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PUBLIC DOCUMENT No. 31
MASSACHUSETTS
AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT OF THE
MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
EXPERIMENT STATION
Parts I and 1 1
313
Publication of this Document
approved by the
Supervisor of Administration.
THIRTY-SECOND ANNUAL REPORT
Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station
Part I
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR AND OTHER OFFICERS
Part II
DETAILED REPORT OF THE EXPERIMENT STATION
Being Parts III and IV of the Fifty-seventh Annual Report of
THE Massachusetts Agricultural College
A Recohd of the Thibtt-seventh Year fhom the Founding of the State Agricul-
tural Experiment Station
CO
CONTENTS.
Part I.
PAGE
Officers and staff, ........... la
Report of the director, .......... 4a
Report of the treasurer, . . . . . . . . . .11a
Report of the department of botany, ....... 13a
Report of the department of chemistry, ....... 18a
Research section, ........... 18a
Fertilizer section, .......... 20a
Feed and dairy section, . . . . . . . . . 23a
Numerical summary of general laboratory work, .... 30a
Report of the department of entomology, ....... 31a
Report of the poultry department, ........ 38a
Report of the department of microbiology, ...... 40a
Report of the department of veterinary science, ..... 43a
Poultry disease elimination, ........ 43a
Hog cholera investigations, ........ 46a
Incomplete studies, .......... 46a
New investigations, ......... 47a
Part II.
Bulletin No. 189, The European corn borer and its control, ... 1
Bulletin No. 190, The propagation of apple trees on their own roots, . . 73
Bulletin No. 191, Practical results from studies on egg production, . . 97
Bulletin No. 192, Seventh report of the cranberry substation, . . . 105
Bulletin No. 193, Supply and distribution of Connecticut valley cigar leaf
tobacco, ............ 143
Bulletin No. 194, A fertilizer experiment with asparagus, .... 231
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
Trustees.
OFFICERS AND STAFF.
COMMITTEE.
Charles H. Preston, Chairman
Wilfrid Wheeler, i
Edmund Mortimer, .
Arthur G. Pollard,
Harold L. Frost,
Arthur W. Gilbert, =
The President of the College, ex officio.
The Director of the Station, ex officio.
Hathorne.
Concord.
Grafton.
Lowell.
Arlington.
West Brookfield.
STATION STAFF.
Administration. Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Acting Director.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D.', Vice-Director.
Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer.
CiLiRLES R. Green, B.Agr., Librarian.
Mrs. Lucia G. Church, Clerk.
Miss F. Ethel Felton, A.B., Clerk.
Agricultural
Economics.
Alex.\nder E. Cance, Ph.D., In Charge of Department.
Agriculture.
William P. Brooks, Ph.D., Consulting Agriculturist.
Henry J. Franklin, Ph.D., In Charge of Cranberry Investi
gations (East Wareham).
Edwin F. Gaskill, B.Sc., Assistant Agriculturist.
Robert L. Coffin, Assistant.
Botany.
A. Vincent Osmun, M.Sc, Botanist.
George H. Ch.^pman, Ph.D., Research Physiologist.
Paul J. Anderson, Ph.D., Associate Plant Pathologist.
Orton L. Clark, B.Sc, Assistant Plant Physiologist.
Webster S. Krout, M.A., Field Pathologist.
Mrs. S. W. Wheeler, B.Sc, = Curator.
Miss Marguerite G. Ickis, M.A., ^ Curator.
Alyn S. Ball, Assistant.
Miss Ellen L. Welch, A.B., Clerk.
1 Term expired Nov. 30, 1919.
2 Succeeded Wilfrid Wheeler Dec.
3 Resigned Sept. 30, 1919.
* Appointed Oct. 3, 1919.
2a
Entomology.
EXPERIMENT STATION.
Henry T. Fernald, Ph.D., Entomologist.
Arthur I. Bourne, A.B., Assistant Entomologist.
Miss Bridie E. O'Donnell, Clerk. y/'
[Jan.
/
Horticulture. Frank A. Waugh, M.Sc, i Horticulturist.
Fred C. Sears, M.Sc, Pomologist.
Jacob K. Shaw, Ph.D., ^ Research Pomologist.
Harold F. Tompson, B.Sc, Market Gardener.
Walter W. Chenoweth, M.Sc.,^ In Charge of Horticul-
tural Manufactures.
Miss Ethelyn Streeter, Clerk.
Meteorology. John E. Ostrander, A.M., C.E., Meteorologist.
Microbiology. Charles E. Marshall, Ph.D., In Charge of Department.
Arao Itano, Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Microbiology.
Plant and Animal
Chemistry.
Joseph B. Lindsey, Ph.D., Chemist.
Edward B. Holland, Ph.D., Associate Chemist in Charge
{Research Division).
Fred W. Morse, M.Sc, Research Chemist.
Henri D. Haskins, M.Sc, Chemist in Charge {Fertilizer
Division).
Philip H. Smith, M.Sc, Chemist in Charge {Feed and Dairy
Division) .
Lewell S. Walker, B.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
Carleton p. Jones, M.Sc, Assistarit Chemist.
Carlos L. Beals, M.Sc, Assistant Chemist.
John B. Smith, B.Sc, * Assistant Chemist.
Robert S. Scull, B.Sc, ^ Assistant Chemist.
Harold B. Pierce, B.Sc, * Assistant Chemist.
Miss Esther S. Mixer, B.A., ^ Assistant Chemist.
Arthur M. Clarke, A.B., ^ Assistant Chemist.
Miss Anne C. Messer, B.A., ^ Assistant Chemist.
Miss Ethel Bradley, B.A., " Assistant Chemist.
James T. Howard, Inspector.
Harry L. Allen, Assistant in Laboratory.
James R. Alcock, Assistant in Animal Nutrition.
Miss Alice M. Howard, ii Clerk.
Miss Rebecca L. Mellor, Clerk.
Miss Cora B. Grover, 12 Clerk.
Reinstated Sept. 1, 1919, after leave on account of war service.
Resigned Oct. 31, 1919.
Appointed Oct. 10, 1919.
Reinstated Feb. 3, 1919, after leave on account of war service. Resigned August
On leave on account of war service. Resigned Dec. 13, 1919.
Resigned Oct. 15, 1919.
Resigned Sept. 26, 1919.
Appointed Sept. 1, 1919.
Appointed Nov. 3, 1919.
Appointed Dec. 1, 1919.
Resigned May 31, 1919.
Transferred from Extension Service May 26, 1919.
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 3a
Poultry Husbandry. John C. Graham, B.Sc, » In Charge of Department.
Loyal F. Payne, B.Sc, ^ Acting Head of Department.
Hubert D. Goodale, Ph.D., Research Biologist.
Mrs. Nettie A. Gilmore, ^ Clerk.
Miss Ruby Sanborn, Clerk.
Miss Doris Tower, * Clerk.
Veterinary Science. James B. Paige, B.Sc, D.V.S., Veterinarian.
G. Edward Gage, Ph.D., ^ Associate Professor of Animal
Pathology.
John B. Lentz, V.M.D., ^ Assistant.
Thomas G. Hull, Ph.D., ' Assistant.
1 On leave of absence from April 1, 1919.
2 Acting head of department during Professor Graham's absence.
3 Resigned April 21, 1919.
* Transferred from college department, April 1, 1919.
6 Reinstated September 4 after leave on account of war service.
6 On leave on account of war service. Resigned Sept. 18, 1919.
' Appointed September 16, temporarily.
4a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan,
REPORT OF THE DIRECTOR.
FRED W. MORSE, ACTING DIRECTOR.
It has been gratifying throughout the past year to note the
extent to which the experiment station is regarded as the insti-
tution for the investigation and sokition of agricultural prob-
lems. Requests for the investigation of definite problems have
come from several distinct lines of agriculture during the period.
The county farm bureaus are united in the opinion that
more investigations of spray materials and their use are re-
quired. The various brands put on the market, of both in-
secticides and fungicides, although complying fully with the
Federal laws governing their sale, yet have such widely dif-
ferent directions for dilution of the concentrated pastes or the
dry powders, with resultant variations in the actual strengths
of the spray mixtures, that it is difficult to judge whether a
given brand is good or poor. The efficiency of different con-
centrations of insecticides and fungicides needs to be thoroughly
established.
Climatic conditions affect some of the spray mixtures or the
plants to which they are applied, so that mixtures which are
safe in one section or at one time cause foliage injuries at other
times or in other places. This forms another problem which
needs study.
The swine breeders have asked for a comprehensive study of
the use of garbage in feeding pigs, which to meet fully would
need a substation for swine husbandry in the vicinity of our
large cities. The problem is a really important one because
the statistics obtained by the Commissioner of Animal Industry
show that more than half the swine in the State are fed garbage,
and the industry is based mainly on the utilization of house-
hold and farm wastes.
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 5a
Practical experience has shown important seasonal variations
in the character of household garbage, but no definite data of
composition are available. Little or no use is made of any
grain with garbage, and the growth of the animals is slow,
especially during the early months when rapid growth is most
profitable and desirable. This problem is one which the sta-
tion should be enabled to meet as soon as possible.
Some manufacturers of mixed rations for live stock have
expressed a desire to furnish funds for the study of some of
their brands of cattle foods. This presents a delicate matter
for the consideration of the experiment station. The institu-
tion is charged by our public statutes with the inspection of
feeding stuffs, which particularly includes all proprietary
brands of mixed feeds and all by-products used as feeds;
therefore, it cannot accept a retainer from any manufacturer or
group of manufacturers to investigate a particular line of
feeding stuffs the results of which will be used for advertising
purposes. On the other hand, a scientific investigation of the
feeding qualities of a by-product, and combinations of it with
other materials, will be of great service to the farmers, and
promote the sales of manufacturers, who may well afford to
endow such investigations.
Heads of departments of the experiment station have pointed
out some new problems that need to be solved when means
can be provided. It is of interest to consider what under-
taking new problems and new lines of work means to an
institution organized as an experiment station. If a new
problem can be studied by some members of the staff with the
equipment at hand, which is frequently the case with projects
arising within the experiment station, the problem may have
to wait until some other work is completed, but can readily be
commenced at almost any convenient time. Some problems
presented to the station for its consideration require both new
workers and new apparatus because the solution of them
requires special knowledge and special tools. A serious diffi-
culty, then, faces the experiment station. Additions to its in-
come must be secured with which to employ the new workers
and to purchase the required equipment. Members of the
staff cannot justly be discharged nor apparatus economically
6a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
scrapped in order to take up new lines of work. The manu-
facturer of shoes cannot change to rubbers, nor the dairy
farmer become a market gardener, without serious loss of
capital due to the change.
The high costs of supplies, equipment and labor have
affected the experiment station as they have all other lines of
human endeavor. It is of interest to have recorded some of
the changes in cost that have occurred over a period of less
than a decade.
The year 1911 has been chosen as the base of comparison
because in that year the appropriation from the Federal
treasury reached a fixed point from which it has not changed,
and this appropriation is an important part of the income of
the experiment station.
Chemicals, represented by the common acids and ammonia,
have advanced as follows, as shown by our invoices: sulfuric
acid, from 5 cents per pound to 8 cents; hydrochloric acid,
from 5^ to 16 cents; nitric acid, from 7^ to 14 cents; and
ammonia, from 7^ to 28 cents. Most other chemicals neces-
sarily advanced proportionally.
Fertilizers advanced in like manner: acid phosphate cost
$12.16 per ton in 1911, and advanced to $26 in 1919; tankage
increased from $37 to $94 per ton; and sulfate of ammonia,
from $68 to $128. Nitrate of soda and potash salts are not
mentioned in this list because their prices last year were all
the market would bear during the season, if they were ob-
tainable.
Feeding stuffs soared fully as high as fertilizers. Corn meal
averaged $24 per ton in 1911, and cost $67.50 last year. Cot-
tonseed meal rose from $30 to $67, gluten feed from $26 to
$64, and wheat bran from $26 to $47.
The laborer on the farm received $1.75 per day in 1911 and
averaged $3 the past year.
Apparatus and tools advanced proportionally to the increases
in supplies and labor.
During the same period the salaries of the members of the
staff have advanced much less proportionally, except in a few
cases of young workers who have been promoted. Assistants
with technical training, just from college, require about 60
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 7a
per cent more salary than was paid in 1911 to secure them.
Men and women with the technical training required in the work
of an agricultural experiment station are continually in demand
in the industrial and business world, where better salaries are
paid than can be paid here. This situation causes much loss
of time in filling positions vacated by workers who have
secured better positions elsewhere. It also renders almost
impossible the development of any new lines of research that
require additions to the staff of specialists.
One possible method of securing specialists for definite
problems is that of making attractive fellowships for post-
graduate students. The particular object of such a plan
would be the employment of a specialist during the investiga-
tion of the problem, after which the worker would seek a
position elsewhere as a result of the training received during
his fellowship.
Four resignations were tendered during the year because of
tempting offers from other agricultural colleges and experiment
stations; three were from the department of chemistry and
one from the department of horticulture. Dr. J. K. Shaw,
research pomologist, accepted the position of head of the
department of horticulture in the University of West Virginia,
which was a well-deserved opportunity which could not be
equaled here. He has been identified with this experiment
station for twelve years, and numerous publications of the
station bear witness to the quality of his work. Up to the
end of the year it has not been possible to fill the vacancy.
In filling the vacancies in the department of chemistry it was
found necessary to follow the plan of employing promising but
less experienced workers as the only available means of keeping
up the work.
Publications issued during 1919.
Annual Report.
Thirty-first annual report : —
Part I. Report of the Director and Other Officers; 61 pages.
Part II. Detailed Report of the Experiment Station; 274 pages (being
Bulletins Nos. 182-188).
Combined Contents and Index, Parts I and II; 12 pages.
EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Bulletins.
No. 1S9. The European Corn Borer and its Control, by Stuart C. Vinal
and D. J. Caffrey; 71 pages.
No. 190. The Propagation of Apple Trees on their Own Roots, by J. K.
Shaw; 23 pages.
No. 191. Practical Results from Studies on Egg Production, by H. D.
Goodale; 7 pages.
No. 192. Seventh Report of the Cranberry Substation, by H. J. Frank-
hn; 36 pages.
No. 193. Supply and Distribution of Connecticut ^"alley Cigar Leaf
Tobacco, by Samuel H. DeVault and Alexander E. Cance;
No. 194. A Fertilizer Experiment with Asparagus, by W. P. Brooks and
F. W. Morse; 27 pages.
Special Bulletin, November, 1919. Compilations of Analyses, by J. B.
Lindsey, H. D. Haskins, P. H. Smith and C. L. Beals; 101
pages.
Bulletins, Control Series.
No. 11. Insj^ection of Commercial Feedstuffs, by P. H. Smith and E.
S. Mixer; 32 pages.
No. 12. Insi^ection of Commercial Fertilizers, by H. D. Haskins, L. S.
Walker and J. B. Smith; 77 pages.
Meteorological Reports.
Nos. 361-372, inclusive, 4 pages each.
In some of the departments the important experiments are
of a continuing character, and consist of cumulative data
which do not permit any statements of results until definite
stages have been reached; hence, there are no detailed reports
submitted by these departments this year. Their important
lines of work are here briefly mentioned for completeness of
this report, together with certain needs and opportunities for
further usefulness.
The department of agricultural economics has been unable
to fill the vacancy produced at the beginning of the war
because the demand for trained workers in economics has been
far greater than the supply, and the opportunities for stat-
isticians and economists in the industries and in public work
are increasing rather than lessening. The work of the depart-
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 9a
ment has consequently been limited to some minor problems
in marketing and in farm ownership in which data could be
gathered by students and temporary assistants.
There are numerous problems in agricultural economics
which should be investigated as soon as the means of the
station will permit.
In the department of agriculture the field experiments with
fertilizers and crops were rearranged at the beginning of the
growing season, and it seems unnecessary to print a detailed
report until another year's results have been secured. An
important development in this field is the demand for definite
information about the efficiency of various natural sources of
fertility, such as pulverized minerals, peat and various forms
of bacteria, which are being promoted by interested parties
with somewhat extravagant statements of results obtained by
their use.
The important projects of the department of horticulture
with apples and peaches progressed favorably. A section of
horticultural manufactures was instituted late in the year, but
must await additional appropriations before any extended in-
vestigations can be conducted. There are exceptional oppor-
tunities for expansion in horticulture, as shown by the following
statement submitted by Professor Waugh: —
Extensive work in the manufacture of fruit products ought to be taken
up at once. The need of work in these lines is very great and very pressing.
Several lines in floriculture ought to be put under way. We have
really never done much of anything for the florists. The new and drastic
regulations with regard to plant importations have very seriously upset
their business. Extensive experiments in the propagation of plants and
in the substitutions of new varieties for old will be necessary in making
their readjustment. We ought to be at work on this immediately.
Additional experimental work in hnes of market gardening should be'
taken up at the earliest opportunity.
A project is already on file for experimental work in pomology to be
carried on in eastern Massachusetts.
Meteorological records are continuous and become more and
more useful each year as dependence on them is getting to
be common by the public. Lawsuits and damage claims are
frequently influenced by the positive facts regarding weather
10a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
conditions which are obtained from our records. As adjuncts
to our crop and soil experiments the records are indispensable.
Professor Ostrander makes the following statement about the
need of replacements : —
Some of our meteorological instruments have been in use for more
than thirty years and should be replaced, notably the wind-pressure instru-
ment and the Draper barometer. It is recommended that a replacement
fund of $200 per year be made available for three years, so that the
instruments may be renewed where necessary.
In this connection attention is called to the settlement of the tower
where the instruments are installed, which is more than 2 inches and
very uneven. It is suggested that in planning new buildings for the campus
some building be provided with a suitable tower, so that the meteorological
work may be moved to better constructed cjuarters.
The detailed reports of the other departments of the experi-
ment station and of the treasurer follow.
1920.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
11a
REPORT OF THE TREASURER.
ANNUAL REPORT
Of Fred C. Kenney, Treasurer of the Massachusetts Agricul-
tural Experiment Station of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, for the Year ending June 30, 1919.
United States Appropriations, 1918-19.
Hatch Fund.
Adams Fund.
Dr.
To receipts from the Treasurer of the United
States as per appropriations foi
fiscal year
ended June 30, 1919, under acts
of Congress
approved March 2, 1S87, and March 16, 1906,
$15,000 00
$15,000 00
Cr.
Adams : —
B}^ salaries,
S13,0S8 31
labor,
687 01
chemicals and laboratory sup-
plies,
225 38
seeds, plants and sundry sup-
plies,
129 55
fertilizers,
115 20
feeding stuffs, ....
201 25
scientific apparatus and speci-
mens,
553 30
15,000 00
S15,000 00
Hatch: —
By salaries,
$13,631 68
labor,
915 26
publications, ....
SO 50
chemical and laboratory sup-
plies,
20 59
fertilizers,
203 65
feeding stuffs, ....
6 30
furniture and fixtures.
1 20
scientific apparatus and speci-
mens,
120 82
contingent expenses,
20 00
15,000 00
$15,000 00
12a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
State Appro-priation, 1918-19.
Cash balance brought forward from last fiscal year, . 822,934 92
Cash received from State Treasurer, 37,789 82
fees, 3,072 48
sales, 15,931 64
miscellaneous, 3,751 73
$83,480 59
Cash paid for salaries, §23,124 31
labor, 22,301 84
pubhcations, 565 80
postage and stationerj^, 1,197 51
freight and express, 429 20
heat, light, water and power, .... 399 26
chemicals and laboratory supplies, . . . 1,445 46
seeds, plants and sundry supplies, . . . 3,162 65
fertihzer, 1,065 48
feeding stuffs, 2,629 17
library, 426 47
tools, machinery and appliances, . . . 390 68
furniture and fixtures, 152 24
scientific apparatus and specimens, . . . ' 155 20
live stock, 132 00
traveling expenses, . . ' . . . . 2,407 79
contingent expenses,
buildings and land, 1,502 91
Balance, 21,992 62
Total S83,480 59
1920.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 13a
DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY.
A. VINCENT OSMUN.
During the last year the work of the department has been
concerned largely with research problems, previously outlined,
and with miscellaneous activities more or less routine. While
no research projects have been completed, several have pro-
gressed sufficiently to make advisable the early publication of
results. The amount of research work under way has not
warranted the starting of any new projects during the year.
There are, however, many important problems pressing for
attention, and some of these are referred to later in this report.
A brief report of progress on projects follows.
In the investigation of lettuce drop, a fungous disease
caused by Sckrotinia libertiana, a very satisfactory method of
control has been worked out, and a bulletin on the subject is
in course of preparation. Some of the more technical phases
of this work will be discussed in a scientific paper to be pub-
lished elsewhere. The project will be continued for a time.
Mr. Krout has now carried his celery spraying experiments
through three seasons. The data obtained from plots in Am-
herst, Arlington and at the field station in Concord, with our
recommendations, will be ready for publication before another
growing season. The results have been satisfactory.
Investigation under the project on onion diseases has been
devoted largely to smut, caused by Urocystis cepulcc, although
miscellaneous data on other diseases have been collected.
Plots for the study of control measures for smut were estab-
lished in two fields, and extensive studies have been carried on
in the laboratory and greenhouse throughout the year. While
striking results were obtained, a more satisfactory method of
control than those thus far employed is sought, and the work
will continue.
14a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Dr. Chapman's tobacco investigations have gone forward in
a satisfactory manner. A report of this work up to the season
of 1919 has been prepared and presented for publication as a
bulletin.
In Mr. Clark's study of optimum light requirements of
plants, important data have accumulated. In the field com-
parative studies were continued on yield, size and reproduction
under different light intensities provided by the tents mentioned
in our last annual report. In the laboratory further studies
were made on the reaction between chlorophyll content of
leaves and the light intensity under which they developed.
Weather conditions during the growing season of 1919 fa-
vored the development of many plant diseases, and the early
season conditions were such as to retard and injure vegetation.
Low temperatures, accompanied by high winds late in April,
were fatal to peach blossoms which had blown, but few un-
opened buds were injured. The percentage of injury was so
small that material reduction of the crop did not result.
Japanese plums suffered more severely than peaches. Other
fruits did not sustain noticeable injury. An abnormally wet
May was responsible for much loss to vegetable garden crops,
especially from stem and root rots caused by certain soil
fungi, Fusarium stem rot of peas was prevalent throughout
the State, and the crop was greatly reduced by it. Instances
of total loss were not uncommon. Similar diseases of beans,
caused by a Fusarium and Rhizoctonia, were equally destruc-
tive. Potatoes suffered severely from rotting oft* of the young
sprouts by Rhizoctonia.
Throughout the summer instances of dying back of shrubs
and trees came to our attention. This condition was not
confined to any particular period, but its initial outward
appearance occurred on dift'erent plants from the time leaf
buds began to open until the close of the season. In the
majority of cases no fungous or other parasites were present.
After careful study of the situation it became apparent that
the trouble could be traced back to moderate injury from the
severe winter conditions of 1917-18. As pointed out in our
last annual report, many trees and shrubs thus injured, but
not killed outright, were unable to recuperate, owing to the
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 15a
unfavorable growing conditions of the summer of 1918. Others
were able to make more or less top growth, even under the
adverse conditions which prevailed. Apparently, root develop-
ment in the dry soil did not go on apace with growth above
ground, and consequently the balance between roots and top
was destroyed, resulting in dying back of twigs and branches
the following (1919) season. It is not unlikely that a small
amount of this resultant trouble may appear next summer.
The condition of the potato crop was in marked contrast to
that which prevailed in 1918. Mosaic disease, so widespread
and severe the previous year, w^as extremely difficult to detect
in most fields, although close examination usually showed it to
be present. There is marked seasonal influence on th-e ap-
pearance of this disease, and, apparently, conditions in 1919
did not favor the extreme development evident in 1918. Leaf
roll was much more in evidence, and spindling sprout con-
siderably reduced production, especially where home-grown
"seed" were planted.
Efforts were made to follow up the accumulated evidence in
regard to the parasitism of Phoma on potatoes, but no bona
fide cases of the disease caused by this fungus were found, and
attempts to produce it by artificial inoculation were only
partially successful. This supports the opinion expressed in
our last report that the weather is a prime contributing factor
in the parasitism of this Phoma, and that under normal
seasonal conditions the disease will not prove of consequence.
The condition of the potato crop up to the latter part of
August was generally good. However, the period from the
18th of that month until the time of harvesting the crop was
one of relatively low temperatures, high humidity and frequent
rainfall, — conditions highly favorable to the development of
late blight. The disease appeared in many sections of the
State soon after the middle of August. From that time on it
developed rapidly, and few fields escaped severe injury. A
few heavily sprayed fields remained green to the end. But, as
a rule, spraying with Bordeaux mixture only partially con-
trolled the disease. These failures should not cause growers
to condemn spraying w^ith Bordeaux mixture as a practice, for
it is definitely known that blight is very largely controlled by
16a EXPERDIENT STATION. [Jan.
it, except possibly under extraordinary conditions. Further-
more, it is not altogether unhkely that the majority of faikires
may have been due to lack of thoroughness and an insufficient
number of applications. However, the season's experience,
together with accumulated evidence from previous years,
indicates that there is need of investigation to determine
whether there are better methods and better fungicidal ma-
terials to use in combating these and other potato diseases.
The damage to orchard fruits due to diseases brought on
largely by the weather conditions of the season was very heavy
as compared with that of average years. On plums and
peaches, brown rot, caused by Sclerotinia cinerea; on peaches,
scab, caused by Cladosporium caryoyhilum; on apple, black
rot, caused by Physalospora cydonice, bitter rot, caused by
Glomerella rufomacidans , and scab, caused by Venturia inocqualis,
were especially severe. Fire blight of pear, apple and quince
was more than usually prevalent.
The serious outbreak of such diseases and the partial failure
of potato spraying bring to the fore the question of control
measures. No important experimental work on the control of
orchard and potato diseases has ever been carried on in this
State. Growers are following recommendations based very
largely on such work done in other States. Results have not
always been satisfactory, and this was true to a greater measure
than usual under the last seasonal conditions. There is also
lack of uniformity in results obtained from commercial spray-
ing of these crops in different sections of the State. Growers
and county agricultural agents are now more than ever before
turning to the experiment station for help in these matters.
The station should be able to make very definite recommenda-
tions backed by its ovrn experimental evidence. Such work
would involve technical investigations in the laboratory and
field spraying under Massachusetts conditions. Until such
work is done we shall not be in a position to state authorita-
tively what methods or materials should be used.
These are important, pressing problems, — problems vital to
Massachusetts agriculture. Immediate steps should be taken
to establish investigational work along these lines. Money
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. ITa
and men are essential. Either the growers or the State, or
both, should provide them without further delay.
Other important lines of investigation which should be under-
taken by this department include a study of various diseases
of market-garden crops and their control; studies of soil fungi
associated with "damping off," and stem and root rots of
many agricultural plants; and methods of soil sterilization for
the control of a considerable number of diseases the causal
organisms of which are harbored in the soil.
Seed work and plant disease diagnosis required about the
usual amount of attention. As has been pointed out in pre-
vious reports, all seed work is voluntary on the part of the
station, as there is no State law to provide for inspection and
regulation of the seed trade. Enactment of such a law%
requiring the station to carry out its provisions, would neces-
sitate increased quarters and the purchase of special equipment.
It is, however, by no means certain that there is urgent need
of a seed law in this State.
The filing of the mycological collection was completed by
the purchase of two additional steel cases. This is now a fine
working herbarium, and it is doubtful if it is excelled in accessi-
bility of material by any other collection.
IS a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY.
J. B. LINDSEY.
Each year it has seemed wise to make a brief statement of
the vrork in progress, usually under the following headings: —
1. Research SectiOxN^.
The study of the composition of butter fat, as affected by
food, breed, period of lactation and other factors, has been
continued under rather adverse conditions, due to changes in
staff which have necessitated several months of preliminary
training, with corresponding loss of time.
The butter fat from two grade Holsteins and from two grade
Jersey cows on the same ration was examined during the early,
intermediate and late periods of lactation. During the present
season the butter fat of four grade Holstein cows, divided into
tv.o groups, is being studied. The first group receives a basal
ration, and the second a basal ration with the addition of
coconut fat, peanut oil, corn oil and soy bean oil.
Numerous American dyes are being examined with a view
to securing an indicator applicable to the analysis of dark-
colored oils and fats and those containing aldehydes, for which
purpose phenolphthalein is poorly adapted.
Additional work on insecticides, in co-operation with the
department of entomology, has been reported. The products
studied were dry calcium arsenate, dry magnesium arsenate
and dry lime-sulfur. A new Bordeaux-lead and several samples
of lime-sulfur have been tested. Numerous samples were
examined in cases of suspected arsenical poisoning, and two
lots of pears for residual arsenic from spraying.
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 19a
A description of the Massachusetts bomb calorimeter was
pubHshed in the "Chemical and Metallurgical Engineering"
of August, 1919.
The work of the previous year on cranberries has been
continued and brought to a conclusion by the preparation of
two papers, one on the chemical changes that occur in the
fruit while in storage, and the other on the rate of respiration
of cranberries at different temperatures. These papers were
read at the annual meeting of the American Chemical Society,
and are now" embodied in the manuscript for a station bulletin.
In the pursuit of the investigation of the soil of the plots of
Field A, which receive sulfate of ammonia, it was found that
the conditions of 1910 and 1911 were repeating themselves,
apparently because of the dry weather during May and June.
Where lime had not been applied, positive quantities of soluble
salts of manganese were found, corn plants were stunted and
showed noticeable reactions for manganese in their ash, and
clover and grass seed either would not germinate or died soon
after germination, leaving a barren surface. Where lime had
been applied, whether six years previously or this spring, no
trace of soluble manganese salt was found and no noticeable
injury to vegetation was observed.
Mr. Jones has done much work on apple jelly in co-operation
with the department of horticultural manufactures. His work
has developed the need for a thorough study of the physico-
chemical properties of fruit jelly, and the relations to each
other of the acid, pectin, sugar and water, before jelly making
can become anything more than an empirical process.
A second experiment has been completed on the protein
requirement of growing calves, in co-operation with the agri-
cultural committee of the Council of National Defense. It
was begun in January, 1919, and completed in July. Eight
grade Holstein calves were divided into two groups of four
each, and fed on a high and low protein diet. The minimum
protein ration was somewhat higher than that fed the preceding
year. Digestion experiments were made from time to time as
the experiment progressed, which included the nitrogen balance.
In this trial both groups made substantially the same average
growth. This work was in charge of Mr, C. L. Beals, who
20a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
gave it careful attention and brought it to a satisfactory con-
clusion.
During the winter months digestion and metabolizable
energy experiments were continued with horses. A number of
by-products were tested, and several experiments for the pre-
ceding year were repeated. When the results of trials with
two horses do not agree, it is advisable to repeat the experi-
ment in order to make sure of the results.
Digestion trials with the aid of sheep were conducted on a
number of proprietary grain mixtures, on oat feed and oat
hulls, and repeated tests with carrots.
One experiment has been completed on cows with velvet
bean feed, and another with oat feed.
Two experiments with lactic acid as an aid in promoting
growth in pigs have been completed. While lactic acid when
fed in small amounts (not exceeding .8 per cent in the slop)
may serve as an appetizer in some cases, its use in the experi-
ments conducted by us was negative in character.
The results of all our experiments with velvet bean feed and
with lactic acid have been prepared for publication.
Observations with forage crops were continued. Sweet clover
gave a satisfactory yield at the first cutting in June, but failed
to recover afterwards. During four years we have only suc-
ceeded once in getting a growth after the first cutting. As was
remarked last year, we fail to see any use for this crop under
conditions ordinarily prevailing in Massachusetts, excepting its
use in some cases as a soil renovator.
The yield of Sudan grass was light, owing to the poor catch.
This has now happened for two successive years. In our judg-
ment barnyard millet is a surer crop and is to be preferred.
The yield of dry matter on plots planted to corn, and to
corn and soy beans grown together, has been determined, and
this experiment, together with other data relative to corn and
soy beans, has been prepared for publication.
2. Fertilizer Section.
The work of the fertilizer section may be summarized as
follows : —
1920.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
21a
(a) Fertilizers registered.
During the season of 1919, 101 manufacturers, importers and
dealers have secured certificates for the sale of 468 brands of
fertilizer, fertilizing materials and agricultural limes. They
may be classed as follows : —
Complete fertilizers, 143
Ammoniated superphosphates, 174
Ground bone, tankage and dry ground fish, 48
Wood ashes, 4
Chemicals and organic nitrogen compounds, 71
Agricultural limes, 28
468
(h) Fertilizers collected and analyzed.
During the year 7,237 tons of fertilizer were sampled,
necessitating the sampling of 14,889 sacks; 153 towns were
visited; 1,029 samples, representing 418 distinct brands, were
drawn from stock found in the possession of 369 different
agents or owners; 616 analyses were made in the year's in-
spection. The materials inspected, as well as the number of
analyses made, are given in the following table : —
Analyses.
Brands.
Complete fertilizers
Ammoniated superphosphates
Superphosphate and potash
Ground bone, tankage and dry ground fish
Nitrogen compounds,
Phosphoric acid and potash compounds, .....
Wood ashes
Lime compounds
Ground rock,
151
201
2
62
90
42
39
28
1
121
42
31
4
24
1
(c) Fertilizer Tonnage.
In accordance with chapter 220, General Acts of 1918, a
declaration of the tonnage of fertilizers sold in Massachusetts
has been made. From these data we find that from Julv 1,
22a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
1918, to July 1, 1919, this amounted to a total of 54,878 tons,
divided as follows : —
Tons.
Mixed fertilizers, 42,689
Unmixed materials, 12,189
Full details regarding the fertilizer inspection work may be
found in Bulletin No. 12, Control Series, published in October,
1919.
(f/) Other Activities of the Fertilizer Section.
In addition to the work incidental to the fertilizer control, a
great variety of by-products having more or less value as
fertilizers have been analyzed, and the best methods of balanc-
ing and utilizing these products have been furnished to the
parties interested.
The usual number of soil samples has also been tested for
their lime absorption capacity and organic matter, and advice
has been furnished as to the best treatment of the soils v»ith
lime and fertilizer for the crops to be grown.
During November, December, January, February and INIarch
much co-operative chemical work was done on the problems of
the agricultural department of the experiment station. The
above work may be summarized as follows: —
Dry matter determinations on 15 samples of hard fiint corn.
Dry matter determinations on 15 samples of cob of hard fiint corn.
Dry matter determinations on 15 samples of soft flint corn.
Dry matter determinations on 15 samples of cob of soft fiint corn.
Dry matter determinations on 15 samples of corn stover.
Dry matter determinations on 6 samples of carrots.
Dry matter determinations on 6 samples of carrot tops.
Dry matter determinations on 4 samples of turnips.
Weights and dry matter determinations on 290 samples of millet seed.
Weights and dry matter determinations on 290 samples of millet straw.
Nitrogen tests on 123 samples of millet seed and straw.
Potash tests on 62 samples of millet seed and straw.
Phosphoric acid tests on 12 samples of millet seed and straw.
In addition to the above tests, 347 different substances have
been received and analyzed for farmers and the various de-
partments of the experiment station. They may be grouped
as follows: —
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 23a
Fertilizers and fertilizer by-products, 157
Mixed feeds, 41
Lime products, 7
Soils for lime absorption capacity and organic matter tests, . . 137
Soils for complete analyses, 5
Total, 347
(e) Vegetation Tests.
Pot experiments (24 pots with millet as crop) have been
conducted with bacterized peat, to show the crop-producing
power of treated peat with and without bacteria. A com-
parison of the two peat mixtures was also made by chemical
investigation in the laboratory.
Two field experiments were also made on the peat mixtures,
one comprising eight plots with tomatoes, and the other eight
plots with potatoes.
Two field experiments were also made to study the avail-
ability of the phosphoric acid in apatite and barium sulfide
(Barium-Phosphate). One experiment with potatoes, situated
north of the chemical laboratory, comprised fifteen plots, and
was a continuation of the apatite experiment of the preceding
year. The other was a first-year experiment laid out on the
Tillson Farm, comprising thirty-eight plots, with potatoes as a
crop. This experiment will be continued for a number of
years.
In addition to the above, a tile experiment was run with
dwarf Essex rape as a crop, forty-six tiles being employed.
Apatite and barium sulfide were under study in this experi-
ment, soil being used which was known to be deficient in
available phosphoric acid. The results of the above will be
reported in a later publication.
3. Feed and Dairy Section,
Work of the feed and dairy section has been continued along
the following lines : —
24a EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan.
(a) The Feedijig-stuffs Laiv (Acts and Resolves for 1912,
Chapter 527).
During the past year 1,084 samples of feeding stuffs were
collected of dealers, and the results reported in Bulletin No. 11,
Control Series. One hundred and thirty-six dealers located in
116 towns were visited at least once. One thousand four
hundred and ninety-six brands of feeding stuffs were registered
for sale.
There were no prosecutions for violations of the law except
such as were referred to the United States Department of
Agriculture under the authority of the pure food and drugs
act. With the aid of the Federal officers one car of low-grade
cottonseed meal was seized, and a number of other cases are
now in their hands pending settlement.
National prohibition has affected the feedstuff situation to
some extent, but not so seriously as its opponents would have
us believe. While distillers' and brewers' by-products have
been practically out of the market, the limited output being
largely absorbed by manufacturers of prepared rations, it has
been possible for the dairy farmer to secure other products in
sufficient variety to make satisfactory rations, and at a price
usually lower than that asked for proprietary mixtures.
Prices have ruled high for all feeding stuffs, but with a
range so great becween different commodities that the feeder
has never before had a better opportunity, through intelligent
judgment in their purchase, to effect large savings in the cost
of necessary grain.
Q}) The Dairy Laiv (Ads and Resolves for 1912, Chapter 218).
(1) Examination for Certificates. — Twenty-four applicants
have been examined and found proficient.
(2) Inspection of Glassware. — Five thousand two hundred
and twenty-eight pieces of Babcock glassware have been tested
for accuracy, of which only 3 were condemned.
Following is a summary for the last nineteen years: —
1920.1
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
25 a
Year.
Number of
Pieces tested.
Number of
Pieces
condemned.
Percentage
condemned.
1901
5,041
291
5.77
1902
2,344
56
2.40
1903
2,240
57
2.54
1904
2,026
200
9.87
1905
1,665
197
11.83
1906
2,457
763
31.05
1907
3,082
204
6.62
1908.
2,713
33
1.22
1909
4,071
43
1.06
1910,
4,047
41
1.01
1911,
4,466
12
.27
1912
6,056«
27
.45
1913,
6,394
34
.53
1914,
6,.336
IS
.28
1915
4,956
4
.08
1916
5,184
5
.10
1917
7 522
8
10
11
1918
3,120
.32
1919
5,228
3
.06
Totals,
78,948
2,006
2.54
(3) Inspection of Machines and Apparatus. — During the
months of November and December Mr. J. T. Howard, the
authorized deputy, inspected the machines and apparatus in
89 milk depots, creameries and milk inspectors' laboratories.
Two machines were condemned, and minor repairs ordered in
three others.
Following is a list of creameries, milk depots and milk
inspectors' laboratories visited in 1919: —
26 a
EXPERIMENT STATION.
[Jan .
Creameries.
Location.
Name.
Manager or Proprietor.
1. Amherst, .
2. Ashfield, .
3. Cummington,
4. Easthampton,
5. Monterey,
6. Northfield,
7. Shelburne,
Amherst, ...
Ashfield Co-operative,
Cummington Co-operative,
Easthampton Co-operative Milk
Association.
Berkshire Hills Co-operative, .
Northfield Co-operative, .
Shelburne Co-operative, .
R. W. Pease, proprietor.
Wm. Hunter, manager.
D. C. Morey, manager.
W. N. Gaylord, manager.
F. A. Campbell, manager.
W. C. Webber, manager.
Arlington,
Boston,
Brockton,
Cambridge,
Charlestown,
Conway, .
Dorchester,
East Watertown,
Everett, .
Forest Hills,
Greenfield,
Jamaica Plain,
Lawrence,
North Egremont,
Sheffield, . .
Shelburne Falls,
Southborough,
Somerville,
Springfield,
Waltham,
West Lynn,
West Somerville,
Milk Depots.
. David Buttrick.
. Oak Grove Farm.
Plymouth Creamery Company.
. Producers Dairy Company.
. C. Brigham & Son.
. H. P. Hood & Sons.
H. P. Hood & Sons No. 2.
Rockingham Milk Company.
Turner Center Dairying Association.
D. Whiting & Sons.
. H. P. Hood & Sons.
. Elm Farm Milk Company.
. Lyndonville Creamery Association.
. Frank E. Boyd.
Hampden Creamery Company.
. H. P. Hood & Sons.
. Greenfield Dairy Company.
. Sterling Farm Milk Company.
Westwood Farm Milk Company.
. Jersey Ice Cream Company.
Turner Center Dairying Association.
Willardale Creamery.
Willowbrook Dairy.
Willowbrook Dairy.
H. P. Hood & Sons.
Deerfoot Farms.
Acton Farms Milk Company.
Tait Brothers.
Manhattan Creamery.
H. P. Hood & Sons.
Francis S. Cummings.
1920.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31.
Milk Inspectors and Laboratories.
Adams, A. G. Potter.
Amesbury, J. L. Stewart.
Amherst, P. H. Smith.
ArHngton, A. W. Lombard.
Attleboro, C. J. Guild.
Barnstable, G. T. Mecarta.
Boston, J. 0. Jordan.
Brockton, G. E. Boiling.
Cambridge, W. A. Noonan.
Chelsea, W. S. Walkley.
Chicopee, C. J. O'Brien.
Clinton, G. L. Chace.
Dedham, E. Knobel.
Everett, E. C. Colby.
Fall River, H. Boisseau.
Fitchburg, J. F. Bresnahan.
Framingham, F. S. Dodson.
Gardner, H. 0. Knight.
Greenfield, G. P. Moore.
Haverhill, J. A. Ruel.
Holyoke, D. Hartnett.
Lawi-ence, J. H. Tobin.
Leominster, W. H. Dodge.
Lowell, M. Marster.
Lynn, E. S. O'Keefe.
Maiden, J. A. Sanford.
Millbury, . .. . . . F. A. Watkins.
New Bedford, H. B. Hamilton.
Newton, A. C. Hudson.
North Adams, . . . . J. H. Foley.
Northampton, . . . . G. R. Turner.
North Easton, . . . . T. Glover.
Norwood, J. J. Mulvehill.
Pittsfield, A.L.Stone.
Plainville, . ... . J. J. Eiden.
Plymouth, W. E. Briggs.
Revere, J. E. Lamb.
Salem, J. J. McGrath.
Somerville, H. E. Bowman.
South Hadley, . . . . G. F. Beaudreau.
Springfield, . . . . . S. C. Downs.
Taunton, L. C. Tucker.
Waltham, G. D. Affleck.
Ware, F. E. Marsh.
28a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Wellesley, W. A. Berger.
Westfield, H.F.Moody.
Winchendon, P. E. Phillips.
Woburn, W. C. Mendum.
Worcester, G. L. Berg.
Miscellaneo^is.
Boston, Walker-Gordon Laboratory.
Boston Laboratories, Inc.
(c) Water.
Sixty samples of water from farm wells and other private
supplies were received and examined,
(d) Testing of Pure-hred Coics for Advanced Registry.
Four naen have been given regular employment in conducting
yearly tests on Guernseys, Jerseys, Ayrshires, Shorthorns and
Holstein-Friesians. These were supplemented by other men
as occasion demanded, there being not less than six men
employed for at least part time during each month of the
year. This work requires the presence of a supervisor at each
farm for at least two days of each month. At the beginning
of the year 45 farms had cows on test, the number gradually
increasing until 60 farms were visited in December, an increase
of about 33 per cent. Detailed information relative to this
work can be obtained by application to the pure-bred cattle
associations.
A summarv of the work for the year follows: —
1920.
PUBLIC DOCUMENT — Xo. 31.
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30a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
In addition to the preceding work tests of seven, fourteen
and thirty days' duration were conducted for the Holstein-
Friesian Association. Owing to the increased difficulty of ob-
taining men on short notice, as is often desired in this kind
of work, and to the impossibihty of guaranteeing the men
permanent employment, the experiment station has been unable
to supply men to fill all applications made during the past
year. It is hoped that the Holstein-Friesian Association will
abandon this type of test and conduct the more valuable
yearly work in uniformity with other breeds.
During the year 29 supervisors were employed at 35 different
farms, and 162 seven-day, 71 thirty-day, IG fourteen-day and
5 sixty-day tests were made and reported.
{e) Other Work.
This section has co-operated in making analyses of some
260 samples used in connection with feeding and digestion
experiments, and has analyzed for farmers and other residents
of the State, in addition to the work already stated, 498
samples of milk, 442 of cream, 7 of vinegar and 231 of feedstuffs.
NuMEEiCAL Summary of General Laboratory Work,
December, 1918, to December, 1919.
There have been received and analyzed in whole or in part
60 samples of water, 498 of milk, 442 of cream, 1 of evaporated
milk, 1 of human milk, 231 of feedstuffs, 157 samples of fer-
tilizer and fertilizer by-products, ash analyses of 41 cattle
, feeds, 7 lime products, 137 soils for lime, a complete analysis
of 5 soils, 3 arsenic determinations, 7 samples of vinegar and
7 samples of insecticides.
There were analyzed 616 samples of fertilizers and 1,084
samples of feed in connection with the regular inspections.
Samples analyzed in connection with experiments in progress by
the several departments of the station included 139 samples of
milk, 22 of feedstuffs, 49 of faeces, 25 of urine, as well as dry
matter determinations on 91 samples of crops, weights and dry
matter on 580 samples, nitrogen on 123 samples, and phos-
phoric acid on 12 samples. The above totals 4,338 samples,
and does not include work done on single research problems,
cow-testing work, or that performed under the dairy law.
1920.1 PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 31a
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
1/
H. T. FERNALD AXD A. I. BOURNE.
The following summary of the work of the department of
entomology during 1919 is herewith presented.
The resignation, the 1st of May, of Mr. Quincy S. Lowry,
LTnited States Extension Service Agent in Massachusetts, left
a large amount of extension work to be carried on by the
department. Correspondence amounting to between 2,000 and
3,000 letters during the year was of this nature, and as it fre-
quently happens that no diagnosis of the cause of the injury
complained of is immediately possible without further details,
several letters are often needed before advice can safely be
given.
In many cases all the information obtainable by corre-
spondence fails to result in recognition of the pest. Persons
asking for assistance frequently realize this difficulty, and urge
personal visits and an examination on the spot, and this is
becoming more frequent each year. Such visits have proved
to be more satisfactory and also more efficient than letter
writing, as would naturally be expected, and when they can
be accompanied by a demonstration of the right way to pre-
pare and apply the proper control measures, the highest degree
of helpfulness is attained. Unfortunately, absences from town
interfere seriously with the experimental work of the station,
for which its staff is engaged, so such assistance is given less
frequently than should be the case.
During the growing season of our crops — June to Septem-
ber — many people, instead of writing, make personal visits to
the office or use the telephone, long-distance calls being very
frequent. This was so much the case during 1919 as to call
for the almost constant presence of one man at the office
32a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
during business hours each day, thus preventing him from
carrying on the experimental work necessary during that period
of the year. The summer farmers' week also consumed much
time, when it was needed and really belonged elsewhere, so
that the actual station work has suffered severely.
In addition, there is a large and increasing demand for the
fumigation of rooms, and even entire houses, for the destruction
of household pests. This is work which is so dangerous,
because of the poisonous gas used, that it should never be
done except by those having had experience, and for that
reason treatments of this nature have been made by members
of the department. Still, it subtracts from the time available
for the regular station work.
In spite of the interferences above indicated some work has
been accomplished. A part of the correspondence has shown
that unknown insects were causing injury, and also that old
pests were working in new ways, and the investigation of such
cases is legitimate station work. Examples of this are: several
instances where the European corn borer was reported as work-
ing far outside its known limits of infestation; and the out-
break of the green clover worm (Plathypena scabra Fab.) on
beans, which seemed to call for the immediate testing of
various methods of control.
Potato Syraying Experiments. — As the tests made in 1918
showed a distinct superiority in results when the 4-4-50 home-
made Bordeaux mixture was used, and as this substance was
only incidental to the real tests which were on insecticides
rather than fungicides, only homemade Bordeaux was used
this year, while the arsenates of lead, of calcium and of mag-
nesium were tested in combination with it. All of these ar-
senicals were commercial brands in the form of a dry powder.
The arsenate of lead contained 33 per cent arsenic oxid, the
arsenate of calcium about 46 per cent and the arsenate of
magnesium 32 to 33 per cent. The quantity used in each
case was that given by the manufacturer for potato spraying,
and was such as to provide about an equal amount of poison
per gallon of spray for each of the three kinds.
As far as ease of preparation was concerned, no difference
between the three materials was observed, nor was there any
perceptible difference in the health, vigor or rate of growth
1920.] PUBLIC DOCOIEXT — No. 31. • 33a
of the potatoes in the different ph)ts. Satisfactory protection
from insects was also obtained with all three of the arsenicals,
which appeared to act with about equal rapidity, and no foli-
age injury followed the use of either spray. Indeed, the three
materials appeared to be ecpially good in every way except as
to suspension quality and cost.
As regards suspension, the arsenate of calcium settled toward
the bottom of the spray tank the most rapidly; the magnesium
arsenate was a little slower in this regard; while the lead ar-
senate remained unsettled much longer than the others. This
is a point definitely in favor of the lead arsenate, unless the
pump used is equipped with a thoroughly effective agitator,
when it becomes of less importance. As regards expense of
these materials, based on average quotations for 1919, the cost
of 50 gallons of spray for the lead arsenate used was 66 cents;
for the magnesium arsenate, 50 cents; and for the calcium ar-
senate, 45 cents.
These tests, so far as they go, would seem to favor the use
of calcium arsenate as being equally effective with the other
materials, and costing less. Other facts must be considered,
hovv-ever. The first is that the results of one set of tests never
supply information enough from which to draw safe, general
conclusions. Another is that tests of calcium arsenate alone
have shown that it burns foliage badly, and must be comibined
with considerable excess lime if this is to be prevented. In
the above tests the Bordeaux mixture supplied this excess of
lime. A third point is that these results were obtained with
potatoes, and enough testing on other plants has been done to
indicate that the results here reported may not hold at all for
at least some other kinds of plants. They do indicate, how-
ever, so far as a single experiment goes, that spraying potatoes
with 4-4-50 Bordeaux mixture combined with powdered ar-
senate of lime will give as good results as arsenate of lead or
arsenate of magnesium, and at a lower cost. Whether repeti-
tions of this experiment in other seasons and under varying
weather conditions will give the same results cannot now be
foretold.
Sulfoleuvi. — Tests of this material, which is claimed to be a
miscible oil containing a considerable per cent of sulfur in solu-
tion, were made mainly to determine its effectiveness against
34a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
plant lice. Here its value would, of course, be compared with
nicotine sulfate 40 per cent, which is now probably the stand-
ard material for this purpose. In recent years there have been
times when it was impossible to obtain the nicotine sulfate,
and a substitute easier to prepare than kerosene emulsion,
available at such times, and as effective as possible, should be
known, if such a material exists.
The Sulfoleum mixed readily with water, and did not separate
from it on standing, even for some time. As an insecticide for
plant lice it was quite effective, though not quite as much so
as the nicotine sulfate. It did injure tender foliage, however;
not excessively, but enough to make this a serious objection
to its use.
Applied as a "cluster bud" spray to apple trees it seemed
to be of some value for the control of the red bugs, and without
injury in this case to the foliage.
If some change in the composition of this substance can be
made by which it will be less injurious to tender foliage, with-
out any reduction of its insecticidal value, it should become a
useful material when nicotine sulfate cannot be obtained; but
from the tests made last season it can hardly be recommended
with its present composition. It is understood that the m.anu-
facturers are now working on it to find, if possible, a way in
which it can be made safer for use while maintaining its in-
secticidal value.
Green Clover Worm {Phdhypena scabra Fab.). — This insect
unexpectedly became extremely abundant last summer, and
caused serious injury to beans, stripping the leaves and eating
into the pods, almost everywhere in the State. Its work be-
gan to be noticeable in eastern Massachusetts a little after the
middle of July, and a week or so later it was evident farther
west. The insect is always present in small numbers, and
usually feeds on clover, but when it turns its attention, as is
sometimes the case, to other legumes it becomes a pest of great
importance.
When the outbreak began, an investigation was made, and
it was found that most of the recommendations for control
given in the literature on this insect were merely suggestions
as to measures which might possibly be of value, but which in
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 35a
the main had not been tested. Accordingly, experiments on
control measures were at once begun.
The materials tested were repellent and insecticidal dusts,
contact insecticides, and arsenical sprays and dust. The re-
pellent and insecticidal dusts proved worthless, partly, perhaps,
because of the habit of the caterpillar, when disturbed, of
dropping to the ground, but mainly because it was practically
impossible to cover the under surfaces of the leaves where
most of them feed. Contact insecticides also failed, the plants
in most cases being so closely matted together that the cater-
pillars could not be reached by the sprays, and when the plants
were parted the insects dropped to the ground, as already
stated.
Calcium arsenate, magnesium arsenate and lead arsenate
were used as sprays. These poisons, sprayed onto the leaves,
would be consumed by the insects when they ate through to the
upper surfaces, so the poison could be sprayed onto the plants
without disturbance, and left for the caterpillars to eat when
they got to it. As the insects after a short time eat entirely
through the leaves, this placing of the poison was effective.
The calcium and magnesium arsenates burned the foliage so
badly, however, that their value as insecticides was less than
the injury they caused. Lead arsenate gave entire success,
particularly if applied before the leaves had been badly riddled.
The only drawback to its use was in cases where the pods
were nearly ready for picking. In such cases the only way of
handling proved to be to thoroughly wash the beans gathered
after treatment, to remove the poison which had fallen on
them.
Arsenate of lead powder, dusted onto the leaves, was also
effective against the insects, but proved difficult to apply
evenly with any of the dusting machines, and where it was
too thick it injured the leaves.
Generations of the Codling Moth. — Whether the second
generation of the codling moth is sufficiently important in
Massachusetts to require a special late treatment has for years
been a question. It now seems probable that it is not often
large enough to need consideration. L^ncertainty as to the
best time for the second spring spraying for this pest has led
36 a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
to a continuation of studies on this insect, which have already
given interesting results. This investigation should and will
be carried further.
Studies on our Common Scale Insects. — Work on this subject
in 1918 developed new phases which promise unexpected and
possibly important results as to the reaction of these insects
to climatic conditions. These investigations will, therefore, be
continued.
Seasonal Appearance of Pests. — Our insect pests vary in
time of their arrival each year- with the nature of the season.
As successful treatment should begin immediately upon their
appearance, if the most successful results are to be obtained,
definite information on this subject is much to be desired.
Work along this line has been begun, mainly incidental to
other observations and taking little extra time, but the results
thus far have been very suggestive, and seem to encourage a
belief that valuable conclusions of direct benefit in spraying
may be obtained. It is too early in this work to predict, but
so far this study has indicated the possibility that people in
different parts of the State can be given each year definite
dates on which to give treatment, comparable with that now
given for the calyx spray for the codling moth.
Tests of Standard Insecticides. — This project has now been
under way for a number of years. Its scope is such, however,
that final conclusions and the end of the work are not yet
in sight, though certain results have already been obtained.
About 2,000 different tests on this project were made last
summer, and the data are now being studied. It was thought
wise this year to include magnesium arsenate in the materials
tested, it was being pushed so much on the market, but the
results obtained thus far have been to show that it is entirely
too injurious to foliage in its present form for safe use. Further
tests of it will be discontinued unless it is prepared in a safer
form.
Studies on Bigger Wasps. — This is an Adams fund project.
Investigations here have also made progress, though, as usual,
less than could be desired. It is now evident that these in-
sects have been considerably overrated in importance as para-
sites, their reproductive capacity, and therefore the food sup-
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 37a
ply necessary, being less than was once supposed. Their range
of parasitism and method of life are, however, of much interest.
It is hoped that preliminary publication on this subject will
not be much longer delayed.
Onion Maggot Control. — The onion maggot is often a serious
pest, and further experiments along the lines indicated last
year have been made. The results of these have not as yet
been worked out, so that no statement of conclusions can as
yet be given. The maggot was not very abundant, and re-
sults therefore may be of little value, but the applications
must be made, in any case, before the insects appear when no
knowledge is possible of the amount of infestation there will be.
Garden Plot. — The use of a small garden plot near the
office has again been of much assistance. Many experimental
tests can be made there, and demonstrations of methods of con-
trol, for those visiting the office for advice, have been possible
in this way. The ordinary care of the plot has been given
outside of business hours, and, in fact, much of the work
outlined above has been done after the regular working hours
of the day, during the summer season.
Numerous lines of investigation which would be of much
benefit to residents of the State cannot be taken up under
existing conditions, as we have neither the funds nor assistance
with which to carry them on. One of these is the problem of
the lime-sulfur wash as compared with dry sulfur compounds.
Incidentally, a few tests have been made, but what is needed
is a careful series of comparative experiments to determine the
actual effectiveness of these materials, their ease of application
and of handling, their relative cost, and to ascertain difi^erences
in results with the different materials. Hundreds, possibly
thousands, of fruit growers in Massachusetts are waiting to
learn whether it is advisable to change from the wash to the
dry compounds, which are so much easier and cheaper to
obtain if water can be left out and the material shipped to
them in a drv form.
38a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan,
DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY.
H. D. GOOD ALE.
Good progress in establishing a strain of non-broody high
producers has been made. Indeed, it is beheved that such a
strain is already in hand, but the tests necessary to sub-
stantiate this statement will require two or more years.
A theory of the inheritance of broodiness has been developed,
based on the study of records extending over a period of six
years and involving over 2,000 birds. Generally speaking,
the fundamental hereditary basis of broodiness is alike in all
birds, but upon this basis may be superimposed genetic modi-
fiers, in addition to environmental modifying factors, which
operate either to increase or decrease the amount of broodiness.
Absence of broodiness is due to changes either in the funda-
mental basis for broodiness or to inhibitors; hence, there are
probably many different genetic kinds of non-broodiness.
Daily temperature records have been kept on a series of
birds, the chief interest of which lies in the discovery that a
bird's temperature drops sharply at the onset of a broody
period, and, if the bird is allowed to incubate eggs, returns to
normal only during the latter part of the incubation period.
It had commonly been supposed that the broody hen was in a
febrile condition.
An attempt to use the same piece of ground two years in
succession in rearing chicks proved unsatisfactory the second
year. To determine the reasons for this result requires further
work.
It may be of interest to report on the production of this
station's high-producing line in hands other than ours. Fifty-
five pullets, full sisters of the birds in our own pens, but
hatched May 27, i.e., after our own hatching season was
completed, left our hands as day-old chicks, and were reared
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 39a
in close confinement. One or two members of the flock began
laying in November, but most of them did not mature till
December. The average production for the flock, November
1 to October 31, was 185 eggs each, or a gross income per
bird of S9.25, with eggs at an average price of (30 cents per
dozen.
Previous reports have emphasized the value of maintaining
poultry under disease-free conditions, and have pointed the
way toward the attainment of this condition. Facilities have
been lacking to carry out our recommendations, except while
the birds were on range. However, several people in the State
have put this method to practical test,' some of the tests ex-
tending over a period of four years, and with uniformly suc-
cessful results, thus demonstrating that by starting with eggs
or baby chicks, and rearing them under clean environmental
circumstances, the disease problem in poultry can be controlled.
Owning to environmental circumstances beyond my control,
very marked alterations in projects have been necessary which
involve the practical abandonment of those phases that were
being actively pursued. Other phases, not subject to unfavor-
able effect from the environment, will be substituted.
Inbreeding is a highly desirable method for fixing desirable
traits in a strain. On the other hand, it often yields very
poor results from the standpoint of vitality. Investigations
of this subject might well be undertaken in a systematic man-
ner if suitable facilities were available.
40 0 EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
DEPARTMENT OF IMICROBIOLOGY.
C. E. MARSHALL.
During the year 1919 our energies have been devoted to
several topics of investigation, some of which have been pushed
further than others because of circumstances and conditions.
Food. — Three years ago we undertook the study of canning,
pursued it for a short time, and then had to give it up on
account of financial conditions. Considerable work, however,
was done in connection wuth heat penetration and transmission
for the purpose of destroying micro-organisms in canned foods.
This work was undertaken by Mr. E. G. Hood and Mr. G. B.
Ray, and has not been resumed until recently. Mr. Conrad H.
Lieber has been picking up the threads and pushing the work
still further.
In our first efforts we also began the study of micro-organ-
isms involved in canned goods, and especially those that are
so resistant that the usual heating does not kill them. This
was undertaken by Miss Louise Hompe. Miss Mary Garvey
has recently taken up this work to continue it.
Dr. Arao Itano pursued the study of hydrogen ion concentra-
tion and its influence upon the destruction of micro-organisms
in canned foods, and also upon the development of micro-
organisms. He has published an article dealing with the
scientific aspects of this theme in the Journal of General
Physiology. He has also taken up the study of anaerobic
conditions in connection with the development of micro-organ-
isms in canned goods, and presented a paper bearing upon this
theme at the recent meeting of the Society of American Bac-
teriologists. This work is continuing with the assistance of
Miss Garvey.
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 41 o
There is much else to be done before we shall be able to
complete our food investigations outlined three years ago, but
we are doing all that is possible with the help that is available.
Dairy. — At the beginning of the academic year Mr. Roy C.
Avery began the study of streptococci in milk and milk prod-
ucts, butter and cheese, in association with his brother. Dr.
Oswald T. Avery, of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Re-
search, who is studying streptococci in connection with diseases.
There is a wide field of investigation here which ramifies in
many directions having a practical bearing. Mr. Avery can
undertake only a very limited phase of the subject, but it
would be well worth the attention of the experiment station
to expand and continue the investigations in this field.
The De Laval studies have been continued as rapidly as has
been possible under the circumstances. Prof. A. N. Julian has
reported on the difference in the content of carbon dioxide in
clarified and unclarified milk. Mr, Max Marshall has prepared
an article, which was presented at the recent meeting of the
Society of American Bacteriologists, on the association of
Bacillus siihtili-s and Streptococcus lacticus in milk. This work
pertains directly to the influence of the clarifier in disturbing
the germ-equilibrium of milk. Mr. John Yesair has contrib-
uted data which indicate the influence of a centrifuge or clar-
ifier upon different micro-organisms.
The purpose of this work as a whole is to furnish an analysis
of what the clarifier does in the clarification of milk. A gen-
eral resume of this analysis has been published in the Amer-
ican Journal of Public Health.
Mr. R, C. Avery is also at present engaged in studying the
influence of the clarifier upon the pasteurization of milk.
Besides the above work there is work under way, upon
which we hope to be able to report some time, by Mr. E. G.
Hood, who is studying the colonization of bacteria in milk,
and b}^ Mr. James Neill, who is studying the influence of
Streptococcus lacticus upon certain protein changes in milk.
Soil. — Dr. Arao Itano, in connection with Mr. L. C, Whit-
aker, is pursuing the study of microbial changes of organic
matter in the soil, confining himself at the present stage of the
42a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
work to carbon dioxide determinations. Dr. Itano is also
doing a limited amount of work with peat decomposition,
which is under the direction of the department of chemistry.
The analytical work of the department may be summed up
as follows : —
Bacterial counts on milk samples: —
For the local board of health, 46
For local dealers, 23
For Sheffield district of Willow Brook Dairy, 741
Water samples tested, : . . . 6
Specimens submitted by town physicians, 120
Legume cultures distributed, 384
For alfalfa, 117
For beans, ' 24
For soy beans, 59
For peas, 61
For sweet peas, 2
For cow peas, 5
For crimson clover, 4
For red clover, 24
For alsike clover, 15
For white clover, 3
For sweet clover, 19
For vetch, 51
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 43a
DEPARTMENT OF VETERINARY SCIENCE.
PAIGE, D.V.S.
During the past year the hues of experimental work in the
department have been carried along in accordance with plans
of previous years, in so far as was possible. In view of the
fact that a part of the staff was absent during a portion of the
time in military service, both the investigation and control
lines of work suffered considerably.
Dr. J. B. Lentz, in charge of the poultry disease elimination
problem, was away from July, 1917, to August, 1919. Upon
his discharge from the service he decided not to return to the
department, but to engage in veterinary practice in his home
town in Pennsylvania. To fill the vacancy made by the retire-
ment of Dr. Lentz, Thomas G. Hull, Ph.D., of Yale University
was engaged to take charge of the poultry disease elimination
work. Dr. Hull reported for service Sept. 16, 1919.
Dr. G. E. Gage, associate professor of pathology, withdrew
from the department in February, 1918, for military service.
He returned to resume his work at the opening of the college
year in September, 1919.
Poultry Disease Elimination.
For three years prior to February, 1918, the agglutination
test of the blood had been made for the diagnosis and elimina-
tion of bacillary white diarrhea of fowls and chicks. During
that period about 35,000 birds were tested, with the most
favorable results. Flocks, in which the mortality of young
chicks hatched from eggs of hens infected with bacillary white
diarrhea ranged as high as 75 per cent, were freed of the
disease to the extent that not the loss of a chick occurred from
the disease after the test had been applied and the infected
birds removed from the breeding flock.
44a EXPERDIEXT STATION. [Jan.
In February, 1918, owing to the enlistment of Dr. Gage in
the army, it became necessary to suspend the testing for an in-
definite time. This proved a great disappointment^and danger
to the poultrymen. The Massachusetts Poultry Society, with
a membership of about 500 poultry keepers, petitioned the
Legislature of 1919 for an appropriation of 85,000 to enable
the experiment station to resume the work. After the usual
hearings before the committees on agriculture and ways and
means, the following bill w^as reported, which was enacted into
law and received the approval of the Governor on May 23,
1919: —
Chapter 185, General Acts of 1919.
An Act to provide for the Testing or Poultry and the Elimination
OF Disease.
Be it enacted, etc., as follows:
The department of veterinarj^ science of the experiment station at the
Massachusetts Agricultural College may expend a sum not exceeding two
thousand dollars out of the appropriation made for the maintenance and
current expenses of the college, in item numbered four hundred and
eighty-two of the general appropriation act, for the purpose of testing
poultry to ehminate disease. The deiDartment is further authorized to
charge a fee not exceeding seven cents for each test so made. [Aj^proved
May 23, 1919.
It will be noted that the act above carries an appropriation
of S2,000, whereas the petitioners asked for one of S5,000.
This is explained as follows: When the hearings w^ere held it
was explained to the committees that it hq,d been necessary to
suspend testing because of the absence of the men overseas,
who had had it in charge, and that it would not be possible to
resume operations until they had, one or both, returned to the
department. In addition, it was explained that poultrymen
would not care to have birds tested at the time of the enact-
ment of the bill because of the lateness of the season, when all
hatching operations were over for the year. In view of these
facts, and the additional one that the act could not take effect
until after the expiration of ninety days following its approval,
on account of its carrying an appropriation and the absence of
preamble, the committee on ways and means was led to
recommend an appropriation of S2,000 to carry on the work
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 45a
from August 23 to the close of the fiscal year, Nov. 30, 1919.
In providing this amount for three and. one-half months' work
the Legislature was extremely liberal in its appropriation, ex-
ceeding by a generous sum the pro rata amount asked for by
the petitioners.
In accordance with the provisions of the legislative act the
necessary literature, consisting of a circular letter and appli-
cation forms, w^as prepared in August and sent to the m.any
poultry keepers throughout the State. The generous response
to the letter was indicated by the early receipt of applications
calling for the testing of nearly 15,000 birds. Since that time
additional applications have brought the number up to nearly
25,000.
Mr. Oliver S. Flint, a graduate of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College, class of 1917, was engaged to collect blood
samples. He reported for duty on Sept. 9, 1919. After the
preliminary work connected with the application of the test
had been carried out, the collection of blood samples from
flocks throughout the State was started, and has been con-
tinued to date. On an average 700 samples have been col-
lected and tested each week. On account of the suspension
of the work during 1918 the collection of blood samples has
been somewhat difficult and expensive. It has been found
that pullets that have not laid will not respond to the test;
hence, it has frequently been necessary to visit a poultry farm,
take samples from the adult birds, then at a later date return
and procure samples from the pullets. If the work is carried
along continuously from this time on, much of the labor and
expense in the future will be eliminated, as each poultryman
will carry over from year to year much of the stock tested
the previous year.
From the date in September when the work of testing was
resumed until November 30, the close of the fiscal year, there
was expended in salaries, travel, express charges and equip-
ment the sum of $1,193.97. The receipts for the same period
from tests and sale of leg bands amounted to S401.96.
46a EXPERIMENT STATION. [Jan.
Hog Cholera Ixvestigatioxs.
The department continues to carry on its experiments with a
herd of garbage-fed hogs kept in co-operation with a farmer in
Amherst. The number of animals varies at different seasons of
the year from 75 to 150, All old and young pigs are given the
"simultaneous" treatment, consisting of an injection of anti-
hog cholera serum and virus administered at the same time.
Each successive crop of 5'oung pigs, spring and fall farrowings,
has during the past two or three years been given the "single"
treatment at about the age of eight weeks, this treatment con-
sisting of the administration of about 20 cubic centimeters of
anti-hog cholera serum without the virus. The immunity pro-
duced by this injection of serum continues until the animal
attains a weight of about 50 pounds, when it is given the
double or "simultaneous" treatment that ordinarily protects
against hog cholera infection for the remainder of the life of
the individual. One of the objects of study is to determine
whether or not it is possible to develop a strain of hogs pos-
sessing sufficient inherited immunity so that the trouble and
expense of the single treatment that is given at the weaning
age may, with safety, be omitted. Other problems under in-
vestigation refer to the kind and amount of serum and virus
required to produce a lasting immunity, the relation between
hsemorrhagic septicpemia, necrotic enteritis, suppurative pneu-
monia, hog cholera, etc.
During the past year there has been some difficulty experi-
enced in procuring the materials necessary for the conduct of
the experiments connected with hog cholera.
Incomplete Studies.
AVhen Dr. Gage left the department in February, 1918, to
enlist in the army service he had three studies relative to
Bacterium imUorum under way. These were enumerated in the
last annual report, as follows: —
1. Bacterium pullor^mi infection.
2. A comparison of the antibodies of B. pulloriim with those of the
B. coli-B. typhi-B. dysenterm group of agglutinins.
3. The toxicity of B. puUontm products.
1920.] PUBLIC DOCUMENT — No. 31. 47a
It is expected that during the next year some of these studies
may be completed and the results published in the annual re-
port.
New Investigations.
During the past few years the poultrymen throughout the
State have had serious trouble and losses in their flocks as the
result of two diseases that appear to be somewhat new to the
practical poultrymen and the poultry pathologists. They are
frequently found existing simultaneously in the same individual.
The marked symptoms of the more common is a progressive
paralysis of the extremities, coupled with a loss of flesh. The
other disease affects the eyes, one or both, and invariably
causes blindness.
To determine the cause of these diseases and their relations
to each other, together with means of prevention or successful
treatment, Dr. Gage and Dr. Hull, co-operating, have started
exhaustive and systematic microscopical, bacteriological and se-
rological investigations, which it is hoped may be productive
of results that will be published in a later report.
BULLETIJSr ]^o. 189.
DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGY.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS
CONTROL.
BY STUART C. VINAL AND D. J. CAFFREY.
FOREWORD.
During 1918 the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station and
the Bureau of Entomology of the United States Department of Agri-
culture worked on the European corn borer under a co-operative agreement
by which the station was to make a study of the life history, food plants,
methods of distribution and methods of control of the insect, while the
Bureau was to determine its distribution, develop control measures and
prevent its further spread.
Mr. Stuart C. Vinal, assistant entomologist of the experiment station,
was assigned to this work on the station side, and located in Arlington.
He worked day and night on the subject and accomplished an enormous
amount, but with such disregard for his health that when attacked by
influenza he was unable to resist it and died Sept. 27, 1918.
The person best fitted to take up and bring together for publication
the information gathered by Mr. Vinal was Mr. D. J. Caffrey, who had
been in charge of the Bureau side of the work, and who had been in close
touch with Mr. Vinal's investigations throughout the year, and he there-
fore took the material left by Mr. Vinal and has brought it together and
put it in shape for publication. Fortunately, most of it was already well
worked out, but providing the data obtained by the United States gov-
ernment as its share of the work, and the form and arrangement of the
whole bulletin have been Mr. Caffrey 's contribution. The line drawings
have been prepared by the writer of this foreword, from sketches made
by Mr. R. E. Snodgrass of the United States Bureau of Entomology.
