It  is  said  that  they  could  always  tell  where  the  buf- 
falo were  by  the  dust  they  encountered,  for  the  dust  raised  by  the  trampling  of  the 
buffalo  rose  high  in  the  air.  They  would  always  start  out  for  the  buffalo  early  in  the 
morning  on  fast  horses  and  try  to  ride  up  along  the  right  side  of  the  female  buffalo, 
for  they  only  killed  the  bulls  afterward.  They  shot  the  buffalo  with  bow  and  arrows. 
When  riding  horseback,  the  bow  is  always  drawn  back  with  the  right  hand.  The 
reason  they  try  to  kill  the  female  buffalo  first  is  because  they  always  run  away  while 
the  bulls  do  not. 

While  hunting  the  buffalo  they  were  always  bound  to  meet  some  of  their  enemies 
and  a  fight  would  ensue,  so  that  when  they  returned,  they  would  bring  back  not  only 
buffalo  but  also  scalps,  and  immediately  after  their  return  the  Victor}'  Dance  would 
be  celebrated. 

A  different  account  of  a  buffalo  hunt  was  obtained  from  another 
informant  (J.  H.) : 4 

Whenever  we  go  on  a  buffalo  hunt  we  camp  in  a  circle,  with  the  soldiers  in  front. 
They  always  carried  long  poles  to  be  used  in  the  construction  of  tipis.  [This  statement 
was  made  by  a  number  of  persons  whose  information  was  generally  accurate.  As 
they  were  bound  for  the  open  prairie  where  there  was  a  scarcity  of  wood,  buffalo 
manure  was  always  carried  for  fuel.] 

As  soon  as  the  chief  decided  to  go  on  a  hunt  he  gave  a  feast  [war  feast]  to  which  he 
invited  everyone.  This  was  generally  in  June.  As  soon  as  the  feast  was  over  a  hunting 
council  was  held.  Then  the  chief  appointed  public  criers  who  went  around  the 
village  announcing  the  time  for  starting,  etc.  Then  all  went  to  the  lodge  of  the  chief 
of  the  Bear  clan.  There  the  ten  best  warriors  were  selected,  who  were  to  go  ahead 
of  the  main  body  and  reconnoiter  for  both  buffalo  and  enemies.  These  started  immedi- 
ately and  if  they  returned  with  the  news  that  they  had  found  many  buffalo  and  enemy 
at  the  same  time,  fights  frequently  took  place.  Ten  warriors  always  went  ahead  and 
the  old  warriors  generally  stayed  in  the  rear  behind  the  women  in  order  to  protect 
them  better.  As  soon  as  they  came  to  the  place  where  the  buffalo  were  seen  they 
followed  their  trail  and  killed  them.  The  flesh  was  cut  up  into  large  chunks,  which 
were  afterwards  dried  on  the  grass.  Then  when  they  had  enough  they  all  returned 
home,  observing,  of  course,  the  same  order  of  march  as  when  they  started.  When 
they  reached  their  home  they  gave  another  war  feast  at  which  all  thanked  the  spirits 
for  their  successful  return. 

Pigeon  hunt. — The  pigeons  are  "  chief  "  5  birds  and  they  would  be  hunted  when- 
ever the  chief  decided  to  give  the  chief  feast.  The  entire  tribe  was  always  invited 
to  participate  in  the  meal  served,  so  that  many  pigeons  were  needed.  The  pigeons 
generally  make  their  nests  near  human  habitations.     Sometimes  there  would  be  20 

*As  his  grandfather  was  a  Dakota,  J.  H.  may  have  confused  in  his  account  Dakota  customs  with  those  of 
the  Winnebago.  Apart  from  this  consideration,  it  should  be  said  that  J.  H.  was  an  exceedingly  unreliable 
informant. 

6  They  are  called  "  chief  "  birds  because  the  pigeon  belongs  to  the  same  division  as  does  the  Thunder- 
bird,  or  Chief,  clan. 


Radin]  MATERIAL   CULTURE  113 

in  one  tree,  but  a  really  large  tree  would  hold  even  more.  The  pigeons  were  hunted 
in  the  following  manner:  Long  poles  were  taken  and  the  pigeons  poked  out  of  their 
nests.  In  this  manner  many  would  be  killed  very  easily  in  one  day.  They  are 
then  either  broiled  or  steeped,  when  they  have  a  delicious  taste.  Often  it  is  unnec- 
essary to  hunt  for  them  after  a  storm  because  large  quantities  die  from  exposure  to 
inclement  weather. 

Method  of  slaughtering  animals. — According  to  most  of  the  author's 
informants,  all  larger  animals  were  opened  by  making  two  long  in- 
cisions, one  on  each  side  of  the  chest.  This  information  may  be 
accepted  as  correct  with  respect  to  the  bear,  but  there  is  less  certainty 
as  to  other  large  animals.  There  are  two  considerations,  however, 
which  seem  to  make  the  question  of  agreement  among  informants  of 
secondary  importance:  First,  the  considerable  differences  in  this  and 
kindred  matters  among  the  settlements  of  the  Winnebago,  due  to 
the  large  extent  of  territory  they  inhabited  and  the  diverse  influences 
potent  at  various  places ;  and  secondly,  the  fact  that  the  distribution 
of  food  was  entirely  a  matter  of  courtesy  between  individuals,  so  that 
considerable  variation  in  custom  was  both  possible  and  probable. 

According  to  one  informant  the  man  who  killed  an  animal  had  the 
least  to  say  about  its  distribution  and  generally  got  the  poorest  share. 
This  unquestionably  does  not  give  a  very  accurate  impression  of  the 
custom,  because  subsequent  questioning  brought  out  clearly  the  fact 
that  the  mamier  of  distribution  depended  entirely  on  the  number  of 
individuals  present  at  the  killing  of  the  animal,  and  also  on  the  age  of 
these  individuals  and  their  social  standing.  Remembering  that  there 
is  no  ' '  typical ' '  division  which  an  Indian  thinks  of  in  the  abstract, 
but  that  he  always  has  in  mind  particular  instances  of  distribution, 
in  order  to  ascertain  definite  rules  it  would  obviously  be  necessary  to 
obtain  an  adequate  number  of  representative  cases  in  which  all  the 
possibilities  based  on  the  factors  of  age,  number,  and  social  standing 
would  be  duly  considered. 

From  another  individual  the  following  information  was  obtained : 
When  two  people  went  hunting  the  man  who  killed  the  animal 
received  the  head,  breast,  feet,  lungs,  and  heart;  his  companion, 
the  hide  and  the  rest  of  the  animal.  A  feast  was  given  afterwards, 
however,  at  which  the  bravest  warrior  received  all  that  was  properly 
the  share  of  the  man  who  killed  the  animal.  When  four  went  out, 
the  eldest  always  got  the  hide;  he  was  granted  also  the  right  to 
apportion  the  animal.  This  last  instance  seems  significant  in  view 
of  the  fact  that  at  the  tribal  hunt  the  rights  of  the  individual  who 
killed  the  animal  were  subservient  to  many  other  rights,  as  those 
pertaining  to  seniority  and  social  standing,  and  suggests  that  only 
when  one  or  two  individuals  took  the  rather  great  risks  of  hunting  by 
themselves  was  actual  killing  of  the  animal  deemed  of  predominating 
importance  in  the  apportionment. 


114  THE   WINNEBAGO   TEIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Regulation  of  the  tribal  hunt. — It  can  not  be  said  that  there  were 
many  special  regulations  during  the  tribal  hunt.  The  rules  applying 
to  the  regulation  of  war  parties  held  here  too.  (For  a  description 
of  these,  see  p.  156.) 

Individuals  were  strictly  prohibited  from  taking  the  initiative 
except  by  permission.  For  instance,  a  man  was  not  allowed  to 
proceed  beyond  a  certain  point,  or  shoot  before  a  certain  time;  in 
short,  not  to  do  anything  by  which  he  might  endanger  Ms  own  life,  the 
safety  of  his  companions,  or  the  success  of  the  hunt,  such  as  scaring 
away  the  animals  or  causing  them  to  stampede. 

It  is  during  the  tribal  hunts  that  the  power  of  the  Bear  clan  is  at 
its  height.  For  this  reason  it  may  perhaps  be  most  appropriate  to 
include  here  a  description6  of  these  powers,  although  this  really 
belongs  in  the  section  on  Social  Organization: 

Whenever  the  Winnebago  are  on  their  tribal  hunt  or  whenever  they  move  from 
one  place  to  another,  the  soldiers  (i.  e.,  the  Bear  people)  take  the  lead.  Whenever 
they  decide  to  stop  at  some  place,  the  leader  of  the  Bear  people  places  his  stick  in 
the  ground  and  the  other  soldiers  do  the  same.  The  line  of  sticks  is  a  slanting  one. 
The  main  tribe  follows  behind  at  some  distance  and  always  camps  a  little  behind 
them.  None  of  the  members  of  the  tribe  dare  pass  ahead  of  these  sticks.  If,  for 
instance,  during  the  fall  move  the  tribe  were  passing  through  a  country  in  which 
much  game  abounded,  and  if  after  the  tribe  had  stopped  at  a  certain  place  anyone 
should  take  it  upon  himself  to  go  ahead  and  kill  game  on  his  own  initiative,  and  he 
was  discovered,  the  soldiers  would  go  to  his  camp  and  burn  it  and  everything  it  con- 
tained, destroy  any  supplies  he  had,  and  break  his  dishes.  They  would  spare  only 
his  life  and  the  lives  of  his  family.  If  he  resisted  he  would  get  a  severe  whipping.  If 
even  after  that  he  resisted  them  and  took  his  gun  and  attempted  to  shoot,  the  soldiers 
would  not  do  anything  but  stand  ready.  But  the  moment  he  made  an  attempt  to 
shoot,  they  would  kill  him  and  nothing  would  be  said  of  the  matter,  for  they  would 
be  putting  into  effect  the  law  of  the  tribe.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  man  submitted 
to  the  action  of  the  soldiers  and  apologized  they  would  make  him  a  better  lodge  and 
would  give  him  more  and  better  things  than  those  they  had  taken  away. 

Fishing  and  Agriculture 

Fishing. — In  former  times  fishing  seems  to  have  been  done  exclu- 
sively by  spearing  or  by  shooting.  The  spear  (woca')  consisted  of 
a  long  stick  provided  with  a  bone  or  a  horn  point.  Spearing  was 
done  preferably  at  night  with  the  aid  of  torches  made  of  pine  pitch. 
In  shooting  fish  a  long  arrowlike  stick  (mannuxinixini)  with  a  pointed 
end,  whittled  and  frayed  at  the  base  like  the  ceremonial  staff  of  the 
Bear  clan,  was  discharged  from  an  ordinary  bow. 

The  most  commonly  used  trap  for  fishing  was  a  triangular  weir 
loaded  with  a  stone  at  its  base  and  placed  at  the  head  of  a  waterfall 
caused  by  artificial  damming  of  a  stream. 

Very  few  fish  were  taboo,  the  principal  ones  being  the  dogfish 
and  the  eel. 


«  By  Thunder  Cloud. 


RADIN] 


MATERIAL    CULTURE 


115 


Names  of  the  principal  trees,  etc. 


raxgecok'a'wa,  resin-weed. 

xandje,  moss. 

wax  eutc,  cedar  (red  cedar). 

tcatca"na,  ironwood. 

witci,  flat  cornered  reed  used  for  lodges. 

sa,  round  reed  used  for  mats. 

hincge',  basswood. 

wazi,  pine  in  general. 

wazi  paras,  white  cedar. 

wacge',  poplar. 

tcan  tca'wa,  birch. 

tcagu,  walnut. 


pan  dja'gu,  hickory, 
tcazu'ke,  butternut. 
nan  sa'rjk',  maple. 
ru7i,  willow, 
rak,  ash. 
tcacge'gu,  oak. 
marjka'rak.  elm. 
huksigu,  hazel. 
nan  p'a'gu,  cherry. 
nan  ho'cg5,  box-elder. 
he7u',  Cottonwood. 


Names  of  the  principal  vegetables  and  fruits 


tcera'bera,  a  water  root, 
wokn^gera,  root  called  "awl"  root. 
huVkboi'dja,  pea  vine, 
dora,  a  sort  of  artichoke. 
pankxi,  root  found  in  lowlands. 
nanp'ak,  chokecherries. 
k'antc,  plum, 
kce'  crabapple. 

tcosa/nwan,  fruit  of  a  tree  similar  to  crab- 
apple  tree, 
haze'eutegs,  raspberry, 
hasda'marjkere,  blackberry, 
hasdimrjk',  blueberries. 


hascdjek',  strawberry, 
hap'u'nup'unuxge,  gooseberry, 
hotcjrjke',  cranberry. 
k'antc  hincek,  peaches  (fuzzy  plums'), 
kce  carotc,  apple  (long  and  round  apple). 
wak'anretcawa.  wild  currant  (snake's  na- 
vel), 
doks'wehi,  prairie  turnip. 
hunn'rjk,  bean. 

hunnarjk'  nandi.  climbing  bean. 
hunn'rjk"  mink,  nonclimbing  bean. 
manhintc,  milkweed. 


Animals  and  parts  of  animals  whose  flesh  is  not  eaten 


weasel. 

marten. 

no  entrails  (u'djwoju). 

gopher. 

horse. 


warjkeurjk,  dogfish. 

djadja'rjks'k,  mink. 

doco'nAnk,  otter. 

ho  wak'a",  eel  (holy  fish'). 

k'aii,  crow  (really  northern  raven). 

tcaxce'p,  eagle. 

Agriculture. — In  the  old  days  the  Winnebago  always  raised  in  their 
permanent  villages  at  least  corn,  squash,  and  beans.  As  the  villages 
consisted  practically  of  a  group  of  families  belonging  to  different  clans, 
each  clan  apparently  living  by  itself,  the  question  of  clan  ownership 
of  these  fields  was  hardly  considered.  (This  statement  is  made  be- 
cause some  Winnebago  spoke  of  clan  ownership.)  What  actually 
occurred  was,  in  the  opinion  of  the  author,  as  follows:  Each  group  of 
families  being  segregated  according  to  clan,  it  happened  that  certain 
family  groups  had  fields  in  common.  This  must  have  happened 
rather  frequently,  for  there  seems  to  have  been  a  tendency — although 
this  can  not  be  said  with  certainty  owing  to  the  meagerness  of  reliable 
information — for  related  families  to  hold  together  in  these  settlements. 
In  general,  however,  each  family  owned  and  cultivated  its  own  field. 


116  THE    WINNEBAGO    TBIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

In  the  middle  of  the  field  was  usually  placed  an  earthen  representa- 
tion of  the  clan  animal.  As  to  how  squash  and  beans  were  planted, 
no  reliable  information  is  available.  The  corn  was  planted  in  small 
circular  mounds  which,  to  judge  from  those  near  Madison,  Wis.,  were 
arranged  in  remarkably  straight  rows. 

The  author  is  unable  to  say  what  type  of  implements  was  used, 
as  the  Winnebago  have  been  using  those  of  European  manufacture 
for  many  years  and  have  no  recollection  of  any  other  kind. 

If  anyone  had  more  corn  planted  than  he  could  take  care  of  he 
gave  a  feast,  to  which  he  invited  all  who  had  hoes.  At  this  feast 
dried  corn  was  used.  On  this  occasion  the  people  sacrificed  tobacco 
to  their  hoes,  so  that  they  might  not  cut  themselves  with  these  im- 
plements or  have  other  accidents.  Then  they  all  joined  in  helping 
their  host  cultivate  his  corn. 

In  addition  to  the  above-mentioned  patches,  most  Winnebago  had 
small  fields  of  tobacco,  which  were  regarded  as  very  sacred.  The 
tobacco  grown  on  these  was  used  only  for  sacrificial  purposes.  Sacred 
gourds  also  were  planted  in  these  fields. 

Berry  picking. — From  the  earliest  times  the  Winnebago  were  known 
for  their  bountiful  supply  of  berries.  Every  fall  parties  of  men, 
women,  and  children  went  out  to  pick  cranberries  and  whortleberries. 

Customs  when  berries  are  ripening. — If  a  man  has  a  son  whom  he 
loves  very  much,  he  has  him  fast  as  soon  as  the  berries  and  other  things 
begin  to  ripen.  If  this  boy  dreams  of  something  good,  then  he  (the 
father)  gives  a  feast  with  the  newly  ripened  food  and  the  boy  eats. 
If  the  boy  does  not  dream  of  anything  good  after  four  days,  the 
father  makes  him  eat  and  has  him  try  again. 

Rice  gathering. — In  common  with  the  Central  Algonquian  tribes, 
with  whom  they  have  come  in  contact,  especially  the  Menominee,  the 
Winnebago  spent  a  number  of  weeks  every  year  gathering  wild  rice. 
The  following  description  of  the  manner  in  which  this  is  done  is 
taken  from  a  newspaper  article  published  by  Prof.  A.  E.  Jenks  of 
the  University  of  Minnesota: 

Fox  River  from  its  source  to  Lake  Winnebago  was  for  hundreds  of  years  a  very 
productive  field  for  this  aquatic  cereal,  and  along  this  river  the  Winnebago  lived 
in  plenty  and  peace  with  several  wild  rice  eating  tribes  of  the  Algonkin  stock.  Prob- 
ably a  few  families  still  gather  their  annual  crop  in  that  old  domain;  but  most  of  the 
wild  rice  which  the  tribe  now  gathers  is  obtained  in  the  sloughs  of  the  Mississippi 
River  near  Lacrosse,  Wis.,  and  on  the  Iowa  side  of  that  river 

The  Winnebago  gather  the  grain  by  running  their  canoes  into  the  tall  standing 
stalks  before  the  grain  is  ripe.  A  stick  is  held  in  each  hand  of  the  harvester,  one 
being  used  to  draw  the  standing  stalks  over  the  edge  of  the  canoe,  while  the  other  one 
is  employed  in  tapping  or  striking  the  heads  of  the  stalks,  thus  knocking  the  grain  out 
of  the  fruit  head  into  the  canoe.  After  the  canoe  is  full  it  is  taken  to  the  shore  and 
emptied. 

Preparation  of  foods. — Meats  were  prepared  by  broiling,  in  three 
ways — on  stakes,  over  a  rack,  or  under  hot  ashes.     Only  the  ribs 


eadix]  MATERIAL   CULTURE  117 

and  the  breast  of  most  animals  were  considered  good  portions,  but 
the  head  of  the  deer  was  included.  Other  portions  were  eaten, 
however.  For  infants  the  deer's  tail  was  considered  a  delicacy. 
Now,  when  they  eat  meat  provided  by  the  white  man,  rib  roast  of 
beef  is  the  favorite  meat  of  the  Winnebago. 

The  Winnebago  were  very  fond  of  soups  of  all  descriptions.  Most 
of  these  were  meat  soups  with  the  addition  of  vegetables  or  berries. 

Most  time  was,  however,  spent  in  the  preparation  of  vegetable 
foods,  especially  in  the  preparation  of  wild  rice  and  corn.  For  the 
preparation  of  rice  I  will  again  quote  Professor  Jenks's  article: 

At  this  stage  of  the  harvest  when  the  Winnebago  gather  the  wild  rice,  the  kernel  is 
very  like  a  long  oat  and  has  a  tenacious  hull,  which  must  be  removed  before  the  grain 
can  be  eaten.  The  necessity  of  removing  this  hull  and  the  unripe  condition  of  the 
grain  make  it  necessary  to  dry  it  artificially.  This  is  usually  done  by  spreading  the 
kernels  yet  inclosed  in  the  hull  upon  a  rack  of  lattice  work,  under  which  a  slow  fire  is 
kept  burning.  The  grain  is  cured  and  the  hull  made  brittle  by  the  heat  and  smoke. 
The  next  process  is  the  thrashing.  The  Winnebago  thrashes  the  grain  by  the  use  of  a 
most  primitive  flail.  He  spreads  a  blanket,  rush  mat,  or  deerskin  on  the  ground, 
upon  which  he  puts  the  now  cured  grain.  Along  three  sides  of  the  blanket  he  erects 
a  screen  of  similar  material.  At  the  open  side  of  this  screen  the  man  squats  on  his 
knees,  and  beats  the  grain  with  a  straight  stick  in  each  hand,  thus  releasing  it  from  the 
hull.  When  it  has  been  thrashed  the  woman  gathers  up  the  contents  of  the  blanket 
and  winnows  the  mass  by  letting  it  fall  from  a  vessel  held  high  in  the  air  upon  a  blanket 
or  mat  laid  on  the  earth,  the  wind  blows  away  the  chaff  from  the  falling  grain  and  leaves 
the  clean  kernels. 

The  Winnebago  distinguished  a  number  of  different  kinds  of  corn, 
the  principal  ones  being wahi'seretc,  yellow-stalked;  hiwarakona,  sweet 
corn;  and  waruc'tcJce,  red-colored  corn.  The  cornstalk  was  called 
wahu' ,  the  corn  proper,  witca'Hvans,  and  the  cob,  wosa'W.  The  corn 
is  pounded  on  a  rack  (waick£)  and  then  shelled,  the  grain  falling 
through  the  rack  and  the  cobs  remaining  on  top.  After  being 
shelled  the  corn  is  steamed.  Then  the  stones  necessary  for  cooking 
it  are  gathered  and  the  corn  is  picked.  When  this  is  finished,  a 
hole  is  dug  in  the  ground  and  red-hot  stones  are  put  in.  Over  this 
the  husks  are  put  and  upon  these  the  corn;  then  another  layer  of 
husks,  etc.  The  top  always  is  covered  with  husks.  Four  holes  are 
made  through  the  husks,  into  which  four  pails  of  water  are  poured 
and  the  whole  is  covered  with  a  thick  layer  of  earth  and  the  corn 
left  there  overnight.     The  next  morning  it  will  be  entirely  cooked. 

In  shelling,  the  outer  part  of  an  oyster  shell  is  used.  When  the 
shelling  is  over  the  corn  is  spread  out  and  dried. 

Squash  is  prepared  as  follows:  After  the  skin  has  been  removed 
the  squash  is  cut  into  slices  and  the  seeds  taken  out ;  the  slices  of 
squash  are  then  put  on  poles  to  dry.  The  dried  squash  is  called 
hotca'nwandawus.  There  are  two  varieties  of  this  vegetable — 
witca'nwan,  Hubbard  squash,  and  witca'nwamik,  small-kernel  squash. 

Fruit  was  dried,  but  by  what  process  the  author  has  not  learned. 


118  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  !eth.  ann.  37 

In  addition  to  the  vegetable  foods  above  referred  to,  the  following 
may  be  mentioned:  Teera'pEra,  a  plant  growing  in  the  water,  the  root 
of  which  was  eaten  boiled  with  meat;  wokniylcEra  and  huHyle  boi'dja, 
awl  plant  and  peavine,  respectively,  of  which  only  the  roots  were 
eaten ;  and  finally  the  dora,  wild  potato,  a  favorite  dish.  The  skin 
was  peeled  off;  then  the  potato  was  dried  in  the  sun  and  afterwards 
boiled.  NaPpa'Jc',  chokecherries,  were  eaten  raw.  P'ankxi'  and 
maPhi'ntc,  a  lowland  weed,  and  the  milkweed,  respectively,  were  also 
utilized.  Of  the  former,  the  boiled  root  was  eaten;  of  the  latter, 
the  boiled  head.  Small  quantities  of  food  which  required  grinding 
were  put  into  a  squirrel  hide  from  which  the  hairs  had  been  re- 
moved, and  were  pounded  with  a  stone.  A  mill  consisting  of  a 
dug-out  trunk  with  handles  attached  was  also  used. 

Preservation  of  food. — In  former  times  meat  was  hung  on  long 
racks  for  preservation.  Corn  was  cached  iwoxe').  Dried  berries 
were  kept  in  bags  woven  from  vegetable  fibers.  These  bags  were 
always  covered  with  designs,  mostly  of  geometric  patterns,  although 
realistic  designs,  as  elk,  deer,  thunderbirds,  and  water  spirits,  ah 
unquestionably  property  marks,  were  frequently  used.  There  were 
two  types  of  bags,  that  closely  woven  (p'an)  (pis.  32-36),  just  men- 
tioned, and  matting  bags  with  fairly  large  openings  in  the  meshwork 
(pi.  37).  Food  stored  away  at  home  was  generally  placed  in  a  part 
of  the  lodge  reserved  for  the  purpose. 

A  Winnebago  menu. — To  give  an  idea  of  the  favorite  dishes  of  the 
Winnebago,  the  names  of  several  mentioned  in  one  of  the  myths  are 
here  appended:  Small  dried  corn  boiled  with  bear's  ribs;  jerked  meat 
with  bear's  fat;  deer's  fat;  deer's  grease  frozen  in  a  hole  in  the 
ground;  dried  corn  boiled  with  fruit;  deer-loin  soup. 

Cooking  and  eating  utensils  (pi.  38). — With  regard  to  the  kind 
of  cooking  and  eating  utensils  used  in  the  old  days  there  exists 
even  among  the  Indians  themselves  considerable  difference  of 
opinion.  According  to  some,  their  ancestors  never  used  wooden 
utensils,  mills,  spoons,  and  plates,  but  utilized  shells  of  various 
kinds  or  other  natural  objects  suitable  to  their  needs.  Others 
state,  on  the  contrary,  that,  in  early  times,  in  addition  to  such 
natural  objects,  wooden  vessels  of  many  kinds  were  fashioned  from 
maple  knots.  These  are  said  to  have  been  burned  out,  a  very 
tedious  process,  or  even  to  have  been  cut  out  with  adzes.  It  is 
quite  impossible  to  decide  this  question  now.  Wooden  imple- 
ments and  utensils  in  great  variety  are,  of  course,  found  among  the 
Winnebago  at  the  present  time,  but  these  are  supposed  by  many  to 
have  been  introduced  by  the  neighboring  Algonquian  tribes  and  by 
early  French  traders.  The  main  contention  of  the  present-day 
Winnebago  is,  however,  that  their  ancestors  could  never  have  made 
this  woodenware  without  the  aid  of  European  implements,  burning 
out  being  a  tedious  and  unsatisfactory  method. 


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c.   WOODEN    MORTARS    AND    PESTLES 


Radix]  MATERIAL    CULTURE  119 

It  might  be  said  that  all  recollection  '  he  making  of  wooden 
vessels  could  easily  have  been  lost  in  th  century  or  two  and 

that  therefore  too  much  weight  should  not  be  given  to  present  igno- 
rance of  the  subject.  There  are  a  number  of  reasons,  however,  why 
ignorance  in  this  particular  case  might  be  significant.  First,  many 
indications  point  to  workmanship  of  a  low  order  among  the  Winne- 
bago in  the  manufacture  of  artifacts;  second,  there  are  many  sug- 
gestions of  two  cultural  strata  in  this  tribe;  third,  while  the  Winne- 
bago in  Wisconsin  still  use  wooden  vessels,  many  of  them  claim  that 
these  were  introduced;  and  fourth,  all  the  informants  who  gave  this 
information  were  old  people.  If  the  author  were  to  hazard  an  hy- 
pothesis, it  would  be  the  following:  In  very  early  times  few  objects 
were  fashioned  out  of  wood,  but  gradually  contact  with  the  Menomi- 
nee led  to  the  introduction  of  many  wooden  vessels,  and  finally  the 
acquisition  of  European  axes,  knives,  and  other  implements  made 
it  possible  to  manufacture  such  vessels  in  large  numbers.  A  similar 
explanation  was  offered  by  an  Indian  with  regard  to  the  use  of 
dugouts. 

Besides  wood  as  a  material  for  dishes  and  spoons  of  various  kinds 
and  sizes,  shells  were  utilized,  while  sticks  served  as  knives. 

All  informants  agree  that  neither  bone  nor  stone  were  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  utensils. 

For  cooking,  clay  pots  were  used.  These  vessels,  most  of  which 
were  very  large,  with  round  bottoms,  always  hung  over  the  fire. 
The  material  used  in  their  manufacture  was  blue  clay  found  at 
Green  Bay,  on  or  near  the  site  of  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  mixed  with 
shell  shards,  glue  from  sturgeon  vetrebra?,  and  the  gelatinous  sub- 
stance in  the  horns  of  the  deer.  The  addition  of  these  ingredients 
greatly  increased  the  cohesiveness  of  the  clay.  The  material  was 
either  molded  with  the  hands  or  in  holes  of  the  desired  shape  dug  in 
the  ground  and  lined  with  leaves.  Finally,  the  vessels  were  dried  over 
a  slow  fire  in  small  kilns  constructed  for  the  purpose.  None  of  the 
clay  vessels  were  provided  with  handles.  Some  were  ornamented 
with  geometric  patterns.  The  irregular  incised  designs  on  some 
Winnebago  vessels  are  the  impressions  of  grass  blades  with  which 
the  mold  was  lined.7 

Fire  making. — In  former  times  fire  was  always  made  by  means  of 
a  simple  fire  drill.     This  method  is  still  used  for  ceremonial  occasions. 

Tanning. — The  author  never  witnessed  the  process  of  tanning. 
The  description  obtained  agrees  exactly  with  that  of  Mr.  A.  Skinner 
here  quoted:8 

After  the  skin  has  been  removed,  the  hair  is  scraped  from  it.     During  this  process 
the  skin  is  hung  over  an  obliquely  inclined  log.  one  end  of  which  has  been  smoothed 


7  One  informant  gave  a  description  of  pottery  making  in  which  a  wheel  was  used,  but  as  no  other  Winne- 
bago corroborated  this  statement  the  author  is  convinced  that  it  is  inaccurate. 
'  Anthr.  Papers  Amer.  Mus.  Nat.  Hist.  pi.  iv,  pt.  n,  pp.  289-290. 


120  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

off  on  the  upper  surface.     The  beaming  tool  is  then  grasped  in  both  hands  and  pushed 

away  from  the  user  against  the  grain  of  the  hair  over  the  skin  where  it  lies  on  the 

smoothed  surface  of  the  stick  or  log.     This  process  is  the  same  as  that  followed  by  the 

Northern  Ojibway  and  Eastern  Cree.    The  next  step  is  to  stretch  the  skin  on  a  square, 

upright  frame.     A  fleshing  tool  is  then  brought  to  bear,  although  the  beamer  is  often 

made  to  answer  this  purpose.     When  the  skin  has  been  fleshed,  it  is  soaked  in  a 

mixture  of  deer's  brains  and  water.     Xo  grease  is  added.     This  preparation  is  kept 

in  liquid  form  in  a  pail  and  lasts  some  time.     After  remaining  in  the  brain  fluid  for 

a  time,  the  skin  is  taken  out  and  thoroughly  washed.     Then  it  is  taken  by  the  tanner — 

who  is  always  a  woman — and  dried.     While  the  skin  is  drying,  it 

is  rubbed  with  a  wooden  spatula  to  make  it  flexible.     It  is  now 

ready  for  the  last  step — smoking.     For  this  process  it  is  first  sewed 

up  into  a  cylindrical  shape,  and  the  upper  end  is  tied  together  to 

form  a  bag.     By  this  closed  upper  end  it  is  then  suspended  over  a 

r      shallow  hole  from  a  stick  driven  obliquely  into  the  ground  at  an 

angle  of  about  45  degrees.     In  the  hole  a  fire  is  built  with  dried 

wood.     The  open  lower  edge  of  the  skin  bag  is  pegged  or  fastened 

to  the  ground  about  the  edge  of  the  hole. 

Games  and  Amusements 

Lacrosse  was  the  favorite  game  of  the  Winnebago. 
d  This  was  generally  played  on  ceremonial  occasions. 

j% %^pr"      Whenever  played,  the  two  divisions  of  the  tribe,  the 

WaflgEre'gi  and  the  Mane'gi,  were  pitted  against  each 

other.     There  were  two  kinds  of  lacrosse,  one  played 

by  men  and  the  other  played  by  women;  these  differed 

in  a  number  of  particulars. 

B<  .  Men's  lacrosse. — The  men's  game  was  called  tcabo- 

•  •      nino'nugis  Tiik'isik'.     There  were  either  12  or  22  men 

on  each  side,  placed  in  the  following  maimer:  Two, 

one  of  each  side,  stood  in  front  of  the  arched  sapling 

which  constituted  one  of  the  goals  {wdk'a'rani) ;  these 

FlcGroi7e'rI^e,nGSoiaK  were  called  woijfiijgra.     There  were,  of  course,  two 

ft'  wl'flgefegTsId^  goals,  each  about  10  feet  high,  one  at  each  end  of  the 

■ff'm'anegi^fde!  held.     About    midway  between    the    goals   a    small 

w'hi"hUbaiir0^  mound  was  made  from  which  the  ball  was  thrown. 

thrown.  rpen  or  twenty  meri)  as  tne  case  may  be,  covered  the 

ground  between  the  mound  and  the  two  men  stationed  at  each 
wak'a'rani.  The  lacrosse  stick  was  called  tcabonadu'gis,  and  the  ball 
used  either  td-oko' ndnJcra  or  wanini'nna.  The  object  of  the  game  was 
to  put  the  ball  through  the  goal  four  times.  At  the  beginning  of 
the  game  the  ball  was  thrown  straight  into  the  air  from  the  mound. 
(For  plan  of  the  game,  see  fig.  27.) 

Ceremonial  lacrosse. — The  following  description  of  a  ceremonial 
lacrosse  game  was  given  by  a  member  of  the  Bear  clan: 

The  WaflgEre'gi  and  the  Mane'gi  people  were  to  play  lacrosse.  So  the  WaflgEre'gi 
took  an  invitation  stick  and  attached  some  tobacco  to  it  and  sent  it  to  the  Mane'gi 
people.  Thus  they  fixed  a  day  for  the  contest.  The  contest  was  to  be  in  four  days. 
In  the  meantime  both  sides  were  to  get  ready,  for  some  might  be  without  balls  or 
sticks,  etc.    Then  the  WaflgEre'gi  said,  "We  are  the  fleeter  and  will  therefore  go  and 


Radin]  MATERIAL   CULTURE  121 

look  for  food."  When  they  returned  the  leader  of  the  WangEre'gi  aaid  again,  "We 
are  the  fleeter  and  will  therefore  win  from  our  opponents.  In  addition  to  that  we 
are  holy  and  for  that  reason  we  will  be  strengthened  in  the  coming  contest."  Then 
the  leader  of  the  Mane'gi  said,  "  I  will  first  pour  tobacco  and  then  I  will  arise  with  the 
blessing  of  life  which  was  bestowed  upon  me  and  through  which  I  know  my  men  will 
be  strengthened."  Then  they  arranged  the  goals,  i.  e.,  the  wak'a'rani,  and  arranged 
for  the  points.  Then  they  took  an  emetic  and  went  into  a  vapor-bath  in  order  to 
strengthen  themselves.  The  goals  were  now  standing  far  apart  from  each  other.  Then 
the  people  who  were  to  play  gathered  on  the  field  and  two  men  from  each  side  began 
to  tell  their  war  exploits.  First,  one  of  the  WangEre'gi  men  told  how  he  had  cut  off 
an  enemy's  head;  how  proud  his  sisters  had  been  at  receiving  the  gifts  and  how  they 
had  danced  in  the  Victory  Dance.  "With  such  a  man  you  will  have  to  play,"  he 
shouted  to  those  on  the  other  side.  Then  a  man  from  the  Mane'gi  side  said,  "I  also 
am  a  brave  man.  I  did  with  the  enemy  as  I  pleased.  Once  when  an  enemy  had  been 
killed  between  the  firing  lines,  I  rushed  for  him  and  in  the  midst  of  bullets  I  cut  off 
his  head.  With  such  a  man  you  will  have  to  fight,"  he  shouted  to  those  on  the  other 
side.  Then  he  gave  a  whoop  and  the  ball  was  thrown  into  the  air  and  they  began 
to  play  lacrosse.  Those  who  first  succeeded  in  putting  the  ball  through  the  wak'a'rani 
four  times  would  be  declared  the  winners.  All  day  they  played  and  in  the  evening 
they  stopped.     Lacrosse  was  the  favorite  game  among  the  Winnebago.    This  is  all. 

Women's  lacrosse. — The  women's  game  was  called  naiyaca' 'radji 
unlc'isik'.  Ten  women  took  part  on  each  side;  they  all  stood  in 
front  of  the  goal,  which  consisted  merely  of  a  line  drawn  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground,  called  wak'a'rani  as  in  the  men's  game.  The 
lacrosse  stick  (tcabenona)  was  straight.  The  "ball"  consisted  of  two 
balls  tied  together  by  a  string  (naiyaca'radjihin  waninina).  Tins  was 
put  into  play  by  being  thrown  from  a  point  midway  between  the 
goals  straight  up  into  the  air.  The  side  that  hit  over  the  goal  four 
times  won. 

Football. — Football  was  played  by  men.  The  wak'a'rani  was 
merely  a  line  drawn  on  the  surface  of  the  ground.  The  16  or  20 
men  who  took  part  on  each  side  arranged  themselves  in  front  of  either 
wak'a'rani.  The  ball  used  was  a  fairly  large  one  made  of  deer's 
hair,  covered  with  hide  from  the  same  animal.  It  was  put  in  play 
in  the  middle  of  the  field  and  the  side  that  kicked  the  ball  over  the 
goal  four  times  won  the  game. 

Hit-ihe-tree  game  (tcibonnoogis  naindjd  hai>'a-na'n-i). — This  consisted  ' 
merely  of  a  test  of  marksmanship.     A  tree  (nan  hadjina)   about  8 
feet  high  and  8  inches  in  diameter  was  selected  and  the  one  who  hit 
it  from  a  certain  distance  received  a  prize.     Any  number  of  people 
could  participate. 

The  kicking  game. — This  was  a  very  rough  sport  in  which  men 
only  took  part.  Two  men  took  turns  in  kicking  each  other  as  hard 
as  they  could,  the  one  who  held  out  the  longer  being  the  winner. 

The  moccasin  gante. — One  of  the  favorite  games  of  the  Winnebago. 
Five   men   took   positions   directly   opposite   their  five   opponents. 
Between  the  two  rows  of  players,  in  front  of  each  man  was  a  recep- 
186S23°— 22 9 


122  WINNEBAGO   ARCHEOLOGY  [bth.  ann.  37 

tacle,  generally  a  moccasin,  in  which  a  small  object  was  secreted. 
The  sides  in  turn  guessed  in  which  moccasin  it  was  secreted.  The 
guesser  pointed  in  turn  with  a  long  stick  to  each  moccasin,  all  the 
time  carefully  scrutinizing  the  expression  on  the  face  of  each  man 
whose  moccasin  he  touched.  The  bystanders  and  the  other  playeis 
on  his  side  meanwhile  sang  songs  and  made  all  sorts  of  remarks  and 
allusions  in  an  attempt  to  catch  off  his  guard  the  man  in  whose 
moccasin  the  object  was  secreted,  so  that  he  might  disclose  the  fact 
by  some  gesture  or  expression.  The  person  guessing  had  the  right 
to  touch  each  moccasin  without  forfeiting  his  chance.  As  soon  as 
he  wished  to  guess  he  overturned  with  his  stick  the  moccasin  in 
which  he  thought  the  object  was  hidden.  The  seriousness  with 
which  a  player  scrutinized  his  opponents  is  well  shown  in  plate  39. 

Women's  dire  game. — The  women's  dice  game  (te'ansu)  was  played 
with  either  bone  or  wooden  dice.  Eight  of  these  are  used.  After 
being  shaken,  they  are  allowed  to  fall  into  a  wooden  bowl.  The  dice 
are  white  on  one  side  and  black  or  blue  on  the  other.  One  of  the 
dice  has  a  mark  on  each  side.  The  count  is  as  follows:  1  dark,  7 
white,  count  2;  2  dark,  6  white,  1;  all  dark,  0  white,  4;  3  dark,  5 
white,  0;  4  dark,  4  white,  0;  marked  dice  dark,  7  white,  10;  marked 
dice  white,  7  dark,  10;  marked  dice  white,  1  other  white,  the  rest 
dark,  2 ;   all  dice  white,  4 ;   2  white,  6  dark,  1 ;    1  white,  7  dark,  2. 

The  side  gaining  all  the  counters,  which  consist  of  small  sticks, 
wins. 

Cwp-and-ball  game. — "A  cup-and-ball  game  is  composed  of  eight 
worked  phalangeal  bones  of  the  Virginia  deer  (Odocoilms  virginiana). 
It  differs  from  those  seen  by  the  writer  among  the  Cree  and  Ojibway 
in  that  the  topmost  phalangeal  unit  of  the  game  as  played  among 
those  people  does  not  have  the  joint  removed,  whereas  in  the  Win- 
nebago specimens  all  the  bones  are  cut  into  conical  form.  The  top 
is  generally  surmounted  by  a  bunch  of  leather  thongs  with  many 
perforations.  The  striking  pin  is  of  bone.  The  count  is  one  for 
each  unit,  five  for  catching  the  tails  or  thongs  at  the  top,  and  the 
same  if  all  the  units  are  caught  together,  which  occasionally  happens. 
The  bottom  unit  nearest  the  striking  pin  has  four  small  perforations 
set  at  equal  distances  about  the  lower  edge.  Above  these  holes  are 
two,  three,  four,  and  six  dots,  respectively,  cut  in  the  bone.  The 
count  gained  by  catching  this  bone  through  any  one  of  the  holes 
varies  according  to  the  number  of  these  dots.  The  striking  pin  may 
be  of  bone  or  wood.  Sometimes  these  games  are  stained  with  dye  or 
paint.  The  string  and  pins  are  short,  so  that  the  game  is  much 
more  difficult  and  clumsy  than  in  the  Cree  and  Ojibway  forms."  9 

•  A.  Skinner,  op.  cit.,  pp.  295-296. 


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5 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY  TH  I  RTY-SEVENTH    AN  NU  AL    REPORT      PLATE  40 


SNOWSHOES 


kadin]  MATERIAL   CULTURE  123 

Tree  game. — Two  trees  are  selected  about  20  feet  apart,  one  hav- 
ing a  branch  about  15  feet  from  the  ground.  A  number  of  people 
stand  ready  at  the  side  of  this  tree  and  the  one  whose  turn  it 
is  to  play  tries  to  hit  the  branch.  When  he  succeeds  in  doing  so 
all  run  toward  the  other  tree.  As  soon  as  the  player  gets  the  ball 
he  tries  to  hit  the  runners.  If  successful  in  this  before  the  others  have 
reached  the  tree  he  wins;  otherwise  they  are  "safe"  and  he  must 
try  again.     The  Winnebago  called  this  game  liahi'bidjil~eeun. 

Travel  and  Transportation 

Canoes  and  dugouts. — All  the  boats  found  in  the  early  days  in  the 
territory  originally  inhabited  by  the  Winnebago  were  dugouts,  yet 
a  number  of  the  tribe  questioned  denied  positively  that  boats  of 
this  kind  were  in  common  use  before  the  coming  of  the  whites. 
According  to  these  informants,  in  former  times  the  Winnebago 
always  had  their  home  in  a  birch  country,  and  had  at  hand,  there- 
fore, the  requisite  material  for  making  canoes;  moreover,  birch- 
bark  canoes  were  much  easier  to  construct  than  dugouts,  for  which 
logs  had  to  be  hollowed  by  burning — a  process  that  might  consume 
weeks.  Only  when  the  whites  introduced  the  ax  and  the  knife  did 
it  become  practicable  to  make  dugouts.  These  implements  became 
available  at  the  time  of  the  southern  migration  of  the  tribe  into  a 
region  where  birch  bark  was  scarce,  and  one  result  of  the  change 
was  the  substitution  of  the  dugout  for  the  canoe.  The  validity  of 
this  explanation  is  supported  by  the  same  line  of  argument  as  in  the 
case  of  the  wooden  vessels. 

Snowshoes. — The  snowshoes  of  the  Winnebago  were  similar  to 
those  used  by  the  Menominee,  with  this  difference,  that  the  two 
pieces  of  wood  forming  the  "handle,"  instead  of  being  tied  together 
for  their  whole  length,  as  among  the  latter,  were  left  unfastened  for 
about  5  inches  at  the  end.  This  difference  is  immediately  detected 
(pi.  40)  by  the  present-day  Winnebago,  who  can  easily  identify,  by 
the  feature  mentioned,  snowshoes  belonging  to  the  tribe. 

Musical  Instruments 

The  musical  instruments  of  the  Winnebago  seem  to  have  been 
restricted  to  the  flute,  drum,  and  gourd.  The  flute  was  made  of  red 
cedar  and  usually  had  a  range  of  five  or  six  notes;  it  was  used  at 
many  ceremonies,  and  especially  by  young  men  when  courting. 
The  drum  consisted  of  a  framework  (in  later  days  a  wooden  pail  or 
a  barrel  served  the  purpose),  over  which  a  skin  was  drawn  very  tight. 
A  small  quantity  of  water  was  always  kept  in  the  drum  so  that  the 
skin  could  be  wet  as  often  as  necessary.  Rattles  consisted  of  dried 
gourds  filled,  in  olden  times,  with  seeds,  in  more  modern  times  with 
buckshot  (pi.  30,  d,f). 


124  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  axn.  37 

Divisions  of  Time 

The  Winnebago  reckoned  time  from  the  beginning  of  each  new 
month  (wira).  There  are  slight  differences  in  the  names  of  the 
months  between  the  Nebraska  and  the  Wisconsin  branch  of  the 
tribe,  as  appear  below: 

Nebraska — 

1.  Hundjwi'ra,  month  when  the  bears  are  born. 

2.  Hundjwiro-a'gEnina,  last  bear  month. 

3.  Wak'ek'  iru'x£,  raccoon-breeding  month. 

4.  Hoi'dogina^na,  fish  become  visible  (because  of  the  ice  clearing 
away) . 

5.  Mai"  da'wus,  month  that  dries  the  earth. 

6.  Mank'era,  dig-the-earth  month  (when  the  crops  are  sowed). 

7.  Wixo'tcera,  the  month  that  makes  them  gray  (the  month  when 
the  tassels  of  corn  appear  and  the  fields  look  gray). 

8.  Wida'djox,  when  the  roasted  ears  of  corn  burst. 

9.  Wiza'zek'e,  name  of  a  bird  that  appears  this  month. 

10.  Pca'mainnavxora,  when  the  deer  paws  the  earth;  or  Hun- 
wainjukEra,  when  the  elks  shout,  or  whistle. 

11.  Tcaik'i'ruxe,  deer-breeding  month. 

12.  Tca'hewakcu",  when  the  deer  shed  their  horns. 
Wisconsin — 

1.  Hu'ndjwi  tconina,  first  bear  month. 

2.  Hu'ndjwiro-aVEnina,  last  bear  month. 

3.  Wak'e'k'iruxewiYa,  raccoon-breeding  month. 

4.  Hoi'doginana,  fish  becoming  visible. 

5.  MaiDda'wus,  drying-of-the-earth  month. 

6.  Mank'e'ra,  digging  month. 

7.  Mainna?  cunna,  cultivating  month. 

8.  Wixo'tcerera,  tasseling  month. 

9.  Hu"  waiju'kEra,  elk-whistling  month. 

10.  Tco'mainnavxora,  when  the  deer  paw  the  earth. 

11.  Tcaik'iru'xira,  deer-breeding  month. 

12.  Tcahe'yakcu'na,  when  the  deer  shed  their  horns. 
According  to  a  member  of  the  Bear  clan,  the  following  were  the 

activities  throughout  the  year.  The  accounts  given  of  these  activi- 
ties differed  in  certain  details,  depending  upon  the  clan  connection 
of  the  informant,  because  he  naturally  associated  some  months  with 
specific  activities  of  Ids  clan,  such  as  clan  feasts. 

1 .  Members  of  the  Bear  clan  give  their  feast. 

2.  Month  in  which  the  various  Winter  Feasts  are  given. 

3.  Month  in  which  people  hunt. 

4.  Month  in  which  people  begin  to  fish. 


Radin]  MATERIAL   CULTURE  125 

5.  Month  in  which  people  hunt  deer.  At  this  time  deer  are  very 
tame  and  frequent  the  streams. 

6.  Month  in  which  people  plant  corn,  squash,  and  beans. 

7.  Month  in  which  people  hunt  deer.  At  this  season  deer  are  very 
fat.  The  hunters  return  to  their  homes  at  the  beginning  of  the 
eighth  month. 

8.  Month  in  which  people  dry  corn  and  store  it  away. 

9.  Month  in  which  people  tie  the  rice  stems  into  bundles  and  go 
through  them  with  their  canoes. 

10.  Month  in  which  the  people  go  on  their  fall  move  and  hunt  the 
larger  animals. 

1 1 .  Month  in  which  the  people  go  on  their  fall  move  and  dry  their 
meat. 

12.  Month  in  which  the  people  return  to  their  winter  quarters. 
From  this  calendar  of  activities  it  is  apparent  that  the  longest 

period  the  Winnebago  remained  at  home  continuously  was  three 
months,  the  twelfth,  first,  and  second.  They  were  at  home  also 
throughout  the  sixth  and  eighth  months.  Whether  they  were  in 
their  villages  at  intervals  during  the  fourth  and  fifth  months  is  hard 
to  determine.  It  is  probable  that  the  fishing  or  hunting  trips  con- 
sumed a  considerable  portion  of,  if  not  the  entire,  month.  During  the 
ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  months  the  Winnebago  were  undoubtedly 
away  from  their  villages  all  the  time. 


CHAPTER  IV 


GENERAL  SOCIAL  CUSTOMS 

Birth. — During  pregnancy  a  woman  had  to  observe  carefully  cer- 
tain restrictions.  She  was  not  allowed  to  roam  the  woods  alone  for 
fear  of  meeting  snakes  or  other  animals,  the  sight  of  which  was 
believed  to  forebode  ill  luck  to  a  pregnant  woman.  She  was  not 
permitted  to  have  dogs  or  cats  around  her  nor  to  sleep  during  the 
day.  Every  morning  during  her  pregnancy  she  had  to  take  a  cold 
bath.  Among  the  restrictions  may  have  been  food  taboos,  but  no 
information  on  this  phase  of  the  subject  was  obtained. 

When  the  time  for  delivery  came,  it  was  the  custom  for  the  woman 
to  occupy  a  small  lodge  erected  especially  for  her  use.  None  of  her 
male  relatives  were  permitted  to  be  present  and  her  husband  was 
not  even  permitted  to  stay  at  home.  He  was  supposed  to  travel 
continually  until  the  child  was  born,  in  the  belief  that  by  his  move- 
ments he  would  help  his  wife  in  her  delivery.  According  to  one  in- 
formant the  husband  had  to  hunt  game,  the  supposition  being  that 
this  procedure  on  his  part  would  cause  his  wife  to  have  enough  milk 
for  the  child.  This  traveling  of  the  husband  was  called,  therefore, 
"Looking-for-milk."  It  was  considered  improper  for  a  woman  to  cry 
out  during  labor  pains,  and  by  doing  so  she  subjected  herself  to  the 
jests  of  her  elder  female  relatives.  The  cradle-board  was  always 
made  before  the  child  was  born  (pis.  41,  c,  42,  a). 

The  positions  commonly  assumed  by  women  in  delivery  may  be 
described  thus:  Supported  by  the  arms,  which  were  passed  over  a 
pole  held  in  the  crotches  of  two  forked  sticks  driven  into  the  ground; 
suspended  between  two  stakes;  or  flat  on  the  back. 

The  infant's  navel  strhig  was  cut  off  and  sewed  into  a  small  bag, 
which  was  attached  to  the  head  of  the  cradle-board. 

On  the  birth  of  a  child  the  sisters  of  the  husband  were  supposed 
to  show  his  wife  especial  marks  of  courtesy.  They  always  gave  her 
valuable  gifts,  such  as  goods  or  a  pony.  They  were  glad  that  he  had 
offspring,  the  people  said,  and  even  permitted  their  brother's  wife 
to  give  the  presents  received  from  them  to  her  own  relatives.  The 
presentation  of  these  gifts  was  called  ''Cradling-the-infant."  Gifts 
were  presented  also  to  the  wife's  brothers. 

Some  time  after  the  birth  of  a  child,  if  a  boy,  the  father  always 
gave  a  feast  to  Earthmaker  and  thanked  him. 
126 


BUREAU   OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY         THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL   REPORT      PLATE  41 


«.   WINNEBAGO  AND   DAUGHTER  b.    OLD  WINNEBAGO  WOMAN 


c.   WOMAN   AND  CHILD,  SHOWING         d.    WOMAN    AND    CHI  LD,  SHOWI NG 
CRADLE-BOARD  METHOD  OF  CARRYING  INFANT 


BUREAU   OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY      THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL   REPORT      PLATE  42 


a.   INFANT    WITH    ORNAMENTED    CRADLE-BOARD 


b.   GROUP    OF    WINNEBAGO 


badin]  GENERAL  SOCIAL   CUSTOMS  127 

Names. — A  newborn  child   received  a  birth  name  immediately. 
There  were  six  such  names  for  male  children  and  six  for  female 
children,  which  were  given  according  to  the  order  of  birth: 
Male  Female 


1.  K'u'nu. 

2.  He'nu. 

3.  Ha'ga. 

4.  Na'nxi. 

5.  Nanxixo'nu. 

6.  Nanxixonu'niiik'a. 


1.  Hi'nu. 

2.  Wi'ha. 

3.  Aksi'-a  (generally  pronounced  Aksi). 

4.  Hi'nunk'. 

5.  A'ksigaxo'nu. 

6.  A'ksigax6nu*nirjk'a. 


The  meanings  of  these  names  are  unknown  to  the  present  Winnebago, 
who  reject  the  idea  that  they  ever  had  any  meaning  apart  from 
indicating  the  order  of  birth.  Originally,  of  course,  these  names 
had  meanings,  but  at  the  present  time  they  resemble  no  other  Winne- 
bago names  and  baffle  all  attempts  at  interpretation.  This  is  not 
surprising,  because  they  represent  in  all  probability  archaic  names 
which  undoubtedly  have  been  considerably  modified  through  long- 
continued  use.  The  Dakota  have  a  similar  set  of  names  but  only 
four  in  number.  The  two  additional  names  among  the  Winnebago 
indicate  by  their  form  that  they  have  been  derived  from  one  of  the 
other  four.  In  this  connection  it  is  interesting  to  note  that  the 
fifth  of  the  male  names  is,  as  one  might  expect,  merely  the  fourth 
name  of  the  series  with  the  addition  of  a  diminutive  suffix,  whereas 
the  fifth  of  the  female  names  is  the  third  of  that  series  with  a  like 
addition.  The  sixth  name  of  each  series  is  formed  by  adding  another 
diminutive  suffix  to  the  fifth  name. 

A  few  words  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  with  regard  to  the 
relation  of  the  male  to  the  female  series,  and  to  the  possible  interpre- 
tation of  two  of  the  female  names.  He'nu  '  of  the  male  and  Hi'nu  of 
the  female  series,  it  will  be  noted,  differ  only  in  the  first  vowel.  A 
similar  phenomenon  is  found  in  such  relationship  terms  as  Tii'niyk, 
male  child  of  elder  brother,  and  hi'tinuyl-' ,  female  child  of  elder  brother. 
Remembering  that  in  those  Siouan  languages  which  distinguish 
between  female  and  male  oral  stops  the  difference  often  consists 
merely  in  the  change  of  a  vowel,  this  difference  between  He'nu  and 
Hi'nu  may  be  suggestive.  The  name  K'u'nu  may  be  connected  with 
Wu'niyTc,  "a  grandmother,"  in  which  lc'u  is  unquestionably  the  stem, 
meaning  probably  "old."  In  the  female  series  there  is  a  possible  re- 
lationship between  Hi'nu  and  Hi'nunk',  as  ¥  seems  to  be  a  very  com- 
mon ending  in  relationship  terms.  Hi'nunk'  itself  is  identical  with 
the  word  for  "woman"  and  it  seems  hard  to  imagine  that  it  is  not 
the  same,  especially  since  it  is  also  found  as  the  relationship  term  for 
female  child  of  younger  brother. 

1  Hi'nu  is  also  the  name  for  a  man's  elder  sister. 


128  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

On  first  thought  it  might  he  imagined  that  the  application  of  the 
same  name  to  so  many  people  would  cause  great  confusion.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  however,  in  a  village  of,  say,  20  families,  there  could 
have  been  a  maximum  of  only  40  having  the  same  name.  Taking 
into  account  deaths  and  departures,  the  number  was  greatly  dimin- 
ished. Moreover,  as  in  general  only  relations  or  close  friends  were 
addressed  in  this  way,  strangers  commonly  being  addressed  by  their 
nicknames,  the  seeming  danger  of  confusion  is  almost  entirely  obvia- 
ted. In  those  cases,  however,  in  which  confusion  might  result  a 
nickname,  or  sometimes  a  clan  name,  was  added  to  the  birth  name 
when  speaking  of  an  individual. 

Naming  feast. — The  clan  name  was  generally  bestowed  on  a  child 
at  a  special  feast  held  for  the  purpose  or  at  any  feast  that  happened 
to  be  given  within  a  reasonable  time  after  its  birth.  The  bestowal  of 
the  clan  name  was  not  infrequently  delayed  by  a  father's  inability 
to  gather  the  requisite  amount  of  food  to  be  presented  to  the  old 
man  who  was  to  select  the  name.  Occasionally  it  even  happened 
that  a  father  under  such  conditions  permitted  the  relatives  of  his 
wife  to  bestow  a  name  on  a  child,  which  of  course  was  a  name  from 
its  mother's  clan.  The  author  has  personal  knowledge  of  a  case  in 
which  the  first  child  of  a  man  had  a  name  belonging  to  his  mother's 
clan  while  the  other  children  had  names  belonging  to  their  father's 
clan.  When  questioned,  the  man  said  that  at  the  time  of  the  birth 
of  his  eldest  child  he  was  too  poor  to  pay  for  the  honor  of  having  his 
child  receive  a  name  and  that  he  had  allowed  his  wife's  relatives  to 
give  it  a  name.  When  his  other  children  were  born,  however,  as 
he  was  in  better  condition  financially  he  had  been  able  to  name  them 
in  the  usual  way.  Although  a  child,  irrespective  of  his  individual 
name,  always  belonged  to  his  father's  clan,  there  seemed  to  exist  a 
feeling  that  a  person  having  a  name  not  taken  from  his  own  clan 
was  more  or  less  incomplete.  A  person  possessing  no  clan  name  was 
regarded  as  having  low  social  standing. 

When  a  child  was  adopted  it  retained  its  former  birth  name  and 
clan  name. 

Relationship  terms. — The  system  of  relationship  terms  used  by  the 
Winnebago  is  as  follows : 2 

Male  Terms  of  Address 

Tcok'a',  p.  and  m.  grandfather  (direct  address). 
Hi'tcok'd,  p.  and  m.  grandfather  and  father-in-law. 
K'u'nink'a,  p.  and  m.  grandmother  (direct  address). 
Hik'arok'e,  p.  and  m.  grandmother  and  mother-in-law. 
Dja'dji,  father  (direct  address). 

a  Abbreviations:  p.,  paternal;  m.,  maternal;  br.,  brother;  sr.,  sister. 


KAP1N]  GENERAL   SOCIAL   CUSTOMS  129 

Hi-a'ntc,  father. 

Na'ni,  mother  (direct  address). 

Hi-u'ni,  mother. 

Hi'ni,  elder  brother  (direct  address?). 

Ni'ni,  elder  br.  (?). 

Hi'surjk',  or  Hisunkedji",  younger  br. 

Hi'nu,  elder  sr. 

Wai'tcke,  younger  sr.;  or  (TcMgua'k'  (obsolete)  (direct  address?). 

Hiwange',  wife  of  elder  br. 

Hiwange',  wife  of  younger  br. 

Hitca'n,  husband  of  elder  sr. 

Hitca'n,  husband  of  younger  sr. 

Hi'nink',  son  of  elder  br. 

Hi'nink",  son  of  yoimger  br. 

Hi'niink',  daughter  of  elder  br. 

Hi'niink",  daughter  of  younger  br. 

Hi'nunktce'k',  wife  of  son  of  elder  br. 

Hi'nunktce'k',  wife  of  son  of  yuunger  br. 

Hitcuncke',  son  of  elder  sr. 

Hitcuncke',  son  of  younger  sr. 

Hitcunjonk',  daughter  of  elder  sr. 

Hitcunj6nk',  daughter  of  younger  sr. 

Hinunktce'k',  wife  of  son  of  elder  sr. 

Hinunktce'k',  wife  of  son  of  younger  sr. 

Wadoho'tci,  husband  of  daughter  of  elder  br. 

Wadoho'tci,  husband  of  daughter  of  younger  br. 

Wadoho'tci,  husband  of  daughter  of  elder  sr. 

Wadoho'tci,  husband  of  daughter  of  younger  sr. 

Ningia'k',  son  (no  longer  in  common  use)  (direct  address). 

Hintnk',  son. 

Hirakewa11,  stepson. 

Hitca'xa11,  stepdaughter. 

Nunguak',  daughter  (n©  longer  in  common  use)  (direct  address). 

Hinunk',  daughter. 

Himurjktce'k',  wife  of  son. 

Watoho'tci,  husband  of  daughter. 

Hitcuncke',  son  of  son. 

Hitcuncke,  son  of  daughter. 

Hitcunj6'nk',  daughter  of  daughter. 

Hitcunjonk',  daughter  of  son. 

Hinunktce'k',  wife  of  grandson 

Wadohto'ci,  husband  of  grand-daughter, 

Hinunga's,  p.  br. 

Hi-uni'nink',  wife  of  p.  br. 


130  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.  37 

Hi'ni,  Hisu'nk',  older  and  younger  sons  of  p.  br.,  respectively. 

Hi'nu,  waitcke',  older  and  younger  daughters  of  p.  br.,  respectively. 

Hinunktce'k',  wives  of  sons  of  p.  br. 

Watoho'tci,  husbands  of  daughters  of  p.  br. 

Hinink',  sons  of  sons  of  p.  br. 

Hinunk',  daughters  of  sons  of  p.  br. 

Hitcu'nwin,  p.  sr. 

Hitca'n,  husband  of  p.  sr. 

Hitcuncke',  sons  of  p.  sr. 

Hitcunjo'nk',  daughters  of  p.  sr. 

Hinunktce'k',  wives  of  sons  of  p.  sr. 

Wadoho'tci,  husbands  of  daughters  of  p.  sr. 

Hiteuncke,  sons  of  sons  of  p.  sr. 

Hitcu'njo'nk',  daughters  of  sons  of  p.  sr. 

Hide'k',  m.  br. 

Hitcu'nwin,  wife  of  m.  br. 

Hide'kenink',  sons  of  m.  br. 

Hidcu'nwin,  daughters  of  m.  br. 

Hitcuncke',  sons  of  sons  of  m.  br. 

Hitcunjo'nk',  daughters  of  sons  of  m.  br. 

Hitcu'nwin,  wives  of  sons  of  m.  br. 

Hitca'n,  husbands  of  daughters  of  m.  br. 

Hi-uni'ntnk',  m.  sr. 

Hinunga's,  husband  of  m.  sr. 

Hi'ni,  Hisu'nk,  older  and  younger  sons  of  m.  sr.;  respectively. 

Hi'nink,  male  children  of  male  children  of  m.  sr. 

Hi'nunk,  female  children  of  male  children  of  m.  sr. 

Hinu,  waitcke,  daughters  of  m.  sr.,  respectively. 

Hinunktce'k',  wives  of  sons  of  m.  sr. 

Wadoho'tci,  husbands  of  daughters  of  m.  sr. 

Tcido',  elder  br. 

Hiteunck§',  children  of  br. 

Hitcunj6i)k',  daughters  of  br. 

Hiciga'n,  wife  of  br. 

Hisu'nk',  younger  br. 

Hitconk',  younger  sr. 

Hi'nu,  elder  sr. 

Hicik£e',  husband  of  sr. 

Hint'nk',  sons  of  sr. 

Hinunk',  daughters  of  sr. 

Hiciga'n,  wives  of  sons  of  br. 

Hicike£',  husbands  of  daughters  of  br. 

Hinunktce'k',  wives  of  children  of  sr. 

Wadoho'tci,  husbands  of  daughters  of  sr. 

Hicik£e',  husband  of  father's  sr. 


Radin]  GENERAL   SOCIAL   CUSTOMS  131 

Hiko'no,  husband. 

Hitca'n,  brother  of  wife. 

Hitca'nwin,  wife. 

Hiwange',  sister  of  wife. 

After  one's  grandchild's  generation  the  children  of  a  man  whom  one 
called  either  Hi'nink'  or  HitcCincke',  or  of  a  woman  whom  one  called 
either  Hi'nunk'  or  Hitcu"j6'nk',  were  all  called  Hitcunck6'  or 
Hitcunj6'nk'. 

A  special  term,  Wotcu'nwonk',  was  used  by  parents-in-law  when 
addressing  each  other. 

It  will  be  noticed  that,  taking  self  as  the  starting  point,  the  dis- 
tinction between  forms — one  series  to  be  used  in  speaking  of  a  person 
and  the  other  in  directly  addressing  one's  own  blood  relative — has 
been  developed  for  only  grandfather,  grandmother,  father,  mother, 
son,  and  daughter.  It  is  probable  that  in  former  times  brother  and 
sister  also  were  included  in  this  double  series. 

Female  Terms  of  Address 

As  compared  with  the  distinction  between  male  and  female  terms 
of  address  found  among  other  Siouan  tribes,  that  existing  among 
the  Winnebago  is  very  weak  and  there  seems  to  be  no  indication 
that  it  ever  was  much  stronger,  although  caution  must  be  observed 
in  drawing  inferences  as  to  past  relationship  terms,  since  it  is  a  well- 
known  fact  that  they  have  a  tendency  to  disappear.  At  the  present 
time  there  are  only  four  terms  used  among  the  Winnebago  by  women 
specifically;  tcito,  elder  brother;  Mtco'yJc',  younger  sister;  hiciga'", 
wife  of  brother;  and  hicil^c' ,  husband  of  sister. 

A  cursory  examination  shows  that  the  following  forms  are  linguis- 
tically related: 

hini.  hinu. 

hinlnk'.  hinunk. 

hicike'.  hiciga'n. 

hitcuncke'.  hitcunjo'i)k'  (tcun — giVak,  obsolete)  hitcu'nwin. 

hitca".  hitcanwin. 

hitcu'nk'. 

hitcak'a'ro  (friend). 

It  is  clear  that  we  are  dealing  here  with  a  change  of  terminal  vowel 
(from  i  to  u;  from  e  to  a;  from  a  to  u),  indicative  of  sex.  In  the 
form  hitcunwin,  win  is  undoubtedly  identical  with  -win,  meaning 
''female,"  found  with  all  animal  female  names.  Terminal  k',  Jc'e, 
ga,  is  a  suffix  that  may  be  related  to  the  termination  Jc'e  found  with 
so  many  animal  names.  We  may  perhaps  say,  then,  that  we  have 
here  only  three  stems,  hini,  hiciJc',  and  hitch'11.  For  a  complete  list 
of  stems  used  in  relationship  terms  there  must  now  be  added  to 
these  the  following:  Hik'd'ro — Jc'e  hitcoJc — Jc'e',  hi-a'ntc  hi-u'ni, 
histi'y — ¥,     waitc — Jc'e',     hintingds,     hide — Jc'     hiwan — ge' ,     tcido, 


132  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

wadoMtci,  and  hinti'nlc — tcek' .  Hinunga's  might  be  said  to  be 
divided  into  hinug  and  gas,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  assume  that 
such  a  division  of  the  word  is  justifiable,  and  for  that  reason  it  has 
not  been  included  in  the  enumeration  of  hinti'n — ¥  stems.  The 
form  tcido,  elder  brother,  spoken  by  females,  is  baffling,  all  the 
more  so  if  we  assume  that  there  never  was  a  form  for  "younger 
brother"  used  by  women. 

Let  us  now  separate  the  terms  applied  to  relatives  through  mar- 
riage from  those  applied  to  blood  relatives. 

Relatives 
through  marriage 

Hitca'" 

Hi-uni'nirjk' 

k',  hidekENfrjk'    Hinurjga's 


Blood  relatives 

neiaiives 

through  marriage 

Blood  relatives 

Hini 

Hicik£e 

Waitc — k'd' 

Hitcu"cke' 

Hiciga/n 

Hinunga's 

Hik'aro— k'e' 

Hitcu/nwin 

Hide'— k',  hid 

Hitco— k'£' 

Tcido' 

Hi-a'ntc 

Wadoho'tci 

Hitcu'nwi" 

Hi-u'ni;  hi-unini'rjk 

Hiwarjge' 

Hinink' 

HisQ'n— k' 

Hinunk'tee'k' 

Three  terms  are  applied  sometimes  to  blood  relatives  and  some- 
times to  relatives  through  marriage:  IIitc£l'nivi,  lii-uni'niylc' ,  and 
MnHyga's.  It  is  the  author's  belief  that  in  all  these  cases  the  terms 
have  been  applied  to  relatives  through  marriage  on  account  of  the 
extremely  close  relationship  the  husbands  of  Mtcu'nwi  and  hi-uni'niyl~l 
and  the  wives  of  Mntiyga' shear  to  one's  parents;  that  it  is  really 
an  act  of  courtesy  toward  people  whose  children  are  in  one  case 
(hitcu"nunn  and  M-uni' ntyk' )  regarded  as  one's  brothers  and  sisters 
and  in  the  other  case  as  the  same  as  one's  sister's  children.  There 
never  was  the  slightest  confusion  as  to  the  position  held  by  the  wife 
of  one's  father's  brother  (hi-uni'niijl-'),  or  one's  mother's  brother's 
wife,  or  the  husband  of  one's  mother's  sister;  nor  is  there  the  slightest 
indication  that  they  ever  were  considered  as  identical  with  any 
blood  relatives  who  bore  the  same  name. 

The  foregoing  list  contains  twenty-two  terms  of  relationship 
applied  by  the  Winnebago  to  all  relatives,  blood  or  otherwise,  for 
five  generations — one's  own  father's,  grandfather's,  son's,  and  grand- 
son's. The  two  tables  following  show  first,  how  these  terms  were 
distributed  over  the  five  generations,  and  second,  to  how  many 
people  of  these  five  generations  the  same  name  was  applied. . 


Generation 

Male 

Female 

1. 

Grandfather's 

Hitcok-6' 

Ili'k'arok'e' 

2. 

Father's 

Hi-a'ntc,  hide'k' 

Ili-u'ni,  hi-uninirjk' 

Hinunga's,  hitca'1' 

Hitca'"  win 

3. 

One's 

own 

Hini,  hisu'rjk' 
Hitcu11rke',  hideke- 
Nink',  hitca'", 
Wadoho'tci,  hicik£e 

Hinu,  waitcke',  hinunk'  tce'k 
Hitcu°j6'rjk',  hitcu^wi", 
Hiwangg',  hiciga'" 

4. 

Son's 

Hinink',  hitcuncke', 
Hini,  hisu'rjk', 
Wadohotci 

Hinu'nk',  hinurjk'  tce'k', 
Hitcu"  jo'rjk',  hfnu, 
Waitckfe' 

radin]  GENERAL  SOCIAL   CUSTOMS  133 

Generation  Male  Female 

5.  Grandson's  Hitcuncke/,  hinink',  IIitcunj6/nk',  hinunk', 

6.  Great-grandson's  HitcuDcke/,  hinirjk',  Hitcunj6'rjk',  hi'nurjk', 

(Hitcft-'jS'nk')  (Hitcuncke') 

7.  Great-great-grandson's        (Hitcunj6'nk')  (Hitcunckev) 

For  the  first  three  generations  no  term  is  repeated  except  Mtcu'awi"; 
for  the  fourth  generation  eight  terms  are  repeated  and  two  terms 
are  added,  JiiniyTc'  and  hi'nuyk'.  After  that  all  the  terms  are  re- 
peated and  no  new  terms  are  added.  Only  three  sets  of  terms  are 
repeated  for  more  than  two  generations — hitcuncke',  hitcu^jo'yTc 
hinuylc'tce'lc,  wadoho'tci,  and  M'ntyJc',  M'nuijlc'.  After  the  fifth  gener- 
ation only  one  set  of  terms  is  used. 

Distribution  of  all  relationship  terms 3  occurring  more  than  once. — 

Hi-uni'nirjk",  wife  of  p.  br. ;  m.  sr. 

Hi'ni,  elder  br. ;  son  of  p.  br. ;  son  of  m.  sr. 

Hisunk',  younger  br.;  son  of  p.  br. ;  son  of  m.  sr. 

Hi'nu,  elder  sr. ;  daughter  of  p.  br. ;  daughter  of  m.  sr. 

Waitcke',  younger  sr. ;  daughter  of  p.  br. ;  daughter  of  m.  sr. 

Hi'ntnk',  son  of  elder  br.;  son  of  sr.  (sister  speaking). 

Hi'nurjk',  daughter  of  elder  br. ;  daughter  of  sr. 

Hitcuncke',  son  of  elder  br.;  son  of  daughter  and  son;  son  of  br.; 
son  of  p.  sr. 

Hitcunjo'i)k',  daughter  of  elder  br. ;  daughter  of  daughter  and  son ; 
daughter  of  p.  sr.;  daughter  of  br. 

Hitcu'nwin,  p.  sr. ;  daughter  of  m.  br. ;  wife  of  son  of  m.  sr. 

Hitca'n,  husbands  of  sisters;  husband  of  p.  sr. ;  husband  of  daugh- 
ter of  m.  sr. 

Hiciga'n,  wife  of  br. ;  wife  of  son  of  br. 

HicikV,  husband  of  p.  sr.;  husband  of  daughter  of  br. 

Joking  Relationship4 

A  man  was  not  permitted  to  take  even  the  slightest  liberties  with 
any  of  his  near  relatives  or  with  his  mother-in-law  or  his  father-in-law, 
but  a  curious  exception  to  this  rule  was  permitted  for  his  father's 
sister's  children  (Mtcuncke'  and  Mtcdnjo'rj¥);  his  mother's  brother's 
children  (hitcuncJce'  and  Mtcunj6'ylc');  his  mother's  brothers  (hide'lc1); 
and  his  sisters-in-law  and  brothers-in-law.  In  the  two  cases  last 
named  not  only  was  a  man  permitted  to  joke  with  those  relatives 
but  he  was  supposed  to  do  so  whenever  he  had  an  opportunity. 
Under  no  circumstances  were  any  of  these  individuals  supposed  to 
take  offense.     This  relationship  was  of  course  reciprocal.     If  a  person 

3  A  more  specific  study  of  these  relationship  terms  is  reserved  for  a  special  article  on  Siouan  Relation- 
ship Terms. 

<  The  joking  relationship  was  discovered  among  the  Winnebago  by  the  author.  Since  then  it  has 
been  found  to  exist  among  the  Crows  and  the  Creeks,  etc. 


134  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

attempted  liberties  with  people  who  did  not  belong  in  the  category 
of  the  "joking  relationship"  they  would  stop  him  immediately, 
saying,  "What  joking  relation  am  I  to  you"  (Djagu'  niylc'  idajitcgad- 

It  is  impossible  to  determine  the  significance  of  the  "joking  rela- 
tionship." Two  points  of  interest  may  be  referred  to,  however: 
First,  that  it  existed  between  a  person  and  such  close  relatives  as  the 
children  of  his  father's  sister  and  his  mother's  brothers  and  their 
children,  on  the  one  hand,  and  his  relatives  by  marriage  only,  as  his 
brothers-in-law  and  sisters-in-law,  on  the  other;  and  second,  that  his 
mother's  brother  was  at  the  same  time  a  person  with  whom  he  was 
on  particularly  intimate  terms.  With  regard  to  the  first  point,  the 
author  suggests  the  following  explanation:  Both  groups  just  men- 
tioned had  this  in  common — they  did  not  belong  to  the  man's  clan 
and  with  the  exception  of  their  mother's  brother  they  did  not  belong 
to  any  individuals  but  those  of  their  own  generation.  Now  we  know 
that  the  prohibition  of  marriage  into  a  man's  mother's  clan  extended 
only  to  members  of  her  generation  and  that  theoretically,  at  least, 
he  could  marry  her  brother's  children.  In  the  same  way  the  children 
of  a  man's  father's  sister,  belonging  as  they  did  to  the  side  into  which 
he  had  to  marry  and  not  belonging  to  the  generation  of  his  father, 
belonged  also  to  the  group  into  which  he  theoretically  might  marry. 
The  author  has  never  heard  any  Winnebago  state  that  a  man  may 
not  marry  any  of  the  individuals  included  in  the"  joking  relationship, " 
with  the  exception  of  his  sister-in-law,  but  he  feels  certain  that  such 
marriage  would  be  considered  improper,  although  equally  certain 
that  it  would  not  be  regarded  as  incest,  as  would  be  the  case  if  a 
person  were  to  marry  the  son  of  his  mother's  sister  or  of  his  father's 
brother.  The  suggestion  is  offered,  therefore,  that  the  "joking 
relationship"  implies,  first,  close  relationship  of  individuals  who 
have  different  clan  membership,  and,  second,  perhaps,  the  possibility 
of  marriage.  If  there  is  any  explanation  for  the  existence  of  the 
relationship  between  a  man  and  his  mother's  brother  I  feel  that  it 
is  probably  to  be  sought  in  the  first  of  these  suggestions.  The  second 
is  really  advanced  merely  to  suggest  some  reason  for  the  grouping 
together  of  blood  relations  with  relations  by  marriage. 

The  "joking  relationship"  is  very  peculiar  from  the  point  of  view 
of  a  European,  and  for  that  reason  it  is  perhaps  likely  that  we  exag- 
gerate its  importance.  In  actual  practice  joking  was  probably 
indulged  in  only  during  the  first  moments  after  meeting,  except  by 
the  habitual  punster.  An  important  psychological  factor  may  have 
been  the  opportunity  for  relaxation  it  afforded  an  individual  who 
was  constantly  surrounded  by  close  relatives  in  intercourse  with 
whom  he  had  to  observe  at  all  times  strict  rules  of  propriety. 


badis]  GENERAL  SOCIAL   CUSTOMS  135 

Mother-in-law  and  Father-in-law  Taboo 

In  former  times  the  mother-in-law  and  father-in-law  taboo  was  in 
full  force.  No  man  was  allowed  to  talk  directly  to  his  mother-in-law 
or  to  look  at  her,  and  the  same  rule  held  with  regard  to  the  attitude 
of  a  woman  toward  her  father-in-law.  Even  accidental  meetings  of 
these  relatives,  as  on  the  road,  were  attended  with  great  embarrass- 
ment. The  author  never  learned  of  any  way  in  which  either  the 
mother-in-law  or  the  father-in-law  taboo  could  be  relaxed  even 
temporarily,  much  less  done  away  with  entirely. 

Puberty  Customs 

From  the  age  of  five,  children,  male  and  female,  were  taught  the 
customs  of  their  ancestors  in  a  series  of  talks  always  delivered  by 
an  elderly  male  relative,  perhaps  the  father.  The  specific  training 
differed,  of  course,  for  boys  and  girls  and  for  individuals.  Per- 
sonal training  ceased  at  the  age  of  puberty,  when  all,  both  boys  and 
girls,  were  sent  out  to  fast.  For  boys  this  fasting  constituted  the 
only  puberty  rite.  After  their  faces  had  been  blackened  with  char- 
coal they  were  sent  to  some  neighboring  hill  with  the  injunction  not 
to  return  till  dawn.  Gradually  they  would  be  sent  out  for  two,  then 
three,  nights;  if  after  that  trial  they  were  not  blessed  they  would  be 
advised  either  to  desist  entirely  or  exhorted  to  fast  until  they  were 
blessed,  no  matter  how  long  the  time  required  to  secure  the  desired 
result.     While  fasting  the  boys  and  girls  used  the  following  formula: 

Waxop'  inixjiwina     hina'djire  nandje'je  wahadjex. 

Spirits  am  I  likely  to  be  blessed?         that  is  why  I  am  praying. 

One  old  Indian  informed  the  author  that  in  former  times  the  young 
boys  and  girls  were  offered  either  bread  or  charcoal  for  their  fast. 
If  they  took  the  charcoal,  well  and  good;  but  if  they  took  the  bread, 
they  were  unceremoniously  kicked  out  of  the  house  and  the  charcoal 
was  thrown  after  them.  From  the  other  statements  of  this  informant 
one  might  gather  that  the  young  boys  and  girls  generally  took  the 
bread,  because,  he  said,  after  they  had  been  kicked  out,  they  would 
always  resolve  to  go  to  the  wilderness  (in  that  way  running  the  risk 
of  being  captured  or  killed  by  an  enemy),  in  order  to  spite  their 
parents.  My  informant  was  of  the  opinion  that  the  parents  pur- 
posely treated  their  children  roughly,  so  that  they  might  feel  all  the 
more  miserable  while  fasting  and  thus  pray  all  the  more  intensely. 

A  faster  is  always  told  to  be  careful  as  to  what  kind  of  spirits 
bless  him,  as  he  might  be  blessed  by  a  bad  spirit.  Therefore  a 
faster's  blessings  are  always  reviewed  by  the  elders.  J.'s  old  grand- 
mother used  to  call  the  children  in  at  dusk,  as  the  evil  spirits  are 
around  then. 


136  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.ann.37 

All  boys  do  not  seem  to  have  approached  the  ordeal  of  fasting  with 
the  proper  religious  feeling.  One  instance  in  particular  showed  any- 
thing but  a  reverent  attitude;  this  is  so  amusing  that  it  is  here 
given  in  the  exact  words  of  the  Indian : 

When  1  was  a  young  boy,  my  folks  made  me  fast  together  with  a  boy  named 
Modudjeka.  We  were  supposed  to  go  to  the  hills  and  cry  until  the  spirits  blessed  us. 
However,  whenever  we  looked  at  each  other  and  at  our  charcoal-blackened  faces  we 
could  not  refrain  from  bursting  out  laughing,  ^"henever  we  made  up  our  minds  to 
cry,  something  or  other  would  induce  us  to  look  at  each  other  and  the  laughing  would 
begin  all  over  again.  When  the  time  for  our  return  to  the  house  came,  we  didn't 
present  the  slightest  indication  of  having  cried,  so  we  took  some  saliva  and  made  long 
streaks  on  our  faces. 

Young  girls  and  women  are  also  encouraged  to  fast  to  obtain  the 
war  honors. 

Menstrual  lodges. — Fasting  at  puberty  by  girls  was  inseparably  con- 
nected with  their  retirement  to  menstrual  lodges.  Sometimes  there 
was  only  one  girl  in  each  menstrual  lodge,  sometimes  there  were  as 
many  as  three.  From  the  time  of  her  first  menstrual  flow  to  her 
climacteric  a  woman  retired  to  a  menstrual  lodge  every  month  for 
a  few  days.  An  excellent  account  of  Winnebago  customs  in  this 
respect  was  obtained  in  a  text  from  a  male  informant,  and,  although 
somewhat  discursive,  it  is  given  in  full  here: 

As  soon  as  a  woman  begins  to  have  her  menstrual  flow  she  has  to  retire  to  a  menstrual 
lodge  and  to  be  careful  never  to  come  in  contact  with  any  sacred  objects.  If  she  did, 
these  objects  would  all  lose  their  power.  Everything  that  is  holy  would  immediately 
lose  its  power  if  a  menstruating  woman  came  near  it.  A  holy  woman  or  a  holy  man 
or  even  a  holy  child  would  be  affected  by  the  proximity  of  a  menstruating  woman. 
Their  holy  condition  would  immediately  disappear.  In  a  similar  way,  if  food  were 
served  to  a  sick  person  from  the  same  dish  used  for  a  menstruating  woman  the  sick 
person  would  become  far  more  sick. 

The  food  for  a  menstruating  person  is  always  cooked  separately.  Special  dishes 
are  used  and  special  fireplaces  are  made. 

If  a  person  possessed  any  medicines,  they  would  lose  all  their  power  if  a  men- 
struating woman  came  in  contact  with  them.  If  any  person  should  enter  a  men- 
strual lodge,  in  after  life,  whenever  he  fasted,  he  would  not  be  blessed  by  any  spirit. 
However,  there  is  one  thing  that  a  menstruating  woman  is  afraid  of,  and  that  is  the 
war  bundle.  These  war  bundles  are  kept  in  cedar  [leaves?]  mixed  with  medicine  to 
prevent  danger  from  just  such  a  source.  If  a  menstruating  woman  comes  near  a  war 
bundle,  her  flow  would  increase  and  never  cease,  and  after  a  while  she  would  die,5 
and  only  if  the  owner  of  the  war  bundle  personally  attends  to  her  can  she  be  cured. 
For  that  reason  whenever  a  war-bundle  feast  is  being  given  a  woman  is  very  careful, 
and  even  if  it  is  a  few  days  before  her  menstrual  flow  she  will  not  go. 

■  This  explains  what  puzzled  the  author  for  some  time — namely,  the  fact  that  although  contact  with  a 
menstruating  woman  destroyed  the  efficacy  of  everything  holy,  in  the  case  of  the  war  bundle  the  reverse 
was  true  and  the  woman  was  destroyed.  Many  of  the  Indians  who  spoke  of  this  matter  also  seemed  to 
believe  it  was  the  war  bundle  that  killed  the  woman.  From  this  account,  however,  it  is  perfectly  clear 
that  it  is  not  the  war  bundle  at  all  that  killed  the  woman,  but  the  poison  in  which  the  war  bundle  was 
wrapped.  The  war  bundle  is  therefore  no  exception  to  the  general  rule,  and  it  is  only  on  account  of  the 
serious  consequences  that  would  accrue  to  so  many  people  from  any  impairment  of  its  powers,  and  the 
care  taken  to  prevent  this  by  surrounding  it  with  special  medicines,  that  it  offers  externally  an  exception 
to  the  fatal  effects  of  contact  with  a  menstruating  woman. 


badin]  GENERAL  SOCIAL   CUSTOMS  137 

The  menstrual  lodge  is  never  far  from  the  lodge  in  which  she  lives.  Indeed,  it  is 
within  speaking  distance,  so  that  the  occupants  of  her  parents'  lodge  can  hear  her. 
All  the  utensils  she  uses  are  very  small.  The  women  stay  from  4  to  10  days  in  the 
menstrual  lodges.  The  older  women  stay  out  the  shorter  time  because  they  are  over 
it  sooner. 

It  is  said  that  if  the  young  girls  have  any  lovers  they  always  come  to  the  men- 
strual lodges  at  night.  This  is  therefore  the  time  for  wooing.  It  is  said  that  the 
girls  cohabit  with  their  lovers  in  these  menstrual  lodges.  Those  girls  who  have 
parents  are  attended  by  watchers,  so  that  no  unworthy  men  may  visit  them.  They 
are  especially  guarded  against  ugly  men,  who  are  very  likely  to  have  love  medicines. 
However,  generally  it  is  of  no  avail  to  struggle  against  such  men,  for  they  are  invin- 
cible. 

The  women  always  take  their  blankets  with  them  when  they  go  to  a  menstrual 
lodge,  for  they  never  lie  down  but  remain  in  a  sitting  posture,  wrapped  in  their 
blankets.  The  women  are  always  watched,  so  that  when  their  menstrual  flow  comes 
everything  is  in  readiness  and  lodge  poles  are  placed  around  them  and  a  lodge  erected 
above  their  heads  just  about  large  enough  to  fit  their  body.  They  are  not  permitted 
to  look  upon  the  daylight  nor  upon  any  individual.  If  they  were  to  look  out  during 
the  day  the  weather  would  become  very  bad,  and  if  they  were  to  look  at  the  blue 
sky  it  would  become  cloudy  and  rain.  If  they  looked  at  anyone  that  person  would 
become  unfortunate.  For  four  days  they  do  not  eat  or  drink  anything;  not  even 
water  do  they  drink.  They  fast  all  the  time.  Not  even  their  own  body  do  they 
touch  with  their  hands.  If  they  ever  have  any  need  of  touching  their  bodies  they 
use  a  stick.  If  they  were  to  use  their  hands  in  touching  their  own  body  their  bones 
would  be  attacked  with  fever.  If  they  were  to  scratch  their  hands  their  heads  would 
ache.  After  the  fourth  day  they  bathe  in  sight  of  their  home.  Then  they  return  to 
their  homes  and  eat.  (This,  of  course,  holds  only  for  those  whose  menstrual  flow 
ceases  in  four  days.)  If  any  women  have  to  stay  longer  than  four  days  they  have  to 
fast  for  that  entire  period.  They  always  fast  during  this  period  and  often  some  spirits 
bless  them.  When  a  woman  who  has  stayed  in  the  menstrual  lodge  for  10  days  is 
ready  to  return  to  her  lodge,  she  bathes  herself  and  puts  on  an  entirely  new  suit  of 
clothes.  Then  her  home  is  purified  with  red-cedar  leaves  and  all  the  sacred  bundles 
and  medicines  removed.  Only  then  can  she  enter  her  parents'  lodge.  As  soon  as 
she  returns  to  her  parents'  lodge  after  her  first  menstrual  flow  she  is  regarded  as  ready 
to  be  wooed  and  married . 

Thus  the  teacher  of  our  customs,  the  Hare,  has  willed  it.  At  a  feast  all  the  young 
girls  nearing  the  age  of  puberty  will  be  absent,  but  the  old  women,  who  have  passed 
their  climacteric,  sit  right  next  to  the  men,  because  they  are  considered  the  same  as 
men  as  they  have  no  menstrual  flow  any  more. 

If  the  Winnebago  can  be  said  to  be  afraid  of  any  one  thing  it  may  be  said  it  is  this — 
the  menstrual  flow  of  women — for  even  the  spirits  die  of  its  effects. 

If  the  above  account  may  be  taken  as  a  fairly  accurate  description 
of  the  customs  connected  with  the  menstrual  lodge  as  they  existed 
in  former  times,  then  one  point  must  be  regarded  as  of  great  interest, 
namely,  that  the  women  permitted  their  lovers  to  meet  them  there. 
So  far  as  is  known  to  the  author,  among  other  tribes  having  men- 
strual lodges  it  would  have  been  considered  a  crime  for  any  man  to 
come  near  them.  According  to  our  informant  the  women  were 
indeed  guarded  while  they  were  in  the  menstrual  lodges,  but  not  so 
much  to  protect  them  against  the  intrusion  of  all  men,  as  against  the 
intrusion  of  unworthy  men.  From  other  information  obtained,  how- 
186823—22 10 


138  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

ever,  it  appears  that  women  were  married  to  these  same  lovers  after 

the  former  left  the  menstrual  lodge,  so  that  the  presence  of  men  in 

these  lodges  may  be  taken  either  as  a  part  of  the  wooing  or  as  one  of 

the  methods  of  marriage.     Some  theorists  may  be  inclined  to  look 

on  this  feature  of  the  practices  connected  with  the  menstrual  lodge 

as  a  survival  of  a  "women's  house."     To  those  the  fact   may   be 

emphasized  that  it  is  only  a  few  times  in  the  life  of  a  woman  that 

such  a  feature  exists,   because  she  is  married  shortly  after  leaving 

the  lodge. 6 

Marriage 

Girls  were  usually  married  as  soon  as  they  reached  marriageable 
age,  and  the  same  was  probably  true  of  men.  In  most  cases  marriage 
was  arranged  by  the  parents  of  the  young  people,  and  it  rarely 
happened  that  the  latter  refused  to  abide  by  the  decision — a  fact 
that  seems  to  have  been  due  not  so  much  to  implicit  obedience  as 
to  the  wise  precautions  taken  by  the  parents  in  mating  their  children. 
If,  however,  the  young  people  absolutely  refused  to  abide  by  their 
parents'  choice,  the  latter  always  yielded.  In  former  times  children 
were  betrothed  to  each  other  at  an  early  age.  At  the  betrothal 
presents  were  exchanged  between  the  parents  of  the  prospective 
bride  and  groom.     The  girl  was  said  to  be  dohore'nA. 

Generally  a  man  took  but  one  wife,  although  he  was  permitted  to 
marry  more  than  one  if  he  wished.  In  polygamous  marriages  the 
second  wife  was  usually  a  niece  or  a  sister  of  the  first  wife.  Accord- 
ing to  a  very  reliable  informant  it  was  the  wife  herself  who  often 
induced  her  husband  to  marry  her  own  niece.  This  she  did  if  she 
noticed  that  he  was  getting  tired  of  her  or  losing  his  interest  in  her.7 

There  was  no  ceremony  connected  with  marriage.  As  soon  as  the 
customary  presents  were  exchanged,  the  man  came  to  the  woman's 
lodge  and  the  marriage  was  consummated. 

A  man  generally  lived  with  his  parents-in-law  during  the  first  two 
years  after  his  marriage.  During  these  two  years  he  was  practically 
the  servant  of  his  father-in-law,  hunting,  fishing,  and  performing 
minor  services  for  him.  Many  Winnebago  interpreted  these  en- 
forced services  of  a  son-in-law  as  part  of  his  marriage  obligations 
toward  his  father-in-law.     After  the  first  two  years  he  returned  to 

6  Were  it  not  for  the  fact  that  his  informant  in  this  case  was  exceedingly  reliable  the  writer  would  be 
inclined  to  regard  with  suspicion  the  statement  as  to  the  use  of  the  menstrual  lodge  as  a  rendezvous  for 
lovers.  It  seems,  however,  that  the  very  fact  that  the  informant  shows  so  great  abhorrence  of  the  menses 
would  have  prevented  him  from  attributing  to  menintimacy  with  women  at  this  time  had  there  been  any 
doubt  in  his  mind  on  the  subject.  Nevertheless  hisstatement  on  the  point  under  discussionseems  peculiar 
and  the  author  would  not  be  surprised  i  f  he  had  exaggerated  greatly  the  number  of  men  willing  to  brave  the 
bad  luck  and  weakness  incident  on  contact  with  women  during  the  menstrual  period. 

'  As  one  of  my  informants  said,  "A  man  can  marry  a  woman  and  her  niece.  If  the  man  is  not  steady 
and  goes  around  with  other  women,  it  is  customary  for  the  wife  to  call  her  niece,  and  she  would  marry 
her  aunt's  husband.  This  is  done  to  steady  the  man.  In  this  way  one  or  the  other  will  always  be 
with  him.    The  same  is  true  of  sisters." 


tuDiN]  GENERAL   SOCIAL   CUSTOMS  139 

his  father's  lodge,  where  his  seat  had  always  been  kept  for  him. 
With  his  own  folks  he  stayed  as  long  as  he  wished,  leaving  it  generally 
as  soon  as  he  decided  to  live  alone — a  decision  that  was  usually 
reached  as  soon  as  he  had  one  child  or  a  number  of  children.  How- 
ever, he  did  not  always  build  his  own  lodge,  especially  in  the  olden 
times,  when  it  was  customary  for  those  Winnebago  who  lived  in  per- 
manent villages  to  occupy  the  long  gable-roofed  lodges,  that  fre- 
cpjently  were  large  enough  to  house  as  many  as  40  people.  In  such 
cases  a  man  and  his  family  generally  alternated  between  his  parents- 
in-law  and  his  own  parents. 

Adoption 

Adoption  of  individuals  was  quite  frequent  in  former  times.  As 
far  as  the  writer  knows,  however,  it  always  took  the  form  of  replac- 
ing of  a  deceased  child  by  some  other  child  physically  resembling 
the  one  lost.  I  do  not  know  whether  there  were  an}7  additional  con- 
siderations if  the  child  adopted  happened  to  be  a  prisoner.  As  the 
name  for  adoption  {wanatjxe'relc'inaijlc)  indicates,  it  is  closely  con- 
nected with  the  common  belief  in  reincarnation,  meaning  either  the 
exchange  of  one  spirit  for  another  or  the  replacing  of  the  spirit.  A 
special  feast  could  be  given  for  adoption  or  it  could  be  done  at  one 
of  the  regular  feasts.  As  the  child  adopted  was  often  the  "friend" 
(hitcak'd'ro)  of  the  deceased  and  in  any  case  had  parents  living, 
presents  were  always  given  to  his  parents. 

Perhaps  a  better  idea  of  the  nature  of  adoption  can  be  obtained 
from  the  following  few  words  of  an  informant: 

When  a  child  dies,  then  the  father  mourns  for  many  years,  and  if  during  that  time 
he  happens  to  meet  a  child  that  resembles  his  dead  child  he  asks  to  be  allowed  to 
adopt  him.     The  parents  of  the  child  can  hardly  object  to  such  a  request.8 

s  There  is  no  doubt  in  my  mind  that  quite  a  number  of  parents  believe  that  such  a  person  is  really  their 
reincarnated  child. 


CHAPTER  V 


BURIAL  AND  FUNERAL  CUSTOMS 

There  appear  to  have  been  two  distinct  methods  of  burial  among 
the  Winnebago — simple  inhumation  and  platform  burial.  Within 
recent  times,  owing  to  the  influence  of  their  Algonquian  neighbors, 
platform  burial  has  entirely  disappeared  and  inhumation  alone  is 
practiced.  It  has  even  become  customary  to  erect  a  typical  Algon- 
quian burial-hut  over  the  grave  (see  pi.  54,  b). 

When  the  old  culture  was  still  intact  inhumation  was  definitely 
associated  with  the  lower  phratry  and  platform  burial  with  the  upper 
phratry.  Whether  this  marked  difference  in  burial  customs  was 
merely  another  example  of  that  specialization  in  function  so  char- 
acteristic of  these  two  divisions  of  the  tribe,  or  whether  it  was  due 
to  distinct  historical  origins,  it  is  difficult  to  determine.  I  am, 
however,  inclined  to  regard  the  latter  interpretation  as  by  far  the 
most  probable. 

All  the  customs  are  described  in  full  detail  in  the  various  accounts 
that  follow  and  in  Chapters  VII  and  VIII.  Each  clan  seems  to  have 
had  a  few  details  peculiar  to  itself,  but,  in  the  main,  the  rights  were 
identical.     They  may  briefly  be  divided  into  the  following  sections: 

1.  Preparation  of  the  body  for  burial.  2.  Rites  in  the  house  of 
the  deceased,  consisting  mainly  of  speeches  of  consolation  to  the 
bereaved.  3.  Speeches  addressed  to  the  deceased  and  the  narration 
of  the  myth  of  the  journey  to  spirit  land.  4.  Rites  at  the  grave. 
5.  The  recounting  of  war  exploits  by  specially  invited  warriors,  at 
the  grave.  6.  The  elaborate  four  nights  wake  at  the  home  of  the 
deceased. 

Description  of  Funeral  Customs  and  Wake 

Informant,  member  of  the  Thunderbird  clan : '  When  an  individual 
dies  his  relatives  get  some  one  to  bury  him  and  the  chief  mourner 
will  also  invite  some  person  to  talk  to  the  corpse  before  it  is  buried. 
The  person  addressing  the  dead  man  or  woman  tells  the  deceased  how 
he  is  to  go  (to  spirit  land)  and  what  he  is  to  do  on  the  way  there. 
The  body  is  then  dressed  by  the  person  who  is  going  to  bury  it.  All 
the  relatives  come  to  the  lodge  and  the  deceased  is  dressed  in  his  best 
clothes;  beads  are  put  around  his  neck,  bracelets  on  his  wrist,  rings 

1  This  description  is  a  generalized  one. 
140 


badin]  BURIAL   AND   FUNERAL   CUSTOMS  141 

on  his  fingers,  and  earrings  in  his  ears.  The  body  is  then  put  in  the 
casket. 

By  the  time  this  is  all  finished  the  gravediggers  have  about  com- 
pleted their  work.  Then  the  mourners  blacken  their  faces  with 
charcoal  and  the  corpse  is  taken  up  by  the  man  to  whom  this  duty  is 
delegated.  The  mourners  follow  behind,  weeping.  Thus  they  pro- 
ceed to  the  grave.  When  they  get  there  the  corpse  is  laid  in  the 
grave.  Then  the  chief  mourner  steps  across  the  center  of  the  grave 
and  the  others  do  the  same.  When  they  start  back,  they  are  told 
under  no  circumstance  to  turn  around  and  look  in  the  direction  of  the 
grave. 

The  grave  is  then  filled  in. 

Then  the  overseer  goes  around  to  the  various  people  in  the  village 
and  invites  them  all  to  come  to  (the  wake).  The  brave  men  and  war- 
riors are  especially  welcomed. 

The  mourners  prepare  food  and  when  the  sun  goes  down  the  chief 
mourner  takes  a  stick  made  of  hard  wood  and  lights  it  and  carries  it 
to  the  grave,  placing  it  at  the  east  end.  It  is  supposed  to  be  still 
burning  when  placed  there.  After  this  is  done  (the  man  returns)  and 
the  overseer  gets  everything  in  readiness  for  the  feast.  When  all  is 
ready  the  chief  mourner  speaks  as  follows: 

All  my  relatives  who  are  sitting  here,  I  greet  you.  I  have  done  nothing  of  any  con- 
sequence which  could  justify  you  to  come  here  and  honor  me,  yet  being  relatives  of 
mine,  you  have  (in  the  kindness  of  your  hearts )  come  to  comfort  me.  I  have  prepared 
cooked  food  and  boiled  water  for  my  child  ( the  dead  person ),  and  tobacco  is  also  handy, 
all  of  which  the  attendant  when  he  is  ready  will  pass  around  to  all  and  give  to  whom- 
soever he  pleases.     That  is  why  I  am  greeting  you. 

Then  the  attendant  takes  the  water  and  tobacco  and  gives  it  to 
the  one  who  is  to  speak  to  the  soul  of  the  departed  person.  This  one 
then  rises  and  greets  all  those  present  and  speaks  as  follows: 

To-night  we  are  greeting  you  not  for  the  sake  of  jollification,  but  because  we  are 
afflicted  (with  grief) .  Now,  it  is  the  custom  to  speak  to  the  soul  of  the  departed .  It  is 
a  sacred  action,  yet  even  I,  they  tell  me,  can  do  it,  provided  no  worthier  person  can 
be  found.  They  2  even  tell  me  that  my  words  will  not  cause  the  spirit  of  the  departed 
to  lose  his  way  in  his  journey  (to  spirit  land).3  For  that  reason  I  will  speak  to  the 
departed  and  say  the  best  I  can.     I  greet  you  all. 

Then  he  takes  some  tobacco  in  one  hand  and  passing  it  behind  him 
through  the  lodge  says: 

Here  it  is,  the  tobacco.  I  am  certain  that  you,  O  ghost,  are  not  very  far  away, 
that  in  fact  you  are  standing  right  in  back  of  me,  waiting  for  me  to  reach  you  the  pipe 
and  tobacco,  that  you  might  take  it  along  with  you,  that  likewise,  you  are  waiting  for 
your  food  to  take  on  your  journey.  However,  four  nights  you  will  have  to  remain 
here. 

2  This  and  what  follows  is  the  customary  ceremonial  modesty. 

3  It  is  believed  that  i  f  the  chief  speaker  makes  a  mistake  or  exaggerates  while  thus  addressing  the  spirit 
of  the  deceased,  the  latter  will  lose  his  way  in  his  journey  to  spirit  land. 


142  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

Now  here  are  these  things,  and  in  return  we  ask  you  to  act  as  mediator  (between 
the  spirits  and  us).  You  have  made  us  long  for  you.  and  therefore  do  you  see  to  it  that 
all  those  things  that  belonged  to  you  and  that  you  would  have  enjoyed  had  you  lived 
longer — such  as  victories  on  the  warpath,  earthly  possessions,  and  life — that  all  these 
you  leave  behind  for  us  to  enjoy.  This  do  you  ask  for  as  you  travel  along.  This  also 
I  ask  of  you,  do  not  cause  us  to  follow  you  soon;  do  not  cause  your  brothers  any  fear. 
I  have  now  lit  the  pipe  for  you. 

Tli en  the  pipe  is  passed  on  to  all  those  present.  After  that  he 
drinks  a  little  water  and  passes  it  around  again.  It  is  only  after  the 
pipe  and  water  have  passed  all  the  way  around  that  the  people  begin 
to  eat.  When  the  meal  is  over,  the  attendant  takes  the  pipe  and 
some  tobacco  and  places  it  before  a  warrior  and  tells  him  to  talk  to 
the  spirit  and  tell  him  the  route  to  take. 

Then  the  warrior  rises  and  speaks  as  follows : 

Ho,  I  greet  you  all.  We  are  not  greeting  one  another  because  we  are  happy  (as  in 
the  case  of  an  ordinary  feast),  hut  because  it  is  the  custom  to  do  it.  Now  I  will  tell 
the  soul  of  the  departed  one  the  route  to  take  and  the  care  he  must  observe  in  his 
journey.  I  shall  tell  them  (the  ghosts)  over  whom  I  have  control  to  guide  him  safely 
to  his  destination.  I  will  not  exaggerate  when  I  relate  my  war  exploits,  but  tell 
only  those  things  that  really  happened  to  me.  It  has  been  said  that  if,  in  talking,  I 
tell  falsehoods  the  spirit  of  the  departed  would  stumble  on  the  road.4  So,  therefore,  I 
will  tell  only  the  truth,  and  I  will  tell  the  chief  of  the  spirits  to  guide  our  dead  one 
safely  over  all  the  obstacles.  Now  I  am  not  going  to  speak  of  anybody  else's  exploits, 
but  only  of  my  own.  Only  those  over  whom  I  have  control  will  I  put  at  the  disposal 
of  our  dead  one  to  guide  him.  The  spirit-tobacco,  the  spirit-food  and  fire,  they  will 
carry  for  him,  and  they  will  lead  him  by  the  hand  until  he  reaches  his  destination. 
I  greet  you  all. 

Then  he  begins  an  account  of  his  war  exploits.  He  tells  all  that 
he  did  in  detail.  Sometines  the  account  of  a  war  exploit  would  last 
two  to  three  hours.  When  he  is  through,  the  people  retire  for  the 
night. 

For  three  nights  they  do  this  and  every  evening  they  place  a  burn- 
ing ember  at  the  grave.  This  is  supposed  to  be  taken  by  the  spirit 
of  the  dead  man  on  his  journey. 

The  fourth  night  they  invite  all  the  brave  men  i'n  the  neighborhood 
and  everybody  else.  They  prepare  plenty  of  food,  and  the  relatives 
of  the  mourners  bring  objects  for  the  mourning  games  and  try  to 
comfort  the  mourners  as  best  they  can.  The  fourth  night,  likewise, 
they  place  a  burning  ember  at  the  grave  of  the  dead  man. 

As  soon  as  the  attendant  prepares  the  food  the  chief  mourner  gets 
up  and  speaks  as  follows: 

I  greet  you  all.  I  know  that  I  am  not  performing  any  great  action  in  greeting  you, 5 
but  I  was  in  trouble,  and  all  my  relatives  have  come  to  comfort  me.  I  feel  strength- 
ened by  their  actions.     You  all  have  asked  me  to  live  (not  to  succumb  to  my  sorrows), 

'  It  is  believed  that  a  warrior  is  in  control  of  the  spirits  of  all  the  people  he  has  killed.  His  function  at 
the  wake  is  to  put  these  spirits  at  the  disposal  of  the  dead  man,  to  guide  him,  and  to  take  care  of  him. 

6 1,  e.,  if  I  were  a  great  man  and  this  were  a  ceremony  of  rejoicing,  then  a  greeting  would  mean  some- 
thing.   This  is  another  example  of  ceremonial  modesty. 


radix]  BURIAL   AND   FUNERAL   CUSTOMS  143 

and  I  shall  try  to  overcome  my  grief  and  sorrow.  I  will  not  forget  all  the  good  you 
have  done  for  me.  You  have  been  a  comfort  to  me  and  you  have  helped  me  in  many 
things.  Now  this  is  the  last  night,  and  I  am  glad  that  it  is  a  good  night  for  the  war- 
riors to  relate  their  experiences.  If  they  should  say  anything  funny,  I  hope  that  you 
will  not  hold  back  your  laughter.  I,  too,  will  laugh  with  you.  You  are  free  to  make 
all  the  noise  you  care  to,  for  I  will  feel  all  the  better  if  you  do  it.  This  is  what  I 
want  you  to  remember.     I  greet  you  all  who  are  present  here. 

Then  the  one  who  is  to  address  the  spirit  speaks: 

I  greet  you  all.  We  have  come  to  this  (wake)  for  a  purpose,  much  as  we  would  wish 
that  the  occasion  for  it  had  never  happened .  Now  I  will  tell  the  spirit  of  the  departed 
the  route  he  is  to  take,  nor  will  I,  by  my  words,  cause  him  to  go  astray.  On  an  occa- 
sion like  this  not  everyone  can  talk  to  spirits  (spirits  of  departed  people);  not  every- 
one can  do  it.  My  grandfather  obtained  the  right  to  speak  to  them  and  handed  it 
down  to  my  father,  and  he  in  turn  gave  it  to  me.  Now  I  will  tell  the  spirit  of  the 
departed  the  right  road  to  take  and  I  will  not  cause  him  to  stumble.  I  shall  breathe 
upon  the  spirit  of  the  departed,  and  I  wish  all  those  present  to  do  the  same.  It 
is  said  that  for  those  who  do  not  make  this  sound  it  is  a  sign  that  they  will  die  soon. 
Now  all  of  you  say  it. 

Then  he  says  "Tia-a"  and  "ha-a,"  and  all  join  with  him  in  repeat- 
ing it. 

Then  he  speaks  again  (addressing  the  spirit  of  the  departed) : 

I  suppose  you  are  not  far  away,  that  indeed  you  are  right  behind  me.  Here  is  the 
tobacco  and  here  is  the  pipe  which  you  must  keep  in  front  of  you  as  you  go  along. 
Here  also  is  the  fire  and  the  food  which  your  relatives  have  prepared  for  your  journey. 
In  the  morning  when  the  sun  rises  you  are  to  start.  You  will  not  have  gone  very 
far  before  you  come  to  a  wide  road.  That  is  the  road  you  must  take.  As  you  go 
along  you  will  notice  something  on  your  road.  Take  your  war  club  and  strike  it  and 
throw  it  behind  you.  Then  go  on  without  looking  back.  As  you  go  farther  you 
will  again  come  across  (some  obstacle).  Strike  it  and  throw  it  behind  you  and  do 
not  look  back.  Farther  on  you  will  come  across  some  animals,  and  these  also  you 
must  strike  and  throw  behind  you.  Then  go  on  and  do  not  look  back.  The  objects 
you  throw  behind  you  will  come  to  those  relatives  whom  you  have  left  behind  you 
on  earth.  They  will  represent  victory  in  war,  riches,  and  animals  for  food.  When 
you  have  gone  but  a  short  distance  from  the  last  place  where  you  threw  objects  behind, 
you  will  come  to  a  round  lodge  and  there  you  will  find  an  old  woman.  She  is 
the  one  who  is  to  give  you  further  information.  She  will  ask  you,  'Grandson,  what 
is  your  name?"  This  you  must  tell  her.  Then  (you  must  say),  ''Grandmother,  when 
I  was  about  to  start  from  the  earth  I  was  given  the  following  objects  with  which  I  was 
to  act  as  mediator  between  you  and  the  human  beings  (i.  e.,  the  pipe,  tobacco,  and 
food)."  Then  you  must  put  the  stem  of  the  pipe  in  the  old  woman's  mouth  and  say, 
"Grandmother,  I  have  made  all  my  relatives  lonesome,  my  parents,  my  brothers,  and 
all  the  others.  I  would  therefore  like  to  have  them  obtain  victory  in  war  and  honors. 
That  was  my  desire  as  I  left  them  downhearted  upon  the  earth.  I  would  that  they 
could  have  all  that  life  which  I  left  behind  me  on  earth.6  This  is  what  they  asked. 
This  likewise  they  asked  me,  that  they  should  not  have  to  travel  on  this  road  for  some 
time  to  come.  They  also  asked  to  be  blessed  with  those  things  that  people  are  accus- 
tomed to  have  on  earth.  All  this  they  wanted  me  to  ask  of  you  when  I  started  from 
the  earth. 

6  The  deceased  had  apparently  died  young,  and  what  he  desires  is  that  the  difference  between  his  years 
and  the  normal  length  of  life  he  distributed  among  his  relatives.  He  means  not  only  the  actual  years  but 
also  whatever  he  would  have  accomplished  in  those  years. 


144  THE   WINNEBAGO   TEIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

"They  told  me  to  follow  the  four  steps  that  would  be  imprinted  with  blue  marks, 
grandmother."  'Well,  grandson,  you  are  young  but  you  are  wise.  It  is  good.  I  will 
now  boil  some  food  for  you. ' ' 

Thus  she  will  speak  to  you  and  then  put  a  kettle  on  the  fire  and  boil  some  rice  for 
you.  If  you  eat  it  you  will  have  a  headache.  Then  she  will  say,  "Grandson,  you 
have  a  headache,  let  me  cup  it  for  you.''  Then  she  will  break  open  your  skull  and 
take  out  your  brains  and  you  will  forget  all  about  your  people  on  earth  and  where 
you  came  from.  You  will  not  worry  about  your  relatives.  You  will  become  like  a 
holy  spirit.  Your  thoughts  will  not  go  as  far  as  the  earth,  as  there  will  be  nothing 
carnal  about  you. 

Now  the  rice  that  the  old  woman  will  boil  will  really  be  lice.  For  that  reason  you 
will  be  finished  with  everything  evil.  Then  you  will  go  on  stepping  in  the  four 
footsteps  mentioned  before  and  that  were  imprinted  with  blue  earth.  You  are  to 
take  the  four  steps  because  the  road  will  fork  there.  All  your  relatives  (who 
died  before  you)  will  be  there.  As  you  journey  on  you  will  come  to  a  fire  running 
across  the  earth  from  one  end  to  the  other.  There  will  be  a  bridge  across  it  but  it 
will  be  difficult  to  cross  because  it  is  continually  swinging.  However,  you  will  be 
able  to  cross  it  safely,  for  you  have  all  the  guides  about  whom  the  warriors  spoke  to 
you.    They  will  take  you  over  and  take  care  of  you. 

Well,  we  have  told  you  a  good  road  (to  take).  If  anyone  tells  a  falsehood  in  speaking 
of  the  spirit  road,  you  will  fall  off  the  bridge  and  be  burned.  However  (you  need  not 
worry)  for  you  will  pass  over  safely.  As  you  proceed  from  that  place  the  spirits  will 
come  to  meet  you  and  take  you  to  the  village  where  the  chief  lives.  There  you  will 
give  him  the  tobacco  and  ask  for  those  objects  of  which  we  spoke  to  you,  the  same  you 
asked  of  the  old  woman.  There  you  will  meet  all  the  relatives  that  died  before  you. 
They  will  be  living  in  a  large  lodge.     This  you  must  enter.    Ho-o-o,  ha-a-a. 

Generalized  Description  of  Funeral  Customs  and  Wake 

Informant,  member  of  Bear  clan.  When  a  person  died  a  member 
of  his  friend  (hitcakdro)  clan  was  immediately  sent  for,  who  took 
charge  of  the  body  and  of  all  the  funeral  arrangements.  The  over- 
seer dressed  the  deceased  in  his  best  clothes  and  all  his  finery,  for  it 
was  said  that  he  was  going  on  a  long  journey.  Then  some  clansman 
painted  the  dead  man's  face  with  the  clan  markings  and  delivered  a 
speech  to  the  corpse.  When  he  concluded  the  clan  songs  were  sung 
and  the  body  was  carried  to  the  grave.  All  the  mourners  marched 
in  single  file.  After  the  body  had  been  buried  or  placed  on  a  scaffold, 
as  the  case  might  be,  a  post  was  placed  at  the  head  of  the  grave,  and 
the  warriors  among  the  mourners  counted  their  coups  and  drew  repre- 
sentations of  their  victories  on  the  posts.  The  purpose  of  the  war- 
riors in  counting  coups  at  the  grave  was  to  put  at  the  disposal  of  the 
deceased  the  spirits  of  all  the  enemies  they  had  killed,  and  also  to 
give  him  additional  strength  for  overcoming  the  obstacles  on  the  road 
to  the  spirit  land.  Food  was  placed  on  the  little  shelf  in  front  of 
the  window  of  the  grave-house,  to  be  used  by  the  spirit  during  the 
four  days  that  he  hovered  around  this  earth  before  departing  on  his 
journey.  Then  a  light  was  lighted  and  finally,  toward  evening,  all 
departed  for  their  homes,  returning  as  they  had  come,  in  single  file, 


eadin]  BURIAL  AND  FUNERAL  CUSTOMS  145 

and  being  very  careful  not  to  look  back  toward  the  grave  after  they 
had  first  started. 

The  same  evening  the  four  nights'  wake  began.  The  overseer,  who 
was  in  full  charge,  had  everything  prepared.  Before  the  wake 
formally  commenced  the  chief  mourner  made  a  short  speech.  Then 
the  overseer  lighted  a  pipe  and  passed  it  around  to  all,  who  took  a 
puft'  each  and  returned  it  to  him.  Then  sweetened  water  was  passed 
around,  of  which  all  partook.  The  feast  followed.  Taking  on  a 
plate  a  small  portion  of  all  the  food  to  be  eaten,  the  overseer  threw  it 
outside  for  the  spirit  of  the  deceased.  In  the  case  of  a  nursling  the 
mother  added  a  small  quantity  of  milk  from  her  breast  to  the  other 
food  on  the  plate.  After  the  feast  the  chief  mourner  made  another 
speech,  explaining  why  the  rites  were  performed  and  how  they  had 
been  handed  down  for  many  generations.  He  concluded  by  thanking 
the  people  for  all  they  had  done  for  him. 

There  was  always  an  abundance  of  tobacco  at  a  wake.  Most  of  it 
was  given  to  the  warriors,  a  number  of  whom  were  invited,  for  they 
played  a  very  important  role  on  such  an  occasion.  It  was  believed 
that  every  warrior  was  in  control  of  the  spirit  of  an  enemy  he  had  slain 
and  he  was  supposed  always  to  be  willing  to  put  the  spirit  at  the 
service  of  any  member  of  his  tribe  who  had  just  died,  if  the  proper 
offerings  were  made.  At  the  proper  time  tobacco  was  given  to  the 
warrior,  who,  rising,  narrated  his  war  exploits,  at  the  conclusion 
of  which  he  ordered  the  spirit  of  the  enemy  he  had  slain  to  take 
charge  of  the  deceased.  Then  tobacco  was  given  to  another  warrior, 
who  followed  the  same  procedure,  which  was  continued  until  mid- 
night. Then  most  of  the  people  departed  to  their  homes,  but  some 
stayed  overnight  in  the  lodge  in  which  the  wake  was  held. 

The  proceedings  of  the  second  and  third  nights  of  the  wake  were 
exactly  the  same  as  those  of  the  first,  but  somewhat  longer.  The 
beginning  of  the  ceremony  on  the  fourth  night  was  the  same  as  on 
the  three  preceding  nights;  after  a  while,  however,  it  deviated  in  the 
following  manner. 

J.  F.,  rising,  tells  the  spirit  of  the  departed  the  road  he  is  to  take 
in  his  journey  to  spirit  land,  the  obstacles  he  is  to  meet,  and  how 
he  is  to  overcome  them.  After  he  has  finished  the  warriors  begin 
to  tell  some  more  war  exploits,  and  this  continues  generally  until 
3  o'clock  in  the  morning,  depending  entirely  upon  the  amount  of 
gifts  given  to  the  warriors.  The  gifts  generally  consist  either 
of  12  pieces  of  calico  each  3  yards,  or  of  beads,  or  of  12  quarter 
dollars.  The  warriors  always  gamble  for  these  gifts  and  play  the 
favorite  game  of  the  deceased.  If  a  man  had  died  they  generally 
play  moccasins;  if  a  woman,  Jcansu.  When  all  the  presents  have 
been   exhausted,    then    the    relatives    of    the    deceased    comb    the 


146  THE   WINNEBAGO  TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

mourner's  hair,  give  him  presents,  and  tell  him  that  he  is  now 
free  to  cease  mourning  and  to  marry  if  he  wishes. 

In  former  times  the  period  of  mourning  is  supposed  to  have  lasted 
four  years. 

When  a  person  is  in  mourning  he  always  cuts  his  hair  short  and 
does  not  comb  his  hair.  In  former  times  people  often  mutilated 
themselves  by  cutting  off  either  entire  fingers  or  finger  joints. 

The  overseer  always  takes  all  the  belongings  of  the  deceased,  but 
he  must  give  the  latter's  relatives  an  equal  amount  of  new  material. 

Funeral  Customs  of  the  Thunderbird  Clan 

(first  version) 

Informant,  member  of  the  clan.  When  a  member  of  the  clan 
dies  they  send  after  a  man  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  who  is  to  speak 
to  the  corpse,  paint  it,  and  give  him  a  war  club  to  take  along  with 
him  (to  the  land  of  the  spirits).  Then  they  go  after  a  man  from  the 
lower  phratry  to  bury  him,  for  these  clans  (of  the  lower  phratry) 
belong  on  earth  and  they  have  the  right  to  dig  into  the  ground  and 
bury  people. 

When  the  one  who  is  to  be  the  general  overseer  arrives  and  arranges 
everything,  he  prepares  the  corpse,  putting  a  sack  of  tobacco  in 
one  hand  and  a  war  club  in  the  other.  Then  he  paints  him.  He 
paints  the  forehead  with  a  red  and  a  black  mark  and  paints  the  lower 
part  of  the  face  to  the  end  of  the  nose  with  scattered  dots.  He  paints 
the  jaw  red  and  he  makes  a  red  mark  across  the  mouth  and  the 
throat.     Then  he  speaks  as  follows : 

You  have  departed  at  this  (young)  age.  You  have  taken  your  relatives  by  sur- 
prise and  have  left  them  a  long  part  of  your  life  (i.  e.,  you  have  lived  but  a  small  part 
of  your  apportioned  share  of  years).  As  you  go  to  spirit  land,  you  will  find  on  the 
road  many  feathers,  many  good  plants,  and  many  good  kinds  of  clay,  scattered  around, 
the  blue  clay,  the  red  clay,  and  the  white  clay.  You  will  also  find  the  sweet-smelling 
plants  and  good  life.  For  all  these  things  do  you  ask.  If  anything  comes  across 
your  path,  throw  it  behind  you  without  looking  around.  In  four  days  you  will  de- 
part and  objects  with  which  to  mediate  between  us  and  the  spirits  will  soon  be  fur- 
nished you.  For  four  nights  your  people  will  tell  you  what  to  do  and  when  they  hear 
you  singing  on  the  road  they  will  know  that  it  is  you.  There  (in  spirit  land)  you 
will  go  to  live  and  the  songs  that  I  will  sing  you  will  sing  as  you  travel  on  your  road. 

Then  he  sings  (the  four  clan  songs). 

When  the  gravediggers  are  finished  they  take  the  body  and  carry 
it  to  the  grave,  the  mourners  following.  They  take  the  body  to 
the  grave  and  there  lower  it. 

Death  and  Funeral  Customs  of  the  Thunderbird  Clan 

(second  version) 

Informant,  member  of  the  clan.  When  a  member  of  the  Thunder- 
bird  clan  dies,  the  clansmen  discuss  what  is  to  be  done  for  the  spirit 


Radin]  BURIAL  AND  FUNERAL  CUSTOMS  147 

of  the  deceased.     Then  they  go  and  call  the  leader  of  their  band 
and  he  comes  and  addresses  the  body  as  follows : 

You  are  about  to  leave  all  your  relatives.  They  will  remain  on  earth,  objects  of  pity 
to  all.  You  will  proceed  on  your  road,  turning  to  your  left  after  you  start  until  you 
come  to  him  who  is  in  charge  of  the  spirits.  Whenever  you  see  him,  the  following 
request  do  we  wish  you  to  make  of  him,  namely,  that  he  bestow  upon  us  all  that 
you  fell  short  of  in  your  life  on  this  earth.  The  means  of  offering,  the  tobacco,  which 
Earthmaker  gave  us,  we  have  given  you  some  to  take  along.  As  you  go  along  the 
road  you  will  come  to  a  place  where  the  road  branches  off.  Do  not  turn  to  the  right, 
for  that  road  leads  to  the  bad  spirits.  Turn  to  the  left  and  soon  you  will  come  to  a 
guard.  Point  your  pipe  at  him  and  he  will  be  thankful.  This  man  will  have  a  com- 
plete suit  of  clothes  and  he  will  look  terror-inspiring.  He  will  smoke  with  you  and 
then  you  may  speak  to  him  as  follows:  "Grandfather,  before  I  left  the  earth,  the 
people  told  me  to  ask  you  to  point  out  to  me  which  road  I  should  travel  in."  Then 
he  will  tell  you  and  you  will  pass  ahead  and  after  a  while  you  will  come  to  a  fire- 
girdle.  The  man  who  ia  in  charge  of  it  will  have  a  complete  suit  of  clothes  just  like 
the  first  man.  Point  the  stem  of  your  pipe  toward  him  and  he  will  be  very  thankful 
and  smoke  with  you.  Then  make  your  request,  namely,  to  be  permitted  to  pass, 
and  he  will  grant  it.  As  you  go  along  after  that  you  will  come  to  a  round  lodge  in 
which  you  will  find  an  old  woman.  Point  your  pipe  at  her  and  she  will  be  thankful 
and  smoke  it,  and  then  ask  her  to  let  you  pass  and  she  will  permit  you  to  go  ahead. 
Your  hair  will  now  be  white  but  you  will  not  be  unconscious.  On  the  contrary, 
you  will  have  complete  possession  of  all  your  senses.  Then  you  will  come  to  where 
he  who  is  in  control  of  spirits  sits.  Go  to  him  and  point  your  pipe  toward  him.  Then 
when  he  is  smoking  it,  ask  him  to  show  you  the  road  to  Earthmaker,  our  father, 
and  he  will  point  it  out  to  you.  Then  you  must  proceed  until  you  come  to  Earth- 
maker.  When  you  get  to  him,  point  the  stem  of  your  pipe  toward  him  and,  if  he  takes 
it  and  smokes  it,  then  you  must  say,  "Earthmaker,  my  father,  you  know  very  well 
what  kind  of  a  life  I  have  led."     And  he  will  answer,  "You  have  done  well,  my  son." 

The  informant  then  skips  to  the  opening  night  of  the  four  nights' 
wake.  The  address  to  the  spirit  that  follows  is  probably  delivered 
by  the  chief  mourner  before  the  formal  opening  of  the  wake. 

Address  to  the  spirit.7 — Ha  ho-o-o-o,  I  want  you  to  listen,  you  who  have  become 
like  a  spirit.  You  have  made  those  of  your  relatives  who  remained  behind  on  earth 
miserable  and  lonely.  They  have  given  you  much  food  to  take  along  with  you  and 
they  have  given  you  a  pipe  and  some  tobacco  so  that  you  may  offer  them  to  the  spirits 
you  meet  on  your  road  and  make  some  requests  of  them.  The  first  request  that  they 
wish  you  to  make  is  to  ask  the  spirits  to  distribute  to  your  clan  all  the  successful 
warpaths  which  would  have  fallen  to  your  share  had  you  lived  your  normal  quota 
of  years;  and  that,  all  the  food,  etc.,  that  you  have  not  used  be  bestowed  upon  those 
whom  you  left  behind  on  earth.  The  last  request  you  should  make  of  those  on  the 
road  is  to  pray  that  a  long  time  may  elapse  before  any  of  your  relatives  traverse  this 
road. 

Now  follows  a  description  of  the  obstacles  to  be  met  on  the  road. 

When  you  reach  Earthmaker,  offer  him  your  pipe,  and  if  he  accepts  it  speak  to 
him  as  follows:  "Grandfather,  as  I  was  leaving  the  earth  my  relatives  asked  me  to 
request  of  you  humbly  that  you  bestow  upon  the  clansmen  that  I  left  behind  me 
all  that  I  would  have  accomplished  had  I  lived  longer.  Now  this  is  what  I  wished 
to  ask  of  you,  grandfather. "    Thus  you  should  speak:  "Ha  ho-o-o-o. " 

7  Spirit  here  is  waiop'ini,  spirit,  deity,  not  naiiyidak',  ghost,  noncorporeal  embodiment.  What  is 
meant  is  that  the  deceased  has  become  like  one  of  the  spirits,  in  that  he  lives,  enjoys  consciousness,  etc., 
without  at  the  same  time  having  any  corporeal  existence. 


148  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

Then  all  the  other  people  answer  ha-ho-o-o-o.  Now  someone  lights 
a  pipe  and  passes  it  around  so  that  everyone  can  take  a  puff.  All 
take  a  puff,  children  and  women  as  well  as  men.  After  that  water 
is  passed  around.  Then  all  eat.  A  little  portion  of  everything  served 
is  put  aside  and  thrown  out  for  the  spirit  to  eat.  Then  a  warrior,  the 
person  who  has  charge  of  the  wake,  speaks: 

I  greet  you  all.  1  first  wish  to  pour  some  of  the  tobacco  that  you  have  offered  me 
for  our  grandfather  who  is  in  control  of  war-giving  powers.  (Probably  the  Thunder- 
birds  are  meant.)  I  will  tell  the  spirit  as  carefully  as  I  can  all  that  I  know  about 
the  road  he  must  travel.  My  father  impressed  upon  me  very  earnestly  the  need  of 
being  very  truthful  in  speaking  to  the  spirit  of  one  recently  deceased,  for  if  I  were 
a  bad  man  1  would  cause  the  spirit  to  stumble.  For  that  reason  I  always  feel  that  I 
ought  not  to  speak  very  much  whenever  I  am  called  upon  to  talk. 

Then  a  warrior  was  called  upon  to  tell  of  his  war  exploits.  He 
told  as  accurately  as  it  was  possible  how  he  had  killed  a  man,  broken 
his  collar  bone,  and  then  flayed  him;  how  he  had  then  chopped 
and  cut  up  his  body  and  mutilated  him  in  such  a  way  that  he  could 
not  be  identified;  and  how  finally  he  had  stolen  his  dogs.  All  night 
he  spoke  in  this  strain.  He  went  on  to  tell  how  he  had  killed  and 
utterly  destroyed  an  entire  village  so  that  no  one  was  left  to  tell  of 
the  massacre.  All  night  he  told  of  his  war  exploits.  Thus  they 
lighted  the  road  for  the  spirit  (i.  e.,  held  the  Four  Nights'  Wake). 

The  second  and  third  nights  were  just  the  same  as  the  first,  only 
that  different  warriors  spoke  and  different  war  exploits  were  told. 
They  are  very  proud  of  their  war  exploits  and  they  would  try  to  tell 
of  their  bravest  deeds,  those  that  had  been  most  dangerous  and  which 
had  required  the  greatest  heroism.  When  the  mourners  listen  to 
the  narrative  of  such  an  exploit  they  become  strengthened.  All 
those  people  on  whom  the  warrior  had  counted  first  coup  and  all 
those  whom  he  had  killed  would  carry  the  light  for  the  spirit  of  the 
deceased.  Those  on  whom  he  had  counted  second  coup  were  com- 
manded to  clear  the  road,  and  a  woman  whom  the  warrior  had  cap- 
tured was  ordered  to  carry  along  the  food.  The  ceremonies  of  the 
fourth  night  are  the  same  as  those  of  the  first  three  nights. 

Death  and  Funeral  Customs  op  the  Bear  Clan8 

Informant,  member  of  the  clan.  Mr.  J.  M.  died  in  June,  1911.  In 
accordance  with  the  old  Winnebago  customs,  the  first  individual  to 
be  notified  of  the  death  was  Mr.  J.  F.,  a  member  of  the  Wolf  clan. 
To  Mr.  F.  fell  the  lot  of  taking  charge  of  all  the  funeral  rites — dressing 
the  deceased,  laying  his  body  in  the  casket,  burying  him,  and,  finally, 
conducting  the  elaborate  funeral  wake. 

'  This  is  practically  a  reprint  of  "Description  of  a  Winnebago  Funeral,"  by  Lamere  and  Radin,  Amer- 
Anthrop.,  n.  s.  vol.  13,  no.  3, 1911. 


hadin]  BURIAL   AND   FUNERAL,   CUSTOMS  149 

One  of  Mr.  F.'s  most  important  duties  was  to  invite  the  warriors 
to  extend  invitations  to  all  those  who  wish  to  participate  in  the  feast. 
After  the  body  has  been  buried  the  overseer  goes  to  the  home  of  the 
deceased  and  takes  away  all  those  things  with  which  the  deceased  had 
been  in  daily  contact. 

In  addition  to  F.,  another  man  was  sent  for,  Mr.  A.  W.,  also  a 
member  of  the  Bear  clan.  He  went  through  the  Bear  clan  ceremony, 
which  was  as  follows:  When  the  deceased  was  fully  dressed,  just 
before  he  was  to  be  laid  in  the  casket,  A.  W.  walked  up  to  him  and, 
taking  some  paint  from  a  little  bundle  he  carried,  he  painted  a  red 
mark  across  his  forehead,  then  a  black  one  immediately  below  this 
one,  and  finally  daubed  the  whole  chin  red.  When  he  was  through 
with  this  preliminary  work  he  addressed  those  present  as  follows: 

You  relatives,  all  that  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  This  ceremony  is  not  anything 
that  we  have  originated  ourselves,  but  it  was  known  to  be  the  proper  thing  to  do  by 
our  ancestors.  It  is  for  that  reason  that  I  have  made  the  markings  upon  the  face  of 
my  son  in  order  that  he  may  be  recognized  by  his  relatives  in  spirit  land;  and  I  have 
also  given  him  the  material  with  which  he  may  talk,  i.  e.,  tobacco,  that  with  it  he 
may  entreat  the  spirits  to  bestow  all  those  years  that  he  fell  short  of  upon  his  relatives 
still  living. 

Now,  it  is  said  that  the  members  of  the  Bear  clan  hold  death  as  a  blessing  and  not 
as  anything  to  mourn  about.  I  do  not  mean  that  I  do  not  feel  sorry  for  the  children 
of  the  deceased  and  that  I  rejoice  in  his  death,  but  it  is  the  belief  of  the  members  of 
the  Bear  clan  that  the  same  happiness  comes  to  them  at  death  that  comes  to  us  during 
life  when  a  bear  is  killed  and  brought  to  the  village  for  food. 

For  now,  indeed,  my  son  will  walk  in  a  road  that  has  been  cleared  of  all  obstacles 
and  his  claws  will  be  sharp,  and  his  teeth  will  be  sharp,  and  nothing,  indeed,  will 
cross  his  path.  And  in  this,  his  walk  to  the  spirit  land,  may  he  tread  down  upon  us 
the  life  that  he  has  fallen  short  of  on  this  earth.  And  he  will  walk  just  as  the  original 
Bear  clansmen  walked  when  they  originated  and  when  they  approached  the  earth. 
And  now  I  will  sing  him  the  songs  that  they  sang  as  they  came  on  earth,  so  that  he 
may  take  them  along  with  him  on  his  journey  to  the  spirit  land.  It  is  said  that 
there  is  no  other  place  besides  this  prepared  for  us  in  the  hereafter. 

Then  he  sang  the  four  clan  songs. 

When  the  songs  had  been  sung,  it  was  just  about  noon  and,  as 
dinner  was  read}',  we  all  sat  down  and  A.  W.  filled  a  pipe  and  when 
he  was  ready  to  smoke  it  began  to  speak  again  to  the  following  effect: 

Relatives,  all  that  are  present,  I  greet  you.  It  is  good  that  this  many  of  you  have 
come  here,  and  it  is  said  that  the  soul  of  the  deceased  remains  hovering  around  about 
this  place  four  days  and  that  we  should  partake  of  food  with  him  forthat  period.  It  is 
for  that  reason  that  we  act  in  this  way.  And  it  is  good  that  this  many  of  you  have 
come  here  and  have  helped  us  out  with  food  and  dress.  • 

He  then  mentioned  the  things  that  had  been  given  by  different 
individuals.  Then  he  lit  a  pipe  and  took  a  few  puffs  and  sent  it 
around  to  all  the  others  in  the  lodge.  Then  a  pitcher  of  water  was 
passed  around  from  which  we  all  took  a  sip. 


150  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

During  the  morning  Mrs.  R.  came  in  and  combed  the  hair  of  the 
deceased's  wife  and  gave  her  some  presents,  telling  her  at  the  same 
time  that  she  hoped  that  she  would  dry  her  tears  as  a  sign  of  appre- 
ciation of  the  gifts.  Another  person  came  in  in  the  morning  bring- 
ing a  pair  of  leggings  and  a  blanket  for  the  deceased.  He  also 
brought  the  casket.  While  the  body  of  the  deceased  was  being 
prepared  this  same  person  spoke  as  follows: 

Relatives,  all  that  are  present.  I  greet  you.  If  my  nephews  will  come  here  and 
sit  near  me,  I  will  talk  to  them. 

Then  the  sons  of  the  deceased  came  and  sat  near  their  mother 
and  sisters  and  the  man  continued : 

My  sister,  it  is  said  that  it  is  best  for  a  person  not  to  weep;  and  that  a  widow  should 
not  mourn  too  much,  for  then  the  people  would  make  fun  of  her;  as  well  as  for  the  fact 
that  having  children  she  must  for  their  sake  look  forward  to  life  and  live  for  them. 
And  it  is  also  said  that  we  should  keep  up  this  mourning  for  at  least  four  years.  Now 
there  is  nothing  amusing  about  what  I  am  going  to  say  (although  it  may  sound  so)— 
namely,  that  we  should  not  cry  on  such  an  occasion  as  to-day,  but,  on  the  contrary, 
keep  up  a  good  spirit.  I  do  not  mean  that  I  am  glad  that  my  brother-in-law  is  dead. 
But  if  you  were  to  weep  some  one  might  come  in  and  say  that  it  behooves  you  more 
to  show  him  your  teeth  than  your  tears.    They  mean  that  you  should  smile. 

And  again  it  is  said  that  one  should  not  cry.  for  when  a  body  is  laid  in  the  ground 
there  is  no  more  hope  of  its  ever  returning  to  this  earth  again.  My  nephew,  the  one 
that  had  been  advising  you  in  your  daily  affairs,  is  gone  and  you  are  left  alone  to  look 
after  yourself,  your  little  brothers,  and  your  mother;  and  therefore  I  want  you  all  to 
love  ane  another  and  remember  your  mother. 

While  we  were  eating  C.  P.  came  in  and  spoke  as  follows: 

Relatives,  all  that  are  present,  I  greet  you.  It  is  good  that  you  all  have  come  here 
and  are  comforting  this  house  of  mourning.  It  is  good  that  J.  H.  has  brought  a  casket 
and  clothing  for  the  deceased  and  food  for  the  wake.  And  indeed  he  has  also  prom- 
ised a  hog  for  the  feast.  I  know  that  he  did  not  do  this  in  order  to  have  some  one 
speak  of  it  in  public,  but  how  can  I  refrain  from  expressing  my  thanks?  My  brother 
also  came  with  the  intention  of  furnishing  some  of  these  things,  but  inasmuch  as 
J.  H.  has  furnished  them  beforehand  he  placed  ten  dollars  in  the  hands  of  the  wife 
of  the  deceased.  He  did  not,  however,  tell  her  for  what  purpose  he  gave  her  the 
money  and  I  therefore  take  the  liberty  of  telling  her  that  the  gift  is  meant  for  any- 
thing that  she  may  desire  to  buy.  Now,  my  relatives,  this  is  no  time  for  happiness, 
but  I  am  glad,  nevertheless,  that  so  many  have  come  and  I  am  thankful  for  what 
you  have  done.     I  greet  you  all. 

Then  the  casket  was  put  in  the  spring  wagon  and  taken  to  the 
Winnebago  Cemetery.  When  we  got  there  the  casket  was  lowered 
into  the  grave.     When  this  was  over,  A.  W.  spoke  as  foUows: 

Relatives,  all  that  are  present,  I  greet  you.  This  many  of  you  have  followed  my 
son  to  his  last  resting  place.  Further  than  this  place  he  will  not  walk  in  this  life. 
Truly  this  many  of  you  have  felt  sorry  for  him.  All  the  rites  that  were  taught  me  in 
this  connection  I  have  already  performed.  I  have  given  the  deceased  the  emblem 
(i.  e.,  the  whittled  stick  known  as  namanxinixini)  and  the  material  to  talk  with  (the 
tobacco),  so  that  he  may  plead  for  us.  his  relatives,  when  he  gets  to  the  end  of  the 
journey,  that  we  may  live  the  life  he  fell  short  of  upon  this  earth,  and  that  he  may 


Radi.n]  BURIAL   AND   FUNERAL   CUSTOMS  151 

tread  firmly  upon  us  as  he  walks  to  the  spirit  land.  All  that  I  know  I  have  said 
before.  I  was  taught  nothing  that  I  was  to  do  or  say  at  this  place  except  that  we 
should  step  over  the  grave  just  as  our  forefathers  did  when  they  originated.  They 
were  holy  and  they  entered  this  life  on  a  perfect  day  just  as  this  day  to-day,  and, 
inasmuch  as  they  were  holy,  all  the  ground  that  they  touched  was  holy.  It  is  for 
that  reason  that  we  should  step  over  the  grave. 

Then  we  stepped  over  the  grave.  After  that  we  went  to  our 
homes. 

The  same  evening  the  wake  began.  When  all  the  invited  guests 
had  arrived  and  were  seated,  the  feast  was  spread  before  them. 
Then  A.  W.  spoke  as  follows: 

Relatives,  all  that  are  seated  here.  I  greet  you.  It  is  good  that  this  many  of  you 
have  come  to-night.  You  know  that  we  are  not  creating  any  new  ceremony,  but  are 
simply  following  up  what  our  forefathers  have  learned  to  be  true  and  good.  And.  as 
it  is  said  that  we  should  not  weep  aloud ,  therefore  you  will  not  hear  any  of  us  making 
any  utterings  of  sorrow.  And  even  though  we  weep  silently  should  anyone  come  to 
us  we  will  look  upon  them  smiling.  We  therefore  beg  of  you,  should  you  find  us 
happy  in  mood,  not  to  think  the  worse  of  us.  And  now  I  am  ready  to  turn  over  the 
tobacco  and  water  to  J.  F.    Thus  I  express  my  thanks  to  you  all  that  are  present. 

Then  J.  F.  took  the  tobacco  and  water  and  spoke  as  follows: 

Relatives,  all  that  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  It  is  good  that  so  many  of  you  have 
come  to  our  humble  affair  and,  as  our  ancestors  said  that  this  was  the  proper  way  to 
do,  so  I  am  glad  that  it  was  given  to  me  to  handle  the  corpse,  as  I  am  certain  that  I 
will  be  strengthened  by  it.  I  will  now  pass  the  tobacco  to  Mr.  X.  He  is  a  brave  man 
and  he  will  light  the  pipe  and  pass  the  water  before  we  eat  and  after  supper  he  will 
tell  the  deceased  a  route  to  the  spirit  land.     Now  I  thank  you  and  I  greet  you. 

Then  the  brave  man  took  the  tobacco  and  filled  the  pipe  and  after 
taking  a  few  puffs  from  it,  passed  it  to  the  left  and  it  thus  went 
round,  each  person  taking  a  puff  from  the  pipe  and  a  sip  from  the 
pitcher  of  water.  Then  the  feast  began.  When  it  was  over  and  all 
the  dishes  were  cleared  away,  and  everyone  was  properly  seated,  then 
the  brave  man  greeted  them  again: 

Relatives,  I  greet  you.  As  we  are  not  creating  anything  new,  and  as  our  ancestors 
knew  it  to  be  good,  and  as  it  is  said  that  if  anyone  exaggerates  a  story  in  a  case  like 
this  it  will  cause  the  soul  to  stumble,  therefore  I  will  tell  my  war  exploits  to  my  rela- 
tive (the  deceased )  exactly  as  I  remember  them.     I  greet  you  all. 

He  then  proceeded  to  tell  his  war  exploits.  When  he  had  finished 
he  again  spoke  as  follows: 

Relatives  that  are  present,  I  greet  you.  As  I  said  before,  I  do  not  wish  to  cause 
the  soul  of  my  recently  deceased  relative  to  stumble  and  I  have  tried  to  tell  my  story 
as  accurately  as  I  could.  It  is  said  that  the  souls  of  the  ones  killed  in  a  battle  are  at 
the  mercy  of  the  victor,  and  I  therefore  command  the  souls  of  the  ones  I  have  killed 
to  lead  and  guide  my  relative  safely  through  the  spirit  land.     I  greet  you  all. 

He  then  passed  the  tobacco  to  another  brave  man  present  who  in 
his  turn  greeted  those  present  and  related  his  war  exploits.  After 
two  warriors  had  told  their  war  exploits  they  stopped  for  the  night, 


152  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

to  continue  on  the  second  night.  The  second  and  third  nights  were 
the  same  as  the  first.  About  the  evening  of  the  fourth  night,  when 
all  the  people  invited  were  present,  A.  W.  spoke  in  the  same  strain 
as  on  the  first  night,  and  when  he  had  finished  he  passed  the  manage- 
ment of  the  feast  to  J.  F.  The  latter  then  passed  it  to  F.  F.  now 
lit  the  pipe  and  passed  it  around,  together  with  the  water.  Then  all 
partook  of  the  feast.  After  supper  A.  W.  reported  all  the  donations 
that  were  made  to  them,  naming  each  giver  and  the  amount  of  the 
gift  and  thanking  them  and  praising  them  for  their  generous  gifts. 
Then  F.  told  the  following  story: 

THE   JOURNEY    OF  THE    SOUL  TO   SPIRIT   LAND  9 

Ho!  Ha!  Are  you  all  ready?  I  am  going  to  speak  about  the  four  nights  during 
which  you  listened  to  your  relatives  and  to  the  words  they  had  to  say.  I  am  placing 
the  sacrificial  tobacco  in  the  rear  part  of  the  lodge  for  you.  As  you  go  home  do  not 
look  back.  Before  you  are  far  away  you  will  come  to  a  lodge.  You  may  enter  this 
lodge.  A  door  faces  the  rising  sun  and  a  door  faces  the  setting  sun.  As  you  enter  you 
will  find  a  woman  on  your  right.  Go  and  sit  down  opposite  her.  Then  your  great- 
grandmother  will  say  to  you,  "My  great-grandchild,  what  did  they  say  to  you  when 
you  were  leaving,  when  your  life  was  over?"  "My  great-grandmother,  as  I  listened 
to  my  beloved  relatives  they  said  very  little  indeed.  They  said  that  I  was  breaking 
their  hearts  (in  leaving  them),  and  that  they  hoped  that  none  would  follow  me  soon. 
Then  they  asked  me  to  make  four  requests: 

"First.  I  was  to  ask  for  life,  that  the  flames  from  the  lodge  fires  might  go  straight 
upward.    Yet  they  were  satisfied  if  at  my  departure  the  flames  swayed  to  and  fro. 

"Second.  Whatever  fruit  had  been  predestined  for  me  and  that  I  did  not  taste, 
my  relatives  should  hereafter  not  be  deprived  of. 

"Third.  They  also  mentioned  nuts,  all  manner  of  herbs,  all  serviceable  hides  and 
skins,  all  medicinal  roots  and  grasses.  They  commanded  me  to  make  a  request  for 
all  things  that  exist  in  the  earth. 

"Fourth.  That  if  anyone  has  a  friend  his  weapon  might  have  a  keen  edge  on  one 
side.  Now,  my  great-grandmother,  this  is  the  number  of  requests  they  commanded 
me  to  make." 

"My  great-grandchild,  although  you  are  young,  you  are  wise.  My  great-grandchild, 
my  lodge  is  a  place  where  all  who  enter  must  pass  an  examination.  Earthmaker 
looks  upon  it  as  a  keen-edged  instrument.  No  clouds  of  ill  omen  ever  pass  over  it. 
Now,  my  grandchild,  as  to  those  four  requests  you  put  to  me,  it  shall  be  as  you  say. 
The  nuts  and  herbs  you  have  requested  shall  be  given  you.  There  will  be  nothing 
of  that  food  predestined  for  you  that  your  relatives  will  not  taste.  The  hides  and  skins, 
the  grasses  they  will  possess  in  plenty.  And  if  they  have  friends  their  weapons  will 
be  keen  on  one  side.  All  that  they  have  requested  through  you  shall  be  given  them. 
Here  is  the  food  set  before  you  in  this  wooden  bowl." 

Then  you  are  to  answer  to  her,  "My  grandmother,  this  was  what  my  relatives 
longed  for.    These  are  the  things  I  was  to  leave  behind  me  for  those  on  earth." 

Now,  be  sure  that  you  only  take  a  taste  and  push  the  dish  away  from  you.  For 
then  the  old  woman  will  say,  "My  great-grandchild,  all  that  you  have  left  behind  you 
in  that  dish  represents  the  vegetable  kingdom  on  this  earth.  Many  who  are  older 
than  you  have  eaten  all  that  I  gave  them,  my  great-grandchild.  You  have  a  wise 
head  on  young  shoulders.  All  that  you  have  left  in  the  dish  shall  grow  on  the  face  of 
the  earth.     Earthmaker  is  waiting  for  you  in  great  expectation.    There  is  the  door  to 

9  Obtained  from  Henry  Clowd. 


badin]  BURIAL   AND   FUNERAL   CUSTOMS  153 

the  settingsun.  On  your  way  stands  the  lodge  of  Herecgu'nina,  and  his  fire.  Those 
who  have  come  (the  souls  of  brave  men)  from  the  land  of  the  souls  to  take  you  back 
will  touch  you.  There  the  road  will  branch  off  toward  your  right  and  you  will  see  the 
footprints  of  the  day  on  the  blue  sky  before  you.  These  footprints  represent  the  foot- 
prints of  those  who  have  passed  into  life  again.  Step  into  the  places  where  they 
have  stepped  and  plant  your  feet  into  their  footprints,  but  be  careful  you  do  not  miss 
any.  Before  you  have  gone  very  far,  you  will  come  into  a  forest  of  wacke'ja11  broken  by 
open  prairies  here  and  there.  Here,  in  this  beautiful  country,  these  souls  whose  duty 
it  is  to  gather  other  souls  will  come  to  meet  you.  Walking  on  each  side  of  you  they 
will  take  you  safely  home.  As  you  enter  the  lodge  of  the  Earthmaker  you  must  hand 
to  him  the  sacrificial  offerings.  Here  the  inquiry  that  took  place  in  the  first  lodge 
will  be  repeated  and  answered  in  the  same  manner.  Then  he  will  say  to  you,  "All 
that  your  grandmother  has  told  you  is  true.  Your  relatives  are  waiting  for  you  in 
great  expectation.  Your  home  is  waiting  for  you.  Its  door  will  be  facing  the  mid-day 
sun.  Here  you  will  find  your  relatives  gathered.  Inasmuch,  then,  as  our  ruler  will 
nod  assent  and  express  his  approval  by  word  of  mouth,  so  shall  we  now  dothesame." 

At  this  word  all  those  assembled  at  the  wake  shout,  Ho-ha! 

Then  a  warrior  told  his  war  experiences  and  after  thanking  the 
people  passed  the  tobacco  to  the  next  warrior,  who  in  turn  related 
his  war  experiences. 

The  amount  of  gifts  was  then  figured  out  and  they  tried  to  arrange 
matters  so  that  the  warriors  were  through  with  their  stories  about 
midnight.  At  midnight  games  were  played  with  the  donations  as 
prizes.  The  gifts  generally  consisted  of  twelve  3-yard  pieces  of 
calico  or  money  equal  to  that  amount  of  calico;  twelve  strings  of 
beads,  etc.  These  were  the  gifts  used  as  prizes.  Other  donations 
of  food  were  made  for  the  four  nights'  feast.  A.  W.  was  in  charge 
of  the  games  and  he  likewise  designated  what  games  were  to  be 
played.  As  they  generally  play  the  games  the  deceased  was  fond 
of  so  in  this  case  they  played  the  moccasin  game  and  cards.  After 
the  donations  were  exhausted  and  the  games  finished  a  brave  man 
was  called  upon  to  give  a  war  whoop  in  thankfulness  for  the  sun, 
and  also  to  all  the  spirits  above  and  below.  Then  A.  W.  greeted  and 
thanked  the  guests  again  for  coming,  and  the  wake  was  over. 

In  olden  times  the  widow  was  supposed  to  continue  single  for 
four  years.  She  is  strongly  admonished,  nevertheless,  not  to  con- 
tinue in  low  spirits,  and  to  consider  herself  free  to  act  in  any  way 
that  will  make  her  happy.  She  is  told  to  play  games  or  dance,  or  in 
fact  do  anything  that  will  make  her  forget  her  sorrow,  and  she  is 
told  that  no  one  will  hold  her  conduct  against  her  as  disrespectful  to 
the  deceased.  As  this  admonition  is  given  to  her  by  the  sister  or 
aunt  of  the  deceased's  husband,  the  only  people  who  could  properly 
reproach  her — namely,  the  members  of  her  husband's  clan — it  has  all 
the  more  weight.  The  prohibition  of  weeping  is  further  strengthened 
by  the  fact  that  it  is  customary  to  say  that  any  woman  who  weeps 
too  profusely  at  the  death  of  her  husband  is  in  reality  thinking,  in 
186823—22 11 


154  THE    WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.  37 

the  midst  of  her  tears,  of  the  one  she  is  going  to  marry  next.  The 
people  will  then  tell  one  another  not  to  put  themselves  out  too  much 
as  the  widow  will  soon  forget  her  mourning  and  show  no  respect  to 
the  memory  of  the  dead,  but  instead  look  after  her  own  pleasures. 

Funeral  Customs  op  the  Buffalo  Clan 

Told  by  a  member  of  the  clan.10  If  a  Buffalo  clan  man  dies  some 
members  of  his  clan  who  are  called  upon  would  speak  as  follows: 

To-day  when  yon  ceased  to  breathe  we  were  aware  of  it.  Therefore  relatives  who 
are  present,  I  greet  you.  Here  my  brother's  life  has  ended,  and  for  the  last  time  I 
will  talk  to  him  about  the  road  he  is  to  take. 

Hanho,  my  brother,  the  place  at  which  we  originated  was  called  Bad  Lake.  There 
were  four  buffaloes  there  and  from  the  youngest  one  are  we  descended.  They  lived 
holy  lives,  and  we  hope  you  will  walk  in  their  path.  That  you  may  strike  everything 
(you  meet  on  your  journey)  you  must  take  along  with  you  a  war  club.  You  shall 
walk  armed  with  sharp  teeth;  and  it  will  be  impossible  for  bad  spirits  to  walk  back 
and  forth  across  your  path.    And  your  sight  shall  be  holy  as  you  walk. 

Then  the  speaker  painted  the  face  of  the  deceased.  On  the  right 
side  of  his  forehead  he  painted  a  rainbow  with  blue  and  red  paint. 
After  that  he  sang  the  clan  songs.  When  he  was  through  singing, 
a  member  of  the  Water-spirit  clan  spoke  as  follows: 

Relatives,  I  greet  you.  When  one  of  you  passes  away  and  you  ask  me  to  work,  I 
am  always  willing  to  be  of  sendee.  And  I  shall  do  it  all  the  more  willingly  now 
because  I  am  certain  that  I  shall  obtain  some  of  the  years  that  the  deceased  left 
"unlived."  I  do  it  with  that  belief,  and  furthermore  I  pray  that  no  bad  animals 
abuse  the  deceased  on  his  journey.  It  is  said  that  one  cheers  the  soul  of  the  dead  in 
thinking  thus.  Therefore  I  do  it  and  also  that  I  myself  may  be  strengthened  thereby. 
I  came  back  willingly  when  I  was  asked  to  work  and  I  am  doing  this  so  that  no  bad 
animals  should  abuse  the  soul  of  the  deceased. 

Then  one  of  the  callers  would  talk  to  the  mourners,  saying  as 
follows : 

Relatives,  I  greet  you.  To-day  one  of  your  relatives  has  disappeared.  You  must, 
However,  keep  up  your  courage  and  not  cry,  for  Earthmaker  above  has  ordained  that 
we  should  disappear.  If  a  piece  of  earth  c'aves  in,  it  disappears,  and  when  a  rock 
crumbles  it  is  disappearing.    Thus,  it  is  said,  it  must  be. 

Origin  Myth  of  the  Four  Nights'  Wake 

Two  friends  went  out  to  cut  arrow-sticks,  and  were  surprised  by  a 
war  party  and  killed.  When  they  were  shot  they  thought  they  had 
stumbled  and  went  right  on  (in  the  spirit).  After  the  enemy  had 
killed  the  first  one  they  chased  the  second  one  and  kUled  him,  and  so 
their  bodies  lay  apart.  Then  the  war  party  left  and  the  two  spirits 
started  to  follow  them.  Soon  they  came  to  where  their  bodies  were 
lying.  Then  they  said,  "Let  us  follow  the  enemy  a  little."  Soon  they 
caught  up  to  the  war  party  and  one  of  the  spirits  pushed  one  of  the 

1°  This  account  is  quite  fragmentary  and  was  obtained  in  connection  with  the  clan  myth.  It  is  given 
here  on  account  of  the  speeches. 


badin]  BURIAL   AND   FUNERAL   CUSTOMS  155 

men  on  the  back  of  his  head.  He  immediately  became  paralyzed 
from  the  touch.  Then  they  pushed  another  man  and  he  could  not 
walk.  So  they  laughed  and  turned  back  in  order  to  return  to  their 
home. 

They  had  not  yet  learned  that  they  were  dead.  One  went  to  his 
camp  and  told  his  wife  that  he  was  hungry  but  she  paid  no  attention 
to  him.  The  other  had  the  same  experience.  Then  each  man  started 
to  go  to  the  other  man's  lodge  and  they  met  midway.  The  first  man 
said,  "I  came  back  hungry  and  asked  for  food,  but  they  would  not 
give  me  any,  so  I  thought  that  I  would  go  to  your  place."  The 
second  one  said  the  same  thing.  Then  they  said,  "Let  us  lie  down  a 
while."  Just  then  the  people  began  to  cry,  for  they  had  brought 
back  the  bodies  of  the  two  dead  men.  Then  one  of  the  men  said, 
"My  friend,  we  have  been  killed."     The  other  one  began  to  cry. 

So  the  people  gathered  together  and  had  a  meal.  One  of  the 
ghosts  said,  "  We  must  try  and  get  something  from  the  meal  that  they 
are  having,  for  the  people  said,  '  We  are  giving  this  meal  in  honor  of 
the  departed."  Then  the  other  friend  said,  "Now  we  are  going  to 
eat,  for  they  are  cooking  for  us." 

These  two  were  born  again  and  told  about  this,  and  that  is  how  we 
know  it.  This  is  the  origin  of  the  Four  Nights'  Wake.  It  is  claimed 
that  the  spirits  of  the  spirit  land  have  a  four  nights'  feast  before  they 
start. 

Grave-post  Marks 

(DRAWINGS   BY   INDIANS) 
<Fig.2x) 

Warrior  has  been  on  the  warpath  (homani'na). 

Warrior  was  a  leader  of  a  warpath  (sak^i'). 

Warrior  was  a  helper  on  a  warpath  (wagLxo'na)  (rek£ln/). 

Warrior  counted  one  of  the  three  coup  (wa'ngonArjk). 

Warrior  had  made  a  captive  (wanglni). 

Warrior  had  killed  a  horse  on  the  warpath  or  stolen  one  from  the 
enemy. 

If  a  person  had  killed  a  man  and  cut  off  his  head,  he  is  allowed  to 
paint  the  top  (upper  part?)  of  the  grave-post  red. 


aV 


/  D  P  X  &     >~^ 

12  3  4  5  6  7 

Fig.  28.— Grave-post  marks:  1,  Has  been  on  the  warpath;  2,  has  been  leader  on  warpath;  3,  has  been  helper 
on  warpath;  4,  nas  counted  one  of  the  coup;  .5,  has  made  a  captive;  6,  has  killed  horse  on  warpath  or  stolen 
one  from  enemy;  7,  has  killed  a  man  and  cut  off  his  head. 


CHAPTER  VI 


WARFARE  AND  THE  COUNCIL  LODGE 
Warfare 

War  was  one  of  the  most  important  elements  in  the  life  of  the 
Winnebago.  The  life  of  the  warrior  was  the  ideal  toward  which  all 
men  strove.  It  not  only  satisfied  certain  emotional  needs  but  it 
was  so  inextricably  interwoven  with  social  standing  in  the  com- 
munity and  with  individual  prestige  that  Winnebago  life  is  unthink- 
able without  it.  It  is  not  surprising,  then,  that  the  prayer  for 
success  on  the  warpath  was  the  most  important  prayer  that  men 
offered  up  to  the  spirits  and  that  it  was  reechoed  in  almost  all  the 
ceremonies.     (Pis.  43,  44,  45.) 

An  element  of  culture  fraught  with  so  much  significance  to  the 
individual  and  the  social  group  was  bound  to  be  surrounded  by 
innumerable  customs,  regulations,  and  restrictions.  It  was  a  life 
that  was  at  stake  every  time  an  individual  went  on  the  warpath, 
and  remembering  the  value  of  each  life  to  a  small  community,  it  is 
not  to  be  wondered  at  if  there  is  a  definite  attempt  on  the  part  of  the 
social  group  to  restrict  individual  activity  in  this  particular  regard. 
An  individual  might  go  on  the  warpath  either  alone  or  in  company 
with  a  few  people,  but  the  community,  in  the  person  of  the  chief, 
insisted  that  he  show  some  warrant  for  his  action.  If  no  warrant  of 
any  kind  could  be  given,  he  subjected  himself  to  the  only  restrictive 
measures  the  chief  and  the  community  could  adopt,  disapproval, 
jeers,  and  temporary  loss  of  social  standing  and  prestige.  So  much, 
as  far  as  his  own  person  was  concerned.  If  his  action  jeopardized 
the  life  or  lives  of  other  members  of  the  tribe  he  had  then  to  face 
the  relatives  of  these  people,  just  as  any  individual  who  had  com- 
mitted some  wrong.  It  is  hardly  likely  that  many  men  would 
willingly  run  any  risks  of  unnecessarily  antagonizing  their  fellow 
tribesmen  when  the  proper  means  of  preparing  for  the  warpath 
was  open  to  all.  A  careful  perusal  of  the  system  of  education  given 
on  page  166  makes  it  clear  that  a  sufficiently  large  number  of' 
methods  for  obtaining  consent  to  lead  a  party  were  given,  and  that 
it  was  possible  for  every  male  individual  to  go  on  the  warpath 
frequently  if  he  so  desired.  Certain  requirements  were,  however, 
necessary.  It  was  not  left  to  each  individual  to  decide  for  himself 
whether  he  possessed  these,  but  the  final  decision  always  lay  in  the 
hands  of  the  chief. 
156 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY  THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE  43 


a.   WAR    CLUBS    OF  THE    UPPER    DIVISION 


b.   WHIPS 


BUREAU    OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY     THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL   REPORT     PLATE   44 


DRUMS 


H 

O 


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03 

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o 

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o 

_1 

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z 
i 


badin]  WARFARE   AND   THE   COUNCIL   LODGE  157 

Any  man  who  has  been  specially  blessed  with  war  powers  may 
go  on  the  warpath.  Such  a  man  must  not  merely  be  blessed  with 
those  general  war  powers  that  individuals  obtain  during  their  puberty 
fast,  but  must  likewise  be  blessed  with  a  definite  enemy  to  kill  or 
capture,  as  the  case  may  be,  immediately  before  he  starts  out.  In 
practice  this  meant  that  whenever  a  person  wished  to  go  on  the  war- 
path he  fasted  in  order  to  obtain  the  necessary  guarantees  of  success. 
An  account  of  the  powers  granted  by  the  spirit  or  spirits  was  then 
placed  before  the  chief  and  if,  in  his  opinion,  they  justified  the  under- 
taking, the  man  was  permitted  to  go.  If  they  were  insufficient  the 
chief  expressed  his  disapproval  and  the  contemplated  undertaking 
had  either  to  be  given  up  or  the  man  would  be  compelled  to  fast  again 
for  increased  powers.  There  were  a  number  of  men  who  were  unable 
to  obtain  the  requisite  powers.  To  them  one  of  two  alternatives 
was  left  open :  they  might  either  purchase  sufficient  powers  to  go  on  a 
warpath  or  they  might  volunteer  to  join  a  large  warpath.  A  volun- 
teer needed  no  special  blessing.  If  he  had  one,  it  would  certainly 
benefit  him,  but  it  was  not  necessary  except  as  an  additional  precau- 
tion, for  the  leader  of  the  war  party  (dotcanhuyka)  was  supposed  to 
be  blessed  specifically  with  every  element  necessary  for  a  successful 
undertaking.  As  the  Winnebago  express  it,  he  was  blessed  "with  a 
complete  road."  In  a  war  leader's  blessing,  everything  must  be 
provided — sufficient  food,  a  definite  number  of  enemies  to  kill,  the 
exact  place  where  they  are  to  be  killed,  the  exact  time  when  they 
are  to  be  killed,  the  exact  manner  in  which  they  are  to  be  killed,  the 
exact  manner  in  which  the  participants  are  to  return  to  their  homes, 
the  safe  return  of  all  participants,  and  an  infinite  number  of  other 
minor  points.  As  a  volunteer  went  at  the  request  of  another  man, 
the  latter,  and  not  he,  took  upon  himself  entire  responsibility  and 
the  chief  dealt  directly  with  him.  The  chief  would,  in  such  a  case, 
be  particularly  careful  to  see  that  every  life  that  was  risked  was 
amply  safeguarded.  Otherwise  the  war  party  woidd  not  be  permitted 
to  start. 

A  man  may  go  on  the  warpath  for  two  reasons :  either  to  revenge 
a  slain  relative  or  in  a  general  way  because  he  thinks  he  has  received 
sufficient  power  and  wishes  to  obtain  glory.  If  the  incentive  was 
revenge,  he  might  pursue  one  of  two  methods.  He  might  go  to  the 
shaman  with  offerings  of  tobacco  and  presents  and  tell  him  about  the 
death  of  his  relative  and  his  desire  for  revenge;  or  he  might  take  the 
matter  in  his  own  hand,  fast,  and  after  having  stealthily  prepared  for 
the  necessities  of  the  warpath  inform  a  friend  and  steal  out  with  him 
in  the  middle  of  the  night.  Were  he  to  take  the  first  method,  it 
would  be  the  shaman  who  would  fast  and  who  would  afterwards 
lead  the  party,  taking  along  with  him  as  many  men  as  would  follow 
him. 


158  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

When  a  man  went  on  a  warpath  for  the  sake  of  glory  he  generally 
led  a  large  party  and  all  sorts  of  special  arrangements  were  made, 
because  then  a  war  leader  was  necessary  and  volunteers  were  always 
needed.  It  is  believed  that  the  same  holds  true  for  larger  war 
parties. 

In  discussing  the  essential  requisite  for  a  successful  war  party  we 
have  stated  that  a  special  blessing  was  necessary  for  this  purpose. 
There  is,  however,  one  noteworthy  exception  to  this  ride,  if  we  are 
to  accept  the  statements  of  members  of  the  upper  phratry — all  mem- 
bers of  the  Warrior  clan  may  go  on  a  warpath  without  fasting  and 
without  receiving  a  blessing.  This  statement  was  vigorously  denied 
by  members  of  the  lower  phratry. 

When  a  war  party  returns,  a  very  interesting  ceremony  takes  place. 
At  some  distance  from  the  village  a  victorious  war  party  sends  a 
messenger  ahead  to  tell  all  those  at  home  that  the  war  party  has  been 
unsuccessful  and  that  all  have  been  killed,  and  that  those  at  home 
should  put  on  mourning.  Secretly,  however,  the  leader  tells  someone 
to  look  for  a  pole  for  the  Victory  dance,  and  shortly  after  all  the 
preparations  for  mourning  have  been  made  the  victorious  warriors 
rush  into  the  village.  Before  entering  the  village  that  warrior  who 
has  counted  first  coup  is  offered  a  pipe,  from  which  he  always  takes 
a  few  puffs.  The  same  pipe  is  then  handed  to  the  one  who  counted 
coup  second,  and  so  on,  until  the  fourth  man  is  reached.  Then  the 
prizes  (waixewe)  are  given  to  the  victors,  who  afterwards  give  them 
to  their  sisters.  The  scalps  are  not  taken  into  the  village,  but  are 
left  outside,  and  warriors  who  have  remained  at  home  rush  out  to 
count  coup  upon  them.  Then  the  scalps  are  carried  around  the 
village  four  times. 

The  widely-known  Plains  custom  of  "counting  coup"  is  also 
practiced  among  the  Winnebago.  The  individual  who  strikes  the 
dead  body  of  the  enemy  first  obtains  the  first  honor,  the  one  striking 
it  second  the  second  honor,  the  one  striking  it  third  the  third  honor, 
and  the  one  who  actually  killed  the  enemy  obtaining  the  fourth  and 
least  important  honor. 

The  following  are  descriptions  given  in  the  words  of  the  informants : 

Description  of  war  customs  and  the  manner  of  conducting  a  war 
party. — Informant,  member  of  the  Thunderbird  clan. 

When  a  man  is  ready  to  go  on  the  warpath,  he  looks  around  for  as  many  men  as  he 
wishes  to  take  along  and  then  gives  a  feast.  At  the  feast  he  fixes  the  time  at  which 
the  war  partyia  to  start.  The  man  giving  the  feast  (i.  e.,  the  leader  of  the  war  party) 
would  get  up  and  tell  those  present  that  he  intended  going  on  a  warpath  and  give  his 
reason;  then  he  would  say  that  whosoever  so  desired  could  come  along. 

Many  went  along.  Indeed,  there  was  quite  a  crowd.  The  first  stopping  place 
(higiyara)  was  always  near  the  outskirts  of  the  village.  There  the  leader  appointed 
four  men  to  go  after  food  and  wood  for  the  fire.  During  their  absence  two  camping 
places  would  be  arranged,  one  on  each  side  of  the  war  leader.  As  soon  as  the  four 
men  returned  with  the  food  the  attendants  skinned  and  prepared   the  animals  for 


radin]  WARFARE  AND  THE   COUNCIL  LODGE  159 

eating.  Then  the  war  leader  asked  for  food,  and  it  was  brought  to  him.  Now  the 
female  relatives  of  the  men  came  to  the  camp,  bringing  with  them  moccasins  for  the 
journey.  After  that  the  chief  asked  some  man  to  tell  stories  and  some  to  take  care 
of  the  fireplace,  while  two  brave  warriors  were  put  in  chargo  of  the  camp.  Toward 
morning  a  number  of  warriors  who  had  not  been  asked  to  join  this  particular  war 
party  might  stray  in  (hotcu' ygitEe) . 

Before  the  war  leader  enters  the  higij-ara  he  places  his  war  bundle  crosswise  in 
front  of  the  entrance  of  the  higij-ara  and  sings  some  songs.  When  he  is  finished,  his 
attendants  place  the  war  bundle  on  his  back,  and  only  then  does  he  really  enter  the 
higiyara,  followed  by  all  the  other  members  of  the  war  party.1 

When  they  approached  the  place  where  they  expected  to  find  the  enemy,  two  dis- 
tinguished warriors  were  appointed  to  reconnoiter,  and  they  proceeded  ahead  of  the 
war  party  until  they  saw  the  enemy.  Then  they  returned  to  the  camp  and  reported 
to  the  war  leader.  From  that  time  on  they  would  practice  their  various  individual 
powers  (waruxA'p  naykgigire'je).2 

When  the  two  warriors  sent  out  to  reconnoiter  return,  the  attendant  offers  them 
the  pipe  that  he  had  prepared  for  the  war  leader.  They  smoke  it  and  say,  "Those 
whom  we  are  after  are  entirely  unaware  of  our  presence."  Then  the  members  of  the 
war  party  would  thank  them  for  their  information.  All  would  now  start  out  against 
the  enemy.  When  near  the  enemy,  they  practice  their  powers  again  and  paint 
themselves  with  their  war  paints.  To  those  spirits  who  have  bestowed  blessings 
upon  the  various  members  of  the  war  party  offerings  are  now  made.  Especially  to 
the  spirits  who  are  in  control  of  war  powers  are  offerings  made.  To  them  they  also 
pray  for  life  and  for  war  honors  in  the  coming  encounter.  They  even  offer  tobacco 
to  those  spirits  from  whom  they  have  not  received  blessings,  asking  them  for  aid 
because  of  their  careful  observance  of  all  the  customs  and  precepts  they  were  taught. 
Some  offered  tobacco  to  a  medicine  they  possessed  and  asked  the  m  edicine  to  remem- 
ber them  in  the  coming  encounter.  Others  boiled  water  (for  a  spirit)  and  asked  him 
to  assist  them  in  obtaining  a  war  honor,  while  others  again  offered  tobacco  to  their 
war  bundles  and  prayed  that  the  powers  contained  therein  might  be  strong  and  that 
they  might  kill  some  of  the  enemy  and  obtain  war  honors.  All  prayed  that  the 
enemy  might  not  kill  them  and  that  they  might  finally  return  home  safe.  Those 
who  had  no  supernatural  powers  to  fall  back  upon  would  get  frightened  at  such  a  time 
and  they  would  say,  "Alas!  how  will  I  fare!  I  should  have  fasted.  I  should  have 
given  feasts.  I  should  have  offered  good  medicines  to  the  spirits  and  fasted  until  I 
was  blessed,  so  that  I,  too,  might  now  have  some  powerful  medicine  to  use.  Had  I 
fasted  and  obtained  a  blessing  from  the  spirits  who  are  in  control  of  war  powers,  had  I 
given  feasts,  this  all  would  have  been  a  source  of  strength  to  me  now  and  I  would 
know  positively  whether  or  not  I  am  going  to  be  killed  in  the  coming  encounter." 

When  everything  is  in  readiness  the  war  leader  rises  and  appoints  four  warriors  to 
give  the  war  whoop.  Then,  as  soon  as  the  war  whoop  has  been  given,  they  would 
rush  upon  the  enemy,  imitating  as  they  ran  the  sounds  of  the  spirits  who  had  blessed 
them.  The  first  four  to  kill  and  count  coup  obtained  the  corresponding  four  war 
honors.  Those  who  captured  a  man  also  obtained  war  honors.  Beside  these  principal 
ones  there  were  minor  war  honors.  Those  who  obtained  no  honors  at  all  would  return 
home  crying.  After  they  had  killed  all  those  in  the  village  of  the  euemy  they  would 
burn  it  to  the  ground  and  then  start  for  their  homes  in  the  best  of  spirits. 

When  they  were  near  their  home  they  sent  a  messenger  ahead  to  inform  their  rela- 
tives to  put  on  mourning,  for  all  those  who  had  started  out  on  the  warpath  had  been 
killed;  that  he  who  had  in  reality  obtained  the  first  war  honor  had  been  killed  first, 

1  Higiyara  is  the  special  arrangement  of  the  camp  used  on  individual  warpaths. 

2  When  a  war  party  has  located  the  enemy,  they  prepare  for  the  attack  and  run  about,  practicing  their 
individual  magical  powers.  "The  war-club  running"  (warum'p  naykgigirc'ji)  referred  to  is  the  practice 
of  running  about  in  preparation  for  the  attack  upon  the  enemy  so  that  they  may  not  get  tired  out  too 
easily. 


160  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

etc.  Then  the  war  leader  would  secretly  tell  some  one  to  select  a  stake  (for  the  Victory 
Dance)  and  after  a  short  time  all  the  members  of  the  war  party  would  rush  in  and  march 
around  the  entire  village  striking  the  scalps  that  they  had  tied  to  sticks.  Then  they 
would  all  go  to  the  place  where  the  stake  had  been  put  up  and  there  they  would  dis- 
tribute the  war  prizes  to  the  sisters  of  the  men  who  had  won  them  and  the  women 
would  walk  around  proudly  with  the  prizes  around  their  necks.  Then,  in  the  daytime 
they  would  dance  the  Victory  Dance  and  in  the  evening  they  would  dance  the 
Hok'ixere  Dance  for  four  nights. 

Description  of  a  war  party. — Informant,  member  of  the  Thunder- 
bird  clan. 

If  a  man  wishes  to  go  on  the  warpath  he  must  fast  and  be  blessed  by  the  spirits  in  a 
specific  manner.  If  a  man  is  thus  blessed,  he  gives  a  feast  and  announces  his  intention 
of  leading  a  war  party.  The  chief  always  has  a  representative  at  such  a  feast  (a  mem- 
ber of  the  Buffalo  clan),  and  as  soon  as  it  is  over  this  man  goes  to  the  former  and  reports 
to  him.  If  the  chief  thinks  that  the  blessing  is  insufficient  and  might  cause  the  death 
of  many  men  he  takes  the  war  leader's  pipe  and  lays  it  across  his  path  and  the  war 
leader  is  then  compelled  to  abandon  his  undertaking.  This  action  on  the  part  of  the 
chief  is  sacred  and  must  be  accepted  as  final.  The  war  leader  dare  not  step  across 
the  pipe.  Should  the  chief,  however,  not  do  this,  then  the  war  leader  knew  that  there 
was  no  objection.  Usually  some  members  of  every  clan  go  along,  but  especially 
members  of  the  Thunderbird,  Warrior,  and  Bear  clans. 

The  action  of  the  war  leader  is  controlled  by  many  rules.  He  must  be  the  one  who 
has  fasted  and  been  blessed  with  all  that  is  essential  for  conducting  a  war  party.  He 
must  have  his  food  provided  for  him  by  the  spirits,  know  the  exact  location  of  the 
enemy,  their  numbers,  and  their  sex. 

After  the  war  party  has  traveled  for  about  four  days,  the  men  offer  tobacco  to  the 
leader  and  he  tells  them  where  he  is  going,  the  number  of  the  enemy,  etc.  If,  after 
that,  any  of  the  members  of  the  war  party  do  not  approve  of  the  undertaking  then  they 
place  a  pipe  across  his  path  and  the  war  leader  is  compelled  to  return.  If  nothing  is 
said,  then  all  is  well.  The  war  leader  always  goes  ahead  of  his  party  and  his  attend- 
ants behind  him,  followed  by  the  other  members  of  the  party.  Whenever  the  chief 
stops  liis  attendants  run  to  his  side,  take  his  war  bundle  and  place  it  in  front  of  him. 
Then  the  leader  sits  down,  neither  turning  to  the  right  nor  to  the  left  but  looking 
straight  ahead.  The  attendants  get  two  poles  and  place  them  on  each  side  of  him, 
bend  the  ends  over  to  form  an  arch,  on  each  side  of  which  are  placed  small  oak  sticks 
arranged  in  a  row.  Under  this  structure  the  war  leader  stays.  Here  he  sleeps  and  is 
fed  by  his  attendants.  No  one  is  permitted  to  go  ahead  of  this  improvised  structure. 
On  each  side  of  him  two  fireplaces  are  placed,  two  for  the  Upper  clans  and  two  for  the 
Lower  clans.  If  the  war  party  is  traveling  westward  the  two  fireplaces  on  the  north 
side  belong  to  the  Lower  clans  and  the  two  on  the  south  side  to  the  Upper  clans.  If  a 
man  is  going  on  a  warpath  for  the  first  time,  he  stays  in  the  rear  of  the  party  and  has  a 
little  fire  of  his  own.  He  remains  in  the  rear  in  this  way  until  the  battle  begins.  Then 
he  joins  the  others. 

A  member  of  the  Warrior  clan  is  selected  by  the  war  leader  to  act  as  guard  and  he 
goes  back  and  forth  behind  him  encouraging  the  men  and  telling  them  not  to  steal 
away  alone  or  go  too  far  ahead  of  the  party,  since  that  always  results  in  the  loss  of  life. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  it  is  not  considered  correct  for  a  man  to  try  and  steal  away  and 
perhaps  obtain  a  war  honor  in  this  selfish  manner.  Whenever  the  war  leader  stops  he 
tells  his  companions  what  they  must  do  in  order  to  obtain  food,  all  this  information 
ha-ving  been  provided  for  in  his  blessing.  If  he  tells  some  one  to  go  to  a  certain  place 
and  kill  a  deer,  he  is  certain  to  find  a  deer  at  the  place  specified.  Whenever  the  war 
leader  gets  up  and  steps  over  his  war  bundle  the  attendants  come  and  place  his  war 
bundle  on  his  back  and  he  then  proceeds  on  his  march,  followed  by  the  other  members 
of  the  party.    Whenever  he  comes  to  a  river  he  takes  some  of  the  tobacco  which  is 


Radin]  WARFARE   AXD   THE   COUNCIL   LODGE  161 

always  kept  on  hand  and  offers  it  to  the  spirit  who  controls  this  particular  war  party. 
The  others  do  the  same.  Then  he  would  cross  the  river.  Whenever  he  drank  any 
water  the  others  would  also  do  so,  and  if  he  refrained  so  would  the  others.  If  at  any 
time  during  the  night  when  they  are  camping  the  war  leader  should  wake  up  and  sing 
some  songs,  be  they  grizzly  bear,  black  root  paint,  or  night  songs,  all  those  others  who 
knew  similar  songs  would  likewise  begin  to  sing. 

Miscellaneous  war  customs. — There  were,  in  former  times,  many 
miscellaneous  customs  connected  with  warfare,  most  of  which  have 
now  been  forgotten.  However,  in  myths  and  accounts  of  war  parties 
a  number  of  them  are  still  mentioned. 

When  a  war  party  surprised  a  lodge,  all  the  occupants  were  killed 
or  captured  and  the  poles  that  were  spliced  together  to  form  the 
arches  were  released  so  that  they  sprang  back  to  either  side  and 
assumed  a  vertical  position. 

When  a  war  party  surprised  a  lodge  in  which  there  were  children 
they  generally  killed  them,  cut  off  their  heads,  pried  open  their 
mouths  so  as  to  give  them  the  appearance  of  laughing,  and  then 
placed  the  heads  on  their  bodies  again  and  arranged  them  against  the 
door,  so  that  when  their  father  came  home  he  would  find  them  greet- 
ing him  as  usual.  A  brave  warrior  would  never  flinch  at  such  a 
sight,  but  would  prepare  a  meal  as  usual  and  speak  to  the  children  as 
if  they  were  alive  and  offer  them  something  to  eat.  Only  then  would 
he  bury  them.  Immediately  after  they  had  been  buried  he  would 
go  on  the  warpath  to  revenge  them. 

Frequently  the  skulls  of  slain  enemies  are  used  as  lodge  weights  and 
their  skin  is  taken  off  and  used  as  mats,  door-flaps,  etc. 

War  honors. — "It  is  the  ideal  of  every  Winnebago  youth,"  says  an 
informant,  "  to  kill  an  enemy  in  full  sight  of  his  friends  and  thus  to 
gain  for  himself  a  headdress  and  an  eagle  feather."  Most  deeds  con- 
sidered valorous,  according  to  Winnebago  ideas,  have  associated  with 
them  certain  insignia  which  are  always  worn  in  public,  giving  evi- 
dence to  all  that  so-and-so  has  performed  such  and  such  a  valorous 
deed. 

These  insignia  consist  of  the  following: 

Headdress  and  feather. — Denote  that  an  individual  has  scalped  and 
killed  a  man  and  torn  off  his  scalp  still  bleeding.  He  is  entitled  to  a 
red  headdress  and  eagle  feather.  This  also  includes  the  man  who 
has  counted  first  coup  (sarinigwahi'na). 

Red  headdress. — If  he  has  killed  the  enemy  and  not  scalped  him 
(tcasi 'ntc  wale' e' re.) 

Eagle  feather. — Worn  by  one  who  has  counted  second  coup. 

Hanging  eagle  feather. — Worn  by  one  who  has  counted  third  coup. 

Eagle  feather  stuck  crosswise  in  hair. — Worn  by  one  who  has  counted 
fourth  coup. 

Wangirusgitc. — Consists  of  a  rope  worn  around  the  neck.  It  is 
worn  by  the  leader  of  that  warpath  who  has  captured  an  enemy. 


162  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eih.  an.w  37 

Ud'ykere. — Arm  band  worn  by  the  person  who  did  the  actual 
capturing.  If  two  enemies  are  captured  he  can  wear  an  arm  band 
on  each  arm. 

Red-dyed  eagle  feather. — A  red-dyed  eagle  feather  worn  by  a  war 
leader  who  has  brought  a  captured  enemy  to  camp  and  tortured  him 
with  embers. 

Ankle-hand  of  skunk  or  polecat. — An  ankle-band  of  the  skin  of  a 
skunk  or  polecat  worn  by  one  who  has  seen  an  enemy  dead  on  the 
battle  field  and  kicked  him.  If  he  does  it  for  the  second  time,  he 
may  wear  skunk  skins  on  both  legs  below  the  knee.  If  the  leader 
does  it  he  is  allowed  to  use  an  otter  skin. 

Rope  tied  to  helt. — A  rope  of  any  desirable  length  tied  to  a  belt  may 
be  worn  by  an  individual  who  has  succeeded  in  either  capturing  or 
killing  an  enemy's  horse.  At  a  dance  no  one  would  dare  step  on  it. 
If  an  individual  does  not  want  to  wear  this,  he  may  in  its  place  Wear 
a  rope  around  his  body. 

Legs  painted  white. — An  individual  who  has  been  on  the  warpath 
in  winter  may  paint  his  legs  white,  from  the  knee  down. 

Gun  painted  red. — An  individual  who  has  killed  an  enemy  with  a 
gun  may  carry  this  gun  at  a  dance  and  paint  it  red. 

Spear. — If  a  person  kills  an  enemy  with  a  spear,  he  may  carry 
this  and  tie  to  it  any  symbol  (eagle  feather,  etc.)  that  he  has  gained. 

Koke're^u^. — An  individual  who  was  a  well-known  warrior  and  had 
fought  in  front  of  his  comrades,  and  one  whom  the  enemy  respected, 
was  entitled  to  a  long  stick  with  eagle  feathers.  At  a  dance  he  had 
the  privilege  of  dancing  with  the  stick  in  front  of  his  comrades. 

Hand  on  face. — Any  warrior  making  all  four  coups,  who  did  not 
care  to  wear  a  dress,  might  paint  a  man's  hand  in  black  upon  his  face. 

Raven's  skin  around  neck. — If  an  individual  captured  more  than 
one  woman  in  war,  he  was  entitled  to  wear  a  raven  skin  around  his 
neck. 

Body  painted  yellow  ami  wounded  spot  red. — If  a  man  had  been 
wounded  on  the  warpath,  he  had  the  right  at  a  dance  to  paint  his 
body  yellow  and  the  wounded  spots  red,  with  red  streaks  running 
from  the  wounds. 

Otter  skin  around  knee  and  naygisfo. — A  great  warrior,  one  who  has 
gained  all  the  war  honors,  can,  if  he  does  not  wish  to  wear  his  separate 
insignia,  wear  instead  an  otter  skin  attached  below  the  knee,  whose 
ends  are  not  quite  united.  He  may  also  wear  a  naygis-o  consisting 
of  a  stick,  whittled  and  painted  red,  in  his  hair. 

Valorous  deeds  are  also  perpetuated  on  the  grave  posts  when  the 
warriors  who  have  accompanied  the  corpse  to  the  grave  count  coup 
and  draw  a  picture  symbolizing  their  particular  deed  on  the  post. 
It  should  therefore  be  remembered  that  the  markings  on  these  posts 
do  not  refer  at  all  to  the  valorous  deeds  of  the  deceased  but  to  those 
of  warriors  who  happened  to  count  coup  at  the  grave. 


Radin]  WARFARE   AND   THE   COUNCIL   LODGE  163 

The  Council  Lodge 

The  clan  in  the  council  lodge. — There  is  one  place  where  the  clan 
finds  representation  as  a  political  unit,  and  that  is  the  council  lodge. 
No  unanimity  seems  to  exist  with  regard  to  the  positions  of  the 
various  clans  in  the  council  lodge,  but  here  again  the  position  of  those 
clans  with  specific  governmental  functions  seems  to  be  far  more  stable 
than  that  of  the  others.  The  clans  are  generally  so  seated  as  always 
to  be  opposite  their  "friend  "  clan,  from  which  fact  a  clan  frequently 
calls  its  friend  "my  opposite."  It  is,  however,  interesting  to  note 
that  this  seating  does  not  hold  for  two  friend  groups,  the  Water- 
spirit-Buffalo  and  Elk-Deer.  The  Water-spirit  clan  occupies  a  high 
position  in  the  council  lodge,  apparently  quite  out  of  proportion  to 
its  present  importance  in  the  social  organization  of  the  tribe,  but 
in  consonance  with  its  former  importance. 

Councils. — No  important  undertaking  was  ever  attempted  with- 
out the  holding  of  a  council.  On  such  occasions  the  principal  mem- 
bers of  each  clan  would  assemble  in  a  long  lodge  and  discuss  in  great 
detail.  Nothing  comparable  to  a  vote  that  might  express  the  desire 
of  those  assembled  was  taken,  but  the  opinions  of  those  present  were 
always  presented  in  their  speeches.  As  a  rule  the  chief,  or  some 
person  especially  interested  in  definite  matter,  led  the  discussion. 
Owing  to  the  complete  absence  of  specific  examples  of  councils  it  is 
very  difficult  to  obtain  a  very  clear  idea  of  their  working.  The 
numerous  councils  relating  to  treaties  with  the  whites  are  of  very 
little  interest  or  significance  in  this  connection. 

There  was  unquestionably  a  regular  order  of  entering  and  seating 
in  the  council  lodge.  What  this  order  was  it  is  impossible  to  deter- 
mine now,  for  the  statements  made  by  different  informants  were  con- 
tradictory. Since,  however,  the  contradictions  in  the  seating  ar- 
rangements seemed  to  be  correlated  with  different  clan  membership 
the  discrepancies  may  be  due,  not  to  lack  of  knowledge  but  to 
actual  differences.  A  few  examples  of  the  seating  arrangements 
follow  (figs.  29-32) : 

Description  of  order  of  entering  the  council  lodge. — Informant, 
member  of  Bear  clan.  The  Buffalo  clan  would  always  be  the  last  to 
enter  the  council  lodge  because  the  members  remained  outside 
making  announcements  until  all  the  others  had  entered.  The 
members  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  enter  first,  making  a  circuit  of 
tiie  lodge  before  taking  their  seats.  The  members  of  the  Warrior 
clan  followed  and  took  their  seats  just  opposite  those  of  the  Thunder- 
bird  clan.  Then  the  Water-spirit  clan  follows,  and  then  come  the 
rest  as  indicated  in  the  diagram.  This  is  the  only  place  where  the 
Bear  clan  is  not  in  control  of  the  arrangements. 


164 


THE  WINNEBAGO  TRIBE 


(ETH.  ANN.  37 


Fig.  29.— Seating  arrangement  in  council  lodge 
according  to  Thunderbird  clan:  a,  Warrior  clan; 
h,  Water-spirit  clan;  c,  Deer  clan;  d,  Elk  clan; 
e.  Pigeon  clan;/,  Wolfclan;o,  Bear  clan;  ft  ,  Snake 
clan;  i,  Buffalo  clan;  ;',  Eagle  clan;  k,  Thunder- 
Dird  clan.    (The  order  of  importance  is  from  k-a.) 


Fig.  30.— Seating  arrangement  in  council  lodge 
according  to  Bear  clan :  a ,  Thunderbird  clan ; 
b  Bear  clan;  c,  Wolf  clan;  d,  Pigeon  clan;  t,  Eagle 
clan;  /,  Snake  clan;  o,  Fish  clan;  ft,  Elk  clan; 
i ,  Buffalo  clan ;  j,  Deer  clan;  k,  Water-spirit  clan; 
/,  Warrior  clan. 


RADIN] 


WARFARE  AND  THE   COUNCIL  LODGE 


165 


Fig.  31.— Seating  arrangement  in  council  lodge  ac- 
cording to  Thunderbird  clan:  k,  Thunderbird 
clan;  ; ,  Eagle  clan;  i,  Buffalo  clan;  h.  Snake  clan  ; 
g.  Bear  clan;  /,  Wolf  clan;  e,  Pigeon  clan;  d.  Elk 
clan;  c, Deer  clan;  bt  Water-spirit  clau;  a,  Warrior 
clan. 


Fig.  32.— Seating  arrangement  in  council  lodge  ac- 
cordingto  Wolf  clan;  a,  Thunderbird  clan;  6,  Eagle 
clan;  c,  Buffalo  clan;  d,  Water-spirit  clan;  e,  Bear 
clan;/,  Wolf  clan. 


CHAPTER  VII 


SYSTEM   OF   EDUCATION1 

The  Winnebago  seem  to  have  had  a  more  or  less  formal  system  of 
instruction.  This  consisted  of  a  series  of  precepts  on  different 
aspects  of  life,  such  as  the  duty  of  fasting,  of  being  a  warrior,  of 
behavior  to  one's  parents  and  relatives,  how  to  treat  one's  wife 
and  women  in  general,  how  to  bring  up  children,  how  to  behave  to 
strangers,  etc.  These  formal  teachings  were  called  Twk'i'TcvP,  which 
means  "precepts"  or  "teachings."  Doubtless  those  obtained  do 
not  constitute  all  the  different  types  existing,  but  they  seem  fairly 
representative. 

My  Father's  Teaching  to  His  Sons  and  Daughters 

system  of  instruction  to  son 

My  son,  when  you  grow  up  you  should  see  to  it  that  you  are  of 
some  benefit  to  your  fellowmen.  There  is  only  one  way  in  which  you 
can  begin  to  be  of  any  aid  to  them,  and  that  is  to  fast.  So,  my  son, 
see  to  it  that  you  fast.  Our  grandfather,  the  fire,  who  stands  at  all 
times  in  the  center  of  our  dwelling,  sends  forth  all  kinds  of  blessings.2 
Be  sure  that  you  make  an  attempt  to  obtain  his  blessings. 

My  son,  do  you  remember  to  have  our  grandfathers,  the  war  chiefs, 
bless  you.  See  to  it  that  they  pity  you.3  Some  day  when  you  go  on  the 
warpath  their  blessings  will  enable  you  to  have  specific  foreknowledge 
of  all  that  will  happen  to  you  on  that  occasion.  This  will  likewise 
enable  you  to  accomplish  what  you  desire  without  the  danger  of 
anything  interfering  with  your  plans.  Without  the  slightest  trouble 
you  will  then  be  able  to  obtain  the  prizes  of  war.     Without  any  trouble 

1  This  chapter  was  originally  intended  for  special  publication  and  the  notes  prepared  for  it  then  have 
been  retained. 

2  The  fire  {p'etc)  is  regarded  as  a  spirit  by  the  Winnebago.  As  a  spirit  he  possesses  many  gifts  that  are 
of  use  to  human  beings  in  their  sojourn  on  earth,  and  in  order  to  obtain  them,  mortals  must  make  offerings 
of  tobacco  to  him.  He  may  also  appear  to  them  during  their  fastings  and  bless  them  with  a  number  of 
powers.  In  addition  to  his  other  powers,  it  is  believed  that  lie  is  the  messenger  of  Earthmaker  and  the 
other  spirits  and  that  he  transmits  both  the  messages,  as  well  as  the  offerings  that  mortals  make  to  them, 
by  means  of  the  smoke  that  rises  upward.  The  old  man  speaks  of  the  fire  first,  because  being  always 
around  them  it  is  a  comparatively  easy  task  to  make  offerings  to  it. 

s  This  is  the  regular  expression  used  for  blessing.  The  idea  seems  to  be  that  through  fasting  and  crying 
you  are  to  put  yourself  in  a  "pitiable"  condition  and  that  then  the  spirits,  seeing  your  state,  will  pity  you 
and  grant  you  what  you  have  asked.  The  word  "grandfathers"  is  used  in  the  sense  of  ancestral  spirits, 
the  thunderbirds,  who  are  regarded  as  the  dispensers  of  war  power,  not  only  by  members  of  this  clan  but 
by  all  Winnebago. 

166 


Radin]  SYSTEM   OF  EDUCATION  167 

you  will  be  able  to  obtain  these  and  in  addition  glory  and  the  war 
honors.4  If ,  in  truth,  you  thirst  yourself  to  death,5  our  grandfathers 
who  are  in  control  of  wars — to  whom  all  the  war  powers  that  exist  in 
this  world  belong — they  will  assuredly  bless  you. 

My  son,  if  you  do  not  wear  out  your  feet  through  ceaseless  activity 
(in  fasting) ,  if  you  do  not  blacken  your  face  for  fasting,  it  will  be  all 
in  vain  that  you  inflict  sufferings  upon  yourself.  Blessings  are  not 
obtained  through  mere  desire  alone;  they  are  not  obtained  without 
making  the  proper  sacrifices  or  without  putting  yourself  time  and 
again  in  proper  mental  condition.  Indeed,  my  son,  they  are  not  to  be 
obtained  without  effort  on  your  part.  So  see  to  it  that,  of  all  those 
spirits  whom  Earthmaker  created,  one  at  least  has  pity  upon  you 
and  blesses  you.  Whatever  such  a  spirit  says  to  you  that  will  un- 
questionably happen. 

Now,  my  son,  if  you  do  not  obtain  a  spirit  to  srengthen  you,  you 
will  not  amount  to  anything  in  the  estimation  of  your  fellowmen. 
They  will  show  you  little  respect.     Perhaps  they  will  make  fun  of  you. 

Do  not  die  in  the  village.  It  is  not  good  to  die  there.  Whenever  a 
person  is  grown  up  that  is  what  is  told  him.  Nor  is  it  good,  my  son, 
to  let  women  journey  ahead  of  you  from  amidst  the  village.  It  is 
not  good  thus  to  let  women  die  before  you.6  Therefore,  in  order  to 
prevent  this,  our  ancestors  encouraged  one  another  to  fast.  Some 
day  you  will  travel  in  a  difficult  road;  there  will  be  some  crisis  in 
your  life,  and  then  when  it  is  too  late  you  will  begin  to  reproach  your- 
self for  not  having  fasted  at  the  proper  time.  So  that  you  may  not 
have  occasion  to  blame  yourself  at  such  a  time  I  counsel  you  to  fast. 
If  you  do  not  obtain  a  blessing  when  the  other  women  are  dividing 
the  war  prizes  brought  home  from  the  warpath  by  their  brothers, 
your  sisters  will  stand  aside  envying  them.  If,  however,  you  are 
blessed  by  the  spirits  in  control  of  war  power,  and  if  you  then  return 
victorious,  how  proud  your  sisters  will  be  to  receive  the  war  honors 
and  to  wear  them  around  their  necks  and  participate  with  them  in  the 
victory  dance !  And  in  this  way  your  sisters  likewise  will  be  strength- 
ened by  your  war  deeds.     You  will  keep  well,  in  health. 