H. T. Fernald.
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
INTRODUCTION.
Practically all insect pests of foreign origin found in the United States
have reached our seaports through the agency of commerce. The great
variety of living plants, as well as raw materials for use in manufacturing
enterprises and the miscellaneous freight and personal effects that are
daily received on our shores from all parts of the world, provide an ample
opportunity for the entrance of almost any destructive pest. Many of
these insect immigrants, on finding favorable climatic and food plant
conditions, become permanently established, and in the course of time
spread from their point of origin and become of more economic impor-
tance each year, unless checked by artificial agencies.
The danger existing from these involuntary importations of destructive
insect pests is still further increased by the fact that in most instances
their natural enemies are not imported with them. Under these cir-
cumstances the pest is enabled to extend its acti\'ities without being
subject to the natural handicaps imposed by nature. This results in a
more rapid multiplication and a greater degree of destructiveness than
exists in the original habitat of the insect.
Such, in brief, is the history of many of our most important and gen-
erally distributed insect pests of to-day.
To the long list of foreign pests now found in the United States must
be added the European corn borer, or corn pyralid, Pyrausta nuhilalis
Hiibner, which has recently become established in the eastern part of
Massachusetts.
The caterpillar of this insect has long been recorded in Europe and
Asia as one of the most serious insect enemies of corn, hemp, millet, hops
and other crops. Corn and hop plants are very severely damaged by
this pest, 50 per cent of these crops often being destroyed in some sections
of Central Europe.
As a result of studies made on the habits and destructive powers of the
European corn borer throughout the infested portion of Massachusetts
during the seasons of 1917 and 1918, it is evident that this species is
without doubt the most dangerous and destructive insect enemy of the
corn crop that has yet been introduced into the United States. As corn
is one of the bulwarks of American agriculture, and has within the past
few years become our most valuable crop from a monetarj^ standpoint,
it will be recognized that the problem of controlling this insect which
threatens to destroy a large per cent of the crop each year is not con-
fined to Massachusetts, but is a problem of national importance, which
must be acted upon promptly and thoroughly to the end that the insect
may be at least confined to its present area of distribution, if ultir
extermination is found to be impossible.
If this insect is allowed to extend its area of distribution and reacT
the corn belt of the middle western States, it will be a national calamity.
Although Massachusetts is universally considered to be a manufacturing
imate
reads
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 3
State, it should be stated that during 1917 a total of 2,806,000 bushels
of field corn were grown in the State which were worth $6,033,000 ac-
cording to the prices prevailing the 1st of the following December. This
is in addition to the value of the sweet corn, fodder corn and popcorn
produced in the State. Aside from the national importance of restrict-
ing the spread of this dangerous insect, the State of Massachusetts should
take all measures to protect the revenue obtained from its corn crop.
There are several other species of destructive corn borers known to
attack corn in the United States, the most important of which are the
larger cornstalk borer, Diatraa zeacolella Dyar, and the lesser cornstalk
borer, Elasmopalpus lignoselhis Zeller. These two species occur in the
South, and even to some extept in the northern States, but have never
become permanently established in Massachusetts or any other State
with a similar climate. They are doubtless unable to withstand the
severe winter conditions, and this characteristic has the effect of greatly
limiting their range of distribution. The European corn borer, however,
is not limited in its range by ordinary climatic conditions, judging from
its range of distribution in the Old World, and from its behavior to date
in the infested area of Massachusetts. The species would thus be able
to adapt itself to all parts of Massachusetts and ultimately to the entire
country.
In Massachusetts the only native stalk borer attacking corn is Papai-
pema nitela Gn., which more frequently infests the stalks of potatoes,
tomatoes and numerous common weeds. This insect, however, does not
normally occur in sufficient numbers to cause serious loss. During the
past two seasons, however, it has been rather more abundant than usual
and because of the fact that its injuries to corn superficially resemble
those caused by the European corn borer, much of the damage really
caused by the latter has been attributed to the native stalk borer.
SYNONOMY.
The species was first described and figured by Jacob Hiibner (2) in
1796. He described the male and female as separate species, — the
male as Pyralis nubilalis, and the female as Pyralis silacealis. Owing to
this fact the synonomy of the species in Europe is somewhat confusing.
Haworth (3) in 1811 refers to the species as Pyralis glabralis.
Treitschke (4) in 1829, and Duponchel (5) in 1831, adopted the name
Pyralis 'silacealis Hiibn., although recognizing that the Pyralis nubilalis
of Hiibner was the male of Pyralis silacealis Hiibn.
Guenee (7) in 1854 accepts the species as being identical with the
Botys eupulinalis illustrated in the Icones Insect orum of Clerck (1) in
1759. A study of the figure referred to in Clerck's work, however, con-
vinced later workers that it could not be the same insect. Nevertheless,
this error by Guenee led to the acceptance of Botys as the generic name
by several succeeding workers.
4 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
During the same year Guen^e (8) gave the name Botys zealis to a species
from the East Indies very close to Botys eupulinalis. After the descrip-
tion he adds this note: "It may be simply a variation of our eupulinalis,
or, rather, this latter may have become acclimated among us with the
cultivation of maize, and may be of exotic origin." In the present state
of our knowledge the first theory seems to be the most probable.
Lederer (9) in 1863 retains the species in the genus Botys, where it had
been placed through the faulty conception of Clerck's figure, by Guenee,
as previously mentioned. Lederer, however, accepts the figure of Hiib-
ner's nubilalis as truly representing the species, and refers to it as Botys
nubilalis. This name is accepted by Staudinger and Wocke (10) in 1871.
Moore (12) in 1888 refers to the species as Hapalia kasmirica. He is
followed by Butler (13) as late as 1889, who designates the species as
Hapalia eupuUna (non Clerck).
Meyrick (14) in 1895 removed the species to the genus Pyrausta, and
retained the nubilalis of Hiibner, in which he has since been followed by
Hampson (15), and by Staudinger and Rebel (17) in 1901.
We may therefore accept the species as Pyrausta nubilalis Hubn.
COMMON NAMES APPLIED TO SPECIES.
In Europe several different common names are applied to the species
under consideration. The names most frequently used are the "corn
pyralid;" "maize pyralid;" "pyralid of the maize;" "maize botys;"
"botys;" "millet botys;" and "der Maiszunsler."
In the literature concerning the insect which has been published in the
United States since its discovery, the species has been referred to as the
European corn borer and the European cornstalk borer.
The former name undoubtedly is more appropriate for the insect, as
the larvae attack all parts of the corn plant except the fibrous roots, and
do not confine their operations to the stalk as the name cornstalk borer
would imply. Although many plants are attacked by the insect, corn
is its favorite host, and is injured to a greater extent than any other com-
mercial crop attacked by it. The name European is adopted to indicate
its foreign origin, although the species is indigenous to other parts of the
world. Taking all facts into consideration, it is believed that the name
European corn borer is the most appropriate common name for the insect,
and as such it will be considered in this bulletin.
FOREIGN HISTORY.
Foreign literature contains a large number of references to the serious
damage caused by P. nubilalis, a loss of 50 per cent of the crops attacked
being reported by some writers. There is, however, a decided lack of
literature dealing with its biology and control. The only exceptions are
the brief and incomplete articles by Robin and Laboulbene (11) in 1884,
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 5
and of Jablonowski (16) in 1899. Robin and Laboulbene detail the
habits of the larvae and the character of their damage to corn, hemp,
hops and other food plants. The authors give an account of the severe
damage which resulted from the attacks of this insect on corn, hemp
and hops in the Department of the Aisne (France) during 1878 and 1879,
as well as short extracts from the writings of other European authors
mentioning the activities of this insect in various food plants. The
absence of parasites is noted, and brief descriptions are given of the larva,
pupa and adult. The authors recommend the burning of plants contain-
ing the overwintering larva-, during the fall or early winter, as the most
effective means of control.
Jablonowski records a very severe outbreak of P. nitbilalis which de-
stroyed a fourth part of the corn crop in Hungary during 1898. This
damage was especially pronounced in the large plains of Hungary, which
are very fertile. The author describes the character of the damage caused
by the larva to corn, millet, hemp, hops and various minor food plants.
The adult is described and figured very accurately; its habits of flight
are detailed, and also the o\dposition habits of the female. Mention is
made of a single parasitic fly {Ceroviasia interrupta Rdi.) which the
author bred from the larva. Reference is also made to Kollar (6), who
in 1837 recorded that some Ichneumonidse had been bred from the species.
For control measures Jablonowski recommends that early in the season,
when most of the larva3 are confined to the terminal nodes of the plant,
these upper portions be cut off and thrown into a water barrel, to be sub-
sequently treated with hot water or fluid manure. This procedure can
be repeated at short intervals because the treatment will not curtail the
harvest. After harvest the infested plants should be pulled up by the
roots and burned. In cases where the upper parts of infested plants are
harvested the remaining stubble should be lightly plowed up, collected
with a rake and burned. The author mentions the fact that the plow-
ing under of infested material does not injure the contained larvae. He
also states that after shelling the corn the cobs should be used as fuel
during the winter. The burning of all wild grasses that may serve as
host plants for the overwintering larvae is another general recommenda-
tion. These methods were found to be attended with considerable labor
and expense, but were very effective in controlling the pest in Hungary
during the outbreak of 1898.
HISTORY IN UNITED STATES (MASSACHUSETTS).
Discovery of the Insect.
During the summer of 1917 the senior author found many sweet corn
fields in the vicinity of Boston, Mass., which were being very severely
injured by light-colored larvae which tunneled in the stalk and later
attacked the ears.
Further investigation disclosed the fact that the identity of these dep-
6 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
redating larvse was unknown to the entomologists of that section where
the insect had been found. This aroused the interest of the senior author,
who had early recognized the serious nature of the pest. He accordingly-
collected pupae from infested cornstalks in the field during the month of
July, 1917, from which the adults emerged early in August.
Identifying the Species.
To secure the identification of the species concerned. Dr. C. H. Fernald's
extensive collection of both native and exotic moths was available at
Amherst, Mass. An examination of his European collection revealed
specimens of both male and female Pyralid moths, identical with those
reared from the infested cornstalks in eastern Massachusetts. These
European specimens had been determined by Mr. E. L. Ragonot, a French
lepidopterist, as Pyrausta mibilalis Hiibner.
Specimens of the moths reared in Massachusetts were also submitted
to Dr. H. G. Dyar of the United States National Museum at Washing-
ton, D. C, who gave the same identification, stating that it was a com-
mon and very destructive pest of various wild and cultivated plants in
the Old World.
A Previous Record in Massachusetts.
Prior to 1917 this insect had never been reported as occurring in the
United States, although the following supplementary facts should be
recorded. During August, 1916, specimens of dahlia stems infested by
lepidopterous larvae were sent to the Massachusetts Agricultural Experi-
ment Station from three localities near Boston, Mass. (Medford, Everett
and Lynn). Adults were bred from this material, but their identity was
not discovered nor their significance realized at the time. Later, however,
the senior author determined these adults as being identical T\ith the
P. nuhilalis bred from corn in 1917. Thus P. nubilalis was first bred in
the United States in 1916, although its identity was not known until
adults were bred from corn in 1917.
Preliminary Investigations.
As soon as this pest was found to be of foreign origin, and its potential
menace to American agriculture realized, its presence became of more
than local importance, and a survey was made in eastern Massachusetts
during the latter part of September, 1917, to roughly determine its dis-
tribution and any other pertinent facts bearing on the insect, and the
results of this preliminary survey were published by the senior author (18)
in December, 1917. At this time it was found that the insect had estab-
lished itself in an area covering approximately 100 square miles, im-
mediately north and northwest of Boston, Mass., and that the towns
at the mouth of the Mystic River were more generally infested than the
others. In this section are several cordage factories which import hemp
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 7
{Cannabis sativa) from Europe. This fact, together with the knowledge
that hemp is one of the favorite food plants of P. nubilalis in Europe,
at once suggested the possibility that this insect may have reached our
shores through this medium. Early sweet corn grown in market gardens
10 to 12 miles inland had been seriously attacked by this pest for the past
three or four years, and from this it is inferred that the species was im-
ported about 1910, although this date is a mere conjecture. At this time
(1917) sweet corn was found to be the only valuable commercial crop
attacked by P. nubilalis, the early crop being damaged to the extent of
10 to 20 per cent, while the loss to late plantings ranged as high as 75
to SO per cent. Several weeds and grasses were also noted as food plants
of P. nubilalis. Observations made on the feeding habits of the species
in the infested fields confirmed the original belief that the insect under
consideration was possessed of characteristics that would render it a
serious menace to the corn crop, and that it would be a very difficult
pest to control. Burning, burying or feeding the plants containing over-
wintering larvse were methods suggested for the control of the insect.
It was pointed out that measures for insuring or compelling satisfactory
handling of all infested material were very necessary, and that though
these results might possibly be obtained by local organizations of farmers
and gardeners instituting vigorous action, it seemed probable that the
matter must be taken in hand by the State or Federal authorities if the
insect was to be brought under control and its further spread prevented.
Pl.\ns made for Further In\'estigations.
Accordingly, Dr. H. T. Fernald, head of the Department of Entomology
at the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, notified officials
of the Bureau of Entomology at Washington, D. C, of the presence of
the European corn borer in Massachusetts, and reviewed the facts already
known as to the dangers existing from the presence of this pest. Plans
were immediately made for co-operation between the Massachusetts
Agricultural Experiment Station and the Bureau of Entomology, in a
further investigation of the insect, in order to determine its biolog>' and
methods of possible control. Special attention was to be given to the
food plants and distribution of the insect in the United States, with a
view to recommending quarantine measures that would prevent the
spread of the pest through avenues of commerce.
Quarters were established at Arlington, Mass., in April, 1918, and the
results of the investigations to Nov. 30, 1918, are presented in this bulletin.
Control Measures during Spring of 1918.
During the spring of 1918 a campaign was inaugurated by the Massa-
chusetts State Board of Agriculture, which had for its object the burning
of cornstalks and other infested plants within the infested towns. This
work was under the direct super\asion of Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler, Secretary
8 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
of the Board of Agriculture, and Mr. R. H. Allen, State Nursery In-
spector. The infested towns were placarded with warning notices illus-
trating the insect, and recommending the burning of all cornstalks re-
maining from the previous year. This was supplemented by a detailed
survey in each of the infested towns and the burning of cornstalks in
instances where the owners failed to comply with the recommendations.
The States Relations Service of the United States Department of Agri-
culture, through the county agricultural advisers and other agents, aided
in this campaign of publicity.
CoNTEOL Measures during Autumn of 1918.
In October, 1918, an extensive campaign was begun for the eradication
of all corustalks, weeds and crop remnants of the current season which
contained the corn borer larvff . This was under a co-operative agreement
between the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture and the Bureau
of Entomology, Section of Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations.
Crews of men were placed in each of the infested towns, who, under the
direction of competent foremen, burned infested material that had not
been eliminated by property owners or their representatives. This was
preceded by a similar campaign of publicity to that in force during the
spring clean-up work, although on a larger scale. Town and State officials
aided in this work in some instances by agreeing to destroy the infested
plants growing on public property under their jurisdiction, but, owing to
the early approach of severe winter weather, it is probable that the clean-
up of infested plants will not be completed until the early spring of 1919.
Quarantine Measures enacted and their Origin.
National Quarantine Measures.
In late July, 1918, it was found that many sweet corn ears exposed for
sale in the wholesale markets at Boston were iufested by larvae and pupae
of the European corn borer. This circumstance at once suggested the
possibility that these infested products might be shipped outside the area
already infested by the insect and become sources of new infestations.
As a result of reporting these facts to the Federal Horticultural Board
a public hearing was held at Washington, D. C, Aug. 27, 1918, to con-
sider a proposed quarantine of that portion of Massachusetts known to
be infested by the European corn borer. At this time, however, quar-
antine action was deferred in order to await the results of the field con-
ference scheduled to be held at Boston, Mass., Sept. 6, 1918, to consider
ways and means of handling the problem.
This conference was attended by entomologists and agricultural au-
thorities from all of the New England States, New York and New Jersey,
and by officials of the Bureau of Entomology, the Massachusetts Market
Gardeners' Association, and the Boston Produce and Fruit Exchange.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 9
A field meeting was held in the morning, during which those attending the
conference were taken to a badly infested sweet corn field at West Med-
ford, and the injury of the insect to corn and other plants observed. In
the afternoon the present status of the insect was discussed and sug-
gestions made for its control or possible extermination. The consensus
of opinion inclined very strongly to the belief that vigorous quarantine
and control measures were necessary if the destructive insect was to be
confined within its present limits. This course of action was favored
jointly by the entomologists and by the representatives of the market
gardeners and produce dealers present.
Accordingly, notice of quarantine No. 36, on account of the European
Corn Borer, Pyrausta nubilalis, was issued by the secretary of agiiculture
through the Federal Horticultural Board, and became effective on and
after Oct. 1, 1918. This quarantine order applied to the towns which
were known to be infested by the insect, and prohibited the interstate
movement, to points outside the quarantined area, of all corn fodder or
cornstalks, whether used for packing or otherwise, green sweet corn,
roasting ears, corn on the cob and corn cobs. No restrictions were placed
on the interstate movement of any of the enumerated articles that had
originated outside of the quarantined area and were shipped through it
on a through bill of lading.
Further investigation ■will probably show the necessity for amending
this quarantine order to include additional territory and other articles,
plants or plant products liable to contain the insect.
State Quarantine Measures.
The Hon. Elbert S. Brigham, Commissioner of Agriculture of Vermont,
learning of the dangers existing from the presence of the pest in Massa-
chusetts, immediately sent his assistant, Mr. H. L. Bailey, to investigate
the situation in the infested fields near Boston, and as a result the State
of Vermont issued a quarantine notifce, on account of the European corn
borer, which became effective on and after Aug. 26, 1918. This quar-
antine prohibited the movement of all stalks or ears of the corn plant
(Zea mays), either green or dried, from the State of Massachusetts into
the State of Vermont, unless written permission be secured from the
Commissioner of Agriculture of the State of Vermont. This restriction
did not apply to ordinary commercial dried shelled corn used for feeding
purposes, nor to any corn grown in other States and sent through Massa-
chusetts in transit.
A similar quarantine to that by Vermont was established by the State
of Connecticut, effective Sept. 20, 1918. Permits to ship corn on the
ear, stover or other parts of the corn plant (except the shelled dry kernels,
or cooked or preserved products, or corn grown in other States passing
through the State of Massachusetts in transit) must first be obtained from
the Director of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, and
accompany each shipment.
10 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.
In the Old Wokld.
The European Corn Borer, or Corn Pyralid, P. nuhilalis Hbn., is widely
distributed in central and southern Europe, west central and northern
Asia, China, Japan and the Philippine Archipelago.
Hiibner, in his original record of the species, gave the habitat as Europe,
western Asia, the Himalayas and Assam (British India).
A closely allied, if not, indeed, the same, species is reported from the
East Indies (8).
In the United States.
At the present time^ the European corn borer, so far as is known, is
found in the United States only in the counties of Suffolk, Middlesex,
MASSACHUSETTS
Map showing area in Massachusetts infested by European corn borer, November, 191S. Heavy
black line denotes limit of distribution.
Essex and Norfolk, in the State of Massachusetts. Thirty-four to^vTis
are infested, comprising an area of approximately 320 square miles, or
about three times the area believed to be infested after the discovery and
preliminary survey of the situation in 1917. This area is located imme-
» Nov. 30, 1918.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 11
diately west and north of the city of Boston, Mass., and has as its limits
the towns of Beverly, Danvers, Topsfield, Peabody, North Reading,
Reading, Woburn, Lexington, Waltham, Newton, Brookline and Boston.
(See map.) All the towns within these limits are infested to a greater
or less degree.
Granting that the section near the mouth of the Mystic River was the
original point of entrance, it will be noted that the European corn borer
has shown a decided tendency to spread in a northerly and northeasterly
direction. This characteristic has been exhibited by other insects intro-
duced from Europe, notably the gypsy moth (Porthetria dispar L.) and the
browTi-tail moth (EiiproGtis chrysorrhcea L.). An examination of the
meteorological records shows that during the periods when the adults of
P. nubilalis are in flight, the prevailmg winds are from the south and
southwest. This may be the decisive factor in influencing the direction
of the spread of P. nubilalis, as it is thought to be in the case of the other
insects mentioned.
The area given above is believed to represent very accurately the
limits of the district as yet invaded by the European corn borer. During
the past season several men were engaged in determining these limits.
In addition to this, the surrounding and contiguous territory in the States
of Massachusetts, New Hampshire and Maine was examined for possible
isolated infestations. Some other sections of these States were also ex-
amined because of the fact that their trade with infested sections near
Boston might have led to the involuntary introduction of the pest in
infested plant products. This was especially true of the summer hotel
districts in Maine and New Hampshire, to which shipments of sweet
corn were frequently made that had originated in the badly infested
market-garden districts near Boston.
Territory examined in Massachusetts.
All of northeastern Massachusetts was examined to the New Hamp-
shire line, and as far west as Tyngsborough, Westford, Acton, Sudbury,
Wayland and Natick. On the south and east the territory was examined
to Dover, Westwood, Canton, Randolph, Holbrook and Weymouth.
Special attention was given the sections adjacent to the large cordage
factories located at Andover and at PljTnouth, with the idea that the
pest may have been imported with hemp consigned to these factories.
No infestation was found, however, outside the limits of the area pre-
viously designated.
Several reports were received during the season that the European
corn borer was present in widely separated localities throughout the
State. Care was taken to investigate all of these reports, but aside from
those originating within the known area of infestation, it was found that
insects other than P. niibilalis were responsible for the reported injury.
12 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Territory examined in Neiv Hampshire.
The entire southeastern section of New Hampshire, in addition to
the Slimmer hotel districts, was examined for evidences of the European
corn borer by Mr. F. H. Gates of the Bureau of Entomology.
Particular attention was given the following localities, viz.: Portsmouth
and surroundings, including New Castle; Greenland, Rye and Rye Beach;
Hampton and Hampton Beach; Dover and vicinity; Rochester and
vicinity; Farmington and vicinity; Concord and vicinity; Hookset;
Manchester and vicinity, including Goffs Falls and Amoskeag; Derry
and Londonderry; Nashua and vicinity; Pelham; Windham; Epping;
and Thornton.
No evidences of the insect were found anywhere in New Hampshire.
Mr. W. A. Osgood, assistant to the deputy commissioner of agriculture
of the State of New Hampshire, reports that, during October, 1918, he
made a survey of the towns in the State bordering on Massachusetts,
but did not find any indication of the European corn borer. Mr. Osgood
had previously visited the infested fields near Boston, and had become
familiar with the appearance of the pest.
Territory examined in Maine.
The following locaUties were examined in the State of Maine by Mr.
R. H. Van Zwaluwenburg of the Bureau of Entomology for the possible
presence of the European corn borer : Portland, — city and suburbs,
including South Portland, Deering, Woodfords, Falmouth Foreside,
Peak's Island and Great Diamond Island; Kennebunkport and Kenne-
bunk Beach; Kittery; Wells Beach and village; Yarmouth; South
Poland Springs and eastward to Danville Junction; Bath, — city and
suburbs, including Woolwich; Rockland, — town and suburbs; Camden
and Crescent Beach; Bar Harbor, — town and vicinity south to New-
port Mountain and north to within a mile of Hull's Cove; Bangor, —
city and suburbs, north to Mount Hope, south to Hampden Highlands
and on east bank of the river south through Brewer to North Orrington;
Augusta, — town and suburbs within a radius of 2 miles north and
west, on east bank of river north to Riverside, east to Togus and south
to opposite Hallo well; Hallowell; Gardiner; Lewiston, — city and
suburbs; Auburn; Minot; and Mechanic Falls.
No evidences of the pest were found in the State of Maine.
During the progress of this survey Mr. Van Zwaluwenburg learned
that considerable quantities of early sweet corn, originating in Massa-
chusetts, had been shipped into Kennebunkport, Me., during the past
few seasons. One retailer stated that he had recently received sweet
corn, grown near Boston, that was infested with worms of some kind.
The merchant had sold this shipment along with his other corn, however,
and could give no testimony as to its ultimate disposal. A very careful
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 13
examination of this section failed to reveal the presence of the European
corn borer. This incident, however, demonstrates that the coastal region
from Portland south to York, in the State of Maine, should be very care-
fully watched for the appearance of the species.
Mr. John A. Roberts, Commissioner of Agriculture of Maine, reported
in August that his assistants had inspected sweet corn offered for sale
in the stores at Augusta, Me., and were not able to find any evidence of
the borer. Similar reports were received from Mr. Dudley of the same
office, and from Mr. Batchelor of the IMaine Agricultural Experiment
Station. These gentlemen had previously visited the infested fields near
Boston, and were familiar with the appearance of the insect.
Territory examined in Rhode Island and Conneclicut.
Reports were received concerning the possible presence of the European
corn borer in corn at Providence, R. I., but an investigation proved that
the injury was caused by Papaipema nitela Gn.
A similar report, received from Putnam, Conn., was investigated and
also proved erroneous.
FOOD PLANTS.
In the Old Wokld.
The principal food plants of the European corn borer in the Old World
are corn, hemp, hops and millet. Corn (both field corn and fodder corn)
and hop plants are recorded as being more severely injured by the pest
than any of the other commercial crops grown in Europe.
Foreign literature also contains references to a. great variety of minor
food plants, including heather (14); artemesia (13); nettles (13); oak-
galls (15); kidney-bean pods (15); grapevines (18); thistle (18); giant
weed, Arundo donax (12); pigweed, Awaranihus retroflexus (18); fuller's
teazel, Dipsaais fullonum (18); virgin's bower, Clematis vitalba (18);
and several species of wild grasses and weeds.
In the United States (Massachusetts).
At the present time corn (sweet corn, field corn and fodder corn) is
practicall}^ the only valuable commercial crop which is seriously attacked
by the European corn borer in Massachusetts, although other commercial
crops are attacked by the insect to some extent.
Corn is undoubtedly the favorite food plant of the pest. In the absence
of corn, and in badly infested areas, the insect habitually attacks and
enters a great variety of other wild and cultivated plants. Judging from
observations made on the feeding habits of the species during the seasons
of 1917 and 1918, it would not be surprising to find it present in almost
14 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
any plant possessing a moderately soft, fleshy stem or stalk, or bearing
a soft seed head during its early growth. Along the outer edge of the
infested region, and in areas only recently invaded, the insect is aknost
always found exclusively in corn.
In badly infested fields the corn plants are frequently inhabited by so
many feeding larvse thai all of the desirable plant tissue is quickly con-
sumed, and under these circumstances the larvse must leave their original
host and enter other food plants growing in the vicinity in order to obtain
food. Many of the eggs and smaller larvse are sometimes dislodged
from their original location on the corn plant and fall to the ground or
upon other species of plants growing underneath, or between the rows
of the corn, to subsequently infest these other plants. This character-
istic often accounts for the great variety of infested plants found in the
vicinity of badly infested corn fields.
The early season corn plants become dry and hard during July and
August. Many of these plants contain belated P. nvbilalis larvae of the
first generation, as well as small larvse of the second. The comparatively
soft tissue of late season plants growing in the vicinity often attracts the
corn borer larvse from their original food plant.
Plants other than corn, growing in areas planted to corn during the
preceding year, frequently have eggs laid upon them by moths resulting
from the over win cering larvse in the crop remnants of the preceding year.
In other instances the moths drift into areas where corn plants are absent,
and deposit their eggs upon the most attractive food plant at hand. It
is believed, however, that the moths prefer to deposit their eggs upon
corn.
Another factor which is of interest in connection with selection of food
plants is that the larvse prefer large healthy plants, growing in well-
fertilized land, to small plants of the same species, growing under less
favorable conditions.
List of Food Plants.
The following table will show the list of food plants in which the Euro-
pean corn borer has been found in Massachusetts to date. This list has
been compiled by dissecting the larva from each plant mentioned. Adults
were reared in instances where the identity of the larva was in doubt.
The plants are arranged in order, with regard to their preference as
food plants by the insect.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 15
Table I. — Food Plants of the Enropean Corn Borer in Massachusetts.
Common Name.
Scientific Name.
Part of Plant att.acked.
weed)
Sweet corn, .
Field corn, .
Fodder corn,
Barnyard grass, .
Pigweed (redroot).
Dock, .
Ragweed (hogweed),
Lamb's-quarters, .
Dahlia, .
Foxtail,
Lady's-thumb (smart
Burdock,
Horsewced, .
Beggar-ticks (bur marigold)
Purslane (pussley)
Crab grass, .
Scouring rush.
Panic grass, .
Timothj,
Goldenrod, .
Thistle,
Apple of Peru,
Gladiolus,
Chrysanthemum,
Celery, .
Sv.iss chard, .
Beans, .
Potatoes,
Tomatoes,
Beets, .
Spinach,
Oats. .
Turnips,
Zea mn7j.f
Zea mays, ....
Zea mays, ....
Echinochloa crus-galli Beauv.,
Amaranthus retroflexus L., .
Rumex crispus L. and R. ohtusi
folia L.
Ambrosia spp.,
Chenopodium album L.,
Setaria glauca Beauv., .
Polygonum persicaria L.,
Arctium minu.t L.,
Erigeron canadensis 'L.,
Bidens frondosa L.,
Portulaca oleracea L., .
Digitaria sanguinalis Scop.,
Equisetum spp
Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx,
Phleum pratense L.,
Solidago sp. L., .
Cirsium spp.,
Nicandra physaloides L.,
All except root.
All except root.
All except root.
All except root.
Stalk and seed head.
All except root.
Stalk and seed head.
Stalk and seed head.
Stalk and flower stems.
Seed heads.
Stalk.
Stalk.
Stalk.
Stalk.
Stalk.
Stalk.
Stalk. •
Stalk.
Seed head.
Stalk.
Stalk.
Stalk.
Stalk.
Stalk.
Outside stems.
Stalk and midrib of
leaves.
Pods, green beans and
the vines.
Vines.
Vines.
Tops (stem and midrib
of leaves).
Tops (stem and midrib
of leaves).
Stalks.
Tops (feeding on exterior
of leaf stems).
16 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Emphasis should be placed upon the fact that the great variety of food
plants attacked will undoubtedly prove a serious complication in the
problem of controlling the insect.
Several of these food plants or their products, notably sweet corn
(green), field corn (on the cob), celery, beet tops, beans (string beans),
Swiss chard, oat straw (used as packing material), dahUas, gladioli and
chrysanthemums, are commonly transported through the regular chan-
nels of trade, and may easily serve as agencies for carrying the insect
into new localities.
CHARACTER AND EXTENT OF INJURY.
Corn.
The folio-wing explanation, concerning the terms herein applied to
different parts of the corn plant, may be of assistance. The corn plant
is moncecius, bearing both staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers,
separate, but both occur on the same plant. The corn tassel bears the
male flowers and the corn silks are the female flowers. The cornstalk
consists of nodes (joints) and internodes (intermediate spaces). A single
leaf grows from each node. Each leaf is composed of three distinct
parts, — the sheath, the ligula and the blade. The sheath is the part
of the leaf surrounding the stalk, and, beginnmg at a node, extends up-
ward nearly to the next node, where it joins the long narrow blade of the
leaf. Although the sheath surrounds the stalk, the edges merely overlap
and are never grown together. The ligula is a thin, upward continuation
of the sheath, above its junction with the blade, at the point where the
sheath ends and the blade begins. The blade is the broad, flat portion
of the leaf. The pedicel is that portion of the plant by which the ear
is attached to the stalk. The pith is the soft, cork-Uke substance filling
the interior of the stalk, between the internodes.
Kinds of Corn injured.
In Massachusetts the larvse of the European corn borer have been
observed to attack sweet corn, field corn and fodder corn.
In the area now infested by the insect, sweet corn is grown to a greater
extent than either field corn or fodder corn, and most of the observations
herein recorded were made on sweet corn.
Wlierever field corn has been found within the infested area the plants
have been attacked by the insect with the same degree of severity as has
been sweet corn, and, due to its longer period of growth, the damage to
the ears is much greater than to the ears of sweet corn.
Only one field of fodder corn was located within the infested area, and
this was attacked by the insect to a slight extent. This infestation was
on the edge of the infested area in the town of Topsfield, where only an
occasional larva of the European corn borer was found.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 17
Injury to the Tassel.
The newly hatched larva of the European corn borer first attacks the
unopened staminate buds of the tassel. After entering and feeding upon
the internal succulent parts of several staminate buds, it enters the
stalk 2 or 3 inches above the lower branches of the tassel, and tunnels
upward for 2 or 3 inches. It then returns to its original entrance and
tunnels toward the base of the plant.
Within a few days the larva completely consumes the central pith of
the tassel stalk, soon causing a break at the point where it originally
entered. The broken-over portion of the tassel still remains partly
attached to the plant, and in this condition its yellow-white color and
broken-over position make it a very conspicuous object in a field of corn
in contrast to the green color and upright position of tassels not infested.
This t^-pe of injury indirectly affects the formation of corn kernels on
the cob by' greatly reducing the amount of pollen. In the process of
fertilization, pollen from the tassel must fertilize the corn silk in order
that kernels may develop. It is apparent that if pollen is not present
in large enough quantities the resulting ear of corn will show a lack of
fully developed kernels. Field counts made in badly infested areas
showed that as high as 61 per cent of the corn tassels had been broken
over and were barren of pollen. This high percentage of injury was more
common on late corn than on early corn, due, perhaps, to the greater
number of larva? present. Out of a total of 3,810 tassels, counted in a
field of late season, sweet corn at West Medford, Mass., 2,344 tassels,
or 61 per cent, were infested and broken over. Many ears of corn from
this field were noticeably small in size and with few kernels, even though
not themselves directly injured by the insect. Much of this loss is
beUeved to have been caused by the injury to the tassel, although this
belief is contrary to the opinion of botanists consulted. It is apparent
that botanists must reverse their opinion in this matter.
Injury to the Stalk.
In nearly all cases the terminal internode, bearing the tassel, furnishes
sufficient food for the full development of a single larva. Other larvse, if
present in the same tassel, are forced to leave and tunnel in the lower
parts of the plant for food. Their operations are generally confined to
the upper two-thirds of the stalk, but, if numerous, they may extend
their tunneling to the very base of the stalk, or even into the upper part
of the taproot. Wlien several larvse are feeding in the same stalk the
pith is nearly, if not entirely, consumed, and the interior of such a stalk
is found to be practically hollow. There is a tendency for the larvae to
work in the internodes of the stalk, but, when necessary, they commonly
pierce, and feed upon, the nodes. This latter observation is contrary
to published records on the habits of the species by European writers.
A total of 75 corn plants, growing in a badly infested field at West
18 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Medford, Mass., were carefully dissected and counts made of the larvae
found therein, in order to secure data concerning the number infesting
single plants. A maximum of 117 larvse, and a minimum of 7, with an
average of 46 laryse per plant, were found in these 75 plants. These
plants composed a total of 17 hills taken at random in different parts of
the field. A maximum number of 311 larvae, and a minimum of 151,
with an average of 206 larvse per hill, were found in these 17 hills of corn.
The 17 hills of corn composed of 75 plants contained a total of 3,503 larvae.
The actual count of one-eighth of an acre in tliis field showed a total of
2,855 plants, or 22,840 plants to the acre. Each of these 2,855 plants
was infested to a greater or lesser degree. An average infestation of
46 larvae per plant, as shown above, means a total of 1,050,640 larvae of
the European corn borer per acre of corn.
Natm-ally, this extensive injury to the interior of the cornstalk, to-
gether with the numerous entrance and exit holes of the larvse on the
surface, weakens the plant to such an extent that it soon breaks over and
lies prone upon the ground. The supply of nutriment to the ear is also
cut off, causing a small or aborted ear of corn. Even when only a few
larvae are 'present within the plant, the growth of the stalk and formation
of the ear are greatly retarded.
The tunnels left by the larvae of the European corn borer frequently
serve as sources of infection by various rots and fungi, so that the interior
of badly infested stalks is sometimes found to be a mass of putrifying
matter, occupied by various scavenger insects that have gained ad-
mittance to the plant by way of the entrance or exit holes of P. nvbilalis
larvae.
Injury to the Ear.
The indirect injury to the ear by larvae of the European corn borer has
already been mentioned. This is caused (1) by interference with proper
poUenization resulting from larvae cutting off the tassel, and (2) by inter-
nal injury to the stalk, which cuts oft" the normal supply of nutriment
to the ear.
The ear, however, is also directly injured by the ex-ternal and internal
feeding of the larvse. Frequently the moths of the first generation, and
habitually those of the second generation, deposit their eggs directly
upon the silk of the ear. The newly hatched larvae feed first upon the
silk, thus contributing to improper fertihzation, and later they work
their way down into the ear, where they tunnel through all parts of the
cob and also feed upon the newly formed kernels. Sometimes eggs are
deposited upon the exterior, or husk, of the ear, and the newl}^ hatched
larva feeds for a time upon the exterior of the husk before entering the
ear, either at its tip end, or between the edges of the leaves of the husk.
The ear is frequently entered by partly grown larvse, which have left
some other plant or another part of the same plant. These larvse may
enter the ear at any point, — its tip end, along the sides, or through the
side of the pedicel. In other instances they tunnel directly from the in-
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 19
terior of the stalk through the pedicel and into the ear; consequenth^
the infested ears may not show external indications of injury.
A combination of these larval habits may result in the presence of
several larvse within a single ear. In one instance a total of 15 were
found feeding on the interior and exterior of one ear. Extensive feeding
of this nature reduces the ear to a soft, decaying condition, totally unfit
for market, and unsuitable, even, for feeding to stock. This deteriora-
tion is hastened by the introduction of various rots and fungi, which
gain entrance to the plant through the holes made by the borers. Even
when only a single larva is present within the ear, its feeding renders the
ear unfit for market, while its use for seed, or for storage in cribs, is abso-
lutely prevented, owing to the softened condition of the kernels and their
tendency to quick decay.
The percentage of ears infested in any given field depends upon the
degree of infestation. An actual field count, made in a one-eighth acre
plot of sweet corn located at West Medford, Mass., showed that, out of
a total of 3,311 ears present in this plot, the entire number were infested,
to a greater or lesser degree, by larva? of the borer. This plot was typical
of most of the fields and small garden patches of sweet corn found in the
territory where the pest has become well established. It serves as a
standard by which to judge the amount of damage to corn that may be
expected if the pest is not brought under control.
Injury to the Leaf.
Newly hatched larvse of the European corn borer may feed upon the
upper or lower epidermis of the leaf blade before they enter the buds of
the tassel. This type of injury is of no economic importance, except
that it offers a possibility for poisoning the young larvse by application
of arsenicais. Partly grown larvse infrequently tunnel into the midrib
of the leaf blade, and also feed between the leaf sheath and the stalk.
Summary of hi jury to Corn.
The economic injury to corn may be summarized as follows : —
1. Injury to tassel which resxilts in poor fertilization.
2. Injiiry to stalk which reduces vitality of plant.
3. Injury to stalk which causes breaking over of plant.
4. Injury to stalk which indirectly affects ear.
5. Injury to ear which directly affects the yield.
6. Injiory to silk of ear which results in poor fertilization.
Other 'Food Plants.
Dock.
In the absence of corn, dock is a common food plant of the first genera-
tion of European corn borer larvse. The plant is represented by at least
two different species in the area infested by P. nubilalis, and both species
20 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
are attacked by the insect. It grows plentifully as a weed in cultivated
areas, and also in waste places, generally preferring rather moist soil.
The newly hatched borer feeds first upon the tender seed head, or upon
the epidermis of the tender leaves. As the larva develops it tunnels
through the leaf petiole, and when about half grown enters the main
stalk. It then usually tunnels downward, feeding through nodes and
internodes, and consuming in its progress nearly all the interior of the
stalk. This causes a weakening of the plant which soon breaks over at
the point where the larva entered. The broken-over portion soon dies
and turns brown in color, thus rendering it a very conspicuous object
among plants not infested. A mass of conspicuous yellowish-white frass,
extruded by the larva within, generally adheres to the point in the stalk
where the larva entered. This serves to distinguish plants infested by
P. nuhilalis, even in instances where the plants do not break over.
The number of dock plants per acre is generally rather limited, so that
all plants of this species in a given area are commonly infested, depending,
of course, upon the degree of infestation.
Economically, dock is important in that it serves as an early season
host plant for the European corn borer in areas where corn is absent.
The second generation adults emerging from dock deposit their eggs
upon late corn and other commercial crops.
Barnyard Grass.
Barnyard grass is the most important and the most commonly infested
weed among the uncultivated hosts of the European corn borer. All
parts of the plant, except the root, are fed upon by the larva, including
the seed head, the leaves and the stalk. Barnyard grass grows luxu-
riantly in almost any waste area of gromid, or in the spaces between
economic plants in cultivated fields. It seems to prefer well-fertilized
soil, and under favorable conditions may reach a height of 5 or 6 feet,
with a diameter at the base of nearly half an inch. It is very abundant
in all parts of the area infested by the European corn borer, and serves
as a food plant for both generations of larvae.
The newly hatched larvae feed for a short time upon the green buds
of the seed head, and also upon the upper or lower epidermis of the
leaves. They soon enter the main stalk of the plant, however, and tunnel
upward or downward according to their individual preference. A doz«n
or more are sometimes found in each stalk, and as the stalks grow very
thickly clustered together in clumps, a foot or more in diameter, the
aggregate number of larvae infesting each clump of barnyard grass often
equals the number normally found in a hill of badly infested corn. Many
areas of vacant land, large or small in extent, throughout the infested
region, are thickly covered by barnyard grass clumps of this description,
which contain untold numbers of the depredating larvae.
Owing to the small diameter of most barnyard grass stalks, the tun-
neling of the larva leads to an early collapse of infested stalks, which
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 21
soon fall to the ground. This forms a mass of intertwined plants very
difficult to remove or destroy during ciean-up operations.
The chief economic signihcance of barnyard grass as a food plant of
the European corn borer lies in the fact that it serves as a common host
of the insect, and aids in its multiplication and distribution in areas where
corn is absent.
Pigweed, or redroot, is commonly found growing among cultivated
crops, or closely adjacent thereto. It generally serves as a sort of over-
flow host plant to accommodate the larger larvae of the corn borer which
have left their original host plant and are seeking other food.
In rare instances newly hatched larvae are found feeding upon the
green seed heads of this plant. This is generally caused by the dislodg-
roent of these larvae from their original host.
More commonly the plant is attacked by good-sized larvae which have
partly completed their development in other food plants. The stalk is
entered at any point along its surface, and the larva tunnels upward or
downward in the same manner and with the same results as have been
mentioned for other food plants.
Pigweed is not generally infested by the European corn borer with the
same degree of severity as are dock and barnyard grass, although it is
important economically as an intermediate host of the insect, and may
act as a host in the absence of more favored food plants.
Ragweed and Lamb's-quarters.
Ragweed, or hogweed, and lamb's-quarters serve as food plants for the
European corn borer in the same manner and extent as has been described
for pigweed. The larvae attack the green seed head and stalk of each
of these plants. Lamb's-quarters sometimes grows to a height of 4 or
5 feet, and develops a tough, woodj- stalk an inch or more in diameter.
It is perhaps the hardest and toughest stalk in which the larvae of the
European corn borer have been found.
. Both ragweed and lamb's-quarters are found widely distributed through-
out the infested area, although the number of plants found in a given
space is generally small.
Dahlias.
Larvae of the European corn borer tunnel through the main stalk and
flower stems of dahlias during the late summer and fall. The percentage
of dahlias in a given area, infested by the larvae, is generally very high.
In Arlington, and other towns adjacent to Boston, almost every group of
dahlia plants was found to be infested by P. nubilalis during the past
summer. Small larvae are rarely found in dahlias, most of the damage
being done by those which have hatched and fed for a time on other
plants in the vicinity, and are about half grown when they enter the
dahlia plants. Entrance may be effected at almost any place along the
22 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
main stalk or flower stem, but the favorite point is at the junction of
flower stems with the main stalk. The tunneling larva soon consumes
the interior of the infested stalk or stem, and that portion first wilts and
then breaks over in a djdng condition. It is then very conspicuous in
contrast to the stems not infested, and ruins the appearance of dahlia
plantings. Half a dozen or more larvse have been cut from a single dahha
flower stem.
The principal point to be considered in connection with the infestation
of dahha plants by larvae of the borer is that the species may possibly
be disseminated through the medium of cut flowers.
Chrysanthemwn and Gladiolus.
The stalks of chrysanthemums and gladioh are tunneled by larvse of
the European corn borer in a similar manner and with the same results
as has been described for dahlias. Infested chrysanthemum stalks are
commonly found in out-of-door gardens during the late summer and
fall, and also in greenhouse plots. This characteristic renders chrysan-
themums economically important because of the possibility that the
pest may be accidentally spread by transporting recently infested plants
which have not yet shown external effects of the larval injury.
Infested gladiolus stalks are found in out-of-door gardens during the
late summer, and though not as important economically as chrj^santhe-
mums, this plant may also be a source of danger through the accidental
transportation of infested plants to areas not yet inhabited by the pest.
Timothy and Foxtail.
Small larvffi of the European corn borer have frequently been found
feeding upon the seed heads of timothy and foxtail. This damage is not
important economically, except that it affords a host for the larvse of the
pest until they have reached a stage in their growth when they are large
enough to attack other food plants. Larvse of the species have never
been observed to feed within the stalks of these plants, and the plants
are never noticeably injured.
Miscellaneoios Plants.
The stalks of lady's-thumb, burdock, horseweed, beggar-ticks, purslane,
crabgrass, mare's-tail, panicgrass, goldenrod, thistle and apple of Peru
are often entered and tunneled by partly grown larvae of the European
corn borer. These plants are rather numerous in restricted areas through
the infested region, and serve as intermediate hosts of the borer, although
the plants themselves are of no economic importance.
Celery.
Nearly full-grown larvae of the borer have been observed to enter and
tunnel the outside stems of celery plants. This injury, however, has
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 23
been observed m only one field, and in this instance the celery was growinp;
adjacent to a very badly infested field of sweet corn. This corn was
inhabited by so rcany Jarvse that the food supply was apparently exhausted,
and the larvae were attracted to the green succulent stems of the celery
plants. Several were commonly found in each of the outside stems, but
none were found in the stems near the center of the plant.
Similar circumstances to those which resulted in this infestation may
be expected to occur from time to time, as celery is frequently grown
adjacent to or between the rows of corn plantings.
Celery may be considered an important economic food plant of the
European corn borer because of the possibility that plants containing
infested stems may be shipped outside the infested area.
SivifiS Chard.
The stalk and midrib of the leaves of Swiss chard plants were fre-
quently found infested by the borer under the same circumstances and
with the same result as has been recorded in the instance of celery. The
injury to Swiss chard, however, was observed in a number of fields in
widely separated localities. The green stalks and leaves of this plant
are commonly shipped from town to town and must be considered as
sources of danger.
Beans.
The pods, immature beans and interior of the vines of bean plants
were found infested by larvae of the European corn borer in several fields.
This generally occurred in instances where several crops were planted
together, and the bean plants served to accommodate the overflow larvae
from other food plants. The infestation was always foimd to be very
light in character. Under exceptional circumstances the bean plant may
become important economically' as a host of the borer because of the
possibility that larvae of the species might be transported within the
immature pods of string beans.
Potatoes and Tomatoes.
In badly infested areas the larger larvae of the European corn borer
may occasionally be found tunneling the stems of potatoes and tomatoes.
Not more than a single larva has ever been observed within a plant, and
the injury, so far as observed, is very slight and not at all important
commercially.
Beets and Spinach.
Larvae of the European corn borer are infrequently found tunneling
within the leaf stems of beets and spinach during the early fall. This
type of injury may be of economic importance because of the possi-
bility that infested plants may be transported for use as greens.
24 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Oats.
The stalks of volunteer oats were found infested by the larger larvae
of the borer in one instance. The injury and its results were similar to
that described for other plants with a like habit of growth (pigweed, etc.).
Only a very small percentage of oat stalks present wa;S infested.
Oats may become important economically as a food plant of the borer
because of the fact that oat straw is often used as packing material.
Turnij)s.
Large larvae of the European corn borer were observ^ed feeding upon
the outside surface of the tender leaf stems of the turnip. They were
not found within the turnip plants, and it is believed that this plant is
not at all important as a host of the borer.
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE DIFFERENT STAGES.
The Egg.
Average length, .97 millimeter; average width, .74 millimeter; circu-
lar ovate in shape, slightly convex on its upper surface, flat on its lower
surface, or conforming to the shape of the object on which it is deposited.
Exochorion sculptured with shallow pentagonal or polygonal pits. Endo-
chorion apparently smooth. Color, when first deposited, opaque white,
often strongly iridescent. In from eighteen to twenty-four hours after
deposition a crescentiform clear space is formed in the center of the egg
on its upper surface. About two days before hatching the egg assumes
a yellowish tinge, and soon thereafter the developing larva becomes
visible and imparts to the egg a yellow-black appearance.
The eggs are commonly deposited in irregular-shaped masses, each egg
overlapped by the adjacent ones m the manner of shingles. Each egg
mass is composed of from 5 to 50 eggs.
The Larva.
First Instar (see Plate I, Fig. 1). — Average measurements of 11 indi-
viduals, newly hatched. Length, 1.6 millimeters; head width, .30
millimeter. Length of head and prothoracic shield, one-fourth total
length of larva. Bodj^ subcylindrical, opaque white to yellowish green
in color. Tubercles large, prominent, pale amber gray. Primary setae
long, amber-colored. Anterior stigmatal tubercle on prothorax bisetose,
the upper seta the shorter; sub ventral tubercle also bisetose, the anterior
seta the shorter. Tubercles and setae iv and v are absent on meso-
thorax and metathorax; coalescent on abdominal segments 1 to 8, inclu-
sive; situated below the spiracle on segments 1 to 7; below and slightly
anterior to spiracle on segment 8. Tubercles ia-i6 and iio-ii6 coalescent
on meso thorax and metathorax. Setae ia and iia are shorter than setae
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 25
16 and ii6. Seta iii is of medium length. On the dorsum of abdominal
segments 1 to 7, tubercles 1 and 11 form a trapezoidal figure, while on the
dorsum of segment 8 they form a nearly rectangular figure. On the
dorsum of abdominal segment 9 is a large irregular-shaped, nearly oblong,
corneous tubercle bearing a long seta at each of its posterior lateral angles,
and a distinct pimcture on the median anterior border. The nearly
eUiptical preanal plate bears two short setae and one long seta along each
of the posterior lateral angles, and one short seta centrally located on
each side of the median line. Spiracles protruding, concolorous with
tubercles.
Head black or dark brown, declivous and flattened in the newly hatched
larva, becoming more rounded as the larva develops. Adfrontal pieces
not perceptible in this or succeeding instars until the fifth. Clypeus pale
and distinct from frontal piece. Labrum pale, bilobate, with normal
arrangement of setse. Mandibles reddish brown, not protruding. Ocelli
six in number, pale and protruding. Antennaj with shght tinge of amber
on distal segments.
Prothoracic shield averages .25 millimeter, slightly lighter in color
than the head, corneous, almost straight anteriorly, broadly rounded
posteriorly. Each half of the shield bears three sets on the anterior
border, two on the lateral posterior border, and one centrally located and
near the median line. Bases of setae surrounded by a black ring. A
perceptible indentation, but no division of shield along the middorsal
line. Venter of prothoracic segment appears darker owing to presence
of dark thoracic shield above.
Thoracic legs, abdominal prolegs, preanal plate and anal prolegs amber.
Circle of crotchets on abdominal prolegs broken e.xternally. Thoracic
feet and crotchets on abdominal and anal feet pale brown. Thoracic feet
corneous.
Second Inslar (see Plate I, Fig. 2). — Average measurements of 13
individuals, just molted: Length, 2.625 millimeters; head width, .46
millimeter. Length of head and prothoracic shield, one-sixth total
length of larva. Body subcylindrical, amber- white to yellowish green
in color. Tubercles large, prominent, pale amber, polished; iv and v
present and coalescent on mesothorax and metathorax. Otherwise the
arrangements of tubercles and setae are similar to precedmg instar, and
remain fairly constant throughout the remaming larval stages. The
relative length of the longer body setae diminishes in each succeeding
instar. Spiracles pale amber at center, with black edges. Bases of
tubercles and setse surrounded by a black ring.
Head deflexed. Clypeus pale and distinct from frontal piece. Labrum
pale brown. Mandibles reddish brown with black tips. Distal segments
of antenna? pale amber, otherwise colorless.
Prothoracic shield averages .414 millimeter vnde or nearly equal to
that of head. Indentation along middorsal line more pronounced but
no division. Venter of prothoracic segment darker.
26 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Thoracic feet and crotchets on abdominal and anal feet dark brown.
Preanal plate pale amber.
Third Instar (see Plate I, Fig. 4). — Average measurements of 16 indi-
viduals, just molted: Length, 4.75 millimeters; head width, .68 milli-
meter. Body subcylindrical and darker than preceding instar. Ab-
dominal segments, except 9 and 10, crossed transversely by shallow grooves.
Anterior stigmatal and subventral tubercles of prothorax contiguous,
nearly concolorous with head and somewhat corneous. Remaining body
tubercles as before.
Head deflexed, dark browTi in color. Cl3T)eus nearly concolorous with
head, and not so distinct from frontal piece. Labrum pale brown.
Prothoracic shield averages .71 millimeter wide. Line of division
down middorsal line semi-distinct for one-half distance from anterior
border. Venter of prothoracic segment dark.
Thoracic legs, abdominal legs and preanal plate as before.
Fourth Instar (see Plate I, Fig. 6). — Average measurements of 12
individuals, two or three days after molting: Length, 12!5 millimeters;
head width, 1.03 millimeters. Body cjdindrical, varies in color from
opaque white to pale or dark amber. Some individuals show indistinct
median and subdorsal longitudinal reddish brown or gray lines on the
dorsum. Tubercles of medium size, arranged similar to second instar.
Prothoracic tubercles not contiguous, sUghtly darker than remaining
body tubercles. Spiracles nearly concolorous with tubercles.
Head slightly paler than preceding instar. Clypeus not distinctly
marked off from front, concolorous with head, trapezoidal; average height,
.12 millimeter, average width, .47 millimeter. Labrum dark brown.
Mandibles dark brown, not protruding. Distal segments of antennae
dark amber, otherwise nearly colorless.
Prothoracic shield averages .98 millimeter wide, distinctly divided
along middorsal line, slightly paler in color than before, and often assuming
a yellowish tinge on anterior border. Venter of prothoracic segment
slightly darker than venters of remaining segments.
Fifth Instar (see Plate 11, Fig. 8). — Average measurements of 13
individuals, three days after molting: Length, 14.46 millimeters; head
width, 1.66 millimeters. Body cj^lindrical, varies in color from dusky
opaque white to light pink, with distinct median and subdorsal longi-
tudinal reddish brown, gray or pink lines on the dorsum. Tubercles
medium and distinct, pale at center and surrounded by a duskj- black
ring which in turn is surrounded, on the abdominal segments, by a
wider, pale amber-colored band. Tubercles on thorax uniformly dark
amber, same arrangement as before. Spiracles nearly concolorous with
tubercles.
Head polished dark brown, not quite as high as wide. Clypeus dis-
tinctly marked off from front, central area paler than head; average
height, .18 millimeter, average width, .66 millimeter. Adfrontal pieces
distinct for first time and extend to the vertex. Labrum dark brown
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 27
at base, paler at free edge. INIandibles dark brown, protrude slightly.
Distal segments of antennse amber, otherwise colorless.
Prothoracic shield averages 1.72 millimeters wide, more distinctly
divided than preceding instar. General color pale brown to pale yellow,
pohshed, with dark brown areas. Anterior border pale j-ellow. The
median posterior margin bears a triangular area, and two large irregular
areas are present in a shallow depression near the lateral corners of the
shield. The posterior and lateral marguis of the shield are dark brown.
Bases of setae surrounded by a distinct black ring. Venter of prothoracic
segment only slightly darker than venters of remaining segments.
Prothoracic legs concolorous with head, mesothoracic legs dusky ex-
ternally, metathoracic legs pale amber. Abdominal and anal legs as
before.
Sixth Instar (see Plate II, Fig. 10). — Average measurements of 9
individuals, four days after molting: Length, 19.95 millimeters; head
width, 2.19 millimeters. Body cylindrical, abdominal segments, except
9 and 10, crossed transversely bj- deep grooves. General color darker
than preceding instar, varying from dusky pale brown to dark brown or
pink. Median line narrow, dark brown and verj' distinct; subdorsal
line vague in outline, broad, pale brown or pink; lateral lines narrow,
pale brown. Tubercles medium and darker than general color of body,
more pronounced on thorax. Arrangement of prothoracic tubercles and
setse as before. Tubercles ia-i6, iia-iife and iv-v are coalescent on meso-
thorax and metathorax. Setae ia and iia are very much shorter than
setae ib and ii6. Seta v is very much shorter than seta iv, while setse iii
and vii are of medium length. Tubercles iv-v are coalescent on ab-
dominal segments 1 to 8, inclusive, situated below the spiracle on segments
1 to 7; below and slightly anterior to spiracle on segment 8. On dorsum
of abdominal segments 1 to 7, tubercles i and ii form a trapezoidal figure,
as before, while on dorsum of segment 8 these tubercles form nearly a
rectangular figure. Large corneous tubercle on dorsum of segment 9,
and preanal plate on dorsum of segment 10, with setal arrangement as
before. The setae on lateral anterior borders of prothoracic shield, setae
i& and ii6 of mesothorax and metathorax, the setse on dorsal tubercle of
segment 9, and the long setae on preanal plate are nearly twice as long as
any others present.
Head polished brown, with pale brown areas on epicranial lobes.
Clypeus as before; average height, .27 millimeter, average width, .84
millimeter. Adfrontal pieces more distinct. Labrum, mandibles and
antennae as before.
Prothoracic shield averages 2.34 millimeters wide. Colored areas on
shield similar to preceding instar, with additional small pale brown
depressions along each side of median line. The position and form of
these colored areas are variable. Ventei' of prothorax concolorous with
venters of remaining segments.
Thoracic, abdominal and anal legs as before.
28 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
The Pupa.
Average length of ^ , 13 to 14 millimeters; of 9 , 16 to 17 millimeters.
Average width of ^ , 2 to 2.5 millimeters; of 9 , 3.5 to 4 millimeters.
Color varies from light. to dark brown, venter comparatively smooth,
dorsum darker in color with fine transverse wrinkles. Form elongate
with peculiar "shouldered" appearance of the body, caused by the great
width of the thorax as compared with width of the head. Appendages
firmly cemented to the body. Wings, maxillse, antennae and mesothoracic
legs, together with metathoracic legs which lie beneath, are approximately
equal in length and extend to the middle of the fourth abdominal segment.
Prothoracic legs terminate midway between the head and the tip of the
other appendages. Dorsum of thorax very. dark, not shiny, with a distinct
smooth, slightly elevated ridge extending along the dorso-median line.
The fifth, sixth and seventh abdominal segments bear a ridge near the
anterior border, which extends completely around the segment. On the
dorsum of each of the fourth, fifth and sixth abdominal segments is a
transverse line of four bicuspidate projections of the body wall. A pair
of proleg scars are visible on the venter of the fifth and sixth abdominal
segments. The last segment of the pupa terminates in a dark brown,
or black, cremaster, which bears at its extremity eight small spines, ar-
ranged transversely, which curve forward at their tips and serve to attach
the pupa to its cocoon. Length of these cur\'ed spines about .19 milli-
meter. Spiracles ellipsoidal, prominent and borne on abdominal seg-
ments 2 to 7, inclusive. The pupa is alwaj^s enveloped in a thm cocoon.
The terminal segments of S and 9 pupae differ in shape and in arrange-
ment of plates.
The Adult.
Alar expanse: male, 24-26 millimeters; female, 29-32 millimeters.
Length of body, 13-14 millimeters in both sexes.
Head above covered with light yeljowish brown scales, except adjacent
to compound eyes, where scales are white; ventral surface, white. Labial
palpi porrect; second segment covered with dense projectmg, cinnamon-
brown to light brown scales attenuated to a point forward; terminal
segment concealed; basal segment covered with white scales. An im-
aginary line, passing through the axis of the body tangent to the lower
edge of the compound eye, will divide the labial palpi into two portions
according to their coloration, the upper portion being cinnamon-brown,
the lower portion white. Maxillary palpi light brownish, erect, slightly
dilated and converging at apex. Tip of labial palpi and maxillary palpi
the same color in female, labial palpi somewhat darker in male. Pro-
boscis long, with cream-colored scales, usually tightly coiled and almost
completely hidden by labial palpi when viewed from the side. Antennae
filiform, two-thirds the length of the front wmg, with a longitudinal
stripe of cream-colored scales on the posterior side; opposite side brownish.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 29
Terminal half of antenna often curled in preserved specimens. Ocelli
present.
• Dorsum of thorax cinnamon-brown in male, light yellowish brown in
female. Fore legs white exteriorly, fuscous internally. Ventral surface
of thorax, mesothorax and metathoracic legs covered with white hairs
and scales in both sexes. Inner spurs twice the length of outer ones.
Fore wings as wide as hind wings, costal margin gently curved toward
apex, anal angle rounded, inner margin straight.
Fore wing of female dull yellow, the costa and inner two-thirds of wing
more or less streaked with dull brown; a serrate brown line crosses the
wing at about its outer third, followed externally by a narrow j^ellow
band, the outer margin of which is also serrate; external to this is a brown
band shot through with yellow toward the outer margin. Hind wing
grayish brown, with a rather broad, pale band at the outer third, begin-
ning a little behind the costa and extending nearly to the hinder margin.
In some specimens the fore wing colors are dull yellow and cinnamon-
brown, and the hind wings very pale brown with faint irregular streaks
or shades of darker, instead of as described above; beneath, pale, with
faint reproduction of the yellow band on the fore wing, its margins darker
but not serrate. Male fore wing somewhat more reddish brown with a
yellow discal spot, and a yellow serrate band at the outer third beginning
a little behind the costa and often cut into outwardly by inward exten-
sions from the darker color outside, tending to break it into a row of lunate
spots; hind wings more gray, with the band of the female hind wing
tending to disappear at its ends and become a large, elongate, rather
oval area; beneath, dark, with a faint reproduction of the light band of
the fore wing and a lighter shade corresponding to the oval area of the
hind wing; also light along the inner margin over quite a width.
Fore wing (Plate II, Fig. 12): la very weakly developed, bending
slightly forward toward 16 at the basal fourth of the latter; 4 and 5 fairly
near at base, 5 arismg considerably behind the middle of the outer end
of the cell; cross vein closing end of cell nearly obsolete from 5 forward;
7 and 8 about as near each other at base as 4 and 5, 8-9 arising from the
end of the cell, but almost in contact with 10, which it follows closely for
some distance before diverging and forking, 8 extending almost exactly
to the apex. Base of lb enlarged, bearing a tuft of long, forwardly
directed hairs beneath. Hind wing (Plate II, Fig. 13) with three anal
veins; veins 3, 4 and 5 arising close together; cross vein forming outer
end of cell strongly re-entrant: vein 6 leaving the cross vein just before
it unites with 7-8. Frenulum in male consists of one long, stout spine;
in female (Plate II, Fig. 14), of two long spines and a shorter, more slender
one. Ventral surface covered with whitish scales. Dorsum of male
cinnamon-browTi (excepting first two segments which are amber yellow);
of female, amber yellow, the posterior border of each segment with a
fringe of white.
30
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
LIFE HISTORY.
FiEST Generation.
Incubation Period.
The eggs are deposited in masses of from 5 to 50 on the under surface
of the upper blades of corn or other food plants. They hatch, on an
average, in 7 days, with a maximum of 9 days and a minimum of 5 days
(see Table II), the duration of the incubation period depending somewhat
upon temperature conditions.
Table II. — Duration
of Incubation Period -
- First Generation.
Date of Depo-
sition, 1918.
Date of Hatch-
ing, 1918.
Incuba-
tion
Period
(Days).
Date of Depo-
sition, 1918.
Date of Hatch-
ing. 1918.
Incuba-
tion
Period
(Days).
May 24.
May 25,
May 26,
May 26.
May 26,
May 27,
May 28,
May 28,
May 28.
May 28,
May 28,
May 29.
May 29,
May 29,
June 2,
June 3,
June 3.
June 3,
June 3,
June 3,
June 4,
June 4,
June 4,
June 4,
June 4,
June 6,
June 6,
June 6,
9
9
8
8
8
8
8
8
May 29,
May 31,
June 1.
June 1,
June 2,
June 2,
June 3,
June 3,
June 4,
June 5,
June 6,
June 7,
June 8,
June 9,
June 5,
June 6,
June 7,
June 6,
June 8.
June 8,
June 10,
June 11,
June 11,
June 12,
June 15,
June 15,
June 16,
June 18,
7
6
6
5
6
6
7
8
7
7
9
9
8
9
Average length of incubation period 7.43 days.
Maximum length of incubation period 9 days.
Minimum length of incubation period, 5 days.
Larval Period.
In the course of their development the larva feed upon, and within,
various parts of their food plant, and pass through from five to eight
instars. Out of a total of 20 individuals reared from egg to pupa, in
life-history cages 14 individuals required five instars to complete their
larval growth, 3 required six instars, 2 required seven instars and 1 indi-
vidual eight instars. It is probable that, under field conditions, there are
normally five or six instars in this generation.
In 20 life-history cages the average duration of the first instar was
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 31
7.25 days; second instar, 6 days; third instar, 5 days; fourth mstar,
6.5 days; fifth instar, 13 days; sixth instar, 14 days; seventh instar,
8 days; and eighth instar, 13 days. The average duration of the total
larval period was 44 days, with a maximum of 57 and a minimum of 35
days (see Table III). The duration of each instar and the total duration
of the larval period depend upon temperature conditions.
After reaching full growth the larva forms a cocoon within which it
pupates.
Table III. — Duration of Larval Instars — First Generation.
Pigweed (Amaranthus) .
Dpratio^ of I.arval Instars in Days.
Date of
Pupa-
tion,
1918.
Days in
Larval
Period.
Date of
Hatching,
191S.
s
T3
■6
J3
M
1
>
i
Sex.
June 4,
June 10,
June 10, . .
June 10,
6
7
7
6
5
5
5
4
5
6
6
7
8
G
5
7
7
5
6
14
10
7
6
11
7
died
13
July 19
July 26
Aug. 4
45
46
55
9
9
9
Dock (R
umex)
June 15,
7
6
30
-
-
-
Aug. 7
53
cf
June 15,
7
9
19
-
-
-
July 30
45
9
June 15,
9
6
5
18
-
-
July 31
46
9
June 15,
10
8
12
-
-
-
July 23
38
cf
June 15,
7
11
29
-
-
-
Aug. 11
57
-
June 15,
8
8
4
28
-
-
Aug. 11
56
9
June 15,
9
19
-
-
-
July 30
45
d"
June 16,
10
8
9
-
-
-
July 22
36
9
June 16,
10
15
-
-
-
July 29
43
9
June 16,
10
13
-
-
-
July 23
37
9
June 16,
10
8
-
_
-
July 22
35
9
June 16,
9
13
-
-
-
July 22
36
c?-
June 16,
9
5
12
-
-
-
July 21
35
cf
June 16,
10
6
13
-
-
-
July 28
42
9
June 16,
10
6
17
-
-
-
July 29
43
cT
June 16,
10
5
17
-
-
-
July 29
43
9
Average
7.25
6
6.5
13
14
8
13
-
44
-
Average duration of larval period.
Maximum duration of larval period,
Minimum duration of larval period.
44 days.
57 days.
35 days.
32
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Pupal Period.
Pupation generally occurs within the tunnels made by the larva,
although occasionally it occurs in masses of larval frass, or between closely
attached leaves. The duration of the pupal period, in the instance of
49 individuals confined in life-history cages, averaged 8.5 days, with a
maximum of 10 and a minimum of 7 days, depending upon temperature
conditions (see Table IV).
Table IV. — Duration of Pupal Period — First Generation.
Number
of
Observa-
tion.
Date or —
Num-
ber of
Days.
Sex.
Number
of
Observa-
tion.
Date of —
Num-
ber of
Days.
Pupa-
tion.
Emer-
gence.
Pupa-
tion.
Emer-
gence.
Sex.
1-120
July 15
July 24
9
cf
26-147
July 21
July 29
8
c?
2-121
July 15
July 25
10
c?
27-149
July 22
July 29
7
9
3-122
July 16
July 24
8
c?
28-150
July 22
July 30
8
9
4-123
July 16
July 25
9
cf
29-151
July 22
July 30
8
9
5-124
July 16
July 25
9
d^
30-152
July 22
July 30
8
9
6-125
July 16
July 25
9
cf
31-153
July 22
July 30
8
9
7-126
July 16
July 26
10
9
32-154
July 23
July 31
8
cf
8-129
July 17
July 25
8
9
33-155
July 23
July 31
8
d'
9-130
July 17
July 25
8
9
34-156
July 23
July 31
8
9
10-131
July 18
July 26
8
9
35-157
July 23
July 31
8
cf
11-132
July 18
July 25
7
9
36-158
July 23
July 31
8
9
12-133
July 18
July 27
9
&
37-159
July 23
Aug. 1
9
cf
13-134
July 18
July 25
7
9
38-160
July 23
July 30
7
9
14-135
July 19
July 29
10
cf
39-161
July 23
July 30
7
9
15-136
July 19
July 27
8
9
40-162
July 24
Aug. 2
9
cf
16-137
July 19
July 28
9
cf
41-163
July 23
Aug. 2
10
cf
17-138
July 18
July 27
9
9
42-164
July 24
Aug. 2
9
9
18-139
July 19
July 28
9
9
43-165
July 24
Aug. 3
10
9
19-140
July 19
July 28
9
9
44-166
July 25
Aug. 4
10
9
20-141
July 19
July 28
9
9
45-167
July 25
Aug. 4
10
9
21-142
July 20
July 28
8
9
46-168
July 26
Aug. 4
9
cf
22-143
July 20
July 27
7
9
47-169
July 27
Aug. 5
9
9
23-144
July 20
July 28
8
9
48-171
July 27
Aug. 6
10
cf
24-145
July 20
July 28
8
9
49-172
July 27
Aug. 5
9
9
25-146
July 20
July 29
9
d
Average length of pupal stage,
Maximum length of pupal stage,
Minimum length of pupal stage,
8.551 days.
10 days.
7 days.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 33
Adult Period.
Soon after emerging from the pupa the female moth begins the ovi-
position of second generation eggs. With 13 females, confined in indi-
vidual life-history cages, the average duration of the period, between
emergence from the pupa and the first oviposition, was 3.2 days, with
a maximum of 9 days and a minimum of 1 day (see Table V).
Table V. — Oviposition by Female Moths in Rearing Cages — First
Generation.
Sex.
Date of —
Number of Dats —
Number
of
Moths.
d
?
Emer-
gence,
1918.
First
Ovipo-
sition.
Last
Ovipo-
sition.
Before
Ovipo-
sition.
Of
Ovipo-
sition.
From
Emer-
gence to
last Ovi-
position.
Total
Num-
ber of
Eggs.
2
1
July 25
July 29
Aug. 19
4
22
25
494
3
2
July 27
July 29
Aug. 14
2
17
18
590
3
2
July 27
July 29
Aug. 11
2
14
15
510
3
July 27
July 29
Aug. 3
2
6
7
415
2
July 29
Aug. 1
Aug. 11
3
11
13
594
2
July 29
July 30
Aug. 16
1
18
18
592
2
July 29
July 31
Aug. 10
2
11
12
132
2
July 29
July 30
Aug. 8
1
10
10
626
2
July 30
Aug. 3
Aug. 26
4
24
27
280
2
July 30
Aug. 8
Aug. 21
9
14
22
602
2
July 30
Aug. 3
Aug. 25
4
23
26
786
2
July 30
Aug. 2
Aug. 13
3
12
14
559
2
July 30
Aug. 4
Aug. 16
5
13
17
903
29
16
13
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Average
•
3.2
15
17.23
545
Maximum
9.0
24
27.00
903
Minimum,
1.0
6
7.00
132
The duration of the oviposition period of these 13 females averaged
15 days, with a maximum of 24 and a minimum of 6 days (see Table V).
The average length of life of 23 female moths, confined in cages with
male moths, approximating field conditions as nearly as possible, was
IS days, with a maximum of 28 and a minimum of 6 days. The average
length of life of 27 male moths in these same cages was 14 days, with a
maximum of 35 and a minimum of 3 days (see Table VI).