My  son,  it  will  indeed  be  good  if  you  obtain  war  powers,  but  our 
ancestors  say  it  is  difficult.     Especially  difficult  is  it  to  be  leader  on 

*  There  are  four  war  honors,  the  highest  going  to  the  Indian  who  first  touches  a  dead  enemy,  the  second 
belonging  to  the  one  who  kills  him,  and  the  last  two  to  those  who  touch  him  second  and  third.  The 
war  prizes  generally  consisted  of  necklaces  of  wampum  which  were  given  to  those  who  had  obtained  the  first 
war  honors.  The  victor  also  would  be  given  the  privilege  of  first  smoking  the  pipe  on  his  return  to  his 
home.    The  prize  of  the  wampum  necklace  was  always  given  by  the  victor  to  his  elder  sisters. 

<■  That  is,  fast. 

6  That  is,  obtain  war  power  so  that  yon  can  go  on  the  warpath  and  prevent  yourself  from  dying  in  the 
village  or  have  women  die  before  you. 


168  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.axn.  37 

the  warpath.7  So  they  say.  If  you  do  not  become  an  individual 
warranted  to  lead  a  war  party,  yet  mistaking  yourself  for  one  although 
really  an  ordinary  warrior,  you  "throw  away  a  man/'  your  act  will 
be  considered  most  disgraceful.  A  mourner  might  harm  you  in 
revenge  for  the  fact  that  you  have  caused  him  to  mourn,  and  burn 
you  with  embers.  Your  people  will  all  be  sad,  both  on  account  of 
your  disgrace  and  on  account  of  the  pain  inflicted  upon  you. 

My  son,  not  with  the  blessing  of  one  of  the  spirits  merely,  nor  with 
the  blessing  of  twenty,  for  that  matter,  can  you  go  on  the  warpath. 
You  must  have  the  blessing  of  all  the  spirits  above  the  earth,  and  of 
all  those  on  the  earth,  and  of  all  those  who  are  pierced  through  the 
earth;8  of  all  those  under  the  earth;  of  all  those  who  are  under  the 
water;  of  all  those  that  are  on  the  sides  of  the  earth,  i.  e.,  all  the  four 
winds;  of  the  Disease-giver;9  of  the  Sun;  of  the  Daylight;10  of  the 
Moon;  of  the  Earth;  and  of  all  those  who  are  in  control  of  war 
powers — with  the  blessings  of  all  these  deities  must  you  be  provided 
before  you  can  lead  a  successful  war  party. 

My  son,  if  you  cast  off  dress11  men  will  be  benefited  by  your  deeds. 
You  will  be  an  aid  to  all  your  people.  If  your  people  honor  you,  it 
will  be  good.     And  they  will  like  you  even  the  more  if  you  obtain  a 

T  Among  the  Winnebago  any  individual  who  has  been  blessed  with  the  necessary  powers  to  lead  a 
warpath  may  do  so,  but  it  is  absolutely  essential  that  his  blessing  directing  him  be  of  such  a  nature  that 
every  possible  contingency  is  included  therein.  Such  complete  blessings  are,  of  course,  not  common  nor 
can  they  be  obtained  except  through  unusual  exertions.  If  you  are  blessed  with  just  the  ordinary  or 
incomplete  war  powers  and  you  nevertheless  undertake  to  lead  a  war  party,  you  may  either  be  defeated 
or  perhaps  only  partially  successful,  and,  what  is  worse,  you  may  lose  some  of  the  warriors  who  started 
with  you.  Your  recklessness  has  thus  caused  the  death  of  some  of  your  fellow  tribesmen.  It  is  under- 
stood that  every  warrior  before  starting  on  the  warpath  turn  his  "  blessing  "  over  to  the  chief  of  the  tribe 
for  examination,  and  if  the  chief  considers  it  complete  the  warrior  is  not  held  responsible  for  the  lack  of 
successor  loss  of  life.  If  the  chief  docs  not  consider  an  individual's  blessing  sufficient  to  justify  the  object 
he  has  in  view  and  forbids  the  warrior  to  go,  and  if  the  latter  nevertheless  goes;  or  granted  the  case  he  does 
not  even  submit  his  "blessing  "  to  the  chief  for  scrutiny,  and  sneaks  out,  then  he  is  held  directly  responsible 
for  any  mishap  on  the  warpath.  The  relatives  of  any  individual  thus  killed  may  hold  the  war  leader 
responsible  and  demand  compensation;  or,  as  is  indicated  by  B.  a  few  lines  later,  a  mourner  (i.  e.,one  who 
has  been  placed  in  mourning  by  the  criminal  foolhardiness  of  the  war  leader)  might  attack,  perhaps  kill 
him,  without  being  held  guilty  of  any  crime.  It  must  of  course  be  understood  that  such  occurrences  wouid 
seldom  take  place.  We  must,  however,  remember  throughout  these  "teachings'1  that  one  of  the  objects 
of  the  old  men  was  to  draw  the  most  alluring  pictures  of  the  rewards  that  would  fall  to  the  lot  of  those  who 
followed  in  the  footsteps  of  their  ancestors,  and,  on  the  other  hand,  to  draw  the  most  lurid  pictures  of  the 
wretchedness  that  befell  those  who  deviated,  no  matter  in  what  details,  from  the  customs  sanctioned  by 
age. 

8  According  to  the  Winnebago  creation  myth,  when  Eartbmaker,  the  creator  of  the  earth,  first  came  to 
consciousness  and  began  creating  life  the  earth  on  which  we  were  to  live  was  in  continual  motion,  and 
nothing  that  the  former  could  do  seemed  to  be  able  to  stop  it.  From  above  he  threw  down  grass,  trees, 
etc.,  but  all  was  of  no  avail.  Finally  he  hit  upon  the  happy  expedient  of  pinning  the  earth  down  at  the 
four  corners  by  means  of  four  enormous  snakes,  or,  as  some  say,  by  means  of  four  mythical  animals  known 
as  water  spirits.  It  is  to  these  that  the  old  man  is  referring  here.  According  to  the  story,  even  these  were 
of  no  avail,  and  it  was  only  when  he  finally  placed  four  mythical  beings  known  as  "Island  Weights"  at 
the  four  corners  that  our  planet  stopped  spinning.  These  "Island  Weights"seem  to  be  identical  with 
the  spirits  of  the  four  cardinal  points,  but  they  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  four  winds  mentioned  later. 

s  A  deity  conceived  of  as  dealing  out  life-giving  powers  from  one  half  of  his  body  and  death-giving  powers 
from  the  other  half.  He  is  also  supposed  to  disseminate  disease.  Disease-giver  is  a  literal  translation 
of  the  Winnebago  word,  but  this  probably  does  not  convey  the  exact  meaning.  There  seems  to  be  no 
parallel  to  this  peculiar  deity  among  the  other  Siouan  tribes  or  among  the  Algonquian. 

10  Daylight  or  light  is  conceived  of  as  something  different  and  distinct  from  the  sun. 

ii  That  is,  if  you  give  away  things  frequently,  especially  to  poor  people. 


radin]  SYSTEM   OF  EDUCATION  169 

limb.12  They  will  indeed  like  you  very  much  if  you  obtain  a  limb, 
or,  even  better,  two  or  three.  If  you  do  thus,  wherever  people  boil 
an  animal  with  a  head  13  you  will  always  be  able  to  eat. 

If  on  account  of  your  bravery  you  are  permitted  to  tell  of  your 
war  exploits  during  the  Four  Nights'  Wake  for  the  benefit  of  the 
soul  of  the  deceased,  do  not  try  to  add  to  your  glory  by  exaggerat- 
ing any  exploit,  for  by  so  doing  you  will  cause  the  soul  to  stumble 
on  its  journey  to  the  spirit  land.14  If  you  do  this  and  add  an  un- 
truth to  the  account  of  your  war  exploit,  you  wdl  die  soon  after. 
The  war  spirits  always  hear  you.  Tell  a  little  less.  The  old  men 
say  it  is  wise. 

My  son,  it  is  good  to  die  in  war.  If  you  die  in  war,  your  soul  will 
not  be  unconscious.  You  will  have  complete  disposal  of  your  soul 
and  it  will  always  be  happy.15  If  you  should  ever  desire  to  return 
to  this  earth  and  live  here  again,  you  will  be  able  to  do  so.  A  second 
life  as  a  human  being  you  may  live,  or,  if  you  prefer,  as  an  inhabitant 
of  the  air  (a  bird)  you  may  live,  or  you  may  roam  the  earth  as  an 
animal.     Thus  it  is  to  him  who  dies  in  battle. 

My  son,  fast  for  an  honorable  place  among  your  fellowmen.  Fast, 
so  that  when  you  are  married  you  may  have  plenty  of  food;  that 
you  may  be  happy  and  that  you  may  not  have  to  worry  about  your 
children.  If  in  your  fastings  you  have  a  vision  of  your  future  home, 
the  members  of  your  fanuly  wdl  be  lacking  in  nothing  during  their 
life.  Fast  for  the  food  that  you  may  need.  If  you  fast  a  suffi- 
ciently large  number  of  times,  when  in  after  life  you  have  children 
and  they  cry  for  food  you  will  be  able  to  offer  a  piece  of  deer  or 
moose  meat  without  any  difficulty.  Your  children  will  never  be 
hungry. 

IS  That  is,  a  war  honor,  but  more  specifically  if  you  "count  coup  "  first.  The  honor  of  killing  an  enemy 
and  the  three  honors  associated  with  first  touching  his  dead  body  are  always  spoken  of  as  "the  four  limbs 
of  the  body." 

13  That  is,  wherever  people  give  a  Winter  Feast.  At  this  feast  a  deer,  head  and  all,  is  served  to  the 
invited  guests.    The  head  may  only  be  eaten  by  bra\e  warnors. 

"  At  the  death  of  a  clansman  au  elaborate  wake  takes  place.  To  this  wake,  as  the  principal  participants, 
three  or  four  warriors  who  have  counted  "coup"  are  always  invited.  It  is  believed  that  the  souls  of  all 
the  enemies  one  has  killed  become  the  slaves  of  the  victor  and  he  may  command  them  to  do  his  bidding 
at  any  time.  If  the  victor  tells  his  exploit  and  then  commands  the  enslaved  soul  to  take  care  of  the  recently 
departed  person  in  whose  honor  the  wake  is  being  given,  the  soul  of  the  conquered  enemy  will  be  of  con- 
siderable aid  in  overcoming  the  obstacles  that  are  supposed  to  infest  the  path  between  this  earth  and  the 
land  of  the  spirits.  These  can  not  be  overcome  by  the  merits  of  the  individual  alone.  If,  however,  a 
warrior  becomes  vainglorious,  the  soul  of  the  recently  departed  individual  will  fall  into  the  abysm  of  fire 
which  surrounds  one  of  the  heavenly  earths  through  which  he  must  pass.  That  is  what  is  meant  by 
"stumbling." 

15  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Winnebago  believe  that  all  that  constitutes  "life,''  "consciousness," 
continues  to  exist  alter  death,  the  only  difference  being  that  in  the  former  case  an  envelope,  the  body.is 
present  and,  in  the  latter  case,  it  is  not.  Winnebago  philosophy  does  not  concern  itself  with  what  happens 
when  a  soul  becomes  "unconscious"  at  death,  which  would,  of  course,  be  the  case  with  all  those  who  do 
not  die  in  battle:  but  it  does  insist  that  to  him  who  dies  on  the  warpath  the  moment  of  death  does  not 
even  deprive  of  consciousness.  He  goes  right  on  living,  as  if  he  were  still  an  inhabitant  of  this  earth,  the 
only  difference  being  that  the  corporeal  envelope  has  fallen  off  his  soul  and  that,  although  he  sees  and  hears 
human  beings,  he  himself  is  not  visible  nor  his  voice  audible. 

186823—22 12 


170  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ass.  37 

My  son,  never  abuse  your  wife.  The  women  are  sacred.  If  you 
abuse  your  wife  and  make  her  life  miserable,  you  will  die  early. 
Our  grandmother,  the  earth,  is  a  woman,  and  in  mistreating  your 
wife  you  will  be  mistreating  her.  Most  assuredly  will  you  be  abus- 
ing our  grandmother  if  you  act  thus.  And  as  it  is  she  that  is  taking 
care  of  us  you  will  really  be  killing  yourself  by  such  behavior. 

My  son,  when  you  keep  house,  should  anyone  enter  your  house, 
no  matter  who  it  is,  be  sure  to  offer  him  whatever  you  have  in  the 
house.  Any  food  that  you  withhold  at  such  a  time  will  most  as- 
suredly become  a  source  of  death  to  you.  If  you  are  stingy  about 
giving  food  the  people  will  kill  you  on  this  account.  They  will 
poison  you.  If  you  hear  of  a  traveler  who  is  visiting  your  people 
and  you  wish  to  see  him,  prepare  your  table  for  him  and  have  him 
sent  for.  In  this  manner  you  will  be  acting  correctly.  It  is  always 
good  to  act  correctly  and  do  good,  the  old  people  used  to  say. 

If  you  see  an  old,  helpless  person,  help  him  with  whatever  you 
possess.  Should  you  happen  to  possess  a  home  and  you  take  him 
there,  he  might  suddenly  say  abusive  things  about  you  during  the 
middle  of  the  meal.  You  will  be  strengthened  by  such  words. 
This  same  traveler  may,  on  the  contrary,  give  you  something  that 
he  carries  under  his  arms  and  which  he  treasures  very  highly.  If  it 
is  an  object  without  a  stem,16  keep  it  to  protect  your  house.  If  you 
thus  keep  it  within  your  house,  your  home  will  never  be  molested 
by  any  bad  spirits.  Nothing  will  be  able  to  enter  your  house  un- 
expectedly. Thus  you  will  live.  Witches,  instead  of  entering  your 
house,  will  pass  around  it.  If,  in  addition  to  possessing  this  medi- 
cine, you  also  fast,  your  people  will  be  benefited  by  it  greatly. 
Earthmaker  made  spirits  up  above  and  some  he  made  to  live  on 
this  earth;  and  again  some  he  made  to  live  under  the  water  and 
some  to  live  in  the  water;  and  all  these  he  put  in  charge  of  some- 
thing. Even  the  small  animals  that  move  about  this  earth  the 
creator  put  in  charge  of  some  power.  Thus  he  created  them.  After- 
wards he  created  us  human  beings  and  as  he  had  exhausted  all  the 
powers  to  be  disposed  of  we  were  not  in  control  of  anything.  Then 
he  made  a  weed  and  placed  it  in  our  charge.  And  he  said  that  no 
matter  how  powerful  are  the  spirits  that  exist  they  would  not  be 
able  to  take  this  weed  from  us  without  giving  something  in  return. 
He  himself,  Earthmaker,  would  not  be  able  to  demand  it  for  nothing. 
So  he  spoke.  This  weed  was  the  tobacco  plant.  Earthmaker  said 
that  if  we  would  offer  a  pipeful  of  tobacco  to  him,  whatever  we  should 
ask  of  him  he  would  immediately  grant.  Not  only  he,  but  all  the 
spirits  created,  longed  to  have  some  of  this  tobacco.  It  is  for  this 
reason  that  when  we  fast  and  cry  piteously  for  some  spirit  to  take 
pity  on  us,  if  we  give  them  tobacco  they  will  bless  us  with  those 

"  A  plant  without  a  stem,  presumably  some  root,  used  for  warding  off  danger. 


hadix]  SYSTEM    OF   EDUCATION  '  171 

powers  that  the  creator  gave  them.  So  it  will  be.  Earthmaker 
made  it  thus. 

My  son,  you  must  fast.  If  you  breathe  upon  sick  people,17 1  mean 
if  you  are  blessed  with  that  kind  of  power,  you  will  be  able  to  restore 
people  to  health.  You  will  be  of  help  to  your  people.  If  you  can, 
in  addition,  draw  out  the  pain  from  within  the  body  of  an  individual, 
you  will  indeed  be  a  help  to  your  people.  They  will  respect  you. 
You  will  not  even  have  to  work  for  all  your  necessities,  for  those 
whom  you  treat  will  cheerfully  support  you  as  long  as  you  live.  If 
you  should  die,  your  name  will  be  held  in  great  respect  and  people 
will  frequently  talk  about  you.  Ah,  that  man  he  had  indeed  great 
power ! 

My  son,  if  you  are  not  able  to  fast,18  try  at  least  to  obtain  some 
plants  that  are  powerful.  There  are  people  who  know  the  qualities 
of  the  different  plants,  who  have  been  blessed  by  the  spirits  with 
this  knowledge.  It  is  pitiable  enough  that  you  could  obtain  nothing 
through  fasting,  so  ask  those  that  are  in  possession  of  these  plants  at 
least  to  have  pity  upon  you.  If  they  have  pity  upon  you,  they  will 
bless  you  with  one  of  the  plants  they  possess,  and  you  will  thus  have 
something  to  help  you  in  life  and  to  encourage  you.  One  plant  will 
not  be  enough.  Of  all  the  plants  that  cover  the  earth  and  lie  like  a 
fringe  of  hair  upon  the  body  of  our  grandmother,  try  and  obtain 
knowledge  of  these,  that  you  may  be  strengthened  in  life.  Then 
you  will  have  reason  to  feel  encouraged.  A  real  medicine  man  has 
even  more  justification  for  feeling  encouraged  than  an  ordinary  one, 
because  such  a  one  has  been  blessed  with  life  by  the  Water-spirits. 
If,  therefore,  you  wish  to  obtain  the  real  powers  of  curing  people, 
so  that  you  will  have  the  power  of  making  them  arise  from  their 
sick  beds,  you  must  long  and  patiently  wait  and  labor.  If,  however, 
you  obtain  the  true  powers — that  is,  if  you  obtain  blessings  from  the 
Water-spirits — then  some  day,  when  your  children  are  in  need  of 
medicine,  you  will  not  have  to  go  and  look  for  a  medicine  man,  but 
you  will  only  have  to  look  into  your  medicine  bundle.  Whatever 
trouble  your  children  have  you  will  be  able  to  cure  it.  Should  any- 
thing be  the  matter  with  the  people  of  your  tribe  they  will  call  upon 
you.  You  can  then  open  your  medicine  bundle  and  the  individual 
who  is  wanting  in  life  will  be  benefited  from  the  stock  of  medicines 

17  Sickness  is  due  to  the  presence  of  some  object  within  the  body.  Illness  can  therefore  only  be  cured  if 
this  object  is  extracted.  This  is  generally  accomplished  by  the  shaman  sucking  it  out  through  a  bone 
tube.  Among  the  Winnebago  the  shaman  before  applying  the  tube  squirts  some  water  upon  the  afflicted 
person  and  breathes  upon  him.    This  is  what  the  "breathing''  relers  to. 

18  Not  everyone  who  fasts  is  blessed  with  power.  For  those  who  are  thus  unable  to  obtain  blessings 
directly  from  the  spirits  there  is  only  one  method  of  protection  against  evils  left— the  purchase  of  plants 
with  magical  properties  from  those  who  have  been  blessed  with  them.  These  can  be  obtained  by  any 
individual  no  matter  how  unsuccessful  he  has  been  in  obtaining  blessings  through  personal  fasting.  All 
that  is  needed  is  sufficient  riches  for  purchasing  them.  Of  course  it  goes  without  saying  that  those  who 
have  been  blessed  with  power  may  and  do  also  provide  themselves  with  these  medicines. 


172  THE    WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  axx.  37 

that  are  in  your  possession.  You  will  indeed  never  be  embarrassed. 
You  will  know  just  wherein  his  ailment  lies.  As  you  have  obtained 
your  power  with  great  effort,  therefore  what  you  say  will  be  so.  If 
you  say  he  will  live,  he  will  live.  If  the  relatives  of  the  patient 
make  you  good  payments,  you  may  perform  what  you  are  accustomed 
to  in  your  treatment  of  people.  Then  you  can  ask  your  medicine  to 
put  forth  its  strength  for  you  and  it  will  do  so.  If  you  make  good 
offerings  of  tobacco  to  the  plants  and  if  you  make  feasts  in  their 
honor,  if,  indeed,  you  make  much  of  your  medicine,  if  you  talk  to  it  as 
though  it  were  a  human  being,  then  when  you  ask  it  to  put  forth  its 
strength  it  will  do  so.  The  payments  that  you  receive  you  can  take 
with  a  good  conscience  and  your  children  will  wear  them  and  will  be 
strengthened  thereby.  So  be  very  diligent  in  the  care  you  bestow 
upon  them.  The  medicines  were  placed  here  by  Earthmaker  for  a 
good  purpose.  We  are  to  use  them  to  heal  ourselves.  For  that 
purpose  Earthmaker  gave  them  to  us.  If  anyone  tries  to  obtain 
the  life  sustainers — that  is,  the  medicines — and  inflicts  suffering  upon 
himself  in  order  to  obtain  them,  our  grandmother  will  know  about 
it.  So  whatever  you  spend  upon  it,  be  it  in  labor  or  in  goods,  she 
will  know  about  it.  All  that  you  gave  in  obtaining  your  medicines 
she  will  know.  They  will  be  returned  to  you.  The  people  will 
thus  be  providing  themselves  with  something  for  the  future.  The 
people  always  look  forward  to  the  future  and  for  all  possible  happen- 
ings they  will  have  some  medicine  provided.  You  must  try  to  ob- 
tain some  of  the  medicines  that  most  people  possess.  If  you  want 
paint-medicine,  make  yourself  pitiable.  If  your  paint-medicine 
overcomes  your  enemy  and  you  keep  it  in  your  home,  you  will  never 
be  wanting  in  wealth.  The  most  valued  possessions  of  the  people 
will  be  given  to  you.  The  people  will  love  you  and  the  paint-medi- 
cine will  be  the  cause  of  it.  Whatever  you  receive  will  be  in  conse- 
quence of  the  possession  of  the  paint-medicine.  The  paint-medicine 
is  made  of  the  blood  of  the  Water-spirits,  and  therefore  it  is  holy. 
People  used  to  fast  and  thirst  themselves  to  death  and  a  Water-spirit 
would  appear  to  them  and  bestow  his  blessings  upon  them.  What- 
ever he  told  them  would  come  true.  The  Earthmaker  put  the 
Water-spirit  in  charge  of  these  things  so  that  he  would  bless  the 
people  with  them.     That  was  his  purpose. 

Some  people  who  wished  to  find  good  medicines  obtained  the 
race  medicine.  Try  and  learn  of  it.  Others  had  gambling  medicine, 
and  still  others  again  had  hunting  medicine.  There  are  medicines 
for  very  purpose. 

There  is  a  courting  medicine  and  a  medicine  to  prevent  married 
people  from  wishing  to  separate,  and  there  is  a  medicine  for  making 
one  rich. 


radix]  SYSTEM   OF   EDUCATION  173 

If  one  wishes  to  make  a  person  crazy,  there  is  a  medicine  for  that 
purpose. 

If  some  one  had  made  another  one  sad  at  heart  and  he  wished  to 
revenge  himself,  he  would  use  a  medicine  that  would  make  that 
person  crazy.     Thus  he  would  poison  him. 

If  a  person  wished  to  marry  a  certain  girl  and  she  did  not  want  him, 
he  would  poison  her  with  a  medicine  that  would  make  her  become  a 
harlot.  All  the  men  would  fall  in  love  with  her  by  reason  of  the 
medicine  he  gave  her. 

If  they  wished  a  man  to  be  continually  running  after  a  woman,  they 
had  a  medicine  for  that  purpose.  All  these  medicines  they  possessed. 
You  can  obtain  any  of  them  you  like  if  you  ask  for  them  in  the  proper 
way. 

Some  people  have  knowledge  of  plants  that  will  cause  a  person 
to  sleep  all  the  time.  Others  again  have  medicines  that  will  cause 
them  to  stay  awake  all  the  time.  Some  know  how  to  overcome  the 
viciousness  of  dogs  that  watch  over  women  by  means  of  medicines; 
some  again  have  medicines  that  will  make  people  single  them  out 
even  in  crowds.  If  this  person  uses  his  medicine  in  a  crowd  of  peo- 
ple, the  one  on  whom  it  is  used  will  consider  him  a  great  man  no 
matter  how  many  there  should  be  in  the  crowd.  Some  have  a 
medicine  to  be  used  for  preventing  an  individual  from  getting  tired. 
Others  have  a  medicine  to  be  used  when  they  have  dog  contests. 

Whatever  they  did,  for  that  they  would  have  medicines. 

Whenever  they  plant  a  field  they  protect  it  with  medicine  tied  on 
to  a  stick.  No  one  will  then  go  through  that  field  without  suffering 
for  it.  If  you  did  not  have  that  protection,  people  could  go  through 
your  field  whenever  they  wished.  In  short,  try  to  obtain  as  many 
medicines  as  you  possibly  can,  for  you  will  need  them  all.  People 
should  always  look  out  for  themselves  so  that  they  may  learn  what 
is  necessary  to  make  life  comfortable  and  happy.  If  you  try  to 
obtain  the  knowledge  of  these  things  you  will  get  along  in  life  well. 
You  will  need  nothing;  and  whenever  you  need  a  certain  medicine, 
instead  of  being  compelled  to  buy  it,  you  will  have  it  in  your  own 
possession.  If  you  act  in  this  manner  and  keep  on  fasting  you  will 
never  be  caught  offguard  during  your  life.  If  you  have  a  home,  it 
will  always  look  nice  and  you  will  be  lacking  in  nothing.  So,  do 
what  I  tell  you  and  you  will  never  regret  it  in  after  life.  Try  and 
learn  the  way  in  which  your  ancestors  lived  and  follow  in  their 
footsteps. 


174  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

If  you  thus  travel  in  the  road  of  the  good  people,  it  will  be  good 
and  other  people  will  not  consider  your  life  a  source  of  amusement." 

If  you  can  not  obtain  a  blessing  from  the  spirits  try  also  to  have 
some  good  plant  take  pity  on  you.  This  I  am  telling  you  and  if 
you  do  not  do  it,  you  will  suffer  for  it.  All  that  I  am  saying  will  be 
of  great  benefit  to  you  if  you  pay  heed  to  me,  for  (you  will  need 
medicines  for)  whatever  you  do  in  life,  if  you  are  not  fortunate 
enough  to  obtain  blessings  from  the  spirits.  If  you  are  ever  on  the 
warpath,  you  will  need  medicine  in  order  to  escape  being  hit  or  in 
order  to  prevent  yourself  from  getting  exhausted  or  from  feeling 
famished.  If  you  manage  to  be  fortunate  in  all  these  things  you 
may  be  certain  that  the  medicines  have  caused  it. 

My  son,  help  yourself  as  you  go  along  life's  path,  for  this  earth  has 
many  narrow  passages  and  you  can  never  tell  when  you  will  come  to 
one.  If,  however,  you  have  something  with  which  to  strengthen 
yourself  you  will  come  safely  through  the  passages  you  meet. 

Let  every  one  think  you  a  desirable  person  to  know.  Associate 
with  people.  If  you  act  in  this  manner,  every  one  will  like  you. 
(You  will  live)  a  contented  life.  Never  do  anything  wrong  to  your 
children.  Whatever  your  children  ask  you  to  do,  do  not  hesitate 
to  do  it  for  them.  If  you  act  thus  people  will  say  you  are  good- 
natured.  If  you  ever  lose  a  friend  by  death  and  if  you  have  riciies 
cover20  the  expenses  of  the  funeral  of  the  deceased.  Help  the 
mourners  to  feed  the  people  at  the  wake.  If  you  act  thus  you  will 
be  acting  well.  Then  you  will  be  truly  a  helper  of  the  people  and 
they  will  know  you  as  such.  Indeed,  all  of  them  will  know  you. 
For  the  good  you  do,  all  will  love  you. 

My  son,  do  not  become  a  gambler.  You  might,  it  is  true,  become 
rich,  but  in  spite  of  your  wealth  all  your  children  will  die.  No 
gambler  ever  had  children.  It  is  an  affair  of  the  bad  spirits  entirely. 
Now  if  you  do  all  that  I  have  told  you,  you  will  unquestionably  lead 
a  happy  and  contented  life. 

Thus  would  the  old  people  speak  to  a  child  whom  they  loved  very 
much,  that  he  might  obtain  the  means  of  warding  off  what  is  not 
good.  Anyone  who  acted  contrary  to  these  teachings  would  have 
himself  to  blame  for  the  consequences. 

'»  This  dislike  of  being  made  fun  of,  or  of  being  the  laughing  stock,  plays  an  important  role  among  the 
Winnebago.  It  is  not  at  all  comparable  to  the  same  feeling  as  found  at  the  present  day  among  civilized 
people  of  Western  Europe,  for  it  is  infinitely  deeper  and  closely  associated  with  social  ostracism.  The 
despondency  caused  by  being  made  fun  of.  would  frequently  drive  a  person  away  from  home  or  lead  him  to 
embark  on  any  undertaking  that  would  bring  death.  Owing  to  the  social  consequences  coming  in  its  train, 
a  man  would  consequently  do  most  anything  in  his  power  to  ward  it  off.  Correlated  with  this  negative 
aspect  of  the  use  of ' '  fun-poking  /'there  is  a  positive  one.  There  are.  certain  relatives  who  have  the  privilege 
of  making  fun  of  or  playing  practical  jokes  on  you.  This  '  joking-relationship''  exists  among  many  tribes 
in  America,  but  the  relatives  between  whom  it  is  permitted  differ  in  every  case.  Among  the  Winnebago 
it  exists  between  uncles  and  nieces  and  nephews  and  between  brothers-in-law  and  sisters-in-law. 

20  That  is,  buy  the  funeral  apparel  for  the  deceased. 


Radin]  SYSTEM   OF   EDUCATION  175 

If  you  ever  get  married,  my  son,  do  not  make  an  idol  of  your  wife. 
The  more  you  worship  her,  the  more  will  she  want  to  be  worshipped. 
Thus  the  old  people  said.  They  warned  the  young  men  against  the 
example  of  those  men  who  always  hearken  to  what  the  women  say, 
who  are  the  slaves  of  women.  Often  they  would  speak  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  "You  have  had  many  warnings,  but  it  may  hap- 
pen that  some  day  you  will  not  pay  any  attention  to  them.  Then, 
when  they  call  upon  you  to  take  part  in  the  Winter  Feast  you  may 
perhaps  refuse  to  go.  When  a  war  party  is  leaving  you  may  listen 
to  the  voice  of  your  wife  and  not  join  them.  Thus  you  will  be  as 
one  who  has  been  brought  up  as  a  woman.21  Men  of  every  descrip- 
tion do  what  is  demanded  of  them,  you  alone  do  not  act  as  a  man 
should.  You  never  perform  a  man's  deed.  If  you  were  to  go  to  a 
Winter  Feast,  you  would  be  handed  a  lean  piece  of  meat.22  Why 
should  you  subject  yourself  to  the  danger  of  being  made  fun  of  ?  A 
real  brave  man,  when  he  goes  to  a  Winter  Feast,  will  receive  a  deer's 
head,  while  you  will  only  receive  a  lean  piece  of  meat.  That  is  all 
they  will  give  you  to  eat.     It  will  stick  in  your  throat."23 

My  son,  if  you  keep  on  listening  to  your  wife,  after  a  while  she 
will  never  let  you  go  to  any  feast  at  all.  All  your  relatives  will 
scold  you  and  your  own  sisters  will  think  little  of  you.  They  will 
say  to  one  another,  "Let  us  not  ever  go  over  to  see  him.  He  is  of 
no  help  to  anyone."  Finally,  when  you  have  become  a  real  slave  to 
your  wife,  she  might  tell  you  to  hit  your  own  relatives,  and  you 
would  do  it.  For  these  reasons,  my  son,  I  warn  you  against  the 
words  of  women.  Steel  yourself  against  them.  For  if  you  do  not 
do  so  you  will  find  yourself  different  from  other  men.  It  is  not  good 
to  be  enslaved  by  a  woman. 

My  son,  this  also  I  will  tell  you.  Women  can  never  be  watched. 
If  you  try  to  watch  them  you  will  merely  show  your  jealousy  and 
your  female  relatives  will  also  be  jealous.  After  a  while  you  will 
become  so  jealous  of  your  wife  that  she  will  leave  you  and  run  away. 
First,  you  worshipped  her  above  everything  else,  then  you  became 
jealous  and  watched  her  all  the  time,  and  the  result  will  be  that  she 
will  run  away  from  you.  You  yourself  will  be  to  blame  for  this. 
You  thought  too  much  of  a  woman  and  in  worshipping  her  you 
humbled  yourself,  and  as  a  consequence  she  has  been  taken  away 
from  you.  You  are  making  the  woman  suffer  and  making  her  feel 
unhappy.  All  the  other  women  will  know  of  this,  and  no  one  will 
want  to  marry  you  again.  Everyone  will  consider  you  a  very  bad 
man. 

21  He  may  mean  a  berdash,  but  it  is  far  more  probable  that  he  merely  means  lo  call  him  a  woman,  an 
insult  sufficiently  great. 

22  A  man  who  has  distinguished  himself  as  a  warrior  is  always  invited  to  eat  the  head  of  the  animal,  offered 
at  the  Winter  Feast.  Those  next  in  distinction  are  given  the  fat  pieces  of  meat,  and  the  lean  pieces— to 
the  Winnebago,  the  poorest — are  given  to  those  who  are  of  no  importance. 

23 1,  e. ,  the  meat  will  stick  in  your  throat ,  because  you  will  feel  so  much  ashamed  of  yourself. 


176  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

My  son,  whenever  people  go  on  the  warpath  go  along  with  them. 
It  is  good  to  die  on  the  warpath.  You  may  perhaps  say  so,  because 
you  are  unhappy  that  your  wife  has  left  you.  My  son,  not  for  such 
reasons,  however,  must  you  go  on  the  warpath.  You  will  be  merely 
throwing  away  a  human  life.  If  you  want  to  go  on  the  warpath,  do  so 
because  you  feel  that  you  are  courageous  enough,  not  because  you 
are  unhappy  at  the  loss  of  your  wife.  If  you  go  on  the  warpath  you 
will  enjoy  yourself.  Do  not  go,  however,  unless  you  have  fasted, 
and  unless  you  have  fasted  for  that  particular  warpath.  If  you 
have  not  fasted  and  attempt  nevertheless  to  go  on  the  warpath,  a 
bullet  will  surely  seek  you  out  and  kill  you.  This  is  what  will  happen 
to  you  if  you  do  not  fast. 

If  you  exert  yourself  in  fasting  you  will  assuredly  perform  some 
brave  war  exploit.  You  must  tell  your  sisters  and  sister's  children 
and  your  mother's  sisters  all  about  your  exploit.  Remember,  also, 
that  the  keepers  of  the  war-bundles  can  give  you  good  advice  in 
all  that  pertains  to  war.  For  their  deeds  they  will  be  given  a  good 
dish  of  meat.24     This  they  will  give  you  to  eat. 

Of  such  things  did  my  ancestors  speak,  and  I  would  wish  you  to 
do  as  they  did.  That  is  why  I  am  telling  you  all  these  things.  I 
myself  never  asked  for  any  of  this  instruction,  but  my  father  did. 
All  human  beings  ought  to  ask  for  it.  Never  let  anybody  be  in  a 
position  to  puzzle  you  in  regard  to  what  is  right.  Ask  for  this 
instruction,  my  son,  for  it  is  not  an  ordinary  thing.  In  the  olden 
times  if  a  person  loved  his  child  very  much,  he  would  only  give  him 
instruction  after  he  had  begun  fasting  all  day  for  the  first  time. 
When  a  young  boy  has  just  matured,  those  who  have  been  preaching 
to  him  always  ask  him  one  question,  namely,  whether  he  had  begun 
to  fast.  And  this  the  young  boy  must  always  answer  truthfully, 
for  if  he  has  begun  his  fast  the  instruction  would  stop.  The  old 
men  do  not  preach  to  men,  but  only  to  boys. 

(What  follows  is  apparently  an  illustration  of  how  a  young  man 
asks  his  instructor  for  information  of  how  to  conduct  himself  in  life.) 

The  young  man  will  go  to  an  old  man  and  say,  "Grandfather,  I 
would  like  to  know  how  I  am  to  conduct  myself  in  life.  Bless  me 
and  if  you  can  really  give  me  any  information,  do  so."  Then  the 
old  man  was  very  thankful  and  said,  "It  is  good;  you  speak  cor- 
rectly." Now  the  one  who  was  asking  something  of  the  old  man 
had  taken  very  good  care  of  the  old  man's  body  and  had  led  a  good 
life.  He  had  no  scars  of  any  kind ;  that  is,  he  had  never  done  any- 
thing shameful.  The  young  man  brought  all  sorts  of  food  and  placed 
it  in  the  lodge  of  the  old  man.  Then  he  also  brought  him  a  fine 
horse.  Only  then  did  he  ask  him  again  about  the  life  that  his 
ancestors  had  led,  and  what  kind  of  a  life  he  ought  to  live.     He  asked 


« I.  e.,  you  will  be  given  a  position  at  the  Winter  Feast  and  offered  some  of  the  choice  pieces*of  meat. 


badin]  SYSTEM   OF  EDUCATION  177 

him  what  the  old  people  do  when  they  give  a  child  a  name,  and 
what  they  say.  All  these  things  the  old  man  told  him.  '  'It  is  good," 
he  said,  "for  you  to  know  these  things  so  that  if  anyone  comes  to 
you  and  asks  you  for  information  you  will  be  able  to  tell  them  some- 
thing and  will  not  have  to  behave  like  a  fool.  If  you  are  asked  to 
give  a  little  child  a  name,  this  little  child  will  really  be  a  means  of 
increasing  your  power.  That  is  why  you  ought  to  give  a  feast  for 
it  and  smoke  the  child's  tobacco.  You  must  also  give  the  child  a 
name  for  his  dog.  Give  him  the  name  Yellow-Tree  for  a  male  dog. 
The  name  Yellow-Tree  is  given  for  the  following  reason.  When  the 
Thunderbirds  strike  at  a  tree  it  looks  yellow.  Just  as  leaves  wither 
so  do  trees  wither  when  the  Thunderbirds  strike  them.  They  then 
begin  to  rot  and  become  very  much  discolored.  That  is  why  they 
give  a  dog  this  name.  If  you  ever  have  to  give  a  dog-name  for  a 
female  child  call  it  She-Who-Stays-In-Her-Own-Place.  This  is  all 
that  I  wish  to  tell  you." 

SYSTEM    OF    INSTRUCTION    TO    DAUGHTER 

This  is  the  way  the  old  men  used  to  speak  to  the  little  girls: 

My  daughter,  as  you  go  along  the  path  of  life,  always  listen  to 
your  parents.  Do  not  permit  your  mother  to  work.  Attend  to 
your  father's  wants.  All  the  work  in  the  house  belongs  to  you. 
Never  be  idle.  Chop  the  wood,  carry  it  home,  look  after  the  vege- 
tables and  gather  them,  and  cook  the  food.  When  in  the  spring 
of  the  year  you  move  back  to  your  permanent  settlements,  plant 
your  fields  immediately.  Never  get  lazy.  Earthmaker  created  you 
for  these  tasks. 

When  you  have  your  menses,  do  not  ask  those  in  your  lodge  to 
give  you  any  food,  but  leave  the  lodge  and  fast  and  do  not  begin 
eating  again  until  you  return  to  your  own  lodge.  Thus  will  you 
help  yourself.  If  you  always  fast,  when  you  marry,  even  if  your 
husband  had  amounted  to  nothing  before,  he  will  become  an  excel- 
lent hunter.  It  will  be  on  account  of  your  fasting  that  he  will  have 
changed  so  much.  You  will  never  fail  in  anything  and  you  will 
always  be  well  and  happy.  If,  on  the  contrary,  you  do  not  do  as  I 
tell  you — that  is,  if  you  do  not  fast — when  you  marry  he  will  be- 
come very  weak,  and  this  will  be  due  to  you.  Finally  he  will  get 
very  sick. 

My  daughter,  do  not  use  medicine.  If  you  marry  a  man  and 
place  medicine  on  his  head  he  will  become  very  weak  and  will  not 
amount  to  anything.  It  may  be  that  you  do  not  want  to  have  your 
husband  leave  you  and  this  may  induce  you  to  use  medicine  to  keep 
him.  Do  not  do  that,  however,  for  it  is  not  good.  You  will  be 
ruining  a  man.  It  is  the  same  as  killing  him.  Do  not  do  it,  for  it 
is  forbidden.  If  you  marry  a  man  and  you  want  to  be  certain  of 
always  retaining  him,  work  for  him.     With  work  you  will  always 


178  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ash.  37 

be  able  to  retain  your  hold  on  men.  If  you  do  your  work  to  the 
satisfaction  of  your  husband,  he  will  never  leave  you.  I  say  again. 
it  is  not  proper  to  use  medicine.  Above  all,  do  not  use  medicine 
until  you  have  passed  your  youth.  You  will  otherwise  merely 
make  yourself  weak.  You  will  lead  a  weak  life.  It  may  even  hap- 
pen that  you  will  cause  yourself  to  become  foolish. 

Do  not  use  a  medicine  in  order  to  marry.  If  you  marry  remain 
faithful  to  your  husband.  Do  not  act  as  though  you  are  married  to 
a  number  of  men  at  the  same  time.  Lead  a  chaste  life.  If  you  do 
not  listen  to  what  I  am  telling  you  and  you  are  unfaithful  to  your 
husband,  all  the  men  will  jeer  at  you.  They  will  say  whatever  they 
wish  to  (and  no  one  will  interfere").  Every  man  will  treat  you  as 
though  he  were  on  the  ''joking  relationship"  with  you.  If  you  do 
not  listen  to  me.  therefore,  you  will  injure  yourself. 

Thus  the  old  people  used  to  talk  to  one  another.  Thus  they  would 
warn  one  another  against  certain  actions.  They  used  to  instruct 
the  young  girls  as  they  grew  up  (just  as  I  am  doing  to  you  now"). 
That  is  why  I  am  telling  of  these  things  now. 

My  daughter,  as  you  grow  older  and  grow  up  to  be  a  young  woman, 
the  young  men  will  begin  to  court  you.  Never  strike  a  man,  my 
daughter.  It  is  forbidden.  If  you  dislike  a  man  very  much,  tell 
him  gently  to  go  away.  If  you  do  not  do  this  and  instead  strike 
him,  remember  that  it  frequently  happens  that  men  know  of  medi- 
cines: or  if  they  themselves  have  none  they  may  know  from  whom  to 
get  them.  If  you  make  a  man  feel  bad  by  striking  him,  he  may  use 
this  medicine  and  cause  you  to  run  away  with  him  and  become  a 
bad  woman.  It  is  for  this  reason  that  the  old  men  used  to  warn 
the  young  girls  not  to  strike  the  men  who  are  courting  them,  but 
whom  they  dislike.  Pray  with  all  your  heart  that  you  do  not  be- 
come such  a  woman. 

Do  not  act  haughtily  to  your  husband.  Whatever  he  tells  you 
to  do,  do  it.  Kindness  will  be  returned  to  you  if  you  obey  your 
husband,  for  he  will  treat  you  in  the  same  manner. 

If  you  ever  have  a  child,  do  not  strike  it.  In  the  olden  times 
when  a  child  misbehaved  the  parents  did  not  strike  it,  but  they 
made  it  fast.  When  a  child  gets  hungry,  he  will  soon  see  the  error 
of  his  ways.  If  you  hit  a  child,  you  will  be  merely  knocking  the 
wickedness  into  him.  Women  should  likewise  never  scold  the 
children  because  children  are  merely  made  wicked  by' scoldings.  If 
your  husband  scolds  the  children,  do  not  take  their  part,  for  that 
will  merely  make  them  bad.  In  the  same  way,  if  a  stranger  makes 
your  children  cry.  do  not  say  anything  to  the  stranger  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  children,  nor  take  their  part  in  his  presence.  If  you 
wish  to  prevent  a  stranger  from  scolding  your  children,  keep  them 
home  and  teach  them  how  to  behave  by  setting  them  a  good  ex- 
ample.    Do  not  imagine  that  you  do  the  best  for  your  children  by 


radin]  SYSTEM   OF   EDUCATION  179 

taking  their  part,  or  that  you  love  them  if  you  talk  merely  about 
loving  them.  Show  them  that  you  love  them  by  your  actions. 
Let  them  see  that  you  are  generous  with  donations.  In  such  ac- 
tions they  will  see  your  good  work  and  then  they  will  be  able  to 
judge  for  themselves  whether  your  actions  equal  your  words. 

My  daughter,  do  not  show  your  love  for  other  children  so  that 
strangers  notice  it.  You  may,  of  course,  love  other  children,  but 
love  them  with  a  different  love  from  that  which  you  bestow  on  your 
own  children.  The  children  of  other  people  are  different  from  your 
own  children,  and  if  you  were  to  take  them  to  some  other  place 
after  you  had  been  lavishing  so  much  love  upon  them  they  woidd 
not  act  as  your  children  would  under  the  same  circumstances.  You 
can  always  depend  upon  your  own  children.  They  are  of  your  own 
body.  Love  them,  therefore.  This  is  what  our  ancestors  taught 
us  to  do. 

If  a  wife  has  no  real  interest  in  her  husband's  welfare  and  posses- 
sions she  will  be  to  him  no  more  than  any  other  woman,  and  the 
world  will  ridicule  her.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  you  pay  more  atten- 
tion to  your  husband  than  to  your  parents,  your  parents  will  leave 
you.  Let  your  husband  likewise  take  care  of  your  parents,  for  they 
depend  on  him.  Your  parents  were  instrumental  in  getting  you 
your  husband,  so  remember  that  they  expect  some  recompense  for 
it,  as  likewise  for  the  fact  that  they  raised  you. 

My  daughter,  the  old  people  used  to  teach  us  never  to  hurt  the 
feelings  of  our  relatives.  If  you  hurt  their  feelings,  you  will  cause 
your  brothers-in-law  to  feel  ashamed  of  themselves.  Do  not  ever 
wish  for  any  other  man  but  your  husband.  It  is  enough  to  have 
one  husband.  Do  not  let  anyone  have  the  right  to  call  you  a 
prostitute. 

Do  not  hit  your  relatives  at  any  time.  For  if  you  did  that  or  if 
you  were  on  bad  terms  with  one  of  them,  it  may  chance  that  he  will 
die,  and  then  the  people  will  say  that  you  are  glad  that  he  is  dead. 
Then,  indeed,  you  will  feel  sad  at  heart  and  you  will  think  to  your- 
self, "What  can  I  best  do"  (to  make  up  for  my  conduct).  Even  if 
you  were  to  give  a  Medicine  Dance  in  his  honor  or  donate  gifts  for 
the  Four  Nights'  Wake,  many  people  will  still  say,  "She  used  to  be 
partial  and  jealous  when  he  was  alive.  Now  that  he  is  dead  she 
loves  him.  Why  does  she  act  this  way  ?  She  is  wasting  her  wealth. 
(She  really  does  not  love  him  and  therefore),  and  she  ought  not  to 
spend  so  much  money  upon  him  now."  Then,  indeed,  my  daughter, 
will  your  heart  ache;  then,  indeed,  will  you  get  angry.  That  is 
why  the  old  people  would  tell  their  children  to  love  one  another. 
If  you  love  a  person  and  that  person  dies,  then  you  will  have  a  right 
to  mourn  for  him,  and  everyone  will  think  that  your  mourning  is 
sincere.  Not  only  will  your  own  relatives  love  you,  but  everyone 
else  will  love  you  likewise.     If,  then,  in  the  course  of  your  life  you 


180  THE   WINNEBAGO   TBIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

come  to  a  crisis  of  some  kind,  all  these  people  will  turn  their  hearts 
toward  you. 

My  daughter,  all  that  I  am  trying  to  tell  you  relates  to  your 
behavior  (when  you  grow  up).  In  your  own  home  the  women  all 
understand  the  work  belonging  to  the  household  and  that  relating  to 
camping  and  hunting.  If  you  understand  these  and  afterwards  visit 
your  husband's  relatives,  you  will  know  what  to  do  and  not  find 
yourself  in  a  dilemma  from  which  you  can  not  extricate  yourself. 
When  you  visit  your  husband's  people  do  not  go  around  with  a 
haughty  air  or  act  as  if  you  considered  yourself  far  above  them.  Try 
to  get  them  to  like  you.  If  they  like  you,  they  will  place  you  in 
charge  of  the  camp  you  happen  to  be  visiting.  If  you  are  good- 
natured,  you  will  be  placed  in  charge  of  the  home  at  which  you 
happen  to  be  visiting.  Then  your  parents-in-law  will  tell  your 
husband  that  their  daughter-in-law  is  acting  nicely  to  them. 

SYSTEM    OF    INSTRUCTION    TO    CHILDREN 

Informant,  member  of  the  Thunderbird  clan:  I  still  keep  up  the 
old  system  of  teaching  my  children  at  the  camp  fire.  In  the  morning 
I  wake  them  up  early  and  start  to  teach  them  as  follows: 

My  children,  as  you  travel  along  life's  road  never  harm  anyone, 
nor  cause  anyone  to  feel  sad.  On  the  contrary,  if  at  any  time  you 
can  make  a  person  happy,  do  so.  If  at  any  time  you  meet  a  woman 
in  the  wilderness  (i.  e.,  away  from  your  village),  and  if  you  are  alone 
and  no  one  can  see  you,  do  not  scare  her  or  harm  her,  but  turn  off 
to  the  right  and  let  her  pass.  Then  you  will  be  less  tempted  to 
molest  her. 

My  children,  if  you  meet  anyone  on  the  road,  even  though  it  is 
only  a  child,  speak  a  cheering  word  before  you  pass  on.  Fast  as 
much  as  you  can,  so  that  when  you  grow  up  you  can  benefit  your 
fellowmen.  If  you  ever  get  married  you  must  not  sit  around  your 
lodge  near  your  wife,  but  try  and  get  game  for  your  wife's  people. 
So  fast  that  you  may  be  prepared  for  your  life. 

My  daughters,  if  at  any  time  you  get  married,  never  let  your 
husband  ask  for  a  thing  twice.  Do  it  as  soon  as  he  asks  you.  If 
your  husband's  folks  ever  ask  their  children  for  something  when 
you  are  present,  assume  that  they  had  asked  it  of  you.  If  there  is 
anything  to  be  done,  do  not  wait  till  you  are  asked  to  do  it,  but  do 
it  immediately.  If  you  act  in  this  way,  then  they  will  say  that  your 
parents  taught  you  well. 

My  son,  if  you  find  nothing  else  to  do,  take  an  ax  and  chop  down  a 
tree.  It  will  become  useful  some  day.  Then  take  a  gun  and  go  out 
hunting  and  try  to  get  game  for  your  family. 

As  soon  as  I  see  that  the  children  are  showing  signs  of  restlessness 
then  I  stop  immediately. 


Part  II 
CHAPTER  VIII 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION— GENERAL  DISCUSSION 

We  are  justified  in  assuming  that  the  twofold  division  of  the 
Winnebago  and  the  southern  Siouan  tribes,  Dhegiha  and  Tciwere, 
had  a  common  historical  origin.  Our  identification  is  based  upon 
the  existence  in  these  three  tribal  units  of  specific  similarities  apart 
from  those  of  social  organization.  Positive  proof  that  the  type  of 
social  organization  is  historically  identical  among  these  tribes  is  not, 
however,  forthcoming.  This  will  become  even  more  apparent  when 
we  consider  the  twofold  division  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  names 
they  bear,  the  subdivisions  within  them,  and  their  specific  functions. 

According  to  our  informants,  the  twofold  organization  among  the 
Dhegiha  and  Tciwere  only  existed  upon  specific  occasions,  when  the 
tribe  was  on  the  tribal  hunt.  We  are  in  complete  ignorance  as  to 
whether  in  olden  times  this  arrangement  was  reflected  in  the  village, 
but  we  know  that  whether  it  was  or  not,  the  twofold  division  was 
present  in  a  very  definite  manner  in  the  consciousness  of  the  people 
themselves;  that  is,  every  individual  definitely  knew  to  which  one  of 
the  two  divisions  he  belonged  and  that  certain  names  and  functions 
were  associated  with  them.  The  moment,  however,  that  we  stop  to 
analyze  these  names,  functions,  etc.,  we  realize  at  once  that  to-day 
they  connote  different  ideas  in  the  different  tribes  under  discussion. 
The  names  of  the  divisions  seem  particularly  significant5  in  this  con- 
nection. Among  the  Omaha  they  are  known  as  Ictacunda  and 
Hanga,  probably  connoting  Sky  people  and  Leaders;  among  the 
Ponca,  as  Wajaje  and  Tciju,  Earth  and  Thunder;  among  the  Kansa, 
as  Yata  and  Ictunga,  Right  side  and  Left  side;  among  the  Osage  as 
Tciju  and  Hanga,  Peace  and  War  side.  The  names  for  the  Kwapa, 
Oto,  Missouri,  and  Iowa  are  not  known.  It  will  be  seen  at  a  glance 
that  the  terms  Tciju  and  Ictacunda  are  identical,  and  it  will  also  be 
noticed  by  reference  to  the  monographs  of  J.  O.  Dorsey  and  Miss 
Alice  C.  Fletcher  and  Francis  La  Flesche,  that  these  names  as  well 
as  the  name  Hanga  are  names  of  subdivisions  within  these  divisions. 
Were  these  names  first  used  to  designate  the  two  divisions  or  the 
subdivisions?    There  seems  to  be  no  reason  for  believing  that  the 

181 


182  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [oth.  ANN.  37 

names  were  first  applied  to  the  larger  divisions,  whereas  a  number  of 
facts  speak  strongly  in  favor  of  the  reverse.  In  no  case,  for  instance, 
can  it  be  shown  that  the  two  divisions,  per  se,  have  any  functions 
except  that  of  regulating  marriage.  The  various  political  and  cere- 
monial functions  displayed  pertain  to  the  subdivisions  composing 
them.  Owing  to  the  massing  together  of  a  number  of  such  functions 
on  each  side,  we  often  obtain  the  impression  that  these  belong  to  the 
larger  unit,  as  such.  And  indeed  this  may  be  said  to  be  true  at  the 
present  time,  in  so  far  as  the  functions  of  one  subdivision  have  be- 
come identified  with  the  larger  unit.  All  that  we  wish  to  point  out 
here  is  that  the  names  of  the  two  divisions  may  be  different,  and  that 
they  may  connote  different  ideas  in  the  different  divisions  of  an 
historically  related  culture,  due  to  specific  historical  development 
within  each.  Among  the  Dhegiha  there  seem  to  be  a  number  of  reasons 
for  assuming  that  the  present  names  of  the  two  divisions  are  not  the 
historically  primary  ones. 

It  is  far  more  difficult  to  discuss  the  names  of  the  subdivisions  or 
"gentes"  within  the  two  larger  divisions.  From  a  comparative 
point  of  view  it  must  be  regarded  as  significant  that  the  names  of  the 
subdivisions  within  the  Tciwere  tribes  tally  almost  exactly  with 
those  of  the  Winnebago  and  that  those  of  the  Dhegiha  tribes  tally 
with  the  names  of  many  of  the  two  latter,  although  they  possess,  in 
addition,  a  large  number  not  found  among  them.  The  Tciwere  and 
Winnebago  have  animal  appellations  for  their  clans,  the  Dhegiha 
have  animal  appellations  plus  a  type  of  designation  descriptive  of 
animal  taboo.  Which  of  the  two  types  is  the  older  it  is  difficult  to 
say.  This,  fact  might  be  noted,  however,  that  the  animal  names 
have,  to  a  large  extent,  been  forgotten  and  that  the  descriptive 
taboo  appellations  have  not;  that  in  a  number  of  cases  there  is  some 
reason  for  believing  that  these  animal  appellations  have  been  re- 
interpreted and  in  other  cases  replaced  by  nonanimal  designations; 
that  the  origin  myths  of  these  divisions  always  explain  why  a  certain 
animal  is  associated  with  a  subdivision,  and  rarely  the  origin  of  the 
taboo  name;  and  lastly,  that  the  majority  of  personal  names  are 
strictly  comparable  to  the  clan  names  of  the  Winnebago  and  the 
Tciwere.  On  the  other  hand,  the  descriptive  taboo  type  of  name  is 
found  frequently  among  the  band  appellations  of  the  Plains  Indians, 
with  whom  the  Omaha  had  come  into  intimate  contact  and  by  whom 
they  had  been  influenced  along  definite  lines  of  ceremonial  and  social 
development.  For  these  reasons  we  would  like  to  suggest  that  the 
animal  appellations  are  historically  primary  and  that  the  taboo  type 
became  subsequently  popular  and  spread  over  the  whole  tribe. 
Examples  of  changes  in  the  names  of  subdivisions  are  by  no  means 
isolated.  The  Winnebago  exhibit  a  tendency  to  substitute  names 
indicative  of  the  function  of  a  clan  for  the  old  animal  names — and  this 


kadin]  SOCIAL,   ORGANIZATION GENERAL  DISCUSSION  183 

has  gone  so  far  that  a  large  number  of  individuals  would  probably 
deny  to-day  that  the  Hawk  and  the  Warrior  clan  are  one  and  the 
same.  Again,  among  the  Osage,  Kansa,  and  Quapaw  we  find  Sun 
and  Star  elans,  and,  if  we  were  to  imagine  that  for  some  reason  or 
another  the  latter  type  of  name  became  popular,  it  might  here  become 
dominant  within  a  comparatively  short  time. 

Like  a  twofold  division,  the  clan  may  connote  a  number  of  different 
things  to  the  minds  of  the  Indians.  The  Omaha  apparently  used 
the  term  tonwoqgtho71,  which  means  literally  "place-of-habitation- 
of-those-related,"  gthon  being  the  possessive-reflexive  pronoun.  It 
would  thus  seem  to  coincide  with  a  geographical  unit.  The  Quapaw 
use  the  term  enikaciga,  evidently  meaning  "people";  the  Kansa, 
the  term  wayumida,  "  those-who-sing-together " ;  the  Osage,  the  term 
peda,  "fireplace";  and  the  Winnebago,  the  term  JioTcik'a'radjera, 
"  those-related-to-one-another."  The  remarks  made  about  the  spe- 
cific names  of  the  twofold  divisions  apply  here.  There  is  no  reason 
for  assuming  that  these  are  historically  primary.  A  possible  histori- 
cal hint  that  they  are  not  will  be  mentioned  later. 

The  twofold  division  apparently  regulates  nothing  but  marriage. 
It  has  at  the  present  time  no  other  function,  per  se.  Nevertheless, 
a  number  of  ethnologists,  and  for  that  matter  Indians  themselves, 
speak  of  the  functions  of  the  two  sides.  If  we  consider  the  Omaha 
"circle,"  we  notice  that  practically  all  the  ceremonial  functions 
are  on  one  side;  that  among  the  Osage  "war"  and  "peace"  functions 
are  found  on  both  sides;  and  that,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  the  functions 
of  war  and  peace  apparently  relate  to  a  certain  reciprocal  relation 
existing  between  the  two  divisions.  Indeed,  there  is  no  reason  to 
justify  the  use  of  these  terms.  Among  the  Iowa,  J.  O.  Dorsey  quotes 
Hamilton  to  the  effect  that  the  regulation  of  the  hunt  and  other  tribal 
affairs  was  in  the  hands  of  one  "phratry"  during  the  autumn  and 
winter,  and  in  that  of  the  other  in  spring  and  summer.  It  is.  how- 
ever, doubtful  whether  this  was  the  case.  Among  the  Winnebago, 
as  we  shall  see,  the  functions  o£  war  and  peace  were  grouped  together 
on  one  side,  the  functions  of  the  other  side  being  confined  to  those 
relating  to  the  policing  and  regulation  of  the  hunt,  But  the  only 
fact  of  importance  to  us  here  is  not  whether  there  appears  a  balancing 
of  functions  connected  with  the  social  organization,  but  whether  the 
Indian  thinks  there  is;  and  here  the  consensus  of  opinion  favors  the 
view  that  no  Omaha  would,  for  example,  suppose  that  the  Han- 
gacenu  division,  as  such,  was  the  custodian  of  the  real  pipes  of 
peace.  This  belonged  to  the  Inkesabe  gens,  and  there  is  not  a 
shred  of  evidence  to  support  the  view  that  it  was  delegated  to  that 
clan  by  the  larger  unit.  The  same  reasoning  applies  to  the  Hanga 
clan.  That  the  importance  of  the  possessions  of  the  latter  clan  played 
an  important  part  in  the  associations  of  the  Omaha,  even  to  the  extent 


184  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

of  impressing  its  name  upon  the  whole  division,  we  do  not  doubt 
for  a  moment.  Other  reasons  may  have  led  to  the  designation  of 
the  other  half  by  the  name  of  one  of  its  component  clans. 

Similarly,  among  the  Ponca,  the  Wajaje  half  corresponds  to  the 
Wajaje  clan,  the  keepers  of  the  sacred  pipe;  and  among  the  Osage, 
the  Tciju  and  the  Hanga  divisions  of  one  side,  and  the  Wajaje  divi- 
sions of  the  other,  correspond  to  the  clans  with  the  same  name  that 
are  associated  with  important  ceremonial-political  functions.  On 
the  other  hand,  we  have  the  fact  that  among  the  Kansa  the  names 
of  the  two  large  divisions  are  distinct  from  any  of  the  clans  in  those 
divisions,  and  the  same  is  true  for  the  Tciju  division  of  the  Ponca. 
If  we  correlate  this  last  fact  with  the  apparent  absence  of  any 
association  of  important  ceremonial  or  political  functions  with  specific 
clans,  the  suggestion  might  be  permitted  that  no  incentive  existed 
in  the  minds  of  these  people  for  the  clan  becoming  identified  with  the 
larger  divisions.  Among  the  Winnebago  the  names  for  the  divisions 
are  quite  different  from  those  of  the  clans  composing  them,  but  at  the 
present  time  the  fact  that  the  clan  in  each  division  has  definite  func- 
tions and  powers  has  reacted  on  the  interpretation  of  the  social 
organization,  and  it  is  quite  customary  to  refer  to  one  half  as  huyk 
or  "chiefs,"  and  to  the  other  as  manap' e  or  "soldiers,"  although  the 
latter  is  not  common. 

In  short,  we  have  a  right  to  see,  in  all  the  facts  mentioned,  indi- 
cations of  a  possible  historical  development  whose  characteristics 
seem  to  lie  in  the  identification  of  the  name  and  function  of  an  impor- 
tant clan  with  that  of  a  much  larger  division. 

The  Winnebago  social  organization  has  long  since  broken  down, 
but  its  details  are  still  so  well  preserved  in  the  minds  of  the  older 
men,  and  particularly  in  the  literature  of  the  tribe,  that  no  difficulty 
was  experienced  in  reconstructing  it.  This  reconstruction,  however, 
does  not  enable  us  to  determine  the  relation  of  the  clan  and  dichoto- 
mous  division  to  the  distribution  of  the  tribe  over  the  large  area  once 
occupied  in  Wisconsin.  That  the  4,000-odd  individuals  composing  the 
tribe  at  the  advent  of  the  whites  lived  together  is  extermely  doubtful. 
The  nature  of  the  woodlands  of  Wisconsin  and  the  fairly  extensive 
territory  over  which  the  Winnebago  were  found  scattered  not  long 
after  Nicolet's  first  visit  are  facts  that  practically  exclude  such  a 
hypothesis.  The  myth  that  speaks  of  a  village  that  at  one  time 
was  so  long  that  those  living  at  one  end  did  not  know  what  was 
transpiring  at  the  other  contains  too  many  literary  touches  to  justify 
its  use  as  an  historical  document. 

The  question,  therefore,  of  village  groups  is  of  considerable  impor- 
tance, because  there  may  have  been,  cutting  across  the  general  organi- 
zation, another  smaller,  perhaps  looser  social  unit,  that  of  "band"  or 
village,  setting  off  one  group  against  another.     Systematic  question- 


badin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION GENERAL  DISCUSSION  185 

ing  has  elicited  from  various  individuals  the  information,  also  corrobo- 
rated by  historical  records,  that  the  villages  were  generally  known 
according  to  geographical  location  or  according  to  names  descriptive 
of  the  haunts  of  certain  animals.  Even  to-day  the  group  scattered 
over  the  Nebraska  Winnebago  reservation  are  commonly  known  by 
similar  designations.  There  we  find,  for  instance,  the  following 
names:  Icozo-atcira,  "those  living  on  the  peninsula";  or  Tc'vJianicira, 
"those  living  below",  i.  e.,  in  the  timber;  nivm'hatcira ,  "those  living 
near  the  dirty  water";  hutc  x£dgominangera,  "where  big  bear  set- 
tles," etc.  If  we  may  then  suppose  this  to  have  been  a  customary 
association,  we  may  quite  properly  ask  whether  the  name  of  the 
village  had  any  influence  on  the  social  organization ;  whether  there  is 
even  a  hint  at  a  genetic  relation  between  these  two  types  of  group 
names.  All  that  can  be  said  is  the  fact  that  formerly  Jioni,  "band," 
seems  to  have  been  used  instead  of  hoJeiVaradjera  for  clan;  that  an 
archaic  name  of  the  Wolf  clan,  regoni  or  degoni,  may  mean  Lake  band; 
and  that  the  villages  all  had  geographical  names.  All  of  which,  how- 
ever, is,  I  realize,  hardly  sufficient  evidence. 

No  satisfactory  demonstration  has  as  yet  been  made  indicating  that 
the  clan  organization  was  ever  associated  with  an  historically  simple 
social  structure,  whereas  quite  a  number  of  reasons  lead  us  to  suspect 
that  it  was  in  all  cases  preceded  by  other  types  of  organization.  In 
North  America  there  is  quite  considerable  evidence  tending  to  show 
that  the  village  group  organization  often  preceded  in  many  places 
the  clan,  and  for  that  reason  the  facts  brought  out  above  may  be  of 
more  than  casual  significance.  That  a  system  of  clan  names  different 
from  that  now  in  use  existed  is  borne  out  by  the  archaic  names  for 
the  Bear  and  Wolf  clans.  That  another  system  was  making  headway 
against  the  animal-name  type  of  change,  namely,  the  substitution  for 
animal  designation,  with  correlated  associations  of  descent  or  con- 
nection with  an  animal  ancestor,  of  designations  indicative  of  the 
functions  of  the  clan.  If  the  association  of  the  social  unit  with  a  com- 
mon animal  ancestor  was  preceded  by  an  association  of  a  social  unit 
with  geographical  location,  we  would  then  be  able  to  demonstrate 
what  is  so  rare  in  ethnology — the  historical  succession  of  types  of 
naming. 

The  Twofold  Grouping 

The  Winnebago  are  divided  into  divisions,  one  known  as  the 
waygeregi  Tierera,  "those  who  are  above,"  the  other  as  the  manegi 
Tierera,  "those  who  are  on  earth."  Descent  was  reckoned  in  the 
paternal  line.  But  these  appellations  refer  to  the  animals  after 
whom  the  clans  are  named,  the  term  waygeregi  covering  the  birds, 
the  term  manegi,  land  and  water  animals.  So  firmly  has  the  idea  of 
division  of  animal  forms  become  associated  with  the  two  divisions 
180S23— 22 13 


186  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ANN.  37 

that,  as  mentioned  before,  were  a  new  clan  introduced  now  among 
the  Winnebago  its  position  would  depend  exclusively  upon  the  nature 
of  the  animal  associated  with  it.  As  similar  reasons  dictate  clan 
groupings  among  some  of  the  Central  Algonquian  tribes,  a  few  words 
concerning  this  type  of  association  will  not  be  amiss.  The  groupings 
of  the  fauna  into  a  distinct  number  of  categories  is  extremely  common 
in  North  America.  Among  the  Winnebago,  a  number  of  other 
Siouan,  and  Central  Algonquian  tribes,  there  was  a  fivefold  classifica- 
tion; earth  animals,  sky  animals,  empyrean  animals,  aquatic  animals, 
and  subaquatic  animals.  Among  the  Winnebago  the  thunderbird 
belongs  to  the  empyrean;  the  eagle,  hawk,  and  pigeon,  to  the  sky; 
the  bear  and  wolf,  to  the  earth;  the  fish,  to  the  water;  and  the  water- 
spirit,  below  the  water.  This  religio-mythological  conception  has 
unquestionably  received  a  certain  amount  of  sympathetic  elabora- 
tion at  the  hands  of  shamans,  and  particularly  at  the  hands  of  the 
leaders  of  such  ceremonies  as  the  Winter  Feast,  the  Clan  Feast,  and 
the  Clan  Wake,  as  well  as  at  the  hands  of  those  who  had  in  their 
keeping  the  clan  origin  myths. 

The  characteristics  of  the  thunderbird,  eagle,  bear,  and  water- 
spirit  as  clan  animals,  and  as  animals  connected  with  a  division  of 
fauna,  are  also  related  to  the  general  conception  of  these  animals 
per  se.  The  eagle  and  hawk  are  birds  of  prey;  the  thunderbird  is 
generally  a  deity  granting  long  life,  and  associated  with  peace, 
although  his  connection  with  war  is  also  common.  Similarly,  the 
bear  is  supposed  to  have  a  "soldier"  nature,  and  the  water-spirit  is 
intimately  associated  with  rites  pertaining  to  crossing  streams, 
calming  the  sea,  and  ownership  of  water  property.  This  correlation 
unquestionably  indicates  an  influence  of  the  religio-mythological  con- 
ception of  the  animal  upon  the  social  group  with  which  it  is  associated. 
How  far  this  can  go  is  abundantly  attested  by  the  names  and  behavior 
of  the  waygeregi  and  manegi  divisions. 

On  the  other  hand,  we  may  legitimately  ask  what  influence  the 
two  divisions  had  in  molding  the  attributes  of  these  animals,  or 
upon  the  behavior  of  the  groups  with  which  their  name  was  asso- 
ciated. The  functions  of  a  warrior  may  have  determined,  as  they 
certainly  have  accentuated,  the  "warrior"  characteristics  of  the 
eagle  and  hawk,  nor  is  there  any  easily  intelligible  reason  why  the 
thunderbird  should  be  associated  with  peace.  From  our  knowledge 
of  the  social  organization  of  other  Siouan  tribes,  the  political  func- 
tions of  the  clan  seem  to  be  the  characteristic  feature  of  the  organiza- 
tion, and  this  being  the  case,  the  possibility  of  associations  of  war- 
like and  peaceful  attributes  with  animals  may  as  much  be  ascribed 
to  the  influence  of  the  social  unit  as  vice  versa.  With  regard  to 
such  functions  as  the  exogamy  of  the  two  divisions  or  that  of  the 
clans,  or  of  the  reciprocal  burial  relationship  of  the  waijgeregi  and 


radix]  SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION — GENERAL  DISCUSSION  187 

manegi  divisions,  we,  of  course,  know  that  the  characteristics  of  the 
animal  in  question  have  nothing  to  do  with  the  matter.  We  must 
then  realize  that  we  are  dealing  with  reciprocal  influences — of  the 
religio-mythical  conception  of  animals  on  the  one  hand,  and  of 
political  functions  of  social  units  on  the  other.  In  some  cases,  such 
as  the  specific  associations  with  the  water-spirit,  it  is  probable  that 
the  religio-mythologieal  conception  of  the  animal  is  dominant. 
The  association  of  the  thunderbird  with  fire  has  likewise  not  been 
due  to  any  activity  of  the  social  unit;  and  thus  examples  might  be 
multiplied.  In  this  connection,  the  fact  that  animals  with  whom 
a  multitude  of  associations  have  already  been  established  are  sub- 
sequently associated  with  social  units  is  fundamental.  From  this 
point  of  view,  the  animal  names  of  social  organization  are  intrusive 
features,  and  we  will  consequently  expect  to  find  historical  adjust- 
ments. This,  we  think,  is  what  has  taken  place  here.  The  animal 
name  with  its  religio-mythologieal  conceptions  was  a  remarkably 
strong  unit,  and  as  a  result  reciprocal  influences  took  place.  Although 
the  religio-mythologieal  influence  must  thus  have  been  marked,  it 
appears  to  have  changed  none  of  the  marital  and  other  functions 
of  the  two  divisions  nor  the  political  functions  of  the  clans.  What 
it  did  change,  and  change  fundamentally,  was  the  interpretation 
of  the  social  organization. 

Functions  of  the  Twofold  Division 

The  only  function  that  the  waijgeregi  and  manegi  divisions  seem 
to  have  had  was  the  regulation  of  marriage.  A  waijgeregi  man 
had  to  marry  a  manegi  woman,  and  vice  versa.  The  only  other 
function  was,  according  to  some  informants,  reciprocal  burial. 
Here  the  religio-mythologieal  interpretations  seem  in  part  to  have 
determined  this  relation,  for  a  manegi  man  buried  a  waijgeregi  man 
because,  as  a  "land  division,"  it  pertained  to  him  to  place  a  corpse 
in  the  earth.  This,  however,  seems  to  be  a  doubtful  function,  for 
earth  burial  seems  in  olden  times  to  have  been  characteristic  only 
of  the  manegi  division,  the  waijgeregi  clans  employing  scaffold  burial. 
In  addition,  the  burial  relation  was  one  of  the  many  reciprocal  duties 
of  the  "friend-clan,"  and  if  it  was  ever  postulated  of  the  waijgerigi 
and  manegi,  this  was  likely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  "friendship" 
relation  seems  also  to  have  existed  between  two  clans  belonging 
to  the  two  different  divisions.  According  to  one  myth,  however, 
the  four  clans  of  the  waijgeregi  paired  off  as  "friends"  with  four 
clans  of  the  manegi.  This  would  then  be  practically  equivalent  to 
saying  that  the  manegi  buried  the  waijgeregi. 

Thus  far  we  have  spoken  only  of  the  socio-political  functions. 
The  two  divisions,  however,  play  a  part  in  a  number  of  social  and 


188  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

ceremonial  connections:  first,  in  the  organization  of  the  village; 
second,  in  the  arrangement  of  the  clans  while  on  the  warpath;  third, 
as  the  basis  of  organization  at  the  "chief"  feast;  and  lastly,  as  the 
basis  of  organization  of  the  ceremonial  lacrosse  game. 

According  to  the  majority  of  the  older  people,  when  the  old  social 
organization  was  still  intact,  each  village  was  divided  into  two  halves 
by  an  imaginary  line  running  due  northwest  and  southeast,  the 
waygeregi  clans  dwelling  in  one  half,  with  the  chief's  lodge  in  the 
south,  and  the  manegi  clans  dwelling  in  the  other  half,  with  the  bear 
or  soldier  lodge  in  the  north  (fig.  33).  Although  this  arrangement 
has  now  become  almost  legendary,  it  was  corroborated  by  many 
of  the  older  people.  To  what  extent  every  village  was  organized 
on  this  basis  it  is  impossible   to  state.     When  this  question  was 


s 

Fig.  33.— Plan  of  village  according  to  Thundercloud,  of  the  Thunderbird  clan. 

directly  put  to  individuals,  the  answer  was  always  in  the  affirmative. 
Quite  a  number  of  old  individuals,  however,  denied  vigorously  that 
such  had  ever  been  the  organization  of  the  village,  and  claimed 
instead  that  the  lodges  of  the  Chief  and  the  Soldier  (Bear)  clan 
were  in  the  center  of  the  village  (fig.  34). 

In  looking  over  the  clan  affiliations  of  the  informants,  we  noticed, 
however,  that  the  first  arrangement  was  always  given  by  members 
of  the  bird  clans,  and  the  second  arrangement  by  members  of  the 
Bear  clan  and  generally  also  by  others  on  the  manegi  side.  This 
fact,  of  course,  makes  the  decision  as  to  the  relationship  of  these 
two  types  of  village  organization  quite  difficult.  There  can  be  no 
question  as  to  the  existence  of  a  twofold  division  of  the  tribe  as 
far  as  marital  relations  were  concerned,  nor  as  to  the  segregation 


RADIX] 


SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION — GENERAL  DISCUSSION 


189 


of  specific  clans  in  different  villages.  When  on  the  warpath  the 
twofold  division  manifested  itself  in  the  arrangement  of  fireplaces, 
so  that  the  question  to  be  resolved  here  is  whether  we  can  credit 
the  statements  that  this  twofold  division  expressed  itself  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  village,  and,  if  it  did,  whether  this  was  character- 
istic of  the  whole  tribe  or  only  of  parts  of  the  tribe.  That  this  was 
true  for  part  of  the  tribe  can  be  accepted.  Whether  it  was  true 
for  the  whole  tribe,  however,  can  not  be  definitely  answered  until 
we  know  more  of  the  Dhegiha  and  Tciwere.  In  the  subsequent 
discussion  of  the  clan  we  will  touch  on  this  subject  again. 

The  twofold  organization  is  reflected  in  the  arrangement  of  the 
fireplaces  when  on  the  warpath,  each  division  having  two  fireplaces, 


Fig.  34.— Plan  of  village  according  to  John  Rave,  of  Bear  clan.    .4  ,  Lodge  of  chief  of  tribe  (Thnnderbird 
clan).    £,  Lodgeofchief  of  Bearclan.     C,  Lodge  of  Warrior  clan.    D,  Lodge  of  Buffalo  clan. 

whose  location  is  determined  by  the  direction  in  which  the  party  is 
going.  When  going  west,  for  instance,  the  two  fireplaces  for  the 
icaijgeregi  are  on  the  south,  and  the  two  for  the  manegi  on  the  north 
side.  However,  when  on  the  tribal  move  or  hunting,  no  indication 
of  the  division  exists. 

As  the  basis  of  ceremonial  organization,  we  find  the  twofold  di- 
vision present  only  once — at  the  chief  feast  Qiuijlc  wohq),  but  as  this 
feast  is  to  all  intents  and  purposes  a  feast  given  by  the  bird  clans 
in  general,  there  is  really  nothing  surprising  about  its  use.  The 
name  hutjJc  wohq  would  seem  to  indicate  that  we  are  dealing  simply 
with  a  feast  of  the  Thunderbird  clan,  and  this  indeed  may  have  been 
the  case  historically.  Hiujk  to-day,  however,  is  frequently  used  to 
indicate  the  waygeregi  division. 


190  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eih.  ann.  37 

As  the  basis  of  organization  in  a  game,  the  twofold  division  finds 
expression  in  ceremonial  lacrosse.  There  the  waijgeregi  are  always 
pitted  against  the  manegi.  A  well-known  myth  is  associated  with 
this  arrangement,  according  to  which  the  animal  ancestors  of  the 
waijgeregi  and  manegi  decided  their  respective  rank  by  playing  a 
game  in  which  they  were  organized  on  this  basis.  The  waijgeregi 
won  and  for  that  reason  the  chiefs  of  the  tribe  have  been  selected 
from  this  division.  A  division  into  two  halves  when  playing  cere- 
monial lacrosse  is  characteristic  not  only  of  the  Winnebago  but  of 
the  Omaha,  Menominee,  Sauk,  Fox,  and  other  tribes.  Among  the 
former  two,  these  sides  are  identical  with  the  two  aforementioned 
political  divisions  of  the  tribe,  but  among  the  latter  two,  where  no 
such  division  exists,  the  tribe  seems  to  divide  itself  into  two  halves 
merely  on  this  occasion. 

Up  to  the  present  we  have  treated  the  two  divisions  as  social  units 
per  se,  but  now,  before  entering  on  the  discussion  of  the  clans,  it 
may  be  well  to  point  out  the  fact  that  the  waijgeregi  people  are  some- 
times spoken  of  as  the  Bird  clan  (waniyk  holcilc'aradjera),  and  that  the 
four  clans  composing  this  side  are  so  intimately  related,  and  their 
clan  origin  myths  so  similar,  that  the  assumption  of  the  four  clans 
representing  one  clan  that  subsequently  split  up  into  a  number  of 
divisions  is  not  outside  the  realm  of  historical  possibility.  This  is, 
however,  quite  immaterial,  for  whether  we  have  one  bird  clan  op- 
posed to  eight  other  animal  clans  is  of  little  consequence,  for  his- 
torically it  is  not  the  bird  clan  that  is  opposing  the  other  clans,  but 
one  social  unit,  the  division,  set  off  against  another.  The  numerical 
equality  that  exists  between  these  two  sides,  in  spite  of  the  dis- 
parity in  the  number  of  clans,  is  perhaps  another  confirmation  of 
the  fundamental  character  of  the  twofold  structure. 

Clan  Organization 

There  are  12  clans  among  the  Winnebago  with  the  following  names: 

A.  Warigeregi  herera  (those  who  are  above) : ' 

1.  wakandja,  thunderbird. 

2.  ivonayire  uarjlrik,  war-people. 

3.  tcaxcep,  eagle. 

4.  rutcge,  pigeon  (extinct). 

B.  manegi  herera  (those  who  are  on  earth) : 

5.  huntc,  bear. 

6.  cuiqlctcurik1 ,  wolf. 

7.  waktcexi,  water  spirit. 

8.  tea,  deer. 

9.  hunwan,  elk. 

1  All  the  clans  of  the  upper  phratry  are  also  called  ahuirasara,  "Thuse-with-wings."    This  name  is 
found  in  ceremonies. 


radin]  SOCIAL,  ORGANIZATION — GENERAL  DISCUSSION  191 

10.  tee,  buffalo. 

11.  ho,  fish. 

12.  wak'an,  snake. 

Another  list  was  obtained  in  which  only  10  clans  were  mentioned, 
the  Fish  and  the  Snake  being  omitted.  The  clans  omitted  are,  how- 
ever, regarded  by  all  as  of  recent  origin. 

There  are  two  older  lists  of  Winnebago  clans  obtained  by  Morgan  2 
and  Dorsey.3     Morgan  gives  the  following  clans: 

Wolf.  Eagle.  Snake. 

Bear.  Elk.  Thunder. 

Buffalo.  Deer. 

Dorsey's  list  is  more  complete,  although  owing  to  the  fact  that  he 
did  not  know  of  the  existence  of  the  twofold  division,  he  classes  the 
four  Bird  clans  as  subclans  of  one  larger  Bird  clan.  His  list  differs 
from  the  author's  only  in  the  absence  of  the  Fish  clan  and  in  the  fact 
that  he  was  still  able  to  obtain  two  archaic  names  for  the  Wolf  and 
Bear  clans.     Dorsey's  list  follows: 

Wolf.  Bird.  Buffalo. 

Bear.  a.  Eagle.  Deer. 

Elk.  b.  Pigeon.  Water-monster. 

Snake.  c.  Hawk. 

d.  Thunderbird. 
Foster  gives  a  grouping  of  the.  clans  according  to  the  fauna.4     His 
list  hardly  was  intended  as  an  enumeration  of  the  clans.     According 
to  Foster,  we  have  the  following  grouping: 

I.  Thunderbird  family  or  invisible  Thunderbird  people, 
n.  The  air  family,  the  visible  Thunderbird  people. 

III.  The  land  or  quadruped  family. 

IV.  The  water  family. 

An  interesting  variant  of  the  names  of  the  Thunderbird  and  Warrior 
clans  was  given  by  one  informant.  He  called  the  Thunderbird  the 
good  thunders,  and  the  Warrior  the  bad  thunders.  This  is  strikingly 
reminiscent  of  the  Menominee  and  was  perhaps  borrowed  from  them. 

The  main  differences  in  the  above  lists  are  the  order  of  the  clans, 
the  position  of  the  Wolf  clan,  the  presence  of  a  general  Bird  clan 
called  vxmiylc  by  Dorsey,  the  double  names  for  the  Wolf  and  Bear 
clans,  and  the  absence  of  a  Fish  and  Warrior  clan  in  Dorsey's  and  of  a 
Hawk  clan  in  the  list  obtained  by  the  author. 

The  position  of  the  Wolf  clan,  in  spite  of  Morgan's  and  Dorsey's 
agreement,  does  not  belong  in  the  place  assigned  to  it  by  them.  In 
all  probability  their  main  informant  was  a  member  of  this  clan  who 
wished  to  give  his  clan  a  greater  importance  than  properly  belonged 

2  Ancient  Society,  p.  157. 

3  Siouan  Sociology.    Fifteenth  Ann.  Rept.  Bur.  Amer.  Ethn,  pp.  240-241. 

4  Quoted  in  J.  O.  Dorsey's  MSS.  of  Winnebago  clan  names  (B.  A.  E.). 


192  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

to  it.  There  is  no  doubt  but  that  in  older  times  the  Wolf  clan  played 
a  far  greater  part  in  the  affairs  of  the  tribe  than  it  does  to-day,  but 
that  it  ever  was  the  principal  clan  of  the  tribe  is  out  of  the  question. 

With  regard  to  Dorsey's  postulation  of  a  Bird  (wamifTc)  clan,  all 
that  can  be  said  is  that  the  author  obtained  nothing  confirmatory  of 
it.  It  is  just  possible  that  Dorsey,  who  apparently  did  not  know  of 
the  existence  of  the  two  phratries,  misinterpreted  a  popular  grouping 
of  the  four  clans  of  the  upper  phratry,  as  representing  a  fundamental 
division.  Historically  it  may,  indeed,  be  true  that  the  four  clans  of 
the  upper  phratry  represent  the  subdivision  of  one  clan. 

The  archaic  names  for  the  Wolf  and  Bear  clans  can  not  be  trans- 
lated with  any  degree  of  certainty  any  longer.  It  is  barely  possible 
that  degoni  means  "lake  band"  and  tconarik  means  "blue  back." 
Whether  these  are  simply  a  second  set  of  names,  or  whether  they  repre- 
sent an  historically  older  set,  it  is  impossible  to  say  to-day.  The 
probabilities  are  that  they  are  terms  of  respect. 

The  absence  of  the  Warrior  clan  in  Dorsey's  list  and  the  presence  of 
a  Hawk  clan  is  rather  interesting,  for  it  shows  that  only  25  years  ago 
the  bird  name  for  this  clan  was  stUl  in  use.  The  Warrior  and  Hawk 
clans  are  identical,  the  latter  being,  however,  the  appellation  that  is 
preferred  to-day. 

In  addition  to  the  names  given  above,  some  of  the  clans  have  names 
indicative  of  respect,  such  as  hung*  for  the  Water-spirit,  haga  for 
the  male  members  of  the  Bear  clan,  and  warowirva  for  the  female 
members.  It  is  also  possible  that  the  names  degoni  and  tconank, 
mentioned  by  Dorsey  for  the  Wolf  and  Bear  clans,  were  terms  of 
respect. 

RECKONING    OF    DESCENT 

Descent  is  patrilineal  and  a  man's  name  generally  belongs  to  his 
father's  clan.  Formerly  there  never  was  an  exception  to  the  rule 
that  the  name  must  belong  to  the  father's  clan,  but  of  recent  years 
the  Winnebago  have  become  very  lax  in  this  particlular.  The 
irregularities  in  the  giving  of  names  were  due  to  two  causes — first, 
the  intermarriage  of  Winnebago  women  with  white  men  or  with 
Indians  of  other  tribes  where  the  clan  organization  was  either 
unknown  or  where  descent  was  matrilineal,  and,  secondly,  to  the 
fact  that  the  wife's  parents  were  often  in  a  better  position  to  pay 
for  the  naming  feast  than  the  parents  of  the  father.  When  a 
Winnebago  woman  marries  a  man  who  either  has  no  clan  or  who 
reckons  descent  in  the  mother's  line,  the  children  are  always  con- 
sidered as  belonging  to  the  mother's  clan.  This,  however,  lasts  for 
only  one  generation.  As  a  result  the  male  children  of  such  a  mar- 
riage perpetuate  the  clan  of  the  mother,  although  they  transmit  it 
thereafter  in  the  male  line. 


radin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION GENERAL   DISCUSSION  193 

Another  irregularity  that  has  grown  up  within  recent  times  is 
the  occasional  transmission  of  the  clan  war-bundle  in  the  female  line. 
In  olden  times  it  could  only  be  transmitted  in  the  male  line,  so  as  to 
prevent  its  passing  out  of  the  clan.  It  was,  however,  not  always 
passed  to  the  eldest  son,  but  to  that  one  who,  by  his  actions  and  the 
interest  he  manifested  in  learning  the  legends  and  songs  pertaining 
to  the  ceremony,  showed  himself  capable  of  properly  providing  for 
the  bundle.  Now  it  happened  occasionally  that  a  man  either  pos- 
sessed no  son  or  that  his  son  did  not  show  sufficient  interest  in  all 
that  pertained  to  the  bundle.  In  such  a  case  the  father  had  the 
alternative  of  giving  it  to  some  near  relative  in  the  male  line,  and  if 
there  were  none  of  either  giving  it  to  some  distant  relative  in  the 
male  line  or  the  son  of  his  sister  or  daughter.  This,  of  course,  hap- 
pened very  rarely,  and  in  all  probability  the  female  line  would 
eventually  have  to  return  it  to  the  clan  to  which  it  originally  belonged. 

We  have  described  these  two  instances  of  transmission  in  the 
female  line  in  some  detail  in  order  to  show  how  simply  they  can  be 
explained  without  the  intervention  of  any  theory  that  the  Winne- 
bago reckoned  descent  in  the  female  line  originally.  Such  a  claim 
has  been  made  by  Morgan  and  reiterated  by  Frazer.  It  seems  to  be 
based  on  the  fact  that  Carver  found  the  daughter  of  a  Winnebago 
chief,  known  to  the  whites  as  Glory-of-the-Morning,  and  her  chil- 
dren occupying  an  exceptional  position  among  the  tribe,  or  at  least 
among  the  division  of  the  Winnebago  living  at  the  upper  end  of 
Lake  Winnebago,  Wis.  Her  position  and  that  of  her  children,  one 
of  whom  has  become  well  known  in  Winnabago  legends,  Tcap'osgaga, 
was,  however,  due  to  the  fact  that  she  married  a  Frenchman  named 
Decora.  She  was  not  the  chieftainess  of  the  tribe  nor  were  any  of 
her  children,  strictly  speaking,  chiefs  of  the  tribe.  In  any  case  her 
position  had  nothing  to  do  with  female  descent  and  at  best  but 
illustrates  what  we  have  said  before  about  the  clan  to  which  chil- 
dren of  such  a  union  belong. 

INDIVIDUAL     NAMES 

Before  turning  to  the  specific  study  of  each  clan  a  few  words  must 
be  said   about  the  individual   names.     From   a  purely   descriptive 
point  of  view  the  names  can  be  arranged  in  nine  classes: 
I.  Color. 
II.  Physiological  characteristics. 

III.  Social  functions. 

IV.  Animal  and  plant  forms. 
V.  Animal  characteristics. 

VI.  Natural  phenomena. 
VII.  Quality. 

VIII.  Episodes  of  a  legendary  character. 
IX.  Personal  achievement. 


194  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  I  eth.  an.n.  37 

According  to  the  majority  of  our  informants  only  one  of  these 
classifications  seems  to  be  generally  present  in  the  minds  of  the 
Winnebago  to-day — that  commemorating  incidents  relating  to  the 
origin  of  each  clan.  Thus,  for  instance,  because  the  first  thunder- 
bird  alit  on  a  tree  the  name  He-who-alights-on-a-tree  is  given ;  because 
a  wave  swept  over  the  shore  as  the  wolf  arrived  at  Green  Bay  the 
name  Wave  is  given,  etc.  However,  the  most  representative  names 
of  this  type  are  Gives-forth-fruit-as-he-walks,  Makes-the-day-tremble, 
He^ivho-comes-singing,  Judge-of-the-contest,  etc.  The  vast  majority 
of  the  names,  although  many  of  them  can  doubtless  be  interpreted 
as  referring  to  incidents  that  occurred  during  the  various  origins  of 
the  clan,  clearly  belong  to  the  first  seven  divisions  mentioned  above. 
Yet  the  Winnebago  interpret  them  all  in  terms  of  category  VIII. 

As  an  example  of  the  Winnebago  viewpoint  let  me  give  the  follow- 
ing:5 

Four  men  [the  clan  eponymous  ancestors]  Earth-Maker  sent  here  from  above;  and 
when  they  came,  all  their  various  characteristics  were  used  for  making  proper  names. 
Thus  at  the  present  day,  the  characteristics  of  the  thunder-birds,  all  of  their  actions, 
are  used  as  proper  names.  (At  the  beginning),  four  men  came  from  above.  And 
from  that  fact  there  is  a  name,  He-who-comes-from-Above.  .  .  From  above,  four  men 
Earth-Maker  sent  down.  And  since  they  came  like  spirits,  there  is  a  name,  Spirit- 
Man.  .  .  And  as  there  was  a  drizzling  fog  when  the  four  men  came  from  above,  so 
there  are  names,  Walking-in  -  Mist ,  Comes-in  -  Mist ,  and  a  woman  they  would  call, 
Drizzling- Rain-  Woman.  It  is  said  that  when  they  first  came  to  Derok,  they  alit 
upon  some  brushes,  and  bent  them  down;  and  from  this  fact  there  is  a  name,  She- 
who-bends-the-Brushes.  On  the  limb  of  an  oak-tree  that  stood  there,  they  alit;  and  they 
bent  it  down  as  they  alit  on  its  branches.  From  this  there  is  a  name,  She-who-bends- 
the-Branches-down.  And  since  they  alit  on  the  tree,  there  is  a  name,  He-who-alights-on 
a-Tree;  .  .  .  and  from  the  tree  itself  there  is  the  name,  Oak-Woman.  .  .  And  be- 
cause they  stepped  from  the  oak-tree  to  the  ground,  .  .  .  there  is  a  name,  He-uho- 
alights-on-the-Groimd.  .  .  And  since  they  came  with  the  thunder-birds,  there  is  a 
name,  Thunder-bird  .  .  .  and  White-Thnnder-bird  .  .  .  and  Black-Thvnder-bird  .  .  . 
And  since  the  thunder-birds  thunder,  there  is  a  name,  He-nho-thunders  .  .  .  And 
since  they  make  the  noise  ttfawfa,  people  are  called  He-who-makes-Tcininiu  .  .  . 
When  the  thunder-birds  walk,  rain  accompanies  them;  and  from  this  fact  we  have  a 
name,  IIc-who-walks-irith-Rain  .  .  .  And  since  the  thunder-birds  come  walking,  we 
have  a  name,  Walking- Thunder;  and  since  the  thunder-birds  walk  with  a  mighty 
tread  when  they  start  out,  there  is  a  name,  He-who-comes  walking-with-a- Mighty- 
Tread;  .  .  .  and  since  the  earth  shakes  when  they  commence  walking,  there  is  a 
name,  He-who-shakes-the-earth-u<ith-force  .  .  .  And  since  there  is  always  wind  and 
hail  when  the  thunder-birds  come,  we  have  a  name,  He-tvho-comes-mth-Wind-and- 
Eail.  Now,  since  one  of  the  thunder-birds  came  first,  there  is  a  name,  He-who-walks- 
First;  and  since  one  of  them  was  the  leader,  therefore,  there  is  the  name  Thunder- 
bird-Leader  .  .  .  Now  since  the  thunder-birds  flash  (their  eyes)  in  even-  direction, 
so  we  have  the  name  Flashes-in-every-Direction  .  .  .  Now,  we  don't  see  the  thunder- 
birds,  but  we  see  their  flashes  only;  and  thus  there  is  a  female  name,  Only-a-flash-of- 
Lightning-Woman;  and  since  the  thunder-birds  (flash)  streaks  of  lightning,  there  is 
a  name,  Streak-of-Lightning;  and  since  cloudiness  is  caused  by  the  thunder-birds 


s  "Personal  Reminiscences  of  a  Winnebago  Indian,"  by  P.  Radin,  Journal  ol  American  Folklore,  vol. 
26,  no.  CH,  pp.  300-303. 


badin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION GENERAL   DISCUSSION  195 

walking  in  the  clouds,  there  is  a  name,  He-v:ho-walks-in-the-Clouds.  Now  since  the 
thunder-birds  have  long  wings,  there  is  a  name,  He-who-has- Long- Wings  .  .  .  Now 
when  the  thunder-birds  come,  they  come  with  terrible  thunder-crashes,  it  is  said; 
and  as  many  people  as  there  are  on  this  earth,  .  .  .  and  as  many  plants  as  there  are 
on  the  earth,  indeed,  everything,  the  earth  itself,  they  deluge  with  rain,  and  thunder- 
crashes  (are  heard);  for  all  this  they  have  a  name;  they  call  him  Wnrudjdxega. 

The  point  at  issue  in  this  interpretation  of  names  is,  can  we  accept 
it  as  historically  primary?  We  do  not  think  so,  for  the  following 
reasons:  A  large  numher  of  the  names  are  clearly  descriptive  of 
animal  habits,  others  express  the  influence  of  social  organization, 
and  others  refer  to  personal  achievements,  etc.  Secondly,  the  in- 
terpretation is  of  too  specific  a  nature  to  be  regarded  as  one  that 
could  possibly  have  dictated  an  original  system  of  naming;  and, 
thirdly,  in  spite  of  its  prevalence,  other  systems  of  interpretation 
are  present.  As  a  matter  of  fact  in  the  above  quotation,  our  in- 
formant distinctly  mentions  the  fact  that  the  characteristics  of 
thunderbirds  were  used  for  names,  although  he  insists  that  the 
names  referred  specifically  to  the  ancestors  of  the  Thunderbird  clan. 
According  to  J.  O.  Dorsey  the  interpretations  obtained  by  him  were 
largely  symbolical.  He  makes  no  mention  of  the  interpretation  ob- 
tained by  the  author,  although  this  may  be  due  to  the  fact  that  he 
was  but  imperfectly  acquainted  with  Winnebago  ethnology.  It 
seems  best,  therefore,  to  regard  the  ancestor-episode  type  of  name  as 
but  one,  perhaps  the  last,  that  developed  among  the  Winnebago.' 


« 


ATTITUDE    TOWARD    CLAN    ANIMALS 

When  the  animal  names  became  associated  with  the  social  groups 
they  were  accompanied  by  the  specific  associations  clustering  around 
these  animals.  These  associations  were  probably  of  the  same  type, 
if  not  indeed  identical  with  those  grouped  around  the  animals  as 
guardian  spirits.  The  clan  animals  are  among  the  principal  guardian 
spirits  to-day,  and  we  must  expect  to  find  an  explanation  of  the  atti- 
tude toward  them  as  clan  animals  in  the  attitude  exhibited  toward 
the  guardian  spirit.  To  a  certain  extent  it  would  be  quite  correct 
to  say  that  the  guardian  became  the  clan  animal.  This  does  not, 
however,  mean,  in  the  slightest  degree,  that  the  guardian  spirit  of 
the  individual  became  the  clan  animal,  but  merely  that  the  concept 
of  the  guardian  spirit  became  associated  with  a  local  group. 

The  guardian  spirit  is  at  the  present  time  conceived  of  as  an  im- 
material being  in  control  of  an  animal  species.  The  attitude  toward 
this  spirit  is  a  purely  religious  one,  and  exhibits  a  marked  absence  of 
taboo  of  any  kind.  It  is  an  open  question  whether  a  vision  must  be 
attested  by  obtaining  some  part  of  the  animal  "embodiment"  of 

0  For  fuller  discussion  cf.  P.  Radin,  The  Social  Organization  of  the  Winnebago  Indians,  Museum  Bulle- 
tin 10,  Anthropological  Series  5,  Geological  Survey  of  Canada,  1915. 


196  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

the  spirit,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  every  vision  is  symbolized  by 
a  special  gift  from  the  "spirit."  The  guardian  spirit  unit  may 
thus  be  said  to  consist  of  a  special  religious  attitude  plus  a  symbol. 

The  attitude  toward  the  clan  animal  differs  from  that  toward  the 
guardian  spirit  in  this  characteristic  respect,  that  more  emphasis  is 
laid  upon  identification  with  the  animal  itself  than  with  the  "spirit." 
As  far  as  could  be  determined,  the  clan  animal  is  the  thunderbird 
with  his  characteristics  of  lightning  and  thunder,  of  the  bear  who 
likes  honey  and  raisins,  etc.  The  animal  is  engraved  as  clan  symbol 
and  used  as  a  property  mark,  and  he  is  brought  into  intimate  con- 
tact with  the  group  by  the  postulation  of  descent.  Naturally, 
descent  is  not  from  the  "spirit"  animal  but  from  the  living  animal 
species.  Nevertheless  the  clan  animal  has,  at  the  same  time,  re- 
tained its  place  as  a  guardian  spirit,  and  in  a  most  suggestive  way, 
for  the  blessing  of  a  clan  animal  is  more  easily  obtained  by  a  member 
of  the  clan  than  by  an  outsider.  The  clan  animal  is,  in  short,  a  clan 
protector. 

In  this  change  of  attitude  two  considerations  seem  pertinent: 
first,  the  possibility  of  the  "spirit"  of  the  guardian  spirit  being  a 
product  of  the  esoteric  elaboration  connected  with  religious  societies, 
and  that  its  apparent  absence  in  the  clan  animal  represents  an 
exoteric  conception ;  secondly,  under  the  influence  of  the  social  func- 
tions of  the  clan,  an  originally  strong  religious  conception  of  the  clan 
animal  gave  place  to  an  identification  with  the  animal  species  itself. 
It  might  be  objected  that  there  is  no  inherent  correlation  between 
social  organization  and  animal  species  as  contrasted  with  spirit 
animals.  It  seems  certain,  however,  that  descent  could  only  be 
reckoned  from  the  animal,  and  as  long  as  descent  is  postulated  it 
must  be  from  the  animal.  With  regard  to  the  historical  priority  of 
the  "spirit"  conception,  little  can  be  definitely  said  except  that  the 
systematization  it  has  undergone  suggests  the  influence  of  esoteric 
societies,  and  that  the  visions  obtained  during  fasting  appear  to 
speak  of  the  guardian  "  spirit "  as  an  animal.  On  general  psychologi- 
cal considerations  we  are  inclined  to  believe  in  the  contrast  of  the 
material  and  spiritual  conception  of  the  animal  as  a  real  fact,  although 
it  would  be  hazardous  to  say  whether  one  or  the  other  lies  at  th^e  basis 
of  the  attitude  of  the  individual  toward  his  clan  animal. 

RELATIONSHIP   TO    CLAN    ANIMALS 

The  question  of  descent  from  the  animal  brings  us  to  the  con- 
sideration of  the  whole  intricate  relationship  of  the  individual  to  the 
clan  animal,  a  subject  that  has  played  so  prominent  a  part  in  dis- 
cussions of  totemism.  There  are  two  distinct  sources  for  the  de- 
termination of  this  relationship — data  obtained  in  reply  to  direct 
questioning,  and  that  contained  in  some  miscellaneous  myths  and  in 


RadinJ  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION GENERAL   DISCUSSION  197 

the  origin  myths.  Part  of  the  oral  data  is  merely  a  reflex  of  the  origin 
myths,  hut  part  is  not.  The  value  of  this  "unwritten"  material  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  represents  the  popular,  exoteric  attitude,  the  at- 
titude that,  on  the  whole,  is  not  the  result  of  conscious  rationaliza- 
tion, and  that  this  exoteric  view  may  very  likely  have  been  the 
basis  for  the  priestly  esoteric  interpretation. 

The  prevalent  conception  of  the  relationship  of  the  individual  to 
his  clan  animal  is  that  of  descent  from  an  animal  transformed  at 
the  origin  of  the  present  human  race  into  human  beings.  This 
view  is  expressed  in  some  of  the  origin  myths  and  the  general  state- 
ments of  individuals.  Direct  descent  from  an  animal  was  never 
postulated.  The  definition  of  the  term  "animal"  is,  however,  very 
difficult.  The  Indians  themselves  seem  to  make  a  distinction 
between  the  animal  of  to-day  and  the  animal  of  the  heroic  age. 
The  main  characteristics  of  the  animal  of  the  latter  was  his  power 
of  transformation  into  human  form  and  vice  versa.  Although  the 
animals  have  lost  this  to-day,  they  are  nevertheless  descended  from 
this  animal.  The  human  beings  are,  however,  descended  from 
precisely  the  same  "animals,"  so  that  it  might  be  well  to  bear  in 
mind  that  descent  from  the  transformed  animal  does  not  mean 
descent  from  the  animal  of  to-day.  This  view  is  more  systematically 
expressed  in  some  places.  According  to  one  miscellaneous  myth, 
the  existing  human  beings  and  animals  were  descended  from  the 
same  being,  who  once  possessed  infinite  powers  of  transformation 
now  into  human  and  now  into  animal  shape.  At  one  time,  presum- 
ably the  beginning  of  our  present  creation,  these  "beings"  either 
consciously  or  unconsciously  exhausted  all  their  "transforming" 
power,  and  the  form  into  which  they  changed  themselves,  human 
or  animal,  remained  fixed  for  all  time.  The  existing  animals  have 
never  succeeded  in  regaining  their  power  of  transformation.  Among 
human  beings  this  power  has  only  been  vouchsafed  to  those  few 
who  have  obtained  it  as  a  special  gift  from  some  spirit.  Even 
then,  however,  it  is  ludicrously  incomplete  as  compared  with  the 
same  powers  of  primordial  "beings."  This  conception  of  the 
animal-human  archetype  must  not  be  regarded  as  at  all  flavoring 
of  a  philosophy  developed  after  contact  with  Europeans.  The 
error  that  has  always  been  committed  in  discussions  upon  the 
nature  of  descent  from  the  animal  lies  in  confusing  our  concept  of 
animal  species  with  the  term  "animal"  as  used  by  primitive  people, 
and  in  the  lack  of  discrimination  between  the  possible  connotations 
of  that  same  term,  as  applied  to  animals  of  to-day  and  as  applied 
to  those  animals  that  were  brought  into  intimate  contact  with  the 
clan  ancestor. 

There  is  no  reason  for-  regarding  the  specific  descent  from  the 
totem  as  a  development  of  this  older  Winnebago  idea  of  the  origin 


198  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ajn.  37 

of  human  and  animal  forms.  The  latter  conception  is  entirely  a 
religious  one,  the  former  merely  an  extension  of  the  genealogical 
tendency  prevalent  in  many  types  of  social  organization.  Instead 
of  being  simply  descended  from  an  individual  in  a  given  social  unit, 
the  bond  of  membership  within  this  unit  has  been  strengthened  by 
the  postulation  of  blood  relationship  to  the  clan  animal.  The  idea 
of  descent  may  thus  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  the  elements  necessary 
for  the  stability  of  a  political  unit  and  may  be  far  older  than  its 
specific  extension  to  those  clan  animals.  A  very  illuminating  ex- 
ample of  a  case  in  point  can  be  selected  from  the  history  of  the  war 
bundle  in  the  Thunderbird  clan.  This  bundle,  like  the  others,  was 
obtained  as  a  gift  from  the  thunderbird  in  his  capacity  as  a  guardian 
spirit.  The  ceremony  connected  with  it  has,  however,  been  markedly 
influenced  by  the  clan  organization  and  as  a  result  we  find  descent 
from  the  thunderbird  and  night-spirit,  the  two  most  important 
spirits  in  the  ceremony,  postulated  of  the  original  owner  of  the  war 
bundle.  The  same  tendency  is  exhibited  in  the  numerous  stories  of 
the  relation  of  an  individual  of  the  heroic  age  to  a  village.  Here 
the  individual,  generally  a  transformed  guardian  spirit  or  animal, 
comes  to  the  aid  of  the  people  in  their  struggle  against  cannibals, 
defeats  the  latter  and  marries  into  the  village,  becoming  thus  the 
eponymous  ancestor  of  the  subsequent  village  group. 

At  the  same  time  no  strong  correlation  apparently  exists  between 
a  totemic  organization  and  the  extension  of  descent  to  include  the 
clan  animal,  this  seemingly  being  a  peculiarity  of  certain  cultures 
only.  Bonds  other  than  descent  from  the  animal  are  frequently 
found  and  must  unquestionably  be  considered  as  older  than  the 
latter  in  a  number  of  cases.  On  the  Northwest  coast,  among  the 
Creek,  Iroquois,  and  other  tribes,  descent  from  the  totem  is  not 
found.  Among  the  Winnebago  themselves,  in  addition  to  the  above, 
we  find  the  idea  that  the  Thunderbird  clan  takes  its  name  from  the 
fact  of  its  members  imitating  the  actions  of  that  animal.  Some 
versions  of  the  origin  myth  give  no  reasons  at  all  for  the  name,  while 
in  others  an  animal  is  killed,  becomes  reincarnated  as  a  human 
being  in  a  certain  village,  and  the  group  takes  its  name  from  the 
fact.  The  descent  from  the  totem,  however,  where  it  has  not  been 
primary,  owing  to  its  being  a  reflex  expression  of  the  social  organiza- 
tion, quite  generally  supplants  the  other  interpretation. 

THE    CLAN    TIE 

In  intimate  relation  with  the  attitude  toward  the  clan  animal  is  the 
conception  of  the  tie  binding  one  member  of  the  clan  to  another. 
In  no  case  did  an  individual  regard  the  tie  between  him  and  another 
member  of  the  same  clan  as  based  upon  descent  from  the  same  animal. 
Blood  relationship  was  always  given  as  the  reason  for  exogamy,  as  is 


kadin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION — GENERAL   DISCUSSION  199 

shown  by  the  very  word  for  clan  (holcilc'aradjera) .  This  concept  of 
blood  relationship  was  extended  to  the  mother's  clan  generation. 
As  we  have  pointed  out,  there  is  no  reason  for  assuming  that  blood 
relationship  is  the  primary  explanation.  The  number  of  explanations 
for  exogamy  existing  between  one  clan  and  another,  and  between 
the  clans  of  one  side  as  opposed  to  those  of  another,  indicate  clearly 
how  readily  interpretations  of  this  phenomenon  change.  The  Bear 
does  not  marry  into  the  Wolf  clan  because  they  are  friends  (hitcalc'oro), 
and  does  not  marry  into  the  Buffalo  clan  because  it  belongs  to  the 
same  side,  or  no  reason  at  all  is  assigned.  Before  the  question  of  the 
clan  tie  can  be  thoroughly  understood,  the  kind  of  blood  relationship 
that  is  here  meant  must  be  more  carefully  defined.  This  is  not  a  very 
general  but  a  very  definite  notion,  and  may  be  said  to  extend  not 
beyond  four  generations,  in  fact  not  beyond  the  direct  knowledge 
of  some  living  individual.  This  will  be  brought  out  more  clearly 
by  the  following  tables,  based  on  actual  genealogies: 

(F)  Thunderbird— Bear  (M)  1.  or: 

(F)  Bear— Eagle  (M)  2.  (F)  Thunderbird— Bear  (M)  1. 

(F)  Eagle— Wolf  (M)  3.  (M)  Bear— Eagle  (F)  2. 

(F)  Wolf— Thunderbird  (M)  4.  (M)  Bear— Thunderbird  (F)  3. 

(M)  Thunderbird— Bear  (F)  5. 

All  these  marriages  are  permitted.  In  the  first  case  a  man  marries 
into  his  maternal  grandmother's  maternal  grandfather's  clan;  and 
in  the  second,  a  man  marries  into  his  paternal  grandmother's  clan. 
We  will  consequently  have  to  consider  blood  relationship  as  extending 
only  to  four,  sometimes  three,  generations,  and  have  to  regard  the 
statement  of  blood  relationship  as  the  tie  binding  the  members  of 
the  clan  together  as  purely  fictitious  and  secondary.  That,  neverthe- 
less, this  fictitious  tie  called  forth  the  same  feeling  as  that  of  real 
relationship,  there  is  abundant  evidence  to  show,  and  that  it  was  of 
considerable  importance  in  the  development  of  the  Winnebago  clan- 
unit  is  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  the  clan  was  called  "those-who-are- 
relatives-to-one-another. ' ' 

CLAN    FUNCTIONS 

The  association  of  political  functions  with  definite  social  units  is  a 
common  phenomenon  in  most  cultures  where  a  tendency  toward 
socialization  exists.  It  is  strictly  comparable  to  the  association  of 
ceremonial  and  religious  functions  with  ceremonial  units.  In  this 
connection,  the  difference  between  an  association  with  a  group  unit 
and  an  association  with  an  individual  is  of  fundamental  importance. 
Is  the  former,  for  instance,  merely  an  extension  of  the  latter  'i  This 
only  individual  history  can  demonstrate.  Such  a  genetic  relationship 
between  the  two  depends  probably  as  much  upon  the  nature  of  the 


200  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  anx.  37 

political  function  as  upon  anything  else.  The  exact  time  when  this 
socialization  took  place  is  of  no  great  import  here.  Among  the 
Winnebago,  for  instance,  some  individuals  claim  that  the  functions 
of  the  public  crier  were  inherent  in  the  Buffalo  clan,  while  others 
insist  that  any  person  who  had  counted  coup  four  times  was  eligible 
for  the  office.  Now,  in  this  case  not  only  is  it  possible  but  it  is 
extremely  probable  that  the  office  of  public  crier  was  originally  con- 
nected with  an  individual,  and  that  subsequently  it  became  associated 
with  the  Buffalo  clan,  probably  by  reason  of  a  certain  relationship 
existing  between  this  clan  and  the  Chief  clan.  It  must,  of  course, 
be  remembered  that  a  grouping  had  already  taken  place,  because  the 
requirement  of  having  counted  coup  four  times  made  a  large  number 
of  warriors  potentially  public  criers.  Its  association  with  mem- 
bership in  the  Buffalo  clan  represented,  on  the  one  hand,  a  restriction 
of  the  number  of  individuals,  and  on  the  other  hand,  the  addition  of 
another  qualification.  Historically,  then,  the  qualification  of  mem- 
bership in  the  clan  supplanted  the  other  qualifications,  at  least  in 
the  eyes  of  a  number  of  individuals.  What  has  been  said  of  the 
development  of  the  functions  of  the  Buffalo  may  also  be  generally 
applied  to  the  Warrior  or  Hawk  clan. 

Political  functions  may,  however,  become  connected  with  a  group 
unit  without  the  individual  playing  any  role  either  in  directing  or  in 
developing  it.  The  functions  of  preserving  peace  and  of  acting  as 
intermediary,  that  among  the  Winnebago  are  connected  with  the 
Thunderbird  clan,  and  the  police  and  disciplinary  functions  con- 
nected with  the  Bear  clan,  may  represent  such  types  of  association. 
In  the  absence  of  historical  data,  no  demonstration  can  be  made.  It 
will,  however,  be  shown  later  that  association  of  ceremonial-religious 
functions  with  a  social  unit  has  actually  occurred.  That  the  police 
and  disciplinary  functions  of  the  Bear  clan  developed  from  functions 
of  individuals,  on  the  basis  of  requirements  similar  to  those  of  the 
public  crier,  is  quite  improbable,  and  no  indication  of  that  exists. 
Similarly  the  functions  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  do  not  lend  themselves 
readily  to  such  an  interpretation.  But  even  should  we  accept  the 
necessity  for  the  priority  of  the  one  over  the  other  types  of  associa- 
tion, we  must  still  insist  that  psychologically  the  functions  are  in 
each  case  associated  with  a  group  unit. 

Four  of  the  Winnebago  clans  have  specific  political  functions  the 
details  of  which  are  discussed  elsewhere.  The.  Thunderbird,  the 
chief  clan,  and  in  addition  to  the  fact  that  the  chief  of  the  tribe  is 
selected  from  it,  has  important  functions  connected  with  the  preser- 
vation of  peace;  the  Warrior  clan  has  functions  connected  with  war; 
the  Bear  clan,  those  relating  to  policing  and  discipline,  both  within 
the  village  and  while  on  the  hunt,  etc.;  and  the  Buffalo  clan,  those 
relating  to  the  office  of  public  crier  and  intermediary  between  the 


radix]  SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION — GENERAL  DISCUSSION  201 

chief  and  his  people.  The  Wolf,  Water-spirit,  and  Elk  clans  seem 
also  to  have  possessed  minor  political-social  functions.  Thus  the 
Wolf  people  are  regarded  as  "minor"  soldiers;  the  Water-spirit 
people  are  connected  with  the  passage  of  streams,  etc.;  and  the  Elk 
are  connected  with  the  care  of  the  fireplaces  while  on  the  hunt  and 
warpath.  This  accounts  for  seven  of  the  twelve  clans,  and  it  thus 
seems  as  if  the  association  of  political  functions  with  clans  was  a  type 
that  had  found  great  favor  among  the  Winnebago,  and  was  perhaps 
being  extended  to  every  clan.  Among  the  Dhegiha,  associations  of 
ceremonial  functions  with  social  units  seem  to  have  found  corre- 
sponding favor,  while  among  the  Central  Algonquian  neither  type 
prevailed. 

Marked  political  and  ceremonial  functions  of  the  clan  are  thus  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  Siouan  social  organization  and 
have  given  an  entirely  different  color  to  clan  structure  there. 

THE    RECIPROCAL    RELATIONSHIP    OF    THE    CLANS 

We  have  seen  that  one  of  the  bonds  between  the  clans  was  the 
fact  of  belonging  to  the  same  side.  But  there  is  a  special  bond  be- 
tween certain  clans  known  as  "friendship"  relation  (hitcak'oro). 
This  always  subsists  between  two,  although  it  seems  occasionally  to 
have  been  extended  to  three  or  four  clans.  Most  informants  gave 
these  groups  in  such  a  manner  that  the  "friendship  "  relation  was  not 
postulated  between  clans  belonging  to  different  divisions.  One  in- 
dividual postulated  them  just  on  this  basis,  i.  e.,  Thunderbird-Bear, 
Warrior-Wolf,  etc.  There  can,  however,  be  no  doubt  that  the  preva- 
lent arrangement  is:  Thunderbird-Warrior;  Eagle-Pigeon ;  Bear- Wolf ; 
Buffalo-Water-spirit ;  Elk-Deer ;  Snake-Fish.  Most  informants  did  not 
claim  any  pairing  for  the  Snake,  while  some  associated  it  in  a  three- 
fold grouping  with  the  Buffalo  and  Water-spirit.  The  four  clans  of 
the  Watjgeregi  are  generally  united  in  a  fourfold  group  of  "friend 
clan,"  although  some  divide  them  into  Thunderbird-Warrior  and 
Eagle-Pigeon. 

Under  the  term  "friend  clan  "  is  included  the  idea  of  mutual  service. 
This  becomes  especially  marked  on  two  occasions:  first,  when  a  mem- 
ber of  one  clan  visits  his  "friend  clan,"  and  second,  when  an  injustice 
has  been  done  a  member  of  the  "friend  clan."  On  the  former  oc- 
casion every  possible  privilege  is  extended  to  him,  even  to  his  occu- 
pying the  seat  and  bed  of  the  host.  There  is  no  indication  of  "wife- 
borrowing,"  however.  On  the  latter  occasion,  the  "  friend  clan  "  will 
seek  to  revenge  the  injustice  just  as  if  the  wrong  had  been  done  one  of 
its  own  members.  The  respect  shown  by  one  clan  to  its  "friend  clan  " 
is  again  apparent  at  the  naming-feast.  There  he  may  be  called  upon 
to  give  the  dog  names  for  an  individual  of  the  clan  with  which  he  is 
associated,  and,  at  times,  to  lend  one  of  his  clan  names  to  the  latter. 
1S6823— 22 14 


202  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

The  relation  ofTiitcak'oro  or  "friend  clan"  is  thus  strictly  analogous 
to  that  which  exists  between  two  individuals  who  are  hitcak'oro 
to  each  other.  It  is  one  of  the  characteristic  traits  of  Siouan  cul- 
ture that  two  individuals  often  form  a  strong,  inextricable  friendship. 
Not  only  are  they  always  together  but  the  death  of  one  on  the  war- 
path involves  that  of  the  other.  The  same  intimate  relationship 
seems  to  exist  between  an  uncle  (hidek1)  and  his  nephew  (hitcy,cge). 
There  is,  however,  one  fundamental  difference  between  such  relation 
as  that  existing  between  hidek'  and  hifcy,cge,  the  members  of  the  family 
group,  and  the  members  of  the  same  clan,  on  the  one  hand,  and  clan 
hitcak'oro,  on  the  other.  In  the  former  there  is  the  bond  of  blood, 
real  or  fictitious;  in  the  latter,  only  that  of  mutual  service.  On  the 
other  hand,  while  the  hidek' -hitcycge  relation,  the  individual  hitcak'oro 
and  the  clan  hitcalc'oro  all  may  be  of  different  historical  origin,  they 
are  psychologically  the  same.  The  postulation  of  even  a  fictitious 
blood  bond  between  the  different  individual  hitcak'oro  and  the  clan 
hitcak'oro  is  not  unheard  of.  For  the  hitcak'oro  relation  of  individuals 
this  is  always  possible,  for  if  one  individual  dies,  his  hitcalc'oro  is  gen- 
erally adopted  to  fill  his  place.  On  the  other  hand,  the  myths  seem 
to  indicate  that  no  blood  bond  was  regarded  as  existing  between 
them,  for  they  generally  married  each  other's  sisters. 

What  historical  relation  the  clan  hitcak'oro  bears  to  the  indi- 
vidual hitcak'oro  relation,  it  is  impossible  to  state,  but  the  remarks 
made  before  are  pertinent  here,  and  no  genetic  relationship  need  be 
postulated. 

THE    SPECIFIC    POSSESSIONS    OF    THE    CLAN 

Among  the  Omaha  a  number  of  clans  have  in  their  possession  cer- 
tain objects  around  which  not  merely  the  clan  but  also  the  tribal 
reverence  is  centered.  Historically,  we  believe  that  these  were 
originally  possessions  of  an  individual  clan,  which  subsequently 
became  identified  with  the  entire  tribe.  Among  the  Winnebago 
nothing  remotely  comparable  to  these  clan  possessions  exists,  and 
the  few  specific  objects  possessed  by  the  clan  have  never  become  of 
real  tribal  significance. 

The  specific  material  possessions  of  the  clan  consist  of  certain  war 
bundles,  one  in  each  clan;  and  two  crooks  in  the  possession  of  the 
Bear  clan.  There  also  exist  war  clubs,  of  which  there  are  two  types, 
one  found  among  the  waygeregi,  the  other  among  the  manegi  divi- 
sions. In  connection  with  the  clan  bundles  there  are  certain  cere- 
monials known  as  clan-bundle  or  war-bundle  feasts,  popularly  as 
Winter  Feasts.  The  distribution  of  the  clan  bundle  differentiates 
these  from  the  specific  possessions  of  the  Omaha  clans,  and  suggests 
a  hint  as  to  their  historical  associations.  To  all  intents  and  pur- 
poses, as  their  individual  history  shows,  these   bundles  are  merely 


Radin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION — GENERAL   DISCISSION  203 

gifts  from  one  spirit,  the  thunderbird,  and  a  secondarily  associated 
night-spirit  (hqhe).  The  Winter  Feast  might  thus  be  interpreted 
as  a  society  of  those  who  have  obtained  blessings  from  the  thunder- 
bird.  The  bundle  remains  in  the  possession  of  a  certain  family, 
however,  and  cannot  pass  out  of  the  clan.  The  war  bundle  may 
therefore  be  said  to  be  primarily  the  personal  possession  of  a 
family  which  has  become  associated  with  all  the  members  of  the  clan 
to  such  an  extent  that  it  is  almost  regarded  as  a  clan  possession. 

In  the  possession  of  the  two  crooks  by  the  Bear  clan  we  have  an 
example  of  specific  clan  property.  The  crooks  are  in  the  nature  of 
emblems  and  are  used  on  the  warpath  to  indicate  the  extreme  line 
of  advance.  They  are  thus  of  tribal  significance.  When  not  in  use 
they  are  kept  in  the  lodge  of  the  Bear  clan. 

IMMATERIAL    POSSESSIONS    OF    THE    CLAN 

Although  there  are  no  specific  material  possessions,  each  clan 
has  certain  "immaterial"  possessions.  They  all  have  the  added  con- 
notation of  sacredness.  For  the  Bird  clans,  it  is  the  possession  of  fire; 
for  the  Bear,  the  doorway  of  his  lodge;  for  the  Wolf  and  Water-spirit, 
water.  They  were  not  obtained  for  all  the  clans.  We  indicated  before 
that  these  "possessions"  may  have  been  primarily  connected  with  the 
animals  associated  with  the  clan,  upon  which  an  additional  socio- 
religious  interpretation  has  been  superimposed.  The  whole  subject 
is,  however,  closely  related  to  that  of  clan  etiquette,  for  which,  of 
course,  no  explanations  can  be  given  now. 

THE    CLAN    MARKS    OF   IDENTIFICATION 

As  if  more  fully  to  set  off  the  social  unit  of  the  clan,  there  have 
come  to  be  associated  with  it  definite  marks  of  identification,  such  as 
symbols,  property  marks,  facial  decorations,  and  songs. 

The  symbols  of  only  two  clans  were  obtained,  although  a  number 
of  other  clans  seem  to  have  possessed  them.  These  were  the  war 
club  (namqtce)  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  and  the  peculiarly  whittled 
stick  (narnaxinixini)  of  the  Bear  clan.  When  a  member  of  the 
Thunderbird  clan  died  a  miniature  war  club  was  buried  with  him. 
Whether  the  narnaxinixini  was  buried  with  a  member  of  a  Bear 
clan  we  do  not  know. 

The  property  mark  consisted  of  the  effigy  of  the  clan  animal,  and 
was  woven  on  such  objects  as  bags,  tobacco  pouches,  etc.  It  was 
also  frequently  engraved  on  wooden  objects.  Its  most  peculiar  uses, 
however,  were  the  emblematic  earthen  effigy  mounds,  in  the  shape 
of  the  clan  animal,  which  were  erected  near  the  habitation  of  each 
clan  in  the  village  and  in  the  center  of  clan  squash  fields,  cornfields,  etc. 


204  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Associated  with  every  clan  was  also  four  clan  songs.  These  were 
supposed  to  be  the  four  songs  sung  by  the  ancestors  of  each  clan  when 
they  came  to  this  earth.  They  were  always  sung  on  the  death  of  an 
individual,  and  were  supposed  to  serve  as  a  mark  of  identification  in 
the  journey  of  the  soul  to  the  land  of  the  spirits.  The  use  of  these 
songs  was  so  intimately  associated  with  death  that  when  some 
hardened  offender,  let  us  say,  some  individual  who  had  killed  a 
member  of  the  tribe  and  who  refused  to  make  atonement  of  any 
kind,  was  pursued,  he  defiantly  sang  his  clan  songs. 

As  a  last  element  in  the  clan  complex  may  be  mentioned  the 
specific  facial  decorations  existing  in  each  clan. 

We  have  now  completed  the  discussion  of  clan  organization.  As 
we  saw,  it  consisted  of  a  large  number  of  cultural  elements  of  the 
most  heterogeneous  historical  origin.  So  many  indications  are  there, 
indeed,  of  interpretations,  reinterpretations,  and  secondary  associa- 
tion that  it  is  impossible  to  form  any  correct  idea  of  what  is  histori- 
cally primary,  except  the  self-evident  fact  that  it  had  grown  around 
a  strong  social-political  unit. 

INFLUENCE    OF   THE    CLAN    UPON    CEREMONIAL    ORGANIZATION 

Perhaps  the  most  characteristic  trait  of  Winnebago  culture  is  the 
existence  of  two  strong  socialized  units,  that  of  the  clan  and  that  of 
the  secret  society.  Historically  both  are  old,  and  even  if  we  are  of  the 
opinion  that  the  clan  is  historically  younger,  the  political  unit  upon 
which  it  is  superimposed  is  probably  an  ultimate  historical  fact. 
From  the  earliest  times  one  would  have  supposed  reciprocal  influences 
to  have  occurred  repeatedly.  The  nature  of  these  influences,  in  so 
far  as  they  are  not  conditioned  by  chance,  would  depend  upon  the 
respective  center  of  gravity  in  either  unit.  It  is  evident  that  for  the 
clan  the  organization  was  of  paramount  importance,  and  that  the 
addition  of  cultural  associations  probably  tended  to  strengthen  its 
stability  in  this  respect.  On  the  other  hand,  the  absence  of  political 
or  governmental  functions  in  the  religious  societies,  and  the  cluster- 
ing of  the  most  multitudinous  religious  and  shamanistic  ideas  within 
them,  rendered  the  emotional  unit  of  the  latter  the  center  from  which 
influences  would  radiate.  At  the  same  time,  the  ceremonial  unit  of 
organization  seems  to  have  been  so  firmly  fixed  that  any  influence  of 
the  clan  unit  of  organization  upon  it  does  not  seem  likely.  As  a 
matter  of  fact,  in  the  typical  schematic,  religious  society  like  the 
Medicine  Dance,  the  Grizzly-Bear  Dance,  and  Night-Spirit  Dance, 
no  influence  is  perceptible.  However,  these  religious  societies  may 
be  regarded  as  presenting  no  possible  points  of  contact.  Where, 
however,  the  bond  of  union  is  supernatural  communication  with  a 
guardian  spirit  who  subsequently  became  the  clan  animal,  an  obvious 
point  of  contact  is  given,  and  this  brings  to  mind  a  very  suggestive 


■eadin]  SOCIAL  OBGA~SnZAT)OT5=-GENEBAL  DISCUSSION  205 

fact  of  Winnebago  culture,  namely,  that  there  are,  strictly  speaking, 
no  religious  societies  based  on  communication  from  a  clan  animal. 
There  are,  however,  clan  and  clan-bundle  (Winter)  feasts  which,  in 
many  respects,  are  absolutely  identical  with  the  religious  societies, 
and  which  furnish,  it  seems  to  us,  an  example  of  just  those  two  kinds 
of  influence  that  we  wished  to  point  out,  one  radiating  from  the  clan 
as  an  organization,  the  other  from  the  entire  clan  unit. 

In  the  Winter  Feasts  the  unit  of  organization  is  the  clan.  Gen- 
erally all  the  clans  were  represented  in  the  person  of  the  owner  of 
each  specific  clan  war  bundle.  The  order  of  invitation  was  tradi- 
tionally fixed,  but  it  seems  that  in  a  number  of  cases  the  "friend" 
clan  always  had  the  position  of  honor.  The  war-bundle  owner  was 
not,  however,  supposed  to  represent  the  clan  at  all,  but  the  spirits 
to  whom  offerings  were  being  made.  In  every  case,  although  the 
participants  were  supposed  to  represent  a  fairly  large  number  of 
animals,  the  main  blessings  that  were  contained  in  the  war  bundle 
were  from  the  thunderbird  and  night-spirit  and  the  main  offerings 
were  indeed  made  to  them.  There  seem  thus  to  have  been  two 
separate  ceremonies  involved,  one  to  the  thunderbird  and  the  other 
to  the  night-spirits. 

The  question  arising  with  regard  to  the  clan  basis  of  these  cere- 
monial organizations  is  whether  we  are  to  imagine  that  the  cere- 
monial unit  of  organization  was  displaced  by  the  clan  unit,  or  whether 
we  are  to  suppose  that  the  ceremony  is  of  comparatively  recent 
origin,  let  us  say  at  least  long  after  the  clan  organization  had  been 
perfected,  and  that  a  number  of  things  combined  to  determine  the ' 
acceptance  of  the  clan  as  a  unit  of  organization,  as  opposed  to  the 
traditional  ceremonial  one.  To  the  foregoing  we  must  also  add  the 
fact  that  the  Winter  Feast  seems  to  be  related  to  similar  ceremonies 
of  the  Central  Algonquian,  whose  influence  on  the  Winnebago  must 
first  be  determined.  If,  then,  we  are  not  in  a  position  at  present  to 
suggest  the  course  of  development,  there  can  be  no  doubt  that  the 
content  of  the  ceremony  is  strictly  comparable  to  that  of  the  religious 
societies,  and  that  there  are  hints  that  the  ceremonial  unit  of  organi- 
zation had  begun  to  assert  itself.  If  this  could  be  definitely  estab- 
lished, it  would  indicate  that  the  clan  basis  of  organization  is  his- 
torically primary. 

The  clan  unit  of  organization  is  found  in  no  other  Winnebago  cere- 
mony, although  the  specific  clan  feasts  show  marked  influences 
radiating  from  the  clan  unit.  The  clan  feast  is  a  typical  ceremonial 
complex,  both  in  type  of  organization  and  in  content.  The  differ- 
ence between  it  and  a  society  like  that  of  the  night-spirit  lies  in  the 
fact  that  although  the  five  principal  participants  must  have  specific 
blessings  (bundles),  they  must  at  the  same  time  belong  to  the  clan. 
To  what  extent  a  member  of  one  clan  who  has  obtained  a  bundle 


206  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  a.n.n.  37 

from  some  other  clan  spirit  can  take  part  in  the  specific  clan  feast 
of  the  latter  it  is  difficult  to  determine,  but  in  the  buffalo  feast, 
assuming  that  this  is  unquestionably  the  real  Buffalo  clan  feast,  any 
person  who  has  obtained  a  bundle  from  the  buffalo  can  participate, 
although  the  leader  must  always  belong  to  the  Buffalo  clan.  This 
example  may  be  taken  as  an  indication  of  the  historical  origin  of 
these  feasts,  namely,  that  they  are  really  religious  societies  in  which 
the  influence  of  the  clan  has  restricted  the  number  of  individuals 
who  are  ordinarily  supposed  to  occupy  the  five  places  of  honor. 
That  this  restrictive  influence  of  the  clan  was  caused  by  the  identity 
of  the  clan  animal  with  the  guardian  spirit  there  can  be  little  doubt. 


CHAPTER  IX 


SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION— SPECIFIC  CLANS 

The  Thunderbird  Clan 

introduction 

The  Thunderbird  clan  was  unquestionably  the  most  important  of 
all  the  Winnebago  clans.  In  numbers  it  seems  to  have  equaled  the 
three  other  clans  of  its  phratry,  and,  since  the  upper  phratry  had 
about  as  many  individuals  as  the  lower  phratry,  the  Thunderbird 
clan  must  have  comprised  about  one-fourth  of  the  entire  tribe. 
How  are  we  to  explain  this?  Historical  data  are,  of  course,  missing, 
so  that  any  explanation  reached  is  entirely  hypothetical,  but  still 
it  seems  justifiable  to  hazard  some  interpretation.  The  most  plau- 
sible hypothesis  is  to  assume  that  the  Winnebago  were  originally 
organized  on  a  village  basis  and  that  the  largest  of  these  villages 
and  the  earliest  to  adopt  the  clan  organization  were  those  that  took 
the  thunderbird  as  their  totem. 

In  the  origin  myths,  the  origin  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  is  always 
given  as  Green  Bay,  and  in  contradistinction  to  the  accounts  of 
other  clans,  the  ancestors  of  the  clan  are  supposed  to  have  originated 
at  Green  Bay  and  not  to  have  traveled  there  from  some  other  place. 
How  much  credence  is  to  be  given  to  such  a  localization  it  is  hard 
to  say,  but  assuredly  it  should  not  be  dismissed  as  entirely  worthless. 

The  origin  myths  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  possess  some  inter- 
esting features  which  deserve  a  few  words  of  comment.  In  the 
first  version  we  have  an  account  of  the  creation  of  the  world  which 
is  almost  identical  with  that  given  in  the  origin  myth  of  the  Medicine 
Dance  (p.  350).  None  of  the  other  clan  origin  myths  contain  it. 
How  are  we  to  explain  this  ?  As  a  secondary  accretion  or  as  an 
original  and  archaic  feature?  On  internal  evidence  we  suspect  that 
it  is  a  secondary  accretion  and  that  the  original  version  began  with 
the  second  paragraj>h.  There  seems  to  be  no  intelligible  reason 
for  having  Earthmaker  create  two  sets  of  individuals.  If  we  sup- 
pose that  the  original  version  began  with  the  second  paragraph 
and  that  the  general  account  of  the  creation  was  subsequently 
added,  we  would  have  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  this  feature. 
Only  one  of  the  three  versions  obtained  contains  this  general  ac- 

207 


208  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

count  of  creation,  and  thus  we  have  another  reason  for  doubting 
its  age. 

There  are  other  indications  of  an  assimilation  with  the  general 
origin  myth  hi  our  versions,  such  as  the  absence  of  animals  on  the 
earth  and  the  ascription  of  certain  geographical  features  to  the  activity 
of  the  thunderbirds.  Throughout,  however,  we  are  always  con- 
fronted with  the  possibility  that  we  may  be  dealing  with  an  old 
village  origin  myth.  There  seems  to  be  no  doubt  but  that  the 
episode  of  the  origin  of  death,  so  distinct  from  that  given  in  the  general 
origin  myth,  is  archaic.  Other  features,  on  the  other  hand,  like 
the  description  of  the  origin  of  fire,  are  clearly  reflections  of  certain 
possessions  always  associated  with  the  Thunderbird  clan. 

A  perusal  of  the  following  versions  and  the  versions  of  the  other 
clan  origin  myths  indicates  clearly  how  personal  the  accounts  are. 
The  members  of  the  Thunderbird  clan,  as  we  shall  subsequently 
show  for  the  members  of  the  other  clans  too,  make  claims  of  power 
and  importance  for  their  clans  that  are  hardly  justified  by  what 
we  know  of  their  actual  power.  As  sources  of  information,  there- 
fore, we  must  be  extremely  cautious  in  our  use  of  these  origin  myths. 

Before  leaving  this  subject  it  might  be  well  to  point  out  the  num- 
ber of  different  explanations  given  in  these  myths  of  the  relations 
of  the  members  of  the  clan  to  their  eponymous  clan  ancestor.  If 
a  Winnebago  were  asked  what  this  relation  was  he  would  answer 
offhand  that  the  members  of  the  different  clans  were  descended 
from  certain  spirit-thunderbirds  who  were  transformed  into  human 
beings  at  Green  Bay. 

In  the  first  version  the  ancestors  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  are 
created  by  Earthmaker  and  brought  down  to  earth  by  the  four  spirit- 
thunderbirds  the  first  Earthmaker  had  created.  They  are  ap- 
parently human  beings  and  not  heroic  birds,  as  most  of  the  members 
of  the  clan  assure  you.  To  complicate  the  situation  we  have  even 
the  mention  of  the  fact  that  the  second  set  of  people  who  came  to 
visit  them  were  members  of  the  Thunderbird  clan. 

In  the  second  version  we  have  the  customary  identification  of 
the  ancestors  of  this  clan  with  birds.  At  the  end  of  this  version  we 
have  the  distinct  statement,  which  is,  however,  clearly  not  part  of 
the  myth  but  an  explanation  by  the  informant,  that  the  members 
of  the  clan  call  themselves  thunderbirds  because  they,  like  the 
true  thunderbirds,  caused  a  drizzling  rain  and  fog  when  they  went 
about. 

It  is  only  in  the  myth  of  the  origin  of  the  Warrior  clan  that  we  have 
what  can  be  interpreted  as  an  account  identical  with  that  given 
offhand  by  the  Winnebago.  Here  we  are  told  that  the  warriors 
or  hawks  when  they  entered  the  lodge  at  Green  Bay  began  to  look 
different  and  that  their  feathers  were  worn  off. 


RADiN]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC    CLANS  209 

From  these  facts  it  is  quite  clear  that,  as  far  as  the  Thunderbird 
clan  is  concerned,  the  prevailing  belief  as  to  the  relation  of  the  mem- 
bers of  the  clan  to  the  clan  ancestor  is  but  feebly  substantiated  by 
the  origin  myths. 

As  mentioned  before,  the  chief  of  the  tribe  was  selected  from  the 
Thunderbird  clan,  although  the  selection  was  apparently  restricted 
to  certain  families.  The  functions  of  the  chief  of  the  tribe  were  con- 
nected with  peace.  He  could  not  lead  a  war  party,  although,  accord- 
ing to  some,  he  could  accompany  one.  His  lodge  stood  either  in  the 
center  of  the  village  or  at  the  south  end,  according  to  which  of  the 
two  descriptions  one  cares  to  accept,  and  contained  a  sacred  fire- 
place, around  which  only  members  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  could 
sit.  This  lodge  was  an  asylum  for  all  wrongdoers.  No  one  could  be 
killed  there,  and  a  prisoner  who  succeeded  hi  making  his  escape  to  it 
was  spared.  Even  a  dog  destined  for  a  sacrifice  at  the  war-bundle 
feast  was  freed  if  he  took  refuge  in  it.  The  Thunderbird  chief  always 
acted  as  intercessor  between  wrongdoers  and  their  avengers.  Even 
hi  so  extreme  a  case  as  the  murder  of  a  clansman,  he  would  always 
attempt  a  reconciliation  by  which  the  life  of  the  murderer  might  be 
spared.  If  necessary,  the  chief  would  mortify  himself,  and  with 
skewers  inserted  hi  his  back  have  himself  led  through  the  village  to 
the  home  of  the  nearest  kinspeople  of  the  murdered  person. 

The  chief  seems  to  have  had  some  other  miscellaneous  functions, 
the  most  important  of  which  was,  perhaps,  his  right  to  prevent  an 
unauthorized  war  party  to  depart  from  the  village.  If  he,  as  an 
older  man  and  guardian  of  peace  and  the  best  interests  of  the  tribe, 
felt  that  a  war  party  was  taking  too  many  risks,  he  would  take  his 
pipe  and  place  it  across  the  path  of  the  one  contemplating  an  unwar- 
ranted expedition  and  thus  signify  his  disapproval.  If  then  the  war 
party  chose  to  go,  any  mishap  was  directly  chargeable  to  the  leader 
who  disobeyed.  Should  anyone  be  killed,  the  leader  was  regarded 
almost  hi  the  same  light  as  a  willful  murderer,  and  the  kinsmen  of 
the  deceased  warrior  could  demand  redress. 

Our  main  informant  for  the  Thunderbird  clan  summarized  the 
functions  as  follows: 

The  chief  is  chosen  from  one  of  the  "greater"  Thunderbird  clans  '  and  must  be  a 
man  of  well-balanced  temper,  not  easily  provoked,  and  of  good  habits.  The  one 
sacred  object  he  possesses  is  his  pipe.  He  must  be  a  peacemaker  and  love  all  the 
people  in  the  tribe,  the  little  children  included. 

If  he  saw  a  man,  woman,  or  child  passing  by,  he  was  to  call  them  in  and  give  them 
food  to  eat,  for  they  were  his  brothers  and  sisters.  All  the  relatives  he  has  are  to  look 
after  his  possessions  and  keep  him  well  supplied,  for  he  was  supposed  to  give  away 
things  constantly.     If  any  person  came  to  borrow  some  object  from  him,  he  would  tell 

1  He  divided  the  Thunderbird  clans  into  two  groups,  the  real  Thunderbird  and  the  Warrior  clans.  This 
latter  he  insisted  was  identical  with  the  thunderbirds  who  caused  the  rain  and  who  were  quite  different 
Ir uni  the  other  thunderbirds. 


210  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ash.  37 

the  man  that,  since  he  was  without  this  particular  thing,  to  keep  it  and  use  it  for  all 
time. 

The  public  crier,  a  member  of  the  Buffalo  clan,  was  supposed  to  report  to  the  chief 
early  every  morning  and  receive  instructions.  The  crier  would  then  go  all  around  the 
village  making  the  chief's  desires  known. 

The  chief  had  a  representative  at  every  council,  generally  his  brother. 

The  chief  of  the  village  is  a  peacemaker,  and  if  two  members  of  the  tribe  ever  get 
into  difficulties  (i.  e.,  quarrel)  he  is  supposed  to  intercede.  If  in  a  quarrel  a  person 
should  be  killed,  the  chief  would  go  to  the  murderer  and  tell  the  latter  to  permit  him- 
self to  be  tied  up — i.  e.,  to  give  himself  up  to  the  relatives  of  the  murdered  man.  If 
the  murderer  consents  to  do  so,  then  his  arms  are  tied  behind  him  and  the  chief  walks 
in  front  of  him  carrying  his  sacred  pipe.  Thus  they  would  go  to  the  lodge  of  the 
murdered  man's  relatives.  When  they  got  there  the  chief  would  extend  the  stem  of 
the  pipe  toward  them.  They  might  refuse  to  accept  the  pipe  thus  extended,  but  if 
any  member  of  the  family,  even  if  it  be  a  small  child,  were  to  take  a  puff  from  it,  then 
the  murderer  would  be  forgiven  and  turned  free. 

This  is  the  capacity  of  a  Winnebago  chief. 

Another  description  of  the  chief's  role  as  intercessor  for  a  murderer 
is  as  follows: 

When  the  Thunderbird  chief  wishes  to  save  a  murderer  they  take  one  of  their  own 
chiefs,  one  who  is  well  beloved,  paint  his  back  blue,  and  put  skewers  in  his  back,  to 
which  they  tie  cords.  Thus  he  is  taken  to  the  lodge  of  the  murdered  person's  rela- 
tives. The  chief,  when  he  gets  there,  holds  his  pipe  of  tobacco  in  both  hands.  Should 
the  relations  not  wish  to  accept  the  peace  offering  they  close  the  door  in  his  face. 
Then  he  returns. 

The  Thunderbird  clan  possessed  a  type  of  war  club  called  a  bald- 
headed  war  club,  which  was  sacred  to  this  clan  alone,  and  a 
miniature  of  which  was  always  buried  with  a  dead  body.  The  only 
other  possessions  were  the  clan  war  bundles.  The  Winnebago  often 
speak  as  though  each  clan  had  but  one  of  these  palladiums,  but  there 
seems  to  be  little  doubt  but  that  there  were  at  least  two  and  probably 
more  hi  each  clan.  These  war  bundles  must  be  regarded  as  the  com- 
mon possession  of  the  clan  at  the  present  time,  for  they  can  not  be 
alienated  from  the  clan.2  For  all  practical  purposes,  however,  they 
are  the  private  property  of  certain  individuals  or  families. 

Fire  was  considered  a  sacred  possession  of  the  Thunderbird  clan. 
As  mentioned  before,  an  individual  was  supposed  never  to  ask  for  a 
firebrand  from  the  fire  of  any  member  of  the  clan  and  was  never 
permitted  to  sit  near  such  a  fireplace.  If,  nevertheless,  anyone 
should  be  immodest  enough  to  ask  for  one  of  these  objects,  he  would 
be  refused,  but  he  would  be  permitted  to  ask  for  any  conceivable 
thing  else.  The  following  incident  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the 
definite  way  hi  which  this  peculiar  custom  works.     An  old  Winne- 

2  This  point  was  very  forcibly  impressed  upon  the  author  when  he  tried  to  obtain  the  war  bundle  of  a 
man  who  had  become  a  member  of  the  Peyote  cult.  The  man  was  perfectly  willing  to  part  with  it,  but 
after  repeated  requests  to  those  who  happened  to  possess  it  at  that  particular  time,  be  admitted  that  it 
belonged  to  the  clan,  although  they  could  not  have  taken  it  away  from  him  had  he  remained  a  believer  in 
the  old  faith. 


badin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  211 

bago  told  the  author  that  long  ago  a  young  man  wanted  to  marry  a 
girl  belonging  to  his  phratry  and  refused  to  listen  to  the  entreaties 
of  his  father  and  mother.  Finally  the  father,  in  desperation,  went 
over  to  the  lodge  of  a  man  belonging  to  one  of  the  clans  into  which 
the  young  man  could  marry  and  asked  for  one  of  the  sacred  posses- 
sions. It  was,  of  course,  refused,  and  when  the  man  was  asked  what 
other  requests  he  wished  to  make,  he  asked  that  the  host's  daughter 
be  allowed  to  marry  his  son.  This  was,  of  course,  granted,  and  thus 
the  boy  was  compelled  to  marry  into  the  proper  phratry. 

One  Winnebago  interpreted  the  custom  in  an  entirely  different 
way.  Exactly  how  much  importance  is  to  be  attached  to  this 
explanation  it  is  hard  to  say.  According  to  this  informant,  the 
insult  lay  not  in  going  to  the  fireplace  or  taking  a  firebrand,  but  in 
asking  for  it.  The  insult  apparently  consists  in  not  taking  it  for 
granted  that  anyone  entering  the  lodge  was  permitted  to  do  what 
he  wished.     In  other  words,  his  asking  was  a  breach  of  etiquette. 

The  typical  method  of  burial  in  the  Thunderbird  clan  was  scaffold 
burial.     It  has  long  since  been  discontinued. 

The  burial  customs  seem  to  have  been  the  same  for  all  the  clans. 
It  may,  however,  be  that  in  former  times  there  were  slight  differ- 
ences. For  instance,  in  the  first  version  of  the  Thunderbird  clan 
origin  myth  the  statement  is  made  that  the  branch  of  a  tree  was 
placed  at  the  grave  and  a  small  stick,  painted  red,  attached  to  it. 
The  author  has  no  recollection  of  ever  hearing  the  same  statement 
made  in  connection  with  any  other  of  the  clans. 

There  are  four  songs  associated  with  the  Thunderbird  clan. 
These  are  supposed  to  have  been  sung  by  the  clan  ancestors  when 
they  came  to  this  earth,  and  are  now  always  sung  when  a  member 
of  the  clan  dies,  and  on  a  few  other  occasions. 

According  to  one  informant,  members  of  the  Elk,  Warrior,  Deer, 
and  Buffalo  clans  acted  as  servants  to  the  Thunderbird  clan  on 
various  occasions.  The  same  informant  also  claimed  that  the 
Warrior  clansmen  took  specific  orders  from  the  Thunderbird  clans- 
men when  on  the  warpath. 

According  to  another  informant,  Thunderbird  marks  at  death  are 
a  half  circle  on  the  forehead,  mac^e  with  charcoal.  The  proper 
marking  is,  however,  that  shown  in  plate  46. 

Two  dog  names  used  in  the  Thunderbird  clan  are  obtained — 
finzakirutcga;  ]ea-4wakitcanga. 

The  only  feast  specifically  connected  with  the  Thunderbird  clan 
was  the  so-called  chief  feast,  of  which  a  description  will  be  found  on 
page  318.  One  of  the  divisions  of  the  war-bundle  feast  is  often  con- 
sidered as  sacred  to  the  thunderbird,  but  this  is  always  the  deity 
thunderbird,  not  the  ancestor  of  the  clan. 


212  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

CLAN    MYTHS    AND    NAMES 
ORIGIN    MYTH    (TOLD    BY    A    MEMBER    OF  THE    CLAN)3 

In  the  beginning,  Earthinaker  was  sitting  in  space  when  he  came 
to  consciousness,  and  there  was  nothing  else  anywhere.4  He  began 
to  think  of  what  he  should  do,  and  finally  he  began  to  cry  and  tears 
began  to  flow  from  his  eyes  and  fall  down  below  him.  After  a  while 
he  looked  down  below  him  and  saw  something  bright.  The  bright 
objects  were  hidden  tears  that  had  flowed  below  and  formed  the 
present  waters.  When  the  tears  flowed  below  they  became  the  seas 
as  they  are  now.  Earthinaker  began  to  think  again.  He  thought, 
"It  is  thus,  if  I  wish  anything;  it  will  become  as  I  wish,  just  as  my 
tears  have  become  seas."  Thus  he  thought.  So  he  wished  for  light 
and  it  became  light.  Then  he  thought,  "It  is  as  I  have  supposed; 
the  things  that  I  wished  for  have  come  into  existence  as  I  desired." 
Then  he  again  thought  and  wished  for  the  earth,  and  this  earth 
came  into  existence.  Earthmaker  looked  on  the  earth  and  he  liked 
it,  but  it  was  not  quiet.  It  moved  about  as  do  the  waves  of  the  sea. 
Then  he  made  the  trees  and  he  saw  that  they  were  good,  but  they 
did  not  make  the  earth  quiet.  Then  he  made  the  grass  to  grow, 
but  still  the  earth  was  not  yet  quiet.  Then  he  made  the  rocks  and 
stones,  but  still  the  earth  was  pot  quiet.  However,  it  was  nearly 
quiet.  Then  he  made  the  four  directions  (cardinal  points)  and  the 
four  winds.  On  the  four  corners  of  the  earth  he  placed  them  as 
great  and  powerful  people,  to  act  as  island  weights.  Yet  the  earth 
was  not  quiet.  Then  he  made  four  large  beings  and  threw  them 
down  toward  the  earth,  and  they  pierced  through  the  earth  with 
their  heads  eastward.  They  were  snakes.  Then  the  earth  became 
very  still  and  quiet.  Then  he  looked  upon  the  earth  and  he  saw  that 
it  was  good.  Then  he  thought  again  of  how  things  came  into 
existence  just  as  he  desired.  Then  he  first  began  to  talk.  He  said, 
"As  things  are  just  as  I  wish  them,  I  shall  make  one  being  in  my 
own  likeness."  So  he  took  a  piece  of  clay  (earth)  and  made  it  like 
himself.  Then  he  talked  to  what  he  had  created,  but  it  did  not 
answer.  He  looked  upon  it  and  saw  that  it  had  no  mind  or  thought. 
So  he  made  a  mind  for  it.  Again  he  talked  to  it,  but  it  did  not 
answer.  So  he  looked  upon  it  again  and  saw  that  it  had  no  tongue. 
Then  he  made  it  a  tongue.  Then  he  talked  to  it  again,  but  it  did 
not  answer.  So  he  looked  upon  it  again  and  saw  that  it  had  no 
soul.  So  he  made  it  a  soul.  He  talked  to  it  again,  and  it  very  nearly 
said  something.  But  it  did  not  make  itself  intelligible.  So  Earth- 
maker  breathed  into  its  mouth  and  talked  to  it,  and  it  answered. 

»  Told  in  connection  with  the  origin  of  the  Thtmderbird  wake. 

<  This  myth  is  reprinted  from  Radin.  Winnebago  tales,  Journal  of  American  Folk-Lore,  vol.  xxn,  no 
lxxxv,  1909.    It  has  apparently  been  somewhat  influenced  by  the  Bible. 


badinI  SOCIAL,   ORGANIZATION— SPECIFIC   CLANS  213 

As  the  newly  created  being  was  in  his  own  likeness,  Earthmaker 
felt  quite  proud  of  him,  so  he  made  three  more  just  like  him.  lie 
made  them  powerful  so  that  they  might  watch  over  the  earth.  These 
first  four  he  made  chiefs  of  the  Thunderbirds.  And  he  thought, 
'  'Some  will  I  make  to  live  upon  the  earth  of  those  I  have  created."  So 
he  made  four  more  beings  in  his  own  likeness.  Just  like  the  others 
he  made  them.  They  were  brothers — Kunuga,  Henanga,  Hagaga, 
and  NarjYiga.  He  talked  to  them  and  said,  "Look  down  upon  the 
earth."  So  saying,  he  opened  the  heavens  in  front  of  where  they  sat 
and  there  they  saw  the  earth  (spread  out  below  them).  He  told 
them  that  they  were  to  go  down  there  to  live.  "And  this  I  shall 
send  with  you,"  he  added,  and  he  gave  them  a  plant.  '  T  myself 
shall  not  have  any  power  to  take  this  from  you,  as  I  have  given  it  to 
you;  but  when  of  your  own  free  will  you  make  me  an  offering  of 
some  of  it,  I  shall  gladly  accept  it  and  give  you  what  you  ask.  This 
shall  you  hold  foremost  in  your  lives."  It  was  a  tobacco  plant  that 
he  had  given  them.  He  said,  also,  "All  the  spirits  that  I  create  will 
not  be  able  to  take  this  from  you  unless  you  desire  to  give  it,  by  calling 
upon  them  during  fasts  and  offering  it  to  them.  Thus  only  can  the 
spirits  get  any  of  it.  And  this  also  I  send  with  you  that  you  may  use 
it  in  life.  When  you  offer  anything  it  shall  be  your  mediator.  It 
shall  take  care  of  you  through  life.  It  shall  stand  in  the  center  of 
your  dwellings  and  it  shall  be  your  grandfather."  Thus  he  spoke  to 
them.  What  he  meant  was  the  fire.  And  then  he  gave  them  the 
earth  to  live  upon. 

So  the  four  Thunder  spirits  brought  the  four  brothers  down  to  the 
earth.  The  oldest  one,  Kunuga,  said,  while  on  their  way  down, 
'  'Brother,  when  we  get  to  the  earth  and  the  first  child  is  born  to  me  I 
shall  call  him  Chief-of-ihe-TJmnders,  if  it  be  a  boy."  On  they  came 
down  toward  the  earth.  When  they  got  near  the  earth  it  began  to 
get  very  dark.  Then  the  second  brother  said,  "Brother,  when  we 
get  to  the  earth  and  a  child  is  born  to  me,  if  it  is  a  girl  it  shall  be 
called  Dark."  They  came  to  a  place  called  Within  Lake5  at  Red 
Banks,  a  lake  near  Green  Bay.  On  an  oak  tree  south  of  the  lake  is 
the  place  where  they  alighted.  The  branch  they  alighted  on  bent 
down  from  their  weight.  Then  said  the  third  brother  to  his  brothers, 
"The  first  daughter  born  to  me  shall  be  called  She-who-weighs-the- 
tree-down-woman."  Then  they  alighted  on  the  earth,  but  the 
Thunder  spirits  did  not  touch  the  earth.  Then  said  the  fourth  and 
last  brother  to  his  brothers,  '  'Brothers,  the  first  son  that  is  born  to 
me  shall  be  called  He-who-alights-on-the-earth."  The  first  thing  they 
did  on  earth  was  to  start  their  fire. 

Then  Earthmaker  looked  down  upon  them  and  saw  that  he  had 
not  prepared  any  food  for  them,  so  he  made  the  animals  that  they 

sThis  lake  is  probably  Green  Bay  itself. 


214  THE   WINNEBAGO   TEIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

might  have  something  to  eat.  The  oldest  brother  said,  "What  are 
we  going  to  eat?"  Then  the  youngest  two  took  the  bow  and  arrows 
that  Earthmaker  had  given  them  and  started  toward  the  east. 
Not  long  after  the  third  brother  came  into  view  with  a  young  deer 
on  his  back  and  the  youngest  brother  also  came  with  a  young  deer 
;ibout  2  years  old  on  his  back.  The  deer  that  were  killed,  and 
those  that  killed  them,  were  also  brothers.  They  were  very  much 
delighted  that  they  had  obtained  food.  Then  said  they,  "Let  us 
give  our  grandfather  the  first  taste."  Saying  thus,  they  cut  off  the 
ends  of  the  tongues  and  the  heart  and  threw  them  into  the  fire  with 
some  fat.  The  first  people  to  call  on  them  were  the  War  clan  people. 
They  came  from  the  west.  Then  came  four  others.  They  were  the 
thunders.  Thus  they  were  called  the  youngest  brothers.  Then  came 
those  of  the  earth.  Then  came  those  of  the  Deer  clan.  Then  those 
of  the  Snake  clan.  Then  came  those  of  the  Elk  clan.  Then  came 
those  of  the  Bear  clan.  Then  came  those  of  the  Fish  clan.  Then 
came  those  of  the  Water-spirit  clan  and  all  the  other  clans  that 
exist.  Then  there  appeared  on  the  lake  a  very  white  bird — swan  they 
called  it.  And  after  that,  all  the  other  water  birds  that  exist  came. 
And  they  named  them  in  the  order  of  their  coming  until  the  lake  was 
quite  full.  Then  the  people  began  to  chess  the  deer  meat.  Suddenly 
something  came  and  alighted  on  the  deer  meat.  "What  is  that?" 
they  said.  Then  said  Kunuga,  the  eldest  brother,  '  'It  is  a  wasp, 
and  the  first  dog  that  I  possess,  if  it  is  black,  Wasp  I  shall  call  it." 
Thus  he  spoke.  "And  as  the  wasp  scented  and  knew  of  the  deer 
dressing  so  shall  the  dog  be  toward  other  animals,  and  wherever  the 
dog  is,  and  animals  are  in  the  windward,  he  shall  scent  them."  They 
made  a  feast  with  the  deer  for  Earthmaker  and  threw  tobacco  into 
the  fire  and  offered  it  to  him.  And  to  the  other  clans  they  showed 
how  fire  was  to  be  made  and  gave  them  some,  "For,"  they  said, 
'  'each  of  you  must  now  make  fire  for  yourselves,  as  we  shall  not 
always  lend  you  some."  There  the  people  made  their  home.  It 
was  just  the  time  of  the  year  when  the  grass  comes  as  far  as  the  knee. 

One  day  they  reported  that  something  very  strange  was  near  the 
camp;  but  they  said  to  themselves,  "We  will  leave  it  alone."  In  a 
little  while  it  moved  nearer.  Thus  it  moved  toward  the  camp  and 
soon  it  began  to  eat  deer  bones.  They  allowed  it  to  become  one  of 
their  clans  and  took  it  into  their  house.  It  was  the  dog  or  wolf.  They 
killed  one  and  made  a  feast  to  Earthmaker,  telling  him  all  about 
what  they  had  done. 

In  the  beginning  the  Thunder  clansmen  were  as  powerful  as  the 
Thunder  spirits  themselves.  It  was  the  Thunder  people  who  made 
the  ravines  and  the  valleys.  While  wandering  around  the  earth  the 
Thunder  people  struck  the  earth  with  their  clubs  and  made  dents  in 
the  hills.  That  is  the  reason  that  the  upper  clans  are  chiefs  of  all 
the  others  and  that  the  least  of  all  are  the  dog  people.     So  it  was. 


badin]  SOCIAL,   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  215 

One  day  the  oldest  of  the  brothers  lay  down  and  did  not  rise  again, 
and  he  did  not  breathe  and  he  became  cold.  "What  is  the  matter 
with  our  oldest  brother?"  the  three  others  said.  Four  days  they 
waited  for  him,  but  still  he  did  not  arise.  So  the  second  brother  was 
asked  by  his  youngest  brother  what  the  trouble  was;  but  he  did  not 
know  anything  about  it  and  told  him  to  ask  his  third  brother:  but 
this  one  did  not  know  either.  Then  the  two  older  brothers  asked  the 
youngest  one,  but  he  did  not  know  either.  Then  they  began  to 
mourn  for  him,  not  knowing  what  to  do  or  think.  They  fasted  and 
blackened  their  faces,  as  we  do  now  when  we  are  in  mourning.  They 
made  a  platform  and  laid  him  on  it.  When  the  snow  fell  knee-deep 
the  three  brothers  filled  their  pipe  and  went  toward  the  place  of  the 
coming  of  daylight — the  east.  There  they  came  to  the  first  being 
that  Earthmaker  had  placed  in  the  east,  the  Island-weight,  as  he  was 
called.  They  came  to  him  weeping  and  went  into  his  tent,  turning 
the  stem  of  the  pipe  in  his  mouth.  They  said,  "Grandfather,  our 
brother  Kunuga  has  fallen  and  is  not  able  to  rise  again.  Earthmaker 
made  you  great  and  endowed  you  with  all  knowledge,  and  thus  you 
know  all  things."  He  answered  and  said,  "My  dear  grandsons,  I  am 
sorry,  but  I  do  not  know  anything  about  it;  but  as  you  have  started 
to  find  out  I  would  refer  you  to  the  one  ahead  of  me  (the  north). 
Perhaps  he  can  tell  you." 

So,  weeping,  they  started  for  the  next  one.  When  they  got 
there  and  told  him  their  troubles,  he  told  them  he  could  not 
help  them;  "but,"  he  said,  "perhaps  the  one  ahead  of  me 
knows."  So  they  started  for  the  third  one  (the  west),  but  from  him 
likewise  they  could  learn  nothing.  He  also  referred  them  to  the  one 
ahead  (the  south).  When  they  reached  the  fourth  and  last  one,  they 
entered  the  lodge,  and  behold  there  sat  the  three  to  whom  they  had 
gone  before.  Here  they  asked  the  last  one  for  help,  and  not  only 
he  but  the  other  three  also  answered  them:  "Grandsons,  thus  Earth- 
maker  has  willed  it.  Your  brother  will  not  rise  again.  He  will  be 
with  you  no  more  in  this  world,  and  as  long  as  this  world  lasts' so  will 
it  be  with  human  beings.  Whenever  one  reaches  the  age  of  death 
one  shall  die,  and  those  that  wish  to  live  long  will  have  to  attain 
that  age  by  good  actions.  Thus  they  will  live  long.  Into  your 
bodies  Earthmaker  has  placed  part  of  himself.  That  will  return  to 
him  if  you  do  the  proper  things.  This  world  will  come  to  an  end 
sometime.  Your  brother  shall  keep  a  village  in  the  west  for  all  the 
souls  of  your  clan,  and  there  he  shall  be  in  full  charge  of  all  of  you, 
and  when  this  world  is  ended  your  brother  shall  take  all  the  souls 
back  to  Earthmaker — at  least  all  those  who  have  acted  properly. 
Thus  it  is.  Now  you  may  go  home  and  bury  your  brother  in  the 
proper  manner."  The  Thunder  people  thanked  the  four  spirits  and 
left  the  tent.     When  they  got  home  they  took  their  brother's  body, 


216  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

dressed  him  in  his  best  clothes,  and  painted  his  face.  Then  they 
told  him  where  he  was  to  go  and  buried  him  with  his  head  toward 
the  west  and  with  his  war  club.  They  placed  the  branch  of  a  tree  at 
his  grave,  and  painted  a  little  stick  red  and  tied  it  to  the  tree,  so 
that  nothing  should  cross  his  path  on  his  journey  to  the  spirit  abode. 
If  any  object  or  animal  should  cross  his  path  on  that  journey, he  must 
strike  it  with  his  club  and  throw  it  behind  him,  so  that  those  relatives 
he  had  left  behind  on  earth  might  derive  blessings  in  war  and  attain 
long  life.  He  must  have  his  pipe  and  food  along  with  him  on  his 
journey,  and  thus  the  things  that  he  throws  behind  him  will  be  a 
blessing  for  those  still  remaining  on  earth.  Also  the  life  he  leaves 
behind  him  (i.  e.,  the  years  that,  had  he  lived  to  a  normal  age,  are 
still  due  him)  and  the  victories  that  he  might  have  gained,  all  these 
he  is  to  give  to  his  relatives.  The  riches  he  might  have  had  or,  in 
fact,  anything  that  he  could  possibly  have  had,  he  is  asked  to  give  to 
these  relatives.     Then  they  will  not  feel  so  unhappy  and  lonesome. 

SECOND    VERSION    (TOLD    BY   A    MEMBER   Ot    THE    CLAN) 

In  the  beginning  four  brothers  started  from  above  and  came  toward 
this  world.  They  came  to  a  country  called  (ni  jahe,  cliff  place?),  and 
there  they  alighted  on  a  tree.  From  there  they  started  around  the 
world,  going  from  left  to  right.6  ,  The  first  time  they  went  around 
they  went  through  space,  but  the  second  time  they  went  along  this 
earth,  at  a  place  called  derok  (Within  Lake).  There  they  built 
lodges  for  themselves.  While  doing  this  the  oldest  suddenly  became 
quiet,  as  if  stricken.  Finally,  he  asked  the  second  brother  what  he 
should  do,  and  the  second  brother  said  to  him,  "You  are  the  oldest 
and  ought  to  know  what  to  do.  How  can  I,  who  am  younger,  know 
any  tiling?  Perhaps  the  third-born  brother  might  know."  So  he 
asked  the  third-born,  but  he  said,  "You  are  the  older  and  ought  to 
know.  How  can  I,  being  the  younger,  know?  Perhaps  the  youngest 
brother  will  know."  So  they  asked  that  one  and  he  said,  "Yes,  I 
know  something."  The  thing  about  which  they  did  not  know  any- 
thing was  the  making  of  the  fire.  The  younger  one,  saying  he  knew 
something,  took  a  piece  of  an  oak  tree  and  began  twisting  it  until  it 
began  to  smoke,  and  then  the  fire  started.  Then  he  placed  it  on  the 
ground.  After  the  fire  began  to  blaze  and  seemed  well  started  they 
finished  building  their  lodge.  From  that  time  on  whenever  they  saw 
anything  new  the  brothers  would  give  it  a  name.  Animals  and  all 
the  things  that  exist  were  thus  named.  And  then  they  were  to  pre- 
pare a  meal,  and  the  second  brother  reached  out  his  hand  and  pro- 
duced the  food  that  they  wanted  (i.  e.,  he  seemingly  reached  out  from 
where  he  was  seated  and  brought  in  deer's  meat,  etc.).     Not  having 

«  The  ceremonial  manner  of  passing  around  a  lodge.    Supposed  to  be  comparable  to  the  path  of  the 
sun. 


radin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  217 

any  cooking  utensils  they  broiled  their  meat  on  sharp  sticks.  Then 
the  oldest  one  began  making  utensils  for  cooking.  He  took  clay  and 
slippery  elm  bark,  mixed  them  together,  and  made  a  pot  out  of  it, 
which  was  then  heated  over  a  fire. 

Within  Lake  was  their  main  stopping  place  during  their  wander- 
ings. Now  the  members  of  the  other  clans  began  gathering  at  this 
place  and  all  the  other  clans  got  to  this  place  and  obtained  their  fire 
from  the  Thunderers.  From  that  time  on  they  also  began  inter- 
marrying. The  rule  was  that  the  upper  clansmen  married  the 
women  of  the  lower  clans  and  vice  versa.  The  oldest  one  of  the 
brothers  made  friends  with  the  Water-spirit  clan  and  the  second 
brother  made  friends  with  the  Bear  clan.  The  reason  why  the 
upper  clans  and  the  lower  clans  intermarried  was  to  prevent  their 
marrying  their  own  relatives.  The  second  brother  is  the  ancestor  of 
the  War  clan  people. 

The  Thunderers  do  not  say  that  they  were  descended  from  the 
Thunderbirds,  but  they  claim  that  in  wandering  about  there  was 
always  a  drizzling  rain  and  fog  which  they  caused  and  on  account 
of  the  similarity  of  this  to  the  actions  of  the  Thunderbirds  they 
called  themselves  the  Thunderers.7 

From  the  gathering  at  Green  Bay  the  clan  names  originated. 
The  names  were  taken  from  incidents  of  their  journey  to  this  place. 
The  older  brother  kept  on  naming  everything;  the  different  parts 
of  our  body;  the  different  parts  of  animals,  etc.  When  he  finished, 
he  suddenly  stopped  breathing  and  died.  His  death  occurred  at 
dawn.  The  brothers  did  not  know  that  he  had  died.  For  a  long 
time  they  waited  for  him  to  come  to  life  again,  but  he  never  came  to 
life  again.  Thus  death  originated.  His  body  died,  but  his  spirit 
traveled  west  toward  the  setting  of  the  sun,  making  a  road  for  all 
who  were  to  come  after  him.  He  was  the  chief  of  the  village  of  the 
spirits. 

THIRD   VERSION    (TOLD   BY   A   MEMBER   OF  THE    CLAN — FRAGMENTARY)8 

''Well,  my  younger  brother,  what  shall  we  speak  of?  Let  us 
speak  of  the  Winnebagoes.  You  are  right.  Of  them  we  will  speak. 
What  shall  we  eat  ?  If  we  see  an  animal  let  us  eat  him.  I  will  go 
and  look.  See  I  have  brought  a  deer.  We  will  eat  him."  So  they 
built  a  fire  and  broiled  that  deer.  They  cooked  it  and  then  ate  it. 
Then  they  heard  something.  They  listened  and  two  persons  came 
into  the  tent.  They  took  a  seat  opposite.  "Ha,  ha,  you  that  sit 
opposite,  what  relation  will  you  be  to  me?"  "What  relation  should 
I  be  to  you?"     "You  shall  be  my  chief."     "Listen,  some  are  saying 

7  The  word  Thunderers  is  the  same  as  Thunderbirds.    One  and  the  same  being  is  meant. 

8  This  account  seems  to  begin  after  the  Thunderbirds  have  reached  Green  Bay  and  are  sitting  in  the 
lodge  waiting  for  the  other  clans  to  arrive. 

180823— 22 15 


218  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

something.  Ha  ha,  our  friends  have  come.  Sit  opposite  (those 
opposite  said).  As  long  as  we  live  we  will  attend  to  the  fire  for 
you."  "Listen,  our  friends,  they  are  speaking."  "Ha,  ha,  sit 
opposite  me"  (a  new  clan  has  entered).  They  sat  down.  "You 
Water-spirit  clan,  what  relation,  my  friend,  will  you  be  to  me?" 
"What  relation  shall  I  be  to  you?  You  will  be  my  chief."  "Good. 
Now  listen,  a  dog  is  howling.  Let  us  wait  for  him"  So  the  Thun- 
derbirds  waited  for  him.  "Let  us  call  him."  "Ha,  ha,  my  friend, 
we  wish  to  teach  the  two-legged  walkers  something.  As  we  say  so 
will  the  Winnebagoes  ever  be."  Again  the  Thunderbirds  spoke, 
'  'Listen,  some  one  has  said  something.  Two  people  have  come. 
We  will  call  them  the  Buffalo  clan." 

The  Warrior  Clan 

introduction 

There  are  not  many  members  of  this  clan  left,  although  it  seems 
to  have  been  quite  important  in  the  old  days,  to  judge  from  the 
number  of  effigy  mounds  all  over  Wisconsin.  There  seems  little 
doubt  but  that  those  bird  effigies  with  unsplit  tail  are  supposed  to 
represent  this  clan. 

Only  one  version  of  the  origin  myth  was  obtained.  There  is  little 
to  be  said  about  it  except  that  it  mentions  the  fact  that  it  was  custo- 
mary to  have  names  for  dogs.  One  statement  seems  to  point  toward 
cannibalism.  As  was  pointed  out  in  the  preceding  discussion,  there 
is  a  boastful  claim  that  they  were  chiefs. 

Although,  at  the  present  time,  this  clan  is  known  only  as  the 
wonayire  ua'rikeilc  (fear-inspiring  men),  its  older  name  was  hawk, 
and  as  such  it  was  still  known  to  J.  O.  Dorsey.  When  the  present 
name  began  to  be  popular,  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  we  feel  confi- 
dent that  it  has  been  in  partial  use  for  a  considerable  length  of  time. 
The  change  is  quite  in  line  with  the  rather  common  habit  of  referring 
to  the  Thunderbird  clan  as  the  chief  clan  and  the  Bear  clan  as  the 
soldier  clan.  In  other  words,  we  have  a  name  indicative  of  the  func- 
tions of  a  clan  superseding  the  older  animal  name.  It  is  only  in  the 
case  of  the  Warrior  clan,  however,  that  this  substitution  has  been 
complete. 

There  is  no  indication  in  the  myth  that  the  Warrior  clan  was  ever 
localized.  A  number  of  informants  stated  that  the  clan  was  but 
a  division  of  a  general  bird  phratry.  In  version  2  of  the  Thunder- 
bird  clan  origin  myth  it  is  stated  that  the  second  of  the  two  brothers 
was  the  ancestor  of  the  Warrior  clan.  Dorsey,  as  we  have  seen, 
obtained  the  same  information. 

The  Warrior  clan  seems  to  have  had  a  lodge  in  the  northwest 
corner  of  the  village.     In  this  lodge  they  claimed  that  prisoners  were 


badin]  SOCIAL   OBGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  219 

confined  and  certain  tribal  regalia  deposited.  The  informants  were 
not,  however,  at  all  clear  about  these  facts,  some  even  denying  that 
there  was  a  Warrior  lodge  and  insisting  that  prisoners  were  confined 
in  the  Bear  or  Soldier  lodge. 

According  to  one  informant  the  Warrior  and  Bear  clans  could  give 
each  other  orders  that  had  to  be  obeyed. 

The  members  of  the  Warrior  clan  claimed  that  all  the  members 
of  the  clan  were  warriors  and  did  not  have  to  fast  in  order  to  obtain 
the  right  of  starting  out  on  a  war  party.  This  was  vigorously  denied 
by  the  members  of  the  other  clans,  who  referred  to  this  claim  with 
derision.  There  seems,  however,  to  be  no  reason  for  questioning  the 
fact  that  the  clan  had  a  special  lodge  and  that  it  was  intimately 
connected  with  war  functions.  Exactly  what  these  were  it  is  quite 
impossible  to  state,  as  they  have  not  been  exercised  for  a  very  long 
time. 

The  first  two  clan  songs  are  given  on  page  220.  The  clan  facial 
decoration,  used  only  at  burial,  and  which  were  supposed  to  be 
marks  of  recognition  in  the  spirit  land,  are  as  follows:  A  red  line 
alternating  with  a  black  and  another  red  line  across  the  forehead, 
and  a  red  line  around  the  mouth.  One  informant  claimed  that  only 
the  three  marks  on  the  forehead  were  necessary,  and  that  in  times 
of  war  blood  was  used  for  the  red  marks  (pi.  4(i). 

According  to  an  informant  of  the  Thunderbird  clan,  the  Warrior 
clan  functions  were  as  follows: 

The  Warrior  clan's  position  in  the  tribe  is  that  of  general  warrior.  He  can  kill  an 
enemy  at  any  time  "without  breaking  any  of  the  rules  of  the  tribe.  Every  other 
clansman  who  wishes  to  go  on  the  warpath  must  fast  and  be  blessed  by  the  spirits 
with  specific  blessings  before  he  can  do  this. 

There  may  have  been  a  special  feast  associated  with  the  Warrior 
clan,  but  the  author  never  heard  of  it.  The  clan  possessed  a  number 
of  war  bundles. 

ORIGIN    MYTH 

(told  by  a  member  op  the  clan) 

In  the  beginning,  Earthmaker  made  four  men.  Then  he  sent 
them  to  the  earth.  Within  Lake,  there,  they  landed  and  they  alit 
on  the  branch  of  a  tree.  There  were  four  branches  and  each  one  alit 
on  one  branch.  And  then  on  the  earth  they  jumped  and  started 
walking  toward  the  east.  There  they  erected  a  camping  place. 
There  they  started  the  fire.  It  was  the  principal  fire.  Then  they 
started  to  look  for  food,  but  they  were  unable  to  find  any.  So  the 
second  brother  was  sent,  but  he  was  not  able  to  get  any  animal,  but 
he  brought  a  man.  Because  he  brought  it,  for  that  reason,  the  first 
male  child  we  have  shall  be  called  He-who-eate-humans.  Then  the 
second  one,  him  whom  they  called  the  warrior,  was  sent.     Thus  it 


220  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ajjn.  37 

was.  And  then  all  of  them  went  toward  the  chief's  lodge.  They 
walked  as  chiefs,  all  four  of  them.  The  four  of  them  went  there. 
The  chief's  lodge  was  an  oval  lodge,  and  there  they  entered. 

The  Snake  clansman  was  the  one  appointed  to  get  the  food.  He 
went  after  the  food.  It  was  an  Eagle-people  feast.  Two  fish  the 
.Snake  clansman  brought,  and  with  these  the  Eagle  chief  gave  a  feast. 
The  Deer  clan  acted  as  attendants.  Thus  they  ate  the  fish.  And 
when  they  were  finished  with  the  eating,  on  either  side,  they  left 
the  head  and  the  tail  of  the  fish.  This  they  left  of  their  meal.  "And 
if  we  have  a  dog  we  will  call  him  Leaves-fish-on-both-ends,"  they 
said.  Then  they  sat  down.  As  they  were  sitting  some  one  peeped 
in.  It  was  the  dog.  Only  his  nose  he  stuck  in.  Then  they  said, 
"Whose  nose  does  it  look  like?"  So  the  chief  spoke.  "If  we  ever 
have  a  dog  and  if  we  wish  to  keep  it  permanently,  T\>hose-nose-does- 
it-look-like,  we  will  call  it. 

Then  all  of  a  sudden  their  bodies  began  to  be  different  and  their 
feathers  began  to  look  as  if  they  were  worn  off.  They  were  about 
to  enter  the  chief's  lodge.  Then  the  chief  passed  the  fire  to  the 
Deer  clan  and  when  they  were  through  the  lodge  was  purified  with 
the  incense  of  smoking  cedar  leaves.  Then  again  into  the  very  long 
lodge  they  entered.  This  was  at  Red  Banks.  Then  the  upper  people 
taught  the  lower  people  the  things  to  make  them  good.  Thus  Earth- 
maker  ordained  everything,  and  as  he  ordered,  so  it  was.  That  is 
the  way  they  were.  Holy  they  were.  And  all  (of  my  clan  ?)  lived 
as  chiefs.     This  is  all  that  I  was  taught. 

CLAN    SONGS 

First  song 

The  blue  flame  they  caused  to  start. 
The  blue  flame  they  caused  to  start. 
The  blue  flame  they  caused  to  start. 
The  blue  flame  they  caused  to  start. 

Second  song 

The  fire  they  started. 
The  fire  they  started. 
The  fire  they  started. 
The  fire  they  started. 

Eagle  and  Pigeon  Clans 

No  information  was  obtained  about  either  of  these  clans.  The 
Pigeon  clan  has  been  extinct  for  some  time  and  only  a  few  sur- 
vivors of  the  Eagle  clan  are  left.  Neither  of  these  clans  seems  ever 
to  have  been  of  great  importance.  They  had  war  bundles  and  an 
Eagle  feast  is  mentioned. 


radin]  SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION — SPECIFIC   CLANS  221 

Facial  paintings  of  these  two  clans,  it  is  claimed,  were  the  same  as 
those  for  the  Thunderbird  clan  (pi.  46).     This  was  denied  by  others. 

According  to  one  informant  the  Pigeon  clan  was  borrowed  from 
another  tribe. 

CLAN    NAMES 

wanink'  hik'ik'a'radjera  (the  bird  clan)9 

Ahugidjinewinga Young  bird  that  sheds  its  first  feathers  a?  it  flaps  its  wings. 

Ahugip'arawirjga Spreads  her  wings  (said  of  a  young  bird  just  learning  to 

fly). 

Ahumanip'aga He  who  hits  the  ground  with  his  wings  (refers  to  a  cloud) 

Ahup'ahiga Sharp  wing  (said  of  a  thundercloud). 

Ahuperewirjga Transparently  clear  wings.10 

Ahuru-anga He  who  raises  his  wings  (i.  f .,  the  edges  of  a  cloud). 

Ahusak'a Strikes  his  wings." 

Ahuseretcga Long  wings  (as  a  far-extended  cloud,  clouds  Vicing  the 

plumage  of  the  thunderbird s  I. 

Ahusgawirjga White  wing. 

Ahutcowinga Green  wing. 

Ahusururewinga Slow  wing. 

Adedjirehiga He  who  sets  the  prairie  grass  on  fire  suddenly  (i.  e.,  the 

lightning). 

Codjega He  who  kindles  the  (fire?).18 

Hadjare She  who  has  been  seen. 

Hadjatcexiwinga Difficult  to  be  seen. 

Hanp'  hik'inohiga He  who  misses  the  day. 

Hanp'ok'  guwinga Owl  returning  hither. 

Hanptcek'a New  day. 

Hicdja  Kereredjarjga Hawk-face. 

Hitcaxcepewirjga Eagle  woman. 

Hitcaxcepsepga Black  eagle. 

Hitcaxceptcoga Green  hawk. 

Hiwetcoga Green  tail. 

Hiwiteajankega Forked-tailed  hawk. 

Hohaup'guga Returning  light. 

Hohanbinaniwii)ga Walks  in  the  light. 

Hohanpdjik'ega Light  that  comes  hither  regularly. 

Hohanpdjikerega Light  flashes  suddenly. 

9  The  following  list  ol  names  is  based  partly  upon  the  manuscripts  of  Winnebago  personal  names  pre- 
pared by  the  late  Mr.  J.  O.  Dorsey,  and  now  in  the  possession  of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology.  This 
list  has  been  revised  and  the  phonetics  of  the  Winnebago  names  corrected  and  transcribed  by  the  author, 
but  the  English  renderings  of  the  names  have  been  left  as  Mr.  Dorsey  obtained  them,  as  the  author  obtained 
practically  the  same  translations.  Many  of  the  names  were  obtained  independently  by  the  author.  Por- 
sey's  list  is  itself  the  amalgamation  of  two  lists,  that  obtained  by  Dr.  Foster  and  his  own.  He  sub- 
sequently revised  Foster's  list,  but  to  those  names  of  the  latter's  list  for  which  he  could  not  obtain  any 
translation  he  appended  Foster's  initials. 

>°  Dorsey  has  "thin"  wings,  adding  "as  is  a  transparent  fleecy  cloud.''  However,  the  word  peres, 
which  is  the  full  form  for  pere,  means  "clear,'*  and  is  generally  used  in  describing  water  in  a  brook. 
The  interpretation  of  this  and  many  other  names  as  referring  to  clouds  necessarily  and  not  to  the  simple 
characteristics  of  the  wings  of  the  thunderbirds.  is  not  obtained  frequently  to-day,  but  there  seems  to  be 
noreason  for  believing  that  it  was  not  customary  a  generation  or  two  ago.  For  a  discussion  of  the  meaning 
of  the  names  in  general  see  the  introduction  to  the  section  on  social  organization. 

11  Dorsey's  rendering  "stiff  wings"  is  most  certainly  incorrect. 

13  Foster  translates  "misty"  and  Dorsey  "smoke,"  but  cote  means  to  kindle  a  fire,  literally  to  cause 
the  blue  llame  that  appears  just  as  the  flames  start  up. 


222  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  Ann.  37 

Hokorohiga He  who  makes  a  noise  by  dragging  something. 

Hopinga Good  voice. 

Horutcerega He  who  has  eaten  fish . 

HotcaQt£inwinga Audible  voice. 

Hotcuntcunwir)ga Fishes  in  several  places. 

Hunk'  nank'awairega Chief  whom  they  are  afraid  of. 

Idjanikwahiga He  who  makes  them  shriek  with  fright. 

Jibinik'a Short  person  (common  to  all  clans). 

K'aiihitcank'a Changing  crow. 

K'aiijirjk'aga Yellowish  crow. 

K'a7inunp'aga Two  crows. 

Ki'zahungewinga Fighting  chief. 

Ma°cdjanixganwinga Makes  an  effort  in  moving. 

Mancunp'inwinga Beautiful  quill  leather. 

Mancunsepga Black  quill  feathers. 

Mancunsgawinga White  quill  feather. 

Mancuntcowirjga Green  quill  leather. 

Manhinunp'aga Two  knives. 

Manihidad jega Strong  walker. 

MaDemanik'a Walking  storm. 

Mank'iksuntcga He  who  shakes  the  earth  by  striking. 

Nanmantce  K'urusga He  who  has  taken  his  war-club. 

Ma°mantcenank'ikawairega.He  of  whose  war-club  they  are  afraid. 

Manancotega He  who  raises  a  dust  on  the  earth. 

Ma°nai)  ksuntcga He  who  makes  the  earth  shake  by  walking. 

Manxek'iga He  who  drys  the  ground. 

Mansuziwinga Yellow  arrow  point. 

Mandadjehimaniga He  who  walks  on  the  wind. 

Mantcgunancicga Breaks  a  bow  with  his  feet. 

Manxicutcga Red  cloud. 

Manxik'ok'iwaharetcga Overlapping  clouds. 

Manxik'ucinanjink'a He  who  stands  beyond  the  sky. 

Manxik'ucen&njirjk'a Sky  reached  standing. 

Manxip'asewirjga Cloud-point. 

Manxipinwinga Beautiful  cloud. 

Manxirukanaga" Master  of  the  clouds. 

Manxisepga Black  cloud. 

Manxitcopga Four  clouds. 

Manxiwiwak'andjarjk'a.  .  .  .Sacred  cloud. 

Maindjateinank'a He  who  sits  having  come  hither  to  the  earth. 

Ma^odjanguwinga Coming  back  near  the  ground . 

Nan xiksewahiga He  who  scares  some  one. 

Nanisawagicicga He  who  breaks  a  treetop  by  hitting  it. 

Nanisawarutcga He  who  eats  a  treetop. 

Nannajojopk'ega Swallow. 

Nanodji"winga He  who  strikes  a  tree. 

Nanxekiga Withered  tree  (blasted  by  lightning). 

Nanwanhuga He  who  comes  singing. 

Nank'awairega He  whom  they  fear  to  see. 

Nijuga Rain  man. 

Nijumaniwinga Walking  rain. 

Nijuxotcga Gray  rain. 

Ninohanphiga He  who  makes  the  water  shine. 

Nizihutcgewinga Drizzling  woman. 


kadin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  223 

Notcanpga Lightning  in  the  tree. 

Nuwan  k  k'iriga He  who  comes  back  running. 

P'etcanruhiga Crane  rib. 

P'etcawirjga Crane  woman. 

P'etcga Fire  person. 

Xora  cutcewinga Red  bald  eagle. 

Xora  hurjga Bafd  eagle  chief. 

Xorap'aga Bald  eagle  head. 

Rae  tcant£inwirjga Audible  name. 

Rek'uhuhiga South  wind. 

Rutcgenirjk'a Little  pigeon. 

Sakewarutcga He  who  eats  raw  flesh. 

Sandjamaninga Grizzled  walking  person. 

Si-okuruspinga Leaves  good  footprints. 

Sincawatcoga Tuil . 

Tcatcga Wind  person. 

Tconirajireka He  who  is  the  lirst  one  named. 

Tcanphak'irutcewinga Lightning  crossing  itself. 

Tcanpjigewinga Lightens  again. 

Djanperacanantcant£inv\-irjga  .Lightning  visible  only  once. 

Djanphak'iwaresga Forked  lightning. 

Dja°pherega He  who  is?  lightning. 

Dja"phaniwirjga He  who  makes?  or  accompanies?  lightning. 

Djanphik'icganga He  who  makes?  moving  lightning. 

Djanpguhiga Lightning  that  returns. 

Djanberewinga Lightning  that  goes. 

Djanpdjega Standing  lightning. 

Djanpdjikerewirjga Lightning  that  flashes  suddenly. 

Djanpkcankcarjga Zigzag  lightning  or  lightning  circling  and  recoiling. 

Tcaut£inminank'a Sitting  in  sight. 

Tcexohanphiga Lightens  the  highland  marsh. 

Tci-ohanphiga He  who  lightens  up  the  lodge. 

Tciwaijega He  who  makes  one  abandon  lodge  and  flee. 

T£a-aninanka Kept  allying? 

Teanguhiwirjga He  who  returns  flying. 

Wahok'ega The  marksman. 

Wak'andja  hadjagip'iwinga. Thunderbird  that  likes  to  be  seen. 

Wak'andja  ciciga Bad  Thunderbird. 

Wak'andja  yungiwirjga Thunder  queen. 

Wak'andjagipeniga Young  Thunderbird  waiting. 

Wak'andjaga Thunderbird. 

Wak'andja  giw'inxga Thunderbird  whirling. 

Wak'andjaguw'inga Thunderbird  returning. 

Wak'andjan'ingen'ink'a Very  small  Thunderbird. 

Wak'andjap'irjga Good  Thunderbird. 

Wak'andjaxega Yellowish  Thunderbird. 

Wak'andjaxiguhiga Thunderbird  returning  smoke. 

Wak'andjaxunuga Thunderbird  small. 

Wak'andjasepga Black  Thunderbird. 

Wak'andjatconiw'irjga First  Thunderbird. 

Wak'andja  tcoga Green  Thunderbird. 

Waktc'ernaniw'inga He  who  walks  killing. 

Wani-ak'axiga Crow  hankering  for  flesh. 

Wan'nk'tcanw'inga Changing  bird. 


224  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Wap'akonank'maniga The  great  dreadful  one  that  walks. 

Warutcexiga He  who  makes  (the  grass)  rusty-yellow  by  eating. 

Wasuhimaniga Walking  hail. 

Watcirukonanga Judge  of  the  contest. 

Wazika Pine. 

Warjgerutcga Man  eater. 

Wip'amarjkerew'irjga Rainbow. 

Wiragocgew'inga Star  woman. 

Win ^anasega He  who  pens  up  ducks. 

Wonarj  jirebun ga Warrior  chief. 

Wodjinguhiga He  who  returns  and  strikes. 

Wodinw'inga She  who  strikes.13 

Koxmanirjga Walking  and  making  the  sound  of  kox'. 

Ahu-awinga Raise  her  wing. 

Ahutco Blue  wing. 

Na°sgedjawinga Real  tree  woman. 

Manxisepga Black  cloud. 

Maijxisgaxedega Big  white  cloud. 

Ahu-ijipga Short  winged. 

K'eratcosepga Black  sky  (means  properly  the  firmament). 

Keredj  u»sepga Black  hawk. 

Manxiruzuga He  who  makes  the  clouds  have  rays  before  them. 

P'etcda-ehiga Fire  starter. 

P'etckerega Has  fireplace. 

Hok'awas Darkness. 

Nunik'isumaniga Hails  as  he  walked. 

Tcoraminarj  k'a Sits  blue. 

Hurjgit'ega Speaks  as  a  chief. 

Noroxoga Scratches  tree. 

Nannawahiguga He  who  brings  up  a  stick  in  his  mouth. 

Manhodjanpga He  who  flashes  on  the  earth. 

Hana°djadjairewirjga Seen  by  all. 

Warjgedjarega Belongs  to  the  upper  regions. 

Marjxixoruxutcga. Looks  at  the  clouds. 

Mancurjginoga Flapping  and  shaking  his  feathers. 

Ahugiciniwirjga Shining  wings. 

Heieninga Young  swan. 

Mank'uhodjanpga Flashes  under  the  earth. 

Warudjaxega Comes  making  a  noise. 

Wangedjahuga  He  who  comes  from  above. 

Naninnek'iga Lone  tree. 

Wangwaxopniga Holy  man. 

Ximaniga Walking  in  mist. 

Xiguga Comes  in  mist. 

Xawinananzogiga Bends  the  brush. 

Tcacgoguga Oak  tree. 

Nannazogega Bends  the  tree  down. 

Na"djidjega Comes  on  the  tree. 

MaMjidjega Comes  on  the  ground. 

K'onihega He  who  thunders. 

Tciwindjikerehiga Makes  tciwin  in  coming. 

Wak'andjamaniga Thunder  walker. 

Mancdjanmaniga Mightily  walking. 


»  This  ends  Dorsey's  list  of  Bird  clan  names.    Those  following  were  collected  by  the  author. 


radix]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC    CLANS  225 

Marjgiksuntcga Shakes  the  earth. 

Tconimaniga Walks  first. 

Djanpdjirehiga Streak  of  lightning. 

Manxiwimaniga He  who  walks  in  the  cloud. 

Ahu-iseretcga Long  wings. 

Tile  Bear  Clan 

introduction 

Seven  versions  of  the  Bear  clan  origin  myth  were  obtained,  so  that 
for  this  clan,  at  least,  a  fairly  intensive  study  of  the  variations  and 
then  significance  can  be  made.  Perhaps  the  most  interesting  fact 
to  point  out  is  the  apparent  existence  of  two  recognized  versions,  one 
called  the  minor  or  false  and  the  other  the  true.  The  complete 
version  was  only  told  when  the  interrogator  had  paid  enough.11 
The  minor  version  is  not  at  all  concerned  with  the  origin  of  the  Bear 
clan  but  appears  to  be  largely  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  recip- 
rocal relations  of  the  Bear  and  Wolf  clans.  The  second  is  the  real 
origin  myth.  The  version  obtained  does  not,  however,  seem  com- 
plete. 

The  typical  origin  myths  (excluding  the  fifth  version)  are  of  two 
types,  those  that  speak  of  Earthmaker  creating  the  ancestors  of  the 
clan  and  those  that  do  not  mention  his  name.  Undoubtedly  those  ver- 
sions that  dp  not  mention  Earthmaker's  name  are  the  older.  Those 
that  speak  of  Earthmaker  show  clearly  the  influence  of  the  general 
origin  myth  and  of  shamanistic  systematization.  This  is  particu- 
larly apparent  in  the  sixth  version,  which  was  told  in  connection  with 
the  bear  feast.  • 

The  subject  matter  of  the  myths  relates  to  the  manner  in  which 
the  bears  came  to  the  great  gathering  at  Green  Bay,  the  older  ver- 
sions having  them  originate  from  the  water  and  the  later  versions 
having  them  created  by  Earthmaker  and  sent  to  the  earth.  In  the 
former  they  are  distinctly  heroic  animals  and  in  the  latter  vague 
spirit  animals.  The  nature  of  the  relation  of  these  animals  to  the 
present  clansmen  is  not  clearly  stated  in  the  myths,  and  there  is 
not  the  slightest  mention  of  the  present  current  belief  on  the  subject. 
The  myths  seem  almost  entirely  concerned  with  the  cmestion  of  the 
origin  of  the  disciplinary  functions  of  the  clan  and  of  its  relationship 
to  the  Wolf  and  a  few  of  the  other  clans. 

It  is  difficult  to  explain  the  remarkable  differences  in  the  various 
versions.  Comparing  them  with  versions  of  the  clan  origin  myths  of 
the  other  clans,  it  seems  likely  that  the  short  accounts  represent  the 
more  archaic  versions  and  the  longer  accounts  those  versions  that 


14  My  informant  said,  "If  a  person  asked  me  about  the  origin  of  life  (i-e-,  of  my  clan)  and  did  not  give  me 
enough  gifts  or  make  enough  offerings,  I  would  tell  him  the  minor  version.  Not  until  he  gave  me  all  that 
was  necessary  would  I  tell  him  the  true  account." 


226  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

have  been  subjected  to  literary  and  shamanistic  remodeling.  Only 
the  shorter  accounts  show  in  their  subject  matter  and  presentation 
certain  affinities  to  the  origin  myths  of  the  other  clans,  the  longer 
ones  being  entirely  different.  Another  cause  for  these  marked  dif- 
ferences may  lie  in  the  circumstance  that  since  the  longer  accounts 
were  associated  with  semi-esoteric  ceremonies,  the  war-bundle  feasts, 
they  were  known  to  but  few  individuals  in  the  clan,  whereas  the 
shorter  legends  could  be  learned  by  anyone  who  chose  to  pay  for 
them.  To  this  must  also  be  added  the  fact  that  presumably  some 
of  the  accounts  current  were  based  on  hearsay  knowledge. 

The  Bear  clan  was,  next  to  the  Thunderbird  clan,  the  most  im- 
portant in  the  tribe.  Its  lodge  was  either  in  the  center  of  the  vil- 
lage, opposite  that  of  the  Thunderbird  clan,  or  at  the  extreme  end, 
depending  upon  the  scheme  of  village  organization  accepted  as 
correct.  In  it  were  confined  the  prisoners  of  war  and  the  insignia  of 
office  possessed  by  the  clan,  such  as  the  so-called  standards,  really 
crooks,  and  the  so-called  namaxinixini.  Some  individuals  alsoclaimed 
that  unmarried  men  were  allowed  to  sleep  in  the  lodge,  although  they 
were  not  clear  as  to  whether  they  did  this  in  order  to  guard  the  pris- 
oners confined  there  or  simply  used  it  as  a  club  house. 

The  clan  songs  are  given  on  page  235.  The  same  songs  are  used 
when  gathering  the  clansmen  together  to  select  soldiers. 

Apart  from  the  war  bundle  or  war  bundles,  the  Bear  clan  possessed 
three  insignia — a  war  club  of  a  definite  shape,  the  curiously  whittled 
baton  of  authority  called  namaxinixini,  and  the  crooks  used  in  battle 
called  hoke're'un.  Whenever  the  clan  was  exercising  any  of  its  func- 
tions 4he  leader  would  always  hold  in  his  hands  the  namaxinixini. 

The  functions  of  the  clan  were  probably  the  most  important  in 
the  tribe  and  were  entirely  disciplinary.  The  author  obtained  the 
following  description  from  an  old  Winnebago: 

The  Bear  clansmen  are  the  soldiers  or  sergeants-at-arms  of  the  tribe.  They  have 
complete  control  of  everything  concerning  discipline.  Whenever  the  Winnebago 
are  traveling  or  moving  (i.  e.,  on  their  various  seasonal  moves),  the  Bear  clansmen 
lead,  and  wherever  they  decide  to  stop,  there  the  leader  would  put  his  stick  in  the 
ground  and  the  other  Bear  clansmen  would  do  the  same,  arranging  them  all  in  a  row 
pointing  toward  the  direction  in  which  they  were  going.  The  main  body  of  the  tribe 
would  follow  at  a  certain  distance.  No  member  of  the  tribe  would  dare  pass  ahead 
of  the  row  of  sticks.  If,  for  instance,  the  tribe  was  on  the  fall  move  and  traveling 
toward  a  country  in  which  there  was  plenty  of  game,  should  any  individual  go  back 
and  around  the  sticks  in  order  to  kill  game  on  his  own  account,  the  soldiers  (Bear 
clansmen)  would,  as  soon  as  he  was  detected,  go  over  to  his  lodge  and  burn  it  up  with 
all  its  contents  and  break  all  his  dishes.  The  only  thing  they  would  spare  would  be 
his  life  and  that  of  the  other  members  of  his  family.  I  f  the  one  who  had  transgressed 
the  rules  made  any  attempt  at  resistance  he  would  be  severely  whipped.  If  he  re- 
fused to  submit  to  this  and  took  up  his  fire  arms  to  fight,  the  soldiers  would  stand  there 
calmly,  but  the  moment  he  made  an  attempt  to  shoot  they  would  kill  him.  In  such 
a  case  nothing  would  be  said  either  by  the  rest  of  the  tribe  or  his  relatives  about 


eadin]  SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  227 

the  matter.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  he  submitted  to  whatever  punishment  the  Bear 
clansmen  inflicted  on  him  without  resistance  and  apologized  to  them,  then  they  would 
build  him  a  new  lodge  and  supply  it  with  better  goods  than  those  which  they  had  been 
compelled  to  destroy. 

This  is  the  way  in  which  the  soldiers  act  when  they  are  on  duty.  They  never  jest 
and  their  word  is  a  command.  If  it  is  not  immediately  obeyed,  their  next  move  is 
to  punish.  For  that  reason  one  generally  listens  to  them  and  their  commands.  When 
they  are  not  on  duty  they  are  the  same  as  other  people.  Different  members  of  the 
tribe  are  on  duty  at  different  times,  for  the  leader  changes  them  about  frequenth  . 

If  a  field  of  rice  is  found  in  some  swamp  or  lake  the  Bear  clan 
people  are  informed  and  they  go  over  and  keep  watch  over  it  and 
give  every  person  an  equal  chance  at  picking  it.  If  a  person  sneaks 
away  and  takes  advantage  of  the  others,  the  Bear  clan  people  punish 
him. 

The  Bear  clansmen  guard  the  village  almost  all  the  time.  When 
a  council  is  held  they  guard  the  council  lodge,  and  when  a  person  is 
tried  for  some  crime,  particularly  that  of  murder,  a  trial  which  gen- 
erally takes  place  in  the  Thunderhird  clan  lodge,  then  they  care- 
fully guard  this  lodge,  lest  the  prisoner  try  to  escape  or  his  relatives 
or  confederates  try  to  rescue  him. 

Certain  actions  and  remarks  are  not  permitted  in  the  Bear  clan 
lodge.     They  are  the  following : 

To  peep  into  the  lodge. 

To  make  the  remark  that  they  live  in  a  nice  lodge. 

To  sit  in  the  doorway. 

To  give  a  deep  sigh  or  snort  inside  the  lodge. 

Should  any  person  do  one  of  these  forbidden  things,  the  Bear 
clansmen  would  be  compelled  to  give  the  most  valued  thing  in  the 
lodge  to  the  offender. 

If  a  man  seduced  a  woman,  he  was  brought  to  the  lodge  of  the 
Bear  clan  and  severely  whipped.  If  the  soldier  whipped  him  too 
severely,  he  in  turn  was  whipped. 

If  a  murderer  was  brought  to  the  Bear  clan  lodge  and  the  chief 
of  the  tribe  asked  that  the  man  be  freed,  the  rest  of  the  tribe  would 
beg  the  relatives  of  the  murdered  man  to  relent ;  but  if  the  murderer 
was  turned  over  to  the  soldiers,  they  would  take  him  to  the  lodge  of 
the  murdered  man's  relatives  and  let  one  of  them  kill  him. 

According  to  one  informant,  the  Deer  clansmen  acted  as  servants 
to  the  Bear  clan. 

The  Bear  and  the  Wolf  clans  are  friends,  and  although,  as  we 
indicated  on  page  201,  each  clan  is  paired  off  with  another,  the  rela- 
tionship of  the  Bear  and  Wolf  clans  is  particularly  intimate.  It  was 
even  claimed  that  a  Bear  clansman  would  revenge  the  death  of  a 
Wolf  clansman.  For  no  other  clans  did  the  author  hear  this  state- 
ment made.  The  women  are  addressed  by  the  men  and  by  each 
other  as  "my  opposite,"  referring  unquestionably  to  the  positions  in 


228  THE   WINNEBAGO   TEIBE  [bih.ann.37 

the  council  lodge.  According  to  another  informant,  the  Bear  clan  is 
the  Deer's  friend,  and  therefore  they  bury  one  another. 

Burial,  as  was  the  case  for  all  members  of  the  lower  phratry,  was 
in  the  ground.  Opinions  varied  as  to  what  clan  was  supposed  to 
bury  a  Bear  man,  some  people  claiming  that  it  would  have  to  belong 
to  the  upper  phratry,  others  that  it  was  incumbent  upon  the  Wolf 
clan.  It  seems  that  the  latter  custom  is  the  one  followed  at  the 
present  time  and  one  which  is  considered  old,  to  judge  from  the 
account  of  an  actual  funeral  (cf.  p.  148).  The  body  was  always 
buried  with  a  miniature  Bear  clan  war  bundle.  According  to  one 
informant,  a  bow  and  arrows  were  occasionally  placed  in  the  hands 
of  the  corpse,  in  addition  to  some  tobacco.  According  to  another 
informant,  the  facial  marks  were  charcoal  across  the  forehead  and 
red  marks  under  the  lips  in  direct  imitation  of  the  bear. 

The  facial  decoration  for  the  corpse  consisted  of  two  parallel  marks 
across  the  forehead,  the  upper  one  red  and  the  lower  one  black,  and 
the  painting  of  the  entire  chin  red  (pi.  46).  The  red  paint  on  the 
chin  was  interpreted  as  a  smile,  for  the  Bear  clansmen  were  supposed 
to  greet  death  with  a  smile,  as  they  were  returning  to  their  clan 
ancestors.  The  statement  was  also  made  that  Bear  clansmen  should 
not  mourn  the  death  of  any  of  their  comrades. 

There  is  a  specific  Bear  clan  feast  at  which  no  one  is  permitted  to 
laugh  or  talk,  nor  is  anyone  allowed  to  make  any  noise  while  drinking 
soup.     The  feasters  must  eat  with  their  left  hand. 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  ceremonies  associated  with  the 
Bear  clan  is  the  so-called  bear  or  soldier  dance  (rncmWpe  wad).  It 
was  described  to  the  author  as  follows: 

When  sickness  comes  upon  a  Winnebago  village  the  people  go  to  the  chief  and  say 
"Sickness  has  come  upon  us,  O  chief!  See  that  your  soldiers  arise! "  And  the  chief 
goes  to  the  lodge  of  the  leading  Bear  clansman  and,  offering  him  tobacco,  speaks  as 
follows:  "My  soldier,  I  am  offering  you  tobacco,  for  my  people  have  been  smitten 
with  disease."  Then  the  latter  rises  and  thanks  him.  He  then  informs  all  his  clans- 
men and  they  give  a  feast.  Then,  of  those  participating,  a  number  of  males  and 
females  are  selected,  who  on  the  next  day,  accompanied  by  the  leader,  go  around 
the  village  four  times.  If  a  dog  crosses  their  path,  they  kill  it.  After  they  have 
made  the  fourth  circuit  they  enter  the  village  from  the  east  end.  They  thereupon 
visit  the  sick  individuals  one  after  another,  dance  in  their  presence,  and  lay  their 
hands  upon  them.  After  they  have  visited  all  the  sick  they  go  to  the  chief's  lodge, 
where  a  feast  is  spread  for  them  by  the  chief's  people.  The  next  day  all  those  who 
had  been  ill  become  well. 

It  is  quite  clear  that  this  "healing"  function  of  the  clan  is  inti- 
mately associated  with  the  powers  supposed  to  be  bestowed  upon 
individuals  by  Bear  spirits.  In  fact,  we  are  really  dealing  with  a 
society  possessing  the  power  of  healing  disease  in  which  membership, 
however,  is  restricted  to  members  of  the  Bear  clan. 


SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS 


229 


The  following  dog  names  were  obtained: 

A  black  dog  with  yellow  eyebrows  and  breast  is  called  hesiga'ruyega, 
Opens-beehives;  black  female  dog,  hotelciMga,  Picks-acorns;  black 
dog  with  white  around  the  neck,  Tiotc  Itagawanvga,  Runs-for-acorns. 
The  chief  also  had  the  privilege  of  calling  a  dog  noruxuga,  to  show 
his  superiority  over  the  other  members  of  the  Bear  clan.  From 
another  informant  the  following  were  obtained:  Tcapiracotcga,  Eats- 
everything-except-hide ;  tealiorawefai,  Pulls-out-deer-liver. 

OKIGIN    MYTHS 
FIRST  VERSION  15 

Informant,  member  of  the  clan:  In  the  beginning  a  bear  came 
walking  on  the  ocean.  When  he  got  to  the  shore  he  flew  off  as  a 
raven  and  alit  on  the  shore.  The  first  being  he  saw  was  a  Dog  clans- 
man.    Then  he  entered  the  lodge  and  sat  opposite  him.     That  is 


Fig.  35. — Diagram  of  Bear  lodge. 

why  they  call  one  another  friends,  or  "he  who  sits  opposite  me." 
From  the  fact  that  he  flew  off  as  a  raven  we  have  a  name  (kaxijigaga) . 
The  lodge  had  four  doors,  one  on  each  end  and  one  on  each  side 
(fig.  35).  They  landed  at  Green  Bay,  where  a  great  gathering  was 
held  of  all  the  clans.  The  other  Bear  clansmen  claim  that  it  was 
water  foam  that  flew  from  the  water,  and  it  is  from  that  fact  that 
they  obtained  so  much  life.  The  fact  that  he  (the  bear)  changed 
himself  twice  is  the  reason  for  his  greatness  among  his  fellow  clans- 
men. Originally  it  was  the  fourth  born  who  was  sent  from  across 
the  ocean. 

SECOND  VERSION 

Informant,  father  of  above:  In  the  beginning  10  brothers  started 
from  across  the  ocean  to  the  great  clan  meeting.  When  they  got  near, 
four  waves  came  ashore  and  a  raven  flew  from  the  waves,  but  when 
it  alit  (on  land)  it  was  a  bear  that  walked.     They  were  the  greatest 

>'  There  are  so  many  versions  of  the  origin  of  the  Bear  clan  that  I  think  it  best  to  give  all  I  obtained. 
They  are  all  discussed  on  p.  225. 


230  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

in  power,  as  they  had  changed  themselves  twice.  There  they  crossed 
the  tracks  of  the  Wolf  clan,  and  they  said,  "Our  friends  have  gone 
by."  Then  they  went  and  sat  opposite  the  Wolf  people.  The  Wolf 
and  Bear  clans  must  bury  one  another. 

The  10  men  left  their  father  and  mother  across  the  ocean. 

The  Bears  should  paint  their  faces  with  charcoal  from  burnt  bass- 
wood  and  red  paint.  The  face  should  be  painted  red  and  black 
alternately  crosswise  in  stripes,  or  black  on  the  upper  half  and  red  on 
the  mouth  and  chin.  Women  are  painted  with  red  markings  on  each 
cheek  and  with  charcoal  markings  in  the  center  of  the  cheek. 

THIRD  VERSION 

Informant,  member  of  the  Bear  clan:  It  is  supposed  that  Earth- 
maker  ordered  a  meeting  of  all  the  animals  to  take  place  at  Green 
Bay,  and  that  the  Soldiers  (another  name  for  the  Bear  clan)  were 
also  to  attend. 

In  the  beginning  Earthmaker  created  all  things  in  the  form  of 
animals,  but  at  this  gathering  they  (the  originators  of  the  various 
clans?)  were  to  become  human.  When  all  was  in  readiness  to  start, 
it  was  decided  that  the  families  of  those  animals  who  were  to  become 
the  ancestors  of  the  Winnebago  clans  were  each  to  send  one  repre- 
sentative, and  that  the  one  who  was  thus  chosen,  accompanied  by 
his  wife,  was  to  become  transformed  on  that  occasion.  Of  the  sol- 
diers (i.  e.,  the  bears)  the  youngest  was  sent.  He  had  three  brothers, 
of  whom  the  eldest  had  black  hair,  the  second  dark  red  hair,  and  the 
third  blue  or  green  hair.  They  were  the  chiefs  of  the  villages  from 
which  they  had  started.16  Only  the  youngest,  however,  was  sent  to 
the  earth  to  attend  the  meeting.  When  he  emerged  at  a  place  to 
the  north  of  Green  Bay  he  came  from  out  the  earth.  When  they 
emerged  (the  bear  and  his  wife)  it  was  a  very  fine  day.  As  they  were 
coming  they  heard  voices  in  the  distance  saying,  "The  soldiers  are 
coming."  As  they  started  to  walk  their  footprints  seemed  imprinted 
with  the  blue  of  the  sky — i.  e.,  witn  daylight.  A  name  has  originated 
from  this  fact  (hanbamanina,  "He-who-walks-with-the-day").  As 
his  wife  was  with  him,  he  immediately  started  to  hunt.  (It  seems 
that  by  this  time  the  bear  had  some  followers,  for  some  would  from 
time  to  time  ask  whether  they  were  going  to  eat,  and  he  would  answer 
yes  and  tell  them  to  hunt  for  food.) 

When  the  youngest  of  the  brothers  started,  the  brothers  who 
remained  behind  told  him  "to  remember  them"  with  regard  to  tobacco, 
red  feathers,  and  food,  and  therefore  after  he  had  started  he  told 
some  of  his  followers  to  go  ahead  and  bring  food  of  such  and  such  a 
kind,  so  that  when  he  arrived  at  certain  camping  places  thpse  sent 

16  It  must  be  remembered  that  all  this  is  taking  place  in  the  heavens,  in  the  spirit  abode  of  the  bears 
The  color  translations  are  only  approximate. 


badin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  231 

ahead  would  be  there  before  him  ready  with  the  food.  After  the 
first  meal  they  started  out  again,  and  soon  they  came  across  the  track 
of  a  member  of  some  other  clan,  and  they  said,  '  'Our  friend  has  gone 
by."  The  latter  clan  had  also  said  in  coming,  "Our  friend  must 
have  come  by."  Then  they  came  to  the  place  where  a  large  lodge 
had  been  constructed.  When-  all  were  inside,  the  animal-beings 
wished  to  start  a  camp  fire,  and  they  called  upon  all  those  present  to 
start  it;  but  no  one  except  the  Thunderbirds  could  do  it,  so  they 
made  the  Thunderbirds  chiefs  of  the  tribe.  As,  however,  they  were 
to  have  a  number  of  chiefs,  they  called  upon  the  Water-spirits  to  be 
chiefs  of  the  lower  division.  Of  the  third  division,  the  soldiers  were 
to  be  the  chiefs.  The  latter  were  to  be  in  charge  of  discipline.  That 
is  the  origin  of  the  Bear  or  Soldier  clan. 

FOURTH  VERSION 

Informant,  member  of  the  clan  [so-called  "true"  version]:  Earth- 
maker  made  all  things,  and  then  he  created  man  and  woman,  and  he 
placed  them  in  the  south.  He  gave  them  charge  of  some  of  the  day 
or  life.  All  the  creatures  on  the  earth  and  all  the  birds  of  the  air  he 
was  in  charge  of.  He  was  going  to  start  up  from  below  and  walk 
toward  the  north.  All  the  creatures  went  with  him.  He  walked 
forth  with  all  the  creatures.  When  he  arrived  on  earth  all  the  other 
clans  had  already  gathered  at  one  place.  When  he  arrived  they  said, 
"Our  soldiers  have  come.  Make  room  for  them."  So  it  was  said. 
And  he  said  to  them,  '  'The  things  Earthmaker  created  me  for,  those 
I  will  do.  Therefore,  wherever  you  live  or  wherever  you  gather 
together  I  will  look  after  your  village;  even  to  the  edge  of  the  clear- 
ing, that  far  I  will  make  it  sacred  for  you;  and  if  you  are  ever  over- 
come by  sickness  and  you  ask  me  to  arise  and  help  you,  your  sickness 
will  leave  you.  And  while  he  spoke  of  his  power  for  four  days  the 
weather  had  been  good,  and  no  wind  blew  from  any  direction.  The 
soldier  was  thus  in  charge  of  affairs.  And  as  he  spoke  thus  all  birds 
with  sharp  claws  flew  above  him  in  a  circle. 

On  the  fourth  day  all  the  clans  left  for  their  respective  homes. 
Now  even  to  this  day  he,  the  bear,  is  still  in  charge  of  the  people. 

FIFTH  VERSION 

Informant,  same  as  of  fourth  version  [so-called  "minor"  version]: 
In  the  south,  where  he  emerged  and  came  upon  our  earth,  there  was 
a  spring  which  gave  forth  white  water.  When  he  was  about  to 
come  out,  the  hill  in  which  he  was  confined  shook  and  the  spring 
shook  also.  He  was  not  the  first  to  come  out,  for  his  attendants 
preceded  him.  Then  he  came  out.  There  were  1 1  men.  The  oldest 
one  told  him  to  go  and  look  around  at  the  fields.  He  sent  out  four 
to  look  at  the  fields   (the  raspberries  and  all  other  fruits).     The 


232  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

acorns  and  nuts  they  called  beans.  The  four  that  emerged  soon 
came  upon  the  footprints  of  human  beings. 

And  then  they  returned  from  the  fields  where  they  had  been 
searching  for  food.  "Oh,  my;  oh,  my,"  they  said,  "over  there  we 
came  across  the  foorprints  of  human  beings."  So  they  spoke.  "Go 
again,"  he  said,  "go  around  a  larger  circle."  So  they  went  farther 
than  before,  and  there  they  saw  the  people  who  had  made  the  foot- 
prints. "Our  friends  are  going  about  here,"  said  the  ones  who  had 
made  the  footprints  and  who  were  wolves.  "Never  shall  we  disobey 
one  another's  word,  my  friends,"  said  the  bear.  And  the  wolf 
answered,  "It  shall  be  so." 

If  one  of  the  Bear  clansmen  had  been  killed  and  it  was  reported 
to  the  Wolf  clan,  the  latter  would  revenge  him.  The  Bear  clan 
would  act  similarly.  Then  the'bear  said  to  the  wolf,  "My  friend, 
whenever  you  die  I  shall  put  you  away  so  that  your  soul  may  not 
be  bothered  by  bad  insects."  And  the  wolf  answered,  "My  friend, 
it  shall  be  so,  and  when  you  die  I  will  likewise  put  you  away  so  that 
the  bad  spirits  may  not  abuse  your  soul."  Then  they  parted,  after 
shaking  each  other's  hands.  The  bears  returned  to  their  home  in 
the  south.  The  next  time  they  came,  it  was  to  stay.  They  scattered 
themselves  all  over  the  earth,  seeking  newly  ripened  fruit  of  all  kinds. 
In  this  manner  they  are  still  living  on  earth. 

SIXTH  VERSION  1T 

Informant,  member  of  the  clan:  Earthmaker  made  us  and  as  he 
created  us  thus  the  story  has  come  down.  The  story  of  our  creation 
is  told  as  follows: 

"Get  ready.  We  will  converse  together  over  this  affair."  So 
spoke  the  one  in  the  south.  He  was  but  one  of  those  whom  Earth- 
maker  had  created.  There  were  four  brothers.  The  name  of  the 
oldest  one  was  Black  Person,  that  of  the  second  Red  Person.  (Indeed 
he  was  very  red.)  The  third  one  was  called  Blue  Person,  and  the 
fourth  one  White  Person. 

"Younger  brother,  how  is  it  going  to  be?  I  (the  oldest),  who  am 
speaking,  not  fitted  do  I  feel  myself  for  the  task.  My  temperament 
is  indeed  not  fitted  for  the  task.  Perhaps  you  might  have  something 
to  tell  them.  Try,  therefore,  to  say  something  to  them.  They  are 
about  to  have  a  gathering  and  it  is  time  to  start.  Try  to  say  some- 
thing to  them."  "Older  brother,  the  truth  do  you  speak.  I  also 
feel  even  as  you  have  said;  I  am  not  fitted  for  it.  I  really  don't 
consider  myself  equal  to  the  task.  My  younger  brother  only  is  the 
one  fitted  for  it.  He  is  clever.  Our  younger  brother,  he  only  must 
be  the  one."  "The  truth  you  have  spoken,  my  brother.  Our 
youngest  brother  only  is  fitted  for  the  task.  The  announcement  of 
the  gathering  has  already  been  made,  so  let  us  council  over  it  imme- 

"  Told  as  the  origin  myth  of  the  Bear  (east. 


radin]  SOCIAL  ORGANIZATION — SPECIFIC   CLANS  233 

diately.  Let  us  get  ready.  Our  younger  brother,  he  is  patient  and 
strong-minded.  On  the  earth  he  must  go  and  we  will  remain  here. 
To  take  care  of  the  home  we  will  remain  here.  Whatever  he  says  it 
shall  be  so.  In  that  wise  will  we  think.  Earthmaker  has  ordained 
that  the  gathering  shall  take  place  and  that  we  are  to  live  our  lives 
there  (on  earth).  Our  younger  brother  he  will  go  and  live  on  the 
earth.  As  he  is  about  to  go  to  the  earth,  we  will  ask  him  to  remem- 
ber us. 

"Younger  brother,  when  you  arrive  on  earth,  whatever  offerings 
you  obtain,  send  them  back  to  us  as  you  walk  along.  When  you 
start  out  you  will  appear  with  life.  This  you  will  take  with  you. 
This  will  be  your  task.  Be  careful  that  you  perform  everything 
correctly.  When  you  arrive  there,  it  will  be  necessary  to  give 
names  to  the  human  beings  and  to  their  dogs. 

"Younger  brother,  when  you  start  out  toward  the  earth  you  will 
be  holy.  And  when  you  are  on  earth  and  your  first  boy  is  born,  call 
him  He-who-is-very-black,  and  call  the  second  one  (wajiga)  Brown- 
bear,  the  third  one  Blue-bear,  and  the  fourth  one  White-bear.  And 
if  girls  are  born  to  you,  call  the  first  one  Night-walking-woman,  the 
second  one  Daylight-as-she-walks,  the  third  one  She-who-thrusts- 
herself-within-a-lodge,  and  the  fourth  one  Visible-footprint-woman. 
And  if  your  daughters  have  dogs  which  they  wish  to  keep  let  them 
give  them  the  following  names  (wadogega,  untranslatable):  Dog- 
pair,  Third-born-girl,  and  Red-female-dog.     Thus  let  it  be." 

When  they  (the  bears)  started,  those  at  the  gathering  place  listened : 
"Our  soldiers  have  started;  their  whoops  are  audible."  When  the 
bear  came  on  earth,  he  came  across  some  tracks.  "Our  friends  have 
gone  by,"  he  said.  Finally  the  bears  (man  and  woman)  arrived  at 
the  gathering  place;  there  they  found  all  the  clans  assembled.  The 
Water-spirit  was  the  first  one  to  come;  then  came  the  birds  and 
then  the  bears.  When  all  were  assembled,  they  began  to  construct 
a  large  lodge.  When  it  was  finished,  the  one  who  had  arrived  first, 
the  Water-spirit,  was  addressed  by  some  of  the  other  people.  "Our 
chief,  how  are  we  going  to  make  fire?  Had  you  not  better  start?" 
"True  you  speak,  but  I  do  not  know  how.  I  am  unable.  Let  some 
one  else  try  it."  But  they  all  regretted  and  declined,  saying  they  did 
not  know  how.  So  it  was  decided  that  he  who  made  a  fire  would  be 
chief.  All  thereupon  tried,  but  only  the  Thunderbird  succeeded. 
So  he  became  the  chief  and  the  others  all  thanked  him.  Then  the 
fire  was  distributed  and  all  the  clan  fireplaces  were  made.  Thus  it 
was  at  the  creation  council.  Now  all  things  were  finished  and 
arranged.  The  Thunderbirds  were  the  rulers  of  the  village.  The 
other  people  measured  their  acts  by  him.  When  the  chief  said  do 
so  and  so,  they  would  obey.  Then  the  chief  went  out  to  look  for 
food  for  himself  and  for  his  people,  and  they  began  to  bring  back 
186823—22 16 


234  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

food  in  the  form  of  their  relatives — i.  e.,  in  the  form  of  the  animals 
after  whom  they  were  named.  Then  the  Bear  people  made  a  rule 
that  they  were  to  have  a  feast  at  which  offerings  would  he  made  to 
their  clan  animal.  And  it  was  for  him  that  they  placed  a  shallow 
kettle  at  the  feast.     This  is  all. 

SEVENTH  VERSION 

Informant,  member  of  the  Thunderbird  clan. 

At  a  large  spring  sat  a  male  bear.  He  looked  upon  his  body  and  it 
was  very  blue.  It  was  even  bluer  than  the  blue  of  the  sky.  As  the 
blue  from  the  sky  illuminated,  so  he  was.  He  sat  as  though  he  was 
part  of  the  day.  He  was  a  chief  and  his  name  was  Blue-chief. 
Toward  one  side  he  looked  and  there  stood  twelve  men.  Then  the 
earth  began  to  quake  and  something  came  out  from  the  spring. 
Because  something  had  come  out  from  under  the  earth  that  is  why 
the  earth  quaked.  Blue-bear  named  him  Earth-shaker.  Then  the 
earth  began  to  quake  again  and  now  it  was  worse  than  before  and 
Blue-chief  named  the  one  who  emerged  Earth-quaker.  And  then  for 
the  third  time  the  earth  began  to  tremble,  even  much  more  than 
before.  So  much  did  it  tremble  that  the  day  itself  trembled;  and 
those  that  were  not  solidly  attached  to  the  earth  came  to  the  top  and 
all  manner  of  fruit  was  scattered  over  the  earth.  When  he  came  out 
Blue-chief  named  him  Gives-forth-fruit-as-he-walks.  And  again  for 
the  fourth  time  the  earth  began  to  roar  and  tremble  and  even  the 
day  trembled.  Then  one  came  out.  So  he  was  named,  Makes-the- 
day-tremble.  Thus  they  were  all  named  as.  they  came  out.  Then 
Blue-bear  was  told  by  Earthmaker,  "This  is  all  that  remains  to  be 
done;  your  friends  are  waiting  for  you."  There  Blue-bear  talked 
with  Earthmaker,  the  latter  telling  him  what  he  was  to  do.  Then 
they  started  to  the  place  where  all  the  other  clans  were  gathering,  at 
Red  Banks.  As  they  came,  all  the  leaves  that  had  rough  edges 
became  human  and  all  the  trees  that  had  prickers  became  human, 
and  all  the  birds  that  had  sharp  claws  and  were  able  to  claw  anything, 
they  all  became  human,  and  the  snakes  that  had  sharp  fangs  became 
human.  Thus  they  went.  Those  of  the  air  went  in  the  air  and  those 
of  the  earth  went  on  the  earth,  and  nothing  could  cross  their  path. 
Even  the  earth  trembled  as  they  walked. 

When  they  got  to  the  gathering  place  they  were  told  that  seats 
were  reserved  for  their  friends  (meaning  them).  But,  said  Blue- 
bear,  "We  did  not  come  for  that  purpose,  so  we  will  not  sit  down. 
We  were  intended  for  something  else  by  Earthmaker.  As  long  as 
this  world  exists  we  will  take  care  of  you  within  the  confines  of  your 
villages.  We  will  not  permit  any  evil  spirits  to  enter  these  confines. 
The  seats  you  offered  us  will  remain  as  they  are,  so  that  if  at  any  time 
the  clans  are  gathered  again  our  place  will  be  reserved.     Then  the 


eadin]  SOCIAL,  ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  235 

crowd  dispersed  and  went  home.  Blue-bear  said  that  he  would  go 
home  but  that  the  rest  were  to  live  on  this  earth  and  that  they  would 
be  the  soldiers  of  this  earth.     That  is  the  origin  of  the  Bear  clan. 

When  a  bear  is  killed  on  earth,  the  Bear  clansmen  do  not  mind  it, 
but  they  laugh  and  feel  good.  When  one  of  the  Bear  clan  dies, 
they  say,  "Don't  cry,  for  he  has  gone  home."  Then  they  paint 
his  jaws  red  to  give  him  the  appearance  of  laughing. 

When  a  bear  is  killed  on  earth  the  spirit  returns  to  Blue-bear,  and 
so  it  is  with  the  Bear  clansmen.     This  is  the  story  of  the  Bear  clan. 

All  the  birds,  trees,  snakes,  and  everything  of  its  kind  have  soldiers. 
The  sharp-clawed  birds  are  soldiers  of  the  birds  and  all  the  snakes  that 
have  fangs  and  all  the  trees  that  have  prickers  are  soldiers  of  their 
kind.  All  the  animals  and  living  things  of  the  earth  have  soldiers 
among  them.  The  ugliest  tempered  ones  of  their  kind  are  soldiers  of 
whatever  class  they  belong  to.  Oftentimes  when  a  person  gets  angry 
on  earth  they  would  say,  "The  soldier;  it  is  because  he  has  a  soldier 
nature. ' '  (Whoever  has  the  power  of  hurting  one  of  his  fellow- 
beings  and  does  it  has  a  soldier  nature.)  This  is  the  story  of  the 
Soldier  clan. 

If  they  had  said  in  the  beginning,  "This  or  that  clan  will  never  do 
anything  wrong,"  then  the  rest  of  the  clans  would  never  have  done  so. 
The  Soldier  clan  opens  the  way  for  anyone,  of  any  clan,  at  any 
time,  to  take  up  his  soldier  nature. 

CLAN    SONGS 
Song  1 

Winnebagoes,  on  the  road  they  are  coming. 
Winnebagoes,  on  the  road  they  are  coming. 
Winnebagoes,  on  the  road  they  are  coming. 
Winnebagoes,  on  the  road  they  are  coming. 

Song  2 

Speaking  Winnebago,  they  are  coming. 
Speaking  Winnebago,  they  are  coming. 
Speaking  Winnebago,  they  are  coming. 
Speaking  Winnebago,  they  are  coming. 


Song  3 


Who  can  lie  behind? 
Who  can  be  behind? 
Who  can  be  behind? 
Who  can  be  behind? 

Who  can  be  above? 
Who  can  be  above? 
Who  can  be  above? 
Who  can  be  above? 


Song  4 


236  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  87 

CLAN    NAMES 
HTTNDJ   HIK'lK'ARADJERA    (BEAR   CLAN)13 

Hagsdja  minank'a Sitting  opposite. 

Awasarega He  who  is  shut  in. 

Cagep'ahiga The  one  with  black  claws. 

Cinsasak'a Coarse-grained  fat. 

Roguninnega He  who  is  coveted. 

Hahi-atciwirjga Dwelling  on  a  hillside. 

Hak'iridjewirjga Comes  back. 

Hak'irutcewinga Crosses  each  other. 

Hazhoniwirjga Hunts  for  berries. 

Hanheoratcewinga Travels  by  night. 

Hanhewinga Night. 

Hanbenink'a Small  day. 

Hanpmaniga He  who  walks  by  day. 

Himaniwarutcga He  who  eats  as  he  walks. 

Hiniguhega His  little  one  who  is  returning. 

Hinurjk'hadjariga He  who  saw  a  woman. 

Hinunk'  inekiminanka..  .Woman  sitting  alone. 

Hinunk'  djopga Four  women. 

Hodihuga He  who  comes  climbing  a  tree. 

Hundjhurega Black  bear  who  is  coming. 

Hundjga The  bear. 

Hundjxedega The  big  bear. 

Hundjxunuga Small  bear. 

Hungatcak'iriga He  who  has  come  back  to  see  the  children. 

Hurjgit£ega Prophet. 

Hunkorohiga He  who  is  the  chief's  flesh.       < 

Hurjk'uniga He  who  is  made  chief. 

Inek'inanjinga He  who  stands  alone. 

Inek'iminarjk'a He  who  sits  alone. 

Gis£weminank'a He  who  sits  quiet. 

Man  k'axga Dirt. 

Maniwarutcga He  who  eats  as  he  walks. 

Manok'ipiwinga She  for  whom  the  land  is  large  enough. 

Manzitciga Iron  lodge. 

Manzananpinga Iron  necklace. 

Maazasanwirjga Whitish  metal. 

Manzawinga Metal  woman. 

Mancgodaniga Three  notches. 

Mannanhanpewinga She  who  throws  out  the  dirt  with  her  paws. 

Mananpega Soldier. 

Manp'ezirehiga Earth  thrown  up  yellow. 

Manrotcanwirjga Straight  earth  woman. 

Ma^orekega Land  cut  in  strips. 

Mantco-icdjajiripga Grizzly  bear  with  striped  eyes. 

Mantcoga Grizzly  bear. 

Manwaksuntcga Shakes  the  ground  by  his  weight. 

Motciwinga She  who  dwells  in  the  ground. 

Nancgadjewinga She  who  plays  on  a  tree. 

Nannetcfinsepwinga Black  root. 

>8  The  following  names  are  from  the  Dorsey  manuscript. 


kapix]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  '237 

Nanmizok'iwinga Bends  a  tree  by  pulling 

Nansa"nehiga He  who  makes  a  tree  whitish  by  scratching  off  the  bark. 

Na"tcgepinga Good  heart. 

Nantcgetcexiwirjga She  whose  heart  is  difficult. 

Nantcujiwirjga Yellowish  red  hair. 

Noxtcuxiga Breaks  up  a  tree  into  small  pieces. 

Noruxoga Scrapes  a  tree. 

Hok'awasmaniwinga Who  walks  in  darkness. 

Hok'awasminarjk'a He  who  sits  in  darkness. 

Reziwak'antcarjk'a Holy  tongue. 

Rohanminank'a Many  sitting. 

Si-asga Foot  good  to  the  taste. 

Tciwojuga Fills  the  lodge. 

Tcuga Ladle. 

Tcugiga Spoon. 

Wajiga Yellowish-red  bear. 

Wakizananp'irjga He  who  has  a  white  spot  under  his  throat. 

Wamaniga Walks  on  the  snow. 

Wamanuk'ega He  who  steals  habitually. 

Wamarj  ksgaga With  a  white  breast. 

Wasanhimaniga He  who  walks  on  melting  snow. 

Wasemqmak'arjga Vermillion. 

Wank'anansewinga Pens  up  a  male. 

Wank'hok'isak'a Half  a  man. 

Woixdjahiriga Laughing  at  his  antics. 

Wohinkcahirega He  at  whom  they  laugh.19 

Mainnukonuga In  charge  of  land. 

Tconarjke  hurjk'a First  chief. 

Septcoga Real  black. 

NaMjudjewirjga Red  hair. 

Mananp'e  hurjk'a Soldier  chief. 

Hokiwaigunwirjga She  who  retraces  her  steps. 

Moradjawirjga Earth  wanderer. 

Mannusank'n  himinank'a  .  .  Sits  as  the  earth  alone. 

Monirjga Hunts  about  the  earth. 

Anantcunxedga Big  armful. 

Watcoginiwinga Goes  ahead  of  them  (common  to  all  clans). 

Manman'winga Walks  on  the  earth. 

Manguwinga Earth  coming  woman. 

Hotcarjgit'ega. Speaks  Winnebago. 

Ha°p'  emaniga Walks  with  the  strength  of  day. 

Hanbominanga .Sits  in  the  day. 

Tcoraminank'a Sits  blue. 

Hundjxonuga Small  bear. 

Hanbirukonuga In  charge  of  day. 

Morutcanwinga Goes  around  the  earth. 

Motciwirjga Lives  in  the  earth. 

Tci-omantciga Lives  in  the  earth  permanently. 

Ni-ananjinga Stands  on  the  water. 


">  The  following  names  were  obtained  by  the  author. 


238  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

The  Wolf  Clan 
introduction 

Three  versions  of  the  origin  myth  of  this  clan  were  obtained.  The 
second  is  the  most  interesting,  for  it  gives  the  popular  account  of 
descent  from  the  clan  animal-ancestor,  although  it  claims  that  he, 
in  turn,  was  created  by  Earthmaker.  One  other  important  char- 
acteristic is  the  statement  that  the  original  clan  ancestor  married  a 
human  being  and  that  from  them  the  present  members  of  the  clan 
trace  their  descent.  A  similar  type  of  descent  is  mentioned  in  a 
number  of  myths  that  can  best  be  interpreted  as  village  origin  myths. 
The  ownership  of  war  bundles  has  also  at  times  been  linked  up  with 
descent  from  some  spirit. 

Very  little  is  known  at  the  present  time  about  the  functions  of  the 
Wolf  clan.  It  is  quite  clear,  however,  that  the  clan  once  possessed 
powers  of  considerable  importance.  From  the  fact  that  the  Wolf 
people  are  still  occasionally  called  "minor  soldiers"  and  that  they 
are  so  closely  linked  with  the  Bear  clansmen  it  is  likely  that  their 
functions  were  similar  in  nature  to  those  of  the  Bear  people.  They 
probably  assisted  the  latter. 

Water  was  sacred  to  the  Wolf  clan  as  it  also  was  to  the  Water- 
spirit  clan.  A  person  was  not  allowed  to  tell  a  Wolf  clansman  that 
he  looked  like  a  wolf  nor  allowed  to  sit  on  a  log  in  a  Wolf  clan  lodge. 
If  a  man  kills  a  Wolf  clansman  accidentally  and  then  sits  on  the  log 
in  a  Wolf  lodge,  he  has  to  be  freed. 

According  to  one  informant,  the  Wolf  clan  at  one  time  possessed 
four  sticks,  which  they  would  use  and  with  which  they  kept  time  while 
the  drum  was  beaten. 

According  to  one  informant,  the  Wolf  clansmen  were  the  only 
people  who  were  allowed  to  intermarry. 

The  Wolf  clansmen  give  a  feast  when  a  Bear  child  is  born,  to  show 
respect  for  their  friend.     They  give  the  child  a  name  of  their  own  clan. 

The  Wolf  feast  is  held  in  the  spring  of  the  year,  when  the  ice  melts 
from  the  creeks  and  everything  begins  to  grow.  At  the  feast  the 
clan  origin  myth  is  told  and  the  members  of  the  other  clans  are 
allowed  to- hear  it.     The  food  used  is  boiled  rice. 

ORIGIN    MYTHS 

FIRST   VERSION  (TOLD   BY  A   MEMBER   OF  THE    CLAN) 

In  the  beginning  the  Wolf  clan  people  came  from  the  water. 
Therefore  their  bodies  are  of  water — i.  e.,  their  sacred  possession  is 
water.  There,  were  four  male  wolves  and  four  female  wolves,  and 
as  they  came  up  from  the  sea  and  swam  toward  the  shore,  one  after 
the  other,  they  caused  waves  to  go  before  them.     Therefore  one  of 


eadin]  SOCIAL,    ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC    CLANS  239 

their  clan  names  is  Wave.  They  first  appeared  as  wolves  and  later 
on  they  became  humans.  After  swimming  to  the  shore  they  lay  on 
their  backs  to  dry  themselves;  and  that  also  is  a  name,  a  female 
name,  She-who-spreads-herself-out-to-dry,  and  another  name  is  He- 
who-comfs-up-first.  When  they  became  human  they  built  them- 
selves a  lodge  and  lived  in  it,  but  they  had  no  fire.  Then  the  Thunders 
came  down  and  alit  on  a  big  oak  tree  that  stood  near  their  lodge. 
At  first  the  Thunders  were  afraid  of  the  Wolf  people  and  they  would 
not  enter  their  lodge.  That  is  why  we  have  a  name  He-who-is-afraid . 
They  asked  the  Thunders  to  come  into  their  lodge  and  they  had 
great  difficulty  in  persuading  them.  After  they  entered  the  Wolf 
lodge  they  wanted  to  go  home  again  immediately,  but  the  Wolf  clan 
people  asked  them  to  stay  over  for  four  days.  From  that  fact  a 
name  has  originated,  One-who-is-waited-for-by-the- Thunders.  The 
Thunders  stayed,  but  not  in  the  lodge  of  the  Wolf  people.  They 
built  themselves  one  just  outside  their  door.  Then  they  built  a  fire 
in  it.     After  the  four  days  were  over  the  Thunders  went  home. 

When  a  Wolf  clansman  dies  the  relatives  paint  his  forehead  blue 
(pi.  46)  and  the  soul  of  the  deceased  is  supposed  to  go  west,  and  it 
never  looks  back  as  it  goes  on  its  journey,  as  this  would  be  an  indi- 
cation of  its  longing  for  something  in  this  world,  and  it  should  not 
do  that.  When  the  soul  gets  to  the  spirit  home  the  relatives  already 
there  would  ask  the  newcomer,  "What  did  our  relatives  say  when  you 
were  about  to  come?"  And  the  deceased  would  answer,  "They  said 
that  they  would  not  come  for  some  time." 

The  food  that  is  prepared  at  the  four  nights'  wake  is  supposed  to 
last  them  forever. 

This  is  the  end  of  the  story  of  the  creation. 

SECOND    VERSION    (TOLD   BY    A    MEMBER    OF   THE    CLAN) 

All  people  claim  to  have  come  from  some  animal,  and  all  are 
supposed  to  come  from  Earthmaker. 

Four  married  wolves  had  a  lodge  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean.  They 
had  four  colors.  The  wolves  all  had  children.  One  of  them  had  10, 
and  the  youngest  one  of  these  10  is  the  one  that  came  to  this  earth. 
When  they  came  to  this  island,  the  first  thing  they  saw  was  the  foot- 
print of  the  bear,  and  they  said,  "Our  friend  has  gone  by."  There 
(at  the  place  of  gathering)  they  saw  human  beings  and  they  liked 
their  ways.  Therefore  they  went  home  again  and  asked  to  come  to 
earth  and  live  with  the  human  beings,  and  they  were  given  permission 
to  do  so.  Wherefore  the  two  (man  and  wife)  came  here  again  the 
second  time.  When  they  were  about  to  come  everything  was  calm, 
and  there  were  no  waves  on  the  ocean.  They  started  out  swimming, 
and  they  caused  two  waves  to  go  before  them.  When  they  came  to 
the  humans  they  both  got  married.     When  they  came  to  this  land 


240  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

they  sang  songs,  but  I  do  not  know  them.  I  was  not  taught  them. 
Finally  children  were  born  to  both  of  them,  and  they  gave  them 
names.  They  called  one  of  them  Wave  on  account  of  the  wave 
coming  before  them  on  their  starting  out.  Because  the  four  original 
wolves  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean  had  four  different  colors,  therefore 
they  have  names  White  Wolf,  Green  Hair,  Gray  Wolf,  and  Black 
Wolf.  When  the  clan  began  to  get  larger  they  taught  their  children 
these  names. 

When  a  large  number  of  different  clansmen  are  traveling  and  they 
have  to  cross  some  large  stream  and  the  wind  is  high,  they  call  upon 
some  Wolf  clansman  to  calm  the  wind.  This  clan  holds  the  water 
very  sacred.     They  do  not  even  die  in  the  water. 

It  was  at  this  first  meeting  that  they  made  friends  with  the  Bear 
clan.     Therefore  these  two  clans  love  one  another. 

THIRD   VERSION — TOLD   BY   A    MEMBER   OF  THE   CLAN    (FRAGMENTARY) 

The  original  wolf  brothers  appeared  from  the  bottom  of  the  ocean. 
When  they  got  to  the  top  of  the  water  they  started  for  the  shore 
singing.  When  they  got  to  the  shore  they  saw  footprints  of  bears 
who  had  just  gone  by.  They  said,  "Our  friends  have  just  gone  by." 
That  is  why  they  are  the  friends  of  the  Bear  clan.  They  were  going 
to  the  meeting  place.  There  a  black  hawk  was  gathering  together 
all  the  different  clans.  Finally  he  finished  and  he  said,  "It  is  done." 
When  he  said  this  a  wolf  howled.  They  had  forgotten  him.  They 
said,  "We  have  forgotten  him.  Let  some  one  go  after  him."  So 
some  one  went  after  him  .  .  . 

CLAN    SONGS 

First  song 

This  body  of  mine  that  I  am  walking. 
This  body  of  mine  that  I  am  walking. 
This  body  of  mine  that  I  am  walking. 
On  the  earth  I  am  speaking. 

Second  song 

This  body  of  mine  that  I  am  walking. 
This  body  of  mine  that  I  am  walking. 
This  body  of  mine  that  I  am  walking. 
In  the  waters  am  I  speaking. 

CLAN    NAMES 

cOfJKTCUNK'    HIK'IK'ARADJERA    (WOLF   CLAN)20 

Curjgewaksiga Hunting  dog. 

Cunktcank'a Wolf. 

Regoniwinga Wolf  (archaic  name). 

30  The  following  names  are  from  the  Dorsey  Mss. 


Radin]  SOCIAL,   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  241 

Hicdjasgaga White-faced. 

Hicdjadjopga Four-eyed. 

Hinp'iwirjga Good-haired. 

Hintcoga Blue-furred . 

Hominarjk'a She  who  sits  howling. 

Manidjopga Four  walking. 

Manank£oga Throws  up  the  earth  (with  his  hind  legs). 

Manok'acutcaminank'a He  who  sits  on  the  tree  banks. 

Niedjahuga Coming  from  the  water. 

Niedjawanik'iriga He  who  brings  them  back  from  the  water. 

P'etcoga Green  forehead. 

P'e-oegaga He  who  has  a  white  forehead 

P'(inzakega Big  sand  person. 

Xe-acaraminarjk'a He  who  sits  on  a  bare  hill. 

Xe-omik'a He  who  dwells  in  a  hill. 

Xe-oratcega He  who  travels  to  the  hill. 

Sintcega Bushy  tail. 

Tcarawiga He  who  holds  a  deer  in  his  mouth . 

Tcasirawiga He  who  carries  deer-feet  in  his  mouth. 

Tconarjkehurjga Chief  wolf. 

Tconan  ketcowinga First  wolf. 

Tconiminank'a Sits  as  a  leader. 

Wanuniniga He  from  whom  nothing  is  hidden . 

Warawaieinega He  who  carries  something  in  his  mouth. 

Warawaiguga Comes  back  with  something  in  his  mouth. 

Waruxewirjga She  who  chases. 

Wirap'ega He  who  lies  in  wait  for  them. 

The  Water-Spirit  Clan 

introduction 

A  rather  poor  version  of  the  Water-spirit  clan  was  obtained.  It 
is,  however,  one  of  the  few  clan  origin  myths  that  contains  the  definite 
statement  that  the  clan  ancestors  changed  into  human  beings  when 
they  gathered  at  Green  Bay. 

The  functions  of  the  Water-spirit  clan  were,  in  former  times, 
exceedingly  important.  Almost  all  the  informants  were  agreed  that  a 
chief  was  selected  from  that  clan,  but  the  exact  nature  of  this  chieftain- 
ship is  not  clear.  One  informant,  himself  a  member  of  the  Bear 
clan,  said  that  the  Water-spirit  clan  was  the  chief  of  the  lower 
phratry;  that  the  clans  were  arranged  in  three  groups,  one  over 
which  the  Thunderbird  clan  ruled;  another  over  which  the  Water- 
spirit  clan  ruled;  and  a  third  over  which  the  Bear  clan  ruled.  He 
insisted,  however,  that  just  as  the  Thunderbird  clan  rules  over  the 
whole  tribe  in  a  general  way,  so  the  Water-spirit  clan  ruled  over  the 
clans  of  the  lower  phratry.  Other  informants  claimed  that  the 
Water-spirit  clan  originally  ruled  over  the  entire  tribe  and  that  its 
place  was  subsequently  usurped  by  the  Thunderbird  clan.  It  might- 
be  best  to  regard  the  function  of  the  Water-spirit  clan  as  akin  but 
subsidiary  to  that  of  the  Thunderbird  clan. 


242  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Members  of  the  clan  were  buried  by  members  of  the  Thunderbird 
clan. 

Water  was  sacred  to  the  Water-spirits.  It  was  considered  an 
insult  for  a  stranger  to  peep  into  a  pail  standing  in  one  of  their  lodges. 

One  informant  explained  the  custom  as  follows: 

"If  one  enters  a  Water-spirit  clan  lodge  and  looks  into  a  pail  and 
there  should  be  no  water  in  it,  the  person  will  turn  away  and  this 
action  of  his  will  be  construed  as  begging.  It  would  be  proper  to 
take  a  drink  of  water  if  some  were  there." 

A  round  spot  is  painted  with  blue  clay  on  the  forehead  of  a  Water- 
spirit  man  (pi.  46). 

The  Water-spirit  feast  is  held  in  the  fall  and  spring.  Cracked  or 
ground  com  is  used.  Water-spirit  people  partake  before  anyone 
else  at  this  feast. 

ORIGIN    MYTH 

(told  by  a  member  op  the  clan) 

In  the  beginning,  when  the  clans  began  to  form,  the  Bird  clans 
came  upon  the  earth  first  and  alit  upon  an  oak  tree  at  Red  Banks; 
and  when  they  alit  upon  the  oak  tree  they  became  human  as  we  are 
now.  Then  the  Water-spirit  clan  was  to  appear  at  Within  Lake; 
and  the  waters  began  to  whirl  around  in  the  lake  and  all  the  bad 
things  that  inhabited  the  waters  began  to  appear.  Just  before  the 
Water-spirits  appeared  some  burned  embers  came  up  from  the  waters 
and  the  whirling  became  faster  and  deeper.  As  all  the  great  things 
began  to  appear  it  always  seemed  as  if  the  Water-spirits  were  the 
next  to  appear,  but  not  until  the  last  did  they  come  up.  Thereupon 
the  waters  began  to  quiet  down.  Then  a  white  Water-spirit  ap- 
peared with  its  horns  curved  toward  each  other,  and  when  it  came 
upon  the  earth  it  became  human  and  walked.  Then  the  other  clans 
said,  "Now,  then,  this  is  the  chief.  This  is  all  that  we  have  been 
waiting  for.  Now  we  shall  divide  ourselves"  (into  groups).  Then 
they  started  for  the  lodge  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  and  entered  it. 
There  they  named  one  another  and  divided  one  another  into  clans 
and  there  they  counciled  with  one  another. 

CLAN    NAMES 

WAKTCEXI    HIK'lK'ARADJERA    ( WATER-SPIRIT  CLAN) 

He-adaja^jarjk'a Shining  horns. 

Hena°pga Two  horns. 

Her'^winga Handsome  horn. 

Hesatcarj  k'a Five-horned 

Hedjopga Four-horned. 

Marjk'anojuga He  who  plants  medicines. 

Mankanhodjanpga He  who  looks  at  medicines. 

Maninsinip'inwinga Good  cold  spring. 


radin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  243 

Manjiwinga Yellowish-red  earth  (refers  to  deposits  from  iron  springs). 

Mannunp'aga Second  earth  person. 

Ni-acgadjewinga She  who  plays  on  the  water. 

Ni  amaniwirjga She  who  walks  on  the  water. 

Ni-anp"nwinga She  who  makes  water  good. 

Ni-andagewirjga Still  water. 

Nicanaga Stream  person. 

Nihuga He  who  discharges  water. 

Ni-ot£anpwirjga She  who  jumps  into  the  water. 

Nidjobega Four  streams. 

Niwak'itcanga Selects  (?)  water. 

Wakdjexicicik'a Bad  Water-spirit. 

Wakdjexihunga Chief  of  the  Water-spirits. 

Wakdjeximaniga Walking  Water-spirit. 

Wakdjexipirjga Good  Water-spirit. 

Wakdjexisanwinga White  Water-spirit. 

Hep'irjga Good  horn. 

Wadjxedega Big  boat. 

Hip'ahiga Sharp  tooth. 

Rabawirjga Beaverskin  woman. 

Rabewirjga Beaver. 

Hejipga Short  horn. 

The  Buffalo  Clan 
introduction 

The  first  version  of  the  origin  myth  of  the  Buffalo  clan  is  of  con- 
siderable interest  because  it  gives  us  an  idea  of  the  manner  in  which 
a  myth  had  to  be  bought.  It  is  one  of  the  few  origin  myths  that 
gives  a  precise  location  for  the  origin  of  a  particular  clan.  What 
lake  is  meant  by  de  cicik  it  is  impossible  to  say.  Considerable 
importance  should  be  attached,  however,  to  the  fact  that  their 
place  of  origin  differed  from  that  of  most  of  the  other  clans,  because 
it  may  indicate  that  the  people  who  came  to  be  known  under  the 
name  Buffalo  joined  the  tribe  after  the  other  clans. 

The  Buffalo  clansmen  seem  to  have  had  the  function  of  acting  as 
the  public  criers  and  in  general  of  being  an  intermediary  between  the 
chief  and  the  tribe.  This,  however,  has  been  denied  by  some  in- 
formants, one  of  them  a  member  of  the  clan.  Their  lodge  was  at 
the  southeast  corner  of  the  village.  Some  informants  deny  that 
they  had  a  special  lodge,  however. 

The  Buffalo  and  Water-spirit  clans  are  friends  and  are  supposed 
to  bury  each  other's  members. 

ORIGIN    MYTH21 

Informant,  member  of  the  clan:  "Listen,  my  grandson.  Those 
who  originated  from  the  buffaloes  and  the  way  in  which  they  origi- 

*i  The  following  myth  is  given  in  the  precise  manner  in  which  the  individual  who  told  it  to  me  obtained 
the  information  from  one  of  the  old  men  who  was  privileged  to  narrate  it.  Unfortunately  it  was  impos- 
sible to  obtain  any  other  clan  origin  myth  in  1  he  same  way. 


244  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

nated,  they  have  heretofore  told  one  another  thus.  This  it  is. 
Whenever  one  asked  about  it,  they  would  tell  him,  but  they  would 
never  tell  him  unless  he  brought  some  present.  Even  when  they 
had  a  child  whom  they  loved  very  much  (and  for  whom  they  were 
accustomed  to  do  everything),  even  to  such  a  one  they  would  not  tell 
it  unless  he  brought  them  gifts.  Thus  they  would  not  even  say  the 
least  thing  about  the  story  of  their  origin  merely  because  they 
loved  some  one.  It  is  really  essential  to  make  a  gift.  And  if  some 
one  came,  carrying  a  gift,  the  old  man  would  ask  him  what  he  wanted 
and  what  he  would  like  to  know,  as  this  was  not  the  only  thing 
gifts  were  made  for.  Then  he  would  announce  his  desire.  However, 
he  would  not  be  told  in  public  but  when  he  was  alone.  Then  the  old 
man  who  had  the  right  to  tell  the  origin  myth  would  announce 
subsequently  at  some  feast  that  he  had  told  so-and-so  the  story  of 
the  origin  of  their  clan  and  that  if  anyone  wished  to  be  told  of  the 
same  he  should  in  the  future,  when  he  himself  had  died,  go  to  this 
young  man  and  ask  him  in  the  proper  way.  Remember,  he  would 
add,  that  before  everything  else  it  is  the  duty  of  an  individual  to 
try  and  learn  of  the  origin  of  his  clan. 

"Father,"  this  I  give  you,  a  full  suit  of  clothes.  This  I  am  giving 
you."  "Thanks,  my  son.  What  do  you  wish?  What  do  you  wish 
to  hear?"  "Father,  what  did  we  originate  from?"  "My  son,  you 
have  done  well.  My  son,  he  who  makes  the  most  gifts  obtains  life 
therewith."  "Well,  then,  father,  you  need  not  tell  me  now,  but 
later,  when  I  have  made  a  sufficient  number  of  gifts,  then  you  may 
tell  me."  "My  son,  you  have  spoken  well  and  if  you  do  as  you 
say,  you  will  travel  unharmed  along  the  road  of  life."  "Father, 
these  also  I  give  you,  some  beads  and  a  blanket."  "Thanks,  my 
son,  it  is  good.  Now,  my  son,  what  I  told  you  was  true.  I  did  not 
tell  it  to  you  because  I  coveted  anything  of  yours,  but  truly  because 
it  is  true — this,  that  we  must  make  a  sufficient  number  of  presents. 
Whoever  does  as  you  have  done  will  obtain  the  possibility  of  a  good 
life  for  himself."  "Now  again,  father,  I  give  you  these  gifts.  There 
is  enough  food  for  you  in  it."  "My  son,  you  have  done  well,  very 
well  indeed,  for  the  life  that  I  am  to  give  you  is  holy;  and  as  you 
know,  even  if  one  was  loved  very  much  they  would  not  tell  him 
this  merely  because  they  loved  him,  as  it  is  holy."  "Father,  this  I 
give  you  as  a  gift,  a  horse,  as  I  desire  to  know  what  we  originated 
from."  "Now,  then,  my  son,  you  have  done  well.  This  is  what  I 
meant  when  I  said  it  is  holy.  Therefore,  my  son,  you  have  done 
well.  Come  and  sit  down  here.  Listen  very  carefully  so  that  if 
afterwards  anyone  should  ask  you  for  this  story  you  will  be  able  to 
tell  it  well." 

23  He  is  now  proceeding  to  give  the  dialogue  that  ensued  between  the  old  man  and  himself  when  he 
brought  the  presents. 


badin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC    CLANS  245 

"My  son,  we  first  originated  in  human  form  at  Bad  Lake  (de 
cicik).23  From  four  buffalo  spirits  who  are  there,  did  we  originate. 
The  youngest  one  was  clever  and  from  him  did  we  originate.  The 
buffaloes  asked  one  another  what  they  were  to  do,  and  they  then 
began  to  exert  their  powers,  and  the  youngest  one  obtained  the 
knowledge  that  there  was  to  be  a  gathering  of  all  the  animals.  So 
they  all  landed  at  a  place  called  Red  Banks.  So  it  is  said.  And  to 
the  elk  was  given  the  charge  of  the  seating  arrangements. 

"Thus  did  we  originate.  And  then  they  counciled  with  one 
another  as  to  how  they  should  travel  along  the  road  of  life.  And  as 
they  arrived  at  Red  Banks,  each  one  would  ask  the  other  to  do  some 
work.  And  there  they  made  a  sacred  (covenant) — that  they  would 
never  fail  to  grant  one  another's  requests.  Likewise  they  agreed  that 
when  they  died  they  would  bury  one  another.  The  Buffalo  clan  and 
the  Water-spirit  clan  were  to  bury  one  another,  and  they  were  to  ask 
one  another  to  work." 

CLAN    SONGS 

Song  1 

Finally  you  have  cried.  I  heard  you. 

Finally  you  have  cried.  I  heard  you. 

Finally  you  have  cried.  I  heard  you. 

Finally  you  have  cried.  I  heard  you. 

Sony  .' 

This  earth  you  have  made  me  hear. 
Finally  you  have  cried. 
You  have  made  me  hear. 
You  have  made  me  hear. 

Song  S 

This  day  you  have  made  me  hear. 
Finally  you  have  cried. 
You  have  made  me  hear. 
You  have  made  me  hear. 

"My  son,  here  is  some  more  information  that  one  in  your  position 
should  seek.  This  should  be  the  second  thing  to  ask  for:  'What 
should  one  say  when  one  gives  a  feast?'  This  you  should  ask  for, 
and  you  should  boil  food  for  the  informant  and  then  you  will  be 
taught  the  proper  speeches.  Afterwards,  when  anyone  boils  food 
(i.  e.,  gives  a  winter  feast)  a  kettle  should  first  be  put  on  for  Earth- 
maker  and  one  should  ask  him  for  life;  that  the  people  may  live  to 
be  strong  and  good.  Include  tobacco  in  your  offering,  for  although 
Earthmaker  made  the  tobacco  he  will  not  take  any  of  it  of  his  own 
accord.     Not  until  it  is  offered  to  him  by  humans  will  he  take  it. 

23  The  name  dc  cicik  is  applied  to-day  to  Lake  Michigan.    However,  our  informant  in  this  case  applied 
it  to  Devils  Lake  in  Sauk  County,  Wis. 


246  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ass.  37 

Thus  he  made  the  tobacco  so  that  humans  may  ask  life  with  it,  and 
he  will  grant  them  their  desires.     This  is  all." 

CLAN    NAMES 
TCE   HIK'iK'ARADJERA    (BUFFALO   CLAN) 

Moratcega He  who  travels  the  land. 

Tcanimaniwirjga Sho  who  walks  ahead. 

Tceninksiga Suckling  buffalo  calf. 

Tcega Buffalo. 

Tcep'anunpga Two  buffalo  heads. 

Tcetcaniwinga First  buffalo. 

Tcedojenink'a Buffalo  yearling. 

Tcedonirjka Young  buffalo  bull. 

Tcewirjxedega Big  female  buffalo. 

Wirukananga He  who  is  in  control. 

Hehekmaniga? Shaggy  walker. 

Tcehatcowinga Buffalo  hide  blue. 

Mangiksuntcga Shakes  the  earth  by  striking. 

Tcep'aga Buffalo  head. 

Manok'azuhiga Kicking  up  the  earth. 

The  Deer  Clan 

introduction 

The  first  version  of  the  origin  myth  of  the  Deer  clan  is  in  part  like 
that  of  version  6  of  the  Bear  clan  origin  myth  and  in  part  like  that  of 
version  1  of  the  Thunderbird  origin  myth.  It  is  the  only  myth  that 
shares  with  version  1  of  the  Thunderbird  origin  myth  the  account  of 
the  origin  of  death. 

The  Deer  clan  does  not  seem  to  have  had  any  important  functions, 
although  in  myth  1,  it  is  stated  that  they  claimed  a  '"partial"  chief- 
tainship, whatever  that  may  mean. 

It  was  considered  an  insult  to  tell  a  member  of  this  clan  that  he 
resembled  a  deer. 

The  facial  painting  is  the  same  as  that  used  for  the  Elk  clan. 
(PL  46.) 

The  Deer  clan  people  tell  one  another  not  to  sing  their  clan  song 
very  loudly,  and  also  not  to  make  any  sudden  movement  of  their 
limbs,  for  each  movement  might  cause  the  death  of  a  human  being. 
For  the  same  reason  they  are  told  not  to  weep  too  loudly,  as  each 
deer's  limb  is  a  symbol  of  one  of  the  four  directions.  When,  there- 
fore, a  Deer  clansman  moves  a  limb  too  hard  when  he  is  weeping 
over  the  decease  of  a  member  of  his  clan,  he  might  be  "putting  some 
human  being  in  the  earth,"  and  the  wind  would  blow  hard. 

The  dog  names  obtained  were  uanlcigohoniga  and  nannatcgisga. 


RADiN]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC   CLANS  247 

ORIGIN    MYTHS 
FIRST   VERSION  (TOLD   BY  A    MEMBER   OF  THE   CLAN) 

This  is  the  origin  story  of  the  Deer  people.  In  the  beginning  a 
black  deer  accompanied  by  an  elk  appeared  in  the  center  of  the 
earth,  and  they  went  in  the  direction  of  the  east.  There  they  were 
going.  Then  the  black  deer  said,  "My  dear  younger  brother,  I  am 
heavy  on  account  of  my  excessive  fatness,  go  you  alone  and  I  will 
remain  here."  So  he  remained  there  and  did  not  go;  and  then  to 
the  center  of  the  earth,  to  the  place  from  which  they  started,  he 
returned.  Then  he  came  back  to  the  earth,  and  again  they  asked 
him.  Four  times  they  asked.  There  the  necklace  of  money  orna- 
ments he  recognized,  the  black  deer  did.24  Thus  the  Deer  clan  beat 
them,  and  therefore  they  have  the  name  Blacl-Deer-chief.  As  they 
went  so  they  returned  again.  Again  the  necklace  made  of  money 
he  (the  black  deer)25  recognized.  The  earth  they  went  around. 
Then  again  the  black  deer  went  to  the  east.  It  was  a  large  one  who 
went  ahead,  and  as  he  was  going  along,  to  his  astonishment,  they 
reached  the  place  from  which  they  had  started. 

"My  younger  brother,"  said  Black-deer,  "you  try  to  do  it."  2e 
And  the  second-born  went  ahead  and  the  others  followed,  and  again 
they  were  drawn  back  to  the  place  from  which  they  started.  Then 
the  third-born  went  first  and  the  others  followed  and  the  same  thing 
happened.  Then  they  told  the  fourth-born  to  go  first,  and  he  went 
in  front  and  suddenly  he  struck  his  horn,  the  one  on  the  right,  upon 
the  earth,  and,  behold,  grass  suddenly  appeared.  It  was  a  very 
white  bud  that  he  had  caused  to  appear.  Then  he  struck  his  left 
horn  on  the  earth,  and  he  made  a  tree  appear  and  the  fruit  of  this 
tree  was  meant  to  be  eaten.  Then  they  ate  the  fruit  of  the  tree. 
The  top  of  the  tree  there  they  ate.  Thus  they  said.  And  they 
call  a  woman  even  to-day  She-who-eats-the-top-of-the-tree.  And  then 
they  began  to  walk  and  the  earth  trembled  from  their  walking. 
Toward  the  east  side  they  went.  From  this  fact  they  have  a  name, 
He-who-shalces-the-earth.  And  again  as  some  of  the  brothers  were 
small  they  have  the  name  Small-deer.  They  also  have  the  name 
Walking-leader.  And  they  also  have  names  She-who-comes-baclc  and 
He-who-comes-back,  because  in  the  beginning  they  always  came  back 
to  the  place  from  which  they  started.  Whatever  actions  they  went 
through,  from  these  they  derived  their  names. 

u  The  thought  is  not  quite  clear  here,  due  to  the  fact  that  something  has  probably  been  omitted  by  the 
narrator. 

25  There  seems  to  be  a  contest  between  the  deer  and  the  elk  as  to  who  would  be  able  to  see  the  "money- 
necklace"  first.  Cnder  the  term  "money-necklace"  they  evidently  mean  the  medallions  distributed  by 
the  American  Government  to  those  whom  they  recognized  as  chiefs.  The  recognition  of  the  "money- 
necklace"  is  evidently  going  to  decide  the  chieftainship  between  the  deer  and  the  elk. 

M  Some  power  is  evidently  drawing  them  back  to  the  place  from  which  they  started. 


248  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ass.  37 

The  four  cardinal  points  and  the  winds  that  are  there,  they  are  in 
control  of.  If  on  a  very  nice  day  a  deer's  voice  is  heard,  that  day 
will  become  bad,  and  if  on  a  very  bad  day  a  deer's  voice  is  heard, 
that  day  will  become  nice.  The  deer  people  are  those  who  are  in 
control  of  the  weather.  And  they  also  have  a  name,  He^who-plays- 
with-the-unnds,  and  a  woman  is  called  She-wTio-goes-with-tTie-wind. 
The  deer  would  always  sit  with  the  wind  back  of  them.  Thus  they 
roamed  all  over  the  earth.     Not  one  place  on  this  earth  did  they  miss. 

Once,  when  they  had  come  home,  their  eldest  brother  suddenly 
fell  down  (dead).  "What  is  the  matter?"  they  said.  And  the 
second-born  said,  ''Our  oldest  brother  is  not  saying  anything;  I 
don't  know  what  the  matter  is."  And  then  they  asked  their  youngest 
brother  and  he  said,  "Our  oldest  brother  is  dead.  That  is  the  way 
Earthmaker  arranged  things."  And  then  he  talked  to  the  dead 
brother  and  he  said,  "Earthmaker  has  made  a  place  for  you  to  go 
to  now  that  you  are  dead.  You  have  not  attained  a  large  share  of 
life  and  you  have  left  us  who  remain  on  the  earth  in  a  pitiable  con- 
dition. But  now  that  you  are  going  home  I  want  to  ask  you  some- 
thing. Those  years  that  are  still  coming  to  you,  distribute  among 
your  relatives.  This  I  beg  of  you.  And  this  is  the  second  request: 
May  the  warpaths  that  you  did  not  go  on  (by  reason  of  your  death), 
may  the  war  honors  that  you  did  not  obtain,  may  all  these  things 
be  distributed  among  us.  This  I  ask  of  you,  my  dear  brother.  And 
this  is  the  third  request:  May  the  food  that  you  did  not  eat,  the  nuts, 
the  sweet  fruits,  etc.,  all  that  you  liked  on  earth,  may  it  all  be  dis- 
tributed among  us.  This  is  what  I  ask  of  you.  And  tins  is  the 
fourth  request,  my  dear  older  brother:  May  all  the  wearing  apparel 
that  belonged  to  you  as  well  as  all  the  materials  that  you  stored  in 
back  of  your  tent,  never  to  be  touched  by  you,  but  may  we  who  are 
left  behind  use  it  all.  This  I  ask  of  you.  Wherever  you  are  going, 
may  these  requests  of  those  whom  you  left  here  behind  on  earth  be 
before  you." 

Then  the  younger  brother  took  some  red  paint  and  he  said, "  Brother, 
I  am  going  to  paint  you.  Thus  they  will  recognize  you  at  home. 
That  is  the  way  we  will  always  do  it  hereafter.  Those  who  are  to 
live  after  us  will  paint  us  in  the  same  way.  Now  this  is  the  manner 
of  painting.  The  forehead  and  the  corners  of  the  eye  are  to  be 
painted  in  black  and  red  streaks,  respectively,  and  the  chin  and  the 
front  part  of  the  throat  are  to  be  painted  red."  Then  he  dug  a 
grave.  Then  they  buried  him.  Then  they  sang  the  songs  and  when 
they  were  finished  with  this,  they  traveled  around  the  earth  and 
came  to  the  gathering  place  of  the  clans.  When  they  came  to  that 
place  they  were  people — i.  e.,  human  beings.  They  lived  their  own 
life  just  as  they  had  as  deers.  All  the  incidents  of  their  traveling 
as  well  as  all  the  characteristics  of  deers  were  used  in  the  names 


BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY 


THIRTY-SEVENTH   ANNUAL  REPORT     PLATE  46 


4. 


cj> 


THUNDERBIRD  CLAN 


WARRIOR   CLAN 


EAGLE   CLAN 


BEAR   CLAN 


BEAR   CLAN? 


WOLF  CLAN 


o  o    0 

o  o  o  o 

°  o  o 

0° 


BUFFALO  CLAN 


ELK  AND   DEER  CLANS  WATERSPIRIT  CLAN 


FACIAL  BURIAL   MARKS 


8UREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY 


THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT     PLATE  47 


TO    MOON 


TO  TURTLE 


TO   EARTH 


TO   HEROK'A 


TO    NIGHT  SPIRITS 


TO    MOON 


TO    MORNING  STAR 


BUCKSKIN   OFFERINGS 


BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY  THIRTY-SEVENTH  ANNUAL  REPORT     PLATE 


FOR  DISEASE  GIVER 


FOR  EARTHMAKER 


FOR    NIGHT  SPIRITS 


FOR  THUNDERBIRD 


BUCKSKIN  OFFERINGS. 


radix]  SOCIAL    ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC    CLANS  249 

they  gave  one  another.  Thus  they  have  the  names  WMte-Tvair,  Fast- 
one,  LUtle^white-tertk,  Diffident-one,  Horn,  Pronged-horn,  etc.;  and  for 
dogs  they  have  names  also.  That  is  the  war  the  deer  people  lived 
in  the  beginning  at  Red  Banks,  Within  Lake.  Bands  of  people 
gathered  together  there,  and  all  the  clans  that  exist  now  originated 
there. 

SECOND    VERSION      TOLD    BY   A    MEMBER    OF    THE    CLAN  I 

The  Deer  clan  people  came  up  at  the  beginning  of  the  earth. 
Only  one  is  spoken  of  as  appearing  at  the  beginning.  He  started 
forth  but  returned  again  that  he  might  look  for  a  companion.  For 
that  reason  a  name  exists  in  the  tribe,  He-who-comes-back ,  and  another 
is  Ilt-iclm-appears-first.  After  they  had  appeared  on  earth  the  deer 
blew  on  the  original  fire,  which  was  only  smoldering,  and  made  it 
blaze  up.  For  that  reason  they  claim  a  partial  chieftainship.  The 
first  one  that  appeared  had  a  chief's  medal  around  his  neck. 

CLAN    SONG. 

I  use  the  cries  of  the  four  directions. 
I  use  the  cries  of  the  four  directions. 
I  use  the  cries  of  the  lour  directions. 
I  use  the  cries  of  the  four  directions. 

CLAN    NAMES 

TCA    HIK'IK'ARADJERA  I  DEER    (LAN 

Tcasephunk'a Black  deer  chief. 

\Vatrizenanp£inga Wears  shells  around  neck. 

TcanurjkcaDp£in^vii)ga Deer  vagina. 

Maijk'isaga-vepga Appears  in  the  middle  of  earth 

Tcatconiwiijga First  deer  woman. 

The  Elk  Clan 

lntroductiox 

In  the  Elk  clan  origin  myth  we  find  the  clear  statement  that  Earth- 
maker  created  the  ancestors  of  the  clan,  and  that  they  were  human 
beings.  The  myth  resembles  a  village  origin  myth  more  than  it  does 
a  clan  origin  myth. 

The  Elk  clan  seems  to  have  had  certain  functions  relative  to  the 
distribution  of  fire  through  the  village  and  in  camp.  It  was  never  a 
very  large  clan. 

The  Elk  people  claim  half  of  the  fire,  and  thus  half  of  the  chieftain 
ship.     They  never  hold  fire  toward  any  one. 

Elks  are  buried  by  the  Snake,  Water-spirit,  and  Eagle  clans, 
although  the  first  has  the  preference. 

White  clay  is  used  in  painting  the  dead. 

According  to  another  informant,  the  facial  painting  consisted  of 
white  and  blue  dots  on  the  face  (pi.  46 1. 
186S23"— 22 17 


250  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

ORIGIN    MYTH 
(TOLD    BY    A    MEMBER   OP  THE    CLAN") 

Earthmaker  created  all  human  beings.  When  he  was  about  to 
create  them,  then  he  thought  it  would  be  good  to  see  something 
moving.  So  he  made  a  man  and  he  was  very  good.  But  Earth- 
maker  thought  he  ought  to  have  company,  so  he  made  a  woman. 
Then  he  thought  to  himself,  "How  should  they  know  one  another." 
So  some  one  came  to  life  through  the  water  and  this  one  was  an 
animal.  He  made  a  village  in  the  west  for  the  human  beings,  and 
he  thought  about  it  and  then  he  thought  he  would  ask  the  humans 
what  they  would  like  to  live  through  (i.  e.,  become  reincarnated), 
and  they  said  the  elk,  because  the  elk  never  committed  any  crime. 
The  humans  were  not  to  commit  any  crime.  So  the  four  elks  started 
for  the  meeting  place  at  Green  Bay,  Red  Banks.  They  had  up  to 
that  time  supposed  that  they  were  the  only  living  things,  but  Earth- 
maker  let  the  oldest  of  the  elks  know  of  the  existence  of  the  other 
clans.  So  there  they  came  and  lived  as  Winnebagos.  Thus  it  is 
said.     This  is  all  that  they  ever  tell. 

CLAN    NAMES 

hunwan  hik'ik'ahadjeba  (elk  clan) 

Rohanmaniwinga Many  walking. 

Rek'uhumaniwirjga She  who  walks  with  the  wind. 

Tcatchiruxewinga She  who  pursues  the  wind. 

Snake  and  Fish  Clans 

No  information  of  any  consequence  was  obtained  about  these  two 
clans.  Almost  all  the  informants  claimed  that  they  were  recent 
additions  to  the  tribe.  Only  a  very  few  survivors  of  either  clan  are 
still  living. 

clan  names 

wak'an  hik'ik'aradjera  (snake  clan) 

Hankcimink'a Lying  snake. 

Hip'ahiga He  who  has  sharp  teeth. 

Hirodinga She  who  has  attained  her  lull  growth. 

K'ik'urudiwinga She  who  crawls. 

K'irixminank'a Sits  coiled  up. 

Gisewek'inarjka Sits  quiet  in  her  (homo. 

Hokciga High  snake. 

HO   HIK'IK'ARADJERA  (FISH   CLAN) 

Ilo-apcudjewirjga Red  fish  scale  woman. 

CLAN    AFFILIATIONS    NOT    OBTAINED 

Hanboguwirjga East  woman. 

Hun  kminarj  ka Sitting  chief. 


kadin]  SOCIAL,   ORGANIZATION SPECIFIC    CLANS  251 

K'ikarasintcga Licks  herself. 

Mankuhoradjega Roams  under  the  earth. 

Mankerewinga 

Ksismainga Sits  solidly  attached. 

Maiikurudjewinga Her  earth  she  spreads  out. 

Tcisgamaniga Walks  as  a  white  house. 

Sinihimaniwirjga Cold  walking  woman. 

Sannaguga Coming  white. 

Warjk'inek'iga Lone  man. 

Warutca"xonuniga Small  attendant. 

Hominankpinga Sits  good  as  she  comes. 

Nannawahiguga He  who  brings  something  in  his  mouth . 

K'izahiyurjgiwinga Fighting  princess. 

Mogisagominank'a Lies  in  the  middle  of  the  earth. 

Waxurutcmanewirjga Moves  along  as  she  walks. 

Warjktcoga Green  man. 

Hihina°pga Comes  out. 

Pirjk'ikunga Fixes  himself. 

Clan  Names 
ferst  four  given  in  each  clan 

Although  it  has  been  discontinued  for  some  time,  the  Winnebago 
claim  that  in  former  times  it  was  customary  to  assign  definite  names 
to  the  first  four  children  born  in  each  clan.  In  all  probability  this 
custom  extended  not  only  to  the  fourth  but  even  to  the  sixth  child, 
as  lists  were  obtained  that  gave  six  names.  This  would  correspond 
to  the  fixed  number  of  birth  names.  No  significance  need  be  attached 
to  the  exact  number,  as  it  was  intended  beyond  any  doubt  to  cover 
the  number  of  children  generally  born  within  one  family.  Within 
these  limits,  then,  the  names  were  fixed,  at  least  theoretically. 

First  four  names  of  Thunderbird  clan ;  informant,  member  of  clan: 

First.  Nanozok'a Bending  bough  of  tree. 

Second.  Nodjanpga Lighting  the  tree. 

Nainsawagicicga Broken  tree  top. 

HanantenarjXgurjga All  heard  it. 

First  four  names  of  Thunderbird  clan;  informant,  member  of 
Warrior  clan : 

First.  Ilop'iyga Good  one. 

Second.  Warudjaxiriga Makes  noise  as  he  comes? 

Third.  Wak'andjamaniga Thunder  walker. 

Wak'andjahurjga Thunder  chief. 

Informant,  member  of  Thunderbird  clan: 

First.  Wak'andjahurjga Thunder  chief  (male). 

Second.  Mandjidjega He  who  alights  on  the  earth  (male). 

First.  Hok'awas  wiijga Darkness  (female). 

Second.  Nannazogewinga Bends  (weighs)  the  tree  down  (female). 


252  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ans.  37 

Informant,  member  of  Elk  clan: 

First.  Wak'andja  sepga Black  thunderbird. 

Second.  Wak'andja-teoga Green  thunderbird. 

Third .  Wak'andja  sgaga White  thunderbird. 

Fourth.  Wak'andja  cutcga Red  thunderbird 

Names  of  Warrior  clan:  informant,  member  of  the  clan: 

First.  Wonafire  warjkcik'a Warrior  man  (male). 

or  Nanxedega Big  tree  (male). 

Second.  Naninnek'iga Lone  tree  (male). 

Third.  Mancdjanmaniga Walks  mightily  (male). 

Fourth.   Wona7irega War  (male). 

Fifth.  P'etcda-ehiga Fire-starter  (male). 

Sixth.  Hfingmaniga Chief  walker  (male). 

First.  Ahugiciniwinga Shining  wings  (female). 

Second.  Ahutcowigga Blue  wing  (femalei. 

Third.  K'izahiyurjgiwirjga Fighting  princess  (female). 

Fourth.  Ahup'inwirjga Good  wing  (female). 

Fifth.  Nijumaniwinga  ... . : Rain  walker  (female). 

First  four  names  of  Eagle  clan;   informant,  member  of  Warrior 
clan : 

First.  Narjk'iridjega Returns  to  the  tree. 

Second.  Ahusak'a Strikes  his  wings. 

Third.  Tcaxcephurjk'a Eagle  chief. 

Fourth.  Tcaxcepx'nunik'a Small  eagle. 

Bear  clan;  informant,  member  of  the  clan: 

First.  Tconankhurjk'a Bear  chief  (male) 

Second .  ? ?  (male). 

Third.  Wak'iznanp'irjga He  who  has  white  spot  under  his  throat 

(male). 

Fourth.  Hundjxedega Big  bear  (male). 

Fifth.  Hirocicga (Male). 

Sixth.  Noroxuga Scrapes  a  tree  (male). 

First.  Hok'iwaigunwinga Retraces  her  footsteps  (female). 

Second.  Tconanketcowinga Blue  bear  (female). 

Third.  Nancgadjewinga Plays  on  wood  (female). 

Fourth.  Asgawawinga Delicious  bear  (female). 

Fifth.  Hundj  hinunk'a Female  bear  (female). 

Sixth.  Sitcant£inwirjga Visible  footprints  (female). 

Bear  clan;  informant,  member  of  the  Thunderbird  clan: 

Mairjxganhiga Shakes  the  earth. 

Waksurjksuntcga Makes  (it)  quake. 

Hashiwenimaniga Gives  forth  fruit  as  he  walks. 

Hanbixganhiga Makes  the  day  tremble. 

Bear  clan;  informant,  member  of  the  clan: 

First.  Mank'isakhominarjk'a He  who  sits  in  the  middle  of  the  earth. 

Second.  Hokere'unanimanirjga He  who  carries  the  ensign. 

'third.  Ha"bidjandjanhiga Makes  the  day  tremble(?) 

Fourth.  Nai°sawahicicga Breaks  the  tree  tops. 


radin]  SOCIAL   ORGANIZATION — SPECIFIC   CLANS  253 

Wolf  clan:  informant,  member  of  Bear  clan: 

First.  Hi"tcoga Blue  hair. 

Second.  Keratcoga Blue  sky. 

Third.  Cufiktcurjk'  xotcga Gray  wolf. 

Fourth.  Cufiktcurjk'  sgaga White  wolf. 

Wolf  clan;  informant,  member  of  Thunderbird  clan: 

First.  Cunktcurjk'  xotcga Gray  wolf. 

Second.  Cuijktcuijk'  sepga Black  wolf. 

Third.  Cuijktcurjk'  sgaga White  wolf . 

Fourth.     Cunktcurjk'  cutcga? Red  wolf(?) 

Wolf  clan;  informant,  member  of  tbe  clan: 

First.  Cur)  ktcurj  k'  sgaga White  wolf. 

Second.  Curjktcurjk'  xotcga Gray  wolf. 

Third.  HiHcoga Green  hair. 

Fourth.  Cufiktcurjk'  sepga Black  wolf. 

Water-spirit  clan;  informant,  member  of  Eagle  clan: 

First.  Wakdjexi  sgaga White  water-spirit. 

Second .  Wakdjexi  pinga Good  water-spirit . 

Third .  Wakdjexi  tcoga Green  water-spirit. 

Fourth.  Wakdjexi  sepga Black  water-spirit. 

Elk  clan;  informant,  member  of  tbe  clan: 

First.  Hunwurjga The  elk. 

Second.  Hezaztcga Prong-horned. 

Third.  Hunwurjgapga Black  elk. 

Fourth.  Hinsgaga White  hair. 

Deer  clan;  informant,  member  of  Elk  clan. 

First.  Tcaga The  deer. 

Second.  Tca'innek'iga Lone  deer. 

Third.  Tcasgaga White  deer. 

Fourth.  Tcasepga Black  deer. 


CHAPTER  X 


SHAMANISTIC  AND  MEDICINAL  PEACTICES 
Introduction 

The  shamanistic  and  medicinal  practices  of  the  Winnebago  differ 
in  no  respect  from  those  found  all  over  the  woodland  area  and  there 
is  consequently  no  need  for  discussing  them  at  length.  The  stories 
told  about  Midjistega  and  old  Lincoln  are  the  famous  tricks  and 
sleight-of-hand  performances  known  all  over  America.  There  does 
not  seem  to  be  as  much  said  about  the  conjuring  lodge  as  is  the 
case  among  the  Ojibwa.  This  apparently  is  identical  with  the 
Winnebago  warulcA'na,  "exerting  one's  powers."  The  lack  of 
specific  information  relating  to  this  subject  obtained  by  the  author 
may,  however,  be  due  to  accident. 

The  Winnebago  make  a  fourfold  classification  of  their  medicines: 
Those  that  affect  a  person  by  direct  administration ;  those  that  affect 
him  by  their  odor,  like  love  and  racing  medicines;  those  that  affect 
him  at  a  distance;  and  those  that  are  shot  at  an  individual.  Most 
of  the  medicines  are  obtained  by  fasting,  although  they  can  also  be 
bought.  The  most  important  of  these  medicines  are  those  called  the 
stench-earth  medicine  (see  p.  259)  and  the  black-earth  medicine. 

Medicine  may  be  used  in  a  number  of  ways,  but  principally  as 
offerings  or  as  means  of  killing  animals  or  men.  It  is  often  chewed. 
In  order  to  make  arrows  or  guns  unerring,  medicine  is  frequently 
rubbed  upon  them. 

Sympathetic  magic  is  of  course  well  known.  The  procedure  is 
the  common  one.  A  picture  of  the  man  to  be  harmed  is  drawn  on 
the  ground  and  shot  at,  stabbed,  etc.  The  man  is  then  certain  to 
die  a  short  time  after,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  figure  has  been 
mutilated. 

There  are  two  general  magical  ceremonies.  WarulcA'na,  to  know 
something  by  exerting  one's  powers;  wanaHcere,  to  hypnotize  in  the 
distance.     (For  description  of  latter,  see  p.  111.) 

Example  of  warulcA'na. — J.'s  older  brother  and  a  friend  had  failed 
to  return  home  and  so  J.'s  grandfather  went  to  a  man  called  C.  English 
and,  offering  him  some  tobacco,  asked  him  to  find  out  something 
about  his  son — i.  e.,  to  exert  his  powers.  English  did  so  and  told 
the  old  man  that  they  were  camping  and  making  sugar  and  that  if 
254 


badin]  SHAMANISTIC   AND   MEDICINAL   PRACTICES  255 

the  old  man  went  to  a  certain  place  he  would  find  them.     He  went 
and  found  it  was  so. 

Tales  Concerning  Mid.jistega 

Recently  the  Potawatomi  were  going  on  the  warpath  and  a  num- 
ber of  other  tribes  were  going  along  with  them.  As  they  were 
making  their  preparations  they  spent  the  evenings  exhibiting  the 
various  powers  they  possessed  and  which  they  had  obtained  during 
their  fasts. 

One  day  Robert  Lincoln's  father  heard  that  a  Winnebago  was 
going  to  come  and  give  a  grizzly  bear  dance.  Old  Lincoln  and  a 
few  other  Potawatomi  decided  to  go  over  and  watch  him.  When 
they  arrived  at  the  lodge  they  were  told  that  the  name  of  the  Win- 
nebago was  Midjistega.  They  were  also  told  that  this  Midjistega 
was  going  to  make  some  gunpowder  (in  a  magical  manner).  When 
they  heard  this,  the  Potawatomi  said  that  if  he  could  make  his 
teeth  protrude  from  his  mouth  he  might  be  able  to  make  gunpowder, 
but  that  otherwise  he  could  not. 

In  the  middle  of  the  lodge  where  this  performance  was  to  be  held 
there  was  a  wooden  dish  filled  with  charcoal  near  which  Midjistega 
was  sitting.  He  had  beautiful  hair  and  he  had  marks  made  by 
white  clay  in  the  corners  of  his  eyes  and  mouth.  When  the  singers 
in  the  lodge  began  to  sing  for  him  he  ran  around  the  lodge  on  all 
fours,  four  times.  Then  he  took  up  the  dish  of  charcoal  and  shook 
it.  While  doing  this  he  made  a  noise  like  a  grizzly  bear.  Then  his 
teeth  began  to  protrude.  When  he  had  gone  around  the  lodge  four 
times  the  charcoal  turned  into  gunpowder.  Then  he  took  a  handful 
of  it  and  threw  it  into  the  fire  and  it  exploded.  The  members  of 
the  different  tribes  present  took  some  of  it  and  put  it  in  their  war- 
bundles.  It  is  only  a  short  time  ago  that  a  Winnebago  war-bundle 
that  was  supposed  to  have  some  of  this  gunpowder  was  stolen. 
It  belonged  to  a  man  named  Buchanan. 

Old  man  Lincoln  had  never  seen  any  Winnebago  before  this,  but 
he  could  understand  their  language  and  he  interpreted  all  that 
Midjistega  said.  The  Potawatomi  around  him  asked  whether  he 
had  learned  the  language  from  some  of  his  Winnebago  relatives  but 
he  said  he  had  not. 

After  showing  that  he  could  make  gunpowder  in  this  way, 
Midjistega  made  some  plug  tobacco.  He  cut  the  bark  of  some 
walnut  trees  into  the  shape  of  plug  chewing  tobacco  and  put  it  in  a 
white  deerskin  on  top  of  which  was  placed  a  piece  of  real  plug 
tobacco.  Then  Midjistega  said,  "  Now  since  I  have  made  gunpowder 
I  will  also  make  some  plug  tobacco."  Then  he  took  the  bundle  and 
danced  around  the  lodge  with  it  and  by  the  time  he  had  danced 
around  the  lodge  the  third  time  the  odor  of  tobacco  became  very 


256  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

strong.  After  he  had  danced  around  for  the  fourth  time  he  opened 
up  his  package  and  there  was  the  tobacco.  Then  he  spoke  to  the 
people,  "You  people  of  different  tribes,  the  one  that  is  dancing 
with  me  will  obtain  the  first  war-honor  on  the  warpath  that  you 
are  planning  now,  for  I  am  giving  him  that  honor  and  that  power." 

After  this  he  told  them  that  he  would  make  them  some  paint,  as 
they  seemed  to  be  short  of  it  then.  He  took  a  wooden  dish  and 
filled  it  full  of  ashes  and  covered  it  up  with  a  white  deerskin.  Then 
he  danced  around  the  lodge.  As  he  was  dancing  around  for  the 
third  time,  old  Lincoln  thought  he  noticed  yellow-colored  paint. 
The  fourth  time  he  danced  around,  the  paint  turned  into  a  rod 
color.  When,  finally.  Midjistega  took  the  cover  off,  there  was  red 
paint  of  a  very  fine  quality.  Then  the  members  of  the  different 
tribes  distributed  it  among  one  another. 

After  this  he  made  some  axes.  He  molded  some  clay  into  the 
shape  of  axes  and  put  them  into  a  deerskin.  On  top  of  this  bundle 
he  put  a  real  metal  ax. "  Then  taking  this  bundle  he  started  to 
dance  around  the  lodge.  As  he  went  around  the  lodge  the  third 
time,  old  Lincoln  thought  he  noticed  something  shining.  After  he 
had  gone  around  the  fourth  time  he  took  the  cover  off  and  there 
were  some  real  axes.     They  were  all  new  and  bright. 

Then  he  decided  to  make  some  hoes,  and  then  some  awls.  All  of 
these  he  made  of  clay.  Then  he  made  some  needles  of  deer  hair. 
Then,  noticing  some  boys  playing  with  some  basswood  bark,  he  asked 
them  to  give  him  some,  and  out  of  it  he  made  ribbons  of  four  different 
colors,  blue,  white,  red,  and  black. 

Then  he  said,  "As  I  have  made  almost  everything,  I  will  now  try 
and  make  some  whisky.  If  I  fail  there  will  be  no  harm  done  any- 
how." Old  Lincoln  told  his  people  what  Midjistega  was  saying. 
Then  they  placed  a  new  pail  full  of  water  before  him.  He  took  a 
flute  and  began  to  dance  around  the  lodge.  After  he  had  made  the 
first  circuit  of  the  lodge  he  held  the  flute  near  the  pad,  almost  sticking 
it  into  the  water.  The  second  time  he  approached  the  pad  he  stuck 
the  flute  into  the  water  just  a  little  bit.  The  third  time  he  came  near 
it  he  stuck  the  flute  into  the  water  and  stirred  it  around .  By  that  time 
Old  Lincoln  could  smell  the  odor  of  whisky  pretty  strongly.  Then 
Midjistega  went  around  the  lodge  for  the  fourth  time  and  finally 
stirred  the  water  with  his  flute  for  a  long  time,  and  taking  a  drink 
from  the  pad  said,  "It  is  whisky."  Then  he  passed  it  around  and 
everyone  present  took  a  drink.  Old  Lincoln,  however,  did  not  touch 
it.  Then  his  father  told  him  to  drink  it,  as  it  was  holy  and  had  been 
made  by  a  spirit.  Then  Old  Lincoln  drank  some,  and,  sure  enough, 
it  was  whisky,  although  it  was  colorless. 

After  that,  all  the  people  went  on  a  warpath.  However,  the  per- 
son to  whom  Midjistega  had  promised  the  first  war  honor  only  obtained 


radin]  SHAMANISTIC   AND   MEDICINAL   PKACTICES  257 

the  second  one,  Old  Lincoln  himself  obtaining  the  first.  The  first 
war  honor  was  a  quantity  of  wampum  beads  and  the  second  a  wam- 
pum belt.  Both  the  one  who  got  the  second  prize  and  Old  Lincoln 
brought  back  with  them  an  enemy's  head. 

From  that  time  on  Midjistega  stayed  with  the  Winnebago  and  he 
and  Old  Lincoln  became  great  friends,  living  together,  one  of  the 
reasons  being  that  Old  Lincoln  could  understand  Winnebago. 

One  day  they  ran  short  of  corn  meal,  so  they  decided  to  go  and 
trade  some  furs  for  corn  meal.  They  had  plenty  of  furs  because  they 
spent  most  of  their  time  hunting.  When  they  got  to  the  trader's 
store  Midjistega  said,  "Say,  trader,  the  boys  have  been  out  of  paint 
for  some  time  and  you  ought  to  give  them  some."  "No,  Midjistega, 
I  can't  do  that."  Then  Midjistega,  again  said,  "Well,  the  paint 
boxes  are  small  and  aren't  of  much  value  anyhow,  and  you  ought  to 
make  them  a  present  of  some.  However,  I  always  knew  you  were 
very  stingy."  Then  the  trader  said,  "My  business  is  to  trade  you 
my  wares  for  your  furs  and  I  will  not  give  you  any  paint  for  noth- 
ing." Then  Midjistega  said,  "  If  I  had  some  flour  I  could  make  some 
paint  myself.  However,  I  am  short  of  flour,  too."  Then  the  trader 
said,  "  Midjistega,  you  can  not  do  it,  for  even  the  whites  do  not  know 
how  to  make  paint  (in  that  way),  so  how  could  you,  who  are  only  an 
Indian,  do  it?"  Thus  they  spoke  to  and  fro  and  finally  the  trader 
said,  "  Midjistega,  I  will  bet  you  my  store  against  your  furs  that  if  I 
give  you  some  flour  you  can  not  make  paint  out  of  it.  If  I  win  you 
are  to  give  me  your  furs,  and  if  you  win  I  will  give  you  my  store." 
Then  the  bet  was  agreed  upon. 

Then  a  lodge  was  prepared  and  Midjistega' 8  drum  and  flute  were 
carried  into  it.  Then  the  trader  had  some  flour  carried  over  to  the 
lodge  and  it  was  poured  into  a  dish.  The  trader,  suspecting  that 
there  might  be  some  trick,  stirred  up  the  flour  thorougldy.  He  sat- 
isfied himself  that  there  was  nothing  at  the  bottom  of  the.  dish. 
Midjistega,  in  the  meantime,  painted  the  corners  of  his  mouth  and 
eyes  with  ashes  and  then  the  singers  sang  for  him.  Then  he  handed 
the  flute  over  to  Old  Lincoln  and  told  him  to  blow  it  for  him  every 
now  and  then.  The  trader  sat  near  the  entrance  of  the  lodge  with 
his  employees.  Then  Midjistega  jumped  up  and  ran  all  around  the 
lodge  on  all  fours.  Then  he  took  the  dish  with  the  flour  and  shaking 
it,  began  to  dance  around  the  lodge  with  it.  After  he  had  danced 
around  for  the  third  time  it  suddenly  tinned  into  a  yellow  color,  and 
Old  Lincoln  noticed  the  change  in  the  expression  on  the  trader's  face. 
As  he  went  around  for  the  fourth  time  it  suddenly  changed  to  a 
red  color.  When  he  got  back  to  his  starting  place  it  was  quite  red 
and  was  an  excellent  quality  of  paint.  Then  he  said,  "Well,  trader, 
I  have  won  your  store,"  and  the  trader  answered,  "You  have  won 
my  store.     I  did  not  think  that  an  Indian  could  do  it."     Then  Mid- 


258  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ans.37 

jistega  said,  "I  can  also  make  some  sugar.  If  you  don't  believe  it, 
give  me  some  more  flour."  However,  the  trader  said,  "There  is  no 
need  of  your  proving  it;  I  believe  you  now."  However,  he  sent  one 
of  his  employees  after  some  more  flour  and  out  of  this  Midjistega 
made  some  maple  sugar.  He  made  it  in  the  following  way.  He 
sprinkled  some  water  on  the  flour  and  said,  "This  shall  be  the  size 
of  pheasants'  dung."  Then  it  formed  into  little  round  lumps.  Then 
the  trader  said,  "Midjistega,  my  store  is  worth  several  times  the  value 
of  your  furs,  and  you  have  made  me  a  poor  man.  However,  I  wish 
to  ask  you  for  one  thing — this  sugar — so  that  I  can  eat  some  of  it 
once  in  a  while."  Then  Midjistega  gave  it  to  him.  Midjistega  and 
his  friend  carried  the  contents  of  the  store  home.  They  had  to  make 
several  trips.     All  the  people  at  home  got  a  blanket. 

Then  the  trader  said,  "Midjistega,  there  is  not  a  white  man  living 
who  would  believe  that  you  can  do  this  and  if,  therefore,  I  ever  call 
on  you  to  do  it  again,  I  hope  that  you  will  come  with  your  friends 
(and  do  it).  This  is  the  only  way  I  can  ever  win  any  of  my  money 
back  again."     However,  no  one  ever  heard  of  the  trader  after  that. 

Midjistega  also  made  all  the  different  varieties  of  corn  at  the 
Potawatomi  meeting. 

Old  Lincoln  had  always  heard  of  the  remarkable  power  the  Winne- 
bago were  supposed  to  possess  in  these  matters  but  he  had  never 
actually  witnessed  any  exhibition  of  it  until  he  saw  Midjistega  per- 
form (these  tricks). 

A  man  named  Young  Rogue,  a  brother  of  Robert  Lincoln,  could 
roll  up  a  piece  of  clay  about  the  size  of  a  marble  and  then  roll  it  on 
the  ground  and  it  would  change  into  a  toad  and  jump  away.  He 
was  also  able  to  shoot  a  blade  of  grass  right  into  a  log. 

Lincoln's  Grandfather 

Lincoln's  grandfather  was  the  leader  of  the  medicine  dance  and 
every  time  any  relation  of  his  died  he  would  tell  the  daughters  of 
his  relative  to  stop  their  crying  and  that  he  would  avenge  the  death 
of  their  father  and  kill  four  people.  Shortly  after  he  said  this  the 
four  whom  he  had  picked  out  died. 

If  there  was  a  man  with  great  wealth  in  the  tribe  he  would  make 
a  wooden  snake  and  send  it  toward  the  man.  Immediately  after 
this  it  always  happened  that  the  rich  man  would  be  bitten  by  a 
snake.  The  latter  would  then  send  for  the  medicine  man  and  give 
him  all  that  he  possessed.  Then  the  former  would  ask  him,  '  'When 
do  you  want  to  got  well?''  If  the  sick  man  said  "In  three  to  four 
days,"  the  medicine  man  would  say,  "You  must  like  to  suffer." 

For  this  reason  the  children  of  Lincoln's  grandfather  always  had 
plenty  of  wealth. 


TtADiN]  SHAMANISTIC   AND    MEDICINAL   PRACTICES  259 

The  Crow  (i.  e.,  Menominee)  Indians  knew  what  a  wonderful  man 
he  was  and  whenever  he  went  to  visit  them  they  gave  him  many  pres- 
ents.    He  would  be  invited  to  a  feast  as  soon  as  he  arrived. 

On  one  occasion  when  they  had  a  feast  in  a  lodge  (in  his  honor) 
one  of  the  Menominee  marked  the  ground  in  front  of  him  and  dared 
Lincoln's  grandfather  to  come  over,  saying  that  if  he  did  he  would 
injure  him.  When  the  Winnebago  crossed  the  mark  he  was  pushed 
in  all  directions  and  finally  shoved  into  a  pit,  bruising  himself  a  great 
deal.  When  he  came  out,  the  old  man  said,  '  'You  have  probably 
never  heard  of  me.  To-morrow  noon,  soldiers  will  hit  you."  Then 
the  Menominee  asked,  "If  soldiers  hit  me,  what  will  be  the  result?" 
"You  will  die.''  Then  the  Menominee  said,  "You  have  nothing  to 
do  with  my  life,''  and  made  a  jump  at  him. 

The  Menominee  who  had  been  told  that  he  was  going  to  die  said 
the  next  morning  to  his  nephew,  '  'Nephew,  let  us  go  to  the  lake  and 
look  around.  I  can't  forget  what  the  old  man  told  me  yesterday." 
So  they  took  their  spears  for  fishing  and  went  out.  While  they  were 
on  the  lake  they  saw  a  deer  drinking  at  the  edge  of  the  water.  The 
man  took  a  shot  at  the  deer,  and  the  deer  ran  back  into  the  timber. 
The  man  and  his  nephew  pursued  it.  After  a  while  the  man  gave  a 
yell  and  then  all  was  quiet.  The  nephew  went  over  to  the  place 
and  there  the  man  was  found  dead.  At  his  side  a  very  large  snake, 
with  hair  on  its  back,  was  standing. 

The  next  morning  one  could  hear  the  mourning  songs  all  over 
the  woods.  Then  they  went  to  look  for  the  Winnebago,  for  they 
believed  that  it  was  his  fault.  They  told  him  not  to  worry  about  it 
and  gave  him  a  horse  to  appease  him.  The  day  after  they  all  had 
left  the  camp,  the  Winnebago  pointed  to  some  hawks  that  were 
circling  around  and  told  the  Menominee  to  watch  the  foremost  one. 
Then  he  pointed  his  finger  at  that  one  and  made  a  sound  with  his 
mouth  and  the  bird  fell  down  dead.  This  Winnebago  had  the  power 
to  do  this  to  all  birds.  He  always  told  the  Winnebago  not  to  eat 
these  birds  because  they  were  not  good. 

The  Uses  of  the  Stench-Earth  Medicine1 

There  once  was  a  man  who  had  consumption  and  who  knew  tliat 
he  was  going  to  die  soon.  His  relatives  were  about  to  move  him 
to  some  other  place  and  so  he  told  them  just  to  build  him  a  separate 
lodge  and  leave  him  alone — that  he  wanted  to  die  there.  He  asked 
them  likewise  not  to  come  back  to  see  him.  They  obeyed  him  and 
left  him  to  die  alone. 

One  day  he  decided  to  go  out  into  the  wilderness  and  die  there. 
He  went  to  the  top  of  a  hill  and  lay  down.     He  noticed  many  birds 

1  This  is  the  literal  translation.    What  plant  is  meant  the  writer  was  not  able  to  determine. 


260  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.ann.37 

of  prey  hovering  around  the  hill  and  he  felt  certain  that  they  were 
there  so  that  they  could  devour  him  as  soon  as  he  was  dead.  How- 
ever, the  birds  told  him  they  had  come  to  cure  not  to  devour  him. 
Many  carnivorous  birds  and  many  wolves  were  there.  The  turtle 
also  came  because  he  was  the  owner  of  some  medicines. 

Then  the  animals  who  had  gathered  on  the  hill  began  to  doctor 
him.  The  raven  began  first.  He  ejaculated  e-he-a!  e-he-a!  gave  him 
some  medicine  and  began  to  exert  his  powers  until  he  felt  better. 
Then  the  wolf  began.  He  walked  around  ejaculating  certain  sounds 
and  spitting  medicine  on  him.  The  man  became  much  better. 
He  was  almost  completely  restored  to  health.  Then  the  turtle  began 
to  exert  his  powers,  ejaculating  at  the  same  time  ahi!  ahi!  alii!  ahi! 
and  walking  around  the  man  and  giving  him  some  boiled  medicine 
to  drink.  Now  he  was  almost  entirely  cured.  Finally  a  black 
hawk  began  to  doctor  the  man.  He  put  some  medicine  on  the  place 
where  the  man's  pains  seemed  to  be  situated  and  he  was  immediately 
cured.  Then  all  those  who  had  cured  him  said,  ''Human!  In  a 
similar  way  you  shall  cure  your  fellowmen."  They  then  gave  him 
as  much  medicine  as  he  would  need.  The  raven  gave  him  his  '  'medi- 
cine chest,"  consisting  of  a  flute  and  a  gourd.  With  these  things 
he  blessed  him.  He  also  gave  him  a  song  which  he  was  to  sing. 
Then  the  wolf  gave  him  his  medicine  chest,  consisting  of  a  gourd 
and  a  flute,  and  told  him  that  he  would  not  fail  to  cure  any  sick 
person  he  treated  and  that  if  the  sick  people  offered  the  proper 
amount  of  tobacco,  red  eagle  feathers,  and  food,  no  matter  how 
serious  their  disease  was  he  would  be  able  to  cure  it.  Then  he,  told 
the  man  that  Earthmaker  had  placed  him  in  charge  of  these  things 
and  that  he  in  turn  wxmld  bless  him  with  them  for  all  eternity.  As 
long  as  any  of  his  posterity  was  left  they  would  enjoy  the  benefit  of 
these  blessings. 

And  this  is  true,  for  even  to  the  present  day  his  descendants  use 
this  medicine. 

Then  Black  Hawk  said,  "I,  also,  bless  you.  Earthmaker  placed  me 
in  charge  of  some  medicines  and  with  these  I  bless  you.  If  you  are 
careful  in  offering  tobacco  and  food  to  these  medicines  they  will 
always  help  you  to  the  utmost  of  their  power.  Whatever  you  ask 
they  will  accomplish  for  you.  They  will  be  able  to  understand  you. 
So,  if  anyone  is  sick,  you  will  be  able  to  help  him.  In  this  way  I 
bless  you.  If  you  are  ever  in  any  difficulty,  think  of  me  and  I  will 
help  you."  (What  he  meant  is  that  if  he  ever  was  in  any  difficulty, 
he  should  think  of  the  medicines  with  which  Black  Hawk  had  blessed 
him,  and  that  that  would  be  the  same  as  if  he  thought  of  him.) 

Then  the  Buffalo  said,  "My  grandson,  Earthmaker  placed  me  in 
charge  of  certain  medicines.  Why  should  you  then  wish  to  die? 
Your   condition  is   'pitiable,'  and   therefore  I  want    to    bless   you. 


badin]  SHAMANISTTC   AND    MEDICINAL   PRACTICES  261 

All  those  spirits  whom  Earthmaker  made  with  his  own  hands  were 
placed  in  charge  of  certain  things.  All  these  spirits  have  had  com- 
passion upon  you.  All  those  whom  Earthmaker  created  as  holy 
have  blessed  you.  Earthmaker  has  placed  me  in  charge  of  certain 
medicines  and  I  am  so  completely  in  control  of  these  that  I  can  do 
what  I  please  with  them.  There  exist  no  beings  either  on  the  earth 
or  under  the  earth  whom  I  can  not  cure.  With  all  these  do  I  bless  you. 
All  your  previous  blessings  were  from  spirits  who  live  either  on 
earth  or  in  the  heavens.  The  medicinal  plants  I  bless  you  with  are 
called  Buffalo  medicines.  The  other  medicines  are  called  'stench- 
earth  medicines.'  As  long  as  you  and  your  descendants  live  these 
medicines  will  be  efficacious.  The  owners  of  the  stench-earth  medi- 
cines they  will  be  called.     In  this  manner  I  bless  you." 

Then  the  hitcara  said,  "I  bless  you  with  those  things  that  Earth- 
maker  placed  me  in  charge  of.  I  was  created  by  Earthmaker. 
Medicines,  grass,  trees,  and  bushes  (for  use  in  the  making  of  medi- 
cines), with  these  I  bless  you.  I  bless  you  with  my  utterance.  With 
my  mouth,  I  bless  you.  If  a  human  is  suffering  and  places  tobacco  in 
your  hands,  then  you  may  mention  my  name  and  pour  a  pipeful  of 
tobacco  into  the  fire.  I  will  grant  whatever  you  request.  All  the 
medicinal  plants  with  which  I  bless  you  shall  belong  to  you  and  your 
descendants  as  long  as  the  earth  endures.  Your  children  can  use 
them,  and  they  will  protect  them.  If  any  part  of  their  body  is  weak 
from  disease  they  can  heal  themselves  with  them.  Many  things  will 
you  gain  through  these  medicines.  You  may  also  eat  them. 
Human!  you  have  dreamed,  not  only  for  yourself  but  for  all  your 
descendants.  As  long  as  this  earth  endures,  so  long  will  your 
descendants  use  these  medicines  with  which  I  have  blessed  you.  In 
this  way  I  bless  you." 

Then  the  wildcat  said,  "Grandson,  Earthmaker  placed  me  in  con- 
trol of  medicines  also.  I  bless  you.  The  other  spirits  have  blessed 
you  with  certain  medicines,  and  to  these  I  now  add  my  own.  I  can 
not  teU  you  anything  about  the  heavenly  blessings.  The  spirits 
above  have  already  bestowed  these  upon  you.  I  will,  however, 
tell  you  this:  There  is  nothing  either  upon  this  earth  or  under  it  that 
I  can  not  accomplish.  I  bless  you  with  the  power  to  do  the  same. 
With  the  blessings  I  give  you,  you  will  be  able  to  accomplish  anything 
you  wish  whenever  you  put  these  medicines  to  use.  If  a  person  were 
dying,  and  his  relatives  offered  tobacco  and  food  to  you,  you  would  be 
able  to  cure  him.  When  you  use  my  name,  concentrate  your  mind 
upon  me,  and  offer  me  tobacco.  If  I  smoke  the  tobacco  you  will  then 
know  that  your  request  has  been  granted.  All  the  medical  plants  that 
I  am  giving  to  you,  all  the  herbs  that  I  am  blessing  you  with,  to  all 
these,  make  an  offering  of  tobacco.  Whatever  you  ask  they  will 
grant   you.     All   the   animals   that    tread    upon   the   air,    all    those 


262  THE   WINXEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

on  the  earth,  have  medicines  that  you  are  to  use  on  earth. 
Whatever  you  say  on  earth  it  will  be  so.  You  have  been  blessed  with 
all  the  things  that  are  on  and  under  the  earth." 

All  the  fowls  and  insects  of  the  air,  all  the  beings  that  have  wings, 
blessed  him  and  gave  him  medicines,  which  he  was  to  mix  with  other 
medicines.  He  was  told  to  make  use  of  all  the  insects  of  the  earth 
and  air,  some  of  which  we  never  see.  All  those  who  live  on  earth,  all 
the  fishes  in  the  water,  and  all  the  different  kinds  of  water-spirits 
blessed  him  with  medicines.  He  was  blessed  with,  and  told  to  use 
as  medicines,  all  those  plants  that  live  in  the  water.  He  was  blessed 
with  the  leech,  one  of  the  animals  that  lives  in  the  water,  and  he 
was  to  use  it  in  medicine  mixing.  They  say  that  it  is  good  to  mix  the 
leech  with  other  medicines  to  relieve  pain.  He  was  blessed  with  all 
the  trees,  that  we  see  to-day,  which  he  was  to  use  as  medicines. 
Their  bark,  leaves,  and  roots  are  considered  very  good  for  such  pur- 
poses. He  was  blessed  also  with  all  the  small  undergrowth,  whose 
leaves,  bark,  inner  bark,  blossoms,  and  roots  he  was  to  use  for 
medicine.  He  was  blessed  with  all  the  weeds,  and  he  was  to  use 
their  heads  and  leaves  for  medicine,  but  their  roots  were  to  be  used 
for  other  purposes. 

Thus  all  the  different  kinds  of  plants  that  grow  on  this  earth 
blessed  him.  The  earth  also  blessed  him  and  said  to  him, 
"Grandson,  as  the  other  spirits  are  blessing  you,  I,  also,  will  bless 
you.  Earthmaker  has  placed  me  here,  and  I  therefore  bless  you 
with  all  plants  that  grow  upon  me,  and  all  the  trees  and  weeds  and 
animals  that  exist  on  this  earth,  and  lastly,  with  life  and  myself 
(i.  e.,  earth).  You  may  use  me,  and  especially  the  blue  clay  that  you 
derive  from  me,  for  medicines.  Should  you  use  as  medicine  all  these 
things  with  which  I  have  blessed  you,  especially  if  you  use  me,  as 
medicine,  you  will  be  able  to  accomplish  all  that  you  attempt. 

"If  a  person  who  is  sick  offers  you  tobacco  (i.  e.,  asks  you  to  cure 
him),  remember  that  I  also  would  like  to  smoke  and  that  it  is  for 
that  reason  that  I  have  blessed  you."  2 

Birds,  especially  eagles,  are  used  hi  the  making  of  medicines. 
The  entire  body  of  a  raven,  including  the  heart  and  brains,  are  used, 
and  also  the  following  snakes:  The  gray  snake,  the  black  snake,  the 
blue  snake,  the  yellow  snake,  the  bull  snake,  and  the  snake  that 
breaks  itself  in  two.  The  rattlesnake  is  used  in  a  mixture  given  to 
women  when  hi  labor.  If  a  woman  hurts  herself  during  pregnancy 
and  kills  the  child  within  her  womb,  she  can  be  made  to  deliver  the 
embryo  if  she  uses  the  medicine  mentioned  above. 

2  According  to  general  belief  the  spirits  rre  supposed  to  have  entered  into  a  sort  of  "bargain"  with  the 
human  beings  by  which  they  were  to  bestow  their  blessings  upon  them  in  exchange  for  tobacco,  buck- 
skin, and  feathers.  Of  course,  it  must  be  understood  that  individuals  must  have  the  necessary  require- 
ments, such  as  a  certain  attitu  le  of  mind,  fasting,  etc.,  before  their  offering  of  tobacco  has  any  meaning 
to  the  spirits. 


eadin]  SHAMANISTIC   AND   MEDICINAL   PRACTICES  263 

Toads  are  used,  but  only  for  poison  medicines.  The  quail's  heart 
is  used  for  the  same  purpose.  If  a  person  is  killed  outright,  his  heart 
is  used  as  a  medicine,  as  the  human  heart  is  regarded  as  having  great 
efficacy  in  such  medicines.  It  is  used  in  war,  for  compelling  people 
to  give  you  presents,  and  for  courting  women.  The  bear  likewise  is 
used  for  a  variety  of  purposes.  Its  liver  is  especially  powerful.  It 
is  rubbed  over  the  body  whenever  in  pain.  It  is  often  used  by 
women  who  have  injured  themselves  in  childbirth,  or  in  the  form  of 
tonics,  poultices,  and  emetic ;  or  for  toothaches,  bathing  sore  eyes,  ear- 
aches, headaches;  as  snuff,  as  a  physic,  for  burns,  strictures,  boils,  hemor- 
rhages, injections  in  the  rectum,  consumption,  measles,  dysentery, 
chills,  nosebleed,  pains  in  the  stomach,  and  headaches  caused  by 
poisoning. 

Sometimes  a  woman  would  take  a  hair  of  her  husband  and  stick 
it  into  some  bad  medicine.  In  such  a  case  he  would  never  leave  her 
for  he  would  become  very  much  enamored  of  her.  If  ever  she  went 
away,  he  would  miss  her  very  much.  However,  he  always  had  a 
headache.  Finally  he  would  get  sick  and  lose  his  appetite  and  then 
his  eyesight.  That  is  why  it  is  forbidden  to  use  this  medicine, 
although  some,  still  do  it. 

Many  Winnebago  are  blind,  because  there  is  a  medicine  that 
causes  blindness.  If  one  person  offends  another  who  possesses  such 
a  medicine,  the  latter  would  cause  the  offender  to  become  blind. 

The  Winnebago  have  medicines  for  every  purpose;  for -courting, 
for  becoming  rich,  for  obtaining  good  looks,  etc.  Even  if  a  person 
is  very  holy,  these  poisoners  can  poison  him.  If  a  man  was  a  good 
hunter  or  if  he  was  wise  and  good,  these  bad  shamans  would  poison 
him.  If  an  individual  was  a  great  medicine  man  and  these  bad 
shamans  got  jealous,  they  would  poison  him.  Indeed,  only  if  a  person 
was  poor  and  lowly  would  they  like  him.  Such  a  man  they  would 
never  poison  for  they  had  no  reason  for  being  jealous  of  him.  A 
bad  shaman  is  always  treated  with  the  greatest  respect  and  honor, 
because  he  kills  many  people. 

A  warrior  is  also  greatly  respected  and  flattered.  It  is  the  Indian's 
greatest-  desire  to  become  a  warrior.  All  desire  that,  and  they  also 
wish  to  become  great  medicine  men  and  bad  shamans. 

This  is  the  way  they  prepare  and  use  their  courtbig  medicines. 
The  courting  medicine  known  to  me  is  a  plant  of  apparently  two 
varieties,  one  of  which  has  a  blue  blossom  and  the  other  no  blossom  at 
all.  Otherwise  they  are  alike.  The  one  with  the  blue  blossom  is  the 
male  and  the  one  without  the  blossom  is  the  female.  When  I  go  out 
to  dig  this  plant,  I  do  not  dig  for  these  two  specimens  unless  I  can 
find  them  growing  together  closely.  Even  then  I  do  not  dig  any  two 
specimens  unless  the  male  is  found  growing  on  the  east  side.  For 
that  reason  it  is  very  hard  to  find  them.     As  soon  as  I  find  two  that 


264  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

fulfill  all  the  conditions  I  dig  them  out  and  mix  them  together  with 
their  own  roots.  Then  I  take  the  blossom  of  the  male  and  mix  it 
together  with  the  center  leaf  of  the  female  flower.  After  that  both 
are  ground  together  thoroughly.  Then  I  go  to  the  woman  I  wish  to 
court  and,  at  night,  when  she  is  asleep,  I  touch  first  any  part  of  her 
body,  then  a  place  not  far  from  her  heart,  and  finally  the  top  of  her 
head  with  this  mixture.  Finally  I  make  her  smell  it.  I  then  wake  her 
up  and  go  home.  The  girl  will  wonder  who  had  touched  her  and  she 
will  think  a  good  deal  about  the  incident  and  never  forget  it.  The 
next  time  I  see  her  she  will  like  me  and  she  will  do  whatever  I  ask 
of  her.  The  medicine  would  be  working.  If  I  did  not  see  her  for  a 
long  time,  she  would  get  lonesome,  and  the  only  thing  that  would 
cure  her  would  be  to  marry  me. 

There  is  another  medicine  which  I  am  now  going  to  describe. 
When  it  first  sprouts,  which  is  in  the  spring,  it  is  quite  white.  This 
must  bo  taken  and  dried.  Then  one  must  chew  it  and  go  near  the 
woman  with  whom  one  desires  to  talk.  Approach  her  on  the  side 
from  which  the  wind  is  blowing  so  that  she  can  smell  the  medicine. 
As  soon  as  she  smells  it,  even  although  the  man  chewing  it  is  one 
whom  she  has  hitherto  disliked,  she  will  get  to  like  him.  This  is  the 
way  in  which  the  medicine  works. 

A  man  who  was  blessed  was  told  of  all  these  things.  He  cured  all 
diseases.  If  a  person  had  been  shot  and  one  blessed  with  the  stench- 
earth  medicine  was  called,  he  could  be  cured.  In  the  same  manner, 
if  one  is  stabbed  in  what  would  generally  be  considered  a  fatal  way 
and  if  a  man  blessed  with  stench-earth  was  called  in  time  he  would 
save  him.  The  same  cure  is  effected  in  cases  of  broken  arms  and  of 
patients  who  are  on  the  point  of  death.  It  is  for  this  reason  that 
those  blessed  with  the  stench-earth  medicines  are  always  praised, 
and  that  the  people  say  "They  surely  are  hi  charge  of  life;  for  their 
blessings  really  come  from  the  spirits,  just  as  they  claim."  3 

[The  "stench-earth"  medicine  men  could  undoubtedly  cure  the 
sick,  but  they  also  used  it  to  poison  people.  The  courting  medicine 
was  a  poison  medicine,  and  therefore  it  was  not  good.  These  people 
cured  the  body,  but  they  killed  the  soul.  It  would  have  been  much 
better  had  they  saved  their  souls.  They  were  really  working  for 
the  devil.  It  is  from  him  that  they  got  all  the  bad  medicines.  When- 
ever they  were  offended,  they  would  go  and  get  poisons  to  kill  the 
offender.  Thus  the  devil 4  was  really  causing  them  to  kill  their  own 
souls  and  the  souls  of  those  they  poisoned.     It  is  the  same  with  all 

8  The  following  portion  in  brackets  is  the  comment  of  our  informant,  who  is  a  member  of  the  Peyote 
sect. 

*  Although  he  really  means  the  Christian  devil  many  of  the  traits  of  the  old  Winnebago  deity  Herec- 
gu'nina,  the  chief  of  the  bad  spirits,  are  clearly  discernible. 


badin]  SHAMANISTIC   AND   MEDICINAL   PRACTICES  265 

the  other  medicines,  like  the  courting  medicine,  etc.  The  Indians 
were  destroying  their  own  souls.  So  Earthmaker  decided  to  give 
them  a  new  medicine.  We  have  now  all  broken  away  from  the  old 
things.  We  have  broken  away  from  the  devil  and  are  earning  our 
salvation  through  Earthmaker.  For  "this  reason  I  am  thankful 
both  for  my  sake  aud  that  of  my  people.] 

This  is  a  medicine  that  is  good  for  consumption,  for  stomach 
trouble,  for  a  cold,  for  a  sore  throat,  and  for  general  illnesses.  It 
consists  of  the  following  ingredients: 

1.  Waraxa'dax  koske'rera,  English  unknown. 

2.  Waraxa'dax  mannap'a'rara,  English  unknown. 

3.  Enai'ntcox  mank'a'nna,  English  unknown. 

4.  Nicu'tcera,  red  water. 

5.  Mank'a'nskaka,  white  medicine. 

6.  Mank'a'"  niyetco'tcera,  medicine  of  the  water. 

7.  Gi'xuk'unina,  English  unknown. 

8.  Mank'anne,xeda,  English  unknown. 

If  a  woman  has  any  trouble  with  her  womb  this  medicine  will  cure 
her  immediately.  She  must  not,  however,  drink  it,  but  inject  it. 
It  makes  no  difference  how  severe  her  illness  is,  this  medicine  will 
always  effect  a  cure.  This  man  was  blessed  with  the  knowledge  of 
its  efficacy. 

This  is  another  medicine: 

1.  Marjk'a'n  manup'ara'ra,   medicine  that  spreads  over  the 

ground. 

2.  Xanwiwingi'ckera,  medicine  to  tie  with. 

3.  Mank'a'"  p'orop'orora,  round  medicine. 

4.  Hap'o'skra,  English  unknown. 

5.  Mank'a'n  kerebcera,  sweet  flag. 

6.  Nanp'aca'k'onank'  hura,  English  unknown. 

7.  Huntc  p'istara,  bear  liver. 

This  is  all  ground  together  and  mixed  with  wTater.  When  thor- 
oughly mixed  it  is  put  into  a  bladder  and  injected  by  means  of  a 
wing  bone. 

This  is  a  medicine  for  diarrhea: 

1.  K'etcti'nk'sire  tco'ra,  English  unknown. 

2.  Aseni  ho-ap  hodo'p'iricera,  curled  sumac  leaves. 

3.  Mank'a'ni  tetco'tcera,  medicine  of  the  water. 

4.  Waraxadax  skaka',  English  unknown. 

5.  Nane1a'nicura,  maple  sugar. 

These  are  all  ground  together  into  a  fine  powder  and  sweetened 
with  maple  sugar.     Otherwise  no  one  would  take  it,  for  it  does  not 
taste  good.     It  is  called  kasawah'kemank'. 
186823°— 22 IS 


266  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bih.-ahs.3T 

This  is  medicine  used  by  women  when  their  menstrual  flow  is  not 
very  good: 

1 .  Tcemanank'e,  English  unknown. 

2.  Wazi  p'ara'ske  abera,  pine  with  flat  leaves  ( ?). 

3.  Wacutci  abera,  red'cedar  leaves. 

4.  Mank'a  p'orop'oro  abera,  round  medicine  leaves. 

All  four  of  these  ingredients  are  ground,  mixed  together,  and  then 
mixed  with  water.  They  are  then  drunk  by  any  woman  having 
trouble  with  her  menstrual  flow.  After  she  has  taken  it  she  makes 
knots  in  the  belt  and  ties  it  around  her  waist.  As  many  knots  as  she 
makes  that  many  days  wTill  it  take  her  to  get  well.  She  also  smokes 
herself  with  cedar  leaves. 

The  next  medicine  that  I  wish  to  speak  of  is  compounded  as  follows: 

1.  K'ewaxgu'£unsera,  scent  of  a  toad. 

2.  Wanirjkcu'tc  na'ntckera,  heart  of  a  red  bird. 

3.  Hactce'kera,  strawberries. 

4.  Wankcik  na'ntckera,  human  heart. 

5.  XawiDjan,  a  plant. 

If  this  medicine  were  mixed  with  whisky  and  given  to  any  person, 
the  latter  would  surely  die  within  a  year.  The  frog  that  is  used  in 
this  medicine  becomes  alive  in  the  stomach  of  the  person  who  drinks 
it  and  kills  him.  If  he  took  the  same  medicine  and  mixed  it  with 
paint  and  then  rubbed  it  over  his  face,  all  who  looked  at  him  would 
take  a  liking  to  him  and  give  him  presents,  and  the  women  would  fall 
in  love  with  him  and  want  to  marry  him.  The  reason  that  the  women 
become  smitten  is  because  they  can  not  resist  the  sight  of  a  ripe 
strawberry.  The  human  heart  in  the  mixture  is  the  object  that 
makes  the  medicine  so  powerful,  and  the  red  bird  heart  strengthens  it. 
Whenever  these  two,  the  human  heart  and  the  heart  of  the  red  bird, 
are  used  in  medicines,  the  medicine  is  always  remarkably  efficacious. 

If  a  woman  makes  fun  of  you  and  you  feel  hurt  about  it  and  want 
to  revenge  yourself,  get  one  of  her  hairs  and  dip  the  root  into  this 
medicine  and  then  tie  it  up.  Hang  the  medicine  bag  in  the  woods 
and  whenever  the  wind  blows  the  woman  wdl  get  lonesome  for  you 
and  her  head  will  ache.  Finally  she  will  get  crazy.  She  will  never 
cease  talking  about  you.  This  is  one  of  the  medicines  this  man  was 
blessed  with.  Some  of  them  die  from  the  effects  of  it.  It  is  not  a 
good  thing,  but  the  Winnebago  thought  that  it  was  a  very  great 
thing.     (Now  that  they  know  the  Creator,  they  know  that  it  is  bad.) 

Here  is  another  medicine  that  we  have,  and  it  is  prepared  in  the 
following  way:  Four  trees  of  a  certain  species  are  peeled  near  the 
roots  lying  on  the  east  side.  Then  the  second  bark  is  also  peeled. 
Then  these  are  taken  and  boiled  together  with  a  square-stemmed 
weed.  The  whole  mixture  is  used  to  induce  vomiting.  This  vomit- 
ing would  rid  a  person  of  a  spell  cast  upon  him  which  was  preventing 


RADin]  SHAMANISTIC   AND   MEDICINAL   PKACTICES  267 

him  from  killing  game.  In  the  particular  case  mentioned  above  the 
spell  was  the  following:  A  man  killed  a  deer,  and  a  pregnant  woman 
ate  a  piece  of  the  intestine.  From  that  time  on  the  man  was  unable 
to  kill  any  more  deer. 

The  above  medicine  is  used  to  break  the  spell  of  Ul  luck  in  hunting 
caused  by  the  following  actions:  If  a  man  cohabits  with  a  widow,  or 
if  one  who  is  a  widower  eats  together  with  another  person,  or  if  he 
smokes  out  of  the  same  pipe  as  another  person.  Not  only  would  the 
medicine  free  him  from  his  ill  luck  in  hunting,  but  it  woidd  give  him 
good  luck  in  cards  and  speed  in  running. 

Here  is  an  astringent  medicine.  It  is  compounded  of  a  mixture  of 
the  "clear"  medicine  and  the  "plant  that  spreads  itself  on  the 
ground."  It  is  used  for  the  following  purposes:  As  an  application 
for  swellings,  for  illness  after  childbirth,  and  for  general  sores  and 
eruptions  of  the  skin.  In  case  of  illness  after  childbirth  it  is  injected. 
For  sores,  etc.,  it  is  taken  internally. 

Here  is  another  medicine,  called  bladder  medicine.  It  is  made  of 
the  roots  of  a  certain  weed.  These  roots  are  boiled  and  then  drunk. 
If  one  is  troubled  with  stricture,  the  drinking  of  this  medicine  will 
enable  him  to  pass  water  immediately.  The  same  medicine  is  used 
to  alleviate  a  toothache  and  to  stop  too  profuse  a  menstrual  flow. 

Now  this  is  another  medicine.  It  is  made  of  the  leaves  of  a  certain 
plant.  These  leaves  are  rolled  up  and  then  drunk  down  with  water. 
The  medicine  is  used  for  all  stomach  complaints. 

Here  is  another  medicine  used  for  diarrhea  and  dysentery.  It  is 
made  from  the  roots  of  a  plant  that  has  many  thorns  and  beautiful 
white  blossoms.  The  roots  are  scraped  and  the  scrapings  boiled 
and  gulped  down.  At  least  a  pint  of  this  concoction  must  be  taken. 
It  can  also  be  used  as  a  mouth  wash  for  those  troubled  with  sore 
mouths. 

We  have  another  medicine  used  to  rid  a  person  of  superfluous  bile. 
This  acts  as  a  strong  physic  and  not  only  cures  a  person  of  his  indis- 
position but  also  gives  him  a  great  appetite. 

Here  is  another  medicine.  It  is  called  the  medicine  for  burns.  It 
consists  of  the  leaves  of  a  certain  weed  that  is  dried.  If  anyone  has 
a  burn,  he  chews  some  of  this  dried  weed  and  then  applies  it  to  the 
burn. 

Here  is  also  a  medicine  for  private  diseases,  compounded  of  the 
following : 

1.  Doxicu'tckera  hara,  red  willow  bark. 

2.  Mansixu'tckeda  hara,  English  unknown. 

3.  Nap'a'hira  hara,  sharp  tree. 

These  barks  are  pulverized  and  mixed  together  with  skunk  oil. 
The  next  medicine  I  am  going  to  describe  is  used  in  poisoning.     It 
is  called  small-part-of-a-black-root-tree.     It  is  used  for  many  pur- 


268  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

poses.  If,  for  instance,  I  wish  a  person  to  become  blind  or  if  I  dis- 
like him  or  were  jealous  of  him  because  he  was  better  off  than  myself, 
I  would  do  the  following:  I  would  get  a  small  part  of  a  black  root 
and  pulverize  it.  Then  I  would  mix  it  with  ghost  snuff  and  put  it 
into  my  medicine  bag.  When  I  am  ready  to  shoot  the  person  I 
shake  my  bag  and  make  the  medicine  fly  out,  and  it  would  enter  his 
eyes  and  make  them  sore.  Soon  he  would  become  blind.  I  also 
use  this  medicine  when  I  go  on  the  warpath.  I  wrap  it  in  a  piece 
of  buckskin  and  wear  it  around  my  neck.  As  long  as  I  wear  it  in 
this  manner  I  will  never  be  shot. 

This  medicine  is  also  used  as  a  poultice.  If  a  man  has  a  pain 
anywhere,  he  makes  four  incisions  in  his  body  at  that  place,  with  the 
point  of  a  knife,  and  appUes  the  medicine. 

Here  is  another  medicine.  It  is  kept  in  a  large  bundle.  It  is 
used  in  the  following  way:  At  a  medicine  dance  a  person  may  put 
an  eagle  feather  on  the  nose  of  an  otter-skin  bag  and  then  open  the 
bundle  containing  his  medicine  and  bring  the  medicine  in  contact 
with  the  nose  of  the  otter-skin  bag.  The  individual  then  enters  the 
medicine-dance  lodge.  He  makes  note  of  the  place  where  the  person 
whom  he  dislikes  is  sitting.  After  a  while  he  gets  up  and  makes  a 
circuit  of  the  lodge  four  times  and  shoots  at  this  person.  He  sees  to 
it  that  one  of  the  feathers  attached  to  the  otter-skin  bag  lodges  just 
where  he  wishes  it.  Either  he  wishes  to  kill  the  man  outright  or  to 
make  him  suffer  for  a  long  time.  Should  the  victim  die,  the  man 
who  does  the  shooting  must  be  very  careful  for  he  might  easily 
injure  himself.  He  must  know,  for  instance,  exactly  when  his 
victim  is  going  to  die  and  then  as  soon  as  he  is  dead  he  must  open 
his  medicine  bundle  and  let  the  feather  return,  which  it  does  as  soon 
as  the  person  at  whom  it  was  shot  is  dead.  A  black  hawk  is  then 
heard  in  the  distance.  As  soon  as  it  approaches  the  man  utters 
curious  sounds  and  the  feather  alights  right  in  the  medicine  bundle. 
When  the  feather  returns,  however,  it  is  always  black,  though  when 
it  started  it  was  red.  One  might  imagine  that  there  had  been  two 
distinct  feathers. 

If  the  man  who  shot  the  feather  does  not  know  when  his  victim 
dies  and  consequently  does  not  make  the  necessary  preparations  for 
opening  his  medicine  bundle,  such  as  imitating  the  cry  of  a  black 
hawk,  or  if,  worse  still,  he  is  asleep,  the  feather  will  land  upon  him 
and  he  would  likewise  die. 

This  same  medicine  is  also  used  for  the  following  purpose:  If  a 
person  offends  you  and  you  wish  to  take  revenge  by  killing  him, 
take  your  medicine  bundle  and  whenever  you  come  across  the  foot- 
prints of  your  prospective  victim  then  open  your  medicine  bundle 
and  take  out  a  striped  feather  from  it  and  sing  a  song.  When  you 
are  finished,  make  certain  sounds  and  stab  the  footprints.     You  can 


badin]  SHAMANISTIC    AND    MEDICINAL    PRACTICES  269 

arrange  to  have  your  victim  die  immediately,  or,  if  you  wish,  to 
have  him  suffer  for  a  long  time,  by  becoming  paralyzed. 

This  same  medicine  is  used  in  a  similar  way  in  times  of  scarcity  of 
food.  The  people  offer  a  shaman  tobacco  and  he  would  do  the  fol- 
lowing: He  would  take  his  medicine  bundle  and  walk  till  he  came 
to  the  footprints  of  a  bear.  Then  he  would  follow  the  tracks  of  the 
bear  till  he  came  to  his  lair.  Here  he  would  open  his  medicine  bag, 
dip  the  striped  feather  in  the  medicine,  and  sing  for  some  time. 
When  he  has  finished  he  makes  certain  sounds  and  stabs  the  bear's 
footprints.  Wherever  the  bear  happened  to  be  at  that  time,  he 
would  not  be  able  to  walk,  and  the  people  would  soon  overtake  him. 
For  that  reason  this  medicine  is  valued  very  highly. 

This  medicine  is  also  used  when  one  desires  something  belonging 
to  another.  All  that  is  necessary  to  do  in  such  a  case  is  to  use  the 
songs  accompanying  the  medicine.  Then  all  the  things  one  has 
coveted  would  immediately  be  brought.  For  this  reason  they  thought 
a  good  deal  of  this  medicine. 

If  ever  anyone  uses  it  in  gambling,  he  will  win. 

If  again  he  casts  his  thoughts  upon  women,  then  the  power  of  this 
medicine  would  go  in  their  direction,  and  he  will  lose  while  gambling. 
All  the  women  will,  however,  like  him.  He  can  marry  whomsoever 
he  wishes.  The  same  thing  will  occur  when  a  woman  uses  this 
medicine.  If  she  casts  her  thoughts  upon  men,  she  will  become 
foolishly  enamored  of  them.  For  that  reason  the  old  people  used  to 
forbid  women  to  use  it. 

This  medicine  bundle  is  also  used  on  the  warpath.  If  a  man  uses 
it  upon  himself  and  rushes  upon  the  enemy,  all  those  who  are  in 
front  of  him  will  suddenly  find  themselves  unable  to  move.  A 
person  who  goes  on  a  warpath,  after  he  has  carefully  applied  the 
medicine  to  himself,  is  invulnerable.  It  is  impossible  to  kill  him,  for 
no  bullets  can  penetrate  his  body. 

This  medicine  was  likewise  used  in  hunting  for  bear,  and  deer 
could  easily  be  killed  with  it.  Even  those  who  are  not  accustomed 
to  hunting  could  kill  game  easily  if  they  used  it. 

Many  of  the  medicines  mentioned  above  were  obtained  from  the 
man  who  was  blessed  with  the  stench-earth  medicine.  Everyone 
believed  that  the  cures  effected  by  him  with  this  medicine  were  real. 
They  believed  that  this  medicine  could  cure  them,  and,  indeed,  it 
did  cure  them.  It  was  this  man,  too,  who  originated  the  stench- 
earth  medicine  feast.  It  is  a  very  sacred  feast,  considered  more 
sacred  than  any  other  feast  among  the  Winnebago.  When  the 
feast  is  given,  an  entire  deer  is  boiled  and  cut  into  pieces  much 
larger  than  any  one  person  could  eat.  Nevertheless  the  host  orders 
those  whom  he  has  invited  to  leave  nothing  upon  the  plate.  Should 
any  guest  leave  anything  upon  his  plate,  the  host  would  give  him  a 


270  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  an*.  37 

small  piece  of  a  root  and  tell  him  to  chew  and  eat  it.  This  the  guest 
would  have  to  do,  and  from  that  time  on  he  would  never  know  when 
he  had  had  enough  to  eat.  He  would  never  get  satiated.  Whenever 
the  man  who  had  been  blessed  gave  the  feast  personally,  no  one  was 
ever  known  to  leave  anything  upon  his  plate.  While  eating  the 
guests  kept  time.  They  never  shook  their  plates,  for  if  anyone  did 
so  the  others  would  immediately  give  him  whatever  remained  on 
their  plates.  They  would  assume  that  anyone  who  shook  his  plate 
was  the  possessor  of  the  stench-earth  himself  and  that  he  intended 
to  eat  up  these  extra  portions  with  the  aid  of  this  medicine.  If, 
however,  the  shaking  was  done  unintentionally  and  he  faded  to  eat 
up  the  extra  portions  placed  on  his  plate,  then  he  would  make  a 
noise  like  a  raven,  and  those  who  wished  to  help  him  consume  this 
food  would  also  cry  like  the  raven,  approach  him,  and  flap  their 
arms  as  the  birds  do  their  wings.     Then  all  would  eat. 

When  the  man  who  obtained  these  blessings  died,  he  left  all  these 
medicines  that  he  had  been  the  first  one  to  use  to  another  person. 
With  the  medicines  he  of  course  left  all  the  songs.  All  that  he  used 
to  do  when  he  doctored  a  sick  person  he  bequeathed  to  his  successor. 
The  last  man  who  had  these  medicines  was  not  a  holy  man  but  he 
knew  all  their  uses  and  for  that  reason  he  was  considered  a  powerful 
and  holy  man.  To-day  only  the  poison  medicines  are  remembered; 
the  good  medicines  are  all  gone. 

This  is  the  end. 

How  ax  Indian  Shaman  Cukes  His  Patients5 

"I  came  from  above  and  I  am  holy.  This  is  my  second  life  on 
earth.  Many  years  before  my  present  existence,  I  lived  on  this 
earth.  At  that  time  everyone  seemed  to  be  on  the  warpath.  I 
also  was  a  warrior,  a  brave  man.  Once  when  I  was  on  the  warpath 
I  was  killed.  It  seemed  to  me,  however,  as  if  I  had  merely  stumbled. 
I  rose  and  went  right  ahead  until  I  reached  my  home.  At  home  I 
found  my  wife  and  children,  but  they  would  not  look  at  me.  Then 
I  spoke  to  my  wife  but  she  seemed  to  be  quite  unaware  of  my  pres- 
ence. 'What  can  be  the  matter,'  I  thought  to  myself,  'that  they 
pay  no  attention  to  me  and  that  they  do  not  even  answer  when  I 
speak  to  them.'  All  at  once  it  occurred  to  me  that  I  might,  in 
reality,  be  dead.  So  I  immediately  started  out  for  the  place  where 
I  had  presumably  been  killed  and  surely  enough,  there  I  saw  my 
body.  Then  I  knew  positively  that  I  had  been  killed.  I  tried  to 
return  to  the  place  where  I  had  lived  as  a  human  being  but  for  four 
years  I  was  unsuccessful. 

"At  one  time  I  became  transformed  into  a  fish.  However,  the 
life  of  the  fish  is  much  worse  than  ours.     They  are  very  frequently 

»  The  shaman  is  represented  as  in  the  lodge  of  the  patient  and  as  speaking  to  him  and  his  relatives 


eadin]  SHAMANISTIC   AND   MEDICINAL   PRACTICES  271 

in  lack  of  food.  They  are  nevertheless  very  happy  beings  and  have 
many  dances." 

"At  another  time  I  became  transformed  into  a  little  bird.  When 
the  weather  is  good  the  life  of  the  birds  is  very  pleasant.  But  when 
it  is  cold  they  are  compelled  to  undergo  many  hardships  on  account 
of  the  weather  as  well  as  on  account  of  lack  of  food.  When  it  was 
very  cold  I  used  to  go  to  the  camp  of  some  people  who  were  living 
in  the  neighborhood  and  try  to  steal  some  meat  from  their  racks. 
A  little  boy  used  to  stand  near  these  racks  and  we  were  very  much 
afraid  of  him  because  he  carried  something  in  his  hands  with  which 
he  shot  and  which  made  a  dreadful  noise.  Whenever  he  shot  it  we 
would  all  fly  away.  What  the  boy  was  using  was  a  bow  and  arrow. 
At  night  we  slept  in  a  hollow  tree.  If  I  entered  the  tree  first  and 
the  others  came  in  behind  me  I  would  be  almost  squeezed  to  death. 
If,  on  the  other  hand,  I  waited  until  the  last  I  would  sometimes  have 
to  stay  outside  and  when  the  weather  was  cold  I  might  have  frozen 
to  death. 

"At  another  time  I  became  a  buffalo.  The  cold  weather  and  the 
food  did  not  worry  me  much  then,  but  as  buffaloes,  we  would  always 
have  to  be  on  the  alert  for  hunters. 

"From  my  buffalo  existence  I  was  permitted  to  go  to  my  higher 
spirit-home,  from  which  I  originally  came.  The  one  in  charge  of 
that  spirit-home  is  my  grandfather.  I  asked  him  for  permission  to 
return  to  this  earth  again.  At  first  he  refused,  but  then  after  I  had 
asked  him  for  the  fourth  time,  he  consented.  He  said  to  me,  'Grand- 
son, you  had  better  fast  before  you  go  and  if  any  of  the  spirits  take 
pity  upon  you  (i.  e.,  bless  you),  you  may  go  and  live  in  peace  upon 
earth.'  So  I  fasted  for  four  years  and  all  the  spirits  above,  even  to 
the  fourth  heaven,7  approved  of  my  coming.  They  blessed  me. 
Then  I  fasted  10  days  more  and  then  20  and  then  30.  Finally  all 
the  spirits  blessed  me,  even  those  under  the  earth.  When  I  was 
ready  to  come  to  this  earth,  the  spirits  gathered  together  in  a  council- 
lodge  and  'counciled'  about  me.  All  the  spirits  were  present. 
They  told  me  that  I  would  never  fail  in  anything  that  I  wished  to 
do.  Then  they  decided  to  make  a  trial  of  my  powers.  They  placed 
an  invulnerable  spirit-grizzly  bear  at  one  end  of  the  lodge  and  sang 
the  songs  that  I  was  to  use  when  I  returned  to  earth.  Then  I  walked 
around  the  lodge  holding  a  live  coal  in  the  palm  of  my  hand  and 
danced  around  the  fireplace  saying  wahi-!  and  striking  the  hand 
containing  the  coal  with  my  other  hand.  The  invulnerable  bear 
fell  forward  prone  upon  the  ground  and  a  black  substance  flowed 

6  This  is  commonly  postulated  of  both  the  life  of  the  fishes  and  that  of  the  snakes. 

7  He  is  probably  referring  to  the  four  earths,  although  it  is,  of  course,  possible  that  there  were  four  heavens. 
However,  I  never  obtained  the  slightest  indication  of  such  a  belief. 


272  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

from  his  mouth.  Then  they  said  to  me,  'You  have  killed  him. 
Even  so  great  a  spirit  as  this  you  have  been  able  to  kill.  Indeed, 
nothing  will  ever  be  able  to  cross  your  path.'  Then  they  took  the 
'bear'  I  had  killed  and  cut  him  into  small  pieces  with  a  knife, 
piled  these  in  the  center  of  the  lodge,  and  covered  them  with  some 
dark  material.  'Now,'  they  said,  'you  must  again  try  your  powers.' 
I  asked  them  for  the  articles  that  I  would  have  to  use  and  they  gave 
me  a  flute  and  a  gourd.  Then  I  made  myself  holy.  All  those  who 
had  blessed  me  were  present.  I  walked  around  the  object  that  lay 
piled  up  in  the  center  of  the  lodge  and  breathed  upon  it.  This  I 
did  for  the  second  time  and  all  those  within  the  lodge  breathed 
together  with  me.  Four  times  I  did  this  and  then  the  spirit-grizzly 
bear  got  up  and  walked  away  in  the  shape  of  a  human  being.  'It 
is  good,'  they  said.  'He  has  restored  him  to  life  again.  Surely  he 
is  holy.'  After  a  while  they  said  to  me  again,  'Just  as  you  have 
done  here,  will  you  always  do  below.  Whenever  you  wish  to,  you 
will  be  able  to  kill  a  person  or  restore  him  to  life.  Most  assuredly 
you  have  been  blessed.' 

"Then  they  placed  a  black  stone  in  the  shamans'  lodge  that  stood 
above.  There  again  they  made  a  trial  of  my  powers.  There  I  blew 
four  times  on  the  stone  and  I  blew  a  hole  through  it.  For  that 
reason,  if  any  person  has  a  pain  and  he  lets  me  blow  upon  it,  I  can 
blow  it  away.  It  makes  no  difference  what  kind  of  a  pain  it  is.  My 
breath  was  made  holy  by  the  spirits. 

"The  spirits  on  the  earth  and  those  under  the  earth  also  gave  me 
a  trial  of  my  powers.  They  placed  an  old  rotten  log  before  me.  I 
breathed  upon  it  four  times,  and  spat  water  upon  it  and  it  got  up 
in  the  shape  of  a  human  being  and  walked  away. 

"My  ability  to  spit  water  upon  the  people  whom  I  am  treating  I 
received  from  an  eel,  from  the  chief  among  the  eels,  one  who  lives 
in  the  center  and  in  the  deepest  part  of  the  ocean.  He  is  absolutely 
white  and  he  is  the  one  who  blessed  me.  Whenever  I  spit  water  it 
is  inexhaustible,  because  it  comes  from  him,  the  eel. 

"Then  I  came  to  this  earth  again.  They,  the  spirits,  all  gave  me 
advice  before  I  left  them.  When  I  came  upon  this  earth  I  entered 
a  lodge  and  there  I  was  born  again.  As  I  said,'  I  thought  that  I  was 
entering  a  lodge,  but  in  reality  I  was  entering  my  mother's  womb. 
Even  in  my  prenatal  existence,  I  never  lost  consciousness.  Then  I 
grew  up  and  fasted  again  and  again,  and  all  those  spirits  who  had 
blessed  me  before  sent  me  their  blessings  again.  I  can  dictate  to  all 
the  spirits  that  exist.  Whatever  I  say  will  come  to  pass.  The 
tobacco  you  (the  patients)  offer  me  is  not  to  be  used  by  myself.  It 
is  really  intended  for  the  spirits. 

"Spirits,  a  person  is  sick  and  he  offers  me  tobacco.  I  am  on  earth 
to  accept  it  and  to  try  to  cure  him. 


eadin]  SHAMAXISTIC   AND   MEDICINAL   PRACTICES  273 

"' You  will  live  (this  is  addressed  to  the  patient),  so  help  yourself 
as  much  as  you  can  and  try  to  make  yourself  strong.  Now  as  I 
offer  this  tobacco  to  the  spirits  you  must  listen  and  if  you  know 
that  I  am  telling  the  truth,  you  will  be  strengthened  by  it.'" 

(What  follows  is  the  shaman's  offering  of  tobacco  to  the  spirits.) 

"  Han  ho!  Here  is  the  tobacco,  Fire.  You  promised  me  that  if  I 
offered  you  tobacco  you  would  grant  me  whatever  request  I  made. 
Now  I  am  placing  tobacco  on  your  head  as  you  told  me  to,  when  I 
fasted  for  four  days  and  you  blessed  me.  I  am  sending  you  the  plea 
of  a  human  being  who  is  ill.  He  wishes  to  live.  This  tobacco  is 
for  you  and  I  pray  that  the  one  who  is  ill  be  restored  to  health  within 
four  days. 

"To  you  too,  Buffalo,  I  offer  tobacco.  A  person  who  is  ill  is  offer- 
ing tobacco  to  you  and  asking  you  to  restore  him  to  health.  So  add 
that  power  which  I  obtained  from  you  at  the  time  I  fasted  for  six 
days  and  you  sent  your  spirits  after  me  who  took  me  to  your  lodge 
which  lies  in  the  center  of  this  earth  and  which  is  absolutely  white. 
There  you  blessed  me,  you  Buffaloes,  of  four  different  colors.  Those 
blessings  that  you  bestowed  upon  me  then,  I  ask  of  you  now.  The 
power  of  breathing  with  which  you  blessed  me,  I  am  in  need  of  now. 
Add  your  power  to  mine,  as  you  promised.  The  people  have  given 
me  plenty  of  tobacco  for  you. 

"To  you,  Grizzly-bear,  I  also  offered  tobacco.  At  a  place  called 
Pointed  Hill  lives  a  spirit  who  is  in  charge  of  a  ceremonial  lodge  and 
to  this  all  the  other  grizzly-bears  belong.  You  all  blessed  me  and 
you  said  that  I  would  be  able  to  kill  whomsoever  I  wished,  and  that 
at  the  same  time  I  would  be  able  to  restore  any  person  to  life.  Now, 
I  have  a  chance  to  enable  a  person  to  live  and  I  wish  to  aid  him.  So 
here  is  some  tobacco  for  you.  You  took  my  spirit  to  your  home  after 
I  had  fasted  for  ten  days  and  you  blessed  me  there.  The  powers 
with  which  you  blessed  me  there  I  ask  of  you  now.  Here  is  some 
tobacco,  grandfathers,  that  the  people  are  offering  to  you. 

"To  you,  the  Chief  of  the  Eels,  you  who  live  in  the  center  of  the 
ocean,  I  offer  tobacco.  You  blessed  me  after  I  had  fasted  for  eight 
days.  With  your  power  of  breathing  and  with  your  inexhaustible 
supply  of  water,  you  blessed  me.  You  told  me  that  I  could  use  my 
blessing  whenever  I  tried  to  cure  a  patient.  You  told  me  that  I  could 
use  all  the  water  hi  the  ocean,  and  you  blessed  me  with  all  the  things 
that  are  in  the  water.  A  person  has  come  to  me  and  asked  me  for 
life;  and  as  I  wish  him  to  live,  I  am  addressing  you.  When  I  spit 
upon  the  patient  may  the  power  of  my  saliva  be  the  same  as  yours. 
Therefore  I  offer  you  tobacco;  here  it  is. 

"To  you,  the  Turtle,  you  who  are  in  charge  of  a  shaman  lodge, 
you  who  blessed  me  after  I  had  fasted  seven  days  and  carried  my 
spirit  to  your  home,  where  I  found  many  birds  of  prey  (literally,  birds 


274  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

with  sharp  claws).  There  you  blessed  me  and  you  told  me  that 
should,  at  any  time,  any  human  being  have  a  pain  I  would  be  able 
to  drive  it  out  of  him.  For  that  reason  you  called  me  One-who- 
drives-out-pains.  Now  before  me  is  a  person  with  a  bad  pain  and  I 
wish  to  take  it  out  of  him.  That  is  what  the  spirits  told  me  when 
they  blessed  me,  before  I  came  down  to  earth.  Therefore  I  am 
going  to  heal  him.     Here  is  the  tobacco. 

"To  you,  who  are  in  charge  of  the  snake  lodge,  you  who  are  per- 
fectly white,  Rattlesnake,  I  pray.  You  blessed  me  with  your  rattles 
to  wrap  around  my  gourd  and  you  told  me  after  I  had  fasted  for 
four  days  that  you  could  help  me.  You  said  that  I  would  never  fail 
in  anything  that  I  attempted.  So  now,  when  I  offer  you  tobacco 
and  shake  my  gourd,  may  my  patient  live  and  may  life  (an  additional 
number  of  years)  be  opened  to  him.  That  is  what  you  promised  me, 
grandfather. 

"I  greet  you,  too,  Night  Spirits.  You  blessed  me  after  I  had  fasted 
for  nine  days,  and  you  took  my  spirit  to  your  village  which  lies  in  the 
east,  where  you  gave  me  your  flutes  which  you  told  me  were  holy. 
You  made  my  flute  holy  likewise.  For  these  I  ask  you  now,  for 
you  know  that  I  am  speaking  the  truth.  A  sick  person  has  come  to 
me  and  has  asked  me  to  cure  him;  and  because  I  want  him  to  live 
I  am  speaking  to  you.  You  promised  to  accept  my  tobacco  at  all 
times;  here  it  is. 

"To  you,  Disease-giver,  I  offer  tobacco.  After  I  had  fasted  two 
days  you  let  me  know  that  you  were  the  one  who  gives  diseases  and 
that  if  I  desired  to  heal  anyone  it  would  be  easy  for  me  to  do  so  were 
I  blessed  by  you.  So,  Disease-giver,  I  am  offering  you  tobacco,  and 
I  ask  that  this  sick  person  who  has  come  to  me  be  restored  to  health 
again  as  you  promised  when  you  bestowed  your  blessing  upon  me. 

"To  you,  Thunderbirds,  I  offer  tobacco  too.  When  you  blessed 
me  you  said  that  you  would  help  me  whenever  I  needed  you.  A 
person  has  come  to  me  and  asked  me  to  cure  him,  and  as  I  want  him 
to  live,  I  wish  to  remind  you  of  your  promise.  Grandfathers,  here 
is  some  tobacco. 

"To  you,  the  Sun,  I  offer  tobacco  too;  here  it  is.  You  blessed  me 
after  I  had  fasted  for  five  days  and  you  told  me  that  you  would  come 
to  my  aid  whenever  I  had  something  difficult  to  do.  Now,  someone 
has  come  to  me  and  pleaded  for  life,  and  he  has  brought  good  offerings 
of  tobacco  to  me  because  he  knows  that  you  have  blessed  me. 

"To  you,  grandmother,  the  Moon,  I  also  offer  tobacco.  You 
blessed  me  and  said  that  whenever  I  needed  your  power  you  would 
aid  me.  A  person  has  come  to  me  and  asked  for  life,  and  1  therefore 
call  upon  you  to  help  me  with  your  power  as  you  promised.  Grand- 
mother, here  is  some  tobacco. 


badin]  SHAMAXTSTIC   AND    MEDICINAL   PRACTICES  275 

"To  you,  grandmother,  the  Earth,  I  too  offer  tobacco.  You 
blessed  me  and  promised  to  help  me  whenever  I  needed  you.  You 
said  that  I  could  use  all  the  best  herbs  that  grow  upon  you,  and  that 
I  would  always  be  able  to  effect  cures  with  them.  Those  herbs  I  ask 
of  you  now,  and  I  ask  you  to  help  me  cure  this  sick  person.  Make 
my  medicine  powerful,  grandmother. 

"To  you,  Chief  of  the  Spirits,  I  offer  tobacco.  You  who  blessed 
me  and  said  that  you  would  help  me.  I  offer  you  tobacco  and  ask 
you  to  let  this  sick  person  live,  and  if  his  spirit  is  about  to  depart,  I 
ask  you  to  prevent  it. 

"I  offer  tobacco  to  all  of  you  who  have  blessed  me." 

Then  the  shaman  blew  upon  his  flute,  breathed  upon  the  sick  man 
and  sang  four  times.  Then  he  walked  around  the  lodge  and  spat 
water  upon  the  patient.  After  this  he  sang  four  times  and  stopped. 
The  spirits  would  now  let  him  know  whether  the  patient  was  to  live 
or  die. 

In  this  manner  a  shaman  treats  his  patients  for  four  days,  and  after 
that  takes  his  offerings  and  goes  away.  If  the  sick  person  happens 
to  recover,  the  shaman  would  tell  him  that  he  would  never  be  sick 
again. 

Thundercloud's  Fasting  Experience 

Then  he  (Thundercloud)  told  of  his  fasting  experience.  ''At 
the  very  beginning,  those  above  taught  me  (the  following).  A 
doctor's  village  existed  there;  and  all  the  various  spirits  that  lived 
up  in  the  clouds  came  after  me,  and  instructed  me  in  what  I  was 
to  do.  In  the  beginning  they  taught  me,  and  did  the  following  for 
me.  'Human,  let  us  try  it,'  they  said  to  me.  There,  in  the  middle 
of  the  lodge,  lay  a  dead,  rottening  log,  almost  completely  covered 
with  weeds.  There  they  tried  to  make  me  treat  (the  sick  person). 
Then  once  he  breathed,  and  all  those  that  were  in  the  lodge  also 
breathed;  then  the  second  time  he  breathed,  and  all  breathed  with 
him;  then  for  the  third  time  he  breathed;  and  then  for  the  fourth  time 
he  breathed.  ,  As  a  young  man  he,  the  dead  log,  arose  and  walked 
away.  After  the  fourth  breathing,  he  arose  and  walked  away. 
'Human,  very  holy  he  is,'  they  said  to  me. 

"There,  from  the  middle  of  the  ocean,  they  (the  spirits)  came 
after  me,  for  there,  in  the  middle  of  the  ocean,  is  a  shamans '  village. 
There  they  blessed  me — as  many  (spirits)  as  there  are  in  the  middle 
of  the  ocean — they  all  blessed  me.  There  they  made  me  try  my 
power.  As  many  waves  as  there  are,  all  of  them  as  large  as  the 
ocean,  they  asked  me  to  blow  upon;  and  as  I  blew  upon  them,  every- 
thing became  (as  quiet)  as  (water)  in  a  small  saucer.  So  it  became. 
Then  I  blew  for  the  third  time,  and  again  it  was  that  way.  The 
fourth  time  they  made  the  ocean  choppy,  and  had  (the  waves)  piled 


276  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

one  upon  the  other;  and  they  told  me  to  blow  again  and  show  my  power. 
And  I  blew,  and  the  ocean,  mighty  as  it  was,  became  quiet  again. 

"  'This,  human,  is  the  way  you  will  have  to  do,'  they  said  to  me. 
'Not  anything  will  there  be  that  you  can't  accomplish.  Whatever 
illness  all  (the  people)  may  have,  you  will  be  able  to  cure  it, '  they 
told  me.  All  those  who  are  on  earth  (the  spirits)  blessed  me.  'If 
any  human  being  who  has  suffered,  pours  tobacco  for  you,  then, 
whatever  you  demand,  that  we  will  do  for  you,'  they  said  to  me. 
At  Blue-Clay-Bank  (St.  Paul)  there  is  one  who  is  a  dancing  grizzly- 
bear  (spirit) ,  and  there  they  came  and  blessed  me.  If  ever  I  should 
meet  with  some  great  trouble,  they  would  help  me,  they  said.  I 
should  pour  as  much  tobacco  as  I  think  (necessary)  for  them,  and 
they  will  smoke  it,  they  told  me.  Songs  they  gave  to  me;  and  the 
power  of  beholding  them,  a  holy  thing,  they  permitted  me,  they  told 
me;  and  their  claws,  which  are  holy,  they  gave  to  me,  they  told 
me.  Then  the  grizzly-bears  danced,  performing  while  they  danced. 
Their  abdomen  they  would  tear  open,  and  making  themselves 
holy,  they  would  then  heal  themselves.  Then  they  did  it  again, 
and  shot  bear-claws  at  each  other,  and  they  were  badly  choking 
with  blood.  Then  they  made  themselves  holy,  and  cured  themselves. 
Now,  again,  they  did  the  following:  they  made  a  front  paw  disappear 
in  the  dirt,  and  after  a  while  they  pulled  out  a  prairie- turnip.  Then, 
again,  they  grabbed  a  hold  of  a  small  plum  tree  that  stood  there, 
and  breathed  upon  it,  and  shook  it,  and  many  plums  began  to  fall. 

"Then  all  sorts  of  'shells'  they  gave.  'All  of  this,  human,  we 
bless  you  with;  and  if  you  do  (what  we  desire),  you  will  obtain 
(what  you  desire),'  they  said.  Then  he  sang,  and  breathed  (upon 
me),  and  squirted  some  water  on  my  chest.  'Very  true  this  is; 
very  holy  it  is,  I  believe, '  he  said.  'You  will  get  well,'  he  said  to 
me." 


CHAPTER  XI 


RELIGION 
Introduction 


We  know  that  in  all  religions  there  are  two  factors  to  be  con- 
sidered— a  specific  feeling  and  certain  beliefs,  conceptions,  customs, 
and  acts  associated  with  that  f eeling ;  that  the  belief  most  inextricably 
connected  with  that  religious  feeling  is  the  one  in  spirits  more  power- 
ful than  man  and  controlling  everything  in  life  which  he  values. 

The  beliefs  themselves  play  an  important  part  with  all  people, 
but  the  importance  of  the  specific  feeling  varies  with  each  indi- 
vidual. A  perusal  of  the  fasting  experiences  (see  pp.  293-308)  will 
make  this  quite  clear.  It  is  because  we  do  Dot  separate  the  actions 
and  testimony  of  the  religious  man  from  that  of  the  intermittently 
religious  and  the  nonreligious  man  that  most  presentations  of  the 
subject  are  so  confused  and  vague.  It  is,  of  course,  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  the  real  attitude  of  the  intermittently  religious  and  the 
nonreligious  man,  because  it  is  the  religious  individual  and  leader  who 
gives  form  to  the  expressions  which  religion  assumes  in  ceremony 
and  prayer.  Yet  we  must  recognize  that  there  is  a  difference  and  that 
it  is  often  this  difference  that  accounts  for  certain  contradictions  in 
the  information  obtained.  The  one  place  where  it  is  possible,  at 
least  among  the  Winnebago,  to  obtain  some  idea  of  the  emotional 
make-up  and  attitude  of  the  intermittently  religious  man,  is  the 
fasting  ordeal,  and  from  a  comparison  of  those  experiences  it  is 
quite  clear  that  a  sufficiently  large  number  of  people  were  not  able 
to  obtain  that  thrill  which  they  had  been  taught  to  expect.  It  is  also 
clear  that  the  shamans  and  religious  leaders  recognized  this  fact 
and  provided  for  it  by  advising  such  people  to  buy  the  requisite 
protection  against  the  trials  and  misfortunes  of  life,  or  as  they  put 
it,  "the  crises  or  narrow  places  of  life."  Such  a  person  would 
certainly  not  be  regarded  as  one  of  the  leaders  of  the  tribe. 

The  ideal  that  the  parent  held  before  the  eyes  of  his  children  is 
quite  eloquently  put  in  the  system  of  instructions  (see  p.  166). 

My  son,  when  you  grow  up,  you  should  try  to  be  of  some  benefit  to  your  fellowmen. 
There  is  only  one  way  in  which  this  can  be  done,  and  that  is  to  fast  ...  If  you  thirst 
to  death,  the  spirits  who  are  in  control  of  wars  will  bless  you  .  .  .  But.  my  son.  if 
you  do  not  fast  repeatedly  it  will  be  all  in  vain  that  you  inflict  sufferings  upon  your- 

277 


278  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.37 

self.  Blessings  are  not  obtained  except  by  making  the  proper  offerings  to  the  spirits 
and  by  putting  yourself,  time  and  again,  in  the  proper  mental  condition  ...  If  you 
do  not  obtain  a  spirit  to  strengthen  you,  you  will  amount  to  nothing  in  the  estimation 
of  your  fellowmen,  and  they  will  show  you  little  respect  .  .  .  My  son,  as  you  travel 
along  life's  path,  you  will  find  many  narrow  passages  (i.  e.,  crises),  and  you  can  never 
tell  when  you  will  come  to  them.  Try  to  anticipate  them,  so  that  you  will  lie  en- 
dowed with  sufficient  strength  (by  obtaining  powers  from  the  spirits')  to  pass  safely 
through  these  narrow  passages. 

Among  the  Winnebago  religion  is  definitely  connected  with  the 
preservation  of  life  values.  It  is  not  a  phenomenon  distinct  from 
mundane  life,  but  one  of  the  most  important  means  of  maintaining 
social  ideals.  What  these  are  can  be  gleaned  from  practically  every 
prayer;  they  are  success,  happiness,  and  long  life.  The  vast  majority 
of  investigators  are  often  surprised  at  the  intense  religious  life  which, 
among  the  North  American  Indians,  exists  side  by  side  with  an 
intense  realism  and  with  a  clear  understanding  and  appreciation  of 
the  materialistic  basis  of  life.  The  explanation,  to  judge  from  the 
Winnebago  data,  is  simple  enough.  The  Indian  does  not  interpret 
life  in  terms  of  religion,  but  religion  in  terms  of  life.  In  other  words, 
he  exalts  the  world  around  him  and  the  multifarious  desires  and 
necessities  of  the  day,  so  that  they  appear  to  him  bathed  in  a  re- 
ligious thrill.  At  least  that  is  what  the  devoutly  religious  man 
does  and  most  of  the  religious  data  presented  in  this  volume  emanates 
from  him.  Still  we  are  convinced  that  for  the  vast  majority  of 
Winnebago,  in  other  words,  for  the  intermittently  religious,  there 
are  many  moments  in  hfe  and  many  actions  which  are  seen  through 
this  pleasurable  religious  thrill. 

Every  Winnebago  will  admit  that  to  perform  the  wanantce're  cere- 
mony (p.  Ill)  and,  on  the  following  day,  to  agree  to  start  at  a  certain 
hour,  would  not  necessarily  result  in  killing  a  bear.  The.  bear  tracks 
are  to  be  followed  and  a  person  is  to  persevere  until  the  bear  is 
captured,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  wanaHce're  ceremony  is  sup- 
posed to  insure  the  capture  of  the  animal. 

Or  again  let  us  take  the  following  example.  No  man  can  hope  to 
go  on  a  warpath  and  kill  an  enemy  unless  he  is  authorized  to  do  so 
by  a  definite  blessing  received  during  fasting.  If  we  were  to  accept 
this  statement  as  such,  we  might  be  led  to  believe  that  the  Winne- 
bago were  willing  to  risk  their  young  men  on  so  dangerous  an  under- 
taking as  a  warpath,  on  the  sole  strength  of  a  fasting  experience. 
It  does  not  stand  to  reason  that  they  would,  and  a  careful  hiquiry 
into  the  subject  has  shown  that  they  never  did.  What  actually 
happened  was  that  the  prospective  war  leader  translated  into  re- 
ligious terms  the  exact  conditions  and  requirements  of  every  par- 
ticular war  party.  That  is  why  the  chief  of  the  tribe  and  the  shamans 
insisted  that  only  such  a  person  who  had  been  blessed  with  the  most 
specific  kind  of  knowledge,  such  as  the  number  of  men  he  must  take 


radin]  RELIGION  279 

along,  the  amount  of  food  required,  the  number  of  moccasins  neces- 
sary, the  number  and  strength  of  the  enemy,  where  he  was  to  meet 
them,  etc. — that  only  such  a  man  might  start  on  a  warpath.  If  an 
individual  failed  to  give  the  proper  assurances  and  guarantees  to  the 
chief,  his  expedition  was  not  countenanced.  If,  nevertheless,  he 
went,  any  mishap  was  directly  chargeable  to  him. 

In  other  words,  we  are  dealing  here  with  a  more  or  less  fixed  way  of 
describing  the  mundane  happenings  of  life.  The  terminology  is 
religious,  but  does  that  mean  that  there  is  always  a  religious  feeling 
attached  to  it?  That  is  the  crucial  question  to  determine.  We 
believe  that  the  religious  element  in  such  a  happening  depends  upon 
the  religious  susceptibility  of  the  individual  concerned.  It  is  quite 
possible  that  a  devoutly  religious  man  may  think  of  the  religious  as- 
pect of  a  rite  or  action  more  than  one  who  is  but  indifferently  religious, 
but  he  will  never  for  one  moment  forget  that  the  questions  involved 
here  are  of  a  purely  human  nature.  The  most  that  can  be  said  of 
the  rehgious  element  of  the  two  particular  cases  mentioned  above 
is  that  they  will  spur  the  person  on.  Perhaps  it  is  the  realization 
that  such  is  the  case  that  often  prompts  the  more  matter-of-fact 
individuals  to  lay  such  stress  on  fasting  preparatory  to  starting  on 
a  warpath.  There,  indeed,  seems  to  have  been  a  matter-of-fact 
movement  in  the  tribe,  for  the  members  of  the  Warrior  clan  claimed 
that  they  could  dispense  with  the  fasting,  and  that  mere  membership 
in  that  particular  clan  gave  them  the  right  to  go  on  a  warpath  when- 
ever they  wished  to.  This  we  know  was  vigorously  denied  by  other 
individuals. 

The  Winnebago  has  no  disinterested,  unselfish  love  for  the  spirit 
or  deity  to  whom  he  prays,  except  in  so  far  as  every  man  is  likely  to 
develop  such  an  attitude  at  some  crisis  or  when  his  mind  is  fixed 
intently  on  the  attainment  of  some  personal  advantage.  Then, 
naturally  enough,  the  spirits  who  are  to  bestow  these  blessings  are 
addressed  in  the  most  laudatory  terms.  To  show  how  intimately 
these  spirits  are  bound  up  with  the  worldly  affairs  of  man  and  how 
little  they  mean  to  him  apart  from  this  we  have  but  to  point  out 
that,  for  the  vast  majority  of  Winnebago,  the  spirits'  freedom  of 
action  is  conceived  of  as  definitely  restricted.  There  seems  to  be  a 
purely  mechanical  relation  of  cause  and  effect  between  the  offerings 
of  men  and  their  acceptance  by  the  spirits.  The  latter  are  not  free  to 
reject  them  except  in  theory.  Was  it  not  ordained  by  Earthmaker, 
when  the  earth  was  created,  that  in  return  for  tobacco  the  spirits  were 
to  bestow  blessings  on  man?  So  every  Winnebago  believes.  The 
religious  leaders  insisted  that  only  when  the  proper  offerings  were 
made  in  the  proper  way  would  the  spirits  bestow  their  blessings. 
But  after  all  is  said  and  done,  the  chances  that  the  proper  conditions 
would  not  be  fulfilled  were  negligible      And  we  doubt  whether  this 


280  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.37 

rather  high  conception  was  shared  by  all  the  Winnebago.  Our 
impression  is  that  many  Winnebago  believed  the  offering  would 
be  mechanically  followed  by  the  blessing.  Take,  for  instance,  the 
following  example:  A  middle-aged  Winnebago  while  hunting  was 
suddenly  surprised  by  the  enemy.  He  succeeded  in  making  his 
escape  into  a  cave.  All  hope  of  final  delivery  seemed  to  be  gone,  for 
the  enemy  stationed  themselves  before  the  entrance.  Now  this  man 
had  never  been  blessed  in  his  youth  and  knew  little  about  the  proper 
procedure  to  observe  when  making  offerings  to  the  spirits.  Tn  this 
terrible  crisis  he  turned  instinctively  to  the  spirits.  He  took  some 
tobacco  and  put  some  in  the  different  nooks  of  the  cave,  and  said: 
"Spirits,  whoever  you  are,  and  wherever  you  are,  it  is  said  that  you 
love  tobacco  and  that  in  return  for  it  you  bless  people.  Here  is  some 
tobacco,  and  I  ask  that  I  may  return  to  my  people."  There  was,  as 
far  as  we  know,  no  promise  made  that  hi  return  he  would  make  fur- 
ther offerings  to  them  or  that  he  would  thereafter  love  them  and 
honor  them.  He  escaped  and  unquestionably  believed  that  it  was 
due  to  the  intervention  of  the  spirits,  but  the  spirits  were,  quite 
clearly,  constrained  to  act  because  they  had  received  tobacco. 

There  can  be  little  doubt  that  many  Winnebago  felt  as  this  man  did. 
We  find  an  expression  of  the  same  attitude  in  a  myth.  The  Winne- 
bago are  represented  as  making  offerings  to  the  buffalo  spirits,  and 
the  smoke  is  ascending  to  the  home  of  these  spirits  through  a  hole  in 
the  sky.  The  younger  buffalos  can  not  resist  the  temptation  of 
approaching  the  opening  to  catch  a  few  whiffs  of  their  favorite 
tobacco.  They  are  thereupon  warned  by  the  older  buffalos  not  to 
go  too  close,  for  the  tobacco  fumes  might  tempt  them  too  strongly; 
and  should  they  succumb  to  the  temptation  and  accept  the  offer- 
ings, they  would  then  have  to  appear  on  earth  and  be  killed  by  man. 
As  might  have  been  expected,  there  is  in  the  relation  of  the  spirits 
to  man  something  similar  to  the  securing  of  the  food  animal  by  some 
such  ceremony  as  the  ivanankere.  The  spirits  are  dazzled,  hypnotized 
by  the  offerings,  and  accept. 

In  the  second  of  the  examples  given  above  we  were  dealing  with  a 
food  animal — -the  buffalo.  If  there  is  any  plausibility  hi  the  explana- 
tion we  advanced  before  that  the  Whmebago  interprets  religion  in 
terms  of  life,  the  relation  of  the  spirits  to  the  food  supply  ought  to 
show  it.  Now,  it  is  characteristic  of  the  Whmebago  religion  that 
the  great  generalized  spirit  deities,  like  Earthmaker,  Sun,  Moon,  etc., 
have  little  to  do  with  the  securing  of  specific  kinds  of  food.  As  a  rule, 
some  generalized  spirit-animal  presides  over  the  various  species  of 
animals,  and  he  gladly  permits  the  animals  to  appear  on  earth  to  be 
killed  by  man  when  the  proper  offerings  are  made.  This  seems  to 
have  been  a  secondary  interpretation,  however,  developed  probably 
under  the  influence  of  the  shamans  as  a  substitute  for  the  purely 
mechanical  attitude  mentioned  above.     To  picture  the  food  animals 


Radin]  RELIGION  281 

as  desirous  of  being  killed  and  eaten  by  man  is,  however,  but  another 
way  of  saying  that  the  food  animals  were  killed  and  eaten,  and  were 
secondarily  and  weakly  brought  into  the  general  religious  life, 
because  everything  was  seen  through  a  religious  vista.  It  is  by  no 
means  certain  that  this  was  always  the  case,  and  there  seem  to  be 
innumerable  indications  in  the  myths  that  there  was  a  time  when 
the  securing  of  the  food  animals  was  not  connected  with  religion  as 
such. 

Just  as  the  securing  of  food  animals  is  to-day  connected  with  cer- 
tain spirits,  so  are  the  various  activities  of  man  during  his  life.  But 
characteristically  it  is  not  a  generalized  conception  of  life,  but  life 
as  consisting  of  a  prescribed  number  of  years,  with  so  many  war 
honors,  so  much  wealth,  so  much  food  consumed,  so  many  children, 
etc.  The  spirits  are  exhorted  to  give  to  every  man  his  allotted  num- 
ber of  years,  food,  etc.  These  are  apparently  his  by  right,  and  if  he 
dies  before  his  time  the  ghost  of  the  deceased  is  asked  to  beg  the 
spirits  to  distribute  among  his  relatives  the  "unused"  years,  food, 
etc.  So  here,  too,  we  have  a  clear  example  of  the  explanation  of 
purely  materialistic  conception  of  life  in  terms  of  religion. 

It  will  be  best  to  discuss  the  main  features  of  Winnebago  religion 
under  the  following  heads : 

I.  The  religious  concepts: 

1 .  The  concept  of  supernatural  power. 

2.  The  concept  and  nature  of  the  spirits. 

3.  The  power  and  localization  of  the  spirits. 

II :  1 .  The  twofold  interpretation  of  the  rela  tion  of  the  spirits  to  man. 

2.  The  guardian  spirits. 

3.  Personal  religious  experiences. 

III.  Methods  of  bringing  the  spirits  into  relation  with  man: 

1.  Fasting. 

2.  Mental  concentration. 

4.  Offerings  and  sacrifices. 

5.  Prayers. 

IV.  The  folkloristic  concepts: 

1 .  The  concept  of  evil. 

2.  The  concept  of  disease. 

3.  The  concepts  of  death,  after-life,  and  reincarnation. 

4.  The  concept  of  the  soul. 

V.  The  cosmological  ideas. 

The  Concept  of  Supernatural  Power  ' 

The  Winnebago  have  no  such  belief  in  a  "magic  power"  as  Mr. 
J.  N.  B.  Hewitt  and  Mr.  W.  Jones  would  have  us  believe  exists  among 

1  For  a  general  discussion  of  this  concept  in  North  America  cf.  my  paper  on  the  "  Religion  of  the  North 
American  Indians,"  Journal  of  American  Folklore,  vol.  27,  no.  106,  pp.  344-351. 

186823°— 22 19 


282  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  an.n.  37 

the  Iroquois  and  Fox.2  In  the  article  mentioned  above  we  have 
given  our  reasons  for  believing  that  these  ethnologists  were  mistaken 
in  their  interpretation. 

In  the  Winnebago  language  the  four  words  most  commonly  used 
in  speaking  of  the  spirits  are  wdk'an,  waJc'a'ndja,  xop,  and  waxop'i'ni. 
Wak'an  seems  exactly  equivalent  to  our  word  "sacred,"  while 
wal'a'ndja,  which  is  identical  with  the  Omaha  word  wakonda, 
means  thunderbird.  In  all  likelihood  it  originally  meant  "he  who 
is  sacred  "  or  something  like  that.  It  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  word 
"thunder,"  which  is  lceoire  in  Winnebago.  The  word  wak'an  also 
means  snake,  for  the  snake  is  a  holy  animal  among  the  Winnebago, 
the  messenger  of  the  spirits.  The  word  xop,  identical  with  the 
Omaha  xube,  is  more  difficult  to  define.  It  means  sacred  and  awe- 
inspiring  and  seems  to  be  associated,  in  the  eyes  of  the  Winnebago, 
with  the  intensely  emotional  aspects  of  religion,  where  self  is  com- 
pletely forgotten.  Those  ceremonies,  in  which  the  performers  work 
themselves  into  a  frenzy  of  excitement  and  dance  naked,  are  always 
referred  to  as  x( p.  The  word  waxop'i'ni  is  clearly  a  noun  compounded 
of  the  indefinite  prefix  wa-  and  the  suffix  -ni,  which  possibly  is  an 
old  agentive  nominalizer,  or,  more  probably,  an  old  stem  meaning 
"man."  It  occurs  also  in  the  word  manka'ni,  medicine-man.  In 
other  words  it  means  "he  who"  or  "that  which  is  holy."  Waxop'i'ni 
is  the  only  Winnebago  word  for  spirit.  Both  the  words  wak'andja 
and  waxop'i'ni  are  very  definite  terms  referring  to  individualized 
spirits. 

As  to  the  use  of  the  adjectives  wak'a71  and  xop,  there  seems  to  be 
little,  mystery  about  them.  They  are  used  much  as  our  words 
"holy"  and  "sacred."  Anything  in  any  way  connected  with  the 
spirits  is  either  wak'a?1  or  xop.  If  a  Winnebago  were  to  come  across 
some  unusually  shaped  object  he  might  offer  tobacco  to  it,  and  upon 
being  questioned  he  would  undoubtedly  say  that  the  object  is  wak'an. 
What  is  it  that  he  means  by  wak'a71^.  From  my  experience  in  the 
field  he  simply  means  that  it  is  "sacred,"  and  if  pressed  for  a  more 
definite  answer  he  would  probably  say  that  it  has  the  power  of 

3  According  to  Mr.  Hewitt,  nrenda  is  a  "magic  power  which  was  assumed  ...  to  be  inherent  in  every 
body  .  .  .  and  in  every  personified  attribute,  property,  or  activity  .  .  .  This  hypothetic  principle  was 
conceived  to  be  immaterial,  occult,  impersonal,  mysterious  in  mode  of  action  .  .  .  The  possession  of 
orcntia  .  .  .  is  the  distinctive  characteristic  of  all  the  gods,  and  these  gods  in  earlier  time  were  all  the  bodies 
ami  beings  of  nature  in  any  manner  affecting  the  weal  or  woe  of  man."  ( Article  "Orenda"  in  the  Hand- 
book of  American  Indians,  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology,  Bulletin  30,  pt.  2.)  According  to  W.  Jones, 
the  manito  "is  an  unsystematic  belief  in  a  cosmic,  mysterious  property,  which  is  believed  to  be  existing 
everywhere  in  nature  .  .  .  The  conception  of  this  something  wavers  between  that  of  a  communicable 
property,  that  of  amobile,invisililesubstance,and  that  of  a  latent  transferable  energy;  .  .  .  this  substance, 
property,  or  energy  is  conceived  as  being  widely  diffused  amongst  natural  objects  and  human  beings  .  .  . 
the  presence  of  it  is  promptly  assigned  as  the  explanation  of  any  unusual  power  or  efficacy  which  any 
object  or  person  is  found  to  possess:  ...  It  is  a  distinct  and  rather  abstract  conception  of  a  diffused,  all- 
pervasive,  invisible,  manipulable,  and  transferable  life-energy,  or  universal  force  .  .  .  (Finally)  all  success, 
strength,  or  prosperity  is  conceived  to  depend  upon  the  possession  of  (this  force)." — "The  Algonkin  Mani- 
tou"  (Journal  of  American  Folklore,  vol.  18,  no.  lxx,  pp.  183-190,  1905). 


radin]  RELIGION  283 

bestowing  blessings  upon  him — in  other  words,  of  acting  like  a  spirit, 
a  waxop'i'ni.  That  is  why  he  offers  tobacco  to  it.  We  would  be 
inclined  to  say  that  the  individual  finding  such  an  object  has  created 
a  new  spirit.  Such  a  new  spirit  may  be  forever  confined  to  the  par- 
ticular family  to  which  the  individual  belongs.  It  might  die  with 
him,  or,  on  the  other  hand,  it  might  acquire  great  importance  and 
popularity  and  become  a  tribal  spirit.  What  seems  to  have  happened, 
in  the  vast  majority  of  cases,  however,  among  the  Winnebago,  is 
that  owing  to  the  marked  development  of  the  spirit-deities  and  cos- 
mogonic  myths,  such  "sacred"  objects  were  interpreted  as  being 
either  some  manifestation  of  a  spirit,  some  transformation  which  he 
had  assumed,  or  as  inhabited  by  a  spirit. 

The  reason  why,  in  our  opinion,  so  many  ethnologists  have  ap- 
parently misinterpreted  the  nature  of  wal~'an  is  due  to  the  fact  that 
when  something  that,  from  the  European  viewpoint,  is  immaterial 
and  inanimate,  like  vapor,  light,  movement,  etc.,  is  called  v:ak'an, 
then  it  seems  difficult  for  them  to  imagine  that  it  can  be  so  except 
by  virtue  of  some  intimate  connection  with  a  definite  spirit,  and  if 
that  can  not  be  demonstrated,  then  the  only  solution  left  is  to  fall 
back  upon  the  "magic  power"  idea.  By  doing  this  they  clearly  show 
that  for  them  the  test  of  individualization  is  corporeality  of  a  fairly 
definite  kind,  dependent  mainly  upon  visual  sensations.  This 
brings  us  to  a  fundamental  problem,  not  only  for  Winnebago  re- 
ligion, but  for  North  American  religion  in  general. 

The  Concept  and  Nature  of  the  Spirits 

Those  Indians  who  have  never  spent  any  time  thinking  upon  the 
nature  of  spirits  can  not  truly  be  said  to  have  any  concept  of  their 
nature,  whether  vague  or  definite.  They  simply  repeat  what  they 
have  heard  from  the  more  religiously  inclined.  An  answer  prompted 
by  a  moment's  consideration,  as  is  often  the  case  when  an  ethnologist 
interrogates  them,  does  not  necessarily  reflect  the  current  view  of 
the  subject,  nor,  for  that  matter,  even  the  same  Indian's  belief 
after  he  has  given  the  matter  some  thought.  Many  Winnebago, 
with  whom  the  author  was  fairly  well  acquainted,  refused  to  answer 
certain  questions  offhand  and  asked  for  time  to  reflect  about  them. 
It  seems  justified,  when  we  are  studying  a  subject  like  religion,  to 
ask  for  information  from  those  who  have,  in  all  probability,  formu- 
lated the  beliefs — the  shamans'.  It  is  from  them  that  we  must 
strive  to  learn  whether  the  spirits  are  conceived  of  as  anthropo- 
morphic, theromorphic,  dream-phantasms,  or  indefinite  entities  in 
general. 

In  trying  to  discover  this  the  author  found,  not  only  that  he  was 
asking  a  leading  question,  but  that  he  was  asking  an  unnecessary 
question.     It  was  soon  quite  clear  that  the  Winnebago  did  not 


284  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

base  their  test  of  the  existence  of  a  spirit  on  the  presence  or  absence 
of  corporeality;  in  other  words,  upon  such  sense  perceptions  as  sight 
and  hearing.  It  is  because  we  Europeans  do  insist  that  the  presence 
or  absence  of  corporeality  is  the  test  of  reality  or  unreality  that  we 
have  been  led  to  make  the  classification  into  personal  and  imper- 
sonal. But  the  Winnebago  apparently  does  not  insist  that  existence 
depends  upon  sense  perceptions  alone.  He  claims  that  what  is 
thought  of,  what  is  felt,  and  what  is  spoken,  in  fact,  anything  that 
is  brought  before  his  consciousness,  is  a  sufficient  indication  of  its 
existence  and  it  is  the  question  of  the  existence  and  reahty  of  these 
spirits  in  which  he  is  interested.  The  question  of  their  corporeality 
is  of  comparative  unimportance  and  most  of  the  questions  connected 
with  the  personal  or  impersonal  nature  of  the  spirits  do  not  exist. 

It  is  clear  that  if  comparatively  little  stress  has  been  laid  by  the 
Winnebago  on  the  personahty  of  the  spirits,,  it  will  be  difficult  to 
define  them  precisely  except  by  their  names,  by  their  attributes,  and 
by  the  nature  of  the  blessings  which  they  bestow  on  man.  What 
seems  to  stand  out  most  prominently  in  the  attitude  of  the  Winnebago 
toward  their  spirits  is  the  intense,  belief  in  the  reality  of  their  exist- 
ence, which  is  due  first  to  what  might  be  called  the  "emotional 
authority"  for  their  existence,  and  secondly,  to  the  fact  that  the  life 
values  of  man  are  intensely  real  and  the  spirits  are  theoretically  in 
control  of  these  life  values. 

To  the  average  Winnebago  the  world  is  peopled  by  an  indefinite 
number  of  spirits  who  manifest  their  existence  in  many  ways,  being 
either  visible,  audible,  felt  emotionally,  or  manifesting  themselves 
by  some  sign  or  result.  From  a  certain  point  of  view,  all  the  spirits 
demonstrate  their  existence  by  the  result,  by  the  fact  that  the  bless- 
ings they  bestow  upon  man  enable  him  to  be  successful,  and  this  holds 
just  as  much  for  the  spirit  who  manifests  himself  in  the  most  in- 
tangible, emotional  manner  as  for  that  one  who  is  visible  to  man. 

In  all  those  areas  where  a  well-developed  ritualistic  organization 
exists  a  fairly  large  number  of  theromorphic  and  anthropomorphic, 
spirits  is  found.  In  many  cases  these  are  real  deities.  This  is  true 
for  the  Winnebago.  Exactly  how  definite  and  distinct  this  thero- 
morphic and  anthropomorphic  nature  of  the  spirits  is  will  depend 
largely  on  the  individual  history  that  the  spirit  has  undergone. 
Where  tricksters  and  animal  heroes  have  become  spirits  or  deities 
their  theromorphic  nature  is  marked.  Other  deities,  like  Earth- 
maker,  Disease-giver,  the  Thunderbirds,  etc.,  have  become  markedly 
anthropomorphic,  owing  to  the  reinterpretations  and  remodeling  of 
the  shamans.  Often  enough  the  reinterpretations  are  not  thorough 
and  we  find  deities  of  an  apparently  mixed  type. 

Those  who  care  to  get  a  detailed  description  of  the  various  deities 
of  the  Winnebago  should  read  the  various  prayers  found  in  such 


radin]  RELIGION  285 

ceremonies  as  the  war-bundle  feasts,  buffalo  dance,  sore-eye  dance, 
etc.     We  will  enumerate  but  a  few  of  them  here. 

The  principal  deities  of  the  Winnebago  are:  Earthmaker,  Sun, 
Moon,  Earth,  Morning  Star,  Disease-giver,  Thunderbird,  Water- 
spirit,  etc. 

Earthmaker. — He  is  known  to  the  Wimiebago  under  three  names: 
Ma^'una,  earthmaker;  wajangvnzera,  he-who-makes-something ;  and 
waxopi'ni  xedera,  the  great  spirit.  Of  these  the  last  is  the  most 
archaic,  which  might  imply  that  originally  Earthmaker  was  merely 
the  great  spirit.  In  the  hands  of  the  shamans,  to  whom  the  develop- 
ment and  elaboration  of  the  great  Winnebago  ceremonies  like  the 
medicine  dance  and  the  war-bundle  feasts  were  due,  he  became 
almost  a  true  monotheistic  deity,  benevolent  but  unapproachable. 
In  the  older  myths,  like  the  trickster  and  hero  cycles  (cf.  for  instance, 
the  wak'djvijl'aga  and  hare  cycle),  he  is  hardly  mentioned  except 
as  a  clear  afterthought.  In  another  cycle,  like  that  of  the  twins, 
where  he  is  definitely  mentioned,  he  is  treated  like  a  spirit  similar 
to  the  other  spirits,  although  superior  to  them,  but  in  no  way  re- 
sembling the  benevolent  deity  that  we  find  in  the  origin  myth  of 
the  medicine  dance  (p.  350).  How  and  when  this  development  took 
place,  and  whether  the  introduction  of  Christianity  had  anything 
to  do  with  it,  it  is  difficult  to  say.  All  indications  seem  to  be  over- 
whelmingly against  the  latter  assumption,  although  it  can  not  be 
entirely  dismissed.  As  we  have  indicated  in  a  previous  paper,3 
there  appears  to  have  been  a  well-developed  pre-Columbian  belief 
in  a  good  and  bad  spirit  among  the  woodland  Indians.  The  Winne- 
bago shared  in  this  belief  and  Earthmaker  developed  his  present 
position  through  the  displacement  of  the  chief  bad  spirit  called 
Herecgunina. 

The  older  conception  of  Earthmaker  seems  to  crop  out  also  in  the 
occasional  attempts  of  individuals  to  obtain  blessings  from  him. 
(Cf.  the  tale  of  Wegi'ceka,  p.  291.) 

Little  can  be  learned  as  to  the  actual  appearance  of  Earthmaker 
In  the  origin  myth  of  the  medicine  dance  he  is  described  as  though 
he  were  clearly  anthropomorphic.  The  symbol  associated  with  him 
in  the  war-bundle  feasts,  the  cross,  is  unquestionably  supposed  to 
represent  the  four  cardinal  points. 

Earthmaker  is  not  supposed  to  bestow7  any  definite  blessings  on 
man.  He  is,  in  a  general  waj*,  expected  to  give  them  life.  There 
is  but  little  real  worship  of  him  because  he  is  far  removed  from  man 
and  is  supposed  to  come  into  relation  with  them  only  through  his 
intermediaries,  the  spirits.     According  to  the  cosmological  myths  ho 

3  The  Religion  of  the  North  American  Indians,  Journ.  Am.  Folklore,  vol.  27,  no.  106. 


'286  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  aun.  37 

created  everything  with  the  definite  purpose,  of  benefiting  mankind 
in  contrast  to  the  creative  acts  of  the  old  Trickster.  It  is  very  instruc- 
tive to  notice  how  he  gradually  usurped  the  place  formerly  held  by 
the  older  spirit-deities  and  clan  ancestors.  In  the  clan  origin  myths 
there  are  a  number  of  versions  where  he  directs  certain  spirit  animals, 
the  ancestors  of  the  clan,  to  go  down  to  earth,  while  in  other  appar- 
ently older  versions  nothing  is  said  of  him. 

Sun. — The  sun  is  known  to  the  Winnebago  generally  as  hanbunra, 
orb  of  day,  and  ceremonially  as  Jianboradjera,  day-wanderer.  He 
does  not  occupy  to-day  the  position  he  formerly  held.  There  are  a 
number  of  indications  that  seem  to  point  to  the  fact  that  his  worship 
diminished  when  that  of  Earthmaker  began  to  assert  itself.  Many 
of  his  functions  and  powers  were  likewise  taken  over  by  the  Thunder- 
birds,  who,  although  they  distinctly  belong  to  the  older  strata  of 
Winnebago  beliefs,  have  yet  assumed  their  present  importance  appar- 
ently in  connection  with  the  development  of  the  Earthmaker  belief. 

The  sun  is  occasionally  spoken  of  in  myths,  but  rarely  as  a  culture 
hero.  In  only  one  myth  collected  was  he  the  hero  of  the  myth. 
There  he  appears  as  the  husband  of  the  moon  and  as  an  anthro- 
pomorphic being  who  possesses  an  all-powerful  disk  (the  sun). 

Offerings  are  frequently  made  to  him,  but  he  rarely  blesses  an 
individual.  In  other  words,  he  is  not  a  true  guardian  spirit.  He 
only  blesses  men  and  upon  them  he  always  confers  success  in  war. 

Moon. — The  moon,  like  the  sun,  probably  formerly  occupied  a 
more  important  place  in  the  Winnebago  pantheon.  She  is  a  female 
deity  and  blesses  women,  although,  like  the  sun,  she  is  not  a  true 
guardian  spirit. 

Earth. — Earth,  like  the  moon,  is  a  female  deity.  She  is  one  of  the 
oldest  deities  of  the  Winnebago  and  appears  as  the  grandmother  in 
some  of  the  oldest  myth  cycles,  like  that  of  the  hare.  Offerings  are 
made  to  her  at  the  various  ceremonies,  particularly  at  the  medicine 
dance  and  the  war-bundle  feasts.  She  never  appears  as  a  guardian 
spirit. 

The  earth  is  one  of  the  deities  who  has  received  considerable  rein- 
terpretation  at  the  hands  of  the  shamans.  In  the  myths  she  is  a 
purely  folk-mythological  figure  in  no  way  interested  in  furthering 
she  welfare  of  mankind.  On  the  contrary,  she  is  spoken  of  as  the 
tister  of  those  bad  spirits  who  are  bent  on  destroying  the  human 
race.  Her  role  as  a  beneficent  deity  probably  developed  in  connection 
with  that  of  the  hare,  her  grandchild,  according  to  the  old  folklore 
notions,  transformed  when  he  became  associated  with  the  founding  of 
the  medicine  dance  or  its  older  Winnebago  predecessor  from  a  typical 
trickster  to  an  heroic  animal  deity. 

Morning  Star. — This  is  one  of  the  spirits  belonging  to  the  older 
strata  of  Winnebago  beliefs,  who  apparently  was  not  displaced  by 


badin]  RELIGION  287 

the  newer  deities.  He  is  both  a  great  deity  and  a  guardian  spirit. 
That  he  developed  out  of  the  indefinite  "folklore-spirits"  is  abun- 
dantly attested  by  the  r6le  he  plays  in  the  myths. 

Morning  Star  is  preeminently  associated  with  war. 