34
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Table VI. — Length of Life of Male and Female Moths in Captivity
First Generation.
Length op Life in
Days.
Number
of Male
Moths.
Number
of
Female
Moths.
Length of Life in
Days.
Number
of Male
Moths.
Number
of
Female
Moths.
3
5
6
8.
9
10
11,
12
13
14
16,
2
2
1
2
3
1
1
2
1
i
1
2
2
17
18
19, . . .
23
24,
26
27,
28
34.
35.
Totals,
2
2
3
1
1 ■
2
1
1
1
3
1
2
2
27
23
Average length of life: male moths, 13.74 days; female moths, 18.26 days.
Maximum length of life: male moths, 35 days; female moths, 28 days.
Minimum length of life: male moths, 3 days; female moths, 6 days.
It is believed that the duration of adult life, as well as the period before
and during oviposition, depends considerably upon the accessibility of
the opposite sex, temperature conditions, and the facilities afforded for
oviposition. Nevertheless, the data given above were secured under as
near natural conditions as could be arranged in cages, and the averages
are believed to represent very closely the actual duration of adult periods
in the field. These figures are important, showing as they do the com-
paratively long period during which the adults deposit their eggs.
Life Cycle Summary.
A complete life cycle is here considered to be the total period elapsing
from the deposition of eggs of one generation to the time of deposition
of eggs of the next generation. Therefore the average duration of the
life cycle of the fii-st generation of the European corn borer during 1918
was 63 days, with a maximum of 85 and a minimum of 48 days, as shown
by the following table : —
Table VII. — Life Cycle Summary of First Generation.
Average.
Maximum.
Minimum.
Incubation period in days,
Larval period in days.
Pupal period in days.
Adult preoviposition period i
n days.
7.43
44.05
8.51
3.20
9.00
57.00
10.00
9.00
5.00
35.00
7.00
1.00
Total
63.19
85.00
48.00
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 35
Second Generation.
Incubation Period.
The eggs are deposited in masses on various parts of the food plant
selected for oviposition. They hatch, on an average, in 6 days, with a
maximum of 8 and a minimum of 4 days (see Table VIII). Duration of
the incubation period depends upon temperature conditions.
Table VIII. — Duration of Incubation Period — Second Generation.
Observation Number.
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211,
212,
213,
214,
215,
216,
217,
218,
219,
220,
221,
222,
Number of
Eggs.
Deposi- Hatch-
tion, 1918. ing, 1918.
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
July
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug. 2
Aug. 2
Aug. 3
Aug. 3
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug.
Aug. 6
Aug. 7
Aug. 7
Aug. 7
Aug. 8
Aug. 7
Aug. 8
Aug. 8
Aug. 9
Aug. 9
Aug. 12
Aug. 12
Aug. 14
Aug. 14
Aug. 15
Aug. 15
Aug. 16
Duration of
Incuba-
tion Period
in Days.
36
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Table VIII. — Duration of Incubation Period — Second Generation — Con.
i ' . n
231,
232.
233,
234,
236,
237,
238,
239,
240,
241,
242,
243,
244,
245,
246,
247.
248,
249,
250,
251,
252.
253,
254,
Observation Number.
Number of
Eggs.
Deposi- Hatch-
tion, 1918. ing, 1918.
Aug. 11
Aug. 12
Aug. 13
Aug. 14
Aug. 15
Aug. 22
Aug. 23
Aug. 23
Aug. 23
Aug. 24
Aug. 24
Aug. 24
Aug. 25
Aug. 25
Aug. 25
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 26
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
Aug. 27
Aug. 29
Aug. 17
Aug. 17
Aug. 19
Aug. 22
Aug. 23
Aug. 27
Aug. 29
Aug. 29
Aug. 29
Aug. 30
Aug. 31
Aug. 30
Aug. 30
Sept. 1
Sept. 1
Sept. 3
Sept. 3
Sept. 3
Sept. 3
Sept. 3
Sept. 4
Sept. 4
Sept. 4
Sept. 4
Sept. 4
Sept. 6
Duration of
Incuba-
tion Period
in Days,
Average duration of incubation period, .
Maximum duration of incubation period.
. Minimum duration of incubation period.
6.13 days.
8 days.
4 days.
In the course of their development the larvae of the second generation
feed in a manner similar to that described for the first generation. They
pass through four or five instars before the advent of severe winter weather,
which halts their activities and indefinitely prolongs the duration of the
last instar or instars. According to data secured from 25 larvae, reared
in life-history cages from eggs to the time when their activities ceased,
the average duration of the first instar was 5.4 days; second instar, 4.2
days; third instar, 5 days; fourth instar, 9 days; and fifth instar, 10
days. The average duration of the total larval period was 26 days, with
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 37
a maximum of 32 days and a minimum of 20 days (see Table IX). The
duration of each instar and the total duration of the larval period depend
upon temperature conditions.
Table IX. — Duration of Larval Instars and Activity to Nov. SO, 1918-
Second Generation.
Barnyard Grass (Echinochloa crus-galli).
Duration of Larval In-
stars IN Dats.
Date of
Pupation,
1918.
Days in
Larval
Period
to Date.
Activities to
Nov. 30, 1918.
Hatching, 1918.
1
T3
J3
1
:2
S
August 6,
3
8
4
11
-
31
Spun web Sept. 24.
August 6.
3
7
5
13
Sept. 14
32
d" adult Oct. 14.
August 6,
3
8
8
-
-
24
Died Nov. 19.
August 6,
3
7
5
-
-
22
Died Sept. 6.
August 9,
5
6
10
-
32
Spun web Sept. 11.
August 9,
7
5
7
-
28
Died Nov. 15.
August 9,
5
13
-
-
29
Spun web Nov. 30.
August 9,
5
9
-
-
25
Died Nov. 3.
August 9,
6
9
-
-
25
Spun web Oct. 8.
August 9,
5
9
-
-
26
Spun web Oct. 10.
August 14,
4
9
8
-
31
Still feeding Nov.
30.
Not emerged Nov.
30.
Spun web Oct. 21.
August 14,
4
7
-
Oct. 1
21
August 14,
4
11
-
-
25
August 14,
4
14
-
-
28
Still feeding Nov.
Stilf feeding Nov.
30.
Spun web Oct. 16.
August 14,
6
7
10
-
-
26
August 14,
6
4
11
-
-
25
Foxtail Grass
(Setaria glauca).
August 14,
7
-
Sept. 5
20
cf adult Nov. 4.
August 14,
9
-
-
24
StiU feeding Nov.
30.
Died Nov. 30.
August 14,
8
-
-
21
August 14,
13
-
-
28
Spun web Oct. 14.
August 14,
10
-
-
23
Died Nov. 30.
August 14,
13
-
-
27
Spun web Nov. 8.
August 14,
11
-
-
25
Died Nov. 30.
August 14,
9
-
-
22
Died Nov. 18.
August 14,
9
-
-
23
Spun web Nov. 2.
Average,
5.4
4.2
9
9.8
-
25.7
Average diiration of larval period to date.
Maximum duration of larval period to date,
Minimum duration of larval period to date,
25.7 days.
32 days.
20 days.
38
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Three of the larvae, confined in the life-history cages mentioned, formed
pupse during September and October (see Table IX). This is believed
to have been caused by the abnormal conditions which inevitably exist
in confinement. No pupse of this generation were found in the field
during the dissection of many hundreds of badly infested plants throughout
the months of October, November and early December, 1918.
The second generation larvae of the borer normally pass the winter
within their host plants as full-grown, or nearly full-grown, larvae in the
fifth and sixth instars. With the advent of warm weather in the spring
the larvae begin feeding again, and pupate within a short period of time
thereafter.
Pupal Period.
Pupation occurs in a similar manner to that described for the first
generation. The duration of the pupal period for 35 individuals con-
fined in life-history cages averaged 17 days, with a maximum of 20 and a
minimum of 14 days (see Table X), depending upon weather conditions.
Table X. — Duration
of Pupal Period, Second Generation.
Number
Date
OF —
Num-
ber of
Days.
Sex.
Number
of
Observa-
tion.
Date of —
Num-
ber of
Days.
Observa-
tion.
Pupa-
tion.
Emer-
gence.
Pupa-
tion.
Emer-
gence.
Sex.
1. .
May 6
May 24
18
d
19, .
May 17
June 3
17
- 9
2,
May 8
May 26
18
9
20. .
May 18
June 3
16
d
3.
May 10
May 24
14
9
21. . .
May 18
June 4
17
d
4,
May 10
May 27
17
d
22. . .
May 18
June 4
17
9
5,
May 11
May 29
18
d
23, .
May 18
June 4
17
9
M
9
6.
May 11
May 28
17
9
24. .
May 18
June 4
17
7.
May 12
May 28
16
9
25. . .
May 18
June 4
17
d
8,
May 12
May 29
17
9
26. . .
May 18
June 4
17
9
9,
May 12
June 1
20
d
27. .
May 19
June 4
16
9
10.
May 13
May 31
18
d
28. . .
May 20
June 6
17
9
11,
May 13
May 31
18
9
29. .
May 20
June 6
17
d
12,
May 14
May 30
16
9
30. .
May 21
June 7
17
9
13,
May 14
June 2
19
d
31. .
May 22
June 7
16
d
14,
May 14
June 2
19
9
32. . .
May 25
June 12
18
cf
15,
May 15
June 2
18
9
33. .
May 25
June 9
15
9
16,
May 17
June 2
16
9
34. .
May 31
June 17
18
9
17,
May 17
June 3
17
d
35. . .
June 2
June 19
17
9
18,
May 17
June 3
17
9
Average length of pupal stage, 17.11 days.
Maximum length of pupal stage 20 days.
Minimum length of pupal stage 14 days.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 39
Adult Period.
The female moth begins the oviposition of first generation eggs within
a few days after emerging from the pupa. With 15 females, confined in
individual life-history cages, the average duration of the period between
emergence from the pupa and the fu-st oviposition was 3.6 daj^s, with a
maximum of 7 days and a minimum of 1 day (see Table XI).
Table XI. — Oviposition by Female Moths in Rearing Cages, Second
Generation.
Sex.
Date op —
Number op Days —
Number
of
Moths.
d'
9
Emer-
gence.
First
Ovipo-
sition.
Last
Ovipo-
sition.
Before
Ovipo-
sition.
Of
Ovipo-
sition.
From
Emer-
gence to
last Ovi-
position.
Total
Num-
ber of
Eggs.
8
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
3
3
3
4
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
2
May 21
May 24
May 24
May 24
May 24
May 25
May 25
May 26
May 28
May 29
June 1
June 1
May 24
May 29
May 28
May 31
May 28
May 28
May 28
May 29
May 29
June 2
June 3
June 8
June 10
June 13
June 23
June 6
June 3
June 17
June 16
June 3
June 9
June 16
June 10
June 24
3
5
4
7
4
3
3
3
1
4
2
7
18
16
7
7
7
21
20
6
12
14
7
16
20
20
10
13
10
23
22
8
12
18
8
22
1,261
389
190
157
348 ,
727
713
223
107
686
210
137
40
25
15
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Average,
Maximum
Minimum,
3.66
7.00
1.00
13.66
21.00
6.00
16.4
23.0
8.0
336.53
727.00
107.00
The duration of the oviposition period of these 15 females averaged
14 days, with a maximum of 21 and a minimum of 6 days (see Table XI).
The average length of life of 29 female moths, which were confined in
cages with male moths, approximating field conditions as nearly as pos-
sible, was 17 days, with a maximum of 29 and a minimum of 8 days. The
average length of life of 40 male moths in these same cages was 13 days,
with a maximum of 29 and a minimum of 6 days (see Table XII) .
40
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Table XII. — Length of Life of Male and Female Moths in Captivity.
Length op Life
(DATS).
Number
of Male
Moths.
Number
of
Female
Moths.
Length of Life
(Days).
Number
of Male
Moths.
Nimiber
of
Female
Moths.
6
3
-
19
1
_
7
2
-
20
1
1
8
6
2
21
3
-
9
4
2
22
-
4
10
4
1
23
1
-
11
4
1
24
1
2
12
3
4
25,
-
2
13
1
2
26
-
-
14
2
-
27
2
-
15
1
3
28
-
-
16
-
1
1
1
29
'
2
18
-
Total,
40
29
Average length of life of male moths, 13.1 days; of female moths, 16.86 days.
Maximimi length of life of male moths, 29 days; of female moths, 29 days.
Minimum length of life of male moths, 6 days; of female moths, 8 days.
These records were secured in the same manner as has been described
in the instance of the first generation adults, and they have the same
appUcation and qualification.
Life Cycle Summary.
It is rather difficult to give any accurate figures as to the duration of
the life cycle of the second generation of the European corn' borer, owing
to the varying amount of time spent by the larva in an inactive condition
during the late fall, winter and early spring. An attempt will be made,
however, to approximate the correct figures by combining the results of
the life-history studies as to the duration of the different periods of this
generation during the early spring of 1918 and the summer and fall of
1918 up to November 30.
According to these records the average duration of the second gene-
ration of the European corn borer was 52.6 days, with a maximum of
67 and a minimum of 39 days, as shown by the following table: —
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 41
Table XIII. — Life Cycle Summary of Secoyid Generation.
Average.
Maximum.
Minimum.
Incubation period in days, . . . ' .
Larval period in days, 1
Pupal period in days,
Adult preoviposition period in days,
6.13
25.70
17.11
3.66
8.00
32.00
20.00
7.00
4.00
20.00
14.00
1.00
Total period in days, ....
52.60
67.00
39.00
1 Excluding winter
period of inactivity.
SEASONAL HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT.
NuMBEK OF Generations.
There are two annual generations of the European corn borer in Massa-
chusetts, a generation here being considered to begin with the egg and
terminate with the moth of the same generation.
Eggs of the first generation are deposited during late May or early-
June, and the resulting larvae pupate about the middle of July. The
moths emerge during late July and early August to deposit eggs of the
second generation.
These eggs are deposited, therefore, during late July or early August,
and the resulting larvae feed on, or within, their food plant until the advent
of severe winter weather. Feeding is resumed with the coming of warm
weather in the spring, and the larvae pupate about the middle of May.
The second generation moths emerge during late May or early June, and
deposit eggs for the first generation.
A few moths of the second generation have emerged in life-history
cages during September and October (see Table IX), but these indi-
viduals died without depositing eggs. Under exceptional circumstances
it is possible that moths emerging at this time may deposit eggs for a third
generation, but this has not yet been observed.
Seasonal History.
The European corn borer passed the winter of 1917-18 as nearly full-
grown larvae of the second generation within their tunnels in various food
plants.
The first pupa of the second generation was found in the field May 6,
and the majority of the overwintering larvae pupated between May 15
and 20.
The first moth of the second generation was observed in the field on
May 16. Moths began to emerge from indoor cages May 18, and maxi-
mum emergence occurred during the period from June 1 to 4. The last
emergence of second generation moths was recorded on July 9, from labo-
ratory cages (see Table XV).
42 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Oviposition of second generation moths occurred within a few days
after emergence, and extended over a period of about two weeks. Eggs
of the first generation were first secured in Ufe-history cages on May 24
(see Table XI).
Larvee of the first generation were first secured in life-history cages on
June 2 (see Table II), and were observed for the first time in the field
on June 13.
The first pupa of the first generation was found in the field on July 11',
and in life-history cages on July 15. Maximum pupation took place
between July 19 and 23 (see Table IV).
Emergence of first generation moths began about July 23 and reached
its maximum between July 27 and August 4. The last emergence of
first generation moths was recorded from indoor cages on August 29 (see
Table XIV), and from corn in the field on September 6.
On July 29 the first eggs of the second generation were secured in life-
history cages (see Table V). Eggs of this generation were first observed
in the field on August 13.
Larvse of the second generation were first secured in life-history cages
on August 2 (see Table VIII), and were observed for the first time in the
field on August 13. On this date some of the larvae in the field were in
the second and third instars. On September 2 many of the larvae in the
field were in the fifth and sixth instars. When the last field observations
were made, on November 30, most of the larvae were in the fifth and
sixth instars, and in this stage of their development they probably will
pass the winter of 1918-19.
Seasonal Abundance.
The larvae of the borer reach their greatest abundance and do the most
damage to corn and other host plants during the late summer and faU.
The damage to early corn by larvae of the first generation during June
and July is much less than the damage to late corn by those of the second
generation during August and September. The same is true for the other
host plants infested by the insect.
There is quite a heavy mortality of overwintering larvae, due to natural
causes, and this when added to the high percentage of overwintering
larvae destroyed by control measures and cultural practices, greatly re-
duces the numbers of the pest that remain to perpetuate the species in
the spring. Consequently the first generation of larvae is much smaller
in numbers each year than the second generation of the preceding year.
HABITS OF LARViE.
Hatching.
About a day before hatching takes place, the black eye spots and red-
dish mandible tips of the developing larva may be seen through the semi-
transparent chorion of the egg. A few hours before hatching, the head
THE EUKOPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 43
and thoracic shield become black and are observed to occupy a central
position in the egg. The body segmentation and the black spines on the
body of the larva are also plainly discernible. At this time the develop-
ing larva is curled up inside the egg with its mandibles resting upon the
next to the last abdominal segment. These mandibles soon begin to move
laterally, and the larva straightens itself out in such a manner that the
mandibles are brought into contact with the eggshell. A slit in this is
soon made, and the larva crawls forth. After hatching, the larva feeds,
to some extent, upon the empty eggshell, but has not been observed to
entirely devour it.
Habits when attacking Corn,
First Generation.
The newly hatched larva crawls about over the surface of the corn
blade on which it hatched, stopping here and there to eat a small area
of the epidermis on either the upper or lower surface of the blade (see
Plate I, Fig. 1). These small areas are usually bordered by veins on each
side and are longer than wide.
During its travels the larva gradually approaches the growing crown
of the plant, and, upon reaching it, descends between the rolled leaf blades,
or cone, composing the crown, and feeds internally upon the young and
succulent epidermis of the unfolding leaf blades. If the tassel is present
within the cone the first in star larvae may feed upon the epidermal cells
composing the flower buds, but only rarely do larvae of this instar enter
the buds.
When ready to molt, the first instar larva spins a thin, silken molting
cocoon in some protected location near its last feeding place, within which
it molts to the second instar.
Upon emerging from its molting cocoon this larva immediately attacks
the staminate flower buds if the tassel is present within the crown. If the
tassel is not present it feeds on the tightly rolled leaf blades composing the
crown in a similar manner to that described for the first instar, except
that larvae of the second instar are able to eat entirely through the blade,
and do not confine their feeding to the epidermis. When the tassel is
present within the crovm the second instar larva bores a hole in the side
of one of the staminate flower buds and feeds upon the internal succulent
contents. Entrance to the bud may be effected from the top, at the base
or from the side, several buds are destroyed in turn by each larva. Dur-
ing the process of feeding within the buds considerable frass is extruded,
and this becomes webbed together with the silk spun by the larva in
traveling from bud to bud, and forms a certain amount of protection for
the larva. This webbing together of frass for possible protection is char-
acteristic of the second generation larva, as, although larvae of the first
and later instars are capable of spinning a web, they do not use it for
purposes of protection while feeding.
When ready to molt, the second instar larva spins a molting cocoon,
44 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
within which it molts to the third instar. This molting cocoon may be
located within a single, hoUowed-out flower bud, or may be situated be-
neath the webbed-up frass from several flower buds.
The third instar larva feeds at first within the staminate buds of the
tassel in a similar manner to that described for the second instar larva,
but, when a little older, it may enter the terminal spike of the tassel,
1 or 2 inches above the last branch, and tunnel within this spike, and a
small mass of frass collects at the point of entrance and renders the injury
conspicuous. Instead of entering the tassel, many third instar larvae
tunnel within the midrib of the leaf blade. These tunnels are never
more than 1 or 2 inches in length, and closely resemble the injury to the
tassel spike. Whether the third instar larva tunnels in the terminal
spike, in the midrib of the leaf, or continues feeding in the ends, appears
to be arbitrary with the individual.
The third instar larva may molt to the fourth instar, either within its
tunnel or in some protected place outside. If molting occurs within its
tunnel, a molting cocoon is not formed, but a silken partition is spim
across the entrance hole. If molting occurs in some protected place out-
side the tunnel, a typical molting cocoon is formed, and the larva molts
to the fourth instar in a similar manner to that described for the preceding
ones.
After molting to the fourth instar the larva usually enters the main
stalk of the tassel 1 or 2 inches from its base. Sometimes it enters the
terminal internode at the point where the first leaf blade joins its sheath.
Later the terminal internode of the corn plant grows so that this en-
trance point, instead of being present at the junction of the leaf blade
and the leaf sheath, is found 5 or 6 inches above that point. After cut-
ting an entrance hole in the side of the stalk the larva tunnels out a small,
spherical cell, which occupies nearly all the interior of the stalk at this
point. From this it usually tunnels upward for 2 or 3 inches above the
entrance hole, and then returns and tunnels downward. During this
feeding a large amount of frass is pushed out of the entrance hole and is
held there by means of small silken strands spun by the larva. This
large mass of yellow-white frass is very conspicuous, and serves to identify
infested tassels, even before they break over. Eventually the tassel
becomes broken over at the point where the fourth instar larva entered
the terminal internode.
The fourth instar larva molts to the fifth instar within its tunnel, and
only spins a silken partition across its entrance, thus using its tunnel for
a molting cocoon.
The fifth instar larva may complete its larval development within the
terminal internode. The number of larval instars varies with different
individuals, five being sufficient to complete the larval growth in some
individuals, while six, or even seven or eight, instars are passed through
in other cases. In the majority of instances, especially when an abundant
supply of food is available, the fifth instar is the last and longest of the
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 45
larval instars. During this, or the succeeding instars, the larvai sometimes
wander about and do their greatest amount of damage to the plant. Some
individuals leave the terminal internode and tunnel through the lower
parts of the stalk; some tunnel from the terminal internode down through
the intervening nodes into the lower part of the stalk; while others enter
the stalk at various places along its length and tunnel upward or down-
ward according to their individual preference. The junction of the leaf
sheath and node is a favorite point of entrance, although this is by no
means universal. Frequently the larva enters a stalk and tunnels out
a cavity, only to abandon it and enter the plant at a different point. The
stalk may be tunneled by the larv'se to its base, or even into the taproot,
so that corn stubble is often infested and must be considered a source
of danger in clean-up operations.
During their wanderings the larger larvae very often descend the plant
until they reach the side branch, or pedicel, on which the ear is borne.
Here they may enter the main stalk or may enter the pedicel and tunnel
into the ear. Some enter the ear directly by boring through the husk,
later feeding on the immature kernels or tunneling through the cob. In
other instances the ear is entered at the tip end, and the larvae tunnel
through the kernels and the cob. Apparently the ear is very much
favored as a food by the larvae.
In instances when the fifth instar larvae molt into the sixth, seventh
or eighth instars (see Table III), the molting process takes place in the
same manner and location as has been described for the fourth to fifth
instar molt.
The habits of the larvae vary greatly with different individuals and
under different environments. For this reason the preceding remarks
are intended to give only an idea of their usual activities in this stage,
and their habits when attacking corn. In general, it may be stated that
they may attack all parts of the corn plant except the fibrous roots, and
that this damage may occur in an indefinite number of ways by larvae of
the different instars.
Second Generation.
When attacking corn the habits of the second generation larvae are
essentially the same as have been described for those of the first generation.
The only exception is that a large proportion of the larvae hatch from
eggs which have been deposited directly upon the silk or husk of the
immature ears. They feed first upon the tender leaves of the husk, and
upon the silk, and then tunnel through all parts of the ear. This iy^e.
of injury is of great economic importance, especially in sweet corn or that
grown for seed. The amount of damage to corn by larvae of the second
generation is, therefore, infinitely greater than that caused by those of
the first generation, due to the greater numbers of the second generation
and their habit of attacking the ears directly.
The nearly full-grown larvae winter over within their tunnels in the
46 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
stalk, in the ear or in the taproot. They do not generally spin any pro-
tective cocoon, but remain quiescent during the cold weather. Feeding
is resumed during the warm portions of pleasant days in early spring,
but the larva? return temporarily to their quiescent state during cold
nights or inclement and col4 spring weather. The hardened condition
of stalks and ears during the spring does not appear to present any diffi-
culties to them, as they tunnel through all parts of the plant with the same
apparent ease as when the plants were comparatively soft and green
the preceding season. Cobs of seed corn, which had been stored on the
cob all winter and were very hard and dry, contained living larvEe of
the borer in April, 1918. That they had been feeding during the warm
periods of the early spring was evidenced by the mass of frass extruding
from their tunnels. This occurrence will serve to illustrate the danger
of disseminating the pest by the transportation of corn on the cob.
Habits when attacking Dock.
The first instar larva of the European corn borer feeds, to some extent,
on the tender seed heads of the dock plant, and also upon the epidermis
of the leaves, but soon works its way down between the main stalk and
a leaf sheath. Here the first molt occurs, and the second instar larva
feeds on the leaf sheath, the basal part of the leaf petiole, and on the
small secondary stalks which arise at the junction of the leaf and the stalk.
Wlien the leaf petiole is tender enough the second instar larva usually
tunnels into it and molts into the third instar, either in this location or
at the base of the leaf petiole when it has been unable to effect an en-
trance. The third instar larva usually tunnels in the leaf petiole and
molts to the fourth instar within its tunnel. Occasionally the third instar
larva does not feed within the leaf petiole, but enters the main stalk at
the junction of the petiole and stalk. Normally, the larva does not enter
this main stalk until the fourth instar is reached. After entering the
stalk it usually tunnels downward through the nodes and internodes,
practically consuming the interior of the stalk. The remaining instars
are passed, and the larva becomes full grown and pupates, within this
tunnel. A large quantity of frass is extruded by the larva through the
entrance hole, and becomes webbed into the axial flowers situated between
the main stalk and the petiole. This accumulation of frass makes in-
fested dock plants very conspicuous, even before the upper portion of the
plant breaks over at the entrance hole of the larva.
By the 1st of August nearly all of the dock plants are dead, so the
activities of the European corn borer in this plant are confined to the
first generation.
Habits when attacking Lady's-thumb.
In this common host plant of the European corn borer the first instar
larva tunnels directly into the main stalk at a point about 1 or 2 inches
below the terminal leaves. Soon after the plant is attacked it may easily
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 47
be distinguished from those not infested, as the terminal stalk withers
and droops above the point where the small, first instar larva entered.
After entering the stalk it tmmels downward, molting within the tunnel
as it develops in size. This tunnel is not continuous, owing to the fact
that the larva emerges from the stalk at will, and enters again at a point
nearer the base. It usually tunnels exclusively in the intemodes of this
plant, very rarely passing through a node. In tliis particular the habits
of the larva, when attacking lady's-thumb, are distinctive because the
node is commonly tunneled in other plants.
Habits when attacking Barnyard Grass.
The habits of the European corn borer larvae, when attacking barnyard
grass, are very similar to those that have been detailed in the injury to
dock, except that the larger ones, instead of continuing to feed on their
original host, often leave the stalks of barnyard grass, where they have
partially completed their development, and enter others.
Barnyard grass commonly serves as a host for the second generation
lar\^se until the middle of October. At this time it becomes dry and
hard, and many of the larvae desert it for more attractive food plants
growing in the vicinity, though a large percentage of the original number
present continue feeding in the lower parts of the plant, and may be
found inside the base of the stalk, below the level of the ground, as late
as November 30. It is believed that the nearly full-grown larvae pass
the winter in this location, although complete data on this point will be
lacking until observations are made in the spring of 1919.
Superficial observ'ers have frequently stated that barnyard grass is
entirely deserted by larvae of the European corn borer during the late
fall season, but close examination will reveal many at the bases of the
stalk. In this position they are very difficult to destroy by ordinary
clean-up methods.
Molting.
When feeding on, or near, the surface of its food plant, especially during
the early instars, the larva spins a molting cocoon within which it molts.
This is formed of thin, silken strands, and is located in any protected
place. When tunneling inside its food plant the larva does not foim a
molting cocoon, but merely closes the entrance to the tunnel with a thin,
silken partition. It then molts inside this tunnel near its last feeding
place.
The process of molting varies in detail with the different instars, but
in general is as follows. After all preparations to secure protection have
been made, the larva enters a semi-quiescent state during which the head
capsule becomes pushed forward until a distinct non-contractile, white
band appears between the head and the shield. After remaining in this
condition approximately twelve to twenty-four hours the old larval skin
splits longitudinally just back of the head capsule, and, as a result of
48 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
squirming movements from within, slips down and off the molting larva.
When nearly free of the old larval skin the larva easily brushes off the
old larval head mask, or remains of the head capsule.
The newly molted larva is colorless, with an opaque, white head cap-
sule and thoracic shield. In the course of two or three hours its body
assumes the characteristic markings for the instar, while the head and
thoracic shield darken and become fully pigmented.
After completing its emergence and coloring the larva remains quiet
until the body chitin becomes hard, and then resumes its activities.
Length of Larval Life without Food.
Newly hatched larvae of the European corn borer lived a maximum of
two days in life-history cages without food or water.
Nearly full-grown larvse, isolated in glass vial cages, without food or
water, lived a maximum of thii'ty days during the active season.
This latter characteristic is important with relation to the possible
transportation of infested material to localities not infested by the insect.
The long period of life without food would allow larvse to survive under
very adverse conditions, and to start new colonies of the insect when
opportunity afforded.
Unusual Habits.
Large larvse of the European corn borer will eat their way through an
ordinary cork stopper and escape from confinement. They are unable,
however, to make any impression upon a cotton plug, and are easily con-
fined in glass vials when these are plugged with cotton.
Larvse also eat through paper and pasteboard. On one occasion a full-
grown larva, which had escaped from an indoor cage, tunneled through
heavy pasteboard surrounding a bottle, and pupated between the bottle
and its covering.
Full-grown larvse have been observed crawling along the ground at
some distance from any possible food plant. In cases of necessity these
larvse could probably travel a considerable distance.
Large larvae have been found underneath clods of earth and under-
neath rubbish in badly infested fields, due possibly to some agency which
forced them to leave their natural protection within the food plant.
Infested cornstalks were buried in the soil to a depth of 6 inches during
the spring of 1917. Within a few days the larvae deserted the buried corn-
stalks and made their way to the surface.
Although the larger lan'se normally feed within the plant, occasionally
individuals are found feeding on its exterior. This is especially true of
the full-grown larvse just before pupation. At this time they are fre-
quently found feeding on the silk and on the outer husk of the ear.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 49
PUPATION.
Location of Pupa.
Normally the pupa of the European corn borer is found inside the
tunnel made by the larva, and not far from its last feeding place. A
small per cent of the full-grown larvse, however, leave the interior of the
plant when attacking corn and pupate in some protected place near by,
such as the silk of the ear; between the husks of the ear; in a fold of the
leaf blades; between two overlapping leaf blades; in the frass clinging
to the tassel; in the frass at junction of leaf blade and leaf sheath; be-
tween the leaf sheath and stalk; and on the surface of the ear in the hol-
low made by the feeding larvse.
Though in corn most of the larvse pupate within their tunnels in the
stalk or in the pedicel of the ear, many pupse are found inside the cob
and in the upper part of the taproot.
Cocoon Formation.
Most of the following remarks concerning cocoon formation apply only
when the larva forms its cocoon and pupates within the larval tunnel.
When the larva reaches full growth and is ready for pupation it cuts
a circular exit hole to the surface of the plant. It then spins a silken
partition across this exit hole from within, and this partition serves to
block the outside entrance to its pupal chamber. It then retreats about
2 inches into its tunnel, and forms the base of its pupal chamber by
packing the tunnel with a layer of frass about an inch thick. A silken
partition is then spun on top of this protecting layer, and frequently
another transverse partition of silk is spun about a quarter of an inch
above this lower one. After thus closing both ends of the tunnel
the larva proceeds to coat the walls of its pupal chamber with a very thin
layer of silk, and then spins a single internal partition, also of silk, across
the upper part of the pupal chamber and parallel to the exit hole. The
larva then constructs two slanting partitions in the lower part of its pupal
chamber, which intersect each other and form a partition resembling the
letter "Y."
After completing the bottom partitions of the pupal chamber the larva
turns around and begins forming the upper ones. These are quite similar
to the lower, but are usually more complicated and more substantial.
They consist of a series of four or five intersecting partitions of silk which
meet in the center to form a letter "Y", and make an angular roof over
the head of the larva. The cocoon is then complete. About three or four
days are usually required by the larva for its formation.
After completing the upper partitions of its pupal chamber the larva
attaches its anal legs firmly to the angle of the "Y" in the bottom par-
tition, and then passes into a semi-quiescent state.
50 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Changes undergone by the Labva previous to Pupation.
In the semi-quiescent state the larva is very sluggish, but is still capable
of locomotion. Soon after entering this stage the head starts to bend
downward, and the mouth parts become ventral instead of anterior. The
second thoracic segment becomes swollen, and the third thoracic and first
abdominal segments become compressed as a result of pressure exerted
at the anterior and posterior ends of the larva. The second and third
abdominal segments remain about normal, while the fourth to seventh
become enlarged and swollen, and show distinctly the outlines of the pupal
abdomen. At the termination of the semi-quiescent stage, which lasts
for about twenty-four hom-s, the larval head is fully inflexed and the use
of both thoracic and abdominal legs is lost. The larva then enters the
true quiescent state.
In this stage the larva is not capable of locomotion, but has the char-
acteristic movements of a pupa. Soon after entering this stage the con-
tents of the terminal segments of the larva shrink away from the larval
body wall to form the terminal segments of the pupa. At this time the
anal legs consist of only the external chitinous covering, with their crotch-
ets firmly attached to the bottom silken partition. When disturbed the
larva twitches and turns with a movement resembUng that of the pupa,
while the empty anal legs remain attached to the silk and are often twisted
around each other during the twisting movements of the larva. At this
time the abdominal legs are flush with the venter, and the thoracic legs
are folded close to the bod}^ The quiescent stage requires from twelve
to twenty-four hours for its completion, and then the larva begins the
process of pupation.
Process of Pupation.
After a few straining movements forward, and as a result of pressure
exerted from within, the larval skin suddenly spHts along the dorsal line
of the head and thoracic segments, and also down each side of the frontal
head plate. After a few wriggling movements the larval skin slips down
to the terminal segment, which then is liberated. As soon as it is freed
from the larval skin the newly formed pupa turns around two or three
times, thus firmly attaching its cremaster to the angle of the lower silken
partition in the pupal chamber, at the point formerly occupied by the
anal feet of the larva. A timed individual required two and one-half
minutes to shed its larval skin, except the terminal segment, and the
total time required to completely shed this skin and attach the
cremaster was eight minutes.
Changes undergone by the Pupa.
The newly formed pupa is white in color, with a longitudinal pink line
down the dorsum. Transverse pink lines extend across the center of the
dorsum of each abdominal segment, but fade away laterally. The wing
pads are yellow with a tinge of pink. The venter of the abdomen is
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 51
creamy white throughout. The cremaster and its spines, and also the
chitinous braces arising from the last segment, are dark red.
About one hour after pupation the transverse pink Hues gradually
widen and become darker in color, until the dorsum, except at the union of
segments, is yellowish red. At this time the venter is almost pure white,
but soon begins to turn pinkish yellow in the posterior half of each ab-
dominal segment. This color then extends to include the entire venter
of each abdominal segment. The terminal abdominal segment assumes
its permanent color at this time. As permanent coloration proceeds, the
dorsum of the thorax and abdomen, together with the wing pads, turn a
darker red, and soon assume their permanent color. In approximately
five or six hours after its formation the pupa is fully colored, and retains
this coloration until about three or four days before the emergence of the
moth. At this time it becomes very much darker and shows the adult
markings.
HABITS OF ADULTS.
Emergence of the Moths.
After loosening its appendages the emerging moth pushes off the head
cap of the pupal skin by exerting pressure from within, and frees itself
until the head and eyes are visible. Here the moth rests for a few seconds
before struggling completely out of the pupal skin. About two or three
minutes are required for the moth to entirely free itself. At this time the
wings of the moth are only partly developed, and are practically the size
of the pupal wing pads. In this condition the moth escapes from the
cocoon and crawls to the surface of the plant, providing pupation occurred
within interior tunnels. After reaching the surface the moth obtains a
foothold and assumes a perpendicular position. It is never found in a
horizontal position at tliis time. The wings then lengthen and widen
gradually, meanwhile being brought vertically over the body and held in
this position until fully expanded. After reaching their full development
and expansion the wings are lowered to their normal position of rest, and
within a few hours the moth is ready to assume its adult activities.
Maximum adult emergence generally occurs very early in the morning,
and the moths seldom emerge at any other time, unless the early morning
hours are rather cold. In this event the moths are delayed in emerging
until the early forenoon, A few, however, have been observed to emerge
late in the afternoon.
Copulation.
Copulation occurs within twentj^-four hours after the sexes emerge from
the pupa, and at frequent intervals throughout the life of the adult, —
thirteen to eighteen days' average (see Tables VI and XII). Late after-
noon or evening, when the adults are most active, is the usual time for
copulation. The act is accompUshed in a similar manner to that of other
lepidopterous adults.
Polygamy experiments were tried during the summer of 1918, but no
52
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
definite data were secured as to the number of females fertilized by each
male. Bearing in mind the long period of adult life, however, it is prob-
able that each male will fertilize several females.
Proportion of Sexes.
First Generation.
A total of 317 first generation pupae were collected from the field in
July, 1918, and confined in individual cages. From these a total of 317
first generation adults emerged, of which 136, or 42.9 per cent, were
males, and 181, or 57.1 per cent, were females (see Table XIV).
Table XIV.
Proportion of Sexes and Time of Emergence of Moths,
First Generation.
Date of Emer-
gence. 1918.
Number
of
Males.
Number
of
Females.
Total
Emer-
gence.
Date of Emer-
gence, 1918.
Number
of
Males.
Number
of
Females.
Total
Emer-
gence.
July 23,
-
1
August 12, .
2
-
2
July 24,
-
4
August 13, .
3
3
6
July 25,
6
11
August 14, .
6
3
9
July 26,
3
5
August 15, .
5
1
6
July 27,
8
17
August 16, .
-
1
1
July 28,
10
14
24
August 17, .
-
2
2
July 29,
14
22
36
August 18, .
-
-
-
July 30,
27
36
August 19, .
-
-
-
July 31,
14
15
29
August 20, .
1
1
2
Augtist 1,
-
2
Augiist 21, .
3
1
4
August 2
17
25
August 22, .
4
4
8
August 3
8
12
August 23, .
4
1
5
August 4
7
12
August 24, .
1
7
8
August 5
7
9
August 25, .
2
3
5
August 6
4
4
8
August 26, .
-
-
-
August 7
7
8
August 27, .
1
-
1
August 8
3
7
August 28, .
-
-
-
August 9
2
3
4
August 29, .
Total, .
-
1
1
August 10
136
181
317
August 11
2
4
Total emergence, 317 adults.
Total males, 136, or 42.9 per cent.
Total females, 181, or 57.1 per cent.
A total of 49 first generation pupse were reared from full-grown, first
generation larvae collected in the field during July, 1918, in order to secure
data as to duration of the pupal period. From this material a total of 49
fijst generation adults emerged, of which 19, or 38.8 per cent, were males,
and 30, or 61.2 per cent, were females (see Table IV).
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 53
On the night of August &-7, 1918, 17 first generation moths were cap-
tured at a trap hght. Of these, 7, or 41.2 per cent, were males, and 10,
or 58.8 per cent, were females.
Thus out of a total of 383 first generation adults, 162, or 42.3 per cent,
were males, and 221, or 57.7 per cent, were females.
Second Generation.
In April, 1918, two barrels of badly infested cornstalks were collected
and placed in the laboratory in order to secure data as to adult emergence,
proportion of sexes, etc. From these two cages 307 second generation
adults emerged, of which 160, or 52.1 per cent, were males, and 147, or
47.9 per cent, were females (see Table XV).
Table XV.
Proportion of Sexes and Time of Emergence of Moths,
Second Generation.
Date of Emer-
gence, 1918.
Number
of
Males.
Number
of
Females
Total
Emer-
gence.
Date of Emer-
gence, 1918.
Number
of
Males.
Number
of
Females
Total
Emer-
gence.
May 18.
1
-
1
June 11,
-
_
_
May 19.
6
10
June 12,
5
May 20,
5
7
June 13,
2
May 21,
2
7
June 14,
2
May 22,
3
9
June 15,
3
May 23,
1
2
June 16,
3
May 24,
14
21
June 17,
-
May 25,
7
9
June 18,
-
May 26,
9
12
June 19,
2
May 27,
5
6
June 22,
1
May 28,
2
7
June 23,
-
May 29,
8
15
June 24,
2
May 30,
2
2
June 25,
-
2
May 31,
2
8
June 26,
-
3
June 1,
12
20
June 27,
-
2
June 2,
12
19
31
June 28,
1
-
June 3,
17
16
33
June 29,
2
-
June 4,
9
16
June 30,
1
1
June 5,
3
4
July 1,
1
-
June 6,
6
9
July 2,
-
3
June 7,
2
6
July 4,
1
-
June 8,
4
6
July 5,
-
1
June 9,
3
4
4
8
July 9,
Total.
-
1
June 10,
160
147
307
Total emergence, 307 adults.
Total males, 160, or 52.1 per cent.
Total females, 147, or 47.9 per cent.
54 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
A total of 35 second generation pupae were reared from full-grown
second generation larvae collected in the field during May, 1918, in order
to secure data as to duration of the pupal period. From this material
35 second generation adults emerged, of which 13, or 37.3 per cent, were
males, and 22, or 62.7 per cent, were females (see Table X).
Thus out of 342 second generation adults, 173, or 50.5 per cent, were
males, and 169, or 49.5 per cent, were females.
It will be noted that, in the instance of the 725 adults of both genera-
tions represented by these figures, the sexes were present in nearly equal
proportions, there being 335 males and 390 females.
Flight.
Character of Flight.
Both sexes of the European corn borer adults are capable of flight.
They habitually fly very close to the ground, a tendency that is caused,
perhaps, by the fact that the plants upon which the females deposit their
eggs do not generally reach a height of more than 6 or 8 feet. When
disturbed in their hiding places during the day the adults fly close to the
ground, in a curious zigzag manner, for a distance of 10 or 20 feet, and
then seek cover again under some object.
It is rather difiicult to observe the flight of the adults during the time
of their maximvun activity in the early evening. Such observations as
were made, however, indicated that adults normally fly very low, even
when seeking food plants upon which to deposit their eggs. The males
apparently are more active than the females, and fly for greater distances
and at higher altitudes. The character of their flight at this time is
similar to that which has been described in the instance of moths dis-
turbed from their hiding places during the day.
Distances of Flight.
Under most conditions the moths cover a very short distance in each
flight, the maximum observed in any single flight being about 50 yards.
The females make a series of short flights in search of food plants on which
to deposit their eggs, so that the total distance covered by a female in a
series of flights may be considerable. The males make a similar series of
flights in their search for the females.
Effect of Wind on Flight of Moths.
It is not believed that the moths are carried any considerable distances
by the wind, although the general direction in which the insect has spread,
since its introduction into Massachusetts, has been with the prevailing
winds.
Meteorological records show that the^e winds during May, June,
July and August are from the south and the southwest. The fact
that the insect has spread more rapidly toward the north and the north-
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 55
east than in any other direction would tend to indicate that the flight of
the moths is influenced by the wind to some extent.
The habit of the moth of flying close to the ground would seem to reduce
the possibility of wind spread to a minimum, but future observations
may show other influencing factors.
Time of Maximum Activity.
During the day the moths remain inactive. They may commonly be
found hiding on the underside of the foliage of their food plant, or in strips
of grassland and low weeds growing along the field borders and ditches
of cultivated areas. They also remain inactive during cool periods, and
aliso during high winds. They become active in the late afternoon, and
reach their greatest period of activity about dusk.
Attraction of Moths to Trap Lights.
On the night of August 6-7, 1918, a trap light was placed midway, and
50 feet distant, from two areas of sweet corn which contained hundreds of
first generation adults. These had recently emerged from early corn
and were at the period of their greatest activity. The trap light was
started at 8 p.m. At this time the moths were actively fljdng around
among the corn plants. The first moth was caught at 8.45 p.m. Observa-
tions were continued until 11.30 p.m., and the trap light was left burning
until 8 A.M. the next morning. The total catch from this trap light
experiment was 17 moths, of which 7 were males and 10 were females.
Subsequent dissection showed that all of the females were gravid.
The trap light used in the experiment was yellow in color. Examina-
tion of blue arc lights along the streets in the vicinity of badly invested
areas failed to. show that the moths were attracted to the blue lights to
any greater extent than has been detailed for the yellow light.
OVIPOSITION.
The females of the European corn borer begin ovipositing about three
days after emerging from the pupa (see Tables V and XI). Oviposition
generally occurs during the late afternoon or early evening.
Details of Oviposition.
The female assumes a position on the under surface of a leaf blade, and
bends the end of the abdomen down, meanwhile extruding the ovipositor
until its tip comes in contact with the leaf blade. The tip of the ovipositor
is fleshy and circular. Around its periphery extends a circle of amber-
colored hairs. After selecting the spot on which the egg is to be deposited
the female stands still and vibrates the ovipositor until the spherical-
shaped egg appears at its tip. The egg is then quickly pushed against
the leaf and tamped down into place by the ovipositor, which at the same
time flattens it. This act changes the egg from its original spherical
56 MASS. EXPEKIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
shape into a more flattened one. From 5 to 50 eggs are thus deposited in
a flat egg-mass, each egg overlapping the adjoining one in the manner of
shingles. The female rarely changes her position during the oviposition
of an egg-mass, as the flexibility of the abdomen allows quite a radius of
action.
Distribution of Egg Masses.
During its period of fertility the female deposits a varying number of
egg-masses, each mass being composed of from 5 to about 50 eggs. These
are generally placed on the under sides of the leaves of several different
plants, but in some instances all of the eggs may be deposited on the
same plant. When selecting plants for egg deposition the female appar-
ently prefers certain plants to the exclusion of others belonging to the
same species.
In life-history cages the daily rate of oviposition varied with different
females and according to the temperature conditions. In some instances
a single female deposited several egg-masses in twenty-four hours, while
in other instances a period of several days elapsed between the deposition
of successive egg-masses.
Total Number of Eggs deposited by Each Female.
First Generation.
In Ufe-history cages 13 female moths of the first generation deposited
an average of 545 eggs each. The maximum number of eggs deposited
by a single female was 903, and the minimum, 132 (see Table V).
Second Generation.
In life-history cages 15 female moths of the second generation deposited
an average of 337 eggs each. The maximum number of eggs deposited
by a single female was 727, and the minimum, 107 (see Table XI).
Duration of Fertility.
The duration of fertility is here considered to be the period between
the first and last deposition of eggs.
First Generation.
The duration of fertility of 13 female moths of the first generation that
were confined in Ufe-history cages during July and August, 1918, aver-
aged fifteen days, with a maximum of twenty-four days and a minimum
of six days (see Table V).
Second Generation.
The duration of fertility of 15 female moths of the second generation
that were confined in life-history cages during May and June, 1918,
averaged 13.66 days, with a maximum of twenty-one days and a minimum
of six days (see Table XI).
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 57
The long period of fertility of the female moths in both generations of
the European corn borer is important because it results in larvse of several
different instars being present in the same field, and often on the same-
plant at the same time. This may be an important consideration in any
control measures that have for their object the destruction of the young
larvae before they enter the plant.
The long period of fertility also increases the chances that gravid
females may start new infestations of the insect by being carried outside
of the infested area.
PARASITES.
European Records of Parasites.
European literature contains very few records of parasites bred from,
the European corn borer in any of its stages. Most of the literature on
this species emphasizes the absence of any parasites.
Robin and Laboulbene (U) mention the fact that one of their col-
leagues, M. Jules Fallon, reared many specimens of P. mibilalis (Botys)
from larv'se to adults during several consecutive years prior to 1879, but
secured no parasites, either hymenopterous or dipterous, from any stage
of the insect.
Jablonowski (16) records breeding a parasite fly, Ceromasia interrwpta
Rdi., from the larva of P. nuhilalis. The author states that "the insect
is not much infested by parasites in Hungary."
KoUar (6) mentions that some Ichneumonidse have been bred from the
insect.
Records of Parasites in Massachusetts.
No parasites were bred from the egg of the European corn borer during
the investigations in Massachusetts.
Parasites of the Larva.
In Massachusetts four different species of dipterous parasites belonging
to the Tachinidse have been bred from larvse of the borer. These Tachinids
were determined by Dr. J. M. Aldrich of the United States National
Museum as Masicera myoidea Desv., Exorista pyste Walk., Exorista
nigripalpis Tns., and Phorocera ereda Coq. No other parasites were
bred from P. mibilalis larvae.
In each of the species noted above the parasite larva emerged from its
host larva just previous to normal pupation of the latter. All of these
records were secured from host larvae collected in the field and kept under
observation in cages. During the progress of dissecting infested plants
in the field, occasional parasitic dipterous larvse and puparia were found
in the tunnels of P. nuhilalis. In these instances it was not possible to
state definitely whether the parasite had emerged from P. nuhilalis, or
from some other larva which had wandered into the P. nuhilalis tunnels.
58 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
For this reason these records are not included among the hst of P. mihilalis
parasites.
Only a small per cent of P. nuhilalis larvse were parasitized. During
the entire season of 1918 a total of about twenty individual dipterous
(Tachinid) parasites were bred, although several hundred larvse were
imder observation in life-history cages and in the process of securing other
biological data. The highest percentage of parasitism recorded was from
a collection of 50 full-grown P. nubilalis larvse dissected from the stalks
in a badly infested field in Revere, Mass., on Aug. 23, 1918. Two para-
sitic larvse emerged from the total of 50 P. nubilalis larvse, a percentage of
parasitism of 4.
A fact worthy of recording here is that during July, 1918, the larvse of
Papaipema nitela Gn. were very highly parasitized by Masicera myoidea
Desv. The larvse of P. nitela were tunneling through the same plant, or
plants in the same hill, as larvse of P. nubilalis, and the latter were only
parasitized to a very small extent by the Tachinid. The statement has
been made by foreign observers that one reason for the dearth of larval
parasitism in P. nubilalis is their protected mode of living within the
plant, but in the instance recorded it would seem as though P. nuhilalis
should have been parasitized to as great an extent as P. nitela, which at
this time was following the same mode of attacking its host plant.
Parasites of the Pupa.
In Massachusetts two different species of hymenopterous parasites
have been bred from pupse of the European corn borer. These were
determined by Mr. A. B. Gahan of the United States National Museum
as (Pimpla) Epiurus pterophori Ashm., and {Ichneumon) Amblyteles
brevicinctor Say.
The hymenopterous larva of E. pterophori was found feedmg on the
internal juices of a P. nubilalis pupa which had been broken open. The
full-grown parasite larva spun a brown silken cocoon and pupated within
the remains of its host. Only two of these parasites were bred.
The adult parasite A. brevicinctor emerged from the fully formed pupa
of P. nuhilalis. Two of these parasites were bred during August, 1918.
No other definite records of pupal parasitism were secured, although
several hundred pupse were under observation m life-history cages and
during the progress of securing other biological data.
A single adult specimen of Agrypon sp. (det. Gahan) was found in a
pasteboard box cage which contained about a dozen discarded P. nubilalis
pupse. The head cap of one of these had been forced ofY, so it is probable
that the parasite emerged from this pupa. This cannot be considered a
definite record of P. nubilalis parasitism, however.
A single specimen of Macroce7xtrus sp. (det. Gahan) was bred from a
hymenopterous cocoon found in the tunnels of P. riubilalis, near the
remains of a P. nuhilalis pupa; but this also cannot be considered a
definite record of P. nubilalis parasitism.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 59
Summarizing the records of parasites bred from the European corn
borer it will be noted that there are four species of Diptera and two species
of HjTnenoptera represented. The number of different species attacking
P. nuhilalis suggests the possibility that parasites may in the future have
some influence in controlling the pest, but at the present time they cannot
be relied upon to accompUsh much.
PREDATORS.
Birds.
Several species of birds, including woodpeckers, blackbirds and crows,
have been observed to feed upon the larvae and pupse of the European
corn borer. Blackbirds have been observed to pick them out of infested
corn tassel-stalks, frequently breaking over the tassel-stalk to reach the
insect within. On one occasion a flock of crows settled down in an infested
patch of field corn and devoured nearly all of the P. nuhilalis larvae which
were feeding on the ears. Incidentally they also devoured some of the
corn.
Insects.
Larvae of the corn ear worm Chloridea ohsoleta Fab. frequently kill
and feed upon P. nubilalis larvae which are feeding on the same ear of
corn.
A small beetle, Ips fasciatus, is frequently found in P. nubilalis tunnels
but has not been observed to prey upon the larva of the pest.
CONTROL.
Destroying Plants containing Overwintering Larv^.
Bearing in mind the life history and habits of the European com borer,
it is e\'ident that any measures for controlling the insect must be pre-
ventive rather than remedial. The most obvious method of preventing
damage by the insect, or at least greatly reducing its numbers, is by the
destruction of plants containing the overwintering larvae. This may
be accomplished any time during the period from the middle of October
until the middle of the following May.
Burning Infested Plants.
Burning infested plants is undoubtedly the most practical and effective
measure that can be adopted for the destruction of the overwintering
larvae. At first thought this seems to be an easy method of handling the
problem, but when the great variety of food plants is considered, and also
the extent of the infested area (320 square miles), it becomes one of great
proportions. In order to destroy the larvae in any given area by this
method, all parts of the different food plants within that area must be
burned, including the roots or stubble of the plants.
60 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
In comparatively large areas occupied by weeds this result may be
accomplished by a running fire which, under favorable conditions, will
effectively burn all plants to the surface of the ground, and kill any larvae
that may be present in the roots.
In the infinite number of small areas present throughout the infested
region, and especially in the vicinity of buildings, it is not generally pos-
sible to start or maintain a running fire, and, under these circumstances,
it becomes necessary to remove the infested plants and burn them in
piles or in some receptacle provided for the purpose. This method
entails considerable labor and expense, and when applied to the 320
square miles infested, presents a large problem.
Cornstalks and other infested plants in cultivated areas may generally
be cut very close to the ground and burned in piles. The stubble may
then be plowed out, raked up and burned, if no better means for its de-
struction are available. In small areas of corn it is sometimes more
practicable to pull up and burn the entire plant than to remove and
destroy the stubble.
During the early fall of 1918 considerable difficulty was experienced in
attempting to burn cornstalks and other infested plants, owing to the
large amount of water stUl present in the stalks, some of these plants
being still green in appearance and resisting all efforts to burn them,
even when kerosene oil was applied. It is possible, therefore, that in
some instances infested plants must be burned during the early spring or
during mild periods of the winter. It is not necessary to entirely consume
the infested plants in order to kill the larvae contained therein, but these
plants should at least be given a thorough scorching or be exposed to
considerable heat.
While experimenting with methods for burning infested plants several
different types of torches were used. None of these, however, gave any
satisfaction during the fall of 1918. This result may have been due to
the green condition of many infested plants on which the torches were
used, and it is possible that this method may give better results during
the winter and spring, when the infested plants are dead and dry.
It is hoped that ultimately some type of a portable burning apparatus
will be developed for use in burning large quantities of infested plants
easily and at a low cost.
Any method adopted for the burning of infested plants throughout the
entire infested area will result in a considerable outlay of money. Never-
theless, it is believed that burning is the best method to use in clean-up
operations. Figures, compiled from data concerning the towns in the
area infested by the pest up to November, 1918, show that about 50,000
acres must be treated.
Burying Infested Plants.
Burying infested plants may destroy the contained larva under some
conditions. This method of eliminating infested material is especially
desirable from an agricultural viewpoint, because the decaying plants
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 61
provide humus so necessary to the maintenance of fertiUtj^ and texture
in the soil. If this method is adopted, however, the infested plants
must be buried at least a foot in the soil, and the surface packed, if possible.
Experiments to date have indicated that this method of destroying in-
fested plants cannot be relied upon unless undertaken with great care.
In ordinary plowing operations infested plants are only partially turned
under, and much of the plant remains are left on the surface of the ground.
This is not an effective method for destroying infested plants.
During the month of May, 1918, infested cornstalks were buried in the
soil to a depth of 6 inches, and in a manner resembling the work of an
ordinary plow. The second generation larvae contained in these buried
stalks promptly made their waj^ to the surface of the soil and entered
plant remnants in the vicinity. Different results might possibly have
been secured if the infested stalks had been buried in the fall and left in
the soil through the winter, and experiments were started during the fall
of 1918 to determine this point.
Infested cornstalks, buried to a depth of 12 inches in October, 1918,
were dug up five weeks later and found to contain living larvse. These
were still actively feeding, although the interior of each cornstalk was
soft and had begun to decay.
If a method could be developed for plowing under infested plants in
order to destroy the larvse contained therein it would be very desirable
but in the present state of our knowledge concerning the matter this
practice cannot be recommended.
Feeding of Infested Plants.
The feeding of infested plants to live stock is, from the economic view-
point, the best possible means for destroying the larvse of the European
corn borer. The value of the stalks for fodder is not materially affected
by the presence of the insects, and, if properly carried out, this method
must result in the destruction of all insects within the infested plants.
This is particularly true in the instance of infested corn fodder.
Shredding the corn fodder, or cutting it into small sections before
feeding, greatly reduces the chance that any of the contained larvse will
survive. Live stock relish corn fodder when fed in this form, and will
eat all parts of the plant.
Ensilage, by ordinary methods, effectively destroys all larva? within
the fodder, as the insects cannot survive the conditions existing in the
silo.
Coynposting Infested Plants.
"Whenever infested plants or parts of plants are placed in a compost or
manure pile and covered deeply, the resulting decay and fermentation
quickly result in the death of the larvse contained within the plants.
It is a common practice on some farms to use corn fodder for bedding.
This corn fodder ultimately becomes mixed with the manure, and any
larvse present in the corn fodder do not survive the treatment.
62 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
Application of Aksenicals to Plants.
Although much of the Uterature dealing with the habits of the European
corn borer emphasises the fact that the larva feeds entirely within the
plant, close observation of the habits of the insect has shown that a large
proportion of the first and second instar larvae feed almost exclusively on
the upper and lower leaf epidermis of some of their host plants. This
circumstance at once suggests the possibility of control by the application
of arsenical poisons, and experiments were attempted during the summer
of 1918 in order to determine this point.
Dusting xvith Lead Arsenate.
An application of powdered lead arsenate was made on June 24, 1918,
to 60 hills of sweet corn growing in the experimental plot at West Med-
ford, Mass. At this time most of the corn borer larvae were feeding on
the leaf epidermis or on the staminate flowers of the tassel. An attempt
was made to get the poison into the unfolding tassel and around the
bases of the corn blades, as well as to cover the surface of the leaf blades.
This treatment did not noticeably curtail the activities of the larvae.
Wlien the ears developed they were infested in the same proportion as
the check rows.
Other Dusting Experiments.
Calcium arsenate powder and equal parts of calcium arsenate powder
and hydrated lime were applied in the same manner as arsenate of lead.
The results were the same, although calcium arsenate appeared to be
more effective than any of the other arsenical powders used. The check
rows used in the calcium arsenate experiment were noticeably infested to
a greater degree than the treated row. All the ears in the treated row
were at least somewhat infested, however.
Spraying with Lead Arsenate.
Three applications of lead arsenate, at the rate of 1 ounce of the powder
in 2 gallons of water, were made to 32 hills of sweet corn on Aug. 5, 13
and 22, 1918. Daily observations were made of these corn plants, and
an effort was made to apply the poison at a time when it would be most
effective in covering the surface areas of the plant that was being eaten
by the larvae of the borer.
At the time of application the poison spray adhered to the foliage very
well, and the excess liquid ran down the leaf blades and collected at the
bases of the tassels and leaf blades, these points being the favorite feeding
places of the young larvae.
When the ears developed in this plot a close examination showed that
211 ears were present, of which the entire number were infested. Many
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 63
of these ears were only damaged to a slight degree, however, and in general
were in a much better condition than those in the check rows.
About 52 per cent of the tassels were broken over in the sprayed plot
while 61 per cent were broken over in the check rows.
The stalks of the sprayed plants were all infested by the pest, but
surface feeding had been entirely prevented. The sprayed plants had
a much better (greener) color than the plants in the check rows. Late
in October most of the plants in the check rows had fallen over as a result
of P. nuhilalis attack, but only about 10 per cent of the sprayed plants
had done this.
The results of this experiment indicate that many of the European
corn borer larva? can be killed by the application of arsenicals at the right
time, but that the damage to the plants by the insect cannot be prevented
to a paj'ing degree.
Corn grows very rapidly throughout the period when spraying is neces-
sary, and the newly developed portions of the plant are the favorite
points of attack, viz., bases of the leaf sheath, surface of the leaf blade,
and the tassel. This necessitates frequent sprayings in order to combat
the larviB of the pest, which hatch over quite an extended period of time.
The cost of spra jing large areas would, therefore, be probably prohibitive.
Spraying with Calcium Arsenate.
Three applications of calcium arsenate, at the rate of one-half ounce of
the powder to 2 gallons of water, were made on the same date and in the
same manner as have been detailed for lead arsenate. The results were
practically the same, although calcium arsenate appeared to be more
satisfactory in its prevention of injury than did lead arsenate.
Cultural Practices to avoid Damage.
Several observations made during the summer of 1918 seemed to
suggest the possibility that damage by the borer could be avoided by
regulating the time of planting corn so that the plants would not be at a
stage to attract the female moths of the insect during their time of activity.
The female moths prefer to deposit their eggs upon some plant bearing a
soft, green seed head. If corn plants bearing a tassel are not available
the females habitually deposit their eggs upon some other species of host
plant that bears a seed head in the desired stage of development.
It was observ-ed that adjoining corn fields, in different stages of develop-
ment, were often infested in varying degrees by the insect. In one
market garden at West Medford, Mass., a field of sweet corn, planted on
April 1, 1918, was very severely infested by the borer. An adjoining
field of sweet corn, planted about April 10, 1918, was only infested to a
moderate degree. A third field of sweet corn, planted about April 30,
1918, was practically free from the pest, and an examination of the ears
when harvested showed only a very small per cent of injury.
64 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
OTHER INSECTS FREQUENTLY MISTAKEN FOR THE
EUROPEAN 'corn BORER.
The Stalk Boeer.
The stalk borer Papaipema nitela Gn. is frequently mistaken for the
European corn borer. P. nitela attacks and tunnels in the stalks of a
great variety of plants, including corn, tomatoes, potatoes and many
other wild and cultivated plants. During the spring and early summer
the larva is quite commonly found in the same field and often in the same
plant with the European corn borer, but it may be distinguished from the
latter during its early stages by the presence of a wide transverse brown
band extending around the middle of the body. When nearly full grown
the P. nitela larva more closelj^ resembles P. nuhilalis, but may be easily
distinguished from the latter at that time by the absence of the short
stout spines which arise from the light-colored abdominal areas of P.
nuhilalis, and by the uniformly greater length and breadth of the P.
nitela larva. Another point of difference between the two species is that
P. nuhilalis pupates within its larval tunnels, while P. nitela leaves its
host, when full grown, and pupates in the soil. In corn the larval tunnels
of the two species are quite often similar, but the tunnels of P. nuhilalis
are generally packed with a light colored frass, and in some instances
contain the empty pupal skin, while the larval tunnels of P. nitela are
generally free from frass, or, if present, the frass is much darker and
composed of larger particles than that of P. nuhilalis.
Many reports of P. nuhilalis injury have been found, upon investigation,
to have for their basis the injury caused by P. nitela.
The Corn Ear Worm.
Larvse of the corn ear worm Chloridea ohsoleta Fab. are sometimes
mistaken for those of the European corn borer. The larvje of the first-
named species are frequently found feeding on the same ear of corn with
larvae of P. nuhilalis, but may be easily distinguished from the latter by
the presence of varicolored stripes running lengthwise of the body, and
by the fact that lai-vse of the corn ear worm, as the name implies, confine
their operations, when feeding on corn, almost exclusively to the kernels
of the ear, and do not enter the cob or the stalk. They may generally
be found feeding on the surface of immature ears.
Cutworms.
'Several species of cutworms are occasionally found feeding on the ears
of corn, but may be distinguished from larvse of the European corn borer
by the same characteristics as have been mentioned in the instance of
the corn ear worm.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 65
SUMMARY.
The European corn borer has recently become established in the eastern
part of Massachusetts. This pest has long been recorded in Europe and
Asia as one of the most serious insect enemies of corn, hemp, millet, hops
and other crops. It was probably introduced into Massachusetts through
the importation from Europe of raw hemp for use in cordage factories,
about the year 1910.
The insect was first discovered in Massachusetts in the summer of
1917. At that time it was causing severe damage to sweet corn and
other plants. Preliminary investigations indicated that the insect had
become established over an area of about 100 square miles immediately
north and northeast of the city of Boston, and that the serious nature of
the pest called for prompt and vigorous action by both State and Federal
authorities if the corn crop of the country was to be safeguarded.
During the season of 1918 the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment
Station and the United States Bureau of Entomology co-operated in a
further investigation of the insect, in order to obtain detailed information
concerning its distribution, habits and food plants, with a view to insti-
tuting quarantine and control measures that would confine the pest to its
present area and lead to its ultimate control.
As a result of these investigations it was determined that up to Novem-
ber, 1918, the European corn borer had established itself in an area of
about 320 square miles, comprising 34 towois, located immediately west,
north and northwest of the city of Boston.
The insect attacks a great variety of both wild and cultivated plants,
including sweet corn, field corn, fodder corn, timothy, oats, celery, to-
matoes^ potatoes, beans, beets, Swiss chard, chrysanthemums, dahlias,
gladioli and many qf the larger weeds and grasses.
Corn is its favorite food plant, however, and is injured by the pest to
a greater extent than any of its other host plants. All parts of the corn
plant are attacked, except the fibrous roots. The economic injury to
corn consists of the following: (1) injury to tassel which results in poor
fertiUzation; (2) injury to stalk which reduces vitality of plant; (3)
injury to stalk which causes breaking over of plant; (4) injury to stalk
which indirectly affects the ear by cutting off its supply of nutriment;
(5) injury to ear which directly affects the j'ield; (6) injury to the silk of
the ear which results in poor fertilization.
A maximum of 117 full-growii European corn borer larvae have been
taken from one corn plant and 311 full-grown larvae were dissected from
a single hill of corn containing four plants. The average number of
larvae dissected from 75 corn plants, taken at random in the same field,
■was 46. This is at the rate of 1,050,640 larvae per acre of corn. As many
as 15 were found attacking a single ear of sweet corn.
Field counts made in infested corn fields showed that frequently as
high as 100 per cent of the ears were infested.
66 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
The other economic plants mentioned as hosts of the European corn
borer are attacked bj^ the insect only in the absence of corn, or as a result
of their nearness to corn in badly infested fields.
The wild plants mentioned as hosts of the insects are attacked only in
the absence of corn, and are not economically important except that
they serve as intermediate hosts for the multiphcation of the pest.
There are two generations of the insect each year. The nearly full-
grown second generation larvae pass the winter in a dormant condition
within their tunnels, and resume feeding with the approach of warm
weather in the spring. They pupate about the middle of May. The
pupal period lasts about seventeen days, and the moths emerge the first
week of June to deposit eggs for the first generation. A maximum number
of 727 eggs was deposited by a single second generation female in life-history
cages, and the average number deposited by a single female was 337 eggs.
These eggs are deposited in masses from 5 to about 50 eggs, on the under
sides of the leaves of the host plant. The first generation larvae hatch
in about seven days and reach their full growth in about forty-four days.
They pupate within their larval tunnels, and the pupal period lasts about
nine days. The moths emerge about the middle of July and deposit eggs
for the second generation. A maximum number of 903 eggs was deposited
by a single first generation female in life-history cages, with an average
number per female of 545 eggs. The second generation larvae hatch in
about six days and are nearly full grown by winter.
Four species of dipterous parasites were bred from the larvae of the
European corn borer, and two species of hjinenopterous parasites were
bred from the pupae. No parasites were bred from the egg. The per-
centage of parasitism by any of these species is very small, and at the
present time they cannot be reUed upon to hold the pest in check.
Burning the plants containing the overwintering larvae, any time
during the period from the middle of October to the middle of the next
May, is the most effective control method now known. Other methods,
applicable under certain conditions, for destroj'ing infested plants are
placing in manure or compost; in a silo; burying deeply in the soil; or
feeding directly to live stock, preferably shredded or chopped finely.
Spraying infested corn plants with arsenicals in order to kill the young
larvae feeding on the surface of the plant was not found to be practical,
owing to the number of sprayings necessary to keep the growing plant
covered with the arsenical, and to the fact that the small per cent of
larvae not killed by the arsenical was sufficient to generally ruin the ears
of corn for commercial purposes. Cultural practices may aid in avoiding
damage by timing the planting of corn in such a manner that the plants
may not be at a stage of growth which attracts the female moths during
their period of oviposition. The female moths prefer to deposit their
eggs upon some plant bearing a soft green seed head. If corn plants
bearing a tassel are not available the females habitually deposit their
eggs upon some other kind of host plant.
THE EUEOPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 67
In Octoberj 1918, a Federal quarantine was established prohibiting the
interstate movement of corn fodder, cornstalks, green sweet corn, roasting
ears, corn on the cob and corn cobs from the towns known to be infested
by the European corn borer.
In August, 1918, the State of Vermont issued a quarantine order pro-
hibiting the movement of all stalks or ears of the corn plant, either green
or dried, from the State of Massachusetts into the State of Vermont.
A similar quarantine has been established by Connecticut.
During the spring of 1918 a campaign was inaugurated by the Massachu-
setts State Board of Agriculture for the destruction of all infested plants
within the infested area. This resulted in greatly curtaiHng the activities
of the insect during the following season. In October, 1918, this cam-
paign was resumed under the joint auspices of the Massachusetts State
Department of Agriculture and the United States Bureau of Entomology,
Division of Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations.
0^\ang to the open winter of 1918-19 a continuation of the clean-up
work was possible to a greater extent than was expected. This, after
Dec. 1, 1918, was done mainly with funds pro\'ided by the United States
Bureau of Entomology.
Since the preparation of this bulletin the European corn borer has been
found over an area of about 400 square miles near Schenectady, N. Y.
To avoid any possible confusion as to responsibility for the material
contained in this bulletin, it should be stated that the sections on
Geographical Distribution, Quarantine Measures, Insects frequently
mistaken for the Corn Borer, the Introduction, and the Summary were
supplied by Mr. Caffrey. The observations under the heads of History
in the United States, Food Plants, Life History, Habits, and the others
were made by Mr. Vinal; the descriptions of the different stages were
the result of examination of specimens by Messrs. Vinal, Caffrey and
Femald.
68 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
/
LITERATURE.
[References cited are indicated by numbers in parentheses.]
(1) Ph. lupulina Clerck, Icones Insectorum rariorum, Sect. I, IX-, 4, 1759 (wTongly
considered as nubilalis by Guenee (7)).
(2) Pyralis Nuhilalis Hilbn., Eur. Schmett., Sechste Horde, 25, 14: Pyralides
XIV, 94, 1796. d".
Pyralis Silacealis Hiibn., Eur. Schmett., Sechste Horde, 25, 15: PjTalides
XVIII, 116, 1796. 9.
(3) Pyralis Glabralis Haw., Lep. Brit., 379, 1811.
(4) Pyralis Silacealis Treits., Schmett. v. Eur., VII, 81, 1829.
(5) Pyralis Silacealis Dup., Hist. nat. des Lep., VIII, 121: CCXVII, 4, 1831.
(6) Botys (Pyralis) silacealis KoU., Treat, on Inj. Ins., 108, 1840.
Botys silacealis H. S., Syst. Bearbeit. der Schmett. Eur., IV, 30, 1849.
(7) Botys Lupulinalis Guen., Delt. et Pyr., VIII, 331, 1854.
(8) Botys Zealis Guen., Delt. et Pyr., VIII, 332, 1854.
(9) Botys nubilalis Led., Wien Ent. Monats., VII, 372, 1863.
Botys lupulina Hein., Schmett. Deuts. u. d. Schweiz, I, 2, 70, 1865 (wTong
identification).
(10) Botys nubilalis Staud. and Wocke, Cat. Lep. Eur., II, 209, 1871.
Botys silacealis Snell, Die Vlind. van Ned., II, 49, 1882.
Botys nubilalis Jourdheuilie, Mem. Soc. Acad, de I'Aube (3), XX, 129,
1883.