Disease-giver. — This  is  but  an  approximate  translation  of  his  name 
in  Winnebago,  which  is  hocere£un  wahira.  He  is  a  very  pecidiar 
figure,  being  described  as  an  anthropomorphic  figure,  dealing  out 
death  from  one  side  of  his  body  and  life  from  the  other.  He  is  pre- 
eminently a  guardian  spirit  who  only  appears  to  the  bravest  and 
holiest  f  asters.  His  specific  blessings  seem  to  be  connected  with  war 
and  the  curing  of  disease. 

He  appears  in  none  of  the  myths  and  in  but  few  of  the  ceremonies. 
He  plays  a  very  important  role  in  the  war-bundle  feasts. 

It  is  rather  difficult  to  explain  his  origin.  He  seems  hardly  to  be  a 
deity  of  the  people  and  can  best  be  understood,  it  seems,  if  we  regard 
him  as  largelv  a  construction  of  the  shaman.  Certain  of  his  char- 
acteristics  may  have  been  borrowed  from  some  neighboring  tribe. 

Thunderbird. — Thunderbird  is  another  of  the  older  folkloristic  con- 
ceptions that  has  been  remodeled  and  reinterpreted  by  the  shamans. 
He  might  be  said  to  be  the  most  popular  of  Winnebago  deities.  He 
is  found  everywhere — in  the  oldest  myths,  the  clan  origin  myths, 
and  the  newest  myths;  he  is  a  clan  ancestor,  a  popular  guardian 
spirit,  and  a  popular  deity.  In  contradistinction  to  practically  all 
of  the  other  deities,  he  is  regarded  as  easily  approachable  by  man. 

To  the  popular  mind  he  is  distinctly  theromorphic  in  form,  causing 
lightning  by  the  flashes  of  his  eyes  and  thunder  by  the  flapping  of 
his  wings.  In  some  of  the  versions  of  the  clan  origin  myth  we  still 
find  this  conception.  In  the  hands  of  the  shamans  he  became  an 
anthropomorphic  deity,  characterized  by  baldness  and  the  wearing 
of  bay  wreathes.  Something  of  the  older  conception  still  clings  to 
him,  howTever,  for  he  frequently  acts  as  a  bird  and  the  flashing  of  his 
eyes  still  causes  lightning.  His  baldness  itself  is  an  archaic  feature, 
because  the  Thunderbird  originally  was  supposed  to  be  a  kind  of 
eagle. 

Many  representations  of  th«  Thunderbird  can  be  found  on  various 
articles  and  in  the  effigy  mounds. 

He  blesses  men  with  practically  everything,  but  particularly  with 
victory  on  the  warpath. 

Water-spirit. — The  meaning  of  the  Winnebago  word  for  this  deity, 
wak'tcexi,  is  unknown.  The  translation  "Water-spirit"  does  not 
claim  to  have  anything  to  do  with  the  real  meaning  of  the  word,  but 
it  was  preferred  by  the  Winnebago  because  this  deity  is  always  pic- 
tured as  a  water  monster. 

He  is  one  of  the  older  folkloristic  conceptions  and  has  not  been 
very  greatly  reinterpreted  by  the  shamans.     The  Thunderbird  is  sup- 


288  THE    WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.  37 

posed  to  be  at  eternal  enmity  with  him,  and  for  that  reason  he  is 
regartled  by  most  of  the  Winnebago  as  a  sort  of  a  mixed  deity,  partly 
evil  and  partly  good,  but  always  to  be  feared  and  capable  of  bestow- 
ing great  blessings  on  man.  Owing  to  the  fact  that  he  has  become 
identified  as  the  clan  ancestor  of  one  of  the  most  important  Winne- 
bago clans,  he  has  undergone  a  partial  rehabilitation. 

The  Water-spirit  is  an  important  figure  in  the  older  myths,  and  in 
them  seems  to  be  identified  with  the  bad  spirits.  The  attitude  of  the 
Winnebago  toward  him  is  full  of  inconsistencies.  He  is  evil,  yet  Ins 
"bones"  are  the  most  prized  possessions  of  man  on  account  of  the 
remarkable  power  with  which  they  are  endowed.  He  is  an  evil 
spirit,  yet  according  to  an  apparently  old  myth  (the  Traveler)  one 
of  the  Water-spirits  is  the  spirit  deity  in  control  of  the  earth. 

In  addition  to  these  marked  anthropomorphic  and  theromorphic 
spirit  deities,  the  Winnebago,  as  mentioned  before,  have  a  large  num- 
ber of  vague  spirits,  like  fire,  light,  etc.,  and  a  legion  of  animal  spirits. 
The  latter  show  some  interesting  transitions  extending  all  the  way 
from  purely  nonspirit  heroic  animals  to  distinct  spirits,  conceived  of 
as  animal  in  shape  but  noncorporeal.  In  many  cases  it  is,  of  course, 
quite  impossible  to  say  how  marked  the  "spirit"  nature  of  the  ani- 
mal is,  because  it  often  depends  on  who  is  looking  at  it.  To  the 
ordinary  nonreligious  Winnebago  the  hare  is  mainly  an  heroic  animal; 
to  the  religious  Winnebago  or  a  member  of  the  medicine  dance  he  is  a 
spirit-animal  or  even  a  spirit-deity.  In  the  same  way  different  con- 
ceptions are  held  about  the  nature  of  the  animal  clan  ancestors, 
some  thinking  of  them  as  heroic  animals  and  others  as  generalized 
noncorporeal  spirit-animals  and  spirit-deities.  Wherever  guardian 
spirits  are  animals  they  also  become  noncorporeal  spirit-animals. 
One  of  the  reasons  given  by  the  Winnebago  for  the  fact  that  the 
different  guardian  spirit>animals  do  not  object  to  the  killing  of  ani- 
mals of  their  own  species  is  because,  in  killing  a  bear  a  Winnebago  is 
not  killing  his  guardian  spirit,  the  bear,  for  the  latter  is  a  generalized 
spirit-bear  in  control  of  all  the  bears  who  appear  on  earth. 

In  a  number  of  cases  it  is  not  at  all  difficult  to  trace  the  develop- 
ment of  a  trickster  hero,  an  anthropomorphic  hero,  or  an  heroic 
animal,  into  a  spirit  to  whom  offerings  are  made.  Thus,  for  instance, 
kettles  and  often  buckskins  are  offered  to  wak'djvyTe'a'ga,  hare,  and 
the  twins,  at  the  war-bundle  feasts. 

The  Power  and  Localization  of  the  Spirits 

According  to  the  Winnebago,  spirits  possess  the  power  of  bestowing 
upon  man  all  those  things  that  are  of  socio-economic  value  to  him. 
These  may  vary  from  such  very  important  economic  things  as  ram 


radin]  RELIGION  289 

or  success  on  the  warpath  to  the  most  insignificant  trifles.  Practi- 
cally any  spirit,  no  matter  how  indefinitely  conceived,  can  bestow 
generalized  blessings.  On  the  whole,  however,  these  powers  are  con- 
ceived of  as  being  in  the  hands  of  a  comparatively  small  number, 
and  the  same  powers  are  frequently  possessed  by  different  spirits. 
This  will  become  clear  after  a  careful  perusal  of  the  fasting  experi- 
ences. 

As  to  the  prevalence  of  the  belief  hi  the  localization  of  spirits,  not 
only  among  the  Winnebago  but  over  all  North  America,  there  can 
no  longer  be  any  doubt.  Among  the  Winnebago  there  are  as  many 
spirits  as  there  are  lakes,  hills,  rivers,  etc.,  and  all  these  are  looked 
upon  from  two  points  of  view,  first  as  the  bestowers  of  certain  bless- 
ings and,  secondly,  as  the  protectors  of  their  own  precincts.  In  the 
first  case  they  are  generally  identical  with  the  guardian  spirits.  In 
the  second  case  they  are  simply  vague,  indistinct  spirits  to  whom 
offerings  are  made  for  temporary  protection.  So  when  a  Winnebago 
crossed  a  river  or  lake  he  poured  tobacco  into  the  water  as  a  recom- 
pense for  trespassing,  and  uttered  the  prayer  that  no  storms  should 
arise  or  that  he  should  not  come  to  grief. 

As  to  whether  the  spirits  here  are  the  lakes,  rivers,  hills,  etc.,  or 
some  being  inhabiting  them,  the  answer  is,  unquestionably  the  latter. 

The  Twofold  Interpretation  of  the  Relation  of  the  Spirits 

to  Man 

We  mentioned  before  (p.  279)  that  the  interpretation  of  the  rela- 
tionship between  the  spirits  and  man  was  largely  mechanical,  bless- 
ings being  secured  apparently  independent  of  any  volition  on  the 
part  of  the  spirits,  for  if  the  Winnebago  make  the  requisite  offer- 
ings to  the  Thunderbirds  they  must  accept  them  and  bestow  on  the 
suppliant  the  powers  they  possess.  While  this  interpretation  was 
undoubtedly  the  popular  one,  the  shamans  tried  to  develop  another 
explanation — what  might  be  called  a  "contract"  theory.  The 
spirits  possessed  the  various  powers  without  which  man  could  achieve 
only  a  modicum  of  success;  and  man  possessed  tobacco,  corn,  eagle 
feathers,  buckskin,  etc.  His  principal  possession,  however,  was 
tobacco,  and  this  had  been  given  him  directly  by  Earthmaker.  The 
contract  was  definite  and  distinct:  man  was  to. give  the  spirits 
tobacco,  etc. ;  and  the  spirits  were  to  give  man  the  powers  they  con- 
trolled. Accompanying  this  change  of  interpretation,  there  was  a 
difference  of  attitude,  the  principal  characteristic  of  which  was  a 
heightened  religious  feeling.  This  change  of  interpretation  is  clearly 
shown  in  the  concept  of  the  guardian  spirit. 


290  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

The  Guardian  Spirits 

In  the  concept  of  the  guardian  spirits  we  have  a  mixture  of  both 
the  "mechanical"  and  the  "contract"  theories.  The  guardian 
spirits  themselves  are,  to  our  mind,  but  the  transformed  localized 
spirits;  in  other  words,  the  genii  loci.  They  are  supposed  to  protect 
the  individual  to  whom  they  appear  in  the  same  way  as  the  genii  loci 
protected  their  precinct.  While  theoretically  every  Winnebago  could 
have  his  own  guardian  spirit,  there  seems  to  have  been  a  marked 
tendency  for  certain  guardian  spirits  to  be  inherited.  This  was  so, 
not  because  there  was  any  distinct  development  of  the  idea  of  inherit- 
ance, but  because  certain  definite  powers  were  associated  with  the 
spirits,  like  success  in  hunting,  fishing,  etc.  In  terms  of  everyday 
life  this  simply  meant  that  a  good  hunter  would  try  to  make  his  sons 
and  near  relatives  good  hunters;  in  religious  terminology  it  meant 
that  a  son  was  blessed  by  the  same  guardian  spirit  as  the  father. 
(Cf.  the  fasting  experience  on  p.  293.) 

The  following  fasting  experiences  will  show  clearly  what  powers  are 
supposed  to  be  possessed  by  the  various  guardian  spirits.  The  attitude 
with  which  the  faster  approaches  the  ordeal  clearly  varies  from  that 
of  childish  playfulness  to  one  of  considerable  religious  intensity, 
always  remembering  that  we  are  dealing  with  boys  and  girls  before 
the  adolescent  stage.  Perhaps  the  best  way  of  putting  it  would  be 
to  say  that  we  are  dealing  with  a  stereotyped  expression  of  life, 
reading  as  follows:  "I  am  a  successful  hunter;  I  am  a  prominent 
warrior,  etc.;  and  I  am  told  that  I  have  become  such  because  I  have 
done  what  my  elders  told  me,  have  practiced  these  professions  dili- 
gently, and  made  offerings  to  the  spirits."  Such  a  formula  might  be 
put  in  the  mouth  of  the  youthful  faster,  but  it  meant  nothing  until 
it  was  interpreted  much  later  in  terms  of  each  man's  experience  in 
life. 

The  youth's  fasting  experience  is  carefully  tested  by  the  elders, 
and  if  found  wanting  in  any  respect  the  youth  has  either  to  try  again 
or  give  up. 

The  guardian  spirit  is  not  supposed  to  be  in  permanent  attendance 
upon  man.  It  is  only  when  he  is  needed,  in  the  crises  of  life,  that 
he  is  brought  into  relation  with  man;  and  it  is  quite  characteristic  of 
the  markedly  materialistic  basis  of  the  belief  that  the  spirit  is  only 
called  into  aid  for  the  particular  needs  of  the  case. 


badin]  religion  291 

Personal  Religious  Experiences  * 

how  wegl'ceka  tried  to  see  earthmaker  5 

Once  there  was  a  Winnebago  whose  name  was  Wegi'ceka.  As  soon 
as  he  was  grown  up  his  father  begged  him  to  fast.  The  old  man  told 
his  son  that  Earthmaker,  when  he  created  this  earth,  made  many 
good  spirits  and  that  he  put  each  one  of  them  in  control  of  powers 
with  which  they  could  bless  human  beings.  Some  he  placed  in 
control  of  war  powers.  If  these  spirits  bless  an  individual,  he  will 
always  be  victorious  on  the  warpath.  Earthmaker  told  the  human 
beings  to  fast  for  these  powers  and  then  they  would  be  rich  and 
powerful.  Now,  my  son,  if  Earthmaker  has  put  all  these  spirits  in 
charge  of  something,  he  himself  must  be  in  charge  of  much  more 
power.  Thus  the  old  man  reasoned  and  the  son  thought  the  same. 
So  he  tried  to  "dream"  of  Earthmaker.  "I  wonder  what  sort  of 
blessings  Earthmaker  bestows  on  people,"  he  thought  to  himself. 

None  of  the  spirits  blessed  Wegi'ceka  during  his  fastings.  He 
was  always  thinking  of  Earthmaker  and  asking  him  to  bless  him. 
Wegi'ceka  made  himself  extremely  "pitiable"  and  wept.  He  could 
not  stop.  "Perhaps  I  will  be  able  to  see  Earthmaker  if  I  weep," 
he  thought  to  himself.  "Indeed,  if  Earthmaker  does  not  bless  me 
I  will  die  during  my  fast." 

He  fasted  continuously  without  stopping.  Verily,  he  fasted  for 
Earthmaker.  First  he  fasted  for  4  nights,  and  then  for  6  nights, 
and  then  for  8  nights,  for  10,  and  finally  for  12  nights.  Yet  he 
received  no  blessing  of  any  kind.  After  fasting  12  nights  he  stopped 
and  ate  something.  He  kept  fasting  on  until  he  had  grown  to  be  a 
fully  developed  man.  Then  he  stopped  and  married  and,  accom- 
panied by  his  wife,  he  moved  away  from  his  village  to  some  unin- 
habited place.  There  he  lived  alone  with  his  wife.  There  again 
he  fasted  and  his  wife  helped  him.  As  before,  he  tried  to  have 
Earthmaker  bestow  a  blessing  upon  him.     This   time  he  made  up 

*  Some  religious  experiences  belonging  to  Winnebagoes  well  known  to  the  tribe  have  been  cast  in  a 
literary  form  and  handed  down  from  one  generation  to  another.  The  literary  mold  in  which  they  have 
been  cast  does  not  in  the  least  interfere  with  their  value  as  excellent  examples  of  personal  experiences, 
and  for  that  reason  I  will  include  one  of  them  here. 

b  Earthmaker  is  supposed  never  to  bless  any  human  being,  but  there  are  a  number  of  accounts  of  indi- 
viduals who  tried  without  success,  nevertheless,  to  have  him  bless  them.  What  the  people,  however, 
meant  by  lack  of  success  was  not  so  much  a  total  lack  of  success  as  an  incomplete  blessing.  So,  for  instance, 
Wegi'ceka  does  really  receive  a  cane  as  a  blessing  from  Earthmaker,  and  he  has  the  right  to  call  upon 
him  afterwards  in  the  same  way  as  he  calls  upon  other  "guardian  spirits."  Earthmaker  does  not,  how- 
ever, appear  to  him  in  the  way  an  ordinary  spirit  would — that  is,  he  neither  appears  to  him  as  a  man  nor 
in  the  form  of  a  voice  conferring  some  blessing,  but  as  a  flash  oflight. 


292  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

his  mind  once  and  for  all  that  if  Earthmaker  did  not  bless  him  he 
would  die  during  his  fast.  "It  is  true,"  he  said  to  himself,  "that  no 
one  has  ever  heard  of  anyone  being  blessed  by  Earthmaker,  but 
nevertheless  I  will  either  obtain  a  blessing  from  him  or  die  in  the 
attempt." 

As  time  passed  on  his  wife  gave  birth  to  a  male  child.  Then  the 
man  said,  "We  will  offer  up  our  son  to  Earthmaker,"  and  the  woman 
consented.  So  they  sacrificed  their  son  to  Earthmaker.  Then 
they  placed  the  body  of  the  child  on  a  scaffold  and  wept  bitterly. 
"Surely,"  he  said  to  himself,  "Earthmaker  will  bless  us  to-night." 
And  indeed  during  the  night  he  came  to  him.  Wegi'ceka  felt  positive 
that  it  was  he.  He  wore  a  soldier's  uniform  and  a  cocked  hat  and 
he  was  pleasing  to  the  sight.  Wegi'ceka  looked  and  wondered 
whether  it  was  really  Earthmaker.  Then  this  person  took  a  step 
forward  toward  Wegi'ceka.  "Indeed  it  must  be,"  he  thought. 
Then  he  took  another  step  in  his  direction  and  uttered  something. 
Wegi'ceka  looked  and  saw  that  it  was  not  Earthmaker  but  a  pigeon. 
The  spirits  had  fooled  him.  His  heart  ached,  but,  undaunted,  he 
again  fasted,  and  after  a  while  Earthmaker  seemed  to  come  to  him 
and  say,  "Man,  I  bless  you.  For  a  long  time  you  have  wept  and 
made  yourself  pitiable.  I  am  indeed  Earthmaker."  When  Wegi'- 
ceka looked  again  he  beheld  something  pleasing  to  the  sight  and  he 
liked  it.  The  clothing  the  man  wore  was  pleasing  and  Wegi'ceka 
now  felt  certain  that  this  person  was  Earthmaker.  He  looked  at 
him  again  and  it  seemed  to  him  as  if  Earthmaker  was  getting  smaller 
and  smaller,  and  as  he  looked  for  the  fourth  tune  he  saw  that  he  had 
been  looking  at  a  little  bird  all  the  time.  Then  his  heart  ached  all 
the  more,  and  he  cried  even  more  bitterly  than  before.  Then  for  the 
third  time  Earthmaker  blessed  him  and  spoke  to  him.  "You  have 
tried  to  'dream'  of  Earthmaker  and  you  have  worried  yourself  to 
death.  Behold,  I  am  Earthmaker  and  I  will  bless  you  and  you  will 
never  be  in  want  of  anything.  You  will  be  able  to  understand  the 
language  spoken  by  strange  tribes  and  you  will  never  be  wanting  in 
the  goods  of  life."  Then  he  looked  up  for  the  first  time,  but  when  he 
saw  the  individual  who  had  spoken  to  him  he  thought  that  there 
was  something  wrong.  Soon  he  saw  that  the  one  who  had  spoken 
to  him  was  a  bird. 

Then  for  the  last  time  he  tried  to  "dream"  of  Earthmaker.  He 
did  not  eat  anything  and  positively  resolved  to  die  if  Earthmaker 
did  not  appear  to  him.  He  felt  bad,  for  he  thought  that  all  the  bad 
birds  (spirits)  were  laughing  at  him. 

He  fasted,  and  soon  Earthmaker,  far  above,  heard  his  voice  and 
said,  "Wegi'ceka,  you  are  weeping  bitterly.  For  your  sake,  I  will 
come  to  the  earth."  Then  Earthmaker  told  Wegi'ceka  that  when  he 
(Wegi'ceka)  looked  at  him  he  would  see  a  ray  of  light  extending  from 


kadin]  RELIGION  293 

above  far  down  to  his  camp.  That  far  it  would  reach.  "Only  thus, 
Wegi'ceka,  can  you  see  me.  What  you  ask  of  me  (to  see  me  face  to 
face)  I  can  not  grant  you.  But,  nevertheless,  you  may  tell  (your 
fellowmen)  that  you  saw  me."  Thus  he  spoke  to  him.  He  did  not 
bless  him  with  war  powers.     Only  with  life  did  he  bless  him. 

Then  Wegi'ceka  tried  to  draw  a. picture  of  the  flash  of  light  extend- 
ing from  the  heavens  to  his  camp,  just  as  he  had  seen  it,  upon  a  cane. 
To  that  cane  he  sacrificed.  The  descendants  of  Wegi'ceka  arc  using 
cane  even  to  the  present  day. 

ACCOUNT   OF    J.'S    FASTING 

When  I  reached  the  age  of  puberty  my  father  called  me  aside  and 
told  me  to  fast.  He  told  me  that  it  was  his  fervent  wish  that  I  should 
begin  to  fast,  so  that  I  might  become  holy  and  invincible  and  invul- 
nerable in  war.  I  would  become  like  one  of  those  Winnebagoes  of 
whom  stories  are  told.  In  future  generations  the  people  would  speak 
of  me  often.  For  these  reasons  he  wished  me  to  fast.  He  assured 
me  that  if  I  fasted  I  would  really  be  holy  and  that  nothing  on  this 
earth  would  be  able  to  harm  me.  I  would  also  live  a  very  long  life, 
he  told  me.  I  would  be  able  to  treat  the  sick  and  cure  them.  That 
holy  I  would  be,  he  told  me.  If  I  acted  in  this  way,  my  father  told 
me,  no  person  would  dare  to  make  fun  of  me  and  they  would  always 
be  careful  of  the  manner  in  which  they  addressed  me,  both  because 
they  respected  me  and  because  they  were  afraid  of  incurring  my 
enmity.  For  these  reasons  my  father  counseled  me  to  fast  and  to 
continue  fasting  from  the  late  fall  until  spring.  During  that  time  I 
should  fast  without  stopping.  In  the  spring,  however,  I  was  to 
stop,  because  many  bad  spirits  are  about  at  that  time  and  they  might 
deceive  me.  If  he  thought  that  I  was  not  doing  enough  fasting  he 
would  urge  me  on  with  words,  saying,  "My  son,  fast,  because  if  you 
receive  knowledge  of  anything  (i.  e.,  if  you  have  been  blessed  repeat- 
edly), nothing  will  be  able  to  harm  you.  You  will  live  long;  and  I 
wTant  you  to  live  long."  In  this  way  my  father  used  to  speak  to  me 
and  in  this  way  he  used  to  plead  with  me  in  a  piteous  manner.  ' '  Re- 
member," he  used  to  say  to  me  repeatedly,  "that  if  you  do  not  fast 
none  of  the  spirits  will  bless  you." 

There  wTas  a  hill  near  our  place  called  the  Place-where-they-keep- 
weapons.  This  hill  was  very  high  and  it  looked  steep  and  rocky. 
It  must  have  been  a  very  holy  place.  There  my  father  had  lived 
(when  he  was  blessed  by  the  spirits).  Within  this  hill  lived  the 
spirits  that  we  call  Those-who-cry-like-babies.6  These  spirits  were 
supposed  to  have  arrows  and  bows.  There  were  supposed  to  be 
twenty  of  them  in  this  hill.     My  father  had  control  of  these  spirits. 

e  These  spirits  are  the  same  as  those  generally  known  as  the  Herok'a,  or  Those-without-horns. 


294  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.37 

If  he  (my  father)  blessed  a  man  he  would  do  as  follows:  He  would 
take  his  bow  and  arrows  and,  holding  them  in  both  of  his  hands, 
take  the  man  around  the  hill  and  then  into  the  lodge  (i.  e.,  into  the 
hill).  There  he  and  the  man  he  wished  to  bless  let  their  breath 
pass  into  the  middle  of  the  lodge  (i.  e.,  into  the  hill).  There  stood 
a  stone  pillar  and  upon  this  stone  pillar,  at  about  arm's  length,  he 
drew  the  pictures  of  different  animals.  My  father  had  only  one 
arrow,  but  that  arrow  was  a  holy  one.  Then  my  father  danced 
around  the  stone  pillar  and  sang  some  songs,  and  when  he  was  finished 
he  began  to  breathe  upon  the  stone  pillar;  and,  walking  around  it, 
he  shot  it.  When  he  looked  at  it,  he  saw  that  the  stone  had  turned 
into  a  deer  with  large  horns.  This  deer  fell  dead  at  his  feet.  He 
repeated  this  a  number  of  times  and  the  little  spirits  who  were  fol- 
lowing him  breathed  with  him  and  said,  "Winnebago,  whenever  you 
wish  to  kill  a  deer  with  one  horn,  do  as  you  have  done  here.  Then 
offer  tobacco  to  us  and  you  will  be  able  to  obtain  whatever  you 
wish." 

"Now,  my  son,  I  want  you  to  be  able  to  do  as  I  do.  I  want  you 
to  be  able  to  kill  deer  whenever  you  wish,  and  at  any  particular  time." 
My  father  was  a  very  good  hunter  and  I  wanted  to  be  very  much 
like  him.  I  knew  that  what  he  was  saying  was  true  and  that  it 
would  be  good  to  follow  his  advice.  I  was  also  told  that  if  I  traveled 
around  the  hill  where  these  spirits  lived,  then  all  earthly  things 
would  agree  with  me  and  that  I  would  be  the  gainer  thereby.  If  I 
did  this,  they  told  me,  then  I  would  never  suffer  any  pains  in  my 
body  and  I  would  never  be  troubled  in  any  way. 

And  this  they  told  me  about  the  ghost  village — that  when  I  go 
there  I  will  be  able  to  steal  a  costly  shawl  from  the  spirits  and  be 
able  to  escape  with  it;  that  then  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  ghost 
village  would  chase  me,  but  that  they  would  not  be  able  to  over- 
take me  and  would  be  compelled  to  turn  back  as  soon  as  I  reached 
the  earth.     In  this  ghost  village  there  are  no  grown-up  children.7 

Now,  all  that  I  have  spoken  of,  I  dreamed.  I  really  dreamed 
that  I  was  stealing  a  costly  shawl  and  that  I  would  have  plenty  of 
them  all  the  time.  I  dreamed  that  I  would  obtain  ten  or  even  more 
shawls  in  one  year  and  that  I  would  not  have  to  pay  anything  for 
them.  What  the  spirits  meant  by  shawls  was  supplies.  However, 
all  this  took  place  before  I  ate  the  peyote.  Since  then  I  know  that 
these  things  were  not  true,  and  that  what  I  must  depend  upon  is  not 
supernatural  power,  but  myself,  and  my  own  endeavors.  Super- 
natural powers  do  not  come  from  anywhere.  They  do  not  exist  at 
all.     The  blessings  I  had  received  were  not  holy  and  I  am  not  holy. 

3  He  is  evidently  referring  to  the  spirit  home  of  the  Herok'a,  or  Those-who-cry -like-babies. 


Radin]  RELIGION  295 

This  I  know  now.  The  whole  thing  is  untrue.  Therefore  I  stopped 
using  these  supernatural  powers  some  time  ago.8 

The  old  people  made  me  fast  so  that  I  might  obtain  blessings, 
and  that  I  might  lead  a  life  similar  to  that  led  by  my  ancestors.  My 
father  asked  me  to  fast  so  that  I  might  be  of  some  help  to  my  fellow- 
men  as  I  grew  up.  It  is  through  fasting  that  individuals  obtain  the 
power  of  curing  disease  and  restoring  a  person  to  health  again. 

Spirits  from  above  also  came  to  me.  They  took  me  to  the  spirit- 
shaman  village.  As  the  shamans  gathered  around  me  they  said  that 
the  blessing  would  be  very  difficult  to  give  me.  Then  the  shaman 
sitting  far  in  front  made  himself  holy  and  breathed  upon  me  (i.  e., 
performed  the  actions  of  a  shaman  when  treating  a  patient).  When 
he  was  finished,  then  he  began  to  sing  and  all  those  in  the  lodge 
began  to  breathe,  helping  him.  Then  the  second  shaman  made 
himself  holy  and  began  to  breathe  and  sing.  In  this  way  four  of 
them  made  themselves  holy.  They  were  showing  me  what  to  do 
when  I  came  back  to  earth.  If  a  person  on  earth  is  sick  (this  is 
what  they  meant),  and  is  in  an  almost  hopeless  condition  where  no 
one  else  could  cure  him,  then  they  would  call  for  me  and  offer  me 
tobacco  with  which  I  was  to  sacrifice  to  the  spirits  who  had  taught 
me. 

Indeed  I  am  holy.  If  a  man  is  sick  I  can  restore  him  to  health. 
That  is  what  I  used  to  think.  I  really  (had  it  been  true)  should 
have  felt  it,  for  I  labored  earnestly  and  honestly  to  be  a  holy  person. 
Yet  in  spite  of  all  my  exertions  I  was  very  unfortunate.  I  had 
married  twice  and  both  of  my  wives  and  all  my  children  died.  In- 
deed, how  could  I  ever  consider  myself  a  holy  man  (i.  e.,  if  I  couldn't 
even  cure  my  own  wife  and  children  of  what  value  were  my  "super- 
natural powers")  ?  For  a  long  time  I  knew  that,  at  least  I  should 
have  known  it.9  (I  was  not  holy.)  Then  I  ate  the  peyote  and 
now  I  really  see  myself  as  I  am.  Indeed  I  am  not  holy.  My  body 
is  without  a  soul.  I  thought  myself  holy.  So  I  have  stopped  the 
practice  of  the  shaman. 

8  The  informant  had  become  a  convert  to  the  Peyote  belief  only  a  short  time  before  he  wrote  down  this 
account  of  his  fasting,  and  it  is  interesting  to  see  that,  although  he  nolonger  believes  in  the  efficacy  of  the 
supernatural  powers,  he  still  believes  that  they  exist.  Two  years  after  this,  however,  the  same  informant 
explained  them,  as  all  the  older  members  of  the  Peyote  cult  explain  them,  namely,  as  delusions,  either 
caused  by  the  abnormal  condition  of  the  youth  while  fasting  or  as  snares  of  the  devil. 

9  In  the  words  "I  should  have  known  it"  are  summed  up  the  essential  change  of  attitude  between 
the  Peyote  Winnebago  and  the  older  Winnebagoes.  The  latter,  too,  had  observed  the  apparent  failure 
of  the  supernatural  powers  on  many  occasions,  but  instead  of  attributing  them  to  any  diminution  of  efficacy 
in  the  "powers, "  attributed  them,  on  the  contrary,  to  a  lack  of  something  in  the  individual  trying  to  use 
the  "power, "  in  so  far  as  they  thought  about  it  at  all.  But  the  essential  difference  between  the  two  cults, 
the  older  one  and  the  Peyote,  lies  not  so  much  in  the  logical  conclusions  their  adherents  have  drawn  from 
the  failure  of  the ' '  supernatural  powers  "to  behave  as  they  were  expected  to,  as  in  the  fact  that  the  Peyote 
people  make  the  failure  of  the  "power"  the  subject  of  discussion  and  the  old  Winnebagoes  accept  the  whole 
concept  of  "supernatural  power"  as  such,  and  do  not  permit  it  to  rise  into  their  consciousness. 


296  THE  WINNEBAGO  TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

R.'S    FASTING. 

(h.  was  a  member  op  the  bear  clan) 

There  was  a  village  near  Big  Lake  (Lake  Winnebago),  and  at  this 
village  the  upper  people  and  the  earth  people  played  lacrosse.10  The 
Bear  was  the  chief  clan  of  the  lower  people,  and  those  representing 
that  side  in  the  game  defeated  the  representatives  of  the  other  side 
by  sheer  strength.  Then  one  of  the  upper  people  said,  "What 
effeminate  fellows  those  Bear  people  are.  They  are  very  strong,  but 
it  would  be  much  better  if  instead  of  being  so  strong  in  playing 
lacrosse  they  were  strong  when  on  the  warpath."  Thus  he  spoke. 
Then  one  of  the  Bear  people  (the  one  whose  fasting  is  about  to  be  de- 
scribed) felt  very  much  grieved  and  went  out  into  the  wilderness  to  fast. 
His  desire  was  to  be  blessed  by  those  spirits  who  are  in  control  of  war, 
and  in  his  longing  to  be  blessed  by  them  he  cried  bitterly.  Soon  he 
heard  some  one  saying,  "Do  not  cry  any  more,  we  have  come  after 
you  from  above.  The  spirits  have  blessed  you.  You  are  going  to 
be  taken  to  the  lodge  of  your  friends."  When  the  young  man  got 
there  he  saw  four  men.  They  were  called  cannibals,  and  they  were 
brothers.  "Our  friends  have  blessed  you  and  we  also  bless  you,"  said 
the  four  spirits.  These  four  spirits  were  catfish.  Then  some  white 
crane  spirits  said,  "Our  friends  have  blessed  you.  With  spears  they 
have  blessed  you.  Indeed,  for  good  reason  was  your  heart  sad  (i.  e., 
did  you  make  yourself  suffer  while  fasting).  With  victory  on  the 
warpath  do  we  bless  you.  Here  is  your  bundle.  Here  also  are  your 
spears  and  your  bow  and  arrows.  This  bundle  you  must  use  when 
you  go  on  the  warpath.  Here  also  are  some  songs  to  use  when  you 
start  out  and  when  you  return.  With  these  songs  I  bless  you. 
Here  they  are: 

songs 

Ho'sto  k'I1ine/djaI1e/dja  rahi'je? 
Where  they  gathered,  there  did  you  go? 
K'aro'  hitcak'aro'  ha'gixewiNre. 
Well,  my  friend,  shout  at  it  for  him. 

' '  When  the  enemy  is  close  upon  you  and  aim  their  guns  at  you,  if 
you  sing  these  songs  they  will  not  be  able  to  hit  you.  If  you  sing 
these  songs  then,  those  who  gave  you  a  name  will  honor  you.11  Thus 
we  bless  you.     With  life  also  we  bless  you." 

aratcge'ka's   fasting  12 

Aratcge'ka,  Left-handed-one,  went  out  to  fast.  "A  spirit  I  wish 
to  bless  me.     I  am  fasting  because  I  was  told  to  do  so.     A  shaman 

i°  In  playing  lacrosse  the  upper  and  lower  divisions  were  always  pitted  against  one  another. 

"  The  sense  is  not  quite  clear  here,  but  it  is  believed  that  he  means  that  by  singing  one  of  these  songs  he 
will  be  victorious  and  be  able  to  count  coup  or  distinguish  himself  in  some  such  way,  and  thus  be  worthy 
of  being  honored  by  his  elders. 

12  This  account  of  a  fasting  has  been  cast  in  a  literary  mold.  It  evidently  relates  to  the  fasting  experience 
of  a  well-known  man. 


kadin]  RELIGION  297 

I  would  like  to  be.  I  would  like  to  be  able  to  treat  people  the  way 
he  does,  and  I  have  for  that  reason  blackened  my  face  and  fasted  for 
eight  days."  Then  I  was  blessed  and  they  (the  messengers  of  the 
spirits)  came  after  me.  Up  above,  to  a  shaman  spirit-lodge  they 
took  me.  There  I  saw  the  chief,  and  he  said  to  me,-  "What  you 
desire,  what  you  are  thirsting  yourself  to  death  for,  that  you  are  to 
be  blessed  with.  For  that  reason  these  people  have  brought  you 
here.  Here  you  are  to  give  an  exhibition  of  your  powers.  I  am  the 
one  who  has  caused  you  to  be  brought  here  (i.  e.,  blessed  you),  I  am 
the  ruler  of  this  village  and  I  sent  for  you  to  give  you  the  following 
powers:  • 

"If  ever  an  Indian  is  sick,  even  if  he  is  so  sick  that  he  is  practically 
dead,  I  give  you  the  power  of  restoring  him  to  life.  Now  you  are  to 
show  your  powers.  Here  is  a  log  so  rotten  and  decayed  that  it  is 
practically  falling  apart.13  Upon  this  you  are  to  exert  your  power 
and  show  that  you  have  been  blessed.  This  is  what  the  spirits 
meant  when  they  blessed  you."  Then  he  walked  around  the  log, 
breathed  upon  it,  and  spat  water  upon  it,  and  it  became  human. 
Then  he  walked  around  it  again  and  again  spat  water  upon  it, 
and  it  began  to  move.  Then  for  the  third  time  he  spat  water 
upon  it  and  walked  around  it  and  it  began  to  groan.  Then  he 
walked  around  it  for  the  fourth  time,  and  again  spat  water  upon 
the  log,  and  it  got  up  and  walked  away.  He  had  restored  the  log  to 
life.  Then  the  spirit  said  to  him,  "Man,  with  this  power  you  are 
blessed.  That  for  which  you  longed,  that  for  which  you  fasted,  you 
are  blessed  with.     Giving-humans-life,  thus  the  people  will  call  you." 

Then  all  the  spirits  who  are  above  said  as  follows :  "  Brother-in-law,14 
that  you  may  live  I  am  telling  you  this  story." 

In  the  wilderness  I  went,  and  there  near  an  oval  hill  I  sat  down 
and  wept.  Below  the  hill  lay  a  round  lake  and  there  I  saw  the  rising 
dew  coming  in  a  fog.  This  first  spread  itself  out  over  us,  and  then, 
in  turn,  shrank  and  became  small.  All  this  time  I  sat  there  weeping. 
There  was  something  moving  in  the  lake,  but  although  I  was  looking 
in  that  direction  I  did  not  see  anything.  They  (evidently  the 
spirits)  were  sneaking  up  on  me.  Two  (flames  of)  fire  suddenly 
burst  forth  extending  from  above  to  the  lake.     Then  a  report  like 

13  This  log  is  supposed  to  represent  a  human  being  in  a  similar  condition— that  is,  practically  on  the  verge 
of  dissolution. 

11  The  account  is  suddenly  interrupted  here  to  tell  the  listener  why  AratcgeTca  is  telling  the  story  of 
bis  fasting.  The  personal  religious  experiences  were  very  sacred  and  rarely  told  even  to  near  relatives. 
As  far  as  I  know,  they  were  only  told  before  death  or  when  a  person  was  very  ill,  as  in  the  present  case. 
The  purpose  seems  to  have  been  to  transfer  the  benefits  of  the  blessing  to  the  sicK  person  and  cure  him  in 
much  the  same  way  as  is  done  when  an  accredited  shaman  goes  through  his  entire  performance.  Of  course, 
Aratcge'ka*s  blessing  related  directly  to  the  curing  of  disease.  But  evidently  it  was  believed  that  blessings 
connected  with  other  powers  were  equally  efficacious. 

1S6S23°— 22 20 


298  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

that  of  a  gun  sounded.  The.  two  (spirits)  were  causing  it.  Suddenly 
a  great  noise  was  heard.  I  kept  right  on  crying,  for  I  was  trying 
to  be  blessed.  I  sat  there  with  staring  eyes  looking  at  the  spirits. 
"I  must  be  receiving  a  blessing,"  I  thought.  I  continued  crying 
and  after  a  short  time  it  began  to  rain  very  much.  "How  is  this," 
I  thought  to  myself,  "  only  a  little  time  before  it  was  so  nice  and  now 
it  is  raining."  Yet  in  spite  of  the  rain  no  water  seemed  to  fall  upon 
me.  "How  is  it,"  I  thought,  "here  it  is  raining  and  yet  no  rain  is 
falling  upon  me."  Then  I  looked  above  and  I  saw  that  it  was  very 
cloudy,  yet  straight  above  me  in  a  direct  line  the  sky  was  blue. 
This  blue  spot  was  like  a  round  object  covering  me  as  though  it 
were  an  umbrella.  The  Thunderbirds  were  blessing  me.  With  the 
blue  sky,  they  were  blessing  me.  Soon  the  noise  stopped,  and 
when  I  looked  above  I  saw  four  (men)  standing  with  packs  upon 
then-  backs.  These  (the  spirits)  killed.  Then  they  blessed  me  with 
the  power  of  killing.  They  spoke  to  me  and  said,  "  Stop  your  crying. 
What  you  have  longed  for  and  fasted  for,  with  that  we  have  blessed 
you.  Just  as  these  four  men  have  been  kdled,  so  you  will  be  able 
to  kill  people.  But  you  will  also  be  able  to  restore  them  to  life 
again.  Upon  your  body  now  we  will  make  a  mark  and  those  whom 
you  wish  to  bless  will  be  given  an  opportunity  of  selecting  life  for 
themselves,15  so  that,  even  when  a  person  be  practically  dead  he 
will  be  restored  to  health.  What  is  above  you,  the  blue  sky,  that 
we  place  on  one  of  your  fingers,16  and  with  that  we  bless  you.  If 
the  patient  picks  the  finger  with  the  mark  upon  it,  he  will  live." 

The  Thunderbirds  were  the  spirits  speaking  to  me.  They  had 
spears  and  little  war-clubs  in  their  hands  and  (wreathes)  made  of 
flat  cedar  leaves  upon  their  heads.  Thus  did  four  Thunderbirds 
bless  me. 

"Well,  brother-in-law,  I  want  you  to  live  and  I  want  you  to  pick 
life  for  yourself — i.  e.,  pick  the  finger  with  the  blue  mark  upon  it. 
Do  it  carefully  and  do  not  attempt  it  when  you  are  tired.  Here  are 
my  four  fingers  and  one  of  them  has  the  blue  sky  upon  it  (i.  e.,  the 
blue  mark  that  betokens  life) .  If  you  choose  that,  you  will  certainly 
live.  You  are  the  second  person  ( to  whom  I  have  offered  my  fingers) . 
Now  do  not  miss  it,  for  if  you  miss  it  you  will  surely  die.  Be  careful, 
then,  in  picking  it." 

Then  the  brother-in-law  picked  the  little  finger  and  Aratcge'ka 
said,  "Brother-in-law,  it  is  good.  You  will  live."  Then  he  turned 
his  little  finger  around  and  there  a  circular  blue  mark  was  visible. 

ACCOUNT  OF    X.'S    FASTING 

The  spirits  can  bless  you  with  everything.  My  father  used  to 
tell  me  how  much  he  loved  me  and  how  much  lie  wished  me  to  fast. 


'»  That  is,  a  sick  person  will  have  to  guess  at  the  part  of  the  body  that  has  been  blessed  by  the  Thunder- 
birds, and  if  he  guesses  correctly  he  will  become  well. 
16  That  is,  we  will  place  a  mark  made  with  blue  clay  upon  your  finger. 


kadin]  RELIGION  299 

He  wanted  me  to  fast  all  the  time.  I  would  therefore,  to  please  him, 
fast  off  and  on  through  the  winter.  The  longest  I  ever  fasted  at 
any  one  time  was  six  days.  I  was  blessed  by  a  yellow  snake  who 
lived  near  Medway,  Wis.  It  was  at  that  place  that  I  fasted  one 
winter.  The  spirit-snake  that  lives  there  blessed  me  with  life  and 
the  right  to  draw  bad  blood  from  sick  people  (i.  e.,  "cup  blood"). 
These  blessings  are  truly  efficacious,  but  after  they  have  been  handed 
down  to  the  next  generation  they  lose  their  power  (unless  renewed). 
That  same  winter,  not  long  before  the  beginning  of  spring,  I  fasted 
again  for  four  days  and  early  on  the  morning  of  the  fourth  day  as  I 
was  walking  along  a  ravine,  crying  and  putting  myself  in  a  "pitiable 
condition,"  so  that  the  spirits  might  take  pity  upon  me,  some  one 
came  to  meet  me.  Up  to  this  time,  in  spite  of  all  my  exertions  and 
fastings,  I  had  not  been  blessed  by  any  of  the  spirits.  The  one  who 
was  coming  toward  me  was  walking  very  fast  and  when  I  stopped 
to  look  at  him  I  saw  that  he  was  a  man.  His  entire  body  was  painted 
red  and  he  wore  an  eagle  feather  on  his  head  and  garters  around  his 
legs.  When  he  came  near  to  me  he  said:  "Human,  I  bless  you. 
You  may  now  go  home  and  eat  (i.  e.,  break  your  fast).  Every  day  I 
will  bring  the  blessing  of  life  to  you.  This  also  (I  wish  to  tell  you), 
if  you  think  of  me  when  you  are  in  any  difficulty,  you  will  pass 
through  it  safely.  The  sick  you  will  be  able  to  heal  through  the 
blessing  I  give  you.  I  am  the  Sun.  Even  if  a  day  is  cloudy,  then 
know  that  I  am  keeping  life  for  you  beyond  the  clouds." 

HOW    Y.    FASTED  AND    WAS    BLESSED    WITH    A    WAR-BUNDLE  " 

Our  war-bundle  is  eight  generations  old.  In  the  beginning  my 
clansmen  had  no  war-bundles.  Whenever  they  had, war,  they  had 
nothing  from  which  to  receive  strength.  The  only  powerful  posses- 
sion they  had  was  fire.  That  was  the  only  thing  they  carried  when 
on  the  warpath.  Soon  they  discovered  that  other  clans  had  war- 
bundles  and  that  they  received  them  by  fasting  for  them.  So 
K'erex  un'sak'a  started  to  fast  for  one.  He  fasted  from  early 
autumn  until  summer  and  he  received  a  blessing.  Then  he  went 
to  his  father  and  told  him,  "Father,  you  told  me  to  fast.  Let  us 
now  go  and  see  with  what  I  have  been  blessed."  So  the  old  man 
accompanied  his  son.18  When  the  old  man  got  there  he  found  a 
snake  dried  and  dressed  up  and  standing  in  an  upright  position. 
The  snake  had  long  hairs  on  its  back,  scattered  here  and  there.  The 
father  on  seeing  it  said,'  "My  son,  this  is  really  too  great.  If  you 
accept  this  and  carry  it  with  you  on  the  warpath,  you  will  not  leave 
any  human  beings  alive  (i.  e.,  you  will  always  want  to  go  on  the 

17  This  is  the  account  of  the  origin  of  a  war-bundle  claimed  to  be  eight  generations  old. 

18  Evidently  the  spirit  had  told  him  to  go  to  a  certain  place  and  that  there  he  would  find  certain  objects, 
namely,  the  material  objects  with  which  he  had  been  blessed. 


300  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

warpath)."  The  son  therefore  refused  it,  and  went  out  to  fast 
again.  Then  the  spirits  blessed  him  again  and  again  he  went  to 
his  father  and  asked  to  accompany  him  to  the  wilderness  and  see 
what  blessings  he  had  obtained.  When  they  came  to  the  wilder- 
ness l9  they  found  two  wild  cats  ( already  stuffed)  standing  there 
and  facing  in  opposite  directions.  Then  the  old  man  told  his  son 
again  not  to  accept  this  blessing  because  it  would  be  too  powerful,20 
but  the  young  man  said,  "This  is  the  last  blessing  that  I  am  going 
to  get,"  and  accepted  it. 

(What  follows  was  obtained  at  a  later  time  from  the  same  informant 
and  relating  to  the  same  blessing.) 

The  first  blessing  K'crex£u"'saka  received  was  from  the  Thunder- 
birds.  They  dropped  a  flute  and  two  feathers  from  heaven.  But 
these  he  refused.  The  second  blessing  was  also  from  the  Thunder- 
birds.  This  time  they  told  him  to  go  to  a  certain  place  where  he 
could  see  them  himself.  He  went  there  and  found  four  men  sitting 
there  broiling  meat.  They  gave  him  a  piece  of  meat.  It  was  only 
when  he  fasted  for  the  fourth  time  that  he  was  blessed  with  a  war- 
bundle. 

WHAT    Ci.   OBTAINED    IN    HIS    FAST 

I  never  fasted  much.  I  only  fasted  three  times  and  I  don't  believe 
that  I  ever  fasted  for  more  than  two  days  at  a  time.  However,  I 
never  was  blessed  with  anything  (i.  e.,  any  object).  I  knew,  how- 
ever, that  I  came  from  the  home  of  the  Thunderbirds  (i.  e.,  that  I  was 
a  reincarnated  Thunderbird).  My  spirit  father  and  mother21  were 
Thunderbirds.  The  Thunderbirds  are  beings  whose  glance  can 
penetrate  any  object.  For  that  reason  I  also  can  do  it.  For 
instance,  I  have  seen  a  man  through  a  tree.  This  I  did  once  during  a 
thunderstorm  when  a  man  had  sought  shelter  behind  a  tree. 

19  Whenever  the  word  "  wilderness' '  is  used  all  that  is  meant  is  an  uninhabited  place  far  away  from  the 
village. 

20  By  '  'too  powerful' '  the  old  man  means  that  the  feasts,  offerings,  etc. ,  that  would  be  necessary  for  so 
great  a  blessing  would  be  quite  beyond  the  means  or  the  ability  of  the  young  man.  It  is  to  be  remembered 
that  the  bestowal  of  a  blessing  does  not  in  itself  insure  its  efficacy ,  but  that  this  can  only  be  assured  if  the 
proper  offerings  and  the  proper  emotional  attitude  accompany  its  subsequent  use.  Evidently  the  old 
man  did  not  feel  that  the  young  fellow  would  be  equal  to  the  task.  I  have  been  told  by  many  of  the  older 
Winnebagoes  that  when  the  old  system  was  still  intact  the  older  people  always  made  it  a  point  to  warn 
impetuous  youths  against  taking  upon  themselves  responsibilities  that  they  might  possibly  not  be  able 
to  fulfill,  a  very  excellent  device,  it  seems  to  me,  for  not  multiplying  the  chance  of  failures  and  consequently 
the  necessity  of  explaining  them.    However,  one  need  not  believe  that  this  was  the  reason  for  their  caution. 

21  He  says  "spirit  father  and  mother"  because  when  he  lived  with  the  Thunderbirds  he  was,  of  course,  a 
spirit.  It  is  quite  impossible  to  determine  whether  he  means  that  he  was  a  human  being  who  was  living 
among  the  spirits  as  a  spirit  or  whether  he  was  a  spirit  who  had  desired  to  become  reincarnated  as  a  human 
being.  Originally,  of  course,  there  were  no  human  beings,  but  only  spirits,  of  whom  a  portion  became 
permanently  transformed  into  human  beings.  However,  even  very  powerful  shamans  never  claim  more 
than  three  reincarnations,  so  that  he  can  obviously  not  be  referring  to  this  primitive  condition  and  is  either 
referring  to  the  fact  that  he  is  a  Thunderbird  residing  temporarily  on  this  earth,  or — and  this  would  be  the 
more  common  form — a  human  being  who  lived  for  some  time  as  a  Thunderbird  and  then  returned  to  earth. 
In  the  latter  case  one  would  expect  him  to  obtain  great  blessings  in  his  fast,  and  the  fact  that  he  did  not 
and  had  nevertheless  such  great  powers  suggests  that  he  is  really  a  reincarnated  Thunderbird. 


hadin]  RELIGION  301 

When  I  was  ready  to  go  down  among  the  human  beings  (i.  e.,  when 
I  became  reincarnated)  I  was  given  the  power  to  overcome  my 
enemies  in  battle.  And  this  I  have  actually  done.  All  the  Thunder- 
birds  have  small  war-clubs.  I  also  had  one  when  I  came.  Whenever 
I  went  on  the  warpath  I  made  myself  a  war-club  and  used  that  only 
in  battle.  I  believe  that  I  was  invulnerable.  Whenever  I  got  tired 
of  living  among  human  beings  I  knew  I  could  return  to  the  Thunder- 
birds.  I  thought  I  knew  all  this  and  that  I  had  these  powers.  For 
that  reason  when  I  ate  peyote  I  still  held  on  to  these  beliefs  for  a  long 
time,  thinking  that  when  I  returned  to  the  Thunderbirds  inasmuch 
as  they  are  above  it  would  be  the  same  as  going  to  everlasting  life,  as 
the  Peyote  people  said.  Finally,  one  night,  at  a  peyote  meeting,  in 
thinking  over  these  things,  I  resolved  to  give  them  up.  I  could, 
nevertheless,  not  bring  myself  to  do  it.  Then  the  peyote  began  to 
strangle  me; 22  at  least  I  thought  so. 

I  also  had  the  power  of  causing  or  stopping  rain.  All  that  I  had 
to  do  was  to  offer  tobacco  to  the  Thunderbirds  and  make  my  request. 

HOW    A    BEAR    BLESSED    A    MAN23 

Once  a  band  of  Winnebagoes  used  to  give  a  feast  to  the  bears.  A 
bear  had  blessed  one  of  their  number  with  life  and  victory  on  the 
warpath. 

It  was  a  spirit-bear  that  had  blessed  him.  The  man  was  fasting 
and  the  spirit  blessed  him  and  said,  "Human,  I  bless  you.  In  war 
you  will  be  able  to  do  as  you  wish  (i.  e.,  you  will  be  able  to  kill  an 
enemy  whenever  you  desire).  The  first  time  you  go  on  the  war- 
path you  will  come  back  with  the  fourth  war  honor;  the  second  time 
you  go  on  a  warpath  you  will  return  with  the  third  war  honor;  the 
third  time  you  will  return  with  the  second  war  honor;  and  the  fourth 
time  you  will  return  with  the  first  war  honor  and  receive  the  first 
prize,  which  you  are  to  give  to  your  sister."  This  is  what  the  man 
"dreamed."  He  believed  it  and  was  happy.  Then  the  spirit-bear 
said  again,  "Human,  I  said  that  I  blessed  you  and  I  really  mean  it. 
Earthmaker  created  me  and  gave  me  control  of  many  things. 
Human,  I  bless  you.  As  many  years  as  Earthmaker  bestowed  upon 
you,  that  number  I  also  bless  you  with.  You  will  reach  the  limit  of 
the  years  that  were  granted  you.  With  my  body  I  also  bless  you. 
Whenever  you  are  hungry  and  wish  to  kill  a  bear,  pour  a  pipeful  of 
tobacco  for  me.  If  then  you  go  out  hunting,  you  will  be  successful. 
Don't  abuse  the  bears.  I  am  the  chief  of  the  bears.  I  bless  you. 
Never  before  have  I  blessed  a  human  being,  as  long  as  I  have  lived 
here.     As  long  as  your  descendants  live  on  this  earth,  so  long  will  this 

»  According  to  the  Peyote  people,  if  a  member  does  not  wish  to  do  or  tell  something  that  he  ought  to,  the 
peyote  begins  to  strangle  him  and  he  finds  no  relief  until  he  tells  what  is  on  his  mind. 
33  This  is  really  the  "origin  myth "  of  a  bear  feast. 


302  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  Ieth.  ANN.  37 

blessing  last.  Should  your  descendants  perform  the  feasts  in  my 
honor  well,  I  will  bless  them  with  life  and  victory  on  the  warpath. 
Whenever  you  offer  me  tobacco  I  will  smoke  it.  If  you  put  on  a 
kettle  of  food  for  me  I  will  be  thankful  to  you.  When  you  put  this 
kettle  of  food  on  the  fire  and  offer  me  tobacco  see  to  it  that  you  keep 
away  menstruating  women   .   .   .  24 

HOW    THE    DAUGHTER    OF    MAXK'EREXKA     REFUSED     A      BLESSING 
FROM    DISEASE-GIVER  2~° 

The  daughter  of  Mank'erexka  was  fasting.  She  was  his  third 
daughter.  She  decided  to  fast  during  the  summer.  In  her  fast  she 
was  told  that  she  was  blessed  and  that  on  the  following  day  a  big  deer 
would  come  across  the  waters  for  her  to  eat.  Then  she  went  to  her 
father  and  said,  "Father,  I  have  been  told  to  eat  a  big  deer,  and  that 
to-morrow  very  early  in  the  morning  it  will  come  out  of  the  water." 
"It  is  good,  my  daughter.  That  deer  has  been  given  to  you  by  the 
spirits  and  you  may  eat  it." 

Early  the  next  morning  a  big  deer  came  across  the  waters.  "Let 
it  be,"  the  people  said  (to  her).  "As  soon  as  it  comes  near  we  will 
chase  it."  So  they  got  into  a  boat  and  chased  it.  Then  they  killed 
it  and  gave  it  to  some  other  person  instead  of  the  young  woman. 
"My  daughter,  what  are  you  going  to  do  ?  Are  you  going  to  eat  the 
deer?"  "No,  father,  if  I  were  to  eat  the  deer  I  would  have  killed  it 
myself.     But  you  people  have  killed  it,  so  I  will  not  eat  any  of  it." 

Then  she  rubbed  some  charcoal  on  her  face  and  went  to  the  place 
of  fasting  and  said,  "What  you  (the  spirits)  gave  me  others  have 
taken  away  and  eaten."  Early  in  the  morning  she  looked  around 
toward  the  water.  She  was  very  weak,  for  she  had  not  eaten  for  a 
long  time.  Nine  days  she  fasted.  She  was  saying  to  herself,  "As 
soon  as  I  see  a  deer  I  will  tell  the  others  and  call  my  father."  In  the 
morning  she  went  out  in  search  of  the  deer.  She  was  so  weak  that 
she  could  hardly  crawl  along.  But  she  managed  to  reach  the  edge 
of  the  waters  and,  as  she  looked  across,  she  saw  a  deer  coming.  So  she 
immediately  went  to  her  father  and  told  him.  He  got  up  immediately 
and,  taking  a  spear,  jumped  into  a  boat,  pursued,  and  speared  it. 
Then  the  girl  said,  "Now  I  will  eat."  So  they  called  her  uncles, 
Wolf  and  Elk.26  When  they  came  she  put  tobacco  in  their  hands 
and  said,  "My  uncles,  I  have  offered  tobacco  to  the  different  spirits 
and  asked  them  to  bless  me.     Now  I  am  about  to  eat  and  I  would 

M  The  rest  of  the  story  is  a  description  of  a  bear  feast  and  how,  in  spite  of  the  warning  of  the  spirit-bear 
two  menstruating  women  took  part  in  the  feast;  how,  thereupon,  two  bears  suddenly  appeared  and  killed 
them,  and  how  for  that  reason  the  bear  feast  was  given  up. 

■''  This  account  has  been  cast  in  a  literary  mold,  but  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  represents  a  real  fasting 
experience.    It  is  included  here  principally  because  it  contains  a  number  of  extremely  interesting  features. 

26  Tlio^e  are  the  names  of  individuals. 


radin]  RELIGION  303 

like  to  have  you  put  some  food  in  your  mouths."27  "My  niece,  it  is 
good.  You  have  indeed  made  yourself  'pitiable.'  You  have 
thirsted  yourself  to  death  and  I,  too,  pity  you.  If  any  spirit  has 
blessed  you,  he  has  done  so  with  good  reason.  I,  too,  once  thirsted 
myself  to  death  and  the  spirits  blessed  me  with  life.  With  this  life, 
my  niece,  I  also  bless  you.  I  will  gladly  partake  of  your  feast." 
Thus  spoke  Wolf.  Then  Elk  said,  "My  niece,  I,  too,  was  told  to 
fast;  and  in  my  fast  the  spirits  blessed  me  with  the  power  of  having 
complete  control  over  all  my  actions.  This  dream  (i.  e.,  the  bless- 
ings I  obtained)  I  now  give  to  you.28  With  these  blessings  you  will 
be  able  to  live  as  you  desire.  I  will  now  gladly  partake  of  your 
food." 

When  they  were  through  eating,  she  also  ate,  and  then  they  all 
went  home.  After  a  while  her  father  said  to  her,  "My  daughter,  I 
am  going  to  ask  you  a  question.  It  is  said  that  those  who  have 
been  blessed  might  tell  their  dreams  if  they  were  asked."  "All 
right,"  said  the  daughter,  "I  will  tell  you.  Eight  days  I  fasted  and 
then  the  spirits  blessed  me.  They  told  me  that  if  at  the  end  of  four 
days  I  should  place  offerings  south  of  the  place  known  as  the  Big 
Eddy  and  situated  down  the  stream  the  powers  with  which  I  had 
been  blessed  would  be  shown  to  me.  The  one  who  blessed  me  was 
the  chief  of  the  Wak£aintcun,  the  spirits  who  live  in  the  earth.  He 
said  that  Earthmaker  had  created  him  and  given  him  great  power; 
that  he  had  placed  him  in  charge  of  'life.'  In  four  days  he  told 
me,  'I  will  appear  to  you.  The  day  on  which  I  appear  to  you  will 
be  a  perfect  day.  Whatever  you  wish  to  make  for  yourself,  you  may 
do.  You  will  never  be  in  want  of  anything,  for  you  can  make  imple- 
ments for  yourself  out  of  my  body.     With  these  I  bless  you,  for  you 

37  The  feast  referred  to  here  is  the  feast  called  Handaginantc  Wadu-itcanenan  orfaster'sfeast.  It  is  given 
whenever  a  man  or  woman  who  has  been  blessed  is  about  to  break  his  fast.  At  this  feast  it  is  customary, 
according  ti  s:>me  inf  irmants,  for  the  faster  to  narrate  his  blessing.  However,  thesefeasts  have  now  been 
discontinued  for  so  long  a  time  that  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  obtain  any  accurate  information. 

38  The  transference  of  certain  blessings  is  very  common,  but,  to  my  knowledge,  it  is  rarely  done  in  tliis 
manner.  As  a  rule  i  f  a  person  was  unable  to  obtain  blessings,  he  sought  to  offset  this  handicap  in  life  by 
purchasing  supernatural  powers  from  some  of  his  more  successful  fellow-men.  However,  these  powers 
seem  to  be  connected  almost  exclusively  with  medicines.  That  blessings  such  as  those  bestowed  upon 
individuals  during  their  fast,  such  as  long  life,  invincibility,  hunting  powers,  etc.,  were  transferred,  does 
not  seem  probable,  although  it  is,  of  course,  possible.  The  writer  was  told  of  a  number  of  cases  where  this 
seemed  to  have  been  the  case,  but  on  closer  study  it  was  conclusively  shown  that  no  real  transference  had 
taken  place,  but  that  in  those  instances  where  a  person  had  said,  "  I  transfer  this  and  that  dream  to  you," 
the  transference  had  no  validity  unless  the  individual  to  whom  the  dream  had  been  bequeathed  actually 
fasted  and  obtained  the  same  dream.  An  individual  would  in  such  a  case  always  be  careful  to  select  as 
his  "dream-heir"  one  who  would  in  all  likelihood  obtain  the  same  dream.  It  is  only  in  this  sense  that 
one  might  actually  speak  of  a  transference.  In  those  instances  where  a  man  is  blessed  with  supernatural 
powers  that  are  to  extend  to  all  his  posterity  thisis  what  is  really  meant,  namely,  an  infinite  repetition  of 
the  same  blessing,  one  that  has,  however,  become  so  certain  within  definite  families  that  it  might  be  con- 
sidered automatic. 


304  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

have  made  yourself  suffer  very  much  -"  and  my  heart  has  been  rent 
with  pity  for  you.  I  bless  you,  therefore,  with  life,  and  this  you 
may  transmit  to  your  descendants.'  All  this,  father,  the  spirit  said 
to  me."  "My  daughter,  it  is  not  good.  These  spirits  are  trying  to 
deceive  you.  Do  not  accept  it.  They  will  never  bestow  upon  you 
what  they  have  promised."  "All  right,  father,  but  let  me  at  least 
give  them  the  offerings  of  deerskin,  red  feathers,  and  tobacco.  I 
will  not  accept  these  blessings,  for  you  forbid  it." 

Then  after  four  days  she  took  her  offerings  to  the  place  where  she 
was  to  meet  the  spirit  and  told  him  that  her  father  had  forbidden 
her  to  accept  the  blessing.  "'You  are  not  a  good  spirit,' he  said." 
"He  is  right,  for  one  side  of  my  body  is  not  good  but  the  other  is," 
answered  the  spirit.  "That  is  the  way  in  which  Earthmaker 
created  me."  Thus  the  wak'aintcu°  spoke.30  Then  the  woman 
looked  toward  the  lake  and  she  saw  a  tree  standing  in  the  water. 
The  spirit  climbed  upon  this  tree  and  wTapped  himself  around  it. 
Then  he  took  a  tooth  and  shot  the  tree  and  knocked  it  down.31 
"This  is  what  you  would  have  been  able  to  do,"  said  the  spirit. 
"The  people  would  have  respected  you  very  much.  You  would  have 
been  able  to  cure  weak  or  nervous  people.  But  you  did  not  listen 
to  what  I  told  you.     You  refused  it." 

FASTING    EXPERIENCE 

(INFORMANT,    CLAN    UNKNOWN) 

A  man  fasted  and  was  finally  blessed.  When  he  was  to  be  blessed 
a  spirit  came  after  him.  He  came  from  the  south.  "Human,"  he 
said,  "I  was  told  to  come  after  you."  Then  the  man  looked  at  him 
and  he  saw  that  it  was  a  man  speaking  to  him.  So  he  went  along 
with  him.  He  did  not  go  far  before  he  came  to  a  village  and  in  the 
middle  of  this  village  he  saw  a  long  lodge.  There  he  was  taken  and 
there  he  was  blessed.  The  one  that  was  in  charge  of  the  village 
blessed  him  first. 

"I  bless  you  with  victory  in  wars.  Whenever  you  go  on  the  war- 
path and  when  you  are  about  to  make  the  rush,  do  not  forget  me. 
If  you  pour  some  tobacco  for  me  and  then  fight,  the  enemy  will  not 
be  able  to  kill  you.     I  am  in  charge  of  wars." 

29  When  people  are  blessed  by  the  Water-spirits  they  make  medicines  from  the  bones  of  the  spirits. 
They  are  also  supposed  to  make  what  the  Winnebagoes  call  "implements."  What  is  actually  meant  by 
this  term  it  is  very  difficult  to  state  precisely.  But  it  seems  that  they  meant  sharpened  bones,  etc.,  used 
in  connection  with  the  administration  of  magical  medicines  in  painting  the  body,  and  in  connection  with 
shamanistic  practices  of  all  sorts.  It  is  not  common  for  other  spirits  beside  the  Water-spirits  to  bless  an 
individual  with  the  use  of  "his  bones,"  but  this  is  occasionally  met  with.  In  the  trickster  cycle  the  trick- 
ster, in  one  of  his  escapades,  is  squeezed  into  the  skull  of  an  elk,  and  he  persuades  the  people  that  he  is  an 
elk-spirit  and  blesses  them  and  permits  them  to  use  his  bones. 

30  This  characteristic  would  seem  to  identify  the  wak'aintcun  with  the  disease-giver ,  although  it  is  possible 
that  a  number  of  Winnebago  deities  had  such  characteristics. 

»  This  is  a  symbolistic  representation  of  the  powers  she  was  given. 


EADI.N]  RELIGION  305 

So  he  spoke  to  him.  "  Thus  will  your  life  be.  Look  at  yourself." 
So  he  looked  at  himself  and  his  hair  was  Yery  white.  As  one  who 
had  attained  a  full  life  he  saw  himself.  "All  that  are  within  this 
lodge  bless  you,"  the  spirit  continued.  "You  have  come  to  the 
Buffalo  village."  This  he  was  told,  so  he  looked  at  the  lodge  full 
of  people.  And  those  whom  he  had  seen  up  to  that  time  as  human 
beings  now  were  buffaloes. 

"Human,  they  bless  you  is  why  they  went  after  you.  Human, 
if  anyone  is  weighted  with  life  and  a  reasonable  amount  of  tobacco 
is  given,  such  a  one  would  be  able  to  do  the  following": 

A  dead  man  was  placed  in  the  middle  of  the  lodge,  and  all  of 
those  in  the  lodge  tried  their  power,  but  none  succeeded  in  restoring 
him  to  life.  At  last  the  spirits  let  the  man  try  it.  So  he  tried. 
When  he  arose,  all  those  in  the  lodge  began  to  make  sounds  and 
when  he  began  to  exert  his  powers  he  sang  buffalo  songs.  When 
he  was  through  with  these  songs,  he  walked  toward  the  dead  man, 
in  the  middle  of  the  lodge.  He  blew  on  him  once,  then  again  and 
again.  Now  the  man  began  to  open  his  eyes.  Then  he  blew  on 
him  for  the  fourth  time  and  he  caused  him  to  rise. 

"Human,  you  have  overcome  all  of  us,"  said  the  buffalo  chief. 
"Human,  thus  shall  you  ever  do  to  people.  If  anyone  is  sick  and 
the.  proper  offerings  are  made  to  you,  send  some  tobacco  to  our 
council  lodge  and  I  will  remember  you.  You  must  send  all  the 
tobacco  that  is  offered  to  you.  I  will  remember  it.  This  council 
lodge  is  given  to  you  and  to  your  posterity  as  long  as  it  lasts.  As 
long  as  the  earth  lasts  that  long  your  posterity  will  have  occasions 
on  which  to  pour  tobacco.  Whatever  blessing  they  ask,  we  will 
bestow  upon  them  whde  we  smoke  their  tobacco.  As  many  as  are 
the  kettles  that  they  offer  to  us,  we  will  never  accept  one  without 
giving  them  a  blessing.  We  are  in  control  of  wars ;  the  Earthmaker 
has  given  us  control  of  them,  and  if  you  ask  for  it  we  will  give  it  to 
you.  And  if  you  ask  for  life  we  will  bestow  that  blessing  upon  you 
and  accept  your  offerings." 

They  also  blessed  him  with  plants  for  medicine.  This  is  the  way 
they  did  it.  Each  of  the  spirits  caused  him  to  see  a  plant  and  to 
know  the  purposes  to  which  it  could  be  put.  They  told  him  to  make 
offerings  to  the  plants  whenever  he  gave  a  feast,  so  that  the  plants 
would  become  more  powerful.  They  also  blessed  him  with  a  drum. 
"This  you  must  beat  when  you  give  a  feast  and  it  will  tell  us  your 
wants.  We  will  understand  the  drum.  We  will  make  your  drum 
holy  for  you,  and  you  must  treat  it  as  such,"  they  told  him.  "You 
must  keep  it  holy.  Whenever  you  are  on  the  warpath  you  must 
take  it  with  you  and  it  will  help  you.  Human,  your  enemies  you  will 
overcome;  your  weapons  only  will  be  sharp  if  your  posterity  will 
never  give  up  this  ceremony."     So  they  spoke  to  him.     "Whenever 


306  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

you  -give  this  ceremony,  no  matter  what  blessing  you  ask,  we  will 
bestow  it  upon  you,  when  you  offer  tobacco.  A  flute  you  must  also 
keep  holy.  You  must  make  it  yourself,  so  that  it  remains  sacred." 
They  also  told  him  to  make  a  war  bundle.  The  Buffalo  chief  told 
him  this.  So  he  made  one  out  of  a  buffalo  head  and  a  buffalo  tail. 
These  he  made  sacred  so  that  people  might  offer  tobacco  to  them. 
This  was  done  long  ago  and  yet  they  still  do  it. 

Then  they  told  him  that  four  differently  colored  buffaloes  would 
bless  him — a  white  one,  a  black  one,  a  red  one,  and  a  yellow  one- 
After  a  while  he  was  blessed  the  second  time.     This  time  the  spirits 
came  after  him  from  above  and  took  him  to  the  home  of  a  spirit 
buffalo.     This  is  the  one  that  blessed  him. 

"Earthmaker  has  placed  me  here,"  said  the  spirit,  "and  he  has 
given  me  control  of  many  things.  Grandson,  I  bless  you.  I  am  in 
control  of  war  power,  and  if  you  ever  go  on  the  warpath  don't  forget 
me.  If  you  pour  a  pipeful  of  tobacco  for  me  before  you  go  into 
battle,  the  enemy  will  only  be  able  to  shoot  your  shadow."  Thus  he 
spoke  to  him.  "I  will  take  your  body,  and  in  that  way  it  will 
only  be  your  shadow  that  the  enemy  will  try  to  shoot  with  all  their 
strength.  You  will  be  without  a  body,  and  how  then  can  they  hit 
you,  being  without  a  body?"  This  is  what  the  spirit  told  him.  So, 
therefore,  whenever  he  went  on  the  warpath  it  was  impossible  to 
kill  him.  For  the  spirit  had  said,  "I  am  also  in  control  of  life  and 
I  will  give  you  your  life  back,  that  you  may  control  it.  The  spirits 
have  given  you  a  tobacco-pouring  feast  and  whenever  you  give  it, 
remember  that  I  wish  to  smoke  also.  When  you  pour  tobacco  for 
me  I  will  grant  you  whatever  you  ask.  If  you  ask  for  war,  or  if  you 
ask  for  life,  I  will  accept  your  tobacco.  As  long  as  this  earth  lasts 
I  will  smoke  your  tobacco  and  accept  the  kettle  of  food  that  you 
place  on  the  fire  for  me." 

Thus  he  spoke  to  him.  The  man,  however,  still  kept  on  fasting, 
and  finally  the  spirits  came  for  him  again.  There  in  the  middle  of 
the  earth  lived  a  buffalo-ghost.  There  he  went  and  the  buffalo- 
ghost  said  to  him:  "I  also  bless  you.  You  were  given  counsel  and 
I  who  am  a  buffalo  also  counsel  you.  I  am  in  control  of  many  tilings. 
Earthmaker  placed  me  here  to  live  and  he  put  me  in  control  of  many 
tilings.  Human,  look  at  me,"  he  said.  The  man  looked  at  him. 
Then  he  saw  that  his  body  was  covered  with  flattened  bullets.  ' '  Thus 
you  will  be,"  said  the  ghost  to  him.  "It  will  be  impossible  to  kill 
you,  and  you  will  attain  to  old  age,  and  when  you  get  tired  of  living 
you  may  do  as  you  please.  I  give  you  the  privilege  of  controlling 
yourself."  Then  he  gave  him  a  song  and  he  caused  him  to  see  a 
war  prize,  a  wampum.     After  a  while  he  spoke  to  Mm  as  follows : 

"  I  also  will  always  smoke  at  your  feast,  and  if  a  kettle  is  ever  put 
on  the  fire  for  me,  I  will  be  thankful  to  you.     Whatever  the  people 


kadin]  RELIGION  307 

ask  of  me  I  will  always  take  it  into  consideration.  If  they  ask  for 
war  or  if  they  ask  for  life,  remember  that  I  have  been  given  control 
of  these  tilings."  Thus  spoke  the  buffalo-ghost.  There  he  received 
all  the  things  with  which  he  was  blessed. 

In  the  course  of  his  life  he  made  use  of  all  his  blessings.  His  first 
victory  occurred  when  he  went  on  the  warpath  for  the  first  time- 
He  had  joined  a  war  party  and  a  fight  occurred  toward  the  evening 
of  the  same  day.  As  he  was  walking  along  he  suddenly  saw  a  gun 
directed  against  him  at  close  range.  He  jumped  right  and  left  and 
in  that  way  escaped  being  shot.  Then  the  enemy  tried  to  capture 
the  one  who  had  been  blessed  by  the  buffalo,  holding  him  tightly  by 
the  arm.  But  he  struck  the  enemy  twice  against  an  object  and  tore 
his  stomach  open.  Then  he  walked  away.  As  he  was  going  he 
thought  to  himself,  "Why  did  I  not  kill  him  outright?"  So  he  went 
back  with  the  intention  of  doing  this,  but  as  he  approached  the  man 
the  latter  directed  a  gun  against  him.  Thinking,  however,  that  it 
was  not  loaded,  he  did  not  dodge,  and  he  was  shot.  His  breast  was 
filled  with  shot  and  he  was  killed.  But  he  did  not  remain  dead  long. 
He.  soon  came  to  consciousness  and  sat  up,  uttering  sounds  like  a 
buffalo. 

Then  he  remembered  that  a  buffalo  ghost  had  blessed  him.  He  had 
indeed  said  to  him,  "When  you  are  about  to  fight  do  not  forget  me." 
He  remembered  this,  so  he  exerted  his  power.  All  the  blood  that 
was  in  his  stomach  he  vomited  forth  and  felt  better.  Just  then  one 
of  his  relatives  came  along  and  asked  him,  "How  have  you  been  getting 
along?"  and  he  answered,  "I  have  killed  one.  There  lies  his  body. 
Take  his  scalp  for  me."  "All  right,"  said  his  relative,  and  did  what 
he  had  been  told,  and  brought  it  to  him,  saving,  "Here  it  is."  A 
horse  was  there  also,  and  this  the  relative  likewise  led  away  and 
started  back  to  (the  camp).  When  he  met  the  war  leader,  the  latter 
asked  him,  "How  have  you  been  making  out?"  He  answered,  "I 
give  you  these  trophies,"  and  handed  the  leader  the  scalp  and  the 
horse.  "Ah,  it  is  good,"  he  said,  and  put  a  wampum  belt  on  him. 
Then  the  war  leader  sang  a  song  and  started  to  run,  and  the  buffalo- 
blessed  one  reminded  himself  of  his  blessing  and  went  back  also. 
He  was  all  shot  to  pieces.  But  he  did  not  die,  for  he  had  been 
blessed  with  power,  so  how  could  he  die  ?  The  buffalo  ghost  he  had 
seen  with  flattened  bullets  in  his  belt  had  fulfilled  his  promise,  and 
the  wampum  belt  that  he  had  seen  in  his  fasting  had  now  become  true. 

He  went  to  many  wars  after  this,  but  he  was  never  harmed.  He 
doctored  many  people  and  caused  them  to  have  more  life.  After 
a  while  he  made  a  war  bundle  consisting  of  a  flute  that  he  had  con- 
structed himself,  a  buffalo  tail,  and  a  buffalo  head.  Then  he  made 
offerings  to  them.  These  many  things  he  made  sacred.  Since  then 
buffalo  feasts  have  been  given. 


308  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

J.    B.'S    FASTING    EXPERIENCE 

I  fasted  all  the  time.  We  moved  back  to  a  place  where  all  the 
leaders  used  to  give  their  feasts.  Near  the  place  where  we  lived 
there  were  three  lakes  and  a  black  hawk's  nest.  Right  near  the  tree 
where  the  nest  was  located  they  built  a  lodge  and  the  war-bundle 
that  we  possessed  was  placed  in  the  lodge.  We  were  to  pass  the 
night  there,  my  older  brother  and  myself.  It  was  said  that  if  anyone 
fasted  at  such  a  place  for  four  nights  he  would  always  be  blessed 
with  victory  and  the  power  to  cure  the  sick.  All  the  spirits  would 
bless  him. 

"The  first  night  spent  there  one  imagined  himself  surrounded  by 
spirits  whose  whisperings  were  heard  outside  of  the  lodge,"  they 
said.  The  spirits  would  even  whistle.  I  would  be  frightened  and 
nervous,  and  if  I  remained  there  I  would  be  molested  by  large  mon- 
sters, fearful  to  look  upon.  Even  (the  bravest)  might  be  frightened, 
I  was  told.  Should  I,  however,  get  through  that  night,  I  would  on 
the  following  night  be  molested  by  ghosts  whom  I  would  hear  speak- 
ing outside.  They  would  say  things  that  might  cause  me  to  run 
away.  Toward  morning  they  would  even  take  my  blanket  away  from 
me.  They  would  grab  hold  of  me  and  drive  me  out  of  the  lodge, 
and  they  would  not  stop  until  the  sun  rose.  If  I  was  able  to  endure 
the  third  night,  on  the  fourth  night  I  would  really  be  addressed  by 
spirits,  it  was  said,  who  would  bless  me,  saying,  "I  bless  you.  We 
had  turned  you  over  to  the  (monsters,  etc.)  and  that  is  why  they 
approached  you,  but  you  overcame  them  and  now  they  will  not  be 
able  to  take  you  away.  Now  you  may  go  home,  for  with  victory  and 
long  life  we  bless  you  and  also  with  the  power  of  healing  the  sick. 
Nor  shall  you  lack  wealth  (literally,  'people's  possessions').  So  go 
home  and  eat,  for  a  large  war-party  is  soon  to  fall  upon  you  and  as  soon 
as  the  sun  rises  in  the  morning  they  will  give  the  war  whoop,  and  if 
you  do  not  go  home  now  they  wdl  kill  you." 

Thus  the  spirits  would  speak  to  me.  However,  if  I  did  not  do  the 
bidding  of  this  particular  spirit,  then  another  one  would  address  me 
and  say  very  much  the  same  thing.  So  the  spirits  would  speak  until 
the  break  of  day,  and  just  before  sunrise  a  man  in  warrior's  regalia 
would  come  and  peep  in.  He  would  be  a  scout.  Then  I  would 
surely  think  a  war  party  had  come  upon  me,  I  was  told. 

Then  another  spirit  would  come  and  say,  "Well,  grandson,  I  have 
taken  pity  upon  you  and  I  bless  you  with  all  the  good  things  that 
the  earth  holds.  Go  home  now,  for  the  war-party  is  about  to  rush 
upon  you."  And  if  I  then  went  home,  as  soon  as  the  sun  rose  the 
war-whoop  would  be  given.  The  members  of  the  war-party  would 
give  the  war-whoop  all  at  the  same  time.  They  would  rush  upon  me 
and  capture  me  and  after  the  fourth  one  had  counted  coup,  then 


radin]  RELIGION  309 

they  would  say,  "Now  then,  grandson,  this  we  did  to  teach  you. 
Thus  you  shall  act.  You  have  completed  your  fasting."  Thus  they 
would  talk  to  me,  I  was  told.  This  war-party  was  composed  entirely 
of  spirits,  I  was  told,  spirits  from  the  heavens  and  from  the  earth; 
indeed,  all  the  spirits  that  exist  would  be  there.  These  would  all 
bless  me.  They  also  told  me  that  it  would  be  a  very  difficult  thing 
to  accomplish  this  particular  fasting. 

So  there  I  fasted,  at  the  black  hawk's  nest  where  a  lodge  had  been 
built  for  me.  The  first  night  I  stayed  there  I  wondered  when  things 
would  happen;  but  nothing  took  place.  The  second  night,  rather 
late  in  the  night,  my  father  came  and  opened  the  war-bundle  and 
taking  a  gourd  out,  began  to  sing.  I  stood  beside  him  without  any 
clothing  on  me  except  the  breech-clout,  and  holding  tobacco  in  each 
hand  I  uttered  my  cry  to  the  spirits  as  my  father  sang.  He  sang 
war-bundle  songs  and  he  wept  as  he  sang.  I  also  wept  as  I  uttered 
my  cry  to  the  spirits.  When  he  was  finished  he  told  me  some  sacred 
stories,  and  then  went  home. 

When  I  found  myself  alone  I  began  to  think  that  something  ought 
to  happen  to  me  soon,  yet  nothing  occurred,  so  I  had  to  pass  another 
day  there.  On  the  third  night  I  was  still  there.  My  father  visited 
me  again  and  we  repeated  what  we  had  done  the  night  before.  In 
the  morning,  just  before  sunrise,  I  littered  my  cry  to  the  spirits. 
The  fourth  night  found  me  still  there.  Again  my  father  came  and 
we  did  the  same  things,  but  in  spite  of  it  all,  I  experienced  nothing 
unusual.  Soon  another  day  dawned  upon  us.  That  morning  I 
told  my  elder  brother  that  I  had  been  blessed  by  spirits  and  that  I 
was  going  home  to  eat.  However,  I  was  not  telling  the  truth.  I 
was  hungry  and  I  also  knew  that  on  the  following  night  we  were 
going  to  have  a  feast  and  that  I  would  have  to  utter  my  cry  to  the 
spirits  again.  I  dreaded  that.  So  I  went  home.  When  I  got  there 
I  told  my  people  the  story  I  had  told  my  brother;  that  I  had  been 
blessed  and  that  the  spirits  had  told  me  to  eat.  I  was  not  speaking 
the  truth,  yet  they  gave  me  the  food  that  is  carefully  prepared  for 
those  who  have  been  blessed.  Just  then  my  older  brother  came 
home  and  they  objected  to  his  return,  for  he  had  not  been  blessed. 
However,  he  took  some  food  and  ate  it. 

That  night  we  gave  our  feast.  There,  however,  our  pride  received 
a  fall,  for  although  it  was  supposedly  given  in  our  honor,  we  were 
placed  on  one  side  (of  the  main  participants).  After  the  kettles  of 
food  had  been  put  on  twice,  it  became  daylight. 

HOW    A    MAN    DEFIED    DISEASE-GIVER 

Once  a  man  said,  "Why  do  you  always  make  offerings  and  feasts 
to  the  Disease-giver?  What  benefit  has  he  ever  been  to  you  that 
you  do  it  ?  If  I  were  ever  to  see  him,  I  would  kick  him  off  the  earth. 
The  only  thing  he  can  give  you  is  disease." 


310  THE    WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

In  the  fall  of  the  year  in  which  the  man  said  this  the  people,  as 
usual,  went  out  hunting  and  the  man  got  lost  and  was  forced  to 
camp  out  in  the  wilderness  overnight.  So  he  built  a  fire  and  sat 
alongside  of  it.  Suddenly  he  saw  a  man  coming  toward  him.  As 
soon  as  the  stranger  came  up  to  him  he  took  a  seat  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  fireplace.  Then  the  stranger  said,  "I  am  the  one  whom 
you  threatened  to  lack  off  this  earth  whenever  you  met  him.  You, 
furthermore,  boasted  that  I  could  not  kill  you."  Then  he  pointed 
his  finger  in  a  line  with  the  man's  heart.  But  the  man  remained 
seated  near  the  fireplace  without  moving.  Then  he  did  this  again, 
yet  the  man  still  remained  in  his  former  position.  Then  the  third 
time  he  did  it  and  said,  "In  the  center  of  the  heart."  The  man, 
however,  remained  seated  just  as  before.  Then  the  stranger 
exclaimed,  "Who  are  you  anyhow?"  and  pointed  his  finger  at  him. 
But  the  man  did  not  move.  Then  the  stranger  (Disease-giver) 
pleaded  with  the  man  to  die  so  that  it  might  not  be  said  that  he  had 
failed  in  the  "  mission"  for  which  he  had  been  created.  He  promised 
the  man  that  if  he  would  oblige  him  and  die  he  could  come  back  to 
earth  again  within  four  days.  Finally  the  man  consented.  He 
went  home  and  told  his  folks  that  he  was  going  to  a  certain  place  to 
die  for  the  space  of  four  days  and  that  they  should,  under  no  con- 
ditions, go  to  see  him  there,  for  in  that  case  he  would  surely  die. 
Then  he  dressed  himself  in  his  best  clothes  and  went  to  the  place 
where  he  was  to  meet  Disease-giver.  (He  rested  his  head  against  a 
tree  and  died.)  However,  on  the  third  day  his  wife  could  not  resist 
the  desire  to  see  him,  so  she  went  to  the  place  where  her  husband 
was  leaning  against  the  tree.  Then  he  really  died.  After  his  death 
a  red  spot  was  \  isible  upon  his  forehead.32 

Methods  of  Bringing  the  Spirits  into  Relation  with  Man 

Fasting. — Fasting  has  been  discussed  before.  There  are  two  things 
to  be  remembered  in  connection  with  it — first,  that  it  is  a  method  of 
superinducing  a  religious  feeling;  and,  secondly,  that  this  religious 
feeling  in  turn  is  bound  up  with  the  desire  for  preserving  and  per- 
petuating socio-economic  life  values.  Among  the  Winnebago  the 
desirability  of  the  conditions  superinduced  by  fasting  lay  not  so 
much  in  the  emotional  pleasure  it  gave,  although  this  is  not  to  be 
underestimated,  as  in  the  belief  which  the  shamans  had  developed, 
that  such  a  state  was  essential  for  placing  people  in  a  position 
enabling  them  to  overcome  certain  crises  in  life,  which  it  was  reason- 
able to  believe  might  take  place. 

Mental  concentration. — To  the  religiously  inclined  Winnebago  the 
efficacy  of  a  blessing,  of  a  ceremony,  etc.,  depended  upon  what  they 

"  This  is  not  supposed  to  be  a  myth  hut  the  real  experience  of  a  man  named  James  Smith. 


kadin]  RELIGION  311 

called  ''concentrating  one's  mind"  upon  the  spirits,  upon  the  details 
of  the  ritual,  or  upon  the  precise  purpose  to  be  accomplished.  All 
other  thoughts  were  to  be  rigidly  excluded,  they  believed.  This  was 
the  insistent  admonition  of  the  Winnebago  elders  to  the  youth  who  was 
fasting.  He  was  to  center  his  mind  completely  on  the  spirits,  for  his 
blessing  would  be  in  direct  proportion  to  the  power  of  concentration 
he  was  capable  of.  The  Winnebago  believed  that  the  relation  between 
man  and  the  spirits  was  established  by  this  concentration  and  that 
no  manner  of  care  in  ritualistic  detail  could  take  its  place.  Very  fre- 
quently failure  on  a  warpath  or  lack  of  efficacy  of  a  ritual  was 
attributed  to  the  fact  that  the  Indian  or  Indians  had  been  lacking  in 
the  intensity  of  their  "concentration." 

Offerings  and  sacrifices. — The  theory  of  offering  and  sacrifice  held 
by  the  Winnebago  has  been  discussed  before.  To  the  important 
deities  offerings  were  made  at  the  great  ceremonies.  These  offerings 
consisted  of  tobacco  preeminently,  buckskins,  and  whatever  the 
particular  spirit  was  supposed  to  like.  The  animal  spirits  were 
given  their  favorite  foods — honey  to  the  bear,  for  instance.  Dogs 
were  offered  to  Disease-giver  at  the  war-bundle  feasts.  Whether 
human  sacrifices  ever  existed  it  is  difficult  to  say.  In  the  tale  of 
Wegi'ceka  a  child  is  offered  to  Earthmaker,  and  there  is  reason  to 
believe  that  this  may  represent  a  survival  of  human  sacrifice. 

Tobacco  could  be  offered  at  any  time  and  was  so  offered  to  the  vari- 
ous genii  loci  whenever  an  individual  passed  their  precincts. 

Prayers. — For  examples  of  prayers  reference  must  be  made  to  the 
descriptions  of  the  ceremonies.  Among  the  Winnebago,  and  doubt- 
less everywhere  else,  the  objects  of  the  prayer  are  always  the  socio- 
economic life  values.  What  in  these  values  is  stressed  depends 
upon  the  ambitions  of  the  individual,  and  consequently  it  happens 
that  individuals  may  pray  for  abstract  blessings  or  ideal  objects, 
although  this  is  rare.  Prayers  are  undoubtedly  always  accompanied 
by  a  religious  feeling  when  made  by  the  religious  man,  but  frequently 
become  mere  formulas  in  the  hands  of  the  lay  Indian. 

The  Folkloristic  Concepts 

Tin  concept  of  evil. — It  is  extremely  difficult  to  understand  exactly 
what  the  Winnebago  concept  of  evil  is.  They  undoubtedly  postu- 
late the  existence  of  evil  and  they  have  theoretically  a  host  of  evil 
spirits,  the  waxop'i'ni  cicilc.  Youths  will  be  warned  not  to  fast  at  certain 
times  and  children  will  carefully  be  kept  at  home  after  dark  for  fear 
of  the  evil  spirits.  Yet  in  spite  of  all  this,  no  even  fairly  definite  idea 
of  what  these  evil  spirits  are  and  what  they  look  like  can  be  obtained. 
One  almost  gets  the  impression  that  the  notion  of  evil  spirits  belongs 
to  an  older  strata  of  Winnebago  beliefs  and  that  what  we  find  to-day 


312  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

is  but  a  faint  survival  of  former  times.  The  older  myths  are  full  of 
references  to  the  evil  spirits,  and  the  cosmological  myths  represent 
the  world  as  infested  with  evil  spirits  who  are  on  the  point  of  exter- 
minating the  human  race  until  the  culture  heroes  come  to  the  rescue. 
It  would  almost  seem  as  if,  from  a  purely  matter-of-fact  point  of 
view,  these  early  culture  heroes  had  destroyed  all  the  evil  spirits. 
Certainly  they  are  not  regarded  as  of  great  consequence,  for  if  they 
were  we  ought  to  find  a  certain  number  of  prayers  addressed  to  them 
asking  them  not  to  harm  anyone.  They  seem  to  be  mere  bogies, 
personifications  of  fear,  and  that  is  perhaps  why  they  are  so  intimately 
connected  with  darkness. 

At  the  present  time  the  vast  majority  of  Winnebago  ascribe  evil, 
in  so  far  as  they  explain  it  at  all,  to  three  causes — either  to  some 
failure  on  their  part  to  perform  a  rite  in  the  prescribed  way,  to 
the  fact  that  they  have  not  invoked  the  spirits  for  protection  (i.  e., 
attempted  to  pass  through  life  without  the  aid  of  the  spirits),  or  to  the 
evil  machinations  of  other  men.  Often  one  derives  the  impression 
that  they  accept  evil  and  do  not  try  to  explain  it.  It  seems  to  be  a 
trait  characteristic  of  the  Winnebago,  and  perhaps  characteristic  of 
other  North  American  tribes,  that  explanations  are  developed  for 
the  positive  aspects  of  things.  Certainly  it  would  require  some 
thought  on  the  part  of  a  Winnebago  to  explain  why  a  war  party 
that  had,  in  the  opinion  of  the  chief,  all  the  necessary  requirements 
for  victory,  should  nevertheless  be  defeated.  He  would  doubtless 
find  some  reason,  after  a  while,  but  it  would  be  an  afterthought  and 
would  probably  vary  from  individual  to  individual.  In  some  cases 
lack  of  success  would  be  ascribed  to  the  fact  that  an  individual  had 
been  misled  by  an  evil  spirit,  but  this  is  clearly  a  secondary  explana- 
tion because  the  individual,  when  questioned,  would  admit  that  he  had 
no  way  of  telling  whether  this  was  so  until  he  had  failed  in  some- 
thing.    We  base  this  statement  on  an  actual  instance. 

There  is  some  evidence  to  show  that  there  may  have  originally 
existed  among  the  Winnebago  a  belief  that  the  spirits  were  neither 
good  nor  bad;  that  they  could  be  either  at  different  times.  In  two 
notable  instances,  that  of  Disease-giver  and  Water-spirit,  this  is  true 
at  the  present  time.  The  former  deity  is  the  only  one  to  whom 
prayers  are  addressed  beseeching  him  not  to  present  to  man  his 
death-dealing  side. 

In  the  myths  we  find  a  definite  incarnation  of  evil  in  the  case  of 
a  spirit  called  Herecgu'nina.  The  meaning  of  this  word  as  given  by 
a  Winnebago,  and  which  seems  to  be  justified,  is  "he  whose  existence 
is  doubtful."  If  this  is  an  old  Winnebago  word  it  would  confirm 
the  view  advanced  above,  that  the  Winnebago  were  not  very  much 
concerned  about  the  evil  spirits.  There  is,  however,  a  possibility 
that   Herecgu'nina   is,  in  part,  a  post-Columbian  development   due 


badin]  RELIGION  313 

to  Christian  influence.  The  one  place  where  he  plays  an  important 
role,  the  myth  of  the  twins,  shows  definite  indications  of  European 
influence.  The  only  thing  that  militates  against  such  an  assumption 
is  the  fact  that  there  does  not  seem  to  be  any  particular  reason  why 
the  existence  of  a  chief  evil  spirit  should  have  been  doubted,  even 
if  we  were  to  grant  that  Christian  influence  extended  the  belief.  The 
French  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  had  a  very  definite 
idea  of  the  devil  and  made  it  a  point  to  tell  the  Indians  that  all  their 
former  habits  were  due  to  deceptions  the  devil  had  practiced  upon 
them.  To-day  such  an  answer  is  the  first  that  a  Christianized  Winne- 
bago or  a  member  of  the  new  Peyote  cult  will  give  an  ethnologist. 
Perhaps,  after  all,  it  is  a  very  old  Winnebago  conception,  a  confir- 
mation of  the  view  promulgated  before,  that  in  former  times  the 
'Winnebago  had  a  very  definite  conception  of  evil  spirits  taking  an 
active  part  in  the  affairs  of  man  to  his  detriment.  The  figure  of 
Herecgu'nina  is  well  defined  and  it  would  be  ridiculous,  in  our 
opinion,  to  believe  that  the  shamans  would  have  done  anything  to 
develop  it.  We  have  clear  indications  of  what  the  shamans  were 
trying  to  do  with  this  conception.  They  were  attempting  to  bring 
it  into  some  relation  with  the  concept  of  Earthmaker,  a  beneficent 
All-Father,  and  to  do  so  they  were  even  willing  to  claim  that 
Herecgu'nina  was  the  first  attempt  of  Earthmaker  to  create  a  spirit ; 
that  Earthmaker  was  dissatisfied  with  his  work  and  threw  it  away; 
that  then  Herecgu'nina  watched  Earthmaker  create  spirits  and  imi- 
tated him,  the  evil  spirits  representing  these  imitations.  The 
shamans,  we  should  expect,  would  have  done  all  in  their  power  to 
lessen  the  importance  of  Herecgu'nina,  even  to  deny  his  existence,  and, 
in  this  connection,  it  may  be  of  significance  that  one  Winnebago 
interpreted  his  name  to  mean,  "  He-who-seems-to-exist-but-who- 
does-not." 

Whatever  the  case  may  be,  this  much  is  clear,  that  in  the  twin 
myth  he  is  represented  as  a  deity  as  powerful  as  Earthmaker,  whom 
Earthmaker  can  not  destroy;  upon  whom  the  twins  play  jokes  but 
whom  they  cannot  really  harm. 

The  concept  of  disease. — Disease  is  rarely  ascribed  to  the  spirits. 
Like  lack  of  success,  it  is  regarded  as  a  fact  of  existence,  and  when 
it  is  explained  it  is  believed  to  be  due  either  to  the  carelessness  of 
man  in  trying  to  pass  through  life  without  the  aid  of  the  spirits  or 
to  the  evil  machinations  of  other  men. 

The  deity  known  as  Disease-giver  is  the  one  exception  to  the  rule 
that  the  Winnebago  spirits  do  not  directly  cause  disease,  for  he  is 
sometimes  described  as  scattering  death  broadcast  over  the  earth. 

The  concepts  of  death,  after-life,  and  reincarnation. — Death  is  rarely, 
if  ever,  ascribed  to  the  spirits.  It  likewise  is  a  fact  of  existence  and, 
186S230— 22 21 


314  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

when  explained,  is  laid  at  the  door  of  some  evil  man.  Death  at  old 
age  is  clearly  taken  for  granted.  Where  explanations  are  advanced, 
they  are  always  for  the  deaths  of  individuals  before  their  time,  or 
at  least  before  what  the  Winnebago  consider  their  time. 

The  Winnebago  look  at  death  in  two  ways — as  being,  first,  a  dif- 
ferent kind  of  consciousness  from  that  possessed  in  life,  and,  secondly, 
as  being  a  cessation  of  certain  kinds  of  intercourse  between  individuals. 
Death  is  regarded  as  a  "stumbling,"  after  which  the  individual  goes 
right  on  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  He  does  not  know  he  is  dead 
until  he  sees  his  body.  The  individual  is  divested  of  all  his  corporeal 
investment  and  desires.  In  the  myth  of  the  journey  of  the  soul  to 
spirit  land  the  ghost  is  not  entirely  a  spirit  until  the  old  woman 
whom  he  meets  brains  him,  thus,  by  destroying  the  seat  of  con- 
sciousness, depriving  him  of  all  corporeality  and  carnal  desires. 
The  ghost  then  becomes  a  spirit,  in  some  cases  of  the  same  type  as 
the  true  spirits. 

Although  the  Winnebago  know  that  after  death  they  will  never  see 
people  again,  they  do  not  feel  that  all  kinds  of  intercou~e  have 
ceased.  The  deceased  may  appear  to  a  living  individual  in  dreams 
or  visions;  he  may  talk  to  him  or  make  his  presence  felt  in  a  multi- 
tude of  ways;  and  since,  as  we  pointed  out  before,  the  test  of  exist- 
ence is  the  consciousness  of  some  kind  of  contact,  such  intercourse 
may  be  of  a  very  intense  type. 

This  lack  of  a  feeling  of  discontinuity  between  the  living  and  the 
dead  is  emphasized  by  the  Winnebago  concept  of  after-life  and 
reincarnation. 

After-life  is  but  life  on  earth,  only  idealized.  Everything  is  pro- 
vided. All  carnal  desires  have  been  done  away  with  and  men  and 
women  spend  their  time  in  one  long  round  of  enjoyment  and  bliss. 
Something  of  the  fear  of  ghosts  lingers  here,  however,  for  when  living 
individuals  try  to  reach  spirit  land — and  a  number  of  such  instances 
are  mentioned  in  the  myths,  particularly  in  the  origin  myth  of  the 
Ghost  dance — these  spirits  are  likely  to  be  harmful. 

By  the  belief  in  reincarnation  the  Winnebago  entirely  bridge  the 
gulf  between  life  and  death.  In  other  words,  we  seem  to  have  a 
cycle  consisting  of  life  (consciousness),  after-life  (unconsciousness 
from  a  corporeal  viewpoint),  and  life  (reincarnation).  To  live  again 
is  the  greatest  desire  of  the  Winnebago,  and  practically  every  secret 
society  holds  this  out  as  the  lure  to  the  outsider.  If  you  join  the 
Medicine  Lodge  you  will  become  reincarnated,  they  say,  and  the  other 
ritualistic  organizations  make  the  same  claim.  But  not  only  by 
joining  an  organization  is  it  possible  to  be  reincarnated;  if  you  live 
an  upright  life,  if  you  die  on  the  battlefield,  reincarnation  also  awaits 
vou. 


badin]  RELIGION  315 

The  author  was  fortunate  enough  to  obtain  an  account  by  a  well- 
known  Winnebago  shaman  of  his  various  reincarnations. 

T.  C.'s  account  of  his  two  reincarnations. — I  once  lived  in  a  party 
that  numbered  about  20  camps.  When  I  had  grown  up  to  be  a  lad, 
although  one  not  large  enough  to  handle  a  gun,  a  war  party  attacked 
us  and  killed  us  all.  I  did  not  know,  however,  that  I  had  been  killed. 
I  thought  that  I  was  running  about  as  usual  until  I  saw  a  heap  of 
bodies  on  the  ground  and  mine  among  them.  No  one  was  there  to 
bury  us,  so  there  we  lay  and  rotted. 

I  (i.  e.,  my  ghost)  was  taken  to  the  place  where  the  sun  sets  (the 
west).  There  I  lived  with  an  old  couple.  This  place  (spirit  land) 
is  an  excellent  place  and  the  people  have  the  best  of  times.  If  you 
desire  to  go  anywhere,  all  that  you  have  to  do  is  to  wish  yourself 
there  and  you  reach  it.  While  at  that  place  I  thought  I  would  come 
back  to  earth  again,  and  the  old  man  with  whom  I  was  staying  said 
to  me,  "My  son,  did  you  not  speak  about  wanting  to  go  to  the  earth 
again?"  I  had,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  only  thought  of  it,  yet  he  knew 
what  I  wanted.  Then  he  said  to  me,  "You  can  go,  but  you  must 
ask  the  chief  first." 

Then  I  went  and  told  the  chief  of  the  village  of  my  desire,  and  he 
said  to  me,  "You  may  go  and  obtain  your  revenge  (upon  the  people 
who  killed  your  relatives  and  you)." 

Then  I  was  brought  down  to  earth.  I  did  not  enter  a  woman's 
womb,  but  I  was  taken  into  a  room.  There  I  remained,  conscious 
at  all  times.  One  day  I  heard  the  noise  of  little  children  outside  and 
some  other  sounds,  so  I  thought  I  would  go  outside.  Then  it  seemed 
to  me  that  I  went  through  a  door,  but  I  was  really  being  born  again 
from  a  woman's  womb.  As  I  walked  out  I  was  struck  with  the  sudden 
rush  of  cold  air  and  I  began  to  cry. 

At  that  place  I  was  brought  up  and  I  was  taught  to  fast  a  great 
deal.  Afterwards  I  did  nothing  but  go  to  war,  and  I  certainly 
took  revenge  for  the  death  of  myself  and  my  relatives,  that  being 
the  purpose  for  which  I  had  come  to  earth. 

There  I  lived  until  I  died  of  old  age.  All  at  once  my  bones  became 
unjointed,  my  ribs  fell  in,  and  I  died  the  second  time.  I  felt  no  more 
pain  at  death,  then,  than  I  had  felt  the  first  time. 

This  time  I  was  buried  in  the  manner  used  at  that  time.  I  was 
wrapped  in  a  blanket  and  then  laid  in  the  grave.  Sticks  were  placed 
in  the  grave  first.  There  in  the  grave  I  rotted.  I  watched  the  people 
as  they  buried  me. 

As  I  was  lying  there,  some  one  said  to  me,  "Come,  let  us  go  away." 
So  then  we  went  toward  the  setting  of  the  sun.  There  we  came  to  a 
village  where  we  met  all  the  dead.  I  was  told  that  I  would  have  to 
stop  there  for  four  nights,  but  in  reality  I  stayed  there  four  years. 
The  people  enjoy  themselves  there.     They  have  all  sorts  of  dances 


316  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

of  a  lively  kind  all  the  time.  From  that  place  we  went  up  to  the 
place  where  Earthmaker  lived  and  there  I  saw  him  and  talked  to  him, 
face  to  face,  even  as  I  am  talking  to  you  now.  I  saw  the  spirits  too, 
and,  indeed,  I  was  like  one  of  them. 

From  that  place  I  came  to  this  earth  again  for  the  third  time,  and 
here  I  am.     I  am  going  through  the  same  that  I  knew  before. 

The  concept  of  the  soul. — This  concept  is  not  clearly  developed  as  a 
separate  entity  among  the  Winnebago  on  account  of  their  strong 
belief  in  reincarnation.  Their  notion  of  the  soul  is  merged  in  that 
of  the  noncorporeal  ghost  who  eventully  comes  to  earth  again. 

The  Cosmological  Ideas 

The  cosmological  ideas  are  of  two  types — those  that  are  clearly  of 
a  folkloristic  origin  and  those  that  have  been  developed  by  shaman- 
istic  reinterpretations.  To  the  former  class  belong  all  the  creative 
acts  of  the  tricksters  and  culture  heroes,  like  Wdk'djuyk'agd  and  Hare, 
and  to  the  latter  the  systematic  creation  of  the  world  by  Earth- 
maker. 

What  is  probably  the  oldest  form  of  the  Winnebago  cosmological 
notions  is  that  concerned  with  the  general  destruction  of  the  bad 
spirits  by  Hare  and  by  such  spirits  as  the  Thunderbirds,  Morning 
Star,  etc.,  and  the  removal  of  obstacles.  Often  the  present  character- 
istics of  the  earth  are  formed  accidentally,  as,  for  instance,  the  origin 
of  the  valleys,  mountains,  and  lakes,  as  given  in  the  myth  of  "Holy 
One."  Even  in  the  thoroughly  remodeled  general  origin  myth, 
Earthmaker  is  not  conceived  of  as  having  purposely  created  the  world. 

The  Winnebago  believed  that  there  were  four  worlds,  one  beneath 
the  other,  presided  over,  respectively,  by  Earthmaker,  Trickster 
(Wak'dfuylc'aga),  Turtle,  and  Hare.  Hare  rules  over  the  world 
on  which  man  lives.  There  seems  to  be  some  confusion  as  to  who 
rules  over  the  last  earth,  because  it  is  also  definitely  stated  that 
Traveler  (a  Water-spirit)  is  in  control  of  it. 


Part  III 
CHAPTER  XII 


CEREMONIAL  ORGANIZATION 
Introduction 

The  Winnebago  had  four  types  of  ceremonies:  clan  ceremonies, 
in  which  only  members  of  the  clan  could  participate;  religious  so- 
cieties, for  which  only  people  who  had  obtained  blessings  from  the 
same  spirits  were  eligible;  the  Medicine  Dance,  in  which  only  initiated 
individuals  could  take  part;  and  a  semipermanent  organization  like 
the  TwJc'ixe're  dance,  in  which  only  individuals  who  were  returning 
from  a  war  party  and  had  counted  coup  could  participate.  In  this 
grouping  we  do  not  include  ordinary  feasts,  such  as  the  feasts  con- 
nected with  different  medicines  and  the  pleasure  dances. 

Every  clan  seems  to  have  had  a  clan  war-bundle  feast  (often  called 
winter  feast)  and  also  a  specific  clan  feast.  We  have  reason  to  suspect 
that  the  war-bundle  feasts  were  originally  private  feasts  given  by 
the  owner  of  a  war  bundle.  Then  as  the  war  bundles  became  of  great 
importance  to  the  clan  to  which  the  owners  belonged,  they  were  after 
a  while  regarded  as  clan  possessions.  But  even  at  the  present  time, 
while  many  would  contend  that  the  war  bundle  belonged  to  the  clan 
as  such  and  could  not  be  alienated,  everyone  realizes  that  it  is  the 
property,  whether  held  in  trust  or  not,  of  a  certain  individual,  and 
that  he  can,  up  to  a  certain  point,  do  what  he  wishes  with  it.  For  a 
detailed  analysis  of  a  winter  or  war-bundle  feast  see  page  427. 

The  clan  feasts  were  specific  feasts  at  which  offerings  were  made  to 
the  clan  animal.  A  good  description  of  one  is  that  of  the  Snake 
clan  on  page  325. 

Perhaps  the  most  characteristic  ceremonies  of  the  Winnebago  were 
those  of  secret  societies  in  which  membership  was  dependent  upon 
blessings  from  one  and  the  same  spirit.  There  were  at  least  four  of 
these — the  society  of  those  who  have  been  blessed  by  the  night  spirits, 
the  society  of  those  who  have  been  blessed  by  the  buffaloes,  the  society 
of  those  who  have  been  blessed  by  ghosts,  and  the  society  of  those 
who  have  been  blessed  by  grizzly  bears. 

In  order  to  prevent  any  misunderstanding  with  regard  to  the  buffalo 
societies,  it  might  be  well  to  point  out  that  there  were  three  of  them — 

317 


318  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

the  Buffalo  clan  feast,  the  society  of  those  who  have  been  blessed  by 
the  buffaloes,  and  the  society  of  those  who  wear  buffalo  headdresses; 
the  last  apparently  of  Sioux  origin. 

The  medicine  dance  has  been  described  by  the  author  in  some 
detail,1  and  a  general  description  will  be  found  on  page  350. 

Of  the  semipermanent  societies,  the  hoik' ice' re  dance  is  given  after 
every  successful  war  party  by  those  four  individuals  who  have 
counted  coup.  It  has  only  a  temporary  existence,  for  it  ceases  to  be 
an  organization  as  soon  as  each  individual  performance  is  over.  Its 
main  purpose  seems  to  be  the  desire  to  transfer  to  the  victor,  from  the 
skulls  or  the  scalps  of  the  slain  enemies  obtained  on  that  particular 
warpath,  the  valor  and  prowess  for  which  the  slain  person  was  noted. 

In  addition  to  the  above  ceremonies  there  were  a  number  of  pleasure 
and  miscellaneous  dances  that  are  described  on  page  379. 

There  were  apparently  a  number  of  very  important  feasts  connected 
with  certain  medicines,  the  principal  one  of  which  was  the  Black 
Earth  Medicine  feast;  but  unfortunately  no  account  of  this  was 
obtained,  owing  to  lack  of  time. 

Ceremonies  Associated  With  the  Clans 

the  clan  feasts 

THE    THUNDERBIRD   CLAN    OR   CHIEF   PEAST 

Introduction. — The  chief  feast,  or,  as  it  may  more  properly  be 
called,  the  feast  of  the  bird  clans,  is  generally  given  once  a  year, 
sometimes  in  late  spring.  It  was  also  given  on  certain  other  occasions 
for  specific  purposes.  At  the  present  time  it  is  given  by  the  members 
of  the  Thunderbird  clan  and  the  prevalence  of  the  appellation 
"chief  feast"  would  seem  to  indicate  that  it  was  at  all  times  the 
feast  of  the  Thunderbird  clan.  We  ought  then  to  expect  to  find 
clan  feasts  of  the  other  members  of  the  uwjgeregi  division,  namely, 
of  the  Warrior,  Eagle,  and  Pigeon  clans.  No  such  feasts  are  given 
to-day,  however,  and  the  members  of  these  latter  three  clans  always 
speak  of  the  chief  or  bird  feast  as  their  specific  clan  feast.  As  such 
it  is  also  regarded  by  the  members  of  the  mannegi  division. 

In  the  total  absence  of  historical  data  it  is  quite  useless  to  specu- 
late about  the  significance  of  one  feast  sufficing  for  four  clans,  where 
in  strict  analogy  to  the  feasts  of  the  other  clans  we  would  expect  to 
find  one  for  each  clan;  yet  the  idea  that  naturally  presents  itself  is 
that  we  are  in  reality  dealing  with  one  clan  that  has  become  split  up 
into  four  subclans.  Such  a  view  has  been  expressed  by  J.  O.  Dorsey,3 
but  the  data  upon  which  he  based  his  opinion  seem  to  us  highly 

1  The  Ritual  and  Significance  of  the  Winnebago  Medicine  Dance,  Journal  of  American  Folklore,  vol. 
xxrv,  No.  xcn,  1911. 
•Siouan  Sociology,  15th  Ann.  Rept.  Bur.  Amer.  Eton.,  p.  241. 


radin]  CEREMONIAL   ORGANIZATION  319 

unsatisfactory.  Apparently  his  statement  is  based  upon  the  occur- 
rence of  four  mythical  ancestors.  The  similarity  of  the  Winnebago 
social  organization  with  that  of  the  Dhegiha  and  Tciwere  branches  of 
the  Siouan  family,  in  which  subclans  seem  to  be  found,  appears  to 
have  influenced  Dorsey  considerably  in  making  this  assumption. 

It  is  true  that  in  their  account  of  origins  the  Warrior  clan  speak  of 
themselves  as  having  sprung  from  the  second  of  the  birds  mentioned 
in  the  origin  myth  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  and  this  statement  permits 
us  to  infer  that  the  other  two  clans  bear  a  similar  relationship  to  those 
four  ancestral  birds  who,  according  to  legend,  alit  on  a  tree  near  Red 
Banks.  But  this  is,  of  course,  merely  a  mythical  account,  and  the 
data  imbedded  in  the  clan  myths  must  be  used  with  the  greatest  cau- 
tion in  so  far  as  they  can  be  expected  to  throw  any  light  on  early 
conditions  of  social  organization. 

All  that  we  can  say  now  is  that  the  chief  feast  will  have  to  be 
considered  as  belonging  to  all  the  four  bird  clans.  But  this  is  not 
to  be  interpreted  to  mean  that  an  amalgamation  of  four  histori- 
cally distinct  feasts  has  taken  place,  nor  that,  on  the  other  hand,  the 
four  clans  were  originally  subdivisions  of  one  unit. 

The  Chief  feast. — Informant,  member  of  the  Thunderbird  clan:4 
The  chief  of  the  tribe  is  at  the  head  of  all  the  different  bands  and 
groups  of  people  that  exist  among  the  Winnebago.  As  chief  he  has 
full  charge  of  them.  All  the  others  are,  so  to  say,  his  attendants  and 
servants.  When  his  people  wish  anything  they  go  to  him  and  ask 
him  to  obtain  a  blessing  for  them.  Thus  all  the  members  of  the 
tribe,  the  children  as  well  as  the  mature  men,  go  to  him,  and  to  help 
them  the  chief  gives  the  feast  known  as  the  chief  feast.  He  sacrifices 
to  Earthmaker,  and  all  who  are  present  offer  up  some  little  gift  in 
thankfulness,  as  this  is  a  thing  of  supreme  sacredness.  All  those 
who  are  present — the  children,  the  women,  the  middle-aged,  and  the 
old  men — in  fact,  whosoever  attends  the  feast,  see  to  it  that  they  eat 
some  of  the  food  distributed. 

As  this  feast  is  given  in  honor  of  their  chief,  all  the  members  of 
the  tribe,  but  most  particularly  the  members  of  the  Bird  clan,  pre- 
pare large  offerings,  so  that  there  should  be  abundant  food  to  eat. 
They  bring  all  kinds  of  food — different  kinds  of  meat,  different  kinds 
of  vegetables,  all  manner  of  berries — in  short,  all  sorts  of  edibles. 
These  are  to  be  offered  to  the  spirits,  and  by  means  of  these  offer- 
ings they  expect  that  their  life  will  be  filled  with  all  that  is  good. 
It  is  to  obtain  these  blessings  that  the  feast  is  given. 

When  his  people  get  sick,  when  it  appears  that  an  epidemic  is 
likely,  then  the  chief  also  gives  the  chief  feast.     It  is  for  the  purpose 

«  Unfortunately,  it  was  not  possible  to  obtain  a  full  and  detailed  account  of  this  feast.  As  in  type,  how- 
ever, all  the  clan  feasts  are  identical,  this  deficiency  can  be  made  up  in  part  by  comparing  it  with  those 
feasts  like  the  snake,  bear,  and  buffalo  that  have  been  obtained  in  considerable  detail. 


320  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

of  stopping  the  spread  of  the  sickness,  whatever  it  may  be,  and  for 
repairing  the  ravages  caused  thereby.  For  this  the  feasters  pray 
"May  our  people  recover  and  thrive,"  they  say.  "May  they  never, 
get  sick."  Then  they  make  ail  those  present  offer  up  tobacco.  As 
each,  one  offers  tobacco  Earthmaker  is  aware  of  it  and  accepts. 
Thereby  do  we  live  and  become  strengthened.  If  Earthmaker 
smokes  the  tobacco  offered  him  he  will  give  life  in  return.  The 
people  offer  tobacco  that  they  may  obtain  life. 

They  call  the  Thunderbird  people  chiefs,  and  it  is  from  among 
their  ranks  that  they  select  the  chief  of  the  tribe.5 

It  is  the  duty  of  the  chief  to  ward  off  all  evils.  This  is  one  of  their 
missions  in  life.     They  preach  only  what  is  good. 

"Chief,"  they  used  to  say  to  him,  "try  to  do  something  for  your 
people.  Try  to  accomplish  something  difficult  for  them.  Try  to 
accomplish  something  difficult  for  your  village.  If  you  accomplish 
such  a  thing  for  the  benefit  of  your  people  they  will  look  up  to 
you  and  respect  you.  Have  pity  on  your  people  and  love  them. 
If  a  man  is  very  poor,  help  him.  Give  him  and  his  family  food. 
Whatever  they  ask,  give  it  to  them.  If  your  people  get  into  trouble 
with  one  another,  take  your  pipe  and,  walking  in  front,  die  for  them, 
if  necessary.  From  actions  like  these  they  will  know  that  you  are 
really  their  chief.  There,  in  front  of  them,  with  your  pipe  in  your 
hands,  you  will  be  lying  on  the  ground,  dead. 

"If  your  people  are  about  to  sacrifice  a  dog  and  he  gets  loose  and 
runs  into  your  tent,  you  must  let  them  have  something  in  place  of 
this  dog  for  their  feast.  Do  not  let  them  kill  the  dog  in  your  lodge. 
This  would  be  sacrilegious.  Grant  the  dog  his  life.  Similarly,  if  an 
individual  who  has  murdered  a  person  escapes  and  takes  refuge  in 
your  lodge,  give  him  his  life.  Use  all  the  wealth  you  have  and  give 
it  to  him,  that  he  may  employ  it  to  make  peace  with  the  relatives  of 
the  person  he  has  killed.  Help  these  people  who  are  in  need.  Do  not 
think  of  your  wealth.  When  that  is  gone  you  will  get  some  more. 
Do  your  duty.  Do  not  pass  anyone  unnoticed,  not  even  a  child. 
If  people  have  come  and  asked  you  for  something,  do  not  let  them 
go  away  without  attempting  to  do  something  for  them.  You  are  a 
chief.  Do  some  good  for  your  people.  In  that  way  you  will  show 
that  you  are  a  chief.  'Our  chief,'  they  will  all  call  you.  The 
children  that  see  you  will  call  you  chief.  Whoever  talks  to  you  will 
call  you  chief.  If  you  are  good  to  your  people,  they  will  show  their 
respect  by  being  bashful  in  your  presence.  If  you  are  not  good  to 
them  they  will  not  think  you  a  chief  and  they  will  not  be  bashful 
in  your  presence.  So,  at  all  times,  do  as  a  chief  ought  to  do.  Be 
good-natured  to  all  the  people  and  in  this  way  you  will  show  that 

'  What  follows  is  a  typical  speech  delivered  by  a  member  ot  the  Thunderbird  clan. 


EADIN] 


CEREMONIAL   ORGANIZATION 


321 


you  are  indeed  a  chief.     And  then  even  the  people  of  other  tribes 
will  say  that  such  and  such  people  have  a  good  chief." 

Informant,  member  of  the  Bear  clan:  The  Indians  always  cele- 
brated in  summer.  It  was  a  season  of  rejoicing  because  the  chief 
fed  the  tribe.     It  somewhat  symbolized  a  mother  bird  feeding  her 

young  ones.  The  Thunderbird 
clan  is  in  charge  of  the  tribe, 
and  when  the  chief  feeds  the 
tribe  all  rejoice  and  the  standard 
is  raised. 

THE    BEAR  CLAN  FEAST  (FIRST  VERSION) 

Two  versions  of  the  Bear  clan 
feast  Cfig.  36)  were  obtained,  for- 
tunately both  from  a  man  and  a 
woman.  The  feast  was  generally 
given  during  the  month  called 
Hundjwi'ra  (i.  e.,  bear  month), 
corresponding  roughly  to  our 
January. 

Informant,  member  of  the  clan 
(female) :  The  host  tells  his  sis- 
ter's son,  or,  if  he  should  not  hap- 
pen to  have  any,  a  member  of 
the  Wolf  clan,  to  build  a  long 
lodge.  This  attendant  then  fills 
kettles  either  with  blueberries  or 
raspberries  or  any  other  fruit  that 
the  bears  are  fond  of,  and  places 
them  on  the  fireplace.  Some- 
times dried  corn  is  also  brought. 

The  participants  enter  the 
lodge  at  dusk.  The  host  pre- 
cedes the  invited  guests.  In  en- 
tering they  proceed  in  a  direction 
contrary  to  the  hands  of  the 
clock.  The  host  always  sits  at 
the  southeast  end  of  the  lodge  and  the  guests  occupy  seats  next  to 
him,  proceeding  from  the  southeast  to  the  northwest. 

When  all  are  seated  the  host  rises  and  addresses  his  guests  as 
follows: 

"Members  of  my  clan  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you  all.  To 
those  from  whom  I  have  sprung  I  make  these  offerings  of  tobacco 
and  this  headdress  (i.  e.,  red  feathers).  I  was  told  by  my  ancestors 
that  if  I  did  this  I  would  obtain  for  myself,  for  my  relatives,  and  for 


Fig.  36.— Plan  of  Bear  clan  war-bundle  feast  as  given 
by  John  Rave,  a.  Host.  6,  Relatives  of  host,  c, 
Warrior  clan,  d,  Wolf  clan,  e,  Thunderbird  clan. 
/,  Eagle  clan,  g,  Buffalo  clan.  1,  Buckskin  for 
earthmaker.  2,  Buckskin  for  turtle.  3,  Buckskin 
for  thunderbird.  4,  Buckskin  for  sun.  5,  Buck- 
skin for  moon.  6,  Buckskin  for  morning  star.  7, 
Buckskin  for  earth.  S,  Buckskin  for  fire.  9,  Buck- 
skin for  heroka.    10,  Buckskin  for  night  spirits. 


322  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  an.v.  37 

the  members  of  my  clan,  sufficient  blessings  to  guide  us  all  safely 
through  life,  and  to  make  our  lives  pleasant.  I  will  not  tell  the 
origin  myth  (of  our  clan)  because  it  is  sacred  and  it  must  not  be  told 
without  the  proper  ceremony,  for  the  telling  would  then  injure  an 
individual.  Besides  there  are  many  clans  beside  our  own  represented 
here  and  it  is  not  proper  that  these  should  hear  it." 

He  then  speaks  of  the  four  ancestral  bear-beings  who  were  created 
in  the  beginning. 

When  the  feast  is  ready  one  of  the  Wolf  clansmen  gives  four 
soldier  whoops.  Then  the  fire  is  allowed  to  die  out,  and  as  soon 
as  the  lodge  is  in  complete  darkness  the  feasters  begin  to  eat.  Before 
eating,  the  host  sings  four  songs.  These  are  the  clan  songs  and  are 
only  sung  at  these  feasts  or  on  the  occasion  of  the  death  of  a  clans- 
man. 

Those  who  partake  of  food  at  the  feast  may  be  members  of  any 
clan  except  the  Bear  clan.  The  members  of  the  latter  clan  do  not 
eat  at  their  own  feast. 

Everyone  attending  must  bring  his  own  wooden  spoon  and  must 
use  it  with  his  left  hand.  There  are  four  wooden  dishes  in  which 
the  food  is  served.  These  are  arranged  in  the  lodge  in  a  certain 
maimer. 

The  guests  sit  around  these  dishes  and  eat  with  their  own  spoons. 

The  feast  is  given  in  the  first  bear  month.  Some  one  generally 
watches  the  moon  and  as  soon  as  the  new  moon  is  visible  the  feast 
begins.  The  feathers  and  the  tobacco  to  be  offered  are  placed  in 
four  little  troughs  made  of  basswood  bark,  each  about  1  foot  long. 
These  are  then  placed  on  the  south  side,  of  the  fireplace. 

When  the  meal  is  over  the  attendant  or  Wolf  clansman  generally 
says  a  few  words  of  thanks  to  the  host  and  then  the  host  hi  turn 
thanks  those  who  have  participated  and  tells  them  that  the  feast 
is  now  over.  All  now  pass  out,  the  one  next  to  the  host  leaving 
first  and  the  rest  in  succession,  the  host  himself  remaining  until 
the  end. 

When  the  feast  is  over  the  tobacco  and  the  feathers  are  taken 
away  from  the  lodge  and  carried  in  a  southern  direction  to  a  place 
(under  a  tree)  that  has  been  especially  cleared  and  sanctified.  Any 
person  may  therafter  go  there,  offer  tobacco,  and  ask  for  long  life. 

Informant,  member  of  the  clan  (male):  "Well,  soldiers,  your 
moon  is  about  to  appear.  It  is  good.  So  come  forth,  for  it  is  at 
this  time  that  the  spirits  asked  to  be  remembered.  Let  us  send,  on 
this  occasion,  to  the  place  at  which  we  all  originated,  whatever  we 
possess  of  wealth.  This  is  what  the  spirits  asked  of  old.  Let  us 
therefore  put  the  kettle  on  and  prepare  the  feast. 

"This  is  the  way  in  which  we  prepare  the  feast.  I  offer  only  one 
small  kettle.  Here  is  my  offering.  I  pray  that  what  1  offer  may 
suffice  and  bring  enough  blessings  from  the  spirits  to  include  all  the 


eadin]  CEREMONIAL   ORGANIZATION  323 

Indians  who  exist  and  especially  those  who  are  present  at  this  feast. 
For  that  reason  do  we  deliver  these  speeches.  We  were  told  that 
at  the  place  where  we  originated  our  ancestors  now  remain,  regard- 
ing it  as  their  home.  There  they  expectantly  await  us.  So  our 
ancestors  spoke.  Our  offering  at  this  feast  is  intended  for  that  pur- 
pose. Let  us  pour  tobacco  for  them.  Let  us  place  at  the  edge  of 
the  fire  the  four  bark  receptacles.  Now  listen  to  me  for  I  am  going 
to  pour  tobacco. 

(He  now  addresses  the  four  original  clan  beings.) 

"On  the  north  side,  Earthmaker  created  you.  Four  brothers  he 
placed  there  (you  being  one  of  them).  And  when  one  of  them 
started  for  the  earth  those  remaining  asked  to  be  remembered  at  this 
feast.  These  are  the  objects  they  asked  to  be  given  as  offerings — 
tobacco,  feathers,  and  boiled  food.  Earthmaker  gave  you  that  kind  of 
life-giving  material.  We,  in  turn,  ask  you  for  this,  so  that  when  you 
take  our  offerings  you  will  grant  us  what  we  ask.  Here  they  are, 
the  offerings  with  which  you  wished  to  be  remembered.  The  spirits 
promised  to  give  them.  We  are  praying  now  not  only  for  our  own, 
but  for  all  the  clans.  Our  life  wdl  be  strengthened,  it  was  said. 
These  words  that  I  am  telling  you  now,  theyused.  We  must  act  very 
cautiously  in  this,  they  said. 

"If  you  place  a  portion  of  boiled  food  away  as  an  offering,  you 
must  use  it  only  in  that  particular  place.  Do  not  do  otherwise. 
This  way  only  is  the  correct  way  to  do  it." 

Then  he  spoke  to  the  attendant  and  said,  "Are  you  ready  1  Go  and 
get  all  these  people  wdio  are  to  eat.  They  must  bring  their  spoons 
with  them." 

Then  the  attendant  brought  the  people  into  the  lodge  and  put 
some  food  in  their  plates. 

"Place  the  people  around  the  plate  and  let  them  be  seated,"  the 
host  said.  "Now  turn  the  fire  down  and  get  ready.  Hold  your 
spoons  in  your  left  hand,  for  with  that  only  are  you  allowed  to  eat. 
None  of  you»  must  talk  nor  laugh.  You  must  do  what  I  tell  you. 
Before  the  meal  begins  let  us  sing.  Let  us  do  it  now."  (They  then 
sing  the  four  clan  songs.) 

"Thus  they  have  told  us.  That  way  it  was  at  the  place  where  we 
began  life. 

"Now  the  meal  is  over.  We  have  had  a  minor  council.  We  have 
acted  correctly.  It  is  good  that  you  who  are  present  have  come  at 
our  request.  You  have  eaten  very  well,  and  we  thank  you  for  it. 
This  is  what  those  from  whom  we  originated  told  us  to  do.  This 
council-feast  they  pleaded  for.  'We  should  act  very  cautiously, 
they  said.  That  you  have  done.  It  is  good  that  you  have  eaten 
for  our  benefit.     Now  is  about  time  for  us  to  finish.     I  greet  you  all." 


324  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.37 

THE  BEAR   CLAN    FEAST   (SECOND   VERSION) 

Informant,  member  of  Bear  clan :  As  soon  as  the  first  bear  month 
is  visible  they  have  their  feast.  They  do  not  use  meat  but  products 
of  the  earth.  The  feast  is  held  at  night,  never  in  the  daytime.  The 
people  always  save  up  food  some  time  before  giving  the  feast.  The 
favorite  dishes  of  the  bear  are  sugar  and  blueberries.  When  they 
can  not  obtain  these  they  use  other  vegetables.  Indeed,  any  product 
of  the  earth  is  all  right. 

When  they  prepare  to  give  the  feast  they  get  the  food  ready  and 
have  some  tobacco  on  hand.  On  the  first  day  of  the  first  bear  month 
they  put  on  the  fire  some  kettles  with  dried  corn  mixed  with  fruit  and 
others  containing  green  corn.  The  latter  is  boiled.  They  also  have 
ground  sugar.  When  these  are  ready  the  feast  attendant  goes  around 
the  village  to  invite  the  people.  When  all  have  entered  the  lodge  and 
taken  their  proper  seats,  then  the  host  rises  and  addresses  them: 

"All  my  relatives  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  It  is  not  through 
blessings  of  our  own  that  we  can  always  make  offerings  of  tobacco. 
My  grandfather  was  blessed  by  a  spirit  called  Black  Fur,  a  spirit  who 
is  in  command  of  all  the  other  spirits.  This  spirit  told  us  that  we 
could  perform  the  ceremony  in  this  way.  It  is  for  that  reason  we 
have  made  an  effort  to  heat  water  for  him."  The  first  request  we 
make  is  that  if  we  ever  go  on  the  warpath,  we  may  conquer.  Our 
grandfather  was  also  blessed  with  life  by  the  bear  spirit 7  and  he  told 
him  that  he  would  grant  him  and  his  posterity  whatever  they  asked. 
We  shall  therefore  send  to  this  spirit  a  pipeful  of  tobacco,  two  kettles 
full  of  food,  and  some  tree  sap.8  So  much  will  we  send  him,  accom- 
panied by  an  offering  of  tobacco. 

"As  soon  as  the  attendant  gets  everything  ready  the  feasting  will 
begin." 

Then  the  attendant  puts  food  in  every  plate,  and  when  he  has 
finished  the  host  speaks  again. 

"Relatives,  it  is  said  that  when  the  plates  are  supplied  to  you 
filled  with  food,  then  you  should  begin  to  eat.  Do  not,  however,  use 
your  right  hands  in  eating." 

The  host  tells  the  feasters  to  use  their  left  hands  in  eating,  and  they 
obey  him.  Before  starting  to  eat  all  the  fires  are  put  out  and  the 
people  eat  in  the  dark. 

In  the  spring  of  the  year  this  feast  is  given  again.  Twice  a  year 
it  is  given. 

The  feact 9  was  always  given  with  some  choice  dried  corn  that  had 
been  put  away  for  this  event.  Once  when  it  was  time  to  give  the 
feast  in  the  first  bear  month,  the  two  daughters  of  the  man  who  was 

•  Boil  soup  and  prepare  food  in  general. 

7  Black  Fur  is  apparently  a  ceremonial  expression  for  bear. 

8  Ceremonialname  for  maple  sugar. 

•  What  follows  is  an  account  of  why  this  particular  feast  was  discontinued. 


eadin]  CEREMONIAL,   ORGANIZATION  325 

to  give  it  had  their  menses  and  were  fasting.  When  the  feast  was 
about  to  be  held  there  was  no  food  and  their  mother  gave  the  girls 
some  of  the  sacred  food  and  the  unclean  girls  boiled  it  and  ate  it. 

The  following  spring  when  the  girls  were  out  helping  their  mother 
tan  some  hide  a  bear  approached  them  and  tried  to  kill  the  girls.  The 
old  woman  fought  the  bear  off  as  best  she  could,  but  he  paid  no 
attention  to  her  and  tried  to  get  at  the  girls.  Finally  he  killed  the 
girls.  Then  the  old  woman  attacked  the  bear  and  finally  threw 
him  down  and  kdled  him,  using  her  tanning  stick  as  a  weapon. 

Now  this  bear  was  not  an  ordinary  bear  such  as  live  on  this  earth, 
but  his  body  was  covered  with  blue  clay.  He  had  come  out  of  a 
spring  of  water  shortly  before  he  came  to  this  place.  The  girls  had 
eaten  sacred  food  when  they  were  unclean,  and  that  is  why  this  bear 
came  and  killed  them. 

Since  then  that  particular  band  has  stopped  giving  this  bear  feast. 

THE    SNAKE    CLAN    FEAST 

When  a  person  wishes  to  give  a  snake  feast,  four  chickens  must  be 
obtained.  The  nephew  of  the  feast  giver  is  then  told  to  prepare  these 
chickens  and  make  the  general  preparations. 

The  feast  is  given  in  the  fall,  just  as  the  snakes  are  supposed  to 
go  into  their  winter  quarters  and  close  their  doors.  The  winter  is 
their  night,  and  then  they  go  to  sleep. 

Shortly  before  the  feast  begins  the  host  takes  out  a  bundle  con- 
taining four  snake  skins — a  yellow-snake  skin,  a  rattlesnake  skin,  a 
blow-snake  skin,  and  a  bull-snake  skin.  In  honor  of  these  he  gives 
his  feast  and  makes  his  offerings. 

As  the  fall  of  the  year  is  to  the  snakes  the  same  as  our  evening,  the 
Winnebago  give  this  feast  in  their  honor  then,  in  much  the  same  way 
as  we  have  our  supper  before  retiring  for  the  night.  The  snake  skins 
are  representatives  of  the  first  four  snakes  Earthmaker  made  and 
which  he  pierced  through  the  earth  in  the  direction  of  the  east.  The 
snake  skins  are  kept  to  represent  the  four  original  snake-beings  and 
to  keep  evil  away  from  homes.  That  is  why  offerings  are  made  to 
them.  Four  men  only  are  invited  to  this  feast  (as  main  participants), 
and  they  must  each  eat  a  chicken. 

The  host  himself  opens  the  door  for  the  snakes.  In  front  of  him, 
next  to  the  fireplace,  he  makes  four  holes  in  the  ground,  thus  opening 
the  door  for  them.  There  he  likewise  places  tobacco  for  them. 
First  he  pours  tobacco  in  the  fire,  for  the  fire  is  the  mediator  be- 
tween the  people  and  the  spirit.  The  fire  tells  the  spirit  the  wishes 
of  the  people  and  is,  in  general,  in  charge  of  the  members  of  the  tribe. 
For  that  reason  they  always  pour  tobacco  upon  it. 

Now  the  host  rises  and  speaks.  "Grandfather  (fire),  you  who 
stand  in  the  center  of  the  lodge,  I  offer  you  tobacco,  for  you  are  the 
interpreter  (between  the  spirits  and  human  beings),  and  I  know  that 


326  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

you  will  deliver  the  requests  I  address  to  our  grandfather-who-crawls 
(the  snake),  just  as  I  have  said  them.     I  offer  you  tobacco. 

"To  you  likewise,  grandfathers,  you  whom  Earthmaker  created 
first  and  placed  within  the  earth;  you  whom  Earthmaker  placed  in 
control  of  abundance  of  life  and  whose  war  clubs  were  made  heavy, 
so  that  nothing  could  miss  them ;  to  you  we  offer  these  things.  What- 
ever you  can  give  us,  we  ask  of  you  in  return.  Here  are  our  offerings 
of  food,  tobacco,  and  eagle  feathers.  We  place  them  here  at  your  door. 
We  ask  that  you  bless  us  with  victory  in  war.  We  know  that  the 
weapons  you  carry  make  you  invulnerable,  and  we  wish  likewise  to 
be  invulnerable.  You  never  fail  to  obtain  what  you  desire  with  your 
clubs,  and  we  ask  that  the  same  power  be  bestowed  upon  us.  As 
the  years  pass  may  the  blessing  we  obtain  increase  in  power.  When 
you  look  out  upon  the  world  life  emanates  from  your  eyes.  May  this 
life  be  given  to  our  posterity.  As  we  strut  about  in  the  short  number 
of  days  allotted  to  us  may  you  keep  out  of  our  path,  so  that  we 
may  not  be  frightened.  Yet  should  we  cross  any  of  your  paths  may 
we  be  strengthened  thereby.  It  is  said  that  you  are  the  grass,  and 
that  is  why  we  ask  you  to  bless  us.  Bless  us  because  you  are  in  pos- 
session of  the  life  which  we  desire.  For  these  reasons  do  we  offer 
you  tobacco,  feathers,  and  food." 

Then  the  host  poured  tobacco  into  the  four  holes  that  he  had  made 
in  the  ground  and  placed  feathers  there.  Then  he  took  a  little  food 
from  each  of  the  kettles  and  poured  it  into  the  four  holes.  After 
that  he  greased  the  heads  of  the  snake  skins  which  were  lying  before 
him  with  kettle  grease  and  poured  tobacco  on  the  heads  of  the  snakes. 
He  asked  all  his  relatives  to  offer  tobacco  likewise  and  he  put  tobacco 
into  the  holes  again  and  poured  some  upon  the  heads  of  the  snakes. 

When  those  invited  have  arrived,  someone  who  is  a  good  speaker 
sits  near  the  entrance,  while  another  good  speaker  sits  near  the 
farthest  end.  After  all  have  entered,  the  leader  of  the  four  partici- 
pants makes  the  circuit  of  the  fireplace  four  times.  He  then  sits 
down,  and  the  host  greets  each  one  in  turn,  as  follows: 

"  I  greet  you  all.  It  is  good.  How  could  I  say  aught  but  that  it 
is  good?  I  am  a  poor  worthless  fellow,  yet  you  have  remembered 
me.  It  is  good.  You  did  not  look  upon  my  unworthiness  and  think 
within  your  hearts  he  is  a  worthless  fellow,  but  you  thought  of  the 
spirits,  and  therefore  you  came  to  sit  with  me  so  that  I  might  see 
your  face.  It  is  good.  I  have  obtained  four  chickens,  and  the 
attendant  is  now  cooking  them.  I  suppose  he  has  cooked  them  by 
this  time,  and  we  will  soon  be  able  to  eat  them. 

"I  am  attempting  to  cook  water  for  the  beings  first  created,  so 
that  we  might  be  blessed  with  victory  in  war,  and  with  life.  That  is 
what  we  are  asking  and  what  we  would  like  to  obtain  from  them 
before  they  (the  spirits)  retire  for  the  night.  It  is  our  desire  to  be 
blessed  year  in,  year  out. 


eadin]  CEREMONIAL   ORGANIZATION  327 

"  Your  plates  will  be  filled  soon,  so  let  me  greet  you  again,  you 
(humans)  who  are  taking  the  place  of  the  spirits.  All  you  who  are 
present  I  greet." 

The  attendant  now  takes  the  kettles  from  the  fire  and  takes  the 
plate  of  the  first  of  those  sitting  in  the  row.  Then  he  takes  the 
sharp  stick  that  he  holds  in  his  hand,  sticks  it  through  one  of  the 
four  chickens,  and  puts  it  in  the  plate  of  the  first  man.  He  passes 
the  plate  around  the  kettle  four  times,  going  from  right  to  left,  and 
finally  he  places  it  before  the  feaster.  The  feaster  then  says,  "I 
thank  you  all,"  and  the  attendant  passes  on  to  the  next  one,  and  so 
in  succession  until  he  comes  to  the  last  person.  Then  the  one  first 
invited  rises  and  says,  "All  those  present,  the  host  and  the  three 
other  guests,  do  I  greet."  Then  the  speaker  addresses  the  one  sit- 
ting next  to  him,  who  greets  him  in  return.  In  the  same  way  ho 
greets  the  third  and  the  fourth  one.     Then  he  speaks  as  follows: 

"It  is  good.  Who  would  not  be  thankful  for  this?  The  host  and 
his  relatives  present  here  are  praying  for  life  and  victory,  to  the 
four  greatest  spirits  Earthmaker  ever  made,  to  those  spirits  whom 
he  pierced  through  the  earth  so  that  it  might  hold  together.  All  the 
snakes  whom  we  see  on  the  earth  are  ruled  by  these  four.  From 
them  have  they  asked  blessings.  The  first  human  beings  on  earth 
saw  these  spirits  face  to  face  and,  we  are  told,  they  used  them  for 
protection.  These  we  see  before  us  as  the  host  has  laid  them  out. 
We  are  told  that  blessings  can  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  these  snakes. 

"I  am  indeed  not  a  fit  person  to  be  invited  to  such  a  gathering  as 
this,  but  the  host  has  kindly  overlooked  my  faults.  My  grand- 
father fasted  and  thirsted  himself  to  death  and  he  was  blessed  and 
his  spirit  taken  to  a  spirit-home.  That  is  what  happened  to  my 
grandfather,  for  he  told  me  this  himself.  The  place  where  he  was 
blessed  was  at  Red  Banks  at  a  place  where  a  creek  flows  into  the 
sea  (Green  Bay).  At  the  fork  of  this  creek  there  was  a  hill  lying 
east  and  west.  It  is  there  that  the  yellow  snake-chief  lives.  To 
the  home  of  this  snake-chief  my  grandfather  was  taken.  This 
snake  was  at  this  place  gathering  tobacco  for  all  the  spirits.  There 
my  grandfather  was  even  blessed  with  their  bodies.  For  this  reason 
I  always  pour  tobacco  for  them.  And  I  have  been  given  to  under- 
stand that  the  spirits  do  not  overlook  the  least  fault  (in  the  per- 
formance of  the  feast).  They  are  always  in  our  midst  just  as  even 
the  grass  and  the  dust  represent  snakes.  They  know  everything, 
they  say.  It  is  not  safe  to  cross  their  path.  As,  however,  the 
host  is  now  making  an  offering  to  them,  should  we  cross  their  path 
now  it  would  even  strengthen  us.  It  is  good.  These  clubs  are 
heavy  and  they  will  not  fail  to  strike  everything  within  their  reach. 
The  host  has  asked  for  that  power  so  that  he  might  have 
victory  (in  war).  They,  the  spirits,  also  have  life  to  dispose  of  and 
that  we  ask  of  them  also,  giving  them  these  offerings  of  tobacco, 


328  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.37 

feathers,  and  food.  They  will  bless  us  I  am  certain,  for  I  am  told 
that  they  even  know  our  thoughts  and  wishes  (before  we  express 
them) ,  and  are  willing  to  grant  them  if  we  pour  tobacco  while  making 
them.  However,  to-day  we  have  done  more.  We  have  openly 
made  a  great  offering  to  them.  How  could  any  spirit  fail  to  see 
such  an  offering?  For  that  reason  (I  know)  they  will  surely  bless 
us.  And  the  blessings  asked  for  the  posterity  will  surely  be  granted. 
I  feel  that  when  I  go  home  and  talk  to  my  children  afterwards,  they  will 
be  strengthened  by  the  fact  that  I  have  taken  part  in  the  feast.  All  who 
are  present,  I  greet.     You,  the  host,  I  also  greet.     I  greet  you  all." 

Then  the  second  one  invited  rises  and  speaks.  He  thanks  the 
host  for  the  privilege  of  having  been  invited  and  encourages  him 
and  assures  every  one  that  they  will  surely  be  blessed,  telling  them 
why  they  should  be  blessed. 

Then  the  third  one  rises  and  says  approximately  the  same  as  his 
predecessor.  He  also  tells  how  his  grandfather  was  blessed  by  the 
snakes,  etc. 

Then  the  fourth  one  speaks,  telling  what  the  snakes  do  and  that  he 
himself  was  a  member  of  the  Snake  clan  and  was  consequently 
descended  from  the  snakes.  Inasmuch  as  he  had  partaken  of  the 
feast,  all  who  were  present  would  surely  be  blessed  by  the  snakes. 
He  assured  them  that  what  they  asked  would  surely  be  granted. 
Then  he  greeted  them  and  concluded. 

After  that,  all  the  four  participants  greet  each  other  in  turn  again 
and  when  this  is  over  they  sit  down  and  begin  the  feast.  Each 
person  must  eat  a  chicken  apiece.  They  must  not  leave  anything 
on  the  plate,  for  it  is  a  sacred  feast.  After  they  have  eaten  the 
chicken  they  are  given  soup  to  drink. 

When  the  feast  is  over  the  host  throws  cedar  branches  into  the  fire 
and  the  plates  and  the  spoons  are  held  over  the  smoke  in  order 
to  purify  them.     The  host  then  rises  and  says: 

"You,  the  first  invited,  and  you,  the  second  invited,  etc.,  I  greet 
you  all.  It  is  good  that  you  have  come  and  occupied  seats  at  my 
request  and  I  am  grateful  to  you  for  it.  Even  were  that  all  the 
blessing  I  was  to  receive,  it  would  (be  enough).  But  you  have 
assured  me  that  I  would  receive  the  blessings  I  longed  for.  You 
truly  encouraged  me.  You  told  me  of  your  grandfathers'  blessings, 
so  that  I  feel  positive  that  I  am  blessed,  for  your  grandfathers'  bless- 
ings were  surely  great  and  I  am  sure  everything  could  be  obtained 
with  them.  Surely  your  grandfathers'  blessings  were  equal  to  those 
of  the  spirits.  It  is  good  that  you  have  indeed  partaken  of  my 
feast.  This  must  be  what  the  older  people  said:  'Your  life  is 
(naturally)  weak  and  30U  can  only  be  strengthened  by  the  counsel 
and  advice  of  brave  men.'  Truly  you  have  counciled  with  me  and 
given  me  enough  to  live  on.  I  thank  you  for  the  speeches  you 
have  delivered,  for  it  is  life  to  me.     It  is  good.     I  greet  you  all." 


CHAPTER  XIII 


RELIGIOUS  SOCIETIES  BASED  ON  BLESSINGS  FROM 

SPIRITS 

Society  of  Those  Who  Have   Received   Blessings   From  the 

Night  Spirits 

Informant,  member  of  Thunderbird  clan :  Once  a  man  went  hunt- 
ing so  that  he  might  be  able  to  get  the  game  with  which  to  give  a  feast. 
All  of  those  who  were  to  participate  in  the  feast  went  along  with  him. 
After  they  had  killed  some  deer  they  built  a  lodge.  Then  all  the 
other  feast-givers  came  into  the  lodge,  bringing  something  toward  the 
feast,  as  well  as  the  tobacco  which  they  were  to  offer.  Some  brought 
other  things,  even  dogs,  as  their  contribution  to  the  feast.  The  dogs 
would  be  killed,  singed,  then  boiled,  and  prepared  in  the  same  way  as 
the  deer.  The  meat  would  then  be  mixed  with  dry  corn.  The 
attendants,  who  were  generally  the  nephews  of  the  feast-givers,  would 
look  after  the  boiling  of  the  food.  Every  time  they  gave  a  feast  they 
selected  these  nephews  to  do  the  cooking  and  the  general  work 
connected  with  this  ceremony. 

The  nephew  who  acts  as  attendant  accompanies  a  feast-giver  on 
the  warpath,  where  likewise  he  has  to  endure  a  great  deal.  Should 
his  uncle  be  killed,  it  is  his  duty  to  be  killed  likewise  and  not  to  return 
home. 

He  acted  in  this  way  because  of  his  love  for  his  uncle.  The  attend- 
ants do  all  the  work  whenever  their  uncles  give  a  feast.  They  also 
arrange  for  the  place  where  the  feast  is  to  be  held;  make  the  four 
invitation  sticks;  blacken  them  with  charcoal  and  decorate  them  at 
the  ends  with  fine  and  fluffy  white  eagle  feathers.  Then  they  prepare 
a  bundle  of  tobacco  containing  about  a  pipeful.  After  these  prepa- 
rations have  been  made  one  of  the  nephews  goes  around  the  village 
and  presents  the  invitation  sticks  to  every  individual  who  had  been 
blessed  by  the  Night  Spirits.  These  are  called  the  night-blessed 
children.  The  night-blessed  children  thanked  the  messengers  and 
assured  them  that  they  now  felt  they  were  obtaining  life.  Then  those 
to  whom  the  invitation  stick  had  been  presented  go  around  asking 
their  relatives  to  accompany  them  to  the  feast.  There  the  guest  and 
his  relatives  would  meet  at  the  appointed  time.  All  those  who  re- 
ceived invitation  sticks  do  the  same. 

186823—22 22  329 


330  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

The  host  at  the  same  time  puts  himself  in  readiness  to  receive  the 
guests. 

The  two  drums  to  be  used  are  placed  in  the  proper  position  with 
tobacco  on  top  as  an  offering.  The  two  gourds  to  be  used  are  arranged 
in  the  same  way,  with  offerings  of  tobacco  on  top.  These  four  articles 
are  placed  in  a  row  in  front  of  the  host,  who  pours  tobacco  upon  them 
again  and  asks  them  for  life. 

The  host  now  rises  and  speaks  as  follows  (first,  however,  offering 
tobacco  to  the  fire,  and  telling  the  people  of  his  own  band  how  he 
had  obtained  his  blessing,  and  from  what  source  it  had  come) : 

"Grandfathers,  when  you  blessed  my  grandfather  with  life  you 
promised  that  as  often  as  we  would  boil  food  for  you  and  offer  you  a 
pipefid  of  tobacco,  you  would  smoke  it.  So  it  has  been  said.  Boiled 
water  from  an  animal  whom  you  considered  the  same  as  our  own  body, 
and  spirit  food  he  extended  to  you,  as  well  as  a  pipefid  of  tobacco. 
This  we  also  are  sending  you.  And  what  could  we  ask  of  you  in 
return  but  war?  That  it  may  be  directed  toward  us,  we  pray  you. 
Grandfathers,  you  who  are  called  Happy  Nights,  when  you  blessed  our 
grandfather  you  blessed  him  with  endless  war.  So  it  has  been  said. 
That  is  what  we  ask  for,  that  as  you  blessed  our  grandfather,  so  you 
bless  us.  We  ask  for  the  same  things.  You,  likewise,  grandfather, 
you  who  are  called  The-one-with-rounded-wood,  when  you  blessed 
my  grandfather  you  blessed  him  with  life.  That  is  what  he  said,  and 
you  asked  him  in  return  to  make  offerings  of  tobacco.  Here  is  the 
tobacco.  This  night  we  are  going  to  ask  life  of  you.  We  desire  that 
you  give  us  and  all  who  will  be  here  to-night,  life.  As  many  people 
as  will  be  seated  here,  we  ask  life  for  all  of  them." 

Then  all  who  are  present  rise  and,  holding  tobacco  in  each  hand, 
walk  around  the  lodge,  pouring  tobacco  on  the  drums  and  the 
gourds,  and  some  of  it  into  the  fire.  They  pour  tobacco  into  the 
fire  for  the  Night  Spirits.  For  the  Beings-with-rounded-wood  they 
offer  tobacco  by  pouring  it  upon  the  drums.  The  offering  is  made 
both  to  the  drums  and  to  the  gourds  directly.  The  tobacco  bundles 
tied  to  the  invitation  sticks  are  offered  to  the  four  cardinal  points 
and  the  four  specially  invited  guests  smoke  this  tobacco,  because 
they  are  supposed  to  represent  the  four  cardinal  points.  Behind  the 
respective  invited  guests  are  placed  two  women,  next  to  the  wall, 
so  that  they  might  lead  in  the  dance.  When  the  invited  guests 
come  to  the  feast  these  women  remain  outside  until  the  starting 
songs  have  been  begun. 

The  host  sings  these  songs  first  and  when  he  has  finished  the  first 
invited  guest  enters  the  lodge,  ejaculating  peculiar  sounds  (that  are 
probably  meant  as  greetings).  Continuing  these  sounds,  he  walks 
around  the  lodge  until  he  comes  to  the  place  from  which  he  has 
started.     There  he  stops  and  speaks.     "You  who  obtain  life,  you 


radin]  RELIGIOUS   SOCIETIES   BASED   ON   BLESSINGS  331 

that  council,  relatives,  all  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  It  is 
good  that  you  have  taken  pity  upon  me.  All  those  that  I  have 
along  with  me,  my  relatives,  you  have  caused  them  to  think  that 
they  were  to  obtain  life;  that  a  great  life  was  to  come  to  us  through 
you.  And  all  this  you  have  clone  when  we  were  leading  worthless 
lives.  It  is  good.  If  such  an  invitation  were  to  be  extended  to 
people  when  they  are  sick  and  weakly,  it  would  heal  them;  it  would 
overcome  their  illness,  it  is  said.  It  is  good.  When  I  think  that 
our  sick  people  will  get  well  by  reason  of  this  feast,  I  am  thankful. 
Up  to  the  present  our  children  have  all  been  sickly,  but  from  now 
on  we  will  have  no  cause  to  worry.  I  am  thankful.  The  principal 
tree  of  the  night-soldiers,  standing  in  front  of  their  doorway  and 
which  is  in  full  bloom,  has  not  a  dead  leaf  upon  it,  not  one  that  has 
dried.  It  is  beautiful  to  look  upon.  They  obtained  it  for  us  and 
caused  it  to  come  down  to  us,  and  we  feel  grateful.  It  will  strengthen 
our  families.  This  lodge  that  we  have  entered  is  like  the  first  lodge 
(the  night-soldiers'  lodge),  and  just  as  we  were  strengthened  by  it, 
so  will  we  surely  be  strengthened  by  entering  this  lodge  to-day.  In 
the  night-soldiers'  lodge  fine  white  feathers  are  scattered  all  over 
the  ground,  ankle  deep,  it  is  said.  As  we  are  about  to  go  over  the 
past,  we  certainly  will  be  strengthened  thereby.  The  lodge  of  the 
night-soldiers  was  fair  to  behold  from  the  inside,  we  are  told.  We 
will  consider  ourselves  blest  with  life  to-day,  even  although  we  are 
not  children  of  the  night-blessed  ones,  and  even  although  we  will 
not  be  able  to  conduct  ourselves  as  it  is  meet.  We  will,  however, 
do  what  we  can  in  order  to  obtain  life.  You  children  of  the  night- 
blessed  ones,  who  are  seated  around  here,  I  greet  you.'- 

Then  he  sings  the  entrance  songs  and  walks  around  the  lodge. 
His  singing  is  generally  finished  at  about  the  time  that  he  has  made 
the  complete  circuit  of  the  lodge.  Then  he  starts  around  the  lodge 
again  uttering  the  peculiar  sounds  mentioned  before,  until  he  comes 
to  the  seat  of  the  host.  There  he  stops  and  makes  a  circle  in  the  air 
(with  his  hand)  and  addresses  him  as  follows: 

"I  greet  you.  A  great  day  has  come  to  me  and  all  my  relatives 
have  tasted  thereof  in  the  hope  that  they  might  thereby  be  strength- 
ened. I  have  also  brought  along  with  me  a  pipeful  of  tobacco  to  be 
given  to  you,  that  we  may  all  be  strengthened.  So  it  is  said.  It  is 
for  that  reason  that  I  am  acting  thus  and  am  greeting  you." 

With  these  words  he  concluded  and  walked  to  the  place  that  had 
been  assigned  him  in  the  lodge,  opposite  the  host  and,  still  standing, 
he  said  the  following:  "Children  of  the  night-blessed  spirits  who  are 
seated  here  around  me,  I  greet  you  all.  The  councilor,  I  mean  the 
host,  has  seen  fit  to  give  me  and  my  relatives  a  seat.  We  will  sit  in 
it  so  that  we  may  be  strengthened  thereby.  We  will  now  take  our 
seats,  but  before  that  let  me  send  forth  my  greetings  to  all." 


332  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ins.  37 

Then  the  second  invited  guest  enters.  He  utters  the  same  sounds 
as  his  predecessors  and  makes  the  circuit  of  the  lodge.  When  he 
reaches  the  place  from  which  he  started  he  stops  and  addresses  the 
host  as  follows : 

"Councilor,  you  who  obtain  life,  relatives  who  are  seated  here,  I 
greet  you  all,  and  your  seats  do  I  greet  likewise.  You  that  are 
seated  in  the  first  place,  I  greet  you,  too.  All  you  children  of  the 
night-blest  spirits  who  are  in  this  lodge,  I  greet  you.  It  is  good  that 
you  wish  me  to  live ;  that  I  am  here.  I  am  not  a  child  of  a  night-blest 
one,  that  this  invitation  should  have  been  extended  to  me,  but  you 
probably  knew  the  nature  of  my  life  and  that  is  why,  I  suppose,  you 
extended  this  honor  to  me.  My  relatives  are  even  greater  weaklings 
in  the  properties  and  goods  of  life  than  I  am.  That  happens  to  be 
our  manner  of  life.  It  is  good.  Henceforth  we  shall  be  stronger  as 
we  journey  through  life.  Our  men,  women,  and  children  shall  all 
live  in  peace.  As  many  of  us  as  are  living  to-day,  that  many  shall 
continue  to  live  (on  account  of  my  participation  in  this  ceremony). 
I  am  thankful. 

"Of  all  the  spirits  that  exist,  these  truly  are  in  control  of  most  life. 
So  it  is  said  of  the  Night  Spirits.  This  is  a  great  thing.  These 
spirits  have  given  us  the  occasion  for  a  great  counciling.  Many  of  us 
are  not  able  to  take  part  in  it,  especially  the  one  now  speaking.  The 
songs  that  have  been  used  by  our  fathers  we  will  not  be  able  to  sing, 
but  whatever  we  say  I  know  will  be  acceptable  to  you,  children  of  the 
night-blest  spirits.     I  send  forth  greetings  to  you  all." 

Then  he  sang  an  entrance  song,  and  after  he  had  made  the  circuit 
of  the  lodge,  he  sang  another  one.  Then  he  went  around  the  lodge 
again  making  his  strange  utterances,  until  he  came  in  front  of  the 
host.  Here  he  made  a  circle  (with  his  hand)  and  stopped.  Then  he 
greeted  the  host  as  follows : 

"A  great  day  has  come  upon  us,  both  upon  me  and  upon  all  of  my 
relatives.  We  all  have  tasted  thereof  so  that  we  might  live  thereby. 
We  have  all  brought  you  a  pipeful  of  tobacco,  just  as  we  were  told. 
It  is  said  that  we  would  thus  strengthen  one  another,  and  that  is  why 
we  have  done  it.     I  greet  you  all." 

Then  he  went  to  his  seat,  the  second  one  in  the  lodge,  and  sat  down. 
Then  all  the  members  of  his  band  sat  down,  each  sending  forth  a 
greeting  as  they  took  their  seats.  When  they  were  all  seated  the 
third  man  invited  prepared  to  enter. 

The  third  one  invited  now  entered,  uttering  strange  sounds,  and 
made  the  circuit  of  the  lodge,  when  he  paused  and  addressed  the  host 
as  follows : 

"Councilors,  life-obtainers,  relatives  who  are  seated  in  your  respec- 
tive seats,  I  greet  you  all.  Here  I  have  been  blessed,  although  I  am 
not  worthy  of  it.    My  grandfather,  and  my  father,  too,  once  said  to 


badin]  RELIGIOUS   SOCIETIES   BASED   ON    BLESSINGS  333 

me,  '  Some  day  when  there  is  a  dearth  of  people,  some  night-blest  one 
will  take  pity  on  you.  Submit  to  it. '  Thus  he  spoke  to  me  and 
what  he  referred  to  was  this  feast.  These  feasts  are  all  sacred,  but 
this  is  the  most  sacred  one.  That  is  what  he  used  to  tell  me.  It  is 
not  to  be  trifled  with,  even  in  respect  to  the  rituals  within  the  lodge. 
Never  should  one  cross  the  lodge  directly.  If  you  trifle  with  this 
rule  you  will  bring  sorrow  upon  yourselves.  The  so-called  night- 
soldiers  are  not  to  be  trifled  with.  So  he  told  me.  The  so-called 
night-soldiers,  like  soldiers  on  this  earth,  are  stern.  Truly  they  are 
stern,  said  my  father.  If  we  were  to  slight  one  of  them  we  would 
most  assuredly  be  punished  for  it,  and  punishment  by  them  means 
death.  So  he  spoke  to  me.  But,  said  he, '  if,  on  the  other  hand,  any 
one  attends  to  all  that  pertains  to  this  ceremony  it  will  be  a  means 
of  obtaining  life.  It  will  be  a  good  thing  to  do,  and  one  would 
thereby  obtain  a  good  life.  Therefore,  I  have  always  looked  upon 
the  Night  dance  with  awe,  for  it  is  a  very  holy  thing.'  So  spoke  my 
father.  For  that  reason,  consequently,  whenever  my  father  gave  a 
Night  feast  he  would  encourage  us  to  pay  careful  attention  to  it,  and 
that  is  why  I  have  always  tried  to  do  so.  Remember,  however,  that 
I  am  not  a  child  of  the  night-blest  ones,  and  that,  therefore,  I  have 
very  little  to  say.  However,  I  will  start  a  song,  which  will  be  a  greet- 
ing to  this  lodge,  and  I  will  sing  it  as  I  am  passing  around  the  lodge. 
Children  of  the  night-blest  ones,  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you." 

Then  he  sang  an  entrance  song,  first  at  the  west  end  of  the  lodge  and 
then  near  the  position  occupied  by  the  host.  When  he  had  finished 
the  circuit  of  the  lodge  he  went  around  again,  making  the  accustomed 
peculiar  utterances,  until  he  came  in  front  of  the  host.  There  he 
stopped  and  addressed  the  host  as  follows : 

"I  greet  you.  You  have  caused  this  day  to  come  upon  me  and  all 
my  relatives.  We  have  all  tasted  thereof  and  we  have  all  felt  our- 
selves in  connection  with  life.  We  are  thankful.  We  have  thought 
of  this  blessing  of  life  in  connection  with  ourselves.     I  greet  you." 

Then  he  walks  to  the  place  assigned  to  him  in  the  west  end  of  the 
tent  and  sits  down.  The  other  members  of  his  band  do  the  same,  one. 
after  the  other,  greeting  the  people  in  the  lodge  at  the  same  time. 

When  they  are  all  seated  the  fourth  one  comes  in.  He  repeats  the 
utterances  of  the  former  guests  and  then  starts  around  the  lodge 
until  he  reaches  the  entrance.     There  he  stops  and  addresses  the  host: 

'  'Councilors  and  lif e-obtainers,  I  greet  your  seats.  I  likewise  greet 
you,  host.  You  who  are  seated  in  the  north  and  you  who  are  seated 
in  the  west,  your  seats  I  greet.  Children  of  the  night-blessed  spirits 
who  are  within  this  lodge,  all  of  you  I  greet.  It  is  good.  As  far  as 
I  understand  this  Night  ceremony  is  considered  a  life-giving  one. 
The  so-called  happy  Night  Spirits  alone  are  in  control  of  most  of  life. 
So  I  was  told,  and  that  is  why  this  ceremony  is  called  a  life-giving 


334  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

one.  If  I  participated  in  this  ceremony,  I  would  be  able  to  call  it  life, 
I  was  told.  But  I  did  not  pay  any  attention  to  it.  They  told  me  it 
was  good  and  that  I  would  at  the  same  time  be  making  offerings  to 
Those-with-the-rounded-wood,  and  that  thus  I  would  be  able  to  make 
use  of  all  the  plants  that  these  spirits  control,  so  that  I  would  never 
be  embarrassed  when  I  wished  to  use  them.  I  have  caused  people 
who  were  ill  to  become  well  by  means  of  this  ceremony.  All  of  the 
plants  that  these  spirits  control  are  good  ones,  and  it  is  easy  to  obtain 
life  with  them.  In  this  ceremony  we  may  also  obtain  life  by  dancing. 
But  we  must  dance  earnestly.  The  leaders  of  this  ceremony  have 
held  council  over  everything,  and  yet  they  have  selected  us  for  a  seat 
of  honor,  so  that  we  might  greet  them  in  this  lodge  and  that  we  might 
be  able  to  use  this  song  while  greeting  them.  You  children  of  the 
night-blessed  ones,  I  greet  you  all." 

Then  he  sang  an  entrance  song,  and  when  he  finished  he  repeated 
the  utterances  used  in  entering  and  gradually  made  the  circuit  of  the 
lodge  singing.  When  he  was  through  singing,  he  again  continued  the 
utterances  until  he  came  to  the  place  of  the  host,  where  he  made  the 
circle  (with  his  hands)  and  stopped.  Then  he  addressed  the  host  as 
follows : 

"I  greet  you.  You  wish  me  to  live,  and  therefore  caused  a  great 
day  to  come  upon  me  and  upon  all  my  relatives.  We  have  all  received 
a  taste  of  it,  and  we  have  all  thought  of  ourselves  in  connection  with 
life.  We  are  also  bringing  you  a  pipeful  of  tobacco,  so  that  we  may 
strengthen  one  another.  That  is  what  we  thought  and  that  is  why 
we  are  doing  it.     I  greet  you." 

Then  he  walked  around  the  lodge  until  he  came  to  his  seat.  There 
he  stopped  and  addressed  his  seat  as  follows: 

"Seat  that  is  reserved  for  me  and  for  my  relatives,  we  are  about  to 
sit  in  you;  we  will  do  it,  and  we  will  think  that  our  lives  have  been 
helped  thereby.  I  greet  you."  Thus  he  spoke  and  sat  down.  Then 
all  the  other  members  of  his  band  sat  down  one  by  one. 

When  they  were  all  seated  the  lodge  was  full.  Then  the  host  rose 
and  spoke  as  follows : 

'  'You  who  are  seated  in  the  first  position,  I  greet  you;  you  who  are 
seated  in  the  north  position,  I  greet  you ;  you  who  are  seated  in  the 
west  position,  I  greet  you ;  and  you  who  are  seated  at  the  end  of  the 
road,  I  greet  you.  Children  of  the  night-blessed  ones  who  are  here,  I 
greet  vou.  My  father  and  my  grandfather  spoke  to  me  of  this  cere- 
mony, and  they  told  me  it  was  good.  They  told  me  that  the  one 
who  first  obtained  it  was  named  '  Little  Red  Turtle.'  He  fasted  and 
was  blessed  by  those  whom  he  called  the  Beings-with-round-wood. 
By  these  was  he  blessed  at  the  noon  hour,  and  he  was  taught  what 
to  do.  There  they  taught  him  all.  At  a  place  where  "the  stars 
touched  land  they  caused  it  to  become  night,  and  there  they  blessed 


eadin]  RELIGIOUS   SOCIETIES   BASED   ON   BLESSINGS  335 

hirn  and  taught  him  how  to  make  four  circles  and  also  certain  songs. 
Since  then  this  ceremony  has  been  performed.  He  was  really  blessed, 
and  he  was  told  exactly  how  everything  should  be  performed.  So  it  is 
said.  As  he  was  very  fond  of  the  Night  feast,  he  spoke  in  its  behalf, 
and  told  of  all  the  medicines  that  were  associated  with  it  and  of 
the  use  to  which  they  could  be  put.  I  myself  know  that  these  medi- 
cines are  good  to  live  on.  If  anyone  uses  them  he  will  receive  benefits 
therefrom  and  his  children  will  receive  life.  I  know  that  they  are 
good.  I  would  not  have  you  think  that  I  am  one  of  those  blessed 
by  the  Night  Spirits  because  I  say  this.  But  I  know  that  all  the  medi- 
cines of  which  I  have  personal  charge  and  to  which  I  make  offerings 
of  tobacco,  for  whom  I  boiled  food,  always  make  the  individual  to 
whom  I  offer  them  the  better  for  it,  provided  that  I  do  everything 
correctly.  I  was  told  to  do  this,  and  that  is  why  I  do  it.  I  am  now 
going  to  sing  some  songs  audibly,  and  all  these  songs  will  be  songs 
about  medicines.  I  know  that  we  will  cause  you  to  fan  your  faces 
(from  perspiration  brought  on  by  making  you  work  too  hard),  but 
forgive  us  for  it.  Children  of  the  night-blessed  ones  who  are  seated 
here,  I  greet  you,  and  to  take  the  place  of  their  sister  whom  they 
always  place  ahead  of  them  so  we  also  will  have  our  sisters  lead  the 
dance  for  us." 

Two  women  now  rise  and  stand  side  by  side  in  front  of  the  men  and 
hold,  one  in  each  hand,  the  invitation  sticks  that  had  been  returned. 
These  two  women  lead  hi  the  dance.  The  men  who  shake  the  gourds 
stand  with  their  backs  to  the  women,  facing  the  drummers.  All  sing 
together  and  all  the  dancers  have  partners  at  their  sides.  It  is  a 
very  interesting  dance.  Then  all  get  up  and  start  around  the  lodge, 
making  strange  utterances.  When  they  have  made  the  complete 
circuit  of  the  lodge  they  stop  and  sing.  When  they  finish  this  song 
they  start  around  the  lodge  again,  repeating  the  utterances.  They 
stop  at  the  west  end  of  the  tent,  where  they  sing  again.  They  thus 
sing  at  both  ends  of  the  lodge.  They  use  all  the  songs  they  intend 
to.  When  the  last  song  is  over  the  individual  who  has  sung  it  makes 
four  circles  and  then  takes  the  drum,  gourd,  tobacco,  etc.,  and  places 
them  in  front  of  the  guest  who  occupies  the  first  seat  of  honor.  Then 
all  sit  down.     Then  the  east  leader  rises  and  speaks  as  follows: 16 

"Councilors  and  life-obtainers,  relatives  who  are  seated  here,  I 
send  you  all  greetings ;  and  to  you  who  are  on  the  north  side,  and 
you  who  are  on  the  west  side,  and  you  who  are  at  the  end  of  the 
road,  your  seats  I  greet.  Our  host  has  passed  over  to  me  the  means 
of  our  meditation,  the  instruments  through  which  we  ask  life.  This 
instrument  for  asking  life  is  the  foremost  thing  we  possess,  so  the  old 
people  said.     We  are  thankful  for  it.     We  know  that  Earthmaker 

'•  From  now  on  we  will  use  the  terms  East  Leader,  North  Leader,  West  Leader,  and  South  Leader  to 
designate,  respectively,  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  guests  in  the  order  of  their  invitation. 


336  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

did  not  put  us  in  charge  of  anything,  and  that  for  that  reason  the 
tobacco  we  received  is  our  greatest  and  foremost  thing.  So  the  old 
people  said.  We  were  told  that  we  should  use  it  to  ask  for  life. 
This  must  have  been  what  they  meant.  This,  the  instrument  with 
which  to  ask  life,  is,  I  feel  sure,  sufficient  to  attract  them  and  they 
will  surely  take  notice  of  it.  We  may  also  follow  him  who  is  taking 
the  place  of  the  spirits,  and  we  will  consider  all  those  who  are  in  the 
lodge  blest.  Those  whom  we  call  Nights  have  been  offered  tobacco, 
and  the  same  has  been  offered  to  the  four  cardinal  points,  and  to  all 
the  life-giving  plants.  To  this  many  tobacco  has  been  offered.  It 
will  strengthen  us.  This  is  what  we  call  imitating  the  spirits,  and 
that  is  why  we  are  doing  it.  Chddren  of  the  night-blessed  ones  who 
are  seated  here,  I  greet  you  all.  The  song  we  will  now  start  is  a 
pipe-lighting  song." 

When  he  finished  singing  he  greeted  all  those  in  the  lodge  and 
then  he  lit  his  pipe.  Then  he  took  a  number  of  puffs.  First  he 
inhaled  some  smoke  and  blew  it  toward  the  east,  then  toward  the 
north,  then  toward  the  west,  then  toward  the  south.  Then  he  passed 
it  around  and  all  smoked,  except  the  host,  who  is  not  permitted  to 
do  so.     Then  the  east  leader  spoke  again  as  follows: 

"Night-blessed  ones  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  The  instru- 
ment with  which  to  ask  life  I  will  now  place  here,  and  if  any  of  you 
want  to  fill  your  pipes  you  may  do  so." 

Then  the  leader  of  the  north  band  rose  and  spoke  as  follows: 
"Councilors  and  1  if e-ob tamers,  you  who  sit  in  the  direction  where 
the  day  comes  from,  you  who  sit  on  the  other  side,  in  the  west,  and 
you  who  sit  at  the  end  of  the  road,  your  seats  I  all  greet.     We,  too, 
have  been  anxious  to  obtain  the  instrument  whereby  we  ask  life, 
and  therefore  we  fill  a  pipe  for  ourselves.     I  greet  you." 
Then  the  leader  of  the  south  band  rose  and  said  as  follows: 
"If  the  leader  of  the  north  band  has  finished  his  greeting,  I  also 
would  very  much  like  to  have  the  instrument  with  which  we  ask  life 
brought  to  me.     We  will  immediately  go  and  fill  a  pipe.     I  am  speak- 
ing now  because  I  wish  to  tell  you  what  I  intend  to  do.     I  greet 

you." 

The  leader  of  the  north  band  did  not  pass  the  pipe  that  he  had 
filled  all  around  the  lodge,  but  merely  passed  it  to  the  members  of 
his  band.  Only  they  smoked  from  it.  In  the  same  way  the  leaders 
of  the  other  bands,  with  the  exception  of  the  host's  band,  passed  the 
pipe  only  to  members  of  their  individual  band.  Only  the  host  passed 
his  pipe  all  around  the  lodge.  When  the  smoking  was  over  the 
leader  of  the  east  band  rose  and  greeted  everyone.  Then  he  spoke 
as  follows : 

"Our  grandfathers  used  to  carry  on  this  ceremony,  I  have  been 
told.    They  told  me  that  if  at  any  time  the  giver  of  this  ceremony 


badin]  RELIGIOUS  SOCIETIES  BASED   ON  BLESSINGS  337 

can  not  find  enough  people  to  invite  he  would  take  pity  on  me. 
This  is  what  I  should  say,  my  father  told  me.  In  the  direction  from 
which  the  day  comes,  there  where  the  Nights  are,  live  the  night-sol- 
diers, who  blessed  my  grandfather  and  who  made  him  try  his  powers 
in  the  middle  of  the  ocean — there  where  it  is  deepest.  They  placed 
a  round  object  of  wood  before  him,  and  the  night-soldiers  said  that 
they  would  not  take  it  away,  and  that  every  time  my  grandfather 
tried  to  seize  it  he  would  not  miss.  'You  have  done  well,  human, 
you  have  won,'  they  said  to  him.  For  this  reason  it  was  considered 
an  instrument  of  war,  he  told  me.  If  you  do  your  utmost  in  offering 
tobacco,  it  will  be  an  instrument  of  war,  he  said. 

And  he  also  said  the  following:  "All  the  plants  with  which  I  have 
been  blessed  are  useful  and  a  person  can  receive  life  through  them 
if  he  takes  good  care  of  them.  These  plants  can  be  very  powerful 
and  some  of  them  can  even  be  used  in  playing  jokes,  we  are  told. 
But  we  have  never  used  any  of  them  in  such  a  manner,  for  if  we  did 
our  plants  would  surely  lose  their  strength.  I  have  been  told  that 
should  I  frequently  use  any  of  my  plants  for  the  purpose  of  playing 
jokes  and  then  for  the  purpose  of  curing  a  sick  person,  they  would 
have  no  power  at  all.  If,  however,  I  never  used  them  in  jokes  my 
medicine  would  always  be  powerful.  Therefore  I  have  never  used 
them  in  that  manner.  Nor  have  I  ever  poisoned  anyone  with  them. 
I  never  considered  myself  great  or  used  a  Night's  trick-medicine  or 
used  fire,  although  I  was  told  I  could  do  so.  This  I  never  did. 
When  I  use  one  of  the  plants  I  like  to  have  it  do  its  work.  I  am 
saying  this,  although  I  am  not  a  child  of  the  night-blest  ones.  It 
is  now  about  time  to  permit  our  sisters  to  get  hold  of  the  'chief 
sticks'  and  to  permit  them  to  sit  here  and  sing  together  with  us." 

The  women  are  then  permitted  to  take  two  sticks  apiece  and  sing 
wherever  they  are  sitting.  As  soon  as  the  men  sing  the  women 
join  in. 

"This  is  the  way  to  do,  I  was  told,  and  that  is  why  I  am  doing  it. 
Children  of  the  night-blessed  ones,  who  are  seated  here  in  this  lodge, 
I  send  you  all  greeting." 

When  he  is  through  with  his  starting  song  he  stands  up  and  speaks 
to  them  again,  as  follows: 

"Night-blest  ones  who  are  within  this  lodge,  I  greet  you.  I  was 
not  invited  to  take  this  seat  because  I  was  a  wise  man.  I  do  not 
for  a  moment  imagine  that,  but  it  was  done  in  order  to  help  me 
obtain  life.  We  will  now  rise  and  go  forth  and  we  will  brush  against 
your  faces,  but  you  must  take  pity  on  us.  Children  of  the  night- 
blessed  ones,  I  greet  you.  We  will  not  remain  seated  here  but  we  will 
rise  and  go  forth  in  order  to  obtain  the  round  stick.  That  is  why  I 
am  making  this  announcement  to  you.     I  greet  you." 


338  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

They  then  rise  and  make  four  circuits  of  the  lodge,  first  stopping 
at  the  first  seat,  then  at  the  second,  then  at  the  third,  and  lastly  at 
the  fourth.  When  they  get  back  to  their  starting  place  they  sing 
dancing  songs,  first  stopping  at  the  west  end  of  the  lodge  and  then 
at  the  entrance.  This  they  repeat.  By  this  time  all  the  songs  they 
had  intended  using  have  been  sung,  so  they  make  four  circuits  of 
the  lodge  and  then,  taking  the  drum,  gourd,  etc.,  place  it  in  front  of 
the  north  band.  When  the  dancers  are  all  seated  the  leader  of  the 
north  band  rises,  and  greeting  everyone  speaks  as  follows: 

"I  was  not  pitied  because  I  was  a  child  of  the  night-blest  ones, 
my  father  told  me.  Yet  if  I  performed  my  duties  aright  I  would  be 
able  to  make  the  proper  speeches  when  called  upon,  I  was  told. 
That  I  have  been  pitied  now  is  due  to  the  fact  that  these  people  here 
wished  to  have  me  obtain  life.  Certainly  my  invitation  to  this 
ceremony  has  made  me  think  of  life,  as  my  father  used  to  tell  me. 
I  do  not  for  a  moment  imagine  that  they  invited  me  because  I  was  a 
great  man.  Nevertheless  my  father  told  me  to  say  that  it  was  good; 
and  that  if  I  really  meant  all  that  I  said,  my  life  would  certainly  be 
strengthened  thereby.  My  father  knew  how  to  perform  this  cere- 
mony correctly,  but  I  am  not  able  to  do  so.  Although  I  was  told 
it  was  a  good  thing,  nevertheless  I  was  not  able  to  pour  tobacco. 
Those  whom  we  call  the  Ones-with-the-rounded-wood  are  in  charge 
of  very  much  life  and  they  are  holy.  This  affair  is  not  a  thing  to  be 
trifled  with,  my  father  told  me.  Yet  in  spite  of  this  we  will  sing 
some  songs,  even  though  we  know  that  we  will  not  be  able  to  sing 
them  as  they  have  been  sung  heretofore.  Perhaps,  however,  you 
will  be  kind  enough  to  be  satisfied  with  whatever  we  do.  Children 
of  the  night-blessed  ones,  I  greet  you." 

Then  he  sang  the  starting  song,  and  when  he  was  finished  he  rose 
again  and,  greeting  all,  spoke  as  follows: 

"When  Those-with-the-rounded-wood  start  to  walk  their  sisters 
are  placed  in  front  of  them.  Our  sisters  we  will  now  place  in  front 
of  us,  so  that  thereby  they  may  be  blest  with  life  and  hold  the  princi- 
pal sticks  and  staffs.  We  will  use  the  toys  so  that  we  may  be 
strengthened  thereby,  we  think,  and  that  is  why  I  greet  you." 

Then  they  permit  the  women  to  lead  the  procession.  These 
women  walk  in  front,  side  by  side,  and  are  followed  by  the  ones 
carrying  the  gourds,  who  dance  with  their  backs  toward  them.  Then 
come  the  drummers  and  the  feast-givers,  and  after  these,  all  those 
who  desire  to  join  in.  They  walk  around  the  lodge  making  strange 
utterances.  Four  times  do  they  make  the  circuit  of  the  lodge  and 
then  they  come  and  stop  at  the  east  end,  where  they  sing.  When 
they  are  through  here  they  start  around  the  lodge  again  and  stop 
at  the  west  end  and  sing.  Then  they  start  again,  making  the  same 
strange  utterances  as  before,  until  they  come  to  the  east  end  of  the 


eadin]  RELIGIOUS   SOCIETIES   BASED   ON   BLESSINGS  339 

lodge,  where  they  sing  once  more.  When  they  have  in  this  manner 
sung  all  the  songs  that  they  wish  to  use  the  leader  of  the  north 
band  makes  the  four  circles  as  before  and  brings  the  tobacco,  gourds, 
etc.,  to  the  west  band.  Then  they  all  take  their  seats.  Now  the 
leader  of  the  west  band  rises  and  speaks  as  follows: 

"Councilors,  life-obtainers,  relatives,  to  you  all  who  are  seated 
here,  I  send  forth  my  greetings.  You  who  occupy  the  first  seat, 
you  who  occupy  the  north  seat,  and  you  who  occupy  the  seat  at 
the  end  of  the  road,  I  greet.  I  do  not  mean  to  say  anything  of  con- 
sequence. I  was  taught  this  ceremony,  but  I  do  not  know  any- 
thing about  it.  However,  I  always  honored  it,  for  I  was  told  that 
it  was  a  good  thing.  Indeed,  I  knew  it,  but  I  could  never  perform 
it  well.  I  was  told  that  if  I  performed  it  well  I  would  obtain  life 
thereby,  just  as  others  have  done.  Well,  some  of  you  are  able  to 
do  it.  It  is  a  very  great  council  feast.  How,  indeed,  can  the  spirits 
ignore  what  you  have  done  for  them  to-day  ?  If  they  acknowledge 
it,  we  who  are  representing  the  directions  will  receive  blessings 
through  the  host  who  is  giving  the  feast.  That  is  what  I  mean. 
When  we  hold  our  mediators  (that  is,  the  drums,  tobacco,  etc.)  we 
will  be  strengthened  thereby.  So  with  this  in  our  minds,  let  us 
take  and  hold  them.  Children  of  the  night-blessed  ones,  I  greet 
you." 

Then  he  sang  the  starting  song,  and  when  he  had  finished  he  rose 
and  spoke  again. 

"Councilors,  I  send  you  greetings,  as  well  as  to  you  who  sit  in  the 
first  seat,  to  you  who  sit  in  the  north,  and  to  you  who  sit  at  the  end 
of  the  road.  It  is  said  that  when  the  night-soldiers  come  they  walk 
over  the  entire  extent  of  the  earth.  When  they  blessed  my  grand- 
father they  blessed  him  with  life.  So  he  used  to  say  of  himself.  We 
will  now  plead  for  these  powers  in  our  songs.  We  will  place  our 
sisters  in  front  and  follow  them.  That  is  what  I  wanted  to  announce 
to  you.  Children  of  the  night-blessed  ones  who  are  seated  here,  I 
greet  you." 

Then  they  made  the  complete  circuit  of  the  lodge  until  they  came 
to  the  place  wThere  they  had  been  sitting.  There  they  made  a  cir- 
cle. Then  they  made  another  circuit  of  the  lodge  and  stopped  in 
front  of  the  south  position  and  made  a  circle.  Here  they  made 
another  circuit  of  the  lodge  and  stopped  at  the  east  end  and  made 
a  circle.  Then  they  made  the  last  circuit  of  the  lodge  and  stopped 
in  front  of  the  north  band  and  made  a  circle.  By  this  time  all  the 
songs  that  they  were  to  use  had  been  sung.  The  leader  now  made 
four  circuits  and  brought  the  gourds,  drum,  tobacco,  etc.,  in  front 
of  the  south  band.  All  now  took  their  seats  and  when  they  were 
seated  the  leader  of  the  south  band  arose  and  spoke  as  follows: 


340  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

"Councilors,  life-obtainers,  I  greet  you.  You  who  sit  in  the 
first  seat,  you  who  sit  in  the  north,  and  you  who  sit  in  the  west,  I 
greet.  Children  of  the  night-blessed  ones  who  are  seated  within 
this  lodge,  I  greet  you  all.  It  is  good  that  to-night  you  have  tried 
to  imitate  your  grandfathers,  that  you  have  tried  to  take  the.  place 
of  the  spirits.  You  have  said  enough  with  which  to  obtain  life. 
But  I  am  more  unfortunate.  I  can  never  do  what  my  ancestors 
did  or  say  what  they  said,  and  for  that  reason  I  suppose  my  talk 
will  be  quite  worthless.  I  was  told  that  if  at  any  time  I  should  be 
pitied,  not  to  talk  foolishly  about  this  ceremony.  If  I  am  a  bad  man 
I  will  act  foolishly  in  this  affair,  I  was  told. 

"  My  grandfather  was  'blessed  by  those  whom  we  call  the  night- 
soldiers,  who  blessed  him  with  certain  utterances.  As  many  black- 
birds as  there  are,  that  many  appeared  to  him  as  Night  Spirits. 
Our  utterances  will  be  an  imitation  of  those  he  received  when  he 
was  blessed.     We  can  only  guess  at  these. 

"  We  were  told  that  when  we  hold  the  mediators  we  will  be  strength- 
ened by  them.     Night-blessed  spirits  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet 

you." 

Then  he  began  the  starting  songs,  and  when  these  were  finished 

he  rose  and  spoke  again. 

"Councilors,  life-obtainers,  I  greet  your  seats.  You  who  sit  in 
the  east,  you  who  sit  in  the  north,  and  you  who  sit  in  the  west,  I 
greet  you  all.  Children  of  the  night>blessed  ones,  I  greet  you.  Those 
whom  we  call  night-soldiers  treated  their  sisters  as  holy  and  placed 
them  in  front.  In  imitation  of  these  soldiers  we  will  now  put  our 
sisters  in  front,  so  that  we  may  be  strengthened  thereby.  I  wish 
to  announce  that  we  now  place  the  women  at  the  head  of  our  pro- 
cession. Let  us  all  come  together,  so  that  we  may  be  strengthened. 
That  is  our  desire  and  that  is  what  we  are  pleading  for.     I  greet  you." 

When  they  are  ready  to  begin  the  dancing  songs  all  rise  and  form 
in  line,  having  the  women  lead  them.  Then  the  men  with  the  gourds, 
their  backs  turned  to  the  women,  follow,  then  the  drummers.  Then 
all  those  join  who  feel  so  inclined.  When  they  have  finished  all  the 
songs  they  intend  to  use  they  bring  back  the  drum,  gourd,  etc.,  to 
the  middle  of  the  lodge  and  stop  dancing.  Then  they  return  to  their 
seats  and  then  the  leader  rises  and  says: 

"Councilors,  relatives  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  You 
who  are  seated  in  the  first  seat,  you  who  sit  in  the  north,  and  you 
who  sit  in  the  west,  night-blest  ones  who  are  within  this  lodge,  I 
greet  you  all.  Whenever  a  night-blessed  child  holds  council,  when  he 
is  invited  to  a  feast  and  is  given  the  position  at  the  end  of  the  road, 
the  intention  of  the  feast-giver  is  to  enable  him  to  obtain  life.  So 
they  told  me,  and  that  is  what  they  meant.  Most  assuredly  have 
they  caused  me  to  think  of  life.     When  I  hold  the  mediators  in  my 


badin]  RELIGIOUS   SOCIETIES   BASED   ON   BLESSINGS  341 

hand  I  am  holding  life,  and  when  I  pass  them  on  to  the  others,  to 
my  relatives  and  to  my  sisters,  I  am  passing  on  life  to  all  of  them. 
In  this  wajr  were  we  made  to  think  of  life.  I  will  not  detain  you 
any  longer.  All  that  I  wish  to  say  is  that  I  am  thankful.  Chil- 
dren of  the  night-blessed  ones,  I  greet  you." 

Then  he  sat  down  and  the  host  rose  and  spoke  as  follows: 

"You  who  sit  in  the  east,  you  who  sit  hi  the  north,  you  who  sit 
in  the  west,  and  you  who  sit  at  the  end  of  the  road,  I  greet  you  all. 
It  is  good.  This  is  what  I  wanted  but  have  not  been  able  to  say. 
You,  however,  told  it  all  in  my  place.  It  is  good.  Of  all  things 
this  is  the  foremost,  it  is  said.  The  instruments  with  which  to  ask 
life  you  have  placed  before  me.  That  alone  is  enough  to  live  on 
and  that  you  have  done  for  me.  It  is  good.  Your  forefathers 
dreamed  just  as  the  spirits  did,  and  how  they  ob tamed  life,  all  of  that 
you  have  told  me  to-night.  It  is  good.  You  have  said  enough  to 
obtain  life.  It  is  good.  I  say  this  because  I  am  thankful.  If  you 
do  anything,  do  it  hi  the  right  way,  I  was  told.  I  understand  this 
ceremony,  but  nevertheless  what  I  have  done  is  the  best  I  could  do. 
I  will  now  place  the  food  before  you.  I  am  an  old  man,  but  I  have 
always  performed  this  affair  just  as  I  have  performed  it  to-day,  and, 
although  I  know  that  I  have  not  done  it  hi  the  right  way,  yet  it  was 
my  turn  to  do  it,  and  I  did  it.  I  am  an  old  man,  and  for  that 
reason  I  am  not  able  to  procure  meat  anywhere.  My  relatives 
helped  me  and  that  is  why  I  have  been  able  to  do  it.  Here  are  four 
kettles  of  hot  water.  I  will  place  them  hi  the  center  of  the  lodge 
for  you.  The  one  hi  the  east  and  the  one  hi  the  north  and  the  one 
hi  the  west  and  the  one  at  the  end  of  the  road ;  each  one  may  have  it. 
Children  of  the  night-blessed  ones,  all  who  are  seated  here,  to  all  do 
I  send  greeting." 

Then  the  leader  of  the  east  band  rose  and  said:  "Councilors,  I 
greet  you.  You  who  sit  over  there  in  the  north,  you  who  sit  hi  the 
west,  and  you  who  sit  at  the  end  of  the  road,  I  greet  you  all.  Chil- 
dren of  the  night-blessed  ones  who  are  hi  this  lodge,  I  greet  you. 
We  are  all  to  arise  soon  and  that  is  why  I  announce  this." 

Then  the  leader  of  the  north  band  rose  and  said:  "We  also  will  rise, 
as  it  is  our  turn.     We  greet  you  all." 

Then  the  leader  of  the  west  band  rose  and  said:  "The  time  has 
come  for  us  to  rise.  I  and  mv  relatives  will  now  rise.  We  greet  you 
all." 

Then  the  leader  of  the  south  band  rose  and  said:  "Councilors,  I 
greet  you.  I  greet  all  who  have  been  blessed  by  the  Night  Spirits, 
each  one  hi  turn.     We  are  now  going  to  rise." 

Then  the  leader  of  the  east  band  said  agahi:  "Councilors,  I  greet 
you.     We  will  now  greet  the  hot  water  and  I  will  use  a  song." 


342  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Then  the  leader  of  the  north  band  said:  "I  also  will  start  a  song. 
I  greet  you." 

Then  the  leader  of  the  west  band  said:  "I  also  will  start  a  song. 
I  greet  you." 

Then  the  leader  of  the  south  band  said:  "I  also  will  start  a  song. 
I  greet  you." 

Then  the  leader  of  the  east  band  sang  a  song,  and  the  other  leaders 
sang  their  songs.  Each  band  sang  its  own  songs,  not  paying  any 
attention  to  the  songs  of  the  others.  Each  band  sang  different 
songs.  This  they  do  in  order  to  drown  the  voices  of  the  others. 
Should  one  band  overcome  the  other,  it  means  that  that  particular 
band  would  be  blessed  with  victory  in  war.  What  they  were  really 
saying  is  that  their  songs  were  more  powerful  than  the  others,  and 
that  their  grandfathers'  songs  were  the  holiest.  Then  they  all 
danced  around  the  lodge,  single  file,  and  made  their  exit  from  the 
lodge.  While  they  were  dancing,  the  host  sat  stdl  singing  and  beating 
his  drum.  They  carry  their  kettles  outside.  Wherever  they  wish  to 
eat,  there  they  go  and  dance  around  the  kettle  of  food  first.  Then 
they  eat  their  meal.     They  dance  in  different  bands. 

The  ceremony  finishes  with  this  feast.  It  is  customary,  however, 
for  the  one  who  has  been  given  the  seat  of  honor,  that  is,  the  east 
seat,  to  give  a  feast  immediately  afterwards.  Then  the  one  who  has 
been  invited  first  would  do  the  same  thing,  so  that  all  four  would 
in  this  manner  give  dances  in  rotation.  For  this  reason  it  generally 
took  five  nights  before  the  ceremony  was  over.  During  those  five 
nights  no  one  could  sleep.  It  is  from  this  fact  that  the  word,  "Sore- 
eye  Dance,"  which  is  the  general  term  used  for  this  ceremony, 
originated.  If  a  person  does  not  sleep  for  five  nights,  his  eyes 
generally  get  sore,  and  that  is  why  they  call  this  ceremony  the 
"Sore-eye  Dance." 

Sometimes  they  perform  night-spirit  tricks.  These  would  be  of 
the  following  nature:  A  kettle  is  put  on  to  boil  and  some  individual 
fishes  out  a  piece  of  meat  bare-handed  without  getting  burned.  At 
other  times  they  shoot  a  hole  into  a  drum  covering,  using  a  wild-cat 
claw  as  a  missile.    Then  they  immediately  mend  it. 

When  a  man  is  very  bad  they  shoot  him  with  an  object  and  kill 
him.  They  used  to  be  very  much  afraid  ofsuch  people.  Sometimes 
they  take  a  handful  of  live  coals  and  embers  from  the  fire,  put  them 
into  their  mouth  and  then  spit  them  out  without  getting  burned. 
It  is  for  this  reason  that  they  are  called  holy.  Sometimes  they  take 
burnt  portions  of  a  tree  that  had  been  struck  by  lightning,  put  them 
in  the  fire,  and  then  when  they  are  red  hot  take  them  out  again  and 
put  them  in  their  mouths  without  extinguishing  them.  They  then 
spit  them  out,  and  it  wTould  look  like  lightning.  Or  they  would  shoot 
one  another  with  cold  charcoal.     This  is  all  that  I  know. 


badin]  RELIGIOUS   SOCIETIES   BASED   ON   BLESSINGS  343 

Once  a  medicine-dance  man  and  a  night-blessed  man  became  jeal- 
ous and  the  medicine-dance  man  said  that  he  would  play  tricks  on  the 
night-blessed  man.  The  night-blessed  man  said  he  was  quite  willing 
to  have  a  contest.  So  the  two  came  and  sat  opposite  each  other  and 
began  their  contest.  Whatever  the  medicine-dance  man  did  the 
night-blessed  man  did  too,  but  always  a  little  better.  The  medi- 
cine-dance man  was  defeated,  so  from  that  time  on  the  medicine- 
dance  men  are  afraid  of  the  former.  The  medicine-dance  men  shot 
the  night-blessed  men  with  claws,  but  they  could  not  kill  them. 
Therefore  they  were  afraid  of  them.  The  night-blessed  men  could 
kill  the  medicine-dance  men  at  pleasure.  The  medicine-dance  men 
were  inferior.     That  is  all. 

Society  of  Those  Who  Have  Been  Blessed  By  the  Herok'a 

Informant,  member  of  the  Bear  clan:  The  feast  of  those  who  have 
been  blessed  by  the  Herok'a  is  given  at  any  time  of  the  year.  Any- 
one may  be  invited.  The  feast  is  held  in  a  long  lodge  and  is  gener- 
ally given  by  a  number  of  members  at  the  same  time  (or  by  all). 
Each  person  brings  a  deer  and  his  bow  and  arrows.  The  bows  and 
arrows  are  painted  different  colors,  depending  upon  the  color  (paint) 
with  which  the  individual  has  been  blessed.  The  bows  are  all  stuck 
in  the  ground  between  the  first  two  fireplaces  and  the  arrows  in  a 
row  just  behind  them. 

During  the  ceremony  and  feast  the  members  all  sing  the  songs 
with  which  they  have  been  blessed.  The  ceremony  is  held  before  the 
feast  and  is  conducted  by  one  of  the  members  of  the  society.  He 
leads,  holding  a  bow  in  one  hand.  The  others  follow,  holding  arrows 
in  their  hands.  Only  men  are  permitted  to  dance.  There  are  cer- 
tain songs,  to  the  accompaniment  of  which  women  are  permitted  to 
dance.     But  the  women  must  have  passed  their  climacteric. 

They  do  not  use  gourd  rattles  as  at  the  other  dances.  Instead  a 
number  of  deer  hoofs  are  strung  together  and  used  in  place  of  them. 
(They  do  not  eat  with  their  hands  or  with  the  ordinary  sticks)  but  use 
instead  forked  sticks,  whittled  down  at  one  end.  The  leader  wears 
a  headdress  to  which  a  horn  is  attached,  and  paints  his  body  with 
the  same  color  as  his  arrows.  Whoever  leads  the  dance  carries  a 
flute,  which  he  plays  before  and  after  each  song.  Those  following 
him  hit  their  mouth  with  the  palm  of  their  hands  and  whoop. 

When  the  dance  is  over,  each  one  of  the  feasters  takes  his  plate  and 
dances  out.17 

"  This  account  of  the  Herok'a  Society  is  unfortunately  merely  fragmentary,  but  from  a  few  additional 
notes  obtained  there  seems  to  be  little  doubt  that  it  represents  the  same  type  of  organization  as  the  other 
religious  fraternities. 


344  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [dth.ann.  37 

Society  of  Those  Who  Have  Been  Blessed  By  the  Buffalo 

Spirits 

Informant,  member  of  the  Bear  dan:  "Come,  it  is  the  time  for 
giving  the  Buffalo  Feast,"  said  my  father,  "so  tell  the  attendants  to 
get  ready;  and  you,  third-born,  if  you  see  anyone,  tell  him  about  the 
feast  that  we  are  going  to  give." 

So  I  went  to  Fire-starter  and  said,  "Nephew,  my  father  is  about 
to  give  a  feast,  and  he  wants  his  attendants  to  get  ready.  You  are 
to  go  over  to  his  lodge  and  get  a  few  more  attendants  to  help  you. 
We  also  will  get  ready  right  away."  Then  I  greeted  him  and  he  said, 
"All  right,  I  will  go  and  get  some  to  help  me."  I  returned  to  my 
father  and  told  him  what  I  had  done.  He  told  me  to  go  and  inform 
those  who  were  to  take  part  in  the  feast  that  they  were  to  bring  food. 
This  I  likewise  did  and  returned  with  the  information  that  they  would 
all  do  as  desired. 

Now  the  attendants  arrived  and  asked  what  was  expected  of  them. 
They  were  told  to  haul  the  wood  and  cut  the  poles  to  be  used  in 
building  the  lodge,  prepare  the  fireplaces,  and  put  the  kettles  on  the 
fire.  After  that  they  were  to  go  and  tell  the  young  women  to  get 
the  food  ready.  When  the  drum  was  fixed  and  the  food  prepared, 
then  the  feast  would  begin,  they  were  told. 

"  Well,  Green-hair,  my  nephew,  it  is  about  time  for  you  to  go  down 
toward  the  timber  and  invite  the  people.  You,  my  nephew,  Fire- 
starter,  may  go  to  those  who  possess  war  bundles  and  invite  them. 
Go  especially  to  Strikes-the-earth-with-his-wings  and  tell  him  that  he 
must  come  immediately.  When  you  come  back,  Green-hair,  get  the 
earth  mound  (manwarup'urura)  ready.  Construct  two  of  them  in  the 
lodge.  Then  place  upon  them  all  the  things  that  we  are  going  to 
use  in  the  dance." 

The  drum,  the  flute,  the  buffalo  tails,  the  buffalo  heads  were  all 
painted  and  placed  there. 

Then  the  feasters  arrived.  He-who-strikes-with-his-wings  was  to 
sit  opposite  Fleet-one.  When  all  had  entered  and  were  seated 
Hodja'noka  arose  and  spoke: 

"  War-bundle  owners,  all  you  who  have  been  blessed  by  the  buffalo- 
spirits  and  are  seated  here,  you  who  are  taking  the  place  of  the 
spirits  and  giving  counsel  like  them,  I  thank  you  and  greet  you  all. 
You  are  taking  the  place  of  the  spirits.  Just  as  we  ask  for  long  life 
from  the  spirits,  so  do  we  ask  the  same  of  you.  Relatives,  I  know  I 
am  going  to  tire  you  all  out,  but  do  not  take  it  amiss.  What  we 
long  for,  aid  us  in  obtaining.     Life  is  what  I  wish. 

"What  I  am  doing  now  I  did  not  originate,  for  my  ancestor 
Hodja'noka  was  the  one  blessed  by  the  buffalo-spirits.  When  he 
was  a  child  he  was  blessed  by  them  and  they  gave  him  a  certain 


badin]  RELIGIOUS   SOCIETIES   BASED   ON   BLESSINGS  345 

plant  and  blessed  him  with  long  life  and  with  victorious  warpaths. 
He  asked  to  be  remembered  by  Hodja'noka  in  his  offerings.  The 
buffalo-spirit  told  him  that  if  he  would  pour  tobacco  for  him,  and 
give  feasts  and  make  offerings  of  eagle  feathers,  the  blessings  he  had 
given  him  would  last  forever. 

"All  these  blessings  were  handed  down  to  my  father.  These  I 
also  was  taught.  This  life  do  we  pray  for  and  we  have  asked  you 
all  to  come  and  help  us.  We  thank  you  for  it.  As  soon  as  the 
attendants  are  finished  with  the  preparation  of  the  food  then  we 
will  eat.  Our  servants  may  perhaps  burn  their  hands  while  pre- 
paring the  food,  but  they  will  obtain  life  by  so  doing.  Those  who 
possess  war  bundles  are  always  told  to  help  one  another  and  I  know 
that  you  have  come  here  for  that  reason.  Life  I  am  seeking  and 
that  is  why  I  am  giving  this  feast.  Help  me,  all  you  owners  of 
bundles  who  are  present  here.  I  will  now  sing  s,pme  of  the  songs 
that  Hodja'noka  taught  us.  You  who  have  obtained  blessings,  I 
greet  you." 

Then  he  sang  the  following  songs : 

Song  1 

Narjgura  homa'ni  hiwiie.     (Repeat.) 
In  the  road  walk  let  him  do. 

Song  2 

Hodja'noka  hamani Vine.     (Repeat.) 
Hodjanoka   Walk  by. 

Song  S 

Kara  Hodja'noka  haniani'winS. 
Say,  Hodjanoka  Walk  by. 

Dancing  song 

Hodja'noka  tcawawi're.     (Repeat.) 

Hodjanoka  go   toward. 

Erehu'na.     (Repeat  twice.)     Wiga're.     (Repeat  twice.) 

It  is  coming  say  to  them. 

As  soon  as  Hodja'noka  finished  his  songs,  then  all  the  objects 
(drum,  gourds,  etc.)  were  passed  to  He-who-strikes-the-earth-with- 
his-wings,  and  he  rose  and  spoke: 

"Brother-in-law,  councilors,  relatives,  all  who  are  seated  here,  I 
greet  you.  You  who  have  been  blessed  with  bundles,  I  greet  like- 
wise. You  are  taking  the  place  of  the  spirits.  It  is  good.  We  are 
trying  to  encourage  one  another  and  we  have  come  to  help  you. 
We  have  brought  you  food  for  the  feast.  We  also  are  desirous  of 
obtaining  long  life  and  that  is  why  we  have  brought  our  offerings, 
for  we  know  the  buffalo-spirits  will  accept  them,  as  they  are  very 
tempting.  You  who  are  taking  the  place  of  the  spirits,  I  greet  you." 
1S6S23— 22 23 


346  THE   WINNEBAGO   TEIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Then  he  sings  some  songs  and  dances  and  passes  the  drum,  etc., 
to  the  next  guest  and  so  it,  in  turn,  is  passed  on  until  the  fourth 
invited  guest  is  reached.  Then  the  drum  is  replaced  in  the  center  of 
the  lodge.18 

Informant,  unknown  clan: 19  Buffalo  feasts  are  given  in  spring,  in 
fall,  and  in  midwinter.  No  meat  is  offered,  but  only  vegetables. 
The  buffaloes  said  that  maple  sugar  is  their  favorite  food,  so  when 
this  feast  is  given  they  always  have  some  maple  sugar  along  with 
the  other  things.  The  buffalo  feast  always  takes  place  in  a  long 
lodge.  The  attendants  make  the  lodge  and  boil  all  the  food.  When 
the  kettles  have  been  placed  on  the  fire  those  giving  the  feast  enter. 
The  earth  mound  is  now  constructed  and  tobacco  offered  to  it.  All 
those  giving  the  feast  pour  tobacco  on  the  earth  mound,  asking  for 
victory  in  war.  When  this  is  finished  they  sing  buffalo  songs, 
starting  with  the,  initial  songs.  When  they  are  ready  to  sing  the 
dancing  songs  the  feast-giver  rises  and  speaks  as  follows : 

"The  dancing  songs  that  we  are  about  to  sing  we  use  because  we 
believe  that  our  offering  will  thus  be  accepted.  It  is  generally  the 
custom  to  do  this." 

He  now  calls  on  some  one  to  lead  in  the  dance.  This  individual  is 
always  taken  from  the  Buffalo  clan.  He  comes  forward,  placing  the 
buffalo  head  on  his  own  head  and  carrying  the  buffalo  tail  attached 
to  himself.  He  leads  in  all  the  dances,  the  others  following  him. 
A  plate  of  maple  sugar  is  placed  at  the  buffalo  mound.  When  he 
approaches  the  buffalo  mound  he  makes  a  noise  like  a  buffalo, 
sticks  his  tongue  to  the  plate  of  sugar,  and  licks  up  some  of  it.  Those 
following  do  the  same.  This  they  do  without  even  holding  the  dish, 
just  as  buffaloes  eat.  When  they  finish  their  dancing  they  pass  the 
drum  on  to  another  person,  and  when  it  has  made  the  circuit  of  the 
lodge  they  eat.  Each  person  has  his  own  dish.  Then  the  leader  in 
the  dance  is  told  that  the  dish  of  wild  rice  standing  in  the  center  of 
the  lodge  is  meant  for  him,  and  that  he  can  invite  whomsoever  he 
likes  to  help  him.  When  all  in  the  lodge  are  ready  they  start  eating 
all  at  the  same  time.  When  those  in  the  center  of  the  lodge  get 
through  and  the  dish  is  empty  it  is  thrown  over  their  heads,  and 
they  do  not  stop  this  until  the  dish  has  been  turned  upside  down. 
While  they  are  engaged  in  doing  this  they  bellow  like  buffaloes. 
They  are  not  allowed  to  use  their  hands  in  turning  the  dish  over. 
They  must  do  it  with  their  heads,  for  it  is  a  sacred  thing  and  that  is 
the  way  the  buffaloes  used  to  do  it.  When  they  are  all  through  eat- 
ing the  feast-giver  sings  a  dancing  song  and  all  those  within  the 
lodge  rise,  take  their  plates,  and  dance  out  of  the  lodge. 


is  In  this  account  it  is  not  quite  clear  whether  the  drum  is  merely  passed  to  the  four  principal  guests  or 
to  all.  At  the  buffalo  dance  witnessed  by  the  writer  in  the  summer  of  1908  it  was  passed  only  to  the  four 
principal  guests.    This  was  also  corroborated  by  a  number  of  informants. 

"  The  origin  myth  of  this  feast  is  given  on  page  243. 


juimsI  RELIGIOUS   SOCIETIES   BASED   ON   BLESSINGS  347 

Description  of  buffalo  dance  and  its  origin. — Informant,  member  of 
Bear  clan :  The  buffalo  dance  can  be  given  by  anybody  who  has  been 
blessed  by  the  buffalo  spirits.  In  the  beginning  the  Winnebago  had 
animal  forms,  and  they  could  obtain  all  the  power  they  wanted,  but 
since  they  left  that  stage  of  life  they  can  obtain  power  only  by  fasting. 
John's  buffalo  feast  is  of  recent  origin.  It  originated  with  his 
grandfather. 

A  long  lodge  is  prepared  and  in  tbe  center  there  is  a  pile  of  loose 
dirt.  John's  grandfather's  name  was  Hodjanaga,  Young-man-just- 
maturing.  In  fasting  he  found  out  that  he  was  blessed  with  powers 
to  cure  the  sick  and  be  victorious  in  battle.  While  fasting,  the 
spirits  told  him  that  he  would  receive  what  he  was  longing  for. 
They  told  him  that  he  would  know  what  to  do,  for  they  would  come 
after  him.  Soon  they  came  after  him  and  took  him  into  camp  (i.  e., 
spirit  country).  When  he  got  there,  he  saw  an  old  man  and  a  child, 
and  he  was  told  that  it  was  on  account  of  the  child  that  he  had  been 
brought  there;  that  the  child  had  heard  his  prayers  while  fasting 
and  had  blessed  him.  Then  they  showed  him  a  certain  herb  and 
told  him,  "This  is  what  we  give  you.  It  will  give  you  strength  in 
running.  Use  it  in  time  of  war,  and  use  it  also  as  medicine  for  life. 
I  have  blessed  you  and  given  you  what  you  desired  and  do  you,  in 
turn,  make  me  a  dog  feast  and  give  me  red  feathers,  tobacco,  and 
food."  Then  they  taught  him  the  songs  and  gave  him  a  buffalo  tail 
and  a  flute. 

No  invitation  sticks  are  used.  They  go  around  and  invite  those 
whom  they  want. 

When  the  grasses  are  well  developed,  then  the  Buffalo  clan  people 
make  a  feast  to  their  life  or  clan;  also  in  midwinter,  for  that  is  the 
time  when  all  the  spirits  awaken  from  their  night's  sleep  and  turn 
over  on  the  other  side. 

Society  of  Those  Who  Have  Been  Blessed  Bt  the  Grizzly  Bear 

Informant,  member  of  Bear  clan:  The  grizzly-bear  dance  was 
given  by  those  who  had  been  blessed  during  their  fasting  by  the 
grizzly  bear.  Women  were  never  so  blessed,  and  for  that  reason 
they  never  could  participate  in  the  dance.  Different  people  received 
different  blessings.  We  were  blessed  with  two  grizzly-bear  heads, 
grizzly-bear  hides,  and  paws.  In  the  lodge  constructed  for  the  dance 
was  placed  a  mound  of  earth  called  manwarap'uru.  The  manwarap'uru 
is  supposed  to  represent  a  bear's  cave,  the  four  points  of  the  cross 
representing  the  entrances  to  the  cave  and  the  four  lines  running  to 
the  center,  the  paths  along  which  the  grizzly  bear  travels  when  he 
scents  a  man.  The  place  in  the  middle  is  supposed  to  be  the  habi- 
tation of  the  bear  himself.     Tobacco  and  red  feathers  are  placed  both 


348  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ahn.37 

in  the  center  and  at  the  four  points.  Only  people  who  had  been 
blessed  by  the  grizzly  bear  were  permitted  to  sing  and  dance.  The 
dancing  itself  took  place  both  around  the  lodge  and  around  the 
manwarap'uru.  The  dancers  are  supposed  to  imitate  the  motions 
and  the  cries  of  the  grizzly  bear.  Sometimes  they  whirl  themselves 
round  and  round,  like  a  grizzly  bear,  but  their  principal  motion  con- 
sists in  stretching  out  their  hands.  In  this  position  they  will  take 
tobacco  from  the  manwarap'uru  and  eat  it.  They  believe  that  they 
are  representing  the  bears  when  they  do  this. 

The  dancers  are  selected  by  the  one  giving  the  dance.  Those 
taking  part  vie  with  each  other  in  exhibiting  the  powers  with  which 
they  have  been  blessed,  because  in  this  way  those  present  could  see 
who  possessed  the  greatest  powers. 

The  purpose  of  the  dance  was  to  thank  the  grizzly  bears  for  the 
blessings  they  had  bestowed  upon  the  people.  (However,  there 
seemed  to  be  many  other  special  occasions  for  which  the  dance  was 
performed.) 

If  sick  people  are  present  at  the  dance  they  are  told  to  put  some 
tobacco  on  the  manwarap'uru  and  ask  for  life. 

There  is  a  description  of  the  grizzly-bear  dance  in  the  account  of 
Little  Priest's  life  which  it  might  be  well  to  append  here  in  view  of 
the  brevity  of  the  above  description. 

" Little  Priest  had  been  wounded  in  so  many  places  that  he  was 
practically  dead.  He  was,  of  course,  entirely  unconscious  when  his 
relatives  arrived.  They  decided  to  perform  the  grizzly-bear  dance 
for  him,  He  himself  had  been  blessed  by  the  grizzly  bears  when  he 
was  young. 

"The  dance  was  to  be  given  at  the  lodge  of  an  Indian  named  Good 
Soldier.  They  carried  Little  Priest  to  the  lodge  in  a  blanket,  so  that 
they  could  sing  for  him  and  permit  him  to  show  the  powers  he  pos- 
sessed. He  was  unable  to  move  on  account  of  the  wounds  and  the 
bruises  he  had  gotten.  The  man  who  sang  for  him  at  that  time  was 
South-Wind.  There  were  all  in  all  ten  Indians,  entirely  naked, 
except  for  their  breechclouts.  Little  Priest  had  told  South- Wind 
that  he  was  a  grizzly  bear  and  that  he  could  heal  himself  (no  matter 
how  badly  he  had  been  wounded). 

"As  soon  as  the  songs  and  dancing  commenced  Little  Priest  began 
to  move  his  little  fingers.  Soon  he. was  able  to  move  his  arm  as  far 
as  his  forearm,  and  gradually  he  regained  the  power  of  moving  the 
entire  arm.  Finally  he  sat  up  and  began  to  keep  time  on  the  drum. 
Then  he  tried  to  stand  on  his  feet,  but  owing  to  his  weakness  it  was 
only  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  he  could  straighten  out  his 
body.  Finally  he  stood  erect.  Then  he  started  to  walk  around  the 
lodge  very  slowly.  The  second  circuit  he  made  more  easily,  and  by 
the  time  he  had  made  the  fourth  circuit  he  was  dancing  just  as  the 


badin]  RELIGIOUS   SOCIETIES   BASED   ON   BLESSINGS  349 

other  dancers  were  with  all  his  strength  restored.  Then  he  walked 
to  the  manwarup'uru,  took  some  earth,  rubbed  it  on  his  wounds, 
and  they  were  healed  immediately.  There  was  only  one  wound 
that  he  could  not  heal,  which  was  situated  on  a  part  of  his  back  that 
he  could  not  reach  with  his  hands." 

He  sang  many  songs  while  dancing.     These  songs  were  the  ones 
that  the  spirits  had  taught  him  when  they  blessed  him. 

GRIZZLY    BEAR   SONGS 

1 

Newine'na  newine'na  hanptcanne. 
I  am  he,     I  am  he,    the  clay  it  is  I. 


Ha/nanninxgunnevk'tce  hiniggai're  nink'tcaVnirjkEra  djaniinga'gre. 
That  you  would  be      you  were    by  the  children      aa  many  as  there  are. 
listened  to  told 

3 

Mantco'jan  ho'dadjehivrera. 

The  grizzly  bear  was  starting  to  roam. 


Wa'wonatcant£in  nihe'ka. 
Shouting  you     can  hear  him. 
Hc'ratca11^!11      nihe'ka. 
His  voice  you  can  hear. 


CHAPTER  XIV 


THE  MEDICINE  DANCE 

(Pis.  49,50) 

Origin  Myth 

What  it  was  our  father  sat  on  when  he  came  to  consciousness  is 
uncertain.  Then  his  tears  flowed  and  he  began  to  cry.  Not  long  did 
he  think.  He  saw  nothing  and  nothing  was  there  anywhere.  He 
took  something  from  the  seat  on  which  he  was  sitting  and  made  a 
portion  of  our  earth. 

Then  he  sent  the  earth  below  him.  From  where  he  sat  and  as  he 
looked  at  his  own  creation,  it  became  similar  to  our  earth.  However, 
nothing  grew  upon  it  and  it  was  entirely  without  a  covering.  It 
had  not  become  quiet  but  was  spinning  around. 

Suddenly  he  thought,  "If  I  do  this,  it  will  become  quiet."  Then 
he  made  a  covering  (hair)  for  it.  He  took  a  weed  from  his  seat  to 
make  grass  for  the  earth  and  earthward  he  sent  it.  That  he  did  and 
then  looked  at  his  own  creation.  It  was  not  quiet  but  still  kept  on 
turning.  ''This  way  I  will  do  again,"  he  thought.  He  took  a  tree 
and  toward  the  earth  he  sent  it  and  again  looked  at  his  creation,  but 
still  it  kept  spinning  around.  Then  he  sent  four  men,  brothers,  and 
placed  one  in  the  east,  one  in  the  west,  one  in  the  south,  and  one  in 
the  north,  and  again  looked  at  his  creation.  It  was,  however,  still  spin- 
ning around.  ''Perhaps  it  will  become  quiet  in  the  following  way," 
he  thought.  So  he  made  four  of  what  are  called  water-spirits  and 
below  the  earth  he  placed  them,  and  for  that  reason  they  are  called 
island-weights.  Then  he  scattered  a  female  spirit  over  the  earth,  by 
which  stones  are  meant.  Finally  he  looked  at  his  creation  and  he 
saw  that  the  earth  had  become  quiet. 

He  had  sent  the  stones  clear  through  the  earth,  throughout  its 
extent,  and  only  the  heads  remained  uncovered.  He  looked  at  his 
creation  and  saw  that  it  had  become  quiet.  No  clouds  appeared 
anywhere,  the  light  of  day  appearing  motionless,  and  the  vibrations 
of  heat  seemed  to  be  like  spider  webs  going  past,  floating. 

All  the  birds  that  were  to  roam  over  the  sky,  all  the  quadrupeds 
that  were  to  be  on  this  earth  and  those  called  subterranean  animals 
he  placed  in  houses  that  he  had  made  for  them  and  scattered  here 
and  there.  Then  he  made  all  those  insects  that  were  destined  to 
live  on  the  earth.  Finally,  at  the  end  of  his  thinking  he  made  us, 
350 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY        THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE   49 


a.   EXTERIOR    OF    MEDICINE    DANCE    LODGE 


6.    INTERIOR    OF    MEDICINE    DANCE    LODGE 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY       THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE    50 


a.  EXTERIOR    OF    MEDICINE    DANCE    LODGE 


b.   INTERIOR    OF    MEDICINE    DANCE    LODGE 


radin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  351 

the  human  beings.  However,  we  were  not  even  equal  in  strength  to 
a  fly.  We  were  the  weakest  of  all.  Then  he  looked  at  what  he  had 
created  and  he  liked  it  and  sat  filled  with  happy  thoughts. 

He  was  proud  of  us  and  gazed  again  on  what  he  had  created.  He 
had,  however,  not  made  the  human  beings  equal  in  strength  to  the 
others  and  they  were  on  the  point  of  being  destroyed.  Then  he 
formed  a  human  being,  like  ourselves,  and  when  he  had  finished  him, 
he  named  him  the  Foolish-One.  "Foolish-One,  to  the  earth  you  are 
to  go.  Weakly  (pitiable) ,  in  every  respect,  I  made  the  human  beings. 
I  made  them  as  my  last  thought.  Now  this  creation  of  mine,  they, 
the  evil  spirits,  are  likely  to  injure,  so  do  you,  O  Foolish-One,  go  and 
put  things  in  order." 

Then  he  sent  him  to  the  earth,  but  when  he  came  on  earth  he  did 
not  do  what  he  had  been  told.  He  went  around  the  earth  and  ac- 
complished nothing.  (As  useless)  as  a  child  crawling  on  all  fours 
he  was.  He  really  amounted  to  nothing.  Though  sent  by  Earth- 
maker,  he  amounted  to  nothing.  He  did  no  good  and  injured  the 
creation  of  Earthmaker,  so  Earthmaker  took  him  back  and  had  him 
sit  at  the  right  of  his  own  seat. 

Then  he  made  another  (man)  and  when  he  was  finisher!  called  him 
the  Turtle.  ''The  two-legged  walkers  (human  beings)  whom  I  cre- 
ated as  the  last  of  my  thoughts,  (evil  spirits)  are  about  to  exterminate 
Do  you  go  and  put  the  earth  in  order."  Turtle  went  and  (took  along) 
a  knife  that  he  had  been  given.  When  he  came  on  earth  he  led  people 
on  the  warpath,  but  he  did  not  look  after  the  (welfare)  of  (Earth- 
maker's)  creation.  Earthmaker  therefore  took  back  the  second  man, 
too,  and  placed  him  on  his  left  side. 

Then  he  made  a  third  (man) ,  and  when  he  finished  him,  he  named 
him  Bladder,  and  said,  "You  are  to  go  to  the  earth.  As  my  last 
thought,  I  created  the  two-legged  walkers  and  they  were  pitifid  in 
every  way.  They  are  now  about  to  be  exterminated  and  you  are  to 
rescue  them.     Try  with  all  your  strength." 

When  he  came  on  earth  he  made  a  long  lodge  and  created  twenty 
men.  That  many  younger  brothers  he  had.  Then  they  all  started 
to  go  around  this  entire  island  and  all  the  younger  brothers  were 
killed.  Thus  he  failed  in  his  mission.  The  work  his  father  had  sent 
him  to  do,  he  failed  in,  so  (Earthmaker)  took  him  back  and  placed 
him  on  his  left  side. 

Then  he  made  a  fourth  (man)  and  when  he  finished  he  named  him 
He-who-wears-human-heads-as-earrings. 

Then  he  made  the  last  one,  Hare,  his  body  just  like  ours.  "You 
are  the  last  one  I  am  going  to  create,  so  try  with  all  your  strength, 
Hare,  try."  He-who-wears-human-heads-as-earrings,  the  fourth  one, 
faded.  He  therefore  took  him  back.  Hare  was  the  last  that  Earth- 
maker,  our  father,  wished  to  create.  He  (had  created)  him  entirely 
by  the  force  of  his  thoughts. 


352  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  axn.  37 

"Hare,  what  I  am  doing,  you  also  will  be  able  to  accomplish. 
Try  with  all  your  power.  If  (the  evil  spirits)  injure  my  creation,  it 
will  not  be  good  on  earth,  life  will  not  be  good."  Thus  he  encouraged 
him;  thus  he  spoke  to  him.     "Try  and  overcome  these  (evil  spirits)." 

So  Hare  was  sent  to  the  earth,  and  when  he  came  on  earth  he  said 
to  himself,  "My  brothers  acted  in  a  (certain)  way  and  failed."  Hare 
had  come  up  to  a  certain  oval  lodge  and  from  this  (same)  house  came 
a  young  woman  with  a  little  pail.  She  was  going  toward  the  river. 
"Now  they  (Foolish-One,  etc.),  were  not  able  to  do  (what  I  am  going 
to  do),"  he  said.  There  he  entered  the  body  of  the  young  woman  in 
order  to  become  a  human  being.  There  he  sat  in  the  abdomen  (of 
the  young  woman) ,  yet  he  heard  their  (human  being's)  cry. 

He  heard  them  crying.  "My  father  sent  me  to  give  them  advice, 
and  here,  for  so  very  long  a  time,  I  have  been  sitting."  Crying, 
shrieking,  he  heard  them  (the  human  beings).  "So  long  have  I  been 
sitting  here  that  (the  evil  spirits)  will  in  the  end  destroy  them." 
Seven  months  had  he  been  waiting  when  he  spoke  thus.  Finally, 
when  the  proper  time  had  elapsed,  he  went  out  through  an  opening. 
Not  four  days  after,  the  woman  died. 

He  always  left  the  house  in  which  they  lived,  at  night,  and  would 
roam  around.  Whenever  he  walked  inside  the  house  he  would 
reflect  much  light.  As  soon  as  daylight  appeared  he  became  quiet,  it 
is  said.  As  soon  as  the  sun  went  down,  he  went  out.  He  traveled 
all  around  the  earth,  for  its  entire  extent,  and  just  before  sunrise 
returned  and  became  quiet.  Throughout  the  day  he  sat  thinking 
of  all  the  work  he  was  to  do. 

For  the  third  time  he  again  started  out,  at  sunset,  and  traveled 
over  half  the  extent  of  the  earth,  and  all  the  bad  spirits  that  were 
growing  wild  he  put  an  end  to.  "Not  again  will  they  (the  bad 
spirits)  live;  not  for  a  second  time  will  they  kill  any  of  my  uncles  or 
aunts."  Just  before  daylight  appeared,  he  went  toward  the  house, 
and  as  he  approached  it,  his  heart  felt  good.  Then  he  entered  the 
house  and  all  day  he  sat  there  wrapped  in  thought. 

When  the  sun  went  down  he  went  out  and  over  to  the  very  edge  of 
the  earth,  as  large  as  it  is,  he  roamed,  and  all  the  bad  spirits  that  exist 
he  killed.  Just  about  daylight  he  went  up  into  the  heavens  and  bang ! 
he  pursued  all  the  bad  birds  that  were  living  there  and  driving  them 
together  in  the  west,  he  killed  them  all.  Very  early  in  the  morning 
he  went  to  the  house  thinking  pleasant  thoughts.  "The  work  my 
father  sent  me  to  do  I  have  accomplished.  The  life  of  my  uncles  and 
aunts  will  now  be  like  mine,  from  now  on."  Thus  he  thought  as  he 
entered  the  house. 

"Well,  Grandmother,  the  work  my  father  sent  me  to  do,  I  have 
accomplished.  He  sent  me  to  look  after  his  creation  and  all  that  I 
have  accomplished.     My  uncles'  and  aunts'  lives  will  hereafter  be  the 


radin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  353 

same  as  my  own."  "But,  Grandson,  how  can  your  uncles'  lives  be 
the  same  as  yours  ?  It  is  not  so.  The  (world)  is  as  our  father  created 
it.  Not  different  can  it  be  made."  "The  old  woman  must  be  re- 
lated to  them  and  therefore  does  not  like  it  that  I  killed  (the  evil 
spirits)."  "No,  Grandson,  our  father  has  ordained  thay  my  body 
(the  earth)  should  fall  in  two.  Lest  they  should  cause  a  shortage  in 
food  (by  overpopulation)  he  ordained  that  there  should  be  death, 
otherwise  they  woidd  crowd  each  other  too  much  on  earth.  So,  there- 
fore, he  arranged  that  they  have  a  place  to  die." 

Hare  didn't  like  it.  "Surely,  Grandmother  does  not  like  it  be- 
cause she  was  related  to  them.  She  is  taking  their  (evil  spirits)  part." 
Thus  he  thought.  "No,  Grandson,  that  is  not  so.  Your  heart,  at 
present,  feels  sore.  Your  uncles  and  aunts  will  obtain  enough  of  life; 
they  will  live  to  a  normal  old  age,"  she  told  him.  "Now,  Grandson, 
get  up.  Your  uncles  and  aunts  will  follow  you.  Try  with  all  your 
strength  (to  do  what  I  am  going  to  tell  you) .  You  are  a  man,  so  do 
not  look  back." 

Around  (the  earth)  they  started.  "Not  to  look  back,"  grand- 
mother said.  "I  wonder  why  she  said  it."  Thus  he  thought.  So 
he  looked  back  just  the  least  bit  to  his  left.  The  place  he  had  started 
from  caved  in  instantaneously.  "O  my!  O  my!  A  man  I  thought 
you  were,  a  person  of  prominence,  and  I  had  encouraged  you  very 
much.  But  now,  Grandson,  decay,  death  can,  in  no  way,  be  taken 
back."     That  is  what  she  meant,  it  is  said. 

Around  (the  earth)  they  went  and  to  the  edge  of  the  fire  (that 
encircles  the  earth)  they  traveled,  it  is  said.  They  united  it  (the 
fire)  so  that  they  (the  uncles  and  aunts)  would  attain  old  age,  so  she 
said. 

"To  look  back,  she  forbade  me.  But  I  have  already  made  up  my 
mind  (as  to  the  immortality  of  my  uncles  and  aunts).  When  they 
become  like  me,  then  only  will  I  be  happy.  Such  is  my  thought." 
Then  he  went  out  and  there,  where  the  sun  rises,  to  the  east,  he  went 
and  entered  the  house.  Opposite  the  occupants  he  sat  himself. 
What  he  had  come  for  (the  occupants)  knew,  it  is  said,  "  Well,  Hare, 
there  is  nothing  I  can  say  to  you.  If  the  one  ahead  has  anything  he 
wishes  to  say  to  you,  he  will  undoubtedly  do  so."  Then  he  (Hare) 
greeted  him  and  went  out. 

Toward  the  west  he  traveled.  Even  then  not  any  (other)  thought 
he  had.  "  I  can  do  it,"  he  thought  on  the  way.  When  he  arrived  at 
the  house  he  entered  and  sat  himself  opposite  the  (occupant) .  "  Hare, 
what  you  have  come  for,  I  know,  I  believe,  but  I  will  not  tell  you 
anything.  The  one  ahead,  he  it  is  that  can  tell  you,  he  it  is."  So  he 
(Hare)  saluted  him  and  went  out. 

Toward  the  house  of  the  fourth  one,  in  the  south,  he  went  and  en- 
tered, and  sat  himself  opposite  (the  occupant).     "Hare,  what  you 


354  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

have  come  for,  I  know,  but  if  even  those  ahead  could  not  say  any- 
thing to  you,  how  can  I,  the  very  last,  say  anything?" 

Then  he  saluted  him  and  went  out  in  the  same  way  that  he  went 
in.  lie  started  for  his  house  and  came  there  crying,  it  is  said.  "My 
aunts  and  uncles  must  not  die!"  "To  all  things  death  will  come," 
he  thought.  Then  he  cast  his  thoughts  upon  the  precipices  and 
they  began  to  fall,  to  crumble.  Upon  the  rocks  he  cast  his  thoughts 
and  they  crumbled.  Under  the  earth  he  cast  his  thoughts  and  all 
beings  that  were  living  under  the  earth  stopped  moving  and  their 
limbs  stiffened  (in  death). 

Up  above  also  he  cast  his  thoughts  and  the  birds  began  to  fall 
down  (dead). 

Then  when  he  entered  the  house  he  took  his  blanket  and  wrapping 
himjelf  in  it,  lay  down  crying,  it  is  said.  "Not  the  entire  earth 
will  suffice  for  us,"  he  thought,  "and  in  some  places  there  will  not 
even  be  enough  earth.  " 

After  a  while  the  news  reached  our  father.  "To  utterly  destroy 
us  they  will  try"  (the  people  were  saying).  That  Hare  was  not 
feeling  well,  was  the  news  that  reached  him.  Then  he  (Earthmaker) 
said  to  the  first  man  he  had  created,  "Hare  is  not  feeling  well  and 
you  are  to  go  after  him."  Toward  the  earth  he  came.  "Hare,  I 
have  come  here  to  fetch  you."  But  he  did  not  answer  him  and 
he  did  not  even  move  his  blanket.  So  the  man  (Foolish-One) 
returned.  Then  he  (Earthmaker)  said  to  the  second  one,  "Hare 
you  are  to  go  after  and  bring  him  back  here.  Try  very  hard  to 
(accomplish)  it,  for  he  is  not  feeling  well."  When  he  arrived  there 
(he  said),  "Hare,  I  have  come  after  you  to  take  you  back."  But 
Hare  did  not  even  (answer).  When  he  returned,  he  said,  "Hare 
did  not  say  anything."  (Then  to  the  third  one  he  said),  "Hare 
you  are  to  go  after,  for  he  is  not  feeling  well. "  When  he  came  (to 
where  Hare  was,  he  said),  "Hare,  I  have  come  after  you,  to  take 
you  home."  But  Hare  did  not  even  answer  him.  Hare  was  indeed 
not  feeling  well. 

Then  he  (Earthmaker)  told  the  fourth  one,  "You  are  to  go  after 
Hare.  Be  sure  and  bring  him.  Be  sure  and  bring  him.  Try  with 
all  your  strength."  "No  matter  how  hard  it  is,  I  will  bring  him" 
(said  the  fourth  one).  He  started  out  and  when  he  came  to  Hare 
(he  said),  "Indeed,  for  a  very  long  time  has  your  heart  been  sad, 
Hare.  But  let  us  go  home  now.  Get  up ! "  Then  he  took  him  back, 
it  is  said,  to  Earthmaker  he  took  him.  But  not  to  Earthmaker 's 
house  did  he  take  him,  but  to  that  opposite  where  the  chief  of  the 
Thunderbirds  lived.  At  his  side,  there  they  placed  him.  In  front 
of  the  Thunderbird  chief's  (house)  there  was  a  mound  and  also  a 
little  war  club  painted  red  on  one  side.  Thunderbird  chief  took 
the  little  war  club  and  holding  it  lightly,  shook  it  gently.     So  great 


eadin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  355 

was  the  noise  (it  made)  that  Hare  got  frightened  and  almost  ran  out, 
it  is  said.  Then  they  freed  him  from  the  sad  thoughts  he  had  had 
on  earth  and  restored  his  spirits. 

Soon  after  that  they  took  him  to  Earthmaker  and  (when)  he  had 
come  there  (Earthmaker  said),  "Hare,  your  heart  must  have  been 
very  sad.  Indeed,  for  your  uncles  it  was,  that  your  heart  felt  sad. 
Now  that  their  lives  may  be  benefited,  a  holy  teaching  you  are  to 
take  back  to  them.  "Here,  look  at  it,"  he  said,  and  pointed  to- 
ward the  south.  There  a  long  lodge  stood  (revealed).  At  this  he 
looked  and  there  were  old  people  with  hair  all  white.  "Thus  your 
uncles  and  aunts  will  be.  They  will  make  very  much  noise  (in 
this  ceremony).  Now  look  down!  Some  help  is  to  be  given  them. 
Not  one  bad  spirit  will  I  put  there. "  Then  he  (Earthmaker)  pointed 
in  that  direction  and  said,  "You  are  to  go  back  there  (to  earth) 
and  put  this  (ceremony)  before  them.  Not  alone  are  you  to  do  it, 
but  with  the  aid  of  your  own  friends,  Foolish-One,  Turtle,  Bladder, 
and  He-who-wears-heads-as-earrings. "  These  he  meant.  "Your 
grandmother  (the  earth)  will  help  you  and  if  one  of  your  uncles  and 
aunts  performs  everything  properly  he  will  have  more  than  one 
life.  I  will  always  keep  the  door  (through  which  he  may  return  to 
earth)  open  to  him.  When  he  becomes  reincarnated  he  can  live 
wherever  he  wishes.  He  can  return  (to  the  earth)  as  a  human  being 
or  he  can  join  the  different  bands  of  spirits,  or  finally  he  can  become 
(a  being)  below  the  earth.*'     All  this  he  (Earthmaker)  did  for  us. 

Then  Hare  returned  to  the  earth  and  to  his  grandmother.  "  What 
I  have  tried  to  obtain  for  my  uncles  and  aunts,  that  now  I  have 
brought  back  with  me."  "Grandson,  how  was  it  possible  for  you  to 
make  them  immortal  like  ourselves  ?  As  the  world  was  created,  so 
must  it  remain."  "Grandmother,  I  say  that  my  uncles  will  choose 
their  lives  for  themselves,  and  grandmother,  you  are  to  help  me." 
"All  right,  grandson,  it  is  good,"  she  said,  thanking  him.  "When 
the  time  comes,  my  friend  the  Foolish-One  will  come,"  he  thought. 
Then  he  struck  his  drum  and  started  the  songs.  All  of  a  sudden, 
Foolish-One  came  in.  "  That  you  would  come,  my  friend,  I  thought, 
and  thus  you  have  come."  "  Indeed,  my  friend,  I  knew  your  thoughts 
and,  for  that  reason,  I  came."  Then  they  went  out  together  and 
outside  of  the  village  they  sat  and  discussed  what  they  were  to  do. 
This  is  what  they  were  doing.  All  day  they  discussed  on  the  out- 
skirts of  the  village.  When  they  came  to  the  house  they  entered  it 
and  sat  down.  "My  friend  Turtle  will  come,"  he  (Hare)  thought. 
Then  Turtle  did  come.  "My  friend,  I  knew  you  would  come,  and 
for  that  reason,  you  have  come."  "Yes,  indeed,  your  thought  I 
knew,  and  for  that  reason  I  have  come."  Soon  Bladder  came.  He 
(Hare)  thought  he  would  come  and  for  that  reason  he  came.  Then 
Hare  centered  his  thoughts  on  He-who-wears-heads-as-earrings,  and 
he  also  came. 


356  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Their  grandmother  listened  to  them  quietly,  but  she  could  not 
understand  them.  Then  (after  a  while)  Hare  said,  "Grandmother, 
what  I  have  been  trying  to  obtain  for  my  uncles  I  have  succeeded  (in 
accomplishing).  You  are  now  going  to  hear  of  it.  Come  here 
toward  the  fireplace  and  sit  down  and  you  will  hear  of  it.  (I  know) 
that  you  are  anxious  to  help  them,  Grandmother."  "Indeed, 
grandson,  it  is  good,"  she  said,  and  got  up.  Then  she  took  her  work 
and  sat  down  near  the  five  of  them  and  laid  her  hands  upon  their 
heads.  In  front  of  her  nephew,  Hare,  she  placed  her  work.  "If  you 
get  this  for  them  (i.  e.,  the  medicine  dance)  your  uncles  will  live  weU. 
This  way  they  are  to  do  forever,"  she  said.  In  front  of  him  she  put 
her  work  and  said,  "For  this  thing,  indeed,  I  thank  our  father." 
Thus  she  said  and  went  back  and  sat  down.  "Grandson,  what  the 
nature  of  my  help  for  you  was  to  be,  you  asked?  Well,  look  at  me, 
grandson.  For  your  uncles  and  your  aunts,  our  father  had  me  bring 
the  following.  I  have  for  them  that  with  which  they  will  always  be 
able  to  ask  for  life."  Then  she  opened  that  part  of  her  body  where 
her  heart  was  situated  and  very  green  leaves  were  to  be  seen,  like  an 
ear  in  shape.  It  was  as  white  as  a  blossom.  Then  she  opened  her 
breast  on  the  right  side  and  said,  "Grandson,  look  at  me."  Then 
unexpectedly  corn  was  visible.  "For  your  uncles  and  aunts,  our 
father  let  me  bring  corn."  A  stalk  became  visible  whose  leaves  were 
very  green  and  whose  tassels  were  white.  These  were  the  ears  of 
corn  that  we  were  to  eat. 

Then  the  five  of  them  got  up  and  Hare  said,  "Our  grandmother,  let 
us  greet."  So  they  walked  up  and  laid  their  hands  upon  her  head. 
Then  they  greeted  her  and  went  around  again.  "It  is  good,  grand- 
mother, this  is  what  I  meant  when  I  said  you  were  to  help  them. 
You  were  going  to  help  us,  grandmother,"  I  said.  "You  may  now 
fix  your  breast." 

Then  he  went  out,  proceeding  toward  the  east,  and  when  he  got 
there  he  stopped.  Then  he  turned  toward  the  west.  Grandmother 
closed  her  breast  and  entered  the  house.  "Well,  grandson,  I  have 
done  it."  "It  is  good,  grandmother,"  said  Hare.  Then  he  went 
out,  and  when  he  got  to  the  door  he  stopped  there  and  thought, 
"This  is  the  way  it  will  be."  And  where  he  stood,  eight  yellow 
female  snakes  he  threw.  They  became  the  side-poles  of  the  lodge. 
Their  heads  he  turned  toward  the  east,  and  their  tails  he  turned 
toward  the  west.  The  strings  he  used  with  "which  to  tie  them  were 
rattlesnakes.  The  doorway  was  made  of  a  black  female  and  a 
male  snake,  the  latter  placed  at  the  right.  At  the  rear  end  of  the 
house,  in  the  west,  he  also  made  doors  of  blue  female  snakes.  Then 
he  took  a  reed-grass,  which  he  had  brought  with  him,  under  whose 
covering  we  were  to  live,  and  threw  it  over  the  lodge  and  the  lodge 
was  wrapped  in  it  entirely.     Then  he  took  another  piece  of  reed- 


eadin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  357 

grass  and  inside  the  house,  at  the  right  side,  he  threw  it  and  it  became 
white  mats  spread  out.  Then  he  threw  a  bear-skin  hide  in  the  house 
on  the  right  side,  and  it  extended  along  the  length  of  the  lodge. 
Then  he  made  a  white  deer-hide  extend  along  the  entire  length  of  the 
lodge,  on  the  right  side.  A  door  he  made  of  a  real  living  mountain 
lion.  This  he  did  in  order  to  prevent  bad  spirits  from  entering.  At 
the  door,  on  the  west  side,  he  placed  a  buffalo  bull,  and  when  this 
all  was  completed,  he  looked  inside  the  lodge  and  then  he  heard 
these  animals  bellowing  and  roaring,  it  is  said.  Inside  of  the  lodge, 
it  was  light. 

Then  he  started  for  the  lodge,  first  going  for  his  friends.  "Well, 
my  friends,  I  am  through;  the  house  I  have  finished.  Grandmother, 
stand  up,  for  we  are  going  to  follow."  He  walked  behind  and  when 
they  came  to  the  door,  the  fear-inspiring  lion  snapped  his  teeth,  as 
he  stood  there.  Then  they  went  in  and  walked  around  the  lodge 
until  they  came  to  the  place  where  they  had  entered  and  they  sat 
down.  Then  Hare  sent  a  number  of  public  criers,  a  bear  and  a  wolf, 
to  traverse  the  entire  length  of  the  earth.  Along  with  them  were  sent 
the  winged  messengers,  the  common  crow  and  the  shrieking  crow. 

When  the  animals  that  had  started  first  returned,  their  bodies  were 
old  and  devoid  of  hair,  and  they  supported  themselves  on  staffs. 
When  the  birds  who  had  gone  returned,  their  wings  were  worn  out, 
their  eyebrows  lapped  over  their  eyes,  and  they  looked  very  old 
indeed.  They  came  in  front  of  Hare's  seat  and  said  to  him,  "Your 
uncles  and  aunts,  when  they  speak  of  you,  will  speak  of  you  forever 
in  praise.  We  have  placed  many  life-giving  objects  within  the 
lodge.''  "Well,  my  friends,  it  is  good.  This  is  what  I  meant.  I 
thank  you  in  the  name  of  my  uncles  and  aunts." 

Then  all  the  messengers  who  had  been  above  on  the  earth,  etc.,  all 
of  them  came.  The  four  very  first  men  he  had  created  also  came. 
They  all  stood  at  the  door  ready  to  enter.  The  oldest  one  started  in, 
but  he  turned  back,  being  afraid  of  the  animals  within.  Three  of 
them  were  afraid  and  therefore  failed  to  enter.  Then  the  youngest 
opened  the  door  for  them  and  led  them  in.  After  he  entered,  they, 
in  turn,  walked  around  the  lodge,  and  when  they  got  to  the  door, 
Hare  placed  the  eldest  one  there  and  said,  "My  elder  brother,  this  is 
your  seat,  the  east  one."  Then  he  walked  around  again  and  at  the 
north  end  he  stopped  and  made  the  second  one  sit  down.  Then  he 
walked  around  and,  stopping  in  the  west,  made  the  third  one  sit 
there.  Then,  finally,  he  put  the  fourth  one  in  the  south  seat,  and 
went  to  his  own  seat  and  sat  down. 

Now  all  the  other  spirits  began  to  enter  the  lodge.  Then  the  first 
people  came  in  and  four  were  made  to  sit  in  the  east  and  four  were 
made  to  sit  with  each  of  the  four  seats.     The  people  were  of  the 


358  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  iss.  37 

Bird  clan,  the  Bear  clan,  the  Wolf  clan,  and  the  Snake  clan.  The 
fourth  one  was  the  one  they  were  to  teach,  to  initiate. 

Then  Hare  got  up  and  spoke  as  follows:  "My  friends,  I  have  had 
you  come  together,  for  my  uncles  and  aunts  had  been  living  a  most 
pitiable  life.  You  are  to  teach  them  the  life  they  are  to  live  and 
which  they  are  to  hand  down  from  generation  to  generation.  That 
is  what  I  ask  of  you.  What  I  want,  you  have  heard.  I  leave  every- 
thing to  be  done  and  said  by  those  in  the  east." 

Then  he,  the  one  in  the  east,  arose  and  spoke,  "Our  friends,  the 
uncles  and  aunts  of  the  Hare,  we  are  to  teach  the  meaning  of  life, 
so  that  they  may  hand  it  down  from  one  generation  to  the  other. 
Only  today,  for  the  first  time,  have  we  discussed  this  thing  for  them. 
Life  (all  that  life  consists  of — wealth,  honor,  and  happiness)  they 
shall  have  from  now  on."  The  four  of  them  said,  "What  the  one 
ahead  said  (we  say)."     When  they  finished,  they  returned. 

Now  Hare  got  up  again  and  said,  "My  friends,  that  is  what  I 
wished  for  my  uncles  and  aunts.  This  council-lodge  I  made  for 
them,  and  as  long  as  they  follow  the  precepts  taught  in  the  creation- 
lodge  they  will  be  invulnerable.  For  that  reason  this  seat  has  been 
made  for  them,  that  whosoever  desires  may  sit  therein." 

All  day  long  the  spirits  taught  him,  and  when  the  sun  was  on  the 
treetops,  wdien  it  was  time  to  stop,  the  spirits  dispersed,  taking  with 
them  as  they  went  half  the  light  within  the  lodge.  They  rubbed 
against  the  door-poles  as  they  went  out.  They  pushed  them  in 
deeply  so  the^y  would  not  fall. 

Then  Hare  spoke,  "Grandmother,  I  will  be  sitting  ready  for  any 
one  of  my  uncles  and  aunts  who  will  perform  this  ceremony  that  we 
have  taught  them  well.  With  tears  my  uncles  and  aunts  will  come 
to  me  and  my  heart  will  feel  sore.  I  will  go  above  and  sit  down  and  if 
any  person  performs  this  ceremony  that  we  taught  him  well,  then 
he  will  be  as  I  am,  if  you  will  but  look  at  me,  grandmother.  Look 
at  my  body,  grandmother."  And  behold,  like  a  very  small  boy  he 
was.  "If  any  one  repeats  what  we  have  done  here,  this  is  the  way 
he  will  appear." 

"Look  at  me,"  Hare  said  for  the  second  time;  "Look  at  me!" 
There  he  stood  a  full-grown  man.  Then,  for  the  third  time,  he  said, 
"Grandmother,  look  at  me."  There  he  stood  a  man  in  middle  age; 
his  hair  was  interspersed  half-and-half  with  gray.  Then  she  looked 
at  him  for  the  fourth  time,  and  his  hair  was  covered  as  if  by  a  swan 
(i.  e.j  it  was  all  white),  and  he  leaned  tremblingly  on  his  staff,  stand- 
ing in  the  east.  "Well,  grandmother,  if  any  of  my  uncles  and  aunts 
performs  this  ceremony  properly  this  way  they  will  live." 

"It  is  good,  grandson.  However,  not  only  your  uncles  but  your 
aunts,  likewise,  will  be  that  way  if  any  of  the  latter  performs  the 
ceremony  properly.     "  Look  at  me,"  she  said,  and  when  he  looked  at 


badin]  THE    MEDICINE    DANCE  359 

her,  there  stood  a  very  young  woman,  her  hair  like  a  shawl.  "It  is 
good,  grandmother,  and  I  thank  you  in  the  name  of  my  aunts. 
Then  for  the  second  time  she  said,  "Look  at  me."  He  looked  at  her 
and  there  stood  a  woman  in  middle  age,  her  hair  almost  gray.  "  Well, 
grandmother,  it  is  good,  that  is  what  I  meant."  Then  for  the  fourth 
time  she  said,  "Grandson,  look  at  me."  He  looked  at  her.  Her 
hair  was  entirely  dried  up,  in  the  nape  of  her  neck  there  was  a  hollow, 
and  like  a  duck  looking  at  the  sun,  she  appeared.  Her  chin,  like  a 
wooden  poker,  burnt  short,  there  she  stood  trembling.  "Well, 
grandmother,  this  is  what  I  meant  when  I  said  that  you  were  to 
help  me.  My  uncles  and  aunts  that  is  what  I  wished  for  them,  and 
I  thank  you." 

Organization  of  the  Bands 

The  medicine  dance  of  the  Winnebago  consists  of  fire  bands.  A 
sixth  band  is  temporarily  formed  whenever  the  ceremony  is  given 
in  honor  of  a  deceased  member. 

For  purposes  of  description  it  will  be  best  to  divide  each  band 
into  three  parts — the  leader,  his  two  assistants,  and  the  rest  of  the 
band.  Leadership  depends  upon  a  thorough  knowledge  of  the 
ceremony  and  its  complete  esoteric  significance,  which  is  in  the 
possession  of  only  a  few  individuals  in  each  band.  This  knowledge 
can  be  obtained  solely  by  purchase  and  religious  qualifications. 
These  religious  qualifications,  to  which  might  be  added  moral  as 
well,  play  little  part  at  the  present  day,  but  there  can  be  no  doubt 
that  they  were  essential  in  the  past.  The  leader  likewise  often 
possessed  other  characteristics,  such  as  those  of  warrior  and  shaman. 

The  two  assistants  were  generally  men  who  had  purchased  suf- 
ficient information  and  privileges  to  entitle  them  to  help  the  leader 
in  certain  details  of  the  ceremony.  The  drummers,  rattle  holders, 
dancers,  etc.,  wrere  always  recruited  from  their  ranks.  Eventually 
they  might  become  the  leaders.  Those  who  were  neither  leaders 
nor  assistants  possessed  a  knowledge  varying  from  that  of  elementary 
information,  required  for  admission,  to  that  entitling  them  to  the 
position  of  assistant. 

There  is  a  priority  of  position  in  the  lodge,  depending  on  priority 
of  invitation.  The  band  invited  first  occupies  the  east  position; 
that  invited  second,  the  north;  that  invited  third,  the  west;  and 
that  invited  fourth,  the  south.  The  east  is  the  position  of  highest 
honor;  the  south,  that  of  the  lowest.  Between  the  bands  there 
exists  an  order  of  invitation  based  on  tradition,  the  exact  nature 
of  which  is  unknown.  According  to  one  informant,  if  one  band 
invited  another,  the  latter  in  turn  would  be  obliged  to  give  it  the 
position  of  honor;  but  as  there  are  five  bands,  this  can  apply  only 
to  special  cases.  Whatever  may  be  the  order,  it  is  certain  that 
each  band  has  ample  occasion  to  occupy  all  five  positions. 


360  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

There  are  two  ways  in  which  a  man  can  join  the  medicine  dance. 
He  may  simply  apply  for  admission  to  any  of  the  five  leaders,  or  he 
may  take  the  place  of  a  deceased  relative.  In  the  former  case,  if 
his  payment  is  satisfactory,  and  he  has  the  other  qualifications,  he 
is  accepted.  In  the  other  case,  his  relatives  decide  to  have  him 
take  the  place  of  a  deceased  relative.  This  latter  form  of  candidacy 
is  by  far  the  more  common.  At  the  present  day  initiation  requires 
the  payment  of  about  $300  or  $400,  in  the  form  of  goods  and  tobacco. 
Of  this,  a  portion  is  given  to  the  leader  of  the  ancestor  host's  band 
during  the  four  nights'  preparation,  and  the  rest  to  the  leaders  of 
the  other  four  bands  during  the  ceremony  proper. 

Exactly  how  much  information  an  individual  obtains  on  entering 
can  not  be  determined.  Much  depends  on  the  amount  of  the  payment. 
The  minimum  knowledge  would  amount  to  an  acquaintance  with  the 
bare  externals  of  the  ceremony,  its  general  significance,  and  such 
knowledge  of  the  legendary  origin  of  the  lodge  as  a  single  recital 
could  give.  The  new  member  is  not  initiated  into  the  symbolism  of 
the  ritualistic  myths,  and  consequently  a  large  portion  of  the  same 
must  be  unintelligible  to  him.  What  he  obtains  is  practically  only 
the  right  to  hold  the  otter-skin  bag  and  to  use  it  in  a  certain  way. 
He  may  not  take  part  in  any  of  the  forms  of  dancing  or  singing,  nor 
may  he  even  shoot  at  will.  He  very  rarely  remains  in  this  condition 
long,  but  takes  the  first  opportunity  to  purchase  additional  knowledge 
and  privileges. 

There  are  three  kinds  of  members — mature  men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren. The  privileges  of  women  differ  from  those  of  the  men,  in  that 
the  women  do  not  have  to  take  the  sweat  bath,  may  never  become 
assistants,  and  are  allowed  to  dance  only  in  a  certain  way.  In  other 
respects  they  have  the  same  privileges  as  men.  In  practice  there  are 
certain  privileges  that  women  never  have,  but  this  is  due  to  the  fact 
that  either  they  do  not  care  for  them  or  they  are  not  in  a  position 
to  buy  them.  Children  belong  to  a  quite  different  category.  Although 
they  possess  an  otter  skin,  they  have  not  even  the  power  of  making  it 
effective.  There  does  not  seem  to  be  any  evidence  indicating  that 
women  were  ever  excluded  from  membership. 

Prescribed  duties  of  the  bauds. — The  duties  of  the  host,  called 
the  ancestor-host,  are  as  follows : 

1.  To  rehearse  the  songs  and  rituals  with  his  band  four  nights 
previous  to  the  ceremony  proper.  At  this  rehearsal  the  candidate  is 
always  present  and  is  instructed  in  the  ceremony. 

2.  To  send  out  invitation  sticks  and  tobacco  to  the  leaders  of  the 
other  four  bands.     The  messengers  are  always  his  sisters'  sons. 

3.  To  begin  the  four  nights'  ceremony  preceding  the  ceremony 
proper. 


badin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  361 

4.  To  receive  the  leaders  and  assistants  of  the  other  four  bands 
before  the  sweat-lodge  ritual,  and  to  begin  the  same. 

5.  To  begin  the  ceremony  proper. 

6.  To  take  part  in  the  main  portion  of  the  ceremony  proper: 
(a)  To  welcome  the  four  bands. 

(6)  To  lead  the  candidate  to  the  secret  brush  and  instruct  him  in 
certain  precepts. 

(c)  To  act  as  preceptor  of  the  candidate  before  he  is  shot  with  the 
sacred  shell. 

(d)  To  turn  the  candidate  over  to  the  charge  of  the  leaders  of  the 
east  and  north  bands. 

(e)  To  relate  certain  of  the  myths. 

(/)  To  deliver  specific  speeches  and  to  perform  the  actions  that  con- 
stitute the  basic  ritual  of  the  ceremony  proper.  This  will  be  discussed 
later. 

The  east  is  known  as  Those-who-sit-first,  Where-the-day-comes- 
from,  Where-the-sun-rises.  All  these  terms  are  used  frequently. 
The  duties  of  the  leader  are: 

1.  To  assist  the  ancestor  host  in  passing  upon  the  eligibility  of  a 
candidate. 

2.  To  take  part  in  the  following  portions  of  the  ceremony  proper: 

(a)  Accompanied  by  his  two  assistants,  to  take  part  in  the  brush 
ritual. 

(b)  To  take  charge  of  the  candidate  after  he  has  been  handed  over 
to  him  by  the  ancestor  host. 

(c)  To  shoot  the  sacred  shell  into  the  candidate's  body. 

(d)  To  relate  certain  of  the  myths. 

(e)  To  perform  the  basic  ritual. 

The  north  band  is  known  as  Where-the-cold-comes-from.  The 
leader  has  the  same  duties  as  those  of  the  east  leader.  The  myths 
recited  are  of  course  different. 

The  west  band  is  known  as  Wliere-the-sun-goes-down.  The  leader 
has  the  duty  of  reciting  certain  myths  and  performing  the  basic 
ritual. 

The  south  band  is  known  as  He-who-sits-at-the-end-of-the-road  or 
Where-the-sun-straightens.  The  duties  of  the  leader  are  the  same 
as  those  of  the  leader  of  the  west  band,  except  that  the  myths  he 
recites  are  different. 

The  distribution  of  the  gifts  to  the  different  bands  is  as  follows: 
The  leader  of  the  east  band  receives  one-half  of  the  number  of  blan- 
kets, the  upper  half  of  the  new  suit  worn  by  the  candidate,  and  one- 
quarter  of  the  food. 

The  leader  of  the  north  band  receives  one-half  of  the  blankets, 
the  lower  half  of  the  suit,  the  moccasins,  and  one-quarter  of  the  food. 
1SGS23— 22 24 


362  THE    WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  Uth.  ass.  3T 

The  leaders  of  the  west  and  south  hands  receive  each  3i  yards 
of  calico  and  a  fourth  of  the  food. 

The  ancestor  host  receives  various  gifts  of  food  and  tooacco  from 
the  leaders  of  the  other  bands.  He  receives  his  payment  from  the 
candidate  before  the  ceremony  proper. 

The  candidate  is  present  at  the  four  nights'  ceremony  of  the  an- 
cestor host's  band,  preliminary  to  the  ceremony  proper.  At  the 
latter  ceremony  he  sits  to  the  right  of  the  ancestor  host's  band.  He 
is  not  dressed  in  his  new  suit  until  after  the  secret  ceremonies  in  the 
brush. 

There  are  facial  decorations  distinctive  of  the  different  bands: 
The  host's  band  and  the  candidate  paint  a  blue  circle  on  each  cheek, 
but  its  significance  is  unknown  to  the  writer. 

The  regalia  used  are  simple  and  few.  They  consist  of  eagle,  hawk, 
squirrel,  beaver,  and  otter-skin  bags  (pis.  51-53),  a  drum,  gourd 
rattles,  and  invitation  sticks.  The  otter-skin  bags  are  always  beaded 
and  contain  the  sacred  shell  and  various  medicines.  A  few  red 
feathers  are  always  inserted  in  the  mouth  of  the  otter-skin  bag.  The 
gourds  contain  buckshot  at  the  present  time  and  are  painted  with 
blue  finger  marks. 

Division  of  the  ceremony. — The  medicine  dance  is  divided  into  five 
well-marked  parts.  The  first  part  (I)  consists  of  the  two  nights' 
preparation  preceding  the  sending  out  of  the  invitation  sticks.  This 
takes  place  at  the  home  of  the  ancestor  host  in  the  presence  of  the 
members  of  his  band  and  the  candidate.  The  second  part  (II)  con- 
sists of  the  four  nights'  preparation  preceding  the  sweat-lodge  ritual. 
Each  band  has  its  own  four  nights'  preparation,  although  that  of  the 
ancestor  host  begins  before  the  others.  The  third  part  (III)  con- 
sists of  the  rites  held  in  a  sweat  lodge,  specially  constructed  for  this 
purpose  near  the  medicine  lodge,  on  the  morning  after  the  four 
nights'  preparation.  The  participants  are  the  ancestor  host,  the 
leaders  of  the  east,  west,  north,  and  south  bands,  each  with  his  two 
assistants,  and  the  candidate.  The  fourth  part  (IV)  consists  of  the 
ceremony  proper,  which  in  turn  must  be  divided  into  the  night  cere- 
mony (a)  and  the  day  ceremony  (b).  The  fifth  part  (V)  consists  of 
the  rites  held  in  the  brush,  at  which  the  secrets  of  the  society  are  im- 
parted to  the  candidate.  Special  guards  are  placed  on  all  sides  of 
the  brush  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  outsiders.  The  participants, 
besides  the  candidate,  are  the  ancestor  host,  the  leaders  of  the  east 
and  north  bands,  each  with  his  two  assistants,  and  all  other  indi- 
viduals who  have  bought  the  privilege  of  attending.  These  cere- 
monies take  place  at  dawn  preceding  the  day  ceremony. 

Two  feasts  and  one  intermission  interrupt  the  main  ceremony. 
The  feasts  always  take  place  at  the  end  of  the  ritual  of  the  east 
band — i.  e.,  generally  at  noon  and   at  midnight.     The  intermission 


BUREAU   OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY     TH  I  RTY-SEVENTH    ANN  UAL   REPORT     PLATE   51 


Wfo 


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OTTER-SKIN    MEDICINE    POUCHES    USED   AT    MEDICINE    DANCE 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY        THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE   52 


POUCHES    OF    ANIMAL    SKINS    USED    AT    MEDICINE    DANCE 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY  THIRTY-SEVENTH    ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE   S3 


SKIN    POUCHES    AND    FEATHER    FANS    USED    AT    MEDICINE    DANCE 


radin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  363 

generally  lasts  from  dawn  preceding  the  day  ceremony  until  7  or  8 
a.  m.  The  intermission  begins  as  soon  as  the  drum  and  gourds  have 
been  returned  to  the  ancestor  host  and  ends  as  soon  as  the  people 
return  from  the  brush  ritual. 

The  first  and  second  parts  are  concerned  entirely  with  a  recital 
of  certain  ritualistic  myths  and  a  rehearsal  of  the  songs  and  the 
specific  ritual  of  each  band  used  during  the  remaining  parts. 

Types  and  component  elements  of  the.  ceremony. — For  purposes  of 
greater  clarity,  the  speeches,  songs,  and  types  of  action  will  be  care- 
fully differentiated  and  referred  to  by  some  designation  character- 
izing their  essential  traits.  These  speeches,  songs,  and  types  of 
action  together  form  combinations  which  may  be  regarded  as  units, 
and  they  will  therefore  also  be  referred  to  by  some  designation  char- 
acteristic of  their  function. 

1.  Types  of  speeches — (1)  Salutations:  No  formal  salutation  is 
used  during  Parts  I  and  II,  the  individuals  being  addressed  by  their 
relationship  terms.  In  Parts  III,  IV  and  V  the  salutations  are  in- 
variably the  same.  The  ancestor  host  and  his  band  are  addressed 
as  follows:  "The-one-occupying-the-seat-of-a-relative  (deceased)  and 
you-who-sit-with-him,  do  I  salute."  The  east  is  addressed,  "You- 
who-represent-the-place-where-the-sun-rises " ;  the  north,  "You-who- 
represent-the-place-where-the-cold-comes-from";  the  west,  "You- 
who-represent-the-place-where-the-sun-straightens,"  or  (preferably) 
"  You-who-represent-the-end-of-the-road." 

The  appellations  of  the  bands,  as  before  stated,  refer  to  the  creation 
myth  and  the  four  guardian  spirits  whom  Hare  visited  for  the 
purpose  of  inquiring  into  the  necessity  and  meaning  of  death.  Hare 
was  compelled  to  travel  around  the  earth,  which  is  conceived  of  as 
an  island,  and  received  no  answer  until  he  came  to  the  spirit  at  the 
end  of  the  road.  In  the  dramatic  performance  of  the  medicine 
dance  the  lodge  typifies  the  earth  and  the  four  bands  and  their 
leaders  typify  the  four  spirits.  The  ancestor  host's  band  typifies 
the  ancestor  of  the  Winnebago. 

(2)  Speeches:  Under  this  head  will  be  treated  (a)  speeches  of  wel- 
come; (b)    speeches   of   acceptation;  (c)    speeches   of   presentation; 

(d)  speeches    explanatory   of    the  significance   of   the   ritual;    and 

(e)  speeches  of  admonition,  addressed  exclusively  to  the  candidate. 
This  does  not  exhaust  all.  There  are  many  others,  generally  short, 
that  can  hardly  be  classified.  In  their  content,  as  well  as  in  the  order 
of  their  succession,  the  speeches  must  follow  a  traditionally  deter- 
mined sequence.  In  practice  this  is  certainly  not  always  true,  but 
to  the  mind  of  the  Winnebago  these  speeches  appear  as  old  as  the 
ceremony.  It  is  their  firm  belief  that  any  departure  from  the  accepted 
type  will  interfere  with  the  efficacy  of  the  ceremony. 


364  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

(a)  Speeches  of  welcome:  When  the  leader  of  the  east  band  enters 
after  the  ancestor  host  has  begun  the  ceremony  (IV,  i),  he  addresses 
the  latter  as  follows:  "  It  was  good  of  you  to  condescend  to  invite  me 
to  this  dance.  I  am  a  poor  pitiable  man  and  you  believed  me  to  be  a 
medicine  man.  However,  I  know  you  will  show  me  the  true  man- 
ner of  living,  which  I  thought  I  possessed,  but  which  I  in  reality 
did  not."  In  this  strain  he  continues,  weaving  into  his  speech  refer- 
ences to  the  ritual  connected  with  his  band  and  offering  thanks  for 
the  beautiful  weather  (should  it  be  a  clear  day).  In  concluding  he 
thanks  all  again,  and  informs  them  that  he  will  sing  a  song.  With 
slight  alterations  the  leaders  of  the  other  bands  address  the  ancestor 
host  similarly.  The  ancestor  host's  answer  of  welcome  is  as  follows: 
"  Whatever  I  desired  you  have  done  for  me.  All  night  have  you 
stayed  with  me  and  by  your  presence  helped  me  in  the  proper  per- 
formance of  this  ceremony.  I  am  ready  with  a  dancing  song,  and 
when  I  have  finished  and  sit  down  I  shall  pass  to  you  tobacco  and 
other  means  of  blessing  (the  gourds  and  the  drum).  All  who  are 
present  do  I  greet." 

(b)  Speeches  of  acceptation:  After  the  ancestor  host  has  been  pre- 
sented with  food  he  thanks  the  donors  as  follows:  "You  have  had 
pity  on  me.  You  have  been  good  to  me  and  have  given  me  to  the 
full  whatever  I  desired.  You  have  filled  my  heart  with  the  blessing 
of  thankfulness.  In  return  I  give  you  a  blessing.  Here  is  some  food 
for  you.  It  is  not  anything  special,  nor  is  it  as  much  as  it  ought  to 
be,  and  I  know  you  will  remain  hungry.  It  was  prepared  for  the 
spirits  of  the  four  quarters  (whom  you  represent),  but  it  is  lacking  in 
all  those  qualities  which  would  have  made  it  acceptable  to  them. 
Such  as  it  is,  however ,#  may  its  presentation  be  a  means  of  blessing 
to  you." 

(c)  Speech  of  presentation:  East  presents  the  food  to  the  ancestor 
host  with  the  following  words:  ''I  have  not  very  much  to  tell  you, 
because  I  am  too  poor,  but  our  ancestors  told  us  to  give  you  food. 
This  little  that  I  give  is  all  that  I  can,  being  a  person  of  so  little 
importance." 

(d)  Explanatory  speeches:  These  are  of  so  specific  a  nature  that 
no  single  one  can  be  considered  typical. 

(e)  Speeches  of  admonition:  "Nephew,  now  I  shall  tell  you  the 
path  you  must  walk,  the  life  you  must  lead.  This  is  the  life  Hare 
obtained  for  us.  This  is  the  only  kind  of  Jife — this  that  our  ancestors 
followed.  Listen  to  me.  If  you  will  always  help  yourself,  then  you 
will  attain  to  the  right  life.  Never  do  anything  wrong.  Never  steal, 
never  tell  an  untruth,  and  never  fight.  If  you  meet  a  woman  on  the 
left  side  of  the  road,  turn  to  the  right.  Never  accost  her  nor  speak 
familiarly  with  a  person  whom  you  are  not  permitted  thus  to  address. 
If  you  do  all  these  things,  then  you  will  be  acting  correctly.  This  is 
what  I  desire  of  vou." 


badin]  THE  MEDICINE   DANCE  365 

2.  Tvpes  of  songs:  The  songs  may  be  divided  into  two  groups — 
(1)  Those  that  are  sung  in  connection  with  myths  and  after  the 
speeches  of  a  more  general  nature,  and  (2)  those  that  are  sung  to 
accompany  definite  and  specific  actions.  These  latter  can  therefore 
be  most  conveniently  divided  into  (a)  minor  dance  songs,  (b)  major 
dance  songs,  (c)  initial  songs,  (d)  terminal  songs,  (e)  loading  songs, 
and  (f)  shooting  songs.  The  medicine  men  distinguish  only  between 
four  kinds  of  songs — major  and  minor  dance,  terminal,  and  shooting 
songs.  Each  has  a  different  rhythm  and  music.  For  purposes  of 
description,  however,  the  above  division  is  more  convenient. 

3.  Types  of  action — (T)  Blessing:  Either  hand  is  held  outstretched, 
palm  downward,  and  moved  horizontally  through  the  air.  It  is 
always  used  when  entering  and  leaving  the  lodge  and  on  any  occasion 
where  an  individual  has  to  pass  from  one  part  of  the  lodge  to  another. 

It  is  always  rendered  as  "blessing"  by  the  Indians,  and  they  par- 
ticularly insist  upon  the  fact  that  the  "blessing"  was  not  conveyed 
bj  any  words  used  in  connection  with  the  action,  but  by  the  action 
itself.  Each  person  who  is  thus  passed  answers  with  a  long-drawn- 
out  ''ho — o — o"  and  with  an  obeisance  of  the  head. 

A  modification  of  the  above  is  the  "blessing  of  the  head,"  which 
consists  of  a  simple  laying  of  the  hand  upon  the  head,  both  the  giver 
and  the  recipient  keeping  their  eyes  fixed  upon  the  ground,  the  recipi- 
ent slightly  bending  his  head.  A  few  mumbled  words  accompany 
this  action. 

(2)  Direction  of  walking  in  the  lodge:  Individuals  always  walk  con- 
trary to  the  hands  of  the  clock.  A  person  in  the  east  band  must 
make  the  entire  circuit  of  the  lodge  in  order  to  pass  out.  In  only 
exceptional  cases  can  this  rule  of  passing  be  broken,  and  that  is  when 
an  old  and  especially  privileged  member  crosses  from  his  seat  to  that 
directly  opposite  him  during  the  shooting  ceremony.  I  was  given  to 
understand  that  this  was  an  extremely  expensive  privilege. 

4.  Types  of  ritual:  Parts  III,  IV,  and  V  can  be  so  analyzed  that 
they  fall  into  a  fairly  well-defined  number  of  units,  consisting  of 
speeches,  songs,  and  movements.  These  units  are  nine  in  number. 
Artificial  distinctions  have  been  avoided  in  this  division,  as  far  as 
possible.  The  units  are  (1)  entrance  ritual;  (2)  exit  ritual;  (3)  fire 
ritual;  (4)  present ation-of-food  ritual;  (5)  shooting  ritual;  (6)  initia- 
tion ritual;  (7)  sweat-lodge  ritual;  (8)  smoking  ritual;  (9)  basic  ritual. 

Of  these,  (3),  C5),  (7),  (8),  and  (9)  are  found  in  Part  III;  all  except 
(7)  and  (6)  in  Part  IV  (a);  and  all  except  (7)  in  Part  IV  (b).  (5) 
does  not  actually  occur  in  Part  III,  but  is  described  in  detail  in  the 
myth  related  there.  The  order  in  which  we  will  discuss  these  cere- 
monial units  is  not  the  order  in  which  they  follow  one  another 
in  the  ritual.  Some  are  interwoven  with  one  another.  Both  these 
factors  will,  however,  be  considered  in  the  description  of  the  entire 
ritual,  following  the  description  of  each  ceremonial  unit. 


366  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

(1)  Entrance  ritual:  The  band  enters  the  tent,  makes  one  com- 
plete circuit,  and  stops.  The  leader  now  delivers  a  short  speech, 
followed  by  a  song.  The  band  then  continues  to  the  west  end,  where 
another  speech  is  delivered  and  another  song  sung.  After  this  the 
band  continues  again,  and  stops  at  the  east  end,  where  the  leader  talks 
and  sings.  Now  all  sit  down.  After  a  short  pause  the  leader  again 
rises  and  walking  over  to  the  ancestor  host,  talks  to  him,  gives 
him  some  tobacco,  and  returns  to  his  seat.  Each  band  entering  re- 
peats the  same  ritual.  This  applies,  however,  only  to  Part  IV  (a) 
and  (6). 

(2)  Exit  ritual  (Part  IV  (a)  and  (b)) :  The  east  leader  rises  and 
speaks,  followed  by  north,  west,  and  south.  Each  one  then  speaks 
again  and,  all  singing,  all  walk  toward  the  entrance  in  such  a  way 
that  the  south,  north,  and  west  bands  make  complete  circuits  of  the 
lodge,  thus  enabling  the  east  band  to  precede  them.  Near  the 
entrance  all  stop  singing  and  say  "wa-hi-hi-M"  four  times  and  pass 
out.     This  exit  ceremony  differs  slightly  in  the  two  divisions  of  IV. 

(3)  Fire  ritual,  Part  III:  The  ancestor  host  rises  and  goes  to  the 
leaders  of  the  four  other  bands  individually ;  and  after  he  has  blessed 
them  they  respond;  then  all  rise,  make  four  circuits  of  the  lodge, 
and  sit  down  again.  The  leader  of  the  east  band  now  rises,  holding 
in  his  hand  the  invitation  sticks  and  some  tobacco,  delivers  a 
speech,  then  goes  to  the  fireplace  and  kindles  the  new  fire. 

(8)  Smoking  ritual:  The  leader  of  the  east  band  pours  tobacco 
into  the  fire,  first  at  the  east,  and  then  at  the  north,  west,  and 
south  corners.  He  then  lights  his  pipe,  puffs  first  toward  the  east, 
then  toward  the  north,  west,  and  south,  after  which  he  passes  his 
pipe  to  the  leader  of  the  north  band,  who  takes  a  few  whiffs  and  in 
turn  passes  it  around  to  the  next  member  of  the  lodge.  When  the 
pipe  has  made  the  complete  circuit  it  is  placed  in  front  of  the  fire- 
place. In  the  meantime  the  ancestor  host  has  returned  to  his  seat, 
and  after  a  short  pause,  rises,  speaks,  and  sings  again.  This  smoking 
ceremony  occurs  after  each  entrance  ceremony,  IV  (a)  and  (b),  and 
before  both  feasts  of  IV  (a)  and  (b). 

PreseJitation-qf-jood  ritual  (Part  IV,  a  and  b). — The  leader  of  the 
east  band  rises  and  brings  meat,  berries,  wild  potatoes,  etc.,  to  the 
ancestor  host,  delivering  a  minor  speech  at  the  same  time.  Each 
of  the  other  leaders  repeats  the  same  ceremony.  When  all  have 
finished,  the  ancestor  host  rises  and  thanks  them. 

(5)  General  shooting  ritual  (Part  IV,  a  and  b):  The  leaders  of  the 
east,  north,  west,  and  south  bands,  holding  their  otter  skins  in  their 
hands,  rise  and,  accompanied  by  three  men,  make  a  complete  circuit 
of  the  lodge.  They  first  speak  in  undertones  to  these  three  men, 
giving  them  directions.  At  each  end  the  leader  of  the  east  band 
speaks,  and  then,  singing,  walks  toward  the  west  end,  saying  "yoho — 


Radin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  367 

o — oya — a"  three  times,  and  ending  with  a  long-drawn-out  "yo — 
ho."  At  the  west  end  both  he  and  the  leader  of  the  south  band 
speak.  Then  chanting  "yo — ho"  again,  they  all  walk  toward  the 
east  end.  Here  the  leader  of  the  east  band  speaks  twice.  All  now 
place  their  otter  skins  on  the  ground  in  front  of  them,  and  east 
speaks  again.  At  the  conclusion  of  his  speech,  all  kneel  in  front  of 
the  otter  skins  and  cough,  at  which  the  sacred  shell  drops  from  their 
mouths  upon  the  otter  skins.  They  thereupon  pick  it  up,  and  hold- 
ing the  shell  in  one  hand  and  the  otter  skins  in  the  other,  make  a 
circuit  of  the  lodge  four  times,  increasing  their  speed  each  time,  and 
singing.  All  this  time  the  shell  is  held  in  full  view  of  the  spectators, 
on  the  outstretched  palm  of  the  right  hand.  As  they  near  the  east 
end  of  the  lodge,  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  circuit,  standing  in 
front  of  the  ancestor  host's  band,  they  supposedly  swallow  the  shell, 
and  fall  dowTi,  instantaneously,  head  foremost,  as  if  dead.  Finally 
they  come  to,  and  coughing  up  the  shell  they  put  it  into  their  otter- 
skin  bags,  and  then  making  the  circuit  of  the  tent,  shoot  four  members 
of  the  ancestor  host's  band,  four  of  the  east,  four  of  the  north,  two  of 
the  west,  and  two  of  the  south  band.  Each  person  as  he  is  shot 
falls  prostrate  upon  the  ground,  but  recovering  after  a  few  moments, 
joins  those  making  the  circuit  of  the  tent.  Each  leader  now  takes 
his  drum  and  gourds  to  the  fireplace.  Then  the  general  shooting 
commences.  Each  person  possessing  the  right  shoots  one  individual, 
until  all  the  members  have  been  shot.  As  each  person  is  shot  he 
falls  to  the  ground,  feigns  unconsciousness,  and  then  slowly  recovers. 
The  slowness  or  speed  of  his  recovery  depends  exclusively  upon  the 
privileges  he  possesses  and  the  number  of  years  he  has  belonged  to 
the  society.  As  soon  as  each  person  shot  recovers  he  falls  in  line 
immediately  after  the  last  one  shot.  While  all  are  thus  walking 
around  a  half  dozen  people  at  the  fireplace  sing  shooting  songs  to 
the  accompaniment  of  drums  and  gourds.  The  amount  of  noise  at 
this  point  is  quite  considerable. 

(6)"  Initiation  ritual  (Part  IV,  b):  All  the  members  of  the  an- 
cestor host's  band  and  the  candidate  make  one  circuit  of  the  lodge, 
taking  their  otter  skins  with  them.  As  they  pass  around  they  gently 
touch  the  heads  of  the  members  with  the  mouth  of  the  otter 
skin,  saying  "  Yoho — o — o",  to  which  the  members  respond  with 
"Ho — o — o."  After  the  circuit,  all  return  to  their  seats,  with  the 
exception  of  the  candidate,  who  remains  at  the  east  end  in  front  of 
the  fireplace.  After  a  pause  the  ancestor  host  joins  the  latter  and 
delivers  a  speech  of  the  admonition  type.  The  candidate  first  faces 
the  south  and  then  the  north.  During  the  speech  the  ancestor 
host  touches  him  on  his  head  and  on  his  chest  and  makes  him  face 
first  south  and  then  north.  When  the  speech  is  over  the  ancestor 
host  sings  and  takes  the  candidate  to  the  west  end  of  the  tent. 


368  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

The  tent  is  now  prepared  for  the  initiation  proper.  Two  long 
strips  of  calico  are  stretched  from  the  west  to  the  east  end  of  the 
lodge.  They  are  about  a  foot  and  a  half  wide  and  are  separated  from 
each  othex  by  the  fireplace.  At  the  west  end  a  much  shorter  strip 
of  the  same  material  is  stretched  along  the  width  of  the  lodge  across 
the  two  long  strips.  Upon  this  the  candidate  is  placed.  When 
these  preparations  are  completed  the  ancestor  host  arises  and  going 
to  each  of  the  four  leaders  speaks  to  them  in  an  undertone.  He  then 
returns  to  his  seat.  The  leaders  of  the  east  and  north  bands  now 
arise  and  make  the  complete  circuit  of  the  lodge.  First  the  former 
and  then  the  latter  speaks.  Then  the  former  speaks  twice.  After 
that  the  leader  of  the  north  band  delivers  another  speech  and,  together 
with  his  partner,  walks  to  the  west  end  of  the  lodge,  where  the  can- 
didate is  kneeling.  The  two  leaders  here  speak  again.  Both  now 
take  their  sacred  shells,  swallow  them,  and  walk  to  the  east  end  (pis. 
52,  53). 

Here  they  speak  again  and  hold  their  otter  skins  in  readiness  for 
the  shooting,  but  first  jerk  them  forward  twice  toward  the  four 
cardinal  points,  saying  "dje-ha-hi,  dje-ha-hi,"  and  concluding  with 
"e-ho-ho-ho."  Standing  upon  the  two  calico  strips  in  a  slightly  bent 
position  and  holding  the  otter  skin  tightly  in  their  hands,  they  now 
run  rapidly  toward  the  reclining  form  of  the  candidate,  making  loud 
threatening  sounds  in  a  quavering  voice,  and  strike  his  body  twice 
with  the  mouth  of  the  otter  skin,  emitting  two  short  sounds  as  of 
an  animal  who  has  succeeded  in  capturing  his  prey.  The  candidate 
falls  prostrate  to  the  ground  instantaneously.  He  is  immediately 
covered  with  a  blanket  upon  which  are  placed  the  otter  skins  of  the 
two  leaders.  A  number  of  people  especially  privileged  now  gather 
around  the  covered  figure,  dance,  sing,  and  shout  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  the  shouts  of  the  other  members  of  the  society,  all  of  whom 
seem  in  a  frenzy  of  excitement.  When  the  noise  has  somewhat 
abated  the  blanket  is  removed  and  the  figure  of  the  candidate  is 
shown,  still  apparently  unconscious.  He  comes  to  slowly  and  finally 
succeeds  in  raising  himself  and  sitting  up.  He  then  coughs  vio- 
lently, and  the  shell  which  has  apparently  been  shot  through  his 
body  falls  out  of  his  mouth.  After  this  his  recovery  is  rapid.  He 
is  then  undressed  and  the  finery  and  new  buckskin  suit,  moccasins, 
etc.,  are  distributed  to  those  to  whom  it  is  customary  to  give  them. 
He  now  returns  to  his  seat,  to  the  right  of  the  ancestor  host's  band, 
where  some  female  relative,  generally  his  mother,  dresses  him  in  an 
ordinary  suit. 

(7)  Sweat-lodge  ritual  (Part  III):  The  east  leader  rises  and  with 
his  two  assistants  makes  the  circuit  of  the  sweat  lodge,  while  the 
north,  west,  and  south  leaders  each  with  two  assistants  join  him. 
At  the  east  end  the  leader  makes  four  steps  with  his  right  foot,  each 


kadin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  369 

time  saying,  "  Wa-M-hi."  He  then  makes  the  circuit  of  the  lodge 
four  times.  After  the  third  circuit  he  goes  directly  to  the  heating 
stone,  "hi  defiance  of  the  rule,"  as  he  himself  says,  hut  with  the 
hope  that  through  this  defiance  he  will  gam  additional  strength. 
After  he  has  made  the  fourth  circuit  he  seizes  the  two  entranc.e  lodge 
poles  and,  shaking  them  gently,  shouts  "e-ho-ho-ho."  All  now  sit 
down.  The  ancestor  host  now  takes  four  sticks  and  smears  them 
with  a  special  kind  of  greenish  clay  and  hands  them  to  the  leader  of 
the  east  band.  The  latter  seizes  them  and  holds  them  tightly  with 
both  hands.  By  this  action  he  is  supposed  to  obtain  strength.  The 
sticks  are  then  passed  in  rotation  to  the  leaders  of  the  north,  west, 
and  south  bands,  all  of  whom  repeat  the  same  ceremony. 

(9)  Basic  ritual  (Part  IV,  a  and  b) :  This  ritual  is  that  upon  which 
the  ritual  for  the  ceremony  proper  (Part  IV,  a  and  b)  is  built.  In  a 
certain  sense  it  may  be  justifiable  to  consider  all  the  above  ritualistic 
complexes  with  the  exception  of  the  entrance  and  exit  rituals  as 
parts  of  this  basic  ritual.  The  important  religious  function  of  the 
medicine  dance  is  the  "passing"  of  the  blessing,  consisting  of  speeches, 
songs,  and  the  blessings,  going  from  one  band  to  the  other,  for 
the  greater  benefit  of  both  the  host  and  his  guests.  These  blessings 
are  symbolized  by  the  drum,  the  gourds,  the  songs,  the  speeches, 
and  the  specific  actions  in  which  each  band  participates.  The  cere- 
mony begins  when  the  ancestor  host  delivers  his  first  speech  and 
ends  when  drum  and  gourds  are  returned  to  him.  All  that  takes 
place  between  the  ancestor  host's  first  speech  up  to  the  time  that 
the  drum  and  gourds  are  placed  before  the  members  of  the  east 
band  constitutes  the  unit  that  I  have  called  the  basic  ritual.  Into 
it  are  thrust  as  intrusive  elements  other  rituals,  so  that  it  is  at  tunes 
extremely  difficult  to  discern  the  basic  ritual  itself.  But  it  is  there 
and  remains  intact,  for  as  soon  as  an  intrusive  ritual  is  finished  it  is 
taken  up  and  continued  to  the  end.  Such  a  ritual  as  the  general 
shooting  or  the  initiation,  or  such  myths  as  the  origin  myth,  require 
hours;  and  yet  as  soon  as  they  are  over  the  basic  ceremony  continues 
from  the  point  where  it  has  been  interrupted. 

The  east  leader  rises,  speaks,  then  sits  down,  and,  together  with 
the  other  members  of  his  band,  sings  a  song  (initial  song).  When  this 
is  finished  he  rises  and  speaks  again,  sits  down,  and  commences  a 
song  called  the  minor  dancing  song.  While  he  and  a  few  others  are 
singing,  drumming,  and  using  the  gourd  rattles,  other  members  of  his 
band,  as  well  as  members  of  the  other  bands  who  so  desire,  and  who 
have  bought  the  privilege,  come  to  his  seat  and  join  in  the  dancing. 
When  this  is  over  he  and  a  few  others,  either  from  his  own  or  from 
some  other  band,  go  to  the  fireplace,  where  the  leader  delivers  a 
speech,  and  begin  the  major  dancing  songs,  in  which  the  privileged 
members  participate.     After  this  the  drum  is   tied  to  one   of  the 


370  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

privileged  members,  generally  the  one  who  has  been  drumming, 
and  the  circuit  is  made  twice,  the  leader  and  his  two  assistants  at  the 
head,  followed  by  the  other  members  of  his  band.  Two  stops  are  made 
at  the  west  and  two  at  the  east  end,  where  songs,  called  completion 
songs,  are  sung.  Then  the  circuit  is  made  four  tunes,  all  chanting 
"  Wa-M-M,"  slowly  at  first,  then  faster,  the  speed  of  the  walking  cor- 
responding to  that  of  the  chanting.  Then  with  a  final  strong 
"e — ho — ho"  drum  and  gourds  are  deposited  in  front  of  the  next 
band.  All  now  return  to  their  seats,  where  before  sitting  down  the 
leaders  deliver  a  short  speech. 

This  basic  ritual  is  repeated  by  each  band  in  the  manner  described. 
As  it  is  so  often  broken  up  by  the  intrusion  of  other  rituals  it  will  be 
best  to  divide  it  into  four  parts.  These  parts  are  never  broken  up. 
Whenever  intrusive  elements  occur,  they  either  precede  or  follow. 

The  first  part  consists  of  all  that  takes  place  between  the  first 
speech  of  the  leader  and  the  completion  of  the  initial  song.  The 
speech  referred  to  is  the  one  that  follows  the  smoking  ritual,  which 
may,  on  the  whole,  be  reckoned  as  belonging  to  the  introductory 
ritual,  such  as  the  entrance  ritual.  The  second  part  consists  of  all 
that  transpires  between  the  second  speech  and  the  conclusion  of  the 
minor  dancing  song.  The  third  part  consists  of  all  that  happens 
between  the  speech  at  the  fireplace  and  the  completion  of  the  major 
dancing  songs.  The  fourth  part  includes  everything  between  the 
completion  of  the  major  dancing  songs  and  the  last  speech  the  leader 
makes,  after  he  has  passed  the  drum  and  gourds  to  the  next  band. 

The  most  bewildering  intrusion  is  that  which  follows  the  second 
part.  Before  the  leader  and  his  assistants  go  to  the  fireplace  the 
elaborate  general  shooting  ritual  takes  place.  After  the  specially 
designated  men  of  each  band  have  been  shot,  those  privileged  pro- 
ceed to  the  fireplace.  Here  they  sing  the  shooting  songs  until  the 
ritual  is  over.  The  first  set  of  drummers  and  gourd  rattle  holders  are 
often  relieved  by  a  second  set.  It  is  only  when  the  shooting  songs 
have  been  completed  that  the  leader  and  his  assistants  proceed  to  the 
fireplace  to  begin  the  third  portion  of  the  basic  ritual. 

Ceremony  as  a  whole:  As  stated  before,  there  are  certain  speeches 
and  types  of  action  that  can  not  be  fitted  into  the  above  description. 
This  is  especially  true  of  myths;  and  these,  with  the  exception  of 
the  content  of  the  myth,  will  now  be  considered  in  connection  with 
the  description  of  the  entire  ritual  as  related  to  me  by  B.  The  cere- 
mony begins  with  an  account  of  the  manner  in  which  B.  was  induced 
to  join  the  society.  Upon  his  acceptance  and  payment  of  the  re- 
quired amount  of  material,  the  ceremony  began. 

The  first  two  nights  consisted  of  an  informal  salutation,  two 
explanatory  speeches,  and  four  myths,  the  latter  in  no  way  con- 
nected with  any  part  of  the  medicine  dance.     The  last  three  myths 


badin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  371 

dealt  with  the  legendary  account  of  the  origin  of  the  Winnebago 
medicine  dance  and  its  dissemination  among  the  tribes. 

At  sunset  the  leader  of  the  band  to  which  the  candidate  has  applied 
for  admission  gathers  together  the  members  of  his  band  and  all 
retire  to  a  little  lodge  near  his  home,  in  order  to  begin  the  four  nights' 
preparation.  What  actually  takes  place  during  these  four  nights  is 
not  as  stereotyped  as  the  other  rituals  connected  with  the  medicine 
dance.  There  is  a  general  rehearsal  of  songs,  speeches,  and  other 
elements  of  the  ceremony.  The  speeches  are  not  actually  rehearsals 
of  those  to  be  delivered  during  the  ceremony  proper,  but  refer  to  the 
purpose  of  the  medicine  dance  much  in  the  same  way  as  do  some  of 
the  speeches  in  the  ceremony  proper.  A  large  number  of  miscellaneous 
myths  are  likewise  related.  The  candidate  who  is  present  in  the  lodge 
of  his  future  ancestor  host  is  likewise  instructed  in  as  many  things  as 
an  uninitiated  member  is  allowed  to  know.  This  instruction  consists 
in  the  teaching  of  certain  myths  and  types  of  action. 

On  the  morning  after  the  last  of  the  four  nights  the  candidate  is 
given  some  sacrifical  tobacco  and  told  to  go  in  search  of  a  stone  for 
the  sweat  bath.  He  selects  a  stone  that  he  can  carry  on  his  back 
easdy.  Before  picking  it  up  he  pours  tobacco  on  it.  As  soon  as  the 
stone  is  brought  to  the  lodge  of  the  host  it  is  heated.  The  candidate 
is  now  dispatched  for  some  oak  branches,  four  pieces  of  oak  wood  about 
2i  feet  in  length,  and  some  grass.  The  grass  is  used  for  improvised 
seats;  the  oak  wood  for  the  four  construction  poles  of  the  sweat  lodge. 
They  are  placed  in  the  east,  north,  west,  and  south  points,  respec- 
tively. It  is  not  permitted  to  trim  the  tops  of  the  oak  wood.  When 
all  the  bands  have  gathered  near  the  medicine  lodge  and  retired  to 
their  improvised  lodges,  the  ancestor  host  and  the  candidate  go  to 
the  lodge  of  the  east  leader,  that  is,  to  the  lodge  of  the  band  first  in- 
vited, and  greet  him  by  touching  his  head  with  their  hands. 

He  answers  with  "Ho — o — o."  The  leader  of  the  first  band  rises 
and,  accompanied  by  his  two  assistants,  goes  to  the  sweat  lodge. 
The  ancestor  host  then  goes  to  the  lodges  of  the  other  bands  and 
greets  the  leaders  in  a  similar  manner.  After  the  leader  and  assistants 
of  the  band  last  invited  have  entered  the  sweat  lodge  the  ancestor 
host,  the  candidate,  and  his  assistants  enter,  and  the  ceremony  is 
begun. 

After  the  ceremonial  salutation  and  an  introductory  speech  the 
ancestor  host,  as  the  leader  of  the  band  giving  the  medicine  dance 
may  now  be  called,  rises,  and  taking  his  invitation  stick  and  some 
tobacco,  approaches  the  leader  of  each  band,  and  blessing  him,  thanks 
him  for  coming,  assuring  him  at  the  same  time  to  how  great  a  degree 
his  presence  will  contribute  toward  the  success  of  the  performance 
of  the  ritual.  He  then  returns  to  his  seat.  The  leaders  thank  him 
in  turn.     Now  follow  the  fire  and  smoking  ritual,  which  in  turn  are 


372  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.37 

followed  by  twelve  speeches  of  a  general  and  explanatory  character. 
Then  conies  the  "strengthening"  ritual,  and  immediately  after  twa 
exceedingly  long  myths,  describing  the  initiation  of  the  first  man  into 
the  secrets  of  the  lodge,  as  well  as  the  sj^mbolic  meaning  of  the  shoot- 
ing ritual.  All  now  undress  and  take  a  sweat  bath.  Female  candi- 
dates are  excluded.  A  number  of  short  speeches  follow,  and  the  whole 
concludes  with  the  exit  ritual. 

The  drum  and  gourds  are  used  to  accompany  the  songs.  The  basic 
ritual  is  perhaps  present  to  a  certain  extent.  The  writer,  however, 
was  not  permitted  to  witness  the  ritual,  and  for  this  reason  the  pro- 
cedure seemed  somewhat  hazy  to  him. 

When  the  ritual  and  the  sweat  baths  are  over  there  is  a  slight  pause. 
The  candidate,  the  ancestor  host,  and  his  band  enter  the  medicine 
lodge,  and  after  taking  their  seats  sing  a  few  songs.  When  the  last 
song  is  concluded  the  other  bands  enter  in  the  order  of  their  invi- 
tation. Now  comes  the  entrance  ritual,  followed  by  the  smoking 
ritual.  Thereupon  the  ancestor  host  rises  and  delivers  the  opening 
speech  of  the  basic  ritual.  The  ancestor  host  does  not  go  through  the 
entire  basic  ritual  at  this  time,  because  he  is  not  permitted  to  begin 
the  shooting  ritual.  Soon  after  the  beginning  of  the  basic  ritual  by 
the  ancestor  host,  generally  after  the  second  speech,  gourds  and  drums 
are  passed  to  the  leader  of  the  east  band.  This  one  rises  and  begins 
the  basic  ritual,  which  he  interrupts  at  the  end  of  the  second  part,  in 
order  to  begin  the  general  shooting  ritual.  When  that  is  finished  he 
continues  the  third  and  fourth  parts  of  the  basic  ritual.  Then  drum 
and  gourds  are  passed  to  the  north  band.  Its  leader  now  in  turn 
begins  his  basic  ritual,  but  stops  after  the  second  part,  where,  the 
presentation-of-food  and  the  smoking  rituals  intervene.  It  is  now 
about  midnight,  and  the  feast  is  given.  As  soon  as  the  feast  is 
finished  and  the  lodge  has  been  cleared  of  food  and  eating  utensils, 
the  leader  of  the  north  band  continues  up  to  the  third  and  fourth 
parts  of  the  basic  ritual.  The  leaders  of  the  west  and  south  bands 
perform  the  basic  rituals  without  any  interruption,  except,  of  course, 
that  of  the  general  shooting  ritual  between  the  second  and  third 
parts.  The  drum  and  gourds  have  now  reached  the  ancestor  host, 
who  goes  through  the  third  and  fourth  parts  of  the  basic  ritual. 
There  is,  however,  some  doubt  as  to  whether  this  is  always  done. 
Then  follows  the  exit  ritual  and  all  pass  out  to  rest  for  a  few  hours. 

A  short  time  preceding  dawn  the  candidate  and  the  leaders  of  the 
east  and  north  bands  and  the  ancestor  host,  each  with  two  assistants 
and  all  other  members  who  are  privileged  to  do  so,  leave  the  lodge 
and  walk  to  the  brush  where  the  candidate  is  to  be  initiated  into  the 
mysteries  of  the  sacred  shell  and  the  shooting.  Each  band  must 
have  one  or  more  of  its  members  present  at  this  ritual.  When  they 
are  near  the  place  set  aside  for  the  secret  ritual  the  order  of  marching, 


kadin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  373 

which  up  to  this  time  has  been  of  no  consequence,  changes  into  that 
of  single  file,  the  leader  of  the  east  band  leading.  When  they  have 
arrived  at  the  proper  place,  all  stop.  The  east  leader  now  informs 
those  present  that  he  is  going  to  make  a  road  for  the  candidate 
symbolical  of  the  path  of  life,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  sweat 
bath  and  medicine  dance.  Singing,  he  circles  the  spot  four  times. 
At  the  end  of  the  fourth  circuit  he  stops  and  all  turn  around  and 
face  east.  The  leader  of  the  north  band  has  also  the  right  to  go 
through  this  ritual,  but  he  does  not  always  do  it.  Repeating  the 
ceremony  is,  in  all  probability,  connected  with  extra  expense.  All 
now  sit  down  and  the  specific  rites  of  the  brush  ritual  begin. 

The  ancestor  host  rises  and,  taking  the  candidate  with  him,  goes 
to  the  leader  of  the  east  band  and  speaks  to  him.  Then  he  and  the 
candidate  return  to  their  seats.  The  east  leader  now  relates  to  the 
candidate  a  portion  of  the  story  of  the  journey  to  the  land  of 
the  spirits  and  to  the  lodge  of  Earthmaker.  When  this  is  finished 
the  two  leaders  teach  the  candidate  how  to  go  through  the  actions 
incidental  to  the  shooting,  the  swallowing  of  the  shell,  and  t lie 
recovery  from  its  effects.  When  they  think  that  he  is  sufficiently 
adept  in  all  these  actions  they  dress  him  in  his  new  suit,  put  on  a 
new  pair  of  moccasins,  decorate  him  with  finery,  and  return  to  the 
medicine  lodge. 

The  rites  generally  last  until  about  8  in  the  morning,  so  that 
when  those  who  have  participated  in  the  brush  ritual  are  returning 
the  other  members  of  the  medicine  dance  are  also  about  ready  to 
begin  the  day  ceremony,  the  principal  one  of  the  entire  medicine 
dance.  The  ancestor  host  again  precedes  the  other  leaders  in  enter- 
ing the  lodge.  Then  follows  the  entrance  ritual.  During  this 
ritual  the  drum  is  struck  four  times  at  stated  intervals.  The  smoking 
ritual  now  follows.  When  it  is  concluded  the  ancestor  host  rises  to 
begin  the  basic  ritual,  which  is  interrupted  at  the  end  of  the  second 
part.  Gourds  and  drum  are  passed  to  the  east  band,  whose  basic 
ritual  is  also  interrupted  at  the  end  of  the  second  part.  Now  follows 
first  the  initiation  of  the  candidate  into  the  medicine  dance  and 
then  the  general  shooting  ritual.  When  the  east  leader  has  con- 
cluded, drum  and  gourds  are  passed  to  the  north  band,  whose  basic 
ritual  is  not  interrupted  as  on  the  preceding  day.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  basic  ritual  of  the  north  band  the  food-presenta- 
tion ritual  follows,  then  the  smoking  ritual,  and  finally  the  feast. 
After  the  feast  the  leader  of  the  west  band  narrates  the  origin 
myth  of  the  medicine  dance,  which  is  continued  by  the  leader  of 
the  south  band.  The  presents  are  then  distributed.  After  this, 
the  basic  ritual  is  continued  by  the  leader  of  the  west  band,  followed 
by  that  of  the  south  band,  and  finally  the  drum  and  gourds  go  to 
the  fireplace.  The  exit  ritual  now  begins,  and  at  about  sunset  the 
entire  ceremony  of  the  medicine  dance  is  over. 


374  THE  WINNEBAGO  TRIBE  [bth.  ANN.  37 

On  the  whole,  it  must  he  said  that  the  main  difference  between 
(a)  and  (b)  of  Part  IV,  setting  aside  the  initiation,  lies  simply  in 
the  number  of  myths  told  and  the  greater  length  of  the  speeches. 

Personal  Accounts  of  Initiation 

1.  J.  B.'s  account:  I  was  about  13  years  and  over  when  they  told  me 
that  they  would  make  me  a  member  of  the  medicine  dance.  I  liked 
it  very  much.  Some  people  do  not  like  it  at  all  when  they  are  asked 
to  join  the  medicine  dance.  I,  however,  liked  it  very  much.  The 
medicine  dance  I  am  going  to  join,  they  told  me.  Very  much  did  my 
parents  desire  me  to  do  it.  If  I  wished  to  live  a  holy  life,  that  is  what 
I  should  do,  they  told  me. 

Then,  when  everything  was  in  readiness  for  my  initiation,  we 
moved  on  to  the  village  where  the  ceremony  was  to  take  place. 
At  night  they  were  to  sing  at  the  medicine  dance,  and  they,  my 
relatives,  were  to  join  in  the  singing  with  them.  There  they  also 
preached  to  me.  They  told  me  that  this  rite,  the  medicine  dance, 
was  a  good  thing.  I  did  not  even  then  think  that  those  who  were  to 
initiate  me  into  the  medicine  dance  would  kill  me  when  they  shot  at 
me,  as  was  the  popular  belief. 

Never  had  there  been  such  a  life,  they  said,  as  the  one  I  was  going  to 
live,  now  that  I  was  about  to  join  the  medicine  dance.  Never  at  any 
time  woidd  I  have  thought  of  such  a  life.  Those  who  were  about  to 
make  me  join  the  medicine  dance  told  me  that  the  Indians,  when  they 
hear  of  it,  will  expect  me  to  do  great  things,  that  they  will  speak  well 
of  me,  and  like  me.  That  is  all  I  can  now  think  of  concerning  that 
matter. 

Now,  those  who  are'  about  to  make  me  join  the  medicine  dance  are 
preparing  to  show  me  the  shells,  and  for  this  purpose  they  are  taking 
me  into  the  brush.  There  they,  the  elders,  preached  to  me.  I  was 
not  the  least  bit  frightened  when,  after  this,  they  prepared  to  shoot 
me  with  the  sacred  shell.  Indeed,  I  was  not  the  least  bit  worried 
about  it,  nor  did  I  think  to  myself,  "I  wonder  how  it  is  going  to  be  V 
Then  those  who  already  belonged  to  the  medicine  dance,  those  whom 
I  had  dreamed  of  all  this  time,  shot  me.  When  they  shot  me  I 
didn't  die.  That  thought  was  in  my  mind;  but  when  they  shot  me, 
as  a  matter  of  fact,  I  didn't  even  lose  consciousness.  Almost  imme- 
diately I  knew  how  to  do  it  (i.  e.,  to  shoot).  They  liked  it  very 
much.  Everything  they  told  me  to  do  I  did  immediately,  nor  was  I 
backward  about  anything.  The  shaman  liked  it.  Never  had  anyone 
learned  as  quickly  as  I  had,  they  were  saying.  "That  augurs  well 
for  him,"  they  say.  I  thought  then  that  the  medicine  dance  was 
true. 

When  we  returned  from  the  brush  I  entered  the  lodge.  Not  in 
any  direction  did  I  look,  not  once  did  I  speak,  not  once  did  I  move 
around,  not  once  did  I  change  my  position.     Just  as  they  told  me 


kadin]  THE    MEDICINE    DANCE'  375 

to  sit,  that  way  I  remained  sitting.  As  many  Indians  as  were  gath- 
ered in  the  lodge,  all  of  them,  I  failed  to  notice.  Not. once  did  I,  by 
chance,  permit  my  glance  to  wander  from  side  to  side.  I  was  doing 
everything  exactly  as  I  was  told.     The  shaman  liked  it. 

Whenever  thereafter  a  medicine  dance  was  given  I  attended  it. 
Whenever  I  went  in  at  night  I  remained  there  until  it  was  all  over, 
not  going  out  once.  And  during  the  day  ceremony  not  once  did  I 
permit  my  glance  to  wander  outside.  Never  did  I  permit  myself  to 
lie  down  from  fatigue;  nor  did  I  permit  my  glances  to  wander  outside, 
because  there  was  much  noise  there,  or  because  some  people  were 
doing  funny  things.  Not  even  within  the  lodge  did  I  glance.  Indeed, 
I  never  allowed  my  glances  to  wander  in  any  direction.  All  the  holy 
things  I  was  told  to  do,  I  did.  This  is  a  holy  ceremony,  and  I  was 
bashful  in  its  presence. 

If  at  any  time  any  of  my  leaders  in  the  medicine  dance  wished  to 
give  the  ceremony  I  would  stay  in  his  house  together  with  those  who 
had  been  invited.  I  would  do  all  the  work  for  him,  sing  the  medicine 
dance  songs,  etc.  All  the  different  things  he  was  supposed  to  do,  all 
that  I  would  do  for  him. 

When  his  wife  cooked,  I  carried  the  water  for  her,  I  made  the  fire, 
and  helped  her  with  the  dishes.  All  the  work  she  liked  to  have  done 
in  the  house,  I  did  for  her. 

All  the  clothes  I  possessed  I  gave  to  him.  Money  I  gave  to  him, 
and  the  food  he  needed  I  procured  for  him.  Whenever  he  gave  a 
feast,  in  addition  to  what  he  cooked,  I  would  put  a  special  pail  of 
food  on  the  fire  for  him.     When  he  ate  it  he  was  thankful. 

"My  son,  what  do  you  think  I  possess,  that  you  are  doing  all  this 
for  me?"  But  I  continued;  and  when  I  killed  a  medium-sized  buck 
I  made  a  feast  in  his  honor,  and  all  the  clothing  he  needed,  I  gave 
him.  Then  I  also  gave  him  a  costly  repeating  rifle,  the  one  I  used  in 
hunting.  All  these  things  I  offered  him.  Then  I  gave  him  an 
eagle,  so  that  he  could  make  a  medicine  pouch  out  of  it.  Money  I 
also  gave  him,  and  gourds.  Thus  I  acted,  feasting  him  and  offering 
him  gifts  all  the  time.     I  worked  for  him  all  the  time. 

One  day  he  said  to  me,  "My  son,  you  have  been  treating  me  very 
well.  Even  my  own  brothers  never  treated  me  the  way  you  have 
been  doing.  I  thank  you.  All  my  relations  hate  you,  but  don't  pay 
any  attention  to  them.  You  are  from  a  different  family  and  I  am 
teaching  you  various  things  (that  belong  to  them),  they  say.  They 
want  me  to  stop  instructing  you.  My  father  left  the  medicine  dance 
for  me  to  take  care  of.  I  am  in  complete  control  of  it.  Not  one  of 
these  people,  my  kindred,  has  ever  done  anything  for  me  in  their 
lives.  My  ancestors  said  that  you  are  my  relative  for  what  you  have 
done.  I  can  not  teach  my  relatives  the  details  of  this  ceremony,  as 
I  would  have  done  had  they  acted  correctly.  My  knowledge  of  this 
ceremony  belongs  to  you,  for  you  have  paid  for  it.     My  remote 


376  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

ancestors  told  their  descendants,  as  it  has  passed  down  from  mouth 
to  mouth  to  us,  that  whosoever  pays  careful  attention  to  all  that  per- 
tains to  this  ceremony,  that  whosoever  has  a  good  memory,  he  is  the 
one  to  whom  it  should  be  taught.     Thus  they  spoke. 

"My  son,  you  alone  have  been  good  to  me,"  he  said.  "This  cere- 
mony you  will  learn.  Our  son,  He-who-stands-on-a-cloud,  and  you 
have  been  kind  to  me.  Both  of  you  will  live  a  long  life.  Never 
divide  this  ceremony  in  two.  Never  keep  anything  separate,  but  do, 
the  two  of  you,  counsel  about  everything.  If  one  of  you  knows  any- 
thing, tell  it  to  the  other.  Two  people  are  necessary  to  make  the 
ceremony  truly  efficacious  for  either  one.     Never  dislike  one  another. 

"My  younger  brother,  you  are  going  to  be  a  chief.  No  one  else 
pays  attention  to  this  ceremony.  You  alone  are  doing  it.  If  at  any 
time  I  should  leave  your  presence,  when  I  am  about  to  go  I  know  that 
3*ou,  oh  my  son  and  brother,  I  will  leave  behind  me,  peacefully  travel- 
ing along.  Thus  I  will  think  as  I  am  about  to  depart.  Thus  my 
ancestors  told  me." 

Thus  in  trying  to  obtain  information  I  made  myself  pitiable. 
I* tried  to  be  blessed.  I  performed  all  kinds  of  work.  Even  woman's 
work  I  did.  Thus  I  kept  myself  in  a  pitiable  condition,  and  for  that 
reason  my  brother-in-law  blessed  me.  He  blessed  me  with  the  cere- 
mony of  his  ancestors.  He  told  it  to  no  one  else  but  to  me;  and  if 
anyone  else,  at  the  present  time,  narrates  the  ceremony  as  told  by 
our  band,  he  is  not  telling  you  the  truth.  Up  to  the  present  time  this 
ceremony  was  an  Indian  ceremony,  and  not  a  second  time  will  I  tell 
it  to  a  member  of  the  white  race. 

This  ceremony  molded  me.  I  paid  the  most  careful  attention  to 
it;  I  worshiped  it  in  the  best  way  I  knew  how.  I  was  careful  about 
everything  in  my  life.  I  never  drank.  A  holy  life  it  was  that  I 
sought  and  most  earnestly  did  I  pray  that  I  might  live  over  again. 
That  is  what  I  yearned  for.  If  I  do  everything  that  this  ceremony 
enjoins  upon  me  well,  I  will  return  to  Earthmaker,  they  told  me. 
This  is  what  I  wished.  I  was  doing  well  as  a  medicine  man  and 
everyone  loved  me.     This  ceremony  was  made  with  love. 

I  knew  all  the  songs.  Indeed,  the  leader  of  the  dance  would  make 
me  sing  the  songs  for  him.  As  many  medicine  men  as  there  were, 
they  all  liked  me.  I  was  not  overbearing,  but  modestly  did  I  com- 
port myself  right  along.  All  the  medicine  men  told  me  that  I  was 
doing  very  well,  and  they  offered  thanks  in  my  behalf. 

2.  J.  C.'s  account  of  how  he  came  to  join  the  medicine  dance:  This 
is  how  it  was.  A  grandmother  of  mine  was  the  cause  of  it.  She  said 
that  the  Creator's  son 21  was  called  the  Hare ;  that  he  came  on  earth 
and  brought  life,  she  said.  She  said  that  whoever  did  this  would  live 
well,  that  their  souls  would  always  return  to  the  place  where  the 

«  J.  C.  is  a  prominent  member  of  the  Peyote  cult  and,  in  common  with  other  members  of  this  cult,  he 
has  identified  the  Hare  with  Christ. 


badin]  THE    MEDICINE   DANCE  377 

Creator  sits.  The  first  tiling  that  they  did  to  me  was  this:  They  took 
me  to  a  lodge  at  night;  there  they  talked  and  sang.  Then  the  second 
night  the  tobacco  bundles  were  made;  then  the  great  old  medicine 
men  were  given  tobacco.  After  this  came  the  four  nights'  prepara- 
tion. Then  came  the  great  medicine  dance.  Then  they  went  after 
those  that  were  going  to  join,  one  at  a  time.  They,  the  medicine 
men,  were  repeating  what  the  Hare  had  done.  When  the  Hare 
came  on  earth  he  performed  certain  actions,  and  that  is  what 
they  were  repeating  now.  Hare  had  visited  the  different  spirits, 
it  is  said,  looking  for  a  means  of  life,  it  is  said.  The  old  medicine 
men  possessed  the  good  tidings  that  Hare  had  brought  to  this  earth. 
That  is  what  the  people  desired  of  Hare,  it  is  said. 

When  they  entered,  the  first  person  to  whom  tobacco  had  been 
given,  i.  e.,  the  one  first  invited,  entered  first.  Then  the  others 
followed  in  turn.  Then  he  talked;  then  the  one  who  initiated  me 
expressed  his  thanks,  saying,  "You  medicine  men,  this  affair  the 
Hare  has  given  you,  you  are  repeating  in  order  to  bless  us.  For  that 
reason  you  have  come.  We  ask  you  to  give  to  this  person  whom  we 
are  about  to  initiate  the  life  you  have  obtained  for  us.  We  ask  that 
the  newly  initiated  one  travel  along  that  road." 

Then  the  first  person  spoke,  and  after  that  they  all  ate.  When  he 
was  through  they  heated  a  stone.  After  that  they  all  entered  in 
regular  order  and  I  was  asked  to  go  in  with  them.  Thus  I  entered 
the  sweat-bath  lodge.  When  I  was  inside  they  told  me  that  the  stone 
which  they  had  heated  was  a  spirit.  "The  life  that  he  brought  I 
should  ask  for,"  they  told  me.     After  that  we  went  out  again. 

At  night  we  entered  again.  Then  at  about  2  o'clock  they  took 
me  out  to  the  brush.  Not  until  then  was  I  to  learn  what  the  medicine 
men  really  did.  When  we  got  to  the  brush  they  made  me  sit  down 
and  the  man  who  was  initiating  me  turned  me  over  to  the  others. 
He  said,  "I  turn  him  over  to  you.  Whatever  the  elders  have  taught 
you,  that  we  desire  you  to  tell  him."  When  he  finished  the  first 
one  began  to  talk,  saying,  "It  is  good  that  you  are  such  a  person. 
Earthmaker  must  have  willed  it  so.  In  the  olden  times  if  a  person 
wanted  to  join  the  medicine  lodge  he  could  not  do  it  until  he  was 
quite  old."  Then  he  continued  preaching  to  me.  When  Earth- 
maker  first  came  into  the  world  and  what  happened  after  that,  how 
he  created  all  things:  that  he  told  me.  He  told  me  that  Earthmaker 
created  four  worlds,  in  each  of  which  he  placed  men  and  women; 
that  the  heavens  we  see  represent  the  last  man  he  created  and  the 
earth  we  are  living  on  the  last  woman  he  created.  Then  he  told 
how  Herecgunina  was  created.  The  story  is  as  follows:  Earth- 
maker  created  man,  whom  he  wished  to  put  at  the  head  of  the  world, 
but  he  did  not  make  one  of  his  legs  quite  right.  Then  he  threw  him 
down  to  the  earth  because  when  Earthmaker  made  anything  wrong 
186823—22 25 


378  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [ETH.  ANN.  37 

he  never  did  it  over  again.  Herecgunina  lived  on  earth  from  that 
time  on,  and  it  is  said  that  he  also  created  things.  Indeed,  it  is  said 
that  he  was  almost  the  equal  of  the  Earthmaker.  He  made  the  people 
very  miserable.  Then  Earthmaker  sent  four  of  his  sons  (to  save  the 
people) .  Hare  alone,  of  all  the  four,  accomplished  what  he  had  been 
sent  out  for.  All  the  rest  failed.  Hare  obtained  life  for  the  people 
upon  this  earth. 

Then  the  man  told  how  the  medicine  lodge  had  been  founded ;  how 
all  the  spirits  upon  the  earth  and  all  those  under  the  earth  and  all 
those  above  the  earth  gathered  together.  They  brought  life  with  them. 
Then  the  medicine  bags  began  to  come.  Fisrt  came  the  eagle.  He 
came  from  above.  Next  came  the  hawk,  and  then  the  squirrel,  etc. 
The  otter  was  the  last  one.  Then  the  old  man  stopped  talking  to  me 
and  another  person  began  to  admonish  me.  He  told  me  how  I  was 
to  conduct  myself.  Then  he  spoke  to  me  of  the  medicine-lodge  road 
(i.  e.,  of  life)  and  what  happens  after  life. 

The  first  tiling  that  I  would  meet  on  the  road  would  be  bad  birds 
making  a  lot  of  noise.  "Do  not  look  at  them,"  he  told  me.  They 
would  let  fly  at  me  bad-smelling  saliva  and  phlegm,  but  I  was  not 
to  turn  around,  he  said.  Then  the  road  would  become  thickly  covered 
with  thorn  bushes.  It  would  seem  almost  impossible  to  untangle 
them.  I  was,  however,  not  to  pay  any  attention  to  them,  he  told 
me.  On  the  road,  fires  would  send  their  sparks  toward  me,  but  I 
was  to  pay  no  attention  to  them.  After  a  while  I  would  lose  one 
of  my  relatives,  but  I  was  to  keep  right  on.  I  was  not  to  get  angry 
nor  to  give  up,  and  after  a  while  the  road  would  become  thickly 
covered  with  poplars  growing  on  each  side.  Then  the  hair  on  my 
temples  would  become  gray.  This  is  what  would  happen  to  me,  he 
told  me,  if  I  paid  close  attention  to  this  ceremony.  After  a  while 
it  would  become  foggy — i.  e.,  my  eyesight  would  grow  dim.  Then 
I  would  come  to  a  hill,  one  of  four  hills.  When  I  came  to  the  last 
hill  there  I  would  see  red  cedar  trees.  This  is  what  would  happen 
to  me  if  I  paid  close  attention  to  this  ceremony,  he  told  me.  My 
soul  would  return  to  Earthmaker  and  I  would  then  be  allowed  to 
come  back  to  this  earth  if  I  wanted  to. 

Then  they  gave  me  the  object  with  which  they  shoot  themselves — 
the  shell.  They  shot  me.  After  that  they  made  me  try  to  do  it, 
and  when  I  was  able  to  shoot  well,  we  all  came  back.  It  was  now 
daylight.  Now  they  put  clothes  on  themselves  and  arose.  Those 
who  were  initiating  me  then  spread  upon  the  ground  the  things 
which  had  been  brought.  Then  the  leader  spoke.  He  told  me  that 
he  would  put  me  on  the  medicine-dance  road.  Then  they  sat  me 
down  there  and  shot  me.  Then  the  clothes  that  I  had  on  were 
taken  off  and  I  was  given  other  clothes.  I  was  now  told  that  I  was 
standing  on  the  medicine-dance  road.  After  that  they  danced  all 
day.  In  the  evening  they  stopped.  Now  this  is  what  I  did;  this 
is  all  I  can  say.     I  greet  you,  my  friends. 


CHAPTER  XV 


MISCELLANEOUS  DANCES 
The  Hok'ixe're  Dance 

Informant,  member  of  the  Thunderbird  clan:  This  is  the  way  in 
which  people  used  to  bring  scalps  to  one  another.  When  a  man 
returns  from  the  warpath  with  a  scalp  he  leaves  it  outside  of  the 
village  and  the  warriors  run  out  with  their  clubs  and  strike  it  and 
count  coup  (just  as  on  the  battlefield).  As  they  count  coup  they 
call  out  their  names  Then  they  are  told  what  ceremonial  dress 
they  are  to  wear.  They  then  send  a  messenger  to  the  person  to- 
whom  the  scalp  is  to  be  presented  to  tell  him  to  select  a  pole  (for 
the  victory  dance).  He  thanks  them  and  says,  "It  is  good."  Then 
the  warriors  who  are  returning  arrange  themselves  in  a  circle  around 
this  pole  and  dance  around  it.  He  who  has  obtained  the  first  war 
honor  leads. 

The  one  to  whom  they  present  the  scalp  thanks  the  spirits  who 
are  in  control  of  war  powers  and  then  raising  his  hand  prays  to  the 
Sun.  Then  he  sings  a  song  and  when  that  is  finished  sits  down, 
beats  the  drum,  and  sings  a  dancing  song,  while  the  others  dance. 

Then  the  owner  of  the  scalp,  turning  toward  the  spirits  who  are 
in  control  of  war,  gives  the  victory  whoop  four  times.  After  each 
whoop  all  the  other  people  in  the  lodge  strike  their  mouths  with 
their  hands  and  yell.  After  the  victory  whoops  have  been  given 
all  dance  the  victory  dance. 

Then  the  man  who  has  received  the  scalp  lets  his  sisters,  his  aunts, 
and  his  nieces  select  the  war  presents  which  are  always  bestowed 
upon  them.  With  these  tied  around  their  necks  they  dance.  Toward 
evening  they  finish  the  victory  dance  and  then  all  enter  the  (danc- 
ing) lodge.  He  to  whom  the  scalp  is  given  is  the  host  and  he  sits 
down  first.  Then  comes  the  donor  and  then  in  a  row  the  four  who 
have  counted  coup. 

The  ceremony  begins  with  songs  sung  by  the  host.  He  first  sings 
two  war-bundle  songs  (waruxa'p  na^wan)  and  then  two  night  songs 
(hanht'  nanwan).  When  these  are  finished  the  meal  is  eaten.  Before 
eating,  all  the  animal  heads  are  placed  in  front  of  the  donor  of  the 
scalp  and  he  selects  those  men  with  whom  he  wishes  to-share  them. 

Then  the  host  rises  and  says,  "War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated 
here,  I  greet  you  all.     Our  warrior  (the  donor)  will  eat  together  with 

379 


380  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [kth.  ANN.  3T 

our  grandfather,  the  scalp,  who  is  standing  in  the  center  of  the  lodge. 
Place  a  plate  for  the  scalp  and  bring  it  to  that  brave  man."  Then 
the  brave  warriors  eat  the  head,  and  when  that  is  finished  the  serv- 
ants distribute  meat  and  food  to  those  present  who  have  not  taken 
part  in  the  head  eating.  While  they  are  eating  the  host  blows  on 
his  flute  and  sings  some  songs  until  the  eating  is  over.  Then  he 
rises  and  speaks  again: 

"All  you  who  are  present  to  give  us  counsel  and  who  sit  here  in 
the  place  of  others,  I  greet  you.  For  the  warriors  who  would  counsel 
with  us  repeatedly  and  for  the  sacred  speeches  of  our  fathers  do  we 
ask.  In  this  ceremony  to-day  we  will  select  as  many  war-bundle 
owners  as  are  present  to  eat  together  with  our  grandfather,  who  is 
standing  in  the  center  of  our  lodge  (the  scalp).  And  if  they  select 
me  to  eat  with  the  scalp,  poor  and  pitiable  as  I  am,  it  would  be  good. 

"Should  sickness  suddenly  come  upon  a  village  all  those  who  are 
sick  may  take  part  in  this  ceremony.  For  our  grandfather,  who 
stands  in  the  middle  of  the  lodge,  is  no  weakling,  and  when  they 
take  hold  of  him  they  are  obtaining  supernatural  powers,  it  is  said. 
We  are  trying  to  trample  upon  the  soul  {wanayxi'rak)  (of  the  scalp). 
If  we  trample  upon  it,  all  the  goods  of  life  that  were  still  coming  to 
him  when  he  was  killed  will  be  transferred  to  us.  As  many  as  are 
going  to  take  part  in  this  dance  to-night  should  try  to  make  the  soul 
of  our  grandfather  (the  scalp)  more  amenable  to  our  prayers.  So 
all  you  women  and  men  see  to  it  that  you  dance  with  all  your  strength. 
Do  not  take  this  matter  lightly,  for  we  obtain  life  thereby,  we  were 
told. 

"Councilors  of  the  different  clans  who  are  seated  here  with  us,  I 
greet  you  all." 

Then  they  sang  holc'ixe're  songs  and  danced  the  Jiolc'ixe're  dance. 
All  night  they  danced.  They  did  not  stop  for  a  moment.  Thus  they 
tried  to  conquer  the  soul  of  their  grandfather  (scalp).  They  danced 
till  early  in  the  morning  and  then  just  as  the  sun  appeared  they 
carried  the  drum  outside  of  the  lodge  to  the  victory  post  and  danced 
the  victory  dance.  As  soon  as  the  sun  was  high  in  the  heavens 
they  stopped.     Then  they  went  to  sleep. 

The  second  day. — Just  before  the  sun  was  setting  they  all  came 
and  danced  the  victory  dance  again.  Then  the  host  got  ready  to 
furnish  the  meal  again.  All  his  female  relatives  who  had  received 
presents  took  charge  of  the  preparation  of  the  food,  which  the  serv- 
ants had  previously  obtained.  As  soon  as  the  victory  dance  was  over 
they  entered  the  dancing  lodge.  Then  the  host  spoke,  and  when 
he  finished  he  sang  four  songs,  and  as  soon  as  these  were  finished 
they  all  got  ready  to  eat.  Then  the  host  said  that  he  would  give 
the  heads  of  the  animals  to  the  donor  and  that  the  latter  might 
select  those  warriors  whom  he  wished  to  have  as  partners  in  the 


radix]  MISCELLANEOUS   DANCES  381 

head  eating.  Then  the  donor  selected  his  partners.  The  host  then 
began  to  sing.  The  scalp  was  taken  down  from  the  post  and  placed 
in  a  dish  near  the  door.  The  soul  of  the  scalp  still  remained  within 
it,  so  they  tried  again  to  make  it  less  powerful  and  to  conquer  it, 
for  they  knew  that  if  they  succeeded  in  conquering  it  all  the  life 
that  was  still  coming  to  the  possessor  of  the  scalp  at  his  death  would  ' 
be  obtained  for  themselves.  Then  the  dancers  and  the  feasters, 
indeed  all  who  had  counted  coup,  tried  to  obtain  some  of  the  dead 
enemy's  residuary  life.     All  tried  to  add  some  new  life  to  their  own. 

When  the  meal  was  over,  then  the  host  offered  tobacco  to  the 
spirits,  and  all  those  present  prayed  for  war  to  the  spirits  to  whom 
offerings  had  been  made.  They  asked  that  if  it  be  their  good  fortune 
to  kill  a  number  of  people  on  the  warpath,  when  they  returned  home 
they  would  be  as  thankful  as  they  are  now.  All  these  warriors  who 
were  taking  part  in  this  dance  liked  it  very  much. 

Then  the  host  struck  the  drum  that  had  been  placed  in  front  of 
him  and  sang.  When  he  finished,  he  had  the  drum  placed  in  front 
of  the  man  who  had  counted  first  coup.  Then  this  man  sang  and 
the  drum  was  passed  to  the  next  man,  and  so  on  until  each  man  had 
sung.  After  all  had  sung  and  spoken  the  men  and  women  together 
danced  around  the  lodge.  The  woman  who  had  received  the  pres- 
ents led  the  dance,  carrying  the  scalp.  The  people  believed  that 
the  scalp  was  dancing  with  them.  All  night  they  danced  the  TioJc'- 
ixe're  dance  without  resting  at  any  time,  and  when  the  sun  appeared 
they  took  the  drum  outside  to  the  post  and  danced  the  victory 
dance.  Then  when  the  sun  was  high  in  the  heavens  they  stopped 
and  went  to  sleep.  In  the  evening  when  the  sun  was  low  they 
danced  the  victory  dance  again,  and  then  when  it  was  pretty  dark, 
singing  slow  songs,  they  slowly  entered  the  lodge  again.  Then  they 
made  a  circuit  of  the  lodge  and  placed  the  drum  in  the  middle  of 
the  lodge. 

The  feast  was  now  ready.  All  that  they  were  to  eat — deer,  bear, 
dog — were  placed  in  front  of  the  feasters.  Food  was  brought  to 
the  donor  and  all  those  who  were  sitting  together  with  him,  as  well 
as  all  those  who  had  counted  coup  and  all  the  women  who  had 
received  presents.  Head  eating  is  holy,  and  if  one  eats  part  of  the 
head  it  is  thought  that  it  will  help  him  greatly. 

Then  the  host  rose  and  spoke  as  follows: 

"The  servants  who  are  carrying  the  food  around  here  will  probably 
not  have  enough  to  go  around,  but  you  must  remember  that  not 
the  men  but  the  women  are  furnishing  the  food.  Although  it  is  little, 
I  hope  you  will  eat  it.  We  will  now  sing  four  songs."  Then  he 
sang  two  war-bundle  songs  and  two  night  songs.  Before  they  ate 
the  host  rose  and  spoke,  "This  is  a  small  feast  and  we  will  try  to 
give  food  to  our  grandfather  (some  spirit)  who  is  in  charge  of  this 


382  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

ceremony,  iul  who  are  going  to  partake  in  the  head  eating  will 
sit  together  with  the  donor.  A  warrior  will  eat  together  with  the 
scalp.     This  is  all  I  have  to  say." 

Then  the  feasters  who  were  selected  to  take  part  in  the  head  eat- 
ing went  toward  the  warrior  and  ate  with  him.  This  warrior  (the 
donor)  held  a  long  stick  in  his  hands  with  which  he  danced,  after  he 
had  partaken  of  the  head  together  with  his  friends.  After  he  had 
finished  dancing,  he  walked  to  the  center  of  the  lodge  and  stuck  the 
stick  in  the  ground  and  (sat  there),  eating  alone  with  the  scalp. 
Then  all  the  feasters  ate  again,  and  when  they  were  finished  the  host 
sang  a  number  of  songs  and  passed  (the  drum)  to  the  donor,  who 
sang  whatever  songs  he  desired;  either  war-bundle  songs,  night 
songs,  buffalo  songs,  or  sore-eye  dance  songs.  When  the  songs  were 
over,  all  danced.  Then  the  drum  was  passed  to  the  one  who  had 
counted  coup  first  and  he  spoke  as  follows: 

"  The  spirits  blessed  our  grandfather  and  taught  him  many  speeches 
for  this  occasion.  These  we  will  try  to  repeat  to-day.  Even  if  we 
do  not  repeat  them  correctly,  the  Night  Spirits  will  not  take  such  a 
mistake  amiss,  we  were  told.  Indeed,  if  I  only  knew  one  thing  (a 
song  or  a  speech)  they  would  bless  me.  We  wish  to  trample  upon  the 
soul  of  our  friend  (the  scalp)  and  if  you,  my  friends,  do  the  same  and 
repeat  the  holy  speeches  of  your  grandfathers,  we  will  surely  accom- 
plish our  purpose.  Life  we  wish  to  obtain,  so  let  us  start  our  songs. 
That  is  what  I  wanted  to  tell  you.  Now  let  us  beat  the  drum  and 
sing.     I  greet  you  all." 

Then  the  drum  and  tobacco  were  taken  to  the  one  who  had  counted 
coup  second.     He  spoke  as  follows: 

"The  songs  and  speeches  that  my  grandfather  used,  those  I,  too, 
will  use.  I,  too,  desire  to  trample  upon  the  soul  of  our  friend  (the 
scalp).  Life  I  desire,  and  I  will  therefore  start  up  some  songs.  lean 
not  do  what  my  ancestors  did,  but  I  will  do  the  little  I  know.  I 
greet  you  all." 

Then  the  drum  and  tobacco  were  passed  to  the  one  who  had  counted 
coup  third,  and  he  spoke  as  follows: 

"What  our  grandfather  said,  that  I  am  trying  to  say  now.  I  do 
not  know  any  songs  or  speeches,  however.  I  did  not  listen  to  what 
my  parents  told  me,  so  now  when  I  might  have  asked  the  spirits  for 
many  things,  I  can  not  do  it.  I  do  not  know  what  to  say  and  my 
eyes  fill  with  tears  at  my  discomfiture.  But  I  have  myself  to  blame 
for  it.     Now  I  will  start  up  some  songs.     I  greet  you  all." 

Then  they  brought  the  drum  to  the  one  who  had  been  fourth  to 
count  coup  and  placed  tobacco  in  his  hands.  Then  he  spoke  as 
follows: 

"It  is  good.  Those  in  the  east  have  given  me  tobacco  and  I  will 
now  offer  it  to  the  spirits  in  their  behalf.     You  have  helped  to  trample 


badin]  MISCELLANEOUS   DANCES  383 

upon  the  soul  of  our  friend  (the  scalp)  and  you  have  tried  to  gain 
additional  life.  I  also  desire  life.  Our  ancestors  were  equal  to  the 
spirits  in  their  power  and  they  asked  each  other  to  help  one  another 
in  obtaining  life.  I  will  try  to  ask  for  that  which  you  have  asked. 
I  greet  you  all." 

Then  all  the  war-bundle  owners  in  the  lodge  greeted  each  other, 
and  the  drum  was  passed  around  until  every  one  in  the  lodge  had 
sung.  Then  they  danced  the  hok'ixe're  dance  until  early  dawn  and 
when  the  sun  was  about  to  appear  they  took  the  drum  to  the  post 
and  danced  the  victory  dance  until  the  sun  was  high  in  the  heavens. 
Then  they  went  to  sleep.  All  day  they  slept,  and  toward  evening 
of  the  fourth  night,  when  the  sun  was  low,  they  began  the  victory 
dance  again.  When  it  was  dark  they  entered  the  lodge  and  placed 
the  drum  in  the  center.  Then  the  attendants  put  dog  meat  in  the 
kettles.  When  all  was  in  readiness  and  all  the  feasters  had  entered 
the  lodge  the  host  offered  tobacco  to  the  spirits  for  whom  food  was 
being  prepared  and  spoke  as  follows: 

"After  we  have  sung  'four  songs  the  meal  will  be  ready  to  be 
served.  The  attendants,  it  is  true,  have  not  cooked  very  much  and 
it  will  doubtless  not  be  enough  for  all,  but  I  think  that  there  will  be 
a  little  portion  for  every  one.  When  I  have  finished  the  four  songs, 
then  the  donor  for  whom  this  ceremony  is  being  given  will  select 
the  people  who  are  to  eat  with  him.  Then  the  attendants  will  dis- 
tribute the  portions  of  meat,  in  addition  to  the  heads,  and  then  we 
will  all  start  to  eat." 

Then  all  ate.  The  donor  after  first  eating  with  his  friends  ate 
alone  with  the  scalp.  Then  some  of  the  men  arose  and  gave  thanks. 
Finally  the  host  rose  again  and  said,  "  Whatever  little  it  was  in  my 
power  to  do,  I  tried  to  do.  All  have  tried  to  help  me.  It  is  really 
good.  I  am  really  unable  to  say  what  I  wanted,  but  it  is  good.  As 
the  drum  passes  around,  may  it  be  of  some  help  to  every  one." 

Then  the  drum  is  passed  to  the  one  who  had  first  counted  coup. 
He  sings  and  then  it  is  passed  to  the  other  three  who  counted  coup, 
who  likewise  sing.  From  them  it  is  passed  to  all  the' other  people 
in  the  lodge  who  have  not  sung  yet.  Then  all  dance  the  hok'ixe're 
dance  and  toward  dawn  the  drum  is  taken  outside  to  the  post  and 
the  victory  dance  is  given.  If  the  donor  had  lost  a  child  the  others 
now  wipe  off  his  tears  and  tell  him  not  to  cry  any  more;  and  they 
make  the  mourner  feel  joyful  again.  When  it  became  (full)  day- 
light they  danced  the  victory  dance  and  walked  four  times  around 
the  pole.  Then  they  went  to  the  grave  of  the  child  that  had  died 
and  danced  the  victory  dance  there  and  stuck  the  scalp  in  the  ground, 
for  the  soul  of  the  child.  There  it  would  wither  and  the  father  would 
feel  happy.     This  is  the  end. 


384  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

The  Herucka  Dance 

The  Heruclca  is  a  social  dance  and  is  frequently  given  when  visitors 
from  other  tribes  are  present,  presents  being  given  on  this  occasion. 
Men  and  women  take  part  in  it  and  are  generally  dressed  in  their  best 
clothes.  A  few  customs  that  were  noticed  at  a  performance  in  1908 
might  be  mentioned  here. 

If  a  man  drops  anything  during  the  dance  he  himself  may  not  pick 
it  up.  Only  a  warrior  who  has  been  wounded  has  the  right  to  do  so. 
The  object  dropped  is  returned  to  the  owner,  who,  however,  must 
always  give  it  to  his  sister  or  niece. 

It  is  at  times  customary  for  a  man  to  dress  himself  in  rags  and 
beg  for  food,  etc.  He  generally  represents  himself  as  an  extremely 
poor  man  and  pictures  his  destitution  in  a  manner  best  calculated  to 
amuse  everyone. 

Wagers  of  horses  are  very  commonly  made  at  this  dance. 

The  dances  indulged  in  are  mainly  victory  dances  and  the  songs 
known  as  Herucka  songs  are  always  victory  songs.  Many  borrowed 
songs  are  sung  at  this  dance. 

A  large  drum  is  alwaj's  used,  around  which  sometimes  as  many  as 
10  drummers  sit.  The  drum  consists  of  an  ordinary  tub  over  which 
skin  has  been  tightly  drawn.  It  is  supported  by  two  carved  sticks, 
to  which  it  is  firmly  attached,  so  that  the  bottom  is  about  a  foot  from 
the  ground.  It  is  painted  in  the  following  manner:  Two  rather 
narrow  lines  of  paint  across  the  center  of  the  drum,  one  blue  and  the 
other  green.  The  portion  of  the  drum  next  to  the  yellow  line  is 
painted  blue,  and  that  next  to  the  blue  line  red.  No  meanings  for  the 
colors  were  obtained. 

Watconank'ewe  Feast 

(afraid-to-eat-greens  feast) 

Informant,  member  of  Beaver  clan :  Just  about  roasting-ear  month 
people  would  commence  to  fast  and  continue  until  the  green  corn  is 
ripe  enough  to  be  eaten.  They  fast  so  that  all  the  plants  may 
strengthen  the  tribe. 

The  fast  generally  takes  place  in  a  special  lodge,  from  under  which 
all  the  grass  has  been  cut,  for  the  faster  must  not  come  in  contact 
with  anything  that  is  green.  When  the  fasting  is  over  a  feast  is 
given  at  which  all  those  present  eat  "greens"  for  the  first  time. 

The  Captive's  Death  Dance 

Before  putting  a  captive  to  death  it  is  customary  to  tie  his  arms 
behind  him  in  such  a  manner  that  his  hands  have  a  little  freedom. 
Then  the}'  put  a  gourd  in  his  right  hand  and  a  lance  in  his  left  hand 


Radin]  MISCELLANEOUS   DANCES  385 

and  permit  him  to  dance  and  sing.     This  is  called  the  waygenirjlce-i11 
dance.22 

"So  then  the  turtle  was  told  to  dance  his  death  dance — i.  e., 
warjgeniijlie-in  dance.  Both  of  his  arms  were  tied  behind  above 
the  elbows.  Only  thus  was  he  permitted  to  walk.  His  wrists  were 
tied  in  front,  so  that  he  could  not  stretch  out  his  arms.  His  ankles 
were  tied  in  such  a  way  that  he  could  not  take  any  long  steps.  He 
carried  a  gourd  in  one  hand  and  a  sacred  object  in  the  other,  and 
with  these  he  danced  up  and  down  the  village,  performing  his  death 
dance  and  singing  and  shaking  his  gourd.  Many  people  came  to  see 
him.  He  stopped  and  changed  his  song,  singing,  "O  death,  O  death! 
You  young  women  come  here  to  see  me.     I  am  anxious  for  death." 

(It  seems  that  it  is  customary  to  grant  any  wish  the  captive  makes 
while  dancing  this  dance.) 

The  Farewell  Dance 

When  a  person  is  about  to  go  on  the  warpath  he  goes  around  the 
village  dancing  and  asking  for  volunteers  to  accompany  him.  New 
volunteers  join  him  as  he  dances  and  sings.  When  the  dancing  is 
over  these  volunteers  tell  the  people  how  their  forefathers  encouraged 
them  to  go  on  the  warpath,  etc. 

At  the  beginning  and  end  of  each  song  they  strike  their  mouths 
with  their  hands  and  give  a  whoop. 

FAREWELL   SONGS 
I 

Hi'ske    weje'ji    yare'na"    da'tcu"    wa'rjkenangre    wajan    ana'ngere;    hi'ske 
Truth  he  speaks  I  hope,  war  leaders,  what  he  says,  truth 

weje'ji  yare'nA11. 

he  tells  I  hope. 

II 

Curjkena'rjgere    je'ske   hidanankik'inna   dotcu'nkera    wanga'ninge:   je'ske 
Those  dogs  like  I  think  of  myself  war  leader  a  man  I  am:    Thus 

hidanankik'inna. 

I  think  of  myself. 
(I.  e.,  I  don't  value  my  life  any  more  than  that  of  a  dog.) 

Ill 

Jige'  ya'ragenivnAD    wajan    s'inp'anai'na    dstcu'nkera;    jige'    yare/nAn. 
Again  I  desire  it  something  a  long  time  war  loader;  again  I  desire 
(I.  e.,  it  is  a  long  time  since  I  have  been  on  the  warpath.) 

IV 

Ga  ai'recke    xawa'ninktcanevnAn    dotcu"    wunkerareeke    xawa'ninktcanenA" 
Even  that  they  say  will  disappear  war  leader  even  he  will  disappear. 
(I.  e.,  I  don't  value  my  life  any  more  than  the  war-leader  does.) 

"  The  following  description  of  this  dance,  contained  in  one  of  the  versions  of  the  myth,  "  Turtle  on 
the  warpath,"  is  no  doubt  fairly  accurate. 


386 


THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE 


[ETH.  ANN.  37 


The  Soldier's  Dance 

Informant,  member  of  the  Bear  or  Soldier  clan: 23  The  object  of 
performing  the  soldier  dance  (fig.  37)  is  to  strengthen  the  members  of 
w.  the  Bear  clan.     They  dance  with 

the  emblem  of  the  Bear  clan,  the 
whittled  stick  (namayxV nixini) , 
in  their  hands.  The  dance  is 
also  given  whenever  a  council  in 
which  tribal  affairs  are  discussed 
is  held.  On  such  an  occasion 
the  men  take  their  drums  to  the 
council  lodge  and  dance  there, 
followed  by  the  women. 

The  principal  leader — i.  e.,  the 
chief  of  the  Bear  clan  (ma'nanp'e 
hii-'ijgera) — appoints  a  person 
who  is  in  charge  of  the  ceremony 
(ma' nan,])' e  hak'o'hiduk'ono'na). 
The  ceremony  begins  with  the 
chief  of  the  clan  marching  around 
the  village  with  some  followers 
and  stopping  here  and  there  to 
d  ance  and  give  the  soldier  whoop . 
The  members  of  the  Bear  clan 
are  supposed  to  be  strengthened 
by  the  blessings  of  all  the  animals 
who  have  claws.  Should  any- 
one be  sick  in  the  village,  this 
strength  of  theirs  would  be  suffi- 
cient to  cure  them.  Then  they 
return  to  their  lodge  and  are  put 
in  control  of  the  entire  village. 
As  soon  as  the  time  for  the  dance  is  at  hand  the  soldiers  give  their 
whoops  and  an  old  warrior  is  selected  to  tell  of  his  war  exploits. 
He  always  makes  it  a  point  to  tell  of  some  exploit  that  seemed  at 
first  foolhardy — how  he  tried  to  do  something  that  generally  meant 
death,  but  how  he  succeeded  by  reason  of  his  fearlessness.  It  is  with 
such  a  heart,  he  tells  them,  that  they  must  dance  the  soldier's  dance. 
Then  they  all  dance  and  sing.  When  they  are  finished,  they  let  the 
women  dance. 


Fig.  37.- 


-Plan  of  Soldiers'  dance,    a.  Leader. 
b.  Assistant. 


83  Throughout  this  work  soldier  is  used  to  connote  something  quite  diiTerent  from  the  word  warrior. 
The  Soldier  clan  is  the  Bear  clan,  and  the  Warrior  clan  is  the  Hawk  or  the  War-people  clan. 


badinj  MISCELLANEOUS   DANCES  387 

The  soldier  dance  is  a  hop  up  and  down  with  both  feet  and  in  no 
particular  order,  anywlfere  around  the  singers.  It  is  held  in  the 
open  air. 

SOLDIER   DANCE    SONGS 
I 

Mananp'e'ra  nanjinwine. 
Soldiers    get  up. 

II 
Wajannija"  tcexigi'ji  nanjin'a"dje. 
Something    difficult    get    ready. 
(I.  e.,  whenever  there  is  anything  difficult  to  do  you  must  get  ready.) 

Ill 
Mananp'e'ra  newine'nA"  hu'nagiredra. 
Soldiers     I  am  he     whom  they  spoke  of. 

IV 

Mananp'c'ra  hi'ja"  wine'nA11. 

Soldier    one    I  am. 

(I.  e.,  I  am  a  soldier,  and  if  there  is  anything  to  do  I'll  do  it.) 

Ceremony  of  Uangeru 

(begging  ceremony) 
A  dummy  is  made  of  grass  and  dressed  with  whatever  objects  the 
maker  wants  to  get.  If  he  wants  a  horse  he  puts  a  bridle  crosswise 
around  the  body  of  the  dummy;  if  he  wants  clothes,  he  dresses  him 
up  in  Indian  clothes.  Then  the  man  places  this  dummy  anywhere 
near  a  gathering,  or  where  he  expects  a  gathering  to  take  place.  He 
sits  near  it.  As  soon  as  any  warrior  sees  the  dummy  he  goes  over 
to  it  and  either  kicks  or  strikes  the  man  who  made  it,  giving  him  at 
the  same  time  one  of  the  objects  he  wanted.  Any  person  may  do 
the  same.  They  may  not  stop  kicking  the  man  until  some  warrior 
who  had  at  some  time  or  another  cut  up  an  enemy  in  war  cuts  up 
the  dummy.  Then  all  stop,  and  as  soon  as  his  bruises  permitted  him, 
the  man  would  get  up  and  pick  up  the  gifts  brought  to  him. 

Feast  to  Buffalo  Tail 

A  grandfather  of  mine  called  Cokeboka  fasted  at  Neceda,  Wis. 
There  he  was  blessed  by  a  young  buffalo  bull  calf  belonging  to  a  herd. 
The  calf  said,  as  the  herd  went  by,  "Father,  keep  going  in  the  road; 
mother,  keep  going  in  the  road."  He  meant  a  warpath  instead  of 
the  road  they  were  going  in.  The  man  was  to  go  on  a  warpath,  from 
which  he  would  return  victorious. 

They  used  to  make  offerings  to  this  tail  alone,  apart  from  the  war 
bundle.  The  braided  grass  was  to  be  used  for  smoking.  The  feast 
is  given  in  spring  after  the  grass  grows  up,  and  in  midwinter.  Ground 
corn  is  boiled  in  making  the  feast. 

Kikre  Waci  and  Tcebokonank  Dances 

There  is  a  pleasure  dance  called  Jrikre  waci  and  a  dance  called 
tcebolconAn]c  (wearing  buffalo  headdresses).  The  latter  is  of  Sioux 
origin. 


CHAPTER  XVI 


THE  PEYOTE  CULT 
General  Description 

Owing  to  the  great  importance  of  one  of  the  modern  cults  found 
among  the  Winnebago,  the  so-called  Mescal  or  Peyote,  it  will  be 
discussed  here  in  some  detail.  Not  only  is  this  cult  of  great  promi- 
nence in  the  life  of  the  modern  Winnebago,  but  as  its  inception  and 
progress  can  be  followed  out  in  considerable  detail  it  is  of  great 
significance  for  the  study  of  their  religion. 

The  ceremony  is  generally  held  in  a  building  called  by  the  Peyote 
worshipers  a  church,  although  it  frequently  takes  place  in  the  open 
also.  In  the  early  days  of  its  organization  as  many  meetings  as 
possible  were  held.  In  1910  there  was  a  tendency  to  restrict  the  num- 
ber and  to  have  them  generally  take  place  on  Saturday  night.  La 
1913,  after  the  first  enthusiasm  of  the  new  converts  had  died  out,  the 
authpr  was  informed  that  the  meetings  were  rarely  held  more  than 
once  a  week.  Around  Christmas  and  beginning  with  July  a  series  of 
meetings  was  held,  lasting  from  a  week  to  10  days,  as  a  rule.  The 
Christmas  meetings  were  not  prominent  hi  1910,  but  the  July  ones 
seem  to  have  been  held  from  the  beginning.  They  represent,  of 
course,  merely  a  substitution  for  the  older  pagan  ceremonies  and 
games  that  were  held  about  that  time. 

In  the  early  days  the  ceremony  was  opened  by  a  prayer  from  the 
founder,  and  this  was  followed  by  an  introductory  speech.  There- 
upon the  leader  sang  a  Peyote  song,  to  the  accompaniment  of  a  drum. 
Then  another  speech  was  delivered,  and  when  it  was  finished  the 
drum  and  other  regalia  were  passed  to  the  man  to  the  right.  This 
man,  in  turn,  delivered  a  speech  and  sang  a  song,  and  when  he  was 
finished,  passed  the  regalia  to  the  third  man,  who  subsequently 
passed  it  to  the  fourth  one.  The  fourth  man,  when  he  was  finished, 
returned  it  to  the  leader.  In  this  way  the  regalia  passed  from  one 
person  to  another  throughout  the  night.  It  not  infrequen  tly  happens 
that  one  of  these  four  gets  tired  and  gives  up  his  place  temporarily  to 
some  other  member  of  the  cult.  At  intervals  they  stopped  to  eat 
or  drink  peyote.  At  about  midnight  the  peyote,  as  a  rule,  begins  to 
affect  some  people.  These  generally  arise  and  deliver  self-accusatory 
speeches,  and  make  more  or  less  formal  confessions,  after  which  they 
go  around  shaking  hands  with  everyone  and  asking  forgiveness. 
388 


BUREAU    OF   AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY       THIRTY-SEVENTH     ANNUAL    REPORT      PLATE    54 


a.    PEYOTE     LEADERS 


b.   BURIAL    HUTS 


H 

a. 
O 


in 
> 
< 

a. 

z 
i 
o 

■D 


UJ 

HI 


DC 

UJ 

> 

_l 
o 


eadin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  389 

In  1910  the  cult  already  had  a  rather  definite  organization.  There 
was,  at  every  performance,  one  leader  (pi.  54,  a)  and  four  principal 
participants.  John  Rave  (pis.  5,  b;  55,  b),  the  Winnebago  who  intro- 
duced the  peyote,  was  always  the  leader  whenever  he  was  present. 
On  other  occasions  leadership  devolved  upon  some  older  member.  The 
four  other  principal  participants  changed  from  meeting  to  meeting, 
although  there  was  a  tendency  to  ask  certain  individuals  whenever  it 
was  possible.  The  ritualistic  unit,  in  short,  is  a  very  definite  one,  con- 
sisting of  a  number  of  speeches  and  songs  and  in  the  passing  of  the 
regalia  from  one  to  the  other  of  the  four  participants. 

During  the  early  hours  of  the  evening,  before  the  peyote  has  begun 
to  have  any  appreciable  effect,  a  number  of  apparently  intrusive 
features  are  found.  These,  for  the  most  part,  consist  of  speeches  by 
people  in  the  audience  and  the  reading  and  explanation  of  parts  of 
the  Bible.  After  the  peyote  has  begun  to  have  an  appreciable  effect, 
however,  the  ceremony  consists  exclusively  of  a  repetition  of  the 
ritualistic  unit  and  confessions. 

There  is  an  initiation  consisting  of  a  baptism,  always  performed 
by  John  Rave.  It  is  of  a  very  simple  nature.  Rave  dips  his  fingers 
in  a  peyote  infusion  and  then  passes  them  over  the  forehead  of  the 
new  member,  muttering  at  the  same  time  the  following  prayer: 

"God,  his  holiness." 

This  is  what  the  Whmebago  words  mean,  although  some  of  the 
younger  members  who  have  been  strongly  permeated  with  Christian 
teachings  translate  the  praver  into,  "God,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy 
Ghost." 

Whenever  the  ceremony  is  performed  hi  the  open  a  fireplace  in 
the  shape  of  a  horseshoe  is  made.  At  one  end  of  this  fireplace  is 
placed  a  very  small  mound  of  earth,  called  by  Rave  "Mount  Sinai," 
and  in  front  of  this  a  cross  is  traced  hi  the  earth.  Upon  the  small 
earth  mound  are  placed  the  two  "chief"  peyote,  the  Bible  and  the 
staff.  The  latter,  called  by  Rave  the  shepherd's  crook,  is  always 
covered  with  beadwork,  and  generally  has  a  number  of  evenly  cut 
tufts  of  deer  hair  on  the  end  and  at  intervals  along  its  length.  The 
sacred  peyote,  known  as  huylca  (i.  e.,  "chief")  are  exceptionally 
large  and  beautiful  specimens.  They  are  regarded  by  a  number  of 
people,  certainly  by  Rave,  with  undisguised  veneration. 

In  addition  to  the  above,  there  is  found  a  large  eagle  feather  fan, 
a  small  drum,  and  a  peculiar  small  type  of  rattle.  To  my  knowledge, 
this  type  was  unknown  among  the  Winnebago  before  its  introduction 
by  the  peyote  eaters. 

John  Rave's  Account  of  the  Peyote  Cult  and  of  His  Conversion 

During  1S93-94  I  was  in  Oklahoma  with  peyote  eaters. 
In  the  middle  of  the  night  we  were  to  eat  peyote.     We  ate  it  and 
I  also  did.     It  was  the  middle  of  the  night  when  I  got  frightened,  for 


390  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.3T 

a  live  thing  seemed  to  have  entered  me.  "  Why  did  I  do  it  ?"  I  thought 
to  myself.  I  should  not  have  done  it,  for  right  at  the  beginning  I 
have  harmed  myself.  Indeed,  I  should  not  have  done  it.  I  am  sure 
it  will  injure  me.  The  best  thing  will  be  for  me  to  vomit  it  up.  Well, 
now,  I  will  try  it.  After  a  few  attempts  I  gave  up.  I  thought  to 
myself,  "Well,  now  you  have  done  it.  You  have  been  going  around 
trying  everything  and  now  you  have  done  something  that  has 
harmed  you.  What  is  it  ?  It  seems  to  be  alive  and  moving  around 
in  my  stomach.  If  only  some  of  my  own  people  were  here!  That 
would  have  been  better.  Now  no  one  will  know  what  has  happened 
to  me.     I  have  killed  myself." 

Just  then  the  object  was  about  to  come  out.  It  seemed  almost  out 
and  I  put  out  my  hand  to  feel  it,  but  then  it  went  back  again.  "O,  my, 
I  should  never  have  done  it  from  the  beginning.  Never  again  will  I 
do  it.     I  am  surely  going  to  die." 

As  we  continued  it  became  day  and  we  laughed.  Before  that  I 
had  been  unable  to  laugh. 

The  following  night  we  were  to  eat  peyote  again.  I  thought  to 
myself,  "Last  night  it  almost  harmed  me."  "Well,  let  us  do  it 
again,"  they  said.  "All  right,  I'll  do  it."  So  there  we  ate  seven 
peyote  apiece. 

Suddenly  I  saw  a  big  snake.  I  was  very  much  frightened.  Then 
another  one  came  crawling  over  me.  "My  God!  where  are  these 
coming  from?"  There  at  my  back  there  seemed  to  be  something. 
So  I  looked  around  and  I  saw  a  snake  about  to  swallow  me  entirely. 
It  had  legs  and  arms  and  a  long  tail.  The  end  of  this  tail  was  like 
a  spear.  "O,  my  God!  I  am  surely  going  to  die  now,"  I  thought. 
Then  I  looked  again  in  another  direction  and  I  saw  a  man  with  horns 
and  long  claws  and  with  a  spear  in  his  hand.  He  jumped  for  me  and  I 
threw  myself  on  the  ground.  He  missed  me.  Then  I  looked  back 
and  this  time  he  started  back,  but  it  seemed  to  me  that  he  was  direct- 
ing his  spear  at  me.  Again  I  threw  myself  on  the  ground  and  he 
missed  me.  There  seemed  to  be  no  possible  escape  for  me.  Then 
suddenly  it  occurred  to  me,  "Perhaps  it  is  this  peyote  that  is  doing 
this  thing  to  me  ? "  "Help  me,  O  medicine,  help  me!  It  is  you  who 
are  doing  this  and  you  are  holy!  It  is  not  these  frightful  visions  that 
are  causing  this.  I  should  have  known  that  you  were  doing  it. 
Help  me!"  Then  my  suffering  stopped.  "As  long  as  the  earth 
6hall  last,  that  long  will  I  make  use  of  you,  O  medicine!" 

This  had  lasted  a  night  and  a  day.  For  a  whole  night  I  had  not 
slept  at  all. 

Then  we  breakfasted.  Then  1  said,  when  we  were  through,  "Let 
us  eat  peyote  again  to-night."     That  evening  I  ate  eight  pevote. 

In  the  middle  of  the  night  I  saw  God.  To  God  living  up  above, 
our  Father,  I  prayed.     "  Have  mercy  upon  me!     Give  me  knowledge 


badin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  391 

that  I  maj  not  say  and  do  evil  things.  To  you,  O  God,  I  am  trying  to 
pray.  Do  thou,  O  Son  of  God,  help  me,  too.  This  religion,  let  me 
know.  Help  me,  O  medicine,  grandfather,  help  me!  Let  me  know 
this  religion !"  Thus  I  spoke  and  sat  very  quiet.  And  then  I  heheld 
the  morning  star  and  it  was  good  to  look  upon.  The  light  was  good 
to  look  upon.  I  had  heen  frightened  during  the  night  but  now  I  was 
happy.  Now  as  the  light  appeared,  it  seemed  to  me  that  nothing 
would  be  invisible  to  me.  I  seemed  to  see  even-thing  clearly.  Then 
I  thought  of  my  home  and  as  I  looked  around,  there  I  saw  the  house 
in  which  I  lived  far  away  among  the  Winnebago,  quite  close  to  me. 
There  at  the  window  I  saw  my  children  playing.  Then  I  saw  a  man 
going  to  my  house  carrying  a  jug  of  whisky.  Then  he  gave  them 
something  to  drink  and  the  one  that  had  brought  the  whisky  got 
drunk  and  bothered  my  people.  Finally  he  ran  away.  "So,  that  is 
what  they  are  doing,"  I  thought  to  myself.  Then  I  beheld  my  wife 
come  and  stand  outside  of  the  door,  wearing  a  red  blanket.  She  was 
thinking  of  going  to  the  flagpole  and  was  wondering  which  road  she 
should  take.  "  If  I  take  this  road  I  am  likely  to  meet  some  people, 
but  if  I  take  the  other  road,  I  am  not  likely  to  meet  anyone." 

Indeed,  it  is  good.  They  are  all  well — my  brother,  my  sister,  my 
father,  my  mother.  I  felt  very  good  indeed.  O  medicine,  grand- 
father, most  assuredly  you  are  holy !  All  that  is  connected  with  you, 
that  I  would  like  to  know  and  that  I  would  like  to  understand. 
Help  me!     I  give  myself  up  to  you  entirely! 

For  three  days  and  three  nights  I  had  been  eating  medicine,  and 
for  three  days  and  three  nights  I  had  not  slept.  Throughout  all  the 
years  that  I  had  lived  on  earth,  I  now  realized  that  I  had  never  known 
anything  holy.  Now,  for  the  first  time,  I  knew  it.  Would  that  some 
of  the  Win  neb  ago  es  might  also  know  it! 

Many  years  ago  I  had  been  sick  and  it  looked  as  if  this  illness 
were  going  to  kill  me.  I  tried  all  the  Indian  doctors  and  then  I 
tried  all  of  the  white  man's  medicines,  but  they  were  of  no  avail. 
"I  am  doomed.  I  wonder  whether  I  will  be  alive  next  year."  Such 
were  the  thoughts  that  came  to  me.  As  soon  as  I  ate  the  peyote, 
however,  I  got  over  my  sickness.  After  that  I  was  not  sick  again. 
My  wife  had  suffered  from  the  same  disease,  and  I  told  her  that  if 
she  ate  this  medicine  it  would  surely  cure  her.  But  she  was  afraid, 
although  she  had  never  seen  it  before.  She  knew  that  I  used  it, 
but  nevertheless  she  was  afraid  of  it.  Her  sickness  was  getting 
worse  and  worse  and  one  day  I  said  to  her,  ''You  are  sick.  It  is 
going  to  be  very  difficult,  but  try  this  medicine  anyhow.  It  will 
ease  you."  Finally  she  ate  it.  I  had  told  her  to  eat  it  and  then  to 
wash  herself  and  comb  her  hair  and  she  would  get  well,  and  now 
she  is  well.  Then  I  painted  her  face  and  took  my  gourd  and  began 
singing  very  much.     Then  I  stopped.     "Indeed,   you  are  right," 


392  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

she  said,  "for  now  I  am  well."  From  that  day  on  to  the  present 
time  she  has  been  well.     Now  she  is  very  happy. 

Black  Water-spirit  at  about  that  time  was  having  a  hemorrhage 
and  I  wanted  him  to  eat  the  peyote.  "Well,  I  am  not  going  to 
live  anyhow,"  he  said.  "Well,  eat  this  medicine  soon  then  and 
you  will  get  cured."  Consumptives  never  were  cured  before  this 
and  now  for  the  first  time  one  was  cured.  Black  Water-spirit  is 
living  to-day  and  is  very  well. 

There  was  a  man  named  Walking-Priest  and  he  was  very  fond  of 
whisky;  he  chewed  and  he  smoked  and  he  gambled.  He  was  very 
fond  of  women.  He  did  everything  that  was  bad.  Then  I  gave 
him  some  of  the  peyote  and  he  ate  it  and  he  gave  up  all  the  bad 
things  he  was  doing.  He  had  had  a  very  dangerous  disease  and 
had  even  had  murder  in  his  heart.  But  to-day  he  is  living  a  good 
life.     That  is  his  desire. 

Whoever  has  any  bad  thoughts,  if  he  will  eat  this  peyote  he  will 
abandon  all  Ms  bad  habits.     It  is  a  cure  for  everything  bad. 

To-day  the  Indians  say  that  only  God  is  holy.  One  of  the  Winne- 
bagoes  has  told  me,  "Really,  the  life  that  I  led  was  a  very  bad  one. 
Never  again  will  I  do  it.  This  medicine  is  good  and  I  will  always 
use  it."  John  Harrison  and  Squeaking- Wings  were  prominent 
members  of  the  medicine  dance;  they  thought  much  of  themselves 
as  did  all  the  members  of  the  medicine  dance.  They  knew  every- 
thing connected  with  this  medicine  dance.  Both  of  them  were 
gamblers  and  were  rich  because  they  had  won  very  much  in  gambling. 
Their  parents  had  acquired  great  possessions  by  giving  medicines 
to  the  people.  They  were  rich  and  they  believed  that  they  had  a 
right  to  be  selfish  with  their  possessions.  Then  they  ate  peyote 
and  ever  since  that  time  they  have  been  followers  of  this  medicine. 
They  were  really  very  ill  and  now  they  have  been  cured  of  it.  Now 
if  there  are  any  men  that  might  be  taken  as  examples  of  the  peyote, 
it  is  these  three.  Even  if  a  man  were  blind  and  only  heard  about 
them  he  would  realize  that  if  any  medicine  were  good,  it  is  this 
medicine.  It  is  a  cure  for  all  evil.  Before,  I  had  thought  that  I 
knew  something  but  I  really  knew  nothing.  It  is  only  now  that  I 
have  real  knowledge.  In  my  former  life  I  was  like  one  blind  and 
deaf.  My  heart  ached  when  I  thought  of  what  I  had  been  doing. 
Never  again  will  I  do  it.  This  medicine  alone  is  holy  and  has  made 
me  good  and  has  rid  me  of  all  evil.  The  one  whom  they  call  God 
has  given  me  this.  That  I  know  positively.  Let  them  all  come 
here;  men  and  women;  let  them  bring  with  them  all  that  they 
desire;  let  them  bring  with  them  their  diseases.  If  they  come  here 
they  will  get  well.  This  is  all  true;  it  is  all  true.  •Bring. whatever 
desires  you  possess  along  with  you  and  then  come  and  eat  or  drink 
this  medicine.     This  is  life,   the  only  life.     Then  you  will  learn 


badin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  393 

something  about  yourself,  so  come.  Even  if  you  are  not  told  any- 
thing about  yourself,  nevertheless  you  will  learn  something  of  your- 
self. Come  with  your  disease,  for  this  medicine  will  cure  it.  What- 
ever you  have,  come  and  eat  this  medicine  and  you  will  have  true 
knowledge  once  and  for  all.  Learn  of  this  medicine  yourself  through 
actual  experience. 

If  you  just  hear  about  it  you  are  not  likely  to  try  it.  If  you 
desire  real  knowledge  about  it  try  it  yourself,  for  then  you  will  learn 
of  things  that  you  had  never  known  before.  In  no  other  way  will 
you  ever  be  happy.  I  know  that  all  sorts  of  excuses  will  run  through 
your  mind  for  not  partaking  of  it,  but  if  you  wish  to  learn  of  some- 
thing good,  try  this.  Perhaps  you  will  think  to  yourself  that  it 
will  be  too  difficult  and  this  wdl  seem  an  excuse  to  you  for  not  trying 
it.  But  why  should  you  act  thus?  If  you  partake  of  it,  even  if 
you  feel  some  uncertainty  about  its  accomplishing  all  the  good  that 
has  been  said  of  it,  I  know  that  you  will  say  to  yourself,  "Well, 
this  life  is  good  enough."  After  you  have  taken  it  for  the  first 
time,  it  will  seem  as  if  they  are  digging  a  grave  for  you,  that  you 
are  about  to  die;  and  you  will  not  want  to  take  it  again.  "It  is 
bad,"  you  will  think  to  yourself.  You  will  believe  that  you  are 
going  to  die  and  you  will  want  to  know  what  is  going  to  happen  to 
you.  The  coffin  will  be  set  before  you  and  then  you  will  see  your 
body.  If  you  wish  to  inquire  further  about  where  you  are  going 
then  you  will  learn  something  you  have  not  known.  Two  roads 
there  are,  one  leading  to  a  hole  in  the  earth  and  the  other  extending 
up  above.  You  will  learn  something  that  you  had  not  known 
before.  Of  the  two  roads,  one  is  dark  and  the  other  is  light.  You 
must  choose  one  of  these  while  you  are  alive  and  so  must  you  decide 
whether  you  wish  to  continue  in  your  evil  ways  or  whether  you  will 
abandon  them.  These  are  the  two  roads.  The  Peyote  people  see 
them.  They  claim  that  only  if  you  weep  and  repent  will  you  be 
able  to  obtain  knowledge.  Do  not,  as  I  said  before,  listen  to  others 
talking  about  it,  but  try  the  medicine  yourself.  That  is  the  only 
way  to  find  out.  No  other  medicine  can  accomplish  what  this  has 
done.  If,  therefore,  you  make  use  of  it,  you  will  five.  After  they 
have  eaten  peyote  people  throw  aside  all  the  (evd)  ceremonies  that 
they  were  accustomed  to  perform  before.  Only  by  eating  the  peyote 
wdl  you  learn  what  is  truly  holy.  That  is  what  I  am  trying  to 
learn  myself. 

It  is  now  23  years  since  I  first  ate  pej'ote,  and  I  am  still  doing  it 
(1912).  Before  that  my  heart  was  filled  with  murderous  thoughts. 
I  wanted  to  kill  my  brother  and  my  sister.  It  seemed  to  me  that 
my  heart  would  not  feel  good  until  I  killed  one  of  them.  All  my 
thoughts  were  fixed  on  the  warpath.  This  is  all  I  thought  of.  Now 
186S23°— 22 26 


394  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

I  know  that  it  was  because  the  evil  spirit  possessed  me  that  I  felt  that 
way.  I  was  suffering  from  a  disease.  I  even  desired  to  kill  myself; 
I  did  not  care  to  live.  That  feeling,  too,  was  caused  by  this  evil 
spirit  living  within  me.  Then  I  ate  this  medicine  and  everything 
changed.  The  brother  and  sister  I  wanted  to  kill  before  I  became 
attached  to  and  I  wanted  them  to  live.  The  medicine  had  accom- 
plished this. 

O.  L.'s  Description  of  the  Peyote  Cult 

(PI.  55,  a) 

John  Have  belongs  to  the  Bear  clan,  the  members  of  which  had 
the  functions  of  what  might  be  called  sergeants-at-anns.  He  and 
his  ancestors  used  to  be  in  charge  of  the  manupetci  (i.  e.,  the  ser- 
geants-at-arms  lodge),  to  which  all  malefactors  would  be  brought  for 
punishment. 

Rave,  although  he  belonged  to  this  highly  respected  class  of  people, 
was  a  bad  man.  He  roamed  from  place  to  place.  He  has  participated 
in  all  the  ceremonies  of  the  Winnebago,  the  medicine  dance  alone 
excepted.  He  had  been  married  many  times.  Up  to  1901  he  was 
a  heavy  drinker.  In  that  year  he  went  to  Oklahoma  and  while 
there  ate  the  peyote.  He  then  returned  to  the  Winnebago  and  tried 
to  introduce  it  among  them,  but  none  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
relatives  would  have  anything  to  do  with  it.  This  did  not  in  any 
way  discourage  him,  however,  and  he  continued  using  the  peyote, 
now  and  then  getting  a  few  converts. 

There  was  not  very  much  religion  connected  with  it  in  the  beginning 
and  the  reason  people  drank  it  was  on  account  of  the  peculiar  effects 
it  had  upon  them.  Nevertheless  these  Peyote  people  preached  good 
things  and  gradually  lost  all  desire  for  intoxicating  drinks  or  for 
participating  in  the  old  Winnebago  ceremonies.  Then  Eave  began 
to  do  away  with  the  old  Indian  customs.  About  four  or  five  years 
ago  the  membership  in  the  Peyote  religion  began  to  increase,  for 
many  people  now  noticed  that  those  connected  with  the  Peyote  cult 
were  the  only  people  in  the  tribe  leading  a  Christian  life. 

At  this  time  the  Bible  was  introduced  by  a  young  man  named 
Albert  Hensley  (pis.  8,  d;  9,  d).  He,  too,  had  been  a  bad  person, 
although  he  had  been  educated  at  Carlisle.  Like  Rave,  he  was  a 
heavy  drinker  and  fond  of  wandering. 

During  the  last  few  years  our  members  have  increased  so  fast  that 
now  almost  half  the  tribe  belong  to  our  religion.  We  all  make 
efforts  to  lead  a  Christian  life  and  we  are  succeeding  very  well. 

We  use  the  New  Testament,  especially  the  Revelations. 

Our  meetings  take  place  at  any  time.  We  gather  together  in  the 
evening,  and  as  soon  as  everything  is  in  readiness  the  leader  arises 
and  offers  a  prayer  called,  "Turning  themselves  over  to  the  care  of 


badin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  395 

the  Trinity."  Then  all  sit  clown  and  the  leader  makes  the  regular 
announcements.  The  peyote  is  then  passed  around,  either  in  the  dry 
condition  or  steeped.  The  leader  thereupon  starts  the  singing. 
These  are  some  of  the  songs : 

1.  Ask  God  for  life  and  he  will  give  it  to  us. 

2.  God  created  us  so  pray  to  him. 

3.  To  the  home  of  Jesus  we  are  going,  so  pray  to  him. 

4.  Come  ye  to  the  road  of  the  Son  of  God;  come  ye  to  the  road. 

Then  Albert  Hensley  calls  upon  12  educated  members  to  translate 
and  interpret  certain  portions  of  the  Bible  for  the  nonreading  mem- 
bers. He  arranges  with  the  leader  to  have  the  singing  stop  at  cer- 
tain places  so  that  some  of  these  young  men  can  speak.  When  these 
are  finished,  other  individuals  are  called  upon  to  give  testimony. 
Hensley  always  talks  and  so  does  Rave. 

John  Rave  baptizes  by  dipping  his  hand  in  a  diluted  infusion  of 
peyote  and  rubbing  it  across  the  forehead  of  a  new  member,  saying, 
"I  baptize  thee  in  the  name  of  God,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost, 
which  is  called  God's  Holiness." 

The  peyote  eaters  wanted  to  get  baptized  and  unite  with  the 
church  in  Winnebago,  but  the  clergyman  in  charge  would  not  permit 
them,  so  they  went  and  did  their  own  baptizing  through  their  leader, 
John  Rave,  who,  though  he  is  not  educated,  is  full  of  real  intelligence 
and  religion. 

If  a  person  who  is  truly  repentant  eats  peyote  for  the  first  time, 
he  does  not  suffer  at  all  from  its  effects.  But  if  an  individual  is 
bullheaded,  does  not  believe  in  its  virtue,  he  is  likely  to  suffer  a  good 
deal.  This  I  know  from  my  own  experience.  After  eating  peyote  I 
grasped  the  meaning  of  the  Bible,  which  before  had  been  meaningless 
to  me. 

If  a  person  eats  peyote  and  does  not  repent  openly,  he  has  a  guilty 
conscience,  which  leaves  him  as  soon  as  the  public  repentance  has 
been  made. 

Old  men  and  women  who  had  been  brought  up  to  worship  animals 
and  all  kinds  of  spirits  have  cast  them  all  away  and  in  many  instances 
burned  their  idols,  not  because  they  were  told  to  do  so  but  because 
they  felt  that  way. 

Whenever  at  our  meetings  a  person  wishes  to  pray,  he  does  so; 
when  he  wishes  to  cry,  he  does  so.  Indeed,  we  show  no  timidity 
about  worshiping  God  in  the  right  way.  In  the  Bible  one  often  reads 
of  Christ  casting  out  the  devils  and  of  the  people  shouting,  etc.  So 
does  the  peyote  act  on  us  in  the  beginning,  although  afterwards  its 
effects  abate. 

If  a  peyote  eater  relapses  into  his  old  way  of  living,  then  the 
peyote  causes  him  great  suffering. 

At  first  our  meetings  were  started  without  any  rule  laid  down  by 
the  Bible,  but  afterwards  we  found  a  very  good  reason  for  holding 


396  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

our  meetings  at  night.  We  searched  the  Bible  and  asked  many 
ministers  for  any  evidence  for  Christ's  ever  having  held  any  meetings 
in  the  daytime,  but  we  could  find  nothing  to  that  effect.  We  did, 
however,  find  evidence  that  he  had  been  out  all  night  in  prayer.  As 
it  is  our  desire  to  follow  as  closely  as  we  can  in  the  footsteps  of  Christ, 
we  hold  our  meetings  at  night.  Then,  too,  when  we  pray  we  wish 
to  get  as  far  away  as  possible  from  earthly  things,  and  the  night  is 
the  best  time,  for  then  we  are  not  likely  to  be  bothered  by  anything. 

We  have  made  earnest  efforts  to  become  Christians  since  we  began 
drinking  and  eating  this  peyote,  but  many  people  say  sarcastically 
that  we  have  drunk  ourselves  into  Christianity,  and  that  we  are 
demented.  I  am  a  peyote  eater,  but  I  have  never  found  a  demented 
person  among  them.  We  claim  that  there  is  virtue  in  the  peyote. 
To  you  who  do  not  believe  and  desire  to  find  out  let  me  quote  the 
fourth  chapter  of  the  First  Epistle  of  St.  John: 

"Beloved,  believe  not  every  spirit,  but  try  the  spirits  whether  they 
are  of  God;  because  many  false  prophets  are  gone  out  into  the  world. 

"Hereby  know  ye  the  spirit  of  God.  Every  spirit  that  confesseth 
that  Jesus  Christ  is  come  in  the  flesh  is  of  God." 

We  claim  that  you  can  not  find  out  anything  by  standing  off  at  a 
distance  and  only  talking  about  it.  We  claim  that  some  earthly 
things  can  have  the  virtue  of  God,  for  instance,  the  Bible,  which  is 
entirely  made  up  of  earthly  material — the  ink,  the  paper,  the  cover — 
yet  it  has  survived  the  ages. 

J.  B.'s  Account  of  the  Leader  of  the  Peyote  ' 

(PI.  3) 

Among  the  Winnebago  there  is  a  man  named  Little-Red-Bird, 
and  when  he  reached  middle  age  he  began  to  travel  around  the  world 
and  learn  different  Indian  languages.  He  used  to  travel  inland  a 
good  deal.  Once  he  joined  a  circus  and  crossed  the  ocean.  He  felt 
so  ill  while  crossing  that  he  wanted  to  die.  Suddenly  a  wind  came 
up  and  he  got  very  frightened.  He  did  not  know  what  to  do.  Then 
he  prayed  to  Earthmaker.  When  he  came  to  the  other  side  of  the 
ocean  there  he  saw  a  big  island  and  a  big  city  (London),  and  in  this 
last  place  they  held  their  circus.  The  chief  of  that  country  (the  king) 
he  met  there. 

When  he  came  back  to  his  own  people  he  told  them  that  on  the 
other  side  of  the  ocean  the  Thunderbirds  did  not  thunder.  All  they 
did  was  to  drizzle.  There  was  no  lightning  either.  As  he  crossed 
the  ocean  on  his  return  it  thundered  and  lightened. 

When  he  came  home  he  was  very  glad  to  see  his  relatives  and  he 
offered  tobacco  in  thanksgiving. 

1  Tho  narrator  was  a  very  lukewarm  follower. 


eadin]  THE   PEYOTECULT  397 

Shortly  after  this  he  traveled  again  and  came  to  a  band  of  Indians 
who  were  eating  peyote.  It  was  his  custom  to  try  everything  when 
he  went  visiting.  He  did  not  realize  what  he  was  doing  when  he 
ate  this  medicine,  but  he  did  it  anyhow.  After  a  while  he  began  to 
think  of  his  manner  of  life,  and  he  felt  that  he  was  doing  wrong.  All 
the  evil  he  had  done  he  remembered.  Then  he  prayed  to  God. 
Suddenly  it  occurred  to  him,  "Perhaps  I  am  the  only  one  doing  this." 
Then  he  looked  around  and  watched  the  others,  and  he  saw  them 
praying  in  the  same  manner. 

Not  long  after  that  he  came  home,  taking  with  him  some  of  this 
medicine.  He  knew  it  was  holy.  At  home  lie  offered  tobacco  to  it 
and  kept  on  eating  it.  Soon  it  cured  him  of  a  disease  he  had.  He 
tried  to  induce  some  of  the  others  to  try  it,  but  they  refused.  After 
a  while  a  few  tried  it,  and  the  peyote  movement  began  to  spread. 
All  the  old  customs  that  they  had  been  accustomed  to  observe  they 
abandoned.  They  gave  up  the  medicine  dance  and  the  ceremonies 
connected  with  the  clans.  For  that  reason,  therefore,  the  con- 
servative people  hated  them;  their  own  brothers  and  sisters  hated 
them,  for  they  had  abandoned  what  were  considered  holy  ceremonies. 

Albert  Henslet's  Account  of  the  Peyote2 

(Pis.  8,  d;  9,  d) 

I  am  37  years  old.  It  was  37  years  ago  that  my  mother  gave  birth 
to  me  in  an  old-fashioned  reed  lodge.  When  I  was  a  year  old  she 
died  and  my  grandmother  took  care  of  me.  I  had  come  into  the 
world  a  healthy  child,  but  bad  luck  was  apparently  to  pursue  me, 
for  when  I  was  7  years  old  my  grandmother  died.  Then  my  father 
took  care  of  me.  At  that  time  he  began  to  be  a  bad  man;  he  was  a 
drunkard  and  a  horse  tluef.  He  would  frequently  get  into  trouble 
and  run  away,  always  taking  me  along  with  him,  however.  On  one 
occasion  we  fled  to  Wisconsin,  and  there  we  stayed  two  years.  We 
got  along  pretty  well,  and  there  my  father  married  again.  By  his 
second  wife  he  had  three  children. 

After  a  while  he  got  into  trouble  again,  and  misfortune  followed 
misfortune.  People  were  killing  each  other,  and  I  was  left  alone. 
If  at  any  time  of  my  life  I  was  in  trouble  it  was  then.  I  was  never 
happy.  Once  I  did  not  have  anything  to  eat  for  four  days.  We 
had  fled  to  the  wilderness,  and  it  was  raining  continually.  The 
country  was  flooded  with  high  water,  and  we  sat  on  the  top  of  a 
tree.  It  was  impossible  to  sleep,  for  if  we  went  to  sleep  we  would 
fall  off  into  the  water,  which  was  very  deep.  The  shore  was  quite 
far  away.     As  we  were  prominent  people,  we  soon  heard  that  my 

«  This  account  is  of  great  importance,  because  Hensley  introduced  a  large  number  of  Christian  elements 
into  the  ceremony,  the  principal  one  being  the  Bible. 


398  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

father  had  been  freed.  We  were  very  happy,  and  went  back  to  our 
people. 

At  that  time  a  young  man  named  Young-Bear  was  starting  for 
Nebraska,  and  he  said  that  he  would  take  me  along.  I  was  very 
happy.  So  hi  that  manner  I  was  brought  to  this  country.  Here 
I  have  had  only  happy  days.  When  my  father  got  married  everyone 
disliked  me.  When  I  worked  I  was  working  for  my  father,  and  all 
the  money  I  earned  I  had  to  give  to  him. 

After  a  while  I  went  to  school,  and  although  I  liked  it  I  ran  away 
and  then  went  to  school  at  Carlisle.  I  wanted  to  lead  a  good  life. 
At  school  T  knew  that  they  would  take  care  of  me  and  love  me.  I 
was  very  shy  and  lacked  a  strong  character  at  that  time.  If  a  person 
told  me  to  do  anything  I  would  always  obey  immediately.  Every- 
body loved  me.  T  stayed  there  six  months.  I  was  also  taught 
Christianity  there.  When  I  came  back  to  my  country  the  Episcopa- 
lian people  told  me  that  they  wanted  me  to  be  diligent  in  religious 
matters  and  never  to  forsake  the  religion  of  the  Son  of  God.  I  also 
desired  to  do  that.  I  entered  the  church  that  we  had  in  our  country 
and  I  stayed  with  them  six  years. 

At  that  time  the  Winnebago  with  whom  I  associated  were  heavy 
drinkers,  and  after  a  while  they  induced  me  to  drink  also.  I  became 
as  wicked  as  they.  I  learned  how  to  gamble  and  I  worked  for  the 
devil  all  the  time.     I  even  taught  the  Winnebago  how  to  be  bad. 

After  a  while  they  began  eating  peyote,  and  as  T  was  in  the  habit 
of  doing  everything  I  saw,  I  thought  I  would  do  it,  too.  I  asked 
them  whether  I  could  join,  and  they  permitted  me.  At  that  time  I 
had  a  position  at  the  comity  commissioner's  office.  I  ate  the  peyote 
and  liked  it  very  much.  Then  the  authorities  tried  to  stop  the  Indians 
from  eating  peyote,  and  I  was  supposed  to  see  that  the  law  was 
enforced.  I  continued  eating  peyote  and  enjoying  it.  All  the  evil 
that  was  hi  me  I  forgot.  From  that  time  to  the  present  my  actions 
have  been  quite  different  from  what  they  used  to  be.  I  am  only 
working  for  what  is  good;  not  that  I  mean  to  say  that  I  am  good. 

After  that  I  married  and  now  I  have  three  children,  and  it  would 
not  have  been  right  for  me  to  continue  in  my  wickedness.  I  resolved 
that  thereafter  I  would  behave  as  a  grown-up  man  ought  to  behave. 
I  resolved  never  to  be  idle  again  and  to  work  so  that  I  could  supply 
my  wife  and  children  with  food  and  necessities,  that  I  would  be  ready 
to  help  them  whenever  they  were  in  need.  Here  in  my  own  country 
would  I  remain  till  I  died.  This  (peyote)  religion  was  good.  All 
the  evil  is  gone  and  hereafter  I  will  choose  my  path  carefully. 

I  know  the  story  about  the  origin  of  the  peyote.     It  is  as  follows : 

Once  in  the  south,  an  Indian  belonging  to  the  tribe  called  Mes- 
callero  Apache  was  roaming  in  the  country  called  Mexico,  and  went 
hunting  in  the  high  hills  and  got  lost.     For  three  days  he  went  with- 


eadin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  399 

out  water  and  without  food.  He  was  about  to  die  of  thirst  but  he 
continued  until  he  reached  the  foot  of  a  certain  hill,  on  top  of  which 
he  could  find  shade  under  a  tree  that  was  growing  there.  There  he 
desired  to  die.  It  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  he  reached 
the  place  and  when  he  got  there,  he  fell  over  on  his  back  and  lay 
thus,  with  his  body  stretched  toward  the  south,  his  head  pillowed 
against  something.  He  extended  his  right  arm  to  the  west  and  his 
left  arm  to  the  east,  and  as  he  did  this,  he  felt  something  cool  touch 
his  hands.  "What  is  it?"  he  thought  to  himself.  So  he  took  the 
one  that  was  close  to  his  right  hand  and  brought  it  to  his  mouth  and 
ate  it.  There  was  water  in  it,  although  it  also  contained  food.  Then 
he  took  the  one  close  to  his  left  hand  and  brought  it  to  his  mouth 
and  ate  it.  Then  as  he  lay  on  the  ground  a  holy  spirit  entered  him 
and  taking  the  spirit  of  the  Indian  carried  it  away  to  the  regions 
above.  There  he  saw  a  man  who  spoke  to  him.  "I  have  caused 
you  to  go  through  all  this  suffering,  for  had  I  not  done  it,  you  would 
never  have  heard  of  the  proper  (religion).  It  was  for  that  reason 
that  I  placed  holiness  in  what  you  have  eaten.  My  Father  gave  it 
to  me  and  I  was  permitted  to  place  it  on  the  earth.  I  was  also  per- 
mitted to  take  it  back  again  and  give  it  to  some  other  Indians. 

"At  present  this  religion  exists  in  the  south  but  now  I  wish  to  have 
it  extended  to  the  north.  You  Indians  are  now  fighting  one  another, 
and  it  is  for  the  purpose  of  stopping  this,  that  you  might  shake  hands 
and  partake  of  food  together,  that  I  am  giving  you  this  peyote. 
Now  you  should  love  one  another.  Earthmaker  is  my  father.  Long 
ago  I  sent  this  gospel  across  the  ocean  but  you  did  not  know  of  it. 
Now  I  am  going  to  teach  you  to  understand  it."  Then  he  led  him 
into  a  lodge  where  they  were  eating  peyote.  There  he  taught  him 
the  songs  and  all  that  belonged  to  this  ceremony.  Then  he  said  to 
him,  "Now  go  to  your  people  and  teach  them  all  that  I  have  told 
you.  Go  to  your  people  in  the  north  and  teach  them.  I  have  placed 
my  holiness  in  this  that  you  eat.  What  my  father  gave  me,  that  I 
have  placed  therein." 

Then  he  told  him  to  go  home.  He  thought  he  had  been  dead, 
but  it  was  really  his  spirit  that  had  left  him.  After  a  while  the  man 
got  well  again. 

There  were  many  peyote  near  the  place  where  he  was  lying  and 
these  he  picked  before  he  started.  Then  he  went  back  to  his  lodge. 
He  thought  he  had  been  lost,  but  it  seemed  hardly  possible  to  him 
that  this  was  the  case.  His  being  lost  in  the  hills  seemed  to  symbolize 
to  him  the  condition  of  the  people  before  they  had  eaten  the  peyote; 
they  would  be  lost  and  then  find  their  way  again. 

On  his  return  he  built  a  peyote  lodge  and  for  four  nights  he  taught 
the  people  how  to  eat  peyote.  He  did  not,  however,  teach  it  as  he 
was  told,  nor  did  he  teach  it  thoroughly.     These  to  whom  he  taught 


400  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

it  used  it  for  a  purpose  different  from  what  it  was  intended.3  They 
used  it  for  war  and  for  horse  stealing.  They,  however,  continued 
to  eat  the  peyote,  but  they  really  ate  too  much  of  it.  After  a  while 
the  leader  began  thinking  that  the  medicine  might  harm  them,  so 
he  told  them  to  hide  it.  The  man  did  not  know  that  even  at  that 
time  a  big  war  party  was  coming  upon  them.  This  tribe  was  almost 
destroyed. 

They  lost  the  peyote.  One  day,  however,  it  was  taught  to  a  Co- 
manche. He  ate  it  and  prayed  to  Earthmaker.  Then  it  was  taught 
to  the  Cheyenne  and  to  the  Arapaho  and  to  the  Caddo.  The  Tonkawa, 
the  Apache,  and  the  Mescallero  Apache  were  the  ones  who  had  lost 
the  medicine.  When  these  other  tribes  began  to  eat  this  medicine 
they  heard  about  it  and  they  remembered  that  they  also  had  long 
ago  eaten  it. 

There  was  an  old  man  in  Oklahoma  who  knew#the  mescal  country 
very  well  and  he  went  down  to  old  Mexico  and  stayed  there  for  a 
year.  When  he  returned  he  taught  it  to  the  Oto  and  the  Oto  taught 
it  to  us. 

It  is  a  true  religion.  The  peyote  is  fulfilling  the  work  of  God  and 
the  Son  of  God.  When  the  Son  of  God  came  to  the  earth  he  was 
poor,  yet  people  spoke  of  him;  he  was  abused.  It  is  the  same  now 
with  the  peyote.  The  plant  itself  is  not  much  of  a  growth,  yet  the 
people  are  talking  about  it  a  good  deal;  they  are  abusing  it,  they  are 
trying  to  stop  its  use.  When  the  Son  of  God  came  to  earth  the 
preachers  of  that  time  were  called  Pharisees  and  Scribes.  They 
doubted  what  the  Son  of  God  said  and  claimed  that  he  was  an  ordi- 
nary man.  So  it  is  to-day  with  the  Christian  Church;  they  are  the 
Pharisees  and  Scribes,  they  are  the  doubters.  They  say  that  this 
is  merely  a  plant,  that  it  is  the  work  of  the  devil.  They  are  trying 
to  stop  its  use  and  they  are  calling  it  an  intoxicant,  but  this  is  a 
lie.  If  they  will  but  come  and  see  this  ceremony  they  will  realize 
this. 

J.  B.'s  Peyote  Experiences 

When  my  father  and  mother  asked  me  to  come  to  the  Missouri 
River  (Nebraska)  I  knew  they  had  eaten  peyote  and  I  did  not  like  it. 
I  had  been  told  that  these  peyote  eaters  were  doing  wrong,  and  there- 
fore I  disliked  them ;  I  had  heard  that  they  were  doing  everything  that 
was  wicked.  For  these  reasons  we  did  not  like  them.  About  this 
time  they  sent  me  money  for  my  ticket,  and  since  my  brothers  and 
sisters  told  me  to  go,  I  went.  Just  as  I  was  about  to  start  my  young- 
est sister,  the  one  to  whom  we  always  listened  most  attentively,  said 
to  me,  "Older  brother,  do  not  you  indulge  in  this  medicine  eating 
(peyote)  of  which  so  much  is  said."     I  promised.     Then  I  started  out. 

a  This  is  clearly  Hensley's  interpretation. 


kadin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  401 

As  soon  as  I  arrived  (in  Nebraska)  I  met  some  people  who  had  not 
joined  the  peyote  eaters  and  who  said  to  me,  ''Your  relatives  are 
eating  the  peyote  and  they  sent  for  you  that  you  also  might  eat  it. 
Your  mother,  your  father,  and  your  younger  sister,  they  are  all  eating 
it."  Thus  they  spoke  to  me.  Then  they  told  me  of  some  of  the  bad 
things  it  was  reported  that  these  people  had  done.  I  felt  ashamed 
and  I  wished  I  had  not  come  in  the  first  place.  Then  I  said  that  I 
was  going  to  eat  the  medicine. 

After  that  I  saw  my  father,  mother,  and  sister.  They  were  glad. 
Then  we  all  went  to  where  they  were  staying.  My  father  and  I 
walked  (alone) .  Then  he  told  me  about  the  peyote  eating.  "  It  does 
not  amount  to  anything,  all  this  that  they  are  doing,  although  they 
do  stop  drinking.  It  is  also  said  that  sick  people  get  well.  We  were 
told  about  this  and  so  we  joined,  and,  sure  enough,  we  are  practically 
well,  your  mother  as  well  as  I.  It  is  said  that  they  offer  prayers  to 
Earthmaker  (God),"  he  said.  He  kept  on  talking.  "They  are 
rather  foolish.  They  cry  when  they  feel  very  happy  about  anything. 
They  throw  away  all  of  the  medicines  that  they  possess  and  know. 
They  give  up  all  the  blessings  they  received  while  fasting  and  they 
give  up  all  the  spirits  that  blessed  them  in  their  fasts.  They  also 
stop  smoking  and  chewing  tobacco.  They  stop  giving  feasts,  and 
they  stop  making  offerings  of  tobacco.  Indeed,  they  burn  up  their 
holy  things.  They  burn  up  then-  war  bundles.  They  are  bad  people. 
They  give  up  the  Medicine  Dance.  They  burn  up  their  medicine 
bags  and  even  cut  up  their  otter-skin  bags.  They  say  they  are  pray- 
ing to  Earthmaker  (God)  and  they  do  so  standing  and  crying.  They 
claim  that  they  hold  nothing  holy  except  Earthmaker  (God).  They 
claim  that  all  the  things  that  they  are  stopping  are  those  of  the  bad 
spirit  (the  devil),  and  that  the  bad  spirit  (the  devil)  has  deceived 
them;  that  there  are  no  spirits  who  can  bless;  that  there  is  no  other 
spirit  except  Earthmaker  (God)."  Then  I  said,  "Say,  they  certainly 
speak  foolishly."  I  felt  very  angry  toward  them.  "You  will  hear 
them,  for  they  are  going  to  have  a  meeting  tonight.  Their  songs  are 
very  strange.  They  use  a  very  small  drum,"  said  he.  Then  I  felt  a 
very  strong  desire  to  see  them. 

After  a  while  we  arrived.  At  night  they  had  their  ceremony.  At 
first  I  sat  outside  and  listened  to  them.  I  was  rather  fond  of  them. 
I  stayed  in  that  country  and  the  young  peyote  eaters  were  exceed- 
ingly friendly  to  me.  They  would  give  me  a  little  money  now  and 
then  and  they  treated  me  with  tender  regard.  They  did  everything 
that  they  thought  would  make  me  feel  good,  and  in  consequence  I 
used  to  speak  as  though  I  liked  their  ceremony.  However,  I  was 
only  deceiving  them.  I  only  said  it  because  they  were  so  good  to  me. 
I  thought  they  acted  in  this  way  because  (the  peyote)  was  deceiving 
them. 


402  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Soon  after  that  my  parents  returned  to  Wisconsin,  but  when  they 
left  they  said  they  would  come  back  in  a  little  while.  So  I  was  left 
there  with  my  relatives,  who  were  all  peyote  followers.  For  that 
reason  they  left  me  there.  Whenever  I  went  among  the  nonpeyote 
people  I  used  to  say  all  sorts  of  things  about  the  peyote  people,  and 
when  I  returned  to  the  peyote  people  I  used  to  say  all  sorts  of  things 
about  the  others. 

I  had  a  friend  who  was  a  peyote  man  and  he  said  to  me,  ''My 
friend,  I  wish  very  much  that  you  should  eat  the  peyote."  Thus  he 
spoke  and  I  answered  him,  "My  friend,  I  will  do  it,  but  not  until  I 
get  accustomed  to  the  people  of  this  country.  Then  I  will  do  it. 
The  only  thing  that  worries  me  is  the  fact  that  they  are  making  fun 
of  you.  And  in  addition,  I  am  not  quite  used  to  them."  I  spoke 
dishonestly. 