(11) Botys nubilalis Robin and Laboulbene, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (VI), IV,
5-17, 1884.
Botys nubilalis Leech, Brit. Pyralides, 32, IV, 4, 1886.
(12) Hapalia kasmirica Moore, Desc. New Ind. Lep. Coll. Atk., 222, VII, 28, 1888.
(13) Hapalia eupulina Butler, 111. Het., VII, 19, 1889.
(14) Pyrausta 7iubiMis Meyrick, Handb. Brit. Lep., 416, 1895.
(15) Pyrausta nubilalis Hamp., Fauna of Brit. India, IV, 435, 1896.
Pyrausta Jiubilalis Hamp., Proc. Zool. Soc, Lond., 259, 1899.
(16) Botys nubilalis Jablonowski, Rovartani Lapok, IV, 10-164, 1899. Review
by Aigner-Abafi in 111. Zeits. f. Ent., V, 125, 1900.
(17) Pyrausta Nubilalis Staud. and Rebel, Cat. Palearc. Lep., II, 65, 1901.
Pyrausta nubilalis Pierce, Man. Dangerous Ins. likely to be Introduced in
U. S., 123, 1917.
(18) Pyrausta nubilalis Vinal, Bull. 178, Mass. Agr. Exp. Station, December, 1917.
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 69
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
All except Figs. 12, 13 and 14 drawn from sketches by R. E. Snodgrass.
Plate I. k>/^
Fig. 1. — First larval instar.
• Fig. 2. — Second larval instar.
Fig. 3. — Prothoracic shield of first two instars.
Fig. 4. — Third larval instar.
Fig. 5. — Prothoracic shield of third instar; spines not shown.
Fig. 6. — Fourth larval instar.'
Fig. 7. — Prothoracic shield of fourth instar; spines not shown.
Plate II
Fig. 8. — Fifth larval instar.
Fig. 9. — Prothoracic shield of fifth instar.
Fig. 10. — Sixth larval instar.
Fig. 11. — Prothoracic shield of sixth instar.
Fig. 12. — Venation of fore wing of adult.
Fig. 13. — Venation of hind wing of adult male.
Fig. 14. — Frenulum of hind wing of female.
70 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 189.
PLATE I.
Rg.l
Fig. 5
Ti?.6
THE EUROPEAN CORN BORER AND ITS CONTROL. 71
y
PLATE II.
Kg. 12
Fig. 13
BULLETIN No. 19«.
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE.
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES ON
THEIR OWN ROOTS.
BY J. K, SHAW.
INTRODUCTION.
The methods of propagation of tree fruits in common use among
nurserymen produce trees the trunk and crown of which are of the variety
desired, while a part or the whole of the root system is of seedling origin.
In many cases roots are thrown out from the base of the scion that are,
of course, of the variety of the aerial part of the tree, but it is doubtless
true that in most cases, especially with budded trees, the seedhng forms
the greater part, if not the whole, of the root system. This means that
in any orchard of any one variety there is a great deal of variation in the
root systems. No two are of identical constitution. This is due to the
complexity of the genetic constitution of our cultivated varieties of
apples. Seedlings of a single variety, even if from self-fertilized seed,
show great variation and many different combinations of characters.
It is reasonable to suppose that these differing seedling roots should
cause more or less modification of the top, and there is abundant evidence
that this is the case. The most common example is found in dwarf trees.
There are many types of the common apple that, when used as stocks,
inhibit the growth of the scion, and those that will throw out roots from
the stem readily are used as dwarfing stocks. It is well known that dwarf
stocks influence also the size, color, quality and season of maturity of the
fruit. It is therefore reasonable to believe that many of the individual
differences among the trees in an orchard may be due to the varying
seedling root systems, and such individual differences, especially in pro-
ductiveness, are greater than is generally reaUzed. If trees could be
propagated on their own roots, or on the roots of a clonal variety known
to be well suited to the scion variety, much might be gained in uniformity
and fruitfulness in the orchard.
74 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
Another advantage in having trees grafted on roots of known varieties
Hes in the greater resistance to insects and diseases of the roots that can be
secured in this way. This idea is in practical use in Austraha and South
Africa, where the method is used to avoid serious trouble with the root
form of the woolly apliis. This insect was early imported from America,
and is there known as the American blight. It was found that Northern
Spy roots were highly resistant to this insect, and it is now the usual
practice in those countries to propagate all varieties on roots of the North-
ern Spy, or some other resistant variety. ^
It has been the observation of the writer that roots of different varieties
differ in then- susceptibility to crown gall, and it is reasonable to suppose
that the same may be true with other root diseases. Root troubles are
the cause of failure of bearing trees more often than is generally reaUzed.
Propagating varieties on known roots offers a chance of overcoming, to a
considerable degree, at least, many of these root troubles.
In the northern part of the apple belt, especially in the prairie north-
west, resistance of the roots to extreme cold becomes important, and it is
considered highly desirable to get varieties on their own roots in order
to avoid root killing in winter, when the temperature of the soil falls to
an extremely low point. If trees of the varieties suited to these conditions
could be worked on roots known to be of extreme hardiness, it would con-
tribute to the longevity and consequent fruitfulness of the orchards.
If we concede that trees growing on roots of known varieties, either as
own-rooted trees or trees on roots of other known varieties, may be more
desirable for orchard purposes than trees on miscellaneous unknown
seedling roots, there are suggested many problems for investigation. For
example, what varieties on their own roots are resistant to the various
insects and diseases, and what ones possess extreme hardiness to severe
cold? What is the effect of different varieties used as root systems on
the growth and fruitfulness of the scion variety?
Before these problems can be solved it is necessary to propagate trees
on their own roots. The general question of the interrelation of stock
and scion is under investigation at this station, and it is the purpose of
this paper to set forth some of the results obtained in propagating trees
on the roots of known varieties.
The first step in securing trees on known roots is to induce the forma-
tion of roots from the stem of the chosen variety. The methods most
used in practice are by cuttings and by layers. It is known that apple
-wood roots from cuttings with the greatest difficulty, and that only
certain varieties root readily by the somewhat slow and cumbersome
method of layers. The method of growing trees on Northern Spy roots
to secure resistance to the woolly aphis may be termed the nurse-root
method. In this method a rather long scion is grafted by any appropriate
method on a short piece of seedhng root, and planted out in the usual way.
Roots arise from the Spy scion, and the seedling nurse root may be re-
moved, leaving the tree on its own roots.
» Cole, C. F.: Jour. Agr. Victoria, 9: 338 (1911).
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES. 75
PROPAGATION BY CUTTINGS.
There are few published records of attempts to propagate apple trees
by cuttings. Doubtless many have been made and not reported, for the
uniform results on record may be described in the single word — failure.
Luke ^ attempted to root apple cuttings of various sizes and lengths
at cutting-bed temperatures of 64° and 67°. All failed to strike root.
Luke was able to induce root cuttings to grow with fairly good success.
Attempts to root apple cuttings were made during the summer of 1912.
Green wood cuttings 3 to 4 inches long were made in early August and
September, and set in sand in the greenhouse. Powdered charcoal was
also used as a propagating medium, both alone and as a one-half inch
layer over sand, with the hope that it might check disease. Bottom heat
in varying degi'ees was used in some cases, also an enclosed propagating
frame. In short, an effort was made to provide the best possible condi-
tions for cuttings. Something over a thousand cuttings of several differ-
ent varieties were made. The results were much the same in all cases.
The cuttings formed a callus, varying somewhat with the variety, and
the buds started out until the leaves were about one-fourth inch long.
This occupied about two weeks, after which growth ceased. The final
result was the same in practically all cases. Of the 1,000 or more cuttings
only a single one of the Fall Pippin variety rooted, and that only a single
short shoot that was broken off in removing from the sand, so that it
failed to grow. Fig. 1 is a typical representation of the range of devel-
opment of callus and leaf. Arranged in order of callus development the
varieties are Yellow Transparent, Fall Pippin, Red Astrachan, Bough
(Sweet), Ben Davis, Wagener. As will be shown later, these varieties
may be induced to root from the scion, when grown by the nurse-root
method, more or less readily, according to the variety. There is, however,
little or no correlation between callus growth and root formation, as may
be seen by comparison with the numbers rooting shown in Table 2.
One lot of cuttings was watered with a nutrient solution, using a formula
in common use for growing seedhngs. The only effect was a noticeable
growth of green algae over the surface of the sand. The cutting growth
was hindered rather than helped.
In spite of these failures it is the opinion of the writer that it is possible
to grow apple trees from cuttings. To an inquiry addressed to many of
the leading nurserymen of the country, thirty-five replied that they had
never seen cuttings or prunings from the trees taking root, while seven-
teen professed to have observed such an occurrence, though none of them
considered it at all common. One nurseryman reported having planted
well-callused scions in a mixture of sand and soil, and that "the best
stand we ever had was something less than 10 per cent of the cuttings
planted." The trees were weak for a year or two. The late T. V. Munson
1 Luke, F. K.: Proc. Columbus Hort. Soc., XIII: 95 (1898).
76 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
of Denison, Tex., says: "I have often had apple and even peach switches
cut from the trees in February and stuck into the ground (very sandy)
for label sticks, take root and grow off well."
In the spring of 1913 a considerable number of root cuttings from
young trees were planted in the nursery row. No record was kept of them,
but they made a good stand though growth was very slow the first season.
It is the practice of at least one nursery firm to dig trees already estab-
lished on their own roots once in two years and cut off the roots for prop-
agation by root cuttings. The trees are then replanted and a new crop
of roots grown.
In a later experience of the writer, root cuttings from the root system
of bearing trees were used in an attempt to propagate the stock variety.
This resulted in almost a complete failure. The roots used were from
one-quarter to one-half inch in diameter, and when planted in the open,
about 3 inches long. Others planted in the greenhouse were about IJ
inches long. Whether older roots propagate with greater difficult}^, or
whether some unfavorable conditions not readily seen interfered with
success, cannot be told with certainty.
PROPAGATION BY LAYERS.
The method commonly used in propagating dwarf trees is by some form
of layerage. A considerable number of attempts were made to induce
root formation by air layerage. , Earthen pots were split, and in early
August were placed in appropriate position on growing shoots and filled
with sphagnum moss. They were kept moist by frequent watering.
None of these air layers showed root formation. It proved difficult with
the rather small pots used to maintain uniform moisture conditions, and
this may have had something to do with the failure.
In the spring of 1917 two-year-old trees growing in the nursery row
were cut off 3 or 4 inches above the ground and allowed to stool. Later
in the summer soil was heaped up around the new shoots to the height of
4 or 5 inches. The varieties used were Ben Davis, Bough, Rhode Island
Greening and Transcendent. None of these shoots have been separated
in an attempt to establish them as independent trees, but investigation
in the spring of 1919 showed that most shoots of all these varieties bore
small roots, coming out near the junction with the cut-off stump.
PROPAGATION BY THE NURSE-ROOT METHOD.
It is well known to most nurserymen that root-grafted trees often send
out roots from the scion, and may eventually become established, partially,
at least, on their own roots. In an attempt to collect information a
questionnaire was sent to the leading nurserymen. About 75 replies
were received, and most of these show care and thought in answering the
questions. They were suggestive at the outset of this work, and are in-
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES. 77
teresting to review after eight years' work on the problem. The first
question was, "Have you ever observed root-gi-afted apple trees rooting
from the scion?" Fifty replies say yes, and 6 reply no. Especially in
the Middle West nurserymen regard it as a common or usual thing, while
in the East, South and on the Pacific coast it seems rather less well known.
It may be that rooting is more frequent in the rich, loamy soil of the
Middle West, or it may be that it is because the practice of root gi-afting
prevails there more than in the eastern and other nursery regions.
The second question asked, "In what varieties, and in about what
proportion of the trees," rooting from the scion had been observed to
occur. The general trend of the replies was that all varieties might do so,
Winesap being the only sort mentioned as not rooting. Generally the
varieties mentioned were those most extensively grown. Ideas as to pro-
portion of trees rooting were diverse, some saying a small percentage and
others nearly all.
A question as to the most favorable conditions for rooting brought in
nearly every case, when a positive reply was made, the suggestion of the
long-scion, short-root graft; deep planting was often suggested; abun-
dant fertility and plenty of moisture were often mentioned; where soil
preference was expressed it was for a sandy or loamy soil.
Methods used.
The first lots of grafts for the purpose of securing trees on known roots
were made in 1912, and others were made during subsequent years, in-
cluding 1917. The method has been to make an ordinary piece root,
whip graft, using a straight root 2 to 3 inches long, and a scion 6 to 8
inches long. The grafts have been made at various times in the late
winter and early spring, most of them in February or early March. For
the most part they have been made by student amateurs, and yet they
have been as well made as the average of commercial work. It has ap-
peared that there is more dependent on the way the scions were handled
before and after grafting than in the skill with which the union was made.
To test the necessity for large contact of the cambium layers five different
methods or degrees of matching were tested, as follows: —
(a) Matched on one side only, not at top or bottom.
(b) Matched on both sides, not at top or bottom.
(c) Matched at top, not at sides or bottom.
(d) Matched at bottom, not at sides or top.
(e) Perfectly matched all around.
The variety used was Baldwin.
Where it was desired to avoid matching, the scion or root was cut away,
if necessary, to make a space of at least 1 millimeter. The grafts were then
planted and cared for in the usual way. The results are shown in Table 1.
78
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
Table 1. — Results of Variaus Methods
of matching Cambium.
Number
planted.
Per Cent
growing.
Per Cent
rooting
from Scion.
Average
Height of
One-year
Whips
(Feet).
(a) Matched on one side, ....
(6) Matched on both sides, ....
(c) Matched at top,
(d) Matched at bottom,
(e) Matched all around,
45
44
45
45
45
80
65
42
66
60
8
24
39
19
36
3.2
4.1
3.8
3.0
3.4
These figures show no very consistent results. Evidently so far as the
development of nursery trees is concerned, a small contact of the cambium
layers is as good as a perfect fit. Nevertheless, it is quite possible that
more extensive tests might reveal significant results.
In several cases grafts have been made in April and set immediately
in the nursery row. Such lots have been somewhat slow in starting, but
have given fully as good stands as those that had been stored for two
months or more. Probably due in part, at least, to the slow start, they
have made somewhat smaller trees at the end of one or two seasons'
growi^h.
In some cases, storage has been in boxes packed in moss or other mois-
ture-holding material. Sometimes this has seemed to be injurious, perhaps
through the displacement of oxygen by carbon dioxide, and the grafts
have failed to give a good stand, though starting well for the first week
or ten days.
The planting has been done with a double or triple dibber made out
of gas pipe or steel tubing. These tools enable one to plant the graft
deep in the ground with only one or two buds showing. The earth has
been pressed close to the graft by thrusting down a straight spade close
to the graft, and tramping solidly with the feet.
In all cases the trees have been allowed to grow for two seasons. They
make a small growth the first season, probably largely because of the
small size of the nurse root. In most cases they have been cut back to
the ground at the beginning of the second season, after which they make
fairly strong one-year whips. Many of the trees have been budded the
first summer, so that if they rooted from the scion we would have at the
end of the second season the desired variety established on the root system
of a named variety; for example, a Baldwin top on a Ben Davis root
system. This method saves time, but owing to uncertainty of rooting
from the scion it is not very satisfactory. When the trees are dug a
record is made of those rooting and not rooting from the scion, and from
the former the seedling root is cut. The point of union is always clearly
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES. ' 79
seen, and the only time a question arises is when a root appears just at
the line of union. As a matter of safety in the main investigation, such
trees have been counted as not rooted. After cutting away the seedling
root the trees are replanted and budded during the summer if desired,
and if they have not been already. At the end of one or two years we
have a satisfactory tree established on its own roots or the roots of another
named variety.
Relation of the Variety to Root Formation.
At the start of this work the sole purpose was to obtain trees on known
roots for purposes of orchard and laboratory investigation of the inter-
relation of root and scion. It soon became evident that there were great
varietal differences in the readiness with which roots were thrown out
from the scion, and tests have been made of over 150 different varieties
and species to measure their rooting ability. These tests have extended
over a period of seven years. Some varieties have been tested only once,
others two or more times, and some have been tested six times, and all
in varying numbers, as shown in Table 2. Most of the scions have been
taken from bearing trees or from those that have since come into bearing.
A record has been kept of each lot separately, so that in a few cases,
where the parent tree proved to be misnamed, the necessary correction
has been simple. A few lots of scions were secured from nurseries; those
were carefuUj' examined for mixtures of varieties, and, so far as possible,
compared -with trees known to be true, and with printed descriptions.
There is no more excuse for mixtures of trees in the nursery row than for
mixtures of fruit in the barrel. All cases of doubtful identity have been
thrown out, and it is thought that there is little chance of error in the
varieties given in the table.
Individual lots of the same variety have differed widely in the per-
centage rooting, internal conditions in the scion or environmental con-
ditions, or both, evidently playing an important role in root formation.
Some of these will be discussed later.
80
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
Table 2. — Varietal Differences in Root Formation.
Variety.
Number
grown.
Per Cent
rooting.
Variety.
Number
grown.
Percent,
rooting.
Akin
85
27
Golden Russet,
36
28
Alexander,
48
21
Golden Sweet,
48
44
Anisim
80
6
Gravenstein, .
100
55
Arctic, ....
97
19
Grimes
83
41
Arkansas,
35
77
Henry Clay, .
193
43
Arkansas Black, .
45
44
Hibernal,
34
61
Bailey Sweet, . .
108
95
Hibkee, . . . .
13
34
Baldwin,
898
32
Horse (Yellow Horse), .
133
9
Ben Davis, .
627
51
Hubbardston,
947
21
Bethel
137
0
Huntsman,
82
23
Bismark,
73
31
Hurlbut, . . .
170
7
Black Gilliflower, .
34
6
Ingram, . . . .
261
2
Blenheim,
54
35
Isham Sweet, .
81
2
Blue Pearmain,
82
24
Jacobs Sweet, .
28
4
Bonum
206
14
Jefferis
278
3
Bough (Sweet),
552
98
Jewett, . . . .
580
20
Canada Baldwin, .
36
53
Jonathan,
175
11
Charlamoff, .
109
11
July, Fourth of.
55
62
Chenango,
89
69
Keswick, . . .
121
56
Colorado Orange, .
72
3
King David, .
29
22
Cox Orange, .
201
8
Kinnaird,
98
7
Deacon Jones,
7
57
Lady
160
3
Delicious,
131
22
Lady Sweet, .
75
8
Dominie,
59
55
Lawver, . . . .
21
71
Dudley (North Star), .
17
70
Limber Twig,
83
73
Early Harvest,
46
72
Longfield,
67
39
Early Melon, .
104
37
Lowland Raspberry,
55
78
Early Ripe, .
58
29
Lowell
90
8
Ensee, ....
162
6
Lowry
260
13
Esopus Spitzenburg,
69
79
Magnate,
174
3
Fallawater,
15
67
Maiden Blush
42
67
Fall Pippin, . . .
114
43
Malinda
86
26
Fameuse,
56
80
Mann
61
33
Gano
51
63
McAffee
22
27
Garden Royal,
22
50
Mcintosh, . . .
208
74
Gideon, ....
57
40
McMahon,
35
29
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES.
81
Table 2 — Conchided.
Variety.
Number
grown.
Per Cent,
rooting.
Variety.
Number
grown.
Per Cent
rooting.
Milding
50
54
Scott Winter, .
75
44
Milwaukee,
6
17
Shiawassee,
110
46
Minkler
132
18
Silken Leaf, .
10
40
Missouri Pippin,
99
41
Smith Cider, .
167
14
Mother, . . . .
54
39
Smokehouse, .
99
51
Newtown Pippin, .
102
68
Stark
47
43
Newtown Spitzenburg, .
44
37
Stayman,
61
41
Northern Spy,
629
58
Stump
81
30
Northwestern Greening, .
107
64
Summer Rambo, .
99
13
Oldenburg,
958
25
Sutton, . . . .
32
34
Ontario, . . . .
87
53
Swaar
136
32
Opalescent,
97
89
Tolman, . . . .
1,450
3
Ortley
110
2
Tetofski,
85
3
Palmer Greening, .
141
46
Tompkins King,
198
62
Paradise Winter Sweet, .
114
2
Transcendent (Crab),
462
45
Paragon, . . . .
100
60
Twenty Ounce,
102
38
Patten Greening, .
98
8
Wagener,
676
45
Peck Pleasant,
180
34
Wallbridge, .
111
20
Pewaukee,
30
57
Walter Pease, .
57
4
Plumb Cider, .
98
19
Wealthy,
781
25
Porter
265
6
Westfield,
103
83
Primate, . . . .
138
92
White Pearmain, .
91
14
Pumpkin Sweet, .
220
12
Williams,
240
30
Rambo
94
32
Willow
17
24
Ralls
32
41
Wilsons June, .
67
60
Red Astrachan,
601
67
Windsor, . . . .
277
2
Red Bietigheimer, .
102
46
Winesap, . . . .
200
34
Red Canada, .
54
2
Winter Banana,
166
48
Red June, . . ' .
298
27
Winterstein, .
105
9
Red Russet, .
12
45
Winter St. Lawrence,
27
21
Rhode Island Greening,
979
30
Wolf River, .
75
71
Ribston Pippin,
72
9
Wismer, . . . .
56
13
Rome Beauty,
66
9
Yellow Belleflower,
125
3
Roman Stem,
43
70
Yellow Transparent,
1,077
26
Roxbury Russet, .
252
13
York Imperial,
57
23
Salome, . . . .
43
63
82
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
Grafts have been made of twelve varieties of Siberian crab apples, but
only those of Transcendent are reported in this paper, owing to some
uncertainty in the correctness of the variety names. However, it may
be said that they show a range in rooting percentages from zero to 96
per cent, being in this respect like the varieties of the common apple.
Tests have been made of a number of forms of our native apples. The
names under which they were received and the sources were as follows: —
Pyrus angustifolia,
Pyrus coronarius,
Pyrus coronarius,
Malus coronarius,
Malus glaucescens,
Pyrus iowensis,
Malus platycarpa,
Pyrus iowensis,
Soulard Crab, .
Arnold Arboretum, Boston, Mass.
Arnold Arboretiun, Boston, Mass.
Prof. W. H. Chandler, Ithaca, N. Y.
John Dunbar, Rochester, N. Y.
John Dunbar, Rochester, N. Y.
Prof. L. Green, Ames, Iowa.
Arnold Arboretum, Boston, Mass.
D. S. Lake, Shenandoah, Iowa.
Prof. L. Green, Ames, Iowa.
These were grafted and planted in the usual manner and dug after
two seasons' growth. The numbers varied from 5 to 104 of each form.
No tree in the entire collection showed any signs of throwing out roots
from the scion.
Trees of certain varieties failing to root from the scion during the
seasons of 1915-16 were replanted in the spring of 1917. They were
moderately strong whips, and were planted about a foot deep so as to
cover several inches of the stem. The purpose was to secure additional
trees on known roots, and to see if such trees would root more or less
freely than newly made grafts. The results are shown in Table 3. The
first column gives the number of trees replanted, and the second column
the per cent rooting from the scion. For purposes of comparison the
per cent rooting from the first planting of these varieties is given in the
third column. Only in the case of Northern Spy is the percentage ma-
terially lower in the reset trees than in newly planted grafts. In most
cases there is a materially higher proportion rooting from the scion.
The replanting was on the same plot of ground. The difference may be
due to more favorable weather conditions or other environmental causes,
but it seems reasonable to suppose that the larger, stronger trees were
better able to throw out roots. As a practical means of getting trees on
their own roots by the nurse-root method, it would seem wise to replant
those failing to root on the first trial.
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES.
83
Table 3, — Reset Trees rooting in 1917-18.
Per Cent
Number
Per Cent
rooting
planted.
rooting.
from First
Planting.
Baldwin
18
39
39
Ben Davis
9
56
39
74
22
23
Jewett
52
27
14
Northern Spy,
10
40
52
Oldenburg
62
52
21
Red Astrachan,
26
65
63
Rhode Island Greening
18
44
31
Tolman
132
19
6
Transcendent,
68
72
36
Wagener,
44
32
Wealthy
24
54
21
Yellow Transparent,
82
48
17
Effect of Soil and Season.
These experiments have continued over a period of seven years, new
plantings being made in all but the seventh year. The six plantings
have been on different plots, but all are similar in soil texture. The first
lot grafted in 1912 was planted in part on experiment station land, while
part were planted in a commercial nursery in Westfield, Mass. Later
plantings were all at the experiment station. The number grown and
per cent rooted from the scion at Amherst and Westfield are given in
Table 4. These figures show no very consistent differences between the
two locations. Wliere there are wide differences, one is below and the
other above the average for the variety. Small numbers involved will
account for many of the divergences in the proportion rooting from the
scion. The soil in the two locations is similar, the Westfield location
having a little less gravel and more fine sand and silt. Both would be
called fine sandy loams.
Table 4. — Trees groivn
at Amherst and Westfield in 1912
-13.
Amherst.
Westfield.
Number
planted.
Per Cent
rooting.
Number
planted.
Per Cent
rooting.
Baldwin
28
18
10
21
10
21
22
25
14
33
22
23
14
83
100
10
100
43
36
16
0
45
14
17
82
130
138
118
111
106
108
86
19
61
52
Ben Davis
Bough (Sweet)
Hubbardston,
Northern Spy
Oldenburg, .
100
16
36
43
Red Astrachan
Rhode Island Greening
Tolman,
55
20
Q
Wealthy, ... ' '
Yellow Transparent,
40
84 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
Certain varieties called for by the plan for this investigation of the inter-
relation of stock and scion have been planted in all or nearly all of the six
lots grown during the period of this investigation. Table 5 shows the
percentages rooting from the scion in these lots. There is considerable
variation from year to year in the different varieties, due, probably, to a
variety of causes. As has been stated, a part of Series 1 was grown in
Westfield, Mass., and the rest at Amherst. Series 2 was grown in Amherst
adjoining Series 1, and under very similar soil conditions. Series 4 was
on another adjoining plot and similar to the others, except that it contained
a considerable amount of land that was rather wet. This did not visibly
affect the growth of the trees, but may have interfered with root forma-
tion. Another portion failed to give a good stand of trees. This was
given some special investigation without bringing to light any satisfactory
reason for the poor growth. Series 3, 5 and 6 were grown in another
field on plots not far apart and on similar soils. Like the other plots
these were a fine sandy loam. Series 6 was grown on a plot a consid-
erable portion of which was rather poorly drained, which may have been
the cause wholly, or in part, of the poor rooting from the scion. The
stand was good and the trees all made a fair growth. Series 5 was grown
on well-drained soil and made a good growth. It is difficult to say why
the general average of rooting is so low.
In Series 1 the varieties showing low percentages of rooting are gen-
erally those maturing growth rather late, while the early maturing va-
rieties, such as Jewett, Oldenburg, Wealthy and Yellow Transparent,
rooted better than in most other years. If this is significant it may mean
that the scion contained a greater supply of stored food, due to conditions
the previous season rather than any conditions during the two seasons
while the tree was growing.
Taken as a whole, these figures show clearly the wide range of variation
between different varieties, whatever are the conditions of growth of
the scion before cutting, or of the graft. Bough roots in nearly every
case, while Tolman roots in very few cases. The relatively high per
cent of Tolman in Series 3 may be looked on as a chance variation due to
small numbers.
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES.
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86
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
Piece and Side-root Grafts.
It was suggested that side-root grafts might root better than those
made in the usual manner of root grafts, and this was tried out, as shown
in Table 6. Considerable pains were taken to get a reasonably good fit
with the side-root grafts. It required more time to make them, and
they were more inconvenient to plant. The root used was about 2 to 3
inches long, and the scion projected below the union about the same
distance. As shown b}^ Table 6, side-root grafts did root considerably
better than whip grafts, but this gain was more than offset by the smaller
proportion of the grafts growing. Of the whip grafts, 37 per cent of
the number planted made own-rooted trees, while of the side grafts only
30 per cent showed roots from the scion. Therefore this test indicates no
advantage of the side-root graft over the ordinary whip graft in estab-
lishing trees on their own roots.
Table 6. — Piece and Side-root Grafts.
Piece Root.
Side Root
Total
Number
planted.
Percent
growing.
Per Cent
rooting.
Total
Number
planted.
Per Cent
growing.
Per Cent
rooting.
Baldwin,
529
55
47
173
55
67
Ben Davis,
284
69
77
124
50
60
Bough (Sweet),
244
82
100
110
44
100
Fall Pippin,
109
77
45
48
67
61
Jonathan, .
162
79
21
74
24
71
Maiden Blush, .
84
67
63
22
41
100
Ontario, .
43
77
44
18
28
100
Pumpkin Sweet,
60
85
27
55
53
28
Primate, .
61
72
100
41
32
100
Red Astrachan,
369
69
92
88
46
90
Rhode Island Greening,
359
70
55
149
26
62
Tolman, .
80
78
11
96
40
0
Tompkins King,
149
76
91
38
71
92
Wealthy, . . .
367
73
44
111
33
45
WiUiams, .
168
77
40
24
22
100
Average per cent.
-
74
"
-
42
72
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES.
87
Dwarf Apple and Pear Nurse Roots.
Attention is frequently called to the fact that if dwarf apple trees are
planted deep enough for the scion to be surrounded by soil it is likely to
throw out roots, and the tree intended for a dwarf becomes a standard.
To test whether scions worked on dwarf stocks would throw out roots
more readily than those on crab stocks, several hundred grafts were
made in the usual manner in Series 2 and 3, and the results are shown
in Tables 7 and 8. The standard roots were mostly Kansas grown, while
the two types of Paradise stocks were imported from France. It has
been shown that there are several different types of Paradise, and just
which types these were was not determined further than that the EngUsh
Paradise was larger and stronger growing than the French Paradise
stocks.
The data in Table 7 are not full enough to permit anj^ definite com-
parison. The scions grew and rooted about as well on one stock as another.
Table 8 shows that in Series 2 the trees on dwarf stocks did not give as
good a stand, but rooted better than those on standard stocks. Of the
former, 43 per cent of the grafts planted gave own-rooted trees, and of
the latter, 41 per cent rooted from the scion. The general conclusion
is that dwarf roots offer no advantage over standard roots for growing
own-rooted trees.
Table 7. — Standard and Dwarf Roots.
Baldwin, .
Ben Davis,
Bough (Sweet),
Hubbardston, .
Jewett,
Northern Spy, .
Oldenburg,
Red Astrachan,
Rhode Island Greening,
Transcendent, .
VVagener, .
Wealthy, .
Yellow Transparent,
English Paradise. , French Paradise
130
172
163
101
50
71
187
106
138
279
^2
c3^
g ti
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
Table 8. —
Standard and French Paradise Roots.
Standard.
French Paradise.
Number
planted.
Per Cent
growing.
Percent
rooting.
Number
planted.
Per Cent
growing.
Per Cent
rooting.
-
Ben Davis
Bough (Sweet),
Rhode Island Greening, .
Tompkins King,
Wealthy
284
244
359
149
367
69
82
70
76
73
77
100
55
91
44
49
37
64
47
37
39
81
35
57
57
100
100
70
67
44
Average per cent.
-
74
55
-
54
76
At the outset of this work a number of grafts on the common French
pear and on sand pear roots were made in addition to those on standard
apple roots and some on Enghsh Paradise. It was thought that inasmuch
as the pear roots would make but a poor growth, a greater number might
root from the scion. Table 9 shows the number of grafts planted and the
per cent growing in July following the planting. The grafts on both
sand pear and French pear gave much poorer stands than those on stand-
ard or Paradise apple roots. Many of them perished before the time
of digging at the end of the second summer, so that the records of the
number rooting from the scion are too few and fragmentary to be worth
presenting. The indications are that on both of the pear roots more
trees rooted and had a stronger root system than on apple roots, but so
few grafts grew that pear roots are not desirable for propagating apple
trees on their own roots.
Table 9. -
- Trees Growing on Apple and Pear Roots
Standard
Apple.
Paradise
Apple.
Sand Pear.
French
Pear.
bb
ti
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eji
S
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1
S
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50
76
_
_
25
22
24
8
Baldwin,
48
69
20
80
49
33
35
61
Ben Davis, .
48
69
19
63
25
68
23
48-
Bough (Sweet), .
40
60
13
63
9
22
17
59
Gravenstein,
54
35
-
-
20
23
-
-
Mcintosh, .
75
60
9
78
17
32
-
-
50
54
15
73
22
23
-
-
Northern Spy,
35
51
28
89
50
28
40
25
52
46
15
24
-
-
25
22
56
53
15
16
50
0
37
2
Rhode Island Greening,
51
61
20
50
30
12
12
0
Roxbury Russet, .
50
84
15
67
-
-
22
23
50
76
15
87
36
28
25
40
Wealthy,
73
37
13
77
52
2
28
3
Williams,
41
24
15
24
-
-
-
-
Yellow Transparent, .
44
65
20
49
40
25
25
8
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES.
Effect of Budding on Root Formation.
In order to save time in getting trees on known roots the earlier series
of grafts were budded usiiallj' in August after planting. Then on digging,
those that had formed roots from the scion were chosen for further work,
and those failing to do so were rejected. Six top or bud varieties and
fourteen stock or root varieties shown in Table 10 were used. The first
column of figures in the table shows the rooting from the scion of the
stock varieties, and these figures maj^ be used as a standard for compari-
son. The other columns show the rooting of the stock varieties when
budded with the six bud varieties. The figures in this table show great
variation, but, on the whole, as shown by the averages at the bottom,
Baldwin and Wagener tops have induced higher percentages of rooting
than non-budded trees, while Mcintosh, Tolman and Yellow Trans-
parent lowered the percentage rooting. Red Astrachan caused no change.
It is questionable how much significance can be attached to these
figures. In the case of the indi^ddual lots of budded trees the numbers
involved are too few to place much dependence upon. In the case of the
averages the numbers are, of course, greater, and it is fair to assume
that Wagener buds, and more strikinglj^ Baldwin buds grown during the
second season of growth, may have, on the whole, favored root formation
from these stock varieties.
90
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
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Baldwin,
Ben Davis, .
Bough (sweet),
Hubbardston,
Jewett, .
Northern Spy,
Oldenburg, .
Red Astrachan,
Rhode Island Greening,
Tobnan,
Transcendent,
Wagener.
Wealthy,
Yellow Transparent,
i
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES.
91
Grafting on Known Roots.
Once trees are established on roots of known varieties it would seem a
desirable process to dig such trees and cut off the greater part of the root
system and replant them, that they may re-establish themselves on a
renewed root system. Then the roots cut off may be used for grafting
in the ordinary manner with scions of the same variety as the root. By
this method own-rooted trees should be secured without resorting to the
seedling nurse root, the subsequent removal of which is a severe check
to the 5'oung tree, especially with those varieties that do not root freely.
This method was tried out in 1915-16. Trees were dug in the fall and
all roots suitable for whip grafting removed and the trees reset, the tops
being severely cut back. All recovered and in time became vigorous
trees. The roots were stored in moist sand and grafted in February and
set in April. For some reason they failed to make a good stand, and
those that did grow made less growth than adjoining trees grafted in a
similar manner on seedling roots. The number of grafts planted, and the
percentages growing in July after planting and also in July a year later,
are shown in Table 11. Seedling roots used in grafting are commonly
one year old, while some of these roots were three or four years old,
and this may have been responsible for the poor stand. The very fine
sand in which the roots were stored was rather wet and compact, and
this may have interfered with respiration and resulted in injury to the
roots. It seems hardly reasonable to suppose that such poor results
must necessarily follow grafting on the roots of known varieties.
Table 11. — Grafts on Knoim Roots.
Number
planted.
Per Cent growing.
July, 1916.
July, 1917.
Ben Davis
56
39
23
Bough,
94
13
7
Northern Spy
6
33
17
Red Astrachan,
144
14
6
Wagener,
65
12
5
Wealthy
69
4
1
92 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
HISTOLOGY OF THE TWIG IN RELATION TO ROOT
FORMATION.!
Roots on the scion usually arise near a bud, either singly or in twos or
threes. No case has been observed when roots arose at a node ojiposite
the bud. Roots may also arise from the internode, but generally within
a half inch of the node. Generally they arise above rather than below
the bud. The first indication of the root is the falling away of the axillary
bud and the appearance of a swelling with two or three brownish white
areas, — the growing points of the young roots.
Free rooting varieties develop roots early in the season. An examination
of Bough grafts in July showed that they were rooting freely. At the same
time Red Astrachan, Ben Davis and Tompkins King showed incipient root
formation in a few cases, while poor rooting varieties showed no signs of
roots. An examination about the middle of October showed progress in
all these varieties, but the poorer rooting varieties showed hardly a tree
with roots from the scion. Always, on digging, the poor rooting varieties
have small roots (see Fig. 3) which have evidently formed the second
season of growth.
If we examine a cross section of a one-year-old twig we find between
the bark and wood the cambium, consisting of a layer of eight to fourteen
very small, thin-waUed rectangular cells. Measurements of the thick-
ness of the cambium layer were made and the number of cells noted on a
number of the varieties used. Measurements of the thickness of the
bark were also made.
In choosing material, fresh twigs of the previous season's growth,
from both bearing and nursery trees, were selected, and cross sections
made usually at the fifth node back from the terminal bud. In the case
of some immature tips it was necessary to go further back to secure a
plump, mature bud. Sections were made with a sliding microtome and
placed at once in 30 per cent alcohol for ten minutes. Then the alcohol
was poured off and the sections stained for three to five minutes with
Delafield's Hematoxylin, washed, mounted on the slide and measured
at once. Measurements of the bark were to the wood, and included the
cambium layer. They were made at a point one-fourth around the
circumference of the twig from the bud when possible, and in all cases
care was taken to avoid the thickened bark near the bud. The limits
of the bark as thus defined were clear, but more difficulty was experienced
in measuring the cambium layer because of a less clear differentiation
between it and the phloem. Often there are two or three cells that have
no distinctive features of either cambium or phloem. In order to estab-
lish a limit the phloem was considered as starting with the first cell, in
which the cells were markedly larger and more rounding, with walls less
• This fliscussion is based on work by Robt. P. Armstrong, graduate assistant, to whom the
credit for it is due.
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES.
93
deeply stained. In this way a fairly satisfactory criterion was established.
(See Plates III and IV.) Four to thirteen twigs of each variety were ex-
amined and five to ten measurements and counts of cambium cells made
on each twig. No differences were detected between shoots from nurs-
ery trees and from bearing trees. Table 12 gives the results of
measurements.
Table 12. — Thickness of the Bark and Cambium.
Per Cent
rooting.
Thickness
of Bark in
Millimeters.
Thickness
of
Cambium
in Microns.
Number
of
Cambium
Cells.
Range of
Number of
Cambium
Cells.
Bough (Sweet), .
Primate,
Red Astrachan, .
Tompkins King,
Mcintosh, .
Northern Spy, .
Baldwin, .
Yellow Transparent,
Oldenburg, .
Jewett,
Tolman,
98
92
67
62
74
58
32
26
25
20
3
.513
.628
.6.33
.613
.525
.665
.611
.571
.743
.689
.592
80.0
86.1
80.5
80.9
78.0
75.0
56.0
69.8
75.0
67.2
58.0
10
10
10
9
8
6
9
9
9
7
9-11
9-10
9-13
9-10
8-10
8-9
-9
8-9
-9
It appears from this table that there is a difference in the thickness
and number of cells in the cambium layer of the varieties examined, and
that this is correlated with the ability of the variety to form roots from
the scion. The only marked exception shown in the table is the Baldwin,
which, having the fewest cells and the thinnest cambium layer of all, roots
more freely than four of the other varieties studied. Further study of
this question, including other varieties and extending through the growing
season, should prove definitely whether we have here a significant reason
for the variation in root formation among different varieties.
DISCUSSION OF THE RESULTS.
As a major result of the work here reported two facts are brought out:
(1) varieties differ greatly in their readiness to form roots from the scion
when propagated by the nurse-root method; (2) there is also great varia-
tion within the variety in the number that form roots from the scion.
Taking up first the varietal differences we find that a few varieties
root in all, or nearly all, cases, while only one variety of Pyrus mains —
Bethel — has failed entirely to yield trees rooted from the scion. Inas-
much as this variety was grown in rather small numbers and under con-
94
MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
ditions where other varieties gave low percentages of rooting trees, it is
probable that Bethel would, under more favorable conditions, give at
least a low percentage of rooted trees. Considering the number of va-
rieties tested it seems safe to say that any variety of the common apple
may be propagated on its own roots by the nurse-root method.
There are fourteen varieties that have been propagated in consid-
erable numbers in successive years and under different conditions, so
that we may feel fairly certain that the percentage rooting is fairly rep-
resentative for these varieties under the general conditions in which
they have been grown. Arranged in order of percentage rooting they
are as follows : —
Bough (Sweet), .
98
Rhode Island Greening
. 30
Red Astrachan, .
67
Oldenburg, .
. 26
Northern Spy,
58
Yellow Transparent,
. 26
Ben Da^'is,
51
Wealthy, .
. 25
Wagener, ....
45
Hubbardston,
. 21
Transcendent,
45
Jewett,
. 20
Baldwin, ....
32
Tolman,
3
Coming now to the question of why certain of these varieties roo*
better than others we find a rather difficult problem. We have made
few investigations aimed directly at this question, but some discussions
may be ventured.
The property of rooting is not directly correlated with vigor. Tolman
is fully as strong growing a variety in the nursery as Bough. Further-
more, observations made on digging the trees fail to discover any noticeable
correlation between vigor and rooting. It has seemed to the writer that
a small, weak tree was as likely to be rooted from the scion as a strong
one.
Some varieties branch more freely than others. During the season of
1916 a block of yearling whips branched quite freely from the newly formed
axillary buds. Notes taken at the time are as follows: No branches,
Northern Spy; few, Baldwin, Bough, Oldenburg, Tolman; all, Trans-
cendent (Crab). This gives no indication of any correlation between
rooting from the scion and branch growth from axillary buds. A more
reasonable expectation might be for a correlation between root formation
and branching from adventitious buds on the stem. No exact record of
branching from adventitious buds is available, but limited general ob-
servation of the behavior of budded trees leads the writer to believe that
such a correlation may exist, and that Bough and other free rooting
varieties do send out shoots from adventitious buds more freely than
Tolman and other varieties that root only sparingly. Further and more
definite records may prove or disprove this belief.
The relation of callus formation in cuttings has been referred to. (See
page 75, Fig, 1.) Unfortunately no full notes of callus formation on
the cuttings set was kept, but it is suggestive to point out that Yellow
THE PROPAGATION OF APPLE TREES. 95
Transparent, which uniformly gave as large a callus as any variety, did
not root as well as Wagener, which never gave any sign of callus forma-
tion.
Neither can we discover any relationship between rooting from the
scion and season of maturity, either of fruit or wood, nor in size of leaves
or density of foKage.
Many woody plants are propagated from cuttings, and in general it
is those with soft wood that grow most readily. There is considerable
variation in hardness of wood among different varieties of apples, and
we may inquire if those with softer wood are the ones that root most
readily from the scion. No extended investigation of this question has
been made at this station. Beach and Allen i made extensive tests of
the hardness of wood of. different varieties. They found considerable
difference within the variety, and a clear comparison of their results with
rooting ability, as shown by their investigation, is difficult, but a general
survey of their results leads to a beUef that there is a general correlation.
It is, however, subject to exceptions. Beach and Allen came to the con-
clusion that there was a correlation between hardness of wood and resist-
ance to winter cold, and here again there seems to be a rather loose cor-
relation with rooting ability. Oldenburg and Wealthy are very hardy
and root poorly, and Bough is tender and roots well. But Ben Davis is
quite hardy and roots comparatively well, and Hubbardston and Tolman
are less hardy than Wealthy and do not root so well.
Wide variations in the rooting abiUty of different lots of the same
variety are evident. Some of these are clearly seasonal. Such differences
may be due to climatic conditions, to soil conditions, — for the soils used
in different years are not all alike, — or they may be due to difference
in the scions used. Any such difference would most likely trace back to
the growing conditions the previous season as affecting stored food and
possibly structure. Slight differences in cultural treatment may have
had an effect. Varying rainfall may have had an influence. It is im-
possible from the evidence at hand to determine which of these possible
factors have had an influence and to what extent.
The general low percentages of Series 6 (Table 5) are striking, and the
writer feels that they are due largely to poorly drained soil which prevailed
over a considerable portion of the plot. While no direct comparisons are
possible, careful observation indicated that rooting was better on the
drier portions of the plot. A part of the plot on which Series 4 was grown
was poorly drained, and may account for the rather low average of this
series.
1 la. E.xpt. Station Res. Bui. 21 (1915).
96 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 190.
SUMMARY.
1. Stem cuttings of the common apple grow only rarely; in the trials
here reported none succeeded, though callus formation in some varieties
was good.
2. Root cuttings gi-ew well, especially when young roots were used,
though gi'owth was slow the first season.
3. Limited tests indicated that most varieties may be readily propa-
gated by mound layers.
4. The best means of estabhshing trees on known roots is by the nurse-
root method. The scion is whip-grafted on a short piece of root and
planted deeply; at the end of one or two seasons' growth the tree is dug,
the seedling root removed and the tree replanted. Neither dwarf apple
nor pear roots are of value as nurse roots.
5. Varieties vary greatly in the readiness with which they send out
roots from the scion, the proportion varying from none to practically
all with different varieties.
6. There is also great variation within the variety in the numbers
rooting from the scion.
7. Varietal differences may be loosely correlated with density of the
wood, the softer the wood the higher the proportion rooting from the
scion.
8. A fertile, well-drained, sandy loam probably offers the best conditions
for securing a high percentage of rooting trees.
9. Once trees are estabhshed on known roots they may be propagated
by root cuttings or by root grafting on known roots.
10. There seems to be a relation between the varietal abihty to pro-
duce roots from the scion and the thickness of the cambium layer at the
dormant season.
PLATE I.
Fig. 1. — Green wood apple cuttings, showing callus formation. From left to right, Yellow
Transparent, Fall Pippin, Red Astrachan, Bough, Ben Davis, Wagener.
Fia. 2. — Matching cambium in root grafts: (a) one side only; (6) both sides only; (c) top
only; (d) bottom only; (e) perfectly matched.
PLATE II.
Fig. 3. — Trees rooted from the scion after cutting off seedling nurse root; two-year-old trees
cut back in spring of second year. Tolman at left, Bough at right, showing stronger roots of
the latter.
Fig. 4. — Own-rooted Red Astrachan two years after cutting ofT seedling root.
PLATE III.
Fig. 5. — Section of Bough scion, showing origin of a young root.
Fig. 6. — Section of Bough, showing xylem, cambium and phloem. The cambium
layer has nine or ten cells.
PLATE IV.
Fig. 7. — Section of Baldwin, showing the thin cambium layer, averaging about five cells.
Fio. 8. — Section of Tolman, showing cambium layer, averaging about eight cells.
BULLETIlSr -No. 191.
DEPARTMENT OF POULTRY HUSBANDRY.
PRACTICAL RESULTS FROM STUDIES ON
EGG PRODUCTION.
H. D. GOODALE.
Introduction.
A series of short papers, dealing with phases of egg production from the
purely practical standpoint, has been planned. They will be published
from time to time as circumstances admit. Their aim is to present as
definite information on the subject of each as the evidence warrants. The
detailed data on which these practical papers are based are in process of
being published elsewhere. Those already published are —
Internal Factors Influencing Egg Production in the Rhode Island Red Breed of
Domestic Fowl. American Naturalist, Vol. LII, No. 614, 1918, 3 parts, pp. 65-
94, 209-232, 301-321.
Winter Cycle of Egg Production in the Rhode Island Red Breed of Domestic Fowl.
Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. XII, No. 9, 1918, pp. 547-574.
The Bearing of Ratios on Theories of the Inheritance of Winter Egg Production.
Journal of Experimental Zoology, Vol. 28, No. 1, 1919, pp. 83-124.
I. Inbreeding.
The poultryman often is in a quandary regarding inbreeding. On the
one hand it is advocated, and on the other just as strongly condemned.
What, then, are the facts?
Inbreeding may be defined as the mating of relatives, and just as there
are degrees of relationship so there are degrees of inbreeding. Line breed-
ing involves inbreeding, so designed, however, as to keep its amount at a
minimum.
In the work at this station close matings of various sorts have been made
as well as unrelated matings. The results afford a practical answer to the
question, shall I inbreed? The answer is found in a paraphrase of an old
saying, which is applicable to all breeding, "Handsome is that hand-
some breeds," that is, inbreeding is to be judged by its results. This is a
special application of the well-known progeny test. Now experience shows
98 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 191.
that the results of some inbred matings are very good, while others are
poor. But, contrariwise, sometimes the results of matings between
unrelated birds are poor, while others are good. Nevertheless, matings
between unrelated birds are almost universally approved, while inbreeding
is often condemned.
In this bulletin no attempt will be made to answer most of the questions
that arise concerning inbreeding, but evidence that inbreeding may be
highly advantageous will be presented.
The Evidence.
1. Male No. 8097 produced 10 daughters, by his sister, that averaged
155.7 eggs each. The father of this pair also came from a brother-sister
mating. On the other hand, male No. 8097 by a half first cousin produced
14 pullets that averaged 156.7 eggs each. There is no relation here
between the degree of kinship (or inbreeding) and egg production.
2. The offspring of male No. 8147 by 4 females furnish interesting com-
parisons, as shown in the table, and are selected because the whole situation
appears here in a nutshell. Eleven daughters by female No. 9420, which
laid 221 eggs, averaged 190.1 eggs each. Female No. 9420 is distantly
related to male No. 8147 five generations back through a single bird. B}''
female No. 8652, laying 196 eggs, with a much inbred and tangled Une of
descent and closely related to himself (see figure), there were 9 daughters,
with an average of 181.5 eggs. Moreover, the highest producing individual
in the two families, viz., B2088, with a record of 237 eggs, was a daughter
of female No. 8652. On the other hand, female No. 8418, laj^ing 139 eggs,
also closely related to male No. 8147 (see figure), produced 11 puUets sired
by him that averaged only 156 eggs each. Finally, there is the mating of
female No. 8185 with male No. 8147. This female is related to male No.
8147 in exactly the same degree as female No. 9420 (though otherwise un-
related to No. 9420) and through the same great, great gi-andparent. Unfor-
tunately her 11 daughters were not all trapnested through the year, as they
would have been if there had been any inkling of their importance. We
are obliged to fall back on their winter records. Their average for the
winter was 42.9 eggs each (which gives an estimated annual average of
142.9 eggs), while the daughters of female No. 9420 averaged 75.3 each;
those of female No. 8652 averaged 62.4 each, and of female No. 8418, 50.5
€ach. These averages refer to the number of eggs laid before March 1 of
the pullet year. Female No. 8185 was a good winter layer herself with a
record of 85 eggs and a 365-day record of 185 eggs, but came from a medi-
ocre family.
EGG PRODUCTION.
Details relating to the Egg Records of the Progeny of one Male.
Father No. 8147.
Number.
Date
hatched.
Age at
First Egg
(Days).
Date
of First
Egg.
Eggs to
March 1.
Annual
Pro-
duction.
Remarks.
Mother.
1916.
8185,
Apr. 16
195
Oct. 28
85
186
DauffhUrs.
1917.
B 830, .
Apr. 8
229
Nov. 23
77
-
Did not complete year.
B1147,
Apr. 15
261
Jan. 1
29
-
Did not complete year.
B 1150,
Apr. 15
208
Nov. 9
61
-
Did not complete year.
B 1372,
Apr. 22
213
Nov. 21
48
-
Did not complete year^
B 1541,
Apr. 29
. 217
Dec. 2
64
142
B 1990,
May 6
253
Jan. 14
35
-
Did not complete year.
B 2206,
May 13
213
Dec. 12
9
-
Did not complete year.
B 2208,
May 13
212
Dec. 11
38
-
Did not complete year.
B 2209,
May 13
198
Nov. 27
29
114
B 2210,
May 13
229
Dec. 28
39
-
Did not complete year-
Average. .
Apr. 30
233.3
Dec. 9
42.9
142.91
Mother.
1916.
9420,
May 28
169
Nov. 13
75
221
Daughlera.
1917.
B 83, . .
Mar. 18
227
Oct. 31
106
223
B242,
Mar. 25
182
Sept. 23
120
202
B 243,
Mar. 25
197
Oct. 8
77
198
B244,
Mar. 25
180
Sept. 21
67
137
B557,
Apr. 1
224
Nov. 11
66
213
B558,
Apr. 1
208
Oct. 26
53
171
B845,
Apr. 8
168
Sept. 23
93
207
B 1125,
Apr. 15
202
Nov. 3
80
199
B 1126,
Apr. 15
182
Oct. 14
81
181
B 1127.
Apr. 15
178
Oct. 10
86'
174
B 1679,
Apr. 29
247
Jan. 2
29
-
Failed to complete year.
B 1986.
May 6
201
Nov. 23
55
-
Failed to complete year.
B 2065,
May 13
191
Nov. 20
66
186
Average, .
Apr. 10
199
Oct. 26
75.3
190.1
100 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 191.
Details relating to the Egg Records of the Progeny of one Male — Con.
Father No. 8147 — Con.
Number.
Date
hatched.
Age at
First Egg
(Days).
Date
of First
Egg.
Eggs to
March 1.
Annual
Pro-
duction.
Remarks.
Mother.
1916.
8418.
Apr. 23
213
Nov. 22
76
139
Daughters.
1917.
B 168. .
Max. 18
201
Oct. 5
88
-
Failed to complete year.
B 172,
Mar. 18
234
Nov. 7
48
162
B252.
Mar. 25
195
Oct. 6
57
132
B254.
Mar. 25
241
Nov. 21
59
176
B255.
Mar. 25
229
Nov. 9
63
136
B454,
Apr. 1
205
Oct. 23
74
209
B876.
Apr. 15
244
Dec. 15
28
138
B877.
Apr. 15
203
Nov. 4
80
181
IB 879.
Apr. 15
214
Nov. 15
32
84
-B 1290,
Apr. 22
224
Dec. 2
61
165
iB 1832,
May 6
235
Jan. 3
21
147
;B 1835.
May 6
226
Dec. 18
51
-
Failed to complete year.
tB 2172,
May 13
218
Dec. 17
49
173
IB 2173, '
May 13
197
Nov. 26
8
78
Nester.
B 2174,
May 13
218
Dec. 17
48
169
Average, .
Apr. 13
220.5
Nov. 20
53.5
156.0
Mother.
1916.
8652,
Apr. 30
204
Nov. 20
78
196
Daughters.
1917.
B 156,
Mar. 18
189
Sept. 23
73
198
B 192,
Mar. 25
181
Sept. 22
89
-
Failed to complete year.
B 194,
Mar. 25
180
Sept. 21
62
154
B 722,
Apr. 8
197
Oct. 22
65
169
B 988,
Apr. 15
219
Nov. 20
31
123
B 1361,
Apr. 22
192
Oct. 31
82
205
B 1362.
Apr. 22
225
Dec. 3
67
215
B 1646.
Apr. 29
216
Dec. 1
52
194
fi 1824,
May 6
213
Dec. 5
55
139
B 2088.
May 13
225
Dec. 24
48
237
Average, .
Apr. 15
203.7
Nov. 5
62.4
181.5
' Not included in average.s.
EGG PRODUCTION.
101
It may be of interest to note tbat the difference in average winter produc-
tion of these groups of half sisters is closely related to average date of first
egg. Thus, the average date of first egg of the daughters of female No.
9420 was October 26; of female No. 8652, November 5; of female No. 8418,
November 17; and of female No. 8185, December 12.
Thus, of 4 females mated with a single male, 2 were inbred and 2 were
unrelated to the male. The offspring of one inbred female were good
layers, while those of the other were relatively poor. The offspring of one
unrelated female were good laj'ers, and of the other relatively poor. The
results of inbreeding, therefore, must be judged by the quality of the
offspring. If it is good, utiUze those particular inbred matings. If not
good, try other inbred matings.
y
iMDf
iXU I
Description of Figure. — The line of descent of two inbred families. A pair of diver-
gent lines extend from the back of each bird whose pedigree is known, one going to the
father, the other to the mother, and ending on the under side. From this figure the
various inter-relationships may be made out. Thus 8147's sire is 5240 and his dam
6404. The sire of 5240 is 619, who is also the grandsire of 6404 as well as the sire of 2564
and 3617; 619 is therefore the great, great grandsire of the daughters of 8147, through
some lines of descent, but only the great grandsire through others. No. 3617 is equally
a half great, great uncle, grandsire and great grandsire of 8652's daughters. The birds
with backs free of lines are foundation stock of unknown ancestry. The inbred lines
of descent are indicated by the shaded birds.
102 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 191.
3. A few instances may be added to show that the results of matings
between unrelated birds may be very inferior to matings between closely
related birds such as those just described, unless special attention is paid
to egg production. Thus,, female No. 6982 had 10 daughters, by an unre-
lated male, that averaged 101 eggs each, exactly their mother's record. The
same male bj'- female No. 5832, also unrelated, and laying 160 eggs, produced
7 daughters that averaged 151.7 eggs each. Another male, bj^ an unrelated
hen that laid 234 eggs, had 9 daughters that averaged 139.1 eggs each.
In these experiments good, strong, healthy stock has been used. The
families from wliich the males were to be chosen were selected on the basis
of their sisters' performance, and the strongest, most virile male in each
family selected for breeding.
There is one thing more to be said on the subject. In our experience the
very best results have come from outmatings, while the very poorest have
come from close matings. It is clear, then, that very great care must be used
when inbreeding, lest disaster overtake the breeder unawares. Very careful
and accurate pedigi-ees and other records must be kept. Further, the
provisional conclusion appears justified that the very best results are most
hkely to be obtained by crossing two distinct lines, each of which is inbred
and which is doing well. Very likely the best way to renew the commercia 1
egg flock is through the crossing of strong, high-producing, inbred Unes,
which will, of course, be maintained intact by inbreeding, and making the
cross anew each season.
II. Is THE Influence of the ]\'Iale or of the Female the more
Important ?
The view that. high fecundity does not descend from mother to daughter
but does descend from mother to son, or from father to both sons and
daughters is now generally accepted. This, then, leads to the belief that
the use of the sons of high la^'^ers insures high production in the progeny
sired by such sons. The male is regarded as all important, the female of
importance only as a producer of good males. This situation has arisen
apparently from the attempt to describe certain modes of inheritance in
every-day language. The scientific foundation, i.e., sex-linked inheritance
of fecundity, on which the view mentioned is based does not warrant the
popular interpretation which it has received. However this may be,
evidence is now available which indicates that high fecundity is not sex-
linked in some breeds, at any rate.
In spealdng of fecundity the use of the terms high and low are not very
precise for they are relative; we may, however, use them with this under-
standing of their Umitation. In this bulletin winter production only is
considered, because it is a fairly good index of a hen's inborn capacity
to lay.
The important question to be answered is: Is it possible for high-egg
production to descend from mot her to daughter? An experiment was made
EGG PRODUCTION. 103
in which a male from a low line was mated with several high producers
belonging to a high line and at the same time to several low producers. Of
course careful individual pedigi-ees were kept. The offspring of the high
producers averaged 49.2 winter eggs against an average of the mothers and
their sisters of 52.5 eggs. Nearly all were high producers. On the other
hand, the offspring of the poor layers averaged only 11.6 winter eggs. In
this experiment high production clearly descended from mothers to
daughters.
In another experiment a male was used that came from a high-producing
mother, but on the father's side production was poor. Some of his mates
were good producers, some were poor. A few daughters were good layers,
but most of them, regardless of whether their mother was a high or low
producer, were mediocre to poor. In this experiment the influence of the
male was more pronounced.
In other experiments males derived from high lines have been bred to low
producers. For example, male B137, a high-line male, was bred to two
low birds of low lines. The average winter production of the daughters
was high, viz., 54.5 eggs. On the other hand, in the table of the section on
inbreeding is shown a case where the production of the offspring of a male
belonging to a liigh line, bred to a high-producing female, viz., No. 8185,
of a mediocre line, was relatively poor compared with that obtained from
the offspring of females belonging to high lines .
In still another experiment a male belonging to a low line was mated with
a female belonging to another low line. Most of the offspring were high
producers.
These experiments show that we are dealing with a situation that is
complicated in many ways. It appears, however, to be perfectly clear that
both male and female play a part in determining the egg production of
their daughters. Whether one is more important than the other depends
upon the particular individuals that are mated. In breeding for high
production the influence of either must be judged by the production of the
offspring. The aim of the breeder should be to produce a line that will give
high average production and that will reproduce itself generation after
generation. To this end the contribution of both father and mother must
be made. Any male or any female, or a particular combination of a
certain male with one or more females that give high production consist-
ently, may well be used as breeders as long as they live, or till something
better has been secured.
III. The Exclusion of Parasites.
The investigations on the inheritance of fecundity have led in several
unexpected directions. If an analysis of the hereditary basis of fecundity
is to be made, it is evident that the problem must be reduced to its simplest
form. Disturbances introduced by the surroundings must be avoided.
For example, the date at which a pullet lays her first egg influences her
104 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 191.
record. This date is determined in part by the date she was hatched and
in part by the age at which she matures, and this in turn is influenced by
various growth factors, some hereditary, some environmental. Of the
latter, parasites, visible or invisible to the naked eye, especially those that
are concerned in causing disease, must be under control. It is a biological
law that just as a chicken or a dog requires parents so all life arises from
pre-existing life. As far as is known with certainty, with the exception of
the parasite that causes bacillary white diarrhoea, the chick enters the world,
free from parasites. If, therefore, a means can be found to keep such
parasites away, the chick will never have them, and will not suffer from
them. The means is found in a quarantine of the chicks, and in an exten-
sion of the rotation method introduced by the Maine Agricultural Experi-
ment Station.
A suitable quarantine, which presupposes the use of artificial methods of
hatching and rearing, is a very efficient method of keeping out parasites
and disease resulting therefrom, and in many circumstances is the simplest
and least laborious method of securing the desired end. In the work at the
Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station a plot of ground was
selected that had not had a chicken or chicken manure on it for several
years. All buildings, appliances and utensils were either new or were
scrubbed clean enough to eat from. Then everything not new was
drenched outside and inside with 5 per cent coal tar disinfectant. One
spraying was made before the buildings were moved, another after their
removal to the clean ground. The chicks were hatched in carefully disin-
fected incubators. A separate attendant did the brooding and was
quarantined from all other poultry. At the entrance to the rearing ground
he changed his foot gear for a set reserved for use on the rearing ground,
and, after changing, walked through a pan of strong disinfectant. Every
loop-hole by which parasites might gain entrance was closed if at all
possible. The result is that the parasite problem has been largely solved
as long as the chicks remain quarantined.
The quarantine method of rearing chicks should be of particular advan-
tage to any one who is starting a new poultrj^ plant, because by purchasing
eggs of stock free from bacillary white diarrhcea, and using only artificial
methods for hatching and rearing, the proverbial good luck of the beginner
should endure.
BULLETI]^ ^o. 102.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION
FROM 1917 TO 1919.
BY H. J. FRANKLIN.
The 1915 and 1916 lines of work were followed closely in 1917, but a
collection of cranberry bog weeds was started and a long and searching
study was made of the weather records, bearing on frost conditions, taken
at the station from 1913 to 1917, inclusive. Storage tests with the fruit
were continued as an important part of the work, with interesting re-
sults.
The 1918 work followed the general plan of other years. Special atten-
tion was given to frost predicting, the methods being much perfected.
The storage tests were largely suspended, as the handling of the unusually
large station crop left little room in the screenliouse for them. About
60 species of cranberiy bog weeds were collected by the writer and identi-
fied, with the help of Prof. A. V. Osmun of the Massachusetts Agricultural
College, and Dr. H. F. Bergman of the Bureau of Plant Industry. By
agreement between the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station
and the Cape Cod Cranberry Growers' Association, the writer gave much
time to developing a cranberry harvester, fair progress apparently being
made. With the help of a special appropriation of the Legislature the
iron roof of the screenhouse was replaced with boards and shingles, and
the roof frame strengthened.
Fungous Diseases.
The co-operative investigation of diseases and of handling, storing and
shipping the fruit was conducted in 1917 much as in 1916, Dr. C. L.
Shear of the Bureau of Plant Industrj^ and his assistant, Mr. B. A. Ru-
dolph, making the more technical studies, and Dr. N. E. Stevens giving
valuable aid in the planning and performing of practical experiments
carried out in the cranberry section where he spent most of the fall
months, a large part of his work being done at the station.
106 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
Copper sulfate put in the June flowage as a means of controlling diseases
was tried in 1917 as in previous j^ears, but without positive results.
Tables 1 and 2 show the results of spraying with "Corona" arsenate
of lead. In the 1917 treatments this insecticide was used at the rate of
4 pounds to 50 gallons of water, with 2 pounds of Good's caustic potash
fish-oil soap No. 3 added. The plots were sprayed three times, — June
26 and 27, July 25 and 26 and July 30. " The third application followed
the second so closely because a severe storm washed the latter severely
soon after it was made. In 1918 the plots were sprayed four time 5, —
June 11, June 27, July 19 and 20 and August 3. In the first two appli-
cations 3 pounds of the arsenate to 50 gallons of water were used, and
the last two treatments were the same except that soap was added as in
1917. The 1918 plots A. L. 1 to A. L. 4, inclusive, were the same areas,
respectively, so numbered in 1917. In both years the checks were laid
out on different sides of and adjacent to the plot in each case. All the
plots and checks were of the Early Black variety. The berries were all
picked with scoops. The fruit was stored in bushel picking crates as it
came from the bog, and was placed in storage the day it was picked.
The quantity stored in 1917 varied from 1 to 6 bushels for the different
plots and checks, while in 1918, 8 bushels from each plot and check were
used.
The crates were examined by the "seven-sample" method to determine
the percentages of berries showing decay. In this method seven samples
from each crate are examined, one being taken from the surface berries
of each half of the crate halfway between the middle and end; one from
each haK of the crate halfway between the top and bottom and halfway
between the center and end; one from the very center; and one from
the very bottom of each half of the crate halfway between the middle
and end. This seems a most satisfactory way to sample in inspecting
the crated fruit.
Both years all the plots but A. L. 2 yielded fruit of much better quality
than that from the check areas, the improvement being most marked
in 1918, when more treatments were applied. These tests and those of
1916 ^ show that arsenate of lead has a distinct fungicidal value as a
treatment for the Early Black variety. What fungi are affected by it,
however, has not been determined.
1 Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, pp. 189-192.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION.
107
Table 1. — Spraying Plots {Fimgous Diseases) treated with Arsenate of
Lead, 1917.
Plots and Checks.
Area
(Square
Rods).
Yield
per Square
Rod
(Bushels).
Period of Storage.
Per-
centage of
Berries
showing
Decay at
End of
Storage.
A. L. 1
A. L. 1 (check 1)
A. L. 1 (check 2), .
A. L. 2
A. L. 2 (check 1)
A. L. 2 (check 2)
A. L. 2 (check 3)
A. L. 3,
A. L. 3 (check 1)
A. L. 3 (check 2)
A. L. 3 (check 3)
A. L. 4
A. L. 4 (check 1)
A. L. 4 (check 2)
9
9
6
9
9
6
6
9
9
9
8
8
6
.35
.22
.31
.61
.28
.45
.61
1.15
1.15
.86
1.02
1.08
.81
1.13
Sept. 14 to Dec. 19
Sept. 14 to Deo. 19
Sept. 14 to Dec. 19
Sept. 14 to Dec. 20
Sept. 14 to Dec. 19
Sept. 14 to Dec. 20
Sept. 14 to Dec. 20
Sept. 20 to Dec. 18
Sept. 20 to Dec. 18
Sept. 20 to Dec. 17
Sept. 20 to Dec. 17
Sept. 20 to Dec. 18
Sept. 20 to Dec. 19
Sept. 20 to Dec. 18
48.54
62.27
56.07
65.26
78.89
62.81
53.68
37.33
49.58
47.42
45.39
35.84
41.81
49.08
Table 2. — Spraying Plots {Fungous Diseases) treated with Arsenate of
Lead, 1918.
Plots and Checks.
Area
(Square
Rods).
Yield
per Square
Rod
(Bushels).
Period of Storage.
Per-
centage of
Berries
showing
Decay at
End of
Storage.
A. L. 1, .
A. L. 1 (check 1).
A. L. 1 (check 2),
A. L. 1 (check 3),
A. L. 2, .
A. L. 2 (check 1),
A. L. 2 (check 2),
A. L. 2 (check 3),
A. L. 3. . .
A. L. 3 (check 1),
A. L. 3 (clieck2),
A. L. 4, .
A. L. 4 (check 1),
A. L. 4 (check 2),
A. L. 5, .
A. L. 5 (check 1),
A. L. 5 (check 2).
A. L. 5 (check 3),
A. L. 6, .
A. L. 6 (check 1),
A. L. 6 (check 2),
A. L. 7, .
A. L. 7 (check 1),
A. L. 7 (check 2),
A. L. 7 (check 3),
9
6
6
6
9
6
6
6
9
6
6
8
8
8
9
6
6
6
8
8
8
8
8
4
8
1.48
1.39
1.61
2.13
1.91
2.00
1.80
2.61
2.14
2.45
2.33
2.18
2.59
2.53
2.15
2.00
2^11
1.81
2.06
2.08
2.25
2.25
2.25
2.38
Sept. 25 to Jan. 2
Sept. 25 to Jan. 2
Sept. 25 to Jan. 2
Sept. 25 to Jan. 2
Sept. 25 to Jan. 6
Sept. 25 to Jan. 2
Sept. 25 to Jan. 6
Sept. 25 to Jan. 7
Sept. 11 to Dec. 27
Sept. 11 to Dec. 27
Sept. 11 to Dec. 27
Sept. 11 to Dec. 27
Sept. 11 to Dec. 27
Sept. 11 to Dec. 26
Sept. 17 to Dec. 26
Sept. 17 to Dec. 26
Sept. 17 to Dec. 26
Sept. 17 to Dec. 26
Sept. 16 to Dec. 30
Sept. 16 to Dec. 30
Sept. 16 to Dec. 30
Sept. 22 to Dec. 30
Sept. 22 to Dec. 30
Sept. 22 to Dec. 30
Sept. 22 to Dec. 30
56.09
62.23
75.62
69.05
64.43
82.58
64.71
58.67
12.07
42.04
35.99
13.01
39.94
39.25
17.60
26.50
30.18
32.71
20.43
39.83
36.60
17.84
42.18
41.79
47.64
108 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
Tests were made in both 1917 and 1918 to determine the effect of
Black-Leaf 40 on cranberry diseases. This was used at the rate of 1 part
to 400 parts of water, and 2 pounds of resin fish-oil soap to 50 gallons
were added. The fruit was picked, stored and examined in the same
way as that from the arsenate of lead plots. No positive effect of this
treatment on the quality of the fruit was shown by the experiments.
The "rose bloom" disease caused by Exobasidium oxycocci Rostr. was
prevalent, and deformed many of the blossoms on several bogs in both
1917 and 1918, doing more harm than in any year since 1907, and greatly
reducing the crop wherever abundant. It affected late varieties mostly,
harming Early Black vines on only a few bogs. In 1917 nearly all the
new shoots on large portions of the Howes sections of the station bog
showed the abnormal enlargement caused by the disease. These growths
were first seen the latter part of May, and were present in full develop-
ment and abundance until the bog was flowed for worms the night of
June 22. When the bog was examined again at 6 p.m. on June 25 (after
the water was let off), all the "rose blooms" had turned black and shriveled
so much they could hardly be found. The fortj^-six-hour flooding and
the subsequent drying of the vines b}^ strong sunlight had killed the
diseased shoots on all parts of the bog.
The station bog was flowed from Sept. 29 to Oct. 13, 1917, and was
flowed for the winter on December 13. The winter water was let off
April 4, 1918. In 1918 the "rose bloom" growths were somewhat less
abundant on this bog than in 1917, but the disease destroj^ed most of the
crop on two sections. The 1918 grov/ing season was quite dry, but the
disease deformed many blossoms.
In 1918 spraying tests with Scalecide and resin fish-oil soap to kill the
"rose bloom" shoots were tried, as follows: —
1. One gallon to 25 of water with one-half pound of soap applied May 29. Tliis
killed most of the "rose bloom" shoots, but left a considerable percentage. It
destroyed most of the prospective cranberry bloom, but did not kill the tips of
the growing uprights.
2. One gallon to 37i of water with three-fourths pound of soap applied May
29. This failed to kill a large percentage of the diseased shoots. It destroyed
most of the prospective cranberry bloom, but did not kill the tips of the growing
uprights.