I  was  staying  at  the  place  where  my  sister  lived.  She  had  gone 
to  Oklahoma;  she  was  a  peyote  follower.  After  a  while  she  returned. 
I  was  then  living  with  a  number  of  women.  This  was  the  second 
time  (there)  and  from  them  I  obtained  some  money.  Once  I  got 
drunk  there  and  was  locked  up  for  six  days.  After  my  sister  returned 
she  and  the  others  paid  more  attention  than  ever  to  me.  Especially 
was  this  true  of  my  brother-in-law.  They  gave  me  horses  and  a 
vehicle.  They  really  treated  me  very  tenderly.  I  knew  that  they 
did  all  this  because  they  wished  me  to  eat  the  peyote.  I,  in  my  turn, 
was  very  kind  to  them.  I  thought  that  I  was  fooling  them  and  they 
thought  that  they  were  converting  me.  I  told  them  that  I  believed 
in  the  peyote  because  they  were  treating  me  so  nicely. 

After  a  while  we  moved  to  a  certain  place  where  they  were  to  have 
a  large  peyote  meeting.  I  knew  they  were  doing  this  in  order  to 
get  me  to  join.  Then  I  said  to  my  younger  sister,  "I  would  be 
quite  wdling  to  eat  this  peyote  (ordinarily) ,  but  I  don't  like  the  woman 
with  whom  I  am  living  just  now  and  I  think  I  will  leave  her.  That 
is  why  I  do  not  want  to  join  now,  for  I  understand  that  when  married 
people  eat  medicine  (peyote)  they  will  always  have  to  stay  together. 
Therefore  I  will  join  when  I  am  married  to  some  woman  permanent- 
ly." Then  my  brother-in-law  came  and  she  told  him  what  I  had 
said,  and  he  said  to  me,  "  You  are  right  in  what  you  say.  The  woman 
with  whom  you  are  staying  is  a  married  woman  and  you  can  not 
continue  living  with  her.  It  is  null  and  void  (this  marriage)  and  we 
know  it.  You  had  better  join  now.  It  will  be  the  same  as  if  you 
were  single.  We  will  pray  for  you  as  though  you  were  single.  After 
you  have  joined  this  ceremony,  then  you  can  marry  any  woman  whom 
you  have  a  right  to  marry  (legally).  So,  do  join  tonight.  It  is  best. 
For  some  time  we  have  been  desirous  of  your  joining  but  we  have 
not  said  anything  to  you.  It  is  Earthmaker's  (God's)  blessing  to 
you  that  you  have  been  thinking  of  this,"  said  he. 


badin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  403 

Therefore  I  sat  inside  the  meeting  place  with  them.  One  man 
acted  as  leader.  We  were  to  do  whatever  he  ordered.  The  regalia 
were  placed  before  him.  I  wanted  to  sit  in  some  place  on  the  side 
because  I  thought  I  might  get  to  crying  like  the  others.  I  felt 
ashamed  of  myself. 

Then  the  leader  arose  and  talked.  He  said  that  this  was  an  affair 
of  Earthmaker's  (God's),  and  that  he  (the  leader)  could  do  nothing 
on  his  own  initiative;  that  Earthmaker  (God)  was  going  to  conduct 
the  ceremony.  Then  he  said  that  the  medicine  (peyote)  was  holy 
and  that  he  would  turn  us  all  over  to  it ;  that  he  had  turned  himself 
over  to  it  and  wished  now  to  turn  all  of  us  over  to  it.  He  said  further, 
"  I  am  a  very  pitiable  (figure)  in  this  ceremony,  so  when  you  pray  to 
Earthmaker,  pray  also  for  me.  Now  let  us  all  rise  and  pray  to  Earth- 
maker  (God)."  We  all  rose.  Then  he  prayed.  He  prayed  for  the 
sick,  and  he  prayed  for  those  who  did  not  yet  know  Earthmaker. 
He  said  that  they  were  to  be  pitied.  When  he  had  finished  we  sat 
down.  Then  the  peyote  was  passed  around.  They  gave  me  five. 
My  brother-in-law  said  to  me,  "If  you  speak  to  this  medicine  (peyote) , 
it  will  give  you  whatever  you  ask  of  it.  Then  you  must  pray  to 
Earthmaker,  and  then  you  must  eat  the  medicine."  Hovewer,  I  ate 
them  (the  peyote)  immediately,  for  I  did  not  know  what  to  ask  for 
and  I  did  not  know  what  to  say  in  a  prayer  to  Earthmaker  (God). 
So  I  ate  the  peyote  just  as  they  were.  They  were  very  bitter  and 
had  a  taste  difficult  to  describe.  I  wondered  what  would  happen  to 
me.  After  a  while  I  was  given  five  more  and  I  also  ate  them.  They 
tasted  rather  bitter.  Now  I  was  very  quiet.  The  peyote  rather 
weakened  me.  Then  I  listened  very  attentively  to  the  singing.  I 
liked  it  very  much.  I  felt  as  though  I  were  partly  asleep.  I  felt 
different  from  (my  normal  self),  but  when  I  (looked  around)  and 
examined  myself,  I  saw  nothing  wrong  about  myself.  However,  I 
felt  different  from  (my  normal  self).  Before  this  I  used  to  dislike 
the  songs.  Now  I  liked  the  leader's  singing  very  much.  I  liked  to 
listen  to  him. 

They  were  all  sitting  very  quietly.  They  were  doing  nothing  ex- 
cept singing.  Each  man  sang  four  songs  and  then  passed  the  regalia 
to  the  next  one.  (Each  one)  held  a  stick  and  an  eagle's  tail  feather 
in  one  hand  and  a  small  gourd  rattle,  which  they  used  to  shake  while 
singing,  in  the  other.  One  of  (those)  present  used  to  do  the  drum- 
ming. Thus  objects  would  pass  around  until  they  came  back  to  the 
leader,  who  would  then  sing  four  songs.  When  these  were  finished, 
he  would  place  the  various  (things)  on  the  ground,  rise,  and  pray  to 
Earthmaker  (God).  Then  he  called  upon  one  or  two  to  speak. 
They  said  that  Earthmaker  (God)  was  good  and  that  the  peyote  was 
good,  and  that  whosoever  ate  this  medicine  (peyote)  would  be  able 
to  free  himself  from  the  bad  spirit  (the  devil) ;  for  they  said  that 


404  THE   WINNEBAGO  TEIBE  [eth.  anj*.  ST 

Earthmaker  forbids  us  to  commit  sins.  Wlicn  this  was  over  they 
sang  again. 

After  midnight,  every  once  in  a  while  (I  heard)  someone  cry.  In 
some  cases  they  would  go  up  to  the  leader  and  talk  with  him.  He 
would  stand  up  and  pray  with  them.  They  told  me  what  they  were 
saying.  They  said  that  they  were  asking  (people)  to  pray  for  them, 
as  they  were  sorry  for  their  sins  and  that  they  might  be  prevented 
from  committing  them  again.  That  is  what  they  were  saying. 
They  cried  very  loudly.  I  was  rather  frightened.  (I  noticed  also) 
that  when  I  closed  my  eyes  and  sat  still,  I  began  to  see  strange 
things.  I  did  not  get  sleepy  in  the  least.  Thus  the  light  (of  morn- 
ing) came  upon  me.  In  the  morning,  as  the  sun  rose,  they  stopped. 
They  all  got  up  and  prayed  to  Earthmaker  (God)  and  then  they 
stopped. 

During  the  daytime  I  did  not  get  sleepy  in  the  least.  My  actions 
were  a  little  different  (from  my  usual  ones).  Then  they  said,  "To- 
night they  are  going  to  have  another  meeting.  Let  us  go  over. 
They  say  that  is  the  best  (thing)  to  do  and  thus  you  can  learn  it 
(the  ceremony)  right  away.  It  is  said  that  their  spirits  wander 
over  all  the  earth  and  the  heavens  also.  All  this  you  will  learn  and 
see,"  they  said.  "At  times  they  die  and  remain  dead  all  night  and 
all  day.  When  in  this  condition  they  sometimes  see  Earthmaker 
(God),  it  is  said."  One  would  also  be  able  to  see  where  the  bad  spirit 
lived,  it  was  said. 

So  we  went  there  again.  I  doubted  all  this.  I  thought  that  what 
they  were  saying  was  untrue.  However,  I  went  along  anyhow. 
When  we  got  there,  I  had  already  eaten  some  peyote,  for  I  had  taken 
three  during  the  day.  Now  near  the  peyote  meeting  an  (Indian) 
feast  was  being  given  and  I  went  there  instead.  When  I  reached  the 
place,  I  saw  a  long  lodge.  The  noise  was  terrific.  They  were  beating 
an  enormous  drum.  The  sound  almost  raised  me  in  the  air,  so 
(pleasurably)  loud  did  it  sound  to  me.  Not  so  (pleasurable)  had 
things  appeared  at  those  affairs  (peyote  meetings)  that  I  had  lately 
been  attending.  There  I  danced  all  night  and  I  flirted  with  the 
women.  About  day  I  left  and  when  I  got  back  the  peyote  meeting 
was  still  going  on.  When  I  got  back  they  told  me  to  sit  down  at  a 
certain  place.  They  treated  me  very  kindly.  There  I  again  ate 
peyote.  I  heard  that  they  were  going  to  have  another  meeting  near 
by  on  the  evening  of  the  same  day.  We  continued  eating  peyote  the 
whole  day  at  the  place  where  we  were  staying.  We  were  staying  at 
the  house  of  one  of  my  relatives.  Some  of  the  boys  there  taught  me 
a  few  songs.  "Say,  when  you  learn  how  to  sing,  you  will  be  the  best 
singer,  for  you  are  a  good  singer  as  it  is.  You  have  a  good  voice," 
they  said  to  me.     I  thought  so  myself. 


kadin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  405 

That  night  we  went  to  the  place  where  the  peyote  meeting  was  to 
take  place.  They  gave  me  a  place  to  sit  and  treated  me  very  kindly. 
"Well,  he  has  come,"  they  even  said  when  I  got  there,  "make  a  place 
for  him."  I  thought  they  regarded  me  as  a  great  man.  John  Rave, 
the  leader,  was  to  conduct  the  (ceremony) .  I  ate  five  peyote.  Then 
my  brother-in-law  and  my  sister  came  and  gave  themselves  up.  They 
asked  me  to  stand  there  with  them.  I  did  not  like  it,  but  I  did  it 
nevertheless.  "  Why  should  I  give  myself  up  ?  I  am  not  in  earnest, 
and  I  intend  to  stop  this  as  soon  as  I  get  back  to  Wisconsin.  I  am 
only  doing  this  because  they  have  given  me  presents,"  I  thought. 
"I  might  just  as  well  get  up,  since  it  doesn't  mean  anything  to  me." 
So  I  stood  up.  The  leader  began  to  talk  and  I  (suddenly)  began  to 
feel  sick.  It  got  worse  and  worse  and  finally  I  lost  consciousness 
entirely.  When  I  recovered,  I  was  lying  flat  on  my  back.  Those 
with  whom  I  had  been  standing  were  still  standing  there.  I  had  (as 
a  matter  of  fact)  regained  consciousness  as  soon  as  I  fell  down.  I 
felt  like  leaving  the  place  that  night,  but  I  did  not  do  it.  I  was  quite 
tired  out.  "  Why  have  I  done  this  ?"  I  said  to  myself.  " I  promised 
(my  sister)  that  I  would  not  do  it."  So  I  thought  and  then  I  tried 
to  leave,  but  I  could  not.  I  suffered  intensely.  At  last  daylight 
came  upon  me.  Now  I  thought  that  they  regarded  me  as  one  who 
had  a  trance  and  found  out  something. 

Then  we  went  home  and  they  showed  me  a  passage  in  the  Bible 
where  it  said  that  it  was  a  shame  for  any  man  to  wear  long  hair.  That 
is  what  it  said,  they  told  me.  I  looked  at  the  passage.  I  was  not 
a  man  learned  in  books,  but  I  wanted  to  give  the  impression  that  I 
knew  how  to  read,  so  I  told  them  to  cut  my  hah-,  for  I  wore  it  long  at 
that  time.  After  my  hair  was  cut  I  took  out  a  lot  of  medicine  that  I 
happened  to  have  in  my  pockets.  These  were  courting  medicines. 
There  were  many  small  bundles  of  them.  All  these,  together  with 
my  hah,  I  gave  to  my  brother-in-law.  Then  I  cried  and  my  brother- 
in-law  also  cried.  Then  he  thanked  me.  He  told  me  that  I  under- 
stood and  that  I  had  done  well.  He  told  me  that  Earthmaker  (God) 
alone  was  holy;  that  all  the  things  (blessings  and  medicines)  that  I 
possessed  were  false;  that  I  had  been  fooled  by  the  bad  spirit  (devil). 
He  told  me  that  I  had  now  freed  myself  from  much  of  this  (bad 
influence).     My  relatives  expressed  their  thanks  fervently. 

On  the  fourth  night  they  had  another  meeting  and  I  went  to  it 
again.  There  I  again  ate  (peyote).  I  enjoyed  it  and  I  sang  along 
with  them.  I  wanted  to  be  able  to  sing  immediately.  Some  young 
men  were  singing  and  I  enjoyed  it,  so  I  prayed  to  Earthmaker,  asking 
him  to  let  me  learn  to  sing  right  away.  That  was  all  I  asked  for. 
My  brother-in-law  was  with  me  all  the  tune.  At  that  meeting  all  the 
things  I  had  given  my  brother-in-law  were  burned  up. 


406  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

The  fact  that  he  (my  brother-in-law)  told  me  that  I  understood 
pleased  me,  and  I  felt  good  when  daylight  came.  (As  a  matter  of 
fact)  I  had  not  received  any  knowledge. 

After  that  I  would  attend  meetings  every  once  in  a  while,  and  I 
looked  around  for  a  woman  whom  I  might  marry  permanently. 
Before  long  that  was  the  only  thing  I  thought  of  when  I  attended  the 
meetings. 

On  one  occasion  we  were  to  have  a  meeting  of  men  and  I  went  to 
the  meeting  with  a  woman,  with  whom  I  thought  of  going  around  the 
next  day.  That  was  (the  only)  reason  I  went  with  her.  When  we 
arrived,  the  one  who  was  to  lead  asked  me  to  sit  near  him.  There  he 
placed  me.  He  urged  me  to  eat  a  lot  of  peyote,  so  I  did.  The  leaders 
(of  the  ceremony)  always  place  the  regalia  in  front  of  themselves; 
they  also  had  a  peyote  placed  there.  The  leader  placed  a  very  small 
one  in  front  of  himself  this  time.  "Why  does  he  have  a  very  small 
one  there?"  I  thought  to  myself.     I  did  not  think  much  about  it. 

It  was  now  late  at  night  and  I  had  eaten  a  lot  of  peyote  and  felt 
rather  tired.  I  suffered  considerably.  After  a  while  I  looked  at  the 
peyote  and  there  stood  an  eagle  with  outspread  wings.  It  was  as 
beautiful  a  sight  as  one  could  behold.  Each  of  the  feathers  seemed 
to  have  a  mark.  The  eagle  stood  looking  at  me.  I  looked  around 
thinking  that  perhaps  there  was  something  the  matter  with  my  sight. 
Then  I  looked  again  and  it  was  really  there.  I  then  looked  in  a 
different  direction  and  it  disappeared.  Only  the  small  peyote 
remained.  I  looked  around  at  the  other  people  but  they  all  had  their 
heads  bowed  and  were  singing.     I  was  very  much  surprised. 

Some  time  after  this  (I  saw)  a  lion  lying  in  the  same  place  (where  I 
had  seen  the  eagle) .  I  watched  it  very  closely v  It  was  alive  and  look- 
ing at  me.  I  looked  at  it  very  closely,  and  when  I  turned  my  eyes 
away  just  the  least  little  bit  it  disappeared.  "  I  suppose  they  all  know 
this  and  I  am  just  beginning  to  know  of  it,"  I  thought.  Then  I  saw 
a  small  person  (at  the  same  place).  He  wore  blue  clothes  and  a 
shining  brimmed  cap.  He  had  on  a  soldier's  uniform.  He  was  sit- 
ting on  the  arm  of  the  person  who  was  drumming,  and  he  looked  at 
every  one.  He  was  a  little  man,  perfect  (in  all  proportions) .  Finally 
I  lost  sight  of  him.  I  was  very  much  surprised  indeed.  I  sat  very 
quietly.  "This  is  what  it  is,"  I  thought,  "this  is  what  they  all 
probably  see  and  I  am  just  beginning  to  find  out." 

Then  I  prayed  to  Earthmaker  (God) :  "  This,  your  ceremony,  let  me 
hereafter  perform." 

As  I  looked  again,  I  saw  a  flag.  I  looked  more  carefully  and  (I 
saw)  the  house  full  of  flags.  They  had  the  most  beautiful  marks  on 
them.  In  the  middle  (of  the  room)  there  was  a  very  large  flag  and 
it  was  a  live  one;  it  was  moving.     In  the  doorway  there  was  another 


radin]  THE  PEYOTE   CULT  407 

one  not  entirely  visible.  I  had  never  seen  anything  so  beautiful  in 
all  my  life  before. 

Then  again  I  prayed  to  Earthmaker  (God).  I  bowed  my  head 
and  closed  my  eyes  and  began  (to  speak).  I  said  many  things  that 
I  would  ordinarily  never  have  spoken  about.  As  I  prayed,  I  was 
aware  of  something  above  me  and  there  he  was ;  Earthmaker  (God)  to 
whom  I  was  praying,  he  it  was.  That  which  is  called  the  soul,  that 
is  it,  that  is  what  one  calls  Earthmaker  (God).  Now  this  is  what  I 
felt  and  saw.  The  one  called  Earthmaker  (God)  is  a  spirit  and  that 
is  what  I  felt  and  saw.  All  of  us  sitting  there,  we  had  all  together 
one  spirit  or  soul;  at  least  that  is  what  I  learned.  I  instantly  became 
the  spirit  and  I  was  their  spirit  or  soul.  Whatever  they  thought  of, 
I  (immediately)  knew.  I  did  not  have  to  speak  to  them  and  get  an 
answer  to  know  what  their  thoughts  had  been.  Then  I  thought  of  a 
certain  place,  far  away,  and  immediately  I  was  there;  I  was  my 
thought. 

I  looked  around  and  noticed  how  everything  seemed  about  me, 
and  when  I  opened  my  eyes  I  was  myself  in  the  body  again.  From 
this  time  on,  I  thought,  thus  I  shall  be.  This  is  the  way  they  are,  and 
I  am  only  beginning  to  be  that  way.  "All  those  that  heed  Earth- 
maker  (God)  must  be  thus,"  I  thought.  "I  would  not  need  any 
more  food,"  I  thought,  "for  was  I  not  my  spirit?  Nor  would  I  have 
any  more  use  of  my  body,"  I  felt.  "My  corporeal  affairs  are  over," 
I  felt. 

Then  they  stopped  and  left,  for  it  was  just  dawning.  Then  some- 
one spoke  to  me.  I  did  not  answer,  for  I  thought  they  were  just 
fooling,  and  that  they  were  all  like  myself,  and  that  (therefore)  it 
was  unnecessary  for  me  to  talk  to  them.  So  when  they  spoke  to  me 
I  only  answered  with  a  smde.  "They  are  just  saying  this  to  me 
because  (they  realize)  that  I  have  just  found  out,"  I  thought.  That 
was  why  I  did  not  answer.  I  did  not  speak  to  anyone  until  noon. 
Then  I  had  to  leave  the  house  to  perform  one  of  nature's  duties  and 
someone  followed  me.  It  was  my  friend.  He  said,  "My  friend,  what 
troubles  you  that  makes  you  act  as  you  do  ?"  "  Well,  there's  no  need 
of  your  saying  anything,  for  you  know  it  beforehand,"  I  said. 

Then  I  immediately  got  over  my  trance  and  again  got  into  my 
(normal)  condition,  so  that  he  would  have  to  speak  to  me  before  I 
knew  his  thoughts.  I  became  like  my  former  self.  It  became 
necessary  for  me  to  speak  to  him. 

Then  I  spoke  to  him  and  said,  "My  friend,  let  us  hitch  up  these 
horses  and  then  I  will  go  wherever  you  like,  for  you  wish  to  speak 
to  me  and  I  also  want  to  go  around  and  talk  to  you."  Thus  I  spoke 
to  him.  "  If  I  were  to  tell  you  all  that  I  have  learned,  I  would  never 
be  able  to  stop  at  all,  so  much  have  I  learned,"  I  said  to  him.  "  How- 
ever, I  would  enjoy  telling  some  of  it."     "  Good, "  said  he.     He  liked 


408  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.37 

it  (what  I  told  him)  very  much.  "That  is  what  I  am  anxious  to 
hear,"  said  he.  Then  we  went  after  the  horses.  We  caught  one  of 
them  but  we  could  not  get  the  other.  He  got  away  from  us  and  we 
could  not  find  him.  We  hunted  everywhere  for  the  horse  but  could 
not  discover  where  he  had  run  to.  Long  afterwards  we  found  it 
among  the  whites. 

Now  since  that  time  (of  my  conversion)  no  matter  where  I  am,  I 
always  think  of  this  religion.  I  still  remember  it  and  I  think  I  will 
remember  it  as  long  as  I  live.  It  is  the  only  holy  thing  I  have  been 
aware  of  in  all  my  life. 

After  that  whenever  I  heard  of  a  peyote  meeting,  I  went  to  it. 
However,  my  thoughts  were  always  fixed  on  women.  "If  I  were 
married  (legally)  perhaps  these  thoughts  will  leave  me,"  I  thought. 
Whenever  I  went  to  a  meeting  now  I  tried  to  eat  as  many  peyote  as 
possible,  for  I  was  told  that  it  was  good  to  eat  them.  For  that  reason 
I  ate  them.  As  I  sat  there  I  would  always  pray  to  Eartlimaker  (God). 
Now  these  were  my  thoughts.  If  I  were  married,  I  thought  as  I  sat 
there,  I  could  then  put  all  my  thoughts  on  this  ceremony.  I  sat 
with  my  eyes  closed  and  was  very  quiet. 

Suddenly  I  saw  something.  This  was  tied  up.  The  rope  with 
which  this  object  was  tied  up  was  long.  The  object  itself  was  run- 
ning around  and  around  (in  a  circle).  There  was  a  pathway  there 
in  which  it  ought  to  go,  but  it  was  tied  up  and  unable  to  get  there. 
The  road  was  an  excellent  one.  Along  its  edge  bluegrass  grew  and 
on  each  side  there  grew  many  varieties  of  pretty  flowers.  Sweet- 
smelling  flowers  sprang  up  all  along  this  road.  Far  off  in  the  distance 
appeared  a  bright  light.  There  a  city  was  visible  of  a  beauty  inde- 
scribable by  tongue.  A  cross  was  in  full  sight.  The  object  that  was 
tied  up  would  always  fall  just  short  of  reaching  the  road.  It  seemed 
to  lack  sufficient  strength  to  break  loose  (of  what  was  holding  it). 
(Near  it)  lay  something  which  would  have  given  it  sufficient  strength 
to  break  its  fastenings,  if  it  were  only  able  to  get  hold  of  it. 

I  looked  at  what  was  so  inextricably  tied  up  and  I  saw  that  it  was 
myself.  I  was  forever  thinking  of  women.  "This  it  is  to  which  I 
am  tied,"  I  thought.  "Were  I  married,  I  would  have  strength 
enough  to  break  my  fastening  and  be  able  to  travel  in  the  good  road," 
I  thought.     Then  daylight  came  upon  us  and  we  stopped. 

Then  I  thought  of  a  man  I  used  to  know  who  was  an  old  peyote- 
man.  He  always  spoke  to  me  very  kindly.  I  went  over  to  see  him. 
I  thought  I  would  tell  him  what  had  happened  to  me.  When  I 
arrived  there  he  was  quite  delighted.  It  was  about  noon  and  he 
fed  my  horses  and  asked  me  to  eat  with  him.  Then  when  we  were 
through  eating,  I  told  him  what  had  happened  to  me.  He  was  very 
glad  and  told  me  that  I  was  speaking  of  a  very  good  thing.  Then 
(finally)  he  said,  "Now  I  shall  tell  you  what  I  think  is  a  good  thing 


kadin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  409 

(for  you  to  do).  You  know  that  if  an  old  horse  is  balky,  you  cannot 
break  him  of  (this  habit) ;  even  if  you  bought  him  and  tried  to  break 
him  (of  this  habit)  you  would  not  succeed.  If,  indeed,  you  succeeded 
it  would  only  be  after  very  hard  work.  However,  if  you  had  a  very 
young  horse,  you  could  train  it  in  any  way  you  wished.  So  it  is  in 
everything.  If  you  marry  a  woman  who  has  been  in  the  habit  of 
marrying  frequently,  it  would  be  difficult  for  her  to  break  herself 
of  a  habit  she  loves.  You  are  not  the  one  she  loves.  If  you  marry 
her  you  will  lead  a  hard  life.  If  you  wish  to  get  married,  take  your 
time.  There  are  plenty  of  good  women.  Many  of  them  are  at  (gov- 
ernment) schools  and  have  never  been  married.  I  think  you  would 
do  best  if  you  waited  for  some  of  these  before  marrying.  They  will 
return  in  the  middle  of  the  summer.  So,  don't  think  of  any  of  these 
women  you  see  around  here,  but  wait  until  then  and  pray  to  Earth- 
maker  patiently.  That  would  be  the  best,  I  think."  I  liked  what 
he  told  me  and  thanked  him.  I  decided  to  accept  his  advice,  and  I 
did  not  look  around  for  women  after  that.  I  was  to  wait  about 
three  months  and  (during  that  time)  I  paid  strict  attention  to  the 
peyote  ceremony. 

On  one  occasion  while  at  a  meeting,  I  suffered  (great  pain).  My 
eyes  were  sore  and  I  was  thinking  of  many  things.  "Now  I  do  noth- 
ing but  pay  attention  to  this  ceremony,  for  it  is  good."  Then  I 
called  the  leader  over  to  me  and  said  to  him,  "My  elder  brother,  here- 
after only  Earthmaker  (God)  shall  I  regard  as  holy.  I  will  make  no 
more  offerings  of  tobacco.  I  will  not  use  any  more  tobacco.  I  will 
not  smoke  and  I  will  not  chew  tobacco.  I  have  no  further  interest 
in  these.  Earthmaker  (God)  alone  do  I  desire  (to  serve).  I  will  not 
take  part  in  the  Medicine  Dance  again.  I  give  myself  up  (to  you). 
I  intend  to  give  myself  up  to  Earthmaker's  (God's)  cause."  Thus  I 
spoke  to  him.  "It  is  good,  younger  brother,"  he  said  to  me.  Then 
he  had  me  stand  up  and  he  prayed  to  Earthmaker  (God) .  He  asked 
Earthmaker  (God)  to  forgive  me  my  sins. 

The  next  morning  I  was  taken  home.  My  eyes  were  sore  and  I 
could  not  see.  They  took  me  back  to  a  house  and  there  they  put  a 
solution  of  the  peyote  into  my  eyes  and  I  got  well  in  a  week. 

One  night,  when  I  was  asleep,  I  dreamed  that  the  world  had  come 
to  an  end.  Some  people  Earthmaker  (God)  took,  while  some  be- 
longed to  the  bad  spirit  (the  devil).  I  belonged  to  the  bad  spirit 
(the  devil).  Although  I  had  given  myself  up  (become  a  peyote- 
man),  I  had  not  as  yet  been  baptized.  That  was  why  Earthmaker 
(God)  did  not  take  me.  All  those  who  belonged  to  Earthmaker 
(God)  were  marked,  but  I  was  not.  I  felt  very  bad  about  it  when  I 
woke  up,  although  I  had  only  dreamed  about  it.  I  felt  very  bad 
indeed.  I  wanted  them  to  hurry  and  have  another  peyote  meeting 
186S230— 22 27 


410  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

soon.  I  could  hardly  wait  until  I  reached  the  place  where  the  next 
meeting  was  to  take  place.  I  immediately  told  the  leader  (what  I 
wanted)  and  asked  him  to  baptize  me  and  he  baptized  me  in  the 
morning.     After  that  morning  I  felt  better. 

Then  I  went  to  work  and  I  worked  with  a  railroad  work-gang.  I 
was  still  working  when  the  time  for  the  midsummer  celebration  ap- 
proached.    I  always  went  to  the  peyote  meeting  on  Saturday  nights. 

The  old  man  was  right  in  what  he  had  told  me.  The  girl  students 
returned  in  the  summer.  Shortly  (after  they  returned)  a  man,  a 
friend  of  mine  who  had  gone  around  with  me,  asked  me  if  I  wanted 
to  get  married.  "Yes,  I  do,"  I  answered.  Then  he  said,  "Listen,  I 
have  been  thinking  of  something.  What  kind  of  a  woman  do  you 
wish  to  marry?"  I  told  him  what  I  had  in  mind.  Then  he  said, 
"Come  home  with  me.  I  have  a  younger  sister.  I  want  her  to 
marry  a  good  man;  I  would  like  to  have  her  marry  you,"  he  said. 
Then  I  went  home  with  him.  When  we  got  there  (and  discussed  the 
matter)  the  girl  gave  her  consent.     The  parents  also  consented. 

So  there  I  got  married  and  what  I  expected  has  taken  place  and  I 
have  lived  with  her  ever  since.  On  one  occasion,  after  she  was  used 
to  me,  she  told  me  this.  (Before  she  had  married  she  had  determined 
that)  if  she  ever  got  married,  she  would  not  care  to  marry  a  very 
young  man.  "I  wanted  a  man  who  ate  peyote  and  who  paid  atten- 
tion to  the  ceremony."  Such  a  man  she  desired  and  such  a  man  was 
I,  she  said.  She  loved  me,  she  said,  and  she  was  glad  that  she  had 
married  me.  This  is  what  she  had  asked  Earthmaker  (God)  in  prayer. 
"And  indeed  it  has  happened  as  I  wished,"  she  said.  She  believed 
it  was  the  will  of  Earthmaker  (God)  that  we  had  done  this,  she  said. 
She  was  therefore  glad  (that  she  had  married  me).  Together  we 
gave  ourselves  up  (to  the  peyote)  at  a  peyote  meeting.  From  that 
time  on  we  have  remained  members  of  the  peyote  (ceremony) . 

Many  things  are  said  under  the  influence  of  the  peyote.  The  mem- 
bers (would)  get  into  a  kind  of  trance  and  speak  of  many  things. 
On  one  occasion  they  had  a  peyote  meeting  which  lasted  two  nights. 
I  ate  a  good  deal  of  peyote.  The  next  morning  I  tried  to  sleep.  I 
suffered  a  great  deal.  I  lay  down  in  a  very  comfortable  position. 
After  a  while  a  (nameless)  fear  arose  in  me.  I  could  not  remain  in 
that  place,  so  I  went  out  into  the  prairie,  but  here  again  I  was  seized 
with  this  fear.  Finally  I  returned  to  a  lodge  near  the  lodge  in  which 
the  peyote  meeting  was  being  held  and  lay  down  alone.  I  feared 
that  I  might  do  something  foolish  to  myself  (if  I  remained  there 
alone),  and  I  hoped  that  someone  would  come  and  talk  to  me. 
Then  someone  did  come  and  talk  to  me,  but  I  did  not  feel  better,  so 
I  thought  I  would  go  inside  where  the  meeting  was  going  on.  "I 
am  going  inside,"  I  said  to  him.  He  laughed.  "Alright,  do  so," 
said  he.     I  went  in  and  sat  down.     It  was  very  hot  and  I  felt  as 


kadin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  411 

though  I  were  going  to  die.  I  was  very  thirsty  but  I  feared  to  ask 
for  water.  I  thought  that  I  was  certainly  going  to  die.  I  began  to 
totter  over. 

I  died,  and  my  body  was  moved  by  another  life.  It  began  to  move' 
about ;  to  move  about  and  make  signs.  It  was  not  I  and  I  could  not 
see  it.  At  last  it  stood  up.  The  regalia — eagle  feathers  and  gourds 
— these  were  holy,  they  said.  They  also  had  a  large  book  there 
(the  Bible).  These  my  body  took  and  what  is  contained  in  that 
(book)  my  body  saw.  It  was  a  Bible.  The  regalia  were  not  holy, 
but  they  were  good  ornaments.  My  body  told  them  that;  and  that 
if  any  person  paid  attention  to  Earthmaker's  (God's)  ceremony,  he 
would  be  hearkening  to  what  the  Bible  said;  that,  likewise,  my  body 
told  them.  Earthmaker's  son  (God's  son)  said  that  he  was  the  only 
way.  This  means  that  one  can  only  get  life  from  the  Word.  (My) 
body  spoke  of  many  things  and  it  spoke  of  what  was  true.  Indeed 
it  spoke  of  many  tilings.  It  spoke  of  all  the  things  that  were  being 
done  (by  the  pagan  Indians)  and  which  were  evil.  A  long  time  it 
spoke.  At  last  it  stopped.  Not  I,  but  my  body  standing  there,  had 
done  the  talking.  Earthmaker  (God)  had  done  his  own  talking. 
I  would  be  confessing  myself  a  fool  if  I  were  to  think  that  I  had 
said  all  this,  it  (my  body)  told  me. 

After  a  while  I  returned  to  my  normal  human  condition.  Some 
of  those  there  had  been  frightened,  thinking  that  I  had  gone  crazy. 
Others  had  liked  it.  It  was  discussed  a  good  deal.  They  called  it 
the  "shaking"  state.  It  was  said  that  the  condition  in  which  I  was, 
was  not  part  of  Earthmaker's  (God's)  religion.  I  was  told  that 
whoever  ate  a  lot  of  peyote  would,  through  the  peyote,  be  taught  the 
teachings  of  Earthmaker  (God).  Earthmaker's  (God's)  ways  and 
man's  ways  were  different.  Whoever,  therefore,  wished  to  help  this 
religion  must  give  himself  up  (to  it).  If  you  ate  a  good  deal  of  this 
peyote  and  believed  that  it  could  teach  you  something,  then  it 
assuredly  would  do  so.  That,  at  least,  is  the  way  in  which  I  under- 
stand the  matter. 

Once  we  had  a  meeting  at  the  home  of  a  member  who  was  sick. 
The  sick  would  always  get  well  when  a  meeting  was  held  in  their 
home,  and  that  is  why  we  did  it.  At  that  meeting  I  got  into  the 
"shaking"  condition  again.  My  body  told'  (us)  how  our  religion 
(peyote)  was  an  affair  of  Earthmaker's  (God's)  and  even  if  one 
knew  only  a  portion  of  it,  one  could  still  see  (partake  of)  Earth- 
maker's  (God's)  religion. 

Thus  it  went  on  talking.  "Earthmaker  (God),  His  Son  (Christ) 
and  His  Holiness  (the  Holy  Ghost),  these  are  the  three  ways  of  say- 
ing it.  Even  if  you  know  one  (of  these  three),  it  means  all.  Every 
one  of  you  has  the  means  of  opening  (the  road)  to  Earthmaker  (God). 
It  is  given  to  you.     With  that  (your  belief)  you  can  open  (the  door 


412  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

to  God).  You  can  not  open  it  with  knowledge  (alone).  How  many 
letters  are  there  to  the  key  (the  road  to  God)  ?  Three.  What  are 
they?"  There  were  many  educated  people  (there),  but  none  of  them 
said  anything.  "The  first  (letter)  must  be  a  K,  so  if  a  person  said 
K,  that  would  be  the  whole  of  it.  But  let  me  look  in  the  book  (the 
Bible)  and  see  what  that  means,"  said  the  body.  Then  it  (the 
body)  took  the  Bible  and  began  to  turn  the  leaves.  The  body  did 
not  know  where  it  was  itself,  for  it  was  not  learned  in  books.  Finally 
in  Matthew,  chapter  16,  it  stopped.  There  it  speaks  about  it. 
"Peter  did  not  give  himself  up"  (it  says).  "For  a  long  time  he  could 
not  give  up  his  own  knowledge.  There  (in  that  passage)  it  says 
Key."  That  is  the  work  of  Earthmaker  (God).  At  least  so  I  under- 
stand it.  He  made  use  of  my  body  and  acted  in  this  manner,  in  the 
case  of  the  peyote. 

Then  I  go  about  telling  (every  one)  that  this  religion  is  good. 
Many  other  people  at  home  said  the  same  thing.  Many,  likewise, 
have  joined  this  religion  and  are  getting  along  nicely. 

On  one  occasion,  after  I  had  eaten  a  good  deal  of  peyote,  I  learned 
the  following  from  it:  that  all  I  had  done  in  the  past,  that  it  had  all 
been  evil.  This  was  plainly  revealed  to  me.  What  I  thought  was 
holy,  and  (by  thus  thinking)  was  lost,  that  I  now  know  was  false. 
(It  is  false),  this  giving  of  (pagan)  feasts,  of  holding  (the  old)  things 
holy,  the  Medicine  Dance,  and  all  the  Indian  customs. 

J.  B.'s  Account  of  His  Conversion 

I  was  at  the  old  agency.  There  they  were  to  try  me  for  murder. 
At  night,  as  I  sat  in  jail,  certain  people  came  to  me  and  told  me  that 
they  had  a  gallon  jug  of  whisky,  and  that  if  I  was  free  that  night, 
I  should  come  and  drink  with  them.  They  would  wait  for  me. 
That  same  night  there  was  a  peyote  meeting  at  John  Rave's  house 
and  my  brother  Sam  invited  me  to  go  there.  Sam  stood  around 
there  waiting  for  me.  He  was  very  low  in  spirits.  He  knew  of  the 
other  invitation  I  had  received  and  he  told  me  that  he  would  go 
with  me  wherever  I  went.  I  wanted  very  badly  to  go  to  the  place 
where  they  had  the  liquor,  and  should  have  done  so  if  Sam  had 
given  me  the  least  chance.  However,  I  could  not  get  rid  of  him, 
so  I  decided  to  go  to  the  peyote  meeting.  When  I  arrived  there, 
we  found  just  enough  room  in  the  center  for  myself  and  Sam.  Sam 
sat  at  the  right  of  me  and  John  Bear  at  the  left.  In  front  of  me 
there  was  some  peyote  infusion,  and  some  peyote  ground  up  and 
dampened. 

As  we  sat  there  Sam  began  to  cry  and  I  began  to  think.  I  knew 
why  Sam  was  crying;  he  wanted  me  to  take  some  of  the  peyote. 
After  a  while  I  began  to  think  of  my  own  troubles.  But  I  thought 
it  wasn't  the  proper  way  of  taking  it  just  because  I  was  in  trouble. 


badin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  413 

Then  I  thought  of  the  other  peyote  eaters,  how  much  they  must  be 
wanting  me  to  take  it.  After  a  while  I  spoke  to  Sam  and  said, 
"I  am  going  to  eat  this  medicine,  but  .  .  ."  Then  I  began  to  cry. 
After  a  while  he  tried  to  get  me  to  say  the  balance,  but  I  couldn't. 
I  drank  some  of  the  solution.  As  the  others  saw  that  I  was  willing 
to  take  it  they  gave  me  a  big  ball  of  dampened  peyote.  However, 
I  didn't  like  that  and  I  asked  for  some  more  peyote  in  the  dry  state. 
I  sat  there  asking  for  more  and  more  peyote.  This  I  kept  up  all 
night.  When  morning  came  I  stopped.  Just  then  Harry  Rave  got 
up  to  speak,  and  no  sooner  did  he  get  up  than  I  knew  exactly  what 
he  was  going  to  say.  This  must  be  the  way  of  all  peyote  eaters,  I 
thought.  I  looked  around  me;  and  suddenly  I  realized  that  all 
those  within  the  room  knew  my  thoughts  and  that  I  knew  the 
thoughts  of  all  the  others.  Harry  Rave  spoke  and  finished  his 
speech;  but  I  had  known  it  all  before  he  said  a  word.  Then  A. 
Priest,  who  was  leading  the  meeting,  arose  and  asked  the  rest  to 
get  up,  so  that  they  might  turn  themselves  over  to  Christ.  I  also 
rose;  but  when  I  got  up  I  was  seized  with  a  choking  sensation.  I 
couldn't  breathe.  I  wanted  to  grab  hold  of  Bear  and  Sam,  but  I 
didn't,  thinking  that  I  was  going  to  stand  whatever  was  coming  to 
me.  When  I  made  up  my  mind  to  that,  I  felt  relieved.  Then  I 
knew  what  the  real  meaning  of  turning  one's  self  over  to  Christ 
meant. 

In  the  morning  they  stopped  the  meeting  and  everyone  seemed 
happy  and  glad.  I,  however,  was  very  serious  and  wondered  why 
they  were  all  laughing.  Every  once  in  a  while  they  would  come 
and  talk  to  me.  I  wondered  why  they  did  it,  when  they  knew  what 
was  going  on  within  me.     For  that  reason  I  wouldn't  answer  them. 

That  week  there  were  four  meetings,  and  I  went  to  all  of  them 
and  ate  very  much  peyote.  The  fourth  meeting  was  at  the  usual 
place,  John  Rave's  house.  I  sat  with  Sam  as  usual.  At  night  I 
became  filled  with  peyote.  All  at  once  I  heard  a  voice  saying, 
"You  are  the  one  who  is  to  tell  of  the  medicine  dance."  And  I 
thought  that  Sam  was  speaking  to  me,  so  I  turned  around  and 
looked  at  him,  but  he  hadn't  said  a  word.  Soon  I  realized  that 
nobody  near  me  had  said  anything,  and  I  began  to  think,  "Why 
should  it  be  I?  Why  not  one  of  the  others?"  I  rather  pushed  the 
idea  from  me;  but  no  sooner  had  I  done  so  than  I  began  to  have  a 
tired  and  depressed  sensation.  This  passed  all  over  me.  I  knew 
that  if  I  got  up  with  the  sincere  purpose  of  giving  in  to  the  power 
that  was  wanting  me  to  speak  of  the  medicine  dance  I  should  be 
relieved.  However,  for  some  reason,  I  know  not  why,  I  felt  like 
resisting. 

The  next  morning  I  asked  to  be  baptized,  and  said  that  I  would 
thereafter  have  nothing  more  to  do  with  offerings  to  the  spirits; 


414  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

that  I  would  not  give  any  more  feasts;  and  that  I  would  not  have 
any  more  to  do  with  the  medicine  dance.  From  that  day  on  I 
quit  all  my  old  beliefs.  I  did  not  feel  like  saying  all  this,  for  indeed 
my  heart  was  turned  just  the  other  way,  but  I  couldn't  help  it,  for 
I  was  fdled  with  the  peyote. 

From  that  time  on,  at  every  meeting  that  I  attended,  I  could 
not  rid  myself  of  the  idea  that  I  must  tell  of  the  medicine  dance. 
At  all  such  times  a  feeling  of  heaviness  would  come  over  me.  There 
I  would  be  with  but  one  thing  on  my  mind;  should  I,  or  should  I 
not,  tell  of  it  ?  I  did  not  want  to,  and  thought  of  all  sorts  of  excuses — 
that  I  was  not  a  member  of  the  Nebraska  division,  etc. 

I  was  in  this  frame  of  mind  while  living  with  John  Walker.  There 
I  received  word  that  I  would  be  wanted  to  tell  of  the  medicine  dance. 
From  that  moment  I  could  not  rest  easy.  I  went  to  the  barn  and 
prayed  and  wept,  asking  that  God  might  direct  me.  I  went  about 
but  could  not  sit  quiet.  My  wife  stayed  around  me  crying.  As  I 
stood  there,  someone  drove  up  with  a  white  team.  Then  I  thought 
of  all  the  unhappiness  I  would  cause  to  members  of  the  medicine 
lodge  if  I  told  the  secrets  of  the  medicine  dance;  and  I  asked  myself 
if  it  really  would  not  be  a  sin  to  cause  so  much  misery.  The  man 
who  was  driving  the  white  team  was  John  Baptiste,  and  he  told  me 
that  I  was  wanted  to  tell  of  the  medicine  dance.  I  got  ready  and 
entered  the  buggy.  I  was  still  crying  and  praying.  Then  it  occurred 
to  me  that  I  would  like  to  see  John  Rave.  No  sooner  had  I  thought 
of  this  than  John  Rave  appeared  in  the  road.  I  got  out  and  shook 
hands  with  him  and  told  him  where  I  was  going  and  for  what  purpose, 
and  asked  him  what  he  thought  of  the  matter.  He  began  to  thank 
me  for  the  work  I  was  going  to  do  and  said,  "This  is  what  we  should 
try  to  do,  to  help  one  another  and  to  work  for  our  Creator."  Then 
he  thanked  me  again.  Perfect  happiness  now  came  over  me  and  I 
went  to  Sioux  City  and  got  married  legally.  From  now  on  I  was 
entirely  filled  with  the  desire  to  tell  all  that  I  knew  about  the  medicine 
dance.  "This  must  be  the  work  assigned  to  me  by  the  Creator," 
I  thought;  and  yet  I  have  rejected  the  idea  all  the  time. 

On  Paul's  last  trip,  although  I  had  not  finished  the  translation,  I 
didn't  care  to  have  any  more  to  do  with  it,  and  said  that  somebody 
else  should  finish  the  work,  my  excuse  being  that  I  was  busy.  So,  as 
soon  as  I  heard  that  Paul  had  come,  I  packed  up  and  hurried  out  west 
as  quickly  as  possible,  for  I  knew  that  he  would  bother  the  life  out  of 
me  if  he  found  me.  However,  no  sooner  had  I  reached  the  home  of 
my  friend  than  I  was  seized  with  an  attack  of  rheumatism,  with  which 
I  had  never  been  afflicted  before,  and  the  next  morning  Paul  appeared 
with  a  wagon  to  take  me  back  to  Winnebago.  Now  I  know  that  the 
telling  and  the  translation  of  the  medicine  dance  is  my  mission  in 
life,  and  I  am  willing  to  tell  all  to  the  full  extent  of  my  knowledge. 


kadin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  415 

Jesse  Clay's  Account  of  the  Akapaho  Manner  of  Giving  the 
Peyote  Ceremony  Which  He  Introduced  Among  the  Win- 
nebago in  1912 

I  went  to  Oklahoma  once  as  the  guest  of  an  Arapaho  Indian. 
While  there  I  witnessed  the  Arapaho  manner  of  holding  a  peyote 
meeting  and  was  very  much  impressed  with  it.  A  year  later  this 
Arapaho  came  to  visit  me  in  Winnehago,  and  while  he  was  with  us 
a  few  of  my  friends  urged  me  to  hold  the  peyote  ceremony  according 
to  the  Arapaho  method.  I  held  several  meetings  at  which  my 
Arapaho  friend  led. 

Now  these  are  the  instructions  that  Arapaho  Bull  gave  me. 

The  person  giving  the  ceremony  must  get  up  at  sunrise  so  that 
he  can  tell  exactly  where  the  sun  is  going  to  rise.  He  must  place  a 
stick  and  make  the  drawing  of  a  cross  on  the  earth  just  in  that 
direction  from  which  the  sun  is  about  to  rise.  He  does  this  in  order 
to  get  the  correct  location  for  the  tipi  and  the  fireplace.  Then  he 
marks  a  circle  around  the  cross.  Then  he  makes  a  diagonal  mark 
through  the  center  of  the  circle,  thus  making  the  circle  resemble  a 
star.  The  circle  is  the  outline  of  the  tipi.  Then  another  diagonal 
mark  is  made  so  that  the  drawing  resembles,  to  their  minds,  a  pe- 
yote. A  fireplace  which  resembles  a  half-moon  is  placed  right  in 
the  center  of  the  lodge.  After  that  the  tipi  poles  are  raised,  12  in 
number.  Finally  the  whole  is  inclosed  in  canvas.  When  finished 
it  is  supposed  to  represent  the  earth.  It  is  then  ready  to  be 
entered.  Special  preparations  are  made  for  entering.  The  drum- 
mer with  his  drum  and  the  leader  and  those  behind  him  with 
all  their  regalia  march  up  to  the  door.  Before  theee  enter,  how- 
ever, an  attendant,  called  the  fireman,  spreads  sage  all  over  the 
lodge,  from  the  scat  of  the  leader  to  the  door  and  back  again.  Then 
he  starts  a  fire,  always  placing  the  left  fire  sticks  first.  When  they 
are  all  thus  lined  up  outside  of  the  door  the  leader  offers  a  prayer. 

"May  the  Creator  be  with  us  when  we  enter  this  lodge." 

The  leader  now  enters  and,  proceeding  along  the  left  side  of  the 
lodge,  marches  to  his  seat,  and  there  he  stands  with  his  drum  until 
the  lodge  is  filled.  After  all  have  entered  they  sit  down.  Then  the 
fireman  who  sits  to  the  right  rekindles  the  fire.  The  leader  now 
spreads  out  his  articles — a  gourd,  a  drumstick,  a  staff,  and  the 
feathers.  He  then  takes  12  sage  leaves  and  lays  them  out  in  the 
form  of  a  star,  first  making  a  cross-shaped  object  and  then  filling 
this  into  the  desired  form.  On  top  he  places  the  peyote,  and,  leaning 
against  that,  he  places  a  flute  made  of  an  eagle  bone,  the  mouth  of 
the  flute  resting  against  the  peyote.  Then  he  puts  an  otter-skin  cap 
at  the  foot  of  the  flute.  After  a  while  the  leader  takes  the  peyote 
he  is  going  to  use  in  one  hand  and  some  cedar  needles  in  the  other, 


416  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [bth.ann.37 

and,  going  to  his  seat,  where  all  the  other  objects  are  spread  out,  he 
sits  down  and  prays.  He  prays  that  all  the  participants  may  be 
strengthened  by  the  prospective  meeting.  lie  offers  up  thanks  for 
the  peyote  and  praj's  that  all  may  be  in  the  proper  spirit  that  night. 
Then  he  throws  the  needles  in  the  fire  and  holds  the  peyote  over 
•the  smoke  of  the  cedar.  When  this  has  been  finished  he  returns  to 
his  seat,  eats  one  peyote,  and  gives  one  to  the  drummer.  After 
they,  have  eaten  these  he  passes  four  peyote  in  turn  to  those  on  his* 
left  until  the  peyote  comes  to  the  one  sitting  nearest  the  door.  Four 
peyote  are  given  to  the  one  nearest  the  door  that  he,  in  turn,  may 
pass  them  to  those  on  the  other  side  of  the  door  and  so  on  until  the 
leader  is  reached  again.  Before  the  peyote  is  eaten,  the  leader  gets 
up  and  talks.  He  instructs  the  people  as  to  the  nature  of  the  meeting 
and  tells  them  that  those  who  wish  to  go  out  must  do  so  after  the 
midnight  water  is  drunk  and  not  until  after  the  leader  returns  from 
outside.  No  one  is  to  go  out  while  anyone  is  singing,  praying,  or 
eating  peyote.  He  then  speaks  of  the  special  prayers  that  are  to  be 
offered  up  and  asks  them  to  offer  general  prayers  for  all  nonmembers 
and  even  for  their  enemies.  After  that  the  leader  again  offers  up  a 
prayer  and  smokes  all  the  objects  he  had  spread  before  his  seat. 
Then  the  songs  are  to  start,  all,  however,  first  eating  peyote. 

(When  the  fire  first  starts  and  thereafter,  throughout  the  night,  it 
is  supposed  to  represent  light,  just  as  God  said,  "Let  there  be  light.") 

The  first  song  is  always  the  same  and  is  called  the  starting  song. 
Those  that  follow  are  peyote  songs.  When  he  has  finished  these 
songs  he  passes  the  singing  staff  to  the  right  of  the  drummer.  When 
this  one  has  finished  the  staff  is  returned  to  the  leader,  who  passes  it 
on  to  the  left,  and  then  in  rotation  it  goes  to  the  one  sitting  near 
the  door.  The  drum,  when  it  is  handed  on,  is  always  passed  under 
the  staff.  The  fire  is  always  replenished,  but  toward  midnight 
special  care  is  taken  in  this  regard  and  the  coals  are  placed  in  the 
shape  of  a  crescent  between  the  fire  and  the  earth  crescent,  and  the 
fireman  sweeps  first  around  the  left  and  then  around  the  right  side. 
Then  exactly  at  midnight  the  leader  calls  for  his  singing  staff  and 
his  drum,  no  matter  where  they  happen  to  be,  and,  taking  the  singing 
staff  and  sending  the  drum  to  the  drummer,  he  blows  his  flute  and 
sings.  The  song  he  sings  then  is  called  the  midnight  song.  After 
that  three  peyote  songs  are  sung,  it  making  no  difference  which  they 
are.  As  the  leader  starts  his  midnight  song  the  fireman  takes  up 
his  position  at  the  doorway  opposite  the  fireplace  and  the  leader. 
When  the  second  song  is  started  the  fireman  turns  around  to  the 
right  and  goes  out  and  gets  water  and  soon  comes  back  with  it. 
When  he  reenters  he  makes  the  figure  of  a  cross  on  the  ground  where 
he  stood  just  before  he  left  and  places  water  on  it.  Then  he  squats 
down  on  his  knees. 


radix]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  417 

When  the  leader  stops  singing  he  walks  to  the, crescent  by  the 
fireplace  and  begins  praying  again.  After  the  prayer  he  burns  some 
more  cedar  needles.  The  reason  for  drinking  water  at  midnight  is 
because  Christ  was  born  at  midnight  and  because  of  the  good  tidings 
that  he.  brought  to  the  earth,  for  water  is  one  of  the  best  things  in 
life  and  Christ  is»  the  savior  of  mankind.  After  the  leader  has 
made  his  prayer  and  the  cedar  is  burned,  then  the  fireman  reaches 
over  toward  the  smoke  and  makes  a  motion  with  his  body  as  if  he 
were  drawing  the  smoke  over  himself.  He  then  takes  the  water 
and  brings  it  over  to  the  leader.  The  leader  takes  a  bunch  of  feathers 
and,  dipping  it  into  the  water,  sprinkles  it  on  the  peyote,  then  on 
the  fire,  on  the  sage,  and  finally  all  over  the  lodge,  beginning  with 
the  doorway  and  then  going  around.  The  water  is  then  drunk  in  a 
regular  order,  first  by  the  leader,  then  by  the  drummer,  and  then  by 
all  the  other  people.  After  all  these  things  have  been  done  the  leader 
returns  the  staff  to  the  man  from  whom  he  had  taken  it  at  mid- 
night. As  soon  as  this  man  starts  the  singing  again  the  leader  takes 
his  flute  and  goes  outside.  He  goes  toward  the  east  for  a  short 
distance,  and  there  he  sits  down  and  offers  up  a  prayer  for  the  people. 
Then  he  blows  his  flute,  and  going  to  the  south  of  the  lodge  repeats 
the  same  procedure.  This  is  also  repeated  for  the  west  and  the 
north.  When  the  singing  within  the  lodge  has  stopped,  he  returns 
and  takes  his  seat. 

The  purpose  of  going  to  the  four  directions  and  blowing  the  flute 
is  to  announce  the  birth  of  Christ  to  all  the  world. 

After  the  leader  has  reentered  the  singing  continues  as  before. 
At  daybreak  the  fireman  fixes  the  fire  in  the  same  way  as  at  mid- 
night. The  staff,  drum,  etc.,  is  now  passed  to  the  leader,  who  as 
soon  as  he  has  received  everything  takes  his  flute  and  blows  on  it. 
Before  doing  this,  however,  he  puts  on  his  otter-skin  cap.  The  pur- 
pose of  blowing  the  flute  just  at  that  time  is  to  represent  the  trumpet 
of  the  Day  of  Judgment,  when  Christ  will  appear  wearing  His 
crown  in  all  glory.  The  putting  on  of  the  otter-skin  cap  represents 
the  crown. 

The  song  used  on  this  occasion  is  called  the  water  song.  After 
the  first  song  is  finished  the  fireman  opens  the  door  and  a  woman 
enters  carrying  water,  which  she  pours  over  the  cross  which  the 
fireman  had  sprinkled  at  midnight.  The  fireman  then  spreads  some- 
thing for  her  to  sit  on,  between  the  water  and  the  door. 

When  the  leader  has  finished  his  four  songs,  he  lays  down  his 
staff,  etc.,  and,  taking  some  cedar  needles,  offers  up  a  prayer  of 
thanks,  and  as  ho  finishes  he  throws  the  cedar  into  the  fire  and  sits 
down  while  the  woman  gathers  the  smoke  toward  her  in  the  same 
way  as  the  fireman  had  done  on  the  previous  night.  Then  the 
leader  takes  a  drinking  cup  and  sends  it  toward  the  woman.     The 


418  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [hth.ann.S7 

fireman  now  rises  and  pours  water  on  the  impressions  he  had  made 
when  drawing  the  cross  on  the  earth,  and  the  woman  drinks  some 
water  from  the  cup,  which  she  then  returns  to  the  leader.  The  water 
is  then  returned  to  her  and  she  passes  it  around  the  lodge,  beginning 
at  the  left.  When  it  reaches  the  leader  again,  he  takes  out  the  same 
cup  which  he  had  handed  to  the  woman  and  drinks  out  of  it.  The 
water,  howTever,  is  passed  on  until  it  reaches  the  door.  The  fireman 
would  then  take  it  and  bring  it  back  to  where  it  had  been  placed 
when  first  brought  in.  The  woman  rises  and  goes  around  the  fire- 
place from  left  to  right,  taking  the  water  with  her.  Finally  the 
leader  takes  his  singing  staff  and  sings  four  songs.  When  these 
songs  are  finished,  the  woman  places  some  food  just  outside  the  door. 
The  fireman  goes  outside  and  brings  in  this  food,  placing  it  in  a  line 
between  the  fire  and  the  door.  Four  things  are  brought  in — water, 
corn  with  sweetened  water,  fruit,  and  meat.  When  the  food  is 
brought  in  the  leader  puts  away  all  the  objects  he  had  spread  out 
before  him,  which  the  fireman  takes  out  of  the  lodge.  The  leader 
then  offers  up  a  prayer  of  thanks  and  says  grace.  The  four  kinds  of 
food  are  passed  around  the  lodge,  beginning  with  the  entrance,  from 
left  to  right.  After  they  are  returned  they  are  placed  in  line  again, 
only  in  the  reverse  order  from  that  used  before.  The  fireman  then 
takes  them  outside.  While  the  people  are  eating  the  door  remains 
open. 

(During  the  evening  the  leader  represents  the  first  created  man, 
the  woman  dressed  up  is  the  New  Jerusalem,  the  bride  waiting  for 
the  bridegroom.  The  cup  used  by  the  leader  and  the  woman  is 
supposed  to  symbolize  the  fact  that  they  are  to  become  one;  the 
water  represents  the  God's  gift,  His  Holiness.  The  corn  represents 
the  feast  to  be  partaken  of  on  the  Day  of  Judgment  and  the.  fruit 
represents  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  life.  The  meat  represents  the 
message  of  Christ  and  those  who  accept  it  will  be  saved.)4 

The  above  descriptions  represent  the  Peyote  cult  as  it  was  given 
between  1908  and  1913.  It  is  quite  clear  that  a  definite  organiza- 
tion exists  consisting  of  a  unit  of  five  positions  occupied  by  the  leader 
and  four  helpers.  No  specific  requirements,  with  the  exception,  of 
course,  of  that  of  being  a  peyote  eater,  are  associated  with  the  right 
to  occupy  these  positions. 

No  specialized  features  have  become  associated  with  the  positions 
of  the  four  helpers.  As  indicated  before,  John  Rave  is  always  the 
leader  when  he  is  present,  but  the  position  of  leadership  can  be  dele- 
gated to  others.  This  is  always  of  a  temporary  nature.  It  may  be 
significant  to  note  that  whenever  delegated  the  leadership  is  always 
delegated  to  men  who  have  been  among  the  first  of  the  converts 
outside  of  Rave's  immediate  family,  and  who  were  leaders  in  the  old 

•J.  C's  account  ends  here. 


badin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  419 

pagan  ceremonies.  In  1910  this  delegation  of  leadership  was  clearly 
a  recent  tendency,  conditioned,  on  the  one  hand,  by  the  size  of  the 
reservation  and  the  impossibility  of  Rave's  being  everywhere,  and,  on 
the  other  hand,  by  Rave's  frequent  absence  on  proselytizing  missions. 
In  1913  it  had  already  become  customary  for  a  number  of  men  to 
hold  the  position  of  leader  even  when  Rave  was  present.  A  further 
complication  was  introduced  when  Jesse  Clay  began  giving  the  peyote 
ceremonies  in  the  Arapaho  manner,  for  he  then  stood  in  the  same 
relation  to  his  method  of  giving  the  ceremony  as  Rave  stood  to  the 
older  form.  As  we  shall  see,  there  was,  even  in  1908,  a  separatist 
movement  led  by  Albert  Hensley,  which,  if  it  had  succeeded,  would 
have  given  Hensley  the  same  leadership  that  Rave  enjoyed  before 
him  and  that  Clay  subsequently  acquired. 

Development  of  the  Ritualistic  Complex 

From  the  accounts  given  by  various  members  of  the  Peyote  cult  it 
is  quite  clear  that  Rave  became  interested  in  the  peyote  on  one  of 
his  many  trips  to  Oklahoma.  According  to  the  verbal  account  he 
gave,  which  differs  hi  some  respects  from  the  account  he  subsequently 
dictated  on  the  particular  visit  which  resulted  in  his  first  eating  the 
peyote,  he  was  in  a  most  distressed  and  unhappy  condition  of  mind 
owing  to  the  loss  of  his  wife  and  children.5  He  went  away  from 
Winnebago  with  the  intention  of  staying  away  as  long  as  possible  from 
the  scene  of  his  loss. 

Rave's  account  of  his  conversion  gives  a  sufficiently  dramatic  pic- 
ture of  how  he  first  ate  the  peyote  and  its  immediate  effects.  In 
response  to  numerous  questions  as  to  how  he  was  first  induced  to  eat 
the  peyote  he  always  said  that  it  was  because  he  had  been  so  fre- 
quently asked.  It  is,  however,  far  more  likely  that  he  was  passing 
through  an  emotional  crisis  at  that  particular  time,  and  the  requests 
that  he  partake  of  it  and  the  inducements  held  out  to  him,  made  it 
easier  for  him  to  succumb  then  than  on  his  previous  visits. 

To  judge  from  Rave's  remarks,  Jus  first  belief  in  the  peyote  had 
nothing  of  the  nature  of  a  conversion  to  a  new  religion.  It  seems  to 
have  been  similar  to  the  average  Winnebago  attitude  toward  a  medici- 
nal plant  obtained  either  as  a  gift  or  through  purchase.  There  is 
only  one  new  note — -stimulation  by  a  narcotic. 

Rave  states  that  the  peyote  cured  him  of  a  disease  with  which  he 
had  been  afflicted  for  a  long  time.  After  repeated  requests  his  wife 
also  consents  to  being  treated;  so  he  paints  her  face  and,  taking  the 
rattle,  sings  peyote  songs  while  she  eats  the  peyote.     His  attitude 

5  In  the  account  Rave  himself  gives  he  speaks  of  seeing  his  wife  and  children.  As  his  verbal  statement 
was  corroborated  by  other  people,  we  are  inclined  to  believe  that  in  his  dictated  account  of  his  conversion 
he  had  forgotten  the  actual  state  of  affairs.  It  may,  of  course,  be  that  in  his  ardent  desire  to  show  the  mar- 
velous effects  of  the  peyote  he  permitted  his  memory  to  play  him  false. 


420  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ass.  37 

throughout,  both  from  his  own  testimony  and  from  that  of  others, 
seems  to  have  been  practically  the  attitude  of  the  Winnebago  shaman. 
He  even  offered  tobacco  to  the  peyote. 

We  have,  then,  at  the  beginning  the  introduction  of  apparently 
only  one  new  element — the  peyote,  with  possibly  a  few  Christian 
teachings.  Everything  else  seems  to  be  typically  Winnebago,  and  in 
consonance  with  their  shamanistic  practices.  On  the  whole,  the 
extension  of  the  Winnebago  cultural  background  seems  to  have  been 
so  instantaneous  that  so  far  as  the  specific  cultural  traits  of  the  Win- 
nebago are  concerned  there  was  hardly  anything  new  at  all.  This 
view  does  not,  of  course,  interfere  in  the  least  with  the  fact  that  to 
the  Winnebago  themselves  the  presence  of  the  peyote  represented 
the  introduction  of  a  new  element. 

The  elaboration  of  the  peyote  practices  at  Rave's  hands  is  the  most 
difficult  problem  to  trace  on  account  of  the  lack  of  data.  In  the 
account  that  he  gives  of  his  conversion  there  is  no  evidence  whatso- 
ever of  any  antagonistic  attitude  toward  the  old  Winnebago  manner 
of  living.  When  the  author  met  him,  however,  for  the  first  time,  in 
1908,  this  passive  attitude  had  changed  to  one  of  violent  hatred  for 
the  old  Winnebago  customs.  Why  and  under  what  circumstances 
this  change  took  place  we  do  not  know.  It  probably  represented 
the  interaction  of  many  elements,  the  hostility  of  the  tribe,  the 
drawing  of  issues  sharply  around  certain  points,  and  the  gradual 
assumption  on  the  part  of  Rave  of  the  role  of  a  prophet  who  had 
solved  the  problem  of  the  adjustment  of  the  Winnebago  to  the  sur- 
rounding white  civilization.  Offhand,  one  might  be  inclined  to 
believe  that  Rave's  insistence  upon  breaking  with  the  past  was  due 
entirely  to  the  influence  of  the  Christian  elements  incorporated  in  his 
new  religion.  It  is,  however,  extremely  doubtful  whether  such  an 
assumption  is  necessary.  There  seem  to  have  been  comparatively 
few  Christian  elements  in  the  religion  before  Albert  Hensley's  influ- 
ence had  made  itself  felt,  yet  many  of  the  old  war  bundles  had  been 
destroyed  long  before  that  time,  and  the  peyote  eaters  were  looked 
upon  with  cordial  dislike  by  the  conservative  members  of  the  tribe. 
The  admonition  that  only  a  complete  break  with  the  past  could 
save  the  Winnebagoes  and  enable  them  to  compete  successfully  with 
the  white  intruders  had  been  given  to  the  Winnebagoes  once  before 
by  the  famous  Shawnee  prophet.  What  the  latter  claimed,  however, 
was  that  the  various  sacred  objects  used  by  the  Winnebago  had  lost 
their  power,  and  that  that  power  must  now  be  renewed.  This  he 
thought  could  only  be  done  by  returning  to  the  old  manner  of  living 
which  he  claimed  the  Winnebago  were  no  longer  following.  Such  a 
claim  was,  after  all,  not  revolutionary.  It  is  not,  therefore,  the  break 
with  the  Winnebago  present-day  viewpoint  that  characterizes  Rave's 
attitude,  but  the  fact  that  instead  of  returning  to  the  older,  purer 


eadin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  421 

life  as  the  Shawnee  prophet  proposed  to  do,  he  substituted  an  alien 
religion.  It  was  because  he  was  introducing  an  alien  religion,  not 
because  he  was  introducing  a  new  religion,  that  he  was  so  intensely 
hated  by  the  conservative  members  of  the  tribe. 

When  this  hostility  was  at  its  height  a  new  convert,  Albert  Hensley, 
revolutionized  the  entire  cult  by  introducing  the  reading  of  the  Bible, 
postulating  the  dogma  that  the  peyote  opened  the  Bible  to  the  under- 
standing of  the  people,  and  also  adding  a  number  of  Christian  prac- 
tices. He,  like  Kave,  had  been  in  Oklahoma.  He  brought  back 
with  him  many  peyote  songs,  generally  in  other  languages,  dealing 
with  Christian  ideas,  upon  which  subsequently  Winnebago  songs 
were  modeled.  He  also  introduced  either  baptism  itself  or  an  inter- 
pretation of  baptism,  and  induced  Rave  to  attempt  a  union  with  the 
Christian  Church.  He  seems  to  have  been  the  only  prominent  man 
connected  with  the  peyote  who  was  subject  to  epileptic  fits.  He  had 
the  most  glorious  visions  of  heaven  and  hell  while  in  his  trance,  and 
these  he  expounded  afterwards  in  terms  of  Revelation  and  the 
mystical  portions  of  the  New  Testament.  Hensley's  additions  repre- 
sent a  second  stratum  of  borrowed  elements,  all  of  which  are  in  the 
nature  of  accretions  as  far  as  the  peyote  itself  is  concerned.  The 
Bible  is  explained  in  terms  of  the  peyote.  Neither  Hensley  nor  his 
followers  ever  interpreted  the  peyote  in  terms  of  the  Bible,  although 
other  elements  of  the  old  Winnebago  culture  were  so  interpreted. 
These  elements,  however,  represented  features  that  even  in  the  old 
Winnebago  cults  exhibited  a  great  variabilitjr  in  interpretation. 

Rave's  attitude  toward  the  innovations  of  Hensley  seems  to  have 
been  that  of  a  benevolent  acquiescence.  He  himself  could  neither 
read  nor  write.  Yet  he  immediately  accepted  the  Bible  and  added 
it  to  his  other  regalia.  As  such  it  always  seems  to  have  remained. 
To  Rave,  after  all,  the  peyote  was  the  principal  element,  and  if  Hen- 
sley  chose  to  insist  that  the  Bible  was  only  intelligible  to  those  who 
partook  of  the  peyote  why  that  naturally  fell  within  its  magical 
powers.  From  the  entire  omission  in  Rave's  account  of  the  Peyote 
cult  of  the  more  important  things  that  Hensley  introduced  and 
from  the  fact  that  whenever  Hensley's  influence  was  not  dominant 
there  seems  to  have  been  little  Bible  reading,  it  seems  justifiable  to 
say  that  Rave's  attitude  toward  these  innovations  was  merely 
passive. 

There  never  was  any  rivalry  between  Rave  and  Hensley.  The 
latter  was,  however,  a  much  3rounger  man,  quick-tempered,  con- 
ceited, dogmatic,  and  withal  having  a  strong  mixture  of  Puritan 
Protestant  ideas.  A  conflict  developed  after  a  while  and  in  a  very 
interesting  manner.  Rave  had  allowed  a  man  with  an  extremely 
bad  reputation,  who  had  been  admitted  as  a  member  of  the  Peyote 
cult,  to  occupy  one  of  the  four  positions.     Hensley  violently  pro- 


422  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

tested,  on  the  ground  that  a  man  of  X.'s  character  could  not  properly 
perform  the  rites  associated  with  that  position.  Rave,  however, 
retorted  that  the  efficacy  of  the  peyote,  of  any  position  connected 
with  its  cult,  was  in  no  way  connected  with  the  character  of  the  per- 
former, and  that  it  was  inherent  in  the  peyote  and  in  the  Peyote 
ritual.  Thereupon,  after  much  parleying  to  and  fro,  Hensley  form- 
ally seceded,  taking  with  him  a  number  of  followers.  The  bulk  of 
the  peyote  eaters,  however,  remained  with  Rave,  and  within  a  com- 
paratively short  time  a  number  of  Hensley's  followers  returned  to 
Rave,  so  that  in  191 1  Hensley  had  merely  a  handful  of  people.  Since 
then  he  has  ceased  to  be  a  force,  although  his  innovations  have  been 
retained  by  a  number  of  the  younger  Peyote  members,  especially  by 
those  who  read  English. 

In  1911  there  was  no  unification  of  the  ideas  of  Rave  and  Hensley. 
Since  then,  strange  to  say,  although  Hensley's  attempt  to  set  up  his 
own  religion  failed  utterly,  his  ideas  and  Christain  imiovations  seemed 
to  have  triumphed  completely.  This,  however,  has  gone  hand  in 
hand  with  a  marked  dropping  off  of  enthusiasm.  It  appears  now  as 
if  the  Peyote  cult  has  run  its  course.  Some  of  the  members  have 
recently  returned  to  the  old  pagan  customs,  others  have  practically 
become  Christians,  and  many  have  become  indifferent. 

Unquestionably  the  most  interesting  of  recent  innovations  is  that 
introduced  by  Jesse  Clay,  the  account  of  which  has  been  given  be- 
fore. This  is,  of  course,  the  Arapaho  manner  of  conducting  the  cere- 
mony. At  the  present  time  it  has  none  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
Winnebago  ceremonial.  Whether  in  the  next  few  years  it  will  develop 
any  depends  upon  the  interest  manifested  in  it  by  the  Peyote  worship- 
ers and  upon  the  vitality  of  the  Peyote  movement  in  general. 

It  is  extremely  suggestive  to  compare  what  Rave  introduced  with 
the  ceremony  borrowed  by  Clay.  The  former  introduced  an  isolated 
element,  the  peyote  and  its  worship,  and  clothed  it  almost  imme- 
diately in  characteristic  Winnebago  forms.  It  can  truly  be  said 
that  although  the  peyote  is  an  alien  element,  from  the  Winnebago 
viewpoint,  everything  else  in  the  ceremony  is  and  was  from  the 
beginning  typically  Winnebago.  Clay's  method  of  conducting  the 
Peyote  ceremonies,  on  the  other  hand,  is  entirely  alien.  For  it  ever 
to  become  popular  with  the  large  mass  of  Winnebago  it  will  have  to 
become  thoroughly  assimilated  with  the  Winnebago  background. 

Dissemination  of  the  Doctrine 

Let  us  now  see  how  the  ideas  of  Rave  and  Hensley  were  trans- 
mitted in  the  tribe  itself,  who  the  first  and  the  later  converts  were, 
in  what  the  nature  of  their  conversion  consisted,  and  what  they, 
in  turn,  brought  to  the  new  cult. 


badin]  THE   PEYOTE   CULT  423 

The  first  and  foremost  virtue  predicated  by  Rave  for  the  peyote 
was  its  curative  power.  He  gives  a  number  of  instances  in  which 
hopeless  venereal  diseases  and  consumption  were  cured  by  its  use; 
and  this  was  the  first  thing  one  heard  about  it  as  late  as  1913.  In 
the  early  days  of  the  Peyote  cult  it  appears  that  Rave  relied  prin- 
cipally for  new  converts  upon  the  knowledge  of  this  great  curative 
virtue  of  the  peyote.  The  main  point  apparently  was  to  induce 
people  to  try  it.  No  amount  of  preaching  of  its  direct  effects,  such 
as  the  hyperstimulation  induced,  the  glorious  visions,  and  the  feeling 
of  relaxation  following,  would  ever  have  induced  prominent  members 
of  the  old  Winnebago  religious  societies  to  try  it.  For  that  reason 
it  is  highly  significant  that  all  the  old  members  of  the  Peyote  cult 
speak  of  the  diseases  of  which  it  cured  them.  Along  this  line  lay 
unquestionably  its  appeal  for  the  most  converts.  Its  subsequent 
spread  was  due  to  a  large  number  of  interacting  factors.  One  in- 
formant claims  that  there  was  little  religion  connected  with  it  at 
first,  and  that  the  people  drank  the  peyote  on  account  of  its  peculiar 
effects. 

The  manner  in  which  it  spread  at  the  beginning  was  simple  and 
significant — viz,  along  family  lines.  As  soon  as  an  individual  had 
become  a  peyote  eater  he  devoted  all  his  energies  to  converting 
other  members  of  his  family.  From  instances  that  have  come  to 
our  notice  this  lay  in  an  insistent  appeal  to  family  ties  and  personal 
affection.  A  man  showed  unusual  courtesy,  showered  innumerable 
favors  upon  relatives  he  was  anxious  to  convert,  and  thereby  earned 
the  gratitude  of  the  recipient,  who  at  some  critical  moment,  let  us 
say,  such  as  illness  or  mental  depression,  showed  it  by  partaking  of 
the  peyote.  The  same  methods  were  employed  in  the  more  general 
propaganda.  The  author  knows  of  Peyote  people  who  drove  many 
miles  in  order  to  be  present  at  the  bedside  of  some  old  conservative 
who  was  ill,  perhaps  neglected  by  his  relatives;  bring  him  food,  and 
spend  the  night  with  him  in  the  most  affectionate  solicitude.  They 
always  had  sufficient  tact  and  understanding  of  human  nature  not 
to  obtrude  their  purpose  on  the  sick  man  too  much.  To  the  casual 
observer  their  object  seemed  simply  that  of  a  Samaritan.  They 
would  hardly  have  admitted  that  behind  all  their  solicitude  lay  the 
desire  to  obtain  a  new  convert.  They  would  have  claimed  that  their 
only  purpose,  over  and  above  their  sincere  desire  to  cdmfort  the 
sick  man,  was  to  demonstrate  to  their  fellow  Winnebago  what  changes 
the  peyote  had  wrought  in  them.  In  this  way  the  patient  drew  the 
inference,  an  inference  that  was  likely  to  be  drawn  all  the  more  quickly 
and  forcibly  when  he  contrasted  the  behavior  of  these  Peyote  nurses 
with  that  of  his  pagan  relatives.  The  author  was  fortunate  enough 
to  obtain  a  fairly  complete  account  of  a  conversion,  illustrating  both 
these  features. 


424  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

What  the  Converts  Introduced 

It  is  quite  impossible  to  establish  now  what  these  converts  intro- 
duced individually.  For  that  matter  it  is  not  necessary  to  assume 
that  they  brought  any  specific  additions  to  the  cult.  What  they  did 
bring  were  Winnebago;  and  with  that,  the  emotional  and  cultural 
sotting  of  the  old  pagan  background.  To  one,  the  eating  of  the 
peyote  gave  the  same  magical  powers  that  were  formerly  associated 
with  membership  in  the  medicine  dance;  to  another,  the  visions  were 
direct  blessings  from  God,  directing  him  to  perform  certain  actions; 
to  a  third,  faithfulness  to  the  teachings  of  the  Peyote  cult  became 
associated  with  a  certainty  of  reaching  God,  of  being  able  to  take  the 
right  road  in  the  journey  to  the  spirit  land.  Even  a  man  so  thor- 
oughly saturated  with  Christian  doctrines  as  Hensley  himself  felt  it 
necessary  to  introduce  an  origin  myth;  and  although  we  know  that 
he  borrowed  it  from  a  southern  tribe,  it  is  quite  clear  that  in  Hensley's 
narrative  it  has  already  assumed  all  the  characteristics  of  a  Winne- 
bago fasting  experience  and  ritualistic  myth,  similar  to  those  con- 
nected with  the  founders  of  the  old  Winnebago  cult  societies.  In  its 
totality  the  atmosphere  of  the  Peyote  cult  became  thus  charged  with 
the  old  Winnebago  background.  In  1911  it  can  not  be  said  that  they 
had  displaced  the  distinctive  Christian  elements.  Among  the  younger 
members,  especially  those  who  had  been  trained  in  the  east  and  could 
read  and  write  English,  the  influence  of  the  Christian  ideas  in  the 
interpretation  of  the  old  pagan  features  is,  as  was  pointed  out  before, 
so  strong  to-day  that  it  threatens  to  displace  the  others. 

The  following  homily  will  show  how  the  old  myths  were  used  by 
the  younger  Peyote  members  to  point  a  tale. 

The  old  people  often  spoke  of  the  Trickster,  but  we  never  knew 
what  they  meant.  They  told  us  how  he  wrapped  a  coon-skin  blanket 
around  himself  and  went  to  a  place  where  all  the  people  were  danc- 
ing. There  he  danced  until  evening  and  then  he  stopped  and  turned 
around.  No  one  was  to  be  seen  anywhere,  and  then  he  realized  that 
he  had  mistaken  for  people  dancing  the  noise  made  by  the  wind  blow- 
ing through  the  reeds. 

So  do  we  Winnebagoes  act.  We  dance  and  make  a  lot  of  noise,  but 
in  the  end,  we  accomplish  nothing. 

Once,  as  the  Trickster  was  going  toward  a  creek,  he  saw  a  man 
standing  on  the  other  side,  dressed  in  a  black  suit,  and  pointing  his 
finger  at  him.  He  spoke  to  the  man  but  the  latter  would  not  answer. 
Then  he  spoke  again  and  again,  but  without  receiving  any  reply. 
Finally  he  got  angry  and  said,  "See  here !  I  can  do  that  too."  He  put 
on  the  black  coat  and  pointed  his  finger  across  the  creek.  Thus  both 
of  them  stood  all  day.  Toward  evening,  when  he  looked  around  again , 
he  noticed  that  the  man  across  the  creek,  pointing  his  finger  at  him, 
was  really  just  a  tree  stump.     "O  my!  what  have  I  been  doing  all 


radin]  THE  PEYOTE   CULT  425 

this  time?  Why  did  I  not  look  before  I  began?  No  wonder  the 
people  call  me  the  Foolish  One." 

So  are  we  Winnebagoes.  We  never  look  before  we  act.  We  do 
everything  without  thinking.     We  think  we  know  all  about  it. 

The  Trickster  was  walking  around  with  a  pack  on  his  back.  As  he 
walked  along,  someone  called  to  him.  "Say,  we  want  you  to  sing." 
"All  right,"  said  he.  "I  am  carrying  songs  in  my  pack,  and  if  you 
wish  to  dance,  build  a  large  lodge  for  me  with  a  small  hole  at  the  end 
for  an  entrance."  When  it  was  finished,  they  all  went  in,  and  the 
Trickster  foUowed  them.  Those  who  had  spoken  to  him  were  birds. 
He  told  them  that  while  dancing  they  were  not  to  open  their  eyes, 
for  if  they  did  their  eyes  would  become  red.  Whenever  a  fat  bird 
passed  the  Trickster  he  would  choke  it  to  death,  and  if  it  cried  out, 
he  would  say,  "That's  it!  That's  it!  Give  a  whoop!" 

After  a  while  one  of  the  birds  got  somewhat  suspicious  and  opened 
its  eyes  just  the  least  little  bit.  He  saw  that  the  Trickster  was 
choking  all  the  birds.  "He  is  killing  us  all, "  said  the  bird.  "Let  all 
who  can  run  for  their  lives."  Then  he  flew  out  through  the  top  of  the 
house.  The  Trickster  took  the  birds  he  had  killed  and  roasted  them; 
but  he  did  not  get  a  chance  to  eat  them,  for  they  were  taken  away 
from  him  by  somebody. 

So  are  we  Winnebagoes.  We  like  all  that  is  forbidden.  We  say 
that  we  like  the  medicine  dance;  we  say  that  it  is  good  and  yet  we 
keep  it  secret  and  forbid  people  to  witness  it.  We  tell  members  of 
the  dance  not  to  speak  about  it  until  the  world  shall  come  to  an  end. 
They  are  afraid  to  speak  of  it.  We,  the  Winnebago,  are  the  birds, 
and  the  Trickster  is  satan. 

Once,  as  the  Trickster  was  going  along  the  road,  some  one  spoke  to 
him.  He  listened,  and  he  heard  it  say,  "If  anyone  eats  me  all  bad 
things  will  come  out  of  him."  Then  the  trickster  went  up  to  the  one 
talking,  and  said,  "What  is  your  name?"  "My  name  is  'Blows- 
himself-away."'  The  Trickster  would  not  believe  it;  so  he  ate  it. 
After  a  while,  he  blew  himself  away.  He  laughed.  "Oh,  pshaw!  I 
suppose  this  is  what  it  meant."  As  he  went  along  it  grew  worse  and 
worse,  and  it  was  only  after  the  greatest  hardship  that  he  succeeded  in 
returning  home. 

So  are  we  Winnebagoes.  We  travel  on  this  earth  all  our  lives,  and 
then  when  one  of  us  tastes  something  that  makes  him  unconscious 
we  look  upon  this  thing  with  suspicion  when  he  regains  consciousness. 

The  Attitude  of  the  Conservatives 

At  every  phase  of  the  cult's  development  Rave  had  to  contend  with 
the  hostility  of  the  conservative  members  of  the  tribe.     It  would  be 
interesting  to  know  in  what  manner  and  degree  this  hostility  mani- 
186S230— 22 28 


426  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

festecl  itself  upon  the  first  introduction  of  the  peyote.  As  we  have 
seen,  there  was  in  the  beginning  little  difference  between  the  beliefs 
relating  to  the  peyote  and  those  connected  with  the  old  Winnebago 
medicinal  plants.  Nevertheless  the  author  was  assured  that  hos- 
tility was  exhibited  to  the  new  cult  from  the  very  start.  Would  the 
same  hostility  have  been  exhibited  had  this  new  feature  represented 
some  development  from  within  the  tribe  ?  In  other  words,  what  it 
would  be  interesting  to  know,  is  whether  the  fact  that  the  peyote 
was  derived  from  without  led  to  a  hostility  different  in  kind  from  that 
exhibited  toward  an  innovation  developing  within  the  culture  itself. 
No  evidence  could  be  obtained  that  would  justify  us  in  explaining  the 
hostility  felt  by  the  older  conservative  Winnebago  as  due  in  any  part 
to  the  fact  that  it  was  alien  in  origin.  Certain  elements  that  to-day 
form  an  integral  part  of  the  most  popular  of  all  Winnebago  cere- 
monies were  borrowed  from  the  Sauk  and  Iowa,  and  the  Winnebago 
realize  this  and  mention  it  in  the  introductory  myths  told  in  connec- 
tion with  the  preparatory  rites  of  the  medicine  dance.  The  explana- 
tion obtained  was  always  the  same — that  the  hostility  was  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  teachings  of  the  Peyote  people  departed  from  those  of  their 
ancestors  and  that  the  Peyote  were  simply  aping  the  habits  and 
customs  of  the  whites.  What  seems  to  have  met  with  the  greatest 
opposition  from  the  older  shamans  was  the  denial  of  the  doctrine  of 
reincarnation.  The  Christian  doctrine  of  the  immortality  of  the  soul 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  felt  as  a  substitute  at  all.  One  old  con- 
servative assured  the  author  that  he  had  long  ago  prophesied  the 
appearance  of  the  peyote  among  the  Winnebago.  He  told  the  author 
the  following: 

"This  medicine  is  one  of  the  four  spirits  from  below,  and  for  that 
reason  it  is  a  bad  thing.  These  spirits  have  always  longed  for  human 
beings  and  now  they  are  getting  hold  of  them.  Those  who  use  this 
medicine  claim  that  when  they  die  they  will  only  be  going  on  a  long 
journey.  But  that  is  not  the  truth,  for  when  they  eat  peyote  they 
destroy  their  spirits,  and  death  to  them  will  mean  extermination. 
If  I  spit  upon  the  floor,  the  sputum  will  soon  dry  up  and  nothing  will 
remain  of  it.  So  death  will  be  for  them.  I  might  go  out  and  preach 
against  this  doctrine,  but  it  would  be  of  no  avail,  for  I  certainly  would 
not  be  able  to  draw  more  than  one  or  two  people  away  from  this 
spirit.  Many  will  be  taken  in  by  this  medicine;  they  will  not  be  able 
to  help  themselves  in  any  way.  The  bad  spirit  will  certainly  seize 
them." 


CHAPTER  XVII 


THE  CLAN  WAR-BUNDLE  FEASTS 
The  War-Bundle  Feast  of  the  Thunderbird  Clan1 

(first  version) 
INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS 

The  Wagigo',  Winter  Feast,  or  War-bundle  Feast,  as  it  is  gen- 
erally called,  is  one  of  the  principal  ceremonies  of  the  Winnebago. 
It  is  to  a  certain  extent  a  clan  ceremonial,  for  the  clan  is  the  basis 
jDf  its  organization,  but  apart  from  that  fact,  it  has  really  nothing 
to  do  with  the  clan  and  must  not  be  confused  with  the  specific  clan 
feasts  held  once  a  year.  A  perusal  of  the  following  sketch  will  show 
clearly  that  we  are  in  reality  dealing  with  a  ceremony  primarily  con- 
nected with  success  in  war  and  that  its  distinctive  peculiarity  among 
the  Winnebago  is  that  it  has  developed  into  a  general  ceremony  of 
thanksgiving  to  the  spirits  and  developed  an  organization  based  on 
the  clan  unit.  As  a  result  of  the  latter  fact,  we  find  12  war  rituals 
all  essentially  the  same  in  content  and  differing  only  in  details  and 
in  the  fact  that  the  host  in  each  of  the  12  performances  belongs  to  a 
different  clan.  The  specific  differences  in  each  performance  are, 
first,  the  content  of  the  war  bundle;  second,  the  origin  myths  of  the 
feast  and  of  the  songs  associated  with  each  bundle;  third,  the  songs 

i  Phonetic  table.— All  the  consonants  have  the  same  value  as  those  in  English  with  the  following 
exceptions: 

c  Is  pronounced  like  sh  in  English.  e  is  short  and  close  but  not  as  close  as  the  French 

j  has  the  sound  of  z  in  azure.  e  in  fete. 

tc  has  the  sound  of  ch  i  n  church.  e  is  long  close  e. 

dj  has  the  sound  of;  in  judge.  e  is  broad  impure,  as  in  an  accentuated  pronun- 

x  has  the  sound  of  eft  in  German  Bach.  ciation  of  ci  in  eight. 

y  is  the  sonant  of  r.  i  is  short  and  open  as  in  tin. 

t  is  aslightly  trilled  linguo-apieal  r.  j  is  short  and  close. 

n  has  the  sound  of  ng  in  sing.  i  is  long  and  close. 

n  always  represents  r  preceded  by  a  nasalized  o  is  short  and  open, 

vowel .  o  is  short  and  close. 

t  is  a  marked  surd.  6  is  long  and  close. 

b  and  g  are  intermediate  stops,  except  in  certain  6  is  long  and  open, 

positions,  where  they  become  true  sonants.  u  is  short  and  open. 

•  is  the  glottal  stop.  u  is  short  and  close. 

Consonants  followed  by  '  represent  aspirated  u  is  long  and  close, 

stops.  a  is  obscure  a. 

The  vowels  have  the  following  values:  E  is  obscure  e. 

a  has  the  sound  of  a  win  aught.  '  denotes  nasalization. 

a  is  the  short  continentala.  '  denotes  primary  stress  accent. 

a  is  long  a.  %  denotes  secondary  stress  accent. 

e  is  short  open  as  in  pen. 

427 


428  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

themselves;  and,  lastly,  the  order  in  which  the  guests  are  invited 
(pis.  56,  57,  58). 

It  follows  from  the  above  remarks  that  in  order  to  get  a  really 
complete  account  of  the  entire  ceremony  information  should  be 
obtained  from  each  clan.  The  account  given  by  any  one  clan  will 
only  contain  the  origin  myth  and  the  songs  belonging  to  the  war 
bundle  of  that  clan,  for  although  it  is  part  of  the  ceremony  to  relate 
the  origin  myths  of  the  various  war  bundles  and  sing  the  specific 
songs  connected  with  them,  no  individual  would  take  it  upon  himself 
to  tell  any  but  those  relating  to  the  war  bundle  of  his  own  clan. 
Thus  it  will  be  seen  that  any  single  account  is  defective  in  some 
rather  important  particulars. 

ANALYTICAL    PRESENTATION    OF   THE    CEREMONY 

The  ceremony  falls  into  three  well-defined  parts:  I,  the  Sweat 
Lodge;  II,  the  First  Division,  generally  known  either  as  the  Feast 
in  honor  of  Earthmaker  or  the  Feast  in  honor  of  the  Thunderbirds ; 
and  III,  the  Second  Division,  known  as  the  Feast  in  honor  of  the 
Night  Spirits. 

There  is  little  to  be  said  about  the  Sweat  Lodge,  for  it  consists 
exclusively  of  offerings  of  tobacco  and  prayers  to  the  spirits,  on  the 
part  of  the  one  giving  the  ceremony,  whom  we  will  call  the  host. 

The  first  division  can  be  divided  into  the  following  component 
elements:  (1)  The  preparation  of  the  buckskins;  (2)  the  dog  sacrifice; 
(3)  the  filling  of  the  ceremonial  pipe  and  the  smoking  ritual;  (4.)  the 
tobacco  offering  to  the  spirits;  (5)  the  buckskin  offerings  to  the 
spirits;  (6)  the  feast;  (7)  the  fast-eating  contest;  and  (8)  the  basic 
ritual. 

The  second  division  can  be  divided  into  the  following  component 
elements:  (4)  The  tobacco  offering  to  the  spirits;  (9)  the  throwing 
out  of  the  buckskins;  (6)  the  feast;  (10)  the  episode  of  the  "Night- 
crazed"  warrior;  (11)  the  terminal  dog  ritual;  and  (S)  the  basic 
ritual. 

(1)  The  preparation  of  the  huekskins. — The  buckskins,  made  as 
white  as  possible  by  old  women,  are  taken  into  the  lodge  by  the  host 
and  there  marked  in  the  manner  prescribed  for  each  spirit.  They 
are  then  tied  to  a  framework  and  rolled  to  the  top  of  this  frame. 

(2)  The  dog  sacrifice. — The  dog  is  strangled  and  a  pouch  of  tobacco 
is  tied  to  each  limb,  and  another  pouch  and  red  feathers  are  tied 
around  his  neck.  The  body  is  then  laid  in  front  of  the  war  bundle, 
facing  south,  this  being  the  direction  in  which  Disease-giver,  the 
spirit  to  whom  the  dog  is  specially  sacrificed,  lives. 

Before  strangling,  a  short  speech  is  addressed  to  the  dog  in  which 
the  slayer  apologizes  for  killing  him,  and  assures  him  that  in  the 


BUREAU   OF  AMERICAN    ETHNOLOGY     TH  I  RTY-SEVENTH  AN  NU  AL  REPORT      PLATE   56 


a.  THUNDERBIRD  WAR  BUNDLE 


ti  ^reB*,-  ■:  ^c£v,3yii 

1     riXrf"' fct^iHyr  dj^^^Mm 

6.  HAWK  WAR  BUNDLE 


BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY    TH  I  RTY-SEVENTH  AN  NU  AL  REPORT     PLATE  57 


CONTENTS  OF  THUNDERBIRD  WAR  BUNDLE 


BUREAU  OF  AMERICAN   ETHNOLOGY     TH  I  RTY-SEVENTH  AN  NU  AL  REPORT     PLATE  58 


CONTENTS  OF  HAWK  WAR  BUNDLE 


eadin]  THE   CLAN  WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  429 

place  to  which  he  is  going  he  will  live  far  more  happily  than  here 
among  men. 

(3)  Filling  of  the  ceremonial  pipe  and  the  smoking  ritual. — Before  the 
basic  ritual  of  the  first  division  is  begun  the  attendants  take  some 
tobacco  and,  filling  the  ceremonial  pipe,  place  it  near  the  war  bundle. 
As  the  first  pipeful  is  intended  for  Earthmaker,  the  stem  is  directed 
vertically.  Then  "as  soon  as  the  appropriate  songs  have  been  sung 
the  attendant  lights  the  pipe  and  passes  it  around  the  lodge,  so  that 
all  the  men  may  smoke.  When  the  pipe  returns  to  the  host  it  is 
again  filled. 

This  procedure  is  repeated  three  more  times,  but  as  in  each  case 
the  offering  is  to  a  different  spirit,  the  arrangement  of  the  pipestem  is 
different.  At  the  second  filling  of  the  pipe  the  stem  is  turned  to  the 
west  for  the  Thunderbirds ;  at  the  third,  it  is  turned  to  the  south  for 
Disease-giver;  and  at  the  fourth,  it  is  turned  toward  the  earth  for 
the  earth  and  the  spirits  that  live  under  the  earth. 

(4)  Tobacco  offerings  to  the  spirits. — This  occurs  in  two  forms, 
(a)  and  (b). 

(a)  When  the  buckskins  have  been  prepared  and  rolled  up  on  the 
frameworks,  then  all  those  participating  march  around  the  lodge  to 
the  place  where  the  war  bundle  is  lying  and  pour  tobacco  upon  it. 
Then  they  offer  tobacco  to  all  the  spirits  worshiped.  The  spirits  men- 
tioned specifically  are,  however,  few  in  number,  the  offerings  being 
really  directed  to  the  six  cardinal  points,  east,  north,  west,  south, 
above,  and  below. 

(6)  This  is  a  more  specific  offering  and  all  the  spirits  are  mentioned 
by  name  and  short  addresses  are  made  to  them.  It  is  repeated  three 
times — -once  in  the  Sweat-Lodge  ritual,  then  in  the  first,  and  lastly 
in  the  second  division 

In  the  Sweat-Lodge  ritual  the  offering  of  tobacco  is  made  to  the 
following  spirits:  Earthmaker,  Thunderbirds,  Great  Black  Hawk, 
Night  Spirits,  Disease-giver,  Sun,  Moon,  South  Wind,  and  Eagle. 

In  the  first  division  the  order  is  different  and  more  spirits  are  sacri- 
ficed to.  The  spirits  to  whom  tobacco  is  offered  are  the  following: 
Earthmaker,  Thunderbirds,  Night  Spirits,  Disease-giver,  Sun, 
Earth,  Moon,  Eagle  Chief,  Day,  South  Wind,  North  Wind,  Black 
Hawk,  Wonaii're  Uankcik,  and  Great  Black  Hawk. 

In  the  second  division  the  following  spirits  receive  tobacco  offer- 
ings: Night  Spirits,  Earth,  Water,  Pigeon  Hawk,  Moon,  Earthmaker, 
Thunderbird,  Great  Black  Hawk,  Disease-giver,  South  Wind,  and 
Sun. 

Each  spirit  is  addressed  by  name  and  then  a  handful  of  tobacco  is 
poured  into  the  fire. 

(5)  The  buckskin  offering  to  the  spirits. — Short  prayers  are  addressed 
to  those  spirits  who  are  to  receive  buckskins  and  requests  for  power 


430  THE  WINNEBAGO  TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

are  made  to  them.  Only  the  following  spirits  receive  buckskins: 
Thunderbird,  Night  Spirits,  Disease-giver,  South  Wind,  Sun,  Earth- 
maker,  Moon,  Morning  Star,  Earth,  and  Water. 

(6)  The  feasts. — There  are  two  feasts,  the  one  in  the  first  division 
of  the  ceremony  being  generally  known  as  the  Thunderbird  and  that 
in  the  second  division  as  the  Night  Spirit  feast. 

The  guests  are  always  divided  into  two  divisions,  the  owners  of 
war  bundles  and  their  male  followers,  and  the  women.  The  former, 
who  are  always  warriors  of  repute,  get  the  choice  pieces  of  the  deer, 
i.  e.,  the  heads,  and  the  rest  get  the  other  pieces  generally  referred  to 
as  "  the  common  pieces."  The  heads  are  eaten  after  those  eating  the 
common  pieces  have  finished. 

The  host  never  eats  at  the  feast  he  gives,  but  while  the  others  are 
eating  he  plays  on  his  reed  flute. 

(7)  The  fast-eating  contest. — Before  the  heads  are  eaten  two  men 
belonging  to  the  upper  phratry  and  two  belonging  to  the  lower  (i.  e., 
generally  two  members  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  and  two  members  of 
the  Bear  clan)  are  selected  to  take  part  in  the  fast-eating  contest. 
This  consists  of  consuming  an  equal  amount  of  food.  The  one  who 
finishes  first  is  considered  the  greater  warrior.  Both  contestants 
start  at  a  given  signal  and  continue  the  contest  to  the  accompani- 
ment of  songs  sung  by  the  other  guests. 

When  a  member  of  the  upper  phratry  gives  the  ceremony  his  side 
always  wins,  and  vice  versa. 

(8)  The  basic  ritual. — After  the  buckskin  ritual  has  been  finished 
the  host  begins  what  is  unquestionably  the  fundamental  part  of  the 
ceremony,  which  I  have  called  the  "basic  ritual."  It  consists  of 
four  speeches,  each  speech  followed  by  a  different  set  of  songs.  The 
first  speech  is  followed  by  a  set  of  war-bundle  songs ;  the  second  by  a 
paint  set;  the  third  by  a  Disease-giver  set;  and  the  last  by  a  Night 
Spirit  set.  The  last  speech  also  contains  a  fasting  experience  of  the 
first  owner  of  the  war  bundle.  When  he  is  finished,  the  general  feast 
and  the  fast-eating  contest  take  place,  and  the  basic  ritual  is  for  the 
time  interrupted.  It  is  continued  as  soon  as  these  are  finished,  but 
not  in  the  same  manner  as  performed  by  the  host.  Instead  of  four 
speeches  there  is  only  one.  As  soon  as  one  guest  finishes  speaking 
the  other  begins,  and  so  on  until  all  have  finished.1 

In  the  second  division  of  the  ceremony  the  basic  ritual  is  performed 
in  a  slightly  different  manner.  In  the  first  place  there  seem  to  be  two 
parts  to  it,  the  first  one  quite  different  from  the  basic  ritual  as  given 
in  the  first  division,  and  the  second  identical  with  it  except  that 
instead  of  seven  there  are  only  four  guests  called  upon  to  speak. 

In  the  first  part  of  the  basic  ritual,  as  given  here,  the  host  delivers 
three  speeches.     After  the  first  one  a  set  of  Night  Spirit:  songs  are 

'  Additional  information  on  the  Winter  Feasts  might  lead  me  to  an  alteration  of  this  last  statement. 
In  additicn  to  the  present,  three  more  accounts  of  Winter  Feasts  were  received. 


badin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  431 

sung;  after  the  second  one  a  dance  song  is  sung  and  all  the  guests 
who  so  desire  dance  around  the  war  bundle;  after  the  third  one  the 
host  passes  the  drum  and  other  paraphernalia  to  the  guest  who  is  in 
charge  of  the  buckskin  destined  for  Earthmaker.  This  guest  repeats 
the  ritual  in  exactly  the  same  manner  as  the  host  has  done  and  then 
passes  the  drum,  etc.,  to  the  second  guest,  and  when  the  time  comes 
he  passes  the  drum,  etc.,  to  the  third  guest.  Then  the  ritual  of  the 
throwing  out  of  the  buckskins  intervenes,  and  after  that  the  feast  of 
the  Night  Spirits  and  the  rite  of  those  who  have  been  crazed  by  the 
Night  Spirits.  Then,  when  these  are  finished,  the  basic  ritual  is  con- 
tinued. The  continuation  is,  however,  quite  different  from  the  first 
part  and  is  identical  with  the  basic  ritual  as  given  in  the  first  part  of 
the  ceremony. 

(9)  The  throwing  out  of  the  buckskins. — A  warrior  of  great  reputa- 
tion is  selected  to  begin  the  rites  preparatory  to  the  throwing  out  of 
the  buckskins.  One  who  has  been  blessed  by  the  Night  Spirits  is 
preferably  selected.  He  delivers  a  speech,  and  when  he  is  finished 
the  guests  sing  songs  called  "terminal  Night  Spirit "  songs.  Then  the 
host  prepares  to  sing  a  dance  song,  but  before  that  he  delivers  a  speech. 
Then,  as  the  oldest  men  present  sing,  the  host  and  the  guests  imper- 
sonating the  spirits  to  whom  tobacco  is  sacrificed  take  the  buckskins 
and  make  the  circuit  of  the  lodge  four  times.  An  attendant  precedes 
and  another  follows  the  procession,  scattering  incense  consisting  of 
branches  of  the  arbor  vita?.  Just  before  the  fourth  circuit  is  begun 
all  the  children  smoke  their  hands  and  then  touch  the  buckskin  ded- 
icated to  Earthmaker.  After  the  fourth  circuit  has  been  completed 
the  buckskins  are  unrolled  and  thrown  out  through  the  top  of  the 
lodge,  where  the  spirits  are  supposed  to  come  and  take  them.  Af  ter 
this,  all  holding  tobacco  in  their  hands  walk  to  the  fireplace  and  tlirow 
it  in.  Then,  as  a  conclusion,  all,  even  the  women,  rise  in  their  re- 
spective seats  and  dance. 

(10)  The  episode  of  those  who  have  been  crazed  by  the  Night  Spirits.— 
This  is  plainly  an  intrusive  feature  and  does  not  take  place  at  every 
performance  of  the  ceremony.  An  individual  who  has  brought  him- 
self to  a  state  of  religious  frenzy  strips  himself  entirely  and  behaves 
generally  like  one  bereft  of  his  senses.  He  sticks  his  hands  into  the 
boiling  soup  and  makes  a  wild  rush  for  the  pot  where  the  heads  are 
being  cooked  and  tries  to  bite  them.  It  is  believed  that  whoever  gets 
the  first  bite  will,  at  some  future  time,  obtain  a  war  honor.  Then  he 
takes  the  pipe  placed  in  the  center  of  the  lodge,  smokes  it,  and  relates 
some  war  exploits.  He  then  tells  the  assembled  guests  that  in  his 
trance  he  communicated  with  the  spirits,  and  they  told  him  that  they 
had  accepted  all  the  offerings  made.2 

2  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  we  are  dealing  with  an  extremely  specialized  and  interesting  behavior,  that 
in  other  tribes,  and  for  that  matter  among  the  Winnebago  themselves  in  other  ceremonies,  has  an  entirely 
different  connotation. 


432  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

(11)  Terminal  dog  ritual. — This  consists  simply  of  a  speech  by  the 
host  to  the  assembled  guests,  telling  them  that  the  dog  is  to  be  sent  to 
Disease-giver  as  an  offering,  and  that  he  will  pray  to  Disease-giver 
to  preserve  them  from  disease. 

Analysis  op  Types  op  Action  and  Speeches 

Circuit  of  the  lodge. — This  is  always  made  in  a  direction  contrary  to 
that  of  the  hands  of  a  clock.  The  reason  given  for  this  method  is 
that  it  is  supposed  to  represent  the  journey  of  the  Night  Spirits 
around  the  earth. 

Method  of  greeting. — This  is  the  same  as  that  which  exists  in  all 
Winnebago  ceremonies  and  is  accurately  described  in  my  article  on 
the  Winnebago  Medicine  dance.3 

Types  of  speeches. — This  subject  is  of  great  importance  because, 
while  it  is  true  that  a  certain  freedom  is  allowed  in  the  method  of 
delivery  and  the  choice  of  words,  on  the  other  hand,  their  content 
and  to  a  large  extent  their  symbolism  and  imagery  are  stereotyped. 
The  speeches  might  perhaps  best  be  divided  into  the  following  groups: 

(a)  General  addresses. — These  are  generally  delivered  by  the  host  to 
his  guests  and  always  contain  expressions  of  gratitude  for  the  kind- 
ness shown  by  the  guests  in  condescending  to  accept  his  invitation. 

(b)  Speeches  of  thankfulness. — These  are  generally  delivered  by  the 
guests  and  always  contain  complimentary  references  to  the  zealous- 
ness  of  the  host  in  attending  to  his  religious  duties,  expressions  of 
gratitude  for  the  invitation  extended  to  them,  and  protestations, 
couched  in  the  strongest  terms,  of  their  unworthiness  for  the  honor 
thrust  upon  them  and  their  utter  inability  to  do  aught  that  might 
insure  the  acceptance  by  the  spirits  of  the  offerings  extended  to  them. 

(c)  Speeches  of  admonition. — These  are  plainly  exhortations  by  the 
host  to  his  band  and  by  the  leaders  of  the  guests'  bands  to  their 
bands,  beseeching  them  to  do  their  utmost  to  insure  the  success  of 
the  ceremony. 

(d)  Speeches  to  the  spirits. — These  are  prayers  varying  in  length 
and  content. 

THE    DEVELOPMENT    OF   THE    WAR-BUNDLE    FEAST    AND    ITS    PLAGE    IN 
THE    CEREMONIAL    ORGANIZATION    OF    THE    WINNEBAGO 

The  ceremonial  organization  of  the  Winnebago  can  be  divided  into 
three  types,  according  to  the  unit  of  organization  that  prevails. 
We  find  societies  either  based  on  common  religious  qualifications, 
such  as  being  blessed  by  the  same  spirit,  or  those  based  on  a  fixed 
unit,  as  the  five  bands  of  the  Medicine  dance;  organizations  based 
on  the  clan,  as  the  clan  feasts;  or,  finally,  temporary  organizations 
based  on  war  exploits,  such  as  the  Hok'ixe're  dance,  in  which  the 

'Jour.  Amer.  Folklore,  vol.  24,  pp.  149-208,  1911. 


Radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  433 

four  warriors  who  have  counted  coup  on  the  last  warpath  form  the 
units  of  organization.  The  peculiarity  of  the  War-bundle  Feast  is  that 
it  belongs  not  merely  to  one  of  these  types  but  to  two  of  them. 

The  war  bundles  were  originally  family  possessions  and  were,  in 
the  opinion  of  the  writer,  only  secondarily  associated  with  the  clan 
as  such.  They  represent  a  complex  of  blessings  received  from 
various  spirits  who  are  supposed  to  control  the  fortunes  of  war. 
They  were  handed  down  from  one  generation  to  another  in  the  same 
family,  but  not  necessarily  to  the  eldest  son,  and  could  as  a  matter 
of  default  pass  out  of  the  hands  of  the  immediate  family.  The 
individual  who  received  the  war  bundle  was  that  one  who  had  by 
his  interest,  knowledge,  character,  and  accomplishments  demon- 
strated to  the  full  satisfaction  of  the  elder  generation,  more  specifically 
to  the  elder  generation  represented  by  his  father  and  close  male 
relatives  of  his  father's  generation,  that  he  was  capable  of  continuing 
the  ceremonials  in  a  proper  manner.  It  follows  from  this  that  he 
would  have  to  be  a  well-known  warrior.  Now,  it  is  customary 
among  all  the  woodland  tribes  for  a  warrior  who  is  about  to  start 
on  a  warpath  to  give  a  feast  to  which  he  invites  all  the  other  warriors, 
from  among  whom  he,  of  course,  has  to  draw  his  recruits ;  and  at  this 
feast  he  explains  the  nature  of  the  contemplated  warpath  and  his 
warrant — i.  e.,  the  thoroughness  of  the  specific  blessings  he  has  re- 
ceived— for  starting  it. 

In  other  words,  we  will  have  to  picture  to  ourselves  the  war- 
bundle  feast  as  originally  a  gathering  of  warriors  preparatory  to  the 
starting  out  of  a  war  party,  in  which  the  part  of  the  host  was  always 
taken  by  the  leader  of  the  prospective  war  party.  All  of  the  well- 
known  warriors  were  likely  to  have  war  bundles,  and  thus  the  basis 
for  the  development  of  what  is,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  a  society 
of  those  who  had  war  bundles  was  always  present  potentially.  It 
is  believed,  however,  that  at  the  time  the  Winnebago  culture  was 
still  in  the  formative  stage  this  aspect  of  the  gathering  was  entirely 
secondary,  and  that  primarily  it  was  a  gathering  of  warriors  for  the 
immediate  purpose  of  going  on  a  warpath. 

It  may  perhaps  be  interesting  to  go  into  some  details  of  how  this 
"society"  aspect  of  a  gathering  of  warriors  developed.  This  devel- 
opment probably  took  two  lines — first,  a  religious  one,  and  secondly, 
one  of  definite  organization.  It  would  be  quite  erroneous  to  say 
that  it  took  these  lines  of  evolution,  because  it  is  in  the  nature  of 
societies  thus  to  develop.  This  originally  temporary  organization 
took  these  lines  of  development  because  of  the  presence  in  the  war- 
bundle  ritual  of  two  factors — first,  fasting  experiences  associated 
with  the  same  spirits,  and,  second,  the  influence  of  the  clan  organi- 
zation. 

Only  a  small  number  of  spirits  were  specifically  associated  with 
success  in  war,  and  these  were  Disease-giver,  Thunderbirds,  Sun,  and 


434  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.37 

the  Night  Spirits.  All  the  warriors  who  possessed  war  bundles  would 
of  necessity  have  to  receive  blessings  from  these,  although  in  different 
cases  one  or  the  other  may  have  bestowed  the  more  important  powers. 

The  prominence  given  to  the.  Thunderbird  in  the  first  and  to  the 
Night  Spirits  in  the  second  division  give  the  ceremony  a  most  marked 
resemblance  to  societies  like  the  Night  Spirit  society.  In  the  second 
division  it  is  even  essential  to  have  been  blessed  by  the  Night  Spirits 
in  order  to  play  a  certain  role.  There  would  thus  develop  the  con- 
sciousness of  community  of  interest  due  to  the  fact  that  as  individuals 
they  were  bound  together  by  blessings  received  from  the  same 
spirits,  a  feeling  that  was  certain  to  be  still  further  strengthened  since, 
in  all  likelihood,  most  of  the  possessors  of  war  bundles  belonged  to 
societies  where  this  actually  was  the  common  bond.  The  religious 
and  ceremonial  aspect  would  thus  of  necessity  be  reinforced.  The 
prayers  for  success  on  the  warpath  of  course  always  existed,  but 
as  the  extraneous  religious  and  ceremonial  influences  became 
stronger  and  more  insistent  and  as — and  this  should  never  be  for- 
gotten— the  pursuit  of  war  became  less  and  less  important,  owing 
to  the  breaking  down  of  the  culture  consequent  upon  the  advent  of 
the  whites,  these  extraneous  factors  became,  if  not  dominant  at  least 
almost  equal  in  importance  to  the  historically  older  aspect;  and  our 
original  gathering  of  warriors,  while  still  remaining  a  gathering  of  war- 
riors, also  became  a  ceremonial  organization,  in  which  offerings  were 
made  to  the  entire  Winnebago  pantheon  of  spirits.  The  great  war 
spirits  were  still  all-important,  but  their  position  was  contested  by  so 
distinctive  a  peace  deity  as  Earthmaker  and  such  deities  as  Earth, 
Moon,  and  Water.  The  prayers  for  success  in  war  were  perhaps  still 
the  most  insistent,  but  prayers  for  life,  not  life  merely  that  success  in 
war  may  be  longer,  but  prayers  for  the  whole  -content  of  life,  were 
offered  up.  Disease-giver  was  appealed  to  not  merely  to  bestow  upon 
man  the  greatest  of  all  war  honors,  killing  an  enemy  right  in  the  midst 
of  his  tribesmen,  but  also  to  ward  off  disease  from  the  supplicants. 

Still,  as  great  as  have  been  these  extraneous  influences,  the  char- 
acter of  the  feast  as  originally  one  purely  connected  with  war  comes 
out  in  numerous  ways  in  the  association,  for  instance,  of  war  powers 
with  Earthrnaker,  Moon,  and  Earth,  and  significantly  enough,  in  the 
absence  of  the  more  specific  religious  associations  such  as  are  met  with 
in  the  Medicine  dance. 

Let  us  turn  now  to  the  development  of  the  organization  of  the  feast. 
The  development  of  a  fixed  type  of  organization  is  not  absolutely 
necessary.  Societies  may  exist  only  for  certain  occasions,  such  as 
the  return  from  a  warpath,  like  the  Hsk'Ixe're  dance  or  preparatory 
to  the  starting  of  a  war  party,  and  be  practically  nonexistent  after- 
wards. Such  are  the  temporary  war  feasts  of  the  Ojibway,  for 
instance.     However,  one  all  important  circumstance  prevented  this 


kadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  435 

among  the  Winnebago,  and  that  was  the  strong  development  of  clan 
consciousness  among  them.  A  man  was  first  and  foremost  a  member 
of  his  clan,  and  whatever  he  did  redounded  to  the  credit  of  his  clan. 
This  clan  consciousness  was  due  to  the  strong  individuality  the  more 
important  clans  possessed.  They  had  their  own  traditions,  func- 
tions, and  customs,  and  each  clan  was  quite  ignorant  of  the  customs 
of  the  other.  This  clan  organization  was  extremely  old  and,  for  that 
reason,  it  is  not  very  likely  that  the  war  bundle  developed  before  the 
clan  organization  had  matured,  and  from  being  originally  the  private 
possession  of  a  family,  became  subsequently  associated  with  the  clan. 
It  is  more  likely  that  the  war  bundle  developed  after  the  clan  organi- 
zation had  fully  matured,  but  that  it  remained  personal  property. 
However,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  possessor  was  always  an  im- 
portant man,  there  must  always  have  been  a  consciousness  of  a  certain 
proprietary  ownership  on  the  part  of  the  clan  in  the  particular  war 
bundle  within  its  midst.  This  perhaps  accounts  for  the  fact  that 
while  the  bundle  can  pass  out  of  the  hands  of  a  certain  family,  it  can 
not  pass  into  the  hands  of  another  clan.  Subsequently  the  idea  de- 
veloped that  a  family  was  merely  the  custodian  of  the  bundle  for  the 
clan.  Such  seems  to  be  the  popular  conception  among  the  Winnebago 
to-day,  and  it  may  have  represented  the  popular  conception  when  the 
Winnebago  culture  was  still  intact.  I  do  not  believe,  however,  that 
such  a  view  would  have  been  accepted  by  the  family  in  possession  of 
the  war  bundle  or  by  the  learned  class  in  general. 

The  fact  that  there  was  as  a  rule  but  one  war  bundle  in  each  clan 
does  not  mean  that  it  was  developed  originally  through  the  influence 
of  clan  consciousness,  although  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  some  of 
the  war  bundles  arose  in  this  way,  in  imitation  of  "  clan"  bundles  that 
already  existed.  The  reason  for  the  small  number  of  war  bundles  is 
to  be  sought  in  the  fact  that  there  was  a  very  small  number  of  indi- 
viduals possessed  of  the  necessary  qualifications,  and  that  it  was 
probably  originally  associated  with  villages  or  groups  of  villages.4 
Whatever  were  the  reasons  for  the  limitation  in  the  number  of  war 
bundles  in  each  clan,  it  unquestionably  strengthened  the  idea  of  clan 
ownership.  This  idea  must  have  been  powerfully  reinforced  again  by 
those  war  bundles  that  actually  arose  out  of  a  clan-ownership  impulse. 
If,  therefore,  the  actual  owners  resent  this  claim  of  clan  proprietorship 
both  by  reason  of  actual  possession,  of  inheritance  and  consciousness 
of  the  sacrifices  and  expense  they  and  their  ancestors  have  incurred 
in  maintaining  the  ceremonies  connected  with  these  bundles  it  is 
nevertheless  a  fact  that  their  viewpoint  is  probably  wrong  in  so  far 
as  it  is  supposed  to  represent  the  entire  truth,  either  now  or  in  the 
past.  The  actual  unit  of  organization  found  at  the  feast  is  the  clan 
and  there,  at  any  rate,  the  war  bundle  is  a  clan  palladium.     Perhaps 

*  This  statement  is  made  provisionally. 


436  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ams.  37 

this  twofold  interpretation  really  represents  the  war  bundle  in  a  two- 
fold aspect,  first  apart  from  its  association  with  the  war-bundle  feast 
and  second  from  its  association  therewith. 

That  the  clan  is  the  unit  of  organization  comes  out  clearly  from 
the  following  facts:  First,  there  are  as  many  buckskins  offered  as 
there  are  clans;  secondly,  the  order  in  which  the  guests  are  invited 
is  determined  by  the  reciprocal  relations  existing  between  the  different 
clans;  and,  thirdly,  by  references  in  the  speeches.  That  the  clan 
unit,  on  the  other  hand,  has  influenced  the  ceremonial  aspect  of 
the  feast  is  apparent  from  the  fact  that  offerings  are  made  to  the 
clan  animals.  For  example,  in  the  following  ceremony  offerings  are 
made  to  the  Eagle  and  Wona'7ire  Uaijkcik,  who  seem  to  be  of  slight 
importance  apart  from  their  association  with  the  clan. 

The  ceremonial  unit  in  all  Winnebago  societies  consists  of  four 
bands,  four  representing  the  sacred  number,  and  the  ritual  consists 
of  the  passing  of  the  paraphernalia  from  one  to  the  other  unit  until 
it  returns  to  the  host.  The  war-bundle  feast  corresponds  to  the 
other  societies  in  every  respect,  except  that  instead  of  four  there  are 
ten  bands  (with  the  band  of  the  host,  representing  the  eleven  exist- 
ing clans  of  the  tribe).  Had  not  the  consciousness  of  the  relation  of 
the  war  bundle  to  the  clan  been  so  strong  the  ceremonial  unit  would 
probably  have  been  found  here,  as  it  is  found  in  all  the  other 
ceremonies. 

Summing  up,  then,  we  may  say  that  the  war-bundle  feasts  repre- 
sent a  mixed  type  corresponding  exactly  to  no  other  Winnebago 
ceremony,  and  that  beginning  as  a  war  feast  it  developed  in  addi- 
tion some  of  the  features  of  a  secret  society  of  the  type  exemplified 
by  the  Night  Spirit  society,  with  a  unit  of  organization  based  on  the 
clan;  and  that  finally  it  became  a  general  feast  of  thanksgiving  to  the 
entire  Winnebago  pantheon.5 

CHARACTERIZATION  OF  THE    SPIRITS    MENTIONED  IN  THE  WAR-BUNDLE 

FEAST 

All  the  spirits  to  whom  offerings  are  made  in  the  war-bundle 
feast  are  guardian  spirits,  with  the  exception  of  Earthmaker. 
Some  of  them  are  conceived  of  as  being  human,  while  others  have 
animal  forms,  and  still  others  have  an  indeterminate  body.  The 
peculiar  spirit,  Disease-giver,  has  a  form  of  his  own,  his  body  being 
divided  into  two  halves,  one  half  dispensing  death  and  the  other 
life.  Earthmaker  has  no  form,  and  in  the  few  cases  that  he  has  been 
known  to  bless  individuals  he  always  lets  his  presence  be  known 
by  some  sign.  There  is  generally  a  difference  between  the  concep- 
tion of  the  spirit  as  such  and  the  form  that  he  is  supposed  to  assume 

&The  order  in  which  these  aspects  are  enumerated  is  not  to  be  taken  as  representing  a  direct  line  of 
evolution. 


Radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BtTNDLE   FEASTS  437 

when  he  appears  to  an  individual.  The  Thunderbirds  are  conceived 
of  theoretically  as  birds,  but  always  appear  to  human  beings  in 
human  shape.  As  it  is  believed  by  the  shaman  that  the  spirits  are 
a  tertium  quid,  neither  animal  nor  man,  but  possessing  infinite 
powers  of  transformation  now  into  the  one,  now  into  the  other,  it  is 
rather  difficult  to  indicate  their  precise  nature  except  in  this  negative 
way.  For  the  ordinary  individual  doubtless  their  anthropomorphic 
nature  stands  out  most  prominently. 

According  to  shamanistic  cosmology,  although  the  greater  spirits 
are  given  control  of  various  powers,  still,  in  general,  each  spirit 
is  given  control  of  some  specific  power.  The  shamanistic  account 
goes  on  to  say  that,  upon  the  creation  of  man,  Eartlimaker,  realizing 
that  he  had  no  powers  to  bestow  upon  him,  decided  to  give  him  at 
least  the  means  of  obtaining  those  powers  he  had  given  the  spirits 
and  presented  him  with  tobacco,  telling  him  that  if  he  offered  it  in 
the  proper  manner  the  spirits  would  feel  constrained  to  accept  it  and 
give  him,  in  exchange,  whatever  powers  they  possessed.  The  popular 
account  of  the  origin  of  tobacco  was  quite  different.  However,  it  was 
on  the  shamanistic  theory  that  offerings  were  made.  The  arrangement 
between  the  spirits  and  man  was  in  the  nature  of  a  contract,  with  this 
peculiarity,  that  the  spirits  did  not  have  to  accept  the  offerings.  The 
prayers  are  generally  couched  in  this  manner:  "If  you,  the  spirits, 
accept  my  offerings,  then  grant  me  your  blessings  or  a  continuance 
of  those  my  ancestors  received."  They  were,  however,  theoretically 
always  left  the  alternative  of  refusing.  In  practice  it  was  not  believed 
that  the  spirits  exercised  their  prerogative  of  refusal,  but  that  in  cer- 
tain cases  the  offerings  were  not  made  in  the  proper  fashion.  The 
moment  the  tobacco  was  accepted,  the  blessing  followed  of  itself, 
almost  without  the  will  of  the  spirit.  This  purely  mechanical  relation 
between  acceptance  of  the  tobacco  and  bestowal  of  power  comes  out 
excellently  in  one  of  the  myths.  The  Winnebago  are  sacrificing  to 
the  Buffalo  Spirits  and  the  smoke  of  their  tobacco  offering  is  ascend- 
ing to  the  spirit-land  where  the  Buffalo  Spirits  dwell.  The  chief  of 
the  spirits  warns  the  younger  ones  not  to  approach  too  closely  to  the 
ascending  fumes,  for  they  are  but  spirits  and  the  desire  for  tobacco 
might  get  the  better  of  their  discretion  and  induce  them  to  accept  it. 
If  they  do,  they  are  lost,  for  they  will  then  have  to  go  down  to  the 
earth  and  be  killed.  No  power  they  possess,  nor  any  power  the  chief 
possesses,  can  save  them.  This  "  mechanical ''  explanation  seems  to 
me  quite  significant,  for  it  probably  embodies  the  older  point  of 
view  and  the  point  of  view  of  the  less  enlightened  Winnebago.  As 
such,  it  is  to  be  contrasted  with  the  later  shamanistic  development 
with  its  contract  and  the  shifting  of  the  spirit's  role  from  one  of 
passive  acceptance  to  that  of  a  spirit-deity  who  withholds  his 
approbation  unless  the  offering  is  properly  made. 


438  THE   WINNEBAGO   TEIBE  [eth.  ann.37 

The  elements  necessary  to  the  acceptance  of  offerings  are  two- 
fold— the  specified  amount  of  material  and  the  proper  state  of 
mind.  The  first  is  quite  clear,  but  the  second  needs  some  expla- 
nation. To  the  Winnebago  the  emotional  condition  of  a  sup- 
pliant for  power  from  the  spirits  is  all  important,  and  the  proper 
emotional  condition  is  one  which  they  call  "concentration  of  mind," 
by  which  they  signify  a  complete  absorption  of  the  individual  in  the 
prayer  he  is  making.  Theoretically  even  the  slightest  interest  in  any 
other  object  is  liable  to  destroy  the  entire  efficacy  of  the  prayer. 
I  say  theoretically,  for  if  the  prayer  seems  to  be  answered  a  conscious- 
ness of  failure  to  come  up  to  the  ideal  never  obtrudes  itself.  If, 
however,  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  prayer  has  not  been 
answered,  then  the  explanation  would  always  be  that  there  had  been 
either  a  shift  of  attention  or  a  lack  of  emotional  intensity.  This  is 
not  the  only  explanation  given  for  lack  of  success  in  the  case  of  a 
ceremony,  for  there,  by  an  extension  of  the  principle  of  the  "con- 
centration of  mind"  to  all  those  who  participated,  failure  might  be 
attributable  to  a  large  number  of  causes. 

The  popular  explanation  was,  I  believe,  different.  Failure  was 
either  not  discussed  at  all  and  looked  upon  from  the  common-sense 
point  of  view  as  one  of  life's  accidents  or,  if  explanation  was  necessary, 
regarded  as  a  sign  that  the  spirits  had  not  been  tempted  to  accept 
the  alluring  offers. 

It  would,  however,  be  erroneous  to  believe  that  much  philosophizing 
took  place  over  failure.  Failure  that  entailed  the  death  of  an  indi- 
vidual was  likely  to  call  forth  not  explanations  as  to  what  the  failure 
was  attributable,  but  desire  for  revenge. 

With  the  exception  of  food  and  tobacco,  which  were  extended  to 
all,  the  offerings  to  the  various  spirits  differed  in  nature.  To  the 
eleven  great  deities  (i.  e.,  including  He'rok'a,  who  is  not  mentioned 
in  the  following  account)  tobacco,  food  (i.  e.,  both  soup  and  meat), 
and  buckskins  were  offered.  There  was,  however,  further  differen- 
tiation. To  the  great  war  deities  red  eagle  feathers  were  offered  in 
addition;  to  Disease-giver  and  Thunderbird  two  dogs  were  sacri- 
ficed; to  Earth  and  Sun  herbs  and  maple  sugar  wTere  given;  and  to 
the  Moon,  bear  ribs. 

Having  thus  briefly  sketched  the  general  nature  of  the  spirits  con- 
nected with  the  war-bundle  feast  and  the  general  theory  of  the  offer- 
ing, we  will  turn  to  a  specific  enumeration  of  the  spirits. 

Eartlimaker. — Variously  known  in  Winnebago  as  Ma/yna,  Earth- 
maker,  Waj^gu'zEra,  Creator,  and  Waxopl'ni  Xe'tera,  Great  Spirit. 
Ma/una  is,  by  far,  the  most  usual  appellation;  Waj^gu'zEra  is  found 
only  in  rituals,  and  Waxop'ini  Xe'tera  is  more  or  less  obsolete, 
although  not  within  the  popular  cycles  relating  to  the  Trickster, 
Hare,  Turtle,  Red-Horn,  and  the  Twins. 


kadin]  THE   CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  439 

Earthmaker  has  all  the  characteristics  of  a  supreme  deity.  He  is 
conceived  of  as  formless  and  as  never  being  visible  to  man.  He  is 
a  benevolent  deity,  but  apart  from  the  interest  he  manifested  in  cre- 
ating the  world  and  all  that  exists  upon  it  and  in  sending  the  great 
Transformer  heroes,  Trickster,  Turtle,  and  Hare,  he  has  taken  little 
active  interest  in  the  affairs  of  humankind.  It  is  only  as  a  tour  de 
force  that  one  can  receive  blessings  from  him.  An  instance  of  the 
kind  will  be  found  on  page  291, 6  which  is  to  be  taken  not  as  a  myth 
but  as,  at  most,  a  true  fasting  experience,  which  has  been  cast  into 
a  literary  form. 

The  conception  of  Earthmaker  we  have  been  discussing  is  found 
most  prominently  developed  in  the  rituals  and  the  ritualistic  myths. 
In  how  far  it  represents  an  exoteric  point  of  view  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  determine  now.  A  study  of  the  nonritualistic  myths,  how- 
ever, makes  it  seem  plausible  that  Earthmaker,  among  the  people  in 
general,  was  the  vague  Waxop'i'ni  Xe'tera,  Great  Spirit,  typical  of 
the  woodland  area;  and  what  appears  to  strengthen  this  view  is  the 
fact  that  there  exists,  side  by  side  with  him,  that  other  great  spirit 
common  among  the  woodland  peoples,  the  Great  Bad  Spirit,  known 
among  the  Winnebago  as  Herecgu'nina,  of  doubtful  etymology. 
The  coexistence  of  these  two  spirits  and  their  equal  rank  comes  out 
clearly  in  the  cycle  of  the  Twins.  The  ritualistic  myths  have 
attempted  to  interpret  this  old  Herecgu'nina  as  Earthmaker's  first 
attempt  to  create  man,  which  ended  in  failure.  He  thereupon  threw 
him  away,  but  Herecgu'nina  imitated  the  creations  of  the  former 
and  thus  brought  into  existence  the  many  evil  spirits  that  infest  the 
earth. 

Only  in  the  older  traditions  is  this  conception  of  the  dual  deities 
still  to  be  found.  In  practical  life  the  more  systematic  conception 
developed  in  the  rituals  has  entirely  displaced  it,  just  as  the  older 
conception  of  the  Transformers  as  heroes  working  in  obedience  to  no 
one  and  changing  the  world  until  it  assumed  its  present  appearance 
out  of  mere  whim,  has  given  place  to  a  well-ordered  creation  in  which 
the  Transformers  play  the  r61e  of  deities  saving  the  human  race  at 
the  command  of  Earthmaker. 

T7mnderbirds  (Wak'a/ndja). — They  are  always  represented  as 
appearing  to  men  as  bald-headed  individuals  wearing  a  wreath  made 
of  the  branches  of  the  arbor  vitae.  They  are  in  control  of  almost  all 
the  powers  that  man  can  imagine,  but  they  generally  bless  him  with 
success  on  the  warpath  and  with  a  long  and  honorable  life.  They  are 
represented  as  having  a  spirit  village  in  the  west  and  as  intermarrying 
with  the  Night  Spirits  who  have  a  village  in  the  east.  Powerful 
shamans  and  warriors  not  infrequently  claim  that  they  are  merely 
reincarnated  Thunderbirds.     Such  is  the  claim  of  the  man  who  is 

•Cf.  also  Jour.  Amer.  Folklore,  vol.  26,  pp.  293-318,  1913. 


440  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

reputed  to  have  first  received  the  war  bundle  of  the  Thunderbird 
clan,  as  we  shall  subsequently  see. 

Night  Spirits; — They  are  known  under  two  names,  one  used  gen- 
erally signifying  literally  "night"  (hqhe)  and  the  other  used  only  in  rit- 
uals signifying  " Tbose-who-walk-in-darkness "  (Hok'a'was  manl'na). 
They  are  in  control  of  war  powers  specifically  and  appear  to  men  in 
the  form  of  human  beings.  They  are  supposed  to  cause  the  darkness 
of  night. 

Disease-giver  (Ho'cere£u'wahi). — This  is  a  spirit  whose  counter- 
part does  not  seem  to  exist  in  any  other  tribe.  He,  like  the  Thunder- 
bird  and  Night  Spirits,  is  a  great  war  deity,  but  as  his  name  implies, 
he  also  presides  over  life  and  death  by  being  the  source  of  disease. 
His  twofold  nature  has  been  touched  on  before.  When  prayers  are 
offered  to  him  he  is  besought  to  turn  away  his  "death"  side  and 
present  only  his  "life"  side. 

Great  Black  Hawk. — Always  known  as  K'eredju'sep  xe'tera.  A 
powerful  war  deity. 

The  Sim. — The  Sun  is  known  generally  as  vn'ra,  and  in  rituals  as 
Habani'ndjera,  Light-wanderer;  or  as  Habanihu'ra,  He-who-brings- 
the-light-of-day.  There  seems  little  doubt  but  that  in  the  earlier 
history  of  Winnebago  culture  he  played  a  far  greater  role  than  he 
does  to-day  or  did  when  the  culture  of  the  tribe  was  still  intact. 
According  to  one  informant  he  and  Fire  were  dispatched  as  Trans- 
formers to  rid  the  world  of  the  bad  spirits.  As  in  the  older  concep- 
tion of  Earthmaker,  his  former  role  comes  out  most  prominently  in 
the  nonritualistic  myths,  especially  in  the  Twin  cycle.  In  none  of  the 
many  rituals  of  the  tribe  was  his  cult  developed.  He  was  regarded 
as  one  of  the  greatest  war  deities. 

The  Morning  Star. — He  is  always  known  as  Wirago'cge  xetera, 
the  great  star.  He,  like  the  Sun,  seems  to  have  enjoyed  a  greater 
popularity  before  the  rise  of  the  complex  rituals.  He  is  purely  and 
simply  a  war  deity. 

The  Moon. — Generally  known  as  Hak£'wira,  night-sun,  but  in 
rituals  as  Hahe'regi  hura'djone,  You-who-come-at-night.  The  Moon 
is  a  female  deity  in  control  of  many  powers,  but  apparently  of  no  very 
specific  ones.  She  is  not  supposed  to  be  one  of  the  preeminent  war 
deities  but  to  be  more  closely  associated  with  blessings  referring  to 
long  life. 

The  South  Wind. — Known  as  Rek'u'huhi,  Wind-going-with-the- 
stream.     He  is  a  war  deity,  but  not  on  a  par  with  the  others. 

The  Earth. — Generally  known  either  as  manna,  earth,  or  simply  as 
k'u'nik'a,  grandmother,  a  female  deity  connected  almost  exclu- 
sively with  peace.  She  played  a  far  greater  role  in  the  earlier  phases 
of  Winnebago  religious  development  than  she  did  in  the  later  and  is 
found  as  an  important  figure  in  all  the  nonritualistic  Transformer 
cycles,  especially  in  that  of  the  Hare.     Her  role  in  the  ritualistic 


badin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  441 

myths  is  quite  important,  too,  but  there  she  has  been  changed  from 
a  rather  indifferent  and  at  times  hostile  deity  to  a  beneficent, 
all-loving  Mother-earth. 

The  Water. — Generally  known  as  nina,  water,  but  ritualistically  as 
huTjge',  chief.  There  is  some  doubt  as  to  whether  water  or  the  Water 
Spirit  is  meant  here.  This  is  a  deity  in  no  way  connected  with  war. 
He  is  most  commonly  associated  with  medicines,  especially  the 
famous  "paint''  medicines  (wase'). 

These  are  the  more  important  spirits  and  the  only  ones  to  whom 
buckskins  are  offered  in  the  following  ceremony.  The  following  are, 
however,  also  of  considerable  importance: 

Eagle. — Always  known  as  Tcaxcep,  eagle.  A  powerful  war  deity 
and  a  clan  animal. 

Pigeon  Hawk. — Always  known  as  K'lrik'Irl'sgera,  pigeon  hawk.  A 
powerful  war  deity. 

Wdnayi're  UariJcdk. — A  term  difficult  to  translate,  but  meaning,  in 
general,  a  terror-inspiring  man.  It  refers,  however,  not  to  a  human 
deity  but  to  a  bird  that  is  supposed  to  be  almost  identical  with  the 
hawk.  It  is  the  name  of  one  of  the  Winnebago  clans.  A  powerful 
war  deity. 

North  Wind. — Known  as  Wazl'regi  huhl'ra,  Wind-that-is-in-the- 
pine-region.  He  is  associated  with  war,  but  is  no  t  a  very  important  deity. 

Black  Hawk. — Known  as  k'eredju  sep.  What  difference  there  is 
between  this  spirit  and  Great  Black  Hawk  is  not  clear. 

Day. — Known  as  ha.p,  day  or  light.  The  term  is  used  in  rituals, 
especially  in  the  medicine  dance,  with  the  meaning  of  life.  He  is 
very  rarely  sacrificed  to  and  his  mention  in  this  particular  perform- 
ance of  the  Thunderbird  war-bundle  feast  is  merely  an  illustration  of 
the  fact  that  offerings  could  be  made  to  any  spirit. 

In  addition  to  the  spirits  mentioned  above,  offerings  were  made  at 
different  performances  of  the  war-bundle  feast  to  all  the  other  spirits 
and  even  to  heroes,  like  Trickster,  Turtle,  Hare,  Bladder,  Red-Horn, 
and  the  Twins.  In  the  performance  as  given  in  the  following  account 
one  great  spirit  is  omitted,  He'rok'a,  meaning,  literally,  "Without 
horns."  A  buckskin  is  always  offered  to  him,  on  which  is  painted 
a  small  bow  and  arrow.  He  is  one  of  the  important  Winnebago 
deities,  is  supposed  to  be  a  Lilliputian,  and  controls  many  of  the 
powers  relating  to  hunting. 

In  order  to  avoid  offending  any  spirit  they  always  leave  a  portion 
of  tobacco  as  an  offering  to  those  whose  names  they  can  not  for  the 
moment  think  of. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   THE   WAR-BUNDLE    FEAST 

The  present  war  bundle  has  been  in  the  family  of  B.  for  a  number 
of  generations.     Our  informant  obtained  it  directly  from  his  father. 
186S23°— 22 29 


442  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

B.  was  not  the  eldest  son,  but,  as  mentioned  before,  the  war  bundle 
was  always  given  to  that  son  who  manifested  the  greatest  interest 
in  it.  When  B.  and  his  brothers  were  quite  young  their  father  took 
them  aside  one  day  and  told  them  the  stories  connected  with  the 
war  bundle  and  told  them,  in  addition,  that  the  one  manifesting  the 
greatest  interest  would  receive  it.  B.  immediately  started  getting 
material  for  a  feast,  and  this  he  would  give  to  his  father,  who  would 
then  give  a  feast.  This  was  repeated  over  and  over  again  until  B.'s 
father  felt  that  B.  knew  enough  about  the  ceremony  to  conduct  it 
himself,  after  which  he  allowed  him  to  take  entire  charge  of  it. 

The  war  bundle  contained  the  following  objects: 

The  body  of  an  eagle  (tcaxce'p). 

The  body  of  a  hawk  (k'eredju'sep). 

The  body  of  an  unidentified  bird  (wanirjk'hiwitcak'i'zok'e). 

The  body  of  a  pigeon  hawk  (k'lrjk'I'rjsge). 

A  deer-tail  headdress  (tcasintc  wak'e're). 

Eagle  feathers  (tcaxce'p  nu\cu'). 

Medicines  (wase'). 

Flutes  (hlju'juk). 

War  club  (nama/tce). 

The  birds'  bodies  were  supposed  to  give  the  possessor,  in  times  of 
war,  the  characteristics  of  these  animals.  The  flutes  were  associated 
with  different  spirits  and  used  to  accompany  certain  songs  during 
the  ceremony  proper.  When  blown  during  a  fight,  they  were  sup- 
posed to  paralyze  the  running  powers  of  the  enemy  and  thus  make 
him  an  easy  prey.  The  deer-tail  headdress,  the  eagle  feathers,  and 
the  war  club  were  all  war  paraphernalia  and  were  always  worn  when 
on  the  warpath. 

When  the  custodian  of  a  war  bundle  decides  to  give  a  feast  he 
has  his  nephews  go  out  and  kill  as  many  deer  as  they  can,  for  the 
larger  the  number  of  deer  obtained  the  larger  will  be  the  number  of 
spirits  to  whom  they  can  make  offerings.  As  a  rule  ten  to  eleven 
deer  are  killed,  so  that  all  the  clans,  or  at  least  all  that  are  still  in  exist- 
ence, can  be  invited. 

After  the  deer  have  been  killed  active  preparations  are  begun; 
the  invitation  sticks  (na.no'?-ona)  are  sent  out,  and  the  wood  for  the 
ceremonial  lodge  is  gathered;  and,  lastly,  old  women  who  have 
passed  their  climacteric  are  set  to  work  on  the  buckskins  and  ordered 
to  make  them  as  white  as  possible.  In  the  preparation  of  the  lodge 
only  the  nephews,  nieces,  and  wives  of  the  participating  men  take 
part. 

The  night  before  the  ceremony  proper,  the  Sweat-Lodge  ritual 
takes  place. 

When  the  buckskins  have  been  thoroughly  bleached  they  are 
brought  into  the  lodge  and  given  to  the  host,  who  proceeds  to  mark 
them  in  the  following  manner: 


Radin]  THE   CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  443 

The  buckskin  to  be  offered  to  Earthmaker  is  marked  with  a  cross 
in  green.  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  association  of  the  cross  with 
Earthmaker  is  due  to  Christian  influence.  But  if  this  actually  has 
been  the  case  it  is  far  more  likely  that  the  Christian  influence  led  not 
to  the  actual  borrowing  of  the  Christian  cross,  but  rather  to  the 
identification  of  an  old  'Winnebago  ceremonial  symbol,  namely,  the 
crossed  lines  representing  the  cardinal  points,  with  the  cross,  and  its 
association  with  Earthmaker  (pi.  48). 

The  buckskin  to  be  offered  to  the  Thunderbirds  is  marked  with 
three  semicircular  lines,  the  first  red,  the  second  white,  and  the  third 
blue,  to  represent  a  rainbow  (pi.  48). 

The  buckskin  to  be  offered  to  the  Night  Spirits  is  marked  with  four 
parallel  lines  in  charcoal  (pi.  48). 

The  buckskin  to  be  offered  to  Disease-giver  is  marked  by  dipping 
the  three  middle  fingers  in  red  paint  and  impressing  them  12  times 
upon  the  buckskin  in  three  vertical  columns,  with  four  impressions 
in  each  column.  In  addition  to  this  an  eagle  feather  is  tied  to  each 
corner  of  the  buckskin  (pi.  48). 

The  buckskin  to  be  offered  to  the  Sun  is  marked  with  an  image  of 
the  sun  in  red  (pi.  47). 

The  buckskin  to  be  offered  to  the  Moon  is  marked  with  an  image  of 
the  moon  in  any  of  its  phases  in  green  (pi.  47). 

The  buckskin  to  be  offered  to  South  Wind  is  marked  in  the  same 
way  as  that  to  Disease-giver,  except  that  green  paint  is  used.  A  red 
eagle  feather  is  attached  to  each  end  of  the  buckskin  (pi.  47). 

The  buckskin  to  be  offered  to  the  Morning  Star  is  marked  with  an 
image  of  a  star  in  black  outline  (pi.  47). 

These  are  the  spirits  to  whom  buckskins  are  offered  in  the  cere- 
mony about  to  be  described,  but  the  other  clans  seem  to  show 
variations, in  some  offerings.  Thus,  for  example,  the  spirit  called 
"  Without-horns"  (He'rok'a)  receives  the  offering  of  a  buckskin  in 
some  cases.  The  marking  for  him  is  always  a  bow  and  arrow  in 
charcoal.  In  another  case  Fire  and  Turtle  receive  buckskin  offerings. 
Their  markings  are  pictures  of  fire  and  turtle. 

While  the  host  is  busy  thus  marking  the  buckskins  the  attendants 
put  the  meat  in  the  kettles  and  place  the  same  on  the  various  fire- 
places. There  are  always  one  or  two  extra  kettles  prepared  for  the 
women  and  children. 

The  lodge  extends  from  east  to  west  and  has  only  one  entrance, 
on  the  east  end.  The  host  sits  to  the  left  as  you  enter  and  opposite 
him  sits  the  guest  of  honor,  who  is,  of  course,  different  in  each  clan, 
but  in  the  ceremony  to  be  described  he  belongs  to  the  Bear  clan. 
Then,  in  definite  order,  sit  the  other  guests,  each  one  opposite  a  fire- 
place. The  women  and  children  sit  separated  from  the  others  at  the 
extreme  western  end  of  the  lodge  (see  fig.  38) . 


444  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.37 

After  the  buckskins  have  been  marked  the  host  arranges  them  on 
frames.  The  buckskin  to  Earthmaker  is  so  arranged  on  its  frame 
that  the  head  points  upward ;  that  to  the  Thunderbirds  is  so  arranged 
that  its  head  points  toward  the  west;  that  to  the  Night  Spirits,  that 
its  head  points  to  the  east;  that  to  the  Morning  Star,  that  its  head 
points  to  the  east;  and  those  to  the  Earth  and  Water,  that  their 
heads  point  downward.  After  they  have  been  attached  to  the  frame 
they  are  rolled  up,  and  the  ceremony  can  be  said  to  have  begun. 
Then  the  guests  enter,  no  order  being  observed  in  the  manner  of  en- 
tering. As  soon  as  they  have  all  taken  their  places,  the  oldest  warrior 
belonging  to  the  host's  band  is  called  upon  to  offer  tobacco  to  the 
spirits.  This  he  does  by  going  to  the  main  fireplace,  offering  up  brief 
pravers,  and  at  the  conclusion  of  each  one  pouring  tobacco  into  the 
fire.  The  first  prayer  is  always  to  the  fire  itself.8  When  he  is  fin- 
ished, the  host  takes  the  buckskins,  unrolls  them,  and  distributes 
them  to  the  various  guests.  The  buckskin  for  the  Thunderbirds  is 
always  given  to  the  guest  of  honor,  and  the  others  are  given  in  the 
following  rotation :  Great  Black  Hawk,  Disease-giver,  South  Wind, 
Earthmaker,  Sun,  Morning  Star,  Night  Spirits,  Moon,  Earth,  and 
Water.  The  buckskin  to  Earthmaker  is  assigned  to  the  middle  guest, 
but  as  he  is  the  first  guest  to  speak,  the  buckskin  itself  is  hung  on 
the  center  pole  that  is  erected  in  the  front  portion  of  the  lodge. 

After  the  guests  have  received  their  buckskins  they  stand  in  their- 
respective  positions,  holding  the  buckskin  in  one  hand  and  some 
tobacco  in  the  other.  The  host  concludes  his  remarks,  and  then  taking 
his  flute,  blows  upon  it.  After  this  he  sings  two  songs,  accompanying 
himself  with  his  gourd  rattles.  Then  the  buckskins  are  rolled  up 
again,  but  in  such  a  way  that  the  markings  still  remain  visible,  and 
hung  up  just  west  of  the  first  fireplace,  with  the  exception  of  the 
Earthmaker 's  buckskin.  The  host  now  takes  the  war  bundle,  opens 
it,  and  places  it  at  the  foot  of  the  center  pole.  He  then  makes  the 
circuit  of  the  lodge,  pouring  some  tobacco  into  the  hands  of  each 
invited  guest.  When  this  is  finished,  he  pours  some  tobacco  upon 
the  war  bundle  and  some  into  the  fire  and  proceeds  to  offer  prayers 
to  all  the  spirits,  asking  each  in  turn  for  life  and  victory  on  the  war- 
path. When  he  is  through  all  the  guests  pour  tobacco  on  the  war 
bundle  and  into  the  fire.  Children  are  often  allowed  to  pour  tobacco 
also,  the  attendants  bringing  them  from  the  western  portion  of  the 
lodge.  After  the  offerings  of  tobacco  are  finished  the  offerings  of 
buckskin  are  made.  Then  the  basic  ritual  is  started  by  the  host. 
He  takes  the  flutes,  drum,  and  gourds  and  sings  in  his  own  place. 
There  are  many  different  sets  of  songs,  and  every  time  he  starts  a 
different  set  he  first  blows  upon  his  flute.  The  songs  for  the  Thun- 
derbird  have  eight  starting  songs  and  six  dancing  songs.     When  the 

8  This  prayer,  for  some  unknown  reason,  is  omitted  in  the  following  account.    It  was  obtained,  however, 
in  connection  with  another  account  of  the  same  ceremony. 


RADiN]  THE   CLAN    WAK-BUNDLE   FEASTS  445 

dancing  songs  are  begun,  all  the  men  go  to  the  war  bundle  and  dance 
around  it.  The  flute  is  continually  blown  during  the  dancing. 
Women  may  dance  at  their  end  of  the  lodge.  The  basic  ritual  is 
then  continued. 

When  the  last  starting  song  is  finished  the  host  rises  and,  ejacu- 
lating ho — o — o,  pours  tobacco  into  the  fireplace  four  times.  Just 
when  the  food  is  about  cooked  four  special  songs  are  sung.  Then 
the  Thunderbird  feast  takes  place.  All  the  bones  that  have  been 
left  on  the  plate  of  the  guest  impersonating  the  Disease-giver  are 
taken  out  by  the  host  himself,  carried  hi  an  eastward  direction,  and 
placed  very  carefully  at  the  foot  of  some  tree  that  has  been  especially 
selected.  Tobacco  and  red  feathers  are  poured  upon  these  bones.* 
The  plates  used  by  the  same  person  are  purified  with  arbor  vita?.  The 
bones  left  on  the  plates  of  the  other  guests  may  be  thrown  anywhere, 
provided  the  ground  on  which  they  are  scattered  has  been  purified. 
When  the  feast  is  over  the  basic  ritual  is  continued.  When  this  is 
finished  the  first  division  of  the  ceremony  is  concluded. 

During  the  interval  between  the  first  and*  second  divisions  the 
attendants  sweep  the  lodge  and  purify  it  with  branches  of  arbor 
vita?;  and  new  kettles  with  meat  are  placed  on  the  fireplaces.  Then 
the  host  and  guests  enter.  The  host  rises  and  distributes  the  buckskins 
again,  and  while  he  is  doing  this  an  attendant  goes  around  the  lodge 
and  scatters  swan  feathers  all  over  it.  Some  are  even  placed  on  the 
suspended  kettles.  The  host,  because  he  is  going  to  sing  Night 
Spirit  songs,  takes  down  the  buckskin  intended  for  that  spirit, 
blackens  his  face  with  the  embers  of  charcoal  used  in  marking  the 
buckskin,  and  puts  some  swan  feathers  on  his  head.  Before  the  host 
starts  singing  the  Night  Spirit  songs  the  pipestem  is  turned  toward 
the  east  and  the  origin  of  the  songs  in  question  is  told.  Then  the  basic 
ritual  is  begun.  When  the  dancing  songs  are  being  sung  the  guests 
may  either  go  to  where  the  war  bundle  lies  and  dance  there  or  stay 
in  their  own  places  and  dance.  When  the  host  has  finished  his  part 
of  the  basic  ritual,  drum,  gourds,  flute,  and  tobacco  are  passed  to 
the  first  guest,  and  when  he  is  finished  they  are  passed  to  the  second 
and  third  guests.  After  that  the  basic  ritual  is  for  the  time  being 
discontinued  and  the  ritual  connected  with  throwing  out  of  the  buck- 
skins intervenes,  this  in  turn  being  followed  by  the  Night  Spirit 
feast.  However,  before  the  feast,  as  the  drum,  gourds,  and  flute 
are  returned  to  the  host,  he  has  a  kettle  placed  on  the  fire  for  the 
spirits  living  beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  when  the  food  in 
it  has  cooked  he  rises  and  sings  paint  songs  (wase').  After  the  feast 
is  over  the  basic  ritual  is  continued.  Some  time  before  this  ritual 
is  finished  the  host  takes  his  war  bundle,  wraps  it  up,  and  hangs  it 
behind  the  place  where  he  is  sitting.  When  finally  all  the  songs 
with  the  exception  of  four  have  been  sung,  the  host  calls  upon  some 
one  with  a  very  strong  voice  to  give  the  war  whoop  four  times.  This 
the  latter  does,  and  after  the  last  whoop  all  the  guests  join  hi.  Then 
rising,  all  the  guests  dance  out  of  the  lodge  and  the  ceremony  is  over. 


446  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  a.nn.  37 

FIRST    DIVISION    OP    THE    CEREMONY IN     HONOR    OF    THE     THUNDER- 
BIRDS 

Introductory  remarks  by  informant. — E'gi  manl'negi  manik'i'sak'a, 
e'gi  taniwogl'jura.  Ho£u'na  higI'rek'djonevnA.  ge  e'sge  wanasa' 
tek'djone'114. 

NQgA  e'sge  ha,he'giji  Inio'k'ewe  ba£uk'djo'nehi  giji,  e'gi  wohQ'nA 
bijak'i'xdji  tuxuruki'ji  j e'sge  hak'djone'nA..  No/gA  e'gi  dja/nogA 
hak'I'ju  tek'djone'ra  hadji'rege  je  ini-6'kewe£u  wak'I'ju  ha£uk'- 
djone'nA.  giji.  E'gi  ini-6'k'ewe£uxna  wak'e'wik'djonaVinA.  hlru- 
cdja/hlrege'. 

Sweat-Lodge  Ritual 

Wak'awinA.  hak'ik'u'rucarudji-avnA.ga  e'gi  wak'a'wira  hinuk'aj'- 
nawinA..  E'gi  tanl'na  taniwi'rogiju  ya£uk'dje'ra  ha*k'a^ani\vakewe,- 
nAjegu'nA, 

Host's  salutation  and  initial  speech  to  participants. — "E'gi 
wak'uruki'ntccAnA.  sa'k'erenj^k'dJQgre  njk'uruhindjwl'n^.  E'gi  hlt- 
co'k'ewahlVira  e'gi  tcok'aga'  wana£j'gik'ereVegi.  E'gi  hIroit£u'na 
djasge  nfdjirodjai'negi,  e  gi  hij e'sge  hak'a'ratlk'djanihe. 

E'gi  djasge  wawe'k'djegi  hitco'k'iwahTwira  e'gi  u£'inek'djaneKnA. 
Tanl'nik'  p'axu'k'djone'ra  e'gi  wota'  hitco'k'iwahiVira  wa'git- 
uxu'ru-ik'djoneTa.  E'gi  sa'k'erenjvk'djo>jgrA  niijk'uruhi'ntc  rehav- 
winA..  E'gi  tanl'na  hitco'k'ewahlVira,  tanl'na  wagip'axu'- 
k'djonevnA.  njk'u'ruhindjwi'n^. 

Host's  offering  to  Earthmdker. — "H|h§/  Ma'£una,  hl-andjenl'na, 
tanl'na  hoju'-ijg.  ni^gip'Sxu'jjk'djonare.  E'gi  tco'k'aga  Djobena.^- 
giwi'ijxga  wana£i'nagik'e'regi.  E'gi  hiroit£u'na  djasge  n^djirora'- 
dJ4>)gi;  e'gi  h^'bEnirjk'  hlnagl'c£una;  djobo'kg,  jedjai'ijxdji  hIroit£- 
u'na,  tcok'aga'  djasge'xdji  n§.djirora'dJA.gi,  je£e  rotcg/iptdji  njgi- 
ta'nA.     E'gi  biujk'e  wa'we-a'k'in^k'djera." 

Host's  offering  to  the  chief  of  the  Thunderbirds. — "E'gi  sa/nigohT- 
regi  he'rera  hitco'k'ewiwrna,  wak'a'ndja  hu'jjgEra,  tanl'na  hojii'-ijg, 


badin]  THE  CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE  FEASTS  .    447 

FIRST   DIVISION   OF    THE    CEREMONY IN     HONOR     OF     THE     THUNDER- 
BIRDS 

Introductory  remarks  by  BlowsnaJce,  informant. — In  winter,  in  mid- 
winter, then  it  was  that  I  used  to  pour  tobacco.9  That  was  the 
tune  I  would  go  out  and  hunt  for  game. 

Well,  to-night,  a  vapor  bath  I  shall  take,  and  if  I  can  secure  food 
for  boiling,  that  kind  of  a  feast  I  shall  give.  As  many  of  the  leaders 
as  have  come,  that  many  shall  be  with  me  as  I  take  a  vapor  bath  hi 
the  sweat  lodge.  We  are  now  about  to  enter  the  sweat  lodge,  for 
everything  is  hi  readiness.10 

Sweat-Lodge  Ritual 

We  entered  the  sweat  lodge  and  undressed,  and  after  we  had 
entered  they  (the  outsiders)  closed  the  lodge  covering.  I  took  both 
the  tobacco  and  the  other  things  I  was  to  use  as  offerings  with  me.11 

Host's  salutation  and  initial  speech  to  participants. — "I  greet  you; 
I  greet  you  all,  war-bundle  owners.12  My  grandparents,  especially 
my  grandfather,13  had  concentrated  their  mhids  upon  this  for  me. 
The  fireplace  with  which  they  blessed  my  grandfather,15  that  I  am 
going  to  ask  for  myself.  However  weakly  I  may  wobble  about,16  my 
elders  will  aid  me.  I  am  now  going  to  pour  a  little  tobacco  and 
offer,  my  elders,  whatever  feast  I  am  able  to.  War-bundle  owners, 
I  send  forth  my  greetings  to  you.  War-bundle  owners,  I  greet  you. 
Ye  elders,  I  am  about  to  pour  tobacco  for  them  (the  spirits)." 

Host's  offering  to  Earthmdker. — "Hearken,  Earthmaker,  our  father, 
I  am  about  to  offer  you  a  handful  of  tobacco.17  My  ancestor  Djo- 
bena.giwi'r;xga  18  concentrated  his  mind  upon  you.  The  fireplaces 
with  which  you  blessed  him; l0  the  small  amount  of  life  you  granted 
to  him;  all,  four  times  the  blessings  you  bestowed  upon  my  ancestor, 
that  I  ask  of  you  directly.  Also  that  I  may  have  no  troubles  (in 
life)." 

Host's  offering  to  the  chief  of  the  Thunderbirds. — "To  you,  who  live 
in  the  west,  our  grandfather,  chief  of  the  Thunderbirds,  a  handful  of 

B  "  Pouring  tobacco"  is  the  ritualistic  term  for  giving  a  feast. 

10  The  informant  has  passed  to  the  present  tense  now,  for  he  is  actually  giving  an  account  of  the  last 
War-bundle  Feast  he  gave  and  imagining  that  the  writer  is  present. 

u  The  word  tobacco  in  Winnebago  rituals  is  used  as  a  generic  expression  for  an  offering.  Thus  the  word 
taniwirogi'ju  means,  literally,  "  What  we  are  to  offer  as  tobacco." 

13  Literally,  "Children  of  the  bundle." 

w  He  does  not  really  mean  grandparents,  but  elders. 

15  The  word  here  used  for  fireplace  is  a  ritualistic  one.  It  means,  literally,  "That  one  throws  within 
something,  i.  e.,  an  offering."    It  also  has  here  the  secondary  meaning  of  food. 

i«  Used  metaphorically. 

17 1,  e.,  the  regular  offering. 

19  An  ancestor  of  the  informant. 

1B  Here  "fireplaces"  mean  blessings,  for  only  those  who  had  blessings  could  erect  fireplaces,  and  as  a  fire- 
place was  erected  for  each  separate  spirit,  the  greater  their  number  the  greater  the  number  of  blessings. 
In  all  rituals  it  is  customary  to  speak  of  blessings  received,  as  well  as  of  personalaccomplishments,  with  an 
exaggerated  modesty. 


448  THE   WINNEBAGO   TEIBE  [eth.ann.  37 

nirjgjp'axu'k'djona're.  E'gi  tcok'aga'  Djobena^giwi'7?xga  e'gi 
wa'na/igik'eVeregi.  [Hlroit£Q'na  tea  k'l'konQk']  hiroit£u'  hora'- 
k£ugj,  je£e  r5tc§'xdji  njgita'nA.  Tanl'na  hina.gi'curus  inga  £u^'gi 
e'gi  haqk'e'  wa'we-akTnik'djege." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Great  Black  Hawk. — "E'gi  K'e'redju  Sep 
Xe'tera  tcok'aga'  m§.'djoradje/gi  h!roit£u'na  djasge  ng,djirora'- 
dJAgi,  je£e  rotcf/xdji  njgita'nA^  Tanl'na  hoju'-ijg.  njgip'axu'k'- 
djonaVe  hI'nagihi-a'nA.gA  £u'gi.  Haj?k'e'  wawe-ak'I'nik'djVge,  te'- 
jesge  njgita'nA." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Night  Spirits. — "E'gi  s&'njgEregi,  sa'njk' 
h^'bSgure'gi  he'rera,  Hok'a'was  Manl'na,  tanl'na  h5ju'-jj§  njgjp'- 
axu'k'djonarc  hinagip'e'rez  a'nA.ga  £ugl'.  E'gi  tcok'aga'  djagu'- 
ixdji  n|djiro'radJQvgi:  hlroitfu'na  djasge  n§,djjrora'djogi  jc  njgj- 
ta'114.  E'gi  tanl'na  hi'nagjhj-aviiA.ga  £ugl'  ha^k'e  wa'we-ak'ini'k'- 
djera." 

Host's  offering  to  Disease-giro: — "E'gi  sa'njk'  horotc|'djeregi- 
liaTjgl'ja,  canAk'I'jj:  ha^k'e  t£e'p'jhicguvnj  canAk'I'jj;  ro  sa'njk'- 
p'lnadja'n^ga  e'gi  ro  sa'njk'  hot£e'radjegi,  H5'cere£uVahi  hinjgai'- 
regj.  Tco'k'aga  hg/badjasge\\dji  wirarotc^L'djexdjj  ga'dja.  n^'djorad- 
JQ'gi.  Djasge  n^djirora'djogj,  hIroit£u'na,  n^djirora'dJQgrjj.  H^ijk'- 
aga'  ruc£agenj'k'dJAne  hlrage'gjjj.  Je£e'  hora£iia'n4ga.  Wani- 
oi'tcge  tcowe'ra  wairage'ju  an^ga  h^k'e'  wawe-a'k'ini'k'djera. 
Tanl'na  hoju'-ijg,  njgip'axu'k'djona're  hinagihi-a'n^ga  £ugi'  h|7jk'e' 
wavve-ak'Ini'k'djege." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Sun. — "E'gi  hitcok'enl'na,  H$bani'ndjera, 
tani'na  hop'j'ja.  njgjp'axu'k'djonare.  Hinagip'e'rez  a'n^ga.  E'gi 
tcok'aga'  hiroit£u'na  djasge'xdjj  ii$djIrora'dJ4gi,  jeV  rotc|'xdji 
njgjta'n^.     H^k'e  wawe-ak'Ini'k'djera." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Moon. — "E'gi  Hjk'arok'enl'na  H|he'wira, 
tcok'aga'  n(Ldjoradjo/gj  kIroit£u'n£.  Djasge'xdjj  ngdjlrora'dJQgj, 
je£e'  rotc|'xdji  njgita'n^.  Tanl'na  hoju'-ij^L  njrygjp'axu'k'- 
djonaVe  hlnagl'p'erez  a'n^ga  £ugl'.  Tcok'aga'  hiroit£u'na  djasge 
n^djlrora'djogj,  je£e'  hunak£u'k'djVnA.  h§7jk'e'  wawe-a'k'inik'- 
djege," 

Host's  offering  to  the  South  Wind. — "E'gi  rek'u'hublra,  tanl'na 
hoju'-ijf  njgjp'axu'k'djona're  rijnagjhia'n^ga  £ugl'.  Tcok'aga' 
luroit£u'na  n^djirora'dJQgi,  je£e'  njgjta/nA.  h|nk'e'  wawe-ak'ini'- 
k'djege." 

Host's  offering  to  Earth. — "E'gi  K'u'njk'a  Ma'na  tanl-onjgi'- 
jun^.  Tcok'aga'  n^djora'djonA.  hiroit£u'na  n§djlrora'djon4,  je£e' 
njgjta'n^.     Wawe-ak'lni'k'djege." 


radin]  THE    CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE    FEASTS  449 

tobacco  I  am  about  to  offer  you.  My  grandfather  Djonena.giwi'jjxga 
you  strengthened.  The  food,  the  deer-couple  you  gave  him  for  his 
fireplaces,  that  I  ask  of  you  directly.  May  it  be  a  fact  that  you 
accept  this  tobacco  from  me  and  may  I  not  meet  with  troubles  (in 
life)." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Great  Black  Hawk. — "You  also  blessed  my 
grandfather,  Great  Black  Hawk.  Whatever  food  you  blessed  him 
with  that  I  ask  of  you  directly.  Tobacco  I  am  about  to  pour  for  you 
that  you  may  smoke  it.  May  troubles  not  come  upon  me;  that  I 
ask."' 

Host's  offering  to  tlie  Night  Spirits. — "You  on  the  other  side,  who 
live  in  the  east,  who  walk  in  darkness,  20  tobacco  I  am  about  to  offer 
you  to  smoke.  Whatever  you  blessed  my  ancestor  with,  whatever 
fireplaces  you  blessed  him  with,  those  I  ask  of  you.  If  you  smoke  this 
tobacco  never  will  I  be  a  weakling." 

Host's  offering  to  Disease-giver. — "You  who  live  in  the  south;  you 
who  look  like  a  man;  who  art  invulnerable;  who  on  one  side  of  your 
body  present  death  and  on  the  other  life,  Disease-giver,  as  they  call 
you.  My  ancestor  in  the  daytime,  in  broad  daylight,  did  you  bless. 
With  food  you  blessed  him.  You  told  him  that  he  would  never  fail 
in  anything.  You  told  him  that  you  would  avoid  his  home.21  You 
placed  animals  (i.  e.,  food)  in  front  of  him  that  he  should  not  be 
troubled  about  obtaining  them.  An  offering  of  tobacco  I  make  to 
you  that  you  may  smoke  it  and  that  I  may  not  be  troubled  by  any- 
thing (in  life)." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Sun. — "To  you,  Light- Wanderer,  an  offering 
of  tobacco  I  make.  May  it  be  my  good  fortune  that  you  accept  it. 
Whatever  fireplaces  you  blessed  him  (i.  e.,  my  ancestor.)  with,  those  I 
ask  of  you  directly.     May  I  not  be  troubled  by  anything  in  life." 

II<  st's  offering  to  the  Moon. — ' '  You  also,  Grandmother  Moon,  blessed 
my  ancestor  with  food.  With  whatever  you  blessed  him,  that  I  ask 
of  you  now  directly.  An  offering  of  tobacco  I  am  about  to  make  for 
you  now,  so  that  you  may  smoke.  Whatever  blessings  you  bestowed 
upon  my  grandfather,  I  pray  you  to  give  me  now,  so  that  by  reason  of 
it  I  may  never  become  a  weakling." 

Host's  offering  to  the  South  Wind. — "To  you,  too,  South  Wind,  I 
offer  a  handful  of  tobacco,  that  you  may  smoke  it.  May  it  so  happen 
that  you  accept  it  and  that  I  am  spared  troubles  (in  life).  With 
whatsoever  you  blessed  my  ancestor,  that  I  ask  of  you." 

Host's  offering  to  Earth. — "For  you  likewise,  Grandmother  Earth, 
will  I  pour  tobacco.  With  whatever  blessings  you  blessed  my  grand- 
father, those  I  ask  of  you.  May  I  in  that  way  never  become  a 
weakling." 

M  Hok'awas  Manina, "  those  who  walk  in  darkness,"  is  the  ritualistic  name  of  the  Night  Spirits. 
21 1,  e.,  that  you  would  not  permit  disease  and  death  to  enter  it. 


450  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.37 

Host's  offering  to  the  Eagle. — "  Tcaxce'bera  tcik'o'nok,  tcok'aga' 
\vana£iriA.gik'erew!,gi,  hlroit£u'na  ng.djIrora'djawigi,  je  njgita'win^. 
Tani'na  b5ju'-ij$  nigip'axu'k'djonaYe.  Hl'nagip'e'rez  a'n^ga 
£ugl'  h^rjk'e'  wawe-ak'Ini'k'djera." 

Host's  general  offering  to  the  spirits. — "Hah$'  dja'nA.ga  tcSk'aga/ 

wanaTnAgik'erewigi;    han^i'tci  hak'I'cdjek    tani-6'nigiju\vin4.    E'gi 

tani-o'vaxujf,      tcok'aga'      Djobena^giwi'ijxga      n^djiro'radjawiga. 

Je£e'    egi  tcowe'regi  h5£u'na    nigirok'aroho'n^,   dja'nA.ga  tcok'aga' 

hiroit£u'na  ragik'e'rewigi,  je*e'  woinak£uwi-a'nQga.     H§,nk'e'  wawe. 

a'k'Injk'djeVa,     je'sge     nigita'wnn^.     Ni^k'u'ruhindjwTnA.     wajo'- 

k'ina. 

The  Dog  Ritual 

Curjgeri'ja  waji'nuk'Qv-inek'djonevgi  xununi'rjgereMjf.  hip'a' 
birak'a'rara  p'j'ijxdji  bJrana'114.  P'i^xdji  xetehirana'n^.  Hg,7jk'a- 
ga'  hodjl'nani  xetehl'ranani.  Nijjk'djo'7jk'  ewani'nera  wik'isge'xdjj 
hlrana'na.  Waru'dJEra  p'i'jjxdji  birak'a/rairana^nA..  Woglxete'- 
xdjinana  na  ni'Tjkdjorjk  e'wani^na  djasge  wawogixete'n^gEra  je'sge 
hicge  wogixe'terana^iiA..  Cu7;k'djo'7)k'  e'gi  wajaI'nok'uvnA.  hige'regi 
cu^k'djega  n^biraxai'tcanegi  t£ebire'k'djanegi  k'e'ni  t£ehl'rani 
t£e'hl  k'aroho'xdjinegi  egl'dji  cur?kdjega  uaijk  ngbiruxa/dJEra 
Luk'arohS'djega  cu'7jk'djega  hok'a'rakit£anaNn4. 

"Hisur)k'a'xdji,  sa'niijk'  yoratc^dje'regi  horawace'rek'djone^nA. 
H6cere£u'\vahlra  edjorace'rek'djonevnA.  yahl'  p'ie£u'j)k'djonevnA. 
rahl'gi.  Wona'Tirera  uaj?kci'goI'£na  p'Ia'£U7jk'djaVi,  te'jesge 
ragita'k'djen^." 

E'gi  cu'jjk'djega  haTjk'e'  gisawl'nine  waginai^uwi-a'n^ga  toxo'- 
rucga  rusa'gvvire  e  $r;k'e'  wa£ini'>;k'djonen4.  Wa'iwahi'ra  ro7i'- 
ras£avje  al'renA..  Waxop'I'ni  xete'JA.  n§,bigl'ruxatc  hirek'djine'gi 
p'ihl'na£i'  hlres£a'je. 

E'gi  cu7jgEra'  t£ehl'regi  wajinuk'u'-ik'aroho'ga  cu^gojjk'a'  higik'- 
aroho'je  wa£uje'.  Tani'  warucj'ja  £uje'  egi  m§,cu'cutc  hogicge'- 
dja  hlraru'sgitcce,  e'gi  cur^k  n$blruxa'djfr;k'a  n|b£'j  glgl'je. 
E'gi  jige'  ta'ni  warucj'na  ]igij§.'  £uje'  djo'p'I'wi  tani  warucj'na 
lia'n^ga  hoiglcge'dja  m^cu'cutc  hlraru'sgitc  wat£$'pce  wal'za 
bidjS'bik'e  hijf/cAiiA.  wawiro'gicge'je  cuijgo^k'a.  E'gi  waruT&'bEra 
rucgaI'ranA.ga  waruTa'poTjk'a  waruTa'p  tcowe'dja  horotco'djeregj 
hap'a'hi  t£|bi'reje. 

General  Placing  op  the  Tobacco 

Tcaba'£uar;ge'dja  jura  rucdjai'nanA.ga  e'gi  honaw^'na  djlk'erehl' 
k'arohoi'regi  e'gi  wa£u'-ineje  wagigo'nAijk'a  tani'  hbjk'irup'o'nA. 
hIra'nA.ga  waru7&'p  edja  t^'bireje.  Waxop'I'ni  wara'djirera 
djanAjjga'k'i    han^'tci^xdji.    Hldja'   waglt*$'p  wa£u'-ines£avje   uajjk 


eadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR  -BUNDLE    FEASTS  451 

Host's  offering  to  the  Eagle. — "To  you,  a  pair  of  Eagles,  my  ancestor 
prayed.  The  blessings  you  bestowed  upon  him,  those  I  ask  of  you. 
I  am  about  to  pour  a  handful  of  tobacco  for  you.  May  you  accept  it 
and  ward  off  trouble  from  me." 

Hosts  general  cffering  to  the  spirits. — "Hearken,  all  yespiritsto  whom 

my  ancestor  prayed;  to  all  of  ye,  I  offer  tobacco.     My  ancestor  Dj5- 

bena.giw'r;xga   gave   a  feast  to    all  those   who    had    blessed  him.22 

However,  as  it  is  about  time  to  proceed  to  the  next  part  (we  will  ask 

you  once  again)  to  bestow  upon  us  all  the  blessings  you  gave  our 

ancestor.     That  we  may  not  become  weaklings,  I  ask  of  you.     I  greet 

you  all." 

The  Dog  Ritual 

When  they  decide  to  use  a  dog  (as  a  sacrifice)  they  take  the  greatest 
care  of  it  from  its  infancy  upward.  With  great  kindness  do  they  rear 
it.  They  never  strike  it  when  rearing  it.  Just  like  their  own  child 
do  they  treat  it.  They  take  great  care  of  its  food.  They  love  it  very 
much,  just  as  they  love  their  own  children.  Thus  is  the  dog  loved. 
If  they  are  going  to  sacrifice  it,  then  before  they  kilhthe  dog  they  make 
the  following  preparation  and  the  man  who  is  to  make  the  sacrifice 
speaks  thus: 

"My  younger  brother,  you  are  to  go  to  the  south;  to  the  Disease- 
giver  you  are  to  go.  There  you  will  live  better  than  here.  War 
powers  and  life  we  wish  to  have  and  that  you  should  ask  for." 

The  dog  is  not  to  be  killed  by  striking,  but  a  rope  is  to  be  used  and 
he  is  to  be  strangled  to  death,  so  that  there  will  not  be  any  blood.  It 
is  forbidden  to  shed  blood.  Thus  they  tried  to  make  an  offering  to 
one  of  the  great  spirits. 

When  the  dog  is  to  be  killed,  the  one  who  is  to  do  it  prepares  him. 
A  pouch  of  tobacco  and  red  feathers  are  tied  around  the  neck  of  the 
dog  to  be  offered.  Then  the  man  made  another  pouch  of  tobacco  and 
another,  till  he  had  four,  and  these  with  (eagle)  feathers  he  tied  to  the 
four  limbs,  one  pouch  to  each  limb  of  the  dog.  Then  the  war  bundle 
was  opened  and  purified  with  cedar  leaves.  Then  they  laid  the  dog 
in  front  of  the  war  bundle,  making  him  face  south. 


General  Placing  of  the  Tobacco 

When  they  have  finished  arranging  the  buckskins  and  are  about 
ready  to  start  the  singing,  then  the  feasters  mix  tobacco  and  strew 
it  over  the  war  bundle.  They  offer  this  tobacco  for  all  the  spirits 
who  exist.     Even  the  man  who  originally  obtained  the  war  bundle 

»"And  we  are  repeating  this  now,"  should  be  added.    The  word  forfeast  here  meansliterally,-"  tobacco 
pouring." 


452  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

sarusgl'tcga  djan^ga  warii7a'pdjega  e'dja  hlcge  horo'k'  hidja'  tani- 
ahi-a'nihe'k'djone'nA.  ai'regi.  Je£e'  djan^ga  glg^'ji-an^ga  h^jjk'e' 
tani  wawogi'ju  ira'nigi  je£e'  je'jesga'n^rjk'a  e'dja  tani'  kj'nek'dje 
wagi'£u-ines£avje  al'i-eii*.-  E'gi  katcindja'cAiiA.  waxop'I'ni  wara'- 
djirera  tani-o'stohfra  hatca/cAiiA.  wak'arak'ere'n4i)k'i  tani'  je£e 
e'dja  hahl'iiA^kce  al'ren^.  Wak'a'ndja'ra  tani-o'stohira  ni^ge' 
tci'ja.  k'ere'na^k'I  al'reconunA..  E'gi  HgJie'ra  jige'  hicge  tci'ja. 
Djobenarjgi-wi'^xga  n$djirodjai'neje  hotagera'  je£e  hlcge  H|he'ra 
tani-o'stohira  je£e  higire'n4)jkce  tcok'aga'  Djobenarjgiwi'^xga  e'je 
ai'rera.  E'gi  ua^gere'gi  jigl'ja.  tani-6'stohTra  rakce  al'rena.  E'gi 
jige'  hicge  m^ne'gerera  jige'  tani-6'stohrj$  tci'ja  ni)jgia/kce 
ai'ren^.  E'gi  jige'  marjk'u'hanegi  jige'  tani-6'stohTja.  ni7jgia/kce 
ai'rena.  Tci  se'redjija.  tani'  hlk'Irup'o'nA  tci-6'kisavgedja  t£§bEna'- 
jjk'a  je£e  tani'  h^ijk'e'  hlk'Irup'o'nani  rusa^k'I'hi  hlwace'xdjj. 
Hidja'  t£a.bires£a'je  tani'  je£e  rohg/r/xdjj  jen4'  him\£i'nes£aje 
k'Igo'nATjk'a  tciroi'xdji-aVyk'a.  Tani'  je£e  roh§.'j?xdji  wagira'sgep 
hireje'je  wagigo'nA^k'a  rogn'  wa£una'>jkcAn4.  E'sge  k'igo'n^jjk'a 
hak'ik'a'razires£axje  waxop'I'ni  tani  gihj'n^.  P'j'je  aireconu'114. 
"Hitadje'  wa£nwi'r;ge  tani  roh|'  rasge'bina£iVine  wonaYJre 
hik'uruxu'rukce  aire'na.  Tani  wagihi'114.  E'gi  hicge'  wagigo'- 
nA^k'a  warutctco'na  wak'a'rajihiATjkce  wagixona/win4  tanihu'ra 
k'igoi'miiiA^kra  wawogl'jura."  Cg§.£ii'-ine  rohf  rasgep  wan^gl'£-i 
£u'-ine  a'n^ga  haise'retcj  tanihj'  wira'wajitc  hlres£a'je. 

The  Tobacco  Offering  to  the  Spirits 

Host's  initial  speech- — " Tcaha'sgara  hak'e'we  jeje'noga  tco'- 
k'ewahiVira  wagudje'ra  sI'ja.cAvnA  wagitu'cdja.  rehak'djone'ra. 
E'gi  waga'xEra  wawik'aragi'rek'djone^iiA..  N^ga  e'gi  wawi' 
wak'arap'e'rezhi-avn4ga  £ngl'ji  wak'u'ruz  hlreje.  Je'sge  roa'gn 
wa£uk'djone'n4.  N^ga  e'gi  woho'na  dja'n4ga  jige'  hitco'k'ewahr- 
wira  woho'na  wawik'arap'e'rez  hire'je.  Je'sge  ro-a'gy  wa£uk'dj- 
one'n4.  N^ga  e'gi  dja'nAga  sa'k'erenivk'djor;gEre;  te  tcirol'xdji 
mi'n4gican4vgwire.  Hito-inak'a'ragiwfn4.  Egi  cindJEwatV 
nik'aragl'k'djonaVi;  nunige  e'gi  tok'e'wehi  njk'aragi'k'djonawi 
nunige'  h^k'e'  te£e'  necewewi'ni.  Hitco'k'ewahTwira  e  wace'- 
wewiw^ge  e'sge  tclroi'xdji  djjp  hlnagi'giwira.  Ep'jga'dja..  Sa'k'- 
eren^k'djo^gEra  tcl-5'jii  mln4kca'war/gre  nik'u'ruhindjwi'114  hit- 
cok'ewahi'wira.    Higua'na  tani'na  wagip'a'xuk'djone^." 


radin]  THE    CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  453 

will  be  present  to  smoke  with  them,  it  is  said.  And  lest  (through 
forgetfulness)  they  do  not  think  of  certain  spirits  they  have  some 
tobacco  ready  for  these,  that  they  may  also  smoke  it.  Wherever 
it  is  that  the  spirits  have  their  gathering  places  there  it  is  that  the 
tobacco  goes.  The  Thunderbirds  have  a  tobacco-gathering  place,  it 
is  said.  The  Night  Spirits  have  one  also,  it  is  said.  The  place  that 
I  spoke  of  as  the  one  where  DjobeiiaTjgiwi'^xga  was  blessed,  that  is 
the  tobacco-gathering  place  of  the  Night  Spirits,  Grandfather 
Djobenar/giwi'rjxga  said.  Up  above  there  is  also  a  tobacco-gathering 
place,  it  is  said.  And,  again,  on  the  earth  there  is  a  gathering  place 
somewhere,  it  is  said.  Under  the  earth  there  is  a  gathering  place 
somewhere  also,  it  is  said.  The  mixed  tobacco  is  placed  in  the  center 
of  the  long  lodge,  and  though  this  is  not  pure  tobacco  there  is  plenty 
of  it.  The  feasters  try  to  consume  all  of  it.  They  would  smoke  very 
much,  for  they  desired  (certain  things  from  the  spirits).  Thus  the 
feasters  would  encourage  one  another,  for  they,  the  spirits,  loved 
holy  tobacco.  "Try  to  make  them  smoke  as  much  tobacco  as 
possible  that  you  may  obtain  war  powers,  it  is  said." 

He  (the  host)  smoked  for  them  (the  spirits).  He  also  encouraged 
the  feasters  (to  smoke)  and  had  the  attendants  go  repeatedly  to  fill 
the  pipe  of  the  guests  seated  in  the  lodge.  "Be  diligent,"  he  told 
them  "and  try  to  smoke  as  much  as  you  can."  All  night  he  offered 
them  tobacco  to  smoke,  it  is  said.23 

The  Tobacco  Offering  to  the  Spirits 

Host's  initial  speech. — "Six  white  buckskins,  with  enough  material 
for  as  many  pairs  of  mocassins,  I  am  going  to  send  to  our  grand- 
parents. They  will  be  able  to  recognize  (the  buckskins)  by  the  marks 
upon  them.24  If  (spirits)  you  recognize  them,  it  is  our  desire  that 
you  take  these  buckskins.  That  is  why  I  am  doing  this.  I  hope, 
also,  that  our  grandfathers  will  accept  our  food  offerings.  That  is 
why  I  am  making  them.  Many  are  the  war-bundle  owners  who  are 
sitting  here;  the  lodge  tent  is  full  of  them.  I  am  thankful  for  it.  I 
am  going  to  make  you  very  tired;  I  am  going  to  make  you  very 
hungry ;  but  I  know  you  never  thought  of  that.25  You  are  thinking 
only  of  our  grandfathers,  the  spirits,  and  that  is  why  you  have  per- 
mitted my  lodge  to  become  filled  up  with  people.  It  is  good.  All 
ye  war-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here  within,  I  greet  you.  I 
am  now  going  to  pour  tobacco." 

»  This  was  omitted  in  the  account  as  first  obtainsd  and  was  told  afterwards.  For  this  reason  i  t  partakes 
more  of  a  general  description  than  of  a  detailed  narrative. 

*  Every  buckskin  is  marked  with  a  symbol  sacred  to  the  particular  spirit  to  whom  it  is  offered. 

15  It  is  one  of  the  cardinal  traits  of  Winnebago  ritualistic  oratory  that  everything  that  the  speaker  does 
is  to  be  depreciated  and  that  any  honor  or  consideration  shown  to  him  by  bis  guests  is  to  be  ascribed  more 
to  a  feeling  of  pity  in  their  breasts  than  to  his  worth. 


454  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Host's  offering  to  Earthmaker. — "H$h$'  £ua.7)gere'gi  hi-a'ndJE- 
nina,  waJA'na  hang/tc  nac£une're  nunige  e'gj  tanl'na  hoju'-ija. 
njgip'axu'wlcge  hlnagl'k'ik'djonaVije  hlrak'i'ge  e'je  al'reii*.. 
Tanl'na  hoju'-jj§  nigip'axu'k'djoneha're  e'gi  wagudje'ra  si'ja. 
hjrasa  e'gi  woho-nA  wani-oi'tcge  hjsgai'ja.  wowa'k'ona  hirasa' 
warutc  xo'p'ini.  Te  je'nQga  njgitu'cdjoneha/re.  E'gi  wlragi'- 
p'erez  a'nQga  £ugl  e'gi  wota'tc  tconi'na  roh§.bot£e'kjna,  wona'7- 
irera,  uankci'go£I'na  woirok'I'pina.  Je  jesge  wawa'wrjeje.  Te 
jesge  ronjgirygu'wige.  Wajo'k'ina  dja'n^ga  mI-a'nQganQvgwire 
meje'nQga  ronigigu'win^." 


Host's  offering  to  the  Thunderbirds. — "E'gi  sa'nbjgloheVegi  hitco'- 
k'eniwTna  Wak'a'ndja  hu'qgEra,  tcok'aga'  nfdjoradJQ'jjgiji  tanl'- 
na hoju'ijg.  nigip'a'xuj?gi.  Wa£I'n4p  hjnagi'gik'djone'je.  E'gi 
wagudje'ra  si'ja.  hirasa'  nigitu'cdja.  reha'nA.  E'gi  woho'na  rohi'- 
wisge  hlnai^k'arabwl'ra  jesge'ja.  rohl'ra  hlk'Isgi-a'k'Iadje'ra  nigitu'- 
cdja reha'nA..  NQga  e'gi  warutc  xo'p'ini  hlra'gitu'tcap  teje'noga 
nigitu'cdja  reha'iH-  Ra  e'gi  dja'noga  hok'Ik'ara'dJEra  hanA.'- 
gwire,  wo'tatc  tconi'na  r6h$bot£e'k'jnA.  wona'7irera,  enaj'^xdjinA 
woirok'I'p'ina  hij§'  ha£uwije'je.  Cfar?kcig6'£ina  meje'nQga  roni- 
gigu'wina  je'n^ga  ntgitawi'na.  Hok'jk'ara'dJEra  ua>;kci'go£i 
iianldjodjai'sge  ha£ua,dja/win4  p'i  uaijkci'ga£i7)k'djavwira.  Te 
jesge  ro-a'guwTnA^ 

Host's  offering  to  the  Night  S pints. — "E'gi  sS'niijk  h^bogii'regerera 
Hok'a'was  Mani'na  tcok'aga'  uana£i'nagik'e'rewigi  e'gi  tanlnigl'- 
juhanihe'k'djawira  jes'ge  n^djlrora'dJQgj.  Tanl'na  hojii'jja. 
nigip'axu'icge  wa£I'ni.p  lijnagik'I'k'djera  tanl'na  hojii'ijtv 
nigip'a'xu^k'djona're.  E'gi  wagudje'ra  si'ja.  e'gi  jjge'  woho'na 
wa'rutc  xS'p'ini  hiraru'tcap  meje'nQga  renigi'giwina.  E'gi  tcok'- 
aga' djagu'  n§,djirora'dJQgi  je£e'  je'sge  rQnigigu'winAhok'ik'a/- 
radJEra  dja'iHga.  Ra  je'n^ga  wo'tatc  tconi'na  wonA.'nre  woirok'I'- 
p'ina  hjjg/    £yk'djawi'iH.      N^ga    e'gi   uar;kci'go£i    uan§,djodjai'sge 


kadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  455 

Host's  offering  to  Earthmaker. — "Hearken,  Father  who  dwells 
above,20  all  things  you  have  created.  Yet  if  we  would  make  an  offer- 
ing of  tobacco  you  would  accept  it  with  thankfulness  27  (you  said). 
So  it  has  been  said.  I  am  about  to  offer  a  handful  of  tobacco  and  a 
buckskin  for  moccasins  with  it  and  a  white-haired  animal 28  to  be 
cooked  so  that  (you  may  have)  a  holy  feast.  These  things  I  turn  over 
to  you.  If  you  accept  them,  the  first  thing  I  wish  to  ask  for  will  be 
(the  honor  of)  killing  (an  enemy)  outright,  of  leading  warpaths,  and 
of  obtaining  life  honors.29  That  is  what  we  would  like  to  lead  (i.  e., 
a  war  party).  That  is  what  I  wTould  ask  of  you.  My  relatives,  as 
many  as  are  sitting  around  here,  even  that  many  ask  the  same  things 
of  you." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Thunderbirds. — "Those  in  the  west,  our  grand- 
father, Thunderbird  Chief,  you  blessed  grandfather,  and  I  am  now 
going  to  offer  you  a  handful  of  tobacco.  With  thanks  you  will  accept 
it  (it  has  been  said).  Buckskin  for  moccasins,  also,  I  am  sending  over 
to  you.  A  feast  made  from  one  whom  we  regard  as  one  of  yourselves, 
whose  body  we  are  like.30  I  am  sending  along  for  you.  Indeed  a 
sacred  feast  I  am  offering  you;  that  I  am  now  sending  toward  you. 
As  many  of  our  clan  members  as  are  here,  they  (all)  desire  to  make 
these  requests:  To  kill  an  enemy  outright,  to  lead  a  war  party,  and — 
O  grant  it  to  us ! — a  life  honor.  Life,  that  is  what  I  pray  for  to  you — 
that  we  ask  of  you.  Our  clan  has  put  itself  in  a  pitiable  condition,31 
so  that  we  may  live  a  good  life.     That  we  ask  of  you." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Night  Spirits. — "You  who  live  in  the  east, 
you  who  walk  in  darkness,  you  directed  your  minds  toward  grand- 
father, and  for  that  I  will  pour  tobacco  for  you,  now  and  forever, 
so  that  you  may  bless  me.  A  handful  of  tobacco,  if  we  pour  for 
you,  we  know  it  will  make  you  thankful,  and  for  that  reason  do  I 
offer  you  some.  A  buckskin  for  moccasins  and,  together  with  it,  a 
sacred  feast  that  I  am  about  to  send  toward  you.  With  whatever 
you  blessed  grandfather,  that  I  and  all  my  clansmen  who  are  here 
ask  of  you.     This  request,  that  one  of  us  lead  the  war  party  you 

MNo  Christian  influence  is  to  be  suspected  in  this  term  of  address. 

17  According  to  shamanistic  cosmology,  Earthmaker  first  created  all  the  various  spirits  and  bestowed 
upon  each  one  of  them  certain  powers.  When  finally  he  created  man  he  noticed  that  he  had  nothingleft 
to  give  him,  so  he  decided  to  give  him  tobacco.  This  was  to  remain  his  exclusive  possession,  and  not  even 
he,  Earthmaker,  would  be  able  to  take  it  away  from  him.  It  was  finally  agreed  that  man  would  offer  it 
to  Earthmaker  and  the  other  spirits  and  receive  in  return  therefor  specific  blessings. 

88  Ritualistic  name  for  deer. 

29 "  Killing  an  enemy  outright "  means  killing  him  in  the  midst  of  his  own  people  and  without  the  assist- 
ance of  anyone  else.  It  was  the  highest  war  honor  that  a  Winnebago  could  obtain  and  entitled  him  to 
wear  an  eagle  feather  in  his  hair.    "Life  honors "  always  refer  to  war  honors. 

30  The  whole  phrase  from  "rohiwi'sge"  to  'Tohi'ra  hik'isikl-a/djera,"  is  the  ritualistic  expression  for 
dog.  The  dog  is  referred  to  as  ''like  one  of  ourselves"  in  deference  to  the  fact  that  one  of  the  clans  is 
called  wolf  or  dog.    Thus  in  offering  up  the  dog  they  wish  to  imply  that  they  are  offering  up  themselves. 

H  I.  e.,  a  condition  which  calls  for  pity. 


456  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.ann.37 

ha£uahg/gwire     ua??kci'go£i    p'ia^uk'dja'wi.      Te    jesge    ro'njgigy'- 
winA.. 

Host's  offering  to  Disease-giver. — "E'gi  sa'nbjgloratcadjeVegi 
Hocere£u'\vanira,  tcok'aga'  djobena^giwi'xga  rvmst£e'k'igi  uan|d- 
jodjai'sge  wa£ugl'ji.  E'gi  n$'djoradJQvgi  wonA'Yire  ruk'o'nA 
xete'ra  ne'cMH.  Hiranitce'ra  wonA'Tire  xetehi'  hicu'ruk'ona^noga. 
E'gi  hg/bEra  xetehi  hi'curuk'ovnA.ga  rosa'ni^k  hg/bEra  nine'je 
hirak'i'gegi  ai'gi  jige'  rosa'nbjk  hot£e'ja.  nine'je.  Hirak'i'gegi 
tcok'aga'  Djobenagiwi'7jxga  nadjoradjo/gi  wirarotca/djegaMja. 
bl'badjasge'xdji  harak'i'cdjanAgja.  E'gi  n$'djoradJQvgi  wonA'Tir- 
era  n§,'djiroravdJ4gi,  je£e'  nigita'win^. 

Hok'ik'a'radJEra  dja'n^ga  £u-ine'wira  je'n4ga  tanl'na  hoju'- 
iJ4CAn4s  nigip'axu'k'djonaVire  njta'k'atcEra.  Wa'jagu'zEra 
wani-oi'tcgigi£u'n4  wani-oi'tcge  hjsgai'ja.  wowa'k'0114  njgitu'cdja. 
reha'winA..  E'gi  wagudje'ra  sl'j$.  Hlrasa'  wak'e'rera  hirasa' 
meje'n^ga  njgitu'cdja.  reha'^in^.  Tcok'aga'  Djobenagiwi'xga 
djagu'  nfdjirora'dJ4gi  je£e'  tani-oni'gijuwi-a'n^ga  hak'a'rataVigi 
hoici'pdji  hunak£u'k'djenaVi.  Tco'k'aga  Djobena.giwi'7jxga  e'je 
al'renA.  wona'7Jre  ua7jkcigoei'na  te  jesge  nigita/win^.  Hagare'ja. 
homam'na  rak£ugi  tcok'aga'  Djobenagiwi'^xga  redju'wanina  hatci'- 
ndja  nlhaj'regi  ha^k'e'  wamaci'ninbjk'djone  hiceje'  ai'rera  tcok'a'. 


Host's  offering  to  the  Sun. — "E'gi  tc5k'a'  Hgbain/hura  h|bo- 
k'a'ki  cu'radjane  tcok'aga'  Djobeijagjiwi'^xga  nfcljoradjo/gi  wona'- 
7}re  liar/kcigo^T'na  n|djirora'dj^gi  tanl'na  hoju'ija.  njgip'a'xu-i- 
&vnA.ga.  Waja,gu'zEra  djagu'  hlrok'o'nA  njgigi'giji  je£e'  hana'tci 
tcok'aga'  hok'I'k'aradJEra  n§'djiroravdJ4gi  dja'n^ga  £u-ine'wira 
hana'tcjxdji  tani-o'njgiju'k'djonaVire.     Tanl'na  ga." 

"Ai'rera  djagu'  nigita'wigi  c^'k'djone^je.  Hirak'i'k'eje  tcok'- 
aga' eje  ai'rera.  WonA'Tire  iiarykcigo£i'na  me'jesge  ronjgigu'winA.. 
Tanl'na  wSho'na  mgcu'na  n|bwe'nigituxavdjwire  warak'arai'- 
saba'ri4ga      £ugi      woiiA'7-irera       woiruk'i'p'ina       ya£ujjk'dja''\vira. 


badin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  457 

have  predestined  for  us  (we  make).32  Pitiable  we  are  making  our- 
selves in  life,  that  we  may  live  a  good  life  (by  obtaining  blessings 
from  you).     That  we  ask  of  you." 

Host's  offering  to  Disease-giver. — "For  you  who  live  in  the  south, 
Disease-giver,  my  grandfather  Djobena^giwi'xga  thirsted  himself  to 
death 33  and  put  himself  in  a  pitiable  condition.  Then  you  who  are 
in  charge  of  great  war  powers  blessed  him.  For  you  control  a 
greater  amount  of  war  powers  than  any  other  spirit.  A  great 
amount  of  life  you  also  control,  for  you  are  said  (to  possess  two 
sides),  one  side  of  your  body  containing  life  and  the  other  death. 
You  told  grandfather  Djobena7jgiwi'7;xga  that  you  would  bless  him 
at  noon,  in  broad  daylight,34  and  thus  indeed  you  met  him.  There 
you  blessed  him  with  war  powers;  and  with  whatever  you  blessed 
him,  that  we  ask  of  you  now.  Whosoever  of  niy  clan  are  present 
they  all  pour  an  offering  of  tobacco  for  you  and  also  (give  you) 
soup.35  The  Creator  made  animals  for  us,  white-haired  animals  for 
food,  and  these  we  send  to  you;  together  with  buckskins,  that  you 
may  have  moccasins.  We  also  send  toward  you  a  head  ornament 
(of  eagle  feathers),  that  also.  We  offer  you  tobacco  and  we  ask  of 
you  to  bestow  upon  us  that  with  which  you  blessed  our  grandfather 
Djobenar;giwi'7jxga.  Grandfather  Djobena^giwi'^xga  had  had  war 
powers  and  life,  it  is  said;  and  those  we  ask  of  you.  And  it  is  said 
that  you  told  grandfather  that  whenever  you  go  on  your  warpath 
you  will  not  walk  upon  the  descendants  of  DjobenaTjgiwi'rjxga 
wherever  they  breathe.38 

Host's  offering  to  the  Sun. — "You,  grandfather  Who-bring-day, 
who  come  every  day,  you  blessed  grandfather  Djobena?;giwi'r;xga 
with  war  power  and  life  and  I  am  therefore  offering  you  a  handful 
of  tobacco.  All  the  (war  power)  the  Creator  controls  he  delegated 
to  you  and  for  all  of  that  which  you  blessed  our  grandfather,  as  many 
of  my  clansmen  as  are  present,  we  are  about  to  pour  tobacco  to 
obtain.     Tobacco,  here  it  is." 