3. One gallon to 50 of water with 1 pound of soap applied May 29. This failed
to kill a large proportion of the diseased shoots. It destroyed most of the pro-
spective bloom.
4. One gallon to 100 of water with 2 pounds of soap applied May 29. This
affected the buds and diseased shoots but little.
On the whole, these tests were of little value.
Spraj'ing with iron sulfate to kill the diseased growths was also tried
in 1918, as follows: —
1. Three pounds in 12 gallons of water applied June 1. This killed the diseased
shoots fairly well and injured the cranberry uprights but little.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 109
2. Five pounds in 10 gallons of water applied June 1. This killed all the diseased
shoots and hurt the uprights little.
3. Five pounds in 10 gallons of water applied Maj^ 31. This killed all the
diseased shoots and reduced the prospective crop more than 50 per cent.
4. Ten pounds in 10 gallons of water applied May 29. This killed all the
"rose bloom" shoots and hurt the uprights but little.
5. Twenty pounds in 10 gallons of water applied May 29. This killed all the
diseased shoots and injured the uprights severely.
These experiments suggest that the sulfate may be used to combat the
disease successfully if applied at a right strength often enough to prevent
the infected shoots from developing to the condition in which they give
off spores. To be thorough enough this treatment might necessitate the
sacrifice of the crop of the season in which it was used, and also, by de-
stroying the bud-bearing tips of the new growth, that of the next year.
As fresh spores were found on the diseased growths on May 20, 1918,
the spraying, if tried, should be begun fairly early in the season.
The station bog was completely flooded June 3, 1918, and the water
was held fortj'-four hours. The "rose bloom" shoots turned dark and
shriveled soon after the water was let off, just as they did after the 1917
flooding. It seems from this that such submergence can be relied on to
destro}^ these growths.
The diseased shoots were well developed and plentiful on the station
bog on May 18, 1918, but they did not seem to be giving off spores then.
The winter buds in the tips of the cranberiy uprights were enlarged but
not opened at all at the time, and therefore probably were not in condi-
tion to receive a new infection from the spores of the disease. The in-
fected axillary buds apparently develop earlier than the healthy terminal
buds.
These observations and the effect of the. June floodings on the "rose
bloom" growths suggest that where water supplies are adequate the
disease may be controlled by letting off the winter water about May 20
and flooding again for from two to three days when the terminal buds are
developed to the point of breaking open. Tliis treatment would allow the
diseased, spore-producing shoots to grow, but would destroy them before
the new cranberry growth developed enough to become susceptible to in-
fection.
The writer has never j-et found "rose bloom" verj^ prevalent on a bog
that was regularly reflowed after picking.
Table 3 compares the experience had with Early Black and with Howes
cranberries which were left unpicked and subjected to the long (September
29 to October 13) after-picking flooding in 1917 with that had with berries
of the same varieties picked before the flowing from vines near those
bearing the submerged fruit. The Early Black berries decayed remark-
ably in the water, the main fungus causing the rot, as determined by Dr.
Shear, being Sporonema oxycocci Shear. The Howes fruit picked after
the flooding, howev'er, showed less decaj^ than that gathered and stored
before it, this probably being due to a considerable development of "end-
110 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
rot" (caused by Fusicocciim putrefaciens Shear) in the stored fruit. A
few of the flooded berries of this variety showed small spots of rot caused
by Sporoncma, but no "end-rot."
It seemed impossible to get the flooded berries dry for picking after
the water was let off, chiefly because the many shells left by fruit worms
were full of water and would dry out but slowly; therefore the fruit
finally was picked and stored wet.
The berries were stored in picking crates, two bushels being used in
each lot. They were examined for rot when placed in storage, October
25, and again at the end of the storage period, December 27.
Table 3. — Effect of a Long Fall Flooding on Rijye Early Black and
Howes Berries.
Variety.
Lot No.
Picked
before or
after
Flooding.
Date
picked.
Condi-
tion when
picked
and
stored.
Percentage
OF Berries show-
ing Decay.
Before
Storage.
At End of
Storage.
Early Black
Howes,
f 1
1 2
{ I
Before
After
Before
After
Sept. 27
Oct. 17
Sept. 27
Oct. 17
Dry
Wet
Dry
Wet
13.50
63.35
17.45
14.68
40.26
88.08
36.23
56.85
A like test made at the station in 1914 gave much the same results as
this one, the flowage promoting rapid decay among Early Black berries,
but not doing so among Howes.
The fact that the submerged Howes berries showed less rot than those
picked before the flooding confirms the opinion given in a previous re-
port, ^ that fruit of this variety should never be picked before the end of
the first week in October. If left until then it not only will have better
size and color, but also will include less rot when prepared for shipment.
Late picking of Howes berries is especially desirable where tliis variety
usually develops much "end-rot" (Fusicoccum) in storage.
Although unpicked ripe Howes berries evidently endure rather long
submergence without appreciable deterioration, tliis is not advisable,
especially if they have been much infested with fruit worms, because they
are so hard to get dry afterward.
Table 3 confirms the comparative results of storing cranberries wet or
dry shown elsewhere (page 122) in this report and in a former one.^
The McFarlin vines on the station bog usually bear sound berries. In
both 1916 and 1917 this fruit was of exceptional quality for the variety
in spite of the unusual wetness of those seasons, keeping nearly as well
as the Howes berries. The season of 1918 was much drier than those of
1916 and 1917, but fully half the station McFarlm berries rotted on the
1 Bui. No. 168, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1916, p. 19.
2 Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, pp. 201-204.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. Ill
vines, the fungus mainly responsible being found by Dr. Shear to be that
of bitter-rot, Glomerella cingvlata vaccinii Shear. The Howes berries on
the same part of the bog also showed much more rot than usual when
picked, and they looked as though they were affected by the same fungus,
but this was not definitely determined. The bitter-rot had affected the
Early Black variety on this bog considerably in previous years, but its
sudden severe infection of tlie later varieties is remarkable.
The holding of winter flowage until midsummer, thus sacrificing one
season's crop, is practiced often in New Jersey, and occasionally on the
Cape, as a means of reducing pests. ^ The New Jersey growers who have
had most e.vperience with this treatment claim that the year after its
application a large crop of berries of unusual size and excellent keeping
quality is obtained. "The benefits, both in the reduction of field rot and
in the improvement of keeping quality, are frequently said to persist for
several years."- One grower of large experience told the writer he had
failed to unprove the keeping quality of Howes berries from New Jersey
bogs so treated the year before by spraying with Bordeaux mixture.
Two valuable papers on cranberry diseases have been published recently,
— one by Dr. C. L. Shear on "end-rot" {Fusicoccum putrefaciens Shear), ^
and the other by Dr. N. E. Stevens on the relation of regional temperatures
to the growth of cranberrj^ fungi, ^ both being quite technical.
Storage Tests.
The descriptions of these experiments are arranged in numbered groups
below. Nos. 1, 2, 5, 7, 10 and 12 were planned by Drs. Shear and Stevens,
and conducted by the latter. Nos. 4, 6, 8 and 9 were planned and carried
out by the writer. Nos. 3 and 11 were planned and conducted by Dr.
Stevens and the writer. All these experiments were carried out in 1917.
A large crop so filled the station screenhouse in 1918 that it was impossible
to do much storage work.
The fruit in the tests of groups 3, 4, 6, 8 and 9 was examined by cup
samples by the screeners employed at the station during the fall under
the writer's supervision, the inspectors' cup of the New England Cran-
berry Sales Company being used for sampling. The Sales Company's
hand grader was used to facilitate the work.
The "seven-sample" method (described elsewhere in this report, page
106) was used in examining all the fruit spoken of as being stored in crates.
All the tests but those of groups 1, 10, 11 and 12 were conducted in
the basement of the station screenhouse, this providing fairly even
temperatures.
The groups of storage experiments conducted are as follows: —
■ Bui. No. 168, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1916, p. 46.
2 Bui. No. 714, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1918, p. 7.
3 Shear, C. L.: End-rot of cranberries. In Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 11, No. 2,
pp. 35-42, PL A. 1917.
* Stevens, Neil E. : Temperatures of the cranberry regions of the United States in relation to
the growth of certain fungi. In Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. 11, No. 10, pp. 521-529,
1917.
112 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
1. The Effect of Temperature on Cranberry Keeping.
Table 4 shows the amounts of rot that developed among different lots
of sprayed and unsprayed Early Black berries kept at different tempera-
tures, some in open and some in closed one-quart cans. All the berries
seemed sound when put in the cans. These tests were carried out in
Washington, with Brooks and Cooley's temperature apparatus.^ The
softening among the fruit was in all cases greater with the higher tempera-
tures. Table 4 shows like results in tests with Howes berries.
Table 4. — Storage Temperature Tests ivith Cranberries.
Early Black Berries from Harttich Bog, stored Sept. 28, exami^-ed Nov.
27, 1917.
Sprayed.
Temper ATTJBE
V.-U1C11 THE FeUIT was
STORED (°C.).
Stored in Open Cans.
Stored
IN Closed Cans.
AT
Number
of Sound
Berries
at End of
Test.
BERRIES SHOWING
DECAY AT END OF
TEST.
Number
of Sound
Berries i
at End of
Test.
berries showing
decay at end of
test.
Number.
Per Cent.
Number. Per Cent.
0,
467
401
323
149
94
147
299
393
16.76
26.82
48.07
72.51
334
369
211
172
175
213
345
356
34.38
5
36.60
15
20,
62.05
67.42
Unsprayed.
0,
498
m
20.83
523
139
21.00
5
475
1 174
26.81
406
248
37.92
15
290
311
51.75
276
393
58.74
20
219
; 411
65.24
280
326
53.80
Howes Berries from the Station Bog, stored Oct. 9, examined Dec. 17, 1917.
0
515
44
7.87
j 452
74
14.07
6
411
150
26.74
291
219
42.90
15
291
272
48.31
301
210
41.10
20
112
322
74.19
: 111
450
80.21
' Brooks, Charles, and Cooley, J. S.: Temperature Relations of Apple-rot Fungi. In Jour.
Agr. Research, Vol. 8, No. 4, pp. 141, 142, 1917.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION.
113
2. The Relation of Air Humidity to Cranberry Keeping.
Table 5 describes three series of humidity tests with cranberries con-
ducted at the station, in Hempel desiccators, in which the air was
kept at known humidities by exposure to sulfuric acid of various specific
gravities.^ In the first two series ventilation was supplied the berries
every other day by removing the covers of the desiccators and pumping
fresh air into their chambers with a bellows. No ventilating was done in
the last series. The fruit was all from the station bog and was hand
sorted. Five ounces of berries were used in each test in the second series,
and four in the third series.
The results of these experiments and of others carried out by Dr. Stevens
show no definite relation between the air humidity and the rate of decay
among the fruit. Berries kept as well in very moist air as in dryer air,
unless they were actually wet. The last column of the table, however,
shows that the loss of the berries in weight increased with the decrease in
the air humidity. Eiidently considerable humidity in the air is needed
to prevent drjdng of the fruit. Under the conditions usually prevailing
in Cape screenhouses, however, the humidity is probably sufficient to
prevent much loss from drying.
Table 5. — Air
Humidity and Cranberry Keepi
ng.
1
Berries
1
Number
SHOWING De-
Loss in
of
cay AT
Weight
Variety.
Tests
began.
Tests
Humidity (Per Cent). ^°"'?'^_
End of Test.
during
the Test
ended.
at End
of Test.
Num-
ber.
Per
Cent.
(Per
Cent).
f 100
147
33
18.33
35
173
17
8.95
-
f 192
13
6.34
-
Early Black,
Sept. 13
Oct. 8
Varied: 100, 80, 65,
167
9
5.11
-
35, 0, in rotation,
198
5
2.46
-
every other day.
180
12
6.25
-
156
13
7.69
-
f 100
141
10
6.62
.0
80
153
13
7.83
3.7
65
128
19
12.93
5.0
Howes, .
Oct. 8
Nov. 13
35
134
11
7.59
6.0
0
132
22
14.29
7.5
Alternated, 100 and
/ 121
[ 119
19
13.57
3.7
, 35, every other day.
21
15.00
3.7
f 100
116
13
10.08
.0
100
112
18
13.85
.0
80
106
16
13.11
1.5
Howes, .
Nov. 18
Dec. 19
65
117
14
10.69
3.0
35
115
9
7.26
5.0
35
HI
9
7.50
4.5
0
106
13
10.92
6.0
3. Ventilation and Cranberry Keeping.
On September 17 three lots, of two bushels each, of uncleaned, freshly
picked cranberries from the same area of the station bog were stored in
1 The method is fully described by Dr. Stevens in Phytopathology, 1918, Vol. 6, No. 6, pp.
428-432.
114 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
picking crates under different conditions of ventilation. Lot 1 was placed
in a tightly closed trunk; lot 2 was unenclosed in the basement of the
screenhouse; and lot 3 was left outdoors every clear, cold night, and
kept in the basement the rest of the time. The last lot was much wetted
by dews, this probably largely offsetting the benefits of the lower tempera-
tures obtained by the night exposure.
Considerably more spoilage took place among the fruit in the trunk
than in the other lots, confirming the findings concerning ventilation
given in previous reports. The percentages of berries showing decay at
the end of the experiment — November 13 — follow: —
Lot 1 35.85
Lot 2 . . 27.88
Lot 3, 28.58
4. Losses from Decay and from Size Shrinkage of Sound Berries in Closed
and in Open Containers compared.
Table 6 shows the results in this connection with the Howes fruit of
grading tests 3 and 4 of group 6. There was almost no shrinkage in the
size of the sound berries in the closed crates, while those in the open ones
shrunk on an average over 4 per cent. This difference in shrinkage,
being due to the difference in ventilation, is probably a fair measure of
it. If so, the Beaton crate has practically no ventilation when packed
for shipment.
The table shows that the average increase in loss due to decay in the
closed crates was less than half the average increase in loss from size
shrinkage in the open ones. This is surprising and needs further investi-
gation. The fact that the berries of test 3 were picked in a different place
from those in test 4 makes the result especially questionable, for those of
test 4 may have been inferior keepers anyway.
An experienced observer ^ has estimated that Early Black berries held
in common storage at a bog for late trade shrink as much as 10 per cent
aside from any deca3^ The difference between the averages of the cup-
counts taken at the beginning and at the end of the storage in grading
test 1 (Table 9) shows a size shrinkage of about 10 per cent for this variety
between October 10 and January 14. This fruit was picked September
20, and its total size shrinkage must have been much more than 10 per
cent, for cranberries lose weight in ordinary storage considerably more
than twice as fast in early fall as in winter. ^
The loss from size shrinkage under conditions of free ventilation is
evidently so large, especially in the early fall, that the advisability of
making special provisions for ventilating, except where this may aid in
maintaining low temperatures, is much reduced. In the writer's opinion,
shipping in crates instead of in barrels is, except with poorly colored
fruit, desirable more because it reduces mass bruising than because it
allows freer ventilation.
1 Griffith, H. S.: In Ann. Rept. New Eng. Cranberry SaleslCo., 1913, p. 20.
2 Bui. No. 168, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta.. 1916, p. 16.
REPOET OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 115
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116 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
5, Water Storage.
Storing cranberries in water has been recommended often as a way to
keep them a long time. When thus stored they soon soften from smother-
ing. ^
Table 7 describes several tests in which water storage in stoppered
bottles was compared with dry storage in tight and in ventilated con-
tainers. All the Early Black fruit stored in water softened, while only a
part of that stored dry did so. The Howes berries softened less in water
than did the Early Black, probably partly because they were picked
later, and, as compared with the first two lots, partly because they were
stored later, the temperature of the screenhouse basement and therefore
that of the water being lower. The berries of the third Early Black lot
were probably partly smothered in ordinary storage before they were
put in the water. The berries used in the tests were all hand-sorted.
The fruit softened by water storage had much the same peculiar char-
acter, described by Dr. Shear and his associates, ^ that cranberries
smothered in dry storage have. They lacked the bitter taste of the fruit
smothered dry, however, and were therefore suitable for cooking when
taken from the water. Among the berries stored dry, much more soften-
ing occurred in the tight containers than in the open ones. This result
supports conclusions given in previous reports.
The berries used in the first two series of these tests were onl}'' partly
colored when stored. Those put in shipping crates were subject to the
same temperatures, and were less exposed to the light than those without
ventilation, but they colored up very much during the storage, whUe the
color of the others changed little. This shows that ventilation is essential
to the coloring of berries picked green. Therefore green or partly col-
ored fruit in particular, should be stored and shipped in ventilated con-
tainers.
Table 8 describes water storage experiments with Dill ^ cranberries in
three different degrees of maturity. Most of the berries in all the different
lots softened in the water, somewhat more spoilage occurring among the
green than among the ripe fruit.
Unpicked Howes berries at the station bog were kept from freezing
with planks and leaves until the bog was winter-flowed on Dec. 13, 1917.
Some of this fruit was examined January 1 through a hole cut in the ice,
and was then found fresh and crisp. The berries were picked by hand
April 1, 1918, before the water was let off, and were all soft then. The
writer cut some of them open and found their flesh reddened throughout,
their appearance being that of smothered berries.
1 This name was given by Dr. Shear and his associates to the spoilage of cranberries caused
by insufficient ventilation. See Bui. No. 714, U. S. Dept. Agr., August, 1918, p. 4.
2 Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, p. 237.
' This variety is grown solely by Mr. Bion Wing of Philips, Me.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 117
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118 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
Table 8. — Effect of Water Storage on the Keeping of Dill Cranberries
of Differmt Degrees of Ripeness. Period of Storage, September 29 to
November 22.
Kind of Water used.
Condition op Berries at
End of Test.
Degree of Ripeness.
Sound.
SOFT.
Number.
Per Cent.
Ripe
Ripe
Half ripe
Half ripe
Green
Green,
Boiled
Unboiled, .
Boiled
Unboiled, .
Boiled
Unboiled, . . .
57
82
57
84
47
47
226
223
302
259
431
388
79.86
73.11
84.12
75.51
90.17
89.20
6. The Relative Keeping of Graded and Ungraded Cranberries.
Table 9 describes five experiments in this connection. In each of these
the two lots of fruit were obtained by dividing the contents of picking
crates by alternate dipping with a quart measure. Only berries coming
from the separator spout were used, those going into the boxes of the
machine not being included. The spacing of the grader was fifteen
thirtj'^-seconds of an inch. A board seven-sixteenths of an inch thick was
in the grader frame in place of the grader when the second lot of each
test was run through the machine. Further information about the tests
follows: —
Test 1 . — All this fruit was picked on September 20 in the same loca-
tion on the station bog. Both lots were put through a Hayden separator
October 2, and run into boxes placed close up to the separator spouts
instead of barrels. The grader took out about 30 per cent of the quantity
of fruit in the first lot. Both lots were screened October 6, and run from
the screens into bushel picking crates, all of which were of the same size
and construction, and were placed close up to the mouths of the screen.
The screeners were exchanged between the two screens when the two lots
were about half looked over, so as to have the cleaning of the lots as
uniform as possible. The crates were left open during the storage, four
crates of the graded and five of the ungraded fruit being used.
Test 2. — All this fruit was gathered in the same place on the station
bog on September 27. On October 25 both lots were put through a sepa-
rator, being run from the spouts of the machine into boxes placed close
up to them. The grader took out about 30 per cent of the first lot. When
the fruit was screened, October 26, both lots were run into barrels from
the mouths of the screen as usual, no easers ^ being used. The wiiter
• "Baser" is a term applied to any device for preventing the bruising of berries by breaking
their fall.
KEPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 119
packed both lots in barrels, measurements being taken to heap them
exactly alike before they were headed up. Two barrels of each lot were
used in the test.
Test 3. — These berries were picked on one of Dr. Charles R. Rogers'
bogs at East Wareham on October 3. They were kept in the basement
of the station screenhouse just as they came from the bog from October
3 until November 25, when they were run through a separator, the grader
taking out about 27 per cent ox the fruit in the first lot. Both lots were
run into bushel picking crates placed up close to the spouts of the sepa-
rator. When the berries were screened, November 26, they were run
from the mouths of the screen into the Beaton crates placed close up to
them. The fruit of each lot was taken into the warm screening room a
Grateful at a time, and each crate was taken out as soon as it was filled.
The crate covers were nailed on closely, as if for shipment, during the
storage, three crates of the gi-aded and five of the ungraded fruit being
used.
Test 4- — Part of this fruit came from one of Dr. Rogers' bogs and
part from the station bog. It was picked September 26 and October 3,
and was all stored in the basement of the station screenhouse just as it
was picked until it was divided on November 28. The grader took out
about 23 per cent of the quantity of the first lot. Both lots were run into
bushel picking crates placed close to the spouts of the separator. When
the fruit was screened, November 30, it was run from the mouths of the
screen into picking crates placed close to them, and was then stored in
the same crates. Each lot was taken into the warm screening room a
bushel at a time, and each crateful was taken out as soon as screened.
The crates were left open during the storage, four crates of graded and
six of ungraded fruit being used.
Test 5. — This fruit was picked on the station bog September 27, and
was stored just as it came from the bog in the basement of the screen-
house until it was divided on December 3. Both lots were run thi'ough
the separator December 5, and were run into bushel picking crates placed
close up to the spouts of the separator. The grader took out about 17
per cent of the fruit of the first lot. When the fruit was screened, Decem-
ber 5, it was run from the mouths of the screen into the barrels as usual,
no easers being used. The berries were taken into the warm screening
room a bushel at a time, and each barrel was taken out as soon as screened.
The barrels were all shaken thorouglily and heaped as nearly ahke as
possible before they were headed up, the distance between the head,
resting on the heaped berries, and the chimes being carefully measured
in every case. Two barrels of graded and three of ungraded fruit were
used.
The fruit of each of these tests except the first was carefully sampled
and examined at the begimiing of the storage period. Column 8 of the
table gives the percentages of berries then found showing decay. These
must be subtracted from those in the last column to get a fau- idea of the
120 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
relative keeping of the graded and ungraded fruit. The latter kept some-
what better in every case, this result nullifying that of experiments pre-
viously reported.^ In most of these tests the berries were screened and
sampled both at the beginning and at the end of the storage. The average
cup-counts given in the table show how the sound berries shrink in size
in ventilated containers.
1 Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, pp. 208-211.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION.
121
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122 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
7. The Relative Keeping of Wet and Dry Cranberries.
Table 10 describes two experiments in this connection with fruit from
the station bog. In each test the fruit was stored in bushel picking crates
the day it was picked, four crates of each lot of the Early Black and six
of each lot of the Howes berries being used. The results confirm those
of tests heretofore reported.^
Table 10.—
Relative Keeping of Wet and Dry Cranberries
Test.
Variety.
Time of Day
the Fruit was
picked and
stored.
Temper-
ature at
which
the Fruit
was
picked
and
stored
(°C.).
Con-
dition in
which
Fruit was
picked
and
stored.
Period of Storage.
Percent-
age of
Berries
showing
Decay
at End
of
Storage.
1
2
Early Black, . |
Howes, . . 1
7 to 8 A.M.
11 A.M. to 12 m.
7 to 8 A.M.
4 to 4.15 P.M.
14 to 17
31
13 to 16
Wet 1
Dry /
Wet 1
Dry /
Sept. 19 to Nov. 13
Sept. 26 to Nov. 13
/ 47.88
1 33.60
/ 39.86
1 13.57
As it was thought that berries picked wet might keep less well than
those picked dry because of being bruised more in the process of picking,
an experiment in which one of the lots was wetted in the crates after
picking was tried. The berries were of the Early Black variety, and
were picked on September 14 and stored in bushel picking crates. There
were three crates in each lot. On November 14 the berries were examined
for rot, and 66.34 per cent were found showing decay in the wetted lot
against 45.85 per cent in the dry one. The result clearly shows the harmful
effect o; wetness among stored cranberries.
8. The Effect of an Admixture of Cranberry Leaves on the Keeping of the
Berries.
The fruit of two varieties, Early Black and Howes, was tried in tliis
connection. The berries were picked and stored September 22, in bushel
picking crates, twelve crates of each variety being used, six with leaves
and six without. The berries and leaves were put into the crates in
alternate layers, and each layer of leaves was mixed with the berries
beneath it by careful shaking, this probably doing little or no harm to
the fruit. Three quarts of leaves were used in each crate to which they
were added. The berries were examined for rot on December 26 and 27.
The examination showed the following percentages of decay: —
Early Black: with leaves, 62.74; without leaves, 47.77.
Howes: with leaves, 42.59; without leaves, 27.36.
Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, pp. 201-204.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 123
These results strongly confirm those previously reported. ^ It was
noticed that a large percentage of the rot spots shown by berries with
which leaves were mixed were quite small.
9. The Effect of an Admixture of Decayed Early Black Cranberries on
the Keeping of Berries of that Variety.
Two lots of berries in quart cans were used in this test. There were 18
cans in each lot. The berries were examined and put in storage during
the days of October 18 to 23. The decayed berries put in lot 2 were
entirely soft but unbroken. The can covers were tight but not sealed.
Lot 1 contained 9,105 sound berries, and lot 2, 4,957 sound berries mixed
with 5,541 rotten ones. On December 28 the beri'ies were examined.
Lot 1 contained 3,823, and lot 2, 1,159, sound berries. The percentages
of berries found to have wholly or partly softened during the storage were
as follows: lot 1, 58.01; lot 2, 76.62. The admixture of rotten fruit appar-
ently promoted decay among the sound berries; but this result contra-
dicts a lilce test with Howes fruit previously reported. -
10. Berries separated xvith Hayden and xvith White Machines coniixired
as to Keeping Quality.
Boxes of fruit from a commercial lot of Howes berries were divided by
dumping, and one part was cleaned with a Hayden and the other part
with a Wliite separator on November 12. The fruit from each machine
was packed in a half-barrel and shipped to New York. It was examined
there December 12, 20.9 per cent of that cleaned with the Hayden sepa-
rator and 21.8 per cent of that cleaned with the Wliite then showing
decay. This result accords with that of like tests heretofore reported'' in
showing little difference in the injury caused by the two kinds of sepa-
rators.
11. Barrels v. Crates as Containers for ship-ping Cranberries.
The two following shipping tests were conducted : —
(a) New York Shipment. — This fruit was gathered on one of Dr.
Rogers' bogs on October 3 and kept in picking crates, just as it came
from the bog, in the basement of the station screenhouse until November
16, when the contents of the crates were divided into two lots by alternate
dipping with a quart measure. Both lots were put through a Hayden
separator November 17, picking crates being placed close up to the sepa-
rator spouts to receive the berries, instead of barrels. Only the fruit
coming from the spouts of the separator was used on either side of the
test. A grader with a thirteen-thirty-second-inch spacing was used with
both lots. The berries were screened November 17, easers being used
with those that were barreled, while Beaton crates were placed close tO'
1 Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, pp. 205, 206.
2 Bui. No. 168, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1916, p. 19.
3 Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, pp. 206-208.
124 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
the mouth of the screen to receive the other lot. There were two barrels
in one lot and four half-barrel crates in the other. Both lots were packed
November 17. They were left in the basement of the screenhouse, the
barrels on the bilge, until November 22, when they were shipped to
New York. One crate was broken in transit. The rest of the shipment
was examined December 12, as shown in Table 11, the result distinctly
favoring the crates.
Table 11. — Barrels v.
Beaton Crates as Containers for shipping
Cranberries.
Beaton Crates.
Location in the Container from which
THE Sample was taken.
Sound
Berries in
the
Sample.
Berries showing
Decay.
Number.
Per Cent.
Crate.
1
2
3
M middle,
M ^-d.ge
34 middle,
14 edge,
M middle
M edge
H middle
iHedge
M middle
' j| Liddle, '.'.'.'.'.'.'.
[Hedge
114
85
141
102
114
122
106
103
116
143
96
86
8
14
12
6
19
17
14
6
16
10
12
10
6.6
14.1
7.8
5.5
14.3
12.2
11.7
5.5
12.1
6.5
11.1
10.4
Tota
Is
1,328
144
9.8
Barrels.
Barrel.
Top,
114
18
13.6
M middle
107
19
15.1
1
\ 14 stave
151
18
10.7
i.^ middle
100
15
13.0
[ }4 stave
110
13
10.6
Top
210
37
15.0
M middle
113
19
14.4
2
i4 stave
105
17
13.9
}4 middle
109
16
12.8
yi stave,
121
16
11.7
Tota
la
1,240
188
13 1
(b) Chicago Shipment. — The two lots of Early Black berries used in
this test were picked in the same place on the station bog some time
between September 20 and 28, the contents of picking boxes being
divided by alternate dipping with a quart measure on October 25 to
make the two lots. The berries were stored in the basement of the screen-
house as they came from the bog until they were divided. Both lots were
put through a Hayden separator October 26, and were run from the
spouts of the machine into boxes placed close to them. Both lots were
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION.
125
graded with a thirtccn-thirtj'-sccond-inch grader. Thej^ were screened in
the afternoon of October 26 and the morning of the 27th. Those packed
in barrels were run from the mouths of the screen as usual, no easer being
used, while the other lot was run from the mouths of the screen into
crates placed up close to them. The berries were packed for shipment
October 27 and left in the basement of the screenhouse until November 1,
when they were taken to Warehara in an auto truck and shipped to
Chicago on top of a carlot of berries. The two barrels and four crates
included in the test were examined in Chicago November 15, the crates
showing 18 per cent of spoiled fruit, and the barrels 22 per cent.
12. Shipping Cranberries in Chaff v. shipping them in the Clean
Condition.
Table 12 shows the experience with fruit of the McFarlin and Middle-
borough varieties packed at Wareham October 26 and shipped to Chicago.
The first lot of each variety was shipped in the chaff. Each second lot
was carefullj^ separated and sorted before shipment, and the shrinkage
noted. All the lots were run through a separator at Chicago on November
15, and the shrinkage again noted. With both varieties the total loss of
berries was greater with those cleaned before than with those cleaned
after shipment. This was especially noticeable with the Middleborough
variety, which contained no frosted berries and therefore gave a more
reliable test.
Shipping in chaff involves the extra expense of freight charges and
containers for the chaff and rotten berries which would be taken out in
cleaning. On the other hand, fruit shipped in the chaff may be held in
storage and run through a separator as sold. Hand-sorting not being
necessary, the cost of preparing for sale is materially reduced.
Table 12. — Shipping Cranberries in Chaff v.
Cleaned Condition.
shipping them in the
Lot.
Containers.
Condition in
which Fruit
was shipped.
Shrink-
age in
sep-
arating
and
sorting
before
Ship-
ment
(Per
Cent).
Shrink-
age in
sep-
aratmg
at
Chicago
(Per
Cent).
Variety.
Kind.
Num-
ber.
Total
Shrink-
(P^e^r
Cent).
McFarUn, .
Middleborough, .
1
2
yi barrel boxes,
H barrel boxes,
3^ barrel boxes,
1^ barrel boxes,
5
5
5
5
In chaff.
Separated and
screened, .
In chaff.
Separated and
screened, .
20
20
10.2
27.0
15.5
28.7
30.2
27.0
35.5
126 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
Insects.
The Span Worm (Epelis truncalaria var. faxonii IVIinot) .
In 1917 a bog under the writer's observation near East Wareham was
reflowed June 20 while the moths of both sexes of this insect were numerous
on a large share of it. The water was let off June 23. It either destroyed
or drove ashore all the moths, very few being seen afterwards, but it
apparently did little or no harm to the eggs which had been laid before
the flooding, for the worms appeared on the bog in great numbers in
July. When the worms were small, this infestation was treated once
with 6 pounds of arsenate of lead paste to 50 gallons of water with great
success, no noticeable injury from what started as a severe infestation
appearing aftei'ward. But few of the worms could be found by sweeping
the bog with an insect net a few days after the spraying.
This insect did much harm on a bog in Carver in early August, 1918.
It worked late because the winter flowage had been held until near the
1st of June, the pupse enduring this prolonged submergence.
The Cranberry Root Grub {Amphicovm mdpina Hentz.).
The writer gives the above common name to a grub found occasionally
in great numbers in the sand covering of cranberry bogs, where it works
much like the root worm {Rhobdopterus picipes), feeding mainly on the
small roots. The infestation usually is confined to limited areas, seldom
extending in severity in one patch over more than 15 or 20 square rods at
most. The areas affected are often very irregular, but sometimes quite
circular. Occasionally the injury is so severe that the vines are entirely
killed in patches, the roots being so eaten that they can be rolled back
easily like a rug. More often the infested area looks yellowish and sickly,
the vines failing both to grow well and to produce much fruit, this condi-
tion usually lasting several years. Vines thus affected often die suddenly
in patches, or their growing tops and green berries wither, this happening
only in periods of hot, dry weather. It probably takes vines that are not
killed two or three years to recover after the insects finish their work and
disappear, as they finally do.
The grubs look somewhat like those common in gardens, but are smaller
and with a thin coat of fox-red hair which is well distributed over the
body. They are from 28 to 30 millimetres long when mature, but all
sizes from 8 millimetres long up are commonly found working together,
the various sizes perhaps being of different broods.
The writer has never reared the adults of this species, but he found
associated in the soil with the grubs of one infestation great numbers of
both sexes of the beetles of Amphicoma vulpina Hentz. ^ Many pupte and
pupa skins of this species were also present. These beetles were fu-st
found July 5, 1917. They were in a dormant condition, most of them
being about 3 inches below the surface of the sand. They were present
in about the same numbers and condition on July 11. On July 17 these
1 Identified by Mr. A. I. Bourne of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 127
conditions were mostly the same, but three of the beetles were found
crawling around on the vines above ground. On July 21 the beetles were
distinctly less abundant in the sand than before. These beetles are about
five-eighths of an inch long. The males have quite a coat of fox-red hair.
The females also have a hairy covering, but it is thinner and more olive-
colored, and the hairs are much shorter. Both sexes are usually sluggish
in their movements, but they sometimes were seen to fly well. Wlien
either the beetles, taken from the soil, or the grubs are placed on sand
they bury themselves at once.
The work of this insect was noted as that of a species of Lachnosterna
in the report of the cranberry' investigations of 1911.^
The Spittle Insect {Clastoptera vittata Ball-).
This insect abounds on occasional cranberry bogs every year, it often
being so prevalent that its spittle will wet one's shoes like a heavy dew.
It commonly infests dry bogs, and apparently also those that are winter-
flowed but not reflowed. It is said to winter in the egg stage. In this
stage it seems to endure the long flooding. The writer has not yet found
it abundant on a bog reflowed according to the usual practice.
The season was very late in 1917, and the young nymphs were found
just starting their spittle on cranberrj^ vines on June 13. The spittle
masses were abundant and well-developed on several bogs on June 25.
They were plentiful from then until after mid-July, but had nearly dis-
appeared by the 20th of that month. The first grown insect obtained in
confinement emerged July 12. The adults of both sexes came out rapidly
fromthe 15th to the 19th. These insects are from about one-eighth to nearly
three-sixteenths of an inch long. They are glossy, the males being black and
the females black with yellow stripes. They jump lively when disturbed.
In 1918 the season was much earlier than in 1917, and the small masses
of spittle were fii'st found May 28. Judging by the size of some of the
masses the insect must have begun hatching four or five days before this.
It was noted July 10, 1918, that nearly all the adults had emerged.
Some cranberr}^ growers have long considered this species very harmful
when abundant. To determine this point the writer marked several hun-
dred infested uprights with blue, and as many uninfested ones with red,
yarn a little after mid-July, 1917. These uprights were examined Decem-
ber 7. The results, shown in Table 13, give striking proof that this is a
very injurious insect, and ought to be controlled wherever it becomes
abundant on a bog.
A heavily infested area was sprayed July 5, 1917, with Black-Leaf 40,
1 part to 400 parts of water, resin fish-oil soap being added at the rate of 2
pounds to 50 gallons. The insects were then nearly full-grown and well en-
veloped in spittle. The writer examined the treated area July 6, and found
most of the insects had been killed and most of the spittle had dried up.
' Twenty-fourth Ann. Kept., Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Part I, p. 22, 1912.
2 Called C. proteus, Fitch, in the Ann. Rept. of the Cape Cod Cranberry Growers' Assoc, 1917,
p. 8.
128 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
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REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 129
On June 2, 1918, an infested area was sprayed with lilack-Leaf 40, 1
part to 800 parts of water, soap being added as in 1917. The nymphs
were small and the treatment was very^ effective, practically all the spittle
masses disappearing, while they remained abundant on the untreated
surrounding parts of the bog.
In 1918 the writer reared adults of this species from the following: —
1. Gaylussacia frondosa, Torr. & Gray.
2. Gaylussacia resinosa, Torr. & Gray.
3. Vacciniuni vacillans, Solander.
4. Vaccinium corymhosum, L.
5. Vaccinium macrocarpon, Ait.
6. Andromeda ligustrina, Muhl.
7. Leucothoe racemosa, Gray.
8. Cassandra calyculata, Don.
The insect infested all these species except V. corymhomm very abun-
dant h'. As some of these plants grow^ in great abundance around or near
most Cape bogs, they furnish a large source of infestation for them. As
the insect does not infest reflowed bogs, however, its progress from the
uplands onto the bogs must be very slow.
Clastoptera -proteus, Fitch, has been defined to include a variety of
forms. 1 The writer thinks that the forms (subspecies /fat^a and subspecies
nigra, var. a, of Ball) which Professor Osborn bred from dogwood- really
belong to species distinct from the one (subspecies vittata and subspecies
nigra, var. h, of Ball) infesting the cranberry and other plants of the
heath family. The writer has seen some of Professor Osborn's specimens.
Of these, one female and one male belonged to Ball's subspecies flava,
and two males to subspecies nigra, var. a. The writer has reared hun-
dreds of specimens of both sexes from ericaceous plants. Nearly all his
females belong to subspecies vittata. A few of his females and all lus
males belong to subspecies nigra, var. h. He has captured specimens of
vittata and nigra, var. h, in coition. The pronotum of vittata and of nigra,
var. 6, always has a slight median longitudinal sulcus. None of Osborn's
specimens were at all sulcate longitudinally on the middle of the pro-
notum, the two males of nigra, var. a, even being slightly carinate longi-
tudinally there instead. Further structural differences should be looked
for in the male genitalia.
The Cranberry Tip Worm {Dasyneura vaccinii Smith).
The Proctotrj^pid, heretofore reported ^ as the most innportant parasite
of this species, has been identified'' as Ceraphro7i pallidiventris Ashm. It
was bred from the maggots in great numbers in 1917 as it had been in
1916. ^___
1 Ball, E. D.: Proc. Iowa Acad. Sci., III., 1895, pp. 186, 187.
2 Bui. No. 254, Maine Agr. Expt. Sta., 1916, p. 284.
3 Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, p. 226.
* By Mr. A. B. Gahan of the Bureau of Entomology.
130 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
The Gypsy Moth (Porthetria dispar L.).
Early in January, 1917, several batches of the eggs of this insect, col-
lected from trees shortly before, were submerged in two or three feet of
water in a pond, two lots being left in the basement of the screenhouse as
a check on the hatch of the others. The hatch of those kept in the base-
ment was nearly perfect, while less than 1 per cent of those taken from
the pond May 16, and none of those removed May 24, May 29 or June
2, hatched. All these eggs were put on sand in pails when taken from the
water, and kept in the upper part of the screenhouse, as were also those
from the basement. A lot taken from the pond June 7 was put at once
on the station bog, the egg masses being spread under the vines, with
care to place them as a moth might lay them. This lot was observed
until July 4, and but one egg was known to hatch, a newly hatched worm
being found on a vine above the eggs June 21. These results confirm
those of former years in showing that the eggs do not endure very late
holding of the winter water.
Mr. C. W. Minott of the Bureau of Entomology and the writer co-
operated in an experiment at the Wankinco bog in 1917, to determine the
amount of the wind drift of the first-stage caterpillars. A horizontal
tanglefoot-covered screen was used. This was placed 583 feet on its
south side, 837 feet on its northeast side, and 635 feet on its northwest
side from the upland. It covered 53| square feet, and during the wind-
drift period caught two of the larvae. If this shows fairly the wind drift
onto the central part of the bog, 1,634 gypsy worms per acre blew onto
it during the season. This result is significant, as the bog is so large and
its environs were so little infested in the early spring that it seemed
doubtful if the experiment would pay.
On June 15, 1917, a grower told the wTiter he had recently successfully
treated gypsy caterpillars floating on the flowage of some bogs with
kerosene. He used 5 gallons to 6 acres, and poured it on the water on
the windward side. The worms must have been fully a third grown.
On June 9 the writer sprayed oak bushes much infested with gypsy
caterpillars with Black-Leaf 40 used at the rate of 1 part to 400 parts of
water, with resin fish-oil soap added at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons.
The worms were in their second, third and fourth stages, being from 6 to
15 millimetres long, and the spray killed all it hit. Other bushes covered
Avith gypsy worms were sprayed with Black-Leaf 40 used at the rate of
1 part to 800 parts of water, with soap as before. This treatment was
partially effective, but very many caterpillars survived it. On June 19
infested bushes were sprayed with Black-Leaf 40 used at the rate of 1
part to 400, soap being added as before. The caterpillars were in theii-
third, fourth and fifth stages, being 10 to 22 millimetres long, and the
treatment killed most of them, though many of the larger ones survived.
Nearly full-grown caterpillars were sprayed July 5 with Black-Leaf 40
used at the rate of 1 part to 200, with soap as before. This was not
effective.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 131
All these tests were tried in sunny weather. Judging by their results,
the 1 to 400 Black-Leaf 40 spray kills the worms in their early stages,
but is of no use when they are nearly full-grown. One part to 800 parts
of water is too weak at any time. Further experiments may show that
a medium strength, such as 1 part to 600, will kill the very young cater-
pillars.
These conclusions are of special interest in relation to the recent de-
velopments in the control of the black-head fireworm.
The Black-Head Firetconn (Rhopobota vaciniana (Pack.)).
This pest was well controlled in several 1917 tests where Black-Leaf
40 was used at the rate of 1 part to 400 parts of water, with 2 pounds of
resin fish-oil soap to 50 gallons added. After this treatment the infesta-
tion always was greatly reduced and the worms were found dead among
the sewed-up vines in great numbers. The plots treated with the 1 to
800 Black-Leaf 40 spray were not well located to show results, the in-
festation in no case proving great enough to hurt the vines around them
much.
This insecticide must be tried more thoroughly before we can tell
what strength to use under all conditions, but it certainly has displaced
arsenate of lead as a control for this insect. It is expensive, costing about
S7 per acre per application when used at the rate oi 1 part to 400 of water.
The number of applications advisable depends on how severe the infesta-
tion is and how well it can be curbed by refiowing. While this spray
checks either brood, it can as a rule be used more profitably against the
first than against the second.
Control of the gypsy moth and the fireworm with the same application
is feasible, as the time for the first treatment of the fii'st brood of the
fireworm is usually not too late for spraying the gj^sy- When both
insects are treated, the Black-Leaf 40 must be used as strong as 1 part
to 600 of water, and 1 to 400 probably will pay better. Treatment of the
spittle insect, the gypsy moth and the first brood of the fireworm with
the same application of Black-Leaf 40 is practicable on bogs that are
winter flowed but not reflowed.
The use of arsenate of lead with the Black-Leaf 40 in spraymg for the
fireworm and the gypsy moth is probably advisable, for the arsenate
whitens the spray and so marks where it is applied, thus reducing the
liability ox leaving areas unsprayed. It also adds to the insecticidal value
of the spray, and, as shown elsewhere in this report, gives it a fungicidal
value when it is used on Early Black vines. Whale-oil soap is preferable
to resin fish-oil soap for use with Black-Leaf 40, especially if arsenate of
lead is added, for the arsenate and the resin soap make a burning combi-
nation.
Several fireworm-infested bogs on the Cape had their winter flowage
held until the 10th of July, 1918. While this greatly reduced the infesta-
tion, there was a considerable hatch in every case aiter the water was let
132 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
off. It is now doubtful if late holding can be relied on to eradicate the
pest entirely unless it is continued to the 1st of August. The most success-
ful treatment applied on large bogs in 1918 was that of letting the winter
fiowage off about June 1 and flooding again from three weeks to a month
later. This has been reported as very effective heretofore.^
In 1917 the first brood was first found hatching on June 4, the sprmg;
having been very late and cold. At this time none of the worms observed
seemed more than two days old. This is the latest date for the beginning
of the hatch the writer has ever noted.
The Cranberry Friiit Worm (Mineola vaccinii Riley).
In 1917 the eggs of this insect showed a range in Chalcidid (Tricho-
gramma viinuta) parasitism of from 83 to 89 per cent on dry bogs, and
from 29 to 88 per cent on those with winter flowage. In 1918 the range
was from 36 to 89 per cent on dry bogs and from none to 15 per cent on
flowed ones.
The fruit worm did much more injury in 1917 than in 1916.
On June 27, 1917, the writer covered large numbers of fruit-worm
cocoons, in quart cans partly filled with moist sand, with measured and
uniform one-third inch, one-half inch and 1 inch depths of sand. Checks
of cocoons without any covering were kept for comparison. The cocoons
had been kept in good condition on sand in cans during the preceding
fall, winter and spring, and it is certain that when these tests were started
the worms had all either pupated or been destroyed by the formation of
the parasite pupsD. As in like tests previously reported,^ both the moths
and parasites emerged tln-ough the one-thnxl and one-half inch coverings
fairly freely, but the inch covering smothered them almost completelj^
Large numbers of cocoons of fruit worms were buried under a measured
inch of sand in the late fall of 1917. Most of the worms left their cocoons,
worked their way up through the sand, and in some cases built very
meager secondary cocoons after reaching the surface. The pupa? of the
worms and parasites were formed on or near the surface.
These results show that the fruit worm may be smothered by heavy
sanding, but that the sand must be applied after pupation to be effective.
As shown heretofore,^ pupation is not completed until the middle of June,
and bogs cannot be sanded then without doing much injury.
The difference in the results obtained with this insect by covering
cocoons heavily with sand before the worms pupate as compared with
like covering aftev pupation may explain why the writer * had so much
greater success than Scammell * in smothering the girdler {Crambus hortu-
ellus Hiibner). The writer applied the sand late in May, while Scammell
applied it in November. The girdler usually pupates in the last half of
1 Twenty-fifth Ann. Kept., Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Pt. I. 1913, p. 232.
i Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, p. 228.
3 Bui. No. 108, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1916, p. 40.
* Twenty-fourth Ann. Rept., Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., Pt. I, p. 19, 1912.
6 Bui. No. 554, U. S. Dept. of Agr., 1917, p. 18.
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 133
May and verj' early June, if the winter water is let off early, as it was at
the bog where the WTiter made his tests. The writer observed Scammell's
experiments and saw nothing in them to criticize.
The fruit-worm injury in 1918 was the least of any season in the writer's
experience. This, after so severe a winter, seemed surprising.^ Its injury
to the station crop was estimated to be 3 to 4 per cent.
The Gi-easy C^dworm (Afffotis ypsilon Rott.).
In a previous report ^ a destructive visitation of the fall arm}^ worm
{Laphygma frugiperda S. & A.) on cranberry bogs, following closely and
evidently somehow caused by the removal of the winter flowage in mid-
July, was noted. This season a similar visitation by the greasy cutworm
(Agrotis ypsilon Rott.) occurred in August on a large part of the Wankinco
bog, the bog having been flowed from earl}^ June to July 10. The blackish
worms in their feeding dropped a litter of uneaten leaf fragments onto
the sand under the vines. They were first seen about August 10, many
being then considerably grown, and they disappeared on the bog about
August 24. They seemed to be cannibals when confined in tightly closed
eans in numbers together, for they became rapidly fewer under such con-
ditions without any other evident reason. They pupated in confinement
in late August and early September, and the moths emerged from Sep-
tember 18 to October 2.
The writer thinks there maj' be several more species that on occasion
will infest cranberry bogs, bared of their winter flowage in midsummer, in
this way. Scammell's explanation that the moths of the fall army wonn
seem to be attracted to bogs recently bared of the flowage, and there lay
their eggs in preference to bogs from which the flowage was removed at
the nonnal time, is probably correct for that insect and other species as
well. Observations made by the writer in 1917 on a bog in Plymouth
support this opinion. The winter flowage was let off this bog August 10,
and a few days later great numbers of moths were found among the vines
on all parts of it. The moths were of the three following species, mo.st of
them being of the first two: —
1. Nomophila noctuclla S. V.
2. Drasteria erechtea Cram.
3. Autographa falcigera var. simplex On.
These moths were not noticed on any bog that had the winter flowage
off early. No worm infestation developed later where the moths appeared.
The cranberrj^ may not be a food plant of any of the three species, or the
moths may have laid most of their eggs before they came onto the bog.
' Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, p. 227.
2 Bui. No. 180, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, p. 232.
134 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
Resanding.
The 1918 experience with two plots on the station bog that have not
been sanded since the fall of 1909 is shown in Table 14. The check areas
in each case were adjacent to and on different sides of the plot. The
berries were of the Early Black variety, and were picked and placed in
storage September 16. The fruit was stored in bushel crates, 8 bushels
being used in each case, and was examined December 17 to 19 by the
"seven-sample" method.
The fruit from the plots kept distinctly better than that from their
checks in nearly every case, this result contradicting that of 1916 with
fruit from these areas. ^ These plots yielded as heavily on the average as
the surrounding bog until 1916.^ Table 15 shows that since 1915 their
average productiveness has fallen distinctly below that of their checks.
For the past three years the vines on these plots have been much thinner
than those of the surrounding bog.
Table 14. — Sanding Plots in 1918. Effect of Resanding on Quantity
and Quality of Cranberries.
Percentage
Area
Yields per
Square Rod
of Berries
Plots and Checks.
(Square
Resanded.
showing de-
Rods).
(Bushels).
cay at End
of Storage.
v
9
Not since November, 1909, .
1.59
31.25
V (check 1), .
6
Spring of 1912, fall of 1914 and
spring of 1917, .
2.33
31.89
V (check 2), . . .
6
Spring of 1912, fall of 1914 and
spring of 1917, .
2.56
38.43
V rcheck 3),- .
6
Sprin<; of 1912, fall of 1914 and
spring of 1917, .
2.22
44.54
O
9
Not since November, 1909, .
1.39
21.65
O (check 1), .
6
Fall of 1911, fall of 1914 and
spring of 1917, .
Fall of 1911, tall of 1914 and
2.11
25.87
O (check 2), .
6
spring of 1917, .
1.72
29.31
O (check 3), .
6
Fall of 1911, fall of 1914 and
spring of 1917, .
2.03
24.05
Table 15. — Productiveness of Sanding Plots V and 0 in 1916, 1917 and'
1918.
Resanded.
Yields per Square Rod (Bushels).
Plots and Checks.
1916.
1917.
1918.
Average
for Three
Years.
V, . . . .
V (checks),
O, . . . .
O (checks).
Not since 1909, .
Thrice since 1909,
Not since 1909, .
Thrice since 1909,
.93
1.39
.93
1.24
.60
.65
.63
.63
1.59
2.37
1.39
1.95
1.04
1.47
.98
1.27
Bui. No. 180, Maes. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1917, p. 219, Table 18.
Bull. No. 168, Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 1916, p. 27, Table 15.
EEPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION.
135
Fertilizers.
Tables 16 and 17 show the results had with the station bog fertilizer
plots in 1917 and 1918, respectively. The area of each plot is 8 square
rods, and the variety treated, the Early Black. In 1917 the fertilizers
were applied on June 29 and 30, and the berries picked on September 17
and 19. Seven bushels were used in each of the storage tests. In 1918
the fertilizers were applied on June 8. Eight bushels of berries from each
plot were examined for rot.
Plots 1, 5, 9, 13, 17 and 21 are all untreated checks. The meanings of
the symbols used in the tables are as follows: —
0 = Nothing.
N = 100 pounds nitrate of soda per acre.
P = 400 pounds acid phosphate per acre. .
K = 200 pounds high-grade sulfate of potash per acre.
L = 1 ton of slaked lime per acre.
Kcl = 200 pounds muriate of potash per acre.
Nj^ = 150 pounds nitrate of soda per acre.
N 2 = 200 pounds nitrate of soda per acre.
Pji = 600 pounds acid phosphate per acre.
Pg = 800 pounds acid phosphate per acre.
In combination they mean, for example, N2PK = 200 pounds of nitrate
of soda +400 pounds of acid phosphate +200 pounds of high-gi-ade sulfate
of potash per acre.
Table 16. — Fertilizer Plots in 1917. Condition and Relative Keeping
Quality of the Berries.
Plot.
Fertilizer.
Yields
per Square
Rod
(Bushels).
Percentage op
Berries showing
Decay.
Percentage
of Sound
Berries that
became
October 4.
December
8 and 10.
more or
less Rotten
during
Storage.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
23"
0
N
P
K,
0
NP
NK
PK
0
NPK.
O,
1.21
1.21
1 28
1.33
1.33
.94
.81
.92
.69
.63
.58
29.33
22.18
8.95
16.47
-
This plot was dressed with leaf mold in 1916.
136 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
Table 16. — Fertilizer Plots, etc — Concluded.
Plot.
Fertilizer.
Yields
per Square
Rod
(Bushels).
Percentage op
Berries .showing
Decay.
Percentage
of Sound
Berries that
became
October 4.
December
8 and 10.
more or
less Rotten
during
Storage.
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
NPKL,2
NPKcl. . . .
O
NuPK
N2PK,
NKPj.. . . - . . .
0
NKP.^
NPKi.
NPK2,
0
.83
1.05
1.06
1.05
1.11
1.22
1.10
1.35
■■"
1.09
1.19
33.40
20.74
9.75
22.91
26.48
15.37
6.50
14.17
11.78
13.16
5.39
63.38
36.63
59.42
37.16
33.31
44.97
29.78
44.79
32.80
29.60
The lime was added separately the day after the fertilizer.
Table 17,
Fertilizer Plots in 1918. Yield, Time consumed in Picking,
and Relative Condition of the Berries.
Plot.
Fertilizer.
Date
picked.
Time con-
sumed
in Picking
(Picker-
minutes).
Yields
per Square
Rod
fBushels).
Date
exam-
ined.
Percentage
of
Berries
showing
Decay.
1
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
O. .
N, .
P, .
O, .
O, .
NP, .
N. .
P, .
0, .
NP. .
NPL,
NP, .
O, .
N^P.
r^:
NP^.
NP, .
NP, .
0: .
Oct. 4
Oct. 5
Oct. 5
Oct. 5
Oct. 5
Oct. 5
Oct. 5
Oct. 8
Oet. 8
Oct. 8
Oct. 4
Oct. 4
Oct. 4
Oct. 4
Oct. 4
Oct. 4
Oct. 4
Oct. 1
Oct. 1
Oct. 1
Oct. 1
147
240
252
168
288
366
306
210
150
238
378
273
162
245
287
252
192
256
232
280
200
2.50
2.65
2.60
2.56
2.42
2.56
2.38
2.54
2.38
2.60
2.39
2.48
2.40
2.46
2.50
2.75
2.54
2.63
2.44
2.77
2.43
Oct. 14
Oct. 15
Oct. 16
Oct. 17
Oct. 18
Oct. 17
Oct. 17
Oct. 14
Oct. 14
Oct. 14
Oct. 15
Oct. 15
Oct. 15
Oct. 16
Oct. 15
Oct. 15
Oct. 15
Oct. 18
Oct. 18
Oct. 17
Oct. 16
11.67
14.35
12.94
22.92
17.55
18.41
27.41
16.81
18.28
24.89
28.36
26.04
22.77
21.41
27.35
15.66
16.75
15.46
16.32
17.74
15,01
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION,
137
Column 4 of Table 16 gives the percentages of berries showing decaj^
two weeks after the fruit was picked. IMost of this rot was surely present
when the berries came from the bog. The fertilizer evidently greatly
increased the rotting on the vines. The last column of this table shows
that the fertilizer also greatly harmed the keeping quality of the fruit.
The berries from only a part of the plots were examined, as this was all
that seemed necessary to bring out the facts.
The last column of Table 17 shows the condition of the fruit two weeks
after it was picked in 1918. The percentages for some reason fail to tell
so marked a story as those of 1917. The figures in the fourth column of
this table were obtained by multiplying for each plot the minutes con-
sumed in picking by the number of pickers. They therefore show the
relative cost of harvesting the various plots. This expense was much
greater with the treated areas than with the checks.
The treated and check areas yielded at about the same rate in 1917,
but the checks produced less in 1918.
In both 1917 and 1918 the fertilized plots developed a considerable
gi'owth of weeds, especially of fireweed {Erechtites hieracifolia Raf.) and
beggar-ticks (Bidens frondosa L.), not much found elsewhere on the bog.
The fruit of the plot treated with lime decayed more than that of any
other plot in both 1917 and 1918, as it had in the three previous years.
Table 18 shows the results with two new plots to which slaked lime at the
rate of 1 ton per acre was applied on June 13. The berries were of the
Early Black variety, and 8 bushels from each plot and each check were
examined. On the whole, the fruit from these limed areas rotted more
than that from the checks. This result, as far as it goes, accords with
that of fertilizer plot 11.
Table 19 gives the yields of the station fertilizer plots by j'ears and the
total yields since they were started. Considering all the experience with
these plots, it seems that the advantage of any slight increase in yield
that may have been caused by the fertilizers has been much more than
balanced by the cost of the treatment, the deterioration in the quality of
the fruit, the greater cost of picking due to the increased vine growth,
and the incursion of weeds.
Table IS. — Effect of Liming (he Bog on the Quality
of the Fruit.
Plots and Checks.
Area
(Square
Rods).
Location
on Station
Bog.
Date
picked.
Yields
per Square
Rod
(Bushels).
Date
exam-
ined.
Percentage
of
Berries
showing
Decay.
Lime 1
Lime 1 .check 1), .
Lime 1 (check 2), .
Lime 2
Lime 2 (check),
8.0
8.0
8.0
7.6
7. .5
Section 1
Section 1
Section 1
Section 21
Section 21
Sept. 22
Sept. 22
Sept. 22
Sept. 11
Sept. 11
2.59
2.. 59
2.72
2.66
2.58
Oct. 21
Oct. 21
Oct. 21
Oct. 22
Oct. 22
21.51
17.95
15.02
12.30
11.92
138 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
Table 19. — Effect of Fertilizers on Cranberry Yield.
Plot.
Fertilizer. '
Yields (Bushels).
...
1912. 1913,
1
1914.
1915.
1916. 1917. 1918.
Total.
1
0
10.0
1.9
15.8
9.0
5.8
10.7
9.7
20.0
82.9
2
N, .
12.0
3.2
16.5
9.5
6.2
9.3
9.7
21.2
87.6
3
P.
11.0
2.0
15.7
8.8
5.5
9.0
10.2
20.8
83.0
4
K, .
11.0
1.7
17.0
8.0
5.5
9.6
10.7
20.5
84.0
5
0, .
13.0
1.8
19.3
6.5
7.6
9.2
10.6
19.3
87.3
6
NP, .
16.0
3.1
19.2
6.7
7.8
6.3
7.7
20.5
87.3
7
NK, .
14.5
3.9
18.8
7.7
8.0
6.6
6.5
19.0
84.9
8
PK, .
14.5
2.7
17.8
8.7
8.2
8.0
7.3
20.3
87.5
9
0, .
14.0
2.3
17.7
6.5
4.9
9.0
5.5
19.0
78.9
10
NPK.
14.0
4.0
20.0
8.7
7.3
6.9
5.0
20.8
86.7
11
NPKL,
16.0
3.5
17.7
8.2
6.3
2.9
6.7
19.1
80.4
12
NPKcl
15.0
3.4
20.3
7.8
7.2
6.0
8.4
19.8
87.9
13
O.
12.0
2.5
19.2
7.7
5.7
7.7
8.5
19.2
82.4
14
Nj.PK.
12.0
4.8
17.7
10.0
6.9
5.5
8.4
19.7
85.0
15
NgPK,
10.0
6.1
9.8
10.4
5.8
4.5
8.9
20.0
75.6
16
NKPi..
10.0
5.7
18.0
9.0
7.0
7.2
9.7
22.0
88.6
17
0,
10.5
3.2
20.3
9.7
7.0
9.3
8.8
20.3
89.1
18
NKPg,
10.0
5.5
18.0
10.0
6.2
8.3
10.8
21.0
89.9
19
NPRj..
10.0
4.0
19.1
9.0
6.8
7.8
9.8
19.5
86.0
20
NPK2,
12.5
4.2
20.0
6.8
7.3
9.0
8.8
22.2
90.8
21
0,
11.5
3.0
22.1
10.3
6.1
10.3
9.5
19.4
92.2
22
0,
11.5
3.1
-
10.8
-
-
-
-
-
23
0,
14.5
2.0
20.0
6.3
-
8.0
4.6
-
The potash salts were omitted in 1918.
Weathee Observations.
Weather observations and records were made in both 1917 and 1918
as previously, daily reports being telegraphed to the Boston office of the
Weather Bureau in the spring and fall, and special frost predictions being
telephoned to growers when asked for.
Severe winterkilling occurred in 1916-17 on exposed bogs, the injury
being more extensive than in any year since 1906. The damage came
much earlier in the winter than usual. Many bogs winter flowed the first
days in February and some flooded late in January were badly hurt.
The winterkilling seemed a slow process. It probably took several days
and perhaps a week or two to complete it, as the weather and bog condi-
tions were so long the same. Unprotected bogs were frozen deeper than
REPORT OF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 139
the cranberry roots extended for some time before the killing took place,
and the vines were exposed to strong, drj^, northerly winds most of the
three weeks ending February 5. On some badly injured bogs, areas not
picked the fall before showed little harm, and new plantings in which
the vines were still in the hills were not hurt, while heavy \ines near by
that had been picked were badly killed.
From these and other observations the writer ventures to guess that
cranberry winterkilling usually is due to a drying out of the vines result-
ing from a freezing in of the roots that prohibits their taking in moisture
to replace that given off by the leaves exposed to strong, dry winds. As
the dormant cranberry foliage is hard and tough, it probably parts with
its moisture very slowly, even in the most drying weather, and the writer
thinks it usually takes several days of such exposure to kill the vines.
The escape from injury of new plantings and unpicked vines may have
been due to their being less dry before they were exposed to winterkilling
conditions than were the picked vines, their roots not having been dis-
turbed.
The spring and early summer of 1917 were late, cold and wet, and as a
result the cranberry crop was very tardy in ripenmg. There was little or
no frost injury in the spring, but on the nights of September 10 and 11
hard freezes caught the berries still in a green or slightly colored condi-
tion. The minimum bog temperature recorded at the station on the 10th
was 2U° F., and on the 11th, 26° F. The first night the wind at the
station was from the northeast, with a velocity of 10 miles an hour at
8 P.M., and an average of 3f mUes from midnight to 6 a.m. This wind
was very generally, though, as it proved, unwisely, relied on to prevent a
hard frost. Temperatures as low as 18° F. were reported from some bogs,
severe injury being common except in Barnstable County and on the
Vinej'ard and Nantucket, all of which escaped with Uttle or no hurt.
The night of the 11th, however, bogs in Barnstable County suffered much
loss.
From growers' reports the writer estimated the Cape cranberry loss
for both nights to be 60 per cent. Mr. V. A. Sanders, field agent of the
Bureau of Crop Estimates, set the loss in Plymouth County at about
67 per cent, and in Barnstable County at about 37 per cent. This re-
duction, added to that due to the winterkilling and the rather large fruit-
worm injury, left the smallest crop picked on the Cape since 1905, only
118,574 barrels of berries, exclusive of those marketed locally and those
canned and evaporated, being shipped from this section.
From observations made on Sept. 2, 1916, and on the night of Sept.
10, 1917, it is certain that cranberries in the greenish white state that
immediately precedes the ripening of the fruit will (ndure a temperature
of 26° F. without hurt, and of 25° F. with little injury, but 24° F. seems
to harm such fruit gi-eatly if it continues long.
The winter of 1917-18 was the most severe in New England of any on
record. The ponds and streams were low in the late fall and early winter,
140 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 192.
and so an unusually large percentage of the bogs was exposed to the
winter. Winterkilling of the vines was as severe and widespread as in the
previous winter, and the attending weather conditions were much the
same.
A hard frost occurred the night of June 20, 1918, reducing the pro-
spective crop, as estimated, over half. The lowest temperature recorded
at the station was 261° F., and 23° F. was reported from some bogs. The
vines had begun to bloom, and many growers used water more sparingly
than they should have on that account. A widespread effect of this
frost was noted later in the season. The vines had failed to recover and
form buds for the next year on considerable areas. On such areas, there-
fore, the frost really destroyed two crops.
Frost Studies.
As the records made at the station during the past five years seemed a
fair basis for a study of frost conditions on cranberry bogs on Cape Cod,
and as the great loss from frost in September, 1917, made the need of
closer predictions seem imperative, the writer gave most of the following
winter to a careful investigation in this connection. The most important
result was a new method for computing minimum temperatures on any
ziight in which frost conditions prevail. The method is probably as
reliable for computing on windy nights, if they are clear, as on still ones,
but much cloudiness during the night renders it inaccurate.
Predictions bj' the new method are made from readings at 8 p.m.,
standard time. As a few minutes are needed to take the readings and
make the calculation, the forecast is not ready until 8.15. As damaging
frost may occur as early as 11 p.m., this warning will sometimes give only
three hours in which to flood. Frost flooding can be done on many bogs
in this time, but it takes several hours more on most of the larger areas
with their present flumes and canals. Manj'- growers would profit by
greatly enlarging these equipments so as to flood more quickly and make
full use of the warnings obtained by the new method.
The 8 P.M. temjierature at a height of from 17 to 20 feet above the bog
level is one of the factors used in the new method. (Juite accurate pre-
dictions have been made for the Atwood bog at South Carver by substi-
tuting the shelter temperature at that bog for the station shelter tempera-
ture in the formula used in calculating. This suggests that growers may
help both themselves and the work by placing Green thermometers in
elevated locations near their bogs, and telephoning to the station their
8 P.M. reading.
Blueberry Work.
On May 14, 1917, thirty-nine swamp blueberry bushes, selected for the
quantity and quality of fruit they bore in 1916, were transplanted from
the wild to the station blueberry plantation at East Wareham. The
writer spent a week in New Jersey in late July and early August, 1917,
REPORT CF THE CRANBERRY SUBSTATION. 141
studying methods of cranberry and blueberry growing there. He brought
back bud wood of two very select blueberry strains (Nos. 620A and 834A
of the Bureau of Plant Industry), canying it on ice in a thermos bottle
(luring the trip home. It was cut from bushes in Miss Elizabeth C.
White's plantation at Whitesbog, N. J., on the morning of August 4.
Buds from it were inserted on sprouts in the station plantation on dates
and in numbers as follows : —
August 8, No. 834A, 12 buds.
August 9, No. 620A, 40 buds.
August 10, No. G20A, 7 buds.
Prof. F. V. Coville's and Miss White's methods were followed in this
budding. Only two of the fifty-nine select buds inserted developed into
sprouts in 1918. The severe winter probably killed a large percentage of
them.
The wi-iter visited Miss White's plantation again in 1918, and brought
back more select bud wood, buds from which were inserted in sprouts in
the station plantation as follows : —
July 28, No. 834A, 23 buds; No. 1004A, 11 buds.
July 29, No. 1004A, 8 buds; No. 620A, 32 buds.
July 30, No. 620A, 3 buds; No. 823A, 20 buds.
The bud wood was cut from Miss White's bushes on the afternoon of
July 25.
BULLETII^ IsTo. 193.
DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS.
THE SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION OF
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR
LEAF TOBACCO.
Part I
HISTORY OF CONNECTICUT VALLEY TOBACCO PRODUC-
TION AND THE CIGAR INDUSTRY.
The culture of tobacco in the Connecticut valley is almost coeval with
its first settlement. It was grown here during the years from 1640 to
1660. The stringent legislation of Connecticut restricted, under severe
penalty, the use of tobacco to that grown in the colonies. In 1646 a
law was passed prohibiting the use of tobacco by any one under twenty-
one years of age, and requiring those who had not already acquired the
tobacco habit to present a certificate from a physician before beginning
it. A fine of a sixpence was imposed for the use of tobacco in the pubhc
streets. These restrictions did not stop the cultivation of tobacco, but
tended to increase exportation and diminish home consumption. Never-
theless, until the latter part of the eighteenth century the production of
tobacco in New England was of comparatively little importance. During
the first quarter of the nineteenth century the manufacture of cigars began
as a household industry in some of the towns of the valle^^ The industry
grew very slowly, and correspondingly slow progress was made in the
growing of cigar leaf, which likewise was undertaken first in the Connecticut
valley, in the section lying between Hartford, Conn., and Springfield,
Mass. In no period prior to 1801 did the annual production of tobacco
exceed 20,000 pounds.
Over a century ago Connecticut tobacco was recognized as essentially
different from the Virginia types, and peculiarly fitted to the manufacture
of cigars. In 1801, 20,000 pounds of tobacco were produced in the Con-
necticut valley, and cigar manufacturing began in a small way. The first
144 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
tobacco warehouse was established at Warehouse Point, Conn., in 1825.
About 3,200 pounds of tobacco were packed here and shipped to New York,
The first factories were established in 1810, one at East Windsor, and
another at Suffield, Conn. The cultivation was gradually extended, and
in 1840 it was a general crop, though small, grown as regularly as any other
in the valley.
It is to Mrs. Prout, the wife of a farmer of South Windsor, Conn., that
the men of tliis country are indebted for the first cigar in America. The
Indians had made and smoked a roll of tobacco, but the cigar as we know
it to-day had its birth in America in 1801. Wives of other farmers joined
Mrs. Prout in her enterprise, and peddled their cigars from village to
village in wagons. The "Long Nines" and "Windsor Particulars" soon
came to be the principal brands.
Other areas suitable for the production of cigar leaf types of tobacco
were exploited at about the same time as the Connecticut valley. The
present areas in Lancaster and York counties, Permsylvania ; the Gadsden
county area in Florida; the Miami valley area in Ohio ; and the Onondaga
and Big Flats area in New, York are the chief sections. Nowhere, how-
ever, did the production of cigar tobacco attain much importance till the
decade just preceding the civil war. This fact is very clearly indicated in
the table below.
Table 1. — Production of Tobacco in the United States by Localities, 1849
and 1859.^
Production (Pounds).
Localities.
1849.
1869.
Connecticut valley: —
Connecticut
1.267,624
6,000,133
Massachusetts
138,246
3,233,198
Total for Connecticut valley, ....
1,405,870
9,233,331
Pennsylvania
912,651
3,181,586
Ohio (Miami valley),
1,200.000
3,900,000
Florida. .
998,614
828,815
New York
83,189
5,764,582
Total cigar leaf
4.600.324
22,908,314
I Compiled from census reports.
The present important Wisconsin area had no commercial importance
until after the civil war.
This rapid increase in the production of cigar leaf tobacco from 1850 to 1860
was coincident with a great increase in the use of cigars in this country, which was
reflected in our imports of cigars and cigar leaf for the same period. The number
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 145
of cigars imported in 1850 was 124,303,000, valued at §1,469,097; this was in-
creased to 460,404,000 cigars valued at $4,581,551 in 1860. Imports of unmanu-
factured tobacco (practically all cigar leaf) likewise increased from 2,480,446
pounds, valued at $272,438, in 1850, to 6,940,671 pounds, valued at $1,365,695, in
1860. Most of the leaf was imported from Cuba and Germany. The high-grade
cigars came from Cuba, and the lower grades mostly from Germany, i
Since the Cuban tobacco made an acceptable blending with the domestic
leaf, the popularity of the Cuban cigar increased. Connecticut, however,
preferred her own leaf, being noted between 1850 and 1860 for her pro-
duction of "Clear New England" cigars.
It was not until the middle of the century that cigars gained commercial
importance. The following table shows the gradual increase in the num-
ber manufactured in the United States from 1864, the first entire fiscal
year for which returns are reported by the Commissioner of Internal Rev-
enue, to the present time : —
Table 2. — Increase since 1864 ^'^ ih^ Number of Cigars manufachired
the United States.^
Fiscal Year.
Number of
Large Cigars.
Fiscal Year.
Number of
Large Cigars.
1864
1870
1880
1890
1900
1907
1908
1909
492.780,700
1,139,470,774
2,367,803,248
4,087,889,983
5,565,669,701
7,302,029,811
6,488,907,269
6,667,774,915
1910,
1911.
1912,
1913,
1914,
1915,
1916,
1917,
6,810,098.416
7,048,505,033
7.044,257,235
7,571,507.834
7.174,191,944
6,599,188,078
7,042,127,401
7,559,890,349
The first tax on cigars was imposed by act of Congress July 1, 1862, and
took effect September 1 of the same year. Licenses for dealers and manu-
facturers were not required until 1868.
Connecticut Valley.
Twelve counties in New England produce one acre or more of tobacco,
but only ten — Windham, in Vermont; Cheshire, in New Hampshire;
Franklin, Hampden and Hampshire, in Massachusetts; and Hartford,
Middlesex, Tolland, Litchfield and Fairfield, in Connecticut — reported
more than 10,000 pounds each in 1909. Approximately 94 per cent of the
tobacco is raised in the Connecticut River vaUey proper; the tobacco of
Litchfield and Fairfield counties (Connecticut), amounting to about 6 per
cent of the total, is grown in the Housatonic valley. Moreover, the quality
1 Mathewson, Bull. No. 244, Bureau of Plant Industry, p. 18.
' Compiled from reports of Commissioner of Internal Revenue.
146 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
of tobacco grown in both valleys is similar and known to the trade as
Connecticut valley leaf. Hence it seems best to consider all the tobacco
grown in the ten counties as Connecticut valley tobacco, and the entire
district as the Connecticut valley.
Growth of the Industry.
Tobacco has been grown in the Connecticut valley since about 1640.
With the exception of a few bad years the crop has steadily increased since
that time. The last fifteen years have seen by far the greatest increase.
Table 3. — Acreage, Production and Value of Cigar Leaf Tobacco since
1869.
In the United States.
Year.
Acreage.
Production
(Pounds).
Value.
1859
1879
1909
1916
1917
1918
(1,880)
68,975
166,240 >
178,800
189.800
208,800
18,643,832
90,749,997
195,960,000
223,444,000
218,627,000
260,592,000
$19,190,000
36,361,000
56,079.000
55,823,000
In the Connecticut Valley.
1859
12,196
9,264,157
19,716,363
1879,
-
1909,
21.745
37,961,893
$5,670,000
1916,
31,300
51,285,000
13,522,000
1917,
33,000
46,200,000
17,740,000
1918
35,000
52,500,000
22,500,000 «
Table 4.
1839
1849
1859
1869
1879
1909
1918
Tobacco Production in the United States, 1839-1918 (United
States Census).
Pounds
219.163,319
199,752,655
434.209,461
262,735,341
472,661,157
488.256.646
868.112.865
1,055.764,806
1,340,019,000
Estimated.
Preliminary estimate.
Estimate, United States Department of Agriculture.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 147
Table 5. —
Production of Tobacco in the United States (Pounds).'^
States.
1918.
1917.
1916.
1914.
1899.2
Kentucky
427,500,000
426,600,000
435,600,000
364,000,000
314,288,000
North Carolina, .
282,000,000
204,750,000
176,000,000
172,250,000
127,503,000
Virginia,
146,300,000
129,500,000
129,200,000
113,750,000
122,885,000
Ohio, .
113,288,000
99,072,000
95,000,000
78,120,000
65,957,000
Wisconsin, .
65,170,000
45,885,000
55,753,000
53,808,000
45,500,000
Pennsylvania,
64,752,000
58,100,000
49,096,000
47,995,000
41,503,000
Tennessee, .
62,240,000
81,810,000
81,760,000
63,468,000
49,158,000
South Carolina, .
62,208,000
51,120,000
20,280,000
36,500,000
19,896,000
Connecticut,
37,500,000
29,540,000
36,186,000
35,754,000
16,931,000
Maryland, .
23,738,000
22,594,000
19,635,000
17,600,000
24,589,000
Indiana,
15,159,000
14,060,000
13,764,000
12,150,000
6,882,000
Massachusetts, .
15,000,000
11,833,000
12,118,000
11,550,000
6,407,000
West Virginia,
9,792,000
9,040,000
12,690,000
8,856,000
3,087,000
Florida,
4,416,000
3,410,000
3,025,000
4,300,000
1,126,000
New York, .
3,750,000
3,125,000
4,551,000
5,980,000
13,958,000
Missouri, .
2,970,000
2,820,000
3,040,000
4,920,000
3,042,000
Georgia,
2,668,000
, 1,600,000
1,534,000
1,900,000
1,106,000
Alabama,
700,000
146,000
60,000
140,000
312,000
Illinois,
532,000
560,000
525,000
468,000
1,447,000
210,000
210,000
250,000
427,000
832,000
Louisiana, .
126,000
210,000
90,000
280,000
102,000
New Hampshire,
-
167,000
165,000
177,000
182,000
Vermont,
-
165,000
160,000
170,000
291,000
Texas, .
-
134,000
140,000
116,000
550,000
Totals, .
1,340,019,000
1,196,451,000
1,150,622,000
1,034,679,000
867,534,000
1 United States Department of Agriculture estimates,
' United States Census Report.
148 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
TOBACCO
UNITED STATES CENSUS 19 1 0.
gy eroa/vr/es.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO.
149
i
39,950,000
5,200,000
64,090,000
53,460,000
54,438,000
1
i
i
1 i 1 1 1 i
1
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£ a &
s o :^
a H
150 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
■* o
1 in t^
^
' s i
ri
2
1
SI
s
1
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1 , »
^
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orfolk, .
ymouth,
orcester, .
Totals,
m
Q W fS
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w s
iz; fi, :s
1
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 151
1
.3
li
i
504,330
7,356
1,030
1
i
<
25 M< ■* 00 ■* cq t- 1
^ 5 ^- " ^
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III
I
152 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
The cigar type industry of New England is confined principally to the
Connecticut and Housatonic valleys, extending through Connecticut and
Massachusetts into the southern counties of New Hampshire and Vermont.
Hartford County, Connecticut, produces 64.7 per cent of the New Eng-
land total, and six counties, Hartford, Litchfield and Tolland in Connect-
icut, and Hampsliire, Franklin and Hampden in Massachusetts, produce
approximately 97.5 per cent.
Table 10. — Tobacco Growers and Acreage in Massachusetts in
1916.
Number
of
Growers.
Number of Acres.
Havana
Seed.
Broad-
leaf.
Primed.
Shade.
Total.
Hampshire County.
Amherst,
43
246
_
_
_
246
Easthampton, .
23
122.
-
-
-
122
Hadley, .
193
1,605
126
-
33
1,764
Hatfield, .
174
1,753
-
35
70
1,858
Northampton, .
37
162
-
-
40
202
Pelham, .
1
6
-
-
-
6
Southampton, .
25
103
-
-
-
103
Williamsburg, .
8
13
-
-
-
13
Totals.
504
4,010
126
35
143
4,314
Hampden County.
Agawam, .
79
616
16
108
225
965
Chicopee, .
2
35
-
-
101
136
East Longmeadow, .
5
10
-
-
-
10
Granville, .
10
33
-
-
-
33
Longmeadow, .
2
15
-
-
1
16
Southwick,
93
671
3
41
210
925
Springfield,
2
2
-
-
-
2
Westfield, .
36
264
57
110
-
431
Totals, . . .
229
1,646
76
259
537
2,518
Franklin County.
Ashfield. . . .
2
_
7
_
_
7
Buckland, .
1
-
1
-
-
1
Conway, .
21
55
15
-
-
70
Deerfield, .
91
606
-
-
62
668
Greenfield,
2
•17
-
-
-
17
Leverett, .
6
29
_
-
-
29
Montague, .
20
81
-
-
-
81
Northfield,
17
42
-
-
-
42
Sunderland,
66
433
-
20
83
536
Whately, .
102
707
-
-
130
837
Totals, . .
Grand totals,
328
1,610
1,970
7,626
23
225
20
314
275
955
2,268
9,120
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 153
PRODUOTIOI or TOBACOO Ifl TU OOnECTIOUT VALUBT ■ ISIO OnSD8
i
MM
/.;
(/^
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te
■^
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ttM5;%^)/4;'-Oi
A ^
^
W\V
vo'tr
y\Y\L/ .L
fH.c
&^
#>v
-fA
f^-T-C^
4^^
JrCf
V-^/A
^
rA
9 * / L •• /
1-
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ij-j)^
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^ K
v^-A
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™
/u^'?
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^v/^
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c
• -
•
•
0,000,000 lOV
6,000.000
B. 000.000
1,000,000
600.000
100
md«
The preceding tables show the rapid increase in production of tobacco
in the Connecticut valley up to 1914. Because of the unfavorable season
of 1915 the production that year was less than normal. Since 1915 the
production has slightly increased.
The acreage in 1917 may be divided as follows: broadleaf, 7,200 acres;
Havana seed, 16,446 acres; and shade-gro^vn, 5,854 acres. The tobacco
acreage in 1917 was probably affected by the large acreage of onions, the
growing of this crop being stimulated by the high prices of the previous
year. The labor shortage and the war-time demand for a larger produc-
tion of food crops may also have influenced the tobacco acreage. The
shade-grown industry, however, steadily increased, as evidenced by Table
13 on page 161. While the Connecticut State Council of Defense en-
deavored to check any material increase in tobacco acreage in that state,
and to encourage the production of more food products, the Federal
government did not discourage the production of tobacco during the period
of the war. The United States production during 1918 amounted to
1,340,019,000 pounds: in New England the acreage was 35,000, and the
approximate \aeld 52,500,000 pounds.
DlSTRIBUTIOX OF AcREAGE.
Figure 1 shows the mode or most common acreage to be between 2 and
5 acres per farm. There were 77 farms in Hampden County, Massachu-
154 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
setts, in 1916; Hampshire County had 161 and Franklin County 143,
having from 2 to 5 acres, making a total of 381 farms. The next m,ost
common acreage is from 5 to 8 acres. Hampden County had 41 farms,
Hampshire County 132 farms, and Franklin County 65 farms reporting
this acreage, with a total for the three counties of 238 farms. There were
163 farms in the three counties that reported from 8 to 11 acres, 80 that
reported from 11 to 15 acres, 65 that reported from 15 to 20 acres, 80 that
reported 20 or more acres, and 53 farms that reported under 2 acres. The
mode, then, is between 2 and 5 acres, but the average per farm in the three
counties is 8.4 acres, distributed as follows: Franklin County, 7 acres;
Hampshire County, 8.6 acres; and Hampden County, 11 acres.
fSrms
400
3S0
300
Under 2
15-20 Ow 20
Fig. 1. — Number of farmers with specified acreages of tobacco. Note that of the 1,060
farms depicted, nearly 60 per cent have between 2 and 8 acres per farm, and approxi-
mately 40 per cent have each 5 acres or less.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 155
The distribution of acreage according to counties and towns within the
counties is given in the following table: —
Table 11. — Distribution of Acreage of Tobacco according to Counties and
Toxvns in Massachusetts.
Franklin County.
Location.
Average
Acres per
Farm.
Location.
Average
Acres per
Farm.
Ashfield,
Buckland
Conway
Deerfield,
3.2
1.0
3.3
7.3
8.2
4.8
Montague
Northfield
Sunderland, ....
Whately
Average, ....
4.0
2.5
8.1
8.2
Greenfield
Leverett,
7.0
Hampshire County.
Amherst,
5.7
Pelham,
5.5
Easthampton, ....
5.3
Southampton
4.1
Hadley
9.1
10.7
Williamsburg
Average, ....
1.6
Hatfield
8.6
Northampton, ....
5.5
Hampden County.
Agawam
Chicopee
East Longmeadow,
12.2
68.0
1.9
3.3
8.0
Southwick,
Springfield, . . .
Westfield
Average, ....
9.9
1.0
12.0
Granville
Longmeadow, ....
11.0
The comparatively large acreage in Chicopee is due to the inclusion of
large shade-grown plantations. To a lesser extent this is true of Southwick
and Agawam, but the land in these sections is generally level and the soil
favorable to the production of tobacco. Consequently the acreage per
farm is larger.
Types of Cigar Leaf Tobacco.
Tobacco-growing in the United States is a highly specialized industry.
Certain well-defined areas produce tobacco of such quality and texture as
to make it desirable for some special manufacturing or export trade.
156 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
The following is a rough classification of the varieties and types of
tobacco listed by the cigar leaf districts of America in which they are
produced : —
Table 12. — Varieties, Location and Types of Tobacco in the Cigar Leaf
Districts.
Varieties.
Where grown.
Types or Uses.
Length in
Inches.
Zimmer Spanish,
Little Dutch,
Ohio seed leaf,
Wisconsin binder,
Pennsylvania broadleaf,
Connecticut broadleaf,
Connecticut Havana seed,
Connecticut shade-grown,
York State Havana, .
Florida shade-grown, .
Georgia shade-grown,
Ohio, .
Ohio, .
Ohio, .
Wisconsin, .
Pennsylvania,
Connecticut valley,
Connecticut valley,
Connecticut valley.
New York, .
Florida,
Georgia,
Fillers,
Fillers,
Wrappers and binders
Binders,
Binders and fillers
Wrappers,
Wrappers,
Wrappers,
Wrappers,
Wrappers,
Wrappers,
9-18
12-21
16-26
14-24
14-26
14-28
14-28
12-20
14-26
12-18
12-18
Such, districts are peculiarly adapted to the growing of tobacco for
commercial purposes because of distinctive climatic and soil conditions
which have much to do with the quality of the leaf.
According to the United States Department of Agriculture, tobacco dis-
tricts are classified as producers of either the cigar type or the chewing,
smoking, snuff and export types. It is with the cigar type grown in the
Connecticut valley that we are here concerned.
Tobacco of the cigar type may be still further classified into wrappers,
binders and fillers, all three classes being necessary in making a cigar. The
wrapper, as its name implies, is the outer covering of the cigar. Only
comparatively large leaves of special color, texture, aroma and burning
qualities can be used for cigar wrappers. A very few wrappers are pro-
duced in Pennsjdvania and Wisconsin, but the principal competing areas
are in Florida, Cuba and Sumatra. Approximately 55 per cent of the
cigar wrappers used in America are grown in the Connecticut valley dis-
trict, and only 29 per cent elsewhere in the United States; the remainder
are imported.
Binders is the name given to the tobacco used in making the body of the
cigar just under the wrapper. This also requires certain specific qualities
found only in tobacco grown in a few limited areas. Wisconsin produces
most of the binders, but Pennsylvania, New York, the Connecticut valley
and a few other places provide some tobacco of this quality.
The filler is the center or core of the cigar. Small or broken leaves,
seconds and otherwise unusable leaves may be used for fillers. Ohio
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 157
produces much filler, but the wrapper and binder districts contribute
their seconds, broken leaves and other inferior tobacco for fillers. In
cheap cigars the filler is composed of a very poor grade of tobacco.
PHOKSCTION OP TOBACCO IH 7IIE UNLTEJ) STATES
W' Chiefly wrapper diatrlctB
vi/ Chiefly tinder districts
Map 3.
Generally speaking, wrappers command the highest price, binders the
next and fillers the lowest of cigar making tobacco. The Connecticut
valley produces all three varieties, but Connecticut valley tobacco is of the
158 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
wrapper type so far as the trade is concerned, since 60 per cent of the crop
is used for wrappers. For a similar reason Wisconsin is known as the
binder-producing district. Nevertheless, there is considerable overlapping,
and Wisconsin, New York and Pennsylvania all produce a certain amount
of wrappers, varying somewhat from year to year.
Several factors determine whether the leaf will be used as wrapper, filler
or binder, such as the length of leaf, aroma, toughness and the condition
of leaf, i.e., whether damaged by hail or wind. Under normal conditions
a light sandy loam produces a light wrapper leaf. The coarser leaf is used
for birders, and the broken, frost-bitten, short and worm-eaten leaves for
fillers.
Tobacco Soils.
Tobacco may be grown on a great variety of soils, but the climatic con-
ditions, texture and physical properties of the soil determine the distribu-
tion of the different classes and types. Climatic conditions control, of
course, the general distribution, but the influence of the texture of the soil
in modifying the effect of these climatic conditions determines the local
distribution of types. Tobacco readily adapts itself to a wide range of
climatic conditions, as is seen in the distribution of the plant in our country
from Florida to Wisconsin. While it adapts itself very readily to the differ-
ent conditions of temperature and rainfall which normally prevail during
the growing season throughout this wide range of territory, seasons which
are either too wet or too dry very often reduce the yield per acre and impair
the quality of the product. The plant is, furthermore, peculiarly sensitive
to the conditions of moisture and heat.
The best soils for the different types of tobacco in the United States
range from the light, sandy lands for the fine bright wrappers of the Con-
necticut valley, to the heavy clay soils of the limestone areas of the South
for the heavier grades of tobacco.
The influence of soil upon the quality of the leaf grown in the Con-
necticut valley is very marked. Where the soil is a heavy clay loam or
is normally very moist, a thick leaf is produced which has considerable oil
and gum in its tissues. It cures a dark color, and will bear sweating well,
but it is not suitable for cigar wrappers. Upon light, sandy soils, the
quality is very fine, the texture of the leaf is thin and the color is light. It
is this type of tobacco which is at present in demand for cigar wrappers.
Varieties of Tobacco.
The Connecticut valley produces three varieties of wrapper leaf, — the
broadleaf, the Havana seed leaf and shade-grown. This area is classed
as a wrapper and binder section. The tobacco is produced mainly in the
open, without shade, under intensive methods of cultivation, fertilization
and handling. The highest quality leaf makes acceptable wrappers for
cigars, and the remainder is principally used for binder purposes. Since
1901 a considerable acreage of shade-grown tobacco has been cultivated
in the Connecticut valley each year.
Fia. 2. — A part of the Connecticut valley as seen from Mount Sugarloaf, South Deerfield,
Mass. The "meadows" are dotted with tobacco barns; the soilis very fertile and well
adapted to the production of wrapper tobacco.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 159
Sun-grown Tobacco.
Broadleaf. — The broadleaf variety has a broad, silky leaf, verj^ elastic
and possessing a rich grain and color two-thirds of its length from the top.
Small veins are also characteristic of the leaf. There is only one principal
area in the Connecticut valley adapted to the growth of this variety, — a
small tract on the east side of the river between Hartford and Springfield.
Havana Seed. — The leaf of the Havana seed is smaller and narrower
than the broadleaf. It is exceedingly thin and silky, but possesses less
elasticity and covering quality; it does not liave the rich grain of the
broadleaf, and the middle and lower parts are glossy with large veins, ren-
dering this portion of the leaf undesirable for ^vrapper purposes. However,
the larger part of the leaf can be used for wrappers. The Havana seed
jaelds more wrappers to the acre than does the broadleaf. The Havana
seed variety of the New England area is gro\^^l almost entirely on the west
side of the Connecticut River.
The hea\'ier and slightly damaged or unevenly colored leaves of both
the Havana seed and the broadleaf varieties are used for binders. Both
varieties are principally air-cured, packed in cases weighing about 300
pounds, and either force-sweated for ninety daj's, or left to ferment by the
natural process during the spring and summer months.
Growing Sun Tobacco.
The Seed Bed. — Both for shade-grown and sun-grown tobacco the young
plants are developed from seed in a cold frame or hotbed until they have
reached a size suitable for transplanting. The l^eds are sown from the
middle of March to the middle of April. In cold frames from six to eight
weeks are required to produce plants of sufficient size for transplanting, and
in hotbeds four to six weeks are required. If cloth instead of glass is used
to cover the seed beds, eight to ten weeks are required before the plants
are large enough to transplant. The usual custom is to transplant them
when they have reached a height of 5 to 6 inches.
Transylantinq and Cultivating. — The plants are set in rows 3 feet 3
inches to 3 feet 6 inches apart, and from 14 to 20 inches apart in the rows.
A machine for transplanting has largely taken the place of the old hand
method. Wlien the plants are transplanted with a machine, the distance
between plants and the application of water is automatically regulated.
Cultivation begins about a week after setting, and is continued until the
plants become too large to permit of cultivation. Ordinary surface cul-
tivation to maintain a loose, fine mulch about the plant is essential, with
frequent hoeing to keep down weeds.
Topping and Suckering. — When the seed buds of the plants appear the
plant is "topped." In a week or ten days after toppuig suckers will
appear, starting from the base of the three or four top leaves. These are
picked off, or, as the tobacco farmer says, the plant is "top suckered."
Later the leaves farther down the stalk begin to throw out suckers, and
160 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
these in turn must be picked off. When the bottom suckers are removed
the plant is usually ready to harvest. Ordinarily the plant is allowed to
"ripen," a condition which is further indicated by the slightly wilted
appearance of the bottom leaves. Ught green blotches also appear on the
top leaves. If cut too green the leaf becomes dark colored and will not
command the best price.
Shade-grown Tobacco.
The year 1900 marks the real begirming of the "tobacco grown under
cloth " industry in the Connecticut valley. It was begun as an experiment
in the production of Sumatra wrappers. Imported Sumatra seed was
sown, but it was soon found tlaat real Sumatra could not be grown success-
fully in the Connecticut valley. Cuban Havana, having a little heavier
leaf, was tried next; it grew well in its new surroundings. Through
careful seed selection it approached more nearly the ideal leaf. An accli-
mated strain of Cuban seed is now used exclusively for "tent grown"
tobacco.
SHAUB-GBOWH TOBACCO ACREAGE I» THE COHHECTICOT VAUET
1319
/9/7
/9/6
idis
4,939
3,609
/9M
2/74
19/3
IJ40
/9/.2
l,90G
/9/I
/,95^
1310
/^OOO
/soa.
730
iSol
4/
J^oq
L_.A
Fio. 3. — Production of shade-grown tobacco. Notice the rapid and remarkably uniform
increase in acreage since 1913.
History. — The early history of the industry was marked by varied
successes and failures. One grower, for example, a pioneer in the shade-
grown venture, sold his first crop for $1.62 a pound, while his second crop
yielded him 50 cents a pound. As a result he went back to sun-grown
tobacco entirely. Another grower began m 1902, but raised no shade-
grown in 1904 and 1905. He tried the industry again in 1906, and has
Fig. 4. — 125 acres of tobacco under cloth, South Deerfield, Mass.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 161
been verj' successful since that time. As in the marketing of all specialties
the chief difficulty at first was the lack of dependable markets. Manufac-
turers were afraid to substitute shade-gro\\Ti for the well-known Sumatra
WTapper in their better grades of cigars. To-day this is entirely changed.
Connecticut valley growers are not able to raise sufficient shade-grown
wrappers to supply the market. We import yearly about 30,000 bales of
Sumatra and Java tobacco for wrapper purposes.
From its small beginning the shade-grown tobacco industry has had a
remarkable growth, as is shown in the following table. The future looks
promising for an extended and increased growth of this particular kind of
tobacco. Capital is available for future development and extension, and
the owners of choice tobacco land have numerous opportunities to lease it
to firms desirous of increasing the acreage under cloth.
Table 13. — Production of Shade-grown Tobacco in the Connecticut
Valley.
Year.
Acres.
Bales..'
1900
41
720
1,000
2
1901
240
1902, .
4,320
19ie
6,000
1911
1,995
11.970
1912, . .
1,906
1,840
11,436
1913. .
11,040
1914, .
2,574
15,444
1915, .
3,609
20,454
1916, .
4,939
5,854
29,634
1917, .
35,124
1918, .
6,223
_
A bale contains 150 to 175 pounds.
Table 14. — Acreage of Shade-groivn Tobacco in the Connecticut
1915-18.
Valley,
Grower.
1916.
1916.
1917.
1918.
Connecticut.
Tariffville District, .
1
254
240
252
-
2
30
40
40
40
3
50
35
50
50
4
8
20
29
21
5
42
45
46
48
6
27
30
30
60
7
30
30
-
8
26
45
50
SO
9
_
10
-
-
-
252
■
437
485
627
528
162 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Table 14.
Acreage of Shade-grown Tobacco in the Connecticut Valley,
1915-18 — Continued.
Grower.
1915.
1916.
1917.
1918.
Connecticut — Con.
Avon-Simsbury District, .
11
40
35
40
27
12
16
26
31
32
13
150
195
196
196
14
14
15
84
94
57
16
30
38
38
38
-
250
378
399
350
Congamond Pond District,
17
_
_
_
13
18
-
62
87
105
19
125
165
185
185
20
178
200
206
206
21
30
36
40
40
22
26
26
26
-
359
489
544
575
Suffield District,
23
50
50
50
75
24
-
17
17
18
25
-
20
24
26
-
24
-
50
87
91
117
Windsor Locks District, .
27
150
200
200
213
Poquonock District, .
28
60
73
74
75
29
60
80
90
72
30
25
25
35
35
31
25
40
45
40
32
22
22
12
13
^3
16
15
50
60
34
-
25
25
32
35
5
8
20
21
36
20
20
25
37
62
68
68
68
38
214
254
256
39
237
40
_
_
16
16.5
41
-
11
16
20
42
15
38
41
50
43
-
-
-
10
44
-
-
30
45
-
-
-
10
46
_
_
_
10
47
-
-
-
10
48
-
-
-
22
-
503
679
768
856.5
Griffin District, ....
49
_
_
_
230
50
210
285
350
-
61
50
45
49
49
62
125
108
75
53
160
157
175
260
-
545
595
649
539
East Hartford-Manchester-East
Windsor District, .
54
_
-
80
112
65
115
115
118
-
56
108
108
108
56
_
118
57
250
265
265
265
68
55
76
80
75
59
29
29
46
46
60
25
40
42
61
220
249
325
350
62
39
39
39
63
16
55
60
60
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO.
163
Table 14.
■ Acreage of Shade-gwwn Tobacco in the Connecticut Valley,
1915-18 — Concluded.
Grower.
1916.
1916.
1917.
1918.
Connecticut — Con.
East Hartford-Manchester-East
Windsor District — Con.
64
_
_
_
25
65
_
_
50
60
66
20
20
20
20
67
-
30
68
-
12
12
_
69
_
62
go
70
-
-
32
71
-
-
-
100
-
705
992
1,325
1,514
Hazardville District, .
72
_
_
20
20.5
73
-
43
65
74
-
35
42
59
75
40
40
62.5
62.5
76
60
70
105
110
77
38
52
52
78
13.5
32
79
20
25
65
80
-
-
185
81
-
-
-
30
82
-
-
_
47.5
-
158
265
425
546.5
Massachusetts.
Hampden District,
83
_
_
14
12.5
84
1
1
-
85
223
200
230
130
86
60
60
64
64
87
-
101
120
120
88
-
59
60
89
_
_
28
90
-
-
-
20
-
284 "
362
487
434.5
Hatfield District,
91
_
35
35
50
92
-
10
10
12
93
33
33
33
33
94
34
68
68
60
95
-
32
96
-
-
47
97
-
-
35
98
-
-
-
16
-
67
146
146
285
Sunderland District,
99
_
35
35
_
100
11
9
11
-
101
-
70
70
60
102
90
112
112
112
103
35
65
65
104
-
-
-
28
-
101
261
293
265
Totals
-
3,609
4,939
5,854
6.223.5
The above table indicates that the shade-grown tobacco is confined to
the following districts: Tariffville, Avon-Simsbury, Congamond Pond,
Suffield, Windsor Locks, Poquonock, Griffin, East Hartford-Manchester-
East Windsor, Hazardville, in Connecticut; and the Hampden, Hatfield
and Sunderland districts in Massachusetts.
164 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
A peculiarity of the industry is the relatively large acreage per grow<;T.
Table 15 shows the number of farms, the number of growers and the num-
ber of growers operating two or more farms, with the average acreage in
each case. It will be seen that the average acreage per grower increased
during the first three of the years indicated, falling again in 1918. The
decline in this year was due in part to the appearance of 20 new producers
of shade-grown tobacco, whose average acreage was but 35.2 acres. With-
out these the average acreage would have shown an increase greater than
that of the previous years.
Table 15. — Average Acreage per
Farm and
per Growei
1916.
1916.
""•
1918.
Number of acres
Number of farms,
Average acreage,
Number of growers
Average acreage,
Growers operating two or more farms,
Average acreage,
3,609
49
73.6
46
78.4
3
388.67
4,939
69
71.58
60
82.3
4
430
5,854
76
77
67
87.37
4
481.75
6,223
88
70.7
80.8
3
562 33
There seems to be a tendency toward concentration of the shade-grown
industry in the hands of one large company operator, the proportion of the
total area controlled by this company ranging from 14.3 per cent in 1915
to 21.7 per cent in 1918. *
Table 16. — Farms classified hij Acreage oj Shade-grown Tobacco, 1915-18.
Acres.
1915.
1916.
1917.
1918.
10 acres or less,
3
4
1
5
11 to 20 acres
8
7
13
10
21 to 50 acres
19
29
29
36
61 to 100 acres
7
12
19
19
101 to 150 acres
5
5
5
8
151 to 200 acres
2
6
4
3
201 to 250 acres,
5
2
2
4
251 and over acres
1
3
5
4
Several things militate against the small grower, such as the high initial
expense and the cost of production. The syndicates have the capital to
tide them over the "off year," which frequently occurs in^the tobacco busi-
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 165
ness. However, some small growers are very successful. They begin by
changing from ordinary sungrown to primed Havana, and gradually work
up to shade-grown tobacco.
Preparatior) and Cultivation. — To prepare for producing shade tobacco
the entire field is set with posts 9 feet high and about 33 feet apart each
way. Heavy wire is stretched from one post to another. This framework
is then covered with a specially woven fabric similar to cheesecloth.
The plants, transplanted from the seed beds to the fields from May 15
to June 15, are set in rows 3 feet apart, and from 15 to 20 inches apart in
the row, then the sides of the tent frame are covered, the cloth reaching
to the ground.
The growing plants are well cultivated in order to keep the soil loose and
free from weeds. With good soil and thorough cultivation the plants
reach a height of nine feet, and bear from 15 to 20 good sound leaves. The
plants of shade-grown tobacco are neither topped nor suckered, enabling
the plant to produce more and thinner leaves, the quality so much desired
in -wTappers.
Harvesting. — Harvesting usually begins about July 20, as soon as tlie
leaves begin to ripen. All the leaves are picked by hand, four or five pick-
ings being made at intervals of from seven to ten days. The harvest begins
with the bottom leaves, from four to six leaves being removed each time.
The best leaves are generally found in the second picking. As the leaves
are gathered they are put in baskets which are placed on low trucks and
hauled outside the tent. The baskets are transferred to flat wagon beds
and taken to the curing sheds. Sometimes small boj^s do this work, while
the older and more experienced laborers are used in priming the tobacco.
At the curing sheds the leaves are strung on strings attached to laths.
This work is usually done by women and children. The leaves are put
face to face in pairs, twenty pairs on a lath. Stringers are paid (1917)
about 45 cents per bundle of 50 laths. Experienced women and girls can
easily earn from S2 to $3.50 per day.
The laths thus strung are hung in the curing sheds where they rem.ain
from three to five weeks. The up-to-date curing sheds may be ventilated
by side openings made by placing every third or fourth board on hinges,
and by ventilators placed at intervals of 10 feet along the ridge of the
roof. During damp or cold weather charcoal fires are built. The use
of charcoal fires has been the means of saving thousands of dollars' worth
of tobacco annually.
Yields per Acre.
Aside from the question of the cost of producing tobacco, which has
been tremendous in recent years, there is the important question of the
yield per acre, which largely determines the profit. It costs almost as
much to produce a 1,300-pound crop of tobacco as it does to produce a
crop of 1,700 pounds, but the money value and the profit per acre are
much less.
Farmers in the Connecticut valley have been disturbed in recent
166 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
years by the gradual decline in the yield of tobacco. The table below
shows this decline, not steady from year to j'ear, but an actual decline.
The average jaeld for the five-year period from 1905 to 1909 was 1,675
pounds in Massachusetts and 1,660 in Connecticut; from 1910 to 1914 it
was 1,676 in Massachusetts and 1,675 in Connecticut; while for the four
j^ears succeeding, the average was 1,382 pounds in Massachusetts and
1,445 in Connecticut. The average for the whole period, however, ■was
1,592 for Massachusetts and 1,604 for Connecticut, both still well above
the average for the period from 1870 to 1910. Of course the decrease
from 1913 to 1918 is largely due to the poor growing season of 1915, to the
Avind storms of 1916 and 1917, and to the excessive hail and the late frost
of 1917.
Table 17. — Yields per Acre (Pounds).'^
Year.
Massachusetts.
Connecticut.
1880
1,599
1,621
1890, ■ . .
1,389
1,402
1900,
1,674
1,673
1905
1,850
1,725
1906
1,750
1,735
1907,
1,525
1,510
1908
1,650
1,680
1909
1,600
1,650
1910
1,730
1,730
1911
1,650
1,625
1912
1,700
1,700
1913
1,550
1,550
-1914
1,750
1,770
1915
1,100
1,350
1916,2
1,500
1,500
1917,2
1,430
1,430
1918
1,500
1,500
1 Figures from United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Crop Estimates.
2 1916 and 1917 are revised estimates made by the Massachusetts Agricultural College and
tobacco packers.
This decrease has been attributed to many causes, such as a hurtful
accumulation of saline matters soluble in water, nitrates, sulfates and
chlorides of potash, soda, lime and magnesia, in the surface soil; or an
alkaline condition of the soil, resulting from the use of tobacco ash elements,
cotton hull ash or carbonate of potash. However, the experiment stations
have {[uestioned the truth of these two assumptions. Some attribute the
short crop of the last few years to the unnoticed prevalence of root rot in
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO.
167
the field; others attril)iite it to l)ad weather, hail, wind storms, frost,
etc. Tobacco depends ahiiost entirely upon a sufficient amount of rain
and warm weather. The seasons of the last few years have not been
favorable to a good gro\\i,h of tobacco. Actually, the low yield of 1915
is the great cause of the low average.
Figure 5 presents in graphic form the history of the average jaeld in
Massachusetts from 1900 to 1918. Of the Connecticut valley sun-grown
crop in 1917 it is estimated that only 60 per cent was not injured by hail,
wind or frost, while the loss in shade-grown tobacco by h?il was perhaps
not o^'er 3 per cent.
Fig. 5. — Average yield of tobacco per acre in Massachusetts, 1900-18.
The production per acre and the total farm value per acre for the chief
tobacco-producing states are given in the following table. It is evident
that the largest per acre jields in the United States are still reported from
the Connecticut valley tobacco fields.
168 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Table 18. — Production and Farm Value per Acre in 1917 of the
Principal Tobacco States.
Production
(Pounds).
Value.
New Hampshire,
Vermont,
Massachusetts,
Connecticut, .
Pennsylvania,
New York,
Florida, .
Georgia, .
Ohio,
Wisconsin,
Kentucky,
Tennessee,
Maryland,
South Carolina,
Virginia, .
North Carolina,
Average, .
1,670
1,650
1,409
1,400
1,400
1,250
1,100
1,000
960
$450 90
445 50
541 06
537 60
294 00
275 00
627 00
570 00
240 00
166 25
204 30
137 70
158 00
164 01
185 50
198 45
S205 20
Cost of Production.
The tobacco grower has felt war conditions keenly. Prices of cloth,
twine, glass, fertilizer, implements, labor, paper and other materials
necessary in the production of tobacco have advanced very materially
since the war began. It costs far more to produce an acre of tobacco
to-day than it did prior to the war.
The average farmer does not know what it costs to raise his crop be-
cause he keeps no record of expenses. Of those who endeavor to keep
accounts, very few enter all the items of expense in production.
Below is an accurate cost account kept by a tobacco grower in Massa-
chusetts, on blanks prepared and sent out by the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural College for that purpose. The expenses are for 1917 on a farm
comprising 50 acres of tobacco, — 35 acres of shade-grown and 15 acres
of primed Havana seed. He kept a separate account for each variety.
It cost this grower $629.38 per acre, or 74 cents a pound, to grow his
shade tobacco, wdiich averaged 850 pounds to the acre. He sold on con-
tract for 90 cents a pound, or an average of $765 per acre. The profit was
$135.62 per acre.
This cost is less than the actual expense, since it does not include
depreciation on wire, posts, etc., and does not cover laths and glass which
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAE LEAF TOBACCO. 169
were on hand from the previous year. The cost for a beginner ranges
from S1,000 to SI, 100 an acre. The tools and implements mentioned were
used on the total 50 acres, so the amount used on the 35 acres was esti-
mated from the total. The investment in machinery per acre is reasonable.
Table 19. — Cost of Producing an Acre of Shade-grown Tobacco.
Value of land $340 00
Rent (interest calculated at 5 per cent), . • . . . . . . . 817 00
Tools, implements, etc.: —
3 plows at $12, $36 00
3 Acme harrows at $27, ........ 81 00
1 fertilizer sower, ......... 48 00
1 wheel harrow, ......... 48 00
1 Meeker harrow 27 00
1 roller, 25 00
2 tobacco setters at $95 190 00
4 Planet, Jr., cultivators at $17, ...... 6800
1 stalk cutter, 25 00
Total : . . . $548 00
Total per acre 10 96
Interest on value of equipment, ......... 55
Taxes, 3 40
Depreciation on equipment at 15 per cent, ....... 1 65
Cloth (5,000 yards at b\ cents) 287 50
Man labor, 513.8 hours at 30 cents 1.54 14
Horse labor, 100 hours at 25 cents, ......... 25 00
Shed rent, 4 29
Fertilizer for beds, ............ 64
Glass for beds 31
Timothy for cover crop, ........... 47
Soft coal, 23
Manure, 20 97
Paris green for poisoning cutworms, ......... S3
Water piping, ............ 21
Sewing twine, ......."..... 97
Stringing tickets, ............ 035
Wool twine 1 06
Jute twine, ............. 62
Tobacco baskets, ............ 64
Molasses, ............. 048
Bran for cutworms, ........... 91
Hose 52
Guy wire clamps, ............ 16
Sewing needles, ............ 032
Tobacco plants, ............ 08
Shed repairs, ............. 30
Insurance, ............. 70
Fertilizer, 100 00
Fertilizer V. C., 1 50
Cottonseed meal, ............ 3 66
Freight on tobacco, ........... 96
Total per acre $629 38
Total per pound, ........... 74
170 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Table 20. — Cost to the Landowner of Producing an Acre of Sun Tobacco.
Value of land, $350 00
Rent (interest calculated at 5 per cent), ........ $17 50
Tools, implements, etc.: —
Walking plow, .......... $6 25
Broadcast fertilizer sower, . . ... . . . 12 00
Tobacco setter, ......... 23 75
Wheel harrow 12 00
Acme harrow, .......... 6 75
Planet, Jr., cultivator, ........ 4 25
Tobacco press (simple, farm-made), ...... 1 25
4 hatchets, .......... 50
2 stringing horses, ......... 1 25
For an acre $68 00
Depreciation on equipment per acre, $68 at 15 per cent, . . . . . 10 20
Depreciation on sheds, $700 at 5 per cent, 35 00
Taxes 6 00
Insurance, ............. 2 00
Fertilizer, 2,000 pounds at $60 per ton, 60 00
Manure, 3 cords at $10 30 00
Labor: —
Making seed bed, 2 men, one day, ........ 6 00
Weeding and attention to plant beds, ........ 6 00
Applying manure, . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 00
Plowing land 8 00
Harrowing and ridging, .......... 5 00
Drawing and setting plants, ......... 7 00
Cultivating and hoeing 4 times, 2 men, eight days; 1 horse, four days, . . 36 00
Topping, worming and suckering, . . . . . . . . 25 00
Harvesting, 6 men, 2 teams, one day, . . . . . . . . 28 00
Taking down and stripping, 6 men, one day, . . . . . . 18 00
Bulking 3 50
Delivering 3 miles at 10 cents per 100 pounds, ...... 1 40
Feed 20 00
Seed, 1 ounce 1 00
Twine, 50
Paper 3 00
Charcoal 1 30
Oil 1 00
Horseshoeing, ............ 1 00
Veterinary, 15
Total per acre $335 55
Total per pound, ........... 24
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 171
Table 21. — Cost to a Tenant of Producing an Acre of Sun Tobacco.
Value of land $350 00
Rent of land, sheds and cold frames and laths (land, S60; sheds, $30; cold frames
and laths, $5), $05 00
Interest and depreciation on investment in tools (calculated), . . . . 4 00
Fertilizer, 2,000 pounds at $60 a ton 60 00
Manure, 3 cords at $10 30 00
Labor: —
Making seed bed, 2 men, one day, ........ 6 00
Weeding and attention to plant bed, ........ 6 00
Applying manure, ........... 3 00
Plow-ing land 8 00
Harrowing and ridging, .......... 5 00
Drawing and setting plants, ......... 7 00
Cultivating and hoeing 4 times, 2 men, eight days; 1 horse, four days, . . 36 00
Topping, worming and suckering, . . . . . . . . 25 00
Harvesting, 6 mtn, 2 learns, one day, . . . . . . . . 28 00
Taking down and stripping, 6 men, one day, . . . . . . 18 00
Bulking, 3 50
Delivering 3 miles at 10 cents per 100 pounds, ■ . . . . . . 1 40
Feed 20 00
Seed, 1 ounce, ............ 1 00
Twine, 50
Paper 3 00
Charcoal 1 30
Oil 1 00
Horseshoeing, . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 00
Veterinary, ............. 15
Total per acre, S363 85
Total per pound, ........... 26
The above tables (numbered 20 and 21), on the cost of producing sun
tobacco, were taken from the records of growers, and presumably repre-
sent an average cost of producing the crop of 1917. The cost to the tenant
is slightly more, which is justifiable considering the high rental value of
land and sheds. Prior to the war the average cost of producing an acre
of sun tobacco in the Connecticut valley was about one-third less than the
cost in 1917, or from $225 to $250 per acre.
Tobacco Insurance.
Because of the risks connected with growing tobacco, such as frequent
hail and wind storms, farmers have made an effort co have their crops
insured, and insurance companies have been quite willing to insure to-
bacco crops against damage by the forces of nature. The usual amount
of insurance has been from $100 to $200 per acre, with $150 an average.
The premium has been about $8 per $100 of insurance, or $8 to $16 per
acre, and is commonly payable at the time the crop is insured.
The insurance company usually adjusts losses by wind or hail by send-
ing an adjuster to inspect the damaged tobacco. The adjuster frequently
decides upon the percentage in this manner: counting 16 leaves to a plant,
if 8 are hail cut he allows 50 per cent. In 1916 one grower of Hatfield,
172 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Mass., received $700 for 12 acres insured at $150 per acre. In the same
year a grower in Hadley, Mass., received $75 an acre on 12 acres insured
for $100 an acre, and $6 an acre on 5 acres insured for $100 an acre.
Another grower in Easthampton got $150 an acre on 11 acres insured
at $150 per acre.
Insurance of the crop has been very helpful to tobacco farmers living
in sections of excessive hail and wind storms, but it has not been success-
ful in regions of little or no hail and wind. The insurance premium is
high, and the maximum insurance is much less than the value of the crop.
Moreover, farmers frequently pay out more money than they receive in
damages. However, in 1917 and 1918 insurance companies were not
eager to insure crops in regions of general hail and wind storms. Where
they would insure the crops they put the premium so high that farmers
felt they could not afford it. This lack of insurance puts the risk all on
the farmer. In case of hail or wind storms he loses all. Crops are still
insured in sections where hail and wind storms are rare.
Tenancy.
In 1910, 92 per cent of all Massachusetts farms were operated by
owners,^ 7 per cent by cash tenants, and 1 per cent by share tenants. In
Connecticut, 90 per cent of all farms were operated by owners, 9 per cent
by cash tenants, and 1 per cent by share tenants.
In Franldin, Hampden and Hampshire counties, Massachusetts, in
1910, 92.8 per cent of the farms were operated by owners, 4.5 per cent by
cash tenants, and 2.7 per cent by share tenants. In Hartford, Litchfield
and Tolland counties, Connecticut, 90.9 per cent of the farms were
operated by owners, 5.5 per cent by cash tenants, and 3.6 per cent by
share tenants. In the Connecticut valley 91.7 per cent of all farms were
operated by owners, 5.3 per cent by cash tenants, and 3 per cent by share
tenants. In fact, these two states exhibit an unusually large percentage
of ownership. Very little change has occurred in this respect since 1880.
On the basis of tobacco alone, the percentage of tenancy is more than
the above figures indicate. The proportion of tenants engaged in the grow-
ing of tobacco is comparatively high, since tobacco is a crop that lends
itself readily to tenancy. It is a cash crop of large money value, requiring
comparatively little machinery or horse labor, and adapted to hand labor,
making the rise from tenancy to ownership comparatively easy. Most of
the tenant farms are operated by immigrant families, the women and
children doing much of the hand labor required for growing and prepar-
ing the crop for market.
Two types of tenancy are found in the valley, although but one is com-
mon. The one may be called share rental and the other cash rental.
Share rental is usually for one-half the crop. Under this form the owner
pays for the fertilizer in addition to suppljdng all the power machinery.
' " Owners " include farms operated by managers.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 173
He also hauls his share of the tobacco to the warehoupe. All the renter
furnishes is his share of the seed, the labor and smaller implements re-
quired to grow and harvest the crop.
Cash rental is now the most usual form of tenancy in the valley, al-
though share rent was more common in 1890. The cash rent paid for
desirable tobacco land is from $50 to $60 per acre. The landowner fur-
nishes nothing but the land. The cash tenant requires some capital; gen-
erally, however, he has no trouble in buying his fertilizer and implements
on credit. By beginning as laborers, and taking advantage of this form
of tenure, many Polish immigrants soon rise to farm ownership.
TESTANCY IW THE GOFNECTICUT VALLEY, 1880-1910
1880 I V/M
1900 I W4
1910 f
^
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 So 90 100^^
Owners
y/////A Cash tenants
HB Share tenants
Fig. 6. — Tenancy in the Connecticut valley, :
174 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Part II.
MARKETING CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO.
New England Tobacco Districts.
The office of the United States Commissioner of Internal Revenue has
di\'ided New England into three districts, as follows: The States of New
Hampshire, Vermont and Maine comprise the district of New Hampshire;
in 1917 there were no dealers in leaf tobacco in the district of New Hamp-
shire. The District of Massachusetts comprises the State of Massachu-
setts; in tliis district in 1917 there were 42 registered dealers in leaf
tobacco. The Connecticut District includes the States of Connecticut
and Rhode Island; in 1917 this district had 86 registered dealers in leaf
tobacco.
Sale of Leaf Tobacco,
In this study an effort is made to trace the handling of unmanufactured
tobacco from the producer to the manufacturer.
Tobacco passes through the hands of several middlemen from the
time it leaves the farmer until it is ready to be manufactured. A brief
discussion of these middlemen is in order. Fortunately the Commissioner
of Internal Revenue has carefully defined the functions of most of these
distributors, jobbers excepted.
Persons involved.'^
Dealers in Leaf Tobacco. — A dealer in leaf tobacco is any person whose
business it is, for himself or on commission, to sell, offer for sale or con-
sign for sale on commission leaf tobacco. Dealers in leaf tobacco may sell
to three classes only: (1) to other registered dealers in leaf tobacco; (2)
to qualified manufacturers of tobacco, sruff or cigars; and (3) to persons
who are known to be purchasers of leaf tobacco in packages for export.
Retail Dealers in Leaf Tobacco. — A retail dealer in leaf tobacco is any
person whose business it is to sell leaf tobacco in quantities less than an
original hogshead, case or bale, or who sells directly to consumers or to
persons other than dealers in leaf tobacco; or to manufacturers of tobacco,
snuff or cigars, or to persons who purchase in original packages for export.
Certain restrictions are imposed on retail dealers: first, they can handle
only unstemmed leaf tobacco in the natural leaf, which is in the hand and
not manufactured or altered in any manner, and which has been grown
' Cf. United States Internal Revenue Report for July 1, 1910.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 175
in the United States; and second, they can purchase from two sources
only, — (1) from a farmer or grower from whom tliey may purchase in
any quantity and in any form of package; and (2) from another retail
dealer in leaf tobacco, in which case the purchase must be less than an
original hogshead, case or bale. Retail dealers cannot purchase or sell
stems, scraps or any refuse arising from the handling of leaf tobacco by
any other person, and must confine their business to dealing in tobacco
in its natural state, — in the hand and unmanufactured.
The sales of retail dealers are likewise limited and must be made in
quantities of less than an original hogshead, case or bale. A qualified
retail dealer in leaf tobacco may sell leaf tobacco acquired by him to any
person except manufacturers of tobacco, snuff, cigars and cigarettes,
dealers in leaf tobacco, or persons who purchase leaf tobacco in original
packages for export. Retail dealers in leaf tobacco are not permitted to
manipulate the leaf tobacco sold by them by sifting, twisting, screening,
plaiting, sweetening, flavoring, pressing or by any other process of manu-
facture.
Jobbers. — A jobber is a buyer and seller of packed tobacco. Often
he is a speculator rather than a packer; his functions are purely commer-
cial. He carries a stock throughout the year to meet the demands of the
manufacturers. In doing this he runs the risk of shrinkage, which in
itself amounts to a considerable percentage, and of a fall in prices. He
also has the expense of insurance and interest. The services of the jobber
relate less to local consumption and more to the demands of outside trade.
His work is to distribute the supply to the centers of manufacture.
Sale by Manufacturers. — It is lawful for any licensed manufacturer of
cigars to purchase leaf tobacco of any licensed dealer or other licensed
manufacturer in quantities less than an original package for use in his own
factory exclusively. A manufacturer of tobacco or cigars, therefore,
has the right to sell leaf tobacco to a cigar manufacturer under the con-
ditions named.
The sale and transfer of leaf tobacco by manufacturers is restricted to
the return or sale of such tobacco as is found unsuitable for use in their
own factories, for the purpose of closing the factory, or otherwise, but in
emergency cases only.
Sale by Farmers or Groivers. — A grower may sell his own leaf tobacco
to any person and in any quantity, provided the condition of such leaf
tobacco has not been changed in any manner from that in which it was
cured on the farm. Unrestricted sales may be made in hogshead, case or
bale, or loose in the hand. The farmer or grower may also sell in the same
manner leaf tobacco received from his tenants as rent for land. These
privileges are personal and cannot be delegated by the farmer to another
person.
An agent may solicit orders for the sale of leaf tobacco for the farmer by
sample, but the deliveries must be made by the farmer himself directly
to the purchaser.
176 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Sale of Unstemmed Leaf Tobacco.
Statistics furnished by the United States Commissioner of Internal
Revenue, representing the sales of unstemmed leaf tobacco by dealers in
leaf tobacco in the districts of Massachusetts and Connecticut to manu-
facturers and dealers in these and other districts from March 31, 1915,
to April 1, 1916, are depicted in Map 4 and Table 22.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 177
S£;f22^^
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lO -H to-^c
"oooS
K5
s g§
si^ooojo<MO>oo-*(^eoc^o>i
p
as
)-rt4Tj<?^COcOOO'*SocoS^ -rt* O CO t^ 0> — « GO -<* lO ^
I o> i-H oio (>j ^eooo cot^oo '-^ lo cm i;o o r^ -^f os Tt< o ^^
•^<D QO<N CO U3 ^OC0»0 ^*^^'^^*^'^'^*'
S c3coo-
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-3,0 S
■d-3 S 6 S-S-a j: S g 5 S.S.is.2 g-S I o £ o:H g § g S.i: 2^
■3>. o
178 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
The sales to manufacturers amounted to 4,426,525 pounds, and to
dealers, 29,970,239 pounds, a total for both manufacturers and dealers
of 34,396,764 pounds for the period. Of this total, 19,813,071 pounds
went to the State of New York alone, and 4,723,015 pounds went to
Pennsylvania. The remainder, approximately one-third, was distributed
rather generally over the other states east of the Mississippi River and in
some states west of it.
For the four quarters ending March 31, 1917, the sales of unstemmed
leaf tobacco from the Connecticut valley to dealers and manufacturers in
the same and other districts amounted to 30,368,117 pounds, or about
12 per cent less than for the four quarters ending March 31, 1916.
One reason for the wide distribution of Connecticut valley cigar leaf
tobacco is the great demand for wrapper leaf of a superior quality. The
other cigar leaf producing states are mainly producers of either the binder
or the fiUer type of leaf, inferior in wrapper quality. The imported
Sumatra is the only cigar leaf wrapper competing with the Connecticut
valley leaf in this country, and the unports of this have fallen off since
1914.
Table 22(o).
■ Sales of Unstemmed Leaf Tobacco by Farmers in the
Connecticut Valley, 1915-19, by Quarters.
1915.
1916.
1917.
1918. 1 1919.
January, February, March,
April, May, June,
July, August, September, .
October, November, December,
8,288,532
702,528
5,383,787
13,145,562
6,011,579
1,016,090
6,081,221
14,607,796
7,818,773
2,045,304
30,230,690
49,794,150
14,089,663
2,995,224
18,953,141
36,994,438
Totals
-
26,254,452
54,702,563
85,832,178
-
During the four quarters ending March 31, 1916, the total purchases
of unstemmed leaf tobacco from farmers in the Connecticut valley
amounted to 27,520,409 pounds, and for the four quarters ending March
31, 1917, to 27,716,686 pounds. The largest purchases were made from
January to March, amounting to nearly one-half the total purchases.
The next largest purchases were from April to June, and the smallest
amounts were purchased during the quarter from July to September.
The above data show in a general way the breadth of the market for
New England-grown tobacco. The demand in the different sections varies
from 3^ear to year, and the extent to which New England tobacco fills the
demand also fluctuates seasonally, depending, of course, upon the quan-
tity of first-class tobacco produced. The market always demands wrapper
leaf of the quality grown in the Connecticut and Ilousatonic valleys.
\Vlien, however, there is an exceptionally large yield of light wrappers
of fine quality, for example, the manufacturer who uses light wrappers
Fig. 7. — One method of hauling tobacco from field to curing shed.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO.
179
will bu3^ heavily and hold a portion of his purchases in his own or a local
warehouse. This reserve may be sufficient to supply his wants without
large additional purchases the following season, provided quality and
prices are not satisfactory. Owing to the high prices and the poor quality
of tobacco in New England in 1917, many dealers made little effort to
purchase from the farmers, but used instead their reserve stores from the
1915 and 1916 crops. This fact is a partial explanation of seasonal and
yearly variations in purchases.
Cigar Leaf Tobacco held by Manufacturers and Dealers.
The war in Europe brought about conditions in the tobacco world
never before dreamed of. The United States has produced but one-third
of the world's supply of tobacco; the other two-thirds have heretofore
been grown in various parts of Europe. Europe is not j^et in a condition
to raise much tobacco, and it may be years before normal conditions can
be brought about. Food crops naturally receive first attention. Hence
for j^ears to come we are likely to see a continuance of high prices for
tobacco.
The table below gives the total consumption, production and imports
of tobacco for specified countries before the war.
Table 23. — Total Covsurnption, Production and Imports of Tobacco for
Specified Countries before the War (Pounds).
Country.
Average
Annual Con-
sumption.
Average
Annual Pro-
duction,
1909-13.
Average
Annual
Imports,
1909-13.
World
-
2,712,204,000
-
Total for countries enumerated,
2,259,000,000
2,061,519,400
358,927,601
United States
786,000,000
996,175,000
52,767.739
India,
481,000.000
450,000,000
6,537,759
Germany,
222,000,000
66,935,800
168,436,515
Austria Hungary,
209,000,000
178,994,400
49,983,593
Russia,
179,000,000
210,808,000
-
Great Britain, .
98,000,000
-
112,334,018
France,
96,000,000
40,959,800
63,918,094
Japan,
91,000,000
93,611,600
-
Italy, . .
54,000,000
22,199,800
47,731,626
Netherlands, .
43.000,000
1,829,000
57,218,267
The United S
tates, R
ussia an
d Ja
pan are the o
nly COUP tries
enumerated
that produced prior to the war more tobacco than they consumed. Russia
is producing practically none now, and other European countries are pro-
180 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
ducing far below normal. This means that the United States must supply
this enormous tobacco deficit. But how well prepared are we at the present
time to supply this deficit? Our position in regard to cigar leaf is in-
dicated in the following table: —
Table 24. — Cigar Leaf Tobacco held by Manufacturers and Dealers.
Oct. 1, 1915.
Oct. 1, 1916.
Jan. 1, 1917.
Jan. 1, 1918.
United States
335,367,657
270,275,297
231,737,847
223,432,876
New England, .
57,771,149
54,528,973
50,602,672
51,722,780
Broadleaf, . .
31,217,506
29,884,371
26,276,744
21.670,911
Havana seed,
24,359,058
22,731,599
21,849,157
26,262,206
Shade-grown,
2,194,585
1,913,003
2,476,771
3,789,663
New York, . .
-
3,989,282
3,065,209
2,558,481
Pennsylvania, .
105,460,066
79,294,496
69,536,194
62,969,786
Ohio,
74,329,126
59,913,485
50,303,531
52,589,602
Wisconsin,
78,891,003
59,783,228
46,473,396
40,714,197
Georgia and Florida,
8,515,339
7,697,077
6,567,538
5,213,161
Porto Rico,
5,888,910
4,780,971
4,567,256
7,307,787
All other domestic, .
261,576-
287,785
622.051
357.082
Imported types,
63,658,729
58.290,911
54,768,526
59,397,226
The total stocks of cigar leaf tobacco in the hands of manufacturers
and dealers have steadily decreased in the last few years. The quantity
on hand on Jan. 1, 1917, amounted to 231,737,847 pounds, and on Jan.
1, 1918, to 223,432,876 pounds, a decrease of 8,354,971 pounds in one year.
Since Oct. 1, 1915, the stocks of cigar leaf tobacco have decreased
111,934,781 pounds, or 33 per cent. The decrease in New England has
not been so rapid as in New York, Pennsylvania, Wisconsin, Georgia and
Florida. The states of New York and Pennsylvania are by far the largest
manufacturers of cigars in the United States, New York alone having re-
ceived over 18,000,000 pounds of Connecticut valley leaf in 1916 to say
nothing of large receipts from other cigar producing states.
The above figures only partly tell the story. They represent the quan-
tity of leaf tobacco reported as held by manufacturers and dealers who,
according to the returns of the Commissioner of Internal Revenue, manu-
factured during the preceding calendar j^ear more than 250,000 cigars,
or had on hand more than 50,000 pounds of tobacco. What about the
small manufacturers who, in the scramble for the 1916 and 1917 crops, were
unable to get their quota? Since the war the large manufacturers have
entered the field on a wholesale scale, and have outbid the smaller con-
cerns for the leaf. Consequently, if we could take into account the
smaller dealers and manufacturers, this reduction in cigar leaf would be
even more striking.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 181
The production of cigar leaf tobacco in the United States has remained
practically the same from 1912 to 1917. With the crop of 1917 smaller by
5,000,000 pounds than the 1916 crop, and the production in the European
countries very materially decreased, it became necessary for European
countries to secure the larger part of their tobacco from this country.
Our exports of all kinds of tobacco leaf and trimmings to some countries
have considerably increased, while to others the mcrease has not been
large, owing to the lack of transportation facilities.
Prepar.^.tion for Market by the Grower.
Harvesting.
Tliree methods of harvesting tobacco are in vogue m the valley to-day.
The first two described below have been in practice for j^ears; the third is
a new method that is gaining in favor. The first is "hanging on lath."
The plants are cut close to the ground Avith a thin-bladed hatchet made for
the purpose. They are then laid lengthwdse of the row and overlapping
each other. Wlien wilted they are handed to the "stringer" who strings
them on a lath. One end of the lath is attached to a "stringing horse"
and the other end is fitted with a steel needle. The plants are strung on the
lath by forcing the needle through the butts of the stalks about 6 or 8
inches from the end, five or six plants being strung on a lath. The full lath
is placed on a wagon fitted with a rack made to prevent the plants from
being broken while being hauled to the curing sheds. The laths are arranged
in the curing sheds so that each end of the lath rests on a pole. These
poles are usually 15 feet long and allow room for 25 to 30 laths.
"Planging on string" is the second method of harvesting tobacco, and
many growers favor it above all others. The plants are cut as before,
only they are laid crosswise of the row, and after being allowed to wilt are
loaded directly on low wagons, the butts all laid one way. The plants are
then drawn to the shed, where they are hung on poles with twine. The
hanger carries a bag on his back, which holds a ball of twine. With this
he hangs the plants about 8 inches apart on the poles by tying a half hitch
around each plant. When the pole is full the end of the twine is tied
around the last plant.
Priming.
This is a method of harvesting tobacco which came in with the shade-
gro^vn industry and has found favor among many growers of sun-grown
tobacco. The barn is differently arranged, with the tiers only half as far
apart as in the methods previously described. The plant is not cut, but
the leaves are picked or "primed" as they ripen, four or five leaves at a
time at intervals of from seven to ten days. The bottom leaves are picked
first and the top leaves last. The pickers walk between two rows, priming
both and placing the leaves in little piles. These piles are gathered up,
placed in baskets and drawn to the end of the row on a hand truck. There
they are loaded on a wagon and hauled to the shed where they are strung
182 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
on poles. - Generally the stringing is done by women and children, with
large needles, placing about forty leaves on a string. The ends of the
string are knotted and hung on a lath which has been notched at the ends.
These laths are then hung up tier after tier. In a few days the second
priming begins, and so on until the crop is hai-vested. Sometimes it is
possible to cure and take down the first priming before the last is made,
thus giving a chance to use the shed a second time in the same season.
Consequently primed tobacco takes less shed space than that harvested
by other methods. When the crop is to be primed it is not necessary to
top the plant, thus saving considerable labor.
Curing.
The curing shed is really one of the limiting factors to increased produc-
tion. To hang an acre of tobacco requires a shed 30 by 30 feet. A building
of this size will cost from $450 up, depending upon whether it is of frame
or of pole construction. In 1916 it cost from $700 to $800 to construct
a frame shed of sufficient size to hold an acre of tobacco. The frame shed
is constructed so that every third board is a trap door which can be opened
for purposes of ventilation. The pole shed is built by setting the posts
in the ground, and is not framed, the braces being nailed on. This type
of shed is not so common now as it was a few years ago.
After the crop is placed in the shed the grower must watch it closely,
opening the ventilating doors on certain days and closing them on others,
depending upon the weather. Crops are ruined each year by neglect of
this matter. With tons of water in the crop which must be evaporated
within a few weeks, this is a critical time for the grower. Too much mois-
ture in the atmosphere retards evaporation. Then, too, there is danger
of "pole sweat." In a dry season, with the doors open all the time, tlue
tobacco will drj^, and not cure. In recent j^ears the majority of growers
have used the fire-cure method, building a charcoal fire under each
bent in the shed, and thus to some extent becoming independent of the
weather.
Taking doivn.
As soon as the crop is cured it is taken down. The tobacco has changed
from a heavy green leaf to a thin light brown one, and has become so dry
that it will easily crumble. Therefore, to get the crop down whole, it
must be handled in damp weather when the leaf is said to be in "case."
"As soft as a kid glove" is an expression often used in describing this
condition. When this warm, rainy weather, or "tobacco damp," comes,
no matter if in the middle of the night or on Sunday, the grower gets all the
help he can command, and takes down as much tobacco as he thinks he
can strip before it dries. With the lath method the laths are simply
slipped off the poles, and, with a man on each tier, are handed very care-
fully and quickly to the man on the floor. There the tobacco is removed
from the laths and piled with the butts laid both ways. If piled too high,
Fig. 8 — Cutting tobacco. Much of this work is done by boys.
Fig. 9. — Stringing tobacco on a lath fastened to a stringing horse.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 183
early in the fall when the stalks are green, there is more danger of the
tobacco heating.
AVlien hung on a string, a man at each end of the pole pushes the tobacco
into a bunch in the middle of the pole. One man with a sharp knife then
cuts the string, another hands the bundle to the man lower down, and
it is piled as before.
Primed tobacco is simply stripped off the string and at once made into
bundles.
A tobacco damp lasts only a short time, and the farmers must get down
as much tobacco as possible. To keep the tobacco from drying as soon
as it is taken down, it must be covered in order to shut out the wind and
retain the moisture. The crop alter it is taken down must be kept
damp and the shed closed as tightly as possible to keep out the wind.
Stripping.
As soon as possible after the tobacco is taken down stripping begins.
With^he stripping crew on either or both sides of the pile a section is un-
covered, each plant is taken up, and the leaves rapidly picked off one by
one. The stripper holds the stalk in one hand and strips the leaves with the
other, beginning at the butt. The leaves are placed in the stripping boxes
which are of different sizes, 36 by 12 by 12 inches being about the average.
The box is made with one side hinged. First, string is placed in the box at
four different places, then the box is lined with paper. After the box is full
the paper is brought over the top, the strings tied, and the bundle taken
out of the box by opening the hinged side. The bundles vary in weight,
but average from 35 to 40 pounds each. The bundles are then ready for
delivery to the place agreed upon at the time of sale, either to a local
sorting or packing shop or shipping point.
Hauling to Market.
Through personal investigation it has been found that the most common
initial haul from the field to the sorting shop or shipping point in Massa-
chusetts is about 3 miles, but some farmers haul their tobacco less than
1 mile, while others haul 10 miles or more. Transportation charges vary
according to the distance from the farm to the shipping point, and from
the shipping point to the manufacturer.
An average two-horse load contains about 150 bundles of tobacco of
30 pounds each, or 4,500 pounds. Two loads per day would make 9,000
pounds. The team and driver cost about 19.50 per day. This would
make the cost per poimd of tobacco S0.00106, or a little over one-tenth
of a cent per pound, or 10 cents per 100 pounds.
As a matter of fact, the cost of hauling tobacco from the farm to the
warehouse or shipping point is very insignificant, since such a large value
can be hauled at a load. The tobacco is mostly hauled on sleds during
the winter months wlxQe snow is on the ground, which makes it possible
to haul a load of very large bulk, weight and value.
184 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Large growers, notably growers of shade tobacco, ship some tobacco
to dealers and manufacturers, but very little tobacco is shipped by far-
mers. Most of the tobacco is sold by the farmer to local packers who
pack, sweat and sell it in the case, or in the bundle to other packers, dealers
or manufacturers. The steps in marketing performed by the farmer are
now ended. Before the packers are ready to market the crop it must go
through several stages of preparation, which will be discussed in the next
few pages.
Description of Packers' Preparations for Market.
Functions of the Packer.
The first function of the packer is to purchase from farmers the quantity
of tobacco of the grade desired by the trade which he supplies. He does
this himself or through his local agent. The local agent is usually a
prominent grower who owns a building equipped for receiving, sorting,
packing, sweating and storing tobacco. Frequently these buiMings,
fully equipped, are built by dealers for their local agents. In other cases
they are leased for a period of years, but usually they are owned by the
local agent, who receives a fixed price per pound or case for packing the
tobacco.
The second function of the packer is to receive the tobacco at the
sorting shop. Ver}^ frequently it is purchased in the field long before it
is ready to harvest, and naturally there is no assurance as to the con-
dition of the crop when it comes from the curing shed. When tobacco
is delivered at the warehouse it is inspected, and if too much damaged is
refused or accepted at a reduced price. Much damage may result from
taking down tobacco too dry or too damp. Farmers are usually paid in
full as soon as the tobacco has been accepted and weighed at the packer's
warehouse.
The third function of the packer is to open the bundles and deliver
the tobacco to the sizers, who separate the leaves one by one according to
length. Then the different sizes are taken to the sorters who grade them
according to quality and color.
The fourth function is sorting. As a rule, no attempt at sorting is
made by the farmer. He simply delivers his bundles of stripped tobacco.
The sorting is usually done by some one hired by the packer. This agent
gets his help ready to begin about November 10, and continues until
about the first week in April.
For the fifth function the tobacco thus sorted is tied with short tops
into hands. These hands are placed in stalls properly labeled, and covered
with blankets to keep the tobacco "in case."
The sixth function is packing and sweating. From these stalls it is
put into cases lined with paper, and the tobacco is so placed, with the tips
toward the center, as to lap from 4 to 6 inches. The lap is necessary in
order to start sweating. The cases are then moved into the sweat room.
Fig. 10. — Hauling to market. Unloading bundles at one of the sorting shops.
A typical shop for sorting sun-grown tobacco. Note the windows at the bottom,
which furnish light for the sorting tables.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 185
The seventh function is sampUng. After a case comes out of the sweat
and is cooled to normal, it is opened and four hands are taken from various
parts of the case and tied together as a sample, which is guaranteed in
any part of the United States.
Sorting and Tying. — When the tobacco comes into the sorting shops
from the farm it is loose in the bundle and is not graded. This tobacco
needs to be assorted according to grade, length, texture and color, and
tied in small bundles of from fifteen to twentj^ leaves, called hands. This
means a lot of labor, for each leaf must be handled. This kind of work
is mainly done by women and children.
Each sorter has a sorting table consisting of boxed-off compartments
from 10 to 12 inches deep and 8 to 10 inches wide, and of varjing lengths,
perhaps 16 to 22 inches, to fit leaves of different sizes. Each leaf is placed
in the compartment corresponding most closely to its length, and with
skilled labor no time is wasted in placing the leaves in their proper places.
The leaves of different grades are kept separate, — light wrappers, dark
■^Tappers, medium wrappers, brokens, seconds, fillers and binders. The
various grades are packed in hands of from fifteen to twenty leaves each,
tied with a leaf of tobacco; then the tobacco is ready to be packed in
cases and placed in the sweating room.
Sweating. — There are three methods of fermentation, or sweating,
now in use in the Connecticut valley. By the first and most common
method from 300 to 350 poimds of sorted leaf tied in hands are tightly
and smoothly packed into a wooden box which is fairly tight on the sides,
but with one-half inch spaces between the end boards. The leaf is packed
with the tips toward the center and the butts toward the ends of the
case. The cases are piled in an unheated storehouse as they are packed,
turned once or twice, and after lying over one summer are sampled and
ready for sale to manufacturers or jobbers.
This is the natural method, but in recent years a method known as
"forced sweating" has been largely used in order to get tobacco into
market quickly, or to finish tobacco which has -not fermented enough.
The tobacco, packed in cases, is kept for about six weeks in a room with
a moist atmosphere maintained at 90° to 120° F. This method enables
the packer to clean out his sweat room and put in a fresh supply of
tobacco every five or six weeks, and consequently he is not crowded for
space.
The "bulk method" of sweating is used to some extent for Havana
seed and exclusively with shade-grown, though it has not been successful
with broadleaf. With the bulk method, the sweat room is kept at a
temperature of from 80° to 90° F., with humidity high enough to keep
the leaf soft. Under these conditions the bulk immediately heats and
fermentation proceeds rapidly. As soon as the thermometer inside
the bulk shows a temperature of 110° to 130° F., the bulk is pulled down,
the leaf lightly shaken out and immediately bulked again, putting that
leaf which was on the outside of the former bulk on the inside of the new
186 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
In the new bulk the rise of temperature is slower. This operation of
rebulking is continued until the leaf is finished.
The following record from an experiment at the Connecticut Agricul-
tural Experiment Station shows the temperature which may prevail
within a bulk from the day it is laid down : —
Table 25. — Temjyerature of Bulked Tobacco.
Degrees F.
When built 73
December 19, ............. 85
20, 99
21, 113
22, 121
Shaken out and bulked again.
December 23, 86
24 92
25, 97
26, 104
28, 112
31 115
January 1, 114
Shaken out and bulked again.
January 3, 94
5 99
7, 104
9, 108
11 107
23, 100
The above represents one of the first experiments with bulk sweating,
which was conducted by the Connecticut Experiment Station in co-opera-
tion with the United States Department of Agriculture in 1898. The re-
sults were satisfactory and tliis method is now widely used.
Fermenting tobacco containing from 18 to 25 per cent of moisture is
germicidal in its action, and few if any bacteria are found on freshly fer-
mented leaves. Fermentation is due to the soluble ferments or enzjines
found in the growing plant, and perhaps also while wilting after harvest.
The enzymes are not living organisms like microbes, but chemical bodies
which under proper conditions cause extensive chemical changes. The
main changes are caused by two oxidizing enzymes, by the action of which
the oxygen of the air is made to unite with various compounds in the leaf.
To this action chiefly is due the color and aroma of fermented leaf, the
presence or absence of which either makes a cigar of high burning quali-
ties, rich and flavored, or a cigar of no body and very poor burning quali-
ties. The burning quality of tobacco cannot be determined until after
it is taken from the sweat shop.
Tobacco loses in sweating and shrinkage about 15 per cent, which is
an item to be considered by the packers. A case weighing 300 pounds
when put into the sweat room will weigh only about 255 pounds when it
comes out. The packer guarantees the case not to shrink more than a
certain maximum, usually from 15 to 20 per cent.
Fia. 12. — A shade-grown sorting shop. The sorting is done in the basement, and the top
stories are used for storage.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO.