Host  then  pours  tobacco  into  the  fire. 

"It  is  said  that  you  will  do  what  we  ask  of  you.  You  yourself 
told  that  to  grandfather,  it  is  said.  War  powers  and  life,  that  we 
ask  of  you.     Tobacco,  food,  and  feathers,  we  sacrifice  to  you  arid 

32  A  person  may  be  blessed  witb  victory  on  the  warpath  directly  or  he  may  be  entitled  to  war  blessings 
to  which  near  relatives  were  destined  but  which  they  were  deprived  of  by  an  early  death.  The  present 
prayer  is  directed  toward  both  things,  that  he  may  enjoy  the  "unused"  blessings  of  his  relative  and  that 
he  may  not  be  cut  off  by  an  untimely  death  from  the  fulfillment  of  his  own. 

33  Ritualistic  expression  for  fasting. 

3*  To  be  blessed  in  the  daytime,  especially  at  noon,  was  considered  as  particularly  holy.  Generally  a 
person  was  blessed  at  night. 

35  Literally,  "hot  water." 

36 1.  e.,when  Disease-giver  deals  out  death  he  will  avoid  all  the  descendants  of  Djobenatjgiwi'ijxga. 
"Mani'na"  is  the  technical  word  for  warpath.    The  word  for  descendants  really  means  "roots." 

186823°— 22 30 


458  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

TJar/kcigo^i'na    racgu'ni    s£I    uaijkciga^'ijk'djawi    nigitawi'iH    tani- 
onjgi'ju.'winA  tcok'a'. 

Host's  offering  to  Earth. — "E'gi  jige'  k'u'ni^k'a  tcok'aga'  Djobe- 
n^giwi'ijxga  ng/djoradjo/gi  wajagu'zEra  djagii'  ruk'o'no  ni??- 
gigi'gi.  Tcok'aga'  banl'tci  n&djoradjo/gi  djadjai'rjxdjj  manA'gEre 
mi'naijk'i  jedjafxdji  p'a  dani-onigi'ju  hanihe'k'djawi.  Hlrage'gi 
djagii'  ni)jgita'wigi  hina,gic£u'k'dJ4naVi  hice'je  e'ra.  Tani'na 
hoju'-ija.  hirani'p'ahak'djonibaVinA.  dja'nAga  wak'i'k'aratcwira. 
Tani'na  k'Q'nb)k'a  hi^giru'zwi-g/dje.  Tani'na  hoju'-ijg.  tci-o'k'isago- 
najTnA  e'dja  ni7jgip'axu'j)k'djona\vire.  WonA'7Jrera  uar;keigo£i'na 
huryk£uwi-a'ndje,  tejesge  niTjgita'w'n^.     Tani'na  teVrenA. 

'Ninta'k'adJEra,  woi'dJAiiA  naro'ni  hirasa'  renbjgigi'wiiiA.  HinA- 
gi'p'erezwigi,  ua^kci'go^na  je£e'  ya£uijk'djona'wira;  je'sge  niijgita'- 
wanA." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Moon. — "K'ii'nbjk'a  k§,he'regi  hura'djonev 
n4  e'gi  k'u'nirjk'a  tcok'aga'  Djobena.giwi')?xga  n§,djora'djor;gi 
tani-oni^giju-a'nihek'dja-wi  dja'nAga  honi'jjgera  eu-ine'wigi.  Tani- 
owaxu'na  jinadji'wigi  tani  nijjgip'axu'wigi.  Hirak'a'rap'erez- 
caVai^k'djone'nA.  hirak'i'geje  ai'rera.  Tcok'aga'  Djobenfigiwi'7)- 
xga  djagu'  hicuriik'o'nQgfji,  je'sge  n§,dj6radjo'gi  mabjk'i'xdji 
hata'nihek'djawf  ra  hoici'p  hunak£u'k'djonaVi  hiceje'  ai'rera. 


"Tani'na  teVrenV' 

"Tani'na  uar;kci'go£i  k'arata'  ya£u'k'djera.  Wajagu'zEra 
hanir/gigi'ranigip'axu'n4.  WonA'TJrera  wak'i'k'aradjwira  dja'nAga 
hanl'\viii4  hagare'j^  narygu'ra  hi'ja.  wawa'wigi  e'dja  woiruk'i'p'ina 
ya£uk'dja'\vira  nigita'^-inA.  Njnta'k'adJEra  \vaja.gu'zEra  wani- 
oi'tcgbygi  £u'nA  hice'bEra;  wiwe'wi-owinQvgera  runta'k'atc 
niTjgigiwi'n^.  Wa'rutc  xo'p'ini  bira'nir/gitutc^VinA.  E'gi 
wagudje'ra  si'ja.  nbjgitu'cdja.  reha'winA..  WonA'Tire  ua7)kcigo£i'na 
ni^gita'winA.  bunak£u'gi  uai}kcigo£i'na  p'ia£u'k'djaVin4.  E'gi  jige' 
k'u'nbjk'a  tcok'aga'  Djobena.giwi'7?xga  n|'djoradjo/gi  waja.gu'zEra 
wona'TJre    ua7jkci'go£ina    hiruk'o'no     ni^gigi'gi.       Je£e'      tcok'aga' 


radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE    FEASTS  459 

if  you  accept  them,  then  we  will  assuredly  wear  war  honors  (some 
day).  That  we  may  pass  through  life  without  any  troubles  and  that 
we  may  live  long,  we  ask  of  you  and  offer  you  tobacco,  grandfather." 

Host's  offering  to  Earth. — "Grandmother,  you  blessed  Djobem\gi- 
wi'ijxga  with  whatever  the  Creator  delegated  to  you.  With  every- 
thing that  exists  on  the  earth,  for  all  eternity,  did  you  tell  grandfather 
you  would  bless  him,  and  this  is  what  we  ask  of  you  and  for  which 
we  will  forever  offer  you  tobacco.  You  will  do  it,  he  told  us  you 
had  said.  A  handful  of  tobacco  we  are  about  to  send  toward  you, 
we,  as  many  of  our  clansmen  as  are  here.  Tobacco  do  you  accept 
from  us,  grandmother.  A  handful  of  tobacco  there,  upon  him  who 
stands  in  the  middle  of  the  lodge,37  do  we  pour.  Give  us  war  powers 
and  life;  for  these  we  beseech  you.     Here  it  is,  the  tobacco." 

The  host  then  pours  some  tobacco  into  the  fire. 

"Soup,  vegetables,  together  with  maple  sugar  we  are  about  to 
send  you.38  If  you  accept  them,  life  we  will  obtain;  that  we  ask  of 
you." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Moon. — "Grandmother,  You-Who-Come-at- 
Night,39  grandmother,  you  blessed  grandfather  Dj5bena.giwi'77Xga 
and  now  all  his  descendants,  as  many  as  there  are,  are  about  to 
offer  you  tobacco.  Now  when  we  come  to  a  tobacco  offering  we 
will  certainly  offer  some  to  you.  And  you  will  be  cognizant  of  it, 
you  assured  us  yourself,  it  is  said.  Whatever  you  are  in  control  of 
and  with  which  you  blessed  our  grandfather  Djobena.giwi'?jxga  for 
all  eternity,  that  we  are  to  ask  for  at  all  times,  they  told  us  you  had 
said  and  you  will  assuredly  give  it  to  us.     The  tobacco,  here  it  is." 

He  pours  tobacco  into  the  fire. 

"I  am  using  the  tobacco  as  a  means  of  obtaining  life  for  myself 
and  my  relatives.40  The  Creator  gave  it  to  me  and  I  am  offering  it  to 
you.  As  many  of  our  clansmen  as  are  here  we  beg  of  you  war  powers ; 
and  that  if  we  ever  go  on  a  warpath 41  there  we  will  obtain  the  war 
honors.  Soup  and  the  animals  the  Creator  made  for  me,42  the  black- 
furred  one43  we  are  offering  you;  soup  of  bear  ribs.  A  sacred  feast 
we  are  about  to  hold  for  you.  A  buckskin  for  moccasins  we  are 
about  to  send  out  to  you.  War  powers  and  life  we  ask  of  you ;  that 
you  give  us  life,  so  that  our  days  may  be  happy.  Truly,  grand- 
mother, did  you  bless  our  grandfather  Djobena,giwi'7?xga  with  what- 

""He  who  stands  in  the  middle  of  the  lodge"  is  the  ritualistic  name  for  the  fireplace.    He  is  always 
personified  and  the  tobacco  is  generally  conceived  of  as  being  poured  upon  his  head. 
w  As  the  offerings  are  made  to  the  earth,  vegetables  and  maple  sugar  are  selected. 
89  Ritualistic  name  for  the  moon.    The  regular  name  is  "hahe  wira"  (night  sun). 

40  The  term  "uaqkcigoei  k'arata,"  literally  meaning  "a  life  beseecher,"  is  used  only  in  rituals  and  is  gen- 
erally taken  to  include  any  offering. 

41  "N^gfi,"  is  the  regular  word  for  warpath.    Literally  it  means  simply  "road." 

43 1.  e.t  what  the  Creator  bad  placed  in  his  way  and  permitted  him  to  catch  and  prepare  for  this  feast. 
It  is  in  this  specific  significance  that  it  is  meant  here. 
43  "  Hi'cebEra"  is  both  the  ritualistic  and  deferential  name  for  the  bear. 


460  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

nfdjoradjo'gi  djadjo'nA.  tani-owaxu'na  hi^gire'wigi  ni^gita'wigi 
hunak£uharani'cek'djenaVinA.  hiceje.  Tcok'aga'  Djobena.giwi'i?xga 
e'je  ai'reo4.  Tanl'na  koju'ija  p'edje'dja  hidjeaijjgl'gnngi.  Rak'a- 
hl'k'djone  hirak'I'geje  tcok'aga'eje  al'rera.  Tanl'na  hoi'cipdjj 
blnagl'k'saip'djonaVi  hiceje'  tcok'aga'  Djobenagi\vi'r;xga  e'ra. 
Tanl'na  ga  heredjigo'." 

"Tanl'na  hm^gl'hiwigi  won^'yirera  uarjkcigo£I'na  pia£u'k'djena 
je'sge  nijjgita'wioA..  Ninta'k'adJEra  woi'djonA.  si'na  naro'ni 
klrak'I'sa  niijgitu'cdjonehaViiL^;  e'gi  wagudje'ra  sl'jq,  hlrasa' 
vi'nagip'eVezwigi  wona'TJre  uaijkcigo*i'na  ya£uanihe'k'dja\vira. 
Je'sge  nigita/winA.  k'u'nirjk'a  ha'n^ga.'' 

Host's  offering  to  the  chief  of  the  Eagles. — "Tcaxcep  hujjgera' 
£iia'7?gEregi  h$bamanl'na.  Ne'cAnA.  xetera'  nine'je  wonA'Tirera 
hlruk'o'no.  Pani'je  hlrak'I'gegi.  E'gi  uarjkci'go£i  jige'  hicu'- 
ruk'ong/jeni  gjgigi'ji-  Tco'k'aga  Djobenqgiwi'ijxga  n^djoradjo'gi 
waj^gu'zEra  djagu'  ruk'o'no  ni7)gigi'gi.  Tcok'aga'  nldjoradjo'gj 
manA/gere  djadjaj'xdji  nike'gi  jedjai'xdji  tani-onirjgl'ju  hanihe'- 
k'djona'wigi.  Je'sge  tcok'aga'  hlrage'gi  tani-o'waxu  niiygl'k'- 
erek'djaVi  hiceje.  Tcok'aga'  e'je  al'rera.  Hlcge'  tcok'aga'  wax- 
op'i'ni  wana£i'  rusgl'tcgi  hlcgidja'  wana£i'  yorak'a'rak'ereje^  tcok'- 
aga' eje  al'rera.     Tanl'na  ga  alredjigo'." 

"Tc5k'a'  Tcaxcep  hurjgEra'  tani-oniijgiju'nA..  Tcok'aga'  djagu' 
na^djc-radjo/gi  je£e'  niijgita'win^.  E'gi  wawakl'k'aradjEra  tanini7;- 
gip'axu'7)k'djonavwire  hinagl'ksapwl'gj  wonA/TJre  uai?kci'go£I'na 
hunak£u'wigi  maiha'gEregi  ya£u'k'djawrnA..  Te  jesge  nirjgita.'- 
winA.  tcok'a'. 

Host's  offering  to  the  Day. — "E'gi  jige  hg/pdjane  tanl'na  hidje' 
nigigl'nA..  Ninta'k'adJEra  wani-oi'tcge  hjsga/ra  wiwe'-wj-owinQr- 
gera  warutc  xo'p'ini  hiraniiygl'tutcap  reha'win^.  Tcok'aga'  Djo- 
bena.gi\vi'r?xga  n^djoradjQ'gi  hlcge  wlwe'wj  h!djo'rak'arak'erevje 
al'rera.  Tanl'na  woho/na  hlnagip'e'rezwigi  w5nA'7Jrera  uat;kcigo£I'- 
na  ya£uanihe'k'djawi.     Niijgita'win^  tcok'a'." 


badin]  THE   CLAN    WAE-BUNDLE   FEASTS  461 

ever  powers  the  Creator  put  in  your  control.  That  with  which  you 
blessed  grandfather  it  is  said  you  would  give  us,  too,  when  in  the 
course  of  time  we  would  pray  to  you  to  bestow  them  upon  us.  So  it 
is  reported  our  grandfather  Djoben^giwi'^xga  said.  A  handful  of 
tobacco  we  place  for  you  in  the  fire.  You  would  smoke  it,  it  is  said 
that  you,  yourself,  told  grandfather.  Tobacco,  you  told  him  you 
would  always  accept,  it  is  said.     Here  it  is,  the  tobacco." 

He  pours  tobacco  into  the  fire. 

"If  you  smoke  the  tobacco  for  us,  war  powers  and  happiness  in 
life  we  will  ask  of  you.  Soup,  vegetables,  rice,  and  maple  sugar  we 
send  out  to  you,  and  buckskin  for  moccasins  likewise.  If  you  accept 
these  things  from  us,  it  will  be  ours  to  use,  war  power  and  life.  That 
we  ask  of  you,  grandmother." 

Host's  offering  to  the  chief  of  the  Eagles. — "Chief  of  the  Eagles,  you 
who  walk  on  light 44  up  above.  You,  yourself,  said  that  only  you  are 
the  greatest  one  in  control  of  war  powers.  That  you  are  thus,  you 
said  of  yourself.  Life  also  you  are  in  charge  of.  You  blessed  our 
grandfather  Dj5bena.gjwi'r;xga  with  whatever  powers  the  Creator 
put  you  in  control.  You  blessed  grandfather  for  all  eternity,15  and 
for  those  powers  we  are  now  about  to  offer  you  tobacco.  It  is  for 
that  purpose  you  told  grandfather  we  should  have  a  tobacco  pouring. 
So  grandfather  told  us,  it  is  said.  Grandfather  also  made  a  sacred 
bundle  46  and  to  this  you  also  added  your  power,  grandfather  said,  it  is 
said.     The  tobacco,  here  it  is." 

He  pours  tobacco  into  the  fire. 

"To  you,  chief  of  the  Eagles,  grandfather,  do  we  pour  tobacco. 
With  whatever  you  blessed  grandfather,  that  we  ask  of  you.  All 
the  members  of  the  clan  offer  you  tobacco  that  you  may  have  knowl- 
edge of  it  (i.  e.,  the  tobacco)  and  bestow  upon  us  who  dwell  on  the 
earth  war  powers  and  life.     That  is  what  we  ask  of  you,  grandfather." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Bay. — "To  the  Day47  I  pour  tobacco,  also 
soup,  and  a  rib  of  a  white-haired  animal  (i.  e.,  a  deer).  A  sacred  meal 
we  are  about  to  offer  to  you.  Grandfather  Djoben^giwi'^xga  you 
blessed  and  you  also  added  your  thoughts,48  it  is  said.  If  you  accept 
tobacco  and  the  feast,  war  powers  and  life  we  assuredly  are  going  to 
obtain.     For  that  we  ask,  grandfather." 

«  "HabamanT  pa,"  is  the  ritualistic  name  for  any  bird.  Although  rarely  used  except  in  rituals,  it  is  yet 
generally  known  among  the  people,  a  fact  that  does  not  hold  for  most  of  the  other  ritualistic  appellations. 

45  The  set  phrase  which  from  now  on  we  will  translate  by  "eternity,"  is  literally  "as  long  as  the  earth 
lasts,  that  long." 

*s  "  Waxop'i'  ni  wana/i'rusgi'  tcgi"  means  literally,  "  He  tied  up  the  spirit  mind  or  manifestation,"  i.  e., 
he  made  a  bundle  of  the  blessings  he  received  from  the  various  spirits.  DjobenangiwiVxga  is  the  indi- 
vidual who  is  supposed  to  have  first  received  the  clan  bundle.  The  word  "wana/j"  is  a  very  difficult 
one  to  render  accurately  in  English. 

a  Although,  according  to  the  Winnebago  conception,  the  light  of  day  is  associated  with  the  sun,  yet  the 
sun  is  not  regarded  as  causing  the  light  any  more  than  the  absence  of  the  sun  is  thought  to  be  the  cause 
of  darkness,  but  both  light  (daylight)  and  darkness  arc  associated  with  special  deities. 

18  "  Wiwe'wj "  Is  not  to  be  thought  of  in  an  abstract  sense  but  as  something  quite  as  tangible  as  a  material 
object. 


462  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Host's  offering  to  the  South  Wind. — "E'gj  jige  rek'ii'huhTra 
tcok'aga'  Dj5bena.giwi'7;xga  waxop'I'ni  wa'na£i  rusgl'tcgi  hicge, 
wana£i'  dj5rak'a/rak'erejev  e'je  tcok'aga'  Djobena.ghvi'i?xga  al'rera. 
Wajqgu'zEra  djagu'  hiruk'o'no  ni^gigl'gi  tcSk'aga'  Djobena.gi- 
wi'r;xga  nfdjoradjo/  gi  djadjai'xdji  p'a  man^'gere  mI'nAj;k'I 
jedjai'xdji  p'a,  tani-onb/gl'p'axu  hanihe'k'djawi  hirak'I'gegi. 
Tanl'na  ga  aire'114." 

"E'gi  njtak'a'dJEra  waj§,gu'zEra  wani-ol'tcge  hi7;gj£u'nA.  hiidjo'- 
bimanj'ja  nj'tak'atc  niijgigiwi'nA.  wak'e'j^.  Tanl'na  hjnagi'- 
hiwigr  njta'k'adJEra  hlnagl'p'erezwjgi  wonA'Tirera  wota'  tconi'na 
hlrak'I'rak  wawek'dja/winA.  uarjkcigoTna  pla/u'k'djaNvinA..  Me'- 
jesge  nii/gita'win*;." 

Host's  offering  to  the  North  Wind. — E'gi  jige  wazi'regihuhlVa  wa- 
k'ip'I'na  hlceje;  tcok'aga'  Djobenqgiwi'Tfxga  e'je  al'rera.  Tanl'na 
njta/k'adJEra  wol'dJAne  nab?k'anA/gIja.  ha'ra  waiya/gek'djaVira 
je'sge  n|ro'nj  hlrak'I'sa  ni^gi'tucdja.  reha'winA.  WawI'nagip'ereV 
wigi  w6na'7Jre  ua7?kcigo£i'na  w5ta'ra  te  je'nuga  ni)7gita'win4. 
Tcok'a'  waxa-I'na  rohg,bot£e'ki-eVlja  hl£u'p'lnanrje  hlrak'i'geje. 
Tcok'aga'  Djobenqgiwi'Tjxga  e'je  al'rera  ha'n^ga." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Bla-ck  Hawlc. — "E'gi  tcSk'a'  k'eredju'  sepEra 
hicge'  wowe'wj  higi-orak'a'rak'erevje  al'rera  tanl'na  hoju'-ija. 
ni?;gip'axu'na.  WonA'7Jre  uar;kcigo£i'na  wajg-gu'zEra  hiruk'o'no 
niijgigl'gi,  je£e'  waniijgita'114.  Tcok'aga'  Djobena.giwi'7/xga  n^ldjo- 
radJQ'gi  manA'gEre  djadjai'xdji  ml'na^k'Iji  jedjaj'xdji  p'a.  tanl'na 
rabi'  ranica'k'djone'je  hice'je  al'rera.  Tanl'na  hlnAjjI'wik'sa^pwigi 
uaj/kcigo£I'na  ya£u'?7k'djawira  wonA/TJre.     Nijjgita'win^  ha'nAga." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Wona'yire  Ua'-qkcik. — "Tcok'a'  Wak'a'ndja 
Wona'TJre  tfa^khlniTjgal'rawigi,  tcok'aga'  waxop'I'ni  wana£i'  rusgl'- 
tcgi hicge  wana£i'  dj5rak'a'rak'erevje  al'rera.  TanI'  nii7gip'a'xu- 
wTn.^.  Tanl'nacAnA.  wona'TJre  ua??kcigo£rna  tcok'aga'  Djobena.- 
giwi't/xga      ni?7gita'win4      je£e      maik'I'dja.      ya£uanihek'dja\niH. 


badin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  463 

Host's  offering  to  the  South  Wind. — "South  Wind,  to  the  bundle 
grandfather  Djobena,giwi'7;xga  made  you  added  your  power,  so 
grandfather  Djobena.gi\vi'^xga  said,  it  is  said.  That  which  the 
Creator  put  in  charge  of  you,  and  with  which  you  blessed  grandfather 
Djobena.giwi'7)xga,  as  long  as  the  earth  lasts,  we  are  about  to  pour 
tobacco  for,  as  you  yourself  told  us.     The  tobacco,  here  it  is." 

He  pours  tobacco  into  the  fire. 

"A  four-legged  animal,49  a  coon,  that  the  Creator  made  for  us,  we 
are  going  to  give  you  in  the  form  of  a  soup.  If  you  accept  the  soup 
and  likewise  smoke  the  tobacco,  then  the  first  request  (we  wish  to 
make)  is  that  it  might  be  our  fortune  to  obtain  war  powers  and 
travel  safely  (on  the  path)  of  life.     This  is  what  we  ask." 

Host's  offering  to  the  North  Wind. — "Wind  who  lives  in  the  north, 
you  said  'I  am  the  equal  of  (the  spirit  of  the  north) ' ; 50  so  grandfather 
Djobena.giwi'r;xga  said,  it  is  said.  Tobacco,  soup,  vegetables,  what 
a  tree  bears,  fruit,  as  we  call  it,  and  maple  sugar,  that  also  we  send 
toward  you.  If  you  accept  them,  the  request  (we  make)  is  for  war 
power  and  life;  that  we  ask  of  you.  To  kill  a  person  outright  is  an 
excellent  power  to  have,  grandfather  Porcupine,51  you  said  of  your- 
self.    So  grandfather  Djobenajgiwi'^xga  said,  it  is  said." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Black  Hawk. — "Black  Hawk,  you  also  added 
your  powers  for  grandfather,  it  is  said ;  and  a  handful  of  tobacco  I  am 
pouring  for  you  for  that  reason.  Whatever  war  powers  and  life  the 
Creator  put  in  your  control,  that  I  ask  of  you.  You  blessed  grand- 
father Djobenqgiwi'rjxga  for  as  long  a  period  as  the  world  would  last, 
and  you  said  that  you  would  always  smoke  tobacco,  it  is  said.  If  you 
are  cognizant  of  this  tobacco,  let  us  obtain  life  and  war  power.  For 
these  we  ask." 

Host's  offering  to  the  Wdna'rjre  Oa'rjkcilc™ — "Grandfather  Thunder- 
bird,  Wona';-ire  Ua'qkcik,  as  they  call  you,  you  added  your  power 
also,  it  is  said.  Tobacco  we  are  about  to  pour  for  you.  Tobacco  only 
(we  are  giving  you),  so  that  we  may  obtain  war  powers  and  life;  that 
with  which  you  blessed  grandfather  Djobena.giwi'^xga  for  all  eter- 

*9  A  ritualistic  manner  of  speaking  of  a  quadruped,  just  as  it  is  common  in  rituals  to  speak  of  human 
beings  as  "the  two-legged-walkers." 

60 1,  e.,  cold  does  not  affect  me.  The  North  Wind  and  the  spirit  of  cardinal  point  north  are  of  course 
entirely  distinct. 

61  No  reason  is  known  why  the  spirit  is  here  addressed  as  porcupine. 

63  The  "W5na'rjre  t}a'i;kcik"  are  birds  living  in  the  empyrean  generally  identified  with  the  hawk. 
Here  they  seem  to  be  identified  with  a  kind  of  Thunderbird.  Whoever  is  blessed  by  them  becomes  a  great 
warrior.  The  term  really  means  "a  terror-inspiring  man,"  by  reason  of  his  great  war  powers.  One  of 
the  Winnebago  clans  has  this  name.  The  explanation  for  the  identification  of  theWona'rjre  Ua'ijkcik  with 
the  Thunderbirds  is  probably  the  following:  The  Thunderbird  is  not  regarded  as  belonging  to  any  particular 
bird  species,  but  any  bird  can  be  either  a  normal  bird  or  a  Thunderbird.  When  used  in  this  sense,  the 
appellation  Thunderbird  is  generic,  and  the  term  used  in  the  text,  "  Wak'a'ndja  Wona'rire  Ua^kcik,"  is 
then  best  translated  by  "Thunderbird — Wona'rire  Tja^kcik."  Thunderbird  specifically  is  understood 
to  be  in  reality  not  a  bird  but  a  being  in  human  shape.  Cf.  Introduction.  The  general  conception  of 
Thunderbird  given  here  is  touched  upon  also  by  J.  O.  Dorsey  in  his  "Siouan  Cults." 


464  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Tani'na     hlnagip'erezwi'gi     ua?;kcigc>£rna     pl^'k'dje     nii/gita'wia^ 
wak'ik'ara'djwira  dja'iHga  haniwl'n^.     Je'nuga." 

Host's  offering  to  Big  Black  Hawk. — "E'gi  k'eredju'sep  xetera' 
sal'ruk'ononV  tcok'aga'  Djobenagiwi'Tjxga  n$djoradjo'7jgi  wona'- 
7ire  ua77kcigo£i'  je£e  hata'nihek'djaSvi  tcok'aga'  hirage'gi  tani- 
5'waxu.  K'ere'k'djonegi  tani-o'waxuna  djan$/hi  k'e'rek'djone,- 
gi  jena/ha.  n§biruxa'dJEra  djaiHga'k'djonegi  jena'hf,.  Tani'- 
na woho'nA  n|biruxa'dJEra  haiig/tcbjxdji  hlragl'p'erez  ranice'- 
k'djoncje.  Hirage'gi  tcok'aga'  DjobenagiwiVxga.  Tani'na  ga 
heredjlgo'." 


"Tani'na  hoju'-ija,  hlranl'p'ahawl'cge  hoici'p  tani'na  hlnagl'hj 
haranl'cek'djoiiaVihicera.  Tani-onirjgl'ju  tani'na  rahi-a'nA.ga  £ugi 
wona'TJre  uar/kcigoTna  wowo'tara  te  jesge  niqgita'vinA..  Nita'- 
k'adJEra  rohlk'I'sge  hlnai'k'arapwrra  jesge'ja,  k'Inu'p  hak'I§/- 
djera,  ni7jk'djo'jjgeni^gera  wak'I'tcanA/gera  n;ta'k'atc  niijgighvl'n^. 
E'gi  n^biruxa'djera  wogudje'ra  sl'ja.  e'gi  rohiwik'I'sge  hlnaik'ara- 
bwi'ra  jesge'ja.  ro'ra  p'i£u'xdjinVnaga  n^phiniijgiruxa'djirera. 
E'gi  wak'ere  h$bitai'£una  hlrak'I'ratcap  ng,binij?gituxadjwrii4. 

E'gi  wonA/TJre  hlruk'o'no  xe'tera  ne'ja.  nine.  Waja.gu'zEra 
njgy'zEra  iiar;kcigo£i'  hlruk'o'no;  £ua.7jgere'gi  "wajsgu'zEra 
njgusk'i'.  Je'e  tcok'aga'  DjobenagiviV/xga  n$djoradjo'r/gi  dja- 
djaj'xdji  p'a  nianA/gere  nihe'gi  majk'1'dja.  Tani-6'waxu  hak'ere- 
a'nihek'djawi  huiia'k£u'win4.  Tani'na  hlnagicuruzwi'gi  woho/na 
hlnagip'ere'zwigi  n^biruxa'dJEra  \vainA/gicuruvzwigi  wonA/TJrera 
woiruk'I'p'ina  ya£u'k'dJ4iia\vi  uarjkcigo£i'na  ya£u'k'dja,Vira. 
Nbjgita''win4  tcok'a/wira  dja'n^ga  tcok'aga'  DjobenAg;i\vi'7?xga, 
waxop'I'ni  wa'naej  rusgitegl'  dja'n^ga  wanajdjora'k'arak'ere- 
hTgi.  Han§/tci)jxdji  hfijk'e'  wajik'I'nA  niniV/k'djonihaVige 
tanina'cAn^  nb/gip'axu'wicge  hg-^k'e'  waj§/  woI'cAnA.  hlwa£u'- 
nik'djaVige  hlrohihik'I'sge." 

"Tani'na  wogiju'ra  te  jesge  al'recAnu^n^.     E  te£e'ren4." 

The  Buckskin  Offerings  to  the  Spirits 

(Host  speaks  again.)  Sak'ereni'k'djoTjgera  mlna^kca'wa^gre 
nbjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'winA.  hltco'k'ewahTwira  hok'I'dja  wagjgl' 
naTnisge  ha^k'ecge'ra  nunige'.  Waxop'I'ni  hok'Idjg.'  glgi'  naT- 
nisge    waeuanA/gwi    nunige'     hlrudjl'sdj    hawl'     nunige.      Hltco'- 


eadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  465 

nity,  may  we  obtain  from  you.  If  you  accept  the  tobacco  may  I 
and  my  relatives  live  well  by  reason  thereof;  that  we  ask  of  you. 
That  is  all." 

Host's  offering  to  Big  Black  Hawk.*3 — "You,  Big  Black  Hawk,  who 
are  in  charge  of  war  powers,54  blessed  grandfather  DjobenaJgiwi'7;xga 
with  war  powers  and  life,  and  these  we  are  to  ask  of  you,  you  told 
grandfather,  and  pour  tobacco  at  the  same  time.  As  many  tobacco 
offerings  as  he  (grandfather)  would  have  liked  to  have  had  and  as 
many  (buckskin)  offerings  as  he  would  have  desired,  that  many  there 
will  be  for  you.  If  you  accept  the  tobacco  and  feast  and  all  the 
offerings,  you  will  assuredly  give  (us  blessings).  Thus  you  told  grand- 
father  Djobena,giwi'r/xga.     Tobacco,  here  it  is." 

He  pours  tobacco  into  the  fire. 

"If  we  extend  toward  you  a  handful  of  tobacco,  you  said  you  would 
always  smoke  it.  If,  at  a  tobacco  offering,  you  smoked  the  tobacco, 
the  requests  we  might  make  are  these — war  powers  and  life.  A  feast 
of  one  whom  you  look  upon  in  the  same  way  as  ourselves  (i.  e.,  a  dog), 
one  whom  I  have  been  treating  like  a  brother,  with  whom  the  chil- 
dren have  eaten  the  soup  of  such  a  one,  we  are  giving  you.  An 
offering  of  buckskin  for.  moccasins  and  of  one  like  ourselves  (a  dog), 
whose  body  is  well  prepared,  do  they  offer  you.  Food  they  are 
offering  you,  asking  in  return  for  life.55  You  are  the  only  one  in 
control  of  great  war  powers.  The  Creator  placed  you  in  charge  of 
life;  above  the  Creator  created  you.  With  that  you  blessed  grand- 
father Djobena^giwi'^xga  for  all  eternity.  We  will  have  a  tobacco 
pouring,  that  you  may  give  us  (these  things).  If  you  take  cognizance 
of  the  feast  offerings,  the  buckskin  offerings;  if  you  will  take  them, 
then  we  will  obtain  the  war  honors  and  then  we  will  obtain  life.  We, 
as  many  older  people  as  we  are  here,  beseech  you  for  those  powers 
you  added  to  the  spirit  bundle  of  our  grandfather  Djobenq.giwi'jjxga. 
We  will  not  have  enough  food  to  go  around,56  but  if  we  offer  you 
tobacco,  it  will  not  be  an  offense  (thus  to  act  to  you)  (we  have  been 
told)." 

This  is  what  they  used  to  say  at  the  tobacco  pouring.  This  it  is. 
(Song.) 

The  Buckskin  Offerings  to  the  Spirits 

(Host  speaks  again. 1.  "War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here, 
I  greet  you.  We  are  endeavoring  to  prepare  footwear  for  our  grand- 
fathers,57 but  we  did  not  really  accomplish  it.  Spirit  footwear  we 
tried  to  make,  that  is  what  we  were  doing,  but  our  work  was  lacking 

"  A  deity  apparently  distinct  from  Black  Hawk.    He  is  the  one  to  whom  offerings  are  always  made. 

•*  Literally  "in  control  of  grass  bundles." 

65"Ha,p"  is  the  ritualistic  name  for  life.    Literally  it  means  "light." 

M  A  ritualistic  expression  of  modesty. 

*'  I.  e.,  offer  buckskins  for  moccasins  to  the  spirits. 


466  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.asn.  37 

k'ewahTwira  ha^k'e'  wajlne'p'jhlranrje  ai'rera.  Haijk'e'  woiya'eu 
klwa-runjk'dja'wige  hltco'k'ewahi'wira  wagudje'  wani'nera£. 
tla^ge'dja  hInA7)k  wagigi'k'djonaVin4." 


Offering  to  ike  Thunderoird. — "Tcok'a'  Wak'andja'ra  wagudje'ra 
si'ja.  renirjgi'giwinA.  wajokianiwi'114.  WonA/TJrera  uarykcigo£I'na 
wotara'  me'jesge  nir/gita'win^." 

Offering  to  Night  Spirits. — "E'gi  jige  hg,bogure'gi  herera'  wagud- 
je'ra si'ja,  reni7jgi'giwinA,  wota/ra  wSna'TJrera  ua7)kcigo£i'na.  Te£e 
me'jesge  ni7)gita'winA.." 

Offering  to  Disease-giver. — "E'gi  jige  Hocere£u'wahi  tcok'a' 
wagudje'ra  si'ja,  renijjgigl'nA..  Tcok'a'  rohT  sani^k  h(Lbera',  rohl' 
sanbjk  hot£e'ruk'onA  rani'je,  tcok'aga'  Djobenqgiwi'^xga  e'ra. 
WoiiA'7irera  uajjkcigoTna  w5ta'ra  te£e'  jenur/ga  roni^gigu'winAy ' 

Offering  to  South  Wind. — ''E'gi  hitc5'k'enTna  rek'uhuhi'ra  hitco'- 
k'ewahlVira  tani'na  te  e'redjigo.  Tcok'aga'  Djobena.giwi')jxga 
n^djoradJQ'gi  wona'Tirera  uajjkcigc-Tna  n^djoradjo'gi  je£e' 
djadjo'na  tani'na  hoju'-ija.  hldje'  niijgigl'wigj  hinagip'e'rez  hara'- 
nicek'djanevnA.  hirak'I'gegi.  Wagudje'ra  sl'jq,  renbjgigi'n^. 
Woho'na  te  jesge  nijjgitu'cdja.  reha'winA..  Tcok'aga'  djagii' 
nfdjjrora'djogi  je£e'  hatawi'nA.  ha'n^ga." 

Offering  to  the  Sun.— "E'gi  hgibani'djirerahl'tcok'enrna  tcok'aga' 
Djobena.giwi'>?xga  n^Ldjoradjo'gi  djagu'  n§.djirora'djogi  koici'p 
djadjo'na  tani'na  hoju'-ija,  ni)jgip'axu'\ri-avn4ga  hatawi'gi 
tani'na  va-i'n.^p  hinagi'hir/k'djonaVi  hirage'je.  E'je  ai'rera. 
Wagudje'ra  si'ja,  renijjgigl'win^.  Njta'k'atc  wol'dJAnA  n|ro'ni 
hlraki'sa  niijgitu'cdja,  reha'win^.  Tani'na  meje'nuga  e'dja 
hiranl'na£iwlii^.  Hinagi'gsabi-a^n^ga  £ujjgi  wonA'Tirera  woirukT- 
p'ina  ya£'uk'djaVria.  UaijkcigoTna  ya£u'k'dja'wira  wota'ra 
meje'nuga  nijjgita'winA.." 

Offering  to  Earihmaker. — "t)aj?gere'gi  hi-g,'ndjennvi,na  tani'na 
uai)kcigo£i'  hlk'arata'  ya£uijkdja'wira.  Hlnagi'c£uwi-avn4ga  hani'- 
nAgiwTn^.  E'gi  nec£une're  nunige'  hak'dja'  h5ju'-ija.  niijgi- 
p'a'ha  reha'wicge  wa-Vn^p  hinagi'k'i^k'djonaHvije.  Hinag&'wije. 
Tcok'aga'  Djobena.giwi'7jxga  e'je  ai'rera.  Tcok'aga'  Djobena.- 
giwi'ijxga  n|djora'djo)jgi  wonA'7irera  uaijkcigo^j'na.  Xbjgita'wiiiA 
tani'na  hak'dja'  hoju-ija,  niijgip'a'ha  reha'winA..  Ai'gi  wagudje'ra 
si'ja.  nijjgitu'cdja.  reha'wina  wajohok'i'na  djasge'xdji  haniwI'nA, 
jesge'xdjj  uarykcigoTna  ya£u'k'djaVi.  Nbjgita'winA.  tani'na 
tcaha'  nghiruxa'djera  woho'nA  wani-oi'tcge  hjsgal'ja.  wani-oi'tcge 
iiaijgl'ja.  nbjgitu'cdja.  reha'winA/' 

Offering  to  the  Moon. — "E'gi  Hfhe'wira  k'u'nik'a  wagudje'ra 
sija.    e'gi    njta'k'atcEra    tani'na    me'jesge    ni^gitu'cdja.    reha'win^. 


kadin]  THE   CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  467 

in  every  respect.  However,  our  grandfathers  (the  spirits)  would  not 
take  offense  at  the  (inadequacy)  of  our  work,  it  is  said.  That  we 
may  not  be  weakened,  for  that  reason  it  is  that  we  are  preparing  the 
moccasins  for  our  grandfathers.  Up  above  we  are  going  to  send 
them." 

Offering  to  the  Thunderbird. — "Grandfather  Thunderbird,  our  clan 
is  sending  you  moccasins.  War  powers  and  life  are  the  requests  we 
make  in  turn." 

Offering  to  Night  Spirits. — "You  who  live  in  the  east,  moccasins  do 
we  send  you,  and  the  request  we  make,  is  war  power  and  life.  That 
we  ask  for." 

Offering  to  Disease-giver. — "Disease-giver,  grandfather,  moccasins 
we  send  you.  Grandfather,  life  you  possess  on  one  side  of  your  body, 
and  death  you  are  in  control  of  on  the  other  side  of  your  body,  so  our 
grandfather  Dj6bena.giwi'7;xga  told  us,  it  is  said.  War  power  and 
life,  that  is  the  request  we  make." 

Offering  to  South  Wind. — "To  you,  grandfather  South  Wind,  here 
is  the  tobacco  for  our  grandfathers.  You  blessed  grandfather 
Dj6bena.giwi'>?xga  with  war  powers  and  life  and  you  said  yourself 
that  you  would  bless  (his  descendants)  whenever  they  offered  you  a 
handful  of  tobacco  and  you  accepted  it.  Moccasins  we  are  sending 
you.  Food  we  are  about  to  offer  you.  Whatever  you  blessed  grand- 
father with  that  we  ask  of  you." 

Offering  to  the  Sun. — ' '  Grandfather  Light-Wanderer,  you  said  that 
if  at  any  time  we  poured  a  handful  of  tobacco  for  you  and  smoked 
tobacco  as  an  offering  (you  would  give  us)  that  with  which  you 
blessed  grandfather  Djobena.giwi'?jxga  whenever  we  ask  for  it.  So 
it  is  said.  Moccasins  we  are  sending  you.  Soup,  vegetables,  and  maple 
sugar  also  we  are  about  to  send  you.  Tobacco  is  what  we  think  of 
in  connection  with  you.  If  you  take  cognizance  of  it,  war  honors 
we  will  assuredly  obtain.     Life,  that  is  what  we  would  like  to  obtain." 

Offering  to  Earthmdker. — "You  who  are  above,  our  Father,  we  ask 
life  of  you,  extending  tobacco.  You  made  this  for  us;  you  let  us 
have  it.  Indeed  it  is  you  that  made  it  and  yet  you  will  take  a 
handful  of  it  that  we  extend  to  you  and  accept  it  as  an  offering. 
That  is  what  you  said  to  us.  So  grandfather  Djobena.gi\vi'r;xga  said, 
it  is  said.  You  blessed  grandfather  Djobena.giwi'>?xga  with  war 
powers  and  life.  Bless  us  in  turn  now  that  we  are  about  to  offer  you 
a  handful  of  tobacco.  We,  as  many  clansmen  as  there  are  here,  are 
about  to  send  to  you  moccasins  so  that  we  may  obtain  life  from  you. 
Tobacco,  deerskins  as  offerings,  food  of  the  white-haired  animal,  of  a 
male  animal,  we  are  about  to  offer  you." 

Offering  to- the  Moon. — "Grandmother,  the  Moon,  moccasins,  soup 
and  tobacco,  these  we  are  about  to  offer  you.     Our  request  is  for  the 


468  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [eth.  Ann.  37 

Tcok'aga'  Djobenagiwi'jjxga  djagu'  n§djirora'djo7?gi  wota'ra.  Je 
jesge  nirjgita'win^." 

Offering  to  the  Morning  Star.—"~E'g\  jige  £ua^gere'gi  Wirago'cge 
Xetera'  tcok'aga'  DjobenQgiwi^xga  n§,djora'djo7)gi  djagu'  ng,dji- 
rora'djoijgi  wota'ra  jesge'ja.  niTjgita'win^  ha'nAgja.  E'gi  tani'na 
woho'na  nfbiruxa/dJEra  wani^gitu'cdja.  reha'winA.  a'n^ga." 

Offering  to  Earth. — "E'gi  tcok'aga'  waxop'i'ni  Djobentigiwi'jjxga 
wanaei'  rusgitcgi'  nlcge'  wana^'djorak'aVak'ere  giji  ma'na  hik,aro'- 
k'enina.  Ma/£una  e  ni£u'iiA  djagii'  ruk'o'nA.  ni^gigl'gi  tcok'aga' 
nijdjirora'dJQjjgi  Djoberu\gi\vi'7jxga  je£e'  ni7;gita'win4.  Tani'na  njtak- 
adJEra'  n^biruxa'dJEra  wanijjgitu'cdjq.  reha'win4  wona'7Jrera 
iia^kcigo£i'na  wota'  me'jesge  nijjgita'win4  tcok'a'." 

Offering  to  the  Water-spirit. — "E'gi  jige  tcok'a'  huj?ge'  roni-anl'nera 
tani'na  woho'na  ngibiruxa'djera  wagudje'ra  sl'ja.  niijgita/winA. 
reha'win4.  Wajo'kin.\  wona'7irera  hatutcaip'dja/winA.  iiaryk- 
cigoH'na  ni>jgita'win4." 

General  prayer  to  the  spirits. — "Tcok'a'wira  hlrudjl'djis  zlk'dje'114 
nunige'  h^ijk'e'  wa'ji>7giravwini-§vndje  tcok'a'wira.  Sa'k'ereni'- 
r/k'djo)?gera,  ni^k'uruhi'ndj  reha'win^.  Ua7jkcik  tcowa/redja^nA. 
honiha'ra  djagii'  adjl'regi  h^k'e'  jesge'ja.  e  tuxu'ruk  niijk'- 
djona'wi,  nunige  hlgu'  djasge  hawl'gi  here'k'djonegaMja.  Hitco'- 
k'ewahl'wira  h§u?k'e'  waji'nep'riunanivje  aire'jare.  Higu' 
djasge'nir;k  hagi'  here'k'djonegaMj^.  Ni^k'uruhi'ndjwidjigo'." 
(Song.) 

Filling  op  the  Ceremonial  Pipe  and  Smoking  Ritual 

First  filling  of  the  pipe. — E'gi  jige'  tcek  waruTa'p  nawg  hl'regi 
nawc/na  e  karohoi'regi  tanihu'ija.  hoju-jra'n^ga  waru7a'p  edja, 
"  tlaijgere'gi  hi-a'ndjehihiVira  tanl'hura  hoik'e'rera  edja  hap'a'hi 
k'ere'ren^  uajjkdji'negi  hu'nqbra  hap'a'hi  k'ere'ren^.  Ma£u'na 
ua^kdji'negi  n^yjkce  a'n^^kce.  E'sge  tanihu'ra  hoik'e'rera  e'dja 
hap'a'hi  k'ere'ren*..  N§/wa.  haisu'ntc  hirera  tanihu-a'k'a  warutco'- 
na  hl'ja.  wa£u'n4  ruza'n^ga  tae'  hi-a'n^ga  hoira'tcge  huwa'ren4 
han^'tcjx^dji  k'igo'n4J?k'a  hi  wagigire'114.  tJar^gera'cAn^  ha^yk'e' 
hlnuijgera'  hlwagigi'nin^.  Hogigj'^x  tanihu'ra  hi'nera  rasge'p'  hirera' 
jige'  hoju'. 

Second  filling  of  the  pipe. — Hinubo'hona  woho'na  hidja'  wak'ere'- 
rega  e'gi  k'eni  nawai'nani  warirya'p  nawai'nek'djone^gi  tanihu-ija. 


eadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  469 

things  with  which  you  blessed  grandfather  Djoben^giwi'^xga.  That. 
we  ask  of  you." 

Offering  to  the  iteming  Star. — "You  who  are  above,  Morning  Star, 
our  request  is  that  you  bless  us  with  that  with  which  you  blessed 
grandfather  Djoben^giwi'jjxga.  Tobacco  and  food  and  a  buckskin 
offering  we  are  about  to  send  you."  59 

Offering  to  Earth. — "Grandmother  Earth,  you  also  added  your 
power  to  the  spirit  bundle  that  grandfather  Djobenqgiwi'^xga  made. 
The  powers  Earthmaker  put  you  in  control  of,  and  with  which  you 
blessed  grandfather  Djoben^giwi'^xga,  those  we  ask  of  you. 
Tobacco,  soup,  and  a  buckskin  offering  we  are  about  to  send  to  you 
and  the  request  that  we  make  of  you,  is  war  power  and  life." 

Offering  to  the  Water-spirit. — "Water-spirit,  grandfather  whose 
body  is  of  water,60  tobacco,  food,  and  a  buckskin  offering  for  moc- 
casins, we  are  about  to  offer  you.  I  and  my  relatives  desire  to  lay 
our  hands  on  war  and  life." 

General  prayer  to  the  spirits. — "Grandfathers,  we  have  probably 
been  very  remiss  in  what  we  have  done,  but  do  not  hold  it  against 
us,  grandfathers.  We  greet  you,  war-bundle  owners.  The  life 
(blessings)  that  those  who  have  gone  before  us  had,  the  songs  that 
they  handed  down  to  us,  not  in  their  manner  will  we  be  able  to  sing, 
but  still,  however  it  be,  it  will  be  (our  best).  It  has  been  said  that 
nothing  will  provoke  you,61  grandfathers.  Well,  however,  that  is  the 
way  we  will  do  it.     I  greet  you."     (Song.) 

Filling  of  the  Ceremonial  Pipe  and  Smoking  Ritual 

First  filling  of  the  pipe. — After  they  have  sung  the  first  war-bundle 
song,  then  they  get  a  pipeful  of  tobacco  ready  and  place  it  near  the 
war  bundle,  speaking  as  follows :  ' ' Our  father  who  art  above,  for  you 
the  pipe  is  extended;  up  straight  above  it  is  placed."  Up  straight 
above  it  is  extended  to  Earthmaker,  they  say.  For  that  reason  do 
they  arrange  the  pipe  in  that  way.  Then  when  the  songs  are  finished 
the  attendant  takes  the  pipe,  lights  it,  and  takes  it  with  him  to  the 
left  side,  giving  all  the  men  in  the  lodge  an  opportunity  to  smoke. 
Women  are  not  allowed  to  smoke.  The  tobacco  in  the  pipe  is 
entirely  consumed  as  the  pipe  makes  the  circuit  of  the  lodge  and  it 
is  then  filled  again. 

Second  filling  of  the  pipe. — Then  there  at  the  feast  for  the  second 
time  do  they  place  (the  pipe).     When  they  are  about  to  sing  the 

"  That  this  spirit  was  not  mentioned  before  is  an  oversight  on  the  part  of  the  informant. 

60  Deferential  and  ritualistic  name  for  the  Water-Spirit.  It  may  mean  chief.  The  general  name  which 
we  loosely  translate  "  Water-spirit "  is  "  Wak'djexi." 

61 1,  e.,  that  no  inaccuracy  nor  ignorance  on  their  part  will  anger  the  spirits  and  cause  them  to  refrain 
from  bestowing  their  blessings.  This  is,  of  course,  an  expression  of  ritualistic  modesty,  but  I  suspect 
that  there  is  also  a  reference  intended  here  to  the  fact  that  in  these  degenerate  days  not  only  are 
individuals  no  longer  blessed  as  of  yore,  but  certain  details  of  the  ceremony  have  been  forgotten.  I  see  no 
reason  for  giving  too  much  weight  to  this  last  fact,  but  it  may  be  best  to  have  it  in  mind. 


470  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

hoju'-iran^ga  wanr/a'p  tcowe'dja  wak'adjowak'irrredja.  tanihu'd- 
jega hoik'e'rerera  hap'ahl'  k'ere'ranA.ga.  E'gi  n|w§i  hirana'nA.  na- 
\vA.'na  haisu'ndjiregrji  tanihu'djega  wak'andjaj'dja  wap'a'hi  k'ere'- 
n^jjk'a  wak'andja'nA^jk'a  wagigo'n.v>?k'a  e'dja  hadji'regi  hi'nek'- 
djVgi.  E'sge  je£e'  hidja'  k'ere'nA^k'cAnA..  Wak'andja'n^ijk'a 
tanl'na  woho'na  nfbiruxa'djera,  wak'aragl'£u  wagigo'nA.)jk'a  e'dja 
wak'a'ragu  hadji'regi.  E'sge  tanihu'djega  hijaidja'djegi  hnjk'dje'ge 
e'sge  wa£u'n4j?kcAnA.  tanihu'djega. 

Third  filling  of  the  pipe. — E'gi  wagigS'n^jjk'a  wawigiwa'^xcAnA. 
we'nA,  "Hatci'ndja  hop'fi'hi-ak'ere'k'djone'je,"  e'ra  wagigo'n^k'a 
kl'ja.  we'n4,  "Sa/nbjk  herotco/djeregi  hop'a'hi  k'ere'ren^."  E'gi 
n§wai'nenA.  H5cere£u'wahi  mVwa.  wa'n^gi  vvawieu-ine'n4.  E'gi 
haisu'ndjirera  jige'  tanihu'ra  hogigi'ijx  wagigi'ren^. 

Fourth  filling  of  the  pipe. — E'gi  jige'  tani'hura  p'jhi-oju-a'n^ga 
egi  jige'  wawigl'waijxcAnA.. 

"Hatci'ndja  hop'a'hl-a?"  "K'ere'k'dje'je  mai'ndja  t£&bere." 
E'sge  mai'ndja  te$pce.  Mak'u'hanegi  hurjge  e'dja  tanl'huk'a 
kop'ahi  t£§p  wa/u'-inen^,  mai'ndja  t£aibrega.  E'gi  vase' 
na.W4'nA  nacdjai'negi  tani'hura  hogigi'jjx  hiwagigl'je.  E'gi  k'irigi' 
haijk'e  ojunl'je  je'gu  maindjat£g/pce." 

Basic  Ritual 

Host's  first  speech. — Sa'k'ereniijk'dJQ^gEra  mlnA^k'ca'wajjgre 
hltco'k'ewahlVira.  Ep'I'nA.  hlnagl'djiwira.  Cjdj  wat£e'eni)}k'av- 
ragik'djonaVi  nunige  kaijk'e'  wajigl'rawlni-§,'dje.  Tok'e'wehi 
t£eni)jk'a'ragik'djonaVi  nunige  waxop'i'ni  wara'diire  cewewl'wiijge 
hir/gl'djjwrra.  Ep'I'114.  Harjk'e'  wajg/ni-ija.  p'jhanl'k'djonaVi 
nunige  hltco'k'ewahlVira  yoire'regi  herera'tcok'aga'  Djobenagi- 
wi'vjxga  honiha'  glk'ere'regi  wora'tcga,  na£I'n4.  Je'sgek'djonihax- 
win4  tcege'dja  honiha'ra  djasge'  tcok'aga'  waglt£u'biregi  yoweha'- 
k'djawlvje  nunige'  honiha'ra.  Hlgu'  hl'jaijk'ira  hlrap'e'rez  a'iHga 
e'cAnA.  hawerai'cge  p'ik'djone'je;  tcok'aga'  e'je  al'ren^.  Hlgu' 
djasge  a'n^ga  honiha'  hlgu'  djasge  nana'nA.Tjk'1  yak  hjbra'gi  hl- 
tco'k'ewahlVira hlnirygi'p'erez  hl'rek'djonena,  al'rera.  Je'sge 
p'ewl'wiijge  hok'a'raga  na£I'nisge.  Honiha'  tests'  waha'i- 
k'djonihaVin^;  djobo'hA.  hak'aral'sundjwigi  e'gi  hSxgu'  sak£i'na 
herek'djone'nA. 


kadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  471 

war-bundle  songs  then  they  fill  the  pipe  and  place  it  in  front  of  the 
war  bundle,  in  the  path  of  the  Thunderbirds,  extending  the  mouth- 
piece in  that  direction  (i.  e.,  the  west).  Then  they  would  sing  some 
songs  and  when  these  were  finished,  the  Thunderbirds  would  come 
as  feasters  to  where  the  pipe  lay  extended  and  smoke.  That  is  why 
they  place  the  pipes  there.  The  Thunderbirds  do  this  (i.  e.,  smoke) 
as  a  sign  of  acceptance  of  the  tobacco,  food,  and  buckskins.  So  that  a 
Thunderbird  might  smoke,  do  the  feasters  place  the  pipe  there. 

Third  filing  of  the  pipe. — Then  the  host  asked  the  others,  "In 
what  direction  shall  I  j)lace  this  pipe?"  and  one  of  the  feasters  said, 
"Toward  the  south,  place  it."  Then  they  sang  the  songs  of  the 
Disease-giver.  Then  when  they  were  finished  they  carried  around 
the  pipe. 

Fourth  filing  of  the  pipe.- — Then  the  host  fills  the  pipe  again  and 
again  asks,  "In  what  direction  shall  I  place  the  pipe  ?"  (and  some  one 
answers),  "Place  it  toward  the  earth."  So  he  placed  it  toward  the 
ground.  For  those  under  the  ground,  the  Water-spirits,  they  also 
place  the  pipe  by  standing  it  on  the  ground.  Then  they  sing  paint 
songs  and  when  they  are  finished  they  pass  the  pipe  around  so  that 
all  may  smoke.  When  it  returns  (to  the  host)  it  is  not  filled  again 
but  placed  empty  on  the  ground. 

Basic  Ritual62 

Host's  first  speech. — "War-bundle  owners,  who  are  sitting  here,  I 
send  forth  my  greeting  to  you.  It  is  good  that  you  have  come  (in 
response  to  my  invitation).  It  is  my  purpose  to  make  you  tired 
from  sitting,  but  do  not  for  that  reason  think  any  the  worse  of  us. 
We  will  make  you  hungry,  hungry  to  the  point  of  starvation,63  but 
(we  know)  you  came  for  the  sake  of  the  spirits  (not  for  our  sake). 
It  is  good.  We  are  not  going  to  do  anything  in  the  correct  manner, 
but  our  grandfathers  who  live  in  the  west  taught  our  grandfather 
Djoben^giwi'7jxga  some  songs  and  these  we  are  going  to  try  and 
repeat.  We  will  now  sing  the  songs  just  as  they  taught  it  to  grand- 
father. We  may  perhaps  sing  only  one  song.  However,  if  you 
know  only  one  song  and  take  pains  about  it,  it  will  suffice  (to  pro- 
pitiate the  spirits);  so  grandfather  said,  it  is  said.  Anyhow,  if  we 
try  to  cry,  in  our  efforts  of  singing,64  our  grandfathers  will  take 
cognizance  of  it,  it  is  said.  That  is  what  we  are  flunking  of  when 
we  try  to  get  the  spirits'  attention  by  singing.65  We  will  do  our 
best  to  sing  the  songs,66  and  we  will  sing  four  of  them ;  and  when  we 

62  For  explanation  see  Introduction. 

u  Ritualistic  depreciation. 

64  I.  e.,  if  you  put  yourself  into  a  state  of  religious  fervor,  a  state  that  I  have  generally  rendered  by  the 
word  "pitiable." 

K  The  word  "hok'a'raga"  means,  literally,  "by  voice  to  attract  attention."  "H6"  is  not  an  instru- 
mental particle  but  the  word  for  voice,  speech. 

66  Literally,  "to  make  one's  breath  visible  in  the  form  of  song  or  speech,"  a  ritualistic  circumlocution  for 
song. 


472  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.ann.  37 

"Sa'k'erera  tci-o'ju  rnlna^kca'wajjgre  ni'Tjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'wi- 
djigoV     (Warvrya'p  N^wft.) 

tla^gi'ja.  w5gig5'min47?k'  aga'k'inQ^k  t%p  djira'n^ga  we'je. 

First  guest's  address  to  the  young  people. — "Sa'k'erenijjk'djo^gera 
mlna.ijkca'waiygre  njk'uruiii'ndj  reka'win^,  Hotcintci'n  watcegera' 
waxop'i'nihlk'isge'ja.  hSnika'ra  niTjgiwawi'^u-inek'djanaVe  hlwacl'ra 
djirehiregi'ji  \vanAr;gijiwi'ne  wSn^'TJrera  na.k'ixu'ruk  na/I'wine. 
E'gi  hl'nygEra  wa^gwatca'bwira  wonA'Tire  \van4gLxu'ruk  na/I'- 
wine.  Ha^k'e'  ga/dju^ga  je'sge  hlnuxu'rugenihaha/kcAiH  tcege'- 
dja  uar;kcik  tcowa'redjane  hi'ja.  \var07I'  te  jesge  hlga  dja'n^ga 
ua^gi-e'riga  je'nuryga  hiwaci'  djirehl'rega.  Hana/tciiyxdj;  ha.ijk'1'ja. 
mln.v'genina)jksfa'je.  E'gi  jige  hlnygera'  hicge  uarjkci'go£i  wagi'-'y 
waeu'-ineje.  Hajseretci'cge  wacira'  ka^k'aga'  horuc£a'giranis£avje 
ai'rera.  Je'sge  hanik'a'rajlwige  waha'djen4.  WoriA'TJre  uaijkci- 
go^'na  e'gi  wo\vat£e'giregi  horuxu'rugEra  je  ai'rera  je'sge  p'ewi'7jge 
wahe'114.     Sa'k'erera  miiiAjjkca'waqgre  niijk'uruhi'ndj  rehawidjigo'. 


Host's  second  speech. — Sa'k'ereni^k'dJQ'gera  minajjkca'wa^gere 
njk'uruhindj  reha'win^. 

"Hltco'k'ewahl'wira  tcin^gidjai'ja.  wajadjl'giji  wirok'u'na 
wawiro'k'yijgi.  P'1'114  hip'erezlre'je.  Hlp'e'rez  na£i'negi 
n^Ldjok'I'dja.  el'regi.  Hl'nyk  waro'ni  m§k'§'  al'reje.  HitcV- 
nuryk'evja.  nf'tcgera  tek'  hi'regi.  Hinygl'ja.  iwustfe'k'i)jglji  hujjge' 
ma>jgitca'wa_  \vat£y'pce  huijge'  xgicgu'ni  wajqgy'zEra  wajinuk'o'no 
glglgl.  Hlnujjk'djega  n^djodjaj'je.  Hujjge'  teewagik'i'kefi-axn4ga 
hlny'k'djega  e'dja  wirok'u'  rusgl.  P'1'114  hip'ere'ziregi.  Mgik'aj'- 
k'arartcgagi.  Tcek'dji'114  \va£y'je.  Mfxl'  flaijgeregl'  hlwfzi'gija. 
m|xI'k'orascop     giwj'x     n|ji'je.        HlnygEra     wiryje'      mak'ai'ja. 


radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE    FEASTS  473 

are  finished  then  it  will  be  time  for  us  to  eat.67  Warriors  who  are 
sitting  within  the  lodge,  we  send  forth  our  greetings  to  you."  (War- 
bundle  song.) 

Then  a  man  sitting  opposite  the  seat  of  the  host  gets  up  and 
speaks. 

First  guest's  address  to  the  young  people. — "War-bundle  owners, 
young  men,  those  who  are  the  proxies  of  spirits,  are  about  to  use  a 
song  for  you  and  start  a  dance  in  your  behalf;  and  when  they  do  it, 
get  up  and  try  to  obtain  war  powers  by  dancing.  Women,  you  should 
also  try  to  obtain  war  powers  for  your  brothers  by  dancing.  Now 
we  are  not  able  to  obtain  (the  number  of  men)  that  our  ancestors 
used  to  obtain  in  the  beginning.  Then,  if  in  a  speech  they  asked 
for  them,  as  many  men  as  there  were  around  would  immediately 
begin  to  dance.  Not  one  of  them  would  remain  in  bis  seat.  Young 
women,  they  used  to  act  in  that  way  in  order  to  obtain  life  also. 
All  night  they  would  dance  and  not  a  single  one  would  tire  of  it. 
We  encourage  you  to  do  thus;  that  is  why  I  am  saying  this.  That 
the  obtaining  of  life  may  be  easy,  is  the  reason  they  told  us  this. 
Because  I  believe  it  (likewise)  is  the  reason  I  am  telling  it  to  you. 
War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you  all." 

Host's  second  speech. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are  sitting  here, 
I  greet  you  all. 

' '  Our  grandfathers  knew  that  one  of  a  different  tribe 6S  had  had  a 
vision  and  obtained  material  for  use  (in  life).  They  tried  to  obtain 
it  and  (finally)  asked  him  to  pity  them.  The  medicine  was  called 
hinuTjgwa'roni.69  They  made  the  heart  of  the  man  of  this  other 
tribe  (Hit£e'nu7jk'e)  sad.70  (He  had  obtained  it  in  the  following 
manner):  A  woman  fasted71  and  one  of  the  Water-spirits  whom  the 
Creator  had  placed  there  for  all  eternity,  a  Water-spirit  for  keeping 
(the  earth)  quiet,72  blessed  her  with  the  power  he  had  been  placed 
in  charge  of.     The  Water-spirit  had  himself  die  and  the  woman  there 


"  Literally,  "last  movements"  in  reference  to  the  fast-eating  contest  that  takes  place  during  the  feast. 

68  This  is  not  a  Winnebago  tale. 

89  My  interpreter  could  not  translate  the  name  of  this  medicine  into  English.  He  thought  that  it  might 
mean  "wicked  woman  medicine,"  but  this  is  extremely  doubtful. 

70 1,  e.,  at  the  idea  of  parting  with  it.  What  tribe  is  meant  by  "HitVnuijk'e,"  it  has  been  impossible  to 
find  out.  The  word,  I  believe,  means  "those  whom  we  can  speak  with  "  in  reference  to  the  fact  that  their 
language  was  intelligible  to  the  Winnebago.  I  was  definitely  assured  that  neither  the  Oto,  Iowa,  or 
Missouri  were  meant.  I  have  sometimes  surmised  that  the  Winnebago  may  be  referring  to  the  Mandan, 
whose  language,  from  the  little  I  have  seen  of  it,  is  surprisingly  close  to  that  of  the  former.  All  that  the 
older  Winnebago  could  tell  me  about  the  Hit'e'nuijk'e  was  the  fact  that  many  years  ago  they  had  been  in 
contact  with  a  tribe  speaking  a  language  similar  to  their  own. 

n  Literally,  "  to  thirst  oneself  to  death,"  the  ritualistic  expression  for  fasting. 

«  He  is  referring  to  one  of  the  four  beings  whom  Earthmaker  had  placed  at  the  four  ends  of  the  world  to 
prevent  it  from  moving  continually,  as  related  in  the  origin  myth  of  the  Medicine  Dance  and  of  the  Thunder- 
bird  clan. 

186823°— 22 31 


474  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

n^pwiro'ra  hik'I'-o  hl-a'nAga  hlwizl'k'djega  himanA/k'I  t£e'xdjj 
ci'beregi;  tcirahe'ra  howa'djihQhf  je  hinugenA/k'a  tcowehi-e'dja 
k'IrjnA/kee.  M^k'o'k'on^jjk  je£e'  £uk'dje'gi  hereje.  Egi  uaijk 
nace'rege  iha/pcAnA.  nihe'ra  hate'gi.  £Ja)?k'djega  wageje',  "Hak'- 
ik'u'ruk'oza'dje  ha^k'e'  e'gi  owahu'  na£iya/dje."  Waja/  wahl'- 
racge  wawogi'rakce  hirak'a'rak'arawi-a/dje.  "Hahe'  te£e  wase' 
nawa.ijk'djone'nA.  uajjk'djega  djigl'  t£ek'djone'n4.  Ha^k'e' 
djlni7jk'dje'n4  hirak'a'rak  arawi-avdje."  E'gi  h^he'regi  wase' 
nqw^'gi  lia'^k'djega  nAijgadjI'je.  ftogJTi'ra  nunige  hok'awa'n^ga 
wacidja'£u  t£eje.  E'gi  wase'no^k'a  hitVmujk'e  wase'  hlgai'reje 
tenia  gldjal'ja.  meje'nuga." 


"Wase'nAk'a  p'ina  hlp'e'rezirevge  hlgik'I'cereje  nfdjok'I'dja. 
ci'regi  wagiru'cdja.  huhl'je.  Ege  wase'nA>?k'a  harutc^'biregi 
haryk'e'  tci-oro'gEregi  wajinok'u'-inaru/je.  WaruTa'p  k'u'-ineje. 
Wase'nAjjk'a  wona'7iredja  hi£u'-inegi  p'irjgi  hlp'e'reztinege.  Hl'- 
k'aracrcik  hirege'  waruia'pregi  h5k'a'rak'aW7jk  hire'n^.  Honi- 
ha'ra  tc$t£i'  waha'k'djonihaVinA.  wasi-a'ni  haniwi-a'nAga 
wahe'k'djonihaVije  waruia'p  nawa.  wahe'k'djonihfiVin^. 
Wasja'ni  haniwi'gi  haga  waja'nija.  £Q'-inewicguvnin4.  Hajjk'e' 
wasia'ni  hIranA/k'Ik£iwi  a'n^ga  waha/ni>?k'djonavwin4  honiha'ra 
ha^k'e'  wawat^'  p'lnjk'djona'wi  nunige  hija^k'I'ra  hlrap'e'- 
rezgrcge  7ak'  hjbi-f'dje  al'rera.  Je'sge  wahek'djona'win^. 
Sa'k'ereniyjk'dJQvgEra  mlnA^kca'warygre  njk'uruhi'ndj  reha'- 
widjigo."     (Wase'  Nawa..) 

Host's  third  speech- — "  Sa'k'ereni7jk'dJQvgEra  minA^kca'wa^gre 
ni'^k'uruhindj  reha'win^.  Tok'e'wehi  t£enir;k'a'ragi-an4);gwi 
nunige'  hok'a'raga  na/I'nisge  wahanA/gwire. 

Tcok'aga'  Dj5benqgiwi'7jxga  uaijgi'jq  hot£e'ruk'onavjja.  sa'ni^k" 
yorotco/djeregi  naijk'I'ji  waxop'i'ni  wara'djirera  djanwjga'k'i 
hl'cAiiA.  hiraitce'raje  w6na'7Jre  ruk'o'nAn^  xete'ja.  hereje.  E'gi 
hfbiruk'onal'ja.  hereje  e'gi  hot£e'  ruk'o'naya.  hereje.  Tcok'aga' 
wirarotcu'djegadja.  hak'idja'je  wageje'  wona'ijre  uajjkci'go£i  n§dji- 
rpra'dJQgi.  E'gi  wageje,  "Hagare'ja.  kak'arak£u'icge  redju'na 
djadjaj'xdji  kip'a'  nine'gi  jedjaj'xdjj  p'a  hatei'ndja  na^k'I'ji 
hq7)k'e'     wama'ninirjk'djonevnA.    howajaire'cge,    honi'jjk    waci'nina 


kadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  475 

took  the  material  (the  remains  of  the  Water-spirit).73  That  it  is 
good,  they  knew.  Then  she  tried  her  medicine.  The  first  time  she 
did  the  following:  Up  above,  almost  near  the  sky,  a  hawk  stood 
whirling  around.  The  woman  dipped  her  forefinger  into  the  medicine 
and  then  she  pointed  it  at  the  hawk  and  it  fell  dead;  she  made  it  fall 
through  the  top  of  a  house;  right  in  front  of  the  woman  it  landed. 
She  wanted  to  use  it  as  a  medicine  bag.  Then  she  dreamed  that 
they  had  taken  a  man  from  his  home  that  he  might  fast.  She  said 
to  the  man,  ' '  Put  forth  all  your  strength  and  don't  try  to  come  here." 
She  also  told  his  relatives  to  watch  him.  "To-night  I  am  going  to 
sing  a  paint  song  and  if  he  comes  he  will  die.  Take  care  of  him  that 
he  doesn't  come."  That  night  she  sang  a  paint  song  and  the  man 
came  running  to  her.  She  forbade  him  but  he  came  anyhow  and 
he  died  dancing.  This  medicine  is  called  hitee'nu>jk'e  medicine,  re- 
ferring to  the  name  of  another  tribe,  and  that  is  how  it  acted. 

"They  (our  ancestors)  knew  that  it  was  good  paint  and  he  (one 
of  them)  tried  to  get  him  (the  Hit£e'nu»/k'e)  to  bless  him  with  the 
paint  (the  latter  had  obtained  from  the  woman).  "When  they 
obtained  it,  they  never  used  it  in  their  own  midst  (i.  e.,  among 
themselves).  They  made  a  medicine-bundle  of  it.  The  paint-medi- 
cine, it  is  good  to  use  in  war.  That  they  knew  very  well.  They 
were  very  sparing  in  their  use  of  it  (because  it  was  so  valuable). 
They  placed  it  in  their  war-bundle.  Paint-songs  we  are  about  to 
use,  yet  we  are  singing  for  the  war-bundle.  If,  indeed,  we  had  paint 
medicine  we  would  amount  to  something.  We  are  not  going  to  sing 
as  if  we  thought  ourselves  in  possession  of  paint-medicines  nor  will 
we  sing  them  correctly.  Yet  if  we  knew  only  one,  if  we  could  (in 
singing  this  one)  bring  ourselves  to  the  state  of  crying  (it  would  be 
all  right),  it  is  said.     That  is  why  we  say  it."  74     (Paint  song.) 

Host's  third  speech. — "War-bundle  owners  wdio  are  seated  here,  I 
greet  you.  I  know  that  I  am  causing  you  to  famish  with  hunger, 
but  we  are  doing  this  in  an  attempt  to  get  the  attention  (of  the 
spirits).  One  in  control  of  death  who  dwells  in  the  south  75  and  who 
of  himself  possesses  greater  war  power  than  all  the  other  spirits  that 
exist,  blessed  grandfather  Djobena^giwi'^xga.  He  is  in  control  of 
life  and  in  control  of  death.  He  met  grandfather  in  the  middle  of 
the  day  and  blessed  him  with  war  powers  and  life.  He  said  (to  our 
grandfather  when  he  blessed  him),  "If  I  should  ever  go  on  the 
warpath,  your  descendants,  as  many  as  they  are  and  wherever  they 
live,  I  will  not  tread  upon,  should  they  get  sick.76  However,  your 
posterity  never  will  get  sick.     Should  they  ever  have  a  bad  illness, 

73  The  Winnebago  believe  that  the  "bones"  of  the  mythical  "Water-spirits"  possess  the  most  magical 
qualities  when  powdered  and  mixed  up  into  medicines.  All  "paint  medicines"  are  made  of  "Water- 
spirit  bones." 

74  AU  these  sentences  are,  of  course,  expressions  of  ritualistic  modesty. 
7& 1,  e.,  Disease-giver. 

76  Cf.  note  36,  p.  457,  for  explanation  of  these  words. 


476  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

ha^k'e'     howajai'ranirjk'djone'iH.      E'gi      £u'inegi      ua7)kci'go£i'na 
hlrani'nA  I'rawi-avn4ga  tanio'ni^giju'irawigi  hiju'juglxj%." 

"  Hocere£u'wahira  e'xdjj  wa£uje'  wak'a/tcA^k  wagigi'je  eje. 
tTa)jkci'gofi'na  howaja'  cici'k'  eu-ina'n4ga  tani-oniijgI'ju-ira\vigi 
hiju'jugEra  woho'na  tani'na  m^cu'na  cur,ksga'rij§,  teje'nuga 
nCibin^'gicuruxadji-a'n^ga.  "E'gi  hiju'juk  wak'^tc^'k  nirjgi'- 
giwira  h6we£Q'na  ru-a'Tira  c£uwi'n4.  Nabiruxa'djera  hin4  hinagi'- 
giwigi  hiju'jugEra  hocewe£u'wigi.  tJarjkci'go^  howatcehi'ra  hij| 
tcora'ju  wac£u'gi.  Howaja'  cici'k  £Q'n4  jedjai'^xdj  p'a,  hanant- 
cgai'sdjonexn4.  H^k'e'  hawidje'dja.  hij(i  howaja'  cici'k  £u'nik'- 
djonevn4." 

Hocere£u'wahira  ewe'n4.  E  howaja'  cici'k  £u'wahlra  wege 
jesgek'djone'114.  Te'jesge  tcSk'aga'  Dj6benA^giwi')jxga  ngidjirod- 
jai'neje.  Honiha'ra  tc§t£i  djireha'k'djonehaVin4.  Sa'k'erenhjk'- 
djo'gEra  mina>?kca'wa>?gre  niijk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  (Hocere£u'- 
wahi  N|w$.) 

Host's  fourth  speech. — "Sa'k'erenbjkdjc/gera  minaijkca'waqgre 
niijk'Qruhindj  reha'win4.  Hiro-a'gEregi  hak'aral'suntc  djik'djona'- 
win4.  Tcok'aga'  Djoben^giwi'^xga  h^bogu'regi  hok'a'was  mani'- 
na  wax5p'i'ni  wana£j  djok'arak'e'reje.  Tcok'aga'  Djobenqgiwi'- 
rjxga,  p'e'rez  na^gi'ji  tok'e'wehi  iwu's  t£e'k'jje  lianadjodjaj'sge 
wa£uje.  Tcek'dji'nA  hati-a'gin§vtcgi  djoba/hona  ga'dja  hok'a'was 
mani'na  hagu'iregi.  Rok'o'no  gu'ireje  niha'  gu-ireje  higi'  kiridje'- 
reje.  'Uarjkcige'  Iwust£e'  rak'j'ge  n|djonidja'win4.  H§he'  wigai'- 
rera  je'sge  wahadja'win4.  WonA'TJrera  uaqkcigc-Tna  n^djjrora'- 
dJAn4  higai'reje'.  Woruxu'djgadja.  djaguana'cge,  'Te£e  h|he' 
wana'gen4  hl'regi?'  Woruxu'tcgadja.  te  wa'nbjk  xonu'nbjk  hece'- 
pge  wa'iiAjjkce.  Gicdjahe'regi.  Jige  hlral'tcera  n^ntcge'ra  te'kce.' 
"Tcak'o'!  Jegu  tce'kdje!' kireje.  Je'gu  hatia'gin^djera  jige' p'ihi' 
hiwaja'je  je'gu  ha.7jk'e'  wa'rudjenrje.  Hak'e'weha.  nA^ga'dja. 
E'gi  hgbogu'regi  Inihe'ra  hagu'-iregi.  Rok'o'no  hagu'-ireje  niha' 
gu-ireje,     e'gi     hidja'     k'Iridje'reje,    'Uaqkcige'     n(idjonidj$'win4. 


eadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  477 

they  have  the  means  of  obtaining  life  by  praying  for  it,77  by  offering 
tobacco  and  a  flute.78 

"Disease-giver  himself  made  these  things  holy.  Thus  they  would 
obtain  life,  if  they  had  any  illness,  by  offering  you  reed  flutes,  food, 
tobacco,  feathers,  a  white  dog,  and  by  making  you  at  the  same  time 
an  offering  of  buckskin  hides.  (Thus  Disease-giver  spoke  to  our 
grandfather  when  he  blessed  him:)  'A  holy  flute  I  made  for  you,  and 
I  forbade  you  to  blow  upon  it,  yet  you  did  it.  Now,  hereafter,  if  you 
offer  me  a  sufficient  number  of  buckskins,  you  may  blow  upon  it.  A 
different  life  from  that  of  others  will  you  lead,  if  you  do  that.  You 
will  be  able  to  cut  off  (stop)  a  bad  disease  caused  by  someone  else. 
Nor  will  this  one  (who  was  ill)  ever  have  another  disease.' 79 

"Thus  Disease-giver  spoke.  This  is  what  the  one  who  causes 
disease  said.  That  is  how  they  blessed  our  grandfather  Djobena.- 
giwi'^xga.  A  song  I  am  now  about  to  start.  War-bundle  owners 
who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you."     (Disease-giver  song.) 

Host's  fourth  speech. — ' '  War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here, 
I  greet  you.  The  last  (songl  we  will  now  finish.  You  who  are  in  the 
east,  Night  Spirits,  you  also  added  your  blessing  to  the  spirit  bundle 
of  grandfather  DjQbenqgiwi'rjxga.  So  that  he  might  know  (be 
blessed  by)  the  spirits,  grandfather  Djobem\giwi')jxga  starved  and 
thirsted  himself  to  death 80  and  made  himself  pitiable.  At  first  he 
fasted  four  nights  and  the  Night  Spirits  came  to  him;  with  mighty 
sounds  they  came.81  There  they  stood  (and  said),  'Human,  you  have 
thirsted  yourself  to  death  and  we  bless  you  (for  that  reason).  We 
who  speak  are  the  spirits  who  are  called  Night  Spirits.'  They  blessed 
him  with  war  power  and  life,  they  said.  Then  he  looked  and  (said  to 
himself),  T  wonder  whether  these  really  are  the  Night  Spirits  that 
speak.'  So  he  looked  at  them  and  they  were  small  birds  called 
hece'pgeP  They  had  fooled  him.  Then  once  again  was  his  heart 
sore.  'Well!  I  will  die,'  he  thought  (fasting).  So  he  fasted  again 
and  once  again  he  rubbed  on  (the  charcoal).  For  six  nights  he  con- 
tinued to  fast.  And  again  from  the  east  the  Night  Spirits  came. 
They  came  making  a  great  noise  and  they  stood  near  him  (and  said) , 
'Human,  we  bless  you.  You  have  thirsted  yourself  to  death  and 
you  have  made  your  heart  sore.     We  felt  sad  on  your  account.     With 

"  A  rather  curious  expression  used  only  in  elevated  language  and  meaning,  literally,  "to  obtain  with 
the  mouth  " — i.  e.,  either  by  speeches,  prayers,  or  singing.  The  expression  would  hardly  be  permitted  in 
ordinary  Winnebago. 

79  He  does  not  mean  by  offering  flutes,  but  by  playing  on  them.  Reed  flutes  are  generally  contained  in 
the  blessings  of  most  spirits,  but  they  seem  to  be  more  closely  connected  with  the  Disease-giver  and  the 
Buffalo. 

"  This,  I  believe,  is  the  meaning  of  the  last  three  sentences.  They  are  somewhat  obscure,  and  I  do  not 
guarantee  the  correctness  of  the  rendering. 

80  Ritualistic  expression  for  fasting. 

si  All  powerful  spirits  are  supposed  to  approach  with  loud  noises.    This  is  also  characteristic  of  the 
Ojibway  spirits. 
88  English  equivalent  unknown. 


478  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

I'wus  t'e'rak'iijge  nftcge'ra  nlte'gEra.  Nftcge'ra  ni^gitegwl'n^. 
Wona'TJrera  ua^kcigoTna  n§,djirora'dJA.gi,'  hiijgal'renA.  glji'- 
Woruxu'tcce,  'Djagua'h^he'  wanA')?genA.  hirega'dja?'  hireje.  Te 
hqryk'e'  ha.he'  wanl'nA^kce.  K'awl'cge,  tcoxdjl,  ci'k'ok'ok'  jeje'- 
sge  wa/na^kce  gicdja'k'e  wa'najjkce  kl'ji.  E'tcg,  npcge'ra  tek'djl'- 
je,  "Tcak'o!  glji  tcek'dje,'  hireje'  glji.  Hata'gjn|dJEra.  Jjge' 
p'lhj'  hlwa  ja'je.  Hatagina/djena7jk'a  haruwo'gahg,  naqga'dja. 
E'gi  jjge  h(ibogu'regi  ha.he'ra  n|wa.gu'-ireje.  Nlhavgu'-ireje 
higl'  k'Iridje'  regi  wagai'reje,'  Hitcycge',  n§djonidJA/win4.  Hlgy 
k'i'ni  sJI  klra'TagwTn^.  "Oaijkcige'  hi^k'aga'  hija/  n^djwadja'- 
wininA..  W6na'7}rera  uajjkcigoTna  djagu'  gip'j'  ^uijk'dje'a*.',' 
hlgal'reje  giji.  Wonryl'tcce  te, 'Djagua'nacge  hijhe'  wanA/gEnAj' 
hlregl  gadja,.  Te  ha,>?k'e'  h§he'  wanlna/kce.  P'atco  gisge  wi'iEra 
djiinaga  tcap'5xge'ra  ce'pgi.  Jesge  wa'nA.)jkce  dja'nA.ga  waniijk 
clci'geni^gera  k'lji.  Hl'kcakciT-ire  hireje'  Djobenagiwi'r/xga. 
Tcak'o!  Hatagin^'djeregi  je'gn  tce'k'dje'  hereje.  Hatagin§'- 
djera  jige'  p'ihi'  wajaje  je'djuijga  m$cdj§/  akce. 


Tanl'na  n^ba/k'I  hoju'  h^hlo'wak'IrjreMja.  hop'a'hi  n^ji-a'n^ga 
tanl'na  n^bo'ju  edjop'a'hi  tanl'na  waglwa'ha.  n|ba'k'I  n§ji-a'nA.ga 
nfdjok'idja'xdji  akce.  Je'djiiiyga  m&cdja/  n^tcge'ra  tekce  glji. 
K'e'repon$vija.  na_ga'dja.  E'gi  kaguadjl'reje.  tJa^kcige', 
hani^k'oa'djin^.  HironA/gireje  hfbogu'regi  hap'a'hi  howa'ni- 
ak'ararreje;  h^he'  tcmo'gEra  hatci'ndjanAijk'I  e'dja  hanl-a/girevje. 
H§he'  hu^gera  e  hagu'hi  wagjgl'je.  Tcinojjk'Isa'gedja  tclseredji'ja. 
h^bogu'ra  hap'a'hi-a'kce.  E'dja  hani-o'-ik'awrarreje.  H|he' 
dja'n^ga  xete-a'k'I  waj|ruk'o'nono)jk'rji  je'nuijga  tdroixdjl-a/kce. 
Hok'awa'regi  wahlsQ'sgara  si  koc£o'gedja  hip'a'  hlna/p'ogere^je. 
Tcl-a'k'a  wohc/na  p'edjera'  djanaga'k'I  woho'na  godjowai'reje 
hadjaje.  E'gi  tcaha'ra  tclsa'niryk  tcowe'ra  Eunina/je.  E'gi  wagai'reje 
uarykcige'    higuk'I'ni    s£Iarawe'nA. ;    hlgyk'i'ni    n^tcge'ra    nite'kce. 


badin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  479 

war  power  and  life  we  bless  you,'  they  said.  Then  he  looked  at  them. 
'I  wonder  whether  they  really  are  the  Night  Spirits?'  he  thought. 
They  were  not  the  Night  Spirits  who  were  speaking  to  him.  The 
birds  that  spoke  were  the  kaim'cge,  tcoxdji,  and  cj'fc'oifc'ojfc'.83  They 
were  the  ones  that  spoke  and  they  were  the  ones  that  fooled  him. 
Instead  of  feeling  sad  this  time,  however  (he  said),  'I  don't  care 
what  happens;  I  am  willing  to  die  (in  order  to  get  the  blessing),' 
he  thought  to  himself.  Then  he  began  fasting  again.  lie  rubbed 
the  (charcoal)  over  (his  face)  again.  Seven  nights  he  fasted.  And 
once  again  from  the  east  the  Night  Spirits  came  singing.  They  came 
and  stood  (before  him)  and  they  said,  'Nephew,  we  bless  you.  So 
long  have  you  been  sad  and  cried  to  us  piteously  (that  we  will  bless 
you).  No  one  did  we  ever  bless  before.  In  war  and  life  you  shall  do 
just  as  you  wish,'  they  said.  Then  he  looked  again.  'I  wonder 
whether  those  speaking  are  really  the  Night  Spirits?'  he  thought. 
But  they  were  not  the  Night  Spirits.  They  were  the  bluebird, 
g\'sge,Si  and  duck,  and  as  many  of  them  as  there  were,  their  breasts 
were  dark.  As  many  birds  as  there  were,  they  were  bad.  'My,  O  my! 
How  they  abuse  me!'  he  cried.  At  first  Djobena.giwi'7;xga  had 
thought  in  his  fastings  that  just  to  spite  them  he  would  fast  again. 
Now  he  rubbed  (charcoal  on  his  face)  again  and  wept  bitterly.85 
Both  hands  contained  tobacco  and  he  stood  in  the  direction  from 
which  the  Night  Spirits  came  and  weeping,  put  himself  in  the  most 
abject  condition. 

"Now,  indeed,  to  its  very  depths  did  his  heart  ache.  Ten  nights 
did  he  fast.  Finally  they  (the  Night  Spirits')  came  after  him.  'Hu- 
man, I  have  come  after  you.'  He  followed  (the  spirits)  and  they  took 
him  to  the  east;  to  the  site  of  a  Night  Spirit  village  they  took  him. 
The  chief  of  the  Night  Spirits  had  sent  this  one  to  go  after  him.  In 
the  village  was  a  long  lodge  standing  in  the  east.  There  they  took 
him.  As  many  Night  Spirits  as  there  were  in  control  of  powerful 
blessings,  of  that  many  the  lodge  was  full.  When  he  entered  he 
walked  in  white  feathers  up  to  his  knees.86  Many  kettles  and 
much  food  he  saw  stretched  right  across  (the  lodge).  On  the  out- 
side, a  buffalo  hide  stretched  almost  across  the  entire  lodge.  Then 
they  said  to  him,  'Human,  without  giving  up,  long  you  have  suffered; 
your  heart  has,  indeed,  been  sad.     They,  as  many  spirits  as  there  are 

"English  equivalents  for  the  first  two  unknown.    The  last  is  probably  the  robin. 

m  English  equivalent  unknown. 

»  He  wept  bitterly  not  so  much  on  account  of  his  disappointment  as  for  the  purpose  of  bringing  himself 
into  a  state  of  religious  ecstacy .  The  change  of  attitude  from  one  of  spite  to  realization  that  not  in  such  a 
way  were  blessings  from  deities  like  the  Night  Spirits  to  be  obtained  is  very  well  brought  out  here.  It  was  a 
cardinal  tenet  of  the  religion  of  the  devout  shamans  that  your  success  in  obtaining  blessings  was  in  direct 
proportion  to  the  motives  and  intensity  of  feeling  you  brought  to  your  prayer.  To  throw  away  your  life 
through  mere  disappointment  was  deemed  absolutely  unethical,  (a  thought  that)  is  brought  out  quite 
distinctly  in  the  systematic  teachings  given  to  the  young. 

B«  The  lodges  of  the  Night  Spirits  are  supposed  to  be  strewn  with  white  feathers  as  a  sign  of  holiness.  As 
far  as  known  no  symbolism  is  attached  to  it. 


480  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

Ha£e'nine,na  djanlsge'k'djera  td-o'ju-avgere  meje'nuga  han§.'tcj 
h§he'  wa£ua'r;kcAnA.  E'gi  ne  h$he'  wlruk'o'nAiiA.  £uine'n4.- 
Woguzotcl'ra  hacdjaco'iiAjjgre,  te£e  honik£u'-inena.  Woho/na 
djasga'gere  ha^k'aga'  curuc£a'geni);k'djonevn4.  Tcaha'  n|biruxa'- 
djera  djan4ga'cdjare  teje'nuga  tani-o'waxu  rak'ere'ranicek'djon- 
en^.  Hoici'p  djasga'gere  jesga'njhek'djanevnA..  H^he'  tclnc/- 
geregi  woguzotcl'ra  honik£u'-inen4.  WonA'TJrera  djagu'  c£unanac£i 
cnijyk'djone'n^.  E'gi  uaijkcigo£i'na  djadjaj'xdji  p'a.  Tani-6'- 
wax\pna  £una'nihevgi  jedjaj'xdj;  p'a  hoici'p'dji,  tani'na  woho/na 
tcaha'  n|biruxa'djera  macy'  cudjera'  hoici'p'dji  wogu'zotcira 
hacdjare.  E'gi  dji-$'gik'djonevnA.  hoici'p  hlnijygi  p'erez  hiranilic'- 
k'djonehv*.. 

"Tcok'aga'  Djobenqgiwi'jjxga,  te'jesge  hjgal'regi.  E  e'je. 
K'arata'  wahe'k'dJAnaVina  honiha'ra  tc§t£j  waha'wigi.  Sa'niryk' 
h|bogure'rera  tcok'aga'  Djobenagnvi'jyxga  honiha'ra  djasge'xdji 
gik'ere'regi  ha.>?k'e'  jesge'xdji  howeha'winicge  hltco'k'ewahlVira 
ha.7jk'e'  wajine'p'ihrnanije.  Al'rejare.  Honiha'ra  hlja.k'1'ra 
hlrap'e'rezkTcge  7&k  hjbi-^'dje  airera.  Je'sge  wage'  wahek'- 
djona/wigadja..  Sa'k'erenJTjk'dJQ^gEra  mina^kca'wajjgre  nbyk'uru- 
hindj  reha'widjigoV     (H^he'  N§w^.) 

The  Feast 

Host's  speech. — "Sa'k'erenbjk'djo/gera  mlnajykca'waijgre  nb?k'- 
uruhi'tccAa*..  Hij^k'i'ra  waxop'i'nina  waj^gu'zEra  glji  e 
wa7jga£u'nA.  here  nunige'  waj§'gere  e  an§/tc  £u  nunige'  djagii'rija. 
njta'k'atc  hiTjgigi'wige  tani'na  warutc  xo'p'ini  hlrak'I'rutcap 
hagitu'cdja,  rehak'djona'win^.  Djasgl'kiwi-a^ga;  djasge  halcge 
hiryglp'e'rez  hirana'guni  hlnega  hlwecu'nugadja.  A'n^ga,  'Uar/kci'- 
gEra  liijg.  sak'ererera  niiygena/k'I  e'dja  wohQ'djega  wara'djenjTn.^. 
E'gi  jige  sa'nhjk'  hoire'regi  herera'  tani'na  wagigl'  na£I'nisge  rohi'- 
wlk'Isgawi  wajjgaik'a'rabiraVira  jesge'jq.  Warutc  xop'ini  tani'na 
hlraru'tcap  hagitu'cdja.  reha'wira  yoire'regi  wak'a'ndja  kurygera. 
Djasge'  halcge  hbygip'e'rezirana^guni.  Hjnega  hlwa£u'cunyga,dja. 
a'ii4ga.    Jige  sak'ere'ja,  hldja'na^k'I  wohQ'na  e-a'ratc." 


badin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  481 

in  the  lodge,  that  many  talked  of  what  was  to  happen  to  you.  And  I, 
I  am  the  chief  of  the  Night  Spirits.  This  creation-lodge  just  as  you 
see  it  (i.  e.,  with  all  it  contains)  I  give  to  you.87  You  will  never  be 
in  want  of  food.  You  are  to  offer  as  many  buckskins  as  you  see  here 
and  tobacco  for  all  time.  Thus  it  shall  be.  The  "creation-lodge''  of 
the  village  of  the  Night  Spirits  I  give  to  you.  You  can  go  on  as 
many  war  parties  as  you  wish  and  obtain  as  much  life.  As  many 
tobacco  offerings  as  they  (i.  e.,  you  and  your  descendants)  continue 
to  give,  all  the  tobacco,  food,  buckskin  offerings,  red  feathers,  as 
many  as  there  are,  they  will  all  come  to  the  "creation-lodge"  that 
you  see,  and  we  will  accept  them.' 

"Thus  did  they  speak  to  grandfather  Djobena.gjwi'j;xga.  So  he 
said.  We  will  do  this  that  we  may  ask  (blessings)  for  our  relatives 
and  sing  songs.  Even  if  we  do  not  perform  everything  in  just  the 
manner  that  the  spirits  in  the  east  (told)  our  grandfather  Djobena- 
giwi^xga,  we  know  that  our  grandfathers  (the  spirits)  will  not  be 
offended.  So  they  say.  Even  if  you  know  only  one  song,  if  you 
bring  yourself  to  the  point  of  crying  in  your  efforts  (it  will  be  all 
right).  Thus  we  mean  to  say  it.  War-bundle  owners,  who  are 
seated  here,  I  greet  you."     (Night  Spirit  song.) 

The  Feast 

Host's  speech. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet 
you.  Every  spirit  that  the  Creator  created  he  made  for  us,88  but 
whatever  food  he  made  for  us  all  those  things  we  were  to  offer  up  (to 
the  spirits)  together  with  tobacco  and  the  sacred  feast.  What  we  are 
to  do,  what  I  can  do  to  make  these  things  known  to  them,  that  is 
what  we  should  think  of  and  talk  about.  (This  is  what  the  Creator 
said) :  Let  (the  host)  call  upon  a  warrior,  a  young  man  present  at  the 
feast.  For  the  one  who  lives  in  the  west  he  should  make  offerings  of 
tobacco  and  attempt  to  be  like  (the  spirits),  so  that  one  of  our  own 
members  should  be  considered  (by  the  spirits)  as  the  same  as  them- 
selves.89 A  sacred  feast  and  tobacco  together  with  it  we  are  about 
to  offer  to  the  chief  of  the  Thunderbirds  in  the  west.  What  can  I 
do  that  they  might  have  knowledge  of  these  (offerings)  ?  Thus  we 
should  be  thinking,  (the  Creator)  said.  A  war-bundle  owner  who  is 
present  we  should  call  upon  (to  take  charge  of)  a  kettle."  90 

"  The  lodges  of  the  spirits  are  always  called  "creation  lodges"  in  reference  to  the  fact  that  it  was  by  the 
assembled  spirits  in  these  lodges  that  at  the  beginning  of  the  world  everything  was  set  in  order.  The 
principal  "creation  lodge"  was  that  of  Earthmaker,  to  which  thesonlof  adead  individual  wandered  after 
death  and  from  which  he  was  sent  to  the  world  again  if  he  chose  to  take  human  form  once  more. 

M  I.  e.,  that  they  might  give  us  blessings. 

69 1,  e.,  impersonate  the  spirits.  It  will  be  remembered  fcf.  Introduction)  that  each  guest  is  supposed  to 
impersonate  a  spirit. 

M  Host's  speech  ends  here.    What  follows  is  description. 


482  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  axx.  37 

E'gi  jige  wohaj'jtt  sairak'a'rara  K'aradju'  Sep  103  Xetera  higai 
regi  wohai'ja.  hirana/£ij?gi  jige'  hicge  je£e'  niryge'  waratcce. 

E'gi  jige  Hocere£u'wahlra  wohaj'ja.  hagik'ere'regi  jige  je£e'  nbjge' 
wa'ratcce. 

E'gi  jige'  hicge  Kek'u'huhi  hjgai'regi  w5hai'ja  hagik'ere'regi 
e'gi  jige  waratcce'. 

E'gi  jige  h^bawi'ra  woh§/  gik'ere'regi  jige  je£e'  hicge  ua^k 
hidjahi'  waratcce. 

E'gi  jige'  Wirago'cge  Xetera  waha'gik'ereVegi  jige  niijge'  waratcce. 

E'gi  jige  tconi'xdjj  wohana'djira  nlhera  je£e'  wok'e'ra  djana'hi 
hi'regi  lia^gera  hjna  ruse,  je'nuga  hak'itca/k'djege.  E'gi  jjge 
hinu'bera  woh$'  harii'djirera  hicge'sge  k'flruza'n^ga. 

Wap'e'nA^kce  ua^gera  dja'n^ga  wap'ara'djirera. 

E'dja  jige  hicge  han$'tc  wok'e'ra  djan^ga'gi  je'nuga  hina' 
k'uruzire'je.  Han^'tciryxdjj  wasge'ra  wawok'a'raju-iravn4ga, 
wamo7?k'a'rajejeravn4ga.  Woru'djiracAnA.         hap'e'djin.Vgeregi. 

E'gi  jige  djan^ga  tciroju-a'k'a  hota'  ha>jk'e'  wap'a'  rudje'dja  wara- 
djira'ni^gi.  Woki-6'niryge  wawogiju'reje.  E'gi  djan^ga  uaijgera 
hinu'gera  wa£uaijk'I'ji  hang/tciiyxdji  hak'i'tcgus  wasge'ra  wawogi'ju 
hi'regi. 

E'gi  wap'a'  rudje'narjk'a.  tlar^gwa'cocera  wa£ii'na7?kce.  Ha>?- 
k'e'  liajjgwacoce'nina  wok'Io'nij;ge  vawogi'  juhirevje.  Hinygera' 
iiar;k  hajjk'e'  wacoce'nina  wap'a'  rudjenf'k'a.  t)ar;gera'cAnA. 
wap'a'rutc  ruxu'rugEn^kcen^.  Ha^k'e'  hinu'gera  wap'a'rutc 
wagigi'na^kce.  tJaTjgwa'cocera  hota'  wagig5'na>jk'a  gik'jri'regi 
wagik'I'rinaijk'a  hinugwa'tcabEra  hitcujc/wahira  hitcu'-jwahiVa, 
je£e'  wawiro'k'arapuvnun4  ere'na^k'e.  Tci-6'k'isavgedja  wap'a'- 
rutc wak'aragi'nA.  wak'iri'djega.  Hinuwa'tcabEra  hitcujc/wahira 
hinu'k  waja'wahira  hi'nuijk  tci-o'k'isa'gedja  wap'a  rudjena/k'a 
waj$  woito-i'xetexdjij;\  herege'.  Han&'tciijxdji  hirak'i'k'araji  na'- 
kcAn4. 

E'gi  woru'djera  hap'e'  djinagi'regi  han|'tcj  wagigo'iiAjjk'a 
wak'uruhi'ndjerhi-avnaga  weje. 

"  Wasge'ri-owidjeMja  herecunuga/djq  wak'a'ragak'djoniha,- 
win^.  Sa'k'erenirjk'dJQvgera  mina^kca'wa^gre  niijkuruhi'ndj  reha'- 
widjigo."     (Wa'rudj  Ngwa.) 

103 The  "e"  of  keredju  has  became  assimilated  to  the  "a"  of  the  preceding  word. 


badin]  THE    CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE    FEASTS  483 

And  a  war-bundle  owner  for  the  second  kettle  should  be  called 
upon — a  kettle  offered  in  connection  with  him  whom  we  call  Great 
Black  Hawk. 

Then  they  call  for  someone  to  take  charge  of  the  kettle  placed  for 
Disease-giver. 

Then  they  call  for  someone  to  take  charge  of  the  kettle  for  the  spirit 
whom  they  call  South  "Wind. 

Then  they  call  for  someone  to  take  charge  of  the  kettle  for  the  Sun. 

Then  they  also  select  another  man  to  be  in  charge  of  a  kettle  put 
on  for  the  Morning  Star.91 

Then  the  first  one  who  had  been  called  upon  for  a  kettle  takes  as 
many  pieces  of  food  as  there  are  individuals  in  his  band  who  eat  with 
him.  The  second  one  who  had  been  called  upon  also  takes  enough 
pieces  (for  his  band). 

Those  who  are  going  to  eat  the  head  have  to  wait.92 

Then  all  took  enough  pieces  to  suffice  for  their  band. 

Then  they  (the  attendants)  put  the  pieces  of  meat  in  plates  and 
cut  them  up  into  small  portions.  Now  all  are  in  readiness  for  the 
meal.  Only  some  of  those  in  the  lodge  are  called  upon  to  eat  the 
head.  The  plate  of  the  others  is  filled  with  ordinary  cuts  (of  meat). 
As  man}'  men  and  women  as  are  present,  for  that  many  do  they  cut  up 
the  pieces  of  meat  evenly  and  place  them  in  the  plate. 

Only  warriors  are  head  eaters.  Not  to  warriors  do  they  give  com- 
mon pieces.  Women  and  men  who  are  not  warriors  can  not  take 
part  in  this  head  eating.  Only  men  can  take  part  in  the  head  eat- 
ing. They  would  not  permit  women  to  eat  the  head.  However,  those 
of  the  feasters  who  were  warriors  and  had  brought  home  war  tro- 
phies would  speak  a  good  word  for  the  trophy  bearers,  their  sisters, 
their  neices,  and  their  aunts,93  and  these  would  be  allowed  to  sit  in 
the  midst  of  the  head  eaters.  The  sisters  or  the  aunts,  whatever 
women  were  allowed  to  sit  among  the  head  eaters,  considered  it  a 
very  great  honor.     Thus  all  were  encouraged  to  do. 

Now  (the  preparations  being  finished)  all  are  waiting  for  the  meal 
and  the  host  gets  up  and  speaks.94 

"I  greet  you  all.  When  it  (the  meat)  gets  into  the  plate,  then  it 
is  the  time  to  try  to  get  the  spirit's  attention  by  singing.  War- 
bundle  owners,  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you  all."     (Eating  song.1 

01  In  the  first  division  of  the  ritual  seven  kettles  are  prepared;  in  the  second  division,  four. 

93  The  eating  of  the  deer's  head  is  the  greatest  honor  that  one  can  obtain  in  this  ceremony,  and  only  war- 
riors are  permitted  to  take  part  in  it. 

93  When  a  warrior  returned  from  a  successful  war  party  with  the  first  war  honor,  i.  e.,  if  he  had  counted 
coup  first,  he  was  given  a  wampum  necklace,  and  this  he  presented  to  his  oldest  sister  or  to  the  daughters 
of  his  father's  brother  or  mother's  sister  or  to  his  mother's  sister. 

M  This  is  the  continuation  of  his  speech  that  had  been  interrupted  by  the  preparations  for  the  meal 


484  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

The  Fast-Eating  Contest 

Tcek'djl'na  waru'djera  here  k'aroho'gi  e'gi  wagigo'nA^k'a 
hljak'I'ra  hidjai'ra  p'lranajjk'i'gi  hotu'djera  p'jxdji  hotadjii'gera 
aidja'xdjerevxdji  hira'n^ga  warutctco'na  hanf/tciijxdji  rutcop'- 
djine'je.  Ha^k'e'  hoce'rek'  hidja'  wajf/  nlhehl'ranjje  horocdjana'- 
cge  ha^k'e'  nir/ge'  nihehl'ranlje.  Hirucdjg.'xdji  ki'regi  e'gi  wagigo'- 
na>?k'a  ng-ji-a'n^ga  we'je. 

"Sa'kerejjijjkdjo'gera  minarjkca'wajjgre  ni^kuruhi'ndj  reha,'- 
wiiH-  Wanirygik'i'k'aratc  xete'ra  wak'adjal'k'Ik'aVatc  blja/ 
hidja'narjk'I  warudj  sak£u'  haratcec.  Hlj§/  tcok'a'rak'ere  £uxdje 
higeje.  Egi  jige'  mai'djereja.  hundjk'ik'a'radjrja,  je£e  warusa'k£u 
haratcce'  weje.  Wa'nirygik'ik'aVadjera  djam^ga'k'I  je£e'  herera'- 
n4ga  e'gi  mane'girera  djan^ga'k'i  wonVTirera  hak'ik'ue'k. 
Wagi'gi  wa£uk'djone'je,  waniTjgik'ara'djia.  mane'gereja,  kik'i'£u 
wagigik'aroho'nA.  wonA/Tirera  hak'ik'ue'k'  wagigi'  waeuijk'- 
djone'114.  E'gi  hlnu'wb/k'e  klj§/cAnA  k'uruzira'n^ga  waru7a'p 
tcowe'dja  warutc  sak£u'  ik'arohoi'ren^.  Waru'djera  nawa'sge 
xetera'  nup'i'wi  hik'ik'I'naijxdji  woju'-iraiHga  e'dja  wak'are'renA. 
waruj-a'p  tcowe'dja.  Wasge'naryk'a  wak'andjal'k'ik'araMjenAr/k'a 
bija/  tcok'e're  wasge'naijk'a  hlja/  djI-a'minajjgire'nA.,  e'gi  jige 
hjndjik'ik'a'radJEnaijk'a  hij^'  tcok'e're  wasge'djone'djega  hadji- 
a'minAqkce.  E'gi  agl'xdji  k'lk'o'nogireje  bidjo'bik'e.  Wagigo'- 
narjk'a  juju'k'  djlreki-a/n4ga  ng/wa.  djireki'gi.  Warutc  sak£u'na 
kik'idjai'xdji  hanimiiygireje.  Tconi  £uar;ge'dja  xetena'r/k'a  tcebi- 
reki-S'n^ga  Iro'k'aradji'djjrie^e,  e'gi  weje,  "  Ahu'-irasavnar;gre  Ira 
xete'ren^.  Haijk'e'  warudje'dja  wanf'p'ini  waeuna/kcAnA.." 
E'gi  wanaina'nAijk'a  wai'reje  k'e'ni  tcebria'ni  nabo'ju  ruzira'riA.ga 
koho'birera.  Wal'reu^.  MaJ'djere  xete'naijk'a  wa'naijkce, 
"Har/k'e' wogl'zok  lilwanai'nanigaMja.  mana'geregere  Ira  xete'renA. 
£ut|'genar;gere  djasge'xdjiiiArjgre,  hqijk'e'  nir/ge'  ragajenl'najjkcAn^ 
eje?"  HohI'renA.r;k'a  wana'kcAii^.  E'gi  k'Iga'ra  wap'a'warad- 
jireje.     Jemujga'dja.  te£e'. 

"Waru'dj  n$wa.  djlrehi'giwagigoviiAj;k'a  waru'djna  hlk'idjai'xdji 
waru'djera  djlk'erehi're  waru'djenajjk'a  klk'uhe'xdji  xapge'  tcebi' 
na£I'ne  tconi'  tcebi'djegacge  waj$'nij$  berehirana£rne. 


eadinJ  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  485 

The  Fast-Eating  Contest95 

As  soon  as  the  meal  is  about  ready  and  the  host  thinks  that  (the 
food)  in  the  kettle  belonging  to  the  first  guest  is  about  cooked  and 
when  it  is  soft  and  just  right,  then  the  attendants  take  it  and  cut  it 
up.  They  do  not  leave  any  bones  in  it,  nor  do  they  leave  any  of  the 
hard  parts.  When  they  have  prepared  it,  then  the  host  rises  and 
speaks. 

"War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  One  of  the 
great  ones  belonging  to  the  Bird  clan,96  a  member  of  the  Thunderbird 
clan,  has  called  for  a  fast-eating  contest.  One  of  his  followers  will 
represent  them  (i.  e.,  their  clan),  he  has  told  me.  Now  a  member  of 
the  Earth  people,  one  of  the  Bear  clan,  must  be  selected  97  for  the 
fast-eating  contest,  he  said.  As  many  of  the  Bird  clan  people  as 
there  are  present,  they  all  will  try  to  take  from  those  of  the  Earth 
people  present  the  war  honor  (belonging  to  the  fast  eating).  That  is 
why  they  have  it,  so  that  the  Bird  and  the  Earth  clans  may  compete 
for  it,98  that  they  might  take  a  war  honor  from  one  another."  Then 
both  of  the  contestants  took  (the  food)  in  front  of  the  war  bundle, 
and  they  get  ready  for  a  fast-eating  contest.  Two  wooden  bowls  with 
exactly  the  same  amount  of  food  are  placed  in  front  of  the  war 
bundle.  Then  the  Thunderbird  clansman,  with  a  follower  (taking)  a 
plate,  sits  down,  and  afterwards  the  Bear  clansman,  also  with  a  fol- 
lower, sits  down.  Now  they  hold  themselves  in  readiness,  the  four 
of  them.  The  feasters  now  start  playing  on  their  flutes  and  begin 
singing  songs.  The  fast  eaters  (i.  e.,  the  contestants)  start  simul- 
taneously. The  upper  people  (phratry),  the  great  ones,  devour  it 
first  and  shout,  striking  their  mouths.  "Those  with  wings98  have 
large  mouths.  They  can  never  be  beaten  in  eating."  The  defeated 
ones  took  the  meat  in  their  hands  and  ate  it  up  and  gave  the  war 
whoop.  The  leaders  of  the  Earth  people  said,  "We  have  not  been 
beaten  fairly,  for  the  upper  ones  have  greater  mouths,  so  how  could 
they  fail?"  Thus  the  beaten  ones  said.  Then  they  called  for  the 
heads.     That  is  all.100 

As  soon  as  the  host  starts  the  eating  song,101  all  the  guests  began 
to  eat  at  a  moderate  pace,  then  they  try  to  eat  fast  because  they 
believe  that  it  is  an  honor  to  be  the  first  to  have  finished. 

95  This  detailed  account  was  left  out  in  the  general  description  and  inserted  afterwards.  For  that  reason 
there  may  be  a  number  of  unnecessary  repetitions.  I  have  not  tried  to  adjust  this  insert  to  the  text  proper, 
but  have  preferred  to  place  it  just  where  my  informant  desired  it. 

m  This  is  a  rather  unusual  appellation  for  the  upper  phratry. 

97  This  is  the  regular  name  for  the  second  of  the  two  Winnebago  phratries. 

98  This  is  only  one  of  the  ways  in  which  these  two  phratries  compete. 

99  Ritualistic  name  for  the  Bird  clans. 

100  i  believe  it  is  considered  correct  form  to  permit  the  phratry  to  which  the  host  belongs  to  win  in  this 
contest.    Those  who  win  get  the  choicest  pieces  of  the  deer  head. 

ioi  Neither  the  host  nor  any  of  those  who  belong  to  his  band  eat  during  the  feast. 


486  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

"Ge  esge  egi  jige  k'igo'na>;k'a  hlja,  wa£in§/tcicge  higu  djasge'gi 
tcebi'k'dje  jesge'ge.  E'sge  waruc£a'gera  ha.)jk'e'  p'inl'je  hok'Ira'- 
genaijk'e.  E'sge  p'ejege'regi  hajjk'e'  waruc£a'genl  na£I'na>?kce. 
E'gi  jige  han$'tc  woru'dJEra  je'gu  hi'regi  hanf/tc  djagQ'cAnA. 
tudjl'regi  tcebi'xdjinexgi. 

Continuation  op  the  Basic  Ritual 

Speech  of  first  guest. — E'gi  tconi'xdji  wohadjiranihe'nA. 
wa£i'n^p  CAn4  we'114. 

"WaroTl'ra  hok'ik'a/radjera  mI'na)jkcaVa)jgre  nir/k'uruhi'ndj 
reha'widjigo.  Djan4ga  sa'k'ererera  mlna^kca'wa^gre  hanftciijxdj 
niijk'uruhindj  reha'widjigS.  War67l'ra  hok'I'k'ar&Yljera  War07l 
p'anaj'na.xdji  \va£u'wi-avnAg;a  waxSp'i'ni  wara/djirera  hana/cgeni 
gi'k'aratc  mlna/genajjgere.  Ep'jga'dja.  sa'k'ere  hiwatca'bwira 
waxSp'i'ni  glk'ara/djera  te'jesge  hlna/gere.  E  te£e'  uarjkcik 
hlyaha/gwigavdja.  Hota'ji  j e'sge  hlruxu'rugwije  te£e'  ewa£u'inege 
haijk'e'  waijgajedja'ni-ahaijk'aMja.  Waro7i'ra  waxop'i'ni  wara'- 
djirera hljg,k'i'ra  hlraitce'ranAijk'i,  tani'na  woho/na  gigi'rera  e'gi 
tcaha'  ng,biruxa'dj  era.  Te  je'nuga.  Ma.£u'na  uarjgere'ginaijk'I 
woriA'7irera  uaijkcigo£i  gitaira'n4ga.  Djasgehi-a'n^ga  haijk'e' 
wawiqgip'e'res  hiranj'k'djeje  wawirjgi'p'erez  hlregl'ji.  Oajjkci- 
go£j'na  wira'ruxe  waro7l'ra  ha£U)jk'dja'wi;  ua^kcigo£I'ria  hirana/- 
k'ik£j')jxdji  £uinawi'ra  waxop'i'ni  tani'na  gigi'rera.  Waxop'i'ni 
wonaTjkci'wina  dja'n4ga  wak'ik'ara'djwira  ha£v'xdjiwi-a'n4ga. 
Waha'dj  wireconane'cge  p'jga'dj^.  E'gi  uaijkcigo^'na  hirana/ 
k'ik£j\vire  ep'i'n*.  wa£ia'na.pge  waha'nAr;kcAn4.  E'gi  c£agwaha'ra 
hlja.  hltco'k'eniyjk'  hi'regi  waxop'i'nina  har/k'I'jq.  eo'rakcigenljq. 
ai'rera  je£e'  hlrjgiwewi'rege.  Waro7l'ra  wawak'I'k'aradjera  waxop'- 
i'ni honaijkd'  hijjgigi'rera.     Ep'iga'dja.     Wawarogi7i'rera  ma/u'na. 


"Hak'uruhindj  reha'nA.ga.  E'gi  waro7i'ra  wak'urulii'djan^ga; 
e'gi  sa'kereni^kdJQ'gera  tcI-S'ju  mlnaijkca'wajjgre  niijk'uryhi'ndj 
reha-widjigo'." 

"E'gi  hlnu'bra  wohQ'na  radjira'niheVa  wa^'nAbik'aroho^nA. 
we'nV 

Speech  of  second  guest. — Warp7i'ra  wajaniwi'na  mlcana^ga'na^k'a 
nirjk'uruhi'ndj  iehawidjigo'.     E'gi  sak'ereni'^k'djojjgera  higl'  aca'- 


eadin]  THE   CLAN   WAE -BUNDLE   FEASTS  487 

Even  if  a  feaster  gets  satiated,  he  must  continue  to  eat  until  every- 
thing is  finished.  They  tell  one  another  that  it  is  not  good  for  any 
one  to  fail  (and  leave  any  food).  Whatever  food  there  is  they  must 
finish  it  all.     All  that  is  cooked  must  they  eat. 


Continuation  of  the  Basic  Kitual 

Then  the  one  who  was  called  upon  for  the  first  kettle  thanked  them 
and  said: 

Speech  of  first  guest. — "Councilors  102  and  relatives  who  are  seated 
here,  I  greet  you  all.  As  many  war-bundle  owners  as  are  seated 
here,  I  greet  you  all.  The  councilors  of  the  clans  have  enjoined 
upon  us  earnestly  to  offer  up  sincere  prayers  to  all  the  different 
spirits  who  are  seated  here  (in  the  persons  of  the  guests).  It  is  good 
that  our  war-bundle  owners  offer  up  prayers  in  this  way.  It  is 
for  this  reason  that  we  are  still  living.  Some  of  us  can  not  accom- 
plish much  in  that  line  and  that  is  why  so  many  of  us  are  gone 
already  (i.  e.,  are  dead).  This  ritual  was  made  for  one  who  is  the 
very  greatest  of  all  the  spirits,  for  whom  they  have  offered  tobacco 
and  food  and  offerings  of  buckskin.  Thus  they  have  done.  Earth- 
maker,  who  dwells  above,  they  have  asked  for  war  power  and  life. 
Indeed,  how  would  it  be  possible  for  (the  spirits)  not  to  take  cog- 
nizance and  accept  (these  offerings).103  If  we  follow  the  preaching 
(of  our  host),  life  (we  will  obtain);  life  we  will  feel  ourselves  in  con- 
nection with  through  the  holy  food  that  they  (the  host  and  the 
members  of  his  band)  have  offered  up.  We  have  (had  the  honor  too) 
of  impersonating  the  spirits,  I  and  my  relatives.  The  meal  likewise 
was  excellent.  It  is  good  that  they  have  brought  us  in  connection 
with  so  much  life  and  it  is  to  thank  them  that  I  am  saying  this. 
That  one  of  their  ancestors  whom  they  called  grandfather  (and 
whose  place  I  am  taking)  was  not  one  to  speak  foolishly,  it  is  said, 
and  still  his  place  they  thought  of  for  me  (unworthy  as  I  am). 
They  have  given  me  (the  part)  of  a  councilor  of  their  own  clan  and 
(the  privilege)  of  impersonating  a  spirit.  It  is  good.  Earthmaker 
they  have  prayed  to. 

I  greet  him.  To  the  enjoiner  Qiost)  I  send  my  greetings;  to  all 
the  war-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  send  forth  my 
greetings. 

Then  the  second  one  who  was  called  upon  for  a  kettle  gets  ready 
to  thank  them  and  says: 

Speech  of  second  guest. — "  Host  and  relatives,  as  many  as  are  seated 
here,  I  send   forth  my  greetings  to  you.     War-bundle  owners  that 

102  The  word  means,  literally,  "enjoiners"  and  refers  to  the  injunctions  and  instructions  the  elder  people 
give  to  the  young. 

"» I.  e.,  the  offerings  are  so  wonderful  that  the  spirits  would  have  to  be  blind  not  to  see  them.  This 
and  the  following  sentences  are  formulaic  compliments  always  paid  to  the  host  by  the  invited  guests. 


488  THE    WINNEBAGO    TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

iHqk'i  ni/jk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo'.  Wawik'I'k'aradjera  \var071' 
p'onal'nA  wa£uwina'nA.ga  dja'n^ga  hinu'gera  nbyk'djo'  rygeni^gera 
hanf/tciijxdjj  wajjgirop'o'nuhfrawi  wa/una'r/k'adJEi.  Djagu'ija. 
woxe'teje!  Uar;kci'go£'Iaj?gerevCAnA.  woxe'teje?  Waroil'ra  wawak'i'- 
k'aradjera  waxop'i'ni  k'lsge'ja.  honiho'k'irana7jgere  waxop'i'ni 
wana/j'  rusgi'tcgi  djadjo'na  tani-owaxu'na  hjgire'regi  waxop'i'ni 
tani'na  glk'ara'nav?k'i  jedjonai'xdjj  ho£u'nigereVegi.  Howare'ra 
waxop'i'ni  hlnacge'ni  gik'ara'tc  mlna'Tjgira'naga.  WonA'Tirera 
kadjal'regi  s£Ire'dja.  ua'vjgEra  tudj|ra'n4ga  hak'ara'gware.  Wa£u'- 
inegi  howare'ra.  Hop'Iowai'rek'djone^gadja,,  woiiA'TJrera.  Ha- 
gare'ja  hak'idjai'regi  hak'it£a/p  hlk'arokol'regi  e'dja  waxop'i'ni 
waradjlre'ra  wonA'TJre  ruk'o'nonA.  tanl  wawora'giju-avn4ga. 
'Tcok'a'waln'ra  gasge  niijgigi'wicunu^n^  wira'gegiji.'  Howare'ra 
wona'TJre  ruk'o'non^  honI'nir;gihan4k'rcge  harjk'e'  rak'arap'- 
erezei4'k'djonevn4  howare'ra  hak'itffj/biregi.  Wap'ahi-ok'e'ra 
horawe'k'djeiH  hlju'gemana  mana  nyQ'-itajenfsgecge  hljii'g- 
emok'eVa  howawe'k'djenA.    racgu'nixdji  haragl'xebik'djone'n^. 

E'gi  jjge  ua^gerl'jak'Ira  hak'lkue'gire'cge  ni-a/cinicawairjk'- 
djone'iH-  Waxop'i'ni  njta'k'atc  g2gl'ra  p'ina/gi  tani'na  woho'na 
roh|'  tatce'bragi  waxop'i'ni  wara'djirera  e'cAii^  wak'andja'na^gere 
wona'iire  ruk'o'nona'nA.  xete'reje  hahl'  hlsge'xdjj  p'iral'cge. 
Djadjo'na  wak'andja'ra  hagu'-iregi  raJEra  hinip'e'rezirek'djonevn4 
hahl'  wak'andja'ra  hagu'-irecge  raJEra  nina'djiranaga,  "Edjagi 
tani  liirjk'djawi'n4,"  hlniTjgai'regi.  Uar,gena'r,gere  hlj§/  tcek  xete- 
hu'game'jesgehlrak'i'k'arajrrek'djone.  Hotak'I'ra  te  jesgana^k'a'- 
dja.  Te£e  ep'ijjga'dja.  WaroTl  p'onaina  waMjne  dja/n4ga  uar,gera 
gl'ji  je'nuga  hirop'u'nu  wai&unai}k'a'dja.  Wi-oire'regi  hitco'- 
k'ewahTwira  nita'k'adjera  wagigl'rera  tani'na  tcaha'sgera  k'arap'i- 
e'sge  wagirii'cdja.  rehi'rera.  WonaijkcJ  hirjgigi'rera  djan^ga'  hok'- 
ik'ara'djenij;gEra  uaijkci'go£i  uang.djodjai'sge  ha£uaha>2gwi'ra  je'- 
nuga. UaijkeigoTna  hlrana/k'lkT'jxdji.  Waj^gu'zEra  woju'- 
irjgl£u'n4  yak'aragusti-a'naga  tia^kcigoTna  hlrana/k'ik£ivwin4  way- 
anAbwi'na.  Warogjil'rera  sa'niijk  yoire'regi  herera  wak'uruki'- 
ntc  reha'114.     A'iHga  e'gi  waroTi'ra  hok'iwik'a'radJEra  ml'naijkca'- 


BADIN]  THE    CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE    FEASTS  489 

are  here,  I  send  forth  my  greetings  to  you.  Those  of  the  various  clans 
(present)  have  counseled  me  repeatedly  and  all  the  women  and 
children  have  pleaded  in  my  behalf  (with  the  spirits).  What  love 
that  was !  And  what  does  life  consist  of  but  love  ?  The  clan  coun- 
cilor is  repeating  the  songs  (that  were  obtained)  when  the  sacred 
bundle  was  made,  so  that  when  the  time  for  the  tobacco  offering  to 
the  spirits  came,  they  would  have  the  tobacco  that  they  have  kept 
all  this  time  (ready).  Now,  sure  enough,  the  time  has  arrived  and 
they  are  sitting  prepared  to  pray  to  all  the  various  spirits.  Long 
ago  when  they  saw  war  they  cooked  the  man  they  were  to  go  after.104 
That  is  why  they  did  it.  A  good  (prosperous)  warpath  they  will 
surely  have.  When  they  are  actually  in  the  midst  of  their  warpath 
and  are  about  to  rush  for  one  another  (i.  e.,  the  Winnebago  and  his 
enemy),  let  him  pour  tobacco  to  the  various  spirits  who  are  in  con- 
trol of  war.  If  you  say  'Grandfather,  thus  we  used  to  offer  you,' 
although  you  may  not  know  (by  any  word  or  direct  sign)  whether 
those  in  control  of  war  have  answered  you,  (you  will  know  it)  as 
soon  as  the  rush  upon  the  enemy  takes  place  and,  although  you  go 
where  the  bullets  and  arrows  rain  hardest,  you  will  pass  out  of  the 
reach  of  the  bullets  and  will  pass  safely  out  (of  all  danger).  If  the 
people  rush  for  a  man  to  bestow  the  wTar  honors  upon,105  you  will  be 
the  one.  If  you  give  the  sacred  feast  in  the  proper  way,  if  you  burn 
up  much  tobacco  and  food,  then  the  various  spirits,  especially  the 
Thunderbirds,  who  are  in  control  of  the  greatest  war  power,  (will 
bless  you)  for  the  excellent  way  in  which  you  have  (prayed  to  them). 
Whenever  the  Thunderbirds  come  they  will  remember  you;  and 
when  they  come  they  will  even  call  you  by  name  and  say,  'Let  us 
smoke  here.' 108  When  the  young  begin  to  grow  up,  one  of  the  men 
encourages  them.  Only  a  few,  however,  are  like  this.  It  is  good. 
He  (the  host)  has  preached  and  pleaded  for  as  many  men  as  are 
present.  They  (the  host  and  his  band)  have  made  offerings  of  food 
to  our  grandfathers  who  live  in  the  west  (the  Thunderbirds)  and 
pleasing  offerings  of  tobacco  and  buckskin  have  they  sent  out  to  them. 
They  have  permitted  me  to  impersonate  (this  spirit)  and  have  thus 
given  life  to  myself  and  my  unimportant  clansmen,  who  have  been 
living  in  so  lowly  a  condition.  With  real  life  have  we  felt  ourselves 
connected  (through  your  actions).  With  life  have  we  felt  ourselves 
connected  by  means  of  that  vessel  which  the  Creator  gave  me  as  a 

101  Here  the  literal  translation  is  nonsense.  The  real  meaning  is  that  the  spirit  of  the  enemy  they  are  to 
kill  on  the  warpath  is  present  Ln  the  food  offered  up  at  this  feast.  This  is  a  characteristic  Winnebago  con- 
ception. For  another  example,  see  a  version  of  the  origin  myth  of  the  Thunderbird  clan  bundle,  where  the 
hero,  by  drinking  a  certain  liquid,  has  not  only  a  vision  of  the  people  he  is  going  to  kill,  but  even  hears 
their  dying  groans. 

i«  This  refers  to  the  custom  of  running  out  to  greet  the  returning  warriors  in  order  to  conduct  them  into 
the  village  and  bestow  the  war  honors  upon  those  who  have  counted  coup. 

1M  I.  e.,ifa  person  makes  it  a  habit  to  offer  tobacco,  the  spirits  will  say,"  Let  us  stop  at  such  and  such  a 
man's  place  as  we  go  along  and  have  a  smoke." 

1S6823— 22 32 


490  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ass.  37 

wa^k'a  nhjk'uruhi'ntc  reha'win^.     E'gi  sa'k'erera  tci-o'ju  minaTjkca' 
wa^gre  han£,'tcir;xdj!  nirjk' uruhintc  rehawidjigo'. 


Speech  of  third  guest. — E'gi  jige  tani'na  woho'natc  hlara'nihera 
wak'uruhindj  rehl'114.  Wo£i'nobEra  hlral'djige.  Waroil'ra  hok'i'- 
wik'aradjrera  minaijkca'wajjk'a  niijk'uruhi'ndj  reha'win^.  E'gi 
sa'k'ereni'^k'djoijgEra  wona^kci'  ml'na^kcaVa^gre  nijjk'uruhi'ndj 
reha'widjigo.  Epirjga'dj^.  Je'nuga  jesge'cguni  are'cge  aire  te£eje 
waja.  p'onai'narjgadjq.  Hok'I'wik'aradJEra  waro7i'  p'onal'na.  E'gi 
hitco'k'ewaha'yanl'nenA.  hu>jk£u'-ineje  airera.  Hagare'ja.  Ine'k'I 
hjwatcg^'xgi  waxop'i'ni  wa£yA7}gin^bi'k'djegi  hlhana'je?  Hi^gai'- 
rera  hljartcok'ekawTgi  hajjk'e'  waja'nija.  herein'  nunige  ewewl'nege 
waxop'i'ni  honaijkcj'  hir/gigi'rera.  Ep'i^ga/dja.  Djasge'ja.  sa'niijk 
yoire'regi  wonA'iire  hiru'o'nora  wak'a/ndja  hujjgra  hlrak'i'sanijj- 
gEOAj;kce  salrak'a'rara  wo  ha '7  ire  hlruk'o'nonA.  uaijkcigo£j/  hirasa' 
n^djirodjal'negi  waxop'i'ni  hlk'isge'ja  honiko'k'Ira'najjgre  djasge 
hia'-nA.ga  hajjk'e'  wawigi'p'erez  hlranj'kdjeje?  Wawir/gip'erez 
iregi'ji  hicge  wira'tuxe  ha£ur;k'dja'wira.  WSnA'ijkci  hirjgigi'  rawira. 
Ep'iryga'djq.  Howare'ra  hak'Ik£u'wigadja.  wajok'i'^gEra  sto- 
a'k'iwi-a,nA.ga  ua)jkcigo£i'na  hlrana/k'ik£iwnaviwira.  Ep'i^ga'dj^. 
Wawaro'gjiirera  K'eredju'  Sep  Xetega,  hak'uruhi'ndj  reha'n^ga. 
E'gi  war07i'ra  niijk'uruhi'ndj  reha'win^.  Waxop'i'ni  wona^kci'na 
sa'k'ereni^k'djoV/gera  tci-o'ju  mlnajjkca'war/gre  nijk'uruhi'ndj 
rehawidjigo'. 


E'gi  jige  hicge  ua^gidjane'jq,  wohQ'nadjire.ra  wa^I'nAp 
hlk'aroko'nA.  we'n4. 

Speech  of  fourth  guest. — "Sa'k'ereniTjk'djo^gera  mi'narykcaVa^gre 
nijjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'win^.  Waro7l'ra  mlnar/kca'wa^k'a  wa'jani- 
wTiia.  niijk'uruhi'ndj  reha'winA..  E'gi  waja.'  p'onaj'nacgiinije 
hagi'ja.  je'sge  hinuxu'rugadje'je  ua7ygi'ja  waja/  p'j  p'onaj'naxdji 
£u>jga'dja_.       Uar/kcigina'rygere    hotak'I'racge     c£aganA.gixgunega'dja. 


kadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  491 

measure.107  To  those  preached  to,  who  are  in  the  west,  I  send  forth 
my  greetings.  To  the  host  and  those  of  his  clan  who  are  seated 
here,  I  send  forth  my  greetings.  To  all  the  war-bundle  owners  who 
are  seated  within  the  lodge  I  send  forth  my  greetings." 

Speech  of  third  guest. — "To  all  who  possess  tobacco  and  food  do  I 
send  forth  my  greetings.  The  means  for  my  feeling  thankful  has 
come  to  me.108  Councilor  (i.  e.,  host)  and  members  of  his  clan  who 
are  seated  here,  I  send  forth  my  greetings.  And  to  you,  war-bundle 
owners,  who  are  impersonating  (the  spirits)  seated  here,  do  I  send 
forth  my  greetings.  In  my  thoughts  I  used  to  think  that  this  is  the 
wTay  it  was  to  be  done,  they  said,  but  it  has  actually  happened.109 
Thus  did  the  clansmen,  the  councilors,  sit  acting.  This  (place  of 
honor)  belongs  to  their  (the  host's)  grandfather  (i.  e.,  ancestor,  the 
original  impersonator),  yet  they  gave  me  this  position!  If  at  any 
time  a  person  (finding)  me  alone  (had  asked  me)  if  I  wanted  to  offer 
.up  thanks  to  the  spirits  (i.  e.,  take  part  in  this  feast),  how  could  such 
as  I  have  said  anything  ?  They  told  me  that  they  had  thought  of  one 
of  their  ancestors  in  connection  (with  this  feast),  one  who  had  been  of 
no  importance  and  that  I  was  to  impersonate  the  spirits  (in  his 
place).110  It  is  good.  How  could  the  spirits  who  dwell  hi  the  west 
at  the  side  of  the  chief  of  the  Thunderbirds  who  is  in  control  of  war 
power  help  but  recognize  one  who  impersonates  them,  sings  their 
songs,  and  whom,  withal,  they  have  blessed  with  control  of  a  war 
bundle  and  given  life?  And  if  they  recognize  them,  we,  too,  will 
follow  them.111  They  have  given  us  the  place  (of  the  spirits). 
It  is  good.  Most  assuredly  have  I  helped  myself  and  my  relatives 
in  gathering  around  here,  for  we  have  been  brought  in  connection 
wdth  life.  To  those  they  have  preached  to  (who  represent)  the  Big 
Black  Hawk,  do  I  send  forth  my  greetings.  And  to  the  host  and 
the  war-bundle  owners  who  are  impersonating  the  spirits  do  I  send 
forth  my  greetings." 

Then  another  person  whom  they  had  called  upon  for  a  kettle  gets 
ready  to  express  his  thankfulness  and  says: 

Speech  of  fourth  guest. — "War-bundle  owners,  councilors,  relatives 
who  are  seated  here,  I  send  forth  my  greetings  to  you.  This  is  indeed 
a  marvelous  performance  and  he  who  was  able  to  do  it  is  surely  a 
marvelous  man.  Very  few  people  listen  to  the  counsel  of  their 
parents,  but  he  was  one  of  those  who  did,  and  (for  that  reason)  he 

'»'  A  rather  curious  circumlocution  for  stomach. 

ioe  I.  e.,  now  that  it  is  my  turn  to  speak  and  offer  prayers,  I  can  thank  those  who  have  invited  me  and 
the  spirits. 

im  I.  e.,  in  my  fondest  imaginings  I  used  to  think  that  the  ideal  way  to  give  the  feast  was  the  manner  in 
which  I  see  it  given  here.  How  could  I  have  imagined  that  such  a  thing  was  actually  possible.  This  is 
intended  as  a  compliment  to  the  host. 

110  This  is,  of  course,  all  modesty. 

111 1,  e.,  they  will  recognize  us  too. 


492  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ass.  37 

teee'  jesge'ja.  wa£unaijk'a'dj^,  wa'ja.  p'onai'naxdjj  wa^ujjga'dj^. 
Waxop'i'ni  hok'Ik'S'radJEra  hlnacge'ni  gik'ara'tcna7jgre  waxop'i'ni 
k'Isge'ja.  sarusgl'tcgi  wocgo'  hanjgl'  djagu'  egi'ji  e'xdji  hani- 
ogiwa/na^gre.  Ep'i^ga'djawocgo'  eanl'nera  k'arak£u'  wa£unar/k'a'djq. 
Woho/na  glksa'ben^djVxdjj  wona-y^re  riik'o'nona  waglk'e'rererlT- 
nA.ga  tani'na  hlwace'xdji  wag!t£u'biranA.ga  ngbiruxa'dJEra  lilk'- 
Ira'ra  wagI'ju-ira,nA.ga.  Tcaha'sgara  k'arap'i-e'sgehigitc|'  wagiju'- 
ira'n^ga  wak'e'rera  m§cu'  cud j Era  k'arap'i-e'sge  w6nA/7ire  ruk'o'- 
nona. Won^'ijre  hik'arata'  hr'u'na>jgre.  Djasge'  hl-a'naga  ha^k'e' 
waglksa'p  klrani'k'djeje?  Wawiijgip'erezire'gi  wonarjkcl'na  wlra'- 
ruxe  hi£UT)k'dja'wi,  wonA.7Jre'ra  iia/jkcigo£i'na." 


"UajjgEnu'nJguj.  s^Iredjg/xdjj  ng,djirodjai'negi  k'arata'na7jgre 
wok'araik'a|'regi  iiar;kcigo£i'na  p'i£u>jk'dja\vi.  P'edjok'e'reja. 
e'gi  hFuaha'qgwire  iia)jkcigo£I'na  hi£u')jk'djawi  ta  wa/navjk'aYljti 
ha.7)k'e  e'cana  wak'Ik£u'nina7jk'avdja_.  Tcege'dja  uaijgenu'nj^gra 
wal'reje,  "HaTjk'e'  h§ta'gina.tc  curuxu'rugenrnA.  waxop'i'ni  njta'- 
k'atc  gigl'ra  p'i'na  wap'a'hi  k'uruk'a'razre."  Wawik'a'ragarregi. 
Howare'ra  uana'^erega'dja.  Ne  waja'nija_  £uini-a'n4ga  waxop'i'ni 
njta'k'adj  gigi'regi  wona^kci'rjk'djera.  Hirjgi^u'inare  waxop'i'nina 
wara'djirera  hlja^k'I'ra  hiral'tcerana^ka  roh§,bot£e'k'i  biruk'onal'- 
ja..  E'gi  rohl'  saniryk  h^biruk'o'nadjegi  e'gi  h6tee'ruk'ovnaja_  here- 
je.  Tani'na  gigl'rera  woho'na  wani-ol'tcge  hi'sgara  wanioi'tcge 
uajjgl'ja,  tcaha'sgara  mucti'na  tani'na  k'arap'i-e'sgexdjL  Hocere£- 
u'wahira  glrucdj^'  rehi'rare  wonA'7Jre  uar/keigo£i'  hlk'a'rata 
hl£u'inare.  Waxop'i'ni  naijk'e'we  nadjesgevja.  n^piruxa'djeregi. 
Wahena'jjgere  waxop'i'ni  hanqrjxgu'ne  p'ina'r;kci  nunige  wawiwu- 
a'git£ek'djera.  Tcok'aga'  wewpia'nAga  wonA'ijkci  hiijgigl'rera. 
Waxop'i'ni  wara'djirera  ba^k'aga'  raJEra  ho-ini'r;ge  radji'nanis^je 
ai'rera.  Hona^kci'  glgirere  hak'uruhi'ntcgi  raJEra  tajereha'- 
kdjonaVe  ha^k'e'  woi'ya£u  nai'jinik'dje.  Tani'na  gigl'rera  tcok'a' 
Hocere£u'wahira  hak'uruhi'ndj  reha'n^ga.  E'gi  waru7l'ra  niijk'- 
uruhi'ndj  reha'win^.  E'gi  jige  waxop'i'ni  wo'naijkcrna  tcl-6'ju 
mlna7)kca'wa7;gre  nir/k'uruhi'ndj  reka'widjigo. 


Radin]  THE   CLAN   WAE-BTJNDLE   FEASTS  493 

has  done  so  well.  The  members  of  the  clan  have  been  sincerely 
worshiping  the  spirits.  He  who  made  the  war-bundle  ritual  was 
like  a  spirit  in  power  and  what  he  told  them  to  do  they  are  doing  in 
every  detail.  It  is  a  good  work  that  they  are  doing.  Sufficient  food 
they  are  offering  to  those  who  are  in  control  of  war  powers  that  they 
might  easily  be  cognizant  of  it.  They  have  placed  plenty  of  tobacco 
and  different  offerings  of  buckskin  within  their  reach.  A  pleasing 
white  buckskin  they  have  strung  out  and  offered  to  you;  a  pleasing 
red  feather  as  a  hair  ornament  (have  they  also  offered  to  you).  They 
have  offered  these  things,  so  that  they  might  ask  for  war  from  those 
who  are  in  control  of  war.  How,  indeed,  would  it  be  possible  (for 
the  spirits)  not  to  recognize  these  offerings  ?  And  if  they  recognize 
them,  then  we  who  are  impersonating  (the  spirits)  will  also  receive 
the  benefit  of  the  blessings  of  war  and  life  (intended  for  the  host) . 

"Long  ago  our  ancestors  asked  (the  spirits)  to  bless  them  so  that, 
having  been  blessed  with  life,  they  might  live  happily.  Here  we  are 
(sitting  around)  a  fireplace  and  the  life  that  they  (host  and  his  band) 
have  asked  for,  the  spirits  not  only  are  extending  to  them  but  to 
every  one.  In  the  early  times  the  old  men  said,  'You  are  not  able 
to  fast  and  offer  up  proper  food  to  the  spirits  so  as  to  clear  away  the 
weapons  (held)  against  you."12  Thus  they  spoke  to  them  (the  younger 
people).  Just  as  (the  older  people  would  have  liked  it)  so  they  are 
doing.  I,  who  do  not  amount  to  anything,  have  nevertheless  been 
permitted  to  take  the  place  of  a  spirit  to  whom  food  is  offered.  This 
they  have  done  for  me,  (given  me  the  place)  of  that  very  spirit  who  is 
the  very  bravest  of  them  all,  the  one  who  is  in  control  of  the  power 
whereby  one  can  kill  (an  enemy)  outright!  One  side  of  his  body  con- 
trols life  and  the  other  death.  Now  they  are  about  to  offer  him  the 
food  of  a  white  animal,  of  a  male  animal  (i.  e.,  a  dog),  a  white  buckskin, 
feathers,  and  tobacco,  all  objects  that  please  him  very  much.  To 
Disease-giver  they  are  about  to  extend  these  things,  so  that  there- 
with they  may  ask  him  for  war  power  and  life.  It  is  a  fear-inspiring 
spirit  that  they  have  been  making  offerings  to.  I,  who  have  listened 
to  the  spirits  (through  the  host's  kindness),  surely  don't  have  to  say 
anything  in  their  behalf.113  They  thought  of  their  grandfather  when 
they  asked  me  to  impersonate  this  spirit.  Of  all  the  spirits,  his  is  the 
name  that  one  can  not  speak  of  lightly,  it  is  said.  If  I  greet  the 
name  and  speak  about  this  spirit  whom  they  have  asked  me  to 
impersonate,  may  I  not  be  weakened  by  uttering  (his  name).  Those 
who  are  about  to  offer  food  to  you,  grandfather  Disease-giver,  send 
forth  their  greetings.  To  the  host  do  I  send  forth  my  greetings. 
To  the  war-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here  do  I  send  forth  my 
greetings." 

m  By  denying  that  they  can  do  it  he  tries  to  spur  the  young  people  to  redoubled  efforts.    The  weapons 
are  the  obstacles  encountered  in  life. 
118 1,  e.,  this  feast  will  speak  for  them,  more  than  any  words  I  can  utter. 


494  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.ann.37 

E'gi  tia^gl'j^  w5ho'radjire'ra  hicge  je£e'  wo-i'nobra  hlradjl'ge 
nfji-a'n^ga  wak'u'ruhinte  rehl'nA.  we'n^. 

Speech  of  fifth  guest. — "Waro7l'ra  hok'ik'a'radJEra  mlnaTjkca'- 
wa^gera  nirjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'win*..  E'gi  wonaijkci'na  tci-6'ju  mlna- 
r;kca'wa7jgi-e  nijjk'u'ruMndjwi^na.  Ep'I'114.  Ep'i'ni-egl,ji  ha,)?k'e'- 
hosge  wanbjk'dje'ra.  Me£e'cAnA.  ga/djurjga  ua7jkcik£i'yaha7jk'a'dja. 
sak'e'rera  teje'sge  hinarjgre.  ewa£u'-inege.  Te  jedjai'ijxdji  p'a 
hixgjxgi-ahar/k'a'dja.  hotejl  je.'sge  hlnuxu'rukce  sa'kereVa 
waxop'i'ni  tani-6'giju  warup'ina  ewa£u'-inege.  Haj^k'e'  wa7jgage'- 
djani-ahavjjk'adja..  Waroii'  warup'm*.  nir;k'djo'^gEni7jgEra  hlnu'- 
7)gera  uaijkci'k  hiinubi'manina  p'edjok'e'reja.  hujjgiwatca'bwira 
e'gi  k'erena'7jgere.  Httygiwatca'bwira  p'e'djerok'aVak'ajran^ga. 
Haijk'e  e'cAnA.  wak'hVu'nina^k'a'djq.  Te'jesge  hi'na^gre  eje£e' 
hlni-a.ba'ha>jk'adja..  Rek'ii'huhi'ra  rajera  rajerehl'rare  h^biruk'o'- 
110114  e'cAnA..  Xeteje' je'sge  hlp'ere'zirege.  Uar/genu'-ija.  waxop'- 
ini  hlk'isge'ja,  DjCbena^giwi'^xga  hjgai'regi  raJEra  raJEna'^gere. 
Waxop'i'nina  djanaga  p'i'nA.  hangir/xdjiryxdji  wowe'wj  k'lk'ere'- 
regi.  Je£e'  k'aradjira'naga  waxop'i'ni  klk'ara'dJEnarjgre.  Hlsge'xdjj 
wa'nar/k'aMja.  ua^genu'npjgEra  nadjodjai'negi  hlgy'  h$p  te£e' 
ua7jkcigo£i'  je£e'  hl-una'^k'adj^.  Wona'TJrera  djasage'xdjj  n|dji- 
rodjai'negi.  Ha^k'e'  glcdjaTjk'c'  raniga'dja.  K'arata'na^gre  hisge'- 
xdji  wanajjk'a'dja.  wok'araik'ai'recge.  Harjk'e'  hlk'arap'e'rezE- 
ninaijk'aMja.  te'jesge  p'ewl'n^.  Wa£Ia'nA.pcAnA.  won^'TJrera 
uar/kci'g£o'ina  hlrana/k'ik£i  Rek'u'huhira.  Tani-o'giju-ira'n^ga 
tani'na  gigira'n4ga  tcaha/sgara  m^cu'cudJEra  hlrak'i'rutcap 
glwaha'rehfrare.  Tani'na  k'arahi'ijk'djone'gadja.  giji  ua7jkci'- 
go£i'na  hage'dja  wiro'naryk  hi£uj?k'dja'wira.  HSk'I'k'aradJETja^gEra 
waxop'i'ni  honaijkci'  gigl'rawira.  Ha£uwi-a'nA.ga  ua7jkcigi£i  p'{'- 
ryxdji  hi^glgria'wira.  Wa£in4'bwin4.  WaroTi'rera  Rek'u'huhira 
hak'uruhi'ndj  reha'iiA.ga.  E'gi  waroyi'ra  niryk'uruhi'ndj  reha'- 
widjigo.  E'gi  wonA'ijkcina  tci-6'ju  mlnaijkca'wajjgre  nbjk'uruhi'ndj 
reha'widjigo. 


eadin]  THE   CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  495 

Then  another  man  who  has  been  called  upon  for  a  kettle  rises  as 
the  "means  of  blessing"  comes  to  him  and  greeting,  says  to  them.114 

Speech  of  fifth  guest. — "Clan  councilors  who  are  seated  here,  I 
greet  you  all.  You  all  within  this  lodge  who  are  impersonating  the 
spirits,  I  greet  you.  It  is  good.  If  we  say  it  is  good,  we  mean  it.115 
That  we  are  living  116  is  because  they  have  done  this  for  us  (i.  e., 
asked  us  to  participate  in  the  feast).  That  we  have  been  able  to 
move  about  so  long  (i.  e.,  are  still  living)  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the 
war-bundle  owners  knew  how  to  offer  tobacco  to  the  spirits.  It  is 
for  that  reason  likewise  that  we  have  not  been  killed.  Expert  in 
their  preaching  to  the  youths  and  maidens,  our  chiefs  have  also  kept 
the  fireplace  for  us  two-legged  walkers.117  Our  chiefs  have  piled 
more  fuel  upon  the  fire  that  it  may  start  up.118  And  not  for  them- 
selves are  they  doing  this.  What  they  are  doing  is  to  enable  us  to 
obtain  life.  The  name  of  South  Wind  they  have  uttered;  he  who 
alone  is  in  control  of  life.  They  knew  that  he  was  a  great  (spirit). 
An  old  man,  one  who  was  like  a  spirit  (in  his  power),  called 
Djobena.gnvi'?7Xga,  they  are  speaking  of.  As  many  good  spirits  as 
there  are,  that  many  added  their  thoughts  (power).  Of  this  they  are 
reminding  the  spirits  whom  they  are  worshiping.  Sincerely  are  they 
saying  it.  The  life  they  blessed  the  old  man  with,  that  life  they  are 
using.  With  war  powers  they  blessed  him.  They  did  not  fool  him. 
Because  they  have  made  their  requests  sincerely  is  the  reason  that 
(the  spirits)  have  given  them  these  things  in  return.  I  feared  that 
they  might  not  take  cognizance  of  them  (i.  e.,  their  offerings).  How- 
ever, now  I  thank  them  (the  host,  etc.),  for  we  have  been  as  though 
connected  with  war  power  and  life  through  South  Wind.  Tobacco 
they  have  poured  for  him,  and  white  buckskin  and  red  feathers 
have  they  extended  to  him.  He  will  smoke  the  tobacco  and  we  will 
follow  in  the  path  of  life  as  a  consequence.  As  though  we  were  a 
member  of  their  clan  they  have  made  us  by  (permitting  us)  to  imper- 
sonate the  spirits.  What  we  have  done  will  give  us  plenty  of  life  to 
live  on  and  for  this  we  are  indebted  to  them.  We  are  thankful  for  it. 
Those  who  have  been  preached  to,  the  South  Wind  I  greet.  Coun- 
cilor (host),  I  send  forth  my  greetings  to  you.  You  who  are  seated 
here  and  are  impersonating  the  spirits,  to  you  also  do  I  send  forth 
my  greetings." 

in  By  "the  means  of  blessing  "  he  means  the  opportunity  to  speak  and  sing. 

115  Literally,  "It  is  not  for  nothing  that  we  say  this." 

ne  I.  e.,  have  been  blessed  with  life. 

117  The  reference  to  the  fireplace  is  twofold  here.  First  as  host  it  is  incumbent  for  the  owner  of  the 
Thunderbird  clan  bundle  to  take  charge  of  the  fireplaces;  and,  secondly,  it  is  his  duty  to  do  so  because 
fire  is  the  sacred  possession  of  the  clan.    "  Two-legged  walkers  "  is  the  ritualistic  name  for  human  beings. 

119  To  be  taken  figuratively  as  meaning  "blessings,"  since  in  adding  fuel  they  are  cooking  the  sacred  food. 


496  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  as.v.  37 

Hlcge  uajjgl'ja.  wohona'djirera  wo£I'nQbEra  k'ara-e'k'djonevra 
we'114. 

Speech  of  sixth  guest. — "Waroyl'ra  hok'lk'a'radJEra  mlna7)kca'- 
wajjgEre  nir^k'tiruhindj  reha'widjigo.  E'gi  jjge  sa'k'ereni^k'djorjgera 
mina^kca'wa^gre  niijk'uruhindj  reha/widjigo.  Hokl'wik'aradJEra 
waroyi'  p'onai'na  wa£u'inavn4ga.  Tcok'aga'  hagare'ja.  waige'nA. 
Hagare'ja.  iiajjkci'g  aredjiregi'ji.  Waxop'i'ni  tani'na  gigi'regi. 
Wok'e'ra  djanAhi'  m|tca'naijk'i  jena/hi  wak'Qtca'Tjgqge.  Niinige 
wap'al'rasara  hldjohai'negi.  Wap'a'na^k'a  ha^k'e'  wadje'rasa 
je'sgerudjirani'je.  Ha_j?k'e'  wap'a/ra  hinn'gEra  wawigi'ra  e-e'ranije 
al'rera.  Wok'e'  wak'a.tca'7?gEra  hagare'jqna  wap'al'rasara  hljokai'- 
negiji  ua7jkcik  tciicgu'ni  anaga.  Wok'e'  wak'a.tca'ijgera  ni-a'- 
nin|djiregrji  jedjere'riA.  haj?k'e'  wonA.'7ire  rak'i'p'Ini-a'n^ga 
hA^k'e'  waiza'ra  bija/  rak'ik'uruxuVugni-a^n^ga  waxop'i'ni  waj§Lji 
wa£inA'ginf/bge  e'ji  wai'zara  hija/  n§,k'lk'u'^llxu^uk'e,  k'lji 
waxop'i'ni  wa£inA/gin|pgi  waxop'i'ni  wara'djirera  nfiniijxgy'- 
nanana.  Ceagwaha'ra  hi^gal'ra  niinige  egiji  jige  waigai'ren^, 
'Tcok'aniijk,'  weje  ai'rena.  'Waxop'i'ni  wana£i'  rusgitcgi'ji 
iia7jgere'gerera  mane'girera.  I'ra  Irok£ti'-ineje  waxop'i'ni  wai'rege 
woro'ii-odja'djak'dje  hjgai'regi.  I'ra  hlrak'I'ware  hok'ik£iiahu'- 
iregi.'  E'gi  kl-a'ndjwaha'ra  hicge  I'ra  hurjk£u'nege  hirygal'rera. 
Hawa£u'  waxop'i'ni  wa^a'^ginai^k'djege  hihanana'na.  Waxop'ini 
waradjire'ja.  njta'k'atc  glgi'rare,  waxop'i'ni  xete'ja.  gik'ara'- 
djirehrregiji.  Njta'k'atcra  tam'na  warutc  xo'p'ini  tcaha'sgara 
k'arap'i-e'sge  glru'cdja.  rehi'rare.  H§,bitar£utia  h^bik'a'ratafrera. 
Ne  wo'nar^kci^k'djawira  sak'ereganai'xdji-aijge.  Niinige  ne  waja.- 
hare'regi  iia)jkcik£i'.  Uan^djodjai'sge  ha£iiaha'rjg\vira  uar/kci- 
go£j'na  hrran§,'k'Ik£ir;k'dja\vira  howare'ra.  Hlto-a'k'Ik£iryxdjjx- 
winA..  Wlgip'erezeregl'ji  nlcge  liajjkcigoTna  e'dja  ya£uj;k'dja'- 
wira.  Hok'i'wik'araMJEnirykra  hak'ik£u'r^xdji  a'nAga.  Ep'b?- 
ga'dja.  WaroYi'rera  Wlrago'cge  Xe'tera  hak'u'ruhindj  reha'n^ga. 
E'gi    waroyl'ra  hok'i'wik'araMJEra    mlna>?kca'waj?k'a    nbjk'iiruhi'- 


eadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE    FEASTS  497 

Then  another  man  to  whom  a  kettle  has  been  given  gets  readv  to 
express  his  thankfulness  and  says: 

Speech  of  sixth  guest. — "Host  and  members  of  your  clan  who  are 
seated  here,  I  send  forth  my  greetings  to  you.  To  you  also,  war- 
bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  do  I  send  forth  my  greetings. 
The  members  of  this  clan  have  often  preached  to  me.  My  grand- 
father once  told  me  the  following:  'Some  day  there  will  be  a  dearth 
of  people  (for  a  feast).  There  they  will  offer  tobacco  to  the  spirits 
and  as  many  pieces  of  meat  as  they  cut  that  many  will  be  holy. 
There  also  they  will  cook  heads.  Heads  are  not  to  be  eaten  by  those 
wearing  dresses  (i.  e.,  women).  Women  are  not  permitted  to  scatter 
their  food  in  eating,  we  are  told.119  Some  day  if  they  boil  these  holy 
pieces,  the  heads,  they  will  be  in  need  of  people  to  invite  to  the  feast. 
If  they  call  upon  you  for  one  of  the  sacred  pieces,  even  if  at  that  time 
you  had  not  yet  obtained  a  war  honor,  if  you  had  not  counted  coup,120 
still  if  you  offer  up  thanks  to  the  spirits  for  anything;  still  more  so, 
of  course,  if  you  had  been  able  to  count  coup  and  you  thanked  them 
for  all  this,  they  will  listen  to  you.'  121  My  grandfather  told  me, 
'  Thus  they  spoke  to  me/  he  said,  it  is  said,  'Little  grandfather,  the 
spirits  up  above  gave  (your  ancestor)  a  war  bundle  to  those  of  the 
Earth  phratry.  They  gave  them  a  mouth  for  speaking  (in  offering 
thanks),  but  they  told  him  that  it  was  forbidden  to  speak  to  outsiders 
about  this  matter.  They  gave  them  a  mouth  that  they  might  speak 
to  one  another  (i.  e.,  members  of  the  same  clan)'. 

"My  father  gave  the  information  to  me.  For  that  reason,  they 
told  me,  I  am  in  a  position  to  thank  the  spirits.  One  of  the  greatest 
of  the  spirits  they  have  offered  tobacco  to,  to  one  of  the  greatest  of 
the  spirits  they  have  prayed.  Tobacco,  food,  a  sacred  white  buck- 
skin, pleasing  to  their  eyes,  they  have  extended  to  them.  With 
offerings  of  life  122  they  have  asked  for  life.  We  have  been  asked  to 
impersonate  (the  spirits),  even  although  there  are  plenty  of  war- 
bundle  owners.  But  the  host  is  a  relative  of  ours  and  therefore 
wishes  me  to  live.  A  pitiable  existence  we  had  been  living  (until 
they  saw  to  it)  that  we  were  brought  into  connection  with  life.  Proud 
we  are  of  it.  For  if  they  (the  spirits)  accept  their  gifts,  we  also  will 
be  able  to  utilize  the  life  (obtained).  Clan  members,  we  did  as  we 
pleased  here.     It  is  good.     Those  preached  to,  the  Morning  Star, 

n»  In  eating  the  deer  head  and  in  the  fast-eating  contest  the  meat  is  devoured  so  fast  that  the  food  is  liter- 
ally scattered  in  theprocess  ofeating.  Whether  there  is  an  implied  warning  that  a  man  should  not  be  found 
in  the  same  class  as  the  women  I  do  not  know  positively ,  but  it  is  quite  likely . 

120  Literally  /'a  limb."  The  four  coup  counts  are  likened  to  the  four  limbs  of  the  human  body.  As  such 
they  are  always  referred  to. 

ui  The  whole  meaning  of  the  speech  up  to  the  present  is  the  following:  Should  they  in  the  future  want  t° 
give  a  feast  and  lack  of  the  proper  people  cause  them  to  call  upon  you,  even  if  you  had  counted  coup  only 
once,  thespirits  would  listen  to  you.  And  yet  here  I  am  and  haven't  even  counted  coup  once  and  yet  I 
have  the  effrontery  to  expect  them  to  listen  to  me. 

ln  I.  e.,  with  offerings  of  deer  and  dogs. 


498  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ass.  37 

ndjwina.  E'gi  wona^kcl'na  mlnaTjk'ca/wa^gre  rn7)k'urukindj  reka'- 
widjigo. 

tfa^gera  kak'e'we  wakQna'djirera  klro-a'genixdji  klrak'e'wera 
we'n^. 

Speech  of  seventh  guest. — "WaroTi'ra  wajo'k'ina  minaijkca'warjk'a 
nijjk'Qrukindjwi'n^.  E'gi  wajf'nija;  e  tuxu'rugEni  nunige  rokl'ra 
ka^k'e'  wa£i7jk'Inobra'ji  waji'nobfranije  ai'rera.  Je'sge  wage- 
wake'k'djonega'dja.  tTajjkcigoj''       klrak'l'racdja/n4gi      ka^k'e' 

wajjnohl'ranije  ai'rera.  Je'sge  p'e'wbjge.  Hagai'ra  wok'e' 
■vvak'a.tc§/7;gera  klj$  wo'na7jkci  kbjgigl'rera  wa£InAbra'ji  kbjk'- 
Ihab|'xdjiconuvn4.  Ha^k'e'  wonA'ijre  ewagi'gi  tuxa'rugEnj'- 
k'djena.  Nunige  iia)jkcigo£i'na  klrana/k'Ik£i  £uina'wira.  Woiia'- 
7}re  .  ruk'o'non4  xete'ja.  wogikaj'nera  ko'naqkcj  glgl'rawira. 
Ep'kjga'dja.  waxop'i'ni  wa£ir;gI'nAbra  rok'ryl'reja  aira  nunige 
h^birak'I'racdjonA.  rokl'ra  ka-e'kiriA.  je'ji  ka^jk'e'  wajl'nobira'ni 
gadja..  Yara'n^ga  waibeconarjga'dja  wa£iya'n4pdjj.  Nunige 
waja'nija.  e  tuxu'ruk'rji  wiroto'  waha'naje.  Hitco'k'ewakTwira 
kjibanl'kura  kabo'k'aki  hu'djane  Wona'TJre  klruk'o'no  xe'tera 
iiaijkcigo£i'  kiruk'o'naija,  tanl'na  woko/na  k'arap'i-e'sgexdji 
nfbiruxa'dJEra  tcaba'sgara  wak'e'rera  meje'nuga  glrij'cdja.  reki'- 
regi.  WokQ'na  ne  waxop'i'ni  konarjkci'jjk'djera  ki^gai'rera. 
Waeiya'n4pdjiNn4  dja'n^ga  wak'lk'a/radJEnijjgwfnA.  sto-a'k'iwi- 
a'n^ga  k|bital'£una  je'nuganiijk  waxop'i'ni  kona^kci'win^. 
Ep'bjga'dja.-  Wok'e-o'ni7jgeregi  kaitcerare'cge  rok'o'no  iyara'- 
no^gEra  te£e'ji  waxop'i'nina  wajlnuk'onai'ja  wokA/gik'evreregi  ne 
wonaijkci'  glgira'wira  Wa£lya'n4bwin4.  Warogl'Tirera  bak'uru- 
bi'ndj  reka'n^ga.  E'gi  waroTira  wakurukindj  anaga.  Waxopini 
wonarjkcina  tci-oju  mlnajjkca'wa^gre  nkjk'uruki'ndj  reka'win^. 


Te£e'  jegu'kiregi  wa£i'nabra  kan§/tci  ai'regi  egi  koracdjai'ja. 
wagigo'nA^k'a  kicgi-a'ga  naji-a'n4ga  waeio4'pcAn4. 

Terminal  speech  of  host. — "Sa'k'ereni7jk'djorjgera  minarjkca'war/gre 
ni^k'uruki'ndj  reka'winA..  Ep'iijga'dja.  Djagu'xdjinir/k  rii-ii'gu 
wa£uanA/gwira.       Hok'i'wik'aVadJEra      han^'tciijxdji      koglga'ra. 


Radin]  THE   clan   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  499 

I  send  forth  my  greetings.  To  the  host  and  all  the  clansmen  sitting 
with  him,  do  I  send  forth  my  greetings.  To  those  who  are  imperson- 
ating the  spirits  I  also  send  forth  my  greetings." 

Then  the  sixth  one  for  whom  a  kettle  has  been  placed,  the  last  one, 
speaks.123 

Speech  of  seventh  guest. — "Host  and  your  relatives  who  are  seated 
here,  I  greet  you  all.  I  am  not  able  to  say  anything  (i.  e.,  I  don't 
amount  to  anything),  but  I  can  at  least  thank  for  the  body.124  It  is 
no  harm  to  do  so,  we  are  told.125  That  is  what  I  mean  and  why  I  say 
it.  To  speak  of  life  is  surely  no  harm,  we  are  told.128  Thus  I  thought. 
If  ever  I  obtained  the  position  of  one  who  impersonated  (a  spirit)  and 
(partook)  of  a  sacred  piece  of  food,  I  felt  that  I  would  be  beside 
myself  with  thankfulness  and  gratitude.  Not  of  war  power  will 
such  as  I  be  able  to  speak.  In  spite  of  that,  they  have  seen  to  it  that 
I  came  in  connection  with  life.  They  have  permitted  me  to  imper- 
sonate one  of  the  spirits  who  is  among  the  greatest  in  the  control  of 
war  power.  It  is  good  to  thank  the  spirits  and  at  the  same  time  to 
preach  to  one  another,  it  is  said.  To  speak  to  one  another  of  life  and 
of  the  body(?)  certainly  there  is  no  harm  in  it.  Thus  I  thought,  and 
that  is  why  I  am  saying  this.  I  am  very  thankful.  If  I  could  only 
say  something  (that  would  be  of  any  value)  to  the  spirits  I  would  say 
it.  You,  grandfather,  who  come  every  day,  you  who  are  in  control 
of  great  war  power  and  life,  tobacco,  food,  an  offering  of  a  white 
buckskin  pleasing  to  the  spirits,  and  a  head  ornament — that  is 
about  to  be  sent  toward  you.  I  was  to  be  one  of  those  impersonating 
the  spirits  at  the  feast,  they  told  me.  I  am  deeply  grateful  for  the 
honor,  to  all  those  of  the  various  clans  that  are  gathered  together 
here  with  offerings  and  who  are  impersonating  the  spirits.  It  is  good. 
Even  had  I  eaten  a  common  piece  of  meat  I  would  have  considered 
myself  well  repaid,  but  I  have  actually  been  put  in  charge  of  a  spirit 
who  controls  something.  We  are  thankful.  To  those  to  whom  we 
preached  (i.  e.,  the  Sun)  I  send  forth  my  greetings.  To  the  host  I 
send  forth  my  greetings.  To  those  who  are  sitting  in  the  lodge 
impersontaing  the  spirits  I  send  forth  my  greetings." 

When  they  are  through  greeting  each  other,  at  the  end,  the  host 
rises  and  thanks  them,  saying: 

Terminal  speech  of  host. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated 
here,  I  greet  you  all.  What  I  long  for  is  exactly  what  we  have  been 
doing.     All  the  members  of  the  various  clans  have  pleaded  for  us  in 

1:3  This  is  a  mistake  of  the  informant.  It  should  be  the  seventh  one.  He  seems,  however,  not  to  be 
counting  the  person  who  partakes  of  food  offered  to  Earthmaker. 

i«  I.e.,  the  dog  (7). 

1JS  I.e.,  there  is  no  harm  done  if  even  a  worthless  person  like  myself  thanks  for  the  food  of  the  dog,  even 
although  by  doing  this  he  is  actually  taking  part  in  the  feast. 

,afl  I.  e.,  there  is  no  harm  in  obtaining  life  for  one  another  by  delivering  speeches  and  offering  up  prayers 
to  the  spirits. 


500  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

P'bjxdjj  hiijgigl'rawira.  E'p'hjgadj^.  Djagu'xdjj  no-a'gu  wa£ua'- 
n^gwira  han^L'tci^xdjj  p'i'xdjj  ygigai'rawira.  Ep'b/ga'dja.  warogl'- 
gogi  djagii'  rora'gu  wac£u'conQgEra.  Sa'k'erera  dja'n^ga'k'I  hanf- 
tcbjxdjjhujjgjgal'rera.  Ep'irjga'dja.  waJ4'na  xu'rug.  P'J7)xdjj  wahj- 
bira/n^ga.  Ep'1'114  p'iijxdji.  Tcebjnagl'giwjra  haiza'xdjj  tcebwa- 
ira'gigiwira.  C£agwara'wiga  waxop'j'nj  ho!t£et£e'  nfdjwawirodjai' 
riegi  han^'tci^xdjj  wawl'rak'aracawi-avn4ga  waja.'  naxu'rug  p'i'xdjj 
waca/wira.  Ep'I'n4  wa£ya'  nAbwinA.  je'sge  ru-a/gu  waeiia/n4gwi>ra." 
"Sa'kereni^k'djojjgere  minajjkca'waijgre  nirk'uruhi'ndj  reha'- 
wjdjigoV 


SECOND  DIVISION   OF  THE   CEREMONY IN    HONOR   OF  THE    NIGHT 

SPIRITS 

Introductory  remarks. — E'gj  wohQ'na  hlnubQ'hona  hldjowak'ere'- 
regj  warutc4'na,  wohajk'jce'rera.  Hoicibi'regj  e'gj  wohQ'na 
waxop'j'nj  djagu'cAnA.  wagjxu'cdjanehjrek'djane'gi  jeguhi'regi  egj 
wagjgo'n^k'a  taniwogi'jura  eu-jk'ai'oho'gi  taniwaxu'114.     We'je. 

The  Tobacco  Offering 

Offering  to  the  Night  Spirits. — "Tcok'aga'  Djobena^giwi'qxga  n|dj5- 
radj|L'giji  h^bogure'regereVa  h§he'  hurjgera  tci'ja.  wogu'zotcjra 
ha'cinjwijjgiji.  Wak'pca/jjk  rak'aragj-aradje'gj.  Nfdjjrora'djawl'je 
e'ra.  Hagare'jan^  tani-owaxu'114  hiijgi'rewigi  tani'na  hoju'-ija, 
nb}gjp'axu'wj-an4ga.  Won^'vjrera  tcok'aga'  djagu'  gjp'j'  euijk'- 
dje.  N|djirora'djawigi  je£e'  hakarata'win^.  Tcok'a'  hfhe'  hur/gra 
tani'na  te£e'ren4." 

"TcI-ok'Isakonajj'negj  hldje'  nbjgigl'gi  hoici'pdjj.  Wogy'zotci 
wak'atca/Tjk  haci'niwi-evdja  tani'na  wohQ'na  wa'rutc  xop'jni 
hlraru'tcap  wagudje'ra  si'ja.,  te  je'nyga  nirygjtucdjaneha'win^." 

Offering  to  Earth. — "E'gj  Mana  hlk'arok'e'njwiha,  tcok'aga' 
Dj5ben^T)gj\vi'r;xga  nir?gjta'win4  won4'7Jrera  uaj?kcigo-j£na  nbjgjta'- 
win4.  Djadjai'^xdjj  p'&  mlca'naTjk'e  jedjaj'^xdjj  p'a  tani'na 
njta'k'adJEra  wagudje'ra  si'ja  te  je'nyga  k'unjk'a  nbjgjtu'cdja. 
reha'wjn4." 

Tani'na  te£e'rena. 

"Hrtcok'Isa'gEnajTna  e'dja  hldje'  nij)gjglgl'n4  wohQ'na  n|bjruxa'- 
dJEra  wanbjgitu'cdja.  reha'wjre.  Hoici'pdjj  hlrak'a'rap'erez  ranica'- 
k'djonevje  tcok'aga  e'je  ai'rera.  Wak'Ik'a'radjwjra  won4'7Jrera 
uar;kcigQ£j'na  h!rak'-I"Irortca.  wawe'k'djawjx. 


radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  501 

song.  Very  good  have  they  been  to  us.  It  is  good.  This  is  what  I 
have  longed  for,  what  we  have  been  doing  and  all  the  good  they 
have  said  about  us.  It  is  good  when  you  give  a  feast  to  do  just 
what  you  wish.  The  war-bundle  owners,  as  many  as  there  are  here, 
have  spoken  for  me.  It  is  good  to  obtain  something  when  asking  for 
it.  Very  well  have  they  spoken.  It  is  good;  it  is  very  good.  You 
have  eaten  (the  food)  in  my  behalf;  very  carefully  have  you  eaten 
it  up  for  me.  All  the  sacred  speeches  that  they  blessed  him  (our 
grandfather)  with  you  have  repeated  so  that  you  might  obtain  real 
life,  you  said.  It  is  good  and  I  thank  you,  for  we  have  done  here 
exactly  what  I  have  longed  for.  War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated 
here,  I  greet  you." 

SECOND   DIVISION   OP   THE   CEREMONY — IN   HONOR  OF  THE  NIGHT 

SPIRITS 

Introductory  remarks. — Then  the  attendants  get  ready  to  put  on 
the  kettles  for  the  second  feast.  When  they  are  finished  arranging 
the  food  that  is  to  be  turned  over  to  the  spirits  the  host  prepares 
bis  tobacco  and  gets  ready  to  pour  it.     Then  he  speaks  the  following: 

The  Tobacco  Offering 

Offering  to  the  Night  Spirits. — "To  you,  grandfather  Djoben^Tj- 
giwi'^xga,  does  the  council  lodge  of  the  Chief  of  the  Night  Spirits, 
standing  in  the  east,  belong.  Holy  you  have  kept  it.  You  (Chief  of 
the  Night  Spirits)  were  the  one  who  blessed  him  with  it,  he  said. 
When  the  time  comes  for  the  tobacco  pouring  we  will  offer  you  a 
handful  of  tobacco.  War  power  he  liked  to  obtain  by  doing  this. 
With  what  you  blessed  him,  that  we  ask  you  to  give  us  in  return. 
Grandfather,  Chief  of  the  Night  Spirits,  tobacco,  here  it  is. 

' '  Here  in  the  fire  I  shall  place  tobacco  for  you  at  all  times.  Tobacco, 
holy  food,  and  buckskin  for  moccasins,  all  those  things  I  will  send 
to  your  sacred  creation  lodge." 

Offering  to  Earth. — "You  who  are  our  grandmother,  Earth,  you 
blessed  grandfather  Djobena.7)giwi'7;xga  with  life  and  war  powers. 
As  far  as  you  extend,  that  far,  O  grandmother,  do  we  spread  out  for 
you  tobacco  and  food  and  moccasins.  Here  is  the  tobacco.  Here  in 
the  fire  shall  I  place  tobacco;  and  food  and  offerings  of  buckskin 
will  we  send  to  you  at  all  times.  You  will  always  accept  them, 
grandfather  said,  it  is  said,  so  that  our  clansmen  may  travel  in  a 
straight  path  of  war  and  life."  127 

127  That  is,  may  nothing  intervene  to  prevent  them  from  enjoying  all  the  blessings  they  have  received  in 
war  and  life. 


502  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Offering  to  the  Moon. — "  Niijgita/winA,  e'gi  k'u'njk'a.  Hicge 
tcok'aga'  Djobena^giwi'ryxga  wanaTnagik'ereVegi  warage'je 
djadjai'rjxdji  p'a  maiijk'I'dja.  honi^gEra'  djadjal'jjxdji  p'a 
ranice'gi  jedjai'r/xdjj  p'a  tani'na  hojii'-ija.  hirjgiwaxu'-inegi  hoici'- 
pdjj  wa£I'n4p  wagik'i-a'nihek'djonen\4.  Hirak'i'geje  al'rera. 
Tani'na  ga  airedjigo'." 

"Djan^ga  hok'i'wik'aradJEra  uar)kcik£i'  uang,djodjai'sge  ha£u- 
aha/ijgwira  wonA'7Jrera  hlrak'i'roitca.  wawe'kdjawira,  te'jesge 
nijjgita'winA.  njta'kadJEra  wagudje'ra  si'ja.  meje'nuga  nbjgitu'cdja. 
reha'wina.  Tcowe'regi  gagu'  tek'djaniha're  wonA'7}rera  uaijkci- 
goTna  ya£U)?k'djaVi." 

Offering  to  the  Water. — "E'gi  jige  nl'na  hu^ge  roni-ani'winera  tcok'- 
aga' Djobena^giwi'^xga  n^djoradjo/ijgi.     Ga  eredjigo'. 

"Tani'na  tci-ok'isa'k  honajl'negi  nirygip'axu'gjji,  rak'arahi' 
ranice'k'djonexje  hirak'i'geje,  al'rera.  Njta'k'adJEra  wagudje'ra 
sija.  niijgitQ'cdjanihaVin^.  W6nA.'7!rera  ua^kcigo^'na  te£e'- 
niqgita'winA.  hoici'p  hirak'a'rap'erezdane\je  tcok'aga'  era. 
Tcok'aga'  Djobena^giwi'jjxga  hicge  tani-o'waxu  ni^gi'k'erek'djaVi 
hirak'i'geje  al'rera.     Ga  airedjigo'." 

"Tani'na  hoju'-ijajcge  hlrak'a'rap'eresk'e  hirak'i'geje  al'rera 
woho/na  tani'na  hlrasa'  niijgitu'cdja.  reha/winA..  TJaijkcigoTna 
wona'Tirera  wak'I'k'aradjwira  te'jesge  ro-a'go£fna." 

Offering  to  North  Wind. — "E'gi  jige'  waxa.hi'na  tcok'aga' 
warage'je  roh§/bot£e'k'I-eVlja  hi£upI-a'ninA.,  hirek'I'geje  al'rera. 
'Wazi'regi  hohirare  cge  wak  ip  i  na!'  Tcok'aga'  hirage'je  era. 
Wagip'axu'wigi  hbjgire'wigi  hicge  wagip'axu'wigi  nbjgik'e'rek'- 
djawi  hlraki'ge  gljl.     Tani'na  ga  airedjigo." 

"Wota'tconi'na  wonA/7Jrera  uaijkcigc-Tna  te'jesge  niijgita'- 
winA/' 

Offering  to  the  Pigeon-Hawk. — "E'gi  jige  K'irik'iriki'sgera  tani'na 
ga  eredjigo'.  Tcok'aga'  w5nA.'7Jrera  ua^kcigoTna  n^djirora'djorjgr- 
giji  hoici'pdjj  nirjgita'wigi  c£unanice'k'djane  hirak'i'geje  tcok'aga' 
hirak'i'geje  e'je  al'rera." 

Offering  to  Earthmaker. — "M§'£una  tanlna'cAnA.  wagip'a'xuwigi 
tanina'cAnAre'cge.  Eraitce'raje  hiceje'  al'rera.  Tani'na  hoju'-ija. 
wagip'axu'wigi." 

Offering  to  the  Thunderbird. — "E'gi  wakandja'ra  tanina'cAiiA. 
nir;gip'axu'-Icge.  Eraitce'rak'djane'je  hiceje'  al'rera.  Tanina'- 
caiia.  wagip'a'xuwigi." 


badin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  503 

Offering  to  the  Moon. — "This  we  ask,  grandmother,  of  you  also. 
You  added  your  power  to  (the  other  hlessings)  of  grandfather 
Djobena.j?giwi'ijxga  and  you  said  that  as  long  as  the  world  lasts  you 
would  willingly  accept  the  offerings  of  tobacco  that  his  posterity 
extended  to  you.  Thus  you  yourself  said,  we  are  told.  Here  is  the 
tobacco. 

''As  many  of  our  clansmen  as  are  here  living  in  an  abject  condition 
(spiritually),  may  they  all  follow  in  the  direct  path  of  war.  For 
that  we  are  now  extending  to  you  tobacco,  food,  and  moccasins. 
And  may  we  in  the  future  travel  in  the  path  of  war  and  life." 

Offering  to  the  Water. — "You  likewise,  Chief  of  the  Water,  whose 
body  is  water,  blessed  grandfather  Djobenarygiwi'j?xga.  Here  it  is 
(the  tobacco).  If  we  poured  tobacco  into  the  fire,  you  said  you 
would  always  smoke  it,  it  is  said.  Food  and  buckskin  for  moccasins 
we  are  about  to  extend  to  you.  War  powers  and  life,  that  we  ask 
from  you  in  return,  for  you  said  that  you  would  always  accept  (our 
offerings),  we  are  told.  When  you  blessed  grandfather  Djobena^- 
giwi'jjxga  you  said  that  we  should  pour  tobacco  for  you  at  all  times, 
it  is  said.     Here  it  is. 

"You  would  recognize  the  offering  of  tobacco  and  the  tobacco 
with  the  food  that  we  sent  forth  to  you,  you  said,  it  is  said.  We 
desire  war  powers  and  life  for  our  kinsmen." 

Offering  to  North  Wind. — "You  likewise,  Porcupine,128  told  grand- 
father, 'For  killing  an  enemy  outright,  I  am  useful,  it  is  said.  I  am 
even  the  equal  of  the  one  who  blows  from  the  north!'  Thus  you  told 
grandfather,  it  is  said.  When  the  proper  time  has  arrived  we  should 
pour  tobacco.     Tobacco,  here  it  is. 

"Our  first  request  is  for  war  power  and  life." 

Offering  to  the  Pigeon-Hawk. — "Here  is  tobacco  for  you,  too, 
Pigeon-Hawk.  You  blessed  grandfather  with  war  and  life  and  it  is 
said  you  told  him  that  you  would  always  give  him  what  we  asked  of 
you." 

Offering  to  Earthmaker. — "For  Earthmaker,  who  is  the  foremost, 
you  said  we  should  pour  tobacco,  so  for  him  we  (pour)  tobacco.129 
A  handful  of  tobacco  we  are  about  to  offer  to  you  (Earthmaker)." 

Offering  to  the  Thunderbirel. — "To  you,  also,  Thunderbird,  I  am 
about  to  pour  tobacco.  It  will  be  one  of  the  foremost  offerings,  you 
said,  it  is  said.     Tobacco  we  pour  to  you." 

128  Porcupine  is  also  associated  with  the  North  Wind  in  the  first  division  of  the  ceremony. 

129 1,  e.,  we  even  have  the  effrontery  to  offer  him  tobacco  as  if  people  like  ourselves  could  ever  obtain  a 
blessing  from  so  great  a  deity  as  Earthmaker !  The  order  in  winch  the  offerings  to  the  various  spirits  are 
made  is  rather  peculiar,  for  that  to  Earthmaker  should,  I  believe,  come  first.  I  suspect  that  my  informant 
was  probably  in  error  in  the  arrangement  given  above,  a  fact  easily  explained  when  it  is  remembered  that 
he  tried  to  visualize  a  ceremony  he  had  not  given  for  some  time. 


504  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

Offering  to  Big  Black  Hawk. — "E'gi  jige  K'eredju'sep  xetera' 
tani'na  hoju'-ija.  wigip'axuwl'cidjigo  V 

Offering  to  Disease-giver. — "E'gi  jige  Hocere£u'wahira  tcok'a' 
tani'na  h5ju'-ija.  tanina'cAnA.  renijjgigl'n*;." 

Offering  to  South  Wind. — "E'gi  Rek'u'huhira  tcok'a'  tanina'- 
cAnA. wlgip'axu'wigi  tanina'cAnare^cge.  E  hlraitce'ra  raik'aral'p- 
djone  hlceje'  ai'rera." 

Offering  to  the  Sun. — "Tani'na  hidje'  niijgigi'nA,  tcok'a'  h|bani- 
hu'ra.    Tani'na  hoju'-ija.  tanlna'cAiiAxdji*  hidje'  nbjglgl'rL*.." 

Basic  Ritual 

Host's  first  speech. — "Sa'k'ereniVykdjo^gEra  mlnaj)kca'wa7)gre  ni- 
jjk'uruhi'ntc  reha'winA..  Hok'a'was  Mani'na  h5niha'ra  tcok'aga' 
djasge  glk'erere'gi  Tdwoit£e'higa  Hok'a'was  Mani'na  wawi'p'erez 
na£i>jgi'ji.  H§,ta'ginadjavnA.ga  Iwust£e'k'i)?gi  hltco'k'ehiwahiVira 
m^a'k'I  wana^'ijgik'ereVegiji.  Tcok'aga'  TcIwoit£e'higa  we'je, 
niijgi-owadji'ja.  hereje'  hik'Ige'je  h^boguregina'^gEre  h§he' 
hiyuiygi'winA.  e  £unihe'je  egi  jige  sa'nirjk  yoire'regi  wak'a'ndja 
hu>jgra  hlniijkhl'gi  e  ang/tc  hl'je  e'sge  ma/a'k'I  c£agwahi.  Nunige' 
wagi'n|tcgi  p'ihl'  ng,djodjaI'neje.  E'sge  hagare'ja.  t£egljl' 
mf£a'k'I  horak'dje'k'djoneje  e'je  aire'114.  E'sge  honiha'  gu'se 
h|he'  n§,WA.'na  djagu'xdji  egl'ji  je'sge  tuxu'ruik'djawTje. 
Nu'nige  honiha'ra  hlj§'j?k'lra  hlrap'e'resgrcge  ha^k'e'  hjtcge' 
wara'ni^k'djonehi^;  hlja^k'I'ra  hlrap'e'resgi  e'cAnA.  haw  era '-lege 
Tak'jnbEra'gi  hlgu'  ere'nA..  Ha^k'e'  to-j'  waca'nb;k'djonevnA. 
wonA'7Jre  haxl'ri  tia)?kcigo£i'  haxl'ri  wacek'djone'114  ai'reij^. 
Je'sge  wahek'djoneha/wigaMja.. 

Sa'k'ereniv7)k'djoj?gEre  mlna^kca'warjgre  niijk'uruhi'ntc  reha'- 
win^."     (H§,je'  Nfwq..) 

Host's  second  speech. — "Sa'k'ereni^k'djojjgera  mlnaijkca'waijgrc 
nir/k'Qruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  E'gi  hak'aral'sundjwigi  e'gi  hlna^gl'- 
djieerek'djaVira  c£agwara'wiga  honiha'ra  waxop'i'ni  hok'Ira'ra 
djagu'  adji'regi  waworak'a'rak'IcanVk'djg,wira.  Jesge  nijjgita'- 
wiii^.      Hlwacl'nbjgera      tc|t£i'      wahaira'n^ga      e'gi      tacdjg/wigi 


badin]  THE   CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  505 

Offering  to  Big  Black  Hawk. — "To  the  Big  Black  Plawk  we  also 
offer  a  handful  of  tobacco." 

Offering  to  Disease-giver. — "To  you,  grandfather  Disease-giver,  I 
also  send  tobacco." 

Offering  to  South,  Wind. — "To  you,  also,  grandfather  South  Wind, 
I  send  tobacco.     You  would  consider  it  foremost,  you  said,  it  is  said." 

Offering  to  the  Sun. — "Here  I  place  tobacco  for  you,  too,  grandfather 
Sun.     A  handful  of  tobacco  here  I  place  here  for  you." 

Basic  Ritual 

Host's  first  speech. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are  sitting  here,  I 
greet  you.  The  songs  that  the  Night  Spirits  placed  within  the  reach 
of  grandfather  TcIwoitVhiga,130  those  he  tried  to  learn.  He  fasted 
and  thirsted  himself  to  death  for  the  blessings  our  grandfathers  (the 
Night  Spirits)  gave  him  (spread)  over  the  length  of  the  earth.  Our 
grandfather  Tciwoit£e/higa  said  that  he  had  come  from  somewhere  in 
the  east  and  that  a  Night  Spirit  chieftainess  was  his  mother  and  that 
the  son  of  the  chief  of  the  Thunderbirds  was  his  father;  that  his 
parents  lived  beyond  the  confines  of  this  earth.131  When  he  fasted 
to  be  blessed  by  (these  spirits)  over  again,132  they  blessed  him.  If  at 
any  time  he  should  die  he  would  be  able  to  visit  the  earth  again,  he 
said,  it  is  said.133  The  song  he  was  taught,  the  Night  Spirit  song, 
that  we  will  try  to  sing.  Even  if  you  know  only  one  song,  you  will 
not  bore  them  (the  spirits)  with  it;  for  if  you  bring  yourself  to  the 
state  of  weeping  in  your  efforts,  it  will  be  (acceptable).  If  you  do  not 
put  on  any  embellishments  when  you  pray  (literally,  cry)  for  war  and 
life  (it  will  be  acceptable),  it  is  said.     Thus  we  should  say  it. 

"War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you."  (Night 
Spirit  song.) 

Host's  second  speech. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here, 
I  greet  you.  When  we  finish  (our  part  of  the  ceremony),  may  you 
help  us  by  repeating  the  spirit  songs  your  ancestors  gave  you  to  be 
handed  down  (from  one  generation  to  another).  That  we  ask  of  you. 
Now  we  will  start  a  dance  song  and  when  we  are  finished  singing,  our 

i»  Literal  translation,  "  Kills  within  the  lodge." 

la  What  Tciwoit'e/higa  means  by  saying  that  these  spirits  were  his  parents  is  that  he  is  a  reincarnated 
spirit  that  has  chosen  to  be  born  of  human  parents.  Such  claims  were  by  no  means  rare  even  in  late  Winne- 
bago lustory  and  there  is,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  a  powerful  shaman  living  in  Wisconsin  now  who  claims  that 
he  is  the  reincarnated  Hare  ( Wacdjinge'ga). 

»32  Before  coming  to  the  earth  as  a  human  being,  he  had  of  course  been  told  that  he  would  receive  certain 
blessings,  but  nevertheless  he  had  to  fast  for  them  just  as  a  human  being  does.  However,  shamans  who 
obtained  their  powers  in  this  way  were  always  supposed  to  obtain  them  more  easily  than  other  people. 
For  an  illustration  of  this  cf.  the  account  of  a  shaman's  blessing  in  the  "  Reminiscences  of  a  Winnebago 
Indian"  by  myselfin  Amer.  Jour.  Folklore,  XXVI,  1913. 

133  That  is,  become  reincarnated. 

186823—22 33 


506  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  Iran.  ann.  37 

e'gi  hltcok'iwahl'wira  wldja'dja  tcabire'ra  manl'nek'djeVa.  Je'sge 
niijgita'win4.  Sa'k'ereni^k'djo^gEre  mlnar;kca'wa7)gre  nbjk'uruhi'- 
ndj  rehawidjigo'."     (Ng/wa  Hlwad'ra.) 

Hak'  araisu'  ndj  iregi. 

Host's  third  speech,. — "E'gi  sa'k'erenTjjk'djoijgEra  mina>?kca'- 
wa^gre  niijk'uruhi'ndj  reha'winA..  Hok'a'raga  n§,£ini'sge  wa- 
e{iaii4'ijgwira  jedjaj'jjxdji  p'a  je'gu  hldje'  hawi-a'n^ga.  E'gi 
hlranikTk'uruxe'k'djonehaVije.  Hihe'ra  wirora'gEra  manl'- 
nek'djera  je'sge  honi^gl'tawinA..  Sa'k'ereni\jk'djo7?gEra  mlna^kca/- 
waijgre  rnijk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo." 

"E'gi  tcek'dji'na  sa'niijk  hoiratcge'  howa/reje  ne7arupa'rogEra 
warutca'naqk'a  hlja/  wa£uje'  ruha/k'ereje.  Sa/k'ereja.  h5wahlre- 
gina'jjk'I  e'dja  hltce'glgigigi  tcowehl-e'dja  glk'ereje'  p'e7  so/so7ra 
wlro'ragEra  mlna^kca'wa^k'a.     E'gi  tani'na  n^bo'ju  gigi'je." 

Speech  of  first  guest. — "Waro7l'ra  hok'I'k'aradJEra  mlna^kca'- 
wa^gre  nirjkuriihi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  E'gi  hona^kd'na  waxop'i'ni 
tclju  mlnar;kca'\va7)gre  niijk'Gruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  Ep'i^ga'dja. 
Waro7i'ra  hltco'k'ewahTwira  taniwogi'ju  hiijgigl'rare.  Hok'a'was 
Mani'na  hg,bogu'regirera  tcok'aga'  hicge  wanaci'gik'erevreje 
hi'k'igevje  ai'rera.  Hagare'ja.  honiha'ra  tc$t£i'  wagl'gik'djona'- 
wigi  tani'na  hagip'a'xuwrge  hir/k'a/rap'erezf  k'djoneje,  e'je  ai'rera. 
Tani'na  hogu'-ija.  hagip'axu'^k'djonaVe  k'arahi'je  glji.  Hok'I'- 
wik'aradJEra  waro7i'ra  uan§,djodja|'sge  wa£unajjgre  hicge' 
uan§djodjaj'sge  wahana>?k'a'dja  wigip'e'rezira/n^ga,  tani'na  hicge 
hir/gip'e'rezire'gi  wdk'i'djirevja.  hereje  ai'rera  Je'sge  p'ewj-a'n^ga. 
Wirora'gera  tca,tei'  djlreha'k'djonare  waxop'i'ni  naj?xgu'ne  p'lng,'- 
Tjkce  nunige  honiha'ra  djagu'adjl'regi  je'sge  hota'tcg^jjk'djonaVe. 
Hlj§/)jxdji  hlsge'ra  hatuxu'rugan^ga  €\xrjgl']\.  Hitco'k'ewahlVira 
Hok'a'was  Mani'na  woho/na  tani'na  ngblruxa'dJEra  nai^xdji'na 
wawigl'p'erzireje'je.  Hire  wahe'k'djaVinA..  Waro7i'ra  hok'I'- 
wik'aradJEra  mlnarjkca'wa^gre  niijk'Qruhi'ndj  reha'wirL*..  E'gi 
waxop'i'ni  hona7jkcj'na  dja'n^ga  mlna^kca'wa^gre^cge  niijk'uru- 
hi'ndj  reha'widjigo."     (Hgbe'  N$wa..) 


Second    speech    of  first    guest. — "M|£una    hok'arai'cipgi    hldja'- 
gikereVanaijk'a    we'je.      Waro7l'ra    hok'l'wik'aradjera    mina^kca'- 


RADiN]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  507 

grandfather,  the  drum,  will  start  to  walk  (in  your  direction).134  That 
we  ask  of  you  (i.  e.,  to  help  us  also  in  our  dancing).  War-bundle 
owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you."     (Dance  song.) 

When  the  dancing  is  finished  the  host  speaks  again. 

Host's  third  speech. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I 
greet  you.  We  are  now  trying  to  do  our  best  to  attract  (the  spirits' 
attention)  to  what  we  are  doing  and  that  is  why  we  are  placing  (the 
drum)  (in  front  of  the  guests).  What  I  said  about  the  messenger  who 
is  about  to  walk,135  that  I  am  going  to  speak  of  to  you.  War-bundle 
owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you." 

Then  the  attendant  first  moves  the  drum  to  the  left  side,  and  places 
both  the  drum  and  the  rattle  in  front  of  the  war-bundle  owner  who 
is  next  (in  turn).     He  also  places  tobacco  in  his  hand. 

Speech  of  first  guest. — '  'Host  and  his  relatives  who  are  seated  here, 
I  send  my  greetings  to  you.  To  you  who  are  sitting  here  imper- 
sonating the  spirits  I  send  forth  my  greetings  also.  It  is  good.  The 
host  and  our  grandfathers  pour  tobacco  for  me.  Those  in  the  east, 
the  Night  Spirits,  added  their  blessings  also,  grandfather  said,  it  is 
said.  If  at  any  time  we  sang  the  songs  and  poured  tobacco  for 
them  he  would  take  cognizance  thereof,  he  said,  it  is  said.  The 
handful  of  tobacco  we  poured  they  would  smoke.  The  clansmen  and 
councilors  who  are  living  in  as  pitiable  a  condition  as  I  myself  who 
am  speaking  will  be  helped,  should  the  spirits  accept  their  offering, 
just  as  I  will  be  helped  if  they  accept  my  tobacco.  Thus  I  thought. 
The  messenger  that  they  have  caused  to  come  my  way  so  that  the 
spirits  might  hear  my  words,138  I  am  unworthy  of.  What  our 
ancestors  have  handed  down  I  can  merely  guess  at.137  O,  that  it 
were  my  good  fortune  to  say  even  one  thing  (as  they  desire  it) ! 
Would  that  the  Night  Spirits,  our  grandfathers,  would  accept  the 
food  and  the  tobacco  and  the  offerings  of  buckskin!  It  is  with  that 
wish  that  we  say  this.  Host,  members  of  this  clan  who  are  sitting 
here,  I  send  my  greetings  toward  you.  All  who  are  sitting  here 
impersonating  the  spirits,  I  send  my  greetings  toward  you."  (Night 
Spirits'  song.) 

When  the  person  in  charge  of  the  kettle  in  honor  of  Earthmaker  138 
has  finished,  he  says  (again) : 

Second  speech  of  first  guest. — '  'Host,  and  your  clan  who  are  sitting 
here,  I  greet  you.     You  who  are  sitting  here  impersonating  spirits,  I 

1M  I.  e.,  the  drum  will  be  passed  from  one  guest  to  another.  This  constitutes  the  Basic  Ceremony.  Cf. 
Introduction. 

'»  The  drum  is  known  variously  as  "  wldjd'dja,"  the  public  crier,  or  as  "  wiTo'ragEra,"  the  messenger, 
i.e.,  literally,  "  the  one  through  whom  something  is  told."  In  this  second  term  is  included,  however,  not 
only  the  drum  but  also  the  gourds.  The  sound  of  the  drum  and  the  gourds  translates  into  a  language 
intelligible  to  the  spirits  what  the  Indians  are  pleading  for. 

138  I.e.,  the  drum. 

137  I.e.,  my  knowledge  is  so  imperfect  that  I  will  have  to  take  chances  at  saying  the  right  thing. 

13»  This  is  probably  a  mistake  on  the  part  of  the  informant.    It  should  be  Night  Spirit. 


508  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

wa7jk'a  ni^k'uruhi'ndjreha'wjnA^  Waxop'i'ni  hS'na^kciVecge  dja'- 
nA,ga  mlnaijkca'wajjgre  nrqkuruhi'ntc  reha'wjn4.  Waxop'j'ni 
widja'dja  tcabire'ra  manjgigl'rera  te  tconi'xdjj  hamanl'  £ujna'wjra. 
Wajok'I'^gEra  dja'n^ga  hanjwi'114  jc'nyga  nftci'ijxdji  wjro'- 
ragEra  watutcabwl'ra  fiaqkcigoTna  hirana/k'lkeIvwin4.  Woiia'- 
7Jre  glxe'we.  Wa£ub?ga'dja  wiro'ragEra  ma'ni-arjgra  jedjaj'jjxdji  p'a 
hoicahage'.  Wahe'nA..  Waro7l'ra  wak'uruhi'ndjaiiA.ga.  Sa'- 
k'ereni^k'djo^gra  minajjkca'wa^gre  niijk'uruhi'ndj  reha/wjdjjgo." 

"E'gj  te£e'jj  hok'aral'cipan^ga.  E'gj  jige  klcge  hlnube'dja  jige 
uajjgl'ja.  sak'ereja'na^k'j  e'dja  hlnybo/hona  ne7arup'a/rogEra 
e'dja  gik'ere'regj  tanl'na  nfho'ju  gigl'regi.  UagEna'rjk'a  we'je 
rusgi'." 

Speech  of  second  guest. — "  Waro7i'ra  wak'i'wjk'aradJEra  mlnarjkca'- 
wa^k'a  ni^k'uruhi'ndjw-rn^.  E'gi  waxop'j'nj  onarjkci'na  minarjk- 
ca'waijgrecge  nbjk'uruhi'ndjwinA..  Ep'i^ga'dj^.  Sa/k'ere-yatcav- 
bwjra  wa'rutc  uajjgo'kuk^u^-inawi-a^n^ga.  E'gi  jige  wa'rutc 
raji'cge  here  nunjge'  wan^p'l'rjxdjj  wani-ol'tcge  k'arap'I-e'sgexdjj 
rutc  waijgagjgl'rawjra.  E'gj  je£e'  CAnAne'cge  p'irjga'dj^.  E'gi 
waxop'j'ni  wogi'hu  wa£u'nA>?gEra  uarjkcigoTna  ta  wa£u'najjgEra. 
Haj^k'e  e'cAnA  wak'ik£u'njnarjka\lja  tclroi'xdjj  haha'^gwire  te 
ana'tcir?xdji  newa>;ga'wagj  £u'-jnawjge  wa£u'nA7?gEra.  Je'djujjga 
hoLxtc|'r;xdjj  jige  ne'xdjj  taniwogl'ju  warjgagjgi'  rawigaMja. 
Wjro'ragEra  hamanl'  £u-jna'wjra.  Wa£jya'nabwTn4.  Ne  waja'njja. 
£u-jnj-;a'n4ga  tegasge'je  waja/  yara'na^kce.  Tcok'a'  ewewl'negj 
wagl£una'wjgadja..  Tcok'aga'  k|bogure'gi  herera'  Hok'a'was 
Mani'na  honjha'  glgu'zjregivjj.  H$he'  tconl'na  hoxdjan'pdjj 
hagu'naT)kTjj  tanl'na  hldje'  wagl'gjk'djoneVa  honjha'  ra  ha^k'e' 
erewaha'winrcge  n^djor/gjdjaira/wjgj  e  tanl'na  hir;gjhj'nek'dja\vjra 
ha'n^ga.  E'gi  waroil'ra  hokTwik'aradJEra  waxop'j'njna  hln§- 
cge'ni  gjk'ara'tc  mina^kira'n^ga  wawbjgjp'erezire'jeje.  Ya're 
wahek'djonjha'wjgadja,-  WonA/TJre         xirira'         7ak'jbi-§'dje. 