187
So7npling. — Sampling is generally done by a special sampler appointed
by his firm, though sometimes it is done by a local packer appointed by
the company for which he packs. The sampler charges 35 cents a case,
one-half of which goes to the sampler and the other half to his firm. This
fee of 35 cents does not include handling. It is estimated that it costs
15 cents to handle the cases and to deliver the samples to the manufac-
turer, making the total charge 50 cents per case.
Tobacco is sampled as soon as it comes from the sweat room by taking
six hands from different places in a case. Beginning at the bottom a
sample is taken from about every fourth layer of tobacco. From these
six samples four are selected to represent the quality of the bale, and are
tagged and numbered to correspond to the number on the bale from
which the sample was taken. This sample is guaranteed anywhere in
the United States to represent the quality of tobacco in the case.
z z
z§^
;<8
No ±38Q.
Stripped Sample
WARRANTED
^SO - 8o
Fig. 13. — Tobacco sample tag, tied to the hands, and guarantees the tobacco anywhere in
the United States. The number of the case here is 4380, the gross weight 450 pounds
and the tare 80 pounds.
Amount of Tobacco assorted.
There were 7,280 cases of shade-grown tobacco assorted, sweated and
stored in the warehouses of Massachusetts in 1917-18, and 35,971 cases of
sun-grown tobacco, representing a combined total of 11,883,200 pounds.
In 1917-18 there were 44 sorting shops open in Massachusetts which
handled about 270,070 pounds per shop on an average. Some of these
shops do a much larger business than others, depending upon the size of
the shops and the number of laborers employed.
Nearly one-half of the Massachusetts tobacco is growii by Poles, and
from one-half to three-fourths of the laborers employed in the sorting and
packing shops are of PoUsh descent. In Connecticut Polish labor is not
so important as in Massachusetts. Three-fourths or more of the tobacco
in Connecticut is grown by natives, and over one-half of the labor em-
ployed in the sorting shops is native. The Polish farmers utilize the help
of the whole family during the growing season and in the sorting shops
during the winter months.
188 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Sorting Shops.
Map 5 shows the location of these sorting shops in Massachusetts.
During the sorting season of 1917-18 there were 46 tobacco sorting and
packing shops employing 2,832 laborers, an average of 62 laborers per
shop. Twenty of these local sorting shops, nearly one-half, are located
in Hatfield, including North Hatfield and Bradstreet.
LOCATrOH OF TOBACCO SORTING SHOPS
IK MASSACHUSETTS. 1917-18
Table 26. — Tobacco Sorting Shops in Massachusetts, 1917-18.
Location.
Number of
Shops.
Laborers
employed.
Hatfield
20
5
31
1.319
Hadley
230
South Deerfield,
75
Sunderland,
25
215
Westfield
212
Southwick
60
Feeding Hills
Springfield
-2
510
6
Eastbampton
Northampton,
Whately, .
40
60
80
46
2,832
1 One closed 1916-17.
Labor transferred to Springfield.
Fig. 14. — Showing the roof of a sorting shop for shade-grown tobacco. Note the
glass roof to provide light for the sorting tables.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 189
Cost of Sorting, Tying, Storing, Packing, Sweating and Sampling.
Nearly all the sizing, sorting and tying is done by the piece, the laborers
getting so much per hundred pounds of tobacco sorted and tied. In
1917-18 sorters got about $1.30 per 100 pounds of tobacco sorted, and tiers
about $1.25. An average laborer can sort or tie about 225 pounds of
tobacco in a day. Some can sort considerably more than this, but, to
insure accuracy and careful handling, a limit is generally placed on the
amount of tobacco a laborer can sort or size in a day. This amounts to
about the same as paj^ing a daily wage. The packers are paid by the day.
The average daily wage paid in 1915-16 was as follows: sorters, $1.75
per day; sizers and tiers, $1.50 per day; and packers, from $2 to $2.50
per day. In 1916-17 sorters were paid $2.50; sizers and tiers, $2.25;
and packers, from $2.75 to $3. During the season of 1917-18 sorters were
paid $3; sizers and tiers, $2.75; and packers, from $3.25 to $3.50.
The wages for 1917-18 were about 50 cents more for each class of labor
than they were in 1916-17. The packers in certain localities agreed upon
the wage they would pay.
Table 27. — Sizes and Costs of Cases for Shade-grown Tobacco.
.32-inch case
34-inch case
36-inch case
38-inch case
40-inch case
42-inch case
44-inch case
46-inch case
48-inch case
$1 50
1 55
1 60
1 65
1 70
1 75
1 80
1 85
1 90
Cases for shade-grown in 1917 and 1918 cost about $2.50. The matting
to wrap the tobacco costs 17| cents per mat, and three mats are necessary
to a case. One handicap of the packers of shade tobacco is the fact that
they can no longer get manila twine, which has been used for tying the
hands of tobacco. Instead they use cotton twine, which is less satisfactory.
190 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Table 28. — Size of Cases and Pounds per Case.
Lights and Seconds.
Length of Leaves (Inches).
Size of Case
(Inches).
Pounds per
Case.
16
18
20
22
24
26
42
32
36
38
42
44
320
250
270
290
310
325
Darks and Mediums.
16, ,.
42
350
18, ... •
32
310
20
36
320
22
38
330
24 ■
42
350
26, . . -
44
360
28,
44
370
Fillers, . ,
42
350
Brokens,
38
350
Sunmiary.
In 1915 the packers estimated that it cost them 3| cents a pound to
sort, tie, store, pack, sweat and sample their tobacco. This includes all
labor, lumber for cases, nails, twine, paper, sampler's fee and other ex-
penses connected with packing. In 1916 the packers estimated their cost
at 5 cents a pound. The depreciation on buildings and equipment, cost
of heating, lighting, taxes, etc., are not included in the above. Including
these last-named items, the 1916 cost was about 7 cents per pound. In
1917 the packers estimated that processing and marketing cost them, from
the time the tobacco reached their hands until delivered to the manu-
facturer, wholesaler or jobber, 11 cents a pound for sun-grown tobacco,
and 28 cents a pound for shade-grown.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 191
Table 29. — Cost of Packing a 350-Pound Case in 1917-18.
Shrinkage, 10 per cent at 30 cents, price paid farmer, .... $10 50
Sweating, 5 per cent at 30 cents, price paid farmer, . . . . 5 25
$15 75
Paper, 1 pound at 11 cents, . . . . . . . . $0 11
Price of white pine case, ......... 2 50
Nails for case, ........... 03
Twine, 1 pound at 20 cents, ........ 20
Labor: —
Tying350pound3at $1.25 per 100 4 37
Sorting 350 pounds at $1.30 per 100 4 55
Packing, 1 60
Sampling 35
Cartage and inspection, ........ 15
13 76
Price paid producer for 350 pounds at 30 cents, $105; interest on $118.76
($105+$13.76) at 6 per cent $7 13
Storage, 1 year (including taxes and insurance), ..... 50
Light 10
Heat 1 00
Transportation to New York at 20 cents per 100 pounds, less shrinkage
and sweating, .......... 60
Office help 20
Collecting 10
Depreciation on buildings, $5,000 at 5 per cent on basis of cases packed, 54
10 17
Total cost per case, . . • $39 68
Cost per pound, ........... 113
Labor and all materials connected with packing have advanced since
1914. For the season of 1917-18 paper cost the packers about l\\ cents
per pound. Three sheets weigh 1 pound and will line a case. Wire nails
cost about $6 per keg. Cases have also advanced considerably. Table
27 gives the relative sizes and costs of cases for sun-grown tobacco in 1916.
Add 90 cents per case to obtain the cost in 1917.
Storage.
Tobacco is a product which, in contrast to the great bulk of products,
requires a period of storage before it is desirable for consumption. At
least six months are required for the natural sweating and packing proc-
ess, and from five to eight weeks for forced sweating. The longer tobacco
is in storage the better the qualitj'. It can be held two, three, five or
even more years without any deterioration in quality. Some large firms
advertise their product by some such catchy phrase as "mellowed by
age." This is one reason why it is so easj/ to regulate prices; crops are
safely held over from years of overproduction to years of underproduction,
although since 1914 we have been drawing heavily on our reserve supply.
Consequently the length of time in storage depends to a large extent
upon market conditions. In general, we may say that tobacco is in
storage six to eight months, although the periods range from two months
to two years.
192 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Little tobacco is stored by the producer for any length of time. In-
stances occur, however, where it is necessary for the grower to hold some
of his crop after it is taken from the poles. In such cases it is packed into
bundles and stored in a tightly closed shed or sorting room to prevent
drying. Wlien prices are low some farmers store and sweat their tobacco,
hoping to sell at an increased price. Though there is a good opportunity
for co-operative warehouses, nothing has yet been done along this line.
The essential features of this plan will be discussed later.
Tobacco warehouses in the Connecticut valley are all privately owned.
The big storage plants are under the control of the packers. Each dealer
who has a sufficiently large business has at least one warehouse and some-
times several. These warehouses are usually constructed with the sorting
rooms partly under gi'ound, but so arranged that good light is available
for sorting tables. The storage room is above the sorting room, so arranged
that it is convenient to move the tobacco from the sweating room into the
storage after it has been packed.
Besides the storage by packers or dealers, the manufacturers store
large quantities of tobacco, sometimes buying when tobacco is plentiful
and holding until an off year. Table 24, on page 180, gives the amount of
tobacco stored by manufacturers and dealers for a number of years.
Cost of Storage.
Cost of storage varies with the time the crop is stored and the time the
sweating occupies. Figures for the leaf-producing sections of Pennsylvania
give the cost of storing the case for one \^ear as 50 cents. The costs of
inspection, sampling, etc., amount to 50 cents. There is also a shrinkage
during storage which amounts to about 15 per cent. The total cost of
storage for a year and the attendant labor amounts to about $2 per case.
The packers in the Connecticut valley estimated that it cost 11 cents
a pound to handle the 1917-18 tobacco crop from the time it reached their
hands until it was delivered to the purchaser. This figure is sufficiently
large to cover all expenses of packing and selling. At this figure the packers
could sell for 45 cents tobacco purchased from the farmers for 30 cents a
pound, making a clear profit of 4 cents per pound sold. Wholesale prices,
however, lead to the conclusion that far bigger profits are made.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 193
Table 30.
Transportation.
Freight Rates to Principal Manufacturing Centers.
From
North Hat-
field Station
(Cents).
From
South Deer-
field Station
(Cents).
New York City
20.5
21.0
Elmira, N. Y.,
21.5
21,5
Washburn, N. Y
21.0
-
Harlem River, N. Y
16.8
16.8
Syracuse, N. Y
20.0
20.0
Erie. N. Y
18.0
-
Troy, N. Y
15.0
-
Philadelphia, Pa
24.0
24.0
Lancaster, Pa.,
24.0
24.0
York, Pa
24.0
24.0
Lititz, Pa
21.0
21.0
Norristown, Pa.,
21.0
21.0
Newark. N. J
21.0
21.0
New Brunswick, N. J
16.8
-
Cleveland, Ohio
26.1
-
Chillicothe, Ohio,
29.8
29.8
Miamisburg, Ohio
32.0
32.0
Chicago, 111.
36.8
36.8
Detroit, Mich.,
28.7
28.7
Duluth, Minn
39.0
-
Wheeling, W. Va
28.0
25.1
Kansas City. Mo.
42.0
-
Los Angeles, Ca .,
39.0
-
Springfield. Mass..
15.0
15.0
Lowell, Mass.
17.5
17.5
Hartford. Conn
12.0
12.0
Hamilton. Ont.. Can.,
25.7
28.0
Montreal. Can..
27.5
23.9
These are not the only cities that receive tobacco shipped from North
Hatfield and South Deerfield, Mass., over the Boston & Maine Railroad.
The foregoing table sinaply shows the wide distribution of sales and the
comparatively low freight rates to the principal shipping points. For
example, 100 pounds of tobacco can be shipped from North Hatfield,
Mass., to Los Angeles, Cal., for 39 cents, or a little over one-third of a cent
per pound.
194 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Shipments and Receipts of Tobacco, Massachusetts Local Shipping Points,
1915-17.
Shipments (Tons).
January, .
February,
March,
April,
May,
June,
July,
August, .
September,
October, .
November,
December,
Total (tons).
Total (pounds),
714.2
576.5
543.2
855.5
319.7
452.0
316.4
386.5
242.9
268.1
248.5
301.2
5,224.7
10,449,400
845.00
831.00
558.50
504.00
307.00
501.00
223.90
297.29
269.00
271.65
197.00
276.00
5,0
10.162,6
.34
Receipts {Tons).
January
307
275
187
February,
154
136
238
March
57
76
30
April
36
59
32
May
10
21
9
June,
20
6
91
July
53
47
20
August,
30
30
26
September
23
26
32
October
57
45
14
November,
95
120
60
December
109
96
77
Total (tons)
951
937
816
Total (pounds)
1,902,000
1,874,000
1,632,000
Note the heavy shipments for January, February, March and April
of 1916 and 1917. The great demand for all classes of cigar leaf tobacco
and the high prices offered by the manufacturers resulted in early ship-
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 195
ments by the packers. The hea\y shipments from July to December
1915, are the result of holding the 1914 crop for higher prices. Tobacco
was not high in price at this time, but, on account of the war, dealers
predicted a rapid rise in prices and held a large part of the crop.
The shipments for May and June are small for the three years; and
July for 1916 and 1917. The sorting season is then over and the packers
store tobacco for fermentation by the natural process during the summer
months.
Most of the tobacco received from outside sources comes in during
the months of November to February, when tobacco is being sorted.
The buyers frequently import tobacco from other localities to be sorted
in their shops.
Records of shipments and receipts were obtained from South Deerfield,
Hadley, North Hatfield, Hatfield and Whately, Mass. Subtracting the
receipts from the shipments, for the tobacco received is included in that
shipped out, 9,866,000 pounds were shipped from these local stations in
1915; 8,288,680 pounds in 1916; 8,547,400 pounds in 1917. These
shipments amount to about 3,000,000 pounds less than the annual pro-
duction in Massachusetts, These 3,000,000 pounds not included in the
shipments are probably shipped from stations in Hampden County,
notably Westfield, Springfield and Chicopee.
Grades, Standards and Principal Varieties.
Tobaccos are divided into "classes," a "class" signifying the purpose
for which the product is finally intended. Thus we have pipe, cigar,
chewing, export and cigarette classes, and these are subdivided into
various "types," depending upon certain qualities of the leaf, such as
color, flavor, elasticity and strength.
Further divisions into "grades" are almost endless in variety, based
on the differences in size, aroma, texture, quality, etc.
^Vllile sizes and grades vary somewhat among different packers, the
following grades and sizes are common for sun -grown tobacco: —
Grades.
Inches.
1. Light wrappers,
2. Medium wrappers
3. Dark wrappers,
4. Seconds,
5.|Brokens
14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28.
20, 22, 24, 26.
16, 18, 20, 22. 24, 26, 28.
16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26.
Broken leaves and all under 14 inches.
196 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Connecticut valley shade-grown tobacco is assorted into grades according
to color, texture and lengths.^ The chief colors are: —
L No. 1, ........ . Light color.
CL No. 2 Light color.
LV No. 1, Light green.
V, ......... . Full green.
W, .......... Dark green.
The texture is graded into light wrappers, medium wrappers and heavy
or dark wrappers. Sizes run from 9 to 22 inches, and are measured by the
inch. On an average there are about 60 grades and sizes to a crop, but
sometimes there are as many as 250 grades and ^izes.
In an average year about 25 per cent of the Connecticut valley tobacco
crop goes for wrappers, Massachusetts and Connecticut producing a large
quantity of wrappers of high quality. About 50 per cent of the crop is
used for binders and 25 per cent for fillers.
The grades of tobacco are determined by the quality and length of the
leaf. Those which are of fine texture, glossy, thin and silky make the best
wrappers. Leaves of poorer and heavier quality are used for binders, and
the short broken leaves are used for fillers.
In the shade-grown industry the grades are not so carefully distinguished
there being many grades of slight variation. Therefore it is more difficult
to grade shade-grown tobacco. The determining qualities are about the
same as in the sun-grown. A very thin, silky leaf with open grain makes
a high-priced wrapper.
Peices.
Supply and Demand.
The price of tobacco is determined by the quality of the leaf and the
comparative demand for it. Overproduction of any special kind of tobacco
lowers prices, although this is not so marked as with some other products,
because the keeping qualities of tobacco are good, and buyers frequently
purchase when the supply is plentiful and hold the product for manufac-
ture until there is a short crop. Tobacco two or three years old is better
than tobacco freshly packed and fermented.
On the other hand, during a year of low production the demand will
exceed the supply, and prices are bound to rise. During 1916 and 1917
there was a great demand for all grades of tobacco, and consequently
prices were unusually high. Production did not increase sufficiently to
satisfy the larger population demand; moreover, the per capita consump-
tion of tobacco has likewise increased. The annual per capita consumption
of all forms of tobacco in the United States from 1863 to the present time
is presented below.
> Some of the grades occurring in the crops assorted at the shop of Mr. Leslie Swift, North.
Hatfield, Mass., during the sorting season of 1917-18, are as follows: —
L 18. L 11. LL No. 2 15. LV 15. V No. 1 16. V No. 2 16.
L 15. LL 20. LV 20. LV 14. V No. 2 20. V^No. 2 15.
L 12. LL No. 2 18. LV 16. MW 16. V No. 2 18. Broken 15.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 197
Pounds
1870
1880
1890
1900
1910
1920
Fig. 15. — Per capita consumption of cigars and other forms of manufactured tobacco in
the United States, 1870-1917.
Tablets! . — Annual Qvaniily per Capita of Leaf Tobacco manufactured
in the United States (Pounds).^
Years.
All
Tobacco.
Cigars.
YE-A.RS.
All
Tobacco.
Cigars.
1872-75, .
1876-80, . . .
1881-85, .
1886-90, . . .
1891-95, .
.79
.80
1.11
1.19
1.18
1896-1900,
1901-05, .
1906-10, .
1911-15, .
1916-17, .
5.00
5.50
5.60
5.70
6.12
1.20
1.54
1.57
1.58
1.60
1 Internal
Revenue Re
3orts, 1872-90, estimated
.
198 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Per Capita Consum'piion for Different Countries {Pouvds).^
1871-75.
1876-80.
1881-85.
1886-90.
1891-95.
1896-
1900.
1901-05.
1913.
United States,
4 0
4 3
4.9
5.1
5.2
5.0
5.5
5.70
Germany,
3.9
3.7
3.0
3 3
3.3
3.5
3.5
3.77
France, .
1.7
1.9
2 0
2.0
2.1
2.1
2.1
2 43
England,
1.3
1.4
13
1.4
1.6
1.8
1.9
2.05
Adapted from Jacobstein, The Tobacco Industry, p. 44.
1680
1890
1900
1870
Fia. 16. — Notice the tendency of tobacco production, the number of cigars and the amount
of manufactured leaf to follow the upward trend of population.
1920
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 199
The United States is by far the greatest consumer of tobacco, usmg one
and one-half times as much as Germany, the next largest consumer, in
1913. From 1872 to 1913 the per capita consumption of tobacco in the
United States increased 42.5 per cent, in England 58 per cent, in France
43 per cent, and in Germany decreased 33 per cent.
In 1875 the per capita consumption of cigars in the United States was
about .8 of a pound; in 1916 to 1917 it was 1.60 pounds, an increase of
about 100 per cent. During this period the per capita consumption of
plug, smoking and chewing tobacco increased 28 per cent; from 1900 to
1918 the total cigarette production increased over 900 per cent, and the
per capita output of cigarettes increased approximately 740 per cent. This
indicates the increasing demand for cigars and cigarettes in comparison
with other tobaccos.
Connecticut Valley Tobacco in the Market.
Map 4 shows the shipments of Connecticut valley cigar leaf tobacco
to districts within and without Connecticut and Massachusetts. This map
also shows the chief manufacturing and consuming centers; for example,
in 1916 the state of New York received 18,871,861 pounds of Connecticut
and Massachusetts wrapper; Pennsylvania received 4,351,397 pounds.
The Connecticut valley produces a high grade of wrapper tobacco which
is famous the world over. A cigar wrapped with a Connecticut wrapper
bears its ovm trade-mark. No other section of this country, barring a
small area in Florida, is so well suited to producing high-grade wrapper
tobacco.
Methods of Sale.
There is no organized market for leaf tobacco grown in the Connecticut
valley. Most of it is sold to "packers," manufacturers or dealers in leaf
tobacco, who act as packers as well as jobbers. Many of these packers
and dealers have a local representative or agent who may or may not
purchase from the farmer.
As a rule, the grower sells to so-called "tobacco buyers," who may be
local dealers in leaf tobacco, local agents for so-called "packers," repre-
sentatives of manufacturers, or traveUng buyers for wholesale dealers
in leaf tobacco. These buyers purchase the growers' crops by the pound,
to be delivered stripped and tied in bundles at one of the local sorting
shops. Practically all the tobacco is sold in tliis way. Of course there
are still some farmers, especially large growers, who keep their help
throughout the year and pack and grade their own tobacco and sell it in
cases directly to manufacturers or jobbers.
Tobacco in the Connecticut vaUey may be sold either before or after
harvesting. Sales consummated before the tobacco is harvested, or by
the "contract method" of sale, are made in two ways: —
1. The grower contracts to grow a certain number of acres of a certain
kind of tobacco to be delivered at a specified price and place in good
merchantable condition.
200 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
2. While the crop is growing it may be sold at a fixed price per pound,
to be delivered on or before a certain date at a warehouse or shipping
point agreed upon at the time of sale and in specified condition. In all
cases of sale by contract the buyer makes a payment on the crop when
he contracts for it in order to make the contract binding, to which both
buyer and seller agree. This method is very common when the crop
looks promising and the tobacco outlook is satisfactory, especially after
a poor year from the standpoint of both yield and quality. A large pro-
portion of the 1916 crop was sold in the field because of the anxiety of
the buyers to procure a supply after the disappointing season of 1915.
Harvested tobacco may be sold as follows: —
1. After the tobacco is cured and stripped it may be sold to be delivered
as agreed upon at the time of sale at a certain price per pound, or to be
assorted into certain grades with a price for each grade, or a flat price
for all grades.
2. After the grower has assorted his crop he may sell it by grades or
for a flat price for all grades.
3. The grower may assort and case his crop, sweat it and put himself
in the position of a tobacco dealer. This last method is adopted only by
large growers who have suflScient capital to carry a crop.
In the marketing of tobacco the buyer has every advantage. He knows
the condition of the market. The farmer, on the other hand, is primarily
a grower, and as a usual thing wants to sell when the crop is harvested.
Lack of operating capital often forces the farmer to sell early. The small
grower is obliged to sell immediately because he needs the cash to pay
biUs, purchase farm supplies and plant a new crop.
Under the contract method of sale the farmer has all to lose, with no
correspondmg gain, the buyer, little or nothing. With one the matter is
intensely personal, with the other entirely impersonal. The buyer repre-
sents big organization familiar with trade conditions, prospective con-
sumption and competing agencies. If the buyers do not work together
they are not as shrewd business men as the writer gives them credit for
being. It would be good business. The farmers have done little col-
lectively to obtain trade information or to control the mechanism of
processing Or distributing the product. Having no knowledge of the
market, and not belonging to a farmers' shipping organization, he is at
the mercy of the buyer. Perhaps the only way for the average farmer to
improve his prospects is through some co-operative organization for
collective bargaining, the purposes, organization and scope of which are
discussed later in this bulletin.
Defects of the Contract Method of Sale,
1. Farmers naturally do not have as great interest in their crop after
it is sold as before. They are likely to become careless h) handling the
tobacco.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 201
No..
This certifies to^ the sale to.
inis certirifi^ to^ the sale to ..^^^^^
CLBr:'S^
of my 19]Co crop ■^ifiwHaynrfli Hfirir
Broad Leaf Tobacco, consisting of about!*^..>r
acres, to be delivered, free from water, damage, and
rubbish, when instructed by purchasers.
Price, hititji^t-tmaitrFrflt vJTt / /^ S--^**;''"^^ per pound!
Wrappers, 3^'/^
Long Seconds,^^ /^^
Short Seconds, j^f (/-u T
Tops, ^f fj^ ^
Broken, Seconds, /^X'^Cy
Fillers,
'RQGQiye^Ji'j^'iZ^ on account
Name ^l/^m^O.^f'U^ )^Ch7>clMf
0. fe^^
Fig. 17. — A tobacco grower's contract. Fifteen hundred dollars is paid down to"_bind
the contract.
202 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
2. It is impossible to sell a crop on its merits. The tobacco is sold while
it is growing or even before it is planted, and no one can tell what the
quality of the crop will be after it is cured. It is simply a gamble; the
buyer gambles for the grower's crop, and he endeavors to set the price
sufficiently low to guarantee himself against loss.
3. It means frequent adjustments. Fifty per cent of the 1916 crop
bought on contract was delivered at a discount. This statement comes
from dealers and packers as well as farmers. The contract says that the
tobacco must be delivered in good merchantable condition, free from
water, damage and rubbish, when instructed by the buyer. This gives
the buyer a large leverage, and it is comparatively easy for him to take
the ground that a farmer's crop contains water or rubbish, and to dock
him from 3 to 5 cents per pound.
4. The farmer is tempted to take his tobacco down too soon, which
causes fatty stem; or he may sprinkle it to make it workable. The crop
has been sold and he wants the cash as soon as possible.
5. The contract is drawn up by the buyer and does not bind liim to
the extent it does the farmer. The buyer is bound only to the extent
that he must purchase the tobacco from the farmer, but not necessarily
at the price agreed upon in the contract. On the other hand, the fanner
must sell to the buyer even though he is docked 10 cents a pound; he
can sell to no one else. A case occurred in 1917 where a farmer resold
his tobacco to another buyer because of an advance in price. The first
buyer brought suit and won, and it cost the farmer a large sum of money
to get out of the difficulty.
6. Fifteen or twenty buyers in one locality or district at the same
time necessarily mean a waste of time. Instead of buyers traveling over
the valley for five or six months in the year, a much better plan would be
for them to wait until the crop is harvested, cured and sweated, and the
samples sent to some central seUing office in New York or Hartford,
where the buyers could collect and inspect the samples and leave orders
for the grades they desire. Such a method of sale could be accomplished
through a co-operative organization which would include the tobacco
growers of the entire Connecticut valley.
Collusion among Buyers.
There is a very strong feeling among tobacco growers that the buyers
have a working agreement or understanding among themselves as to the
general average of prices to be paid. This is naturally a diflicult matter
to prove, but, considering their associations, dinners and frequent meet-
ings, there is ground for the belief of the growers. It is reported that
buyers first go over the tobacco territory apparently with no intention of
purchasing. Occasionally a man will ask if they are buying tobacco, and
they answer, "No; why? Have you some to sell?" If the grower says,
"Yes," they ask his price; if it is high, they drive on, but if low, they
purchase his tobacco. A few crops are thus purchased in each locality,
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 203
and these low prices are made the basis for future purchases. Sometimes
a buj-er will offer a farmer a fair price for his tobacco and the offer will be
refused. A few days later a second buyer will come along and offer a price
just a little lower, and a third buj^er a price a little lower still. By this
time the grower is growing fearful that he cannot sell his crop, so lets
it go for a low price.
Apparently this is a scheme agreed upon bv the buj^ers. In 1915 one
man in the valley was offered 12 cents a pound for his tobacco, a little later
9 cents, and finally it sold for 6 cents. The quality of the crop was as
good when it was finally sold for 6 cents as it was when the first man offered
12 cents. Other growers report similar experiences. This has been the
practice in the Connecticut valley ever since the industry was established.
The farmer who has held for a good price has frequently been boycotted
by the buyers. Hence, reliable growers have had to sell crops of good
quality at a low figure just because their neighbors sold early and at a low
price.
This practice did not work well during the war because of the growing
scarcity of tobacco. The growers who sold late in the season got the best
prices. However, the old practice bids fair to be resumed just as soon as
the supply of tobacco has been sufficiently increased. In fact, the decline
in price, beginning about Oct. 1, 1918, was held by many to be due to the
determined effort on the part of buyers to depress the price. From Sep-
tember, 1918, through January, 1919, few farmers received any offer what-
ever for their crops. A few were offered 25 to 30 cents a pound for tobacco
for which formerly they had been offered 45 cents a pound.
Prices to Farmers.
As has been noted, tobacco is sold in the Connecticut valley by contract,
the buyer frequently contracting for the grower's crop while it is growing
or even before it is planted. This factor has probably been the main
reason why prices to the farmer have been comparatively low. The crop
has not been sold on its merits, and consequently the farmer has had to take
whatever the buyer offered him. Fig. 17 shows that the supply and price
of tobacco in New England bear very little relation to each other. For
example, during the years 1910-12 the supply gradually increased, likewise
the price. In 1912-13 the supply and the price quite uniformly decreased.
In 1914-15 the supply decreased and the price also decreased, but not with
any uniformity. The quality of the 1915 crop was, however, very poor.
The only years that show any normal relation between the supply and
price were 1904-05, 1913-14 and 1916-17. The great demand for tobacco
from 1916-17 is the chief reason for the rapidly advancing price.
Ordinarily when the supply increases the price decreases, and vice versa,
but no such relationship is exhibited in this figure. This is due partly to
the fact that tobacco can be held for a number of years, permitting only
slight fluctuations in prices. Partly, however, it is due to the fact that the
204 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
tobacco crop in competing areas may be large, wliile the Connecticut valley
crop is small. Partly, too, it may be due to imports, but no doubt it is also
in part attributable to the faulty method of sale.
1900 '<» "•*• ^ "*** '®5 '^ '*'^ S5& '0« 10 'IX 'XZ Ui 'X* 'iS '1,6 VIT '«
Fia. 18. — Production and farm prices of New England tobacco, 1900-18.
Prices of Connecticut valley tobacco have increased, however, since 1916,
reaching the maximum in July, 1918, with an increase of SO per cent over
1916. This increase was due to the great demand for low grades of leaf
tobacco, and the decrease of the better grades through injury by storm
and frost. The demand for low grades steadily raised the minimum price
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 205
until the price for average or binder goods naturally followed. The con-
tinued ravages of the elements during the growing season, culminating in
the fro,«t of September, 1917, naturally resulted in higher prices for the top
grades. It is estimated that 40 per cent of the Connecticut valley sui>-grown
was injured by hail, wind or frost, while the loss in shade-groTvm was
perhaps 3 per cent, nearly all caused by wind.
It would be difficult to indicate the average price for the 1917 crop be-
cause of damage by storm after contracts had been made in the field, and
because of the almost unheard-of prices paid for damaged tobacco. But it
is safe to say that prices ranged from 23 to 30 cents for the average run of
stalk-cut Havana seed on early contracts, with the average at 26 certs and
30 cents for the leaf sold late. Primed Havana crops sold for about 34
cents, with the range from 28 to 45 cents. Broadleaf sold around 30 cents,
with the range from 24 to 36 cents in the bundle, the latter price in South
Windsor, Conn., for crops contracted late. Shade tobacco on contract
ranged from 70 cents to $1.10 in bundles, 85 cents being the prevailing
price.
Prices prior to the war varied more or less from year to year. The crop
of 1915 was very poor in quality and of light weight, and prices were con-
sequently low, averaging only 14.5 cents in Massachusetts and 16.43 cents
in all New England.
The crop outlook varied in the other cigar leaf sections. The growing
conditions indicated in midsummer a 95 per cent normal crop in Pennsyl-
vania, an 80 per cent crop in Wisconsin, a 90 per cent crop in Ohio, and a
90 per cent crop in New York. Frost seriously damaged the Ohio crop,
striking also 30 per cent of Pennsjdvania acreage and 35 per cent of Wis-
consin acreage.
Binder shortage presented the greatest problem of the cigar industry.
Instead of 100,000 cases of binders wliich Wisconsin produces in normal
years, the 1917 crop did not produce more than 15,000 cases. About
48,000 acres were planted in 1917, and this compared favorably with the
average for the last five j^ears. The crop was planted under favorable
conditions, chiefly in the last part of June and the early part of July. A
period of extremely dry weather, the late planting and an earl}'' frost caused
Wisconsin to face a discouraging outlook for a fair yield of good bmders.
About 5,000 acres wf re cut by hail; about 7,000 acres were shredded before
the frost; about 26,000 acres were frozen, a small portion only yielding
some binders; and about 10,000 acres were badly frozen in the fields. A
late harvest and very poor curing weather added to the loss.
Tliis absolute scarcity of binders brought about unheard-of prices. The
manufacturers paid as much or more for birders in 1917 and early 1918 as
they did for wrappers two or three years ago. Not only is there a strong
demand for binders, but filler tobacco has increased in proportion more
than either binder or wrapper tobacco.
206 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Table 32. — Prices received by Farmers in the United States, 1899, 1909.^
States.
Average Value peh
Pound (Cents).
Average Value per
Acre.
1909.
1899.
1909.
1899.
New Hampshire,
13
15
$232 96
$256 15
Vermont,
11
15
169 09
272 61
Connecticut,
16
18
275 27
303 79
Massachusetts,
13
15
220 62
249 97
Florida
29
23
257 20
123 64
Georgia
20
14
146 75
69 30
New York,
08
08
97 96
103 67
Pennsylvania,
09
07
94 06
106 60
Ohio
10
07
84 51
68 10
Wisconsin,
08
06
95 28
85 67
Kentucky
10
06
84 86
48 19
South Carolina,
08
07
70 59
49 91
Virginia,
09
06
65 63
39 11
North Carolina,
10
06
62 41
39 59
Tennessee,
08
06
62 58
38 25
Maryland,
08
0.6
55 89
33 52
United States, average, .
10
07
$80 55
$51 74
United States Census, 1910.
Table 33. — Average Farm Price of Cigar Leaf per Pound, December 1
(Cents). ^
1900.
1905.
1910.
1915.
1917.
1918.
Connecticut
15
17.0
16.5
17.0
38.4
44.0
Massachusetts, ....
15
16.9
15.0
14.5
38.4
40.0
New York
8
10.5
8.5
9.5
22.0
30.0
Pennsylvania, ....
6
10.8
9.3
9.2
21.0
25.0
Ohio
7
8.4
8.5
9.0
25.0
27.0
Wisconsin
7
10.0
7.5
6.0
17.5
30.0
United States Department of Agriculture Yearbook.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 207
Table 34. — Average Farm Price of Cigar Leaf per Pound in the Connecticut
Valley {Cents).
Massachusetts.
New England.
1910,
15.0
12.91
1911
18.0
18.10
1912
20.9
21.06
1913,1
19.2
18.62
1914,'
17.7
18.32
1915,1
14.5
16.43
1916,1
18.0
19.20
1917,1
28.0
29.00
Average prices for the season obtained from growers.
Table 35. — Average Farm Prices per Pound in Massachusetts in 1916.
Franklin County.
Average on
12 Best Farms.
Average on
58 Farms.
Number of acres
9.10
6.71
Yield per acre (pounds),
1,610
1,541
Price per pound
$0.15
$0.13
Total receipts, . *
$2,235.00
$1,299.00
Hampshire County.
Average on
19 Best Farms.
Average on
83 Farms.
Number of acres
22.0
11.6
Yield per acre (pounds),
1,679
1,678
Price per pound,
$0,205
$0,187
Total receipts,
$7,527,000
$3,645,000
Hampden County.
Average on
10 Best Farms.
Average on
44 Farms.
Number of acres,
Yield per acre (pounds),
Price per pound,
Total receipts
18.20
1,751
$0.27
$8,613.00
9.05
1,724
$0,224
$3,506,000
Average price on 41 best farms, $0,208.
Average price on 185 farms, $0.18.
208 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Table 36. — Farmers' Prices in Leading Producing Areas in the Connecticut
Valley in 1917.
Per Pound
(Cents).
North Amherst, Mass., " 26
Sunderland, Mass., ............ 27
Hatfield, Mass 29
Hadley, Mass., 29
South Deerfield, Mass 27
Westfield, Mass 29
Average, 27.8
Windsor, Conn., 31
South Windsor, Conn 35
Broadbrook, Conn., . . 28
Suffield, Conn 30
Granby, Conn., 28
Average 29.8
Wholesale Prices of Connecticut Valley Wrappers and Binders.
The following is a list of prices quoted to manufacturers printed by one
of the largest leaf tobacco houses in the United States: —
Table 37. — Wholesale Prices of Connecticut Valley Wrappers and
February and March, 1918.
Connecticut Havana Seed Wrappers.
Lot No.
Quality.
Price per
Pound,
Actual
Weight.
197
Extra fancy, very light colors
$1 75
198
Fancy, packed Sumatra style,
1 25
199
Old-fashioned, sun-grown wrappers, medium colors, perfect burn.
1 50
200
The finest East Hartford, light colors
1 00
201
Extra fine, light colors, thin and silky,
90
202
Very fine, light colors, thin and silky
85
203
Very fine, light to medium colors,
75
206
Our leader in splendid value, medium colors
60
207
Medium to dark, leafy, fine quality and burn
Average
50
$1 01
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 209
Table 37. — Wholesale Prices of Connecticut Valley Wrappers and Binders
February and March, 1918 — Concluded.
Connecticut Broadleaf Wrappers.
Lot No.
Quality.
Price per
Pound,
Actual
Weight.
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
Finest ever grown; fancy light,
The limit of good quality
Perfect Havana colors, finest quality grown,
Very fine, Havana colors, perfect quality
Extra fine, brown Havana colors
Fine light to medium Havana colors,
Very fine, dark brown colors, strictly quality,
Rich Havana colors,
Average,
$1 50
1 25
1 15
1 00
90
75
90
75
$1 02
Connecticut Primed Wrappers.
The very finest, light, primed wrappers.
Extra fine, light, primed wrappers
Very fine, light, primed wrappers, . . . .
Our leader in fine, light, primed wrappers, .
Light to medium primed wrappers, . . . .
Extra fine, medium to light, "workers,"
Average
Connecticut Havana Seed Binders.
onnecticut binders grown, .
s, light colors, SufBeld-grown, 22 t
ppers.
ord seconds, full and thin,
•d seconds, thin and silky,
rd binders, slightly broken,
wrappers
binders,
Connecticut Broadleaf Binders.
The very finest binders, a fine grade of seconds, .
Fine South Windsor, full of light, medium wrappers,
Fancy seconds
Fine seconds, quality the best, ....
Fine quality, very leafy binders, ....
Connecticut broadleaf top leaves, fine quality fillers.
Average,
$3 00
2 50
2 00
1 50
1 00
75
$1 79
239
The very finest Connecticut binders grown
$0 68
240
241
Extra fine, seconds, light colors, SuflSeld-grown, 22 to 24 inches, con-
tains many wrappers.
Fancy East Hartford seconds, full and thin,
65
60
242
Fine East Hartford seconds, thin and silky,
50
246
Good East Hartford binders, slightly broken
35
248
Medium to dark wrappers
50
249
Same, thin, leafy binders
Average
40
$0 52
210 MASS. EXPEKIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Another large cigar leaf tobacco house quoted practically the same
prices to the manufacturers. These houses deal in good quality leaf, so
that these prices are probably slightly higher than the average price paid by
the manufacturer. Below is a list of wholesale prices obtained by inter-
viewing the tobacco manufacturers in the valley, and from prices quoted
by the Tobacco Merchants' Association of New York. These prices are
certainly none too high, and presumably represent the average price paid
by the manufacturer to the dealer for cigar leaf tobacco.
Table 38. — Wholesale Prices of Havana Seed and Broadleaf.
Year 1915-16: —
Light wrappers,
Medium wrappers,
Dark wrappers.
Spring of 1917: —
Light wrappers.
Medium wrappers.
Dark wrappers.
Fall and Winter, 1917:
Light wrappers.
Medium wrappers.
Dark wrappers.
Seconds, .
Brokens, .
Spring of 1918: —
Light wrappers,
Medium wrappers.
Dark wrappers.
Seconds, .
Brokens, .
Pri.
e
PerP(
und.
$0 60-$0 70
35-
45
Average .46.
.30-
35 J
70-
80]
45-
55
■ Average .55.
35-
45j
1 00-
1 25
60-
70
Average .75 for light, medium and dark;
40-
55
- average .585 for light, medium, dark
35-
45
seconds and brokens.
25-
30 J
25-
1 35'
70-
80
60-
70
45-
55
30-
35
Average .90 for light, medium and dark;
average .705 for light, medium, dark,
seconds and brokens.
The above table shows clearly the rise in the wholesale prices of Havana
seed and broadleaf tobacco from 1915 to 1918. The 1918 prices were just
double those of 1915-16, yet the price to the farmer increased only 51 per
cent, being about 40 per cent more than the price in 1916. The farmer sold
his tobacco at from 25 to 30 cents a pound, and this same tobacco, deduct-
ing the loss in sweating and shrinkage, and 11 cents per pound for packing,
making the cost to the dealer 43 to 48 cents a pound, was sold to the manu-
facturer for an average of 71 cents for all grades.
Sun-grown Tobacco: Analysis of "Spread," Grower to Manufacturer.
The table below gives the cost of marketing a pound of tobacco from
the farmer to the manufacturer. Most of the tobacco is sold by the packer,
or, theoretically, by the dealer whom the packer represents, directly to
the manufacturer. This table shows the profits when sold by the dealer
directly to the manufacturer. The farmer whose cost of production was
ascertained received in 1917-18, for tobacco in the bundle, 29 cents a
pound. It cost the landowner 23.7 cents and the tenant 26 cents per pound
to produce the tobacco. The profit to the landowner was 5.3 cents and to
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 211
the tenant 3 cents per pound. The dealer's cost of packing and selUng,
including the packer's salary and commission for bujdng, was 12 cents per
pound. Adding to this the 29 cents paid the farmer we have a total cost
to the dealer of 41 cents per pound. The average price received by the
dealer per pound of tobacco was 71 cents. Hence the dealer's " profit "
was 30 cents a pound. Naturally this situation cannot be continued in-
definitely. These were war years. Moreover, there were many variations.
Table 39. — Sun-grown Tobacco, 1917. Estimated Average Cost and
Spread per Pound, Grower to Manufacturer.
Land-
owner.
Tenant.
Percentage
of
Farm Price.
Percentage
of Manufac-
turer's Cost.
Farmer: —
Cost of production,
SO. 237
$0.26
Land-
owner. Tenant.
81.7 89.7
Land-
owner. Tenant.
33.2 36.4
Farmer's margin
.053
.03
18.3 10.3
7.4 4.2
Farmer's selling price
$0,290
$0.29
100.0
40.6
Dealer: -
Salary of packer and buying commission,
.0067
.0067
2.4
1.0
Cost of packing and selling.
.1130
.1130
39.0
15.8
Dealer's margin over costs,
.3000
.3000
103.5
42.0
Dealer's selling price: —
60 per cent of crop at 90]
cents per pound.
25 per cent of crop at 50 1 . veraee
cents per pound. ( average,
15 per cent of crop at 33
cents per pound.
.71
.71
244.9
99.4
Broker's commission $1.50 per case,
.004
.004
1.4
.6
Manufacturer pays
.714
.714
246.3
100.0
In the last analysis each tobacco handler pays his expenses and takes his
profits out of the tobacco he handles. If we think of these items being
paid in tobacco rather than in money the above facts may be presented
from a different point of view. The farmer delivers to the local packer a
case of tobacco of 350 pounds. The local packer or dealer takes the equiv-
alent of 203 pounds, which represents the cost of packing, sweating, shrink-
age, storage, transportation and other expenses from the time the tobacco
reaches his hands until he receives his final check. The amount delivered
to the wholesale distributor is 147 pounds. The wholesale distributor
takes 30 pounds of the 147, so that the manufacturer receives only 117
pounds. The difference between 350 and 117 pounds, or 233 pounds,
represents the cost of marketing tobacco in its natural or unmanufactured
state. In other wor ds, the manufacturer pays as much for 117 pounds as
212 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
the grower receives for 350 pounds. The wholesale distributor is included
in the chain of middlemen because he handles a considerable amount of
tobacco.
Distribution of price receivec
for case of 350 ITds . of
tolDacco. 1917.
Manufacturer pays $248.50
Dealer's margin over expenses
of sorting, casing, shrinkage,
storing and selling
Dealer's ♦•profit*' $105
Total expenses of hajidlmg,
packing and selling
Dealer's expense $42
Landowner's profit — $18.55
Cost of pro duct ion- -$82. 9 5
Farmer receives $101.50
Fig. 19.— Sun-grown tobacco. Analysis of spread between grower and manufacturer on case
of 350 pounds, 1917. Needless to say the figures are assumptions based on averages.
Farmers' Prices for Shade-grown Tobacco.
The shade-grown industry is peculiar in that the crop is largely produced
by large syndicates and manufacturers. The American Sumatra Company
has 1,500 acres in shade tobacco in Connecticut and Massachusetts. This,
company raises its own tobacco, sorts, packs and sells directly to manufac-
turers. The same is true of practically all the large sjoidicates. As
previously stated, tobacco grown on contract by the farmer in 1917 ranged
from 75 cents to $1.10 in the bundle, with the bulk at 85 cents. The range
for the previous years was from 60 to 80 cents a pound, with the average,
at about 70 cents.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 213
Wholesale Prices for Shade-groivn Tobacco.
The wholesale prices of shade-grown tobacco from 1915 to 1917 reported
by the Tobacco Merchants' Association, and secured through a personal
interview with the tobacco manufacturers, are given in the following
list: —
Per Pound.
Finest grade, 1915 crop, . . . . . . . . $2 00 to $2 75
Finest grade, 1916 crop, 2 00 to 3 00
Light to medium, 1916 crop, ....... 75
Medium bright, 1916 crop 1 00
Fancy medium brown, 1916 crop, . . . . . . 1 15
Finest grade, 1917 crop, . . . . . . . . 3 75
Fancy medium browTi, 1917 crop, . . . . . . 3 50
Medium bright, 1917 crop, . . . . . . . 3 00
Light to medium, 1917 crop, . . . . . . . 2 00
Extra fine, light color, 1917 crop, . . . . . . 1 75
Fine, medium to light, 1917 crop, . . . . . . 1 50
It is difficult for the farmer who raises shade tobacco on contract at the
present time to make any profit. The cost of production for 1916 has been
estimated at 75 cents a pound for the man with an established business,
and SI a pound for the beginner. The large syndicates who raise, sort and
pack their own tobacco and sell it directly to the manufacturer secure for
themselves all profits between the producer and manufacturer, with an
especially big profit on the shade-grown. But the large claims of clearing
from $1 to $1.50 per pound on shade tobacco must be taken with some
qualifications. The high cost of cloth, labor and supplies cuts deeply into
the profits by greatly increasing the cost. On tobacco contracted by the
farmer for from 65 cents to $1 a pound the dealer now clears about $1,000
per acre.
During 1917 Sumatra cost the manufacturer from $6 to $7 a pound, after
adding the duty of $1.85 a pound. The large manufacturers claim that the
Connecticut shade-grown is equally good, if not better, for wrapper pur-
poses than the imported Sumatra.
Coroperation in Marketing Tobacco.
The Connecticut valley produces a wrapper leaf of superior quality,
but so long as the method of sale by contract prevails, wastes and abuses
are sure to occur. The only way whereby farmers will be able to realize
a fair profit from their crop is through some form of co-operation, and few
industries are so well adapted to co-operative organization as the tobacco
industry. The acreage is large and fairly unified, making organization
rather easy. Yet up to 1917 notliing had been done along this line in the
Connecticut valley, and very little has been accompUshed in other states.
In the South tobacco is sold by auction, and uniform warehouse receipts
are issued to the farmers. This method of sale has been very satisfactory,
each farmer's crop being sold on its merits. The warehouse receipts enable
214 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
the farmers to borrow monej^ from any national bank to tide them over
during the growing season.
There are 53 tobacco associations in the United States, 21 of which are
in the State of Kentucky, 8 in Connecticut, 7 in Ohio, 5 in North Carolina,
5 in Virginia and 2 in Massachusetts. Of the 49 tobacco associations from
which information was obtained as to the type of organization, only 17
are co-operative, the other 32 being joint stock companies.
Of the strictly co-operative associations 8 are in Connecticut, and 2 each
in Massachusetts, Virginia and Kentucky. One of the Connecticut
organizations has been in existence for some time, but the other 7 were
organized very recently, the crop of 1918 being the first handled co-opera-
tively.
The tobacco growers of the Massachusetts districts discussed the ques-
tion of organization for some time, but no organizations were effected till
the early part of 1919. Two associations are now in operation, one in the
Hampden district and one in the Hatfield district. The matter is still
under consideration in the Sunderland district, no association having as
yet been formed.
These organizations control about 20 per cent of the total tobacco acreage
of the Connecticut valley, and it is predicted that this proportion will soon
be considerably increased.
The by-lav/s of one of these organizations are given in Appendix I.
The various co-operative associations of the tobacco growers of the
Connecticut valley are federated into what is known as The Connecticut
Valley Tobacco Growers, Incorporated, with headquarters in Hartford,
Conn. The purposes of this federation are to supply an efficient selling
agency for the member associations, to widen and improve the market
for Connecticut valley tobacco, to establish uniform grades, to assist its
members in standardization of the product, and to act as agent for the
members in the purchase of supplies.
The by-laws of The Connecticut Valley Tobacco Growers, Incorporated,
appear as Appendix II.
The warehouses of the 7 co-operative associations in Ohio are capitalized
at 110,000 each, with twenty-five to seventy-five stockholders. Each
handles the tobacco of from 150 to 200 growers, representing from 250,000
to 300,000 pounds per year. The best system in operation is probably that
at Covington, Ky. In this company thirty-five stockholders own the
building. These men pay no dues for having their tobacco worked, and
dividends amounting merely to the interest are paid. In addition there
are 150 members of the company who pay dues of $2 per year and a com-
mission of 1^ cents per poimd for having their tobacco worked. All patrons
must be members of the Cigar Leaf Growers' Union. The company
claims to have raised the price to the growers 2 cents per pound in normal
years without any appreciable increase in the market price. The manager
is bonded at $3,000. The growers are paid when the tobacco is sold. At.
the Troy warehouse one-half of the amount due is advanced at a discount
of 7 per cent.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 215
Table 40. — Number of Tohacco-&elling Associations in the United States,
classified by States and Typc.^
State.
NuMBEK OF Tobacco Associations.
Total.
Co-operative.
Joint-stock.
Unknown.
Massachusetts
Connecticut
Virginia
North Carolina, ....
Ohio
Kentucky
Other States,
8
1
2
2
3
3
7
17
2
1
1
2
8
5
5
7
21
5
Totals
17
32
4
53
1 Data for states outside of the Connecticut valley from United States Department of Agri-
culture Bulletin No. 547.
Recommendations.
After a careful study of the tobacco industry in the valley, the following
recommendations are offered: —
1. There should be in'the hands of the farmers more general and definite
information concerning the production (acreage, condition and yields) of
tobacco. Farmers need to know the condition of the cigar leaf crop in all
the cigar leaf producing states.
2. The grower should have more exact information on market conditions
and prices to guide him in selling his crop.
3. A government reporter should be stationed in the valley to report
weekly on the condition of the market and the prices. A weekly news
letter should be sent to each tobacco farmer and dealer in the valley. This
information should also be published in the newspapers.
4. Some improvements in sales methods are needed whereby the crop
can be sold on its merits. The contract method of sale is fair neither to
the buyer nor to the grower. The tobacco is sold while it is growing,
or before it is planted, and no one can predict with certainty the quality of
the crop. It is simply a gamble; the buyer gambles for the growers' crop,
and he sets the price low enough to safeguard himself from loss.
Tobacco should be handled co-operatively by farmers, as described on
page 213. This would permit each crop to be sold on its merits, and would
eliminate some useless middlemen.
5. Farmers should be encouraged to keep cost accounts of production.
Not one farmer in a hundred knows what it costs him to grow a crop of
tobacco.
6. Every tobacco grower in the valley should take at least one good
tobacco journal. The following journals are satisfactory: "The Tobacco
216 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Leaf," published in New York, "The United States Tobacco Journal,"
published in New York, and "The Western Tobacco Journal," published
in Cincinnati.
7. The tobacco growers should make more use of the various agencies
which are in a position to assist them in producing and marketing their
product, such as: —
(1) The United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.
This office has tobacco specialists who will gladly assist in testing soils
and furnishing information on the production of tobacco, and control of
diseases and pests. This department publishes from time to time bulle-
tins v/hich the farmer should have, and which will be furnished free of
charge.
(2) The Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, State House, Bos-
ton, Mass. This Department is interested in the production of farm crops
in the state, and will gladly assist anj^ farmer to obtain information
concerning legislation and regulations dealing with diseases, pests, soils,
fertilizers, etc. This information will be furnished from headquarters
through reports, bulletins or correspondence.
(3) The Massachusetts Agricultural College, Amherst, Mass. The
Agricultural Experiment Station and the Extension Service will assist
growers m the production, handling and marketing of their crops. The
Experiment Station has a tobacco specialist who is aiding the farmers in
many ways along lines of production, soil and plant diseases, fertiUzers,
cover crops and the like. From the Extension Service a specialist on
marketing and farmers' co-operative organizations will furnish informa-
tion on marketing or assist in organizing farmers' co-operative purchasing
and selling associations.
(4) The county farm bureaus. Each county has a farm bureau, work-
ing in co-operation with the United States Department of Agriculture and
the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which is interested in the produc-
tion and marketing of farm crops within the county. These bureaus will
gladly aid individual tobacco growers in methods of production and
handling their crops. Such information will be furnished by correspond-
ence, personal interviews, demonstrations or reports.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Andrews, Frank. Costs of hauling Crops from Farms to Shipping Points. U. S.
D. A., Bur. Stat. Bui. 49, 1907.
Bache, Rene. The Great Tobacco Strike. In Technical World, Vol. VI, No. 6,
February, 1907.
Billings, E. R. Tobacco. Its History, Varieties, Culture, Manufacture and
Commerce. Hartford, Conn., 1873.
Bohannan, C. D., and Campbell, D. P. A Preliminary Study of the Marketing
of Burley Tobacco in Central Kentucky. Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 202, 1916.
Brennan, W. A. Tobacco leaves. Menasha, Wis., 1915.
Clay, Green. What I learned selling Tobacco. In Country Gentleman, Vol. 76,
No. 3061, Sept. 28, 1911.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 217
FiPPiN, E. O. Soil Survey of the Connecticut Valley. Washington, 1903.
Fkear, W., and Hibshman, E. K. Cost of Production of Lancaster County Filler
Tobaccos. Annual report of the Pennsylvania State College for the year 1908—
09. Pa. Agr. Exp. Sta., 1909.
Freeman, W. G., and Chandler, S. E. The World's Commercial Products.
London, 1907.
Garner, W. W. The Present Status of the Tobacco Industry. U. S. D. A., Bur.
Plant Indus., Cir. 48, 1910.
Garner, W. W. Tobacco Culture. U. S. D. A., Farmers' Bui. 571, 1914.
Garner, W. W. Tobacco Curing. U. S. D. A., Farmers' Bui. 523, 1913.
Gilmore, E. H. History of Tobacco. Washington, 1878.
Harvesting and curing the Tobacco Crop. The Farmer. March 6, 1915.
Huebner, G. G. Agricultural Commerce; The Organization of American Com-
merce in Agricultural Commodities. New York, 1915.
The Infant Tobacco Industry of Minnesota. The Farmer. Jan. 23, 1915.
Jacobstein, Meyer. The Tobacco Industry in the United States. Columbia
University Studies in History, Economics and Public Law, Vol. XXVI, No. 3,
1907.
Jenkins, E. H. Studies on the Tobacco Crop of Connecticut. Conn. Agr. Exp.
Sta. Bui. 180, 1914.
Killebrew, J. P. Tobacco Districts and Types. U. S. D. A., Bur. Stat., Cir.
18, 1909.
Killebrew, J. P. Tobacco Report, July 1, 1911. U. S. D. A., Cir. 22, 1911.
Killebrew, J. P., and Myrick, Herbert. Tobacco Leaf: Its Culture and Cure,
Marketing and Manufacture. New York, 1897.
Lock, C. G. W. Tobacco: Growing, Curing and Manufacturing. New York,
1886.
LoEW, Oscar. Curing and Fermentation of Cigar Leaf Tobacco. U. S. D. A.,
Report 59, 1899.
McNess, G. T., Mathewson, E. H., and Anderson, B. G. The Improvement of
Fire-cured Tobacco. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 166, 1907.
McNess, G. T., Mathewson, E. H., and Anderson, B. G. The Improvement of
Virginia Fire-cured Tobacco. U. S. D. A., Bur. Soils, Bui. 46, 1907.
Massachusetts Bureau of Statistics of Labor. Census of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts.
Mathews, J. L, Agrarian Pooling in Kentucky. In Charities and the Commons,
Vol. 20, May 2, 1908.
Mathews, J. L. The Farmers' Union and the Tobacco Pool. In Atlantic Monthly,
Vol. 102, p. 482, October, 1908.
Mathewson, E. H. The Culture of Flue-cured Tobacco. U. S. D. A., Bui. 16,
1913.
Mathewson, E. H. The Export and Manufacturing Tobaccos of the United
States, with Brief Reference to Cigar Types. U. S. D. A., Bur. Plant Indus.,
Bui. 244, 1912.
Mathewson, E. H. Summary of Ten Years' Experiments with Tobacco. Va.
Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 205, 1914.
Mathewson, E. H. Tobacco Marketing in the United States. U. S. D. A., Bur.
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Mathewson, E. H. Work at the Tobacco Stations. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 183,
1909.
Mathewson, E. H., Anderson, B. G., and Cocke, R. P. Co-operative Tobacco
Investigations. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta., Bui. 175, 1908.
New England Homestead. Springfield, Mass.
New England Tobacco Grower. Vols. 1-8, March, 1902, to December, 1905.
Hartford, Conn.
New York Chamber of Commerce. Annual reports. New York.
218 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Odlum, G. M. The Culture of Tobacco. Dept. Agr., Salisbury, Southern Rhodesia.
London, 1905.
ScHERFFirrs, W. H., and Woosley, H. Tobacco: 1. Cultivation; 2. Curing; 3.
Marketing. Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bui. 139, 1909.
Singer, C. The Early History of Tobacco. In Quarterly Review, August, 1913.
Smith, J. R. Industrial and Commercial Geography. New York, 1913.
Taeusch, C. F. Rural Co-operation and Co-operative Marketing in Ohio, 1913.
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Tobacco Leaf. New York.
United States Bureau of Corporations. Report on the Tobacco Industry. Part
I, Position of the Tobacco Combination in the Industry, 1909; Part II, Cap-
italization, Investment and Earnings, 1911; Part III, Prices, Costs and Profits,
1915.
United States Bureau of Foreign and Domestic Commerce. Department of Com-
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United States Commissioner of Internal Revenue. Annual reports.
United States Department of Agriculture. Monthly crop reporter.
United States Department of Agriculture. Tobacco crop of the United States,
1612-1911. Cir. 33, 1912.
United States Department of Agriculture. Yearbook. Appendix. 1915, 1916.
United States Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Reports. 1880,
1890, 1900, 1910.
United States Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Stocks of leaf
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United States Tobacco Journal. New York.
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Western Tobacco Journal. Cincinnati, Ohio.
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2d rev. ed. 1902.
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II, 1898.
Whitney, Milton, and Floyd, M. L. Growth of the Tobacco Industry. U. S.
D. A., Yearbook, 1899.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 219
Appendix I
BY-IJ\.WS OF THE HAMPSHIRE COUNTY TOBACCO GROWERS,
INCORPORATED.
Article I.
Name and Membership.
Section 1. The name of this corporation shall be the Hampshire
County Tobacco Growers', Incorporated. Its principal office shall be
located at Hadley, Mass.
Section 2. The voting membership of this corporation shall be con-
fined to persons actually engaged in tobacco production at points tributary
to the shipping stations of the corporation, who sell their products through
the corporation, who have been approved as eligible candidates for mem-
bership by a majority vote of the directors, and who have paid their
membership fees in full and agreed to conform to the provisions of the
by-laws. No one who in the opinion of the directors is a professional
buyer of tobacco shall be eligible to membership.
Section 3. Any member who in the opinion of the board of directors
ceases to be a producer shall be dropped by a majority vote of the directors,
but such action shall not invalidate any legitimate charges or .accounts
which the corporation has against the member so dropped. Such charges
shall be a lien on any funds due the member from the corporation and on
any loan notes required of the member by the by-laws of the corporation.
A member dropped in this manner shall forthwith lose voting privilege in
the corporation.
Section 4. Any member who violates his contract with the corpora-
tion may be expelled from membership in the corporation by a two-thirds
majority vote of those present at any regular called meeting of the corpo-
ration, pro^dded that notice of such proposed action was mailed to the
person so dropped at least five days before date of such meeting, and
provided that opportunitj' was given to the accused member to defend
himself personally or by counsel and witnesses before such vote is taken.
The financial conditions set forth in the preceding paragraph shall also
apply in the case of a member expelled from the corporation.
Article II.
Purposes.
Section 1. The purposes of this corporation shall be to produce, sort,
grade, pack, manufacture, sell, transport, store, market and otherwise
handle for sale tobacco and other farm products; to secure and employ
220 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
laborers and supervise labor contracts and conditions in the growing terri-
tory covered by this corporation; to own, lease, buy, buUd and otherwise
acquire title to buildings, machinery and other property; to hold, use and
operate the same for any lawful purpose; to buy, sell, transport, store,
manufacture or otherwise deal or trade in food products, agricultural
products or requirements, or any other products, animals, goods, articles
or materials; to acquire any other rights, engage in any business, perform
anj' other lawful acts or take any measures that the corporation may deem
advisable for the purposes of protecting the property of the corporation or
carrying into effect the foregoing purposes or furthering the interests of
agriculture or country life.
Article III.
Board of Directors and Other Officers.
Section 1. The board of directors of this corporation shall consist of
seven members divided into three classes. They shall be chosen by ballot
by majority vote of those present and voting at the regular annual meeting
of the corporation. At their first meeting the members shall elect three
directors of the first class for a term of one year, or until next annual meet-
ing; two directors of the second class for a term of two years, or until the
second annual meeting; and two directors of the third class for a term of
three years, or until the third annual meeting. At the expiration of the
terms of the directors so elected their successors shall be chosen in like
manner for terms of three years. Directors shall hold office until their
successors have been elected and qualified.
Section 2. Within ten days following their election, and each annual
election, the board of directors shall meet and elect by ballot from their
own number a president and vice-president, whose terms shall be for one
year. The board of directors may also appoint a manager, who may be the
clerk or treasurer of the corporation.
Section 3. Four members of the board of directors shall constitute
a quorum to do business at any meeting of the board.
Section 4. The other officers shall be a clerk, a treasurer, and a com-
mittee of audit of three members. They shall be elected by ballot at the
annual election by the qualified voters from their own number. They
shall hold office for one year and until their successors have been elected
and qualified.
Section 5. Any director or officer of the corporation may, for cause,
at any annual meeting or at any special meeting called for the purpose, at
which a majority of the members shall be present, be removed from office
by vote of not less than two-thirds of the members present. Such director
or ofP-cer shall be informed in writing of the charges at least five (5) days
before such meeting, and at such meeting shall have an opportunity to
be heard in person, by counsel, and by witnesses, in regard thereto.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 221
Article IV.
Vacancies.
Section 1. If a vacancy occur in the board of directors, it shall be
the duty of the president to call a special meeting of the corporation to
fill such vacancy, and such director shall hold office until Us successor is
elected and qualified.
Section 2. Other vacancies shall be filled by the directors at their
first meeting after such vacancy occurs.
Article V.
Meetings.
Section 1. The annual meeting of the members of this corporation
shall be held in Hadley, Mass., at a place designated by the board of direc-
tors, on the second Wednesday in April, at 1 1 o'clock a.m.
Section 2. One-fifth of the voting members shall constitute a quorum
to do business at the annual or any special meeting.
Section 3. At the annual meeting reports shall be presented in writing
by the board of directors, the regular officers, manager, the committee of
audit, and other committees; directors, a clerk, a treasurer and a com-
mittee of audit shall be elected for the ensuing year. Such other business
as may properly come before the meeting shall be transacted.
Section 4. Special meetings of the corporation may be called by the
president or board of directors, and shall be called within seven days from
receipt of written petition of seven members. The president shall give the
members written notice of all annual or special meetings at least seven days
previous to the date of such meeting, stating the purpose for which the
meeting is called.
Section 5. The directors shall hold regular meetings to consider the
business of the corporation on the first Saturday of each month at Hadley,
Mass. Special meetings of the board of directors shall be held on call of
the president, or within seven days from receipt of written petition of three
members of the board. The president shall give the members of the board
four days' notice of such meetings. The directors shall receive no remun-
eration for their services except that the clerk and treasurer may receive
such compensation as may be determined by the corporation.
Section 6. The fiscal year of this corporation shall begin April 1, and
end the following March 31.
Article VI.
Duties of Officers.
Section 1 . The president shall preside at all meetings of the directors
or members of the corporation, call all meetings of the board of directors
and special meetings of the corporation except as otherwise provided, pre-
serve order, sign all orders regularly passed bv the board of directors and
222 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
attested by the clerk or manager, and perform all other duties appertaining
to bis office, or any other assigned him by the corporation. The president
shall have no vote at any meeting except in case of tie.
Section 2. It shall be the duty of the vice-president to perform the
duties of the president in his absence, or when for any reason the office of
president may become vacant.
Section 3. The clerk shall keep a record of the proceedings of all meet-
ings of the members and of the directors. He shall keep the corporate seal
of the corporation and shall be custodian of all books, papers and other
valuable instruments belonging to the organization. He shall keep all
books of the issuance and withdrawal of certificates of membership and
affix the seal of the corporation; he shall serve all notices and make all
reports required by law or by the by-laws, and perform such other duties
as may be required of him by the corporation or the board of directors.
Section 4. The treasurer shall receive all money due or paid to the
corporation and deposit it as the directors may instruct; and pay out said
funds upon his own order, countersigned by the president. He shall make
full and detailed report of tl^e financial condition of the corporation at the
annual meeting of each 3'ear, and at such other times as called upon by
vote of the members. He shall give bond in a sum and form to be approved
by the board of directors, for the faithful performance of his duties and as
surety for the funds, books, papers and other instruments of the corpora-
tion which may be placed in his custody. The cost of such bond may be
borne by the corporation.
Section 5. The directors shall have general control and direction of
the business and affairs of the corporation; they shall make all necessary
rules and regulations for the management of tbe corporation and the guid-
ance of the officers and employees; they shall perfonn all duties assigned
them by the by-laws of the corporation. The directors may, by a majority
vote, appoint or discharge any employee of the corporation, determine the
duties of officers and employees, and fix their compensation, except as
limited by the members. The directors may delegate the employment or
discharge of laborers, agents or other emploj^ees to the manager.
Section 6. The manager shall have entire charge of the marketing and
handling of the products of the corporation, of purchases made by the
corporation for the members, and of the daily business transactions of the
corporation subject to the oversight and super\dsion of the board of direc-
tors and the provisions of the by-laws and the growers' contracts. He
shall have charge of the grading, packing, inspection, marketing, labeling
and advertising of the products handled by the corporation. He shall
supervise the making and execution of labor and crop contracts, and shall
enforce tlieir provisions. He shall assist in securing and furnishing to the
members such market and crop information as they may desire concerning
the products marketed by the corporation, and shall perform such other
duties as the corporation or its directors may require. He shall attend
the meetings of the board of directors and shall have the same right to
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 223
originate and propose motions and amendments and to participate in
deliberations as a director, but he shall have no vote in that body.
All pa>anents over $'5 made by the manager for purchases and general
expenses shall be made by check signed by him and countersigned by the
treasurer. He shall keep permanent record of all his business transactions.
The manager shall be required to give bond in a sum and form to be
approved by the board of directors for the faithful performance of his
duties, and as surety for the funds and property of the corporation which
may be placed in his custody. The cost of such bond may be borne by the
corporation.
Article VII.
Committee of Audit and Accounts.
Section 1. A committee of audit, consisting of three members, shall
be elected by ballot at the annual meeting of the corporation. Officers and
directors of the corporation shall be ineligible to membership on said
committee.
Section 2. It shall be the duty of the committee of audit to examine
and audit the books of the corporation at least twice a year, to report their
findings to the board of directors, and to examine and audit the books, and
report at such other times as may be ordered by the directors or by vote
of the corporation. An audit by a competent accountant shall be made
prior to each annual meeting and presented in detail at that meeting.
Section 3. The corporation shall install an adequate system of ac-
counts and provide such accounting equipment as may be necessary to
conduct the business in a safe and satisfactory manner.
Article VIII.
Membership Certificates and Fees.
Section 1. Upon entering the corporation and paying its membership
fee the corporation shall issue to each member a certificate of membership
signed by the secretary and countersigned by the president. Certificates
of membership shall not be transferable.
Section 2. Each member shall pay in advance to the corporation a
membership fee, and annual dues determined by the board of directors.
Section S. Any member may withdraw from the corporation a;,, any
time between the first day of February and the first day of April following,
provided that his indebtedness to the corporation is fully paid. Such
withdrawal shall not affect any right or any lien which the corporation has
against such member or his property.
Section 4. Any member, having a grievance or complaint against the
corporation, may appeal to the board of directors or to the members at
any regular or special meeting. No memiber shall be suspended or expelled
or deprived of the benefits of the corporation without first having charges
preferred agairist him, reasonable notice thereof having been given, and
a hearing before the board of directors ha^ang been duly held.
224 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Article IX.
Funds and Indebtedness.
Skction 1. All funds belonging to this corporation shall be deposited
in a bank or banks designated for the purpose by the board of directors.
Section 2. The amount of indebtedness which may be incurred by or
on behalf of this corporation shall at no time exceed $50,000.
Section 3. The expenses of operating the corporation shall be met
by a uniform percentage charge laid upon returns for produce sold or by a
unL*'orm fixed commission per package, and by a percentage charge upon
supplies purchased, the amount of such charge to be fixed by the board of
directors.
Article X.
Supplies.
Section 1. Merchandise or supplies may be ordered through the cor-
poration by the members, and all business so transacted shall be conducted
on a cash basis or on credit arranged for through some bank approved by
the board of directors at the date of ordering.
Section 2. Supplies shall be sold to members of the corporation at
prices determined b> the board of directors.
Article XL
Voting and Earnings.
Section 1. The voting membership of the corporation shall consist of
tliose members who have paid in full their dues and fees and have satisfied
any other obligations due the corporation and who have signed growers'
contracts for the current year. Other persons who have paid their mem-
bership fees and dues, but who have not signed contracts for the current
season, may retain their membership in the organization, but shall have
no vote.
Section 2. Each member of the corporation shall have one vote and
one only. Proxy voting shall not be permitted.
Section 3. The net receipts accruing from the business of the corpora-
tion shall be distributed on the pro rata basis of business of the members
transacted through the corporation.
Article XII.
Capital.
Section 1. In order to provide capital for current needs and for the
transaction of the necessary business of the corporation each member shall
deliver to the corporation a negotiable promissory note payable on demand
to the order of the corporation. Such note shall be for the sum of $50 and
an additional $10 for each acre of tobacco to be grown by the maker to be
marketed through the corporation. In no case shall this note be for a sum
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 225
less than $60. Such note may be given at the time of joining the corpora-
tion, or at any time thereafter when called upon by the board of directors.
Section 2. The board of directors may pledge these notes as collateral
security for any loan that may be necessary for conducting the business of
the corporation. The note of any member may be available in settlement
of any liquidated damage that may result from the failure of a member to
live up to his contract with the corporation.
Section 3. lor the purpose of buying, leasing or constructing land,
warehouses or other necessary buildings, or in providing machinery or
equipment, the board of directors may require each member to loan to the
corporation an amoimt, to be determined by the board but based on acreage
of tobacco, not less than $5 nor more than $15 in cash per acre during one
year. Such loans may be required at the time of uniting with the corpo-
ration or at any time thereafter. They shall draw interest at the rate of
5 per cent per annum.
Such loans shall be repaid from a special loan fund collected by levying
a percentage assessment on the produce sold and the supplies bought
through the exchange, the amount of such percentage to be fixed by the
board of directors; but not more than one-fifth of the entire loan and
interest thereon shall be paid in any one year.
Article XIII.
Contracts.
Section 1. Every member of the corporation shall enter into a con-
tract with the corporation in the form required by the board of directors.
Such contract shall provide that the member appoints the corporation his
sales agent, to handle all products grown by him for sale or purchased for
his use, or such part thereof as shall be satisfactory to the board of direc-
tors, and obligates himself to deliver such products for sale at the time and
place which the corporation directs. Said contracts shall run continuously
unless cancelled by the member on April 1 of any year by giving written
notice to the corporation at least sixty days prior to said date that he
desires to cancel his contract, subject to any indebtedness due from him
to the corporation, and by delivering his copy of the contract to the corpo-
ration on or before April 1. Said canceling of contract shall not apply to
the previous year's crop.
Section 2. On or before April 1 of each year each member shall report
to the corporation the number of acres of products to be grown by him and
to be marketed through the corporation. During the year each member
shall furnish such information concerning the products pledged to the
corporation as may be requested by the manager.
The directors may authorize increases or decreases in the acreage re-
ported by any member, as required by this section.
Section 3. In case any member is offered a price in excess of the price
then obtainable by the corporation, said member shall turn over such bid
to the corporation for filling from said grower's goods.
226 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
Section 4. Any member who fails to fulfill his contract or fails or
refuses to market his tobacco through the corporation shall pay to the
corporation, as liquidated damages, the sum of 5 cents for each pound of
tobacco grown by him; and such damages may be deducted from any
money in the possession of the corporation due the member. Any such
claim shall be a lien upon the member's loan note.
Article XIV.
Amendments.
These by-laws may be altered or amended by a two-thirds vote of the
members present at any regular annual meeting or at any special meeting
called for the purpose, provided that the subject-matter of such an amend-
ment shall have been presented in writing at a previous regular or special
meeting, or is included in the notice calling such a meeting.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 227
Appendix II .
BY-LAWS OF THE CONNECTICUT VALLEY TOBACCO GROW-
ERS, INCORPORATED.
(1) This association shall be known as The Connecticut Valley Tobacco
Growers, Incorporated, duly organized imder chapter 190, revision of
1918 of the general statutes relating to co-operative associations. Its
principal office and place of business shall be located in the city of Hartford,
State of Connecticut, and it shall do business in the States of Connecticut
and Massachusetts and elsewhere.
(2) The nature of the business to be transacted and the purposes to
be promoted or carried out by said corporation are as follows: —
To provide and maintain for its members a selling agency through which
they may sell their tobacco and do all things or acts necessary or convenient
to make such selling agency efficient in assisting its members in marketing
said tobacco; to enlarge and improve the market for Connecticut valley
tobacco, and to aid in supplying manufacturers and others with good
tobacco at a reasonable price; to assist its members in standardizing,
sorting, packing and warehousing their tobacco, and to encourage the
improvement of the products which it handles, either by trade-marks, by
trade names or otherwise ; to act as agent for its members in the purchase
of any supplies which they may require; and to do any other lawful things
which may be for the benefit of the members.
(3) Any local co-operative tobacco growers' association located in this
State or in the State of Massachusetts may acquire and hold stock in this
association.
(4) Each local association holding stock in this association shall elect
two of its members to represent it in this association. At the annual
meeting of this association these representatives shall elect from their own
number a president, vice-president, secretary and treasurer, who shall hold
office for one year, or until their successors are duly elected and qualified.
These representatives shall constitute the board of managers of this asso-
ciation.
(5) In order that this association may have necessary working capital
at the beginning of any season, each local association owning the stock of
this association shall advance to the treasurer of this association, not later
than August 15 of any year, the sum of $1 for each acre of tobacco repre-
sented by said local association.
(6) The capital stock which this association is authorized to issue is
$50,000, divided into 500 shares of the par value of $100 each.
228 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
(7) Section 1. The annual meeting of this association shall be held
at its office in Hartford on the third Saturday of July of each year. At this
meeting officers shall be elected for the ensuing year; reports in writing
presented by the president, treasurer and auditors; and such other busi-
ness shall be transacted as may properly come before the meeting.
Section 2. Special meetings shall be held upon the call of the president,
or within ten daj^s of a written request of five members. Five days' notice
of such meetings shall be given, and notices shall state the purpose for
which said meeting is called.
Section 3. At all meetings a majority of the members shall constitute
a quorum.
(8) The board of managers shall choose three auditors from among the
members of the local associations owning stock in this association who
are not directors, officers, agents or emplo3'ees of this association. Such
auditors shall hold office for one year, or until their successors are duly
elected and qualified.
(9) Any vacancy in the offices of board of managers shall be filled for
the unexpired term at any regular meeting or at any special meeting called
for the purpose, in the manner provided for the original election of direc-
tors and officers.
(10) A majority of the members of the board of managers shall consti-
tute a quorum at any meeting of the board.
(11) The board of managers shall manage the business affairs of the
association, and make all necessary rules and regulations, not inconsistent
with law or with these by-laws, for the management of the business and
the guidance of the officers, employees and agents of the association.
(12) The board of managers may employ and dismiss for cause a general
manager, and fix his compensation, who shall have chaige of the business
of the association under the direction of the board of managers. They may
also employ and dismiss other employees and fix their compensation.
(13) The board of managers shall require the treasurer and all other
officers, agents and employees, charged by the association with the respon-
sibility for the custody of any of its funds or property, or to carry out any
functions assigned them, to give bond with sufficient surety for the faithful
performance of their official duties, the cost of said bonds to be paid by the
association.
(14) The board of managers shall meet regularly once each month at
the office of the association at a date and hour to be determined by them.
Special meetings of the board shall be held upon the call of the president
or upon written request of at least three members of the board. A majority
of the members of the board shall constitute a quorum.
(15) It shall be the duty of the president to preside at all meetings of
the association and of the board of managers; to sign, as president, with
the treasurer, or in his absence, with the secretary, all checks, notes, deeds
and other instruments in behalf of the association; to call special meetings
of the association and of the board of managers, and perform all other acts
and duties usually required of such officer.
CONNECTICUT VALLEY CIGAR LEAF TOBACCO. 229
(16) In the absence or disability of the president, the vice-president
shall preside and perform the duties of the president.
(17) The secretary shall keep a complete record of all meetings of the
association and of its board of directors; serve all notices required by law
and by these by-laws; and keep a complete record of all business of the
association, and make a full report of all matters and business pertaining
to his office to the members at their annual meeting, and make all records
required by law.
(18) The treasurer shall, with the president, sign all checks, notes, deeds
and other instruments on behalf of the association; receive and disburse
all funds and be the custodian of all property of the association ; and per-
form such other duties as may be required of him by the association and the
board of managers.
(19) Under the direction of the board of managers, the general manager
shall employ and discharge all employees, agents and laborers. He shall
secure information as to crop and market conditions, and shall furnish
same to stockholders on request. He shall encourage the production of
the best varieties of tobacco demanded by the trade. He shall, as may be
required bj^ the board of managers, provide a uniform sj^stem of assorting,
grading and packing, and disseminate information regarding same among
the local associations. He shall also provide and assist in installing uni-
form systems of accounting for the local associations. He shall inspect
all products handled by the association, and shall prescribe the brands and
labels of the association and their use of such products, in accordance with
the rules of the association. Subject to the terms of the contracts made
by the members with this association for the marketing of their products,
and to the order of the board of managers and the by-laws and rules of this
association, the general manager shall have charge of the sale and market-
ing of such products.
(20) All brands, labels, trade-marks and the like, established by this
association for the protection of the products sold by it, shall be registered
and become its property, and shall be attached only to such tobacco as shall
be specified by the board of managers.
(21) Every local association owning the stock of this association shall
enter into a contract with this association in the form to be agreed upon,
subject, however, to the following provisions : —
(o) That said stockliolder, by said contract, appoints The Connecticut
Valley Tobacco Growers, Incorporated, its sales agent to sell its tobacco
in such amount and condition and in such manner as the contract shall
prescribe, and binds itself to deliver such products for sale at such time and
place as this association directs.
(6) That said contract shall run continuously unless cancelled by either
party on July 15 of any year, written notice having previously been given
by one party to the other at least thirty days prior to that date, stating that
it desires to cancel its contract; and subject to any indebtedness due from
either party to the other.
230 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 193.
(22) Each stockholder shall have a number or mark which shall be per-
manently stamped on every case or other package packed by him, or under
his direction, for sale through this association. Any loss occasioned by
improper packing or grading shall be chargeable to the stockholder whose
mark is found on said package.
(23) Tobacco packed by, or for, any stockholder shall be inspected by
an inspector of this association to establish uniformity of grades.
(24) Any stockholder may withdraw from this association on the
fifteenth day of July by giving written notice to the board of managers
thirty days before said date, and by transferring his holdings to the asso-
ciation at their book value as shown by the last official report of the asso-
ciation, but at not less than the par value of the shares. Such ^vithdrawal
shall not affect any right of lien which the association has against the
withdrawing member or his property until his indebtedness to the associa-
tion is fully paid. Said transfer of shares shall be made only upon the
books of this association.
(25) Any stockholder having a grievance or complaint against the asso-
ciation may appeal to the board of managers or to the members at any
regular or at any special meeting. No member shall be suspended or
expelled or deprived of the benefits of the association without first having
charges preferred against him, reasonable notice thereof having been given
and a hearing before the board of managers having been duly held.
(26) After a season's expenses are paid, a sum equal to 10 per cent of
the net savings of the association for the past year shall be set aside for a
contingent fund until there shall have been accumulated thereby a sum
equal to 20 per cent of the capital stock of the association. The balance
of the season's savings on products shall be divided among local associa-
tions holding the stock of this association in proportion to the amount or
value of their products sold, and the balance of the season's savings pur-
chased shall be divided in like manner.
(27) Any stockholder who fails to perform his agreement, or fails or
refuses to market his tobacco through this association, as provided in his
contract with this association, shall pay to this association, as liquidated
damages, the sum of 2 cents for each pound of tobacco which he fails to
deliver, and such damages may be deducted from any money in the posses-
sion of the association due the stockholder.
(28) The books and business of this association shall be audited quar-
terly by auditors selected, as aforesaid, A complete annual audit shall be
made previous to the date of each annual meeting, at which meeting the
auditor's report shall be presented in full. Special audits shall be made
upon order of the board of managers, or upon a majority vote of the mem-
bers at any regular or at any special meeting.
(29) These by-laws may be amended or repealed at any meeting by a
two-thirds vote of the members present, provided that notice of such
proposed amendment or repeal is included in tlie call for said meeting, and
provided that such changes shall be approved by the local associations.
BULLETIN No. 194.
DEPARTMENT OP AGRICULTURE.
A Fertilizer Experiment with Asparagus.
DESCRIPTION OF THE EXPERIMENT.
F. W. MORSE.
The fertilizer experiment with asparagus reported in the following
pages was planned and supervised by Dr. Wm. P. Brooks, then director
of the Experiment Station. The experiment was conducted in the town
of Concord, on land owned by C. W. Prescott, and arrangements were
made with him to act as superintendent of the substation. The plans
prepared by Dr. Brooks for the experiment were executed by Mr. Prescott
throughout the entire period from 1906 to 1915. His interest in the work
and his careful attention to all its details permitted the successful conduct
of the substation and the satisfactory completion of the fertihzer com-
parisons. Valuable assistance was given each year by Prof. J. B. Norton
of the United States Department of Agriculture, who was stationed at
the field for the purpose of developing a rust-resistant type of asparagus,
and who took an active interest in the fertilizer experiment. This descrip-
tion of the experiment has been prepared by the wi'iter, who was engaged
on chemical studies of the asparagus plant which gave opportunity for
familiarity with the fertilizer comparisons, although he had no part in
the planning and supervision of the experiment which were solely the
work of Dr. Brooks.
The land selected for the experiment Hes on Bedford Street in the town
of Concord. ^ For a number of years prior to its selection the field had
lain fallow, and was overgrown with weeds, blackberry vines and small
birches. It was considered to be typical of the fields used for asparagus
culture in the vicinity, where the crop is largely grown, and the soil was
deemed to contain only the natural store of fertility.
1 Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta., 20th Ann. Rept., p. 16.
232 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
The field is part of a sandy plain in the area drained by the Concord
River, a tributary of the Merrimac, and its soils would probably be classed
with the Merrimac Series described by the United States Bureau of Soils. ^
It consists of a coarse, sandy loam about 2 feet in depth, underlaid by
several feet of sand and gravel, as shown by a railroad cut about 200
yards distant from the plots.
The land was cleared of bushes, and in May, 1906, it was plowed, the
soil being turned over to a depth of 8 to 9 inches. The field was repeatedly
harrowed with a disc harrow to pulverize the turf and kill the weeds.
Late in June an apphcation of fertilizers was made to each acre, con-
sisting of —
Pounds.
Fine ground bone, . .......... 1,000
Acid phosphate, .......... 600
Muriate of potash, .......... 350
Nitrate of soda, ........... 150
The fertilizers were thoroughly mixed with the soil by the harrow.
About two weeks later 2,000 pounds of agricultural lime per acre were
applied and harrowed in.
Just after the middle of July buckwheat was sown. The crop made a
vigorous growth and reached a height of 36 to 42 inches when in full
bloom, about the third week in September, at which time it was plowed
under. After harrowing the field it was sown with winter rye and rolled,
which completed the work on the field for the year.
In April, 1907, the rye was plowed under, the field was harrowed and
rolled, and then laid out in plots for the experiment.
Forty plots of one-twentieth acre each were arranged in two parallel
groups of 20 plots. Each one measured 129 feet in length by 16 feet,
10.5 inches in width, and was separated from the adjacent plots by divi-
sion strips which measured 5 feet, 1.5 inches in width. Each plot con-
tained five rows of plants which were set 30 inches apart in the row, thus
permitting 250 plants per plot, or 5,000 per acre. Each division strip
also had a row of plants through the center, by which arrangement all
rows on the plots were under closely similar conditions of space and light
for their development.
The plants were grown by Mr. Frank Wheeler of Concord from a strain
of Giant Argenteuil which had been selected by him for its vigorous growth
and resistance to rust. They were one year old and exceptionally large
and strong. The crowns were placed in the furrows at a depth of 6 inches
below the level surface of the field. After the plants were set the first
lot of fertilizers prescribed by the experiment for each plot was applied.
The description of these fertilizers will be given later when the results
of the experiment are considered.
Practically all the plants lived and made a vigorous start. Their
growth throughout the season was strong, and numerous stalks attained
' U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. of Soils. 8th Kept. (1906), pp. 57-63; Bui. No. 55 (1909), p. 158.
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 233
a height of 6 feet before growth ceased for the season. Beetles were
numerous, but were held in check by spraying with arsenical insecticides,
lead arsenate proving most satisfactory.
In September oats were sown as a cover crop, which made a good growth
before \\anter set in. Before the buds started in the spring of 1908, as
soon as the soil could be worked, the dead tops and cover of oats were
worked into the soil with the disc harrow, and the prescribed fertilizers
were applied to the different plots. The young shoots were of such size
and appearance that Mr. Prescott made three cuttings in early May,
and though the roots were but two years old from the seed, some stalks
were an inch in diameter.
It was noted that the violent spring winds seriously affected some of
the plots by blowing the sharp sand against the young shoots. To pre-
vent this a windbreak of cotton cloth tacked to posts was maintained
during the early part of the season while the stalks were tender. The
field was kept free from weeds by summer tillage, and the beetles were
held in check by a lead arsenate spray. The growth of the plants was
excellent, and the tops at the end of the season nearly filled the spaces
between rows.
In the succeeding years of the experiment the culture and fertilization
were conducted in general as in 1908.
The cutting season in 1909 lasted about four weeks, but in subsequent
years the stalks were harvested each season for about two months. The
limits of the cutting season for each year were as follows : —
1909, May 7 to Jud.> 6.
1910, April 23 to June 29.
1911, Mays to June 24.
1912,. May 5 to June 25.
1913, April 27 to June 27.
1914, May 8 to Junp 27.
1915, April 26 to June 26.
In the summer of 1910 portions of the field were attacked by rust.
The rust spores came from an adjoining field on the north, and the disease
was severest at the outer edge, diminishing in intensity toward the middle
of the lot. Plots 1 and 21 were most affected, and plots 11 and 31 were
apparently uninjured. A slight attack occurred from the southeast on
plots 33 to 40, but it did not seem to affect the yields noticeably. The
attacks were not serious in succeeding years, and the plots appeared to
recover fully before the close of the experiment.
In April, 1907, before the field was divided into plots, samples of the
soil were taken by Mr. Prescott, in accordance with Dr. Brooks' instruc-
tions, from each quarter of the field. These samples were analyzed by
E. B. Holland and R. D. McLaurin of the department of chemistry. The
determinations of the soil constituents were made in solutions obtained
with hydrochloric acid, after the methods of the Association of Official
Agricultural Chemists.
234 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
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A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 235
NORTH
1
21
1
2
2Z
3
23
4
24
5
25
6
26
7
27
8
28
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9
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1
10
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11
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13
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14
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15
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16
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1?
37
18
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19
39
■ - 1
20
40
SOUTH
PLAN OF FIELD
236 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
The different samples show a marked uniformity in the percentage of
constituents, which are low with the exception of phosphoric acid in the
surface soil. This marked proportion of phosphoric acid in the surface
soil is not due to the liberal application of phosphatic fertilizers, however.
Assuming the surface soil of an acre to weigh 2,000,000 pounds, there are
5,000 pounds of phosphoric acid contained in it. The fertilizers applied
to an acre contained approximately 350 pounds. The vegetable matter
in the surface soil is probably the means by which the phosphoric acid,
lime and nitrogen are accumulated in the surface layer when compared
with the lower depths.
There is observable a small difference in the proportion of fine soil in
the sample from the southeast quarter, which may in part account for
a poorer yield of asparagus from the plots on that area.
The arrangement of the plots is shown in the plan on page 235, and the
kinds of fertihzers and the yearly yields of asparagus are given in Table II.
Table II. • — Yields per Plot {Pounds).
Fertilizers applied.
1911. 1 1912. 1913.
Nitrate of soda,
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash,
Nitrate of soda,
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash,
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash.
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash.
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash,
Nitrate of soda,
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash.
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash.
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash.
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate.
ipnate,
1 potash
Muriate ol
Nitrate of soda,
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash
Nitrate of soda,
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash
6.67
13.00
15.56'
6.67
13.00,
23.33
6.67
13.00
31.12
6.67
13.00
23.33]
13.00 J
23.331
4.44
13.00]
23.33
6.67
13.00
23.331
8,89
13.00
23.33
6.67
8.67
23.33
6.67
13.00
23.33'
6.67
17.33:
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 237
Table II. — Yu
Ms per
Plot
(Pounds) -
- Continued.
Plot.
Fertilizers applied.
Pounds
1909.
1910. 1911.
1912.
1913.
1914.
1915.
13
[
Manure, ....
Nitrate of soda,
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash, .
1000. 1
112.1
241.8
274.9
315.6
409.4
440.6
386.1
14
i
Manure, ....
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash, .
1000.
15.56
4.44
8.67
105.8
242.9
287.4
329.0
411.4
431.1
382.6
Manure, ....
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash, .
1000. 1
23.33
6.67
13.00
120.4
260.1
291.4
337.4
435.3
453.5
408.2
16
I
Manure, ....
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash, .
1000. 1
31.12
17:33]
112.9
244.8
273.8
336.4
422.0
438.4
412.1
"{
Nitrate of soda, .
Acid phosphate,
Wood ashes, . . .
23.33
6.67
130.00
97.8
204.4
257.9
287.3
372.8
373.5
342.4
18
Nitrate of soda, .
Acid phosphate,
High-grade sulfate of pot-
ash
23.33]
6.67
13.00
77.3
181.6
224.1
266.0
327.0
327.1
306.2
19
Nitrate of soda.
Acid phosphate,
Low-grade sulfate of pot-
ash, ....
23.331
6.67
25.00
84.8
190.5
240.6
276.6
327.3
345.9
305.8
20
Nitrate of soda,
Acid phosphate,
Kainit, ....
23.33)
6.67
50.00 J
108.9
»,,
248.2
308.2
375.7
396.7
371.6
21
Manure
1000.
103.3
237.4
191.4
202.9
347.8
373.8
343.1
22 {
Manure
Nitrate of soda (spring),
1000. 1
15.56/
100.0
226.2
199.4
216.5
346.2
361.7
339.6
23 1
Manure, ....
Nitrate of .soda (summer).
1000. 1
15.56/
103.3
247.1
218.0
252.2
378.6
385.5
352.8
24
Manure
Nitrate of soda (spring
and summer).
1000. ]
15.56
101.4
230.2
223.5
250.2
380.4
387.6
365.6
25 1
Manure, ....
Nitrate of soda (spring), .
1000. 1
23.33/
103.1
222.2
220.8
273.5
382.1
388.3
365.2
26 1
Manure
Nitrate of soda (summer),
1000. 1
23.33/
106.0
213.4
227.4
277.3
393.6
390.4
381.8
27
Manure, ....
Nitrate of soda (spring
and summer),
1000. 1
23.33 J
107.1
225.4
225.7
283.8
386.7
413.2
378.9
28 j
Manure, ....
Nitrate of soda (spring), .
1000. \
31.12/
102.0
214.1
218.4
273.0
370.4
400.0
376. 6.
29/
Manure
Nitrate of soda (simimer),
1000. 1
31.12/
94.2
187.6
205.3
256.8
353.1
373.3
351.9
30
Manure, ....
Nitrate of soda (spring
and summer),
1000. 1
31.12]
104.3
216.4
238.3
296.3
390.4
423.2
390.1
H
Nitrate of soda (spring), .
Acid phosphate.
Muriate cf potash, .
15.561
6.67 \
13.00 j
117.3
220.9
223.8
272.4
375.1
395.8
370.0
238 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
Table II. — Yields per
Plot (Pounds) -
- Concluded.
Plot.
Fertilizers applied.
Pounds.
1909.
1910.
1911.
1912.
1913.
1914.
1915.
32
Nitrate of soda (summer) ,
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash,
15 561
6.67
13.00 J
115.9
221.3
242.4
284.4
401.6
406.3
374.8
33
Nitrate of soda (spring
and summer).
Acid phosphate,
Miu-iate of potash,
15.561
6.67
13.00
101.8
222.6
239.8
291.2
378.4
389.8
372.9
34
Nitrate of soda (spring), .
Acid phosphate,
Muriate of potash.
23.331
6.67
13.00 J
96.4
214.3
240.5
288.0
381.9
378.6
350.8
35
Nitrate of soda (summer).
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash, .
23.331
6.67
13.00 J
97.6
217.1
247.8
288.9
368.3
368.4
353.7
36
Nitrate of soda (spring
and summer),
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash, .
23.331
6.67 [
13.00 J
99.6
210.2
224.2
268.5
357.4
362.3
337.0
H
Nitrate of soda (spring), .
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash, .
31.121
6.67 ^
13.00 J
96.1
193.9
223.3
283.8
345.2
340.9
327.7
»(
Nitrate of soda (summer).
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash,
31.121
6.67
13.00 J
93.6
196.2
234.9
303.0
367.1
347.4
335.4
39
Nitrate of soda (spring
and summer).
Acid phosphate.
Muriate of potash, .
31.121
6.67
13.00 J
94.4
214.2
230.7
288.4
358.6
351.7
328.7
40
Nitrate of soda, .
Acid phosphate,
Muriate or potash, .
6.67
13.00 j
84.0
181.3
202.2
263.4
307.5
314.3
275.1
One change was made in the fertilizers in the spring of 1912, when the
quantity of acid phosphate was increased so that the low, medium and
high amounts were, respectively, 10, 15 and 20 pounds, instead of 4.44,
6.67 and 8.89, as tabulated.
The chemicals were standard high-grade materials, and were analyzed
each year to check their guarantees.
Acid phosphate contained 14 per cent soluble and available phosphoric
acid. Wood ashes carried slightly more than 5 per cent of potash. The
stable manure varied but little from 70 per cent moisture, 0.7 per cent
nitrogen, 0.5 per cent phosphoric acid, and 0.7 per cent potash.
The asparagus was cut regularly and prepared for market. The weights
were made before the stalks were bunched and trimmed, and the yields
therefore include the butts and waste stalks with the marketable crop.
No data were secured from which to estimate the probable marketable
bunches per plot, but the estimate of practical growers is that the waste
involved in preparation for market constitutes about one-fifth of the total
weight cut.
The attack of summer rust in 1910 caused the affected plots to produce
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 239
less weight in 1911 than in 1910, which is shown clearly by the table.
The plots thus affected were Nos. 1 to 10 and 21 to 27. Plots 37 to 40
were somewhat affected without showing it in a depressed yield. The
yields for 1914 and 1915 showed a nearly complete recovery from the
rust. The percentages of increase of the crops for 1914 over those of
1910 were determined and the recovery was well shown, except in plots
1, 21, 22 and 23, which were most severely affected. The percentages of
increase on these plots were, respectively, 51 per cent on plot 1, 57 per
cent on plot 21, 59 per cent on plot 22, and 56 per cent on plot 23. On the
rest of the plots the majority of percentages of increase ranged between
70 and 80 per cent, with a few above 80 per cent, and the recovery from the
rust attack on plots 2 to 10 and plots 24 to 29 was evidently thorough.
The effect of the rust has been considered in comparing the relative
effects of different methods of fertilizing the crop, and the yields for the
years 1911, 1912 and 1913 have been omitted from the comparisons.
The results of the first two years and the last two years are sufficient,
however, to give a good view of the effects, since the former serve to
show the immediate and the latter the cumulative effects of the fertilizers.
When the crop yields of the different plots are surveyed as a field it
will be noted that plots 11, 12, 13, 31, 32 and 33 jaelded out of proportion
to the rest of the field, and from the plan it will be seen that these plots
formed a section across the middle of the field. This persistently high
jaeld could not have been caused by the fertilizers, but was probably due
to a slightly greater depth of soil above the underlying gravel, by which
the plants had a slightly greater supply of moisture throughout the season.
Plots 3, 7, 11 and 34 were fertilized exactly alike with the medium
quantities of nitrogen, phosphoric acid and potash. Plots 21 and 13
received equal amounts of manure with no chemicals. Plots 1 and 40
received medium weights of acid phosphate and muriate of potash without
nitrogen. From these plots it can be seen that the western half of the
field, including plots 1 to 20, was more productive than the eastern sections,
containing plots 21 to 40. The southeastern corner, plots 34 to 40, was
the poorest part of the field, all things considered, which may have been
due to the slightly coarser character of the soil, as mentioned with the
analyses.
Plot 11 has produced the biggest weight of stalks every year, although
by no means the most heavily fertilized.
Asparagus is considered to be a hearty feeder, and to require an abun-
dance of plant food to produce profitable results. Three groups of plots
were planned to compare graduated amounts of chemical fertilizers.
These plots were Nos. 1 to 12. Table II shows the jdelds. This section
was attacked by rust, as already described, but plot 1 alone failed to
recover completely from its effects by the year of maximum production,
1914. It is clearly demonstrated that the maximum amounts of ferti-
lizer were of no appreciable effect, and that the medium quantities were
ample for a full yield. The actual need of the medium amount of nitrate
240 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
of soda indicated by plots 2 and 3 is contradicted by the results from
plots 31 and 34 when they are compared in like maimer. The soil con-
ditions on the latter plots have been already mentioned and should be
taken into account. Its poorer quality may have offset the increased
amount of nitrate.
The relative effects of manure and chemicals were compared on plots
13 to 16, and the comparison may also be extended to plots 11 and 12
adjacent to 13. The best interpretation of the results is to say that
manure alone and chemicals alone were equally effective, and that the
respective quantities of each were sufficient for the soil conditions in
producing a crop. There is also no appearance of any cumulative
effect of the manure in increasing the crop. The gains of 1914 over 1910
were as follows: plot 11, 72 per cent; plot 12, 74 per cent; plot 13, 82
per cent; plot 15, 74 per cent; plot 16, 79 per cent. This is of interest
when one considers the sandy soil and low humus content.
Table III. — Chemicals supplying Nitrogen, Phosphoric Acid and Potash
in Connection with Manure (Pounds).
Plot.
Fektilizer Treatment.
1909.
1910.
1914. 1 1915.
!
13
14
15
16
Manure alone
Manure with low chemicals, .
Manure with medium chemicals,
Manure with high chemicals, .
112.1
105.8
120.4
112.9
241.8
242.9
260.1
244.8
440.6
431.1
453.5
438.4
386.1
382.6
408.2
412.1
21
3
7
11
34
Manure alone
Medium chemicals alone,
Medium chemicals alone,
Medium chemicals alone,
Medium chemicals alone.
Chemicals high in potash,
103 3
110.6
110.0
136.1
96.4
126.1
237.4
256.8
2^1.6
277.8
214.3
262.7
373.8
423.5
436.9
478.9
378.6
458.5
343.1
394.8
415.4
433.9
350.8
417.9
Plots 21 to 30, inclusive, were fertilized to determine the value of nitrate
of soda as a top-dressing in addition to an application of 10 tons of manure.
The value of the added nitrate was rendered questionable by the rust
which has been shown to have severely reduced the yields of plot 21 even
in 1914, when most plots had apparently recovered. The yield on plot
13, receiving manure alone, was increased 82 per cent in 1914 over the
yield in 1910. If the 1910 yield of plot 21 is increased by 75 per cent and
compared with the actual yield in 1914 it is seen to be 415 pounds instead
of 373.8, which would bring it up to a full equaUty with the yields of the
plots which received nitrate of soda. The economy of the added nitrate
is made doubtful.
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 241
There were three methods of applying the nitrate of soda, and the
results are decidedly in favor of the application in two portions, half in
spring and half in summer.
Table IV. • — Nitrate of Soda applied at Different Seasons in Addition to
Manure (Pounds).
Manure with Low Application of Nitrate of Soda.
Plot.
Season of applying Nitrate. 1909.
1910.
1914.
1915.
22
23
24
Spring
Summer,
Half in spring, half in summer,
100.0
103.3
101.4
226.2
247.1
230.2
361.7
385.5
387.6
339.6
352.8
365.6
Manure with Medium Application of Nitrate of Soda.
25
26
27
Spring
Summer
Half in spring, half in summer,
103.1
106.0
107.1
222.2
213 4
2.25.4
390.4
413.2
365.2
381.8
378.9
Manure with High Application of Nitrate of Soda.
28
29
30
Spring
Summer
Half in spring, half in summer.
102.0
94.2
104 3
214.1
187.6
216.4
400.0
373 3
423.2
376.6
351.9
390.1
A similar comparison of different quantities and methods of appUcation
of nitrate of soda with chemicals instead of manure was made on plots
31 to 39. The yields on the minimum amount of nitrate were unquestion-
ably superior to those on the higher amounts. It has, however, been
pointed out that there seemed to be a lower state of fertility in this corner
of the field where the larger quantities of nitrate were used, and that plots
31 and 32 were in a strip of superior fertility. In this series there is a
sUght advantage in favor of applying the nitrate in the summer at the
end of the cutting season, since in four years out of seven each of the
summer plots out-yielded shghtly the others. The difference is not
enough to make it a rule to apply nitrate only in the summer.
242 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
Table V. — Effect of applying Nitrate of Soda at Different Seasons in
Connection with Fertilizers supplying Phosphoric Acid and Potash
(Pounds).
Low Application of Nitrate of Soda.
Plot.
Season of apply- -ono
iNG Nitrate. | "''•
1910.
1911.
""■
1913.
1914.
1915.
Aver-
age.
31
32
33
Spring, .
Summer,
Half in spring, half
in summer.
117.3
115.9
101.8
220.9
221.3
222.6
223.8
242.4
239.8
272.4
284.4
291.2
375.1
401.6
378.4
395.8
406.3
389.8
370.0
374.8
372.9
282.2
292.4
285.2
Medium Application of Nitrate of Soda.
34
Spring, .
96.4
214.3
240.5
288.0
381.9
378.6
350.8
278.6
35
Summer,
97.6
217.1
247.8
288.9
368.3
368.4
353.7
277.4
36
Half in spring, half
in summer.
99.6
210.2
224.2
268.5
357.4
362.3
337.0
265. S
High Application of Nitrate of Soda.
37
Spring, .
96.1
193.9
223.3
283.8
345.2
340.9
«.,
258.7
38
Summer,
93.6
196.2
234.9
303.0
367.1
347.4
335.4
268.2
39
Half in spring, half
in summer.
94.4
214.2
230.7
288.4
358.6
351.7
328.7
266.7
The inferiority of this corner of the field is clearly indicated by com-
paring the annual yields of plot 40 with those of plot 1, which was fertilized
exactly like it. In the years of no rust plot 1 produced much larger
yields than plot 40.
In the comparison of the different forms of potash materials used in
fertilizing the asparagus plots 17 to 20, Table II, the first impression
would be that muriate was much superior to other forms, and that sulfate
was no better than none. A more careful comparison will reveal a close
agreement in yields between wood ashes on plot 17, kainit on plot 20,
and muriate on plots 34, 35 and 36, all of which received equal amounts
of nitrate of soda and acid phosphate. The low yields on plots 18 and 19
were possibly due in part to the proximity of a large oak. The tree was
nearer plots 18 and 19 than to any others, but was far enough not to shade
the plots until nearly sunset. The extent of its roots in the gravelly
subsoil may have been greater than was supposed.
It has been stated that the effects of rust were limited to one-half of
the field or less, and that there was a nearly full recovery from the attack
as the years passed. This is clearly shown by percentages of losses and
gains in yields in Table VI. The first and fourth columns show the
losses and gains in yields in 1911 compared with the yields in 1910. It will
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 243
be noted that the outside plots 1 and 21 suffered much larger shrinkage
than the succeeding plots, and that no injury was apparent after passing
the middle of the field. In the second and fifth columns the maximum
crop of 1914 was compared mth the first full crop cut in 1910, and the
percentages of gain are shown to be very much alike after passing the
first two or three plots, which were worst affected by rust. The third
and last columns show the percentages of shrinkage when the 1915 crop
was compared with that of 1914. In general, the percentages are small,
and the shrinlcages are fairly uniform.
Table VI. ■ — Percentages of Gains and Losses in Different Years.
1910 to 1910 to 1914 to
1911. 1914. 1915.
—11
—10
—7
—5
—7
—5
—6
—9
—6
—10
—9
—12
—12
-10
—6
—9
—7
-13
—7
1910 to 1910 to 1914 to
1911. 1914. 1915.
The question arose in the course of the experiments whether any of the
plots produced more early asparagus in proportion to the total crop which
might be due to the fertilizers applied. Each year's crop was carefully
charted in ten-day periods by Norton for such a comparison. The charts
for 1910 and 1914, drawn by R. L. Cofiin, are published here, and it will
be seen that there were no plots where the first ten days produced pro-
portionally greater weights of stalks compared with other plots than the
total crops show. In other words, large yields in the first ten days were
followed by continued large yields throughout the season.
244 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
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A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 245
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246 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
Summary.
A fertilizer experiment with asparagus was conducted for a period of
nine years in the town of Concord on coarse, sandy loam, which was
typical of the soils used for asparagus culture. Seven crops of young
stalks were produced during the experiment, and the yield steadily in-
creased each year until the sixth, which was the crop of maximum size
on nearly every plot.
Of the chemical fertiUzers used, a mixture of 466 pounds nitrate of
soda, 300 pounds acid phosphate, and 260 pounds muriate of potash per
acre produced the best yields.
Manure at the rate of 10 tons per acre produced nearly as good results
as the chemicals, while combinations of manure with chemicals and with ni-
trate of soda were no better than manure or chemicals used separately.
There was no apparent cumulative effect produced by the annual
use of manure, and the asparagus tops harrowed into the soil each year
seemed to supply sufficient organic matter for the efficient use of chemicals.
When nitrate of soda was added to manure it was most efficient when
applied in two portions, one in the spring and one in the summer. Nitrate
of soda apphed with acid phosphate and muriate of potash was sHghtly
more effective when applied in summer in four years out of seven.
Muriate of potash was, on the whole, the most satisfactory potash
compound used.
Following the second crop an attack of rust from an adjacent field
swept over about half of the plots. The plots nearest the source of the
attack were reduced in yield the next season nearly 20 per cent, and were
permanently injured. The remainder of the plots apparently recovered
before the maximum yield of the sixth crop.
The sixth or maximum crop averaged about 80 per cent greater than
the second crop, which was the first full cutting. The seventh crop was
less than 10 per cent smaller than the maximum sixth crop.
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 247
COMMENTS AND CONCLUSIONS.
WM. P. BROOKS.
Asparagus is an important garden crop in this State, its culture being
centered, however, largely in two or three sections: one, and the most
important, in Middlesex County, with Concord the most important town;
another in Barnstable County, in a number of Cape Cod towTis with soils
for the most part Hght; and in several smaller centers, one being on the
plain land in Hampden and Hampshire Counties, with the product
marketed for the most part in the cities of the Connecticut valley.
My appreciation of the desirability of careful investigations as to the
fertihzer needs of the crop, although of earlier date, was stimulated greatly
by the outbreak of rust, particularly in the Middlesex and Barnstable
sections. The disease was carefully investigated by Dr. George E. Stone,
at that time a member of the station staff, and discussed in a number of
our pubhcations.i
The culture of asparagus in the locahties mentioned had, previous to
the destructive outbreak of rust in 1897 and 1899, as a rule, been highly
profitable, and success, while requiring careful and appropriate attention
to details, had not been difficult. The outbreak of rust in this State —
a disease which appeared nearly simultaneously in some other parts of the
country, and which had been known in Europe for a good many years —
seemed for a time to threaten the industry. Fortunately the adoption
of improved methods — perhaps most important the introduction of
more rust-resistant varieties — has greatly reduced the amount of damage
from rust, but the increasing difficulties experienced by even the most
skillful growers after the serious rust outbreaks of 1897 and 1899 made
apparent the need of investigation in the effort to discover methods of
prevention or lessening the severity of attacks. Accordingly, by means
of visits and correspondence, I sought to learn in considerable detail what
were the most usually accepted and followed methods of the best growers.
This effort had been preceded, however, by observations and chemical
work based upon results obtained in my home garden. The total weight
of shoots of the old variety, Moore's, cut in a good bed 85 feet in length
and 6 feet in width, two rows having been set, was at the rate of 15,061
pounds per acre, while the weight of the tops grown after the cutting
season, which ended June 18, was at the rate of 14,875 pounds per acre.
Both classes of material were carefully sampled and analyzed under the
direction of the late Dr. C. A. Goessmann. The shoots were cut from
May 2 to June 18, 1901; the tops, just after the first severe frosts, Nov.
1 For a list of these publications, see the bibliography at the end of this bulletin.
248 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
1, 1901. Table I shows the plant-food contents of the sprmg shoots as
cut, of the marketable portion of these shoots, and of the tops grown subse-
quently to the growing season.^
Table I. — Amount of Plant-food Elements in Asparagus Shoots and Tops
(Pounds per Acre).
Shoots cut.
Marketable
Shoots. 2
Tops.
Nitrogen,
Phosphoric acid,
Potash,
Lime,
49.5
16.2
49.4
40.0
13.0
40.0
54.29
11.01
148.80
61.00
Plant Food taken fkom the Land annually.
The amounts of the leading elements of plant food shown in the above
table to have been contained in the shoots (in a commercial crop) represent
the total of these elements which in the practice of good growers in Massa-
chusetts need be taken into account in determining a system of manuring
or fertilizing which will make good to the land the amounts of these
elements annually carried off in a large crop, for it is the practice of all
our good growers to allow the tops grown after the end of the cutting
season to stand during the winter, and to break them down and harrow
them into the ground the following spring. The total commercial crop
obtained in my garden is probably at least three times the average total
obtained by commercial growers. The late Mr. Frank Wheeler of Concord
was looked upon by those acquainted with his methods as one of the best
informed and most successful asparagus growers in the State. In replying
to a communication from me in which I had reported the results obtained
m my own garden, Mr. Wheeler writes under date of Sept. 30, 1901 : —
In regard to the amount of crop per acre, it seems to me that you have got a
very large yield. ... I shall have to get at my conclusions in regard to the
number of pounds of crop removed in the cutting season by partial guesswork. I
think thai 300 dozen bunches is a liberal estimate of the average of the crops here-
abouts. It is too high for the last two years. One dozen should weigh 15 pounds,
making 4,500 pounds per acre, plus butts cut off and thrown away, which I think
would not exceed 1,000 or 1 600 pounds, equaling 5,500 or 6,000 pounds at the most.
The very large yield which I obtained is doubtless in part accounted
for by the fact that the two rows set, though placed only about 3| feet
apart, to some extent fed outside of the 6-foot width, the figure used in
computing the area occupied by the bed.
1 Actual analyses by H. D. Haskina.
* These figures are based upon the estimate of the best growers, to the effect that the butts cut
off in preparation of the shoots for market constitute on the average one-fifth of the total weight cut.
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 249
The Amounts of Fertilizer used by Good Growers.
In connection ^vith the correspondence with Mr. Frank Wheeler, to
which reference has just been made, the question as to whether in the
practice of good growers plant food was not applied in quantity much in
excess of the amounts which the crop could use was taken up. Upon
this point Mr. Wheeler writes as follows: —
It has also struck me vry forcibly that we were applying two or three times
as much fertilizer material as the crop was taking out, but I never doubted but
what it was . . . profitable to do so. I can hardly think that any asparagus bed
(commercial) was ever hurt by overmanuring. I have known of a munber of old
beds destroyed and used for other purposes, and they prove to be most productive
for other crops (crops too, that we suppose do not need as much manuring as
asparagus) under continued applications of fertility. As to the unsatisfactory
results from the asparagus crop for two or three years back, I think very strongly
that it was the fault of the rust, and cold seasons of 1900 and 1901.
Although I agree with you most decidedly that the growth of the previous sum-
mer is a good indication of what the crop is to be, I do feel most strongly that a
liberal application (not excessive) of nitrate of soda in the early spring is profitable.
Of course you know that the first growth that any plant makes in the spring is
feeding root fibers. Now do you think that they are for only taking up moisture?
I feel they are for both moisture and food. I think that an asparagus plant (one
year old) when set out will start off much stronger if set out in good rich soil than
if set in sand or a poor one, or any other plant or seed will do the same. I have
no doubt but what some of the early application of nitrate of soda is lost, but think
it is still profitable. I know of no experiments to prove either for or against this
conclusion.
Mr. Wheeler wrote that as the result of earlier experiments and obser-
vations it was his practice in asparagus growing to supply from 200 to
250 pounds of actual potash per acre annually. Table II shows the total
amounts of plant food applied annually in Mr. Wheeler's practice, and in
the second column (taken from Table I) the amounts annually carried off
in the asparagus as bunched. These elements were derived in part from
manure and wood ashes, but mainly from tankage, nitrate of soda and
muriate of potash.
Table II. — Amount of Plant-food Elements supplied and removed {Pounds
per Acre).
Supplied.
Removed
in Marketable
Asparagus. ^
Nitrogen
Phosphoric acid,
Potash
125
100
200-250
40
13
40
1 It seems to me proper, in considering plant food removed, to take into account only the aspar-
agus as bunched, because the butts cut off in the preparation of the shoots for market might be
returned to the bed at the close of the cutting season at a negligible cost, practically speaking.
250 MASS, EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
The figures in Table II will suggest to every thoughtful reader the
question as to whether the practice of good growers as exemplified by
that of ]\Ir. Wheeler does not furnish a very much greater amount of the
different leading plant-food elements than can be necessary, and there-
fore whether the net profits of asparagus growing would not probably be
increased by some reduction in the amount of fertihzer applied. In the
case of the element nitrogen no large accumulation in the soil as a result
of excess apphcation is Ukely, but if the generally accepted conclusions
relative to the relations of phosphoric acid and potash to the soil are
correct, the practice under discussion must in a series of years mean a
large accumulation of these elements in the soil.
Plan of the Home Fektilizer Experiment.
The fertilizer investigations with asparagus upon the home grounds
were laid out in 1903; those in Concord were, with the exception of a few
minor details, a dupUcate of the home experiment.^ It seems desirable,
therefore, to make a clear and full statement of the principal questions
upon which it was hoped Ught would be thrown by these experiments.
The preceding paragraphs, taken together with the quotations from the
correspondence with the late Frank Wheeler, will, it is thought, sufficiently
indicate my reasons for the particular inquiries taken up, namely: —
1. To test the question as to the amounts of the different elements of
plant food, aU in the form of chemicals, which can be employed with
advantage.
2. To test the question as to how much, if any, fertilizer can be used
with advantage in connection with manure.
3. To determine what difference, if any, there is in value between the
different materials which may be used as a source of potash.
4. To determine whether nitrate of soda used in connection with manure
is beneficial, what quantity, if any, it pays to use, and whether it should
be put on in the summer (that is, at the close of the cutting season), in
the spring, or equally divided between the two seasons.
5. To determine the same points with reference to the use of nitrate
of soda in connection with chemical fertiUzers supplying phosphoric acid
and potash.
The Concord Investigations.
In 1907, in submitting to Dr. True, then of the Ofl[ice of Experiment
Stations, an outhne of the investigations with asparagus in view in Con-
cord as an investigation under the Adams act, the following brief state-
ment (in substance) was made. Two general objects are in view: —
1. An effort will be made to breed more rust-resistant types of asparagus.
This investigation was undertaken in co-operation with the Bureau of
Plant Industry at the head of which at that time was Dr. B. W. Galloway.
» The plan of the Concord experiment, and, further, a statement of the fertilizing materials
applied to the several plots, is found in Table II under the " Description of the Experiment."
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 251
2. To determine the principles which should underlie practice in the
use of fertilizers for asparagus. This investigation is to include not only
the most varied appUcations of plant-food elements as to kind, quantity,
forms of combination and season of application, but studies as well of
effects of the varied treatments upon: (1) the characteristics of the soil,
— physical, chemical and biological; and (2) the plant as influencing
the character of its development, its physiology and its health.
Breeding Investigations. — The co-operative breeding experiments were
from the first under the direct charge of Dr. J. B. Norton of the Bureau
of Plant Industry. 1 It is generally held by the majority of those who
have exahained the breeding grounds in Concord, and tried the better of
the new varieties produced, that his work has been attended with a large
measure of success. The better varieties are all designated by the class
name "Washington," which was the name given to the male plant which,
having given the best results in comparative crosses made, was chosen
for most of the breeding work. Several of the varieties of this class
produced seem to combine a large measure of capacity to resist rust with
desirable commercial characteristics.
A number of plants of some of these varieties have been distributed by
this Experiment Station to asparagus growers in different parts of the
State for trial as compared with older varieties. A considerable number
of reports have been received, but since the earliest distributions were
made in 1915 it is yet too early for decision as to the rank which these
varieties •will finally take among those cultivated by Massachusetts
gi'owers. It may be said, however, at this point that the majority of
those reporting have expressed favorable opinions. There have been
some who have thought the new varieties which they had under trial
were hardly equal to the best older varieties, while others have reported
that they could see no particular difference in abihty to resist rust.
Fertilizer Investigations. — In a statement of the plan of research pro-
posed, submitted to Dr. True for approval under the Adams act, it was
stated to be the plan to study the results of the variant fertilizer treatments
from two points of view in addition to the apparent direct effect upon
the yield; namely, as above stated, first, the characteristics of the soU;
and second, those of the plant. Various conditions affecting the possibili-
ties for investigational work in the Station have prevented giving much
attention to the study of the effects upon the soil, most important among
them being changes in the personnel of the chemical and microbiological
staffs. The second line of investigation, however, — namely, the effects
upon the plant, — has engaged considerable attention. The investiga-
tions along this Hne have been under the direct charge of Professor Morse,
and for the most part conducted by him. The leading results of these
investigations have been reported in a number of dififerent papers. ^
1 Dr.^Norton has reported the results of his work in publications which are listed in the bibliog-
raphy.
* For a list of these papers, see the bibliography.
252 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
My conclusions as to the significance of the results obtained from year
to year, as well as many detaUs of the experiment, including the general
description of the soil and its preparation, have been presented in the
annual reports referred to in the bibliography and in addresses at annual
conventions of the Massachusetts Asparagus Growers' Association. It
seems advisable to present these conclusions here, and for the sake of
completeness I include also conclusions based upon observations on points
not considered in the description of the experiment: —
1. In the year 1910 a late frost considerably reduced the yield of shoots
as cut. The cutting season of 1910, moreover, was characterized by low
average temperature. For these reasons, the total cut of 1910 was un-
doubtedly less than normal; nevertheless, even greater emphasis might
well be placed on the effect of rust on a portion of the plots than has been
done in the discussion.
2. The medium amounts of the different fertihzers furnishing the
leading plant-food elements applied have furnished the maximum amounts
of these elements which prove useful to the crop as indicated by yields
produced.
3. The oak tree which stood near the northeast corner of the experiment
field exercised an adverse influence upon the yields of some two or three
plots, including those to which sulfates of potash had been applied for
comparison with muriate used on plots in other parts of the field. While
the plots referred to were not actually shaded by the tree, there can be
no doubt that some of its roots extended a short distance into these plots,
for it is generally recognized that as a rule the roots of trees which stand
in the open extend outward from the trunk in every direction a consider-
able distance beyond the tips of the branches. The adverse influence
of these roots was clearly shown in the inferior growth of the tops after
the close of the cutting season.
However, muriate of potash appears to be the best form in which to
supply that element, this conclusion being based not alone upon the
results obtained in the series of experiments under discussion, but in large
measure upon results obtained in much longer-continued comparisons of
muriate of potash with sulfates under conditions, so far as can be judged,
absolutely fair to the comparison of these two forms of potash.^
The Humus Content of the Soil in Asparagus Growing.
In the discussion of the experiment particular attention is called to
the fact that the continuous application of manure in this series of experi-
ments with asparagus did not appear to exercise a cumulative effect on
the humus content of the soil favorable to satisfactory production, and
mention is made of the practice of our commercial asparagus growers^of
allowing the tops grown subsequently to the end of the cutting season^^to
> These results have been referred to repeatedly in annual reports, especially those discussing
results obtained with asparagus on Field B on the home grounds. For references to details.Jcon-
sult indexes of annual reports for 1906-17 (nineteenth to thirtieth).
Pic. 1. —Root system of three-year-old asparagus plant taken November 7. Average
length about 4 feet, a few of the roots 5 feet 6 inches in length.
Fig. 2. — Shows crown and a part of the root system of thrce-yearold asparagus plant
dug and photographed November 7. Weight of roots and crown as dug about
6 pounds, and estimated that the portion 8e))aratcd from the soil nnd weighed con-
stituted only about three-fourths of the entire root system.
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 253
remain in the field to be harrowed under the following spring as perhaps
accounting for the fact that there was no apparent favorable effect of
manure as compared with chemicals which could be attributed to a greater
supply of humus. There can be no doubt that the practice of harrowing
in the tops is fully justified by results, both because of its relation to
humus content and the lesser removal from the bed of plant-food con-
stituents.
I would, moreover, call attention to a peculiarity in the growth of
asparagus which I beUeve to be also an important factor in accounting
for the apparent non-beneficial effect of continued use of manure as a
source of humus. As is well known, the thick roots and the crowns of
asparagus plants serve an important function in the economy of the plant
as storage reservoirs for reserve materials which are drawn upon heavily
in the production of the spring shoots which constitute the conunercial
crop. The root system is a very large one. Some of its peculiarities
are clearly shown in Figs. 1 and 2. It will be noticed that there is a very
large number of crowded, rather thick roots, and that these roots in the
plants which have made only three years' growth — one in the seed bed
and two after setting — have already attained a great length, and in the
aggregate make up a heavy weight. The photographs from which the
illustrations were made were taken by the late Mr. C. W. Prescott from
one of the roots dug up for purposes of chemical examination, the results
of which are reported in Bulletin No. 171. The roots just referred to
were taken up in 1908. Another lot of roots was taken up for chemical
examination in 1910, and no photographs were taken of any of the roots
taken up at the later date. The different roots show considerable varia-
tion in total weight and other characters, but on the average were but
little, if any, longer, more numerous or heavier than those showoi in the
illustration. Among the second lot of roots were found some evidently
older roots which were hollow and inactive, having undergone partial
decay. The conclusion to be drawn from this observation, strongly
supported by analogies afforded by well-known facts concerning the life
histories of a large number of other plants, both cultivated and wild,
is that the root as a rule serves for storage perhaps only a single year,
then becomes inactive, dies and decays in the ground. This is true, for
example, of Solomon's seal, false Solomon's seal, sarsaparilla and numerous
other plants. An analogy is afforded also by the famiUar habit of numer-
ous bulbous plants as, for example, the crocus, tulip, hyacinth, gladiolus,
etc. There can be no doubt that this constant replacement of older
roots by new, the older then decaying, contributed largely to the humus
content of the soil, and would seem, therefore, to be a highly important
consideration in accounting for the lack of favorable influence of manure
on the humus content of asparagus beds.
254 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
The Relation of Variations in Fertilizer Application to Rust,
In the brief statement of the objects in view in the fertilizer experiment,
already given, occurred the phrase: " ... to include . . . studies
... of effects of the varied treatments upon: ... (2) the plant as
influencing the character of its development, its physiology and its
health."
In this brief reference I had in mind particularly any influence upon
the extent of injury from rust, which at the time the experiments were
planned was the only disease of asparagus which was proving at all
serious. This line of investigation was suggested by the fact that numer-
ous investigators had become convinced, as a result of their studies, that
variations in the kinds, amounts, and perhaps also in the seasons of
appHcation, of chemical fertiUzers had an important relation to the
capacity of different cultivated plants to resist disease. One of the
earhest in this country to believe this, both from his study of results
obtained through the experience of others and from experiments conducted
by himself, was the late Dr. C. A. Goessmann, who became convinced
that peach yellows could be prevented by suitable appUcations of potash.^
It is not possible to demonstrate by means of figures showing the yields
of commercial asparagus in the experiments in Concord that such varia-
tions in fertihzer treatment as were made in those experiments either did
or did not affect the amount of rust. The principal reason why this is
true is because the attacks of rust were determined chiefly by the location
of plots both as to direction and distance from sources of infection, — in
other words, from fields of the old and highly susceptible varieties of
asparagus found in various parts of the district in Concord in which our
experiments were located. It was impossible, therefore, to measure in
figures any difference which might have been caused by variations in
fertihzer treatment.
My conclusion, however, based upon frequent examinations of the
growth, especially subsequent to the end of the cutting season when the
tops and foliage were developing or fully developed, was that there was
no influence on the amount of rust that could be attributed to a difference
in the kind of chemicals used in the experiments. On the other hand,
my examination of the plots — most important, the one made in late
September in 1911, the year of the heaviest infestation of rust — led to
the conclusion that variation in the time of application of the nitrate of
soda did have considerable effect. At my request Mr. J. B. Norton, who
saw the bed much more frequently than I, made a particular point of
attempting to trace any effect of rust due to variation in fertilizer treat-
ment. Mr. Norton, working entirely independently and without knowing
what differences if any I had noticed, agreed with me almost absolutely
as to relative amounts of rust on different plots. Our conclusion was
* Agriculture of Massachusetts, 1881, p. 84; 1882, p. 440; 1883, p. 360.
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 255
that the appHcation of at least a portion of the nitrate of soda at the close
of the cutting season reduced the amount of rust. It seemed to both of
us, also, to be true that there was less rust where all the nitrate was
reserved and applied at the end of the cutting season than when only
one-half was so reserved and applied. In conclusion on this point, this
then is the only effect of the wide variations in fertihzer treatment upon
the health of the plants which can be confidently stated.
Conclusions.
The more important conclusions having either direct practical or
scientific importance which the investigations reported in this bulletin
appear to warrant may be stated as follows: —
1. The variety of asparagus and the location of the bed with reference
to badly infected beds which may be sources of infection influence sus-
ceptibihty to rust and probabiUty of bad attacks to a greater extent than
variations in manurial or fertihzer treatment.
2. A number of the varieties produced in the co-operative breeding
experiments conducted in Concord appear to have to an exceptional
degree the character of relative immunity from rust. The best of these
are from crosses with a superior male plant found in a bed of Giant
Argenteuil.
3. In commercial asparagus growing as usually carried on in this State
it is a common practice to apply what appear to be excessive quantities
of fertilizers.
4. The medium amounts of the several plant-food constituents applied
in these experiments appear to have furnished the different leading ele-
ments of plant food in as large quantities as could be utihzed by the crop.
5. These medium amounts are at the foUo^ving rates per acre: —
Pounds.
Nitrate of soda, 460
Acid phosphate, ........... 300
Muriate of potash, 260
6. Nitrate of soda at the rate of about 400 pounds per acre in connection
with manure at the rate of 10 tons per acre increased the crop, and appears
to be the maximum amount which proved beneficial.
7. Among the different materials employed for the purpose of furnishing
potash, the muriate, everjd^hing considered, proved most satisfactory.
8. The application of either acid phosphate or muriate of potash with
manure at the rate of 10 tons per acre appears not to have increased the
crop.
9. The immediate or even the cumulative effect of yearly applications
of manure in increasing the humus content of the soil does not appear to
have been beneficial; in other words, chemical fertilizers upon this sandy
soil give as good results as manure.
256 MASS. EXPERIMENT STATION BULLETIN 194.
10. The lack of benefit which can be attributed to humus furnished
by the manure may be explained in part by the practice of our commercial
asparagus growers in allowing the tops grown subsequent to the cutting
season to remain on the groimd to be worked into the soil the following
spring.
11. The conclusion appears to be justified, through observations upon
the root habit of the asparagus, that yearly replacement of roots used
when relatively young for the storage of reserve material by younger
roots is also an important factor in accounting for the lack of beneficial
effects resulting from humus furnished by manure. The roots thus
replaced decay, thus adding to the organic matter of the soil.
12. The season of appHcation of nitrate of soda does not appear to
affect the relative yield of commercial asparagus in successive ten-day
periods throughout the season; in other words, the cut of cormnercial
asparagus during the early part of the season is not increased by either
small or large appUcations of nitrate made as early as the soil can be
worked.
13. The season of appHcation of nitrate of soda does appear to influence
the susceptibility of asparagus to rust, which I am convinced is reduced
by the application of at least a portion of the nitrate of soda at the close
of the cutting season.
14. The character of the season, especially the amount and distribution
of rainfall, appears to affect the probability of a serious attack of rust to
a considerable degree, such attacks being more common in dry seasons
than in those characterized by normal or abundant and well-distributed
rainfall.
A FERTILIZER EXPERIMENT WITH ASPARAGUS. 257
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Asparagus Breeding.
J. B. Norton. Methods used in breeding Asparagus for Rust
Resistance. Bureau of Plant Industry, Bui. No. 263.
■ Washington Asparagus. Bureau of Plant Industry, Cotton,
Truck and Forage Crop Disease, Circ. No. 7.
Asparagus, Chemical Study of.
F. W. Morse. Soluble Carbohydrates in Asparagus Roots. Mass.
Agr. Expt. Sta. Ann. Rept. 23, Pt. I, p. 135.
Effects of Fertihzers on Asparagus Roots. Mass. Agr. Expt.
Sta. Ann. Rept. 25, Pt. I, p. 154.
A Chemical Study of the Asparagus Plant. Mass. Agr. Expt.
Sta. Bui. No. 171.
Asparagus, Fertihzer Experiments.
W. P. Brooks. Reports of the Asparagus Substation. In Mass. Agr.
Expt. Sta. Ann. Repts. 20, p. 15; 21, Pt. II, p. 27; 22, Pt. I, p. 26;
23, Pt. I, p. 24; 24, Pt. I, p. 25; 26, Pt. I, p. 24a; 28, Pt. I,
p. 16a; 29, Pt. I, p. 23a.
Asparagus Rust.
G. E. Stone. The Asparagus Rust in Massachusetts. Hatch Expt.
Sta. Bui. No. 61.
Discussion of Asparagus Rust. In Hatch Expt. Sta. Ann. Repts.
9, p. 72; 10, p. 58; 12, p. 61; 14, p. 69; Mass. Agr. Expt. Sta.
Ann. Rept. 20, p. 126.
INDEX
INDEX,
Advanced registry, testing pure-bred cows for, .
Agricultural economics, work of department,
Agriculture, work of department, ....
Apple jelly, chemical study of, ....
Apple trees, propagation on their own roots:
Discussion of the results, .....
Histology of the twig in relation to root formation,
Introduction, .......
Propagation by cuttings, .....
By layers, .......
By the nurse-root method, ....
Dwarf apple and pear nurse roots.
Effect of budding on root formation, .
Effect of soil and season, ....
Grafting on known roots, .
Methods used, ......
Piece and side-root grafts, ....
Relation of the variety to root formation,
Summary, .......
Asparagus, fertilizer experiment mth:
Bibliography, .......
Comments and conclusions, ....
Breeding investigations, ....
Conclusions, ......
Fertilizer, amounts used by good growers,
Experiments, Concord, ....
Home, .......
Relation to rust, .....
Humus content of soU in asparagus growing, .
Plant food taken from the land annually,
Description of the experiment, ....
Arrangement of plots, .....
Culture
Cutting season, ....
Fertilizers used, ......
Location of the experiment.
Preparation of the land, ....
Results, comparison of, ....
Chemical fertilizers, amounts giving best yields.
Gain or loss percentages in different years, .
Manure alone and with chemicals.
Nitrate of soda, season of application, with manure,
With chemicals.
Potash, comparison of different materials supplying.
Rust attacks.
Effect on yields.
Soil, composition.
Summary,
Variety of plants.
Yields,
PAGE
28a
90!
19a
257
247
251
255
249
251
250
254
252
248
231
232, 235
233
233
236
231
232
239
239
242
240
241
242
242
233
238
233
246
232
236
262 INDEX.
PAGE
Bacillary white diarrhoea, ......... 43a
Beans, attacked by green clover worm, ....... 34a
Botany, need for investigations, ........ 16a
Bulletin No. 189. The European corn borer and its control, ... 1
Bulletin No. 190. The propagation of apple trees on their own roots, . . 73
Bulletin No. 191. Practical results from studies on egg production, . . 97
Bulletin No. 192. Seventh report of the cranberry substation, . . . 105
Bulletin No. 193. The supply and distribution of Connecticut valley cigar
leaf tobacco, ........... 143
Bulletin No. 194. A fertilizer experiment with asparagus, .... 231
Butter fat, chemistry of, ......... 18a
Calves, protein requirements, ......... 19a
Canning, study of micro-organisms, ........ 40a
-Celery spraying experiments, ......... 13a
Chemical work, numerical summary, ....... 30a
Clarification of milk, .......... 41a
Codling moth, generations of, ........ . 35a
Control work:
Dairy law, ........... 24a
Feeding stuffs law, .......... 23a
Fertilizer law, ........... 20a
Poultry disease elimination, ........ 43a
Corn and soy beans for forage, ........ 20a
Corn borer, European, and its control: — Y
Adults, habits of, ......... . 5r
Copulation, ........... 51
Emergence of the moths, ........ 51
Flight 54
Proportion of sexes, ......... 52
Character and extent of injury to corn, ...... 16
To other food plants, ......... 19
Control:
Application of arsenicals to plants, ...... 62
Cultural practices to avoid damage, . . . . . .63
Destroying plants containing overwintering larvae, . . . . 59 y
Descriptions of the different stages:
Adult 28
Egg, 24
Larva, ........... 24
Pupa 28
Explanation of plates, ......... 69
Food plants:
In the Old World 13
In the United States (Massachusetts), . . . • . .13
List, ■^■^ )
Foreword, ......•■••• I \f
Geographical distribution:
In the Old World 10
In the United States ■^'^ i
Territory examined in Maine, . . . • . . . 12 \J
Territory examined in Massachusetts, . . • . . .11
Territory examined in New Hampshire, ..... 12
Territory examined in Rhode Island and Connecticut, ... 13
INDEX. 263
PAGE
Corn borer, European, and its control — concluded. \y
History, foreign, .......... 4
In the United States, ......... 5
Control measures during the autumn of 1918, . . . . 8
During spring of 1918, . . . . . . . .7
Discovery of the insect, ........ 5
Identifjang the species, ........ Q
Plans made for further investigations, ...... 7
Previous record in Massachusetts, ...... 6
Quarantine measures enacted and their origin, .... 8
Insects frequently mistaken for the European corn borer:
Corn ear worm, . . . . . . . . . .04
Cutworms, ........... 64
Stalk borer .64
Introduction, ........... 2
Larvae, habits of, .......... 42
Habits, unusual, .......... 48
When attacking barnyard grass, ....... 47
When attacking corn, . . . . . ... .43
When attacking dock, ........ 40
When- attacking Lady's Thumb, ....... 40
Hatching 42
Length of larval life -without food, ....... 48
Molting, .... 47
Life history, first generation, ........ 30
Second generation, ......... 35
Literature, . . • • • • • • • • • .68
Names, common, applied to species, ....... 4
0\dposition, details of, ......... 55
Distribution of egg masses, ........ 56
Duration of fertility, ......... 56
Number of eggs deposited bj' each individual, ..... 56
Parasites, European records, ........ 57
Massachusetts records, ........ 57
Predatory birds, .......... 59
Insects, ........... 59
Pupation, changes undergone by the larva previous to pupation, . . 50
Changes undergone by the pupa, ....... 50
Cocoon formation, ......... 49
Location of pupa, ......... 49
Process of pupation, ......... 50
Seasonal history and development, number of generations, . . . 41
Seasonal abundance, . . . . . . . . . 42 .
Seasonal history, . . . . . . . • . ' ^V
Summary, ........... 63
Cows, feeding experiments, ......... 20a
Pure-bred, testing for advanced registry, ...... 28a
Cranberries, chemical studies, ......... 19a .
Cranberry substation, seventh report of, . . . . . . . 105
Blueberry M'ork, .......... 140
Fertilizers, ........... 135
Frost studies, 140
Fungous diseases, .......... 105
\
264
INDEX.
Cranberry substation, seventh report of — concluded.
Insects:
Black-head fireworm, ....
Cranberry fruit worm, ....
Cranberry root grub, ....
Cranberry tip worm, ....
Greasy cutworm, .....
Gypsy moth, .....
Span worm, .....
Spittle insect, .....
Resanding, ......
Storage tests:
Effect on keeping cranberries of:
Admixture of decayed berries,
Admixture of leaves, ....
Air humidity, .....
Grading, ......
Moisture, .....
Open and closed containers.
Separating with Hayden and with White machines
Temperature, .....
Ventilation, .....
Water storage, .....
Shipping cranberries in barrels versus crates.
In chaff versus clean, ....
Weather observations, ....
Dairj' law, examination for certificates.
Inspection of glassware, ....
Inspection of machines and apparatus,
De Laval studies on clarification of milk, .
Digestion experiments with calves.
With horses,
With sheep.
Digger wasps, studies on.
Egg production.
Practical results from studies of
Inbreeding, .
Introduction,
Is the influence of the male or
Parasites, exclusion of, .
Entomology, investigations needed,
European corn borer and its control
Feeding experiments:
Calves, protein requirements of
Cows, velvet feed and oat feed,
Pigs, lactic acid for, .
Feeding stuffs inspection.
Fertilizer experiments:
With asparagus.
With bacterized peat,
With Barium-Phosphate, .
With cranberries,
Fertilizer inspection.
Food, canned, study of micro-organisms in
of the female the more important?
131
132
126
129
133
130
126
127
134
123
122
113
lis
122
114
123
112
113
11.5
123
125
138
24a
24a
25a
41a
19a
20a
20a
36a
3Sa
97
97
97
102
103
37a
1
19a
20a
20a
23a
231
23a
23a
135
20a
40a
INDEX.
26i:
Forage crop observations
Corn and soy beans,
Sudan grass,
Sweet clover, .
Fruit buds, injury due to cold.
Green clover worm attacking beans,
Hog cholera investigations.
Horses, digestion and energy experiments with,
Horticulture, work of department, .
New lines of work needed.
Injury to plants due to winter of 1917-18
Insecticides, chemical study of,
Tests of, ....
Insects:
. Codling moth,
Corn borer, European,
Cranberry insects,
Digger wasps, ....
Green clover worm, .
Onion maggot,
Scale insects, ....
Seasonal appearance of,
Investigations needed :
Botany, .....
Difficulties in undertaking new.
Entomology, ....
Garbage for feeding pigs, .
Horticulture, ....
Mixed rations for live stock.
Spray materials,
Jellj', chemical study of , .
Lettuce drop, ....
Light requirements of plants, .
Marketing Connecticut valley cigar leaf tobacco
Meteorology, work of department
Apparatus needed, .
Microbiology, summary of analytical work
Micro-organisms in:
Canned foods.
Milk,
Soil,
Milk, study of micro-organisms
Studies on clarification,
Myeological collection, .
Onion diseases,
Smut,
Onion maggot control.
Orchard fruit diseases in 1919:
Bitter rot on apples,
Black rot on apples.
Brown rot of plums and peaches.
Fire blight of pear, apple and quince
Scab on apples and peaches,
Pigs, lactic acid for,
266 INDEX.
PAGE
Plant diseases:
Affected by weather of 1919 14a
Control measures, . . . . . . . . . .16a
Lettuce drop, ........... 13o
Onion smut, ........... 13a
Orchard fruits, .......... 16a
Potatoes, ........... 15a
Plants, injuries due to severe winter of 1917-18, ..... 14a
Light requirements of, ........ . 14a
Potato diseases in 1919:
Late blight, ........... 15a
Leaf roll, .......... 15a
Mosaic disease, . . . . . . . . . .15a
Phoma disease, .......... 15a
Spindling sprout, .......... 15a
Potato spraying experiments:
Bordeaux with arsenate of calcium, ....... 32a
With arsenate of lead, ......... 32a
With arsenate of magnesium, ....... 32a
Poultrj', inbreeding, ......... 39a, 97
Inheritance of broodiness, . . . . . . . .^ 38a
Is the influence of the male or female more important? . . . 102
Parasites, exclusion of, ........ • 103
Poultry diseases:
Elimination of, .......... 43a
Legislation affecting, ......... 44a
Prevention of, .......... 39o
Studies of two new diseases, ........ 47a
Propagation of apple trees on their own roots, ...... 73
Publications during the year, ......... 7a
Chemistry department, ......... 19a
Microbiology department, ........ 41a
Report (seventh) of the cranberry substation, ...... 105
Report of director, . . . . . . . . . .4a
Report of treasurer, . . . . . . . . . .11a
Reports of departments:
Botany 13a
Chemistry, ........... 18a
Entomology, ........... 31a
Microbiology, 40a
Poultry husbandry, .......... 38a
Veterinary science, .......... 43a
Scale insects, studies, .......... 36a
Seed work, ............ 17a
Sheep, digestion work, ..,......• 20a
Soil studies:
Liming, effects on Field A, ........ 19a
Organic matter, microbial changes of, ...... 41ffl
Peat, decomposition of, ........ • 42a
Spraying experiments:
Celery 13a
Potatoes 32a
With sulfoleum for plant lice, ........ 32a
Station staff la
Changes in, ........... 7a
INDEX.
267
Station work affected by increased cost of
Apparatus and tools,
Chemicals,
Feeding stuffs,
Fertilizers,
Labor,
Salaries, .
Sudan grass as a forage crop.
Sulfate of ammonia, effect of continued use
Sulf oleum, effectiveness against plant lice,
Sweet clover as a forage crop, .
Tobacco, Connecticut valley cigar leaf
History of production,
Connecticut valley.
Cost of production.
Distribution of acreage,
Growth of the industry
Tenancy,
Tobacco insurance,
Tobacco soils,
Tobacco, types of cigar leaf.
Varieties, .
Shade-grown,
Sun-grown,
Growing of.
Marketing,
Bibliography;
Cigar leaf tobacco held by manufacturers and dealers,
Co-operation in marketing tobacco.
Grades, standards and principal varieties.
Preparation for market by the grower.
Curing,
Harvesting,
Hauling to market.
Priming, .
Stripping,
Taking down, .
Preparation for market by the packer.
Amount of tobacco assorted.
Cost of sorting, tying, storing, packing, sweating and sampling,
Functions of the packer.
Sampling,
Sorting and tying, .
Sweating,
Prices,
Collusion among buyers,
Connecticut valley tobacco in the market
Methods of sale.
Defects of the contract method.
Shade-grown tobacco, farmers' prices.
Wholesale prices.
Sun-grown tobacco, analysis of "spread," grower to manufacturer.
Farmers' prices, .......
Wholesale prices of Connecticut valley wrappers and binder
268 INDEX.
PAGB
Tobacco, Connecticut valley cigar leaf — concluded.
Marketing — concluded.
Recommendations, ......... 213
Sale of leaf tobacco, ......... 174
Persons involved, ......... 174
Sale of unstemmed leaf tobacco, ....... 176
Storage, 191
Cost 192
Tobacco districts. New England, ....... 174
Tobacco growers, incorporated, Connecticut valley, by-laws, . . 227
Incorporated, Hampshire County, by-laws, ..... 219
Transportation, .......... 193
Tobacco investigations, .......... 14a
Water analysis, ........... 28a
Weather of 1919 as affecting plant diseases, ...... 14a
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