Hagare'ja.  nabjruxa'djeraviHga  waxop'i'ni  widja'dja  tcabjre'ra 
hamanjnl'negi  H^jjk'e'  waj§'  waxdjo'  ho£u'jjo.  hereniijk'djone'114. 
Djagu'  rogu'  wanarjk'e'  warcvyl'ra  hicge  je'sge  haxlrj-a'dje  hbjgaf- 
rera  c£agwaha'ra.  Je'sge  hjhe'wahek'djonegaMja..  Hlgua'na  wiro'- 
ragEra tca.t6!'  djireha'k'djawjra  Waro7l'ra  mlnaijkca/waijk'a 
niijk'uruhi'ndj  reha'win^.  E'gj  sa'k'ereni\?k'djo7)gre  ni7jk'uruhi'ndj 
reha/wjdjjgo." 

Hlrai'sundJEra  wawl£u'  rucdja'jjgj  e'gj  hjwad'ra  djirehl'- 
k'djone'gi  we'je. 

Second  speech  of  second  guest. — "Wa'ro7Jra  hok'Ik'a'radJEra 
minaijkca'wajjgre   nijjk'uruhi'ndj    reha'winA..       E'gi   nbjk'uruhi'ndj 


radin]  THE   CLAN   WAK-BUNDLE   FEASTS  509 

greet  you.  The  messenger  of  the  spirits  (the  drum)  they  have 
caused  to  walk  in  our  path,  first.139  This  drum  has  brought  me  and 
all  my  relatives  who  are  here  in  touch  with  life.  We  have  done  this  in 
order  to  obtain  war  power.  The  messenger  that  has  walked  thus 
far  I  have  annoyed.140  That  is  why  I  am  saying  this.  Host,  I  greet 
you  and  yours.  War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  send 
my  greetings  toward  you." 

When  he  has  finished,  then  for  the  second  time  they  pass  the  drum 
to  another  warrior  and  they  place  tobacco  in  his  hand.  This  man, 
taking  the  tobacco,  speaks  as  follows: 

Speech  of  second  guest. — '  'Host  and  members  of  your  clan  who  are 
seated  here,  I  greet  you.  You  seated  here  who  are  impersonating 
the  spirits,  I  greet  you.  It  is  good.  Food  you  have  given  our  war- 
riors. There  is  plenty  of  ordinary  food,  but  you  hasre  made  us  eat 
nice  food,  of  animals  that  we  like  very  much.141  Even  (common 
food)  would  have  been  good  enough  for  us.  They  are  boiling  food  for 
the  spirits  so  that  they  might  ask  them  for  life.  You  are  not  merely 
doing  this  for  them,  but  you  are  doing  this  for  all  those  people 
who  are  present  in  this  lodge.  You  have  filled  us  full  (of  blessings 
and  honors)  and  you  have  permitted  us  to  pour  tobacco.  You  have 
caused  the  messengers  (the  drum  and  the  rattle)  to  walk  over  to  us. 
We  are  thankful.  Do  I  or  does  anything  I  say  amount  to  anything  ?143 
You  thought  of  your  grandfather  (the  spirit)  and  that  is  why  you 
did  it.  Those  in  the  east,  the  Night  Spirits,  taught  him  songs. 
The  first  nice  evening  that  they  start  the  Night  (songs?),  then  I  will 
offer  tobacco  for  them.  Even  if  we  don't  sing  the  songs  correctly, 
they  (the  spirits)  may  still  take  pity  on  us  and  smoke  our  tobacco. 
The  host  and  the  members  of  his  clan  prayed  earnestly  to  the  spirits 
who  are  sitting  here  that  they  accept  (these  offerings).  It  is  with 
this  thought  (before  me)  that  I  speak  in  this  way.  War  powers  let 
us  cry  for.  'When  they  give  the  feast,  when  they  see  to  it  that  the 
sacred  criers  (i.  e.,  the  drums)  come  to  you,  remember  that  you 
should  not  take  things  lightly  on  that  occasion.  What  the  host 
desires  do  thou  also  pray  for,'  my  ancestors  told  me.  That  is  why  I 
will  say  it.  Now  we  are  about  to  drum.  Host  who  is  sitting  here,  I 
greet  you.     War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you  all." 

When  they  finished  the  terminal  song,  then  he  got  ready  to  start 
the  dancing  song  and  he  said: 

Second  speech  of  second  guest. — "  Host  and  his  relatives  who  are 
seated  here,  I  send  my  greetings  toward  you.     War-bundle  owners 

189  I.e.,  they  have  given  us  the  place  of  honor  so  that  the  drum  will  be  passed  to  us  first. 
"° 1,  e.,  I  have  made  requests  of  the  spirits  by  means  of  the  drums  and  the  rattles. 
1(1  I.e.,  we  have  been  asked  to  eat  the  deer  head. 
14a  Question  implying  a  negative  answer. 


510  THE  WINNEBAGO  TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

reha'winA.  wo'naTjkcina^cge  mlnaj?kca'wa7?gre   niijk'uruhi'dnj    reha'- 
widjigo." 

E'gi  hiwaci'ra  wawl£u'  rucdjo'ijgi  wak'Qruhi'ndj  rehl'je  we'je. 

Third  speech  of  second  guest. — "Waro7i'ra  mlna^kca'wajjk'a  nirjk'- 
uruhi'ndj  reha'widj  igo'.  Ep'i^ga'dja.  Wiro'ragEra  watutca'bwira 
■vronA'Tire  glxe'we  wa£uwl'ra.  E'gi  iiaj;kcigo£i'  glxe'we  wa£uwiga'- 
dja.  Djagu'  rogu'  wa£u'naj;gEra.  Ha^k'e'  waja'nija.  naxu-'ruk 
tuxu'rugEnir;k'djona,  nunige'  higu'  djasge'hagi  he'rek'djone'ge 
jegy'ni^k  djik'e'we-axnA.ga  Wiro'ragEra  jedjaj'jjdji  p'a  hoica/- 
hanAga.  Waro7l'ra  hokTwik'aradJEra  mico'nA7jkcawai}k'av  niryk'- 
uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo\  Sa'k'ereni\kdjo7jgere  minajjkca'warjgre 
nijjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widj  igo." 

E'gi  jjge  ne7arupa'rogEra  ruhak'ere'regj  hltani'hona  tani'na 
hlrasa'  tani'na  harutcf'pgi  we'je. 

First  speechof  third  guest. — "War07l'ra  hok'Ik'a'radJEra  mlna^kca,'- 
warjgre  niijk'uruhjdjwi'nA..  E'gi  waxop'i'ni  wo'najjkcrna  dja/nAga 
tci-o'jumlna^kcawajjgre  nbjk'GruhindjwI'nA..  Ep'I'nA.  waxop'i'ni 
widja'djatcavbirera  mani-a'^gra  horo'k  hamani'  £u'-inera.  Ep'i^ga'- 
dja..  H^bogure'girera  Hok'a'was  Manma  wok'i'ra  huhi'rera 
hltcSk'ewahl'regi  waw5k'a'rahlra.  Huhi'rera  hlcge  Wiro'ragEra 
hamani'  £u'-inera  hltco'k'ewahiVira  honiha'ra  djagu'adjl'regi  hlcge 
wawa'k'arak'Itak'djawivna.  Hltco'k'ehawigrji  h§.he'  wjgal'regi 
honiha'  gik'erere'je  e'ra.  Hagare'ja.  honiha  tc$t£i  wahak'dja'wigi 
tani'na  koju'-jja.  wagip'axu'wigi  k'arahl'nek'djane^n^  hjgai'reje 
e'nA..  Tani'na  Hok'a'was  Manl'na  hldje'  wagigI'k'djonaVi-avnA.ga 
war07l'ra  tanl'waxu  hijjgigi'rawTra  tani'na  hldje'  wagigiwI'nA. 
Hlcge  hl'cAnA.  wajj'djahi  yare'wahek'dja'wije?  Waro7l'ra  tani'na 
woho'na  n(Lbiruxa'dJEra  wawI'gip'erezirejVje.  Yare  wahek'dje. 
WonA/iire  haxlrl'  wahe'k'djawigaMj^.  Waro7l'ra  hok'Ik'a'radJEra 
sa'k'ereni^k'djoijgre  mlnajjkca'waijgre  nbjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widj  igo." 
(H§,he'  Nawa..) 


Second  speech  of  third  guest. — E'gi  hiwaci'ra  jige  wawl'£uk'arah5vgi 
we'je. 

"War07l'ra  hok'I'k'aradJEra  mlnaijkca'wa^k'a  niijk'uruhi'ndj 
reha'widjigo.  E'gi  hona^kcl'nacge  tcl-o'ju  mlna^kca'wa^gre  nirjk'- 
uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  Hlwacl'niijkra  tc§t£i  djlreha'k'djawira. 
Waja'nija,  naxu'rug  p'I£una'7jkce  nunige  ha^k'e'  hlk£i'7jgi  p'inine'dja. 
wahe'k  djonegadja.  Nijjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo."  (Hiwaci'ra 
Nawa..) 

Third  speech  of  third  guest. — E'gi  hiwaci'ra  haisu'ntcgi  we'je. 

"Wiro'ragEra  hamanl'winawiVa  jedjaj'^xdji  p'a  hoicg/  hawi'ii*.. 
E'gi  dja'nAga  hok'Ik'a'radJEra  watuk'o'zwira  hlmajcdjaryk'dja'wira 


radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  511 

who  are  seated  here  impersonating  the  spirits,  I  send  my  greetings 
toward  you." 

When  the  dance  songs  have  been  finished,  then  greeting,  he  says 
as  follows : 

Third  speech  of  second  guest. — '  'Host  who  art  sitting  here,  I  send 
forth  my  greetings  to  you.  It  is  good.  It  is  to  obtain  war  that  we 
accept  the  drum.  It  is  to  gain  life  that  we  are  doing  this.  We  are 
doing  this  because  he  (the  host)  wishes  it.  Nothing  can  be  gained 
by  anything  I  would  say,  but  neverthless,  howsoever  small  its  value 
may  be,  let  us  start  the  drum.  Host  and  members  of  his  clan  who 
are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated 
here,  I  greet  you." 

Then  they  pass  the  drum  to  the  third  person  and  he,  taking  the 
tobacco,  says  as  follows: 

First  speech  of  third  guest. — "Host  and  relatives  who  are  sitting  here, 
I  greet  you.  You  sitting  within  this  lodge  who  are  impersonating  the 
spirits,  I  greet  you.  It  is  good  that  the  drum  of  the  spirits  has  been 
made  to  walk  in  our  direction.  It  is  good.  They  have  sent  us  the 
means  for  imitating  the  Night  Spirits  who  live  in  the  east ;'  for  imper- 
sonating our  grandfathers.  The  drum  which  they  have  caused  to 
walk  in  our  direction,  the  songs  that  they  have  handed  down,  we  will 
also  repeat  them.  Our  grandfathers,  who  are  called  the  Night 
Spirits,  it  is  for  them  that  these  songs  have  been  offered,  he  said.  If 
at  any  time  we  sing  these  songs  and  offer  a  handful  of  tobacco, 
surely  they  will  smoke  the  tobacco,  our  grandfathers  said,  it  is  said. 
Tobacco  we  place  here  for  the  Night  Spirits.  The  tobacco  that  the 
host  has  poured  for  us,  here  we  offer  it.  How  could  I  have  thought 
of  anything  else  to  say  ?  That  the  spirits  may  recognize  the  offerings 
of  the  host,  the  tobacco,  the  food,  and  the  buckskin;  that  is  why  I 
speak.  To  plead  for  war  power  piteously;  that  is  why  we  speak. 
Host,  members  of  his  clan,  war-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here, 
I  greet  you."     (Night  Spirits'  song.) 

Then  when  he  is  about  to  use  the  dance  songs  he  says  as  follows: 

Second  speech  of  third  guest. — "Host  and  members  of  his  clan  who 
are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  You  also  who  are  seated  within  this 
lodge  impersonating  the  spirits,  I  greet  you.  An  insignificant  dance 
song  we  are  about  to  use.  I  know  that  I  am  unable  to  obtain  any- 
thing by  singing.  However,  one  should  not  be  discouraged,  and  that 
is  why  I  am  saying  this.     I  greet  you  all."     (Dance  song.) 

When  the  dance  is  finished  he  speaks  again. 

Third  speech  of  third  guest.—"  We  have  been  annoying  the  messenger 
that  walked  in  our  direction  (the  drum).  As  many  clansmen  as  have 
taken  hold  of  it,  that  many  have  been  strengthened.     Thus  have  we 


512  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

jeje'sge  r5gu.  Widja'djera  watutcabwi'ra  wa£iya'nAbwTra.  Jed- 
jai'rjxdjj  p'a  hoica/  hawi'na.  Waroii'ra  nijjk'Qruhi'ndj  reha'wid- 
jigo.     Wo'najjkd'nacge  hanf/tciijxdji  niijkuruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo. 

The  Throwing  Out  of  the  Buckskins 

Warutco'na  tarn'  hok£u'-inanA.ga  e'gi  warii7a'pk'ere  nljaj'- 
naitceVa  waro7i'ra  warup'i'na^k'I  te£e'  waro7l'ra  warup'I'naijk'e 
e'sge  najji  waxop'i'ni  wara'djirera  hlp'e'reziragenrguni.  Hlral'rege 
waja  naxu'rugEiiA.  hlral'rege  liarygEra  hok'o'nogire^nA.  waxop'i'ni 
hana^xgu'ine  ng,dje'xdjija  wak'atca/gi-acge  jige'  wa£u'naijk'e 
jige'  ua^k'Ik'u'ruxurugrja,  wa£u'na7jk'e  waxop'i'ni  klk'arap'e'- 
rezire^ja.  wa£u'na7)k'e  h§,he'  hlh§te'ja.  wa£u'nar}k'tTni  hlral'rege. 
E'sge  tcaha'  gici'p  gigl'rek'dje'ge.  Neyarupa/rogEra  hldja' 
glk'erere'nA.  tanl'na  nabo'ju  glgl're  we'114. 

Speech  of  prominent  guest. — "Waro7i'ra  hok'Ik'a'radJEra 
mlnar;kca'war/gre  nir;k'uruhindjwi'n4.  Hona^kcl'na  tciro'ju 
mlnaTjkca'waijgre  ni^k'uruhi'ndjrekaVidjigo.  Sa'k'ereniSjk'djojjgere 
mlnar;kca'wa>?gre  mr/k'uruki'ndjrebaVidjigo.  Ep'I'nA.  sa'k'ere 
ahlwatca'bwira  war07l'ra  p'anai'naxdjj  wa£u'ina,nA.ga.  E'gi 
n^djowa'ijgodjaTnawige  tciwaijgo'juiravn4ga  warudj  wajjgok£u'- 
inawi-a'iii-ga.  E'gi  jige  taniwogl'ju  wajjgaglgl'rawi-avn4ga. 
Ep'iijga'dja.  Hbjk'I-5'sge  hlwa'nik'dje  djadjiga  waige'nA.. 
Hagare'ja.  fiarjkci'k  haranl'na-Ira/naga  waxop'i'ni  wagudje'  gici'p 
ni7jgigi'regi,  ha^k'e'  wahehe'  wagi£u'nanije  al'ren^.  Wajfi'nija. 
nlnl-a'n4ga  waxop'i'ni  wagudje'  glci'binijjgigrregi.  Ni^gla'k' 
hitco'k'ewahTwira  ma/ak'i'a.  wawik'I'p'erez  hit£e'  £u'-ineje. 
H^he'ra  naijgiwai'neje  e'gi  hlcge  wak'andja'ra  hok'I'dje  hfhe' 
na^giwai'neje  hagak'I'tcecAiiA  wawigi'wa£a.  mlnagire'je." 

H^he'ra  nawA'na  racdja'^gi  hicgaga'  wak'andja'ra  nawA.'na 
hijai'rygiwa'V  aires£a'je  je'cAiiA.  h^he'ra  wak'andja'ra  hak'icdjek 
h$he'  na^giwal'neje.  Hagare'ja.  uajjkci'k  hirana'ni-inanA^ga 
waxop'i'ni  wagudje'  gici'p  nir^gigi'regi  wana£i'  wagik'ere'xdjj- 
$vdje.  Hqjjk'e'  cgadjeni'cge  waja'nija.  anl-g/dje.  War07l'na>?k'a 
uan§djodjai'sge  wonA.'7ire  haxirl're  hicdjaTjIruxuxuna'^gra. 
t}ar;kcigo£i'  haxl'ri  tanl'na  woho'na  nf,biruxa'dJEra  m§,cu'na 
hak'ara'niwa7a'gEna7>gra.  Uang,dj5dja|'sge  waxop'i'ni  njta'k'adJEra 
ogEm'negi,  sini-6'rahotc  k'lna'n^ga  wawe'k'IinVn^ga.  Najryxdjj 
waja'nija.  gasge  waweje'je!     Hirai'rege  wa£u'nar?gra  har/k'e  e'djahl 


RADiNj  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  513 

annoyed  it.     Host,  I  greet  you.     You  who  are  impersonating  the 
spirits,  all  of  you,  do  I  greet." 


The  Throwing  Out  op  the  Buckskins 

Then  the  attendants  give  that  war-bundle  owner  who  is  regarded 
as  the  foremost,  as  an  expert,  tobacco,  for  it  is  about  time  now  that 
the  various  spirits  should  accept  (the  offerings'). 143  Therefore  they 
select  a  man  who  is  proficient,  one  who  has  very  likely  been  blessed 
by  the  Night  Spirits  and  one  therefore  to  whom  they  are  likely  to 
listen,  a  holy  person,  a  man  who  has  attained  war  honors.  He  is 
likely  to  be  the  best  one  to  make  the  spirits  cognizant  of  the  buckskins. 
So  they  brought  the  drum  for  him  to  his  place,  and  placed  tobacco  in 
his  hand.     Then  he  spoke  as  follows: 

Speech  of  prominent  guest. — "Host  and  members  of  his  clan  who  are 
seated  here,  I  greet  you.  You  seated  in  this  lodge  who  are  imper- 
sonating the  spirits,  I  greet  you.  War-bundle  owners  who  are 
seated  here,  I  greet  you.  It  is  good  that  the  war-bundle  owners 
have  done  so  much  for  the  host.  He  has  brought  us  the  means  of 
blessing  and  caused  us  to  come  into  this  lodge  and  has  fed  us.  He 
has  permitted  us  to  offer  tobacco.  It  is  good.  Not  insincerely 
should  we  speak  on  such  an  occasion,  our  father  told  us.  If  at  any 
time  the  spirits  pay  any  attention  to  a  human  being  and  permit  him 
to  offer  them  moccasins,  rest  assured  that  they  will  not  let  a  weakling 
do  this.  If  you  are  of  any  importance  the  spirits  will  accept  the 
moccasins  you  have  offered  them.  Indeed,  my  son,  our  grandfathers 
on  both  ends  of  the  earth  will  have  knowledge  of  these  offerings,144 
they  told  each  other." 

For  the  Night  Spirits  they  sang  and  alternately  they  would  start 
up  a  song  for  the  Thunderbird  as  they  sat  there. 

After  finishing  a  Night  Spirit  song,  then  they  would  start  up  one 
for  the  Thunderbird,  and  then  they  would  sing  Night  Spirit  songs  and 
Thunderbird  songs  together.  "  If  at  any  time  they  consider  you  a  man 
and  accept  the  moccasins  you  have  offered  them,  use  your  power. 
Above  all,  be  careful  that  you  do  not  say  anything  in  a  frivolous 
manner.  The  host  putting  himself  in  a  pitiable  condition  has  with 
copious  dropping  of  tears  besought  the  spirits  for  war  power.  For 
life  he  has  also  besought  them  and  has  prayed  to  them  with  offerings 
of  tobacco,  food,  buckskins,  and  feathers.  Putting  himself  in  a 
pitiable  condition  he  has  hunted  for  the  spirits,145  weakened  himself 
through  exposure  to  cold,  and  caused  himself  untold  sufferings.  Oh 
that  I  could  have  done  similarly!     It  is  for  this  (these  laudable  rea- 

M3  I.e.,  that  the  buckskins  should  be  placed  where  the  spirits  can  get  them. 

1H  I.e.,  the  Night  Spirits  living  in  the  east  and  the  Thunderbirds  living  in  the  west. 

lw  I.  e.,  hunted  the  deer  that  are  used  at  the  feast  both  for  eating  and  for  the  buckskin  offerings. 


514  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.ann.37 

hlxdjahi'  nawani-g/ndje  wanyyi'ra  tanl'na  hak'ara'ni  7agene7/k'a. 
hicge  taniwogl'ju  ni7)gigl'regi.  Hicge'  h§bitai'£una  hanl'  Taga'dje 
warpTl'ra  djasga'naijk'a.  Hicge'  jesga'dje  wajok'Idjire'ja  herege'- 
djini  uajjgenu'iiATjgEra  tcege'dja  re'dja,  tiadji'rena  k'Idjire'  £uina'- 
n^ga.  Waja'nija.  £u-ine'ga  hasto'  £u-ine'ga  nuxu'rugires£avje.  Ge 
je'sge  bl-adji'reje  tcege'dja  waxop'i'ni  k'isge  ua7}kcik£i'negirevcge. 
Tanl'na  hak'arani  Yagire'je  djadjl'ga  hiqge'r.*..  HSk'a'was  Manl'na 
tanl'na  hidje'  wagigl'k'djonege.  Ni^k'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo. 
(Hahe'  Nawa.  hiral'suntc.) 


Speech  of  host. — E'gi  te£e'ji  hlral'sundjera  hok'araiciba'iHga  e'gi 
hiwaci'ra  wik£u'j)k'djanevgi. 

"Sa'k'ereniv7jk'djo7)gera  hok'Ik'a'radJEra  minaijkca'wangre 
nijjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  Hlwaci'ra  hi£u-inek'djona're  e'dja 
hltco'k'ewahTwira  wagudje'ni^k  wagitu'cdja.  reha'k'djonikaVira. 
E'gi  ua7)gErowaI're  wak'a'raglk  djanihawln^.  Hosge  je£e'  wak'a'- 
rak'  reha'ge  wahe'nA..  Sa'k'ereni^k'djojjgEre  h5k'Ik'a'radJEra 
mlna7jkca'wa7jgre  niijk'Qruhi'ndj  rehawidjigo." 

Uajjkxete'na7)k'a  ng,wa.  hlwaci'ra  djlrehl'gi.  Wagiga'ra  tcaha' 
n^biruxa'dJEra  wak'urucibira'n^ga  han|'tcj  hlja^k'I'cAnA.  tcaha'- 
naijk'a  hanl'  wad'reje  tciro'gigir/x  djobo'ha.  hogigi'ryx  hlrek'djone'gi. 
Warutcteo'na  klj§.  tcowe'dja  wdta'p'onA.  hanl'wanije  egi  jige 
wagixo'nonA.  hlja/  hage'dja  wazip'a'rasge  hota'p'ona  wagigi'  manlje. 
E'gi  tanl'na  hogigi'TJra'n^ga  hok'I'rire'dja.  jige  hiro-a'gEra 
hogigi'r/x  hldjobo'hoiia  haral'rek'dja'negi  tcaha'  n§biruxa'dJEra 
tcowe'xdji  e'dja  hanl'  mani'na^k'a  M|£u'na  tcaha'  nabirnxa'- 
dJEra  glrucdj^'  nehiVega  je£e'  wagal'reje  hana/txbjxdjj 
nir;k'dJQr;gEnir)gra'cge  hlk'I-o'wire  n(LbErota'p'onA.  hiwi-a/n^ga. 
Hlk'i-o'wire  je'sge  hl'reje  hlro-a'gedja  han§'tcb;xdji  higu' 
p'ejegere'ra  hang/tci^xdji  hik'i-ol'reje  Ma/u'na  tcaha'naijk'a 
k'urusgl'  es£ini-§'birek'djevge  e'sge  hik'I-oi'reje  e  wa£u'na7)kcAiiA. 

Hidjobo'hQna  hohu'-iredja  hagi'regi  tcaha'ra  e'dja  wowap'a'rok 
hlra'n^ga  tclrahe'dja  howal're  wahl'ren4.  Tanl'na  ng.b£a'k'I 
n^bErore'xdji  wani'  wa£u'-iriegi  tanl'na  p'edje'dja  wowaxu'-ineje. 
E'gi  hana'tci^xdji  wagiga'ra  tcaha'ra  wak'a'rani  tdrowa'gir/X 
wak'a'raninav7jk'a  e'gi  k'lga'ra  dja'n^ga  tclroju-a'k'a  nir;k'djo?7gE 
nirygEre'cge  hl'nurjgEra  iiar/gera'  hana'tcj^xdji  nAJi-a/nA.ga  wacl'- 
reje homl'nAr/gEra  wo'na7)k'arajina'n4ga  waeire'nA..  Je£e'ji  jegua'- 
nA.ga. 

E'gi  jjge  k'eni  tcaha'ra  uar/gerowai'rewahTrani  waireconu'nA. 
ha7jk'I'js\  n^wi'nine  h|he'  c£akra'  h^bidja'n^ga  hagu'narykcAiiA. 
hlj§/  hlsagua/nik'ererawl-evge  luujk'e'   hlja.'   hahe'   c£a'k'   hisagua.'- 


Radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  515 

sons')  that  they  (the  host  and  his  band)  have  done  this.  Do  not  say 
anything  frivolously,  for  the  host  has  offered  in  your  behalf  tobacco 
and  tears.  Cry  that  you  may  obtain  life,  even  as  the  host  and  his 
people  have  done.  Act  thus  so  that  you  may  be  of  help  to  one 
another  even  as  our  ancestors  of  old  were.  If  people  act  together 
they  will  accomplish  their  purpose.  That  is  what  they  did  in  the 
beginning  and  that  is  why  they  lived  like  spirits  at  that  time.  They 
cried  and  made  offerings  of  tobacco,  grandfather  said.  For  the  Night 
Spirits  shall  you  pour  tobacco  here.  I  send  forth  my  greetings  to 
you."     (Terminal  Night  Spirit  song.) 

After  they  have  finished  the  terminal  Night  Spirit  song  then  (the 
host)  gets  ready  to  use  the  dance  song,  but  (first)  speaks  as  follows: 

Speech  of  host. — ''War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet 
you.  The  dance  song  they  are  about  to  use  and  then  they  will  get 
ready  to  throw  out  the  offerings  of  buckskin  to  the  spirits.  Now  let 
us  put  them  above.  This  is.  what  I  wished  to  tell  you.  War-bundle 
owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you." 


The  host  and  the  others  now  take  the  buckskins  and  dance  around 
the  lodge  four  times. 

When  he  (the  host)  starts  the  oldest  men  sing  the  dance  songs. 
Then  the  feasters  take  the  buckskin  offerings  down  and  all,  one  by 
one,  dance  around  the  lodge  four  times.  An  attendant  precedes 
them  carrying  cedar  incense  and  one  follows  them  carrying  the  same. 
After  they  have  made  the  circuit  oi  the  lodge  for  the  third  time,  just 
before  they  begin  the  fourth  circuit,  those  carrying  the  buckskin 
that  is  to  be  thrown  out  for  Earthmaker  and  who  march  at  the 
head  of  the  procession,  let  the  children,  after  they  have  smoked 
their  hands,  touch  the  buckskin.  After  that  all  touch  it  for  (they 
believe)  that  if  they  touch  this  buckskin  they  will  obtain  long  life 
thereby. 

After  they  have  made  the  fourth  circuit  they  roll  up  the  buckskins 
and  throw  them  out  through  the  top  of  the  lodge.  They  hold 
tobacco  in  both  hands  when  they  do  this  and  this  tobacco  they  pour 
into  the  fire.  Then  all  the  feasters,  those  who  had  buckskins  and 
the  others  who  were  within  the  lodge,  the  children,  the  women, 
indeed,  all  the  people,  rise  and  standing  near  their  seats  dance. 
Thus  they  did. 

Before  throwing  the  buckskins  through  the  top  of  the  lodge  they 
would  tell  the  people  not  to  sleep,  for  otherwise  some  of  the  old 
Night  Spirits  who  are  about  at  the  approach  of  day  might  strike  them 


516  THE   WIKNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.ann.87 

ruijk'ererawTgi,  cdjek'djaniha'win4.  Ge'djinj  ro7ina'ijkcana.  Je£e'ji 
tcaha'ra  £ua'>ygEra  howal're  wahira'nagagi  je'ji  e'p'a'  nir/k'djo'- 
jjgEnAjygEra  hija/  n§dje'kcge  £u'r;k'dje  ai'recAnuvn4." 

E'gj  je£e'jj  nawanihe'ra  we' 114. 

Speech  of  first  guest. — "Warc-7i'ra  hok'i'k'aradJEra  mlnaijkca'- 
wajjk'a  nbjk'u'ruhiridjwTn4.  Watu'tcabwjra  liimaj'cdjar;k'djav- 
wira  dja'n^ga  wajo'k'ma  watutcabwi'ra.  Ep'ijjga'dja.  Jedjal'- 
Tjxdji  p'a  hoica/  hawl'114,  wiro'ragEra!  WaroTi'ra  hok'jk'a'- 
radJEra  mina^kca'war/k'a  ni^kuruhindj  rehawina.  Waxop'i'ni 
wonaijkci'na  dja'n4ga  tcj-6'ju  mlna>jkca'wa7;gre  niijk'uruhindj 
reha'widjigp." 

Ne.Tarup'o'rogera  warutc^'djega  ruza'n^ga  tcjok'Isa'gedja 
k'irjdje'hjje. 

Wagigo'nar^k'a  t£$pdjjra'n4ga,  we'je. 

Speech  of  host. — Sa'k'ereniVyk'djo>?gEre  mina7)kca'\va7)gre  niy?- 
k'uruhi'ndj  reha'win^.  Ep'iryga'dja-  Djagu'  ru-a'guna//xdji 
jesge'jg.  hani£una'gigawira.  Hang/tcbjxdji  hai'seretc  djagu' 
ru-agu'n4  hunagiga/wira.  Ep'1'114.  Oagwara'wiga  waxop'i'ni 
wana£i'  rusgi'djiran^ga.  E'gi  waxop'i'ni  agJYe'TebEra  djagu'ra 
icek'dja'wigi  hlnijjk'a/ragairaVigi  je'sge  hai'seretc  horak'a'rak'jcax- 
rawira.  Ep'bjga'djq.  Haijk'e'  hinaTica'rawini.  Waja/  raxu'- 
ruk'p'i'rjxdji  wacahjbrfi'wira.  Ep'I'114.  Wa£ya'n§,pcAn4  e'ge  hai'- 
seretc cindjwat£e'  nbjk'a'ragjwTra  here  nu'nige  e'gi  tok'e'wehiniwi. 
Nu'nige  e'gi  sa'nbjk  h^bogu'regi  herera'  hok'a'was  mani'na  wohai'- 
nirjgljg,  hidja'  wagik'ere'rera  hlro-a'gEnbjxdji  nawa'na^gre  e'niijk 
p'andja'  gjk'ererek'djonega/dja.-  E'gi  jige  ma'naijgre  wohai'- 
nirygija.  hidja'  gjk'ere'rera  hija/  haradjl'regi  hidja'  gjk'erere'r±4. 

E'gi  jige  we'nA.  h^he'wira  nita'k'atc  gigi'rera  jige  hija/  hidja' 
gik'ere'ren^.  E'gi  nlna  wohihal'nera  jigl'ja  haratcce.  E'gi 
tcaxce'bEra  woha'gik'erevrera.  Jige  je'cge  iiaj?gjja.  haradjire'ra. 
E'gi  jige  woxahi'na  woh^gik'erere'114,  jjgi'ja.  hana/  djjren4.  E'gi 
we'n4. 

Second  speech  of  host. — "Ha^k'e'  hltcok'ewahi'wira  dja'n^ga 
tcok'aga'  wana^'ijgik'ertPregi  hanf'tciijxdji,  ha^k'e'  wajir/k'I'na 
waha'nbjk'djonaVj  nunige'  hlhriuk'isge  wa'wana>?gwigavdja 
ha^k'e'  hltco'k'ewahTwjra  waji'ne  p'ihi'ranije  tcok'aga  e'ra. 
E'sge  higu'  djasge'ni^k'  tuxurugwl'ra  je'sge  hawa£uwiga'dja. 
Jige'  harjk'e  ne'cAnA.  wa£unjga'dja  dja'nAga  wajok'Ina'ijgera. 
Je'nuga  djasgehop'I'ni^gEra  hatuxu'rugwira7.  Je'sge  hawa£uwiga/- 
dja-  E'gi  sa'k'erenir;k'djo)ygEra  nilnajjkca'waqgre  nirjk'uruhi'ndj 
rehawjdjigo." 


Radin]  THE   CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  517 

with  their  canes,  and  if  they  did  this  such  a  person  would  surely  die.149 
For  that  reason  do  they  warn  them  not  to  sleep.  However,  as  soon 
as  the  men  have  thrown  the  buckskins  outside  then  any  child  who 
desires  may  sleep  without  danger. 

After  the  song  had  been  sung  he  (first  guest)  speaks  as  follows: 

Speech  of  first  guest. — "Host  and  members  of  his  band  who  are 
seated  here,  I  greet  you.  By  coming  in  connection  with  the  drum 
I  and  my  relatives  have  been  strengthened.  It  is  good.  To  such 
an  extent  have  we  annoyed  the  drum.  Host  and  members  of  his 
band  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  As  many  as  there  are  [who 
are  seated  within  the  lodge]  impersonating  the  spirits,  I  send  forth 
my  greetings  to  you." 

Then  the  attendant  takes  the  drum  and  places  it  in  the  middle  of 
the  lodge. 

The  host  rises  and  speaks  as  follows: 

Speech  of  host. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet 
you.  It  is  good.  What  I  have  longed  for,  that  you  have  completed 
for  me.  All  night  have  you  prayed  for  me.  It  is  good.  Blessings 
did  the  spirits  give  your  grandfathers.  What  you  were  to  say  to  the 
spirits  that  they  (your  ancestors)  told  you  and  that  you  have  repeated 
here  all  night.  It  is  good.  You  weren't  selfish  in  your  actions. 
You  -wished  to  obtain  something  for  all  of  us.  It  is  good.  I  am 
thankful  to  you,  for  you  must  have  inconvenienced  yourselves 
greatly  by  sitting  here  all  night  and  you  must  in  addition  have 
suffered  from  hunger.  Now  in  addition  to  the  kettle  that  has  been 
placed  in  honor  of  those  who  live  in  the  east,  the  Night  Spirits,  the 
last  band  to  sing  will  also  receive  a  head.  A  kettle  is  also  to  be 
placed  in  honor  of  the  Earth." 

Then  he  said  that  food  was  to  be  placed  in  honor  of  the  Moon,  as 
well  as  a  kettle  (for  soup).  Then  they  named  a  person  to  be  in 
charge  of  a  kettle  in  honor  of  the  Water.  Then  they  called  upon 
one  to  take  charge  of  the  kettle  in  honor  of  the  Eagle.  Then  they 
placed  one  in  charge  of  the  kettle  for  Porcupine.  Then  he  (the  host) 
spoke  again. 

Second  speech  of  host. — "  I  realize  that  our  grandfathers  did  not 
bless  me  much  and  that  I  have  hardly  enough  food  to  go  around, 
but  we  will  nevertheless  do  it,  for  it  is  said  that  our  grandfathers 
will  not  be  insulted  thereby,  grandfather  said.  That  is  why  we  give 
this  feast,  however  little  it  be  that  we  obtain.  And  I  am  not  the 
only  one,  for  all  my  relatives  are  doing  the  best  in  their  power  that 
we  may  obtain  (blessings).  That  is  why  we  give  the  feast.  War- 
bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you." 

> '«  They  speak  of  the  Night  Spirits  appearing  toward  dawn  as  old  in  reference  to  the  gray  light  of  morning 
which  they  compare  to  the  white  hair  of  an  old  person.  For  the  same  reason  these  old  Night  Spirits  have 
canes  just  as  an  old  man  has  a  cane. 


518  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Feast  to  the  Night  Spirits 

E'gi  djanaga  waradjira'nihera  hinhjk'e'hi  wok'e'ra  djanaga 
wawjgl'k'arabiregi.  Hang/tc  hjn^  k'uruziregi  e'gi  djanaga  ha^k'e' 
wap'a'idja  ha.r;k'e'  horok£u'-inanigi  warutco'na  kang/tciryxdji 
hik'isge'xdji  wawogiju'-ireje.  E'gi  han^itc  je'gu  hi'regi  wagigo'- 
narjk'a  jujii'k  djirehl'gi  warudJEra  hlk'idjaj'xdjj.  Waru'djireje. 
E'gi  waru'dJEnaijk'a  ha^k'e  rux£ex£erani'7?k'dje.  E'gi  jige' 
ha_ijk'e'  \v5k'e'ra  wScgatc  hlrani'ryk'dje.  E'gi  huce'regra  hq,qk'e' 
woi-e'rani^k'dje'nA..  P'i'^xdji  sto  wakira'nAga  p'bjxdjj'  njge' 
wawaxu'-inek'dje  hure/jak'ira.  E'gi  jige  k'lgo'nA^k'a  ha^k'e  hai'- 
seretc  wacgi-era'cAiiA.  airani'rjk'dje  liajjk'ik'u'ruxurugEra  niryge'- 
CA114  miii^'giregi  p'etc  e'dja.  WonA'Tire  hok'aragana')?kcAnA. 
hototco'na  djasge  hi'regi.  E'gi  wok'i'zara  djasge  hi'regi  je'jesge 
kaj'seretc  hora'gireje.  Hotcitci'na  hlcge  wana^xgu'  haj'seretc 
hires£a/je.  WonA'Tire  wagigo'naijk'a  ta  wa£u'nA7jk'e  hldja'  w6ra'n4 
na£j'  waires£a'je. 

Rite  op  Those  Who  have  been  Crazed  by  the  Night  Spirits 

E'gi  jige  hija/  £u'na7;k£u  kghe'  rudja'iii7)girega.  Wak'a.tca'- 
rjk'djj  wa£U7)ge'.  Wainina'cge  hang/tci^xdji  hocarodJEraI'res£aje 
al'rerj^.  E'gi  nanok'a'xdjj  ha^k'e'  waja'nija.  hlk'Ik'a'TEni  tclro'- 
gigir;x  waci'rega.  UajjgEra  hang,'tci)jxdji  hap'e'xdji  mInA'gires£aje. 
Hghe'  wogihai'negi  hatci'ndja  djegi  ha^k'e'  nuninines£a'je.  Yahl' 
tcawaI'res£iVje.  E'gi  wohA/djega  xere'  haraca'cakdje'cge  hfhe' 
rudja'njgiraMjega  wa£usa£je  ng,bi£ua'nAga.  Woha/djega  p'ara 
hatcindja'na^k'i  ru7es£a'je  ruTegu'gi  iia^gEra  hak'ik£uegires£avje. 
Hija.'  tconi  njge'  ratce'  naei'  wa£u-ines£a'je.  Hlgu'  p'eje  wan^ci- 
a'naga  tconi  njge'  ratce'gi  hlgu'  djasge'ga  ua7?gona>jgires£a'je.  Ge 
e'sge  hija.'  jejesge  hlga  al'gi  hak'ik£ue'gEna7;k'a  rucdjal'nega  e'gi 
wagigS'najjk'a  tanihu'  tci-o'k'isa/gedja  k'ere'narjk'a  ruza'nAga 
tani-6'giju  hlres£a'je  tanihl'  rucdja'^gi.  E'gi  wora/gEnaje  wagigo'- 
naryk'a  woha/  djagu'cAnA.  giru'ziregi  n^biruxa'dJEra  djagu'cAn^ 
giru'ziregi  je'jesge  ho'rakEna.vje  hagal'racge  wai'res£aje  wagigo'- 
narjk'a  tanl'na,  woho'na,  n§,biruxa'dJEra  hang/tcijjxdji  wagiru- 
zire'je  hlgaires£a'je  je£e'  wajqp'fu  wa£u'inecAnA.  Hq,j?k'e'  wogigo' 
hok'ahi'xdjj  wa£u'-inanis£avje  airecanii'nA..  Ua^kcik  wakatca7)k 
wau-inesaje.  Han4ga  e'gi  wagiga'ra  k'igol'ra  nlhe'ra  rucdjajnegj 
hana'tcirjxdjj  waru'dJEra  jeguhl'regi  e'gi  uaqk  wap'a'  wara'djira 
nlhe'ra  tconI'7jxdji  woha/  n|,djjra'nihera  t£$pdjira'n4ga  we'je. 


eadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  519 

Feast  to  the  Night  Spirits 

Those  who  were  called  on  for  kettles  now  took  the  pieces  of  meat 
that  had  been  counted  for  them  (by  the  attendants).  The  attendants 
divided  the  pieces  evenly  for  all  those  who  did  not  eat  heads.  As 
soon  as  the  distribution  was  finished  then  the  host  started  playing 
his  flute  and  all  began  to  eat  at  the  same  time.  The  feasters  are 
careful  that  they  spill  nothing  and  that  the  utmost  precautions  are 
taken.  It  is  not  proper  to  scatter  the  bones.  They  are  afterwards 
gathered  up  and  thrown  in  a  consecrated  place.  Never  do  they  talk 
frivolously  throughout  the  night.  Those  who  had  obtained  war 
honors  as  they  sat  near  the  fire  would  now  tell  of  their  war  exploits — 
how  many  warpaths  they  had  been  on  and  how  many  fights  they 
had  been  in.  All  night  do  they  talk  in  this  way.  All  night  would 
the  boys  listen,  it  is  said.  They  are  asking  for  war  powers;  that  war 
might  come  their  way — that  is  why  they  do  this  (recount  their  war 
exploits). 

Rite  of  Those  Who  Have  Been  Crazed  by  the  Night  Spirits 

As  they  do  this  some  become  crazed  by  the  Night  Spirits.147  A 
religious  frenzy  comes  over  them.148  All  their  clothes  would  be  cast  off, 
it  is  said.  All  naked,  without  any  apparel,  would  the  man  dance 
around  the  lodge.  All  would  sit  waiting.  They  (these  crazed  ones) 
would  not  be  in  ignorance  about  the  place  where  food  was  being 
boiled  for  the  Night  Spirits,  and  they  would  go  toward  it.  Even  if 
the  kettle  was  boiling  over  the  crazed  ones  would  stick  their  hand  in  it. 
Similarly,  as  soon  as  the  head  was  taken  out  from  the  place  where 
it  was  being  boiled,  then  these  men  would  make  a  rush  for  it  and 
try  to  get  the  first  bite.  Whoever  was  able  to  get  the  first  bite 
would  surely,  at  some  later  time,  receive  war  honors.  When  they 
are  finished  with  the  rush  for  the  head,  then  the  fe'aster  (i.  e.,  the 
successful  one)  takes  the  pipe  placed  in  the  center  of  the  lodge  and 
smokes  it.  When  he  has  finished  he  would  tell  of  his  war  exploits 
and  also  tell  them  what  offerings  had  been  accepted  by  the  spirits. 
That  the  one  who  has  just  come  out  of  his  trance  would  tell  them. 
They  (the  spirits)  told  the  feaster  (i.  e.,  the  crazed  one)  that  they 
had  accepted  all  the  things  that  had  been  offered — the  tobacco,  the 
food,  and  the  buckskins;  that  the  feasters  had  done  well.149  How- 
ever, not  at  every  feast  would  a  man  become  crazed,  it  is  said.  A 
holy  person  he  would  have  to  be.  When  the  feasting  is  over  and  all  have 
finished  their  meal,  then  the  first  one  to  whom  a  head  had  been  ap- 
portioned and  for  whom  a  kettle  had  been  placed  rises  and  speaks. 

1,7  I.e.,  they  get  into  a  state  of  religious  ecstasy  through  worship  of  the  Night  Spirits. 
1<8  Literally,  "holiness  comes  over  him." 

1<9  Apparently  the  one  supposed  to  be  crazed  by  the  Night  Spirits  sees  them  in  his  ecstatic  vision  and 
finds  out  whether  they  are  satisfied  or  not  with  the  offerings. 


520  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Continuation  of  the  Basic  Ritual 

Speech  of  eighth  guest. — "Waro7l'ra  wajo'njwjna  niryk'uruhi'ndj 
reha'widjigo.  E'gi  waxop'i'ni  ona^kcl'na  mlnarjkca'wa>jgre 
nijjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  Ep'iryga'dja  sa'k'erejanapjxdjj 
ca'warjge.  Nunige'  waxop'i'ni  njta'k'atc  gigl'regi  ne  wona'- 
7jkcir;k'djevra  wo'na^kcj  hiijgigi'rare  ep'bjga'dj^.  Ha^k'e'  waj§'- 
hage  e'sge  te'jesge  jiijgigi'nijgaMja.  WonA'TJre  hStatcg^i' 
waeuwiga'dja,  uar;kcigo£I'na  hiranq'k'ik^wira.  Ep'bjga'dja.. 
Djanaga/  wajok'I'nbjgEra  je'nU7?ga  hak'iwik£u'>jxdjiwinA. 
uaijkcigoTna  hIrana/k'Ik£ivjjxdjiwinA/.  Hltcok'ewahl'wira 

h|bogu'regi  narjk'i'ji  LJjq'  hu7)genayjkce  eyanatcj'ryxdji 
wawiruk'ona'na^kee  glji  w5nA'7ire  hlruk'onai'ja.  hereje'  tcok'aga' 
nfdjodja/je  tcniA'gidja.  hok'Ira'dJEra  han^tci'rjxdji  nahi'  gigije' 
gigigiji.  UdJEr5'gedja  idjal'ni^gera  7erahe'  najyk'a'raxguje  e'je 
al'rera.  Je£e'  tcok'aga'  wew^'nege  waxop'i'ni  honayjkcj  hbjgigi'- 
raje.  Tani'na  wSho/na  ng,biruxa'dJEra  hajyk'igip'e'rez  p'ini  wajg/ 
£u-ines£a'je!  Waro7i'  p'onai'naxdjj  wa£u'-inavnAga  wigip'e'- 
reziregiji  liicge  djanaga  wonar/kci'na  wlra'ruxe  hi£uijk'dja'wira. 
Te'jesge  uarjkcik  xetera'  adjl'renA.,  'Waxop'i'ni  tani'na  glgi  hlra'- 
nagi  wagizo'xdjj-andje  haizo'xdjj  wamiijgi'naijgaMJQ.  Tani'na 
rohg/>yxdji  rasge'p  nala'ndje  tani'na  roha/r;xdjj  carasge'pgiji 
je£e'cge  waxop'i'ni  wara'djirera  wonA'TJre  hlruk'o'nAn^ 
wajjgigip'e'rezinaijgwi'je  al'recAnun^.  Hija/  tani'na  rohf'ijxdji 
rasge'pgi  h(Lhe'ja  wa>?gik'ik'u'ruxurugEna/je  al'recAnunA.. 
Hltadje'  wa£u'ine.  Hotcintci'iuV;gwTra  te'gi  wonA'7Jre  ok'Ik'u'- 
ruxurugEra  wowatee'giniijkce  uarygEnu'niiygEra  al'recAnun^. 

Tani'na  woho'na  n^biruxa'dJEra  wagiksa'biregi  hage'dja  wona- 
Tjkcl'na  hrvvira'ruxe  hl£ujjk'dja'wi. 


"tJaijkcigoTna  wonA^irera  hl7anak'Ik£i7/k'dja'wi.  Wa£Iya'nApce 
hihe'ge  waha/na^kcAnA.  djagu'  eresga'nA^gre.  Warii7a'bEra 
wok'a/ragihonA.  p'Ina'gi  tani-ok'aragl'jura  p'Ina'gi  hagare'ja.  roh§'- 
bot£ek'ina  hljd'rawegi  warirya/bEra  maniijgl'cdjaTjk'djone^n4.. 
H^Tjk'e'  t£ehip'i  rariinbjk'djone'nA..  Waro7l'ra  mlnaTykca'warygre 
hok'ik'a'radJEra  niryk'uruhi'ndj  rehawidjigo.  Waxop'i'ni  onaijkcl'na 
mlna7jkca'wajjgre  nirjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo." 


kadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  521 

Continuation  of  the  Basic  Ritual 

Speech  oj  eighth  guest.150 — "Host  and  relatives,  I  send  my  greetings 
toward  you.  You  seated  here  who  are  impersonating  the  spirits,  I 
send  my  greetings  toward  you.  It  is  good  that  there  are  so  many 
war-bundle  owners  here.  It  is  good  that  they  have  given  me  the 
opportunity  of  impersonating  the  spirits,  by  placing  me  in  charge  of 
the  food  that  they  offer  to  them.  Though  I  am  not  related  to  the 
host,  he  has  done  this  for  me.  That  I  may  grope  for  war  powers, 
feel  niyself  in  connection  with  life,  that  is  why  we  do  it.  It  is  good. 
As  many  of  my  relatives  as  are  here,  they  all  worked  splendidly  so  that 
we  might  be  connected  with  life.  He  who  is  the  leader  of  our  grand- 
fathers who  dwell  hi  the  east  (the  Night  Spirits) ,  who  is  in  control  of 
all  things,  who  is  in  control  of  war  powers,  he  blessed  our  grandfather 
and  he  caused  him  to  swallow  as  many  people  of  other  tribes  as  had 
been  preordained  for  him.  Within  his  stomach  our  grandfather 
heard  their  cries,  he  said,  it  is  said.  Thus  thinking  of  my  grand- 
father they  asked  me  to  impersonate  the  spirits.  How  could  the  spirits 
do  anything  but  accept  the  offerings  of  tobacco,  food,  and  buckskin! 
They  have  had  a  very  great  feast,  and  surely  if  the  spirits  take  cogni- 
zance of  it,  all  those  who  have  been  impersonating  the  spirits  will  also 
be  permitted  to  participate  (hi  the  blessings)  to  follow.  Our  ances- 
tors handed  down  to  us  from  generation  to  generation  the  following: 
'When  you  offer  food  to  the  spirits,  sit  down  to  your  undertaking 
with  the  greatest  possible  attention  and  care.  Try  to  smoke  as  much 
tobacco  as  possible,  for  if  you  smoke  much  tobacco  then  all  the 
spirits  who  are  in  control  of  war  powers  will  pay  attention  to  you,  it 
is  said.  If  a  man  smokes  very  much  tobacco  in  one  night,  then  he 
will  be  able  to  obtain  a  war  honor,  it  is  said.  Try  your  hardest. 
Young  men,  it  is  easy  to  obtain  war  powers,  the  old  men  used  to  say. 
If  the  spirits  accept  the  offerings  of  food  and  tobacco  and  buckskins, 
then  afterwards  those  who  have  impersonated  them  will  participate 
in  the  blessings  that  follow.' 

"We  feel  that  we  have  been  connected  with  life  and  war  power. 
It  is  for  that  reason  that  I  say  these  words  of  thanks.  If  you  give 
the  feast  for  the  war  bundle  well,  if  you  pour  tobacco  well,  then,  if 
at  some  time  or  another  you  have  a  chance  to  loll  an  enemy  outright, 
the  war  bundle  will  strengthen  you  greatly.  No  one  will  be  able  to 
kill  you. 

'» I.  e.,  eighth  guest  to  receive  the  buckskins,  continuing  the  numeration  from  the  first  division  of  the 
ceremony. 

186823—22 34 


522  THE   WINNEBAGO   TEIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Wa£i'nqp    tconl'rjxdjio4.,     e'gi    jige    hlnubra    wohA'     ng,djire'ra 
we'114. 


Speech  of  ninth  guest. — "WaroYl'ra  hok'ik'a'radJEra  mlnaTjkca'- 
wa^gre  niryk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  E'gi  hona^kci'na  mlnaiykca'- 
waiygre  nbjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  Ep'I'114.  War07l'ra  uarykcik£i 
war/ganaijgi^'wiiy-ge.  Waxop'i'nina  \v0nA7ire  ruk'o'nAnA. 

uar;kcigo£i'  hlruk'o'nAnA.  djanugEra  p'l'na  herera  je'ny^ga 
glk'a'radJEnar^gre.  tJar;kcigre  howaja'jairecge  waru7ap  ke'ren^gre 
te'jegu  hi'regi  wogiga'ra  harak£u'inegi ;  howaja'ja  hlranihe'ra 
han^sga'biran^ga  howaja'ra  rucdjaj'nes^a'je  ai'rera.  Hu7jgiatca'- 
biwira  p'edjok'e'rera  hok'a'wak'a  wa£u'ineje  tejegu  hi'regi 
djadjiga  ecAnu'114.  Te£e'cge  djadjiga  waxop'ini  njta'k'atc  glgira 
p'ye.  HuTjgira'gEra  hlsge  we'ra  yap'e'rez  nunige  ha.rjk'e'  tuxu'- 
rugEnige  harjk'e  je'sge  hani-adjega'dj%.  AnAga  e'gi,  'Hagare'- 
ji\  wonA'Tire  hacdjak'djo'negi  hak'It^Q'bik'arohoI'regi,  ha^k'e' 
nana  Ticarani^kdje,  took' a  wira  gasge  ni^gi'giwicAnu^A.  tanihu'ra 
p'i  ni^gi'giwicAniTnA.  wogi'hona  p'i  ni7jgi'giwicAnu,n4  hok'i'dja. 
nirjgi'giwicAnu'nA..  Gasge  wa£inek'dje'nA.  k'lzai'k'arohol'rare.  E'gi 
hicegi'ji  honi'ni^gihan^k'i'cge  ha^k'e'  nana.>jxgunik'dje'nA.  wap'ai'- 
ni^k'dj;  warak'djek'dje'114.  Hlk'igai'reje  hisge'ra  hip'ere'zirege. 
E'sge  hak'ik'a'rajireje.  TeV  warc>7l'ra  hok'ik'a'radJEra  je'sge 
hiwa£u'najjk'adja..  Ep'ijjga'dja..  Waj§/  p'i  ponal'na  ruxp'- 
rugiregaMjq.  Ma'na  ka'rok'ehTwira  wogihaj'nera.  Tanl'na  tcaha 
nabiruxa'dJEra  teje'nuqga  glrucdjo/nehihireVa  wdnA'7Jre 
hlk'arata'  hl£uw^£u'inera.  Ep'i'n*..  Karok'ehihi'wira  hona^kci 
Hirjgigl'rare  hik'arok'ehihlwira  hak'uruhi'ndjanA.ga.  E'gi  war07l'ra 
wak'iiruliindja'iHga  hage'dja  djanAga  tci-o'ju  mlnajjkca'waiygre 
nirj  k' uruhi '  nd  j  Erehawidj  igo  \ 


Hitanl'na  wohA/na  hara'djirera  wa£inai'pdjone,n4  we'nA.. 

Speech  of  tenth  guest. — "Warc-71'ra  hok'ik'a'radJEra  mlnajjkea'- 
warygre  nir/k'uruhi'ndj  reha'win^.  Ep'I'nA..  WaroYi'ra  waxop'j'ni 
wara'djire  tani'  hlragik'arana'ryk'i  jedjonaj'xdjj  hlgire'regi  tani-o'- 
waxu^n*..  Waro7l'ra  ponaT'na  wa£u'inai-anAga.  Waxop'j'ni 
hlk'Isge'ja.  uarykcigo£i  djop  guci'gixdjineMja.  uaj/gl'ja.  djagu' 
egi'ji  jedjaj'^xdjj  p'a  djagu  £u'wacigi  e'xdjj  heregigl're  naTjgre. 
Ep'i^ga'dja.  "Oajjkci'gija.  ua>)kcigi£i'negi  s£Iredj$'>jxdji  here 
nunige'  jedjaj'ijxdjj  p'a  h|he'te£e  hadjanar/gwi'gadjq. 
Hansujk'araxgurjxdji'nera  djagG'xdjj  egi'ji  gieu'>jxdjinega\lja.. 
Hotaji  je'sge  hlnuxu'rugEnigaMja.  tani-o'waxunA.  DjanahT  hltco- 
k'ewahl'wira     djanAga'     tanj-6'hJnA     k'ere'rek'djone     Djobena.ijgi- 


kadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  523 

"Host  and  members  of  his  clan  who  are  sitting  here,  I  greet  you. 
You  seated  here  who  have  impersonated  the  spirits,  I  send  forth  my 
greetings  to  you." 

Then  the  second  person  for  whom  they  had  put  on  a  kettle  spoke. 

Speech  of  ninth  guest. — "Host  and  members  of  his  clan  who  are 
seated  here,  I  greet  you.  To  you,  seated  here,  impersonating  the 
spirits,  I  send  my  greetings.  It  is  good.  The  host  has  tried  to  make 
us  live.  All  those  present  here  have  been  pleading  to  the  spirits  who 
are  hi  control  of  life  and  war  powers.  If  any  Indians  are  sick  and  the 
keepers  of  the  war  bundle  give  this  feast  then  their  illness  will  be 
overcome;  they  will  recover  from  their  disease,  it  is  said.  My  father 
said  that  the  people  used  to  add  more  fuel  to  the  fireplace  of  our  chiefs 
when  they  do  this.  My  grandfather  told  me  that  even  if  I  (insignifi- 
cant as  I  am)  who  speak  were  to  make  an  offering  of  food  to  the 
spirits  it  would  be  good.  I  knew  that  he  always  spoke  the  truth,  yet 
I  knew  that  such  as  I  could  not  do  anything.  (Thus  grandfather 
spoke  to  me),  'Some  day  when  you  are  hi  the  presence  of  war  and  the 
rush  is  about  to  be  made,  you  will  not  be  frightened  for  you  can  say 
to  the  spirits,  "Grandfathers,  I  always  gave  you  something  to  smoke, 
boiled  food  for  you,  and  gave  you  the  material  for  moccasins.  Now 
I  wish  to  go  to  the  fight  that  is  to  take  place."  If  you  speak  to  them 
thus,  though  you  do  not  hear  them  answering  you,  (you  will  recognize 
their  answer  in  the  fact)  that  without  any  effort  you  will  be  victo- 
rious.' They  told. the  truth  to  one  another,  for  they  were  certain  of 
these  things.  That  is  why  they  encouraged  one  another.  This  is 
what  the  host  and  the  members  of  his  band  are  doing.  It  is  good. 
A  laudable  thing  they  have  done.  They  have  boiled  food  for  our 
grandmother,  the  Earth.  They  have  offered  her  tobacco  and  buck- 
skins and  have  as  a  reward  received  war  powers.  It  is  good.  Our 
grandmother  whom  they  made  me  impersonate,  I  greet.  Host  and 
all  those  who  are  seated  within  this  lodge,  I  send  forth  my  greetings 
to  you." 

Then  the  third  one  whom  they  called  on  for  a  kettle  rose  to  thank 
them  and  said : 

Speech  of  tenth  guest. — "Host  and  members  of  his  clan  who  are 
seated  here,  I  send  my  greetings  toward  you.  It  is  good.  The  host 
has  given  the  tobacco  offerings  to  the  various  spirits  at  the  proper 
time.  They  (host  and  clan  members)  have  accomplished  very  much. 
Once  long  ago,  four  generations  back,  a  man  like  a  spirit  in  power  had 
told  them  what  to  do  and  since  then  they  have  been  repeating  it. 
It  is  good.  Their  ancestors  long,  long  ago  first  gave  (this  feast)  and 
yet  even  to-day  we  have  seen  it.  They  (host  and  his  relatives)  lis- 
tened attentively  to  what  they  said  and  they  have  repeated  it  exactly. 
We,  ourselves,  could  not  accomplish  anything  if  we  gave  a  feast. 
When  in  former  times  they  had  feasts  hi  honor  of  our  grandfathers, 


524  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

wi'ijxga  higal'regi  hlrahl'rega  waxop'i'ni  tanihi'gigira  waxop'I'nina 
hlnfcge'ni  glk'ara'dJEnaTjgre.  Je'sge  djadjaj'ijndji  p'a,  hi-adji'rera 
hl-a'wip'erezwfgadj$.  Djadja|'vjxdji  p'a  hoici'pdji  woru'Tira 
ka'rak£u'inera  jesgehi'ra  wajapTj^  herera'  hip'e'reztiwiga'dja.. 
Nunige  ha.))k'e'  hotaji  je'sge  hlnuxurugEniga'dja.  te£e'ji  waha'- 
iiAgre  ha.7jk'e  je'sge  tuxu'rugEnigaMja,  k'ik'u'ruc£ak  uaj?kcigo£iga'- 
dja..  Ha^k'aga'  waxop'i'ni  tanl'na  hlja^k'I'xdji  wagituxu'rug 
tuxu'rugEnigaMja..  Hota'  waxop'i'ni  tani-o'gijura  p'UiI'nA^gre  e 
wa£u'inege  ua^kcigo^'na  p'fni^k  hi£uadj§'wicguni.  Yarecanu'114. 
Waxop'i'ni  tani'na  gigl'regi  h5na>;kcl'gigirevra  ep'bjga'dj^.  H§he'- 
wira  tani-o'gijuregi  wok*.'  gik'e'reregi  n|pgiruxa'djeregi.  Je£e 
e'dja  hap'a'hi  wiru-a/git£exgi  hlrai'rege  waigi£u-ina'neguni  te£e'ji. 
Ha.T)k'e'  wajg/nija.  e  tuxu'rug  £u-ini-a'n4ga  rohi'ra.  Wa£ik'I'- 
nAbra.  P'Jje  al'rera.  Je'sge  wage'  waha/nar;k'adja.  WarugiTi'- 
rera  h^he'regi  hu'djane  hak'u'ruhintc  reha'n4ga.  E'gi  war07l'ra 
nijjk'nruki'ndj  rehawidjigo.  E'gi  waxop'i'ni  wonarjkcl'na  nrinaijk- 
ca'wa^gre  nir;k'uruhi'ndj  rehawidjigo." 


Speech  of  eleventh  guest. — ' '  Waro7l'ra  mlnarjkca'wa^gre  nbjk'uruhi'- 
ndj  reha'widjigo.  E'gi  waxop'ini  wo'narjkcrna  tci-6'ju  minaqkcawa- 
7)gre  nbjk'Qruhi'ndj  rehawidjigo.  Waro7l'ra  wSnA'Tire  haxi'ri  mlnA/- 
>?giranA.ga.  E'gi  jlge  tanl'na  uaijkcigo£i'  k'arata'  hi£unek'dje'ra 
tanl'na  hak'a'raninaviHga  uaijkcigo£i'  ta  minarjgira'nAga.  E'gi 
wonA'TJrera  p'I'n4  hlp'e'rezirege  taira'riAga  hIcdja'ni^uxuxu,- 
nArjgre.  tfa^kcige'dja  t£e'ra  p'i'je  waT'zara  hlja/  ng,k'lk'uruxuv- 
ruk'i  hijg,'  uaT?gwa'cocegi  uaj?k  djaiHga'gere  han§/tcbjxdji  wajg/ 
p'j  £u'wa£uvdjera.  Hip'e'rezwinaiH-  E'gi  haqk'e'  wanafcgimi 
nar;k£u'  Qa7jgwa'cocena>jk'a  je'sge  djinA'qgEni  wa£u'na7?kcAn4. 
Hawe'xdji  k'i-a'nAga  je'sge  k'Iruxu'mg  wa£u'naj)k'adja.  uar?gwa'- 
cocenarjk'a.  Waro7J'ra  hawe'xdji  k'lna'nAga;  tani'  waxy'  hira'- 
nAga.  Waxop'i'ni  wogl'han^gre  waxop'i'ni  n|bimxa'dJEna>?gre 
me  jegu'ihlgi  cAnAWona7Jre-a'gEre  hiqk'i'ruxurugfk'dje.  Waja.gu'- 
zEra  je'sge  hi'114.  Ha.nk'1'ja.  hata'gina.ntc  hip'e'rezEni^ge  hajjk'e' 
wonA'7ire-avgere  hlcdjaga'  ruxu'rug  p'hn'je.  tJajjkxetenTnbjgre 
adji'renA.  hajjk'i'ja.  ha.ta'gina.tc  ruxu'rugEnTcge  waxop'i'ni  tani- 
o'gijura  waxop'i'ni  inta'k'atc  gigira'  waxop'ini  ngbiruxa'dJEra 
p'jhl'ra  wonA'7ire  hlruxu'rukce.  Hora'gEna^kcAnA.  hip'e'rezira^- 
nAga  wa'naijkce.  Te  jesge  waro7i'ra  hok'lk'a'radJEra  minA'- 
7)gEnA7jgre  na^xgu'inege  wa£u'nA^gEra.  Djasge'  hi-a'nAga  hajjk'e' 
wonA'7ire  ruxu'ruk  p'l'ni  waVnaqkce!  WonA'7Jre  nuxu'rugiregi 
niege  hage'dja  wira'ruxe  hi£U7)k'dja'wira.  £Jaj)kcigo£i'nA  hlrana'- 
ijk'ik£i  waxop'ini  wona7)kci'wira  waxop'ini  wara'djire  xete'ja.  tanl'na 


Radin]  THE   CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  525 

him  whom  they  call  Djobena^giwi'jjxga  gave  them  tobacco  to  smoke 
and  he  worshiped  the  spirits  sincerely  whenever  they  came  to  him. 
Thus  these  people  have  done  for  a  long  time  and  that  is  why  we  are 
recognized  by  the  spirits.  As  often  as  they  gave  this  feast  they  gave 
it  for  the  honor  of  the  spirits.  They  have  done  well  and  we  are  very 
well  acquainted  with  the  spirits  as  a  consequence.  Yet  I  myself 
who  am  now  speaking  can  not  do  anything;  I  can  hardly  be  said  to 
have  lived  (i.  e.,  lived  the  life  of  a  respectable  man).  I  am  unable 
even  to  put  on  one  kettle  in  honor  of  the  spirits.  Those  who  have 
given  this  feast  to  the  spirits  have  done  well  and  perhaps,  as  a  conse- 
quence, we  may  be  able  to  obtain  just  a  little  of  the  blessings  of  life. 
So  I  thought.  It  is  good  (I  tell  you) ,  who  have  made  offerings  to  the 
spirits,  who  are  impersonating  the  spirits.  He  who  has  been  given 
the  kettle  in  honor  of  the  Moon  expresses  his  thanks.  They  gave  this 
to  me  so  that  we  might  plead  for  them  (with  the  spirits).  Not  any- 
thing of  consequence  can  we  say.  We  are  thankful.  It  is  good,  it  is 
said.  That  is  what  I  wish  to  say.  Those  counseled,  I  greet,  the 
spirit  who  comes  at  night.  Host,  I  send  forth  my  greetings  to  you. 
You  impersonating  the  spirits,  I  send  my  greetings  toward  you." 

Speech  of  eleventh  guest. — "Host  and  his  clansmen  who  are  seated 
here,  I  send  my  greetings  toward  you.  Those  impersonating  the 
spirits,  I  send  my  greetings  toward  you.  The  host  and  his  people 
sit  here  crying  for  war  powers.  Tobacco  they  offer,  asking  for  life; 
the  tobacco  that  they  possess  they  sit  here  offering  that  they  may 
obtain  life.  They  know  that  it  is  good  to  have  war  powers  and  that 
is  why  they  ask  for  it  with  tears  in  their  eyes.  It  is  good  to  die  in 
war.  If  you  can  kill  one  enemy,  then  you  will  be  a  brave  man  and 
all  the  men  will  say  that  you  have  done  a  good  deed.  We  would  all 
know  it.  However,  not  without  effort  can  men  become  braves. 
They  must  suffer  to  obtain  this  honor.  The  host  has  made  himself 
suffer;  they  have  poured  tobacco.  If  we  do  as  they  did  and  make 
feasts  for  the  spirits  and  offer  them  buckskins,  then  we  will  be  able 
to  obtain  war  powers  for  ourselves,  and  only  then.  That  is  what 
the  Creator  would  do.  Not  without  fasting,  not  white  faced,152  are 
war  powers  obtainable.  Yet  the  old  men  long  ago  said  that  if  one 
could  not  fast,  still  if  he  poured  tobacco  for  the  spirits  and  offered 
them  food  and  if  he  made  excellent  offerings  of  buckskin  to  the 
spirits,  war  powers  might  be  obtained.  Thus  the  elders  spoke  and 
they  knew  of  what  they  were  speaking.  The  host  and  the  clansmen 
sitting  with  him  listened  (to  the  elders)  and  that  is  why  they  per- 
formed (this  ceremony  so  well).  How  could  we  ever  obtain  war 
powers  as  they  have  done?  All  we  hope  is  that  we  may  obtain 
some  of  the  war  powers  that  will  follow  (as  a  result  of  the  feast  here 

1H  I.  e.,  not  without  blackening  one's  lace  as  is  done  in  fasting. 


526  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ins.  37 

nita'k'atc  gigi'rera  n§biruxa'dJEra  wagiru'cdJAnehTrera  hoici'p 
wik'S'rap'erez  hlranihe'k'dje  alregi.  Je'sge  ya£wa£u  ha^k'e  hol'- 
niijge  gLxa'waninani^kdjinege  howare'ra  ha^k'o'ni^ge  wawe'k'iraiiix- 
Tjk'dje.  Waj^gy'zEra  e  je'sge  hige  jesge'114.  WarogJYl'rera 
hak'uruhi'ndj  reha'nAga.  E'gi  waro-yi'ra  niijk'uruhi'ndj  reha'- 
widjigo. E'gi  jige  waxop'i'ni  konajjkcl'na  djanAga  mlnarjkca'warjgre 
nir;k'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo." 


Host's  terminal  speech. — Wagjga'ra  we'114,  n|ji-a'naga  wa£in§'- 
pcAnA.  wajok'i'ra. 

"Sa'k'ereiii^k'djoTjgre  minarjkca'wajjgre  nijjk'uruhi'ndj  reha'- 
widjigo. Ep'1'114.  Wa'jo  uanadjddjaj'sge  ha£u'winA.  hlnagi'- 
zoxdjj-a^nAga.  Ha|'seretcj  mlna^gica/naijgira/nAga.  Ep'I'114. 
Haizo'xdjjni^k  tcebinagl'giwira.  Ep'i'n^.  E'gi  we'nA.  wagjgo' 
hlriik'o'riAdjega  woua'titc  ruk'o'nAiiA  djanaga  wogyzEra'naijk'i 
jesge'xdjj  wawogi'ragireje  al'rera.  tJa^gi'ja.  wonA'7Jre  hlruk'o'- 
nAnA.  djanArjga'k'i  uar;gEregi  Waj^gy'zEra  hominQ'gEriojjk'i  ep'g' 
egi  majha'gEregi  e'gi  maijk'uh^'negi  e'gi  je£e'  ana'tcbyxdji 
wawogl'rak  rehi'k'djera,  uaqgl'ja,  liqharatcce.  NawA/na  djop'i'wi 
ya£U7jk'djona're  hlja/  hip'a/  waiyga'  hojedjai'ndja,  £ua.conur/k'dje 
djobo'ha.  hotc^t£j'  hlk'dje'  hlge'gi  djobo'ha.  wak'dje  £uajiA>?gere 
je'sge  e'je  e'gi  je'ji  jegy  hlra'n^ga." 

Terminal  Address  to  the  Dog 

E'gi  cu7jk  n^biruxa'dJEra.  Hocere£u'wahira  glruedja/  rehi'rera. 
Wogl'go  uaiyk'dji-e'dja  hiru-a'k'djin^  wocgo/  je£e'  e  ru-a'gEra 
here'nA.  wagigo'rjA^k'a  n|ji-a'nAga  wak'uruhi'ntccAii^. 

Host's  speech  to  Disease-giver. — "Sa/kerenbjk'djo^gere  minaqkca'- 
wa7jgre  nbyk'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  Tcege'djaredja,  tiaijgEnu'- 
nj^gra  hlteok'eha'wira  we'je  uajjgl'ja.  wi-orotcQ'djeregina>)k'a 
wonA'ijre  hlruk'onai'ja.  hereje'.  Rosa'nbyk  hap  £uje  e'gi  hot£e' 
ruk'onaj'ja.  hereje'  hlk'ige'je.  Tcok'aga'  n$djodjo'r;gi  redjy' 
wanl'na  hatci'ndja  hlra'nihegi  hoici'pdji  wawip'e'rez  nihek'djone'je 
e'je,  e'nA..  Djadjo'na  tani-6'waxu  ha'k'erewigi  higy'  p'eje'ga 
hang/tcbyxdjj  taniwoglju'regi  ha.>yk'e'  hocere'ranirjk'dje  e'je  al'rera. 
Je'sge  wa£u'  tauiwogi'ju  hires£a'je.  Rohbjk'isga/wije  hagitu'cdja. 
reha'wira  hij§,'nb?k  tani  cawa7jxu'7jk'djawigi  c£ur;kdja'wige  honiqgi'- 
tawin^.     Nijjk'uruhi'ndjwidjigo." 

Horucdjo'114  he'regi  biro-a'gera  hana'tciijxdjj  taniwogl'ju 
wagigl'iiA.  uaiygEra  hl'nygEra  ni7jk'djo'7jgEra  hang/tci^xdjj. 
Harjk'i'jq.  jeginiha'nije  k'Iga'ra  han^'tc  taniwogi'ju  hlreje  e'gi 
hanatcj'jyxdji  ho-ere'ra  here'114. 


radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR -BUNDLE   FEASTS  527 

given).  We  feel  ourselves  connected  with  life,  for  surely  one  of  the 
great  spirits  will  take  cognizance  of  the  tobacco,  food,  and  buck- 
skins that  we  who  are  impersonating  the  spirits  have  offered. 
Surely  they  (the  spirits)  will  not  care  to  see  (these  offerings)  lost 
nor  let  us  cause  ourselves  to  suffer  in  vain.  Thus  the  Creator  said. 
As  counseled  ones  do,  I  greet  you.153  Host,  I  send  my  greetings 
toward  you.  You  seated  here  impersonating  the  spirits,  I  send  my 
greetings  toward  you." 

Then  the  host  arose  and  thanked  his  guests. 

Host's  terminal  speech. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here, 
I  greet  you.  It  is  good.  We  were  living  in  an  abject  condition,  so 
you  performed  this  ceremony  most  carefully  for  us.  All  night  have 
you  been  sitting  here.  It  is  good.  With  the  greatest  care  have 
you  eaten.  It  is  good.  That  is  what  those  who  are  in  charge  of 
feasts,  who  are  in  charge  of  war  powers,  counseled  us,  it  is  said. 
I  shall  now  call  on  a  man  who  can  make  himself  heard  by  all  the 
spirits  who  are  in  control  of  war  power,  including  those  who  live 
above  where  the  Creator  lives,  to  those  who  live  on  the  earth,  and 
those  who  live  under  the  earth.  I  will  now  sing  four  songs  and  when 
I  begin  them  that  will  be  the  end  (of  the  ceremony).  Then  the  man 
is  to  give  the  war  whoop  four  times." 

This  he  said  to  them.  Then  the  victory  whoop  was  given  four 
times. 

Terminal  Address  to  the  Dog 

Then  the  dog  is  sent  forth  as  an  offering  to  Disease-giver.  There 
at  the  place  where  the  last  guest  has  been(  ?)  the  host  rises  and  greets 
all. 

Host's  speech  to  Disease-giver. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are 
seated  here,  I  greet  you.  In  the  beginning  one  of  my  grandfathers 
told  me  that  the  man  in  the  south  is  the  greatest  one  in  control  of 
war  powers.  One  side  controls  death  and  the  other  life,  he  said. 
He  blessed  our  grandfather  and  his  descendants  wherever  they  might 
be  and  he  said  that  he  would  at  all  times  remember  them.  When- 
ever we  pour  tobacco,  then  those  who  offer  tobacco  will  not  take 
sick,  he  said,  it  is  said.  That  is  the  reason  they  pour  tobacco,  they 
said.  We  are  extending  to  you  one  like  ourselves  (the  dog),  and  we 
have  told  all,  that  all  who  wish  to  pour  tobacco  may  do  so.  I  greet 
you  all." 

When  the  time  has  come,  then  all  pour  tobacco,  the  men,  the 
women,  and  the  children.  Not  one  was  there  left  of  those  who  had 
poured  tobacco.     They  had  all  scattered. 

■s»  Apparently  the  name  of  the  spirit  he  is  impersonating  has  been  omitted  here.    It  is  the  Water. 


528  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

ADDENDA 

Wariitc  sak£u'na  higy'  riicdjai'naga  e'gi  wap'a'  waradJEra 
rucdjal'naiiAga  e'gi  wap'a'  wara'djirega  k'eni  uarjgEra'  hinak'u'- 
ruxirani  e'gi  wagigo'na^k'a  wak'uruhi'ndjirehi'je. 

Speech  of  host. — Sa'k'ereniVyk'djojjgEre  mlnaijkca'warjgre  ni^k'ii- 
ruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo.  Hitco'k'e  waha'wigi  wa^u'ines^a'je  hoici'- 
pdjj  hi]V  waiiATi'rak  hok'a'ratcgas^je  p';  hlp'e'rezjrege. 
Hltco'k'e  waha'wigi  hija/  Wanihe'ga  higai'regi  hoici'pdjj  e 
wanA7i'rak  horatcgas£a'je.  Wana7i'rak  horatcgg/djega  Wani- 
he'ga higai'regi  wana7i'rak  horatcgl'djega  uaTjgjk'j'je  e'sge  p'i'nA. 
hlp'e'rezireje  Wanjhe'ga  higai'regi  uaijgwa/coce  xeteje'  ha^k'e' 
Hik'i'sge  p'ia*.  wa£uje'.  Togija/djane  totco'na  hik'a'wakcAnA. 
ro7i'res£aje  ha^k'e'  hop'ini  howai'res^a'je.  E'sge  ro7i'res£aje. 
Nunige  Wanihe'ga  togi'ja.  totco'na  djobo/ha.  hik'awa'kcaje  aire- 
canu'114.  E'sge  wana7i'rak  hok'aratc§,'djega  e  waj/gik'ik'ii'ruxu- 
rukce.  Hahi'  wak'^tca'jjkce  hahi'  sak£i  je'cge.  E'sge  hoici'p'djj 
hija/  wana7i'rak  hok'aratcgas£a'je.  Hijg,  je'sge  hak'djona'winA. 
woh^'  tconi'xdji  dja'wine.  E  e'dja  horok  nfdjona'gidjiywigi 
liidjo'rogEnijjk  eurjk'dje'ge.  Je'jesge  nir)gita'wjn4.  Sa'k'erenirjk'- 
djor;gEre  minarjkca'warjgre  ni^k'uruhi'ndj  reha'widjigo\ 


Radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  529 

ADDENDA 

After  they  have  finished  the  fast-eating  contest  and  eaten  the 
heads  and  hefore  the  men  are  picked  out 154  then  the  host  greets  all. 

Speech  of  host. — "War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I  send 
forth  my  greetings  to  you.  Our  grandfathers  used  to  say  that  if 
one  would  take  a  chance  at  becoming  a  ghost 155  then  the  spirits 
would  consider  it  especially  good.  There  was  one  man  among  our 
grandfathers  who  was  called  He-who-shouts-in-the-distance  and  he 
put  himself  in  the  position  of  one  who  desires  death.  This  warrior, 
He-who-shouts-in-the-distance,  was  a  great  man,  an  unequaled 
person.  Now  in  summer  it  is  forbidden  to  go  on  a  warpath,  for  no 
good  could  come  of  it.  That  is  why  they  forbade  it.  Yet  He-who- 
shouts-in-the-distance  went  on  the  warpath  four  times  during  the 
summer,  they  said.  Thus  he  became  one  who  risked  his  life.  In 
this  way  he  proved  that  he  was  a  great  man.  Finally  he  became 
holy  and  was  permitted  to  carry  the  war  bundle.156  Thus  does  one 
do  to  be  a  person  who  takes  risks  with  his  soul.157  Thus  we  will  do 
at  the  very  first  feast  we  give.  May  (the  spirits)  also  have  pity 
upon  us  [as  recompense  for]  the  kettle  of  which  they  will  partake. 
That  is  what  we  ask.  War-bundle  owners  who  are  seated  here,  I 
greet  you." 

IM  I.  e.f  before  the  men  to  whom  kettles  had  been  assigned  were  called  upon  to  speak. 
166 1,  e.,  risk  one's  life  in  a  brave  way. 

1&0  It  is  one  of  the  greatest  privileges  a  warrior  can  obtain  to  carry  the  war  bundle  when  on  the  w'arpath. 
157 1  have  purposely  translated  this  phrase,  "wanari'rak  horatcga'  dja/'  in  three  different  ways  to  give 
all  the  different  shades  of  meaning  it  possesses. 


530  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ANN.  37 

The  War-bundle  Feast  of  the  Thunderbird  Clan 

(second  version) 

Informant,  member  of  Thunderbird  clan:  *  There  were  originally 
four  warriors.  The  youngest  one  was  the  bravest  and  the  most 
powerful.     He  claimed  that  his  father  was  a  Thunderbird  and  his 

mother  a  Night  Spirit.  He  is 
the  one  who  made  the  bundle 
about  which  we  are  going  to 
speak. 

The  lodge  (fig.  3S)  is  prepared 
by  the  nephews  and  the  women 
relatives  of  the  host,  generally  his 
nieces  and  wives.  The  invited 
guests  arrive  toward  evening, 
while  the  women  are  still  prepar- 
ing the  buckskins.  These  buck- 
skins are  to  be  made  as  perfectly 
white  as  possible.  Only  those 
women  who  have  passed  their  cli- 
macteric are  permitted  to  do  this. 
As  soon  as  the  buckskins  are  pre- 
pared the  kettles  are  put  on  the 
fire.  The  buckskins  are  taken  by 
the  host  and  marked  with  the  spe- 
cific symbols  associated  with  the 
different  spirits.  (For  the  mark- 
ings, see  pis.  47,  48.)  These 
buckskins  are  then  tied  to  a  stick. 
That  for  Earthmaker  is  attached 
to  the  stick  with  the  head  point- 
ing upward;  that  for  the  Thun- 
derbird has  the  stick  and  the 
head  of  the  buckskin  facing  the 
west;  that  for  the  Night  has  the 
stick  and  head  of  the  buckskin 
facing  east;  that  for  the  Star  also 
faces  east,  as  do  all  the  others 
not  mentioned.  When  the  sticks  have  been  prepared  and  the  buck- 
skins attached  to  them,  the  latter  are  rolled  up  upon  the  sticks. 
Whosoever  of  the  guests  is  the  oldest  feast-giver  then  arises  and 
pours  tobacco,  first  for  the  fire  and  then  for  all  the  other  spirits. 
When  they  start  the  fire  for  the  first  time  they  use  the  old  ceremonial 
fire  sticks.     With  that  the  ceremony  begins.     When  the  old  man  is 


oe 


07 


06 


OS 


Fig.  3S.— Plan  of  Thunderbird  clan  war-bundle  feast. 
1,  Buckskin  forearthmaker.  2,  Buckskin  fordisease- 
giver.  3,  Buckskin  for  thunderbirds.  4,  Buckskin 
for  night-spirits.  5,  Buckskin  for  morning  star.  6, 
Buckskin  for  sun.  7,  Buckskin  for  moon.  8,  Buck- 
skin for  water-spirit.  9,  Buckskin  for  earth,  lu, 
Buckskin  for  hcroka. 


1  This  is  a  generalized  account. 


kadin]  THE    CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE    FEASTS  531 

through,  the  buckskin  is  taken  down,  unrolled,  and  the  thunder-buck- 
skin given  to  the  band  sitting  opposite  the  host.  The  other  buckskins 
are  then  distributed  in  rotation,  except  that  the  buckskin  to  Earth- 
maker  is  given  to  the  guest  who  occupies  the  middle  position  in  the 
lodge.  All  the  guests  remain  standing  with  their  unrolled  buckskins, 
holding  them  by  the  sticks  and  keeping  tobacco  in  their  other  hand, 
while  the  old  man  speaks  to  them  and  blows  first  upon  a  flute.  Then, 
to  the  accompaniment  of  a  gourd,  he  sings  two  songs.  After  that  the 
buckskins  are  rolled  up  again  in  such  a  way  that  the  markings  remain 
visible,  and  hung  up  again  on  sticks  that  are  placed  near  the  individual 
invited  guests,  just  west  of  the  first  fireplace.  There  they  have  a  pole 
for  Earthmaker,  at  whose  foot  the  war  bundle  is  placed  and  opened. 
Tobacco  is  then  poured  into  the  hands  of  each  of  the  invited  guests  by 
the  host.  He  offers  tobacco  especially  for  those  individuals  for  whom 
he  has  prepared  buckskins  and  kettles,  asking  each  of  them  in  turn 
for  life  and  for  victory  on  the  warpath.  When  he  finishes  he  pours 
some  tobacco  into  the  fire  and  some  upon  the  war  bundle.  All  the 
persons  invited  then,  in  turn,  do  the  same.  If  the  host  has  any  chil- 
dren present  in  the  lodge,  he  has  them  do  the  same.  Children  are 
always  escorted  by  the  attendant.  The  host  now  takes  the  gourds, 
drum,  etc.,  and,  remaining  in  his  own  place,  sings  different  sets  of 
songs.  As  often  as  he  starts  a  new  set,  he  blows  upon  his  flute.  The 
songs  of  the  Thunderbird  consist  of  eight  starting  songs,  sung  slowly, 
six  dancing  songs,  etc.  As  soon  as  the  dancing  songs  are  begun,  all 
the  men  in  the  lodge  come  around  the  war  bundle  and  dance,  blowing 
the  flute,  etc.  Women  may  dance  likewise,  but  they  must  remain  in 
that  part  of  the  tent  especially  assigned  to  them. 

Before  the  contents  of  the  kettle  are  cooked  the  host  sings  four  sets 
of  songs.  As  soon  as  the  first  set  has  been  started  the  attendants  get 
as  many  pipes  as  possible  and  bring  them  to  the  war  bundle.  They 
also  place  there  a  large  pipe  with  stem  directed  toward  the  west  and 
a  large  pile  of  tobacco.  These  pipes  are  then  passed  back  to  the 
various  guests  in  order  to  be  smoked. 

After  the  first  set  of  songs  is  over  the  large  pipe  is  taken  and  lit 
by  one  of  the  attendants  and  passed  around  the  lodge,  in  ceremonial 
manner,  each  member  taking  a  puff  and  passing  it  to  the  next  one. 
When  the  songs  to  the  Disease-giver  are  sung,  the  pipe  is  placed 
against  the  center  pole  with  stem  directed  south.  Before  the  Disease- 
giver  songs  are  sung  the  story  of  their  origin  is  told.  At  the  end  of 
the  last  of  the  initial  songs  the  old  man  with  tobacco  in  each  hand 
says  Ho — o — o — o—l  He  then  pours  tobacco  into  the  fireplace.  He  is 
really  presenting  it  to  the  Disease-giver.  Then  dancing  songs  are 
used  as  before.  Usually  dog  meat  is  put  in  the  kettle  designed  for 
the  Disease -giver. 


532  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ANN.  37 

When  the  songs  of  the  Night  Spirit  are  sung  the  stem  of  the  pipe  is 
pointed  eastward. 

Four  songs  are  sung  before  the  cooking  is  finished,  in  honor  of  the 
Thunderbird.  The  feast  is  then  spread,  and  all  those  in  the  lodge 
smoke  and  dance.  The  attendants  take  the  kettles  down  and  take 
the  food  out.  While  the  kettles  are  still  on,  however,  branches  of 
cedar  are  carried  around  the  lodge  to  purify  it.  Before  distributing 
the  food,  while  the  singing  is  still  going  on,  the  attendants  count  the 
number  of  people  in  the  lodge  and  cut  the  meat  into  a  corresponding 
number  of  pieces.  As  each  kettle  is  supposed  to  suffice  for  any  one 
band,  a  number  of  small  sticks  about  the  size  of  a  toothpick,  corre- 
sponding to  the  number  of  people  present  in  each  band,  is  placed  in 
each  kettle.  After  the  last  four  songs  are  used  the  host  arises  and 
calls  for  the  kettle  that  is  to  be  given  to  the  person  opposite  him. 
The  attendant  brings  it  and  tells  him  how  many  pieces  of  meat  there 
are  in  the  kettle.  The  host  then  speaks  about  his  intentions 'in 
offering  the  kettle  to  the  spirits;  that  he  is  seeking  life  and  victory 
in  war,  and  that  he  begs  all  those  present  to  intercede  for  him.  He 
then  calls  for  the  other  kettles.  There  are  generally  one  or  two 
kettles  for  the  women  and  children.  When  the  feast  is  spread  out 
and  they  all  have  their  food,  the  host  tells  them  that  they  may  now 
eat  whenever  they  think  proper.  He  himself  does  not  eat  anything 
but  merely  sings,  shaking  the  gourds  that  he  holds  in  his  hand. 

The  Disease-giver  is  considered  the  most  sacred  of  all  the  spirits, 
and  for  that  reason  all  the  bones  and  the  plates  that  have  been  used 
in  connection  with  his  particular  kettle  are  purified  with  cedar 
branches.  The  host  carries  these  bones  out  of  the  lodge  himself  and 
buries  them  under  the  foot  of  some  tree.  He  also  takes  tobacco  and 
red  feathers  along  with  him  on  this  occasion.  As  the  other  spirits 
are  not  considered  to  be  as  sacred  as  the  Disease-giver,  ,the  bones  from 
the  kettles  offered  to  them  can  be  buried  anywhere,  provided  the 
ground  has  been  purified. 

After  the  first  invited  guest  has  finished  his  meal  he  rises  and 
thanks  the  host.  He  then  tells  the  story  of  how  he,  or  his  ancestor, 
obtained  the  war  bundle,  and  assures  the  host  that  he  feels  confident 
that  so  great  a  feast  as  this  in  which  he  is  taking  part  will  most 
certainly  be  recognized  by  the  spirits.  He  also  adds  that  inasmuch 
as  he  and  the  other  invited  guests  have  partaken  of  this  feast  they 
also  hope  to  receive  life  and  strength  in  proportion  to  the  blessings 
bestowed  upon  the  host.  The  other  invited  guests,  in  turn,  speak 
in  the  same  way. 

While  this  is  going  on  the  attendants  are  preparing  the  kettles  for 
another  lot  of  meat.  The  whole  tent  is  swept  again  and  purified  and 
the  kettles  are  once  more  placed  upon  the  fireplaces.  The  host  now 
rises  and,  holding  tobacco  in  his  hand,  informs  each  spirit  of  the  par- 


Radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BTTNDLE   FEASTS  533 

ticular  kettle  assigned  to  him.  Then  he  pours  out  tobacco.  Now  one 
of  the  attendants  goes  around  the  lodge  and  scatters  small  swan 
feathers  in  every  direction,  even  putting  some  near  the  kettles. 

The  host  then  prepares  to  sing  night  songs,  but  before  doing  so  he 
takes  down  the  buckskin  assigned  to  the  Nights,  blackens  his  face 
with  the  ember  used  for  marking  that  buckskin,  and  puts  swan 
feathers  upon  his  head.  It  is  said  that  those  who  during  their 
fasting  time  visited  the  land  of  the  Night  Spirits  saw  swan  feathers 
scattered  all  over  the  land,  and  that  is  why  they  use  them  now.  The 
host  now  has  the  pipe  turned  toward  the  east  and  before  singing  the 
night  songs  tells  the  origin  of  these  songs.  He  asks  all  the  other 
invited  guests  present  to  help  him  with  his  songs  and  apologizes  for 
asking  so  much  of  them.  He  now  uses  two  sets  of  songs.  When 
the  dancing  songs  are  sung  all  the  men  who  so  desire  may  come 
around  the  war  bundle  and  dance,  and  some  may  even  dance  near 
the  places  where  they  sit.  When  he  has  finished  his  songs  he  passes 
the  drum,  gourds,  flute,  and  tobacco  to  the  invited  guest  opposite 
him.  This  one  now  arises,  pours  out  tobacco,  and  tells  the  origin  of 
his  particular  war  bundle  and  sings  the  night  song  connected  with  it 
for  the  benefit  of  the  host.  He  then  repeats  the  same  actions  that  the 
host  has  done.  The  drum,  etc.,  are  now  passed  to  the  next  man,  and 
so  on  until  daylight.  Some  one  especially  selected  is  given  the  honor 
of  singing  those  songs  that  are  connected  with  the  taking  down  of 
the  buckskins,  and  when  this  one  starts  his  song  all  the  invited 
guests  in  whose  honor  kettles  have  been  put  on  the  fireplace  take 
down  their  buckskins  and,  holding  them  in  their  hands,  walk  around 
the  lodge  four  times.  An  attendant  precedes  them,  walking  back- 
ward and  purifying  the  path.  The  buckskin  with  the  cross  marked 
on  it  is  generally  carried  first.  The  fourth  time  they  make  the 
circuit  all  those  in  the  lodge  first  hold  their  hands  over  the  cedar 
incense  and  then  touch  the  buckskin,  because  Earthmaker  is  going  to 
use  it  for  moccasins,  so  that,  by  touching  it,  they  might  become 
strengthened.  After  they  had  made  the  circuit  for  the  fourth  time 
they  rolled  up  the  buckskins  and  threw  them  through  the  openings  in 
the  roof  of  the  lodge,  so  that  the  spirits  for  whom  they  were  intended 
might  receive  them. 

After  the  buckskins  have  been  thrown  out  tobacco  is  poured  into 
the  fireplace  and  all  the  people  take  their  places  and  dance.  When 
the  drum  has  made  the  entire  circuit  of  the  lodge — that  is,  when  it  has 
again  returned  to  the  host — the  latter  rises  and  sings  the  so-called 
paint  songs.  A  short  time  before  that  a  number  of  kettles  had  been 
put  on  the  fireplace  for  the  so-called  lower  spirits.  The  host  then 
declares  that  the  feast  is  ready  and  that  whenever  they  wish  to 
the  guests  may  begin  to  eat.  The  rites  of  the  preceding  feast  are 
now  repeated.     Toward  the  end  of  the  feast  the  host  takes  his  bundle, 


534  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.ann.37 

wraps  it  up,  and  hangs  it  behind  him  in  the  lodge,  but  he  keeps  the 
flute  unpacked.  When  all  but  the  last  four  songs  have  been  finished 
he  calls  upon  some  one  who  has  a  rather  strong  voice  to  give  the 
war  whoop,  which  he  does,  at  the  end  of  the  song.  This  war  whoop 
is  given  so  that  all  the  spirits  might  hear  it.  When  he  is  through  all 
the  other  guests  give  war  whoops  four  times,  and  the  feast  is  over. 

The  War-bundle  Feast  of  the  Thunderbird  Clan 

(third  version) 

Informant,  member  of  the  Thunderbird  clan:  When  the  feast  is 
ready,  the  buckskin  prepared,  and  the  kettles  of  meat  put  on  to  boil, 
then  the  host  rises  and  says  as  follows: 

"Warriors  and  sons  of  warriors  who  are  present  here,  I  greet  you 
all.  You  have  put  aside  all  the  wrongs  I  have  done  you  and  ac- 
cepted my  invitation.  I  am  glad  of  it.  You  have  filled  my  lodge. 
It  is  good.  Our  four  great  ancestral  fathers  were  all  warriors.  The 
oldest  one  was  called  Whirling-Four,  the  second  one  Sitting-Chief, 
the  third  one  Wabanansaka,  and  the  fourth  one  Kills- Within-Lodge. 
When  in  battle,  Kills-Within-Lodge  was  bullet-proof.  He  used  to 
wear  a  belt  which  when  full  of  shot  he  would  loosen  and  his  blanket- 
belt  would  be  full  of  bullets.  He  is  the  one  that  made  this  bundle. 
With  it  one  can  obtain  victory  and  blessings. 

"The  blessing  we  ask  of  you  is  war;  for  ourselves  and  for  all  who 
are  present.  We  have  offered  kettles  to  all  the  spirits  and  we  will 
also  pour  tobacco  for  them.  This  is  why  I  am  speaking  to  you, 
warriors,  and  you  taking  the  place  of  the  spirits.  All  in  this  lodge 
I  greet.     I  greet  you  all." 

He  takes  tobacco  and  gives  some  to  each  of  those  who  have  been 
especially  invited.  Then  he  goes  to  the  fireplace  and  throws  some 
tobacco  into  the  fire,  saying:  "Here  it  is.  Here  it  is.  To  you 
who  stand  in  the  center  of  the  lodge,  to  you  I  offer  tobacco.  You 
encouraged  us  to  believe  that  when  we  call  upon  some  of  your  fellow- 
spirits,  it  would  be  only  necessary  to  put  tobacco  upon  your  head, 
and  that  you  would  deliver  the  message. 

"This  is  the  first  blessing  we  ask — namely,  that  our  weapons 
and  not  those  of  our  enemies  be  made  sharp.  And  if  in  a  vision  we 
be  directed  to  go  on  the  warpath,  may  we  receive  the  complete 
blessing,  even  though  we  be  in  the  midst  of  the  battle.  Therefore 
do  we  lay  all  these  birdskins  that  are  used  in  war  here  in  the  center 
of  our  lodge.  We  pray  that  if  we  use  one  of  them  we  will  be  able 
to  avoid  danger  and  that  we  be  granted  long  life.  For  that  reason, 
grandfather,  Fire,  do  1  pour  tobacco  to  you.  Here  it  is.  Here 
it  is. 


Radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  535 

"And  thou,  grandfather,  Earthmaker,  I  offer  tobacco  to  you. 
I  offer  tobacco  to  you.  It  was  you  who  made  the  tobacco,  yet  we 
were  told  that  even  you  cannot  take  it  from  us  unless  we  offer  it 
to  you  willingly,  because  you  ordained  it  thus.  I  offer  tobacco  to 
you,  that  I  may  become  a  warrior  and  have  long  life.  This  I  ask 
of  you.  A  white-furred  animal,  a  deer,  with  its  hide,  the  buckskin, 
and  its  meat  as  food,  do  I  offer  to  you  together  with  tobacco.  The 
hide  you  may  use  for  moccasins.     Here  it  is. 

"And  you,  Big  Black  Hawk,  you  who  are  in  charge  of  war  weapons, 
I  offer  tobacco  to  you,  that  my  prowess  as  a  warrior,  if  I  be  blessed 
with  any,  may  be  great  and  audacious.  Even  if  it  is  only  a  single 
enemy  (that  I  encounter) ,  may  I  be  the  victor.  May  we  go  through 
battle  without  injury.  A  kettle  containing  half  of  a  deer,  with  its 
hide  for  moccasins,  we  offer  to  you.  Here  it  is.  Tobacco  we  offer 
to  you.     Here  it  is. 

"You  who  live  in  the  place  of  the  setting  of  the  sun,  Thunder-chief, 
tobacco  I  offer  to  you.  When  my  grandfather  made  his  war  bundle 
you  added  your  power;  and  whatever  knowledge  of  warcraft  you 
possessed  you  taught  him.  For  that  we  now  ask  you.  One  of  our 
members 2  whom  we  feed  like  a  baby,  we  offer  to  you  together  with 
tobacco.     Here  it  is. 

"You  who  live  hi  the  east,  who  walk  in  darkness,  tobacco  we 
offer  to  you.  When  our  grandfather,  Kills-Within-Lodge,  made 
the  spirit  bundle  you  added  your  war  power.  We  ask  that  when 
we  take  this  bundle  up  we  may  be  able  to  gam  victory  without  any 
effort  on  our  part.  This  we  ask  of  you.  As  our  children  become 
big  enough  to  go  on  the  warpath  may  you  see  to  it,  in  your  myste- 
rious manner,  that  we  have  war.  We  offer  you  tobacco  and  also  a 
kettle  containing  a  female  deer  with  hide  for  moccasins.  These  we 
offer  you.     Here  it  is. 

"You  who  live  in  the  south,  you  who  give  us  sickness,  to  that  part 
of  your  body  which  contains  life,  we  offer  tobacco.  In  the  bundle 
that  our  grandfather  made  you  added  your  war  power.  That  power 
we  now  ask  of  you.  In  the  middle  of  the  day  you  blessed  our  grand- 
father. That  blessing  we  ask  of  you  again.  One  of  our  members  who 
wears  a  headdress,3  do  we  offer  to  you,  and  likewise  a  deerskin  for 
moccasins.     All  these  together  with  tobacco  we  offer  you.     Here  it  is. 

"To  you,  grandfather,  the  Sun,  I  offer  tobacco.  You  blessed  my 
grandfather,  Kills-Within-Lodge,  with  your  power  when  he  made  his 
war  bundle.  The  blessing  that  you  gave  him,  that  do  I  ask  of  you. 
Let  that  be  your  first  gift.  May  we  have  victory  in  war:  and  in 
the  presence  of  the  weapons  of  our  enemies,  make  us  safe.  If  there 
be  any  men  (enemies)  to  whom  death  has  been  ordained,  may  we  be 

3  He  is  referring  to  the  dogs  eaten  at  this  feast. 
a  I.  e.,  a  deer. 


536  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.37 

the  ones  who  will  be  the  victors.  It  is  said  of  you  that  even  if  a 
prayer  be  offered  to  you  hi  silence,  along  with  the  tobacco,  you  will 
hear  it.  Here  we  offer  you  tobacco,  deer  for  food,  and  buckskin 
for  moccasins.     This,  grandfather,  is  our  prayer  and  our  offering. 

"To  you,  grandmother,  the  Moon,  do  we  offer  tobacco.  We 
desire  to  have  victory  in  battle.  The  blessings  you  bestowed  upon 
our  grandfather,  Kills-Within-Lodge,  when  you  blessed  him  with  the 
powers  of  a  warrior,  those  give  to  us  now.  The  blessings  that  were 
not  fulfilled  by  him  (that  is,  all  those  blessings  that  death  prevented 
him  from  using)  we  ask  that  they  may  be  fulfilled  by  us.  Tobacco 
and  deer  for  food  and  buckskin,  all  these  we  offer  to  you.  Here  it  is. 
Here  it  is. 

"To  you,  Morning  Star,  do  we  offer  tobacco.  When  my  grand- 
father was  blessed  with  your  power,  while  he  was  making  his  war 
bundle,  he  was  to  give  you  tobacco  for  smoking  and  food  at  mid- 
night. That  is  what  we  are  trying  to  do,  although  we  are  lacking 
hi  all  the  essentials  necessary  for  success.  However,  we  wish  to  be 
prepared  hi  times  of  trouble  and  that  is  why  we  ask,  grandfather, 
that  we  be  blessed  with  life.  A  kettle  with  tobacco,  enough  buck- 
skin for  moccasins,  and  tobacco  we  offer  to  you. 

"To  you,  grandmother,  the  Earth,  do  we  offer  tobacco  also.  We 
pray  for  victory  in  war  and  for  all  the  medicines  that  are  necessary 
to  obtain  it,  so  that  we  may  bind  ourselves  with  medicine;  that  we 
may  use  the  flowers  of  the  earth  for  paint — -all  that  is  red  and  all 
that  is  blue — this  we  ask  of  you.  Should  there  be  anything  better, 
we  ask  that  you  arrange  it  so  that  we  obtain  it.  Tobacco  and  corn 
for  food  do  we  offer  to  you,  and  should  you  need  more  tobacco  we 
will  send  it  along.     Here  it  is. 

"To  you,  Eagle  Chief,  you  who  blessed  our  grandfather  with  power 
to  conquer  hi  war  while  he  was  making  his  bundle  of  spirit-power, 
do  we  offer  tobacco.  For  all  that  he  told  us  to  retain  and  which 
he  said  was  powerful  in  the  bundle,  I  am  making  this  feast.  I  am 
trying  to-night  to  make  a  feast  in  honor  of  the  spirits.  To  you  and 
to  the  hawk  I  offer  this  kettle." 

All  the  kettles  which  are  to  be  used  at  this  feast  have  by  this  time 
been  put  on.  The  nephews  act  as  attendants  and  place  the  kettles 
on  the  fireplaces.  Those  spirits  for  whom  no  kettles  are  placed  on 
the  fire  receive  tobacco  as  an  offering.  After  the  host  has  offered 
tobacco  to  these  latter  spirits,  he  returns  to  his  place  and  sits  down. 
Then  the  war-bundle  owners  to  whom  tobacco  had  been  given  get 
up  hi  turn  and  with  one  hand  pour  tobacco  hito  the  fire  and  with 
the  other  upon  the  war  bundle.  The  host  then  rises  and  speaks  as 
follows : 

"Sons  of  war,  and  you  who  stand  in  the  footsteps  of  the  spirits,  all 
you  who  are  in  this  lodge,  I  greet  you.     We  are  boiling  hot  water  for 


RAlim]  THE   CLAN  WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  537 

the  spirits.  We  will  try  also  to  use  some  of  the  songs  that  were 
taught  to  the  owner  of  the  bundle  when  he  was  blessed.  We  will 
perhaps  make  you  smoke  poor  tobacco  and  tire  you  out  by  making 
you  sit  too  long,  and  we  will  probably  keep  you  hungry  too  long, 
but  we  know  that  you  have  served  at  these  feasts  and  that  this 
ceremony  is  good  and  that  you  know  how  to  carry  it  on.  It  is  good 
that  you  act  thus.  They  say  that  if  we  sit  up  all  night  at  a  feast 
we  will  be  able  to  obtain  victory  in  war  and  long  life.  For  this 
purpose  you  have  come  here  and  intend  to  sit  with  us.  We  are 
very  glad.  We  will  be  at  your  service  and  as  soon  as  the  attendants 
have  the  food  ready  you  shall  receive  some.  To  those  sitting  in  the 
place  of  the  setting  of  the  sun,  the  Thunderers,  we  will  sing  the  songs 
they  taught  our  grandfather.  We  will  attempt  to  sing  them  for  you. 
If  we  can  remember  them,  we  will  use  about  four." 

After  he  has  concluded,  the  members  of  his  band  sing  the  Thunder- 
bird  songs  and  when  they  are  finished  they  sing  the  dancing  songs. 

When  these  are  over  the  host  speaks  again. 

"Sons  of  wars,  I  greet  you.  We  are  delivering  our  speeches  as 
fast  as  possible.  When  our  grandfather  was  blessed  he  fasted, 
denying  himself  water.  He  suffered  much.  It  was  then  that  the 
spirits  had  compassion  upon  him.  One  of  the  spirits  met  him  in 
broad  daylight,  one  day,  at  noon.  He  blessed  him  with  victory  in 
war  and  with  the  life,  or  good  half,  of  his  body,4  and  with  the  right 
to  hand  on  this  blessing  for  generations.  As  long  as  the  people 
offer  red  feathers  and  tobacco  and  make  feasts  in  his  honor,  so  long 
will  he  not  trouble  them  with  disease.  He  said  that  these  were 
the  things  he  liked — dog,  red  feathers,  and  tobacco.  These  are  the 
things  that  we  accordingly  offer  him.  We  will  now  use  his  songs, 
which  are  in  another  language.  I  suppose  we  will  make  a  great 
many  mistakes,  but  it  is  said  that  even  if  a  person  knows  only  one 
song  he  should  try  and  use  it,  for  through  it  victory  in  war  and  long 
life  can  be  obtained.  With  this  thought  before  us  we  will  try.  We 
were  also  told  that  we  must  leave  nothing  undone. 

"Sons  of  wars,  and  you  who  represent  the  spirits,  I  greet  you." 

Now  the  slow  songs  are  sung,  and  after  they  are  finished,  the  dance 
songs.     Then  the  host  rises  and  speaks  again. 

"Sons  of  war,  I  greet  you.  After  we  have  used  four  lots  of  songs 
we  will  have  the  feast.  The  attendants  will  have  the  food  ready 
about  that  time.  The  songs  that  we  will  attempt  to  sing  will  be 
Thunderbird  songs  and  the  songs  of  the  different  spirits  that  accom- 
pany this  bundle,  the  Sun,  the  Moon,  the  Morning  Star,  the  Earth, 
the  Water,  the  Daylight,  and  the  Eagle.  The  songs  of  all  of  these 
spirits  we  will  try  to  use  and  sing. 

4  Evidently  it  was  the  Disease-giver  who  blessed  him. 
186823—22^—35 


538  THE  WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.37 

"Sons  of  war,  I  greet  you." 

After  these  songs  are  sung  the  host  speaks  again. 

"Sons  of  wars,  I  greet  you.  We  will  sing  the  dancing  songs.  If 
anyone  cares  to  dance  he  may  do  so.  They  say  that  through  dancing, 
also,  we  may  obtain  victory  in  war.  Therefore  you  women  may 
dance  and  help  your  brothers.  Dancing  also  is  a  means  of  obtaining 
life.     We  will  now  sing  about  four  songs  if  we  can  remember  them." 

When  the  songs  are  over  the  leader  says : 

"Warriors,  I  greet  you.  We  will  sing  another  lot  of  songs  and 
then  we  will  have  our  feast.  This  lot  of  songs  was  sung  by  our 
grandfather,  who  obtained  victory  with  them,  so  he  added  them  to 
his  bundle.  So  we  are  told.  These  songs  can  also  be  sung  by  watch- 
men in  the  camp,  or  on  the  warpath,  or  before  the  rush  for  the  enemy, 
as  well  as  while  crossing  rivers  and  in  scouting.  We  will  now  try  to 
sing  them.     Warriors  all,  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you." 

The  host  then  sings  the  slow  songs  and  then  the  dancing  songs. 
Then  he  continues: 

"Warriors,  I  greet  you.  The  next  four  songs  we  sing  will  be  for 
all  the  spirits  for  whom  we  have  placed  these  kettles  of  tobacco  and 
buckskin  for  moccasins.  The  first  kettle  over  the  first  fireplace  is  a 
big  deer  head,  which  our  chief  will  partake  of.  This  kettle  is  in 
honor  of  Earthmaker.  The  kettle  will  be  placed  for  our  chief.  We 
know  that  he  has  been  attentive  to  the  spirits  and  that  he  has  the 
right  to  forbid  us  to  do  wrong. 

"The  next  kettle  will  be  put  on  in  honor  of  the  war  spirits  who 
live  in  the  place  of  the  setting  of  the  sun.  It  will  be  placed  before 
the  Thunderbird  clan  people.  It  is  our  desire  that  the  spirits 
remember  us  for  these  our  offerings.  For  that  reason  we  will  turn 
over  to  them  a  kettle  with  tobacco  and  enough  buckskin  for 
moccasins. 

"The  kettle  on  the  second  fireplace  we  intend  to  offer  to  the  war 
spirit,  the  Big  Black  Hawk.  Together  with  the  kettle,  we  are 
offering  tobacco  and  buckskin.  It  will  be  placed  before  Strikes-the- 
Tree.  He  understands  this  affair  better  than  we  do.  He  under- 
stands what  our  intentions  toward  the  spirits  are  and  he  can  therefore 
best  make  them  understand  us.  Another  kettle  on  the  same  fire- 
place we  intend  for  the  sun.  We  have  already  made  known  our 
intentions  to  him  by  offerings  of  tobacco  and  buckskin.  That  kettle 
will  be  placed  for  our  grandfather,  who  understands  and  can  perform 
these  things  better  than  we  can. 

"On  the  third  fireplace  there  is  a  kettle  for  our  grandmother  who 
comes  up  after  the  dark — the  Moon.  That  will  be  placed  before 
my  nephew.  He  knows  how  to  take  care  of  a  war  bundle.  That 
we  wish  should  be  made  known  to  the  moon  he  will  make  it  known, 
as  he  knows  how  to  do  it. 


eadin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  539 

"The  next  kettle  is  in  honor  of  the  Morning  Star.  We  offer 
tobacco,  buckskin,  and  food  to  him.  This  kettle  is  to  be  placed 
before  my  uncle,  as  he  knows  how  to  make  offerings  to  spirits  better 
than  we  do.  All  that  we  wish  is  that  the  spirits  should  know  that 
we  have  done  this;  and  he  understands  how  to  make  this  known  to 
the  spirits.  Warriors,  I  greet  you.  The  kettles  have  now  all  been 
put  on  by  the  attendants  and  we  offer  to  you  all  that  they  can  hold. 
It  will  be  lacking  in  every  way,  but,  warriors,  you  understand  how 
to  divide  it.  Knowing  this,  we  know  that  you  will  all  get  some. 
Whenever  you  get  ready  you  can  start  eating.  In  the  meantime  we 
will  sing." 

After  singing  four  songs  those  present  partake  of  the  feast.  When 
the  feast  is  over,  the  guest  who  received  the  first  kettle  rises  and 
speaks: 

"Elders  and  you  who  are  mere  participants,  who  have  partaken 
of  our  feast,  and  you  warriors,  I  greet.  It  is  truly  good.  Who  would 
not  say  it  is  good  ?  Relatives,  a  lesson  this  has  been  to  me,  the  fact 
that  I  have  been  invited.  It  is  indeed  a  real  pleasure  for  me  to  be 
here,  but  I  have  been  accorded  an  even  greater  honor  in  that  I  have 
been  given  a  kettle,  and  especially  that  it  should  be  just  that  kettle 
that  we  offer  to  the  greatest  spirit,  Earthmaker.  For  him  have  I 
eaten  and  for  him  have  I  smoked  the  tobacco  that  was  offered.  We 
will  be  strengthened  by  the  blessing  that  it  brings  us.  All  our  rela- 
tives that  had  anything  to  do  with  this  offering  will  be  strengthened 
How  can  the  spirits  help  recognizing  such  an  offering?  It  is  said  that 
if  we  wish  anything  of  the  spirits  and  we  offer  tobacco  to  them  they 
would  accept  and  recognize  it.  Surely  such  an  offering  as  this  (in 
which  we  have  participated)  will  be  received  by  the  spirits,  and  assur- 
edly they  will  bless  our  host  with  victory,  just  as  he  has  wished  it. 
I  am  thankful  that  I  had  something  to  do  with  it.  I  consider  that 
my  life  has  been  renewed.  I  therefore  greet  him,  Earthmaker,  and 
I  greet  the  host  and  the  warriors  who  are  representing  the  spirits.  I 
greet  them  all." 

Then  the  guest  who  had  received  the  second  kettle  rises  and  speaks: 

"Hosts  and  relatives  who  are  sitting  around  me,  I  greet  you  all. 
It  is  good.  Who  would  not  say  that  it  is  good?  I  do  not  intend 
this  as  mere  imitation  of  the  preceding  speaker,  but  my  grandfather 
taught  me  to  be  thankful  at  all  times  for  such  an  affair  as  this.  I 
did  not  gain  honor  in  war,  and  (for  my  presence  here)  I  am  conse- 
quently all  the  more  thankful.  It  is  good.  He  has  honored  me 
together  with  the  spirits  when  he  offered  to  them  tobacco,  buckskin, 
and  food  and  when  he  asked  them  for  victory  and  life.  How  could 
such  a  one  go  unblessed  ?  Do  not  the  spirits  even  know  our  thoughts  ? 
I  thank  all  the  relatives  that  have  partaken  of  this  spirit  food,  through 
which  they  will  be  strengthened.     Again  I  say,  it  is  good.     In  my 


540  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

thoughts  I  greet  you,  feasters.  Spirits  of  war,  elders,  warriors,  I 
greet  you." 

Then  the  third  speaker  rises  and  speaks: 

"Elders  and  relatives,  I  greet  you.  Warriors  within  this  lodge,  I 
greet  you  also.  It  is  good.  Who  would  not  say  it  is  good  ?  Many 
times  haw  they  done  this  to  us  in  the  past.  They  understand  and 
know  how  to  make  examples  for  us  to  follow.  They  have  made 
offerings  of  tobacco,  of  food,  and  buckskin  for  moccasins  to  all  the 
spirits.  They  have  gathered  us  together  and  given  us  places  of  honor 
that  we  may  obtain  life  thereby.  They  have  given  us  spirit-food  to 
eat  in  the  presence  of  our  relatives.  The  blessings  they  receive  will 
also  strengthen  us  in  life.  With  these  thoughts  we  have  partaken  of 
the  feast.  While  boiling  the  water,  the  attendants  have  burned  their 
hands,  and  surely  they  will  for  this  reason  take  part  in  war,  with 
honor.  It  is  good  that  it  is  thus.  What  spirit  could  overlook  such 
an  offering  ?  It  must  surely  be  known  to  them.  Again  I  say  it  is 
good.     You  feasters,  host,  and  warriors,  I  greet  you  all." 

Then  the  fourth  speaker  rises  and  speaks: 

"Elders  and  relatives,  I  greet  you.  Host  and  feasters,  I  greet  you. 
It  is  good,  the  previous  speakers  have  told  me.  Most  certainly  it  is 
good.  The  chiefs  have  up  to  now  asked  blessings  for  the  Winnebago 
fireplaces.  Our  host  has  also  made  offerings  to  all  the  spirits  and 
asked  victory  and  life  for  our  women  and  children.  I  hope  we  minor 
ones  will  also  receive  blessings.  A  spirit  named  Kills-Within-Lodge 
came  upon  earth  in  the  flesh  and  caused  this  (feast)  to  be  made,  and 
to  this  day  it  is  so.  It  is  good.  With  war  he  was  blessed,  we  all 
have  heard  it  told.  It  is  good  that  we  have  partaken  of  this  food, 
for  we  have  been  told  that  all  meat  partaken  in  feasts  strengthens 
us  with  spirit  blessings.  I  want  to  thank  all  of  the  relatives  and 
feasters  who  are  here,  and  for  that  reason  I  am  speaking.  Feasters, 
I  greet  you  all;  I  greet  you  all." 

Then  he  speaks  again: 

"It  is  good,  my  relatives,  that  the  spirits  have  been  given  offerings 
of  food,  tobacco  to  light  their  pipes,  and  buckskin  to  use  for  moccasins. 
Now  it  is  the  midnight  of  the  spirits,  and  we  have  all  heard  that  at 
this  time  they  turn  over  in  their  beds  in  spirit  land,  and  whoever 
offers  tobacco  to  them  now  can  be  assured  that  they  will  smoke  it. 
For  this  reason  the  people  have  added  food  and  moccasins.  They  will 
surely  bless  them  with  the  victory  and  life  for  which  they  have  asked. 
We  believe  that  those  who  have  partaken  of  the  feast  will  be  blessed, 
for  it  is  said  that  the  spirits  even  know  our  thoughts.  This  is  what 
I  think.  I  am  sure  I  have  been  strengthened  by  it.  Feasters,  I  greet 
you  all.     You  likewise,  Grandmother  Moon,  I  greet." 

The  kettles  are  now  put  on  again. 


BADIN]  THE    CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE    FEASTS  541 

Now  the  host  speaks  again: 

"Warriors,  I  greet  you.  It  is  good  that  you  have  told  one  another 
my  wishes  and  spoken  about  the  things  that  are  usually  discussed 
at  this  ceremony.  I  say  again  that  it  is  good  to  hear  such  words 
from  you.  We  are  making  you  suffer,  but  the  attendants  are  put- 
ting on  the  kettles  again.  I  will  therefore  give  all  the  spirits  for 
whom  kettles  have  been  prepared  smoking  material  again.  I  greet 
you  all." 

Then  he  begins  to  pour  out  tobacco  for  the  spirits.  As  often  as 
he  calls  upon  a  spirit  so  often  does  he  pour  tobacco  into  the  fire, 
saying  as  follows  in  each  case: 

"  Here  it  is,  the  tobacco,  grandfather,  who  are  in  the  middle  of  the 
lodge.  We  have  been  told  that  you  said  you  were  the  mediator 
between  (the  spirits  and  human  beings).  It  is  said  that  if  we  place 
on  your  head  tobacco  for  the  spirits  you  would  see  to  it  that  our 
offering  had  not  been  made  in  vain.  So  I  pour  tobacco  for  you. 
Here  it  is. 

"To  you,  in  the  South,  the  Disease-giver,  grandfather,  I  offer 
tobacco.  A  four-legged  animal,5  one  of  our  own  members,  we  have 
put  in  the  kettle  for  you.  Tobacco,  food,  feathers,  and  buckskin  we 
offer  you.  You  blessed  our  grandfather  and  met  him  in  the  middle 
of  the  day.  With  the  blessing  with  which  you  blessed  him  do  you 
now  bless  us.  This  we  ask  of  you — that  fever  (disease)  may  not 
come  upon  us,  and  that  we  may  have  victory  and  life.  This  we  ask 
of  you  because  you  claim  that  you  are  in  charge  of  these  things. 
Grandfather,  in  return  for  all  the  things  that  we  ask  you,  we  offer 
tobacco  for  your  pipe.  The  same  we  offer  to  your  grandfathers, 
those  under  the  light,  those  who  walk  in  darkness.6  My 
grandfather  you  blessed.  The  things  that  you  taught  him  we  ask 
for.  Our  offerings  are  poorly  given,  and  not  of  the  best  kind,  but 
it  is  said  that  your  feelings  can  not  be  hurt  since  you  permitted 
our  grandfather  to  enter  your  spirit-home.  We  pour  tobacco 
for  you,  Nights,  that  victory  may  come  our  way,  and  that  you  might 
walk  faster  so  that  day  may  come  to  us  sooner.  Men's  tobacco, 
food,  and  buckskin  we  offer  you.     Here  it  is. 

"Morning  Star,  tobacco  we  offer  you,  with  buckskin  and  food. 
When  our  grandfather  made  a  bundle  of  spirit-powers,  you  added 
your  blessing  of  warrior  prowess.  That  is  what  I  ask  of  you — that 
we  may  have  victory  whenever  we  meet  the  enemy.  It  is  said  that 
if  we  wait  till  then  we  might  not  receive  your  blessing.  That  is  why 
we  ask  it  now.     We  pour  tobacco  for  you. 

"To  you,  the  chief  of  the  Eagles,  I  offer  tobacco.  In  our  grand- 
father's fasting  you  blessed  him  with  victory  in  war.     That  which  he 

6  Cf.  note  2. 

•  I.  e.,  the  Night  Spirits. 


542  THE   WINNEBAGO   TKIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

would  have  used  were  he  alive  do  I  ask  of  you.  And  if  we  take  the 
feathers  that  are  in  this  war  bundle  on  the  warpath,  may  it  so  happen 
that  even  if  we  see  only  one  enemy  we  may  be  the  ones  to  have  the 
war  honor.  This  is  what  we  ask  of  you  and  for  this  we  offer  tobacco 
to  you. 

"To  you,  Hare,  do  we  offer  tobacco.  Here  it  is.  The  blessing 
you  bestowed  on  our  grandfather,  that  we  ask  of  you,  the  so-called 
nephew.  Victory  in  war  and  life  we  ask,  should  we  ever  go  on  the 
warpath ;  that  we  may  conquer  without  effort  and  that  we  may  be 
safe  in  the  midst  of  the  weapons  of  our  enemies. 

"  To  you,  the  Turtle,  we  offer  tobacco.  Here  it  is.  Men's  tobacco 
we  offer  you  that  you  may  fill  your  pipe.  Our  offerings  are  lacking 
in  every  respect,  for  we  have  no  kettle  for  you.  But  we  can  not 
offend  you,  it  is  said.  You  have,  in  truth,  power  in  war  and  that  is 
why  we  ask  you  for  victory  in  war.  Grandfather,  we  offer  you 
tobacco. 

"To  you,  grandmother,  the  Earth,  do  we  offer  tobacco.  We  offer 
you  men's  tobacco.  We  ask  victory  in  war  from  you.  When  our 
grandfather  made  a  bundle  of  spirit-power,  you  added  your  power. 
For  that  reason  we  have  been  keeping  tobacco  for  you.  Here  it  is. 
Grandmother,  we  offer  tobacco  to  you. 

"  To  all  those  who  have  blessed  our  grandfather  with  spirit-power — 
for  we  do  not  know  you  all — we  offer  tobacco  to  those  on  earth  and 
to  those  above.  It  is  our  desire  that  you  bless  us  with  the  blessings 
you  conferred  upon  our  grandfather.  Grandfathers,  warriors,  I  greet 
you  all.  I  am  sorry  that  I  have  been  boring  you  with  my  talk,  and 
that  I  have  perhaps  made  you  smoke  too  much.  But  we  wish  to 
obtain  victory  and  life,  and  it  is  said  that  patience  gains  both  of 
these.  Knowing  this,  you  have  faithfully  sat  through  this  whole 
ceremony.  I  thank  you,  and  yet  I  must  ask  more  of  you.  I  must 
ask  that  the  drum  and  songs  be  sent  around  the  lodge  as  soon  as  I 
get  through  singing.  As  the  Nights  go  around  the  earth  at  night  so 
will  the.  drum  go  around  this  lodge.  I  will  now  use  the  songs  of  the 
Nights,  that  is  what  I  mean.     Warriors,  I  greet  you." 

After  singing  slow  songs  he  sings  dancing  songs,  and  then  he 
speaks  again: 

"Warriors,  I  greet  you.  As  I  said  before,  you  may  sing  the  songs 
of  the  Nights.  Your  songs  are  certainly  more  spirit-like,  and  they 
have  the  power  of  obtaining  life.     I  now  send  the  drum  to  you." 

Then  the  attendants  take  the  drum,  together  with  some  tobacco, 
and  carry  it  across  the  lodge,  to  a  place  opposite  the  host,  and  place 
it  in  front  of  one  of  the  guests  belonging  to  another  clan.  He  also 
puts  some  tobacco  in  the  hands  of  this  person.  Then  the  one  about 
to  sing  rises  and  speaks  as  follows : 


badin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  543 

"Feast-givers  and  relatives,  as  well  as  you  guests  who  are  present, 
I  greet  you  all.  It  is  good  that  I  have  been  honored  by  being  placed 
in  the  path  of  the  drum.  It  is  said  that  so  great  is  the  sacredness 
attached  to  this  affair  that  one  must  not  refuse  to  accept  the  drum 
as  it  passes  around  the  lodge.  I  also  feel  honored  at  the  offering  of 
tobacco.  Indeed  I  feel  saved,  and  I  pray  that  whosoever  comes  in 
contact  with  these  things  may  be  strengthened  thereby.  As  soon 
as  I  have  offered  the  tobacco  I  will  use  the  songs  of  our  fathers. 
We  do  not  know  them  as  well  as  we  ought  to,  but  we  will  try  never- 
theless. It  is  said  that  if  you  only  know  one  song,  you  must  try  to 
use  it  even  to  the  point  of  tears;  just  as  it  is  said,  that  if  you  cry 
after  a  victory  you  must  put  aside  all  sense  of  shame.  Thinking  of 
these  things  I  will  now  try  to  sing.     Tobacco  I  offer  you." 

He  throws  it  into  the  fire,  saying  at  the  same  time,  "Grandfathers, 
Night  Spirits,  I  offer  you  tobacco.  I  know  that  we  will  spoil  your 
songs,  but  it  is  said  that  you  are  merciful  and  that  you  will  sing 
them  again  to  yourselves  correctly.  If  we  make  any  mistakes  have 
pity  on  us,  grandfathers,  and  we  ask  you  to  walk  faster  so  that 
daylight  may  come  soon.     Here  is  the  tobacco.     We  offer  it  to  you." 

Then  he  sings  slow  songs,  and  then  dancing  songs.  One  of  the 
attendants  now  comes  forward  with  tobacco  in  his  hand,  and  takes 
the  drum  and  moves  it  to  another  of  the  invited  guests.  He  also 
gives  this  person  some  tobacco.  This  one  then  rises  and  thanks  all 
the  other  people  in  general  and  says  approximately  the  same  as  the 
man  before  him,  praising  them  for  all  the  things  he  could  think  of, 
accepting  the  tobacco,  and  then  offering  it  to  the  spirits  and  to  the 
fire.  He  particularly  asks  the  Nights  to  walk  faster  so  that  morning 
might  come  to  them  sooner.  After  he  sings  his  songs,  which  like 
the  others  are  Night  songs,  the  drum  is  taken  and  moved  to  another 
of  the  invited  guests.  Thus  it  passes  from  one  to  another  until  it 
has  made  the  entire  circuit  of  the  lodge.  Generally  at  about  dawn 
it  reaches  the  place  of  the  host,  from  where  it  had  started  on  the 
previous  day.  He  sings  certain  songs  which  are  called  the  old 
night  songs,  because  the  old  nights  are  not  supposed  to  come 
until  approaching  daylight  and  because  their  hair  is  white  from  age. 
When  they  come  they  bring  light.  All  those  who  may  perhaps 
have  fallen  asleep  at  this  time  either  wake  up  or  are  awakened,  for 
the  Nights  who  now  come  are  old  and  carry  canes  which,  when  directed 
toward  a  sleeping  person,  causes  him  to  die.  After  the  host  has 
finished  the  old  night  songs  he  sings  the  dancing  songs. 

The  buckskins  are  then  taken  down  and  carried  around  the  lodge. 
All  those  present  now  arise  and  dance  in  their  special  places,  as  the 
buckskin  passes  them.  The  host  and  his  invited  guests  now  take 
their  buckskins  in  one  hand,  holding  tobacco  at  the  same  time,  and 
pass  around  the  lodge  in  single  file.     Thus  they  go  around  the  lodge 


544  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

four  times.  The  fourth  time  they  make  the  circuit  they  stop  at  the 
first  fireplace  and  throw  the  buckskins  through  the  holes  of  the 
lodge.  It  is  supposed  that  the  old  Night  Spirits  seize  them  at  this 
moment  and  carry  them  up  to  the  sky  with  them.  The  singing 
now  ceases,  and  all  the  people  take  their  seats  again.  The  drum  is 
now  taken  and  placed  in  front  of  the  host's  place.  He  thereupon 
rises  and  speaks  as  follows: 

"Ye  warriors,  as  many  as  you  are  who  are  sitting  here,  I  greet. 
It  is  good  that  you  have  complied  with  my  wishes  and  that  the 
spirits  have  already  taken  their  buckskins  and  their  food,  and  that 
they  have  left  our  presence.  But  nevertheless  we  will  sing  our  last 
song,  even  if  it  appears  that  they  are  being  sung  into  empty  space. 
I  know  that  you  have  already  had  compassion  upon  me,  even  although 
I  am  making  you  suffer  with  hunger,  but  let  us,  nevertheless,  sing 
one  more  song,  and  then  we  can  rest.  My  grandfather  used  these 
songs  in  time  of  war,  and  never  did  he  miss  a  war  honor  when  using 
them.  These  we  will  now  use.  You,  warriors,  and  those  of  you 
who  possess  holy  paints,  it  must  seem  shameful  to  you  for  me  to 
speak  this  way.  For  we  have  no  holy  paint.  However,  we  will 
not  sing  them  with  the  intention  of  making  people  believe  that  we 
have  holy  paints,  but  simply  because  we  have  used  them  in  war 
and  found  them  good.  That  is  why  I  am  about  to  use  them  now, 
and  that  is  why  they  belong  to  this  bundle.  Warriors,  you  may 
hear.  Know  you  that  I  will  use  these  songs  in  seeking  victory  and 
life.  Nor  will  the  dancing  be  limited  merely  to  those  who  possess 
paint,  but  to  anyone  of  the  warriors  here  present.  This  will  be  the 
last  dancing  song.     I  greet  you  all." 

Then  he  sings  some  songs,  both  the  slow  and  the  dancing  songs. 
After  that  he  rises  and  says  the  following: 

"Warriors  who  are  seated  here,  I  greet  you.  I  suppose  it  is 
enough  that  I  have  made  you  suffer  with  hunger  all  night.  As 
soon  as  the  attendants  can  get  around  to  it  the  food  will  be  placed 
before  you  again.  I  know  that  it  will  be  lacking  in  every  respect, 
but  let  me  appeal  to  your  good  natures.  On  this  first  fireplace  there 
is  going  to  be  a  kettle  for  the  Disease-giver.  A  four-legged  animal, 
one  of  his  own  members,  we  will  offer  to  him,  together  with  tobacco 
and  deerskins.  We  are  also  going  to  send  to  him  a  little  four-legged 
animal,  one  with  whom  our  cliildren  have  been  fond  of  playing. 
He  is  now  in  front  of  us.  Whoever  wishes  to  offer  tobacco  to  the 
Disease-giver  can  do  so  now,  and  as  soon  as  the  feast  is  over  and 
the  bones  are  gathered,  we  will  take  them  and,  strewing  tobacco 
upon  them,  place  them  outside.  Let  me  tell  you  again  that  anyone 
who  wishes  may  offer  tobacco  and  ask  of  the  Disease-giver  that  he 
keep  illness  away  from  him.  Women  are  not  permitted  to  partake 
of  this  kettle,  so  see  to  it  that  only  men  eat  of  it.     As  I  said  before, 


radix]  THE    CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  545 

O  warriors,  the  food  will  be  lacking  in  every  respect,  but  try,  never- 
theless, to  have  it  pass  around. 

"We  also  have  a  kettle  on  the  fireplace  for  the  Nights,  which  the 
attendants  will  put  on  in  honor  of  the  father  of  my  wife  and  my  own 
father.  We  offer,  likewise,  tobacco  and  deerskin  along  with  this 
kettle,  to  the  Night  Spirits,  so  that  we  may  obtain  victory  and  life. 
That  is  what  we  wish.  As  I  said  before,  I  will  not  have  any  too 
much  food  for  you.     But  they  say  the  spirits  are  merciful. 

"To  the  Morning  Star  we  will  also  offer  a  kettle.  We  will  have 
it  put  on  for  Ku'nu,  as  he  understands  these  affairs  better  than  we 
do  and  knows  better  than  we  how  to  ask  the  spirits  for  blessings. 
We  offer,  in  addition  to  the  kettle,  tobacco  and  buckskin,  asking 
victory  and  life  from  the  spirits  in  return.  As  I  said  before,  warriors, 
our  grandfather  never  failed  when  he  had  this  bundle.  That  is 
why  we  have  kettles  put  on  the  fire  in  honor  of  it. 

"To  our  fourth  brother  we  will  offer  another  kettle,  in  honor  of 
the  chief  of  the  Eagles,  praying  for  life  and  victory.  Warriors  who 
are  seated  here,  I  greet  you  all.  Whenever  you  get  ready  to  eat  you 
may  do  so,  and  we  will,  during  that  time,  sing  some  of  our  songs." 

Then  they  sing  Earthmaker  songs.  These  songs  were  songs  that 
a  certain  person  called  Wegi'ceka  obtained  in  his  blessings  from  all 
the  spirits,  but  they  were  taught  to  him  by  Earthniaker. 

After  Wegi'ceka  had  been  blessed  by  all  the  spirits  there  was  just 
one  lacking,  and  that  was  Earthmaker.  So  he  fasted  more  and 
more,  almost  to  the  point  of  death,  crying  and  longing  for  a  blessing 
from  Earthmaker.  Finally  he  was  told  that  he  was  to  be  blessed 
by  him.  At  the  appointed  place  and  time  a  being  wearing  dark 
clothes  and  carrying  a  cane  that  looked  fear-inspiring  stood  before 
him,  like  the  blue  of  the  sky.  "Wegi'ceka,"  he  said,  "I  bless  you. 
You  have  inflicted  suffering  upon  yourself  and  have  hungered  and 
thirsted  on  my  account.  With  everything  that  I  possess  do  I  bless 
you;  with  victory  and  with  the  power  to  heal  the  sick,  with  riches 
and  with  good  fortune  as  a  hunter,  and  even  with  the  power  of  hav- 
ing women  become  enamored  of  you — with  all  these  things  I  bless 
you."  Then  he  turned  and  walked  away  and  Wegi'ceka  saw  that  it 
was  a  bluejay.  He  felt  very  much  humbled  and  so  he  fasted  again. 
Four  times  was  he  treated  thus.  Finally  he  even  sacrificed  one  of 
his  own  children,  and  then  he  was  told  that  at  a  certain  time  and 
place,  about  the  hour  of  noon,  he  would  meet  Earthmaker.  When 
he  came  there  some  one  said,  "Wegi'ceka,  I  bless  you.  You  have 
humbled  yourself  and  cried  unto  me.  I  bless  you.  Heretofore  I 
have  blessed  nobody.  You  are  the  first  one."  Thus  he  spoke,  and 
he  gave  him  the  cane  and  four  songs.  Those  are  the  songs  which 
we  use  at  the  end  of  our  feast. 


546  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

After  these  songs  are  finished  and  the  invited  guests  and  the  others 
present  have  finished  eating,  the  feast  is  practically  over,  with  the 
exception  of  a  few  remarks.     The  host  rises  and  speaks  as  follows: 

"Warriors  and  guests,  I  greet  you  all.  It  is  good  that  we  have 
this  life-power  to  use  in  our  travels  through  life.  The  spirits  caused 
us  to  make  offering  and  have  also  given  us  a  chance  to  sing  the  songs 
of  our  forefathers.  This  they  made  us  do.  It  is  good.  Our  guests 
have  shown  us  a  great  example  in  that  they  have  offered  enough 
buckskin  for  all  the  spirits  and  enough  food  and  tobacco.  What 
spirit  could  let  such  an  offering  pass  unnoticed,  without  bestowing 
a  blessing?  It  is  said  that  even  if  you  wish  something  and  do  not 
express  it  in  words,  still  if  you  pour  tobacco  into  the  fire  you  will 
obtain  what  you  wish.  If  that  is  the  case,  how  much  greater  must 
the  efficacy  of  the  offerings  be  that  were  made  here!  You  Feast- 
givers  and  relatives,  I  consider  it  a  blessing  that  I  was  permitted  to 
be  present  here.  But  that  blessing  was  even  increased  when  I  was 
called  upon  to  partake  from  a  kettle  offered  to  one  of  the  greatest 
spirits.  I  feel  that  now  I  will  surely  be  able  to  live.  They  say  that 
the  one  called  Disease-giver  has  victory  and  life  in  one  half  of  his 
body.  Tberefore  I  greet  the  Disease-giver.  Feast-givers,  warriors, 
all  you  who  are  present,  I  greet  you." 

The  second  singer  now  speaks. 

"Elders  and  ye  other  guests  who  are  present,  I  greet  you  all.  It 
is  good.  It  is  good.  Who  could  say  otherwise?  Relatives,  a  great 
example  has  been  set  us.  We  have  seen  buckskins  for  moccasins, 
tobacco,  and  food  offered  to  the  spirits,  and  we  ourselves  have  been 
permitted  to  represent  these  spirits  by  proxy,  that  we  also  might 
live  and  be  strengthened;  that  if  we  should  ever  chance  upon  the 
enemy  we  might  remain  safe  and  unbanned.  Such,  in  substance, 
were  the  tearful  prayers  of  our  leaders  to-night.  They  prayed  for 
victory  and  life,  and  made  their  offerings  to  the  Nights,  of  deerskin, 
tobacco,  and  food.  Most  assuredly  have  the  Nights  accepted  these 
offerings,  for  they  have  walked  fast  as  we  asked,  and  the  night  has 
been  very  short.  They  certainly  have  answered  our  prayers.  It  is 
good.  We  likewise  feel  that  the  fact  that  we  have  been  here  with  our 
relatives  and  partaken  of  everything  will  strengthen  us  in  life.  Feast- 
givers  and  guests,  I  greet  you  all.     Warriors  and  singers,  I  greet  you." 

Then  the  third  one  rises  and  speaks.  He  says  about  the  same 
thing  as  the  former.  The  fourth  one  does  the  same.  When  they 
are  finished,  the  host  rises  and  thanks  them  because  they  have  said 
and  done  the  things  that  he  had  most  at  heart.  He  speaks  as  fol- 
lows : 

"Warriors,  as  it  is  the  custom,  so  we  will  now  sing  four  more 
dancing  songs  and  then  we  will  call  upon  someone  to  make  his 
voice  known  to  the  war-spirits.     If  any  of  you  wish  to  offer  tobacco, 


badin]  THE   CLAN    WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  547 

you  can  do  so,  and  the  women  likewise  can  join,  because  we  have 
rolled  up  our  bundle.  To  the  dog  that  we  have  here,  an  offering  of 
tobacco  can  be  made."  Thus  speaking,  he  sings.  After  he  has 
finished  the  song,  someone  specially  called  upon  gives  the  war 
whoop,  in  which  the  rest  join.  In  this  manner  they  sing  four  times, 
and  the  ceremony  ends.  They  have  a  dog  around  whose  neck  they 
tie  a  red  rag,  together  with  a  bundle  of  tobacco,  and  to  each  of 
whose  limbs  they  also  tie  a  bundle  of  tobacco.  This  dead  dog  is  to 
be  placed  wherever  the  bones  that  remain  of  the  feast  are  buried, 
generally  under  some  tree.  It  is  supposed  that  the  dog  will  go 
directly  to  the  Disease-giver  together  with  the  tobacco  and  there 
be  taken  over  by  him. 

Notes  on  the  Thunderbird  clan  war-bundle  feast. — Informant,  mem- 
ber of  the  clan:  Place  of  honor  at  the  feast  is  given  to  the  bravest 
man  present.  Scalps,  etc.,  are  always  brought  to  those  keeping 
the  war  bundle. 

Contents  of  bundle:  Black  hawk  (main  thing),  two  wolf  tails, 
buffalo  tail,  snake,  weasel,  three  flutes — one  red,  one  black,  and  one 
blue. 

Black  hawk  used  in  time  of  war.  If  I  were  leading  the  war  party 
I  would  carry  it  and  it  would  be  able  to  fly.  It  had  a  small  bundle 
of  medicine  tied  around  the  neck,  on  each  wing  and  each  leg.  A  red 
flute  always  went  with  it. 

The  two  wolf  tails  could  be  taken  on  any  warpath.  It  gives  an 
individual  the  power  of  running.  The  medicine  tied  to  it  is  to  be 
smeared  over  the  body  in  order  to  prevent  fatigue.  It  is  also  used 
in  hunting. 

Buffalo  tail  gives  fleetness  and  indicates  that  the  man  received 
strength  from  the  buffalo  spirit. 

Weasel  and  snake  could  be  put  around  the  neck  and  worn  over 
the  shoulders  in  times  of  war.  Gives  the  power  of  these  respective 
animals  in  wiggling. 

Flutes,  blue  in  connection  with  the  buffalo,  red  in  connection 
with  the  black,  hawk,  and  black  in  connection  with  the  night  spirits 

The  War-bundle  Feast  of  the  Bear  Clan 

Informant,  member  of  the  Bear  clan:  The  people  were  about  to  go 
on  a  hunt,  it  is  said.  They  returned.  Four  deer  had  been  killed. 
And  again  they  went,  and  this  time  three  deer  were  killed.  But  it  was 
not  sufficient,  so  they  went  out  again,  and  when  they  returned  it  was 
found  that  they  had  killed  only  three  deer.  "Well,"  they  said,  "this 
will  be  all  right.  We  have  ten  deer.  Perhaps  they  will  last  as  food 
until  dawn." 

They  told  the  attendants  to  get  ready  the  lodge  and  to  build  the 
fireplaces.     They  told  them  also  to  have  the  wood  and  the. buck- 


548  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [bth.  ann.  37 

skins  ready.  Then  they  told  them  to  make  some  invitation  sticks. 
Only  four  invitation  sticks  were  to  be  made,  and  they  were  to  tie 
tobacco  to  each  of  them.  The  lodge  was  now  ready  (fig.  36).  They 
had  fixed  the  vertical  poles  and  had  tied  them  with  prickly  cedar 
sinews.     The  vertical  poles  they  painted  blue. 

Then  he  who  was  to  be  the  host  told  the  attendants  to  take  the 
invitation  sticks  to  certain  people.  "Bring  the  first  one  to  my  friend, 
Ma.nuba'ga.  See  that  you  give  it  to  him.  I  am  sure  that  he  will 
be  here  soon  after.  The  second  stick  you  may  give  to  Ka.-o  'saga.  The 
third  one  you  may  give  to  Mqzihimain  'iga.  Be  sure  that  you  bring 
them  to  all  those  who  possess  war  bundles." 

The  attendant  did  as  he  was  told  and  returned  and  told  the  host 
that  it  was  done.  "I  have  seen  all  of  them  and  told  them  to  make 
ready.     They  will  soon  come  and  sit  down." 

All  were  now  in  the  lodge  and  were  seated.  The  old  man,  Ka^i'ga, 
was  the  host.  All  his  posterity  were  there.  He  had  placed  meat  in 
the  kettles  over  the  fireplaces.  The  first  kettle  was  for  Earthmaker 
and  the  second  for  Turtle.  ' '  Put  them  on,"  he  said  to  the  attendants. 
"Put  the  third  one  on  for  the  Thunderbird,  and  the  fourth  one  for  the 
Fire,  the  fifth  one  for  the  Earth,  the  sixth  one  for  the  Morning  Star, 
the  seventh  one  for  Without  Horn,  and  the  eighth  one  for  the  Nights. 
Then  put  on  a  small  kettle  for  Disease-giver  and  a  full  kettle  for  the 
Ruee'we. 

"  Rao,  we  will  pour  tobacco  for  them  my  friend,  Manuba'ga. 
Whenever  we  can  obtain  a  'counciling'  we  always  do  this,  for  in  that 
way  we  help  one  another.  You  who  are  sitting  here  for  me,  bundle 
owners,  as  many  of  you  as  there  are  within  this  lodge  who  are  taking 
the  place  of  the  spirits,  all  of  you  I  greet.  War-bundle  owners,  all  of 
us  are  thus.  When  you  obtain  a  council  feast  for  yourselves,  then  you 
will  help  one  another.  We  are  putting  ourselves  in  a  very  pitiable 
condition,  so  you  must  have  thought  of  us,  and  that  is  why  you  came 
at  our  bidding.  It  is  good.  And  we  are  going  to  make  you  fearfully 
tired.  But  I  beg  of  you,  nevertheless,  to  continue  until  the  end. 
We  are  now  going  to  sing." 

They  get  up  and  the  guests  hold  tobacco  in  their  hands.  TheD 
they  sing  and  weep.  The  one  who  was  fasting  at  that  time  stood  at 
the  war  bundle  crying.     Then  they  sang  the  following  songs : 

Human,  four  chunks  of  meat  I  give  you. 

Human,  four  chunks  of  meat  you  will  eat. 

I  made  it  for  you,  for  you  who  carry  the  war  bundle. 

Thus  they  spoke  standing  and  weeping,  pouring  tobacco  upon  the 
war  bundle.  This  they  did.  Then  Turtle  songs  were  used.  That  is 
what  they  call  them.  After  that  they  used  Thunderbird  songs,  and 
then  what  are  called  friends'  songs.  Finally  they  used  the  songs 
they  obtained  when  Disease-giver  blessed  them.     Four  songs  they 


Radin]  THE   CLAN   WAR-BUNDLE   FEASTS  549 

had  given  them.  Then  songs  that  were  associated  with  the  drum 
that  they  use  in  the  Night-Spirit  dance  were  sung.  The  feast  was 
now  ready. 

"Make  ready  the  kettle  in  front  of  the  fireplace;  take  the  most 
prominent  parts  of  the  animal  out  of  it ;  make  the  second  kettle  you 
put  on  also  ready.  Hurry  up,  for  we  are  about  to  have  a  fast-eating 
contest.  The  lower  clans  and  the  upper  clans  will  contest.  They  will 
try  to  partake  of  war.  Make  ready.  You,  Majiuba'ga  choose  a 
person,  and  do  you,  Ka^o'saga,  do  the  same." 

Now  they  were  ready  to  have  the  fast-eating  contest.  They  all 
sat  down. 

"Now  listen,"  said  the  host,  "as  soon  as  the  flute  is  blown  they 
will  begin  the  contest.  Then  will  be  the  time  for  all  the  feast  givers 
to  sing." 

Now,  this  is  one  of  the  songs  they  sang: 

Where  they  eat,  there  you  went,  it  is  said. 

Now  they  finished.  Mqnuba'ga  was  defeated  and  Ka?-o'saga  won. 
The  guests  filled  their  dishes,  and  the  kettle  that  had  been  put 
on  for  Earthmaker  was  taken  down  and  placed  before  Manuba  'ga,  so 
that  he  might  select  the  best  parts.  Then  the  second  kettle  that  had 
been  placed  on  the  fire  for  Earthmaker  was  put  in  front  of  Ka^o'saga. 
The  third  kettle  that  had  been  offered  to  the  Thunder-spirits  was 
placed  in  front  of  Nsizihima'niga.  The  host  then,  in  turn,  mentioned 
by  name  all  the  invited  guests  and  told  the  attendants  what  kettles 
were  to  be  brought  to  them.  As  soon  as  the  dishes  had  been  dis- 
tributed each  one  began  to  eat.  They  never  waited  for  one  another 
to  start.  While  they  were  eating  the  members  of  the  host's  band  sang. 
When  the  meal  was  over  Ma.nuba'ga  rose  and  spoke  as  follows: 

"Councilors,  relatives,  uncles,  I  salute  you  all.  As  many  spirits  as 
are  in  charge  of  life  you  have  mentioned  during  the  ceremony. 
Tobacco  and  food  you  have  sent  to  them  as  offerings.  I  am  sure  that 
for  that  reason  they  will  give  you  all  that  you  have  asked,  and  I  also 
feel  that  I,  myself,  will  be  able  to  obtain  something  on  which  I  can 
live,  and  that  should  I  encounter  on  the  warpath  an  enemy  whose 
death  has  been  ordained,  it  will  be  my  fate  to  kill  Mm.  Thus  I  have 
been  thinking,  and  that  is  why  I  have  been  sitting  here.  War- 
bundle  owners,  as  many  of  you  as  are  sitting  in  this  lodge — war-bundle 
carriers,  as  many  of  you  as  are  here — you  have,  indeed,  had  tobacco 
poured  out  for  you  to-day,  and  tobacco  has  also  been  offered  to  the 
powers  that  you  have  tied  up  in  your  bundles.  I  feel  grateful  for  the 
fact  and  that  I  have  been  invited  to  attend,  and  that  is  why  I  am 
saying  this.  Councilors,  war-bundle  owners,  all  who  are  seated  in 
this  lodge,  I  salute  you." 

The  leaders  of  all  the  other  bands  say  practically  the  same. 


550  THE   WINNEBAGO   TRIBE  [eth.  ann.  37 

Af ter  the  speeches  were  all  over  the  offerings  were  taken  down  and 
thrown  outside  through  the  opening  in  the  roof  of  the  lodge  and  then 
night  songs  were  sung.  Before  throwing  the  offerings  out  theymarched 
around  the  lodge  carrying  them  in  their  hands.  At  the  approach  of 
dawn  the  drum,  gourds,  etc.,  have  about  made  the  entire  circuit  of  the 
lodge,  and  as  soon  as  they  reach  the  host  he  begins  to  sing  the  night 
songs.  After  these  he  sings  turtle  songs,  and  then  the  songs  are  over. 
The  host  now  calls  upon  some  one  to  give  the  war  whoop,  so  that  the 
spirits  in  the  west  may  hear  their  voices.  Nanhj'tcoga  gave  the 
war  whoop.     All  joined  in,  and  the  feast  was  over. 

Descriptive  notes  on  the  Bear  clan  war-bundle  feast. — Informant, 
member  of  clan:  About  the  middle  of  winter,  in  the  month  called 
deer-breeding  month,  the  Winnebago  used  to  go  out  hunting,  and 
they  gave  a  feast  to  all  the  spirits  who  had  blessed  them. 

They  are  very  careful  not  to  have  the  kettles  boil  over,  because 
they  believe  that  a  man's  soul  (nayi'ralc')  might  be  wandering  about 
and  is  likely  to  come  down  along  the  chain  of  the  kettle.  If  it 
doesn't  boil  over,  the  man  is  likely  to  conquer  the  possessions  of  this 
spirit  (of  an  enemy)  in  the  next  battle. 

The  invitation  sticks  are  sent  out  only  to  men  who  own  a  war 
bundle,  and  the  clans  are  invited  in  the  following  fashion:  First  the 
Wolf,  then  the  Hawk,  and  then  any  order. 

The  contents  of  the  war  bundle  represent  the  following:  The  crow 
means  strength  in  running.  The  turtle  and  the  spear,  the  blessings 
which  enable  one  to  get  out  of  difficulties,  the  former  referring  espe- 
cially to  difficulties  in  crossing  water;  they  also  enable  their  possessor 
to  foretell  when  enemies  are  approaching  and  to  tell  an  individual 
how  many  enemies  he  is  going  to  conquer.  The  flute  represents  the 
voices  of  musical  birds.  When  an  enemy  hears  them  it  paralyzes 
him  and  he  can  not  run. 


INDEX 


Page. 
Aborigines  of  West  Indies,  memoir  on,  by 

Dr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes " 

Adoption — 

customs  of 139 

name  used  after 128 

Agriculture 115-117 

Alliances  of  the  Winnebago 58-59 

Alphabet,  syllabic,  used  by  Winnebago. . .       47 
Alsea,  grammatical  sketch  by  Dr.  Leo  J. 

Frachtenberg 18 

Altpeter  mounds — 

form  of 10° 

location  of 99 

number  of 100 

American  Museum  of  Natural  History, 

acknowledgment  to 48 

Animals — 

method  of  slaughtering 113 

mythological  classification  of 186 

power  of  transformation  of 197 

Appropriation  for  American  Ethnology.         1 

Arapaho  Bull,  instructions  given  by 415 

Arapaho  Peyote  ceremony 415-^119 

Arbor  \itm  ,  use  of,  in  purifying  rites 445 

Archeology  of  the  Winnebago 76-103 

Arrowheads — 

authorship  of 86-87 

distribution  of 79 

types  of 88 

Arrows,  five  types  of 110 

Atkinson's  camp,  location  of 99 

Attendants  at  feasts,  duties  of 329 

Axes,  copper,  types  of 88 

Aztalan,  description  of 88-90 

Bandoliers,  described 109 

Baptism  ,  as  practiced  by  Peyote  cult 389, 395 

Bear  clan— 

customs  Of 227-228, 148-153 

dance  for  benefit  of 386 

feast  of 321 

functions  of 200, 226 

importance  of 226 

insignia  of 226 

known  as  Soldier  clan 218 

lodge  of 226,229 

origin  myths  of 225 

personal  names 236-237 

relations  of,  with  Wolf  clan 227 

songs  of 235 

symbol  of 203 

war-bundle  feast  of 547-550 

Bear  feast  ,  origin  myth  of 301-302 

Bear  hunt,  description  of 1 11-112 

Begging  ceremony 387 

Behne,  K.  A.,  specimen  purchased  from 30 

Bible,  use  of, in  Peyote  religion 394 


Page 

Big  Fox's  village,  location  of 51 

Big  Hawk's  village,  location  of 51 

Bingham    mounds.    See    Rufus    Bingham 
mounds;  Ira  Bingham  mounds. 

Bird  clans,  feast  of 318-321 

Birds,  use  of,  in  making  medicines 262 

Births,  customs  concerning 126 

Black  Earth  Medicine  feast,  mention  of. . .     318 
Black  Hawk— 

characterization  of 441 

offering  to 429,463 

Black  Hawk's  camp,  location  of 99 

Black  Hawk's  Island,  camp  site 99 

Black  Water-spout,  cured  of  consumption.      392 

Black  Wolf's  village,  location  of 51 

Bladder,  the  hero,  offerings  to 441 

Blessing — 

act  of.  in  medicine  dance 365 

passing  of 366 

special,  for  warfare 157, 160, 168 

Blindness,  belief  concerning 263 

Blowsnake,  Jasper— 

acknowledgment  to 48 

remarks  by 447 

Boas,  Franz— 

acknowledgment  to 48 

papers  by 27, 28 

work  of 19-20, 21 

Bogaras,  Waldemar,  author  of  Chukchee 

grammar 20 

Bone,  artifacts  of,  from  mounds 102 

Bow,  of  simple  type 110 

Bracelets 109 

Brown,  C.  E  — 

acknowledgment  to 48 

quoted  on  copper  implements 87-88 

quoted  on  garden  beds 103 

quoted  on  intaglio  mounds 81 

Buckskins — 

ceremony  of  throwing  out ,  to  spirits.  431, 513, 544 

marking  of 443 

offering  of,  to  spirits 429-130, 465 

preparation  of,  for  War-bundle  feast  428, 442, 530 
Buffalo  clan— 

functions  of 200, 243 

funeral  customs 154-155 

origin  myth 243-245 

personal  names 246 

songs 245 

Buffalo  clan  feast,  participation  in 206 

Buffalo  hunt,  description  of 112 

Buffalo  societies,  number  of 317-318 

Buffalo  Spouts — 

myth  of 437 

society  of  those  blessed  by 344-347 

Buffalo  tail,  feast  to 387 

551 


552 


IKDEX 


Burial  mounds —  Page. 

in  group  at  Rice  Lake 92 

in  upper  Baraboo  Valley 91 

See  Conical  mounds. 
Burials — 

customs  connected  with 140-155 

earth,  clans  employing 187 

Goldthorpe 99 

in  conical  mounds 84 

in  Nacoochee  mound 2-3 

in  stone  chambers 103 

of  the  Thunderbird  clan 211 

scaffold,  clans  employing 187 

two  methods  of 140 

"Buried  City  of  the  Panhandle''  visited 

by  Dr.  J.  Walter  Fewkes 6 

Bushnell,  D.  I.,  Jr.,  work  of . . . '. 22 

Buzzard  Decorah's  village,  location  of 51 

Calendar  of  the  Winnebago 124-125 

Canfield,  W.  H. — 

intaglio  mounds  discovered  by 90 

plat  by,  of  Man  mound 102 

Cannibalism— 

envoys  eaten 54 

indications  of 218, 219 

Canoes 123 

Captives,  dance  at  death  of 384 

Carcajou  mounds,  location  of 99 

Cardinal  points,  offerings  to 429 

Carley,  Sam,  acknowledgment  to 48 

CastanEda,  Miss  Isabel  R.,  Mexican  tales 

collected  by 21 

Ceremonial  organization,  influence  of  clan 

on 204 

Ceremonies— 

Arapaho  Peyote 415-419 

Begging 387 

four  types  of 317 

of  Medicine  dance 362-374 

of  Night  feast 329-343 

of  return  of  war  party 158 

of  Soldier's  dance 386 

of  stepping  over  grave 151 

of  throwing  out  buckskins 431, 513, 544 

of  wake 141-144 

Chaco  Canyon,  archeological  work  in 4 

Chapman,  Robert  H.,  specimens  collected 

by 30 

Cherokee,  sacred  formulas  of,  collected 

by  Mr.  James  Mooney 7-9 

Chief— 

a  peacemaker 209,210 

duties  of 319, 320 

functions  of 209-210 

lodge  of,  a  refuge 209 

relation  of,  to  his  people 319 

selected  from  Thunderbird  clan 320 

Chief  feast — 

food  served  at 319 

object  of 319 

property  of  four  Bird  clans 318, 319 

symbolism  of 321 

time  of 318, 321 

Children — 

decapitation  of,  in  war 161 

instruction  of ISO 

treatment  of 17s 


Page. 

Chisels,  copper,  types  of 88 

Choukeka's  village,  location  of 51 

Chumashan  stock,  studied  by  Mr.  John  P. 

Harrington. . .- 16 

Circular  mounds,  map  showing  distribution 

of 77 

See  Conical  mounds. 
Clan  animals — 

as  guardian  spirits 195-196 

as  property  mark 203 

attitude  toward 195-196 

relationship  to 195-198 

Clan  consciousness 435 

Clan  feasts 318-321 

nature  of 317 

Clan  songs — 

of  Warner  clan 219, 220 

use  of 204 

Clans— 

conception  of  tie  between  members  of 198 

immaterial  possessions  of 203 

influence  of,  on  ceremonial  organization  .      204 

list  of. 190-191 

marks  of  identification 203 

names  of,  discussed 182 

organization  of 190-192 

political  functions  of 199-201 

preceded  by  village  groups 185 

property  marks  of 79. 203 

reciprocal  relationships  of 201 

seating  of,  in  council  lodge 163 

songs  of 204 

specific  possessions  of 202-203 

unit  of  organization  in  War-bundle  feast.  436 
See  Bear  clan,  Bird  clans,  Buffalo  clan, 
Deer  clan,  Eagle  clan,  Elk  clan,  Fish 
clan,  Hawk  clan,  Pigeon  clan,  Snake 
clan,  Soldier  clan,  Thunderbird  clan, 
Warrior  clan,  Water-spirit  clan,  Wolf 
clan. 

Clark,  Miss  May*  S.,  work  of 31 

Clay,  Jesse — 

a  Peyote  leader 419 

account  by,  of  Peyote  ceremony 415-419 

innovations  of 422 

Cliff  dwellers,  supposed  builders  of  Sun 

Temple 6 

Clothing,  men's,  described 106 

Cokeboka,  blessed  during  fast 387 

Composite  mounds,  interpretation  of 84 

Conch  shell  cache,  location  of 99 

Conical  mounds— 

as  burial  places 84 

distribution  of 78, 91 

joined  to  linear 92 

made  by  Sioux 76 

number  of 83 

of  Lake  Koshkonong 100 

See  Burial  mounds. 

Contest,  fast-eating 485 

Copper,  use  of.  by  Winnebago 85-86 

See  Implements,  copper. 
Corn— 

feast  of 384 

varieties  of 117 

Corpse,  preparation  of,  for  burial 146,149 

See  Burials. 


INDEX 


553 


Page. 

COSMOLOGICAL  IDEAS,  types  Of 163 

Council  lodge— 

order  of  entering 163 

seating  arrangements  in 164-165 

Councils,  held  for  all  important  undertak- 
ings        163 

Coukttng,  medicine  used  in 263 

Creation  lodge,  meaning  of 481 

Crooks,  in  possession  of  Bear  clan 202, 203 

Cup-and-ball  game 122 

Curtin,  Jeremiah,  Seneca  material  collected 

by 11,27 

Customs — 

adoption 128, 139 

berry  time 116 

birth 126 

burial 1 40-155 

"counting  coup" 158 

general  social 126-139 

marriage 138-139 

of  Bear  clan 227-22S,  148-153 

of  Buffalo  clan 154-155 

of  W  olf  clan 238 

puberty 135-138 

war 158-161 

See  Facial  decoration,  Fasting,  Feasts. 
Dances— 

Buffalo,  origin  of 347 

Captive's  death 384-385 

Farewell 385 

for  benefit  of  Bear  clan >. 386 

Grizzly  Bear 347-349 

hok'ixe're,  after  war  party 318,379-383 

kikre  waci 387 

Medicine 359-374 

of  the  Buffalo  feast 346 

of  the  Herok' a  society 343 

of  the  Night  Spirit  society 204,338 

Soldier's 22S, 386-387 

Tcebokonaok 387 

Victory 379-383 

Day— 

characterization  of 441 

offering  to,  in  War-bundle  feast 429, 461 

Dayton  village,  location  of 51 

Death,  concept  of 313-314 

Decora,  position  of  wife  of 193 

Decora  family,  origin  of 65,67-69 

Deer— 

division  of,  at  War-bundle  feast 430 

killed  for  War-bundle  feast 442 

Deer  clan — 

customs  of 246 

dog  names  of 246 

origin  myth  of 247-249 

personal  names  of 249 

song  of 249 

Deities — 

attitude  toward 279 

list  of 285 

offerings  to 311 

See  Spirits. 
Densmoke,  Miss  Frances — 

paper  by 28 

work  of 21-22 

186823°— 22 36 


Descent—  Page. 

conception  of,  from  animals 197 

reckoning  of 185, 192-193 

Dhegiha,  twofold  organization  of 181 

Dice  Game,  women's 122 

Disease— 

concept  of 313 

cured  by  Peyote 419 

See  Sickness. 
Disease-giver — 

associated  with  success  in  war 433 

characterization  of 436, 440 

conception  of 168,287 

defied  by  man 309-310 

most  sacred  of  spirits 532 

offering  to,  in  War-bundle  feast 429, 

430,449.457,467,505 

refusal  of  blessing  from 302 

Divisions  of  Winnebago 181,185 

functions  of 183, 187 

Dixon,  Roland  B.,  quoted  on  Ohio  mounds.       76 

Dog  names  in  the  clan 201,211,229 

Dog  ritual,  terminal 432 

Dogs— 

eaten  at  feast 329 

sacrifice  of 428,438,451,527 

Dorset,  J.  O.— 

list  of  clans  by 191 

list  of  names  by 221 

monograph  by 181 

Doty  Island,  Winnebago  village  on 51, 80. 87 

Downs,  Miss  Mildred,  work  of 19,20 

Draves  mounds,  location  of 99 

Drum,  description  of 384 

Dugouts 123 

Dumb-bell  mounds 93,100 

Eagle — 

characterization  of 441 

offering  to,  in  War-bundle  feast 429, 436, 451 

Eagle  Chief,  offering  to,  in  War-bundlefeast.      429 

461,536 

Eagle  clan,  of  little  importance 220 

Earrings,  modern 109 

Earth— 

characterization  of 440 

conception  of ,  as  a  deity 286 

offering  to,  at  War-bundle  feast 430, 

449,459,469,501,536 
Earthmaker— 

a  peace  deity 434 

attempt  to  secure  blessing  of 291 

characterization  of 438-439 

conception  of 285 

myth  concerning 168 

offering  to,  in  War-bundle  feast 429, 

430, 447, 455, 467, 503, 535 

world  ruled  by 316 

Earth  mounds 76-103 

Earthworks  at  Aztalan 88-90 

Eating  contest,  at  War-bundle  feast 430 

Effigy  mounds — 

as  property  marks 79, 203 

at  Fond  du  Lac 98 

at  Lake  Koshkonong 101 

at  Pishtaka 94 

bear  type 90, 91 , 9» 


554 


INDEX 


Effigy  mounds— Continued .  Page. 

bird  type 95, 99, 101 

distribution  of 78-79 

explanations  of 79 

goose,  where  found : 99 

made  by  Winnebago 76 

mammal : 96, 101 

number  of 83 

panther  or  water-spirit  type 90, 99 

possible  purpose  of 98 

representations  of  elan  animals 79, 80, 98 

significance  of  distribution 49 

turtle  and  allied  forms ; . ; . . 96, 101 

types  found 93, 98 

unknown  animal 96 

water-spirit  type,  where  found. 99 

Wingra  group 94 

Elk  clan— 

customs  of 249 

functions  of 201, 249 

origin,  myth  of 250 

personal  names  of 250 

Evil,  concept  of 311-312 

Facial  decoration — 

asclanmark 204 

of  Bear  clan 228 

of  Elk  clan .• .      249 

of  Medicine  dance 362 

of  the  dead 144, 146 

of  Thunderbird  clan 211 

of  Warrior  clan 219 

Farewell  dance... 385 

Farewell  songs 385 

Fast-eating  contest 485 

Fasting — 

a  test  of  religious  attitude 277 

blessings  obtained  by 166-167 

experience  in ;. 275 

for  war  powers 157,160 

instruction  for. ....-.....: 169,171 

personal  accounts  of 293-309 

Feasts— 

afraid-to-eat-greens 384 

at  adoption 139 

at  wake 141,142,145 

in  honor  of  chief 319-320 

invitations  to. .. ..'. :.. 329 

naming -. 128 

of  Bear  clan 321 

of  Buffalo  society 344-347 

of  Medicine  dance 362 

of  Night-blessed  children 329-343 

of  those  blessed  by  Herok'a : 343 

■   of  Thunderbird  clan : 427-547 

of  War-bundle  ceremony 430, 4S1-483 

to  buffalo  tall 387 

to  Earthmaker ■..-.-...,.      126 

Feathers,  used  as  war  insignia ...........  161-162 

Fewkes,  J.  Walter—    * 

paper  by ..!....: 27 

work  of ■.......*...      4-7 

"Fire— 

a  possession  of  the  Thunderbird  clan..  - .      210 
regarded  as  a  spirit 166 

Fireplaces,  arrangement  of,  when  on  the 
warpath 189 


Page. 

Fibe  ritual  of  the  Medicine  dance 366 

Fish  clan,  personal  names  of 250 

Fishing 114 

Fletcher   and    La    Flesche,  reference  to 

monograph  by 181 

Flute,  played  by  host  at  feast 430 

Fond  du  Lac,  effigy  mounds  at 98 

Food — 

at  Bear  feast 321 

kinds  of,  served  at  feast 319 

offering  of,  to  spirits 319 

preparation  of 116-118 

preservation  of 118 

Football  game 121 

Fort  Atkinson,  intaglio  mound  at 91 

Foster,  Dr.,  list  of  names  by 221 

Four,  the  sacred  number 436 

Fowke,  Gerard,  collection  made  by. 30 

Fox  Indians — 

expedition  against 54 

relations  of,  with  Winnebago 58-59 

researches  among,  by  Dr.  Truman  Mieh- 

elson 16-17 

Frachtenberg,  Leo  J.,  work  of 17-19,20 

Freire-Marreco,  Barbara,  paper  by 28 

French,    first    contact    of,    with    Winne- 
bago   65,67-69 

"Friendship"  relation  of  clans 187,201 

Fulton  mounds,  location  of 99 

Fun  Hunter's  Point  mound 99 

Gambling — 

wagers  of  horses ..      384 

See  Dice  game.  Moccasin  game. 

Games 120-123 

cup-and-ball 122 

dice,  women's 122 

football 121 

kicking 121 

lacrosse 120-121,190 

moccasin 121-122 

played  at  wake 145, 153 

tree 123 

Gann,  Thomas,  paper  by 27 

Garden  beds  of  Wisconsin,  described 103 

General  Atkinson  mounds— 

form  of 100 

location  of 99 

number  of 100 

Gentes,  discussion  of  names-of 182 

See  Clans. 

Ghosts,  society  of  those  blessed  by 317 

Gifts,  at  wake 145,153 

Gill,  De  Lancey,  work  of 28 

Gilmore,  Melvin  E.,  paper  by 27 

Gods.    See  Deities,  Spirits. 

GOLDTHORPE   BURIALS,  location  of 99 

Grave  posts,  markings  on 144, 155, 162 

Grayson,  G.  W.,  Cherokee  speech  obtained 
from 10-11 

Great  Bad  Spirit,  a  creation  of  Earthmaker .      439 

Great  Black  Hawk— 

characterization  of......: - 440 

offeringsto 429,449,465,505,535 

Great  Spirit,  identified  as  Earthmaker....      438 


INDEX 


555 


Green  Bat—  Page. 

home  of  Winnebago : 77 

settlement  on 80 

Greeting,  ceremonial. 432 

Grizzly-Rear  dance,  a  religious  society. . .      204 

Grizzi.y-Beab  Society 317, 347 

Guardian  spirit — 

conception  of 290 

offerings  to 430 

Guiana  Indians,  paper  on 27 

Gurley,  J.  G.,  work  of 27 

Habitat  of  Winnebago 52,76-78 

Habitations  of  Winnebago 104-106 

Haeberlin,  Hermann  K.,  work  of. .-. ...  19,20,21 

Haight's  Creek  mounds,  location  of 99 

Hairdressing 109 

Hanga — 

a  division  of  the  Omaha :      181 

a  division  of  the  Osage 181 

Hare,  the  hero — 

identification  of,  with  Christ. .....:. 376 

offerings  to 441, 542 

world  ruled  by 316 

Harrington,  John  P.— 

paper  by 27, 28 

work  of 16 

Harrison,  John,  conversion  of 392 

Hawikuh,  plans  for  excavation  of 4 

Hawk  clan— 

functions  of. 200 

identical  with  Warrior  clan 192, 218 

Headdress — 

buffalo,  society  of  those  wearing 318 

described 109 

Hensley,  Albert,  a  Peyote  leader i 419 

account  by,  of  Peyote 397-400 

conversion  of 394 

innovations  of 421 

Hf.rok'a — 

characterization  of 441 

feast  of  those  blessed  by 343 

Herucka,  a  social  dance 384 

Herucka  songs,  always  victory  songs 384 

Hewitt,  J.N.B.— 

paper  by 27 

quoted  on  the  Iroquois 281-282 

work  of 1 1-14 

Heye,  George  G.,  archeological  work  of 1 

Hoard  mounds — 

location  of '. 99 

number  of 100 

Hodge,  F.  W.,  work  of 1-4 

Hodjanaga,  fasting  experienceof 347 

Hok'ixe're  dance  described 379-383 

Holmes,  W.H.— 

paper  by 28 

work  of 21 

Hospitality,  instruction  in 170 

Hough,  Walter,  work  of 22-24 

Hrdlicka,  Ales,  paper  by ; 27 

Humphrey,  W.  A.,  work  of.. ...'.       28 

Hunt,  George,  data  collected  by 20 

Hunting 109-114 

Hunting  customs . 1 13-1 14 

Ictacunda,  a  division  of  the  Omaha 181 

Ictunga,  a  division  of  the  Kansa 181 

Ideals,  social,  connected  with  religion 277-278 


Page. 
Illinois  Indians,  defeat  of  Winnebago  by. ..  54-55 

Immortality,  belief  in 169 

Implements— 

copper 79, 85, 87, 88, 102 

stone 87,102 

wooden 118-119 

Initiation,  into  Medicine  dance 367, 374-378 

Insignia  of  war 161-162 

Instruction,  system  of — 

to  children 180 

to  daughter 177-180 

to  son 166-177 

Intaglio  mounds — 

discovered  by  Lapham... 90 

located  near  earthworks 90 

possible  meaning  of : 81 

where  found 79 

Invitation  sticks — 

making  of : 329 

order  of  sending 550 

presentation  of 329 

Iowa  tribe  ,  legendary  origin  of 50 

Ira  Bingham  mounds  and  village  site 99 

Iron  Walker's  village,  location  of. .        51 

Iroquois  League,  memoir  on,  by  Mr.  J.  N. 

B.Hewitt ;.; 11 

Jenks,  A.  E.,  quoted  on  rice  gathering 116, 117 

John  Son  mounds,  location  of 99 

Joking  relationship 174 

Jones,  W.,  quoted  on  the  Fox  Indians 281-282 

Judd,  Neil  M.— 

collection  gathered  by 30 

work  of 24-26 

Kalafuya  material,  revised  by  Dr.  Leo  J. 

Frachtenberg. 17 

Kansa,  divisions  of „ 181 

Karraymaunee's  village,  location  of 51 

Kettles—  ..."-• 

offerings  of,  to  the  spirits 482-483, 532 

soul  descending  chain  of 550 

Kewaskum's  camp,  location  of. 99 

Kjckapoo,  territory  occupied  by 77 

Kicking  game .- ...      121 

Klamath  dictionary,  by  Gatschet 27 

Knives,  copper,  types  of . . : 88 

Koshkonong  Creek  mounds  and  village 

SITE 99 

Kroeber,  A.  L  — 

notebooks  from 26 

work  of : ;..,.        26 

KUMLIEN  MOUNDS — 

location  of 99 

number  of 100 

Kwaktutl  Indians,  manuscript  on,  by  Dr. 
Franz  Boas — ....       20 

Lacrosse— 

ceremonial 190 

game  of. 1 20-1 21 

La  Flesche,  Francis— 

specimens  collected  by. 30 

work  of :...... ...:... 14-16 

Lake  Koshkonong — 

areheologic  map  of 99 

mounds  of. . .-. 97, 98, 100-102 

Lake  Mendota,  effigy  mounds  at..... ^ 98 

Lake  Waubesa,  effigy  mounds  at 98 


556 


INDEX 


Page. 

Lake  Wingra,  effigy  mounds  at 98 

Lamere,  Oliver,  acknowledgment  to 48 

Lamere  and  Radin,  paper  by,  on  Winne- 
bago funeral 148 

Lapham,  I.  A.— 

Man  mound  described  by 102 

work  of,  on  mounds 76 

La  Valle  Man  mound — 

outline  of 97 

plat  of,  by  Canfield 102 

Leary,  Miss  Ella,  work  of 29 

Legends,  migration,  of  the  Winnebago. ...  50-52 

Leggings,  pattern  of 106 

Lenape  or  Delawares,  paper  on  physical 

anthropology  of 27 

Le  Sellier  mounds — 

location  of 99 

number  of 100 

Llnear  mounds — 

as  defensive  works 82-83 

as  lodge  bases 83,84 

as  snake  effigies 83,84 

at  Madison 93 

at  Pishtaka 94 

classes  of 81-82 

explanation  of 79 

in  Wingra  group 94 

interpretation  of 82 

made  by  Sioux 76 

number  of 83 

of  Iowa  County 93 

of  Lake  Koshkonong 101 

purpose  of 92-98 

where  found 79 

Little  Decorahs' village,  location  of 51 

Little  Prlest,  grizzly  bear  dance  given  for 

benefit  of 348 

Little  Priest's  village,  location  of 51 

Little-Red-Bird,  account  of  Ufe  of 396-397 

Lodges — 

arrangement  of,  for  War-bundle  feast 530 

bark 1M 

ceremonial 105 

ceremonial  circuit  of 432 

constructed  by  women 106 

council 163 

creation 481 

gable 104,105 

menstrual 136 

of  Bear  clan,  diagram  of 229 

of  Bear  clan,  position  of 229 

of  chief,  a  refuge ,      320 

orientation  of 443 

purification  of 445,532 

reed  matting 104 

sweat,  form  of 105 

Loge  Bay  mounds  and  garden  beds 99 

Lookout,  Mrs.  Fred,  specimens  presented 

by 30 

Lookout  mounds,  location  of 99 

Man  Eater's  village,  location  of 99 

Man  mounds— 

described 102-103 

interpretation  of 81 

outlines  of 95,97 

Mandan  and  Bjdatsa  Indians,  work  among, 
of  Miss  Frances  Densmore 21-22 


Page. 

Magic,  sympathetic 254 

Manito,  discussed  by  W.  Jones 282 

Manitowoc  County,  effigy  mounds  in 98 

Manuscripts,  added  to  collection  in  Bureau 

of  Ethnology 26 

Marriage — 

customs  connected  with 138-139 

instruction  of  women  for 177-178 

regulated  by  twofold  division 183 

Mascoutin,  territory  occupied  by 77 

Maya  hieroglyphs,  paper  on 27 

Medicine  dance — 

a  religious  society 204 

admission  to 360 

duties  of  bands  of. 360-362 

five  bands  of 359 

paper  on,  by  Radin 318 

Medicines— 

classification  of 254 

formulas  for 265-267 

stench-earth,  uses  of 259 

use  of 171-173,263 

Menominee,  territory  occupied  by 77 

Mesa  Verde  National  Park,  work  in 4-6 

Mescal.    See  Peyote. 

Messmer  garden  beds,  location  of. 99 

Ml\mi,  territory  occupied  by 77 

Miami-French  dictionary,  copy  of 26 

Michelson,  Truman,  work  of 16-17 

Midjistega  ,  stories  told  of 254, 255-258 

Migrations — 

Siouan 49-50 

Winnebago 49-52 

Milwaukee  Public  Museum,  acknowledg- 
ment to 48 

Missouri  tribe,  legendary  origin  of 50 

Moccasin  game 121-122 

Moccasins,  patterns  of 107, 108 

Moieties 185-190 

Moon — 

characterization  of 440 

female  deity 286 

offering  to,  in  War-bundle  feast 429, 

430, 449, 459, 467, 503, 535 

Mooney,  James,  work  of 7 

Morgan,  Lewis  H.,  list  of  clans  given  by 191 

Mobley,  Sylvanus  G.,  paper  by 27 

Morning  Star— 

characterization  of 440 

offering  to,  at  War-bundle  feast. . . .  430, 469. 536 

spirit  associated  with  war 286-287 

Morris,  Earl,  paper  by 27 

Mound  Pkatrie,  West  Group 91 

Mounds— 

age  of 79,84-85 

builders  of 76 

distribution  of 77, 78 

types  of 79 

works  on  subject  of 76 

See  Altpeter  mounds,  Bingham  mounds, 
Burial  mounds,  Circular  mounds,  Com- 
posite mounds,  Conical  mounds,  Dumb- 
bell mounds,  Effigy  mounds,  Intaglio 
mounds,  Kumlien  mounds,  Le  Sellier 
mounds,  Linear  mounds,  Man  mounds, 
Noe  Springs  mounds,  Oral  mounds, 
Tadpole  type,  Turtle  mounds. 


INDEX 


557 


Page. 

Mourning,  period  of 146, 150, 153 

Munroe,  Miss  Helen,  work  of 28 

Murie,  James  R.,  work  of 26 

Museum  of  American  Indian,  cooperation 

with,  by  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology..         1 
Music,  Teton  Sioux,  bulletin  on,  by  Miss 

Frances  Densmore 22 

Musical  instruments 123 

Mutilation,  sign  of  mourning 146 

Myths— 

of  Buffalo  spirits 437 

used  by  Peyote  members 424-425 

See  Origin  myths. 

Nacoochee,  origin  of  name 1-2 

Nacoochee  mound — 

collections  from 30 

excavation  of 1-3 

Names— 

of  animals 115 

of  gentes,  discussion  of 182 

of  months 124-125 

of  newborn  child 127 

of  trees 115 

of  tribes  and  peoples 75 

of  vegetables  and  fruits 115 

used  after  adoption 128 

See  Names,  personal. 
Names,  personal— 

discussion  of 193-195 

of  Bear  clan 236-237 

of  Bird  clan 221-225 

of  Elk  clan 250 

of  first  four  children 251-253 

of  Fish  clan 250 

of  Snake  clan 250 

of  Water-spirit  clan 242-243 

of  Wolf  clan 240-241 

Naming  feast 128 

Necklaces 109 

Nevtlle,  A.  C.t  on  habitat  of  the  Winne- 
bago        SO 

Newman,  Charles  B.,  work  of 29 

Nichols,  Mrs.  Frances  S.,  work  of 27,29,31 

Night-blessed  children,  society  of 329-343 

Night  songs,  singing  of 533 

Night-Spirit  Dance,  a  religious  society 204 

Night  Spirits — 

associated  with  success  in  war 433-434 

ceremony  in  honor  of 501 

characterization  of 440 

episode  connected  with 431 

feast  to 519 

offering  to 429, 430, 449, 455, 501 

rite  of  those  crazed  by 519 

society  of  those  blessed  by 317 

Noe  Springs  mounds— 

described 100-101 

location  of 99 

number  of 100 

Norman,  Arthur  L.,  collection  presented  by       30 

North  mounds,  location  of 99 

North  Wind — 

characterization  of 441 

offerings  to 429,463,503 

Oak-tree  House,  excavated  and  repaired . .      6,7 

Offerings  to  deities 311 

Ogden  mounds,  location  of 99 


Page. 

Ojibway  war  feasts,  nature  of 434 

Old    Gray-headed    Decorah's    village, 

location  of 51 

Old  Lincoln,  stories  concerning 254,255-259 

Omaha,  names  of  divisions  of 181 

One-eyed  Decorah's  village,  location  of. .  51 
Orenda,  discussed  by  Mr.  J.  N.  B.  Hewitt..  282 
Organization,  twofold,  discussion  of., . .  181-190 
Origin  myths— 

of  Bear  clan 225, 229-235 

of  Bear  feast 301-302 

of  Buffalo  clan 243-245 

of  Medicine  dance.    350-359 

of  Thunderbird  clan 212-218 

of  Warrior  clan 219-220 

of  Water-spirit  clan 242 

Osage  tribe— 

divisions  of 181 

paper  on,  by  Francis  La  Fle-'che 14-15 

Oto  tribe  ,  legendary  origin  of 51 

Oval  mounds,  distribution  of 78 

Paint  medicine— 

made  of  Water-spirit  bones 473 

use  of 475 

Painted  House,  excavation  and  repair  of . . .         7 
Painting,  facial.    See  Facial  decoration. 
Paragonah,  mound  at,  excavated  by  Mr. 

Judd 24-25 

Pearody  Museum,  acknowledgment  to 48 

Peet,   Stephen    D.,    theory    of,    regarding 

linear  mounds 83 

Pesheu's  village,  location  of 51 

Peyote— 

curative  power  of 423 

effect  of 389-392 

experiences  with 400-414 

See  Peyote  cult. 
Peyote  cult— 

Arapaho  ceremony 415-419 

connected    with   teachings   of   Shawnee 

prophet 69, 73, 74 

development  of 419-422 

dissemination  of 422-423 

essential  change  made  by 295 

general  description  of 3S8-389 

reference  to  belief  of 376 

Pigeon  clan,  of  little  importance 220 

Pigeon  Hawk— 

characterization  of 441 

offering  to 429, 503 

Pigeon  hunt,  described 113 

Pipe— 

ceremonial,  ritual  of 469-471 

ceremonial  use  of 142, 145, 148, 149, 158, 429 

See  Pipes  of  peace. 

Pipes,  found  in  Nacoochee  mound 3 

Pipes  of  peace,  custodianship  of 183-184 

Pit  dwellings,  at  Luna,  N.  Mex 22-23 

Poast,  Miss  Florence  M.,  work  of 31 

Ponca,  divisions  of 181 

Population 53, 54, 184 

Porcupine,  associated  with  North  Wind 503 

Potawatomi,  territory  occupied  by 77 

Pottery— 

for  cooking 119 

from  mounds 102 

from  Nacoochee  mound 3 


558 


INDEX 


Prater—  Page. 

for  success  in  war 156, 159 

general,  to  spirits 469 

object  of.. 311 

to  avert  illness 320 

Prophets— 

a  development  of  contact  with  whites 69 

notes  concerning 74 

See  Shawnee  Prophet. 

Puberty  customs 135-13S 

Public  crier,  duties  of .-.      210 

Publications   of   Bureau   of   American 

Ethnology,  report  on 27-2S 

Pueblo  Indians,  bibliography  of,  by  F.  W. 

Hodge 4 

Quapaws,  legendary  origin  of. 50 

Quarries,  in  Winnebago  territory 86 

Qutleute  tribe,  work  among,  of  Dr.  Leo  J. 

Frachtenberg 18 

Radin,  "Max,  acknowledgment  to 4S 

Radin,  Paul,  manuscript  by,  on  Huave 21 

Rattles— 

of  deer  hoofs 343 

of  gourds 340, 343 

Rave,  John— 

a  Peyote  leader 3S9, 41S 

account  by,  of  Peyote  cult 389-394 

acknowledgment  to 48 

conflict  of,  with  Hensley 421-422 

conversion  of 394 

Red-Horn,  offerings  to 441 

Reincarnation,  belief  in 314-316,426 

Relationship — 

joking 133-134 

terms  of 128-131 

Religion,  of  the  Winnebago 277-316 

Religious  experiences 291-309 

Rice,  gathering  of 116 

Rituals— 

basic,  of  War-bundle  feast 430, 

471-501,505-529 

of  the  Medicine  dance 365-370 

Shooting 370, 372 

See  Ceremonies,  Smoking,  Ritual. 

Robbins,  Wilfred  W.,  paper  by 28 

Rock  River  mol^nds  and  village  site 99 

Rockwall,  Texas,  sandstone  formation  at. .         7 

Roth,  Walter  E.,  paper  by 27 

Rufus  Bingham  mounds— 

location  of 99 

number  of 100 

Rush  Lake  village,  location  of. 51 

Salish  dialects,  preparation  of  paper  on 19 

Sarcel's  village,  location  of 51 

Sargent,  Homer  E.,  acknowledgment  to...  19,20 

Sarrochau's  village,  location  of 51 

Sauk  and  Fox,  territory  occupied  by 77 

Sauk  County,  effigy  mounds  in 98 

Scalps,  used  in  Victory  dance 158, 379-383 

Schelski,  Miss  Lana  V.,  work  of 28 

Secret  societies,  qualification  for  member- 
ship in 317 

Seneca  Indians,  paper  on 27 

Sequoya  statue,  suggestions  for,  by  Mr. 

James  Mooney 10 

Shaman,  patients  cured  by 270-275 

See  Shamanism. 


Page. 

Shamanism,  practices  of 254-276 

Shawnee  Prophet— 

admonitions  of 420, 421 

Peyote  cult  connected    with   teachings 

of 69, 73,74 

teachings  of 69-73 

Shell,  sacred,  rites  of 372-373 

Shirt,  buckskin,  pattern  of 106 

Shooting  ritual,  of  the  medicine  dance      370, 372 

Sickness — 

averted  by  feast 319-320 

belief  concerning 171 

See  Disease. 

Siouan  tribes,  migrations  of 49-50 

Sioux,  mounds  made  by 76 

SrusLAW  language,  work  on,  by  Dr.  Leo  J. 
Frachtenberg 18 

Skarlem  mounds,  location  of 99 

Skinner,  Alanson— 

quoted  on  Menominee .- 86 

quoted  on  men's  clothing 106 

quoted  on  tanning 119 

Smoker's  village,  location  of 51 

Smoking  ritual — 

of  Medicine  dance 366 

of  War-bundle  feast *     469 

See  Pipes,  Tobacco. 

Snake  clan,  personal  names  of 250' 

Snakes,  use  of ,  in  medicine 262 

Snowshoes 123 

Societies— 

basis  of 432 

Buffalo,  feast  of 344-347 

Herok'a,  feast  of 343 

See  Secret  societies. 

Soldier  clan— 

different  from  Warrior  clan 386 

See  Bear  clan. 

Soldier  dance,  of  Bear  clan 228, 386-387 

Songs— 

associated  with  clans 240 

Farewell 385 

Herucka 384 

night 533 

of  Bear  clan 321, 548, 549 

of  Buffalo  clan 245 

of  Buffalo  feast 345 

of  Gizzly  Bear  dance 346 

of  Medicine  dance 365,370 

of  Soldier  dance •    387 

of  Thunderbird  clan" 211 

of  War-bundle  feast -444-445 

of  Warrior  clan 219, 220 

ofWolfclan 240 

Soul — 

concept  of 316 

defending  kettle  chain 5.50 

South  Wind— 

characterization  of 440 

Offering  to 429, 430, 449, 463, 467,  .505 

Spear  heads,  types  of 88 

Speeches — 

at  funeral 149-151 

at  wake 141-144 

at  War-bundle  feast 471-481, 487-501 


INDEX 


559 


Speeches— Continued.  Page.   | 

by  member  of  Thunderbird  elan 320-321 

of  acceptance 3*54 

of  admonition * 364 

of  Medicine  dance 363 

of  presentation 364 

of  welcome 364 

to  deceased  at  funeral 147, 148 

to  dog,  before  sacrifice 428 

types  of,  at  War-bundle  feast 432 

Spinden,  H.J.    See  Will  and  Spinden. 
Spirits — 

brought  into  relation  with  man 310^311 

characterization  of 436-438 

concept  and  nature  of 147, 283-2S8 

corporeality  of 284 

indefinite  number  of 284 

of  the  cardinal  points 168 

offerings  to 319, 429, 43s 

power  and  localization  of 288-289 

prayer  to 469 

relation  of,  toman 289 

Spotted  Arm's  village^ location  of 51 

Springer,  E.  L.,  work  of 2s 

Squeaking- Wings,  conversion  of 392 

Stevenson,  Matilda  C,  paper  by 27 

Stout,  A.  B.— 

quoted  on  Lake  Koshkonong  mounds...      100 

quoted  on  linear  mounds 81-82 

theory  of,  regarding  linear  mounds.-. 84 

work  of,  on  Wisconsin  archeology 76 

Sun— 

associated  with  success  in  war 433 

characterization  of •  440 

conception  of ,  as  a  deity 2S6 

offering  to,  in  War-bundle  feast 429, 

430, 449, 457, 467, 505, 535 

Sun  Temple,  description  of 5-6 

Supernatural  power,  concept  of 281-283 

Sw anton,  John  E.,  work  of :...  10-11 

Sweat  bath,  in  initiation  ceremony 371 

Sweat  lodge, formof 105 

SWEAT  LODGE  RITUAL — 

of  Medicine  dance 368 

of  War-bundle  feast 428,429,447 

Sweeney,  Albert  E.,  work  of 28 

Taboo,  mother-in-law  and  father-in-law 135 

Tadpole  type  of  mounds 100 

Tanning,  description  of 119-120 

Tay-e-he-dah  mounds  and  vtllage  site  ...  99 

Taylor  House  mounds,  location  of 99 

Tcuu— 

a  division  of  the  Osage 181 

a  division  of  the  Ponca 181 

and  Ictacunda,  identical  terms 181 

Tctwere,  twofold  organization  of 181 

Tebungki  rutn,  visited  by  Dr.  J.  Walter 

Fewkes 7 

Teit,  James,  work  of 19 

Teton    Sioux   music,    work   on,    by    Miss 

Frances  Densmore 22 

Tewa  Indlans,  paper  on  ethnogeography  of.  27 

Thiebeau  Point  village  site 99 

Thomas,  Cyrus,  work  of,  on  mounds 76 

Thunderbird — 

associated  with  success  in  war 433 

ceremony  in  honor  of 447 


Thunderbird— Continued.  Page. 

characterization  of 439 

conception  of 287 

offering  to,  in  War-bundle  feast 429 

430,447,455,467,503 

Thunderbird  clan 207-211 

chief  selected  from 209 

feast  of 318-321 

functions  of 200 

funeral  ceremonies  of 146-148 

importance  of 207 

known  as  Chief  clan 218 

origin  myths  of 207-208 

symbol  of 203 

Time,  divisions  of 124-125 

Tipi— 

of  simple  construction 105 

used  on  the  hunt 106 

Toads,  use  of,  for  poison  medicine 263 

Tobacco — 

account  of  origin  of 66, 437 

ceremonial  use  of 141, 145, 151,330, 348, 429 

offering  of,  to  spirits 170, 320, 453, 501-505 

placing  of,  in  War-bundle  feast 451 

Totem— 

descent  from 197-198 

See  Clan  animal,  Totemism. 

Totemism 185-187 

Tozzer,  Alfred  M.,  work  of 21 

Traditions  of  the  Winnebago 55-58,59-69 

Transformation,  power  of,  of  animals 197 

Transformer  heroes 439 

Transportation 123 

Traps  for  game _.      no 

Travel  and  transportation 123 

Traveler,  the  ruler  of  the  world 316 

Tree  game 123 

Trickster — 

offerings  to 441 

stories  of 424-125 

world  ruled  by 316 

Tsimshian  mythology,  paper  on , 27 

Turtle,  the  hero — 

offerings  to 441, 542 

world  ruled  by : 316 

Turtle  Creek,  effigy  mounds  on 98 

Turtle  mounds 81 

not  connected  with  Winnebago  clans 98 

Twins,  the  heroes,  offerings  to 441 

Twofold  grouping,  discussion  of 1S5-187 

Uangeru,  ceremony  of 387 

Utensils,  cooking  and  eating 118-119 

Vessels,  wooden 118-119 

Victory  dance 379-383 

Village  groups — 

as  social  unit 184-185 

present  names  of 185 

Villages— 

divisions  of 188 

location  of 51, 77 

organization  of 188 

plansof 188,189 

Wagigo'.    See  War-bundle  feast. 

Wajaje,  a  division  of  the  Ponca 181 

Wake— 

description  of 140-146 

origin,  myth  of 154-155 


560 


INDEX 


Page. 

Walking-Priest,  conversion  of 392 

War  bundles— 

contents  of 442, 547 

meaning  of  contents  of 550 

ownership  of 210, 433 

possession  of 202 

transmission  of 193 

War-bundle  feast— 

a  ceremony  of  thanksgiving 427 

clan  basis  of 205 

description  of 441,445 

development  of 432-436 

divisions  of 428 

nature  of 317 

of  Thunderbird  clan 427-547 

origin  of 433 

War  clubs — 

of  Thunderbird  clan 210 

possession  of 202 

symbol  of  Thunderbird  clan 203 

Warfare — 

blessings  for 157, 160, 168 

customs  of 158-161 

exploits  of 519 

honors  in 167 

reasons  for 157 

responsibility  in 156, 157, 168, 209 

War  feasts  or  the  Ojibway,  nature  of. . .      434 

War  parties — 

influenced  by  leligion 27S 

manner  of  conducting 15S-161 

return  of 15s 

Warrior  clan— 

effigies  representing 214 

functions  of 200, 219 

identical  with  Hawk  clan 192 

lodge  of 218-219 

not  Soldier  clan 386 

origin  myth  of 219-220,319 

privilege  of 15s 

rights  of 279 

songs  of 219, 220 

Washington  Decorah's  village,  location 
of 51 

Water— 

characterization  of 441 

offering  to,  in  War-bundle  feast 429, 430, 503 


Water-spirit —  Page. 

conception  of 2S7-2S8 

offering  to 469 

Water-spirit  clan — 

customs  of 242 

functions  of 201,241 

origin  myth  of 242 

personal  names  of 242-243 

Watertown  village,  location  of 51 

West,  G.  A.;  description  by,  of  Aztalan 88-90 

Whirling  Thunder's  village,  location  of..        51 

White  Crow's  village,  location  of 51,99 

White  Ox's  village,  location  of 51,99 

Will,  G.  F.,  and  Splmden,  H.  J.,  quoted  on 

Siouan  migrations 49-50 

Wlngra  mounds,  effigies 99 

Winnebago — 

attack  on,  by  Illinois 54-55 

first  meeting  of,  with  whites 53 

name  for  themselves 53 

separation  of,  from  Siouan  kindred 50,52 

territory  occupied  by 52, 76-78, 80 

tribes  once  composing 52 

Winnebago  County,  effigy  mounds  in 98 

Winter  feast.    See  War-bundle  feas* 

Wissler,  Clark,  work  of 26 

Wolf  clan— 

customs  of 238 

functions  of 201,238 

origin  myth  of 238-240 

personal  names  of 240 

position  of 191 

songs  of 240 

Women,  instruction  concerning  treatment 

of 170, 175 

WONA-jl'RE  UANKCIK— 

characterization  of 441 

offering  to 429, 436, 463 

identified  with  thunderbirds 463 

Worpenberg,  Rev.  George,  manuscripts 

loaned  by 27 

Yata,  a  division  of  the  Kansa 181 

Yellow  Thunder's  '  'forty,'  '  location  of. . .  51 

Yellow  Thunder's  village,  location  of 51 

ZuSi  Indians,  paper  on  etnnobotany  of. 27 


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